January – June 2014
Number 55
ISSN 1026 2881
Journal of the African Elephant, African Rhino
and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups
January – June 2014
1
Chair reports / Rapports des Présidents
1
African Elephant Specialist Group report /
Rapport du Groupe des Spécialistes des
Eléphants d’Afrique
SpecieS
Survival
commiSSion
Holly T Dublin
6
Editors
Dali Mwagore and Helen van Houten
Section Editors
Deborah Gibson—African elephants
Kees Rookmaaker—African and Asian rhinos
Editorial Board
Julian Blanc
Holly T Dublin
Richard Emslie
Mike Knight
Esmond Martin
Benson Okita-Ouma
Robert Olivier
Diane Skinner
Bibhab K Talukdar
Lucy Vigne
No. 55
African Rhino Specialist Group report / Rapport
du Groupe des Spécialistes des Rhinocéros
d’Afrique
Mike Knight
20
Asian Rhino Specialist Group report / Rapport
du Groupe des Spécialistes des Rhinocéros
d’Asie
Bibhab K Talukdar
23
Research
23
The African elephant and food security in Africa:
experiences from Baringo District, Kenya
Dorothy A Amwata and Kevin Z Mganga
30
Luanda—the largest illegal ivory market in
southern Africa
Esmond Martin and Lucy Vigne
Design and layout
Dali Mwagore
38
Illustrations
Nelson Otemba
Address all correspondence, including enquiries
about subscription, to
The Editor, Pachyderm
PO Box 68200 – 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
tel: +254 20 249 3561/65
email: afesg@iucn.org
website: http://www.iucn.org/african_elephant
http://pachydermjournal.org
Reproduction of this publication for educational
or other non-commercial purposes is authorized
without written permission from the copyright
holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.
Evaluation of a low-tech method, pepper–
grease, for combatting elephant crop-raiding
activities in Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana
Edward D Wiafe and Moses K Sam
43
43
Management
The last chance for the Sumatran rhinoceros?
Francesco Nardelli
Cover: Angolan authorities rarely inspect the displays
of ivory in Mercado do Artesanato in Luanda,
resulting in the largest quantity of illegal ivory on
sale in southern Africa.
Credit: Lucy Vigne
Journal of the African Elephant,
African Rhino and
January – June 2014
54
No. 55
Asian Rhino Specialist Groups
Chemical horn infusions—a poaching deterrent or an unnecessary deception?
Sam Ferreira, Markus Hofmeyr, Danie Pienaar and Dave Cooper
62
The complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile management
Michael ’t Sas-Rolfes, Brendan Moyle and Daniel Stiles
78
Rehabilitation of greater one-horned rhinoceros calves in Manas National
Park, a World Heritage Site in India
Rathin Barman, Bhaskar Choudhury, NVK Ashraf and V Menon
89
Field notes
89
Decay rate of elephant dung in Conkouati-Douli National Park,
Republic of Congo
Hilde Vanleeuwe and James Probert
92
Cyanide poisoning and African elephant mortality in Hwange National Park,
Zimbabwe: a preliminary assessment
N Muboko, V Muposhi, T Tarakini, E Gandiwa, S Vengesayi and E Makuwe
95
Three rhinos on maps of India drawn in Faizabad in the 18th century
Kees Rookmaaker
97
Social media and the ivory ban: Myanmar and China cross-border trade
Vincent Nijman and Chris R Shepherd
100
MIKE / ETIS updates
100
CITES-MIKE Update / Mise à jour de la CITES-MIKE
Julian Blanc
104
Progress in implementing the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS) /
Avancement dans la mise en œuvre du Système d’Information sur le Traic
des Eléphants (ETIS)
Tom Milliken
Views expressed in Pachyderm are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily relect those of IUCN, the
European Union, the Species Survival Commission or any of the three Specialist Groups responsible for producing
Pachyderm (the African Elephant Specialist Group, the African Rhino Specialist Group and the Asian Rhino Specialist
Group).
Journal of the African Elephant,
African Rhino and
January – June 2014
No. 55
Asian Rhino Specialist Groups
110
Transition
110
Passing of a conservation icon
Mike Knight
112
Book review
112
Polishing off the ivory trade: surveys of Thailand’s ivory market
Daniel Stiles
114
Guidelines for contributors
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Acknowledgements
The production of this issue of Pachyderm was possible through contributions from a number of organizations
and individuals. In particular, we would like to thank the following:
EUROPEAN
COMMISSION
African Elephant Specialist Group report
CHAIR REPORTS
African Elephant Specialist Group report
Rapport du Groupe des Specialistes des Eléphants d’Afrique
Holly T Dublin, Chair/Président
IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist Group, PO Box 68200 – 00200, Nairobi, Kenya
email: holly.dublin@iucn.org
Africa’s elephants continue to need our dedicated
attention. With the African Elephant Summit
concluded, 2014 gave us little time to breathe
before the action started! A huge amount of work
has been accomplished so far, not only by AfESG
but by the many members and organizations out
there, on behalf of the African elephant.
For the AfESG Secretariat, the dominant focus
for the irst half of 2014 has been on developing
strategy and action plans for improving the structure
and functionality of the African Elephant Database
(AED). So, in line with our time commitment to
the AED, this report focuses largely on this work.
The African Elephant Database
(AED)
With the current pressures on the African elephant,
a huge amount of attention has been coming from
all quarters. All these interested parties rely on
AfESG for accurate information on the status
of the species. Therefore, it is vital that AfESG
is enabled to continue to provide reliable and
up-to-date information to enable well-informed
decisionmaking and actions. Some of the new
commitments and initiatives at local, national and
international levels rely explicitly on veriiable
evidence of the recovery of elephant numbers for
inancial assessments to be disbursed.
Fully cognizant of this growing need, I have
been spending a significant amount of time
working to ensure that the AED can meet these
expectations, now and into the future. While the
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Les éléphants d’Afrique continuent à avoir besoin de notre
attention consciencieuse. Suite à la conclusion du Sommet
sur l’éléphant d’Afrique, l’année 2014 nous a donné peu de
temps pour respirer avant le commencement de l’action!
Une énorme quantité de travail a été accompli jusqu’ici,
non seulement par le GSEAf, mais aussi par de nombreux
membres et organisations, au nom de l’éléphant d’Afrique.
Pour le Secrétariat du GSEAf, notre travail au cours
de la première moitié de 2014 était surtout centré sur le
développement de la stratégie et des plans d’actions visant
à améliorer la structure et la fonctionnalité de la Base de
Données sur l’Eléphant d’Afrique (BDEA). Etant donné le
temps que nous consacrons à la BDEA, ce rapport se
concentre principalement sur ce travail.
La Base de Données sur l’Eléphant
d’Afrique
A cause des pressions actuelles sur l’éléphant d’Afrique,
il y a une attention énorme venant de toutes parts. Tous
ceux qui s’y intéressent dépendent du GSEAf pour
des informations précises sur la situation de l’espèce.
Par conséquent, il est essentiel que le GSEAf puisse
continuer à fournir des informations iables et actualisées
pour permettre la prise de décisions et des actions bien
informées. Certains des nouveaux engagements et
initiatives aux niveaux local, national et international
dépendent explicitement des preuves vérifiables du
rétablissement du nombre d’éléphants pour les évaluations
inancières.
Pleinement consciente de ce besoin croissant, j’ai
passé une quantité importante du temps de travail ain
de m’assurer que la Base de Données sur les Eléphants
1
Dublin
Data Review Working Group (DRWG), which
oversees the AED, has never previously had a
Chair, I decided that in this critical period it was
important that it did so and appointed Dr Chris
Thouless to this key role. I know Chris will bring
new energy to the AED to progress in meeting the
challenges we face.
We held a two-day meeting of the DRWG in
early May, which was as always, a vibrant and
dynamic meeting of minds ready with ideas
and innovations for progressing the AED. In
addition to a number of technical matters, the
DRWG discussed the design and functioning of
a process that would hope to bring in a wider
group of reviewers to assist with the initial
review of survey reports. We hope that this will
not only relieve the overall workload on DRWG
members but will also encourage a much wider
group to gain familiarity with the way in which
the AED is structured. Of course, all good things
have their challenges and the DRWG agreed that
while this may reduce workload on our volunteer
members, it will deinitely increase the workload
on the Secretariat. As I report below, we are faced
with a number of challenges but have initiated a
signiicant fundraising push for the AED.
The meeting also discussed a number of new
and changing survey methods, potential changes
to the AED’s analytical framework, our desire to
progress further on trend analysis and the technical
needs for the next Red List assessment. We also
agreed on a set of improvements that are needed
to enhance the current web interface of the AED
to further its usefulness as a data management,
conservation and communications tool. Finally,
we discussed the potential addition of other
important databases of African species, currently
being compiled within the SSC membership, to
the AED platform. The DRWG was excited by
the prospects and agreed that this could bring
considerable synergies—not least of which could
potentially be real cost savings on all sides!
An immediate action item emanating from
the meeting was the appointment of Howard
Frederick, one of the most active survey experts in
AfESG, to DRWG membership. Howard accepted
this appointment and we are pleased to have him
on the team. Other gaps were identiied, and we
will be issuing a call for nominations from within
AfESG to ill those gaps.
2
d’Afrique (BDEA) puisse répondre à ces attentes,
maintenant et à l’avenir. Alors que le Groupe de Travail
sur la Révision des Données (GTRD), qui supervise la
BDEA n’a jamais eu un président auparavant, j’ai décidé
que, dans cette période critique, il était important de le
faire et j’ai nommé le Dr. Chris Thouless à ce rôle clé. Je
sais que Chris va apporter une nouvelle énergie à la BDEA
pour relever les déis auxquels nous sommes confrontés.
Nous avons tenu une réunion du GTRD de deux jours
au début du mois de mai, qui était, comme toujours, une
réunion vivante et dynamique des esprits pleins d’idées
et d’innovations pour faire progresser la BDEA. En plus
de plusieurs questions techniques, le GTRD a discuté de
la conception et du fonctionnement d’un processus qui
ferait participer un plus grand groupe d’examinateurs à
l’examen initial des rapports d’étude. Nous espérons que
cela servira non seulement à réduire le travail fait par les
membres du GTRD, mais aussi à encourager un groupe
de personnes plus large à se familiariser avec la façon
dont la BDEA est structurée. Bien sûr, toutes les bonnes
choses ont leurs déis et le GTRD s’est mis d’accord
que même si ce processus pourrait réduire de travail de
ses membres bénévoles, il va certainement augmenter le
travail du Secrétariat, et comme je le rapporte ci-dessous,
nous sommes confrontés à de nombreux déis, mais nous
avons lancé une initiative importante de collecte de fonds
pour la BDEA.
La réunion a également examiné un certain nombre
de nouvelles méthodologies d’étude qui évoluent, des
changements potentiels au cadre analytique de la BDEA,
notre désir de progresser davantage sur l’analyse des
tendances et les besoins techniques pour la prochaine
évaluation de la Liste rouge. Nous nous sommes également
mis d’accord sur un ensemble de changements qui sont
nécessaires à l’amélioration de l’interface actuel du Web
de la BDEA pour le rendre plus utile en tant qu’outil de
gestion des données, de conservation et de communication.
Enin, nous avons parlé de l’ajout éventuel d’autres
bases de données importantes des espèces d’Afrique,
actuellement en train d’être compilées par les membres
de la CSE, à la plate-forme de la BDEA. Le GTRD était
impressionné par ces perspectives et a convenu que cela
pourrait apporter des synergies considérables, sans parler
des vraies économies sur tous les côtés!
Un élément d’action immédiate émanant de la réunion
a été la nomination de Howard Frederick, l’un des experts
en recensement les plus actifs au sein du GSEAf, comme
membre du GTRD. Howard a accepté cette nomination et
nous sommes heureux de l’avoir dans l’équipe. D’autres
lacunes ont été identiiées, et nous publierons un appel de
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
African Elephant Specialist Group report
The AED is now one of our highest fundraising
priorities. We have no shortage of wonderful ideas
for improvements and enhancements, but foremost
we desperately need the resources to underpin
the Secretariat’s ability to implement them. We
currently have only one full-time staff member
on the AED—our database oficer, Peter Mwangi.
While our multi-talented, multi-tasking programme
oficer, Diane Skinner, has been spending a huge
amount of time on the AED, this arrangement is
not appropriate or sustainable and certainly not
commensurate with our aspirations. Therefore, we
must secure dedicated funds to allow us to hire a
database manager to oversee the AED, including
undertaking those infrastructural improvements
that have been identiied as essential. We also need
to raise funds to publish a full African Elephant
Status Report; 2015 is our current target date.
An exciting and promising initiative in which
we are actively involved this year has been the Pan
African Elephant Aerial Survey (PAEAS) (more
information at https://greatelephantcensus.com).
This survey effort will cover savanna populations
throughout much of eastern and southern Africa,
as well as some savanna areas in central and
West Africa. A number of AfESG members have
participated in two different planning meetings for
this effort, and we are discussing the participation
of our new DRWG Chair on the PAEAS’s
Technical Advisory Team, on behalf of AfESG.
We are also working to put in place an institutional
memorandum of understanding between AfESG
and the PAEAS.
candidatures au sein du GSEAf pour combler ces lacunes.
La BDEA est maintenant l’une de nos priorités de
inancement les plus importantes. Nous ne manquons
pas d’idées merveilleuses pour des améliorations, mais
d’abord et avant tout nous avons désespérément besoin
de ressources pour soutenir la capacité du Secrétariat à les
mettre en œuvre. Nous avons actuellement un seul employé
travaillant à plein temps sur la BDEA - notre chargé de
la banque de données, Peter Mwangi. Notre chargé de
programme, Diane Skinner, qui est multi-talentueuse et
fait plusieurs choses à la fois, passe beaucoup de temps
sur la BDEA ; ceci n’est pas approprié ou durable et
ne correspond certainement pas à nos aspirations. Par
conséquent, il nous faut obtenir des fonds dédiés pour
nous permettre d’embaucher un gestionnaire de la base de
données pour superviser la BDEA, notamment en faisant
ces améliorations d’infrastructure qui ont été identiiées
comme étant essentielles. Il faut également mobiliser des
fonds pour publier un rapport complet sur la Situation de
l’Eléphant d’Afrique: 2015 est notre date cible actuelle.
Une initiative très intéressante et prometteuse dans
laquelle nous participons activement cette année est
l’Etude Aérienne Panafricaine sur l’Eléphant (EAPE)
(plus d’informations sur https://greatelephantcensus.com
). Cette étude couvrira les populations de la savane dans
une grande partie de l’Afrique orientale et australe, ainsi
que des zones de savane en Afrique centrale et en Afrique
de l’Ouest. Plusieurs membres du GSEAf ont participé
à deux réunions de planiication pour cet effort, et nous
discutons de la participation de notre nouveau président
du GTRD à l’équipe consultative technique de l’EAPE,
pour le compte du GSEAf. Nous travaillons également à
mettre en place un protocole d’entente institutionnel entre
le GSEAf et l’EAPE.
African Elephant Library
I wish to draw special attention to the great
progress that has been made this year on the
African Elephant Library (AEL). Late last year,
we hired a short-term information management
assistant, Francis Ngesa, to assist us with digitizing
the AEL. Francis took on an elephantine amount of
work, scanning close to 5,000 references from our
dusty collection. Francis also researched a number
of different online library solutions to allow us to
share this wealth of information with the AfESG
membership. With the help of AfESG member
Julian Blanc and our partner in this project, Save
the Elephants, we inally settled on Zotero, a
commonly used online reference management
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Bibliothèque sur l’éléphant d’Afrique
Je tiens à attirer votre attention sur les progrès formidables
réalisés cette année en ce qui concerne la Bibliothèque
sur l’Eléphant d’Afrique (BEAf). L’année dernière, nous
avons embauché un assistant en gestion de l’information,
Francis Ngesa, à court-terme pour nous aider à la
numérisation de la BEAf. Francis a entrepris un travail
gigantesque en scannant près de 5000 références dans
notre collection poussiéreuse. Francis a également étudié
plusieurs solutions de bibliothèque en ligne pour nous
permettre de partager cette richesse d’information avec
les membres du GSEAf. Avec l’aide de Julian Blanc,
membre du GSEAf et notre partenaire dans ce projet,
Save the Elephants, nous nous sommes inalement ixés
3
Dublin
system. After concerted work to finalize the
management protocol, we launched the new AEL
to the AfESG membership in May this year. It is an
exciting new advance for this incredible resource
and I welcome our readership to check it out and
put it to work. The AEL can be accessed at https://
zotero.org/groups/ael.
I cannot leave the topic of the AEL without
taking the opportunity to thank Mary Rigby for
her many years of dedicated service. This global
asset would never have been possible without her.
sur Zotero, un système de gestion de référence en ligne
couramment utilisé. Après un travail concerté pour
inaliser le protocole de gestion, nous avons lancé la
nouvelle BEAf aux membres du GSEAf en mai de cette
année. Il s’agit d’une nouvelle avancée passionnante pour
cette ressource incroyable et je demande à notre lectorat
de la vériier et la mettre à l’œuvre. On peut consulter la
BEAf sur https://zotero.org/groups/ael.
Je ne peux pas laisser le sujet de la BEAf sans proiter de
l’occasion de remercier Mary Rigby pour ses nombreuses
années de services dévoués. Cet atout mondial n’aurait
jamais été possible sans elle.
Human–elephant conflict
There is also exciting news on the human–elephant
conlict (HEC) front. The HEC Working Group
co-Chairs, Noah Sitati and Richard Hoare, have
agreed to set up an online network for HEC
practitioners within the AfESG to interact, share
their experiences and discuss emerging issues. I
am hopeful that this will provide the invigoration
that we need to get the HEC Working Group
moving forward.
International attention to the
African elephant
After the African Elephant Summit last December,
attention to the plight of the African elephant has
steadily increased. The London conference on
the illegal wildlife trade took place in February,
and the United Nations Environment Assembly
in June, and both resulted in further strong
declarations by participating governments to
take immediate action. A number of international
campaigns are under way to raise awareness;
funding and interest continues to surge. We are
now gearing up for the next meeting of the CITES
Standing Committee in July 2014. As usual, we
look forward to providing a report to the AfESG
membership on those deliberations.
Conflit homme–éléphant
Il y a aussi d’excellentes nouvelles en ce qui concerne
le conlit homme-éléphant (CHE). Les coprésidents du
Groupe de travail sur le CHE, Noé Sitati et Richard
Hoare, ont convenu de mettre en place un réseau en ligne
pour les praticiens du CHE au sein du GSEAf ain qu’ils
puissent interagir, partager leurs expériences et discuter
des questions émergentes. J’espère que cela créera la
dynamisation dont nous avons besoin pour que le Groupe
de travail sur le CHE fasse des progrès.
Attention internationale sur l’éléphant
d’Afrique
Après le Sommet sur l’éléphant d’Afrique en décembre
dernier, l’attention sur le sort de l’éléphant d’Afrique a
augmenté de façon constante. La conférence de Londres
sur le commerce illégal des espèces sauvages a eu
lieu en février, et l’Assemblée des Nations Unies sur
l’environnement en juin ; toutes ont donné lieu à des
déclarations solides par les gouvernements participants de
prendre des mesures immédiates. Un certain nombre de
campagnes internationales de sensibilisation sont en cours;
le inancement et l’intérêt continuent à augmenter. Nous
nous préparons maintenant pour la prochaine réunion du
Comité permanent de la CITES en juillet 2014. Comme
d’habitude, nous sommes impatients de fournir un rapport
aux membres du GSEAf sur ces délibérations.
Departing Diane
And this brings me to the most important challenge
facing the AfESG: our much-loved programme
oficer, Diane Skinner, will be departing at the
end of August. Diane has been an extraordinary
colleague, confidante and friend. Saying that
4
Le départ de Diane
Et cela m’amène au déi le plus important auquel fait
face le GSEAf: le départ de notre chargé de programme
bien-aimé, Diane Skinner, à la in d’août. Diane a été une
collègue extraordinaire, une conidente et une amie. Dire
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
African Elephant Specialist Group report
every one of us will miss her would be a gross
understatement. She has demonstrated her
professionalism in every way: her attention to
detail and content, her unparalleled ability to
multi-task, her exceptional interpersonal skills
and networking abilities, her never-ending
commitment to maintaining dialogue even when
there are differing views and opinions—and most
importantly for me, her tenacity in teaching me day
by day, for the past six years, that there is such a
thing as work–life balance. All will know that this
is not one of my strengths but even I have made
some progress thanks to her dedicated tutelage!
While AfESG is losing an indefatigable
champion, I know everyone whose life has been
touched by Diane joins me in wishing her a welldeserved break and an exciting next chapter.
Change can be challenging but always positive
in the end and I know I will be supporting her
every step of the way.
qu’elle va manquer à nous tous serait un euphémisme.
Elle a démontré son professionnalisme dans tous les
sens: son attention au détail et au contenu, sa capacité
inégalée de faire plusieurs tâches à la fois, ses compétences
interpersonnelles exceptionnelles et ses capacités de
réseautage, son engagement à maintenir le dialogue, même
quand il y a des points de vue et des opinions divergents,
mais plus important, sa ténacité en m’enseignant jour par
jour, pendant les six dernières années, qu’il un équilibre
entre le travail et la vie, ce qui, comme vous le savez, n’est
pas un de mes points forts, même si j’ai fait des progrès
grâce à sa tutelle dédiée!
Alors que le GSEAf perd un champion infatigable, je
sais que tout le monde dont la vie a été touchée par Diane
se joint à moi pour lui souhaiter un repos bien mérité et un
prochain chapitre passionnant. Le changement peut être
dificile, mais toujours positif à la in et je sais que je vais
la soutenir à chaque étape de son chemin.
Conclusion
En terminant, je demande à nos membres, nos partenaires
et nos amis de soutenir mes collègues au Secrétariat du
GSEAf et moi-même au cours des quelques mois dificiles
de la transition à venir.
In ending, I ask for the full backing of our
members, partners and friends to support my
colleagues in the AfESG Secretariat and me
through what promises to be a dificult few months
of transitioning ahead.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Conclusion
5
Knight
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Rapport du Groupe des Spécialistes des Rhinocéros d’Afrique
Mike Knight, Chair/Président
Park Planning and Development, South African National Parks, PO Box 76693, and Centre for African
Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth 6013, South Africa
email: m.knight@nmmu.ac.za
Poaching update
Mise à jour sur le braconnage
Poaching of rhinos continues at a continental level.
A total of 1,107 rhinos were reported poached in
2013, equivalent to a rate of 3.03 rhinos per day
(Table 1). Encouragingly, the continental level of
poaching in the irst half of 2014 has levelled off.
South Africa with the largest share (82%) of
Africa’s rhinos continues to experience the greatest
losses in absolute terms since 2009. In relation
to the 2012 South African population total, the
percentage of rhinos lost to poaching between
2013 and 2014 has remained constant at 4.8%.
Analysis of the daily poaching rates per quarter
for South Africa indicates that poaching appears
to have stabilized over the last 15 months (Figure
1). After increasing exponentially since 2007, the
recorded average poaching levels in the irst half of
2014 were the same as the 2013 average levels of
3.00 rhinos poached per day. It remains to be seen
whether this apparent levelling off in poaching in
South Africa (and indeed also continental levelling
off) will continue, or whether poaching will once
again continue to trend upwards as happened after a
period of about a year of relative stability in South
Africa in 2010/2011. (Post script: With the loss of
122 rhinos in July 2014, there may be signs that
the rate of poaching has increased again in the third
quarter in South Africa).
Table 1 shows that in relative terms poaching
levels in Kenya from 2012 to 2013 approximately
doubled, from 2.8% to 5.8% of 2012 population
totals respectively. Encouragingly, as in South
Africa, poaching in the irst half of 2014 has
levelled off at 5.1% of the end 2012 numbers
(Table 1). While poaching levels in both Kenya
and South Africa are currently still at biologically
sustainable levels (i.e. not currently leading to
population declines, it may not be from a inancial
Le braconnage des rhinocéros se poursuit au niveau
continental. On a signalé le braconnage d’un total de
1.107 rhinocéros en 2013, ce qui équivaut à un taux de
3,03 rhinocéros par jour (Tableau 1). Fait encourageant,
le niveau continental du braconnage dans la première
moitié de l’année 2014 s’est stabilisé.
L’Afrique du Sud ayant la plus grande part (82%) des
rhinocéros d’Afrique continue de subir les pertes les plus
importantes en termes absolus depuis 2009. En ce qui
concerne la population totale sud-africaine de 2012, le
pourcentage des rhinocéros perdus au braconnage entre
2013 et 2014 est resté constant à 4,8%. L’analyse des taux
de braconnage quotidien par trimestre pour l’Afrique du
Sud indique que le braconnage semble s’être stabilisé
au cours des 15 derniers mois (Figure 1). Après avoir
augmenté de façon exponentielle depuis 2007, les niveaux
de braconnage moyens enregistrés au cours du premier
semestre 2014 étaient les mêmes que les niveaux moyens
de 2013 de 3,00 rhinocéros braconnés par jour. Il reste à
voir si cette mise à niveau apparente du braconnage en
Afrique du Sud (et en effet une mise à niveau continentale)
continuera, ou si le braconnage continuera une fois de plus
à avoir une tendance à la hausse comme cela s’est produit
après une période d’environ une année de relative stabilité
en Afrique du Sud en 2010-2011. Post scriptum: Suite à la
perte de 122 rhinocéros en juillet 2014, il y a des signes
que le taux de braconnage a encore augmenté au cours du
troisième trimestre en Afrique du Sud.
Le Tableau 1 montre que, en termes relatifs, les
niveaux de braconnage au Kenya entre 2012 et 2013 ont
approximativement doublé, passant de 2,8% à 5,8% de la
population à la in de 2012. Il est encourageant que, comme
en Afrique du Sud, le braconnage dans la première moitié
de l’année 2014 s’est stabilisé par 5,1% des totaux de la
in 2012 (Tableau 1). Alors que les niveaux de braconnage
au Kenya et en Afrique du Sud sont actuellement encore à
des niveaux biologiquement viables (c’est à dire ne menant
6
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Table 1. Reported numbers of white and black rhinos poached in Africa from 1 Jan 2006 to 30 June 2014
Tableau 1: nombre de rhinocéros blancs et noirs rapportés braconnés en Afrique du 1er janvier 2006 au 30 juin 2014
Country
Botswana
DR Congo
Kenya
2006
–
1
–
Mozambique
–
SA
–
–
3
Malawi
Namibia
2007
–
36
–
9
2008
–
–
2
6
21
–
–
–
–
Tanzania
–
–
Uganda
–
Zambia
–
–
1
–
2010
–
–
2011
–
22
15
83
Swaziland
–
2
5
13
2009
2
–
25
–
16
–
2
2
333
–
448
2014H
2
–
–
59
2
1
16
17
–
16 June
–
n/a
–
23
12 June
52
2
23 June
4
1 (min)
31 Mar
4+
4
4
189
5
89
2012
1.0
n/a
2.8
7.7
1,600
2013
1.0
n/a
5.8
3.8
1,700
2014
0.0
n/a
5.1
15.4
400
1
6
10
30 June
20
21
0.0
0.3
0.9
668
1,004
496
30 June
1,000
3,203
3.2
4.8
4.8
–
1
23 June
2
3
0.0
0.0
2.0
–
2
23 June
4
7
1.6
0.0
3.1
–
–
1–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
26 June
–
–
0.0
0.0
0.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
24 June
–
–
0.0
0.0
0.0
9
400
4.1
2.5
1.3
1,095
3,926
2.9
4.3
4.3
2
Zimbabwe
21
38
164
39
52
35
29
18
4
Total
60
62
262
201
426
520
749
1,107
539
Poached/day
0.16
0.17
Up to
Year as % of end 2012
rhino no.
–
2
2
2013
–
29
10
122
2012
Simple
2014
projection
Country
totals
2006–
June
2014
0.72
0.55
1.17
1.42
2.05
3.03
3.00
Source: Données du GSRAf de la CSE de l’UICN, TRAFFIC et le Groupe de travail de la CITES sur le Rhinocéros.
3.00
7
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Source: Data from IUCN SSC AfRSG, TRAFFIC and CITES Rhino Working Group.
12 June
Knight
pas actuellement aux déclins de
la population, peut-être pas d’un
point de vue inancier); les deux
3.00
approchent le point de basculement
où le braconnage cessera d’être
2.50
viable et les décès commenceront
à dépasser les naissances.
2.00
La perte de quelques animaux
de la petite population de
1.50
rhinocéros noir du Malawi rend
cette population particulièrement
vulnérable à des anomalies
1.00
démographiques (Tableau 1). Alors
que le braconnage en Namibie reste
0.50
relativement faible, le Tableau 1
montre de manière inquiétante que
0.00
le braconnage semble maintenant
y augmenter. En plus du nombre
braconné, des cornes ont également
Year and Quarter
été retrouvées dans un raid à
Figure 1. Reported South African rhino poaching by quarter from Jan 2010 to
l’aéroport de Windhoek en 2014.
June 2014, with a itted polynomial trend line (South African Department of
De manière encourageante,
Environmental Affairs/SANParks data)
le braconnage au Zimbabwe a
Figure 1: Braconnage de rhinocéros d’Afrique du Sud rapporté par trimestre de
janvier 2010 à juin 2014, avec une ligne de tendance polynomiale (Données du
continué à diminuer depuis 2012
Ministère sud-africain des Affaires environnementales/SANParks ajustées)
(Tableau 1). Ceci découle de la
mise en œuvre d’un personnel
perspective); both are approaching the tipping
dévoué, hautement qualiié engagé
point where poaching will cease to be sustainable dans des activités anti-braconnage, et dans quelques
and deaths will start to exceed births.
populations ciblées, avec une surveillance étroite et une
The loss of a few animals from the small Malawi bonne relation de travail avec les forces de l’ordre locales.
black rhino population makes this population
Notez que ces chiffres représentent le nombre minimum
particularly vulnerable to demographic anomalies braconné déclaré, et le chiffre réel est probablement plus
(Table 1). While poaching in Namibia remains élevé car certaines carcasses n’auront pas été détectées (en
relatively low, Table 1 worryingly shows that particulier dans les très grandes aires ou dans le cas de très
poaching now appears to be increasing there. In jeunes animaux). Les bébés rhinocéros qui ont disparu ou
addition to the number poached, some horns were sont morts après que leurs mères aient été braconnés ou
also recovered in a bust at Windhoek airport in blessés et sont morts par la suite sont considérés comme
2014.
des décès dus au braconnage. Quelques uns des animaux
Encouragingly, poaching in Zimbabwe has immobilisés qui avaient eu leurs cornes amputées ont
continued to decline since 2012 (Table 1). This survécu, mais ils ont aussi été comptés comme braconnés.
arises from the implementation of dedicated, Les animaux qui traversent la frontière vers le Mozambique
highly trained personnel engaged in anti-poaching à partir du Parc national Kruger continuent d’avoir une
activities in albeit a few focused populations, with espérance de vie très limitée compte tenu de la pression
close monitoring and a good working relationship du braconnage très élevé là-bas. Le braconnage total au
with the local law-enforcement agencies.
Mozambique aurait aussi été beaucoup plus élevé s’il
Note that these igures in Table 1 are the n’y avait pas eu des efforts des défenseurs de la nature
minimum number reported poached, and the true locaux et les concessionnaires de chasse au Mozambique,
igure is likely to be higher as some carcasses qui ont refoulé de nombreux rhinocéros qui venaient du
will not have been detected (especially in very parc Kruger vers la frontière jusqu’en Afrique du Sud.
large areas or in the case of very young animals). Les informations sur le braconnage au Mozambique sont
Q2
Q1
14
20
Q4
14
20
Q3
13
20
Q2
13
20
Q1
13
20
Q4
13
20
Q3
12
20
Q2
12
20
Q1
12
20
Q4
12
20
Q3
11
20
Q2
11
20
Q1
11
20
Q4
11
20
Q3
10
20
Q2
10
20
10
10
20
8
20
Q1
Rhinos poached/day
3.50
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Young calves that disappeared or died after their
mothers were poached or injured and subsequently
died are considered as poaching deaths. A few of
the immobilized animals that had horns hacked
off have survived but these too have been counted
as poached.
Animals moving across the border into
Mozambique from Kruger National Park continue
to have a very low life expectancy given the very
high poaching pressure there. The Mozambique
poaching total would also have been much
higher had it not been for the efforts of local
conservationists and hunting concessionaires
in Mozambique, who have chased back many
rhinos that came in from Kruger Park across the
border into South Africa. Poaching information
for Mozambique is incomplete and true numbers
poached could well be higher. Recent Tanzanian
poaching information is also incomplete, especially
for the Selous Game Reserve where information
is lacking.
Responses, meetings and
initiatives to address the
poaching threat
United for Wildlife meeting
Between 11 and 12 February 2014 the United for
Wildlife (UfW) partnership between international
conservation organizations and the Royal
Foundation convened a conference at the
Zoological Society of London to seek solutions
to the international illegal wildlife trade crisis and
reduce the demand for illegal wildlife products,
seen as the key driver of trade. The meeting was
attended by about 250 delegates from about 30
countries (see http://www.unitedforwildlife.
org/#!/). The meeting recognized there was a
need to strengthen site protection including
the commitment to protection and patrolling;
encourage local incentives for conservation and
use new technologies; expose and suppress illegal
wildlife traficking; reduce consumer demand
for illegal wildlife products; and make longterm inancial commitment towards sustainable
conservation. There was a commitment of actively
pursuing these recommendations.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
incomplètes et les vrais chiffres braconnés pourraient
bien être plus élevés. Des informations récentes sur le
braconnage tanzanien sont également incomplètes, en
particulier pour la réserve de Selous où l’on manque
d’informations.
Réponses, réunions et initiatives de
lutte contre la menace du braconnage
Réunion de la fondation United for Wildlife
(Unis pour la Faune Sauvage)
Entre le 11 et le 12 février 2014, United for Wildlife,
un partenariat entre les organisations de conservation
internationales et la Fondation Royale, a organisé
une conférence à la Société Zoologique de Londres
pour chercher des solutions à la crise du commerce
international illégal de la faune et réduire la demande
pour les produits de la faune sauvage, considérée
comme le principal moteur du commerce. Environ
250 délégués de 30 pays ont assisté à la réunion (voir
http://www.unitedforwildlife.org/#!/ ). La réunion a
reconnu qu’il fallait renforcer la protection des sites, y
compris l’engagement à la protection et des patrouilles,
promouvoir des incitations locales pour la conservation
et l’utilisation des nouvelles technologies; exposer et
réprimer le traic illicite de la faune sauvage; réduire la
demande des consommateurs pour les produits illicites
des espèces sauvages; et faire un engagement inancier
à long terme en faveur de la conservation viable. Il
y a eu un engagement de poursuivre activement ces
recommandations.
La Conférence internationale sur le
commerce illicite de la faune à Londres en
février 2014
Cette conférence, qui a immédiatement suivi la réunion
de la fondation United for Wildlife, a réuni de hauts
représentants de plus de 50 pays et organisations
internationales pour qu’ils se mettent d’accord sur des
mesures nouvelles et audacieuses pour lutter contre le
commerce illégal des espèces sauvages. La déclaration
(voir https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
uploads/attachment_data/ile/281289/london-wildlifeconference-declaration-140213.pdf ) a mis en évidence
les quatre actions principales suivantes:
• Eradiquer le marché des produits illicites des espèces
sauvages
• Assurer des cadres juridiques et des dissuasions
eficaces
9
Knight
International Conference on the Illegal
Wildlife Trade (IWT) in London in
February 2014
This conference, which immediately followed
the UFW meeting, brought together senior
representatives of over 50 countries and
international organizations to agree on new
and bold measures to tackle the illegal wildlife
trade. The declaration (see https://www.gov.uk/
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
data/file/281289/london-wildlife-conferencedeclaration-140213.pdf) highlighted the following
four main actions:
• Eradicating the market for illegal wildlife
products
• Ensuring effective legal frameworks and
deterrents
• Strengthening law enforcement
• Promoting sustainable livelihoods and economic
development.
It was agreed that to successfully tackle the
illegal wildlife trade and its effects, concerted
political leadership, community engagement and
international cooperation over a sustained period
were needed. It was also realized that to support
these efforts further research was needed into the
scale of the environmental, political, social and
economic implications of the trade, as well as an
improved understanding of the illegal trade itself
and the effect of measures taken to prevent and
combat it.
Unfortunately, the meeting did not have
representation from South Africa and India,
the range States that together host the largest
populations of three species of rhinos and of tigers,
that were a focus of the IWT discussions.
A follow-up meeting to review progress on the
IWT meeting is planned, to be held in Botswana
in March 2015.
Rhino legislation and cases
We welcome Mozambique’s decision to inally
approve new legislation criminalizing rhino
crimes with signiicantly increased penalties in
April 2014. However, the extent to which this new
legislation will be applied and what conviction
rates and penalties will be handed down remain
to be seen. Concern continues to be expressed
10
• Renforcer l’application de la loi
• Encourager des moyens de subsistance durables et le
développement économique.
Il a été convenu que pour s’attaquer au commerce illégal
de la faune et à ses effets avec succès, il fallait un leadership
politique concerté, un engagement communautaire et une
coopération internationale sur une période prolongée. Il a
également été réalisé que pour soutenir ces efforts il fallait
davantage de recherche sur l’échelle des conséquences
environnementales, politiques, sociales et économiques
du commerce, ainsi qu’une meilleure compréhension du
commerce illégal lui-même et l’effet des mesures prises
pour le prévenir et le combattre.
Malheureusement, la réunion n’avait pas de
représentation d’Afrique du Sud ou de l’Inde, états de l’aire
de répartition qui abritent les plus grandes populations
des trois espèces de rhinocéros et de tigres, qui étaient
au centre des discussions sur le Commerce illégal de la
Faune Sauvage.
Une réunion de suivi pour évaluer les progrès de la
réunion sur le Commerce illégal de la Faune Sauvage est
prévue et elle se tiendra au Botswana en mars 2015.
Législation et procès sur le
Rhinocéros
Nous saluons la décision du Mozambique d’approuver
finalement en avril 2014 une nouvelle législation
criminalisant les crimes sur les rhinocéros qui comprend
une augmentation signiicative des amendes. Toutefois, il
reste à voir dans quelle mesure cette nouvelle législation
sera appliquée et les condamnations et amendes qui
seront prononcées. Nous continuons à nous préoccuper
au sujet du relâchement sans procès des suspects arrêtés
au Mozambique et de ce qui s’est passé aux armes à feu
et aux cornes de rhinocéros prises à des braconniers et
remises aux autorités. En outre, des rapports inadéquats
et tardifs du Mozambique à la CITES indiquent que
très peu d’amendes prononcées par les tribunaux pour
les infractions relatives aux rhinocéros ne sont jamais
perçues. Cette surveillance insufisante du paiement
des amendes va continuer à donner aux criminels des
motivations à faire le braconnage et le traic de la corne.
Il est aussi probable que les amendes seules représentent
une petite taxe sur le chiffre d’affaires des criminels et
donc vont cesser d’avoir un effet dissuasif. On aura la
preuve réelle du changement d’attitude envers les crimes
de rhinocéros par les autorités mozambicaines lorsque
plusieurs braconniers et traiquants seront condamnés à
des peines d’emprisonnement importantes pour les crimes
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
African Rhino Specialist Group report
about arrested suspects in Mozambique being
released without trial and what has happened to
irearms and rhino horns taken from poachers and
handed to authorities. In addition, Mozambique’s
inadequate and late reporting to CITES indicates
that very few of the ines handed down by the
courts for rhino offences were ever collected.
Inadequate policing of the payment of ines will
continue to give incentive to criminals to poach
and trafic horn. Fines alone also are likely to
represent a small tax on criminal turnover and
therefore cease to be much of a deterrent. The real
proof of change in attitude towards rhino crimes
by Mozambican authorities will be when multiple
poachers and traffickers are given significant
custodial sentences for the rhino crimes they
commit.
Since CoP16, Kenya has also changed its
legislation to include stiffer penalties to punish
wildlife offenders. Its new Wildlife Conservation
and Management Act was passed on 24 December
2013 and includes provision for penalties of
life imprisonment or a minimum ine of Kenya
shillings 20 million, equivalent to about USD
250,000, for poaching rhinoceros or African
elephant (Loxodonta africana) or traficking their
parts or derivatives. The clause in the section that
contains these new sentences has been considered
ambiguous by some. What this means is that the
new Wildlife Act, though better than the old one,
is unlikely in practice to provide any deterrent
to the big dealers. Currently there are deliberate
efforts between some NGOs, Kenya Wildlife
Service, the Directorate of Public Prosecutions,
judicial oficers and legal experts, to amend the
Act to operationalize the clause containing these
new sentences, Section 92, through a motion in
parliament to strengthen it even further.
CoP16 Info Doc51 mentioned the trend of
increasing arrests of poachers in South Africa
in recent years. However, while most of the
rhino cases that have been prosecuted have led
to convictions (some with signiicant deterrent
custodial sentences), concerns remain about the
low case completion rate and the time it is taking
for cases to come to court. Postscript: In a recent
case, a poacher was sentenced to 77 years and was
also convicted of murder of a co-poacher who was
killed in a contact with ield rangers.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
de rhinocéros qu’ils commettent.
Depuis la CdP16, le Kenya a également modiié sa
législation pour inclure des peines plus sévères ain de
punir les contrevenants de la faune. Sa nouvelle loi sur
la Conservation et la Gestion de la faune sauvage a été
adoptée le 24 décembre 2013 et comporte des dispositions
de peines d’emprisonnement à perpétuité ou une amende
minimale de 20 millions de shillings kenyans, équivalant
à 250.000 dollars américains, pour le braconnage du
rhinocéros ou de l’éléphant d’Afrique (Loxodonta
africana) ou le traic de leurs parties ou leurs dérivés. La
clause dans la section qui contient ces nouvelles peines
a été jugée ambiguë par certains. Qu’est-ce que cela
signiie, c’est que la nouvelle loi sur la faune, bien qu’elle
soit meilleure que l’ancienne, dans la pratique n’est pas
susceptible de fournir un élément dissuasif pour les gros
traiquants. Actuellement, il y a des efforts délibérés de
certaines ONG, le Service Kenyan de la Faune Sauvage,
le Procureur, les magistrats et les experts juridiques, pour
modiier la Loi ain d’opérationnaliser la clause contenant
ces nouvelles peines, l’article 92, par le biais d’une motion
au Parlement pour le renforcer.
La CdP16 Infos Doc51 a mentionné la tendance à
l’augmentation des arrestations de braconniers en Afrique
du Sud au cours des dernières années. Cependant, alors
que la plupart des procès concernant les rhinocéros qui
ont fait l’objet des poursuites judiciaires ont abouti à des
condamnations (certains avec des peines d’emprisonnement
dissuasives importantes), des inquiétudes subsistent sur
le taux faible d’aboutissement des procès et le temps
qu’il faut pour que les procès viennent au tribunal. Postscriptum: Dans une affaire récente, un braconnier a été
condamné à 77 ans et il a également été reconnu coupable
d’avoir assassiné un co-braconnier qui avait été tué dans
un accrochage avec les écogardes sur le terrain.
Les Etats-Unis ont changé le statut d’espèce menacée
pour le rhinocéros blanc du sud. Ces changements ont été
mis en œuvre pour aider les agents de mise en application
de la loi aux Etats-Unis à combattre la possession illégale,
le mouvement et le traic des cornes de rhinocéros aux
Etats-Unis. Les changements, toutefois, ne cherchent pas
à empêcher l’importation et la possession de trophées
légitimes de chasse sportive comme des souvenirs noncommerciaux d’une chasse.
Sur une note positive au Zimbabwe, le taux
d’aboutissement des procès s’est amélioré, mais des
retards dans la inalisation de certains procès continuent.
Un autre problème rapporté est que les criminels de
rhinocéros s’enfuient souvent après avoir été libérés sous
caution, certains retournant au braconnage de rhinocéros
11
Knight
The USA has changed its internal threatened status
for southern white rhino. These changes have been
implemented to help US law-enforcement oficers deal
with illegal rhino horn possession and movement and
traficking within the US. The changes, however, do
not seek to prevent legal importation and possession
of legitimate sport hunting trophies as non-commercial
mementoes of a hunt.
On a positive note in Zimbabwe, the case completion
rate has improved, but delays in inalizing some court
cases continue. Another problem that has been reported
is that rhino criminals frequently abscond after being
granted bail, with some returning to rhino poaching
and other crimes. Case management between the high
court and the lower magistrate’s courts appears to be a
problem. It has been reported that some criminals who
have been convicted in a lower court and later freed
on bail after iling a successful appeal remain free as
their appeals have not yet been heard in the high court
due to a backlog of cases or iled papers being lost in
the system. Thus it would help if case management
between lower and higher courts was improved to
ensure appeals are quickly heard in the higher court or
bail of convicted rhino criminals was denied.
Strategic rhino-focused meetings
Second International Rhino Technology
and Law Enforcement Meeting
During the reporting period, with funding from the
US Fish and Wildlife Service’s Rhino and Tiger
Conservation Fund, Save the Rhino International,
WWF-South Africa and South African National
Parks, a second international experts meeting was
held to discuss the latest patterns of rhino poaching
and to identify tools and techniques to enhance
wildlife protection and law enforcement. Wildlife
security experts from 13 countries including 8 African
rhino range States attended. The meeting allowed
for improved cooperation and information sharing,
following on from a very useful irst of this series
held in Namibia in 2012.
The aims of these technology and law-enforcement
workshops were to 1) introduce ield practitioners
to others facing similar challenges, 2) allow ield
people to share knowledge on which techniques and
technologies are working and which ones are not under
what conditions and circumstances, and 3) provide the
opportunity for ield people to brainstorm and problem
12
ou aux autres crimes. La gestion des procès entre la
cour d’appel et les tribunaux de première instance
semble être un problème. Il a été rapporté que certains
criminels qui ont été condamnés par un tribunal de
première instance et plus tard libérés sous caution après
avoir fait appel restent libres car leurs appels n’ont pas
encore été entendus dans la cour d’appel en raison des
retards de dossiers ou de la perte de documents déposés
dans le système. Ainsi, il serait utile que la gestion des
procès entre les juridictions inférieures et supérieures
soit améliorée ain de s’assurer que les appels soient
rapidement entendus dans la juridiction supérieure
ou que la caution soit refusée pour les criminels de
rhinocéros.
Réunions stratégiques axées sur les
rhinocéros
Deuxième réunion internationale sur la
technologie et l’application de la loi en ce
qui concerne le rhinocéros
Au cours de la période considérée, grâce au
inancement du Fonds du Service de la Pêche et de la
Faune Sauvage des Etats-Unis pour la Conservation
des Rhinocéros et des Tigres, Save the Rhino
International, WWF-Afrique du Sud et les Parcs
nationaux sud-africains, une deuxième réunion
internationale des experts a été organisée pour discuter
des dernières tendances du braconnage de rhinocéros
et identiier les outils et les techniques dans le but
d’améliorer la protection de la faune et l’application
de la loi. Les experts en sécurité de la faune de
13 pays, y compris 8 états africains de l’aire de
répartition des rhinocéros y ont participé. La rencontre
a permis d’améliorer la coopération et l’échange des
informations, à la suite d’une première réunion très
utile tenue en Namibie en 2012 sur la technologie
ayant rapport au rhinocéros et à l’application de la loi.
Les objectifs de ces ateliers sur la technologie
et l’application de la loi étaient 1) d’introduire des
praticiens de terrain à d’autres personnes confrontées
à des déis similaires, 2) de permettre à ceux qui
travaillent sur le terrain de partager les idées sur
les techniques et les technologies qui marchent et
celles qui ne marchent pas et dans quelles conditions
et circonstances, et 3) de donner à ceux de terrain
l’occasion de faire un remue-méninges et de résoudre
les problèmes ensemble en ce qui concerne les
besoins des aires de la faune en général, et les besoins
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
African Rhino Specialist Group report
solve together in order to troubleshoot needs for
wildlife areas in general, and speciic needs for
particular rhino areas.
In addition, new technologies and tools for
protected area security as well as the enhanced
use of information to reduce poaching and more
effectively combat international traficking in horn
were discussed in depth. Technology companies
were also invited for one day to demonstrate their
products.
CITES Rhino Working Group feedback
The CITES Rhino Working Group (WG)
corresponded intersessionally and produced a
report with recommendations for consideration at
the CITES Standing Committee meeting held in
July 2014. The CITES Secretariat also produced
a report on rhinos that also included a suite of
recommendations.
Postscript: At the CITES Standing Committee
(SC) meeting in early July 2014, the Rhino Working
Group was, as expected, tasked by the SC Chair to
produce a joint set of recommendations for SC to
consider. The Rhino WG was ably chaired by the
UK’s Michael Sigsworth assisted by the CITES
Secretariat’s Ben van Rensburg. It met three times
at SC65 to inalize joint recommendations that were
then circulated, considered and ultimately approved
by the SC. These recommendations maintained a
focus on Vietnam and, especially, Mozambique.
Speciic deliverables and reporting timelines were
set for Mozambique, which was criticized for its
previous late and inadequate reporting. The SC
also approved a clause mandating the CITES
Secretariat, in consultation with the Rhino WG, to
draw the attention of the SC intersessionally to any
signiicant issues of non-compliance with the rhino
recommendations approved at SC65. This then
would allow the SC to act without having to wait
for the next SC meeting. Shortly before CITES
SC65, the International Rhino Foundation and the
Environmental Investigation Agency submitted a
joint application to the US government requesting
it to impose Pelly Amendment sanctions against
Mozambique for its failure to date to adequately
deal with poaching and rhino horn traficking
by its citizens. The Fishermen’s Protective
Act allows the US government to prohibit the
importation of wildlife and ish products from
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
spéciiques des aires de rhinocéros.
En outre, les nouvelles technologies et les outils pour
la sécurité des aires protégées et aussi l’utilisation de
l’information pour réduire le braconnage et lutter plus
eficacement contre le traic international de la corne ont
été discutés en profondeur. Les entreprises de technologie
ont également été invitées pour une journée ain de
démontrer leurs produits.
Feedback du Groupe de travail de la CITES
sur le Rhinocéros
Le Groupe de travail de la CITES sur le Rhinocéros a
communiqué entre les sessions et a produit un rapport
contenant des recommandations pour examen à la
réunion du Comité permanent tenue en juillet 2014.The
Secrétariat de la CITES a également produit un rapport
sur les rhinocéros qui comprenait aussi une série de
recommandations.
Post-scriptum: Comme prévu, lors de a réunion du
Comité permanent de la CITES au début de juillet 2014,
le Groupe de travail sur le Rhinocéros a été chargé
par le Président du Comité permanent de produire
un ensemble de recommandations conjointes à être
examinées par le Comité permanent. Le groupe de travail
sur le Rhinocéros a été habilement présidé par Michael
Sigsworth du Royaume-Uni appuyé par Ben van Rensburg
du Secrétariat de la CITES. Il s’est réuni trois fois au
cours de la SC65 pour inaliser les recommandations
conjointes qui ont alors été diffusées, examinées et
inalement approuvées par le Comité Permanent. Ces
recommandations ont focalisé sur le Vietnam et surtout le
Mozambique. Des objectifs spéciiques et les dates limites
de rapport ont été ixés pour le Mozambique, qui a été
critiqué pour son précédent rapport tardif et inadéquat.
Le Comité Permanent a également approuvé une clause
obligeant le Secrétariat de la CITES, en consultation
avec le Groupe de Travail sur le Rhinocéros, d’attirer
l’attention du Comité Permanent entre les sessions sur
tous les problèmes importants de non-conformité avec les
recommandations sur le rhinocéros approuvées à la SC65.
Cela permettra alors au Comité Permanent d’agir sans
avoir à attendre sa prochaine réunion. Peu de temps avant
la SC65 de la CITES, la Fondation Internationale pour le
Rhinocéros et l’Agence d’Enquête sur l’environnement
ont présenté une demande conjointe au gouvernement
américain lui demandant d’imposer des sanctions au titre
de l’amendement de Pelly contre le Mozambique pour son
échec à ce jour de traiter convenablement le braconnage
et le traic de la corne de rhinocéros par ses citoyens.
13
Knight
the offending nation. It was previously used to
effect positive responses from Taiwan and South
Korea to contain the illegal rhino horn trade. In the
event that Mozambique’s actions and reporting to
CITES continue to be inadequate and considered
as ‘signiicantly non-compliant’ by the CITES SC
in terms of SC65 recommendations, this could
presumably strengthen the case in the US for the
imposition of Pelly Amendment sanctions against
Mozambique.
The full SC65 rhino recommendations that
were approved at CITES CoP65 can be found
at http://www.cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/
com/sc/65/com/E-SC65-Com-03.pdf. A short
AfRSG information document was also prepared
for delegates attending the SC65 meeting, which
included the updated poaching statistics in
Table 1. This information will be posted on the
AfRSG webpage, courtesy of the IRF website
at http://www.rhinos.org/professional-resources/
iucn-african-rhino-specialist-group.
South African Panel of Experts
The South African Minister of Environment has
established a panel of experts to provide the best
available advice, opinions and recommendations
on matters associated with the conservation of
both rhinos and elephants. This information is
to be assessed in preparation for any possible
submissions to CITES CoP 17.
Namibian law-enforcement meeting
A Law Enforcement and Wildlife Crime
Prevention workshop organized by the Ministry
of Environment (MET) was held in May 2014 in
Namibia to urgently discuss the recent escalation
in wildlife crime in the country. The meeting was
attended by representatives from all the critical
government departments, rhino custodians, private
land owners, professional hunting organizations,
NGOS, and international law enforcement and
rhino experts. The urgency of the situation was
emphasized, as was the need for a strategic
whole Namibian government response to the
threat of organized crime and its impact on the
country’s wildlife resources. The importance of
international cooperation, information sharing
and proactive intelligence to disrupt organized
14
L’amendement Pelly de la Loi pour la protection des
pêcheurs permet au gouvernement américain d’interdire
l’importation des produits de la faune et de la pêche d’une
nation contrevenante. Il a déjà été utilisé pour produire
une réponse positive du Taiwan et de la Corée du Sud ain
d’endiguer le commerce illicite de la corne de rhinocéros.
Si les actions et les rapports du Mozambique à la CITES
continuent à être inadéquats et considérés par le Comité
Permanent de la CITES d’être d’une «non-conformité
signiicative» aux termes des recommandations de la
SC65, on peut supposer que cela renforcerait le cas aux
Etats-Unis pour l’imposition des sanctions au titre de
l’Amendement Pelly contre le Mozambique.
On peut trouver les recommandations complètes de
la SC65 sur le rhinocéros qui ont été approuvées à la
CdP65 de la CITES sur http://www.cites.org/sites/default/
iles/eng/com/sc/65/com/E-SC65-Com-03.pdf. Un court
document d’information par le GSRAf a également
été préparé pour les délégués participant à la réunion
de la SC65, qui comprenait les statistiques mises à jour
sur le braconnage dans le Tableau 1. Cette information
sera afichée sur la page Web du GSRAf, grâce au
site de la Fondation Internationale sur le Rhinocéros
sur http://www.rhinos.org/professional-Resources/
iucn-african-rhino-spécialist-group.
Groupe d’experts sud-africains
Le Ministre sud-africain de l’Environnement a mis en
place un groupe d’experts pour fournir les meilleurs
conseils disponibles, des avis et des recommandations
sur les questions liées à la conservation des rhinocéros
et des éléphants. Ces informations doivent être évaluées
en préparation d’une soumission éventuelle à la CdP 17
de la CITES.
Réunion namibienne sur l’application de la loi
Un atelier sur l’application de la loi et la prévention
du crime de la faune organisé par le Ministère de
l’Environnement s’est tenu en mai 2014 en Namibie
dans le but de discuter de toute urgence la récente
intensiication de la criminalité de la faune dans le pays.
La réunion a été suivie par des représentants de tous les
ministères importants, les conservateurs des rhinocéros,
les propriétaires fonciers privés, les organisations de
chasse professionnelle, les ONG et les experts sur
l’application de la loi internationale et sur le rhinocéros.
L’urgence de la situation a été soulignée, de même
que la nécessité d’une réponse stratégique de tout le
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
African Rhino Specialist Group report
criminal networks and stop poachers before actual
killings was well recognized.
Feedback on ‘The viability of legalizing
trade in horn in South Africa’ report
This report emanated from an identiied need
at the South African Minister of Environment’s
Rhino Summit held in in October 2010 (see https://
www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/iles/docs/
rhinohorntrade_southafrica_legalisingreport.pdf).
A questionnaire survey of 104 rhino experts and
rhino owners was undertaken, in addition to an
assessment of current literature on the subject.
The focus of the study was on the potential
impact of the current national moratorium on
trade in rhino horn in South Africa and whether
it should be lifted. The study aimed to address the
following: 1) analyse trends in local (national)
trade in rhino horn before the moratorium came
into effect in February 2009; 2) analyse trends
in incidents of illegal killing before and after
the national moratorium was declared; 3) assess
the potential national market for rhino horn; 4)
determine security risks relating to the lifting of
the moratorium; 5) identify measures to be put
in place to address the risks identiied above,
including a response strategy; 6) recommend
systems to be developed and implemented to
regulate national trade in rhino horn, including
a tracking and monitoring system; 7) identify
the legal requirements to be addressed in terms
of a national trade system; 8) identify means to
ensure rhino horn traded nationally does not enter
international trade; 9) analyse similar situations in
other countries and advise on best practices and
interventions made in those countries.
Although there was mixed reaction to the
survey, it did recommend that South Africa
should not lift the current national moratorium
on the trade in horn while an international ban
in the trade of rhino horn existed. Although
mainly opinion based, the survey indicated that
lifting the national moratorium may possibly lead
to greater laundering of horn on to the illegal
market, tarnishing South Africa’s conservation
and compliance image. It was recommended that
South Africa should immediately develop a secure
national electronic permitting system to bring noncompliance issues under control. This should be
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
gouvernement namibien à la menace du crime organisé
et son impact sur les ressources de la faune du pays. On
a reconnu l’importance de la coopération internationale,
l’échange d’informations et de renseignements proactifs
ain de perturber les réseaux criminels organisés et arrêter
les braconniers avant les abattages réels.
Feedback sur le rapport sur « La viabilité de
la légalisation du commerce des cornes en
Afrique du Sud »
Ce rapport émane d’un besoin identifié au Sommet
sur le rhinocéros du Ministre sud-africain de
l’environnement qui s’est tenu en octobre 2010 (voir
https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/iles/docs/
rhinohorntrade_southafrica_legalisingreport.pdf). Une
enquête par questionnaire des 104 experts du rhinocéros
et des propriétaires de rhinocéros a été entreprise, en
plus d’une évaluation de la littérature actuelle sur le
sujet. L’objectif de l’étude portait sur l’impact potentiel
du moratoire national actuel sur le commerce des
cornes de rhinocéros en Afrique du Sud et à savoir s’il
devrait être levé. L’étude visait à examiner les questions
suivantes: 1) analyser les tendances du commerce local
(national) dans la corne de rhinocéros avant le moratoire
qui est entré en vigueur en février 2009; 2) analyser les
tendances dans les cas d’abattage illégal avant et après
que le moratoire national ait été déclaré; 3) évaluer le
marché potentiel national pour la corne de rhinocéros;
4) déterminer les risques de sécurité liés à la levée du
moratoire; 5) identiier les mesures à mettre en place
pour traiter les risques identiiés ci-dessus, y compris
une stratégie de réponse; 6) recommander des systèmes
à développer et à mettre en œuvre pour réglementer le
commerce national de la corne de rhinocéros, y compris
un système de suivi et de surveillance; 7) identiier les
conditions légales requises en termes d’un système de
commerce national; 8) identiier les moyens de s’assurer
que la corne de rhinocéros commercialisée à l’échelle
nationale n’entre pas dans le commerce international;
9) analyser des situations similaires dans d’autres pays
et donner des conseils sur les meilleures pratiques et les
interventions réalisées dans ces pays.
Bien qu’il y ait eu des réactions mitigées à l’enquête, il
a été recommandé que l’Afrique du Sud ne doive pas lever
le moratoire national actuel sur le commerce des cornes
tandis qu’une interdiction internationale du commerce de
la corne de rhinocéros existait. Bien que principalement
basée sur l’opinion, l’enquête a indiqué que la levée du
moratoire national peut éventuellement conduire à un
15
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linked to a rhino database that includes horn
stockpile and DNA proile information. Private
rhino owners should also be given incentive to
continue protecting rhinos during this period. This
could be achieved through government’s general
willingness to try to ind solutions in support of
the private sector concerns, such as offering secure
sites to store horn and offering more streamlined
permit procedures as an incentive for rhino owners
to comply. In addition, it was urged that South
Africa must continue to show full compliance
with CITES Resolutions and if a proposal for
legalizing international trade is to be submitted,
a detailed proposal should be made available as
soon as possible.
Rhino impact bonds
The AfRSG Secretariat and other AfRSG members
have been working closely with the Zoological
Society of London (ZSL), Social Finance and
more recently also the AsRSG and other UfW
partners to investigate, develop and try a new
innovative form of funding of ield conservation
action. The Royal Foundation of Princes William
and Harry and the Duchess of Cambridge is
interested in exploring the possible value impact
bonds as a rhino conservation-funding tool. The
idea is that each project bond will have a set of
measurable target deliverables (such as increasing
rhino numbers by x or keeping poaching below
y). The concept is that philanthropists provide
initial funding for such impact bonds and, if the
project is successful in delivering against the
measurable objectives set out, the philanthropists
will be reimbursed by other participating bodies
such as the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
or governments. Unlike traditional grant projects,
governments only have to pay out on successes
and philanthropists are also given incentive to
back good projects likely to deliver so they can
get their seed funding back and be able to re-invest
it to achieve more.
Following a meeting in London coinciding with
the London IWT Conference, the concept and a
draft document jointly prepared by ZSL, Social
Finance and AfRSG were presented to potential
funders. The idea was welcomed by GEF and
an initial Project Identiication Form for USD 2
million to develop and test out the concept was
16
plus grand blanchiment de cornes sur le marché illégal,
ternissant l’image de la conservation et de la conformité
de l’Afrique du Sud. On a recommandé que l’Afrique
du Sud élabore immédiatement un système national de
permis électronique sécurisé pour mettre sous contrôle
les questions de non-conformité. Il doit être lié à une
base de données de rhinocéros qui comprend les stocks
de cornes et les informations sur le proil d’ADN. Les
propriétaires privés de rhinocéros devraient aussi avoir
intérêt à continuer à protéger les rhinocéros au cours de
cette période. Cela pourrait se faire par la volonté générale
du gouvernement de tenter de trouver des solutions pour
répondre aux préoccupations du secteur privé, par exemple
en offrant des sites sécurisés pour stocker les cornes et en
offrant des procédures de permis plus simpliiées pour
motiver les propriétaires de rhinocéros de se conformer.
En outre, on a demandé que l’Afrique du Sud continue
à montrer un respect intégral pour les résolutions de la
CITES et si une proposition de légaliser le commerce
international doit être soumise, une proposition détaillée
devrait être disponible dès que possible.
Impacts des Obligations sur le
Rhinocéros
Le Secrétariat du GSRAf et d’autres membres du GSRAf
travaillent en étroite collaboration avec la Société
zoologique de Londres (ZSL), Finance sociale et, plus
récemment, le GSRAs et d’autres partenaires de la
Fondation Unis pour la Faune pour étudier, développer
et essayer une nouvelle forme innovatrice de inancement
des actions de conservation sur le terrain. La Fondation
royale des Princes William et Harry et la Duchesse de
Cambridge s’intéresse à explorer l’impact de la valeur
possible des obligations en tant qu’outil de inancement
de la conservation des rhinocéros. L’idée est que chaque
obligation de projet aura un ensemble d’objectifs cibles
mesurables (tels que l’augmentation du nombre de
rhinocéros par x ou le maintien du braconnage en-dessous
de y). Le concept est que les philanthropes fournissent un
inancement initial pour de telles obligations d’impact et,
si le projet réussit par rapport aux objectifs mesurables
prévus, les philanthropes seront remboursés par
d’autres organismes participants tels que le Fonds pour
l’Environnement Mondial (FEM) ou les gouvernements.
Contrairement aux projets traditionnels de subventions,
les gouvernements ne doivent payer que les succès et on
donne également aux philanthropes une motivation pour
soutenir de bons projets susceptibles de réussir ain qu’ils
puissent obtenir leur inancement de démarrage et être en
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
African Rhino Specialist Group report
submitted to and approved by GEF. The various
cooperating partners are assisting by developing
a full GEF proposal and liaising with the Royal
Foundation to seek support to boost the initial
funding for the demonstration phase of the project
up to a total of USD 5 million. If this funding model
proves to work in practice the hope is that it could
be rolled out on a bigger scale. At this initial stage it
has been decided to focus on a few projects relating
to a small number of Key black, white and greater
one-horned rhino projects in Africa and Asia. At
the time of writing those involved are working to
review and decide on possible sites to fund.
Decline in live white rhino sale
turnover in South Africa following
upsurge of poaching and its
implications
The AfRSG’s scientiic oficer has collated live
white rhino sale data from the three biggest sellers:
Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Wildlife,
South African National Parks (SANParks) and
Vleisscentraal Auctioneers. Figure 2 shows that
inlation-adjusted annual turnover has declined
considerably in recent years following the
upsurge in poaching. After an initial rush to sell
rhinos in 2009 soon after poaching had started
to increase, turnover has declined considerably.
This is primarily because the major conservation
agencies have fewer surplus rhinos to sell due
to the poaching. Figure 2 shows this signiicant
decline in turnover is primarily due to the
reduction in number of animals being sold. Fewer
live sales have also signiicantly reduced funding
for state conservation agencies such as Ezemvelo
KZN Wildlife and SANParks. For example, the
decline in turnover for these two conservation
organizations (adjusted for inflation to 2013
South African rand [ZAR] values) from 2007 (the
year before poaching started to escalate) to 2012
was almost ZAR 35.9m (close to US$3.8m at
prevailing exchange rates). In addition, the trend
of increasing numbers of private sector owners
in South Africa getting rid of some or all of their
rhinos given increased security costs and risks that
have accompanied the upsurge in poaching shows
no sign of abating. This may reduce the range
available for expanding rhino range and numbers.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
mesure de le réinvestir pour obtenir plus.
Suite à une réunion à Londres qui a coïncidé avec la
Conférence sur le Commerce International de la Faune
Sauvage de Londres, le concept et un projet de document
préparé conjointement par la Société Zoologique de
Londres, Finance sociale et le GSRAf ont été présentés aux
bailleurs de fonds potentiels. L’idée a été bien accueillie
par le FEM et un premier PIF de USD2 millions pour
développer et tester le concept a été soumis et approuvé
par le FEM. Les différents partenaires de coopération
aident à développer une proposition complète pour le
FEM en liaison avec la Fondation Royale pour chercher
un soutien ain de stimuler le inancement initial pour
la phase de démonstration du projet jusqu’à un total de
USD5 millions. Si ce modèle de inancement marche dans
la pratique, l’espoir est qu’il pourra être déployé sur une
plus grande échelle. A ce stade initial, il a été décidé de se
concentrer sur quelques projets relatifs à un petit nombre
de projets clés sur les rhinocéros noirs, blancs et unicornes
en Afrique et en Asie. Au moment de la rédaction, ceux
qui sont impliqués travaillent à revoir et à décider sur des
sites possibles à inancer.
Baisse du chiffre d’affaires de
la vente des rhinocéros blancs
vivants en Afrique du Sud après une
recrudescence du braconnage et ses
implications
Le responsable scientiique du GSRAf a rassemblé des
données sur la vente des rhinocéros blancs vivants des
trois plus gros vendeurs: Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal
(KZN) Wildlife, les parcs nationaux sud-africains
(SANParks) et le commissaire-priseur Vleisscentraal.
La Figure 2 montre que le chiffre d’affaires annuel ajusté
à l’inlation a considérablement diminué ces dernières
années suite à la recrudescence du braconnage. Après
une poussée initiale pour vendre les rhinocéros en 2009
peu de temps après que le braconnage ait commencé
à augmenter, le chiffre d’affaires a considérablement
diminué. C’est principalement parce que les principaux
organismes de conservation ont moins de rhinocéros en
surplus à vendre en raison du braconnage. La Figure 2
montre que cette baisse signiicative du chiffre d’affaires
est principalement due à la réduction du nombre
d’animaux vendus. La réduction de ventes d’animaux
vivants a également réduit de manière signiicative le
inancement des organismes de conservation de l’Etat tels
qu’Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife et SANParks. Par exemple,
17
Knight
400
350
12,000,000
300
10,000,000
250
8,000,000
200
6,000,000
150
4,000,000
100
2,000,000
Total number of white rhino sold by ’Big 3’
Live white rhino turnover (’Big3’ sellers) US$ 2013 values
14,000,000
50
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
20141H
Year (except 2014 which is for first half of the year only)
no. sold
Total WR turnover ‘Big3’ sellers: US$ 2013 value
Big 3 = Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, SANParks & Vleisscentraal Auctioneers
Figure 2. White rhino live sale turnover in South Africa by the three biggest sellers (based on data supplied by Ezemvelo
KZN Wildlife, SANParks and Vleisscentraal auctioneers).
The 2014 igure refers only to the irst half of 2014; the total turnover for 2014 will be higher.
Figure 2: Le chiffre d’affaires de la vente de rhinocéros blancs vivants en Afrique du Sud par les trois plus gros vendeurs
(basé sur les données fournies par Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, SANParks et les commissaires-priseurs Vleisscentraal).
Le chiffre de 2014 ne porte que sur le premier semestre de 2014; le chiffre d’affaires total pour 2014 sera plus élevé.
Achievement
I congratulate Benson Okita-Ouma (deputy
chair) on receiving his PhD from Wageningen
University, Netherlands. His dissertation is
entitled ‘Population densities of eastern black
rhinoceros: unravelling the controls’.
Acknowledgements
I acknowledge and thank our various sponsors:
WWF’s African Rhino Programme (with
funding from WWF Netherlands), US Fish and
Wildlife’s Rhino and Tiger Conservation Fund,
Save the Rhino International, International
Rhino Foundation and UK’s Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)
for sponsoring the scientific officer’s time. I
also thank the Endangered Wildlife Trust for
administrative assistance. I thank Dr Richard
18
la baisse du chiffre d’affaires de ces deux organisations
de conservation (ajusté pour l’inlation du rand sudafricain à la valeur de 2013) entre 2007 (l’année avant la
recrudescence du braconnage) et 2012 était presque 35,9
millions de rands sud-africains (près de USD3,8 millions
aux taux de change en vigueur). En outre, la tendance
du nombre croissant de propriétaires du secteur privé en
Afrique du Sud à se débarrasser de tous leurs rhinocéros
ou d’une partie étant donné les coûts accrus de sécurité
et les risques qui accompagnent la recrudescence du
braconnage ne montre aucun signe de ralentissement.
Cela peut réduire l’habitat disponible pour augmenter
l’habitat ou le nombre de rhinocéros.
Réalisation
Je félicite Benson Okita-Ouma (Vice-président) pour
avoir reçu son doctorat de l’Université de Wageningen
aux Pays-Bas. Sa thèse est intitulée « Les densités de
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Emslie (scientiic oficer) and Dr Benson OkitaOuma (deputy chair) for their inputs, constant
support and advice. I also thank those who
provided information towards this report.
population de rhinocéros noirs de l’Est: démêler les
contrôles ».
Remerciements
Je reconnais et remercie nos différents sponsors: le
Programme du WWF pour les rhinocéros d’Afrique (avec
un inancement du WWF Pays-Bas), le Fonds du Service
de la Pêche et de la Faune Sauvage pour la Conservation
du Rhinocéros et du Tigre, Save the Rhino International,
la Fondation Internationale pour le Rhinocéros et
le Ministère Britannique de l’Environnement, de
l’Alimentation et des Affaires rurales (DEFRA) pour le
parrainage du temps du chargé scientiique. Je remercie
également le Fonds de la Faune Sauvage menacée
d’extinction pour l’assistance administrative. Je remercie
le Dr. Richard Emslie (responsable scientiique) et le
Dr. Benson Okita-Ouma (Vice-président) pour leur
contribution, leur soutien et leurs conseils constants.
Je remercie également tous ceux qui ont fourni des
informations pour la rédaction de ce rapport.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
19
Talukdar
Asian Rhino Specialist Group report
Rapport du Groupe des Spécialistes des Rhinocéros d’Asie
Bibhab Kumar Talukdar, Chair/Président
Aaranyak, 50 Samanwoy Path (Survey), PO Beltola, Guwahati – 781 028, Assam, India
email: bibhab@aaranyak.org
Second rhino security and
monitoring meeting in South
Africa
2ème réunion sur la sécurité et la
surveillance des rhinocéros en Afrique
du Sud
I attended a meeting, ‘Using modern technology
to protect Africa’s rhinos: security and technology
workshop’ held 29 March–1 April 2014 at Mopani
Rest Camp in Kruger National Park, South
Africa. The meeting was organized by Save the
Rhino International and WWF-South Africa, with
additional substantial inancial support from US
Fish and Wildlife Service and the South African
National Parks (SANParks). This was the second
such meeting on rhino security; the irst was held in
Namibia in 2012. I delivered a paper on dehorning
feasibilities in Assam, India, as a measure to protect
rhinos from poachers. This meeting deliberated
on the effectiveness of rhino horn poisoning,
various rhino monitoring and security techniques,
and the use of modern tools in rhino research,
monitoring and security. The topics discussed at
the meeting were useful; some can be replicated in
the conservation and protection of rhinos in Asia.
J’ai participé à une réunion sur «L’utilisation des
technologies modernes pour protéger les rhinocéros
d’Afrique: atelier sur la sécurité et la technologie» qui s’est
tenue du 29 mars au 1er avril 2014 au Camp de Repos de
Mopani dans le parc national Kruger, en Afrique du Sud.
La réunion était organisée par Save the Rhino International
et WWF-Afrique du Sud, avec un appui financier
substantiel supplémentaire du Service de la Pêche et
de la Faune Sauvage des Etats-Unis et de SANParks.
Il s’agissait de la deuxième réunion sur la sécurité des
rhinocéros; la première avait eu lieu en Namibie en 2012.
J’ai fait une présentation sur la faisabilité de l’écornage
dans l’Assam, en Inde, en tant qu’une mesure visant à
protéger les rhinocéros des braconniers. Cette réunion a
délibéré sur l’eficacité de l’empoisonnement de la corne
de rhinocéros, diverses techniques de surveillance et de
sécurité des rhinocéros, et l’utilisation des outils modernes
dans la recherche sur les rhinocéros, la surveillance et la
sécurité. Les sujets abordés lors de la réunion ont été utiles
et certains peuvent être reproduits dans la conservation et
la protection des rhinocéros en Asie.
Rhino poaching scenario in Asia
Poaching of rhinos during the irst six months of
2014 has been reported only from Assam where
poachers killed about 20 greater one-horned
rhinos: one in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS)
and the others in and around Kaziranga National
Park (NP). Nepal was successful in achieving zero
poaching for almost 15 months. A poacher killed
one rhino in the buffer zone of Chitwan NP in early
May 2014. There was no report of any poaching
of the critically endangered Javan and Sumatran
rhinos from Indonesia. Although the rate of rhino
poaching in Asia may not be as high as in Africa, the
growing rhino horn market in some Asian countries
20
Le scénario du braconnage des
rhinocéros en Asie
Au cours des six premiers mois de 2014, le braconnage
des rhinocéros n’a été rapporté que pour l’Assam où
les braconniers ont tué environ 20 grands rhinocéros
unicornes: un dans le sanctuaire de la Faune Sauvage de
Pabitora et les autres dans le Parc national de Kaziranga et
ses alentours. Le Népal a réussi à atteindre le braconnage
zéro pendant presque 15 mois. Un braconnier a tué un
rhinocéros dans la zone tampon du PN de Chitwan au
début de mai 2014. Aucun braconnage des rhinocéros
de Java et des rhinocéros de Sumatra en Indonésie, en
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Asian Rhino Specialist Group report
is worrying, and small populations of Asian rhino
species face great danger from organized poachers
and rhino horn traders. Thus, there is a great need to
prepare rhino range countries in Asia to strengthen
intelligence gathering and effectiveness of ield
patrols to unearth rhino poaching attempts and
incidents and initiate the necessary steps to check
rhino poaching.
Progress in India Rhino Vision
2020
India Rhino Vision 2020 was launched in 2005
by the government of Assam along with the
International Rhino Foundation, WWF, US Fish
and Wildlife Service and Bodoland Territorial
Council. Under this programme, since 2008,
18 wild greater one-horned rhinos have been
captured from Pabitora WLS and Kaziranga NP
and translocated to Manas NP Park. Nine rescued
rhinos from other areas have also been rehabilitated
in Manas. In the past 2 years, 11 rhinos have been
born in Manas although 7 rhinos have been killed
by poachers in the same park since 2011. Currently
Manas NP has about 31 rhinos. The next phase
of translocating rhinos is likely to take place in
the coming winter. This time captured rhinos
from Kaziranga NP and Pabitora WLS will be
translocated to Laokhowa-Burachapori Wildlife
Sanctuary in Assam.
Likely threats to Chitwan National
Park
Chitwan NP in Nepal holds the second largest
global population of wild greater one-horned
rhino (GOH) in South Asia. Chitwan NP—a
World Heritage Site—has successfully conserved
the GOH rhino over the years and currently
holds about 500 rhinos. Currently, two proposed
infrastructure projects—the East-West Electric
Railway and the Terai Postal Road—have
generated signiicant concern on the effect they
are likely to have in fragmenting the core wildlife
habitat of Chitwan NP. Conservationists anticipate
that if built without care, these proposed projects
would cause loss of key habitats leading to habitat
fragmentation and, maybe, loss of the UNESCO
World Heritage Site status, which will result in
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
danger critique d’extinction, n’a été rapporté. Alors
que, par rapport à l’Afrique, le taux du braconnage des
rhinocéros en Asie n’est pas aussi élevé, la croissance du
marché de la corne de rhinocéros dans certains pays d’Asie
est préoccupante, et les petites populations d’espèces de
rhinocéros d’Asie pourraient faire face à un plus grand
danger des braconniers organisés et des commerçants de
cornes de rhinocéros. Ainsi, il y a un plus grand besoin de
préparer les pays de l’aire de répartition des rhinocéros en
Asie ain de renforcer la collecte des renseignements et
l’eficacité des patrouilles sur le terrain pour révéler les
tentatives et les incidents de braconnage des rhinocéros
et prendre les mesures nécessaires pour empêcher le
braconnage.
Les progrès de la Vision 2020 de l’Inde
sur le Rhinocéros
La Vision 2020 de l’Inde sur le Rhinocéros a été lancée
en 2005 par le gouvernement de l’Assam en partenariat
avec la Fondation internationale pour le rhinocéros,
WWF, le Service de la Pêche et de la Faune Sauvage des
Etats-Unis et le Conseil territorial du Bodoland. Dans ce
programme, depuis 2008, 18 grands rhinocéros unicornes
sauvages ont été capturés dans le Sanctuaire de la Faune
Sauvage de Pabitora et le Parc National de Kaziranga
et ils ont été transférés dans le parc national de Manas.
Neuf rhinocéros sauvés des autres régions ont également
été réhabilités à Manas. Au cours des 2 dernières années,
11 rhinocéros sont nés à Manas bien que 7 rhinocéros
aient été tués par des braconniers dans le même parc
depuis 2011. Actuellement, il y a environ 31 rhinocéros
dans le parc national de Manas. La phase suivante de la
translocation des rhinocéros va probablement avoir lieu
l’hiver prochain. Cette fois les rhinocéros capturés dans
le parc national de Kaziranga et le sanctuaire de la Faune
Sauvage de Pabitora seront transférés vers le sanctuaire
de la Faune Sauvage de Laokhowa-Burachapori dans
l’Assam.
Menaces possibles dans le parc
national de Chitwan
Le parc national de Chitwan au Népal détient la deuxième
plus grande population mondiale de grands rhinocéros
unicornes sauvages en Asie du Sud. Le parc national
de Chitwan - un site du patrimoine mondial - a réussi à
conserver le grand rhinocéros unicorne au il des années et
détient actuellement environ 500 rhinocéros. Actuellement,
21
Talukdar
losses in tourism activity, marketing capacity
and a signiicant amount of tourist-based income
where both government and local communities are
stakeholders. The recently concluded 38th session
of the World Heritage Committee meeting held in
Doha, Qatar, 15–25 June 2014, expressed concern
about these proposed infrastructure projects and
considered that if implemented as planned through
Chitwan NP-cum-World Heritage Site, they would
be a potential danger to its Outstanding Universal
Value of a World Heritage Site. As a party to the
Convention on Biological Diversity, Nepal has
agreed to the strategic plan on biodiversity and
its accompanying Aichi Biodiversity Targets.
Naturally, appropriate protection and management
of Chitwan NP are needed to ensure that by 2020
the extinction of known threatened species,
including the greater one-horned rhino, has been
prevented and their conservation status improved
and sustained. What is needed now is to ind a
balance between infrastructure development and
conservation of species and landscapes and the
communities they support.
22
deux projets d’infrastructure proposés – le chemin de fer
électrique est-ouest et la route postale de Teraï – ont
suscité une profonde inquiétude concernant l’impact
qu’ils sont susceptibles d’avoir sur la fragmentation de
l’habitat principal de la faune du parc national de Chitwan.
Les écologistes prévoient que s’ils sont construits sans
précaution, ces projets proposés entraîneraient des pertes
d’habitats clés menant à la fragmentation de l’habitat et,
peut-être, la perte du statut de site du patrimoine mondial
de l’UNESCO, ce qui se traduira par des pertes dans
l’activité touristique, la capacité de commercialisation
et les revenus importants provenant du tourisme où le
gouvernement et les communautés locales sont parties
prenantes. La 38ème session récemment conclue de la
réunion du Comité du patrimoine mondial qui s’est tenue
à Doha, au Qatar, du 15 au 25 juin 2014, a exprimé sa
préoccupation au sujet de ces projets d’infrastructure
proposés estimant que s’ils sont réalisés comme prévu à
travers le parc national de Chitwan-cum-site du patrimoine
mondial, ils seraient un danger potentiel pour la Valeur
universelle exceptionnelle d’un site du patrimoine
mondial. En tant que partie à la Convention sur la diversité
biologique, le Népal a accepté le plan stratégique d’Aichi
sur la biodiversité et ses objectifs accompagnateurs de la
biodiversité. Naturellement, la protection et la gestion
appropriées du parc national de Chitwan sont nécessaires
pour faire en sorte que d’ici 2020, l’extinction des
espèces menacées connues, y compris le grand rhinocéros
unicorne, soit évitée et leur état de conservation amélioré et
maintenu. Ce qui est nécessaire maintenant c’est de trouver
un équilibre entre le développement des infrastructures
et la conservation des espèces et des paysages et les
communautés qu’ils soutiennent.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Amwata and Mganga
RESEARCH
The African elephant and food security in Africa:
experiences from Baringo District, Kenya
Dorothy A Amwata and Kevin Z Mganga
Department of Range and Wildlife Sciences, South Eastern University College, PO Box 170–90200, Kitui, Kenya
Corresponding author email: damwata@yahoo.com or damwata@seku.ac.ke
Abstract
Elephants often impose costs including threats to human life and the destruction of crops and property on
the people who share their range. Incidents of human–elephant conlict (HEC), especially crop destruction,
are increasing in Africa, undermining efforts towards biodiversity conservation and food security. This study
analysed the impact of crop destruction by African elephants on food security in Baringo District, Kenya. The
study area was Mochongoi Division, which was stratiied into three blocks: Kamailel, Mochongoi and Kimoriot.
Data were collected through administering questionnaires to 40 households per block; 120 respondents were
interviewed and data analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Results from this
study showed that HEC in the study area had reduced by 15% in 2006, by 20% in 2007, and by 29% in 2008.
In addition, HEC was found to reduce household income by 35.1%. The crop most raided by elephants was
maize, which accounted for 65.5% of all the HEC losses, next was beans (23.8%), then cabbage and potato.
This study establishes that elephant presence in non-protected areas jeopardizes local community efforts to
food security and undermines local livelihoods. Conservation agencies need to lobby and support the locals to
venture into other income-generating activities, such as curio shops and ecotourism facilities, that are compatible
with elephant conservation. Alternatively, Mochongoi elephants could be translocated to parks and reserves
earmarked for wildlife conservation.
Additional key words: cash income, crop destruction, human–elephant conlict, livelihood, poverty
Résumé
Les éléphants imposent souvent des coûts, y compris les menaces à la vie humaine et la destruction des cultures
et des biens des gens qui partagent leur habitat. Les incidents de conlit homme-éléphant (CHE), en particulier la
destruction des cultures, sont en augmentation en Afrique, ce qui compromet les efforts visant à la conservation
de la biodiversité et la sécurité alimentaire. Cette étude a analysé l’impact de la destruction des cultures par les
éléphants d’Afrique sur la sécurité alimentaire dans le district de Baringo au Kenya. La zone d’étude était la
Division de Mochongoi, qui a été stratiiée en trois blocs: Kamailel, Mochongoi et Kimoriot. Les données ont
été recueillies en administrant des questionnaires à 40 ménages par bloc; 120 personnes ont été interrogées et
les données analysées en utilisant le Logiciel de statistique pour les sciences sociales (SPSS). Les résultats de
cette étude ont montré que le CHE dans la zone d’étude s’était réduit de 15% en 2006, de 20% en 2007, et de
29% en 2008. En outre, on a trouvé que le CHE réduisait le revenu des ménages de 35,1%. La culture la plus
maraudée par les éléphants était le maïs, qui représente 65,5% de toutes les pertes du CHE, suivi des haricots
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
23
Amwata and Mganga
(23,8%), puis les choux et les pommes de terre. Cette étude établit que la présence d’éléphants dans les zones
non protégées met en péril les efforts de la communauté locale à la sécurité alimentaire et compromet les
moyens de subsistance locaux. Les organismes de conservation doivent faire le plaidoyer auprès des habitants
et les encourager à entreprendre d’autres activités génératrices de revenus, tels que les magasins de souvenirs
et les services d’écotourisme qui sont compatibles avec la conservation de l’éléphant. Alternativement, on
pourrait transférer les éléphants Mochongoi vers les parcs et les réserves destinées à la conservation de la faune.
Mots clés supplémentaires: revenus en espèces, destruction des cultures, conlits homme-éléphant, moyens
de subsistance, pauvreté
Introduction
Conflict between humans and wildlife today
undoubtedly ranks among the main threat to
conservation in Africa. Alongside habitat destruction
and commercially motivated hunting of wildlife to
satisfy the demand for bush meat, conlict presents
a real challenge to local, national and regional
governments and non-governmental agencies in
conservation (Treves and Karanth 2003). Human–
elephant conlict (HEC) has become an important
issue for conservationists during the last 30 years
(Sarker and Roskaft 2010). HEC is a direct outcome
of the excessive changes in land-use patterns and the
continued conversion of natural elephant habitat to
human use (Nelson et al. 2003). Recorded incidents of
HEC, in particular crop raiding, are increasing in rural
Africa as intensiication and extension of cultivation
lengthens the human–elephant interface (Hedges et
al. 2005).
In addition, large populations of Kenya’s elephants
range outside protected areas and migrate between such
areas and their environs as well as between habitats.
Elephant movement is inluenced by a number of
factors, notably the search for food, water, minerals
and in response to disturbance. This movement may be
unpredictable and complex in certain situations (Blanc
et al. 2003) as elephants tend to shift their movement
patterns in response to availability of water and forage.
At times the movement may be regular between dry
and wet season ranges, in addition to other factors such
as human settlement and infrastructure development
(Masila 2004).
HEC is a growing concern, particularly in Kenya
where elephant habitats are rapidly being converted
to farmland and settlement, forcing elephants out of
their ranges and into fragmented pockets of habitat.
Despite this, elephant numbers in Kenya have risen
in recent years due to anti-poaching policies enforced
by the government (Omondi et al. 2002). As a result,
24
these re-expanding elephant populations frequently
come into conlict with humans. HEC has both direct
and indirect cost implications for people in many
parts of Africa (Graham et al. 2010). Direct costs
are relatively straightforward to quantify. However,
indirect costs associated with time and money required
to avoid HEC, such as the curfews on school-going
children due to presence of elephants on roads leading
to school, are more dificult to estimate (Hill 2004).
Despite the disruption of socio-economic activities,
pastoral and agropastoral people living in adjacent
park areas are denied access to protected areas but
are expected to tolerate the presence of elephants
wandering on their private and communal lands.
This leads to anger and desperation because these
communities have to bear the costs associated with
hosting elephants. People often respond to HEC by
taking actions such as injuring or killing elephants
and other wildlife species or creating conlict with
elephant authorities (Woodroffe et al. 2005). Most
pastoral communities now weigh the costs of tolerating
elephants against the proits to be made from selling
their land or converting it to more proitable use (Gadd
2005). Not surprisingly, most pastoralists are now
practising agropastoralism or leasing their land for
intensive irrigation agriculture, such as is happening
in Laikipia County. Despite these problems, many
pastoral communities seem to tolerate the elephant
menace with the hope that a solution will be found
one day (Amwata et al. 2006). Therefore, for people
and elephants to live in harmony, the importance of
elephants in the study area needs to be evaluated.
The elephant situation is particularly problematic
because elephants compete with livestock and humans
for resources, raid farmers’ crops, and threaten
livestock, people and property. For elephants to persist
on pastoral rangelands, a costs and beneits analysis and
its implications for local livelihoods is fundamental.
Past studies have focused on elephant distribution,
status, movement, and the nature and extent of conlicts
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Amwata and Mganga
(Blanc et al. 2003) and spatial aspects (Sitati et al.
2003). Others have emphasized elephants in relation
to agricultural conlicts. Most of these studies have
shown the economic losses attributed to elephants, but
few quantitatively approximate the monetary losses.
These studies have shown limited interaction between
elephant damage and household food security status. It
was with this concern that we undertook this study to
facilitate a better understanding of the nature, degree
of conlicts, and how these conlicts impact household
food security and wellbeing.
Materials and methods
Study area
Balanites aegyptiaca and Maerua angolensis. The
study area is inhabited by Pokot, Tugen and Njemps
pastoral communities. The pastoralists in Baringo
District are mainly transhumance pastoralists. They
exemplify communities in arid and semi-arid lands
that depend on livestock for their livelihood (Kaimba
et al. 2011).
Methodology and data collection
Mochongoi Division formed the study area. It was
divided into three blocks—Kamailel, Mochongoi
and Kimoriot. Primary data were collected by
administering questionnaires to 120 households
(Figure 2); 40 households were interviewed in each
block. Questions were sought on household size
in adult equivalents, age composition, sources of
livelihood, incidents of human–elephant conflict,
household food consumption patterns, types of crops
grown, and elephant-related property and crop losses.
The questions were dichotomous, multi-choice and
open ended to allow ease of capturing the diverse
issues under investigation in the necessary detail.
Secondary data were obtained from reviewing
previous studies, government reports and manuals
on land transformation, elephant conservation, land
use and food security of the area. The primary data
were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS).
This study was conducted in Mochongoi Division
in Baringo County, one of the arid and semi-arid
counties in the Rift Valley Province of Kenya (Figure
1). Mochongoi Division covers approximately 390
km 2 and has three main agro-ecological zones:
lowland, medium highland and highland. The lowlands
comprise the northern plateau, Lake Baringo and
Kerio Valley basins (Lelon et al. 2010). The study
area is inluenced by the intertropical convergence
zone, giving it a bimodal rainfall pattern with the long
rains from March to July, and the short rains from midSeptember to November (Amwata et al. 2006). Average
minimum temperature is 20
ºC and the maximum is 35
ºC (Kaimba et al. 2011).
Soils are tertiary volcanic
in origin, dominated by
porous volcanic sandy and
clay soils. The soils become
soggy and waterlogged in
the wet season and rapidly
dry and crack during the dry
season. The main vegetation
type is Acacia woodland
dominated by Acacia
N
tortilis, Acacia reficiens
and Boscia coriacea. Other
Mochongoi households sampled
major plant species include
Mochongoi Forest
Mochongoi admin boundaries
Olea africana, Croton
megalocarpus, Juniperus
0
300,000
600,000
900,000
1,200,000
cm
p ro c e r a , P o d o c a r p u s
gracilor, Cordia sinensis, Figure 1. Location of Mochongoi forest and households sampled in Mochongoi
S a l v a d o r a p e r s i c a , Division
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
25
Amwata and Mganga
70
Number of HEC incidents reported
Results and
discussion
60
No. of HEC incidents reported
50
Results obtained from
this study show that
40
HEC in the study
30
area has considerably
reduced: by 15% in
20
2006, by 20% in
10
2007, and by 29% in
2008 (Figure 2). This
0
1996 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
reduction could be
attributed to improved
Year
service delivery that
was achieved by Figure 2. Trends in HEC in Mochongoi Division from 1996 to 2011. (Source: Modiied
from Amwata et al. (2006); KWS (2011))
relocating the Kenya
Wi l d l i f e S e r v i c e
60
(KWS) Mochongoi station from
Kabarnet to Nyahururu Station.
Crops
50
In addition, KWS rangers have
Property
Human lives
been provided with the necessary
40
equipment and facilities, such as
30
motorbikes, spotlights, raincoats
and gumboots, which boosted
20
their work morale and motivated
them to constantly patrol without
10
waiting for alarm calls from the
0
locals. These regular patrols have
1
0
8
9
7
5
6
3
4
2
0
1
9
6
8
greatly reduced contact between
199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 201 201
people and elephants.
Year
Figure 2 shows that the number
Figure 3. Incidence and different types of HEC, 1996–2011.
of HEC incidents declined
between 2008 and 2011. Results
of land-use activities: livestock production, crop
from this study suggest that with
more motivation and provision of transport facilities, production, small-scale mixed agriculture, and charcoal
burning in Mochongoi forest. Charcoal burning was
the likelihood is that HEC can be further reduced.
From the questionnaire survey and the KWS later banned and the forest is recovering. Additionally,
Occurrence Book, the most prevalent types of HEC households living within the forest boundary were
were crop destruction, loss of property and threat to relocated.
All households interviewed in the study area
human life, in descending order. However, in addition
to these types of HEC, Amwata et al. (2006) noted practise some form of cultivation. Crops grown, in
forms of HEC such as human deaths, disruption of order of preference, were maize, beans, irish potato,
school attendance and destruction of water points, cabbage, kale, sorghum, onion, banana, peas and carrot
which have ceased to occur in the area. Besides, (Table 1). The contribution and economic loss of the
evidence from KWS Occurrence Book for the period most common crop types grown by all households
2006–2011 shows that these forms of HEC were never to total income is shown in Table 2. Maize was the
highest contributor to household income; next was
reported (Figure 3).
Previous research studies in the study area by beans, cabbage and lastly potato. Similarly, maize
Amwata et al. (2006) noted four different types experienced the greatest losses due to HEC, leading
to a 62.8% reduction in maize income.
26
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Amwata and Mganga
Table 1. Distribution of crops grown by different households in the three blocks
Crop
Kamailel
Banana
Beans
Cabbage
Carrot
Irish potato
Kale
Maize
Onion
Pea
Sorghum
Kimoriot
2
27
14
0
22
11
40
4
0
9
Mochongoi
1
29
9
4
19
9
40
14
7
5
6
31
18
0
25
16
40
9
2
15
Respondents
(n = 120)
9
87
41
4
66
36
120
27
9
29
% of
respondents
7.50
72.50
34.17
3.33
55.00
30.00
100.00
22.50
7.50
24.17
Table 2. Estimated contribution of selected crops to household income and associated HEC losses
Food type
Beans
Cabbage
Maize
Potato
Other crops
Contribution to
household income (%)
13.7
5.1
65.2
8.9
7.1
Loss in household
income due to HEC (%)
23.9
4.8
62.8
3.2
5.3
Table 3. Acreage of crops destroyed by elephants in the three blocks
Block
Kamailel
Kimoriot
Mochongoi
Total
Maize (acres)
Cultivated
Destroyed
192
48.50
140
65.50
126
32.25
458
146.25
Beans (acres)
Cultivated
Destroyed
72.50
25.50
68.50
40.50
58.50
19.50
199.50
85.50
Cabbage (acres)
Cultivated
Destroyed
13.50
10.50
7.25
5.00
4.50
2.25
25.25
17.75
Table 4. Estimated value of elephant crop destruction in Kenya shillings (KES)
Block
Kamailel
Kimoriot
Mochongoi
Total
% of total crop loss
Maize
2,716,000
3,668,000
1,806,000
8,190,000
65.5
Beans
1,224 000
1,944 000
9,360 000
4,104 000
32.8
Value (KES)
Cabbage
126,000
60,000
27,000
213,000
1.7
Total
4,066,000
5,672,000
2,769,000
12,507,000
100.0
USD 1 = KES 85
To estimate the economic implication of elephant
destruction, the acreage destroyed for the three major
crops: maize, beans and cabbage, was calculated (Table
3). Results from the survey established that average
yields of the three major crops were 2,970 kg/acre for
maize, 1,440 kg/acre for beans and 1,050 kg/acre for
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
cabbage. Similarly the average market prices per 90kg bag during that season were Kenya shillings (KES)
2,000 for maize, KES 3,000 for beans and KES 800 for
cabbage (USD 1 = KES 85). With these estimates, the
economic loss associated with elephants in the 2007
March–August season is tabulated in Table 4.
27
Amwata and Mganga
The questionnaire survey showed that the economic
loss from elephant crop destruction was high. Crop
production was the main source of livelihood. In
monetary terms these losses were approximately
KES 12,507,000 annually for Mochongoi Division.
This translates to a 35.1% loss in household income
annually for the study area. Kimoriot block had the
greatest losses; next was Kamailel. Amwata et al.
(2006) estimated HEC losses in Mochongoi Division
at approximately 48.6% in income per household
annually. This difference in estimating losses is
attributed to the fact that current estimates have been
based on real market values while previous estimates
were based on price approximation. Moreover, the
number of incidents of HEC has reduced, implying
reduced economic losses.
To understand the links between HEC and
livelihood, it is critical to understand HEC inluence
on food security and household income. To investigate
the household food security status in the study area,
we established household food consumption as a
function of minimum energy requirement (MER).
The MER in the study area was taken to be 2,250
kcal per active African man equivalence (AAME)
per day (Amwata 2004). Several methods have been
used to estimate the economic welfare of households.
These include head count ratio, poverty gap index,
squared poverty gap index and gini coeficient. Of
these, the head count ratio is commonly used in
developing countries because it shows details of how
poverty is widespread. Also, these countries have a
high preference for food nutritional security, which
is consistent with the behaviour of poor people. In
this study the food poverty incidence (fpi) was used
to proxy the household food security status. The fpi
of a household refers to the number of individuals in
that household who fall below the food poverty line,
given to be 2,250 kcal/adult equivalent (Nyariki et al.
2002; Amwata 2004, 2013). Food-poor households are
those that do not have access to enough food to supply
2,250 kcal per AAME per day. To calculate the food
poverty incidence, we used the following equation:
fp = q/n
where fp is the food poverty incidence, q the number
of households that fall below the food poverty line, and
n the total number of sampled households (Amwata
2004, 2013).
Mochongoi Division depends on agriculture and
local natural resources, and members of the community
28
in this division are unable to meet their basic needs,
especially for food security, because of the elephants.
All three blocks were food insecure. The overall fpi
for Mochongoi Division was 0.2, which implies that
only 20% of the households in the study area were food
secure. Variations in fpi were noted among the three
study blocks: Kamailel had the highest fpi of 0.3, next
was Kimoriot with 0.2 while Mochongoi block had the
lowest with 0.1. The fpi for the study area was found
to lie within the ranges that have been reported from
other parts of Kenya. In 1997 the fpi ranged between
18% and 70% with Kiambu District having an fpi of
18% (GOK 2000). However, the fpi for the study area
was found to be lower than reported in other arid and
semi-arid areas such as Kibwezi (46%) and Kilome
(36%) (Nyariki et al. 2002), and Rendille in Marsabit
District with an fpi of 61% during the wet season and
86% in the dry season (Sunya 2003).
Conclusion
Deforestation, increased human population and
settlements have greatly reduced the area under
forest cover in Mochongoi Division. This has
tremendously contributed to the loss of elephant
habitat and biodiversity. As a result, HEC incidents
increase threats to the survival of communities
inhabiting these areas. It is clear that the presence of
elephants inlicts costs, leading to a negative attitude
towards the elephants. The survival of both elephants
and the local community is at stake. To resolve this
problem, there is need to protect rural livelihoods
and reduce their vulnerability to HEC. Mitigating
losses with beneits derived from community-based
conservation and natural resource management may
be an effective option. Opportunities should include
ecotourism ventures such as curio shops, eco-lodges
and sportive destinations. The government could
market Mochongoi Division as a tourist destination.
This would motivate the locals since they could beneit
directly and indirectly from elephants through tourism
and its related activities such as curios and gate levies.
Besides, tourism helps diversify livelihood sources,
employment opportunities and income.
Acknowledgements
This project was supported by the Kenya Wildlife
Service through its Elephant Programme and was
funded by the Elephant Research Trust Fund. It would
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Amwata and Mganga
have been dificult to conduct this study without
this inancial support. We are indebted to Patrick
Omondi, assistant director, KWS, for guiding and
supervising this work. We thank the divisional oficer
of Mochongoi Division and the game warden at KWS
Nyahururu Station for their enthusiastic support, and
our three ield assistants, the six KWS rangers, the
driver and all those who contributed to this study in
one way or another.
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29
Martin and Vigne
Luanda—the largest illegal ivory market in southern Africa
Esmond Martin and Lucy Vigne
PO Box 15510 – 00503, Nairobi, Kenya; email: rhino@wananchi.com
Abstract
Luanda, the capital of Angola, has the largest illegal retail ivory market in southern Africa today. In early 2014
we surveyed the retail outlets in and around Luanda and counted 10,888 recently carved ivory items without
proper documentation, and thus illegal. These pieces had been crafted in central Africa and Angola, mostly from
poached forest elephants. The tusks can be obtained wholesale in Luanda for USD 150–250/kg. We estimated
92% of the total worked ivory on display was in Mercardo do Artesanato in Benica in the southern outskirts
of Luanda. The vendors there are from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo and Angola.
The buyers today are nearly all Chinese. There has been a huge increase in demand for worked ivory since
2005 due to the rising number of Chinese working in Angola, from 25,000 in 2006 to 260,000 in 2012. Items
for the Chinese, such as jewellery, name seals, Buddhas and chopsticks, dominate the market. Retail prices can
be a tenth of those in China, and construction workers go daily to Benica market for worked ivory to bring
back home. Not only is Angola acting as a main conduit for shipments of tusks wholesale to East Asia, but the
blatant sale of ivory items in Benica market encourages poaching as well. Angola needs urgently to enforce
its domestic ban on ivory sales and the CITES ban.
Résumé
Luanda, la capitale de l’Angola, a aujourd’hui le plus grand marché de l’ivoire illégal au détail en Afrique
australe. Au début de 2014 nous avons étudié les points de vente à Luanda et ses alentours et nous avons compté
10.888 articles en ivoire récemment sculptés sans documentation adéquate, et donc illégaux. Ces pièces avaient
été fabriquées en Afrique centrale et en Angola, pour la plupart à partir des éléphants de forêt braconnés. On
peut se procurer des défenses en gros à Luanda pour USD 150–250/kg. Nous avons estimé que 92% de tout
l’ivoire travaillé sur le marché était dans Mercardo do Artesanato à Benica dans la banlieue sud de Luanda. Les
vendeurs là-bas viennent de la République démocratique du Congo, de la République du Congo et d’Angola.
Les acheteurs sont aujourd’hui presque tous Chinois. Il y a eu une énorme augmentation de la demande pour
l’ivoire travaillé depuis 2005 en raison de l’augmentation du nombre de Chinois qui travaillent en Angola, qui
sont passés de 25.000 en 2006 à 260.000 en 2012. Les articles pour les Chinois, tels que les bijoux, les sceaux
avec des noms, les bouddhas et les baguettes, dominent le marché. Les prix de détail peuvent être un dixième
de ceux de la Chine, et les travailleurs de construction vont quotidiennement sur le marché de Benica pour
chercher l’ivoire travaillé à ramener à la maison. Non seulement l’Angola sert de conduit principal pour les
cargaisons de défenses de gros vers l’Asie de l’Est, mais la vente lagrante des articles en ivoire sur le marché
de Benica encourage aussi le braconnage. De toute urgence, il faut que l’Angola fasse respecter son interdiction
nationale sur les ventes d’ivoire et l’interdiction de la CITES.
Introduction
Angolans have been crafting ivory for centuries.
From independence in 1975 to the end of the Angolan
civil war in 2002, insecurity prevented any study of
Luanda’s ivory markets although large numbers of
elephants were reported being killed during those
years. TRAFFIC carried out the irst main survey of
30
the domestic ivory trade in Luanda in June 2005. The
investigators carried out a two-hour survey in Mercado
do Artesanato in Benica (Benica market) and did a
partial count of ivory items observed, mainly the larger
items. They also counted 568 ivory items in other
smaller retail outlets, including at the airport. They
estimated 1,573 kg of worked ivory was displayed
for sale in Luanda at this time. They also investigated
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Luanda—the largest illegal ivory market in southern Africa
Angola’s legislation on the ivory trade, with the help
of government oficials (Milliken et al. 2006). In
September 2013 scientists in Angola, while surveying
the country’s wildlife, conducted another partial
count of ivory items in Benica market: 2,056 objects,
excluding 30–40% of the smaller items (Svensson et
al. 2013; Bersacola et al. 2014).
Methods
From 26 February to 5 March 2014 we studied the
retail ivory trade in Luanda, Angola’s capital. We
concentrated our time in Benica market, as it is
the most important retail outlet for worked ivory.
We spent a morning and afternoon counting all the
ivory items on display for retail sale in this market
on Thursday, 27 February, and we returned the next
day and on Sunday to collect further information. We
priced the items and counted the number of stalls that
were open on different days, and noted the origin of
the ivory and where the items were carved. We also
asked vendors—when we could, as often they were
suspicious—about the prices of the raw material and
about the nationalities of the craftsmen, vendors and
customers. We observed, when possible, ivory items
and raw tusks stored in metal trunks under the tables,
but as these were not on display the items we saw
were not counted in order to be consistent with our
past survey methods.
We visited all Luanda’s main hotels, souvenir shops
and stalls and checked the airport for any ivory for
sale. We interviewed two Angolan ivory carvers about
their business and we learned about the economic
boom and development occurring in Luanda and in
Angola overall. We interviewed tour operators and
souvenir shop vendors to ascertain their views on the
ivory trade.
Background
Luanda, a city of ive million people, has since 2002
become one of the most expensive cities in the world
for expatriates. Lack of adequate conservation funds
since the end of the civil war had precluded detailed
ivory surveys, but some indings showed that Angola’s
ivory market was a signiicant problem that needed
further investigating. Another deterrent to visiting
Angola is the long time it takes to obtain a visa, putting
off conservationists, tourists and businessmen alike.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Short history of the Angolan ivory trade
The Kongo people in central Africa and Angola have
had a long tradition carving ivory. They have been
famous in the African art world from the 16th century
for producing intricately carved oliphants—musical
instruments played as side-blown horns (Bassani and
Fagg 1988). They also carved Roman Catholic igures
for the Portuguese colonialists. The Pinde people
in Angola were well known in the 18th century for
carving ivory human igures for their own culture
(Manuel Murteira Martins, art historian and antique
dealer, Lisbon, pers. comm. to Esmond Martin, 24
September 2008). From 1830 to1975 the Kongo and
other tribes in Angola produced carved ivory items in
increasing amounts, including carved tusks, to meet
the demand of the Portuguese and other Europeans
living in the country (Ross 1992; St Aubyn 1987).
Tourists visiting Angola in the 1950s and early 1960s
were advised to buy worked ivory as souvenirs in
the open-air markets in the main cities and towns of
Angola (Kane 1961).
In the early 1960s rebellions broke out leading
to independence from the Portuguese in 1975. The
government, a Marxist regime, nationalized many of
the businesses and took people’s land and possessions;
some Portuguese retaliated by destroying the
infrastructure they had developed (Stead and Rorison
2010). Many led Angola after buying up ivory items,
especially carved tusks and igures, to take with them
to sell in Portugal where ivory was in demand (Martin
2009; Martin and Martin 2009). The Angolan civil war
from 1976 to 2002 resulted in massive destruction of
the economy and thousands killed. Retail ivory sales
in Luanda dwindled but the export of raw ivory was
considerable during this time.
The economy of Angola
In the early 1970s the country’s economy performed
reasonably well, based on agriculture (especially
coffee exports) and oil products. In 1975 the new
independent government nationalized plantations,
factories, transport, communications and other sectors
of the economy. During the following 27 years of
civil war, the agricultural economy almost collapsed.
In 2002 when the war ended, the government eased
its policy of state ownership and management, and
became more lenient to foreign investment. The
economy took off with GDP growing at 11% a year
31
from 2001 to 2010, one of the highest in the world
(economist 2011). The main exports were oil (50%
of GDP and 90% of exports), gas and diamonds. To
achieve its economic plan the Angolan government
required a skilled workforce to implement large
projects, such as high-rise ofice buildings, housing
complexes and new roads, quickly and eficiently, at
reasonable prices. East Asian contractors, especially
Chinese companies, were chosen. The Chinese are
known for working hard and long hours, even in the hot
months in Luanda, and are transforming the cityscape.
The Chinese population in Angola rose from about
500 in 2002, to 25,000 in 2006 and reached 260,000
in 2012 (Sautman and Hairong 2007; Dongye 2013).
Two-way trade between China and Angola reached 35
billion dollars in 2013, a 50-fold increase from 2000
(China Daily 2014).
Legal aspects of the ivory trade in Angola
The export of worked ivory in one’s personal luggage
without proper documentation is illegal in Angola
(Milliken et al. 2006). This TRAFFIC report stated
that the 41 retail outlets in 2005 that sold ivory did not
have proper documentation and concluded, ‘there is
an urgent need to review and update the substance of
Angola’s legislation that relates to wildlife in general
and wildlife trade and CITES in particular’. In 2013,
according to Svensson et al. (2013), ‘possession and
trade of ivory requires special permission’. Svensson
et al. (2013) found that no enforcement or regular
monitoring is conducted by Angolan authorities. In
our survey in 2014 we found no evidence that the
vendors possessed oficial documents allowing their
trade in ivory. A Chinese man recently visiting Angola
had taken photos of mounds of worked ivory for sale
and said that one could pay supposedly a dollar for a
stamp to ‘legalize’ the export of one’s worked ivory.
In December 2013, Angola inally became the
179th member of CITES, which presently forbids
commercial imports and exports of elephant ivory.
Before this the Angolan government had never reported
a single ivory seizure from 1989 to January 2013
to the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS), a
CITES monitoring programme (UNEP et al. 2013;
Tom Milliken, ETIS director, pers. comm. April 2014).
In 2014, however, there have been oficial seizures
of ivory from Angola in other countries. For example,
in January oficers in Changi airport in Singapore
detected two bags containing about 45 kg of ivory in
transit via Dubai and Singapore destined for Lao PDR.
32
© Lucy Vigne
Martin and Vigne
A typical display of worked ivory for sale in Benica
market.
The owners of the two bags, Vietnamese nationals,
were arrested immediately. One said he had been paid
USD 1,000 by an unknown Vietnamese man at a market
in Angola to take the ivory to Lao PDR (Channel News
Asia 2014a). In February oficers in Siem Reap airport
in Cambodia arrested three Vietnamese for smuggling
79.5 kg of tusks. They admitted they bought the tusks
in Angola to take to Hanoi, Vietnam (Shanghai Daily
2014). In June, Hong Kong customs seized 790 kg of
tusks in 32 pieces of luggage on its way to Cambodia
that had originated in Angola; 15 Vietnamese smugglers
were arrested. The Hong Kong oficials said it was
unusual for such a large consignment of tusks to be
carried by air (Channel News Asia 2014b). This last
seizure shows how blatant the smuggling of ivory from
Angola to Asia has become.
Present situation
SOURCES OF IVORY AND PRICES OF RAW TUSKS IN THE
LUANDA AREA
Relatively little of the ivory for sale in Luanda
nowadays originates from recently killed elephants
in Angola as few elephants are left. The country once
had many thousands of elephants but latest published
AfESG igures for elephants in Angola are only 818
‘deinite’, 800 ‘probable’ and ‘851’ possible; savanna
elephants are still being poached in the extreme
southeast and forest elephants in the northwest of the
country (Blanc et al. 2007). Most of the ivory seen
in Benica market is from recently killed elephants
from central Africa where forest elephants are being
poached at accelerating rates. Between 2002 and 2011
their population declined by about 62% (Maisels et
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Luanda—the largest illegal ivory market in southern Africa
al. 2013). Milliken et al. (2006) noted that most ivory
seen in the TRAFFIC survey in 2005 was from the
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Svensson
et al. (2013) remarked that the shape and size of the
tusks on display in Benica market indicated that the
ivory originated from forest elephants. Our indings
corroborated this. We also found that many of the
vendors in the market are French speaking from
the DRC and Republic of Congo who bring their
ivory from central Africa to sell in this market. A
few other retail outlets in the city displayed much
smaller numbers of ivory items, some carved earlier
by Angolans from elephants poached during the civil
war in Angola.
Two vendors in Benica market told us separately
that the wholesale price for a 1–3-kg tusk was USD 150/
kg and USD 200/kg if slightly larger. In a workshop in
central Luanda, an ivory carver told us the wholesale
price for a 1–3-kg tusk that he recently bought was
USD 250/kg, which is understandably higher due to
less competition for raw ivory than in Benica market.
The wholesale price of USD 150–250/kg is credible as
the retail price for a polished tusk in Benica market
averaged USD 433/kg without bargaining.
IVORY CRAFTSMEN IN THE LUANDA AREA
The carvers of the ivory items in Benica market were
from the DRC, Republic of Congo and Angola. Some
ivory is carved in central Africa and some in Angola,
especially in Zaire Province in the northwest. They
produce items that are speciically in demand by the
Chinese: Buddhas, chopsticks, dragons, jewellery and
name seals. There are few ivory craftsmen in Luanda,
according to the Benica vendors. But they said their
tusk tips on display could be carved, as requested by
customers, into statues of their choice for USD 60–70.
In central Luanda we found two ivory craftsmen at
their small workshop who produce a variety of items
for their nearby shop. One was working on ivory
earrings and pendants. They make objects for their
main customers, notably the Portuguese who live in
Luanda or visit on holiday. Items for sale here included
African busts, Christian igures, European igures and
a variety of different animals and ish.
RETAIL OUTLETS AND PRICES OF IVORY ITEMS IN THE
LUANDA AREA
simple market had a corrugated iron roof and was on
sandy ground, with low or no walls. It consisted of
two oblong sections: one with paintings, basketry,
cotton material and old masks, the second section
with dark wood carvings and worked ivory. The
ivory items offered for sale were displayed on the
top of robust concrete-block tables, totally open with
no glass protection. Under or beside the stalls were
metal trunks that contained perhaps a third more ivory
items wrapped in cotton sheeting with similar items
grouped together in pillow cases. At the end of the day
the vendors, all men, returned their ivory into these
padlocked trunks.
We carried out our count on an average weekday
when there were 20 tables displaying ivory for sale.
Nearly all these tables sold ivory almost exclusively.
We counted 10,026 ivory pieces in this market.
Necklaces, bangles and pendants made up 61% of
the total (Table 1). Almost all the items on display
were of similar designs and newly carved. In general,
items were of generous size. There were no antique
ivory items, and vendors made no attempt to pretend
any worked ivory was old or antique. On the irst
day we counted 20 stalls with ivory, the next day we
counted 25 stalls, including two small displays among
the wood carvings. On the Sunday, when most people
have their day off, more vendors had opened their
stalls with 30 displays of ivory: about 20 had nearly
all ivory, sometimes with a few reptile skin wallets and
handbags; 5 displays were half ivory and half jewellery
items, often consisting of malachite or wooden-beaded
necklaces; and 5 other stalls had smaller selections
of fewer than 50 ivory items displayed among other
souvenirs.
Table 1. Ivory items for retail sale in Benica market in
late February 2014
Item
Necklace
Bangle
Pendant
Name seal
Cigarette holder
Ring
Figurine
Hairpin
Chopsticks (pair)
Miscellaneous
Percentage of total
23
19
19
7
7
6
5
4
3
7
Of all the ivory items surveyed in and around Luanda,
92% were seen in Benica market. This single-storey
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
33
Martin and Vigne
The ivory items in this market were fairly Table 2. Retail prices for ivory items seen in Benica market,
crudely carved, had a dull light beige tint February/March 2014
and were not polished; they lacked variety
in design. The bangles were wide, thick and
Item
Size (cm)
Average price
(USD)
usually plain; there were also medium- and
Jewellery
large-beaded bracelets, as well as many
Bangle, plain or carved
1
25
medium- and large-beaded necklaces, and
2
100
smaller bead necklaces with a large pendant
4
180
many lying in mounds on the tables. Although
Bracelet, 1-cm beads
32
they had fasteners, most necklaces were long
2-cm beads
90
enough to wear directly over one’s head.
Hair fastener
8x3
23
Pendants were commonly round or oblong
Hairpin
20
22
with a simple carving of Buddha or of animals
Necklace, beaded
Various
30
from the Chinese zodiac on them, while others
Pendant
5
15
were shaped as hearts and tiger claws.
8
25
There were many squat Buddha igurines
Ring
0.5
3
and also some thinner, taller Guanyin igures,
Figurines
but virtually no African igures or busts, and
Animal
5
60
almost no European or Christian igures in this
10
177
market. Stalls had a variety of simply carved
15
400
animal igures, especially dragons, rhinos and
20
800
elephants, and more could be produced on
30
1,250
request from the trunks under the tables.
Human / religious
10-15
325
While jewellery, cigarette holders, name
25
527
seals and igurines dominated the displays,
Tusks
sometimes there were other items, such as
Bridge
25
375
Chinese chess pieces, Chinese hand balls,
Tusk tip
10
60
cocktail sticks, combs (mostly with handles),
15
225
drum sticks, fruit, hair fasteners, key rings,
30
650
pen holders, pipes with dragon designs, tusk
Others
tips, and walking sticks with dragon handles.
Cigarette holder
8
12
In Benica market, vendors gave prices in
13
18
either US dollars or kwanza, as the customer
Chopsticks, pair
20
87
preferred (Table 2). No items had a marked
Comb
15
47
price. Customers new to the market with little
Fruit, lifesize
180
experience were charged higher prices, but
Name seal, plain or
with bargaining, items could be bought for half
partly carved
7x2
60
the price, especially if bought in bulk. Vendors
12 x 5
225
at different stalls varied their initial prices
Pipe, plain
16
100
considerably; for example, an ivory walking
Pipe, carved
16
150
stick was offered for USD 1,000 at one stall
Walking stick, all ivory
90
2,167
and USD 4,000 at another. The prices of a 15cm igurine varied hugely, depending on the USD 1 = 100 kwanza, February–March 2014.
These prices were before extensive bargaining.
diameter and weight of the ivory. Customers
prefer shorter, chunkier carvings; very few
and bars; one had 445 items and the other 312 items.
igures reached 30 cm. There were also very
Two more large souvenir shops, both well established,
few bridges and carved tusks.
In central Luanda only six retail outlets displayed displayed ivory objects, the bigger one displaying
ivory, offering 862 items for sale. Two were outlets 68 objects; the other, with 16 items, was owned by a
on Ilha do Cabo, a popular beach area with restaurants Portuguese woman for 60 years. A street vendor who
34
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Luanda—the largest illegal ivory market in southern Africa
had for many years sold souvenirs beside a large hotel
had 14 ivory pendants. The sixth outlet was in a luxury
hotel with just 7 items, the only hotel we found with
ivory for sale.
There were fewer Chinese-style items in the central
Luanda retail outlets and more items attractive to the
European market, such as religious igurines. The most
common items were jewellery, which made up 74%
of the total items (Table 3).
The prices for bangles and necklaces were higher
in the central Luanda outlets compared with Benica
market where often they are sold in bulk. The igurines
were less expensive in central Luanda, however, as
they were generally thinner in diameter than in Benica
market, and the turnover is slow compared with
accessories (Table 4). Vendors said small accessories
were popular as souvenirs as they were easier to take
out of the country. We saw no old or antique ivory
items and no vendors tried to sell us ivory as antiques,
but a number of items looked dusty and appeared to be
old stock. Four outlets had price labels but generally
some bargaining was possible.
Main customers for worked ivory in the
Luanda area
In Benica market all the buyers of worked ivory we
saw were Chinese. Sometimes Vietnamese or other
southeast Asians working in the country buy worked
ivory. By far the most items cater to the Chinese;
many vendors displayed the same objects, sometimes
opening their storage trunks to reveal more, and
allowing the Chinese to examine many items while
indulging in their bargaining skills. Some Europeans
were seen looking at wood carvings but were not
generally interested in looking at ivory. There are very
few foreign tourists in Angola and most visitors to the
market are foreign residents. We were told Angolans
do not buy worked ivory for themselves, and we saw
no Angolan customers. The vendors all agreed that
the Chinese had become their biggest customers, and
apart from speaking Portuguese and French, some
had learned and spoke luent Chinese as opposed to
English, to communicate with their main clients.
The Chinese in the market are mostly male contract
workers who usually visit in groups of three or four,
sometimes accompanied by Chinese women. Some
were seen with a piece of paper listing the items they
wished to buy. The Chinese are notorious for severe
haggling and testing of the ivory. We saw Chinese
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Table 3. Ivory items for retail sale in central Luanda in
March 2014
Item
Bangle
Necklace
Figurine
Ring
Pendant
Name seal
Miscellaneous
Percentage of total
25
25
17
14
10
5
4
Table 4. Retail prices for ivory items seen in central
Luanda in March 2014
Item
Jewellery
Bangle, plain or carved
Hair fastener
Necklace, beaded
Pendant
Ring
Figurines
Animal
Tusks
Bridge
Other
Cigarette holder
Comb
Name seal, plain or
partly carved
Size (cm)
Av. price
(USD)
1
2
8x3
various
5
1
103
149
38
68
18
10
5
10–15
25
30
105
138
400
700
40
500
10
15
18
39
7x2
10 x 4
90
225
USD 1 = 100 kwanza, February–March 2014
customers smelling and biting ivory objects, and
examining beads very closely in great detail, then
walking away with nothing, until they inally would
accept a price at a later stage. We sometimes saw
groups of Chinese walking back to their vehicles with
packages of ivory or wearing bracelets and bangles
themselves. Nowhere else did we see anyone wearing
ivory while we were in Luanda.
In central Luanda the smarter retail souvenir shops
cater for Europeans and Americans, with Portuguese
being the main customers; after the Chinese the
Portuguese are the most numerous expatriates and
35
© Lucy Vigne
Martin and Vigne
Chinese are by far the main buyers of ivory items in
Benica market.
main holidaymakers in Angola. They prefer to shop
in the comfort of central Luanda where items are
clean and neatly laid out, unlike in the untidy market.
Most of the Chinese in Luanda do not visit these more
expensive souvenir outlets, which sell an array of other
African crafts also, as they prefer to concentrate on
the much larger displays of ivory and better bargaining
possibilities in Benica market.
Discussion
Benica market is one of the largest retail markets for
illegal ivory items in Africa, if not the world. It ranks
with the Lekki market in Lagos and the Khartoum and
Omdurman outlets that display for sale thousands of
recently carved ivory items illegally.
Compared with 2005 (Milliken et al. 2006), in 2014
there were relatively more small items and fewer large
igures or carved tusks in Luanda. This is because it
is easier for the Chinese buyers to smuggle out small
items back to China, so these are in greater demand.
Most tusks are nowadays smuggled wholesale
from Africa to East Asia in their raw form in large
consignments to be carved there. The main buyers of
worked ivory in the world today are Chinese and this
is also the case in Angola. In 2005 the main buyers
were southern Europeans, Americans and Asians
(Milliken et al. 2006). From 2006 to 2012 there was
a tenfold increase in Chinese coming to Angola, largely
as contract workers, and they keep looding in as
Angola’s development projects expand.
36
The Chinese we saw in Benica market spent much
time selecting large pieces of plain jewellery and plain
utilitarian objects, such as combs and name seals,
rather than carved accessories and igurines, which
are roughly made compared with those made in China.
There are now few Christian igurines or African busts
for sale. Instead, Buddhas, dragons and animals are
the main igurines, made especially for the Chinese.
In 2005 of all the ivory items estimated by weight
in Luanda, Benica market sold 92% (1,428 kg). In
2014 of all the ivory items estimated by number in
Luanda, Benica market sold 92% (10,026 items). In
2014, storage trunks under the tables had at least an
additional one-third more items, some including whole
polished tusks. Thus, including these, the number of
ivory items available was considerably higher than our
survey count of displayed ivory in 2014.
In 2005 small raw tusks sold wholesale in Luanda
for USD 35–100/kg (Milliken et al. 2006) compared
with USD 150–250/kg in 2014. The wholesale price
for raw ivory in 2012 in the cities of Bauchi, Gombe
and Jos in Nigeria was USD 110/kg in 2013 (Martin
and Vigne 2013), while in Kenya in 2013 poachers
received USD 175–190 (informants in Kenya, pers.
comm. 2013). Thus, Luanda’s raw ivory is relatively
cheap, suggesting the ease of obtaining tusks in the
city. In China small tusks sold wholesale for USD
2,100 in 2014, tenfold higher than in Angola (Martin
and Vigne 2014). This demonstrates the large proits
that can be made smuggling raw ivory. Similarly for
worked ivory, the retail prices are at least 10 times
more in China in 2014 than in Luanda for similar
uncarved objects, such as chopsticks and personal
name seals (Martin and Vigne 2014).
In 2005 vendors said it was easy to smuggle items
out of the country; in 2014 they reiterated this. There
has been little effort to reduce the illegal sale of worked
ivory, and the vendors were generally fairly relaxed
about photographs, compared with vendors in many
other cities. The international airport, however, had
no ivory for sale, unlike in 2005. Yet compared with
countries such as Cameroon, Gabon, Kenya, Rwanda
and Tanzania, where you hardly ever see worked ivory
for retail sale, there seems little fear of inspections,
coniscations or arrests in Luanda. In Benica market
other wildlife products were also on open display,
including leopard skins, turtle shells and crocodile
skins. We saw no signs or notices against ivory or other
illegal wildlife in the markets, shops, hotels or airport.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Luanda—the largest illegal ivory market in southern Africa
Conclusion
All ivory for sale in Luanda without special oficial
documentation is illegal, but none of the ivory items
for sale that we saw had any such documentation,
suggesting no improvement in law enforcement since
the 2006 TRAFFIC report (Milliken et al. 2006). On
the contrary, the number of newly made ivory items
has increased with the rising demand for ivory by the
soaring numbers of Chinese residents in Angola. The
country has the second largest Chinese population in
Africa today, with a tenfold increase since 2005, and
no priority is given to or by the Chinese contractors
to stop their workers from buying ivory. The open,
illegal trade in worked ivory is fuelling demand and
putting pressure on the survival of elephants in central
Africa. Angola’s laws against the domestic ivory trade
have not been enforced, and similarly, tusks continue
to be shipped out of Angola to East Asia, as seizures
in 2014 in Asia indicate, even though the country
inally became a member of CITES in December 2013.
Some other African countries with growing numbers
of Chinese residents, and also Chinese tourists, have
successfully enforced their domestic bans on worked
ivory. Angola must take action to follow suit.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to The Aspinall Foundation and
Columbus Zoo Conservation Fund for funding our
ieldwork.
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months’ jail for smuggling ivory (Angola/Singapore).
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Channel News Asia. 2014b. Hong Kong customs make
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Swara 32(3):39–41.
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with African ivory. Pachyderm 46:35–46.
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largest retail centres for illegal ivory surveyed to date.
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ivory trade in Angola’s capital, Luanda. TRAFFIC
Bulletin 26(2):4-6 (in press).
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elephants: unregulated domestic ivory markets in
Angola and Mozambique. TRAFFIC International,
Cambridge, UK.
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China’s distinctive links with Africa. African Studies
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Shanghai Daily. 2014. Cambodia seizes 263 kg of ivory
tusks near Vietnam border. 21 March 2014.
St Aubyn F, editor. 1987. Ivory: an international history
and illustrated survey. Harry N Abrams Inc., New
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Stead M, Rorison S. 2010. Angola. Bradt Travel Guides
Ltd, Chalfont St Peter, England.
Svensson M, Bersacola E, Bearder S, Nijman V, Mills M.
2013. Open sale of elephant ivory in Luanda, Angola.
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UNEP, CITES, IUCN, TRAFFIC. 2013. Elephants in the
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assessment. UNEP, Nairobi.
37
Wiafe and Sam
Evaluation of a low-tech method, pepper–grease, for combatting
elephant crop-raiding activities in Kakum Conservation Area,
Ghana
Edward D Wiafe1* and Moses K Sam2
1
Department of Environmental and Natural Resources Management, Presbyterian University College, PO Box
393, Akropong Akuapem, Ghana
2
Wildlife Division of Forestry Commission, Western Regional Ofice, Takoradi, Ghana
* corresponding author email: edward.wiafe@presbyuniversity.edu.gh
Abstract
A low-tech method for preventing elephants from destroying farms around Kakum Conservation Area in Ghana
was assessed to evaluate its eficacy in warding off marauding elephants. Sixty fenced and 60 unfenced farms
located at the peripheries of the protected area were selected and each inspected regularly for 12 months. One
hundred twenty farmers were interviewed on the use of the pepper–grease fence to determine their level of
knowledge of the eficacy of the method. In 75% of the fenced farms, elephants came close to the fence but
never crossed it; they never visited 20% of these farms and only 5% attempted to break through or enter. Of
the farms that were not fenced at all, elephants raided 75% completely. Most of the respondents (76.7%) had
good knowledge of the pepper fence. Their major sources of information were the staff of the Wildlife Division
and agricultural extension agents (54.5%); 31.1% had heard about it from other farmers. Only 14.4% got their
knowledge from observing other farmers. In practice, 26.7% said they used it effectively, 22.2% partially,
and 51.1% did not practise the method at all. Cost and dificulty of acquiring materials were the main issues
affecting lack of adoption. The results support the recommendation that government and non-governmental
agencies supply inputs to farmers consistently.
Résumé
On a examiné une méthode de technologie élémentaire pour empêcher les éléphants de détruire les fermes
autour de la zone de conservation de Kakum ain d’évaluer son eficacité d’écarter les éléphants en maraude.
Soixante fermes clôturées et soixante fermes non clôturées situées à la périphérie de la zone protégée ont
été sélectionnées et chacune inspectée régulièrement pendant 12 mois. On a également interrogé cent vingt
agriculteurs sur l’utilisation des clôtures enduites de graisse de poivre pour voir leur niveau de connaissance
de l’eficacité de la méthode. Sur 75% des fermes clôturées, les éléphants se sont approchés de la clôture, mais
ne l’ont jamais traversée; ils n’ont jamais visité 20% de ces fermes, mais ils ont tenté d’enfoncer ou d’entrer
dans 5% d’entre elles. Parmi les fermes qui n’étaient pas du tout clôturées, les éléphants ont complètement
maraudé 75% d’entre elles. La plupart des sondés (76,7%) avaient une bonne connaissance de la clôture de
poivre. Leur principale source d’informations était le personnel de la Division de la faune et les vulgarisateurs
agricoles (54,5%), alors que 31,1% en avaient entendu parler par d’autres agriculteurs. Seulement 14,4% ont
obtenu leur connaissance en observant d’autres agriculteurs. En pratique, 26,7% ont dit qu’ils pratiquaient cette
méthode effectivement, 22,2% partiellement et 51,1% ne l’avaient pas pratiqué du tout. Le coût et la dificulté
d’acquisition du matériel étaient les principaux problèmes qui affectaient le taux d’adoption. Les résultats
appuient la recommandation que le gouvernement et les organisations non gouvernementales doivent fournir
des intrants aux agriculteurs de manière cohérente.
38
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Evaluation of the pepper-grease method in Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana
Introduction
Human–elephant conlict occurs wherever elephants
and people share the same habitat. This situation is
no different in Kakum Conservation Area (KCA),
where many farms are cultivated near the area’s
boundary (Thouless 1994; Kangwana 1995; Barnes
1996; Barnes et al. 2005). The increasing number of
crop-raiding incidents, and hence human–elephant
conlict, is manifest in the increase in reported cases
and complaints from farmers whose farms are located
at the frontiers of the park boundaries (Oppong et al.
2008; Monney et al. 2010). Consequently, various
efforts and methods have been used over the years
to reduce this conlict generated by elephant crop
raiding. First, the culling system. Whenever a cropraiding incident was reported, the wildlife authority
unit (Game Control Unit, Goaso) was asked to kill the
problem animal and give the meat to the local people
to placate them. As a result, between June 1987 and
August 1988 (a 16-month period), six elephants were
culled in KCA after crop-raiding incidents that were
estimated to cost USD 1,920.23 (Parren and de Graaf
1995). The deiciencies of this method were untimely
delivery, expense, and threat to the elephant population
as well as it being a post-mortem solution to the raiding
problem. Moreover, often the problem animal was not
identiied but rather any individual conveniently near
the site was killed to satisfy the demand for action and
revenge by the aggrieved community (AWF 2005) and
to provide meat as compensation for crop damage.
Disturbance shooting followed after it was realized
that culling was not yielding any long-lasting solution
to the problem. The disturbance method involves iring
guns over the heads of crop-raiding elephants. But they
became habituated to hearing the gunshots and were
no longer getting scared off. This was coupled with
logistical constraints and the long response time on
the part of the wildlife guards who were mandated to
carry out that activity (Azika SA, pers. comm.; Osborn
and Parker 2003).
In an attempt to reduce the level of elephant crop
damage and to further inspire the local community to
co-exist with elephants, the Wildlife Division initiated a
project ‘Improve food security and farmers’ livelihood’
around KCA in December 2003. The project involved
installing the pepper fence. Elephants are known not to
eat the fruits of the chilli pepper plant as it is thought
to irritate their sensitive nasal tissue. Once confronted
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
with a chilli experience, the combined smell from the
oil, chilli and the fence rope becomes a psychological
barrier. The project was supported by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Bank’s
High Forest Biodiversity Project and the International
Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) in series. Phase 1
of the project was supported by FAO, phase 2 by the
Global Environment Fund’s High Forest Biodiversity
Project and phase 3 by IFAW.
The objectives of the study were to evaluate 1)
the eficacy of the pepper fence to ward off elephants
from entering into adjacent farms to raid, and 2) the
adoption rate by the farmers.
Study area
Kakum Conservation Area is made up of two
adjoining wildlife reserves: Kakum National Park
and Assin Attandaso Resource Reserve located
between longitudes 1°30′W–1°51′W and latitudes
5°20′N–5°40′N (Figure 1). Rainfall distribution
shows a bimodal pattern with an annual average
between 1,500 and 1,750 mm (Wildlife Department
1996). Fifty-two communities border KCA and it is
estimated that at least 36,620 people are living there.
The structure of the population shows it is quite
dependent, with persons aged less than 15 years
forming 45% and those aged 65+ forming 4.6% of the
total KCA population. The literacy rate among adults
is high (Monney et al. 2010). The main occupation
of the people living around KCA is farming and the
area is thus surrounded by agricultural crops. The
main crops cultivated are cassava, cocoa, maize and
plantain (Wildlife Department 1996).
Materials and methods
Installing the fence requires these materials: wooden
poles to peg around an entire farm, nylon rope tied to
the pegged poles, hot dried pepper, grease or dirty oil
(a used lubricant) and rags. The dry pepper is ground
to a ine powder and mixed with old engine grease. If
no grease is available palm oil residue or used car oil
will work just as well. The pepper–grease or dirty oil
mixture is smeared on bits of cloth or rags and hung
on the fence; it is also smeared on the rope itself.
The pepper deters elephants from touching the fence.
When the elephants encounter the ropes, they either
are repelled or walk round them (Parker et al. 2007).
39
Wiafe and Sam
Results and discussion
Elephant reactions towards
pepper-fenced farms
Fenced farms. Elephants came close
to 75% of the fences but never crossed
them; they attempted to break through or
enter 5% of these farms through different
routes; they did not visit 20% of the farms.
Farms not fenced at all. Elephants
raided 75% of these farms completely;
they visited 16% but did not consume
anything; they did not raid crops on 9%
of these farms.
Farms with partial protection.
Elephants raided 62%; they came close to
20% but did not enter or destroy anything;
no elephant presence was registered on
18% of these farms.
Farmer attitude towards the
pepper fence
Knowledge of the pepper fence method.
Most of the respondents (76.7%) had good
knowledge of the pepper fence; 23.3% had
Figure 1. Kakum Conservation Area showing the implementation
phases of the pepper fence.
heard about it but had scant knowledge.
The major source of the information was
from the Wildlife Division staff, from
Evaluation of farms
where 37.8% of the respondents said they got the
Sixty fenced and 60 unfenced farms located at KCA message; 16.7% said they heard about the pepper fence
peripheries were selected and each inspected regularly from agricultural extension agents; 31.1% heard about
for 12 months. One hundred twenty farmers were also it from other farmers; only 14.4% got their knowledge
interviewed on the use of the pepper–grease fences from observing other farmers.
Of the farmers who practised the method, 26.7%
to ind out their level of knowledge on the eficacy
said they practised it effectively and 22.2% practised it
of the method.
partially. However, 51.1% did not practise the method
Three categories of farms were identiied:
• farms where best practices are being applied, for at all.
Factors facilitating adoption of pepper fence.
example, use of required proportions of pepper and
Three main issues emerged as factors that facilitate
grease, good fence with regular maintenance, etc.
• farms that partially applied the method, for adoption of the pepper fence: 55.6% of the respondents
example, use of less pepper and more grease, poor said acquiring materials was easy and that motivated
them to adopt; 23.3% said it was dificult so they felt
fence, etc.
reluctant to adopt; 21.1% attributed the poor rate of
• farms with no pepper fence deterrent
Thirty selected farms in each category were adoption of the method to the high cost of buying
visited and observed to see whether after the fence materials.
Evaluating the inluence of source of information
was constructed elephants had visited the farm, had
come close to the fence, and had destroyed any part on adoption rate. Of the 34 (37.7%) respondents who
received information on the pepper fence from the
of the fence.
40
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Evaluation of the pepper-grease method in Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana
Count
Wildlife Division staff, 44.0% practised the method the government, 22.2% did not believe that the method
while 66% did not. Of the 15 respondents (16%) who deterred elephants, 26.7% said it was very costly for
received the message from agricultural extension them, and 30% said the method required extra labour.
officers, 33.3% practised it effectively, 33.3% Table 2 provides details of how reasons for reluctance
partially and 33.3% did not practise it at all. Out of to adopt the pepper fence inluenced the farmers who
28 (31.1%) farmers who received the knowledge from practised the pepper fence method.
other farmers, 14.8% practised it effectively, 32.2%
did not practise it while 53.6% practised it partially. Conclusions and recommendations
In addition, the source of information was found
signiicant in positively inluencing the effectiveness If well constructed and maintained regularly, the
of practising the pepper fence method (ρ = 0.33, p = pepper–grease fence has proved to be effective in
0.00) (Figure 2).
warding off elephants from entering farms adjacent to
Reasons for adopting the pepper fence
method. 31.1% of the respondents said
Farmers who practise
their farm produce was safe from elephant
20
pepper fence method
raiding; 24.4% said acquiring materials
yes
no
was relatively easy, 20.0% practised it
partially
because of its ability to deter elephants, and
15
24.4% adopted the method because of the
fence’s subsequent effect of improving crop
harvests, which means their farm produce
10
was safe and their harvests assured. Table 1
provides details of how the various reasons
inluence the adoption of the pepper fence
5
method. Spearman’s correlation indicated
a signiicant relationship and explains
about 45% of the model (ρ = 0.45, p =
0
0.00).
Wildlife Division Agric extension Other farmers Observed from
Reasons for farmer reluctance to adopt
staff
agents
other farmers
the pepper fence. 21.1% of the respondents
Source of information about pepper fence
blamed their reluctance to adopt the
Figure 2. Inluence of source of information on practice of pepper
pepper fence on lack of subsidies from fence.
Table 1. Reasons for adopting the pepper fence method that inluenced farmers who practised the method
Farmers who practised pepper fence method
Reasons for adopting the method
All farm products are secured
Easy to acquire materials
Able to deter elephants
Improves crop harvest
Inluenced
13
4
4
3
Not inluenced
15
14
10
7
Partly inluenced
0
4
4
12
Table 2. Reasons for reluctance to adopt the pepper fence method that inluenced farmers
who did not practise it
Reasons for reluctance
No support from government
Don’t believe it deters elephants
Costly
Extra labour
Farmers who did not practise pepper fence method
Inluenced
Not inluenced
Partly inluenced
7
8
4
0
15
5
7
9
8
10
14
3
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
41
Wiafe and Sam
References
Wildlife staff demonstrate how to construct a pepper
fence.
KCA. Massive destruction was recorded on farms that
did not use this method. The resultant beneits were
factors that motivated farmers to adopt the method,
but lack of encouragement and support in supplying
equipment and materials was a disincentive.
Respondents who received information on the
pepper fence from wildlife oficers and agricultural
extension oficers used the fence more effectively
than those who received their information from other
farmers, or where farmers observed the practice on
their own.
Much as the respondents appreciated that using
the pepper fence was beneicial to their crops and
economy, they incurred extra costs than did other
farmers in areas where there were no elephants. Hence
they were not ready to adopt the pepper fence quickly
or easily.
The Wildlife Division staff must be well resourced
to educate farmers on the proper construction and use
of the pepper fence. It is recommended that the KCA
authority construct the pepper fence around the forest
and manage it regularly to keep elephants in the forest.
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Barnes RFW, Hema EM, Nandjui A, Manford M, Dubiure
UF, Danquah E, Boafo Y. 2005. Risk of crop-raiding
elephants around the Kakum Conservation Area,
Ghana. Pachyderm 39:19–25.
Kangwana K. 1995. Human–elephant conflict: the
challenges ahead. Pachyderm 19:11–14.
Monney KA, Dakwa KB, Wiafe ED. 2010. Assessment
of crop-raiding situation by elephants (Loxodonta
africana cyclotis) in farms around Kakum Conservation
Area in Ghana. International Journal of Biodiversity
Conservation 2(9):243–249.
Oppong SK, Danquah E, Sam MK. 2008. An update on
crop raiding by elephants in Bia Conservation Area,
Ghana, from 2004 to 2006. Pachyderm 44:59–64.
Osborn FV, Parker G. 2003. Towards an integrated
approach for reducing the conlict between elephants
and people: a review of current research. Oryx 37:80–
84.
Parker GE, Osborn FV, Hoare RE, Niskanen LS, editors.
2007. Human–elephant conlict mitigation: a training
course for community-based approaches in Africa.
Participant’s manual. Elephant Pepper Development
Trust, Livingstone, Zambia.
Parren MPE, de Graaf NR. 1995. The quest for
natural forest management in Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire
and Liberia. Tropenbos series 13. The Tropenbos
Foundation, Wageningen.
Thouless C. 1994. Conlict between humans and elephants
on private land in northern Kenya. Oryx 28:119–127.
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Assin Attandanso Resource Reserve: the management
plan. Ghana Wildlife Department, Accra. p. 76.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the manager and staff of Kakum Conservation
Area for their assistance during data collection. We
also thank the Presbyterian University College for
inancial assistance.
42
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The last chance for the Sumatran rhinoceros?
MANAGEMENT
The last chance for the Sumatran rhinoceros?
Francesco Nardelli
Patron, Save the Rhino International, 16 Winchester Walk, London SE1 9AQ, UK; and Member, IUCN/SSC
Asian Rhino Specialist Group, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB2 0DL, UK
Abstract
The Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) is very close to extinction in Indonesia. Three major ad hoc
meetings, not two as generally reported, to discuss ways to save the Sumatran rhino were held in 1984, 1993
and 2013. Their targets have never been achieved. Despite the great efforts of the participants and other parties,
the world population of D. sumatrensis has collapsed during the last 30 years from over 800 to fewer than 100.
Besides worldwide phenomena like habitat loss and poaching, other speciic causes lie behind this tragedy.
The status of the Sumatran rhino has been optimistically overestimated. Precious time is being wasted in
inding theoretical solutions rather than implementing the recommendations of these meetings. Political will
to save the habitat and protect the species is lacking. After carefully evaluating the present Sumatran rhino
conservation status, a breeding project greater than those so far managed has to go ahead as soon as possible
to support the ongoing in situ programme and form a viable population in controlled environments for future
reintroductions into the wild.
Résumé
Le rhinocéros de Sumatra (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) est très proche de l’extinction en Indonésie. Il y a eu
trois grandes réunions ad hoc et pas deux comme on l’a généralement signalé, organisées en 1984, 1993 et
2013 ain de discuter les voies et moyens pour sauver le rhinocéros de Sumatra. Leurs objectifs n’ont jamais
été atteints. Malgré les efforts des participants et d’autres parties, la population mondiale de D. sumatrensis
s’est effondrée à partir de plus de 800 rhinocéros à moins de 100 rhinocéros au cours des 30 dernières années.
Outre les phénomènes à travers le monde comme la perte de l’habitat et le braconnage, il existe d’autres causes
spéciiques derrière cette tragédie. La situation du rhinocéros de Sumatra a été surestimée avec optimisme.
On gaspille un temps précieux dans la recherche des solutions théoriques plutôt que dans la mise en œuvre
des recommandations de ces réunions. La volonté politique de sauver l’habitat et de protéger l’espèce fait
défaut. Après avoir soigneusement évalué l’état actuel de la conservation du rhinocéros de Sumatra, un projet
de reproduction plus grand que ceux gérés jusqu’ici doit être mis en place dès que possible pour soutenir le
programme in situ déjà en cours et former une population viable dans des environnements contrôlés en vue
des réintroductions futures dans la nature.
Introduction
This paper focuses on the plight of the Sumatran
rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in Indonesia. I
hope to show that only immediate action will save this
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
rhino species from extinction, and that a large-scale
capture operation of isolated animals is feasible with
existing expertise, and presently is the only course of
action with a chance of success.
43
Nardelli
© Cincinnati Zoo
ex situ environments. This process should
be considered as the best available (possibly
temporary) solution, rather than risking to
end up with no Sumatran rhino at all. Ex
situ promoters are not to be blamed, though
someone could say that there is a risk that
the result would be to end up with Sumatran
rhinos in captivity only and none in the wild.
Ongoing in situ protective measures have to
be continued and reinforced.
Only nine Sumatran rhinos are kept
ex situ in large, natural fenced areas—
ive in Indonesia, three in Sabah and one
Andalas, the irst-ever conceived and captive-bred Sumatran rhino,
in an appropriate enclosure in the USA
Cincinnati Zoo, 13 September 2001.
(Cincinnati Zoo)—where they can be
carefully monitored and protected. Three
The importance of ex situ conservation next to
offspring have been born (2001, 2004,
in situ preservation continues to be controversial: a 2007) so far in Cincinnati Zoo and one (2012) at Way
number of conservationists completely oppose the Kambas Rhino Sanctuary (Roth 2013), improving
former, while others concede that removing animals the skill of both Indonesian and American personnel
from their habitat should be the ‘last resource’. Some involved.
NGOs afirm that the animals need massive in situ
Extinction is imminent. According to Martin et
investments and that if you take them into captivity al. (2012): ‘1) informed, empowered, and responsive
(ex situ) you lose the argument for habitat protection. governance and leadership is essential, 2) processes
Their concern is correct but remains unsubstantiated. that ensure institutional accountability must be in
As far as the Sumatran rhino is concerned, much place, and 3) decisions must be made while there is
funding was made available for in situ conservation an opportunity to act. The bottom line is that unless
during the period 1984–1993 of the irst project aimed responsive and accountable institutional processes are
to establish an ex situ metapopulation (Rabinowitz in place, decisions will be delayed and extinction will
1995), and more funding continues to be raised occur.’ It is a matter of months, because it may simply
especially for in situ projects (rhino protection become too costly to locate and collect remaining
units, patrolling vehicles and boats, etc.). New ex individuals. Time is running out fast and time has come
situ programmes have to be funded by new speciic for all committed parties to take full responsibility, not
subscriptions.
to avoid it, if not for mere future liability (Brechin et
What happens in ‘emergency situations’ when the al. 2002).
decline of a species is so rapid as to require inal
decisions and immediate action? Dalton (2000) Status of D. sumatrensis in
suggested that rapid responses, ‘emergency rooms’, in
Indonesia
many cases need to be the policy norm rather than the
exception. The last 30 years witnessed the extinction The present small Sumatran rhino population in
of several Sumatran rhino populations. In Indonesia, Indonesia is fragmented in pockets found throughout
the situation is rapidly declining, and more advanced Sumatra with a total estimate of 90–100 individuals,
ield technologies demonstrate that both wild and and possibly in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of
captive populations have reached a deep crisis and call Borneo. (For safety reasons these data are not disclosed
for major interventions (Ahmad et al. 2013; Pusparini further.) Estimates on the number of D. sumatrensis
et al. 2013).
vary considerably and this uncertainty is of great
In the course of the last 30 years I have personally concern.
experienced the tragic decline of the Sumatran rhino. I
The total number of Sumatran rhinos in Bukit
believe that the only remaining chance for the species Barisan Selatan National Park (150,000 ha, MoF
is to promptly move all isolated in situ survivors into 2007) was estimated to be 250–390 in 1993 (Pusparini
44
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The last chance for the Sumatran rhinoceros?
et al. 2013), which had
Sumatra
dwindled to 147–220 in
Former distribution
2007 (MoF 2007) or even
Central Aceh
60–70 (Rubianto et al.
Present distribution
Gunung Leuser
2008; Talukdar et al. 2010).
Viable population
National Park
Non-viable population
Using the Royle/Nichols
heterogeneity model,
Pusparini et al. (2013)
estimated the presence of EQUATOR
21 rhinoceros, fragmented
in three distinct populations:
Sukaraja, Way Ngaras and
Kubu Perahu areas—just
Way Kambas
Barisan Selatan
32% of suitable rhino habitat.
National Park
Despite the government’s
good intention to achieve
a 30% rhino population Figure 1. Sumatran rhino Dicerorhinus sumatrensis distribution (Nardelli 2014).
growth (MoF 2007), the
isolated circumstances could be ‘ghosts’ or doomed
development of an asphalt
road crossing rhino core areas is likley to bring in if not ascertained, and abandoned to their fate. The
addition of such rhinos can only make sense once they
human disturbance and jeopardize the target.
The population of rhinos in Way Kambas NP are physically transferred into the viable populations
(50,000 ha) was 15–25 rhinos (MoF 2007). A current or to ex situ facilities via operative conservation
igure indicates 30–35 animals (Widodo, pers. comm. programmes.
at the 2013 Singapore Summit) .
There were 60–80 rhinos in Gunung Leuser NP First meeting on Sumatran rhino
(80,000 ha) in 2007 (MoF 2007). Hopes are that a conservation in 1984
good number of D. sumatrensis not isolated remain in
Gunung Leuser NP, but lack of information and even Three major meetings in 1984, 1993 and 2013 have
hostility by local people have not made it possible to marked the recent history of the Sumatran rhino; all were
ascertain their actual number (Widodo 2012, pers. convened by the International Union for Conservation
comm.). However, Hadiansyah Putra (2013) states of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). The irst
that 50 rhinos thrive in the core area and 10–20 in the was an ad hoc Sumatran rhinoceros meeting held
surrounding forest. Once veriied, this information 3–4 October 1984 in Singapore. At this convention,
would change the general in situ status considerably, aptly termed ‘ad hoc’, 20 participants gathered to
evaluate the already complex status of D. sumatrensis.
and hence a ield survey is valuable now.
These igures suggest that there are about 50–55 In situ conservation was the primary objective and
Sumatran rhinos left in Bukit Barasan Selatan NP proposals for improvements were presented and
and Way Kambas NP, while the population in Gunung discussed among government representatives of
Leuser needs further veriication (Figure 1). Delegates Indonesia, Malaysia and Sabah as well as committed
at the Sumatran Rhino Summit in Singapore in 2013 NGOs and specialists. The option of ex situ breeding
suggested a total of 100 Sumatran rhinos on the island. was debated for the irst time in depth. The majority
I suggest that it is realistic to consider that 75 rhinos decided in favour of a coordinated ex situ breeding
are available for in situ conservation in Sumatra. project (Foose 1984; Nardelli 1984). Two surveys
This number represents the two distinct, identiied to locate isolated (doomed) individuals in Sumatra
viable populations in Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way preceded the meeting: one carried out by WWF ield
Kambas, let’s say at 25 animals each. The status in specialist Raleigh Blouch in the Torgamba area, Riau
Gunung Leuser is too poorly known to suppose that Province, and the other by Perlindungan Hutan dan
more than 25 animals would be available for in situ Pelestarian Alam (PHPA) oficial, Widodo Ramono,
conservation. Other rhinos living in tiny groups or in the Gunung Patah area, Bengkulu Province. Since
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
45
Nardelli
© A Compost
Data about the ecology and conservation
of D. sumatrensis were found in two theses
by Markus Borner (1979) and by Nico van
Strien (1985b). These authors presented
much information on feeding habits and
other ecological parameters, even though
direct observations of individuals, most no
longer than a few seconds, could be counted
on the ingers of one hand due to the wellknown elusiveness of the species. There was
little or no information about procedures
that would assist in ex situ breeding.
Rookmaaker (1998) made available a list
of all instances in which Sumatran rhinos
Base camp of the irst Sumatran Rhino Project in Torgamba. On
were kept in captivity.
the left are the rhino shelters. The paddocks in the foreground were
Due to the scarcity of data, the Sumatran
constructed under trees to keep the animals shaded and cool.
rhino was considered to be a browser and
Blouch stressed the urgency to rescue the rhinos in
treated accordingly by all the people involved
Torgamba, literally surrounded by palm oil plantations, in ex situ projects (author included) both in the ield
it was determined to start the capture in that locality and in zoos, regrettably for several years (Dierenfeld
(Strien 1985a).
et al. 1994). However, this rhino is a megafolivore
As a direct outcome of the meeting, two agreements that, like langurs and colugo, belongs among those
were signed: the irst in 1985 between the Indonesian species feeding almost exclusively on foliage, with
government and Howletts & Port Lympne Wildlife approximate percentages of leaves and twigs at 90%,
Parks (H&PL), UK, and the second in 1986 between and fruit and grasses at 10% (Nardelli 2013).
the Indonesian government and the Sumatran Rhino
The capture of doomed rhinos in Torgamba forest
Trust, USA, the latter a consortium of four major in Riau Province, Sumatra, was carefully planned in
American zoological institutions (New York Zoo, San cooperation with Tony Parkinson, world renowned
Diego Zoo, Los Angeles Zoo and Cincinnati Zoo). For expert in catching wildlife, who directed the ield
various (undisclosed) reasons, Malaysia and Sabah operations, and Raleigh Blouch, WWF representative.
started separate programmes for capturing rhinos During my stay in Indonesia from 1985 to 1992, we
within their territories. Hence the irst ever captive managed to capture 18 D. sumatrensis safely. All
breeding projects were set in motion. At the same arrived at their destinations in perfect condition,
time, substantial funding was made available to the already used to a browser diet.
Indonesian government for in situ protection of the
The continuous presence of a qualiied veterinarian,
viable D. sumatrensis populations identiied in Gunung either from the USA or the UK, at the base camp in
Leuser NP, Kerinci-Seblat NP and Bukit Barisan Torgamba proved particularly useful as four of the
Selatan NP, to accommodate 400–500 Sumatran rhinos captured rhinos had infected lesions from wire snares
(Nardelli 1986a,b; Khan 1989).
deeply embedded in their legs. These animals were
Subsequent to the Singapore meeting of 1984, literally saved ‘at the very last moment’ by the wellbetween 1984 and 1986, I was involved as negotiator equipped and experienced veterinarians on duty. At
of both agreements between the various parties, acting the base camp six trained people were collecting fresh
as executive director of H&PL and the Sumatran Rhino leaves for the animals, watering them and properly
Trust until 1992 (Nardelli 1984, 1985). While the cleaning the paddocks daily.
outcome of the project has been assessed by Rabinowitz
The experience gained during these operations
(1995), Zair et al. (2010), Ahmad et al. (2013) and provided much-needed expertise on the transfer, care
others, their analyses have been somehow one-sided. and breeding of D. sumatrensis. In fact, through ex situ
A more balanced view was given in a short note by breeding it has been ascertained that, unlike other rhino
Sumardja (1995). Therefore, it is useful to present a species, Sumatran rhino females ovulate only if and
short description of that operation in this paper.
when induced by males (Roth et al. 1998; Roth 1999).
46
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The last chance for the Sumatran rhinoceros?
© A Compost
ultimately precipitate into an extinction
vortex. A typical example of a species
sensitive to AAE is an obligate cooperative
breeding species like D. sumatrensis.
This rhino species is an induced ovulator;
reproduction fails to be eficient when their
numbers drop to such a low level that males
and females simply don’t meet each other
anymore, leading to tumours of the uterus
and probable too-low activity of the sperm
(Hermes et al. 2006; Agil et al. 2008).
The AAE problem remains unsolved and
it is likely to become the major threat to wild
and captive populations of D. sumatrensis.
Holding pen in the forest, attached to the trap, for rhino adaptation
No doubt a number of both males and
lasting 15–20 days.
females were already infertile at the time
of their capture due to those pathologies, as
My experiences while with the project convinced
autopsy revealed. Although today we could
me that two missteps were made in the absence of data. assess the medium-term probable survival of species
Both revealed critical consequences after the rhinos using population viability analysis, we will never
looked well adapted to their diet and settled in their determine the consequences of stochastic phenomena
inal accommodations.
like AAE (Lee 2013).
First, as a megafolivorous mammal, D. sumatrensis
is strictly linked to rainforest food supply (Nardelli Second meeting on Sumatran Rhino
2013), with a digestive system comparable to that of
Conservation, 1993
other leaf-eating mammals. As it was unanimously
considered to be an undemanding browser in 1985, A Sumatran rhino population and habitat viability
the animals were fed an unsuitable diet similar to the analysis workshop was held 11–13 November 1993
one fed to the black rhino, Diceros bicornis, a typical in Bandar Lampung, Indonesia, attended by about
browser. Although Radcliffe et al. (2004) were close 50 delegates. Considering the high mortality rate of
to a complete solution on the optimum diet for D. the captured Sumatran rhinos in some of the zoos,
sumatrensis, it was the staff in charge of Cincinnati it was decided to discontinue the capture of isolated
Zoo who solved this vital crisis, supplying ad libitum (or doomed) rhinos (Tilson 1993). Hence, we need to
fresh icus leaves acquired from San Diego (Romo understand why capture of doomed animals was never
2011)—just in time for three D. sumatrensis to breed resumed for 21 years (1993–2014). Have we allowed
successfully (Roth 2013)!
too much time to waste?
This problem is solved.
However, two major achievements were
Second, the Sumatran rhino suffers from an implemented as a direct result of the workshop. First,
anthropogenic Allee effect (AAE), which was not the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary was constructed within
properly recognized at the time. In many animal and Way Kambas NP, in Lampung Province, Sumatra,
plant species, individual reproduction and survival for semi-ex situ breeding D. sumatrensis in very
are diminished in small populations through various large enclosures (Foose et al. 1995). Second, in situ
mechanisms including mate shortage, failure to protection was much strengthened with the institution
optimize the environment, or lack of conspeciic of special Rhino Protection Units , formed by dedicated
cooperation. When populations are enduring human armed guards to control rhino areas (Foose et al. 1997).
exploitation, this can be called anthropogenic Allee The management was handed over to the Indonesian
effect (Courchamp et al. 2006). AEE may exhibit Government.
negative population growth rates at low densities,
which drives them to even lower densities and
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
47
© Way Kambas NP
Nardelli
© A Compost
D. sumatrensis mother Ratu with male Andatu, born in Way
Kambas on 23 June 2012, the irst birth ever in Indonesia,the
seventh in captivity.
Male D. sumatrensis Rokan, in the pit trap.
Third meeting on Sumatran Rhino
Conservation, 2013
The Sumatran Rhino Crisis Summit (SRCS) was
convened 31 March–4 April 2013, again in Singapore,
gathering over 100 specialists from different
governments, NGOs, institutions and independent
conservationists. Among various topics, managed
breeding was examined in depth.
Summarizing the discussions on population
modelling, Putnam (2013) showed that ‘the best
scenario would be with two groups; bring in 2.2
animals within 10 years per group, breeding every
three years, and the probability of extinction drops to
7%. If things go on as they are, the captive population
will be extinct within 50 years—100% probability.’
This conclusion is similar to one reached in 1984 at
the irst Sumatran rhino meeting (Strien 1985a).
48
Action followed the irst and second meetings,
more pondering the third (Crosbie 2013; Ellis
2013; Goossens et al. 2013; Hegener 2013;
Payne 2013; Roth 2013; Brook et al. 2014; Hance
2014b,c; Ip 2014; Kolbert 2014; McDonnell
2014; Vaz 2014; among others). Since its
conclusion, two outcomes were publicized: the
female Iman falling into a pit trap in Sabah on
20 March 2014 and safely moved to facilities in
the Borneo Rhino Sanctuary (Hance 2014a), and
the signing of the Bandar Lampung Declaration
in October 2013 (IUCN 2013) by the respective
ministers of Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia
and Nepal at the First Asian Rhino Range States
meeting. This event was marked by its promising
goal: The populations of the Indian, Javan, and
Sumatran rhinos will each be managed for an
annual growth rate of at least 3%.
Discussion
It’s time to go by phases and priorities. The three
meetings of 1984, 1993 and 2013, in my opinion,
should have taken place in a reverse order to
justify the quantity of recommendations: in
1984, with population igures around 800 rhinos,
there would have been time to put into practice
several of the actions proposed in 2013 at the
SRCS. In 2013, or today, with a population of
75 viable animals, we have time only to execute
a few rapid schemes (e.g. listed in the 1984 ad
hoc meeting). We cannot afford to implement all
conservation methods eficiently as we all would
like, unless all resources increase 10-fold.
We still have before our eyes the saga of the Nile
rhino or northern white rhino (Ceratotherium cottoni or
Ceratotherium simum cottoni): common just a century
ago, down to a few dozen in the 1980s, four in 2006,
extinct today in the wild despite millions spent for their
protection. Seven, likely not reproductive individuals,
can still be seen in captivity or in similar condition—
four in Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya, one in Dvur
Kralove Zoo in Czech Republic and two in San Diego
Zoo in the USA—and most of these are candidates
to hybridize with southern white rhinos (Ol Pejeta
Conservancy 2014). As rightly stated by Hermes et al.
(2006): ‘Intensive efforts to propagate speciically the
northern white rhinoceros have been very limited. The
dismal outlook for this subspecies in the wild makes
successful ex situ breeding programmes paramount.’
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The last chance for the Sumatran rhinoceros?
© Tom Foose
progression:
1. Negotiate and sign long-term
bi- or multilateral agreement(s)
between the Indonesian
government and conservation
institution(s). This is to call a halt
to meetings and transform their
existing relevant conclusions into
action.
2. Capture isolated rhinos,
following the successful 1984
protocol and logistics, to enhance
semi-ex situ breeding programmes,
first in Way Kambas. Semi-ex
situ breeding, sometime wrongly
termed in situ breeding, is proving
to be the optimal solution, not only for D. sumatrensis.
For instance, the Javan rhino or the Saola could beneit
too. The advantages are evident: food, temperature,
humidity are natural and low workforce costs.
3. Allow regular movements between closely
monitored managed populations, as the need is urgent
to expand present facilities and construct new ones in
Bukit Barisan Selatan NP. At the meeting in Singapore
in 2013, Indonesian representatives declared that a
facility similar to Way Kambas Sanctuary is in their
progress schedule to be realized in the southern part
of Bukit Barisan Selatan (now almost cut off from the
northern part), where a few isolated Sumatran rhinos
still exist. Most participants supported the plan.
4. Complete—preferably within 10 years—two
facilities in Indonesia, one in Sabah and one in the
USA, holding between them possibly 20 viable pairs
(Foose in Khan 1989) or at least 26 viable individuals
(Putnam 2013).
5. Move part of future progeny, in unrelated pairs,
to selected zoos that can afford a new management
and breeding protocol to fulil requirements speciic
for D. sumatrensis (Dierenfeld et al. 2000; Radcliffe
et al. 2004; McNeely 2005; Nardelli 2013).
6. Create large fenced areas (> 1000 hectares) in
well-protected rainforest. Such pre-reintroduction
areas would allow the rhinos to breed in complete
natural conditions, prior to their release in wellprotected national parks.
7. Fence Way Kambas NP to keep people outside
and rhinos inside. This is not relevant for ex situ
breeding but it is essential to preserve the integrity
of at least one national park for in situ medium- to
long-term conservation of one viable rhino population.
Managed migration among populations of rhino.
We may have personal ideas as far as conservation
problems are concerned, with possible inaccuracies
arising when a speciic action is considered the only
possible one. The results of ‘unfortunate’ initiatives
have made today’s governments (not only the
Indonesian) reluctant to take decisions. The 1984
project was declared a failure by major NGOs. In 1995,
with a population of a little more than 300 individuals
left, Rabinowitz (1995) wrote that ‘captive breeding
would have led to extinction.’ Which government will
take the initiative after such statements by prominent
NGOs and outstanding specialists?
Recommendations
Today with, in my opinion, a total population
of only 75 viable D. sumatrensis left, there are
action plans, proceedings, papers, etc., concluding
that the species can still be saved. However, in
my estimation such a goal cannot be achieved
unless a new rescue project starts off immediately.
Simply, in situ control has proved to be inadequate
on its own. A programme giving priority to artiicial
propagation to save D. sumatrensis would be to keep
our eyes ‘wide shut’, ignoring the scarce successes this
practice has so far achieved, although it should be kept
high in consideration to support natural breeding. In
Sabah, for example, where Sumatran rhino numbers
are so low—three in captivity and a few more in the
wild—artiicial insemination is the best option to
increase their number.
I propose a strategy of seven practical steps to
achieve a major objective: save the Sumatran rhino.
Based on my experience, I suggest we restrict our aim,
at present, to the following undertakings and in this
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
49
© Way Kambas NP
© WWF-Greater Mekong /PA/AP
Nardelli
Which is going to be the inal result? Sumatran rhino birthday party
(above)…or more photos like: The last known Javan rhino poached
in Vietnam (right).
Managing this species requires a significant
amount of time. Pairing individuals, pregnancies
and inter-calving periods are just some of the longtime processes. Whichever the approach, breeding
Sumatran rhinos is a lengthy course of action, so time
is of the essence (Martin et al. 2012). To emphasize
the positive effects to manage the rhinos as a single
population (Ellis et al. 2011), it is necessary to ensure
the possibility of fast cross-border movement of
rhinos with existing international protocols, to achieve
a truly luid captive metapopulation. Indispensable
arrangements and agreements between governments
related to ownership of adults or offspring and their
transfer should be agreed upon now to ensure future
population lexibility. It is essential that the eficiency
of the whole process is enhanced by political will,
know-how and experience.
The speciic status that the Sumatran rhino suffers
today warns that only a collaborative and resolute ex
situ conservation programme will keep the species from
extinction. Brook et al.’s (2014) paper on the last days
of Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus spells out clear
deiciencies of management, and there is a disappointing
similitude to D. sumatrensis state of affairs: ‘The failure
at the site level to protect the rhinoceros population
ultimately resulted in its demise. Low political will
to take decisions required to recover the species and
inadequate focus from the conservation and donor
community further contributed to the subspecies’s
extinction, in part due to a lack of knowledge on
population status. Lessons from this example should
50
inform the conservation of other very threatened large
vertebrates, particularly in Southeast Asia.’
And NOW? We do risk saying farewell forever to
the Sumatran rhino!
Acknowledgements
I am particularly grateful to Dr Kees Rookmaaker for
corrections to the manuscript and his invaluable work
in keeping the outstanding Rhino Resource Center a
mine of data. I also thank Paolo Bertagnolio for help
with outlining the paper and two anonymous reviewers
of the inal version for precious comments.
References
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Ferreira et al.
Chemical horn infusions: a poaching deterrent or an
unnecessary deception?
Sam Ferreira,1* Markus Hofmeyr,2 Danie Pienaar1 and Dave Cooper3
1
Scientiic Services, South Africa National Parks (SANParks), Skukuza
Veterinary Wildlife Services, SANParks, Skukuza
3
Veterinary Wildlife Services, Ezemvelo KwaZulu–Natal, Hluhluwe
*corresponding author email: sam.ferreira@sanparks.org
2
Abstract
Poaching for horn remains a signiicant threat to rhinos. Conservationists use various approaches to deal with
the threat. One method advocated is infusing rhino horns with chemicals and dye. Promoters of this method
claim the procedure renders the horn useless and that ingesting poisoned horn carries potential risk to the
end-user. We visually examined white rhino horn that had been treated; we examined available literature; and
we obtained expert opinion to assess several assumptions and risks associated with the approach. We found
the information on which the assumptions are based to be weak, and refute claims that discolouring horns is
a viable method. Our assessment contests the eficacy of this technique on conceptual and logistical grounds,
especially when dealing with relatively large populations. We argue that conservationists should not use this
technique to deal with the rhino poaching threat.
Résumé
Le braconnage pour la corne reste une menace importante pour les rhinocéros. Les écologistes utilisent différentes
approches pour faire face à la menace. Une des méthodes préconisées est l’infusion des cornes de rhinocéros
avec des produits chimiques et des colorants. Les partisans de cette méthode afirment que cette procédure rend
la corne inutile. Cependant, elle comporte également un risque potentiel à l›utilisateur inal quand il ingère la
corne empoisonnée. Nous avons examiné visuellement la corne de rhinocéros blanc qui avait été traitée, et nous
avons examiné la documentation disponible et obtenu l›avis des experts pour évaluer plusieurs hypothèses et les
risques associés à la démarche. Nous avons trouvé que l›information sur laquelle les hypothèses sont fondées
n’était pas correcte, et nous réfutons les allégations selon lesquelles la décoloration des cornes est une méthode
viable. Notre évaluation conteste l’eficacité de cette technique pour des raisons conceptuelles et logistiques,
surtout lorsqu’il s’agit de populations relativement importantes. Nous soutenons que les écologistes ne doivent
pas utiliser cette technique lorsqu’ils sont confrontés à la menace du braconnage de rhinocéros.
Introduction
Poaching continues to threaten rhinos despite
intensified anti-poaching campaigns (Ferreira et
al. 2012). Evaluation of multi-pronged approaches
that include reducing demand, providing horn and
eliminating poaching through intensiied anti-poaching
campaigns (Ferreira and Okita-Ouma 2012) illustrates
that integrating approaches carries the largest beneits
for a suite of conservation outcomes (Ferreira et al.
2014). Some options, such as providing horn through
legalized trade, are, however, not available at present
(Child 2012; Biggs et al. 2013).
54
The international call for intensiied protection of
rhinos through traditional anti-poaching measures
may fail to curb illegal killing because the incentives
of inancial beneits outweigh the disincentives (see
Ferreira et al. 2014). Rangers’ efforts require matching
initiatives directed at disrupting transnational crime
networks, at a scale conservationists have never
before faced (Dalberg 2012). Authorities may also
reduce supply through approaches such as treating
live rhino horn chemically to make it unit for human
consumption (Rhino Rescue Project 2013). Typically,
horn treatment is infusing a compound or a combination
of compounds into the horn of a live rhino. The most
Pachyderm No. 55 January–July 2014
Chemical horn infusions—a poaching deterrent or an unnecessary deception?
common infusion comprises an indelible dye and a
deposit of ectoparasiticides (Rhino Rescue Project
2013). The effectiveness of horn treatment as an added
disincentive for rhino poaching is unknown.
Here we consider the strategic context and conceptual
basis for reducing poaching through direct deterrence
by the chemical itself, or indirect deterrence of making
poachers believe that the horn has no value, through
publicizing horn infusions. Second, we highlight legal
and ethical challenges. Third, we focus on the scientiic
basis of the potential of chemical deterrence, and the
eficiency and maintenance of its application. We
also consider the logistical requirements of infusing
a large number of rhinos in a population. Reduction
in poaching rates, however, is the ultimate measure of
success. We check whether this occurs.
Conceptual challenges
The concept of infusing chemical substances into
rhino horns in an attempt to reduce poaching is based
on a number of assumptions. It presupposes that the
infused chemicals provide discomfort to an end-user
consuming the treated horn (Rhino Rescue Project
2013). Where infusions comprise indelible dye as
well, proponents predict the horn will be considered as
worthless for ornamental use. The belief behind such
chemical treatments is that it devalues the horn and thus
makes it unmarketable. A key element as part of such
an initiative is the assumption that wide-scale publicity
of chemical treatment of horn will deter poachers.
Prices paid to poachers for horn provide signiicant
inancial incentive (Ferreira et al. 2014), which relates
to the demand and supply that sets commodity prices
at a particular time. Anti-poaching programmes,
dehorning (Lindsey and Taylor 2011) or chemical treatments (Rhino Rescue Project 2013) aim to provide
equal or higher disincentives. Infusionists assume that
poachers will not be able to sell the treated horns to
end-users as they would be considered unsuitable,
thus reducing the demand for them and thus reducing
their inancial value. Removing the inancial incentive
would result in disincentives outweighing incentives
and poaching rates would therefore decline (Ferreira
et al. 2014).
A key challenge arises, however, because infusing
would create two rhino horn commodities—treated and
untreated horn. Increasing the supply of treated horn
(or horn perceived to be treated), assumed to have no
value and thus no demand for them, reduces the supply
of untreated horn (whether real or perceived), causing a
Pachyderm No. 55 January–July 2014
growth in demand (Milliken and Shaw 2012). Reducing
the supply of untreated horn will escalate prices and
simultaneously increase poaching incentives. It implies
a threshold requirement of a proportion of treated horn
in a population large enough to make it not viable
for poachers to seek untreated horn. Such a threshold
should eliminate the supply of untreated horn, real
or perceived. If there is no supply of untreated horn
even though demand remains, economic dynamics
predict no price. Completely removing the supply of
untreated horn is highly unlikely because lingering
demand will likely generate illegal suppliers to design
innovative ways of providing horn (e.g. high-pressure
chemical washing of horns). The pet trade experienced
this innovation dynamic with cybercrime becoming
a key element of wildlife traficking in response to
enforcement of CITES resolutions (e.g. Izzo 2010).
The example illustrates the potential of illegal supply
innovation to derail the market disruption strategy.
Demand and supply interactions predict rapidly
escalating prices for untreated horn and consequently,
increased poaching incentives (Jain 2006).
It is likely that there will be no effect on poaching
rates because poachers ignore, or are not aware of,
the difference between treated and untreated rhino
horn, and additionally because poachers are not the
end-users. Therefore, there is no reason for treated
horn not to be sold, especially if the chemicals are
not visible. In addition, corrupt sellers abound in the
horn trade—many fake horns are in circulation and
knowingly sold at high prices (Milliken and Shaw
2012). Typically, suppliers seek to sell their product at
the highest price and the illegal market does not follow
processes based on honest and true facts (Natarajan
and Hough 2000). This situation, however, has no
effect on supply-and-demand dynamics (Jain 2006)
and hence no effect on price incentives for poaching.
Supply-and-demand dynamics (Jain 2006) predict
a similar outcome as above if poachers are unaware
of chemically treated horn. Publicity that convinces
poachers that a whole population comprises only
treated rhinos can potentially counteract this outcome.
Such an approach is likely to achieve some degree of
success on small reserves, but less so in large areas.
Even if poachers are aware of infusions, they may
not be able to recognize chemically treated horn. For
instance, blood, skin, mud and normal wear of the
horn may make it dificult for a poacher to recognize
a compromised product.
Some of these consequences are easy to mitigate
when focusing on one small reserve, in isolation from
55
Ferreira et al.
the broader context of the complete rhino population.
Demand–supply models (Jain 2006) predict that a new
supplier or an existing supplier replaces the product
missing after an established supplier is removed, if
demand is high enough. This dynamic may explain
why daily poaching rates in South Africa increased
after pseudo-hunting (non-bona ide hunters hunting
rhinos as sport hunters, South African Department
of Environmental Affairs, unpublished data) was
abolished. Outcomes for small reserves disregarding
wider implications may thus actually stimulate
poaching in other areas.
These varied consequences challenge the
assumption that horn treatments reduce demand
because it disrupts the supply. Reduction in demand for
unspoiled products does not result because of spoiled
end-user products (Jain 2006). None of the demandreduction theories proposed was tested before being
implemented, including the effect of infused horn
on humans. This effect will be dificult to ascertain;
because the use of rhino horn is not legal in enduser countries (Milliken and Shaw 2012), it would be
dificult to obtain reliable information on the health
outcomes of horn use. The underlying assumptions
and subsequent consequences of horn infusions
thus introduce complexity that carries uncertainty
for curbing rhino poaching. Horn infusions only rearrange the supply axes, but the demand remains.
Legal and ethical challenges
A key legal risk is whether third parties suffer harm,
loss or injury resulting from using treated horn.
However, the single known existing legal opinion in
this regard (available from the Rhino Rescue Project
2013) indicates no criminal or civil implications. The
opinion makes use of rules of exception to the par
delictum rule (the plaintiff cannot be successful in a
claim when the plaintiff’s own actions were unlawful)
and argues that the action to treat the rhino horn is not
unlawful because it is primarily aimed at the health and
wellbeing of the animal. We could ind no published
scientific support for this statement. In addition,
poaching and most trading in rhino horn are illegal in
most countries (CITES 2010, 2011), but whether it is
illegal to consume it is uncertain. If authorities allowed
legal poisoning of illegal substances, widespread
application to reduce worldwide illegal drug trades
should result—an outcome never realized. The end
consumers would most likely become the plaintiffs,
56
some of whom received horns as gifts or bought them
legally as traditional Eastern medicine (Milliken and
Shaw 2012). This introduces uncertainty that could
remove the par delictum rule exceptions and introduce
criminal or civil liability.
Cultural rights dilemmas may also be associated
with horn infusions. Key stakeholders within the
countries with the highest number of consumers
have expectations that the global community respects
speciic cultural traditions. Treating horn chemically
may act as customary rights discrimination (e.g.
Fougere 2006), a risk that directly contrasts with several
CITES resolutions at recent Conferences of Parties
(Cooney and Abensperg-Traun 2013). In contrast,
stakeholders living in rhino range States expect that
authorities will protect rhinos and effectively ight
crime. Infusing horns as a poaching deterrent may
thus contribute to expectations of having a society with
limited crime (Knight 2011), even if it only translates
into illustrating a response. In such a case, the value
would be temporary because range State stakeholders
would also expect poaching rates to be reduced.
Animal welfare is also an important consideration
(e.g. Bonier et al. 2004). Horn infusions use highpressure systems (9-bar) to permeate the chemicals
into the horn (Andrew Parker, pers. comm.1). Welfare
consequences are notoriously dificult to evaluate
and typically rely on behavioural indicators such as
displacement activities and repetitive behaviours (e.g.
Carlstead et al. 1993). We could ind no formal evidence
of behavioural assessment of either pretreatment
vs. post-treatment, or control vs. experimental
comparisons.
An immediate health risk to the rhino is associated
with immobilizing the animals, with anaesthesia
procedures resulting in at least one white rhino
dying during the horn infusion process (Beeld 2013).
Experience of immobilizing rhinos to notch ears,
translocate or treat injuries suggests that the typical
30 minutes to complete the process (Rhino Rescue
Project 2013) would be considered long (personal
observation). In addition, it does not include effects
of chasing rhinos during the actual darting. At least
one study illustrated that immobilizing rhinos for
translocation introduced elevated levels of stress
(Linklater et al. 2010). In rhino-holding facilities,
5–10% of rhinos fail to adapt to boma conditions
1 Andrew Parker, former chief executive oficer, Sabi Sand
Game Reserve, ceo@sabisand.co.za
Pachyderm No. 55 January–July 2014
Chemical horn infusions—a poaching deterrent or an unnecessary deception?
following capture (South African National Parks
[SANParks], unpublished data2). Multiple captures
of rhinos, particularly young rhinos, may carry chronic
stress consequences given requirements of retreatment
every 3–4 years (Rhino Rescue Project 2013). Horn
infusionists anecdotally reported no detrimental
effects on rhino health following capture for treatment
(Rhino Rescue Project 2013), but no formal evidence
is available.
A key concern is contamination of growth tissue
at the base of the horn. The procedure uses a highpressure system to force chemicals into hard horn;
infusing the soft tissue would be simpler but may
result in damage to the growing tissue. We could
ind no literature as to the effect on it. Neither could
we ind literature that described health beneits from
infusing as an ectoparasiticide treatment, although
topical application of medication has been used for
wound treatments on hooves. Effectiveness of such
treatment is still debated in the veterinary ield (Johan
Marais, pers. comm.3). Given that the infusion with
ectoparasiticides focuses on the internal horn tissue,
it is unlikely that there will be any noticeable health
beneits to the rhino. Even so, conservationists need
several clinical trials to evaluate its effectiveness on
rhino health. Such an evaluation should include the
consequences of disrupting parasite–host interactions.
We could ind no evidence of such evaluation before or
after the commercial launching of the infusion product.
Science challenges
Conservationists strive to adhere to a philosophy of
strategic adaptive management (Roux and Foxcroft
2011) and place great value on robust science-based
decisions (Roux et al. 2012). Some of the scientiic
assumptions that infusionists make warrant evaluation.
Chemical deterrence potential
Hazard identification of the composition of the
most common treatment (i.e. combination of ectoparasiticides and indelible dye) highlighted that
the dye may cause eye, skin and respiratory tract
irritation and could be harmful if swallowed, inhaled
or absorbed through the skin (document provided by
2 Available from Dr Markus Hofmeyr, Veterinary Wildlife
Services, Skukuza, markus.hofmeyr@sanparks.org
3 Dr Johan Marais, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University
of Pretoria
Pachyderm No. 55 January–July 2014
Peace Parks Foundation4). It is unclear what quantities
end-users need to consume before the effects become
acute. We could ind no evaluation associated with
the depository of ectoparasiticides. These comprise
freely available over-the-counter antiparasitic drugs
used to treat ectoparasitic infestations where parasitic
organisms primarily live on the surface of the host
(deined by Rhino Rescue Project 2013). The exact
ectoparasiticide combinations are unknown, with
no human health risks deined. Most commercially
available ectoparasiticide products are relativity safe
to humans and unlikely to have any serious health
consequences for end-users in the quantities ingested
from known rhino horn products (Johan Marais5 and
Gerhard Steenkamp6, pers. comm.).
Although the chemical combination may carry
discomfort, we could not ind literature that indicates
some part of an animal infused by similar compounds
(usually used for treating horse hoofs, Johan Marais,
pers. comm.6) is toxic to humans. Drugs used to treat
animals followed by subsequent consumption of meat
with residual hormonal and medical drug residues
resulted in affecting a small percentage of persons
(US Board of Agriculture 1999). It is unlikely that
end-users will notice an acute effect, because rhino
horn for medicinal purposes comprises only small
doses mixed with other substances.
In addition, it is assumed that people will not
refrain from consuming something if they perceive it
to have medicinal or delicatessen value, even if it is
potentially highly toxic. Fugu, or the puffer ish, are
highly poisonous and contain tetrodotoxin, a potent
neurotoxin (Tsang and Tang 2007). Yet it is a highly
valued delicacy in China and Japan, even though a
number of people eating it die every year (Bingbin
2012).
Application efficiency
Rhino horn is essentially papillary corniied epidermis
(Hieronymus et al. 2006); it comprises a composite
material with tubules of keratinocytes forming
ibres embedded in a resin-like matrix of varying
composition. Calcium phosphate salts, most likely
hydroxyapatite or octocalcium phosphate, and melanin
4 Werner Myburgh, Peace Parks Foundation
5 Dr Johan Marais, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University
of Pretoria
6 Dr Gerhard Steenkamp, Faculty of Veterinary Science,
University of Pretoria
57
Ferreira et al.
characterize matrix composition (Hieronymus et al.
2006). Rhino horn has a density of 1.26 g/cm–3 (Pienaar
and Hall-Martin 1993) with the horn tip slightly
denser than the base. When sliced, a polished rhino
horn resembles perspex, or poly-methyl-methacrylate,
which has a density of 1.18 g/cm–3 (makeitfrom.com
2009). More heavily melanin-pigmented corniied
epidermal tissue occurs in the central longitudinal
core of the horn (Figure 1). Most importantly, the
variations in melanin content and calciication result
in differential wear, the key mechanism for horn shape
(Hieronymus et al. 2006).
Infusing rhino horn is not complex. Veterinarians
immobilize a rhino using standard veterinary
techniques (Standard operating procedures for capture,
handling and transport of wild animals,SANParks7).
After the rhino is successfully immobilized, holes
(~10 mm in diameter) are drilled into the centre of the
horn and an applicator is inserted. A compressor itted
to the applicator infuses the chemical combination
under 9-bar pressure for 20 minutes (Andrew Parker,
pers. comm.8). After the procedure, the applicator
is removed, the hole plugged with a resin, and
veterinarians administer an antidote to the rhino to
recover from an anaesthetic drug.
We could ind no literature assessing the eficiency
of this procedure in distributing chemical compounds
evenly through the corniied epidermal tissue of horn.
Horn structure suggests differential resistance to wear
(Hieronymus et al. 2006), which predicts differential
distribution of the chemical compounds following
infusion. Neither could we ind literature on high
infusion pressure that could damage keratinocyte
tubules with consequences for the future strength of
the horn. Even so, higher core melanin concentration
(Hieronymus et al. 2006) predicts weaker treatment
penetration in the longitudinal centre of the horn.
There is thus some chance that suitable core areas
remain and are still available for human consumption.
When queried on this issue, the Rhino Rescue Project
indicated that they had not cut through a treated horn to
ascertain if the coloured dye actually infused through
the horn as they claimed.
Samples from ive sets of white rhino horns retrieved
after horn infusion with indelible dye combined with
ectoparasiticides (SANParks: 1 anterior and 1 posterior
7 Available from Dr Markus Hofmeyr, Veterinary Wildlife
Services, SANParks, markus.hofmeyr@sanparks.org
8 Andrew Parker, former chief executive oficer, Sabi Sand
Game Reserve, ceo@sabisand.co.za
58
Figure 1. Polished back-lit cross slice through an anterior
horn of a white rhino showing the more heavily melaninpigmented corniied epidermal tissue in the core of the
horn.
transverse cut; Sabi Sand Game Reserve: 1 anterior
and 1 posterior transverse cut; Ezemvelo KZN: 3
anterior and 3 posterior drilled samples 1 month after
infusion9) noted no visible discoloration through the
papillary corniied epidermis of the horn (Figure 2).
Even if there is not a formal test for ectoparasiticides
or their metabolic derivatives in the papillary corniied
epidermis, they are unlikely to be present given the
chemical mixture of ectoparasiticides with indelible
dye as part of the application procedure, and the
fact that the indelible dye did not penetrate into the
horns. All evidence indicates wide-scale failure of
the application.
Maintaining deterrence effectiveness
Even if one disregards application eficiency, maintaining deterrence effectiveness may be challenging.
Rhino horn continually grows (Pienaar et al. 1991;
Rachlow and Berger 1997; Hieronymus and Witmer
2004) at a near-constant rate throughout the areal
extent (Hieronymus et al. 2006). This means that new
corniied epidermis is laid down continuously at the
base of the horn. Anterior (nasal) horns grow at 5–6
cm per year (Pienaar et al. 1991; Rachlow and Berger
1997) while posterior horns (i.e. the small horn behind
the nasal horn) grow at 2 cm per year (Rachlow and
Berger 1997).
Infusionists advocate treatment effectiveness for
9 Data provided by Dave Cooper, Ezemvelo KZN, dcooper@
kznwildlife.com
Pachyderm No. 55 January–July 2014
Chemical horn infusions—a poaching deterrent or an unnecessary deception?
Figure 2. Transverse cut through a recovered posterior
horn after infusion with a mixture of indelible dye (shown
with arrow) and ectoparasiticides illustrating failure of
the procedure to distribute the dye evenly throughout
the papillary corniied epidermis of a white rhino horn.
This result is characteristic of all horns sampled after the
infusion treatment.
3–4 years (Rhino Rescue Project 2013). Horn growth
adds new horn each year (Pienaar et al. 1991; Rachlow
and Berger 1997; Hieronymus and Witmer 2004).
Horn structure with hardness provided by calciication
in melanized corniied epidermis (Hieronymus et
al. 2006) suggests that the new corniied epidermis
is unlikely to be affected by passive diffusion of
the chemical compounds. In addition, horn wear
determines horn shape and size (Boas 1931) with the
higher concentration of melanin and calcium salts
in the centre of horn determining the overall conical
shape of rhino horn (Hieronymus et al. 2006). A full
horn growth cycle is thus likely to be variable and
impose uncertainty in the planning and requirements
of repeat treatments to sustain apparent eficiency.
Furthermore, the interactions between new corniied
epidermis being continuously added and wearing rates
being higher for treated parts of the horn suggest that
untreated corniied epidermis will comprise larger and
larger fractions of the horn. This means that over time,
attractiveness of the horn will increase, which could
inluence incentives for poachers.
Logistical challenges
Considering how incentives and disincentives
inluence a person’s decision to poach suggests a
critical mass of horn must be treated in a population
to deter poachers. Theoretically, fractions larger than
50% introduce probabilities that a poacher more often
Pachyderm No. 55 January–July 2014
than not will encounter rhinos with treated horns,
disregarding publicity effects. A poacher will not
be able to tell a treated horn from an untreated one
on sight and will at best discover the status while
removing the horn. Treated horns recovered from
poachers showed that it is unlikely that a poacher will
notice the pink drilling hole given that poached horns
are often covered in mud and blood, and that poaching
often happens in low light conditions to make escape
easier. Poaching may continue until poachers ind
suitable horn. Ultimately though, more often than
not, the chance of getting treated horn may be a large
enough disincentive to overcome price incentives.
The number of rhinos living on an individual
private property is usually small, making complete
treatment of the population possible. Approximately
150 white rhinos on private property have been
treated (Rhino Rescue Project 2013). Logistical
requirements increase when the size of areas and
populations increase. Recently, Sabi Sand Game
Reserve treated about 15% of the white rhinos present,
while Ezemvelo KZN treated approximately 65%
of the rhinos in Ndumu Game Reserve and Tembe
Elephant Park along the Mozambique border. Costs
amount to USD 1,000 per rhino, inclusive of helicopter
time and vehicles but excluding costs of drugs and
veterinary expertise (Andrew Parker, pers. comm.10).
The infusion procedure takes at least 30 minutes per
rhino (Rhino Rescue Project 2013). Together with
searching, immobilizing, treating, reversing, and
preparing drugs and equipment, a team can expect 90
minutes to complete treatment of one rhino, allowing
a maximum of four rhinos a day if the area is large
and inding rhinos is dificult. In addition to such
logistical requirements, a key challenge will be to
identify and separate treated rhinos from untreated
ones, extending the periods of operations in large areas
and populations. Permanent marking of treated rhinos
will be necessary. This poses additional challenges
in that no permanent visible external markers are
available. Most commonly used permanent markers
are gum tattoos or microchip insertions, neither of
which are visible in free-range wild animals. Invasive
techniques like ear notching or tagging are the only
alternative; they are effective in small populations
but become dificult to impose on larger populations.
Given these logistical challenges, the dye approach is
feasible only in small and isolated populations.
10 Andrew Parker, former chief executive oficer, Sabi Sand
Game Reserve, ceo@sabisand.co.za
59
Ferreira et al.
Reduction of poaching
The conceptual challenges of chemically treating rhino
horn, as highlighted earlier, predict variable effects
on poaching rates. By 25 April 2013, infusionists
have treated 230 rhinos with 4 of these subsequently
poached (Rhino Rescue Project 2013). The poaching
rate of treated rhinos of 1.74% (95% CI: 0.03–3.45%)
is lower than the 2013 national poaching rate of 4.79%
(95% CI: 0.23–9.37%), but confidence intervals
overlap. In Sabi Sand Nature Reserve, we know
of 3 rhinos with infused horns being killed since
the inception of infusion during March 2013 and
December 2013. During that period, we also know of
37 other rhinos killed in the same area (SANParks,
unpublished data11), clearly challenging the deterrence
value of horn treatment to poachers.
Before horns were infused, poachers killed nine
rhinos in Ndumo Game Reserve and Tembe Elephant
Park combined. Here, incursion rates also decreased
dramatically, with 29 illegal entries by poachers
recorded for the 3 months before the infusions, and 5 for
the 3 months after treatment. Just before the infusions,
however, law enforcers confronted and fatally shot an
armed poacher and subsequently recovered a number of
illegal weapons from the surrounding area. Sustained
poaching pressure over the preceding months had also
substantially reduced the number of rhinos present
in both reserves and subsequently poaching pressure
seemed to shift to other rhino populations farther south
of the Mozambique border (personal observations). It
is thus dificult to conclude that a chemical deterrent
caused the reduction in poaching.
Conclusion
Our assessment highlights key laws in the assumptions
that treating rhino horn will lead to decline in poaching
incidents. We propose that human ethical and legal
risks arise from assumptions for which we could not
ind any evidence. Consequences on animal welfare
and health also carry large uncertainties.
Many of the above concerns emanate from the
information base being primarily speculative. This was
most evident when we assessed requirements associated
with the procedure itself. Evidence indicates that at
least one of the compounds in the most commonly used
treatment is harmful to humans. Also, the structure
11 Ken Maggs, SANParks, ken.maggs@sanparks.org
60
and growth dynamics of rhino horn suggest that the
eficiency of applying and maintaining the treatment
may vary considerably. Claims by infusionists that
the dye permeates the whole horn and is visible at
the base of the horn when poachers remove it simply
were not true.
To be successful, a critical number of rhinos
need to be treated, with more demanding logistical
requirements when areas and population sizes increase.
This situation imposes several logistical challenges
with potentially high costs to authorities.
These concerns highlight that authorities may
carry substantial risks and have high uncertainty if
they attempt to reduce poaching rates by infusing
horns with chemicals as deterrents for end-users. This
activity will detract authorities from achieving other
conservation mandates. Relying on publicity to deter
poachers also relies on managers being convinced that
publicity on the chemical treatment of horns through
infusion will secure rhinos. Poachers will beneit and
managers will lose when the bluff of horn treatment
fails. Chemical horn infusion is thus not a poaching
deterrent but an ineffective deception.
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61
’t Sas-Rolfes et al.
The complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile
management
Michael ’t Sas-Rolfes,1 Brendan Moyle2 and Daniel Stiles3*
1
Independent wildlife trade economist
School of Economics and Finance, College of Business, Massey University, PB 102 904, Auckland 0745,
New Zealand
3
Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Private Bag, Nanyuki 10400, Kenya
*corresponding author email: kenyadan@icloud.com
2
Abstract
Recent elephant poaching levels are a serious concern for conservationists. Opinions differ over how to deal
with the upsurge and associated illegal ivory trade. Following the CITES-imposed international trade ban voted
in 1989, limited legal trade has been permitted in two one-off sales. Opinions are divided on what effect this
has had on poaching. Opinions are now also divided over whether trade in ivory products should be outlawed
worldwide, both between and within countries. In the midst of this debate is the question of what government
agencies should do with existing stockpiles of collected legal and coniscated illegal ivory. Governments of some
countries have destroyed their stockpiles with the claimed intent of reducing poaching, and there are calls for
others to follow suit. We review the academic literature and available relevant data and ind that under current
circumstances, stockpile destruction violates the precautionary principle because the outcome is unknown; it is
therefore not recommended. Credible evidence suggests that speculation may drive the current high poaching
rates more than consumer demand for carvings. Legal stockpiles provide an option to curtail speculative
behaviour of criminals. We recommend that governments move closer towards consensus on a long-term vision
for elephant and ivory management before undertaking measures such as large-scale stockpile destruction. In
the meantime they should continue to retain existing ivory stockpiles securely to reduce incentives for criminal
speculation with illegally accumulated stockpiles. We recommend that research be carried out to understand better
the dynamics of the current legal and illegal ivory trade systems in order to formulate evidence-based policy.
Additional keywords: poaching, seizure, speculation
Résumé
Les niveaux récents de braconnage des éléphants sont une préoccupation sérieuse pour les écologistes. Les
opinions divergent sur la façon de faire face à la recrudescence du braconnage et le commerce illégal de
l’ivoire y associé. Suite à l’interdiction du commerce international imposé par la CITES et voté en 1989,
le commerce légal limité a été autorisé lors de deux ventes exceptionnelles. Les opinions sont divisées sur
l’effet que cela a eu sur le braconnage. Les opinions sont actuellement divisées aussi quant à savoir si le
commerce des produits en ivoire devrait être interdit dans le monde entier, entre et à l’intérieur des pays.
Dans ce débat se trouve la question de savoir ce que les organismes gouvernementaux devraient faire avec les
stocks existants d’ivoire légal collecté et d’ivoire illégal conisqué. Les gouvernements de certains pays ont
détruit leurs stocks avec l’intention déclarée de réduire le braconnage, et il y a des appels pour que les autres
suivent cet exemple. Nous passons en revue la littérature académique et les données disponibles pertinentes
et nous trouvons que sous les circonstances actuelles, la destruction des stocks viole le principe de précaution
puisque le résultat est inconnu; donc elle n’est pas recommandée. Des preuves crédibles suggèrent que la
spéculation peut être la cause des taux actuels élevés de braconnage plus que la demande des consommateurs
pour les sculptures. Les stocks légaux fournissent une possibilité de réduire le comportement spéculatif des
criminels. Nous recommandons que les gouvernements se rapprochent d’un consensus sur une vision à long
62
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile management
terme pour la gestion de l’éléphant et de l’ivoire avant d’entreprendre des mesures telles que la destruction
à grande échelle des stocks. En attendant, ils doivent continuer à conserver les stocks d’ivoire existants en
toute sécurité pour réduire les incitations à la spéculation criminelle occasionnée par les stocks accumulés
illégalement. Nous recommandons qu’une recherche soit effectuée pour mieux comprendre la dynamique des
systèmes actuels du commerce légal et illégal de l’ivoire, ain de formuler des politiques basées sur des preuves.
Mots clés supplémentaires: braconnage, saisie, spéculation
Introduction
In November 2013, the US Fish and Wildlife Service
destroyed approximately 5.4 tonnes of coniscated
ivory. In January 2014, China also destroyed some
6.1 tonnes; in February France followed suit with 3
tonnes and Chad with 1.1 tonnes; and in April Belgium
destroyed 1.5 tonnes (CITES 2013a; Chan 2014;
Guardian 2014a; Cronin 2014; Russo 2014). Hong
Kong started destruction of almost 30 tonnes of its
stockpile in May with the incineration of about 1 tonne
of ivory (Guardian 2014b) and in late June the Thai
government said it would decide by 8 July whether to
destroy its more than 5 tonnes of illegal ivory (Thai
PBS 2014). The decision has not been announced.
The material destroyed includes raw and carved
whole tusks, smaller carvings, and other elephant ivory
items amassed by government authorities as a result of
enforcement efforts. The stated purpose of these events
was to send a clear message to criminals that poaching
and ivory traficking will not be tolerated (USFWS
2013; Lau 2014). The US government has called on
all countries to destroy stocks of illegal, coniscated
ivory (IFAW 2013).
Previous stockpile destruction through burning or
crushing took place in Kenya in 1989, in Zambia,
Taiwan, Japan, the UAE and China in the 1990s, Kenya
again in 2011, Gabon in 2012 and the Philippines in
2013 (Stiles 2013; Orenstein 2013). The total quantity
of ivory destroyed so far is estimated to be over 65
tonnes. All of this stockpile destruction aims to deter
consumer demand and illegal ivory trade and, by
extension, elephant poaching.
As a result of an upsurge in elephant poaching
beginning in the mid-2000s (UNEP et al. 2013;
CITES 2014; Wittmeyer et al. 2014), calls have
been increasing to destroy all ivory stockpiles and
ban all trade in ivory worldwide, both between and
within countries (Wasser et al. 2010; Burntheivory
2013; EIA 2013; Douglas-Hamilton 2013; Christy
2013; Bennett 2014). These actions would, in the
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
opinion of its proponents, save the elephant by making
ivory valueless. There continues to be disagreement
about this approach succeeding in reducing elephant
poaching for ivory (Stiles 2009a, 2011a, 2013, 2014;
Walker and Stiles 2010; Conrad 2012; Bandow 2013,
2014; MacMillan 2013; Challender and MacMillan
2014; Moyle and Stiles 2014).
The issue of ivory stockpiles was discussed at the
65th CITES Standing Committee meeting in July 2014.
CITES Resolution Conf. 10.10 (Rev. CoP16) urges
Parties involved with elephant ivory to ‘maintain an
inventory of government-held stockpiles of ivory and,
where possible, of signiicant privately held stockpiles
of ivory within their territory’. The resolution also
directs the CITES Secretariat to ‘support, where
requested, the security and registration of governmentheld ivory stockpiles’. CITES does not recommend
stockpile destruction.
However, Chad and the Philippines submitted SC65
Doc. 42.7 at the 65th Standing Committee meeting,
which sought to have CITES endorse destroying ivory
stockpiles and for it to encourage and assist Parties
with such events. The proposal gained limited support,
but some countries stated they opposed destroying
legal ivory. The Standing Committee did not endorse
the proposal, but the issue will be discussed further at
CoP17 in South Africa in 2016 (IISD 2014).
We review the potential consequences on elephant
poaching levels from policies to either maintain or
destroy ivory stockpiles. This debate is not new.
It was raised during the run-up to the irst CITESpermitted experimental one-off sale of ivory from three
southern African countries to Japan, which was held
in 1999 (’t Sas-Rolfes 1997). At that point the author
concluded in part that ‘the ivory trade ban is likely to
prove unsustainable and even counterproductive in
the longer term’ and that ‘it is important to deal with
existing oficial ivory stockpiles in an appropriate way:
destroying them probably makes little conservation
sense’.
63
’t Sas-Rolfes et al.
In the light of 17 years of experience since then and
two CITES-approved experimental ivory sales from
southern Africa, what, if anything, has been learned
that would assist CITES and national governments
in taking action on ivory stockpiles that will further
elephant conservation?
through 2012. Figure 3 depicts relative (not absolute)
values for the quantity of ivory being traded illegally,
based on reported coniscations of smuggled ivory.
Here, the pattern rather than the comparative weights
is what is signiicant. There is relative stability in
the quantity of ivory in illegal trade through 2007,
Table 1. African elephant population estimates,
rounded to the nearest 10, 1989–2013
Trends in elephant numbers,
poaching rates and ivory trafficking
Year
1989
1995
2002
2007
2013
Minimum
608,030
387,520
461,090
554,970
515,860
Maximum
608,030
581,180
660,210
689,670
675,000
0.6
0.4
0.0
0.2
Estimated PIKE
0.8
0.0
Estimating elephant numbers is problematic. The
IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist Group, which
maintains the African Elephant Database, advises that
comparisons of database igures should be made with
great caution because of data deiciencies (CITES
Source: Cobb (1989) and http://www.elephantdatabase.org
2014). Given that caveat, Table 1 shows the estimates
by African subregions since 1989, the year the ivory
trade moratorium was voted.
The minimum number is made up of
the Deinite and Probable classes and the
maximum is with the addition of the Possible
and Speculative classes.
Notwithstanding the database igures, recent
trends in poaching rates, as reported by the
CITES programme of Monitoring the Illegal
Killing of Elephants (MIKE), are disturbing.
MIKE evaluates relative poaching levels based
on the Proportion of Illegally Killed Elephants
(PIKE), which is calculated as the number of
illegally killed elephants found divided by the
total number of elephant carcasses encountered
by patrols or other means, aggregated by year
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 20010 2011 2012 2013
for each of 60 monitoring sites in Africa.
Year
Coupled with estimates of population size
and natural mortality rates, PIKE can be used Figure 1. The estimated Proportion of Illegally Killed Elephants (PIKE)
for all subregions of Africa combined. Source: CITES 2014.
to estimate numbers of elephants killed and
absolute poaching rates (CITES et al. 2013). 14
Figure 1 shows PIKE levels from 2002 through
12
2013. Figures 1 and 2 show that poaching rates
accelerated after 2009, peaking in 2011. From 10
2010 to the present, 50% or more of elephant 8
carcasses found are thought to have been 6
illegally killed.
4
The Elephant Trade Information System 2
(ETIS) implemented by TRAFFIC is the 0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
CITES programme for monitoring ivory
traficking that is the counterpart to MIKE.
Years
Figure 3 shows the estimate of the mean weight Figure 2. Estimated poaching rates. (The dotted line represents the
of illegal ivory trade combining all weight normal average elephant population growth rate (5%).) Source: UNEP
classes by ivory types, per year from 1996 (2013).
64
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile management
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
200
150
100
Tusks (kg)
Tusks (no.)
0
50
Relative weight
250
300
but thereafter a fairly sharp upward
worked 100 kg+
climb is seen, despite a drop indicated
worked 10-100 kg
in 2012. This pattern is similar to the
worked <10
MIKE poaching trend. The 100+ kg
raw 100 kg+
raw 10-100 kg
raw ivory class contributes the most
raw <10
to the weight index. This signiies
that large-scale ivory seizures are
driving the upward trend in the ivory
trade. TRAFFIC interprets the trend
for larger-scale ivory shipments as
indicative of the presence of organized
crime in the illicit ivory trade (CITES
et al. 2013).
Larger shipments could also
be evidence of increased demand
for the purpose of speculative
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
stockpiling. There is evidence that
Year
the larger shipments were not due to a
requirement for larger raw ivory supply Figure 3. Estimate of the mean weight of illegal ivory trade combining all weight
classes by raw or worked ivory, 1996–2012. Source: UNEP et al. 2013..
to meet increased production needs.
One source of evidence is the legal
300
2,400
market. It is reasonable to assume that
no.
the demand for legal carvings would
weight (kg)
250
2,000
follow similar (but not identical) trends
as the illegal. Rising incomes in China
200
1,600
should lead to demand in both markets
150
1,200
increasing. This statement does not
mean they will rise at the same rate or
100
800
to the same levels. There are points of
difference. The legal market appears
50
400
to specialize in larger pieces while
0
0
the illegal market handles smaller
II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV
pieces (Moyle and Conrad 2014). This
2010
2011
2012
2013
specialization, however, is not perfect.
Year and Allocation
For instance, legal carving factories do
Figure 4. Throughput of tusks in Chinese factories, 2009–2013.
make small carvings. About 80% of
the carvings in 2013 weighed less than
Production and consumption quantities of illegal
100 g, but these carvings made up only
5% of the total by weight (Moyle and Conrad 2014). ivory are unknown, but if the consumer demand
Nonetheless, legal demand since 2009 appears pattern observed with legal ivory is similar, it would
relatively lat. First, only 13.78 tonnes of the 18 tonnes seem there has not been an increase large enough to
allocated by 2013 had been used by legal carvers (Yu account for the huge alleged increase in illegal raw
2013; Moyle 2014). This is supported by analysis ivory imports over the past ive years or so.
Speculative stockpiling would be carried out
of nearly 1,300 tusks that have gone through the
legal factory system since the irst allocation in 2009 by ivory dealers that supply ivory factories, some
(Figure 4). This suggests that retail consumer demand of whom probably have interests in ivory factories
in general has been largely lat over this period. It also themselves. An example of this occurring is Hong
corroborates that the throughput of ivory is less than Kong, where ivory dealers still have over 100 tonnes
the government allocations in the legal ivory market of ivory in stock 24 years after the CITES ivory trade
ban (Hong Kong Government 2014). As long as ivory
sector.
65
’t Sas-Rolfes et al.
rises in value suficiently year-on-year, it remains
proitable to stockpile and sell only small quantities,
at great proit, as needed.
Clearly, something occurred in the 2008–2009
period that triggered the increased elephant killing
and ivory seizure pattern seen since 2009. A widely
held view is that the cause was the 2008 CITESapproved auctions of ivory stockpiles in four southern
African countries to China and Japan (EIA 2012;
Rice 2012; IFAW 2012). According to this line of
thought, ‘the sale approved by CITES in 2008 spurred
production and trade of ivory products in China and
stimulated the demand for ivory from a growing class
of wealthy consumers’ (IFAW 2012). This rise in
demand, ‘combined with an uncontrollable legal ivory
market which provides cover for illegal trade, makes
a lethal combination that is decimating wild elephant
populations.’ The claims by IFAW and EIA have been
repeated by countless other NGOs, media outlets and
prominent individuals. The same arguments were
made regarding the irst CITES-approved ivory sales
to Japan held in 1999 (EIA 2002).
Stiles (2012) disagrees with the view that legal raw
ivory sales in Africa stimulated consumer demand
for worked ivory in China, even if the imported legal
ivory did result in the availability of more worked
ivory. First, the average consumer in China was totally
unaware of the CITES one-off sales, so how could
they have inluenced consumer decisions to buy ivory?
Second, to the extent that consumer demand for ivory
increased after 2008, this coincided with a general and
well-documented rise in Chinese consumer demand
for all luxury products. Ivory, along with jade, works of
art, gold, etc., became investment vehicles and prestige
items of social display (Fischer 2011; IFAW 2012; Gao
and Clark in review). Ivory consumption most likely
rode the same wave. Third, consumer demand for ivory
was stimulated by a Chinese government campaign
to promote cultural heritage. Several government
declarations and China’s adherence to UNESCO’s
Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural
Heritage in 2005 publicized Chinese cultural arts. The
ivory industry took advantage of the campaign to
promote ivory carving in exhibitions, the media and
on the internet. In May 2006, Beijing and Guangzhou
ivory carving was included in the irst National List
of Intangible Cultural Heritages (Gao and Clark in
review). This piqued interest in ivory as an aesthetic
and culturally desirable commodity to acquire.
The MIKE and ETIS programmes were established
66
under CITES as a result of CITES Resolution Conf.
10.10, which included a call to assess to what extent
observed trends of illegal elephant killing or ivory
trading are a result of decisions taken by the Conference
of the Parties to CITES, in particular CITES-approved
sales of legal ivory.
ETIS (TRAFFIC International 2013) found that,
after analysing ivory seizure data, ‘Over the 16year period examined, an uninterrupted progression
of Chinese involvement in illegal ivory trade is
demonstrated. … China’s involvement in illicit ivory
trade transactions is 46 times greater in 2011 than
it was in 1996. The increasing pattern of growth in
illicit trade in ivory for China was well established
long before the one-off sale under CITES commenced
and certainly, for the period 1996–2008, was clearly
driven by other factors … independently of the CITES
ivory sale event.’
MIKE (CITES 2013b) concluded after analysing
the PIKE and associated data, ‘The MIKE analysis
has therefore not found any evidence to suggest that
illegal killing of elephants increased or decreased as
a direct result of the CoP decisions. If the decisions
had any effect on poaching levels, that effect was not
discernible from the available data.’
Earlier analyses of available data, using different
methods, could also ind no causal relationship between
the 1999 CITES one-off sales and ivory market activity
or elephant mortality (Stiles 2004; Bulte et al. 2007).
Pro-ban supporters use the 1999 and 2008 sales
to underpin the claim that a legal, regulated trade
would stimulate ivory demand and drive elephant
poaching to catastrophic proportions. The call for ivory
stockpile destruction derives from this claim, based
on the assumption that if there is no ivory to sell or
otherwise leak onto the market, there would be no
trade to stimulate elephant poaching. This simplistic
argument has a supericial logic and emotional appeal,
but it does not it the empirical evidence or stand up to
economic analysis, as we aim to demonstrate.
Raw ivory price trends
Data on raw ivory prices in various parts of the
world are confusing and conlicting. For a review
of methodological issues affecting the collection of
raw ivory prices and a sample of prices see Stiles et
al. (2011). Raw ivory prices are rarely collected and
reported accurately by researchers and the media. In
spite of deicient data, it is safe to say that raw illegal
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile management
ivory prices have been rising between about 2000 to
2014 in Africa and eastern Asia. It is unclear since
2012 what direction prices have taken in China, the
most signiicant market for ivory. Table 2 presents
prices from 1999 to 2014 in selected countries.
Table 2 shows that the prices for smaller, 1–5
kg tusks in urban areas in Cameroon (Douala and
Yaounde) and the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC—Kinshasa and Kisangani) have not risen in
real USD terms between 1999 and 2010. The prices
for >5 kg tusks have risen, however, from an average
of USD 56/kg in Cameroon in 1999 to USD 91/kg and
in DRC from a minimum of USD 70/kg to an average
of USD 112/kg. Martin and Vigne (2013) report raw
ivory prices in smaller urban areas of Nigeria in 2012
for 1–5 kg tusks, obtained from a secondary source, of
USD 110/kg and Vigne and Martin (in press) report the
average price for tusks of 1–3 kg in Luanda, Angola,
in 2014 as USD 150–250/kg, most of them originating
in the DRC. This would imply the price in the DRC in
2014 would be less than USD 150–250/kg, because
transport and markup costs would have been added
to those in Luanda.
The available raw ivory African prices appear
consistent and show a clear pattern of a steady rise
in prices from 1999 to the present for the larger tusk
weights, but not for smaller tusks.
Japan shows a modest rise in inlation-adjusted
prices for >5 kg tusks for the period 2002–2009 while
Thailand experienced a much larger price rise between
2002 and 2008 of average prices of less than USD 200/
kg to USD 387/kg—approximately double (Martin
and Stiles 2002, 2003; Vigne and Martin 2009; Stiles
2009b). TRAFFIC recently carried out an ivory survey
in Bangkok but unfortunately did not collect price
data (Doak 2014).
Prices in China are less well understood. There
appear to be two different ivory markets and sets
of prices: the legal market and the illegal (black)
market. In 2002, the black market inlation-adjusted
prices for >5 kg tusks in China ranged from USD
155 to 220/kg. There were no legal raw ivory prices
in 2002 because legal ivory was not being traded due
to scarcity (Martin and Stiles 2003). By early 2011,
the inlation-adjusted price for 1–5 kg illegal tusks in
Fuzhou had risen to USD 777/kg, 350–500% more
expensive than larger tusks in 2002. The government,
legal inlation-adjusted price for 1–5 kg tusks was
an average of only USD 471/kg in 2011, 40% less
than the black market price (Martin and Vigne 2011).
Larger >5 kg illegal tusk prices had risen in southern
China to an inlation-adjusted USD 930/kg (Martin
and Vigne 2011), four to six times more expensive
than in 2002 for that size.
The black market price appears to have skyrocketed
in 2014 to an average of USD 2,100/kg for small <5 kg
tusks in Beijing (AFP 2014a; E Martin, pers. comm.
to D Stiles 2014), implying that larger tusks would
be even more expensive. However, prices for black
market carvings (necklaces and bracelets) do not show
the same trend. Moyle and Conrad (2014) report that
these black market pieces are systematically lower in
Beijing and Fuzhou than the legal prices.
Legal government-owned raw ivory prices had
risen much less from the 2011 USD 471/kg average,
ranging USD 483–613/kg for >5 kg tusks in Fuzhou
Table 2. Middleman raw ivory pricesa in USD, 1999–2014
Country
Year
Weight (kg)
Price/kg (USD)
Year
Weight (kg)
c
Price/kg (USD)
Cameroon
Cameroon
DRC
DRC
China
China
China
Japan
b
1999
1999b
1999b
1999b
2002e
2011g
2011g
2002j
1–5
>5
1–5
>5
1–5
1–5
>5
>5
38–53
42–70
42–70
>70
155–220
471–777
930
181–311
2010
2010c
2010d
2010d
2014f
2014h
2014i
2009j
1–5
>5
1–5
>5
1–4
>5
>5
>5
43
53–128
32–53
64–160
2,100
660–1100
484–613
302–362
Thailand
2002k
1–5
30–236
2008l
1–5
387
a
Pre-2014 prices have been converted to 2013 USD prices to take into account inlation using the ‘real price’ conversion for
a commodity available from http://www.measuringworth.com/; b Martin and Stiles (2000); c Randolph and Stiles (2011); d Stiles
(2011b); e Martin and Stiles (2003); f AFP (2014a) and Esmond Martin, pers. comm. 2014; g Martin and Vigne (2011); h T Esmail,
in litt. to D Stiles 2014; i B Moyle and K Conrad, ield research 2014; j Vigne and Martin (2009); k Martin and Stiles (2002); l Stiles
(2009b).
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
67
and Beijing (B Moyle, ield research). In 2014, DaXin
Ivory Carving Factory in Guangzhou offered USD
660/kg for three pairs of tusks weighing an average
of 36 kg each (Figure 5). These were accompanied
by CITES permits that would allow legal export from
Canada and import to China. In response to a reference
by the seller to a USD 1,300/pound (USD 2,860/kg)
price purportedly paid in China in 2013 (Levin 2013),
DaXin replied it was untrue. A private dealer in China
offered USD 1,100/kg for the tusks (T Esmail in litt.
to D Stiles).
It is dificult to explain the large difference between
legal and illegal raw ivory prices. Chinese government
prices for >5 kg tusks are in the USD 480–660/kg
range. These prices are supported by a legal raw ivory
auction in France in July 2014, in which 50 tusks of
20 kg average weight were sold for about USD 630/kg
to Chinese buyers (AFP 2014b). Much smaller illegal
tusks are reportedly selling for an average of USD
2,100/kg (AFP 2014a). The high illegal price receives
support from Gao and Clark (in review), who report
prices in 2014 for illegal ivory sold online between
private parties ranging from USD 1,700/kg to USD
2,890/kg. These pieces were quite small (0.5–1.9 kg)
tusk tips and cut tusk sections.
Further research is called for to understand the ivory
market dynamics that explain these price indicators.
However, it is simple to understand the incentives
for elephant poaching when tusks can be purchased
in Africa for less than USD 150/kg and sold in China
for well over 10 times that amount.
Theories of elephant conservation,
ivory trade and stockpile
management
Contemporary threats to wild elephant populations are
essentially economic by nature; they include habitat
loss, conlict with humans and poaching. The two
essential drivers for these are competition with other
forms of land use by humans (and their constituent
species) and the demand for elephant products,
principally ivory. Elephant poaching is undertaken
because it is a proitable economic activity. Some
of these economic aspects have been outlined in the
economic literature from Barbier et al. (1990) through
to Mason et al. (2012).
Major challenges to understanding the economics
of the black market in ivory are two. The irst is that the
participants do not willingly reveal their business plans
68
©T Esmail
’t Sas-Rolfes et al.
Figure 5. Legal tusks ranging in weight from 5.5 to 55 kg
(average 36 kg). Prices offered in China to purchase them in
March 2014 were USD 660–1,100/kg.
and activity to authorities or researchers; the trade is
mostly unobservable. For example, smugglers do not
ill out compulsory statistical returns on trade and so
the prices and quantities of ivory sold are unclear.
Incomplete or inaccurate information is a hindrance
to understanding the scale and organization of illegal
activity.
The second challenge is that many factors inluence
black market activity. For instance, the steady growth
in afluence in China has created an upward impetus
in demand (Underwood et al. 2013; Gao and Clark in
review). A milieu of interacting factors have short- or
long-term effects on the market. For example, in a
2013 visit by Conrad and Moyle (2013) to factory
owners in Guangzhou, they stated that the 1997
Asian inancial crisis caused demand for carvings
from Taiwan to drop coincident with a new system of
ivory management in Taiwan that had prohibited ivory
manufacture there (Phipps and Chen 1997). If demand
for worked ivory destined for Taiwan from Guangzhou
factories dropped at the same time that Taiwan stopped
producing its own ivory carvings, the drop in consumer
demand in 1997 must have been substantial.
Vigne and Martin (2011) reported that demand
for worked ivory in South China was variable in
2010. It had risen in Guangzhou, where economic
prosperity had grown, but remained low in Fuzhou,
where economic growth was much less. It is dificult
to identify all of the factors that drive this global black
market. It is a dynamic system, changing over time,
and it is a complex system, with many interactions
not fully understood.
It is outside the scope of this paper to describe the
global black market in ivory. The challenges stated
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
above mean that our understanding must adapt as
new information is acquired, and that while general
tendencies can be described, they should not be
treated as emphatic predictions. In complex systems,
confounding shocks generated by other variables are
likely.
The focus of this paper is poaching and its
interaction with stockpiles. In discussing stockpiles,
we can distinguish between different categories. The
most important distinction is between those held
illegally and those held legally. Illegal stockpiles are
privately held and clandestine—their location and
extent is not known, but we assume that they consist
mostly of raw ivory. This assumption is based on the
dominance by weight observed of raw ivory being
smuggled to Asia in seizures. Legally held stockpiles
consist of both raw and worked ivory (carvings)
and are mostly owned by governments, having been
sourced from natural mortality and culls in range States
or from coniscations of illegal ivory in range, transit
or consumer countries.
The illegal trade in ivory has three important
economic features. First, the major consumer markets
in Asia and sources of ivory in Africa are separate. This
makes it a trade mediated by many parties between
poachers and consumers (Underwood et al. 2013;
Bennett 2014). This also means that many strategic
interactions occur along the supply chain. Participants
in the illegal trade are not passive. They anticipate
enforcement effort (by, for example, concealment
strategies or bribing oficials). Second, raw ivory is
used mostly as input to produce carvings. It is usually
not consumed in retail sales in its raw form. Third,
ivory is durable and can be stored (Figure 6). This
gives criminals the option of storing ivory for many
years to be used later. Is it possible to identify the
factors causing stockpiling to occur or not?
The following economic theory identiies two
important motivations for acquiring raw ivory. The irst
is that ivory is poached and smuggled for immediate
use as an input for carvings. The second motivation
is speculation, i.e. stockpiling for anticipated future
demand, either by carvers or by intermediaries
(Kremer and Morcom 2000; Mason et al. 2012).
The drivers for these two differ. When discussing
the issue of stockpiles, therefore, it is important to be
clear whether they relate to the immediate market for
carvings or the future market as speculators perceive
them. The economic theory also afirms that stockpiles
are essentially a supply-side issue, and its effects on
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
© B Moyle
The complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile management
Figure 6. Tusks from an ivory factory in China. Ivory has little
ongoing storage costs.
buyer’s demand are uncertain.
Price elasticity for carvings will also inluence
the effectiveness of trade restrictions. If buyers are
relatively insensitive to higher prices and tend to
sustain their consumption, demand is price inelastic
and trade bans face signiicant hurdles. Even a small
reduction in supply will lead to correspondingly
larger increases in price. Such market circumstances
nurture the development of criminal cartels and present
signiicant challenges for enforcement (Becker et
al. 2006). Conversely, if demand is highly elastic,
increasing legal supply may have little effect on prices
or levels of illegal exploitation. The price elasticity
of demand for carvings needs to be understood and
not conlated with income increases that also affect
demand.
We discuss several papers relevant to these issues.
They are not intended to be full descriptions of the
illegal market and all the factors at play but simply
highlight the relationship between poachers and
stockpiles. Their point is that they are abstractions
of the real market. They are speciic to wildlife with
storable parts—in most cases, elephants.
Bergstrom (1990) specifically addresses the
issue of ivory stockpiled from coniscations. These
coniscations or seizures can have two negative effects
on poaching levels. The irst is that poachers kill
additional animals to replace tusks lost in seizures to
authorities or otherwise. The CITES Secretariat (2010,
n24) observes that seizures are a plausible motivation
for some of the recent poaching, as criminals attempt
to recoup their losses to authorities. The second effect
is that removing this ivory from the market can reduce
the supply of ivory as an input. This in turn may cause
higher prices for raw ivory that factories have to pay
and, as a knock-on effect, higher prices in the consumer
69
’t Sas-Rolfes et al.
market (all else being equal). These higher prices may
offer a greater incentive for poaching effort.
Bergstrom (1990) afirms that changes to supply
through coniscating and destroying ivory will affect
the illegal market. This does not necessarily affect
ivory demand, but it does reduce the potential supply
and potentially generates a new condition with a
combination of higher prices and lower quantity
demanded in the market for carvings. Bergstrom
thus concludes that destroying legally held stockpiles
exacerbates rather than reduces poaching levels, all
else being equal. The act of coniscating the ivory
reduces the supply—destroying it then ‘seals the deal’.
In terms of poaching levels it makes no difference
if the government sells ivory from the legally held
stockpile or if criminals steal ivory from the stockpile
to sell. This only affects who gets the revenue from
the sales. While we prefer that criminals do not beneit
from the sales, the conservation beneits are similar.
Adding to raw ivory supply from whatever source
should reduce incentive to poach, as long as demand
levels remain constant.
Kremer and Morcom (2000) revisit the stockpile
issue a decade after the CITES ban. A key element
of this paper is that governments and criminals both
have stockpiles. Criminal sellers accumulate their
stockpiles both by poaching elephants and by theft or
leakage from legal stockpiles. Their motive for doing
so is their expectation of higher returns on ivory in
the future. This point deserves emphasis. It is not the
current market for carvings that is driving criminals
to stockpile their own ivory. It is what they expect
is going to happen in the future—up to many years
hence.
Traders are willing to hold large stocks of ivory
if storage costs are low and they expect the price
of ivory to increase. Examples are ivory traders and
owners in Hong Kong, Japan, the USA and France
who have held on to raw tusks for many years, even
decades, and have sold or plan to sell at great proit. As
stated by Bergstrom (1990), legal stockpiles affect the
ivory market by changing the behaviour of sellers. The
effect now however is felt not only through the market
for carvings. It is a longer-term interaction based
on the value attributed by criminals to their illegal
stockpiles. Kremer and Morcom (2000) thus argue
that governments should ideally retain legally held
stockpiles for the purpose of threatening to dump them
on the market as a deterrent for illegal speculation.
Mason et al. (2012) revisit the issue of speculative
70
stockpiling as ‘banking on extinction’. They examine
hypothetical instances of speculators with market
power whose strategy is to drive certain species to
extinction. Extinction would concentrate further market
power in their hands as they hold most of the stock,
enabling them to inlate prices and earn supernormal
proits. Elephants are currently a poor it to this model
with a multitude of competing conspiracies, making it
unlikely that a dominant seller will emerge.
Given that the wild population would likely still
take decades to reach extinction (CITES et al. 2013;
Wittmeyer et al. 2014), ‘banking on extinction’ does
not yet appear to be an economic option. Nonetheless,
Mason et al. (2012) again highlight that stockpile
accumulation is a forward-looking strategic issue
subject to manipulation by speculators. Furthermore,
even competing illegal stockpilers will proit from
reduced elephant numbers and ivory stocks as the
relative scarcity and value of their own stock increases.
They will therefore all beneit from maximum levels
of poaching and work together in an inadvertent
conspiracy to deplete elephant populations. The clear
policy implication here is that it is risky to enable the
concentration of market power in the illegal market.
The above analysis suggests that legally held
stockpiles have two signiicant effects on poaching.
The irst is to inluence the supply of ivory available as
an input for carvings. The second is to inluence sellers’
expectations of the future. Stockpile-holding policy
can cause illegal agents to change poaching rates to
manipulate criminal stocks of ivory. The demand curve
of buyers is effectively stationary and buyers respond
to changes in the supply curve.
The effect of legal stockpiles is predicated on legal
sales potentially or actually occurring (although thefts
are an unoficial transmission mechanism from such
stockpiles to the black market). This introduces the
issue of trade policy. The current regime consists of
an international trade ban in ivory. Exceptions have
been granted to a small number of parties as one-off
sales. A literature survey shows that the ban is an
ambiguous policy. It resolves some extinction risks
but also creates other risks. Direct economic analysis
of the irst one-off sale (Bulte et al. 2007) indicates
that it produced mixed results and does not resolve the
issue of whether the ban is optimal.
The common risk associated with legal trade is
laundering (Khanna and Harford 1996; Bulte and Van
Kooten 1999). Illegal ivory has a long history of being
laundered as legal and concealed within the legal trade.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile management
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
LIBOR 3 months interest rate
Shipping cost index (base = 1,000)
Ivory seizures (kg)
Seizures (kg)
Another conjecture is that legal trade results in lowered its weight and distance between range States and
enforcement effort or makes enforcement less eficient consumer countries. Note that this does not mean
(Bulte and van Kooten 1999). Proponents of a blanket that these are the only relevant costs, rather that
ban advance this argument on all domestic ivory trade. the preference for shipping containers is consistent
Following this principle, the US president’s Advisory with this. Figure 8 shows that shipping costs have
Council on Wildlife Traficking recommended a total also recently collapsed. Changes in freight costs and
domestic ban on ivory. The US White House has interest rates are consistent with the economic theory
subsequently announced a trade ban on almost all and of a magnitude that matches the surge in poaching
types of elephant ivory (US White House 2014).
(assuming that the hypothesis of ivory being mostly
Fischer (2004) is the irst to discuss the demand side stockpiled by criminal speculators holds).
effects of trade and notes a potential ‘stigma effect’.
Rising Chinese consumer afluence appears to be
She posits a consumer-type termed ‘law-abiding’ who driving increased demand for ivory carvings (IFAW
drops out of the market if the product is illegal (or 2012; Underwood et al. 2013). However, this demand
swamped by illegal products). This is because the has not kept up with the sudden changes seen in
commodity is stigmatized for that consumer. Other poaching rates, interest rates or transport costs. To
consumers stay in the market. If a ban (or other factors) illustrate, suppose there is a 20% seizure rate and
stigmatizes ivory, demand falls. This effect has to 30–40 tonnes of raw ivory are being seized. This
be shown to be present in some markets, and if it would mean an extra 150 to 200 tonnes of raw ivory
dominates the adverse supply-related effects of the being fed into the carving market every year. To see
ban, it is an appropriate regime. However, it
is also possible that an opposite effect exists
LIBOR
total raw ivory
7
32,000
in some Asian markets: if, for example, some
6
28,000
consumers seek possession and consumption
of illicit products as a means to acquire and
5
24,000
demonstrate social status by being beyond
4
20,000
the reach of the law.
Kremer and Morcom (2000) identify
3
16,000
a number of variables that should affect
2
12,000
stockpiling. One is interest rates. Stockpiling
1
8,000
ought to increase with low interest rates,
all else being equal, because of the higher
0
4,000
96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13
potential for relative return on investment.
Year
For instance, if criminal speculators expect
Figure 7. Interest rates versus raw ivory seizures. Sources: ETIS
the price of ivory to increase 10% per year
(TRAFFIC International 2013) for ivory seizures, Bloomberg (2013a) for
and interest rates decrease from 6% to 3%,
interest rates.
then they would prefer to hold more ivory
and less of the inancial assets. Note that
36,000
9,000
LIBOR
total raw ivory
speculators typically hold assets with low
32,000
8,000
returns when these assets also have lower
28,000
7,000
risk. Figure 7 shows that global interest rates
24,000
6,000
have collapsed since the global inancial
20,000
5,000
crisis. This is consistent with speculators
16,000
4,000
wanting more raw ivory for stockpiling. The
3,000
12,000
correlation statistic with raw ivory seizures
8,000
2,000
is –0.455, which means when interest rates
1,000
4,000
drop, seizures increase and vice-versa. We
are assuming seizure levels are an indicator
0
0
96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13
of illegal ivory trading scale.
Year
A second factor is costs. Freight costs
(air and shipping) matter for ivory, given Figure 8. Freight costs versus raw ivory seizures.
71
’t Sas-Rolfes et al.
Index (base = 100)
price increases in ivory as seen in China and Thailand explicitly rule out a large increase in illegal sales, but
(Table 2) with the high volumes being smuggled in, in combination they make the stockpiling explanation
at such low global transport costs, requires a massive credible.
offsetting increase in demand. However, there is little
It is important to identify the destination of the
evidence to support this. The CITES Secretariat smuggled ivory because this implies stockpile
(2010) has highlighted that reported demand in Asia destruction will have an effect in different ways. If
is not commensurate with the inlux of ivory, veriied the ivory being smuggled into Asia is largely being
by Wang Shan, secretary general of the China Arts and stockpiled for speculation, destruction will have
Crafts Association (Ma 2013) and supported by legal little immediate effect on the market for carvings.
turnover of tusks shown in Figure 4. There appears to Any changes to the market observed in the wake of
be a gap between estimated illegal raw ivory imports the announced intent to destroy ivory and its follow
and worked ivory output. This gap is also supported through will likely be the result of other factors.
by recent reports of a drop in demand in China for Measures of consumer demand in China have been
luxury goods (Baldwin 2014; Wendlandt 2014).
softening through 2013 into 2014. One such measure
Converting the dramatic increase of poached is Chinese consumer conidence. This metric is apt as it
raw ivory into carvings for rapid sale implies great homes in on Chinese households. This makes it a better
lexibility in adjusting manufacturing volume. This measure than say, GDP, which includes non-household
would be evidenced by excess productive capacity expenditures, such as those coming from industrial
and, in this industry, a very large number of under- growth or exports. This measure has softened again. For
employed or unemployed carvers to take up the instance, through 2013 Chinese consumer conidence
extra carving requirements instigated by this ivory has declined (Figure 9). A softening in demand for
inlux. This can be partly ameliorated by making carvings thus appears plausible irrespective of the
smaller pieces, which require less time and skill. The stockpile destruction.
trade-off is that the pieces are smaller, which puts
downward pressure on throughput. To illustrate, the Discussion
approximately 15,000 carvings of less than 100 g
made in the legal factories in 2013 represented about The economic literature describes a complex system of
80% of the number of pieces made, but only about 5% interactions between stockpiles, poaching, prices and
of the weight of ivory used (Moyle and Conrad 2014). expectations. Poaching levels have multiple potential
The number of ivory carvers is also limited (Moyle trajectories and can switch among them (Kremer and
and Conrad 2014), and to make carvings is time- Morcom 2000). An important feature of ivory is that it
consuming because production is largely artisanal can be stored for years. Illegal stockpiles accumulate
(Stiles 2004). Indeed, Vigne and Martin (2011) report (via increased poaching or leakage) to buffer black
factories in South China closing because of
lack of carvers. Many carvers left ivory to go
116
into wood carving, which they found more
proitable. Production evidence implies that
112
illegal factories face a signiicant obstacle in
trying to absorb the volumes of smuggled
108
ivory. It does not appear that this obstacle
has been overcome.
104
The evidence for black market stockpiling
is still circumstantial. Nonetheless it aligns
100
with many of the observations about the
market while the explanation of increased
96
worked ivory sales does not. Interest rates
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
are low. Sales do not appear to have risen by
Year
a magnitude to absorb the inlux of illegal
raw ivory. Carving capacity is hindered by a Figure 9. Chinese consumer conidence. Index from Bloomberg
lack of artisans. None of these explanations (2013b).
72
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile management
market sellers against volatile ivory supply, in
expectation of future price increases and possibly to
manipulate prices.
Poaching levels thus respond partly in anticipation
of future market conditions. They are not merely a
product of current conditions. The fact that CITES
seems unlikely to approve further legal sales for the
foreseeable future may create incentives for criminal
speculators to accumulate stockpiles. Legal stockpiles
act as a counterweight to these illegal stockpiles,
and a threat of future legal sales (or even leakage
by theft) may deter some poaching. There is no
theoretical rationale for destroying legal stockpiles
for conservation purposes. Indeed, destroying them
concentrates market power with speculators holding
illegal stocks and, if demand for ivory persists, makes
extinction trajectories more likely (Bulte et al. 2003;
Mason et al. 2012).
The future demand for ivory is a crucial issue that
lacks proper analysis. With the exception of Fischer
(2004), the literature assumes that demand for ivory
will be maintained, if not accelerated. Trade bans and
stockpile destructions are primarily supply oriented.
Their demand effects are unclear.
There is also an important conlict in perceptions
between speculators amassing ivory illegally and
organizations supporting stockpile destruction. Such
speculators must be conident that demand will persist
and prices will keep rising (Kremer and Morcom
2000). They do not consider efforts to reduce ivory
demand to be credible. By contrast, advocates of
stockpile destruction are assuming that such actions
will cause demand to decline. If the speculators are
correct, demand for ivory will resist these measures.
Cultures with a long history of ivory use have
a record of maintaining demand despite external
pressure (Walker 2009). The conlict in perceptions
extends to the diverse values elephants have for
various peoples. Numerous cultures throughout Africa,
the Middle East, Europe, North America and Asia
have long-standing traditions of ivory use (Walker
2009). Some of these same cultures now have groups
strongly opposed to any use of ivory. This conlict
in values has wider dimensions. It motivates some
parties favouring narrow conservation to adhere to a
strict preservationist approach. A narrow policy can
also generate a social justice dimension where some
cultures’ values are discounted completely or external
economic costs are imposed upon them (Harris 2013).
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
The current dilemma is the conflict between
demand and supply measures to reduce poaching.
Existing attempts to change consumer behaviour (and
therefore reduce ivory prices) employ both coercion
(trade bans) and moral suasion (demand reduction
campaigns). However, reducing supply via bans and
stockpile destruction may exert upward pressure on
prices, thereby offsetting gains from demand reduction.
Attempting to reduce supply and demand at the same
time is akin to simultaneously turning up the heating
and turning on air-conditioning; it does not make good
sense. Demand reduction alone may make short-term
sense, but it ought to precede supply reduction to preempt the conlict.
Decisions to destroy coniscated and other legally
held ivory stockpiles do not conform to policy aimed to
deter illegal raw ivory hoarding. Instead, the economic
literature supports the holding of legal stockpiles as
an insurance policy that will lessen the beneits to
hoarders of concentrating ivory stocks that gain in
value from the decline in elephants. The claimed effect
that stockpile destruction has on demand is based on
rhetoric and assertions about ivory demand that lack
coherence or empirical evidence.
The rapid increase in poaching and the scale of it in
recent years deies a simple explanation and a simple
solution. We postulate that criminal organizations and
other speculators may have determined that stockpiling
ivory is a viable investment. This is where research
needs to be focused. It is also a warning that these
speculators do not perceive ivory destruction to be
a threat. It would be frightening to discover that
concentrating market power in the hands of criminals
through policies like ivory destruction is actually
encouraging them further.
Conclusions
The recent stockpile destructions in the USA, China,
France and Hong Kong amounted to relatively small
proportions of the known legally held stockpiles.
Nonetheless, there are reports by ivory vendors in
Beijing and Hong Kong, and by a non-government
organization in Hong Kong, that the price of worked
ivory did in fact increase after the China crush (Moore
2014; ITV 2014; NPR 2014). Table 2 and the section
on price above demonstrate that illegal raw ivory
prices have shot up since 2011, when the current
round of stockpile destruction began with Kenya.
The planned further destructions in Hong Kong and
73
’t Sas-Rolfes et al.
possibly Tanzania and Thailand amount to a much
higher proportion of legal stocks and consequently a
greater potential risk of driving up the price of illegal
ivory even more.
The decision to destroy legal stockpiles of ivory
should be driven by sound policymaking, backed
up by a robust economic rationale supported by
compelling evidence. This evidence should include
data on demand elasticities. Any stockpile destruction
should be a credible signal to black market participants
that ivory will become less valuable. Any rationale
for destruction must address concerns that the signal
will perversely increase the perceived value of illegal
stockpiles. There should also be a monitoring system in
place beforehand to assess whether these destructions
are meeting their aims. Current moves to destroy
stockpiles do not satisfy these conditions.
The economic literature on ivory trade, stockpile
management and related issues provides no theoretical
support for a policy of stockpile destruction. Trade
legalization may have undesirable consequences, but
the extent to which stigma is generated by bans is an
unsettled empirical issue. The persistence of ivory
demand in markets with long cultural traditions of
use does suggest this type of market is not always
readily or entirely amenable to stigmatization. It
has not yet been convincingly demonstrated to what
extent underlying demand is sensitive to stigma in the
important markets of China and Thailand.
The argument that existing legally held ivory
stockpiles pose a threat to elephants is supported
neither by economic theory nor by empirical evidence.
The only circumstance under which existing, securely
held stockpiles would pose a threat is if they are
primarily held by illegal speculators. Such agents
beneit from large declines or extinction threats of
elephants because they would drive up the rarity value
of their stock. This is a further argument in support of
governments retaining legal stockpiles, as a potential
competitive buffer to such an outcome.
Ivory stockpiles are not a threat to wild elephant
populations, but destroying them may be, as it reduces
potential future supply; it may increase perception of
scarcity value and thus drive up black market prices
for ivory and therefore future levels of poaching. Ivory
stockpile destruction does not meet the precautionary
principle criteria, because the outcome is unknown.
Having policy options in an uncertain environment
is precautionary. Eliminating them is irresponsible.
74
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Kirsten Conrad for
sharing data and commenting on the draft manuscript,
and we are very grateful to Yufang Gao and Susan
Clark for giving permission to use information from
their article, unpublished at the time of submitting this
article. We are also grateful to the two reviewers of
the manuscript, who offered very valuable comments
that resulted in useful revisions.
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77
Barman et al.
Rehabilitation of greater one-horned rhinoceros calves in Manas
National Park, a World Heritage Site in India
Rathin Barman,1* Bhaskar Choudhury,2 NVK Ashraf 3 and V Menon 3
1
Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation, Borjuri, Kaziranga National Park, Bokakhat 786512,
Assam, India
2
Field Ofice, Wildlife Trust of India, Bansbari, Manas National Park, c/o Ofice of FDTP, Manas Tiger Reserve,
Barpeta Road, Assam, India
3
Wildlife Trust of India, F-13, Sector-8, Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201301, India
*corresponding author email: rathin@wti.org.in
Abstract
For the irst time in the history of rhino conservation in India, three rescued orphan greater one-horned rhinoceros
calves have been rehabilitated in an area that in the recent past was a good habitat for rhinos. The calves were
rescued in Kaziranga National Park (NP) when they were about one to ive months old when they were swept
away by lood waters. The calves were hand reared and nursed at the Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and
Conservation (CWRC) with the aim of releasing them into their natural habitat. They were fed human milk
formula until they reached two years of age, and then with concentrates and greens in paddocks in CWRC. At
the age of about three years the calves were translocated to Manas NP, about 500 km away from Kaziranga,
and placed in a pre-release area measuring 600 acres. This pre-release area is enclosed with an electric fence
and the calves were free to roam and forage within it. After spending about two years in this area the calves
were released into Manas NP. The calves were radio monitored for two years; they all survived and created
their own home ranges.
Résumé
Pour la première fois dans l’histoire de la conservation des rhinocéros en Inde, trois orphelins du grand rhinocéros
unicorne sauvés ont été réhabilités dans un autre habitat qui avait été une zone abritant les rhinocéros dans un
passé récent,. Les bébés rhinocéros ont été sauvés dans le parc national de Kaziranga (PN), quand ils étaient
âgés d’entre un et cinq mois quand ils avaient été emportés par les inondations. Les bébés étaient nourris au
biberon et soignés au Centre de Récupération et de Conservation des Animaux Sauvages (CRCAS) dans le but
de les réhabiliter dans leur habitat naturel. Les bébés ont été nourris à la formule du lait humain jusqu’à ce qu’ils
atteignent deux ans, puis avec des concentrés et de l’herbe dans les paddocks au CRCAS. A l’âge d’environ
trois ans, ils ont été transférés au PN de Manas, à environ 500 km de Kaziranga, et placés dans une zone de
pré-relâchement mesurant 600 hectares. Cette zone de pré-relâchement est entourée d’une clôture électrique et
les jeunes rhinocéros sont libres de se déplacer et de fourrager. Après avoir passé environ deux ans dans cette
zone de pré-relâchement, ils ont été libérés dans le PN de Manas. Ils ont été suivis par radio pendant deux ans ;
ils ont tous survécu et on a constaté qu’ils créaient leurs propres habitats vitaux.
Introduction
Rehabilitated animals are now seen as useful scientiic
resources not limited to the classical theories of
individual animal welfare or endangered species
conservation (Robinson 2005). When a population
78
is threatened, either globally or locally, released
rehabilitated individuals can have a positive effect on
the population. Until the early nineties, Rhinoceros
unicornis had a healthy population in Manas National
Park (NP) (26°30′N–27°00′N to 90°50′E–92°00′E),
a World Heritage Site in India (Figure 1). Assam
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Rehabilitation of greater one-horned rhinoceros calves in India
Forest Department (2001) revealed in their internal
documents that this population was, however, wiped
out due to civil unrest during the late nineties. The civil
unrest ended in 2004 following political agreements
that led to the formation of the Bodoland Territorial
Council (BTC). Thanks to the efforts of BTC and
the local autonomous civil administration authority
and support from communities around Manas, this
important global biodiversity hot spot has regained
its protection status. BTC proposed adding an area
measuring 950 km2 to the eastern boundary of Manas
NP. The legislative council has endorsed the proposal
and this much larger landscape is to be called the
Greater Manas; it awaits inal endorsement by the
State Board of Wildlife, Assam, a statutory body of
the government of Assam. This new conservation
initiative in Manas is banking on community
conservation efforts, a new approach in India. With
civil societies collaborating to protect these rhinos,
conservation communities asked for them to be
urgently reintroduced in Manas NP.
Kaziranga NP (26°33′N–26°45′N and
93°9′E–93°36′E), another World Heritage Site in the
northeast Indian state of Assam, has a population of
about 2,000 wild greater one-horned rhinos: more
than two-thirds of their global population (Figure 1).
As Kaziranga NP is situated on the bank of River
Brahmaputra, looding is a natural phenomenon and
almost every year about 90% of the park is under lood
(Vasu 2003). During each lood, a number of wild
animals are dispersed, separated from their mother
populations and their land in civil areas. These animals
are injured or killed in different circumstances such
as in road accidents, by humans or by poachers. To
minimize mortality and to have a proper scientiic
rescue and rehabilitation programme, the Assam
Forest Department in collaboration with the Wildlife
Trust of India (WTI) and the International Fund for
Animal Welfare (IFAW) established the Centre for
Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation (CWRC) in
2002 at Kaziranga. With 2 biologists, 2 veterinarians
and 12 animal keepers, CWRC has been providing
all rescue and rehabilitation needs of wild animals
in distress in Kaziranga for the last 12 years. In the
last 10 years, CWRC has handled more than 3,500
animal rescue cases; more than 50% of these animals
were successfully released into the wild. CWRC
is a major facility for hand-raising orphaned large
Kaziranga
Manas
Figure 1. State of Assam showing Manas and Kaziranga NPs.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
79
Barman et al.
wild mammals, especially
Age/duration
Stage
Place
Features
rhino, elephant and wild
buffalo calves in northeast
If reunion with mother fails
India. At this centre,
orphan animals spend their
To CWRC for hand for hand raising
time in different housing
facilities from nursery to
Duration:
STABILIZATION
Stabilization
Emergency relief to the calf in distress
big paddocks, depending
Nursery
2 months
PHASE
Choice of appropriate milk formula
(110
sq.
m)
on their age at rescue. They
Protection from extremes of weather
are bottle-fed human baby
milk formula until they are
Moved on foot to paddock
weaned at different ages,
depending on the species.
In 2002 and 2004 three
Paddock
Ex situ
Age: 5-24
Feeding of fodder and concentrates
(>1000 sq m)
months
rehabilitation
rhino calves aged less than
Mixing with conspecifics of same age
ive months were rescued
Weaning by 18 month of age
in Kaziranga NP after they
were separated from their
Transported in Truck
mothers by high flood
waters. They were shifted
Boma
to CWRC for further
IN SITU
Site selected in the distribution range
Age: 25
In the wild
ACCLIMATIZATION
months to
care and treatment. These
Supplementary feeding till required
Not
<
3acres
3-4 years
animals were later released
Monitoring animal behaviour
into Manas NP. This is the
Let open in the wild
irst time in the history of
rhino conservation in India
Release site
that rescued rhino calves
Radio collar before release
RELEASE TO THE
Age: After
Outside boma
WILD
3-4 years
have been rehabilitated and
reintroduced into a natural
Monitor for a period of one year
habitat. Before that, all
Figure 2. Rhino rehabilitation protocol low chart.
rescued calves were placed
in a zoo and many died
WTI–IFAW team and incorporated expert inputs.
while being hand-raised in
captivity (pers. comm., Ofice of the Park Director, This protocol to rehabilitate large mammals in Assam
(Ashraf et al. 2005) was later adopted by the Assam
Kaziranga NP).
Forest Department–WTI–IFAW-run CWRC. It was
tested with the rhino calves rescued and admitted at
The process
CWRC that were later released in Manas NP.
Wildlife rehabilitation is still in its infancy (Holcomb
1995) and a professional and scientific wildlife Rhino calves admitted to CWRC
rescue and rehabilitation programme is lacking in
India (Ashraf and Menon 2005). The best way to The irst rhino calf was rescued in July 2002 after it
reintroduce a hand-raised rhino to the wild is still was separated from its mother during the loods. It was
debated and doing so needs consultation and inputs weak and less than a month old. Two calves estimated
from various experts. A wildlife rehabilitation to be less than six months old were rescued in July
consultative workshop was organized at CWRC in 2004 in similar conditions. CWRC rescued 21 other
2005 to get expert suggestions and inputs, to share rhino calves under various circumstances. Flooding
Africa’s experiences, and to formulate a protocol is the major cause of displacement of rhino calves in
for reintroducing these rescued rhino calves (Figure Kaziranga NP. In a few cases, calves were found alone
2). This forum discussed a protocol drafted by a in the forest for unknown reasons; a few were orphans
th
80
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Rehabilitation of greater one-horned rhinoceros calves in India
after poachers killed their mothers, others were failed
predation attempts. CRWC took in all these rhinos for
treatment and care. While 5 of the 24 rhinos brought
to the CWRC were injured, due largely to predation, 4
cases could be attributed solely to loods. Interestingly,
almost all the rhino calves with serious injuries were
encountered outside the peak monsoon season (July–
September). In spite of medical care, all calves that
survived predation died from the serious injuries.
Critics consider ‘rescuing’ such calves as disrupting
normal ecological processes. Field staff in the park
realized that these cases were predation attempts only
after taking the animals captive. Park authorities have
been advised to adopt a wait-and-watch policy when
they encounter rhino calves as they could be cases of
predation attempts. Of the 10 calves that died, 6 died
within 48 hours of admission, 3 within two weeks and
1 inside the boma at Manas. CWRC veterinarians have
found it much easier to hand-raise rhino calves than
elephant calves; however, their condition on arrival
determines whether they will survive. A healthy rhino
calf, even when very young, has greater survival
chances than an elephant calf of the same age group.
Besides the four rhinos that were relocated to Manas
in 2006, 2007 and 2008, CWRC at present has ive
rhino calves, all males (Table 1).
At CWRC, the calves were placed in a nursery
enclosure (~5 m x 5 m), observed for injuries and
stabilized. Generally, calves are accompanied round
the clock by an animal keeper. Calves were fed diluted
human baby milk formula that was available in the
market (brand name: Nestogen, make: Néstle) with a
special 2-litre bottle with a long rubber nipple. For the
irst three to four days, they were given milk at one-hour
intervals, although this frequency was reduced during
the night. Once they were accustomed to drinking
this milk, were less stressed and had stabilized, they
were allowed to use a paddock (~10 m x 10 m) next to
the nursery. After three to four months, varying with
the individual, the calves were fed concentrates with
mineral supplements and vitamins. From the age of 6
months, they were introduced to fresh greens, mainly
grass, and continued with concentrates and milk. They
were weaned at two years and fed a diet of greens
from then on. Veterinary doctors treated the calves and
prescribed appropriate medicines for injuries. At any
time, there were two vets at CWRC, ready to handle
any emergency with medical interventions.
While the calves were being hand raised at CWRC,
procedures had started to select sites where they could
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
be rehabilitated. Though Kukrakata near Kaziranga NP
was identiied as a possible site for release, the CWRC
governing council recommended moving them to
Manas NP for rehabilitation and release. Rehabilitation
is isolated from the holistic conservation effort when
it is not linked to an active conservation programme.
Here was an opportunity to link rehabilitation efforts
with an active conservation programme. Using
rehabilitated animals in reintroduction programmes
for establishing new free-ranging populations has
greater conservation value than releasing them in
areas like Kaziranga where there is already a healthy
rhino population.
Two important issues were considered while
selecting Manas as the release site. The IUCN Guidelines on re-introduction (1998) stipulate that the reintroduction area should have assured long-term
protection, and the causes of the species’ decline should
be identiied and eliminated or reduced to a signiicant
level. Cessation of political unrest in the region,
formation of the autonomous BTC and resumption
of park protection and management activities assured
that the project had political support and that poaching
in the park has been reduced to insigniicant levels.
Following the governing council’s recommendation,
a site selection committee visited Kokilabari and
Bansbari areas in 2005 to assess the area. This
committee consisted of the chief wildlife warden of
Assam, the directors of Manas and Kaziranga NPs, all
range oficers of Manas NP and representatives from
WTI. Site selection criteria were developed based on the
IUCN (1998) guidelines on re-introduction that had the
following set of suitability criteria: the site falling within
the rhino distribution range; availability of adequate
cover, food and water; minimal presence of human
settlements in the area; reports of minimal livestock
grazing and human trespassing; habitat suitability
in terms of vegetation composition; accessibility of
the site for monitoring; reports of livestock diseases
reported from the area; how prone the site is to looding
during the monsoon; and availability of reports of
hunting, poaching and insurgency in the area. Three
sites within Manas were selected: Kuribeel, Uchila and
Kokilabari. The committee considered the advantages
and disadvantages of each site, and the Kuribeel area of
Bansbari Range in Manas NP was chosen as the site in
which to establish the rehabilitation station. Kokilabari
has less grassland area, few perennial water bodies and
high human intervention; Uchia is located deep in the
81
Barman et al.
Table 1. List of rhino calves admitted at CWRC for various reasons since 2002
Sl no.
1
Date of
admission
21/01/2013
Place of rescue
Kaziranga
2
23/09/2012
Haldibari
3
01/07/2012
Baghmari
4
27/10/2011
Burapahar
5
10/03/2011
Hathikhuli
6
15/02/2011
Karetapu
7
19/12/2010
Agoratuli
8
08/03/2010
9
10/09/2009
10
21/08/2009
Kathpora,
Kohora
Baghmari,
Baguri
Haldibari
11
13/03/2009
12
09/02/2009
Baruntika
Camp, Baguri
Bokhpora
13
31/01/2008
Gerakati, Baguri
Infant male
14
22/09/2007
Hatikuli, Kohara
15
11/09/2007
Deopani, Baguri
Neonate
female
Infant male
16
16/10/2006
Japoripothar
17
20/06/2005
Baguri
18
09/01/2005
Ajagar camp
19
09/12/2004
Dumjan
20
22/07/2004
Harmoti, Baguri
21
14/07/2004
Baghmari,
22
06/03/2003
Kaziranga
23
06/08/2002
Kaziranga
24
28/07/2002
Kaziranga
82
Stage/sex
Infant
female
Neonate
female
Infant male
Infant
female
Neonate
male
Infant
female
Neonate
male
Infant
female
Infant male
Neonate
male
Infant male
Infant male
Neonate
male
Neonate
female
Infant
female
Infant male
Infant
female
Infant
female
Infant male
Infant
female
Infant
female
Cause of
displacement
unknown
(found alone)
lood/river
induced
unknown
(found alone)
unknown
(found alone)
injury
(unknown)
unknown
(found alone)
orphan (parent
killed)
stuck in mud
unknown
(found alone)
unknown
(found alone)
unknown
(found alone)
orphan (parent
killed)
unknown
(found alone)
orphan (parent
killed)
injury
(unknown)
injury
(predation)
injury
(unknown)
unknown
(found alone)
injury
(predation)
lood/river
induced
lood/river
induced
injury
(predation)
lood/river
induced
lood/river
induced
Outcome
died in captivity
Date of
outcome
31/01/2013
died in captivity
19/11/2012
alive
N/A
died in captivity
27/10/2012
died in captivity
22/03/2011
died in captivity
04/03/2011
alive
N/A
died in captivity
15/03/2010
alive
N/A
alive
N/A
alive
N/A
alive
N/A
alive
N/A
died in captivity
06/10/2008
died in captivity
12/09/2007
died in captivity
16/10/2006
died in captivity
20/06/2005
died in captivity
27/01/2005
died in captivity
28/12/2004
released
27/11/2008
released
27/11/2008
died in captivity
06/03/2003
died in captivity
07/08/2002
released
27/11/2008
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Rehabilitation of greater one-horned rhinoceros calves in India
park and it was likely there would be problems with
regular monitoring of the area. The presence of a few
watchtowers around Kuribeel area ensured 24-hour
rhino security. As the plan was to move the rhinos in
trucks, it was also important to have the pre-release
area located along an existing forest camp road.
its existing size. Accordingly, 19 acres were added as
compartment C in January 2008, just before the fourth
rhino was relocated. All three compartments together
measure 33.35 ha and were suficient to accommodate
the four rhinos until they were released.
Relocating rhinos to Manas NP
The boma: pre-release area
Early in 2006 WTI partnered with BTC to reintroduce
The pre-release area in Kuribeel—called a ‘boma’, as rhinos into Manas NP from Kaziranga. IUCN
this is what a similar enclosure is called in Africa—was guidelines (Emslie et al. 2009; Suwal and Shakya
surrounded by a solar-powered electric fence. It had 2002) were used to plan and translocate the handthree compartments: compartment A was ready when raised rhinos. The irst rhino, a three and a half-yearthe irst rhino was moved, and as soon as compartment old female christened Maino by BTC, was moved to
B was completed, the rhino was allowed to use both the boma on 21 February 2006. Maino thus got the
areas (Figure 3). The boma also included part of a distinction of being the irst rhino to reach Manas after
perennial stream because rhinos need water bodies to the resident population of rhinos had been wiped out
wallow in during the hot hours of the day. Hume pipes during the decade of political instability in the region.
(large cemented pipes) were placed below the fence On 28 January 2007, two more female rhinos, Rose
to facilitate the free low of stream water through the and Manasi, were relocated from CWRC to the same
boma. The nine-strand power fence had a twin role: to boma. After a month of habituation at CWRC the
keep the rhinos conined in a large area for at least two rhinos were each lured into a crate, and a long-acting
years and at the same time keep away wild elephants tranquilizer, Azaperon (Stressnil), was administered
and large carnivores like tigers. A corridor measuring intramuscularly to reduce aggression and minimize
20 m x 70 m was created between sections A and B damage to the crate. With the use of a crane the crates
in case the rhinos needed to be conined for medical were loaded onto individual trucks that travelled by
intervention. Two more rhinos were relocated to the road overnight for about 400 km.
On 23 February 2008 a female rhino calf about two
boma in 2006 and another rhino calf was rescued in
years
old was translocated from CWRC to Manas NP,
September 2007. The boma was expanded to double
raising to four the number
of rhinos inside the boma.
Gate to be open for release
This rhino had been rescued
400m
5m wide gate
from Hatikhuli Tea Estate
Temporary
near Kohora after poachers
Mahout camp
killed its mother. While the
rhinos that had been moved
C
200m
to Manas earlier were all
hand raised, this calf was
220m
already two years old and
5m wide gate
Lowland
was therefore considered to
100m
5m wide gate
have been already weaned
off milk. Consequently,
luring this calf into the
Wetland
transportation crate was not
150m
considered an appropriate
B
A
option for trapping it.
We used a combination
250m
of Meditomidine and
Ketamine hydrochlorides
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the boma used for rhino rehabilitation.
to restrain it before placing
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
83
Barman et al.
A calf under rehabilitation at CWRC is bottle-fed milk.
it on the sledge and dragging it into the crate. To give
the rhinos a sense of familiarity to the new area, bags
of their fresh and old dung had been taken to Manas
from CWRC the previous day and scattered on the
ground. The next morning after the trucks reached
Manas, the young rhinos were let out of their crates
into the boma. All four rhinos have been radio-collared
to enable post-release monitoring. Within two months
of relocating the fourth rhino to Manas, two male
rhinos from Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) were
hard-released (caught in the wild and directly released
in Manas without using a pre-release boma) in Manas
as part of the Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (IRV 2020)
rhino translocation programme of the government of
Assam. The female rhinos translocated from CWRC
to Manas have a chance to choose mates while they
are rehabilitating in Manas NP.
Rhinos at the boma
The rhino calves admitted to CWRC were hand-raised
for about 18 months. Unlike elephant calves, they were
held in large stockades at the centre until they were
considered it enough to be relocated to the boma at
the release site. Since rhino calves begin nibbling grass
blades by the age of 2–3 months, grass and browse
were made available to them by the time they were
four months old.
A ‘soft-release’ strategy was adopted after holding
the rhinos in captivity at the release site for two to four
years, depending on the age of the rhino at the time
of its relocation. All rhinos were given supplementary
feeding, a concentrate mix, for a week following their
relocation. Supplementary feeding stopped as soon
84
as they became accustomed to the grazing area inside
the boma.
The fourth rhino was much younger and she was
held initially in a small paddock specially created
within compartment A, before she was allowed free
access to the entire compartment. The plan was to
restrict the calf to this compartment until the other
three adult or subadult rhinos occupying compartments
B and C were released. However, one of the male IRV
2020 rhinos strayed more than 100 km from Manas,
creating panic among people, and had to be captured
and released into the boma. The second male rhino,
possibly lured by the three females inside, had already
forced his way into the boma by disrupting the power
fence on 10 June 2008. Fortunately, this happened
on the side harbouring compartments B and C where
the adult rhinos were held and not in compartment A.
However, releasing the straying rhino into the boma
through compartment A had serious consequences. The
standard operating procedures were overlooked and the
calf was left among adult and subadult rhinos with all
compartments interconnected. On 14 September 2008
the young female calf was found dead. The carcass was
discovered only after a couple of days by which time
putrefaction had started and scavengers had devoured
the carcass considerably. Mandibular fracture and
other circumstantial evidence pointed to death due to
traumatic injury caused by the adult rhinos. Though
ingers were pointed at the wild captured rhinos, there
was no clear evidence to support this.
Data were collected on rhinos’ use of habitat within
the boma, and rhino behaviour towards caretakers,
strangers, conspeciics and other wildlife was recorded
anecdotally. Initially, the animals were seen following
the caretaker whenever he inspected the fence for
repairs. A month later the monsoon set in and tall grass
grew inside the boma that soon cut down the visibility
of the rhinos from outside. Three months after they
were released, the rhinos showed little concern for
people patrolling around the fence, though they were
at times heard vocalizing on noticing human presence.
The tall grass was cut to encourage the growth of
fresh blades of grass. The rhinos were moved from one
compartment to another and the grass was trimmed
close to the ground. Burning the grass would have
been a better option but was not done as the ire might
have gone out of control and spread into the other
compartments holding the rhinos.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Rehabilitation of greater one-horned rhinoceros calves in India
Release and post-release
monitoring
On 27 November 2008, the park authority and WTI
representatives visited the pre-release site at Bansbari
to assess whether it was feasible to release three female
rhinos from the boma. The Rhino Task Force meeting
of the government of Assam held in September 2008
had proposed that these rhinos be released. The team
found all conditions favourable and released the rhinos
from the pre-release site. On 27 November 2008, the
gate of the boma at the northern-most boundary was
opened and two female rhinos came out immediately.
The third female rhino only ventured out the next Female (rehabilitated) and male (hard release) rhinos graze
day. At the time of release, one of the females was in Manas National Park.
over six years old and the other two nearly ive years.
Meanwhile, the two male rhinos continued being held tear. The collar stopped functioning, but not before
in the boma till 3 May 2009 when the younger forced providing the tracking team with information on her
his way out, once again by breaking through the power movement patterns for more than a year. All rhinos
fence. The reason was said to be persecution by the were intensively monitored till 31 March 2010.
other male inside. Once part of the southern boundary
Radio-tracking was done largely using a vehicle,
of the park was power fenced, the other male rhino was but sometimes on foot and rarely on elephant back.
also let out, on 25 November 2009. This was exactly Temporary watchtowers were erected at strategic
one year after the three rehabilitated rhinos had been locations, especially near the southern park boundary
released from the boma. Soon, the male and female towards the village site, to facilitate easy tracking.
rhinos were seen grazing together, often occupying Having been held in captivity in the boma for more
the same habitat.
than two years, the rhinos had developed site idelity
The rehabilitation protocol emphasized that the and as a result did not wander long distances after their
rhinos be monitored intensively for one year post- release, unlike the hard-released males. Tracking these
release (Ashraf et al. 2005; Emslie et al. 2009). But the animals was therefore much easier as they rarely went
rhinos were monitored
for more than this
designated period. In
spite of collaring them
as early as 2006 and
2007 respectively, the
collars continued to give
signals till the end of
2009 and beginning of
2010. Collars therefore
provided range-use
data for more than the
stipulated period of
one year post-release.
Manasi’s collar fell
in October 2009, and
Maino’s in February
2010. Rose’s collar is
on the verge of falling Figure 4. Home range of rehabilitated rhinos in Manas National Park.
due to normal wear and Key: solid line = Maino; broken line = Manasi and Rose
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
85
Barman et al.
beyond the coverage area of the radio-transmitter. As
they were also habituated to the caretakers, watching
them from close quarters did not hamper their normal
behaviour. However, they were never seen to approach
humans as was the case during the irst six months
of being released into the boma in 2006 and 2007
respectively.
Range extension and habitat use:
first six months post-release
rhinos, Maino’s range use often coincided with the
movement pattern of the males. As a result, she also
strayed out of the park repeatedly during the day and
up to four or ive times during May 2009. By placing
an animal tracker solely for guarding against this at
the Palsiguri beat of the southern boundary of the park,
the situation could be brought under control. However,
after the power fence was erected on the Bansbari side
of the southern boundary, incidents of straying have
not been reported.
Maino avoided the tall grasslands being routinely
burned in January 2010 and instead used swampy
grasslands more. As soon as new blades of grass
emerged in the burnt areas, the rhino began frequenting
these patches. In January, Maino was associated with
one of the IRV 2020 male rhinos and both disappeared
from the scene for nearly a week. With no signal being
received from Maino for ive days, intensive search
led to her being spotted in the Tower camp, northeast
of the boma.
The rhinos did not have a chance to re-enter the boma
as the gates had to be closed for the two male rhinos to
be held captive till the southern boundary of the park
was power-fenced. However, true to the nature of softreleased animals, the initial range utilization of all the
three rhinos had a close association with the boma. The
two younger females (Rose and Manasi) were conined
to the perimeter of the power fence for the irst two
months after their release. Within six months, Maino
had established a home range of about 15 km2 and
Rose and Manasi a considerably small home range of Range extension and habitat use:
7–8 km2 (Figure 4). Maino extended her range towards the last six months (October 2009–
the south and southeast of the boma up to the fringe
March 2010)
areas of the southern boundary. The farthest distance
she travelled from the park boundary was 1.5 km up By March 2010, Maino had extended her range further
to Barengabari village. From the boma the northern to the northeast of the boma (Figure 5). The animal
limit was 2.5 km and movement towards east during was no longer sighted frequently in and around antithe irst six months of release varied from 2 to 5 km. poaching camps. This could be because short grasses
It was apparent that the movement to the south and and aquatic vegetation were abundant everywhere.
southeast of the boma was for the aquatic vegetation The rhinos in Manas most frequented areas with short
on the Giati River and short grassland in the fringe grass and aquatic vegetation. Unlike Rose and Manasi,
areas where livestock grazing and other biotic pressure Maino explored newer areas that are also used by the
is high. In May 2009,
her movement pattern
almost coincided with
that of the male rhino
that had escaped from the
boma on 3 May 2009. By
September 2009, all three
rhinos not only showed a
general increase in their
range use, but also a shift
in habitat use pattern,
which was possibly
determined by the
physiognomic changes
in ground vegetation.
Because of her frequent
association with the male Figure 5. Shift of home ranges in different seasons.
86
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Rehabilitation of greater one-horned rhinoceros calves in India
Releasing a rhino from CRWC into Manas National Park.
adult male rhinos. For instance in March, she was
sighted with a male rhino in Bangale Hatdhua area,
long after her collar had dropped.
While Maino had her own range-use pattern,
often associating with the males, Rose and Manasi
were always found moving together. In March 2010,
both rhinos were seen using the elephant training
camp, boma and Bathan areas. However, it was not
uncommon to see all three in one location for a brief
period.
The one year of radiotracking rehabilitated rhinos
ended, and intensive tracking formally came to an
end on 31 March 2010. The rhinos are still physically
tracked and their GPS locations, habitat use, association
with conspeciics and activity recorded anecdotally. By
April 2010, the home ranges of Maino and the other
two females were almost equal, each occupying 15–20
km2. It will be interesting to compare the home ranges
of these rhinos with those of the wild-caught males
hard-released in Manas.
Lessons for the future
Transportation age: All three rhinos (except the
fourth, which died in the boma) were relocated to
Manas when they were about three and a half to four
years of age. It would be better to move them much
earlier, say by two years, as this would shorten the
time caretakers would be needed at CSRC. It is also
much easier to move younger rhinos.
Protecting offspring: Experience in Dudhwa
NP has shown that reintroduced rhinos have little
chance of protecting their calves from tiger attacks.
In Kaziranga NP, rhinos lose a considerable number
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
of their calves to tigers. The 2,000 odd rhinos in
Kaziranga can withstand this occasional removal of
individuals from the population, but this may not be
the case in Manas. The rhinos with newly born calves
may have to be conined to the boma to protect their
calves till they are about two years old.
Relocating the boma: In a soft-release programme,
animals tend to establish their home range close to
the area of their acclimatization. To spread out the
distribution of the rhinos in the park and to reduce
pressure on the southern boundary, future releases
might have to be deep inside the park in areas like
Uchila and beyond. The boma might have to be
relocated to ensure that this happens next time when
orphan rhinos are moved to Manas.
Time of collaring rhinos: Since a considerable
amount of battery life is lost by collaring the rhinos
before their relocation, in future the animals should be
collared only when they are about to be released from
the boma. Experience has shown that the rehabilitated
rhinos do not break the fence and venture outside.
They can always be captured and returned to the boma
should an emergency of this sort happen.
From rescue to release: the success of
rehabilitation
The successful rehabilitation of rhinos in Manas NP
can be recapitulated in the following stages:
1. Rescuing the calf from distress: When attempts
to reunite calf with mother fail, the calf is taken to
CWRC for hand-raising. In the last 10 years of
experience at Kaziranga NP, not a single rhino calf
has been reunited with the mother. This is in contrast
to elephants wherein at least seven calves have been
successfully reunited.
2. Hand-raising: All calves are stabilized upon
arrival in captivity. Depending upon their hydration
levels, luid therapy is given where necessary. A
standard milk formula is employed. The calves are
weaned by 18 months of age and unlike elephant
calves, rhino calves begin nibbling blades of grass
even before they turn two months of age.
3. Translocating: Weaned calves spend another one
year held in a 2–3-acre bamboo paddock reinforced
with live wire at CWRC. Husbandry practices include
providing adequate fodder (largely grass) and a suitable
concentrate mix of gram, cereal, vitamins and mineral
supplements. At the time of translocating them, they
are either habituated to a crate or chemically restrained
87
Barman et al.
and dragged into it, and moved to the release site in a
truck after their radio collars have been placed.
4. Acclimatizing to the release site: Following
translocation, the rhinos are held in the boma for a
minimum of two years to acclimatize to the local
conditions. Apart from managing the habitat within
the enclosure, no other husbandry practice is followed
here. Such a soft-release programme also helps the
animals become loyal to the site.
5. Release and monitoring: The boma gates are
opened and the rhinos released into the wild after the
period of acclimatization is over. They are then radiotracked for one year post-release and valuable data on
their habitat use, range extension, social interactions
with conspeciics is collected. The collars either
drop on their own or are made to drop using a preprogrammed device.
Conclusions
The project has demonstrated that hand-raised rhinos
can successfully contribute to the reintroduction of
rhinos to Manas NP. With ive more orphaned rhino
calves waiting to be moved to Manas in the next two
years and more wild rhinos being planned for addition
to Manas as part of the IRV 2020 programme, the
conservation scenario looks bright as far as the return
of rhinos to the park is concerned.
All IUCN guidelines have been adhered to, not
only in formulating the rhino rehabilitation protocol
(Ashraf et al. 2005; Emslie et al. 2009), but also during
the implementation of the project. All the required
permissions from the chief wildlife warden of the
state, from the Ministry of Environment and Forests
and from the Central Zoo Authority were obtained in
advance. All rhinos were also screened for infectious
diseases before they were moved to Manas NP
following the appropriate protocol (Woodford 2001).
The rehabilitated rhinos have contributed to the return
of this species to the once-renowned Manas National
Park.
88
References
Ashraf NVK, Barman R, Mainkar K, Menon V. 2005.
The principles of rehabilitation of large mammals
(Asian elephant, Asiatic wild buffalo, Asiatic black
bear and greater one-horned rhinoceros). In: Back to
the wild: studies in wildlife rehabilitation. Wildlife
Trust of India. pp 91–103.
Ashraf NVK, Menon V. 2005. Problems and prospects of
rehabilitating wildlife displaced due to man-wildlife
conlict and the wildlife trade in India. In: Back to the
wild: studies in wildlife rehabilitation. Wildlife Trust
of India. pp 34–44.
Assam Forest Department. 2001. Reports from the ield
director, Manas National Park. Internal reports.
Emslie RH, Amin R, Kock R, editors. 2009. Guidelines for
the in situ re-introduction and translocation of African
and Asian rhinoceros. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. vi
+ 115 pp.
Holcomb J. 1995. The ethics of wildlife rehabilitation.
In: Penzhorn BL, editor, Proceedings of the SASOL
symposium on wildlife rehabilitation. Wildlife Group,
South African Veterinary Association and Annual
Rehabilitation Centre. pp. 112–118.
IUCN. 1998. IUCN guidelines for re-introductions.
Prepared by the IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist
Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Robinson I. 2005. Wildlife rehabilitation as a conservation
and welfare prerogative. In: Back to the wild: studies
in wildlife rehabilitation. Wildlife Trust of India. pp.
22–28.
Suwal RN, Shakya MM. 2000. Greater one-horned
rhinoceros translocation. Nepal Forum of
Environmental Journalists. 48 pp.
Vasu NK. 2003. Management plan of Kaziranga National
Park (2003/2013). Forest Department, Assam.
Woodford MH. 2001. Quarantine and health screening
protocols for wildlife prior to translocation and
release into the wild. IUCN, Paris. 99 pp.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Decay rate of elephant dung, Republic of Congo
FIELD NOTES
Decay rate of elephant dung in Conkouati-Douli National Park,
Republic of Congo
Hilde Vanleeuwe1* and James Probert2
1
Wildlife Conservation Society, CDNP director
Wildlife Conservation Society, Research associate
* corresponding author email: hvanleeuwe@wcs.org
2
Introduction
Dung surveys are commonly used to monitor elephant
(Loxodonta africana cyclotis, Blumenbach, 1797)
populations in forest environments. To estimate
elephant density from dung density two parameters
are required: 1) the dung deposition rate, and 2) the
rate of dung decay (Barnes and Jensen 1987; Barnes
1996; Theuerkauf and Gula 2010; Vanleeuwe 2010).
The rate at which elephant dung decays is non-linear
and is affected by numerous variables including
environmental factors such as rainfall, exposure to
sunlight, and temperature, and biological factors
such as elephant diet and the action of decomposers,
particularly fungi and insects but also small mammals
foraging for seeds. These complex interactions result
in seasonal, inter-site and intra-site variation in decay
rates (White 1995; Barnes 1996; Barnes et al. 1997;
Breuer and Hockemba 2007; Theuerkauf et al. 2009).
For this reason it is recommended that researchers
conduct their own studies of dung decay rates to
ensure accurate population estimates (Hedges and
Lawson 2006).
Study site
Conkouati-Douli National Park is located on the
southern coast of the Republic of Congo, along
the border with Gabon. The park covers an area of
5,050 km2; approximately 76% (3,850 km2) of it is
terrestrial and the remaining 24% (1,200 km2) forms
the Republic of Congo’s only marine protected area.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Conkouati-Douli is the most biodiverse protected area
in Congo, encompassing a wide variety of habitats
and species. The park is classiied as a RAMSAR
site for its important wetlands birdlife; it is a listed
candidate to become a UNESCO World Heritage Site
and is a high priority site for great apes in the IUCN
Great Ape Conservation Action Plan due to its large
number of Central African chimpanzees (Vanleeuwe
and Morgan 2012).
Methods
Seasonal movement patterns result in a large variation
in elephant numbers. To control for this variation, dung
counts are ideally conducted at the end of a season,
ensuring that dung piles recorded during the count
were deposited in the elapsed season. Dung decay
studies are therefore best conducted during the same
season that dung counts are conducted. In ConkouatiDouli, onset of the rains renders the terrain dificult
to access and dung counts are therefore conducted at
the end of the dry season, before onset of the rains.
The elephant dung decay study therefore took place
during the dry season to make the results pertinent for
elephant monitoring in Conkouati-Douli. A large herd
of elephants was spotted around the park headquarters
at the onset of the dry season, allowing us to tag 57
dung piles that were all less than 24 hours old at the
start of the study.
Dung piles were marked and the habitat, canopy
cover and slope were recorded for each pile. Canopy
cover was classiied into four categories as 0) no
89
Vanleeuwe and Probert
Table 1. Stages of decay as per Barnes and Jensen, 1987
Stage
A
B
C1
C2
D
E
Condition of dung pile
pile intact, very fresh, moist, with odour
pile intact, fresh but dry, no odour
more than 50% of the pile is distinguishable, some has disintegrated
less than 50% of the pile is distinguishable, the rest has disintegrated
pile completely disintegrated, forms a lat mass
decayed to the stage where it would be impossible to detect at 2-m range in the undergrowth, and it would not be seen unless directly underfoot
canopy, 1) 0–25% cover, 2) 25–50% cover, and 3)
50%+ cover. Slope was classiied as: 0) no slope,
1) 0–25% incline, 2) 25–50% incline, and 3) 50%+
incline.
Dung piles were monitored weekly and their stages
of decay classiied according to Barnes and Jensen
(1987). Dung piles were considered fully decayed
when they reached stage E (Table 1).
As the exact number of days between the inal
observation of dung as stage D and its transition to
stage E was unknown, a random number between one
and seven was added to calculate survival time and
decay rate (Barnes et al. 1997; Breuer and Hockemba
2007).
Results
A total of 57 dung piles were monitored from March
to September 2005. The majority (75.4%, n = 43)
were found in forest habitat with 12% (n = 7) in scrub,
10% (n = 6) in savanna grasslands and 1.8% (n = 1)
in farmland. Mean survival time of dung piles was
158.3 days (SD ± 12.6, 95% CI 1551–61); the mean
rate of decay was 0.00637 per day (SD ± 0.0007,
95% CI 0.0618–0.0656). Dung survival ranged from
89 days to 174 days; however, all but one of the dung
piles survived for a minimum of 147 days. There was
no signiicant difference in the survival time of dung
piles by habitat type (Kruskal-Wallis, X2 = 1.616, df
= 3, p = 0.656), canopy cover (Kruskal-Wallis, X2 =
5.839, df = 2, p = 0.054) or slope (Kruskal-Wallis, X2
= 2.212, df = 2, p = 0.331).
Conclusions
Investigating dung decay rates across a large landscape
can be a laborious undertaking involving signiicant
commitment to time and resources (Kuehl et al. 2007).
By opportunistically targeting a large herd near the
90
research station, we ensured that all dung was less than
24 hours old at the start of the study, which minimized
the effort needed to monitor the dung piles. The study
was carried out entirely during the dry season to ensure
dung decay rates were relevant to elephant monitoring
in Conkouati-Douli, which takes place at the end of
the dry season.
The survival time of dung piles in Conkouati-Douli
is one of the longest reported in the literature. Variation
in survival time was also low relative to similar studies.
These differences may be partly due to many studies
reporting combined igures for wet and dry seasons
(e.g. Breuer and Hockemba 2007; Olivier et al. 2009).
While we did not detect any effect of habitat type,
canopy cover or slope on dung pile survival time it is
likely that this was due to the small sample size and
low variability in survival time.
Further study is needed to fully understand the
factors affecting the decay rate of elephant dung piles
in Conkouati-Douli. Nevertheless, this study provides
a site-speciic decay rate for Conkouati-Douli, which
has been used to calculate the elephant population in
2005, 2008, 2010 and 2013.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Ministère du Développement, de
l’Economie Forestiere et de l’Environnement of
the Republic of the Congo for their collaboration
and support in all studies conducted by the Wildlife
Conservation Society in Conkouati-Douli National
Park. We also thank Abdon Bitsindou, Richard
Mboumba and Justin Thonio, the research assistants
who contributed in collecting the decay data.
References
Barnes RFW. 1996. Estimating forest elephant abundance
by dung counts. In: Kangwana K, ed., Studying
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Decay rate of elephant dung, Republic of Congo
elephants. AWF Technical Handbook no. 7. African
Wildlife Foundation, Nairobi. p. 33–48.
Barnes RFW, Asamoah-Boateng B, Naada Majam J,
Agyei-Ohemeng J. 1997. Rainfall and the population
dynamics of elephant dung piles in the forests of
southern Ghana. African Journal of Ecology 35:39–52.
Barnes RFW, Jensen K. 1987. How to count elephants in
forests. IUCN African Elephant and Rhino Specialist
Group Technical Bulletin 1:1–6.
Breuer T, Hockemba MN. 2007. Forest elephant dung
decay in Ndoki Forest, northern Congo. Pachyderm
43:43–51.
Hedges S, Lawson D. 2006. Dung survey standards for
the MIKE Programme. CITES MIKE Programme,
Nairobi.
Kuehl HS, Todd L, Boesch C, Walsh PD. 2007.
Manipulating decay time for eficient large mammal
density estimation: gorillas and dung height.
Ecological Applications 17(8):2403–2414.
Olivier PI, Ferreira SM, van Aarde RJ. 2009. Dung
survey bias and elephant population estimates in
southern Mozambique. African Journal of Ecology
47:202–2013.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Theuerkauf J, Gula R. 2010. Towards standardisation of
population estimates: defecation rates of elephants
should be assessed using a rainfall model. Annales
Zoologici Fennici 47:398–402.
Theuerkauf J, Rouys S, van Berge Henegouwen AL, Krell,
FT, Mazur S, Muhlenberg M. 2009. Colonization
of forest elephant dung by invertebrates in the
Bossematie Forest Reserve, Ivory Coast. Zoological
Studies 48(3):343–350.
Vanleeuwe H. 2010. Predictive mapping of season
distributions of large mammals using GPS: an
application to elephant on Mount Kenya. Methods in
Ecology and Evolution 1(2):212–220.
Vanleeuwe H, Morgan D. 2012. Great ape research for
better protection in Conkouati-Douli National Park.
US Fish and Wildlife Service Final Report GA 962000-G071, Washington.
White LJT. 1995. Factors affecting the duration of
elephant dung piles in rain forest in the Lope Reserve,
Gabon. African Journal of Ecology 33:142–15.
91
Muboko et al.
Cyanide poisoning and African elephant mortality in Hwange
National Park, Zimbabwe: a preliminary assessment
N Muboko,1* V Muposhi,1 T Tarakini,1 E Gandiwa,1 S Vengesayi2 and E Makuwe 3
1
School of Wildlife, Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, P Bag 7724, Chinhoyi,
Zimbabwe
2
School of Hospitality and Tourism, Chinhoyi University of Technology, P Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
3
Hwange National Park Main Camp, Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, P Bag DT 5776,
Dete, Zimbabwe
*corresponding author email: nmbok@yahoo.co.uk
Introduction
Hwange National Park (NP) is the largest national
park in Zimbabwe. Covering 14,651 km2, it is located
between 18°30′–19°50′S and 25°45′–27°30′E. Hwange
NP is characterized by semi-arid conditions with an
annual mean rainfall of about 634 mm (Hubbard
and Haynes 2012). It has more than 100 mammal
species, 19 of which are large herbivores and 8,
large carnivores, and more than 400 bird species
(ZPWMA 2012). Hwange NP is largely dominated and
characterized by deep Kalahari sands (Rogers 1993)
and has no perennial river system. Water-dependent
animals rely on pumped water boreholes; the irst
boreholes were drilled in the 1930s (Mukwashi et al.
2012) and now over 80 boreholes are known to exist
in the park.
During 2013, media reports of elephant (Loxodonta
africana) deaths in Hwange NP due to chemical
poisoning sent shock waves across the conservation
ield. Media framing of the incident portrayed different
igures of elephant deaths and manner of poisoning.
For example, the headline of The Telegraph of 20
October 2013 read ‘Poachers kill 300 Zimbabwe
elephants with cyanide’, the International Business
Times of 21 October 2013 also reported more than 300
elephant deaths, while the Zimbabwe Standard of 20
October 2013 reported over 500 elephant deaths. Still
others reported different igures.
This article reports the irst attempt at a rigorous and
systematic study of chemical poisoning of wildlife in
Hwange NP prompted by the 2013 cyanide poisoning
of elephant and other animal species. The objectives of
the study were to: 1) identify the species and quantify
the animals affected by cyanide poisoning in Hwange
NP and its environs, and 2) assess the opinions of
92
people directly affected by this incident, both socially
and ecologically. The assessment conducted in October
2013 included two ield visits to the main sites of
elephant poisoning, personal interviews with ive
Parks oficials based at Hwange NP and three Forest
Commission representatives based at Ngamo Forest
Field Station, and a review of aerial survey reports.
Effects of cyanide poisoning on
elephants and other animal species
Extensive aerial survey reports and personal
observation put the total elephant deaths through
poisoning at 105 inside the park and 30 outside.
However, our igures are inconsistent with those from
Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority
(ZPWMA), which stand at 115. This difference may
be explained by a disparity in identifying the cause of
death of some carcasses found. A total of 40 cyanidecontaminated sites were recorded (E Makuwe, pers.
comm., 11 October 2013); their distribution is shown
in Figure 1.
Elephant carcasses were discovered either at or
close to saltpans. In Josivanini we observed that some
elephant carcasses were located between a minimum
distance of less than 5 m and a mean maximum distance
of 1 km from a licked poisoned saltpan, suggesting that
some of the affected elephants quickly succumbed to
poisoning.
Other species were also affected (Table 1). The
number of predators affected is low, but the actual
extent of the impact to other wildlife was not
ascertained. Ivory was removed from many of the
adult elephant carcasses seen, indicating a sign of
organized poaching. For example, of the reported 87
elephant carcasses identiied as at 26 September 2013,
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Cyanide poisoning and African elephant mortality in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Hwange
Legend
communal settlements
poisoned carcasses inside park
Sikumi Forest
Botswana
poisoned carcasses outside park
Hwange National Park
Ngamo Forest
administrative wards
sites contaminated
Figure 1. Distribution of cyanide poisoning sites in and outside Hwange NP. (Three different localities were poisoned—
two inside and one outside the part, i.e Josivanini [1] and Ngamo Forest area [2]) and Guvalala pan [3].)
authorities recovered only 51 tusks leaving 123 tusks in
the hands of poachers (ZPWMA 2013). The reasons for
mass poaching of elephants using cyanide were varied
and included issues of poverty, disgruntlement over
skewed distribution of Communal Area Management
Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE)
proceeds, land contests, external inluence, particularly
from markets, retaliation for crop raiding and outright
subversion of the law. Similar issues have been linked
to poaching incidents in other areas (Gandiwa et al.
2013; Muboko and Murindagomo 2014). Despite this
unfortunate incident, the impact on elephant population
is non-signiicant considering that Hwange NP already
has an elephant problem: an elephant population of
over 45,000 (Foggin 2003; Mukwashi et al. 2012)
has exceeded the threshold of potential concern, as
illustrated by unsustainable vegetation damage.
Interviewed oficials had mixed perceptions on
the effects of cyanide on natural ecological systems.
Concerns focused on the persistence of cyanide in the
Table 1. Number and distribution of animal species killed by cyanide poisoning in three sites
Species
African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
Josivanini
Ngamo Forest
Guvalala
Total
94
30
11
135
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
2
–
–
2
Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)
1
–
–
1
1
Lion (Panthera leo)
1
–
–
Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta)
1
–
–
1
African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)
2
–
–
2
Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)
1
–
–
1
–
–
White-backed vulture (Gyps africanus)*
Hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus)
3
3
Lappet-faced vulture (Torgos tracheliotos) *
Source: Interviews and ield observations (2013)
– numbers could not be ascertained due to the state of carcass decomposition
* no carcasses observed
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
93
Muboko et al.
environment, its reaction after exposure to open, hot
and dry conditions, and its effect on water systems
either through surface contamination or underground
seepage.
Recommendations
It is important to re-enforce law-enforcement efforts,
review workforce levels and conduct further detailed
studies on the impact of chemical use on wildlife
ecology. While long-term socio-ecological studies
are critical, policymakers and researchers can also
focus on the following research themes to underpin
future research: mammal studies (especially on
distribution, movement patterns), water supply,
saltpans and ornithological studies, parks–community
relations, human–wildlife conlict and effectiveness of
community-based conservation initiatives.
Acknowledgements
We thank the executive and staff of Chinhoyi University
of Technology for supporting this preliminary
assessment. We also thank the management at
ZPWMA Head Office, Hwange NP and Ngamo
Forest for not only giving us permission to conduct
the study, but also for providing support in the form of
accommodation and staff assistance during ield visits.
References
Zimbabwe: can there be any alternative to culling?
Wildlife Veterinary Unit, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Gandiwa E, Heitkönig IMA, Lokhorst AM, Prins HHT,
Leeuwis C. 2013. CAMPFIRE and human–wildlife
conlicts in communities adjacent to the northern
Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Ecology and
Society 18:7. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05817180407.
Hubbard P, Haynes G. 2012. Mtoa Ruins, Hwange
National Park, Zimbabwe. Zimbabwean Prehistory
30:25–33. Available online http://www.unr.edu/
documents/. Accessed 7 January 2014.
Muboko N, Murindagomo F. 2014. Wildlife control,
access and utilization: lessons from legislation, policy
evolution and implementation in Zimbabwe. Journal
for Nature Conservation 22(3):206–211.
Mukwashi K, Gandiwa E, Kativu S. 2012. Impact of
African elephants on Baikiaea plurijuga woodland
around natural and artiicial watering points in northern
Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. International
Journal of Environmental Sciences 2(3):1355–1368.
Rogers CML. 1993. A woody vegetation survey of
Hwange National Park. Department of National Parks
and Wildlife Management, Harare, Zimbabwe.
[ZPWMA] Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management
Authority. 2012. Hwange National Park. Available
online http://www.zimparks.org/index.php/parksoverview/national/hwange. Accessed 22 July 2014.
———. 2013. Hwange National Park elephant cyanide
poisoning report. ZPWMA, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Foggin CM. 2003. The elephant population problem in
94
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Rhinoceros on 18th century maps of India
Three rhinos on maps of India drawn in Faizabad in
the 18th century
Kees Rookmaaker
Editor, Rhino Resource Center (www.rhinoresourcecenter.com), and Senior Research Fellow, Department of
Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
email: rhino@rookmaaker.freeserve.co.uk
In an Atlas of India produced in 1770 at the court
of Oudh, there are three illustrations of a rhinoceros
inserted on the maps. These were the work of
Indian artists, and do not appear to rely on earlier
representations of the animals. The Atlas was based
on the investigations of Colonel Jean-Baptiste-Joseph
Gentil (1726–1799), a French military oficer who
lived and worked in India for 25 years in the second
half of the 18th century, from 1752 to 1777. He spent
the last 10 years as the oficial French agent at the
Court of Oudh (Awadh), which at the time of the ruler
Shuja-ud-daula (1732–1775) was located at Faizabad,
Uttar Pradesh, India, on the banks of River Ghaghra.
While Gentil was at the court, he had time and leisure
to collect data on the history and geography of India,
which he compiled in a number of manuscripts which
largely remained unpublished during his lifetime.
By studying the Ain-i-Akbari written in the 16th
century for the Mughal emperor Akbar, Gentil was able
to develop new maps of the different parts of India. He
employed a number of Indian artists, whose identity
has been lost in time, but may have included Nevasi
Lal and Mohan Singh. All maps were embellished
with little drawings of scenery, people, plants and
several animals, both within the cartographic part and
around the borders.
The three images of a rhinoceros are found on the
maps of ‘Bengale’ (Bengal; Figure 1), ‘Bear’ (Bihar;
Figure 2) and ‘Avadh’ (Oudh, Uttar Pradesh; Figure
3). It might be argued that the little igures on the
maps were entirely decorative. At the same time it
is remarkable that the animals appear only on maps
of regions where at one time the rhinoceros would
have occurred, maybe even were still present when
Gentil was in the country (Rookmaaker 1984). In the
map of Bengal the rhinoceros is seen just outside the
north-eastern border of the state, in Bihar near the
Himalayan foothills, and in Oudh in the northern parts
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Figure 1. Rhinoceros and elephant on the map of ‘Bengale’
in the Atlas produced for Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gentil in
Faizabad in 1770. British Library, London.
Figure 2. Rhinoceros on the map of ‘Bear’ (Bihar, India) in
Gentil’s Atlas. British Library, London.
which would now be in the area between Balrampur
and Gorakhpur.
The igures show that all rhinos were single-horned,
but at the same time they differ in small details. I don’t
believe that this in any way signiies that the artists
had any intention to indicate the presence of different
types of rhinos, it is more likely that these were merely
different ways to depict the animal. Although the
drawings do not lend themselves to strict naturalistic
determination, they all must show the Indian (greater
one-horned) Rhinoceros unicornis.
95
Rookmaaker
Gentil had two copies of his Atlas, but only the
principal one includes the animal drawings. This
document is now in the India Ofice Library of the
British Library, London. The Atlas was introduced,
annotated and reproduced by Gole (1988), but has not
been noticed in the zoological literature.
References
Figure 3. Rhinoceroses (mother and young?) on the map
of ‘Avadh’ (Oudh) in the Atlas produced by Jean-BaptisteJoseph Gentil and dated 1770. British Library, London.
The drawings are remarkable for the early age and
for the fact that they were made by Indian artists, as
very few similar representations are known. There
is no information where the artists might have seen
the animals, or earlier drawings of them. However,
the court of Oudh had a special passion to keep and
exhibit rhinos, certainly in later years, but maybe even
in the 1770s although details are absent (Rookmaaker
1998: 90).
96
Gentil JBJ. 1770. Empire Mogol divisé en 21 soubas ou
Gouvernements tiré de differents écrivains du pais à
Faisabad MDCCLXX. Single copy preserved in the
British Library, India Ofice Library, London.
Gole S. 1988. Maps of Mughal India: Drawn by Colonel
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gentil, agent for the French
Government to the Court of Shuja-ud-daula at
Faizabad, in 1770. Delhi, Manohar.
Rookmaaker LC. 1984. The former distribution of the
Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in India
and Pakistan. Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society 80(3):555–563.
Rookmaaker LC. 1998. The rhinoceros in captivity: a list
of 2439 rhinoceroses kept from Roman times to 1994
[with special assistance by Marvin L Jones, HeinzGeorg Klos, Richard J Reynolds III]. The Hague, SPB
Academic Publishing.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Field Notes
Social media and the ivory ban: Myanmar and China
cross-border trade
Vincent Nijman and Chris R Shepherd
Oxford Wildlife Trade Research Group, Oxford UK and TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
email: vnijman@brookes.ac.uk
From 31 December 2013 to 2 January 2014, we conducted a survey of the ivory trade in the town of Mong
La, Myanmar, on the border with China. We counted
3,300 pieces of carved ivory and 49 whole tusks. Mong
La is situated in the autonomously controlled Special
Region 4, which has a strong cross-border trade. While
Mong La is situated in Myanmar its population is
largely Chinese, so is its currency, the Chinese yuan, its
mobile phone and electricity network, and it operates at
Beijing time (1.5 hours ahead of the rest of Myanmar).
We wrote a short report on our indings that was
uploaded on 13 January 2014 on the TRAFFIC
webpage and sent out to media contacts. The story was
covered well by the media, and sparked several original
reports in various outlets. An error was introduced by
the Associated Press on 14 January, reporting that 30
instead of 49 tusks were observed, and this was taken
over by other media sources.
On 16 January 2014 a petition was uploaded on
the Care2 petition website demanding that Myanmar
and China instigate a crackdown on the sale of ivory
to save the elephants. The author of the petition was
Sue Lee, someone we do not know and have not been
in contact with. The text of the petition is shown on
page 98.
Note that more errors were introduced, including
that Mong La and the eastern Shan State are now
situated in China. Myanmar does indeed hold the
second largest population of Asian elephants but not
of all elephants, and some sweeping statements ‘… no
form of government control to stop the sale of ivory
throughout China and other Asian countries’, could
do with a bit more nuance, but overall the statement
described correctly the current situation concerning
ivory trade in the Myanmar–China border area.
On 4 February 2014, we extracted the names of the
irst 50,000 signatories of this petition. Care2 allows
the author of a petition to determine the end point of
the petition and the option to download details of the
petition including a list of all the signatories. We did
not have this option available to us. However, Care2
allows any reader to scroll down to see the signatures.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
This allowed us to copy them and, in batches of ~500,
to paste them into a database. The name, country,
date, time (Paciic Standard Time – this is followed
here) and number are transferred as one string and
the comments, if any, in another. When signing the
petition one can choose to not disclose their name, but
the other details (country, date, etc.) remain visible.
One must include a preix (Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr). Searches
were done using wildcards where appropriate (China
would be searched using Chin* — this retrieves China
but also Chinese) or alternative names (Myanmar vs
Burma) and checked manually (thus excluding Mrs.
Roshchina from Russia when searching for China).
The irst signatory signed on 16 January at 14:25
hours and that same day another 139 people signed, at
a rate of ~15 persons/hour. This increased slightly to
~20 persons/hour the following day, and then gradually
started decreasing to 5 and 1 person/hour the next two
days. From 21 to 24 January inclusive, less than 10
people signed the petition per day, and this continued
to 25 January when only 2 people signed the petition
in the early hours of the day. By that time 1,019
people had signed the petition. Then at 21:04 hours
the petition went viral through postings on Twitter and
Facebook (all with links to the petition site) and within
10 minutes over 200 additional people had signed.
The following days between 5 and 15 people signed
the petition every minute, lowering to 1 signing every
three minutes until on 4 February signature there were
50,000 signatures.
For 1,865 (3.7% of total) signatories the names
were not disclosed. Some 1,472 (2.9% of total) had a
doctorate; of the 93.3% petitioners that disclosed their
sex 34,341 (73.6%) were female. It was not possible
to quantify the countries from where the signatories
originated as they were part of a string, but by manually
scrolling through it we tallied more than 130 countries
(34 on the irst day alone). All but one (Bhutan) of the
Asian elephant range States were included on the list
as well as 19/37 African range countries (the absentees
97
Nijman and Shepherd
98
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Field Notes
were mostly francophone elephant range countries). It
is worth noting that 51 signatories were from China, 73
from Hong Kong, 8 from Macao and 47 from Taiwan
(combined this represents 0.4% of the total); 4 were
from Myanmar.
Some 2,852 (5.7%) signatories added a comment,
ranging from a series of exclamation marks to 500word essays. Twice as many commenters referred to
China than they did to Myanmar or Burma (405 vs 172).
In terms of species, 25 comments refer speciically to
African elephants (or elephants in Kenya, Tanzania)
whereas only 10 refer speciically to Asian (or Indian)
elephants; many more simply mentioned elephants.
Thirty-seven commenters linked the ivory trade to the
trade in rhino horn.
With reference to what needs to be done or solutions
to curb the trade, 3.9% noted a need for better
regulation of banning the trade altogether: 81 people
recommended a (global) ban on wildlife trade, with
an additional 12 referring to CITES and 14 to policing
or increased regulation. Furthermore, 24 recommend
the destruction (or crushing or burning) of stockpiles
and 13 commenters refer to virtues of tourism as an
alternative source of income.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
No fewer than 229 (0.5%) mention the need for
better law enforcement or increased legislation,
pointing out that the act of selling ivory is criminal and
therefore effective prosecution is needed. A minority
pointed to the need to boycott products from countries
trading in ivory, 16 times in speciic reference to
China or Chinese products and 5 times in reference
to Myanmar.
Tackling the illegal trade in ivory in Asia, Africa
and, indeed, elsewhere is a complicated issue and
one that is unlikely to be addressed by simply signing
an online petition, but observing the large number
of people that feel compelled to do something and
reading through the comments, we found it evident
that this is an issue that goes to the heart of biodiversity
conservation and people’s idea of what is just in an
increasingly globalized world. We for one were
surprised to see this emerging response to one of our
ivory surveys and hope that the combined efforts of
many will lead to positive results.
99
Blanc
MIKE–ETIS UPDATES
CITES-MIKE update
Mise à jour de la CITES-MIKE
Julian Blanc
Acting Coordinator and Data Analyst, CITES-MIKE, UNEP/DELC, United Nations Compound T-36,
UN Avenue Gigiri, Nairobi; email: Julian.Blanc@unep.org
Update on the MIKES project
Mise à jour sur le projet de MIKES
As reported in Pachyderm 54, the European
Commission announced in December 2013
the award of a €12 million grant to the CITES
Secretariat to implement a new project entitled
Minimizing the Illegal Killing of Elephants and
other Endangered Species (MIKES). I am pleased
to report that the European Commission signed
the MIKES Contribution Agreement in June,
paving the way for the project to start.
In anticipation of this exciting new project, an
internal meeting was held at the CITES Secretariat
in January to discuss the project in detail and to
determine next steps and necessary preparations.
In addition to all the activities normally undertaken
by the MIKE programme, several of which will be
strengthened and streamlined, the MIKES project
includes a host of new activities, as described
in Pachyderm 54. Some of the activities to be
undertaken before the project can run at full steam
include developing benchmarks to assess lawenforcement capacity at participating sites and
countries; developing criteria and mechanisms
for identifying focal sites, countries and partners
for enhanced law-enforcement support; and
developing partner agreements. These matters
were consulted with the MIKE and ETIS
(Elephant Trade Information System) Technical
Advisory Group (TAG) at its 12th meeting, which
was held in Nairobi in April (and more on which
below), and proposed approaches to handle
these matters were submitted to the MIKE ETIS
Comme indiqué dans le numéro 54 de Pachyderme, la
Commission européenne a annoncé en décembre 2013
l’attribution d’une subvention de 12 millions d’€ au
Secrétariat de la CITES pour mettre en œuvre un nouveau
projet intitulé « Réduire le braconnage des éléphants et
d’autres espèces menacées d’extinction (MIKES) ». Je
suis heureux d’annoncer que la Commission européenne
a signé l’accord de contribution à MIKES en juin, ouvrant
la voie au lancement du projet.
En prévision de ce nouveau projet passionnant, une
réunion interne a eu lieu au Secrétariat de la CITES en
janvier pour discuter en détail du projet et déterminer
les prochaines étapes et les préparatifs nécessaires. En
plus de toutes les activités normalement menées par le
programme MIKE, dont plusieurs seront renforcées et
rationalisées, le projet MIKES comprend une série de
nouvelles activités, comme décrit dans le numéro 54 de
Pachyderme. Certaines activités à entreprendre avant
que le projet puisse fonctionner d’aplomb comprennent
le développement des «repères» pour évaluer la capacité
d’application de la loi sur les sites et dans les pays
participants; l’élaboration de critères et des mécanismes
permettant d’identiier les sites focaux, les pays et les
partenaires pour un soutien accru de l’application de la loi;
et l’élaboration des accords de partenariat. Ces questions
ont été discutées avec le Groupe Consultatif Technique
(GCT) de MIKE et ETIS (Système d’information sur le
commerce des éléphants) à sa 2ème réunion, qui s’est
tenue à Nairobi en avril (des détails supplémentaires
ci-dessous), et les approches proposées pour traiter ces
questions ont été soumises au sous-groupe de MIKE-ETIS
100
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
CITES-MIKE update
subgroup for approval at the 65th meeting of the
CITES Standing Committee (Geneva, July 2014).
Furthermore, these and other issues relating to
MIKES, such as the roles of MIKE subregional
support oficers, national oficers and site oficers,
will be the subject of additional consultations
to be held with African elephant range States
during meetings to launch MIKES scheduled for
September and October this year.
pour approbation lors de la 65ème réunion du Comité
permanent de la CITES à Genève en juillet 2014. En outre,
ces approches et d’autres questions relatives à MIKES,
telles que les rôles des agents de soutien sous-régionaux
de MIKE, les responsables nationaux et les dirigeants
du site, feront l’objet de consultations supplémentaires
qui se tiendront avec les Etats de l’aire de répartition
de l’éléphant d’Afrique au cours des réunions pour le
lancement de MIKES prévu pour septembre et octobre
cette année.
MIKE analysis for SC65
Elephants were prominent on the agenda for the
65th meeting of the CITES Standing Committee
(Geneva, July 2014). In preparation for that
meeting, and as was done for the SC61 and
SC62, the MIKE programme prepared an updated
analysis of MIKE data for incorporation into a
report jointly authored by the CITES Secretariat
(through its MIKE programme), the IUCN/SSC
African and Asian Elephant Specialist Groups,
TRAFFIC, the UNEP’ World Conservation
Monitoring Centre and the African Elephant
Fund Steering Committee. The MIKE analysis,
which was reviewed by the TAG before it was
submitted, was based on 12,073 records of
elephant carcasses found between 2002 and the
end of 2013 at 53 MIKE sites in 29 range States
in Africa, representing a total of 446 site years.
It is worth noting that 51 sites submitted data in
2013—the greatest-ever level of participation
recorded in the history of the MIKE programme.
As in previous MIKE reports, the analysis
shows steady increase in levels of illegal killing
of elephants starting in 2006, with 2011 displaying
the highest levels of poaching since MIKE records
began in 2002. The latest analysis shows that
poaching levels began to level off or even decline
thereafter, reaching in 2013 similar levels to those
recorded in 2010. In addition, the decline in PIKE
(Proportion of Illegally Killed Elephants) between
2011 and 2013 is statistically signiicant, with
the odds of 108 to 1 in favour of a real decline.
However, this is merely an overall decline across
the 39 MIKE sites reporting in both 2011 and
2013. Reported PIKE actually increased in 13,
or 33%, of those sites, declined in 18 sites (46%)
and did not change in the remaining 8 (21%).
Despite the decline since 2011, poaching
levels overall remain alarmingly high, with
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Analyse MIKE pour la SC65
Les éléphants occupaient une place importante sur
l’ordre du jour de la 65ème réunion du Comité permanent
de la CITES à Genève en juillet 2014. En préparation
à cette réunion, et comme cela a été fait pour la SC61
et la SC62, le programme MIKE a préparé une analyse
actualisée des données de MIKE pour l’incorporer dans
un rapport rédigé conjointement par le Secrétariat de la
CITES (à travers son programme MIKE), les Groupes
de Spécialistes de l’Eléphant d’Afrique et d’Asie de la
CSE de l’UICN, TRAFFIC, le Centre Mondial du Suivi
de la Conservation et le Comité directeur du Fonds pour
l’éléphant d’Afrique. L’analyse de MIKE, qui a été
examinée par le GCT avant la soumission, était basée sur
12.073 dossiers sur les carcasses des éléphants trouvées
entre 2002 et la in de 2013 dans 53 sites de MIKE
dans 29 Etats de l’aire de répartition en Afrique, ce qui
représente un total de 446 sites en années. Il est à noter
que 51 sites ont soumis les données en 2013, le plus haut
niveau de participation jamais enregistré dans l’histoire
du programme MIKE.
Comme dans les rapports précédents de MIKE,
l’analyse montre une augmentation régulière des niveaux
d’abattage illégal des éléphants à partir de 2006, avec
2011 afichant les plus hauts niveaux de braconnage
depuis que les enregistrements de MIKE ont commencé
en 2002. La dernière analyse montre que les niveaux de
braconnage ont commencé à se stabiliser, voire diminuer
par la suite, pour atteindre en 2013 des niveaux similaires
à ceux enregistrés en 2010. En outre, la baisse de PIKE
(Proportion d’Eléphants abattus illégalement) entre 2011
et 2013 est statistiquement signiicative, avec une chance
de 108 sur 1 en faveur d’un réel déclin. Cependant, ce
n’est qu’une baisse globale dans 39 sites MIKE ayant
soumis des rapports en 2011 et 2013. Le niveau PIKE
rapporté a augmenté dans 13 de ces sites ou 33%, a
diminué dans 18 sites (46%) et n’a pas changé dans les
8 autres (21%).
101
Blanc
nearly two-thirds of dead elephants found in 2013
deemed to have been illegally killed. Overall, the
elephant population at MIKE sites is likely to
have continued to decline in 2013, as poaching
rates exceed likely intrinsic population growth
rates. In some areas, a decline in PIKE may be
the result of a substantial decline in the elephant
population, making it more dificult for poachers
to ind suitable targets in such areas. However,
without recent and reliable elephant population
estimates from such areas, it is dificult to verify
the impact of poaching on such populations.
The SC65 report also includes an analysis of
factors associated with levels of elephant poaching
at MIKE sites. As in previous occasions, poverty
and enforcement capacity at the site, governance
at the national level and global demand were
found to be the strongest predictors of poaching
trends. Interestingly, we found that declared
import prices of mammoth ivory in China and
Hong Kong (which together import most of the
nearly 100 tonnes being exported by Russia in
recent years) are a better predictor of PIKE than
the Chinese household consumption variable
used in previous analyses. More details can be
found in CITES document SC65 Doc. 42.1 report,
which is available from cites.org/sites/default/
iles/eng/com/sc/65/E-SC65-42-01_2.pdf, while
the carcass data used in the analysis can be found
in Table C1 of document SC65 Inf. 1 (cites.org/
sites/default/files/eng/com/sc/65/Inf/E-SC65Inf-01.pdf)
TAG 12
The 12th meeting of the MIKE and ETIS TAG
was held 7–8 April in Nairobi. In addition to
considering a number of administrative matters,
reviewing the MIKE analysis for SC65 and
providing guidance on the development of
the MIKES benchmarks, the TAG considered
issues relating to the validation of PIKE-based
inference. In particular, the TAG discussed the
problems associated with differential detection
probabilities between naturally dead and illegally
killed elephants, especially in forest sites, as well
as with estimating natural mortality rates, which
are needed for converting PIKE into estimated
poaching rates and numbers of elephants killed.
To address these issues, an intersessional working
102
Malgré la baisse depuis 2011, les niveaux de braconnage
restent globalement alarmants, avec près de deux tiers
des éléphants trouvés morts en 2013 comme ayant été
tués illégalement. Dans l’ensemble, la population des
éléphants sur les sites MIKE est susceptible d’avoir
continué à baisser en 2013, car les taux de braconnage
dépassent les taux probables de croissance intrinsèque
de la population. Dans certaines régions, la baisse de
PIKE peut être le résultat d’une baisse importante de la
population d’éléphants, ce qui fait que c’est plus dificile
pour les braconniers de trouver des cibles appropriées
dans ces zones. Cependant, sans estimations récentes et
iables des populations d’éléphants issues de ces zones,
il est dificile de vériier l’impact du braconnage sur ces
populations.
Le rapport de la SC65 comprend également une
analyse des facteurs associés à des niveaux de braconnage
d’éléphants sur les sites MIKE. Comme précédemment,
on a jugé que la pauvreté et la capacité d’appliquer la loi
sur le site, la gouvernance au niveau national et la demande
mondiale sont les meilleurs prédicteurs de l’évolution du
braconnage. Fait intéressant, nous avons constaté que les
prix des importations déclarées de l’ivoire de mammouth
en Chine et à Hong Kong (qui importent ensemble la
plupart des quelques 100 tonnes exportées par la Russie
au cours des dernières années) est un meilleur prédicteur
de PIKE que la consommation variable des ménages
chinois utilisée dans les analyses précédentes. On peut
trouver plus de détails dans le document de la CITES
du rapport de la SC65 Doc. 42.1, qui est disponible à
partir du site cites.org/sites/default/iles/eng/com/sc/65/ESC65-42-01_2.pdf, alors qu’on peut trouver les données
sur les carcasses utilisées dans l’analyse dans le tableau
C1 du document de la SC65 Inf. 1 (cites.org/sites/default/
iles/eng/com/sc/65/Inf/E-SC65-Inf-01.pdf)
GCT 12
La 12ème réunion du GCT de MIKE et ETIS a eu lieu
le 7 et le 8 avril à Nairobi. En plus de l’examen d’un
certain nombre de questions administratives, la revue de
l’analyse MIKE pour la SC65 et la provision des conseils
sur l’élaboration des repères MIKES, le GCT a examiné
les questions relatives à la validation de l’inférence
basée sur PIKE. En particulier, le GCT a examiné les
problèmes liés à la probabilité de détection différentielle
entre les éléphants morts naturellement et ceux abattus
illégalement, en particulier dans les sites forestiers, ainsi
que l’estimation du taux de mortalité naturelle, qui sont
nécessaires pour convertir PIKE en un taux de braconnage
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
CITES-MIKE update
group chaired by Simon Hedges was created
with the tasks of compiling a list of all PIKE
validation issues so far identiied, and to assess
the practicality of solving each of the issues
identified, suggesting possible analyses and
pitfalls. It is anticipated that some of these issues
will be more thoroughly researched as part of the
MIKES project.
estimé et un nombre d’éléphants tués. Pour répondre
à ces questions, un groupe de travail d’intersessions,
présidé par Simon Hedges a été créé avec les tâches de
dresser une liste de toutes les questions de validation
de PIKE identiiées à ce jour, évaluer la faisabilité de la
résolution de chacun des problèmes identiiés, et suggérer
des analyses et des obstacles possibles. Il est prévu que
certaines de ces questions feront l’objet d’une recherche
approfondie dans le cadre du projet MIKES.
Subregional update
The introduction of SMART (Spatial Monitoring,
Analysis and Reporting Technology) at MIKE
sites by the MIKE subregional support units is
progressing well. The system has been introduced
by MIKE staff to Chewore (Zimbabwe),
Nyaminyami (Zimbabwe), South Luangwa
(Zambia), Waza (Cameroon), WAPO (Benin,
Burkina Faso and Niger), Nazinga (Burkina
Faso), Mole and Kakum (Ghana), Gourma
(Mali) as well as to two non-MIKE sites—Bouba
Ndjidah in Cameroon and Sena Oura in Chad.
To complement the site-level training
efforts as well as to promote the uptake and
institutionalization of the SMART approach,
the SMART partnership convened, with funding
from the MIKE 3.0 project, a training course
speciically geared to African wildlife training
institutions. The training was held 16–19 June
at the Southern Africa Wildlife College (SAWC)
in Hoedspruit, South Africa; participating were
directors of studies and lecturers from SAWC,
Mweka and Garoua, as well as of several national
wildlife training colleges from southern and
eastern Africa.
The training session provided an overview
of the adaptive management approach as well
as an introduction to the SMART approach with
the intention of eventually integrating these
approaches into programme curricula at these
centres. The workshop was led by trainers with
extensive experience with SMART, wildlife
conservation, law-enforcement monitoring and
protected-area management. The training was well
received by participants, and we look forward to
continuing to engage with these training colleges
to make the deployment of sound monitoring
routines more sustainable in the long run.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Mise à jour sous-régionale
L’introduction de SMART (Technologie de contrôle
spatiale, d’analyse et de reportage) dans les sites MIKE
par les unités de soutien sous-régional de MIKE progresse
bien. Le système a été mis en place par le personnel de
MIKE à Chewore, Nyaminyami, South Luangwa Waza,
WAPO, Nazinga, Mole et Kakum (Ghana), Gourma
(Mali) ainsi que dans deux sites qui ne sont pas de MIKE
– Bouba Ndjidah au Cameroun et Sena Oura au Tchad.
Pour compléter les efforts de formation au niveau
du site, ainsi que pour promouvoir l’adoption et
l’institutionnalisation de l’approche SMART, le
partenariat SMART a convoqué, avec le inancement
du projet de MIKE 3.0, une formation spéciiquement
adaptée aux établissements de formation sur la faune
africaine. La formation a eu lieu du 16 au 19 juin à l’Ecole
de la Conservation de la Faune et de la Flore d’Afrique
australe (SAWC) à Hoedspruit en Afrique du Sud, et
comprenait les directeurs d’études et les professeurs de
la SAWC, Mweka et Garoua, ainsi que ceux de plusieurs
écoles nationales de formation de la faune en Afrique
australe et orientale.
La formation a donné un aperçu sur l’approche de
gestion adaptative ainsi qu’une introduction à l’approche
SMART avec l’intention de inalement intégrer ces
approches dans les programmes de formation dans ces
centres. L’atelier était animé par des formateurs ayant
une vaste expérience avec SMART, la conservation de la
faune, la surveillance de l’application des lois et la gestion
des aires protégées. La formation a été bien accueillie par
les participants, et nous avons l’intention de continuer à
collaborer avec ces instituts de formation pour rendre
l’utilisation des routines robustes de contrôle plus durable
sur le long terme.
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Milliken
Progress in implementing the Elephant Trade Information
System (ETIS)
Avancement dans la mise en œuvre du Système d’Information
sur le Trafic des Eléphants (ETIS)
Tom Milliken
Elephant & Rhino Programme Coordinator, TRAFFIC, PO Box CY 1409, Causeway, Harare, Zimbawe
email: tom.milliken@trafic.org
ETIS continues to grow. Currently there are
21,065 ivory seizure records in the database, but
major data sets for 2013 have yet to be received
from some key countries. TRAFFIC aims to
undertake another major analysis later this year
to examine the illegal trade trend through 2013.
A call to all CITES Parties to submit outstanding ivory seizure data for that year to ETIS will
soon be issued through the CITES Secretariat. As
reported in the last ETIS update, a record quantity of ivory was seized globally in 2013, in the
context of large-scale ivory seizures—important
law-enforcement actions that result in 500 kg or
more of ivory being seized at a single time. Since
then, three more such seizures in 2013 have been
reported to ETIS, pushing the total quantity of
ivory seized in these transactions to over 49.5
tonnes, the highest quantity in 25 years of data
(Table 1). Whether this record high represents a
major improvement in law enforcement since the
16th meeting of the CITES Conference of Parties
(CoP16) (Bangkok, Thailand, in March 2013) or
a further worsening of global trade in elephant
ivory should become much clearer following the
upcoming trends analysis.
ETIS continue à croître. Actuellement, il y a 21.065
dossiers de saisie d’ivoire dans la base de données, mais
certains grands ensembles de données en provenance
des pays clés pour 2013 n’ont pas encore été reçus.
TRAFFIC a pour but d’entreprendre une nouvelle
analyse approfondie plus tard cette année pour étudier
l’évolution du commerce illicite en 2013. Un appel à
toutes les Parties à la CITES de soumettre des données
de saisies exceptionnelles d’ivoire pour cette année à
ETIS sera bientôt publié par le Secrétariat de la CITES.
Comme indiqué dans la dernière mise à jour d’ETIS, une
quantité record d’ivoire a été saisie dans le monde en 2013
dans le cadre des saisies d’ivoire à grande échelle, ces
importantes mesures de mise en application de la loi ayant
saisi 500 kg d’ivoire ou plus à la fois. Depuis lors, trois
autres saisies en 2013 ont été signalées à ETIS, poussant
la quantité totale d’ivoire saisi dans ces opérations à
plus de 49.5 tonnes, la plus grande quantité en 25 ans de
données (Tableau 1). Si ce grand record représente une
amélioration de l’application de la loi depuis la 16ème
réunion de la Conférence des Parties à la CITES (CdP16)
(Bangkok, Thaïlande en mars 2013) ou une aggravation
du commerce mondial de l’ivoire d’éléphant devrait
être beaucoup plus clair après la prochaine analyse des
tendances.
Table 1. Number and weight of large-scale (>500 kg) ivory seizures and mode of transport, 2013 and 2014 (ETIS,
10 July 2014)
Tableau 1. Nombre et poids des saisies d’ivoire à grande échelle (> 500 kg) et mode de transport, 2013 et 2014
(ETIS, le 10 juillet 2014)
Year/
Année
2013
1 (4)
Air
Weight /
poids (kg)
797 (2)
2014
2
2,713
No.
Sea / Mer
Weight/
poids (kg)
14 (64)
36,831 (74)
Land / Terre
Weight/
poids (kg)
7 (32) 11,942 (24)
22 (100)
5
2
9
No.
8,824
No.
2,833
No.
Total
Weight/poids
(kg)
49,570 (100)
14,370
Numbers in brackets are percentages of the total 2013 seizures. Some weights may involve estimates and worked ivory
weights are given as raw ivory
Certains poids peuvent nécessiter des estimations et les poids de l’ivoire travaillé sont donnés à titre d’équivalent
d’ivoire brut.
104
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
ETIS update
Interestingly, for the irst time since 2007,
African countries made more seizures in terms
of number and quantity of ivory apprehended than
Asian countries (Table 2). It is also signiicant to
note that 17 of the 22 large-scale ivory seizures
in 2013 were made by Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda,
Hong Kong SAR, Vietnam and China, all of which
are part of the CITES oversight process on illegal
trade in ivory agreed at the 64th meeting of the
CITES Standing Committee (SC64) in March
2013. As previously reported, these countries
and territory, together with Thailand, Philippines
and Malaysia, were mandated to develop and
implement action plans for addressing illegal ivory
trade within or through their jurisdictions, or face
potential sanctions under CITES. It is clear that
the ‘action plan’ countries are now in the forefront
of those nations making major ivory seizures:
some measure of improved law-enforcement
engagement appears to be driving a better record
of performance. Based on incomplete data, the
number and weight of large ivory seizures seem
to have dropped appreciably in 2014, but half
a year still remains to be assessed, as does the
important issue of law-enforcement effort, so
optimism concerning real change for the better
may yet prove illusive (Table 1).
Regardless, both trade routes and methods
of illegal transport used by the criminal traders
illegally moving ivory between Africa and Asia
may also be adapting in the face of concerted
CITES interventions to curtail illicit trade. For
example, following a routine inspection in
June 2014, Hong Kong SAR Customs arrested
16 passengers in transit from Angola with 790
kg of raw and worked ivory between them in
check-in baggage. All the ivory smugglers
were Vietnamese citizens who had lown to
Hong Kong from Angola via Ethiopia and were
poised to travel onward to Cambodia using a
circuitous route through South Korea to mask
their original departure from Africa. This case,
together with other recent examples of raw ivory
being moved by air as personal effects, could
highlight the emergence of new criminal tactics
with a shift to air travel and the use of teams of
human ‘mules’ to move large quantities of ivory
concealed in check-in or carry-on baggage. The
characteristics of this case are a clear departure
from the typical movement of large quantities of
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Fait intéressant, pour la première fois depuis 2007,
les pays africains ont fait plus de saisies en termes du
nombre et de la quantité d’ivoire appréhendé que les
pays asiatiques (Tableau 2). Il est également important
de noter que 17 des 22 grandes saisies d’ivoire en 2013
ont été faites par le Kenya, la Tanzanie, l’Ouganda,
Hong Kong, le Vietnam et la Chine, qui font partie du
processus de surveillance du commerce illégal de l’ivoire
de la CITES convenu lors de la 64ème réunion du Comité
permanent de la CITES (SC64) en mars 2013. Comme
indiqué précédemment, ces pays et territoires, avec la
Thaïlande, les Philippines et la Malaisie, ont été mandatés
de développer et mettre en œuvre des plans d’action pour
lutter contre le commerce illégal de l’ivoire à l’intérieur
ou à travers leurs juridictions, ou faire face à d’éventuelles
sanctions de la CITES. Il est clair que les pays du «plan
d’action» sont maintenant au premier plan des nations qui
font d’importantes saisies d’ivoire: une certaine mesure
d’amélioration de l’application de la loi semble conduire à
une meilleure performance. En se basant sur des données
incomplètes, le nombre et le poids des grandes saisies
d’ivoire semblent avoir sensiblement baissé en 2014,
mais une demi-année reste encore à être évaluée, de même
que la question importante de l’effort de l’application de
la loi, de sorte que l’optimisme concernant un véritable
changement pour le mieux peut encore s’avérer illusoire
(Tableau 1).
Quoiqu’il en soit, les routes commerciales et les
méthodes de transport illégal utilisées par les commerçants
criminels pour déplacer illégalement l’ivoire entre
l’Afrique et l’Asie peuvent également être en train de
s’adapter malgré les interventions concertées de la CITES
pour réduire le commerce illicite. Par exemple, suite à une
inspection de routine en juin 2014, les douanes de la Région
Administrative Spéciale de Hong Kong ont arrêté 16
passagers en transit d’Angola avec 790 kg d’ivoire brut et
travaillé dans les bagages en soute. Tous les contrebandiers
d’ivoire étaient des citoyens vietnamiens qui avaient pris
l’avion pour Hong Kong à partir d’Angola en passant
par l’Ethiopie, et qui étaient sur le point de se rendre au
Cambodge en utilisant un détour par la Corée du Sud
pour masquer leur départ initial d’Afrique. Cette affaire,
ainsi que d’autres exemples récents d’ivoire brut étant
transporté par voie aérienne comme des effets personnels,
pourrait mettre en lumière l’émergence de nouvelles
tactiques criminelles et un changement vers le voyage
par avion et l’utilisation des équipes de «mules» humaines
pour déplacer de grandes quantités d’ivoire dissimulées
dans les bagages à soute et les bagages à cabine. Les
caractéristiques de cette affaire constituent clairement une
105
Milliken
Table 2. Number and weight of large-scale (> 500
kg) ivory seizures by country of seizure, 2013
(ETIS, 10 July 2014)
Tableau 2. Nombre et poids des saisies d’ivoire à
grande échelle (> 500 kg) par pays de saisie, 2013
(ETIS, le 10 juillet 2014)
Country of seizure /
Pays de saisie
Africa
Kenya*
Tanzania*
Uganda*
Malawi
Togo
Subtotal
Asia
Vietnam*
Hong Kong SAR*
United Arab Emirates
China*
Singapore
Subtotal
Total
No.
Quantity
(kg)
5
3
2
1
1
12
13,540
5,898
4,048
2,640
700
26,826
3
3
2
1
1
10
22
6,975
5,736
3,731
4,464
1,838
22,744
49,570
* Countries or territories that are part of the CITES
ivory trade action plan process
* Pays/territoires qui font partie du processus du
plan d’action du commerce de l’ivoire de la CITES
ivory in containerized shipments through seaports
and possibly signal a new front in the illicit ivory
trade globally.
The worked ivory in the haul comprised carved
name seals, bangles and prayer beads. With
Luanda, Angola, harbouring one of the world’s
largest unregulated illegal ivory markets, these
products are likely to have been mass-produced
there, but the ivory itself probably originated in
Central Africa [Editor: see related story in this
issue]. Hopefully, questions of origin will be
solved through forensic examination for large
ivory seizures now mandated by the Convention.
The ultimate destination of this contraband
remains unclear as the local ivory market in
Cambodia appears to be declining (Martin
and Martin 2013). In fact, Cambodia could be
emerging as a ‘backdoor’ entry point to important
ivory markets in neighbouring Thailand, Lao
People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) or
Vietnam, or even more distant China. Both the
trade route and the modus operandi in this case
represent something not previously captured
106
rupture avec le mouvement typique de grandes quantités
d’ivoire dans les cargaisons de conteneurs par les ports
maritimes et signalent peut-être un nouveau front dans
le commerce illicite de l’ivoire à l’échelle mondiale.
L’ivoire travaillé dans la saisie était composé de
seaux sculptés, des bracelets et des perles de prière.
Avec Luanda, en Angola, abritant d’un des plus grands
marchés illicites d’ivoire non réglementés dans le monde,
ces produits y auraient été probablement produits en
masse, mais l’ivoire pourrait venir d’Afrique centrale
(éditeur: voir l’article dans ce numéro). Heureusement,
les questions d’origine seront résolues par un examen
médico-légal maintenant mandaté par la Convention
pour les grandes saisies d’ivoire. La destination inale
de cette contrebande n’est pas claire car le marché local
de l’ivoire au Cambodge semble être en déclin (Martin et
Martin 2013). En fait, le Cambodge pourrait être en train
de devenir un point d’entrée par la «porte dérobée » sur
les marchés d’ivoire importantes en Thaïlande voisin, en
République Démocratique Populaire du Laos, au Vietnam,
ou même en Chine plus lointaine. La route commerciale et
le modus operandi dans ce cas représentent quelque chose
qui n’a pas été capturé auparavant dans les données de
saisie d’ETIS, ce qui indique que la situation du commerce
illicite de l’ivoire reste très dynamique et variable.
Mais la CITES s’adapte également et met plus de force
derrière les interventions visant à réduire le commerce
illégal de l’ivoire. A la SC65 à Genève en Suisse, du
7 au 11 juillet 2014, l’examen de la mise en œuvre du
processus du plan d’action de la CITES par le Comité
permanent et des décisions sur le commerce de l’ivoire
prises à la CdP16 ont conduit à un certain nombre de
développements importants. La Thaïlande, en particulier,
a été remarquée pour avoir échoué à faire des progrès
signiicatifs sur une gamme de situations qui continuent
de permettre un marché illicite de l’ivoire sans entrave à
prospérer dans le pays au-delà de la portée de l’application
de la loi. Avant la réunion du Comité permanent, le suivi
mensuel de TRAFFIC du marché intérieur de l’ivoire
de Bangkok a révélé un quasi triplement du nombre de
produits en ivoire en vente et une forte augmentation du
nombre de points de vente qui vendent l’ivoire depuis
que la Thaïlande a accueilli la Conférence des Parties
à la CITES 15 mois auparavant. L’étude de TRAFFIC,
publiée juste avant la SC65, a documenté le fait que le
nombre de produits en ivoire travaillé est passé de 5865
en janvier 2013 à 14.512 en mai 2014, alors qu’entre
janvier et décembre 2013, le nombre de points de vente
d’ivoire est passé de 61 à 105. Ces conclusions remettent
en question l’engagement du gouvernement thaïlandais
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
ETIS update
in ETIS seizure data, indicating that the illegal
ivory trade situation remains highly dynamic and
variable.
But CITES is adapting too and putting more
force behind interventions to curtail illegal trade
in ivory. At SC65 in Geneva, Switzerland, 7–11
July 2014, the Standing Committee’s review of
implementation of the CITES action plan process
and the ivory trade decisions taken at CoP16 led to
a number of signiicant developments. Thailand,
in particular, was singled out for failing to make
meaningful progress on a range of issues that
continue to allow an unfettered illicit ivory market
to lourish in the country, beyond the reach of law
enforcement. Prior to the Standing Committee
meeting, TRAFFIC’s monthly monitoring of
Bangkok’s domestic ivory market revealed a
near trebling of the number of ivory products
for sale and a steep rise in the number of retail
outlets selling ivory since Thailand hosted the
CITES Conference of Parties some 15 months
earlier. The TRAFFIC study, released just prior
to SC65, documented that the number of worked
ivory products rose from 5,865 in January 2013 to
14,512 by May 2014, while between January and
December 2013, the number of ivory retail outlets
increased from 61 to 105. These indings called
into question the Thai government’s commitment
to end domestic ivory trade made by then Prime
Minister Yingluck Shinawatra in front of some 170
world governments during the opening ceremony
of CITES CoP16. Analysis of ivory market survey
data has consistently found that Thailand hosts one
of the world’s largest unregulated ivory markets
and the lack of tangible progress led to increased
CITES oversight pressure on the country.
At SC65, Thailand was given until 30
September 2014 to submit a revised national
ivory trade action plan, and until 31 March 2015
to implement a number of key issues, including
verbatim:
• the enactment of appropriate legislative or
regulatory provisions (such as the inclusion
of the African elephant as a ‘protected
species’ under the Wildlife Act) that allow
for the effective control of domestic trade and
possession of elephant ivory and provide for
strict penalties in case of illegal possession or
illegal domestic trade of ivory;
• the enactment of legislative or regulatory
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
de mettre in au commerce intérieur de l’ivoire fait par le
Premier ministre Yingluck Shinawatra devant quelques
170 gouvernements du monde lors de la cérémonie
d’ouverture de la CdP16 de la CITES. L’analyse des
données de l’étude du marché d’ivoire a toujours trouvé
que la Thaïlande est le théâtre de l’un des plus grands
marchés d’ivoire non réglementés du monde et l’absence
de progrès tangible a conduit à une augmentation de
la pression de contrôle de la CITES sur le pays.
A la SC65, l’on a accordé à la Thaïlande jusqu’au 30
septembre 2014 pour présenter un plan d’action national
révisé sur le commerce de l’ivoire, et jusqu’au 31 mars
2015 pour mettre en œuvre un certain nombre de mesures
clés, y compris:
• l’adoption de dispositions législatives ou réglementaires
appropriées (telles que l’inclusion de l’éléphant
d’Afrique comme une «espèce protégée» en vertu de
la Loi sur la faune) qui permettent le contrôle effectif
du commerce intérieur et de la possession de l’ivoire
d’éléphant prévoyant des sanctions sévères en cas de
possession illégale ou de commerce intérieur illégal
de l’ivoire;
• l’adoption de contrôles législatifs ou réglementaires
créant (i) un système d’enregistrement complet de
l’ivoire et (ii) un système eficace d’enregistrement et
d’autorisation des commerçants d’ivoire (y compris
l’application de la loi et la pénalisation en cas
d’infraction); et
• un effort accru sur la surveillance et le contrôle
des commerçants d’ivoire et des données d’ivoire,
ainsi qu’aux efforts d’application de la loi contre le
commerce illégal de l’ivoire, y compris des indicateurs
sur la façon dont ces efforts seront mesurés.
Le Comité permanent s’attend à ce que la Thaïlande
présente des rapports sur les mesures prises pour mettre en
œuvre le plan d’action d’ici le 15 janvier 2015 et le 31 mars
2015 pour permettre l’évaluation des progrès accomplis
par le Secrétariat de la CITES. S’il n’est pas satisfait,
le Secrétariat est prié de commencer une procédure par
correspondance avec les membres du Comité permanent
qui pourrait mener à la suspension du commerce des
spécimens d’une ou plusieurs espèces inscrites sur la
liste de la CITES conformément au paragraphe 30 de la
Résolution Conf. 14.3 sur les procédures de conformité
de la CITES. L’impact de la suspension du commerce
sur toutes les espèces inscrites à la liste de la CITES
pourrait produire de graves répercussions sur l’économie
nationale de la Thaïlande ; par exemple, les exportations
lucratives d’orchidées par le secteur de l’horticulture
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Milliken
controls establishing (i) a comprehensive
registration system for domestic ivory and (ii)
an effective system for registration and licensing
of ivory traders (including enforcement and
penalisation in case of offences); and
• increased effort on the monitoring and control
of ivory traders and ivory data, as well as for
law enforcement efforts against illegal ivory
trade, including indicators on how those efforts
will be measured.
The Standing Committee expects Thailand
to submit reports on any measures taken to
implement the action plan by 15 January 2015 and
31 March 2015 to allow assessment of progress
by the CITES Secretariat. If not satisied, the
Secretariat is requested to commence a postal
procedure with Standing Committee members
that could lead to the suspension of trade in
specimens of one or more CITES-listed species
in accordance with paragraph 30 of Resolution
Conf. 14.3 on CITES compliance procedures.
The effect of a trade suspension on all CITESlisted species could produce a serious impact on
Thailand’s national economy as, for example,
lucrative exports of orchids by the horticultural
sector would effectively be disrupted, affecting
an export industry that was valued at USD 80
million in 2013. Beyond Thailand, the eight
other countries or territories in the ivory action
plan process were requested to report on further
measures taken to implement their national plans
to the Secretariat by 15 May 2015.
In other SC65 developments, the countries
that had been identiied in the CoP16 ETIS
analysis as ‘countries of secondary concern’ and
were addressed in Decision 16.79, Cameroon,
Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo,
Egypt, Ethiopia, Gabon, Mozambique and
Nigeria, were instructed to develop national
ivory trade action plans with clear actions, time
frames and milestones by 31 October 2014, and
then to press forward with measures to ensure
proper implementation prior to SC66. These
countries must submit comprehensive reports to
the Secretariat by 15 May 2015 so that progress
can be evaluated. Similarly, Angola, Cambodia
and the Lao PDR, part of the ‘countries to
watch’ identiied in the last ETIS analysis and
subsequently addressed in Decision 16.80, were
108
seraient effectivement perturbées, affectant une industrie
d’exportation qui représentait une valeur de USD 80
en 2013. A part la Thaïlande, les huit autres pays ou
territoires dans le processus du plan d’action de l’ivoire
ont été priés de faire rapport sur les nouvelles mesures
prises pour mettre en œuvre leurs plans nationaux au
Secrétariat avant le 15 mai 2015.
En d’autres développements de la SC65, les pays
qui avaient été identiiés dans l’analyse d’ETIS à la
CdP16 comme « pays d’intérêt secondaire » et ont été
mentionnés dans la Décision 16.79 ; le Cameroun, le
Congo, la République démocratique du Congo, l’Egypte,
l’Ethiopie, le Gabon, le Mozambique et le Nigeria, ont
été chargés d’élaborer des plans d’action nationaux de
commerce de l’ivoire, y compris des mesures claires,
les délais et les étapes d’ici le 31 octobre 2014, puis
procéder avec des mesures ain d’assurer une mise en
œuvre correcte avant la SC66. Ces pays doivent soumettre
des rapports complets au Secrétariat avant le 15 mai 2015
ain que les progrès puissent être évalués. De même,
l’Angola, le Cambodge et la RDP du Laos, quelques
uns des «pays à surveiller» identiiés dans la dernière
analyse d’ETIS et ensuite mentionnés dans la décision
16.80, ont également été obligés de inaliser l’élaboration
des plans d’action nationaux du commerce de l’ivoire
avec les mêmes dates limites des rapports. La plupart
de ces pays semblent jouer un rôle plus important dans
le commerce illégal de l’ivoire, en particulier l’Angola
et le Cambodge, comme indiqué dans le cas ci-dessus,
ainsi que la République démocratique populaire du Laos,
le Mozambique et le Nigeria. Enin, le Japon, le Qatar et
les Emirats arabes unis, également notés comme des «
pays à surveiller » dans la Décision 16.80 ont été invités à
présenter des rapports au Secrétariat sur la mise en œuvre
des dispositions de la CITES relatives au contrôle du
commerce de l’ivoire d’éléphant et les marchés d’ivoire
avant le 15 mai 2015. Dans l’entretemps, le Secrétariat,
par le biais de MIKE et d’ETIS, a été invité à identiier les
Parties de « préoccupation principale », de « préoccupation
secondaire » ou « importantes à surveiller » pour examen
par le Comité permanent à la SC67, en se basant sur une
analyse de toutes les données des cinq dernières années
disponibles à MIKE et ETIS et en utilisant des méthodes
scientiiques et claires.
Il est profondément encourageant de constater que
le Comité permanent de la CITES a soutenu l’attitude
«ferme » contre le commerce illégal de l’ivoire d’éléphant
démontrée pour la première fois par les Parties à la
CITES lors de la CdP16. Tenir les Pays responsables
et augmenter progressivement la pression sur les pays
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
ETIS update
also required to inalize the development of
national ivory trade action plans with the same
reporting time deadlines. Many of these countries
appear to be playing more prominent roles in
the illegal ivory trade, especially Angola and
Cambodia, as indicated in the case above, and
Lao PDR, Mozambique and Nigeria. Finally,
Japan, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, also
noted as ‘countries to watch’ in Decision 16.80,
were asked to submit reports to the Secretariat
on their implementation of CITES provisions
concerning control of trade in elephant ivory and
ivory markets by 15 May 2015. In the meantime,
the Secretariat, through MIKE and ETIS, was
requested to identify Parties of ‘primary concern’,
‘secondary concern’ or ‘important to watch’ for
consideration by the Standing Committee at
SC67, based on an analysis of all data in the last
ive years available to MIKE and ETIS and using
scientiic and clear methods.
It is deeply encouraging to report that the CITES
Standing Committee has sustained the ‘get tough’
attitude against illegal trade in elephant ivory
irst exhibited by the CITES Parties at CoP16.
Holding countries accountable and progressively
ratcheting up pressure on those nations that
perennially fail to address fundamental issues
that give rise to illegal trade and drive high levels
of elephant killing is a critical part of the solution.
So far, the CITES ivory trade action plan appears
to be yielding good results and the Parties are
unwavering in their desire to see real progress.
Hopefully, this desire is being complemented
with on-the-ground actions that enhance effective
anti-poaching activities in elephant range States,
support collaborative law enforcement along the
entire trade chain that disrupts and eliminates
key smuggling networks, and promote demand
reduction in end-use markets. SC65 ended with
an increasing number of countries required
to direct their attention to illegal ivory trade
matters. Let’s hope these interventions deliver
an imminent downturn in elephant poaching and
ivory traficking.
qui ne parviennent jamais à résoudre les situations
fondamentales qui donnent lieu au commerce illégal et
conduisent à des niveaux élevés d’abattage d’éléphant
est une partie essentielle de la solution. Jusqu’à présent,
le processus du plan d’action du commerce de l’ivoire
d’éléphant de la CITES semble produire de bons résultats
et les Parties sont inébranlables dans leur désir de voir
de réels progrès. Espérons que cela soit complété par
des actions sur le terrain qui améliorent la lutte eficace
contre le braconnage dans les Etats de l’aire de répartition,
appuient l’application collaborative de la loi le long
de toute la chaîne du commerce ain de perturber et
éliminer les réseaux de la contrebande, et encouragent
la réduction de la demande dans les marchés d’utilisation
inale. La SC65 s’est terminée par l’obligation faite à un
nombre croissant de pays de diriger leur attention sur les
questions du commerce illégal de l’ivoire. Espérons que
ces interventions produiront un ralentissement imminent
du braconnage des éléphants et du traic de l’ivoire.
Reference
Martin E, Martin C. 2013. The decline in Cambodia’s
ivory trade. TRAFFIC Bulletin 25(2):43–45.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
109
Rookmaaker
TRANSITION
Passing of a conservation icon
Mike Knight
Chair, African Rhino Specialist Group, and Park Planning and Development, South African National Parks,
PO Box 76693, and Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port
Elizabeth 6013, South Africa; email: m.knight@nmmu.ac.za
Dr Anthony Hall-Martin, aged 68, died on 21 May
2014 after a ight with cancer. He leaves a considerable
conservation legacy in his wake.
Armed with separate postgraduate degrees in
botany, wildlife management and zoology, Anthony
was well trained for his life in conservation. His career
commenced in the then Department of Forestry and
Game in Malawi in 1969, with a particular focus on
the vegetation of Nyika National Park. His continued
links to Malawi and its conservation efforts remained
till the end of his career. Only when he joined South
African National Parks did his engagement and interest
in pachyderms lourish. He started with important
individual recognition studies and vegetation effects
of the black rhinos and elephants in the small Addo
Elephant National Park—his vegetation plots are
being used to this day! With his move to Kruger
National Park in the early 1980s, he continued his
work on elephants and rhinos, becoming SANParks
expert and spokesperson on these two species. He
was also one of the early members of the IUCN
SSC African Elephant and Rhino Specialist Group,
joining it 1976, and a founding member of the African
Rhino Specialist Group—so began two decades of
involvement with these groups. Anthony contributed
signiicantly in arguing the case for African elephants
on the international arena, and greatly contributed
to South Africa’s request to CITES to sell ivory for
conservation purposes. Anthony published extensively,
authoring 10 books and numerous scientiic papers.
Notable titles include Elephants of Africa and Cats
of Africa, co-authored with the artist Paul Bosman.
Anthony climbed rapidly through the ranks in
SANParks to become Director of Research and
110
Dr Anthony Hall-Martin.
Development in 1995. So began another quest—
expanding the national parks system. In the period
from 1990 till he retired from SANParks in the early
2000s, he was instrumental in adding six new national
parks, and in expanding numerous others to the tune of
about 400,000 ha. This effort was driven by his desire
to include under-represented ecological biomes in the
protected areas system, to expand the parks to larger
more viable ecological units and to offer ecotourism
opportunities to provide the essential revenue to
SANParks to fulil its conservation mandate. Not
only did this see more and bigger homes for his
beloved black rhinos and elephants, it also introduced
new models of private ownership in the expanding
SANParks system. Clive Walker, one of Anthony’s
long-term friends, aptly said that ‘the nation’s wild
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Rhinos on 18th century maps of India
heritage is immeasurably larger, safer, and richer as
a result of Anthony’s vision’. In recognition of his
contribution to conservation he received a number
of awards including the British Council for Zoology
Award, the Bruno H Schubert Prize in Germany, the
Senior Captain Scott Medal from the South African
Academy of Science, and the National Geographic
Society Award.
After his retirement from SANParks, together with
Paul van Vlissingen (1941–2006), he was instrumental
in establishing the non-proit organization African
Parks. Here he continued the mission of securing the
protected areas footprint but now in an Africa-wide
landscape. The plan was to secure cash-strapped
struggling national parks and game reserves in Africa
and develop them into self-sustaining parks with
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
vibrant ecotourism products. As Conservation and
Development Director for African Parks, Anthony
championed the organization’s successful entry into
the conservation environment of Malawi, Rwanda,
Ethiopia and Zambia. He worked till his last day.
Anthony stands out in the African conservation
ield by dedicating his life to his vision of conserving
Africa’s unique landscapes, along with its magniicent
mega fauna. ‘Pachyderms everywhere have reason to
be grateful for Anthony’s outstanding life’s work’,
according to Professor Nigel Leader-Williams. He
could not have achieved this success without the
support of his wife, Catherina, and their daughters,
Vega and Cate.
Bayete Nkhosi, lala khale, siya hlangana ngo lina
langa (Peter Hitchins)
111
Stiles
BOOK REVIEW
Daniel Stiles
Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Private Bag, Nanyuki 10400, Kenya; email: kenyadan@icloud.com
Polishing off the ivory trade: surveys of Thailand’s
ivory market
Naomi Doak, 2014
TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, UK
A current survey of Thailand’s ivory market is certainly
needed, because Thailand has what is probably the
second largest illegal ivory market in the world after
China, and the country has been under intense scrutiny
and criticism by CITES. The 65th CITES Standing
Committee meeting held in July 2014 gave Thailand
until 30 September 2014 to submit a revised National
Ivory Action Plan, the original being deemed deicient,
which should include a list of actions to be achieved
by 31 March 2015 to regulate domestic ivory trade. It
also requested that a progress report on these actions
should be submitted by 15 January 2015. Failing this,
Thailand could face a CITES trade suspension, which
would be catastrophic for the country’s economy.
It is surprising, therefore, that TRAFFIC published
a report that is so deicient in so many respects. First,
the title is misleading. The report only concerns
Bangkok. The important ivory manufacturing and
worked ivory supply centres in central Thailand were
not visited, nor were Chiang Mai and Mae Sai in the
north, traditionally important ivory selling centres
because of their high tourism proile.
Previous published reports on Thailand’s ivory
market (Martin and Stiles 2002; Stiles 2004; Stiles
2009) included crucial raw and worked ivory price
data, counts and proportions of the different worked
ivory types, numbers of ivory workshops and
craftsmen, sources of raw ivory, and nationalities of
the principal buyers. None of these scale and trend
indicator variables were collected, which limits the
value of the TRAFFIC report substantially.
TRAFFIC explained to me that this report was not
intended to be a comprehensive study covering most
aspects of the ivory industry in Thailand, but rather,
112
‘It was our initial intention to assess ivory turnover in
key locations in Bangkok, thus the reason for repeated
monthly surveys in key markets’ (TRAFFIC, in litt.,
August 2014). In addition, TRAFFIC explained
that, ‘…the Thai government has articulated policy
commitments to CITES concerning the future of ivory
trade in their country and our report was focused
upon examining that commitment since it was made
at the last Conference of the Parties in terms of retail
availability of ivory in Bangkok, which we feel is
representative of general ivory trade and market
patterns across the country.’None of the objectives
communicated to me by TRAFFIC are contained in
the report itself, but with TRAFFIC’s clariication
my apparently misplaced criticisms above should be
disregarded.
The data collected were the number of outlets
selling ivory, the number of pieces displayed, and
the number of bangles counted in 12 survey periods
between January 2013 and May 2014. The report
stated that data on all carving types were collected,
but they were not presented in the report.
The data analysis concluded that there was a
signiicant overall increase in the number of outlets
selling ivory and the number of ivory items for sale
over the course of the 17-month survey period.
Table 1, which according to the heading presents
the ‘Number of surveyed Bangkok retail outlets and
surveyed retail outlets selling ivory’ is, according to my
communications with TRAFFIC, incorrect. The table
does not include the hundreds of outlets that actually
were visited. There is also an incorrect statement in the
Methods section: ‘Initial surveys focused on 119 shops
from ten general locations around Bangkok identiied
in previous work…’ In fact, in the irst survey period
(January 2013) only 71 of these 119 shops could be
found. The table shows that 61 ivory outlets were
found in total, but they were a combination of outlets
on record as having ivory from previous surveys
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
Book review
made between 2004 and 2008 (the 71 in black in the
table), and new outlets found during the January 2013
survey (i.e., the 61 in red in the table includes both).
It cannot be ascertained from the report how many of
the 119 were ever found, because new outlets found in
previous surveys were added to the ‘Outlets with ivory’
category in each subsequent survey, if I understood
TRAFFIC’s explanation correctly.
Table 1 gives the impression, if read and analyzed
according to what is stated in the report, that the
increase in number of ivory outlets and pieces is largely
a function of inding more of the previously known
outlets containing ivory. TRAFFIC assures that this
is not the case, and that sampling coverage remained
consistent over the course of the entire survey period.
The report concludes that the increase in ivory
outlets and pieces ‘is strongly indicative of a growing
market’. It is, in fact, an unprecedented growth never
seen before in any repeated ivory survey reports on
record. In less than a year and a half, the ivory market
grew from over 5,700 pieces to over 13,200 pieces.
January 2013 must have represented a serious slump in
market activity for some reason, which is not explained
in the report. Martin and Stiles (2002) reported 38,510
ivory pieces in Bangkok in 2001 and Stiles (2009)
found over 12,500 items in 2006/7. The trend was
downwards until January 2013, with less than half the
number of ivory pieces and only 40% of the outlets
seen six years earlier. Suddenly, in February 2013 the
market jumped in scale and continued its upward trend
in growth to May 2014.
No explanation is given in the report for this
extraordinary growth over a relatively short period.
Oddly, the Market Research: Results section concludes,
‘Results from the latest surveys were similar to those
from earlier work (Martin and Stiles in 2001, and Stiles
in 2006–2007 and 2008), with 167 individual locations
identiied in total but with an increase in the number
of locations across the duration of the surveys.’ The
massive growth rate is not similar to results found by
Martin and Stiles.
Pachyderm No. 55 January–June 2014
An important inding was that there are many more
ivory outlets in Bangkok than the 39 that are registered
with the government, as the law requires. The number
of outlets found selling ivory in any one survey varied
from 61 to 120, up to three times the legal number.
In the Discussion, there is no clear comparison
of the current data with the same variables seen in
previous surveys. How does 2013–2014 compare with
2007–2008 (Stiles 2009)? A table would have been
useful.
Other deiciencies: a number of source citations
are given in the report, but there is no References
section. A few acronyms are presented, but there is no
acronyms section to decipher them (what is WARPA?).
TRAFFIC admitted that these were oversights, a result
of efforts to complete the report in time for release at
the CITES 65th Standing Committee meeting.
Overall, this is a disappointing report. However,
even with the methodological problems, the TRAFFIC
survey of Bangkok’s ivory market demonstrated that
Thailand is not complying with CITES resolutions or
living up to commitments it has made to control its
domestic ivory market. Thailand still faces a CITES
trade sanction if it does not address the unregulated
ivory market, and calls for domestic ivory trade in
the country to be closed entirely look increasingly
justiied.
References
Martin E, Stiles D. 2002. The South and South East
Asian ivory markets. Save the Elephants, London
and Nairobi.
Stiles D. 2004. Update on the ivory industry in Thailand,
Myanmar and Viet Nam. TRAFFIC Bulletin 20(1):39–
43.
Stiles D. 2009. The elephant and ivory trade in Thailand.
TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.
113
Guidelines for contributors
GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Aim and scope
Pachyderm publishes papers and notes concerning
all aspects of the African elephant, the African rhino
and the Asian rhino with a focus on the conservation
and management of these species in the wild. At the
same time, the journal is a platform for disseminating
information concerning the activities of the African
Elephant, the African Rhino, and the Asian Rhino
Specialist Groups of the IUCN Species Survival
Commission.
Results, 7) Discussion, 8) Conclusions, if appropriate,
9) Acknowledgements (optional, brief), 10) References
(no more than 25), 11) Tables, 12) Figure and photo
captions, 13) Figures and photos.
Papers may be reports of original biology research
or they may focus more on the socio-economic aspects
of conservation, including market surveys.
Field notes
The journal welcomes notes from the ield. They may
contain igures and tables but should be < 2,500 words.
Submission of manuscripts
Review papers
All manuscripts should be submitted online at:
http://pachydermjournal.org
If there are any questions or concerns regarding the
submission process, please send an email to:
afesg@iucn.org or otherwise contact by post or
telephone:
Review papers, which are unbiased reviews of all the
existing knowledge on a speciic topic, are welcomed.
Length should be < 6,000 words.
The Editor, Pachyderm
IUCN/SSC AfESG
PO Box 68200 – 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
telephone: +254 20 249 3561/65
fax: +254 20 249 3570
Manuscripts are accepted in both English and
French. Where possible, the abstract should be provided
in both languages.
Pachyderm’s Editorial Board categorizes material
received into the following sections:
Research and management papers
These should be not more than 5,000 words and
be structured as follows: 1) Title, 2) Abstract of not
more than 250 words (informative type, outlining
information from the Introduction, Materials and
methods, Results, Discussion, but not detailed results),
3) additional key words (if any), not appearing in the
title, 4) Introduction, 5) Materials and methods, 6)
114
Book reviews
Pachyderm invites reviews of newly published books,
which should be < 1500 words.
Letters to the editor
Letters should be addressed to the relevant Specialist
Group Chair, and should be < 1,000 words. Letters
are welcome that comment on articles published in
Pachyderm or on any other issue relating to elephant
and rhino conservation in the wild.
Preparation of manuscripts
Images, figures and maps
Preferably provide igures and maps in their original
form, for example, charts and data in Excel iles, maps
as EPS and images in the highest quality possible, such
as TIF (600 dpi). Indicate clearly the author or source
of igures, maps and photographs.
Title and authors
The title should contain as many of the key words
as possible but should not be more than 25 words
Pachyderm No. 54 July–December 2013
Guidelines for Contributors
long. Follow with the name(s) of the author(s) with
institutional afiliation and full postal and email address
of the corresponding author, to whom proofs and
editorial comments will be sent.
Journal conventions
Nomenclature
Use common names of animals and plants, giving scientiic names in italics on irst mention. Generally refer
to animals in the plural form (i.e. rhinos, elephants).
Spelling
Use British spelling, following the latest edition
of the Concise Oxford dictionary or the Oxford
English Dictionary, using ‘z’ instead of ‘s’ in words
like ‘recognize’, ‘organization’, ‘immobilized’; but
‘analyse’, ‘paralyse’. The dictionary is available online
at http://oed.com.
Numbers
Use the International System of Units for measurement
(m, km, g, ha, h) with a space between the numeral
and the unit of measurement. Give measurements in
igures, for example 12 mm, 1 km, 3 ha, except at the
beginning of a sentence.
Spell out numbers under 10 if not a unit of measurement unless the number is part of a series containing numbers 10 or over, for example: 14 adult males,
23 adult females and 3 juveniles.
In the text, use a comma as the separator for igures
four digits or more: 1,750 and 11,750. The separator
will be a full stop in French papers.
References
We use the name-year method of citing and listing
references. The punctuation and typographic style
are as advocated by the internationally recognized
Council of Science Editors in its Scientiic style and
format, 7th edition.
In the text, cite a single author: ‘(X 2005) or ‘X
(2005); cite two authors: ‘(X and Y 2005)’ or ‘X and Y
(2005)’; cite more than two authors ‘(X et al. 2007)’ or
‘X et al. (2007)’. Note that there is no comma between
the author(s) and the year. If multiple works are being
cited, separate them by a semicolon, listing them in
chronological order: (X et al. 1998; B 2002; Z 2010).
Pachyderm No. 54 July–December 2013
In the reference list, punctuation is minimized.
Examples are drawn from previous issues of Pachyderm:
Article in a journal or periodical
Barnes RFW, Barnes KI, Alers MPT, Blom A. 1991.
Man determines the distribution of elephants in the
rain forests of northeastern Gabon. African Journal
of Ecology 29:54–63.
Book
Smithers RHN. 1983. Mammals of the southern
African sub-region. 2nd ed. Pretoria University,
Pretoria
White I, Edwards A, eds. 2000. Conservation research
in the African rain forests: a technical handbook.
Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.
Chapter in a book
Barnes RFW. 1996. Estimating forest elephant
abundance by dung counts. In: Kangwana K, ed.
Studying elephants. AWF Technical Handbook no.
7. African Wildlife Foundation, Nairobi. p. 33–48.
Unpublished material
Blake S 2002. The ecology of forest elephant
distribution and its implications for conservation.
PhD thesis. Institute of Cell, Animal and Population
Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh.
Adcock K. 2006. Estimates of black rhino carrying
capacity at Ol Pejeta’s new rhino area. Kenya
Wildlife Service, Nairobi. Unpublished.
Electronic site
Elephants of Cameroon. 2000. Saving Africa’s
vanishing giants, the elephants of Cameroon.
http://www.nczooeletrack.org/project/index.htm.
Accessed 25 February 2000.
[AfESG] African Elephant Specialist Group. 2000.
Fencing and other barriers against problem
elephants. AfESG Technical Brief Series. IUCN
African Elephant Specialist Group, Human–
Elephant Conlict Working Group (author: Richard
Hoare). Available at: http://www.african-elephant.
org/hec/pdfs/hecfencen.pdf.
Payne J, Ahmed AH. 2012. A comment on ‘sex and the
single rhinoceros’ by Henry Nichols. http://www.
borneorhinoalliance.org.
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