AThe rchitecture Reference + Specification Book

AThe rchitecture Reference + Specification Book Everything Architects Need to Know Every Day Julia McMorrough

1 Materials Introduction 6 8 Contents 2 Structures and Systems 56 3 Standards 106 4 Compendium 232 Index 266 About the Author 272

1: Wood 10 2: Masonry and Concrete 24 36 3: Metals 44 4: Finishes 5: Structural Systems 58 6: Mechanical Systems 72 78 7: Electrical Systems 84 8: Plumbing and Fire Protection Systems 88 9: Building Enclosure Systems Measure and Drawing 106 10: Measurement and Geometry 108 11: Architectural Drawing Types 120 12: Architectural Documents 132 13: Hand Drawing 148 154 14: Computer Standards and Guidelines Proportion and Form 162 15: The Human Scale 164 16: Residential Spaces 172 17: Form and Organization 182 18: Architectural Elements 186 Codes and Guidelines 196 19: Building Codes 198 20: ADA and Accessibility 206 218 21: Parking 222 22: Stairs 226 23: Doors 24: Timeline 234 25: Glossary 242 26: Resources 252

i. INTRODUCTION ARChItECtuRAL DESIgn is a complex activity that involves multiple levels of knowledge, communication, and production, even on a small project. Architects often speak their own lan- guage, both in terminology and through conventions of drawings, models, and diagrams. Moreover, to make a piece of architecture requires following countless rules of which an able practitio- ner must remain ever knowledgeable: building codes, human dimensions, drawing standards, material properties, and relevant technologies. Familiarity with so many issues comes with school- ing and long years of experience, but even the most seasoned architect must avail him- or herself of a vast and exhaustive array of resources, from code books to graphic standards, from materi- als libraries to manufacturers’ catalogs. 6

The Architecture Reference + Specification Book is a unique compilation of essential information for architects, students of architecture, and anyone contemplating an architectural project. Included here are the tables, charts, diagrams, dimensions, stan- dards, codes, and general data that many architects need on a daily basis. This book is not a replacement for other sources that architects might consult regularly, but rather a handy “first-stop” reference that is always at the ready, on a desk or in a bag. Part 1, “Materials,” provides a detailed catalog of the most common building materials—wood, masonry, concrete, metals—as well as var- ious interior finishes. Parts 2 and 3, “Structures and Systems,” and “Standards,” address the major aspects of undertaking an archi- tectural project. Topics include basic measurements and geometry, architectural drawing types and conventions, architectural elements, the human scale, parking, building codes, accessibility, structural and mechanical systems, and building components. Part 4, “Com- pendium,” brings together a glossary and a timeline of key moments in the history of architecture. Finally, because such a compact book cannot possibly contain everything, a directory of resources offers an extensive guide to the most helpful publications, organizations, and websites. For every project, architects must take into account an endless num- ber of external forces, not least of which are the codes and stan- dards of design and construction. But these codes and standards should certainly not be viewed as limiting: Knowledge of them and their creative use can, in fact, liberate and empower. 7

1.MATERIALS 8 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

During the design process architects often use a foam board model as a quick way to realize and study a form or space. Frequently, the build- ing’s materials may not yet have been chosen or finalized, and there is a seductive simplicity to the foam (or wood or cardboard) model at this point: anything is still possible. Aside from the overarching impact of the project’s budget, numerous factors influence the selection of materials for a building’s structure, skin, and finishes. Some materials are more readily available in certain regions, or the local building trades may be more comfortable with specific construction practices. Other materials have very long lead times, and for some projects, time constraints may rule these out. Also, different climates have different material needs, and the building’s program, size, and code requirements bear on the appropriateness of materials and methods of construction. A basic sampling of common materials found in many buildings is pre- sented here. Space limitations do not allow for discussion of other more innovative materials, but increasingly, for reasons of practicality, cost, or environmental concerns, architects are looking to less standard sources for building materials (textiles, plastics, and aerogels) or to unconven- tional uses for common products (concrete roof tiles, acrylic “glass blocks,” and recycled cotton fabric insulation). 9

01 Chapter 1: Wood Lightweight, strong, and durable, wood is an ideal construction material with many uses. The two major classifications—soft wood and hard wood—do not necessarily indicate relative hardness, softness, strength, or durability. COMMON WOOD TERMS Dimensional stability: Ability of a section of wood to resist changes in volume at Board foot: Unit of measurement for wood fluctuating moisture levels. Low dimensional quantities, equivalent to 12” x 12” x 1” (305 x stability produces expansion in humid 305 x 25.5). environments and contraction in dry ones. Book-matched: Result of resawing thick Early growth/Late growth: In regions of lumber into thinner boards, opening the two little climatic change, trees tend to grow at a halves like a book, and gluing the boards fairly consistent rate and have little variation together along the edge to create a panel with in texture. In regions of seasonal climatic a mirrored grain pattern. change, however, trees grow at different rates, depending on the season. Variations in growth contribute to the color and texture of the growth rings in the tree. Figure: Patterns on a wood surface produced by growth rings, rays, knots, and irregular grains. Descriptors include interlocked, curly, tiger, wavy, and fiddleback, among others. fiddleback swirl Burl: Irregular grain pattern that results from bird’s-eye crotch an unusual growth on the tree. Grain: Size, alignment, and appearance of Cathedral grain: V-shaped grain pattern wood fibers in a piece of lumber. running the length of the board. Check: Separation of the wood fibers running with the grain that do not go through the whole cross section. Occurs as a result of tension and stress caused by wood movement during the drying process. 10 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

01 Gum pocket: Excessive accumulation of resin Movement in performance: See dimensional or gum in certain areas of the wood. stability. Hardness: Ability of wood to resist indenta- Plainsawn: Lumber cut with less than a 30-de- tion. See Janka hardness test. gree angle between the face of the board and Hardwood: Wood from deciduous trees (which the wood’s growth ring. lose their leaves in the winter months). Oak and walnut constitute 50 percent of all hard- Plywood: Large sheet of wood made up wood production. of several layers of veneer that are glued Heartwood: Harder, nonliving innermost together so that the grain of each layer lies layers of a tree. It is generally darker, denser, perpendicular to the grain of the previous more durable, and less permeable than the layer. There are always an odd number of lay- surrounding sapwood. Good all-heartwood ers, enabling the grain direction of both faces lumber may be difficult to obtain, and, to run parallel to one another. depending on the species, it is common to Pressure-treated lumber: Wood products that find boards with both heartwood and sapwood are treated with chemical preservatives to combined. prevent decay brought on by fungi and to re- sist attack from insects and microorganisms. sapwood Under pressure, the preservatives are forced heartwood deep into the cellular structure of the wood. cambium Quartersawn: Lumber cut with a 60- to 90- phloem degree angle between the face of the board outer bark and the wood’s growth rings. Janka hardness test: Test that measures the pounds of force required to drive a 0.444” (11 mm) -diameter steel ball to half its depth into a piece of wood. Moisture content: Percentage that repre- sents a board’s ratio of water weight to the weight of oven-dried wood. Wood 11

01 01 SOFTWOOD LUMBER Riftsawn: Lumber cut with a 30- to 60- Lumber Standards* degree angle between the face of the board and the wood’s growth rings. Rough Lumber Sawed, trimmed, and edged lumber Sapwood: Living outer layers of a tree, whose faces are rough and show marks. between the outer bark and the thin formative layers of the cambium and Surfaced (Dressed) Lumber phloem, on the one side, and the heart- Rough lumber that has been smoothed wood, on the other. These layers contain by a surfacing machine. the sap-conducting tubes. Generally lighter in color, less durable, less dense, S1S: Surfaced one side and more permeable than heartwood, S1E: Surfaced one edge sapwood darkens with age and becomes S2S: Surfaced two sides heartwood. Sapwood and heartwood S2E: Surfaced two edges together make up the xylem of the tree. S1S1E: Surfaced one side and one edge S1S2E: Surfaced one side and two edges Softwood: Wood from coniferous (ever- S2S1E: Surfaced two sides and one edge green) trees. S4S: Surfaced four sides Split: Separation of wood fibers from Worked Lumber one face through to the next. Occurs Surfaced lumber that has been most often at the ends of boards. matched, patterned, shiplapped, or any combination of these. Stain: Substance used to change the color of wood. Shop and Factory Lumber Millwork lumber for use in door jambs, Straight grain: Wood fibers that run par- moldings, and window frames. allel to the axis of a piece of lumber. Yard (Structural) Lumber Stud: 2” x 4” and 2” x 6” dimension lum- Lumber used for house framing, ber used for load-bearing and stud walls. concrete forms, and sheathing. texture: Describes the size and distribu- Boards: No more than 1” (25) thick and tion of wood fibers: coarse, fine, or even. 4”–12” (102–305) wide Warp: Bowing, cupping, and twisting Planks: Over 1” (25) thick and 6” (152) wide distortion in lumber that occurs after it has been planed, usually during the dry- timbers: Width and thickness both greater ing process. than 5” (127) 12 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK *From U.S. Department of Commerce American Lumber Standards of Softwood Lumbers

01 Softwood Lumber Sizes Nominal Size1 Actual Size, Dry2 Actual Size, Green3 inches inches (mm) inches (mm) 1 3/4 (19) 25/32 (20) 11/4 1 (25) 11/32 (26) 11/2 11/4 (32) 19/32 (33) 2 11/2 (38) 19/16 (40) 21/2 2 (51) 21/16 (52) 3 2 1/2 (64) 2 9/16 (65) 31/2 3 (76) 3 1/16 (78) 4 31/2 (89) 3 9/16 (90) 41/2 4 (102) 41/16 (103) 5 41/2 (114) 4 5/8 (117) 6 51/2 (140) 5 9/16 (143) 7 61/2 (165) 6 5/8 (168) 8 71/4 (184) 71/2 (190) 9 81/4 (210) 81/2 (216) 10 91/4 (235) 91/2 (241) 11 101/4 (260) 101/2 (267) 12 111/4 (286) 111/2 (292) 14 131/4 (337) 131/2 (343) 16 151/4 (387) 151/2 (394) 1Nominal dimensions are approximate dimensions assigned to pieces of lumber and other materials as a convenience in referring to the piece. 2Dry lumber is defined as having a moisture content of less than 19 percent. 3Green (unseasoned) lumber is defined as having a moisture content of greater than 19 percent. Softwood grading is based on the appearance, strength, and stiffness of the lumber. Numerous associations nationwide establish their own grading standards, though they must all conform to the U.S. Department of Commerce American Lumber Standards. Grading is often difficult to understand, and because it deals with both strength analysis and visual analysis, there is an al- lowable 5 percent variation below a given grade. Wood 13

01 Dimensional Variations of a 2X6 Stud 2” 1 1/2” 6” 5 1/2” 2X6 Old growth 2X6 Farmed Wood Typically, older growth wood By contrast, farmed wood is denser, stronger, and grows bigger faster, due to more dimensionally stable. more aggressive watering, Before aggressive logging, fertilizing, and exposure to older growth trees grew more sunlight. More rapid growing slowly, as they competed results in less dense wood. for sunlight in more densely forested conditions, result- ing in more rings per inch. 14 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

01 1 5/8” 1 3/4” 5 1/2” 6” Laminated Veneer Metal Stud Lumber (LVL) - Farmed & glued Though more expensive than wood framing members, steel Commonly referred to by its studs offer more strength and proprietary name of Microllam dimensional stability. (Weyerhauser), LVL lumber is made of thin sheets of wood sandwiched and glued together, much like plywood, though result- ing in heavy and dense wood members that resist warping and shrinkage, and are designed to carry significant loads. Wood 15

01 HARDWOOD Board Feet Most lumber is measured and sold in board Hardwood Lumber Grades feet (one board foot equals 144 cubic inches), calculated as follows: First and Second (FAS): Best grade, normally required for a natural or thickness x face width x length stained finish. Boards must be at 144 least 6” wide, 8’–16’ long, and 83.3 percent clear on the worst face. 1x2 1 board foot = Select, no. 1 Common: Boards must 1” x 2” x 72” be a minimum 3” wide, 4’–16’ long, and 66.66 percent clear on the worst face. Select, no. 2 Common Select, no. 3 Common 2x4 Hardwood Lumber Thicknesses 1 board foot = 2” x 4” x 18” Quarter* Rough Surfaced 1 Surfaced 2 Dimension Side (S1S) Sides (S2S) 4x8 4/4 3/8” (10) 1 board foot = 5/4 1/2” (13) 1/4” (6) 3/16” (5) 4” x 8” x 4 1/2” 6/4 5/8” (16) 3/8” (10) 5/16” (8) 8/4 3/4” (19) 1/2” (13) 7/16” (11) 6 x 12 12/4 5/8” (16) 9/16” (14) 1 board foot = 16/4 1” (25) 7/8” (22) 13/16” (21) 6” x 12” x 2” 1 1/4”(32) 1 1/8”(29) 1 1/16” (27) 1 1/2”(38) 1 3/8”(35) 1 5/16” (33) 8 x 16 1 13/16” (46) 1 3/4”(44) 1 board foot = 2” (51) 2 13/16” (71) 2 3/4”(70) 8” x 16” x 11/8” 3” (76) 3 13/16” (97) 3 3/4”(95) 4” (102) *Hardwood thickness is often referred to in “quarters:” 4/4 equals 1” (25), 6/4 is 1 1/2” (38), and so on. 16 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

0011 Exposure Durability PLYWOOD Exterior: Fully waterproof glue and minimum C-grade veneers - suitable for applications permanently ex- Plywood quality is rated by the American posed to the weather. Plywood Association (APA) and is generally Exposure 1: Fully waterproof glue and minimum graded by the quality of the veneer on both D-grade veneers - suitable for applications with some front and back sides of the panel (A-B, C-D, exposure to weather. and so on). Veneer grades describe appear- Exposure 2: Glue of intermediate moisture resistance - ance according to natural unrepaired growth suitable for applications of intermittent high humidity. characteristics and the size and number of Interior: Protected indoor applications only. repairs allowed during manufacture. Veneer Grades Typical Plywood Construction N Premium grade available by special or- 3-layer (3 ply) der. Select, all heartwood or all sapwood with a smooth surface and free of open defects. No more than six repairs, wood only, matched for grain and color, and parallel to the grain, allowed per 4’ x 8’ panel. Best for natural finish. A Smooth and paintable. Permits no more than eighteen neatly made repairs of boat, sled, or router type, and parallel to the grain. Used for natural finish in less demanding applications. B Solid surface that allows shims, circular 3-layer (4 ply) repair plugs, and tight knots limited to 1” across grain, with minor splits permitted. C Improved C veneer with splits up to 1/8” Plugged width and knotholes and borer holes up to 1/4” x 1/2”. Some broken grain is permit- ted, and synthetic repairs are allowed. C Tight knots and knotholes up to 11/2” permitted if total width of knots and knot- holes is within specified limits. Synthetic or wood repairs allowed. Discoloration 5-layer (5 ply) and sanding defects that do not impair strength, limited splits, and stitching all permitted. Lowest exterior use grade. D Knots and knotholes up to to 21/2” across grain and 1/2” larger within specified limits permitted. Limited splits and stitching also permitted. Use restricted to Interior, Exposure 1, and Exposure 2 panels. 5-layer (6 ply) Wood 17

01 WOOD TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS ASH white Fraxinus Americana Hardness H Principal Finish Uses trim, cabinetry Creamy white to Color light brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent BIRCH Betula alleghaniensis Hardness H trim, paneling, Principal Finish Uses cabinetry Color White to dark red Paint excellent Transp. good BUTTERNUT Juglans cinerea Hardness M trim, paneling, Principal Finish Uses cabinetry Color pale brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent CEDAR western red Thuja plicata Hardness S trim, exterior & Principal Finish Uses interior paneling Reddish brown Color nearly white Paint n/a Transp. good 18 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

01 S=soft; M=medium; H=hard; VH=very hard; n/a=not normally used Finishes: Painted and Transparent CHESTNUT Castanea dentate Hardness M Principal Finish Uses trim, paneling Color Grayish brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent MAHOGANY Hond. Sweitenia macrophylla Hardness M trim, frames, panel- Principal Finish Uses ing, cabinetry Color Rich golden brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent MAPLE Acer saccharum Hardness VH trim, paneling, Principal Finish Uses cabinetry White to reddish Color brown Paint excellent Transp. good OAK English brown Quercus robur Hardness H veneered paneling, Principal Finish Uses cabinetry Color Leathery brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent Wood 19

01 WOOD TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OAK red Quercus rubra Hardness H trim, paneling, Principal Finish Uses cabinetry Color Reddish tan to brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent OAK white Quercus alba Hardness H trim, paneling, Principal Finish Uses cabinetry Color Grayish tan Paint n/a Transp. excellent PECAN Carya species Hardness H Principal Finish Uses trim, paneling, Color cabinetry Reddish brown w/ brown stripes Paint n/a Transp. good PINE east. or north. white Pinus strobes Hardness S Principal Finish Uses trim, frames, Color paneling, cabinetry Creamy white to pink Paint good Transp. good 20 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

01 S=soft; M=medium; H=hard; VH=very hard; n/a=not normally used Finishes: Painted and Transparent ROSEWOOD Dalbergia nigra Hardness VH Principal Finish Uses veneered paneling, Color cabinetry Mixed red/brown/ black Paint n/a Transp. excellent TEAK Tectona grandis Hardness H Principal Finish Uses trim, paneling, Color cabinetry Tawny yellow to dark brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent WALNUT Juglans Hardness H trim, paneling, Principal Finish Uses cabinetry Color Chocolate brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent ZEBRAWOOD Brachystegea fleuryana Hardness H trim, paneling, Principal Finish Uses cabinetry Gold streaks on Color dark brown Paint n/a Transp. excellent Wood 21

01 Tongue and Groove WOOD JOINERY Edge Joints Simple Butt Joint Back Batten Batten Fillet End Joints Shiplap Lap Scarf Squared Splice Splice Half Lap Finger Right-Angle Joints (Miters) Plain Wood Spline Quirk Tongue and Groove Shoulder 22 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

01 Right-Angle Joints Right-Angle Joints (Mortise and Tenon) Butt Joint Right-Angle Half Blind Joints Ship (Dovetail) Rabbet Dovetail Dado Blind Right-Angle Joints (Lap) Dado Middle Lap Dado and Rabbet End Lap Miter Half Lap Wood 23

02 Chapter 2: Masonry and Concrete Masonry Masonry building has become quicker, stronger, and more efficient than in the past, but the basic principles of construction have changed very little since ancient times. Masonry units include bricks, stones, and concrete blocks, and because they all come from the earth, they are suitable for use as foundations, pavers, and walls embedded in the earth. The strength and durability of most masonry makes it ideal to resist fire and decay from water and air. BRICKS The small scale of a single brick makes it a flexible material for use in walls, floors, and even ceilings. Brick production, in which the clay is fired at very high temperatures, gives brick excellent fire-resistive qualities. Brick Grades (Building and Facing) SW: Severe weathering (where water may collect) MW: Moderate weathering nW: Negligible weathering course Brick Types (Facing) (horizontal layer of brick or other FBS: General use in exposed masonry unit plus exterior and interior walls; most mortar) common type and default choice head joint if architect does not specify bed joint FBX: Special use in exposed exterior face brick and interior walls, where a higher (brick on exposed degree of mechanical perfection, surface of a wall, narrower color range, and minimal selected for its variation in size are required appearance and durability) FBA: Special use in exposed wythe exterior and interior walls, where non- (vertical layer uniformity in size, color, and texture of brick or other are desired masonry unit) 24 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

02 Brick Manufacturing Preparation: Clay is crushed Winning (Mining) and storage: and pulverized. Clays are mined and enough raw ma- terial is stored for several days’ use to allow continuous operation in any weather. The three principal types of clay are surface clays, shales, and fire clays. Forming Processes Stiff mud process (extrusion process): Clay is mixed Extrusion with minimal amounts of water and then “pugged” (thor- Molding oughly mixed). Air pockets are removed from the clay as it is passed through a vacuum. Then it is extruded through a rectangular die and pushed across a cutting table where it is sliced into bricks by cutter wires. Soft mud process (molding process): Moist clay is pressed into rectangular molds. Water or sand are used as media to prevent the clay from sticking to the molds. Water-struck bricks have a smooth surface, produced when the molds have been dipped into water before being filled; sand-struck, or sand-mold, bricks have a matte-textured surface, produced by dusting the molds with sand before forming the brick. Dry-press process: Clay is mixed with a minimum of water and machine-pressed into steel molds. Drying Process Firing Process Molded bricks In periodic kilns, bricks are loaded, fired, are placed in cooled, and unloaded. In continuous tunnel a low-temper- kilns, bricks ride through a tunnel on railcars, ature kiln and where they are fired the entire time at various dried for one temperatures and emerge at the end fully to two days. burned. Firing can take from 40 to 150 hours. Water-smoking and dehydration: Remaining water is removed from the clay. Oxidation and vitrification: Temperatures reach up to 1,800º F (982ºC) and 2,400ºF (1,316ºC), for these respective processes, Flashing: Fire is regulated to produce color variations in the brick. Bricks may also be glazed, either during the initial firing or in a special additional firing. Masonr y and Concrete 25

02 BRICK UNITS Comparative Proportions Standard Norman Roman Nominal brick dimen- sions are derived from combining actual brick dimensions (length, thickness, and height) with their respective mortar joints. Typical mortar joints are 3/8” (10) and 1/2” (13). Engineer Economy Utility SCR T H L Standard Sizes Unit Type Joint Brick Brick Brick Vertical Nominal Nominal Nominal Standard Thickness Thickness = T Height = H Length = L Coursing = (C) T H L Modular in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) Norman in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) 3/8 (10) 2 1/4 (57) 7 5/8 (194) Roman 1/2 (13) 3 5/8 (92) 2 3/16 (56) 7 1/2 (191) 3C = 8 (203) 4 (102) 2 2/3 (68) 8 (203) 3 1/2 (89) Engineer 3/8 (9.5) 2 1/4 (57) 11 5/8 (295) 3C = 8 (203) 4 (102) 2 2/3 (68) 12 (305) Modular 1/2 (12.7) 3 5/8 (92) 2 3/16 (56) 11 1/2 (292) Economy 3 1/2 (89) 2C = 4 (102) 4 (102) 2 (51) 12 (305) 3/8 (9.5) 1 5/8 (41) 11 5/8 (295) Utility 1/2 (12.7) 3 5/8 (92) 1 1/2 (38) 11 1/2 (292) 5C = 16 (406) 4 (102) 3 1/5 (81) 8 (203) 3 1/2 (89) SCR 3/8 (9.5) 2 13/16 (71) 7 5/8 (194) 1C = 4 (102) 4 (102) 4 (102) 8 (203) 1/2 (12.7) 3 5/8 (92) 2 11/16 (68) 7 1/2 (191) 3 1/2 (89) 1C = 4 (102) 4 (102) 4 (102) 12 (305) 3/8 (9.5) 3 5/8 (92) 7 5/8 (194) 1/2 (12.7) 3 5/8 (92) 3 1/2 (89) 7 1/2 (191 3C = 8 (203) 6 (152) 2 2/3 (68) 12 (305) 3 1/2 (89) 3/8 (9.5) 3 5/8 (92) 11 5/8 (295) 1/2 (12.7) 3 5/8 (92) 3 1/2 (89) 11 1/2 (292) 3 1/2 (89) 1/2 (12.7) 2 1/8 (54) 11 1/2 (292) 5 1/2 (140) 26 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

02 Orientations Bond Types Rowlock Preferred SI Dimensions Header for Masonry Sailor Soldier Nominal Height Ver tical Stretcher (H) x Length (L) Coursing (C) Shiner Running Bond 50 x 300 mm [2C = 100] [3C = 200] 67 x 200 mm 67 x 300 mm 75 x 200 mm [4C = 300] Flemish Monk Bond 75 x 300 mm [5C = 400] [1C = 100] 1/3 Running Bond 80 x 200 mm [3C = 400] Stack Bond 80 x 300 mm [2C = 300] [1C = 200] 100 x 200 mm [1C = 300] 100 x 300 mm 100 x 400 mm 133 x 200 mm 133 x 300 mm 133 x 400 mm 150 x 300 mm 150 x 400 mm 200 x 200 mm 200 x 300 mm 200 x 400 mm 300 x 300 mm Acceptable Length Substitutions for Flexibility 200 mm (100 mm) 300 mm (100 mm, 150 mm, Common Bond 200 mm, 250 mm) 400 mm (100 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm) Flemish Bond Masonr y and Concrete 27

no. of02 18’-8” (5 690) courses 18’-0” (5 486) no. ofStandard Modular Brick Coursing17’-4” (5 283) courses 16’-8” (5 080) 9’-4” (2 845) 16’-0” (4 877) 42 84 15’-4” (4 674) 41 83 14’-8” (4 470) 40 8’-8” (2 642) 82 14’-0” (4 267) 39 81 13’-4” (4 064) 38 80 12’-8” (3 861) 37 8’-0” (2 438) 79 12’-0” (3 658) 36 78 11’-4” (3 454) 35 77 10’-8” (3 251) 34 7’-4” (2 235) 76 10’-0” (3 048) 33 75 9’-4” (2 845) 32 74 31 6’-8” (2 032) 73 30 72 29 71 28 6’-0” (1 829) 70 27 69 26 68 25 5’-4” (1 626) 67 24 66 23 65 22 4’-8” (1 422) 64 21 63 20 62 19 4’-0” (1 219) 61 18 60 17 59 16 3’-4” (1 016) 58 15 57 14 56 13 2’-8” (813) 55 12 54 11 53 10 2’-0” (610) 52 9 51 8 50 7 1’-4” (406) 49 6 48 5 47 4 8” (203) 46 3 45 2 44 1 43 28 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Mortar 02 Mortar adheres masonry Colors units together, cushions them while mediating their surface Bricks come in numerous textures and irregularities, and provides a patterns, and both bricks and mortar are watertight seal. Composed available in almost endless varieties of color of portland cement, hydrated (especially if either is custom produced). lime, an inert aggregate (gen- Coordination of brick and mortar colors can erally sand), and water, there be an effective way to achieve different quali- are four basic types of mortar: ties within one brick type and color. Matching mortar to brick color, for example, produces M: High strength (masonry a more monolithic look for the wall. Similarly, below grade, or subjected to darker mortars can make a wall feel darker severe frost or to high lateral overall, and lighter mortars can make it feel or compressive loads) lighter. Full-scale mockups are helpful for test- ing color combinations. S: Medium-high strength (masonry subjected to normal compressive loads, but requir- ing high flexural bond strength) n: Medium strength (masonry above grade, for general use) O: Medium-low strength (masonry in non-load-bearing interior walls and partitions) Mortar Joints concave v-shaped flush struck weathered raked Masonr y and Concrete 29

02 CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS CMUs (also called concrete blocks) are available as bricks, large hollow stretcher units, and large solid units. The cores of hollow units can receive grout and reinforcing steel, making them a com- mon element in masonry bearing-wall construction, either alone or as a backup for other cladding material. Like bricks, CMUs have nominal dimensions and accommodate mortar joints; 8” (203) nominal block heights correspond to three brick courses. Typical Standard Sizes (W x H x L) 4” Block H 4x8x8 Other Shapes (102 x 203 x 203) 4 x 8 x 16 nominal (102 x 203 x 406) 3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 L 3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 (92 x 194 x 397) (92 x 194 x 194) W 6” Block 6x8x8 Screen (152 x 203 x 203) 6 x 8 x 16 (152 x 203 x 406) 5 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 (143 x 194 x 194) 5 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 (143 x 194 x 397) Brick 8” Block 8x8x8 (203 x 203 x 203) 8 x 8 x 16 (203 x 203 x 406) 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 75/8 (194 x 194 x 194) 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 (194 x 194 x 3 97) 10” Block 10 x 8 x 8 Solid Block (254 x 203 x 203) Corner Block 10 x 8 x16 (254 x 203 x 406) 9 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 9 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 (244 x 194 x 194) (244 x 194 x 397) 12 x 8 x 8 12” Block (305 x 203 x 203) 12 x 8 x 16 11 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 (305 x 203 x 406) (295 x 194 x 194) 11 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 (295 x 194 x 397) Bond Beam All sizes may also be 4” (102) high and 8” (203), 12” (305), or 24” (610) long. 30 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

02 CMU Production Decorative CMUs To produce CMUs, a stiff concrete mixture Concrete blocks are easily produced in is placed into molds and vibrated. The wet many different shapes, surface textures, and blocks are then removed from the molds and colors, allowing for a variety of wall surfaces. steam cured. Numerous standard decorative units exist and units may be custom designed. Fire-resistance ratings for CMUs vary de- pending on the aggregate type used in the concrete and the size of the block. CMU Grades Split Face n: General use above and below grade S: Use above grade only; good where wall is not exposed to weather; if used on exterior, wall must have weather- protective coating CMU Types Ribbed Face I: Moisture-controlled, for use where Scored Face shrinkage of units would cause cracking II: Not moisture-controlled CMU Weights Fluted Face normal: Made from concrete weighing more than 125 lb. per cu. ft. (pcf) (2 000 kg/m3) Medium: Made from concrete weighing 105–25 pcf (1 680–2 000 kg/m3) Light: Made from concrete weighing 105 pcf (1 680 kg/m3) or less Masonr y and Concrete 31

02 CONCRETE Concrete comprises a mixture of aggregate (sand and gravel), portland cement, and water. Because these elements are found almost everywhere, concrete is employed as a construction material throughout the world. When combined correctly with steel reinforcing, concrete becomes virtually indestructible structurally and is generally not susceptible to burning or rotting. It can be shaped into almost any form. COMPOSITION Aggregate: Mixture of sand and gravel. Types of Portland Cement Gravel sizes can range from dust to 21/2” but should not exceed one-quarter of the There is no universal international thickness of the unit being poured (that standard for portland cement. The United is, for a 4” slab, gravel should not be States uses the ASTM C-150 Standard greater than 1”). Rounded fragments are Specification for Portland Cement, as preferred. Larger gravel yields more cost- do a number of other countries. effective concrete and fewer problems from shrinkage. type I: Normal; for general use Portland cement: Chemical combination type IA: Normal, air-entraining of lime, silicon, aluminum, iron, small amounts of other ingredients, and gyp- type II: Moderately sulfate resistant; sum, which is added in the final grinding ideal for use in bridges and pilings; also process. Exact ingredients vary by region, used when heat build-up is an issue based on local availability. There are five basic types of portland type IIA: Moderately sulfate resistant, cement. air-entraining Water: Clean and impurity free. type III: Quick hardening with high early strength; used mostly in winter Air: Millions of tiny air bubbles in the and for rush jobs mixture make up a fourth component of some mixes of concrete. Air makes the type IIIA: High early strength, concrete lighter and more able to with- air-entraining stand the effects of freezing and thawing, thus useful in cold climates. type IV: Slow hardening and low heat producing; used when the amount and rate of heat generation must be minimized type V: Highly sulfate resistant; used in high water and soils with high alkali content 32 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

02 SITECAST CONCRETE FRAMING Sitecast concrete is concrete that is cast into forms on the building site. It can be cast into any shape for which a form can be made; however, the work and time involved in building formwork, reinforcing and pouring the concrete, waiting for the concrete to cure, and dismantling the formwork makes site- cast concrete slower to erect than precast concrete or structural steel. Concrete Casting edge form Cast concrete uses welded wire mesh concrete or reinforcing steel bars (rebar) to welded wire prevent cracking or uneven settling mesh and to supply rigidity. Rebar commonly moisture ranges in size from #3 to #18 (diameter barrier in eighths of an inch), and its size, crushed stone spacing, and number are determined by Slab on Grade the sizes and natures of the columns, slabs, and beams. plywood formwork Casting floor slabs, slabs on grade, studs plates, walls, columns, beams, and walers girders all involves the use of formwork, form tie which is often plywood but can also be metal or fiberboard. Standardization bracing of column and beam sizes within a reinforcing project helps to mitigate the cost of the bars formwork, which can be reused. concrete To hold formwork together during pour Wall and curing, form ties are inserted through holes in the formwork and secured in place with fasteners; the protruding ends are snapped off after formwork comes down. Poured concrete must have regular con- trol joints designed into walls and slabs, either as part of the form or tooled onto the surface before the concrete has cured. A control joint is a line of discon tinuity acting as a plane of weakness where movement or cracking can occur in response to forces, relieving potential cracking elsewhere. Masonry and Concrete 33

02 Fibrous admixtures: Short glass, steel, or polypropylene fibers that act PLACING AND CURING as reinforcing. As concrete is poured and placed, care must Fly ash: Improves workability of wet be taken to ensure that it is not subjected to concrete while also increasing strength excessive vibration or sudden vertical drops, and sulfate resistance, and decreases which could cause segregation of the materi- permeability, temperature rises, and als (course aggregate to the bottom, water needed water. and cement to the top). For this reason, verti- cal transportation should be done with drop Pozzolans: Improve workability, reduce chutes. If the concrete must travel excessive internal temperatures while curing, and distances from the mixer to the formwork, it reduce reactivity caused by sulfates. should be pumped through hoses, not trans- ported in the formwork. Retarding admixtures: Promote slower curing and allow more time for working Concrete cures by hydration, as a binding with wet concrete. chemical combination of the cement and water; it must be kept moist during this Silica fume: Produces extremely high period, generally twenty-eight days, before it strength concrete with very low is adequately cured. Surfaces may be kept permeability. moist by spraying them with water or a curing compound or by covering them with moisture- Super-plasticizers: High-range water- resistant sheets. reducing admixtures that turn stiff con- crete into flowing liquid for placing Admixtures in difficult sites. Other ingredients may be added to Water-reducing admixtures: Allow for concrete for various desired effects. more workability with less water in the mix. Accelerating admixtures: Promote Reinforcing Steel faster curing (may be used in cold weather, when curing is slowed down). Without reinforcing, concrete would have few or no structural uses. Air-entraining admixtures: Increase Fortunately, steel and concrete are workability of wet concrete, aid in chemically compatible and have a reducing freeze-thaw damage, and may similar rate of dimensional change produce lightweight, thermal-insulated due to temperature. concrete. #8 Blast furnace slag: Similar to fly ash Re-bar in effect. #3 Coloring agents: Dyes and pigments. Re-bar Corrosion inhibitors: Reduce corrosion of reinforcing steel. 34 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

02 FINISHES Color Concrete can be finished in a variety of Colored concrete provides numerous de- ways, allowing it to be used on virtually sign opportunities, It is generally achieved any surface in almost any kind of space. in one of two ways: As cast: Concrete remains as it is after Integral coloring: Color is added to the removal of forms and often bears the wet concrete or mixed in at the jobsite— imprint of wood grain from the plywood. in either case, the color is distributed throughout the concrete. Because so Blasted: Various degrees of sandblast- much concrete is involved, colors are ing smooth the surface while exposing limited to earth tones and pastels. successive levels of cement, sand, and Once cured, the surface is sealed, aggregate. which provides protection and a sheen that enhances the color. Chemically retarded: Chemicals are applied to the surface to expose the Dry-shake color hardeners: Color harden- aggregate. ers are broadcast onto freshly placed con- crete and troweled into the surface. The Mechanically fractured: Tooling, ham- hardeners produce a dense and durable mering, jackhammering, and scaling pro- surface. Because the color is concentrat- duce varied aggregate-exposing effects. ed on top of the concrete, more vibrant and intense tones are possible. Sealers Polished: Heavy-duty polishing machines applied after curing further accentuate polish the surface to a high gloss, with the richness of the color. or without polishing compounds. As in all natural materials, variations in Sealed: Acrylic resin helps protect con- color outcome will occur. The base color crete from spalling (chipping or flaking of the cement determines the ranges caused by improper drainage or venting possible. and freeze/thaw damage), dusting, ef- florescence (whitening caused by water leeching soluble salts out of concrete and depositing them on the surface), stains, deicing salts, and abrasion. Reinforcing bars: Bars come in the fol- Welded wire fabric: Reinforcing steel is lowing sizes: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 18. formed into a grid of wires or round bars Nominal diameters of #8 and lower are the 2”–12” (51–305) on center. Lighter styles bar number in eighths of an inch; that is, are used in slabs on grade and some #3 is 3/8” (9.52). Nominal diameters of #9 precast elements; heavier styles may be and higher are slightly larger. used in walls and structural slabs. Masonry and Concrete 35

03 03 Chapter 3: Metals Metals play an enormous role in almost every component of many projects and build- ing types, from structural steel to sheet-metal ductwork, from drywall partition studs to oxides used as paint pigments. Metals of most varieties occur in nature as oxide ores, which can be mined and worked to extract and refine the metals, separating them from other elements and impurities. Metals fall under two broad categories: ferrous (containing iron) and nonferrous. Ferrous metals are generally stronger, more abun- dant, and easier to refine, but they have a tendency to rust. Nonferrous metals tend to be easier to work and most form their own thin oxide layers that protect them from corrosion. MODIFYING METAL Cold-Worked Metals PROPERTIES At room temperature, metals are rolled Most metals in their chemically pure and thin, beaten, or drawn, making them natural form are not very strong. To be suit- stronger but more brittle by altering their able for construction and other functions, crystalline structures. Cold-worked met- their properties must be altered, which can als may be reversed by annealing. be done in several ways, often dependent on the proposed use of the metal. Cold rolling: Metal is squeezed between rollers. Alloys Drawing: Drawing metal through increas- Metals are mixed with other elements, ingly smaller orifices produces the wires usually other metals, to create an alloy. and cables used to prestress concrete, For example, iron mixed with small which have five times the structural amounts of carbon produces steel. strength of steel. Generally, the alloy is stronger than its primary metal ingredient. In addition to Coated Metals improved strength and workability, al- loys provide self-protecting oxide layers. Anodizing: A thin oxide layer of controlled color and consistency is electrolytically Heat-Treated Metals added to aluminum to improve its sur- face appearance. tempering: Steel is heated at a moder- ate rate and slowly cooled, producing a Electroplating: Chromium and cadmium harder and stronger metal. are coated onto steel to protect it from oxidation and improve its appearance. Annealing: Steel and sometimes aluminum alloys are heated to very galvanizing: Steel is coated with zinc to high temperatures and cooled slowly, protect it against corrosion. softening the metal so that it is easier to work. Other coatings: Coatings can include paints, lacquers, powders, fluoropoly- mers, and porcelain enamel. 36 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Casting 03 Drawing Extrusion FABRICATION TECHNIQUES Forging Grinding Casting: Molten metal is poured into a shaped mold. The metal produced is weak but can be Machining made into many shapes, such as faucets or Rolling hardware. Stamping Drawing: Wires are produced by pulling metal through increasingly smaller holes. Extrusion: Heated (but not molten) metal is squeezed through a die, producing a long metal piece with a shaped profile. Forging: Metal is heated until flexible and then bent into a desired shape. This process improves structural performance by imparting a grain orientation onto the metal. grinding: Machines grind and polish metal to create flat, finished surfaces. Machining: Material is cut away to achieve a desired shape. Processes include drilling, milling (with a rotating wheel), lathing (for cylindrical shapes), sawing, shearing, and punching. Sheet metal is cut with shears and folded on brakes. Rolling: Metal is squeezed between rollers. Hot rolling, unlike cold, does not increase the strength of metal. Stamping: Sheet metal is squeezed between matching dies to give it shape and texture. Joining Metals Welding: In this high-temperature fusion, a gas flame or electric arc melts two metals and allows the point of connection to flow together with ad- ditional molten metal from a welding rod. Welded connections are as strong as the metals they join and can be used for structural work. Brazing and soldering: In these lower- temperature processes, the two metals are not themselves melted but joined with the solder of a metal with a lower melting point: Brass or bronze are used in brazing, lead-tin alloy is used in soldering. Too weak for structural connections, brazing and soldering are used for plumbing pipes and roofing. Mechanical methods: Metals can also be drilled or punched with holes, through which screws, bolts, or rivets are inserted. Interlocking and folding: Sheet metal can be joined by such connections. Metals 37

03 METAL TYPES Ferrous Cast iron: Very brittle with high compressive strength and ability to absorb vibrations; ideal for gratings and stair components but too brittle for structural work. Malleable iron: Produced by casting, reheating, and slowly cooling to improve workability; similar to cast iron in use. Mild steel: Ordinary structural steel with a low carbon content. Stainless steel: Produced by alloying with other metals, primarily chromium or nickel for corrosion resistance and molybdenum when maximum resistance is required (in sea wa- ter, for example). Though harder to form and machine than mild steel, its uses are many, including flashing, coping, fasteners, anchors, hardware, and finishes that can range from matte to mirror polish. Steel: Iron with low amounts of carbon (carbon increases strength, but decreases ductil- ity and welding capabilities); used for structural components, studs, joists, and fasteners, and in decorative work. Wrought iron: Soft and easily worked, with high corrosion resistance, making it ideal for use below grade. Most often cast or worked into bars, pipes, or sheets, and fashioned for ornamental purposes. Other metals like steel have virtually replaced it today. Steel Alloys Aluminum Alloy Series Aluminum: Hardens surfaces Series Wrought Series Cast 1000 Alloying 100.0 Alloying Chromium and cadmium: Resists corro- Element Element sion 2000 pure 200.0 pure 3000 aluminum 300.0 aluminum Copper: Resists atmospheric corrosion copper copper manganese 400.0 silicon plus Manganese: Increases hardness and 500.0 helps to resist wear 4000 silicon 600.0 copper and/ 5000 magnesium or magnesium Molybdenum: Often combined with other 6000 magnesium 700.0 alloys, increases corrosion resistance and 800.0 silicon raises tensile strength and silicon 900.0 magnesium 7000 zinc unused series nickel: Increases tensile strength and 8000 other elements resists corrosion zinc tin Silicon: Increases strength and resists other elements oxidation 1st digit is series no.; 2nd is 1st digit is series no.; Sulfur: Allows for free machining of mild modification of alloy; 3rd/4th 2nd/3rd are arbitrary identi- steels are arbitrary identifiers fiers; no. after decimal is casting if 0, ingot if 1 or 2 titanium: Prevents intergranular corrosion in stainless steel tungsten: With vanadium and cobalt, increases hardness and resists abrasions 38 THE ARCHICTECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

03 Nonferrous Aluminum: When pure, it resists corrosion well, but is soft and lacks strength; with alloys, it can achieve various levels of strength and stiffness, at one-third the density of steel, and can be hot- or cold-rolled, cast, drawn, extruded, forged, or stamped. Sheets or foil, when polished to a mirror finish, have extremely high levels of light and heat reflectivity. Its uses include curtain wall components, ductwork, flashing, roofing, window and door frames, grills, siding, hardware, wiring, and coatings for other metals. Aluminum powder may be added to metallic paints and its oxide acts as an abrasive in sandpaper. Brass: Alloy of copper, zinc, and other metals; can be polished to a high luster and is mostly used for weather stripping, ornamental work, and finish hardware. Bronze: Alloy of copper and tin that resists corrosion; used for weather stripping, hardware, and ornamental work. Cadmium: Similar to zinc; usually electroplated onto steel. Chromium: Very hard and will not corrode in air; like nickel, often used as an alloy to achieve a bright polish and is excellent for plating. Copper: Ductile and corrosion-, impact-, and fatigue-resistant; it has high thermal and electrical conductivity, and can be cast, drawn, extruded, hot-, or cold-rolled. Widely employed as an alloy with other metals, it can also be used for electrical wiring, flashing, roofing, and piping. Lead: Extremely dense, corrosion resistant, limp, soft, and easy to work; most often combined with alloys to improve hardness and strength. Foil or sheets are ideal for waterproofing, blocking sound and vibrations, and shielding against radiation. Can also be used as roofing and flashing, or to coat copper sheets (lead-coated copper) for roofing and flashing. High toxicity of vapors and dust have made its use less common. Magnesium: Strong and lightweight; as an alloy, serves to increase strength and corrosion resistance in aluminum. Often used in aircraft, but too expensive for most construction. tin: Soft and ductile; used in terneplate (80 percent lead, 20 percent tin) for plating steel. titanium: Low density and high strength; used in numerous alloys and its oxide has replaced lead in many paints. Zinc: Corrosion resistant in water and air, but very brittle and low in strength. Primarily used in galvanizing steel to keep it from rusting; also electroplated onto other metals as an alloy. Other functions include flashing, roofing, hardware, and die-casting. Metals 39

03 GALVANIC ACTION GAUGES AND MILS Galvanic action is corrosion that occurs between metals under the following conditions: There exist two electrochemically dissimilar metals, Sheet metal thick- an electrically conductive path between the two metals, and a conductive nesses have long been path for metal ions to move from the less noble metal to the more noble expressed in terms one. A good understanding of the material compatibilities in the galvanic of gauge (ga.), an series will minimize corrosion in design. The galvanic series lists metals antiquated term based from least noble (anodic, or most reactive to corrosion) to most noble on weight (originally for (cathodic, or least reactive to corrosion). Generally, the farther apart two reasons of taxation) metals are on the list, the greater the corrosion of the less noble one. and not a reference to Therefore, combinations of metals that will be in electrical contact should the precise thickness be selected from groups as close together in the series as possible. of a sheet. Thus, a sheet of mild steel Note that the ranking of metals may differ, based on variations in alloy and one of galvanized composition and nonuniform conditions. When specifying and detailing steel may have the metals, always consult the manufacturer of the metal product. same gauge but dif- ferent thicknesses. Anode + galvanic Series The series listed here As the gauge number is for general increases, the sheet Magnesium, magnesium information only and becomes thinner; alloys does not consider sheets thicker than 1/4” Zinc, zinc alloys and plates the anodic index of (6), or about 3-gauge, Zinc (hot-dipped), any metals. The an- are referred to as galvanized steel odic index (V) of each plates. Aluminum (non-silicon metal determines cast alloys), cadmium more precisely its Most steel manufac- Aluminum (wrought alloys, compatibility thresh- turers are adapting to silicon cast) olds with mils. This straightfor- Iron (wrought, malleable), other metals. ward system allows plain carbon and low- Accurate anodic index the actual thickness alloy steel numbers should be of the sheet to define Aluminum (wrought alloys obtained from the its mil designation. —2000 series) specific metal manu- Lead (solid, plated), lead alloys facturer. There is no equation Tin plate, tin-lead solder for a strict translation Cathode- Chromium plate from gauge to mil High brasses and bronzes thickness; however—for Brasses and bronzes reference purposes Copper, low brasses and only—many common bronzes, silver solder, mil sizes may be as- copper-nickel alloys sociated with specific Nickel, titanium alloys, monel gauge sizes. Silver Gold, platinum 40 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

03 Gauge Reference Chart Mil Gauge Standard Steel Galvanized Steel Aluminum (µm) (ga.) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) 0.2391 (6.073) 0.2294 (5.827) 33 mil is 118 3 0.2242 (5.695) 0.1532 (3.891) 0.2043 (5.189) considered 97 4 0.2092 (5.314) 0.1382 (3.510) 0.1819 (4.620) the thinnest 68 5 0.1943 (4.935) 0.1233 (3.132) 0.1620 (4.115) material 54 6 0.1793 (4.554) 0.1084 (2.753) 0.1443 (3.665) allowable for 43 7 0.1644 (4.176) 0.0934 (2.372) 0.1285 (3.264) structural 8 0.1495 (3.797) 0.0785 (1.994) 0.1144 (2.906) cold-formed 30 | 33 9 0.1345 (3.416) 0.0710 (1.803) 0.1019 (2.588) steel framing 27 10 0.1196 (3.030) 0.0635 (1.613) 0.0907 (2.304) 18 11 0.1046 (2.657) 0.0575 (1.461) 0.0808 (2.052) 20-gauge 12 0.0897 (2.278) 0.0516 (1.311) 0.0720 (1.829) material often 13 0.0747 (1.879) 0.0456 (1.158) 0.0641 (1.628) comes in the 14 0.0673 (1.709) 0.0396 (1.006) 0.0571 (1.450) following two 15 0.0598 (1.519) 0.0366 (0.930) 0.0508 (1.290) thicknesses: 16 0.0538 (1.367) 0.0336 (0.853) 0.0453 (1.151) 17 0.0478 (1.214) 0.0306 (0.777) 0.0403 (1.024) 30 mil for 18 0.0418 (1.062) 0.0276 (0.701) 0.0359 (0.912) nonstructural 19 0.0359 (0.912) 0.0247 (0.627) 0.0320 (0.813) drywall studs; 20 0.0329 (0.836) 0.0217 (0.551) 0.0285 (0.724) 21 0.0299 (0.759) 0.0202 (0.513) 0.0253 (0.643) 33 mil for 22 0.0269 (0.683) 0.0187 (0.475) 0.0226 (0.574) structural 23 0.0239 (0.607) 0.0172 (0.437) 0.0201 (0.511) studs 24 0.0209 (0.531) 0.0157 (0.399) 0.0179 (0.455) 25 0.0179 (0.455) 0.0142 (0.361) 0.0159 (0.404) 18 mil is 26 0.0164 (0.417) 0.0134 (0.340) 0.0142 (0.361) considered 27 0.0149 (0.378) 0.0126 (0.320) the thinnest 28 0.0135 (0.343) 0.0113 (0.287) material 29 0.0120 (0.305) 0.0100 (0.254) allowable for 30 0.0105 (0.267) 0.0089 (0.226) nonstructural, 31 0.0097 (0.246) 0.0080 (0.203) cold-formed 32 0.0090 (0.229) 0.0071 (0.180) steel framing 33 0.0082 (0.208) 0.0063 (0.160) 34 0.0075 (0.191) 0.0056 (0.142) 35 0.0067 (0.170) 36 Metals 41

03 LIGHT-GAUGE FRAMING depth F = furring channels flange (for applying finished Metal studs are gener- knockout wall materials to ally made of cold-rolled concrete or masonry) corrosion-resistant steel in t = track sections standard sizes. They work S = stud or joist u = cold-rolled in both load-bearing and (C-shapes with channel (without non-load-bearing capaci- flange stiffeners) flange stiffeners) ties and as floor and roof framing elements. Studs are spaced 16” (406) or 24” (610) OC inside top and bottom tracks. Metal studs with gypsum sheathing provide greatly reduced combus- tibility, and can be built taller than wood stud walls. Knockouts or punchouts are provided at regular intervals to allow for bridging between studs or for the passing through of electrical conduit or plumbing. The Steel Stud Manufacturers Association (SSMA) designations for light-gauge steel framing members are written as follows: web depth (in 1/100”) + S, T, U, or F designation + flange width (in 1/100”) + minimum base metal thickness (in mils). Thus, a 250S 162-33 member is a 21/2” (250/100”) stud with a flange of 15/8” (162/100”), at 33 mils. Common Metal Stud Sizes Non-load-bearing Studs depths: 15/8” (41), 21/2” (64), 3 5/8” (92), 4” (102), 6” (152) gauges [mils]; 25 [18], 22 [27], 20 [30] Non-load-bearing Curtain Wall Studs depths: 21/2” (64), 3 5/8” (92), 4” (102), 6” (152) gauges [mils]: 20 [30], 18 [43], 16 [54], 14 [68] flange: 1 3/8” (35) Structural C-Studs depths: 21/2” (64), 3 5/8” (92), 4” (102), 6” (152), 8” (203), 10” (254), 12” (305) gauges [mils]: 20 [33], 18 [43], 16 [54], 14 [68] flange: 1 5/8” (41) Structural Stud/Joist depths: 21/2” (64), 3 5/8” (92), 4” (102), 6” (152), 8” (203), 10” (254), 12” (305) gauges [mils]: 20 [33], 18 [43], 16 [54], 14 [68] flange: 2” (51) 42 THE ARCHICTECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

03 Sheet Thickness (actual size) 210 mils 97 mils 33 mils 18 mils Metal Roofing Seams Flat Seam Standing Seam Batten Seam Forms and Sheets Ribbed Decking Corrugated Perforated Expanded Metals 43

04 Chapter 4: Finishes Interior finishes encompass all CEILINGS materials and surfaces that can be WALL SYSTEMS seen or touched. The choice of materials and the methods of construction should be based on the function of the space, the anticipated volume of traffic, acoustical effects, fire-resistance ratings, and aesthetic appearance. FINISH CARPENTRY 44 THE ARCHICTECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

04 FINISH CARPENTRY FINISH FLOORING Finishes 45

04 WALL SYSTEMS Gypsum Board Gypsum board goes by many names: gypsum wallboard (GWB), drywall, plasterboard, and Sheetrock (a trademarked brand name). Gypsum board is a less expensive alternative to plaster, because it requires less labor, time, and skill to install, but it still provides excellent fire-resistance and sound control. Gypsum, a naturally occurring mineral, is formulated chemically when combined with water, starch, and other elements into a slurry and placed between paper faces to become gypsum board. When gypsum board is exposed to fire, the water is released as steam, providing a fire barrier until the water is completely eliminated (calcination). When the gypsum is completely calcined, its residue still acts as an insulating barrier to flames, preventing the structural members behind it from igniting. Customary Sizes Panel Types Panel sizes may Backing board: Used as a base layer when vary depending on multiple layers are needed, improving fire the type of board, resistance and sound control. though generally they fall in the Coreboard: Thicker boards, 1” (25.4) and following range: 2” (50.8), used to enclose vent shafts, 4’ (1 220) wide by emergency egress stairs, elevator shafts, 8’ (2 439) to and other vertical chases. 16’ (4 877) high. Foil-backed: Can work as a vapor barrier Widths of 2’ (610) in exterior wall assemblies and as a thermal and 2’-6” (762) insulator. and heights of 6’ (1 829) may also Prefinished: Covered in a variety of finishes be available for such as paint, paper, or plastic film for certain prefinished installation without further finishing. boards and core boards. Regular: Used for most applications. SI Preferred Sizes type X: Short glass fibers in the core hold the calcined gypsum residue in place for Standard panel size increased fire resistance protection ratings. is 1 200 x 2 400 mm. Water-resistant (green board): Water- Other acceptable resistant board with a water-repellent paper increments are facing (colored light green to distinguish it 600 mm, 800 mm, from other walls) and a moisture-resistant and 900 mm. core (also available in type X); used as base for tiles and other nonabsorbent materials in wet locations. 46 THE ARCHICTECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Board Thicknesses Edge Types 04 Square Finishes 47 1/4” (6.4) backing board, some acoustic work 5/16” (8) Rounded used for manufactured housing 3/8” (9.5) Beveled used in double-layer finishes 1/2” (12.7) Tongue and Groove used for stud spacings up to 24” (610), most common thickness 5/8” (16) Tapered used when additional fire resistance or structural stiffness are required Rounded Taper 1” (25.4) coreboard used for shaft walls

04 Joints are finished with joint compound and tape, usually in the following manner: A layer GWB Partition Wall Installation of joint compound is troweled into a tapered edge joint, then fiber-reinforcing mesh tape Gypsum wallboard is placed over wood studs is applied; for some tapered edge joints, using nails or screws and over metal studs joint compound is forced through the tape using screws. The orientation of the boards to fill the V-shaped trough. After drying may differ based on the height of the wall, overnight, more joint compound is applied to whether it is double-layer construction, and completely smooth the joint, making it flush other factors. with the surrounding wall. Individual board manufacturers may suggest adding more Generally, it is best to minimize end joints layers of joint compound. between boards (boards have finished paper only on the face, back, and long edges, which Nail or screw holes are also filled, and the themselves are finished in a variety of edge whole wall receives a final light sanding types), because these joints are more dif- before painting. ficult to finish. If two or more layers of board are to be installed, joints between the layers should be staggered for added strength. ceiling channel stiffener channels shaftliner (for shaft wall construction) metal stud base GWB layer tape and joint compound face GWB layer tape and joint compound base floor channel 48 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

04 Common GWB Partition Assemblies Fireproofing at Steel Structural Members 3 5/8” STC: 40–44: (1 layer 3/8” GWB on either intumescent side of 15/8” metal studs; face layers of 1/2” GWB) latex paint 1-HR FIRE RATING 4 7/8” STC: 40–44: (1 layer 5/8” type X metal lath GWB on either side of 3 5/8” metal studs) and plaster enclosure 1-HR spray-on fireproofing FIRE sheet-metal enclosure RATING with loose insulating fill 5 1/2” STC: 45–49: (1 layer 5/8” type X GWB on either side of 35/8” metal studs; one face layer 5/8” GWB applied with laminating compound; 31/2” glass fiber insulation in cavity) 1-HR FIRE RATING 6 1/4” STC: 55–59: (2 layers 5/8” type X GWB on reinforced either side of 3 5/8” metal studs; one face layer concrete 1/4” GWB applied with laminating compound; encasement 11/2” glass fiber insulation in cavity) multiple layers of GWB 2-HR enclosure FIRE RATING Finishes 49

04 PLASTER Today most plaster has a gypsum base. Gypsum is calcined and then ground into a fine powder. When mixed once again with water, it rehydrates and returns to its original state, expanding as it hardens into a plaster that possesses excellent fire-resistive qualities. This formulation can be mixed with an aggregate and applied by hand or by machine directly to masonry walls or to a lath system. Plaster types Lath Assemblies Three-Coat Plaster Plaster over Metal Lath metal lath: expanded metal or mesh gauging plaster: Mixed (steel) with lime putty for ac- Plaster over Gypsum Lath scratch coat: troweled on roughly and celerated setting and scratched to create a scored surface reduced cracking; may for the next coat be mixed with finish brown coat: applied over the lath and lime to make a high- hardened scratch coat; leveled with a quality finish coat. long straightedge finish coat: very thin (1/16”) outer layer gypsum plaster: Used that may be smoothed or textured. with sand or lightweight Total thickness of all three layers is aggregate. roughly 5/8” (16) and provides good fire resistance and durability. high-strength basecoat: Used under Two- or Three-Coat Plaster high-strength finish gypsum lath: hardened gypsum plaster coats. core with an outer sheet of absorbent paper to adhere to the plaster and Keenes cement: water-resistant inner layers to protect High-strength with the core; comes in 16” x 48” (406 x a very strong and 1 219) boards in 3/8” (10) and 1/2” (13) crack-resistant finish. thicknesses. brown coat Molding plaster: finish coat Fast-setting for If gypsum is attached to studs, it is rig- molding ornaments id enough to require only two coats of and cornices. plaster; solid plaster walls (plaster on either side of gypsum, with no studs) Stucco: Portland require three coats. Total thickness of cement–lime plaster; the plaster on one side is 1/2” (13). used on exterior walls or where moisture is present. With wood fiber or perlite aggregate: Lightweight with good fire resistance. 50 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

04 Veneer Plaster TRIM SHAPES Ceiling Moldings Veneer plaster is a less expensive and less labor-intensive plaster system. crown The special veneer base works much like a standard gypsum board wall bed system and is finished smooth and flat to provide the best surface for the very cove dense veneer plaster. The plaster is quarter-round applied in two coats in quick succes- General Moldings sion; the second coat, called a skim picture rail coat, dries almost immediately. The total plaster thickness is about 1/8” (3). chair rail Plaster over Masonry panel molding for Plaster can be applied directly to brick, wainscoting concrete block, poured concrete, and stone walls. Walls should be damp- Baseboards ened first to keep the plaster from de- hydrating during application. Generally, three coats will be needed, totaling 5/8” (16) in plaster thickness, though the roughness of the masonry surface will dictate the thickness in many cases. Where the masonry or other wall is unsuitable for direct plaster applica- tion (if moisture or condensation are present or if an air space is required for insulation), plaster and lath are applied over furring channels attached to the wall. Wall Assemblies Plaster and lath assemblies can be applied to truss studs, steel studs, or wood studs, in addition to furring strips. Solid plaster walls of roughly 2” (51) thick are sometimes used where space is at a premium. They generally consist of plaster on either side of expanded metal mesh or gypsum lath, supported at the floor and ceiling by metal runners. Wood lath is rarely used today in favor of cheaper and more durable lath types. Finishes 51

04 FINISH FLOORING Wood Wood offers a variety of widths and thicknesses, as Floors receive regular wear and abuse, from well as methods of installation. Almost any wood can feet, furniture, dirt, and water. Floor finish be made into strip flooring, though oak, pecan, and materials should be carefully chosen based maple are the most common. Thicker boards should on the function of the space and the amount be installed in areas of heavier use. of traffic they must endure. A wide array of strip flooring finish floor types and methods of installation exist, of which the small sampling shown here 15# felts represents the most common residential and board subfloor commercial applications. Ceramic Tile and Quarry Tile For thick-set installation, tiles are laid on ±1” (25) Carpet portland cement mortar. For thin-set installation, tiles are laid on ±1/8” (3) dry-set mortar, latex– Wool, nylon, polypropylene, and polyester ac- portland cement mortar, organic adhesive, or count for most carpet fibers, with nylon the most modified epoxy emulsion mortar. widely used. Construction types include velvet, tile Axminster, Wilton, tufted, knitted, flocked, needle- punched, and fusion-bonded. Installation methods include stretch-in (using staples), direct glue down, and double glue down. carpet backing bond coat mortar bed cushion with cleavage membrane subfloor concrete or wood subfloor Terrazzo Resilient Flooring Terrazzo is a poured or precast material composed of stone chips and a cement matrix (epoxy, polyester, Vinyl sheet, homogeneous vinyl tile, vinyl composi- polyacrylate, latex, or electrically conductive). tion tile (VCT), cork tile, rubber tile, and linoleum Appearance types vary from Standard (small chip are the common types. The flooring, either ±1/8”(3) sizes) to Venetian (large chips with small chips thick sheets or tiles, is glued to a concrete or wood between), Palladiana (large random marble slabs with subfloor. Most types can be installed to include a small chips between) to Rustic (uniform texture with seamless integral cove base. suppressed matrix to expose chips). ±1/2” (13) flooring terrazzo adhesive underbed subfloor concrete slab 52 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

CEILINGS 04 Attached Ceilings Fibrous panels known as acoustic ceiling Gypsum board, plaster, metal, and other tiles (ACT) are lightweight boards made of materials can be attached directly to joists, mineral or glass fibers that are highly sound rafters, and concrete slabs. Attached ceilings absorptive. They are easily laid into an ex- are constructed in a similar manner to wall posed, recessed, or concealed grid of light- systems. gauge metal tees suspended with hanger wires. Good ACT has a very high noise Suspended Ceilings reduction coefficient (NRC), meaning that Suspended ceiling systems can support it absorbs the majority of the sound that almost any material, although gypsum board, reaches it. The NRC for gypsum and plaster, plaster, or fibrous board panels are most by contrast, is very low. Lightweight panels, common. Regular grids of sheet metal cee however, tend to pass the sound through, channels suspended from the structure above which limits acoustical privacy in spaces with hanger wires support the gypsum board with a shared plenum. Composite panels and plaster. with acoustic material laminated to a sub- strate can alleviate this problem. Acoustical The space between the structure above and panels may involve other materials such as perforated metal, Mylar, and tectum. the suspended ceiling, called the plenum, Ceiling tiles can be easily removed, allowing provides a zone for ductwork, piping, conduit, access to the plenum area for maintenance of equipment and systems. and other equipment. structure Common Panel 12 x 12 (305 x 305) hanger wire Sizes in. (mm) 12 x 24 (305 x 610) main runner 24 x 24 (610 x 610) cross tee 24 x 48 (610 x 1 219) ceiling panel 24 x 60 (610 x 1 524) 20 x 60 (508 x 1 524) 30 x 60 (762 x 1 524) 60 x 60 (1 524 x 1 524) 48 x 48 (1 219 x 1 219) Finishes 53

04 FINISH CARPENTRY The wood interior finish components of a building are called millwork, and their installation is known as finish carpentry. Wood used for millwork encompasses various arrangements of solid and veneer wood, but in general it is of a higher quality than that used for framing. Millwork related to cabinetry and its assembly is called casework. Common Countertops Plastic laminate counters may come postformed, with Plastic Laminate the laminate already glued to a particle board platform, complete with a backsplash and bull-nosed front edge. It is also possible to apply p-lam as thin sheets—gener- ally 1/16” (1.6) thick—using a contact adhesive. Decorative plastic laminates have a top sheet of paper printed with wood-grain patterns or other images. Stone Solid stone countertops of granite, soapstone, marble, or slate (typically resting on a thin-set bed of cement) are durable and resistant to most common kitchen or bathroom wear and tear. Substrates are generally two layers of plywood or particle board. The thickness of the stone varies based on type, but is in the general range of 3/4”–15/16” (19–33). Grouted stone tiles offer a lighter, less expensive alternative. Solid Surface The general composition of solid surface is polymer (acrylic-based resin or unsaturated polyester resin), aluminum trihydrate filler, pigment (colorant), and a catalyst. Solid surface materials are nonporous, homogeneous (maintaining the same appearance all the way through), strong, and have UV stability and surface hardness. They resist water, impacts, chemicals, stains, and high temperatures. Moreover, solid surface can be repaired by being sanded and polished back to its original finish. Solid surface materials are highly versatile and come in a wide variety of colors, textures, patterns, and translucencies. 54 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Wood-based Board Types 04 wood veneer MDF veneer plywood core plywood core wood veneer MDF veneer Veneer core hardwood plywood: Medium- and high-density overlay plywood: VC is common plywood (typically, MDO and HDO are generally common fir) with a finished wood grain plywood with an MDF surface, resulting in surface veneer; it is relatively panels that weigh less than full MDF but lightweight and easy to handle. have smoother and more stable surfaces than VC. wood veneer wood veneer HDP core MDF core wood veneer wood veneer High-density plywood: HDP has more Medium-density fiber core hardwood plies and fewer voids than common plywood: MDF is produced by heat-pressing a plywood. Its strength and stability mixture of fine wood dust and a binder into panels. make it useful for cabinetry, and it typi- Paint-grade blank sheets can be used as they are cally comes in birch (Baltic) or maple or with a veneer skin, while dyed MDF has a consis- (Appleby). tent color from face to core. Though ideal for use in cabinetry and shelving, full MDF is very heavy. veneer, gen’l paper with melamine resin PBC core PBC core veneer, gen’l paper with melamine resin Particle board core plywood: PBC Melamine: Melamine consists of a particle produced by heat-pressing a coarse board core with a thermally fused, resin-satu- wood dust and a binder into panels, rated paper finish. Though the name refers to which are lower in weight than full the resin in the paper liner, and not the paper or MDF, due to the coarser dust. As the board, the entire product is commonly referred surface is rougher and less consis- to as melamine. Melamine is ideal for use in tent, it is an ideal substrate for many cabinetry and comes in a wide variety of colors. other products. MDF can also be used as the substrate. Finishes 55

05 2.STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS 5566 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

05 A single person rarely designs all aspects of a building. Numerous teams of professionals are needed to create the systems that make a building stand and function well. Coordination of these systems begins early and may continue even after the building is occupied. During design, the building is an ever-changing organism, growing and shrinking to accommodate more systems as they are shaped and sized, designed and refined, requiring continual communication between the architect and the consulting trades. Many decisions cannot be made until specific systems are in place. For example, the materials, structure, occupancy, and layout of a building must be known before a preliminary code analysis can be attempted. This analysis may yield new information, such as the need for wider egress stairs, more exit corridors, or further provisions for sprinkler systems. The accommodation of larger stairs and more cor- ridors will affect the arrangement of spaces—or it may generate an overall change to the size of the building, which could, in turn, require less expensive cladding materials—and more sprinklers might entail more plumbing requirements. This give-and-take process continues throughout design, resulting in a (usually) happy coexistence of sys- tems, spaces, and materials. Structural Systems 5577

05 Chapter 5: Structural Systems Structural elements of a building—its walls, frame, and foundation—hold it up (or keep it down) by resisting gravity (vertical forces) and lateral (horizontal) loads such as winds and earthquakes. The primary components of a building’s structural system are its foundation system and framing system. The type selected for either is contingent on many factors, including the building’s use, desired height, soil conditions of the site, local building codes, and available materials. Elements of a building’s structure cannot be removed without compromising its strength and stability. Loads STRUCTURAL TERMINOLOGY All stresses acting on a building’s Arch: Structural device that supports vertical structure, no matter how complex, can loads by translating them into axial forces. be reduced to either tension or com- pression. In basic terms, a building’s structure must press up with the same force that the weight of the building is pressing down, which includes all fixed dead loads and varying live loads. Tension is a pulling and stretching Axial force: System of internal forces whose force. outcome is a force acting along the longitudi- nal axis of a structural member or assembly. Compression is a pressing, pushing, or squeezing force. Beam: Horizontal linear element that spans an opening and is supported at both ends by Dead loads: Fixed, static loads made walls or columns. up of the building’s own structure, skin, equipment, and other fixed elements. Buttress: Vertical mass built against a wall to strengthen it and to resist the outward pres- Live loads: Moving or transient loads sure of a vault. such as occupants, furnishings, snow, ice, and rain. Wind loads: Pressure from wind that affects lateral loads as well as pos- sible uplift forces on roofs or downward pressure. Other loads: Impact loads, shock waves, vibrations, and seismic loads. 58 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Cantilever: Horizontal beam or slab that 05 extends beyond its last point of support. Column: Upright structural member acting in Shear: System of internal forces whose compression. outcome is a force acting perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a structural member or beam assembly. column Shoring: Temporary vertical or sloping sup- ports. Dome: Arch rotated in plan to produce an inverted bowl-shaped form. Slump test: Test in which wet concrete or girder: Horizontal beam, which is usually very plaster is placed in a metal cone-shaped large, that supports other beams. mold of specific dimensions and allowed to Lintel: Beam used to span the opening in a slump under its own weight after the cone is wall left for a window or a doorway. The lintel removed. The index of the material’s working supports and distributes the load of the wall consistency is determined by the distance above the opening. between the height of the mold and the height of the slumped mixture. Strain: Intensity of deformation at a point in an object. Stress: Intensity of internal force acting at a point in an object. Vault: Extruded arch. vault Prestressing: Applying a compressive stress groin vault to a concrete structural member, either by pre- tensioning (pouring concrete around stretched Materials steel strands, then releasing the external Structural framing elements may tensioning force on the strands be made of wood, heavy timbers, once the concrete has cured) or post- concrete, masonry, steel, or a tensioning (tensioning high-strength steel combination of these. tendons against a concrete structural member after the concrete has cured). Retaining wall: Wall used to mediate abrupt changes in ground elevation and to resist lateral soil pressures. Structural Systems 59

05 FOUNDATION SYSTEMS The selection of a foundation system depends on many factors, including the building size and height, the quality of the subsurface soil and groundwater conditions, construction methods, and environmental concerns. Superstructure The above-ground portion of a building, composed of a framing system and exterior cladding. Substructure The portion of a building below ground (which may be habitable). Foundation The below-ground elements of the build- ing’s structural system that transfer the building’s loads into the soil. Shallow Deep Foundation Foundation Transfers the Transfers the building’s load building’s load at at the base of a a point well below column or bearing the substructure. wall of the sub- structure. Penetrates upper layers of incompe- Less expen- tent soil to get to sive than deep more competent foundations and soil or bedrock commonly used deeper down. when good soil conditions exist within a few stories below the substructure. 60 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

SHALLOW SYSTEMS 05 Footings DEEP SYSTEMS Concrete footings may be in the form of a Caissons column pad, for distributing the load of a column, or a strip footing, which does the To construct a caisson (also referred to as a same for a bearing wall. “drilled pier”), a hole is drilled or dug (a pro- cess known as augering) through unsatisfac- tory soil beneath a building’s substructure, un- til rock, dense gravel, or firm clay is reached. If the caisson will rest on soil at the bottom, the hole is sometimes belled out to achieve a bearing area similar to a footing and the hole is then filled with concrete. Caissons may range from 18” (457) to 6’ (1 829) in diameter. Column Footing Strip Footing Piles Slab on Grade Piles are similar to caissons, but are driven into place, not drilled or poured. They may Used for one- and two-story structures, this be made from concrete, steel, or timber, or inexpensive foundation has thickened edges a combination of these materials. Piles are and rests as a continuous slab on the surface driven closely together in clusters and then of the ground. cut off and capped in groups of two to twenty- five. The building’s columns rest on top of the pile caps. Load-bearing walls, where used, rest on reinforced-concrete grade beams that span between pile caps, transmitting the walls’ loads to the piles. Slab on Grade grade beam pile cap Mat Foundation cluster of four piles In this foundation system (also known as raft foundation), the whole building rests on a large continuous footing. It is often used to resolve special soil or design conditions. “Floating” or “compensated” mat foundations are sometimes employed in situations with weak soil. The floating foundation is placed beneath the building to a point that the amount of soil removed is equal to the total weight of the building. Structural Systems 61

05 WOOD LIGHT-FRAMING Wood light-frame construction uses a system of wood wall studs, floor joists, rafters, columns, and beams to create both structure and framework for applied interior and exterior finished sur- faces. As a building material, wood is relatively inexpensive, versatile, and quick to erect. Typical spacing for studs and floor joists is 12” (305), 16” (406), or 24” (610) on center. These dimensions are compatible with typical wall, floor, and ceiling material unit dimensions, such as gypsum wallboard and plywood sheets. When complete SI conversion occurs in the United States, these building materials will undergo a change in unit size, and framing dimensions will shift to the metric planning grid used elsewhere in the world. Exterior wall sheathing is typically plywood, which acts as a base for stucco, siding, or even brick and stone façades; insulation is placed between the studs. The most common framing method is platform framing, in which, in multistory buildings, the levels are built one at a time, so that each floor acts as a platform on which the walls above can rest. In balloon framing, wall studs are continuous from sill to roof; the intermediate floor joists tie into a ribbon occurring at the floor line and attached to the studs. Balloon framing is more prevalent in older houses and is seldom used today. ridge beam rafter double header exterior sheathing double sill cripple stud subflooring floor joists wall studs sole plate header joist sill concrete foundation 62 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

05 HEAVY TIMBERS Heavy-timber construction uses specifically engineered woods of minimum dimensions to achieve greater structural strength and fire resistance than is possible with wood light-frame construction, while also taking advantage of the aesthetic benefits of exposed wood. To achieve high levels of fire resistance, construction details, fastenings, and wood treatment are closely regulated in heavy-timber construction. Decking Floor deck planking spans between floor beams; finished floor mate- rial is placed above the planking, running perpendicular to it. Planks should be a minimum 3” nominal (76) thick if splined or tongue-and- grooved together, or a minimum 4” nominal (102) if set on edge and spiked together. Flooring should be 1/2”–1” (13–25) thick. Floors girder Beams and girders may be sawn beam or glue-laminated. They should not be less than 6” Connections wide x 10” deep nominal (152 x 254). Connection types vary Truss members must be a minimum and can include metal 8” x 8” nominal (203 x 203). hangers (shown here), metal angles, bolts and Decay split rings, and bolts Structural members must be preser- and shear plates, and vatively treated or be from the heart- for column anchorage, wood of a naturally durable wood. metal shoes (shown here), anchor straps, Columns straps with shear plates Columns may be sawed or and bolts, and angles glue-laminated. with bolts, all on bearing Supporting floor loads, must be plates. a minimum 8” wide x 8” deep nominal (203 x 203). Supporting roof and ceiling loads, must be a minimum 6” wide x 8” deep nominal (152 x 203). Structural Systems 63

05 Concrete Floor and Roof Systems Different systems, in order of increasing load capacity, spans, and cost, are one-way solid slab (spans across parallel lines of support), two-way flat plate (uses no beams, dropped plate, or col- umn capitals, but rather, reinforcing of various stresses), two-way flat slab (uses column capitals and/or drop panels instead of beams), one-way joist, waffle slab, one-way beam and slab, and two-way beam and slab. Two-way systems tend to be square in proportion and are supported on four sides; one-way systems have a 1:>1.5 proportion and are supported on two sides. Two-way Flat Plate Two-way Flat Slab One-way Ribbed Slab (joist) Two-way Waffle Slab Flat Beam and Slab One-way Beam and Slab 64 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

05 Moment Frame Rigid framework resists lateral forces Braced Frame Internal structure braces light frame Tube Exterior walls contribute to structural stability Structural Systems 65

05 05 4’-0” (1 219) PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMING 4” (102) 6” (152) Slab Detail 8” (203) topping welded Solid Flat Slab wire fabric 4’-0” (1 219) 6” (152) 8” (203) 10” (254) 12” (305) prestressing Hollow Core Slab SstlraabndDs etail optional topping Type A: 8’-0” (2 438) 2” (51) Type B: 10’-0” (3 048) Hollow Core Slab Types 4’-0” (1 219) 6” (152) Type A 8” (203) varies 4’-0” (1 219) 12” (305) 12” (305)– 15” (381) 32” (813) Type B 1’-4” (406) 4” (102) Type A: 4’-0” (1 219) 1’-8” (508) 6” (152) Type B: 5’-0” (1 524) 2’-0” (508) 8” (203) 2’-0” (610) 10” (254) Stemmed Deck, Double Tee (DT) Type C 6” (152) 8” (203) 10” (254) 12” (305) 3’-4” (1 016) 4” (102) optional topping 6” (152) 1 1/2” (38) 8” (203) Type C: 8’–0” (2 438) Type D 10” (254) Type D: 10’–0” (3 048) 4’-0” (1 219) 12” (305) Type E 6” (152) 4’-0” (1 219) 8” (203) 10” (254) 12” (305) 4” (102) varies 6” (152) 20” (508)– 8” (203) 48” (1 219) 10” (254) Type F 12” (305) 8” (203) Stemmed Deck, Single Tee (ST) 66 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Hollow Slab Framing System 05 05 Slab-to-Bearing Wall Connection Beam-to-Column hollow core slab rectangular Connection precast beam column precast Stemmed Deck DT Framing System bearing wall stemmed deck (double tee) Deck to-Bearing Wall Connection Beam-to-Column inverted Connection tee beam precast precast column bearing wall with corbel Structural Systems 67

05 STEEL FRAMING Structural Steel Shape Designations Shape Description W Wide-flange hot-rolled, doubly symmetric wide-flange shapes used as beams and columns hP Wide-flange hot-rolled, wide-flange shapes whose flanges and webs are of the same nominal thickness and whose depth and width are essentially the same; often used as bearing piles S American Standard hot-rolled, doubly symmetric shapes produced in ac- beam cordance with AASM* dimensional standards; generally being superseded by wide-flange beams, which are more structurally efficient M Miscellaneous doubly symmetrical shapes that cannot be classified as W or HP shapes L Angle equal leg and unequal leg angles C American Standard hot-rolled channels produced in accordance with AASM channel dimensional standards MC Channel hot-rolled channels from miscellaneous shape Wt Structural tee hot-rolled tees cut or split from W shapes St Structural tee hot-rolled tees cut or split from S shapes Mt Structural tee hot-rolled tees cut or split from M shapes tu Tube hollow structural steel members shaped like a square or rectangle; used as beams or columns, or in bracing *AASM: Association of American Steel Manufacturers 6688 TTHHEE AARRCCHHIICTTEECCTTUURREERREEFEFERREENNCCEE++SSPPEECCIFIIFCICAATTIOIONNBBOOOOKK

Steel Shape Examples 05 tf (flange k1 Wide-flange thickness) W8X67 8 = nominal depth (in.); Tk 67 = weight per foot of length (lb.) d (depth) tw (web thickness) k bf (flange width) Wide-flange American Standard Miscellaneous HP12X84 S8X18.4 M10X8 12 = nominal depth (in.); 8 = nominal depth (in.); 10 = nominal depth 84 = weight per foot of length (lb.) 18.4 = weight per foot of (in.); 8 = weight per foot length (lb.) of length (lb.) Structural Tees WT25X95 Angle Channel ST15X3.75 L6X4X7/8 MC7X22.7 6 and 4 = nominal depths of 7 = nominal depth (in.); 22.7 legs (in.); 7/8 = nominal = weight per foot of length (lb.) thickness of legs (in.) Tube TU2X2X1/8 SStrturucctuturaral lSSyysstetemmss 6699

05 TRUSS DESIGN Heel Conditions Steel-Frame Connections Light Wood Steel is proportionally light in weight relative to its strength and can be erected quickly but precisely. Heavy Wood Steel-frame construction uses a combination of structural steel shapes that act as columns, beams, girders, lintels, trusses, and numerous means of connection. The integrity and strength of steel connections are just as important as the steel shapes themselves, because a failed connection results in a failed system. Steel-frame connections include angles, plates, and tees for transitioning between mem- bers being joined. Connections that join only the web of the beam to the column are called framed connections; they can transmit all the vertical (shear) forces from the beam to the column. If the flanges of the beam are also connected to the column, it is then capable of transmitting bending moment from beam to column. Framed Connec- Welded Moment Cold-rolled Steel Channel tion: Shear connec- Connection: Moment tion with beam web connection between bolted to column beam and column flange using connect- using groove welds at beam web and flange. ing angles. Welded Steel 7700 TTHHEE AARRCCHHIICTTEECCTTUURREERREEFEFERREENNCCEE++SSPPEECCIFIIFCICAATTIOIONNBBOOOOKK

05 A truss is a structural framework of triangular units for supporting loads over long spans. The framework of the structural members reduces nonaxial forces to a set of axial forces in the members themselves. panel length top chord overall web height bottom chord heel bottom chord length Truss Types Belgian Flat Pratt Warren Pitched Howe Fink Flat Howe Scissors Bowstring Pitched Pratt Modified Bowstring Structural Systems 71

06 Chapter 6: Mechanical Systems A building’s mechanical systems involve control of heat, ventilation, air-conditioning, refrigeration, plumbing, fire protection, and noise reduction, all of which must be integrated with the architectural, structural, and electrical design. ENERGY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS All-air Systems: Conditioned air is circulated to and from spaces by central fans that direct it through runs of ductwork. Air and Water Systems: Conditioned air is ducted to each space, and chilled and heated water are piped to each space to modify the temperature of the air at each outlet. All-water Systems: No ductwork is used, and air is circulated within each space, not from a central source. Chilled and heated water are furnished to each space. Because water piping is much smaller than ductwork for air, all-water systems are very compact. Air duct: Pipe that carries warm and cold Louver: Opening with horizontal slats that air to rooms and back to a furnace or air- permit passage of air, but not rain, sunlight, or conditioning system. view, into a structure. AShRAE: American Society of Heating, Plenum: Chamber that serves as a distribu- Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers. tion area for heating or cooling systems, usually found between a false ceiling and Cavity wall: Hollow wall formed with two lay- the actual ceiling. ers of masonry, providing an insulating air space between. Open loop: Condenser/tower side of chiller system; open to the atmosphere. Chase wall: Cavity wall containing electrical runs or plumbing pipes in its cavity. Radiant heat: Heating system that uses coils of electricity, hot water, or steam Closed loop: Evaporator side of chiller pipes embedded in floors, ceilings, or system, closed to the atmosphere. walls to heat rooms. Dry bulb: Ambient outside temperature. Shaft: Enclosed vertical space (usually with fire-resistive walls) containing all vertical runs Furnace: Device that generates heated air, of pipes, ducts, and elevators. and is powered by natural gas, fuel oil, or electricity. Most often used in small commer- Variable air volume (VAV): Air-handling system cial or residential applications. that conditions air to a constant temperature and varies airflow to ensure thermal comfort. heat pump: A device that warms or cools by transfering thermal energy from a heat source Wet bulb: Combination of outside air tem- to a heat sink. perature and relative humidity; higher relative humidity makes it more difficult for a cooling hVAC: Heating, ventilating, and air-condition- tower to evaporate water into the atmosphere. ing. IAQ: Indoor Air Quality 72 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

06 HVAC SYSTEMS The systems for accomplishing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning of indoor spaces vary considerably, based on factors including building type and program, cost, climate, and building size. The basic principals and components of heating, cooling, and circulating are similar across all systems. Cooling tower: Open recirculating system where heat exchange occurs by evaporation. COOLING TOWER Air handling unit (AHU): Equip- ment including a fan or blower, heating and/or cooling coils, reg- ulator controls, condensate drain pans, and air filters. AHU BOILER CHILLER Boiler: Tank where the Chiller: Heat exchanger (evaporator, condenser, heat produced from the and compressor system) that uses air, a refriger- combustion of fuels (natu- ant, water, and evaporation to transfer heat and ral gas, fuel oil, wood, or produce air-conditioning. coal) generates hot water or steam for use in heating. Mechanical Systems 73

06 MECHANICAL DISTRIBUTION TYPES FAN COIL UNITS Fan coil units (FCUs) contain cooling or heating coils and a fan. Typically, hot or chilled water is piped to the unit from a central boiler and chiller. Air from the room is drawn into the unit (return air) and blown over the coil by a fan. The air is then heated or cooled and discharged (supply air) to the room. FCUs may be vertical or horizontal, mounted on walls, ceilings, or freestanding. Chiller 2-Pipe: System has one sup- ply and one return pipe. Must Supply air be changed over from hot to Return air cold with change in seasons. 4-Pipe: System has hot supply, hot return, cold sup- ply, and cold return pipes, allowing the system to change between heating and cooling at any time. Boiler Piping Fan Coil Unit Vertical Stack May be concealed within wall horizontal Console system, or freestanding Floor-mounted, often at exterior wall Vertical Stack — ducted May be concealed within wall system, or freestanding horizontal FCu Ceiling-hung, may be within soffit or exposed 74 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

06 FORCED AIR DUCT SYSTEM A duct system distributes heated, cooled, and fresh air throughout the building, while also filtering and dehumidifying the air. HYDRONIC SYSTEMS Hydronic systems provide heating, but typically not cooling. Hot water is circulated through tubing, from the central heat source to radiators throughout the space to be heated. The radiators may be wall-mounted or floor-mounted. Tubes may also be designed into floor systems, providing consistent radiant heat. Heat sources may include boilers, water heaters, and solar power. Main supply Branch Return: Supply: (Register/Grille) (Register/Diffuser) Main return Plenum Heating element Cooling element Blower fan Coolant lines Drain to stack Filter Condensor unit Pad-mounted, outdoor FORCED AIR FURNACE — Typical residential heating and cooling system Mechanical Systems 75

0066 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN The issue of sustainable design shines a brighter and brighter light on architecture’s need to grow, learn, and adapt to a changing world. By nature, architecture is subject to inertia: Buildings take years to design and realize, and architects, engineers, and contractors take years to train. This process once ensured painstaking attention to detail and craftsmanship that resulted in a building that could last forever. Today archi- tecture must too often bend to economic pressures to build quickly and inexpensively. Technological and engineering advances allow for such economy, though often at the risk of producing disposable buildings, ultimately unable to stand the test of time and frequently at odds with the well-being of the environment. Sustainable design pro- poses using systems that meet present needs without compromising those of future generations. Architects, for their part, are increasingly compelled to understand and implement such new systems and methods as they envision ways in which buildings may work with the environment and the living world. The result is a built world that enhances instead of diminishes its surroundings and resources. LEED DESIGN DECLARATION OF INTERDEPENDENCE The LEED (Leadership in Energy and Envi- ronmental Design) Green Building Rating In 1993 the Union Internationale des System is a voluntary, nationally recognized Architectes (UIA) and the AIA signed a standard for developing high-performance, “Declaration of Interdependence for a Sus- sustainable buildings. LEED was developed tainable Future,” which made commitment by the U.S. Green Building Council (US- to environmental and social sustainability GBC), comprising members from all walks a core issue of practice and professional of the building community. LEED’s progres- responsibility. In addition to bringing the sive levels of certification—Certified, Silver, existing built environment up to established Gold, and Platinum—reflect various levels sustainability standards, it also stresses of building performance and sustainability. the importance of developing and refining Projects wishing for certification must reg- practices, procedures, products, services, ister and submit documentation for review and standards to enable implementation of by LEED. sustainable design, as well as educating all members of the building community, clients, Among LEED’s primary goals is to estab- and the general public about the benefits lish a common standard of measuring of and need for sustainable approaches to sustainability and to promote integrated design. design practices while raising awareness of the benefits of “green building.” A green Similarly, a coalition of architects, land- building is one that uses energy in an ef- scape architects, and engineers formed the ficient and ecologically aware way and that Interprofessional Council on Environmental minimizes negative impact on the health of Design (ICED) as a multidisciplinary partner- its users. ship committed to the common goal of sustainability. 76 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

TERMINOLOGY hydronic heating: In-floor 0066 hot-water heating system Adaptive reuse: Chang- where hot water is pumped GUIDELINES ing a building’s function in through a thermal mass floor response to the changing that absorbs the heat, evenly Design for energy efficiency needs of its users. radiating it over time. through the use of high levels of insulation and high-perfor- Black water: Waste water Life cycle analysis (LCA): mance windows. from toilets, kitchen sinks, Quantifiable assessment of Design buildings with renew- and dishwashers. all stages in the life cycle of able energy sources such a product system (resource as passive solar heating, Brownfields: Abandoned or extraction, manufacturing, on- daylighting, and natural cooling, underused industrial and site construction, occupancy/ whenever possible. commercial sites where maintenance, demolition, and Design for standard sizes to environmental contamination recycling/reuse/disposal) minimize material waste. hampers redevelopment. used to determine the impact Avoid materials containing of the material or system CFCs and HCFCs. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): via four phases: initiation, Use salvaged or recycled build- Chemical compounds used inventory analysis, impact as- ing materials such as heavy as refrigerants and in aerosol sessment, and improvement timbers, millwork, and plumbing and believed to be respon- assessment. fixtures. sible for depleting the ozone When possible, use locally layer. Passive solar: Technology of produced materials to cut down heating and cooling a building on transportation costs and Conservative disassembly: naturally, through the use of pollution. Counterproposal to destruc- energy-efficient materials and Use materials with low embod- tive demolition of buildings proper site placement. ied energy. Rules of thumb: (where most of the building’s lumber, brick, concrete, and material is crushed into Photovoltaics: Solar panels fiberglass have relatively low waste) that promotes varying used to harness the sun’s embodied energies, whereas levels of salvaging materials energy into electricity that can timber, ceramics, and steel are from a building before it is be stored in batteries and higher, and glass, plastic and demolished. used to power an electrical aluminum are very high. Often system. a higher embodied energy level Embodied energy: All of the can be justified if it contributes energy consumed by all of the Renewable: Resource that to lower operating energy, such processes associated with comes into being through as when large amounts of the production of a building, a relatively quick natural thermal mass can significantly including transportation. process. reduce heating and cooling needs in well-insulated passive gray water: Wastewater from upstream/downstream: solar buildings. baths, showers, washers, and Cause-and-effect example Avoid off-gassing materials with lavatories, which might be that what one does upstream high levels of VOCs. appropriate for irrigation or affects what happens down- Reduce energy and water other uses not requiring clean stream. consumption. water. Minimize external pollution and Volatile organic compound environmental impact. hydrochlorofluorocarbons (VOC): Highly evaporative, Reduce resource depletion. (hCFC): Alternative to CFCs, carbon-based chemical Minimize internal pollution and with shorter atmospheric substance producing noxious negative effects on health. lifetimes that deliver less fumes and found in many reactive chlorine to the ozone paints, caulks, stains, and MMecehcahnainciaclaSl ySsytsetmems s 7777 layer, though alternatives to adhesives. both are still being sought.

07 Chapter 7: Electrical Systems Lighting has a tremendous effect on the manner in which a space will be experienced and perceived. Architects often work closely with lighting designers, who provide exper- tise on the technical aspects and effects of lighting and how they can best serve the design and function of a space. Lighting designers provide lighting specifications for the project and coordinate much of their design information with the electrical draw- ings and reflected ceiling plans. LIGHTING TERMINOLOGY Color temperature: Specification of the color appearance of a light source, measured in Ambient lighting: General lighting for an Kelvins. Color temperatures below 3,200K may entire space. be considered warm and those above 4,000K may be considered cool. Ampere (amp): Unit of measuring electrical current, equal to one coulomb per second. Compact fluorescent: Small fluorescent lamp used as an alternative to incandescent light. Baffle: Opaque or translucent element that Known also as twin-tube, PL, CFL, or BIAX. controls the distribution of light at certain angles. Daylight compensation: Energy-saving photocell-controlled dimming system that Ballast: Device that provides starting voltage reduces the output of lamps in the presence for a fluorescent or HID lamp, then limits of daylight. and regulates the current in the lamp during operation. Diffuser: Translucent piece of plastic or glass that shields a fixture’s light source, scattering Bulb: Decorative glass or plastic housing that and diffusing the transmitted light. diffuses light distribution. Direct glare: Glare resulting from direct view Candela: SI unit of the luminous intensity of a of light source. light source in a specific direction. Also called candle. Downlight: Ceiling fixture that can be fully recessed, semirecessed, or ceiling mounted, Candlepower (CP): Measure (in candelas) of in which most of the light is directed down- the luminous intensity of a light source in a ward. Variously called a can, high-hat, or specific direction. recessed downlight. Coefficient of utilization (Cu): Ratio of a Electroluminescent: Lighting technology that luminaire’s lumens on a surface to the lamp’s provides uniform brightness and long lamp life production of lumens. while consuming very little energy, making it ideal for use in exit signs. Color rendering index (CRI): Scale of 1 to 100 determining a light source’s effect on the Energy: Electric power unit, measured in color appearance of an object, compared to kilowatt hours (kwh). the color appearance under a reference light source. A rating of 1 indicates maximum color Fluorescent: Tube filled with argon, krypton, shift and 100 indicates no color shift. or another inert gas. An electrical current ap- plied to the gas produces an arc of ultraviolet radiation that causes the phosphors inside the lamp wall to radiate visible light. 78 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

07 Foot-candle (FC): English unit of measuring Lux (LX): Metric unit of illuminance measure. the light level on a surface, equal to one One lux = 0.093 foot-candles; one foot-candle lumen per square foot. = 10.76 lux. high-intensity discharge (hID): Mercury nadir: Reference direction directly below (0 vapor, metal halide, high-pressure sodium, degrees) a luminaire. and low-pressure sodium light sources. Opaque: Of material, transmitting no visible high output (hO): Lamp or ballast that light. operates at high currents and produces more light. Optics: Components of a light fixture— reflectors, refractors, lenses, louvers, and IALD: International Association of Lighting so on; or, the light-emitting performance of Designers. a luminaire. IESnA: Illuminating Engineering Society of Reflectance: Ratio of light reflected from a North America. surface to the light incident on the surface. (The reflectance of a dark carpet is 20 Illuminance: Luminous flux per unit area on a percent and that of a clean white wall is surface at any given point. Commonly called 50 to 60 percent.) light level, it is expressed in foot-candles or lux. Reflector: Element of a luminaire that shrouds the lamps, redirecting some of the Incandescent: Bulb that contains a conduc- light they emit. tive wire filament through which current flows. This is the most common type of light source. Refractor: Element of a luminaire that redirects light output by bending the waves Lamp: Light-producing component inside a of light. bulb. Room cavity ratio (RCR): Ratio of room Lay-in troffer: Fluorescent fixture that lays into dimensions used to determine how light will a ceiling grid. interact with the room’s surfaces. Light-emitting diode (LED): Semiconductor t12 lamp: Industry standard designation for diode that emits light when voltage is applied a fluorescent lamp that is 12/8” in diameter. T8 to it; used in electronic displays such as and T10 are similarly named. signage. translucent: Of material, transmitting some Lens: Transparent or translucent element that visible light. alters the directional characteristics of light as it passes through. transparent: Of material, transmitting most visible light incident on it. Lumen: Unit of measuring the total light output of a lamp. troffer: Recessed fluorescent fixture (from trough plus coffer). Luminaire: Complete lighting unit (also called a fixture) consisting of lamp(s) and the parts ultraviolet (uV): Invisible radiation of shorter required to distribute the light, hold the wavelength and higher frequency than visible lamps, and connect them to a power source. violet light. Luminance: Luminous intensity per unit area underwriters’ Laboratories (uL): Independent of a surface. It is expressed in candelas (met- organization that tests products for public ric) or footlamberts (customary). safety. Electrical Systems 79

07 track lighting floor lamp LIGHT FIXTURES AND TYPES recessed fluorescent troffer fluorescent fixture in a cove (provides indirect light source) table lamp 80 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

07 semirecessed downlight recessed downlight recessed wall washer (provides even level of illumination on a wall) pendant wall sconce desk lamp (provides task lighting) Electrical Systems 81

07 COMMON BULB TYPES Fluorescent lamps are long, sealed glass tubes, coated inside with a phosphor powder. Fluorescent bulbs contain mercury, which is converted from a liquid to a gas by the energy produced by electrodes at either end. t2 2/8” dia. Fluorescent bulbs come in a (1/4”) t5 variety of lengths, diameters, wattages, and starting methods. 5/8” dia. Lengths are in increments of 12” (commonly 48”), and diameters T12 bulbs, are noted by 1/8” modules. which are typi- cally 40 watts, t8 have begun to 8/8” dia. be phased out in the U.S., per (1”) the Department of Energy, in t12 favor of more 12/8” dia. efficient T8 and (1-1/2”) T5 lamps. Contact pins Electrode Mercury Glass tube (sealed) Phosphor coating (internal) 82 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

07 Bulbs are typically identified by a letter or letters that indicate its type or shape, and a number that indicates the greatest diameter of the bulb in 1/8”. Incandescent CFL (Compact Fluorescent Lamp) The A-series incandescent light bulb CFLs are fluorescent lights designed to has long been the ‘classic’ multi- replace incandescent bulbs - many screw into purpose bulb type. The most common the same fixtures, and the fluorescent tube size is the A19 (2-3/8” dia.) has been folded and curved to fit the same volume as a typical incandescent bulb. CFLs use less power and last longer than incan- descent, though their mercury content makes safe disposal difficult. MR (Multi-faceted Reflector) PAR (Parabolic Aluminized Reflector) The inside surface of MR lamps is PARs contain the light bulb, reflector, and faceted and covered in a reflective lens within one unit, allowing them to shape coating. The light is produced by a and concentrate light for specific tasks and single-ended quartz halogen filament settings. The light is a sealed beam incan- capsule. descent. Sizes vary, and include PAR 16 (2” dia.), PAR 30 (3-3/4” dia.), PAR 38 (4-3/4” Common sizes are MR16 (2” dia.), dia.), and PAR 64 (8” dia.) MR11 (1-3/8” dia.) and MR8 (1” dia.) Electrical Systems 83

08 Chapter 8: Plumbing and Fire Protection vent stack (through roof) shower supply tub supply tub drain tub trap cold sink water water supply hot to supply sink hot to cold waste Common Bathroom Pipe Layout 84 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

08 PIPES SUPPLY Water Supply: white plastic (PVC) 1/2” - 1” dia. Water or Gas Supply: copper 1/2” - 1” dia. Water Supply: galvanized iron 1/2” - 1” dia. Gas Supply: black iron 1/2” - 1” dia. DRAIN Drain and Vent: black plastic 1-1/2” + dia. Drain and Vent: cast iron 1-1/2” + dia. Plumbing and Fire Protection 85

08 Fire Protection Systems Limitations on building area and height may be lessened when fire-protection systems such as automatic sprinklers are in place. Active fire-protection systems are defined by IBC 202 as “approved devices, equipment and systems or combinations of systems used to detect a fire, activate an alarm, extinguish or control a fire, control or manage smoke and products of a fire, or any combination thereof.” They are meant to work in conjunction with the building’s passive systems (fire-resistive construction) to provide necessary protection for the occupants of any building type. Higher levels of stringency in one system might mean lessened requirements in the other, though neither should be compromised for the sake of cost or convenience. The IBC requires active systems for buildings above certain sizes and occupant loads, regardless of the type of construction. IBC Section 903 establishes these requirements based on use groups and fire areas (“the aggregate floor area enclosed and bounded by fire walls, fire barriers, exterior walls, or fire- resistance-rated horizontal assemblies of a building”). Alternative fire-extinguishing systems may be used when necessary, in compliance with IBC 904. Examples of reasons to use alternative systems might include libraries and museums or telecommunications facilities, whose contents would sustain water damage from standard water sprinkler systems. Until recently, Halon 1301 gas was widely preferred as a fire-suppression option; however, it has proven to be harmful to the ozone layer and is being replaced by other options. reserve tank water main Sprinkler Distribution Diagram 86 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

08 Sprinkler Head Distribution Types Concealed Pendant Sprinkler head is re- Pendant cessed in ceiling and Hangs from ceiling covered with a decora- and sprays water tive cap, which falls downward. off once ambient air temperatures reach a Actuation Methods temperature of 20˚F prior to sprinkler acti- Fusible Link: two pieces of metal are vation. Water sprays fused by a heat-sensitive metal alloy, downward in a circular which, when it reaches its melting point, pattern. causes the two metals to separate and activate the sprinkler. Side Wall When mounting sprin- Glass Bulb: a glass bulb filled with liquid klers to ceiling is not expands and bursts when it has reached possible, they may a sufficient temperature, causing the be mounted to walls. pip cap to fall away and actuate the Two deflectors spray sprinkler. The color of liquid indicates water out and back the temperature range that will cause toward the wall. the liquid to expand. Upright Response Temperatures (per National Fire Protection Association 13) Mounted atop supply pipe, upright sprinkler classification sprinkler activation temp. glass bulb color heads are used in ordinary 135°F - 170°F Orange (135°F) locations where Red (155°F) ceiling mounting intermediate 175°F - 225°F Yellow (175°F) is not possible, or Green (200°F) obstructions prevent high 250°F - 300°F Blue adequate coverage extra high 325°F - 375°F Purple (such as mechanical very extra high 400°F - 475°F Black or storage rooms). ultra high 500°F - 575°F Black fusible link color Black; no color White Blue Red Green Orange Plumbing and Fire Protection 87

09 Chapter 9: Enclosure Systems A building’s enclosure systems serve many functions. Not only must they separate and protect interior from exterior, they must still allow the inside and outside to have a rela- tionship that contributes to the most effective means of moisture, thermal, and ventila- tion control, all while presenting the building’s public face. 1 2 3 4 Roof Forms Hip Flat Pitched Hip Gable Mansard Barrel Vault Gambrel Gambrel Pyramidal Sawtooth Shed Butterfly 88 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

09 FLASHING Flashing is used in several locations of a building’s exterior to move water away and into the drainage system quickly and efficiently. Flashing is commonly thin sheet metal (cop- per, aluminum, stainless steel, or painted galvanized steel) or other impervious material such as rubber. Material choices often depend on whether the flashing will be exposed (metals are preferred) or concealed, and with which other materials it is likely to come into contact. 1. Roof Flashing is back cap (brick chimney) wrapped around flashing (folds side cap protruding flashing objects such as into mortar chimneys and joint) (folds into vents to keep mortar joint) water from set- tling into joints and seams. 2. Wall Flashing may saddle or cricket ice/water barrier prevent water beneath from entering a wall, or may di- vert water that has entered a wall cavity. 3. Sill building Interruptions paper in a wall, such as doors and open-weave windows, are mesh vulnerable to water penetra- flashing tion. weep hole (with open-weave mesh 4. Base inserted into joint) Gravity helps water escape walls down the sloped surfaces of the flashing, and out through weep holes. Enclosure Systems 89

09 ROOF SYSTEM TYPES: STEEP SLOPES Tiles: (clay or concrete) sit on top of a weather- proofing underlayment (typically asphalt-sat- urated non-perforated organic roofing felts) 12 Shingles and 12 Shakes: (asphalt, slate, 12 wood, synthetic) sit 4 on top of a weather- proofing underlay- 12 2 ment (typically asphalt-saturated non-perforated or- ganic roofing felts) Metal: architectural metal panels sit on top of a weather-proofing underlayment (typically asphalt- saturated non- perforated organic roofing felts) Steep slope Low slope Flat 90 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

09 ROOF SYSTEM TYPES: LOW & FLAT SLOPES Structural metal panel: over weather-proofing underlayment Single-ply membranes: thermoplastic or ther- moset membranes are factory-made. Methods of installing include fully- adhered, mechanically- fastened, or held down with a ballast material. Shown here, the mem- brane is fully adhered to the insulation, which itself is mechanically fastened to the substrate. Polymer-modified bitumen sheet membranes (MB): composed of multiple layers, and most often fully-adhered as a two-ply system. SPF (Spray polyurethane foam board): base layer is a rigid, spray foam insula- tion, on top of which is a spray-applied elastomeric weather-proof coating. Sand or mineral granules may be added to this layer for reasons of durability and aesthetic concerns. Built-up roof (BUR): bitumen (asphalt, coal tar, or cold-applied adhesive) and reinforcing fabrics (roofing felts) are applied in alternating layers to create the membrane. Some- times referred to as ‘tar and gravel’ roofs. Gravel or other minerals may be added on top. Enclosure Systems 91

09 STONE As a building material, stone may be used in two different manners: as a masonry unit laid with mortar, similar to brick or concrete blocks, or as a thin, non-load-bearing veneer facing attached to a backup wall and structural frame. Stone colors, textures, and patterns are highly varied, as are the design and detailing of unit masonry and cladding systems. limestone SEDIMENTARY ROCK Stone masonry includes (rock deposited as a result of rubble stone (irregular quar- sandstone natural action or wind) ried fragments), dimension Limestone: Colors limited mostly to stone (quarried and cut into white, buff, and gray. Very porous and rectangular forms called cut wet when quarried, though after air stone when large and ashlar seasoning, quarry sap evaporates and when small), and flagstone stone becomes harder. Suitable for wall (thin slabs of paving stone, and floor surfaces, but does not accept irregular or cut). a polish. Sandstone: Colors range from buff to Masonry Patterns chocolate brown to red. Suitable for most building applications, but also does not accept a high polish. IGNEOUS ROCK Random (Uncoursed) Rubble (rock deposited in a molten state) granite granite: Wide range of grains and colors including gray, black, brown, red, pink, buff, and green. Nonporous and very hard. Suitable for use in the ground and with exposure to weather. Comes in many textures and may be highly polished. slate METAMORPHIC ROCK Coursed Rubble (sedimentary or igneous rock Random (Uncoursed) Ashlar marble transformed into another rock Coursed Ashlar type by heat or pressure) Slate: Colors range from red and brown to grayish-green to purple and black. Sheetlike nature makes it ideal for paving, roofing, and veneer panels. Marble: Highly varied in both color and streaking patterns. Color range includes white, black, blue, green, red, and pink, and all tones between. Suit- able for use as a building stone but is most often highly polished and used as a veneer panel. 92 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

09 MASONRY BEARING WALLS Common Wall Configurations Brick, concrete block, and stone walls built Double-wythe as load-bearing walls will have many different brick wall with characteristics, depending on whether or concrete and not they are reinforced, use more than one steel reinforcing masonry unit type (composite wall), or are between solid or cavity walls. Brick wall on CMU backup Reinforcing (CMUs may Reinforcing masonry allows the entire wall or may not be system to be thinner and taller. reinforced), tied together with Composite Walls Z-ties Composite masonry walls employ a concrete Brick and CMU block backup with brick or stone veneer on cavity wall the exterior wythe, with the two layers bond- (CMU wall is ed with steel horizontal reinforcing. Masonry reinforced) ties join wythes of masonry together or to supporting wood, concrete, or steel backup structures. Anchors connect masonry units to the supporting structure. Cavity Walls Cavity walls have an inner and outer wythe of masonry units, separated by an air space of a minimum 2” (51). Masonry ties hold the two wythes together. If rain penetrates the outer wythe, it runs down the inner surface of the outer wythe and is collected at the base with flashing materials that divert it back to the outside through weep holes. cavity wall tie brick Stone veneer cmu on CMU flashing backup, tied weep hole together with adjustable stone ties Enclosure Systems 93

09 EXTERIOR WALLS Common configurations are shown here, though the combinations of backup systems and exterior cladding systems are interchangeable in many cases, with changes to fastening systems dependent on the type of material being attached to specific structural elements. Wood stud wall Wood studs with batt insulation between; exterior sheathing with weather-resistive bar- rier; exterior-grade plywood panels (sealed) SIP (Structural Insulated Panel) Wall SIP (insulated foam-core with OSB skin, either side); weather-resistive barrier; exterior siding Metal stud wall Metal studs with batt insulation between; exterior sheathing with weather-resistive bar- rier; aluminum composite material (ACM) 94 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

09 The outer skin of a building is the vertical envelope that separates interior from exterior, and must effectively keep out water and contribute effectively to maintaining the desired interior climate. Most wall constructions include structural elements, insulation, water barriers, and an exterior cladding material. Depending on many factors, including the building’s size and height, backup materials such as CMUs, concrete, and stud systems may be load-bearing, or act as infill within a structural frame. Composite wall Reinforced CMU backup; rigid insula- tion; 1” min. airspace; brick (or other masonry) tied to CMUs uhPC Concrete wall Poured-in-place or pre-cast concrete wall; ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) pre-cast panels (textured) Stucco wall Concrete or masonry wall; two layers stucco Enclosure Systems 95

09 WINDOWS AND GLAZING Caulk: Sealant that fills a void. Passive solar gain: Solar heat that is captured naturally as it passes through Condensation: Process in which water vapor a material. from the air, coming into contact with a cold surface like glass, condenses and forms a R-value: Measure of the overall resistance to foggy effect. heat transmission due only to the difference in air temperature on either side of the Convection: Transfer of heat by air movement. material. See U-value. Desiccant: Porous crystalline substance Radiation: Process by which heat is emit- used in the air space of insulating glass units ted from a body through open space, as in to absorb moisture and solvent vapors from sunlight. the air. Sash: Frame that holds glass lites and into Dew point: Calculated temperature at which which glass products are glazed. water vapor will condense. Shading coefficient: Relative measurement Dual-sealed units: Sealed insulating glass of the total amount of solar energy that en- units with a primary seal and a secondary ters a building space through its glass, as the outer seal. ratio of the solar heat gain through a specific glass product to the solar heat gain through Emissivity: Relative ability of a surface to ab- a lite of 1/8” (3) clear glass. Glass of 1/8” (3) sorb and emit energy in the form of radiation. thickness is given a value of 1.0. The lower the shading coefficient number, the lower the gas-filled units: Insulating glass units with amount of solar heat transmitted. a gas instead of air in the air space, used to decrease the thermal conductivity U value. tempered glass: Specially heat-treated high-strength safety glass. glaze: To fit a window frame with glass. thermal performance: Ability of a glass unit grille: Decorative grid installed on or between to perform as a barrier to the transfer of heat. glass lites, meant to look like a muntin bar, but without actually dividing the glass. total solar energy: Total solar spectrum composed of UV, visible, and near infrared Light (or lite): Unit of glass in a window or wavelengths. door, enclosed by the sash or muntin bars. Sometimes spelled lite to avoid confusion u-value: Measure of thermal conductance; with visible light; also called a pane. the reciprocal of R-value. Mullion: Horizontal or vertical member holding ultraviolet (uV): Type of radiation in wave- together two adjacent lites of glass or sash. lengths shorter than those of visible light and longer than those of X rays. Muntin bar: Strip that separates panes of glass in a sash. Visible light: Portion of solar energy detected by the human eye as light. 96 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

09 WINDOW TYPES Fixed Double-hung Sliding Single-hung Casement Awning Hopper Sliding Doors Skylight French Doors Terrace Door Roof Window Enclosure Systems 97

09 head rough opening Window Sizing decorative grille double layer A typical chart from a window of glass manufacturer’s catalog depicts meeting rail stock sizes and types of windows (in feet and inches). lite/pane Mas Opg (masonry opening) is the opening that must be sash provided for a brick, block, or stone wall; Rgh Opg (rough opening) is the opening required for typical stud walls; Sash Opg (sash opening) is the size of the window itself; and Glass Size is the size of the glass. Mas Opg 2’-8 1/2” Rgh Opg 2’-6 3/8” Sash Opg 2’-4” Glass Size 24” 3’-6 1/2” 3’-5 3/4” 3’-2” 16” 4’-2 1/2” 4’-1 3/4” 3’-10” 20” Double-hung Window 98 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

09 Punched opening Window wall Window system ‘rests’ on floor Curtain wall Curtain wall Window system slides Spandrel panel covers past floor and is an- edge of floor chored to structure Enclosure Systems 99

09 WINDOW CONSIDERATIONS casement slider interior screen exterior screen or interior screen casement + fixed double hung fixed interior screen exterior screen no screen (space above windows ideal for window treatments) (no wall space for window treatments if windows end at ceiling) fixed fixed tempered max. size 72 (begins below sf. for single 24” AFF) insulated unit (typ.) Interior hoppers tempered or solid if under 100 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK 24” AFF (check local codes)

09 Exterior Enclosure Systems 101

09 GLASS AND GLAZING Most architectural glass comprises three major raw materials that are found naturally: silica, lime, and sodium carbonate. Secondary materials may be added to facilitate the glass-making process or to give the glass special properties, which can be broken into three basic categories. Soda-lime glass accounts for the majority of commercially produced glass. Used for bottles, glassware, and windows, its composition of silica, soda, and lime does not give it good resistance to sudden thermal changes, especially high temperatures, or to chemical corrosion. Lead glass contains about 20 percent lead oxide, and its soft surface makes it ideal for decorative cutting and engraving, though it does not withstand sudden temperature changes. Borosilicate glass, which refers to any silicate glass with a composition of at least 5 percent boric oxide, has greater resistance to thermal changes and chemical corrosion. Glass Production Nominal Thickness Actual Range 3/32” single The most common flat glass is float strength 0.085”–0.101” glass, in which properly weighed and laminate (2.16–2.57) mixed soda lime glass, silica sand, calcium, oxide, soda and magnesium 1/8” double 0.102”–0.114” are melted in a 2,732°F (1,500°C) fur- strength (2.59–2.90) nace. The highly viscous molten glass is floated across a bath of molten tin 5/32” 0.115”–0.134” in a continuous ribbon. Because the (2.92–3.40) tin is very fluid, the two materials do 3/16” not mix, creating a perfectly flat sur- 0.149”–0.165” face between them. By the time the 7/32” (3.78–4.19) glass has left the molten tin, it has cooled enough to proceed to a lehr, 1/4” 0.180”–0.199” where it is annealed, that is, cooled (4.57–5.05) slowly under controlled conditions. 5/16” 0.200”–0.218” Glass may also be rolled, a process by 3/8” (5.08–5.54) which semimolten glass is squeezed between metal rollers to form a ribbon 1/2” 0.219”–0.244” with predefined thicknesses and pat- (5.56–6.20) terned surfaces. This process is used 5/8” mostly for patterned and cast-glass 0.292”–0.332” production. 3/4” (7.42–8.43) Glass Thickness 1” 0.355”–0.406” (9.02–10.31) Sheet size, wind, and other loads 11/4” determine the required glass thick- 0.469”–0.531” ness for any particular window. (11.91–13.49) 0.595”–0.656” (15.09–16.66) 0.719”–0.781” (18.26–19.84) 0.969”–1.031” (24.61–26.19) 1.125”–1.375” (28.58–34.93) 102 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

GLASS FORMS 09 glass Block: Glass blocks Customary Sizes are considered to be masonry 4 1/2” x 4 1/2” units. Typical units are made 5 3/4” x 5 3/4” (nominal 6” x 6”) by fusing together two hollow 7 1/2” x 7 1/2” halves, with a vacuum inside. 7 3/4” x 7 3/4” (nominal 8” x 8”) Solid blocks, called glass 9 1/2” x 9 1/2” bricks, are impact resistant 11 3/4” x 11 3/4” (nominal 12” x 12”) but can be seen through. 3 3/4” x 7 3/4” (nominal 4” x 8”) Solar control units may have 5 3/4” x 7 3/4” (nominal 6” x 8”) coatings or inserts. Glass 9 1/2” x 4 1/2” block walls are constructed in a similar fashion to other thickness: 3”–4” masonry walls, with mortar, metal anchors, and ties; they Preferred SI Sizes can be applied to interiors or 115 x 115 mm exteriors. 190 x 190 mm 240 x 240 mm Cast or Channel glass: U-shaped 300 x 300 mm linear glass channels are self- 240 x 115 mm supporting and contained within an extruded metal perimeter thickness: 80–100 mm frame. One or two interlocking layers may be used, creating varying levels of strength, sound and thermal insulation, and translucence. Glass thicknesses are roughly 1/4” (6–7); channel widths range from 9” (230) to 19” (485), with heights vary- ing depending on widths and wind loads. Cast glass can be employed vertically or horizon- tally, internally or externally, and as a curved surface. The glass itself can be made with wires, tints, and other qualities. Double layers of channels provide a natu- ral air space that can be filled with aerogel, a lattice-work of glass strands with small pores, which results in an insulating substance that is 5 percent solid and 95 percent air. Enclosure Systems 103

09 Numbers in bubbles represent glass 2 surface numbers, beginning with 1 GLASS TYPES on the exterior face. Insulating glass: Two or more panes of 4 glass enclose a hermetically sealed air space and are separated by a desiccant- 1 air space filled spacer that absorbs the internal 3 moisture of the air space. The multiple spacer layers of glass and air space of these insu- exterior lating glass units (IGUs) drastically reduce interior heat rates. Low-E or other coatings may be used on one or more of the glass surfaces Low-E glass: Low emissivity is clear float to further improve thermal performance. glass with a microscopically thin metal oxide Argon and sulfur hexafluoride gases may fill coating that reduces U-value by suppressing the space between glass sheets for even radiative heat flow and blocking short wave further efficiency as well as reduced sound radiation to impede heat gain. At the same transmission. Standard overall thickness for time, it provides for light transmission, low a double-glazed IGU is 1” (25.4), with 1/4” (6) reflection, and reduced heat transfer. Gener- thick glass and a 1/2” (13) air space. ally, Low-E glass can be cut, laminated, or tempered. It is produced in soft-coat Reflective glass: Ordinary float glass (clear (vacuum or sputter coated) or hard-coat or tinted) is coated with metal or metal oxide (pyrolitic) versions. to reduce solar heat. The coating also pro- duces a one-way mirror effect, generally with Colorant glass Colors the mirror on the exterior. Shading coeffi- cients depend on the density of the metallic Cadmium sulfide yellow coating and range from about 0.31 to 0.70. Carbon and sulfur brown, amber Cerium yellow Body-tinted glass: Chemical elements Chromium green, pink, yellow added to the molten glass mixture produce a Cobalt blue, green, pink variety of colors. The visible light transmitted Copper blue, green, red depends on the color and ranges from about Iron blue, brown, green 14 percent for very dark colors to 75 percent Manganese purple for light colors. (Clear glass has about an 85 Nickel purple, yellow percent light transmission.) Shading coeffi- Selenium pink, red cients range from 0.50 to 0.75, meaning that Titanium brown, purple they transmit 50 to 75 percent of the solar Vanadium blue, gray, green energy that would be transmitted by double- strength clear glass. 104 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Safety Glass 09 09 tempered glass: Annealed glass is Specialty and Decorative Glasses cut and edged before being reheated at about 1,200°F (650°C). If the glass Photovoltaic glass: Solar cells are embedded is cooled rapidly, it is considered to be in special resin between panes of glass. Each fully tempered; the glass can be up cell is electrically connected to the other cells, to four times as strong as annealed converting solar energy into an electrical current. glass, and, when broken, it shatters into small, square-edged granules instead of X-ray Protection glass: Used primarily in into sharp shards. If cooled slowly, the medical or other radiology rooms, X-ray glass glass is twice as strong as annealed has high levels of lead oxide that reduce glass, and the broken pieces are more ionizing radiation. X-ray glass can be laminated linear but tend to stay in the frame. and used in single- or double-glazed units. The slower process is also much less expensive. Tempered glass is ideal for Electrically heated glass: Polyvinyl butyral (PVB) floor-to-ceiling glass, glass doors, walls films are pressed between two or more sheets of of squash courts, and walls exposed to glass. Electrically conductive wires heat the glass, heavy winds and intense temperatures. making it useful in areas of high moisture content or with extreme differences between indoor and Chemically Strengthened glass: outdoor temperatures. Glass is covered by a chemical solution that produces a higher mechanical Self-cleaning glass: Float glass is given a pho- resistance, giving the glass similar tocatalytic coating on the exterior that reacts to properties to thermal-strengthened ultraviolet rays to break down organic dirt. Hydro- (tempered) glass. philic properties also cause rain to flow down the glass as a sheet, washing away the dirt. Laminated glass: Interlayers of plastic or resin are sandwiched Enameled/Screen-printed glass: Special between two sheets of glass and the mineral pigments are deposited on one face of layers are bonded together under heat the glass surface before tempering or annealing. and pressure. When the glass breaks, A variety of colors and patterns may be applied the laminate interlayer holds the frag- for decorative purposes. Enameled glass can ments together, making it ideal for use also be used as a solar-ray conductor. in overhead glazing, stair railings, and store fronts. Security glass (bullet-proof) Sand-blasted glass: A translucent surface is made of multiple layers of glass and is produced by spraying sand at high velocity vinyl, in many thicknesses. over the surface of the glass, which may be done in decorative patterns or in varying depths Wired glass: A wire mesh is and translucencies, depending on the force and sandwiched between two ribbons of type of sand. semimolten glass, which are squeezed together through a pair of metal rollers. Acid-etched glass: One side of float glass When the glass breaks, the wire holds it is acid-etched, giving a smoother finish than in place. Wire glass is often acceptable achieved by sand-blasting. for windows in fire doors and walls. Antireflective glass: Float glass is given a coating that reflects very small amounts of light. Enclosure Systems 105

3.STANDARDS

MEASURE AND DRAWING For an architect’s ideas to evolve into fully considered designs, they require constant evaluation, investigation, and experimentation. Scribbled notes and sketches are quickly put to the test as real scales and measures are applied; flat plans grow into volumes, and spaces are examined inside and out. To become built form, ideas must be communicated to the various groups involved in the design process, and so the architect embarks on a cycle of production and presentation. For presentation to the client whose building this will become, communication can take the form of sketches, cardboard models, computer models, and digital animations—whatever is needed to ensure that the design is understood. In preparing such materials, the architect often discovers new aspects of the design that prompt further study and presentation. For construction, the architect prepares documents to certain stan- dards. Technical measured drawings describe everything necessary to erect the building. Depending on the size of the project, many other parties will also be involved, from structural and mechanical engi- neers to electrical engineers and lighting designers. Each of these trades also produces construction documents specific to their work and coordinated with the entire set. In every case, these drawings and written specifications must be clear and precise to ensure a well- built structure.

10 Chapter 10: Measurement and geometry The two primary measurement systems used in the world today are the metric system, also known as the Système International d’Unités and commonly abbreviated to SI in all languages, and the U.S. customary units system, referred to in the United States as English units or standard units. The latter is an irregular system based on imperial units once used in the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth. The metric system has become the universally accepted system of units in science, trade, and commerce. In the United States, however, where the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 established SI as the preferred system of weights and measures for trade and commerce, federal laws have yet to mandate SI as the official system, making its use still primarily voluntary. Several U.S. agencies, including the American National Metric Council (ANMC) and the United States Metric Association (USMA), are working to estab- lish SI as the official measurement system, a process known as metrication. Though the architectural, engineering, and building trades have been slow to make a full transi- tion, nearly all federally funded building projects are now required to be in SI units. UNITS OF MEASURE: CUSTOMARY UNIT DATA Customary units may be shown in a number of ways, including as fractions (11/2”) or as decimals (1.5” or 0.125’), depending on the more common usage for a particular situation. It should be noted that, though not the case here, exponents can be used with abbreviations that designate area or volume; for example, 100 ft.2 for area or 100 ft.3 for volume. Linear Equivalents Area Equivalents Customary Unit Relation to Other Customary Unit Relation to Other of Measure Customary Units of Measure Customary Units inch (in. or “) 1/12 ft. square inch (sq. in.) 0.007 (1/142) sq. ft. foot (ft. or ‘) yard (yd.) 12 in. square foot (sq. ft.) 144 sq. in. rod (rd.), pole, or perch 1/3 yd. square yard (sq. yd.) chain 36 in. 1,296 sq. in. furlong 9 sq. ft. mile (mi.), statute 3 ft. mile (mi.), nautical 16 1/2 ft. square pole 30 1/4 sq. yd. 5 1/2 yd. acre 43,560 sq. ft. 4 rd. 40 rd. (1 furlong) x 4 rd. (1 chain) 22 yd. 220 yd. or 40 rd. square mile (sq. mi.) 640 acres or 10 chains or 1/8 mi. 5,280 ft. or 1,760 yd. or 8 furlongs 2,025 yd. 110088 TTHHEEAARRCCHHIITTEECCTTUURREERREEFFEERREENNCCEE++SSPPEECCIIFFIICCAATTIIOONNBBOOOOKK

10 Fraction to Decimal Equivalents METRIC CONVERSION Fraction Decimal Conversion Factors for Length 1/32 0.03125 1/16 0.0625 Customary Metric 3/32 0.0938 1 in. 25.4 mm 1/8 0.1250 1 ft. 0.304 8 m or 304.8 mm 5/32 0.1563 1 yd. 0.914 4 m 3/16 0.1875 1 mi. 1.609 344 km 7/32 0.2188 1/4 0.2500 Customary Metric 9/32 0.2813 1 sq. in. 645.16 mm2 5/16 0.3125 1 sq. ft. 0.092 903 m2 11/32 0.3438 1 sq. yd. 0.836 127 m2 3/8 0.3750 1 acre 0.404 686 ha or 4 046.86 m2 13/32 0.4063 1 sq. mi. 2.590 00 km2 7/16 0.4375 15/32 0.4688 Conversion Factors for Length 1/2 0.5000 17/32 0.5313 Metric Customary 9/16 0.5625 1 micrometer (µm) 0.0000394 in. or 0.03937 mils 19/32 0.5938 1 mm 0.0393701 in. 5/8 0.6250 1m 3.28084 ft. or 1.09361 yd. 21/32 0.6563 1 km 0.621371 mi. 11/16 0.6875 23/32 0.7188 Conversion Factors for Area 3/4 0.7500 25/32 0.7813 Metric Customary 13/16 0.8125 1 mm2 0.001550 sq. in. 27/32 0.8438 1 m2 10.7639 sq. ft. or 1.19599 sq. yd. 7/8 0.8750 1 ha 2.47105 acres 29/32 0.9063 1 km2 0.368102 sq. mi. 15/16 0.9375 31/32 0.9688 1/1 1.0000 Measurement and Geometry 109

10 UNITS OF MEASURE: SI METRIC UNIT DATA The General Conference on Weights and Measures (abbreviated to CGPM from the French Con- férence Générale des Poids et Mesures), which meets every four years concerning issues related to the use of the metric system, has established specific rules for use, type style, and punctua- tion of metric units. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)—formerly the National Bureau of Standards (NBS)—determines metric usage in the United States. Millimeters are the preferred unit for dimensioning buildings, with no symbol necessary if they are used consistently. Meters and kilometers are reserved for larger dimensions such as land surveying and transportation. Unit names and symbols employ standard, lowercase type, except for symbols derived from proper names (for example, N for newton). Another exception is L for liter, to avoid confusing the lowercase l with the numeral 1. Prefixes describing multiples and submultiples are also lowercase, except for M, G, and T (mega-, giga-, and tera-), which are capitalized in symbol form to avoid confu- sion with unit symbols, but which maintain the lowercase standard when spelled out. No space is left between the prefix and the letter for the unit name (mm for millimeter and mL for milliliter). A space is left between the numeral and the unit name or symbol; for example, 300 mm. Linear Metric Equivalents Millimeters Centimeters Decimeters Meters Decameters Hectometers Kilometers (mm) (cm) (dm) (m) (dam) (hm) (km) 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000 1 0.000 01 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000 1 0.000 001 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000 01 1 000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.000 1 10 000 1 000 100 10 1 0.1 100 000 10 000 1 000 100 10 1 0.001 100 000 10 000 1 000 100 10 0.01 1 000 000 0.1 1 Area Metric Equivalents Square Square Square Square Ares Hectares Square Millimeters Centimeters Decimeters Meters (ha) Kilometers (m2) 0.000 001 (mm2) (cm2) (dm2) 0.000 001 0.000 1 (km2) 1 0.0 1 0.001 0.000 1 0.01 1 0.01 1 0.000 001 0.000 001 100 100 1 0.01 100 0.000 1 0.000 1 10 000 100 1 10 000 0.01 0.01 1 000 000 10 000 10 000 1 1 1 000 000 100 100 1 000 000 10 000 1 000 000 110 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

10 Although the United States and Canada mark the decimal with a point, other countries use a comma (for example: 5,00 vs. 5.00). For this reason, commas should not be used to separate groups of digits. Instead, the digits should be separated into groups of three, both to the left and the right of the decimal point, with a space between each group of three digits (for example, 1,000,000 is written as 1 000 000). This convention for metric units is used throughout the book. Units with Compound Names Physical Quantity Unit Symbol Area in Metrics m2 Area square meter m3 SI metric units for area, like kg/m3 volume, are derived from the Volume cubic meter m/s base units for length. They are rad/s expressed as powers of the base Density kilogram per cubic meter m/s2 unit: for example, square meter rad/s2 = m2 = 106 mm2. Velocity meter per second m3/s kg m2 The square centimeter is not a Angular velocity radian per second Nm recommended unit for construc- W/m2 tion and should be converted to Acceleration meter per second squared W/m K square millimeters. cd/m2 Angular acceleration radian per second squared The hectare is acceptable only in the measurement of land Volume rate of flow cubic meter per second and water. Moment of inertia kilogram meter squared When area is expressed by linear dimensions, such as 50 x 100 mm, Moment of force newton meter the width is written first and the depth or height second. Intensity of heat flow watt per square meter Thermal conductivity watt per meter kelvin Luminance candela per square meter SOFT AND HARD CONVERSIONS Conversions of customary and SI units can be either “soft” or “hard.” In a soft conversion, 12 inches equals 305 millimeters (already rounded up from 304.8). In a hard conversion of this same number, 12 inches would equal 300 millimeters, which makes for a cleaner and more rational equivalency. This is the ultimate goal of total metrication within the building trades. The process, however, is an extensive one, which will require many building products whose planning grid is in customary units to undergo a hard metric conversion of their own, making 6 inches equal 150 millimeters (instead of 152) and 24 inches equal 600 millimeters (instead of 610). Thus, to conform to a rational metric grid, the actual sizes of standard products such as drywall, bricks, and ceiling tiles will need to change. Every attempt has been made in this book to represent accurately the relationship between customary and SI units. Except where noted, soft conversions are used throughout and, due to constraints of space, are usually written as follows: 1’-6” (457). Measurement and Geometry 111

10 ➔Feet and Meters Scale METRIC CONVERSION Inches and Millimeters Scale (1:1) 6” 152.4 mm 12” 304.8 mm 5” 150 mm 300 mm 140 mm 4” 11 13/16” 3 15/16” 290 mm 3” 130 mm 127.0 mm 11” 280 mm 279.4 mm 2” 120 mm 270 mm 1” 110 mm 10” 260 mm 254.0 mm 100 mm 101.6 mm 250 mm 90 mm 240 mm 80 mm 76.2 mm 9” 230 mm 228.6 mm 70 mm 220 mm 60 mm 210 mm 203.2 mm 50 mm 50.8 mm 8” 200 mm 40 mm 7 7/8” 190 mm 30 mm 25.4 mm 7” 180 mm 20 mm 177.8 mm 170 mm 10 mm 160 mm 150 mm 152.4 mm 6” 112 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

10 82.0’ 165’ 50 m Feet Inches 80’ 45.7 m 1 12 25 m 164.0’ 2 24 70’ 160’ 45 m 3 36 65.6’ 4 48 150’ 40 m 5 60 60’ 147.6’ 6 72 20 m 35 m 7 84 50’ 30.5 m 8 96 49.2’ 140’ 9 108 30 m 10 120 40’ 131.2’ 11 132 25 m 12 144 32.8’ 15.2 m 130’ 13 156 30’ 15 m 14 168 15 180 20’ 120’ 16 192 16.4’ 17 204 10 m 114.8’ 18 216 15’ 110’ 19 228 10’ 20 240 5’ 100’ 21 252 96.4’ 22 264 0 5m 23 276 24 288 90’ 25 300 26 312 82.0’ 27 324 0 80’ 28 336 29 348 30 360 31 372 32 384 33 396 34 408 35 420 Measurement and Geometry 113

10 SLOPES AND PERCENTAGE GRADE Note: Entries in blue indicate frequently used slopes. Slopes gentler than 1:20 do not require handrails; 1:12 is the maximum ADA-approved slope for ramps and 1:8 is the maximum code-approved slope for ramps (non-ADA). Degrees Gradient % Grade Degrees Gradient % Grade Degrees Gradient % Grade 0.1 1:573.0 0.2 23.0 1:2.4 42.4 57.0 1: 0.6 154.0 0.2 1:286.5 0.3 24.0 1:2.2 44.5 58.0 1: 0.6 160.0 0.3 1:191.0 0.5 25.0 1:2.1 46.6 59.0 1: 0.6 166.4 0.4 1:143.2 0.7 26.0 1:2.1 48.8 60.0 1: 0.6 173.2 0.5 1:114.6 0.9 27.0 1:2.0 51.0 61.0 1: 0.6 180.4 0.6 1:95.5 1.0 28.0 1:1.9 53.2 62.0 1: 0.5 188.1 0.7 1:81.8 1.2 29.0 1:1.8 55.4 63.0 1: 0.5 196.2 0.8 1:71.6 1.4 30.0 1:1.7 57.7 64.0 1: 0.5 205.0 0.9 1:63.7 1.6 31.0 1:1.7 60.1 65.0 1: 0.5 214.5 1.0 1:57.3 1.7 32.0 1:1.6 62.5 66.0 1: 0.4 224.6 2.0 1:28.6 3.5 33.0 1:1.5 64.9 67.0 1: 0.4 235.6 2.86 1:20.0 5.0 34.0 1:1.5 67.5 68.0 1: 0.4 247.5 3.0 1:19.1 5.2 35.0 1:1.4 70.0 69.0 1: 0.4 260.5 4.0 1:14.3 7.0 36.0 1:1.4 72.7 70.0 1: 0.4 274.7 4.76 1:12.0 8.3 37.0 1:1.3 75.4 71.0 1: 0.3 290.4 5.0 1:11.4 8.7 38.0 1:1.3 78.1 72.0 1: 0.3 307.8 6.0 1:9.5 10.5 39.0 1:1.2 81.0 73.0 1: 0.3 327.1 7.0 1:8.1 12.3 40.0 1:1.2 83.9 74.0 1: 0.3 348.7 7.13 1:8.0 12.5 41.0 1:1.2 86.9 75.0 1: 0.3 373.2 8.0 1:7.1 14.1 42.0 1:1.1 90.0 76.0 1: 0.2 401.1 9.0 1:6.3 15.8 43.0 1:1.1 93.3 77.0 1: 0.2 433.1 10.0 1:5.7 17.6 44.0 1:1.0 96.6 78.0 1: 0.2 470.5 11.0 1:5.1 19.4 45.0 1:1.0 100.0 79.0 1: 0.2 514.5 12.0 1:4.7 21.3 46.0 1:1.0 103.6 13.0 1:4.3 23.1 47.0 1: 0.9 107.2 80.0 1: 0.2 567.1 14.0 1:4.0 24.9 48.0 1: 0.9 111.1 81.0 1: 0.2 631.4 15.0 1:3.7 26.8 49.0 1: 0.9 115.0 82.0 1: 0.1 711.5 16.0 1:3.5 28.7 50.0 1: 0.8 119.2 83.0 1: 0.1 814.4 17.0 1:3.3 30.6 51.0 1: 0.8 123.5 84.0 1: 0.1 951.4 18.0 1:3.1 32.5 52.0 1: 0.8 128.0 85.0 1: 0.1 1,143.0 19.0 1:2.9 34.4 53.0 1: 0.8 132.7 86.0 1: 0.1 1,430.1 20.0 1:2.7 36.4 54.0 1: 0.7 137.6 87.0 1: 0.1 1,908.1 21.0 1:2.6 38.4 55.0 1: 0.7 142.8 88.0 1: 0.0 2,863.6 22.0 1:2.5 40.4 56.0 1: 0.7 148.3 89.0 1: 0.0 5,729.0 90.0 1: 0.0 ∞ 114 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

10 Calculating Slope Degrees: Slope = Vertical Rise Distance (V) = tangent m Horizontal Distance (H) Calculating Gradient: Calculating % Grade: Slope Angle = tangent m = 1 unit in Horizontal Distance (H) Vertical Distance (V) = 100 x Tangent (Slope) or 100 x V/H Vertical Distance (V)∞ 90° 100%90% 30° 60° 80% 45° 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 Horizontal Distance (H) Measurement and Geometry 115

10 PLANE FIGURE FORMULAS Equilateral Triangle Rectangle (all sides equal) cc b a a h area = ab a a perimeter = 2(a+b) area = a2! 3 = 0.433 a2 a a2 + b2 = c2 4 2 perimeter = 3a h = !3 = 0.866a Parallelogram Triangle a b h h U area = ah = ab sinU perimeter = 2(a+b) bh b 2 area = perimeter = sum of length of all sides Trapezoid Trapezium (irregular quadrilateral) b c d h bh h1 a eg f area = (a + b) h a 2 area = (h + h1) g + eh + fh1 perimeter = sum of length of sides 2 perimeter = sum of length of all sides Quadrilateral or h b h 2 3 dd22 U d1 area = d1d2 sinU area = bh2 + bh3 2 22 (Divide figure into two triangles and add their areas together.) 111166 TTHHEEAARRCCHHIITTEECCTTUURREERREEFFEERREENNCCEE++SSPPEECCIIFFIICCAATTIIOONNBBOOOOKK

Regular Polygons a 10 (all sides equal) VOLUMES R Prism or Cylinder (right or rU oblique, regular or irregular) n = number of sides volume = area of base x altitude area = n a r = nr2 tan U = nR2 sin 2U Altitude (h) = distance between 22 parallel bases, perimeter = n a measured perpendicular to the Polygon Sides Area bases. When bases Triangle (equilateral) 3 0.4330 a2 are not parallel, Square 4 1.0000 a2 then altitude = Pentagon 5 1.7205 a2 perpendicular Hexagon 6 2.5981 a2 distance from one Heptagon 7 3.6339 a2 base to the center Octagon 8 4.8284 a2 of the other. Nonagon 9 6.1818 a2 Decagon 10 7.6942 a2 h Undecagon 11 9.3656 a2 Dodecagon 12 11.1962 a2 hh Pyramid or Cone (right or oblique, regular or irregular) volume = area of base x 1/3 altitude Altitude (h) = h distance from base to apex, measured perpendicular to base. h h Measurement and Geometry 117

10 c a CIRCLE U m circumference = 2 p r = p d = 3.14159 d area = pr2 = p d2 = 0.78539d2 4 length of arc a = U p r = 0.017453 U r 180 r m2 + c2/4 c/2 r = 2m = sin 1/2U d c = 2!2 mr – m2 = 2 r sin 1/2U a = arc r = radius m = r +_ !r2 – c2 use + if arc >_ 180˚ d = diameter 4 use – if arc < 180˚ c = cord m = distance D 1 U = degrees AC 2 p = 3.14159 3 Ur AC B Ur B Sector of Circle Segment of Circle Circular Zone arc length AC = prU area ACDA = area 2 = 180 circle area – area 1 1 2r2 – area 3 area ABCA = pUr2 360 2 1 = segment x pU – sinU 2 = zone or 180 3 = segment area ABCA = arc length AC x r r = radius U = degrees 2 A, B, C, D = points p = 3.14159 111188 TTHHEEAARRCCHHIITTEECCTTUURREERREEFFEERREENNCCEE++SSPPEECCIIFFIICCAATTIIOONNBBOOOOKK

10 ELLIPSE AB perimeter (approximate) = y p [1.5 (x + y) – !x y] G (Assume point G is the center point d [BG-22-MS.live] of the ellipse, with x,y coordinates of 0,0, and point B coordinates of Bx x EF and By.) D area ABFEA = (Bx x By) + ab sin-1 (Bx/a) DOUBLE-CURVED SOLIDS Ellipsoid Sphere volume = 4 p R3 R 3 surface = 4 p R2 a Segment of Sphere b volume = p b2 (3R–b) b C 3 R (sector – cone) surface = 2pRb c Sector of Sphere volume = p abc C 6 R surface = no simple equation volume = 2p R2 b 3 b surface = p R(4b + C) 2 (segment + cone) MeasuMreemaseunrteamnednGtseome1t1r9y 119

11 Chapter 11: Architectural Drawing types An architect uses eight basic drawing types within the drawing set to most completely describe the design of a building. PLAN View of the horizontal planes of the building, showing their re- lationship to each other. A plan is a horizontal section, typically depicting the building as though cut approximately 3’-0” (915) from its floor. SECTION View of a vertical cut through the building’s components. A section acts as a vertical plan and often contains elevational information, such as doors and windows. This information is shown with a lighter line weight than the section cuts. 120 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

11 ELEVATION View of the vertical planes of the building, showing their relationship to each other. An elevation is viewed perpendicularly from a selected plane. THREE-DIMENSIONAL REPRESENTATIONS Perspectives (not scaled), axonometrics, and isometrics describe the building or space in a way that conventional plans, elevations, and sections cannot. Perspectives are particularly effective in producing a view that would actually be experienced by being in the space designed. Architectural Drawing Types 121

11 READING THE DRAWING SET Drawing Symbols Symbols and reference markers are necessary for navigating the drawing set. They tell whoever is looking at a drawing where to go to find out more information about certain elements. DET DET building partition type SHT SHT section DET wall or north arrow SHT detail section DET detail section column grid SHT (nondirectional) and bubbles DET enlarged SHT detail reference FIRST FLOOR elevation target centerline First Floor Plan EL. exterior elevation drawing label DET graphic SHT scale DET interior elevation SHT break line OFFICE room name and room number ceiling height revision ALIGN window number cloud and number spot elevation door number align note 122 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Floor Plans 11 Overall building plans are usually drawn at a scale that enables one to see the whole CARPORT plan. Most elements of the overall plan are KITCHEN keyed to other drawings in the set, as in the case of larger-scale plans, details, sections, LIVING and elevations. Some information may be BATH keyed and cross-referenced among multiple drawings. Keys shown on the plan below BED reappear on the drawings to follow. ROOM DRIVEWAY BED BENCH ROOM PATIO POOL PATIO First Floor Plan Architectural Drawing Types 123

11 Building Elevations Building elevations depict the exterior conditions of the building, describing materials and impor- tant vertical dimensions. In instances where a drawing is too large to fit on a standard sheet, it must be broken apart and continued on the same sheet or another sheet, requiring the use of match lines for alignment. T.O. ROOF FIRST FLOOR POOL West Elevation PRECAST CONC. PANELS PRECAST CONC. PANELS T.O. ROOF FIRST FLOOR POOL East Elevation 124 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

11 T.O. ROOF MATCH FIRST FLOOR LINE POOL MATCH LINE North Elevation (Partial) MATCH North Elevation (Partial) LINE MATCH LINE MATCH CHANNEL LINE GLASS MATCH LINE PRECAST CONC. PANELS PRECAST CONC. PANELS MATCH LINE MATCH LINE EXTERIOR BUILDING ELEVATIONS Architectural Drawing Types 125

11 Reflected Ceiling Plans Site information Doors and most is not present windows do not Reflected ceiling plans (RCPs) on an RCP (un- appear on an RCP, may be thought of as upside-down less it happens but their headers floor plans, for they are literally a overhead). do. plan of the ceiling. They are used to describe light fixture placement CARPORT and types, ceiling heights and ma- terials, and anything else found KITCHEN on the ceiling plane. RCPs employ standard keys and symbols as well as some specific to the ceil- ing plan. Light fixtures often bear tags that refer to their descriptions in the lighting specifications. return-air 2 x 4 fluorescent diffuser supply-air 2 x 2 recessed GWB LIVING diffuser fluorescent BATH Elevation smoke fluorescent pendant markers call out detector decorative pendant the height and material of the smoke ceiling planes. detector w/ WOOD SOFFIT audible device ADA light/ speaker ceiling-mounted recessed BED exit sign wall washer ROOM PLYWOOD BED ROOM wall-mounted recessed downlight exit sign ceiling wall sconce Reflected Ceiling Plan sprinkler ACT head wall sprinkler head Mylar-coated ACT 126 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

11 Interior Elevations Interior elevations are drawn at a larger scale than the overall building plans, allowing for more details, notes, and dimensions to be represented. Keyed from the building plan, interior eleva- tions are, in turn, keyed to other, larger-scale views, such as section and plan details of cabinetry construction and wall sections. PLYWOOD PANELS CHANNEL GLASS WALL BOOKSHELVES SLIDING DOOR ON SSTL TRACK HARDWOOD SHELVING/ROOM DIVIDER UNITS CURTAIN ON TRACK Bedroom Details PLYWOOD PANELS Details are drawn at scales such as SLIDING DOOR 1 1/2” = 1’-0”, 3”= 1’-0”, 6”= 1’-0”, and ON SSTL TRACK sometimes even at full scale, and are keyed from and to numerous HARDWOOD other drawings. SHELVING/ROOM DIVIDER UNITS Bedroom Shelving Architectural Drawing Types 127

11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL DRAWINGS Paraline Drawings Paraline drawings are projected pictorial representations of the three-dimensional qualities of an object. These drawings can be classified as orthographic projections, with a rotated plan view and a tilted side view. They are also commonly referred to as axonometric or axiometric drawings. Unlike in perspective drawings, the projection lines in a paraline drawing remain parallel instead of converging to a point on the horizon. back plan side side Unfolded Object front Oblique Isometric In an oblique drawing, one face (either plan An isometric drawing is a special type of or elevation) is drawn directly on the picture dimetric drawing, where all axes of the object are plane. Projected lines are drawn at a 30- or simultaneously rotated away from the 45-degree angle to the picture plane. The picture plane and kept at the same angle length of the projecting lines is determined (30 degrees) of projection. All legs are equally as shown in the diagrams opposite. distorted in length and maintain an exact 1:1:1 proportion. Dimetric Trimetric A dimetric drawing is similar to an oblique drawing, except that the object is rotated A trimetric drawing is similar to a dimetric draw- so that only one corner touches the picture ing, except that the plan of the object is rotated plane. so that the two exposed sides are not at equal angles to the picture plane. 128 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

A A 11 30º Oblique 30° 45° A A 45° 30° AA 45º Oblique A A 15° 15° A A A 45° 45° 30° 15º Dimetric A A 45º Dimetric A A 30° 30° 60° 30° A A A Isometric 30° Trimetric (30º Dimetric) Architectural Drawing Types 129

11 Two-Point Common Method Perspective Station Point (SP): Locates the fixed position of the viewer. Picture Plane (PP): Flat, two-dimensional surface that records the projected perspective image and aligns perpendicular to the viewer’s center of vision. The picture plane is the only true-size plane in the perspective field: Objects behind the picture plane project to its surface smaller than true scale, whereas those between the viewer and the picture plane project to its surface larger than true scale. Measuring Line (ML): Located on the picture plane, the measuring line is the only true-scale line in a perspective drawing. Most commonly, this is a vertical line from which can be projected the key vertical dimensions of the object. horizon Line (hL): Lies at the intersection of the picture plane and a horizontal plane through the eye of the viewer. Vanishing Point: Point at which parallel lines appear to meet in perspective. The left (vpL) and right (vpR) vanishing points for an object are determined by the points at which a set of lines originating from the station point and parallel to the object lines intersect the picture plane. ground Line (gL): Lies at the intersection of the picture plane and the ground plane. plan PP SP ML HL vpL vpR GL elevation 113300 TTHHEEAARRCCHHITITEECCTTUURREERREEFFEERREENNCCEE++SSPPEECCIFIFICICAATTIOIONNBBOOOOKK

11 One-Point Common Method Perspective One-point perspectives use a single vanishing point, and all edges and planes that are perpendic- ular to the picture plane vanish toward this point. To locate this point (C), draw a vertical line from the station point to the horizon line. Building edges that are parallel to the picture plane appear as parallel lines in perspective, with no vanishing point. PP SP Projections occurring Picture Frame in front of the picture frame will appear C distorted. As the station point moves closer to the picture plane, the field of vision decreases. As the station point moves farther from the picture plane, the field of vision increases. HL GL Basic GeometAryrcahnitdecDtruarwalinDgraPwroinjegctTiyopness 113311

12 Chapter 12: Architectural Documents THE PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE To speak an architectural language is to do many things: It could involve the art of form and style or the more prosaic aspects of contract administration. Architecture and its practice move, sometimes with effort, among realms not only of art, science, and engineering, but also of business, economics, and sociology. All professional groups speak their own language to some extent. To their written and spoken language architects add drawings and symbols, organizing them into accepted standards of presentation and legibility. As with good manners, the point of these standards is not to complicate but to ease communication and interaction. Most countries have a governing body in architectural practice—in the United States it is the American Institute of Architects (AIA)—which oversees ethics and professional conduct and establishes guidelines for issues ranging from project delivery schedules to contracts and legal documents. The architect who has complete mastery of every aspect of the multiple personalities of architectural practice may be rare. However, all responsible practicing architects are compelled to understand the business of the profession, because the art of architecture depends on the practice of getting it built. COMMON PROJECT TERMS As-built drawings: Contract drawings that have been marked up to reflect any Addendum: Written information that clari- changes to a project during construction, fies or modifies the bidding documents, differentiating them from the bid docu- often issued during the bidding process. ments. Also known as record drawings. Alternate: Additional design or material op- Bid: Offer of a proposal or a price. When a tions added to the construction documents project is “put out to bid,” contractors are and/or specifications to obtain multiple asked to submit their estimates as to the possible cost estimates for a project. time and the cost of a project. “Add-alternates” imply added material and cost; “deduct-alternates” imply removal of Building permit: Written document issued certain elements to lower the project cost, by the appropriate government authority as necessary. permitting the construction of a specific project in accordance with the drawings AnSI: American National Standards and specifications that the authority has Institute. approved. 132 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

12 Certificate of occupancy: Document is- Consultant: Professional hired by the owner sued by the appropriate local governmental or architect to provide information and to agency, stating that a building or property advise the project in the area of his or her meets local standards for occupancy and is expertise. in compliance with public health and build- ing codes. Contract administration: Contractual duties and responsibilities of the architect and Change order: Written document between engineer during a project’s construction. and signed by the owner and the contrac- tor authorizing a change in the work, or an Contract over- (or under-) run: Difference adjustment in the contract sum or length between the original contract price and the of time. Architects and engineers may also final completed cost, including all change sign a change order, but only if authorized (in order adjustments. writing) by the owner to do so. Contractor: Licensed individual or company Charrette: Intensive design process for solv- that agrees to perform the work as speci- ing an architectural problem quickly; often fied, with the appropriate labor, equipment, undertaken by students of architecture, but and materials. also employed by professionals in various stages of the design process. The instruc- Date of substantial completion: Date tors of the École des Beaux Arts in Paris certified by the architect when the work is to would use a charrette, French for “small be completed. wooden cart,” for collecting the design work of the students after such a process. Design-build construction: Arrangement wherein a contractor bids or negotiates to Construction cost: Direct contractor costs provide design and construction services for for labor, material, equipment, and services, the entire project. as well as overhead and profit. Excluded from construction cost are fees for archi- Estimating: Calculation of the amount of tects, engineers, consultants, costs of land, material, labor, and equipment needed to or any other items that, by definition of the complete a given project. contract, are the responsibility of the owner. Fast-track construction: Method of con- Construction management: Organization struction management in which construc- and direction of the labor force, materi- tion work begins before completion of the als, and equipment to build the project as construction documents, resulting in a designed by the architect. continuous design-construction situation. Construction management contract: FF&E: Moveable furniture, fixtures, or equip- Written agreement giving responsibility for ment that do not require permanent connec- coordination and accomplishment of overall tion to the structure or utilities of a building. project planning, design, and construc- tion to a construction management firm or Architectural Documents 133 individual, called the construction manager (CM).

12 Field order: Written order calling for a clari- Project directory: Written list of names and fication or minor change in the construction addresses of all parties involved in a proj- work and not involving any adjustment to the ect, including the owner, architect, engineer, terms of the contract. and contractor. general contractor: Licensed individual Project manager: Qualified individual or firm or company with prime responsibility for authorized by the owner to be responsible the work. for coordinating time, equipment, money, tasks, and people for all or portions of a Indirect cost: Expenses that are not project. chargeable to a specific project or task, such as overhead. Project manual: Detailed written specifica- tions describing acceptable construction Inspection list: List prepared by the owner materials and methods. or authorized owner’s representative of work items requiring correction or completion by Request for Information (RFI): Written the contractor; generally done at the end of request from a contractor to the owner or construction. Also called a punch list. architect for clarification of the contract documents. nIBS: National Institute of Building Sciences. Request for Proposal (RFP): Written request to a contractor, architect, or subcontractor Owner-architect agreement: Written con- for an estimate or cost proposal. tract between the architect and client for professional architectural services. Schedule: Plan for performing work; also, a chart or table within the drawing set. Parti: Central idea governing and organiz- ing a work of architecture, from the French Scheme: Chart, diagram, or outline of a partir “to depart with the intention of going system being proposed. somewhere.” Scope of work: Written range of view or ac- Program: Desired list of spaces, rooms, and tion for a specific project. elements, as well as their sizes, for use in designing the building. Shop drawings: Drawings, diagrams, sched- ules, and other data specially prepared by Progress schedule: Line diagram showing the contractor or a subcontractor, sub- proposed and actual starting and comple- subcontractor, manufacturer, supplier, or tion times in a project. distributor to illustrate some portion of the work being done. These drawings show the Project cost: All costs for a specific project, specific way in which the particular contrac- including those for land, professionals, con- tor or shop intends to furnish, fabricate, as- struction, furnishings, fixtures, equipment, semble, or install its products. The architect financing, and any other project-related is obligated by the owner-architect agree- expenses. ment to review and approve these drawings or to take other appropriate action. 134 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

12 Site: Location of a structure or group of Zoning: Restrictions of areas or regions of structures. land within specific areas based on permit- ted building size, character, and uses as Soft costs: Expenses in addition to the di- established by governing urban authorities. rect construction cost, including architectur- al and engineering fees, permits, legal and Zoning permit: Document issued by a financing fees, construction interest and governing urban authority that permits land operating expenses, leasing and real estate to be used for a specific purpose. commissions, advertising and promotion, and supervision. Soft costs and construc- tion costs add up to the project cost. Standards of professional practice: Listing of minimum acceptable ethical principals and practices adopted by qualified and rec- ognized professional organizations to guide their members in the conduct of specific professional practice. Structural systems: Load-bearing assembly of beams and columns on a foundation. Subcontractor: Specialized contractor who is subordinate to the prime or main contractor. Substitution: Proposed replacement or alternate for a material or process of equivalent cost and quality. tenant improvements (tIs): Interior im- provements of a project after the building envelope is complete. time and materials (t&M): Written agree- ment wherein payment is based on actual costs for labor, equipment, materials, and services rendered, in addition to overhead. Value engineering (VE): Process of analyz- ing the cost versus the value of alternative materials, equipment, and systems, usually in the interest of achieving the lowest total cost for a project. Architectural Documents 135

12 SHEET FOLDING COMMON PAPER SIZES Individual sheets that must be folded (for rea- sons of file storage or mailing) should be folded ANSI (American National Paper Size Inches Millimeters in a logical and consistent manner that allows Standards Institute) ANSI-A 8 1/2 x 11 216 x 279 the title and sheet number information to be ANSI-B 11 x 17 279 x 432 visible in the bottom-right corner of the folded ANSI-C 17 x 22 432 x 559 sheet. Large numbers of sheets are best bound ANSI-D 22 x 34 559 x 864 into sets and rolled for shipping or laid flat for ANSI-E 34 x 44 864 x 1 118 storage. Architectural Paper Size Inches Millimeters Arch-A 9 x 12 229 x 305 Arch-B 12 x 18 305 x 457 Arch-C 18 x 24 457 x 610 Arch-D 24 x 36 610 x 914 Arch-E 36 x 48 914 x 1 219 ISO (International Organization for Standardization)—based on one square meter Paper Size Inches Millimeters 4A0 66 1/4 x 93 3/8 1 682 x 2 378 2A0 46 3/4 x 66 1/4 1 189 x 1 682 A0 33 1/8 x 46 3/4 841 x 1 189 A1 23 3/8 x 33 1/8 A2 16 1/2 x 23 3/8 594 x 841 A3 11 3/4 x 16 1/2 420 x 594 A4 8 1/4 x 11 3/4 297 x 420 210 x 297 Paper Size Inches B0 39 3/8 x 55 5/8 Millimeters B1 27 7/8 x 39 3/8 1 000 x 1 414 B2 19 5/8 x 27 7/8 707 x 1 000 B3 13 7/8 x 19 5/8 B4 9 7/8 x 13 7/8 500 x 707 353 x 500 Paper Size Inches 250 x 353 C0 36 1/8 x 51 C1 25 1/2 x 36 1/8 Millimeters C2 18 x 25 1/2 917 x 1 297 C3 12 3/4 x 18 648 x 917 C4 9 x 12 1/2 458 x 648 324 x 458 229 x 324 136 MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS

12 DRAWING SHEET LAYOUT AND SET ASSEMBLY In the NIBS Standard sheet layout (in accordance with the National CAD Standard), drawings within a sheet are numbered by coordinate system modules as described below. The graphic or text information modules are known as drawing blocks and their numbers are established by the coordinates for the bottom-left corner of their module. This system enables new drawing blocks to be added to a sheet without having to renumber the existing blocks, saving considerable time once drawings begin to be keyed to other drawings and schedules. This edge is bound note block with staples or post (when binding and covered needed) with paper or tape. D2 E5 A1 The title block may run vertically along the right edge or horizontally along the bottom edge, but the location of the sheet number and title remains in the bottom-right corner, enabling a quick glimpse of all sheets when flipping through the set. Architectural Documents 137

12 DRAWING SET ORDER Typical Order for Disciplines Standards for the order of disciplines in the drawing set may vary within different offices. The order below is recommended by the Uniform Drawing System (UDS) to minimize confusion among the many trades that will use the set. Note that most projects will not contain all the disciplines listed here, and others might have need for additional, project-specific disciplines. Cover Sheet Index Sheet(s) h Hazardous Materials C Civil L Landscape S Structural A Architectural I Interiors Q Equipment F Fire Protection P Plumbing M Mechanical E Electrical t Telecommunications R Resource 138 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

12 Typical Order for Sheets within the Architecture Discipline A-0: General A-001 Notes and Symbols A-1: Architectural Floor Plans A-101 First-Floor Plan A-102 Second-Floor Plan A-103 Third-Floor Plan A-104 First-Floor RCP A-105 Second-Floor RCP A-106 Third-Floor RCP A-107 Roof Plan A-2: Architectural Elevations A-201 Exterior Elevations A-202 Exterior Elevations A-203 Interior Elevations A-3: Architectural Sections A-301 Building Sections A-302 Building Sections A-303 Wall Sections A-4: Large-Scale Views A-401 Enlarged Toilet Plans A-402 Enlarged Plans A-403 Stair and Elevator Plans and Sections A-5: Architectural Details A-501 Exterior Details A-502 Exterior Details A-503 Interior Details A-504 Interior Details A-6: Schedules and Diagrams A-601 Partition Types A-602 Room Finish Schedule A-603 Door and Window Schedules Architectural Documents 139

12 DRAWING SET ABBREVIATIONS When all drawings were done by hand, architectural lettering—an art form of its own—could be tedious and time-consuming. As a result, architects and draftspersons abbreviated words. Though many standards were created, they have not always been consistent and historically have led to interpretive errors by contractors. CAD technology makes much shorter work of text produc- tion and arrangement and enables less frequent use of abbreviations. If space dictates that abbreviations must be used, omit spaces or periods and capitalize all letters. Though variations still exist, the following is a widely accepted list. ACT: acoustical ceiling tile CPT: carpet FDN: foundation ADD: additional CRS: courses FFT: finished ADJ: adjustable CT: ceramic tile AFF: above finish floor CUB: column utility box floor transition ALUM: aluminum FIN: finish APPX: approximately DF: drinking fountain FLR: floor DET: detail FLUOR: fluorescent BD: board DIA: diameter FOC: face of concrete BIT: bituminous DN: down FOF: face of finish BLDG: building DR: door FOM: face of masonry BLK: block DWG: drawing FTG: footing BLKG: blocking FIXT: fixture BM: beam EA: each FR: fire-rated BOT: bottom ENC: enclosure FT: feet BC: brick course EJ: expansion joint FUB: floor utility box BUR: built-up roofing EL: elevation or electrical ELEV: elevator GA: gauge CB: catch basin EQ: equal GALV: galvanized CBD: chalkboard EQUIP: equipment GC: general contractor CI: cast iron ERD: emergency roof GL: glass CIP: cast-in-place GWB: gypsum wallboard CJ: control joint drain GYP: gypsum CMU: concrete EWC: electric HC: hollow core or masonry unit water cooler handicap accessible CEM: cement EXIST: existing CLG: ceiling EXP: expansion HDW: hardware CLR: clearance EXT: exterior HM: hollow metal CLO: closet HORIZ: horizontal COL: column FE: fire extinguisher HP: high point COMP: compressible FEC: fire extinguisher HGT: height CONC: concrete HTR: heater CONST: construction cabinet HVAC: heating, CONT: continuous FHC: fire hose cabinet FD: floor drain ventilating, and air conditioning 140 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

IN: inch PLUM: plumber 12 INCAN: incandescent PTD: painted INCL: including PT: paint TOW: top of wall INS: insulation PVC: polyvinyl chloride TYP: typical INT: interior QT: quarry tile UNO: unless noted JAN: janitor QTY: quantity otherwise JC: janitor’s closet JT: joint R: radius or riser VCT: vinyl RA: return air composition tile LP: low point RD: roof drain LAM: laminated REG: register VERT: vertical LAV: lavatory RO: rough opening VIF: verify in field LINO: linoleum REINF: reinforcing VP: veneer plaster LTG: lighting REQD: required VWC: vinyl wall covering RM: room MAT: material REV: revision or reverse W/: with MO: masonry opening RSL: resilient flooring WD: wood MAX: maximum WC: water closet MECH: mechanical SC: solid core WF: wide flange MEMB: member SECT: section WPR: waterproofing MFR: manufacturer SHT: sheet W/O: without MIN: minimum SIM: similar WWF: welded wire fabric MISC: miscellaneous SPEC: specifications WDW: window MTL: metal STD: standard WUB: wall utility box SSTL: stainless steel NIC: not in contract STL: steel &: and NTS: not to scale SUSP: suspended <: angle NO: number SQ: square “: inch STRUC: structural ‘: foot OC: on center STOR: storage @: at OD: outside diameter STA: station CL: centerline [ : channel or overflow drain T: tread #: number OHD: overhead door TBD: tackboard Ø: diameter OHG: overhead grille TD: trench drain OPNG: opening THK: thickness Architectural Documents 141 OPP: opposite TEL: telephone OPPH: opposite hand TO: top of TOC: top of concrete PC: precast TOF: top of footing PGL: plate glass TOR: top of rail PTN: partition TOS: top of steel PL: plate TRT: treated PLAM: plastic laminate

12 Pre-design varies Even before beginning the actual design PROJECT TIMELINE of a project, the architect may be asked to 3 months perform the following tasks, alone or in con- The information presented here is a junction with other consultants: site selec- 6 months generalization of the phases and events tion and evaluation, environmental analysis, within a typical architectural project. It community participation, feasi-bility studies, does not attempt to account for all project programming, cost analysis, and conceptual sizes and client types. The length of each design. It is not unusual for the architect phase is a rough estimation for a normal, to do many of these services as a (paid or medium-sized project, but the timeframes unpaid) marketing effort, in anticipation of can vary wildly. The expectations and du- being awarded the project. ration of any of these phases are subject to the stipulations of the project’s owner- SD Schematic Design architect agreement. Major design ideas are proposed and Marketing explored, including alternate schemes. Drawings produced in this phase include In the competitive environment of site plan, plans, elevations, and sections architecture, procuring a project can be sufficient for cost estimation. SD often more time- and labor-intensive than getting requires multiple presentations to the client it built. Marketing takes many forms, but for review and approval and can encompass common modes of obtaining work are: the production of perspectives, renderings, and models to describe the design concept. Competitions: Firms or individuals submit a design for a specified program DD Design Development and site, for which a winner is chosen. Competitions vary in form—they may be The detailed development of the design paid or unpaid, open or invited—and do not (as established in SD) results in a draw- always result in a project being built. ing set suitable for a more accurate cost estimate. Coordination with consultants is Requests for Qualifications (RFQs): key in this phase to identify and address A potential client asks architects to potential problems before the design submit their qualifications, sometimes has proceeded too far. Presentations to to a specified format. the client turn more to these issues of coordination and cost control and take into Requests for Proposal (RFPs): Similar to account more specific feedback about the RFQs, though often firms are specifically nature of rooms and spaces. The design asked to supply information about other is documented inside and out, including relevant projects they have completed. construction details, interior elevations, Proposals may include a wide variety of schedules, and specifications, all of which information types, including proposed bud- will be further refined in the CD phase. get and schedule, and sometimes may require a design for the project. Interviews: A potential client will want to meet the architect, sometimes with his or her prospective consultants. At this meeting, the design team may be asked to present a proposal for the project in question. 142 MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS

12 CD Construction Documents 9 months The “working drawing” phase of the project, in which every aspect of the design is drawn to scale and appropriately specified, is time- and energy- intensive, and project teams usually grow larger to accommodate the work involved. The design of the project must be well established by this point, and most owner-architect agreements stipulate that any requests for major design changes made after DD must be part of an “Additional Services” agreement, to make up for the time it has taken to document the project to date. The CD set is the official documentation of the project and is distributed to contractors for bids as well as to the building department and other officials for all necessary permits. The architect is responsible for assisting the client in this process. A CD set contains, at a minimum, a site plan, floor plans, reflected ceiling plans, exterior and interior building elevations, building sections, wall sections depicting construction detailing, interior details, door and window schedules, equipment schedules (if applicable), finishes schedules, and written specifica- tions, as well as the drawings of engineers and other consultants. CA Construction Administration ddururataitioonnofofccoonnstsrtrucutcitioonn Marketing Though the project is under construction, Once completed, the project the architect must still maintain control is photographed and docu- over its outcome, both through regular mented. The architect may site visits, in which construction quality submit it for publication in is observed for its conformance with the any number of professional CD set, and by overseeing solutions to magazines, include it in the unanticipated problems as they arise. firm’s brochure, or post it The architect must review shop drawings, on the firm’s website. It now change orders, and requests for informa- serves as a marketing tool tion from the contractor, always acting in for obtaining more projects, the best interest of the client and the bud- and the process continues. get. At the end of construction, the archi- tect prepares the punch list and assists in obtaining a Certificate of Occupancy. Architectural Documents 143

12 SPECIFICATIONS Architectural specifications act as written instructions to the contractor and all parties involved in the construction of a building. Specifications are part of the construction document set, usually as a separate project manual. They provide detailed descrip- tions of the acceptable construction materials for all aspects of a building, from the type and color of paint to the type and method of structural fireproofing. Specification writing is time-consuming and exacting work; it is most often undertaken by specifica- tion writers or architects who specialize in the writing of specifications. Certified spec writers list the suffix CCS (Certified Construction Specifier) after their name. A well- written set of specs is imperative to keep a project safe and on budget and to ensure that the needs of both architect and owner have been met. CSI MASTERFORMAT SYSTEM The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) was established in 1948 to bring order to the post–World War II building boom. CSI governs standardization of specification writing and format- ting, and its Project Resource Manual (formerly the Manual of Practice, or MOP) is the industry reference. Spec writers might avail themselves of prewritten master guide specs that serve as a basis for many projects, or they might begin a set of specs entirely from scratch. The CSI MasterFormat system has become the standard formatting system for nonresidential building projects in the United States and Canada. It consists of a list of numbers and titles that organize the information contained in the specification project manual. Division Numbering 0 0.0 0 00 00 Level One Level Two Level Three Level Four (division (separated by number) a decimal point; used only when the amount of detail warrants further classification) 144 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

12 MasterSpec Sample Section Pro Forma SECTION NUMBER SECTION TITLE PART 1 - GENERAL 1.01 Summary 1.02 Price and Payment Procedures 1.03 References 1.04 Administrative Requirements 1.05 Submittals 1.06 Quality Assurance 1.07 Delivery, Storage, and Handling 1.08 Warranty PART 2 - PRODUCTS 2.01 Manufacturig 2.02 Manufacturers and Products 2.03 Materials 2.04 Finishes 2.05 Accessories PART 3 - INSTALLATION 3.01 Examination 3.02 Preparation 3.03 Erection 3.04 Field Quality Control 3.05 Adjusting 3.06 Cleaning Architectural Drawing Types 145

12 CSI MasterFormat Division Titles Reserved divisions provide space for future development and expansion, and CSI recommends that users not appropriate these divisions for their own use. PROCUREMENT AND CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS GROUP 00—Procurement and Contracting SPECIFICATIONS GROUP General Requirements 01—General Requirements Facility Construction 02—Existing Conditions 03—Concrete 04—Masonry 05—Metals 06—Wood, Plastics, and Composites 07—Thermal and Moisture Protection 08—Openings 09—Finishes 10—Specialties 11—Equipment 12—Furnishings 13—Special Construction 14—Conveying Equipment 15—Reserved for future expansion 16—Reserved for future expansion 17—Reserved for future expansion 18—Reserved for future expansion 19—Reserved for future expansion 146 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

12 Facility Services 20—Reserved 21—Fire Suppression 22—Plumbing 23—Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning 24—Reserved 25—Integrated Automation 26—Electrical 27—Communications 28—Electronic Safety and Security 29—Reserved for future expansion Site and Infrastructure 30—Reserved for future expansion 31—Earthwork 32—Exterior Improvements 33—Utilities 34—Transportation 35—Waterway and Marine Construction 36—Reserved 37—Reserved 38—Reserved 39—Reserved Process Equipment 40—Process Integration 41—Material Processing and Handling Equipment 42—Process Heating, Cooling, and Drying Equipment 43—Process Gas and Liquid Handling, Purification and Storage Equipment 44—Pollution and Waste Control Equipment 45—Industry-Specific Manufacturing Equipment 46—Water and Wastewater Equipment 47—Reserved for future expansion 48—Electrical Power Generation 49—Reserved for future expansion Architectural Documents 147

13 Chapter 13: hand Drawing Though rapidly being replaced by computer-aided drafting, hand drafting continues to be used by some practitioners, and its principles can still be applied to computer drawing. The practice of hand drafting employs a number of key instruments. WORK SURFACE 45°/90° triangle T-square drafting surface 30°/60°/90° triangle parallel bar 148 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

13 PAPERS AND BOARDS Paper Type Qualities Format Best Uses Use for Overlay Tracing paper yes white, buff or Rolls in multiple sketch overlay; yellow; inexpensive sizes (12”, 18”, 24”, layouts 36”, 48”); pads Vellum oil-treated to rolls, sheets, pencil and yes achieve and pads technical pen work; transparency overlay work Mylar nonabsorbent rolls and sheets pencil and tech. yes (drafting film) polyester film pen work; ideal (1- and 2-sided) for archival work Bond and variety of weights, rolls and sheets smooth best for no drawing papers textures, and pens; textured best colors for pencils Illustration board high-quality white large-scale sheet finished work in no rag affixed to board sizes watercolor, pencil, chalk, or pen Chip board variety of plies; large-scale sheet model making; no mostly gray sizes some dry mounting Foam board polystyrene foam large-scale boards; model making; no between paper lin- 1/8”, 3/16”, 1/4”, 1/2” dry-mounting ers; white/black thick sheets translucent paper and film sheets boards Hand Drawing 149

13 DRAFTING SUPPLIES 1 2 4 1. Drafting brush: 3 Implement used to 5 6 brush away erasures and drafting powder. 8 2. Drafting powder: Finely ground white compound that prevents dust, dirt, and smudges from being ground into the drafting media. 3. French curve: Template used as guide to draw smoothly most desired curvatures. 4. X-Acto knife: Cutting tool used in model making and in Letratone application. 5. Erasing shield: Device used to erase specific lines and areas without affecting others. 6. Adjustable triangle: Tool used alone or in combination with other triangles to achieve any angle. 7. template: Pattern guides available in a wide variety of types (lettering, toilets, people) and scales. 8. Compass: Hinge-legged instrument that accommodates a pen or pencil to describe precise circles or circular arcs. 7 150 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

triangular Architect’s Scale (1:1) 13 With the exception of perspectives and some other three-dimensional represen- tations, most architectural drawings are made “to scale.” Simply put, a floor plan or elevation, too large to be represented at full scale (1”=1”), must be reduced to fit on a sheet of paper. To do so, a standard architect’s scale is employed. A representa- tion made at a quarter-inch scale (1/4”=1’-0”), for instance, indicates that a distance of a quarter-inch on the drawing equals one foot in reality. The three sides of a triangular architect’s scale provide a total of eleven scales, which are written as follows: 1/16”=1’- 0” 3/32”=1’- 0” 1/8”=1’- 0” 3/16”=1’- 0” 1/4”=1’- 0” 3/8”=1’- 0” 1/2”=1’- 0” 3/4”=1’- 0” 1”=1’- 0” 1 1/2”=1’- 0” 3”=1’- 0” Engineer’s scales are often used for larger-scale drawings such as site plans; they follow the same principle as archi- tect’s scales but with larger increments of ten (1”=10’, 1”=50’, 1”=100’, and so forth). Scales are also available in metric units. Hand Drawing 151

13 PENCILS Pencil Hardness Range grade Weight and use Harder leads contain more clay, whereas softer leads contain more graphite. Lead holders employ a push- button that advances the 2 mm lead, which comes in a wide array of hardnesses, colors, and nonphoto blue (does not appear on reproductions). Leads are sharpened in lead pointers or with simple emery paper or sandpaper blocks. 9H very hard ideal range for guidelines and dense and underlay work 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H 3H 2H medium-hard best range for finished drawings H medium F medium, general purpose HB medium-soft, bold line work wood pencil B range for bold lines and shading, clutch lead holder 2B less suitable for drafting purposes lead refills for lead holder 3B 4B 5B 6B very soft 152 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

13 pen nib TECHNICAL INK PENS technical pen body Technical pens, which use an ink flow–regulating wire with a tubular point (the pen nib), can produce very precise line widths. Depending on the pen type, the ink may come in a prepack- aged cartridge or the barrel of the pen may be filled with ink as needed. The finer the pen nib, the more fragile and prone to clogging it is. All nibs require cleaning and maintenance to keep them in working order. Ink should be waterproof, nonfading, and opaque. Ink pens can be used on most paper types and are ideal for vellum and Mylar; they can even be erased from Mylar film with a nonabrasive drafting eraser or electric eraser. Technical Pen Line Weights 7 2.0 6 1.4 4 1.2 3 1/2 1.0 3 .80 2 1/2 .70 2 .60 1 .50 0 .35 00 .30 3x0 .25 4x0 .18 6x0 .13 Hand Drawing 153

14 Chapter 14: Computer Standards and guidelines Building design and construction involves enormous amounts of information in need of organization and dissemination among numerous groups of interested and active parties. The introduction of computers into this process has understandably changed the way in which buildings are conceived, designed, and documented. Truly, many things can now be done faster and with more ease, but computers have given rise to new issues involving management of computer files, quality standards for deliver- able materials, and the constant need to stay current with rapidly evolving technolo- gies. The prospect of documenting computer standards and guidelines as static and absolute is therefore neither productive nor possible—the only thing that is certain is that things will change. With this in mind, this chapter focuses on guidelines affecting AutoCAD, at this printing still the de facto industry standard for construction document production. COMPUTER PROGRAMS Presentation materials can include stan- dard plan, section, and elevation drawings Architectural production can be divided as well as physical three-dimensional mod- into two major groups: contract document els, computer renderings, and animations. deliverables and general presentation Computer modeling and rendering pro- materials. grams are numerous and varied, depend- ing on the desired output. Predictably, the Deliverables are usually understood as more sophisticated the intended product, the construction document set composed the more expensive the tool. of the basic two-dimensional drawing types (plan, section, elevation, details, Modeling programs are not limited to pro- and schedules) that describe the building duction output. Many are employed exten- sufficiently for the contractors to build it. sively to design complex forms that would simply be impossible otherwise. Increas- The computer programs used to produce a ingly, architecture is taking advantage of standard set of deliverables are primarily programs developed for use in other fields, drafting programs. In essence, they provide such as the automotive industry, aerospace efficient, precise, and easily modifiable engineering, video game development, and mechanical drawings. AutoCAD remains animated film production. the drafting program of choice for most architects and engineers. Though it does have three-dimensional capabilities and can also accommodate rendering plug-ins, for high-quality presentation drawings, Auto- CAD is still most valued for its precision as a versatile drafting program. 154 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

14 AUTOCAD TERMS drawing. Examples include building grids and site information. Also called X-Ref. Aspect ratio: Ratio of display width to height. Layer: Entity used for classification in a Block: Grouping of one or more objects CAD drawing, whose properties allow for combined to form a single object. On creation, manipulation and flexibility of information in blocks are given a name and an insertion the drawing. point. Model: In AutoCAD, a two- or three- CAD: Computer-aided design or computer- dimensional representation of an object; aided drafting. Also CADD, for computer-aided or a three-dimensional replica of a design, design and drafting. whether physical or digital. Command line: Text area reserved for key- Model space: One of two primary spaces in board input, messages, and prompts. which AutoCAD entities exist. Model space is a three-dimensional coordinate space in which Coordinates: X, y, and z location relevant to a both two-dimensional and three-dimensional model’s origin (0,0,0). drafting and design are done at full (1:1) scale. Crosshairs: Type of cursor. Paper space: Other primary AutoCAD space. Used for creating a finished printable or plot- Cursor: Active object on a video display that table layout; usually contains a title block. enables the user to place graphic information or text. Polyline: Object made up of one or more con- nected segments or arcs, treated as a single Drawing file: Electronic representation of a object. building or object. Sheet file: Print- or plot-ready electronic repre- Drawing web format (DWF): Compressed file sentation of a presentation sheet, containing format that is created from a DWG file, ideal a view or views of the model, text, symbols, for publishing and viewing on the Web. and a title block. DWg: File format for saving vector graphics user coordinate system (uCS): System that from within AutoCAD. defines the orientation of x, y, and z in three- dimensional space. Drawing interchange format (DXF): ASCII or binary file format of an AutoCAD draw- uCS icons: Keys that indicate the direction of ing, for exporting AutoCAD drawings to other x, y, and z planes, as well as whether the user applications or importing those from other is in paper space or model space. applications into AutoCAD. paper model Entity: Geometric element or piece of data space space in a CAD drawing, such as a line, a point, a icon circle, a polyline, a symbol, or a piece of text. icon Explode: Disassemble complex objects such Viewport: Bounded area that displays some as blocks and polylines. portion of the model space of a drawing. External reference: File or drawing that is Window: Drawing area, including the com- used as background in another drawing mand line and surrounding menus. but cannot be edited, except in its original Computer Standards and Guidelines 155

14 AUTOCAD WINDOWS Active Model Space Model may be edited in model space. Tilemode = 1 (on) All drawing done in model space should be at 1:1. UCS icon Active Paper Space Title block or other non–model space information may be edited in the paper space viewport. Tilemode = 0 (off). When tilemode is off, viewports are objects that can be moved and resized. UCS icon Paper Space with Active Model Space Viewport To enter the viewport, type ms at command line; note the model space icon. Tilemode = 0 (off) Paper space scales (XP) may be set by zooming while in this mode. Editing of the model is possible though not encouraged. 156 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

14 EXTERNAL REFERENCES External reference (X-Ref) drawings contain architectural information common to multiple sheet files. Typically, these drawings are floor plans that can serve many purposes; each has its own sheet file. For example, the same plan model can be used for floor plans, reflected ceiling plans, and large-scale plans. The following diagram describes the interaction between X-Ref drawings and sheet files. X-Ref Model Files X-Ref drawing attached to other X-Ref drawings Structural Grid Floor Plan X-GRID A-FP-01 X-GRID and A-FP-01 are both used Sheet Files as X-Refs in other files to create sheet files. Sheet files before X-Refs: contain sheet-specific text, dimensions, and symbols First-Floor Plan Enlarged Kitchen Plan A-101 A-401 Sheet files with X-Refs Computer Standards and Guidelines 157

14 MODEL SPACE AND PAPER SPACE SCALES All AutoCAD models and drawings, from detailed wall sections to expansive site plans, are drawn in model space at full scale (1:1). Paper space is used to set up print- and plot-worthy sheets (often with the use of a title block) that enable the information in model space to be printed to a specific and accurate scale. Such a system allows the architect considerable flexibility when designing and drawing, because one drawing can be used at many different scales and for many different purposes and need not be drawn “to scale.” A simple way to envision the relationship between model and paper space is to think of the paper space title block as an actual piece of paper, with a hole cut out (the viewport). Through this hole model space is visible. Using XP factors (see following page), the model in the viewport is scaled in relation to the paper space title block. viewport viewport paper space title blocks viewport zoom: viewport zoom: 1/48XP 1/24XP (1/4”=1’-0”) (1/2”=1’-0”) 158 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

14 AutoCAD Text Scale Chart (in inches) DWG Scale XP Desired Text Height Scale Factor Factor 1 1 1/16” 3/32” 1/8” 3/16” 1/4” 5/16” 3/8” 1/2” 3/4” 1” Full .5 1/2 .25 .3125 .375 .5 .75 1 6”=1’ .25 1/4 .0625 .09375 .125 .1875 .5 .625 .75 1 1.5 2 3”=1’ .125 1/8 1 1.25 1.5 2 34 11/2”=1’ .08333 1/12 .125 .1875 .25 .375 2 2.5 34 68 1”=1’ .0625 1/16 3 3.75 4.5 6 9 12 3/4”=1’ .04167 1/24 .25 .375 .5 .75 45 68 12 16 1/2”=1’ .03125 1/32 6 7.5 9 12 18 24 3/8”=1’ .02083 1/48 .5 .75 1 1.5 8 10 12 16 24 32 1/4”=1’ .015625 1/64 12 15 18 24 36 48 3/16”=1’ .01042 1/96 .75 1.125 1.5 2.25 16 20 24 32 48 64 1/8”=1’ .005208 1/192 24 30 36 48 72 96 1/16”=1’ .0083 1/120 1 1.5 2 3 48 60 72 96 144 192 1”=10’ .004167 1/240 30 37.5 45 60 90 120 1”=20’ .002778 1/360 1.5 2.25 3 4.5 60 75 90 120 180 240 1”=30’ 90 112.5 135 180 270 360 23 46 3 4.5 6 9 46 8 12 69 12 18 12 18 24 36 7.5 11.25 15 22.5 15 22.5 30 45 22.5 33.75 45 67.5 Using This Chart Because all work done in AutoCAD models should be at 1:1, text and labels must be adjusted to appropriate sizes based on the scale at which they will be printed. For example: if a detail drawing will be printed at 3”=1’-0”, and the desired height of the text when printed is 1/8”, the text in the model must be set to 0.5”. If the same drawing will be printed at 1/4” = 1’- 0”, and that text also needs to be 1/8” high, any text related to the 1/4” scale output would be set to 6” in the model. Many clients, including government agencies, will require a minimum text size for legibility. Using Paper Space Scales (XP) The XP scale is the relationship between the desired plotted scale and the sheet of paper on which it will be plotted. With hand drafting, one would typically use an architect’s or engineer’s scale to assist in correctly making a drawing “to scale.” On such a scale, if using 1/4” = 1’-0”, 1’ is shown on the scale as 1/4” in length; 2’ are shown as 1/2”, and so on. In reality, the scale has already done much of the calculation necessary to draw at the desired scale. To describe this process accurately, one could say that, for the drawing to fit on a certain sheet of paper, the drawing has been made at 1/48th its full scale (if 1/4”=1 2 ”, 1/4 x 1/12 = X , t h e r e f o r e X = 1/ 48) . In AutoCAD the process is much the same. To set the scale of a viewport while inside the viewport (ms) in paper space, zoom to 1/48XP (also equal to 0.02083XP). XP literally means “times paper space.” This action will zoom the viewport window to 1/4” = 1’-0” in relation to the paper space title block, which is printed at 1:1. Computer Standards and Guidelines 159

14 AUTOCAD FILE-NAMING CONVENTIONS File types have a direct bearing on the format of the file and the manner in which it should be named. File types include models, details, sheets, schedules, text, databases, symbols, borders, and title blocks. The file- and layer-naming system discussed here follows the AIA CAD Guidelines, as established by the U.S. National CAD Standard. Model Files Level 1 Discipline Designators A building model file is an Both file names and layer names are classi- electronic representation fied by discipline. The discipline code is a two- of the building. Models character field in which the second character may be two- or three- is either a hyphen or a modifier defined by the dimensional and are cre- user. ated at a true 1:1 scale. All geometry in a model A Architectural file contains a three-di- B Geotechnical mensional coordinate (x, C Civil y, z). In two-dimensional D Process drawings, the z coordi- E Electrical nate is 0. F Fire Protection G General Sheet Files H Hazardous Materials The electronic sheet file I Interiors contains one or more L Landscape views of one or more M Mechanical model files, as well as O Operations text, symbols, and, often, P Plumbing a border or title block. Q Equipment The title block generally R Resource contains graphic and S Structural text information common T Telecommunications to all other sheets in a V Survey/Mapping project or section. W Distributed Energy X Other Disciplines Z Contractor/Shop Drawings 160 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

14 Standard Model File Identification Model File Types A AAUUUU FP Floor Plans discipline SP Site Plans designator DP Demolition Plans (same as for sheet file naming) QP Equipment Plans XP Existing Plans A AAUUUU EL Elevations SC Sections hyphen DT Details (serves as a placeholder and makes name more readable) SH Schedules 3D Three-Dimensional A AAUUUU Drawings DG Diagrams model file defined by user type (optional alphanumeric modifiers) Examples: A-FP-01 (Architectural Floor Plan, Level 1) P-DP-010 (Plumbing Demolition Plan, Level 1) Standard Sheet Identification Sheet Type A A NNN UUU Designators discipline 0 General designator 1 Plans (discipline character plus optional modifier character) 2 Elevations 3 Sections A A N NN UUU 4 Large-scale Views 5 Details AA sheet type UUU 6 Schedules and designator defined by user Diagrams N NN (optional alphanumeric 7 User Defined modifiers) 8 User Defined sheet 9 TDhrarewei-nDgismensional sequence numbers Examples: A-103 (Architectural Plan, Level 3) AD206 (Architectural Demolition Elevation, Level 6) Computer Standards and Guidelines 161

3.STANDARDS 162 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

PROPORTION AND FORM Since most architecture, even that designed for a large-scale use (such as an airplane hangar or an elephant barn), requires some human interface, our own bodies serve as useful reference points for inhabiting space. Simi- larly, no matter how complicated structures may be, most are reducible to the point, line, or plane that evolved into the more complex combinations of forms and spaces that constitute a design. Throughout history, architects have devised and employed ordering and proportioning systems for architecture based on the logics of harmonics, arithmetic, geometry, and the human body, often producing a visual and physical order that is apparent to the observer even if the organizing logic is not known or understood. Daily life brings us into contact with endless numbers of systems of ar- rangement and order, much of it centered on how our bodies and our cars (extensions of our bodies) use and navigate our immediate surroundings and share them with others. The standards presented here describe the basic clearances demanded of an assortment of programs that architects regularly encounter. They do not propose specific designs, but give a better understanding of how different bodies occupy different spaces. 163

15164 MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS Chapter 15: The Human Scale The scale of the human body informs almost every aspect of architectural design. The dimensions in this chapter represent an average range (the lower number denotes the 2.5th percentile, while the upper number denotes the 97.5th percentile). 19.4 495 15.3 390 75.0 1 905 16.0 405 13.6 345 64 .6 1 640 15.1 385 12.4 315 shoulder 59.7 1 515 eye 51.0 1 295 70.3 1 785 19.2 485 60.6 1 540 16.7 425 40.5 1 030 34.3 870 center of pelvis gravity 22.4 570 18.1 460 19.0 480 Adult Male Figure 15.3 390 4.7 120 164 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK knee 4.2 105 17.7 450 14.8 375 ankle

15 On the drawings below, the gray bars indicate inches and the blue bars indicate millimeters. 70.4 1 790 14.5 370 shoulder 17.7 450 60.6 1 540 12.8 325 center of 14.4 365 gravity 55.9 1 415 18.0 455 pelvis 13.7 350 47.8 1 215 15.7 400 11.2 285 knee eye ankle 66.0 1 675 56.6 1 440 37.9 960 32.1 815 16.7 425 14.0 355 21.2 535 18.1 460 16.2 410 13.6 345 5.0 125 4.5 115 Adult Female Figure The Human Scale 165

15166 MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS 6” (152) ACCESSIBLE DESIGN DIMENSIONS 42” (1 067) 26” (660) 18” (457) 43” –51” (1 092–1 295) eye 36” (914) 27” (686) 19” (483) lap 30” (762) seat toe 8” (203) Overall Dimensions for Adult Wheelchairs 166 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

15 Architects must equally be familiar with the dimensions of those with special needs, specifically the constraints posed by wheelchair use. Design to accommodate wheelchairs and other special needs is increasingly the rule rather than the exception, particularly as the concept of universal design gains more prominence. Universal design suggests making all elements and spaces accessible to and usable by all people to the greatest extent possible—a goal that, through thoughtful planning and design, need not add to the cost of production. shelving depth high shelf reach 9”–12” (230–305) 48.5”–67.7” (1 230–720) highest work clearance eye shelves: 15 - 20 (380 - 510) reach to front 45.5” (1 155) reach to workspace 21” (535) switches and phone dial back 42” height 42”–48” (1 065–220) (1 075) counter height minimum 32” (810) workspace low shelf (reach to toe clearance width back) 10” (255) 42” (1 065) 18” (455) lowest toe space shelf 7” (180) 10.7” (270) Side Approach Work Station Clearances The Human Scale 167

15168 MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS SEATED DIMENSIONS 12” (305)54” (1 372) switches 42”–48” (1 065–220) 24”–30” (610–760) knee well wall outlets 20”–24” (510–610) 18” (457) toe space 4” (102)4” (102) Work Station Clearances 25”–31.5” (635–800) 168 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK 24” (610) 14.4”–18.5” (365–470)

25” (625) 15 30” (750) 35” (875) 35” (875) 38” (950) 25” (625) 35” (875) 39” (1 000) 35” (875) 73” (1 875) 12” (300) 35” (875) Lounging Position General Space Considerations The Human Scale 169

15170 MATERIALS, STRUCTURES, AND STANDARDS 8” (203) 12” (305) 4” (102) Masonry 16” (406) 6” (152) 4” (102) 6” (152) 8” (203) 8” (203) 10” (254) 12” (305) Wood Masonry Proportions of Materials 170 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

15 48” (1 220) 48” (1 220) 96” (2 440) 60” (1 524) 96” (2 440) Gypsum Wall Board Plywood Plywood 60” (1 524) Proportions of Materials The Human Scale 171

16 Chapter 16: Residential Spaces KITCHENS Typical Dimensions 30” (762) 18” (457) 5’-6” (1 676) avg. 32” (813) avg. 36” (914) 30” (762) avg. U-shape Typical work triangle Layout Types 5’-0” (1 524) min. Storage guidelines: work triangle minimum 18 sq. ft. (1.67 m2) basic storage, plus 6 sq. ft. (0.56 m2) per person served. The total distance of all three sides of the work triangle should average between 12 lineal feet (3 660) and 22 lineal feet (6 705). L-shape 172 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Cabinetry Components 16 upper cabinets adjustable shelves 4’-0” (1 219) min. backsplash 12” (305) drawer 25” (635) adjustable shelves door base Appliances line of work Many appli- work triangle ances have be- come modular in width, and fit within a 3” system (ex. 9”, 12”, 15”, 18”, 21”, 24”...48”) Single Wall Parallel Walls Residential Spaces 173

16 Minimum ceiling height = 6’-8” (2 032) Minimum ventilation should be a window BATHROOMS of at least 3 sq. ft. (0.28 m2), of which General Guidelines 50 percent is operable, or a mechanical (Subject to Local Codes) ventilation system of at least 50 cu. ft. per minute (cfm) ducted to the outside. Wall area above a tub or shower pan should be covered in a waterproof material to a height of not less than 72” (1 829) AFF. 18”(457) 18”(457) 30”(762) 36” (914) min. Minimum clear Vanity height = 32”–43” opening at door (813–1 092), as it suits = 32” (813). Door the user swing should not interfere with other doors (including cabinets) or the safe use of fixtures and cabinets. 174 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

16 Glazing 2’-6” (762)Typical Arrangements Tempered glass or an approved equal should be used in the fol- 6’-3” (1 905) lowing conditions: shower doors or other glass in tub or shower 4’-0” (1 219) enclosures; tub or shower sur- rounds with glass windows or walls that are less than 60” (1 524) above any standing sur- face; and any glazing such as windows or doors whose bottom edge is less than 18” (458) AFF. Floors 4’-6” (1 372) Bathroom floors and tub and shower floors should have slip-resistant surfaces. Electrical Outlets 5’-0” (1 524) All electrical receptacles should be protected by GFCI (ground- 7’-0” (2 134) fault circuit interrupter) protec- tors, and at least one GFCI 5’-0” (1 524) receptacle should be installed within 36” (914) of the outside edge of the lavatory. No recep- tacles of any kind should be installed in a shower or bathtub space, nor should switches be installed in wet locations in tub and shower spaces (unless installed as part of a UL-listed tub or shower assembly). Lighting 7’-6” (2 286) In addition to general lighting, task lighting should be installed 5’-0” (1 524) at each functional area of the bathroom, and at least one light must be provided that is con- trolled by a wall switch located at the entry. Any light fixture installed at a tub or shower must be marked as suitable for damp/wet locations. 8’-0” (2 438) Residential Spaces 175

16 Ceiling height should not be less than 7’-6” (2 286) for at least 50 percent of the required area; 50 percent may be sloped to a minimum height HABITABLE ROOMS of 5’ (1 524). Beds (mattress sizes) 52” (1 321) In most residential projects, sleeping Crib rooms should have 28” (711) at least one means of egress to the 75” (1 905) exterior, which can 5’-0” (1 524) be in the form of an operable window 7’-6” (2 286) of not less than 3.3 sq. ft. (0.307 m2), and with a minimum clear opening of 20” x 24” (508 x 610), with a sill height no higher than 44” (1 118). Twin 39” (991) Seating 75” (1 905) Table Size Maximum 28”–42” (varies) (in.) Seats 24 x 48 4 Full 30 x 48 4 (2 wch.) (Double) 30 x 60 6 (4 wch.) 54” (1 372) 36 x 72 6 (6 wch.) 24”– 40” 4’-0” –10’-0” (varies) (varies) 36 x 84 8 (6 wch.) 30 x 30 2 80” (2 032) 36 x 36 4 42 x 42 4 (2 wch.) 48 x 48 8 (2 wch.) 18” x 18” 36” (914) (457 x 457), 54 x 54 8 (4 wch.) typical Queen 30 dia. 2 60” (1 524) 36 dia. 4 42 dia. 4–5 48 dia. 6 (2 wch.) 54 dia. 6 (4 wch.) 80” (2 032) wch. = wheelchair in. 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 72 84 King mm 610 762 914 1067 1 219 1 372 1 524 1 829 2 134 76” (1 930) 176 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

16 Each dwelling should have at Habitable rooms (ex- Kitchens may be a least one room not less than cept bathrooms and minimum of 50 sq. 120 sq. ft. (11.15 m2). kitchens) should have ft. (4.65 m2). an area greater than or equal to 70 sq. ft. (6.51 m2), with no less than 7’-0” (2 134) in any direction. Closets Garages A minimum clearance of 2’-6” (762) for circulation should be maintained between the vehicle and other vehicles, walls, or equipment. 22”–30” (559–762) clear inside depth 5’-10”–6’-4” (1 779–930) 5’-2”–5’-10” (1 575–779) 21’-10” (6 655) avg. 48”–72” (1 219–829) 11’-2” (3 404) avg. for one car of hanging space 19’-10” (6 045) avg. for two cars per person 8’ (2 438) min. door clearance 12” (305) = 6 suits, 9’ (2 743) recommended 12 shirts, 8 dresses, or 6 pairs of pants 16’ (4 877) min. required for single door of two-car garage Residential Spaces 177

16 1-person: 2’-0”–2’-6” (610–762) EATING 2-person: 3’-6”–4’-6” (1 067–372) Seating Types 2’-0”–2’-6” (610–762) Booths 3’-0”–4’-0” Booth tables may be (914–1 219) 2” (51) shorter than 1’-6” bench seats, and with (457) rounded corners to 2’-6” (762) facilitate getting in and out of the booth. 0–4” (0–102) 1’-6” (457) Tables 5’-0”–6’-2” Chair seat dimensions (1 524–880) average 1’-2”–1’-6” (356–457). customer zone 1’-6”–2’-0” (457–610) Tables with widespread bases (shown here) are 2’-6” (762) more practical for sitting 1’-6” (457) down and getting up than four-legged tables. Bars and Counters customer zone 2’-6” (762) 1’-6”–2’-0” 3’-6”–3’-9” (1 067–143) Counter stools should (457–610) 2’-4”–3’-2” average ten per server. (711–965) 5’-0”–5’-9” (1 524–753) 3’-0”–3’-6” 1’-6”–2’-0” (914–1 067) (457–610) 6”–7” (152–179) 2’-6”–2’-10” (762–864) 2’-6”–3’-0” 2’-0”–2’-6” (762–914) (610–762) 178 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Seating Clearances 16 Clear floor area for wheelchairs is 30” x 48” Residential Spaces 179 (762 x 1 219), of which 19” (483) may be used for required under-table knee space. At least 5 percent (but not less than 1) of tables must be accessible. 19” (483) 36” (914) required for all accessible routes service aisle 6” (152) no 18” (457) passage limited passage 30”–42” (762–1 067); 36” (914) minimum required for accessible aisle service aisle service30” (762) aisle service aisle bar

16 PUBLIC SEATING Accessible spaces of 36” x 60” Typical Chair Widths (914 x 1 524) should be open, Chair widths typically run 18”–24” (457–610); the ideal on level ground, and provided width is 21” (533). as follows: Plumb Line Clearance Total Seating Wheelchair Spaces The distance between an unoccupied chair in the up posi- 4–25 tion and the back of the chair in front of it. Local codes 26–50 1 should be consulted for minimum clearances. 51–300 2 301–500 4 Row Spacing 500+ Row spacing, like tread, runs 32”–40” (813–1 016) and 6 higher. 6 (+1 per each additional 100 seats) Closer spacing may cause uncomfortable conditions for the seated person, as well as difficulty for anyone trying Also, 1 percent of all fixed seats to pass in front of a seated person. Conversely, whereas (but not less than one) must have wider spacing of rows provides more comfort while sit- removable or folding armrests on ting and passing in front of seated persons, too wide a the aisle side and must be identi- spacing may make the audience feel overly spread out. In fied with appropriate signage. addition, the wider spacing may encourage some people to try to squeeze through when exiting, causing a jam that could be dangerous in the event of an emergency. An ideal spacing that accounts for all of these factors is 36” (914). row spacing (= tread) 20” (508) max. plumb line clearance 6” 8.5” (152) (216) pitch 17” (432) row spacing (= tread) 180 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

16 OFFICE WORKSPACES Flexible Workspaces Many companies produce flexible office furniture and workspace modules, in a wide variety of styles and finishes. These diagrams are for general layout purposes only and to illustrate a range of possibilities for office privacy, interaction, and space allocation. 8’-0” 8’-0” (2 438) (2438) 30”(762) 30”(762) 24” (610) 30”(762) Various arrangements of four 8’ x 8’ (2 438 x 2 438) workspaces, allowing for a wide range of levels of interaction. The primary advan- tage of flexible office furniture is precisely its ability to adjust to changing staff levels, changing personnel type, and even shifts in the nature of work being performed in the space. Residential Spaces 181

167 Chapter 17: Form and Organization PRIMARY ELEMENTS The primary elements of form are points, lines, planes, and volumes, each growing from the other. A point is a position in space and the prime generator of form. A line is a point extended; its properties are length, position, and direction. A plane is a line extended; its properties are width and length, shape, surface, orientation, and position. A volume is a plane extended; its properties are length, width, and depth, form and space, surface, orientation, and position. PRIMARY SHAPES Square Triangle Circle PLATONIC SOLIDS Cube Pyramid Cone Cylinder Sphere 182 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

176 POLYHEDRA Icosahedron (20-sided Solid) Geodesic Sphere Geodesic Dome A geometric polyhedron is a three- Geodesic spheres and domes are designed by filling dimensional solid made up of a col- each face of a solid, such as an icosahedron, with a lection of polygons, usually joined regular pattern of triangles, bulged out so that their at the edges. vertices are not coplanar but are in the surface of the sphere instead. As a structural concept, the subpattern BOOLEAN OPERATIONS of triangles form geodesics that distribute stresses across the structure. Joining together or subtracting of one solid from one or more sets of solids. Union Extraction Intersection RULED SURFACES A ruled surface, which is the surface generated by connect- ing line segments between corresponding points, can take many forms. Hyperboloid of Revolution Hyperbolic Paraboloid Conoid A hyperbolic paraboloid is a doubly ruled surface generated by two meshes of lines that are skewed from each other but appear parallel when viewed in plan. The saddle point is found at its center. FoRremsiadnednOtiraglaSnipzatcieosn 183

17 THE GOLDEN SECTION The properties of proportion of the golden section have been employed by architects, artists, mathematicians, and musicians since the ancient Greeks recognized its proportional ordering in the human body. Even today many believe it to contain mystical qualities, whose unique math- ematical and geometrical relationships create a harmonic condition that is nature’s aesthetically “perfect” balance between symmetry and asymmetry. Constructing a Golden Rectangle AC B A CB 2. Draw a line from the 4. Line AB is the long leg of 1. Create a square and midpoint to a corner that the golden rectangle. locate the midpoint of does not share a line with one side. the midpoint. 5. A golden rectangle has been added to the original 3. This is the radius of a square, and together they circle with its center at the also form a larger golden midpoint; the point where the rectangle. circle and the line AC inter- sect becomes point B. 6. The process can be repeated infinitely, creating proportionally larger or smaller series of squares and rectangles. AC B In mathematics, the golden section is the ratio of Calculating the Golden Mean the two divisions of a line such that the smaller is to the larger as the larger is to the sum of the two. In AC/CB = AB/AC (a unique characteristic) addition to its many uses in the arts and music, there If AB = 1, let AC = x are practical uses for the mathematical integrity of the golden section in its proportions x=!5 –1 = 0.61803398 . . . (infinite). as related to structure. 2 Therefore: the ratio of AC to AB is approximately 61.8%; the inverse (1/61.8) is 1.61803398 . . . 184 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

17 THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE The Fibonacci Sequence is a recursive series of numbers, where each number in the sequence is the sum of the two numbers preceding it. A simple sequence beginning with 0 follows: 0 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 13 , 21 , 34 , 55 … Any two adjacent numbers in the sequence may be divided, the lower number by the higher number (for example, 34/55), to achieve a very close approximation of the golden section (in this case, 0.6181818 . . . ). The higher the numbers, the more accurate the answer will be (for example: 377/610 = 0.6180327 . . . ). REGULATING LINES The guiding lines that indicate the pro- portional and alignment relationships in drawings, such as those depicting the golden rectangle, are known as regulating lines. They are used, for instance, both to determine and to illustrate proportional relationships in a design. Rectangles whose diagonals are either perpendicular or parallel to each other have similar proportions (even if they are not golden rect- angles), and the use of such lines is a common proportional ordering tool. axis intersection at perpendicular lines tangent to arc parallel lines Residential Spaces 185

18 Chapter 18: Architectural Elements CLASSICAL ELEMENTS Classical architecture typically refers to the styles of both ancient Greece and Rome, which are based around the fixed columnar proportions and ornamentation of the classical orders. Both Greek and Roman classicism have been the bases of revivals throughout history, and the ideals behind their form and proportion continue to have resonance today. Parthenon, peripteros: Athens, Greece single row of columns 448–32 B.C.E. surrounding building cella (naos): pronaos: shrine room at vestibule center of temple opisthodomos: enclosed section 186 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK at the rear of the temple

tympanium 18 acroterion pediment triglyph metope cornice tenia frieze guttae regula architrave capital shaft shaft (maximum entasis at 2/5 height of column) Entasis: Slight convex curvature stylobate of classical columns, used to counteract the optical illusion of stereobate concavity produced by straight lines. Other adjustments, such Caryatid: Sculpted female figure as reclining the columns slightly used as a column to support an away from the vertical and making entablature. Other forms include the end columns larger and closer atlantes or telamones (male together, also produce a more caryatids), canephorae (females pleasing visual effect. with baskets on their heads), herms (three-quarter-height figures), and terms (pedestals that taper upward, terminating in a sculptured human or animal). Architectural Elements 187

18 CLASSICAL ORDERS Elements of the classical orders are distinguished by their unique proportioning system based on the shaft diameter of the columns, from which pedestal, shaft, and entablature heights are derived. Using a common shaft diameter, the five orders are shown here in their proportional relationship to each other. Tuscan Doric Ionic simplest; derived from Greek (no base) characterized by Etruscan temples and Roman volutes on its capital entablature 13/4 dia. 2 dia. 2 1/4 dia. capital 7 dia. 8 dia. 9 dia. shaft 1 dia. base pedestal 21/3 dia. 22/3 dia. 3 dia. 188 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

18 Corinthian Composite Greek and Roman, Roman combination fluted or not; of Ionic and Corinthian characterized by orders acanthus leaves on its capital 2 1/2 dia. 2 1/2 dia. entablature architrave frieze cornice capital 10 dia. 10 dia. base shaft plinth 31/3 dia. 31/3 dia. dado or pedestal die plinth AArcrhchitietcetcuturarlalElEelmemenentsts 189

18 GOTHIC ELEMENTS finial wooden roof crocket pinnacle flying buttress tritorium clerestory aisle main arcade nave aisle buttress pier Rheims Cathedral, France aisle 1212–1300 nave chapel apse transept chapel Typical Plan 190 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

18 ARCHES 6 1 2 1 abutment 3 2 voussoirs 3 keystone 7 4 intrados (soffit) 5 5 extrados 4 6 crown 7 haunch 9 8 span 10 9 springing line 10 center 8 Semicircular Segmental Semicircular Stilted Jack Pointed Saracenic (Gothic) Tudor (Four-centered) Ogee Three-centered AArcrhcihtietcetcutruarlaEl lEelmemenetnsts 191

18 parapet cornice dentils louver (mechanical) drip mold mullion muntin curtain wall spandrel quoin band base (piano nobile) rustication 192 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

18 MODERNISM Architectural modernism opposed following the forms and styles of the past in favor of embracing contemporary technology and opportunities. Industrialization and innovative methods of using iron, steel, and concrete for structural systems opened up new and flexible ways to design buildings that no longer depended on heavy masonry bearing walls. Swiss architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965) de- veloped the Domino House system (1914), in which he separated building structure from enclosure, freeing up both plan and façade. Le Corbusier’s five points are supports (pilotis), roof gardens, free plans, horizontal windows, and free design of the façade. His 1929 Villa Savoye (which he dubbed a “machine for living”) in Poissy, France, illustrates all five points clearly. roof terrace free façade ribbon windows open plan pilotis Architectural Elements 193

18 CANONICAL ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATIONS MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO (c. 80 BCE - c. 15 BCE) was a Roman architect, engi- neer, and writer, whose De Architectura (in English, Ten Books on Architecture) was written around 15 BCE and dedicated to Emperor Augustus. The books provide explanation and insight into the architecture, engineering and city planning of clas- sical antiquity, though it was not until the Renaissance that they were re-discovered and ultimately published in 1486. Vitruvius proposed firmitas, utilitas, and venustas as three elements forming the basis for architecture: firmness (structural stability and integrity) commodity (efficient and functional spatial arrangement) delight (pleasing proportion and beauty) Book 1: Education of the architect; principals of architecture; city planning Book 2: Materials for building; origin of the dwelling house Book 3: Symmetry and proportion; temples; architectural orders Book 4: Temples; origins of the three orders (continuation of Book 3) Book 5: Civic buildings (Forum, Basilica, Senate); theater design Book 6: Domestic buildings Book 7: Stucco; plasterwork; colors Book 8: Water; aqueducts and cisterns Book 9: Zodiac; planets; astrology Book 10: Machines and instruments LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI (1401-1472) De Re Aedificatoria (On the Art of Building), written between 1443-1452, became the first printed book on architecture with its publication in 1485 (followed by the publication of Vitruvius’s Ten Books finally in 1486). 1. Lineaments 2. Materials 3. Construction 4. Public Works 5. Works of Individuals 6. Ornament 7. Ornament to Sacred Buildings 8. Ornament to Public Secular Buildings 9. Ornament to Private Buildings 10. Restoration of Buildings 194 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

18 ANDREA PALLADIO (1508-1580) LE CORBUSIER (1887-1965) I quattro libri dell’architettura Oeuvre Complète (The Four Books of Architecture) (Complete Works in Eight Volumes) A Renaissance architect, Palladio’s Published regularly throughout the highly illustrated treatise includes prolific working life (and beyond) of his own designs and the ancient Swiss architect Le Corbusier, the Roman inspirations for his and Oeuvre Complète comprises over other work of the Renaissance. 1700 pages. Contained within is a comprehensive collection of his Book 1 - buidling materials and sketches, drawings, projects both techniques; the orders of archi- built and unbuilt, texts and mani- tecture festos, paintings, and sculptures. Book 2 - private houses volume 1: 1910-1929 volume 2: 1929-1934 Book 3 - streets, bridges, piazzas volume 3: 1934-1938 volume 4: 1938-1946 Book 4 - reproductions of ancient volume 5: 1946-1952 Roman temple designs volume 6: 1952-1957 volume 7: 1957-1965 volume 8: 1965-1969 (last works) SEBASTIANO SERLIO (1475-1554) I sette libri dell’architettura (Seven Books of Architecture) also known as: Tutte l’opere d’architettura et prospetiva (All the works on architecture and perspective) 1. On Geometry 2. On Perspective 3. On Antiquities 4. On the Five Styles of Buildings 5. On Temples 6. On Habitations 7. On Situations With the first of the books published in 1537, Serlio’s books were highly illus- trated, and written in Italian, in order to appeal to architects and builders of the day - in contrast to Alberti’s books, which were written in Latin and did not focus on illustration. Many of Serlio’s books were published long after his death. Architectural Elements 195

3.STANDARDS

CODES AND GUIDELINES Codes, laws, and regulations can carry with them a certain off-putting sugges- tion of bureaucratic obfuscation. To run afoul of them would never be recom- mended, but attempts to understand them can be frustrating. Certainly, there exist standards that appear senseless or unnecessarily restrictive, but as the world changes and populations expand, the built environment is subject to an increasing number of forces that dictate its use and forms. As we open doors, turn on lights, and navigate stairs, we all experience firsthand standards within design practice. Ideally, codes and standards allow us to use buildings safely. Constraints brought by code restrictions may also provide an opportunity to let good design solve difficult problems. As the very real design needs of people with disabilities receive official and widespread acknowledgment and the concept of accessibility becomes more naturally integrated with architecture—for younger designers this is the norm—it can be difficult to imagine how recently it was viewed as an impediment to good design. Acceptance of the aesthetic possibilities of sustainable design is even more re- cent. In fact, new standards that accommodate all types of users and a growing recognition of architecture’s responsibility to the environment and its future can provide fresh takes on old forms and strong incentives to try new processes.

19 Chapter 19: Building Codes The fundamental purpose of building codes is to protect the health, safety, and welfare of all people through the construction of safe buildings and environments. Building practices have long been regulated in various ways, and regulations have existed in America since the early colonies, but it was the 1871 Chicago fire that emphasized the need for effective and enforceable building codes. In the early years since, most build- ing codes in the United States were written and administered by local city, county, or state jurisdictions, eventually producing three major model codes: the National Codes of the Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA), the Uniform Codes of the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), and Standard Codes of the Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI). With a few exceptions, each of the fifty states has adopted one of these models for its primary building code, in addition to supplemental codes for fire, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and resi- dential. INTERNATIONAL BUILDING CODE In 1997 the International Code Council (ICC) enlisted representatives from BOCA, ICBO, and SBCCI (the three founding arms of the ICC) to create a comprehensive and internationally avail- able model construction code that would combine the considerable scope of the existing model codes. The first International Building Code (IBC) was established in 2000, and with it, the development of the National Codes, Uniform Codes, and Standard Codes was discontinued. Currently, most U.S. states have adopted or are making efforts to adopt the IBC as their primary building code, though the process continues to differ for each state. Some have adopted the IBC but have not yet made it effective, others have adopted it on a statewide level, and still others have let their local city and county governments decide. The same has been true for the supplemental codes. The current status of the applicable codes for any given state or local jurisdiction should be verified with local building departments or by visiting the ICC website at www.iccsafe.org. Any code information cited in this book is from the IBC, unless stated otherwise. NOTE OF DISCLAIMER The code information contained in this chapter is for general information only and is here to provide the reader with an introductory overview of the purposes and organiza- tion of building codes. It is not intended to replace any codes discussed, to present interpretations or analyses of said codes, or to address any specific project. It also does not try to address all aspects of any one code in such a small number of pages; rather, the information touches on topics of general interest to most users of this book. All attempts have been made to present information as accurately as possible, with the understanding that code content may change after the book’s publication. 198 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

19 To address a changing world, the IBC codes are evolving through continual review by almost any party that comes in contact with them, including code enforcing officials, various code development committees, and design professionals. Changes occur, for instance, to address new materials, emerging technologies, and shifts in use types. They even occur to clarify interpretations of language and the intent of the codes as written. As a result, the IBC has been designed to be updated every three years. The 2012 edition, for example, exhibits the 2009 code with ICC- approved changes included. For any project, the applicable codes must be interpreted by the appropriate Authority Having Juris- diction (AHJ), which could include, among others, local building and fire officials. The use and inter- pretation of codes can be daunting, and differences of interpretation may occur among designers and building officials. For this reason, it is beneficial to a project to establish contact with the local building department early enough in the design process to address any questions of interpretation. Numerous publications offer explanations and interpretations of many aspects of code use, though they should always be used in conjunction with the code itself, and not as a substitute. In addition, licensed code consultants can provide further clarification of codes or offer a general review of projects, especially large and complex ones, with an eye to code compliance. Even with the help of consultants and the interpretations of others, architects must make every effort to familiarize themselves with pertinent codes, which puts them in a position of greater authority when issues of interpretation do arise. It is never recommended to memorize passages of the code, however, because these will change over time and memory may fail. What is important is to have a thorough working knowledge of the table of contents and to be able to navigate the code with a confident ef- ficiency that, like all aspects of the practice of architecture, comes with experience. OTHER CODES Within any one jurisdiction, a complex variety of codes may still be in use, even if the IBC has been adopted as the primary code. Local building departments must always be consulted for a complete breakdown of what codes are to be addressed for any given project. In addition, federal laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Federal Fair Housing Act must be followed. All codes are structured around protection of human life and of property, including both prevention and reaction. Code analysis is performed based on the following sets of data: Occupancy Type Construction Type Building or Floor Area Building Height Exits and Egress Building Separations and Shafts Fire Protection Fire Extinguishing Systems Engineering Requirements B uilding Co des 199

19 OCCUPANCY TYPE AND USE GROUPS A building’s use and occupancy are primary criteria for determining many aspects of how codes will affect a building, including the height, area, and type of construction allowed. Within each occupancy use group are further subdivisions. It is not unusual for a building to fall under more than one category of occupancy type, which is known as a mixed-use occupancy. It may then be handled either as a “separated use,” by providing complete fire separation between occupancies, or as a “nonseparated use,” by subjecting each occupancy type to the most stringent require- ments for its respective use group. Occupancy Use Groups Group B: Business A Assembly Most office buildings fall into this B Business category, including their storage areas E Educational (unless they exceed the amount of F Factory and Industrial hazardous materials allowable, in which h High Hazard case they become Use Group H). I Institutional Also included are educational facilities M Mercantile after grade 12 (colleges and universi- R Residential ties), outpatient clinics and doctors’ S Storage offices, and research laboratories. Any assembly area, including a lecture u Utility and Miscellaneous hall, may fall into Group A and should be treated as such. In addition, other building types exist which do not fall into the above categories, and/ or contain elements requiring additional code requirements. Group A: Assembly Group E: Educational (50 or more occupants) More than 6 people, for classes up to the 12th grade A-1: Assembly areas usually with fixed Daycare facilities for five or more seats, usually for viewing movies or perfor- children over age 21/2 (daycare fin a mances (may or may not have a stage) dwelling unit for fewer than 5 people is A-2: Assembly areas involving serving and classified as R-3) consumption of food and drink, as in a restaurant or bar. Loose seating and pos- Group F: Factory and Industrial sible patron alcohol impairment are key F-1: Moderate-hazard factory occupancy factors in this group. that has established that the relative A-3: Other assembly groups that don’t fit hazards of fabrication operations do not A-1 or A-2. May include houses of worship, put them in Group H (Hazardous) or in art galleries, and libraries. category F-2. A-4: Assembly areas for indoor sporting F-2: Low-hazard factory industrial events. occupancy where the materials of A-5: Assembly areas for outdoor manufacture are considered to be sporting events. noncombustible. 200 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Group H: High-Hazard 19 A range in high-hazard occupancies Group R: Residential from H-1 to H-5, addressing the quanti- R-1: Residences with sleeping units ties and nature of use of the hazardous serving transient occupants. May include materials. hotels and boarding houses. R-2: Permanent dwellings with more Group I: Institutional than two units. May include apartments, dormitories, and longer term boarding I-1: More than 16 people in a 24-hour houses. residential environment and under su- R-3: Permanent single-family or duplex pervised conditions. May include group residences. May also include care homes, assisted-living facilities, and facilities for 5 or fewer people, boarding halfway houses whose residents require houses with 10 or fewer occupants, and custodial care, but are capable of self (nontransient) congregate living facilities preservation. with 16 fewer occupants. Includes many residential occupancies not included in I-2: More than 5 people in a 24-hour R-1, R-2, R-4, or I. residential environment and under R-4: Between 5 and 16 occupants of a supervised conditions and receiving residential care or assisted-living facility, medical care. May include hospitals and in which the residents receive custodial nursing homes whose residents are un- care on a 24-hour basis, but are capable able to respond to emergency situations of self preservation. Types include without the aid of staff members. alcohol and drug centers and social rehabilitation facilities. I-3: More than 5 people in a 24-hour supervised environment under full-time Group S: Storage restraint and security. Because of security measures, occupants cannot S-1: Moderate-hazard storage respond to emergencies without the aid occupancy for materials not considered of a staff member. May include prisons, hazardous enough for Group H but that detention centers, and mental hospitals, do not qualify as S-2. which may be further subdivided into S-2: Low-hazard storage occupancy five categories based on the amount for materials considered to be noncom- of freedom of movement of residents bustible. inside the facility. Group U: Utility and I-4: More than 5 people under super- Miscellaneous vised conditions or custodial care for Used for incidental buildings and non- less than 24 hours a day. May include buildings (such as fences or retaining care facilities for adults and children walls) that are generally not occupied under the age of two, who are unable to for long periods of time and may serve respond to emergency situations without a secondary function to other occupan- assistance from a staff member. cies. This occupancy is seldom used and is not to be used for any building Group M: Mercantile that is difficult to categorize. Department stores, drug stores, mar- Building Codes 201 kets, gas stations, sales rooms, and retail or wholesale stores.

19 CONSTRUCTION TYPES AND FIRE RESISTANCE Construction types are categorized by their material content and the resistance to fire of the structural system. The IBC assigns five broad categories to all buildings, based on the predomi- nant materials in the building’s construction. These categories are I, II, III, IV, and V, with Type I being most fire resistive and Type V being least fire resistive. The five types are divided into A and B categories, reflecting the level of fire-resistance rating for each. Noncombustible materials, which are defined as being materials “of which no part will ignite and burn when subjected to fire,” typically include masonry and steel. Combustible materials, which may be assumed to be materials that fail to meet noncombustibility requirements, include wood and plastic. Types of Construction Noncombustible Noncombustible/Combustible Combustible IA IB IIA IIB IIIA IIIB IV VA VB (Heavy Timber = HT) All building elements All building elements Exterior walls must All building elements as listed in IBC as listed in IBC be of noncombustible Exterior walls must as defined by IBC Table 601 (structural Table 601 (structural materials and interior be of noncombustible Table 601 are of any frame, interior and frame, interior and building elements may materials and interior materials permitted by exterior bearing walls, exterior bearing walls, be of any material building elements may the code. interior and exterior interior and exterior permitted by the code. be of solid or lami- nonbearing walls, floor nonbearing walls, floor Fire retardant–treated nated wood without construction, and construction, and wood framing may be concealed spaces. roof construction) are roof construction) are allowed in exterior Fire retardant–treated of noncombustible of noncombustible wall assemblies of less wood framing may be materials. materials. Type IIB than 2-hour rating, as allowed in exterior construction is not long as they comply wall assemblies of less required to be fire- with IBC Section than 2-hour rating, as resistance rated. 2303.2. long as they comply with IBC Section 2303.2. Fire-Resistance Ratings Fire-resistance ratings are measured in hours or fractions of an hour and reflect the amount of time that a material or assembly of materials will resist fire exposure, as set forth in ASTM E119 (American Society for Testing and Materials Standard for Fire Tests of Building Constructions). When beginning design of a building, the initial code analysis must consider the desired occu- pancy and the desired height and area to determine the minimum allowable construction type for fire ratings. 202 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Means of Egress Diagram 19 An exit is an enclosed, The number of means An exit access protected way of travel out of an occupied leads an space are determined occupant from from an exit access by size, occupancy an occupied part to an exit discharge. type, and occupant of the building When the exit access load. to an exit (commonly, this is above or below is a corridor). the grade of the exit discharge, an enclosed stair or ramp is required. PUBLIC WAY This is considered an unallowable An exit discharge dead-end corridor, unless a second provides a means means of egress is provided. Typi- of moving from an cally, dead-end corridors must not exit to a public way. exceed 20' (6 069), though excep- tions exist for certain occupancies and sprinklered conditions. Building Codes 203

19 MEANS OF EGRESS Number of Means of Egress IBC 202 defines a means of egress as “a Per IBC Table 1015.1, occupancy spaces that require continuous and unobstructed path of verti- more than one means of egress are: cal and horizontal egress travel from any A, B, E, F, M, and U, with occupant loads 50 and over occupied portion of a building or structure H-1, H-2, H-3, with occupant loads over 3 to a public way.” It consists of the exit H-4, H-5, I-1, I-2, I-3, I-4, and R, with occupant loads access, the exit, and the exit discharge. over 10 Simply put, means of egress provide con- S with occupant loads 30 and over ditions for getting all occupants to a safe Any occupancy between 501 and 1,000 requires three place (usually an outdoor public way) in exits, and occupancies over 1,000 require four. the event of fire or other emergency. Required Egress Widths Exit Passageways Minimum passageway width is determined Sizes are determined by coordinating IBC by IBC 1005.1 but must not be less Table 1004.1 (summarized on the following than 44” (1 118), except for the following page) with the requirements below, taking conditions: whichever number is higher. Within a dwelling unit or in an occupancy of less than fifty: 36” (914) Egress Doors Group E with a hundred or more capacity: In areas with an egress load of more than fifty 72” (1 829) occupants, or any Group H occupancy, exit Group I-2 areas with required bed move- access doors should swing in the direction ment: 96” (2 438) of travel. If they swing into a required egress path, they may not reduce the required width Egress Stairs by more than one half while swinging open, Minimum width is determined by IBC and once opened 180º, the door may not proj- 1005.1 but must not be less than 44” (1 ect into the required width more than 7” (178). 118), except for passageways serving oc- Egress doors should be a minimum of 6’-8” cupant loads of less than fifty, which must (2 032) high, with a clear opening width be no less than 36” (914). determined by IBC 1008.1, but no less than Ramps in an egress system should have 32” (813), measured from the face of the a width no less than the corridors that door to the stop when open. serve them, and no less than 36” (914) Maximum width of a swinging door leaf is between handrails.. 48” (1 219). 204 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

19 Determining Maximum Floor Areas per Occupant Occupancy Loads (excerpted from IBC Table 1004.1.2) The table at right may be used to Type of Occupancy Floor Area per Occupant establish occupant loads per area Assembly with fixed seats sizes, from which egress widths Occupant load for areas with fixed per occupant are calculated. seats and aisles is determined by the Alternatively, occupant loads are number of seats, with one person for determined by the actual number, every 18” (457) of seating length; if larger, of occupants for whom or one person for every 24” (610) in the space is designed or, in ad- seating booths. dition, for whom the space will serve as a means of egress. Assembly without fixed seats chairs (concentrated): 7 sq. ft. (0.65 m2) net Required Egress Widths standing space: in Inches 5 sq. ft. (0.46 m2) net Per Occupant tables and chairs (unconcentrated): 15 sq. ft. (1.39 m2) net Stairs Other Egress Components Business areas 100 sq. ft. (9.29 m2) gross H-1, H-2, H-3, and H-4 0.7 0.4 Dormitories 50 sq. ft. (4.65 m2) gross (no (no sprinkler sprinkler Educational—classrooms 20 sq. ft. (1.86 m2) net system) system) 0.3 0.2 Educational— 50 sq. ft. (4.65 m2) net (with (with shop and vocational areas 200 sq. ft. (18.58 m2) gross sprinkler sprinkler system) system) Commercial kitchens I-2 Institutional 0.3 0.2 Library reading room 50 sq. ft. (4.65 m2) net (with (with 100 sq. ft. (9.29 m2) gross sprinkler sprinkler Library stacks 30 sq. ft. (2.79 m2) gross system) system) Mercantile— 60 sq. ft. (5.57 m2) gross All Other Occupancies 0.3 0.2 basement or grade floor (no (no 300 sq. ft. (27.87 m2) gross sprinkler sprinkler Mercantile—floors other than 200 sq. ft. (18.58 m2) gross system) system) basement or grade floor 200 sq. ft. (18.58 m2) gross Mercantile— storage, stock, and shipping Parking garage Residential 0.2 0.15 Net area is generally considered to be the actual occupied area and (with (with does not include unoccupied areas such as corridors, walls, stairways, sprinkler sprinkler or toilets. Gross area includes floor area within the inside perimeter of system) system) the exterior walls, as well as corridors, stairways, closets, interior partitions, columns, and other fixed features. Building Codes 205

20 Chapter 20: ADA and Accessibility The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed by Congress in 1990 to protect and honor the civil rights of people with disabilities, including conditions affecting mo- bility, sight, hearing, stamina, speech, and learning disorders. Modeled on earlier land- mark laws prohibiting discrimination based on race and gender, the ADA provides equal access for all people to housing, public accommodations, employment, government services, transportation, and telecommunications. Similar to building codes, acces- sibility guidelines and standards are continually subject to improvement and revision, and in 2010 the Department of Justice adopted a revised set of standards, published as the 2010 Standards for Accessible Design. Included among the revisions are ac- commodation for children, and ambulatory (in addition to wheelchair) accessibility. KEY TERMS AS DEFINED BY ADA Access aisle: Accessible pedestrian space be- Addition: Expansion, extension, or increase in tween elements such as parking spaces, seating, the gross floor area of a building or facility. or desks that provides clearances appropriate for use of the elements. Administrative authority: Governmental agency that adopts or enforces regulations Accessible: Of a site, building, facility, or portion and guidelines for the design, construction, or thereof, in compliance with ADA guidelines. alteration of buildings and facilities. Accessible element: Element (telephone, con- Area of rescue assistance: Area that has trols, and the like) specified by ADA guidelines as direct access to an exit, where people who in compliance. cannot use stairs may remain temporarily in safety to await further instructions or assis- Accessible route: Continuous unobstructed path tance during emergency evacuation. connecting all accessible elements and spaces of a building or facility. Interior accessible routes Assembly area: Room or space accommodat- may include corridors, floors, ramps, elevators, ing a group of individuals for recreational, lifts, and clear floor space at fixtures. Exterior educational, political, social, or amusement accessible routes may include parking access purposes, or for the consumption of food and aisles, curb ramps, crosswalks at vehicular ways, drink. walks, ramps, and lifts. Automatic door: Door equipped with a power- Accessible space: Space that complies with ADA operated mechanism and controls that open guidelines. and close the door automatically on receipt of a momentary actuating signal. The switch Adaptability: Ability of certain building spaces that begins the automatic cycle may be a pho- and elements, such as kitchen counters, sinks, toelectric device, floor mat, or manual switch. and grab bars, to be added or altered so as to See power-assisted door. accommodate the needs of individuals with or without disabilities or with different types or degrees of disability. 206 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

20 Building: Any structure used and intended for Elements: Architectural or mechanical compo- supporting or sheltering any use or occupancy. nent of a building, facility, space, or site (for example, a telephone, curb ramp, door, drink- Circulation path: Exterior or interior way ing fountain, seating, or water closet). of passage from one place to another for pedestrians, including, but not limited to, Entrance: Any access point to a building or walks, hallways, courtyards, stairways, and portion of a building or facility used for the stair landings. purpose of entering. An entrance includes the approach walk, the vertical access leading to Clear: Unobstructed. the entrance platform, the entrance platform itself, vestibules if provided, the entry door(s) Clear floor space: Minimum unobstructed or gate(s), and the hardware of the entry floor or ground space required to accom- door(s) or gate(s). modate a single, stationary wheelchair and occupant. Marked crossing: Crosswalk or other identi- fied path intended for pedestrian use in cross- Common use: Describes interior and exterior ing a vehicular way. rooms, spaces, or elements that are made available for the use of a restricted group Operable part: Part of a piece of equipment or of people (for example, the occupants of a appliance used to insert or withdraw objects, homeless shelter, the occupants of an office or to activate, deactivate, or adjust the equip- building, or the guests of such occupants). ment or appliance (for example, a coin slot, push button, or handle). Cross slope: Slope that is perpendicular to the direction of travel. Power-assisted door: Door used for human passage with a mechanism that helps to open Curb ramp: Short ramp cutting through a curb the door, or relieves the opening resistance or built up to it. of a door, on the activation of a switch or a continued force applied to the door itself. Detectable warning: Standardized surface feature built in or applied to a walking surface or other elements to warn visually impaired people of hazards on a circulation path. Egress, means of: Continuous and unob- structed way of exit travel from any point in a building or facility to a public way. A means of egress comprises vertical and horizontal travel and may include intervening room spaces, doorways, hallways, corridors, passageways, balconies, ramps, stairs, enclosures, lobbies, horizontal exits, courts, and yards. An acces- sible means of egress is one that complies with ADA guidelines and does not include stairs, steps, or escalators. Areas of rescue assistance or evacuation elevators may be in- cluded as part of accessible means of egress. ADA and Accessibility 207

20 Public use: Describes interior or ex- SIGNAGE button terior rooms or spaces that are made Elevator Control Panel diameter available to the general public. Public 3/4” (19) use may be provided at a building or Raised facility that is privately character door close or publicly owned. and Braille emergency stop designa- Ramp: Walking surface that has a tions - left running slope greater than 1:20. of button main Running slope: Slope that is parallel entry floor to the direction of travel. door open Signage: Displayed verbal, symbolic, emergency tactile, and pictorial information. alarm Space: Definable area (for example, Emergency controls should be grouped at the a room, toilet room, hall, assembly bottom, with centerlines no less than 35” (889) area, entrance, storage room, alcove, AFF. courtyard, or lobby). Tactile: Of an object, perceptible us- ing the sense of touch. Text telephone: Machinery or Raised and Tactile Characters equipment that employs interactive graphic (that is, typed) communica- Characters should be raised 1/32” (0.8) tions through the transmission of and in uppercase with sans serif font. Char- coded signals across the standard acters shall not be italic, oblique, decorative telephone network. Text telephones or unusual. can include devices known as TDDs (telecommunication display devices Characters must be accompanied by Grade or telecommunication devices for 2 Braille. deaf persons) or computers. Raised characters must be a minimum of 5/8” Walk: Exterior pathway with a (16) and maximum of 2” (51) high based on an prepared surface intended for uppercase I. pedestrian use, including general pedestrian areas such as plazas Braille shall be positioned below the corre- and courts. sponding text, and shall be separated by 3/8” (10) minimum from any other tactile characters 208 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK or raised borders. Tactile characters on signs shall be located 48” (1 220) min. AFF, measured from the baseline of the lowest character, and 60” (1 525) max. AFF, measured from the baseline of the highest tactile character.

Visual Characters 20 Characters and background must be egg- ACCESSIBLE MEANS OF EGRESS shell, matte, or another nonglare finish and must contrast with background (either light Any space that is considered to be on dark or dark on light). accessible must have at least one accessible means of egress. Characters may be uppercase or low- ercase, or a combination of both, and Elevators that comply with ASME A17.1, shall not be italic, oblique, decorative or Safety Code for Elevators and Escala- unusual. tors, may be allowed as part of an acces- sible egress route. Primarily, they must be Minimum character height shall be deter- equipped with standby power and emergency mined by the horizontal viewing distance operation and signaling devices, and most (per 2010 Standard 703). must be accessed from an area of refuge. Pictograms Areas of refuge, where those unable to use stairways remain temporarily in an evacua- Text descriptors (if any) must be placed tion, should be in an egress stairway or have directly below pictogram field. direct access to one, or to an elevator with emergency power. Two-way communications Pictograms can be any size within a mini- systems should be provided in the area of mum field of 6” (153) in height. refuge, connecting it to a central control point. One 30” x 48” (762 x 1 219) wheelchair space must be provided for every two hundred occupants of the space served. Generally these spaces are alcoves within an en- closed stair, because they must not reduce the egress width. Except in sprinklered buildings, accessible egress stairways should be a minimum of 48” (1 219) wide clear between handrails. This provides a space wide enough for two people to carry a disabled person down or up to safety. ADA and Accessibility 209

20 ACCESSIBLE PARKING SPACES The length of accessible parking space access parking space parking spaces must be aisle in accordance with local 96” 96” building codes. Accessible (2 438) 60” (2 438) spaces should be marked (1 524) by high-contrast painted lines or other high-contrast for vans: delineation. Access 96” aisles should be a part of an accessible route (2 438) to the building or facility entrance. Two accessible parking spaces may share a common access aisle. Access aisles should be marked clearly by means of diagonal stripes. Number of Accessible Spaces Required 1–25 1 Surface slopes should not exceed 26–50 2 1:50 (2%) in any direction on accessible 51–75 3 parking spaces and access aisles. 76–100 4 101–150 5 Accessible parking spaces serving a 151–200 6 particular building should be located on 201–300 7 the shortest accessible route of travel 301–400 8 from the adjacent parking to an acces- 401–500 9 sible entrance. 501–1,000 2% of total 1,001 and over 20 plus 1 for each 100 In buildings with multiple accessible over 1,000 entrances with adjacent parking, accessible parking spaces should be dispersed and located closest to the accessible entrances. 210 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

20 WHEELCHAIR SPACE ALLOWANCES Clear floor or ground space is defined as the minimum clear area required to accommodate a single, stationary wheelchair and occupant. This applies to both forward and parallel approaches to an element or object. Clear floor space may be part of the knee space required under objects such as sinks and counters. Wheelchair Passage Widths Clear Floor Space at Alcoves 36” (914) 30” (762) x # 24” (610) 48” (1 219) 32” (813) 60” (1 524) single wheelchair two wheelchairs 30” x 48” 48” (1 219)x 36” (914) (762 x 1 219) 30” (762) clear floor x#15” (381) space, typical 30” (762) or 12” 12” (305) (305) 36” (914) if x$24” (610) 36” (914) 60” (1 524) 60” (1 524) dia. min. 78” (1 981) preferred 60” (1 524) dia. min. x x 48” (1 219) or 60” (1 524) if x$15” (381) AADDAAaannddAAcccceessssiibbiilliittyy 211

20 Maneuvering Clearances at Doors DOORS Clear Doorway Width and Depth pull side 60” (1 524) 18” (458) hinged door 60” 12” sliding door (1 524) (305) folding door 32” (813) push side Swinging Doors (front approaches) 24” max. (610) pull side 48” 24” (1 219) (610) 42” (1 067) 24” (610) push side Swinging Doors (latch-side approaches) 212 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

20 Two Hinged Doors X in a Series 54” 42” pull side (1 372) (1 067) Swinging Doors push side (hinge-side approaches) Y 48”If Y=60” (1 524 ), (1 219)X=36” (914 ) If Y=54” (1 372), X=42” (1 067) front approach 48” (1 219) 42” (1 067) 54” side 48” (1 372) approach (1 219) 24” (610) 42” (1 067) latch-side approach Sliding and Folding Doors AADDAAaannddAAcccceessssiibbiilliittyy 213

20 TOILETS AND BATHROOMS Clear Floor Space at Water Closets - Adult 60” 56”-59” (1 525) (1 420 - 1 499) Toilet Stalls 35” - 37” Grab bars: (890 - 940) circular cross section 60” min. should be 11/4”–2” (32–51) (1 524) 12” max. 12” max. in diameter, with a clear- 24” min. (305) (305) ance of 11/2” (38) from wall. (609) non-circular cross sections 12” 54” min. shall have a cross- (305) (1 372) sectional dimension of 2” 60” min. (1 524) (51) max, and a perimeter 56” min. (1 420) 16”-18” 52” min. 17” -19” dimension between 4” and wall-mtd. toilet (406-457) (1 321) (432-482) 4.8” (100 - 120) 59” (1 499) floor-mtd. toilet 32” 32” 42” (1 067) min. (813) (813) latch-side approach 48” (1 219) min. other approaches Wheelchair Accessible Stall Ambulatory Accessible Stall 56” min. (1 422) 16”-18” 60” 12” 42” (406-457) (1 524) (305) (1 065) 36” 32” 33–36” toilet paper dis- (914) (813) (838–914) penser mounting 17–19” height: 15” (483) (432–483) - 48” (1 220) End-of-Row Wheelchair Accessible Stall Side-wall Elevation 214 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

20 Lavatories 17” min. (432) 30” x 48” (762 x 36” (914)19” max. 8” min. 6” max. 1 219) min. 30” min.(483)(203) (19) clear floor (762) space 9” min.17” min. (229)(432) Showers 27” min. 36” (914) (686)60” min.A seat must be provided in 34” max.(1 524)shower stalls 36” x 36” fixed seat (864)(914 x 914), mounted 17”–19” 40” max.(432–83) from the bathroom (1 016)floor and extending from the back wall to a point within 3” (76) of the compartment entry. 36” x 48” 36” x 60” Fixed seats in 30” x 60” (914 x (762 x 1 524) shower stalls (914 x should be of a folding type 1 219) min. 1 524) mounted on the wall adjacent clear floor min. to the controls. space clear floor 15” (381) space Roll-in Type Transfer Type Bathtubs foot seat head seat 30” x 60” (762 x 1 524) 48” x 60” (1 219 x 1 524) 30” x 75” (762 x 1 905) min. min. clear floor space min. clear floor space clear floor space 12” max. 24” min. 12”max. 48” min. (305) (610) (305) (1 219) 8”-10” (203-254) 33-36” (838-914) AADDAAaannddAAcccceessssiibbiilliittyy 215

20 ELEVATORS Hall lantern fixtures at each hoistway entrance must indicate visibly and audibly which car is an- swering a call. Door jambs 72” should have (1 829) raised and Braille floor 42” designation (1 067) markings. 5(14”372)60”(1 72678)” Call buttons (1 524) must be a mini- (91346) ” mum 3/4” (19) Typical Dimensions for off-centered door in the smallest direction. RAMPS The rise for any ramp run before landing shall be 30” (762) max. The minimum clear width ramwpidwthidlmathnind.in=g of a ramp should be 36” horizontal projection (run) level la(61n0d5”i2n5g) (914), inside rise handrails. If a ramp has a rise greater than 6” (150) then it should have handrails on both sides. Maximum slope is 1:12. level la(61n0d5”i2n5g) 216 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

20 STAIRS Handrails at wall: handrail returns to wall Nosings 11/4” –2” at switchback: (32–51) dia. handrail is Risers should be 11/2” (38) min. continuous sloped, or the from wall where no wall: underside of nosings handrail returns should have an angle smoothly to the not less than 60º floor from the horizontal. flush riser handrail exten- 11” (280) min. sion at top of tread depth run = 12” (305) minimum angled nosing 7” (178) max. mwinoid.ftlshatna=diriwnigdth riser height 80” rounded nosing (2 032) Handrail Extension (min.)at Bottom of Run tread depth 34” –38” 27” (864–965) (686) cane detection area AADDAAaannddAAcccceessssiibbiilliittyy 217

21 Chapter 21: Parking Almost everywhere, parking is often a person’s first and last interface with a building and should be designed with this in mind. Primarily, parking should be safe, efficient, well-marked, and able to accommodate users of all kinds. Because vehicle sizes fluc- tuate, parking areas must be flexible enough to respond to future scenarios. PARKING LOTS 20’-0” to 24’-0 ,”typ. General Guidelines (6 096 to 7 315) 45º Pavement striping should stall be 4” (102) wide, in white 60º width or yellow paint. 75º aisle 8’-0” Parking area surfaces should 90º (2 438) have a minimum slope of 2 stall length percent (a quarter-inch per 20’-0” (6 096) foot or 6 mm per 305 mm) Parking Stalls for drainage purposes. Parallel Parking Lots are laid out with mod- ules. One complete module includes one access aisle and the parking it serves on either side. The most common angle for parking is the 60º stall, which provides for ease of entering and exiting spaces while still allowing for an efficiently sized module. Stalls of 45º reduce the total number of parking spaces for a given area but do not require a wide access aisle. They are the only acceptable angle for a herringbone parking lot pattern. Stalls of 90º provide the most parking spaces for a given area, though they are unsuitable for in-and-out traf- fic, due to the higher degree of difficulty entering and exit- ing the stalls. They are ideal for all-day parking, such as for employees. 218 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

21 COMMON PARKING STALL LAYOUTS cross aisle (one-way): 14’ (4 267) cross aisle (two-way): 24’ (7 315) g h A BC D interlock interlocking module stall depth ABC D Recommended parking layouts and stall dimensions vary and are most often deter- 45º 17.5’ 12.0’ 15.3’ 42.6’ mined by local or state zoning provisions (5 334) (3 658) (4 663) (12 984) (which should always be consulted). Com- monly accepted minimum stall sizes are 60º 19.0’ 16.0’ 17.5’ 51.0’ 9' (2 743) x 18.5'–19.5' (5 639–944), (5 791) (4 877) (5 334) (15 549) though sizes and layouts should best accommodate their situation; for instance, 75º 19.5’ 23.0’ 18.8’ 61.0’ stalls at hardware or grocery stores (5 944) (7 010) (5 730) (18 593) should be wide enough to accommodate easy loading and unloading of large pack- 90º 18.5’ 26.0’ 18.5’ 63.0’ ages, and may be up to 10' (3 048) wide. (5 639) (7 925) (5 639) (19 202) Compact car spaces may be as small as 7'-6\" (2 286) x 15' (4 572) and should be well marked and logically grouped. Par king 219

21 Parking Lot Flows One-way Angled Two-way 90 Degrees Common Parking Space Allocations Hospital 1.2 per bed Auditorium/theater/stadium 0.3 per seat Restaurant 0.3 per seat Industrial 0.6 per employee Church 0.3 per seat Retail 4.0 per 1000’ gross floor area Office 3.3 per 1000’ gross floor area Shopping center 5.5 per 1000’ gross leasable area Hotels/motel 1.0 per room/0.5 per employee Senior high schools 0.2 per student/1.0 per staff member Elementary schools 1.0 per classroom Typical Car Length Classifications Pre-1975 <100” (2 540) Post-1975 <100” (2 540) Subcompact 101”–111” (2 565–819) Small 100”–112” (2 540–845) Compact 112”–118” (2 845–997) Medium >112” (2 845) Intermediate >119” (3 025) Large Standard 220 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

PARKING GARAGES length 21 Ramp Design ramp blend blend 7’-0” (2 134) minimum Straight Ramps Helical Ramps width = 15’-0” (4 572) Length < 65’-0” (19 812) > 65’-0” (19 812) for counterclockwise travel Blend length 10’-0” (3 048) 8’-0” (2 438) width = 20’-0” (6 096) Blend slope 8% 6% for clockwise travel Ramp slope 16% 12% slope = 12% maximum (4% in transverse direction) General Considerations 17’-0” width (5 182) Parking garage stalls should be well-marked and use clear signage slope to direct drivers, especially in one-way traffic situations. Express helical exit ramps are recommended to avoid congestion inside garage. Par king 221

22 Chapter 22: Stairs Stairs are a primary method of vertical circulation in most private residences and even in public places where elevators or escalators are present. In elevatored buildings, building codes will require a minimum number of enclosed exit stairs. Stair construc- tion is typically of wood, metal, or concrete, or a combination of all three. STAIR TYPES Straight Run Stair Fire codes generally restrict the total rise of a straight stair to 12’-0” (3 658) before an intermediate landing is required. Landing depth should equal the stair width. L-shaped Stair with Landing L-shaped stairs may contain long or short legs, with a landing at any change in direction. U-shaped Stair with Landing U-shaped stairs, which switch back as they ascend, are useful in tight floor plans and as one component in a stacking multilevel circulation system (such as an egress stair core). 222 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

22 L-shaped Stair with Winders Winders may help to compress the area needed for a stair by adding angled treads where a landing might go in a typical L-shaped stair. Most winders do not comply with local codes. L-shaped Stair with Offset Winders Offset winder treads are more generous in proportion and, therefore, may comply with applicable codes. Spiral Stair Spiral stairs occupy a minimum amount of plan space and are often used in private residences. Most spiral stairs are not acceptable as egress stairs, except in residences and in spaces of five or fewer occupants in 250 sq. ft. (23 m2) or less. Curved Stair Curved stairs follow the same layout principles of spiral stairs. Though with a sufficient open center diameter, the treads may be dimensioned to legal code stan- dards for egress. Stairs 223

22 break line dashed lines (entire run of indicate stair STAIR COMPONENTS stair cannot continues be seen in above break arrow indicates direction of floor plan) line stair (one plan might have stairs going down and up) UP total run of stair ceiling clearance: 6’-8” (2 032) min. guard rail height: 42” (1 067) min. handrail height: 34–38” (864–965) total rise of stair max. opening may allow an 8” (203) dia. sphere to pass through max. opening may allow a 4” (102) dia. sphere to pass through max. opening may allow a 6” (152) dia. sphere to pass through Plan and Elevation of Stair 224 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

22 TREADS AND RISERS 22.00º 27.55º 33.68º 40.13º 46.63º riser: 5” (127) riser: 6” (152) riser: 7” (178) riser: 8” (203) riser: 9” (224) tread: 121/2” (318) tread: 111/2” (292) tread: 101/2” (267) tread: 91/2” (241) tread: 81/2” (216) Riser and Tread Dimensions General Guidelines Riser Tread The following are rules of thumb Angle inches (mm) inches (mm) for calculating limits; always check appropriate local codes: 22.00° 5 (127) 12 1/2 (318) riser x run = 72”–75” (1 829–905) 23.23° 5 1/4 (133) 12 1/4 (311) 24.63° 5 1/2 (140) 12 (305) riser + run = 17”–17 1/2” (432–45) 26.00° 5 3/4 (146) 11 3/4 (299) 27.55° 6 (152) 11 1/2 (292) 2(riser) + run = 24”–25” (610–35) 29.05° 6 1/4 (159) 11 1/4 (286) 30.58° 6 1/2 (165) 11 (279) exterior stairs: 2(riser) + run = 32.13° 6 3/4 (172) 10 3/4 (273) 26” (660) 33.68° 7 (178) 10 1/2 (267) 35.26° 7 1/4 (184) 10 1/4 (260) Nonresidential: 36.87° 7 1/2 (191) 10 (254) minimum width = 44” (1 120) 38.48° 7 3/4 (197) 9 3/4 (248) maximum riser = 7 1/2” (191) 40.13° 8 (203) 9 1/2 (241) minimum tread = 11” (279) 41.73° 8 1/4 (210) 9 1/4 (235) 43.36° 8 1/2 (216) 9 (229) Residential: 45.00° 8 3/4 (222) 8 3/4 (222) minimum width = 36” (915) 46.63° 9 (229) 8 1/2 (216) maximum riser = 8 1/4” (210) 48.27° 9 1/4 (235) 8 1/4 (210) minimum tread = 9” (229) 49.90° 9 1/2 (241) 8 (203) Blue band indicates preferred proportions for comfort and safety. Stairs 225

23 Chapter 23: Doors Interior and exterior doors may be of many combinations of wood, metal, and glass, and mounted in wood or metal frames. Interior doors may require various levels of fire ratings; exterior doors must be well constructed and tightly weather-stripped to avoid excessive leakage of air and moisture. Widths 2’-6” 2’-8” 2’-10” 3’-0” 3’-4” 3’-6” 3’-8” 3’-10” 4’-0” 2’-0” 2’-4” (762) (813) (864) (914) (1 016) (1 067) (1 118) (1 168) (1 219) (610) (711) Preferred SI door frame Dimensions head jamb single widths: 5” 700 mm, 800 mm, (127) 900 mm, 1 000 mm equal double widths: 1 200 mm, 1 500 mm, 1 800 mm heights: 2 100 mm, 2 200 mm, 2 400 mm Thicknesses deadlock strike 13/8” (35) handle 13/4” (44) 48” 21/4” (54) (1 219) equal Heights 6’-8” (2 032) 36” 10” 7’-0” (2 134) (914) (254) 7’-2” (2 184) 7’-10”* (2 388) 8’-0”* (2 438) *13/4” thick doors only side jamb 226 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

23 DOOR TYPES Flush Vision Panel Narrow Lite Glass Glass Louvered Louvered Glass and Louvered Fire Doors U.L. Label Rating Glazing Permitted: 1/4” (6.4) Wire Glass A 3 hour no glazing permitted B 11/2 hour 100 sq. in. (64 516 mm2) per leaf C 3/4 hour 1 296 sq. in. (836 179 mm2) per light; 54” (1 372) max. dimension D 11/2 hour no glazing permitted E 3/4 hour 720 sq. in. (464 544 mm2) per light; 54” (1 372) max. dimension Max. door size: 4’ x 10’ (1 219 x 3 048); door frame and hardware must have same rating as door; door must be self-latching and equipped with closers; louvers with fusible links are permitted for B and C label doors; no louver and glass light combinations are allowed. Doors 227

23 Flush Hollow Core Panel WOOD DOORS Lightweight and inexpen- Supporting framework of sive, used primarily for rails and stiles may hold Flush Solid Core interior applications, though panels of wood, glass, or may be used on the exterior louvers. Makeup of doors Used primarily for exterior if bonded with a waterproof minimizes dimensional conditions and wherever adhesive. Low sound and changes brought on by increased fire resistance, heat insulation value. fluctuating moisture content sound insulation, and dimen- of the wood. sional stability are required. rail rail stile stile stile rail panel Door Elevation Door Elevation rail Detail Section Detail Section Door Elevation Detail Section face face veneer veneer panel cross cross banding banding stile or rail solid core: hollow core: continuous mesh grid, block, stile ladder strips, and rail, honeycomb, mineral or spiral composition, blanks or particle board wood spacers edge strip edge strip 228 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

23 Typical Wood Door Framing head and side jamb In the interest of speed and should have similar economy, many wood doors profile to ensure have been prehung (hinged continuous frame and fitted to their frames at around doorway the mill). When they arrive on site, the carpenter may tilt the frame into the rough opening, carefully plumbing the frame and shimming as necessary before nailing the frame in place. Head wall construction In the prehung method, Jamb shim space shims help assure that casing or trim the door and frame will fit (exterior joints may cleanly in the rough opening require flashing and provided. The resulting gap caulk) between the frame and the wall finish is generally covered with a casing. Detailing of this condition may take many forms, depending on the desired result, though a common approach is shown at left. rabbeted door frame (interior frames may have applied stops) Wood Face Veneer Types Sawn veneers: 1/8” (3.2), Wood Grades bonded to crossband. Easily Standard: 1/32” –1/16” refinished and repaired. Premium: (0.08–1.6), bonded to For natural, clear, hardwood; crossband of Sawn veneers: 1/4” (6.4), or stained finishes 1/16” –1/10” (1.6–2.5). no crossband on stile and Economical and widely rail. Face depth allows for Standard: used; for all types of cores. decorative grooves. For opaque Difficult to refinish or repair (painted) finishes face damage. Doors 229

23 Meeting Stiles parallel bevel rabbeted with z astragal HOLLOW METAL DOORS vinyl or rubber bull nose astragal top rail plate astragal hinge stile parallel bevel one-piece over- flush or lapping astragal recessed panel center rail lock stile v-bevel bottom rail Standard Double Rabbet Frame backbend rabbet 1 soffit rabbet 2 backbend frame head throat opening jamb depth frame jamb door meeting stiles face stop Jamb 4 3/4” 5 1/2” 5 3/4” 6 3/4” 7 3/4” 8 3/4” 12 3/4” Depth (121) (140) (146) (171) (197) (222) (324) Rabbet 1 Rabbet 2 1/2” 3/4” 19/16” (40) standard for 1 3/8” (35) door 1/2” 1/2” Backbend (13) (19) (13) (13) 33/4” 4” 115/16” (49) standard for 1 3/4” (44) door 7 3/4” 11 3/4” Throat (95) (102) (197) (298) 1/2” 1/2” 1/2” (13) (13) (13) 4 3/4” 5 3/4” 6 3/4” (121) (146) (171) 230 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

23 FRAME ANCHORS Hollow Metal Door Gauges GRADE GAUGE Residential 20 and lighter Commercial 16 and 18 Institutional 12 and 14 High Security steel plate Standard Floor Knee Extended Frame with Base Anchor Floor-topping concrete is poured Jambs are attached to the around the door frame. floor with powder-driven fasteners. Wood Stud Anchor Steel Channel Anchor Masonry t Anchor Jambs are anchored to wood studs Jambs are anchored to steel Jambs are anchored to masonry by nailing through holes in jamb studs; sheet metal zees are walls: loose sheet metal tees are inserts. welded to jambs, and receive inserted into the frame and built screws driven through studs. into the mortar joints. OTHER CORES anhydrous mineral, kiln-dried structural z-member or channel foam, or fiber core wood core stiffeners (vertical, treated fibrous horizontal, or gridded) material formed into honeycomb Doors 231

4.COMPENDIUM 223322 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

The art of architecture is not easily quantified or defined. It is certainly more than the sum of the systems and materials that give it shape, though architecture would not exist without the standardized proce- dures that erect its forms. The preceding chapters have provided the rudimentary tools for making buildings. It is in how architects use these tools to transform limitations into possibilities that allow them to navigate challenging situations and ultimately produce a better built environment. The breadth of practical information about basic systems and concepts that this book has so far touched on is also a way of describing the world of architecture to all its users. What follows is a broad overview of how these basic systems have become a history of our overlapping cultures. We live in the built world: Whether it is well-designed or poorly designed, it is the space and surface of our existence. By inhabiting architecture and moving around it, we have knowledge of it. To enhance our understanding, this book ends with a beginning: an introduction to a range of resources within the enormous, endless scope of architectural information and discussion. 233 233

24 Chapter 24: timeline 3000 B.C.E. The history of architecture is a history ANCIENT •Great Sphinx of Giza of civilization. Buildings are artifacts intrinsically linked to the epoch and (ca. 2500 B.C.E.) Egypt society of their creation, clearly expos- ing the varied conditions of how they •Great Pyramids of Giza came to be. To understand a piece of architecture is to gain insight into (2570–2500 B.C.E.) Egypt countless aspects of a place and a moment in time—geography, weather, social hierarchies, religious practices, and industrialization. And because architecture is rarely portable, it is virtually impossible to disengage a building from its origins. The fluidity of history can make for •Stonehenge unwieldy attempts to classify periods succinctly, and architectural styles (ca. 2900–1400 B.C.E.) and movements reflect this difficulty: Salisbury Plain, England Though some styles may have come into sudden existence as the result of a specific event, most evolve slowly and taper off gradually. The distillation of any history presents obvious limita- tions; therefore, many dates shown here are approximations, serving the overall purpose of this timeline, which is to illustrate relationships among movements. b.c.e. (Before Common Era) = b.c. c.e. (Common Era) = a.d. b. = before; c. = century; ca. = circa 234 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

24 2000 B.C.E. 1000 B.C.E. 0 Egyptian • Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (ca. 1300 B.C.E.) (ca. 3500–30 B.C.E.) Egypt • Mentuhotep Mortuary Temple • Great Temple of Ramses II •El Castillo (2061–2010 B.C.E.) (ca. 1285–1225 B.C.E.) Deir el-Bahari, Egypt Abu Simbel, Egypt (850 C.E.) Chichen Itza, Greek •Temple of Hera Yucatan, Mexico (ca. 2000–31 B.C.E.) (460 B.C.E.) Paestum, Italy •Dome of the Rock (687–89 C.E.) •Palace at Knossos •Temple of Apollo (310 B.C.E.) Turkey Jerusalem Paeonis and Daphnis (1700–1380 B.C.E.) •Temple of Paestum Romanesque Knossos, Greece (ca. 530-460 B.C.E.) Paestum, Italy (500–1200 C.E.) •Parthenon (448–432 B.C.E.) •Stoa of Attalus Athens, Greece (150 B.C.E.) Athens, Greece • Baths of Caracalla •Pantheon (215 C.E.) Rome, Italy (rebuilt 118–25 C.E.) • Arch of Constantine Rome, Italy (312–15 C.E.) Roman Rome, Italy Colosseum (72–80 C.E.) •(510 B.C.E.–476 C.E.) •Pont du Gard Rome, Italy Aqueduct (15 B.C.E.) Nîmes, France • Ziggurat at Ur (ca. 2100 B.C.E.) Mesopotamia Etruscan Byzantine (ca. 9th c.–50 B.C.E.) (324–15th c.) Timeline 235

24 MIDDLE AGES • Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (1025–50) Khajuraho, India 1000 1100 1200 •Notre-Dame • Chartres Cathedral Cathedral (1194–1220) (1163–1250) Chartres, France Paris, France • Amiens Cathedral (1220–47) Amiens, France •Salisbury Cathedral (1220–60) Salisbury, England Romanesque • Worms Cathedral (1110–81) Worms, Germany (500–1200) • Pisa Cathedral (1063–92) • S. Apollinaire Nuovo and Baptistery (1153) (ca. 490) Pisa, Italy Ravenna, Italy • Angkor Wat (b. ca. 1120) Cambodia • San Vitale (526) • St. Mark (1042–85) Byzantine Ravenna, Italy Venice, Italy • Hagia Sophia (537) (324–12th c.) Istanbul (Constantinople), Turkey 236 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

24 1300 1400 1500 Gothic • Milan Cathedral • King’s College Chapel (1387–1572) (1446–1515) (ca. 1140–1500) Milan, Italy Cambridge, England • Strasbourg Cathedral •Palais de Justice (begun 1277) (1493–1508) Alsace, France Rouen, France • Hall of Supreme Harmony (15th c.) Forbidden City, Beijing, China •Duomo de S. Maria del Fiore •Villa La Rotonda (1557) (1377–1436) Vicenza, Italy Florence, Italy Andrea Palladio Filippo Brunelleschi • Laurentian Library Renaissance (1524) San Lorenzo, Italy (1350–1600) • Michelangelo •Façade of S. Maria Novella (1458) Palazzo Rucelai (1455–70) Florence, Italy Florence, Italy Leon Battista Alberti Leon Battista Alberti •S. Giorgio Maggiore (1566) Venice, Italy Andrea Palladio • Tempietto of S. Pietro in Montorio (1502) Rome, Italy Donato Bramante Timeline 237

24 1600 1650 1700 PREMODERN • Façade of S. Susanna • Colonnade Piazza of St. Peter’s (1603) (1656) Rome, Italy Rome, Italy Carlo Maderno •Gianlorenzo Bernini Karlskirche (b. 1656) Vienna, Austria Johann Fischer van Erlach Baroque • S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (b. 1634) Rome, Italy Francesco Borromini (1600–1700) Renaissance • Taj Mahal • (1630–53) (1350–1600) Agra, India Chiswick House Emperor (1725–29) • Wollaton Hall Shah Jahan London, England (1580–88) Lord Burlington Nottinghamshire, England •Spanish Steps Robert Smythson (1723–25) Rome, Italy Francesco de Sanctis 238 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

24 1750 1800 1850 •“Panopticon” (1791) Art Nouveau Jeremy Bentham (1880–1902) •Tassel House (1893) Brussels, Belgium Victor Horta •Crystal Palace (1851) • Bibliothèque Nationale London, England (1858–68) Joseph Paxton Paris, France Henri Labrouste •Salt Works (1780) • Schauspielhaus (1819–21) Chaux, France Berlin, Germany Claude-Nicolas Ledoux Karl Friedrich Schinkel Neoclassicism • University of Virginia (1826) Charlottesville, Va., USA (1750–1880) • Monticello (1771–82) Thomas Jefferson Charlottesville, Va., USA Thomas Jefferson •Boston Public Library (1887–95) Boston, Mass., USA McKim, Mead & White • Panthéon (1764–90) Paris, France Jacques Germain Soufflot •Houses of Parliament •Marshall Field Wholesale Store (1836–68) (1885–87) Chicago, Ill., USA London, England H. H. Richardson Charles Barry Georgian • Bank of England (1788) (1714–1830) London, England John Soane Rococo (1700– 80) Timeline 239

24 1900 1920 1940 Art MODERN Nouveau (1880–1902) •German Pavilion (Barcelona Pavilion) • •Casa Milà (1906–10) (1928; demolished Barcelona, Spain •Antoni Gaudí 1930, rebuilt 1959) Eames House (1945) Barcelona, Spain Pacific Palisades, Calif., USA Ludwig Charles & Ray Eames Mies van der Rohe International Style Exhibition, Modernism MoMA (1929) New York, N.Y., USA (1900–45) • Villa Savoye (1929) •Goldman & Salatsch Store Poissy, France (1910) Le Corbusier Vienna, Austria • Falling Water (1937) Mill Run, Pa., USA Adolf Loos •Einstein Tower (1921) Frank Lloyd Wright Potsdam, Germany • Erich Mendelsohn Ward Willits House (1902 Highland Park, Ill. USA •Bauhaus (1925) Frank Lloyd Wright Dessau, Germany Walter Gropius • Red House (1859–60) Arts & Crafts Bexleyheath, England Philip Speakman Webb (1860–1925) Art Deco • Empire State Building (1930) New York, N.Y., USA (1920s–40s) Shreve, Lamb & Harmon • Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes (1925) Paris, France 240 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

24 1960 1980 2000 • Hunstanton School (1954) Brutalism Norfolk, England Alison & Peter Smithson (1950s–70s) • Palazzetto dello Sport (1960) Rome, Italy Pier Luigi Nervi Late Modernism (1945 –1975) • Kimbell Art Museum (1967–72) •Seattle Public Library (2004) Fort Worth, Tex., USA Seattle, Wash., USA Louis I. Kahn Rem Koolhaas (OMA) •TWA Terminal (1962) • Addition to the Louvre (1983–89) New York, N.Y., USA Paris, France Eero Saarinen I. M. Pei • Carpenter Center (1964) Cambridge, Mass., USA • Centre Pompidou (1976) Le Corbusier Paris, France •House III (1969–70) Renzo Piano & Richard Rogers Lakeville, Conn., USA Peter Eisenman Deconstructivism • Glass House (1949) (1980-88) New Canaan, Conn., USA Philip Johnson • Parc de la Villette (1982–85) Paris, France Bernard Tschumi •Gehry House (1977–78) •Wexner Center Santa Monica, Calif., USA for the Arts (1989) Frank Gehry Columbus, Ohio, USA Peter Eisenman Postmodernism • Portland Building (1982) Portland, Ore., USA (1960s–90s) Michael Graves • AT&T Building (1978) New York, N.Y., USA Philip Johnson & John Burgee • Vanna Venturi House (1964) Chestnut Hill, Pa., USA Robert Venturi Timeline 241

25 Chapter 25: glossary AASM: Association nIBS: National Institute of ADA: Americans with Dis- of American Steel Building Sciences abilities Act Manufacturers nFPA: National Fire Adaptive reuse: Chang- AgCA: Associated General Protection Association ing a building’s function in Contractors of America response to the changing RAIC: Royal Architecture needs of its users. AIA: American Institute of Institute of Canada Architects AFF: Above finish floor. RIBA: Royal Institute of AISC: American Institute of British Architects Aggregate: Particles such Steel Construction. as sand, gravel, and stone uIA: Union Internationale used in concrete and AISI: American Iron and des Architectes plaster. Steel Institute uL: Underwriters’ Alberti, Leon Battista: AnSI: American National Laboratory (1404-1472) Italian archi- Standards Institute tect, artist, and Renais- A sance humanist polymath; APA: American Plywood notable work includes the Association Aalto, Alvar: (1898-1976) facade of the Santa Maria Finnish architect and Novella in Florence, Italy, AShRAE: American Society designer; notable buildings and numerous treatises on of Heating, Refrigerat- include the Municipal Library art and architecture, with ing, and Air Conditioning in Viipuri, Finland, Paimio scientific study of perspec- Engineers Sanatorium, and Baker tive. House at MIT. AStM: American Society for Alloy: Substance made Testing and Materials Access flooring: Removable of two or more metals finish floor panels raised or a metal and another CSI: Construction Specifica- above the floor structure to substance. tions Institute allow installation of wiring and ductwork below. Anchor bolt: Concrete- IESnA: Illumination embedded bolt that fastens Engineering Society of North Accessible: Capable of be- a building frame to masonry America ing reached by all persons, or concrete. regardless of levels of ICC: International Code disability. Annealed: Metal cooled Council under controlled conditions. Acoustical ceiling: System ICED: International Council of fibrous removable tiles Angle: L-shaped steel on Environmental Design in the ceiling that absorb or aluminum structural sound. section. ISO: International Organiza- tion for Standardization LEED: Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design 242 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Arch: Structural device that Band/banding: Continuous 25 supports vertical loads by horizontal division on a wall translating them into axial created by different materi- Bending moment: Force act- forces. als, colors, or textures. ing on a structure, causing it to curve. Arcade: Series of arches on Bar: Small rolled steel shape columns or piers. Blocking: Pieces of wood Bar joist: Truss type used placed between joists, Area: Quantity expressing for floor and roof support, studs, or rafters to stabilize the size of a figure in a with steel members on top the structure or provide a plane or surface. and bottom and heavy wire nailing surface for finishes. or rod web lacing. Atelier: Workshop or studio. Blueprint: Photographic Base plate: Steel plate print on specially coated Atrium: Open-roofed between a column and paper; ideal for making entrance court of a Roman foundation that distributes precise and undistorted dwelling; also, a many- the column’s load to the copies of large-scale draw- storied court in a building, foundation. ings. Blueprint technology usually skylit. is rapidly being superseded Bay: Rectangular area of by computer plotters and Axial: Force, load, tension, a building defined at its printers. or compression in a direc- four corners by adjacent tion parallel to the long axis columns; projecting portion Board foot: Unit of measur- of a structural member. of a façade. ing lumber volume (nomi- nally: 144 cu. in.). B Beam: Horizontal linear ele- ment that spans an opening Bond beam: Top course of Ballast: In roofing, a heavy and is supported at both a masonry wall, filled with material such as crushed ends by walls or columns. concrete and reinforcing stone installed over a roof steel, and used to support membrane to minimize wind Bearing wall: Wall that roof loads. uplift; in lighting, a device supports floors or roofs. that provides starting Bramante, Donato: (1444- voltage for a fluorescent Bed joint: Horizontal layer 1514) Italian Renaissance or high-intensity discharge of mortar between units in architect; notable buildings lamp, then regulates the a masonry wall. include St. Peter’s Basilica current during operation. and the Tempietto, both in Rome. Balloon frame: Wood-frame construction in which verti- Brise-soleil: Shading screen cal studs run from the sill to attached to the exterior of a the eave instead of resting building. on intermediate floors. Brunelleschi, Filippo: Baluster: Vertical member (1377-1446) Italian used to support a stair Renaissance architect and railing or a railing in a engineer; notable buildings continuous banister. include the Dome of the Cathedral of Florence, and Balustrade: Railing system, the Basilica of Santo Spirito usually around a balcony, in Florence. that consists of balusters and a top rail. Glossar y 243

25 Cavity wall: Masonry wall Cold rolling: Rolling of with a continuous airspace metal at room temperature Building code: Legal between wythes. and stretching its crystals restrictions meant to to harden the metal. enforce safety and health Cement: Dry powder that Colonnade: Linear series of in the built environment. combines chemically with columns carrying an entab- water and bonds aggregate lature or arches. Built-up roof: Roof mem- particles together to form Column: Upright structural brane composed of asphalt- concrete. Also known as member. saturated felt layers lami- portland cement. Concrete: Mix of cement, nated together and bonded aggregates, and water that with bitumen or pitch. Change order: Written docu- forms a structural material. ment between the owner Concrete masonry unit Buttress: Masonry or and contractor of a project (CMU): Solid or hollow concrete reinforcement authorizing a change in the block of cured concrete. applied to a wall to resist project. diagonal forces from an Coping: Protective cap or arch or vault. Chase wall: Cavity wall cover on top of a wall to containing electrical runs or throw off water. C plumbing pipes in its cavity. Corbel: Series of spanning stones or bricks in which CAD: Computer-aided Chord: Structural member each successive course drafting. of a truss. projects over the course below it; also, a project- Caisson: Long cylindrical Clear floor space: Minimum ing masonry or concrete foundation element formed unobstructed floor or ground bracket. by drilling deep into firm space required to accom- clay and pouring concrete modate a single, stationary Cornice: Projecting molding into the hole. wheelchair and occupant. at the top of a building; also, the uppermost ele- Canopy: Projection over Clerestory: Windows placed ment of an entablature. doors or windows. high in a wall, usually above lower roof levels. Also Cantilever: Beam or slab called clearstory. extending beyond its last point of support. Coefficient of expansion: Fractional change in length, Capital: Uppermost area, or volume or an object element of a column. per unit change in tem- perature at a given constant pressure. 244 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Course: Horizontal layer of Dome: Bowl-shaped volume 25 one-unit-high masonry units. created by rotating an arch about its vertical axis. Energy efficiency: Reduc- Cricket: Component used ing energy requirements to divert water away from Dormer: Protrusion in a without reducing the end roof curbs, platforms, sloping roof, usually con- result. chimneys, walls, or other taining a window. Engaged column: Non-free- roof forms. standing column attached Duct: Hollow conduit for to a wall. Cripple stud: Short wood circulating and directing air. Entablature: Uppermost framing member in walls part of a classical order, interrupted by a header DWG: Computer drawing comprised of architrave, or sill. file. frieze, and cornice and sup- ported on a colonnade. Cupola: Domed roof struc- E ture rising from a building. Expansion joint: Surface Eave: Edge of a roof plane, divider joint allowing for Curtain wall: Non-load- usually projecting over the surface expansion. bearing exterior wall system exterior wall. supported on the building’s F frame. Egress: Means of exiting safely. Façade: Face or elevation D of a building. Eisenman, Peter: (1932- ) Fascia: Exposed vertical Deck: Horizontal surface American architect; notable face of an eave. spanning across joists or buildings include House Fenestration: Windows and beams. VI, Wexner Center for the window arrangements on a Arts, and the University of façade. Deflection: Under an ap- Phoenix Stadium. Finial: Ornament at the top plied load, the amount of of a spire or roof. bending movement of any Elevation: Architectural Fire-resistance rating: De- part of a structural member drawing of a view of the ver- termination of the amount perpendicular to that mem- tical planes of the building, of time (in fractions of an ber’s axis. showing their relationship to hour) that an assembly or each other. material will resist fire. Deliverables: Set of items such as construction Encroachment: Portion documents provided by the of a building that extends architect to the client, and illegally beyond the property as agreed on in the owner- owned and onto another architect agreement. property. Detail: Drawing that provides very specific infor- mation about the materi- als and construction of a component of a project and that is keyed into larger- scale drawings. Dimensional stability: Abil- ity of a section of wood to resist changes in volume at fluctuating moisture levels. Glossar y 245

25 Flashing: Continuous sheet Grab bar: Bar attached Hard metric: Conversion of thin metal, plastic, or parallel to a wall to provide of component sizes to fall other waterproof material a handgrip for steadying within a rational metric used to divert water and oneself. module, not a strict transla- prevent it from passing tion of other units into their through a joint into a wall Grade: Classification of size exact metric equivalents. or roof. or quality; the surface of the ground; the act of moving Hardwood: Wood from Float glass: Common plate earth to make the ground deciduous trees. glass made by floating the level. material on a bed of molten Head joint: Vertical layer of metal, producing a smooth, Gropius, Walter: (1883- mortar between units in a flat surface. 1969) German architect masonry wall. and founder of the Bau- Footing: Widened base of haus. Notable buildings Header: Lintel; in steel, a a foundation that spreads include the Bauhaus School beam that spans between a building’s loads across and the Pan Am Building in girders; also, masonry unit the soil. New York. laid across two wythes, exposing its end in the face Foundation: Lowest portion Guardrail: Protective railing of the wall. of a building that transfers to prevent falling into stair- the building’s structural wells or other openings. Heavy timber: Structural loads into the earth. lumber having a minimum Gusset plate: Flat steel width and thickness of G plate to which truss chords 5” (127). are connected at a truss Galvanic action: Corrosion joint. Hot-rolled steel: Steel resulting from an electrical formed and shaped by current between two unlike Gypsum wallboard (GWB): being heated and passed metals. Interior facing board with a through rollers. gypsum core between paper Girder: Large horizontal facing. Also called drywall HSLA: High-strength low- beam that supports other and plasterboard. alloy grade of steel. beams. H HUD: Housing and Urban Girt: Horizontal beam that Development. supports wall cladding Hadid, Zaha: (1950- ) Iraqi- between columns. British architect; notable HVAC: Heating, Ventilating, buildings include Vitra Fire and Air-Conditioning. Golden section: Unique Station in Weil-am-Rhein, proportional ratio of two Germany, the London Aquat- I divisions of a line such that ics Centre for the 2012 the smaller of the two is to Olympics, and the Broad IBC: International Building the larger as the larger is to Art Museum in Lansing, Code. the sum of the two. Michigan. Half-timbered: Timber wall with the spaces between filled with masonry. Handrail: Railing running parallel to the rise of a stairway or ramp, provid- ing a continuous gripping surface. 246 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

I-beam: Obsolete term for Keystone: Central wedge- 25 American Standard steel sec- shaped stone at the top of tion that is I- or H-shaped. an arch. Loos, Adolf: (1870-1933) Austro-Hungarian architect; Insulation: Any material that Koolhaas, Rem: (1944- ) notable buidlings include slows or retards the flow or Dutch architect; notable the Kärntner Bar in Vienna, transfer of heat. buildings include the Kun- the Villa Müller in Prague, sthal in Rotterdam, the and Maison Tzara in Paris. J Seattle Central Library, and the CCTV Headquarters in Louver: Opening with Jamb: Vertical frame of a Beijing. horizontal slats that permit window or door. passage of air, but not rain, L sunlight, or view. Johnson, Philip: (1906- 2005) American architect; Laminate: Material pro- M notable work includes the duced through bonding Glass House in New Ca- together layers of other Masonry: Brickwork, block- naan, Connecticut, the AT&T materials. work, and stonework; also, Building in New York, and the trade of a mason. the Four Seasons Restau- Le Corbusier: (1887-1965) rant in New York. Swiss architect notable for Metrication: Act of chang- the Villa Savoye (19xx), the ing from the use of custom- Joists: Light, closely spaced Unite d’Habitation, and the ary units to metric units. beams supporting floors or chapel at Ronchamp. flat roofs. Mezzanine: Intermediate Ledoux, Claude nicolas: level between a floor and K (1736-1806) French neo- ceiling that occupies a par- classical architect; notable tial area of the floor space. Kahn, Albert: (1869-1942) designs include the Royal German-American architect; Saltworks at Arc-et-Senan, Mild steel: Steel with a low notable buildings include and the Theatre of Besan- carbon content. Hill Auditorium at the con. University of Michigan, the Millwork: Interior wood Packard Automotive Plant Lintel: Beam over a door or finish components of a in Detroit, and the Detroit window that carries the load building, including cabinetry, Athletic Club. of the wall above. windows, doors, moldings, and stairs. Kahn, Louis: (1901-1974) Lite: Pane of glass; also American architect; notable “light,” though often spelled Model: Physical representa- buildings include the Philips differently to avoid confu- tion (usually at a reduced Exeter Academy Library sion with visible light. scale) of a building or build- in New Hampshire, the ing component; in computer Salk Institute in La Jolla, Loads: Forces acting on a drafting and modeling, it is California, and the Kimbell structure. Dead loads are the digital two- or three- Art Museum in Fort Worth, fixed and static elements dimensional representation Texas. such as the building’s of a design. own skin, structure, and equipment; live loads are Molding: Strip of wood, the changing weight on plaster, or other material a building and include with an ornamental profile. people, snow, vehicles, and furniture. Longitudinal: Lengthwise. Glossar y 247

25 Overhang: Projection Pedestal: In classical archi- beyond the face of a wall tecture, a base supporting a Mortar: Material composed below. column or statue. of portland cement, hy- drated lime, fine aggregate P Pendentive: Curved, trian- (sand), and water, used to gular support that results adhere together and cush- Palladio, Andrea: (1508- from transforming a square ion masonry units. 1580 Italian architect; bay into a dome. notable work includes nu- Penthouse: Enclosed space Mullion: Horizontal or merous villas in the Veneto above the level of the main vertical bar or divider in the region of Italy, the Teatro roof used for mechanical frames of windows, doors, Olimpico in Vicenza, and his equipment; an above-roof or other openings, and that treatise The Four Books of apartment. holds and supports panels, Architecture. Peristyle: Colonnaded glass, sashes, or sections courtyard. of a curtain wall. Parametric: Having one Pier: Caisson foundation; or more variables (param- also, a structural element Muntin: Secondary system eters) that can be altered that supports an arch. of horizontal or vertical to achieve different results. Pilaster: Pier engaged in divider bars between small In parametric modeling, a a wall. lites of glass or panels in database tracks changes Pillar: Columnar support a sash. to all elements of a design that is not a classical simultaneously. column. Mylar: Polyester film that, Pilotis: Columns or pillars when coated, can be used Parapet: Low wall projecting that lift a building from the as drafting sheets. from the edge of a platform, ground. usually on a roof. N Parti: Central idea govern- Niche: Recess in a wall, usu- ing and organizing a work of ally for holding a sculpture. architecture. Nominal: Approximate Partition: Interior non- rounded dimensions load-bearing wall. given to materials for ease of reference. Passive solar: Technology of heating and cooling a O building naturally, through the use of energy-efficient Occupancy: Category of materials and proper site the use of a building for placement. determining specific code requirements. Pediment: Triangular space that forms the gable end Ogee: Profile section with a of a low-pitched roof, often reverse-curve face (that is, filled with relief sculpture. concave above and convex below). 248 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

Pitch: Slope of a roof or built off-site (often in a fac- 25 other inclined surface, usu- tory), then shipped to the ally expressed as inches site for assembly. Rise: Vertical difference in of rise per foot of run elevation, as in the rise of (X:12, when X is a number Purlin: Beams spanning a stair. between 1 and 12). across the slope of a roof Riser: Vertical face between that support the roof two treads of a stair; also, Plan: Architectural drawing decking. vertical run of plumbing, of a view of the horizontal ductwork, or wiring. planes of the building, Q showing their relationship to Room cavity ratio: Ratio of each other, and acting as a Quoin: Corner stones in a room dimensions used to horizontal section. wall made distinct from the determine how light will inter- surrounding wall by being act with the room’s surfaces. Plenum: Space between a larger, of a different texture, Rotunda: Space that is suspended ceiling and the or having deeper joints to circular in plan and covered structure above, used for make the stones protrude. by a dome. mechanical ductwork, pip- Run: Horizontal dimension of ing, and wiring. R a stair, ramp, or other slope. Rustication: Masonry Pointing: Process of apply- Rabbet: Notch in wood for pattern consisting of large ing mortar to the outside joining pieces or recessed blocks with deep joints. surface of a mortar joint parts in a typical door after laying the masonry, frame. R-value: Measure of the as a means of finishing the capacity of a material to joint or making repairs to an Rafter: Roof framing resist the transfer of heat. existing joint. member that runs in the direction of slope. S Portico: Entrance porch. Reflected ceiling plan: Saarinen, Eero: (1910-1961) Precast concrete: Concrete Upside-down plan drawing Finnish-American architect that is cast and cured in a that documents the ceiling and son of Eliel Saarinen. location other than its final plane. Notable buildings include the position. Miller House in Columbus, Retaining wall: Site wall Indiana, the Gateway Arch in Prefabricated building: built for resisting lateral St. Louis, and the TWA Termi- Buildings consisting of displacement of soil, water, nal at JFK Airport. components such as walls, or other material. floors, and roofs that are RFP (Request for Pro- posal): Official invitation for architects to submit qualifications and proposals to perform a project. Rib: Fold or bend in a sheet of deck. Ridge: Horizontal line cre- ated at the connection of two sloping roof surfaces. Glossar y 249

25 Sitecast: Concrete that is STC: Sound Transmission poured and cured in its final Class, a number rating of Saarinen, Eliel: (1873- position; also called cast-in- airborne sound transmis- 1950) Finnish architect and place or poured-in-place. sion loss as measured in father of Eero Saarinen. an acoustical laboratory Notable buildings include Slab on grade: Concrete under carefully controlled the Kleinhans Music Hall in slab that rests directly on test conditions. Buffalo, New York, and the the ground Cranbrook Educational Com- Stile: Framing member in munity in Bloomfield Hills, Soane, Sir John: (1753- a door. Michigan. 1837) English architect; notable buildings include Stud: Vertical structural Schedule: Chart or table the Bank of England and Sir member used in light-frame in a set of architectural John Soane’s Museum. wall construction and made drawings, including data of dimension wood or about materials, finishes, Soffit: Finished underside metal. equipment, windows, doors, of a lintel, arch, or over- and signage; also, plan for hang. Stringer: In a stair, the slop- performing work. ing wood or steel member Soft metric: Precise conver- that supports the treads. Schinkel, Karl Friedrich: sion between customary (1781-1841) Prussian and metric units. Strut channel: Standardized architect, city planner and metal framing system used painter; notable buildings Softwood: Lumber from co- for light structural support include the Altes Museum, niferous (evergreen) trees. of electrical wiring, mechani- the Neues Schauspielhaus, cal ductwork, and plumbing. and the Neue Wache, all in Spall: Splitting off from Commonly referred to by Berlin. a surface, in concrete or many of its manufacture masonry, as a result of trade names, including Unis- Scope of work: Written weathering. trut, Flex-Strut and G-Strut range of view or action for a specific project. Span: Distance between Sustainable design: Envi- supports. ronmentally aware design Section: Architectural draw- using systems that meet ing of a view of a vertical Spandrel: Exterior panels of present needs without cut through the building’s a wall between vision areas compromising the needs components, acting as a of windows that conceal of future generations. vertical plan. structural floors; the trian- gular space between the T Shaft: Trunk of a column curve of an arch and the between base and capital; rectangular outline enclos- Thermal performance: Abil- also, enclosed vertical clear ing it. ity of a glass unit to perform opening in a building for as a barrier to the transfer the passage of elevators, Specifications: Written of heat. stairs, ductwork, plumbing, instructions about the or wiring. materials and means of construction for a building, Sheetrock: Brand name and included as part of the for gypsum wallboard, construction document set. often incorrectly used to describe any gypsum board or drywall. SI: Système International d’Unités (metric system). 250 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

25 Transom: Opening above a U W door or window that may be filled with a glazed or solid Undressed lumber: Lumber Waler: Horizontal support operable panel. that is not planed. beam used in concrete formwork. Transverse: Crosswise. V Tread: Horizontal surface Winder: L-shaped staircase between two risers of a Valley: Trough formed at the that used wedge-shaped stair. intersection of two sloping treads to turn a 90-degree roofs. corner. Trompe-l’oeil: Two- dimensional painting or Value engineering: Wright, Frank Lloyd: (1867- decoration made to look Analyzing the materials and 1959) American architect; three-dimensional; literally, processes in a project in an notable buildings include “trick the eye.” effort to achieve the desired Fallingwater, the Johnson Truss: Structural element function at the lowest over- Wax Building, and the made up of a triangular ar- all cost. Solomon R. Guggenheim rangement of members that Museum. transforms the nonaxial van der Rohe, Ludwig forces acting on it into a set Mies: (1886-1969) German Wythe: One-unit-thick verti- of axial forces on the truss architect; notable buildings cal layer of masonry. members. include the New National Gallery in Berlin, the Sea- Z gram Building in New York (with Philip Johnson), and Ziggurat: Stepped-back Crown Hall and other build- pyramid temple. ings at the Illinois Institute of Technology. Vault: Arched form. Veneer: Thin layer, sheet, or facing. Vernacular: Structures built with indigenous materials, methods, and traditions. Vitruvius: (c. 80 BCE - 15 BCE) Roman architect, engi- neer and writer; most notable for his treatise De Architec- tura (On Architecture). Glossary 251

26 Chapter 26: Resources The contents of this book offer a quick-reference reflection of numerous sources of information on architectural design and construction—the tip of a formidable iceberg. Any reader wishing to find out more on a specific topic is advised to consult the listing of sources that follow, which is itself an abridged acknowledgment of a wealth of avail- able information. Many of these sources can be found in a well-stocked architecture firm’s in-office library, in the libraries of most schools of architecture, and even in some local libraries. Websites have quickly established themselves as excellent resources for (usually) free information on many subjects, and are especially invalu- able for exploring the offerings of product manufacturers or trade-related information. It should be noted, however, that Web-based content and addresses are always subject to change. Architecture and Design Professions JOURNALS & PERIODICALS Architecture (monthly, USA); www.architectmagazine.com Architectural Record (monthly, USA); www.archrecord.construction.com Architectural Review (monthly, UK); www.architectural-review.com Arquitectura Viva (bimonthly, Spain); www.arquitecturaviva.com a+u (Architecture and urbanism) (monthly, Japan); www.japan-architect.co.jp Casabella (monthly, Italy) Detail (bimonthly, Germany); www.detail.de El Croquis (five times yearly, Spain); www.elcroquis.es JA (Japan Architect) (quarterly, Japan); www. japanarchitect.co.jp Lotus International (quarterly, Italy); www.editorialelotus.it Metropolis Magazine (monthly, USA); www.metropolismag.com WEBSITES www.dezeen.com www.archinect.com www.designboom.com www.archinform.net www.architectureweek.com 252 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

26 Primary Sources Architectural graphic Standards, 11th ed. Charles George Ramsey, Harold Sleeper, and John Hoke; John Wiley & Sons, 2007 CD-ROM also available. previous editions: 1 (1932); 4 (1951); 5 (1956); 6 (1970); 9 (1994); 10 (2000) neufert Architects’ Data, 4th ed. Blackwell Publishers, 2012 Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods, 5th ed. Edward Allen and Joseph Iano; John Wiley & Sons, 2008 Pocket Ref, 4th ed. Thomas J. Glover, Sequoia Publishing, 2010 understanding Buildings: A Multidisciplinary Approach Esmond Reid; MIT Press, 1994 Building Construction Illustrated, 4th ed. Francis D. K. Ching and Cassandra Adams; John Wiley & Sons, 2008 the Architect’s Studio Companion, 4th ed. Edward Allen and Joseph Iano; John Wiley & Sons, 2006 Skins for Buildings: the Architect’s Materials Sample Book David Keuning et al.; Gingko Press, 2004 Annual Book of AStM Standards American Society for Testing Materials, 2013 Seventy-plus volumes contain more than 12,000 standards available in print, CD-ROM, and online formats. www.ansi.org (American National Standards Institute) www.nist.gov (National Institute of Standards and Technology) Resources 253

26 01_MAtERIALS 01 Wood Laminated timber Construction Christian Müller; Birkhäuser, 2000 Wood handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture timber Construction Manual Thomas Herzog et al.; Birkhäuser, 2004 Detail Praxis: timber Construction—Details, Products, Case Studies Theodor Hughs et al.; Birkhäuser, 2004 AItC timber Construction Manual, 5th ed. American Institute of Timber Construction, 2004 AWI Quality Standards, 7th ed., 1999 www.awinet.org (Architectural Wood Institute) www.lumberlocator.com 02 Masonry and Concrete Masonry Construction Manual Günter Pfeifer et al.; Birkhäuser, 2001 Masonry Design and Detailing for Architects and Contractors, 5th ed. Christine Beall; McGraw-Hill, 2004 Complete Construction: Masonry and Concrete Christine Beall; McGraw-Hill Design of Reinforced Masonry Structures Narendra Taly; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000 Reinforced Masonry Design Robert R. Schneider; Prentice-Hall, 1980 Indiana Limestone handbook, 21st ed. Indiana Limestone Institute, 2002 www.bia.org (Brick Industry Association) 254 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

26 Concrete Construction Manual Friedbert Kind-Barkauskas et al.; Birkhäuser, 2002 Construction Manual: Concrete and Formwork T. W. Love; Craftsman Book Company, 1973 Precast Concrete in Architecture A. E. J. Morris; Whitney Library of Design, 1978 Concrete Architecture: Design and Construction Burkhard Fröhlich; Birkhäuser, 2002 www.fhwa.dot.gov (Federal Highway Administration) www.aci-int.org (American Concrete Institute) 03 Metals SMACnA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual, 7th ed. 2012 Metal Architecture Burkhard Fröhlich and Sonja Schulenburg, eds.; Birkhäuser, 2003 Steel and Beyond: new Strategies for Metals in Architecture Annette LeCuyer; Birkhäuser, 2003 www.corrosion-doctors.org 04 Finishes the graphic Standards guide to Architectural Finishes: using MAStERSPEC to Evaluate, Select, and Specify Materials Elena S. Garrison; John Wiley & Sons, 2002 Interior graphic Standards Maryrose McGowan and Kelsey Kruse; John Wiley & Sons, 2003 Detail Magazine—Architectural Details 2003 Detail Review of Architecture, 2004 Extreme textiles: Designing for high Performance Matilda McQuaid; Princeton Architectural Press, 2005 Sweets Catalog McGraw-Hill Construction, ongoing; www.sweets.com Resources 255

26 02_STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS 05 Structural Systems LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) Manual of Steel Construction, 3rd ed. American Institute of Steel Construction, 2001; www.aisc.org Steel Construction Manual, 14th ed. American Institute of Steel Construction, 2010 Steel Construction Manual Helmut Schulitz, Werner Sobek, and Karl J. Habermann; Birkhäuser, 2000 Structural Steel Designer’s Handbook Roger L Brockenbrough and Frederick S. Merritt; McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999 Steel Designers’ Manual Buick Davison and Graham W. Owens, eds.; Steel Construction Institute (UK). Graphic Guide to Frame Construction: Details for Builders and Designers Rob Thallon; Taunton Press, 2000 www.awc.org (American Wood Council) 06 Mechanical Systems Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Construction and Architecture, 4th ed. Frank Dagostino and Joseph B. Wujek; Prentice Hall, 2004 Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 9th ed. Ben Stein and John S. Reynolds; John Wiley & Sons, 1999 Mechanical Systems for Architects Aly S. Dadras; McGraw-Hill, 1995 www.buildingwell.org www.homerepair.about.com www.efftec.com www.saflex.com Sustainable Architecture White Papers (Earth Pledge Foundation Series on Sustainable Development) David E. Brown, Mindy Fox, Mary Rickel Pelletier, eds.; Earth Pledge Foundation, 2001 Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things William McDonough and Michael Braungart; North Point Press, 2002 256 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

26 www.greenbuildingpages.com www.buildinggreen.com (Environmental Building News) www.usgbc.org (U.S. Green Building Council) www.ashrae.org (American Soc. of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Cond. Eng.) 07 Electrical Systems Lighting handbook Reference, 9th ed. Mark S. Rea, ed.; IESNA, 2000 Lighting the Landscape Roger Narboni; Birkhäuser, 2004 1000 Lights, vol. 2: 1960 to Present Charlotte and Peter Fiell; Taschen, 2005 www.archlighting.com www.iesna.org (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America) www.iald.org (International Association of Lighting Designers) 08 Plumbing and Fire Protection Systems Fire Protection Systems A. Maurice Jones, Delmar Cengage Learning, 2008 Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook American Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2004 09 Building Enclosure Systems glass Construction Manual Christian Schittich et al.; Birkhäuser, 1999 Detail Praxis: translucent Materials—glass, Plastic, Metals Frank Kaltenbach, ed.; Birkhäuser, 2004 www.GlassOnWeb.com (glass design guide) www.glass.org (National Glass Association) www.nrca.net (National Roofing Contractors Association) Resources 257

26 03_StAnDARDS MEASURE AND DRAWING 10 Measurement and Geometry Measure for Measure Thomas J. Glover and Richard A. Young; Sequoia Publishing, 2001 Metric handbook Planning & Design, 2nd ed. David Adler, ed.; Architectural Press, 1999 www.onlineconversion.com www.metrication.com 11 Architectural Drawing Types Design Drawing Francis D. K. Ching and Steven P. Juroszek; John Wiley & Sons, 1997 graphics for Architecture Kevin Forseth with David Vaughan; Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980 Basic Perspective Drawing: A Visual Approach, 4th ed. John Montague; John Wiley & Sons, 2004 12 Architectural Documents the Architect’s handbook of Professional Practice, 13th ed. Joseph A. Demkin, ed.; American Institute of Architects, 2005 www.uia-architectes.org www.aia.org www.iso.org www.constructionplace.com www.dcd.com (Design Cost Data) 258 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

26 MasterSpec Master Specification System for Design Professionals and the Building/Construction Industry ARCOM, ongoing; www.arcomnet.com Construction Specifications Portable handbook Fred A. Stitt; McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999 the Project Resource Manual–CSI Manual of Practice Construction Specifications Institute and McGraw-Hill Construction, 2004 www.csinet.org (Construction Specifications Institute) Masterformat 2012 CSI Construction Specifications Institute, 2012 13 Hand Drawing Architectural Drawing: A Visual Compendium of types and Methods, 2nd ed. Rendow Yee; John Wiley & Sons, 2002 Architectural graphics, 4th ed. Francis D. K. Ching; John Wiley & Sons, 2002 14 Computer Standards u.S. national CAD Standard, version 3.1 2004; www.nationalcadstandard.org AutoCAD user’s guide Autodesk, 2001 AutoCad 2006 Instructor James A. Leach; McGraw-Hill, 2005 www.nibs.org (National Institute of Building Sciences) www.pcmag.com Resources 259

26 03_StAnDARDS PROPORTION AND FORM 15 The Human Scale the Measure of Man and Woman: human Factors in Design, rev. ed. Alvin R. Tilley; John Wiley & Sons, 2002 human Scale, vol. 7: Standing and Sitting at Work, vol. 8: Space Planning for the Individual and the Public, and vol. 9: Access for Maintenance, Stairs, Light, and Color Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley, and Joan Bardagjy; MIT Press, 1982 Both above-cited books draw on information produced by Henry Dreyfuss Associates, a leading firm in the development of anthropometric data and its relationship to design. 16 Residential Spaces In Detail : Single Family housing Christian Schittich; Birkhäuser, 2000 Dwell Magazine (bimonthly, USA); www.dwellmag.com www.residentialarchitect.com www.nkba.org (National Kitchen & Bath Association) time-Saver Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning, 2nd ed. Joseph De Chiara, Julius Panero, and Martin Zelnik; McGraw-Hill Profes- sional, 2001 the Architects’ handbook Quentin Pickard, ed.; Blackwell Publishing, 2002 In Detail: Interior Spaces: Space, Light, Material Christian Schittich, ed.; Basel, 2002 260 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

26 17 Form and Organization Architecture: Form, Space and Order, 2nd ed. Francis D. K. Ching; John Wiley & Sons, 1995 harmonic Proportion and Form in nature, Art and Architecture Samuel Colman; Dover Publications, 2003 18 Architectural Elements A Visual Dictionary of Architecture Francis D. K. Ching; John Wiley & Sons, 1996 De architectura (ten Books on Architecture) Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, ca. 40 B.C. the Four Books of Architecture Andrea Palladio, 1570 On the Art of Building Leon Battista Alberti, 1443-1452 Seven Books of Architecture Sebastiano Serlio, 1537 Resources 261

26 03_StAnDARDS CODES AND GUIDELINES 19 Building Codes 2012 International Building Codes International Code Council, 2012 The complete collection is available in book or CD-ROM format at www.iccsafe.org. Building Codes Illustrated: A guide to understanding the International Building Code, 4th ed. Francis D. K. Ching and Steven R. Winkel; John Wiley & Sons, 2012 Code Check series Redwood Kardon, Michael Casey, and Douglas Hansen; The Taunton Press, ongoing This series is available at www.codecheck.com. Illustrated 2009: Building Code handbook Terry L. Patterson; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2009 20 ADA and Accessibility ADA Standards for Accessible Design U.S. Department of Justice - www.ada.gov 1991 and 2010 Standards ADA and Accessibility: Let’s get Practical, 2nd ed. Michele S. Ohmes; American Public Works Association, 2003 guide to ADA & Accessibility Regulations: Complying with Federal Rules and Model Building Code Requirements Ron Burton, Robert J. Brown, and Lawrence G. Perry; BOMA International, 2003 Pocket guide to the ADA: Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility guidelines for Buildings and Facilities, 2nd ed. Evan Terry Associates; John Wiley & Sons, 1997 262 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

26 21 Parking Parking Structures: Planning, Design, Construction, Maintenance & Repair, 3rd ed. Anthony P. Chrest et al.; Springer, 2001 the Dimensions of Parking Urban Land Institute and National Parking Association, 2000 the Aesthetics of Parking: An Illustrated guide Thomas P. Smith; American Planning Institute, 1988 Parking Spaces Mark Childs; McGraw-Hill, 1999 www.apai.net (Asphalt Paving Association of Iowa – Design Guide) www.bts.gov (Bureau of Transportation Services) 22 Stairs Stairs: Design and Construction Karl J. Habermann; Birkhäuser, 2003 Staircases Eva Jiricna; Watson-Guptill Publications, 2001 Stairs: Scale Silvio San Pietro and Paola Gallo; IPS, 2002 23 Doors Construction of Buildings: Windows, Doors, Fires, Stairs, Finishes R. Barry; Blackwell Science, 1992 Resources 263

26 04_COMPEnDIuM 24 Timeline history of Architecture on the Comparative Method: For Students, Craftsmen & Amateurs, 16th ed. Sir Banister Fletcher; Charles Scribner’s, 1958 Modern Architecture: A Critical history, 3rd ed. Kenneth Frampton; Thames & Hudson, 1992 A World history of Architecture Marian Moffett et al.; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003 Source Book of American Architecture: 500 notable Buildings from the 10th Century to the Present G. E. Kidder Smith; Princeton Architectural Press, 1996 Architecture: From Prehistory to Postmodernism, 2nd ed. Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman; Prentice-Hall, 2003 Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture V. M. Lampugnani, ed.; Thames and Hudson, 1986 Modern Architecture Since 1900 J. R. Curtis, Phaidon Press, 1996 264 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

26 25 Glossary the Penguin Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, 5th ed. John Fleming, Hugh Honour, and Nikolaus Pevsner; Penguin, 2000 Dictionary of Architecture, rev. ed. Henry H. Saylor; John Wiley & Sons, 1994 Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, 3rd ed. Cyril M. Harris; McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000 Means Illustrated Construction Dictionary R. S. Means Company, 2000 Architectural and Building trades Dictionary R. E. Putnam and G. E. Carlson; American Technical Society, 1974 Resources 265

Index A assembly use group, 200 carpet, 52 accelerating admixtures, 34 attached ceilings, 53 caryatid, 187 access aisle, 206 Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ), 199 casement windows, 97 accessibility, 197, 206–217 AutoCAD, 154–161 casework, 54 cast iron, 38 elevators, 216 external references, 157 cast or channel glass, 103 means of egress, 209 file-naming conventions, 160–161 casting, 37 parking spaces, 210 model space, 158 cathedral grain, 10 ramps, 216 paper space, 158 caulk, 96 signage, 208–209 terminology, 155 cavity walls, 72, 93 stairs, 217 text scale chart, 159 cedar, 18 terminology, 206–208 windows, 156 ceiling moldings, 51 wheelchair space allowances, 211–215 automatic doors, 207 ceilings, 53 accessible, 206 automatic sprinklers, 86–87 accessible design dimensions, 166–167 awning windows, 97 attached, 53 accessible element, 206 axial force, 58 suspended, 53 accessible route, 206 B cella, 186 accessible space, 206 baffle, 78 cement, portland, 32 acid-etched glass, 105 ballast, 78 ceramic tile, 52 acoustic ceiling tiles (ACT), 53 balloon framing, 62 certificate of occupancy, 133 adaptability, 206 Baroque architecture, 238 Certified Construction Specified (CCS), 144 adaptive reuse, 77 bars, 178 chair rail, 51 addendum, 132 base flashing, 89 chair widths, 180 addition, 206 baseboards, 51 change order, 133 adjustable triangle, 150 bathrooms, 174–175, 214–215 charrette, 133 administrative authority, 206 bathtubs, 215 chase wall, 72 admixtures, concrete, 34 beam, 58 check, 10 air and water systems, 72 bearing walls, 93 chemically strengthened glass, 105 air duct, 72 bed molding, 51 chestnut, 19 air handling unit (AHU), 73 beds, 176 chiller, 73 air-entraining admixtures, 34 Belgian truss, 71 chip board, 149 Alberti, Leon Battista, 194 bid, 132 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 77 all-air systems, 72 birch, 18 chromium, 38, 39 alloys, 36, 38 black water, 77 circles, 118, 182 all-water systems, 72 blast furnace slag, 34 circular zone, 118 alteration, 206 block, 155 circulation path, 207 alternate, 132 board foot, 10, 16 circumference, 118 aluminum, 38, 39 body-tinted glass, 104 classical elements, 186 aluminum alloys, 38 boiler, 73 classical orders, 188–189 ambient lighting, 78 bond paper, 149 clear, 207 American National Metric Council (ANMC), 108 book-matched, 10 clear floor space, 207 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), Boolean operations, 183 clearway allowances, for wheelchairs, 211–215 206–217 booths, 178 closed loop, 72 ampere (amp), 78 bowstring truss, 71 closets, 177 ancient architecture, 234–235 braced frame, 65 coated metals, 36 annealing, 36 brass, 39 codes anodic index, 40 brazing, 37 building codes, 198–205 anodizing, 36 bricks, 24–29 and occupancy type and use groups, 200–201 ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 132 bond types, 27 coefficient of utilization (CU), 78 antireflective glass, 105 colors, 29 cold rolling, 36 appliances, 173 grades, 24 cold-worked metals, 36 arches, 58, 191–192 manufacturing, 25 color rendering index (CRI), 78 architectural documents, 132–147 orientations, 27 color temperature, 78 abbreviations, 140–141 standard coursing, 28 coloring agents, 34 common paper sizes, 136 standard sizes, 26 columns, 59, 63 construction documents, 143 types, 24 combustible materials, 202 drawing set order, 138–139 units, 26 command line, 155 drawing sheet layout and set assembly, 137 bronze, 39 common use, 207 sheet folding, 136 brownfields, 77 compact fluorescent, 78, 83 and specifications, 144–147 brutalism, 241 compass, 150 terminology, 132–135 building, 207 competitions, design, 142 architectural drawing types, 120–131 building codes, 198–205 Complete Works (Le Corbusier), 195 architectural elements, 186–195 building elevations, 124–125 composite orders, 189 arches, 191–192 Building Officials and Code Administrators composite walls, 93, 95 classical elements, 186 International (BOCA), 198 compression, 58 classical orders, 188–189 building permits, 132 computer programs, 154. see also AutoCAD Gothic elements, 190–192 built-up roof (BUR), 91 computer standards and guidelines, 154–161 modernism, 193 bulbs, 78, 82–83 concrete, 32–35 architectural publications, 194–195 burl, 10 admixtures, 34 architecture, history of, 234–241 business use group, 200 casting, 33 area formulas, 116–119 butternut, 18 colors, 35 area measures, 108, 110 buttress, 58 composition, 32 area of rescue assistance, 206 Byzantine architecture, 235 finishes, 35 area units, 108, 109 C floor and roof systems, 64–67 art deco, 240 cabinets, 173 placing and curing, 34 art nouveau, 239, 240 CAD (computer-aided design), 155 sitecast, 33 arts & crafts, 240 cadmium, 38, 39 slabs, 66 as-built drawings, 132 caissons, 61 concrete blocks, 30–31 ash, 18 candela, 78 concrete masonry units (CMUs), 30–31 ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, candlepower (CP), 78 decorative, 31 Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers), 72 cantilever, 59 grades, 31 aspect ratio, 155 production, 31 assembly area, 207 266 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

standard sizes, 30 drafting brush, 150 FF&E, 133 types, 31 drafting powder, 150 Fibonacci sequence, 185 weights, 31 drawing file, 155 fibrous admixtures, 34 condensation, 96 drawing interchange format (DXF), 155 field order, 134 condenser unit, 75 drawing metal, 36, 37 figure, 10 cones, 117, 182 drawing web format (DWF), 155 finish carpentry, 54–55 connections drawings, 107. see also architectural documents finishes, 44–55 in heavy-timber construction, 63 steel-frame, 70 abbreviations, 140–141 ceilings, 53 conoid, 183 architectural, 120–131 finish carpentry, 54–55 conservative disassembly, 77 drawing set order, 138–139 flooring, 52 construction administration, 143 drawing sheet layout and set assembly, 137 plaster, 50–51 construction cost, 133 hand drawings, 148–153 wall systems, 46–49 construction documents, 143 symbols, 122 fink truss, 71 construction management, 133 three-dimensional, 128–129 fire doors, 227 construction management contract, 133 working, 143 fire protection systems, 86–87 Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), 144 drilled pier, 61 fire-resistance ratings, 202 construction types, 202 dry bulb, 72 first and second (FAS) grade, 16 consultant, 133 drywall. see gypsum wallboard (GWB) fixed windows, 97 contract administration, 133 dual-sealed units, 96 flashing, 89 contract over- (or under-) run, 133 DWG, 155 flat beam and slab, 64 contractor, 133 flat howe truss, 71 control joints, 33 E flat pratt truss, 71 convection, 96 early growth/late growth, 10 float glass, 102 cooling tower, 73 eating areas, 178–179 floor lamp, 80 coordinates, 155 edge joints, 22 floor plans, 123 copper, 38, 39 educational use group, 200 flooring, 52, 63, 175 Corinthian orders, 189 egress, means of, 203–205, 207, 209 fluorescent, 78, 82 corrosion inhibitors, 34 egress doors, 204 flush hollow core doors, 228 counters, 178 egress stairs, 204 flush solid core doors, 228 countertops, 54 egress widths, 204, 205 fly ash, 34 cove molding, 51 Egyptian architecture, 234–235 foam board, 149 cross slope, 207 electrical outlets, in bathrooms, 175 foam board models, 9 crosshairs, 155 electrical systems, 78–83 foot-candle (FC), 79 crown molding, 51 electrically heated glass, 105 footings, 61 CSI MasterFormat system, 144–147 electroluminescent, 78 forced air duct system, 75 cubes, 182 electroplating, 36 forging, 37 curb ramp, 207 elements, 207 form and organization, 182–185 cursor, 155 elevation drawing, 121, 124–125, 127 formulas curtain wall, 99 elevator control panels, 208 area, 116–119 curved stairs, 223 elevators, 209, 216 circumference, 118 customary units, 108–109 ellipses, 119 perimeter, 116–119 cylinders, 117, 182 ellipsoid, 119 volume, 117, 119 D embodied energy, 77 foundation systems, 60–61 date of substantial completion, 133 emissivity, 96 The Four Books of Architecture (Palladio), 195 daylight compensation, 78 enameled glass, 105 4-pipe system, 74 dead loads, 58 enclosure systems, 88–105 fraction to decimal equivalents, 109 decay, 63 framed connections, 70 decking, in heavy-timber construction, 63 exterior walls, 94–95 framing Declaration of Interdependence, 76 flashing, 89 balloon, 62 deconstructivism, 241 glass and glazing, 102–105 doors, 229 decorative glass, 105 masonry bearing walls, 93 hollow slab, 67 deep foundation, 60, 61 roofs, 88, 90–91 platform, 62 desiccant, 96 stone, 92 precast concrete, 66–67 design development, 142 windows, 96–101 steel, 68–71 design-build construction, 133 end joints, 22 stemmed deck, double tree (DT), 67 desk lamp, 81 energy, 78 wood light-framing, 62 detail drawings, 127 energy distribution systems, 72–75 French curve, 150 detectable warning, 207 English units, 108 French doors, 97 dew point, 96 entasis, 187 furnace, 72 diffuser, 78 entity, 155 G dimensional stability, 10 entrance, 207 galvanic action, 40 dimetric drawings, 128, 129 equilateral triangles, 116 galvanic series, 40 direct glare, 78 erasing shield, 150 galvanizing, 36 directional signs, 208 estimating, 133 garages, 177 dome, 59 Etruscan architecture, 235 gas-filled units, 96 doors, 226–231 exit passageways, 204 gauging plaster, 50 dimensions, 226 exits, 203–204 general contractor, 134 egress, 204 explode, 155 geodesic domes, 183 fire, 227 exterior walls, 94–95 geodesic spheres, 183 hollow metal, 230–231 external reference, 155 geometry types, 227 external reference (X-Ref) drawings, 157 plane figure formulas, 116–119 wood, 228–229 extraction, 183 slopes and percentage grade, 114–115 Doric orders, 188 extrusion, 37 Georgian architecture, 239 double-curved solids, 119 F girder, 59 double-hung windows, 97, 98 fabrication techniques, for metal, 37 glass and glazing, 102–105 dovetail joints, 23 factor and industrial use group, 200 in bathrooms, 175 downlight, 78 fan coil units (FCUs), 74 glass forms, 103 drafting farmed wood, 14 glass production, 102 by hand, 148–153 fast-track construction, 133 thickness, 102 supplies, 150–151 feet and meters scale, 112 types, 104–105 ferrous metals, 36, 38 glass block, 103 Index 267

glaze, 96 International Conference of Building Officials masonry opening (Mas Opg), 98 golden mean, 184 (ICBO), 198 mat foundation, 61 golden rectangle, 184 materials golden section, 184 Interprofessional Council on Environmental Gothic architecture, 237 Design (ICED), 76 finishes, 44–55 Gothic elements, 190–192 masonry and concrete, 24–35 grain, 10 intersection, 183 metals, 36–43 granite, 92 interviews, with potential clients, 142 selection of, 9 gray water, 77 Ionic orders, 188 structural, 59 Greek architecture, 235 iron, 38 wood, 10–23 grille, 96 isometric drawings, 128, 129 mattress sizes, 176 grinding, 37 J means of egress, 203–205, 207, 209 ground line (GL), 130 Janka hardness test, 11 measurement, 108–113 gum pocket, 11 joints measuring line (ML), 130 gypsum, 46, 50 mechanical systems, 72–77 gypsum plaster, 50 control, 33 energy distribution systems, 72–75 gypsum wallboard (GWB), 46–49 mortar, 29 HVAC systems, 73 wood, 22–23 and sustainable design, 76–77 board thickness, 47 K medium-density fiber core hardwood plywood, 55 common partition assemblies, 49 Keenes cement, 50 medium-density overlay plywood, 55 edge types, 47 kitchens, 172–173 melamine, 55 fireproofing, 49 L mercantile use group, 201 panel types, 46 laminate counters, 54 metal doors, 230–231 partition wall installation, 48 laminated glass, 105 metal panel roofs, 91 H laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 15 metal roofs, 90 habitable rooms, 176–177 lamp, 79 metal stud wall, 94 hand drawing, 148–153 lap joints, 23 metal studs, 15, 42 drafting supplies, 150–151 late modernism, 241 metals, 36–43 papers and boards, 149 lavatories, wheelchair space allowances, 215 alloys, 36, 38 pencils for, 152 layer, 155 anodic index, 40 technical ink pens, 153 lay-in troffer, 79 coated, 36 work surface, 148 Le Corbusier, 193, 195 cold-worked, 36 handrails, 217 lead, 39 ferrous, 36, 38 hard conversions, 111 LEED (Leadership in Energy and forms and sheets, 43 hardness, 11 Environmental Design), 76 gauges and mils, 40–41 hardwood, 16 LEED Green Building Rating System, 76 heat-treated, 36 heartwood, 11 length units, 108, 109 joining, 37 heat pump, 72 lens, 79 modifying properties of, 36 heat-treated metals, 36 life cycle analysis (LCA), 77 nonferrous, 36, 39 heavy timbers, 63 light (lite), 96 roofing seams, 43 high output (HO), 79 light fixtures, 80–81 sheet thickness, 43 high-density overlay plywood, 55 light-emitting diode (LED), 79 types, 38–39 high-density plywood, 55 light-gauge framing, 42 metamorphic rock, 92 high-hazard use group, 201 lighting, 78–83, 175 metric conversions, 109, 111–113 high-intensity discharge (HID), 79 limestone, 92 metric system, 108–113 high-strength basecoat, 50 linear measures, 108, 110 metrication, 108 hollow core slab, 66 lines, regulating, 185 Microllam, 15 hollow metal doors, 230–231 lintel, 59 middle ages, architecture of, 236 hollow slab framing system, 67 live loads, 58 mild steel, 38 hopper windows, 97 loads, 58 millwork, 54–55 horizon line (HL), 130 louver, 72 mils, 40–41 horizontal console, 74 low-E glass, 104 miscellaneous use group, 201 horizontal FCU, 74 L-shaped stair with landing, 222 miter joints, 22 human scale, 164–171 L-shaped stair with offset winders, 223 mixed-use occupancy, 200 HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air- L-shaped stair with winders, 223 model files, 160–161 conditioning), 72, 73 lumber, 12–13 model space, 155, 156, 158 hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), 77 lumber grades modeling programs, 154. see also AutoCAD hydronic heating, 77 hardwood, 16 models, 9, 155 hydronic systems, 75 softwood, 13 modern architecture, 240–241 hyperbolic paraboloid, 183 lumen, 79 modernism, 193, 240 hyperboloid of revolution, 183 luminaire, 79 modified bowstring truss, 71 I luminance, 79 moisture content, 11 IALD (International Association of Lighting lux (LX), 79 molding plaster, 50 Designers), 79 M moldings, 51 IAQ (indoor air quality), 72 machining, 37 molybdenum, 38 icosahedron, 183 magnesium, 38, 39 moment frame, 65 IESNA (Illuminating Engineering Society of mahogany, 19 mortar, 29 North America), 79 malleable iron, 38 mortar joints, 29 igneous rock, 92 manganese, 38 mortise and tenon joints, 23 illuminance, 79 maple, 19 movement in performance, 11 illustration board, 149 marble, 92 mullion, 96 incandescent, 79, 83 marked crossing, 207 multi-faceted reflector (MR), 83 indirect cost, 134 marketing, 142, 143 muntin bar, 96 information signs, 208 masonry, 24 Mylar, 149 inspection list, 134 bearing walls, 93 N institutional use group, 201 bricks, 24–29 nadir, 79 insulating glass, 104 concrete, 32–35 National Institute of Standards and interior elevations, 127 concrete masonry units (CMUs), 30–31 Technology (NIST), 110 International Building Code (IBC), 198–199 mortar, 29 neoclassic architecture, 239 International Code Council (OCC), 198 preferred SI dimensions for, 27 NIBS (National Institute of Building Sciences), 134 stone, 92 NIBS Standard sheet layout, 137 nickel, 38 268 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

noncombustible materials, 202 power-assisted door, 207 rosewood, 21 nonferrous metals, 36, 39 pozzolans, 34 rough lumber, 12 O precast concrete framing, 66–67 rough opening (Rgh Opg), 98 oak, 19–20 pre-design phase, 142 row spacing, 180 oblique drawings, 128, 129 prehung doors, 229 rules surfaces, 183 occupancy loads, 205 premodern architecture, 238 running slope, 208 occupancy types, 200–201 pressure-treated lumber, 11 R-value, 96 occupancy use groups, 200–201 prestressing, 59 S office workspaces, 181 primary elements, 182 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, 209 On the Art of Building (Alberti), 194 primary shapes, 182 safety glass, 105 one-point common method perspective, 131 prisms, 117 sand-blasted glass, 105 one-way beam and slab, 64 program, 134 sandstone, 92 one-way ribbed slab, 64 progress schedule, 134 sapwood, 12 opaque, 79 project cost, 134 sash, 96 open loop, 72 project directory, 134 sash opening (Sash Opg), 98 operable part, 207 project manager, 134 scales, 151, 158–159 opisthodomos, 186 project manual, 134 schedule, 134 optics, 79 Project Resource Manual, 144 schematic design, 142 owner-architect agreement, 134 project timeline, 142–143 scheme, 134 P pronaos, 186 scissors truss, 71 Palladio, Andrea, 195 proportion, and human scale, 164–171 scope of work, 134 panel doors, 228 public seating, 180 screen-printed glass, 105 panel molding, 51 public use, 208 seated dimensions, 168–169 paper sizes, 136 punched opening, 99 seating, 176 paper space, 155, 156, 158 pyramids, 117, 182 paper space scales (XP), 159 Q clearances, 179 parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR), 83 quadrilaterals, 116 public, 180 paraline drawings, 128 quarry tile, 52 types, 178 parallelograms, 116 quarter-round molding, 51 section drawing, 120 parking, 218–221 quartersawn, 11 sector of circle, 118 parking garages, 221 R sector of sphere, 119 parking spaces, 210, 220 radiant heat, 72 sedimentary rock, 92 Parthenon, 186 radiation, 96 segment of circle, 118 parti, 134 raft foundation, 61 segment of sphere, 119 particle board core plywood, 55 ramps, 114, 208, 216, 221 select, No. 1 common grade, 16 partition walls, 49 rebar, 33, 34–35 select, No. 2 common grade, 16 passive solar, 77 recessed lighting, 80–81 select, No. 3 common grade, 16 passive solar gain, 96 rectangles, 116 self-cleaning glass, 105 pecan, 20 reduction coefficient (NRC), 53 Serlio, Sebastiano, 195 pencils, 152 reflectance, 79 Seven Books of Architecture (Serlio), 195 pendant, 81 reflected ceiling plans (RCPs), 126 shading coefficient, 96 pens, 153 reflective glass, 104 shaft, 72 percentage grade, 114–115 reflector, 79 shallow foundation, 60, 61 perimeter formulas, 116–119 refractor, 79 shear, 59 peripteros, 186 regular polygons, 117 sheet file, 155 perspectives, 121 regulating lines, 185 sheet files, 157, 160–161 reinforcing masonry, 93 sheet folding, 136 one-point common method perspective, 131 reinforcing steel bars, 33, 34–35 sheet metal, 37, 40, 43 two-point common method perspective, 130 Renaissance architecture, 237–238 Sheetrock. see gypsum wallboard (GWB) photovoltaic glass, 105 renewable, 77 shingles, 90 photovoltaics, 77 requests for information (RFIs), 134 shop and factory lumber, 12 picture frame, 131 requests for proposal (RFPs), 134, 142 shop drawings, 134 picture plane (PP), 130 requests for qualifications (RFQs), 142 shoring, 59 picture rail, 51 residential spaces, 172–181 showers, wheelchair space allowances, 215 piles, 61 signage, 208–209 pine, 20 bathrooms, 174–175 silica fume, 34 pipes, 85 habitable rooms, 176–177 silicon, 38 pitched howe truss, 71 kitchens, 172–173 sill flashing, 89 pitched pratt truss, 71 residential use group, 201 single-hung windows, 97 plainsawn, 11 resilient flooring, 52 SIP (structured insulated panel) wall, 94 plan drawing, 120 resources, 252–265 site, 135 plane figure formulas, 116–119 retaining wall, 59 sitecast concrete framing, 33 plaster retarding admixtures, 34 skylights, 97 lath assemblies, 50–51 Rheims Cathedral, 190 slab on grade, 61 over masonry, 51 riftsawn, 12 slate, 92 types, 50 right-angle joints, 22–23 sliding doors, 97 wall assemblies, 51 risers, 225 sliding windows, 97 plasterboard. see gypsum wallboard (GWB) Rococo architecture, 239 slopes, 114–115 plastic laminate counters, 54 rolling, 37 slump test, 59 platform framing, 62 Roman architecture, 235 soft conversions, 111 platonic solids, 182 Romanesque architecture, 235, 236 soft costs, 135 plenum, 53, 72 roof forms, 88 softwood, 12 plumbing, 84–85 roof windows, 97 softwood lumber, 12–13 plywood, 11, 17, 55, 62 roofing seams, metal, 43 soldering, 37 Pollio, Marcus Vitruvius, 194 roofs solid flat slab, 66 polygons, 117 flashing, 89 solid surface countertops, 54 polyhedra, 183 low & flat slopes, 91 Southern Building Code Congress polyline, 155 steep slopes, 90 International (SBCCI), 198 polymer-modified bitumen sheet membranes, 91 types, 90–91 space, 208 portland cement, 32 room cavity ratio (RCR), 79 specialty glass, 105 postmodernism, 241 room signs, 209 specifications, 144–147 spheres, 182 Index 269

spiral stairs, 223 three-dimensional drawings, 128–129 gypsum board, 46–49 split, 12 three-dimensional representations, 121 plaster, 50–51 spray polyurethane foam board (SPF), 91 tiles retaining, 59 sprinkler head distribution types, 87 trim shapes, 51 squares, 182 acoustic ceiling tiles (ACT), 53 walnut, 21 stain, 12 floor, 52 warp, 12 stainless steel, 38 roof, 90 Warren truss, 71 stairs, 222–225 time and materials (T&M), 135 water-reducing admixtures, 34 timeline of architecture, 234–241 welded moment connections, 70 accessibility, 217 tin, 39 welding, 37 components, 224 titanium, 38, 39 wet bulb, 72 egress, 204 toilets, wheelchair space allowances, 214 wheelchair space allowances, 211–215 plan and elevation of, 224 total solar energy, 96 wheelchairs, 166–167 treads and risers, 225 tracing paper, 149 wind loads, 58 types, 222–223 translucent, 79 window wall, 99 stamping, 37 transparent, 79 windows, 96–101 standard units, 108 trapezium, 116 considerations for, 100–101 standards of professional practice, 135 trapezoids, 116 sizing, 98 station point (SP), 130, 131 treads, 225 terminology, 96 steel, 36, 38 triangles, 116, 182 types, 97 fabrication techniques, 37 triangular architect’s scale, 151 windows (AutoCAD), 155, 156 fireproofing at steel structural members, 49 trim shapes, 51 wired glass, 105 galvanic action, 40 trimetric drawings, 128, 129 wood, 10–23 light-gauge framing, 42 troffer, 79 board feet, 16 steel alloys, 38 truss design, 70–71 dimensional variations of 2x6 stud, 14–15 steel framing, 68–71 tube, 65 doors, 228–229 connections, 70 tungsten, 38 exposure durability, 17 structural shape designations, 68–69 Tuscan orders, 188 flooring, 52 truss design, 70–71 two-coat plaster, 50 grades, 229 Steel Stud Manufacturers Association 2-pipe system, 74 hardwood, 16 (SSMA), 42 two-point common method perspective, 130 joinery, 22–23 stemmed deck, double tree (DT), 66, 67 2x6 studs, 14–15 light-framing, 62 stemmed deck, single tree (ST), 66 two-way flat plate, 64 plywood, 17 stone, 92 two-way flat slab, 64 softwood lumber, 12–13 stone countertops, 54 two-way waffle slab, 64 stud wall, 94 storage use group, 201 U terminology, 10–12 straight grain, 12 UCS icons, 155 types and characteristics, 18–21 straight run stairs, 222 UHPC concrete walls, 95 veneer grades, 17 strain, 59 ultraviolet (UV), 79, 96 wood-based board types, 55 stress, 59 Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL), 79 worked lumber, 12 structural systems, 58–71, 135 union, 183 working drawings, 143 concrete floor and roof systems, 64–67 Union Internationale des Architectes workspaces, 181 foundation systems, 60–61 (UIA), 76 written specifications, 107, 144–147 heavy timbers, 63 unit conversions, 109, 111–113 wrought iron, 38 and loads, 58 United States Metric Association (USMA), 108 X materials, 59 units of measure, 108–113 X-Acto knife, 150 steel framing, 68–71 universal design, 166–167 XP scales, 159 terminology, 58–59 upstream/downstream, 77 X-ray protection glass, 105 wood light-framing, 62 U.S. customary units, 108–109 Y stucco, 50 U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), 76 yard (structural) lumber, 12 stucco walls, 95 user coordinate system (UCS), 155 Z studs, 12 U-shaped stair with landing, 222 zebrawood, 21 subcontractors, 135 utility use group, 201 zinc, 38, 39 substitution, 135 U-value, 96 zoning, 135 substructure, 60 V zoning permit, 135 super-plasticizers, 34 value engineering, 135 superstructure, 60 vanishing point, 130, 131 surfaced (dressed) lumber, 12 variable air volume (VAV), 72 suspended ceilings, 53 vault, 59 sustainable design, 76–77, 197 vellum, 149 symbols, drawing, 122 veneer core hardwood plywood, 55 Système International d’Unités (SI). see veneer grades, 17 metric system veneer plaster, 51 T vertical stack, 74 T12 lamp, 79, 82 viewport, 155 table lamps, 80 vinyl flooring, 52 tables, 178 visible light, 96 tactile, 208 volatile organic compound (VOC), 77 teak, 21 volume, 117, 119 technical ink pens, 153 W tempered glass, 96, 105 walk, 208 tempering, 36 wall sconce, 81 template, 150 walls Ten Books on Architecture (Pollio), 194 bearing, 93 tenant improvements (TIs), 135 cavity, 72, 93 tension, 58 chase, 72 terrace doors, 97 common configurations, 93 terrazzo, 52 composite, 93, 95 text telephone, 208 exterior, 94–95 texture, 12 flashing, 89 thermal performance, 96 three-coat plaster, 50 270 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS Pyramid of Giza: Erich Lessing, Art Resource, New York; 236 Stonehenge: Anatoly Pronin, Art Resource, New York; 236 Parthenon: Foto Marburg, Art Resource, New York; 237 Colosseum: Alinari, Art Resource, New York; 237 El Castillo: Vanni, Art Resource, New York; 237 San Vitale: Scala, Art Resource, New York; 238 Notre-Dame: Scala, Art Resource, New York; 238 Duomo, S. Maria del Fiore: Scala, Art Resource, New York; 239 S. Maria Novella: Erich Lessing, Art Resource, New York; 239 Villa La Rotonda: Vanni, Art Resource, New York; 239 S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane: Scala, Art Resource, New York; 240 Salt Works of Chaux: Vanni, Art Resource, New York; 241 Crystal Palace: Victoria & Albert Museum, Art Resource, New York; 241 Marshall Field Wholesale Store: Chicago Historical Society / Barnes-Crosby; 241 Barcelona Pavilion: Museum of Modern Art / licensed by Scala, Art Resource, New York. © 2006 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn; 242 Einstein Tower: Erich Lessing, Art Resource, New York; 242 Bauhaus: Vanni, Art Resource, New York. © 2006 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn; 242 Fallingwater: Chicago Historical Society / Bill Hedrich, Hedrich-Blessing; 242 Vanna Venturi House: Rollin R. La France, Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates; 243 Seattle Public Library: LMN Architects / Pragnesh Parikh; 243 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks to Anna Buzolits, Adam Balaban, Dan Dwyer, John McMorrough, Rick Smith, and Ron Witte. Every attempt has been made to cite all sources; if a reference has been omitted, please contact the publisher for correction in subsequent editions. 271

About the Author Julia McMorrough has designed a wide range of project types, including hospitals, libraries, university buildings, and schools for architecture firms in Boston, Kansas City, New York, and Columbus, Ohio. Currently, she practices as a partner of studioAPT, a design and research collaborative, and is associate professor of practice at Taubman College of Architecture at the University of Michigan. She received a Bachelor of Ar- chitecture from the University of Kansas and a Master of Science in architecture from Columbia University. DEDICATION For Walter, Matthew, and John 272 THE ARCHITECTURE REFERENCE + SPECIFICATION BOOK

© 2013 by Rockport Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the copy- right owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the artists concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or printer for any infringement of copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure that credits accurately comply with information supplied. First published in the United States of America by Rockport Publishers, a member of Quayside Publishing Group 100 Cummings Center Suite 406-L Beverly, Massachusetts 01915-6101 Telephone: (978) 282-9590 Fax: (978) 283-2742 www.rockpub.com Originally found under the following Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data McMorrough, Julia. Materials, structures, and standards : all the details architects need to know but can never find / Julia McMorrough. p. cm. ISBN 1-59253-193-8 (vinyl) 1. Architecture—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Building—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title. NA2540.M43 2006 720—dc22 2005019669 CIP ISBN-13: 978-1-59253-848-5 Digital edition published 2013 eISBN: 978-1-61058-781-5 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 DISCLAIMER The content of this book is for general information purposes only and has been obtained from many sources, professional organizations, manufacturers’ literature, and codes. All illustrations in this book (except photo- graphs) are those of the author. The author and publisher have made every reasonable effort to ensure that this work is accurate and current, but do not warrant, and assume no liability for, the accuracy or completeness of the text or illustrations, or their fitness for any particular purpose. It is the responsibility of the users of this book to apply their professional knowledge to the content, to consult sources referenced, as appropriate, and to consult a professional architect for expert advice if necessary. Editor and Art Director: Alicia Kennedy Design and Illustrations: Julia McMorrough Production Design: Leslie Haimes Cover Design: Burge Agency, www.burgeagency.com Printed in China