Chapter 4 The Physical, and Chemical and Microbial Characteristics of Litani River Water Nada Nehme and Chaden Haidar Abstract The major physiochemical and microbiological properties of water were analyzed from 13 representative sites along the Litani River tributaries. The results indicated significant levels of pollution in many of the investigated sites. This has been observed in the upper and lower basins of the Litani River. Although some physiochemical variables were within the WHO and Libnor norms, there still remains severe contamination in the river water. Coliform and all genres of bacteria are highly and positively present in the investigated sites indicating unacceptable pollution input from untreated sewage outfall directly into the river. In addition, there is a high nitrite ratio beyond the permitted global range. Increased cadmium and iron contents were found, which also revealed a risky aspect of contamination. Physical variables also showed metal particles in the river water, and microbial and chemical contamination was visible in all sites. It can be concluded that the measured variables are indicative for water-quality assessment. The urgent mitigation of wastewater dumping into the river is highly recommended. 4.1 Introduction The Litani River is the largest water body in Lebanon with an estimated average total discharge of 252 million m3 (Nehme et al. 2013). This perennial watercourse originates from the Al-Oliek Spring in northern Bekaa Plain and flows to the south until it outlets in the Mediterranean Sea. The Litani River discharges about 20% of the water of Lebanon as well as water collected among a watershed of about 2.110 km2. Hydrologically, the Litani River Basin (LRB) is divided into two major sub-basins (i.e., Upper [ULRB] and Lower [LLRB]). The Qaraaoun Reservoir is located almost in the southern part of the ULRB (LRA 1999; Mansour 1994). There is well-developed agricultural activity in the ULRB, but it is not equally developed in the LLRB where arable lands are rare and mountainous ridges are N. Nehme (&)
C. Haidar Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon e-mail: nadanehme530@hotmail.com © Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 A. Shaban and M. Hamzé (eds.), The Litani River, Lebanon: An Assessment and Current Challenges, Water Science and Technology Library 85, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76300-2_4 57 58 N. Nehme and C. Haidar dominant (Khoury et al. 2006). Thus, the most important irrigated crops consist of bananas and citrus crops, where they are dominant at the coastal zone on both sides of the Litani River, in addition to olive trees, fruit trees, vineyards, and protected agriculture. Water-quality indicators provide baseline information and help to identify temporal changes in water quality across different climatic conditions. They aid scientists in investigating problems, such as nonpoint-source pollution and nutrient enrichment, and can identify factors causing the contamination. However, they only provide limited information on the geographic extent of pollutants that impact fauna and flora Elewa and Gober (1999). They also provide information on how specific water-quality indicators characterize river health and the factors affecting it. These parameters supply indicative data providing an early warning for potential sources of water pollution (APHA 1995). The ultimate objective of the imposition of water-quality indicators (which may need full treatment before use) is the protection of the consumers, whether humans or animals. The main consideration concerns safeguarding public health and protecting the whole aquatic environment. Both have high-quality considerations that are necessary in our lives (Wisconsin 2003). The relatively large areal extent of the LRB, which crosses through a miscellany of land types with different uses—mainly agricultural ones—makes it vulnerable to many aspects of pollution (Haidar et al. 2014). In general, there are two major sources of pollution: either by organic materials and/or by chemicals. Pollution by organic materials mainly comes from wastewater effluents, more specifically from domestic residues where a mixture of wastewater and surface water percolates into soil and rocks and then mixes with groundwater. This significantly pollutes the existing aquifers. Additionally, solid wastes from industries and other sources are dumped into the river without any treatment. This is a widespread phenomenon by which these wastes end up over fissured rocks and then contaminate groundwater in the river basin. Additional wastes include waste from animal farms and slaughterhouses, hospital waste, and waste from agricultural fertilizers and food processing, which result from food factories such as those producing dairy, soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, jams, molasses, and any other materials produced in these factories or similar ones (Fawaz 1992; Jaber 1993; Hajjar 1993, 1997). The development of organic pollution in the Litani River is attributed to the fact that Litani River and its streams are the nearest open outfalls for wastewater and liquid wastes derived from the villages’ existing the river’s flanks, notably in the absence of treatment plants. Chemical pollution is due to the presence of factories— including the paper factory in Berdaouni, the sugar factory along Ghzayel River, and battery factories located in the industrial zone of Zahle—located on river floodplains. Some toxic elements found are also due to the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Chemical pollution, in contrast, originates from fuel stations discarding polluted water and used fuel and oils into sewage-canal systems. Industrial wastewater 4 The Physical, and Chemical and Microbial Characteristics … 59 results mainly from tanning and battery factories as well as car-repair workshops. In addition, chemical pesticides and fertilizers, which are used in agricultural purposes, are additional pollutants. Olive presses also produce liquid wastes that are harmful in some regions (Haidar 2014). Quarries, rock debris, pavement, and rock-cutting manufacturers produce dusts and clayey-fill rock fractures, which act on water infiltration and storage. This type of pollutant affects flow rates and increases the concentration of river pollution (Haidar 2014). In addition, the population in the ULB has increased lately, especially in Houch El-Rafica, due to the presence of Syrian refugees. Increasingly, various water consumers—such as the municipal, agricultural, and industrial sectors and improved living standards—must be controlled and integrated into the overall water management of the region. Sustainable pure water quality, safe public health, environmental conservation, and economics are the key factors in this context. This study aims to evaluate the physical, chemical, and microbial characteristics of LRB water. It is concerned with analyzing representative sites along the river’s tributaries. 4.2 Water Sampling In Lebanon, rarely is a source of surface water found to be pure. This can be well identified just from observing the water in rivers and lakes. This is well pronounced in the Litani River and its related lake, the Qaraaoun Reservoir. Thus, many studies have analyzed the quality of river water and the reservoir. However, the exacerbated pollution level makes it necessary to apply periodical sampling and water analysis for optimal quality monitoring. This study performs the physicochemical and microbiological analysis of water samples from the river located at 13 different sites along the river tributaries (Table 4.1). It aims to identify the numeric values of the physicochemical and microbiological composition as well as monitor the geographic and temporal variability in water quality. It also assesses the extent to which water quality can affect aquatic life and then compares the results of periodical analysis with the known standards. Sampling was carried out three times each year (i.e., summer, spring, and winter) during a 3-year period. Based on work done by Haidar (2014), 18 water samples from the surface water were collected in a 1-litre polyethylene bottles soaked overnight with 10% (v/v) nitric acid, which was used for the water sampling. Water samples (with a defined volume of 300 ml) were also gathered in borosilicate glass bottles for microbial testing. The samples were filtered through 45-mm Whatman Millipore filter paper. The sampling procedure is in accordance with Standard Methods of the APHA, AWWA, and WPCF (1992). The samples were transported to the laboratory in portable coolers. The temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and total 60 N. Nehme and C. Haidar Table 4.1 Sampling sites and their geographic location Sites Sample code Al-Oliek Houch El-Rafika Beddnayel Berdaouni-1 Berdaouni-2 Deir Zannoun Masabki Qelieh Khardali Kakaiet El-Jesser Tair Felsay Abou Abdallh Kasmieh S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 Coordinates Latitude Longitude Altitude (m) 36°05′54″N 36°02′56″N 36°01′40″N 35°53′07″N 35°54′49″N 35°38′55″N 35°51′09 N 33°26′21″ N 33°20′34″ N 33°18′31″ N 33°19′10″ N 33°19′26″ N 33°20′ 22″N 34°00′53″E 33°55′32 ″E 33°53′31″E 33°52′00″E 33°50′05″E 33°46′40″E 33°48′56″E 35°38′5″ E 33°32′34″ E 35°26′18″ E 35°20′27″ E 35°15′50″ E 35°15′04″E 1000 957 925 1150 923 890 934 510 257 159 172 15 3 dissolved solids (TDS) were tested directly in the field, and the other nutrients were investigated in the laboratory. 4.3 Water Analysis Conductivity, pH, and total dissolved solids (TDS) were tested directly in the field (Fig. 4.1). pH measurements were taken using a Hanna instrument, pH Meter Model HI 98103, with a pH range varying from 0.00 to 14.00 at a resolution of 0.01 pH. The accuracy of the pH meter is ±0.2 pH at 20 °C. Temperature, EC, and TDS were also investigated directly in the field using the Hach Model 44600 Conductivity/TDS Meter (resolution conductivity 0.1 lS cm−1, TDS 0.1 mg L−1). Fig. 4.1 Examples of devices used in the field survey. a EC/TDS meter. b Tracer pocket tester. c Digital pH meter 4 The Physical, and Chemical and Microbial Characteristics … 61 Similarly done as Haidar (2014), the collected water samples were filtered in 0.45-µm pore size cellulose acetate syringe filters (Millipore filters), and then they were acidified with nitric acid (pH < 2) and stored at 4 °C for metal analysis (iron [Fe], zinc [Zn], copper [Cu], chromium [Cr], aluminum [Al], barium [Ba], lead [Pb], potassium [K], nickel [Ni], and manganese [Mn]) using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer with an air/acetylene flame and background correction with a deuterium lamp to remove solid impurities (AOAC 974.27). A hydride generator mercury (Hg) vaporizer unit was used to identify arsenic [As], selenium [Se], and Hg. Spectrophotometer Methods EPA 352.1 and EPA 354.1 were used for nitrates NO3 and NO2. The ISO 6878:2004 was used to determine the total phosphate content, and the sulfate was determined by AOAC 973.57. The alkalinity was determined by the phenolphthalein method (ISO 7980 1986) as for calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The biochemical oxygen demand over 5 days (BOD5) as oxygen (O) was tested by EPA 405.1 and ISO6060 1989 and the chemical oxygen demand as O. All water-quality concentrations are expressed in ppm except for pH, EC (lS cm−1), temperature (°C), the CT, GMA, staphylococcus, salmonella (MPN/ 100 ml), and CF (MPN/200 ml). Standard reference material was used for quality assurance. The mean concentrations of cations and anions, as determined by the standard reference material, were within their certified concentration ranges. Each sample was measured in triplicate. For microbiological analysis, 500-ml samples were collected, and the method of sampling and collection followed the Standards Methods of WHO and Lebanese Norm for drinking water (1999), Libnor (1999). Water samples for the microbiology test were also collected from the 13 investigated sites. Standard Method Total Coliforms NF EN ISO 9308-1. ISO 4831, and R1/FT/04 were applied to measure the total coliforms and (NF EN ISO 9308-1) for FC, salmonella by (NF V08-052), and Staphylococcus aureus (NF V08-057-1/2 R1/FT/O6). 4.4 Results Monitoring water quality in the Litani River was regularly conducted during a period of 2 years (between 2012 and 2014) at the 13 selected sites. All the samples were investigated for various parameters including physical and chemical parameters and microbiological properties. The results were compared with the water standards given by WHO (2006). 1. Physical Characteristics The analyzed physical characteristics for the 13 selected sites included 4 elements: pH, temperature, TDS, and EC. The results are listed in Table 4.2. pH is an indicator of water quality and tends to be at acceptable levels in many of the investigated sites because it ranges between 7.6 and 8.5 (Table 4.2). The increased temperature favors self-purification and increases the rate of 62 N. Nehme and C. Haidar Table 4.2 Physical characteristics of selected water samples from the Litani River Sites Sample code PH T TDS EC Al-Oliek Houch El-Rafika Beddnayel Berdaouni-1 Berdaouni-2 Deir Zannoun Masabki Qelieh Khardali Kakaiet El-Jesser Tair Felsay Abou Abdallh Kasmieh WHO (2006) Libnor S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 7.8 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.7 8.5 7.8 8.1 8. 8.3 8 7.9 7.6 6.5–8.5 18 16.6 17 17.7 17.3 19 18 19 18.8 22.4 22.8 21.6 21.7 15.5–21.1 259 547 573 219 227 518 223 339 260 296 244 303 258 <500 mg/l 516 890 945 441 457 1036 439 658 496 430 453 600 479 Max 1500 µs/cm 6.5–8.5 15.5–21.1 <500 mg/l Max 1500 µs/cm sedimentation. Hence, the results show changing temperature, which is normal due to the changing seasonal heat, and this indicates multi-source water flowing into the river. EC of water is a function of its ability to conduct electrical current. Measuring the conductivity allows rapid and approximate assessment of the mineralization of water and its evolution. Therefore, the EC measured along the Litani River varies from 430 to 1036 µs/cm. A high level of conductivity was observed in Deir Zannoun, Beddnayl, and Houch El-Rafika. This can be attributed to the dominant industrial activities as well as farming, which both route wastewater in the river. This is also influenced by the Syrian refugees who are located in Houch El-Rafika where the sewage outlet directly discharges into the river. The increased TDS is also found to be consistent at similar sites with an increased EC (e.g., Deir Zannoun, Beddnayl, and Houch El-Rafika). This can be attributed, in addition to the natural leaching of rocks, to similar factors acting on the increased EC (Haidar 2014). 2. Chemical Parameters The 15 chemical elements analyzed along the Litani River include NO3, NO2, PO43 − , K, Cl, SO42−, CaCO3, Na+, Cr3+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Cd, Mg, BDO5, and COD. Table 4.3 lists the obtained results. The distribution of chemicals at the selected sites in the Litani River is listed in Table 4.3. In this respect, nitrites and nitrates are often associated due to the transformation of one into the other by the effect of bacteria (nitrobacter) in soil and Sites NO3 NO2 PO43 K+ Cl SO42− CaCO3 Na+ Cr3+ Cu2+ Fe3+ Cd Mg BOD5 COD Al-Oliek 11.5 0.8 0.3 22.3 102 23 265 8 0.16 0.3 0.2 0.1 3 20 55 Houch El-Rafika 40 19.2 1.2 12.5 7.58 98 210 33.5 0.07 0.11 0.08 4 0. 8 12.4 Baeddnayel 44.5 1 0.9 11.7 120 14 283 9 0.19 0.09 2.7 0.01 5.4 9.5 50 Berdaouni-1 47.5 0.5 0.4 7.38 47 6 412 6 0.01 0.08 1.13 0.01 4.6 5 20 Berdaouni-2 21.3 0.7 0.4 8 42 7 310 4.4 0.13 0.08 1.7 0.01 3 5 20 Deir Zannoun 19 2.2 0.5 10.4 92 12 294 4 0.27 0.07 1.5 0.01 2.6 13 49 Masabki 15 0.7 0.46 7.6 58 4.3 280 6.5 0.09 0.08 1.7 0.01 2.8 9.4 36 Qelieh 30.7 2.6 0.1 3.5 34 0.2 483 6.8 0.03 0.1 3 0.003 1.2 12 29 Khardali 20.5 0.5 0.3 10.5 23.5 4.5 493 5.8 0.04 0.06 4.4 0.003 1.5 5 20 Kakaiet El-Jesser 20.8 0.3 0 10.5 25.4 4.5 394 4.4 0.12 0.06 2.7 0.003 1.5 5 20 Tair Felsay 18.7 2.5 0.14 10.3 14.3 5.5 423 6.6 0.12 0.05 2.2 0.005 2 5 20 Abou Abdallh 18.7 0.9 0.1 10.5 26.3 4.5 432 8.6 0.08 0.05 3.2 0.006 2.9 7 37 Kasmieh 33 2 0.2 7.2 26.6 8.5 434 5.8 0.1 0.05 1.8 0.007 3.2 12 33 WHO (2006) Max 50 ppm Max 0.1 ppm Max 1 ppm Max 12 ppm Max 250 ppm Max 250 ppm Max 200 ppm 150 ppm 0.05 ppm 1 ppm 0.3 ppm 0.005 ppm 50 ppm 25 ppm 25 ppm Libnor Max 45 ppm Maz 0.05 ppm Max 1 ppm 12 ppm 200pppm 250 ppm 200 ppm 150 ppm 0.05 ppm 1 ppm 0.3 ppm 0.005 ppm 50 ppm 25 ppm 25 ppm 4 The Physical, and Chemical and Microbial Characteristics … Table 4.3 Chemical parameters of selected water samples from the Litani River 63 64 N. Nehme and C. Haidar water. They generally result from the excessive use of fertilizers and chemicals as well as from food industries. The nitrate content in water is generally higher (the standard value given by the WHO is 50 mg/l) than that of nitrite. Nitrate was found acceptable at all sites, except in Berdaouni and Beddnayel, where it was near the maximum value due to the intensive agricultural activity (Table 4.3). Higher nitrite and phosphate levels were found in Houch El-Rafica, Beddnayel, and Berdaouni, which indicate the presence of organic pollution (Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.2). However, no problems were observed with sulfate and chlore at all the sites. Generally, sodium compounds are water soluble and tend to remain in aqueous solutions. Thus, water in contact with igneous rocks (i.e., basalt) will dissolve sodium from these rocks. Higher Na+ ion in irrigation water may cause salinity problems. The range of Na+ ions in water samples varies from 4 to 33.5 mg/l. On comparison with WHO (2006) norms, the Na+ concentration of all tested samples was found to be within the acceptable limit. Potassium (K+), as a major cation, has a significant role in the intermediate metabolism. K+ is a principal source of nutrient for both plant and human life. However, ingestion of excessive amounts of K may prove detrimental to human beings (Haidar 2014). The K+ concentration of the analyzed water samples ranges from 7.6 to 22.3 mg/l as shown in Fig. 4.2. The concentration of K+ exceeds the standards in Al-Oliek, Beddnayel, and Berdaouni (Table 4.3). Figure 4.2 shows an example of the distribution of some chemicals in the selected sites located in the ULRB. Results also show that carbonates and bicarbonates exist almost in complete association with Ca and Mg2+. The carbonate content of the analyzed water samples ranges from 210 to 483 mg/l as listed in Table 4.3. It is obvious that the concentration of carbonates at all investigated sites exceeds the acceptable limit (200 mg/l). This is also well pronounced in the investigated sites of the LLRB. Chromium, which derives mainly from multiple chemical and industrial applications, was found in all the sites, and sometimes it occurs at concentrations exceeding the acceptable limit (0.05 mg/l). This is well observed at the Al-Oliek, Beddnayel, Berdaouini-1 and Berdaouni-2, Deir Zannoun, Kakaiet El-Jesser, and Tair Felsay sites. The iron concentration of the tested water samples ranges between 0.08 and 4.4 mg/l as listed in Table 4.3. The concentration of carbonates at 80% of the sites is high, and they sometimes exceed the acceptable limit (0.3 mg/l), as is the case at the Beddnayel, Khardali, and Kakaiet El-Jesser sites. The amount of dissolved oxygen (BOD) is usually expressed in milligrams of O consumed in one liter of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 °C. It is often used as a surrogate of the degree of organic pollution of water (Sawyer et al. 2003). To assess the contamination level in the LRB, the values of BOD5 (norm 25 mg/l) and COD (norm 25 mg/l) were analyzed during a period of 2 years for all selected sites. 4 The Physical, and Chemical and Microbial Characteristics … 65 Fig. 4.2 Distribution of selective chemicals in the sites located in the ULRB (ppm, mg=l) Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.3 show that BOD5 is high at the Al-Oleik site, but it is still under the limit. COD at most sites exceeds the acceptable limit, sometimes doubling it, such as at Al-Oleik, Beddnayel, and Deir Zannoun sites. 66 N. Nehme and C. Haidar Fig. 4.3 Results of BOD and COD in water samples +in the LRB (ppm, mg/l) 3. Microbiological Properties The identification of bacteria, potentially toxic substances, and other contaminants in water is usually performed by laboratory testing. Many analytical procedures are applied to identify the degree of water contamination. Detection and enumeration of indicator organisms is the most significant microbiological method used in water-quality testing. The coliform group of bacteria can be defined as the main indicators for water purity in domestic water, industrial water, and water for other uses. Normally, the total coliform (TC) includes fecal coliform (FC) and non-FC. The microbiological analysis of river water at the selected sites includes TC, FC, Staphylococcus, and Salmonella as listed in Table 4.4. FC can be separated from the total coliform group depending on their ability to grow in warmer temperatures, and they are associated only with fecal substances. Therefore, Escherichia coliform is the main evidence of fecal contamination (Shaban and Nassif 2007; Shaban 2011). 4 The Physical, and Chemical and Microbial Characteristics … 67 Table 4.4 Microbiological results of the Litani River water samples Sites Sample code Staphylococcus TC FC Salmonella Al-Oliek Houch El-Rafika Beddnayel Berdaouni-1 Berdaouni-2 Deir Zannoun Masabki Qelieh Khardali Kakaiet El-Jesser Tair Felsay Abou Abdallh Kasmieh WHO (2006) S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 6000 8750 3095 1550 1566 5700 325 0 450 600 300 500 600 0 in 100 ml 2067 183200 180400 1440 1400 181920 800 55 25 50 60 80 100 0 in 100 ml 2750 180200 180000 400 500 180400 120 6000 1000 600 1800 600 2700 0 in 250 ml 0 0 0 0 500 1000 120 480 50 700 600 60 1000 0 in 100 ml Results of the investigated water samples from the selected 13 sites show high microbial contamination. Thus, the highest reported TC and FC content were found in Houch Al-Rafika, Beddnayel, and Deir Zannoun where they exceed 180,000 bacteria/ml. Regarding Staphylococcus content, there is remarkable increase at Al-Oliek, Houch Al-Rafika, and Deir Zannoun. In addition, Salmonella occurs significantly at the Deir Zannoun, Kakaiet El-Jesser, Tair Felsay, and Kasmieh sites (Fig. 4.4). The role of human activity and the pollution-increasing bacterial concentration were verified in this study. Monitoring of bacterial concentration throughout 1 day shows that the concentration of bacteria in the water increases with the presence of human activities such as bathing, tourism, and dumping wastes into the river. 4.5 Conclusion The status of water pollution in LRB can be described as negative, and solid and liquid wastes have become a common feature along the river courses (Fig. 4.5). Solutions to mitigate and reduce pollution are needed to protect water resources in the entire country of Lebanon, with special emphasis on the health of the Litani River, to secure their sustainability and conserve the public health. With global warming and climatic variability, the rainfall rate has become abruptly reduced. In addition, the increased population has resulted in a significant water shortage in Lebanon. Hence, there is an urgent need to turn to the wise use of available water resources and to consider nonconventional resources as well. 68 N. Nehme and C. Haidar Fig. 4.4 Results of the microbiological analysis of water in the LLRB (bacteria/ml) Water-quality control is essential issue today it has been evidenced as the key for water-quality monitoring in the Litani River. In fact, many physical parameters— such as rock types, land cover/use, morphology, and climatic conditions—also affect the amount of nutrients released. The results of this study show that there are different reasons behind the pollution in the Litani River as a result of natural and/or anthropogenic sources and that this pollution varies between the different investigated sites. Most of pollution caused by anthropogenic impact is shown to come mainly from outfalls of municipal wastewater and agricultural activity into the Litani River. The results of his study show that pollution levels in the investigated sites are higher than the permissible WHO norms. Thus, there is a remarkable increase in the water-contamination rate in the ULRB compared with the LLRB. This occurs because the ULRB is characterized by dominant agricultural activities and dense human settlements. In addition, uncontrolled industrial entities are widely distributed in the Bekaa Plain. This also has been exacerbated by the presence Syrian refugees who have settled along many parts of the river’s flood plain. Although the status of the LLRB is relatively better than that of the ULRB, there is also contamination within the physicochemical parameters, which can be attributed to 4 The Physical, and Chemical and Microbial Characteristics … 69 Fig. 4.5 Solid and liquid wastes: a common view in the Litani River domestic wastes, municipal sewage, and agricultural run-off. The increase in Fe, Cr, and Cu content is probably due to mill discharges and domestic purposes. This study aimed at analysing water quality along the major streams of the Litani River, the pollution of which is a result of genetic processes and the origin of pollutants with respect to domestic, agricultural sectors, and industrial purposes. Periodical water-quality analysis is significant for integrated water-management approaches and sustainable development on which new water strategies and policies can be established. The study introduces numeric data, which are compared with the international standards. It highlights all physical, chemical, and microbial characteristics of Litani River water. The major sources of pollutants are local anthropogenic and agricultural activities resulting in high levels of NO2-, Fe, and CaCO3. Microbial pollution is clearly visible in all investigated sites along the river, which is due to domestic wastes and wastewater as well as tourist activities in the LLRB. The results of this study show bacterial contamination in the surface water by TC and FC coliforms, Streptococci, Salmonella, etc. Thus, it would be interesting to follow-up on this research to detect pathogenic and dangerous bacteria—such as Legionella, Adenovirus, and Astrovirus—because their presence is correlated with coliforms and enterobacteria. 70 N. Nehme and C. Haidar In the view of the above-mentioned results, the following actions are recommended: (1) establish wastewater-treatment systems along the Litani River, notably where levels of pollution are high; (2) oblige existing factories to install treatment plants based on their particular type of industrial waste; (3) treat solid waste to avoid water and air pollution; and (4) hold campaigns recommending the use of fertilizers and pesticides in rational amounts. References APHA American public health association “APHA” (1995) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, Washington, D.C., USA, 19th edn, 698pp Elewa AA, Goher MEM (1999) Environmental factors affecting the precipitation and dissolution of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd in River Nile at Damietta branch. Bull Fac Sci Zagazig Univ 21(2):114–136 Fawaz M (1992) Water resources in Lebanon. 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J Environ Sci Eng 5(3) Shaban A, Nassif N (2007) Pollution in Qaraaoun Lake, Centre Lebanon. J Environ Hydrology 15(11):1–14 Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (2003) Consensus based sediment quality guidelines. Recommendations for use and application. Department of interior, Washington D.C., 20240 pp 17 World Health Organization (WHO) (2006) A Proposal for Updating Lebanese norm of Drinking Water (1999) based on WHO Guidelines