ADVERTISING
EDUCATION
around the world
Jef I. Richards
Billy I. Ross
Copy Editors:
Tom Bowers
Joe Pisani
Advertising Education around the world
© Copyright 2014 – American Academy of Advertising
All rights reserved.
ISBN 978-0-931030-44-4
Cover design: Tiffany Adams
________________________________________________________________
This book provided to you by the
in association with the
Department of Advertising +
Public Relations
@
Michigan State University
ii
A Note from the
American Academy of Advertising
The American Academy of Advertising is a community of academics and professionals that stimulates research and advances the teaching of
advertising in our society. Every year, we gather at our annual conference to
share ideas about teaching and research in both formal and informal ways.
I’ve been attending these conferences for almost twenty years, and have noted several key differences that suggest that this book is highly relevant for
those of us involved in advertising education.
First, our membership is decidedly international. A quick look at
our membership list shows active and involved members from a variety of
countries including Australia, China, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Ireland,
Italy, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Palestine and Singapore. This increase in international membership has provided all members
with new insights and ideas for teaching effectiveness. This wealth of diverse
opinions serves all of our members, bringing attention to the fact that advertising is indeed now a global discipline, and American educators must
find ways to bring that global importance into the classroom. Connecting
with our international colleagues is an exceptional way to do that.
Second, I’ve seen a curricular sea change where many programs are
now requiring (or at a minimum, strongly encouraging) both internships
and international experiences. The value of internships for our students is
clear: many students need internship experiences to land their first jobs. The
value for international experiences is not as direct but still strong. Students
are immersed in a new culture, and must be flexible to quickly learn how to
adapt in an unfamiliar situation. New business pitch, anyone? Meeting people from new walks of life expands our students’ worldview, making them
more aware of the need to consider a range of individuals in crafting a message or targeting a consumer. Doing an internship in a country outside of
the United States, then, is a big win: students become more aware of the
importance of global messaging and can position themselves as even more
valuable to the workforce.
This book, then, is a perfect and invaluable resource for the faculty
member being asked by a student about an international internship. It also
is a handy guide when colleagues or parents question whether students can
achieve what they want to achieve. And perhaps most importantly, it will
iii
stimulate US members to reach out to colleagues around the world to ask
questions, share ideas, and build important bridges.
It is my honor to serve as the 2013 President of the American
Academy of Advertising, and I am so pleased to be able to recommend this
groundbreaking book to advertising educators and students.
Kim Sheehan
President
American Academy of Advertising
iv
A Note from the
Michigan State University
Department of
Advertising + Public Relations
The faculty of the Department of Advertising + Public Relations
(ADPR) voted unanimously to support the publication and distribution of
this book because of its unique international focus. ADPR has a long history of involvement in global issues related to these fields. For example, one
of its long-term faculty and former department chair, Gordon Miracle,
gained widespread recognition for his leadership in international advertising
for several decades.
Today the department possesses an unusually international character, with faculty members from Australia, Canada, China, Greece, Israel,
Lebanon, Mexico, Palestine, Poland, Russia, Ukraine and, of course, the
United States. Our student body, too, represents a broad sample of the
world’s people. This is a global marketplace. We have sought to embrace
that reality, and to foster understanding across the many cultures. And that
is precisely what this book is about.
Its objective is fairly modest, spanning only advertising education as
it is taught around the world, but a reading of it almost certainly will broaden your appreciation and comprehension of some aspects that make each
nationality unique and special. These authors have done a fine job of unearthing so much about each country. And, personally, I am proud to be
associated with them. My department and its faculty all hope you like this
book, and find it useful.
Jef I. Richards
Professor and Department Chair
v
Table of Contents
CHAPTER
PAGE
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
i
ii
vi
Dedication
1
Introduction
2
Reflections
1.
2.
3.
Charles H. Patti
Robert Pennington
Don E. Schultz
5
11
16
Africa
4.
5.
6.
7.
Botswana
Egypt
Nigeria
South Africa
23
36
49
59
Asia
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Cambodia
China
India
Japan
Korea
Malaysia
Singapore
Thailand
86
91
123
139
160
171
175
191
Europe
16.
Germany
210
vi
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Italy
Romania
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden-Denmark-Finland-Norway
United Kingdom
216
249
271
290
305
310
Middle-East
23.
24.
Lebanon
Turkey
333
342
North America
25.
26.
Canada
United States of America
362
400
Pacific
27.
28.
Australia
Philippines
405
416
South America
29.
30.
Brazil
Chile
444
474
Index
Author & Editor Biographic Information
488
506
vii
Dedication
This Book is dedicated to
Keith Johnson
2/14/50- 7/15/09
Ivan L. Preston
12/18/31 - 3/2/11
Elsie Hebert
10/23/25 - 3/10/12
Mary Alice Shaver
4/9/38 - 10/17/12
Margaret Morrison
7/12/63 - 3/12/13
These five names represent the best of advertising education. They all were
dedicated professors who loved this field and their students, their contributions were notable, and they all have passed since our last book. Their passing represents a profound loss to advertising education, and they are missed
by all of us who continue to work in, and love, this area of academic focus.
It is people like these who created the story told in this book.
.
JIR/ BIR
1
Introduction
We now have authored multiple books about advertising education,
and probably some of you might wonder what more could possibly be said
that hasn’t already been covered. Our last book was intended to be the
most exhaustive view of ad education, digging much deeper into both the
past and the present than we’d ever done before. As we were nearing completion, it suddenly occurred to us that the book was entirely Americacentric. It wasn’t that we had intentionally made it so, it really was a reflection of our own narrow mindset. We rushed to put together a single, short,
chapter on the other 195 countries in this world. As you might imagine, we
didn’t quite do them all justice.
As we began to discuss “What’s next?” we quickly saw the need to
flesh out the international perspective on ad education. We had both
served as department chairs and in other roles where we encountered students coming to us from other countries, with degrees from universities that
were literally and figuratively foreign to us. We had no way of knowing
what it meant to have an advertising degree from, e.g., Renmin University
of China. In fact, our response might have been, “They teach advertising in
China???” So, we decided that our next project really needed to fill that
enormous hole in our own knowledge, and hopefully in the minds of others
who might read our work.
The problem, of course, is how to write a book about ad education in
other countries when we knew little of what happened outside the U.S.1
We talked about methods of research, but every one of them seemed wholly
inadequate. It would be a very short book. Finally, it struck us that the only way to even begin to approach this topic would be to appeal to those
from other countries – those who actually know something about the educational system in their own country – to be contributors. This was our
epiphany.
We next set out to find those contributors, asking our friends for
names and even putting out a general “call” for help. Amazingly, we soon
had a large number of potential authors. We then assessed what countries
were covered and what other countries needed to be covered. We couldn’t
1
Billy actually was involved in a couple of small studies several years ago looking at international students’ attitudes toward advertising, so he wasn’t entirely ignorant of ad education in
other countries.
2
possibly cover all 200 countries in the world, and the truth is that some of
them don’t really have any ad education. Our decision was that we wanted
a fairly representative sample. To be so, we needed both large and small
countries, covering all the continents (well, we could leave out Antarctica).
It was especially important to cover most of the large markets that were
known sources of advertising talent. We searched for authors until we were
satisfied that we had enough covered to give a fairly solid picture of ad education around the world, with about 30 authors from as many countries.
Our marching orders to the authors were minimal. Every culture is
different in terms of their normal publishing standards, and certainly every
country is different in terms of their history and approach to ad education,
so we did not want to tie authors’ hands. We simply asked them to write
about ad education in their (chosen) country, perhaps including some history, but we left the particulars up to the author. We also put no restrictions
on their writing styles, other than to tell them we needed the chapter in
English. And we resigned ourselves to doing lots of editing, for which we
sought out some help in the form of Tom Bowers and Joe Pisani, who we
knew to be outstanding copy editors.
The result is variety. In fact, it’s a delightful variety. Our last book
was nearly 350 pages about the U.S., alone. So, it’s not possible to provide
that much depth on 30 countries, unless we intend to publish a multivolume encyclopedia of ad education. Consequently, every author had to
make choices about what they would cover and where they would spend
most of their effort, and each author made a somewhat different choice.
This, we think, results in a much richer picture of the world of ad education.
Some of the things we have learned by reading these contributions
include the striking similarities of approach in teaching this subject matter,
despite the equally striking disparities of culture. We also learned a lot
about how culture – and politics – affect the development of advertising
education, such as where ad education suddenly stalled with the introduction of new political leadership. It also becomes apparent that Western bias
has played a big role in some countries. We learned that the lack of nativelanguage textbooks about advertising can frustrate development of this field,
and that in some countries there is greater concern for certain aspects of the
field, such as a concentration on advertising ethics. And it was an eye opener for us to realize that while ad education in some countries is very young,
in others, such as Japan, it is nearly as old as in the United States.
Truthfully, the number of lessons and ideas to be drawn from this
material is endless. If you are an advertising educator, anywhere, it would
3
not be a waste of your time to read this book. The lessons here should be
learned by everyone who holds theirself out as an ad education expert. If
you are a student of advertising, this should give you more of a world perspective. And if you are an advertising practitioner, this may inform your
hiring when opening an office in another country.
Of course, like the content, the English and writing styles of our authors varied. Although a great deal of editing was done, we tried to edit
with a light hand. We did not want to change the authors’ “voices.” The
stories they tell are their own, as they expressed them.
Jef & Bill
4
Reflections
A handful of scholars were invited to write about their own experiences in teaching advertising across national and cultural borders. We asked
them to reflect on what they had learned. These authors, Charles H. Patti,
Robert Pennington, and Don Schultz, share their own unique insights.
One takes a broad perspective on the merits and lessons learned from teaching abroad, another takes us into his own personal experiences and pleasures
from his international adventures, and the other takes one lesson learned
and makes an argument for change in the way we (Americans, in particular)
should be teaching. All of these authors began their careers in the United
States.
Learning to be International:
One person’s journey
Charles H. Patti
University of Denver, USA
Everyone who has ever taught at a university outside the U.S. has a
story to share.
My parents were born in Italy, spoke Italian at home (to each other,
but not to my brother and me), and they lived their lives like the more than
500,000 other Italians who migrated to the U.S. in the early 1900s—
working in construction, the trades, or retail; raising a family; and hoping
that their children would finish high school. Sending a child to a university
was a far off dream. Unfortunately, by the time I had finished a Ph.D. and
was on my way to teach advertising in one of the most prestigious business
schools in the world, my parents had passed away. They would have enjoyed seeing the 20+ year international journey I’ve been on.
Until the summer of 1988, what I knew about Italy and Italians was
through my parents and relatives. I had never visited Italy and I didn’t
speak Italian. One day in early 1988, I was invited to give a few lectures on
advertising to undergraduate students at Bocconi University in Milan. This
led to a 10-year relationship with Bocconi’s Graduate School of Business—a
relationship that brought me to Italy two or three times each year. I created
5
and delivered courses in advertising management, marketing communication, and marketing management.
I taught in Bocconi’s executive development program and helped several Bocconi faculty members begin their Ph.D. study through arranging for
them to spend time at several U.S. universities, including Northwestern,
UC-Berkeley, and universities in the California State University System. In
time, I learned to speak enough Italian to make my way around restaurants
and shops and have simple conversations on the streets of Milan, Florence,
and a dozen other cities in Lombardy, Tuscany, Veneto, and the Italian
Lakes area. Teaching advertising in Italy reconnected me to my parents’
homeland—and it started the most enriching part of my career.
Over the past twenty years, I’ve taught advertising and other courses
in New Zealand, Finland, England, France, Italy, Malaysia, and Australia.
Today, teaching outside the U.S. is not uncommon, particularly as U.S.
universities seek global partnerships and open off-shore campuses. Also,
universities outside the U.S. now regularly seek visiting scholars and offer
short-term teaching positions. In the ‘80s, this was not so common. Gordon Miracle, Wat Dunn, and a few others from the American Academy of
Advertising had spent time outside the U.S. earlier, but the idea of living
outside the U.S. was—and still is—rare. Here’s a quick summary of the
major international teaching and administrative positions I’ve held.
University of Denver’s London Study Program
(London, England)
This was not my first international teaching experience—that was as
Visiting Professor of Advertising at the Helsinki School of Economics—but
running DU’s London Study Program was my first experience living outside the U.S. We lived in central London and I taught advertising courses
to undergraduate students from the University of Denver. Living in London and making connections with some of the top advertising agencies were
the pluses of this assignment. However, teaching U.S. students who had
traveled to London to take courses from a U.S. professor didn’t make much
sense to me.
6
Graduate School of Business, Bocconi University
(Milan, Italy)
As I mentioned above, this was an invited position, and I taught
courses at Bocconi for ten consecutive years. Living in Milan, traveling to
other cities and regions in Italy, and helping move other faculty members to
interactive learning models were highlights of this experience. One of my
first Bocconi students, Federico Grayeb, became a close friend. We’ve built
a 20-plus year friendship, and we continue to visit each other at his home in
Argentina or my home in Denver.
Graduate School of Business, Otago University
(Dunedin, New Zealand)
I was a Visiting Professor of Marketing at Otago (nine-month appointment), arguably the best business school in New Zealand. I taught a
marketing management course, gave seminars in advertising, learned to
drive “on the other side of the road,” learned how to lawn bowl, played on
an amateur basketball team, and was introduced to cricket. I also met one
of Otago’s new, young faculty members from the U.S., Park Beede. Park
went on to complete a Ph.D. at Otago, worked as an advertising executive
in New Zealand and Australia, and (who would have guessed?) came to
work with me as a faculty member at Queensland University of Technology
in Australia—nearly 20 years after we first met in New Zealand.
School of Advertising, Marketing, and Public Relations,
Queensland University of Technology
(Brisbane, Australia)
For nine years (1997-2006), I was the Head of this very large, diverse
school. As a full-time, senior administrator, I didn’t teach often, but I delivered guest lectures from time to time in a variety of undergraduate and
graduate courses. However, I did have the opportunity to help shape the
curriculum; develop extensive professional relationships with the advertising
and marketing community; build relationships with key articulation partner
universities in Singapore and Malaysia; supervise Ph.D. and Masters by Research students; become deeply involved in the Australia and New Zealand
Marketing Academy, including hosting that organization’s 2006 international conference; and institute a visiting professor program that brought
7
AAAers Don Schultz, Charles Frazer, Pat Rose, and others to QUT on a
regular basis.
I became an Australian citizen in 1999, and I continue to travel to
Australia to visit friends, supervise Ph.D. students at QUT, help another
Australian university with their AACSB accreditation efforts, and work on
advertising-related, expert witness assignments.
The QUT experience is a perfect example of the professional and personal richness we can enjoy through an international assignment. My work
at QUT has resulted in many research projects, articles, professional connections, and a large number of new friends.
Other Assignments
Once you get involved outside the U.S. enjoy it, the opportunities are
endless. In addition to the above, major assignments, I’ve been involved at
several other schools:
Helsinki School of Economics (Helsinki, Finland)
Visiting Professor of Advertising, sponsored by the advertising industry in Finland. I developed and delivered a university course in advertising
research and gave seminars to advertising professionals in Helsinki and to
graduate research students at University of Tempera, Tempera, Finland.
Temasek Polytechnic (Singapore)
Two terms (six years) as the External Examiner of their marketing
curriculum. Beyond the content of this assignment, I’ve made strong
friendships with several Temasek faculty members, including Geoffrey da
Silva, author of Marketing Introduction: Asian Perspective (Asia-Pacific edition of the Kotler and Armstrong marketing text), and Lynda Wee, now the
CEO of the training and consulting company, Bootstrap.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (Johor Bahru, Malaysia)
Visiting Professor giving lectures to students and workshops and seminars to faculty and administrators.
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (Petaling and Kampar, Malaysia)
Two terms (six years) as External Examiner of their advertising curriculum. This assignment has included providing advice on the content,
structure, and staffing of their undergraduate advertising program.
8
Tips from the Journey:
Have you ever seen the TV programs or read the travel books of Rick
Steves? Rick is the master of taking you “through the back door” on just
about any international trip you might be thinking about. Borrowing from
Rick, here are a few “back door” tips on the teaching of advertising outside
the U.S.:
It’s not really about teaching advertising
Early on, those of us who taught advertising outside the U.S. were
asked to show others how advertising is developed and produced in the U.S.
But, as the marketplace became increasingly global and virtually everyone
has access to information, my international role matured into an advisor
and mentor, from university administration matters to curriculum to faculty development to the development of professional partnerships. Even if
your assignment is to teach advertising, look for other ways to help your
host university.
Short-term assignments have short-term effects
Going to China, the Czech Republic, or any other country to deliver
a two-week, intensive course might be where you start—and it’s better than
no international exposure—but it is unlikely to give you a deep understanding of the culture. Besides, short-term assignments seldom lead to other,
longer-range projects and relationships. Whenever possible, try to live in a
city for six months or more.
Your family will make a difference
When I was working at QUT in Australia, we were in a growth mode
and often had faculty openings. In the nine years I was Head of School, I
found exactly one U.S. faculty member who could—or would—move outside the U.S. Living outside the U.S. is a great adventure and appeals to
many of us. However, the reality is that our family situations make it difficult to leave the U.S. An international move can disrupt the lives of children, your partner, and perhaps your parents and siblings and life-long
friends. The international opportunities that I’ve been fortunate to experience would not have been possible without the support of my wife and my
children.
9
Fit in and deliver value
I can’t even estimate the number of articles that have been written
about the importance of “fitting in.” Yet, the point rarely sinks in. During
the nine years I lived in Australia, dozens of U.S. citizens were hired to work
in key positions in Australian universities and businesses. Very few make
the adjustment. We’re talking about adjusting to a culture that shares a
similar language, religion, ethics and values, justice system, etc. The fact is
that most countries aren’t just sitting around waiting to hear “how it’s done
in the U.S.” At the same time, if you are selected for a full-time, permanent
position, you can assume that you have something to offer. Find a way to
deliver value within the lifestyle of the country you’ve moved to.
Build long-term relationships
This is good business advice and it works just as well with international academic assignments. I much value my friends and feel blessed to
have so many close friendships with people all over the world. To me, the
greatest benefit of an international assignment is developing new, meaningful relationships. If you are willing to move outside the U.S., leave your
friends and family, and give up the security and comfort of your current
job, take advantage of the personal and professional opportunity of relationship building.
The journey continues
I now live and work in Denver in a college that has modest level of
international involvement. Yet, my international journey continues. All of
those friendships and connections to universities outside the U.S. assure the
continuation of student and faculty exchange agreements, supervision of
Ph.D. students in other parts of the world, international research projects
and grant applications, consulting, exploring offshore campuses and collaborations with universities outside the U.S, and many other projects that I
haven’t even thought of yet. As my travel expert, Rick Steves, often warns,
“This is not a trip for everyone.” But, compared to what the Italian immigrants of the early 20th century went through, being “international” today
is as easy as a 14-hour flight on a 747 to a place you’ve never been to work
with people you’ve never met. Exciting stuff.
10
Adventures in Taiwan
Robert Pennington
Fo Guang University, Taiwan
On my first visit to Taiwan at the end of spring semester in 1993, I
had the pleasure of meeting the chair of the advertising department at a private university. After I returned to the States, we exchanged cordial notes
by mail. When I returned to Taiwan at the end of fall semester, I contacted
him by telephone to arrange a social meeting. He invited me to speak to a
large class of undergraduates the following morning. As much as I wanted
to decline the invitation because of jet lag, I could not. So I spent about an
hour writing an outline, then got some rest.
The campus is in a beautiful area in the mountains north of Taipei.
Clouds often take over the campus, and they did so on that December
morning. I still felt the effects of jet lag, so I don’t remember very much
about breakfast. A couple of students who came to escort me gave me a
colorful bouquet of flowers. I had read that such a gift was a common and
respectful welcome, so I accepted it gratefully.
The class met in a large classroom, not in a lecture hall, which was
full to its capacity. During my lecture, students were quite attentive, I
think. I was working hard through my jet lag to improvise from my outline.
Every time I looked, though, student eyeballs were looking right back at
me. But I wonder how much they understood.
At that time, Taiwan already had a policy of encouraging Englishlanguage competence. However, competence on a test often does not reflect competence in practice. When you ask if they understand, quite often
students will say “yes” even though they do not understand. I had learned
that from dealing with Taiwanese students in the States. At least they listened respectfully. When I finished, they awarded me with a sustained
round of applause, and thanked me profusely.
Students had remained silent when I asked for questions during the
class. Afterward, they surrounded me with questions. I found this practice
to be very common. No matter how curious they may be, most Taiwanese
students are reluctant to speak in class. Some of the cause is lack of confidence in their ability to speak English. A greater cause is that in Taiwan
classroom communication tends to be one-way, so that when you ask for
questions and comments, they think you are being rhetorical. Students also
are afraid of saying something wrong among their classmates in the formal
classroom setting. To elicit responses in Taiwan, then, you must be espe-
11
cially positive with students when you do get responses. Outside, in informal settings, they tend to lose that fear and let their curiosity take over.
The second time I spoke to a class in Taiwan was eight years later. I
had visited Taiwan four or five times in the intervening years and had visited a few more universities. I had also learned to deal with jet lag. (I leave
the USA at night, try to keep the same routine on the plane as I would at
home, arrive in the early morning and keep going all day.) I had been invited to speak to graduate students at the Institute of Communication
Management at a national university in southern Taiwan. My arrival day,
though, was dedicated to Taiwanese academic hospitality. This includes
meeting as many faculty, administrators, staff and students as possible within three or four hours, exchanging name cards and small gifts, and drinking
tea.
Two graduate students greeted me at the airport and escorted me to
my on-campus lodging, which featured a small balcony overlooking the
ocean with a small beach. After I’d had the opportunity to shower and rest,
other graduate students called on me to escort me to lunch. Meals and eating are very important socially. I had already learned that. But this was the
first of many episodes in which graduate students would take the opportunity to learn from me and about me.
In my own experience as a student, I recall that most of what I
learned from my professors was unrelated to course material. I also recall
faculty who joined students to socialize after classes in the afternoon or early
evening. This lunchtime experience was similar, because the conversation
covered anything but what I’d come to talk about. And I was with many
students. In Taiwan, social contact with students tends to include several
students at once. I’ve accepted invitations from one student, only to arrive
and find several students. I’ve extended an invitation to one student, only
to arrive and find several students. I expect it.
After lunch with these graduate students, we felt more comfortable
with each other. The next day, when I talked about what I came to talk
about (integrated marketing communication) the students and I had already
established an informal relationship. Such relationships are very important
at both graduate and undergraduate level. They determine how receptive
students will be during class. They increase the likelihood of student participation during class. However, during the class, even though you
acknowledge the informal relationship, the class relationship is formal. You
must create a distinct and definite time for the formal relationship to begin
and to end, just as teaching coaches advise in the United States.
12
When I lecture, even in the States, if a word play, pun, double entendre, or other humor device occurs to me, I include it without giving any
cue that I am using humor. I don’t expect anybody to notice. If somebody
does, I’m gratified. But I do it for my own amusement. In the States, the
one student who noticed most was Canadian. As I spoke about IMC, I
used whatever humor occurred to me, as usual. Afterward, my host told me
that he didn’t think the students would catch very much of my humor. I
told him that I used it for my own enjoyment. But I was very surprised that
he had noticed it. He must have learned more than economics at the University of Iowa!
A year later, I was teaching full-time at a national university in central
Taiwan. Now I am at a private university in the northeastern part of the
country. My initial observations have held up. But I have added a few that
also would be useful in the States.
I teach in English because the government wants Taiwan students to
learn English. (Unfortunately, that slows my further development in Chinese.) At some departments and institutes, all required courses are in English because Taiwan attracts increasing numbers of foreign students who
have learned English but not Chinese. For all of my students, English is a
second language. So I have to speak carefully and enunciate clearly. I know
that I am doing well because foreign-language majors have asked me to
teach their conversation course. They said that although other professors
speak English, I’m the only one they can understand.
In class, I need to find out whether students understand during class.
Because they tend to be too polite to say they do not understand, I have
learned to look for subtle cues in their facial expressions and in their eyes.
In the classroom this means I cannot teach to a group. I teach to an aggregation of individuals. When I lecture, I speak to specific individual students
one at a time. I do not just scan the faces. I make direct eye contact with
each student individually. This is similar to social situations outside of class
when I speak with students directly and include each individual.
Assessing students’ understanding during class is especially important
because I am effectively teaching in two foreign languages at the same time.
The obvious first foreign language is English. The second is advertising,
mass communication, research, media, or whatever the specific course topic.
Each of these topic areas has specialized vocabulary that would be new even
to those whose native language is English. In each class session, no matter
what material I plan to cover, I have to adjust my lecture to meet student
needs and challenges for understanding. I stop frequently to ask, “What are
your questions?” I allow students to interrupt at any time with comments
13
and questions. I do not continue until the student is satisfied with my explanations or clarifications.
Outside of class, students have come to me with questions from any
of their other classes in English. Graduate students who had to present
English-language journal articles turned to me for help when they could not
understand the articles. Literature students have brought me Shakespeare
sonnets and other English poetry. This presents a delicate ethical concern,
because I don’t want to interfere with another professor’s teaching methods.
So I have done a quick reading of whatever material the students bring,
then I have given them some points to discuss with their professors. I tell
them that I will be happy to discuss the readings further after their discussions with the course professor. Apparently, they have been satisfied with
those discussions because none has returned for discussion with me.
When speaking English, students tend to begin with the apology,
“My English is not very good.” Sometimes they are correct. Often they are
not. Although their English may not be perfect, it is usually understandable
and intelligible. I have noticed that most Taiwanese tend to make the same
errors that can be obstacles to understanding. Once I become aware of an
error pattern, I can understand its meaning by guessing what they probably
mean in that context, then listening for whether that probable meaning
conforms to their error pattern. The technique has worked so well that one
amazed student asked how I knew which words she wanted to say. I could
have taken the opportunity to discuss conditional uncertainty, orders of approximation and all that blahblahblah. But I just told her I picked the word
that people would probably use in that context.
One of my graduate students used to make a completely idiosyncratic
error. He used the error so infrequently that I had to be alert to catch its
occurrence and listen for its context. Finally, when I understood what he
meant I told him about it. He had a great sense of humor, so I congratulated him for originating an error that was uniquely his. He was flattered. His
example, though, shows why I encourage students not to be shy about making errors: I cannot help them improve unless I hear their mistakes.
My university has cordless microphones in the classrooms. Professors
usually stand in the front of the classroom, with students, like their U.S.
counterparts, tending to sit toward the back. Professors use microphones to
talk to students. I do not. Many times in high school when I was active in
theater, I heard the director’s voice from the auditorium demanding that we
“PROJECT!!!!!!” In the classroom now, I project. But I also move through
the desks to get closer to students, so where they sit does not matter. If a
student in another part of the room misses what I have said, I go to that
14
part of the room and repeat. At such times, I may hear some murmuring
among students, but that is usually discussion in Chinese of what I have
said in English. I encourage a limited amount of such discussions because
they help students understand the topic. But they are supposed to be learning English, too.
In Taiwan, “teacher” is an honored title. People are curious about
me because, clearly, I’m not from around here. When they find out I am a
teacher, they visibly demonstrate respect—from a farmer who stops his tractor for a short chat, from a township chief who invites me for tea, from the
woman who cuts my hair, and, of course, from the students. They give this
honor on credit. I do my best to demonstrate that I deserve it.
15
The New 80/20 Rule
Don E. Schultz
Northwestern University, USA
A quick look at the table of contents for three of the most widely
adopted advertising textbooks in the U.S. reveals much commonality. Sections and chapters on consumer behavior, development of creative or messaging, media planning and implementation all suggest a standard approach
to the subject of advertising instruction. Therefore student learning
through the Kleppner1, Belch and Belch2 and O’Guinn3 texts is quite similar. These authors, and others, seem to agree on some sort of underlying advertising instructional model.
Apparently, the advertising instructors who use these texts agree with
the author’s approaches, else why use the text? One would assume that, after instruction, students would agree the approaches used are valid and relevant and will serve them well in their chosen careers. Yet, is all this agreement on how to teach and learn the subject of advertising really a consensus
of what is correct or a misconception, that, once started, has been allowed
to continue without challenge and has now fallen out-of-date?
In spite of the fact that the overall definition of advertising may have
changed, advertising content areas have moved from persuasion to relationships, and delivery systems have fragmented and multiplied4, we seem to be
teaching advertising in the same old way. The traditional, Americaninspired view of “how to teach advertising” may be becoming less and less
relevant around the world.
In this chapter, I argue for change. Not just for change’s sake, but, because basic advertising instructional areas are no longer relevant in a vast
majority of the world.
Advertising growth and opportunity are now in emerging markets5.
So, while we have excellent approaches to advertising in established economies, as illustrated by the texts previously mentioned, those approaches and
concepts become less and less relevant as the 80% of the world that is made
up of emerging markets, surges ahead.
Advertising instruction is caught in a time warp.6 It reflects the way
advertising perhaps once was, but no longer is. Indeed, the characters in the
television series “Mad Men”7 would likely feel quite at home in many advertising classrooms, even today.
16
An Inherent Established Market Bias
For the most part, advertising instruction, as it is conducted in most
western (meaning North American and Western European) colleges and
universities, is biased toward development and use of persuasive mass communication in established economic markets. This model assumes marketplaces are fairly stable, with limited and known competitors, competing in
an orderly and well defined way.
Advertising, therefore, attempts to influence and persuade marketwise consumers about useful, relevant products and services being offered by
law-abiding marketers whose primary goal is to build on-going brand loyalty through long-term relationships. This occurs, in spite of the fact that
much advertising tends to over-promise and the products under-deliver on
those promises.8
The result? This idealized, western-biased scenario is likely relevant
in only about 20% of the world’s markets today.9 The rest of the world consists of emerging markets which lack most of the basic structures that advertising education seems to assume exist. Those emerging markets are commonly unruly, dynamic, filled with unknowing and less educated consumers who have not been trained, nor do they know how to respond to the
ploys of sophisticated marketers and advertisers.10 Therefore, the western
advertising approaches are either irrelevant or culturally deficient of meaning.
The New 80/20 Rule
Most everyone who teaches advertising is familiar with Pareto’s 80/20
Rule11, meaning 20% of the buyers make up 80% of the market. We seem
to following that same rule in advertising instruction. While 80% of the
advertising spending may currently be occurring in 20% of the markets, this
is not going to be the future case.12 The emerging markets of the world will
ultimately dominate advertising investments, i.e., China, India, Brazil, Russia, Indonesia, and so on. Yet, we continue to develop advertising instruction not for the future, but for the past.
Here, I have tried to develop the case for a revised view of advertising
education. One that is likely more relevant for the majority of the world’s
population, and, therefore, deserving of research, analysis, innovation and
ultimately instructional delivery by faculty. My discussion is about the majority of the world market; that is, the future markets of the world, not the
established ones.
17
Today, those of us in the 20% group are exporting our knowledge
and expertise to the 80%. We are preaching a gospel that seems to say
“Emulate us and you will be successful.” Unfortunately, the advertising instructional products we are exporting may well be irrelevant, or, even culturally unacceptable.
What Needs to be Changed?
In an academic research sense, this paper can be challenged due to
lack of theory development, presentation of evidence and quantitative support. Yet, based on my 30 plus years of advertising teaching and research
in more than 40 countries, I believe there is substantial face validity to my
arguments. It is within this framework that I suggest five basic advertising
instructional methodologies should be challenged and most likely changed.
Western Cultural Biases
For the most part, advertising instruction is based on a westernoriented, behaviorist view of how consumers are influenced by advertising,
and therefore go to market.13,14 That is, it is assumed that all consumers
around the world are individualistic in nature, behave rationally, and are
focused on optimizing their lives within their economic boundaries. While
this may be true in developed western markets, it is often culturally irrelevant in the majority of the world. Based on most estimates, approximately
70 to 80% of the world’s population live in communal societies, where the
views of the group dominate the views of the individual.15
These are marketplaces where networks and communities provide the
key social glue and which have a major influence in how advertising is perceived and used. Thus, culturally, the western models of consumer behavior, which underlie all advertising instruction, are likely in conflict with the
existing norms. The behaviorist models being exported through current advertising instruction must, I believe, be re-thought and made more relevant
to the 80% of the market where future growth will occur.
The Death of the “Big Idea”
In many emerging markets, while mass media have existed for some
time, new forms of individualized media such as mobile have become the
media forms of consumer choice.16,17 Government technological initiatives
have enabled many of these markets to skip generations of communication
system development and go from limited-or-no telecommunication to almost unlimited mobile and wireless facilities. This creates major issues for
18
most western advertising instructional models, since they assume the concept of the “Big Idea.” That is, the primary success of advertising is driven
by some creative concept or approach that will appeal to the mass audiences
generated by mass media; ideas and concepts that successfully knit broad
demographic segments into a coherent whole.1,2,3
In developing economies, the “Big Idea” may no longer be as relevant
as it has been in established markets. Individualized advertising approaches,
targeted to specific groups of consumers, which are possible through addressable media, may be more relevant and more effective.
In the current advertising instructional model, “Big Ideas” may have
to give way to multiple small promotional ideas that are continuously developed and implemented and followed by additional ideas and executions.
Thus, the development of the creative product may have to be radically
changed from slowly developing and expanding a single concept to rapidly
implementing multiple executions of some basic idea….and, then, moving
on.
From Media Distribution to Media Consumption
Today, advertising instruction focuses on optimizing the available resources of the advertiser organization to generate the greatest distribution of
product and services messages to the broadest pre-selected audiences.18
While still relevant in many areas, this outbound distribution system must
be complemented by similar models that identify and integrate consumer
acquisition of messages on their own, whether that be through consumer
“pull models” such as search engines, use of web sites, social media or other,
yet-to-be developed technologies, or from the increasingly important consumer-to-consumer networks that are growing exponentially.19
Clearly, the message distribution instructional model for the future
must be focused on what communication systems the consumer accesses
more than on what and how marketers choose to distribute their advertising
messages. That means our current descriptions of “audiences” and measurement of message distribution must give way to new models of how consumers access, acquire, and use marketing communication in all its
forms.16,17
In emerging economies, the use of mobile communications will be
pervasive. Yet, today we have limited methods of understanding how consumers use these mobile systems and what their potential for the future
might be. Media planning and implementation must be radically changed
to reflect the developing media forms in both established and emerging
markets.
19
Research Anomalies
Presently, our advertising instructional methods assume the use of
various forms of traditional market and marketing research. These research
systems are based on willing consumers who will share their views and feelings with research people at little or no cost. In established economies, consumers are knowledgeable about these research systems and are willing to
provide their views. Such is often not the case in emerging markets.
Lacking experience with research systems, gaining marketplace information is often difficult, if not impossible.20,21 Cultural mores often influence the type of answers emerging market consumers provide. In some
cases, consumers are unwilling to speak with interviewers or share their
views, simply because of their past political experience. So, while even more
research knowledge will be needed in the future, our current research tools
are often inadequate for the emerging market needs.
At the same time, vast amounts of market and marketplace information are being generated by various forms of data gathering technologies,
such as frequent shopper programs, recruited panels, online research communities and the like.22 It is this anomaly, the difficulty in gaining consumer information on one hand and being inundated with data on the other,
that creates the problems. Thus, major changes are required in how we develop and use research information everywhere. Our present systems appear
to be inadequate for either need in both established and emerging markets.
Measurement and Numbers
Today, advertising education, with minor exceptions, avoids the development or use of substantial quantitative analysis. Other than the limited statistical analysis used in media planning, students, with the aid of instructors, manage to either avoid or are not required to develop any but the
most rudimentary financial skills. Statistical training is the dreaded enemy
of the student population, being put off or avoided as long as possible in the
advertising instructional periods.
Thus, when current students who have graduated from advertising
programs are put into semi-management situations where advertising expenditures or investments are discussed, they are ill prepared to justify or
support their recommendations. Unfortunately, this situation exists not
just in the emerging markets, but in most advertising education. Too often
we teach advertising as an “art,” not as a “science.” In truth, it must be a
mix of the two.
In the cursory review of the advertising texts mentioned earlier, there
is scant mention of the “business side” of advertising. We teach students
primarily to “talk” advertising, that is, to create adverting programs in ex-
20
quisite detail, and then deliver them to waiting consumers. But, too often
we ignore measurement and accountability in our advertising instruction as
being either too difficult or too challenging for student consumption.
Here again, another anomaly arises. For example, when we consider
emerging markets, it quickly becomes obvious they will be heavily influenced by mobile and other forms of direct communication. That means
more direct, relevant, and useful measurement and accountability skills will
naturally occur than those in the more mass media dominated established
markets. Thus, it may be the emerging markets will reverse the knowledge
feed. That is, the new concept for interactive advertising may likely be developed in the emerging markets, not the existing ones. Wherever done,
however, measurement and accountability are critical issues for advertising
instruction.
A Final Thought
One major area of advertising instruction that is often neglected is
teaching consumers how to be good consumers. How to understand their
new marketplaces. How to make wise purchasing decisions. How to balance wants, needs and requirements. This is an area that seems to be sadly
lacking in current advertising instruction. Yet, in developing economies
and markets, it may be the most important topic to be taught if advertising
is to be a relevant topic globally.
While this brief chapter may seem to be railing against the establishment, that may well be what is needed today. Given the changing composition of the audiences advertising must address in the future, that seems to
be one of the most relevant issues we can address.
Advertising instruction, if we take the leading advertising texts as the
basis for evaluation, is mired in an academic time warp. The focus of today’s advertising education may have been, and may continue to be relevant
for established markets, such as those in North America and Western Europe a number of years ago, the 20% of the world’s population. The real
question of how advertising is being taught, however, is whether it is relevant for the other 80% of the world.
That raises the ultimate question of whether we should continue to
focus our efforts on improving what we know or begin exploration of what
we don’t know? To me, the challenge seems quite clear. But, to others, the
solution may not be quite so obvious nor as palatable.
21
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
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6.
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Lane, R., King, K. and T. Reichert (2010). Kleppner’s Advertising Procedure (18th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Belch, G. and M. Belch (2008). Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing
Communications Perspective (8th ed.). Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
O’Guinn, T., Allen, C. and R.J. Semenik (2008). Advertising and Integrated Brand
Promotion (5th ed.). Florence, KY: South-Western College Publishing.
Schultz, D.E. and H.F. Schultz (2003). IMC: The Next Generation. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Schultz, D.E. (2010). Communications between organizations and their markets in
emerging economies: A research agenda. Organizations and Markets in Emerging Economies, vol. 1(1): 51-67.
Kerr, G. and D.E. Schultz (2008). Filling in the gaps or plugging in the holes? Why
academic advertising research model needs maintenance. Proceedings of the ICORIA
Conference, Antwerp, Belgium.
http:www.amctv.com/originals/madmen.
Edelman (2010). Edelman Trust Barometer, www.edelman.com.
De Mooij, M. (2010). Global Marketing and Advertising (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publishing..
Dawar, N and A. Chattopadhyay (2002). Rethinking marketing programs for emerging markets, Long Range Planning, vol. 35(5): 457-474.
Schultz, D.E. and B.E. Barnes (1994). Strategic Advertising Campaigns (4th ed.). Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Publishing Group, 56.
Ciochetto, L. (2010). Globalization and Advertising in Emerging Economies: Brazil, Russia, India and China, Taylor & Francis, London, UK.
Schiffman, L.G. and L.L. Kanuk (2007) Consumer Behavior, 9th ed., Pearson-Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Solomon, M.R. (2006) Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having and Being, Pearson-Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Koch, R (1999) The 80/20 Principle, Currency DoubleDay, New York, NY.
Block, M.P. and D.E. Schultz (2009). Media Generations: Media Allocation in a Consumer-Controlled Marketplace. Worthington, OH: Prosper Publishing.
Schultz, D.E., and M.P. Block (2010). Retail Communities: Customer Driven Retailing.
Worthington, OH: Prosper Publishing.
Sissors, J. Z. and R. B. Baron (2002). Advertising Media Planning. Lincolnwood, IL:
NTC Business Books.
Schultz, D.E., Barnes, B.E., Schultz, H.F. and M. Azzaro (2009). Building CustomerBrand Relationships. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Schultz, D.E. (2010). Test your brand management skills. Marketing Management (in
press).
Srinivasan, R., Vijayakumar, K., Agarwal, M. and D.A. Stiawan (2010). Premarket
evaluation of new consumer durable brands in Asian markets. Proceedings of the
ESOMAR Asia-Pacific Conference, Kuala Lumpur.
Humby, C., Hunt, T. and T. Philips (2004). Scoring Points: How Tesco is Winning
Customer Loyalty. London, UK: Kogan Page.
22
Africa
Botswana:
The Environment of
Advertising Education
Eno Akpabio
University of Botswana, Botswana
As in other areas of human endeavor, advertising has had its own fair
share of changes. Just as Albert Lasker’s definition of advertising as “salesmanship in print” at the beginning of the 20th century (Arens, Weigold and
Arens 2008, p. 7) was rendered obsolete by the advent of radio and television, so also has information and communication technologies (ICTs) and
other developments in professional practice made advertising a moving target.
From an economic standpoint, Arens, Weigold and Arens (2008)
note that advertising has evolved through the preindustrial to industrial,
post-industrial, and global interactive age with significant changes in professional practice and more sophisticated approaches to reaching and persuading consumers. Not only have agencies changed in their structure and ways
of doing business, even traditional functions such as account planning,
copy, production, media planning and buying, traffic, etc., are configured
differently to cater for the challenges of the 21st century marketplace.
The constant changes in the marketplace are acknowledged by the
authors of the Online advertising playbook, who go ahead to insist that they
have based their book on “principles and proven strategies” even though
they concede that “new tactical opportunities arise daily … [hence] where
there is shelf-life issue, we’ve tried to highlight this with a note” (Plummer,
Rappaport, Hall and Barocci 2007, p. 5).
Media planning, for instance, gained greater mileage after it moved
from being an isolated activity to one closely related to marketing planning
following the significant premium placed on the marketing concept, so
much so that “a good media effort is what makes the rest of the advertising
campaign work – or not work” (Kelley and Jugenheimer 2008, p. 5). Creative media choice, which involves placing messages on novel media (sheep,
bananas, face masks, golf holes, egg shells, elevator panels, etc.), has been
23
found to be positively correlated with more positive ad and brand evaluation, as well as enhanced brand association, than placement in a traditional
medium (Dahlén, Friberg and Nilsson 2009).
Print ads now presume a visually-oriented, as well as casually browsing, viewer, unlike older ads that assumed an attentive reader as a consequence of the blitzkrieg of ad messages the modern consumer is exposed to
(McQuarrie and Phillips 2008). Some ad agencies are now producing reality commercials that involve real users of the product rather than models, in
the hope that such campaigns will resonate more with consumers than traditional ad campaigns. Seamless and hybrid messages through the agency of
the Internet, product placement, virtual reality, mobile phones, mcommerce, and viral marketing allow advertisers to reach consumers
through a noncommercial appearance ((Frith and Mueller 2007).
The dizzying pace of change in the advertising landscape also raises questions about the value and quality of advertising education. The approach to
adopt for the former remains contested, from those who stand opposed to
advertising education, insisting that “hands-on experience is the only
worthwhile training,” to those who prefer to train within the agency environment because universities are not well equipped, to universities who differ in their approach from more applied to more liberal ad education
schools/departments (Ross and Richards 2008, pp 336-339). There is also
the recurring debate about the best place to house advertising programs, between marketing and communication departments.
Some of these debates are clearly informed by the need to produce
job-ready graduates who know their onions. Another reason is the penchant by practitioners who have performed excellently without a qualification in advertising, preferring to hire “bright-but-untrained employees in
their own image” (Ross and Richards 2008, p. 337).
However, advertising programs that meet the standards of industry
will most likely dispel the mist and convey the impression of job-ready
graduates, as well as impress hard on the disbelieving regarding the value of
ad education. But do programs which meet this criterion exist in Botswana?
How are practitioners adapting to the changing advertising landscape and
are they fully in the know as regards the changing nature of the profession?
Finally, what does the advertising industry in Botswana bring to the table of
global practice?
24
Rationale and Significance of the Study
This study seeks to make known advertising development and practice in Botswana. In terms of ad education, the study will focus on advertising programs and the intersection between such programs and the needs of
the ad industry. A paucity of materials on this is apparent compared to information on other aspects of advertising. There have been efforts to document advertising education and players (see Ross and Richards 2008) but
this effort is skewed in favor of the United States and, like in most scholarship emanating from the West, Africa is marginalized. The only mention of
advertising in Africa references the AAA School of Advertising based in
South Africa.
The study, then, will serve the purpose of giving a comprehensive
picture of advertising education in this country and position it within the
changing ad landscape. It will profile programs and academics and advertising professionals. As a consequence, it will make an important contribution
to the advertising literature from a Botswana and African perspective.
Research Questions
1. What is the nature of advertising (comprehensive or partial training
in aspects of advertising practice) education in Botswana?
2. Are advertising professionals involved in the design of academic advertising programs and evaluation of students’ work?
3. What has been the contribution of practitioners and academics to the
development of advertising in Botswana?
Methodology
The study involved intensive interviews, which have the advantage of
providing a wealth of information on the topic under focus (Wimmer and
Dominick 2006). All agencies listed in the 2010 Botswana Telecommunications Corporation (BTC) Phonebook were contacted. Fourteen ad professionals agreed to participate in the study. Twelve of the interviewees
were agency heads, while the remaining two had the designation of Creative
Director and Business Development Manager. Four persons involved in ad
education were also interviewed. An analysis of advertising course materials
and programs also was done.
25
Botswana Advertising Landscape
Botswana obtained independence from Britain on September 30,
1996. This country of 1.9 million people is widely regarded as a shining
example (Hope 1999) in the African continent. A 2007 Gallup Poll attributed the country’s success story to diamond wealth, political stability,
and sound macro-economic policies.1 The 2010 Global Peace Index2 ranked
Botswana 33rd, behind Singapore, United Kingdom, and France, and
above the United States (85th) as well as all other African countries. The
World Bank3 classifies Botswana as an upper-middle income country with
GNI per capita of US$ 6,471.22, and ease of doing business rank of 45 out
of 183 economies. To see how this translates in terms of the advertising
business, a short history of advertising in Botswana is germane.
Prior to 1990, any advertising in Botswana had to be taken across the
border to South Africa.4 A number of factors created a conducive atmosphere for advertising to take root and flourish in Botswana. Newspapers
were set up in the 1990s, and they needed revenue to keep the business going, and advertising was a natural source of financing. The influx of newspapers provided a much needed booster shot to the advertising industry.5
Early newspaper advertising which pioneered the ad industry was
quite primitive, with the use of electroset and compuset methods.6 At
about this time, also, some Zimbabwean-based companies had invested in
the Botswana market and needed advertising support.7 This gave rise to
agencies like Marketing Communication and Diacom Advertising, which
initially serviced Botswana Telecommunications Corporation and Mascom
Wireless, etc., and then began to look for other clients to which they could
provide advertising service.8 The entrance of cell phone companies into the
market changed the advertising landscape, especially because they are big
spenders.9
The Agencies
There was a consensus among the interviewees that the decent-sized
agencies at this time were Marketing Communication, Ogilvy, Saatchi and
Saatchi, and Media Communication. These big agencies were mostly
white-owned (that is, White South Africans and White Zimbabweans).10
The pioneers were Alistair Carlisle, Lyn Medeley, Alan Brough (Horizon
Saatchi and Saatchi/Horizon Ogilvy), Vic Hanna (Medcom), and Thomas
Whitney (Marketing Communication). One informant indicated that
some of the brilliant employees at Horizon Saatchi and Saatchi had a tremendous impact on the agency environment.11 This group was made up of
26
Gerald Mashonga (CEO of Synergy Advertising and Promotions), Tonderai
Tsara and Noma Moremong (Directors of Dialogue Saatchi and Saatchi), as
well as the late Mathata Kasinnelwe (former Managing Director, Horizon
Ogilvy).
There were also a number of small/medium sized agencies, such as
CBS, Diacom, Infinity, Optimum media, OP Design (now OP Advertising), Stiles and Stiles, etc. An influx of Zimbabwean graphic designers provided the much needed skills to keep the wheel of advertising turning12, especially since South African graphic designers felt that the market was too
small.13 Even though there are a number of trained Batswana graphic designers, they seem not to be making an impact on the industry for a variety
of reasons. Batswana designers do not want to pay their dues by coming in
at an entry level with a small salary and rising through the ranks, preferring
instead to seek their fortunes in other better paying industries, or obtaining
citizen empowerment loans to set up on their own shops.14 Zimbabweans
appear to understand the local context better, having been trained in their
country as opposed to the mostly foreign-trained Batswanans who have a
good grasp of current technology and software but do not fully appreciate
and understand the African context15.
Interviewees credit computers, especially desktop publishing software,
as well as the coming of commercial radio stations (RB2, Gabz FM, Yarona
FM), and the launch of Botswana Television (BTV) as bringing about a
transition from largely print ads to electronic ones. The growth of the
SMME sector is also a contributory factor to the development of the local
advertising industry, by giving exposure to their products and services.
The Media
The transition to Internet advertising has been slow, especially because of the low level of Internet penetration. Even when this is done, there
are mixed results. Instead of the expected interactivity, people just visit the
sites and read the material as if it were a brochure.16 Dialogue Saatchi and
Saatchi reports working on a Twitter and Facebook campaign for a client,
noting that traffic to the client’s website as measured by Google Analytics
was “decent.” 17 As technology becomes cheaper, and as young people move
from telephone calls to SMS to data, this area will pick up.18 However, the
expertise to carry out Internet advertising is unavailable.
There also are developments in the outdoor advertising landscape.
Continental Outdoor was probably the first such company in Botswana.19
According to Sussanah Steenkamp, General Manager of Continental Outdoor—Botswana, the outdoor sector has experienced tremendous growth as
a result of the unregulated environment. The indiscriminate erection of
27
billboards results in chaos and substandard outdoor development that does
not add value to the aesthetics of the environment.Some of these billboards
lack structural integrity and may be a danger to the general public. Billboards are everywhere, and it is sad to note that even big players in the sector are part of the problem. Approval to put up billboards is usually obtained from private individuals as well the city council.20 But even when
boards are erected illegally, the councils lack the manpower to pull them
down.21
The Trends
There is a growing trend towards international affiliation even
though a few interviewees decried this. The rationale for affiliation is to attract international corporations that have a proper appreciation of the role
of advertising.22 Another reason is the growing sophistication of the Botswana market, and the mileage that local agencies obtain from affiliation.23
Local agencies are able to get referrals, training resources, and the latest software, which is leveraged to give clients the best.24 One source cited
the example of a memorable Orange TV commercial involving 250 persons
from 25 different countries.25 The consequence of affiliation is reflected in
nomenclatures: Marketing Communication is now (Draft) FCB Marketing Communication, Media Communication is TBWA/Medcom, Ogilvy
Saatchi and Saatchi has metamorphosed into Horizon Ogilvy, Dialogue
Group is now Dialogue Saatchi and Saatchi. The present Continental
Outdoors has changed names over the years to reflect various owners: Airport Advertising, to Inter Africa, to Corp Com, to Clear Channel, and
INM, in that order.26
All interviewees decried the lack of advertising regulation in Botswana
as an ill wind that has distorted the sector and stunted professionalism.
Many of them look back at their native South Africa and Zimbabwe with
nostalgic feelings in this regard. These informants note that lack of regulation has resulted in fly-by-night agencies that come in cheap and get business that proper agencies are supposed to get. Some of these one-man businesses are able to do the required executions, but some are not able and end
up taking the job to the regular agencies, thus resulting in higher pricing for
services.
This unregulated environment has also been fingered for lots of unethical practices. One informant27 described how a big player in the telecommunication sector had called for a pitch. One of the conditions for
participation was five years’ track record, but a newly formed agency got the
brief. In the same vein, a big player in the financial services sector had also
called for a pitch, and instead of the winning agency getting a two-year con-
28
tract, it was given one for six months. The suspicion was that the winning
agency would develop the campaign, then the job would be passed on to
another agency.28
Growth of the sector is fine, but in terms of depth, a majority of interviewees see a big problem in almost all areas: photography, copywriting,
strategy, and research. A number of untrained people feel that they know
enough to set up shop, and this detracts from professionalism. Many agency heads also are involved in other sectors apart from advertising, so the required devotion and drive is absent.
There also is a lot of outsourcing for artwork and illustration, research, and strategy to South Africa and other countries. As a consequence,
some clients take jobs directly to South Africa, knowing that the required
expertise is not available locally. One interviewee stated that a main reason
for this is that agencies cannot afford experienced staff.29 As people stay
longer in the industry they are likely to be pushed out because they would
be too expensive. That means experience is lost because those persons go
into other sectors. Very few use this experience by setting up ad agencies of
their own.
But clients are not adding value to the sector, either. Clients are very
price sensitive, so much so that the bigger the agency the more likely it is to
go out of business, because the small and cheap players are favoured.30 And
government, which is a big ad spender, accepts shoddy jobs.31 So to succeed, one has to do what clients dictate, slap it together, and pass it on.32
Some clients want a job that will take three months done in a week.33
The main reason why more sophisticated billboards are not present in
the Botswana outdoor advertising landscape is because clients are not willing to pay for it.34 This is a far cry from what is taking place in South Africa, where the outdoor budget is quite large.35 The result is uniformity:
happy faces, headline, and logo so much so that the ads for the three cellphone companies in Botswana look uncannily alike.36
A few interviewees insist, though, that Botswana advertising can
compare favorably to international advertising executions, if there is a level
playing field, which is often not the case. One informant37 painted a scenario that brings home the challenges in stark terms:
To execute a big assignment, if you are in London or New York, you can
call up a recruiter and have 10-15 top notch resources at your door step tomorrow morning. This is not possible in Botswana. I can’t just pick up the
phone and say I need five copywriters, 10 high-level art directors, etc. Talent takes long to find, and one has to hold onto them with both hands, because it is a small market and there is lack of skill out there.
29
Advertising Education in Botswana
For a long time the University of Botswana was the sole provider of
higher education in the country. In 2007, a Malaysian University, Limkokwing University of Creative Technology, set up a Gaborone Campus.
There also are smaller institutions offering franchise programs, such as
ABM University College, Botho College, etc. In terms of advertising education, two main institutions/outfits are in reckoning.
University of Botswana
There is no specific degree program in advertising at the University of
Botswana, but advertising is offered in the Bachelor of Business Administration (Marketing) Degree as an optional course. To qualify to take the advertising course, students are expected to have taken a course in integrated
marketing communication. The ad course basically provides an overview of
advertising, with particular emphasis on its intersection with marketing.
Advertising is also offered in the Department of Media Studies for students
studying for the Bachelor of Media Studies Degree. It is lumped together
with public relations. The specific courses are as follows: Writing for Public relations/Advertising Copywriting, Introduction to Public Relations and
Advertising, Public Relations and Advertising Campaigns Management and
Public Communication Campaigns.
In Advertising Copywriting, students are taught about creativity, research, strategy, creative copywriting, as well as how to write copy for print,
radio, television, outdoor and point-of-purchase. In Introduction to Advertising and Public Relations, the advertising component involves history and
evolution of advertising, classification, roles and functions, formulas, and
the industry of advertising.
The Advertising and Public Relations Campaigns course takes an integrated marketing communication approach, with learning centered
around analysis of company, consumers, product/brand, competition, setting of objectives, strategy, positioning, targeting and delivering the message, media planning and related marketing communication – personal selling, public relations and direct marketing. Public Communication campaigns take almost the same format as Advertising and Public Relations
Campaigns, with the notable difference being emphasis on attitude and behavior change. In the latter course, students are expected to produce campaigns for products and services, while the former addresses pressing social
issues, such as HIV and AIDS, drink spiking, road accidents, etc.
30
Preparatory and complementary courses equip students with the skills
to carry out campaigns, and they can choose fromother theoretical and
practical courses that students can choose from. Students also take the following courses: Computer Animation, DTP and Digital Media, Communication Research Methods, Scripting for the Electronic Media, TV and
Video Production, Radio Production, and various programs in print journalism as well as core courses from the Department of English. An AVID,
Macintosh, and PC lab allows students to work on and or produce the
training newspaper, TV and programs, news, features and documentaries,
and PR and ad campaigns.
Limkokwing University of Creative Technology
The Head of the Faculty of Design and Innovation, Mr. Philisani
Amos, and program leader for advertising, Ms. Bone Kobua, outlined the
advertising program. The program leads to the award of Associate Degree
in Advertising, and it is the only one in the country that focuses exclusively
on advertising training.
The program used to be housed in the Faculty of Communication
Media and Broadcasting, but it was moved to the present faculty (Design
and Innovation) to make it more practice-oriented. The modules offered
are a combination of general education courses, such as communication and
study skills, introduction to research, computer skills, drawing, internship,
entrepreneurship, fundamentals of design and creative and innovative studies and specializations such as visualization techniques, creative studies, design studies, photography for advertising, computer graphics for advertising,
desktop publishing, principles of advertising, multimedia presentation, typography, advertising studio, copywriting, art direction and advertising
publication.
Advertising Professionals’ Involvement in Education
The internship program in the two institutions provides work-based
training for students. For a period of three months, students learn what the
world of work feels like. However, not all students get placed in advertising
agencies, as there are a range of options to choose from. In terms of program development, the University of Botswana has advisory boards in place
to give input regarding how to make programs relevant to the needs of industry. Since advertising is a component of the marketing and media studies degrees, professionals in various areas of marketing, as well as professionals in every area of media and communication, sit on the two advisory
boards. Professionals are invited to critique students’ campaigns in the De-
31
partment of Media Studies, and the feedback is usually well received by the
students.
A similar structure exists at Limkokwing University of Creative
Technology, but the nomenclature is “Industry Advisers.” The Head of
Faculty and Program leader for advertising informed me that the chair of
the Industry Advisers for the Advertising Program is Mr. Olivier Prentout,
who is the managing director of OP Advertising. Advertising professionals
also form a panel that critiques student work. Students’ ad productions are
also placed in exhibition halls within the institution for ad professionals and
members of the general public to view. Interviewees also told me that two
Limkokwing students recently won an ad award in a competition organized
by Elements Advertising, an agency based in South Africa.
From the agency side, the picture was not as rosy. One interviewee38
said agencies are thirsty for more engagement and wanted educational institutions to be more proactive in engaging ad professionals, as opposed to the
present laid back outlook. Another informant39 acknowledged that Limkokwing University does involve him in judging students’ work, but he decried the quality of graduates from the institution. He felt that the lecturers
were young and inexperienced, and this reflected negatively on the institutions’ graduates. He also was unhappy with the quality of industrial design
interns from the University of Botswana, who were not exposed to industrystandard software.40
Conclusion
The media studies program at the University of Botswana was designed to give students opportunities to fit into any sector in the media and
communication field based on feelers from the market. Students can pick
and choose from the available streams – public relations and advertising,
print journalism, radio, TV and video. Bachelor of Media Studies graduates, because they are exposed to various aspects of journalism and mass
communication, have gotten employment in advertising, public relations,
radio, television and film production outfits. The Associate Degree in Advertising program at Limkokwing University of Creative Technology is narrower, but there is also a concern about not saturating the small Botswana
market.41
Yet the ad industry is still dominated by foreigners. One interviewee
felt that the future of advertising is rosy because of the specialized program
offered by Limkokwing University of Creative Technology.42 However, a
number of the Associate Degree graduates are in ad agencies, but quite a
32
number of them are also in various companies where they come up with
concepts and outsource productions.43 This is the same approach used by
the Business Development Centre, which offers short courses on advertising
and branding to players in the small-business sector, so they can be empowered to do their own branding and advertising.44 How this self-help approach will aid the industry is unclear. There is no doubt that it is a contributory factor to the poor executions in the country, given that persons
who are trained but inexperienced, and those who are not trained in the
field, all feel they can have a go at advertising and branding.
One of the significant findings of this study is the fact that there is
insufficient engagement between the town and the gown. For one informant to mistake industrial design (Engineering and Technology) students for
advertising (media studies) students clearly signals a communication gap.
What the industrial design students were doing, seeking internship opportunities in an ad agency, communicates poor internship management and
begs for answers. Clearly, if players in the advertising sector do not know
what is going on in institutions offering advertising courses, graduates of
such programs are likely to be passed over in terms of employment opportunities. The present level of engagement should be extended to the entire
industry. The downside is that there is no regulatory body or industry association. Until these are in place, ad educators may need to engage each
player individually in judging students’ work and curriculum development.
Graduates from the two universities can help fill a gap. Limkowing
University graduates, due to the hands-on nature of the program, can handle photography while the University of Botswana graduates should be able
to add value to the areas of research and strategy, which are identified areas
of need. Both programs train students in copywriting, so the dearth of
good copywriters should be a thing of the past in the industry. The Bachelor of Media Studies has a very strong new media component, and this
should position the graduates to provide expertise in Internet advertising,
when the industry eventually turns this important corner. Now that jobs
are difficult to come by, these graduates will be willing to stay in the ad
agency environment and rise through the ranks while gaining the requisite
experience to make them seasoned professionals.
Other programs should be a footnote to advertising education in Botswana: an Advanced Certificate in Multimedia offered by Gaborone Technical College, which has a small component of advertising, as well as short
courses in branding and advertising offered by Business Development Centre.
33
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Retrieved from www.gallup.com/poll/.../stability-good-governance-boost-confidencebotswana.aspx - Similar on May 12, 2010.
Retrieved from www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi-data/ - Cached on May 12, 2010.
Retrieved from http://www.doingbusiness.org/exploreeconomies/?economyid=27 on
May 12, 2010.
Interview with N. T. (personal communication. May 19, 2010).
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Interview with T. K. (personal communication May 20, 2010).
Interview with T. K. (personal communication May 20, 2010).
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Interview with T. K. (personal communication May 20, 2010).
Interview with L. S. (personal communication May 6, 2010).
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Interviews with R. V. (personal communication May 27, 2010) and T. K. (personal
communication May 20, 2010).
Interview with R. V. (personal communication May 27, 2010).
Interview with R. V.(personal communication May 27, 2010).
Interview with T. K. (personal communication May 20, 2010).
Interview with T. T.(personal communication April 30, 2010).
Interview with T. T. (personal communication April 30, 2010).
Interview with S. S. (personal communication May 24, 2010).
Interview with F. W. (personal communication May 10, 2010).
Interview with F. W. (personal communication May 10, 2010).
Interview with T. M. (personal communication May 11, 2010).
Interview with V. H. (personal communication May 21, 2010).
Interview with T. T. (personal communication April 30, 2010).
Interview with T. T. (personal communication April 30, 2010).
Interview with S. S.(personal communication May 24, 2010).
Interview with R. V. (personal communication May 27, 2010)
Interview with R. V. (personal communication May 27, 2010)
Interview with T. K. (personal communication May 20, 2010).
Interview with T. N. (personal communication April 26, 2010).
Interview with T. N. (personal communication April 26, 2010).
Interview with L. S. (personal communication May 6, 2010).
Interview with T. T. (personal communication April 30, 2010).
Interview with F. W. (personal communication May 10, 2010).
Interview with F. W. (personal communication May 10, 2010).
Interview with T. K. (personal communication May 20, 2010).
Interview with T. T. (personal communication April 30, 2010).
Interview with T. T. (personal communication April 30, 2010).
Interview with T. K. (personal communication May 20, 2010).
I pointed out that these were not Media Studies’ students who are exposed to the right
software but students of Faculty of Engineering and Technology.
Interviews with B. K. and P. A. (personal communication June 8, 2010).
Interview with L. S. (personal communication May 6, 2010).
34
43. Interviews with B. K. and P. A. (personal communication June 8, 2010).
44. Interview with B. S. (personal communication June 9, 2010).
35
Advertising Education in Egypt
Kevin Keenan
The American University in Cairo, Egypt
As a country only beginning to move toward a private economy since
the last years of the twentieth century, and with a media system still largely
government operated and controlled, Egypt has a surprisingly long history
of advertising education. With the largest population and probably the
most influential system of higher education in the Arab world, the teaching
methods, curriculum, and outcomes of Egyptian advertising education have
an impact on how advertising is taught and practiced throughout the Middle East region.
Efforts to meet “media literacy” objectives in primary and secondary
schooling in Egypt usually include mention of advertising’s roles and functions. Vocational training programs, provided through the Egyptian national government and non-governmental organizations for teenage and
adult students, occasionally touch on topics related to advertising production. However, professional aspects of advertising and its treatment as an
academic discipline generally are the exclusive province of universities and
university level technical institutes.
Higher Education in Egypt
The oldest university in Egypt, and certainly one of the oldest in the
world, is Al-Azhar University, founded over 1,000 years ago, in 975 A.D.
(Said, 2003). Established as an institution devoted to Islamic learning, AlAzhar remains probably the world’s leading center for the study of Islam.
In recent years, its curriculum has expanded to include nonreligious areas,
including some limited attention to advertising as a factor related to economics, though no coursework or degrees focus exclusively on advertising.
In terms of more mainstream higher education, the Egyptian system
can be subdivided into 23 public universities and 29 private universities or
institutes. The constitution of Egypt provides citizens with access to free
education at public universities, which operate under the authority of the
Ministry of Education. Egypt’s history of occupation, colonization, and
revolution is such that the present public university structure has existed only since 1908, with the establishment of Cairo University, the largest and, in
most fields, sort of the “parent” university of the public system.
36
Public universities are scattered throughout the country, but given
the barren geography of much of the country and the fact that population
density is concentrated around Cairo and a couple of other cities, that is
where most schools are located. While certain universities have strong programs in one or two fields, overall, Egyptian public universities are beset
with several problems, including overcrowded classrooms, very low faculty
salaries, poor facilities, and antiquated methods of teaching and evaluation.
For those who can afford them, private universities tend to provide a
more modern quality of education. The oldest private university in Egypt is
the American University in Cairo (AUC), which has been operating since
1919, originally in the downtown heart of the city, and since 2007 at a new
campus in an outlying suburb. The number of private universities has increased dramatically in recent years, with the majority of such institutions
opening since 2002. English is the language of instruction at most private
universities, though there also are private schools where classes are taught in
German, French, Russian, and, of course, Arabic. Private universities have
smaller class sizes and lower enrollments than the public government universities.
The organization and nomenclature of Egyptian universities is similar
to that of most western universities, with only a few differences. If large
enough, an individual discipline is housed in a department that carries its
name. Smaller fields are placed as a unit within a more broadly named department. At the next level, at least in public universities and the larger private ones, several related departments make up a school or in the case of
public universities, a faculty, with the term “college” not common in reference to either that entity that includes multiple departments or the overall
institution.
Egyptian universities that use this structure include anywhere from
three to 18 schools or faculties. In the case of advertising, no schools or
faculties are so named, though there are departments at a number of universities that include advertising in their title. Such departments are most
commonly located within a faculty of mass communication. Some advertising classes are offered in faculties and schools of business.
Early Advertising Education in Egypt
It appears that the first advertising course offered in Egypt was in the
Faculty of Arts and Sciences at AUC during the 1937-1938 academic year.
Listed simply as “Advertising” in the university catalog, it was described as a
37
three-hour course at the senior level. Drawing on data from Ross, Osborne,
and Richards (2006), this was at a time when no more than 44 schools in
the United States were teaching advertising, quite a surprising finding given
the comparative underdevelopment of both advertising and higher education in Egypt.
A fuller description of this first advertising course is found in the
1943-1944 catalog of the American University in Cairo, which indicates
that “emphasis is placed upon the business side (advertising, circulation,
management) as well as upon purely writing techniques.” In 1947-1948,
the course was placed in the curriculum of a newly formed Department of
Journalism at AUC and renamed “Journalism 305: Principles of Advertising.” Catalog copy changed to indicate that it dealt with “organization of
the advertising industry; advertising services; advertising media; practice in
writing copy and making layouts.” It further lists the textbook used as Principles of Advertising, by Nixon.
Among Egypt’s public universities, advertising was first taught at Cairo University. The exact year and course description is unclear, but interviews with those familiar with this history suggest a general advertising class
was begun in the university’s Faculty of Mass Communication sometime in
the early 1960s.
Clearly, the pioneering universities in advertising education in Egypt
were the American University in Cairo, among private institutions, and
Cairo University, among public ones. Most other Egyptian universities did
not become involved in advertising education until the 1980s or 1990s.
Both private and public university offerings in advertising have followed the
models used by AUC and Cairo University, even to the extent of copying
the class syllabi, readings, and notes existent in their courses. As of 2011,
approximately half of all universities in Egypt offer at least some coursework
in advertising.
Undergraduate Advertising Degrees and Specializations
Beyond individual advertising classes, over the years a number of
Egyptian universities offer concentrations, specializations, majors, and degrees in advertising. At the American University in Cairo, the Department
of Journalism evolved into a Department of Mass Communication in 1982.
At that time, the AUC major in Mass Communication was divided into
two “functional sequences” of Journalism and Public Relations/Advertising
(note the order of the two elements differs from the more common stateside
38
major of Advertising/Public Relations). The public relations/advertising
sequence required nine credit hours, in the form of three specialized courses: Introduction to PR/Advertising, PR Techniques, and Advertising Campaigns. When AUC adopted an administrative structure consisting of three
separate schools in 1993, the department, renamed Journalism and Mass
Communication, and the major were placed in the School of Business,
Economics, and Communications (along with Department of Economics
and Department of Management).
As part of a major overhaul in 1996, the public relations/advertising
sequence at AUC was replaced by a specialization in “integrated marketing
communication” (IMC). Faculty from the marketing area of the Department of Management collaborated with the Department of Journalism and
Mass Communication in developing and seeking approval of the IMC program. While IMC is, and was, administered by Journalism and Mass
Communication, and the Bachelor of Arts degree was issued by that department, required course work was drawn from both departments.
The curriculum of the integrated marketing communication major
has gone through changes in the 15 years since its introduction. As of 2011
it consists of seven core courses: Principles of Advertising, Mass Communication Research, Introduction to Marketing, Public Relations Theory and
Techniques, Creative Strategy and Advertising Copywriting, ConsumerBuyer Behavior, and Integrated Marketing Communications Campaigns.
Since 2009, with yet another wave of administrative restructuring at
the American University in Cairo leading to a separate School of Business,
the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication and the IMC major have been part of the School of Global Affairs and Public Policy. The
rather awkward fit of the program in such a school has weakened the cooperation and links between marketing and communication, formerly together
in the School of Business, Economics, and Communications. It remains to
be seen what will become of IMC as the primary avenue of advertising education at AUC, what it will be called, and where it ultimately will reside.
Other private universities in Egypt that offer some form of advertising education generally have used the American University in Cairo curriculum as a template for their own programs. Course titles and descriptions
commonly are copied verbatim from the AUC catalog, identical class outlines and schedules are used, the same textbooks are adopted (and in some
cases illegally reproduced copies are distributed to students), and class notes
in circulation from AUC often end up being the primary source of class lectures.
39
One exception to the straight mimicking of American University is
the Advertising and Public Relations major in the Faculty of Mass Communications at Modern Sciences and Arts University (MSA), which also includes a media planning course. The MSA media planning class uses Media
Flight Plan (Martin & Coons, 2006) software, an ambitious endeavor in a
country where audience measurement and basic media planning concepts
are, for the most part, nonexistent in the advertising industry.
The advertising courses at Cairo University, and in turn at those other public universities with advertising programs, are different and somewhat
more extensive than what is found in private schools. Within the degree in
mass communication, the advertising curriculum at Cairo University consists of Introduction to Advertising, International Advertising, Ethics of Advertising, Art of Advertising, Electronic Advertising, Writing for Advertising, Creativity in Advertising, Advertising Media, and Advertising Campaigns. There would seem to be overlap among several of these classes, and
advertising is also the topic of courses in the Faculty of Commerce and the
Faculty of Arts at Cairo University. Beginning in 2005, the regular Arabic
language advertising offerings in the Faculty of Mass Communication at
Cairo University have been supplemented with a parallel English Division,
where English is the language of instruction, class sizes are smaller, and
more stringent admissions criteria are applied.
As is true in many parts of the world, advertising is a popular area of
undergraduate study in Egypt. In both private and public universities,
whether named Advertising, Advertising and Public Relations, Public Relations and Advertising, or Integrated Marketing Communication, majors in
the field attract big numbers and produce many degrees. At the American
University in Cairo, an institution with an undergraduate enrollment of just
over 5,000, the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication is the
largest department on campus, with more than 400 students, the majority
of whom are Integrated Marketing Communication majors. Admission to
the IMC program at AUC is selective, and fewer than half of the students
who apply are accepted.
Among other private schools, approximately 100 students major in
advertising at both Misr International University (MIU) and at MSA, with
probably another 200 in advertising-related majors at all other private universities combined. The International Academy of Media Sciences (IAMS),
an institute devoted entirely to media-related study and careers, has around
100 students whose focus of study is advertising. At Cairo University,
where the total student body is over 100,000, there are around 400 advertis-
40
ing majors, and an estimate for all public universities combined is around
1,000 students in advertising.
While such healthy student numbers reflect genuine enthusiasm for
the field among Egyptian undergraduates and insure relative security for advertising programs within Egyptian universities, the fact is that fewer than
half the majors end up employed in advertising after they graduate. Multinational advertising agency offices and corporations tend to hire the best
AUC graduates for entry level positions, and a number of local agencies are
staffed by graduates of advertising programs from various Egyptian universities. Persistent advertising students often can find production or government jobs with some ties to their major, but many students who major in
advertising never find employment in their area of study, and there are concerns among parents, university administrators, and others that efforts be
made to prepare undergraduates for job search and workplace realities.
Graduate Study of Advertising in Egypt
No graduate degrees in Egypt include the term “advertising” in their
title. However, students often address advertising topics through coursework, theses, or dissertations in various graduate programs at Egyptian universities. As with undergraduate advertising education, the American University in Cairo and Cairo University provide the models used by other
schools and are the primary institutions where students are likely to encounter advertising at the graduate level.
At AUC, the School of Business offers a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree and the Department of Journalism and Mass
Communication offers a Master of Arts (MA), both of which may be designed to include advertising. In the MBA degree, students can designate
marketing as their area of concentration and take advanced classes that relate to advertising, including “Marketing Communications Management,” a
course that might carry “advertising” in its name at other universities.
The AUC mass communication MA consists of four core courses
within the department and five graduate level electives from the department, or elsewhere in the university. In the past, MA students interested in
advertising have included marketing MBA classes among their electives, and
the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication has occasionally
offered graduate classes related to advertising on a “special topics” basis, including “International Advertising” and “Advertising and New Media.”
The MA also requires a research thesis, and most years there are several students whose thesis concentrates on some aspect of advertising. AUC is the
41
only private university in the country where students might pursue graduate
work related to advertising.
Cairo University also has MBA and MA degrees that can include an
advertising focus. The MBA degree is housed in the Faculty of Commerce
and, as with the AUC MBA, students have the option of choosing marketing as their area of concentration. Through a relationship with Georgia
State University in the United States, a portion of the Cairo University
MBA is offered jointly between the two schools, and in recent years faculty
from Georgia State have visited Cairo to teach courses, including one devoted to advertising and marketing communication. Cairo University’s MA
in mass communication draws on coursework from its undergraduate advertising program, as well as more advanced classes, including some that involve advertising, and a graduation project or thesis that may be based on
advertising study. The Cairo University MA serves as the model for the
other public universities that have graduate programs in mass communication, including Ein Shams University, Zagazig University, South of Egypt
University, and Minya University.
At the doctoral level, Cairo University is the only institution in Egypt
to offer degrees related to advertising. In the Egyptian system of higher education, the PhD usually does not involve coursework beyond what is taken
for a Master’s degree, but includes extensive examinations and the same
kind of advanced research, dissertation, and defense as western universities.
Doctorates with an advertising focus might be taken in the Cairo University
Faculty of Commerce, but they are more commonly from the Faculty of
Mass Communication. A very rough estimate is that there have been
around 15 to 20 PhD degrees completed at Cairo University involving advertising, at least indirectly, in the past 40 years.
Workshops and Non-Degree Advertising Education
In addition to formal academic degree programs in Egyptian public
and private universities, advertising is occasionally the subject of workshops
or seminars for different constituencies. The most elaborate of these is the
“professional diploma in marketing communications” that is offered by the
Institute of Management Development (IMD), a continuing education arm
of the School of Business at the American University in Cairo. This diploma, in collaboration with the International Advertising Association (IAA),
was introduced in Egypt in 1995 and has been quite popular among undergraduate students majoring in advertising or related areas, as well as midcareer professionals working in the field. It consists of a set of classes pre-
42
scribed by the IAA, some of which may be transferred from a degreegranting program and the rest taught at the IMD on a non-credit basis.
Approximately 300 Egyptian students and professionals have obtained the
diploma since it began.
The American Chamber of Commerce in Egypt (AmCham), a network of Egyptian and American business leaders, regularly sponsors speakers
and sessions for members and the public on different topics. Especially
through the Marketing Committee of AmCham, advertising subjects have
been covered in a number of these over the years. Similar, though less developed and less frequent, are presentations and roundtables on issues related to advertising organized by other chambers of commerce, embassies or
diplomatic missions, and organizations such as the Rotary Clubs in Egypt.
On an annual basis, the Union of African Journalists holds a set of
workshops in Cairo for media professionals from throughout Africa. These
usually include one or two sessions introducing attendees to basic advertising principles and offer training in advertising sales, design, or management.
In 2007, the United Nations Development Program sponsored a similar
gathering in Cairo for Iraqi media personnel, and the United States Agency
for International Development also has been involved in media education
efforts, though advertising is rarely included.
Advertising Faculty in Egypt
The teaching of advertising subjects in Egypt is done by a mix of fulltime and adjunct instructors. Some advertising educators in Egypt have advanced degrees in the field, some are in the process of completing advanced
advertising related degrees in Egypt or abroad, and some have degrees in peripheral fields. Most have at least some professional experience with advertising or communication work, but the relatively common western profile
of an advertising faculty person who goes into teaching after a successful industry career is quite rare in Egypt, probably due in part to the low salaries
paid at public universities.
Nationwide, the number of university teachers in business and mass
communication departments whose specialty is advertising is around 50. A
much larger number of faculty teach advertising classes, but many come
from other areas of expertise, with general business or marketing people often covering advertising courses in business programs, and mass communication advertising classes commonly taught by instructors whose primary
interests are journalism or some other area of communication.
43
Not surprisingly, most full-time advertising faculty are Egyptian.
Roughly 15 percent of all faculty are from outside of Egypt, with that number being higher at private universities. Non-Egyptian faculty include those
with American, Canadian, French, German, Lebanese, and other nationalities. Part-time faculty, who probably teach a little less than half of the advertising classes offered in the country, are almost exclusively Egyptian. On
occasion, Fulbright Scholars from the United States or sabbatical visitors
from different countries have spent time in Egypt and have taught advertising classes, usually at Cairo University.
The educational background of advertising teachers in Egypt varies,
with a minority having doctorates, but almost all holding a master’s degree
of some kind. At the two largest and most prestigious programs in the
country, Cairo University and the American University in Cairo, senior advertising faculty over the past decade have held PhD degrees from Cairo
University, the University of Georgia, the University of Minnesota, Ohio
State University and the University of Washington in the United States,
and the University of London in England.
At other Egyptian public universities, faculty with earned doctorates
typically have the degree from Cairo University, and faculty holding an MA
degree usually have it from Cairo or from the institution where they are
teaching. At private universities other than AUC, a few advertising teachers
have Cairo University doctorates, but the most common credential among
such faculty is an MA in mass communication from the American University in Cairo.
It is not unusual in Egypt for a faculty member to teach at more than
one university. This practice is prohibited at the American University in
Cairo, but among other private schools and with the public universities,
faculty who have an advertising specialization often teach courses at several
universities during the same term. The concept of a “teaching assistant” is
familiar to most Egyptian faculty and is employed at most universities.
The teaching of workshops and classes, such as the Union of African
Journalists program or the IMD diploma mentioned earlier, is sometimes
done by regular university faculty, including those from AUC, and sometimes by industry professionals. Lectures on advertising to outside groups,
such as the AmCham or embassy events, also are usually a mix of academic
and industry speakers.
44
Student Characteristics
Advertising is a topic of interest to a variety of people in Egypt. Unlike many other parts of the world, advertising is a relatively new phenomenon, for the most part coming to the country only with efforts toward privatization during recent decades. Thus, a broad population seeks to learn
about advertising topics and practices and investigate careers in the field.
Among those who pursue formal academic study of advertising, certain characteristics distinguish Egyptian students and institutions. Distinctions can also be made between those who attend private or public universities, between undergraduates and graduates, and between full-time and
part-time students. Finally, motives differ among Egyptian advertising students.
On a basic level, Egyptian students can be classified socioeconomically into those who go to private schools and those who go to government-supported public schools. In a country with quite real poverty issues, and typical family incomes of less than $500 per month, private universities are simply out of the question for many. At the American University in Cairo, for instance, tuition alone is almost $10,000 per semester.
Thus, in advertising as in other fields, there is a dichotomy in which the
wealthy attend private universities and everyone else studies at public universities. This difference in background impacts a number of factors in the
teaching of advertising, including the technology sophistication and experience of students, the kind of teaching examples students are likely to be familiar with, out-of-class expectations, and several other things.
As is true in many other countries, most undergraduate advertising
students in Egypt, at both public and private universities, are female. At
Cairo University the percentage who are female is around 75, and at AUC it
is even higher. Females also account for a majority of those studying advertising at the graduate level, though the difference is not as extreme as for
undergrads, and among doctoral students females are probably the minority.
Other than income and gender, religion and age are demographics to
consider for describing advertising students in Egypt. Approximately 90
percent of the population in Egypt is Muslim, with the other 10 percent
Christian. No statistics are available concerning the religion of students
studying advertising, but over ten years of exposure to ad students in Egypt
suggests the ratio of Muslims to Christians is more like 80/20. This disproportionate representation of Christians in advertising classrooms is most evident at private universities. No single factor can explain the phenomenon
of Muslims being slightly underrepresented among Egyptian advertising
45
students, but it may be that for the most conservative minority of Muslims,
modern media advertising is one of the many things they feel is “haram,” or
forbidden by their religion.
Egyptian students commonly finish secondary school at 16, so university students tend to be slightly younger than in other countries, and it is
not unusual to graduate with a baccalaureate degree at 19 or 20. Although
most advertising courses are offered at the junior and senior level, undergraduate advertising classrooms often seem more youthful than their equivalents in the United States.
Graduate students are divided about equally between those who enter
an MA program immediately after receiving their undergraduate degree,
and others who return for graduate study after working in advertising or in
unrelated jobs. This results in a graduate population similar to what is
found in the West, ranging from people in their early twenties through
some in their forties or older.
Issues and Idiosyncrasies of Advertising Education in Egypt
In some ways, the teaching of advertising in Egypt is no different
than in other parts of the world. The subject matter of advertising classes is
much the same, and course content and materials are similar or identical to
what is found elsewhere. In other ways, circumstances unique to Egypt
make advertising education there something of a special challenge.
Although Egyptian marketing and media systems have changed in
recent years, with modernization and global approaches increasing, the fact
remains that the kind of advertising practiced in Egypt is not the same as in
the developed world. Ideas about creativity are different and rather stunted.
Regulation is more strict. Audience definitions and measures are generally
primitive. The government controls and even owns major media outlets
and the largest advertising agencies (Keenan, 2003a). With these and other
factors considered, a dilemma for advertising educators in Egypt is whether
to teach the existent state of how advertising is done in the country, to teach
what might be considered “best practices” of advertising from other parts of
the world, or to find some balance between those two approaches.
While most would endorse the balanced solution of covering contemporary best practices within a context of Egyptian realities, some obstacles make such an ideal difficult, though not impossible, to attain. One major problem is the lack of textbooks and teaching materials that have much
connection to Egyptian advertising (Keenan, 1998; 2003b). Available texts
46
are almost exclusively American, or less commonly European, in their focus.
Books on international topics give almost no attention to Egypt or the
Middle East, understandable given the region’s admittedly miniscule portion of global ad spending, innovation, and development, but frustrating to
advertising teachers and students in Egypt. Textbook publishers’ claims to
offer “international editions” of popular basic texts used in their home
country are misleading or even fraudulent, in that the content of most such
books is identical to the home country edition.
Reliance on textbooks from the West has additional problems related
to language and culture. That is, for those universities where Arabic is the
language of instruction, English language books are clearly inappropriate
and, to date, none of the commonly used advertising texts are available in
translation. A lot of western textbooks also include content and illustrations
that for cultural or religious reasons are offensive to many students and faculty in conservative Egypt.
There is definitely a market for locally written and published advertising textbooks, and in fact such books would likely be adopted in advertising
classes at other universities in the Middle East. As advertising education in
Egypt looks to the future, development of texts and other materials that relate specifically to Egyptian aspects of the field would provide welcome supplement to or replacement of the largely American textbooks long used.
Advertising education in Egypt would also benefit from closer industry involvement and support. While the number of local graduates working
in advertising jobs has grown in recent years, and senior personnel at advertisers, agencies, and media are made up more and more of those with undergraduate or MA degrees from the American University in Cairo and Cairo University, the relationship of those in the advertising business to those
in advertising education remains remote, for the most part. As a source of
adjunct or full-time faculty, student internships, and contributions in terms
of classroom examples, materials, and cases, the Egyptian advertising industry can contribute much to how their field is taught in Egypt. Reciprocally,
the industry should benefit from recruitment opportunities and better
trained entrants into the field.
While Egypt lags behind the developed world in advertising education, awareness of the points covered here may lead to improvements. Recognizing issues of importance and making efforts to address them should
result in the already a popular subject of advertising study growing into a
respected and valuable element of Egyptian higher education.
47
References
Keenan, K. L. (1998). Perspectives on advertising education in the non-western world. In
D. D. Muehling (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1998 Conference of the American
Academy of Advertising. Pullman, WA: American Academy of
Advertising, 310-312.
Keenan, K. L. (2003a). Advertising in northern Africa. In J. McDonough & K. Egolf
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of advertising. New York: Fitzroy
Dearborn, 20-22.
Keenan, K. L. (2003b). Teaching international advertising in an era of diversity: A
perspective from Egypt. In P. B. Rose, & R. L. King (Eds.), Proceedings of the
2003 Asia-Pacific Conference of the American Academy of Advertising. Miami, FL:
American Academy of Advertising, 83-87.
Martin, D. G. & Coons, R. D. (2006). Media flight plan. Provo, UT: Deer Creek Publishing.
Ross, B. I., Osborne, A. C. & Richards, J. I. (2006). Advertising education: Yesterday, today,
tomorrow. Lubbock, TX: Advertising Education Publications.
Said, M. E. (2003). Egypt. In D. Teferra & P. G. Altbach (Eds.), African higher education:
An international reference handbook. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 285300.
48
Advertising Education and Training in
Nigeria: Development, Infrastructure
and Policies
Olugbenga Chris. Aveni
Eastern Connecticut State University, USA
Gabriel T. Nyitse
Benue State University, Nigeria
Benjamin E. Ogbu
Benue State University, Nigeria
Historical Foundation
Advertising, both at the level of training and practice, is crucial in
human activities, particularly as a marketing, selling, promotional or marketing communication tool. Like other management, behavioral, and social
sciences, as well as the liberal arts disciplines, advertising hardly can be
properly practiced or managed in the contemporary world of business, governance, and other fields of human endeavor, without adequate education
and training.
An overview of advertising education and training in Nigeria has to
be dissected from the broad perspective of journalism education, which often has been cited as predicated upon a strong American influence. Whereas Nigeria’s premier university, University of Ibadan, was established in
1948, the slow pace of journalism/mass communication education in Nigeria, and perhaps in West Africa, could be attributable to the non-inclusion
of journalism education in the initial academic programs taught in the university. The university’s first communication arts program was introduced
almost forty years later at the graduate level.
Two key figures often mentioned in connection with pioneering roles
in journalism education, training, and practice in Africa were Kwame
Nkrumah and Nnamdi Azikiwe. Both were among the earliest scholars
from Africa who underwent training in the United States. While Nkrumah
started the first journalism institute in Ghana in 1958, an identical model
was introduced to the University of Nigeria, Nnsuka, in the early sixties.
American style journalism training started in Cairo in 1935 with the introduction of the American University in Cairo, which was followed by that of
Cairo University four years later (Salawu, 2009).
49
This somewhat episodic take off of journalism education, and by extension the training of advertising professionals, perhaps explains why until
recently no Nigerian university offered a complete course at degree level in
Advertising, despite its indispensable position in modern society (Nwosu
and Nkamnebe, 2006:13). In fact, until 1962 when Nigeria’s first journalism training institution at the university level was started at the Jackson
College of Journalism, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, no Nigerian university offered any formal journalism training and education.
A few short-term programs catered to journalism training, such as the
informal two-week vocational course organized for working journalists at
the University of Ibadan in 1954, and a follow up for radio journalists two
years later (Akinfeleye, 2003). This was followed by the famous University
of Lagos institute of mass communication (now Department of Mass
Communication) in 1966. Today, the status of advertising education in
Nigeria has relatively improved.
The foregoing overview of advertising education in Nigeria obviously
supports the fact that training is critical to practice. Akinfeleye (1996:82)
similarly stated that the kind of journalism training is as important as the
journalists themselves because the type of training is reflective of the kind of
journalistic performance. But the pertinent question here is how an advertising practitioner should be trained. Perhaps the most logical approach to
answering this question is to present an up-to-date survey and analysis of
the diversities and contrasts that exist in advertising education in Nigeria.
By around the year 2000, close to 50 Nigerian universities were offering courses in journalism/mass communications, with ownership split between mostly the federal and state governments, and structured either along
the university model or the Polytechnics. The Polytechnics are similar to
two-year colleges in America. Mostly professional and technical courses are
offered for an initial two-year period that leads to the award of Ordinary
National Diploma (OND), with an additional two years to earn the Higher
National Diploma (HND). In many cases people stop at the OND level
and enter the work force, while others proceed to earn the HND, giving
them four years at the Polytechnics.. The HND is equivalent to the bachelor's degree that is offered after a four-year study at an accredited university.
Currently, 58 institutions in Nigeria offer degree and diploma programs in Public Relations and Advertising in departments of mass communication within faculties of Administration and social sciences of various
Nigerian universities and polytechnics (JAMB Brochure, 2010/211 Academic Session). In addition, vocational institutions like the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR) and APCON are committed to providing
50
public relations and advertising education in Nigeria. These are treated separately, below, in terms of contents and pedagogy of courses taught and the
type of preparation that students receive.
University Training
Most of the journalism/mass communication programs took off as
integral parts of other programs, often subsumed under departments like
English Studies, Arts, Social Sciences, and so on. That seems to have
changed a bit now with the recent bursts of private ownership of universities. Apart from two universities, Igbinedion and Lagos State University
(LASU), that offer bachelors degree programs in Public Relations and Advertising, the other 31 universities offer courses in public relations and advertising leading to awards of degrees in Mass Communication and media
studies. Table 6.1, below, provides the list of the universities.
Table 6.1: Universities Providing Advertising Education
at a Degree level in Nigeria
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Name
Igbinedion University, Olada, Edo State
Lagos State University, Lagos
Western Delta University, Ogbara Delta
State
Caritas University, Enugu State
Cross River State University of Technology,
Calaba
Enugu State University of Technology
Madonna University, Okija, Anambra State
Nasarawa State University, Keffi
River State University of Science and
Technology
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Anambra State University
Benson Idahosa University, Benin City,
Edo State
Bowen University, Iwo, Osun State
Benue State University, Makurdi
Caleb University, Lagos
Crescent University, Ogun State
Delta State University, Abraka
Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki
Fountain University, Oke-Osun
Igbinedion University
University of Ilorin
Imo State University, Owerri
Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Osun
Course of Study
PR and Ad
PR and Ad
Media Studies and
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Faculty
Administration
Administration
Administration
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Administration
Administration
Administration
Administration
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Administration
Administration
51
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
State
Kaduna State University
Kogi State University, Anyigba
University of Lagos, Akoka
Lagos State University
NOVENA University, Ogume, Delta State
Redeemers University, Lagos
RENAISSANCE University, Enugu State
Tansian University, Oba, Anambra State
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Akwa, Anambra
State
Wukari Jubilee University, Taraba State
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Social/Management Sciences
Mass Communication
Social/Management Sciences
Source: Joint Admissions and matriculation Board Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination Brochure (2010/2011 Academic Session)
Course Contents
Generally, mass communication training in Nigerian tertiary institutions has three sequences in which students can specialize: Print Journalism, Broadcast, and Advertising and Public Relations. Again, it should be
noted that there has been a traditional and functional synergy between advertising and public relations, especially in the various training programs in
Nigeria. This is anchored on the belief that public relations and advertising
maintain a smooth interface with each other as marketing support systems.
Two American leading authors in advertising, Bovee and Arens (1986, p.
550), gave a more convincing justification to this relationship when they
wrote that:
Every company, organization and government body has groups of people
who are affected by what that organization does or says. These groups might
be employees, customers, stockholders, competitors or just the general population of consumers. Each of these groups may be referred to as the organization’s publics. To manage the organization’s relationship with these publics, the process called public relations is used.
Despite the foregoing, there are specific courses that are taught aimed
at providing advertising education in Nigerian universities. For example,
the Department of Mass Communication of Benue State University teaches
the following advertising courses in the four-year undergraduate program:
•
•
•
•
52
Introduction to Mass Communication
Basic Mass Communication Skills
Writing for the mass media
English and Communication Skills
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Marketing for Advertising and Public Relation
Introduction to Advertising
Advertising media planning
Advertising and Public Relations Research
Reporting on business and economy
Creative Advertising Strategies and Tactics
Organization and management of Advertising and public Relations Agencies
Communication Law and Ethics
Economic and social issues in Advertising and Public Relations.
Data Analysis in Communication Research
It should be noted that all university training programs in Nigeria are accredited by the National Universities Commission upon substantial fulfillment of both physical and academic requirements.
Admission Requirements
Candidates for admission into the four-year degree program in a mass
communication department should possess five credits in a senior secondary
school certificate or General Certificate of Education, or its equivalent,
which must include English and at least a “pass” in mathematics. This is in
addition to the candidate passing the University Matriculation Examination
with a high score of between 250 and 285 points.
Direct entry admission into a two- or three-year degree program also
is available for candidates who possess five credit passes in the General Certificate of Education, or its equivalent, at not more than two sittings. Two
of the subjects must be at the Advanced level.
Polytechnic Training
A total of 24 polytechnics in Nigeria provide advertising education in
various departments of mass communication, leading to awards of the National Diploma (ND) and Higher National Diploma (HND) upon completion of two and four-year programs in the polytechnic. A one-year industrial attachment is compulsory for all polytechnic diplomas, which, when added, makes their program a five-year full-time course.
The polytechnics are: Akwa-Ibom State Polytechnic, Auchi Polytechnic, DorbBen Polytechnic, Federal Polytechnic Oko, Federal Polytechnic
Bauchi, Federal Polytechnic Bida, Federal Polytechnic Offa, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo, The Polytechnic, Ibadan
53
Institute of Management and Technology Enugu, Kaduna Polytechnic,
Mallam Usman Polytechnic, Lagos State Polytechnic, Moshood Abiola Polytechnic Abeokuta, Nasarawa State Polytechnic Lafia, Nuen Polytechnic
Zaria, Nigerian Institute of Journalism Lagos, Delta State Polytechnic Ogwashiuku, OSISATECH Enugu, Osun State Polytechnic, The Polytechnic
Ile-Ife, Wolex Polytechnic Lagos and Yaba College of Technology Lagos.
All 24 polytechnics provide enriching advertising education in their
various departments of mass communication. Indeed, most have had their
ND programs accredited by the National Board for Technical Education.
However, most are equally struggling with accreditation challenges for their
HND programs in Mass Communication. The courses offered are similar
to those taught at the first degree level of the university. Interestingly, about
40% of course content is on theory while the remaining 60% is practical.
Professional Training
The promulgation of Decree 55 of 1988, otherwise known as the Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON), remarkably altered the
landscape of advertising training and practice in Nigeria. With this decree,
advertising practitioners in Nigeria must be registered or licensed and, thus
are strictly professionals. APCON is therefore at the center of the drive for
advertising professionalism in Nigeria. Interestingly, out of the council’s five
broad functions as presented by the law, three relate to advertising training
and education:
1.
Determining what standards of knowledge and skill are to be attained by
persons seeking to be registered members of the advertising profession
and reviewing those standards from time to time.
2.
Regulating and controlling the practice of advertising in all its aspects and
ramifications.
3.
Conducting examinations in the profession and awarding certificates or
diplomas to successful candidates as and when appropriate. (Keghku,
2008, p. 5)
It is worth mentioning that APCON has long taken advantage of its
training policy to run professional certificate and diploma programs in advertising at various centers in Nigeria. The current status of operation and
training contents will be treated much later in this work.
It was decided to focus on APCON separately here, because its training programs relate directly to the subject under study. Interestingly, AP-
54
CON runs a professional diploma program in advertising at six centers
across Nigeria: Lagos, Abuja, Kano, Port-Harcourt, Enugu and Owerri.
The institution also provides regular training courses to update professional
knowledge and skills required for career growth and development.
Course Contents
Unarguably, APCON certificate and Diploma programs in Advertising provide a more comprehensive training and preparation of students. To
this end, Nwosu and Nkamnebe (2006, pg. 13) conclude that APCON Diploma in Advertising provides the richest Advertising training in Nigeria.
The APCON program contains core courses designed for professional excellence and, on the whole, contains 31 such courses:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction to Mass Communication
General Studies
Qualitative Analysis
Advertising Copy Layout I
Advertising Law Ethics I
Principles of Advertising
Advertising Production Techniques II
Consumer Behavior
Research Methodology
Creative Strategies & Techniques
Account Planned
Advertising & Society
Advertising Management
Art Direction
Brand Management II
Special Project
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Communication Skills
Social Psychology
Principles of Marketing
Advertising Production Techniques I
Quantitative Analysis II.
Advertising Copy Layout II
Advertising Law Ethics II
Integrated Marketing Communications I
Media Planning
Advertising Design & Illustration
Brand Management I
Integrated Marketing Comms. II
Media Management
Account Management
Advanced Copy Writing
Other Training Institutions
The Nigerian Institutes of Journalism (NIJ), mentioned earlier, and
the Time Journalism Institute also offer diploma courses in Advertising and
Public Relations. These are privately owned institutions committed to the
training of advertising professionals in Nigeria. However, most of their programs are not accredited by the National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE,) which is the only accreditation body for all polytechnics and similar institutions.
55
The Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR) is another institution that provides advertising education in Nigeria. Expressing the diversity
and contrast between APCON and NIPR training programs, Nwosu and
Nkamnebe (2006) stated that while the Diploma Program of APCON has
no single, full, or independent course in Public Relations, the NIPR’s Certificate and Diploma Program contains marketing and advertising practices.
However, since APCON has a course in Integrated Marketing Communication, Public Relations knowledge will certainly be taught.
Training Facilities
Training facilities can be divided into two main areas:
1.
2.
Media Facilities
Physical Facilities
Media Facilities
There is no argument that the landscape of advertising training and
practice is being altered daily by the influence of modern information and
communication technologies. This is so obvious that the advertising student
and practitioner of this age must necessarily be a technician whose competence on the computer must not be in doubt.
Chile (2005) conducted a study on Information and Communication
Technologies for learning among students of the Department of Mass
Communication, Benue State University, Makurdi. The population of the
study was made up of undergraduate students of the Department of Mass
Communication, Benue State University. Using the quota sampling technique, the researcher drew 30 students from each of the four levels to provide a total sample size of 120 respondents.
Data analysis on students’ access to information and communication
technologies shows that 100% of the sampled respondents claimed not to
have access to any form of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) in the Department of Mass Communication for research and learning. Based on that data and attendant interpretation, the researcher concludes that potential journalists who are largely students of communication
in Nigerian universities are not adequately exposed to relevant ICTs needed
in the journalism of this digital age.
56
Indeed, this conclusion gives credence to numerous charges of compromise of international best practices in academic trainings and professional practices in Nigeria. Certainly, much still needs to be done towards upgrading media facilities on advertising training institutions in Nigeria.
However, it is important to observe that there has been growing concern for
acquisition of media equipment, occasioned by enormous pressure of accreditation requirements. For example, functional Advertising/Public Relations laboratories currently exist at the Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University, Makurdi, Kogi State University, Anyigba, and
several other institutions conducting advertising education and training in
Nigeria.
Physical Facilities
On comparative bases, the physical structure in all the universities
and polytechnics are fairly adequate for media training, but are largely outdated. Of particular concern are classrooms and staff offices which are inadequate and poorly equipped for advertising training and performance.
The situation is worse in some institutions, like Benue State University,
Federal Polytechnic, Bida, Benue Polytechnic, Ugbokolo and Auchi Polytechnic, where student populations of 200 – 300 usually compete for a
classroom accommodation facility meant for 100–150 students.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Illiteracy and lack of expertise contribute to low degree of advertising
education in Nigeria. The existing status of ICTs, along with illiteracy in
advertising training and practice, has again worsened the chances of quality
advertising education in Nigeria. Nigeria has suffered major setbacks in its
socio-economic and political development because a proper platform is not
created for advertising education, which is supposed to drive the system.
Similarly, most of the curricula of advertising training institutions in
Nigeria are outdated. They need to be reviewed in line with modern realities. There also is a need to develop a new philosophy of advertising education in Nigeria. The scope of courses like “Commerce,” which is taught at
higher (secondary) school level, needs expansion to incorporate the values of
advertising earlier. Students need to be caught when young, making good
advertising professionals out of them. This begins with equally good training.
57
References
Akinfeleye, R.A. (2003). Fourth Estate of the Realm or Fourth Estate of the Wreck: Imperative of the Social Responsibility of the Press, inaugural lecture. University of Lagos:
Nigeria.
Akinfeleye, R. A. (1996). Journalism Education and Training in Nigeria. In Momoh, T., &
Omole, G. (eds.) The Press in Nigeria. Lagos: Nigerian Press Council.
Bourgault, L. M. (1995), Mass Media in Sub-Saharan Africa, Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University Press.
Boyd-Barrett, O. and Newbold, C. (1995). Defining the field. In O. Boyd-Barrett and C.
Newbold (eds), Approaches to Media: A Reader, London: Arnold.
Bovee, C. L. and Arens, W. F (1986). Contemporary Advertising. Homewood, Illinois:
Richard D. Irwin, Inc.
Chile, C. (2006). Computopia and Informatics in Communication Learning: A Study of
Mass Communication Students in Benue State University, Makurdi. International
Journal of Mass Communication, 1(2): 119-134.
Joint Admission and Matriculation Board Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination Brochure, (2010/2011 Academic Session).
Keghku, T. (2008). Perception of Public Relations, Advertising Professions and Professionals in Nigeria. A. Ph.D Thesis Submitted to the Postgraduate School, Benue State
University, Makurdi, Nigeria.
Nwosu, I. E and Nkamneb, A. D (2006). Triple – P Advertising: Principles, Processes, Practices. Lagos: Afri-Towers Ltd.
Salawu, A. (2009). The growth and development of African media studies: perspectives
from Nigeria. Journal of African Media Studies 1(1): 81–90.
Students’ Handbook, Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University Makurdi, Nigeria.
58
The History of Advertising Education
and Training in South Africa
Ludi Koekemoer
AAA School of Advertising, South Africa
The Education Landscape
South Africa’s higher education is dominated by state-owned (public)
Universities, Universities of Technology (also state-owned and previously
called Technikons), and private higher academic institutions. Advertising
education, pre-1986, was largely in the hands of some Universities who offered Advertising as a major in a Bachelor of Arts (BA) Communications. A
small number of Universities offered Graphic Design qualifications, and
most Technikons had Graphic Design or Design departments. These Design departments offered a wide variety of design options including textile
design, corporate design, architectural design, graphic design etc.
In 1970 the University of Pretoria started offering a B. Com (Bachelor of Commerce) Marketing. This was an initiative of Proff Hennie
Reynders and Sieg Marx. Other Universities joined in the 80s and featured
Advertising as a module in either the 2nd or final year. At the B. Com
Honours level (4th year), Advertising often was an elective subject. Many B.
Com Marketing students ended up in the advertising industry as Stratplanners, Media planners and Account Executives. Universities do not offer a
B. Com specifically in Advertising.
In 1986 the first privately owned advertising school, called Boston
House College of Advertising (BHCA), was founded (Sinclair R. personal
communication, November 26, 2009). BHCA became the AAA School of
Advertising in 1990, and South Africa currently has three advertising
schools. Professional bodies also contributed to advertising education, especially the IAA (International Advertising Association) in New York, USA,
ACA (Association for Communication and Advertising), and AMASA (Advertising Media Association of South Africa).
Training is conducted by some public academic institutions that offer
Advertising as a specialization, by private Advertising schools, private design
schools, and by Advertising industry employers (e.g. ad. agency internship
programs). This chapter will focus on Universities, Universities of Technology, and private higher education institutions offering Advertising or
Marketing Communications and Graphic Design qualifications.
59
Public Academic Institutions: Universities
University of South Africa (UNISA)
UNISA is the only distance learning university in South Africa. Its
BA Communications became popular in the 1970s and 1980s, and during
the 1980s the choice of subjects was rather limited. Students had to successfully pass 12 full-year subjects (Study Guides 1971 – 4):
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Communication Science (1, 2 & 3). Advertising was a year 3 specialization
Sociology or Psychology (1, 2 & 3)
Language (Afrikaans Nederland’s or English) (1, 2)
Communication Research (2)
Communication Law (1)
General literature science (1 & 2)
Currently this qualification offers a wide variety of options. The curriculum comprises 30 modules (http://www.unisa.ac.za), 10 in year 1, 10 in
year 2, and the 10 in the final year include the focus on Advertising and
other Marketing Communication tools and New Media:
Third year (10 modules)
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Marketing communication
Media studies (theories & issues)
Media studies: content, audiences & production
New media technology
International communication
Communication research
Advertising & Public Relations
Political & government communication and media ethics
Persuasive texts
1 x major selected from Cultural, Art, Political, Sociology/Psychology, Development, Languages, Information, and Economic & Management Sciences.
UNISA, from 2010, now also offers a Bachelor of Arts (Culture and
Arts) with specialization in Multimedia Studies for prospective Multimedia
designers and Web designers. This curriculum comprises 23 modules (see
http://www.unisa.ac.za).
UNISA was one of the first universities in South Africa to offer a
qualification in Marketing Research & Advertising. Under the able supervision of Prof. Ockie Lucas, this Post Graduate Diploma in Marketing Research & Advertising has been offered since the late 1960s and became
popular in the early 70s, as many B. Com graduates wanted to study further
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in Marketing Research and Advertising. The curriculum consisted of the
following (Wiid, J. personal communication, May 13, 2010):
First level
• Economics I
• Business Economics I
• Consumer Behaviour
Second level
• Business Economics II
• Market Research A
• Market Research B
• Statistics I
• Advertising
University of Free State (UFS)
According to Mulder, D. (personal communication, February 23,
2010), teaching Advertising goes back to 1971 when the Department of
Press Science offered a 3-year BA degree in Journalism. A key player was
the Journalism & Communications icon, Das Herbst. In 1973 Herman
Engelbrecht joined Das Herbst. They expanded the field of study, and Advertising was offered at the 2nd ear level and the final year level, as part of
Communication II and Communication III. In Communication II, Advertising Law was covered, and Communication III included Communication
& Advertising research. At the Honours level Advertising was featured as
one of the 5 modules.
In the late 1970s Media Science was introduced, and Advertising was
offered at the 2nd year level. In the early 1980s the 2nd year module changed
to PR & Advertising while Persuasive Communications Research became a
separate module. At the Honours level, PR & Advertising was one module,
but in 1984 they became separate modules and Advertising became a major
at 3rd year level. Students also could now study Advertising at Honours,
Masters, and at Doctorate (Ph.D.) levels.
In 1990 Advertising moved to the 2nd year level, and in 1995 it
moved to the 1st year level, and until 2000 UFS offered a BA Communications without Advertising as specialization. However in 2001 the curricula
changed considerably, and the Department of Communications started offering three BA degrees: (1) BA Media Studies, (2) BA Corporate Communication, and (3) BA Integrated Marketing Communication. Apart
from the typical BA subjects like Psychology, Sociology, language, etc., the
BA Integrated Marketing Communications also included Introduction to
Advertising (1st year), Advertising research, Advertising Law, Advertising
Ethics, Advanced Advertising (2nd year), Applied Advertising (3rd year) and
Integrated Marketing Communications (3rd year). In 2009 the curricula
changed again, when the BA Corporate Communications and the BA Integrated Marketing Communications merged to become the BA Communications (Corporate & Marketing Communications).
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Currently, Advertising is no longer a separate module, but it becomes
the focus of a variety of first year modules like Marketing, Marketing
Communications, and Business Communications. It also is the focus of
2nd year modules like Visual Communication, Brand management, Advertising, Copywriting, and 3rd year modules like New & Social Media, Internet marketing, IMC, Applied Visual Communication and Advertising Discourse.
University of Pretoria (UP)
In the University of Pretoria’s Department of Marketing and Communications, the subject of Marketing Communications is one of many 2nd
year modules in the B Com (Marketing) degree, but students cannot specialize in Advertising or Marketing Communications (North, E,. Personal
Communication, May 7, 2010). This University also has a Department of
Information Design offering a 4-year degree in Information design
(http://www.unisa.ac.za).
In the 4th (final) year students are exposed to a multitude of design
fields. These include Advertising, Branding, Identity and Collateral design,
Broadcast design, Design for development, Editorial design & Publishing,
Event branding, Information design, Wayfinding and Instructional design,
Motion graphics, Animation and Interactive Media, Packaging & Display
design, as well as Photography, Image making & styling (Cunningham N.,
personal communication, March, 16, 2010).
University of Johannesburg (UJ)
UJ used to be RAU (Rand Afrikaans University). This university became UJ after the merger of RAU and Technikon Witwatersrand in 2005.
Advertising is taught in two faculties at UJ: the Faculty of Humanities and
the Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture.
Faculty of Humanities
According to N. de Klerk, (personal communication, March 19,
2010), the Department of Communication at RAU, one of the first of its
kind in South Africa, was established in 1971 by Prof Tom de Koning. The
curricula offered a broad foundation in the theory and methodology of
Human Communication, from interpersonal to small group to organizational to mass communication and its effects. A three year BA or B. Comm
Degree was offered, with Communication as a major, and another Humanities subject (or Economics major for a B. Comm). Honours, Masters and
Doctoral degrees in Communication were also offered.
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By 1978, students still did a broad degree in Communication, but
had to choose 2 of 3 undergraduate specialization courses which were required for the degree. Initially the three were Developmental Communication, Journalism, and Organizational Communication. Organizational
Communication consisted of internal communication, and external communication (Advertising and PR).
By 1985, the three specialization courses in Communication became
Journalism, Audio-Visual Communication, and Advertising, of which one
had to be taken in the second year and one in the third year. Advertising at
the undergraduate level still included a module on PR.
At the postgraduate level, however, students were required to specialize exclusively in one of these three specializations. For the first time, an
Honours Degree in Communication “with specialization in Advertising”,
for instance, could be obtained. A prerequisite for doing an Honours with
specialization in Advertising was that the student should have also passed
the undergraduate specialization course in Advertising (or its equivalent, if
from another university). At the honours level, students did a one-year
course in Advertising Theory and Research, and another year course required them to apply their Advertising knowledge in an independent major
seminar/assignment to be externally examined by advertising industry experts.
In 1998, under the chairmanship of Prof Sonja Verwey, the Department of Communication revisited its curricula and developed 4 (initially 5)
fully fledged career-focused degree programs in the Department of Communication. This proved to be a major success and a drawing card for undergraduate learners. These were Journalism, Audio Visual Communication, Corporate Communications and Marketing Communications (of
which Advertising was an integral part). A solid foundation in Communications and related subjects as majors was still required, however, and specialization in, for instance, Advertising, only kicked in during the second
year. Therefore, a student who did a degree in Marketing Communication
did Advertising 2A and B in the second year, and Advertising 3A and B in
the third year. Later the subject name ‘Advertising’ was changed to ‘Marketing Communication’.
In 2005 RAU was rebranded as the University of Johannesburg following the merger of RAU with the Technikon Witwatersrand. Specialization in the Department of Communication became complete, and students
in Marketing Communication (Advertising) could do Marketing Communication as a major subject from their first year for the three-year degree,
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with the second major being Marketing Management and Communication
as their third major.
In January 2009, the Department of Communication was reconstituted as the School of Communication, and in 2010 three departments
came into being: The Department of Strategic Communication, the Department of Film, Television, and Journalism, and the Department of
Communication and Media Studies. The Department of Strategic Communication houses two degree programs, namely Corporate and Marketing
Communication (Advertising) and the Diploma in PR.
Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture
The history of FADA (Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture) of
the University of Johannesburg spans over more than 80 years, covering the
Witwatersrand Technical College, which became Technikon Witwatersrand
(TW), and TW merged with RAU to become the University of Johannesburg. A major contribution was made since 1926 by these institutions in
the field of Graphic Design (Brink, E., 2006).
The De Villiers Street Era. This era (1926 – 1938) could be described
as turbulent beginnings when the School of Arts and Crafts (SAC) was
founded. Classes in Commercial Art and in Design were offered, in addition to classes in Modeling, Drawing from Life, Anatomy, Still life etc.,
Commercial Art later became Graphic Design (Brink E. 2006, pp 24 – 40).
The Career Guide of March 1934 maintained that there were ample opportunities for art work in the growing advertising industry.
The Eloff Street Era (1938 – 1962). During the Eloff Street Era, the
SAC was still an integral part of the WTC. Although Johannesburg was far
removed from the battlefields of World War II, the effects of the war were
nevertheless felt directly, both in the city and at the art school (Brink, E.
2006, p. 12). During this period the school produced remarkable alumni,
many of whom, after studies and travels overseas, returned to the advertising industry and the Art school as lecturers.
The Bok Street Era (1963 – 1976). During the Bok Street Era, major
changes occurred at the school between 1963 and 1976, the period of high
apartheid in South Africa (Brink, E., 2006, pp 12 + 40). The school’s name
changed. It became bilingual: the “School of Art, Johannesburg”/Kunsskool
Johannesburg, and in the late 1960s the College of Art, Johannesburg/Kollege vir Kuns, Johannesburg. During this period, differences in
approaches to art culminated in a split in the school, and the founding of a
short-lived “rebel” school. Despite the split, the school continued its com-
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munity outreach and involvement with the local Johannesburg art world,
where its staff and students played an important role.
The Doornfontein Era (1976 – 2006). The Doornfontein Era (1976
– 2006) tells the story of the diaspora of the art school between 1976 and
2006 (Brink, E,. 2006, pp 13 + 120). From 1976, as a result of a severe
shortage of accommodation in Bok Street, individual departments of the art
school had to move to larger premises elsewhere in the city of Johannesburg.
In 1979 control of the school reverted to the Technikon Witwatersrand
(TWR). By the mid-1990s student numbers had increased to more than
1000, and the students were dispersed in nine buildings on two campuses.
During this period the College of Art became known for its variety of design courses, including Industrial design, Graphic design, Interior design
and Fashion design. Student numbers increased dramatically between 1989
–1993, and many Black students joined.
The Bunting Road Era (2006 - ). With the merger between the
Technikon Witwatersrand (TWR) and RAU (Rand Afrikaans University)
the Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture obtained a multi-million rand
campus in Bunting Road (Brink, E., 2006, p 141). A key player in the
planning of the new campus and the courses on offer was Eugene Hön, the
Dean of the Faculty from 2000 to 2006. The number of white students’
leveled off, while the number of Black, Coloured, and Indian students continued to increase steadily.
The current National Diploma: Graphic Design (3 years) and B.
Tech (4th year) are structured as follows (http://www.uj.ac.za):
Graphic Design
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Graphic Design Drawing 1, 2 & 3
History and Theory of Graphic Design 1, 2 & 3
Communications Design 1, 2 & 3
Professional Graphic Design Practice 1, 2 & 3
Design Techniques 1, 2 & 3
B. Tech Year
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Theory of Graphic Design and Academic Report 4
Communication Design 4
The Diploma will be phased out in 2011 and a BA Design degree
specializing in Communication Design will be introduced. This new degree
will offer the following modules (http://www.uj.ac.za):
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Communication Design 1, 2 and 3
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Communication Design Technology 1
Design studies 1, 2, and 3
Professional Design Practice 1 and 2
Visualization 1 and 2
University of Stellenbosch (US)
The University of Stellenbosch is situated in the winelands of the
Western Cape, near Cape Town. According to Kaden, M. personal communication, February 18, 2010), the Department of Visual Arts of the University of Stellenbosch has been offering education in art and design since
the 1960s. US currently offers 3 streams: Fine Arts, Visual Communication Design and Jewellery Design.
Although many of its Visual Communication students go into the
advertising industry (and some from Fine Arts) its course or training cannot
be perceived as mainstream Advertising education. It is a broad education
with emphasis on visual literacy, practical craft skills (emphasis on drawing,
illustration, typography, layout, photography, video, conducting research,
working with materials and computer as a tool), and critical thinking (concept, taking social, cultural, political, economic, environmental contexts into account).
North – West University (NWU)
According to Van der Westhuizen, W (personal communication,
May 4, 2010), the Graphic Design subject group within the School of
Communication studies of NWU was formed in 2000, to offer a 4 year BA
Graphic Design at the Potchefstroom Campus, South Africa. Prior to this,
it was a specialization that formed part of the Communications studies curriculum at the University.
NWU’s BA degree is unique in its nature, since it encompasses various subject choices within the realm of Graphic Design. This includes a
communications-directed field of study or alternatively a more illustration
and art history focused field of study. Recent additions to the Graphic Design course include a Multimedia elective that specifically focuses on the
creation of digital content for the Internet, mobile devices and highdefinition television and film editing.
Public Academic Institutions: Universities of Technology
It must be noted that most Universities of Technology offer a qualification in Design or Graphic Design. Many were approached for this study,
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but they felt that Advertising is either non-existent at their school or the focus on Advertising is too little for them to contribute to this chapter. A
couple did provide information, however.
Central University of Technology, Free State (CUT)
According to Nortje, C. (personal communication, March 19, 2010),
the Graphic Design qualification offered at the Central University of Technology, Free State, originated in 1937 at the Free State Technical College
under the name of Commercial Art, which was a 3-year course. In 1981
the Free State Technikon was established, and the name of the course was
changed to the National Diploma: Graphic Design. Currently it is still
called the National Diploma: Graphic Design, and it is still a 3-year course.
CUT also offers the Baccalaureus Technologiae: Graphic Design,
Magister Technologiae: Design (3-year course), and then the Doctorate
Technologiae: Design in the School of Design Technology & Visual Art.
The student can enroll for the 4-year Baccalaureus Degree, but can exit with
a National Diploma after 3 years of study.
Curriculum (http://www.cut.ac.za)
The curriculum includes three years of study of each of the following
year modules:
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Communication Design 1, 2 & 3
Design Techniques 1, 2 & 3
Graphic Design Drawing 1, 2 & 3
Professional Graphic Design Practice 1, 2 & 3
History and Theory of Graphic Design 1, 2 & 3
After the first three years (National Diploma), the student can study for one
more year and obtain the B. Tech: Graphic Design by successfully completing the following two modules:
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Theory of Graphic Design and Academic Report 4
Communication Design 4
Vaal University of Technology (VUT)
Although VUT has never offered a qualification majoring in Advertising, it offers Professional Graphic Design Practice: Advertising and Marketing as a 3rd year subject, as part of its 3-year National Diploma and in the
B. Tech (4th) year. Students study Art Theory, Research Methodology, and
can specialize in Drawing or Multimedia in order to find employment in
the South African advertising industry (Chmela, K. personal communication, February 17, 2010).
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Private Higher Academic Institutions (PHEIs)
PHEIs could be divided into three meaningful groups, namely Advertising Schools, Design Schools and Marketing Schools.
Advertising Schools
South Africa is blessed with three very good advertising schools,
namely AAA School of Advertising (AAA School), Vega The Brand Communications School (Vega), and Red and Yellow School of Logic and Magic
(R&Y).
AAA School of Advertising (AAA School)
AAA School is the oldest and largest advertising school in South Africa. Its history actually began in 1986 when the Boston House College of
Advertising (BHCA) was established in Cape Town by three ex-advertising
executives. During 1986 - 1989 BHCA and AAA (Association of Advertising Agencies), the official professional body of the South African advertising
industry, joined forces to educate young talent in Advertising. They received the blessing of the IAA (International Advertising Association) in
New York (Barenblatt, M & Sinclair, R. 1989).
At the end of 1989, the AAA decided to buy BHCA and changed its
name to AAA School of Advertising. Tuition was then offered at two campuses: Cape Town and in Rosebank, Johannesburg. Bob Rock was the first
director of AAA School of Advertising, Johannesburg.
Internal records of AAA indicate that the AAA School offered three
diploma programs from 1990 to 1993: the Diploma in Advertising (Marketing) (2 years), the Diploma in Copywriting (1 year), and the Diploma in
Advertising (Art) (1 year). From 1994 to 1999 these qualifications became
3-year diplomas (except the Diploma in Copywriting, which remained a 1year qualification).
In 1999 all Private Higher Education Institutions had to revamp
their courses, apply to SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) for
qualification accreditation, and get registered with the South African Department of Education’s Council on Higher Education (CHE). Early in
1999, the AAA School contracted Professor Ludi Koekemoer, then Chairman of Business Management at RAU, to obtain the necessary accreditations and CHE registration. Professor Koekemoer joined AAA full-time as
Managing Director & Principal in 2000.
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AAA School applied for three diplomas in 1999: the 2-year Diploma
in Copywriting, the 3-year Higher Diploma in Integrated Marketing
Communication, and the 3-year Diploma in Visual Communication. At
this stage the Higher Education Act did not provide for private institutions
to offer degrees. Degrees were the domain of public institutions.
According to the AAA School 2001 Prospectus (p. 3), the curriculum
for the Diploma in Copywriting included Copywriting, Popular Culture,
Creative writing, Radio & TV production, Campaigns and an Internship.
For the Higher Diploma in Integrated Marketing Communication, after
having studied Marketing, Economics, Business Management, Advertising,
Communications and Popular Culture in years 1 and 2, students had to
complete the following modules in year 3:
Marketing and advertising planning process
Specializations:
− Brand Management or
− Account Management or
− Media Management
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Campaigns Internships
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The first year of the Diploma in Visual Communication is a foundation year, with focus on drawing, rendering, illustration, 2D & 3D design
while the 2nd year focuses on Art Direction and Graphic Design. In the 3rd
year students can specialize in Art Direction or Graphic Design whilst studying Print Production; Marketing and Advertising Planning Process; Creative Process; Campaigns and do an Internship.
Since 2000 a few changes have been made to these diploma courses.
In the Diploma in Copywriting course students also have to study English
Language Proficiency and the Tools of language (due to the deterioration of
the teaching of English at high school level). The 2nd year has been brought
in line with the requirements of Digital and New Media.
The Department of Education decided in 2006 that the words Higher and Integrated can no longer be used, and it changed the name of the
Higher Diploma in Integrated Marketing Communication to the Diploma
in Marketing Communication.
The Diploma in Visual Communication, too, is changed. Emphasis
is now given to Digital and New Media.
In 2004 the Minister of Education, Professor Kader Asmal, reconsidered the policy of degrees being reserved for Universities and Universities of
Technology, and invited PHEIs to apply for degrees. In 2005 the AAA
School applied for two 3-year Bachelor of Art (BA) degrees: the BA Marketing Communication, and BA Creative Brand Communication. Approval
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was granted by SAQA, and AAA School started offering these two degrees
from 1 January 2006.
The AAA School prides itself on its knowledge and skills teaching
model. Final year Marketing Communication, Copywriting and Creative
Brand Communication students work together in simulated advertising
agency teams, on a number of real-life briefs. They all go on a 4-week advertising agency internship, as well. Graduates of AAA School are employed
by the South African advertising industry as Account Service executives,
Stratplanners, Media Planners, Copywriters, Art Directors or Graphic Designers.
AAA will be changing its 2-year Diploma in Copywriting in 2012, to
a BA with specialization in Copywriting. This new qualification will be offered at both campuses from 2013.
Vega The Brand Communications School (Vega)
Vega is part of IIE (Independent Institute of Education), owned by
ADVTECH (a quoted company on the SA stock exchange). Vega The
Brand Communications School, was an initiative of Gordon Cook, Dr.
Carla Enslin, Greg Tregoning, and Christian Zimelke. It was launched in
1999, with a brand-centric focus. It now has four campuses (Johannesburg,
Durban, Cape Town, Pretoria), and offers the following accredited programs (Cook, G. personal communication, March 1, 2010):
• A three-year BA in Creative Brand Communications, with electives in multimedia, visual communication and copy/creative writing. This undergrad
program articulates into a one-year BA Honours.
• A three-year BA in Brand Building and Management. This is a hybrid
commercial and arts degree, with a focus on the art and science of branding,
and the art and science of business. This program articulates into a BA
Honours in Brand Leadership.
• A one-year Higher Certificate in Photography, and a one year Advanced
Certificate in Photography.
• A part-time, three-year plus Diploma in Communications Management,
soon to become a Diploma in Integrated Brand Communications
• An advanced Diploma in Brand Innovation (pending accreditation for delivery mid 2010)
All Vega programs endeavour to combine both a strategic and creative approach to building brands, and to the designing of integrated communication campaigns.
The BA Creative Brand Communication is offered over 3 years. In
years 1 and 2 the curriculum includes Creative Development, Digital Me-
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dia, Copywriting, Brand Strategy and Critical Studies. Students can then in
year 3 specialize in Visual Communication, Copywriting or Multimedia
Design (see http://www.vegaschool.co.za for the curriculum). In third year
students work individually and within simulated teams, on a wide range of
brands, and are exposed to real-life brand challenges within the guiding environment of Vega before they experience a 4-week industry internship at a
relevant company or agency.
BA graduates from Vega, AAA School, or universities can do a 1-year
full-time Honours. For the Honours in Creative Brand Communication,
Modules One and Two are undertaken by all Honours students at Vega.
Module Three however, is designed to train students in their chosen field of
creative application:
• Module One: Brand & Brand Building
• Module Two: Alchemy
• Module Three: Creative Application (Visual Communications or Copywriting or Multimedia Design)
The BA Brand Building & Management is structured to include Brand
Strategy, Critical Studies, Creative development, Economics and Business
Communications in years 1 and 2. In the third year students have to successfully complete:
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Brand Strategy 3
Critical Studies 3
Innovation & Business Management 3
Logistics in Brand Building
New Media in Brand Building
For the Honours in Brand Leadership, Modules One and Two are undertaken by all Honours students at Vega. Module Three is designed to
train students in their chosen field of application:
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Module One: Brand & Brand Building
Module Two: Alchemy
Module Three: Specialization (Brand Management or Brand Communications)
The Diploma in Communication Management includes modules like
Principles and Practice of Brand Communications, Business Communications, Market Information Management, Media efficiency, and building
brands through PR, in the first two years. In year 3 students study The
Brand in Action and Creative Tools.
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Red and Yellow School of Logic and Magic (Red & Yellow)
According to John Cooney (personal communication, February 23,
2010), Rightford Searle-Tripp & Makin sold part of their advertising agency to Ogilvy & Mather Worldwide in 1993. Two key partners, Brian
Searle-Tripp and Allan Raaff, decided on advice from Bob Rightford, the
Group CEO of Ogilvy & Mather, Rightford Searle-Tripp & Makin, to
start an advertising school. They became founding partners. The Red and
Yellow School of Logic and Magic opened its doors in February 1993.
From the day a student arrived at the school, he or she would be regarded as having entered the communications industry. The curriculum
would be dynamic and fluid. The pace would be urgent, the tone practical
and businesslike. From the first week of the course, students would learn
how to formulate, write and work to a tight strategy. Strategies would be
structured around “The Logic” (what one wants to say and to whom) and
“The Magic” (the creative idea, how it would be communicated and why).
Students would be taught how to write and present a creative rationale for
every assignment.
In the early years there were no examinations because all projects
would be reviewed while in progress and, on completion, marked. The pass
mark would be 65%, and failure to meet a deadline would result in a zero
mark.
From 1993 to 1999, Red & Yellow offered only creative courses. In
1999, John Cooney and Malcolm Wood joined. Cooney was founding director and chairman of TBWA Hunt Lascaris Cape Town, and Wood former Marketing Director of National Brands. They convinced Searle-Tripp
and Raaff to launch the post-graduate, 1-year course in Communications
Management.
In 1999 Red & Yellow had to, like other PHEIs, apply to SAQA for
program accreditation, and to CHE for registration. It currently offers three
accredited diploma programs: the 3-year Diploma in Graphic Design and
Art Direction, the 2-year Diploma in Copywriting, and the 1-year postgraduate Diploma in Marketing and Advertising.
The curricula of their qualifications vary (Gordon, L. personal communication, May 4, 2010). The Diploma in Marketing and Advertising
Communications is a one year, full-time Post-Graduate program that consists of 6 modules:
• Induction to Communications
Management
• Strategic marketing and Advertising
Communications
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• Communication processes and Industry
workshops
• CrossOver projects
• Brand strategy
• Specialist skills
Career Facilitation is also done.
The Diploma in Graphic Design and Art Direction is a 3year program
consisting of the following:
• First year: Principles of typography, packaging design, print advertising, editorial, radio and television, campaign advertising, drawing and craft skills,
digital design.
• Second Year: D & AD International Awards, Self Initiated Advertising campaigns (5), “Live” External Brief, Digital Module 01 (Adobe Indesign, Adobe Illustrator, Photoshop) Digital Module 02 (Web Design, Flash). Principles of campaign Advertising, Visual Diary.
• Third Year: D & AD International Awards, Self Initiated Advertising campaigns (8), Digital Integrated Applied Briefs (3), Environmental Design,
CrossOver campaign working with copywriters and marketers on “Live”
Client Briefs.
The Diploma in Copywriting is a 2 year program consisting of the following:
• First Year: Assignment work with Art Directors to produce print, radio and television advertisements, an Editorial Feature and a Mixed Media campaign. Individual assignment to write a Category Essay (in preparation for a packaging project
with Art Directors), a Weekly Blog (reviewing movies, books and advertisements),
a Public Relations campaign (to a live Client brief together with marketers), Web
and Brochure writing.
• Second Year: Portfolio building through a selection of self-initiated Public Relations, Television and Radio campaigns, a CrossOver Project with Art Directors
and Marketers to a “Live” Client brief, a two week mid-year Internship in an Advertising Agency.
Design Schools
Stellenbosch Academy of Design and Photography
Founded as recently as 2002 by Barbara Fassler, it is the new kid on
the block, striving to make a name for itself. Originally setting out with a
Diploma in Applied Design, the Academy has been accredited with the BA
Applied Design, with the choice of either Graphic Design or Photography
as a specialization and also offers a one-year Certificate in Commercial
Photography.
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The Academy’s difference is its multifaceted approach to education,
whereby subjects are specifically aligned to support the major specialization.
Graphic Design majors would engage in courses such as Illustration,
Photography, Computer Design Practice and Copywriting, all subjects that
feed and inform the advertising specialization.
The Photography
specialization is supplemented with Graphic Design, Computer Design
Practice, Copywriting and Digital Media. The theoretical subject
component, a mix of Marketing Communications, Visual Studies, Design,
and Photographic Discourse, has been constructed to create both strategic
and critical thinking and ensure that there is a balance of content and context, academic and vocational outcomes.
The Academy is a privately-owned institution, and the overall
program is headed up by the Academic Head, Clayton Sutherland who was
previously Faculty Head of Visual Communication of the well known AAA
School of Advertising in Cape Town (Sutherland, C. personal
communication, March 30, 2010).
Midrand Graduate Institute (MGI)
Midrand Graduate Institute (Pty) Ltd, established in 1989, is like all
PHEIs registered with the Department of Education, and all its programs
are fully accredited by the Council on Higher Education (CHE). In the
field of Creative Arts, MGI currently offers a 3-year BA Graphic Design degree. The degree was accredited for the first time at the institution in 1999,
with classes commencing in 2000.
The first two years of the course cover the fundamentals of design
and layout, starting with hand work, drawing, typography, digital design,
and building up to Graphic Design Studio, and an introduction to 3D animation. Theory subjects include Communication Science, English, Advertising Theory, and the History of Graphic Design.
In the 3rd year students choose to specialize in either Multimedia or
Advertising. The Multimedia course covers Broadcast, Web Design and 3D
Animation. The Advertising stream covers print and web-related design.
Students make use of industry-related software and are encouraged to develop a considered approach to design, as well as their own unique style.
Lecturers are well-qualified, and in many cases are practitioners in cutting
edge areas of the Graphic Design industry. Classes are small and students
receive individual attention, making interaction and student participation
an integral part of the learning experience (Giloi, S. personal communication, December 11, 2009).
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The Open Window School of Visual Communication (Open Window)
Open Window was founded in 1989 and provided one-year Diplomas in Art and Design. In 1994 the Department of Education registered
the School as a tertiary education institution. In 2002, Open Window received full institutional accreditation by the Council on Higher Education,
and the South African Qualifications Authority accredited all its qualifications. Francisca Badenhorst played a major role in this. Over the years, career-orientated courses were developed, and Open Window successfully delivered degree level students with placement of all students in the industry
within 3 months of graduation. From 2010 onwards Open Window offers
a BA Honours Degree in Visual Communication (Badenhorst, F. personal
communication, April 15, 2010).
Open Window offers a 3-year Degree, a 2-year Diploma, and a postgraduate Honours Degree in Visual Communication. The BA Visual Communication Design degree is a professional qualification, aimed to produce
design experts who are also academically driven. The program ensures
technical, academic, and practice-related competencies in traditional and
new media.
The degree may lead to post-graduate studies in Visual Communication. Students integrate industry-based competencies with scholarly and applied research methodology. Entrepreneurial skills are developed, as students have to show their ability to plan, operate and manage a project. Experiential training characterizes the third year, when students are given the
opportunity to direct and execute projects commissioned by actual clients.
The student receives a BA Visual Communication Design degree after successfully completing at least 130 credits (note: 1 credit equals 10 notional
hours) on 3rd year Degree level (including a Research Skills workshop,
Practical workshops and a Work-based learning session).
The BA (Honours) Visual Communication program of post-graduate
study complements the BA degree by providing graduates the opportunity
to specialize in their major. The course consists of a 60% practical and a
40% theoretical component. The practical component consists of industry
projects executed under the supervision of a recognized industry partner,
and one of the student’s choices. The theoretical component consists of a
dissertation, visual culture modules and business practice workshops.
The Diploma in Visual Communication is a qualification of competence, a qualification providing students with the necessary technical and
practical skills to enter the demanding design world. The program ensures
industry-related skills in most new media sectors. The 1st-year program
forms the foundation of both the Degree and Diploma. Students who en-
75
roll for the Diploma, or any second level subject, must have successfully
completed the Foundation level. Applications are considered on a basis of
continuing good standard, class attendance and general commitment.
Marketing Schools
IMM Graduate School of Marketing (IMM)
South Africa has only one private School of Marketing, founded by
the Institute of Marketing Management, called the IMM Graduate School
of Marketing. This PHEI is an examining institution, and it accredits other
private academic institutions in South Africa to lecture to students who
have registered for their qualifications in Marketing.
Students can, however, enroll at IMM via distance learning. The
IMM Graduate School of Marketing introduced its 3-year Diploma in Advertising in January 1990, under the able management of its CEO, James
McLuckie. The Diploma in Advertising consisted of 14 subjects: 6 in year
1, 4 in year 2 and 4 in year 3. In year three, students had to pass Creative
Strategy, Media Strategy, Promotional Strategy and Advertising Production
management (Venter, N. personal communication, April 15, 2010). This
Diploma in Advertising will be phased out after 20 years during the 2010
academic year.
Professional Bodies
Three professional bodies played a major role in Advertising education and training in South Africa: IAA, ACA and AMASA. The South African Advertising Research Foundation (SAARF) also offers readership,
viewership and listenership research workshops for advertising and media
workshops from time to time. The main three bodies are discussed below.
IAA (International Advertising Association)
The IAA inspires excellence in communications worldwide. IAA is an
Advertising professional body operating out of New York, USA, and it
boasts 4000 members, 56 chapters in 76 countries.
The IAA introduced its Diploma in Advertising in 1974, and between 1974 and 1980 candidates all over the world wrote the IAA examinations in order to obtain this sought after qualification. In 1980 IAA stopped
offering this Diploma and introduced the Diploma in Marketing Commu-
76
nication for accredited academic institutions worldwide (Martinez, N. personal communication, April 19, 2010). This meant that graduates of IAA
accredited institutions not only received their local qualification, but also
received the IAA’s Diploma in Marketing Communications.
During the 1970s and early 1980s, South Africa hosted an IAA
Chapter, but the activities of its own professional body (AAA at the time)
negatively impacted on support for IAA. The Captains of industry did not
see any reason to support two advertising organizations.
In 1988 the AAA School of Advertising (then still called Boston
House College of Advertising) received IAA accreditation for the first time
for its qualifications, and AAA School is still the only IAA accredited PHEI
in Sub-Sahara Africa.
ACA (Association for Communication and Advertising)
ACA is the professional body of the advertising industry in South Africa. This body has undergone a number of name changes over the years.
In the early 1960s the AAA (Advertising Agents Association) changed its
name to the AAPA (Association of Accredited Practitioners in Advertising).
In 1971 the AAPA’s name changed back to AAA, but this time AAA stood
for the Association of Advertising Agencies. In early 2002 the advertising
industry decided to change its name yet again, and called it ACA (Association for Communication and Advertising) (Internal records of AAA &
ACA). The history of AAPA was captured by Tommy Young (1971) in an
unpublished document entitled AAPA 1947 – 1971. The following is his
account of the early days.
Pre-1947, much of what happened in advertising was controlled by
the NPU (Newspaper Press Union). There was little co-operation between
the advertising agencies themselves, leading to a lack of understanding on
the part of the Newspaper Press Union. In November 1942, the NPU met
with the agency heads of those days with the view to form the AAA (Advertising Agents Association). This association, as a professional body, did not
come into being until 1947, when a steering committee was formed. This
committee prepared the Memorandum and Articles of Association, and the
Advertising Agents Association was formed. In 1951 a private company was
registered for the association, and it was called the Advertising Agents Association of South Africa (Pty) Ltd.
In 1947 the NPU proposed that practitioners give consideration to
the training of advertising personnel to be coordinated through Technical
Colleges, but under the joint control of the NPU and the AAA. Attempts
to carry out that idea failed. However, in the next 10 years or more, not all
77
attempts failed. They had some successes. In the short-term the Johannesburg committee was largely successful in forming, in 1962, the Council for
Education in Advertising in South Africa (CEASA). They started with 37
enrollments for a 2-year course. Sadly CEASA ceased to function two years
later.
AAA's collaboration with the Advertising Association (AA) and the
Institute of Practitioners in Advertising (IPA) in the United Kingdom started early in 1952, when the Advertising Association asked for AAA's cooperation in assisting students who were enrolled to take their examinations. The AAA subsequently persuaded these bodies to adopt a South African Media Syllabus, as well as a revised Law Paper, adapted to South African conditions.
The AAA has collaborated fully with the IPA and the AA through
these years in invigilating examinations, and more specifically by setting and
marking the examination papers. The IPA and AA examinations ceased in
1969 in the U.K. AAA then investigated their replacement. This has resulted in one of AAA’s most conspicuous early successes – the ICS “South
Africa” Course. The International Correspondence School agreed to the
AAA revising all lecture material to bring it into line with South African
conditions. This took some 3 years of painstaking work. What always has
been a valuable training effort, then, became more pertinent to the needs of
the South African advertising industry.
During the 1970’s the then AAPA initiated an internship program
for post-graduate students as part of its Manpower Training and Development Programme. (De Klerk, P. personal communication, February 5,
2010). Dr. Roger Sinclair, Allan Brook, and Peter Rostron designed a diploma course which was offered at FCB’s offices (then called Lindsay
Smithers), and at the Witwatersrand Technical College.
By the end of the 1970s, AAPA was encouraging Black people to
study for their diploma, much to the annoyance of the authorities at the
time. AAPA clashed with the South African Broadcasting Corporation
(SABC), which refused to allow its Black students to eat in the cafeteria
with the whites. Dr. Sinclair cancelled the SABC visit in protest.
In the late 1970s AAPA acknowledged that there were more than a
few providers of advertising education, including IMM, Damelin, and the
technical colleges. AAPA changed from delivering lectures and established
the committee as the examining body, setting examinations, recommending
textbooks, maintaining a standard of marking and awarding the Diploma of
the AAPA.
78
By the turn of the decade, it had established a new diploma course
that was being taught by a variety of institutions around the country. The
course was spread over three years and comprised a range of topics which
included media, creative, production, the psychology of advertising, law related to advertising, and the principles of economics, among others (De
Klerk, P. personal communication, February 5, 2010).
During the late 1970s and early 1980s a select group of students
working in AAPA selected advertising agencies, as Interns, while studying
the Diploma course or the IAA course. These Interns spent three months at
each agency, and rotated between Client Service, Creative, Production, and
Media. Agency staff acted as mentors, and at the end of the year the Intern
decided in which department he/she wanted to work and for which advertising agency.
In 1980 the IAA held its annual conference in Durban, South Africa.
It was at this conference that the IAA announced its own education program. IAA evaluated the South African diploma course and awarded it the
world’s first IAA accreditation. This accreditation was a great drawing card
for young aspiring ad people.
In 1983 Graham de Villiers, of De Villiers & Schonfeldt (now Y&R)
and then president of AAA, encouraged Dr. Roger Sinclair to write an Advertising text. AAA agreed in 1984 to contribute financially. It was joined
by Nasionale Pers, SABC and Argus Newspaper Group. The first edition of
Make the Other Half Work Too: A text on Advertising in South Africa was
published in 1985. This book was prescribed by numerous universities and
technical colleges.
Dr. Sinclair approached Mark Barenblatt to co-write the 2nd edition.
This edition was published in 1987. A 3rd edition followed, but it lacked
the IMC orientation, and the authors believed it might have been a mistake
to change the title under pressure of the publisher to The South African Advertising Book because that positioned it firmly in the above-the-line sector.
The 4th and final edition (1997) covered the development of brand equity
and IMC and, since media buying and choice of media vehicles had
changed so radically, had a completely revamped media chapter (Sinclair, R.
personal communication, November 26, 2009).
In 1989, the AAA bought Boston House College of Advertising and
changed its name, from 1 January 1990, to AAA School of Advertising.
AAA (now called ACA) still owns the AAA School of Advertising. Education is in the hands of AAA School, and an ACA Education Portfolio
Committee helps to assess training needs for the industry. Executive training is done via part time AAA School courses.
79
AMASA (Advertising Media Association Of South Africa)
According to Muller, G. (personal communication, December 28,
2009), to benchmark structured training in the modern media planning industry goes back to what is generally referred to as the “British Invasion” of
the 1970s. The influx of top media talent from the UK fundamentally altered the status of the industry, in terms of professional standards. The
names associated with this “British Invasion” are the late George Smith,
Roger Garlick, Ms. Chris Rainford, and media gurus Paul Wilkins, Ian
Snelling, Mike Armstrong et al. The legacy of Roger Garlick is recognized
in AMASA’s annual Roger Garlick Awards. Local South African luminaries
added to this list would include Frank Muller (deceased) and Dick Reed, on
the agency side, and on the client (Unilever) side the late Eddie Shultze.
Many South African media directors in the 1970s made reference to
David Hart (Media Director of Quadrant Advertising, which became
Afamal and then McCann Erickson), in their formative years. One of the
key names in terms of providing informal training in the 1970s was Claude
Dobson. Dobson wrote a series of articles for various trade publications over
the years, which were mandatory inclusions in any young Planners’ library.
All of these individuals are synonymous with “training” in the early
industry. Training, for juniors starting out in the latter half of the 1970s,
consisted of paying for drinks and extracting as much insight as possible
from the gurus of the day. Invariably that insight was freely and enthusiastically given.
The Media Association of South Africa (MASA) is a registered Section 21 company, and, since its inception as a professional body in 1971,
has been at the forefront of media education and training in South Africa.
In the mid-1970s, due to the objection by the “Medical Association of
South Africa,” MASA changed its name to the “Advertising Media Association of South Africa” (AMASA).
The AMASA mandate was to educate people with an interest in media, marketing, and advertising, with a view to improving knowledge and
skill in media decision-making techniques and their use. Initially this took
the form of relatively informal monthly gatherings, where keynote speakers
addressed industry issues in an open forum, but these gatherings soon became the sounding board for some of the big issues which shaped the commercial media industry in the 1970s.
AMASA’s first major conference was organized by Brian Nuttley,
held in conjunction with the National Development and Management Forum (NDMF) in 1974. The first ever AMASA Workshop was organized by
80
Ian Snelling and Noel Coburn in March/April 1975 at the old Kyalami
Ranch. A 3 – 4 day’s intensive learning program, the “Workshop” featured
seasoned media practitioners taking young media planners and buyers
through the basics of media planning theory and practice. Traditionally,
the Workshop culminated with a “group project,” which was prepared by
the learners through the night and presented to a panel the next morning.
In the mid-1980s it was decided that the AMASA weekend workshops were not enough to really plumb the depths of the media planning
discipline, and so it was decided to have a “media planning certificate
course.” It was essentially the forerunner of the current AAA School/
AMASA course. The first formal collation of material was Mike Leahy’s
Media Year Book 1989. That was essentially a Guide to Media in RSA and
some basics of media planning. This was used to shape the early AMASA
media certificate course. Leahy’s book became a little outdated, and under
pressure from AMASA, Gordon Muller was commissioned to write a more
detailed media planning text book. This textbook’s first edition, entitled
Media Planning – Art or Science, came out in 1996. More editions followed
and it became the prescribed text for media planning for many years.
In 2009, AMASA launched its “Learnership Programme” in Johannesburg, where deserving applicants are selected through a rigorous process
as recipients of the AMASA scholarship. The pioneer agency partners to
the AMASA Learnership Programme were Starcom (under Gordon Patterson) and Mediaedge CIA (under Wicus Swanepoel) (Aigner, B. personal
communication, May 5, 2010). The objective of the AMASA Learnership
Programme is to attract and recruit into the Media Industry individuals
trained in non-Media disciplines like Finance, Economics, Marketing etc.
The Learnership Programme involves the partnership between AMASA and
Media Agencies, who jointly fund, recruit, and mentor the Learners selected. From a formal training perspective, the Learners join the AAA School
media module as part-time students, attend the AMASA workshop and are
also mandated to attend the AMASA monthly forums.
Formal Media planning education in South Africa is done only via
the AAA School of Advertising, where full-time students can specialize in
Media Management, or industry people can equip themselves with a parttime Module Certificate as a media planner. AMASA is responsible for all
the lectures and assessments of the 6-month course offered at AAA School
of Advertising’s Johannesburg and Cape Town campuses.
In an effort to further widen the net and to ensure that media planning in South Africa is well served by young talent from all communities,
AMASA created a number of bursaries over the past years which are made
81
available to deserving students. All profits from advertising courses and the
sale of the textbook go towards maintaining this bursary fund, which is a
key focus for AMASA (http://www.amasa.org.za).
Conclusion
Pre-1990 education in Advertising was the task of the Communications departments of Universities, and Graphic Design was taught at Technikons. Advertising’s academic location then slowly but surely shifted from
public institutions to private Advertising Schools and Design Schools. In
recent years public institutions, especially Universities of Technology, started to focus again on offering Graphic Design, in an effort to increase their
student intake.
Communication departments at Universities offer a more general degree in Advertising, and cannot compete with the three Advertising Schools
in South Africa. They also are offering Advertising as one of many Communications specializations, or merely as a module, not as a specialization.
This resulted in fewer post-graduate (MA & Ph.D) students studying Advertising. Those who do are likely to pursue an academic career rather than
a career in the advertising industry.
The current situation is therefore characterized by the diminishing
role of public institutions, and the dominating role of Advertising Schools
and Design Schools. In the past 20 years these private schools offered 1- or
2-year diplomas, then 2- or 3-year diplomas, and since 2005 BA or BA
Hons. degrees. They do not offer MA or Ph.D degrees, as their staff members are ad industry experts, and they simply do not have the required academic staff (i.e., with MA or Ph.D degrees). Advertising Schools are careerfocused, while Design Schools are multi-option design focused. Graphic
Design is but one of many design specializations at the Design Schools. The
focus of these private schools is on theory and application, and their objective is to deliver a career-ready graduate to the Advertising industry.
Due to the worldwide economic crisis since 2008, the South African
advertising industry was hard hit, both in terms of pressure on the bottom
line and in terms of employment opportunities. Public institution graduates
are finding it difficult to get jobs, as the perception is that their qualifications are too theoretical. More than 80% of Advertising School graduates
will either find a job at an advertising agency or become an Intern at a Seta
(Sector Education & Training Authority) funded Internship program. Salaries are relatively low, there is little career planning for these young gradu-
82
ates, and many leave the ad industry to go to the broader communications,
media and marketing industries.
Student intake in Copywriting qualifications has diminished over the
past three years, due to poor language education at the high school level, the
emphasis on sms language, young people no longer reading, and the fact
that English is a second language to all Black, and most Afrikaans-speaking,
scholars. This trend will continue and it is a real challenge for public and
private academic institutions.
The most popular courses at private Advertising Schools are Brand
Management and Graphic Design. Universities teach Brand management as
part of a Marketing specialization, while Advertising Schools teach Brand
management as part of an Advertising Stratplanning specialization. Graphic
designers and Art Directors often move on to Multimedia and the new lucrative world of Digital marketing.
Even though ACA, the professional body of the South African advertising industry, has actively promoted advertising as a career, student numbers have been static in the past 3 years. This trend is likely to continue in
the next 3 to 5 years, due to the economic recession and the slow recovery
forecasted by economists. The advertising industry is still retrenching people, not employing people.
What about the future? International (IAA) accreditation (offered only by AAA School of Advertising) will remain important, as graduates will
want to work in other parts of the world. Due to Black empowerment pressures, Black talent will have to be found, trained, and educated, but they
prefer to study Marketing. Few Blacks enroll in the creative arena. There
will be less post-graduate focus, as being career-ready (knowledge and skills)
is demanded by the ad industry. Instead of studying for post-graduate degrees, many graduates will join multi-national ad agencies’ Internship programmes funded by SETAs, where the focus is on acquiring skills and getting a job.
Finally, the current and immediate future challenge for all academic
institutions is to fully embrace the Digital Media Marketing world at graduate and post-graduate levels, to teach language graduates Copywriting at
the post-graduate level, and to liaise closer with professional bodies (like
ACA, AMASA etc) to do specialized training. In the longer term, academic
research is essential at MA and Ph.D levels, and universities should take up
this challenge. There is also a need for an Executive MBA in Advertising
Agency management.
83
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85
Asia
Advertising Education in
Cambodia
Sela Sar
Iowa State University, USA
Lulu Rodriguez
Iowa State University, USA
Cambodia is located in Southeast Asia and shares borders with Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam. It has over 139 miles of coastline along the Gulf
of Thailand. Advertising education in Cambodia is still in its infancy. Its
development can be divided into two stages. The first stage began in the
1960s; the second started in the early part of the 21st century.
Stage 1
Advertising education in Cambodia began during the so-called
“Golden Age” of the Cambodian movie industry in the 1960s. In the early
part of that decade, at the Royal University of Fine Arts, under the direction
of then King Norodom Sihanouk, French instructors developed and offered
eight courses with some advertising content. According to documents retrieved from the Royal University of Fine Arts,2 the courses were intended
to develop basic skills in arts and display, creativity, and advertising design,
in support of the emerging movie industry and other creative venues. The
courses were offered through the School of Humanities and Arts at the
Royal University of Fine Arts in Phnom Penh.
This was part of the School’s degree programs in Acting, Arts and
Design, Movie Production, Sociology, and French Literature. Because advertising courses, offered as electives, were taught by French instructors, the
2
Between 1975 to 1979, many official documents were destroyed as part of the Khmer
Rouge’s objective of implementing a totalitarian and agrarian-based form of communism.
86
language of instruction was French3. The number of advertising courses
grew from eight in the early 1960s to 11 by the early 1970s. These were offered by a number of academic departments, including Arts and Design,
Sociology, Acting, and Literature. The growing number of students interested in advertising arts and design provided the impetus for new courses
(Royal University of Fine Arts documents).
This momentum ceased, and advertising education came to halt as a
consequence of the pervasive civil and political unrest between the mid1970s and the early 1990s. Under the reign of the Khmer Rouge, the entire
Cambodian education system was abolished.
When the socio-political system began to stabilize in the mid-1990s,
the government laid the foundations of a free market economy by opening
its borders to the outside world. Direct foreign investments began to flow
into the country, a phenomenon that triggered the demand for professional
skills in promotions and branding. This economic transformation encouraged international advertising agencies from around the world to establish
offices in the country. As a result, the demand for skilled advertising professionals became more urgent, prompting universities and colleges throughout the country in the early 2000s to once again offer various courses in advertising, including strategic communication. Today, these courses are offered through the departments of Humanities and the Social Sciences.
Stage 2
In 2001, the Department of Media and Communication at the new
Royal University of Phnom Penh offered courses in Advertising Research,
Strategic Communication, and Marketing Communication, which were attended by about a dozen students. Advertising and Strategic Communication courses were developed and taught by a German professor, Caroline
Schmidt Gross, and a Cambodian instructor, Tung Tithanu. The language
of instruction was English.
By 2005, with the support of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation
(Germany), the Ateneo de Manila University (Philippines), and Ohio University (USA), the Media and Communication Department has grown to
150 students and 15 full-time instructors. The Department has an additional 15 part-time instructors and lecturers (working practitioners) every
3
Cambodia was a protectorate of France from 1863 to 1963, administered as part of French
Indochina. At that time the official language in schools and universities was French (Chandler, 1993).
87
academic year who deliver lectures and seminars (Tieng, 2009). Today, the
Department boasts of three emphasis areas: Public Relations, Print and Design, and Media Management. But as of 2010, no full- service Bachelor of
Arts or Bachelor of Science program in Advertising can be discerned.
By 2002, advertising strengthened its presence at various universities
around the country. For example, the departments of Marketing, Accounting, Tourism, Economics, and Human Sciences at the National University
of Management began offering courses in Advertising. According to the
National University (2003), six courses had some advertising content: Advertising Principles, Advertising Strategy, Advertising Sales, Advertising
Management, Advertising and Promotional Strategy and Strategic Marketing Communication.
The Advertising and Strategic Communication courses offered at the
Royal University of Phnom Penh and the National University of Management both have an almost exclusive focus on one aspect of advertising—
advertising strategy. None of those courses emphasizes creative advertising.
However, in early 2003, Limkokwing University of Creative Technology, a
private university in Malaysia with a satellite campus in Cambodia and
known for its program in graphic design, saw the need for instruction in
both creative advertising and advertising strategies.
In 2004, Limkokwing University’s Cambodian campus began offering various advertising courses. Its Faculty of Communication, Media and
Broadcasting developed courses in Advertising Graphic Design, Media Audience Analysis, Advertising/Public Principles, Advertising Creativity, Advertising Art and Display and Advertising Copywriting, Advertising Management, Strategic Advertising, Advertising Campaign, Media planning,
Advertising Agency Management, Advertising Regulations, Issues and Ethics, and Strategic Communication.
Limkokwing is the only university in the country that offers a comprehensive advertising program with all types of courses, except Advertising
Theory and Psychology of Advertising. Ironically, it does not grant an Advertising degree, but rather a Bachelor of Arts in Professional Communication. The university also exposes students to advertising research strategies
in addition to the creative courses. The Cambodian campus of Limkokwing University also offers courses in Computer Animation and Interactive Communication. It requires students to work with those from other
disciplines on joint projects.
In 2006, in response to the continuous demand for skilled advertising
professionals, the International University of Phnom Penh, a small private
university, began offering an Associate Degree in Advertising through the
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Department of Journalism, under the School of Humanities and Social Sciences. The program focuses on the vocational aspect of advertising (i.e.,
Advertising Copywriting, Advertising Display and Design, Advertising Arts,
and Principles of Advertising). The School was fully accredited by the Ministry of Education and the Accreditation Committee of Cambodia (ACC) in
2006.
To expand its program, the Department of Journalism plans to offer
a Bachelor’s Degree in Advertising by 2011. Currently, it employs 12 fulltime instructors and 10 part-time instructors and lecturers. A large majority
of the part-time instructors (around 90 percent) are working practitioners.
There is no doubt that the advertising industry’s growing demand for
skilled professionals has encouraged other universities to offer more advertising and related courses. In 2008, several universities, including the University of Cambodia, Norton University, Build Bright University, and the
Pannasastra University of Cambodia began to offer a total of 25 advertising
courses, most of which (about 60%) were in the business schools, and about
40% through the departments of Communication and the Social Sciences.
Another driving force behind the development of advertising education in Cambodia is the demand for skilled professionals who speak the
Cambodian and/or Khmer languages, by non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and international groups such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the World Health Organization (WHO), and
Family Health International (FHI) to assist with their public information
campaigns. Some of these include disease control (i.e., HIV-AIDS and malaria prevention, housing and public works, and poverty alleviation. Other
campaigns address issues such as land and water resource development, the
preservation of cultural heritage and historical sites, and wildlife protection.
Because of the shortage of Cambodian advertising professionals, some
of these organizations employ university instructors to offer short courses
with a vocational approach (i.e., courses in advertising production, creative
advertising, advertising art, advertising display, advertising graphic design,
and advertising copywriting). According to USAID Cambodia (2007),
some trainees continued their career with various advertising agencies after
their stint with these organizations.
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Conclusion
Advertising in Cambodia is taught in different schools and organizations following different approaches. Some schools offer advertising courses
that focus on strategy and creativity; others offer only creative courses. Only recently has one school started to offer comprehensive undergraduate
training. Some schools and non-government organizations take a more vocational approach. However, not a single program employs a plan of course
work that is steeped in theory and the psychological aspects of advertising.
As demand for skilled professionals continues to grow, these two aspects of
advertising are expected to be included in the curriculum.
References
Chandler, D. P. (1993). A history of Cambodia (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Chhay, B. (3/11/2010). E-mail, Accreditation Committee of Cambodia (ACC), Phnom
Penh.
Royal University of Phnom Penh research document.
Tieng, S.V. (12/17/2009). E-mail, Royal University of Phnom Penh.
US Agency for International Development. Cambodia report.
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China’s Advertising Education
Guangzhi Chu
University of China, China
Generally speaking, the level of development of advertising education
is closely related to the level of the development of advertising industry in a
given country. China’s advertising industry was born in the early 20th century, and it has developed rapidly since China’s reform and opening-up policy was implemented in 1978. China’s advertising education has become an
important part of the world’s advertising education, in light of China becoming one of the largest markets in the world.
The history of China’s advertising education
China’s advertising education began in the early 1920s, as one course
in the department of Journalism of some Universities or Institutes. Based on
some important historical events, China’s ad education history can be
roughly divided into four periods: [1] period of germination (1918-1949),
[2] period of stagnation (1950-1978), [3] exploratory period (1979-1991),
and [4] period of rapid development (1992 until now).
Period of germination (1918-1949)
In 1918, the Journalism Research Institute of Peking University was
founded. The chairman was Professor Xu Baohuang. This is the beginning
of China’s journalism education. In 1920, a Department of Journalism was
established in Saint John's University. In the following ten years, Xianmen
University, Peking Mass University, Yanching University, Shanghai South
University, and Fudan University created their own departments of journalism, respectively. After 1930, more and more Universities and Colleges did
this.
From the beginning of journalism education, as a required course,
advertising was taught in Universities or Colleges. Among these programs,
two notable schools were Yanching University and Fudan University.
The Department of Journalism at Yanching University
As a part of Chinese Language & Literature College in Yanching
University, the Department of Journalism was founded in 1924 in Beijing.
The Principles of Advertising was among the required courses. This class
aimed at exploring the function and importance of modern advertising from
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an economic perspective, especially focusing on the significant role of advertising in newspapers and magazines, and briefly discussing all aspects of advertising. It also paid more attention to the practice of newspaper and magazine advertising production.
From 1929 to 1932, Group, who came from the U.S., taught courses
in advertising in Yanching University. He also was the first journalism researcher selected by Missouri University. In 1931, he gained his Master’s
degree from Yanching University and became an assistant professor. He also
was in charge of marketing for Pingxi newspaper and New China magazine,
run by faculty and students. In 1932, he went back to the U.S.
The Departments of Journalism at Fudan University
The Department of Journalism was founded in 1929 at Fudan University, Shanghai. “Newspaper and magazine advertising” was one of the
core courses. This class included the principles and function of advertising
and design and production of newspaper and magazine advertisements, and
it focused on advertising management. It would take a semester to finish
this class. Students also had opportunities to be interns in some newspapers
and news agencies, with the guidance of Professors and adjunct lecturers.
In addition, the China Professional Journalism School, the Department of Journalism of the Business school at Hujiang University, the Department of Journalism of University of the Republic of China, and the
Correspondence School of Shen Newspaper also offered advertising courses.
These classes were taught by some managers or executives of advertising
agencies and some senior journalists, such as Meizeng Lu, Youwu Huang,
and Junhao Zhao.
In this period, advertising was still being taught as a single course.
Advertising education was a part of journalism education, and it relied heavily on the development of the journalism industry. Its mission was to meet
the demand of that industry. Most journalism programs that were offering
an advertising course were located in Beijing and Shanghai, where the level
of development of the economy, and the journalism and advertising industries, was higher. However, there was no independent advertising program
yet.
Period of stagnation (1950-1978)
After the foundation of the People's Republic of China, the new government regulated the advertising market and strengthened its management. Small and private advertising agencies were merged together and
transformed into state-owned advertising agencies. Advertising became the
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part of the new political and economic system.
In the period of Great Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), a commodity-based economic system was replaced by a planned economic system.
Therefore, as a marketing communication tool, commercial advertising was
banned. In fact, during these ten years, advertising for foreign trade was
nearly the only remaining form of commercial advertising.
Under such unique political and economic circumstances, all the departments of journalism were closed down. Accordingly, advertising courses
disappeared in journalism education. Only in some art institutes, such as
Luxun Art Institute, Xian Art Institute, and Sichuan Art Institute, a few of
advertising design courses remained.
Exploratory period (1979-1991)
In December 1978, The Third Plenary Session of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CCCPC) made a strategic decision to shift the focus of the whole party to socialist modernization, thus
initiating China’s reform and opening-up policy. As a barometer of the
economy, the advertising industry has an opportunity to recover.
On January 4, 1979, Tianjing Daily kept ahead in rehabilitating
commercial advertising in China’s newspapers. Ten days later, Wen hui bao,
an official newspaper in Shanghai, published the article, “Restoring Reputation for Advertising.” Yunpeng Ding, the author, noted that advertising
should be regarded as an academic discipline that can promote trade and
improve business management. It was seen as a clear signal of the recovery
by the advertising industry.
In the same year, some newspapers, TV, and radio stations resumed
their advertising business. Advertising agencies also started to operate one
after another, nationwide. The advertising industry grew rapidly. As a result, trained advertising professionals were in demand.
From 1978 to 1983, Guangxi Arts Institute and Shanghai Light Industrial Higher Junior College started to offer some advertising courses in
their Upholster & Design Majors. However, these far from met the demands for advertising professionals. Because advertising education was still
limited to a few courses, it is undeniable that the lack of a focused advertising curriculum hampered the development of advertising education.
In August 1983, The Propaganda Department of CCCPC and Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China co-issued a document,
aiming to promote journalism education, including advertising programs
and related curricula. In fact, the preparation process had already begun in
Xiamen University. Advocated by two alumni in Hong Kong, named Jibo
Liu and Yelu Yu, this University applied to establish a journalism and
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communication department, including an advertising major in Mainland
China. In May, 1983, the application was approved by the Ministry of Education. This became the first department with the title of “communication,” and the first advertising major in Mainland China.
The next year, the advertising major of Department of Journalism
and Communication at Xiamen University formally enrolled 15 undergraduate students. The mission of this major was to train advertising professionals with all-round development of morality, intelligence, and physique
for advertising research, teaching, publicity, management, design, and production. The program length was four years. In the following years, some
institutes of finance and economics and institutes of arts started to offer
courses in advertising. But, in July 1988, the first students majoring in advertising gained their Bachelor degree.
Figure 9-1: The first graduation class of advertising students at
Xiamen University, July 1988
In the same year, a TV advertising major was set up in the Department of Communication at Shenzhen University. This program was only
two years long. It was a non-Bachelor degree program.
Then, in September 1989, the Beijing Broadcasting Institute (BBI,
Now named Communication University of China) began to enroll undergraduate students. This was a four-year program. The mission of this major
was to train advertising professionals with a high level of theory and practi-
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cal skills, including advertising management professionals, as well as professionals in production and research. The curriculum of BBI combined the
advertising, marketing, and art design together. It was different from the
advertising major of Xiamen University, which focused more on courses
oriented toward journalism and communication.
By the end of 1992, six Universities already had established an advertising major. These Universities are pioneers of China’s advertising education.
They did a lot in exploration in major positioning, structure of curriculum
and teachers’ improvement.
Period of rapid growth (1992 till now)
In 1992, the 14th Congress of the Communist Party of China decided
to build China’s socialist market economic system. Over the next year, the
State Development Planning Commission (SDPC) and the State Administration of Industry and Commerce (SAIC) co-issued the development plan
to promote the advertising industry. In this plan, advertising education
played an important role. The government also would provide the place,
funds, and teachers to support the establishment of advertising majors and
training bases. Given these circumstances, some Universities and Institutes
were eager to create advertising majors or departments.
In 1994, Beijing Broadcasting Institute established the first advertising department in Mainland China. This department included both the advertising major and the art design major. According to an incomplete record, by the end of 1997, more than eighty Universities and Institutes already had created advertising majors or departments. The increasing demand of the advertising industry was the main driving force. Most of these
majors and departments were located in journalism departments or schools
and in developed cities.
In June 1999, the State Development Planning Commission (SDPC)
and the Ministry of Education decided to increase the enrollment numbers
in China’s higher education. In doing so, it further promoted the development of advertising education.
In February 2000, Beijing Union University set up an advertising college. This is the first college in China with “advertising” in the title. It was
co-run by Beijing Union University and the Noble advertising agency,
which belongs to The People's Daily newspaper. This college was aimed at
training advertising professionals, thereby promoting vocational advertising
education. In 2002, a School of Advertising at the Communication University of China (former Beijing Broadcasting University) was founded.
According to China’s Radio and TV Year book 2009, by the end of
2008, 338 Universities, Institutes and Colleges enroll undergraduate stu-
95
dents majoring in advertising, covering all provinces, autonomous regions
and municipalities in Mainland China. Among these Universities, Institutes
and Colleges are 105 independent colleges.
The rest includes 81 Universities; 64 institutes of technology; 36
normal Universities; 28 institutes of business, finance and economics; 6 institutes of foreign languages; and 8 institutes of agricultural and forestry,9
institutes of arts, 1 institute of political science and law. Qidi Wu, former
vice minister of the Ministry of Education, estimated the number of undergraduate and graduate students is about 40,000. During this period, with
the rapid growth of the number of advertising programs, the multi-level advertising education system has been developed.
In 1993, Journalism Department of Beijing Broadcasting Institute
took the lead to enroll graduate students majoring in advertising. In 1994,
the Advertising Department of Beijing Broadcasting Institute took the lead
to enroll undergraduate students majoring in advertising as a second bachelor degree. In 2000, Beijing Broadcasting Institute took the lead to enroll
doctorate student majoring in advertising.
Till June 2010, there are nine Universities enrolling doctoral students
majoring in advertising, including Communication University of China
(former Beijing Broadcasting Institute), Xiamen University, Wuhan University, Renmin University of China, Peiking University, Fudan University,
Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Shanghai University and
Shanghai Normal University. Advertising education system covering higher
junior, undergraduate, graduate and doctorate program was formed.
Notable Advertising Educators
Zhongpu Tang
In 1981, Mr. Tang participated in editing the first Chinese advertising book, Advertising Practice. The next year, he began offering a class titled “The Introduction to
Advertising” to undergraduate students in the Journalism Department at Renmin
University of China, as an adjunct teacher. In 1984, he became an Adjunct Professor
in the Journalism and Communication Department at Xiamen University. In 1991,
Mr. Tang edited the Modern Advertising classic book series (8 books). In 2008, he
was honored with a “Historical contribution in the 30 years development of China’s
advertising,” set up by the China Advertising Association (CAA).
Dajun Pan
Beijing Technology and Business University (former Beijing Institute of Business)
The late Professor Pan was one of the earlier advertising educators. In 1980, he and
Shuping Zhang co-wrote Advertising Senses and Skill, the first book specialized in advertising, since the recovery of advertising in China. In 1987, he created the first vo-
96
cational college advertising education in China. In 1989, he edited the Modern Advertising series (10 books). Professor Pan also is the founder of the advertising major
at the Beijing Institute of Business.
Hanzhang Fu
Jinan University
In 1985, Mr. Fu co-wrote The Principles of Advertising with Tiejun Kuang. He also
co-wrote Advertising Psychology (1988) and Measurement of Advertisement Effectiveness
(1990) with other scholars. He took the lead in establishing marketing courses in
Mainland China, and did a lot to promote marketing research and teaching.
Yuechang Zhu
Sanda University
From 1983, Zhu started to teach advertising in Xiamen University. He was one of
the founders of the Advertising major and the Journalism and Communication department of Xiamen University, and former vice director of that department. Professor Zhu led a key research study supported by National Philosophy and Social Science, titled “Research on the Advertisements in Mass Media.”
Peiai Chen
Xiamen University
Professor Chen is chairman of Academic Committee of the CAA. He was the former
chairman of China Advertising Education Society (CAES). He was one of the founders of the Advertising major at Xiamen University. Professor Chen edited The 21th
Century Advertising Series, and wrote some books including, The Principles and Practices of Advertising, Advertising History of China and the World, and The Introduction
of Advertising. He led a research study supported by National Philosophy and Social
Science, titled “Research on Advertising Communication.” In 2008, he was honored
with the CAA’s “Historical contribution in the 30 years development of China’s advertising.”
Junjie Ding
Communication University of China
Professor Ding is the chairman of ASEC, vice president of CAAC and Vice President
of CUC. He was one of the founders of the advertising major, department and
school at Beijing Broadcasting Institute and former chairman of Academic Committee of China Advertising Association. He wrote several books, including Theories and
Operations of Modern Advertising Activities (1996) and General Studies on Modern Advertising (1997). Professor Ding led a research study supported by National Philosophy and Social Science, called “The Current Situation and the Future of Advertising
Communication Research in China.” In 2008, he received an “Excellent Contribution in the 30 years development of China’s advertising,” from the CAA.
Shenmin Huang
Communication University of China
Professor Huang is Dean of the Advertising School at CUC, and the chief editor of
Media magazine. In 1990, he began teaching advertising at Beijing Broadcasting Institute. Professor Huang is one of the founders of the Advertising Department and
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the school at Beijing Broadcasting Institute. He co-edited The Comparative Study on
Advertisement in China and Japan, along with Accelerated Growth of China’s Advertising Industry, and he wrote Empirical Analysis in China’s Advertising Activities, as well
as The Attitudes to Advertising, among others. In 2008, he was honored with an “Excellent contribution in the 30 years development of China’s advertising.”
Jinhai Zhang
Wuhan University
Professor Zhang is the chairman of CAES. In 1993, he established an advertising major at Wuhan University with his colleagues. He edited the Luojia Advertising series
and wrote several books, including The Theories of Advertising Communication in 20th
Century, The Practice and Regulation of Advertising Communication, and Advertising
Business. Professor Zhang led a research project supported by National Philosophy
and Social Science, called “The Regulation of Advertising.”
Yumin Wu
Shenzhen University
Professor Wu is Dean of College of Mass Communication at Shenzhen University.
In 1990, he established the advertising major at Shenzhen University with his colleagues. He wrote several books, including Modern advertising and marketing (1991).
Professor Wu led key research study supported by China's Ministry of Education.
Ad Education Support Organizations
In the developing process of China’s advertising education, professional associations played and are playing a significant role. When there was
no independent advertising program in China, associations took charge of
training advertising professionals. Notable associations involved were the
China Advertising Society, China Advertising Association, China Advertising Association of Commerce (formerly the China Advertising Association
for Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation), China Advertising Education Society, and The Advertising Specialty Education Committee of the
Chinese Association of Higher Education.
China Advertising Society (CAS)
CAS was founded in February 23, 1982. The chairman was Ding
Zhang, a famous painter and former vice president of The Central Academy
of Arts & Design. In August 7, 1982, the first national academic conference was held. The hot topics included whether advertising was needed in a
socialist country or not, what are the characters and function of advertising,
what is the difference between socialist advertising and capitalist advertising,
and so on.
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In May 1983, CAS and the General Corporation of China Advertising Co. held a training class in the Qindao, Shandong province. Three
months later, the second national academic conference was held in Beizhen
city, Liaoning province. Participants discussed the position and role of advertising in the period of socialist modernization, the direction and principles of advertising industry, the relationship between advertising and journalism, advertising education, and how advertising serves the material and
spiritual civilizations of socialism.
Beginning in 1985, the national academic conference was held by
CAA. In 1987, the Academic Committee of China Advertising Association
took its place. As the first academic advertising association in China, China
Advertising Society played a very important role in the earlier years of the
development of advertising industry as well as advertising education in China.
China Advertising Association (CAA)
CAA was founded in December 1983. The mission was to advocate
truthful, scientific advertisements, improve the artistic quality of advertisements, and work out a developing plan of advertising industry in order to
advise the government. As the biggest advertising association in China,
CAA took charge of the training of advertising professionals.
In February 22, 1986, China Advertising Correspondence College
was founded by CAA. At that time, 4100 students enrolled. CAA invited
experts from the academy and industry to edit a series of textbooks. This
series included Brief History of Advertising, Measurement of Advertisement Effectiveness, Advertising Planning, Ten Tactics of Advertising Design, Advertising Design, Advertising Psychology, and Advertising Management and Copywriting. All of these textbooks were published in March 1989 by Industrial
and Commercial publisher of China. This series was the earliest systemic
advertising textbooks in Mainland China.
In 1987, the Academic Committee of CAA was founded. Its mission
included academic research for government decision-making; organizing
academic seminars and experience exchange; introducing the newest and
advanced theories, methods and techniques; selecting excellent advertising
and papers; editing academic books; supporting and guiding the training of
advertising professionals; developing international academic exchange, and
so on.
After that, CAA did a lot of work to support advertising education in
China. For example, in February 1988, a training class for executives of advertising agencies nationwide was co-held by this committee and CAA for
Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation in Shenzhen, Guangdong prov-
99
ince. From 1989 to 1990, the Committee and the Department of Journalism at Beijing Broadcasting Institute co-held three training classes. More
than 400 students received the professional certificate. Then, in 1990, the
Committee of the Department of Journalism and Communication at Xiamen University co-held the first advertising teaching seminar in Xiamen,
Fujian province (Figure 9-2).
Figure 9-2: The first advertising teaching seminar, 1990
Some other examples include, in 1991, the TV committee of CAA
and Beijing Broadcasting Institute co-held national training class focusing
on creativity and design of TV advertisements. In 1998, the Academic
Committee of the CAA, along with Beijing Broadcasting Institute and
Xiamen University, established a graduate training program. In 2000, the
first students of that program finished their study and received coursecompletion certificates (Figure 9-3). Finally, in June 2005, CAA held the
“Worldwide Chinese Advertising Education Forum” in Beijing.
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Figure 9-3: Course-completion ceremony at Beijing Broadcasting Institute, in 2000
China Advertising Association of Commerce (CAAC)
CAAC is the former China Advertising Association for Foreign Trade
and Economic Cooperation (CAAFTEC). As the first national advertising
association, it was established in 1981 under the Ministry of Commerce of
the People’s Republic of China. In earlier years, this association was aimed
at using advertising to promote the import of China’s products, in order to
increase foreign currency exchange.
Being familiar with international markets, CAAFTEC introduced an
exhibition of foreign advertisements, invited advertising experts from developed countries, along with the Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan regions, to
give lectures. It jointly sponsored the Third World Advertising Conference
with CAA, and promoted international business exchange.
In 1985, International Advertising Magazine belonged to this association. It was launched in Shanghai.
In November 2005, China Advertising Association for Foreign Trade
and Economic Cooperation changed its name to China Advertising Association of Commerce. Aimed at rendering service for commercial interests,
CAAC focused on brand building for Chinese marketers. It established the
Business Brand Institute and the Creative Industry Institute. These two institutes also regularly publish the periodical, Reference of Brand Management
101
and Reference of Creative Industry. In addition, CAAC and Communication
University of China have published several books, including, IAI Chinese
Advertising Works Yearbook and IAI Terminal Marketing Yearbook.
CAAC has organized several local, joint-venture, and foreign advertising agencies to form a top-line organization called the Association of Accredited Advertising Agencies of China (abbreviated as the “Chinese 4A”).
In recent years, the Chinese 4A has played an active role in the industry.
From 2007 to 2009, the Chinese 4A invited 100 advertising specialists to
give lectures or speeches in Chinese universities.
China Advertising Education Society (CAES)
China Advertising Education Society, the full name being “China
Advertising Society of The Journalism and Communication Specialty Education Committee of Chinese Association of Higher Education,” was
founded in 1999. This organization was co-lunched by Xiamen University,
Communication University of China, Renmin University of China, Wuhan
University and Shenzhen University.
Figure 9-4: The first conference of CAES, in 1999
In the same year, CAES held the first annual national academic conference (Figure 9-4). Beginning 2005, the academic conference was held
twice each year. In each conference, the training of advertising professionals
and the construction of advertising programs were the main topics.
102
CAES provided three platforms for China’s advertising education,
including (1) teacher training, (2) the publishing of academic papers, and
(3) research in teaching and academic exchange. After more than ten years’
development, CAES has become influential. Now it has more than 200
unit members, and it has made a significant contribution to the development of China’s Advertising Education.
The Advertising Specialty Education Committee of the
Chinese Association of Higher Education (ASEC)
In November 2009, the Advertising Specialty Education Committee
of the Chinese Association of Higher Education was founded in Beijing (see
Figure 9-5. It is an academic society aiming at promoting research in advertising and advertising education. The members include teachers from advertising and related majors nationwide. The primary mission of ASEC is to
promote an exchange within the advertising field, to hold advertising education research conferences or forums regularly, to upgrade advertising education in the higher education system, to publish academic books, to support
advertising research, and to arbitrate serious problems related to advertisements.
Figure 9-5: The opening ceremony of ASEC, in 2009
In the first conference of ASEC, Junjie Ding from Communication
University of China was elected as the president. The vice presidents are
Gang Chen from Peking University, Ning Ni from Renmin University of
103
China, Jinhai Zhang from Wuhan University, Dinghai Jin from Shanghai
Normal University, Yumin Wu from Shenzhen University and Ruiwu Liu
from Beijing Union University.
Dentsu Group and China’s advertising education
http://www.dentsu.com/vision/index.html
In addition to advertising organizations, advertising agencies and media agencies have done much to support advertising education. Among
them, a notable one is the Dentsu Group, one of the biggest advertising organizations in the world.
In 1996, the Japan-China Advertising Educational Exchange Project
was launched as a five-year project commemorating the 95th anniversary of
the foundation of Dentsu, in coordination with the Chinese Government
and six universities in China. This included Beijing University, Renmin
University of China, The Central Fine Arts Academy (now the Academy of
Arts & Design, Tsinghua University), the Beijing Broadcasting Institute
(now the Communication University of China), Fudan University, and
Shanghai University. The project consisted of establishing advertising
courses at those six universities.
All courses were taught by leading advertising executives at the department director level or higher, along with a study exchange system that
gave temporary positions at Dentsu to teachers involved in teaching advertising at the six universities. Students who attended these classes are currently active in media/advertising companies and university, making a huge
contribution to the advancement of the Chinese advertising industry.
This project ended in 2001. But in order to respond to the requests
from China's Ministry of Education for further exchanges and celebrate the
Dentsu centennial anniversary, the former project was renewed in an improved form, as the Japan-China Marketing Study Exchange Project, with
the support of the Chinese Government, the six universities, along with the
endorsement of the China Advertising Association.
The aim of this project has been to promote Japan-China cultural
and economic exchanges and deepen mutual understanding and friendship
through education in the field of advertising. The project was run for four
years, starting in 2001, and covered four areas: the Dentsu Joint Advertising
Class, Dentsu New Study Abroad Program, Japan-China Corporate Exchange Seminar, and Advisory Assistance provided to facilitate a research
project to be funded by the Yoshida Hideo Memorial Foundation.
In July 2006, to continue the exchange, Dentsu signed an agreement
with China's Ministry of Education. Its purpose was to promote the JapanChina Advertising Class, Study Abroad Program for China’s teachers, Re-
104
search and publication, and marketing consultation. This program includes
Dentsu Abroad researchers Program, Training seminar of China’s advertising professionals, research supporting program. The new agreement covered
more than 140 Universities with advertising departments or majors and
doctorate candidates.
Select University Advertising Programs
Xiamen University (XU)
School of Journalism & Communication
http://comm.xmu.edu.cn/
Xiamen University is recognized as the pioneer of China’s advertising
education. In 1983, the first advertising major in China was created there.
XU established a basic model for China’s advertising education, and trained
many ad educators for other Universities or Institutes. Some textbooks, edited or co-edited by the faculty of XU, were widely used in China, including
The 21th century advertising series and Advertising textbooks series of Tenth
Five-year plan, supported by China's Ministry of Education.
In 1994, XU began graduate degree specializations under the journalism major, including Journalism, Radio and TV Journalism, and Advertising specialty. In 2002, the graduate degree discipline of Communication
was founded, including Communication, Advertising, and Public Relations
specialties. In 2006, the doctorate discipline of Communication was set up,
and it now includes advertising specialties.
In 2008, the advertising program at XU became the “Brand Major,”4
supported by China's Ministry of Education, with a purpose of training
high quality Account Executives who are familiar with advertising practice,
including advertising planning, brand planning, media planning, PR, creative, copywriting, production of commercial, design, advertising management, marketing research, and event marketing.
Communication University of China (CUC)
School of Advertising
http://ggxy.cuc.edu.cn/
Advertising education began in Communication University of China
(former Beijing Broadcasting Institute) in 1989, when its first undergraduate students majoring in advertising enrolled. This is the second accredited
advertising major in China.
4
A “Brand Major” in China means that it is recognized as an exemplary version of such
programs.
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In 1993, the first two postgraduate students majoring in advertising
in China were enrolled. 1n 1994, the Department of Advertising was
founded. This is the first advertising department in China. At the same
time, the first undergraduate students for a second degree in China were enrolled. In 2000, China’s first doctoral students in advertising enrolled.
The School of Advertising was founded in 2002: the first School to
create China’s first ad training system covering undergraduate education all
the way to doctoral programs. It now includes an Advertising Department,
a Art Design Department, a Public Relations Department, and a New Media and Advertising Department, with 6 research institutions and 3 laboratories.
In 1993, the faculty prepared the “Training Program for a Professional Certificate in Advertising,” edited textbooks, and produced the TV
training series Modern Advertising. From 1996, the Department of Advertising has edited and published IMI Consumer Behaviors and Lifestyle Patterns Yearbook, the IAI China Advertising Works Yearbook, the Accelerated
Growth of China’s Advertising Industry, and Media magazine. Since 2002,
the Department has been in charge of the annual “Research about the Ecological Environment of China’s Advertising Industry,” that was entrusted by
the Academic Committee of China Advertising Association.
In 2005, the School of Advertising became the organizer of Yong Creative Competition & Workshop Annual in China, supported by the One
Club. And in 2006, the “Introduction to Advertising” course, offered by
Professor Junjie Ding, was selected as a National Brand Course. In recent
years, students at the School of Advertising at CUC won nearly all of the
gold awards in student competitions, including Times Advertisement Golden Calf Prize, the One Show, and Academic Award of Advertising Festival
for Chinas’ Universities’ Students.
Wuhan University (WU)5
School of Journalism & Communication
http://journal.whu.edu.cn/
The Advertising program in Wuhan University was established in
1993. Through the years a relatively integrated system of advertising training has been created. In 1994, the first undergraduate advertising students
were enrolled, and in 1998 the first graduate students were added. Then, in
2002, doctoral students joined.
The number of undergraduate and graduate students is about the
same. Since its beginning, the advertising program at WU has trained more
5
This section contributed by Xi Yao.
106
than 1000 professionals for China’s advertising industry.
With continuous innovation and improvement, a unique and scientific professional approach was formed. The advertising teaching system at
Wuhan University was ranked the top in the Hubei province. The advertising major was selected as a “Brand Major” by the Education Commission of
the Hubei province. Also, “Advertising business” was selected as a National
Brand Course.6 The Luojia Advertising Series and Advertising series for the
21th century were published at WU.
Peking University (PU)
School of Journalism and Communication
http://sjc.pku.edu.cn/English.aspx
PU’s advertising program was founded in 1993, in the Department of
Arts, as a major. In 1999, the Institute of Modern Advertising was founded.
This institute is aimed at promoting communication and cooperation
through various forms of research and communication activities. And on
May 28th, 2001, became part of the School of Journalism and Communication, as an independent department.
During the intervening years, the PU program gradually formed its
approach, combining theory and practice, while focused on the leading edge
of advertising industry and training highly qualified professionals. The
purpose of the bachelor’s degree is to train students with systematic
knowledge and skills of advertising and broad cultural and science
knowledge, while making them familiar with the related law and regulations
in China, and prepared for work in Journalism, Publication, Film and TV,
Advertising and Cultural Industry, and so on. Degree programs include the
BA in Advertising, MA in Advertising, and Advertising Ph.D. in Communication.
Renmin University of China (RUC)
School of Journalism and Communication
http://jcr.ruc.edu.cn/
Advertising as a major was founded in 1996. Advertising design and
production, especially the computer-assisted advertisement design and advertising photography, are the focuses.
The undergraduate curriculum in advertising is composed of foundation courses and specialty courses. In addition, a range of selective courses
are offered by other teaching and research sections of the School of Business
and School of Economics at Renmin University of China.
6
This indicates the course was one of China’s best such courses.
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For undergraduate students, a whole semester in the first half of their
fourth year is scheduled for a formal internship in advertising companies or
advertising departments of media outlets. For the two-year term postgraduate students, three months is scheduled for an internship. They are all
encouraged to do hands-on practices in their spare time during the semester
period, or in summer, either on- or off-campus. Most graduates of this major are working at different positions of advertising companies or ad departments in media companies.
In September 2009, the Department of Advertising and Media Economics was founded. The advertising major is one of the two majors of this
department.
Tsinghua University (TU)
Academy of Arts & Design
http://ad.tsinghua.edu.cn/qhmy/index.jsp
The Advertising Design major was the former Art Design major that
was one of the earlier majors of The Central Academy of Arts & Design
(Now Academy of Arts & Design of Tsinghua University). Now it belongs
to Department of Visual Communication. The courses related to advertising include advertising strategy, advertising planning and design, brand design, and sales design. This program’s emphasis is on integrating theory
with practice, so it focuses on case studies and skills training. The purpose is
to teach the combined talents of creative thinking, sound professionalism,
broad theoretical attainment, and rich design experiences.
The Academy of Arts & Design of TU grants both Master’s and
Doctoral degrees in Design and Theory of Arts, along with a post-doctoral
specialty in Theory of Art. Faculty and students have attained remarkable
achievements in major art design activities, both at home and abroad and
successfully completed many national and international major art design
projects. They have won many domestic and international awards.
Fudan University (FU)
School of Journalism
http://www.xwxy.fudan.edu.cn/index/node_101.htm
Advertising education arrived at FU in 1994. The purpose was to
train advanced professionals in marketing communication planning and
management. Students should be familiar with the history, current situation, and the trends of the advertising industry in China and the world,
have total marketing communication planning knowledge and ability,
proper knowledge structure and practice skills, foreign language, and art design ability.
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The “marketing communication” orientation embodied three teaching parts, including the basic knowledge of economics, knowledge of communications, and knowledge of advertising. In addition, two internship opportunities are available for all undergraduate students.
In 2004, the Department of Advertising began offering a Master’s
degree in advertising. In 2005, it expanded to offer a doctorate in mass
communication with an advertising specialty.
Jinan University (JU)
College of Journalism and Communication
http://xwxy.jnu.edu.cn/
The history of advertising education can be traced back to 1984 when
JU took the lead to organize an “Advertising practitioner training class” in
Guangdong province. More than 40 students attended.
In 1994, an advertising major was officially founded. Since then, the
system has expanded to cover the undergraduate, graduate, and doctorate
disciplines with an advertising specialty, a PR specialty, and a marketing
communication specialty. This is currently one of the most important sites
for teaching and research in advertising in Southern China.
The advertising major trains high quality professionals in advertising
planning, design, and production, with training in business and management. Students are prepared for comprehensive advertising agencies, marketing departments of power companies, the organizations of Administration of Industry and Commerce, and the advertising departments of media.
There is also a “Brand and Strategic Communication Institute” related to
advertising in the College of Journalism and Communication at JU.
Zhejiang University (ZU)7
College of Media and International Cultural
http://www.cmic.zju.edu.cn/index.php
An advertising major was created at ZU in 1993, and it began to enroll undergraduate students the next year. In 1999, ZU started enrolling
graduates in its advertising specialty in the discipline of communication.
Since then, ZU has trained more than 600 undergraduate and more than
100 graduate students in advertising.
The program’s innovative model of education guarantees both quality
and quantity of students. It trains students with cultural ability, creative
ability, and communication ability. Therefore, unique skills and strategic
thinking are given as much attention as possible. This innovative model fo7
This section contributed by Xiaoyun Hu.
109
cuses on skill training. It includes a tutor system, forming program and research teams for undergraduate students, interacting with advertising magazines, and so on.
Shenzhen University
College of Mass Communication
http://cmc.szu.edu.cn/Article/
In 1990, the Mass Communication Department of Shenzhen University started enrolling four-year undergraduate students in an advertising major. That major now belongs to the Advertising Department of the College
of Mass Communication. It enrolls undergraduate students majoring in advertising and advertising design and graduate students majoring in communication.
The mission is to cultivate professional talents in the fields of Advertising Strategies and Advertising Design. Students learn IMC, the theory
and practice of advertising planning and creative, have marketing research,
data analysis, creative and design, copywriting and so on. Those basic
courses enable students to work in the field of advertising management,
marketing, advertising regulation, advertising planning and design, and other related fields.
Research projects focus mainly on brand and advertising concerns directly related to the key issues of China's advertising industry, as well as to
its social and cultural development. In recent years, the Department of Advertising has presented several comprehensive regional studies.
Shanghai University (SU)
School of Film and TV Arts & Technology
http://www.suftv.shu.edu.cn/
The advertising major was founded at SU in May 1993. It was the
first advertising major in Shanghai. As of this writing, the department of
Advertising has 580 undergraduate students, 45 graduate students, and two
doctoral students. The department also cooperates with The World Federation of Advertisers, along with teacher and student exchange programs with
University of Oklahoma, University of Tennessee, and University of Missouri, every year.
Some institutes are related to advertising research, including “China
brand Institute, Shanghai Advertising Database Center and Academic Information Center.” The students of the Department of Advertising won
gold awards in a variety of competitions such as the One Show and the
“Academy award” of the Advertising Festival for China’s University students.
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Shanghai Normal University
College of Humanities and Communications
http://renwen.shnu.edu.cn/
Advertising education has more than ten years’ history in Shanghai
Normal University. The Department of Advertising includes an advertising
and photography major with advertising creative and planning, event planning and multimedia design specialties. Shanghai Normal University was
also the first to establish a specialty called event planning in Mainland China. More than 400 undergraduate and graduate students are now in the
Department of Advertising.
The purpose of advertising education here is to provide high quality
professionals in advertising planning, design and production, business and
management for comprehensive advertising agencies, marketing departments of power companies, the organizations of Administration of Industry
and Commerce, advertising departments of media.
Though long-term development, the progressive teaching model that
includes innovation, creative and business starting-up and skill training
platforms were gradually formed. This Department facilitates the interaction between teaching and market and society. In recent years, the number
of student competition winners ranks No. 1 among Shanghai’s Universities.
The department also has the Research Center of China’s New Advertisements
and China Creative Industry Institute.
Beijing Technology and Business University (BTBU)8
School of Communication and Art
http://yc.btbu.edu.cn/
Advertising courses began at the Beijing Technology and Business
University (former Beijing Business Institute) in the early 1980s. In 1993,
the first undergraduate students were enrolled in an advertising degree program. In June 1998, a Department of Advertising was established, with a
marketing orientation that focused on advertising business and brand communication. Today this department includes two specialties: the advertising
planning and business management specialty, and the advertising design
specialty. The advertising major at BTBU was selected as a “Brand Major”
by the Beijing Municipal Education Commission.
8
This section was contributed by Xiang Zhang.
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Najing University of Finance and Economics (NUFE)
College of Marketing and Logistics Management
http://yxwl.njue.edu.cn/
The advertising major of NUFE was founded in 1993. It is the first
junior college ad major in Jiangsu province. In 1999, the major began enrolling undergraduate advertising majors from the entire country. Since that
time, nearly 500 vocational college students and 600 undergraduate students have trained there. It currently has 290 undergraduate students.
In 1999, the advertising program of NUFE started training professionals especially for the Jiangsu Advertising Association. In 2004, a graduate degree majoring in marketing and advertising planning was added.
Vocational Education
Besides formal, full-time programs in Universities and Colleges, there
also are vocational education programs in China. The most influential programs are Correspondence and Online advertising education.
Correspondence Advertising Education
In 1985, Changchun Radio & TV University took the lead to enroll
Correspondence students majoring in advertising. It offers a 3 year vocational junior college level education.
On February 22, 1986, the China Advertising Correspondence College, founded by the CAA, held its opening ceremony. Forty-one hundred
students were enrolled. The mission of this college was to train professionals
in advertising account management, creative, design, and production fields
which were urgently needed by advertising industry. The length of study
was 3 years. The curriculum included 17 courses. Students regularly received textbooks and guidance materials. In some places, guiding sections
adopt face-to-face teaching or audio-visual teaching methods.
In August 1989, the first students finished their study and received a
diploma or certificate. In the following years, some universities with advertising majors also began offering correspondence advertising education.
Online advertising education
In July 2000, China's Ministry of Education issued a document aiming at supporting some Universities in starting modern long distance education via the Internet. This document gave the Universities greater autonomy
in operation. China’s online education witnessed rapid growth as a result.
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The next year, CUC took the lead to enroll undergraduate students
with a vocational college diploma. Online education involved a point system, where the length of study could be adapted to the students’ schedules.
Students could select courses, self-study textbooks and multimedia
courseware and online resources, according to their ability and schedule.
Today, the online advertising education of Communication University of China includes vocational college education and undergraduate education. More than 300 students are enrolled every year. The length of study
ranges from 2.5 years to 7 years.
The courses include introduction to advertising, advertising design,
advertising psychology, advertising planning, advertising shutting, advertising media, advertising regulation and law, copywriting, and so on.
So far as is known to this author, Peking University also is enrolling
undergraduate advertising students for a vocational diploma. The length of
study is from 2 to 2.5 years.
Outstanding Alumni
Guoying Feng
Xiamen University: (1989)
Chairman and founder of TEAM, a brand management agency. She also is the adjunct supervisor of advertising major graduate students for Xiamen University.
TEAM was selected as one of the top 10 planning organizations and one of the top
30 local advertising agencies in comprehensive strength.
Lucy Lv
Xiamen University: (1992)
Chairman of CC& E. Her agency has served Nice Group for 15 years, helped Nice
brand to become a well-known brand in China, and helped Huawei and TCL to
build brands in the international market. This agency continues to hold a top-10 position in China, according to Campaign Brief, for the past 6 years.
Hongbo Xia
Xiamen University: (1999)
Vice president of advertising business for Phoenix Satellite Television Holdings Limited. He was the director of Advertising Department of China Central Television
(CCTV) from 2005 to 2009. During this period, he changed the CCTV bidding
model, which lead to continuous growth in ad revenue for CCTV.
Yi Wang
Communication University of China: (1993)
Managing Director of Leo Burnett Beijing. He established W&K Communications
in 2002, and worked as its Managing Director until 2008, when W&K Communications joined Leo Burnett. He provided many valuable communication services to
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numerous clients, including Yili, Mengniu, Parmalat, PICC, Sinopec, Yutong Bus,
etc.
Jason Zhao
Communication University of China: (1993)
Chief Operating Officer and Executive Creative Director for Cheil Worldwide
Greater China. He worked for Saatchi & Saatchi, BBDO, Lowe, D’Arcy, and Publicis. The clients that he served include Coca-Cola, P&G, HP, Microsoft, Mars, Bank
of China, China Mobile, etc.
Wensheng Luan
Communication University of China: (1996)
Brand management director of Mengniu Dairy Group. He successfully planned and
executed the “Everyday 0.5 Kilo milk, make Chinese stronger” public service campaign and Olympic marketing campaigns for Mengniu Dairy Group. His “Go to
Beijing in 2008” dome design received the gold award in outdoor media section in
38th The Mobius Advertising Awards.
Quan Fan
Wuhan University: (1998)
Media planning director of GDAD, the biggest local advertising agency in China.
The successful campaigns that she did include the creative media planning of the 5th
Season beverage, the launch of the Accord car of Guangzhou Automobile in China’s
market, and the launch of Swellfun liquor.
Yong Xiao
Wuhan University: (1998)
Vice director of the advertising business center for Guizhou News Daily Group and
standing director of Guizhou Advertising Association. He has been involved with
newspapers for 12 years, did much to promote changing the business model, and
planned and established “Ranking list of the city cars,” that has become one of the
most influential promotion platforms in Guizhou Province.
Xuhua Sun
Wuhan University: (2003)
Director of Fengshang Week of Nanfang Daily. He is in charge of advertising, marketing, and publishing. Before March 2010, he was the manager of sales teams and engaged in the business of automobile and real estate advertising for the newspaper. He
received many awards from Nanfang Daily.
Lingbing Yu
Zhejiang University: (1998)
Director of the marketing department of alibaba.com. He has been involved in many
businesses, including household electrical appliances, apparel, communication, and
E-business. In 2009, his campaign called “Alibaba-Chengxintong Partner Plan” received “China Marketing innovation award.”
Jianfeng Le
Zhejiang University: (2000)
He worked in the creative department of several 4A and famous local advertising
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agencies, including Ogilvy China and Saatchi & Saatchi Great Wall. He received
many awards, including a gold award in the Asia-Pacific Advertising Festival. He also
was an adjunct lecturer at the Zhuhai Branch of the School of Beijing Normal University, and wrote a book called, Copywriting: The Power of Words.
Zeyi Weng
Zhejiang University: (2008)
Copywriter in Dentsu-Top. He holds both Bachelor’s and Master’s Degrees from
ZU. In 2009, he was one of the 10 winners of Longxi Chinese Advertising Competition.
Jing Jing
Beijing Technology and Business University: (1997)
Executive editor of BAZAAR Jewelry. She did account service work in the Beijing Advertising Agency prior to establishing her own advertising agency. She also was planning director of Harper’s BAZAAR (Chinese edition) of Trends Group.
Xiaolong Lu
Beijing Technology and Business University: (1998)
Executive director of IMNEXT advertising agency. He was creative director of
Charm Communications Inc. Over ten years he helped this agency to become one of
the biggest private advertising groups and the earliest local agency to win the gold
award in Asia-Pacific Festival. In 2008, he established IMNEXT.
Zhi Zhao
Beijing Technology and Business University: (1998)
He is running a communication group named HIZONE. His awards include the
copper award of China EFFIES, and he served many well known clients. HIZONE
is member of China AAAA and has branches in Chengdu, Fuzhou, and Hangzhou.
Jing Li
Jilin University: (1998)
Founder and vice executive director of a cultural communication firm, People’s Posts
and Telecommunications News (PPTN). She did services of corporate culture building, corporate image and brand communication for some Tele-communication companies.
Shizhou Li
Jilin University: (2003)
Executive of the client service team for the Advertising department of China Central
Television. She worked on the communication team and promotion team in the department and planned dozens of forums.
Student Opinion Study
Even though it has been more than 20 years since the first advertising
education program was founded in Xiamen University, there are few surveys
115
of student opinion. Notable is a survey conducted by Professor Shuting
Zhang, from the Department of Advertising of Beijing Broadcasting Institute in 2003.
The questionnaire targeted graduate alumni majoring in advertising
and advertising design working in advertising and related fields. Eleven
Universities, including Xiamen University and Beijing Broadcasting Institute, participated in this survey. The questions covered basic information
about these alumni, their perception of the advertising major before going
to study advertising, their study processes in Universities, the essential qualities for a job, the manner of learning after graduation, and the opinions of
advertising education in Universities.
After analyzing the 122 questionnaires, researchers concluded that regarding the motivation to study advertising, 83.5% respondents expressed
advertising was an interesting major, and 58.2% said advertising work is
challenging. Other reasons included loving advertising and being interested
in it (35%), and excellent advertisements (26.3%). Meanwhile, art-related
courses (38%), advertising planning (29.8%), advertising research (28.1%),
and marketing (26.4%) ranked as the most useful courses to these alums.
They also suggested the university should provide more courses related to
marketing, media, and advertising psychology.
Besides school education, respondents thought the most useful way to
learn advertising is to read professional magazines and books, view and analyze award-winning advertisements, and work in the field. Most graduate
alumni thought advertising education was behind professional practice and
advertising programs should interact with industry more.
Courses, Programs, Students,
Faculty and Student Competitions
There have been few in-depth investigations of national advertising
education over the past 20 years. In September 1996, the Academic Committee of CAA did the first national study. The questionnaire covered basic
information about each program, its faculty, students, courses and textbooks. After analyzing 30 valid questionnaires, Analysis on the current situation of advertising education in 30 Universities and suggestions was published.
In 2003, Shuting Zhang from CUC conducted a survey of departments of journalism and communication (sample size was 144), along with
10 art departments of different universities and colleges. The questionnaire
covered the basic information of advertising programs, faculty, and so on.
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In the end, 111 valid questionnaires were collected.
In 2006, the Academic and Training section of CAA, Modern Advertising magazine, and one School of Journalism and Communication conducted a sample survey. Based on this survey, Report of the Current Situation
of China’s Higher Education of Advertising was published. In 2007, Yinhe
Cui from East China Normal University wrote Report on Current Situation
of the Development of Higher Education of Advertising and Programs. This
survey covered 208 Universities and Institutes which have advertising programs. In 2008, Heshui Huang and his students from Xiamen University
conducted a national survey of advertising education among 322 Universities and Institutes.
Courses
The 1996 study revealed that the curricula of most advertising programs focused on skills training. The common core courses were Introduction of Advertising, Copywriting, Basic Design, Advertising Production and
Outdoor Advertising. In addition, Advertising Photography, Print Advertisement, TV Advertisement and Advertising Planning were offered. However, there were few courses related to theories such as Psychology, Communication, and Sociology, with the exception of Marketing. There were
also no appropriate textbooks.
From Professor Zhang’s survey in 2003, the common curriculum
model was “basic courses plus core major courses and selected major courses” or “core major courses and selected major courses.” The major courses
include Introduction of Advertising, Advertising Planning, Copywriting,
Advertising Psychology, Advertising Media, The History of Advertising,
Advertising Management, Advertising Law and Regulation, Advertising Expression and Production, Case Studies, Advertising and Culture, Advertising Industry, Advertising Design, Training of Creative Thinking, Communication, Statistics, Branding, Economics, Sociology, Public Relations,
Marketing, Consumer Behavior, Advertising English, Photography and
filming, TV Editing, Multimedia Design, and so on.
The 2006 survey found that some Universities and Institutes offered
Communication, Advertising Business and Management, Brand Planning
and Management, Public Relations, Strategic Branding, Integrated Marketing Communication, New Media, and other advanced courses.
In 2007, Professor Cui’s survey indicated that Introduction of Advertising, Copywriting, Marketing, Advertising Planning and Creative, and
Advertising Media had been offered by the Universities and Institutes participating in this survey. Eighty-six percent of advertising programs provided Advertising Law and Professional Ethics, Marketing Research, the Histo-
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ry of Advertising, and Public Relations. Fifty-seven percent of advertising
programs offered an Advertising Psychology class.
In 2008, Professor Huang’s survey found that more than half of 322
Universities and Institutes were offering Print Design, Advertising Planning, Introduction of Advertising, Communication, Advertising Creative,
Advertising Media, Marketing, Advertising Management, Marketing Research, History of Advertising, Copywriting, Advertising Psychology, and
Basic Advertising Design. In the curricula of most advertising programs,
professional skill training courses were prominent.
Programs
The 1996 survey found 49 advertising programs that enroll undergraduates majoring in advertising. More than half of these programs were
founded in 1993 and 1994. Most advertising programs were established in
colleges or departments of liberal arts, while 44.8% of them belonged to
colleges or departments of journalism. Business schools, Radio and TV
schoosl of Universities, and art institutes, normal institutes, print institutes,
even institutes for nationalities were also eager to establish advertising programs. These programs tended to be located in Beijing, Shanghai, and economically developed cities.
The survey in 2003 found that 71.2% of advertising programs belonged to provincial governments and 22.5% belonged to China's Ministry
of Education. In addition, there were two independent colleges that were
run by Universities belonging to China's Ministry of Education and private
capital. There was also a private University that can enroll undergraduate
students. Among these advertising programs, 38.2% belonged to colleges or
departments of journalism and communication, 24.5% to departments of
Chinese language and literature, 15.5% to departments of art design and
8.2% to departments of business management.
The survey in 2006 indicated that about half of advertising programs
were established during the period from 2000 to 2004. After 2005, the development of advertising education was sustainable and stable. Forty-four
percent of advertising programs belonged to colleges or departments of
journalism and communication, and 24% to colleges or departments of art
design.
The survey in 2007 found that 59 advertising programs located in
colleges of journalism and communication of Universities and Institutes, 47
in art colleges, 23 in colleges of Chinese language and literature, 44 in colleges of humanity or cultural communication, 3 in colleges of management,
and 3 in colleges of business. The remaining 29 programs resided in other
colleges. There were 61 departments of advertising, 145 majors of advertis-
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ing, and 2 colleges of advertising at that time.
The 2008 study found 234 undergraduate advertising programs and
88 vocational college programs. Among the total 322 advertising programs,
39 were located in private Universities, while 35 were located in independent colleges running by government and private capital.
Students
The 1996 survey discovered 2216 students majoring in advertising in
Universities or Institutes. Most of those students were male. In the 2003
survey, 50.5% of advertising programs had 101-250 undergraduate students
majoring in advertising, while 6.9% had more than 400 students; 13% of
advertising programs had vocational college students and 22.9% had graduate students majoring in advertising. There were 3 doctoral advertising programs. In 2006, the average number of University and Institute students
majoring in advertising was 226, growing at 11.8% per year.
Faculty
In the survey of 1996, half of the advertising programs had 6-10 full
time teachers and 28.6% had no more than 5 teachers. Fully 69.8% of
teachers were male. The average age of teachers was 37.3 years, 68.5% had
Bachelor’s degrees as a final degree, 25.9% graduated with majors in Chinese language and literature, 23.2% graduated from art design, while only
10.3% graduated with advertising majors.
In the 2003 survey, the percentage of male teachers was 56.7%. Their
average age was 35 years, 37% held Master’s degrees,10.3% had a Ph.D. as
their final degree, 29.5% graduated with degrees in art design, 24.9% in
Chinese language and literature, and only 6.5% of teachers graduated from
economics or management. Sixty-sevenpercent of advertising programs had
adjunct teachers. The average number of adjuncts was 4.8, about same as
full-time teachers.
In 2006, the average number of teachers was 11. Among these teachers, 38% were 20-29 years old, 41% had Master’s degrees, and 9.8% had a
Ph.D. In the 2007 study, the lack of teachers remained a problem. Among
208 Universities and Institutes, only 63 teachers were professors with “advertising” in their title. More than 60% of advertising programs had no
“professor.”
In 2008, the percentage of male teachers was 56.17%. The average
age of teachers was 37, while 48% had Master’s degree and 10.93% had a
Ph.D. Of those, 32.8% of teachers graduated from art design programs,
24.6% from Chinese language and literature, and 21.6% graduated from
journalism and communication (includes 13.6% of teachers graduated from
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advertising majors).
Student Competitions
The most famous awards are the “Times Advertisement Golden Calf
Prize,” the “Academic Award of Advertising Festival for Chinas’ Universities’ Students,” the “Advertising Competition for Chinas’ Universities’ Students,” and the “One Show China Young Creative Competition & Workshop.” Each is discussed below.
Times Advertisement Golden Calf Prize
This prize was established in 1992, targeting Chinese students majoring in advertising all over the world. In 2001, the competition expanded to
Mainland China, and Award Ceremonies were held in Taiwan and Mainland China simultaneously. In the following years, the type of competition
and the range of participants gradually expanded. In addition, the First Advertising Education Forum of Both Sides of the Straits was held anda scholarship was funded.
Academic Award of Advertising Festival
for China’s University Students
This award, established by CAA in 1999, aimed at college students
and professionals with no more than three-years’ work experience. This festival is held every two years. The competition involves a creative campaign
for China’s most famous companies. This competition has covered more
than 500 Universities and Institutes, involving 270,000 students. In 2007,
Adman magazine began hosting this festival.
Advertising Competition for China’s University Students
This competition was established by the Department of Higher Education of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China in
May 2005, targeting all students in higher education programs. This festival
is held every two years. The competition includes print, TV, radio, Internet
advertisements, and advertising planning.
One Show China Young Creative Competition & Workshop
The ONE CLUB was founded in 1975. In 2001, ONE CLUB started to hold an advertising forum and One Show Young Creative Competition
& Workshop in China. In September 2005, ONE CLUB set up a branch in
China and established One Show China Young Creative Competition &
Workshop. China’s partner is Communication University of China.
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Concluding Comments
China’s advertising education began in the early 1920’s as a single
course in the departments of journalism of some Universities or Colleges.
From the late 1960s to 1978, for about ten years, advertising education
stagnated. After executing the policy of reform, opening to the world, along
with the recovery of China’s advertising industry, independent advertising
programs were founded and began to enroll undergraduate students.
From about 1992, advertising education in China grew rapidly. At
that time an advertising system that covered vocational, bachelor’s degree,
second bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, and doctoral degree levels was
formed. The system also included programs run by government and private
capital, and encompassed professional and vocational programs.
Today there are three different models of advertising education. One
model is represented by Xiamen University, where the advertising program
is centered in journalism and communication. A second model is represented by Communication University of China, which uses a combination
of journalism and communication, business management, and art design.
The third model is represented by Academy of Arts & Design of Tsinghua
University, which involves only advertising design.
The government is the dominant factor affecting advertising education in China. The development of advertising education is also tightly related to the development of the advertising industry, and with education in
journalism and communication. The advertising specialty is still a thirdlevel specialty under the Journalism and Communication disciplines.
Associations related to advertising played, and continue to play, an essential role in the field’s development. With the evolution of China’s socialist market economy system, more and more business and management
courses are being offered in advertising programs. With the rapid growth of
China’s economy, China’s advertising education will become an important
part of the world’s advertising education system.
References
Chen, G (2010). The contemporary history of China’s advertising: 1979-1991. Peking University Press.
China Advertising Association (1989). China Advertising Yearbook 1988. Xinhua Publishing
House.
China Advertising Association (1992). China Advertising Yearbook 1989-1991. Xinhua Publishing House.
121
China Advertising Association (1999). China Advertising Yearbook 1998. Xinhua Publishing
House.
China Advertising Association (2009). Big events of China’s Advertising Industry in the past
years. China Industrial and Commercial Press.
Cui, Y, H (2007). Report on Current Situation of the Development of Higher Education of
Advertising and Programs. Modern Advertising, 2007 (6).
Ding, Y, P (1979). Restoring Reputation for Advertising. Wen Hui Bao, January 12, 1979.
Huang, H, S (2008). Report on the Current Situation of Advertising Education. Advertising
Research, 2006 (6).
International Advertising Magazine, School of Advertising of Beijing Broadcasting Institute,
and International Advertising Institute (2004). Accelerated Growth of China’s Advertising
Industry: 1979-2003. Huaxia Publishing House.
Journalism Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (1984). China Journalism Yearbook 1984. People Daily Press.
Journalism Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (1985). China Journalism Yearbook 1985. People Daily Press.
Long, W., Ren, Y, Z., Wang, X, A., He, L. and Wu, H (2010). Selected works of the history of
journalism education in the period of the Republic of China. Peking University Press.
Modern Advertising magazine, School of Journalism and Communication of Renmin University of China (2007). Report of the Current Situation of China’s Higher Education
of Advertising. Modern Advertising, 2007 (1).
Shuting Zhang (2005). Advertising Education and Brand Position. Communication University of China Press.
The Advertising Specialty Education Committee of Chinese Association of Higher Education (2009). Newsletter of ASEC. December 6, 2009.
The editor board of China Radio and TV yearbook (2009). China Radio and TV yearbook
2009. China Radio and TV yearbook publisher.
The introduction of China Advertising Association. http://xh.cnadtop.com/about/about.html#.
The introduction of China Advertising Association of Commerce.
http://baike.baidu.com/view/1575369.htm?fr=ala0_1.
The introduction of Times advertisement golden calf prize. http://www.adyoung.com/about.asp#.
The introduction of Advertising Competition for China’s Universities’ Students.
http://www.sun-ada.net/html/history_file.html.
The introduction of ONE CLUB. http://www.oneshow.com.cn/.
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Advertising Education in India
Mukesh Bhargava
Oakland University, USA
Alan D’Souza
Mudra Institute of Communication Research, India
Introduction
Advertising education in India faces multiple contradictory demands
on the curriculum and skill development. Some of the issues include resolving the balance between managing communication budgets, as a part of a
global network, versus creating “local” brand identities and communications; reaching existing markets in urban areas, versus learning/experimenting with creating new markets in rural areas; managing
commercial versus social communication programs, and working with data/facts, versus dealing softer issues (Bijapurkar 2007; Singhal and Rogers
2001; Prahalad 2010).
Advertising education in India has its foundation in mass communication, with most of the development taking place in the post-independence
(1947) era. India has been the site for a number of ambitious mass communication experiments. Among these was the use of television programs
to rural villages via satellite, diffusion of innovation of high yielding varieties of corn, and ongoing campaigns on family planning (Chander and Karnik 1976; Rogers 2003). Government sponsored media, such as the All India Radio and Doordarshan9 (television), have over 90 percent reach and are
among the largest global broadcasting networks.
While the “social” function of mass communication has a long history, the “commercial” or “advertising” function of mass communication has
gained momentum in the last two decades. Advertising expenditures in India have increased from $138 million in the mid-1980’s to an estimated
$5.1 billion by 2010 (Leff and Farley 1980; Balsara and Agnihotri 2010).
The opening of the economy to global competition led to a number of multinational brands competing with local companies in the Indian market
place. The size of the market, coupled with strong economic growth, has
led to double-digit growth in most industries (Indian Brand Equity Foundation 2010). The result has been a rapid and profound change in the prac9
Doordarshan is the public television broadcaster, by the Government of India.
123
tice of advertising in India. Advertising education has witnessed a similar
growth in demand for skilled personnel.
Surprisingly, there is a paucity of research on the advertising education sector in India. Given the rapid expansion of the number of programs
in recent years, this is an important gap that this chapter begins to address.
We first provide a brief review of the advertising market, along with some of
the recent changes that provide the drivers to growth. This is followed by a
description of a advertising programs and a critique of various facets of the
programs. The chapter ends with recommendations about emerging issues
of advertising education.
Brief History of Advertising in India
The history of modern advertising in India can be traced to the creation of B. Dattaram and Co., the first advertising agency of Indian origin,
in 1905. Today, it remains the oldest functioning Indian advertising agency. Subsequently, the 1900’s saw the creation of more advertising agencies,
both national and foreign. Initially, most of the advertising agencies, such
as Lintas, J Walter Thompson, and McCann Ericsson, were founded to service multinational brands such as Levers, General Motors, Coke, etc. Many
of these were headed by expatriates who recruited Indians and taught them
the skills of the trade. Thus advertising education, in that sense, already began pre-independence through “on the job learning” (Chaudhri 2007).
At that time most advertising agencies were not full-service agencies,
but merely brokers for advertising space. In 1934, Bobby Sista, one of the
well-known names in Indian advertising, set up his own full-service Indian
advertising agency, called Sistas Advertising and Publicity services. Later,
many advertising professionals broke away from the foreign advertising
agencies they were working with to set up ad agencies of their own. Notable among them were Chaitra, Ulka and Trikaya Advertising. The coming
of age of Indian advertising was formalized by the creation of the Advertising Club, Mumbai, by some of the well-known professionals in advertising,
media and marketing organizations in 1954.
The 1960’s saw an upsurge of creativity, inspired by the transformation of advertising at the international level, into a more modern and scientific approach. Al Reis and Jack Trout brought in new concepts, such as
positioning, as opposed to the Unique Selling Proposition (USP), which led
to a completely new approach to building brands. ITC’s launch of the
“Made for Each Other” campaign for Wills cigarette in 1963, Lifebuoy’s
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memorable “Tandurusti ki Raksha” campaign in 1964, and Amul’s “Utterly, Butterly Delicious” campaign for Amul butter (Figure 10-1) are notable
milestones during that era and have continued to this day.
Figure 10-1: Recent Amul outdoor advertisement
(Originally posted to Flickr as Butter Nano! Mumbai, India.JPG)
The 1970’s saw a further boost in advertising with the availability of
advertising research. Until then, research played a minimal role in the advertising process. For example, the data on consumer reading habits were
available for the first time through National Readership surveys. This
helped in the media planning process. Further excitement spread through
the industry when the first television commercial hit the screen in 1978.
However, it was in the 1980’s that, coinciding with the Asian Games,
Doordarshan introduced color transmission, and Bombay Dyeing became
the first color television commercial.
The 1990’s were marked by a media explosion. Cable and satellite
television grew, print media became niche, and the Internet explosion began
in India. The economy was deregulated and led to the entry of many multinational organizations competing with domestic brands. With the relaxation of foreign ownership, domestic agencies were taken over by global
partners like Chaitra Advertising (now Leo-Burnett), Ulka Advertising (now
FCB-Ulka) and Trikaya Advertising (now Grey Advertising). Today, the
125
top 20 agencies are either a part of or have strategic global partnerships
(Patwardhan, Patwardhan and Vadavada-Oza 2009).
In addition to the commercial advertising agencies, the Directorate of
Advertising & Visual Publicity (DAVP) is the model agency to undertake
multi-media advertising and publicity for various ministries and departments of the Government of India for over six decades. As a service agency,
it communicates at grass roots levels on behalf of various central government ministries. Some of DAVP’s advertising and publicity are campaigns
on rural development programs, health and family welfare, AIDS awareness,
road safety and energy conservation among others.
The demands on advertising have increased considerably, with stakes
in building brands becoming higher, thanks to increasing competition,
globalization, proliferation of media channels etc. Spending on advertising
has also increased and stands at around $5,100 million today. While this
may be small in comparison to other markets, it is one of the fastest growing advertising regions in the world. The demand for good advertising professionals in every area, therefore, is increasing, be it account planning, creative, or media. Coupled with the changes in the advertising market, numerous challenges shape the skills that professionals need to operate in this
environment.
Changes in the Advertising Market
The Indian marketplace presents several unique challenges that make
advertising decisions complex. The sheer size of the market (with an estimated population of over 1 billion) and over 22 official languages lead to an
increasingly heterogeneous marketplace (Statistical Pocket Book of India
2008). The development of rural and urban markets, and the interplay of a
variety of media ranging from organized media such as newspapers to video
vans, wall posters, point-of-purchase materials, etc. (Figure 10-2), are facets
that advertisers have to deal with on an ongoing basis (Bhatia 2007;
Kashyap and Raut 2007).
One of the major drivers of advertising is the size and growth of the
Indian market. India’s retail market, the fifth largest globally, has been
ranked as the most attractive emerging market by AT Kearny. The passenger car segment is expected to grow from 1.89 million units to 3.75 million
units by 2014. Fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) are poised to grow
by 10-12 percent over the next decade, to reach $74 billion by 2018 (India
Brand Equity Foundation 2010). All of these industries require active ad-
126
vertising support, both by multinationals entering the market as well as existing domestic brands.
Figure 10-2: Street view of outdoor and wall posters
While past advertising support simply meant changes in the language
of the advertising, the emerging competition requires applying knowledge
and skills to the current market conditions. Many of the local brands (such
as Nirma and Rasna) have successfully competed with the multinational
brands. Other local brands that were largely regional have adopted new
packaging, advertising, and retail support to become successful national
brands (e.g., Pan Parag, Lijjat Papads etc.), an issue of strategic importance
globally (Kumar 2003; Eckhardt 2005).
Companies like Nestle and GlaxoSmithkline Consumer Healthcare
(GSK) are taking a different route and launching products specifically for
rural markets. GSK (maker of Horlicks), for instance, launched Asha, a
low-cost variant (40 per cent cheaper than Horlicks) for rural markets only.
Nestle recently launched Rupee 2 and Rupee 4 products (approximately 5
cents and 10 cents) -- Maggi Masala-ae-Magic and Maggi Rasile Chow
products, which will be first marketed in areas with low purchasing power.
Finally, there has been a dramatic shift in media use with budgets
moving from print (40%) to television (46%) (Balsara & Agnihotri 2010).
Traditional print media have dominated the industry. Given the diversity
of the country in terms of the number of states and regional languages and
dialects, India has a proliferation of newspapers and magazines that serve
different parts of the country. It is estimated there are 635 daily and 9364
127
other periodicity English newspapers, along with 7453 daily and 61, 870
other periodicity Indian language newspapers (Statistical Pocket Book of India 2008). The penetration of print in India in the urban areas is 42.6%
and in rural areas 15.4%, as per the Indian Readership Survey (IRS). Indian
print media and advertising have come a long way. Although the first Indian advertising was primitive in nature, it gradually created a new breed of
advertising professionals, like artists, illustrators, copywriters, visualizers,
photographers, etc.
While the first television channel, Doordarshan, was Government
owned and run, it is only with the opening of the private satellite channels,
with Zee Telefilms being the first entrant, that television really took off.
Today, thanks to the opening of the skies and the technological advancements in this area, television reach of all India is estimated by the IRS as
46.3%, and satellite as 26.1%. This development requires skill in programming, content creation and business management.
All of these factors, combined, have led to the growth of the advertising business and the concomitant demand for people to manage the business. We now provide a review of the “supply side” of advertising education in the following sections.
Advertising Education in India
The University System
Education in India is governed by the Ministry of Human Resource
Development, Government of India. This is the policy-making body which
has set up several Institutions, such as The Central Board of Secondary Education, Council of Indian School Certificate Examination, University
Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council of Technical Education,
etc., to manage School, Graduate and Post Graduate Education in India.
There were 355 Universities and 18,064 colleges, with an enrollment of
11.02 million students (UGC 2005). Of these, 45.1% were enrolled in arts
program and 18.0% in commerce/management courses.
Advertising education in India so far has been seen as a subset of education in mass communication. Mass communication education in India is
defined as education in journalism, advertising, and public relations, the
prime focus being on journalism. Though journalism education had its beginnings in the early 1940’s, it was only in the 1960’s and 1970’s that several Indian universities began teaching journalism classes. In addition it was
during these two decades that course content, degree nomenclature, and
departmental reorganization of faculties in universities underwent drastic
128
changes. The global strides in curricula, changes in areas to be covered, and
practical needs of the national and mass media prompted the universities to
affect wide ranging changes in mass communication education.
In the first instance, several students who had gone to the U.K.,
U.S.A., and Canada for higher education in journalism, on their return to
India, suggested several curriculum revisions. Some American universities
also offered collaboration for the advancement of Journalism programs to
their Indian counterparts. Osmania University at Hyderabad and Nagpur
University are two good examples of such programs.
The rapid expansion of the media industry in India prompted the inclusion of advertising and public relations as an integral part of mass communication courses, both at the undergraduate and graduate level. The
concept of mass communication education was widened to include other
fields, and not only the study of journalism. Media and economics, politics,
sociology, management and administration began to be recognized as important areas of mass communication education.
This led to departments of journalism being renamed after the midseventies to Departments of Journalism and Mass Communication, Departments of Communication, and Departments of Journalism and Communication. This trend was started by Bangalore University and soon Osmania, Mysore, Banaras, and many others followed. Now more than 69
Universities and 98 other institutions teach this subject at the undergraduate and graduate levels (Table 10-1)10.
Apart from these institutions, in 2007 Outlook (a weekly magazine)
and CFore (a market research firm) conducted a survey to rank the top 10
mass communications institutes in India. To rank the colleges, the Outlook-C Fore researchers asked faculty and professionals to rank the Institutes
on a 10 point scale against 4 parameters: faculty, pedagogic systems, infrastructure, and placements. They then multiplied the average ratings by
weight in order to rank the top 10 mass communication institutes in India
(see Table 10-2).
These programs show a variety of support raging from government
sponsorship to those supported by advertising and media companies. The
best mass communication colleges are also spread over various cities in India.
10
There are multiple but conflicting directories of various mass communication programs
now available online. Unfortunately, these do not report the dates or source of the data. In
compiling this table, we consulted the National Network of Education (State directories);
Indiaedu and the websites of various universities.
129
1
R
R
R
28
R
5
2
1
R
R
R
1
4
2
2
18
3
R
R
R
2
R
1
5
R
R
4
9
2
98
R
R
R
R
R
Graduate
8
Undergraduate
7
1
3
1
3
1
3
4
1
1
1
5
2
4
6
4
1
4
1
2
2
1
4
6
1
69
Diploma
Number of Universities
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Chattisgarh
Delhi
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jaharkhand
Jammu and Kashmir
Karnataka
Kerela
Madhya Pradesh
Maharahtra
Orissa
Meghalaya
Punjab
Podicherry
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
West Bengal
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarachal Pradesh
Total
Other Institutions
State
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
Table 10-1: Statewise Availability of Program in
Journalism/Mass Communication by Academic levels
Name of Institution and Website
Indian Institute of Mass Communication, New
Delhi
http://www.iimc.nic.in/index1.html
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Courses Offered
Post-graduate Diploma in Journalism (English and
Hindi), Radio & Television Journalism and Advertising & Public Relations. Publishes a research journal,
Communicator.
Xavier Institute of Communication, Mumbai, Maharashtra
http://www.xaviercomm.org/home/default.htm
International School of Business and Media
(ISB&M), Kolkata, Pune, Bangalore and Noida
http://www.isbm.edu.in/isbm.htm
Symbiosis Institute of Mass Communication,
Pune, Maharashtra
http://www.simc.edu/
Asian College of Journalism, Chennai, Tamilnadu
http://www.asianmedia.org/index.asp
Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad,
Gujarat
http://www.mica-india.net/
Film and Television Institute of India, Pune, Maharashtra
http://www.ftiindia.com/index.html
AJ Kidwai Mass Communication Research Centre,
Jamia, New Delhi
http://ajkmcrc.org/#
Manorama School of Communication, Kottayam,
Kerela
Journalism & Mass Communication, Public Relations
& Corporate Communications, Advertising & Marketing, Digital Animation and Television & Video Production.
Undergraduate and Postgraduate programs in Business Management, Media management, Advertisement, Public Relations, Event and Corporate Communication, TV & Radio production, Broadcast and
Journalism
MBA in Communication Management (Advertising,
Public Relations. Masters in Mass Communication
(Journalism and T.V and Radio Production)
The Master’s Degree course includes reporting,
writing, and editing, modern issues in journalism,
history of the media, law of media.
Executive Diploma Program in Media Management.
Certificate Program in Managing Integrated Media,
Retail Communications, Crafting Creative Communication and Visual Merchandising. Post Graduate
Program in Communications Management and Entrepreneurship.
Direction, Acting, Cinematography, Art Direction
and Production Design, Audiography, Animation and
Computer Graphics, Editing, Feature Film Screenplay
Writing.
Ph.D. and M.A. in Mass Communication. Post Graduate Diploma in Development Communication, Journalism and Broadcast System Maintenance.
Post Graduate Diploma in Journalism
http://www.manoramajschool.com/index.htm
Indian Institute of Journalism and New Media,
Bangalore, Karnataka
http://www.iijnm.org/overview.html
Times Center of Media and Management Studies,
New Delhi
The Post-graduate programs offer courses on Reporting and Writing for Radio and Television, Ethical
and Legal Issues in Journalism, Advanced Media
Concentration and Business and Financial Reporting.
Post-Graduate Diploma in Business Journalism
http://www.tcms.in/index.html
Table 10-2: Details of the Leading Mass Communication programs (2007)
If one were to take a look at the courses offered by these institutes of
communication, we can classify them broadly into the following categories:
Category 1: Institutes with pure Journalism as a thrust area, such as Asian College of Journalism, Chennai and Times School of Journalism, New Delhi.
Category 2: Hybrid Institutes with Courses in Journalism and Mass Communication, Public Relations and Corporate Communications, Advertising
and Marketing Digital Animation etc such as Xavier Institute of Com-
131
munication, Mumbai and Symbiosis Institute of Mass Communication,
Pune.
Category 3: Vocational Institutes offering courses in Acting, Direction, Cinematography, Art Direction, Audiography, Animation, and Computer
Graphics, such as the Film and Television Institute in Pune.
Category 4: Pure Advertising schools in Management offering courses in Account Planning, Media Planning, Market Research such as the Mudra Institute of Communications, Ahmedabad (MICA).
Category 1 and category 2 are the most prevalent types, and category 3 and
4 the least prevalent.
The early sixties saw the emergence of Management Education in India. The Indian Institutes of Management (IIM’s) were created to cater to
the needs of industry for managers to manage various sectors of business.
Recognizing that the advertising sector, too, was emerging as an important
domain, the Business Schools introduced Advertising Management as an
“elective” course in the second year of the 2-year post-graduate program in
management.
Typically this course gave a broad overview of advertising from a
manager’s perspective and was run over 30 classroom sessions of 90 minute
durations each. Today the over 2500 Business Schools in the country offer
this elective course in advertising as part of their regular curriculum. Assuming on average that around 30 students opt for this course, about
75,000 students are being exposed to advertising annually as part of their
MBA program.
If one were to consider where the advertising industry gets its intake
of professionals, one could safely conclude that most of the professionals
who get into the Account Management or Account Planning and Media
Planning streams come from Institutes such as MICA, or the typical Business Schools. Similarly, those in the creative function come from the Art
Schools, such as the J. J. School of Fine Arts, Mumbai, the National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad, and the Baroda School of Fine Arts, Baroda.
Curriculum
Recognizing the importance of mass communication education in the
country and the need for a uniform system across all Universities, UGC appointed a curriculum development committee in October 2000, consisting
of senior professors in mass communication and journalism from various
leading Institutions across the country. This group, under the chairmanship
of Professor M.R. Dua, came up with a model curriculum for the B.A.
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(Honors) (Table 10-3), as well as one for the M.A. (Honors) degree in mass
communication (Table 10-4).
First Year:
Paper
Paper
Paper
Paper
Paper
1
2
3
4
5
Introduction to Mass Communication
Reporting and Editing -1
Writing for Mass Media
Indian Government and Politics and International Relations
Computer Applications for Mass Media
Second Year.
Paper 6 Introduction to Audio Visual Media
Paper 7 Reporting and Editing -2
Paper 8 Advertising
Paper 9 Public Relations/Corporate Communications
Paper 10 Economic Development and Planning in India
Third Year:
Paper 11 Reporting and Editing-3
Paper 12 Photo-Journalism
Paper 13 Design and Graphics
Paper 14 Indian Constitution and Media Law
Paper 15 Developmental Communication
Table 10-3: Recommended Course Curricula –
B.A. (Honors) Mass Communication
First Semester
• Principles of Mass Communication
• Development of Media
• Print Media-1 ( Reporting and Editing)
• Electronic Media ( Radio and Television)
• Advertising and Public Relations/ Corporate Communications
Second Semester
• Development Communication
• Communication Research
• Media Law and Ethics
• International Communication
• Media Management
133
Third Semester
• Print Media 2
• Radio
• Television
• Advertising
• Public Relations/Corporate Communications.
Fourth Semester
• New Media Applications
• Inter-Cultural Communication
• Elective course
• Dissertation
• Attachment/placement
Table 10-4: Recommended Course Curricula –
M.A. (Honors) Mass Communication (2 Year Program)
Faculty Resources
Faculty to teach the courses in the schools outlined above come from three
sources.
1. Pure Academicians. These faculty normally come with a PhD. degree
in the relevant stream, be it Journalism, Mass Communication,
Advertising or Public Relations. They find jobs in the typical University framework or in private schools.
2. Vocational Teachers. These are highly qualified technical people who
teach the crafts of Communication, such as Photography, Video
Filming, Editing, Animation etc. They teach primarily in the vocational institutes.
3. Industry Professionals. These normally are employed as Adjunct Faculty or Visiting Faculty in their respective areas of specialization.
They work on a part-time basis and are appreciated by students for
the practical aspects they bring into the classroom.
There is a shortage of qualified faculty, especially among the smaller
and lesser known programs. To the best of our knowledge, there are no
programs geared to address the manpower needs of the industry in India.
As of now the research output in India has not risen to international
standards in the advertising area. However, an increasing emphasis is now
being given to research in most of the communication schools. Faculty are
encouraged to write cases and present papers at national and international
134
conferences. Research journals are being produced by schools, such as MICA, to add to the body of original work being produced in the country.
MICA also has set up an Institution called MICORE, specifically devoted
to Research work.
Advertising Literature
Until recently most advertising books that were prescribed to students were authored by foreign authors. However, several advertising books
by Indian authors have emerged. These books have the advantage of citing
relevant Indian cases and students are better able to relate them to the Indian context. One of the pioneers in this area was Professor Subroto
Sengupta, an industry professional who moved into academics in the later
part of his life. A list of the textbooks in advertising by Indian authors
which currently find favor with different schools in mass communication
are listed in Table 10-5.
Batra, Rajeev (2008). Advertising Management (5th Edition). Singapore: Pearson
Education (Singapore) Private Ltd.
Bhatia, T.K. (2007). Advertising and Marketing in Rural India (Second Edition).
Noida, India: MacMillan Publishers India Limited.
Chaudhuri, Arun (2007). Indian Advertising: 1780-1950 AD. New Delhi: Tata
McGraw Hill.
Chunawalla, S.A. (2006). Foundations of Advertising: Theory and Practice. Himalaya
Publishing House: Mumbai, India.
Imam, Syed (2002). The Making of Advertising: Gleanings from Subhas Ghosal.
Noida, India: Macmillan Publishers India.
Jain, Gautam Raj and Raunika Ahluwalia (2008). Marketing Communications Industry: Entrepreneurial Case Studies. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc.
Kashyap, Pradeep and Siddharth Raut (2007). The Rural Marketing Book. New
Delhi: Biztantra.
Manedra Mohan (1989). Advertising Management: Concepts and Cases. New Delhi,
India: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing.
Mathur, U.C. (2002). Advertising Management : Text and Cases. Delhi, India: New
Age International Private Limited.
Rangenekar, Sharif D. (2004). Realizing Brand India. New Delhi, India: Rupa and
Company.
Shah, Kruti and Alan D’Souza (2009). Advertising and Promotions: An IMC Perspective. New Delhi, India: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing.
Singh, Raguvir and Sangeeta Sharma (2003). Advertising: Planning and Implementation. New Delhi, India: Prentice Hall India.
135
Tellis, Gerard J. (2003). Effective Advertising: Understanding When, How and How
Advertising Works. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc.
Valladares, June A. (2000). The Craft of Copywriting. Thousand Oaks, California:
Sage Publications Inc.
Vilanilam John V. and A.K.Varghese (2004). Advertising Basics: A Resource Guide
for Beginners. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc.
Table 10-5: Textbooks by Indian Authors
A limited number of journals provide outlets for advertising research
in India. Some examples are the Journal of Creative Communication (MICA), The Communicator (IIMC, Delhi) and Vikalpa (IIMA). Many of the
faculty members in the leading institutes publish in the leading international academic journals.
Over the years, several magazines on Indian advertising have emerged
and provide information about the industry. Prominent among them are
The Brand Reporter, Impact, Pitch, Brand Equity, 4 P’s, etc. The advertising
business has led to the development of some good professional websites catering to advertising professionals. These websites provide current information on industry happenings, creative work, comments on campaigns,
etc. Prominent among them are www.agencyfaqs.com, www.magindia.com,
www.exchange4media.com, and www.indiantelevision.com.
Advertising Industry/Academics Interaction
The advertising industry has long felt the need to contribute to the
academic field, and this is being done in several ways. Industry professionals go as visiting faculty to teach in various mass communication schools
across the country. They also employ graduates from these Institutions and
offer them internships.
The Advertising Clubs across the country conduct various kinds of
programs for advertising professionals, thus helping them keep their
knowledge and skills updated constantly. Very often, prominent advertising professionals and academicians from abroad are invited to participate.
The advertising industry also offers consultancy projects to faculty of various schools. Sometimes even students get engaged in this activity.
Some advertising agencies have invested financial and other resources
in setting up their own advertising schools. Mudra Communications Ltd.,
one of the large advertising agencies in the country, has set up Institutions
like MICA and MICORE. Lintas has set up a school called Northpoint at
136
Khandala, on the Mumbai-Pune Highway, primarily to train media professionals.
Conclusion and Recommendations
In completing the research for this chapter, it became evident that
there is very little systematic and verifiable information about advertising
education currently. The information from government sources is outdated
by at least five years and is often at the aggregate level. With the mushrooming of academic institutions created by the private sector, this gap becomes even more critical. It is clear that a systematic and regular effort at
collecting data about existing programs, student enrollment, faculty and
productivity and placement would provide a foundation for developing policy issues in the future.
In a recent review of advertising education in Australia, Kerr, Waller,
and Patti (2009) identify a number of critical issues which can be applied to
the Indian context. Among these are defining the role of advertising, funding, program choices, faculty workload, accreditation, and research. We believe that an accrediting body could be instrumental in developing an agenda for the appropriate development of advertising education.
The Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication (ACEJMC), American Advertising Federation, and the
American Academy of Advertising provide templates that could be modified
for the Indian context. Working with local advertising clubs, both in India
and Asia (e.g., Asian Federation of Advertising Association), would ensure
that the appropriate issues are developed and addressed.
With exciting development in a variety of sectors such as retail, telecommunication, FMCG and consumer durables, advertising is poised to
play a critical role in the economic development in India. Patwardhan,
Patwardhan, and Vasavada-Oza (2009) provide a theme that has become
critical – the need for Indianization. Historically, advertising executives
tended to be “English” educated, with more comfort and knowledge about
the western world than the Indian environment. It is encouraging to see
that the leading advertising agencies, such as McCann India and JWT India, have now developed indigenous proprietary tools for planning. Clearly
this limitation of knowledge about the “Indian customer” should be addressed and form a part of the core curriculum.
137
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MadisonMediaAdvertisingOutlook/Outlook-2010-Intro.asp.
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consumer India. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Private Ltd.
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Chaudhuri, Arun (2007). Indian Advertising: 1780-1950 AD. New Delhi: Tata McGraw
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television experiment. Paris: UNESCO Press.
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India Brand Equity Foundation (2010). Quick Facts. Accessed on May 20, 2010, at
http://www.ibef.org/resource/quickfacts.aspx
Kashyap, P. & Raut, S. (2007). The Rural Marketing Book. New Delhi: Biztantra.
Kerr, G.F., Waller, D. & Patti, C. (2009), “Advertising education in Australia: Looking back
to the future,” Journal of Marketing Education, 31 (3), 264-74.
Kumar, S.R. (2003), “Branding strategies in a changing market environment (Indian context),”Journal of Brand Management, 11(1), 48-62.
Leff, N.H. & Farley, J.U. (1980). Advertising expenditures in the developing world. Journal
of International Business Studies 11 (2), 67-79.
Patwardhan, P., Patwardhan H. & Vasavada-Oza, H. (2009), “Insight on account planning:
A view from the Indian ad industry,” Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 31 (2), 105-21.
Prahalad, C.K. (2010). Fortune at the bottom of the pyramid. Eradicating poverty through
profits. (5th Edition). Upper Saddle, New Jersey: Wharton School Publishing.
Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: Free Press.
Singhal, A., & Rogers, E. M. (2001). India's communication revolution: From bullock carts to
cyber marts. New Delhi: Sage.
University Grants Commission (2005). Annual Report. Extracted on May 10, 2010.
http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/index.html#report
138
Advertising Education in Japan
Kazue Shimamura
Waseda University, Japan
Janusz Buda
Waseda University, Japan
Preface
From 2001 to 2002 one of the authors (Shimamura) spent a sabbatical year at the Department of Advertising of the University of Texas at Austin, visiting similar departments at other universities and interviewing faculty members. As a teacher of advertising studies at a Japanese university,
Shimamura was particularly interested in the existence of departments of
advertising providing education for students wishing to establish careers in
the advertising industry.
Hitherto, very few Japanese universities, especially at the faculty level,
have offered education or designed curricula to facilitate career opportunities in specific professions. Medical schools for students aiming to become
doctors, or universities of education for those wishing to become teachers,
are exceptions to this general tendency.
In recent years, manga (graphic novels) and anime (animated movies)
have become world-wide symbols of modern Japanese culture. With the
growth in the number of fans of these genres has come a growth in the
number of people considering careers in these fields. The establishment of
departments of manga and animation in some universities (mostly those
specializing in art) has attracted media attention, but this trend has not extended to most Japanese universities. The creation of new departments in
fields popular among young people, and the establishment of specialized
departments linked to specific professions, is more evident in vocational colleges than universities.
Conversely, it would appear that a significant number of universities
in not only the United States, but also in Asian nations such as China, Korea, and Taiwan, include departments of advertising. Why is it that Japanese universities have not created similar departments, and what kind of advertising education are those universities providing?
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Some of the largest and most successful advertising agencies in the
world are based in Japan. It is, therefore, not surprising that many Japanese
students aspire to careers in the advertising industry. The following study
examines the education such students are offered in Japanese universities
and the characteristics of advertising education in Japan from a historical,
contemporary and future perspective.
Advertising-related Courses in Universities
The Nikkei Advertising Research Institute 2009 Survey
In 2009, the Nikkei Advertising Research Institute conducted its first
“Survey of Advertising-related Courses in Universities” in three years. This
survey had been conducted annually from 1989 to 2006. No official explanation was given for the two-year hiatus, but it may be surmised that the
recession in the Japanese advertising and mass-communication industries
had an adverse effect on the budget of the Research Institute and the Nihon
Keizai (Nikkei) Shimbun, with which it is closely associated.
In the years prior to this temporary suspension, the survey attempted
to identify the extent to which advertising-related subjects were taught in
Japanese universities by focusing on three areas:
1. Courses with advertising as their main subject.
2. Seminars or practicums with advertising as their main subject.
3. Courses that included advertising among other topics.
The much simpler survey of 2009 abandoned these three categories, listing
only the titles and instructors of advertising-related courses, the names of
the undergraduate and postgraduate faculties of the universities offering
them, and brief summaries of course content.
This survey was far from comprehensive and did not encompass all
universities in Japan. Consequently the number of courses listed cannot be
taken as a precise indicator of the status of advertising education in Japan.11
However, if supplementary data, such as course instructor membership of
academic associations, and anecdotal network information, are taken into
11
According to Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology statistics for
2009, there were 773 four-year universities in Japan (86 national, 58 public, and 595 private) and 406 two-year colleges (2 national, 26 public, and 378 private).
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account, a picture does emerge of which courses are taught in which universities. This supplementary data would indicate that, for all its shortcomings, the survey’s results are not fundamentally flawed.
Compared with twenty years ago, it is evident that, while the number
of courses incorporating advertising-related material has grown significantly,
no new departments of advertising have been founded at the university level. In contrast, a few new departments of marketing, public relations, and
publicity have been created, and some of these no doubt include advertising-related courses. However, the prospects for the foundation of new departments of advertising are not promising.
According to the survey, 246 universities offered a total of 1,778 advertising-related courses taught by 870 instructors. In the titles of these
courses, the most frequent keywords were “Marketing” (30% of 1,778) and
“Advertising” (15.2% of the same number). These figures suggest that, in
many cases, advertising is perceived as a subsidiary element of marketing
studies.
The course titles suggest very few differentiated specific aspects of advertising, such as Creative Advertising Strategy, Advertising Research, Advertising Effectiveness, and Advertising Regulations. Where taught, advertising was either included under the generic term “Marketing Studies” or, if
offered as a separate course, was limited to introductory-level courses such
as “Advertising Studies.”
A ranking of university faculties (departments) according to the
number of advertising-related courses they offer produced, in descending
order, the following list:
Management,
Commerce,
Economics,
Fine Art,
Social Studies,
Literature, and
Literature and Human Studies
The first three faculties have consistently offered the greatest number of advertising-related courses, but recently there has been an increase in the
number of faculties of fine art, social studies, and literature offering such
courses.
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It should be noted that Japanese universities do not impose any regulations or guidelines on the content of advertising, marketing or, indeed,
any other courses. Taking advertising as an example, the selection of course
content, the order in which it is presented, the choice of textbooks and reference works, the use of supplementary materials such as advertisements and
commercials — all these are left to the discretion of the course instructor.
The focus of course content often will depend on whether the instructor has
a professional or academic background, or even on his or her personal interests.
Whether a course carries two or four credits will also have a direct influence on the depth and scope of course content. Be that as it may, it can
be said that the level of advertising courses in Japanese universities that do
not offer specialized advertising education is equivalent to the “Introduction
to Advertising” courses offered in the departments of advertising of U.S.
universities.
“Introduction to Advertising” would normally provide only the most
basic general coverage of the subject, but some faculties of fine art offer both
theoretical and practical classes in graphic design, computer graphics, and
Web design. Likewise, some faculties of literature examine advertising from
psychological and cultural perspectives. Occasionally, seminar courses will
require students to carry out advertising planning.
Changes in Advertising-related Courses over the Past 20 Years
The Nikkei Advertising Research Institute Survey has its origins in a
survey carried out by Akihiro Kamei, et al. (1989), as a research project of
the Japan Academy of Advertising (JAA). Kamei’s independent survey
found that Japanese universities were offering 93 advertising courses, 28 advertising seminars, and 24 advertising practicums: a total of 145 courses.
Almost each year after Kamei’s pioneering research, the Nikkei Advertising Research Institute conducted a nearly identical survey, chronicling
the development of advertising education in Japan. That no such systematic
surveys had been carried out before 1989 reflects the contemporary lack of
interest in advertising education.
The following graph, based on data from approximately 20 years of
Nikkei Advertising Research Institute surveys, shows the number of lectures, seminars and practicums with advertising as their main topic. In 2006
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the number of such courses was 3.8 times larger than that in Kamei’s survey.
Figure 11-1: 1989–2009 Advertising Courses
The survey data give detailed information on course titles, faculties,
departments, instructors, and course content in a format that makes it difficult to analyse statistically. Leaving aside such analysis and focusing only on
a summary of the results of the survey, two salient points emerge.
143
Figure 11-2: Ratio of full-time to part-time instructors
First, faculties offering courses which concentrate on advertising as
their main theme can be divided into four groups:
1.
2.
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Management, commerce, economics, etc.
Literature, communication, social studies, etc.
3.
4.
Art and fine art.
Liberal arts, international liberal studies, information technology, human sciences,
etc.
Advertising-related courses have a tendency to incorporate interdisciplinary elements, and the faculties offering them are many and varied.
Consequently, the title “Advertising” or “Advertising Studies” is often applied to courses with profoundly different content. Currently, faculties of
management, commerce, and economics offer the greatest number of advertising courses, but the number of faculties of art and fine art, as well as faculties of literature, communication, and social studies that offer such courses is growing steadily.
Second, a large percentage of advertising-related course instructors are
part-time faculty. Looking only at those courses with advertising as their
main theme, the number of part-time instructors is between 40–50% (see
Figure 11-2). The survey does not provide details of the background of
course instructors, but it can be assumed the part-time instructors include
tenured faculty teaching part-time outside their own faculty or university,
and advertising industry professionals. Whatever the case, it is evident that
while the need for advertising-related courses has been recognized and the
number of such courses is increasing, they are often entrusted to part-time
instructors rather than tenured faculty.
The History of Advertising Education in Japan
The Origins of Advertising Education in Waseda University
The Nikkei Advertising Research Institute survey has been conducted
for twenty years, but the origins of advertising education in Japan go back
to the 1910s — to a period spanning the end of the Meiji Period and the
beginning of the Taishō Period. It is widely recognized that Waseda University was one of the first universities to offer advertising education, but
the education of that time differed significantly from that of the present. In
other words, the university did not conduct advertising education in the
form of courses with names such as “Advertising” or “Advertising Studies.”
Rather, advertising education can trace its origins to the activities of an informal study group formed by students with an interest in advertising.
145
In October 1913, to mark the 30th anniversary of the founding of
Waseda University, several departments, such as those of Politics, Literature, and Commerce (the precursor of today’s School of Commerce), staged
a commemorative exhibition. The Department of Commerce’s contribution was an advertising exhibition. Classrooms were adorned with realistic
displays of consumer goods reminiscent of department stores, advertisements from newspapers and magazines around the world, and real advertising posters, drawing the interest and attention of many visitors and receiving high critical acclaim as a concrete example of Waseda University’s academic ideal of the practical application of learning.
In January 1914 the students and faculty who had taken part in this
exhibit founded the Waseda Advertising Society. It is reputed to have been
the first advertising study group formed by students themselves. The first
chairman of the Society was Hozumi Tanaka, the Dean of the Department
of Commerce.
The Society’s primary aim was to conduct an academic study of advertising. Between one and four hours of lectures were given each week by
instructors, including: Jūjirō Itō of the Department of Commerce; Yōichi
Ueno, a young researcher majoring in psychology at Tōkyō Imperial University; and Jūjirō Izeki, editor-in-chief of the industry journal Jitsugyōkai
and later professor at Meiji University.
In addition to lectures such as Principles of Advertising, Overview of
Advertising, History of Advertising, and Psychology of Advertising, published materials were read and discussed, and presentations of research findings given. The reading and discussion sessions were led by Jūjirō Itō, and
among the texts studied were Walter D. Scott’s Psychology of Advertising. It
must be noted, however, that Itō was not an advertising specialist who
taught formal courses in Transportation Policies and Commercial English.
The second aim of the Society was the promotion of the results of its
research by holding public lectures and exhibitions. The third aim was the
training of persons who would play a significant role in the advertising industry of the future. To this end, the Society held meetings with members
of the advertising industry, organized visits to advertising companies, and
sponsored practicums at department stores. Such activities could be said to
be the forerunners of today’s internship programs.
Although the Society was a student initiative, its activities extended to
lectures by professors and lecturers, and to seminars, practicums and intern-
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ships. As if in response to this initiative, in 1920 the Department of Commerce introduced an official though extra-curricular course in advertising.
As an extra-curricular course, it did not offer credit toward graduation.
However, permission was granted to hold it in regular classrooms, and the
university paid the instructors an honorarium. It can thus be said that the
roots of advertising education in Japan lie in the activities of the Waseda
Advertising Society and the extra-curricular course offered by the Waseda
University Department of Commerce.
Initiatives in Other Universities
From that beginning, the number of students interested in advertising grew steadily, and in many universities the first steps towards the creation of advertising study groups were taken. Soon after the establishment of
the Waseda Advertising Society in 1914, similar groups were founded at
Rikkyō University in 1915, Kōbe Higher Commercial School (now Kōbe
University) in 1919, Meiji University in 1920, and Keiō University in
1925.
Although the foundation of an advertising research society at Keiō
University came a little late, in the following year the society broke new
ground with the publication of Mita Kōkoku Kenkyū (Mita Advertising
Studies). Not to be outdone, in 1927 the Waseda Advertising Society
brought out its own journal, Kōkokugaku Kenkyū (Advertising Studies). In
1925 the University Advertising Studies Federation was established, and
student interest in the subject continued to grow (Yamamoto & Tsuganezawa, 1985).
In his Kōkoku to Senden (Advertisement and Propaganda) published
in 1924, Shizuka Nakagawa notes that an advertising seminar was introduced at the Kōbe Higher Commercial School in 1921, and a formal advertising studies course was created at Meiji University in 1922. Nakagawa
was one of the most influential figures in the advertising studies and education field of the time. He graduated from the Tōkyō Senmon College (the
precursor of Waseda University) in 1883. After teaching at commercial
high schools in Nagasaki and Kumamoto, he became a professor at Kōbe
Higher Commercial School in 1921, where he himself taught the abovementioned advertising seminar.
The Meiji University advertising course Nakagawa records as starting
in 1922 is not mentioned in the Centennial History of the Meiji University
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School of Commerce (School of Commerce 100th Anniversary Commemorative History Committee, 2007). However, the curriculum for 1929 lists a
course called “Advertising and Selling” taught by Jūjirō Izeki, who had formerly offered a similar extracurricular course at the Waseda University
School of Commerce.
In 1947 a new advertising course taught by Takizō Matsumoto made
its debut. Although this course continued to be a part of the Meiji University School of Commerce curriculum, subsequent instructors are not named
and it can be assumed that it was taught by part-time faculty.
The First Official Courses at Waseda University and Postgraduate
Education
Although the Waseda University School of Commerce pioneered the
introduction of advertising education, it was not until 1953 that “Advertising” was instituted as an official course (Kobayashi, 1975). It took the form
of a seminar taught by Tasaburō Kobayashi, who, after studying sociology
at the School of Literature and management at the Graduate School of
Commerce, devoted himself to advertising research.
Course content consisted of “A study of advertising campaigns and
the effectiveness of advertising, supplemented by research into related topics
such as consumers, products, advertising media, advertising copy and design, advertising-related legislation, advertising ethics, and the organization
and activities of advertising departments and advertising agencies” (Kobayashi, 1975, p. 67). No such course had ever been offered before, and student familiarity with the subject was minimal. One student of the time
admitted, “I thought that Advertising had something to do with commercial art.” (Kobayashi, 1975, p. 68). It is symbolically appropriate that this
course began in the same year as Japanese commercial television broadcasting.
In 1955 a new course called “Advertising Management” was introduced. Sponsored by a donation from the Japan Federation of Employers’
Associations, the course aimed to promote advertising research and education. The course instructor was Fumio Uekuri, head of the advertising department of the Reader’s Digest Japan Office. The course covered the marketing of advertisements, advertising techniques, media characteristics,
budget setting, problems besetting advertising agencies, advertising surveys,
measurement of effectiveness, overseas advertising, advertising and publici-
148
ty, public relations, and so on. In essence, the curriculum of this course differed little from the advertising course of today. In an age when commercial radio and television broadcasting had just begun and was still relatively
unfamiliar, the study of advertising must have provided the students of the
time with intense intellectual stimulation.
In 1955 Kobayashi changed the name of his seminar from “Advertising” to “Advertising Management,” and in 1959 added another seminar
called “Advertising Media,” which continued until 1962. Along with the
explosive growth of television came calls for a thorough examination of advertising media. Despite this tumultuous background, the number of students able to take Kobayashi’s two seminar courses was severely limited, as
was the number of School of Commerce students able to study advertising
theory.
At Waseda University, many official lectures are given in classrooms
seating from 300 to 400 students. In 1962 “Advertising” was finally recognized as an official commercial science course, allowing hundreds of students to enroll. In the same year, Kobayashi began teaching an Advertising
Major Program in the Graduate School of Commerce. The introduction of
this program laid the foundation for the education of students wishing to
pursue careers as university researchers and teachers of advertising.
In 1973, Akihiro Kamei, one of Kobayashi’s students in graduate
school, took charge of “Advertising Research,” the second of the School of
Commerce’s two advertising seminars. (The course name was changed to
“Basic Principles of Advertising” in 1975.) With this addition, the number
of faculty members teaching advertising at the School of Commerce grew to
two. In 1980 Kamei began teaching “Advertising,” allowing a large number
of School of Commerce students to study the subject.
Although the Waseda University School of Commerce led the way in
introducing student-led research into advertising, another 40 years were to
pass before the subject was formally recognized in the form of an advertising
seminar.
What caused this delay? One possible reason is that while student interest in advertising studies had grown steadily from the 1910s onwards, the
subject was taught as an extra-curricular course by faculty members with an
interest in advertising but a specialization in other areas of research, and by
instructors from other institutions. It is not clear how long advertising continued to be taught as an extra-curricular course, but what is certain is that
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no attempt was made to hire tenured faculty specializing in advertising research, and a valuable opportunity to establish advertising education on a
firm and permanent basis was lost.
Traditionally, the two most important subjects taught at the School
of Commerce have been bookkeeping and accounting. Advertising and
marketing were considered subsidiary, or marginal, fields of academic research. In comparison with accounting and other fields boasting a large
number of faculty members, marginal academic fields with, at best, one specialist teacher must have appeared of little interest or significance to the students of the time. However, the remarkable changes in Japanese media in
the 1950s, and the revolution in distribution technology epitomised by the
introduction of American-style supermarkets, turned the attention of students to the effects that these changes were exerting on society. In retrospect, Tasaburō Kobayashi’s interest in advertising and his unflagging research into the subject bear ample witness to his perspicacity and foresight.
Kobayashi’s graduate-level Advertising Major Program was probably
the first of its kind in any Japanese university. Among the first group of students taking the course were Akihiro Kamei (later professor at the School of
Commerce) and Yasuhiko Kobayashi (later professor at Aoyama Gakuin
University). Although the primary aim of the course was to educate scholars
who would pursue academic careers in advertising research and education, a
majority of students chose to find employment in advertising and other industries after obtaining their master’s degree. Few went on to become researchers or university teachers.
It was not until 2005 that Kamei himself began supervising research
at the Graduate School of Commerce. This long hiatus was not conducive
to the training of a significant number of specialists in the field. It had been
hoped that the alumni of the Graduate School of Commerce who had been
taught by Kobayashi would go on to teach advertising and related subjects
at other universities, but such was not the case.
Again, 40–50% of the faculty teaching the Advertising course were
part-timers. There is little doubt that the paucity of postgraduate students
going on to teaching careers, coupled with the perception that advertising
courses could be adequately entrusted to part-time instructors, raised serious
doubts among undergraduate students regarding the advisability and future
prospects of studying advertising at the graduate school level.
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Other Institutions Offering Advertising Education
Having covered the history of advertising education in Japanese universities, this section concludes with an overview of the advertising education being conducted currently in other institutions. A significant number
of university students wishing to obtain professional qualifications or pass
external examinations enroll in courses offered by specialist vocational
schools or colleges. In Japan this is commonly referred to as “doubleschooling.” Many of the students who choose to double-school are hoping
to gain certification as accountants or lawyers.
It would be wrong, however, to assume that students aiming at a career in the advertising industry follow the same path and enroll in vocational colleges of advertising. Such cases are extremely rare. Most so-called vocational colleges of advertising draw their students from the ranks of highschool graduates and concentrate on such technical aspects as design and
photography rather than advertising, as such.
Although few in number, there are students who, after graduating
from university departments of management or commerce, decide to aim
for careers as art directors or web designers and continue their studies in vocational colleges. However, the education offered in such vocational colleges is mainly of a technical nature and differs fundamentally from that offered in universities. Cooperation and reciprocal recognition of credits between universities and vocational colleges is almost non-existent.
In addition to publishing advertising-related periodicals, a Japanese
firm called Sendenkaigi Co. Ltd. offers training for copywriters, art directors and other specialists. Lectures are given by advertising-industry professionals, and the courses attract students with clear career goals such as copywriting, commercial planning, or art direction. Very few of the students
enrolling in such courses are studying advertising at the university level. Rather, the majority are students wishing to work in the advertising industry
but belonging to university faculties that do not offer advertising-related
courses. It is often said that among former students of the Sendenkaigi
courses are some of the most famous copywriters in Japan, but it does not
follow that taking these courses will necessarily guarantee future employment in the industry.
An organization based in Kyōto, and known as the International
Academy, offers a series of courses taught by famous copywriters and art directors under the name of Kyōto-kōkoku-juku (The Kyōto Advertising
151
School). Summaries of these courses, given in a series of books published in
2007, suggest that the focus is less on practical training in advertisement
production and more on listening to production professionals discussing
various aspects of their work.
The education offered in advertising-related vocational colleges differs
fundamentally from that offered in universities, concentrating as it does on
the needs of students hoping to find jobs in advertising companies, or
providing supplementary education for those already working in advertising
or related fields.
Organizations Supporting Advertising Education in Japan
Student Organizations
A simplified overview of the history of advertising education shows
that student interest and enthusiasm in advertising generated ad hoc study
societies that, in turn, stimulated the introduction of formal courses in educational institutions. Today, a number of organizations exist to support the
activities of both students and researchers. The following is a brief account
of the organizations that influence and support advertising education in Japan.
The earliest such organization exists to this day, and under the same
name. The Waseda Advertising Society is approaching its one-hundredth
anniversary. From an informal group devoted to studying advertising with
the assistance and advice of faculty members, it has grown into a much larger multifaceted organization, creating advertising campaign proposals, advertisements and commercials, and cooperating with the advertising circles
of other universities in holding regular Advertising Festival events.
Currently, advertising study circles exist in the following Tōkyō Metropolitan Area universities: Aoyama Gakuin University, Atomi Women’s
University, Daitō Bunka University, Gakushūin University, Hitotsubashi
University, Hōsei University, Jissen Women’s University, Keiō University,
Kokugakuin University, Meiji University, Meiji Gakuin University, Meisei
University, Nihon University, Rikkyō University, Seikei University, Sophia
University, Tama Art University, Tōkyō Institute of Technology, Tōkyō
Keizai University, Tōyō University, the University of Tōkyō, and Waseda
University.
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Research Organizations
The Japan Academy of Advertising (JAA), an organization for advertising researchers, was founded in December, 1969. Its first chairperson
was Shikamatsu Mukai. Mukai was a professor at Keiō University, lecturing
in trade management, commercial planning, the stock exchange, management and economics, monetary banking and other subjects. Advertising
was not his speciality, and at the time of his election he was already over
eighty years old. The JAA did not begin to function as an active academic
organization until the election, in 1976, of Waseda University professor
Tasaburō Kobayashi as its second chairperson. He was succeeded in 1998
by Akihiro Kamei, and Yasuhiko Kobayashi in 2004. In 2010 Shizue Kishi,
of Tōkyō Keizai University, was elected chairperson. Kishi obtained her
Ph.D. at the University of Illinois, and her international perspective promises to lead the JAA into new and broader fields of research.
JAA membership consists of university faculty and postgraduate students, advertising industry professionals, and corporate members. As of
September 2010 the number of members was 636, of whom 60% were
connected with universities and 40% with the advertising industry. The
university membership includes not only specialists in advertising, but also
teachers working in fields such as marketing, psychology, art and fine art,
and linguistics. Many of the advertising industry professionals who belong
to the academy also teach advertising courses as part-time lecturers at universities and other institutions. There are many instances of advertising industry professionals with both practical and academic experience filling fulltime positions as university faculty.
Currently, the JAA holds an annual conference at which members
present the results of their research, and it publishes a biannual peerreviewed journal called Kōkoku Kagaku (Journal of Advertising Science).
Within Japan are four local chapters of the JAA, each holding several study
meetings every year. In 2008, the Academy added a Creative Forum study
group to further research into the hitherto neglected field of creativity in
advertising.
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Representative Support Organizations
The Yoshida Hideo Memorial Foundation
The Yoshida Hideo Memorial Foundation was created in 1965 to
commemorate the achievements of Hideo Yoshida, the fourth president of
Dentsū Inc. Among the many activities of the Foundation, several are of
particular relevance to students studying advertising and advertising researchers.
ADMT (Ad Museum Tōkyō) http://www.admt.jp/en/index.html
The ADMT is a unique museum created to further research into advertising and marketing and promote a better understanding of advertising
in society. It was opened in December 2002 to mark the one-hundredth
anniversary of Hideo Yoshida’s birth. In addition to a permanent advertising-related exhibit, each year the museum holds twelve smaller exhibits with
special themes. Its convenient location and free admission draw not only
students but also visitors from the provinces.
Ad Library http://www.admt.jp/en/library/about.html
A specialist library associated with the ADMT was founded much
earlier, in 1966. As of 2008, its holdings included 12,100 Japanese books,
2,900 foreign books, and approximately 170 different periodicals. Computer terminals with search functions allow the viewing of an extensive digital
archive of advertising materials.
The library’s comprehensive collection of specialized materials and
the excellent condition of its books and periodicals attract both students
studying advertising and industry professionals. Admission to the library is
free.
Research Aid http://www.yhmf.jp/activity/aid/index.html
The foundation also provides financial research aid to university researchers and Ph.D. students. Grants are allocated on the basis of a fair and
open evaluation, and are awarded to not only Japanese researchers but also
researchers throughout the world. The results of sponsored research are
available for inspection in the library and regular compendia of summaries
are published.
154
Nikkei Advertising Research Institute
http://www.nikkei-koken.gr.jp/
Despite the inclusion of ‘Nikkei’ in its name, this institute is an independent organization founded in 1967. Affiliate members include advertisers, advertising agencies, production companies, research companies, newspapers, periodicals, broadcasting companies and many others. It conducts
independent surveys such as “Advertising and Promotion Expenditure of
Major Companies” and the previously mentioned “Survey of Advertisingrelated Courses in Universities,” publishes the “Bulletin of Nikkei Advertising Research Institute” and the “Advertising White Paper,” and offers
courses and seminars in advertising-related subjects. It also sponsors a number of study groups made up of faculty members and graduate students
from many universities. A notable feature of these groups is the comparative
youth of the group leaders.
Issues Facing Advertising Education in Japan
Low Interest in Advertising Education
As can be seen from the above overview of advertising education in
Japanese universities, the inauguration of such education in the late 1910s
and early 1920s was by no means tardy. On the other hand, in contrast to
the creation of departments of advertising at Michigan State University and
the University of Illinois in the late 1950s, no such department ever has
been created in a Japanese university.
Why should this be? There is no simple answer to this question but
several reasons may be posited.
1. Advertising is taught in a number of different faculties, each bringing to the subject its own distinctive perspective. In other words, the content of advertising education will differ markedly in accordance with the
characteristics of the faculties offering relevant courses.
The curricula of American departments of advertising cover essential
subjects such as Introduction to Advertising, Advertising Research, Advertising and Society, Media Planning, Creative Advertising Strategy, and Advertising Campaigns. In addition to these core subjects, universities strive to
differentiate their advertising education with varied courses such as History
of Advertising, Account Planning, Global Advertising, and Interactive Ad-
155
vertising. The advertising courses offered in Japanese universities differ little from the Introduction to Advertising of American universities, while
those that do differ tend to pick up one of the many other courses offered in
American universities and teach them under the generic label of “advertising.”
2. The curricula offered by American departments of advertising represent, from the Japanese point of view, a conglomeration of courses that
would normally be taught separately in different faculties. Advertising is, of
necessity, an interdisciplinary field of study that transcends faculty boundaries. In the United States, departments of advertising are often found within faculties of journalism or faculties of communication. Were a department of advertising ever to be founded in a Japanese university, the problem
would inevitably arise of choosing the most appropriate faculty for such a
department: management, commerce, art, and so on. Without first overcoming the strict lines of demarcation between faculties, the formation of a
department of advertising in Japan remains intractably difficult. If the
number of interdisciplinary or liberal arts faculties continues to grow and
generates stiffer competition, there is still a possibility that one or more of
them may create a department of advertising to differentiate itself from the
others.
3. However, perhaps the most salient reason for the absence of departments of advertising in Japan is that there is no common agreement as
to what constitutes advertising education. Hitherto, there has been almost
no serious discussion or debate among researchers or educators regarding
the content of advertising education. Of the forty annual conferences held
by the JAA, only one was devoted to the theme of advertising education.
Any improvement in the quality of advertising education in Japan is conditional upon researchers and educators taking a more active interest in defining the nature of advertising education itself.
The Necessity for Training New Researchers
There is an urgent need to increase the number of researchers specializing in advertising, marketing, and communication. Even if the desire to
provide content-rich advertising education is there, the number of qualified
instructors is not. This shortage of researchers inevitably will be reflected in
the lack of postgraduate programs offering an opportunity to conduct advertising studies.
156
Currently, the number of Asian students enrolling in Japanese graduate schools is growing significantly. While it is gratifying that so many talented foreign students should choose to study in Japan, most of them will
end their studies when they have obtained their master’s degree, going on to
find education-unrelated jobs in Japan or their home countries. Serious
consideration needs to be given to ways of increasing the number of students, both foreign and Japanese, who wish to progress to Ph.D. courses
and eventually become researchers and educators.
Although much of this chapter has focused on advertising education
at the undergraduate level, advertising education at the postgraduate level
also merits close examination, and it is hoped such a study will be conducted in the near future.
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159
Korea’s Advertising Education
Jang-Sun Hwang
Chung-Ang University, Korea
Hyun-Jae Yu
Sogang University, Korea
Overview
A Brief Summary of Korea’s Advertising Industry
Korea has one of the largest advertising industries in the world. The
volume has sharply increased in last three decades, and is now ranked 10th
in the world. In the early 1970s, the country spent 3.5 million dollars on
advertising, and it increased by 20-30% every year during the 1980s. In
2009, the size of the Korean advertising industry reached approximately 6
billion dollars, which is about 1% of the country’s gross national product.
The structure of the Korean advertising industry is very similar to
that of the U.S. Four major media have traditionally played critical roles in
the industry, and television (TV) has been the most influential, followed by
newspapers. However, as experienced in other advanced countries, the Internet rapidly spread throughout the country, now accounting for more
than 15% of the industry. More than 80% of the population now uses the
Internet, which makes Korea one of the top five connected countries in the
world. Other new media, including IP-TV, DMB, Satellite TV, Digital cable TV, and mobile devices, also are widely used.
Among advertising media, three national broadcast TV channels –
KBS2, MBC, and SBS – account for all television broadcasting, and more
than ten nationwide newspapers (i.e., Chosun, Joong-Ang, Dong-A) account
for the majority of the newspaper advertising market.
In the Internet market, unlike other countries, domestic portal
brands, including Naver, Daum, and Nate, account for the entire search
engine industry and are top high-traffic sites. Global brands such as Yahoo
and Google have not yet succeeded in this market. Major advertisers are
companies in electronics (i.e., Samsung, LG), mobile (i.e., SK Telecom,
KT), and automobiles (i.e., Hyundai, Kia).
The market characteristics that make the Korean advertising market
differ from other countries (i.e., U.S.) should be emphasized. First, due to
Korea’s limited geographical size, mass media have held a great deal of pow-
160
er. For example, some popular soap operas achieve more than 50% ratings,
and they are the so-called “nation’s soap operas.”
Second, the client-agency relationship is strongly bonded. In-house
agencies, such as Cheil Communication, one sub-company of Samsung Conglomerate, have dominated the whole market, and independent agencies
have not been successful in the market.
Third, with Korea’s smaller population of 50 million people, and its
collectivistic culture, the so-called “Big Model” strategy of employing popular celebrities has been widely and successfully adopted. The effectiveness of
using celebrities in advertising is one of the most popularly researched topics
among the country’s advertising scholars.
Advertising Education Overview
In Korea, advertising has been one of the most popular career fields
for the last two decades. Most intelligent young adults search for such creative employment, and once employed dedicate their lives to their profession.
Recruiting efforts by advertising agencies and advertisers are extremely high.
Therefore, many college students and job applicants are eager to learn skills
in advertising. Advertising education has become extremely popular in Korean universities, and the classes are full of students from non-major fields,
in addition to those in the major department.
Approximately 40 independent programs for advertising are found in
more than 45 universities out of 200 in Korea. In other words, one of five
of the country’s universities offer advertising programs. 12 Enrollment in
each program ranges from 30 to 100 or so students, and double-majors and
transfers are abundant in most advertising programs.
Most programs are located in Seoul’s metropolitan area, where 40%
of the population resides and where the country’s advertising industry is
concentrated. However, some programs are in other metropolitan areas,
including Busan, the second largest city in the nation, and every region has
a college-level advertising program. Since the need for college education is
quite high in Korea – more than 80% of the country’s high school students
advanced to college in 2009 – every college attempts to have popular programs, and advertising is one of them.
History
Since the inception of Korea’s Fourth century Confucian traditions
12
There were approximately 200 four-year universities in Korea in 2009.
161
in the Chosun Dynasty, advertising as a part of commercial business was
long underestimated. Because of the Confucian cultural legacy, advertising
was regarded as a shallow affair. However, along with the process of modernization in the 20th century and dynamic industrialization in the 1960s
through the 1970s, advertising and commercial business became more highly esteemed. Advertising education ran a similar course. Among advertising
scholars, there are three distinct stages in the development of advertising
education in Korean colleges.
Early Era (1974~1988)
College-level advertising education in Korea was established in 1974.
The first advertising program opened at Chung-Ang University (CAU) and
was named the Department of Advertising & PR. Before the CAU program opened, only a few advertising classes in business colleges taught advertising curricula in Korea. In the mid 1960s, advertising was adopted as a
credited course at a few universities. Nonetheless, the CAU program was
the first independent advertising program at the department level in a university.
The CAU program was established by two tenure-track professors,
Dr. Dae-Ryong Lyi and Dr. Woo-Jin Lee. Each year, 20 to 30 undergraduate students enrolled in this department, and several adjunct professors
from the advertising industry, in addition to the two major professors, participated in the program. The program was included in the College of Political Science & Economics, and it still operates under that college.
In its early years CAU’s advertising program included political communication, which encompassed public relations in part, as well as commercial communications. Since the Korean advertising industry’s infancy in
the early 1970s, the academic program was less oriented towards commercialism. However, as professional advertising agencies, including Oricom
and Cheil Communications, started their businesses in the mid to late
1970s, college programs gradually adopted commercial aspects, such as advertising effectiveness.
The major courses taught included advertising planning, copywriting,
advertising management, advertising effectiveness, etc.. About 150 advertising majors graduated from the program, and more than 70% of them started their professional careers in major advertising agencies and with clients in
the late 1970s through 1980s.
CAU’s advertising program eventually closed and merged into the
Department of Mass Communication, incorporating a change in educational policies due to the country’s political upheaval. Specifically, the new
162
government, which was dominated by military authorities in 1980, tried to
merge a variety of college-level programs into a handful of programs. From
1981 to 1988, the volume of advertising courses taught in the program was
gradually reduced to three to four advertising classes offered to undergraduate students. In the 1980s, advertising education in Korean colleges was
generally neglected.
Blooming Era (1989~mid 1990s)
With the dynamic change of Korea’s social environment in the late
1980s, which is commonly referred to as “The Fever of Democratization,” a
more liberal atmosphere pervaded universities. Most universities could afford to establish new programs, and advertising was one of the most attractive fields, considering the industry’s enormous growth, which consisted of
1% of the GNP during the 1980s.
Four college-level advertising programs were opened in 1989. The
CAU program was re-opened, and three new advertising programs were established at Hanyang University, Hongik University and Kwangju University. The names of those departments were somewhat different, as indicated
in Table 12-1. The size of freshmen enrollment in these four programs totaled up to 190 each year (Chung-Ang U.: 30, Hangyang U. & Hongik U.:
40 for each, Kwangju U.: 80).
Table 12-1: Early Advertising Programs in Korea
University
Name of Program
Chung-Ang U.
Advertising & Public Relations
Established
1974 / 1989
Hanyang U.
Advertising & Public Relations
1989
Hongik U.
Advertising Design
1989
Kwangju U.
Publishing & Advertising
1989
14
Region
Major Professor
Seoul
GyeongGi-Do
13
Lyi, Dae-Ryong
15
ChungCheong
Nam-Do
Jeolla Nam-Do
Cho, Byung-Ryang
Kwon, Myung-Kwang
Seo, Bum-Seok
Among these four programs, Chung-Ang University and Hanyang
University resembled each other in terms of curricula. Their programs were
strongly oriented toward commercial advertising planning, as well as practi13
“Major Professors” denoted are scholars who are regarded as “founders” or one of the first
faculty members in each program.
14
As noted earlier, Chung-Ang University’s advertising program was established in 1974,
and re-opened in 1989 after eight-year closing during 1981-1988.
15
“Do” represents a Korean regional province, which resembles the state in the U.S. There
are nine Do’s in South Korea.
163
cal courses. These programs adopted some courses taught in CAU’s 1970s
program, but they also included some newly established classes, such as advertising and society, international advertising strategy, and advanced copy
writing. Both programs were established within the social science fields.
Although the name of the department was a little different, Kwangju University’s program was not much different from these two major programs.
Hongik’s advertising program was much different from the others in
terms of their orientations and curricula. As shown by the name of the department, Hongik’s program was much more focused on execution and
production. In contrast to the other programs that were taught by social
scientists, especially from mass communication studies, the majority of
Hongik’s program consisted of creative, design, and copywriting fields.
In this second birth of advertising education, an academic association
for advertising was also established. The KAS (Korean Advertising Society),
which is equivalent to an AAA (American Academy of Advertising) in Korea, was founded in 1989 with scholars from relevant areas. Among the
founders were Boong-Noh Yoo, Chang-Gyu Hwang, Won-Soo Kim, YongSeob Song, Dae-Ryong Lyi, and Myong-Kwang Kwon. In its early years,
KAS was an association of professors teaching advertising courses in marketing, art design, mass communications, and advertising (in social science).
Their contributions to advertising education, as well as research, are much
acknowledged in the society.
Since the mid-1990s, advertising programs in universities, especially
in suburban and metropolitan regions, have sharply increased. More than
twenty independent programs were established in this period, and the
names generally adopted “advertising.” Due to the popularity of the advertising field in Korean society during the 1990s, many universities tried to
establish advertising programs. Thanks to this drastic increase, most programs recruited professors from both academic and practical areas.
Along with the growth of undergraduate programs, graduate-level advertising programs were also gradually established. In 1981, Chung-Ang
University established the first master’s degree in advertising in the College
of Mass Communications, which is a kind of professional school enrolled
mainly with practitioners.
During the 1990s, general graduate programs for advertising began to
be established for full-time students. Currently, approximately 20 graduate
programs offering advertising majors operate in Korea, and two of them,
Chung-Ang and Hanyang, also offer a doctoral program.
164
Restructuring Era (mid 1990s-Present)
After the country’s economic crisis in 1999, the Korean advertising
industry fell into a recession. In this environment, the number of advertising programs declined from the previous era. However, in contrast to the
preceding period, a relatively large number of advertising doctorates came
forth. Although there were some in the 1990s, Koreans with Americanawarded Ph.Ds have increasingly returned to the country, and more advertising doctorates were conferred in Korea, as well.
In this period, advertising programs at major universities – both departments and majors – systematically reconstructed their programs. Many
large universities in major cities, including Seoul, established advertisingminor programs in mass communication programs. The year 1995 should
be noted as the third milestone of advertising education in Korea (with the
preceding milestones being CAU’s 1974 program and the four programs
that opened in 1989). More than five universities opened their advertising
programs by establishing departments for advertising and public relations in
1995, including Dongkuk, Se-Myong, Mokwon, Hyub-Sung, Hanshin,
Cheong-Ju, and Nam-Seoul Universities.
The Programs
There are approximately 40 departments that mainly focus on advertising, and an additional 45 universities that have smaller advertising programs within relevant departments such as Mass Communications and
Business. Moreover, the need for advertising education from a practical
perspective also increased. As such, some valuable advertising programs also
exist outside of colleges.
Advertising Education at the College Level
Basically, the Korean programs for advertising education (i.e., about
principles, theories, planning, and execution) could be divided into two categories: programs in established colleges and programs in related professional organizations.
First, regarding programs in colleges, there are diverse units which use
different titles (i.e., departments, schools, colleges, majors), where college
students can learn advertising-related knowledge. The majority of programs
have departments with titles that simultaneously use the words “advertising”
and “public relations” (e.g., Chung-Ang University, Hanyang University,
Nam-Seoul University). These programs usually offer 30 to 50 credits for
advertising majors in each semester.
In some universities, advertising-related courses are offered under the
auspices of a School of Communication (e.g., Korea University, Sogang
165
University). These have several faculty members in the units who regularly
teach advertising-related courses. Therefore, it is wise to check if there are
advertising-related courses for students in every unit (similar in terms of the
units’ titles) indicated above to determine the current situation of advertising education at the college level in Korea.
Many specific colleges have changed or varied their titles and specific
courses over the years. First, across Korea, there are about 30 to 40 universities that contain departments using the word “advertising” in the title,
such as the Department of Advertising or the Department of Advertising
and Public Relations, including that at Chung-Ang University, which houses the oldest college-level advertising program in the country. In addition,
there are about 45 more universities that have departments with titles that
include the word “advertising.” Table 12-2 shows the list of the colleges/universities belonging to this category.
University
Cheongju University
Chung-Ang University
Chungwoon University
Daegu Catholic University
Dankook University
Dong-Eui University
Dong-Guk University
Dongseo University
Ewha Woman's University
Gwang-Ju University
Gye-Myung University
Halla University
Hallym University
Hankook University of
Foreign Studies
Hansei University
Hanshin University
Hanyang Cyber University
HanYang University
School Unit
School of Journalism
& Information
School of Journalism
& Advertising
School of Journalism
& Communication
School of Mass
Communication
Division of Media
Studies
School of Mass
Communication
School of Broadcasting, Journalism &
Advertising
School of Journalism
& Information
School of Journalism
& Information
School of Media
& Information
School of Advertising
& PR
Honam University
Hongik University
166
School of Advertising
Department
Advertising & PR Major
URL
http://www.cju.ac.kr
Dept. of Advertising & PR
http://www. CAU.ac.kr
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.chungwoon.ac.kr
http://www.cu.ac.kr
Journalism & Advertising
Major
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.dankook.ac.kr
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.ewha.ac.kr
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.gwangju.ac.kr
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.kmu.ac.kr
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.halla.ac.kr
http://masscom.hallym.ac.kr
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.hufs.ac.kr
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.hansei.ac.kr
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising & PR
http://www.hanshin.ac.kr
http://www.hanyangcyber.ac.
kr
http://www.hanyang.ac.kr
Advertising Major
Dept. of Advertising, PR, &
Event
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.dongeui.ac.kr
http://www.dongguk.edu
http://www.dongseo.ac.kr
http://www.honam.ac.kr
http://www.hongik.ac.kr
Hyupsung University
Inje University
International University
of Korea
Jeonju University
Jung-Bu University
Kookmin University
& PR
School of Business
School of Journalism
& Political Science
School of Business
School of Journalism
& Information
Ko-Shin University
Kyung-il University
Kyung-Ju University
Kyungsung University
Mokwon University
NamSeoul University
Pyeongtaek University
Sang-Ji University
Se-Myung University
Seowon University
Sin-Ra University
Sookmyung Women’s
University
Soongsil University
Sunmoon University
School of Journalism
& Advertising
School of Journalism
& Information
School of Journalism
& Advertising
Tongmyung University
Woo-Suk University
Young-San University
Advertising & PR Major
Journalism & Advertising
Major
Dept. of Media Advertising
http://www.uhs.ac.kr
http://www.inje.ac.kr
Advertising & PR Major
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Advertising Major
http://www.jj.ac.kr
http://www.joongbu.ac.kr
http://www.kookmin.ac.kr
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising, PR &
Media
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.kosin.ac.kr
http://www.kiu.ac.kr
http://www.gju.ac.kr
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising & PR
PR & Advertising Major
http://www.semyung.ac.kr
http://www.seowon.ac.kr
http://www.silla.ac.kr
http://www.sookmyung.ac.kr
Dept. of Journalism & PR
Advertising & PR Major
http://www.ssu.ac.kr
http://www.sunmoon.ac.kr
Dept. of Advertising & PR
Dept. of Advertising &
Event
Dept. of Advertising & PR
http://www.tu.ac.kr
http://www.woosuk.ac.kr
http://www.iuk.ac.kr
http://www.ks.ac.kr
http://www.mokwon.ac.kr
http://www.nsu.ac.kr
http://www.ptu.ac.kr
http://www.sangji.ac.kr
http://www.ysu.ac.kr
Table 12-2: Advertising Programs in Universities with the Department Unit.
However, a few universities also have colleges with the word “advertising” in their title, including Kyung-Ju University, Sang-Ji University and
Hong-ik University. Although many units in Korean universities do not
use the word “advertising” in titles, many departments and colleges offer
diverse advertising-related courses For example, in one department called
“Department of Mass Communication,” students may take several advertising–related courses. About 50 departments do not use the word “advertising” in official titles for their units, but it was confirmed that each offered
some advertising-related courses (see Table 12-3).
Universities
Changwon U.
Cheju U.
Chosun U.
Chungnam U.
Daegu U.
Daejeon U.
Daejin U.
Source
http://www.changwon.ac.kr
http://www.cheju.ac.kr
http://www.chosun.ac.kr
http://www.cnu.ac.kr
http://www.daegu.ac.kr
http://www.dju.ac.kr
http://www.daejin.ac.kr
167
Gongju U.
Hanseo U.
Incheon U.
Inha U.
Jeonbuk U.
Jeonnam U.
Kangwon U.
Konkuk U.
Korea Cyber U.
Korea U.
Kyungbuk U.
Kyunghee U.
Kyungnam U.
Kyungwooon U.
Mok-po U.
Paichai U.
Pukyong U.
Pusan U.
Sejong U.
Seoul National U.
Seoul Women’s U.
Sogang U.
Sunchenhyang U.
Sungkyunkwan U.
Wonkwang U.
Woosjuk U.
Yonsei U.
Youngnam U.
Youngsan U.
http://www.kongju.ac.kr
http://www.hanseo.ac.kr
http://www.incheon.ac.kr
http://www.inha.ac.kr
http://www.chonbuk.ac.kr
http://www.jnu.ac.kr
http://www.kangwon.ac.kr/
http://www.konkuk.ac.kr/
http://www.knou.ac.kr/
http://www.korea.ac.kr
http://www.knu.ac.kr
http://www.khu.ac.kr/
http://www.kyungnam.ac.kr
http://www.ikw.ac.kr/
http://www.mokpo.ac.kr
http://www.paichai.ac.kr
http://www.pknu.ac.kr/
http://www.pusan.ac.kr/
http://www.sejong.ac.kr/
http://www.snu.ac.kr
http://www.swu.ac.kr/
http://www.sgcomm.ac.kr
http://www.sch.ac.kr
http://web.skku.edu
http://www.wonkwang.ac.kr/
http://www.woosuk.ac.kr/
http://www.yonsei.ac.kr
http://www.yu.ac.kr/
http://www.ysu.ac.kr/
Table 12-3: The Universities Offering Advertising
Courses under the Independent Units of which
Titles Include the Words “Mass Comm.”, “PR,”
or “Information.”
Traditionally, the most popular title of a unit in this field has long
been the Department of Newspaper and Broadcasting, which has been used
in many colleges in the country. However, some departments use only the
words “public relations,” as well. Those units may have several advertisingrelated courses and advertising major professors. But most universities
mainly have undergraduate programs, with few colleges having graduate
programs in advertising. Only a handful have doctoral programs.
Advertising Education Outside the Colleges
KOBACO
One of the most prestigious and oldest organizations for running
non-college level advertising education in Korea is KOBACO (Korea
Broadcast Advertising Corporation), which was established in 1981. KOBACO had several sub-organizations responsible for diverse tasks, including
selling specific vehicles for TV commercials. It also had a full-sized advertis-
168
ing education program called “The Institute for Advertising Education,”
which was established in November, 1987. The Institute was a non-profit
subsidiary of KOBACO, and its major purpose was to upgrade the advertising industry in Korea by re-educating advertising practitioners. However,
not only advertising practitioners but also college students who wanted to
enter advertising agencies in the near future could be educated in this Institute if they passed some qualifying tests.
In a joint program with IAA (International Advertising Association),
the Institute has run special advertising education programs for 22 years,
and the institute has had close to 230,000 graduates, as of 2009. IAA officially certified KOBACO’s program as the official advertising education
program that educates professionals and students to be international advertising experts (the second-highest acknowledgement among Asian countries).
Among diverse sub-programs conducted in the Institute, the IAAKOBACO programs are offered for advertising professionals and college
students separately. For about a year, this program teaches basic principles
of advertising, professional theories, and up-to-date trends in advertising.
For participants who complete the program and successfully pass the graduation test, IAA grants the IAA AD Diploma I (students) or II (advertising
practitioners). These diplomas acknowledge that the participants have undergone all required courses to be international advertising experts.
In addition to the IAA-KOBACO program, KOBACO has run several joint advertising education programs, as well, including units in other
colleges nationwide (a total of 27 universities, including Seoul Women’s
University and Kyungwon University). The students from these schools can
obtain credits by taking the advertising-related courses from KOBACO.
KFAA
The second major advertising education institute for non-advertising
professionals is KFAA (Korea Federation of Advertising Associations),
which also houses what has been considered to be one of the most popular
databases regarding diverse characteristics in Korean advertising business:
www.adic.co.kr (Korea Advertising Information Center).
In 1999, KFAA opened the website for the first time, and it has been
one of the most popular and helpful information sources for Korean advertising professionals and students. It has been used by both for more than 10
years. In addition, KFAA has sponsored several advertising festivals, awards,
and competitions among college students, so that it has provided several
169
opportunities for students to experience the advertising planning process by
competing with other teams in the nation.
In 2005, the KFAA held the first “Korean College Students AD
Challenge.” A more developed and bigger scale-competition called KOSAC
(Korea Student Advertising Competition) was started by KFAA in 2008,
providing important motivation for students who want to enter the advertising industry after graduation. This is the biggest advertising competition
among college students in the nation, and academics, practitioners and government officials participate as staff members and judges. Many colleges in
the nation participate, with college student teams under the lead of major
professors, and they are required to plan campaigns from marketing research, situation analysis, concept development, idea brain-storming, producing actual advertisements, and professional presentations. The colleges
go through regional competitions in designated areas, and winners from
each area compete in the final competition. Members of the winning team
generally are recruited to start as advertising professionals upon college
graduation.
Others
In addition, the C&A Expert (the Institute for Advertising Education
in KOBACO) and Korea Association for Advertisers (KAA) have also made
efforts to educate advertising-related professionals and college students. In
the case of C&A Expert (Ad college), about 7,000 graduates have taken
marketing and advertising-related courses from about 300 experts. However, the KAA mainly focuses on re-educating advertising professionals by
holding several workshops such as “media strategy workshops,” “ public relations strategy workshops” and “Internet advertising strategy workshops.”
Besides the organizations indicated above, several advertising agencies have
their own educational programs for insiders, such as those offered by Cheil
Communications, Ino-cean, and TBWA.
170
History of Advertising Education
in Malaysia
Teck Hua Ngu
Mara University of Technology, Malaysia
Introduction
The history of advertising education in Malaysia began not in colleges
or universities, but with the advertising industry itself. In 1952, the Malaysian Advertisers Association (MAA) was formed. Since its inception, it has
had a vision of educating advertising professionals. Its foray into advertising
education had humble beginnings, in the form of Tea Talks on the advertising industry organized for industry personnel.
Professional body involvement
In the early 1970s, the MAA and the Association of Accredited Advertising Agencies (4As) set up the Joint Education Committee (JEC) to offer advertising courses at both the certificate and diploma levels. Courses
were industry-oriented, and industry professionals taught the courses. The
courses were funded by the MAA/4As. It was successful in attracting and
graduating a few hundred students, both at the certificate and diploma levels. Many of the students were young executives in advertising, marketing,
and the media industries (Fernandez, 1990).
At the certificate level, the courses offered were related to the advertising field. They included introductory courses in marketing, advertising,
public relations, sales promotion, media, market research, and behavioral
studies. At the diploma level, the courses delve deeper into similar subjects,
with more orientation to application and practice.
Most of the instructors were senior managers from the advertising
and media industries. The academic parts of the courses were supplemented
by periodic seminars and workshops presented by industry experts from
overseas and locally.
In 1981, the JEC succeeded in securing a franchise with the Communication Advertising and Marketing Education Foundation of the U.K.
(CAM) to offer the CAM Diploma Course in Malaysia. However, this franchise agreement was terminated a few years later. This was followed by an-
171
other short duration of cooperation with the International Advertising Association of New York (IAA), whereby several students successfully completed and graduated with the IAA Diploma in Advertising.
Birth of the Advertising, Communication, Training Committee
(ACT)
In 1990, the JEC was replaced by a new entity: the Advertising,
Communication, Training Committee (ACT). Similar to JEC, ACT consisted of professionals from advertising, communication, marketing, and
media. It began by offering professional courses in the evenings, followed
by certificate and diploma courses. To further enhance the academic training of the graduates, an internship program was established to place graduates in member agencies of the 4As.
Institute of Advertising Communication Training (IACT)
The ACT eventually became the Institute of Advertising Communication Training (IACT) as a full-fledged education institution in 1993 to
train advertising professionals in the country. Today, IACT is known as
IACT College. It is the only education institution in Malaysia accredited
by IAA Global. Its slogan is proudly presented as “Founded, Endorsed &
Taught by Industry Professionals.” Today, it is a full-fledged private higher
education institution offering the following courses:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Certificate in Communication Studies,
Diploma in Advertising/Marketing Communications,
Diploma in Marketing Communication,
Diploma in Broadcasting,
Diploma in Graphic Design,
Diploma in Creative Multimedia, and
Diploma in Sales & Marketing.
One unique feature of the IACT College is that it has entered into
twinning agreements with foreign universities, whereby its students could
choose to proceed to bachelor’s degree programs offered at those universities. To date, it has partner universities in Australia (RMIT University;
Charles Sturt Univeristy; University of Canberra), New Zealand (AUT
University), England (University of Hertfordshire), and the United States
(Hawaii Pacific University; Northwood University).
Other Advertising Professional’s foray into Education
One of the original members of JEC, local advertising guru Lim Kok
Wing, also ventured into the education business by setting up the Limkokwing Institute of Creative Technology (LICT) in 1991. The Institute
172
offered a wide range of courses, mostly creative and design-based. The Institute enjoyed phenomenal growth, and it was upgraded to a full-fledged
university named after the founder, the Limkokwing University of Creative
Technology (LUCT) in 2007. Today, it has established overseas campuses
in the U.K., Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, China, Cambodia, and Indonesia. It will soon set up a campus in New York City in the United States.
The Role of Public Universities
The Science University of Malaysia (USM) was the first public university in Malaysia to offer a communication program in 1970. However, it
offered only two courses in advertising: Advertising I and Advertising II
(Adnan, 1993).
The second university to offer advertising courses was the School of
Mass Communication, Mara Institute (now University) of Technology
(UiTM) in 1972. It was the only university offering advertising as a field of
specialization, with several advertising subjects (detailed description of the
program below).
The National University of Malaysia (UKM) is the third public university in Malaysia to offer advertising courses. However, only two courses,
Advertising I and Advertising II, are offered in the Communication Department under the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities.
In 1977, Malaysia’s premier public university, the Malaya University
(UM), offered advertising as an optional subject in the Creative and Descriptive Writing Program, under the Department of Malay Studies, Faculty
of Arts and Social Sciences (Adnan, 1993).
At the Agricultural (now Putra) University of Malaysia (UPM), the
only advertising course offered was Principles of Advertising. This course
was offered by the Center for Extension and Continuing Education, in
1979, as an optional subject under the auspices of the Department of Development Communication (Adnan, 1993, Hamdan, 1986).
Focus: Advertising Program at UiTM
Advertising studies as a field of specialization began in 1972 at UiTM
with several advertising courses, including Principles of Advertising, Principles of Marketing, Marketing Research, Media Planning, Copywriting, and
Advertising Campaign Project. In recent years the advertising curriculum
has expanded to include Online Advertising and International Advertising.
Today, Adnan Hashim, one of the earliest graduates of the Advertising Program of UiTM, has become the Dean of the Faculty of Communi-
173
cation and Media Studies at UiTM. The advertising program at UiTM is
the largest in the country. The faculty consists of 10 lecturers in various areas of specialization. About 360 students are enrolled in the program. There
are two intakes each year, with about 60 students each intake.
Students are enrolled in a three-year program and will graduate with
Bachelor of Mass Communication (Advertising) degree. The last semester
of their studies is an 18-week internship in advertising agencies as well as
clients’ marketing departments. The students submit a report after their internship ends, and some are directly employed by the agencies where they
do their internship.
Outstanding Graduate: Azizul R. Kallahan
Azizul was among the first cohort of advertising students (19751978) to graduate from UiTM. He worked in some of the biggest international and local advertising agencies (SSCB Lintas; Ted Bates; Union 45;
McCann) before setting up his own agency in 1985. He partnered with
Spencer Wing to set up the SpencerAzizul Sdn. Bhd. (Pte. Ltd.), a totally
integrated agency. He has become one of the most successful and illustrious
graduates of the Advertising Program that UiTM has produced. Many other graduates have also set up smaller agencies.
References
Adnan, Hashim. 1993. Advertising Education in Malaysia: Present Status and Future Directions, in Mat Pauzi Abd. Rahman and Mazni Buyong (Eds.) , Advertising and Promotions: Trends and Reflections, Bangi, Selangor: Jabatan Komunikasi, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 61-70.
Fernandez, Oscar. 1990. “The Story of Advertising in Malaysia.” Ad Asia 1990 Memorabilia. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Advertisers Association.
Mohd. Hamdan, Adnan. 1986. “Mass Communication and Journalism Education in Malaysia.” Journal Komunikasi. 4, 67-76.
174
Advertising Education in Singapore
May O. Lwin
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Rebecca Ye
University of Oxford, UK
Tim Clark
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
History and Development of Advertising Education in
Singapore - Milestones
1938
The Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts was founded in 1938 with an inaugural
class of 14 Fine Art students
1969
Baharuddin Vocational Institute started operations in 1969, offering several
courses such as Graphic Design
1984
LASALLE College of the Arts started a specialist tertiary program
1990
Establishment of the Institute of Advertising Singapore (IAS)
1992
The first public university program offering full-time degree programs
(bachelor’s, master’s and PhD) in advertising and public relations, amongst
other communication fields, commenced at the Wee Kim Wee School of
Communication and Information (WKWSCI), Nanyang Technological
University
2001
The Crowbar Awards, a student competition accepting entries in advertising,
design, photography, interactive and film, was created by the Association of
Accredited Advertising Agents Singapore
2002
The Singapore Government announced the Creative Industries Development
Strategy
2005
The launch of the School of Art, Design and Media (ADM), Singapore’s first
comprehensive professional Art School
2008
IAS hosted the World Effie Festival in Singapore
2010
Launch of the Asia Pacific Advertising and Marketing Congress (APPIES), a
marketing and advertising congress reaching out to marketers, practitioners and
students
175
Notable Advertising Educators in Singapore
Before the 1980s, international advertising agencies were ruled by expatriates (expats), mostly from the UK, USA or Australia. Education to
prepare Singaporeans for a career in advertising was almost non-existent.
And the expats were mostly too busy learning the ropes of their jobs to provide much in the way of in-house training.
Allein Moore, publisher of AdAsia Magazine, started as Creative Director of Batey Ads in 1979. Here’s how
he remembers the scene then:
My art directors within the ad agency were
all trained at an institution called Baharuddin Vocational Institute. I volunteered to
speak to the students on design and advertising. I was most surprised when I walked into the classroom to find the students dressed
in uniform. From my teaching experience in
the UK, I was used to students with long
hair and tattoos! These students were also
quiet as church mice!
I soon realized that the students were attending a vocational course and therefore were
being trained as “artists” to go into the advertising industry (there were few real branding or design groups in those days, so this
was the source of employment). Back then, agency art directors were not involved in conceptualization, but were there to execute the copywriter’s ideas.
The students needed to learn how to paste up artwork and order typesetting,
and such basics.
One illustrious beneficiary of that basic education system, Patrick
Low, went on to become one of Singapore’s best-known creative directors,
with countless international creative awards to his name. Patrick was voted
Creative Director of the Year in 2007, when he was serving his 21st year at Y
& R. He currently is the creative partner of his own advertising consultancy, Goodfellas. He still finds time to give students at polytechnics and universities the benefit of his experience. He remembers with a smile how
tough it was in the old days. For someone interested in art and design,
there was really only one choice: Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA).
But here he could only learn how to draw and paint. Patrick recalls the following:
176
Armed with a few oil paintings and charcoal sketches, I went about looking
for a job as a Commercial Artist, a term used to describe Visualisers and Art
Directors in those days. Everywhere I went, I was told that my qualifications
were not relevant to the job I was required to perform.
Eventually, a gentleman who I showed
my paintings to, advised me to enroll
in an Advertising Art course at Baharuddin Vocational Institute. The
government in those days did not value
right-brain thinkers. There weren’t
any colleges, polytechnics, or universities teaching Design and Visual Arts.
To study Graphic Design, I had three
choices – England, Canada, or the
United States of America – none of
which was feasible, since my parents
weren’t wealthy and it would have
blown their life savings just to pay for
my tuition. So, for my two years effort
at Baharuddin, I was finally rewarded
with a Trade Certificate. Design and
Advertising wasn’t a profession, but a trade, in those days. And to add salt to
injury, I had to don a school uniform and attend a flag raising ceremony every morning.
But I learned one thing at Baharuddin. That is, if I wanted something real
bad in life, I would have to swallow my pride and persevere. After all, if I
could make it through National Service, what’s two more years in a uniform?
The writing side of the creative departments had even less opportunity for training. Tim Clark, currently a lecturer at Nanyang Technological
University’s Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information,
remembers this well. In 1983 he was recruited in
London to join Grant Kenyon & Eckhardt
(GK&E) as Creative Director. He recalls:
GK&E was the third biggest agency in Singapore and
this was my first job as Creative Director. Actually,
many of my contemporaries were also learning on the
job how to be creative directors, including Neil French,
over at Ogilvy & Mather. Little did we all know then
that Neil would help to raise the creative profile of this
advertising backwater to one of international renown.
One thing that struck me about the creative departments of agencies in Singapore was that the English-
177
language copywriters were nearly all female. It was explained to me, then,
that this was because the education system placed high value on science and
technical subjects especially for males looking to carve a “serious” career in
life. The softer option and luxury of studying arts and social sciences naturally fell to female students. To make matters worse, the nascent advertising industry was regarded as rather an offbeat career choice, so educated young
women were steered towards teaching and administration. This resulted in a
serious dearth of local copywriting talent.
One person who did a great deal to organize the much-needed training for the advertising industry was (and still is) David Teo Keng Hock. His
career began in teaching, so when he
was working at the Straits Times, he
was asked to be their representative on
the Joint Education Committee founded by the three advertising trade bodies
– Singapore Advertisers Association
(SAA), Association of Accredited Advertising Agents Singapore (4As), and
the Advertising Media Owners Association of Singapore (AMOAS). In his
words:
The committee was set up to upgrade the
training for advertising practitioners offered
by the Adult Education Board, which later
became known as the Vocational and Industrial Training Board (VITB). Through association with the CAM Foundation of the
UK, this organization offered Certificate and
Diploma courses in Communication Studies. It was from this humble beginning that
the Singapore Institute of Management
(SIM) (now UniSIM) and the Management
Development Institute of Singapore (MDIS)
sprang up. But there was no organization totally dedicated to the training of advertising
practitioners until 1990, when the Institute
of Advertising Singapore (IAS) was established, and I was invited to be its founding
president.
Another veteran of advertising education, who began his career as a teacher
and who also found his way into the Straits Times, is Patrick Mowe. He
178
went on to make waves in book publishing and distribution, and he founded two of Singapore’s best-known publications: Silver Kris and Female Magazine.
He can testify to the improvements made in vocational training by
David Teo and his associates, because he himself was an early beneficiary of
a CAM diploma in Communications Studies. When IAS needed help to
revive its activities in 1998, Patrick came out of retirement to join Dr.
Donald Ee, former president YP Chan, and returning president David Teo
to expand the scope of its operations. As executive director of IAS, Patrick
explored ways of bringing an interest in advertising to a broader audience:
I started the events side of IAS in 1998. We began by launching the Singapore Advertising Hall of Fame Awards (replacing the Max Lewis Awards) to
recognize the best campaigns and most outstanding individuals contributing
to the Singapore ad industry. We also conceptualized the Singapore International Advertising Congress in order to engage the advertising industry and
educate the general public about the advertising profession. And both these
events took off in 1999.
Patrick’s efforts to educate the broader public made an international
breakthrough in 2003, when he went to New York to pitch for, and win,
the chance for Singapore to host the EFFIE Singapore Awards. This was
followed by IAS organizing the World Effie Festival and the Asia Pacific
Effie Awards event, designed to recognize effectiveness in advertising, in
2008. High profile advertising industry leaders gathered in Singapore from
all over the world, and with none other than M.M. Lee Kuan Yew appearing as guest speaker. In 2010, Patrick launched the Asia Pacific Advertising
and Marketing Congress (APPIES), reaching out to marketers and practitioners as well as students of marketing communications.
Advertising education in Singapore has certainly come a long way and
students now come here from Europe and North America, as well as from
around the region, to study marketing communication at every level from a
professional certificate at IAS, to a PhD at Nanyang Technological University (NTU). Here is how Tim Clark sums up his experience:
When I arrived in Singapore in the early 1980s, the writing was on the wall.
The absolute domination of expats couldn’t last. Locals had to be groomed
to take over. My first boss, London-trained Y.P. Chan, was the first Singaporean to be made M.D. of an international advertising agency. Patrick Low, at
Y & R, was one of the first Singaporeans to become Creative Director of an
international agency. And he was locally trained. Education was the key,
and veterans like me had a duty to contribute. For that reason I began lecturing part-time at IAS in 1990, and later at Ngee Ann Poly. Today I’m a
179
full-time lecturer, joining the many for whom advertising began or ended
with teaching. And I now realize that the advertising and teaching professions have much in common.
Advertising Education Programs in Singapore
The Singapore Landscape
The Creative Industries (CI)16 in Singapore is anticipated to be a key
growth sector for the Singapore economy. CI currently hires about
110,000 workers in more than 8,000 establishments, and there will be an
estimated demand of more than 10,000 creative workers by 2012 (Singapore Workforce Development Authority, 2010).
In 2002, the Singapore government announced the Creative
Industries Development Strategy. As part of the push for creativity, the
“Design Singapore” Initiative was the first national collaborative strategy to
spearhead the promotion of design and tap into Singapore’s business,
artistic, cultural, and technological resources and capabilities (Economic
Review Committee, 2002). The initiative sought to bring together the
different players in the design ecosystem: enterprise, expertise and
education.
The Media Development Authority (MDA) announced its “Media
21” vision in 2003--to invest S$100 million over five years, in order to
cultivate a vibrant media industry. MDA also introduced the Media
Education Scheme in 2003, to fund the education and training for existing
students and professionals in the media industry (Media Development
Authority, 2003).
These governmental initiatives propelled the economic contribution
of the creative cluster and compelled various educational institutions to
initiate or strengthen their existing visual arts and design programs. Vis-àvis established programs like Medicine and the Arts and Social Sciences (the
former celebrated its centennial anniversary in 2005 and the latter turned
80 in 2009), advertising education in Singapore could be considered a
16
In Singapore, the Creative Industries (CI) is defined as “industries which are inspired by
cultural and artistic creativity and have the potential to create economic value through the
generation and exploitation of intellectual property.” This definition is adapted from the UK
definition in the Creative Industries Mapping Document (Nov 1998) by the UK Creative
Industries Taskforce. In Singapore, the Creative Industries are broadly classified into the arts,
media, design and software & IT services (MICA, 2009).
180
relatively new kid on the block, the discipline making its debut into local
educational institutions at the later part of the twentieth century.
Since its entry, however, advertising programs have grown in
popularity and have been delivered in degree-granting institutions,
polytechnics, and vocational institutions across Singapore. These advertising
modules are typically tied to the school’s communication or design
programs, resulting in a focus in either the management or creative aspect of
advertising.
To date, there are close to twenty institutions in Singapore that
provide advertising education programs. These schools, and the type(s) of
academic qualifications they offer for the various advertising-related
programs, are listed in Table 14-1.
2
University / Institution
Wee Kim Wee School of
Communication & Information
(Nanyang Technological University)
Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts
3
La Salle College of the Arts
4
Raffles Design Institute
5
School of Art, Design and Media
(Nanyang Technological University)
6
7
Management Development Institute
of Singapore
Singapore Institute of Management
8
Curtin Singapore
9
Kaplan Singapore
√
10
11
Shelton College International
TMC Academy for Advanced
Education
Temasek Design School (Temasek
Polytechnic)
School of Film and Media Studies
(Ngee Ann Polytechnic)
Centre for Culture &
Communication & School of
Technology for the Arts (Republic
Polytechnic)
School of Design (Nanyang
Polytechnic)
School of Communication, Arts and
Social Sciences (Singapore
Polytechnic)
First Media Design School
√
1
Cert.
√
√
Dipl.
B
M
D
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
12
13
14
15
16
17
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
181
18
19
Institute of Advertising, Singapore
Chatsworth Medi@rt Academy
School of Communication and
Design
√
√
√
√
Table 14-1: Institutions in Singapore offering certificates,
diplomas, or degrees in advertising.
Leaders in Advertising Education: Degree Granting Institutions
Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information,
Nanyang Technological University
The Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information
(WKWSCI) has its roots in the Department of Mass Communication,
situated in the National University of Singapore. One year after it was
established, it relocated to Nanyang Technological University, where a
freestanding School of Communication Studies was established in 1992.
The school enrolled its first class of 96 undergraduates and master's
degree students in 1993. In 2006, the school received an endowment
named after the late president Wee Kim Wee and was thus renamed to
WKWSCI. By 2010, WKWSCI’s student population (undergraduate and
postgraduate) stood at approximately 1,300.
WKWSCI endeavours to be the premier school of communication
and information in Asia, with international eminence. Its vision is to
educate and nurture communication and information professionals and
academics, to advance knowledge, and to serve society. The institution
offers the Bachelor of Communication Studies (with Honours), Masters in
Mass Communication, and Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
The Division of Public and Promotional Communication grooms
students in the fields of public relations, advertising, marketing
communication management and media planning. Upon graduation,
graduates can find careers as public affairs managers, media planners,
account executives, creative directors, consultants, marketing specialists, and
publicists in corporate communication settings, government roles, and
advertising and public relations agencies.
Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts
The Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA) was founded in 1938,
with an inaugural batch of 14 Fine Art students. NAFA has since been
widely recognised as Singapore’s pre-eminent tertiary institution for artistic
studies. Between 1999 and 2009, 11 of NAFA alumni were awarded
Cultural Medallions, the prestigious national accolade for artistic
182
achievements conferred by the President of the Republic of Singapore
(Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts, 2010).
NAFA offers Diploma, BA (with Honours), and part-time Specialist
Certificate programs. The BA in Visual Communication with Business,
delivered in collaboration with SIM University, provides students at NAFA
the opportunity to pursue advanced study in visual communication and
acquire skills and knowledge in business. The visual communication aspect
of their learning will provide them with essential skills in visual arts, digital
media, design and communication and prepare them for careers in the
design and advertising industries.
LASALLE College of the Arts
Founded in 1984 by De La Salle educator, Brother Joseph McNally,
LASALLE College of the Arts is a specialist tertiary institution leading
contemporary arts education in fine art, design, media, and performing arts
in the Asia Pacific (LASALLE, 2010). The Diploma and BA (Hons) in
Design & Communication programs offer three different specializations,
including Advertising Communication, which fosters the idea of
communication and the media as important cultural mechanisms in
reflecting everyday life. The program requires students to understand good
advertising concepts and design communication principles, and its teaching
philosophy focuses on practice-based learning, which allows students to
discover and be enriched in an interdisciplinary environment.
Raffles Design Institute
Raffles Design Institute was founded in 1990 through a private
initiative between “Raffles LaSalle Limited” and “LaSalle College Group”
(founded in 1959), with the help of the Singapore Economic Development
Board and the Canadian International Development Agency. In
conjunction with the change of name, Raffles LaSalle Colleges have since
been rebranded as Raffles Design Institute (RDI) in and around the region
(Raffles Design Institute, 2010). The vision of Raffles is to be the premier
creative arts, design, lifestyle and business management education Group in
Asia Pacific.
At RDI, the study of graphic design involves an in-depth understanding of a graphic designer’s role in history, society, and research.
Students have the opportunity to explore issues of culture, economics, and
social implications of graphic design solutions. Students hone their multidisciplinary skills through major practical projects, to offer creative and
practical solutions. This training seeks to prepare students for challenging
183
careers combining creativity, concepts and computer software skills in the
highly competitive advertising and publishing industries.
Management Development Institute of Singapore
The Management Development Institute of Singapore (MDIS),
founded in 1956, is Singapore's oldest not-for-profit professional institute
for lifelong learning (MDIS, 2009). The MDIS School of Media and
Communications was one of the first schools to offer mass communications
degree programs and the first institution in Singapore to collaborate with an
American university –Oklahoma City University – to offer mass
communications programs.
Its full suite of advertising-related programs includes the Master of
Arts in Mass Communication, Graduate Certificate in Mass Communications, BA (in Liberal Studies with concentration in Mass
Communication),
Professional
Certificate
in
Marketing
and
Communications
Management,
Advanced
Diploma
in
Mass
Communications, and a Diploma in Mass Communication.
School of Art, Design and Media, Nanyang Technological University
The School of Art, Design and Media (ADM), founded in 2005,
provides unique educational experiences that facilitate students gaining a
deep understanding of the arts, design, and media fields, in dialogue with
the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and technology.
Interdisciplinary learning underlies the majors offered by ADM. The
School also aims to develop communication and management skills at the
highest levels, while refining skills necessary to engage the field
professionally, both independently and through teamwork, in the
realization of experimental and professional art, design, and media projects
(Nanyang Technological University, 2010).
Although relatively young as a school, ADM has attracted faculty
members with significant contributions to arts and design education, or
with significant professional experience in the creative industries. The
school offers the Bachelor of Fine Arts and Master of Fine Arts, and was to
launch a Doctor of Philosophy program in academic year 2010 – 2011.
Other Qualifications
Temasek Design School, Temasek Polytechnic
Once better known as the Baharuddin Vocational Institute, Temasek
Design School started operations under the Vocational and Industrial
184
Training Board in 1969 at Kim Keat Vocational School. It offered several
courses from Graphic Design to Dressmaking, mainly to serve the design
and tourism industry (Temasek Polytechnic, 2010). In 1990, with the
establishment of Temasek Polytechnic, 192 students from Baharuddin were
absorbed into the Polytechnic's School of Design.
Temasek offers the Diploma in Visual Communication. The school
endeavours to train students to master the fundamental skills and
knowledge relating to creative thinking, drawing, digital media, graphic
design, and design studies. It grooms students to gain an intellectual
understanding of visual information and messages, how to manage, and
turn these abilities and knowledge into memorable and effective solutions.
Through this program, Temasek aims to prepare its students for design
professions in advertising, graphic design, branding, and multimedia
agencies.
School of Film and Media Studies, Ngee Ann Polytechnic
The School of Film & Media Studies (FMS) was established in 1989.
It was the first tertiary institution in Singapore to offer a full-time Diploma
in Mass Communication (MCM) and subsequently, the Diploma in
Advertising and Public Relations in 2009 (Ngee Ann Polytechnic, 2009).
The FMS learning experience hinges on the application of theoretical
and practical knowledge. The Diploma in Advertising and Public Relations
– the first polytechnic diploma course in Singapore to offer combined
specialisations in Advertising and Public Relations – allows for practiceoriented, agency-based learning that offers real-time campaigns planning for
external clients under the mentorship of industry experts.
Chatsworth Medi@rt Academy School of
Communication and Design
Chatsworth Medi@rt Academy (CMA) School of Communication
and Design prides itself in being the only marketing, advertising and design
integrated school in Singapore. The School provides professional and industrial oriented courses and programs to equip participants with the relevant knowledge and skills to engage in communications and creative design.
CMA offers the Professional Diploma in Advertising & Design, Diploma in
Communication Design, and Professional Certificate in Communication
Design.
The Industrial Orientation Program at CMA provides opportunities
for students to come into contact with the creative industries, interact with
professionals and veterans of the industries and gain work-relevant experience. The program is delivered via the following activities: (a) Adman Talk
185
Profile, (b) Experiential Learning, (c) Creative Networking, (d) Apprenticeship, and (e) Internship.
Support from the Advertising Industry
Professional Internships / Industrial Attachments
Educators can do so only much in the knowledge-transfer process to
enrich the learning experience of students (Frith & Chen, 2006). In their
2006 Singapore study on Insights on the Education Needs of Aspiring
Advertising Professionals, Frith and Chen concluded that the most apparent
implication from their findings of interviews with practitioners was that
schools should ensure that a formal internship program is in place for
students to receive on-the-job training as well as learn skills not commonly
taught in schools. Local industry practitioners are also of the view that
practical education experience is a key factor for students to secure a job in
the advertising industry, eventually (Frith & Chen, 2006).
Institutions like WKWSCI have a mandatory six-month professional
internship program built into the four-year curriculum. Students head out
for six months to intern at advertising agencies that range from the world’s
major international agencies to boutique firms. At FMS, students get to
participate in internship opportunities with local and overseas agencies over
a 20-week duration. The support and participation of advertising agencies
in these professional internship programs have therefore been crucial in
ensuring that students receive real-world learning opportunities.
AWARD School Asia
AWARD School is a special course run by the Australasian Writers
and Art Directors Association for people who want to become copywriters
or art directors in advertising. The 16-week part-time course runs across
Australia, New Zealand, and Asia, including Singapore. Led by AWARD
Committee executives and senior creatives across the Asia Pacific, AWARD
School offers amazing opportunities for budding advertising art directors
and copywriters to learn from the industry’s finest (AWARD School Asia,
2009). Top agencies in Singapore have been involved in tutoring on
Thursday evenings, and on Monday evenings lectures are delivered by the
industry’s top creative leaders and innovators.
Professional Organizations
The Institute of Advertising Singapore (IAS) has been actively
promoting and assisting the upgrading of advertising practitioner standards
186
since 1990. Its vision is to see Singapore acknowledged internationally as
an influential "diffusion hub" of world class advertising people,
professionalism, practice and product (Institute of Advertising Singapore,
2007).
With a comprehensive range of educational and training programs,
the Institute has endeavoured to bring relevance to education, by ensuring
that IAS’ programs are taught by industry professionals. These lecturers
and speakers include creative directors from established advertising firms.
IAS offers both professional certificate and diploma programs.
The Association of Accredited Advertising Agents Singapore, better
known as the 4A’s, was founded in 1948. The 4A’s represents advertising
and marketing communications practitioners, agencies and related
businesses in Singapore. It works in close co-operation with other related
trade associations, schools and government bodies (Association of
Accredited Advertising Agents Singapore, 2009).
Student Competitions
Launched in 2001, the Crowbar Awards, Singapore, highlights the
best emerging talent in creative communications and design. Leading
creative practitioners judge entries from across six categories – advertising,
design, interactive, photography, film, and the Crowbar Challenge.
Organized by the 4A’s in Singapore, it is an annual platform for emerging
young creatives to showcase their work and learn from their peers.
Speaking on the value of the Crowbar Awards in the industry, Troy
Lim and Jon Loke, Creative Director and Head of Art at Ogilvy & Mather
Advertising, respectively, commented:
Creative candidates looking for a foot-in would do well to have a Crowbar
award in hand. It demonstrates a person's level of talent, passion and
initiative more than any resume or CV ever could. Students also get the
opportunity to see how respected industry doyens respond to their work. A
Crowbar Award serves as a mirror that never lies: if you're great, you go
home with the spoils. If you play it safe, you're ignored - welcome to the
business of creativity! (Association of Accredited Advertising Agents
Singapore, 2010).
Continuing Education and Training for the Practitioner
The Creative Industries Workforce Skills Qualification (CI WSQ) is
an initiative to upgrade the capabilities of Singapore’s creative workforce.
Working in collaboration with economic agencies, employers, and creative
187
practitioners in the industries, Singapore’s Workforce Development Agency
(WDA) and the Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts
(MICA) developed the CI WSQ to encapsulate workplace competencies for
the Creative Industries (Workforce Development Agency, 2010). There is
no academic pre-requisite for admission into the CI WSQ training program
and progressive qualification pathways can be created to facilitate career
advancement prospects.
WSQ training courses are competency-based and practice-oriented;
they include attachments to companies and real projects to reinforce
learning (MICA, 2010). CI WSQ training has provided an avenue for midcareer switchers, fresh graduates, and existing media professionals to acquire
new skills to switch into the creative industries.
The Institute of Advertising Singapore offers WSQ Professional
Courses in three areas: (i) preparing a design presentation; (ii) developing
and managing business development strategies to enlarge clientele; and (iii)
promoting and publicising creative work and services. Since 2007, when
the first WSQ course for the CI was introduced, over 1,000 CI
professionals have taken part in such training (MICA, 2010).
Future of Advertising Education in Singapore
DesignSingapore (2009 → 2015)
The strategy for the DesignSingapore Initiative in the first five years
of its inaugural phase, from 2004 to 2009 (Dsg-I), was to level up both the
“supply” and the “demand” for quality design (DesignSingapore Council,
2009). The initiative focused on design capability and appreciation of
design, seeding of “upstream” and “downstream” activities, and
strengthening designers’ professional standing locally and internationally.
For the DesignSingapore Initiative Phase 2, 2009-2015 (Dsg-II), a
new set of strategies will be implemented. One of the chief objectives of
these strategies will be to accelerate the transformation and growth of the
design cluster (DesignSingapore Council, 2009). Capability development
will thus be key as educational institutions play a crucial and important role
in delivering the quantity, quality, and “right type” of professionals to
support these aspirations. DesignSingapore will also work jointly with the
International Advisory Panel (IAP) and relevant agencies, such as the
Singapore Ministry of Education and the Workforce Development Agency,
to review policies and initiate projects that will redefine design learning.
188
Conclusion
In a short span of time, advertising education in Singapore has
advanced tremendously. There are now educational opportunities for all
facets of advertising work locally, and for the different levels of expertise
required in the industry. Singapore has positioned itself well as a regional
educational hub. And with the government having identified the potential
for creative industries, initiatives and support are growing in the educational
arena. The way forward for advertising education in Singapore certainly is
bright in terms of attracting regional and international educators and
students, as well as in terms of the widening number of opportunities for
Singaporeans.
References
Association of Accredited Advertising Agents Singapore. (31 March 2010). Duo from Ogilvy
to helm Crowbar Awards 2010. Retrieved May 10, 2010 from
http://4as.org.sg/resources_media.htm
Association of Accredited Advertising Agents Singapore. (2009). About Us. Retrieved May
10, 2010 from http://4as.org.sg/resources_media.htm
AWARD School Asia (2009). Overview. Retrieved May 15, 2010 from
http://www.awardschoolasia.com/index.php?p=94
DesignSingapore Council. (2009). Dsg-II: Strategic Blueprint of the DesignSingapore
Initiative. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from
https://www.designsingapore.org/pdf/Dsg_II_Strategic_Blueprint.pdf
Economic Review Committee. (2002). Creative Industries Development Strategy - Chapter
3: Design Singapore. Retrieved May 10, 2010 from
http://app.mti.gov.sg/data/pages/507/doc/ERC_SVS_CRE_Chapter3.pdf
Frith, K. & Chen, J. (2006). Insights on the Education Needs of Aspiring Advertising
Professionals. Media Asia, 33 (1&2), pp. 79 – 86.
Henry, C. (2007). Entrepreneurship in the Creative Industries: An International Perspective.
Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, UK.
Institute of Advertising Singapore. (2007). IAS Vision and Mission. Retrieved May 10, 2010
from http://www.ias.org.sg/about/vision_mission.html
LASALLE College of the Arts. (2010). About Us. Retrieved May 11, 2010 from
http://www.lasalle.edu.sg/index.php/about-us
Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. (2010, May). Opening Speech by
Mr Lui Tuck Yew, Acting Minister For Information, Communications And The Arts,
at The Opening of the Creative Industries Fair 2010, 21 May 2010, at Marina Square
Shopping Centre Atrium
Management Development Institute of Singapore (MDIS). (2009). Overview. Retrieved
May 10, 2010 from http://www.mdis.edu.sg/About/Overview
Media Development Authority, Singapore (2003). MDA awards S$560,000 to groom media
talents 14 recipients get opportunity to pursue their passion and nurture their media
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skills. Retrieved May 10, 2010 from
http://www.mda.gov.sg/NewsAndEvents/PressRelease/2003/Pages/25072003.aspx
Ministry of Information and the Arts (MITA). (June 2002). Addendum to the MITA Green
Paper on “Investing in Cultural Capital: A New Agenda for a Creative and Connected
Nation”, Retrieved May 10, 2010 from
http://www.mda.gov.sg/NewsAndEvents/PressRelease/2003/Pages/25072003.aspx
Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts (MICA). (2009). Creative
Industries. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from http://app.mica.gov.sg/Default.aspx?tabid=66
Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA). (2010). About Us. Retrieved May 10, 2010 from
http://www.nafa.edu.sg/aboutus.htm
Nanyang Technological University. (2010). ADM - Mission and Vision. Retrieved May 10,
2010 from http://www.adm.ntu.edu.sg/AboutADM/Pages/MissionandVision.aspx
Ngee Ann Polytechnic (2009). About Film and Media Studies: Introduction. Retrieved May
10, 2010 from http://www.np.edu.sg/fms/aboutus/Pages/introduction.aspx
Raffles Design Institute. (2010). About Us. Retrieved May 10, 2010 from
http://www.raffles-design-institute.edu.sg/about_us/about.asp
Singapore Workforce Development Agency (2010). Creative Industries – Industries
Overview. Retrieved May 12, 2010 from
http://app2.wda.gov.sg/web/contents/contentms.aspx?contid=875
Temasek Polytechnic. (2010). Temasek Design School: Our History. Retrieved May 10,
2010 from http://www-des.tp.edu.sg/des_home/des_aboutus/des_ourhistory.htm
Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information (WKWSCI). (2010). History of
the Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information. Retrieved May 10,
2010 from http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/sci/about/history.html
190
Thailand’s Advertising Education
Chompunuch Punyapiroje
Burapha University, Thailand
History of Advertising Business and Education in Thailand
In the mid-1840s, the first Thai advertisement (see Figure 15-1) for
quinine appeared in the first Thai newspaper, The Bangkok Recorder, published by Dr. Dan Beach Bradley, an American missionary (see Figure 152). Later, many products, both local and imported, were advertised in various newspapers. In the early 1940s, an American advertising agency,
Groake Advertising, first entered
the Thai advertising industry, followed by Grant Advertising in
1948 and the Cathay Advertiser in
1953. The development of advertising in Thailand has tended to
follow the media industries’ developments, and that, in turn, has led
the development of advertising
education.
Recently, Senarak (2004)
conducted a study related to the
development of advertising education in Thailand. She classified
modern Thai advertising education into four periods, as described
Figure 15-1: First Advertisement in
below.
Thailand
The Establishment Period
(1948-1975 A.D.)
The beginning of television as a national medium in Thailand made
the advertising business flourish. Several U.S. and Japanese transnational
advertising agencies (TNAAs) started their business in the Thai marketplace, serving advertisers or transnational corporations (TNCs) who invested their own businesses in Thailand. All the practitioners, from “creative”
persons to top executives, were foreigners. This was the beginning of a significant era, the so-called “foreign era” (1943-1974) in the Thai advertising
business (Chirapravati, 1996), as seen in Table 15-1.
191
Meanwhile, advertising education in Thailand began in the period of
Field Marshal Plaek Piboonsongkram,
a Thai prime minister who was interested in mass communications, with a
particular interest in radio and newspapers as a means to promote nationalism and build the new culture. Thus,
he set up a policy to support professional journalism education.
Figure 15-2: Dr.Dan Beach Bradley
Established
1943
1948
1953
1963
1964
1965
1968
1969
1970
1973
1973
1973
1974
1974
1974
Agency
Groake Advertising
Grant Advertising
Cathay Advertising (Ted Bates)
Chuo Senko
Far East Advertising
McCann-Erickson
Asia 21 (Thailand) Co.,Ltd.
Mayford
Lintas: Bangkok
CP&Co.,Ltd.
Thai Hakuhodo
Ogilvy & Mather (Thailand) Ltd.
Bay & Ben Ltd., Partnership
Diethelm/Leo Burnett Ltd.
Dentsu (Thailand) Ltd.
Parent Company
Thailand
United States
United States
Japan
Thailand
United States
Japan
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Thailand
Japan
United States
Thailand
United States
Japan
Table 15-1: Foreign Era Advertising Agencies in Thailand, 1943-74 17
Chulalongkorn University was the first university to offer the journalism diploma degree under the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, in 1939. Later,
in 1948, a course related to the Theory of Advertising was first introduced
by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, as a twoyear certificate journalism curriculum.
In 1953, the Thai government paid a great deal of attention to the
field of journalism and mass communication, and it requested Thammasat
17
Source: Annual Report & Membership Directory: The 25th Anniversary Issue, 1991 cited
in Chirapravati, V., “The Blossoming of Advertising in Thailand,” in Katherine Toland
Frith (1996), Advertising in Asia: Communication, Culture and Consumption. Ames, Iowa:
Iowa State University Press (pp.223-240).
192
University offer a journalism undergraduate major, which was run under
Political Science Department. The program concentrated on publishing
and advertising, and had one advertising course, “Principles of Advertising.”
This course examined the relationships among mass media, the owners,
consumers, and distributors. Later, the program was moved out of the Political Science Department to the new Department of Journalism, housed in
the Faculty of Social Administration.
The popularity of
higher education in journalism received increasingly significant interest
among public and private
universities. For example,
in 1965 the Department
of Mass Communication
and Public Relations of
Chulalongkorn University
offered a journalism undergraduate program, including a number of advertising courses.
In 1972, Chiang
Figure 15-3: Field Marshal Plaek Piboonsongkram
Mai University, a public
university located in the northern part of Thailand, also offered a number of
courses in advertising. This was the first time that advertising courses had
been introduced by a public university located outside of Bangkok. In addition, the Faculty of Commerce and Accountancy of various universities
started offering students a number of advertising courses, particularly “Advertising and Promotion” (offered at Chulalongkorn University, Thammasat University, Bangkok College of Technology and Rajamangala University
of Technology, Phanakhon).
In 1970, a vocational diploma concentrating in advertising was created at Rajamangala University of Technology, Phanakhon. A year later,
Bangkok Commerce College (now called Bangkok University) was the first
private university that offered a vocational diploma degree with a major in
advertising. It can be said that the beginning of advertising education in
Thailand occurred primarily in journalism schools, as it did in western
countries, particularly in the United States (Senarak, 2004).
193
The Rapid-Growing Period
(1976-1987 A.D.)
From 1977 to 1987, most transnational advertising agencies in Thailand employed and trained Thai advertising practitioners, teaching them
western advertising practices. After gaining significant experience, these
Thai practitioners decided to establish
their own advertising agencies. For example, Mr. Prakit Apisarnthanarax (chairman
of Prakit and Associates, see Figure 15-4),
Chalerm Vatcharatanond (CVT & Bercia),
Vinit Surapongchai (Damask, see Figure
15-5) and among others decided to found
their own advertising businesses. As a result, the number of Thai-owned advertising agencies substantially increased (Chirapravati, 1996). See Table 15-2.
Figure 15-4: Mr..Prakit
Apisarnthanarax
Established
1977
1977
1978
1978
1978
1979
1980
1980
1980
1981
1982
1982
1982
1984
1984
1986
1987
Agency
Patterson and Partners Thailand
Indrayuth Co., Ltd.
Prakit and Associates
Amex Team Advertising
Patterns Advertising Co., Ltd.
Plan Grafik Co., Ltd.
Thai Image Advertising Co., Ltd.
The Ball WCRs Partnership
Isco Advertising Co., Ltd.
Spa Advertising Co., Ltd.
Major Advertising
PK Advertising
The Media
CVT & Bercia
DDB Needham Worldwide
Dai-Ichi Kikaku (Thailand)
Damask Advertising
Parent Company
United States
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
United States
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand
United States
Japan
Thailand
Table 15-2: Thai Era: Advertising Agencies in Thailand, 1977- 1987 18
18
Source: Annual Report & Membership Directory: The 25th Anniversary Issue, 1991 cited
in Chirapravati, V., “The Blossoming of Advertising in Thailand,” in Katherine Toland
Frith (1996), Advertising in Asia: Communication, Culture and Consumption. Ames, Iowa:
Iowa State University Press (pp.223-240).
194
During this era, many Thai
universities such as Chulalongkorn
University, Thamasart University,
and Bangkok University, offered
bachelor’s degrees in advertising. For
instance, the program at Chulalongkorn University was designed by Associate Professor Dr. Pana Thongmeearkom, a pioneer of advertising
education in Thailand (Figure 15-6).
This curriculum’s objective was to
produce students for the advertising
labor market. It later became an arFigure 15-5: Mr. Vinit Surapongchai
chetype for many universities, helping spread the advertising major.
In the meantime, Associate Professor Dr. Seree Wongmonta (Figure
15-7), Associate Professor and the dean of Faculty of Journalism and Mass
Communication at Thamasart University, was another key person in the
development of the bachelor’s degree in advertising. His curriculum was
geared toward having students gain hands-on experiences through real
world applications.
Additionally, mass communication education was set into the education
policy statement of Thai government between 1977 and 1981. Many advertising
courses were offered through open university 19 (Ramkhamhaeng University)
and local vocational teaching colleges
(Rajabhat University, presently) in
Lumpang, Phuket, and Chiang Mai.
Additionally, there was cooperation between advertising educational sector and the industrial sector.
The Advertising Association of ThaiFigure 15-6: Associate Professor
land, established in 1966, had offered
Dr. Pana Thongmeearkom
many schools to its members, who were
advertising professionals, to educate stu19
An open university typically refers to one that has no entrance requirements, being open
to anyone irrespective of their background. Open universities often heavily rely on distance
learning methods.
195
dents in various universities. It also opened three training courses (New Account Executive, New Creative, and New Media courses) for new advertising staffs.
In addition, there was an advertising competition in this period, called the
TACT Awards (Top Advertising Contest
of Thailand Awards) (Senarak, 2004),
held by three major universities: the National Institute of Development Adminstrator, Thamasart University, and Silpakorn University. KooKhang Magazine,
which belonged to Media Focus Company, was a famous magazine to provide
advertising and marketing knowledge in
terms of practice, for students and professors.
The Leaping Period (1988-1997
A.D.)
Figure 15-7: Associate Professor
Dr. Seree Wongmonta
Between 1988 and 1997, the Thai advertising industry entered the
golden age, as indicated by high advertising expenditures. However, several
Thai-owned advertising agencies encountered difficulty due to rapid growth
of the industry, forcing them to partner with several transnational advertising agencies (TNAAs) such as J. Walter Thompson, Saatchi & Saatchi, and
Backer Spielvogel Bates (Thailand). More than 200 advertising agencies
were established in Thailand during this time (Chirapravati, 1996). As a
result, careers in advertising gained popularity.
Many professors at Thai universities responded to this growth. Both
private and public educational institutions in local and metropolitan areas began offering advertising programs. Consequently, the number of students
seeking advertising as their concentration area increased (Anantachart, 2002;
Senarak, 2004). Moreover, an advertising major at the graduate level was
found in four major universities: Bangkok University, Sripratum University,
Chulalongkorn University, Dhurakij Pundit University, and Suan Dusit Rajabhat University.
In Warren and Khotanan’s article (1991) and Sherer’s article (1995),
three Deans of Communication – Associate Professor Dr. Darunee Hirunrak
(Figure 15-8), Associate Professor Laksana Satawedin (Figure 15-9) and Associate Professor Dr. Seree Wongmonta – were interviewed about Thai students’ interests in studying advertising and communication. They shared
similar views, indicating that the major reason for these students choosing a
major in advertising and communication might come from pragmatic and
196
idealistic student motives. Thai students see opportunities to possess a
well-paid job with prestige.
Among Thai students, those
working in mass communication areas
(e.g., television, radio) have been well
received as “celebrities” in Thai society.
Associate Professor Dr. Wongmonta
added that those who work with advertising agencies generally got paid better
than those who work as an accountant.
In addition, Mr. Chanarong Tangsakulkraiang, an art director of Dentsu,
Young Rubicam Ltd., stated that Thai
students are interested in working in
Figure 15-8: Assoc. Prof.
Dr. Darunee Hirunrak
advertising because of the opportunities
offered (e.g., working outside and
meeting new people), which excite them (Sherer, 1995). Presently, many advertising programs have opened in both public and private universities, including Rajabhat Universities, in the colleges
of education and teaching.
Present Period
(1998-Present)
Since the Asian financial crisis in 1997,
the Thai government has tried to improve the
economy in every aspect, including changing
the quality of advertising education in order
to better serve the workforce. As a result,
Thailand has ranked sixth in the world in
terms of advertising expenditures. Compared
to other Asian countries, excluding Japan,
Thailand was ranked third as the country with
fastest growing advertising expenditures
(“Global Adspend Trends,” 1998).
Figure 15-9: Assoc. Prof.
According to Nielsen Media Research,
Laksana Satawedin
Thai advertising expenditures in 2008 reached
89.5 billion baht (“Advertising Spending,” 2009). The advertising business
has grown. Consequently, the academic sector has designed various curricula
to produce the needed qualifications and knowledge for the advertising business. Some universities offer courses about marketing communication perspectives in their advertising curricula, while other universities separate the
marketing communication curriculum from the advertising curriculum.
Kaewsuwan (2009) researched the factors influencing the choices of
communication arts students at Chulalongkorn University by surveying the
197
junior and senior students in 2008. Her research revealed that about onethird of students entering in the Faculty of Communication Arts chose advertising as their major, out of seven offered majors in each academic year. This
finding confirms that the advertising major is still popular among Thai students. Presently, advertising education in Thailand can be summarized as follows:
Institutes Offering an Advertising Curriculum
In Thailand, advertising programs range from a two-year vocational
diploma to doctor of philosophy degrees. However, this paper mainly concentrates on advertising education in the undergraduate and graduate levels
in universities.
A search via the Google search engine reveals that Thai Universities
offering advertising, market communications, or related fields as a major at
the Bachelor Degree level involve four public universities, two open universities, 22 private universities, 24 Rajabhat Universities (used to be teaching
colleges), and two Rajamangala Universities of Technology. Most advertising programs are housed in the Faculty of Communication Arts in public,
private, and open Universities, while some belonged to the Faculty of Management Sciences in Rajabhat Universities (see Table 15-3).
Type
Name
Faculty/Major
Public
Universities
Burapha University
Faculty of Humanities and
Social Sciences
Faculty of
Mass Communication
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of Journalism and
Mass Communication
Faculty of Business Administration
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Chiang Mai University
Chulalongkorn University
Thammasat University
Open
Universities
Private Universities
Ramkhamhaeng University
Sukhothai Thammathirat
Open University
Assumption University of
Thailand
Bangkok University
Chaopraya University
Dhurakij Pundit University
Eastern Asia University
Far Eastern University
Hatyai University
198
Degree level
Bachelor Master
Ph.D.
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Huachiew Chalermprakiet
University
Kasem Bundit University
Krirk University
Payap University
Pathumthani University
Ratchaphruek College
Rungsit University
Saint John’s University
Siam University
Sripatum University
University of the Thai
Chamber of Commerce
Thongsook College
Vongchavalitkul University
Webster University
Yonok University
Rajabhat
University
BanSomdejchaopraya
Chiang Mai
Chiang Rai
Kanchanaburi
Loei
Mahasarakham
Nakhon Pathom
Nakhon Rajasima
Nakhon Si Thammarat
Piboonsongkram
Phetburi
Phetchabun
Phranakhon
Phranakorn Si Ayutthaya
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Unknown
Faculty of
Communication Arts
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Humanities and
Social Sciences
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
199
Rajanagarindra
Rambhai Barni
Suan Dusit
Suan Sunandha
Sisaket
Thepsatri
Ubol Ratchathani
Udon Thani
Uttaradit
Yala
Rajamangala
University of
Technology
Tawan-ok: (Chakrabongse
Bhuvanarth Campus)
Thanyaburi
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Management
Sciences
Faculty of Business Administration
Faculty of Mass Communication Technology
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Table 15-3: Thai Universities that offer advertising, market communications or related fields as a major in Undergraduate and Graduate Degree20
Curriculum, Course Content and Degree
Undergraduate Level
Most faculties that offer an advertising major are similar in terms of
their study plan. Generally, students begin their freshman or sophomore
year with fundamental advertising courses, such as “Principles of Advertising” or “Introduction to Advertising.” When they are sophomores, they
need to choose their major. They usually take more advanced advertising
courses during their junior and senior years. The number of total credit
hours students must complete to earn their Bachelor’s degree in Communication Arts (B.Com.Arts.) ranges from 135 to 145 credit hours.
Other advertising courses that students must take include “Advertising Media and Planning,” “Advertising Creative Strategies,” “Advertising
Research,” “Advertising Campaigns,” “Copy Writing,” “Advertising Management,” “Consumer behavior,” and so on. These courses are offered at
both private and public institutions. However, most of the public universities or autonomous universities21 still have a limited budget to provide high20
This table was compiled through a query on the Google Search Engine, and is subject to
the limitations of such a search.
21
An “autonomous” university is one not governed by the Higher Education Comission.
There currently are eleven autonomous universities: Suranaree University of Technology,
Walailak University, Mae Fah Luang University, King Mongkut’s University of Technology
200
technology equipment, such as cameras, computers, and/or studios, for
teaching their advertising students. Consequently, some private universities
take advantage of this as their own unique selling proposition by offering
courses related to marketing, management, and advertising production to
draw students to their universities.
In addition, most schools that offer an advertising major also require
students to take an internship, for students to gain real-world experiences.
They are required to complete approximately 135-160 hours for their internship, under supervision of on-site practitioners. Their grades for an internship course are be assigned as either pass or fail, based on their reports
and portfolios. However, some universities allow students to substitute an
internship course by taking an independent study, if that student already
has had an internship experience.
An analysis of course content and structure reveals two types of curriculum structures, generalists and specialists, in Thailand. The generalist
advertising curriculum prepares students with general advertising
knowledge, and provides them training to be able to work any positions
within advertising agencies. Students can then discover for themselves what
kinds of positions within the agencies best suit them. On the other hand,
specialist advertising programs, aimed to produce students with particular
skills for, e.g., creative departments or account executive departments, are
intended to prepare students to more quickly begin work.
Course content of Thai advertising curricula is influenced by the
western educational system because the majority of Thai professors with advanced communication degrees (e.g., M.S. and Ph.D.) graduated from
western universities.
Graduate Level
In Table 15-3, the data show that 18 Thai universities offer a Master’s degree in Communication Arts. Seven universities that offer a Ph.D.
Program in Communication Arts are Chulalongkorn University, Thammasat University, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Bangkok University, Dhurakij Pundit University, Krirk University, and Rungsit University. Bangkok University offers a Doctor of Philosophy in Communication
in cooperation with Ohio University in the U.S.A.
At the master’s level, most students take some core subjects before
choosing their own specific areas of interests. Thus, if the students want to
Thonburi, Burapha University, Chaing Mai University, Chulalongkorn University Mahidol
University, Thaksin University, King Mongkut’s University of Technlogy Ladkrabang, and
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok.
201
be specialists in advertising or marketing communications, they need to
study more advertising courses. Students have an option to choose either a
thesis or non-thesis track for their master’s degree. The degree they obtain
is the Master of Communication Arts, either in Advertising, Communication Arts, or Marketing Communications. The degree that Ph.D. students
obtain is Doctor of Philosophy in Communication Arts.
Instructors & Instruction for Undergraduate and Graduate Programs
Most advertising instructors are Thai, with a master’s degree in advertising, marketing communications, or a related field. Thai language is mainly used in classroom teaching, with an exception in some international programs where classes are taught in English. Most introductory courses are
mainly in lecture format, while the courses related to production and strategies allow students to be involved with hands-on activities. Senior-level
classes are sometimes taught in seminar format or small group discussions.
Punyapiroje (2009) studied the current status of advertising education in Thailand. Professors’ opinions about advertising program administration in both private and public universities were sought. Some of the
findings suggest:
-
Most advertising programs set the curriculum philosophy and objectives
congruent with the college’s vision and mission ( x =4.11 from 5 point
scales).
-
Committees manage the advertising programs ( x =3.68).
-
In curriculum development and evaluation, the professors valued an instructional process ( x =3.93) and an learning evaluation process ( x
=3.89) higher than others.
-
There are both short and long term budget plans for managing resources
( x =3.79), as well as an audit system ( x =3.61).
-
Most advertising programs have a database related to the students and
graduates, academic, research, personnel, budgets, depot and workplace
information ( x =3.25).
-
Most advertising programs set appropriate criteria for admission, to select
qualified students. These criteria were the qualification of applicants, the
number of students to be accepted in the program, and timetable ( x
=3.67).
-
Internships ( x =4.26) and providing academic advisors for students were
among the most important features of the programs ( x =4.04).
-
For instruction and research, course syllabus and teaching plan ( x
=4.36), student-centered instruction ( x =4.25), instructional evaluation
by students to improve teaching ( x =4.19), media, technology and in-
202
novation usages for teaching ( x =4.00) were commonly found in most
advertising program.
-
Regarding the learning environment, activities that create learning atmosphere ( x =3.85), and resources that support students’ learning, such
as libraries, computers, equipment, and workplaces, were seen as critical
to the student learning process ( x =3.82).
-
For assessment of program graduates, programs tend to conduct a survey
and other follow-ups regarding their graduates’ satisfaction of the curriculum and instruction, based on their work experiences ( x =3.86).
-
Allowing students to transfer course credits to other faculties and universities within the country was common ( x =3.54). There was less
cooperation with universities outside the country.
When professors were asked about the most suitable advertising
courses (see Table 15-4), they said the 10 most suitable courses in advertising programs were (1) Advertising Creative Strategy, (2) Advertising Production or Management of Advertising Production, (3) Consumer Behavior, (4) Advertising Principles, (5) Advertising Media Planning and Advertising Media Strategy, (6) Internship or Cooperative Education, (7) Principles of Marketing, (8) Advertising Research, (9) Seminar in Advertising,
and (10) Computer Graphic for Design.
However, advertising practitioners said the most suitable advertising
courses were (1) Consumer Behavior ( x = 4.56), (2) Advertising Principles
( x = 4.53), (3) Presentation Techniques ( x =4.36), (4) Brand Building ( x
=4.30) or Advertising Creative Strategy ( x =4.30), (5) Analysis of Audience
Behavior ( x =4.24), (6) Internship or Cooperative Education ( x =4.22),
(7) Integrated Marketing Communication ( x =4.18),(8) English for Communication and Advertising and New Media ( x =4.16), (9) Introduction to
Business Communication ( x =4.14), and (10) Brand Communication ( x
=4.12)
For recent graduates currently working with advertising businesses,
the top 10 courses were Consumer Behavior ( x = 4.00), (2) Advertising
Principles ( x = 3.90), (3) Advertising Campaign Planning ( x =3.78), (4)
Principles of Marketing ( x =3.68), (5) Analysis of Audience Behavior ( x
=3.67), (6) Advertising Creative Strategy ( x =3.58), (7) Advertising Media
Planning and Advertising Media Strategy ( x =3.56), (8) Advertising Research ( x =3.54), (9) Introduction to Business Communication ( x =3.52),
(10) Advertising Management ( x =3.50).
When comparing the opinions of advertising professors, advertising
practitioners, and these recent graduates, toward the forty-two courses in
advertising curriculum (see Table 15-4), the findings revealed that advertis-
203
ing practitioners’ opinions were higher on 31 advertising courses than the
opinions of recent graduates (p-value< 0.05). Also, there was a significant
difference between advertising professors and practitioners’ opinions related
to the Seminar in Advertising (p-value< 0.05). But there were no significant differences among these three groups in eleven courses such as the
Principles of Marketing, Advertising Campaign Planning, Advertising Management, Photography in Advertising, Advertising and Society, Personality
and Manners, Portfolio, Marketing Management, Marketing Information
Management, Advertising for Service Business, and Marketing Public Relations courses.
Courses in Advertising
Curriculum in Thailand
Advertising Principles
Introduction to Business
Communication
Principles of Marketing
Consumer Behavior
Analysis of Audience Behavior
Presentation Techniques
Business Psychology
Advertising Research
Advertising Media Planning/Advertising Media
Strategy
Advertising Campaign Planning
Integrated Marketing Communication
Brand Building
Writing for Advertising or
Copy Writing
Advertising Management
Client Service Management
Art Appreciation or Principles of Design or Ad Design
Advertising Creative Strategy
Photography in Advertising
Advertising Production or
Management of Advertising
Production
Computer Graphics for Design
Seminar in Advertising
Internship or Co-operative
Education
Advertising and Society
204
Professors
(N=28)
Group 1
S.D.
x
4.30
0.72
Administrative
Practitioners
(N=50)Group 2
S.D.
x
4.53
0.99
Graduates
(N=50)
Group 3
S.D.
x
3.90
0.82
F
p
8.19
0.001*
3.77
0.81
4.14
0.99
3.52
0.89
5.73
0.004*
4.22
4.31
0.75
0.79
4.12
4.56
1.12
0.70
3.68
4.00
0.96
0.95
3.62
5.76
0.004*
3.87
0.92
4.24
0.99
3.67
0.98
4.53
0.014*
4.00
3.14
4.21
0.65
0.73
0.79
4.36
3.74
3.67
0.85
1.23
1.10
3.46
3.02
3.54
1.22
1.23
1.09
10.56
5.12
3.99
0.000*
0.011*
0.025*
4.29
0.81
3.92
1.11
3.56
1.20
4.11
0.021*
4.29
0.66
4.06
0.98
3.78
1.02
2.81
-
4.15
0.88
4.18
1.05
3.42
0.99
8.60
4.04
0.77
4.30
0.81
3.47
1.04
9.01
4.04
0.72
3.92
1.00
3.32
1.15
6.09
3.92
0.64
3.70
1.02
3.50
0.91
1.84
3.59
0.91
3.82
1.14
2.92
1.02
9.49
4.00
1.06
3.96
0.92
3.26
1.29
6.25
4.36
0.68
4.30
0.81
3.58
1.23
4.15
3.75
0.85
3.43
0.94
3.28
1.34
1.47
0.011*
0.001*
0.000*
0.016*
0.016*
0.048*
0.000*
0.025*
0.008*
0.004*
0.002*
-
4.33
0.64
3.81
0.98
3.23
1.22
9.63
4.16
0.90
3.75
1.00
2.83
1.48
12.26
4.20
0.58
3.47
1.14
3.10
1.11
9.34
4.26
0.90
4.22
0.98
3.49
1.42
6.19
3.56
0.87
3.42
1.15
3.06
0.99
2.41
0.000*
0.027*
0.000*
0.001*
0.019*
0.000*
0.024*
0.009*
-
Persuasive Communication
Personality and Manners
International Advertising or
Global Advertising Culture
Comparative
On-line marketing
Event Marketing and Sponsorship
Portfolio
Strategy of Integrated Organizational Communication
Exhibitions and Events Media
English for Advertising
Direct Marketing/ Strategy
for Direct Marketing and
Sales Promotions
Communication and Retail
Business
Marketing Management
Marketing Information Management
Brand Communications
Advertising for Service
Business
Advertising and New Media
Case Analysis of Advertising
Problems
WWW Design for Advertising
3.72
3.48
0.89
1.08
3.96
3.71
1.00
1.11
3.36
3.14
1.17
1.19
4.03
3.01
0.021*
-
3.36
0.95
3.47
1.10
2.83
1.26
4.04
0.027*
3.18
0.96
3.81
1.16
2.54
1.22
14.62
0.000*
3.55
0.60
3.56
1.07
2.96
1.12
4.84
0.018*
3.45
0.86
3.44
1.18
2.94
1.22
2.74
3.68
0.72
3.60
1.01
2.84
1.01
9.85
3.48
3.57
0.73
1.08
3.31
4.16
0.98
1.05
2.88
3.27
1.12
1.41
3.62
6.81
0.004*
0.001*
0.050*
0.002*
3.23
0.92
3.38
1.10
2.69
1.21
4.82
0.013*
3.39
0.78
3.13
1.10
2.65
1.12
4.59
0.024*
3.52
0.73
3.73
1.05
3.31
1.07
2.06
-
3.39
0.78
3.48
1.15
3.04
1.11
2.14
-
4.04
0.81
4.12
0.97
3.49
1.08
5.56
0.008*
3.39
0.66
3.59
1.00
3.15
0.90
2.97
-
3.57
0.73
4.16
1.09
3.40
1.38
5.62
0.006*
3.63
0.93
3.90
1.25
3.19
1.23
4.32
0.016*
3.36
1.05
3.25
1.02
2.51
1.32
6.42
Marketing Public Relations
3.39
0.84
3.57
1.12
3.21
1.11
1.40
0.019*
0.009*
-
Table 15-4: The comparison of opinions toward the courses in advertising
curriculum of professors, practitioners working in administrative
positions and graduates working in Advertising Agencies
For opinions about the actual qualification and expected qualification
of advertising students (see Tables 15-5 and 15-6), the findings revealed
that both advertising professors and advertising practitioners evaluated actual student qualifications lower than they expected.
The student qualifications that the professors expected were (1) Be
punctual ( x =4.56), (2) Be able to work as a team ( x = 4.50), (3) Good in
human relations, Enthusiastic to gain new information, and Be able to
communicate with people very well ( x = 4.46), (4) Have creativity, SelfConfidence to express their opinions, Have countenance, Be flexible in
working, and Have ethical in work ( x = 4.42), and (5) Open minded to
other’s opinion ( x =4.40).
The student qualifications that the practitioners expected were (1) Be
careful in the assigned work ( x =4.42), (2) Enthusiastic to gain new information, and Be Honest ( x = 4.41), (3) Have creativity, Be punctual, SelfConfident to express their opinions, and Have ethical in work ( x =4.38),
(4) Be observant ( x = 4.36), (5) Good in human relations ( x =4.29).
205
When comparing the opinions of advertising professors and advertising practitioners about their perception of the recent graduates’ actual qualification in advertising field, most of the findings revealed that there were no
significant differences between professors’ and practitioners’ opinions related to their perception of recent graduates’ actual qualifications, except on
two qualifications that revealed significant differences. That is, professors
rated the recent graduates’ qualifications related to their “strategically thinking” higher than practitioners (p-value< 0.05). On the other hand, practitioners rated the recent graduates’ qualifications related to “foreign language
knowledge” higher than professors (p-value< 0.05).
When comparing opinions of advertising professors and advertising
practitioners related to their expectation of the recent graduates’ qualification that they should posses for a career in advertising, the findings revealed
that there were no significant differences.
The actual qualifications of graduates
in advertising field
1. Have academic knowledge
about his/her job
2. Good Personalities
3. Good in human relations
4. Enthusiastic to gain new
information
5. Have creativity
6. Open minded to other’s
opinion
7. Self-Confident to express
their opinions
8. Be sagacious in solving
problems
9. Have countenance
10. Have informationanalytical skills
11. Be able to communicate
with people very well
12. Be careful in the assigned
work
13. Have a presentation skills
and sense of salesman
14. Be flexible in working
15. Be punctual
16. Have strategic thinking
17. Be Honest
18. Have ethics in work
206
Professors
(N=28)
Actual
qualifications
S.D.
x
3.43
0.69
Practitioners
(N=50)
Actual
qualifications
S.D.
x
3.16
0.77
t
df.
Sig.
1.51
75.00
0.137
3.43
3.79
3.32
0.96
0.74
0.98
3.38
3.80
3.39
0.75
0.99
1.10
0.25
-0.07
-0.27
76.00
76.00
75.00
0.805
0.947
0.792
3.54
3.61
0.79
0.83
3.56
3.40
0.99
0.86
-0.11
1.04
76.00
76.00
0.912
0.304
3.68
0.98
3.52
0.91
0.72
76.00
0.475
3.29
1.01
3.10
1.03
0.76
75.00
0.450
3.46
3.14
0.65
0.65
3.18
2.86
0.83
0.90
1.58
1.46
76.00
76.00
0.119
0.149
3.32
0.67
3.16
0.93
0.81
76.00
0.423
3.04
0.69
2.88
1.12
0.76
75.13
0.451
3.21
0.88
2.96
0.98
1.14
75.00
0.257
3.46
2.89
3.14
3.54
3.57
0.74
0.99
0.93
0.79
0.79
3.28
2.98
2.62
3.78
3.71
0.97
1.02
0.99
0.91
0.92
0.87
-0.37
2.29
-1.19
-0.66
76.00
76.00
76.00
76.00
74.00
0.386
0.716
0.025*
0.238
0.513
19.Have foreign language
knowledge
20. Be able to work as a team
21. Be observant
2.57
0.96
3.04
0.92
-2.12
76.00
0.037*
3.54
3.18
0.84
0.86
3.66
3.31
0.94
1.08
-0.58
-0.57
76.00
67.00
0.562
0.573
Table 15-5 The comparison of opinions toward the graduates’ actual
qualifications in advertising field of professors and practitioners
working in administrative positions
The expected qualifications of graduates in
advertising field
1. Have academic knowledge
about his/her job
2. Good Personalities
3. Good in human relations
4. Enthusiastic to gain new
information
5. Have creativity
6. Open minded to other’s
opinion
7. Self-Confidence to express
their opinions
8. Be sagacious in solving
problems
9. Have countenance
10. Have informationanalytical skills
11. Be able to communicate
with people very well
12. Be careful in the assigned
work
13. Have presentation skills
and sense of salesman
14. Be flexible in working
15. Be punctual
16. Have strategic thinking
17. Be Honest
18. Have ethics in work
19. Have foreign language
knowledge
20. Be able to work as a team
21. Be observant
Professionals
(N=28)
Expected
qualifications
S.D.
x
4.27
0.53
Practitioners
(N=50)
Expected
qualifications
S.D.
x
4.18
0.67
T
df.
Sig.
S.D.
0.57
4.27
0.53
4.35
4.46
4.46
0.63
0.65
0.76
4.06
4.34
4.41
0.79
0.75
0.64
1.60
0.70
0.32
4.35
4.46
4.46
0.63
0.65
0.76
4.42
4.40
0.70
0.58
4.38
4.30
0.67
0.68
0.26
0.63
4.42
4.40
0.70
0.58
4.42
0.70
4.38
0.67
0.26
4.42
0.70
4.31
0.79
4.26
0.80
0.25
4.31
0.79
4.42
4.38
0.64
0.64
4.23
4.16
0.78
0.68
1.08
1.39
4.42
4.38
0.64
0.64
4.46
0.71
4.08
0.91
1.85
4.46
0.71
4.35
0.69
4.42
0.73
-0.43
4.35
0.69
4.27
0.72
4.15
0.85
0.63
4.27
0.72
4.42
4.56
4.20
4.38
4.42
4.08
0.64
0.77
0.76
0.70
0.70
0.95
4.26
4.38
4.00
4.41
4.38
4.30
0.72
0.85
0.83
0.73
0.73
0.71
0.97
0.89
1.01
-0.14
0.27
-1.13
4.42
4.56
4.20
4.38
4.42
4.08
0.64
0.77
0.76
0.70
0.70
0.95
4.50
4.27
0.76
0.83
4.32
4.36
0.71
0.78
1.02
-0.47
4.50
4.27
0.76
0.83
Table 15-6 The comparison of opinions toward the graduates’ expected
qualifications in advertising field of professors and practitioners
working in administrative positions
207
Advertising Education Support Organizations
The Advertising Association of Thailand (AAT)
The Advertising Association of Thailand was established in 1966. Its
major goals are to establish a good relationship among members, to negotiate advertising-related issues with governmental agencies, and to promote
the advancement of professionalism in the advertising profession and the
industry. The AAT has its own code of ethics, which serves as a voluntary
set of guidelines for the advertising industry in Thailand. However, the enforcement of this code of ethics does not include punitive power. The only
penalty for violating the code is expulsion of the member from the association. Even though the AAT is a private organization, it works and coordinates with the government regulatory agencies.
In 2004, AAT held the first Adman Award & Symposium providing
a competition related to marketing communication campaigns. This included not only advertising work, but also public relations, graphic designs,
and media strategies.
The Bangkok Art Directors Association
The Bangkok Art Directors Association was established in 1985. Its
major goal is to promote quality creativity by organizing seminars and
workshops to train young creative people, as well as sponsoring the annual
Bangkok Art Director Awards competitions, i.e., “BAD” Awards.
Summary
Programs across Thailand tend to be quite similar. Most are housed
in the Faculty of Communication Arts. Most of their professors employ
similar teaching techniques, such as lectures, group discussion, seminars and
hands-on activities. They tend to invite advertising practitioners to share
their working experiences with students. Most of the undergraduate programs require students to take an internship as a part of curriculum, to enhance students’ learning experience outside the classroom. Such internships
can take place with advertising agencies or business organizations related to
an advertising field.
It is evident that course content and structures of Thai advertising
curricula were adopted from those offered in western countries (e.g., USA).
This may be due partly to the fact that many Thai advertising professors obtained their graduate degrees from western universities, particularly from
the United States (Anantachart, 2006). Thus, it is suggested that Thai advertising professors may need to reassess their advertising curricula, and
208
might consider applying their unique knowledge about Thai culture to further develop their own advertising curriculum.
References
“Advertising Spending down 2.77% in 2008,” The Nation, January 23, 2009, available at:
http://www.nationmultimedia.com/2009/01/13/business/business_30093114.php.
Annual Report & Membership Directory: The 25th Anniversary Issue 1991. Bangkok: The
Advertising Association of Thailand.
Anantachart, S. (2002). Public Relations in Thailand: A Review on Its History, Recent Research and Practices. Journal of Communciation Arts, 20(4), 49-66 (in Thai).
Anantachart, S. (2006). Integrated Marketing Communication in Globalization: Current Status and Body of Knowledge. Journal of Communciation Arts, 24(1), 94-118 (in Thai).
Anantasomboon, K. (2000). Undergraduate Curriculum in Advertising and Workforce Demand in Thailand. Unpublished master thesis, Chulalongkorn University (in Thai).
Chirapravati, V. (1996). The blossoming of advertising in Thailand. In K. T. Frith (Ed.),
Advertising in Asia (pp. 223-241). Iowa: Iowa state university press.
“Global Adspend trends: Asian Adspend, A review of its development & future prospects.”
International Journal of Advertising, 1998 17(2), 255-263.
Kaewsuwan, N. (2009). Factors Influencing Major Selection of Communication Arts Students of Chulalongkorn University. Journal of Communication Arts, 27 (3), 140-155 (in
Thai).
Punyapiroje, C. (2009). The Current Status of Advertising Education in Thailand in the
2000s. Presented at the 2009 Asian conference of the American Academy of Advertising
(May 27-30), Beijing, China.
Senarak, P. (2004). The Development of Advertising Education in Thailand. Unpublished
master thesis, Chulalongkorn University (in Thai).
Sherer, P. M. (1995). Selling the sizzle: Thai advertising crackles with creativity as industry continues to grow. The Asian Wall Street Journal Weekly, 1, 6-7.
The Advertising Book: Thailand 1994-1995 Advertising, Marketing and Media Guide, 1995,
Bangkok: AB publications.
Warren, J. and Khotanan, A. (1991). Communication education at Thai universities. Journalism educator, (winter), 28-33.
209
Europe
Germany’s Advertising
Education
Olaf Werder,
University of Sydney, Australia
History and development of advertising education
To truly understand the diverse approaches to advertising education
in Germany, one has to take a quick excursion into Germany’s dual education system, that combines on-the-job training with theory taught in public
vocational schools one or two days per week (Soskice & Schettkat 1993). It
is interwoven with the different tracks students go into at high-school age:
German students are separated into different tracks at age 10, when their parents place them into one of three levels of secondary education: Hauptschule,
Realschule, and Gymnasium. The lowest level, Hauptschule, is designed for
students who plan to begin apprenticeship programs starting at age 16. Similarly, the Realschule focuses attention on providing students with the skills
necessary for an apprenticeship, though it provides slightly more advanced
academic theory than the Hauptschule. Students who plan to attend universities generally attend Gymnasia, the highest level of the secondary educational
system. Upon graduating from Gymnasia, students receive a university entry
certificate, known as an Abitur (Petrosky 1996).
It is primarily (but not exclusively) the first two education levels that,
after completion, lead a student to participate in an ongoing on-the-job
training, while being hired by an employer. To offset the lack of scientific
training for those levels, so-called Berufsakademien have grown with an aim
to provide an alternative to institutions of higher education. These professional academies have taken the principle of the dual system of vocational
education and training, and applied it to the tertiary education sector (International Association of Universities 2006).
Advertising education’s origin in Germany as a technical skill (creative/design and sales, primarily) has put it in the mix for a non-university
education track. If it involved university training, it was primarily a course
as part of a marketing or business degree, or the nature of a project in a design degree.
210
There typically are three educational pathways for advertising and
strategic communication (GWA 2010a):
1. A standard apprenticeship in the dual system combines onthe-job training with a basic education at vocational schools (similar
to community colleges in the United States). This usually leads to entry-level or lower-level jobs, after being hired full-time by the apprenticeship agency or any other agency to which the graduating student
may apply.
2. An advanced training combines the on-the-job training with
more rigorous advertising training at special academies that lead to a
recognized title upon graduation. The principal degree for those following this scheme is the “Kaufmann/Kauffrau für Marketingkommunikation” (roughly “merchant of marketing communication”).
Offered primarily by the slightly more than 25 private professional
academies (e.g., the AfAK – Akademie für Absatzwirtschaft Kassel,
the DAMK – Düsseldorfer Akademie für Marketing-Kommunikation, or the IMK - die Internationale Akademie für Marketing,
Kommunikation und Werbung in Berlin), the curriculum is tailored
to those holding permanent employment
(or apprenticeships) in the advertising industry. Courses are offered in the
evening, and taught mostly by professionals in the industry (Schwaller 2010).
The study program takes about three
years, requires a secondary degree (see above)
and follows a federally sanctioned education plan with final tests to be taken
at the regional chambers of commerce (Industrie und Handelskammer, or
IHK). It leads to a federally recognized title, according to Germany’s vocational education law (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung 2006).
While this more practically oriented “Kaufmann” degree seems more
suited to attract primarily those students who graduated from the two lower
-level tiers of high school, increasingly “Gymnasium” graduates (8 out of 10
as of 2006) appear to choose this route. Whereas these programs are more
well-rounded in all aspects of advertising and media communication than,
say, a design or arts program, they resemble in their overall structure private
art and design schools in the United States, such as the Miami Ad School or
Creative Circus in Atlanta.
3. Despite the popularity of the practical approach to advertising ed-
211
ucation, it has become relatively difficult for German advertising professionals to climb to leadership positions in the industry without scientific
basic knowledge in such areas as mass communication, business administration, pedagogy, or sociology (Schwaller 2010).
A university education has therefore become an almost indispensable
foundation to those aspiring to a high-flying career in the advertising industry (Vieregge 2009). As in any country, leadership roles in German advertising require more profound knowledge of business and economic contexts
than technical skills in design or media buying. While many university degrees can lead to a career in advertising in Germany, the classic degree according to most hiring managers in agencies is still business administration
with an emphasis in marketing (ZAW 2007).
The website medienwissenschaft.de (Barth 2007) lists about 45 universities that offer a degree in media or strategic communication. Those are
often overlapped to a large extent by degrees in journalism and media management, and one has to research a program carefully to find one that focuses on advertising. About 60 fine art academies offer the degree of design,
with an average study time of 3-5 years. Finally, at about 100 universities
in Germany, advertising is a research and study area within the marketing
degree. However, only a few, e.g., the Pforzheim Academy and the Academy of the Arts in Berlin, offer a direct degree in advertising or marketing
communication.
Profiles of a variety of advertising programs
Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg (DHBW) in Ravensburg
The advertising degree at the DHBW is a major of the course of studies in media and communication sciences in the College of Business. It focuses on the areas of marketing, consulting and design (Ottler 2010).
Overall, the courses are systematically adapted to the requirements of the
advertising industry. Students are confronted with all phases of advertising
from consumer research and advertising planning, advertising design,
production and dispersion to measuring advertising success.
Business subjects form the
solid basis of the studies. This is
supplemented in every semester
with a wide range of courses on media and communication. Research, specializing in advertising, especially the areas of consumer media research and
212
usability testing, is the backbone of the program. Close cooperation with
the Steinbeis Research Center at DHBW on the topic of promotion and
communication guarantees a permanent transfer of knowledge between the
school and the industry.
As is standard for a professional academy, admission requirements
include a training contract with an appropriate company, besides a high
school degree (usually from a Realschule or Gymnasium).
Zeppelin University in Friedrichshafen
Zeppelin University is a state-recognized private institution of higher
education in the state of Baden-Württemberg. Named after Graf von Zeppelin, one of the most important German pioneers of aviation, Zeppelin
University’s mission is the
education of pioneers who
can make the improbable
probable in business, culture,
and politics.
Advertising industry
professionals are involved heavily in advertising education at the university.
It offers a Bachelor and Master of Arts in communication and cultural
management. Students can choose from different majors, among them a
major in strategic communication.
The teaching and research of the Department of Strategic Communication is built on three content areas: corporate communications, consumer
behavior, and managerial decision making (Lipper 2010). Besides advertising and advertising psychology, the curriculum includes courses in public
relations, media relations, corporate brand management, and corporate design and identity.
Rheinische Fachhochschule (RFH)
in Köln (University of Applied Sciences)
Calling itself a place for practical studies, this university offers degrees
that have clear job descriptions and are integrated in broad professional
networks, where faculty, students, and professionals collaborate in research
and practical projects. Resembling adult or continuing education courses,
seminars are small, with 20-50 students Compact and
short courses are part of the curriculum. The RFH offers a
bachelor of arts in media management that includes advertising as an emphasis (Gutzeit & Nell 2010).
What makes this program unique is (a) a dual qualification as strategic media economists (basically a business
213
administration degree plus media competence), a growing desirable field in
Germany with 350,000 employees in the university’s home state of
Northrhine-Westphalia, and (b) an emphasis on media technology and design, which not only is a separate bachelor of arts degree (BA in Media Design), but an important component of the media management curriculum,
as well. It resembles the growing emphasis of digital media and media
management at U.S. universities.
Professional organizations that support advertising education
Equivalent to the American Advertising Federation (AAF), the German Association of Communications Agencies (abbreviated GWA, for
Gesamtverband der Kommunikationsagenturen) is the umbrella membership
organization for German advertising. The leading agencies in Germany,
such as BBDO, Grey, Jung von Matt, JWT, Saatchi & Saatchi, Scholz &
Friends, and Springer & Jacoby, are in the GWA.
In 2002, the association launched an initiative to promote young researchers and interdisciplinary cooperation, titled GWA Junior Agency
(GWA 2010b). Quite similar to the AAF’s National Student Advertising
Competition (NSAC), it is Germany's most demanding academic competition for students of marketing
communication, and the only
junior competition in Germany that judges the strategic and
creative services simultaneously. Marketing and design students work out long term strategies and concepts of communications for a real client.
Slightly different from the
NSAC, briefing and coaching
is permitted by GWA agencies who each partner with a student team.
After working with and presenting to their agency partner, the GWA
invites all participating teams to the final presentation of the developed case
studies (during the GWA Junior Agency Day). Parallel to the NSAC routine, a team of no more than five people presents the strategic and creative
concepts in 25 minutes. An independent panel of judges evaluates the
presentations and awards the “Junior” in Gold, Silver and Bronze. The participating student teams also vote on their own favorite (the participants’
choice award), which is awarded as a trophy (GWA 2010).
214
References
Barth, C. (2007). Auflisting medien- und kommunkationswissenschaftlicer Studiengänge (List of
programs in media and communication sciences). Universität Trier, Retrieved on
March 22, 2010 from http://www.medienwissenschaft.de/studium-lehre/studiengaenge.html.
Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (2006). Verordnung über die Berufsausbildung zum Kaufmann für Marketingkommunikation (regulation about the vocational training for
“Kaufmann“ of marketing communication). Federal legal paper, 2006, Part 1, No. 17.,
Bonn, Germany: Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (BIBB).
Gutzeit, C., & Nell, P. (2010). Admissions Advisors – short profile of the degree in media management and media design. Köln, Germany: Rheinische Fachhochschule Köln. Retrieved
on May 20, 2010 from http://www.rfh-koeln.de/studium/studiengaenge/medien/medienwirtschaft/.
GWA (2010a). Job and Career. Website of the “Gesamtverband Kommunikationsagenturen
GWA e.V.“ Frankfurt, Germany. Retrieved on March 15, 2010 from
http://www.gwa.de/job-karriere/uebersicht/.
GWA (2010b). GWA Junior Agency. Website of the “Gesamtverband Kommunikationsagenturen GWA e.V.“ Frankfurt, Germany. Retrieved on March 15, 2010 from
http://www.gwa.de/job-karriere/gwa-junior-agency/.
Lipper, T. (2010). Program director for CCM: A short description of bachelor and master studies
in communication and culture management. Friedrichshafen, Germany: Zeppelin University, gGmbH. Retrieved on May 20, 2010 from http://www.zeppelin-university.de/deutsch/lehrstuehle/strat_kommunkation/Strat_Kommunikation_Profil.php.
No author (2006). Germany – Structure of education system. International Association of
Universities: World Higher Education Database. Retrieved on April 21, 2010 from
http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/germanco.htm.
Ottler, S. (2010). Program Director Advertising Track: A profile of the studies in the business of media and communication with an emphasis in advertising. Ravensburg, Germany: Duale Hochschule Baden- Württemberg. Retrieved on May 20, 2010 from
http://www.dhbw-ravensburg.de/de/fakultaet-studiengang/wirtschaft/bwl-medien-undkommunikationswirtschaft/werbung/.
Petrosky, J. (1996). The German dual educational system: Evolving needs for a skilled workforce. Perspectives on business & economics, Vol. 14, 59-69.
Schwaller, T. (2010). Kommunikarriere.de: An initiative for job starters. Frankfurt, Germany: Gesamtverband Kommunikationsagenturen. Retrieved on April 10, 2010 from
http://www.kommunikarriere.de/.
Soskice, D., & Schettkat R. (1993). West German labor market institutions and East German transformation. In: L. Ulman, B. Eichengreen, & W. Dickens, (Eds.). Labor and
an Integrated Europe (pp. 102-127). Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution.
Vieregge, H. von (2009). Tips from the professionals: Avenues toward advertising jobs
(translated). GWA working papers. Frankfurt, Germany: Gesamtverband Kommunikationsagenturen.
Zentralverband der Werberwirtschaft in Deutschland (2007). ZAW-Jahrbuch „Werbung in
Deutschland“ (ZAW Yearbook “Advertising in Germany“). Berlin, Germany: Verlag
edition ZAW.
215
Sixty Years of Teaching in Italy
Edoardo Teodoro Brioschi
Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Italy
The Evolution of Italian Advertising and the Teaching Issue
The quantitative development of Italian advertising in the post
World War II period had immediately raised an important question: that of
the recruiting of newcomers in this sector who should already have been
trained in an appropriate way. During this period different generations of
advertising experts co-existed in Italy. Many people who had found advertising as an alternative means of employment, after that they were forced to
give up due to political reasons in the 1920s and 1930s, made up the first
generation. However, many of them took up their original jobs in post war
democratic government, and thus this first generation count further reduced.
Immediately after the war, and during the fifties, a second generation
of advertising experts grew up with the first one. However, they often
thought that their training was not satisfactory: they were “men who were
born to communicate, who looked up to their jobs with enthusiasm rather
than with a technical training” as we pointed out in the past (Mengacci &
Brioschi, 1972, p. 388).
Their arrival marked the transition phase of Italian advertising, from
practical experience to technique, which lasted until the mid-fifties. However, they represented the last group of versatile advertising experts who
were able to face and analyze thoroughly, any aspect of advertising. This
distinguished the advertising expert - the professional - from those with a
limited set of skills - the collaborators - who were dependent on the professionals (La Manna, 1951, p. 84 and following).
The lacunae encountered in the training of most of the advertising
experts – which were to be remedied for the forthcoming generation (the
third one) – were strictly interconnected to teaching (the well known advertising course held at the Chamber of Commerce, Milan, during 1920-1922
and the birth of an Italian branch of the Ecole Supérieure de Publicité Pratique of Paris at the publishing house L’Ufficio Moderno in 1928).
From the fifties onward, the teaching issue was constantly discussed
at national congresses, both to clarify and officialize the formulation of the
problem, and to examine in real terms training courses conducted and their
results in order to suggest new solutions.
216
In this respect, there were essentially two trends related in a specific
manner to different aims: On one hand the completion of the training of
the future managers of companies operating in different sectors (industry,
commerce and services), on the other hand the specific qualification of
those who should have worked exclusively on advertising in both pertinent
companies and in those companies which used advertising.
The first aim suggested to integrate both the standard curriculum of
senior high schools, highlighting some courses, and that of the university
essentially referring to the Faculty of Economics. The second one, that of
the training of the future advertising experts, favored the institution of a relatively complex school outside of the standard organizations after the completion of the senior high school, rather than the choice of a specific curriculum in an academic faculty.
However, notwithstanding the risks associated with the creation of a
special advertising school outside the standard organizations, and the existence of some first solutions in the academic courses of the University22, the
advertising sector chose the first solution to train its newcomers following
French and German advertising trends. This led to the establishment of the
new advertising schools in Milan (1952) and Turin (1953).
The School in Milan, born to be a leader among institutions belonging to the same genre, got off a good start as a daytime two-year program,
which was made famous by some university lecturers who took up the advertising phenomenon with great dexterity.23 A further ten-year follow-up
period, as an evening three-year course, then had to be completed.
Since 1954 the presence of one of the most well-known advertisers,
Campari, guaranteed the School of Milan a much more satisfactory life full
of good prospects. This lasted until the School had to reduce its activity
and close down indefinitely in 1973, because there wasn’t any location at its
disposal anymore. In the meantime, the School joined an international association –the International Association of Schools in Advertising (I.A.S.A)
22
The two-year course dedicated to the methods of propaganda and advertising held at the
Istituto Superiore di Giornalismo e di Scienze dell’Opinione Pubblica of the International
University “Pro Deo” in Rome and the Media two-year course at the Statistics faculty of the
Rome University belonged to these academic courses. To these courses which dated back to
post World War II and which corresponded essentially to a two-year course in any faculty of
the University was added the extensive Scuola Superiore di Giornalismo e Mezzi Audiovisivi,
established by Università Cattolica in 1961.
23
“The list of the teaching staff – it is stated in this period- includes prestigious names belonging to economic and sociological sciences as those of the Professors Siro Lombardini,
Gaetano Kanitza, Francesco Brambilla and Luigi Guatri. A. Valeri, Appunti per una storia
della pubblicità in Italia, X, in “I prodotti di marca,” p. 342, 5/1970.
217
– and its executive director, Adriana Ferrari Battaglia, was the President of
this Association.
The Teaching of Advertising:
An Appropriate Approach to the Problem
As mentioned, from the nineteen fifties the teaching issue was constantly discussed at the national congresses (Brioschi, 1966, p. 290 and following). From that period onwards the lively discussion about the teaching
of advertising marked the existence of two trends: (1) the teaching to train
young people for their future advertising job with any advertiser, advertising
agency, or media company (professional training), and (2) the teaching with
the aim to educate, both at senior high school level and at University and
postgraduate courses.
The first trend, that of the professional training, gave rise in Italy to
pioneering organizations in the early fifties. After a start-up period, these
organizations transformed into paracademic institutions or postdiploma organizations. Even though these schools had the unquestionable merit of
training newcomers, and that of improving course material, they could not
shed their pioneering nature. The reasons were not related to the evolution
of the job, which required certain institutional flexibility or periodic revision, but to inherent faults which existed at the beginning.
In the Sixties and the mid-Seventies, notwithstanding the most advanced and prestigious School – that operating in Milan – expressed a wish
to be renewed in a real and proper way (La Manna, 1963), the teaching situation with the aim to educate for the advertising jobs seemed inadequate.
This was confirmed by the decision taken by the national association which
represented the advertising professionals (A.I.T.P.), when it believed (1968)
it was suitable to conduct entrance tests (grade 1 of basic knowledge, and
grade 2 of in-depth and applicative knowledge) to guarantee an appropriate
qualification of its members in the perspective of a possible future legal status for them.
The grade 2 exam was irreplaceable, because it was considered comparable to the ones required for officially entering the old and traditional
professions. Instead, the grade 1 exam would be progressively replaced by
the accreditation of institutions, considered adequate to this purpose (Brioschi, 1972, p. 14).
The introduction of these exams leads to some considerations. In
this respect it is necessary to highlight that the type of teaching instituted
until then, to train young people to their future advertising job, gave rise -
218
as I have repeatedly remembered - to specific schools outside the context of
the university, which followed the French model. The introduction of the
exams was primarily put in action drawing inspiration from the English
model, which was one of the leading models in Europe. By this model,
teaching was conducted by already existing institutions or universities.
In particular, the introduction of the grade 2 exam helped to define
better the different professional roles which represented the professional activity. Specifically speaking, they distinguished the “generalists” who could
manage and develop initiatives and advertising campaigns in every aspect,
from the “specialists” who belonged to the creative sector (like copywriters,
art directors, and audio-visual specialists) or to other sectors (planners and
researchers).
The need to define clearly these two professional roles led, on one
hand, to finding basic and common knowledge between them, and on the
other to identifying some specific necessities of training. Thus, for some,
the attempt to optimally satisfy the needs of both led to the creation of two
distinct types of schools for the two professional roles, for others it led to the
creation of a single school, really much more complex, with a common
learning foundation and two specialized courses distinguished for professional roles. Generally, giving these courses to the already existing universities would supposedly avoid the creation of complex, but probably less
functional, institutions.
The Involvement of the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore
I dwelt on the problems concerning the teaching of advertising and
the development of advertising jobs in Italy, first of all, because I wanted
properly to include the Scuola Superiore di Giornalismo e Mezzi Audiovisivi in this scheme. This School was set up by Professor Mario Apollonio,
who also was its first director at the Università Cattolica, during the academic year 1961-1962. It was a postgraduate school, which offered dedicated courses in the advertising specialization, with the aim to train future
communication or advertising professionals whose profiles would be clearly
demarcated by their jobs.
The original plan of study (Apollonio, 1963, p. 306 and following)
focused on general courses such as psychology, sociology, history of modern
culture, history of modern church, catholic social teaching, vocational
courses, and basics of courses such as history, theory and practice of journalism, advertising, television, film and theatre.
219
The School, which was later called Scuola Superiore delle Comunicazioni Sociali, was officially recognized five years later (1966). This official
recognition helped to better define its structure.
In particular, in the second year students were required to study, indepth, fundamental topics that covered the core area of the specialization.
They were also required to choose other subjects among the additional
courses, to assist in fulfilling the advertising graduation requirement.
The course of theory and technique of advertising represented the
fundamental course in this field, and it was interconnected with the ones of
the first year. This course covered topics such as psychology and sociology
of advertising, as well as market research. The additional courses focused on
the diverse types of advertising (press advertising, film, radio and television
advertising), as well as on the graphic visualization of advertising (we refer
to it as “graphic adverting”).
After many years of experience, the best the School could do to meet
the interests of any learner was to group general subjects at the first year of
the two-year course. With the reduced number of courses better satisfying
the School’s aim, the School became a school of specialization, and the
number of courses from a single specialization area generally increased.
In particular, with regard to the advertising section, the business economics course – among the others introduced - completed the curriculum.
This course allowed consideration of advertising as a tool of a business activity and with a marketing perspective.
In Pursuit of Scientific and Ethical Fundamentals
of Teaching Advertising
At the Scuola Superiore delle Comunicazioni Sociali advertising was
not considered on its own, but it was included in a much larger theoretical
model referring to the increasingly evolving social communications (more
frequently studied under the title of mass communications), whose foundations were focused on psycho-sociological sciences.
In general its aim was to contend and overcome an artisanal practice,
which didn’t lay down a solid scientific foundation, even if it dealt both
with an ancient art, such as journalism or theatre, and with a less ancient
practice as in the case of advertising. To overcome this artisan’s practice
meant also to overcome those myths which governed this practice, and
which were able to fascinate youth.
However the myth referred to here was not the one of the business
leader, but the one of the hidden persuader, as it was defined in a well-
220
known work of a bad popularization (Packard 1958), and which was much
more dangerous. In this respect we could observe that also some autobiographies by famous workers in the field of advertising24 had a subtle influence, above all, on the youth. We could cite – one for all – David Ogilvy’s
autobiography (Ogilvy, 1963). More precisely, these autobiographies gave a
sense of adventure and improvements on which lay the foundations of the
professional practice.
A second essential aspect related to the approach followed by the
Scuola Superiore delle Comunicazioni Sociali, with reference to advertising,
was the specific care for ethics. As it was stressed by its founder: “The
School will allow students to pursue diverse professional careers. They will
be able to get a job with much more responsibility; they will be experts of
technique and science and even more of ethical and religious values; without these values every attempt appears to be useless” (Apollonio, 1964).
The concepts of the respect for man, the communication media as
tools, the use of these tools to take part in the world, as expressed by Second
Vatican Council’s Inter Mirifica Decree and later by Communio et progressio,
which pervade the work by Apollonio, also affected advertising.
Although these principles traditionally provided the foundation for
the Università Cattolica‘s learning and teaching, it’s also true that they
clearly reflected the desire of the advertising industry in those times. In fact,
the advertising industry approved and enacted a set of rules, of an ethical
value, in 1966. The Code – originally defined “Codice della Lealtà Pubblicitaria” – was the result of a long and comprehensive study which
spanned more than ten years of debates. It was intended to influence both
the advertising expert and, consequently, the practice of the profession, ever
more deeply as new editions of the Code (today it is called Codice di autodisciplina della comunicazione commercial) were published.
I outlined the role of a modern advertising professional, according to
this perspective, at the beginning of the seventies:
24
We refer to the well-known work by Claude Hopkins, My life in Advertising, which was
translated in Italy in 1932 and which was entitled I miei successi in pubblicità. It played an
important role to promote the American school, which was founded at the beginning of the
last century. The same role was played by his second book Scientific advertising, Moore Publ.
Co., New York 1923. I have to observe that in 1968 appeared a new edition of this book
with an introduction by David Ogilvy.
The autobiography by the most famous and historical representative of Italian advertising:
D. Villani, Cinfessioni di un «persuasore», Ceschina, Milano 1972, is also related to the first
book by Hopkins. Actually the author, as Hopkins, belongs to the first generation of advertising experts.
221
The man of communication will have to take on new undertakings and assume further responsibilities, and to handle them it is required a technical education more and more developed as well as an increasingly human comprehension.
Actually man is at the heart of every event, and he must be there, irrespective of any technological evolution and of any economical and social development.
If I could think about the future of my son, as a man of communication, I
would think of him as someone who should have been trained by a school of a
high culture, as someone who has been trained to communicate with his fellows in any sector and for any aim the society sets. (Mengacci & Brioschi,
1972, p. 388)
However, the theme of responsibility, and particularly the theme of
social responsibility with reference to advertising, is very important. It
marked about twenty years which span the second half of the Sixties to the
mid-Eighties, in a periodization which goes from the beginnings to modern
advertising (Brioschi, 1984, p. 17 and following).
These responsibilities can be fulfilled only with a deeper and more
extensive professionalism. The first element of professionalism is ethics:
“ethics,” I insisted, “is not a component of this professionalism, but it is the
essential component… so that if there is not ethics we cannot actually talk
about professionalism, at the most we can talk about of a job which does
not contribute to the progress of advertising in Italy.”25
Now, if I wanted to remind the fundamental contribution which
Mario Apollonio gave to the birth of an Italian theory of advertising, I
could summarize it as it follows:
• a proposal of ethics which gives sense to advertising and which promotes its
social recognition. This is in perfect agreement with the concept of “modern
advertising” in general, and with that of the “new directions of Italian advertising,” promoted by the National Congress of Advertising held in Rome in
1971 (Brioschi, 1974);
• the definition of a communicational theory of advertising to be integrated with
the business and economic advertising theory, which was in fact formulated on
a basis of a quite marginal consideration of the communicational nature of the
activity under consideration;
• the formulation of this communicational theory as part of a much more extended theory of social communications, as in the case of the economic theory,
25
E. T. Brioschi, T.P. Basi etiche per la professione, in «Pubblicità & Successo Annual 1985»,
Milano 1986, p. 23. I affirmed this concept as a president of the Associazione italiana tecnici
pubblicitari AITP (Italian Association of Practitioners in Advertising), and I stressed it still
further in Presentazione degli Atti del Convegno nazionale per il 40°anniversario of the Association under consideration, held in Milan, 25 october 1985.
222
advertising appeared to be part of a much more extended business economics
theory.
Teaching Advertising at the Faculty of Economics
I should note that, in the meantime, advertising teaching also had
been introduced in the faculty of Economics of Università Cattolica as a
specialized course. Starting with the academic year 1968-1969, principles
of economics and technique of advertising were outlined in this faculty, in
an appropriate way, specifically inside the industrial and commercial technique course held by Giordano Caprara.
At the beginning of the Seventies only two universities in Italy had
officially introduced this course: the Università Cattolica and the Università
Bocconi, both based in Milan, which is properly defined as the Italian capital of the advertising industry. In these courses advertising was considered,
first of all, as a tool for business management. More specifically, these
courses outlined advertising objectives, its related problems, and a planning
model. They also made general reflections (of ethical, juridical, economic
aspects, etc).
The aim was to make students - who would get responsible jobs within the different classes of businesses - aware of advertising, and of its potential, but at the same time of its limits. This was so they could clearly understand its function and properly judge its application within their companies.
The evolution in the teaching of advertising within the faculty of Economics clearly led to the enrichment of the proposed framework of such an activity, and to its integration with multiple and meaningful experiences.
In conclusion, let me briefly mention also the general issue of updating, which not only refers to advertising professionals. In this respect, there
are fundamentally two essential aspects to be considered. On one hand is
the need of the business management, at any levels, to be informed about
the progress in the use of tools of advertising and its related problems. It
needs to be underlined that advertising represents one of the most effective,
but also one of the most delicate and complex forms of that non–price competition involving an increasing number of markets, specifically referring to
consumer goods and services.
On the other hand, we can’t forget the verified opportunity to transfer the techniques of advertising in other industries (I think of the so-called
social interest campaigns in favour of blood donation, the conservation of
forest wealth and other aspects and values of social life, which were developed from the beginning of the Seventies in Italy). This should also lead to
223
introducing these techniques in training programs for the staff of the involved social institutions.
The Università Cattolica started with a pioneering spirit, also in the
updating field, by organizing some wide-ranging conferences starting in
1963. These encompassed subjects as “Wealth and advertising” or “The
human factor in advertising.”
From the Mid-Eighties to the New Millennium
Until the mid-eighties teaching advertising in Italy was characterized,
first, by a very limited number of universities involved in such a teaching.
Among them is the Università Cattolica, which continues to be the leader.
In this respect I need to remember the contributions of IULM, of some curricula belonging to the Faculty of Sociology at Federico II in Naples, La Sapienza in Rome and Urbino, and of some curricula belonging to the faculty
of arts and philosophy of a few other universities.
IULM has special importance with respect to its contributions in the
field of communication, beginning with public relations. It was founded in
1968 as a University Institute for Modern Languages. Later, in 1998, it was
called Free University of Languages and Communication IULM. This name
strikingly underlines its mission in the field of education of future professionals with a deep knowledge of languages and business communication.
Second, this period was notable for the rise of a very limited number
of private and well-qualified non-university institutions. Among them was
the Istituto Europeo di Design (IED). This institution was established in
1966, and it would play a significant role in the field of teaching, even if its
contribution in the area of advertising would have been gradually defined in
the following decades. In particular, this happened through the establishment in the eighties of Istituto Superiore di Comunicazione (Higher Communication Institute), which gave rise to IED Comunicazione in 2000.
Besides these, the Accademia di Comunicazione, was founded and
became operational in 1988, in Milan. Its plan was to create a project on
education, research, and innovation in visual and persuasive communication
(marketing, advertising, public relations, graphic design and all the technologies related to these professional sectors). In particular, the project on education was based on the “bottega” concept, where students could learn the
essential skills for their future job.26
26
Also “Fabrica,” founded in 1994 in Treviso by Benetton Group, one of the most famous
Italian companies to use communication, appears to draw inspiration from this concept.
224
The introduction in Italy of study programs and diplomas launched
by the International Advertising Association (IAA), during its Congress in
Durban (1979), ends the landscape of the first half of the eighties. This association was concerned that each country have teaching institutions able to
offer adequate training for future professionals. The first Italian university
to be IAA accredited in Italy was Università Cattolica, in 1983. Several
years later the same accreditation would was granted to some courses held
by IED.
In the second half of the eighties two important initiatives, connected
with the university world, were launched:
• The Master27 Publitalia, promoted by the Fininvest group in 1988 in collaboration with the main universities in Milan.
• The Master in business communication, promoted in 1989 by UPA, the association of the most important companies which invest in advertising, in collaboration with the Department of Economics and Business Administration of
University Ca’ Foscari of Venice.
The most relevant event of this period, probably the greatest one, was
the launch of graduation courses in communication sciences, which included a major in business communication. The foundation of these courses
was built on the observation that the study of communication events (either
individual or social, private or public in nature) involved a multidisciplinary
approach including, in particular, sociology, psychology, and semiotics.
These courses began in the academic year 1992-1993 at a very limited number of universities (first of all Salerno, Siena and Turin). Two universities of Rome, La Sapienza and LUMSA, followed them. Later, other
universities followed, until the beginning of 2000.
The courses raised great hopes for their vocational nature, but then
proved to be below expectations, in particular, with regard to the teaching
of business communication. While the demand decreased, the universities
followed different strategies to uncap job opportunities. However, faculties
of Communication Sciences also were established. The first one was at
IULM University of Milan, in 1999. The first public university to inaugurate this faculty was the University of Rome La Sapienza, in 2000.
Starting with the nineties, three-year diplomas were introduced in the
communication field. They referred to advertising, and even more generally
This group didn’t intend to give birth to a school or a “university” which supported its
group, but to an international creativity lab.
27
In didactic terms, the word “Master” in Italy means a postgraduate course, which is attended by graduates whose aim is to specialize and qualify themselves.
225
to business communication, often interconnected with marketing. However, these diplomas were later included in the three-year degree course introduced by the national university reform in academic year 2001-2002. Following this reform, a large number of first and second level Masters (in the
Italian meaning) were introduced after the third and fifth year of university
courses, respectively.
In my opinion what is the most interesting steps in the progress and
evolution of above mentioned aspects, for our aim, is:
• The increasing involvement of universities in the field of teaching advertising, or rather in business communication, both for basic training purposes (the
first three years) or vocational purposes (following two years of study). Thus,
the approach to the teaching issue which was proposed in the fifties was gradually being modified, if we don’t take into account the strict creative aspects of
advertising and business communication.
• The absorption of university studies on advertising into the wider field of
business communication according to that concept of total communication,
which I shall discuss below.
Such an evolution is understandable when one considers the increasing
complexity and articulation of business communication, and the reduction
of the role played by advertising, as it is traditionally intended in the field of
such communication.
In this respect I have to finally underline that the development of institutions and initiatives involved in advertising teaching in the period
1985/2000 was strictly connected to the increasing competitiveness on the
Italian advertising market, as it is shown in the following table:
Mezzo
Televisione
Radio
Stampa
Affissione*
Cinema*
Internet*
Direct mail*
Grand Total
1985
54,70%
2,60%
42,70%
1.522.718
1990
51,20%
1,70%
42,20%
5,00%
0,00%
0,00%
0,00%
3.289.151
1995
62,10%
1,80%
33,30%
2,90%
0,00%
0,00%
0,00%
4.024.008
2000
57,10%
4,90%
34,20%
2,80%
0,90%
0,00%
0,00%
7.121.963
* not evaluated
Table 17-1: the evolution of advertising investments in Italy (‘000 euros)
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From Advertising to Business Communication
To deal with the business communication it is absolutely necessary,
first of all, to define the concept that I am referring to in using this expression. The concept under consideration is that of the “total business communication.” This expression refers to the entirety of the communication
process of a business. In fact, any business elements, aspects, and activities
can influence the process of communication, and then the business corporate identity and the related image.
Management can be aware of this influence at different levels. It can
be completely aware, or not sufficiently aware, or even, in a number presumably even higher, absolutely unaware. Moreover, this process of communication involves both implicit aspects, typical of the nature and structure of a business, and aspects that can explicitly influence its identity and
its corporate image, which is a quite complex concept.
The corporate image is not the exclusive and predominant result of
an explicit communication activity promoted by the business. This image
exists even if the mentioned communication activity is not carried out. On
the contrary, it is a much more complex consequence of the presence of the
business itself, in its entirety, of the various forms of communication activated by that presence (interpersonal, non-personal or mass communication) and, finally, of the different communication processes promoted by
the business.
With reference to this, I have to remark that the traditional four areas
which form the total business communication (corporate communication,
internal communication, external marketing communication – obviously
including advertising – and economic and financial communication) are the
subject of debates, in order to revise partly these areas and consequently
their roles (for example, the internal communication has been extended to
the organizational communication including the distributors, and the economic and financial communication has been extended to the communication addressed to those who hold strategic resources in general, whether financial, technological, etc). On the other hand, these areas appear to be
the subject of an increasing integration that involves the values and the
principles of the business communicationin general.
Now, the business communication in the sense of a total communication can be considered under different profiles and at different levels:
• The communication as a culture whose aim is primarily to suggest and affirm
the permanent and strategic character of the communication as a business production factor. It follows that not only is it essential for the business itself to
227
look at this factor, but also that the communication – used in an efficient and
effective way - represents a value for the business (as it is the development of
the human resources or the conservation of the environment);
• The communication as a business approach, that is as a general rule of the
business governance in order to offer the business identity and image - or, as it
is also said, the reputation - to the different audiences in the best way;
• The communication as a business function, whose aim is directed to promote,
create and control the variety of the communication initiatives of the business.
In this connection I recall a survey completed in the mid-nineties at a European level, which involved most of the sectors of the economic activity and represented a group of six countries including Italy (Brioschi, 2007). This research
revealed that only 1% of the businesses belonging to the sample reported the
absolute absence of any explicit communication activity. Seventy-seven percent
of the businesses had an organizational unit essentially dedicated to communication, whereas five years before it was only in 52% of the businesses. Therefore, had the percentage increased at the same rate in the following years, today this organizational unit would have been present in an overwhelming majority of the businesses, particularly in those involved in the consumer goods
and services; even if it is always advisable to distinguish between the reality of
the small and medium enterprises and that of the large ones.
With respect to the development of the total business communication, according to the three previously cited categories (as culture, in terms
of governance and as an operational function), it appears that the evolution
of theory in this field and the relation between theory and practice are considered highly relevant. In this respect, there is more than one reason to talk
about the myth and the reality of business communication.
Undoubtedly the development of this theory has been guided by a
dominant American school, which has effectively given a century worth of
contributions and experiences (Brioschi, 1984, 104 and following). As we
know, this theory has been applied not only in the United States, but also
across continents, including Europe and Asia.
It deals specifically with a school which has been able to theorize the
indispensability of the integration between the different activities, and the
multiple instruments of business communication which gave birth to the
concept of “integrated marketing communications” (IMC).” This development, an important goal for the theory, started at the end of 1980s. At the
same time, this theory is in a continuous evolution as frequently advocated
by one of its eminent theorists, Professor Don Schultz from Northwestern
University (Schultz, 2005).
Besides the American school, however, we also need to consider the
emergence of two others: the European and the Japanese schools. These
228
schools have undoubtedly, and profitably, drawn inspiration from the
American one, but they increasingly consider the peculiarities of each action
area beginning from its culture. In fact, the European school devises the
concept of the “total communication,” towards which the concept of the
“integrated marketing communications” (Brioschi, 2006, p. 101 et seq.) can
be compared, even if its premises and assumptions are partly different from
the ones of the European concept. The Japanese school highlights the holistic nature of business communication, based on its national culture which
has to be deeply reconsidered, and the need to elaborate concepts partly different from those which have been used until today to guide and conduct
the communication activity (Brioschi – Kobayashi, 2008, p. 211 et seq.).
Whatever is the school one belongs to, regarding theory, I will note
that the practice does not still appear, at an international level, predominantly and sufficiently inspired by the aspects of permanence and strategies
of the business communication, upon which I previously dwelt. As I have
remarked (Brioschi, 2005, p. 22 et seq.), “The theoretical principles underpinning the business communication appear to be clearly developed, even
though they require further checks and above all deepenings. Then instantly
arises the question of why the application of these principles is still very limited even in the highly developed countries.”
The Obstacles to Principles’ Application: the Professionals of the
Future
The above-mentioned application of theoretical principles is not so
easy, as the business reality shows us concrete difficulties to putting these
principles into effect. The difficulties we are talking about are specifically
caused by:
• The disparity between the specific objectives which each area of business
communication pursues, even though they share a single final objective;
• The dispersion of the governance of these areas between different organizational functions, with the consequent difficulty of pursuing that final shared
objective, also because this objective ends up by reducing the power of the individual functions in terms of the responsibility for communication attributed
to each;
• The increasing richness, complexity and specificity of the means and instruments of communications, which may make it more difficult, even extremely
difficult, to pursue the objective of a unified use, which theory refers to;
229
• The different levels of importance attributed to the different areas of business
communication in the sector where the business operates, in the individual
business examined in a particular phase of its existence and, finally, in the
business considered in its development.
On a more general level, the approaches suggested by the different
theoretical schools require business and its top management to overcome
many types of obstacles: cultural, organizational, technological, and financial.
The term “culture,” in the case of the cultural obstacles, specifically
refers to the field of communication. Now, the culture of communication
still seems to be quite inadequate in the great majority of firms. It can be
summed up simply as caused by a “lack of people who understand the total
business communication.” The first obstacle for the development of such a
culture and, hence, the management or governance of business communication in the modern sense is a mental look. This was shown by research into
the same subject that were carried out in Italy in the second half of the nineties. These studies showed that the change in the mentality of management
was the first and fundamental problem to be dealt with on the level of general business management itself, and not simply in the case of communication. But just considering the change of this mentality and, on the whole,
the appropriate education of those who are and will be responsible for
communication at different levels, the well-known role of education appears
relevant.
The results of one of the studies already mentioned, conducted at the
European level, outlined the role of an ideal professional. The results can
be summarized as: “The goal is to train the future professionals in the field
of total business communication.” It was also underlined that, “This approach should allow to satisfy the existing needs of the professionals, and
consequently to develop an [education] which implies the knowledge of
theory and practice of each area of communication….” Moreover, it was
affirmed, “Today, both professionals and academics of every country included in the research study acknowledge the existence of a high level of the
general basic education…, in spite of the remarks that education is too frequently restricted to this …. However this represents a fundamental basis
not only to acquire in the future more specific professional skills through a
practical experience, but also to acquire cultural openness and international
exposure.”
Before considering the needs of education for the field, and consequently the characteristics to be adopted by education, it is advisable to
make two general observations. The first is related to the type of business
230
for which communication is used. The second is related to the size of the
market in which the company operates. Let me start from the first one.
Communication in small and medium enterprises is distinguished by
a set of needs different from the ones of larger enterprises, even if they both
share common basic principles, methods, and techniques of business communication. The Research Lab which I oversee conducted a thorough
study on these needs at the beginning of this decade. This analysis revealed
that, in order to accomplish the predicted growth prospects in the field of
communication, small and medium enterprises need to adopt an ad hoc
communication model. This model should take into account the peculiarities and the specific needs of these enterprises, and should succeed in covering any form of communication favouring a network of enterprises located
within a supply chain or an industrial district.
If we better identify the functional approach of these businesses we
can differentiate two fields of communication. One is communication with
the market, which often applies to activities and means different from conventional advertising. The other is communication with other enterprises belonging to the same network, whose methods and intensity go beyond the
traditional relationship between supplier and client, just as it is done at an
international level.
Beyond the definition of an appropriate communication model, the
following conditions are required for the growth of small and medium enterprises in the communication field: (1) the definition of clear methods of
strategic planning for optimizing resources through an appropriate coordination of the tools of communication, and (2) the education of professionals able to assist the entrepreneur, who often directly manages the business
communication, even if he or she has neither good knowledge nor the required skills. These assistants should allow the entrepreneur to become
aware of the needs of his or her company with respect to communication.
Taking now into account the size of the market in which the business
operates, it is evident that international markets should get appropriate attention irrespective of the phase of development of the considered company, whether the company is multinational or international, global or transnational. In this regard, we should not forget that even small and medium
enterprises are interested in international markets, even though they use
multiple approaches.
Thus those people who work in the field of communication at an international level are required to have, first of all, a set of complex skills to
appreciate the different country cultures and enter the field of international
research (I refer to the deep work of Professor Miracle (Miracle, 2009, p. 66
231
and following), and that of the diverse markets with their own characteristics and own models, the market of communication among them.
The Evolution of Total Business Communication:
Technology and Research
Another important argument is the role played by technology in the
field of communication, and its innovation relative to any business, any
market, or any sector in which the company operates. The Italy Chapter of
the IAA conducted a study on this topic at an international level, from December 2006 to February 2007, involving IAA members. The findings suggest respondents believed the most innovative media are Internet, online
communication, search engine and new media in general. It also revealed
the growing importance of advertising online and of mobile communication, but that regardless of the level of innovation of the media, the budget
will always dictate the rules of the game (see Tables 17-2 through 17-5).
Please rank the degree of your personal “perceived innovation” of each of the following media using a
scale where 5=Highly innovative / 4=Innovative/ 3=Stable / 2=Low innovative/ 1=Very low innovative
Table 17-2: Perceived innovation
232
Please rank the degree of your personal “perceived innovation” of each of the following media using a
scale where 5=Highly innovative / 4=Innovative/ 3=Stable / 2=Low innovative/ 1=Very low innovative
Table 17-3: Perceived innovation – Internet/online
Please rank the degree of your personal “perceived innovation” of each of the following media using a
scale where 5=Highly innovative / 4=Innovative/ 3=Stable / 2=Low innovative/ 1=Very low innovative
Table 17-4: Perceived innovation – new media
233
Which of the following statement do you agree more with?
Table 17-5: Perceptions on media assets
On the other hand, the evolution in technology does not necessarily
coincide with a corresponding evolution of business behavior, as was highlighted by a study conducted by the Research Lab mentioned above (Gambetti, 2005, p. 233). That study reveals the companies which make use of
the Internet can be divided into three clusters. For the first, and least populated (27% of respondents), the Internet does not play any particular role.
It is hardly ever used and its usage is restricted to basic functions.
The second cluster (30% of respondents) believes the Internet primarily is an important means of building relationships to optimize business
processes and information exchanges within the enterprise. The third and
largest cluster (43% of respondents) pursues a web development and online
strategy based on a widespread use of the Internet-based technologies to
manage processes and relations, and based on the online integration of the
primary functions of business operations. This behavior creates value for all
the interconnected parties (Table 17-6). Let me now address education, its
features and its problems.
Education: Importance, Types and Components
The Italy Chapter of the IAA conducted a national education survey (17
October - 7 November 2007) to be successively extended to all of Europe.
A sample of 500 qualified representatives in the field of communication was
then selected. This represented users of communication, specialized agencies, and the media, with 203 respondents.
234
Table 17-6: The internet approach of the businesses
235
I should note that the role of communication in companies where
the interviewees worked appears to have, on average, a high amount of importance (4 on a scale of 1 to 5), at least on a strategic level. But there were
considerable differences, depending on the class to which the company belonged (user company, communication agency, media), as reflected in Table
17-7.
Let me analyze the importance, desirable and actual, of education
within those companies (Tables 17-8 and 17-9). The importance of education appears to be slightly higher than was attributed to communication
(4.07 against 4 as mentioned above), with the highest peak for communication agencies. Paradoxically the importance actually attributed to education
by the companies fell drastically, at 2.9. That is why we could probably
speak about education as a myth and in the reality.
Table 17-7: The importance to be attributed to communication
236
Table 17-8: The desirable importance attributed to
education in business communication
Table 17-9 – The actual importance attributed to business communication
237
3,2
7
Let me now analyse the type of education that is considered more
useful and effective (Table 17-10). The existence of a general culture and
connected skills, combined with a specific knowledge, appears clearly predominant (49% against 17%) over the existence of a highly specialized culture and consequent skills. This result is connected to the one of a survey
conducted at the European level, cited above.
Table 17-10 – Type of education more useful and effective for the company
And let me specifically consider those skills which are believed to be
important for a communication manager (Table 17-11). The survey took
into account twelve types of skills, to which one or more skills could also be
added. The first three skills are the following:
• the inclination towards interpersonal relationships (88%)
• the ability to get into relations at interfunctional level (86%)
• the ability to work in teams (84%)
The third skill was followed by a mastery of a strong general culture,
which peaks at 97% in the case of communication agencies. In short, we
could say that an inclination towards interpersonal relationships appears to
be successful, irrespective of the sector and beyond a strong general culture.
The list includes:
238
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
the inclination towards interpersonal relationships,
ability to get into relations at interfunctional level,
ability to work in teams,
strong general culture,
sharing knowledge,
analysis and estimation,
public speaking,
management of the diverse culture,
foreign languages,
creativity,
technology skills,
economic education
Table 17-11 – The importance of skills for a communication manager
As for the improvements in the field of education in business communication, with respect to 6 parameters discussed below (Table 17-12),
the control management (72% of the cases) and the strategic planning
(64% of the cases), followed by an increasing openness to the research (57%
of the cases) appeared to be of significant importance. These were followed
by media, creativity and production/implementation as possible areas of
improvement. Concerning this we could say that the ability to consider the
communication in functional terms, that is in terms of planning and control, appears to be successful with respect to expanding fields of knowledge
of basic character.
239
Table 17-12 – Improvements in the field of education
As for the job profiles (Table 17-13), those of the generalists such
as communication/PR experts appear to be the most needed in the next five
years, followed by different types of managers: strategic, marketing, and
knowledge managers. The last one represents a new professional role, a person who should be able to manage the complexity of the information flow
inside the company. Moreover there are two more roles: new media web expert and researcher.
These results concerning the professional roles can be integrated with
the ones of the cited international research, conducted by the Italy Chapter
of IAA at the beginning of 2007 (Table 17-14) which highlighted on one
hand the importance of planning represented by the roles of the media
planner and the digital planner and on the other the importance of creativity represented by the roles of the copywriter and the graphic designer.
The final aspect of the research was concerned with the role of the
employer within the context of education and training in the field of business communication. Thus according to the survey conducted in Italy not
only should the employer show interest in education but also he should be
involved in continuous training courses (Table 17-14).
240
Table 17-13 - Professional job profiles most requested in next 5 years
This expectation expressed by the interviewees is the most striking
result of this survey. This result is even more surprising if we consider that
the education of future communicators given by the employer was not
without some concern following the research frequently cited, conducted at
a global level.
Thus the challenge of education continues not only for the needs of
our times but also for the medium and long term needs in the field of business communication. Even if in the direction of this challenge, it sounds
limiting the assertion made in the course of a often cited study, that "trainers are aware that their mission is to meet not only the present needs, but
also the needs of the future, but with a view to bet on the immediate future."
In summary, I would say that the challenge of education is related to
the short and medium term future and its goal is something which involves
company, market and environment – beyond the communication. In fact,
education must deal with the change of the multiple aspects of our economy and society.
241
Which are the most requested job profiles in the media / advertising
industry among the following? Could you rank them?
Table 17-14 - The most requested job profiles in the media /advertising industry
Table 17-15 – Employer involvement in education in the field of communication
242
Do you think young advertising/media professionals and marketers
received an adequate and consistent education from their employers?
Table 17-16 - Evaluations about young advertising/media professionals
and marketers education
The Current Teaching Situation
This brings me to highlight the circumstances of teaching advertising
and moreover business communication at the end of this decade (2010).
The teaching under consideration involves two types of platforms: (1) universities, and (2) non-university institutions.
Notably, these two platforms are interconnected, at least at the level
of teaching. As a matter of fact, the university requires highly specialized
professionals to teach various specialization courses, whereas the nonuniversity institutions need the university teachers to formulate the structure and contents of certain courses.
In my opinion, good theory and good practice reciprocally encourage
and reinforce each other. In our subjects, the theory, when it is abstract in
an exaggerated way, does not conform to the practice, and even less is reflected in practice. However, empiricism, which is an end in itself, does not
provoke approval and insight into the theory. In that context, the seminars
conducted as a part of the study at various university courses and internships, both at the national and international level, enable the students to
come close to theory and practice, and to facilitate comparison and insight.
243
Having said that, it should be noted that 703 courses conducted in
57, of the approximate 90, Italian universities have communication titles
(Table 17-17). This refers to the teaching of any type of communication
(interpersonal, mass, business, scientific etc.)
Universities faculties
Number
Humanistic area
- Lettere e filosofia (Arts and Philosophy)
- Scienze della Formazione (Education Sciences)
- Scienze Linguistiche (Foreign Languages)
32
23
11
Economic, legal and political area
- Economia e commercio (Economics)
- Giurisprudenza (Law)
- Scienze politiche (Political sciences)
21
9
16
Engineering and mathematics related areas
- Ingegneria (Engineering)
-Scienze matematiche, fisiche e naturali
(Mathematics, Physics and Life Sciences)
Social area
- Psicologia (Psychology)
- Sociologia (Sociology)
- Scienze della comunicazione (Communication sciences)
Subtotal
66
46
24
12
12
21
10
6
5
Other faculties
28
Total
185
Table 17-17: Present Distribution of Communication
Courses in Italian Universities
Looking specifically at business communication, the situation appears
to be much more concentrated. Moving on to graduate programs which
offer a degree in business communication, totally or partly, the following
situation is depicted:
• Looking at the three-year, i.e., the first-level of graduate programs, there are 83
degree courses available at 56 different Italian universities entitled to business
communication. Most of these degree courses belong to the class of Communication Sciences.
• Analyzing the two-year, i.e., the second-level of graduation programs, there are
28 degree courses in 22 Italian universities entitled to business communication. Almost all these degree courses belong to the class of Public and Business
Communication and Advertising.
244
You must further add six PhD degrees referring to business communication, which may also be combined with marketing. Furthermore, in
this field of teaching, there is a high number of the first-level and secondlevel masters, which are managed directly by the university or promoted by
associations, businesses and more generally by public or private institutions.
The business communication teaching area is terribly crowded.
At this time the Italian Association of Advertising Professionals
(A.I.T.P) has accredited 13 institutions, in order to replace the examinations of grade 1, mentioned above. More specifically, these accreditations
include:
• Two were given to universities (Università Cattolica and IULM).
• Two were given to the Association (Master in Communications promoted by
UPA) or Business groups working in the communications sector (Master in
Business Communication and Marketing by PubItalia-Fininvest).
• Nine were given to non-university institutions including IED Comunicazione
ed Accademia di Comunicazione.
The term “master” occurs in six out of 13 accreditations, several of
which were granted to non-university institutions so that they could prepare
professionals in the creative sector (copy writing, art direction, graphic design etc.). Each of the above-mentioned institutions has evolved differently
during the first decade of 2000.
The Università Cattolica established an interdisciplinary second level
degree course in Business Communication, Media and Complex Organizations involving the Colleges of Economics, Humanities and Sociology in
2009. The curricula are several, among which the historical one in Business
Communication.28 Following the foundation of the Research Laboratory in
Business Communication in 1998, the Università Cattolica has further developed studies analysing the communication policies of more than 1000
companies operating in several industries. In 2008 this University has also
launched a publication, “Communicative Business. Italian Research Review
on Business Communication,” with an international editorial board.
IULM University has established in 2007 the IULM Communication
School, operating in the field of education into different sectors, among
28
In 2002, the Alta Scuola in Media, Comunicazione e Spettacolo was established by the
College of Humanities of the same Università Cattolica. This school - deriving from the preceding Scuola di Specializzazione in Comunicazioni Sociali - trains the new professionals for
the strategical sectors of the communication and performance arts.
245
which Communication and Relationship Systems, including the business
and public communication as well as public relations and advertising, and
Media and Creativity.
In addition, IED – operating in different disciplinary fields other
than Communication (Design, Fashion and Visual Arts), has continued
with its internationalization program in Europe and South America. As far
as the Accademia di Comunicazione is concerned, this became a Foundation in 2008. It has continued in its activity of education, while it devoted
itself to the research and in the spreading of a communication culture.
A Profile of Two Leaders in Italian Advertising Education
Dino Villani (1898-1989)
Belonging to the first generation of
Italian advertising experts, he began working
in the thirties of the twentieth century. He
took soon the direction of advertising of two
historical businesses, Motta (1934) and
GiViEmme (1939), operating respectively in
the food and toiletries industries. In this
role, he organized advertising campaigns,
contests, public relations events and more in
general initiatives in the business communication, characterized by a great innovativeness that led him to become the creator of
integrated communication in Italy.
After the end of World War II, he was co-founder and president of
advertising associations (Asssociazione Italiana Tecnici ed Artisti della Pubblicità – 1946 to 1950 – and Federazione Italiana della Pubblicità – 1950 to
1970 – of which he also became honorary president). Starting from the
thirties, he also dealt with journalism, while starting from the fifties he increasingly was involved in teaching advertising in the advertising School of
Milan, as well as in the training course for Italian managers held in the Università Bocconi in Milan for 14 years. He summarized his various work experiences (professional, teaching, cultural etc.) in his last book Confessioni di
un persuasore (1972), Milano: Ceschina.
246
Mario Apollonio (1901-1971)
Professor of Italian Literature at Oslo, Urbino and Cattolica Universities in Milan. At the Università Cattolica he taught from 1942 until 1971.
He was a passionate expert of theatre becoming in 1955 the first Italian Professor of History of Theatre. He wrote an extraordinary History of Italian
theatre (Firenze: Sansoni 1943-1950), edited again in 2003 in Biblioteca
Universale by the publisher Rizzoli and he was co-founder of Piccolo Teatro
in Milan with Strehler, Tosi and Grassi, an innovative initiative in the Italian theatre field.
In 1961, he established in Bergamo the Scuola Superiore di Giornalismo e Mezzi Audiovisivi of Università Cattolica: this School moved to
Milan in the seventies and became the Scuola di Specializzazione in Comunicazioni Sociali. In 1965, he asked Edoardo Teodoro Brioschi to cooperate with him in the Advertising Section of the School in order to enrich
its scientific foundation. In 1971, Brioschi became Professor of Advertising
Theory and Technique and from 1980 director of the same Advertising Section serving about 20 years.
References
Apollonio, M., (1963), Relazione sulla Scuola Superiore di Giornalismo e Mezzi Audiovisivi
in Bergamo, Annuario dell’Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 306-308.
Apollonio, M., (1964), Scuola Superiore di Giornalismo e Mezzi Audiovisivi in Bergamo,
Annuario dell’Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 394-397.
Brioschi, E.T., (1966), Speech at VIII Congresso Nazionale della Pubblicità, Official Proceedings, Firenze, 290-291.
Brioschi, E.T., (1972), Università Cattolica e professioni nuove: l’insegnamento della pubblicità, Vita e Pensiero, 5, 82-90.
Brioschi, E.T., (1974), La pubblicità italiana ed il suo nuovo corso. Impieghi, effetti e
prospettive, Milano: Confederazione Generale Italiana della Pubblicità.
Brioschi, E.T., (1984), Elementi di Economia e Tecnica della Pubblicità, Vol. I, Dai primordi alla pubblicità moderna, Milano: Vita e Pensiero.
Brioschi, E.T., (2005), La comunicazione totale d’azienda: profili e problemi per il nuovo
secolo, in E.T. Brioschi (Ed.), La comunicazione totale nel contesto internazionale, a
special issue of Comunicazioni Sociali, 1, 22-29.
Brioschi, E.T., (2007), Business Communication: myth and reality at the beginning of the
new millenium, Paper at the International Advertising Association European Education
Conference, Milan, manuscript being printed.
Brioschi, E.T., (2008), Communicative Business. Il governo dell’azienda e della sua comunicazione nell’ottica della complessità, Milano: Vita e Pensiero.
Brioschi, E.T. & Kobayashi, Y., (2008), A comparative study in business communication.
Integrated Marketing Communication, Total Business Communication, Koukoku, Milano: Vita e Pensiero.
Gambetti, R.C., (2005), Le relazioni internet-based nei mercati industriali. Premesse strate-
247
giche e modalità di governo, Milano: Vita e Pensiero, 229-233.
La Manna, G., (1951), Definizione delle categorie pubblicitarie, Paper at II Congresso Nazionale della Pubblicità. In Proceedings of the II Congresso Nazionale della Pubblicità,
83-93.
La Manna, G., (1963), Progetto per l’istituzione di una Scuola tecnica di pubblicità, offprint from L’Ufficio Moderno – La Pubblicità, 9.
Mengacci, G., & Brioschi, E.T. (1972). Il pubblicitario: evoluzione di un uomo dalla intuizione alla professione, paper presented at the National Advertising Congress “La
pubblicità per lo sviluppo economico e sociale degli anni ‘70”. Confederazione Generale
Italiana della Pubblicità, Milan, 386-395.
Miracle, G.E., (2008), Historical perspectives on International Advertising. Communicative
Business. Italian Research Review on Business Communication, I, 54-73.
Ogilvy, D., (1963), Confessions of an Advertising Man, New York: Atheneum.
248
Advertising Higher Education
in Romania
Anca Cristina Micu
Sacred Heart University, USA
Madalina Moraru
Bucharest University, Romania
Evolution from Communism to Free Market
Romania, a former communist country in Eastern Europe, saw the
iron curtain lifted in 1989, and started at that time the transition to a free
market economy. The past couple of decades encompass extraordinary
changes in the economic structure and environment, with state monopolies
being dissolved and private companies entering the market and competing
in western manner. The Romanian conversion from central planning to a
market-oriented economy provides a fascinating laboratory for research in
economic theory and practice (Hefner and Woodward 1999). With the advent of a free market economy and a competitive environment, advertising
exited its dormant communist stage and started playing increasingly important economic and societal roles.
In this chapter, we briefly present the evolution of the Romanian advertising industry, followed by a description of the higher education institutions that aim to train the talent needed today by a mature Romanian advertising industry. The enrollment, curriculum, and faculty qualifications
are presented. We close the chapter with a look at how the local advertising
practitioners view the qualifications of students who graduate with a degree
or concentration in advertising in terms of meeting advertising agency hiring needs.
Brief History of the Romanian Advertising Industry
Romanian advertising originated in the 19th century, along with the
first promotional and commercial activities in the Romanian capital, Bucharest. Cliché statements like “Advertising is the soul of commerce” (coined
by George Albert Tacid, manager of the Romanian Advertising Office in
1886) were published at that time in newspapers, to point out the connec-
249
tion between business and advertising and the main purpose of promotional
efforts: to sell the product.
The first advertisements appeared in the local paper, “Curierul romanesc” (i.e., “The Romanian Courier”) in 1829. The newspaper advertised a
book titled, “The Philosophy of Words and Vices,” published in the Romanian language in Pest, Hungary. After 1840, text advertisements became
more common in Romanian periodicals. No sooner than 1886, ads began
to include images. Each company had its own slogan or unique message to
promote its products or services.
In 1879, a law referring to a company/business “identity” was passed,
and lead to publishing “The Marketing Almanac” by the Romanian Advertising Office, which was in charge of the legal aspects. In 1918 The General
Advertising Society took over this responsibility.
The first Romanian advertising agency, the David Adania Agency,
appeared in 1880. Two years later, in 1892, The French-Romanian Advertising Agency began publishing announcements in different languages, and
after 1900 supported publishing foreign advertisements in Romania. By
1924, a number of important multinational advertising agencies had
opened branch offices in Romania, among them: J.W. Thompson- New
York, Rudolf Mosse-Berlin (specialized in posters/banners) and Siegfried
Wagner (specialized in the promotion of spa vacations) (Petcu 2002). Advertisements were increasingly attractive and significant after 1906.
In 1925 J.W. Thompson invited Queen Maria of Romania to appear
in an ad for Pond’s Cold Cream, after she visited the USA, bought creams
of Pond’s, and was delighted by the quality of the products. Subsequently,
she wrote a letter to the company granting permission to be quoted in the
advertisement (see Figure 18-1).
Between the First and Second World Wars most ads were claiming
“the best” product in the category (e.g., best soap, best face cream, most artistic photographs). In addition, during the 30’s and 40’s, the first international brands started being promoted in Romania (e.g., Nivea, Scwartzkopf
- known as Tête Noir at that time) (Bunea 2010).
Later, during the communist era (after 1955), advertising activities
were increasingly restricted by the government and the Romanian Communist Party. A single state-owned agency ended up remaining active. Advertising media were limited to simple ads in the two newspapers of the
communist regime: the “Romania Libera” and the “Scanteia.”
As a consequence of this too-long period of restriction, the year 1990
brought an advertising renaissance to Romania and all Central and Eastern
European emerging free-market economies that were aspiring to become
250
part of the newly-formed European Union (EU). Although Romania
lagged behind the tier-one EU accession countries (i.e., Hungary, Czech
Republic and Poland) in its transition process, the country held much
promise as an attractive market for many western goods and services.
Figure 18-1: Queen Marie of Romania in a Pond’s Cold Cream Advertisement
251
It has the second largest land area and population among the emerging
market economies of Central and Eastern Europe (largest is Poland), boasts
ten cities with populations over 200,000 (compared to three in Hungary
and Czech Republic), and has low levels of ethnic and language diversity
and a high literacy rate. Even so, advertising agencies followed their clients
to Romania rather than proactively pursuing a market-expansion strategy
(Rhea 1996).
On the Romanian higher education front, the prospective EU integration acted as a major trigger of change, affecting the disciplines covered
as well as the structures and promotional efforts of universities themselves
(Chiper 2006). Advertising is one of the new disciplines that started being
included in the higher education curriculum after 1990, and progressed to
dedicated undergraduate and graduate degrees that are being offered today.
The next section of this chapter presents the enrollment, history and
structure of a variety of institutions offering courses in advertising. Then,
we describe the curricula and faculty qualifications followed by a relevance
assessment from the advertising practice side.
Higher Education Institutions Offering Advertising Courses
The complex discipline of advertising is taught within a variety of institutions. With its business, communications, and sociological roots, advertising is taught in journalism schools and business schools, as well as
(maybe specific to Romania only) in political science and public administration schools, and even at the academy of theatre and film.
We group schools in PhD-granting versus non-PhD-granting ones, as
far as advertising courses are concerned. Some of the schools we included
under non-PhD-granting may offer doctorates, however the doctoral programs are not related to advertising. All schools included here are public, as
opposed to private higher education institutions. Before delving into each
school’s details, we will justify our choice of including public universities, to
the detriment of private ones, because Romania is a special case.
Why Public Universities?
Romanian public higher education is free and is available each year
for a limited number of candidates supported by public money. In addition
to these subsidized spots, the Department of Education offers a limited
number of fee-based spots. Each public university organizes its own admissions exam, in order to fill both subsidized and fee-based spots. These ad-
252
missions exams are highly competitive, as the number of candidates always
outnumbers the spots available.
Romanian private higher education started being developed after
1990, as a new profit-generating business sector. Many private colleges entered the higher education market and became an attraction for future students due to their educational offering, which was similar to that of the
public universities. For a while, they organized admissions exams in the
same manner as the public institutions, hence, at the time they acted as real
competitors.
However, employers clearly differentiated between diplomas obtained
from public as opposed to private institutions, favoring the former and considering private education less rigorous (Coman 2007). In addition, as the
number of private institutions boomed to 127 in 2006 (Danaila 2006),
serving the same market of applicants, the admissions exams at private colleges became a mere formality as the only necessary document was a high
school diploma. By 2009, only 32 private institutions remained active in
Romania (Mihai 2009).
Year
School of Journalism and
Communication Sciences
Number of
Number of
subsidized
applicants
spots
taking admissions exam
2003
100
1100
2004
100
1110
2007
85
890
2008
120
983/770
2009
120
1238
School of Letters
Number of
applicants per
subsidized spot
Number of
subsidized
spots
11,18
applicants/
position
11
applicants/
position
10,48
applicants/
position
6,42
applicants/
position
10,31
applicants/
position
85
Number of
applicants
taking admissions
exam
974
65
837
73
765
60
551
115
964
Number of
applicants per
subsidized spot
11,46
applcants/
position
13 applicants/
position
10,47 applicants/
position
9,19 applicants/
position
8,38 applicants/
position
Figure 18-1: The number of applicants per subsidized spot at Bucharest University
To conclude this brief explanation, contrary to many Western countries, Romanian public universities attract the better students and graduate
better-qualified job candidates, thanks to the competitive allocation of subsidized spots. Students at public institutions are motivated to study, as the
thorough admissions exam only guarantees free tuition during the first year
253
to those who ranked high enough to obtain a subsidized spot. In subsequent years, student ranking is determined by the GPA during the prior academic year (i.e., freshman year GPA counts for sophomore year ranking,
sophomore year GPA counts for junior year ranking and so on).
The level of competition for subsidized spots is illustrated in Table
18-1, showing the number of applicants per subsidized position who took
the admissions exams at the two schools within Bucharest University that
offer advertising courses.
Now that we explained the inclusion of public universities alone in
this chapter, we take a look at the institutions offering advertising courses. A
full list of universities and schools with the degrees each grant as well as the
number of students starting each specific degree in 2010 (per each university’s web site) is presented in Figure. The numbers in Table 18-2 should
help gauge the level of enrollment at each institution and compare the programs by size.
University
Bucharest University, Bucharest
School
School of
Journalism
and
Comm.
Sciences
Undergrad.
Degree
Master's
Degree*
Ph.D.
Comm. Science
(specializing in
Journalism,
Advertising or
Public Relations)
Communication
Science
Communication
Science
School of
Letters
Communications
and PR
Consulting and
Expertise in
Advertising
Marketing
Academy of
Economic Studies, Bucharest
Marketing
management
Marketing
research
Managing client
relationships
School of
Marketing
Marketing
National School
of Political and
Administrative
Studies, Bucharest
School of
Communication and
Public
Relations
Babes-Bolyai
University, ClujNapoca
School of
Political,
Admin.
and
Comm.
Studies
254
Communication
sciences (incl.
Comm. & PR
and Advertising)
Comm. Sciences
(incl. Advert.)
Students starting in 2010
SubFeeDistance
sidized
based
Learning
120
60
120
200
250
12
70
80
45
70
212
104
78
110
32
18
64
10
8
12
4
200
220
200**
73
77
6
31
10
186
Communication
Sciences
Advertising
Comm. & PR
7
24
44
25
Advertising
Comm. Sciences
(Adv. & Comm.
3
only)
Lucian Blaga
University, Sibiu
School of
Journalism
Petre Andrei
University, Iasi
School of
Comm.
Sciences
West University,
Timisoara
School of
Political
Sciences,
Philosophy
and
Comm.
Sciences
Communications
& PR
Advertising /
Comm. & PR
25
40
14
66
Communications
& PR
60
Communication
Sciences
Comm. & PR,
Comm. or Advertising
1
12
National UniversiSpecialization:
ty of Theatre
School of Audio-Visual
16
2
and CinematogFilm
Communication
raphy, Bucharest
* - Master's Degree names are what schools list on their promotional materials as specializations
** - The National School of Political and Administrative Studies organizes nationwide admission exams in
several local centers across the country for its distance-learning program (at the time this chapter was written there were 200 admitted students who had passed the exams however still had to decide whether to
start the program)
Table 18-2. The number of students starting degrees that
include advertising courses in 2010
There are few institutions in Romania that state “advertising” on a
diploma. However, advertising courses, concentrations, and specializations
abound in degrees that name communications or business as the major. An
additional clarification we would like to make is that the various schools
within one university are called “faculties” in Romania (i.e., Faculty of
Journalism and Communication Sciences within Bucharest University).
We refer to these “faculties” as schools throughout the document. We reiterate here that we grouped schools in two groups based on whether they offer a PhD on an advertising-related topic (e.g., Communications or Marketing).
Schools that Offer Advertising Courses at the Doctoral Level
The schools presented in this section belong to the oldest and most
respected universities in Romania. These universities carry a long history
that permeates the culture of each institution and is felt in the size of the
library and the passion for research of both the faculty and graduate students. These are the “research one” universities in Romania that offer advertising courses up to the doctoral level.
255
Bucharest University, Bucharest
School of Journalism and Communication Sciences
Bucharest University (BU) is Romania’s oldest higher education institution, founded in 1864. The School of Journalism and Communication
Sciences within BU was established on January 19, 1990, only one month
after abolition of the communist regime, thereby joining the other 6 colleges at BU (whose number, during the following years, increased to 19).
From those early years, the School’s dean, Dr. Mihai Coman, opened it to
Western influence by establishing international connections and attracting
foreign lecturers (King and Gross 1993).
The School was a pioneer in its domain, soon setting the bar for
communications higher education and becoming a model for other schools
that adopted its structure and curricula. The School offers advertisingrelated specializations (concentrations) to undergraduate communication
science majors, as well as those studying in Master’s and doctoral programs.
A look back at the efforts to include advertising (and public relations)
in the curriculum pinpoints the school year 1997-1998 as the one when the
BU Senate formally approved the creation of the Public Communications
Department. The department was created to address the needs of students
interested in public relations and advertising. Due to market-driven expansion, on January 24, 2000, the School made an application to modify the
department name to the Department of Public Relations and Advertising.
Unsuccessful in terms of including the advertising label, the effort resulted
in the new name Social Communications and Public Relations Department. Hence, the advertising specialization was not yet formally recognized,
even though advertising courses were included in the public relations specialization curriculum.
In 2004, a second wave of accreditation papers for the Social Communications and Public Relations department dedicates many pages to the
advertising curriculum and enrollment. At this time, advertising becomes a
formal area of specialization for communication science majors, and students’ diplomas spell it out. At the time this chapter is written, the process
for the formal creation of an Advertising Department is under way. The
process is driven by the Master’s degree numbers, as well. At the Master’s
level, the School accredited in 2007 a specialization called Public Relations
and Advertising Communications Campaigns.
At the doctoral level, the School offers a doctorate in communication
science. As the School’s website lists, out of the twelve doctoral candidates
currently in the program, at least three are completing dissertations on ad-
256
vertising-related topics such as “branding,” “new product strategies,” and
“communications campaigns.”
Bucharest University, Bucharest
School of Letters
A second school within BU that offers both public relations and advertising courses is the School of Letters. The School houses the Department of Communications and Public Relations, formally created in 1993.
While the main discipline of the School is philology/literature, the School
offers a formal specialization in Communications and Public Relations to its
undergraduates who seek a writing-related strategic communications job.
The School also offers a Master’s specialization titled Services and Expertise
in Advertising. This School does not offer advertising courses at the doctoral level, however we included it here because of its affiliation with Bucharest University.
Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest
School of Marketing
The Academy of Economic Studies (AES) is Romania’s first business
higher education institution, founded in 1913. While the two schools presented from Bucharest University started offering advertising courses based
on their journalism and communications expertise, the AES added advertising to its business and marketing foundation.
Housed within the School of Commerce (later School of Commerce
and Marketing), the Marketing Department has been in place since 1971,
offering the first marketing courses in Central and Eastern Europe. In
1975, the Academy published the first marketing textbook, and in 1983 the
first Romanian-authored paper (by two professors at the Academy) was presented at the annual academic conference of the American Marketing Association.
Just after 1990, marketing was formally recognized as a separate academic specialization. By 1995, a course titled Promotional Techniques was
added to the expanding list of marketing courses. The first marketing Master’s program was offered in 2000-2001. After that, the educational offerings at the Master’s level became more diverse and now include three distinct specializations in: Marketing Management, Marketing Research, and
Managing Client Relationships.
Given the level of interest in the market for marketing graduates, and
the number of students enrolled, the Academy formally approved the crea-
257
tion of a separate School of Marketing in 2003. The school admitted sixteen new students to its doctoral program in 2010.
National School of Political and Administrative Studies, Bucharest
School of Communications and Public Relations
The National School of Political and Administrative Studies
(NSPAS) is an autonomous public institution founded on April 11, 1991.
It opened its doors with areas of emphasis in: Political Sciences, Administrative Sciences, Preparation and Improvement of the Magistrates, International Affairs, Management, and Mass Communications Studies. In this
context, mass communications was initially studied from an administrative
and political perspective.
In 1995, the Social Communications and Public Relations Department is accredited and offered a 2-year program at the postgraduate level.
Starting with the school year 1998-1999 the School of Communications
and Public Relations was formally created within NSPAS. In the following
years, the School of Communications and Public Relations succeeded at
building the name of its advertising programs, both nationally and internationally.
At the undergraduate level, in addition to its subsidized and fee-based
spots, the School added a distance learning program for which it organizes
thorough admissions exams in a number of cities across the country. In addition, it started collaborating with the advertising agency, Ogilvy, and its
curriculum started being known as the Ogilvy school. The School also collaborates with the Romanian chapter of the International Advertising Association (IAA) to bring guest speakers and expertise (Toma 2005).
In 2003, the School started offering a Master’s program in advertising. The Master’s program was recognized by the IAA in 2008, alongside
programs offered in US universities (e.g., Emerson College, University of
Florida, and Michigan State University). Today, the advertising programs at
the School of Communications and Public Relations within NSPAS are
known for their practice-oriented curriculum, and many of the courses are
offered in English as well. Among the twelve Master’s programs offered,
three deal specifically with advertising topics: Advertising, Brand management and corporate communications, and Communications and Advertising (in English). Active on the research side too, the School houses a Center for Research in Communications, and offers a doctoral program that enrolled seven new students in 2010.
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Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
School of Political, Administrative and Communication Studies
Located in the Transylvania region of Romania, “Babes Bolyai” University in Cluj-Napoca is one of the oldest and most respected Romanian
universities outside of the country’s capital of Bucharest. Specific to BabesBolyai University is that (in addition to Romanian language courses) it offers courses in both the German and Hungarian languages to the two respective minority groups in Romania.
The University was restructured in 1993, and the number of specializations offered increased to eleven. Within the School of Political, Administrative and Communication Studies, advertising courses are offered to undergraduates specializing in either Communications, Advertising or Public
Relations.
The School offers a distinct specialization in advertising at the Master’s level, as well. The Master’s program was first offered in 1993, in German, under the title of Advertising and Public Relations. The Master’s
program finished its accreditation process in 2008, and by now has an established tradition and is offered in Romanian, as well. In 2010, the School
admitted three new students in advertising at the doctoral level.
Schools that do not Offer Advertising Courses at the Doctoral Level
In this section we present the most-recently created schools and programs that offer advertising courses. Even if housed within older/established
universities, the schools have lower enrollment, do not offer doctoral programs, have a short history in offering advertising curriculum, and mostly
follow the curriculum structure from the schools presented in our previous
section. In addition, most of these Schools are located in cities that do not
house the headquarters of any advertising agencies or other potential employers, as is the case with Cluj-Napoca, and especially the capital city of
Bucharest.
Lucian Blaga University, Sibiu
School of Letters, History and Journalism
The School of Letters, History and Journalism was founded in 1995
within “Lucian Blaga” University in Sibiu. The School offers an undergraduate degree in Communications and Public Relations that includes advertising courses. Advertising has a stronger presence at the Master’s level,
where students can specialize in either Communications and Public Relations or Advertising.
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Petre Andrei University, Iasi
School of Communication Sciences
The School of Communication Sciences within the University “Petre
Andrei” from Iasi follows the curriculum structure from the School of Journalism and Communication Science within Bucharest University. It offers
an undergraduate degree in Communications and Public Relations and a
master’s program in Communication Science.
West University, Timisoara
School of Political Sciences, Philosophy and Communication Sciences
The West University in the city of Timisoara created a specialization
in Advertising in 2009, within the School of Political Sciences, Philosophy
and Communication Sciences. The School offers undergraduate specializations in Communications, Communications and Public Relations, and Advertising. The advertising specialization is functioning on a temporary authorization until the formal authorization process is complete.
National University of Theatre and
Cinematography “I.L. Caragiale,” Bucharest
School of Film
The National University of Theatre and Cinematography has a long
history and tradition in offering theatre and film higher education programs. The School of Film offers Advertising courses within its AudioVisual Communications specialization. No advertising curriculum is present in either the Master’s or doctoral programs offered by the School.
We conclude here the presentation of schools offering degrees that
include advertising courses. In the next section we cover the curricula/plans
of study focusing on the top four PhD-granting institutions.
Curricula
All public higher education institutions in Romania are authorized by
the Ministry for Education, Research and Innovation, and accredited by the
Romanian Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ARACIS). ARACIS was founded in 2005, and is an autonomous public institution. Its mission is to evaluate the quality of higher education in Romania.
In 2009, as part of the European integration process, ARACIS became a
member of the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA), and is listed in the European Quality Assurance Register
for Higher Education (EQAR).
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A more important EU integration effort is the adherence to the Bologna Declaration, which promotes the offering of “easily readable and comparable degrees” throughout the European Union, so as to help with “European citizens’ employability and the international competitiveness of the
European higher education system.” (Bologna Declaration 1999) The declaration stipulates that undergraduate degrees shall be completed in no less
than three years and can be followed upon completion with graduate degrees at either master’s or doctorate levels. As a consequence of this adherence, starting 2005, all undergraduate programs are three years long rather
than four, as they were previously. A three-year undergraduate program can
be followed by a two-year master’s.
We present in Table 18-3 the curriculum of the four Schools that
cover advertising courses. All courses listed are to be completed within the
three years of study for the completion of an undergraduate degree.
Bucharest University
Academy of Economic
Studies
National School of
Political and Administrative Sciences
Babes-Bolyai University
School of Journalism and
Comm. Sciences
School of Marketing
School of Communications and Public Relations
School of Political, Administrative and Communication
Studies
Communication Science
majors - Advertising specialization
Marketing majors
Communication Science majors - Advertising specialization
Advertising majors
Year 1
Year 1
Year 1
Years 1-3**
Communication Theory
Intro to Public Relations
Intro to comm. and PR theories
Verbal and non-verbal communications
Imagology
Intro to organizations'
theory
Intro to political science
Research methods in comm.
and PR
Finance
English/French for business
communication 1
Computer science I
Computer science
Negotiations and decision
making
Psychology
Intro to Advertising
History of communications
Management and marketing
Writing scientific papers
Intro to sociology
Research methods in
social sciences
Intro to public relations
Semester 1
Intro to communication
theory
Semester 1
Intro to mass media
Elaboration/Framing techniques
Accounting Fundamentals
Management
Intro to public relations
Elaboration/Framing in
written press
Conversation strategies
(French/English)
Journalism and reflecting
current news
Semester 2
Intro to mass media
Intro to interpersonal
comm.
Microeconomics
Applied Mathematics in
Economics
Semester 2
Computer science for business
Statistics
Computer science II
Advertising
Public communications
Mass media communications
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Information gathering
techniques
Business Law
Electives:
Intro to advertising
Macroeconomics
Digital media
Conflict management
Organizational communications
Internet techniques
Conversation strategies
(French/English)
Marketing
English/French for business
communication 2
Design and Aesthetics of
Goods
Photography
Advertising and PR techniques
English I
Branding and brand mgmt.
English II
Visual communications
French I
Marketing
French II
Graphic design
Semiotics
Promotional techniques in
mass media
Typing
Journalism and reflecting current news
Year 2
Semester 3
Communication social
structures
Semester 3
Intro to semiotics
Journalism investigative
techniques
Promotional Techniques
Marketing Information Systems
Year 2
PR Techniques and
Strategies
Elaboration techniques
in advertising
Advertising management
Consumer behavior and
persuasion
Multimedia
Econometrics
English/French for business
comm. 3
International marketing
Semiotics - language
theory
Ethics
European Economy
Advertising campaigns
Culture and communications
Copywriting
International Negotiation
Fundamentals of Science
Goods
Electives:
Online advertising
Advertising language and
representation
Geopolitics
Audio-video advertising
Databases
Digital advertising
Semester 4
Semester 4
Advertising rhetoric
Communication law
Public Relations
Computer science III
Collective mentalities
Culture and civ. in the 20th
century
Professional deontology
Marketing Research
English III
Persuasion strategies
Intro to semiotics
Direct Marketing
French III
Art history
Types of written press
Logistics
English/French for business
comm. 4
Advertising projects
Public relations and evaluation
Economic Geography of the World
Advertising and art
Project Management
Technics Operations of
Tourism
Human Resources Management
European governance
Working in television (lab)
Research methods in
comm. sciences
Ethics
Media discourse
(French/English)
Internet (lab)
Communication with the
press
Advertising management
Elaboration/Framing techniques (French/English)
Politology
Year 2
Consumer Behavior
International Trade
Print advertising
Negotiation and Techiques for Foreign Trade
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Media planning
Radio and TV advertising
Event planning
Political advertising
Mass media and society
Intro to persuasion theory
Methods of scientific data
collection
Communications philosophy
World Economics
Year 3
Year 3
Semester 5
Semester 5
Creativity in advertising
Services Marketing
Advertising management
Successful techniques in
comm.
International Marketing
Below-the-line advertising
French/English culture and
civilization
Advertising semiotics
Research methods in
advertising
Semester 6
Persuasion techniques
Advertising lab
Cybermarketing
English/French for business
comm. 5
Mass media and society
Advertising planning
Image crisis management
Sales Techniques
Corporate culture
Communications Law
and Ethics
Marketing Projects
Food products and consumer safety
Electives:
Non-verbal communications
Multimedia
Tech. for Hotels and Restaurants
Economic and Financial
Analysis 1
International Capital Markets
Communication pathologies and therapies
Semester 6
Social and Political Marketing
Business to Business Marketing
Consumer behavior
French/English culture and
civilization
Tourism Marketing
Gender in advertising
Data Analysis using SPSS
English/French for business
comm. 6
Negotiation techniques
Year 3
Public image of leaders and institutions
Sociology of public
opinion
Project management
Human resources management
Agro-food Marketing
European Union Law
Public Services and Utilities
Comparative management
Operational Management
International Tourism
* - The study plans included here are per the schools’ web sites, not including optional courses or practice/internship credits.
** - Babes-Bolyai University does not post a plan of study broken down by year of study; these are the courses
listed to be offered in 2010-2011
Table 18-3. Undergraduate plans of study
that include advertising (Curricula)*
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The roots of the advertising discipline are in business, communications, sociology and psychology, and, last but not least, visual and verbal
creation. This perspective induces a certain direction of the academic curriculum organization, reflected in the courses the students are offered to
study. The school that houses the advertising program has a strong influence on the foundation courses. Hence, communication schools start with
introductory courses to communication theory, while the school of marketing starts with economics, finance, and marketing courses.
It is worth noting that even though a school of journalism would include more journalism-oriented courses in its program of study for students
specializing in advertising, all four schools presented cover a blend of all aspects relevant to advertising. Hence, we see management and marketing
courses offered to advertising students at the School of Communication and
Public Relations within the National School of Political and Administrative
Studies, as well as public relations and psychology courses offered to marketing majors at the School of Marketing within the Academy of Economic
Studies.
All courses presented in Table 18-3 are undergraduate courses and
build a strong theoretical base as well as an introduction to the practical
side. Most students decide to continue on with Master’s level courses that
include more skills-oriented courses.
Faculty
All schools presented in this chapters feature a mix of faculty that
combines pure “academics” who hold a PhD degree, as well as practitioners
who also work (many full-time) in advertising agencies. The qualifications
of these instructors vary widely just as the roots of the advertising discipline
itself are diverse. We start by addressing the structure of the faculty from a
formal final degree perspective. Then, we follow with details on international collaborations that helped refine the expertise of advertising faculty
members.
The academics who first taught advertising-related courses in Romania did not have, back in 1990, a specific educational background in this
domain. Backgrounds ranged from a Bachelor or PhD in Letters/Literature,
Psychology, Philosophy, Foreign Language or even Engineering. This is
why, the first step these educators took was their own professional conversion, because each chose a research area close to the new curricula and they
focused on their professional improvement by enrolling in doctoral programs.
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For example, in 1990 at the School of Journalism and Communication Sciences at Bucharest University there were only three professors who
held a PhD. The number increased to twenty-two in 2009 (from a total of
39 permanent employees). In some cases, qualified professors are teaching
for more colleges as collaborators, because the number of qualified professors still does not meet market needs.
In addition, practitioners teach a number of skills-based courses. These are people who currently work for advertising agencies (i.e., not retired)
and who teach courses such as Account Planning, Media Planning, Creative
Writing, Advertising Campaigns, Branding. The School of Journalism and
Communication Sciences, mentioned above, collaborates with many practitioners from known advertising agencies: McCann Ericsson, Leo Burnett,
Graffiti BBDO, and the local Grapefruit and Headvertising.
The School of Communications and Public Relations, within the National School of Political and Administrative Studies, has a similar situation.
From a number of 41 teaching staff, 36 are permanent employees, among
whom 24 have a PhD and the rest are still working on their dissertations.
This School also collaborates with practitioners for some of their skillsbased courses.
At Babes-Bolyai University in Cluj, the advertising program within
the School of Political, Administrative and Communication Studies benefits
from the collaboration with Hannover University and “Hochschule
Mittweida” from Germany which grants the involvement of foreign teachers into the educational process for classes such as online marketing and audio-video advertising. From the 18 instructors teaching in the advertising
program at the undergraduate level only 3 have not yet finished their doctoral dissertations. At the graduate level, all professors (9) have their doctoral title.
The School of Political Science, Philosophy and Communication Sciences within West University of Timisoara developed its advertising study
program with 23 permanent professors. Among them, 15 have a PhD. This
was one of the aspects that helped this School receive the authorization to
start its advertising program.
In addition to earning a doctorate, many professors participated in
academic exchange programs and benefited from the expertise of prestigious
universities around the world. For example, the School of Journalism and
Communication Sciences within University of Bucharest sends its faculty to
either Europe (e.g., 12 faculty members to École Superieure de Journalisme
from Lille, France) or the United States (e.g., Gaylord College School of
Journalism and Mass Communication Studies at Oklahoma University, and
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the College of Communication and Information at the University of Tennessee).
The faculty at the School of Communications and Public Relations
within the National School of Politic and Administrative Studies have either
completed graduate studies abroad (e.g., Lille School of Management,
France or Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, US) or participated in academic programs such as Fulbright (e.g., Fulbright scholar at the
College of Communication and Information Science University of Alabama, US) or other specialization programs in a number of countries (e.g.,
Italy, Belgium, France). In addition, the educational partnership with the
International Advertising Association (IAA) provides opportunities to permanent faculty to participate in events and seminaries where they meet foreign professionals or even gain practical experience within the advertising
agencies belonging to this organization.
The School of Political, Administrative and Communication Sciences
within Babes-Bolyai University benefits from a prestigious collaboration
with German advertising academia and practice. The School offers a Master’s degree in Advertising and Public Relations which is taught in German
(in addition to Romanian). Delia Balaban, who coordinates of the Master’s
program, explains: “The particularity of our programs is to cooperate with
the most important local agencies and also to facilitate the presence of some
foreign specialists with wide experience in advertising, such as German advertising professionals.”
The Transylvanian School is also part of the Social Science Curriculum Development program, supported by the United States Information
Agency and coordinated by the International Research and Exchange Board
and the American Council for Learned Society. This program provides the
collaboration with a number of American universities to develop new courses and to improve the curriculum (i.e., Michigan State University, University of Pittsburgh, Florida State University, University of California Irvine,
University of Virginia, and Delaware University).
After embracing the European system of education and the Bologna
Declaration, Romanian higher education institutions were involved in the
development of ERASMUS exchange (The European Community Action
Scheme for the Mobility of University Students). While the Erasmus program dedicated to students (they can attend courses for 3, 6 or 12 months
at universities from the European Union), faculty members can benefit
from it as well. Professors have the opportunity to be guest lecturers and
collaborate with peers from EU institutions.
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Besides earning graduate degrees and gaining international exposure
and experience, faculty members are active in research centers present at
their respective institutions. From the schools offering advertising courses,
examples include the Sparta Research Center from Bucharest University focused on research of the role communication plays in public space, The
Centre for Fundamental and Applied Research in Marketing from the
Academy of Economic Studies, and the Center for Research in Communication from the National School for Political and Administrative Studies.
In conclusion, Romanian advertising higher education benefits from highly
qualified instruction from both academics and practitioners who are wellgrounded and stay current in their fields.
In the last section of our chapter, in order to gauge how the industry
views advertising higher education, we interviewed three practitioners (two
of whom are Ph.D-holders and one is ABD) who teach at institutions described above in addition to their full-time jobs.
Advertising Practitioners’ View
No assessment of the quality of higher education can be done without
including the opinion of employers. We wanted to determine how practitioners view the various degrees and the level of preparedness of recent
graduates.
One of our interviewees is Lucian Georgescu, a local advertising celebrity, who has been active in the advertising industry since 1992 as a copywriter, creative director and then President of BBDO Romania and who
founded his own advertising agency, GAV Balkanski, in 2005. The agency
client roster includes Reiffeisen Leasing and Mercedes Benz Romania. Dr.
Georgescu holds a Ph.D in Audio-Visual Communication from the National University of Theatre and Cinematography, Bucharest, and is an associate professor at the same institution.
Our second interviewee is Sorin Psatta, Director of Research and
Strategy at BBDO Romania. He has been on the faculty of the School of
Journalism and Communication Sciences within Bucharest University since
1996, and is now completing his dissertation in advertising.
Lastly, our third interviewee is Dan Petre, also on the faculty of the
School of Journalism and Communication Sciences within Bucharest University. Dr. Petre holds a Ph.D in Sociology and is the managing partner of
D&D Research, a market research company that includes the following ad-
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vertising agencies among its clients: FCB Advertising Romania, Saatchi &
Saatchi Romania, Ogilvy & Mather Romania and Leo Burnett Romania.
With an eye on academia and one on the industry, our three interviewees answered the same questions about advertising higher education in
Romania.
Popular majors with the industry – well, it’s a mix
Asked about the educational background of employees within each of
their companies, our respondents agree: there is no standard background for
an advertising agency employee. Dr. Georgescu stresses the fact that none
of his employees have a degree in advertising. Majors present in his agency
include business, arts, architecture, and philology.
Which majors are represented within BBDO Romania? “You name
it” answers Mr. Psatta. Then he adds that prior experience is more important when hiring as well as whether the candidate has a portfolio (for
creative positions). Dr. Petre lists marketing and communications followed
by arts, sociology and psychology as majors present within his company.
Advantages of hiring someone with a specialized degree – skills
highly valued
When asked about the upside of hiring someone with the appropriate
degree, BBDO’s Psatta states it is highly advantageous especially for the creative department as the candidates would have acquired the necessary skills
in college. Mr. Psatta names arts as an appropriate major for art director positions and letters or audio-visual communications for copywriting candidates.
Dr. Petre has a similar opinion, hiring graduates from the appropriate
field brings you employees who have the basic knowledge, have already had
contact with practice and practitioners via internships and practitionertaught courses. Dr. Georgescu is skeptical about the level of preparedness of
students from either communications school in Bucharest where his agency
is headquartered.
How DO practitioners view advertising higher education? - They
are skeptics
This is a question where we see similar responses from our three interviewees. They agree that practitioners are still skeptical about the level of
preparedness of advertising graduates. All three name the lack of stronger
ties with the industry as the cause of this skepticism.
Dan Petre believes the root cause of this opinion from the side of
practice is the disconnect between theory and practice. “Specialized [adver-
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tising] coursework is still focused on accumulating knowledge and information rather than skills and competencies. Because of this, practitioners’
perception is that higher education needs to include the bridging of theory
and practice,” he states.
From Lucian Georgescu, we learn that such disconnect is likely to
come from not enough contact between academia and industry. “Universities do not account for industry realities. This is specifically the reason why
we [practitioners] have doubts about specialized [advertising] higher education – there is a lack of constant and coherent contact with the industry,”
says Lucian Georgescu. Hence, “Practitioners have a lack of interest [in specialized degrees], they are even ironical about them,” believes Sorin Psatta.
We do not believe Romania (or the advertising discipline) is a lonely
case where there is a perceived disconnect between academia and industry.
Romania has a burgeoning advertising higher education market with high
quality programs.
No statistics are available on the percentage of advertising majors who
are employed in advertising agencies or advertising-related companies. Nor
are there statistics available on how many graduates from the institutions we
presented find a job when they leave college. What we can say for sure is
that advertising has become more and more important to companies present
on the Romanian market in the past couple of decades and this demand is
reflected in an increasingly complex advertising higher education offer. The
growing popularity of the discipline can be tracked in the number of programs and the increases in enrollment.
References:
Bunea, Iulia (2010), “Agonie si extaz in “copilaria’ publicitatii” (“Agony and ecstasy in advertising’s childhood”) Adevarul newspaper, April 27, 2010.
Chiper, Sorina (2006), “The discourse of Romanian universities,” Journal of Organizational
Change Management, 19(6):713-724.
Coman, Mihai (2007), “Patterns and Experience: Journalism Education in Romania”, Media
Industry, Journalism Culture und Communication Policies in Europe (Festschrift for
Professor Dr. Gerd G. Kopper), published in Hans Bohrmann/ Eliasabeth Klaus/ Marcel Machilleds. Berlin, Vistas, 2007.
Danaila, Aida (2006), “Inflatie de universitati in Romania” (“University Inflation in Romania”) Romania libera newspaper, September 28, 2006.
Hefner, Frank and Douglas Woodward (1999), “A better red: The transition from communism to Coca-Cola in Romania,” The Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics,
2(2):43-49.
King, Stephan and Peter Gross (1993), “Romania's New Journalism Programs Raise Old
Questions”, Journalism Educator, 48(3).
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Mihai, Adelina (2009) “700.000 de studenti dau anual 250 mil de euro la facultatile private”, (“700 000 Students Pay Every Year an Amount of 250 mil euros to Enroll in the
Private Univeristies”) Evenimentul Zilei newpaper, July 14, 2009.
Petcu, Marian (2002), O istorie ilustrata a publicitatii romanesti, (An Illustrated History of
Romanian Advertising) Ed. Tritonic, Bucuresti, 2002.
Rhea, Marti J. (1996), “The emergence of an advertising industry in Romania,” Journal of
Euro-marketing, 5(2):53-76.
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Advertising Education in Slovenia
Vesna Zabkar
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Mihael Kline
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Zlatko Jancic
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Historical background into how
advertising education developed in Slovenia
Even though Slovenia is a relatively young country, its nation has a
much longer history. Losing its kingdom of Karantania in the 8th century,
to Charlemagne, caused a thousand years of foreign rule, mostly AustroHungarian. After the World War I, Slovenia briefly regained its freedom
and, due to the pressures from the neighboring countries, formed an alliance of Slovenians, Croats, and Serbs. This entity was later joined to the
Kingdom of Serbia and became known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats
and Slovenians, later called Yugoslavia.
After the World War II, the name changed to Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia and finally to Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia.
After the short war and the collapse of the federal state in 1991, Slovenians
finally regained their long awaited independence (Slovenia Cultural Profile,
2010).
During these permutations, Slovenians also discontinuously changed
their political and economic system for several times. In the last hundred
years they had to thrive in the capitalist system, central planning system,
system of self-management and again back in the market economy after the
independence (Feldmann 2006).
This brief introduction is needed in order to explain the context of
advertising development in Slovenia. In our wish to be as precise as possible
we will split the history into the following three parts:
1.
Austro-Hungarian period (18. century until 1918)
2.
Yugoslav period (from 1919 until 1991)
3.
Slovenian period (after 1991)
271
Austro-Hungarian period (18. century until 1918)
The history of advertising in this period is similar to its development
in the rest of Europe. Gutenberg’s invention of printing presses enabled the
dawn of printed books and later newspapers, especially in the countries with
the intensity of manufacturing and trading activities. And newspapers, as
we know, quickly adopted advertising into their contents. Slovenians were
among the first in Europe with the printed book, in 1550, but lagged behind in their newspapers due to the oppression of Austro-Hungarian monarchy better known as the “prison of nations” (Bucur, Wingfield, 2001).
Slovenian advertising first appeared in bilingual form in German
newspaper, in Ljubljana Kundschaftblatt des Herzogthums Krain, in 1776.
After Napoleon’s conquest of Austria, the first Slovenian newspaper Lublanske novice appeared in 1797. Worthy of mentioning is the fact that it
presented the ads with persuasive, not only informative, content in a manner of brief classified ads as usually used at that time. The first copywriter
was Valentin Vodnik, editor and the first Slovenian poet (Hudalist 1997;
Korošec 2006).
Further development was slowed down due to weak industrialization
of the region, and also because the only Slovenian newspaper was discontinued after the Napoleon’s defeat. The next newspaper appeared almost 50
years later, together with the “spring of nations” in the 1848. Soon, the
number of newspapers increased and the need for advertising middlemen
became evident.
According to some testimonials, the first Slovenian advertising agency
Aloma Company opened as early as in 1897, but did not fully develop until
the 1920s (Matelič, in Erjavec 2007). In the period before the First World
War, several dozens of small agencies also appeared, mostly dealing with the
distribution of print ads, poster printing, photographic services etc. Restricted in their creative, especially copywriting, potential they prepared ads
for local businesses only. They were not able to produce advertising campaigns for foreign companies, so these were made in Germany, Austria, and
Czech Republic. Advertising agencies handled the correspondence with
domestic and foreign media. They also offered the translation of original
messages (Lavrič, in Erjavec 2007).
Many experts at that time propagated the importance of advertising
for craftsmen and predominantly small firms in Slovenia. The knowledge of
even the basic principles of advertising was mostly absent in the underdeveloped industrial region, and followed the method of learning-by-doing.
Thus, the plea for higher standards in advertising was in place. An article on
the importance of seeking the professional help when in need for advertising
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is detected as early as in 1909 (Höfler, in Erjavec 2007). Despite the problems, no formal education activities were present during this period.
Yugoslav period (from 1919 until 1991)
In presenting this period, we will have to bear in mind the drastic
changes that happened in political and economic system during these 70
years. There are three parts of this period: market economy, planned economy and self-management system with market-planning economy.
Market economy with a high proportion of foreign
owned businesses and few domestic ones (from 1919 until 1945)
The south Slavic community of nations was, in a way, some boost for
Slovenians, especially in a language and cultural sense. The nation established in the capital, Ljubljana, its basic institutions such as its first National
gallery, in 1918, and its first University, in 1919. But the fact remains that
relatively industrially under-developed Slovenia formed a new state with
other nations that were even less developed.
So the development of advertising after the “great war” was slow and,
if there was any, it was mainly though the inputs of foreign companies and
foreign managers from Germany, Czech Republic, France etc. A majority
of domestic managers didn’t really understand the importance of effective
and quality advertising, so they relied on their “in house” forces and many
advertising amateurs around the industry. Advertising was being done as
part-time job by painters, graphic technicians, and architects. They learned
their skills abroad in Vienna, Munich, Prague, Milano, Florence and Zagreb. Mainly it was a process of using some implicit theories and a process
of learning by doing, and no formal education seemed to be needed.
Advertising was seen as salesmanship in print, and it was assumed all
that was needed was a bit of talent and a lot of practice. There also were no
known copywriters at that time, since the text was considered of secondary
importance to the dominance of visuals (pictures). As a consequence, Omahen in 1929 (Erjavec 2007) appealed to advertisers to hand over all advertising activities to advertising agencies that were masters of the trade. He further claimed that the development of advertising was slow in Slovenia and
should follow the examples from the western countries where the outburst
of professional schools, seminars and faculties for advertising could be
found at the time (Erjavec 2007: 20).
Among the agencies we should again mention the biggest one Aloma
Company (acronym of the owner Alojzij Matelič) that handled the most
important account, Ljubljana Fair, the biggest annual gathering of Slovenian business community at that time. The other agency worth mentioning is
273
Reklama Saturn Ljubljana (Kordiš 2005). Connected with this fair, and also
with promotion of Slovenian tourism, some excellent work did develop, especially in the area of poster design (Kordiš 2005).
Centrally planned economy (from 1945 – 1965)
After the Second World War, advertising in the socialist Yugoslavia,
as in other socialist countries, should not have had any role whatsoever.
Analysis shows, however, that some of the practices were constantly present.
The only exception was the first seven years after the war, mainly due to the
system of rationing, where very few ads would have had any meaning
(Zupančič 2000).
During this time and in the following years of rapid industrialization
we can, however, detect an interesting breed of corporate ads with strong
elements of state propaganda. After this period a rise in consumer advertising is evident, in spite of prevailing Marxist skepticism toward advertising
and marketing (Patterson 2003).
The center of advertising development in former Yugoslavia was not
in Slovenia, but in Zagreb, Croatia, and Belgrade, Serbia. Already in 1954,
the Zagreb advertising agency Ozeha had over one hundred employees (Patterson, 2003). However, its development at that time was largely connected
with political propaganda. Nevertheless, the efforts to form an advertising
profession already were present by the late 1950s. The leading industry figures in Belgrade and Zagreb launched the first specialty publications and
first comprehensive manuals for training a new cadre. Technical training
was offered by 1958 at one of the “workers universities” in Zagreb (Patterson 2003).
At that time, two important books were written in the SerboCroatian language, Josip Sudar’s Ekonomska propaganda u teoriji i praksi in
1958, and other in 1959 by Josip Mrvoš: Propaganda, reklama, publicitet:
teorija i praksa (Patterson 2003). Beside these books, several others were
written or translated at that time, accompanied with numerous other publications, papers in journals, etc. However, the Yugoslav educational system
at that time completely underestimated the importance of university education for advertising experts. Table 19-1 provides an overview of textbooks
and trade books that were written between 1950 and 2000 to support the
country’s university-level and vocational advertising education in the three
centers of influence: Zagreb (now Croatia), Belgrade (now Serbia), and
Ljubljana and Maribor (now Slovenia).
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Zagreb:
Sudar J. (1958), Ekonomska propaganda u teoriji i praksi, Zagreb
Mrvoš J. (1959), Propaganda, reklama, publicitet: teorija i praksa, Ozeha, Zagreb
Sudar, J. (1971), Ekonomska propaganda [Advertising], 3d ed. Zagreb
Dinter, Č. (1974), Utvrđivanje djelotvornosti ekonomske propagande”, Vjesnik-Agencija za marketing, Zagreb
Petz B. (1974), Psihologija u ekonomskoj propagandi, Društvo ekonomskih propagandista Hrvatske, Zagreb
Keller Goroslav (1975), Design-dizajn; Vjesnik, Zagreb.
Hitrec, M. (1981), Temelji i učinci promocijskog komuniciranja. Zagreb : Udruženje propagandista SR Hrvatske.
Belgrade:
Barton R. (1964), Uspješna ekonomska propaganda, Privreda, Beograd
Jovanovič B. (1965), Funkcija i strategija ekonomska propagande, Beograd
Laird D.A. and E.C. Laird (1965), Prktična psihologija prodaje, Panorama, Beograd
Henry H. (1966), Što potrošač želi?, Privredni pregled, Beograd
Trfunović M. (1969), Psihologija kupaca, Sportska knjiga, Beograd
Fruht M. (1975), Kreacija privredne propagande, Savremena administracija, Beograd
Fruht M. (1981), Industrijski dizajn, Privredni pregled, Beograd
Ljubljana, Maribor:
Deželak B. (1966), Ekonomska propaganda, Višja ekonomsko komercijalna šola, Maribor
Deželak B. (1965), Organizacija in politika blagovnega prometa, Višja ekonomsko komercijalna šola, Maribor
Deželak B. (1969), Teorija in praksa raziskave tržišča, Založba Obzorja, Maribor
Deželak B. (1971), Marketing, Založba Obzorja, Maribor
Deželak B. (1969), Marketing v nabavni politiki, Založba Obzorja, Maribor
Vezjak D. (1969), Izbiranje tujih tržišč, Založba obzorja, Maribor
Vreg F. (1973), Družbeno komuniciranje, Založba Obzorja, Maribor
Možina S. (1975), Psihologija in sociologija trženja, Založba Obzorja
Radonjič D. (1977), Pospeševanje prodaje, Delo GV, Ljubljana
Lorbek F. (1979), Osnove komuniciranja v marketingu, Delo GV, Ljubljana.
Snoj B. (1982), Embalaža, Delo GV, Ljubljana
Jančič Z. (1990), Marketing: strategija menjave, Gospodarski vestnik, Ljubljana
Sfiligoj N. (1993), Marketinško upravljanje, FDV, Ljubljna
Ule M. in M. Kline (1996), Psihologija tržnega komuniciranja, FDV, Ljubljana
Table 19-1: Advertising-related books in Yugoslavia/Slovenia, 1950-2000
Planned-market economy (from 1965 – 1990)
After liberal economic reforms in the 1960s that ended the Yugoslav
planned economy and changed it into market-planning system, together
with the system of workers self-management, the importance of market activities became obvious. Kline (1985), in his study of marketing research in
Yugoslavia, described the situation at the time. Borders were opened and
many foreign firms signed license agreements with domestic firms. With the
inflow of technology, there was also the inflow of managerial, marketing,
and advertising knowledge. New products started to pile up and needed the
help in promoting them. The competition became the game of the day, especially for the firms that operated in the industries with too much supply
for the autarchic economy of Yugoslavia such as food, beverages, furniture,
domestic appliances, fashion etc.
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Important influence also came from domestic exporting firms that
had to adapt to the more demanding market circumstances abroad. One
characteristic of this new development in advertising was the effective use of
the new television medium, where Slovenian firms especially excelled. So
local experts in advertising were needed, opening significant employment
opportunities.
With no university advertising education at that time in Slovenia, the
criteria for employment were extremely low and undemanding. Besides, this
growing profession had to constantly present its work as contributing to the
common good and fitting the prevailing ideology, or face the consequences.
This game lasted until the collapse of the socialist system at the end
of the 1980s with ups and downs for the advertising profession. The worst
situation that the advertising profession had to tackle was a crisis that started in the early 1970s, when the communist party purged “liberals” deemed
too friendly to the market (Patterson 2003). This crisis lasted for more than
ten years, and severely hindered the development of advertising profession
in Yugoslavia, especially in Croatia.
The first official textbook for “economic propaganda” was written by
Deželak at the University of Maribor, Faculty of Economics and Business
(at the time still a college called VEKŠ) in 1966 (see Table 19-1). It concentrated on “producing messages.” The first academic, university-level course
on advertising in Slovenia started in 1969, at the University of Ljubljana,
Faculty for Sociology, Political Sciences and Journalism. This early start,
compared to other socialist countries, was a reaction to the liberalization of
the economy, and embracing western standards of management and marketing in the mid-60s.
The pioneering work began with Prof. Nada Sfiligoj, who taught an
elective course titled “Economic Propaganda.” The term was uniquely used
in the former Yugoslavia, meaning propaganda necessary for companies, as
opposed to political propaganda. However, the syllabus was quite contemporary, similar to courses on advertising principles, with the emphasis on
economics of advertising. Among the topics covered were the marketing
background of advertising, market research, consumer behavior, advertising
media, advertising message structure, advertising copy, advertising organization in the firm and advertising testing.
That course was taught twice a year until 1976, when it was replaced
with “Political and Economic Propaganda.” The emphasis also changed into
mainly propaganda topics with more critical attitude towards advertising
(Sfiligoj 2004). Another course, Sociology of Consumer Behavior, was offered in 1971, but was part of the journalism curriculum only once again, in
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1976. After a decade of downturn in advertising education a single advertising course, Economic Propaganda and Contemporary Market, finally was
offered in 1988 (Sfiligoj 2004).
A similar history can be found in the Faculty of Economics, also at
the University of Ljubljana (Damjan & Jancic, 1997). Its class on Organizational Psychology covered parts of advertising, led by Stane Možina. But
it started and ended in 1971. With support from VEKŠ he published a
book on psychology and sociology of marketing in 1975 (see Table 19-1),
used in graduate studies at Faculty of Economics. Later this course changed
its name and emphasis. Some topics were dimly covered in many other
courses, such as Market Research taught by Drago Kotnik, or courses on the
trade economics.
One of the good signs in these hard times was the opening of Slovenia-based advertising agency, Studio Marketing, in 1973, now a partner to
JWT group. By diligent, politically smart and professional work, this agency
escaped the anti-liberal crisis and helped to establish the huge reputation of
regionally well-known corporate brands such as Fructal, Radenska, Mura,
Unior, Lek, etc. Studio Marketing was initially led by the first creative director in the country, Jure Apih, now a retired president to Golden Drum
Advertising Festival. Later, and to this day, the agency is led by Jernej
Repovš.
An important contribution of this agency was the dissemination of
knowledge of the western-style strategic, as well as creative, adverting. It was
no longer a so-called “socialist advertising” (Patterson 2003), but was global
in its approach and performance and, of course, always ethically and socially
responsible. Its competitive edge was in excellent creative skills, where creative figures such as Jaka Judnič, Meta Dobnikar, Jani Bavčer, Jure Apih,
Jernej Repovš, Zlatko Jančič, etc. excelled, while using scientific methods in
advertising.
Pioneering work in this field was done by Mihael Kline, now a professor at University of Ljubljana, Faculty for Social Sciences. He was educated in advertising, and especially consumer behavior, during his many visits to prominent professors in the U.S.A. He taught an elective course on
Consumer Psychology in the Department of Psychology, University of
Ljubljana, where he was able to include research on advertising effectiveness
as applied to packaging, as well as motivation, perception, emotions, research on perceptual mapping, experimental design, conjoint analysis, etc.
(Kline, 1976; 1977).
Thanks to politics, new equipment donated to the Department of
Psychology by the American government sat unused at the time, as if wait-
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ing to enable the start of experiments in the field of consumer behaviour –
solving problems such as emotional response of consumers to the package
elements (four channel lie detector), eye movement over visual surface (eye
movement camera), and the tachistoscope for measuring perception and defining benchmarks of advertising stimulus at the selling point. The first results from these devices were encouraging and a strong motive and initiative
for the beginning of practising an elective course Consumer Psychology in
1977 as a part of the educational program Industrial Psychology at the University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Department of Psychology. Interest
shown by the students in this course and potential market opportunities for
the graduates proved the correctness of such development (Kline 1977,
1998).
Kline’s role as an employee of Studio Marketing, and later as an external partner to the agency, always pushed contemporary advertising
knowledge in the agency. Under his influence, executives were present at
the majority of important advertising events in Europe and the U.S.A., usually the only delegates from the so-called socialist block. The knowledge
they brought home was then first disseminated internally through workshops, publications, and internal conferences, and later externally to the clients and members of advertising profession.
Studio Marketing became the hub of advertising knowledge for decades in Slovenia. Needless to say, many of its executives in the late 1980s
and early 1990s left the company and opened their own advertising agencies
that are, even today, on the top ten list in the Slovenian advertising agency
scene.
Kline also was one of the organizers of early educational seminars on
marketing communications, known as SETEK, in 1979 that somehow tried
to bridge the gap in the knowledge among members of Slovenian advertising industry. These seminars were vocational education, organized for employees in advertising agencies and advertisers without adequate education
that were prevalent in the advertising industry at the time. The seminars
prematurely ended and again showed the hardship that advertising education have to face in Slovenia.
Slovenian period – free market economy (after 1991)
After the collapse of Yugoslavia, Slovenia became a sovereign state in
1991. A few years later it became a member of NATO and EU in 2004,
adopted Euro currency in 2007 and in 2010 became a member of OECD
countries. Most importantly, the market-economy enabled political changes.
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The independence of Slovenia finally brought deeply needed changes
also in the curriculum of our universities. Similarly to the American situation (Ross and Richards 2008), there were three pillars of advertising education: psychology, journalism, and business schools. Specific to Slovenian
situation is the fourth pillar, namely design schools which followed from
bases in the previous periods (e.g., Fruth’s and Keller’s books, see Table 191).
In 1991 Nada Sfiligoj became the first head of marketing and advertising at the now renamed Faculty for Social Sciences. A boost in students
and related courses happened when Zlatko Jancic left his long and successful career in the biggest advertising agency, Studio Marketing, and became a
university professor.
In 1993, the first study program of marketing communication started, consisting of courses such as Basic Marketing, Strategy and Technology
of Advertising, Market Research, Psychology of Marketing, Language and
Style of Advertising and Public Relations. Among other pioneers of marketing communication study program we also need to mention Marko Lah and
Mihael Kline, who joined the faculty in subsequent years. In the mid1990s, this program began to produce graduates and post-graduates with
advanced knowledge of marketing and advertising.
The only specialized study of marketing communications at the Faculty of Social Sciences soon became a kind of elite study program in Slovenia with high requirements for new student entry. In order to successfully
trespass the period of economic transition to market economy in Slovenia in
the 1990s, this marketing communications chair responded with the everimproving curriculum and new courses (Jancic, 1997).
Faculty of Economics joined with the opening of its marketing major
in 1991. Among the courses was also the renewed course on Consumer Behavior, taught by Stane Možina. The first Marketing Communication
course started in 1994, taught by Iča Rojšek and Danijel Starman and later,
after 2001, by Vesna Žabkar. Zlatko Jančič contributed in development of
the course in the early years.
Up until the year 1984, when a new Design Department at the
Ljubljana Academy of Fine Art was established, painters, graphic artists, architects/educational programs at the Faculty of Architecture played the role
of the main designers in advertising agencies. It represents a start of a visual
communication design study, at first in undergraduate programs, and in 15
years also in Masters and PhD degrees, which filled a large gap in the development of advertising in Slovenia up to that point.
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Besides planning, technical and artistic courses, two or three marketing courses are also included into the program: Fundamentals of Marketing,
Consumer Psychology and Basic of Visual Communication. This makes it
easier for designers, strategists and creative directors, who are taking courses
at business and journalism or communications schools to work as a team
and to learn about teamwork. Of course, their results range much wider
than just the narrowly understood field of advertising. They cover the whole
field of Marketing Communications, as well as the field of designing new
products, which is covered in Industrial Design major.
Besides the efforts in formal advertising education in this period we
have to mention also other sources that disseminate the knowledge of good
theory and practice in advertising. These are materials of the Slovenian Advertising Association, MM Akademija scientific marketing journal, MM
trade journal, Festivals and seminars such as Slovenian Advertising Festival
advertising awards, Golden Drum Festival, EFFIE competition, many student’s organized seminars, conferences and festivals etc.
Overview of Advertising Education in Slovenia Today
After presenting the historical background of advertising education in
Slovenia, it is about time to bring the reader up to the present condition of
this field. There are no full-service programs that teach every aspect of advertising in Slovenia, to date. However, there are several programs that specialize in one or more aspects of advertising (art direction or account management), or offer only selected courses in advertising. Profiles of a variety
of programs will be presented to highlight where advertising education
stands as of 2010. Before we present leading programs, as well as smaller
and less prominent programs, in journalism, business, and art schools, a
short overview of the higher education system in Slovenia is needed.
Higher education studies in Slovenia are provided by public and private universities, faculties, art academies and professional colleges. Starting
in 2005, the three-cycle higher education system, in accordance with the
Bologna declaration, was introduced. First cycle study programs are academic and professional study programs (three to four years programs) and
credit points (180 to 240 ECTS, 1 ECTS consists of 25 to 30 hours of a
student’s work). Second cycle study programs are Master’s study programs
(Master’s professional degree, 60 to 120 ECTS, one to two years). Third
cycle includes doctoral study programs (three years; 180 ECTS, two thirds
of which is acquired by research).
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In public higher education institutions students pay tuition fees only
for part-time studies, while full-time studies are free. For doctoral (thirdcycle) studies, tuition fees are paid. Students in private higher education institutions also pay tuition fees (Ministry of higher education and science,
2010).
An access requirement to academic study is the general matura examination, or the vocational matura examination plus an additional exam from
one general matura subject. In the case of art study programs, specific requirements include a test of talent of artistic skills. Graduates are granted
the diploma and the professional or academic title.
The majority of courses are offered in Slovenian language. More and
more frequently, higher education institutions offer consultations and
courses to foreign students also in English.
High school level education (for school kids from 15 to 19) includes
a range of vocational schools, e.g., a high school of design and photography
in Ljubljana, a high school for design in Maribor, as well as a range of business high schools (called “ekonomska šola”), or more general high school
programs. At age 19, students can enroll in a higher education institution.
Future students can choose among three public universities (University of Ljubljana, University of Maribor and University of Primorska); two
private universities (University of Nova Gorica and EMUNI University)
and several independent schools. These universities and independent institutions offer several arts, journalism, and business programs that cover different aspects of advertising: management, art direction, copy writing, or
planning (media), and will be explained more in detail below.
Advertising management is included in marketing and advertising
courses at a range of business schools. Copy writing and media planning
are part of educational programs at journalism schools, while art direction
programs is in art schools.
Starting with journalism schools, there are three possibilities for studies in Slovenia: (1) University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social Sciences; (2)
University of Nova Gorica, School of Humanities and (3) Faculty of Media,
Ljubljana. All three will be presented more in detail.
Specific Programs
University of Ljubljana Faculty of Social Sciences was established in
1961. The school is one of the largest members of the University of
Ljubljana. It has over 5,100 students in 30 undergraduate and graduate
study programs. The Faculty of Social Sciences is housed in a modern,
state-of-the-art facility.
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The head of department of communication is Zlatko Jančič. The department consists of three chairs: Chair of Media Studies, Chair of Journalism, and Chair of Marketing Communications. Seven full-time faculty
members teach in Marketing Communications: Golob Urša, Jančič Zlatko,
Kamin Tanja, Kline Mihael, Kropivnik Samo, Lah Borut Marko and Podnar Klement. They offer a widest selection of advertising related courses of
any educational institution in Slovenia: advertising strategy, marketing
communication of innovations, corporate communication, introduction to
visual communications, advertising and society, introduction to communication research, social cause advertising, integrated marketing communications, business to business marketing communication, and consumer psychology.
At the graduate level, they offer journalistic studies, communications,
media and society studies, public relations and strategic marketing communications. Some of undergraduate courses are taught in English (e.g. Communication Management by Dejan Verčič).
The University of Primorska Faculty of Humanistic Studies Koper (UP
FHŠ), offers Media Studies, the undergraduate degree program that provides students with an understanding of the media and the modern media
culture. The program educates also for work as a technical assistant or adviser in media companies in the field of communication services and in the
area of event management, marketing, and promotion or public relations.
The program covers media studies and communication theories, social history of mass media, epistemology and methodology of media research, marketing and marketing communication, and communication and politics.
Faculty of Media (FaM) was founded in 2008 in Ljubljana and is one
of the newest higher education institutions in Slovenia. The school offers
media and journalism study programs at undergraduate and Master’s levels,
and enrolls 60 students in each level annually. Both study programs offer
students a combination of knowledge and skills in social sciences and technical fields, so as to qualify students to create quality media contents. The
studies are organized as part-time studies only for which students have to
pay tuition. The school does not reveal the names of its professors.
Moving on to business programs, there are several options, since the
competition in business programs is very intensive: (1) University of
Ljubljana, Faculty of Economics; (2) University of Maribor, Faculty of
Economics and Business; (3) University of Primorska, Faculty of Management Koper; (4) Faculty of Applied Business and Social studies (DOBA)
Maribor and (5) GEA College of Entrepreneurship, (6) International
School for Social and Business Studies, Celje (MFDPŠ), (7) School of Busi-
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ness and Management, Novo mesto (VŠUP). Because advertising in most
schools is limited to a few lectures, only schools with courses in advertising/marketing communications are presented.
The University of Ljubljana Faculty of Economics (FELU) was founded
in 1946. It is the largest faculty of the University of Ljubljana, with almost
8000 full-time and part-time undergraduate and graduate students. The
school’s graduates can be found in the highest positions in Slovenian and
international companies, while professors have been on supervisory boards
of key Slovenian companies and ministers in government administration.
At the undergraduate level, the school offers two different study programs: University Degree - Business and Economics Program in Marketing,
and Professional Degree - Business Program in Marketing. The FELU offers marketing programs also in the English language (University degree in
Marketing in undergraduate programs, Master in International Business,
and International Full Time Master Program in Business Administration) as
well as doctoral program in Economics and Business. Each year, in total
160 -200 marketing students learn about principles of marketing communications (undergraduate level) and advertising (graduate level). The courses
are taught by prof. Vesna Zabkar.
The University of Maribor Faculty of Economics and Business (FEB) celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2009. It is the second largest business school
in Slovenia. During that fifty years more than 26,000 students graduated
from the school, acquiring different professional and scientific titles.
The academic staff is organized in 13 departments, including a department of marketing. The department has 7 members, including Bruno
Završnik and Aleksandra Pisnik Korda that teach Marketing Communications and Strategic Marketing Communications courses (in Slovenian language), and Damjan Mumel who teaches Art of Communication.
The International School for Social and Business Studies, Celje
(MFDPŠ), offers professionally-oriented higher education undergraduate
study program Business in Modern Society with interdisciplinary
knowledge in the fields of economics, business, management, organizational
sciences, informatics, technologies, communications, ethics and foreign languages. One of the elective programs in the third year is also Multimedia &
Design in Business. The school does not reveal the names of teachers, however the web pages of the program promise local, national, and international
field experts and guest lecturers.
The DOBA Faculty of Applied Business and Social Studies Maribor
(DOBA Faculty) is the largest distance education and e-learning provider in
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Slovenia, targeting people in full-time employment. Part-time study takes 3
years. Mode of study is both on-site study and distance learning.
The schools offers bachelor program in marketing management and
public relations management. In the 2009/2010 academic year, there were
more than 130 students enrolled in this program. The main focus of the
program is on knowledge and skills for performing marketing activities,
knowing and mastering media markets and new media, and planning media
communications, as well as with applied knowledge of management. The
school does not reveal the names of its professors.
GEA College of Entrepreneurship, Piran (VŠP), offers the International
Bachelor Study of Entrepreneurship and serves as “a springboard for young
people who are aware of the necessity for international activities and the
opportunities offered.” Advertising/communication courses are elective, including Principles of Contemporary Mass Media Operations and Market
Communication, Market Communication, Marketing strategies, and Principles of Contemporary Mass Media Operations, taught by practitioners
like Darko Števančec, Vinko Zupančič and Tomaž Perovič.
To complete the picture of business programs in Slovenia that offer
courses in advertising/communications, also the School of Business and Management, Novo mesto (VŠUP) should be mentioned, which offers marketing
communication as part of its undergraduate program. However, not much
information is available about this program or the school.
From business schools we move on to art schools. These institutions
offer a different set of knowledge and skills:
University of Ljubljana Academy of Theatre, Radio, Film and Television: Department of Film and Television Directing offers courses in film directing, television directing, film history and film theory. Students carry out
number of exercises in film and television directing, cinematography and
editing. The department closely collaborates with Television Slovenia, the
Slovenian Film Fund, and other media institutions.
The school has been awarded several prizes for student films at various international film festivals including Bucharest, Montpelier, New York
and Sarajevo, as well as at numerous student film festivals. It was awarded
the best European film school at the 2007 Anima & Etuida Film Festival in
Krakow.
The University of Ljubljana Academy of Fine Arts and Design: Department of Design was established in 1984 and has two branches: industrial design and visual communications. Future designers are offered a broad pro-
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fessional education and analytically define and creatively solve designing
problems.
The first year of study enables development of the abilities of artistic
and spatial expression and recognizing the basis of the designing process.
The project work in later years is organized in seminars under the individual
guidance of different mentors. Seminars graphic design cover techniques of
typography and photography combined with the use of a computer. Formally, the graduates from the department of design are either graphic or industrial designers. Some graphic designers specialize in advertising.
The University of Nova Gorica, School of Applied Sciences: School of Arts
offers a bachelor's program in digital arts and practices that is, at present, in
the process of acquiring the consent of the Council for Higher Education of
the Republic of Slovenia. According to the information provided at its web
page, the program is in line with conceptual and structural basis of the existing three-year program Digital Media School of Applied Arts Famul Stuart.
The program builds on creative use of digitalization of media and
technologies. The program structure will be divided into four supporting
optional modules, which will be supported by historical-critical and creative-technical parts: animation (animated film animation in the creative industries); videos (fiction, documentary, experimental videos, video art);
photo (copyright, functional photo) and new media (creative use of new
technologies).
The College of Visual Arts, Ljubljana (VŠRS) offers painting and other
basic art genres: visual-spatial design, graphics, photography and film, as
well as video, performing art, body art, land art visualization, and other artistic ideas. Graduates also work in design and advertising bureaus and TV
media as video directors or graphic designers. The program is 4+1 years.
Other details are not evident to the outside observer.
The Academy of Design, Ljubljana (VSD) is an independent institution
of higher education that offers education in the field of interior design, visual communications, textiles, and fashion. Visual communications design is
responding to growing needs for professional staff in all fields of visual
communications in print or digital media. The school enrolls 30 students
in visual communications annually. Not much is known about educators at
the school besides that they are “constantly taking part in advanced studycourses in order to improve their knowledge and skills” which should provide “the guarantee that the education is always modern and that it is adapting to the latest technological and substantial demands in the field of visual
communications.”
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The College of Services, Ljubljana (VIST) was accredited in 2008 as an
undergraduate program for photography (three-year study). The program
promises that “well-trained students to work in practice - individually or in
teams so that they will handle all phases and aspects of photographic production including aspects of marketing communications with clients, of
multimedia, design, etc.” Some of the lecturers are established photographers, such as Arne Hodalič, Borut Furlan, Rajko Bizjak et al.
A few more important facts
Having presented the range of journalism, business and art schools
that offer formal education related to advertising, some more words need to
be said about the involvement of the advertising business people in ad education. There is a professional organization that supports advertising education: Slovenian Advertising Chamber (SOZ 2010), a non-govern-mental
organization representing the interests of advertisers, advertising agencies,
and media, and advocating for high standards and advertising ethics in advertising. SOZ is a member of European Advertising Standards Alliance
(EASA) and the International Advertising Association (IAA).
The Slovenian Association of Advertising Agencies is a member of the
European Association of Communication Agencies (EACA), Slovenian
member of the World Federation of Advertisers (WFA), Section on the Internet for SZM, a member of the Interactive Advertising Bureau Europe
(IAB-Europe). SOZ contributes to education of professionals through
events, seminars (Effie Academy) and such.
For several years, industry supported students in InterAd, IAA’s annual student advertising competition which provided hands-on marketing
communications experience for undergraduate students. With participation
in this case-history style projects, students got a chance to apply their marketing theory in practice and experience real-world marketing environment.
And since 2008, students from University of Ljubljana Faculty of Economics participate in the EACA AdVenture competition. Some larger Slovenian
companies support students’ research and thesis work with rewards (Krka,
2010, Trimo, 2010). Also, international exchanges of students show that
there is high quality of advertising related education in Slovenia in the programs offered in the country.
Another, student based competition should be mentioned, since it
offers additional educational opportunities for all participating: established
in 1999, Magdalena is a non-profit festival of creativity, organized and
managed by young people for the young people in Maribor. It is a response
to expensive and formal advertising festivals, focused on creative manifestations of marketing communication, and takes a more critical stand toward
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irresponsible practices in this field. It offers low fees for entry registration
and attendance to festival lectures and parties (more than 3,500 visitors and
4,200 entries presented in last nine years). Magdalena has become “an important meeting point for those who seek their future in the world of design, advertising, media and other fields of public communication.” (Magdalena 2010).
However, there is a concern that needs to be presented since it is related to the present state of advertising industry in the country. There are
around 200 advertising agencies in Slovenia at present (Marketing magazin,
2010). Interestingly, the situation does not resemble the situation in other
ex-socialist countries, where the dominant agencies are all multinationals.
Slovenian agencies do cooperate with multinational advertising agency
groups, but remain owned by locals (Jancic & Zabkar 1998).
One reason for this local focus is the relatively low percentage of foreign investment and ownership in the Slovenian economy does not attract
multinational agencies. Another reason is presented above in the unique
history of advertising that is much different than in other ex-socialist countries. Advertising, as practiced by advertising agencies, developed in professionalization. However, these advertising agencies now predominantly
work on adaptations of standardized campaigns for multinational companies, and less on development of brands for domestic advertisers. Domestic
advertisers are predominantly small and medium-sized companies where
marketing is losing a “seat at the table,” being evicted from the company
boards (Zabkar & Jancic, 2008).
We believe that advertising has a reduced role on the side of domestic
advertisers, being considered as a cost, rather than an investment, which has
important consequences for advertising education as well. This creates less
demand for students with advertiser-centered knowledge. It is not clear
whether students who enroll in advertising-related courses at present will be
able to fully use the knowledge they gain from formal education. The odd
question arises at the end of this study: Are they overqualified for the contemporary Slovenian job market?
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289
Teaching Advertising in Spain
David Roca
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Daniel Tena
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Jean Grow
Marquette University, USA
Spanish Advertising Education History
Advertising education in Spain has a rich, nearly 100-year, history. Its
foundation is framed by pioneering advertising practitioner and educator,
Pere Prat Gaballí, whose influence was significant. Another significant factor in advertising education, and post-secondary education generally, is the
influence of formal government legislation on educational models. Thus,
the authors frame much of the historical aspects of this study within a political lens.
Following Gaballí’s initial work, the growth of Spanish advertising
education was curtailed by the Spanish civil war (1936-39) and World War
II, which Spain endured under dictator Francisco Franco. Franco’s influence lasted until November 1975, and severely truncated Spanish economic, cultural, and social development, as well as Spanish post-graduation education.
That said, in 1961 Franco’s government formalized the study of advertising, but not at the university level. On the heels of Franco’s death, the
transitional period (1975-78) laid the groundwork for renewal of the educational system overall. It included advertising education, this time at the university level. Following this, Spanish advertising education entered the
democratic period and began to expand at a rapid pace, eventually becoming one of the premier systems in all of Europe. Today, the Bologna process frames all European post-graduate education, with the Spanish advertising education representing a hybrid of the Bologna model.
Prat Gaballí: the pioneer
Advertising seminars began to be taught Barcelona around 1911.
They were informally structured and sponsored by La Cambra de Comerç,
290
Indústria i Navegació de Barcelona29 (Barcelon’s Commerce, Industry and
Navigation Chamber). In 1917, Pere Prat Gaballí (1885-1962)30 became
the director these seminars, and created a formalized structure based on his
book Publicitat Científica (Scientific Advertising 1917), which predated
Claude Hopkins’ book of the same title (1923). Gaballí’s focus was a new
rational perspective. "These days of plentiful advertising, visibility is harder
to get day after day and needs a growing sum of technical resources and observations” (1917:23).
In 1932 a program, which focused on marketing and advertising research, was established at Escola d’Alts Estudis Mercantils (School of Commecial Studies). This technical school was the precurser to Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, which would later become the home of a leading advertising program in Spain (www.elmundo.es). Pere Prat Gaballí, already teaching at Escola d’Alts Estudis Mercantils, was appointed the first chair in the
summer of 1936. Upon his appointment, he began to consolidate and formalize advertising education. However, this position never came into existance, and the seminars were terminated due to the onset of the Spanish civil war.
After the Spanish civil war and World War II, and despite highly
constrained economic conditions, Gaballí returned to work as an advertising professional. He also continued to teach and published articles and
books on advertising. His last book, Publicidad Combativa (Combative Advertising) was published in 1953. However, due the difficult economic
conditions under the Franco dictatorship, advertising and advertising education remained stymied. Gaballí died in 1962.
29
Barcelona's Chamber of Commerce is one of the most representative institutions of Catalan society and a first order’s point of reference for the country's socio-economic arena. The
Chamber of Barcelona works to improve the results of companies: it offers services that companies can use individually and carries out general interest actions to encourage the promotion of the country's economic and business activity which, indirectly, also favor each company. The Official Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Navigation of Barcelona was
founded in 1886, although its history goes back to the Middle Ages as the Consulate of the
Sea or the Royal Assembly of Commerce (http://www.cambrabcn.org/).
30
Gaballí started his career as a writer (poems, tales and translating). He studied at Escola
Superior de Comerç de Barcelona between 1897 and 1901. In 1911 he discovered System
Magazine, this magazine deal with advertising and selling. After this, he found Pinter'sInk,
Advertising World, first theoretical treatises from Daniel Starch and Walter Dill Scott and
books from Hamilton Institute. From that moment he started to write articles at the magazine Comercio and the journal El Día Gráfico (1914). He started a successful career in the
First World War Word, when Spain developed thanks to its neutrality (at Tena& Roca
2009).
291
The importance of Gaballí’s influence cannot be overstated. His work
was formally recognized by the Spanish advertising industry. In 1992 La
Cambra reprinted his groundbreaking book, commemorating its 75th anniversary. Then in 2007, the Collegi de Publicitaris i de Relacions Publiques de
Catalunya 31 (association of advertising and public relations professionals
holding college degrees) established the Prat Gaballí’s Award to promote
advertising and public relations research.32
Pre-University Period: Constraints of Dictatorship
During the 1940s and much of the 1950s, Franco's government pursued a policy of autocratic rule. Spain turned inward with a focus on economic self-sufficiency, without foreign trade or investment.33 Much like the
isolation Spain experienced politically and economically, advertising, too,
was isolated. Thus advertising educations also was curtailed.
During these strained times Barcelona, which was the creative heart
of Spanish cultural life, remained the center of advertising production in
Spain. However, there was little activity as the economy was in a severe
downturn. Further, Franco’s policies did not encourage expansion of advertising, nor its educational components. More than 20 years would pass before the Spanish economy, and Spanish advertising education, began to develop.
With the government Stabilization Plan (1959-74)34 a very important
change of strategy came about in Spanish economic policy. This policy
opened the economy to foreign goods and capital. Tourism began to boom
during the 1960s, spurring Spain’s development. In turn, advertising activity began to pick up pace, spreading consumption of goods and services
and the advertising of some new brands. With this came a renewed interest
in advertising education. Within this context two laws come into existence:
El Estatuto de la Publicidad (Advertising Statute, 1964), the first law in the
country to regulate advertising industry; and La Ley General de Educación
(General Education Law, 1971), the law which formalized advertising education at universities.
Three years prior to El Estatuto, and under the supervision of Information and Tourism Ministery, El Instituto Nacional de Publicidad (National Advertising Institute) was established in 1961. Its goals were “to drive
31
Authorized by Catalan parliament.
More information can be found at: http://www.colpublirp.com/_premi-prat
gaballi/premi.php?idioma=CAS
33
http://www.megaessays.com/viewpaper/201370.html
34
http://sispain.org/english/economy/stabilit.html
32
292
technical and artistic advertising progress, and to promote education to qualify for the professional practice of advertising in its different specialities.”
To accomplish these goals Las Escuelas Oficiales de Publicidad (Official Advertising Schools) were created around the country from 1964 to
1970. These schools depended on El Instituto de la Publicidad (National
Advertising Institute) and offered training to educate young people as advertising professionals. Students had to prove their “technical capacity to
run or to plan/program the advertising activity of a client, agency and media” to become Técnicos de Publicidad (advertising technicians). Though the
degree was not a formal university degree, it gained great popularity.
University Period: Democracy Coming
El Instituto de la Publicidad’s schools functioned for six years. Then,
in 1971, La Ley General de Educación (Education General Law) moved advertising education to the university level, under the supervision of Education and Science Ministry. During this time students studied courses common to communication and journalism. Three years later, in 1974, public
relations was formally linked to advertising. The linkage between advertising and public relations education remains today.
In addition, new Schools of Information Sciences (Ciencias de la Informacion) were born with the La Ley General de Educación (Education General Law). Schools were now officially able to provide education in advertising, broadcasting [cinema, television, radio], and journalism. The official
degrees would refer to the different three branches as: journalism, broadcasting (comunicación audiovisual), and advertising.
The first university to begin offering advertising degrees in Spain was
Universidad Complutense de Madrid, in 1971. The Universitat Autònoma
de Barcelona and Universidad de Bilbao where the next, in 1972. All three
were public, state funded, universities.
The next law to be approved was Ley de Reforma Universitaria (LRU),
in 1981. This formalized the educational structure, which was based on
three coursework years focused in communication, journalism, and liberal
arts (sociology, economy, literature, languages, etc.). This was followed by
two years focused exclusively on advertising and public relations. This law
formalized the degree, “information sciences: advertising and pubic relations,” which lived under communication sciences along with journalism.
The law mandated three subjects or classes for advertising and public
relations studies. First was advertising creativity, involving the creation and
realization of advertising messages for different communication media. Second was advertising media, encompassing analysis and media selection for
293
advertising activities. The third was public relations techniques, involving
establishment and development of strategies in public relations.
Ten years later, in 1991, the Decree 1386 approved the official degree in advertising and public relations (Licenciado en Publicidad y Relaciones
Públicas). This formally established it as independent from broadcasting and
journalism. With this change advertising and public relations courses began
to be taught in the freshman year, establishing an intensive study of advertising at the entry level.
Classes were now organized in two semesters rather then one yearlong, as was previously done. The first semester began in October, and second in February, with the academic year concluding in June. There were
generally around 40 credits per year. However it varied from university
from university. One credit is understood as 10 hours of classroom instruction. Upon completion of this degree, students could apply for master programs. Thanks to the Decree 1386 a specialized Masters in Advertising and
Public Relations emerged in Spain, and became more and more popular
among students.
Period
PreUniversity
1964-70
Dictatorship
University
1971-72
Dictatorship
1981
Democracy
Law
Results/Degree
Stuctural Outcome
Degree
Timeline
61/64
Advertising Statute
Advertising Technician
Advertising Institute
3 advertising
Decree 2070/1971
Ley General de Educación y Financiamiento de la Reforma
Educativa
Ley de Reforma
Universitaria (LRU)
Licenciado en Communication
Sciences: Branch, Advertising
and Public Relations
Information Sciences
Schools (Facultades)
3 communication
2 advertising &
public relations
Information Sciences
Schools (Facultades)
3 communication
2 advertising &
public relations
4 advertising &
public relations
4 advertising &
public relations
1 Masters
Licenciado en Communications
Sciences: Branch, Avertising
and Public Relations
1992
Decree 1386/1991
Licenciado en Advertising and
Democracy
Public Relations
2010
Decree 1393/2007
Grado en Publicidad
Democracy
Bologna
y Relacions Publicas
Official Master
Note: Bachelor = Licenciatura o Grado.
Source: Adapted from Tena & Roca (2009).
Information Sciences
Schools (Facultades)
Communication Sciences
Schools (Facultades)
Table 20-1: Legislation Impacting Advertising Education
The 1393/2007 Decree was the last significant advertising education
legislation. This decree stated that Spain would officially adopt the Bologna
process. The 1393/2007 Decree was approved in 2007 and universities
were given three years to adopt the Bologna process. Thus, as of 2010, all
294
of Spanish advertising education is in compliance with Bologna. While the
credit structure will be uniform, in order to allow for credit transfer, different universities have been implementing Bologna in a very different ways.
Thus, is can be said that Bologna offers uniformity with autonomy.
European Academic Systems
Bologna: The European Standard
The Bologna Declaration of 19 June 1999 began the process of creating the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). The goal of EHEA was
to standardize and unify European higher education under a single credit
structure. The process involved cooperation between government ministries,
higher education institutions, students, and staff from 46 countries. In the
end, the hope was that EHEA would facilitate mobility of students, graduates and higher education staff by creating standardized credits.
Specifically, Bologna accomplished five things. First, degrees would
now be more comparable and easily understood, organized in a three-cycle
structure: bachelor, master and doctorate. 35 Second, quality assurance
would be in accordance with the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance within the EHEA. Third, there would be equitable recognition of
degrees across all European Union countries, in accordance with the Council of Europe/UNESCO Recognition Convention.36 Fourth, Bologna unified different European credit systems through the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS). The effect of ECTS was that one ECTS in Spain would
correspond to one ECTS in the rest of the European Union. Students
would be able to transfer easily all around Europe. Fifth, the ECTS system
was based on students’ work, not on professors’ time. One ECTS is the
equivalent of 25 student hours of working time. Around 50 percent of this
time, or even more, was considered non-lecture time.
Thus, ECTS is student driven, which is a significant departure from
the previous structure and a significant difference from the American model. The results of this mean that lecture time is reduced, but student engagement is greatly increased.
35
Some degrees, such as medicine, dentistry, veterinary science, pharmacy and architecture,
are called long programs and do not fit within the structure of three cycles.
36
http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/
295
Spanish System versus European
The Spanish university system is grounded in three different cycles as
the Standard European Guidelines indicates (see Figure 20-1): Bachelor,
Master and Doctorate. However, there are some differences between Spain
and most European countries.
Source: Adapted from Tena & Roca (2009).
Figure 20-1. Cycles when studying advertising in Spain
Bachelor Degrees
In Spain, a Bachelor’s degree in advertising is earned after four years
of education that prepares students for the profession. Students need to
study 60 ECTS each of the four years, for a total of 240 ECTS. Students
take between six and eight classes per semester. The degree which they earn
is called Grado en Publicidad and Public Relations37 (Bachelor of Advertising
and Public Relations). By contrast, Bachelor’s degrees in Europe generally
are earned in three years, with 180 ECTS.
Advanced Degrees
Master’s degrees are an advanced education. Students may specialize
in one of two tracks: professional or research. The research track allows
37
Bachelor of Advertising and Public Relations. It is important to mention that
Spain uses the word Bachillerato for High School level and not for university. Bachelor of Advertising and Public Relations were known as Licenciatura from 1971 to
2010, before Bologna started. Now they are called Grado.
296
them to apply for doctoral programs, while the professional track prepares
them at a more advanced level within the professional world.
Advertising Masters can be official or non-official. Official Masters
are accredited by Agencia Nacional de Evalución de la Calidad y Acreditación
(ANECA), a Spanish governmental agency that verifies education quality.
Official Masters are granted by the government only within public universities. On the other hand non-official degrees are granted through the university without governmental oversight. At least sixty ECTS are usually
needed to complete the official master degree in Spain, which is a one-year
program. The non-official Master’s degrees have more variance, as they are
not under government control.
However, throughout the rest of Europe, 120 ECTS are needed, as
European Master’s programs are mainly two-year programs. This variation
reflects the fact that an undergraduate degree is obtained in four years in
Spain, but in only three years throughout Europe.
Non-official Masters are more industry-oriented. Rather than writing
a research project, they complete a campaign-based project, including a
formal presentation. Additionally, the courses for the non-official Master’s
degree are more commonly taught by industry professionals.
After earning a Bachelor and an official Master, students may apply
to a doctoral program. While Spanish students need four years of undergraduate education and 240 ECTS, and one graduate year and 60 ECTS.
Most European spend only three years with undergraduate programs earning 180 ECTS and thus spend two years completing Master’s with 120
ECTS. At least fifteen methodological ECTS are taught, and a research
project has to be written in an official research oriented master degree program. In both cases, 300 ECTS are needed to apply for a doctorate program.
Masters
Tracks
(orientation)
Who
teachs?
Official
Research
Ph.D
Professional
Ph.D &
Industry pros
Industry pros
Non-official
Professional
How do they
guarantee
quality?
ANECA certificated
University board under
provost supervision
What is its
purpose?
University
Persue Ph. D.
Mainly public
Go into
industry
Go into
industry
Private & Public
Private & Public
Source: Adapted from Tena & Roca (2009).
Table 20-2: Types of Masters in Spain
To sum up, advertising education at Spanish universities unfolds as
follows: undergraduate level teaches general advertising knowledge, Master’s
297
teaches specific advertising skills when on a professional track (creative,
planning, accounting, design, art direction, interactive media…) and advertising research when on the research track. The final academic step is, of
course, the doctoral degree.
Doctoral Programs
An official Master’s degree is needed to apply for a doctoral program
in Spain. Doctoral programs last between two and four years. For example,
an advertising and public relation doctoral program is offered at Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, and broadcast and advertising doctoral programs
are offered at Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Many doctorate programs in communication often have students who complete advertising related dissertations. Advertising related dissertations are also often found in
economics and psychology programs. Advertising dissertations can be
found online in two databases: TESEO (www.educacion .es/teseo) and
TDX (www.tesisenxarxa.net).
Publication of Spanish advertising research is just beginning to take
root. There are two main academic journals: Questiones Publicitarias38 (Advertising Matters), established in 1993, and Pensar la Publicidad,39 (Thinking About Advertising), which was founded in 2007. Some Spanish scholars also publish in Spanish communication journals, and a few sometimes
publish in European communication and advertising journals.
Questiones Publicitarias (Advertising Matters) is a peer-reviewed journal. Its main goal is to promote academic advertising research in advertising. The journal was print based from 1993-2007. Starting in 2007 it
moved online. The journal is published annually through the Universidad
de Sevilla.
Pensar la Publicidad (Thinking About Advertising) is also a peerreviewed journal. Its main goal is to promote empirical and theoretical research on Spanish language advertising from across the globe. The journal
was born in 2007 and can be found both in print and online. It is published twice every year through the Universidad de Valladolid and Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
38
Volumes can be checked free on line at http://www.maecei.es/questiones.html
Volumes can be checked free on line at
http://revistas.ucm.es/portal/modulos.php?name=Revistas2_Editorial&id=PEPU
39
298
Non-university education system around advertising
Alternatives to public or private universities falls into four different
categories: undergraduate or master, pre-university, continuing education
and industry’s interaction with universities
Undergraduate or Master’s Level
Another way to study advertising after High School or after obtaining
a university degree is going to business or commercial art schools (escuelas de
diseño). Some of them are related to universities, which allow the outside
schools to use the university logo and they also supervise the programs.
However, the courses are taught by professionals and the university faculty
generally does not teach in these programs. These degrees are generally not
accredited by the Quality Spanish Government Agency Agencia Nacional de
Evalución de la Calidad y Acreditación (ANECA).
Other business and design schools do not have any relationship with
universities. Portfolio schools are a common example of this type of program. Portfolio schools often have their alumni teaching within their programs. Yet other traditional commercial art schools (escuelas de diseño)are
linked to universities.
Pre-University Level
Another approach to studying advertising as an alternative to the university is called Formación Profesional (professional education). 40 Professional education is divided into two cycles: First, Ciclo Formativo en Grado
Medio 41 (Half Level Professional Education, CFGM) and, second, Ciclo
Formativo de Grado Superior42 (Full Level Professional Education, CFGS).
These cycles provide skills based education.
The CFGM degrees are for students that have finished what might
be called a pre-high school, Obligatory Secondary School, Educación
Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO). After completion of the CFGM degree students may obtain a CFGS, which completes their skills training.
40
Professional Education. A student has to study what follows to reach university: Educación
primaria (Elementary school, 6 to 12 years), ESO (Obligatory Secondary School, 12 to 16)
and Bachillerato (≈ High School Diploma, 16 to 18). As alternative to attending University,
student may apply to Professional Education (CFGM & CFGS).
41
CFGM: Formative Cycle Medium Degree-Half Level Professional Education. At least ESO
(Educación Secundaria Obligatoria, Compulsory Secondary Education, 16 years old) is required to apply for GFMG. Specific test may be required depending on the school.
42
CFGS: Full Level Professional Education. At least CFGM or Bachillerato (Upper Secondary
Education ≈ High School) is required.
299
There are 26 different professional areas in Spain. Some are related to
advertising: graphic arts and printing, commerce and marketing, image and
sound, and artistic education.43 Contents may slightly vary depending on
the area, but the orientation is always skills based. The Diploma students
get is Técnico Superior (Superior Technician). There were 37.335 students
in professional education related in somehow to advertising44. Students can
apply for a university program after finishing a CFGS.
Continuing Education
There are also continuing education programs , which are organized
by an institution called Fundación Tripartita45 (Tripartita Foundation). As
the focus is for workers the organization’s board has people from public
administration, business organizations 46 and unions. Continuing professional education programs are funded by Social Security fees, European Social Fund47 and Spanish Government through Servicio Público de Empleo
Estatal, (Public National Program for Employement, INEM).
Industry’s interaction with universities
Finally, beyond the options discussed above, some associations organize seminars (ex. Academia, Club de Creativos), small conferences (ex. Chill
Out Laus, Dijous de la Comunicació…), big conferences (ex. Rethink) and
visits to the university to share professional knowledge.
As is common and most countries, advertising creativity is promoted
and maintained through competitive awards. For students the main awards
are Drac Novell International Awards, which is Barcelona based, and Students Laus, which is based in Barcelona. For professionals there are three
main awards competitions are: Versus Awards and Day C from Club de Creativos (Creatives Club), which are Madrid based. Clients promote different
contests, one of the most well-known is Notodopublifest.
43
http://www.educacion.es/educacion/que-estudiar/formacion-profesional/que-puedoestudiar/grado-superior.html
44
2007-08 year data: graphic arts and printing (4.040 students) , commerce and marketing
(21.574 students), image and sound (11.721 students).
45
More information can be found at www.fundaciontripartita.org
46
Associations are: AEACP (Spanish Communication Advertising Agencies Association,
based in Madrid); AEP (Associació Empresarial de Publicitat, based in Barcelona).
47
More information can be found at
http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/esf/index_en.htm
300
Type of
education
Official
Center
Level
Orientation
Years
Public or Private University
Non-official
Public or
University
Business and
design schools
Bachelor
Master
Ph. D.
Master
Professional
Research/professional
Research/professional
Professional
4
1 or 2
2 to 4
1 or 2
Bachelor
Master
Professional
Professional
4
1 or 2
Other
Professional
Varies
Non-official
Portfolio
schools
Public or private
centers
Official
CFGS
Professional
pre-university
CFCM
Professional
education
Continuing
Associations
Seminars
Professional
Education
Credits
Source: Adapted from Tena & Roca (2009).
2
2
Days or weeks
Table 20-3: Forms of Advertising Education in Spain
Concluding Data and Final Thoughts
As we look across Spain, there are 33 universities teaching official advertising and public relations programs, with an enrollment of 16.377 students in a Bachelor level (2007-08). Of that, 68.37 percent belong to public
universities and 31.63 percent to private universities. The top advertising
and public relations programs usually have students come from the best
humanities track high schools.48 Public universities select the students from
the public system entrance test called “selectividad,” which is quite rigorous.
On the other hand, private universities can use this test or an alternative.
One year at public university costs around 700 euros. The cost at private university starts at 5.000 euros and can reach to 8.000 euros. Five to
eight classes are taught each semester, regardless of public or private. Both
students get the same degree: Grado en Publicidad y Relaciones Públicas
(Bachelor of Advertising and Public Relations).49
El Mundo, one of the leading Spanish newspapers based on Madrid,
publishes an annual ranking of advertising and public relations programs.
Over a nine year period, 2001-2009, the following universities are ranked at
the top: first, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona; second, Universidad de
48
High schools teach three different tracks: Arts, Humanities & social sciences, and Sciences
& technology.
49
The Degree was called Licenciatura en Publicidad y Relaciones Públicas from 1992 to 2010
(date when all universities should have implemented Bologna system). Before 1992, Degree
was called Licenciatura en Ciencias de la Informacion, branch: Publicidad y Relaciones Públicas.
301
Navarra (Pamplona); third, Universidad Complutense de Madrid; fourth,
Universitat Ramon Llull (Barcelona); and fifth, Universidad del País Vasco
(Bilbao), Universidad de Sevilla and Universidad Antonio Nebrija (Madrid).
Public (18)
Alicante
School
Economics & Business
Private (15)
Abat Olibacat - CEU (Barcelona)
School
Social Sciences
Autònoma
de Barcelona
Barcelona
Communication
Antonio Nebrija
(Madrid)
Camilo Jose Cela - SEK (Madrid)
Social
& Communication
Communication
Cardenal Herreracat – CEU
(Elche y Valencia)
Católica San Antoniocat (Murcia)
Social and Law
Cádiz
Escola Superior de Relacions Públiques
(associated center)
Superior School of Public Relations
Social & Communication
Complutense
Madrid
Girona
Information Sciences
Jaume I
(Castello)
Málaga
Humanities & Social
Miguel Hernández (Elche)
Murcia
País Vasco
(Bilbao)
Pompeu
Fabra (Barcelona)
Rey Juan
Carlos I
Madrid
Roviri i Virgilia (Tarragona)
Sevilla
ESIC Valencia
(asociated center)
Tourism
Communication
Europea Miquel de Cervantes
(Valladolid)
Europea de Madrid
Francisco de Victoriacat
(Madrid)
Internacional de Catalunya
(Barcelona)
Social
& Communication
Humanities
& Information
Communication
& Arts
Communication
Communication
Pontificia de Salamancacat
Navarracat
(Pamplona)
Ramon Llullcat
(Barcelona)
Communication
Communication
Fuenlabrada, Vilcalvaro and online
ESIC Madrid (asociated center)
San Jorge cat
(Zaragoza)
Communication
Humanities
San Pablo cat – CEU
(Madrid)
Communication &
Humanities
Comunicacion
Vic cat
(Barcelona)
Business &
Communication
Communication & Documentacion
Social and Communication
Communication
Communication
Valladolid
Social, Law & Communication
UOC
Communication
(Barcelona)
(online based)
Catalan Open
University
Vigo
Social & Communication
cat
Indicates Catholic University
Source: Adapted from Tena & Roca (2009).
Table 20-4: Universities Teaching Advertising degrees 2010 (33)
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Final Thoughts
Spanish advertising education has a rich and diverse history. It origins are tied to Pere Prat Gaballí, but its history is rooted in legislative processes often highly influenced by political and economic turmoil. Considering this, it is not surprising to see that much of advertising education is defined by its official or non-official status. In that sense, Spanish advertising
education might be considering a reflection of an overall governmental welfare structure. Amidst this structure a diverse, dynamic, and at times bewildering, array of advertising programming models flourish.
As a market economy began to take hold and the economy grew, advertising in Madrid, the industrial center, flourished. So too did advertising
education. Today Madrid now controls about 60 percent of the advertising
market, while Barcelona controls about 20 percent. Yet, the area in and
around Barcelona has ten advertising programs while Madrid has seven,
with others spread across other regions of the country. It can be argued that
while Madrid is the economic heart of Spain, Barcelona remains the creative
soul of Spain, just as it did in the time of Gaballí.
References
Batxillerat i curriculum at April 28
http://phobos.xtec.cat/edubib/intranet/index.php?module=Pages&func=display&pagei
d=22. Accessed April 28, 2010.
Business in Barcelona. April 25, at
http://www.cambrabcn.org/web/cambra/business_bcn/institutional_information. Accessed April 25, 2010.
Datos y cifras. Curso escolar 2009/10. Gobierno de España. Ministerio de Educación. May7,
at http://www.mepsyd.es/horizontales/prensa/documentos.html. Accessed May 7, 2010.
Dónde estudiar las más demandadas 50 carreras, at April 25
http://www.elmundo.es/especiales/2008/05/cultura/50carreras/43.html. Accessed April
25, 2010.
Eguizábal, Raúl. April 10, at http://www.academiadelapublicidad.org/index.php/nombrespara-recordar/132-pedro-prat-gaballi-. Accessed April 10, 2010.
El Premi Prat Gaballí de foment de la recerca en publicitat i relacions públiques at April 25
http://www.colpublirp.com/_premi-prat gaballi/premi.php?idioma=CAS. Accessed
April 25, 2010.
Gaballí, Pedro (1917, republished in 1992). La Publicidad Científica {Scientific Advertising}.
Barcelona: Cámara de Comercio y Navegación de Barcelona.
Hopkins, C. (1980). Publicidad científica {Scientific Advertising}. Madrid: Eresma
Spain and the Marshall Plan at Arpil 25.
http://www.megaessays.com/viewpaper/201370.html. Accessed April 25, 2010.
Stability and Economic Development, 1959-1974 at Arpil 25.
http://sispain.org/english/economy/stabilit.html. Accessed April 25, 2010.
Tena, Daniel and Roca, David (2009) Publicitat i Relacions Públiques cap a l’Espai Europeu
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d’Educació Superior {Advertising an Public Relations: towards European Higher Education Area }. Barcelona: Anguiroda.
Welcome to the website of the European Higher Education Area at April 28.
http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/. Accessed April 28, 2010.
Online sources
http://dialnet.unirioja.es
http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/esf/index_en.htm
http://ec3.ugr.es/in-recs
http://revistas.ucm.es/portal/modulos.php?name=Revistas2_Editorial&id=PEPU
http://www.cindoc.csic.es
http://www.educacion.es
http://www.fundaciontripartita.org
http://www.ine.es
http://www.latindex.unam.mx
http://www.maecei.es/questiones.html
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Advertising Education in the Nordic
Countries: Sweden-Denmark-FinlandNorway
Mary Alice Shaver
Jönköping International School of Business, Sweden
Advertising as a subject at the university level is not common in the
Nordic countries. A total of 52 universities were contacted and 18 university programs were identified and studied for inclusion on advertising education. Still, only a very few had what could be considered as an advertising
major as commonly understood in the U.S.
Looking at Communication and Business programs, it is clear that,
while some courses may contain a module or project relating to advertising,
formal courses – if found at all – are likely to be spare in offerings. Even at
the prestigious School of Business, Economics and Law at the University of
Gothenburg (Sweden), advertising is just one topic in two different courses.
One is in English and is a critical discourse analysis class; the other, which
carries 15 credits, is titled Media, Journalism and Global Studies. Again,
advertising is just one of several topics covered.
This would be typical throughout Scandinavia. Several of the universities offer the courses both through the Business and the Communication
areas. (A rough comparison to the new EU credit system is 7.5 credits for a
three hour credit in countries not using the EU system. This may seem like
a lot, but the requirements also call for a higher credit limit.)
Sweden
Of the universities reviewed in Sweden, looking at both Schools of
Business and Schools of Communication, seven had separate courses in advertising. The offerings are quite different in each. Only three of them offered more than one course, however, and only one of these programs was
titled “advertising and public relations.” One offers a course that is designed for exchange students, one has a diploma program, and the other has
a separate Department of Advertising and Public Relations, offering three
levels of Advertising and PR studies, as well as a marketing program designed for working professionals.
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Linnaeus University
A course entitled “Advertising Campaign Planning” is offered as part
of the program for exchange students. The course is built around a project
and students work in groups to produce an integrated campaign for an assigned client. The course is full-time for a four-week period, in the short
term that takes place after the regular semester. Students entering the class
must have some background, but the primary prerequisite is that they are
exchange students. Students must also have proficiency in the English language (level B) and have had the equivalent of 30 ECTC hours in business
studies.
Stockholm University
This university has a separate Department of Advertising and Public
Relations. As noted above, three courses are offered at progressive levels.
The first is basic and covers the historic development of the field as well as
current trends and target audience analysis. The second course is focused
on planned communication and has both a theoretical and practical point
of view. Course material includes art direction and copywriting and brings
in elements of consumer behavior, agenda setting and media planning. The
third course offers a focus on brands and commercial, legal, ethical, cultural
aspects. At the completion of the three-course sequence, students are prepared to write a thesis. There is no internship or practical work in the field
required.
There is a separate marketing program that is training for management. The course is for full time students over a year’s time.
Lunds University
A two-course sequence titled “The Rhetoric of Advertising in the
Modern Media” I and II is offered. These courses are affiliated with the
Communication area. Open to students with some background in business
or communication skills.
Luleas University
This is the only program that requires an internship. A course in creative advertising is scheduled only every two years. A basic marketing
course is suggested for preparation, but it is not required. .
Berghs School of Communication
This is the closest thing to what students majoring in advertising in
the U.S. would study. Berghs is a private school that enrolls 5000 students
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each year. This number includes the professional students. Overall, there
are 200 students who study full-time during any given year. Berghs also offers short-term studies such as online, executive training courses.
There are four main areas of study at Berghs: advertising, public relations, media, and design. There are opportunities for students to work
across the individual area of studies. At the beginning of each term, students from all disciplines, all working toward solving an advertising problem for a client. This one-week seminar is repeated after two more months
of regular classwork. Berghs students work for many different types of
businesses.
Beyond the undergraduate or Bachelor Program, Berghs offers Professional Diploma Programs which include work in advertising, marketing
communication, strategy, and interactive. The emphasis is on real world
problems, businesses and solutions.
Berghs is well known in the profession. The School itself claims that
70 percent of those working in the advertising field did some study at
Berghs.
Bechmans College of Design
This program began teaching advertising in 1939. It is a three-year
program that offers practical and theoretical instruction. In order to be admitted, prospective students must present a collection of their work. Bechmans is the closest to what would be termed a portfolio school in the U.S.
Vrkeshögskolan Göteburg
This program has courses titled Advertising and Project Management
and Advertising and form/text which concentrates on message and presentation. Students just have basic qualifications for university studies, with special competence in both English (B-level) and Swedish (B´level).
Denmark
Aarhus School of Business
Both undergraduate (Bachelor’s) study and graduate study are offered. Although none of the undergraduate courses have the title of “advertising,” the course descriptions show that the program is about corporate
communication and marketing communication.
The graduate program is more focused on advertising in some of its
course offerings. International marketing, marketing communication, customer relations relationships, international business communication are all
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areas of study. In the Master’s and MBA courses, such as “Advertising: industry organizations,” “Internet Marketing and Advertising,” and “Advertising/Promotion” appear in listed courses for Aarhus. Courses are taught in
both English and Danish.
Danish School of Journalism
This school stresses Branding and Broadcast, Print and Ambient.
Students must have completed at least one year in a B.A. advertising program and must know the principles of advertising and graphic communication. A portfolio must be presented as part of the application process.
Finland
Turku School of Economics
There is no real sign that advertising is taught. It is mentioned, along
with other topics such as marketing communication, corporate images,
brands, and customer orientation.
Helsinki School of Economics
At the master’s degree level there is an introduction to marketing and
a consumer behavior course. This school, as the one at Turku, offers marketing courses, but no actual advertising emphasis at all.
There are no schools of communication in Finland that offer any
type of advertising course.
Norway
Trondheim Business School
(a part of Sør-Trøndelag University College)
There is an emphasis on consumer research, segmentation attitude
formation and change, and some related areas, but no courses that specifically deal with advertising. One course in marketing includes central concepts of marketing, segmentation and communication. Aside from these areas, the course presents basic marketing subjects.
Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration
Housed in a department of strategy and management, there are several courses that focus on advertising. Examples would be: Advertising and
Marketing Communication, Brand Management, Consumer Behavior.
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Merkantilt Institute
This program concentrates on advertising and brand communication.
It requires a satisfactory school record, a letter of motivation, a score of 500
points minimum on a Norwegian test similar to an ACT or GRE. This appears to be a practical course for those who want to pursue advertising as a
career choice.
Assessment of Nordic Programs
Taken as a whole, universities in the Nordic countries do not offer an
emphasis on advertising. Those who want to go into the field would have a
narrow choice for career preparation. However, few as they are, the courses
do offer a beginning to the field. Actual work in the advertising business is
likely to be a far more inclusive preparation. The field of advertising as an
academic standard to not recognized in the Nordic universities. However,
the importance of advertising and promotion is seen in the actual workplace.
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The History of Education in
Advertising in the United Kingdom
Patrick Mills
Institute of Practitioners in Advertising
Jonathan Taylor
London Metropolitan University
Introduction
At the time of writing the economy in the UK is not in the best of
health, the imminent and promised recovery put on hold. The last few
years have been very tough and agencies in the UK have found their budgets
squeezed and revenues reduced. No doubt a familiar story around the
world.
This has had an inevitable knock on effect on learning and development, mostly in reining back the budgets allocated to it. However, it is
pleasing to note that the commitment to learning and development is at an
all time high amongst UK advertising agencies.
The IPA (The Institute of Practitioners in Advertising) make participation in their Continuous Professional Development (CPD) program
mandatory, over 80% of practitioners (15,054) in all IPA member agencies
participate with the average number of hours learning per head per annum
being 31 (the recommended minimum is 24.
And evidence from the 2011 CPD submissions from IPA member
agencies shows that the increase in pressure on the bottom line and employee’s time goes hand in hand with an increase in the innovation in training
programs and the ingenious methods employed to make sure agencies keep
ahead of the competition through the education of their staff. So the good
news is that despite economic gloom, learning and development has never
been healthier.
How Advertising Education Developed in the UK
Key Milestones:
Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM) Founded
Incorporated Practitioners in Advertising Founded
310
1911
1917
First IM examinations
Communications and Marketing Foundation Founded
1st Marketing Postgraduate Degree (Lancaster)
1st Marketing Undergraduate Degree (Strathclyde)
50th University to offer Marketing degree
CIM Royal Charter granted
100th University to offer Marketing Degree
IPA introduce first Qualification exam
1928
1970
1971
1972
1992
1998
2003
2004
Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM)
It started with E. S. Daniells, who was the first President of the Incorporated Sales Managers Association (ISMA),
met with 11 other senior managers including
Pierce Wyatt and decided that their profession
need professional representation. The meeting
took place at the Inns of Court Hotel in London, on 16th May, 1911, when these experienced
and senior managers shared a common goal to
improve sales techniques and bring greater professionalism to their chosen careers. ISMA, the
precursor of CIM, was formed.
Over time ISMA grew both in terms of
members and the services offered. It first began
E. S. Daniells
to offer examinations in the late 1920’s, at about
the same time it changed its name to the Institute of Marketing and Sales Management (IMSM). With the company
growing, more employees were needed to emphasize the company’s image.
Formal education was first provided in 1928, when Certificate examinations
were held. Examinations are now taken in 146 countries worldwide, and as
many as 118,000 professionals now hold the organization’s qualification.
As of 1931, the Institute’s magazine was renamed Marketing to reflect
its focus on one of the most important of the business social sciences. It’s
scope was widened to produce “a well balanced journal, interesting and authoritative, worthy in every way to represent the Association.”
In 1934 a new 3-year education syllabus was introduced, to reflect
the new practices being undertaken within the industry. It had two levels of
exam: intermediate and final.
To help the war effort, in 1940 the ISMA introduced the first ever
correspondence courses for serving soldiers and by the end of the war, over
6,000 men and women had participated across 82 prisoner of war camps.
In 1961, the Institute’s exams were revised and renamed the “Diplo-
311
ma in Marketing,” and successful candidates were allowed to use the letters
DipM after their name. Then in 1965, the College of Marketing was
founded, giving the organization a permanent residential base for its education programmes.
The year 1968 was notable, as the name changed again, to the Institute of Marketing, which was granted Chartered status in 1989 and has
been known ever since as the Chartered Institute of Marketing.
In 1992, the European Union recognized the CIM Diploma as the
gold standard for Marketing, as a qualification across all the member nations. And 1993 saw launch of the first Continuous Professional Development (CPD) programme, adding post-graduate qualifications in 1996.
The CIM continues to develop overseas links and associations with
other Marketing bodies across the world. In 2008 it completely relaunched
its qualifications programmes and website, and included for the first time a
range of digital modules.
The CAM Foundation
The Communications Advertising and Marketing Education Foundation (CAM) is a not-for-profit organization. It began around 1970, with
a mission to help advance the training of professionals in marketing communications. CAM joined forces with CIM in 2000, such that all qualifications awarded by CAM now are funneled through and presented by CIM.
Courses involve both CIM and CAM classes.
CAM classes currently include: Mobile, Digital Marketing, Metrics
& Analytics, and Media & Branding. The aim is for professionals to be
able to attain a Diploma in Marketing Communications, or one of the other diplomas or certificates offered by CIM, even up to a graduate education.
Degree Courses at Universities
The first universities in the UK to establish any form of Marketing
study at a degree level that included some modules on Advertising were the
University of Strathclyde and University of Lancaster.
Lancaster was the first into the UK market when it introduced a Post
graduate degree in 1971 under the leadership of Professor Michael Thomas,
who had established the Marketing department and led it for its first 10
years. In Glasgow, Michael J. Baker was the first Professor of the Strathclyde Marketing Department, and that school was the first to introduce an
Undergraduate degree programme within its Business School. Professor
Baker built up a very strong department and by 1979, he led a team of over
50 academics.
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These two universities led the way in terms of Marketing degree education for a number of years, before other universities such as Warwick,
Bath, City (London), Durham, and Manchester introduced a Marketing
option to their business degree programmes. The number of Marketing degree options continued to grow rapidly throughout the 1990’s and 2000’s,
and as of 2009 there were 114 universities offering some form of Marketing
degree at Undergraduate level.
Specific degree titles called “Advertising” were developed much later,
with Bournemouth University being the first to develop a degree with this
title in 1998, and even in 2012 there were only 9 degrees offered specifically
called Advertising at the Undergraduate level across the UK. If you include
all options that include the term Advertising, such as London Metropolitan’s Advertising and Marketing Communications degree, the total offered
rises to 28. The most recent development has been the development of
Digital Advertising modules within these degrees, and the first Digital Advertising degrees were expected to be introduced to the UK in the next year.
The Background to Industry Training
The last few years has seen a proliferation of media opportunities on
an unprecedented scale. This has made for a complex and difficult to navigate professional landscape for advertising practitioners. However, the industry is used to change and the last 50 years has seen remarkable innovations in the ways in which brands can communicate with their audiences.
This has had a tremendous impact on the way in which agencies go about
learning and development (L&D), and the importance of effective L&D is
more critical than ever before.
50 years ago agencies had larger numbers of staff on their books and
much of the training was given by senior practitioners, imparting their wisdom to the junior members of the agency (we are seeing a significant return
to this method at the moment, though formalized through mentoring and
coaching). In the 1970’s the industry sought to provide more formal standards and the theory based Certificate in Advertising and Marketing (CAM)
was developed with help from the IPA and ISBA. This remained as the industry standard until the late 70’s when experiential training, pioneered by
the IPA.
It is interesting to note at this point that much of the early years in
the world of training in the advertising industry is dominated by initiatives
from the IPA and D&AD. It is hardly surprising when one considers that
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IPA member agencies are responsible for over 85% of all advertising spend
in the UK.
Charles Channon, a planner and the father of the IPA Effectiveness
Awards, was appointed as the first IPA Director of Studies. He was responsible for launching the course that has now become a rite of passage for
young account handlers and planners: IPA Stage 2, Campaign Planning.
In its heyday around 120 people attended this course annually. The
aim of the course was (and is) to take a young account handler or planner
and put them into a pitch situation, help them gain confidence in their own
ideas and thinking and work as an effective team with people they may have
never met together. Delegates leave the course with a
real sense of achievement and empowerment and it remains one of the pillars of IPA training today.
Charles Channon (left) was the architect of the
famous IPA 7 stages program, which could effectively
take an individual from graduate trainee to the board
(even Managing Director) in seven years. Most have
taken the program at a marginally more leisurely pace (though the speed in
which high achievers can rise through the ranks in advertising can be dramatic).
We are very lucky in the UK (possibly unique), in that agency people
are prepared to collaborate in developing and delivering programs for the
industry as a whole, not just their own companies. This remains a USP of
IPA courses and qualifications.
The opportunity to meet people from other agencies, with different
perspectives is one of the most valuable aspects of IPA training, which
cannot be replicated by in-house
training, no matter how good it is.
The continuing commitment to these methods despite the squeeze on
time and budgets will continue to
help the IPA stand out.
D&AD, founded in 1962, also
has contributed enormously to the
heritage and culture of learning and
development in the advertising industry. Its Workout Program is now
the benchmark training program for
creatives (shorthand for creative people in advertising agencies).
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In more recent times other trade associations and third parties have
supplemented the IPA and D&AD offerings, filling in the specialist gaps
like direct marketing, digital, sales promotion, PR and marketing. We will
discuss these organizations in greater detail later on in the chapter.
Most agencies, despite being small to medium enterprises (SMEs
with less than 250 employees), employ a specialist training manager who
works alongside human resources. And the industry has now widely adopted Continuous Professional Development – training is of huge concern at
board level (the IPA Chief Executive Survey reports annually that IPA training is the most important offer from the Institute), and the competitive advantage of training in new business pitches, as well as the benefits to talent
attraction and retention is well documented.
The Characteristics of Agency Practitioners
People in advertising come from a wide variety of education backgrounds, and it is usual for new graduate entrants to have no previous training or directly relevant degree in the discipline of advertising. This is
changing with the proliferation of marketing and communications degrees
being offered, however agencies still err on the side of those without the direct relevant experience.
The industry thrives on strong teamwork, both to manage projects
requiring a broad range of skills but also to come up with lateral problemsolving ideas. Teams that can approach problems from different perspectives
tend to be more productive. The IPA has developed a test to help agency
recruiters understand the lateral and logical thinking traits of their prospective employees, Diagonal Thinking (www.diagonalthinking.co.uk).
As I mentioned above, agencies tend to employ from a graduate pool
without specific experience, using personality traits as a guide to their future
success. The agencies believe that the knowledge can be provided through
training programs and professional development.
Agency practitioners tend to have the following characterisitics:
•
•
•
•
Good communicators
Excellent problem solvers
Team builders
Good time management skills
315
In addition, they tend to have passion, curiosity, tenacity and integrity.
They need to understand that creativity and commerce can go hand in hand
and work effectively together.
Why? Here are a few examples that explain why these characteristics
are vitally important:
1.
Good communicators are required as agency staff interact with all sorts of
different people on any one day, being able to communicate effectively
makes it much easier to get the job done.
2.
Advertising strategies always start with identifying a client’s business
problem and then finding solutions to solve that problem. Traditional
communications solutions may not always be the right answer so agency
staff will need to be lateral thinkers to identify the most effective solutions and advise their clients as well.
3.
Every project requires agency practitioners to work with a wide range of
people from suppliers (photographers, studios, printers) to partners (web
site developers, media agencies, data specialists etc), as well as their clients
and internal agency staff, so the ability to build a good team is vital.
4.
Most people in agencies work on more than one piece of client business
at a time, which means that almost inevitably they’ll be doing two things
at once. The ability to manage ones time effectively and pay attention to
the detail are critical to the success of a project.
5.
Communication of strategies and ideas is key to the job, and a passion for
the job and the ideas being sold will help dramatically.
6.
While being a creative business, it isn’t art for arts sake. The industry uses creativity as a powerful business tool to solve problems, make brands
famous, sell more product and overall contribute to the financial success
of the agency’s clients.
7.
The best advertising solutions often come out of agencies with strong client relationships, these are built on trust and respect. That’s why so
many people in the industry enjoy getting on with each other (and having fun doing it).
The Industry Approach Today
The advertising industry has changed dramatically in the last five
years, there are more media channels and more agencies vying for the client
budgets, all claiming their specialism is the one that will solve all the client’s
problems. How does an account handler or planner negotiate through this
morass of media and help their clients come up with the right solutions?
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Consider the types of agency in the UK at the moment (with some
examples):
•
Creative (JWT, Ogilvy, Leo Burnett, Beattie McGuiness Bungay, Mother,
BBH, Weiden and Kennedy, Fallon)
•
Media (Starcom MediaVest, Mediacom, Maxus, Mindshare, Zenith, MEC)
•
Digital Creative (Dare, Glue)
•
Digital Media (Unique Digital, Agenda 21)
•
Marketing & Technology Agencies (LBi, Sapient Nitro, Syzygy)
•
Search (iCrossing, Trade Doubler)
•
Direct Marketing (RAPP, Partners Andrews Aldridge)
•
CRM agencies/email marketing (CMW)
•
Experiential (Lime, Arc)
•
Integrated (most traditional creative agencies now recognise that they have to
have an integrated approach)
•
Brand consultants
•
Broadcast agencies (TwoFour, Endemol)
•
Web site developers
•
Data suppliers and managers
•
Database businesses
•
Recruitment agencies
•
Healthcare agencies (Wooley Pau, VCCP Health)
•
Business to business agencies
•
PR consultants (Brunswick,)
The list is extensive, consider for a moment the range of job types, in
terms of level of seniority, specialism, discipline and agency type. This presents the industry with a significant issue for training and development,
which will explain the massive proliferation of suppliers in recent years.
Add to this the effects of the recent recession which has depleted
agency staffing numbers, meaning employees are time-starved. This has led
to a sharp decline in demand for residential courses, but an increase in one
and half day courses. Though as one senior FMCG Marketing Director
stated, short courses are no longer half days, they are one hour or less. The
net result of this is that many residential courses are split into shorter mod-
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ules, which are no less effective in imparting knowledge to the delegates, but
lack the networking that longer experiential residential courses offer.
Recent IPA research, however, suggested that agencies no longer have
time to be out of the office for three or more days, and that their preferred
mode of education was through shorter courses, online qualifications,
online resource and evening events.
The following section deals with offerings of some of the key suppliers in today’s industry. We start with IPA (Institute of Practitioners in Advertising), who are responsible for professional development of some 270
agencies representing approximately 85% of advertising spend in the UK.
The IPA is the UK trade body for advertising, media, and marketing
communications agencies. The role of the IPA is to serve, promote and anticipate the collective interests of member agencies. In particular to define,
develop and help maintain the highest standards of professional practice.
The key goal is to raise standards of professionalism, improve client / agency
working relationships and thus improve agency profitability.
The aim of the learning and development provided by the institute is
therefore focused on this target. As such the IPA has determined that training should be build around the essence that binds all agencies together, best
described in Figure 22-1.
Account planning,
Media planning,
Digital planning
Think
Client service
Media buying
Data planners
Create
Do
Project managers
Traffic managers
Creatives: art directors, copywriters, web designers, digital creatives
Creative
services
Figure 22-1: The Essence that Binds Agencies Together
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The learning is divided into 3 levels targeting junior staff, middle
tier and senior levels, and at each level the IPA aim to provide education in
People and Management, Business and brands, commercial skills, and creative inspiration. These are delivered through IPA qualifications, residential
courses, One day Accelerator courses, half day Energizer courses, web based
video content, approved practitioner reading listings and IPA events.
Examples of courses would include Campaign Planning (a five day
residential course targeting the Foundation level, spanning the leadership
and business and brands columns), Understanding Client Business (run as a
one day accelerator and a three day course at the IPA), and TV Production
Knowledge (a ten week course of evening seminars, with a residential weekend and an exam at the end).
D&AD is an educational charity and its mission is to promote creative excellence through the global awards (which are the most coveted creative awards worldwide). It works to nurture, inspire, and give practical assistance to the next creative generation, feeding the industry with the best talent and it aims to build understanding of the contribution of creativity, ideas and innovation to business success.
In 2001 D&AD launched Workout (Figure 22-2), the first continuous professional development program specifically for creatives. For the full
story, the best place to find out more is at http://workout.dandad.org/. In
brief, the workout Program is made up of 27 workshops designed for people
in and around the creative industries. They are unusual, uncommon, occasionally unnerving professional development sessions. The courses cover
Craft Skills, Survival Skills, Super Powers, Mastercraft Sessions and The
Wider Workout.
Figure 22-2: The D&AD Workout program
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The Institute of Direct Marketing (IDM) is Europe’s leading body
for the professional development of direct, data, and digital marketing. It
was founded in 1987. It is an educational trust and registered charity. The
late Derek Holder, then Managing Director of the IDM states, “The IDM
has a worldwide reputation for the quality of its training and qualifications
programs. Our services – for individual marketers and corporations – are in
demand worldwide as more and more businesses seek best practice accountable marketing.”
The IDM has trained more than 45,000 marketers on open courses,
and more than 10,000 through in-company programs across 28 countries.
It has tutored more than 8,000 through professional qualifications.
As an organization it advocates lifelong learning, and as such the
IDM maintains an up to date training and education portfolio designed to
meet the needs of marketing practitioners throughout their careers – at every stage from college student to senior marketer.
Like the IPA the IDM’s curriculum is delivered by leading practitioners, with the network drawn from today’s marketing community. IDM
marketing training covers direct, data, and digital (internet) marketing. It
seeks to assure that the training is relevant, applied and consistent with
modern marketing. The marketing training portfolio includes introductory
and foundation training courses for those who are new to marketing, as well
as more advanced and in-depth training courses for experienced marketers
who seek to broaden their knowledge or extend their capability.
The MAA (Marketing Agencies Association) also offers a full program for agencies, under the guidance of Suzanne Barnes, the MAA offers
the People First initiative which aims to engage, develop and inspire agency
people of all disciplines. The MAA offers a full training program to support
the initiative which includes MAA Excellence Training Courses for career
development, one day clinics that focus on workplace issues, and
bitesize/free training, which are practical two hours sessions.
The Account Planning Group (APG, website www.apg.org.uk) specializes in providing world class training to foster excellent strategic thinking
across the advertising industry. It is a not for profit organization run by and
for its membership whose aim is to promote the role of excellent strategic
thinking and planning in generating profit, and aims to further improve the
quality of talent attracted to the planning discipline. As well as training opportunities the APG has a comprehensive collection of strategic case studies
through the biennial APG Creative Planning Awards.
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Practitioners are offered courses, amongst others, in qualitative research and moderating, The Creative Brief – Writing and Briefing, Leading
and Influencing Strategy, Integrated Communications Planning, Inspirational Brainstorming and Cross-media Evaluation.
IAB (Interactive Advertising Bureau) runs regular courses for beginners in the world of digital, through to those with experience. Courses include Digital Brand Building, Project Management, Metrics and Optimization and Digital Strategy.
NABS (the support organization for the communications industry)
runs a course called Fast Forward, a practical course in developing “Integrated Communications.” It brings together the hottest young talent from
across the industry to learn from some of its most respected figures. Over
the course of 8 weekly
sessions, delegates will
hear from leading exponents of the communications craft and,
in mini-agency teams,
be challenged to apply what they have
learned to a live client
brief culminating in an
integrated 'pitch' to a
panel of senior figures.
Fast Forward is
Jeremy Bullmore and Sir John Hegarty
designed to fast track
contributors to NABS Fast Forward
the skills of the industry’s best young people beyond their existing discipline to the benefit of
them, their agencies and the industry as a whole. Other organizations offering highly regarded training programs include the Chartered Institute of
Marketing, the Chartered Institute of PR and The Institute of Promotional
Marketing.
Industry Professional Qualifications
Industry qualifications were introduced after calls from senior executives to professionalize the industry. In an increasingly competitive sector,
agencies needed to add weight to their commercial discussions with the evidence that their staff had superior training and qualifications to their competitors.
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Members of the IPA repeatedly cite that the qualifications available
through membership give them a competitive advantage in pitches, enable
them to charge higher fees and therefore become more profitable. Clearly
the clients value fully qualified teams working on their business. In addition, the provision of qualifications has enabled the advertising industry to
compete actively with other, historically better paid professions like
law and accountancy in terms of
attracting and retaining the best
talent.
In 2003, Stephen Woodford
(CEO, DDB London) the then
President of the IPA saw the need
to introduce qualifications to advertising agencies, the process started
with the Foundation Certificate
which saw its first cohort take the
exam in 2004. Since then the IPA
Stephen Woodford, DDB London
have added The Advanced Certificate, The Excellence Diploma and LegRegs (a mandatory qualification for
account directors in agencies that generate creative content, dealing with the
legal and regulations surrounding the production of ideas).
According to Stephen Woodford, DDB London:
The IPA qualifications meet a clear desire from our young talent to learn more
quickly and gain broader expertise, demonstrated by the fact that over 22% of
individuals in IPA member agencies have taken one or more of the exams,
adding value to our agencies and their clients.
In May 2010 the IPA launched a specialist qualification for the fastest
growing sector of its membership: Search. The Search Certificate targets
those new to the industry and provides them with a solid grounding in
Search Engine Optimisation and Pay Per Click Search. So far it is the only
true independent qualification with collaboration from Google, Yahoo and
Bing. It was written by Reform Digital and produced by e-learning specialist, Willow DNA.
In September 2010 the IPA launched a new qualification for junior
planners called the Eff Test. Its aim is to provide them with a grounding in
evaluation techniques and how to measure the effectiveness of the campaigns they produce for their clients. It is a product of the Value of Advertising Group and is being written by Les Binet (DDB London), Lucas
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Brown (Total Media) and Lorna Hawtin (TBWA Manchester) with additional content and overall editing by Peter Field (independent marketing
consultant).
And in Autumn 2012 the IPA launched a new qualification in understanding agencies and client finances, and developing commercial relationships, it is written by members of the IPA Finance Policy Group. In addition, the IPA has successfully exported the Foundation certificate to 30
countires across Europe in partnership with the EACA (European Association of Communication Agencies).
The delegate feedback from IPA qualifications is extremely positive,
as shown below:
“The IPA Foundation Certificate has proved extremely useful. Its content is
thoroughly applicable to my everyday work and has given me a grater insight
into the theory and processes of the wider media industry. Completing the exam has fostered my enthusiasm to build upon my existing knowledge through
further qualifications”, Clare Conway JWT.
The IPA Advanced certificate was challenging, insightful and enjoyable. It allowed me to explore the industry in much greater depth and apply new learnings in an environment that has helped me to develop my knowledge in the
media industry”. Tommy Wong PHD Media.
The IDM is also committed to providing a wide range of qualifications for the direct and digital industries, having tutored over 8,000 people
through its professional qualifications. The portfolio of marketing qualifications is recognized worldwide. Each qualification gives a comprehensive
grounding in the important concepts, techniques and practices. Every syllabus is underpinned with the principles that will make your marketing
measurable, accountable and more effective. Certificates are offered in
Email marketing, digital marketing, Business to Business marketing and Direct & Digital Marketing. Diplomas are offered in Digital Marketing and
Direct & Digital marketing.
The Chartered Institute of Marketing offer marketing professionals
professional qualifications accepted by 95 per cent of UK employers as they
are the only ones mapped to the new Government Occupational Standards
in Marketing. Some examples include the Introductory Certificate in Marketing Professional Certificate in Marketing Professional Diploma in Marketing Chartered Postgraduate Diploma in Marketing Diploma in Digital
Marketing Diploma in Managing Digital Media CAM Diploma in Marketing Communications .
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Continuous Professional Development
The Institute of Practitioners in Advertising (IPA)
In 2000, at the request of its members, the IPA introduced a people
accreditation standard, based on the key elements of the Government’s service industry’s Investor in People (IiP) standard. The impetus lay in the
recognized need to raise and maintain the minimum standard of people development amongst IPA member agencies in order to attract top graduate
talent, retain staff and to provide clients with the most effective service.
Since 2008 it has been a mandatory requirement for all IPA member
agencies and every year they must provide evidence in a CPD submission
that they have a training plan based on their key
business objectives, thus linking training to bottom line performance.
In addition all new members of staff must
go through a comprehensive induction program,
all staff must have at least one appraisal each year
that reviews training needs, every member of staff
must evidence learning through a CPD Diary, in
which they have to record a minimum of 24
hours training per annum. Agencies that produce
creative content have to ensure that anyone who
is seeking promotion to Account Director should
Leslie Butterfield
Principle architect
have passed LegRegs.
of IPA CPD
Since 2008 the IPA has awarded Gold
Standards of accreditation for excellence in CPD,
this reflects innovation in developing staff and successful outcomes. In the
first year 11 agencies achieved the standard and in 2011 29 agencies
achieved the standard.
There is significant support for the Continuous Professional Development program. Debbie Morrison, Director of Membership Services,
ISBA, states:
Many service sectors have Continuous Professional Development and it is fantastic that the IPA have pioneered CPD within their agency membership. Clients want the best talent working on their business and to be sure that the
people they employ look after and build their brands are continuously refreshing their skills. The world of communications is moving so fast that everyone
working in the sector needs to constantly ensure that they are up to speed with
the latest tools, techniques and thinking, the IPA’s CPD programme should
deliver this knowledge to all who participate.
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Peter Buchanan, Deputy Chief Executive, Central Office of Information,
adds:
Anything that improves the professionalism of agencies is good for their clients, both marketing and procurement, and I see the IPA CPD as an excellent
programme of its type.
Figure 22-4: An example page from the IPA CPDzone
And Simon Perryn, Chief Executive, Chartered Institute of Purchasing and
Supply, remarks:
CIPS recognize the IPAs CPD programme as a big step forward in terms of
the professionalism of agencies and their staff. Client companies invest significant sums on advertising and marketing communications, and with the impact
that this has on brand assets and valuations, it is essential to know that the
people responsible for spending this money are properly trained.
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Of course, the IPA is not the only body that provides its members with
Continuous Professional Development.
The Institute of Direct Marketing (IDM)
The IDM Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Award
scheme is an important means of ongoing recognition and advancement for
marketing practitioners. CPD provides the systematic means to maintain,
improve and broaden knowledge, experience and skills.
Maintaining IDM CPD helps marketers acquire the personal qualities required throughout their professional life by supporting and recognising their ongoing professional advancement. It can increase the personal satisfaction they gain from their work and help improve the contribution they
make to the success of their organisation.
Professional, work based activities, self directed and informal learning, personal activities outside direct work responsibilities, formal training
and tuition are all good ways to accumulate new knowledge and skills in advancing a career, and it all counts towards CPD.
Chartered Institute of PR (CIPR)
The CIPR's Continuous Professional Development is a practical way
for CIPR members to increase their skills and knowledge. Continuous Professional Development (CPD) helps them to identify and plan their skills
and development needs. As a PR professional, commitment to CPD
demonstrates to others that they are continually updating their skills and
developing new expertise.
CPD points can be accumulated in many different ways, including
formal training and events, reading, pro bono work, study and mentoring
or advising others. All of these activities are eligible for CPD points and can
be recorded in the scheme. All CIPR members can join the CPD scheme
free of charge.
The Rapid Rise of Digital
This is perhaps the fastest growing area of training in the advertising
industry at the moment, agencies have seen the need to acquire skills urgently as vital to the success of their businesses. Entire agency groups have
invested in getting their staff up to speed on everything from online display
advertising, to website builds, to search, to mail marketing and social media.
The IDM has a wide selection of courses and qualifications for specialists in this sector, but one of the interesting trends is that everyone wants
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some knowledge: it is an area with significant skills gaps and severe staff
shortages, as the sector expands so quickly and clients become more interested in running campaigns using digital media.
The IPA offers a course on the basics of digital, with a follow up day
on project management of digital campaigns, and half days on social media
and search for beginners. Most training providers are now offering similar
services.
There also are many independent bodies and individuals offering
fabulous courses in understanding pretty much every area of the sector, examples include UTalk Marketing, Econsultancy and eMarketeers.
As well as courses, there are many qualifications including Google’s
introduction to search and, as noted above, the IPA Search Certificate. It is
extremely likely that more courses and qualifications will develop in this area in the future, though it is interesting to note that many digital agencies
are seeking the skills that traditional agencies have in terms of client service,
planning, processes and creativity.
This was borne out in the IPA research study conducted in 2009, and
was instrumental in defining the new IPA training strategy, “it is vital to
engage all member agencies and promote best practice, there are plenty of
specialist courses for digital agencies, but no one giving them the sort of
skills that will get them sitting at the top table in terms of client business
strategy. The IPA does this.” Nigel Gwilliam, IPA Digital Consultant.
A recent addition to the IPA curriculum is a two day course featuring
some of the most groundbreaking thinkers in the industry titled How technology is changing behavior (and what you can do about it), this is not a
course to determine how to do digital, more about identifying the behavioral trends and changes that have occurred, and continue to occur in our digital society.
Support services for agency training managers
As the industry falls back on its own resources in times of recession,
so the beleaguered training personnel need support in producing training
program in house that maintain the quality set out by the IPA, IDM,
D&AD, etc. Therefore, many of the providers of training programs also
give best practice advice. For example, the IPA have recently published a
best practice guide for CPD and training managers to enable them to create
and run the best possible continuous professional development program,
including advice on inductions, appraisals, training for internal trainers, get-
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ting CPD accreditation and on how to achieve the Gold Standard. The
guide is available online though www.ipa.co.uk and was written by Gwyn
March of March On Training, in conjunction with Jill Fear of the IPA, Sarah Baumann of Leo Burnett and Howard Nead of PHD Media.
In 2010 the IPA launched a short online module on measuring the
effectiveness of training to enable agencies, to prove the impact of their
CPD programmes on business performance, a key metric in attaining CPD
Gold Standard.
Alongside this the IPA has developed a search engine of member recommended trainers, so that training managers can quickly and easily find
trainers recommended by their peers across a wide variety of subjects. And,
as is common amongst trade associations the IPA has a Training Forum, a
self help group for training managers which meets once every six weeks,
with an industry speaker and then key topics for debate. Recently the forum has produced guides on free or nearly free training in the UK, training
senior management, best practice in using Myers Briggs, and advice in running digital training programs.
What is so exciting at the moment is the sheer volume of content
available online, with valuable training modules and video content being
widely available. The talks on TED.com are widely consumed, while information from the Internet Advertising Bureau, The Advertising Standards
Authority, Clearcast, www.creativeskillset.org, to name but a few are invaluable in enriching in house training.
And What About the Next Generation?
We have learnt about the importance of maintaining education in
our industry, but how do we ensure that there is a steady flow of talented,
curious, tenacious, passionate problem solvers and team builders? The industry has been extremely lucky in having no shortage of applicants, but as
the industry changes and the types of jobs in the industry evolves it is clear
that the industry needs to safeguard its future.
Luckily the UK Government has invested in the Creative Sector as
one of huge potential in the future, both in terms of economic growth for
the UK but also as an employer. As such it has invested in providing young
people with a pathway into creative businesses.
Creative and Cultural Skills, a sector skills council responsible for the
music and design industries has produced a detailed site full of useful information about how to get into creative businesses. There is a significant
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section on the advertising industry, which provides some useful hints and
advice. A quick visit to www.creative-choices.co.uk shows just how much
resource there is for students interested in getting a foothold in the creative
industries.
In addition Skillset, the sector skills council that is responsible for
Advertising, Broadcast, Digital Industries including gaming, and Publishing
has accredited 28 courses at UK universities in discrete areas deemed a priority by the sectors involved with the scheme. At the moment these include
Screenwriting, Computer Games and Animation. Advertising and marketing communications courses are sure to be added once the best courses have
been evaluated. These will all fall under the title of Skillset Media Academies. More information can be gleaned at www.skillset.org
Under the leadership of IPA President, Nicola Mendelsohn of Karmarama, and in partnership with Skillset and Creative Process the industry’s
first ever apprenticeship program was launched. The first apprentices will
start in agencies on 1st September studying the Apprenticeship in Creative
and Digital Media through Creative Process. In March 2012 the first advertising specific apprenticeship learning program for Level 4 (equivalent to
first year at University) students will go live, the National Occupational
Standards have been created by Creative skillset in conjunction with a panel
of industry experts drawn from agencies of all disciplines and size.
As the pace of change in digital technology gets faster and faster
Goodle, in partnership with Hyer Island and the IPA, pioneered a programme for graduates in their first year of employment. With aims to create a generation of digital experts in communications agencies, the first cohort finished the programme in May 2012, made up of individuals in leading media, creative and search agencies. They have described the programme as ‘game changing.’
D&AD operates a universities and colleges program which develops
relationships between them and the creative practitioners in the industry. It
ensures that students, graduates ad teaching staff develop close ties with
leaders in their fields and learn from the best in the business. The program
has been running for over 20 years.
The program has been designed to complement all higher education
courses involved in creative practice. It keeps course content ahead of the
game and relevant to current and future student and industry needs.
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The annual D&AD New
Blood Exhibition provides graduates with the opportunity to be seen
by the worlds leading agency practitioners. This and a huge amount of
additional resource for aspiring creatives
is
available
through
www.dandad.org/education.
The School of Communication Arts, founded by the late John
Gillard who educated such creative
John Gillard (centre), founder of the
greats as Graham Fink, John HeSchool of Communication Arts
garty and Tiger Savage has recently
been re-launched as SCA2.0. A large part of the school’s program is dedicated to increasing the diversity of potential entrants into the advertising
industry. School of Communication Arts (SCA) accepts 50 students a year
into an 18-month creative apprenticeship. 12-months of this is spent in
SCA’s studio, followed by 6 months of placements.
The IPA has a comprehensive advice section for aspiring advertising
executives on its website www.ipa.co.uk, with information on applications
for graduate schemes the types of jobs available and advice on how to go
about applying. The IPA runs an annual Summer School for students aspiring to join the industry, which includes placement in agencies. During
their placements, the students will be given a full introduction to agency life
and the opportunity to work on real client business. They will also get to see
other agencies and meet industry experts through a series of special evening
seminars and social events.
Chris Whitson, Chairman, IPA Direct Marketing Futures Group and
Planning Partner at Stephens Francis Whitson, remarks:
The Summer School is now in its third year and we had a record number of
entries and the standard was the highest yet. The successful candidates should
be immensely proud of their achievements in securing their place. The school
is reliant on three things; the agencies who take a student, the speakers who
give up their evenings to run the evening classes and the IPA staff who make it
all happen.
To apply for a place on the Summer School, the students had to
complete the “Diagonal Thinking” self-assessment and answer the following
two questions:
1. What is effective communication?
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2. Is multi-tasking possible?
To help students understand whether or not they are right for the industry the IPA has developed a tool called Diagonal Thinking
(www.diagonalthinking.co.uk):
The free Diagonal Thinking Selfassessment is an online tool, designed to aid recruitment into the advertising
and communication industries. It tests the hypothesis that the most successful individuals working in the business are both Linear and Lateral Thinkers
– they think “diagonally.”
People who work in the industry want to do work that is creative, but
want it to have a practical impact too. Those who are successful all share the
special skill called Diagonal Thinking. Oscillating effortlessly between logical or rational thinking, and creative or lateral thinking, they are able to
analyze a company’s business and then make creative leaps based on their
findings.
Conclusion
As we struggle to break free from the shackles of recession it is pleasing to note how comprehensive the learning and development opportunities
are in the advertising industry. The fast pace of change in technologies,
media channels and communications opportunities mean we cannot stand
still in the sphere of learning and development. However, the education
providers in the UK advertising are well placed to keep up with (or even
stay ahead of) the changes.
The industry in the UK is creating world class education that is comprehensive, professional and fleet of foot. And it has proved that innovation
is often born out of adversity.
References
Account Planning Group
Chartered Institute of Marketing
Chartered Institute of PR
D&AD
Institute of Practitioners in Advertising
IPA Professional Development Research, November 2009
Institute of Direct Marketing
MCCA
The Practice of Advertising, edited by Adrian R. Mackay, chapter 22
331
Training for a career in advertising, Ann Murray Chatterton
Useful websites
www.diagonalthinking.co.uk
www.ipa.co.uk
www.creative-choices.co.uk
www.dandad.org
www.skillset.org
http://schoolcommunicationarts.com/
www.theidm.com
www.iabuk.net
www.theipm.org.uk
www.cipr.co.uk
www.cim.co.uk
www.apg.org.uk
www.mcca.org.uk
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Middle-East
Advertising Education In
Lebanon
Joseph Ajami
Notre Dame University, Lebanon
Lebanon: An Overview
Lebanon is a small country in the Middle East. It has common borders with Syria on the North, Israel on the South, and it sits on the eastern
shore of the Mediterranean. Lebanon has an area of 4,035 square miles
(four-fifth the size of Connecticut, the second smallest state in the United
States of America. No official census has been taken in the country since
1932, but its population is estimated at nearly four and a half million. Because of its diversified linguistic, religious, racial, and social groups, Lebanon is considered as a cosmopolitan and mosaic society. Arabic is the official language but almost every Lebanese is adept in at least one other language such as English, French, Armenian, and others.
Beirut, the capital, has been dubbed the commercial, cultural, and
political hub of the Middle East. Lebanon gained its independence from
France in 1943, and the Lebanese established a rather unique political system known as the Confessional system whereby various religious groups
share power. In its hey day, and before the 1975 Civil War, Lebanon was
known to many as “the Switzerland of the Middle East,” and the capital,
Beirut, was often referred to as the “Paris of the Middle East.”
Currently Lebanon enjoys considerable stability in spite of a series of
assassinations that claimed the lives of several political leaders, journalists, high-ranked army officers, and former war chieftains and militia leaders
since 2005. Other internal skirmishes and the one-month Israeli war on
Lebanon in 2006 also proved that complete stability is still a far-fetched
dream of many Lebanese.
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Higher Education in Lebanon
Due to its multi-cultural and multi-lingual nature, Lebanon has a
multitude of colleges, universities, and institutions that provide a variety of
educational programs in a variety of educational systems. Since the end of
the Civil War in 1989 (it began in 1975), the country has witnessed a remarkable increase in the number of higher institutions. The Lebanese Directory of Higher Education (retrieved 30 January, 2007) lists forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized. Others operate without any governmental licensing or are pending
governmental approval.
The top six universities are: The American University of
rut (AUB), the University of Saint Joseph (USJ), the Lebanese University,
the University of Balamand, the Lebanese American University (LAU) and
Notre Dame University. The AUB, LAU, and NDU are the top schools
that adopted the American system of education in Lebanon, and use English as the language of instruction. Several other universities of lesser quality
also
use
English
as
the
language
of
instruction.
Some universities in Lebanon offer doctoral programs in several areas,
while many others offer only under-graduate degrees in many disciplines.
The average time-span needed to graduate with a Bachelor's degree (known
in Lebanon as “license”) is between three and four years.
The United Nations assigned Lebanon an educational index of 0.871
in 2008. The index, determined by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and territiary gross enrollment ratio, ranked the
country 88th out of the 177 countries participating. (Human Development
Indicators Lebanon., Development Program, retrieved 11/17/2008)
Advertising in Lebanon
The history of advertising in Lebanon can be traced to 1935, when
ads were printed in specialized publications. According to Darouny (2006,
p. 35), some advertising agencies were operating in Lebanon in that year,
but they did not continue long in the business and their contributions to
the evolution of advertising is hardly traceable. One example is Levant
company, a sister agency to the French publication Le Commerce du Levant (Ibid). Other examples are al Nil (The Nile) and Gabriel Brenas Agency. The latter lasted from 1935 till 1939. Fouad Pharaon, owner of Publicitie Pharaon, stands out as the pioneer of advertising in Lebanon. Accord-
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ing to Darouni (Ibid), Pharaon's prominence is justified by his ability to
create proper advertising agencies, and to introduce as early as 1935, practices and regulations that proved invaluable to the advertising business. He
was one of the founders of the Lebanese Advertising Agencies' Association
(LAAA). In the early 1960s, Pharaon's picture occupied the front cover of
TIME magazine in recognition of his successful efforts in promoting Ford
cars in Lebanon.
Among other pioneer advertising people were Chafic Hadaya, who
used story-telling techniques in his ads. His famous campaign for Continental cash registers netted him and the advertising industry in Lebanon a
growing reputation. Hadaya entered a partnership with Fawaz Sultan in
1944 to form SNIP (Societe d'Impression et de Puiblicite.).
It was not until the 1960s, the golden age of the Lebanese economy,
that numerous advertising agencies sprung up, several of which have prospered and continue to operate successfully to this day. It was also during
the 1960s and 70s that international advertising agencies set their feet on
Lebanese soil by establishing their regional offices in Beirut, which enabled
them to enter the rest of the Middle Eastern and Arab countries. They, in
turn, were benefitting from a huge economic boom, thanks to a prosperous
oil industry.
Advertising Education in Lebanon
As early as the 1950s. Lebanese universities began to introduce specialized programs geared to serve the advertising business. In an interview
with Muhammad Chucair, the Head of the LAAA (first published in
L'Orient Le Jour, on August 27, 1987, and later appeared in the October
1994 issue of Arab Ad) the advertising sector was able to attract an impressive interest of large number of people.
Universities Making Significant Contributions
In the late 1960, the Lebanese University (LU) the country’s public
University, established the “Faculty of Information and Documentation,”
and Advertising & Public Relations was one of three sequences offered by
the new unit. The other sequences were “Archive & Documentation,” and
“Journalism.”
The establishment of the “Advertising” major, albeit in tandem with
“public relation,” coincided with the growth stage of the “Advertising”
business in the country, and the expansion of international advertising
agencies into the Arab world through the Lebanese gate. Unfortunately, for
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many years the “Advertising” sequence proved to be less attractive to potential students than the “Journalism” Concentration. Teachers of the “Advertising” sequence were brought in from the growing advertising industry.
Until this day, LU’s Faculty of Information and Documentation has not
been able to produce the solid and influential core or rather generation of
advertisers as had been anticipated or hoped.
The beginning of the civil war in Lebanon in April of 1975 clearly
slowed down both the advertising industry and the advertising education in
the country. Education, in general, was one of the early victims of the
country’s civil strife. Classes in schools, colleges, and universities were interrupted for most of the 1976 academic year. The Lebanese University itself, home of more than 60,000 students, was split into two units or
branches: one in the Christian section of Beirut and the other in the predominantly Muslim side.
The 1980s was the decade when numerous new colleges and Universities were given licenses to operate in the divided Country, a trend that
continued well into the 1990s, and even into the first ten years of the twenty- first Century. More on these nascent universities will come later in this
chapter.
The American University of Beirut, famously known as the AUB,
and the oldest educational institution in Lebanon (established in the late
1850s), has not had an advertising major in its storied history. It does have
what is described as an “Advertising and Marketing Communication Cluster” that includes four Marketing courses, two of which are required for the
marketing concentration. This cluster of courses falls under the Management and Marketing, and Entrepreneurship Track: The AUB offers a couple of “Journalism” courses as a part of its “Social Science” program.
University of Saint Joseph (USJ) is another academic institution with
a remarkable history. USJ was founded by the French when Lebanon was
under what was called the “French Mandate” in the country, following the
Sykes-Picot treaty which divided several Middle Eastern Countries among
the French and the British Colonialists.
USJ offers a degree in “Advertising and Sales” (publicite et vente) that
it is housed under the Faculty of Business, known as the “Institut de Gestion des Entreprises” (IGE). Students need nearly four years to finish the
B.A., and a year for the so called “Maitrise” in the field. The courses cover a
wide array of subjects that include: Communication, Art, Music, Graphic
Design, Photography, Psychology, Business, Statistics, Sales, Creativity,
General Culture, Law; E-Commerce, Human Resources, Marketing, Management, as well as Advertising.
336
The University of Balamand (UB) is another Top educational institution in Lebanon. It was founded by the Greek Orthodox religious Community in the country. The Department of Mass Communication is a part of
the Faculty of Art & Social Sciences. The Department offers a degree in
Mass Communication, and the list of courses required to finish the degree
includes only one “Advertising” course called “Media and Advertising.” A
total of 92 credits is required to obtain the degree.
Notre Dame University (NDU) is currently ranked number six
among Lebanese Colleges and Universities. The Department of Mass
Communication is the second largest single Department at NDU (second
only to the Department of Business Administration), and it offers three sequences. One of these is the Advertising and Marketing concentration,
with an enrollment of 370 students according to NDU’s official stabilities
of 2010 (Admission Office, NDU, July 2010). The two other sequences
are “Journalism,” and “Radio and Television.”
The Advertising and Marketing major is a rather unique combination
of three Marketing courses and six Advertising courses, in addition to core
courses from the Department of Mass Communication and a variety of
General Education requirements courses. The Department offers a B.A. in
Advertising.
Students must finish 102 credits towards their undergraduate degree
and 39 credits towards their M.A. in Media Studies/ Advertising. The latter
includes a 6- credit thesis. The M.A. program was officially licensed by the
Lebanese government on November 30, 2001, and it began operation in
Spring 2002. The official degree is called an M.A. in Media Studies with
three concentrations: Advertising, Electronic Media, and Journalism. The
university itself, which is owned and run by the Christian Maryamite Order, was established in the year 1987.
Until 2008, M.A. students in Advertising had the option to write a
thesis or take two courses instead, in addition to having to take both a written and oral comprehensive exams. The M.A. program includes courses in
Integrated Marketing Communication, Advertising & Marketing Management, Advanced Creativity, Advanced Media Planning, Advertising & Society, and other courses in Public Relations, Media Research Methods, and
Theories of Mass Communication.
The Undergraduate degree in Advertising and Marketing requires
students take the following Advertising & Marketing courses: Principles of
Advertising, Media Planning & Analysis, Creativity & Copywriting, Global
Advertising; Internship in Advertising, and senior Study in Advertising.
337
The three Marketing courses, offered by the Faculty of Business, are Fundamentals of Marketing, Consumer Behavior, and Promotional Strategy.
NDU graduates between sixty and seventy-five students every year
with a degree in Advertising and Marketing, and it serves as the pipeline for
several local and Arab Advertising agencies. NDU’S Advertising and Marketing students end up working in one of the following areas: Traffic Department, Research, Creative, Media Planning, Client Service, and other
advertising-related areas. Like several other Universities in Lebanon, the
majority of NDU’S Advertising & Marketing professors come from both
the Advertising industry and from American and French higher educational
institutions.
The American University of Science Technology (AUST) is barely
twenty years old, but has made a name for itself in various areas and concentrations. AUST’S School of Business and Economics offers a B.S. in
Marketing and Advertising. The degree is offered jointly with the Department of Communication Arts. The Marketing and Advertising program,
modeled to a large extent, after the NDU’S program, is designed to prepare
students for careers in both Advertising and Marketing domains.
According to its 2010 Catalogue, courses in the Marketing Department are oriented toward Creative problem-solving in marketing and advertising decision-making process. To graduate with a B.S. in Marketing and
Advertising, a student must complete, in addition to the general, liberal arts,
and business requirements, a minimum of 33 credits from a pool of Advertising and Marketing courses.
AUST’S School of Liberal Arts & Sciences also offers a B.A. in Advertising. This Communication Arts program offers degrees in Radio and
Television, Journalism, Public Relations, and Advertising. Students must
complete 106 Credit hours to earn a B.A. in those areas. Advertising students are prepared to become advertising copywriters, art directors, graphic
artists, media planners, account executives, market researchers, and business
managers (http://www.aust.edu.lb/).
American University of Technology (AUT) is another post-civil war
higher institution. Like several Lebanese Universities, it also adopted the
American system of education and it uses English as the language of instruction. Its Faculty of Business offers an Undergraduate programs in Marketing and Advertising, and graduate programs in both fields. The Marketing
and Advertising program requires students to finish a total of 99 credits.
All its “Advertising” courses are under the MKT (Marketing) reference titles. Sixty-seven credits constitute the “major” requirements.
338
AUT’S Masters of Science in Advertising requires students to take a
total of 39 credits, including a 6-credit Research Project in Advertising. All
the students must complete the Research Project. Their Core requirements
include courses in Creativity, Marketing, Research, Advertising Strategy,
Integrated Marketing Communication, Advanced Media Planning, & Marketing Management. The degree’s “major” requirements are Advertising
Design, Web Design & Programming, Multimedia Presentation, and Digital Studio Lab (http://www.aut.edu.academics.aspx).
The last of the significant colleges and Universities of Lebanon is
Université Saint–Esprit De Kaslik (USEK), another Church-affiliated University. USEK, which has four branches in various parts of Lebanon, offers
only Marketing courses in its B.A. in Business (Licence en Gestion) and its
Masters in Business and Enterprises. The Marketing courses in both Undergraduate and graduate programs are offered in English and in French in
this University that uses French as the dominant language of instruction. It
is useful to mention that USEK does offer a Ph.D Program in Business,
with Concentrations in Management and Finance.
Other Colleges and Institutions
As mentioned above, there is a total of nearly fifty higher education
institutions in Lebanon. Some of these Colleges and Universities have small
student populations, and some are no more second or third-tier institutions
that cater to the needs of those who were rejected by major Universities, as
well as the needs of local students in various branches or campuses throughout the Country. Some other vocational schools in the country also offer
two-year programs or trainings in the field of Advertising.
Lessons and Recommendations
As we have seen above, at least 40 accredited Colleges and Universities
operate in Lebanon. Advertising education is growing in this small Mediterranean Country, just like in many other countries in the world. This
surge in advertising interest is no fluke since it coincides with the economic,
cultural, political, and technological changes that are taking place in the
world today.
Advertising education has indeed become a tangible manifestation of
a truly globalized world. The new means of advertising are numerous and
are accessible. The emergence of online advertising especially on social networks has made advertising more fascinating to advertising agencies, advertisers, consumers, and academicians.
The basic question that has baffled researchers, academicians, and observes for many years remain unanswered: Where does advertising educa-
339
tion really belong? Is it in Schools and Department of Communication,
Journalism, and other Social Sciences, or is it in Faculties and Department
of Business and Marketing?
Lebanon proved to be no exception in this debate and the advertising
discipline is still teetering between Business and Communication schools.
In some instances the Advertising/ Marketing combination is housed in the
two corresponding faculties such as the courses at Notre Dame University.
Advertising, in some ways, is still seeking a “full” recognition as a true, independent major that can stand on its feet alone, so to speak.
Also noticeable is the fact that advertising education in Lebanon is
closely linked to advertising education in advanced countries, such as the
United States of America. The U.S. continues to serve as the most desirable
and, hence, most imitated model for advertising education. The technological and cultural changes that are taking place in the “developed” world are
being emulated in the developing world, known as “The Third World,”
which includes the country of Lebanon. Local regulations, influencers,
needs, and value systems are taken into concentration, however.
Another related point has to do with the extensive use of English in
teaching advertising Courses in Lebanon. The Public university of Lebanon
(LU), as well as some colleges that have been historically linked to The
French language and culture, are now using English in teaching advertising
Courses. Some might venture to say that this is another example of what is
known now as “Cultural imperialism.”
Finally, it is no coincidence that the increase in the role of advertising
in the economies of the Arab Countries – especially those in the Gulf region
– is also felt in the academic programs that offer advertising majors, where
we are witnessing a solid increase in the numbers of those seeking careers in
advertising and related areas. Lebanon’s advertising industry may have witnessed a remarkable slip in the amounts of money spent on advertising, especially, since 2005 (Assassination of Prime Minister Hariri & Other notables), and since the 2006 brief but destructive War between Israel and Hizbullah. But other Arab countries are in continuous demand for Lebanese
talents and skills in various fields, particularly in the field of advertising.
It should be interesting to mention how advertising education develops in the next few years in Lebanon knowing that the volatile and unpredictable political and economic situations are very fragile. For the time being, however, advertising education in Lebanon is both healthy and progressing, coupled with the fact that the Telecommunication and Advertising
Industries in the rich and expanding Gulf Countries continue to absorb
340
hundreds of Lebanese workers, managers, and creative people in this beautiful domain that we call Advertising.
References:
Books:
Boutros, Adel (2009) Al Shamel in Kadaya el Nashr wal Iilam (In Arabic.) (Comprehensive
In Publishing and Communication) Dar El Manahel, Beirut.
Darouny, kamal ((2006) Advertising and Marketing Communications in the Middle East.,
Notre dame University Press, Louazie.
Darouny, Kamal (1996) Advertising and Marketing Communications in Lebanon and the
Middle East. Infomarket Advertising Agency, Beirut.
Newspapers and Magazines:
Arab Ad, October 1994.
L’Orient Le Jour, August 27, 1987.
Directories:
The Lebanese Directory of Higher Education, 30 January 2007.
The United Nation’s Human development Indicators: Lebanon, 17 November, 2008.
Catalogues:
American University of Beirut, 2010
Notre Dame University, 2010
American University of science and Technology, 2010.
Al Balamand University, 2010.
University of saint Joseph, 2010.
American University of technology, 2010.
Lebanese American University, 2010.
Al Kaslik University (USEK) , 2010.
Personal Interviews:
Dr. George Kallas, Dean of Communication, The Lebanese University
Dr. Carol Kfoury, Dean, Faculty of Humanities, Notre Dame University
Dr. Ghadir Saade, the Lebanese University
Dr. Ali Kanso el Ghori, Professor of Communication, University of Texas, San Antonio
341
Advertising Education in Turkey
Yonca Aslanbay
Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey
Ozlem Hesapci-Sanaktekin
Bogazici University, Turkey
A Brief History of the Advertising Industry in Turkey
The invention of the printing press in 1450 was one of the major
forces that helped advertising rapidly prosper in Europe. But in the Ottoman Empire, from where Turkey inherited a past, texts had to wait for the
18th century to be printed, when Ibrahim Müteferrika set up the first printing house in 1726 (Gevgilili, 1983). Yet, it was hard to talk about advertising Ottoman products and services. It was not before the first Ottoman
newspapers Takvim-i Vekayi, Ceride-i Havadis, and Tercüman-ı Ahval,
founded in 1831, 1840, and 1860 respectively, contained classified ads and
certain official announcements (Koloğlu, 1998; Çakır, 1997). The first professional Ottoman advertising agency, İlancılık Kollektif Şirketi, was established not before 1909 (Nebioğlu, 1983).
With the establishment of the Republic in 1923, Turkey witnessed a
period of social and economic reforms through the adoption of a new constitution. Promoting a product or a service was not a simple activity during
those periods. Neither television existed at the time, nor there was a national radio network before 1927 that had started its broadcasts (Sandıkçı
and Ger, 2002).
İhap Hulusi Görey, who was a graphic artist, played a significant role
in the advertising history of Turkey (http://ilef.ankara.edu.tr; Uluengin,
2003). Görey worked also on posters for private foreign brands, such as
Kodak, Bayer, Pirelli and Ford (www.ihaphulusi.gen.tr). Such efforts by
advertisers were vital in the progression of Turkish advertising industry
(Nebioğlu, 1983). But in 1944, advertisers Eli Acıman, Vitali Hakko, and
Mario Began established the second Turkish advertising agency: Faal
Reklam Acentası (Çetinkaya, 1992).
In the 1960s, after a massive industrialization process, Turkey underwent a transformation in its economic, as well as in its cultural, environment (Sandıkçı and Ger, 2002). In 1964 Turkish Radio and Television
Establishment (TRT) was instituted, and in 1968 the broadcast media start-
342
ed to reach masses (Kocabaş and Elden50, 1997). Thereafter, with the increase of TV programs, consumption patterns, desires, expectations, and
life-styles of the Turkish citizens were greatly affected (Oktay, 1993).
Certain regulations and developments took place within the communication industry in the 1960s. Basın İlan Kurumu (Agency for Print Advertising) was
established in
1961, and a
number of advertising agencies were established. Radar, Ankara Reklam, İstanbul Reklam, Reklam
Moran, and Grafika were among the agencies that started operating during
the 1960s.
Turkey’s process of globalization started at the beginning of the
1980s, along with the liberalization reforms that dominated the agenda almost everywhere around the globe. Turkey’s economic structure has been
reformed in parallel with the integration process into the global market
economy (Esen, 2000). Right after, a series of governmental programs that
paved the way to capitalist economy were launched. With the adoption of
the principles of a market economy and westernization movement, social
life in Turkey rapidly changed and began integrating to the global consumer
culture (Toprak and Çarkoğlu, 2007).
Oker51 summarizes the development of advertising industry in Turkey:
The history of Turkish advertising is very exciting. Not so by the fact that
advertising itself is an exciting industry, but by the brisk progress it has
achieved in founding, building competency, interaction with its global milieu, self regulation and regenerating in a so short time scan not commonly
seen in other areas of Turkish development process. To put it short, Turkish
advertising matured in almost half the time it took American advertising to
become what it is. What makes this specially interesting is the incomparable
economic bases these two industries stand on.
The first Turkish agency was founded in 1909, just one year after the
proclamation of the Ikinci Mesrutiyet, which tried to solve certain personal
freedom issues and reinstate a parliamentary regime for the collapsing Ottoman Empire. Like their counterparts in American advertising, the Turkish
pioneers were mainly focused on selling space in newspapers, which flourished by the relative freedom of press conditions. We must mention that the
50
Müge ELDEN; Professor of Advertising and Promotion; the head of Advertising Department at Ege University.
51
Celil OKER; the instructor of “History of Advertising” course at İstanbul Bilgi University.
343
first attempts to increase the impact of ads visually came from journalists, not
unlike Benjamin Franklin.
The young Turkish Republic, with its nibble economic conditions, established a number of state owned institutions, banks, insurance companies, factories, mining enterprises which almost all delegated their creative advertising
to İhap Hulusi. Educated in graphic design in Germany, İhap Hulusi was
almost a one man agency. He wrote, art directed and illustrated countless
ads, at the same time shaping the modern visual outlook of Turkey.
After the WWII, Turkish modern advertising greeted its founder, Eli
Acıman. After his first attempt with some partners, Acıman went to the
United States in 1957, spent time in J. Walter Thompson to acquire the
know how, gist and culture of American advertising. He returned home to
found Man Ajans, rightfully known as the “school” of modern Turkish advertising. Countless managing and creative people worked in Man Ajans, later to establish their own agencies. Among Acıman’s first clients was the Koç
Group, the emerging leader of Turkish private sector enterprises. By the
1960s, behind walls of preventive customs tariffs, local capitalists had managed to produce various household items to be bought by the again emerging
middle class. This led to prolification of advertising agencies, which mostly
based their strategies on a “reason why” attitude, teaching masses of consumers to lead a modern life among numerous appliances, self care products, new
services. By 1975, Turkish advertising celebrated its own “creative revolution”. Ajans Ada, founded by veterans of Man Ajans, acquired a rightful fame
by creatively using the facilities of the Turkish language and the opportunities of TV commercials, then was a very recent development in Turkish media. Their followers jumped right in the path that they expended. In the second half of the 1980s, everything changed. Turgut Ozal gained power after
the elections following the coupe and introduced a extensively liberal economic program. Brand after brand piled on the Turkish market, selling to an
aspiring and psychologically hungry mass of consumers, “educated” by the
prolific and diversified new private TV channels. Just by the side of these
brands, came their agencies. Thus all kinds of international affiliations
emerged, bringing in the latest creative, strategy and business tactics practiced
globally. These days, with the ever increasing institutions on advertising education, struggling with the never ending regulation attempts of the state utilizing self regulation and most importantly fighting the effects of economic
crisis after economic crisis, Turkish advertising goes on with its exciting journey with unending hopes and self confidence.
The degree of development in communication channels in Turkey
has never been as dramatic as it was during the 1980s, and especially the
1990s. The press and broadcast media in the meantime continued to flourish (Bir52 and Ünüvar, 2000).
The advertising industry, not surprisingly, reacted to the rapid progress in the communication industry. As multinational companies entered
52
Ali Atıf BİR is Professor of Communication and the head of Advertising Department at
Bahçeşehir University.
344
the market, many products that were foreign to Turkish citizens became
more usual (Sandıkçı and Ger, 2002). As a result of opening up the market
to global brands, advertising industry has developed very rapidly (Aksoy53,
2005). Foreign brands, as well as domestic ones turned out to be advertisers
in this new market economy. Consequently, new advertising agencies were
established, such as Cenajans/Grey, Manajans/Thompson, Pars/McCannErickson, Y&R/Reklamevi, Güzel Sanatlar/Saatchi & Saatchi.
Advertising Industry in Turkey
Today there are approximately 100 institutionalized agencies, including approximately 30 film production companies. Eighty-four of these
agencies are the members of the Turkish Association of Advertising Agencies (TAAA). Among them, 57 were founded after 1980. Twenty-three either became partners with a foreign agency by assigning shares or established a cooperative agreement with such an agency (www.rd.org.tr).
The number of total employees in the advertising agencies is estimated to be around 3000. There are 12 companies providing media planning
and purchasing services. There are also many public relations, direct marketing, advertising photography, research and computer companies and
printing houses that give support to advertising industry (www.rd.org.tr).
The media extend of 260 television channels (53 of them broadcasting by cable) of which 16 broadcast on a national level, while 15 on a regional level and 229 on a local scale; 1200 radio stations of which 30
broadcast on a national level and 1062 on a local scale; 32 newspapers and
85 magazines distributed throughout the country having a huge potential
for advertisements. The publication fees to all these media institutions
rose from 635 million USD in 1995 to 1,9 billion USD in 2006
(www.rd.org.tr).
The contraction in the Turkish economy in 2009 affected the ad
market adversely. Turkish ad market contracted by 14% in 2009 and
amounted to TL 2.971 million (USD 1,9 billion); compared to TL 3.440
million (USD 2,7 billion) in 2008 (www.hurriyet.com.tr). The advertising
expenditure allocation among media is shown on Figure 24-1.
53
Atilla AKSOY; the former head of Advertising Department at İstanbul Bilgi University.
345
Source: http://www.hurriyetkurumsal.com/eng/advertising.asp, data retrieved 24 May, 2010.
Figure 24-1: Advertising Industry in Turkey - million TL (2009)
In 2009, the industries with the highest ad spending have been food,
finance and telecommunications (Table 24-1). The construction industry is
the industry that reduced its ad spending less than others and, hence, increased its share among the top 10 advertising industries.
Industry
Food
Finance
Telecommunications
Automotive, Transport Vehicles
Publishing
Cosmetics and Personal Care
Retail Trade
Beverages
Construction and Decoration
Home Cleaning Products
Other
Total
%
11
9
10
6
6
5
5
4
5
4
34
100
Source: http://www.hurriyetkurumsal.com/eng/advertising.asp, data retrieved 24 May, 2010.
Table 24-1: Ad Spending by Various Industries (2009)
346
Substantial growth in industry gave way to opportunities on the education side. This new way of competing necessitated not only general business education, but also specific marketing, marketing communication, advertising, and the like, education. The rapid internationalization of Turkey54 even fostered this dynamic. Many new branches about these fields
were opened under the universities. Internationalization also imposed the
adaptation of curriculums and teaching methods according to the global
orientations.
Higher Education in Turkey
Turkey is a populous country, with a high population growth rate
having reached to 72.5 million in 2009, from 67.8 million in 2000. The
country has a very young and a growing population, with a growth rate of
1.45 % in 2009. In 2009, population at the age 14 and below constituted
26.35 %, whereas those at ages between 15 and 64 constituted 67 % of the
total. In the same year, 50 % of the population was aged under 28,8
(www.tuik.gov.tr). As a consequence of such a young population, the demand for higher education institutions is quite high.
In Turkey, higher education is primarily provided by means of state
and private foundation universities. The Turkish higher education system
has changed significantly in recent years (Eser and Birkan, 2004). The
Council of Higher Education (YÖK) was established in 1981. In 1982, after the constitution of the republic was changed, new provisions were made
for higher education. YÖK became a constitutional body, responsible for
planning, coordination, governance and supervision of the higher education
in Turkey.
Certain provisions were also made for non-profit foundations to establish higher education institutions in Turkey. Private foundation universities have been allowed to operate since 1984. Prof. Dr. İhsan Doğramacı
founded Bilkent University, the first private university of Turkey in 1984.
Bilkent University started to accept students in 1986 (www.bilkent.edu.tr).
After the new higher education law went into effect, institutions were
reorganized. Several state institutions merged to form new universities, and
all vocational schools were affiliated with universities. In the year 1982, the
54
Direct foreign investment rose from 18 million USD in 1980 to 12.129 million USD in
2006 (Turkish Central Bank statistics; www.tcmb.gov.tr ). Exports rose from 2910 million
USD in 1980 to 132.027 million USD in 2008 (Turkish Statistical Institute;
www.tuik.gov.tr).
347
higher education system comprised of 27 universities. Since then the system has continued to expand with the establishment of private universities
founded by non-profit foundations, as well as newly founded state universities (Harcar and Torlak, 2002).
Currently there are in total 132 universities in the Turkish higher education system. Thirty-eight of these universities are privately owned,
where 94 are state universities. YÖK announced that in the 2010-2011 education year the total number of universities would reach to 146, with the
creation of one state and 13 private new universities (www.yok.gov.tr).
Students seeking to receive higher education are placed in university
departments at pre-bachelor’s and bachelor’s levels according to their respective scores they receive as a result of a yearly made, nation-wide, central
placement examination held by The Student Select and Placement Center
(ÖSYM). In 2008, 1.646.376 high school graduates applied for this examination, however quota levels announced by universities stood at about one
sixth of such number of applicants (265.230) (www.yok.gov.tr). The young
and dynamic population of Turkey is one of the major elements that increased the number of applicants.
Even though it is possible to suggest that more prosperous students
prefer state universities, the fact that where in state university’s annual fees
charged to students are approximately between 40 USD and 300 USD,
such fees are at a level ranging approximately between 4,500 USD and
15.000 USD in private universities. This difference in tuitions plays a significant role in making preferences, and in variations within percentage
ranking.
Advertising Education in Turkey
Professional education in Turkey has begun to grow rapidly since the
beginning of the 1980s. Yet, while engineering, law, and certain sciences
are well established in the curricula, marketing and advertising are relatively
newcomers to the universities. As a result of a highly growing competition
after the liberalization of markets in 1990, business, marketing, advertising,
and public relations education gained importance in Turkey. The demand
for human resources in this area stimulated the universities to open up departments in the related fields.
Unfortunately there is no specific research on advertising education
in Turkey, thus this study will be a pioneering one. The current study in-
348
cludes an analysis of 32 Communication Faculties, as well as the curricula
of 6 individual programs in advertising.
Historically in Turkey, advertising education has been directly connected with two academic fields: Journalism and Business, like it is in the
U.S. (Ross, Osborne and Richards, 2006). Though in general advertising
education is provided by communication faculties, because of this interrelationship, this study analyses both educational fields in Turkey. Traditionally, public relations departments were established before advertising departments,
and advertising education was first introduced within the public relations departments.55
In Turkey, public relations education has older roots than in many
European countries (Okay, 2003). The first “Journalism School” set up by
Yahya Fehmi Tuna in 1948 is the genesis of this educational field. Afterwards, this school formed into the “Journalism Institute,” then to the
“Journalism and Public Relations Institute,” then to the “Press and Broadcasting College,” and finally to the “Communication Faculty.” But, the
first curriculum program of public relations education in Turkey started as a
separate department in 1966 in the School of Journalism, affiliated with the
Political Sciences Faculty, Ankara University (Okay, 2003; YıldırımBecerikli, 2004).
Then, schools of journalism continued to open one after another.
Public relations courses started to be included in the curricula of journalism
schools (Yıldırım-Becerikli, 2004). Starting from 1987-1988, YÖK decided
to separate Journalism and Public Relations departments into Journalism
Departments and Public Relations and Promotion Departments (Tokgöz,
2003; Yengin, 2004).
With the amendment of the law in 1992, names of all “Schools of
Journalism” have been changed to “Communication Faculty” (Okay, 2003;
Peltekoğlu, 1998), and new communication faculties were established in
Anadolu University and Selçuk University (Yengin, 2004). The same year
within Anadolu University, Turkey’s first Communication Arts and Advertising department was established (Tokgöz, 2003; Yengin, 2004).
In Turkey, advertising education at the university level is basically
provided in the Communication Faculties (Okay, 2003). At the time of
this study there are 32 communication faculties. In 30 of them (17 in state13 in private universities) Advertising and Public Relations programs are
offered.
Now there are different departments in various universities providing
partial or full advertising education. Very recently a new trend can be seen:
55
Editor’s emphasis.
349
advertising departments are being placed under the Faculty of Economics
and Administrative Sciences in three newly established private universities.
The remaining programs provide advertising instructions under the name of
“Communication Art” and “Communication Science” programs. (See Table 3)
Bachelor of Arts in Advertising
The education in the field of advertising is either a four-year education, giving a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree or a two year education, giving
an associate of arts (AA) degree. In total, currently there are 6 Advertising,
10 Public Relations and Advertising, and 23 Public Relations and Promotion Programs offered in various universities providing Bachelor’s degrees in
Turkey. (See Table 3)
In Turkey, there is not a ranking system of universities or specific departments to determine which school is the best. Table 2 lists the universities that offer Advertising and Advertising related BA degrees.
BA in
Advertising
State Universities
Akdeniz University
Anadolu University
Ankara University
Atatürk University
Cumhuriyet University
Ege University
Erciyes University
Fırat University
Galatasaray University
Gazi University
Gümüşhane University
İstanbul University
Karadeniz Technical Uni.
Kocaeli University
Marmara University
Mersin University
Selçuk University
Private Universities
Atılım University
Bahçeşehir University
Başkent University
Beykent University
Çağ University
350
BA in
Public Relations
and Advertising
BA in Public Relations/
Public Relations and
Promotion
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Haliç University
İstanbul Arel University
İstanbul Aydın University
İstanbul Bilgi University
İstanbul Ticaret University
İzmir Ekonomi University
Kadir Has University
Maltepe University
Yaşar University
Yeditepe University
Yeni Yüzyıl University
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Source: OSYM reports & University Web Pages; data retrieved 15 May, 2010.
Table 24-2: Four-Year Bachelor of Arts in Advertising
Kocaeli University, Ege University as state universities, and Bahçeşehir University, İstanbul Bilgi University, Kadir Has University and Yeditepe University are private universities offering individual four-year advertising programs. In 2009 the total student quotas of these universities were
434; 31, 52, 91, 135, 60, 65 students respectively. However, four state
universities and six private universities offer four year integrated programs
in public relations and advertising. There now are 13 state universities and
10 private universities public relations and promotion programs in which
advertising courses are included in the curricula are offered.
Communication Faculties
BA in Advertising
BA in Public Relations
and Adverting
BA in Public Relations
and Promotion
Faculty of Economics and
Administrative Sciences
State
Private
University
University
0
0
State
University
2
Private
University
4
4
5
0
13
8
0
1
2
Total
6
10
23
Source: OSYM reports & University Web Pages, data retrieved 15 May, 2010.
Table 24-3: Number of Universities Offering 4-Year Bachelor of Arts in Advertising
Three private universities, Atılım University, Çağ University and Haliç University offer Public Relations and Advertising program, Public Relations and Promotion programs under the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences. Overall the number of integrated programs is more
than individual programs in advertising. However, the number of individual public relations and promotion programs is much greater than individual programs in advertising.
351
BA in Journalism
BA in Cinema-Radio-TV
BA in Media & Communication
BA in Visual Communication Design
Communication Faculties
State University Private University
15
5
17
11
2
5
3
11
Total
20
28
7
14
Source: OSYM reports & University Web Pages, data retrieved 15 May, 2010.
Table 24-4: Other Bachelor of Arts Degrees offered by Communication Faculties
In general, Communication Faculties carry out educational programs
under three major departments: Journalism, Public Relations and Advertising, and Radio-Television-Cinema. The newly rising departments of Media
and Communication and Visual Communication Design are observed more
in private universities, and the numbers are expected to increase in the following years.
Advertising Curriculum
Advertising courses were added in some of the university curricula,
before individual advertising departments were opened. Dr. Dilber56, as one
of the pioneering Turkish professors in this area, taught his first advertising
course at Pennsylvania State University. Upon joining to Boğaziçi University in 1968, he taught one of the first advertising courses in Turkey, alternating with his colleague Dr. Koç.57 Dr. Dilber tells about those days:
Advertising is a topic I enjoy the most among numerous other marketing and
organization courses. Advertising agencies in the modern sense hardly existed
in Turkey at that time. I remember with gratitude some of the Turkish advertising agency greats who showed their practical experiences to the students. Since the course was taught in English, I was also able to acquaint the
students with American and British Advertising. A high point was Al Ries’
introduction of the positioning concept in my class during his visit to Turkey
in 1979.
56
Mustafa DILBER; Professor of Marketing and Organization.- Received “Distinguished
Leadership Award, 2005” from the University of Minnesota where he received his PhD in
1967. – Currently teaches at various private and state universities on a part time basis.
57
Ahmet KOÇ; Professor of Marketing.
352
Dr. Mustafa Dilber
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
This may have been the birth of
advertising education, but it was not yet a
trend on the country’s universities. As
mentioned previously Anadolu University
was the first to offer an advertising major
in 1992. Advertising education, as with
most other types of professional education, has its ups-and downs in the past 30
years that it has been a part of the curricula.
The curriculums of the six advertising programs (see Table 24-2) were analyzed through the websites of the universities. Courses taught in advertising departments can be grouped as follows:
Courses related to advertising
Courses related to brand management
Courses related to interactivity
Courses related to public relations
Courses related to communication and media
Courses related to research
Courses related to writing
Courses related to accountability
Courses related to creativity
Courses related to social sciences
Along with theoretical courses, there are courses designed for student
practicing. Most of the programs have campaign lectures that the students
find opportunity to practice their knowledge on real life or simulated cases.
In these universities this wide range of courses are instructed not only by the
academics but also by industry professionals. Advertising education in Turkey maintains close industry ties for internships, entry-level employment,
and guest speakers.
Generally all BA programs in advertising include psychology, sociology, business and media courses in their mandatory course list. And all programs include at least a course that covers accountability issues. Very recently İstanbul Bilgi University became an international partner in a project on
“Advertising Ethics Education” with the Advertising Self Regulatory Organization of Turkey (RÖK), and European Advertising Standards Alliance
(EASA).
353
Courses Covering Advertising
Account Planning
Advertising Agency Management
Advertising Analysis
Advertising Campaign Management and Agency
Operation
Advertising Campaigns
Advertising Campaigns Project
Advertising Case Studies
Advertising Strategy
Case Studies in Advertising
Creative Thinking
International Advertising
Media Planning
Positioning Strategy in Advertising
Courses Covering Brand Management
Advertising Strategy
Brand Management
Customer Relationship Management
Image Branding in Advertising
Integrated Marketing Communications
Introduction to Marketing
Marketing Communication
Marketing Strategy
Principles of Advertising
Principles of Marketing
Readings in Marketing
Courses Covering Interactivity
Advertising in the Digital world
Advertising Studio
Design in Publishing
Digital Media
Editing Sound and Image
Graphic Design in Digital Environment
Interactive Advertising
Internet and Computer Concepts
Introduction to Computer and Information
Technology
Web Design
Courses Covering Public Relations
PR Campaigns
Public Relations
Sponsorship and Promotion
354
Courses Covering Accountability
Advertising Ethics
Advertising Law
Communication Ethics
Communication Law
Communication Law and Intellectual Property Rights
Introduction to Law
Issues in Advertising
Media Ethics
Courses Covering Creativity
Advanced Advertising Layout
Advertising and Music
Advertising Layout and Design
Advertising Layout and Production
Advertising Photography
Advertising Scenario
Basic Graphic Design in Advertising
Communicationscapes
Creative Strategy in Advertising
Creative Thinking
Design Culture
Desktop Publishing
Introduction to Creative Communication
Photography
Portfolio Management
Project and Production Management For Communicators
Text and Image in Publishing
TV Advertising
Understanding Image
Visual Appreciation
Visual Communication Design
Visual Communication
Visual Culture
Courses Covering Social Sciences
Advertising and Arts
Advertising and Consumption
Advertising and Society
Advertising History
Advertising in Cultural Studies
Art Culture and Society
Cognitive Psychology
Communication Psychology
Courses Covering Communication &
Media
Communication and Media
Communication and media history
Communication Theories
Culture Communication and Society
Digital Media
Introduction to Mass Communication
Media Analysis
Media Planning and Strategy
New Media: Internet and Mobile Communication
Principles of Communication and Media
Courses Covering Research
Dissertation Writing
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Research in Advertising
Semiotic Analysis
Social Research Methods
Communication Science
Communication Theories
Conflict Management and Negotiation Techniques
Consumer Behavior
Critical Thinking
Fashion, Design and Consumption
Human Resources Management For Communicators
Interpersonal Communication
Introduction to Business
Introduction to Economics
Introduction to Psychology
Keywords in Social Sciences
Persuasion
Philosophy
Political Advertising
Political Communication Campaigns
Principles of Economics
Social Anthropology
Social Psychology
Sociology
Courses Covering Writing
Advanced Copywriting
Copywriting
Communications Skills & Academic Writing
Creative Writing
Written Communication
Table 24-5: Curricula of Advertising Programs
Associate of Arts in Advertising
In Turkey, besides the faculties providing four-year advertising education, various universities offer two-year vocational training programs. Twoyear vocational training schools are institutions established for the purpose
of providing vocational education to meet the practical needs of various
fields. There are currently 97 programs offering advertising and marketing
related majors (see Table 24-6).
355
State University
Public Relations and Advertising
Public Relations and Promotion
Marketing
Marketing and Foreign Trade
Retail Management
Brand Communication
1
16
51
4
1
1
Private
University
2
11
10
0
0
0
Total
3
27
61
4
1
1
Source: OSYM reports & University Web Pages, data retrieved on 15 May, 2010.
Table 24-6: Two-Year Vocational Education in Advertising Related Fields
Among those, 80 universities (64 state - 16 private) offer two-year
vocational training schools that provide advertising related education. Marketing programs dominate the two-year vocational education.
Student Selection and Placement Center provides a special central exam for the purpose of completing an Associate degree to a Bachelor’s degree
in a related field of study. Thus, students who have completed their twoyear vocational study are given the chance to continue their education to get
a four-year Bachelor’s degree.
MA in Advertising
MA in PR & Advertising
MA in Marketing
MA in PR and Promotion
MA in Communication Sciences
PhD in Advertising
PhD in Public Relations and Advertising
PhD in Public Relations and Promotion
PhD in Communication Sciences
State
University
2
1
9
10
3
2
1
7
2
Private
University
2
0
9
4
5
0
1
0
1
Total
4
1
18
14
8
2
2
7
3
Source: OSYM statistics, www.osym.gov.tr, data retrieved 15 May 2010.
Table 24-7: Graduate Education in Advertising and Related Fields
Graduate Education in Advertising
Various postgraduate and doctoral education opportunities are provided after completing four-year educational programs in Turkey (see Table
24-7). Being a new educational field, postgraduate programs specialized in
advertising are quite limited. As an individual graduate subject, advertising
is taught at five different universities. Those universities are İstanbul Bilgi
356
University, Bahçeşehir University, Marmara University, Ege University, and
Anadolu University. Four MA degrees in Advertising, one MA degree in
Public Relations and Advertising, two PhD in Advertising, and two PhD in
Public Relations and Advertising programs are offered. The number of MA
programs in marketing and public relations and promotion areas is quite
high.
BA in Management
In Turkey, after the 1990s, business education became very popular.
Recently more than 76 state, and 35 private universities offer Bachelor’s degree in Business. When the curricula of Management departments are analyzed, a financial education emphasis is observed. Most of the programs
have only a few basic marketing courses such as Introduction to Marketing,
Principles of Marketing, Marketing Management, International Marketing,
Consumer Behavior, and Sales Management.
Students Studying Advertising
The number of students placed in the advertising and related departments by the Student Selection and Placement Center in 2008 is listed
in Table 24-8.
Undergrad B.A
Women
Men
Total
533
366
899
Vocational School AA
Women
Men
Total
Grad
Advertising
198
Public Relations &
622
515
1137
2217
966
3183
Advertising
Management
26517
34074
60591
23701
22381
44082
9845
Marketing
7536
11612
19148
901
Journalism
1927
2680
4607
276
Journalism & PR
1925
4632
6557
Public Relations &
2587
2675
5262
2196
801
2997
645
Promotion
Communication
140
218
358
159
Sciences
TOTAL
32326
40528
72854
37575
40392
75967
12024
Source: OSYM statistics, www.osym.gov.tr, data retrieved 15 May 2010.
PhD
51
1493
140
159
200
37
2080
Table 24-8: Number of Students Placed in Advertising
and Related Programs (2008)
357
In general, there is not much difference in the total number of female
and male students enrolled in B.A. degrees in Advertising, Pubic Relations
and Promotion, and Public Relations and Advertising departments. But,
number of females enrolled in the same departments in vocational schools is
much higher than male student enrollments. When compared to the number of students in various other departments, the enrollment number in the
Management field is much higher.
Students who managed to enter Communication tend to fall within
the achievement range of 1% and 17.1% on the university entrance exam.
Such range is between 1% and 4% for the state universities, while the private foundation universities admit students achieving to fall within the
range of 3.7% and 17.1%. As for the two-year vocational training schools,
the percentage achievement range is between 4.3% and 9% for the state
universities, while it ranges between 22.5% and 37.4% in the case of private
foundation universities (Okay 2003).
Evaluation and Accreditation of Advertising Programs
Turkish university system is totally in the process of adapting to the
European Union Bologna accreditation system. The aim of the Bologna
Process is to create a European Higher Education Area (EHEA) based on
international cooperation and academic exchange that will facilitate mobility of students, graduates, and higher education staff, and prepare students
for their future careers and life as active citizens in democratic societies,
while supporting their personal development. It is designed to offer broad
access to high-quality higher education, based on democratic principles and
academic freedom (http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/
about/). Therefore all the departments conform to the requirements of this
accreditation process.
Advertising Education Support Organizations and Student
Competitions
Advertising education is informally supported by Turkish Association
of Advertising Agencies. In addition, the Turkish Foundation of Advertising (http://www.rv.org.tr), advertising agencies, and advertisers provide fulltime or guest lecturers to share their experiences and practices. There is no
formal financial support to higher education institutions that offer advertis-
358
ing degrees. Research and teaching collaborations usually take place between
stakeholders of the advertising industry and the educational foundations.
The foundation of advertising, for example, organizes summer schools that
offer advertising workshops.
There are different student competitions offered by associations of
advertising agencies, advertisers, advertising creatives, media and student
clubs of universities. These include:
-
“IAA” competition is a global student advertising competition, and part
of InterAD competition (www.iaaturkey.com/home.html).
-
“Genc Kirmizi” is a print ad competition offered by one of the biggest
media institutions in Turkey (www.kirmiziodulleri/genckirmizi.com).
-
“Genc Iletisimciler-Young Communicators” is offered by a media foundation, with the aim of educating the media leaders of future
(www.aydindoganvakfi.org.tr).
-
“Adventure” is the competition organized by Bogazici University student
club, targeting the production of creative ideas (www.adventure.org.tr).
-
“Just Marketing” is organized by Middle East Technical University, aiming at preparation of a marketing campaign (www.just-marketing.org).
-
“Ders arası” student competition is designed by Association of Copy
Writers (www.dersarasindayiz.biz).
Summary and Conclusion
The history of advertising education in Turkey is not long. Starting
with individual lessons in the curricula, advertising education was departmentalized first within public relations departments. It is very recently that
the joint programs of advertising and public relations moved to separate advertising and public relations programs.
In the last decade, with the increase in the number of private universities in Turkey, there is a steady move in the number of advertising education offering institutions. The opening of private universities made the education in this field more competent. This transformation was reflected in
the curricula, bringing changes in the content and title of the courses offered by advertising departments.
The practice of advertising shifted into a multidisciplinary area that
requires global business and marketing knowledge, embedding creativity
and advancements in technology. In our research we found that advertising
departments constantly update their syllabuses, and such findings may purport that they keep up with the developments across the world.
359
Though it is a new area, advertising education is growing quickly,
while raising some issues. From the academic side, the increase in number
of advertising departments is fed by rising numbers of graduate and doctoral
education in advertising, and related new fields like communication sciences. But still the capacity of graduate education is not sufficient to raise the
required number of academics. In particular, there is shortage of academics
in creativity and technology areas.
Advertising departments attempt to stem this shortage by hiring practitioners on a part-time lecturer basis to teach those courses. On the demand side, each year, many students are admitted to large number of advertising and public relations departments to receive two-year and four-year
advertising education.
On the other hand, a large number of advertising related department
graduates are compelled to work in different occupational fields since the
need for advertising practitioners in agency and advertisers side is less than
the number of graduates. But the development of Turkish market and
business is an important potential to set the balance. Advertising education
is expected to flourish in the coming years.
References
Books, Articles and Periodicals
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361
North America
Canada’s Approach to Ad
Education
S. Scott Whitlow,
University of Kentucky, USA
The razzle-dazzle of advertising. The allure of advertising. The
commerce-centric soul of advertising. The advertising industry touted these
traits proudly as it lit its own spotlight at 2009's launch of Advertising
Week. That week, advertising sparked the news cycle all across Canada.
And students with a yen to find their niche in the Canadian advertising
world welcomed a new door opening for them.
In bustling cities from coast to coast – Halifax, Montreal, Toronto,
Calgary, Edmonton and Vancouver – advertising luminaries touted the
contribution advertising makes economically and socially across Canada.
Industry-created and produced PSAs shared this message with the Canadian
business community and the public-at-large. Through Advertising Week,
the industry was ratcheting up its visibility, claiming center stage for a few
days and providing students a chance to share that stage (Canada’s First Advertising Week 2009).
A feature of Advertising Week was its inaugural Youth Day, carefully
crafted to inspire and attract young talent to the industry. The irresistible
draw for these industry hopefuls was the chance to develop a campaign
promoting a benefit concert for Virgin United's RE*Generation program –
with Sir Richard Branson selecting the winner. Student teams, apprenticed
for Youth Day to 15 notable Toronto communications firms, shaped and
refined their campaigns. With their campaign tagged “Your ticket in is
their ticket out,” a team of nine students mentored by Due North Communications earned Sir Branson's nod. Also irresistible to team members
was the support offered by Astral Media to launch the winning campaign
across Canada (Soares 2009).
Like many countries with robust national and international commerce, Canadian advertising is a pivotal force to link buyers with sellers.
362
Second by second, its endless permutations stream across media, both traditional and cutting-edge, seeking to connect with targeted consumers. Invariably, the stream of advertising draws attention of its own. For those who
are at the point of exploring future career possibilities – or those seeking a
career switch – the 360-surround of advertising fires the imagination. The
path to a successful career in Canadian advertising has a bounty of starting
points.
To begin, it helps to have a grasp of the geography of Canada. In a
word: vast. Spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, and from its
5,525-mile southern border with the United States north to the once assuredly frozen Arctic, Canada has a land mass of more than 3.5 million square
miles, second only to Russia (Canada 2009). Its sprawling beauty is organized into 10 provinces: Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Québec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, and the three territories of Nunavut,
Northwest Territories, and Yukon.
Yet, with approximately 34 million people, much of that land is
sparsely populated (9 persons per square mile compared with the United
States’ 84) (World Almanac 2007). However, it is estimated that approximately 90% of Canada’s population resides within 100 miles of the southern border, with concentrations along the northern banks of the Great Lake
and at other water-access points. These heavily populated areas are places
where communications firms thrive, as do a mixture of higher education
options. Here, starting points for a career in advertising-related fields are in
abundance. That same mix of options, on a smaller scale, awaits students
across Canada.
Higher Education in Canada
Universities: Mostly Business
For over 140 years, each province in Canada has been charged with
oversight of the education system of its own citizens. When Canada became self-governing in 1867, the Constitution Act of 1867 established total
decentralization of the Canadian education system. Its Article 93 declares
constitutional responsibility for education to be the exclusive domain of the
provincial governments (AUCC 2009).
With this historic decision, the opportunity was set for distinct differences in educational philosophies and structures among the provinces.
Even so, at the post-secondary level, it’s typical across most of the provinces
to designate degree-granting institutions as universities.
363
Universities, thus, crown the higher education system in Canada.
Currently, 95 of these are members of the Association of Universities and
Colleges of Canada (AUCC). Acceptance as a member confers merit-based
recognition on a university for AUCC serves as a defacto trans-Canadian accreditation organization. It notes on its web site, “There's no federal ministry of education or formal accredit system. Instead, membership in the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, coupled with the university's provincial government charter, is generally deemed the equivalent”
(AUCC, 2009).
One of AUCC’s services for its member organizations and for the
Canadian public is its rich on-line database, which provides click-through
leads to over 10,000 undergraduate and graduate degree programs, professional degree programs, and certificates. The order of these programs follows the Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP) system of grouping
devised by the USA's National Center for Education Statistics (the 2000
edition of CIP was adopted by Statistics Canada as their standard field of
study taxonomy). On this database, a search for “Advertising” yields only
two results:
Ontario College of Art & Design Executive Master of Design (EMDes) in
Advertising. Master's degree English Advertising Commercial and Advertising Art
Université de Sherbrooke (Québec) Baccalauréat-maètrise en communication
marketing. Bachelor's degree French Advertising Marketing/Marketing
Management, General
Almost exclusively, in Canadian universities, advertising courses are
folded into the menu of courses that support the marketing function, a core
program area in many universities' business or commerce division. At some
institutions, advertising’s presence is ethereal. Several faculty at such institutions were asked about the absence of dedicated advertising courses. The
perspective expressed by most can be summarized in the words of one professor:
We offer marketing and strategy courses, where advertising is a part of each
course, but no course devoted only to advertising or to the broader marketing
communication. (Confidential personal communication, August 20, 2009)
More typically, however, the integral role advertising plays in commerce is acknowledged in advertising-specific courses – again within the
context of business or commerce programs. Many university level marketing programs offer one or two advertising-specific courses in undergraduate
364
and/or graduate programs. A sampling of these courses and the programs
with which they're associated appear in the Province Vignettes section of
this chapter.
This almost total absence of identifiable advertising programs at the
university level appears to be a mix of tradition, perception and pragmatism.
Advertising, and the range of career-related paths it feeds, is regarded as a
trade. As such, it's seen as most logically fitting into education settings
geared toward “trades” preparation. Dr. Barbara J. Phillips, Rawlco Scholar in Advertising/Edwards School of Business, University of Saskatchewan,
a professor with experience in both the American and Canadian university
systems, offers a perceptive observation.:
[T]he American system started out with Journalism schools, which then
eventually broadened into housing all kinds of communication, including
advertising. In Canada, we have almost no Journalism schools housed in
Universities …; journalism was the domain for community colleges, where it
existed. So advertising, as an academic discipline of study, was part of marketing (business schools) because we didn't develop the journalism stream.
(Barbara J. Phillips, personal communication, September 18, 2009)
Community Colleges
Rather than at the university level, it’s at all the other post-secondary
institutions that advertising education flourishes from province to province.
Differences abound among these provincial institutions – differences in
classification of the institutions, types of certification, number of program
semesters, etc. – leading to enormous variety in the advertising programs.
Essentially, these are community colleges which the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC) points out, may be identified as “institute, institute of technology, technical college, regional college, cégep (in
Québec), university college or simply college” (ACCC 2009).58
An explosive trans-Canada spurt of community college launches began in 1965, with a ripple effect that lasted a decade. A number of related
factors coalesced to spark this growth of community colleges. The physical
and emotional drain of World War II had subsided and Canada’s economic
engine was surging. Skilled workers were needed to sustain economic
growth in the industry and business sectors, to support their communities
58
The Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC) began in 1972 as a national,
voluntary membership organization “to represent colleges and institutes to government,
business and industry, both in Canada and internationally.”
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in the public service sector and, by extension, to enrich their communities'
arts and culture development.59
Across Canada, each province looked to the community college concept as the pragmatic answer to their needs. Each grew its own community
college system – either by creating a wholly new system or by amalgamating
existing institutions into a coordinated system. Many of these were dual
purpose: concentrated career training and, for students looking to their
community college as a launch pad for university studies, a general postsecondary education. First and foremost, the community colleges “... share
the primary functions of responding to the training needs of business, industry, the public service sectors and the educational needs of vocationally
oriented secondary school graduates” (ACCC 2009).
Across the mid-60s to mid-70s window of community college expansion, public perception of them grew increasingly positive and their geographic access made them welcome destinations as a way to prepare further
for career success. With the vast career-training options available to students as a function of each college's distinct emphases, a community or region's broad spectrum of worker needs could be met. It was also during this
window of time that many of today's robust, veteran advertising programs
began.
Degrees and Certification
University Level
Across Canada many universities base their awarding of a Bachelor of
Arts degree on completion of a four-year course of studies. Other universities base it on a three-year program with the degree regarded as a pass, ordinary, or general degree. At some of these institutions, there's an option for
eligible students to cap their three years of study with one additional year,
with heightened requirements. This advances the student's degree to an
Honors degree, the “B.A. (Hons).”
59
A comprehensive review of these factors can be found in “Vocational Education in Canada,” John E. Lyons, Bikkar S. Randhawa, Neil A. Paulson. Canadian Journal of Education
16:2 (1991), pp. 137-150. In reviewing the forces which fueled vocational training, the article looks at the impact of the WWII bombing of England on Canada’s industrial priorities,
the state of Canadian vocational training in the years after WWII, and the companion outreach by Canada to attract a skilled labor force of immigrants, among other forces.
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College Level
From province to province, there is variety in the way colleges certify
completion of a program, but the similarities are sufficient that it is possible
to grasp the general approach by examination of one province’s system. In
the province of Alberta, for example, there are seven different postsecondary programs. The Alberta government helps students sort out their
options by stating the purpose of each of the programs, the length and nature of time commitment, the type of institution(s) offering the program,
and how one program may feed into another program. A condensed version of the Alberta system is summarized in Figure 25-1.
Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC)
ACCC member institutions provide the information about their programs which constitutes ACCC's searchable database (ACCC, 2009). Since
it's a member-sourced database, the ACCC reminds users that currency and
accuracy of the information are not confirmed. Searches using a core of advertising related terms (direct response, media planning, advertising design,
interactive marketing) yielded no matches.
A search for “Marketing Communications” yielded identification of a
single institution: St. Lawrence College, Advertising - Integrated Marketing
Communications. A further search for “Advertising” identified 15 institutions and “Graphic Design” listed 31 institutions. These are summarized in
Table 25-1a and Table 25-1b.
Institution
Curriculum Offered by
Length
Earns
Algonquin Col (Ottawa, ON)
www.algonquincollege.com
Sch of Media & Design
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Cambrian Col of App Arts and Tech
(Sudbury, ON)
www.cambriancollege.ca
Sch of Communication Studies
2 yrs
4 sem
Ont Col Grad Certificate
Ont Col Degree
Canadore Col of App Arts and Tech
(North Bay, ON) www.canadore.on.ca
Communication Arts, Advertising Creative Media
4 sem
Centennial Col of App Arts and Tech
(Toronto, ON)
www.centennialcollege.ca
Sch of Communications, Media and
Design
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Conestoga Col Inst of Tech & Adv
Learning (Kitchener, ON)
www.conestoga.on.ca
Sch of Media & Design
•Advertising
•Integrated Mkt Comm (post-grad)
2 yrs
1 yr
Ont Col Diploma
Ont Grad Certificate
Durham Col (Oshawa, ON)
www.durhamcollege.ca
Sch of Media, Art & Design
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
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Georgian Col of App Arts and Tech
(Barrie, ON) www.georgianc.on.ca
Business Studies
2 yrs
Ont Col Diploma
Holland College (Charlottetown, PE)
www.hollandc.pe.ca
Business Studies
2 yrs
Diploma Marketing &
Advertising Management
Humber Col Inst of Tech & Adv Learning (Toronto, ON) www.humber.ca
Sch of Media Studies & Info Tech
•Advert Media Sales
•Advert & Graphic Design
•Creative Advert
2 yrs
2 yrs
4 yr
Diploma
Diploma
Bach App Arts
2 yr
Diploma
2 yrs
1 yr
1 yr
Ont Col Diploma
Advert
Ont Col Diploma
Ont Col Certificate
Sch of MediaCollege
Lethbridge
& Design
(Lethbridge, AB)
www.lethbridgecollege.ab.ca
Communication Arts: Advert/PR
Loyalist Col of App Arts and Tech
(Belleville, ON)
www.loyalistcollege.com
Sch of Media Studies
Advertising
Advert & Promotion for Retail
Art & Design Foundation
Mohawk Col of App Arts and Tech
(Hamilton, ON)
www.mohawkcollege.ca
Sch of Arts, Science & Communications
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Seneca Col of App Arts and Tech
(Toronto, ON) www.se-neca.on.ca
Sch of Communication Art
•Creative Advert
2 yrs
Ont Col Diploma
Sheridan Col Inst of Tech & Adv
Learning (Oakville, ON)
www.sheridaninstitute.ca
Sch of Business
2 yrs
3 yrs
Ont Col Diploma
Ont Col Adv Diploma
St. Claire Col of App Arts and Tech
(Windsor, ON) www.stclairecollege.ca
Centre for the Arts
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
St. Lawrence College (Kingston, ON)
www.sl.on.ca
Advertising - Integrated Marketing
Communications
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Table 25-1a: Summary of College and Institute Programs,
Curricula in Advertising
Institution
Curriculum Offered by
Algonquin
Sch of Media
Col&(Ottawa,
Design ON)
www.algonquincollege.com
Length
Earns
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Cambrian Col of App Arts and Tech
(Sudbury, ON)
www.cambriancollege.ca
Sch of Art & Design
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Canadore Col of App Arts and Tech
(North Bay, ON) www.canadore.on.ca
Communication Arts
3 yrs
Canadore Col Graphic
Design Diploma
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Col Communautaire du Nouveau
Brunswick (Bathurst, NB)
www.ccnb.nb.ca
Arts et Culture
•Conception Graphique
80 wks
Col of North Atlantic (St. John’s. NF)
www.cna.nl.ca
Sch of Applied Arts
2 yrs
Diploma
Conestoga Col Inst of Tech & Adv
Learning (Kitchener, ON)
www.conestoga.on.ca
Sch of Media & Design
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Dawson Col (Montreal, QC)
www.dawsoncollege.qc.ca
Creative & Applied Arts
3 yrs
Durham Col (Oshawa, ON)
www.durhamcollege.ca
Sch of Media, Art & Design
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Fanshawe Col of App Arts and Tech
(London, ON) www.fanshawec.ca
Sch of Design
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
George Brown Col (Toronto, ON)
www.georgebrown.ca
Sch of Design
(Major in Advert Design)
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Georgian Col of App Arts and Tech
(Barrie, ON) www.georgianc.on.ca
Design & Visual Arts Studies
Graphic Design Production
Graphic Design
2 yrs
3 yrs
Ont Col Diploma
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Holland College (Charlottetown, PE)
www.hollandc.pe.ca
Media & Communications
2 yrs
Diploma, Graphic
Design
Humber Col Inst of Tech & Adv Learning (Toronto, ON) www.humber.ca
Sch of Media Studies & Info
Tech
Package & Graphic Design
Graphic Design
3 yrs
3 yrs
Adv Diploma
Adv Diploma
Kwantlen Polytechnic University
(Richmond, BC) www.kwantlen.bc.ca
Applied Design
3 yrs
Diploma In Graphic
Design for Marketing
Mohawk Col of App Arts and Tech
(Brantford, ON)
www.mohawkcollege.ca
Graphic Design Production
•Digital
•Packaging
•Creative
•Integrated Media Arts
2 yrs
2 yrs
2 yrs
2 yrs
Ont Col Diploma
Ont Col Diploma
Ont Col Diploma
Ont Col Diploma
New Brunswick Community Col
(Miramich, NB) www.nbcc.ca
Business/IT
2 yrs
Diploma
Nova Scotia Community Col (Halifax,
NS)
Sch of Applied Arts & New Media
1 yr
Diploma
Red River Col of App Arts, Sci & Tech
(Winnipeg, MB) www.rrc.mb.ca
Applied Arts and Communications
2 yrs
3 yrs
Diploma
Post Diploma
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
Media
Saultand
Col Design
of App Arts and Tech
(Sault Ste. Marie, ON)
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Seneca Col of App Arts and Tech
(Senaca, ON) www.seneca.on.ca
Sch of Communication Art
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
St. Claire Col of App Arts and Tech
(Windsor, ON) www.stclairecollege.ca
Centre for the Arts
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
3 yrs
Ont Col Adv Diploma
9 mos
Certificate: Digital
Graphic Design
St. Lawrence College (Kingston, ON)
www.sl.on.ca
Vancouver Community Col (Vancouver, BC) www.vcc.ca
Centre for Design
Table 25-1a: Summary of College and Institute Programs,
Curricula in Graphic Design
Province Vignettes
Post-secondary education that focuses on advertising and its companion subjects varies widely from province to province. In the province of
Ontario it seems to be almost the coin of the realm, while in other provinces its presence is marginal. Many factors contribute to these differences and
have become interwoven within a province over time: the geographic character of a province, the cultural priorities of its citizens, population density,
priorities in education, economic thrust, and vitality. A rare fusion of these
factors is needed to spark a thriving advertising industry. And typically,
that thriving presence casts a geographic ripple effect on demand for advertising education.
This section tours each province and offers a brief summary of the
scope and nature of educational opportunities found there that bear on
preparation for an advertising career. It's not a census of each institution
offering some aspect of ad education, rather a view of the varied approaches
to this particular subject within a province. Indeed, some noteworthy institutions may simply have escaped the author's netting efforts.
In most province tours, some universities are included where but one
advertising-themed course is offered (in a business, commerce, or marketing
program). This is done to document the acknowledgment given in the program to advertising's integral strength to the marketing process. Too, while
many of these universities’ ad-course presence is slim, often they reference
“advertising manager” or “advertising executive” as a career possibility for
the program's graduates. That's also true in some provinces' colleges and
institutes.
The tour also shows that, more so than advertising, education and
training in graphic design is firmly rooted across Canada. Its flexible utility
to the business sector, government, education and numerous other sectors
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opens career doors to students for whom advertising-related doors are more
scarce.
The historical context of the birth and evolution of specific programs
is elusive. Beyond a general awareness, for example, that “our program began some forty years ago,” institutional memory about a program, whether
advertising or graphic design, is rare. Faculty who were present at the creation of a program are largely gone.
The province tour moves from the west coast (British Columbia) to
the east coast (Newfoundland and Labrador), and then makes a brief companion tour of Canada's territories stretched across the upper northwest. A
greatly more elaborated version of this tour is available from the chapter author upon request.
British Columbia
Capilano University
www.capilanou.ca
The Creative Intensives summer program offers seven or 14 week
courses focused on art, design or media. Representative offerings include
magazine publishing, computer animation and visual effects along with a
certificate program course titled Foundations in Illustration and Design.
Thompson Rivers University
www.tru.ca
Through both its undergraduate major and minor programs in marketing, Thompson Rivers offers a course in Integrated Marketing Communication as a business elective.
Kwantlen Polytechnic University
(Centre For Design & Communications: Graphic Design for Marketing (GDMA))
www.kwantlen.ca
Kwantlen’s Center for Design & Communication admits students to
its GDMA program once a year, in September, following a two-tier selective
entry process. Students can opt for either a four-year Bachelor of Applied
Design in Graphic Design for Marketing or a three-year Diploma in Graphic Design for Marketing. Field studies and a professional practice mentorship augment an extensive lineup of GDMA courses.
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University of the Fraser Valley
www.ufu.ca
Marketing is one of three specialized options available in the Bachelor
of Business Administration. Within that option, students select morefocused specialization in ether Professional Selling or Marketing Communications, the latter of which includes course work in advertising, public relations, document design (e.g., training with Adobe’s InDesign software),
web publishing, and integrated marketing communication.
University of Northern British Columbia
www.unbc.ca
Marketing majors in the School of Business begin their program with
an introduction to Canadian Business. The program's upper division includes an elective in Marketing Communication, where advertising and
sales promotion are studied both in a communication theory context as well
as their utility in marketing strategy decisions. Students earn a Bachelor of
Commerce.
Vancouver Island University
www.viu.ca
The Marketing concentration is one of seven programs offered
through the Bachelor in Business Administration program. Two course focus on advertising's role in marketing: (1) Marketing Communications,
where the integration of marketing tools – advertising, sales promotions,
public relations, direct marketing and personal selling – is explored; (2) Advertising and Promotion, structured as a hands-on, campaign experience.
British Columbia Institute of Technology
www.bcit.ca
BCIT offers two programs of potential interest – Marketing Management and Graphic Design.
Marketing Management:
This two-year selective admission program leads to a Diploma in
Technology. The first year includes work in statistics, accounting, and economics as well as integrated marketing. The second year of the Marketing
Communications option is positioned as a time to acquire job-ready skills
with a focus on planning, managing, and executing campaigns.
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Graphic Design:
Students interested in the graphics aspect of advertising head for the
Design Elements program in the Digital Arts department. The program is
offered in partnership with Emily Carr University whose courses are an integral part of the program. A selective admission process involves interviews
and portfolio reviews. Design Element students learn creative thinking
fundamentals and develop design skills using current technology and software.
University Canada West
www.UCan.ca
University Canada West, a for-profit, private university, offers a fiveterm Bachelor of Arts in Media and Communications.
College of New Caledonia
www.cnc.bc.ca
College of New Caledonia offers an eleven-month Certificate program in Advanced Professional Communications.
Langara College
www.langara.bc.ca
The School of Management offers a Marketing Management program that includes several courses focused on communications and promotions. Students may work toward a Certificate, a Diploma, or a Bachelor’s
of Business Administration.
North Island College
www.nic.bc.ca
At its main Comox Valley campus, NIC offers a three-year Advanced
Communication Design Diploma that features a rich offering of advanced
technology courses.
Camosun College
www.camosun.bc.ca
The Marketing Option in the Business Administration division is a
two-year program leading to a Diploma in Business Administration. Included is a course in Marketing Communications focused on planning integrated marketing campaigns.
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Douglas College
www.Douglas.bc.ca
The Marketing Management Certificate program includes a comprehensive IMC course dealing with promotional planning from the firm's
point of view.
Alberta
University of Alberta
University’s Department of Art & Design (www.ualberta.ca/artdesign)
offers a Bachelor of Design that prepares students for visual communication
work in advertising as well as other sectors. The School of Business offers
coursework in Marketing Communications and Branding, which can be incorporated in the Bachelor of Design, or pursued separately.
University of Calgary
www.ucalgary.ca
The Haskayne School of Business (haskayne.ucalgary.ca) offers a fouryear Bachelor of Commerce that includes a Marketing Communications
course. An upper division version of this is also offered through Haskayne's
Master of Business Administration.
Grant MacEwan University
www.macewan.ca
The Center's School of Communications (www.macewan.ca/web/pvca
/centre/home/index.cfm), offers a Bachelor of Applied Communications in
Professional Writing that, among other things, prepares students to “write
winning ad copy.” The Bachelor of Applied Communications in Design
Studies prepares for careers in print design, corporate identity, logo design,
advertising production, and campaign conceptualization.
Mount Royal University
www.mtroyal.ca
A Bachelor of Communication in Information Design intends to create “experts at finding the most effective words, images and media to target
a specific audience.” The Business Administration department offers both
diploma and Bachelor’s programs in marketing, each with a strong emphasis
on advertising.
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Northern Alberta Institute of Technology
www.nait.ca
The Business Administration division offers a two-year diploma Marketing program during the second year of which students may choose to focus on coursework in the Advertising and Promotions Stream.
Southern Alberta Institute of Technology Polytechnic
www.sait.ca
Marketing is one of four majors in SAIT’s two-year Business program
leading to a diploma in Business Administration. Marketing majors can
choose courses in advertising and integrated marketing communications.
The Diploma is designed to lead to professional designation in the Canadian Institute of Marketing.
Alberta College of Art + Design
www.acad.ab.ca
The Bachelor of Design program’s Visual Communications Design
major is a four-year programs with admission based on GPA and portfolio
review. In the third year, majors focus either on advertising, graphic design,
illustration, or character design. The Advertising Stream is designed to prepare students for careers in the advertising industry as designers, art directors, and creative directors. Many courses in the Graphic Design Stream
build insight and skills that are uniquely valuable in the advertising context.
Keyano College
www.keyano.ca
A Business Diploma from the Business Administration and Computer Information Systems department includes a course in advertising fundamentals. Keyano places special emphasis on working with regional industries.
Lethbridge College
www.lethbridgecollege.ab.ca
The two-year Communication Arts Diploma program fuses news reporting and advertising. Students complete a 150-hour industry-based
practicum in their area of specialization.
Medicine Hat College
www.mhc.ab.ca
In it’s Visual Communications area, Medicine Hat a three-year Bachelor of Applied Arts program and two certificate programs, with core courses in Visual Studies and Graphic Design. Electives are available in market-
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ing, advertising and promotion. Philosophically, Visual Communications
hopes to fine art, design and technology to prepare students for the “contemporary design workplace.”
Saskatchewan
University of Saskatchewan
(Edwards School of Business)
www.usask.ca
Marketing is a restricted access major (based on cumulative grade average) in the Bachelor of Commerce of the Edwards School of Business.
Most Marketing majors select a fourth-year elective course in Integrated
Marketing Communications, currently taught by Dr. Barbara Phillips and
Dr. David Williams.
Dr. Phillips offers this description of the course: “The focus of the
class is on IMC strategy, with an emphasis on advertising; we also cover
Sales Promotion and PR. We teach the class as a ‘campaigns-type’ class
where students work on creating an IMC campaign for a local business or
not-for-profit group. They take the campaign through objectives, target
audience, creative strategy, media strategy, sales promotion strategy and PR
strategy. They do not create the final ads, as we do not teach Photoshop or
design courses. Although the students only get a brief taste of advertising in
this one course, I have had three students over the years open up their own
advertising agencies, and several more work in the advertising industry. We
place quite a few students with media suppliers.” (Barbara J. Phillips, personal communication, August 28, 2009).
Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology
www.siast.sk.ca
This is Saskatchewan's primary public institution for skills training
and technical education. It works on a First Qualified/First Admitted basis
for most of its programs, and employs an eclectic array of modes of instruction including classroom, online, the Saskatchewan Communications Network, and work-based training.
At SIAST's Moose Jaw campus, Business Marketing is offered as a
two-year diploma program with second-year, course options that include
Professional Selling, Marketing Research, Event Planning and Public Relations, Advertising and Promotion, and Design Concepts.
A two-year Graphic Communications diploma program is offered at
SIAST's Regina campus. The program embraces both the artistic and the
technical sides, with its website advising prospective students: “... you will
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develop skills in software applications used in advertising, design and publication. ... [O]ur training program addresses the pressing needs of the industry through strict adherence to the national skills standards set out by the
Canadian Printing Industries Sector Council.” Students build a creative
portfolio as they progress through their courses and participate in a fourweek industry work experience at the end of the second year.
Manitoba
University of Manitoba
www.umanitoba.ca
The School of Art offers programs leading to Bachelor degrees, Bachelors Honors degrees and diplomas. The School of Art’s Graphic Design
program guides students in bridging the connection between the origins of
typography and visual messaging and their application in rapidly evolving
media platforms. The website notes “[t]opics may include semiotics, Gestalt
psychology, digital technology, Web design, visual hierarchy, corporate design, marketing, typography, illustration, and structural explorations. Design that is effective, ethical, and appropriate to the context is a general objective.”
University of Winnipeg
www.uwinnepeg.ca
The Business and Administration Department of the Faculty of
Business and Economics offers majors one course specifically in advertising.
Topics include: “...the role of advertising agencies; the function and benefits of advertising and sales promotion for business and other institutions,
including not-for-profits.” (Dallas Hull, personal communication, August
21, 2009).
Brandon University
www.brandonu.ca
An Advertising Principles course is offered in the Business Administration program, where a student may pursue a Bachelor of Business Administration, a three- or four-year Bachelor of Arts or a Certificate.
Red River College
www.rrc.mb.ca
A Graphic Design program is targeted to those interested in becoming “a graphic designer for print, electronic media and various advertising in
the graphic communications industry.” Course work is available in adver-
377
tising and campaigns. Students can earn a two-year diploma or continue for
a third year to earn a post diploma. Due to high demand, admission to any
of the two-year diploma majors in the Creative Communications program
(Advertising, Broadcast Production, Journalism, Public Relations) (me.rrc.
mb.ca/Catalogue/ProgramInfo.aspx?RegionCode=WPG&ProgCode=CRECFDP) is currently limited to Manitoba residents.
Ontario
McMasters University - DeGroote School of Business
www.degroote.mcmaster.ca
The DeGroote School of Business offers undergraduate and MBA
programs, with an emphasis on experiential learning. Undergraduates, for
example, can choose an 8 to 16 month internship in marketing with such
industry leaders as Procter & Gamble and IBM.
The experiential emphasis is evident in the annual Canada’s Next
Top Ad Exec advertising campaign competition (www.topadexec.com), managed by members of the DeGroote Marketing Association student organization. The competition offers strong challenges and great rewards. For example, the winning team in developing a non-traditional media pre-launch
campaign for the 2011 Chevrolet Cruze was awarded one of the client automobiles.
Ontario College of Art & Design University
www.ocad.ca
Undergraduate programs leading to Bachelor of Fine Arts or Bachelor
of Design are joined with graduate level programs, including an Executive
Master of Design in Advertising. This program spans three years as well as
the globe. Students are banded into teams that, in addition to course attend
six four-day international seminars during two of the three years, meeting in
advertising hubs such as New York, Montreal, London and Rio de Janeiro
to pitch campaigns to agency professionals. Each summer, for three years,
students are in residence in Toronto for a concentrated two-week program.
At the Undergraduate level, advertising is one of twelve undergraduate majors and is structured and taught with a uniting philosophy of “Concept before execution. Strategy before style. Solutions that combine powerful language and compelling imagery.”
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Queen’s University
(School of Business - Bachelor of Commerce)
www.qmac.ca
The School of Business offers a Bachelor of Commerce – a four-year
Honours program that boasts one of the “highest entrance standards of any
undergraduate program in Canada. BusinessWeek has ranked the MBA program #1 among non-US programs, and consistently ranks it among the
world’s top 25 business programs.
Queen’s Commerce Society (comsoc.queensu.ca), the undergraduate
student government for Queen's commerce students, oversees 14 highprofile conferences and competitions under the direction of numerous student committees, working with “a budget of over a million dollars.” The
organization and all of its events are entirely student-run. One of the 14
conferences/competitions taps into students’ advertising smarts. For the
2010 competition, Unilever prepared a case study for its Sunsilk hair care
product. Strategic and tactical decisions – including how to deploy the
bulging toolkit of promotion options – were up to student teams. Finalist
teams presented to judging panel that included Unilever Canada president
Christopher Luxon” (Krewen 2010).
Trent University
www.trentu.ca/businessadmin/courses.php
Through its program leading to a Bachelor of Business Administration, Trent University provides a third year introductory advertising course.
John Bishop, who teaches the course, characterizes it as “more of a liberal
arts approach to advertising ... we are a program within the liberal arts faculty and try to take a liberal arts look at business; we do not see ourselves as
just training students for a career.” (John Bishop, personal communication,
November 15, 2009).
Wilfrid Laurier University
www.wlu.ca
Laurier's School of Business and Economics offers a concentration in
Brand Communication & Management. Developed with support by Canada's Institute of Communication Agencies (ICA) and its agency associates
the concentration received a Chair in Brand Communications from the
Marketing Communications Educational Trust. (Jani Yates, President ICA,
personal communication, August 21, 2009).
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Algonquin College
www.algonquincollege.com
The School of Media and Design offers a three-year advertising program with the first two years devoted to foundations in advertising and
marketing and the third year providing specialization opportunities and an
industry internship. Concepts and skills learned in courses are put to work
in the student-run advertising agency, Leg Up.
Centennial College of Applied Arts and Technology
www.centennialcollege.ca
The Centre for Creative Communications houses the School of
Communications, Media and Design, the site of programs in Advertising,
Design, and Integrated Media in a high-tech learning environment with
300 multimedia workstations. The three-year undergraduate advertising
program includes courses in administration and finance, as well as an Introduction to Agency Advertising, Two post-graduate advertising programs are
also offered – one in Account Management and one in Media Management.
Representative of the post-graduate programs, students in the Fall
2009 Communication Agency Primer spent an intense seven days developing a campaign to raise relief money for an Asia ravaged by a chain of natural disasters, an effort that earned press in Marketing (Lloyd, 2009). In
2010, the school introduced a course in Media Engineering Design Integration embrace the reality of rapid changes in the ways people receive and respond to messages, while advancing delivery systems. Nate Horowitz,
Dean, says, “This program is about inventing what’s next, engineering with
media and combining these two disciplines to create the future of information and entertainment products.”
Conestoga
www.conestogac.on.ca
Conestoga offers a trio of advertising-related programs: Advertising, a
two-year Ontario College Diploma program; a post-graduate, one year Integrated Marketing Communications program yielding an Ontario Graduate Certificate; and the Graphic Design program, a three-year selective admissions course of study leading to an Ontario College Advanced Diploma.
The school boasts a 90%+ record of job placement within six months of
graduation.
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Durham College
www.durhamcollege.ca
The Media, Art & Design division offers a three-year advertising program. with the final semester devoted to in-field placement. Students progress through a series of courses that ready them for allied areas, such as interactive, sales promotion and media sales, and build an array of skills, ranging from PowerPoint and Excel to digital media production and portfolio
development. (Dawn Salter, personal communication, October 29, 2009).
Humber College Institute of Technology & Advanced Learning
www.humber.ca
In 2004, the School of Media Studies & Information Technology
launched its four-year Bachelor of Applied Arts, Creative Advertising degree
program, described as unique in Canada (www.mediastudies.humber.ca).
The curriculum is structured to parallel the industry tradition of writers and
designers working in tandem. At the fifth semester, students plan and execute solutions for bonafide clients through the program's on-campus agency,
Ad Centre; and the seventh semester includes a 14-week paid on-the-job
stint, facilitated by the school's networking outreach.
The School also offers three other advertising-centered programs.
Two of these are diploma programs running four semesters: Advertising
and Graphic Design and Advertising and Media Sales. The first of these
develop the student’s visual, strategic, conceptual, typographic and computer skills, while the later emphasizes the central importance of media to advertising effectiveness and builds skills in the computer systems used by the
media. The third is a two-semester postgraduate program in Advertising
Copywriting leading to an Ontario Graduate Certificate; this program accepts graduates from virtually any discipline, and sees itself as preparing
writers for entry-level jobs in a diverse range of sectors, from agency to corporate to government.
Mohawk College
www.mohawkcollege.ca
The School of Arts, science & Communication offers a three-year
Advanced Diploma program with a broad array of advertising-keyed courses. Students branch off into a creative or business trajectory after their first
year with a selective admission on the creative side. A student-run agency
adds experience in serving clients. In a decade plus, students have won 15
national Canadian Marketing Association awards. A separate two-year Mohawk program, Graphic Design Production – Integrated Media Arts, readies students for graphic arts careers.
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Niagara College of Applied Arts and Technology
www.niagaracollege.ca
The Business Administration--Marketing program provides three
courses in advertising, including a third year capstone course where students
develop campaigns keyed to the Canadian marketing environment. Students earn an Advanced Diploma (Beth Pett, personal communication, October 28, 2009). A two-year Sales and Marketing program includes the Integrated Marketing Communications course, and earns an Ontario College
Diploma.
Seneca College of Applied Arts and Technology
www.seneca.on.ca
Seneca's School of Communication Art is home to a two-year program in Creative Advertising leading to an Ontario College Diploma. The
first year emphasizes creative concept development and the writing of persuasive advertising copy. In the second year, students develop campaigns
and focus their final semester on a ‘stream’ in either creative development or
business management. Through Seneca's joint program with York University, students can go on to earn a York University Bachelor of Arts degree.
Sheridan College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning
www.sheridaninstitute.ca
Advertising studies are available in three program levels through the
School of Business. A two-year program earns an Advertising Diploma.
The enriched three-year program results in an Advertising Advanced Diploma. In both, course offerings incorporate current industry-specific software to assure students’ market readiness. An optional unpaid four-week
on-site experience in the industry is available to student in either of the programs. The three-year program essentially adds a two-semester capstone
course focused on campaigns and teaming advertising students with media
arts students to create and produce television commercials. The third advertising program at Sheridan’s Business School, leads to a Post Graduate Certificate in Advertising Management. This one-year program is structured as
an immersion experience that builds and hones account-based decision
making skills across the full spectrum of the advertising process.
Through Sheridan’s School of Animation, Arts and Design, students
can pursue a Bachelor of Design (Honors) a four-year program is offered
jointly with York University. The program prepares students for careers
such as graphic design, product design, and digital design accelerates in the
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students' fourth year. (Peggy Bramwell, personal communication, November 9, 2009).
St. Clair College Centre for the Arts
www.stclaircollege.ca
A three-year advertising program (www.stclaircollege.ca/programs
/postsec/advertising) prepares students in career areas of Media, World Wide
Web and Mobile Marketing, Copywriting, and Design and Production. St.
Clair notes its Advertising majors win consistently in competitions of the
Advertising Educators Association of Canada, and reports, “Our employment rate six months after graduation is over 90%.”
Also offered is a three-year graphic design program leading to an Ontario College Advanced Diploma (www.stclaircollege.ca/programs/postsec
/graphic). The program emphasizes that designers’ creativity must support
clients' needs Graduation from this program provides the first step in professional accreditation as a Registered Graphic Designer (Association of
Registered Graphic Designers of Ontario).
St. Lawrence College
www.stlawrencecollege.ca
The Advertising-Integrated Marketing Communication program is
based in the College’s School of Business. The three-year program features
training in both creative and media and includes two field placements to
assure exposure to a range of IMC applications and business contexts. Students “have excelled in numerous video competitions and are consistent
winners at the annual Ontario Colleges’ Marketing Competition, where expertise in advertising and marketing is recognized by marketing professionals.” St. Clair students have won the competition six times in the last nine
years (John Conrad, personal communication, October 28, 2009). Graduates receive an Ontario College Advanced Diploma.
An Advanced Diploma is also available from the three-year Graphic
Design program (www.slcgraphicdesign.ca). The program addresses work
contexts from design studios to advertising agencies to new media production units. Students also build mastery of the most current versions of
graphics software including InDesign, Photoshop, Illustrator, DreamWeaver and Flash. The program qualifies graduates for future certification by the
Association of Registered Graphic Designers of Ontario.
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Québec
HEC Montreal
www.hec.ca
HEC Montreal is an independent business school affiliated with the
University of Montreal and offers a Graduate Diploma in Marketing
Communication developed in conjunction with the Association of Québec
Advertising Agencies. A key architect of the program was Cossette’s Patrick
Beauduin, Chief Creative Officer the Cossette Agency. Prospective students
bring at least one year of experience in the field prior to beginning the 2year program, which is conducted in French.
McGill University
www.mcgill.ca
The Desautels Faculty of Management offers marketing communication courses at the Bachelors and Masters levels. Its undergraduate course
takes a management-by-objectives approach viewing subject matter from a
Canadian perspective (Ron Duerksen, personal communications, August
31, 2009, and September 25, 2009).
University of Québec at Montreal
www.faccom.uqam.ca
In 2007, UQAM began offering a BA in Marketing Communication.
With instruction available only in French, its focus is on the interdependent
tools of marketing communications: research, strategic marketing, advertising, media, public relations, and newly emerging marketing communication
platforms.
University of Sherbrooke
Baccalaureate and Masters in Marketing Communications
www.usherbrooke.ca/ssp
A innovative approach to advertising education at Sherbrooke integrates Baccalaureate and Masters into a four-year program in marketing
communications. Students alternate periods of coursework with paid internships. The Masters level is capped with an advanced work site experience in the student's area of career specialization. Once again, study is conducted in French.
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New Brunswick
Mount Allison University
www.mta.ca/calendar/Commerce.html#d0e9400
Through the Ron Joyce Centre for Business Studies, a B.A. program
in Commerce is offered that includes an Integrated Marketing Communication course exploring the promotional mix and familiarizing students with
Canadian advertising institutions.
University of New Brunswick
www.unb.ca
At the University of New Brunswick's Fredericton campus, students
can study toward a Bachelor of Business Administration. Their program
also offers an Integrated Marketing Communications course.
New Brunswick Community College
www.nbcc.ca
The New Brunswick Community College has teaching facilities in six
provincial towns. At the Moncton and Saint John locations, a Marketing
program is available in the Business Administration division. The two-year,
full-time diploma program “teaches students how to create superior advertising strategies, produce award winning advertisements, [and] develop
competitive strategies.” At NBCC’s Miramichi campus, the Graphic Design
program welcomes students who’re “intrigued with advertising.” This twoyear, full-time diploma program builds expertise and skills in classic design
principles, production, and digital for applications in advertising, web and
new media design.
Prince Edward Island
The University of Prince Edward Island
The School of Business Administration recognizes advertising’s contribution to marketing by way of an Integrated Marketing Communications
course, available to students in their third or fourth year as an option in
many of the business programs.
Holland College
www.hollandc.pe.ca
The Business Department at Holland College provides a foundation
for an advertising management career in its Marketing & Advertising Management program. Courses in marketing basics are teamed with marketing
communications courses. Students study the business of advertising and
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design, examining its management both on the client side and the agency
side, as well as key areas of agency function. The two-year program leads to
the diploma credential.
Nova Scotia
Acadia University
www.acadiau.ca
The F.C. Manning School of Business offers a four-year Bachelor of
Business Administration Marketing, an element of which is a course in Advertising/Promotion Management
Dalhousie University
(School of Business Administration)
www.dal.ca
The Dalhousie business program stresses a hands-on philosophy via a
mandatory commerce co-op component. Consistent with that is a Marketing Communication, where students develop a comprehensive integrated
campaign.
Mount Saint Vincent University
Department of Business Administration and Tourism and Hospitality Management offers Certificate, Diploma, and Bachelor of Business Administration programs. The Marketing program includes a course in Advertising Theory and Practice.
Nova Scotia College of Art and Design University
www.nscad.ca
Although the faculty emphasizes a breadth that goes beyond training
in software and production methods, students who graduate from the fouryear Bachelor of Design program “typically take positions in design firms or
agencies as junior designers. Many later advance to become art/creative directors.”
St. Francis Xavier University
www.stfx.ca
The Gerald Schwartz School of Business and Information Systems
offers a Bachelor of Business Administration with major and honors option
in marketing, which includes a course in Marketing Communications.
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Nova Scotia Community College
www.nscc.ca
In the School of Applied Arts & New Media, an Allied Communication Arts curriculum begins with a one-year Certificate program introducing students to the fields of graphic design, photography, new media, and
video/moving image. This provides a foundation for graphic design program that prepares students to design project from concept to production.
The School also offers a two-year Diploma program in Interactive & Motion Graphics program combining graphic design, video, photography, animation, type and sound intended to prepares students for careers in fields
ranging from advertising to motion pictures.
The Business Administration unit of the School of Business provides
a Marketing Concentration where advertising is included as an integral
component, represented by an Integrated Marketing Communications
course.
Newfoundland and Labrador
Memorial University of Newfoundland
www.mun.ca
While Memorial doesn’t offer a complete program in advertising, its
Faculty of Business Administration does offer advertising-keyed courses,
two at the undergraduate level and one at the graduate level. The graduate
level course, Marketing Communications, helps students to “develop analytical and management skills in planning, executing and evaluating advertising and promotional campaigns” (Katherine Gallagher, personal communication, October 15, 2009).
College of the North Atlantic
www.cna.nl.ca
Graduates earn a diploma (two or three year programs) or a certificate
(occupational course). Business diploma programs on several campuses
emphasize marketing skills, with advertising preparation through a Marketing Communications course.
At the Prince Philip Drive Campus, a two-year Graphic Design diploma program is offered in the School of Applied Arts. In a recent fiveyear period, students won 25 design awards in provincial, regional and national competitions.
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Private Career Schools
Numerous private career schools exist in Newfoundland and Labrador, which are subject to Department of Education approval and oversight.
In addition, appropriate regulatory or licensing groups also participate in
review and group approval (Department of Education, 2010).
Academy Canada
www.academycanada.com
This private career school offers a six-semester Multimedia Graphic
Design program leading to a Diploma of Technology. Two courses are targeted at students with career interests in advertising design: Psychology of
Advertising and Advertising Copywriting Fundamentals.
Keyin College
www.keyin.com
The Business Management program at this private career school runs
88 weeks and earns credit toward degree programs at Cape Breton University. The program includes a course in Graphic Design and one in Advertising.
Canadian Territories
Post-secondary education in the three Territories that span Canada’s
remote northern reaches differs from the provincial models, and are often
structured with an eye to preparing students for transfer to a provincial institution. Three programs in two of the Territories are potentially advertising-related.
In the Northwest Territories, Aurora College (www.auroracollege
.nt.ca) offers a Marketing Management course as part of a Business Administration Certificate program. In the Yukon Territory, the Yukon College
(www.yukoncollege.yk.ca) School of Management, Tourism and Hospitality
offers a 30-week Multimedia Communication program. Also in the Yukon,
KIAC School of the Visual Arts offers a one-year program at Dawson City
that earns a Certificate, but also is intended to prepare for transfer to a degree program in the student’s career area, such as graphic design.
At Tour's End
The tour of the provinces shows the nature and scope of post secondary advertising education across Canada. By and large, students eager to
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prepare themselves for a career in advertising head to a college (community
college or vocational institute) where advertising programs are at home.
There, they find content-rich two and three year programs, some of which
rival most university level ad programs in other countries. Any students who
wish a traditional university degree can often take advantage of agreements
between their college and a university. As a consequence, ad-centric programs at the university level are more rare.
There is, however, a discernible interest in a university level communications-career portal for students, fueled, in part, by advances in communications technologies. The rapid evolution of these technologies has created a need for the chameleon worker, one who can adapt and switch hats
within one job or can transition to a new job. Thus, a new broad based
communications education framework, which embraces advertising, has
emerged at the university level, notably two related instances.
University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Faculty of Criminology, Justice and Policy Studies
www.criminologyandjustice.uoit.ca
Developing a professional communicator is the goal of an undergraduate degree program launched in the Fall. The four-year program, which
leads to a Bachelor of Arts (Honors) degree, partners the academic discipline of communication with wide-ranging professional training. Across
the first two years, students complete foundation courses in communications and business. Courses in the third and fourth years move the student
toward area specialization. A Marketing and Commerce specialization incorporates advertising, and includes courses in Advertising Management,
Marketing Strategy, International Marketing, Consumer Behavior, Sales
Management, Recruiting and Selection, Management of Change, Human
Resource Planning, Developing Management Skills.
UOIT is a completely “laptop” university: all courses are paperless,
inside and outside the classroom. Within the Communications Program,
the Intercultural Communication course is delivered via Second Life and
SKYPE used in the Globalization and International Communication course
for conference calls. A strong emphasis is also being placed on enhancing
the school’s programs through international partnerships. For example, one
with the Chinese University of Hong Kong allows UOIT students to take
online courses with UOIT professors while enrolled in comparative Western and Chinese values courses with CUHK faculty. Partnering programs
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are being arranged with universities in Australia, Austria, Ireland, Morocco,
and the United States.60
Royal Roads University
www.royalroads.ca
The School of Communication and Culture offers a BA in Professional Communication that weds courses about communication, its social
role, contexts which shape it, its effects, with its practice in such work environments of communication professionals as public relations, advertising,
marketing, journalism, and corporate, technical, or web-based communication. The program also stresses the importance of critical thinking. The
Royal Roads program was designed by Dr. Mari Peepre, who later designed
UOIT’s program, accounting for a trong similarity in the two.
Industry Advocates of Advertising Education in Canada
Industry support of advertising education is a trans-Canada presence
and, in some areas, is extraordinarily energetic. With advertising regarded
as a profession where training is a huge plus, if not a must, there is both
commitment and enthusiasm to the support from current professionals and
from industry organizations. Post-secondary education, primarily at the
college and institute level, is valued as the shaper of the new blood that renews and invigorates the industry.
The faculty of most advertising programs forge and nurture close ties
to their province's advertising community. For many programs, that close
tie is essential to the structure of their professional advertising-training program. An internship or field placement is an integral program cap for them,
with some programs structured on a co-op basis.
Important, too, is a program’s reputation and credibility with advertising professionals. This compels ongoing outreach by ad program faculty
to gauge the pulse of ad professionals’ opinions on the content and effectiveness of their program. Many programs' promotional information points
to the guiding hand of industry professionals, often as part of regular review
of program structure.
Strong professional support gives wings to an array of student competitions and events. From the discrete course, to institution-based mega efforts such as DeGroote’s Next Top Ad Exec to agency competitions to na60
Special thanks to Dr. Anthony B. Chan, Professor and Founding Associate Dean, for information reported in this section (personal communication, September 5, 2009).
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tional competitions, professional support is solid. For the 2009 launch of
“Advertising Week,” with its Youth Day competition, a collection of agencies welcomed student team members into their agencies for the students'
shaping of their campaign. Those agencies were: Agency 59, BBDO, Bensimon Byme, Bos, Cossette, Cundari Group, DDB, Due North Communications, Gray Canada, Leo Burnett, Lowe Roche, Quiller and Blake, Ogilvy
& Mather, Publicis, Starcom MediaVest Group, TBWA (Canada’s First
Advertising Week, 2009). Highlights of some of the efforts to support advertising education are identified below.
Institute of Communication Agencies
www.icacanada.ca
The Toronto-based Institute of Communication Agencies is a strong,
enduring industry champion. Founded in 1905, it's an untiring industry
force coast-to-coast with a roster of top-tier communications and advertising agencies. Among its Canada-based list of high visibility agencies are
Cossette, TAXI and Due North Communications along with such international heavyweights as BBDO, Saatchi & Saatchi, DDB, and Dentsu.
ICA's key role in the 2009 launch of the trans-Canada Advertising
Week brought the industry front and center to all Canadians. That 2009
industry ‘splash’ builds on ICA's year-by-year work to help strengthen its
member agencies and, thus, “improve their real and perceived value to clients.” Through its CASSIES (Canadian Advertising Success Stories} awards,
it draws attention to the strategic and creative prowess of Canada’s advertising agencies.
ICA’s range of agency (and agency employee) programs is extensive.
Its Specialist Programs include the highly respected Accreditation Program
for Communications Professionals (CAAP, www.caapcanada.ca). Across its
40-plus-year run, it has been completed by over 50,000 professionals. The
two-year program builds expertise in marketing communications for ICA
members’ junior level staff in account and media, media groups' sales representatives, and advertisers' marketing department staffs. Graduates of the
program become a Communications and Advertising Accredited Professional and can use the initials ‘CAAP’ after their name.
Additional specialist programs include a Certification Program for
Print Professionals (CPPP), a Broadcast Commercial Production Course
(BCPC), and a Creative Portfolio Design Course (CPDC). ICA's collection of workshops zero in on specific skill gains with units such as Managing Creative Development, Writing that Sells and the Art of the Pitch.
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Advertisers seeking a new agency find support in ICA's AgencySearch.ca service: confidential access to ICA's database of member agency
profiles.
Masters Certificate in Brand Communications
THE ICA, in concert with York University’s Schulich Executive Education Centre (SEEC) and with support and input from industry leaders,
structured a curriculum to accelerate the readiness of on-the-rise industry
leaders as brand communicators. Program participants are ICA member
agency employees with at least a ten-year top performance record in marketing communications.
The program strives to maximize its graduates’ ability to be adroit,
outside-the-box thinkers who can develop strategic solutions for clients’
communication needs. It's positioned as an enrichment investment that's
of value in creative and media agency areas as well as account-related management. ICA's comments about the program note, “A person who has
completed this certification will be expected to be capable of consistently
inspiring and leading the highest caliber of brand and communications
business solutions by: . . . Enabling a dynamic change environment that
stimulates business results and relationship success.”
2010 Advertising Week
In January 2010, the ICA-led Advertising Week was the talk of Canada with highlights throughout the week in Toronto, Montreal, Halifax,
Vancouver, Edmonton and Calgary. Following its 2009 debut, ICA teamed
again with its member agencies along with a range of communicationscentered businesses and organizations to celebrate advertising's role in Canada's economic health and the career-enjoyment of those who practice it.
Students again got to rub shoulders with professionals, from industry titans
to fledgling professionals who were ad program graduates just months ago.
Cossette
www.cossette.com
The name is legendary in Canadian advertising circles. Its roots reach
back across nearly four decades of history rich with success to its founding
in 1972. Across Canada today, its presence is strong (Halifax, Montreal,
Québec city, Toronto, Vancouver) and stretches out internationally to other
cities with agency clout, including New York, Los Angeles, London, and
Shanghai. It’s evolved beyond the more narrow focus of advertising agency
and works now to serve clients as a convergent community force.
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It also is a powerhouse force in attracting and shaping the talent
needed by the industry. Cossette's new Grow-Op Internship Program confers unique visibility for students with talent as well as the coveted opportunity to be tapped for a Cossette internship. In addition to providing career-boosting opportunities for students, the competition also showcases the
effectiveness of advertising education. The announcement of Cossette's
2010 Grow-Op competition states:
In combination with the AEAC (Advertising Educators Association of Canada) the competition concentrates on attracting the best candidates from advertising focused College/University programs. The core quality required
within these individuals is a breadth of understanding with regard to all facets
of the advertising industry (print/radio/television/interactive/media/ promotions/PR/DR/copywriting/art direction). A convergent understanding is key.
Students across Ontario who’re enrolled in an Advertising or Graphic
Design program are eligible to compete. Typically, team members are undergraduate students though graduates with a 4-year degree in any discipline can participate if they’re concurrently enrolled in an Advertising or
Graphic Design program. Cossette urges teams to focus on the strategic
thinking needed to tackle the client’s (a Cossette client) communications
need and, then, let the tactics flow from those strategies.
Each team bundles its recommendation into a compelling selling plan
of 32 pages, a 20-minute presentation delivered by a team of six, capped
with a challenging 10-minute question-and-answer exchange. The decision
on which team gets the first-place nod is reached by a team of industry
judges. For many competing students, more coveted than a win is being
selected for an internship with Cossette. Following the competition, Cossette handpicks at least four students from any of the teams to intern with
the agency (Mark Smyka, personal communication, January 22, 2010).
The Advertising & Design Club of Canada
www.theadcc.ca
Spanning a half-century plus, the Advertising & Design Club of
Canada has long championed the visual quests of advertising and design
professionals, both current and hopefuls. Its singular mission, since 1948,
has been to encourage excellence in Canadian advertising and design.
Founded in Toronto, it's now the nationwide hub for a community of creatives where students of kindred spirit are welcome.
The ADCC supports students in two very practical ways. One is
through its annual awards show, Directions. Each year, the competition
spotlights the 'absolute best' in the fields of Advertising, Graphic Design,
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Editorial Design, and Interactive Media. The same categories are covered
in ADCC's national student competition. Historically, the student competition centers on students' efforts keyed to a specified brand or product.
The rewards of an ADCC win are heady for students: national visibility by
being showcased at the Awards show, in the ADCC Awards Annual, and on
ADCC's website gallery. At its 60th anniversary awards show, the ADCC
introduced a student-level Best in Show Award, tapping one student as rich
in promise and who the industry should keep on its radar. Accompanying
the extraordinary career boost was a $1500 cash prize.
The second way the ADCC supports students is through a link on its
website where post-secondary programs and courses are highlighted. The
site makes no attempt to judge any of the programs: “Here you'll see some
programs & courses we’ve heard about that some people like. Have more
suggestions? Tell us.” Rather, the listing points to a range of options available to students and aids fuller exploration with click-through access. Mentioned on the list are:
St. Lawrence College
Alberta College of Art + Design
Conestoga College
International Academy of Design and Technology
Mohawk College of Applied Art & Technologies
Sheridan College
Seneca College/Seneca College@York University
Centennial College
Humber College
Ontario College of Art & Design
Association of Québec Advertising Agencies
www.aapq.ca
The quest for top-tier status in the highly competitive international
advertising world is unending. A key mission of the Association of Québec
Advertising Agencies, founded in 1988, is to support the quest of its member agencies to produce work that exceeds client expectations. Toward that,
AQAA (AAPQ in French) has been a leading partner since 2000 with Québec universities in establishing training programs. Part of that leadership
has involved engaging key industry professionals both in program design
and in providing ongoing instruction support to insure students' experience
is both expert and current. Another key form of leadership is the funding
that AQAA provides to support these programs:
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• HEC Montreal -- Graduate Diploma in Marketing Communications
(DESS CM)
• University of Québec at Montreal Baccalaureate in Communication Marketing
• University of Québec at Montreal Diploma of Higher Studies specializing
in Creative
Even though AQAA is a relatively young agency association, its role
in Québec is strong thanks to its roughly 60-member roster, who “generate
more than 80 % of the advertising agency business in Québec.” These
member agencies benefit directly from AQAA's role in the development and
support of university programs in marketing and communications that create a growing talent pool.
In the HEC Montreal DESS CM program, annual membership renewal in AQAA/AAPQ earns the member agency an $800 discount per
student. Also for DESS CM students, AQAA awards $5,000 to the graduate
with the highest cumulative average.
The importance of career training in Québec is reflected in the province’s training tax allowance. “... (E)mployers can take 2% of an employee's
salaries for training and deduct it from company taxes. This is unique to
Québec and makes training financially easier.” (Jani Yates, personal communication, August 21, 2009.)
Advertising Agency Association of British Columbia
www.aaabc.ca
Ad agencies in British Columbia are supported by the AAABC, a
non-profit industry association started in 1975 to enhance its member
agencies' stature and opportunities. Part of its mission is also “to support
and train young people interested in advertising as a career.” For this, it
works with the Institute of Communications Agencies (ICA) in their CAAP
educational program for professionals. AAABC also provides support to
British Columbia Institute of Technology students in the marketing communications program through the BCIT Marketing and Advertising Endowment.
Canadian Marketing Association
www.the-cma.org
From its Toronto headquarters, the Canadian Marketing Association
serves a robust industry membership of 800 corporate members. Its national outreach as a nonprofit organization links it to affiliate organizations in
Alberta, British Columbia, Québec, Manitoba, and Ontario. Since its
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founding in 1967, the Canadian Marketing Association has pursued it mission to be an advocate of marketers and to serve as their central hub of connection. A third element of its mission, to provide professional development opportunities, is met, in part, through the CMA Student Awards
competition.
For this CMA competition, based on case studies uniquely designed
for the competition, students develop plans for either a marketing or a creative campaign. Post-secondary students are eligible to enter the competition
who are enrolled in direct marketing or programs where it's part of the program. Entering the competition earns a one-year CMA student membership. For winners, there's a cash award, a subscription to Strategy Magazine
(along with a profile in it), and visibility on the CMA website.
Career preparation is also supported by the CMA through a professional course program. Core course offerings in the program are:
Advertising & Media
Customer Insight through Research & Analytics
Direct Marketing
E-Marketing
Integrated Branding
Promotions
On its website, the Canadian Advertising Association describes its
Advertising and Media course this way: “The Advertising & Media course
is designed for both agencies and clients who want to improve their strategies, planning and creative. Participants will learn how to develop an effective advertising plan that will deliver results and align with the business and
marketing objectives of your organization.”
With assignments and exams to gauge their mastery of course content, those successfully completing a course are awarded certificates. A student who successfully completes four CMA certificate courses and a CMA
math seminar is named a Certified Marketing Specialist. This recognition
was established by the CMA as an industry designation for marketing professionals.
Advertising Educator’s Association of Canada
The Advertising Educator's Association of Canada was born of a
shared goal of several advertising professors to unite in a quest for the best,
most effective instructional practices. The year was 1990 and the founding
group included faculty from Ontario Colleges with strong advertising programs (Ian Fisher, personal communication, May 25, 2010). Among these,
a key figure was Professor George Baumann, a professor of advertising at St.
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Clair College, Windsor, Ontario (Len Olszewski, personal communication,
January 26, 2010).
AEAC works to help members stay abreast of the ever-changing industry through its affiliation with agencies, related industry suppliers, and
industry associations such as the Institute of Communications Agencies.
Students benefit from those connections through the annual competition
AEAC sponsors where students can test their ability in the competition divisions of Creative and IMC (advertising/business planning). For the 2010
competition, Cossette teamed with AEAC and launched the students' work
with a live briefing from one of Cossette's clients (www.cossette.com/growop). High motivation to win was created by the prize at stake -- internships
for highly promising team members with Cossette (Anthony Kalamut, personal communication, May 26, 2010).
Its active visibility in the industry, particularly in Ontario, makes
AEAC a go-to resource and ally for professionals. As it builds its reputation
as an authority on advertising education, AEAC strives to be sought out as
“the expert in identifying the needs of employers and suggesting ways that
colleges can respond to these needs with new curriculum” (Len Olszewski,
personal communication, January 26, 2010). Colleges whose members
and, by extension, students are active in the AEAC are:
Algonquin College
Cambrian College
Centennial College
Durham College
Georgian College
Humber College
Loyalist College
Mohawk College
Seneca College
Sheridan College
St. Clair College
Canadian Advertising Museum
www.canadianadvertisingmuseum.com
Work is underway for the creation of the Canadian Advertising Museum to showcase Canada's decades of advertising prowess. The museum's
unique value to students, not just advertising but students from a broad
swath of academic disciplines, is the essence of the project’s mission: “The
Canadian Advertising Museum will be a resource to inform, educate and
inspire a wide range of individuals with a specific focus on young people
and educators.”
Canada's history as a country, the history of its economic engine, its
cultural odyssey – these educational journeys will be powered by exhibits of
Canada's progression of advertising. The plan is to show the best campaigns, share the strategies behind them, and feature the people who created
them as well as the campaigns' clients.
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With its initial online home, the doors to the Canadian Advertising
Museum will be open round the clock. Students nationwide will have equal
access to Canada's trove of advertising riches. Steering construction of the
Museum is a cadre of passionate advertising professionals with oversight and
coordination by Humber College Associate Dean, Toby Fletcher.
Afterword
A Klondike-type rush by students worldwide may not be on tap for
Canada's colleges and institutes that offer training for an advertising career.
Still, the richness of these training opportunities commands attention and
praise. From the mid-60s on, an impressive collection of programs has developed that rivals programs anywhere. The variety in both program structure and courses points to innovative, thoughtful planning that strives to
keep pace with industry advances.
These education gems are relatively rare in many provinces. The typical experience is a required or optional advertising course in a business program. Advertising also has a presence, often more robust than in business
programs, in graphic design programs. And with graphic design programs
more prevalent in many provinces than advertising programs, this field
opens the door to an ad career for students with artistic and/or computer
ability. To a greater or lesser degree, in one form or another, the conduct of
advertising is essential subject matter throughout Canada. Among the provinces, as the vignette tour shows, Ontario is where ad education thrives.
Advertising educators around the globe can benefit their own program by selecting a few stellar Canadian programs and bookmarking each
program's website. An occasional visit to a site will show what’s new and
prompt consideration of its value in updating or revising their own program.
One word summarizes the status of advertising education a decade
into the twenty-first century: Outstanding. Not only is advertising education a valued player in career preparation across Canada, it’s developed a
league of superstar programs that merit staying on all ad educators’ radar.
398
References61
ACCC: The Association of Canadian Community Colleges. (2009). Retrieved October 12,
2009, from www.accc.ca/english/index.htm
AUCC: The Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. (2009). Retrieved October
11, 2009, from www.aucc.ca/index_e.html
Canada. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 20, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/91513/Canada
Canada's First Advertising Week to Take Place Jan. 26-30. (January 07, 2009). Retrieved
October 10, 2009, from www.PubZone.com
Department of Education (Newfoundland and Labrador). (2010). Private Training Institutions. Retrieved April 26, 2010, from
www.ed.gov.nl.ca/edu/postsecondary/privatedir.html
Krewen, Nick. (2010). Winners announced in QMAC Sunsilk Challenge. Media In Canada, Jan 18, 2010. Retrieved March 29, 2010 from
www.mediaincanada.com/articles/mic/20100118/qmac.html?__b=yes
Lloyd, Jeromy. (2009).Ad students ask for global change. Marketing, October 30, 2009. Retrieved February 7, 2010 from quote at www.centennialcollege.ca/thecentre/medianews
Soares, Nuno. (January 30, 2009). “Your ticket in is their ticket out" wins Ad Week Youth
Day contest. Retrieved October 10, 2009, from www.mediaincanada.com
World Almanac and Book of Facts. (2007). New York: World Almanac Books. pp. 758 759, 841 - 842.
61
Numerous approaches led to the gathering of information for this chapter. In late summer
2009, initial queries were sent to faculty and/or the PR director of each university and university college listed as a member institution by the Association of Universities and Colleges
of Canada (AUCC). In the Fall, a query was posted by Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC) to its member institutions. Hundreds of post-secondary institutions’
websites were explored examining both the institution's self-positioning and history as well as
sublinks of promising programs. Government portals, both at the national and provincial
levels, were accessed to acquire general historical information as well as ministry-based information on post-secondary education. Input was also sought from advertising association
leaders. Usually, parallel examination of these was made using online resources such as Wikipedia with references therein examined where possible. From all, leads were followed which
were sometimes richly rewarding . . . sometimes circuitous . . . and sometimes a wash. Content providers are untiringly diligent in their efforts to keep information current or simply to
refresh information, so anticipate content differences in future visits to a program's site compared to what you find here from a Fall 2009 through a Spring 2010 info quest.
399
United States of America
[Extracted from the book A Century of Advertising Education (2008), and the 2011
edition of Where Shall I Go to Study Advertising & Public Relations?]
Billy I. Ross
Texas Tech & Louisiana State Universities, USA
Jef I. Richards
Michigan State University, USA
Advertising Education History in America
Advertising education in America dates from 1893; the first course
devoted exclusively to advertising and so titled was offered in 1905 at New
York University. That course, “Advertising,” was taught by the faculty of
the University's School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance.
The first undergraduate advertising course taught in a journalism
school was “Advertising and Publishing,” taught in 1908 by Charles G.
Ross at the School of Journalism of the University of Missouri. The University of Missouri also hired Joseph E. Chasnoff as an instructor in advertising in 1911. He was the first faculty member hired specifically to teach
advertising in a four-year educational institution.
The first graduate course in advertising was offered in 1921 by the
University of Missouri. Two years later, New York University Graduate
School of Business started graduate advertising courses.
Psychologists were among the earliest writers on advertising subjects. Some of the pioneer advertising educators included Walter Dill Scott,
Harry L. Hollingworth, and Henry F. Adams.
The earliest advertising teachers’ organization was the National Association of Teachers of Advertising, founded in 1915. In 1958, the American Academy of Advertising was formed in Dallas, Texas.
Two advertising student organizations, Alpha Delta Sigma, for men,
and Gamma Alpha Chi, for women, were founded at the University of Missouri. In 1972 they became the Academic Division of the American Advertising Federation.
Advertising Education Support Organizations
Of six originally advertising education organizations only three exist
400
today. The National Association of Teachers of Advertising, Alpha Delta
Sigma and Gamma Alpha Chi no longer exist as such. The NATA eventually became the American Marketing Association while ADS and GAX were
merged into the American Advertising Federation. Today, the three major
organizations for advertising education include the American Academy of
Advertising, the Advertising Division of the Association for Education in
Journalism and Mass Communication, and the Academic Division of the
American Advertising Federation.
The American Academy of Advertising (the “Three A’s”) has become
the most forceful publishing voice in advertising education, thanks to the
increased support of marketing educators who teach advertising. The Advertising Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication has established The Journal of Advertising Education, which
encourages more articles about the teaching of advertising.
Trends in Advertising Education
The Ford and Carnegie studies in the late 1950s made major changes in where advertising was to be taught. Even though neither of the studies
made mention of advertising per se, their recommendations were directed
primarily to the reduction of the number of majors in business schools that
tended to be “how to” education.
Prior to the studies, many of the major advertising programs were
housed in the marketing program of schools of business. By the 1960s
many of the programs were either discontinued or moved across campus to
journalism programs. Today, about 90 percent of advertising programs are
found in journalism and mass communication programs.
In recent years, one of the biggest changes in advertising education,
particularly in JMC programs, has been the merging of advertising and public relations programs into a joint program. And, in turn, many programs
renamed the programs to Integrated Marketing Communication or Strategic Communication. And, more recently, there emerged a move by many
schools toward what has been titled “Media Convergence.”
Institutions Offering Advertising Programs
Nationally, there are 165 schools with advertising programs that are
listed in the 2011 edition of Where Shall I Go to Study Advertising & Public
Relations? The programs are listed in 42 states and the District of Colum-
401
bia. Texas has the largest number of advertising programs, with 13.
Advertising Programs
The most noticeable change has been from the straight advertising
programs to joint advertising/public relations programs. Advertising education programs have continued to increase in journalism schools while decreasing in business schools.
Curriculum
Most schools now offer a very general undergraduate advertising curriculum instead of a specialized curriculum. For many years advertising
programs offered courses that prepared graduates for work with media. Today’s typical curriculum includes a media course that deals with the analysis
of media rather than buying or selling advertising for news media. Many
advertising educators point out that the curriculum of the 2000s has placed
more emphasis on the “why” aspect of advertising rather that the “how,”
which was prevalent for many years.
The most required courses in advertising have remained about the
same for more than two decades. There have been changes in titles such as
creative strategy for courses in copy and layout. Another example is in Media Strategy instead of courses in print and broadcasting.
Graduate Advertising Education
In recent years there has been a major change in the number of
schools reporting graduate programs for advertising students. One of the
major changes most noted currently is the diversity of programs. Most of
the change can be attributed to the decrease in programs in marketing and
the increase in journalism and mass communication. Another change that
is similar to that in the undergraduate curriculum is the merging of advertising and public relations in integrated marketing communication.
Advertising Students
The number of advertising students has grown in recent years. As
early at 2005 there were 26,814. One of the major percent of growth has
been the number of doctoral students studying advertising. Student growth
patterns have continued in the Southeastern and Southwestern states.
Advertising Graduates
The trend of graduates follows the same pattern as that of schools
and students. In 1993, 7774 degrees were awarded to advertising students,
while more than 9,000 were awarded in 2005. The largest increase came
402
from master degrees awarded in 1993 to 406 to 650 in 2005.
Faculty
An interesting trend has been the increase in the number of faculty
with advanced degrees. In 1993, there were 462 full-time faculty with an
increase in 2005 to 589. The most important trend regarding faculty has
been the increase in quality. The teachers today have more education; most
have doctoral degrees. They spend more time on research than did their
counterparts in the 1960s. They have more academic publications available
for their research and writings.
Evaluation and Accreditation for Advertising Programs
Formal evaluation of advertising programs has been discussed for
many years and no doubt at some time will come about. Today there is no
accreditation specifically for advertising education. Three accrediting agencies accredit schools that have advertising programs and are considered as a
part of the whole academic unit under which they may serve. The agency
that gives a more thorough examination of the advertising program is the
Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication.
Two agencies that accredit business programs that may have an advertising program include the Association of Collegiate Business Schools and
Programs and the American Assembly of Collegiate Business Schools and
Programs.
Student Organizations and Competitions
Five national organizations offer advertising student competitions. The one most recognized and used is National Student Advertising
Competition (NSAC) sponsored by the American Advertising Federation. AAF’s web site bills it as “the premier college advertising competition.” AAF also offers a Most Promising Minority Students program that
recognizes minority students.
The Leonard J. Raymond Collegiate ECHO Competition is sponsored by the Direct Marketing Association. DMA considers it “The Oscar
of direct marketing.” The International ANDY Awards Student Competition is sponsored by the Advertising Club of New York. The Award recognizes creativity.
403
The InterAd Competition is sponsored by the International Advertising Association. The international competition is offered for university students from around the world. The Yellow Pages Publishers’ Association
sponsors the annual Yellow Pages Student Creative Competition.
The Future
In a 1963 article in Printers’ Ink, Charles H. Sandage foresaw these
advancements for advertising education:
Leading universities will increasingly establish departments of advertising for
the purposes of (1) centering responsibility in planning and administering
professional advertising programs, (2) giving students who wish to prepare
for an advertising career an academic home on the campus with knowledgeable and sympathetic academic counselors, and (3) bringing together qualified
teachers as a team with common purpose.
He was right on each count.
References
Ross, Billy I., and Jef I. Richards (2008). A Century of Advertising Education. Beachwood,
OH: American Academy of Advertising.
Ross, Billy I., and Jef I. Richards (2011). Where Shall I Go to Study Advertising and Public
Relations? Beachwood, OH: American Academy of Advertising.
Sandage, Charles H., (1963) “Too Little for Advertising’s Future,” Printers’ Ink, (June 14),
130.
Williams, Sara Lockwood (1929) Twenty Years for Journalism, Columbia. MO: E. W. Stephens Publishing CO, 80.
404
Pacific
Advertising Education in
Australia
Gayle F. Kerr
Queensland University of Technology,
Brisbane, Australia
David S. Waller
University of Technology Sydney,
Australia
In Australia advertising education has had a strong vocational orientation and is taught at technical colleges and at universities that have a heritage as technical institutions. The courses often maintain close industry ties
for internships, guest speakers, and full-time, entry-level employment, and
encourage a vocational direction.
For many years the main source of advertising talent in Australia was
a combination of expatriates (largely from the U.K. and the U.S.A.) and
Australians who entered the business immediately after high school or after
a few years of working in a related field. Like most of the early advertising
practitioners in the U.S., Australians received their advertising education on
the job rather than in the classroom. However, over the past 25 years, this
has been changing, with undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs
being made available across the country.
This chapter will document the development of advertising education
in Australia and discuss the current state of advertising education within the
tertiary (higher education) sector.
The Development of Advertising Education
The earliest providers of Advertising education are found as far back
as World War I, when advertisers were aware of the need for a standard of
educational qualification within the industry. At that time private business
schools and correspondence courses, such as I.C.S. (International Correspond-
405
ence Schools) and the Alexander Hamilton Institute, were the only way to
study the principles and techniques of the areas of “Advertising and Salesmanship” (Waller 1995).
Advertising agents began to understand the need to improve the image
of the advertising industry and thereby build confidence and credibility within
the community. Advertising education then became a major interest of professional associations.
Between 1918 and 1931 there were six conventions of Australasian Advertising Men that aimed to recognize advertising as a profession, and the subsequent need for a training system for new entrants to the industry. In 1920,
at the Second Convention, the Federal Education Board was established. Students could study for a certificate (1 year) or Diploma (2 years) in Advertising
through the State bodies (Waller 1995). It was felt that these would be of the
“same value in the commercial world as those issued by the ‘Accountancy Institutes’ and … have at least the same standing and value as a University degree” (VIA 1920).
The subjects studied for the Certificate included Advertisement Construction, Media, English, Printing/inks/paper, Commercial Art & Reproduction Processes, and Salesmanship. For the Diploma the subjects were the Certificate level subjects plus Advanced Advertising Construction and Psychology,
Planning a Campaign, Management, Advertising Agents and Service Agents,
English, General Business and Organization, and General Information. Although it was not necessary to hold a certificate or diploma to enter the advertising industry, by 1935 155 members of the Advertising Association of Australia (AAA) held diplomas, eight of whom were women (AAANZ, 1935).
Also resulting from at the Second Convention was the establishment of
the Advertising Institute of Australia, which later becoming the Advertising
Institute of Australasia. The objective of this industry body was for all advertising professionals to undertake a course of study and pass what was then
called the “Licentiate Exam,” that was virtually a license to practice advertising.
Up until the 1960’s, the AIA provided the training and conducted the
examination of the licentiate. At this point, it had gathered considerable momentum, and it was decided to look for willing and suitable educational partners to deliver advertising education on a broader scale. Since the 1960s the
AIA’s course has been integrated as part of the TAFE (Technical and Further
Education) system as an “Advanced Diploma of Business – Advertising.”
The primary Marketing association, the Australian Marketing Institute,
was founded 1933, originally as The Institute of Sales Management. The
AMI offered seminar programs, guest speakers, and courses, especially during
the 1950s and 1960s, and these programs were usually “American-influenced”
406
(Ellis 1992).
In the early 1950s the AMI became an examining body for courses using commercial and technical colleges as teaching centers. In 1978 it stopped
its examiner role, and instead accredited TAFE and university courses. The
original AMI Marketing Certificate included a unit on Advertising in the final
year. According to Ellis (1992), the “Advertising syllabus, strongly practitioner-orientated, differs little in its general approach from that of the International
Correspondence School courses offered some fifty years before.”
After World War II, until the 1980s, a number of Technical Colleges
taught advertising. For example, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
(later RMIT University) offered a Certificate of Advertising in the 1950s
taught by the Department of Administrative Studies, which required six vocational/professional units in Advertising (but did not require any Marketing
units). Other technical colleges that taught advertising subjects included the
South Australian School of Mines (later part of the University of South Australia), Sydney Technical College (later the University of Technology, Sydney),
Gordon Institute of Technology – Geelong (Gordon Institute of TAFE),
Footscray Technical College (later part of the Victoria University), and Perth
Technical College (later part of Central Institute of Technology TAFE).
As for advertising being taught at a university level, the first marketing
unit taught in Australia was at the University of Melbourne in 1929. The subject “Marketing” was a second year elective offered by the Faculty of Economics and Commerce, and included “Advertising” as one of the topics (Ellis
1992). A Marketing degree was established at the University of New South
Wales with the appointment of John Schneider as the Founding Chair of
Marketing in 1965. An early review of the course in 1967 pointed out that
the UNSW was heavily orientated to Advertising (Liander 1967).
Australia’s first advertising degree program was offered in 1974 by the
Queensland University of Technology (Kerr, Waller & Patti 2009). The program was as part of the Bachelor of Business (Communication) taught by the
School of Communication. The number of advertising degree programs grew
in the 1990s, particularly being taught by Business Schools (Table 27-1).
On average, a new comprehensive advertising degree program was
introduced every year from 1990-1997. Five of the seven new program
providers had recently transformed into universities from technical colleges
in 1987 with the missions of curriculum expansion.
An advertising program was perfectly suited to their needs because of
the rapid growth of the advertising industry in the 1980s and a demand for
skilled entry-level employees. Furthermore, advertising programs could be
housed in many different faculties like Arts or Business. The growth and
407
success of the QUT program was a final reassurance (Patti 2006).
Year
Commenced
1974
Degree
Institution
Queensland University of Technology
1985
1990
1992
Queensland University of Technology
University of Technology, Sydney
RMIT (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology)
University
Charles Sturt University
Canberra University
Monash University
Queensland University of Technology
Curtin University
Bachelor of BusinessCommunication
Graduate Diploma in Communication
Bachelor of Business
Bachelor of Arts-Advertising
1994
1994
1995
1996
1997
1997
Bond University
Bachelor of Arts-Communication
Bachelor of Arts-Communication
Bachelor of Communication
Master of Business-Communication
Bachelor of Business-Advertising &
Mktg
Bachelor of Communication
Source: Various sources, including Good Universities Guide, University Bulletins, and interviews
Table 27-1: Early Advertising Degree Programs
Undergraduate Advertising Courses
Advertising is popular as a subject and career choice. As an individual
subject, it is taught in all but one of the 38 universities in Australia (Waller
2006). There are 12 universities that offer three-year, full-time undergraduate advertising programs. Nine of these are comprehensive advertising programs, i.e., they include an introductory advertising unit, media planning,
copywriting, management and a planning, project or campaigns unit. Bond
University is the only private university in this group, and more than half of
these universities have evolved from other higher education institutions.
Of the remaining, only two (Monash University and University of
Queensland) were founded prior to the creation of the National Unified
System in 1987. Looking only at those universities that offer a comprehensive advertising education, two-thirds were former institutes of technology.
This attests to the original vocational nature and skills-based orientation of
comprehensive advertising programs in Australia. A profile of the universities is found in Table 27-2.
Comprehensive advertising programs are typically taught at universities with a large undergraduate population and, often, inadequate facilities,
the legacy of past underfunding. These universities must compete with the
more traditional, sandstone universities for government funding, creating a
drive for research outputs, sometimes at the expense of teaching quality
(Ashenden and Milligan 1997, p. 253).
408
Source: Compiled from The Good Universities Guide 2010
University
Year
Est.
Bond
University
1989
Year/
Uni
Status
1989
Charles Sturt
University
1990
1990
Curtin University of
Technology
1967
1987
Edith Cowan
University
1902
1991
Monash
University
1958
1958
Queensland
University of
Technology
1882
1988
RMIT
University
1887
1992
University of
Canberra
1967
1990
University of
Queensland
1909
1909
University of
Technology
Sydney
1965
1988
University of
Western
Sydney
1989
1989
University of
Wollongong
1951
1975
Type
Degree
Major
Comprehensive
ad program
Privateacademic,
some applied
research
Publicvocational,
distance, ltd.
applied res.
Publicvocational,
significant
applied res.
Publicvocational,
distance, ltd.
applied res.
BA
BComm
1.Arts-Advertising
2.CommunicationAdv.
Yes
BA(Comm-Adv.)
BMediaComm
1.CommunicationAdv.
2.Media Communication
1. Creative Adv.
Design
2. Commerce-Adv.
Yes
Yes
Publicacademic,
vocational,
distance, res.
emphasis
Publicvocational,
applied res.
emphasis
Publicvocational,
applied res.
emphasis
Publicvocational,
applied res.
emphasis
Publicacademic,
research emphasis
Publicvocational,
applied res.
BBus&Com
1. Marketing, Adv. &
Public Relations
2.CommunicationsAdv.
Business & Commerce Mktg. Communication
1.
BusinessAdvertising
2. Mass Comm.Adv.
Advertising
Yes
BAdv&
MktgComm
Advertising and
Mktg. Communication
Yes
BBus
Business - Advertising & Public Relations
No
BA(Comm)
BBus
Yes
Publicvocational,
some applied
research
Publicacademic,
vocational,
research
emphasis
BComm
1. Public Communication
2. Advertising and
Promotion Mgmt.
CommunicationAdv.
Communication &
Media StudiesAdvertising and
Marketing
No
BA(MassComm)
BCom
BMktAdv&PR
BComm
BBus
BMCom
BComm
BC&MSt
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Table 27-2: Profile of Australian Universities offering Undergraduate Adv. Programs
409
While the advertising program has a traditional vocational focus, today’s incarnation includes strategy as well as skills-based content. Most
programs offer an introductory advertising subject, an advertising management or strategy subject, and a research subject. Half of the programs teach
the more applied areas of copywriting and media planning. Sometimes the
absence of the copywriting unit is a reflection of the program’s position in
the Business School, where creative subjects are the domain of the Arts or
Communication Schools. Only six advertising programs conclude with a
capstone campaigns course, although others include an advertising project.
Graduate Advertising Courses
As an individual subject, Advertising is taught at the graduate level in
more than half of Australian universities (27 of 38). What it is called varies
across institutions, most commonly “Integrated Marketing Communications,” followed by “Marketing Communications.” Most insist on Marketing as a pre-requisite subject.
Advertising as a graduate program is not offered widely in Australia.
Queensland University of Technology (QUT) is one exception. Having
demonstrated leadership in undergraduate advertising education, QUT was
the first university to offer a comprehensive graduate program in advertising. In 1985, it introduced a Graduate Diploma in Communications and
then expanded into three coursework Masters programs (Strategic Advertising, Creative Advertising and IMC), a Masters by Research program and
PhD studies in 1996. Other universities, such as RMIT, Charles Sturt, and
Bond offer Masters by Research programs that include research subjects and
a thesis component, without offering specific graduate advertising courses.
Emerging Trends in Advertising Education
In recent years, a number of trends have emerged to challenge the nature and structure of advertising education in Australia. To assist in understanding these trends, an open-ended questionnaire was sent to the course
coordinators of those universities that have a comprehensive advertising major. Six of the nine responded, helping identify and expand upon the
emerging trends in advertising education in Australia.
410
Growth in Student Numbers
Student numbers in advertising subjects in Australia are growing in
two ways. First, there is evidence of growth in the number of students
studying an undergraduate advertising major. Typically there are around
100 students studying in advertising majors in most Australian universities.
University of Technology-Sydney (UTS), for example, has 95 in its
Arts Faculty and Edith Cowan has 120. UTS reports an increase from 18
graduates in 2003 to more than 70 who will graduate in 2010. QUT is the
largest, graduating around 200 advertising majors per year. Bond, the only
private university, has around 30 advertising majors.
Interest is also growing in advertising as an elective subject. There are
200 students taking the introductory advertising unit at Edith Cowan per
semester, and around the same number at QUT. At QUT, in any semester,
there also are 250 students taking the undergraduate IMC unit.
At the graduate level, continuing to use QUT as an example, enrolment in the Advertising Management subject is around 100 students per
semester. Another 100 per semester study the IMC subject. These come
from advertising, marketing, and IMC majors. As an elective or a major, at
undergraduate or graduate level, students want to study advertising.
Changes in student profile and attitude
Part of this demand for advertising programs comes from other countries. In Australia, international student numbers have increased in response
to the need for universities to seek out additional sources of funding.
Large cohorts from China, Taiwan, India, Thailand, Malaysia, and
Europe are attracted by the quality of Australia education, athe proximity to
home, and the great beaches. This has changed the student mix in many
undergraduate and graduate programs. At QUT, for example, around 85%
of the graduate advertising management students are international, and
15% domestic. In the undergraduate program, the reverse would be true
with domestic students in the majority.
Anecdotal evidence also suggests significant changes in student attendance and attitude. Time-poor students, particularly domestic, full-time
undergraduates, balance their university studies with a part-time job and a
social life. The introduction of full-fee paying places also changed student
mindset, so that university is a service, not a privilege. One course coordinator said, “Attendance at lectures is becoming more and more difficult for
many students as the pressures of life and the requirement in many cases to
work to self-fund a university education, means that they simply don’t have
the time to meet the often staggered class times over a week.”
The exception here is the private university, Bond, which has an at-
411
tendance policy of 80% of all lectures and tutorials. There is also suggestion of sliding literacy standards within the student body. A course coordinator noted, “The internet has created problems of copy-and-paste assignments, while mobile texting has created a new generation of students who
use jargon and abbreviated language in their assignments.”
Extending Advertising Programs
Advertising programs have become more strategic than technical.
Most have pushed the boundaries of traditional advertising majors to create
new opportunities for thinking spaces, and new applications of advertising
knowledge. For example, UTS has redesigned its advertising major to offer
greater connectivity with trans-media and cross-platform communication.
New subjects in strategic thinking, strategic branding, digital promotion
and ethical and social responsibility have populated elective choices. This is
remarkable at a time when many universities are cutting back on electives
for cost reasons.
Another course coordinator noted, “In our school context, there is
funding to develop and enhance programs. However, we do not have the
funding to introduce all the technology into the course that is necessary to
place us on the cutting edge. In particular, digital is an area of weakness
both in terms of equipment and staff capability to present relevant courses.”
Most Australian universities invest intellectual capital in IMC. Often
it is a stand-alone subject, which may be an elective or even part of the advertising or marketing program. Sometimes, it is a program in itself. QUT
for example, offers a suite of six IMC units as an IMC Second Major. Other universities embed an IMC focus into advertising units. As one course
coordinator stated, “All advertising courses offered at our university have an
IMC perspective, so a subject like Internet Advertising will always have an
offline component, a subject like Brand Image an interactive component.”
Academics become octopi
One course coordinator summed up the general feeling about the increase in academic workload: “I used to work long hours when I managed
an international advertising agency and I never realized that academia is
non-stop work of teaching, research, industry engagement, and service to
the university (four areas of promotion)! I am like an octopus juggling various roles in my current position.”
Another described the main issue for advertising academics as time:
“Time and resources to embrace the snowballing effect of technology and
the proliferation of communication channels; time to research and publish;
time to maintain and develop critical industry relationships and to network
412
with colleagues nationally and internationally; time to think strategically
about the on-going development and future of course and program content
that exceeds the expectations of our industry employers; time to actually enjoy what we do.”
Sense of academic community
While workload might be an issue, at least we all feel the same way.
And at long last the academic community has a voice through the Australia
and New Zealand Academic Association (ANZAA). ANZAA was formed
in 2007, following a special interest session at the national marketing conference. It has a regular newsletter and website, but perhaps best of all, it
has identified who teaches advertising in Australia and New Zealand and
their main issues and problems.
One of its major initiatives has been to establish a National Student
Competition in 2008. Another was to lobby for a change in ranking for two
advertising journals. It has also encouraged a number of research partnerships, as well as an annual dinner. In 2011, it co-hosted the AAA Asia Pacific Conference.
Drawing from the historical data, and considering both the current
state and emerging trends, the evolution of advertising education in Australia is shown in Figure 27-1.
Vocational
Technical
• 1920-‐1950
• Industry
driven
• 1950-‐1990
• Skills
based
Strategic
• 1990-‐
current
• Strategy
and
skills
Holistic
• Future??
• Advertising
extends
Figure 27-1: Evolution of Advertising Education in Australia
Figure 27-1 documents the evolution from the vocational to the
technical to the strategic. It also proposes that advertising education will
not stop there. Instead, advertising education will extend into other realms,
merging with other disciplines, such as psychology, consumer behavior, etc.,
and developing into a more holistic communication discipline. Perhaps advertising will be the “everything” that consumers already think it is.
413
Challenges for the future of Advertising Education in Australia
Kerr, Waller, and Patti (2009) identified six critical issues for advertising education in Australia.
1. What is advertising? – and have we changed as much as the discipline.
2. Funding – international students, off-shore campuses, flexible delivery as
surrogates for government funding.
3. Program choices – especially what constitutes an advertising program; how
undergraduate and graduate programs are different and how these programs
should be delivered.
4. Staffing and workload issues – small pool of qualified staff, low wages and
increasing workload.
5. Accreditation – no Australian system of accreditation of advertising programs.
6. Research – university funding and personal promotion tied to research; introduction of national journal ranking scheme.
In asking Australian course coordinators to comment on this list,
three priorities emerged. The first was the need to define what advertising
program could be. This is perhaps very different to what we have traditionally taught or even what we currently teach. It reflects an urgent need to see
where the discipline is heading and how we can add value to understanding
above and beyond what the industry can provide on-the-job.
The second priority was the need to understand our students better.
They are quite different to us. Many come from a different cultural background, or from families where English is not the first language. There is
also a generational shift to the tech-saavy, information-on-demand, digital
natives. How can a university education provide value to someone who can
google the information 24/7?
Part of the answer is in inspiring students to think and reason and
apply. This is connected with a fundamental drive of many Australian universities to improve generic graduate capabilities, like critical thinking,
problem solving, social and ethical understanding and teamwork. While
some of this has come from international accreditation requirements such as
AACSB and EQUIS, it has also been identified by employers as an on-thejob accelerator.
The third priority is the need to resource our advertising programs. Put
simply, we need more staff, more money, and fewer things to do. However,
given the current climate, this is not likely to happen. Therefore, we need
to work smarter, more collaboratively to pool our time and resources to best
414
effect. This spawns research and teaching networks, and the sharing of administration secrets. Of course, all of this cooperation takes time and energy to happen and that is where the problem begins again.
Conclusion
Advertising education is perhaps as complex as advertising itself.
Driven by the mandate to educate tomorrow’s advertising professionals, it
must both keep ahead of the industry and in touch with its needs. In Australia, the educational community has achieved this through evolution,
from facilitating the vocational needs, to developing the technical skills, to
understanding and implementing the strategic to perhaps a future where
advertising education will become more holistic. Ahead, its academics
acknowledge a number of key challenges including redefining advertising,
understanding the generational and technological shifts within our student
population, and resourcing the programs. Time, it would seem, is our most
precious and elusive resource.
References
AAANZ (1935) Advertising Association of Australia and New Zealand Records, Rare Book and
Manuscript Library, National Library of Australia, Canberra (MS1014).
Ashenden D. and S. Milligan (1997). The Good Universities Guide to Australian Universities.
Western Australia: Ashenden Milligan Publishing.
Ellis, Robert (1992). “Structural Change in Marketing Education,” an unpublished paper,
Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne.
Kerr, Gayle F., David S. Waller, and Charles Patti (2009). “Advertising Education in Australia: Looking Back to the Future”, Journal of Marketing Education, 31, 264-274.
Liander, Bertil (ed) (1967). International Study of Marketing Education. The International Marketing Federation, Philadelphia, PA.
Patti, Charles (2006). History and Context of Advertising Education in Australia and New
Zealand. Australia New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference (ANZMAC), Brisbane, December.
The Good Universities Guide to Australian Universities (2010). Hobsons Australia, Melbourne.
Victoria Institute of Advertising (1920). Report and Recommendations on the Victorian Institute of Advertising Men's Educational Proposals. Programme of the Second Convention of
Advertising Men of Australasia, Sydney, 1920.
Waller, David S. (2006). Traditional Areas of Study And New Perspectives: An Audit of
Current Advertising Education Practice. Australia New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference (ANZMAC), Brisbane, December.
Waller, David S. (1995). Ethics, Education and Self-Regulation: The 1920 Sydney Advertising
Convention. Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol. 81 Part 1, June, 99-107.
415
Advertising Education in
the Philippines62
Lulu Rodriguez
Iowa State University, USA
Sela Sar
Iowa State University, USA
According to the Reader’s Digest Asia (2007), the Philippines ranked
third among the seven Asian markets it surveyed in terms of level of support
from local consumers. Of the 90 brands that captured the trust of local
buyers, 42 were local. Affluent Filipinos were found more supportive of local brands than their counterparts in other Asian countries such as Hong
Kong and Singapore, where only 18% of the most trusted brands were
home grown.
The preference for the local is more than just an offshoot of nationalistic fervor. The phenomenon is largely a testament to the impact of advertising campaigns that favor the homespun and that resonates with the Filipino culture. Such campaigns are the creative output of advertising practitioners trained to apply concepts that resound with the local ethos.
The emphasis on the local is part of advertising training and curricula
that immerse students in a foundation of theory, design and business aspects. In general, advertising programs at the undergraduate level introduce
advertising concepts, research, artistic, creative, psychological facets, sales
promotional activities, and offers opportunities for the application of advertising principles. This emphasis is on the communicative aspects of the arts.
The concentration is on the creative utilization of various media to display
Filipino insight.
The common objectives are to help students become more discerning
consumers and producers of the media; to develop critical thinkers and ethical communicators; to use practical, innovative experiences and partner62
Data for this chapter were gathered through a survey of advertising educators in select programs. Secondary sources of data include published advertising education curricula; listings
and descriptions of program objectives, course offerings, and teaching methodologies; vision
and mission statements of advertising programs; newspaper articles, journals, graduate theses,
books, and government documents.
416
ships to prepare students for successful communication careers; and to
maintain and enhance strong relationships with alumni and community
leaders particularly those in the business, government, and the non-profit
sectors.
Institution
1
Holy Angel Univ.
2
Tarlac State Univ.
3
Tarlac State Univ.
4
Bulacan State Univ.
De La Salle Univ.Dasmariñas
Manuel S. Enverga
Univ. FoundationLucena
Adventist Univ. of the
Philippines
Univ. of Rizal
System-Angono
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Maryhill College
Philippine Cambridge
School of Law
Batangas State Univ.Alangilan Campus
Aquinas Univ.
of Legazpi
Central
Philippine Univ.
University of
San Agustin
La Consolacion
College- Bacolod
16 University of Bohol
University of San
17 Carlos
Philippine Women's
18 College of Davao
19 Asia Pacific College
20 Asia Pacific College
Colegio de San Juan
21 de Letran
College of the Holy
22 Spirit of Manila
College of the Holy
23 Spirit of Manila
Institutional
Form of
Ownership
Private
non-sectarian
State university
main campus
State university
main campus
State university
main campus
Municipality Program Name
Angeles City
City of Tarlac
(Capital)
City of Tarlac
(Capital)
City of Malolos
(Capital)
Bachelor of Arts
Major
Advertising and
Public Relations
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Three Year Certificate
in Fine Arts
Advertising
Adv. Design
and Illustration
Advertising
Marketing & Adv.
Management
Private sectarian
Dasmariñas
Bachelor of Fine Arts
B.S. in Business
Administration
Private
non-sectarian
Lucena City
B.S. in Fine Arts
Advertising
Private sectarian
State university
satellite campus
Silang
Associate in Arts
Advertising Arts
Angono
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Private sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
State university
satellite campus
Private
non-sectarian
Private sectarian
non-stock
Private
non-sectarian
Lucena City
Advertising
Advertising
Management
Batangas City
Bachelor of Arts
B.S. in
Business Administration Advertising
Bachelor of Science
Fine Arts (Advertising)
Legazpi City
B.S. in Fine Arts
Iloilo City
B.S. in Advertising
Iloilo City
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Advertising
Private sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
Private
non-sectarian
Bacolod City
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Advertising Arts
Tagbilaran City Bachelor in Fine Arts
Advertising Arts
Cebu City
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Advertising Arts
Davao City
Bachelor in Fine Arts
Advertising Arts
Marketing and
Advertising
Marketing and
Advertising
Dasmariñas
City of Makati B.S. in Commerce
B.S. in Business
City of Makati Administration
B.A. in
Intramuros
Advertising
San Miguel
Bachelor of Fine Arts
San Miguel
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Advertising Arts
Advertising
Associate in
Advertising
417
Private
24 Far Eastern University non-sectarian
Sampaloc
La Consolacion Col25 lege Manila
Private sectarian
San Miguel
Private sectarian
State university
main campus
Private nonsectarian
Private nonsectarian
Private nonsectarian
San Miguel
City of Vigan
(Capital)
Private sectarian
Malate
Private sectarian
Malate
33 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
34 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
35 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
36 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
37 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
38 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
39 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
40 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
41 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
42 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
43 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
44 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
45 De La Salle University Private sectarian
Malate
26
27
28
29
30
31
La Consolacion College Manila
University of Northern
Philippines
Philippine Women's
Univ. System, Manila
Philippine Women's
Univ. System, Manila
Philippine Women's
Univ. System, Manila
St. Scholastica's College
Malate
Malate
Malate
St. Scholastica's Col32 lege
418
Bachelor of Fine Arts
B.S. in Business
Administration
Bachelor of Arts in
Mass Communication
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Special Advertising
Arts Course
Special Advertising
Arts Course
B.A. in
Mass Communication
Certificate in Visual
Communication/
Advertising Design
B.S.
in Commerce
B.S. in Applied Economics
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Economics and
B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Behavioral Science
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Communication
Arts
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A in Development
Studies
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Economics and
B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in History and
B.S. in Commerce
B.A in Literature and
B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Translation
Studies
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Int’l. Studies
major in American
Studies and
B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Int’l. Studies
major in Chinese Studies
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Int’l. Studies
major in European
Studies
and B.S. in Commerce
Advertising
Arts
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Advertising
Arts
Advertising
Advertising
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
52 Assumption College
B.A. in Int’l. Studies
major in Japanese
Studies
Malate
and B.S.in Commerce
B.A. in Organizational
Comm.
Malate
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Philippine Studies
major in Filipino in Mass
Media
Malate
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Philosophy
Malate
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Political Science
Malate
and B.S. in Commerce
B.A. in Psychology
Malate
and B.S. in Commerce
Bachelor of CommuniCity of Makati cation
53
Kalookan City
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Advertising Arts
Sampaloc
Fine Arts
Advertising Arts
Sampaloc
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Advertising
Sampaloc
Associate in Fine Arts
Advertising
Malate
Bachelor of Arts
Advertising
Bachelor in Business
Advertising /
Administration
Public Relations
Bachelor in Advertising
and Public Relations
46 De La Salle University Private sectarian
47 De La Salle University Private sectarian
48 De La Salle University Private sectarian
49 De La Salle University Private sectarian
50 De La Salle University Private sectarian
51 De La Salle University Private sectarian
54
55
56
57
58
59
Private nonsectarian
University of the East, Private nonCaloocan
sectarian
University of Santo
Tomas
Private sectarian
Eulogio "Amang"
Rodriguez Institute of State college main
Science and Tech.
campus
Eulogio "Amang"
Rodriguez Institute of State college main
Science and Tech.
campus
St. Paul University,
Manila (St. Paul University System)
Private sectarian
Polytechnic University State university
of the Philippines
main campus
Polytechnic University State university
of the Philippines
main campus
Santa Mesa
Santa Mesa
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Management
Advertising
Table 28-1. Institutions of higher education in the Philippines that offer
advertising and/or advertising-related programs
Advertising Education
As early as 1966, Magsaysay bemoaned the lack of qualified personnel
in Philippine advertising. At that time, the Philippine College of Commerce had just offered a full four-year program in advertising in 1963, the
first college to do so. Magsaysay lamented the lack of teachers and professional advertising personnel’s inability to train new entrants to the job.
In 1982, Javier Calero, chairman and CEO of J. Walter Thompson
(Philippines), echoed the same sentiment when he documented the rampant
“piracy of qualified personnel” in the advertising industry mainly because of
419
the “lack of trained people” (Concepcion and Yumol, 1989, p. 32). The
dearth of skilled manpower was attributed to the late arrival of curricula
“that included Marketing Communications as a major subject leading to a
bachelor’s degree” (p. 32). The paucity in skilled creative personnel, the absence of insights into the Filipino psychology, and poor relationship with
clients and the media can be solved, according to the Advertising Board
(1989), by offering more Advertising/Marketing Communications especially in state-owned universities.
Today, the Commission on Higher Education, the governing body
covering both public and private higher education institutions, as well as
degree-granting programs in all tertiary educational institutions in the Philippines, lists 31 colleges and universities that offer 59 advertising programs
all over the country (Table 28-1).
Table 28-1 indicates that majority of the advertising programs resides
within the Colleges of Fine Arts and offer the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree
major in Advertising or Advertising Arts. Graduates of such programs are
expected to be skilled in visual presentation, commercial arts techniques and
advertising approaches; and to be involved in current technical issues and
methods for expressing international trends as well as native traditions and
lifestyles.
Another popular home for advertising programs is Journalism and
Mass Communication departments, typically lodged within the Colleges of
Arts and Sciences. Where before these departments had only three majors
(journalism, broadcasting and communication research) one of the most
popular majors now is advertising.
Advertising programs can also be found in Communication and
Communication Arts departments whose Bachelor of Arts programs typically offer emphasis areas in Advertising and Public Relations. Programs of
study that deviate from the norm are rare. Only one institution offers the
Bachelor of Arts major in Advertising Management degree and another the
Bachelor of Arts in Advertising.
Full-service graduate programs are few and far between. Only one institution offers the Master of Arts in Communication major in Integrated
Marketing Communication while another offers both the Master in Marketing Communication and a Master of Science in Marketing. The University of Santo Tomas offers a Master of Science degree in Advertising.
Large advertising programs such as those at De La Salle University,
the University of Asia and the Pacific, and Assumption College63 take in an
63
Assumption College, which offers a holistic advertising program, is an educational institution that caters exclusively to women.
420
average of 50-60 students per year, with a student body typically composed
of 75% females. The University of Santo Tomas, which offers the largest
program in the country, enrolls more than 80 students per year. These programs also have an average of 12 full-time faculty members majority of
whom hold Master’s degrees in advertising, communication, and related
disciplines. Many are members of the Philippine Association of Communication Educators Foundation, Inc.
A survey of faculty members of select advertising schools (the University of Santo Tomas, De La Salle University Manila, and University of the
Philippines at Diliman, Quezon City), advertising graduates occupying entry-level positions in the top 30 advertising agencies in the country accredited by the Association of Accredited Advertising Agencies of the Philippines
(4As-P). Advertising experts from the accounts, creative, and media departments of advertising agencies found the course offerings, program objectives, and program services the three schools offer as moderately measuring up to the requirements of employers despite a wide variance in teaching
methodology (Alversado, 2004).
Advertising agency experts also reported two types of skills they require of applicants to entry-level positions: (1) technical skills in computer
use, writing, and oral presentation; and (2) behavioral competencies, including “interpersonal skills, resourcefulness, creativity, patience, willingness to
learn or be trained, motivation, attention to details, dedication, organization, and flexibility” (Alversado, 2004, p. 92).
Majority of the advertising programs are accredited by the Philippine
Association of Colleges and Universities Commission on Accreditation
(PACUCOA), a private accrediting agency that gives formal recognition to
educational institutions by attesting that their academic programs maintain
excellent standards in their operations in the context of their stated aims
and objectives. PACUCOA is a member of the Federation of Accrediting
Agencies of the Philippines (FAAP).
To be accredited, an educational institution must demonstrate that it
satisfies the following requirements:
1.
It has formally adopted an appropriate vision and mission;
2.
It offers educational programs or curricula consistent with its vision and
mission;
3.
It has a viable number of students actively pursuing courses at the time of
evaluation;
4.
It has a charter or legitimate authority to award certificates, diplomas or
degrees to each person who has successfully complied with the requirements of an educational program;
421
5.
It has formally designated a chief executive officer or has formally organized and staffed a chief executive office;
6.
It has a duly constituted governing board;
7.
It has documented its funding base, financial resources and plans for financial development adequate to carry out its stated purposes;
8.
It has financial statements that are externally audited on a regular schedule
by a certified public accountant or agency;
9.
It makes freely available to all interested persons accurate, fair, and substantially complete description of its program, activities and procedures;
and
10. It has graduated at least three batches before the evaluation for accredited
status (PACUCOA, n.d.).
Employment Opportunities
Traditional career opportunities for advertising graduates are mostly
found in the major metropolitan hubs. Those with advertising training are
often hired as creative directors, art directors, account managers, advertising
artists, graphic artist or designers for the print and television industry, production assistants for advertising agencies, design studios and production
companies; marketing assistants, event planners, visual merchandiser artists,
and merchandisers for marketing firms, corporate and retail marketing departments and shops, book designers and illustrators for publications and
publishing companies, creative and copy writers, and art and advertising
teachers.
Those with strategic planning preparation are employed as advertising
executives of advertising departments of client companies, advertising agencies, production houses or advertising support service companies, advertising and promotions officers of media companies or as proprietors of their
own advertising agencies. They are also easily absorbed in government service and private enterprises as researchers, journalists, publications specialists, personnel managers, human relations supervisors, as well as community
and corporate communication officers.
According to the results of a survey of heads of selected advertising
programs, over the past five years students most often land jobs as account
executives, directors or managers (50%), creative directors (15%), strategic
account planners (5%), and media directors (5%). Advertising careers,
however, are succumbing to the shrinking job market. Over the past five
years, an average of 5,000 mass communication graduates each year com-
422
pete for a few vacant slots in television and radio stations, newspapers, magazines, advertising agencies and public relations firms.
The problem, according to former economic planning secretary Cielito Habito, is that economic growth is felt only in a few sectors such as finance and telecommunication, which employ only a few thousand people.
The Labor Force Survey of 2003-2007 shows that while more than 400,000
students graduate from tertiary educational institutions each year, the number of employed professionals in the Philippines grew by only 31,000 to
1.41 million as of January 2006 from 1.38 million a year earlier (Luo,
2009).
Pioneering Programs
The Philippines boasts of several advertising programs that blaze the
trail in advertising education in Asia. The following stand out:
1. In 1999, the University of Asia and the Pacific (UA&P) pioneered a
five-year program in Integrated Marketing Communication that leads to
both a bachelor’s and a master’s degree. The objective is to equip students
with the expertise and skills to design and implement customer-driven marketing and advertising programs through information technology-based
promotional tools and competitive marketing strategies.
Its graduates enjoy a high rate of employment after graduation due to
the professional residency program that places students in some of the country’s major corporations, such as Unilever, Citibank, and in top advertising
and communication agencies, including Publicis, Jimenez Basic, Lowe, Ace
Saatchi & Saatchi, Starcom, and Arc Worldwide. Many of its alumni now
occupy positions where they develop strategies for marketing products and
services, spearhead consumer behavior research, and lead in the execution of
successful marketing and promotions programs.
This general program is a unique academic plan that allows a student
to graduate with a master’s degree in five years. The student goes through a
three-year liberal education program at the College of Arts and Sciences.
The student then seeks admission into the graduate school.
The only program accredited by the International Advertising Association, the UA&P program offers a unique curriculum that combines the
fields of marketing, marketing communications (e.g., advertising, public
relations, direct marketing, new media), management, and research. It prepares future professionals for a career in cutting edge management communications as they imbibe a holistic and strategic approach to business and
423
brand communications planning that is customer- or audience-focused, data and results-driven, channels-centered, and research-based.
The course offerings include communication, operations management, research, marketing management, advertising agency management,
creative strategy, copywriting and public relations. It is the only program in
the country that offers finance and accounting as part of the curriculum to
complement a strong dosage of communication theory.
The IMC curriculum is divided into three clusters: The first cluster
(3rd year) offers introductory courses in communication (business communication and communication theory) and marketing principles. The second
cluster (4th year) covers most of the core courses in IMC.
The IMC courses aim to develop an understanding of market segmentation, media selection, marketing communication channels, such as
advertising, direct marketing, and public relations, market research and
analysis, database management, brand communication management, and
global trends in marketing communications. The third cluster (5th year)
offers additional courses in IMC, such as financial management, new media
message delivery systems, and IMC campaigns.
What sets this curriculum apart is the required fifth year off-campus
hands-on training, called the professional residency program, often spent at
a major corporation where students work as members of a business unit.
Completing this requirement earns the student a Master of the Arts degree
with a major in Integrated Marketing Communications. In the fifth year,
students are assigned to client organizations or advertising agencies where
they work full-time for the entire academic year. Although the hiring of
students is not part of the agreement between the sponsoring companies
and the university, majority of the students are invited to join the company
after graduation.
Similar to a medical residency program, the students are expected to
function and perform as legitimate team members. By the time the students
start their residency, they have already been through the grind of intensive
lectures, discussions, case studies, and projects on IMC, advertising, marketing, public relations, general management, brand management, media strategy and planning, marketing and advertising research, creative strategy, consumer behavior, and database management.
Simultaneous with the residency program, they continue to take a
few more courses, such as advanced brand communications management,
customer valuation and marketing finance, and IMC campaign develop-
424
ment. Each student resident is evaluated by a faculty member through a
monthly written report by the resident, an evaluation at the end of each semester by the immediate supervisor-in-charge, an on-site visit by the faculty
member assigned, and a final written report by the resident at the end of the
program.
2. The Bachelor of Science in Advertising Management at De La
Salle University is designed for students who intend to pursue a professional
career in the advertising-related industry of the Asia-Pacific region. The
program of study enhances the managerial, strategic planning, creative and
media abilities of students so that they can work in any of the major departments of advertising agencies or within a marketing communications
set-up. It aims to supply marketing communications companies, particularly advertising agencies, with a dedicated, properly trained, skilled, and value-oriented advertising professionals who can work in the area of account
management, creative, production, media, and marketing services.
The program offers the following core and elective courses typical of
many advertising curricula in the country:
Advertising Communication (COMADVE). 3 units64. A course that develops the oral communication skills of a would-be advertising executive in situations involving dyadic, small group and public communication interactions.
This includes interviewing, presenting advertising proposals to client, negotiating, conducting conferences, and giving speeches on special occasions. The
students are required to undergo a company immersion program.
Marketing Management (MARKMAN). 3 units. An in-depth study of the
various functions and practices in marketing management from product development, production, pricing, distribution, selling, to various promotional
activities. As an application of the principles, the class is grouped into experimental companies that develop new products or services and eventually
promote them to specified target markets based on a marketing plan.
Legal Aspects of Advertising and Promotions (LAWADVE) 3. units. A
special law subject designed to orient students on the legal aspects of advertising such as intellectual property, trade mark, trade names, sales promotions,
and consumer protection.
Principles of Advertising and Marketing Communications (ADPRINS).
3 units. A course that introduces students to the principles and techniques of
advertising and related marketing communications activities like sales promotion, public relations, publicity, personal selling, and merchandising. Provides insights into the total marketing communications activities of a client
company and the role of the advertising agency in the planning, conceptualization, production and implementation of these activities. A mini-
64
A “unit” is equivalent to a credit in the American educational system.
425
advertising campaign is produced for experiential learning. Pre-requisite:
MARKETI
Advertising, Consumer, and Media Research (ADSERCH). 3
units. Acquaints the student to the methodologies of advertising consumer
and media research and its impact on the total development of an advertising
campaign plan in particular and the marketing plan in general. Group research projects dealing with consumer and advertising issues are conducted to
develop an appreciation of the value of research work in the field of marketing communications. Pre-requisite: ADPRINS
Strategic Planning and Account Management (ADSTRAT). 3
units. Introduces the student to the various strategies and philosophies of developing an advertising campaign or a marketing communications plan. Focuses on the account management function of an advertising agency and the
role of the account executive in supervising and advertising campaign. Offers
an overview of account and strategic planning. As a requirement, the student
prepares an advertising plan covering the facts of the industry or the market,
the product, the consumer, sales, advertising and promotional activities. On
the basis of the marketing brief, creative and media strategies and tactics are
developed and conceptualized into a campaign. Pre-requisite: ADPRINS
Copywriting and Creative Management (ADWRITE). 3 units. Deals with
the creative function of the agency with emphasis on copywriting. Exposes
the student to the management of the creative department of an advertising
agency and the role of the copywriter in the conceptualization of advertising
ideas based on strategies. Exercises in tri-media writing are maximized to develop creative abilities in writing for print, radio, and television. Writing for
non-traditional media is also explored. Pre-requisite: ADSTRAT
Advertising Visualization and Art Direction (ADVISUA). 3 units. A
course that develops visualization, drawing and artistic abilities. Various stages of visualization are discussed and students are allowed to practice drawing
skills. Various print ads and television commercials are evaluated in search of
the “big idea,” the key to an effective advertising campaign. Pre-requisite:
ADSTRAT
Print Advertising Production and Management (ADPRINT). 3 units. A
production course that deals with the processes and techniques of print advertising from the viewpoints of the print production department of the advertising agency or a print production supplier. A content analysis of print
ads currently published by various advertisers is conducted and their strategies evaluated as guidelines in the final print advertising workshop/print
campaign presentation. A minimum of 50 hours of practicum is required to
complete the course. Pre-requisite: ADWRITE, ADVISUA
Media Planning and Buying (ADMEDIA). 3 units. Focuses on the media
function of the advertising agency with emphasis on media planning and
buying. Various techniques in planning for various media of mass communication are discussed. The viewpoint of the media sector (i.e., publications,
broadcasting companies, and other non-traditional media companies) are investigated for a fuller perspective of the media function. Pre-requisite:
426
ADWRITE, ADVISUA
Broadcast Advertising Production and Management (ADBROAD). 3
units. A production course that deals with the process and techniques of
broadcast advertising from the viewpoints of the broadcast production department of the advertising agency as well as the production house. A content
analysis of radio-television commercials aired by various advertisers is conducted and their strategies evaluated as guidelines in the broadcast advertising
workshop/radio-TV campaign presentation. A minimum of 50 hours practicum is required to complete the course. Pre-requisite: ADWRITE, ADVISUA
Advocacy Advertising and Public Relations (ADVOCPR). 3 units. A discussion of the techniques and principles of public relations as a tool of marketing and corporate communications. Advocacy advertising is extensively
evaluated as a tool to enhance corporate image and reinforce the role of advertising in the socio-cultural and economic development of the country.
Contemporary Developments in Marketing Communications (ADCONTE). 3 units. A seminar-workshop format to discuss contemporary issues in marketing communications such as telemarketing, advocacy campaigns, account planning, entrepreneurial advertising, advertising ethics, new
trends in global advertising and international marketing. Resource speakers
on various relevant topics are invited to prepare students for future advertising work. Case studies in marketing communications are likewise deliberated
to enhance knowledge of the advertising industry and related fields.
Practicum and Campaign Presentation (ADTICUM). 3 units. A practicum of 300 hours in an advertising agency or an advertising-related industry
like production houses, promo agencies, advertising departments of client or
media companies. The student develops a full-blown advertising campaign
for a particular product, service or idea before a panel of advertising and marketing communications practitioners preferably in a speculative advertising
campaign presentation set-up.
Electives
Computer Graphics in Advertising (ADCOMPU). 3 units. A technical
course that introduces students to computer graphics in advertising and how
computer-generated commercials can convey a creative message. Also orients
students to new software developments like storyboarding and presenting
ideas using Powerpoint.
Advertising Photography (ADGRAPHY). 3 units. An introduction to
black and white and color advertising photography. The intricacies of shooting, developing and printing are discussed via workshops and applications.
Animation and cartooning are explored as advertising techniques. A photo
exhibit is required.
Direct Response Advertising and Sales Promotion (ADIRECT). 3
units. Acquaints the students with direct marketing communications as a
non-traditional tool of advertising. Internal, dealer, and consumer sales promotion activities are also tackled as a means to promote a company’s products and services.
427
3. The Fine Arts curricula at the University of the East center on liberal education and studio work linked to the principles of education enhanced
by advancements in digital art technology. The curricula offer a specialized
field in Advertising Arts whose core courses include the following:
Lettering 1 and 2 (AD. A 111 and AD. A 121). 3 units. A study of the classical and contemporary letters and their application to editorials and advertising layouts. Lecture and studio work.
Mechanical Drawing (AD. A 221). 3 units. Technical drawing with mechanical aids such as T-squares, triangle, drawing instruments, scales. Problems range from sectional, dimensional to more expanded forms and subjects.
Lecture and studio work.
Layout 1 (AD. A 212). 3 units. Study of the integration of design theories to
the elements of advertising; basic layout procedures and colors. Overview of
advertising trends from the conventional to the contemporary. Lecture and
studio work. Prerequisite: FA122.
Layout 2 (AD. A 222). 3 units. Continuation of AD. A 212. Advanced
study of advertising design for the print media, point-of-sale and promotional
materials. Analyses of contemporary trends in advertising copies. Lectures,
studio work and research. Prerequisite: AD. A 212.
Illustration 1 (AD. A 213). 3 units. Composition of human, animal and
other subjects in various poses and angles from memory. Lecture and studio
work. Prerequisite: FA 123.
Illustration 2 (AD. A 223). 3 units. Continuation of Illustration I. Emphasis
on advertising production and storyboards. Graphic media in black and
white and in color. Lecture and studio work. Prerequisite: AD. A 213.
Cartooning (AD. A 321). 3 units. Developing individual styles in cartooning and caricature for advertising and editorials. Study of comic strips, storyboards and animation for TV and cinema. Lecture and studio work. (3 units)
Design 3: Costume and Fashion Design (AD. A 413). 3 units. A study of
the costumes of different races, periods and occasions. Production of designs
for contemporary wear. Lecture, studio work and research. Prerequisite: AD.
A 213.
Design 4: Textile Design (AD. A 412). 3 units. A study of colors and patterns in creative two-dimensional designs for textile in its various forms. Lecture and studio work.
Design 5: Package Design (AD. A 423). 3 units. Study of packaging design
and materials for product containers and sales promotion. Lecture and studio
work.
Photography 1 (AD. A 414). 3 units. Study of darkroom techniques, camera
operation, negative developing and printing, printing papers and chemicals.
Lecture and darkroom work.
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Photography 2 (AD. A 424). 3 units. Study of composition, camera angle,
lighting, cropping, color printing and mounting, layout for advertising and
exhibition, photo essay (photojournalism), visits to photographic laboratories. Lecture and darkroom work. Prerequisite: AD. A414.
Advertising Production (AD. A 416). 3 units. Preparation of advertising
materials from conceptualization of designs to final production for various
printing processes. Lecture, studio and computer work. Prerequisite: AD. A
222.
Computer-Aided Design 1 (CD 311 A). 3 units. Study and application of
computer graphic software for layout, editing, cartooning and other advertising design problems. Lecture and computer work.
Computer-Aided Design 2 (CD 322A). 3 units. Continuation of CD 311
A. Advanced study and application of computer graphic software in 2D animation, webpage design, editing, layout. Prerequisite: CD 311 A.
Workshop (AD. A 425). 6 units. Production of final advertising and editorial art portfolio for graduation. Lecture, studio and computer work. Prerequisite: AD. A 416.
4. Those who graduate with a major in Advertising Design from the
College of the Holy Spirit are expected to be able to conceptualize and implement advertising concepts in the semi-professional level, show advanced
visual skills and conceptual competence both in manual and digital tools
and technologies, apply critical and creative thinking skills in forming design solutions, assemble a portfolio of creative works for job search, apply
interpersonal skills in dealing with clients in the advertising profession, and
use appropriate computer graphic programs in creating advertising designs.
The community service component of this program encourage students to
teach basic art processes to primary and secondary level students in formal
and informal settings, and acquire a clear vision of their role in promoting
life values by educating the Filipino consumer.
5. The Bachelor of Arts major in Advertising Arts program at the Far
Eastern University is a four-year program that trains students to develop
their artistic talents in the visual and creative arts, particularly in the field of
advertising. Students are trained in graphic art and design, copywriting,
branding and identity development, marketing strategies and art direction,
among others. A Certificate of Fine Arts Advertising is granted after completion of all prescribed courses until the third year.
6. The Advertising and Public Relations major at the College of St.
Scholastica provides a foundation for students who will work in a variety of
settings. Students are expected to design appropriate messages for specific
audiences using a number of media. The interdisciplinary nature of this
429
program reflects the liberal arts focus of the College. The major requires a
minimum of 52 credits, including the following 40-credit core: Mass
Communication, Intercultural Communication, Computer Graphic Design, Advertising, Public Relations, Mass Media Law and Ethics, Persuasion, Internship, Organizational Behavior, and Introduction to Marketing.
In addition to the core, students must select a concentration in writing or in production and design. The writing concentration requires Newswriting and Reporting, Argumentation, and Feature Writing. The production and design concentration requires Photography I, Publication Design,
and either Media Production or Web Design. Graduates are expected to be
skilled in creating a variety of messages appropriate for specific audiences in
a range of settings and media, creating and evaluating persuasive arguments,
and demonstrating a basic understanding of organizations and how advertising and public relations professionals function within them.
Specifically, the program aims to develop the following competencies: mastery of the history, foundations, principles, nature and characteristics of media and communication; critical awareness of and responsiveness
to issues related to media and communication; critical awareness of and responsiveness to current and enduring events and issues; advocacy for gender-fairness, ecological harmony, social justice and peace, technical proficiency, resourcefulness and creativity in writing, producing and directing for
media and its allied fields, discipline, critical discernment and technical proficiency for media and communication research.
7. The University of San Carlos’ Department of Fine Arts started with
seven faculty members in 1982 with two majors, Advertising Arts and Interior Design. Its program in Advertising Arts is a balance between traditional
Fine Arts disciplines and more recent specializations of contemporary advertising design. Students learn from a broad range of skills training—from
courses that hone abilities to draw and paint to photography and basic video
production. The university also offers an Advertising Certificate.
Training Programs
Colleges and universities with established advertising curricula also
offer a number of training and continuing education programs for students
and professionals. The more popular ones are as follows:
1. The Ateneo Center for Continuing Education and Blue Blade Technologies, Inc. jointly offer one-day digital marketing courses called Digital
Marketing Made Easy. This program aims to teach marketing and advertising professionals and entrepreneurs how to harness the power of the Inter-
430
net and mobile technology in reaching and engaging their customers
through the most direct and cost-effective strategies.
2. The College of Saint Benilde at De La Salle University, in partnership with the Philippine Association of National Advertisers (PANA), offers
a post-baccalaureate diploma program in Marketing Communications
Management, a series of certificate courses designed to share best practices,
update knowledge and enhance the competencies of marketing practitioners. Participants earn a Diploma in Marketing Communications Management upon completion of the required six certificate courses that discuss
how to build a brand, public relations and advocacy marketing, relationship
marketing, Web advertising and marketing, integrated marketing communications, and market research and media planning.
3. The certificate course in Business and Management at the Business
School of the Harvest Christian School is designed to equip and train professionals, managers and entrepreneurs with various managerial, leadership and
business skills in running and managing enterprises.
4. The Philippine Marketing Association (PMA) regularly conducts a
series of lectures on “Communicating with Your Customers,” designed to
help marketing practitioners attain a comprehensive understanding of strategic approaches in advertising. Topics include creative and media planning
for advertising campaigns, developing effective sales promotions and public
relations strategies, and integrated marketing communication activities.
Other institutions that regularly offer training programs, seminars
and symposia are the University of San Carlos, the Institute of Communication at the University of Asia and the Pacific, Assumption College, and the
Asian Institute of Management, which specializes in advertising sales promotion and management.
There also are noteworthy agency-based training programs. Among
them are:
1. Lowe Lintas and Partners, the country’s third largest advertising
agency, has instituted an in-house training program for its employees, perhaps the first in the industry. Dubbed “Lowe Lintas University (LLU),” the
continuing education program offers courses that focus on creatives, accounts, media, and business management. Like a real university, it has two
semesters a year, offering six core courses every semester as well as a range of
electives. Courses offered include Big Idea Crafting, Accounts Management,
Taxation Laws, and Library Science. Classes are held once a week for 12
weeks. Employees shell out nothing except their time and effort.
The faculty roster is composed of the company’s senior officers, such
as the president and chief executive officer, the chair, and the executive crea-
431
tive director. At LLU, there are also the usual classroom lectures, but laboratory work is given much emphasis. There are no grades. However, the students undergo an evaluation process.
Lowe Lintas has also started a training program for fresh graduates of
advertising and marketing. The six-month comprehensive Advertising
Training Program (ATP) exposes participants to the “total picture of the
advertising business,” whether in writing, art direction, strategic account
management, brand planning, media planning. Participants undergo interdepartment training for two months, and for the rest of the time, they stay
where they are going to specialize. There, they handle actual accounts and
are asked to design an advertising campaign. Those that pass company
standards are hired as regular employees.
2. In its thrust to promote direct marketing as an effective marketing
tool and distribution system in the country and to elevate the level of professionalism among industry practitioners, the Direct Marketing Association
of the Philippines (DMAP) launched in 2004 an annual conference and exhibition that highlight the latest advertising techniques, marketing trends,
and directions.
Advertising Competitions and Awards
Professional Level
For the first time in Philippine advertising history, local advertising
materials landed top Clio awards in 2002: BBDO Guerrero/Ortega’s television commercial for Visa, and Ogilvy & Mather’s hotel card key for The
Economist. Two posters from Ace Saatchi & Saatchi also made it to the
short list (Franco-Diyco, 2002).
When a charming campaign with a sprinkling of wisecracks for a mall
cafe, an unusual shoe ad that reminded the target to play rather than do
house chores on Labor Day, a fabulously art-directed hotel ad, and a print
ad that told kids that “bright minds read” won world medals for the Philippines in the 2003 New York Print Advertising Festivals, advertising practitioners seemingly went into an award and international recognition frenzy
(Pe, 2003). With a harvest of medals for products ranging from colossal
TV productions to very low-budgeted simple print outputs, the quest for
more awards continues.
In effect, undergraduate students gear up to be future participants of
a host of these local and international advertising competitions at the professional level. On the domestic sphere alone, there are a number of them to
prepare for. The more sought-after ones follow:
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1. The Araw Awards creative competitions are one of the most highly
anticipated events of the biennial Philippine Advertising Congress. The
awards have become the standard by which Filipino creative excellence in
advertising is measured. The judging criteria are 50% creativity, 25% insight or strategy, and 25% results. With the marketing results figuring in
the competition, advertising has moved from creative appreciation to effectiveness. Professionals compete for awards in eight categories—film, radio,
print, outdoor, ambient and point-of-purchase, digital, direct to consumer,
and design.
2. Taking its cues from the American advertising industry’s Effie
Awards, the Marketing Communications Effectiveness Awards (MCEA) are
the first of its kind in the country to salute ad campaigns that have given
client companies positive financial returns. The winning campaigns are also
judged based on their ability to promote excellence and social responsibility
without sacrificing creative execution.
The MCEA seeks to promote the practice of accountible marketing
communications through analysis and measurement of corporate brand investments and returns. It also recognizes the need to place effectiveness in
the context of a campaign’s contribution to the promotion of excellence and
social responsibility.
The board of judges choose gold, silver, and bronze award winners in
six categories: new product, new service, small budget product campaign
(below P10 million), small budget service campaign, established product
campaign (more than P10 million), and established service campaign. An
entry must have used more than one communication channel. That is, the
campaign should exhibit a combination of advertising, public relations, customer relationship management, sales promotion, event marketing, and the
like to be considered for the awards. The awards are organized by the University of Asia and the Pacific’s Institute of Communication, in association
with Marketing and Opinion Research Society of the Philippines, and the
newspaper BusinessWorld.
3. The Catholic Mass Media Awards annually selects the best branded
outdoor ad, best public service outdoor ad, best public service TV ad, best
branded TV ad, best public service radio ad, best public service print ad,
and best branded print ad.
4. The Creative Guild chooses the best public service ad of the month
for print, radio and television. At the end of the year, these monthly winners automatically become finalists for the Diwa Ad of the Year Awards. Began in 1998 with the support of the Ayala Foundation, the Diwa Awards
yearly recognizes ads that lift the Filipino spirit by advocating love for coun-
433
try, family, concern for the environment, human life, minority issues, promotion of peace and human rights, civic and social education, philantrophic
appeals, respect for law and authority, religious beliefs, and preserving Philippine culture and heritage. It also aims to reward advertising professionals
for applying creativity and intellect toward a civic cause.
5. Launched in 1997, the Ad of the Year Awards is a project of the
4As-P that gives recognition to member agencies regardless of size or affiliation that have excelled in all areas of advertising. Participating agencies vie
for five categories: Best in Creative, Best in Management of Business, Best
in Market Performance, Best in Media, and Best in Industry Leadership and
Community Leadership.
The advertising professionals and their agencies that often garner the
above awards are shown in Table 28-2. That table also lists advertising educators and other advertising personalities often cited in news reports.
Name
Mercy Abad
Jessica Abaya
Emily A. Abrera
Patricia N. Arches
Tom Bangis
Roger Buhay
Ichay Bulaong
Javier J. Calero
Ma. Milagros Formoso
Camahort
Raul Castro
Rosie Chew
Susan Dimacali
Micky Domingo
Jose Faustino
David Ferrer
Tere Filipinia
Greg Garcia
Willie Garcia
Go Gatchalian
434
Position / affiliation
President and general manager, NFO Trends
Senior vice-president and head of marketing, Philamlife; leads the company’s
initiatives on customer value management, target segmentation, customer
and market research, corporate advertising and communications, brand equity building, product strategy development and marketing services.
Chairperson, McCann World Group Asia-Pacific; branded an “industry maverick” by the 4As-P
President and chief executive officer, McCann Worldgroup Philippines
President, AB Communications
Professor of marketing communications, University of Santo Tomas
Co-founder and managing director, First Direct-Leo Burnett and Arc Worldwide
Chairman and chief executive officer, J. Walter Thompson; chairman, Integrated Marketing Communications Effectiveness Awards (IMCEA) Advisory
Board; chairman, Full Circle Communications
President, Direct Image Dimensions
Executive creative director, Lowe Lintas; McCann Erickson Worldgroup
Acknowledged “godmother” of market research
Chairperson, DDB Cares, the corporate social responsibility arm of the DDB
group in the Philippines
Vice president and executive creative director, McCann Erickson Philippines
Recipient, Agora Award for outstanding achievement in marketing education,
2006, from the Philippine Marketing Association
Creative director, JWT Philippines; former creative director, BBDO
President, Basic Advertising
Founder and former chairman, Hemisphere-Leo Burnett
Chairman, Adformatix and president, International Communicators Agency
Network, Inc., a global network of independent advertising and marketing
communications agencies
President and CEO, Campaigns & Grey advertising agency
Peter Garrucho
David Guerrero
Mariles Gustilo
Ernie Hernandez
Merlee Jayme
Abby Jimenez
Mon Jimenez
Jerry Kliatchko
Robert Labayen
Chiqui Lara
Tommy B. Lopez Jr.
Melvin Mangada
Louie Morales
Venus Navalta
Herminio G. Ordonez
Jose Ortega
Ramon Osorio
Roger Pe
Socky Pitargue
Jaime Puno
Marlon Rivera
Eduardo L. Roberto
Jimmy Santiago
Dickie Soriano
Pedro Teodoro, Sr.
Francis Trillana
Matec Villanueva
Ma. Yolanda VillanuevaOng
Bernardo Villegas
Recipient, Agora Award for outstanding achievement in marketing education,
2006, from the Philippine Marketing Association
Chairman and executive director, BBDO/Guerrero-Ortega; chair, the Araw
Awards creative competitions
President and chief executive officer, Lowe Lintas
President, Well Advertising
Vice president and executive creative director, Ace Saatchi & Saatchi; former creative director, DM9 Jayme/Syfu
Founder, Jimenez D’Arcy; immediate past chairman, Publicis JimenezBasic
Joint CEO, JimenezBasic
Vice president for corporate communications and executive director, Institute of Communication, University of Asia & the Pacific
Managing partner, J. Walter Thompson; past president, Creative Guild
President, Young & Rubicam Philippines
Recipient, Agora Award for outstanding achievement in marketing education,
2006, from the Philippine Marketing Association; professor, Asian Institute of
Management (AIM); considered AIM’s “guru of services marketing”
Managing partner and executive creative director, TBWA Santiago Mangada
Puno; past president, Creative Guild; executive creative director, Ace Saatchi
& Saatchi
Founder, Image Dimensions
Senior vice-president and managing director, Universal McCann Erickson
Chief executive officer, Publicis Manila; co-founder, Basic Advertising; chairman emeritus, Publicis JimenezBasic
Managing partner, BBDO Guerrero Ortega; former chairman, J. Walter
Thompson
Professor of advertising; former president and CEO, Campaigns and Grey
Executive creative director, DDB Phils.
Past president, Creative Guild
Managing partner, TBWA Santiago Mangada Puno; past chairman, president
and CEO, Dentsu Young & Rubicam-Alcantara
President and executive creative director, Publicis Manila, Inc.
Research director, Basic Advertising; professor, Asian Institute of Management; recipient, Agora Award for outstanding achievement in marketing education, 2006, from the Philippine Marketing Association; author, two marketing research books and two social marketing books
Past president, Creative Guild
Managing director, OgilyOne, the direct marketing company of Ogilvy &
Mather; founder and president, BCD Pinpoint
One of the founding fathers, 4As-P
Chairman, Lowe Lintas
Chairman & CEO, Publicis Manila, Inc.
Awardee, Ten Outstanding Women in the Nation’s Service; founder and chief
executive officer, Campaigns & Grey; founding president, Creative Guild of
the Philippines; the first female president, 4As-P; gold awardee, Philippine
Advertising Congress; first Filipino judge, Clio Awards
University professor, University of Asia and the Pacific
Table 28-2: Advertising people in the news and those who play a
role in raising the standards and quality of advertising in the country
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Student Level
To expose students to the advertising world, professional organizations have launched several coveted student awards. Among them are as follows:
1. Dubbed the “the Junior Olympics” of Philippine advertising, the
Marketing Communications Awards sponsored by the Philippine Association
of National Advertisers (PANA) aims to recognize and reward excellence
among competing student groups representing the Department of Education, Culture and Sports, and the Commission on Higher Education Level
3 colleges, universities and state universities. In this competition, young
marketing students pitch ideas to some of the country’s top advertising executives.
Conducted initially in the National Capital Region, it is envisioned
to eventually become a nationwide competition. The contest provides students the opportunity to showcase their marketing skills, particularly in developing strategies that highlight the synergies of integrated marketing
communications.
2. Universities and colleges also field entries to the United Kingdombased D&AD Awards. The group, a nonprofit organization that supports
and funds training and education for those working in and studying toward
creative professions, solicits nominations for the following categories: 3D
design, ambient media, print and editorials, broadcast, integrated media,
branding, digital media, and the direct sector.
3. The Student Catholic Mass Media Awards (SCMMA) for the best
student-produced print and TV ads have always received the support of the
Department of Education and Culture and the Commission on Higher Education. Each year, entries are received not only from schools within the national capital region, but as far as Central Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao.
Advertising Organizations
The results of a survey of advertising professors and instructors indicate that educators see advertising agencies and advertising business people
as contributing substantially to the content of the advertising curriculum.
These professionals also readily offer their service as judges or consultants of
advertising competitions and awards.
They are less active, however, in offering scholarships, assistantships
and other forms of financial support to students, facilities improvement and
436
other program initiatives. Advertising agencies and advertising business
people are typically members of a number of institutions that constitute the
Advertising Board of the Philippines (AdBoard).65
The AdBoard is a governing body composed of representatives of national organizations involved in advertising practice who have banded together to promote the development of the advertising industry through selfregulation in harmony with industry goals. The AdBoard, in effect, is the
umbrella organization of the advertising industry.
The sectoral members of the AdBoard are PANA, 4As-P, the Print
Media Organization (PriMO), the Independent Block Timers Association
of the Philippines (IBA), the Outdoor Advertising Association of the Philippines, the Cinema Advertising Association of the Philippines (CAAP), the
Advertising Suppliers Association of the Philippines (ASAP), and the Marketing and Opinion Research Society of the Philippines (MORES).
The AdBoard, formerly called the “Philippine Board of Advertising,”
has adopted a code of ethics in 1973 originally drawn up by representatives
of the member associations in consultation with the Bureau of Standards for
Mass Media. In addition, the AdBoard is guided by the Advertising Content Regulation Manual of Procedures, and the Standards of Trade Practices
and Conduct Manuals, that serve to keep advertising within correct, ethical,
and wholesome bounds, and to assure professional advertising practice. The
Code and Manuals is subject to periodic revisions even as the practices it
covers are constantly reviewed and refined.
With respect to education, the AdBoard helps build a reservoir of advertising talent by cooperating with the nation’s schools, colleges and universities, and other allied institutions or associations. The AdBoard also
holds forums, workshops and seminars on advertising and related arts and
sciences. It also encourages the study of the theory and practice of advertising, the improvement of techniques, and serves as a center of information
on advertising matters in cooperation with allied institutions and associations.
As a sectoral member of the AdBoard, PANA, launched banner programs designed to prepare current as well as future practitioners in meeting
the challenges of the new markets. The first is the post-baccalaureate diploma course in Marketing Communications that the association, through
its Education and Research Committee, is undertaking with De La Salle
University’s College of St. Benilde. The course is part of a continuing educa-
65
The AdBoard is a member of the Asian Federation of Advertising Associations (AFAA).
437
tion program open to all advertising practitioners as well as those interested
in pursuing a career in promotions and its related disciplines.
The second is the Marketing Excellence Awards, a school-based initiative designed to introduce the concept and applications of integrated marketing communications among students through inter-school competition.
The objective is to provide a more in-depth experience as well as appreciation of marketing communications even before students leave formal education.
The Tinta Awards is given by another AdBoard member, the United
Print Media Group (UPMG). The awards aim to encourage creativity and
excellence in print advertising. UPMG offers experts from the advertising
and print media the opportunity to promote themselves by showing their
best and most creative work in this unique press awards event.
Another AdBoard sectoral member, the 4As-P, offers the highly coveted “Agency of the Year” award given to the agency which fielded entries in
and garnered the highest points in five categories: Best in Creative, Best in
Market Performance, Best in Media, Best in Business Management and
Best in Industry Leadership and Community Service. The aim of 4As-P is
to uphold understanding and cooperation among the agencies in the advertising sector and to encourage acceptable business practices to protect the
industry and the consuming public.
The Creative Guild of the Philippines was founded in 1984 to promote Filipino creativity. Since then, it has awarded the best work in advertising and related industries on an annual basis. The Kidlat awards the
Guild sponsors are among the most sought-after in the industry. The
awards offer opportunity for creative leaders to review the year’s best work,
network, and learn from the leading professionals in the Asian region.
Advertising Environment
Based exclusively on revenues, the 4As-P has listed the top 35 advertising agencies in the Philippines. These are likely to be multinational
companies with local partnerships. These agencies and the revenues they
generated, based on 2001 figures, are shown in Table 28-3.66
66
Agencies that generate more than P100 million in yearly revenues are considered
large scale. Medium scale agencies generate P50M to P100M; those that earn P1 million to
P5 million are considered small scale.
438
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Advertising agency
McCann Erickson Philippines
Jimenez-Basic Advertising
Lowe, Inc.
J. Walter Thompson Philippines
Ace-Saatchi and Saatchi
Leo Burnett
Campaigns & Grey
DY&R-Alcantara
Ogilvy and Mather Philippines
DDB Philippines
BBDO-Guerrero Ortega
Adformatix, Inc.
FCB Manila
Image Dimensions
J. Romero & Associates
AB Communications
ASPAC Advertising
PAC-COMM
One Manila
MGM Advertising
Avellana & Associates/Avia
The New Thinkers
Great Wall Advertising
World Impact Communications
Resource Ads
Tactica Ads
PLW, Inc.
Competitivedge, Inc.
Manprom, Inc.
Telenetwork Advertising Center
Admix Inc
Gallardo & Associates
PC&V Communications, Inc.
TBWA Santiago Mangada Puno
Dentsu Philippines
Revenues (in million pesos) 1
546,584
418,251
273,251
252,230
239,310
201,495
175,054
145,927
133,618
115,206
96,763
82,121
77,372
76,850
56,206
53,470
40,876
29,050
17,597
15,730
10,206
9,846
7,804
7,736
7,144
7,107
6,422
6,194
3,986
3,402
1,105
Not available
Not available
Not available
Not available
Source: The Association of Accredited Advertising Agencies-Philippines, 2001.
1
In 2001, 1 US dollar=51.002 Philippine pesos (PhP).
Table 28-3. The top 35 advertising agencies in
the Philippines, based on 2000-2001 revenues
The Association of Accredited Advertising Agencies-Philippines also
lists the following top 25 advertisers for 2007. In the list below, the ones in
bold are local companies:
1. San Miguel Corp.
2. Philippine Long Distance Telephone Co.
3. Unilever, Inc.
4. Procter & Gamble Philippines
439
5. Jollibee Foods, Inc.
6. McGeorge Food Industries/McDonald’s Philippines
7. Coca-Cola Export
8. Colgate-Palmolive Philippines
9. Nestle Philippines, Inc.
10. Globe Telecom, Inc.
11. Johnson & Johnson Philippines
12. Del Monte Philippines
13. Pilipinas Shell Petroleum Corp.
14. Pfizer, Inc.
15. Ayala Land, Inc.
16. Wyeth Philippines, Inc.
17. Pepsi-Cola Products Philippines, Inc.
18. Universal-Robina Corp.
19. Bristol-Myers Squibb Philippines, Inc./Mead-Johnson
20. Bayer Philippines
21. Kraft Foods Philippines, Inc.
22. Kimberly-Clark Philippines, Inc.
23. Toyota Motors Philippines, Inc.
24. California Manufacturing Co.
25. White Hall Pharmaceutical Philippines
As a final note, the people who play, or have played, major roles in
elevating the level of advertising in the Philippines are many. Many of
those who have made such a mark are listed in Table 28-4, though it certainly is not an exhaustive list.
Name
Mercy Abad
Jessica Abaya
Emily A. Abrera
Patricia N. Arches
Tom Bangis
Roger Buhay
Ichay Bulaong
Javier J. Calero
Ma. Milagros
Camahort
Raul Castro
Rosie Chew
Susan Dimacali
Micky Domingo
Jose Faustino
440
Formoso
Position / affiliation
President and general manager, NFO Trends
Senior vice-president and head of marketing, Philamlife; leads the company’s initiatives on customer value management, target segmentation, customer and market
research, corporate advertising and communications, brand equity building, product
strategy development and marketing services.
Chairperson, McCann World Group Asia-Pacific; branded an “industry maverick” by the
4As-P
President and chief executive officer, McCann Worldgroup Philippines
President, AB Communications
Professor of marketing communications, University of Santo Tomas
Co-founder and managing director, First Direct-Leo Burnett and Arc Worldwide
Chairman and chief executive officer, J. Walter Thompson; chairman, Integrated Marketing Communications Effectiveness Awards (IMCEA) Advisory Board; chairman, Full
Circle Communications
President, Direct Image Dimensions
Executive creative director, Lowe Lintas; McCann Erickson Worldgroup
Acknowledged “godmother” of market research
Chairperson, DDB Cares, the corporate social responsibility arm of the DDB group in
the Philippines
Vice president and executive creative director, McCann Erickson Philippines
Recipient, Agora Award for outstanding achievement in marketing education, 2006,
from the Philippine Marketing Association
David Ferrer
Tere Filipinia
Greg Garcia
Willie Garcia
Go Gatchalian
Peter Garrucho
David Guerrero
Mariles Gustilo
Ernie Hernandez
Merlee Jayme
Abby Jimenez
Mon Jimenez
Jerry Kliatchko
Robert Labayen
Chiqui Lara
Tommy B. Lopez Jr.
Melvin Mangada
Louie Morales
Venus Navalta
Herminio G. Ordonez
Jose Ortega
Ramon Osorio
Roger Pe
Socky Pitargue
Jaime Puno
Marlon Rivera
Eduardo L. Roberto
Jimmy Santiago
Dickie Soriano
Pedro Teodoro, Sr.
Francis Trillana
Matec Villanueva
Ma. Yolanda Villanueva-Ong
Bernardo Villegas
Creative director, JWT Philippines; former creative director, BBDO
President, Basic Advertising
Founder and former chairman, Hemisphere-Leo Burnett
Chairman, Adformatix and president, International Communicators Agency Network,
Inc., a global network of independent advertising and marketing communications
agencies
President and CEO, Campaigns & Grey advertising agency
Recipient, Agora Award for outstanding achievement in marketing education, 2006,
from the Philippine Marketing Association
Chairman and executive director, BBDO/Guerrero-Ortega; chair, the Araw Awards
creative competitions
President and chief executive officer, Lowe Lintas
President, Well Advertising
Vice president and executive creative director, Ace Saatchi & Saatchi; former creative
director, DM9 Jayme/Syfu
Founder, Jimenez D’Arcy; immediate past chairman, Publicis JimenezBasic
Joint CEO, JimenezBasic
Vice president for corporate communications and executive director, Institute of
Communication, University of Asia & the Pacific
Managing partner, J. Walter Thompson; past president, Creative Guild
President, Young & Rubicam Philippines
Recipient, Agora Award for outstanding achievement in marketing education, 2006,
from the Philippine Marketing Association; professor, Asian Institute of Management
(AIM); considered AIM’s “guru of services marketing”
Managing partner and executive creative director, TBWA Santiago Mangada Puno; past
president, Creative Guild; executive creative director, Ace Saatchi & Saatchi
Founder, Image Dimensions
Senior vice-president and managing director, Universal McCann Erickson
Chief executive officer, Publicis Manila; co-founder, Basic Advertising; chairman emeritus, Publicis JimenezBasic
Managing partner, BBDO Guerrero Ortega; former chairman, J. Walter Thompson
Professor of advertising; former president and CEO, Campaigns and Grey
Executive creative director, DDB Phils.
Past president, Creative Guild
Managing partner, TBWA Santiago Mangada Puno; past chairman, president and CEO,
Dentsu Young & Rubicam-Alcantara
President and executive creative director, Publicis Manila, Inc.
Research director, Basic Advertising; professor, Asian Institute of Management; recipient, Agora Award for outstanding achievement in marketing education, 2006, from
the Philippine Marketing Association; author, two marketing research books and two
social marketing books
Past president, Creative Guild
Managing director, OgilyOne, the direct marketing company of Ogilvy & Mather;
founder and president, BCD Pinpoint
One of the founding fathers, 4As-P
Chairman, Lowe Lintas
Chairman & CEO, Publicis Manila, Inc.
Awardee, Ten Outstanding Women in the Nation’s Service; founder and chief executive officer, Campaigns & Grey; founding president, Creative Guild of the Philippines;
the first female president, 4As-P; gold awardee, Philippine Advertising Congress; first
Filipino judge, Clio Awards
University professor, University of Asia and the Pacific
Table 28-4. Advertising people in the news and those who play a role in raising the
standards and quality of advertising in the country
441
The Future
Many have observed that Philippine advertising still falls short of international standards in production quality and detail. As they compete in
international venues, Philippine advertisers are well aware of the need to
achieve world-class production standards.
Indeed, as Alversado (2004) suggests, course offerings and program
objectives can stand rigid review to be more directed toward innovative
learning and to align intended outcomes with contemporary advertising
practices and concepts. In particular, he suggests a re-direction of pedagogy
to incorporate more case analyses, projects and classroom presentations, exposure trips and other off-campus activities, and student participation in
competitions to supplemental classroom instruction. He also recommends
stronger program services by offering more workshops, seminars and symposia, internships, and the provision of more placement services.
What Philippine advertising lacks in technical quality, however, is
compensated by a strong national consciousness and the desire to create persuasive messages that are uniquely Filipino. This becomes crucial as the advertising industry is now being summoned to apply its creative and media
resources to create awareness for such issues as environmental health, voter
education, values formation, women’s and children’s rights, among others.
These attributes also come in handy especially after the global economic
meltdown when the industry’s focus is on helping clients improve their
brands’ performance and power their turnaround in the market.
References
Alversado, F. L. (2004). An appraisal of curriculum relevance and receptiveness of selected
schools offering advertising programs in relation to the needs of local advertising agencies. Unpublished master’s thesis. University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines.
BusinessWorld (1987, Nov. 23). Admen express industry views, p. 2.
BusinessWorld (2009, Aug. 27). ARAW accepts entries, p. S2/6.
BusinessWorld (2005, Mar. 11). AdBoard: Going beyond advertising, p. 27.
BusinessWorld (2001, Sept. 28). Special feature, p. 17.
BusinessWorld (2000, Oct. 11). Briefs: Communication awards.
Catholic Mass Media Awards (2004). Retrieved June 3, 2010, from
http://www.cmmafoundation.org/cmma_files/cmma2004winners.pdf.
Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Republic of the Philippines (2009). Directory
of Higher Education Institutions and Programs as of November 11, 2009. Retrieved
Feb. 2, 2010, from http://www.ched.gov.ph/hei_dir/index.html.
Concepcion, A. V., & N. Yumol (1989). Profile of the Philippine advertising industry. Manila: Advertising Board of the Philippines.
Dela Torre, V. (1989). Advertising in the Philippines. Manila: National Bookstore.
442
Feliciano, G., & C. J. Icban, Jr. (1967). Philippine mass media in perspective. Quezon City,
Philippines: Capitol Publishing House, Inc.
Franco-Diyco, N. (2002, June 14). We’re Clio winners! BusinessWorld, p. 27.
Lent, J. (1967). Advertising in the Philippines. Philippine Studies, 16, 72-96.
Luo, X. (2009). Disparities in labor market performance in the Philippines. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series No. 5124. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Madamba, C. R. (2004, July 9). Philippine advertising: Cannes or cannot do? BusinessWorld,
p. 2.
Magsaysay, J. (1967). Advertising. In G. Feliciano & C. J. Icban, Jr. (Eds.), Philippine mass
media in perspective. Quezon City, Philippines: Capitol Publishing House, Inc.
Pe, R. (2003, Sept. 1). RP wins awards in New York festival. Philippine Daily Inquirer, p. 2.
Philippine Culture and Information (1998). Advertising in the Philippines. Retrieved Sept.
12, 2009.
Philippine Information Agency (1998). Advertising in the Philippines. Retrieved Jan. 26,
2010, from the Philippine Culture and Information website
http://www.pia.gov.ph/philinfo/phadv.htm.
Readers Digest (n.d.). The brands you trust. Retrieved Sept. 12, 2009, from
http://www.rdtrustedbrands.com/trusted-brands/tb_asia.shtml.
443
South America
How Brazil’s Reputation
for Creative Work Influences Its Advertising
Higher Education
Alexandra M. Vilela
Towson University, USA
Critics agree that Brazil produces some of the world’s most creative
and appealing advertising. This chapter explores the cultural, historical,
governmental, financial, industrial, and geographical influences of Brazil’s
advertising education.
Brazil enjoys an international reputation for producing some of the world's
most creative advertising. The mere mention of Brazil to advertising professionals evokes images of innovative, appealing print ads and commercials—
many that have taken top prizes at the Cannes Lions International Advertising
Festival and other international competitions. (O’ Barr 2008, p. 3)
Brazil had begun winning international awards for its advertising as early as
the 1970s. This continued through the 1980s and emerged as a major trend
in the 1990s.67 (O’ Barr 2008, p. 14)
Few if any will deny the value of world-wide recognition, such as the
“Lions.” But does advertising recognition reflect business “value?” In Brazil, the answer is a profound “yes,” since advertising here, by any measure, is
“big business.” And advertising higher education is undergoing robust
growth to keep pace. With the country’s expanding advertising expenditures, especially over the last few decades, a concomitant expansion of bachelor, master’s and doctoral degrees, as well as the birth of advertising and
communication associations are easily identified. And, in spite of this envi67
For instance, in 2010, Brazil won 57 Lions (or 7% of the total Lions distributed in the
whole festival) in the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival, in 12 categories (Barbosa, 2010).
444
able blossoming in advertising education, demand for “seats” in advertising
classes is extremely competitive.
The activities directly related to Brazilian advertising generated approximately $26.2 billion (in U.S. dollars) in 2007, and represented around
1.85 percent of the country’s GDP (2007 = $1.44 trillion). The communication industry in Brazil is comprised of 98,000 companies, employing
612,000 individuals, and paying a salary of $5.3 billion (Abap & IBGE
2007).
Brazilian advertising has been evolving in the past four decades, and is
increasingly known by its reputation for originality and creativity. The
country began winning international awards for its advertising as early as
the 1970s (e.g., it won its first Lion from Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in 1972) (O’Barr 2008). By the 1980s, Brazilian advertisers
were “widely recognized as some of the world’s most creative and able” (Advertising Age 2003, para.17).
At the Festival Iberoamericano de Publicidad in 1987, Brazil and Spain
won almost 70 percent of the awards. This trend continued through the
1990s, and 2000s. And since 2000, Brazil ranks among the world’s most
awarded countries (together with the United States, England, Germany,
France, and Spain) in the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival, the
world’s biggest celebration of creativity in communications (Advertising Age
2003; Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival 2010; O’Barr 2008).
In 2008, Brazil ranked fourth in the advertising after the United States,
Germany, and United Kingdom at Cannes (Sampaio 2008).
Yearly, Brazil also participates with its best advertising pieces at other
international festivals such as the London International Awards, Clio Awards,
New York International Advertising Awards, and also large national competitions such as Abril Awards, Professionals of the Year, Gramado Awards, and
the Outdoor Center Awards. The success of Brazilian ads coincides with the
country’s economic growth, media development, and expansion of advertising higher education programs, with Brazil’s first advertising school dating
to 1951 (“Escola de Propaganda de São Paulo”). Since then, a myriad of
advertising and communication courses were established, particularly in the
1960s, 1970s, and 1980s (Durand 2006).
Brazil: The Country and Its Educational System
An overview of Brazil, the country, may help to understand its advertising and related educational program underpinnings. Discovered in 1500
445
by the Portuguese, Brazil became a colony of Portugal until 1822, when it
achieved independence. In 1889, the country became a republic. Brazil remains the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas. It is the largest country, both geographically and in population, in South America; and
the fifth largest country geographically, and the fifth most populous country
in the world (CIA, 2010).
The Federative Republic of Brazil, as it is named on its Constitution
(Federative Republic of Brazil, 2010; Mugnier, 2009), is formed by the union of the Federal District, 26 States, and 5,564 Municipalities. The largest
cities are São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil, 1988).
Brazil also is the world’s eighth largest economy (GDP), and the
ninth largest by purchasing power parity. The country is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, “Mercosul” (Union of South American
Nations market), and it is one of the BRIC Countries (acronym for the related economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China) (CIA 2010; Clendenning 2008).
Brazilian Educational System, Driven by Federal Government
Oversight
The Brazilian educational system is regulated by the federal government through the Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC), which provides the guidelines for all educational programs, both public and private.
While the local governments are responsible for establishing state and municipal educational programs, funding usually is provided by the federal
government.
Early childhood education is optional. It is mandatory, however, that
children between 6 to 14 years old attend school a minimum of nine years.
Education in Brazil is divided into three levels: (1) Fundamental education,
which is free to everyone, including adults, and mandatory for 6 to 14 year
olds; (2) Medium education, which is also free, but not mandatory; (3)
Higher education, including graduate degrees, which is free at public universities (Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil 1988; Federative
Republic of Brazil 2009; Jones 2006; MEC 2010).
University System or Higher Education.
Secondary education is mandatory for candidates pursuing higher education. Brazil has a mixed higher education system or public and private
funded universities. Public-funded universities usually offer the best quality
education in Brazil, and they are 100 percent government sponsored. Students pay no tuition.
446
Public universities can be federally funded (all universities starting
with “UF” are federal universities, such as UFMG), state (e.g., USP, UNICAMP, UERJ) or municipal funded (e.g., USCS). Private universities can
be either for-profit businesses or nonprofit institutions (e.g., community- or
religious-oriented) with tax benefits. Public universities typically run courses all-day long, while private universities offer a mix of day and night-only
courses. Some public universities have lately introduced some night-only
courses (INEP 2010; Jones 2006; MEC 2009).
Undergraduate Programs in General.
Higher education in Brazil, as in many countries, is divided into both
undergraduate and graduate programs. Undergraduate degrees in Brazil
(bachelor degrees) vary from four to six years for completion. For example,
Social Communication—Journalism, Public Relations, and Advertising—
takes around four years, while Law, Architecture, Veterinary Medicine, Psychology and Engineering degrees may take five years, and professional degrees in Medicine requires in turn six years of full-time coursework plus two
years of residency.
The bachelor degree is awarded in most fields of Arts, Humanities,
Social Sciences, Mathematical Sciences, or Natural Sciences. The degree
enables individuals to work in their graduation field. Students who hold a
bachelor degree can apply for a graduate program (Federative Republic of
Brazil 2009; INEP 2010).
In addition to the bachelor degree, Brazilian universities offer the
teaching licensure (“Licenciatura”) degree. It is available for students who
want to qualify as school teachers. There is also a degree in technological
education (“Tecnólogo”), which can be obtained in three years (Brazilian
Educational System 2009; INEP 2010; Toscano n.d.).
Graduate Programs in General.
The Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
(CAPES) is the division of the Ministry of Education and Culture that
manages graduate programs in Brazil. CAPES manages mainly the Master’s
and doctoral level academic standards and support. Programs are systematically evaluated and awarded points for their quality of performance on a
one-to-five-scale with five being the highest.
If a program receives below three, it is disqualified by CAPES, and
programs that receive three points can offer only the Master’s degree. P
rograms that receive four or five points can offer doctoral courses, or part-
447
nership programs known as “inter- institutional” Master’s or doctoral programs (CAPES 2007; INEP 2009; INEP 2010).
A graduate degree can have two formats: (1) “Lato sensu” degrees are
usually in a specific area, and may take from one to two years for completion, with at least 360 hours of course work). It does not require a “thesis”
(but may require a monograph), and therefore, it is not a bridge to a doctoral program. Master’s of Business Administration (MBA) programs are
usually “lato sensu” programs. (2) “Stricto sensu” degrees are normally taken by individuals interested in pursuing an academic career. They include a
Master’s degree, and are also a first step for the doctoral program.
Both degrees require satisfactory performance in a minimum number
of advanced graduate courses. For a “stricto sensu” degree, Master’s candidates need to include a Master’s thesis (Federative Republic of Brazil 2009;
INEP 2010; Jones 2006; MEC 2009).
Similar to the U.S. programs, doctoral degrees require students to
complete advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam,
and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation. A postdoctoral degree is also
available (INEP 2010; MEC 2009; Toscano n.d.).
Lastly, following the European model, some Brazilian universities,
particularly the public ones, award the title of free docent (“Livre-docente”).
It is of higher standing than a doctorate, and is obtained by submitting a
second thesis and approval in an examination that includes giving a public
lecture before a panel of full professors (Federative Republic of Brazil, 2009;
INEP, 2010).
Further, the Brazilian government recognizes distance learning, and
hybrid programs that use various communication media. But students and
faculty are not required to meet face-to-face (CAPES 2006; Jones 2006).
Higher Education Numbers.
According to the Brazilian higher education census in 2008, there
were 2,252 higher education institutions, where 90 percent were private and
10 percent were public (4.1% federal; 3.6% state; and 2.7% municipal).
Additionally, there were 24,719 undergraduate courses (requiring students’
classroom presence), where 17,947 were offered by private universities. The
number of seats available at private and public universities was 2,985,137.
Around 5,534,689 candidates competed for a college course in the same
year, but only 1,505,819 new students were accepted. Also, 647 online
programs were offered by 115 institutions. Approximately 430,259 students
were accepted for this type of program (INEP 2009).
448
In 1995, there were a total of 1,000 master’s and 600 doctoral programs serving 60,000 students, with an additional 900 master’s and 500
doctoral programs by 2005 (CAPES 2006; Jones 2006).
Admission and Requirements in Brazilian Universities.
Undergraduate Programs.
To get accepted at any public or private Brazilian university, one
must pass a competitive entrance examination known as “vestibular,” which
developed by each school individually and with diverse formats and difficulty levels (Brazilian Educational System, 2009). “Vestibular” usually lasts
about two weeks each with at least a two-step process, and varied test topics.
The exam takes place once a year, but some private universities may run it
twice a year. Universities offer a limited number of seats, and the best qualified candidates, based on the “vestibular,” will be selected for entrance.
Grade Point Average is not a factor for university acceptance. The
number of candidates competing for a seat at the university level varies per
course. For example, the most competitive courses may attract around 30
or 40 candidates per seat at the top public universities. In some courses as
many as 200 apply (INEP 2010; Jones 2006; MEC 2009).
Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their major during “vestibular” registration. Although it is possible to
switch majors after entrance, this is quite rare and difficult to do. Students
wishing to change majors usually undergo a second “vestibular.” Also, Brazilian undergraduate curricula are usually more rigid than the U.S. curricula
(INEP 2010; Toscano n.d.).
Graduate Programs.
Bachelor degrees and professional diplomas or “Licenciatura” are eligible for admission into graduate programs leading to advanced Master’s or
doctoral degrees. Admission to the Master’s and doctoral programs is usually annual, and has several steps and variances based on the program and
university.
Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams, where
knowledge of the field is usually tested. Others make admission decisions
based on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation, and oral interviews. However, in most cases, candidates are required to submit a research proposal, and one faculty member must agree to serve as their advisor. It is also noteworthy to mention that the undergraduate degree needs to
be in a field related to the graduate program. For instance, an engineer di-
449
ploma does not qualify for a Communication graduate program (Federative
Republic of Brazil 2009; INEP 2010).
For a master’s thesis, the emphasis must be on adding value to the
academic knowledge. The thesis is then examined by an oral committee of
three faculty members, including one external examiner. Professional Master’s degrees on the other hand normally involve taking a larger number of
classes, and submitting a final report or completing a project as a company
intern (Federative Republic of Brazil 2009; INEP 2010; MEC 2009).
A Master’s degree is a prerequisite for a doctorate. With few exceptions (namely, individuals with outstanding research), one may not skip the
Master’s degree or equivalent. Requirements for a doctoral degree include
attending advanced courses, passing an oral exam, and submitting a doctoral dissertation (Federative Republic of Brazil, 2009; INEP, 2010). Communication, and consequently Advertising, degrees follow similar steps as
other undergraduate and graduate programs, admissions, and requirements.
Advertising Higher Education Courses in Brazil
The Brazilian Advertising higher education developed at a slow steady
pace, but in 2000 the growth of Brazil’s advertising market accelerated, with
more than 4,000 advertising agencies and 150 advertising courses within
250 Communication schools producing approximately 30,000 professionals
with bachelor degrees in Advertising (Gracioso 2001). In 2008, there were
494 private universities, 25 public federal universities, 13 public municipal
universities, and 5 public state universities offering higher education in advertising (Editora Abril 2009).
The increase in higher education programs in Brazil by 2000 is justified by the new national education law (Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional) in 1996. The law is based on “the universal principle right
of education opportunities for all.” Therefore, after the middle of the
1990s, the number of higher education courses and programs expanded significantly (INEP 2009).
According to the Brazilian higher education census, in 1995 there
were 460 seats offered in the country for all Advertising programs. This
number jumped to 5,949 in 2007. It is noteworthy that in 1995, the number of seats was measured on the Advertising and Creativity major only, but
in 2007 the census classifies Advertising as a subcategory of courses denominated Marketing and Advertising. Thus, the total number of seats in Marketing and Advertising in 2007 was 55,881. Part of this number was classified as Marketing and Propaganda (9,080), Market—Marketing (37,048),
Advertising and Propaganda (5,949), and Public Relations (3,804) (INEP
2009).
450
Brazilian graduate programs in Communication are relatively new.
There are not specific “Advertising” Master’s or doctoral programs. Graduate degrees in this area are usually offered in a broader concept of Social
Communication, Communication Science, Communication and Culture,
or Communication and Information, and so forth (see Table 29-1) to embrace all disciplines, such as Journalism, Advertising, Public Relations, etc.,
similar to some graduate programs in the United States (CAPES 2007).
The existence of graduate programs, namely Master’s and doctoral
degrees, depend on the availability of undergraduate courses offered by the
same institution. A Master’s or doctoral degree in Communication cannot
be offered in an institution that does not offer the undergraduate program
of the same major (CAPES 2006). Yet, Brazil offers 39 Master’s and 15
doctoral Communication programs recommended by the CAPES.
Six master’s and doctoral programs received a “5” rating. Ten master’s and nine doctoral programs received a “4” rating. And 23 Master’s
programs received a “3” rating (see Table 29-1). The majority of the Communication higher education programs, both undergraduate and graduate,
are located in the southeast region mainly São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro,
where also the majority of the advertising agencies and media headquarters
are located (see Tables 29-1 and 29-2).
Programs
1. Communication
Science
2. Communication
Science
3. Communication
Science
4. Communication
5. Communication
6. Communication
7. Communication
8. Communication
9. Communication
Universities
Public (PU) vs. Private (PR)
Universidade Federal do Amazonas—
UFAM (PU)
Universidade de Vale do Rio dos Sinos—
UNISINOS (PR)
Universidade de São Paulo —USP (PU)
Universidade Federal do Ceará —UFC
(PU)
Universidade de Brasília—UNB (PU)
Universidade Católica de Brasília—UCB
(PR)
Universidade Federal de Goiás—UFG
(PU)
Universidade Federal de Juíz de Fora—
UFJF (PU)
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco—
UFPE (PU)
S
ta
te
(
U
F)
*
A
M
R
S
S
P
C
E
D
F
D
F
G
O
M
G
P
E
Rating & Starting
Year of Program
M = 3 (2008)
D = ---M = 5 (1994)
D = 5 (1999)
M = 4 (1972)
D = 4 (1980)
M = 3 (2008)
D = ---M = 4 (1974)
D = 4 (2003)
M = 3 (2008)
D = ---M = 3 (2007)
D = ---M = 3 (2007)
D = ---M = 4 (2001)
D = 4 (2007)
451
10. Communication
M = 3 (in process)
D = ---M = 3 (2008)
D = ---M = 5 (1972)
D = 5 (1983)
M = 5 (1997)
D = 5 (2002)
M = 3 (2002)
D = ---M = 4 (2003)
D = ---M = 3 (2006)
D = ---M = 3 (2001)
D = ---M = 3 (2006)
D = ---M = 3 (2003)
D = ---M = 3 (1997)
D = ---M = 3 (2006)
D = ---M = 3 (2009)
D = ---M = 3 (2006)
D = ---M = 5 (1990)
D = 5 (1995)
Universidade Federal da Paraíba/João
Pessoa—UFPB (PU)
P
B
M = 3 (2008)
D = ----
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do
Sul—UFRS (PU)
Universidade Tuiuti do Paraná —UTP
(PR)
Escola Superior de Propaganda & Marketing—ESPM (PR)
R
S
P
R
S
P
M = 4 (1995)
D = 4 (2000)
M = 4 (1999)
D = 4 (in process)
M = 3 (2006)
D = ----
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São
Paulo—PUC/SP (PR)
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais—
UFMG (PU)
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio
Grande do Sul—PUC/RS (PR)
Universidade Metodista de São Paulo—
UMESP (PR)
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas
Gerais—PUC/ MG (PR)
S
P
M
G
R
S
S
P
M
G
M = 4 (1970)
D = 4 (1978)
M = 5 (1995)
D = 5 (2004)
M = 5 (1994)
D = 5 (1999)
M = 4 (1976)
D = 4 (1995)
M = 3 (2007)
D = ----
18. Communication
19. Communication
Universidade de Marília—UNIMAR (PR)
20. Communication
Universidade Paulista—UNIP (PR)
21. Communication
Universidade Anhembi Morumbi—UAM
(PR)
Universidade Municipal de São Caetano
do Sul—USCS (PU)
Universidade de Sorocaba—UNISO (PR)
11. Communication
12. Communication
13. Communication
14. Communication
15. Communication
16. Communication
17. Communication
22. Communication
23. Communication
& Culture
24. Communication
& Contemporary
Culture
25. Communication
& Cultural
Media
26. Communication
& Information
27. Communication
& Languages
28. Communication
& Consumption
Practices
29. Communication
& Semiotics
30. Social
Communication
31. Social
Communication
32. Social
Communication
33. Social
Communication:
Media
Interactions
452
Universidade Federal da Bahia —UFBA
(PU)
P
R
P
R
R
J
R
J
R
J
R
J
R
S
S
P
S
P
S
P
S
P
S
P
S
P
S
P
B
A
Universidade Federal do Paraná —UFPR
(PU)
Universidade Estadual de Londrina—UEL
(PU)
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro—UFRJ (PU)
Universidade Federal Fluminense—UFF
(PU)
Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
—UERJ (PU)
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio
de Janeiro —PUC/RJ (PR)
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria—
UFSM (PU)
Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de
Mesquita Filho/Bauru—UNESP (PU)
Faculdade Cásper Líbero—FCL (PR)
34. Communication,
Culture, &
Amazon
35. Media Studies
36. Image & Sound
37. Journalism
38. Audiovisual
Means & Process
39. Multimedia
Universidade Federal do Pará—UFPA
(PU)
P
A
M = 3 (in process)
D = ----
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do
Norte —UFRN (PU)
Universidade Federal de São Carlos—
UFSCAR (PU)
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina—UFSC (PU)
Universidade de São Paulo— USP (PU)
R
N
S
P
S
C
S
P
S
P
M = 3 (2009)
D = ---M = 3 (2008)
D = ---M = 3 (2007)
D = ---M = 4 (in process)
D = (in process)
M = 4 (1986)
D = 4 (1998)
Universidade Estadual de Campinas—
UNICAMP (PU)
1. M = Master’s program, D = Doctoral program
2. Rating on a 3 to 5 score, with 3 being the minimum acceptable for an institution diploma (the program is disqualified if it receive a score below 3) and 5 being
the highest score. Programs scored less than 3 are not listed, as they are not authorized and recognized.
* UF = Federative Unit
Source: CAPES (2007)
Table 29-1: Ratings and Start Year of Master’s and Doctoral
Communication Programs in Brazil
Higher Education in Advertising: Historical Background.
The start of Social Communication higher education in Brazil dates
to the end of the 1940s. According to Melo (1991) and Afonso (2006), the
first communication courses in this area were implemented in the Southeast, and they were predominantly focused on Journalism. Thus, the first
Journalism higher education was established in 1947 by the Cásper Líbero
School of Journalism in São Paulo. A year later, the second communication
course was available at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ).
In the beginning of the 20th Century, the Advertising courses offered
were informal and diffuse, and known as “courses where individuals learn,
but are not taught” (Durand 2006; Durand 2008; Gomes 2008; Martensen
1976). In May 1914, the first advertising agency, named “A Eclética,” was
established in São Paulo, Brazil (Dias 2003).
Later, in 1926, the advertising department of General Motors was
brought to the country for the U.S. advertising experience. The General
Motors advertising department was just the beginning of several ad “agencies” establishing in the country around that time, including J. W. Thompson, N. W. Ayer & Son, and Ford’s ad department. All were tied to the automobile industry.
453
These agencies developed “trainee” programs, where individuals
would intern in all sections of an advertising agency. The trainee programs
extended to all big national and international advertising agencies (e.g.,
Lintas, McCann Erickson, Grant, Standard, Norton, Interamericana). Indeed, advertising agencies were not enthusiastic about investing to train new
personnel, triggering the dispute to get trained professionals from competitive agencies. Advertisers’ salaries were skyrocketing by that time (Martensen, 1976).
It was then that the Brazilian Advertising Association (“Associação
Brasileira de Propaganda”) and the São Paulo Advertising Association (“Associação Paulista de Propaganda”) implemented short Advertising specialization courses (Dias 2003; Durand 2006; Durand 2008). It is noteworthy
to mention that the press also supported the initiative (particularly the
Diários Associados of Assis Chateaubriand—a large media conglomerate), as
there would be financial gains for their advertising sections (Durand 1989).
Thus, advertising agencies needed to recruit professionals of other fields;
usually new graduates from Business and Administration, Economy, Architecture, and Law courses (Tarsitano 1999).
In 1951, the School of Advertising of São Paulo (“Escola de Propaganda de São Paulo”) was funded by Rodolfo Lima Martensen, as a department
of the Art Museum of São Paulo (“Museu de Arte de São Paulo—MASP”).
The course provided
ten basic disciplines
such as Psychology,
Advertising
Techniques, Layout, Comprehensive Layout, Art
Graphics and Production,
Copywriting,
Radio, Cinema and
TV, Media, Statistics
(Market
Research),
and Sales Promotion.
The course was taught
by advertising leaders
from ad agencies to
provide
advertisers
with strong professional skills. Four years later, the course grew in size, and separated it from the museum.
454
In 1961, the School of Advertising of São Paulo became the School of
Higher Education in Advertising of São Paulo (“Escola Superior de Propaganda de São Paulo—ESP”). It was Brazil’s first “official” advertising higher education school, and the mark for many others to come (Dias 2003;
Durand 2006; Durand 2008).
In 1978, the ESP introduced Marketing in its curriculum, gained two
extra years to become a four-year academic course, and it was named School
of Higher Education in Advertising and Marketing (“Escola Superior de
Propaganda e Marketing—ESPM”). The School differentiates itself from
other Advertising courses as it proposes to form “advertisers with the marketing mentality,” while the Communication schools inserted Advertising
into the Communication context (Martensen 1976).
1960s Begin Growth of Social Communication Schools
& Advertising Studies
The 1960s is known as the “boom” of the “Social Communication
schools.” To cite a few, in 1962, the “Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais” (UFMG) and the “Universidade de Brasília” (UNB) funded the School
of Mass Communication, which offered the following tracks: (1) Journalism; (2) Radio, TV, and Cinema; and (3) Advertising and Propaganda; and
later (4) Public Relations (Dias 2003).
In 1966, the “Universidade de São Paulo” or USP (well ranked internationally)¹, founded the School of Communications and Arts (ECA—for
“Escola de Comunicações e Artes”), with eight departments and 21 undergraduate courses, eight of them in Communication² (USP 2010). In 1965,
the “Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Porto Alegre” (PUC Porto Alegre)
changed its Journalism course to School of Media Communication
(FAMECOS—for “Faculdade dos Meios de Comunicação”), followed by
the “Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), which founded the
School of Communication (ECO—for “Escola de Comunicação”) in 1967.
However, only in 1969 were the Advertising courses regulated (Dias 2003).
In 1972, there were 46 School(s) of Social Communication in Brazil
(Pinho 1998), and in 2001, there were 75 different courses in the field of
Marketing and Advertising, comprising Marketing and Advertising, Market
Research, Advertising and Propaganda, and Public Relations. Additionally,
in the field of journalism, there were 300 courses to include Social Communication and Radio and TV (INEP 2001).
As for graduate courses, there were few universities offering Communication Master’s and doctoral programs in the 1970s and 1980s. It was not
455
uncommon for students to pursue graduate programs in different fields, or
abroad, particularly in European countries (USP n.d.).
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo (PUC-SP), a private
university, started the first Communication master’s program in Brazil in
1970 (CAPES 2007). In 1972, both public universities Universidade de São
Paulo (USP) and Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) launched
their master’s programs a few months apart (CAPES 2007; UFRJ 2010;
USP n.d.), followed by Universidade de Brasília (UNB) in 1974 (CAPES
2007; UNB n.d.b). PUC-SP was also the first university to have the first a
doctoral program in the field in 1978.
In 1980, USP started its doctoral program, and became responsible in
the late 1980s for 48 percent of the academic research production in the
country (CAPES 2007; USP n.d.). Table 29-1 provides the start year of
each Communication master’s and doctoral program.
Since the 1980s, Advertising and Propaganda is the most competitive
program at a higher education level to be accepted around the country. The
major still carries the perception of a “fantasy,” “glamour” lifestyle (Dias
2003; INEP 2001; Souza 1993), particularly with the increase of national
and international awards and advertising agency rankings (Durand 2006).
In the 1990s, the attraction was so high that for five consecutive
years, the advertising major received an average of 84 to 87 candidates per
seat in the University of São Paulo State (USP) (Durand 2006). During the
same period, there was a tremendous increase in the number of Advertising
courses offered at the undergraduate and graduate levels favored by the new
national education law (“Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional”)
(INEP 2009).
Rankings Offer Students Selection Assistance
University rankings in Brazil are not as popular as they are in the
United States and other countries. The major Brazilian universities are well
known by the public, and individuals are likely to attend universities in
their own cities or states, or move to a nearby large city. In the 1980s,
Playboy Magazine, published by Editora Abril (which belongs to the Abril
Group, and is the largest publisher in Latin America)3, released an annual
ranking, listing the best courses and higher education institutions. A year
later, the Student Guide (“Guia do Estudante” or GE), also an Editora Abril
publication (launched in 1984), started releasing similar university rankings.
456
The purpose is to advise students in the process of taking the “vestibular” on what and where to study, and to provide updated information on
the job market and careers (Editora Abril 2008b; Portal da Propaganda
2008). The ranking by the GE evolved over the years.
In 1988, for the first time, the guide started classifying the university
courses using one to five stars. By 2008, the GE listed 203 careers in 13 areas, and 21,367 courses in 1,900 institutions throughout the country (Editora Abril 2008b).
The GE evaluates only higher education courses available for at least
one year and that offer bachelor and “Licenciatura” degrees. Evaluation criteria of the GE ranking include the following: Questionnaires requesting
specific information about courses offered, infrastructure (such as labs,
equipment, student clubs or junior enterprises) faculty members, and their
scientific research production. Evaluator consultants are comprised of faculty members, course coordinators, department chairs and evaluators from
MEC. In 2007, the GE had 2,040 evaluator consultants. Each evaluator
consultant classifies the courses received according to grades that go from
excellent (five stars), to good (three stars), to regular, to poor, and to “I prefer not to provide my opinion.” Only courses receiving three, four, and five
stars are listed in the ranking (Editora Abril 2008a; Editora Abril 2008c).
Some ranked institutions post their classification on their Web sites
(e.g., UNB, n.d.c) or publicize their classification in the media (Portal da
Propaganda 2008). In 2005 the GE and Banco Real (bank institution) created the Best Student Guide and Banco Real Universities’ Award (“Prêmio
Melhores Universidades Guia do Estudante e Banco Real”) that aims to
identify, value, and recognize the best higher education institutions (Editora
Abril 2008a; Editora Abril 2008c).
For advertising courses, in 2008, the only two institutions that received five stars from the GE were “Escola Superior de Propaganda & Marketing” (ESPM) in Porto Alegre (private university) and Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (public university), both are located at the South of
Brazil. GE awarded four stars to 25 universities, and three stars to 43 universities. For a complete list of the institutions, their location, classification
of private or public universities, and number of stars, see Table 29-2.
Universities—Public (PU) vs. Private (PR)
1. Escola Superior de Propaganda &
Marketing—Porto Alegre (PR)
2. Universidade Federal de Santa Maria—
Santa Maria (PU)
State
(UF)*
RS
Rating
RS
*****
*****
457
3. Escola Superior de Propaganda &
Marketing—São Paulo (PR)
4. Escola Superior de Propaganda &
Marketing—Rio de Janeiro (PR)
5. Faculdades Integradas Barros Melo—
Olinda (PR)
6. Universidade Potiguar—Natal (PR)
7. Universidade Anhembi Morumbi—São
Paulo (PR)
8. Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba—
Piracicaba (PR)
9. Universidade de Fortaleza—Fortaleza (PR)
10. Fundação Armando Álavares Penteado—
São Paulo (PR)
11. Centro Universitário Feevale—Novo
Hamburgo (PR)
12. Faculdade Cásper Líbero—São Paulo (PR)
13. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do
Sul—Porto Alegre (PU)
14. Universidade Federal de Pernambuco—
Recife (PU)
15. Universidade Tiradentes—Aracaju (PR)
16. Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de
Janeiro—Rio de Janeiro (PR)
17. Universidade Católica de Brasília—
Taguatinga (PR)
18. Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio
Grande do Sul—Porto Alegre (PR)
19. Universidade de São Paulo—São Paulo (PU)
20. Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São
Paulo—São Paulo (PR)
21. Universidade Metodista de São Paulo—São
Bernardo do Campo (PR)
22. Universidade de Brasília—Brasília (PU)
23. Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas
Gerais—Belo Horizonte (PR)
24. Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie—São
Paulo (PR)
25. Pontifícia Universidade Católica de
Campinas—Campinas (PR)
26. Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos—São
Leopoldo (PR)
27. Esamc Campinas—Campinas (PR)
28. Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ciências—
Salvador (PR)
29. Centro Universitário de Brasília—Brasília
(PR)
458
SP
****
RJ
****
PE
****
RN
SP
****
****
SP
****
CE
SP
****
****
RS
****
SP
RS
****
****
PE
****
SE
RJ
****
****
DF
****
RS
****
SP
SP
****
****
SP
****
DF
MG
****
****
SP
****
SP
****
RS
****
SP
BA
****
***
DF
***
30. Centro Universitário Luterano de Palmas—
Palmas (PR)
31. Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul—Santa
Cruz do Sul (PR)
32. Universidade Salvador—Salvador (PR)
33. Universidade Católica de Goiás—Goiânia
(PR)
34. Centro Universitário da Bahia—Salvador
(PR)
35. Universidade Federal do Paraná—Curitiba
(PU)
36. Centro Universitário Jorge Amado—
Salvador (PR)
37. Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do
Sul—São Caetano do Sul (PR)
38. Universidade Anhaguera—Campo Grande
(PR)
39. Pontifícia Universidade Católica do
Parnaná—Curitiba (PR)
40. Universidade de Caxias do Sul—Caxias do
Sul (PR)
41. Faculdades COC Ribeirão Preto—Ribeirão
Preto (PR)
42. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro—
Rio de Janeiro (PU)
43. Faculdade Marista—Recife (PR)
44. Universidade Federal de Goiás—Goiânia
(PU)
45. Iesp Faculdades—Cabedelo (PR)
46. Centro de Estudos Superiores de Maceió—
Maceió (PR)
47. Universidade Católica Dom Bosco—Campo
Grande (PR)
48. Universidade Paulista—São Paulo (PR)
49. Universidade Santa Cecília—Santos (PR)
50. Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais—Belo
Horizonte (PU)
51. Faculdades Integradas Claretianas—Rio
Claro (PR)
52. Faculdades Nordeste—Fortaleza (PR)
53. Faculdades Unime—Lauro de Freitas (PR)
54. Universidade Federal do Pará—Belém (PU)
55. Universidade de Passo Fundo—Passo Fundo
(PR)
56. Instituto Baiano de Ensino Superior—
Salvador (PR)
TO
***
RS
***
BA
GO
***
***
BA
***
PR
***
BA
***
SP
***
MS
***
PR
***
RS
***
SP
***
RJ
***
PE
GO
***
***
PB
AL
***
***
MS
***
SP
SP
MG
***
***
***
SP
***
CE
BA
PA
RS
***
***
***
***
BA
***
459
57. Universidade Católica de Pernambuco—
Recife (PR)
58. Universidade Regional do Noroeste do
Estado do Rio Grande do Sul—Ijuí (PR)
59. Centro Universitário do Sul de Minas—
Varginha (PR)
60. Universidade de Marília—Marília (PR)
61. Faculdade do Vale do Ipojuca—Caruaru
(PR)
62. Faculdade Editora Nacional—São Caetano
do Sul (PR)
63. Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas
Gerais—Arcos (PR)
64. Universidade do Oeste Paulista—Presidente
Prudente (PR)
65. Universidade Nove de Julho—São Paulo
(PR)
66. Universidade Católica do Salvador—
Salvador (PR)
67. Universidade Católica de Santos—Santos
(PR)
68. Centro Universitário Fecap—São Paulo (PR)
69. Esamc Sorocaba—Sorocaba (PR)
70. Centro Universitário Newton de Paiva—Belo
Horizonte (PR)
PE
***
RS
***
MG
***
SP
PE
***
***
RS
***
MG
***
SP
***
SP
***
BA
***
SP
***
SP
SP
MG
***
***
***
Note. Rating on a three- to five-stars, with three being the lowest and five being the highest number of stars. The universities are listed based on the number
of stars received in a descendent order. * UF = Federative Unit. Source: Editora Abril S.A. (2009)
Table 29-2: Advertising Higher Education Programs: 2008 Ranking
Curriculum of Social Communication
Since Social Communication higher education courses were established in Brazil in the 1960s, there were five minimum curriculum programs added over the years. The latest curriculum for Social Communication, and its tracks, including Advertising and Propaganda, was approved
on July 4, 2001, by the Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC) (Moura
2002).
Specifically, the MEC is the government institution that establishes
the basic curriculum of undergraduate, graduate, and post-graduate degrees
taught in the country. As for the undergraduate courses in Social Commu-
460
nication with tracks in Journalism, Public Relations, Advertising and Propaganda, Cinema, Radio, Editing, and other tracks related to the field of
Communication, students are required to take disciplines from basic and
specific contents (which varies by track). Specific contents are freely organized by each institution based on the common objectives, profiles, and
courses offered (MEC 2001). However, Advertising curriculum programs
are similar.
Undergraduate Programs in Social Communication.
Undergraduate programs in Advertising usually take eight semesters
or four years for completion. For the undergraduate program, the grid of
common disciplines for the Advertising track are the following (may vary by
name, but the contents are basically the same):
(1) Mandatory disciplines—Portuguese (Writing and Oral) I, II, and III; Fundaments of Sociology and Communication, Principles of Economy Applied
to Communication, Communication Theory, Communication Psychology,
Comparative Communication, Philosophy, and Research Theory & Method.
(2) Specific disciplines—Portuguese IV (Advertising Language), Consumers’
Right, Advertising Theory and Techniques I and II, Image in Advertising,
Ethics and Legislation in Advertising, Marketing and Advertising, Sales Promotion, Ideological Propaganda, Market Analysis and Planning, Research in
Advertising, Digital Photography, Visual Programming, Advertising Copywriting (I, II, and III), Graphic/Print Production, Media, Advertising Arts,
Advertising Management, Consumer Behavior Study I and II, Audiovisual/Radio/TV Production for Advertising I and II, Advertising/Campaign
Planning; Statistics, Experimental Advertising and Propaganda Projects (with
a final monograph or project paper worked during the whole semester).
(3) Elective disciplines—vary by institution. They can go from foreign languages such as Spanish or Italian, to Special Topics, or courses such as Environment and Market Communication, Interactive Communication and Electronic/ Digital Text, Visual Communication in Organizations, Political Theory; Institutional Memory and Historical Responsibility, Aspects of the Digital Communication Theory, Brazilian Culture, Art History, Cultural Anthropology, and more. (Dias 2003).
The undergraduate grid of the School of Communications and Arts
(“Escola de Comunicações e Artes, ECA-USP”) was used as a model for this
section (see USP 2010). But it is very similar to other courses offered by
other universities such as “Universidade de Brasília” (UNB), and “Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais” (UFMG) (see UFMG 2010 and UNB
n.d.a), including also private universities such as “Pontifícia Universidade
Católica” (PUC).
461
Further, supervised internships and complimentary activities to
build the undergraduate academic degree also are available. Such activities
may involve special programs with financial assistantship (such as CAPES or
CNPq, government assistantships) for research development, teaching assistantship, and extension activities. The hours dedicated to these activities
cannot exceed 20% of the total period of class activities (MEC 2001).
Some universities, particularly the private ones, also offer junior enterprises inside their institutions under faculty members’ supervision for
training purposes. Junior enterprises are nonprofit associations managed exclusively by undergraduate students who provide services and project development for outside business and community (Universia, 2005).
Graduate Programs in Communication.
Course names, tracks, and programs vary among public and private
universities around the country. Thus, the curriculum grids are flexible and
have variations among them. Based on research topics of the program, and
students’ thesis and dissertation proposals, students are allowed to take
courses outside the department or not related to the field as far as the graduation commission approves them. Some programs allow students to transfer 60 percent of credits of courses already taken in other national or international universities, based on the examination of students’ objectives and
thesis proposal (UNB, 2005). For this section, Universidade of Brasília was
used as a model because of its similarity to other universities (see UFMG,
UFRJ, USP).
Master’s Programs in Communication
A master’s degree in Communication is usually completed in approximately two years or four semesters. It requires a certain amount credits in
mandatory courses and another amount of credits in elective courses, where
50 percent of the credits should be taken inside the program. Following the
same criteria of a master’s degree at any other university program, students
are required to take a qualifying exam by no later than the end of the second semester of the program. Next, they need to defend their thesis proposal, and finally present a master’s thesis examined by an oral committee of
three faculty members, including one external examiner (UNB 2005):
(1) Mandatory disciplines—Communication Theories, Research and Methodology
and Communication, and Research Seminar I.
(2) Elective disciplines—Oriented Teaching I and II, Cultural Studies in Communication, Economic and Political Studies in Communication, Gender and Communication, New Technologies in Communication, Communication Philosophy,
462
Communication Sociology, Alternative Communication Processes, Communication Planning, Media Studies (Cinema, Video/TV, Print, Photography), and others.
These elective disciplines are the same for the doctoral program at the Universidade de Brasília (UNB 2005).
Doctoral Programs in Communication
The doctoral degree in Communication should be completed, including the period of writing and defending the dissertation, in four years or
eight regular semesters. Students are required to complete both mandatory
and elective courses, where 50 percent of the credits should be taken inside
the program. Similar to the master’s program, students are required to take
the qualifying exam by no later than the end of the fourth semester. Additionally, students need to defend their dissertation proposal. Lastly, they
need to defend their dissertation in a committee formed by at least five faculty members, with at least two external examiners (UNB, 2005):
(1) Mandatory disciplines—Communication Theories; Research and Methodology
in Communication; Research Seminar I; Research Seminar II.
(2) Elective disciplines for the Universidade de Brasília are the same as for the master’s program—listed above (UNB, 2005).
Specialization Courses in Communication
Many universities also offer “lato sensu” or specialization courses in
Communication, which aim to update professionals in the field or recent
graduates. These specializations are either via traditional class format or distance learning (online courses). They are usually one year long, and 360
hours, with an average of 12 disciplines. For example, UFMG (2010), a
public university, offers a course in “Communication: Images and Media
Cultures,” where basic disciplines are Contemporary Communication
Thinking and Research and Methodology in Communication.
Another specialization course example is the “Business Communication” offered by the Universidade Metodista de São Paulo, which is 18
months long. The course is addressed to professionals interested in organizational communication, and has core disciplines such as: Media Relations;
Internal Communication and New Technologies; Communication, Ethics
and Social Responsibility; Research and Methodology, and others (Universidade Metodista de São Paulo n.d.).
463
Professional advertising and related field associations
There are many Brazilian advertising, marketing, media, and related
associations that support professionals and organizations in the communication area. For this section, selected ones that focus on educational and learning are discussed. Specifically, associations that promote and disseminate
information on advertising, marketing, communication, and related fields
through educational (e.g., conferences, contests, seminars, exhibitions, festivals, books, and research publications), and awards opportunities for practitioners, communication corporations, and students and faculty are emphasized.
For example, the following associations: the Brazilian Association of
Advertising (“Associação Brasileira de Publicidade—ABP”), Brazilian Association of Announcers (“Associação Brasileira de Anunciantes—ABA”), Brazilian Association of Business Communication (“Associação Brasileira de
Comunicação Empresarial—Aberje”), Brazilian Association of Marketing
and Business (“Associação Brasileira de Marketing e Negócios—ABMN”),
National Newspapers Association (“Associação Nacional de Jornais—
ANJ”), and organizations that focus on communication studies and research, such as the Brazilian Society of Interdisciplinary Studies in Communication (“Sociedade Brasileira de Estudos Interdisciplinares da Comunicação—Intercom”), Forum of Communication Research (“Fórum de
Pesquisa de Comunicação—FoPeC”), and the Brazilian Association of Researchers of Organizational Communication and Public Relations (“Associação Brasileira de Pesquisadores de Comunicação Organizacional e Relações
Públicas—Abrapcorp”) are discussed on Table 29-3.
Associations
Brazilian Association of
Advertising (“Associação Brasileira de Publicidade—ABP”)
Founded: July 1937
Location: Rio de Janeiro, RJ
Brazilian Association of
Announcers (“Associação Brasileira de
464
About/Activities
• Oldest advertising association in the country
• Goals: motivate the development of ad techniques; and
defend the interests of advertisers
• Promotes: courses, conferences, seminars, cultural contests, and exhibitions
• Established the Brazilian Advertising Self-Regulation Council (“Conselho Nacional de Auto Regulamentação Publicitária—CONAR”), the Executive Council of Standard Norms
(“Conselho Executivo das Normas-Padrão—CENP”),4 the
first higher education course in advertising in the country—the School of Higher Education in Advertising and
Marketing (“Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing—
ESPM”), and the International Advertising Festival of Rio de
Janeiro [1]
• Group of the biggest announcers responsible for 70% of
advertising investment in Brazil
• Goals: represent, defend common interests, and contribute
Anunciantes—ABA”)
Founded: 1959
Location: São Paulo, SP
•
•
•
Brazilian Association of
Business Communication (“Associação Brasileira de Comunicação
Empresarial—Aberje”)
Founded: October 1967
Location: São Paulo, SP
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Brazilian Association of
Marketing and Business
(“Associação Brasileira
de
Marketing e
Negócios—ABMN”)
•
Founded: November 1971
Location: Rio de Janeiro, RJ
•
•
•
•
Brazilian Society of
Interdisciplinary Studies in Communication
(“Sociedade Brasileiros
de Estudos Interdisciplinares da Comunicação—Intercom”)
Founded: December 1977
Location: São Paulo, SP
National Newspapers
•
•
•
•
•
•
to the continual evolvement and professionalization of corporate announcers
Affiliated with the World Federation of Advertisers (WFA),
an organization that has announcers in 55 countries, including corporations responsible for more than 60% of international ad investments
Established with the ABP the Brazilian Advertising SelfRegulation Council (“Conselho Nacional de Auto Regulamentação Publicitária—CONAR”), the Executive Council of
Standard Norms (“Conselho Executivo das NormasPadrão—CENP”)4
Publishes: “ABA Magazine,” which discusses topics related
to advertising [2]
Actions: focus on information communication and relationships with national and international organizations, institutions, and researchers in the field of business communications
Discusses business communication in terms of educational,
administrative, political, cultural, and symbolical strategies
Goals: promote knowledge and initiatives in corporate
communications at local and global levels
Promotes: corporate communication forums and courses
directed to professionals of the field
Has ten regional chapters distributed around the country
Members: organizations, and corporate employees directly
or indirectly related to the area
Publishes: “Business Communications Magazine” (a reference publication in the field) four times a year, and a bimonthly newsletter that covers corporate communication
cases
Bookstore: offers books about business communications
and related themes
Annually, it awards organizations, personalities, and media
that performed relevant work [3]
Members: marketing practitioners and professionals of
related field
Promotes: the adoption of ethical principles by organizations and other institutional members
Goals: advise, promote, and exchange experiences and
techniques among members
Sponsors: contests, conferences, symposia, seminars, research, and awards to practitioners
Publishes: books, manuals, magazines, and bulletins that
discuss marketing techniques [4]
Among the largest structured institutions that represents
the communication field
Goals: gather researchers and communication professionals
under interdisciplinary perspectives
Promotes: national and regional conferences, seminars,
courses, symposia, and awards
Encourages: the development of communication research
Edits and publishes books and academic journals on communication topics [5]
Members: 146 journalism corporations, responsible for more
465
Association (“Associação Nacional de Jornais—ANJ”)
Founded: August 1979
Location: Brasília, DF
Forum of Communication Research (“Fórum
de Pesquisa de Comunicação—FoPeC”)
Founded: September 2000
Location: São Paulo, SP
Brazilian Association of
Researchers of Organizational Communication
and Public Relations
(“Associação Brasileira
de Pesquisadores de
Comunicação Organizacional e Relações
Públicas—Abracorp”)
Founded: May 2006
Location: ECA-USP, São Paulo,
SP
Note: [1] (ABP, 2007)
[2] (ABA, 2006)
[3] (Aberje, 2009)
[4] (ABMN, 2007)
than 90% of the newspaper circulation in the country
• Goals: defend the Journalism career, and represent the
general interests of its members
• Promotes: interchanges of news and information, national
and international conferences, seminars, symposia, and national, regional or state meetings
• Sponsors: creativity awards for advertisers, advertising
students, and advertising agencies
• Develops and preserves: cultural projects, and historical
communication materials
• Affiliated with the World Association of Newspapers
(WAN); the Executive Council of Standard Norms (“Conselho Executivo das Normas-Padrão—CENP”),4 and the
Brazilian Advertising Self-Regulation Council (“Conselho
Nacional de Auto Regulamentação Publicitária—CONAR)
[6]
• Based on the U.S. Advertising Research Foundation (ARF),
established by the Association of National Advertisers
(ANA) and by the American Association of Advertising
Agencies (AAAA)
• Has similarities with the European Society for Opinion and
Marketing Research (ESOMAR)
• Members: advertising agencies, announcers, media, research organizations, and academic area [7]
• Goals: stimulate and promote advanced studies in the
Communication Science
• Promotes: conferences, courses, technical and scientific
events in the communication area
• Interconnects: researchers, professionals, and students for
discussions of topics related to corporate organizational
communication and public relations
• Its “Oganicom Magazine” is an expression of the advanced
studies in business communication, public relations, and
advertising [8]
[5] (Intercom, 2010)
[6] (ANJ, 2010)
[7] (FoPec, 2010)
[8] (Abracorp, 2009]
Table 29-3: Professional Advertising and
Related Field Associations in Brazil
Final Comments
Brazilian journalism, advertising, and communication, and consequently the higher education programs in these fields are still new, if compared to the United States or European countries. Yet like the United States
and Europe, the actual disciplines today are still evolving. Reasons for Bra-
466
zil’s “newness” in these fields lie in the country’s history that was predominantly rural until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. That is, Brazil was
not an industrial society, and therefore, did not have mass consumptions or
demands.
Also, the Brazilian population was only around 14.3 million by the
end of the 1800s (Census 1890), and the literacy rate was low. For instance,
99.9 percent of the slaves and 80 percent of the rest of the population were
illiterates, providing little condition for the press and advertising to develop
(Durand 2008; Goulart 1990).
The initial advertising format that was more towards a simple and
“classified” one, started changing with Brazil’s economic-socio-cultural
transformation, industry arrival (e.g., automotive), and media development
(e.g., magazines, radio, TV), by the middle of the 1900s (Durand 2008).
Similarly, the Communication higher education was also influenced by these factors.
The first School of Journalism was established in 1947, and four years
later, the School of Advertising of São Paulo (“Escola de Propaganda de São
Paulo”) was founded (Dias 2003; Durand 2006; Durand 2008). However,
it is only during the 1960s that Communication schools started opening in
the country, with the first master’s and doctoral programs in the 1970s, and
the predominant number of courses in the 1990s and 2000s.
It is not surprising that the economy drives the Brazilian advertising
market and consequently, its education. As the world’s eighth largest economy (World Bank, 2010), the country had over 500 public and private universities that offered advertising courses, 39 master’s and 15 doctoral Communication programs by 2008 (CAPES 2007; Editora Abril 2010). The
majority of them are located in the southeast and south areas, where industries and population are concentrated.
As a field in constant growth with new technologies developing every
day, the “glamour” and “creativity” reputation of the advertising festivals
and awards, and the early stages of higher education, these numbers are expected to continue to increase in the next couple of years. It is not known
whether the job market will be able to absorb all graduates and evolving
professionals, despite the economic growth of Brazil in the last few years
and relatively promising expectations for the years to come.
Author’s Note and Update
Hoping that you find the array of information about Brazil's history and culture
compelling enough to learn more or even venture to Brazil. The country offers
interests and activities for everyone. You may find the areas that cover the evolution of Brazilian advertising education fascinating, as I have. As with any edu-
467
cation system, it is a dynamic process. So, consider this chapter a foundation for
additional research – a primer or launch pad, if you will. With this in mind, you
will need to do additional research particularly on how one gets accepted into
Brazilian universities. As of press time, Brazil has moved from what I have described to a more universal exam method (Admission Requirements of Brazilian
Universities). That is, more recently, the Brazilian government launched ENEM
(Secondary Education Evaluation Exam). Since then, some higher education institutions accept ENEM as part of the admission process. Also, university rankings change regularly. You should find the rankings here to serve as a good initial guideline.
____________________________________________
NOTES
1. In the 2009 Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities, created
by the Higher Education & Accreditation Council of Tawain, the Universidade de São
Paulo (USP) was listed in the 78th place. Also, USP was classified in the 35th place, in
2008 survey of the Professional ranking of World Universities (IBGE, 2007) (this list is
created by Mines Paris Tech). In 2009, USP is classified as the 38th world’s best university, behind University of Pittsburg and ahead of Princeton University (according to the
Spain Education Ministry, which examines more than 17 thousand academic universities worldwide—this ranking is updated every six months by the Spanish Education
Ministry and takes into consideration the global performance, research index, and quality of scholars and students) (“USP é classificada a 38ª melhor universidade do mundo
em ranking” 2009). Additionally, Computer Science students from USP were ranked
14th in the ACM ICP 2010 World Finals, the same rank of MIT. Webometrics classified USP as the best university of the set of countries named BRIC (Higher Education
Evaluation & Accreditation Council of Taiwan, 2009).
2.
The eight departments of ECA-USP, which are related to the communication field, are
the following: (1) Communication & Arts Department (CCA); (2) Journalism & Editing Department (CJE); (3) Public Relations, Advertising, & Tourism Department
(CRP); (4) Radio, TV, & Cinema Department (CTR); (5) Library & Documentation
Department (CBD); (6) Arts Department (CAP); (7) Music Department (CMU); (8)
Theater Department (USP, 2010).
3.
Editora Abril is a Brazilian publisher, funded in 1950, and based in São Paulo. It publishes six of ten best-selling titles, and has 58 percent share of Brazilian magazine publishing market. Some of the main magazines are Veja (weekly news), Nova (teen—
Cosmopolitan Magazine), Placar (sports), Capricho (teen), Quatro Rodas (automotive),
Estilo de Vida (in style), Cláudia, Manequim (women’s mountlies), Casa Cláudia (home
and gardening), Boa Forma (fitness), Exame (bussiness), Superinteressante (science and
culture), Info (information and technology), and the Brazilian issue of Men’s Health,
Women’s Health, Runners, and Playboy. The company also deals with printing, publishing, distribution, and sale of magazines, yearbooks, guidebooks, technical publications,
brochures, and CD-ROM. In addition, the publisher engages in sales of advertising and
publicity, database marketing, online content and services with various digital portals. It
distributes books, inserts, book collection, newspapers, magazines, printed material, periodicals, and consignments. Editora Abril owns the Brazilian MTV and cable company
468
TVA. The company is the leading pay TV operator in São Paulo (Brazil’s largest city)
serving more than 300 thousand paid TV subscribers and 45 thousand Internet broadband subscribers. The Ática and Scipione publishing companies lead the Brazilian educational book market with 30 percent of the market share. Naspers acquired 30 percent
interest in Editora Abril in 2006. The publisher and its subsidiaries provide informational, cultural, educational, and entertainment services in Latin America (The Abril
Group, 2006).
4.
The Executive Council of Standard Norms (“Conselho Executivo das NormasPadrão—CENP”) was established in 1998 by the advertising market with the goal of
implementing the standard norms of the advertising activities. The basic document defines rules and conducts of the best ethics and commercial practices among the main
Brazilian advertising agents. The Executive Council of CENP has 22 representatives of
advertising agencies, announcers, media, and federal government (CENP, n.d.).
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sensu. Retrieved from http://www.metodista.br/lato/comunicacao-empresarial.
U.S. Department of State (2005). Brazil—International Religious Freedom Report 2005.
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov
/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51629.htm.
“USP é classificada a 38ª melhor universidade do mundo em ranking” (2009, January 9).
Folha Online. Retrieved 2009 from http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/educacao
/ult305u617390.shtml.
World Bank (2010). World development indicators database. Retrieved from http://sitereso
urces.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf.
473
Advertising Education in Chile
Lucia Castellón
Universidad Mayor, Chile
Maricarmen Estevez
Universidad Mayor, Chile
Origins and Early Years
Advertising education in Chile dates back to 1953, though there were
no formal programs at the time. When the School of Journalism at the
University of Chile was established, a seminar called Notions and Techniques
for the Advertising Vocation was offered by Professor Manuel Magallanes, an
established advertising professional who co-founded the agency, Magallanes
Cori in the 1940s.
A few years later at the same School of Journalism, Julio Ortúzar Prado, a student in the class of 1956 took various courses in the field. Ortúzar
went on to become the first professional to create advertising programs in
Chile. He was responsible for starting up various institutes and schools to
promote education in the field.
In 1962 Ortúzar gave a summer course in advertising at the University of Chile. The course met with such a degree of success and interest that
he established the Instituto de Publicidad, Mercado y Ventas/ IPEVE (Institute of Advertising, Marketing and Sales) which he directed until 1968.
After leaving the academic world, he held a series of management positions
in various companies until 1976 when he returned to academia and opened
the School of Advertising of Chile (Escuela de Publicidad de Chile). The
school quickly gained prestige and in 1990, after great success, Ortúzar
founded the Universidad del Pacífico. He became president of the institution, a position he continues to hold today. Many successful advertising
professionals have been trained at this university.
At the same time that advertising courses were offered within journalism programs, the Instituto Pedagógico Técnico at the Universidad de Santiago was training teachers to give courses related to advertising. At the
time, these teachers were majoring in “Advertising, Sales and Calligraphy,”
(Publicidad, ventas y caligrafía) a career that led to a teaching degree but,
since most of its graduates went directly into the field of advertising, they
later decided to offer the career with two tracks: one for practitioners and
the other for teachers who prepared students for a career in the field.
474
Professionals have been trained in the field of advertising in Chile by
some very prominent individuals. One of the most outstanding is Monica
Herrera. She received her Ph.D in Education from the Universidad de Sevilla in Spain and is the founder of the Monica Herrera School of Advertising (Escuela de Publicidad Mónica Herrera). In 2000 the school was absorbed into the Universidad Mayor, where Herrera served as Dean of the
School of Communication until 2006. Currently she maintains two advertising schools outside Chile, one in Ecuador and the other in El Salvador.
In 1966 Monica Herrera obtained a degree in Journalism from the
Universidad de Concepción. Her introduction to the field of advertising
began when she was contracted by the advertising firm, McCann Erickson,
thus becoming one of the first women in the country to work in the field at
the executive level in a prestigious firm. She later became a professor of
Communication and Advertising at the Universidad de Concepción in its
School of Journalism. This experience opened up a new world for Herrera
and she became immersed in the field of advertising. It led her to open the
Escuela de Comunicación Mónica Herrera in 1980.
Another outstanding individual who did much to professionalize the
field through education is Antonio Freire, a journalist who received his degree from the School of Journalism at the Universidad de Chile. Freire
worked in television broadcasting where he directed many successful shows
and wrote scripts for documentary programs. He was also a writer for major Chilean newspapers including El Mercurio and La Tercera where he
wrote reviews and commentary. He became a recognized advertising professional widely known for his commercials on Chilean television.
In 1981 Freire formed a partnership with the Guiloff brothers and
together they opened the Instituto de Artes, Cultura y Comunicación
(IACC). At the time it offered only two careers: Advertising and Visual
Communications. After a number of years, IACC became the University of
Communications, UNIACC.
Advertising Education in Chile Today
Young people enter the advertising career in Chile after completing
their secondary education, generally at the age of 17 or 18 years of age. Before going into detail about the state of advertising education and the profile
of its future professionals, it is useful to outline the types of higher education available to students in the country.
475
Matriculated Students
This type of student is officially matriculated in an academic program
at an institution of higher education. The criteria to qualify as an “officially
matriculated” student are stipulated by the internal rules and regulations of
the educational establishment and include academic requirements, procedures, and other circumstances that a student must fulfill to be considered
matriculated.
Undergraduate
Undergraduate studies refer to those required to graduate from an institution of higher learning, and that lead to the first degree or a career.
This level includes degrees from technical and professional schools, as well
as first degrees awarded by the university.
Advertising education in Chile is offered at the following institutions
of higher education:
State-run Universities. State universities are established by law and belong
to the Chilean State. As of 2010, there are 16 public universities.
Private Universities with State Support: These private universities were established prior to 1980 or they were formed from those established prior to
1980. As of 2010, there are nine.
Private Universities. Private universities were established after 1980 under
the DFL 1 Law or under the 1990 LOCE Law.
Technical Careers: These careers refer to those that lead to a technical degree at the higher education level.
Higher Education Technical Degrees: This degree is awarded to a graduate
from a technical training center (centro de formación técnica), a professional
institute or a university that has approved a program of study with a minimum duration of 600 hours. These programs develop the knowledge and
skills that students need to work in a support capacity at the professional level and/or to become self-employed.
Professional Careers: These lead to a professional degree. They include academic programs such as bachilleratos, basic cycles, or a general studies curriculum, among others, as well as licentiate degree programs (an intermediate
degree between that of bachelor and that of doctor).
Professional Degrees: The professional degree is awarded to a graduate from
a professional institute or from a university-approved academic program.
476
In Chile there are 26 educational establishments that offer the advertising career. They are found at the various universities, and the professional
and technical institutes, as described above.
Advertising Programs and the Universities that Offer Them
A career in advertising in Chile is offered by all types of institutions
of higher education. At the university level, a licentiate degree is awarded.
At the professional institutes only a professional degree is awarded. Finally,
at the technical institutes, a technical or vocational certificate is awarded.
These schools are listed in Tables 30-1, 30-2, and 30-3.
University
Description
Degree
Awarded
Academic
Level
Diego
Portales
(UDP)
The School of Advertising at the UDP
began in 1995 and was based on the experience and tradition of the Instituto
Profesional (IPEVE), which was established in 1963. The academic program
leads to the licentiate degree in Communication and the title of advertising professional.
This degree was first offered in 1990,
though education in the field dates back
to 1976 when Ortúzar founded the Escuela
de Publicidad.
The School allows students to choose
from majors in Strategic Marketing, Advertising and Creativity and Audiovisual
Communication.
Advertising
Professional
Licentiate in
Communication
Advertising
Professional
Licentiate Degree
in Communication
8 semesters
plus a final
project for
graduation
Universidad
del
Desarrollo
Universidad
Mayor
Universidad
de las
Américas
Advertising
Professional
Licentiate Degree
in Advertising
Advertising
Professional
Advertising
Professional
Universidad
Central
Universidad
Pedro de
Valdivia
Universidad
Andrés
Bello
Advertising
Professional
Advertising
Professional
Licentiate Degree
in Advertising
Licentiate Degree
in Communication
Sciences
Licentiate Degree
in Advertising
Licentiate Degree
in Advertising
8 semesters
(4 year
program)
9 semesters
Universidad
del
Pacífico
Advertising
Professional
Licentiate Degree
in Advertising and
Communication
with a Minor in
Creativity and
Marketing
Duration of
academic
program
9 semesters
8 semesters
8 semesters
8 semesters
9 semesters
477
Universidad
UNIACC
Universidad
de Santiago
de Chile
Advertising
Professional
The only state-run university that offers
the career of advertising.
Universidad
del Mar
Universidad
Viña del
Mar
Advertising
Professional
with a
Minor in
Creative
Management
or
Business
Management
Advertising
Professional
with a Minor
in Creativity
or Business
Advertising
Professional
Licentiate Degree
in Marketing and
Communication
Licentiate Degree
in Communication
and Advertising
9 semesters
Licentiate Degree
in Persuasion and
Communication
8 semesters
Licentiate Degree
in Persuasion and
Communication
9 semesters
4.5 years on a
semester
schedule
Table 30-1: Universities with Advertising Majors
Institute
Description
DUOC UC
INACAP
Inst. Profesional
Los Leones
Inst. Profesional
de Santiago
Inst. Profesional
AIEP
Inst. Profesional
de Arte y
Comunicación ARCOS
Degree
Academic
Level
Advertising Professional
Advertising Professional
Advertising Specialist
Duration of
Program
8 semesters
8 semesters
8 semesters
Advertising Professional
4 year program
Advertising Professional
4 year program
Advertising Professional
7 semesters
Table 30-2: Professional Institutes with Advertising Careers
Institute
Description
Degree
Academic
Level
Duration of
Program
4 semesters
Inst. Profesional Dr.
Virginio Gómez G.
DUOC UC
Specialist in Public
Relations and Advertising
Advertising Specialist
with a Minor in Digital
Production
Centro de Formación
Técnica La Araucana
Centro de Formación
Técnica Osorno
Inst. Profesional La
Araucana
Advertising Specialist
5 semesters
Advertising Specialist
4 semesters
Advertising Specialist
5 semesters
5 semesters
Table 30-3: Technical Institutes with Advertising Careers
478
Links with Professional Associations
In Chile, advertising agencies are grouped into professional organizations. Those that are the most active and supportive in the educational sector are the Asociación Chilena de Agencias de Publicidad/ACHAP (The
Chilean Association of Advertising Agencies) and the Asociación Nacional
de Avisadores/ANDA (The National Association of Advertisers).
In the case of ACHAP, this organization works closely with schools
that have advertising programs. Each November it invites student teams to
participate in its creativity contest. Winners are announced in December,
at their annual awards ceremony for advertising agencies (www.achap.cl).
Throughout the year ANDA offers seminars and workshops and it
extends invitations to students and professors at various educational institutions (www.anda.cl).
The Universidad del Pacífico, the Universidad Mayor, UNIACC,
Universidad Diego Portales, and the Instituto Profesional DuocUC are all
internationally accredited by the International Advertising Association
(IAA). This organization conducts the accreditation process with visits to
each university or institute to review the programs and guarantee that the
schools comply with their professional requirements. In addition, advertising majors from these accredited institutions are invited to conferences and
seminars and they participate in international advertising competitions.
Throughout the academic year in Chile, which extends from March
to December, various institutions organize contests for advertising students.
The most important ones with the longest traditions include: La Segunda
newspaper’s annual student contest for advertising majors, the All Night
Lowe contest organized by the Lowe Porta Advertising Agency, Creativiña
sponsored by the Viña del Mar campus of DuocUC, an ACHAP contest for
creative youth called Copy Writer, and the Universia contest, among others.
The goal behind each of these contests is to give advertising students
an opportunity to compete in real life situations, to foster healthy competition among the advertising schools, and to provide advertising agencies with
a venue to observe talented youth and their best ideas. The Lowe Porta Advertising Agency offers internships to the winners of their contest.
479
For many schools, the prizes and success that their students gain
through these contests is an important measure of the success of their respective programs and it serves to foster matriculation. For two consecutive
years since 2008, the School of Advertising at the Universidad Mayor won
the first prize in the All Night Lowe contest.
Winners from the 2009 All Night Lowe contest, together with the
director of the University Mayor School of Advertising
Graphic pieces designed in the campaign for the Municipal Theater
of Chile
480
Winners from the 2008 All Night Lowe contest, and director of
the University Mayor School of Advertising
Advertising Leadership within Educational Institutions
No formal surveys have been conducted in Chile to determine which
advertising schools have the best academic programs. At best, word of
mouth, matriculation numbers, and student performance in national contests serve as some measures of excellence.
Advertising
Advertising
Advertising
Advertising
Advertising
Advertising
Advertising
Advertising
Advertising
Institution
Vacancies
U. del Pacífico
I.P Duoc (San Carlos)
U. Diego Portales
IP Los Leones
IP Inacap
IP Duoc ( Viña del Mar)
U. del Desarrollo
I.P de Chile
Uniacc
U. de Santiago
250
180
95
263
148
100
110
160
80
60
First-Year
Matriculation
263
189
115
204
158
113
108
145
100
59
Total
Matriculation
951
679
483
381
376
372
365
292
266
269
Table 30-4: Matriculation of students
481
As seen in Tables 30-4 and 30-5, the total number of matriculated
students, as well as the entering first-year students, show that the highest
concentration of students are in Santiago, Chile’s capital city. Leading this
ranking are: Universidad del Pacífico and the Instituto Profesional
DuocUC, followed by Universidad Diego Portales, IP Los Leones, INACAP and the Universidad del Desarrollo.
Table 30-5: Distribution of students
482
Curricula for the Advertising Career in Chile
Although there are many different types of institutions that offer the
career of advertising in Chile, it is important to provide a brief summary of
the duration of the programs and the course offerings available to students.
Overall, schools offer courses to prepare students to work in advertising
agencies. They include courses in account management, marketing, market
research, consumer behavior and branding.
Many programs also offer a block of courses in advertising media including the design and evaluation of campaigns in the mass media. The
creativity area includes seminars on writing, campaigns, art direction, creative workshops and workshops on advertising agencies. The digital area includes courses on the application of software programs used in the field, including Illustrator, Photoshop and Flash. Some programs also require English as a Foreign Language.
All educational institutions offer a degree program that requires an
internship in the field and the development of a final project. Requirements vary, but each institution assigns students work on a campaign for a
product or service, including the development of a business, or students
must do a research project related to the field of communications and marketing.
Graduate Programs:
Currently there is no graduate program in Chile specifically for advertising. As of 2010, only the Universidad Mayor offers a Master of Art degree in Advertising and Communication. There are related programs that
include a graduate degree at the Universidad Mayor in Strategic Communication and Branding and another at the Universidad del Desarrollo in Strategic Communication and Business.
Interviews
To conclude the chapter, two interviews follow with key figures who
are responsible for developing the first advertising programs in Chile. Both
Mónica Herrera and Julio Ortúzar provide relevant data on the early years
in the field, as well as their perspectives on the current state of advertising
education in the country.
483
Mónica Herrera, PhD.
The following is extracted from an interview with journalist and advertising professional
Mónica Herrera, PhD. Her background includes a Master of Arts in Communication and
a Doctorate in Education.
How and when did advertising education begin in Chile?
I don’t recall the exact date, but training in vocational schools began
in the 1950’s. The private institute, IPEVE, was started in the 1960’s and
at the same time a program in advertising was offered at the Universidad
Técnica. Later, in 1975 the Tecnológico opened a two-year program.
The Mónica Herrera School, the Instituto del Pacífico, and UNIACC were all established in the 1980’s when a new education model for
free and open competition was established. I was one of the pioneer’s in
teaching methodology and for that reason my school quickly gained prestige.
How did you get interested in the field of advertising?
It was by chance. I was a recent graduate of the School of Journalism
at the Universidad de Concepción, working as a reporter at El Sur newspaper. I ran into a friend from the university who told me that he was working for McCann Erickson (a transnational ad agency), but they had asked
him to move to Santiago. When he turned the offer down, they asked him
to recommend someone to take the position. He gave them my name.
When I asked about the remuneration, he said it was three times my
salary at the paper. I didn’t hesitate to accept. It took a lot for them to offer me a contract because I was a woman. In those days, they could not imagine a woman in an executive position.
I traveled to Santiago to have an interview with the General Manager
of the company and then to Valparaíso to speak with the Branch Manager,
and that must have convinced them. It was the first time there was a female
executive in advertising in Chile. I was a pioneer, both as an executive and
later as an educator because my teaching methods were very innovative.
How do you regard advertising education in Chile today?
There are many alternatives today. All institutions of higher learning,
including the university and the professional and technical institutes, offer
academic programs in advertising. They are homogeneous however, and
offer more or less the same programs. A varied curriculum is lacking. The
faculty is also the same, teaching simultaneously at various schools. The
484
differences are physical: the size of the buildings varies and the technological
infrastructure is at times more advanced in some schools, but nothing more.
The teaching methods have not changed since the last century. Only
the contents have changed as a result of the emergence of new communication technologies.
The most important thing is for the advertising professional to know
how to do the job and to value his or her creativity, regardless of where he
or she works. Graduate degrees in business such as the MBA, are highly
valued because advertising and marketing are disciplines that belong to the
field of business. Today, the most important programs in the country are at
the Universidad del Pacífico given its long tradition and experience, and at
UNIACC with its advanced infrastructure.
Changes in content should come as a result of new technologies, the
impact of the Internet and innovations that are emerging as a result of Web
2.0 and those that will come with Web 3.0. Other changes should come as
a result of new consumer behaviors, the globalization of the marketplace
and the ways that (products and services) are bought and sold.
Education for the 21st Century should change regardless of the field,
whether it is Advertising, Fine Arts, Medicine, Law or another area. It
should change not only with regard to content but also with regard to the
social, cultural, political, economic and technological contexts because the
world has changed. People have changed. Teachers can no longer continue
to enter the classroom and give a lecture. That method is no longer relevant. The methods should change, along with the role of the teacher.
Those who refuse are those who continue to survive with the old system,
but a crisis will come along that obligates them to change, too.
Concern over quality is universal and occurs at all levels. An excellent
education system can’t be achieved by simple updates or modifications.
They are merely cosmetic changes. A necessary revolution is coming that
will affect procedures, paradigms, and beliefs regarding how to teach and
how to learn. We are not prepared for this revolution.
Juio Ortúzar Prado
The following is from an interview with
Juio Ortúzar Prado, founder of the Universidad
del Pacífico, and currently President of its Board
of Directors, and considered a key mentor in the
field of advertising education in Chile. He is
winner of the National Award in Advertising
from the International Association of Advertising
485
How and when did advertising education begin in Chile?
I gave my first seminar in 1961 at the School of Industrial Design at
the Universidad Católica. A year later I taught a summer course for a pilot
program in advertising. I went on to establish the Instituto de Publicidad
de Mercado y Ventas/IPEVE (Advertising, Marketing and Sales Institute) in
1963, and opened a four year academic program. In 1976 I founded the
Escuela de Publicidad de Chile (School of Advertising of Chile) with a fiveyear program for the advertising professional.
How do you regard advertising education in Chile today?
An advertising program should train students not just to practice in
the field, but it should prepare them to be ethical professionals and entrepreneurs with a broad culture. Such a background will give them the advantage in their daily performance. The advertising professional today
should be connected to other activities in marketing and business in general.
The field of advertising should start with the notion of change. There
is no other way for a profession that deals with people and behaviors that
change so rapidly. There is a constant need for creativity and innovation,
basic elements that are essential to the development of the field.
Given such dynamism, I believe that future developments in the field
will be more integrated with the social sciences, and will require a more
global understanding that is gained from anthropological, sociological and
economic perspectives.
I see advertising as a fundamental bridge to economic activity in societies that have a free and open market. I don’t think that it is strictly a
commercial activity, but rather the field will influence the environment and
other emerging groups. This will require greater training and knowledge
and broader understanding of the internationalization of cultures. It will
require the professional to be a better researcher and interpreter of the
dreams and expectations of people. It will require greater creative abilities
that allow for constant innovation in an environment with highly advanced
technologies incorporated into daily life and in which the multiple consumption of media will be the norm.
I believe that to look toward the future, one should look to the past.
The advertising professional should be a renaissance man or woman, capable of creating and re-creating, global in his or her world vision, and a master at applying his or her knowledge.
486
Final Thoughts
Based on the research, a few final closing statements are important in
evaluation the growth of advertising education in Chile:
Advertising education in Chile has reached a stage of maturity with varied
and abundant academic alternatives.
Weaknesses exist within the various alternatives precisely because there is very
little difference in the content across programs.
Important technological and content-based changes have yet to occur in the
curriculum, in spite of significant global changes as a result of Web 2.0, social
networks, and the power of wikis and bloggers.
New media is essential to the field and should be mastered and used by new
generations of advertising professionals who will be required to incorporate
all of these media into their future advertising campaigns.
Finally, with regard to the presence of advertising agencies in Chile,
the large multi-national firms have absorbed the smaller companies. But
even in this context, there is a tendency to continue using traditional media
when investing in advertising due to a fear of innovation.
Bibliography
Basis, Isidoro ( 1999). 200 años de la Publicidad en Chile. Holanda comunicaciones S.A.
First Edition: February 2000. Printed in Chile. P.204, 205, 206, 207,208.209.210,
211.
www.divesup.cl/sies/ Sistema Nacional de Información de la Educación Superior ( Sies), a
body under the Chilean Ministry of Education’s Division of Higher Education.
487
Index
A.J. Kidwal Mass Communication Research Centre
AAA School of Advertising
Aarhus School of Business
Abril Awards
Academic Award of Advertising Festival for
China's University Students
Academy Canada
Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest
Academy of the Arts in Berlin
Acadia University
Accademia di Comunicazione
Account Planning Group
Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism
and Mass Communication
Adventist University of the Philippines
Advertising & Design Club of Canada
Advertising Agency Association of British Columbia
Advertising Agents Association
Advertising Association
Advertising Association of Australia
Advertising Association of Thailand
Advertising Board of the Philippines
Advertising Competition for China's
University Students
Advertising Educators Association of Canada
Advertising Institute of Australia
Advertising Media Association of South Africa
Advertising Media Owners Association of Singapore
Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria
Advertising Self Regulatory Organization
of Turkey (RÖK)
Advertising Specialty Education Committee of the
Chinese Association of Higher Education, The
Advertising, Communication, Training Committee
Agricultural University of Malaysia
Ahmadu Bello University
Ajami, Joseph
Akademie für Absatzwirtschaft Kassel
Akdeniz University
Akpabio, Eno
Akwa-Ibom State Polytechnic
Al-Azhar University
Alberta College of Art + Design
Alexander Hamilton Institute
Algonquin College
All Night Lowe contest
Alpha Delta Sigma
American Academy of Advertising
American Advertising Federation
American Marketing Association
American University in Cairo
American University of Beirut
American University of Science Technology
American University of Technology
Anadolu University
Anambra State University
Ankara University
Aoyama Gakuin University
488
131
59, 68-70, 74, 77, 79, 81, 83
307-308
445
120
388
254, 257-258, 261-263
212
386
224, 245-246
320
137, 403
417
393-394
395
77
78
406
195-196, 208
437
120
393, 396-397
406
59, 80-82
178
54-56
353
98, 103-104
172
173
51
333-341
211
350
23-35
53
36
375
406
367-368, 380
479-480
400-401
137, 164, 400-401
137, 214, 400-401
401
36-42, 44, 49
334, 336
338
338-339
349-350, 357
51
349-350
150, 152
Apollonio, Mario
Aquinas University of Legazpi
Araw Awards
Asia Pacific Advertising and Marketing Congress
Asia Pacific College
Asian College of Journalism
Asian Federation of Advertising Associations
Aslanbay, Yonca
Asmal, Kader
Association for Communication and Advertising
Association for Education in Journalism and
Mass Communication
Association of Accredited Advertising Agencies
Association of Accredited Advertising Agencies
of the Philippines
Association of Accredited Advertising
Agents Singapore
Association of Accredited Practitioners in
Advertising
Association of Advertising Agencies
Association of Copy Writers
Association of Québec Advertising Agencies
Assumption College
Assumption University of Thailand
Atatürk University
Ateneo Center for Continuing Education
Ateneo de Manila University
Atılım University
Atomi Women's University
Auchi Polytechnic
Auchi Polytechnic
Aurora College
Australasian Advertising Men
Australasian Writers and Art Directors Association
Australia
Australian Marketing Institute
Austria
AUT University
Aveni, Olugbenga Chris
AWARD School Asia
Azikiwe, Nnamdi
Babes-Bolyai University
Badenhorst, Francisca
Baharuddin Vocational Institute
Bahçeşehir University
Baker, Michael J.
Banaras
Bangalore University
Bangkok Art Director (BAD) Awards
Bangkok Art Directors Association
Bangkok College of Technology
Bangkok University
Barenblatt, Mark
Baroda School of Fine Arts
Başkent University
Batangas State University
Bechmans College of Design
Beijing Broadcasting Institute
Beijing Technology and Business University
Beijing Union University
Beijing University
Benson Idahosa University
Benue Polytechnic
219, 247
417
433
175
417
131
137, 437
342-361
69
59, 77, 83
401
171
421, 434-435, 437-439
175, 178, 187
77
68
359
394-395
419-420
198
350
430-431
87
350
152
53
57
388
406
186
7-10, 137, 186, 390, 405-415
406-407
390
172
49-58
186
49
254, 259, 261-262
75
175, 177, 184-185
344, 350, 357
312
129
129
208
208
193
193, 195-196, 198, 201
79
132
350
417
307
94-96, 100-101, 104-105, 116
111
95
104
51
57
489
Benue State University
51-53, 56-57
Berghs School of Communication
306-307
Beykent University
350
Bhargava, Mukesh
123-138
Bilkent University
347
Bishop, John
379
Blue Blade Technologies
430-431
Bocconi University
5-7
Boğaziçi University
352
Bond University
408-411
Boston House College of Advertising
59, 68, 79
Botswana
23-35
Bournemouth University
313
Bowen University
51
Brambilla, Francesco
217
Brandon University
377
Brazil
444-473
Brazilian Association of Advertising
454, 464
Brazilian Association of Marketing and Business
464
Brazilian Association of Researchers of Organizational
Communication and Public Relations
464, 466
Brioschi, Edoardo Teodoro
216-248
British Columbia Institute of Technology
372-373
Brook, Allan
78
Bucharest University
254, 256-257, 261-263, 267
Buda, Janusz
139-159
Bulacan State University
417
Burapha University
198, 201
Çağ University
350
Cairo University
36, 40-42, 44, 49
Caleb University
51
Cambodia
86-90
Cambrian College of Applied Arts & Technology
367-368
Camosun College
373
Canada
12, 362-399
Canadian Advertising Museum
397-398
Canadian Marketing Association
395-396
Canadore College of Applied Arts & Technology
367-368
Canberra University
408
Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival
444-445
Capilano University
371
Caprara, Giordano
223
Carltas University
51
Castellón, Lucia
474-487
Catholic Mass Media Awards
433, 436
Centennial College of Applied Arts & Technology
367, 380
Central Academy of Art & Design
98, 108
Central Fine Arts Academy
104
Central Institute of Technology TAFE
407
Central Philippine University
417
Central University of Technology
67
Centro de Estudos Superiores de Maceió
459
Centro de Formación Técnica La Araucana
478
Centro de Formación Técnica Osorno
478
Centro Universitário da Bahia
459
Centro Universitário de Brasília
458
Centro Universitário do Sul de Minas
460
Centro Universitário Fecap
460
Centro Universitário Feevale
458
Centro Universitário Jorge Amado
459
Centro Universitário Luterano de Palmas
459
Centro Universitário Newton de Paiva
460
Chan, Anthony B.
390
490
Changchun Radio & TV University
Channon, Charles
Chaopraya University
Charles Sturt University
Chartered Institute of Marketing
Chartered Institute of PR
Chasnoff, Joseph E.
Chatsworth Mediart Academy
Chen, Gang
Chen, Peiai
Cheong-Ju University
Chiang Mai University
Chile 474-487
Chilean Association of Advertising Agencies
China
China Advertising Association
China Advertising Association of Commerce
China Advertising Correspondence College
China Advertising Education Society
China Advertising Society
China Creative Industry Institute
Chinese University of Hong Kong
Chu, Guangzhi
Chulalongkorn University
Chung-Ang University
Chungwoon University
Clark, Tim
Clio Awards
Colegio de San Juan de Letran
Collège Communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick
College of New Caledonia
College of North Atlantic
College of the Holy Spirit
Communication Advertising and Marketing
Education Foundation
Communication University of China
Communications Advertising and Marketing
Education Foundation
Conestoga College Institute of Technology &
Advanced Learning
Cook, Gordon
Cooney, John
Correspondence School of Shen Newspaper
Cossette
Council for Education in Advertising in South Africa
Creative Circus
Creative Guild of the Philippines
Crescent University
Crowbar Awards
Cui, Yinhe
Culture
Cumhuriyet University
Curtin Singapore
Curtin University
Czech Republic
D'Souza, Alan
D&AD
Daegu Catholic University
Daitō Bunka University
Dalhousie University
112
314
198
172, 408-410
310-312, 321
321, 326
400
182, 185-186
103
97
165-166
193, 198
479
9, 91-122, 139, 411
98-100, 116-117
98, 101-102
99, 112
98, 102-103
98
111
389
91-122
192-193, 195-198, 201
162-166
166
175-190
445
417
369
373
369, 387
417, 429
171
95-96, 102, 105-106, 113, 116, 121
312
367, 369, 380
70
72
92
392-393
78
211
438
51
175, 187
117
3, 9, 10, 17-18, 20, 47, 117, 139,
161, 183, 209, 227, 229-231, 238239, 246, 340, 343-344, 366, 416,
434, 451, 463, 486
350
181
408-409
9
123-138
319, 327-330, 436
166
152
386
491
Danish School of Journalism
Dankook University
Dawson College
de Koning, Tom
De La Salle University
de Villiers, Graham
Delaware University
Delta State Polytechnic
Delta State University
Denmark
Dentsu Group
DesignSingapore Initiative
Deželak, Bogomir
Dhurakij Pundit University
Dilber, Mustafa
Ding, Junjie
Ding, Yunpeng
Direct Marketing Association
Direct Marketing Association of the Philippines
Diwa Ad of the Year Awards
Dobson, Claude
Doctoral Education
Dong-Eul University
Dong-Guk University
Dongkuk University
Dongseo University
Dorben Polytechnic
Douglas College
Drac Novell International Awards
Dua, M.R.
Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg
Dunn, Wat
Durham College
East China Normal University
Eastern Asia University
Ebonyl State University
Edith Cowan University
Ee, Donald
EFFIE Awards
Ege University
Egypt
Ein Shams University
El Instituto de la Publicidad
EMUNI University
Engelbrecht, Herman
England
English language
Enslin, Carla
Enugu State University of Technology
Erciyes University
Esamc Campinas
Esamc Sorocaba
Escola de Propaganda de São Paulo
Escola Superior de Propaganda de São Paulo
492
308
166
369
62
417-421, 425-427, 431, 437
79
266
54
51
305, 307-308
104-105
188
276
196, 198, 201
352-353
97, 103
93
403
432
433
80
42, 44-45, 61-62, 67, 96, 105-106,
108-110, 119, 121, 164-165, 168,
182, 184, 198, 201-202, 252, 255261, 264-265, 280-281, 283, 295298, 334, 356, 360, 402-403, 444,
447-453, 455-456, 463, 467
166
166
165
166
53
374
300
132
212-213
6
367, 369, 381
117
198
51
409, 411
179
175, 179, 280, 286, 433
350, 357
36-48
42
293
281
61
6, 44, 172, 177, 445
3-4, 11, 13-15, 37, 40, 47, 52-53,
69, 74, 87, 117, 177-178, 202-203,
205, 258, 262-263, 281-283, 305308, 333-334, 338-340, 352, 406,
414, 483
70
51
350
458
460
445, 454
455, 467
Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing
Escuela de Publicidad de Chile
Escuela de Publicidad Mónica Herrera
Estevez, Maricarmen
Ethics
Eulogio "Amang" Rodriguez Institute of
Science and Technology
European Advertising Standards Alliance
European Association of Communication Agencies
Ewha Woman's University
Faculdade Cásper Líbero
Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ciências
Faculdade do Vale do Ipojuca
Faculdade Editora Nacional
Faculdade Marista
Faculdades COC Ribeirão Preto
Faculdades Integradas Barros Melo
Faculdades Integradas Claretianas
Faculdades Nordeste
Faculdades Unime
Fanshawe College of Applied Arts & Technology
Far Eastern University
Fassler, Barbara
Federal Polytechnic
Federico II University
Festival Iberoamericano de Publicidad
Film and Television Institute of India
Finland
First Media Design School
Fırat University
Fletcher, Toby
Florida State University
Footscray Technical College
Fountain University
France
Frazier, Charles
Free University of Languages and
Communication (IULM)
Freire, Antonio
Fu, Hanzhang
Fudan University
Fundação Armando Álavares Penteado
Gaballí, Pere Prat
Gaborone Technical College
Gakushūin University
Galatasaray University
Gamma Alpha Chi
Garlick, Roger
Gazi University
GEA College of Entrepreneurship
George Brown College
Georgescu, Lucian
Georgia State University
Georgian College of Applied Arts & Technology
German Association of Communications Agencies
Germany
Gillard, John
Golden Drum Festival
Gordon Institute of Technology
Gramado Awards
455, 457-458
474, 486
475, 484
474-487
3, 40, 53, 55, 60-61, 88, 117, 133,
148, 206-208, 221-222, 262-263,
283, 286, 353-354, 427, 430, 437,
461, 463, 468
419
286, 353
286, 323
166
458
458
460
460
459
459
458
459
459
459
369
198, 418, 429
73
53, 57
224
445
131
305, 308
181
350
398
266
407
51
26
8
224-225, 245-246
475
97
91, 96, 104, 108-109
458
290-292, 303
33
152
350
400-401
80
350
284
369
267-269
42
368-369
214
210-215
330
280
407
445
493
Grant MacEwan University
Grow, Jean
Guangxi Arts Institute
Guatri, Luigi
Gümüşhane University
Gwang-Ju University
Gye-Myung University
Haliç University
Halla University
Hallym University
Hankook University of Foreign Studies
Hansel University
Hanshin University
Hanyang Cyber University
Hanyang University
Harvest Christian School
Hashim, Adnan
Hatyai University
Hawaii Pacific University
HEC Montreal
Helsinki School of Economics
Herbst, Das
Herrera, Mónica
Hesapci-Sanaktekin, Ozlem
Hirunrak, Darunee
Hitotsubashi University
Hock, David Teo Keng
Holland College
Holy Angel University
Hön, Eugene
Honam University
Hongik University
Hōsei University
Huachiew Chalermprakiet University
Huang, Heshui
Huang, Shenmin
Huang, Youwu
Huazhong University of Science & Technology
Hujiang University
Humber College Institute of Technology &
Advanced Learning
Hwang, Chang-Gyu
Hwang, Jang-Sun
Hyub-Sung University
Hyupsung University
Ibadan Institute of Management and Technology
Iesp Faculdades
Igbinedion University
IMM Graduate School of Marketing
Imo State University
INACAP
Incorporated Practitioners in Advertising
India
Indian Institute of Journalism and New Media
Indian Institute of Mass Communication
Indian Institutes of Management
Inje University
Institut für Marketing und Kommunikation
Institute for Advertising Education
Institute of Advertising Communication Training
Institute of Advertising Singapore
Institute of Communication Agencies
Institute of Direct Marketing
494
374
290-304
93
217
350
166
166
351
166
166
166
166
165-166
166
163-166
431
173-174
198
172
384
6, 8, 308
61
475, 483-485
342-361
196-197
152
178
368-369, 385-386
417
65
166
163, 166
152
199
117-118
97
92
96
92
368-369, 381
164
160-170
165
167
53-54
459
51
76
51
478
310
123-138, 411
131
130
132
167
211
169-170
172
175, 182, 186-188
391-392, 397
320, 326-327
Institute of Practitioners in Advertising
Institute of Promotional Marketing
Instituto Baiano de Ensino Superior
Instituto de Artes, Cultura y Comunicación
Instituto de Publicidad de Mercado y Ventas/IPEVE
Instituto del Pacífico
Instituto Profesional AIEP
Instituto Profesional de Arte y Comunicación ARCOS
Instituto Profesional de Chile
Instituto Profesional de Santiago
Instituto Profesional DuocUC
Instituto Profesional Inacap
Instituto Profesional La Araucana
Instituto Profesional Los Leones
Instituto Profesional Virginio Gómez
Integrated Marketing Communication
Interactive Advertising Bureau
International Academy
International Academy of Media Sciences
International Advertising Association
232, 234, 240, 286, 359, 404, 479, 485
International ANDY Awards Student Competition
International Association of Schools in Advertising
International Correspondence Schools
International School for Social and Business Studies
International School of Business and Media
International University of Korea
International University of Phnom Penh
Internship
Ireland
İstanbul Arel University
İstanbul Aydın University
İstanbul Bilgi University
İstanbul Ticaret University
İstanbul University
Italian Association of Advertising Professionals
Italy 5-6, 216-248
Itō, Jūjirō
Izeki, Jūjirō
İzmir Ekonomi University
J.J. School of Fine Arts
Jancic, Zlatko
Japan
Japan Academy of Advertising
Japan-China Advertising Educational
Exchange Project
Jeonju University
Jiangsu Advertising Association
Jinan University
Jissen Women’s University
Joseph Ayo Babalola University
Journal of Advertising Science
Journalism
78, 310, 318-330
321
459
475
474, 486
484
478
478
481
478
478-479, 481-482
481-482
478
478, 481-482
478
12-13, 56, 61-62, 229, 397, 401,
410-412, 420, 424
286, 321
151
40
42, 59, 68, 76-77, 169, 172, 225,
403
217-218
405-406
283
131
167
88-89
31, 33, 47, 59, 69-71, 73, 78, 82-83,
108-109, 136, 146, 172, 174, 186,
201-204
390
351
351
351, 356-357
351
350
245
146
146
351
132
271-289
139-159, 192
142, 153, 156
104
167
112
109
152
51
153
31-32, 38-41, 43, 49-52, 55-56, 61,
63-64, 89, 91-97, 99-100, 102, 105109, 116-119, 121, 128-134, 137,
156, 166-167, 192-193, 195, 212,
219-220, 246, 252-257, 259-262,
264-265, 267, 276, 279-282, 286,
293-294, 305, 308, 335-338, 340,
349, 352, 357, 365, 378, 390, 400-
495
Jung-Bu University
Kadir Has University
Kaduna Polytechnic
Kaduna State University
Kamei, Akihiro
Kanitza, Gaetano
Kaplan Singapore
Karadeniz Technical University
Kasem Bundit University
Keenan, Kevin
Keiō University
Kerr, Gayle F.
Keyano College
Keyin College
KIAC School of the Visual Arts
Kidlat Awards
Kim, Won-Soo
King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Kishi, Shizue
Klement, Podnar
Kline, Mihael
Ko-Shin University
Kobayashi, Tasaburō
Kobayashi, Yasuhiko
Kōbe Higher Commercial School
Kōbe University
Koç, Ahmet
Kocaeli University
Koekemoer, Ludi
Kogi State University
Kokugakuin University
Konrad Adenauer Foundation
Kookmin University
Korea
Korea Association for Advertisers
Korea University
Korean Advertising Information Center
Korean Advertising Society
Korean Broadcasting Advertising Corporation
Korean College Students AD Challenge
Korean Federation of Advertising Associations
Kotnik, Drago
Krirk University
Kwangju University
Kwantlen Polytechnic University
Kwon, Myong-Kwang
Kyōto Advertising School
Kyung-il University
Kyung-Ju University
Kyungsung University
Kyungwon University
La Consolacion College
Lagos State Polytechnic
Lagos State University
Langara College
LaSalle College of the Arts
Leahy, Mike
Lebanese Advertising Agencies' Association
Lebanese American University
Lebanese University
Lebanon
496
403, 420, 447, 451, 453, 455, 461,
465-467, 474-475, 484
167
351
54
52
142, 149-150, 153
217
181
350
199
36-48
147, 152-153
405-415
375
388
388
438
164
200-201
153
282
271-289
167
148-150, 153
150, 153
147
147
352
350
59-85
52, 57
152
87
167
139, 160-170
170
165
169
164
168-169
170
169
277
199, 201
163
369, 371
164
151-152
167
167
167
169
417-418
54
51-52
373
175, 181, 183
81
335
334
334-336
333-341
Lee, Woo-Jin
Lethbridge College
Limkokwing University of Creative Technology
Linnaeus University
Liu, Jibo
Lombardini, Siro
London International Awards
Loyalist College of Applied Arts & Technology
Lu, Meizeng
Lucian Blaga University
Luleas University
Lunds University
Lwin, May O.
Lyi, Dae-Ryong
Madonna University
Mae Fah Luang University
Magallanes, Manuel
Malaya University
Malaysia
Malaysian Advertisers Association
Mallam Usman Polytechnic
Maltepe University
Management Development Institute of Singapore
Manorama School of Communication
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Mara Institute of Technology
Marketing
Marketing Agencies Association
Marketing Communications Awards
Marketing Excellence Awards
Marko, Lah Borut
Marmara University
Marx, Sieg
Maryhill College
Matsumoto, Takizō
McGill University
McMasters University
Medicine Hat College
Meiji Gakuin University
Meiji University
Meisei University
Memorial University of Newfoundland
Merkantilt Institute
Mersin University
Miami Ad School
162
368, 375
30-33, 88, 172-173
306
93
217
445
368
92
255, 259
306
306
175-190
162, 164
51
200
474
173
7, 30, 171-174, 411
171
54
351
181, 184
131
417
173-174
6-8, 20, 23-24, 26, 30-31, 39-43, 46,
49, 52-53, 55-56, 59-64, 67-70, 72,
76-77, 80-81, 83, 88, 92-93, 95, 9798, 104-105, 108-112, 114, 116-118,
124, 141-142, 148, 150, 153-154,
156, 164, 170, 171-174, 175, 179,
182, 184-185, 187, 196-197, 201205, 210-212, 214, 220, 224, 226,
240, 245, 250, 254-255, 257-258,
261-265, 267-268, 274-284, 286287, 291, 300, 305-308, 310-313,
315, 317-318, 320-321, 323, 325327, 329-330, 336-340, 347-348,
352, 354-357, 359, 364-365, 367368, 370-392, 395-396, 401-403,
406-407, 409-413, 417, 420, 422427, 429-438, 440-441, 450, 452,
455, 457-458, 461, 464-466, 474,
477-478, 483, 485-486
320
436
438
279, 282
350, 357
59
417
148
384
378
375-376
152
146, 152
152
387
309
350
211
497
Michigan State University
Micu, Anca Cristina
Middle East Technical University
Midrand Graduate Institute
Mills, Patrick
Minya University
Miracle, Gordon
Misr International University
MM Akademija journal
Modern Sciences and Arts University
Mohawk College of Applied Arts & Technology
Mokwon University
Monash University
Moore, Allein
Moraru, Madalina
Morocco
Moshood Abiola Polytechnic
Mount Allison University
Mount Royal University
Mount Saint Vincent University
Mowe, Patrick
Možina, Stane
Mudra Institute of Communications
Mukai, Shikamatsu
Mysore
Najing University of Finance and Economics
Nakagawa, Shizuka
Nam-Seoul University
Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts
Nanyang Polytechnic
Nanyang Technological University
Nasarawa State Polytechnic
Nasarawa State University
National Advertising Benevolent Society (NABS)
National Association of Advertisers (Chile)
National Institute of Design
National School of Political and Administrative
Studies, Bucharest
National Student Advertising Competition
National Student Competition
National University of Malaysia
National University of Management
National University of Theatre and Cinematography
New Brunswick Community College
New York International Advertising Awards
New York University
New Zealand
Ngee Ann Polytechnic
Ngu, Teck Hua
Ni, Ning
Niagara College of Applied Arts and Technology
Nigeria
Nigerian Institute of Journalism
Nigerian Institute of Public Relations
Nihon University
Nikkei Advertising Research Institute
Nkrumah, Kwame
Nnamdi Azikiwe University
North Island College
North-West University
Northern Alberta Institute of Technology
Northwestern University
Northwood University
498
155, 266
249-270
359
74
310-332
42
6, 231
40
280
40
368-369, 381
165, 167
408-409
176
249-270
390
54
385
374
386
178-179
277, 279
131
153
129
112
147
165, 167
175-176, 181-183
181
175, 177, 179, 181-182, 184, 186
54
51
321
479
132
254, 258, 261-263
403
413
173
88
255, 260
369, 385
445
400
6-7, 186
181, 185
171-174
103
382
49-58
54-55
50, 56
152
140-145, 155
49
52
373
66
375
228
172
Norway
305, 308-309
Norwegian School of Economics and
Business Administration
308
Notre Dame University (of Lebanon)
334, 337-338
Nova Scotia College of Art and Design University
386
Nova Scotia Community College
369, 387
Novena University
52
Nuen Polytechnic
54
Nyitse, Gabriel T.
49-58
Ogbu, Benjamin E.
49-58
Ogilvy, David
221
Ohio State University
44
Ohio University
87, 201
Oklahoma University
265
One Show, The
106, 120
Ontario College of Art & Design
364, 378
Open Window School of Visual Communication, The 75-76
Osisatech
54
Osmania
129
Osun State Polytechnic
54
Otago
7
Outdoor Advertising Association of the Philippines
437
Outdoor Center Awards
445
Pan, Dajun
96
Pathumthani University
199
Patti, Charles H.
5-9
Payap University
199
Peepre, Mari
390
Peking Mass University
91
Peking University
91, 96, 103, 107, 113
Pennington, Robert
5, 11-15
Pennsylvania State University
352
Pensar la Publicidad
298
Perovič, Tomaž
284
Perth Technical College
407
Petre Andrei University
255, 260
Petre, Dan
267-269
Pforzheim Academy
212
Phillips, Barbara J.
365, 376
Philippines
416-443
Philippine Association of Communication
Educators Foundation
421
Philippine Cambridge School of Law
417
Philippine College of Commerce
419
Philippine Marketing Association
431
Philippine Women's College of Davao
417
Philippine Women's University
418
Political Influence
87, 275-278
Polytechnic, The
53
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
419
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas
458
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais
458, 460
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Porto Alegre
455
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo
456, 458
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Parnaná
459
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro
458
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul 458
Prado, Julio Ortúzar
474, 483, 485-486
Pro Deo University
217
Psatta, Sorin
267-268
Public Relations
7, 30, 32, 38-40, 50-53, 55-57, 60,
73, 88, 105-106, 117-118, 165-166,
208, 256, 258-259, 265, 292, 294,
499
Punyapiroje, Chompunuch
Pyeongtaek University
Queen’s University
Queensland University of Technology
Questiones Publicitarias
Raaff, Allan
Raffles Design Institute
Rajabhat University
Rajamangala University of Technology
Ramkhamhaeng University
Rand Afrikaans University
Ratchaphruek College
Red and Yellow School of Logic and Magic
Red River College of Applied Arts, Science
& Technology
Redeemers University
Regulation
Religion
Renaissance University
Renmin University of China
Republic Polytechnic
Research Center of China's New Advertisements
Reynders, Hennie
Rheinische Fachhochschule
Richards, Jef I.
Rightford, Bob
Rikkyō University
River State University
RMIT University (f/k/a Royal Melbourne
Institute of Technology)
Roca, David
Rodriguez, Lulu
Rojšek, Iča
Romania
Rose, Pat
Ross, Billy I.
Ross, Charles G.
Rostron, Peter
Royal Roads University
Royal University of Fine Arts
Royal University of Phnom Penh
Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo
Rungsit University
Saint Johns University
Samo, Kropivnik
Sandage, Charles
Sang-Ji University
São Paulo Advertising Association
Sapienza Università di Roma
Sar, Sela
Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science
and Technology
Satawedin, Laksana
Sault College of Applied Arts & Technology
Schmidt Gross, Caroline
Schneider, John
School of Communication Arts
Schultz, Don E.
Science University of Malaysia
500
296, 306-307, 345, 349-350, 356357, 378, 447, 461
191-209
167
379
7-9, 407-412
298
72
181, 183-184
195, 197-200
193, 198, 200
195, 198
62
199
68, 72-73
369, 377-378
52
28, 46, 88, 98, 107, 110, 113, 117,
141-142, 250, 292-295, 306, 322,
335, 340, 343-344, 425, 437
36, 45-46
52
96, 102-104, 107-108
181
111
59
213-214
400-404
72
147, 152
51
172, 407-410
290-304
86-90, 416-443
279
249-270
8
400-404
400
78
390
86
87-88
53
199, 201
91, 199
282
404
167
454
224-225
86-90, 416-443
376-377
196-197
369
87
407
330
5, 8, 16-22, 228
173
Se-Myung University
Searle-Tripp, Brian
Seikei University
Selçuk University
Seneca College of Applied Arts & Technology
Sengupta, Subroto
Seoul Women's University
Seowon University
Sfiligoj, Nada
Shanghai Light Industrial Higher Junior College
Shanghai Normal University
Shanghai South University
Shanghai University
Shaver, Mary Alice
Shelton College International
Shenzhen University
Sheridan College Institute of Technology
& Advanced Learning
Shimamura, Kazue
Siam University
Silpakorn University
Sin-Ra University
Sinclair, Roger
Singapore
Singapore Advertisers Association
Singapore Advertising Hall of Fame Awards
Singapore Institute of Management
Singapore Polytechnic
Slovenia
Slovenian Advertising Association
Slovenian Advertising Chamber
Slovenian Advertising Festival
Slovenian Association of Advertising Agencies
Sogang University
Song, Yong-Seob
Sookmyung Women's University
Soongsil University
Sophia University
Sør-Trøndelag University College
South Africa
South Australian School of Mines
South of Egypt University
Southern Alberta Institute of Technology Polytechnic
Spain
Sripratum University
St. Claire College of Applied Arts & Technology
St. Francis Xavier University
St. Lawrence College
St. Paul University
St. Scholastica's College
Starman, Danijel
Stellenbosch Academy of Design and Photography
Števančec, Darko
Stockholm University
Students Laus
Suan Dusit Rajabhat University
Sukhothai Thammathirat Open Uinversity
Sunmoon University
Suranaree University of Technology
Sutherland, Clayton
Sweden
Symbiosis Institute of Mass Communication
Taiwan
165, 167
72
152
349-350
368, 370, 382
135
169
167
276, 279
93
96, 111
91
96, 104, 110
305-309
181
94, 102, 110
368, 382-383
139-159
199
196
167
78-79
7, 26, 175-190, 416
178
179
181
181
271-289
280
286
280
286
165-166
164
167
167
152
308
26, 29, 59-85
407
42
375
290-304
196, 199
368, 370, 383
386
367-368, 370, 383
419
418, 429-430
279
73
284
306
300
196
198, 201
167
200
74
305-307
131
11-15, 139, 411
501
Tama Art University
Tang, Zhongpu
Tanja, Kamin
Tansian University
Tarlac State University
Taylor, Jonathan
Technikon Witwatersrand
Temasek Polytechnic
Tena, Daniel
Teo, David
Textbooks
Thailand
Thaksin University
Thammasat University
Thomas, Michael
Thompson Rivers University
Thong-meearkom, Pana
Thongsook College
Times Advertisement Golden Calf Prize
Times Center of Meia and Management Studies
Tinta Awards
Tithanu, Tung
Tokyo Imperial University
Tōkyō Institute of Technology
Tōkyō Keizai University
Tōkyō Senmon College
Tongmyung University
Top Advertising Contest of Thailand Awards
Tōyō University
Tregoning, Greg
Trent University
Tsinghua University
Turkey
Turkish Association of Advertising Agencies
Turkish Foundation of Advertising
Turku School of Economics
Uekuri, Fumio
Ueno, Yōichi
UNIACC
United Kingdom
United States
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
Universidad
502
Andrés Bello
Antonio Nebrija
Católica
Central
Complutense de Madrid
de Chile
de Concepción
de las Américas
de Navarra
de Santiago
de Sevilla
Diego Portales
del Desarrollo
del Mar
del Pacífico
del País Vasco
152
96
282
52
417
310-332
62
8, 181, 184-185
290-304
179
3, 8, 16, 20-21, 38-39, 46-47, 78-79,
81-82, 99, 105-106, 112-113, 116117, 135-136, 142, 146, 257, 274276, 291-292
191-209, 411
201
192-193, 195-196, 198, 201
312
371
195
199
106, 120
131
438
87
146
152
152-153
147
167
196
152
70
379
104, 108, 121
342-361
345, 358
358
308
148
146
475, 478-479, 481, 484-485
26, 78, 192, 310-332, 405, 436
3, 5, 12, 25-26, 38, 42-44, 46, 49,
89, 139, 156, 172-173, 177, 192194, 208, 211, 228, 333, 340, 349,
390, 400-405, 449-451, 466
477
302
486
477
293, 302
475, 478
475, 484
477
301
474, 478, 481
302
479, 481-482
477, 481-483
478
474, 477, 479, 481-482, 485
302
Universidad Mayor
Universidad Pedro de Valdivia
Universidad UNIACC
Universidad Viña del Mar
Universidade Anhaguera
Universidade Anhembi Morumbi
Universidade Católica de Brasília
Universidade Católica de Goiás
Universidade Católica de Pernambuco
Universidade Católica do Salvador
Universidade Católica de Santos
Universidade Católica Dom Bosco
Universidade de Brasília
Universidade de Caxias do Sul
Universidade de Fortaleza
Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul
Universidade de São Paulo
Universidade de Marília
Universidade do Oeste Paulista
Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos
Universidade Federal de Goiás
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Universidade de Passo Fundo
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria
Universidade Federal do Pará
Universidade Federal do Paraná
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba
Universidade Metodista de São Paulo
Universidade Municipal de São Caetano do Sul
Universidade Nove de Julho
Universidade Paulista
Universidade Potiguar
Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie
Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado
do Rio Grande do Sul
Universidade Salvador
Universidade Santa Cecília
Universidade Tiradentes
Università Bocconi
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore
Università degli Studi di Urbino
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
Universitat Ramon Llull
Université de Sherbrooke
Université Saint-Esprit De Kaslik
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman
University Canada West
University of Alberta
University of Asia and the Pacific
University of Balamand
University of Bohol
University of Botswana
University of Calgary
University of California Irvine
University of Canberra
University of Chile
University of Communications
University of Diego Portales
University of Denver
477, 479-481, 483
477
478
478
459
458
458
459
460
460
460
459
455-456, 458, 461-462
459
458
459
455-456, 458
460
460
458
459
455, 459, 461
459
458
457
459
459
453, 456, 459
458
458
458, 463
459
460
459
458
458
460
459
459
458
223, 246
217, 219-225, 245, 247
224, 247
301
302
364
339
8
8
373
374
420, 423-424, 433
337
417
23, 32-33
374
266
172, 409
474
475
477
6
503
University of Free State
University of Georgia
University of Hertfordshire
University of Ibadan
University of Illinois
University of Johannesburg
University of Lagos
University of Lancaster
University of Ljubljana
University of London
University of Manitoba
University of Maribor
University of Melbourne
University of Minnesota
University of Missouri
University of New Brunswick
University of Nigeria
University of Northern British Columbia
University of Northern Philippines
University of Nova Gorica
University of Ontario Institute of Technology
University of Pittsburgh
University of Pretoria
University of Primorska
University of Prince Edward Island
University of Québec
University of Queensland
University of Rizal
University of Rome
University of Saint Joseph
University of San Agustin
University of San Carlos
University of Santo Tomas
University of São Paulo State
University of Saskatchewan
University of Sherbrooke
University of South Africa
University of South Australia
University of Stellenbosch
University of Strathclyde
University of Technology, Sydney
University of Tennessee
University of the East
University of the Fraser Valley
University of the Philippines
University of the Republic of China
University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce
University of Tōkyō
University of Virginia
University of Washington
University of Western Sydney
University of Winnipeg
University of Wollongong
Urša, Golob
Vaal University of Technology
Vancouver Community College
Vancouver Island University
Vega The Brand Communications School
Verwey, Sonja
Victoria University
Vilela, Alexandra M.
Villani, Dino
Vongchavalitkul University
504
61
44
172
49-50
155
62-64
50, 52
312
276-277, 281-286
44
377
276, 281, 283
407
44
400
385
49-50
372
418
281, 285
389-390
266
59, 62
281-282
385
384
408-409
417
225
334, 336
417
417, 430
419, 421
456
365, 376
384
60
407
66
312
407-409, 411
266
419, 428-429
372
421
92
199
152
266
44
409
377
409
282
67
370
372
68, 70-71
63
407
444-473
246
199
Vrkeshögskolan Göteburg
Walailak University
Waller, David S.
Waseda Advertising Society
Waseda University
Webster University
Wee, Wee Kim
Werder, Olaf
West University
Western Delta University
Williams, David
Whitlow, S. Scott
Wilfrid Laurier University
Witwatersrand Technical College
Wolex Polytechnic
Wongmonta, Seree
Woo-Suk University
Wood, Malcolm
World Federation of Advertisers
Wu, Yumin
Wuhan University
Wukari Jubilee University
Xavier Institute of Communication
Xianmen University
Yaba College of Technology
Yanching University
Yaşar University
Ye, Rebecca
Yeditepe University
Yeni Yüzyıl University
Yong Creative Competition & Workshop Annual
in China
Yonok University
Yoo, Boong-Noh
York University
Young-San University
Yu, Hyun-Jae
Yu, Yelu
Yukon College
Zabkar, Vesna
Zagazig University
Zeppelin University
Zhang, Ding
Zhang, Jinhai
Zhang, Shuting
Zhao, Junhao
Zhejiang University
Zhu, Yuechang
Zimbabwe
Zimelke, Christian
Zupančič, Vinko
307
200
405-415
146-147, 152
145-149, 152-153
199
182
210-215
255, 260
51
376
362-399
379
78
54
195-197
167
72
286
98
96, 102, 106
52
131
91, 93-96, 102, 105, 116-117, 121
54
91
351
175-190
351
351
106
199
164
382, 392
167
160-170
93
388
271-289
42
213
98
98
116
92
109-110
97
26
70
284
505
Authors
Akpabio, Eno, BA in English (1987), M.Sc (1991) and a PhD in Mass
Communication (2004). In May 2011, he took up an appointment
as Professor in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication,
University of Dar es Salaam. He was formerly a Lecturer in the Department of Mass Communication at the University of Lagos (19982005). He joined the Department of Media Studies, University of
Botswana in August 2005 as Senior Lecturer and rose to the position
of Associate Professor and Head of Department. Prof. Akpabio has
authored two books (African Communications Systems: An Introductory
Text and Writing to Win Hearts and Minds), many chapters in books
as well as numerous articles in learned journals. He is a member of
the International Council of IAMCR.
Ajami, Joseph, (Ohio University 1982 M.A) and (Ohio University, Ph.d,
1987) is an Associate Professor at Notre Dame University-Lebanon.
He has been teaching at NDU since 1994 and assumed the chairmanship of the Department Of Mass Communication three times,
the last of which was between 2006-2012. He was also an Assistant
professor for five years at Christian Brothers University in Memphis,
Tennessee where he also served as the Chair of The Department of
Communication and Performing Arts from 1989-1992. His last
teaching job in the U.S was at Florida Southern College in 1993. His
research areas include Advertising and its potential impact, Public Relations, Political Communication, and Advertising Education in Lebanon, among others. He also wrote a chapter on Public Relations in a
book on Advertising and Marketing in the Middle East. He has been
both a member of Society of Professional Journalists and Journalism
Students Society of America. He has also served as a member
of Ohio University’s International Understanding Honor Society.
His major areas of teaching include: International Communication;
Current Issues, Media Ethics, Advertising and Society; Speech
Communication, Advertising Creativity and Copywriting, Feature
Writing, Media Essentials, and various PR courses, and other courses.
Aslanbay, Yonca, Ph.D (Marmara University, 1992) is Professor of Marketing and Chair of the School of Communication Management, as
well as the PhD in Communication at İstanbul Bilgi University. Her
recent research focus is new types of networks over cyberspace and
506
sustainable consumption. She has published several articles, and book
chapters.
Ayeni, Olugbenga Chris., Ph.D. (University of Southern Mississippi,
1999) is Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Advertising &
PR tracks at Eastern Connecticut State University. His research interest include international and political advertising, crisis communication and public relations. He has presented his research work at national and international conferences. He has also published a book on
political advertising and series of journal articles and book chapters
on his research interests. An award-winning mentor, his students have
won top-level awards in state-wide student competitions in integrated
marketing communications campaigns. He is a member of American
Academy of Advertising and the Public Relations Society of America.
Bhargava, Mukesh, PhD (University of Texas at Austin) was a distinguished professor of marketing at Oakland University, where he
taught for 18 years. Born and raised in India, he moved to the United
States and began his academic career. Dr. Bhargava passed away before this book was published.
Brioschi, Edoardo Teodoro, Graduated in Economics and Commerce at
the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Milan, Italy) in 1963, he
began his academic career in this University in 1965. University professor since the academic year 1971/1972, he became in 1980 the
first Chair of “Advertising, Economics and Technique” in the Italian
university system and in 1996 the first Chair of “Business Communication Economics and Technique” in the Faculties of Economics of
the Italian university. At present he is the President of the Scientific
Committee of the Research Laboratory on Business Communication
(Labcom) of the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, he established
in 1998, and the Scientific Director of the journal Communicative
Business. Italian research review on business communication. He has
written or edited more than 120 publications in both Italian and
English. In 2005 he was the only non-American professor to be
awarded the “Charles H. Sandage Award for Teaching Excellence” by
the American Academy of Advertising, and in 2006 he was also
awarded a Medal for Merit by the International Advertising Association. In 2011 he was appointed Grand Officer of the Order of Merit
of the Italian Republic for his long dedication to the activity of research and teaching in the Italian University.
Buda, Janusz, B.A.Hons (London University, 1965), is Professor of English and Business Communication at the Faculty of Commerce,
507
Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan. From 1977 to 1993 he taught
English, English Translation, and Area Studies at Otsuma Women's
University in Tokyo. His research includes the development and application of course management systems, the role of false memory in
second language acquisition, the improvement of university admission programmes, and direct digital publishing. He is a member of
the Kipling Society, the Japan-British Society, and has served on the
editorial board of the Japan Business Communication Association.
Before becoming a teacher he was a professional translator of technical Japanese. His skills include creative writing, proofreading, editing, and typography.
Castellón, Lucía, journalist of Universidad de Chile, teacher of Religion,
Hogar Catequístico from Universidad Católica; advance courses in
United States, professor in several lectures in Journalism. Founder of
the Journalism School, and former Dean of the Faculty of Communication and Information, Universidad Diego Portales. Speaker in
different seminaries and congresses, both national and international.
Articles in Communication magazines. Researcher in subjects on digital divide, communication and education, communication and videogames, among others. Former Vice President of IBERCOM, Asociación Iberoamericana de Investigadores en Comunicación (Latin
American and Spanish Association of Communication Researchers),
fiscal of ALAIC, Asociación Latinoamericana de Investigadores en
Comunicación (Latin American Association of Communication Researchers). Former Head of Chair of Communication in UNESCO Chile. Developer of the National Program Prensa y Educación
(Press and Education). Former Director of the Postgraduate Course,
Faculty of Communication and Design, Universidad Mayor. Today
she acts as Director of a research group on Communication Media,
Children and Youth in ALAIC, and works as Dean of the Faculty of
Communication, Universidad Mayor.
Chu, Guangzhi, B.A.(Jilin University,1989),M.A.(Beijing Broadcasting Institute, 1994), Ph.D (Renmin University of China, 2001), is Professor of the Department of Advertising at Communication University
of China. His research includes advertising management, public service advertising, integrated marketing communication, and digital
marketing, and he has published more than 40 articles, books, and
book chapters. He is a member of China Advertising Association’s
Academic Division and a member of China International Public Relations Association.
508
Clark, Tim, M.A. (University of South Australia), BA (University of Warwick, UK). He is a Senior Lecturer and Deputy Head of the Division
of Public and Promotional Communication at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. His current research interest is the study
of the relationship that exists between advertising and art. This is the
subject of his latest research paper. Prior to joining NTU, Tim spent
30 years working in advertising. His career began at Ogilvy & Mather
in London and New York. After 7 years in London followed by 2
years in South Africa, Tim moved to Singapore and spent over 20
years in S.E. Asia as Regional and Executive Creative Director of various international agencies, from bases in Singapore, Hong Kong,
Kuala Lumpur and Tokyo.
D’Souza, Alan, MBA (IIMA), is Dean of the Shanti Business School and
Shanti Communication School, Ahmedabad, India. He is the Former
Executive Director of Mudra Communications Ltd, (now DDB, India). He is the Founder member MICA, one of the leading Communication Schools in India. He was also for a brief period the Director
of the Goa Institute of Management, Goa, India. Mr. D’Souza’s area
of specialization is Integrated Marketing Communications in which
he is currently persuing his Phd. Mr. D’Souza is Visiting Professor at
some of the leading Business and Communication Management
Schools in India. He is the co-author of a book “Advertising and
Promotions, An IMC perspective.” He has also authored some working papers and case studies besides contributing to Chapters in various books. He is the winner of the “Outstanding Manager of the
year“ award by the Ahmedabad Management Association. His work
on the new B-C-D model of Management Education has won his Institute the “World Education Award 2012” with a citation signed by
the Chairman of the All India Council for Technical Education, the
Governing body of Higher Technical Education in India. He is a
member of several professional bodies, on the boards of several Institutions and a Consultant in his domain of specialization across the
world.
Estevez, María del Carmen, is an Advertising Graduate at Universidad del
Pacifico, Chile; currently she is Director of the Advertising Career
and also directs both the Bachelor Degree and Postgraduate programs
in Advertising and Multimedia Communications at Universidad
Mayor. She is Professor at Universidad Andres Bello, teaching Copywriting and Communication courses. She was Academic Coordinator
for the Advertising Program at Duoc UC, Chile and professor at
509
Universidad Santo Tomas. She has more than twenty years of experience in Education, and formerly worked as audiovisual producer for
advertising commercials.
Grow, Jean M., Ph.D (University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2001) is Associate Professor of Strategic Communication and Director of the Fine
Arts Program at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. She
has authored numerous books chapters and articles in journals such
as: Advertising & Society Review, the International Journal of Advertising, the Journal of Business Ethics, the Journal of Consumer Marketing
and Women’s Studies in Communication. In 2013 Grow co-authored
the third edition of Advertising Creative: Strategy, Copy & Design
(Sage). Her current research addresses the global under-representation
of women in advertising creative departments. Prior to joining the
academy she worked as an artists’ representative. Her corporate clients included: Coca-Cola USA, Kellogg USA, and Zenith; and agency clients included: BBDO, draftfcb, and Leo Burnett. She currently
does strategic consulting for clients such as: Flamingo International/London, the National Hemophilia Foundation/New York and Nike.
Hesapçı, Özlem, Ph.D (Bocconi University, 2007), is an Associate Professor of Marketing and Vice Chair of the Department of Management
at Bogazici University. She was an Assistant Professor of Marketing
at the Department of Advertising in Istanbul Bilgi University, 20072011. Her research includes psychological processes that underlie
consumers’ attitudinal as well as cognitive responses. She has published several articles, and book chapters.
Hwang, Jang-Sun, Ph.D. (University of Tennessee, 2003) is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Advertising and Public Relations at Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea. He has taught Interactive Brand Communication, Qualitative Research in Advertising, and
Marketing Theory in the Chung-Ang University since 2003. His research falls under a combination of new media advertising, consumer
behavior, and message strategy. He has published more than 30 articles, books and book chapters including Journal of Advertising, Journal of Advertising Research, International Journal of Advertising, Journal
of Interactive Advertising, Psychology and Marketing, and other Korean
academic journals in advertising field.
Jančič, Zlatko, BSc (1975), MSc (1989), PhD (1993), is Professor and
Chair of the Department of Marketing Communications and Public
Relations at Faculty for Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Slo-
510
venia. Previous to his full-time academic career, he created numerous
advertising campaigns for major Slovenian companies and governmental bodies. He was the author of the first Code of Slovenian Advertising Practice and the first President of Slovenian Advertising Adjudication Court (1995-2001). His research interests are in marketing
and advertising theory, business strategy issues, corporate social responsibility, etc. He is an author/co-author of books, book chapters
and scientific articles in a Journal of Advertising Research, Journal of
Marketing Management, Journal of Marketing Communications, European Journal of Marketing, Corporate Communications, etc.
Keenan, Kevin, Ph.D. (University of Georgia, 1990), is Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication at the American University in Cairo (Egypt). Prior to joining AUC in 1997, he taught at the University of Maryland for 10 years. He is active in a number of academic
and professional organizations and has served as an officer for the Advertising Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and
Mass Communication and the American Academy of Advertising.
Keenan’s work has been published in the International Journal of Advertising, Journal of Advertising Education, Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly,
Public Relations Review, The Global Public Relations Handbook, and
elsewhere. He has presented nearly 100 scholarly papers in North
America, Europe, Africa, and Asia and has been cited in popular and
trade publications including Advertising Age, The International Herald
Tribune, USA Today, The Washington Post, and others.
Gayle Kerr (Ph.D., Queensland University of Technology, 2004), is a Professor in Advertising and IMC in the School of Advertising, Marketing and Public Relations, Queensland University of Technology. Kerr
worked in the creative side of advertising, before joining academia
more than a decade ago to teach and research in advertising and integrated marketing communication (IMC). Her areas of research interest include advertising self-regulation, advertising management, digital and social media, IMC and educational issues in both advertising
and IMC. Gayle is the founding President of the Australian and New
Zealand Academy of Advertising and the first non-US academic to be
honoured with American Academy of Advertising (AAA) Billy I. Ross
in 2012. She serves on both the AAA Executive Committee and as
Deputy Editor for the Journal of Marketing Communications.
Kline, Mihael/Miro, PhD (1993), is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of
Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana, Department for market
511
communications and public relations. His work focuses mainly on research in the fields of psychology, consumer behavior, management
of market brands, market communications, business communications, visual communications and psychology of visual communications. His research papers are published in domestic and foreign magazines: Teorija in praksa (Theory and Practice), Akademija MM, International journal of technological design education, South medical review,
in different monographs and text books. Besides he is also a co-author
in numerous research, communications and strategic projects and he
acts as a consultant to different managers in numerous Slovene companies.
Koekemoer, Ludi, C.L. (University of Pretoria, 1969) Ph.D (Rhodes University, 1978) is CEO of AAA School of Advertising in South Africa
since 2000. He worked for 3 large advertising agencies between 1972
and 1986, the last 7 years as Managing partner. He was a professor of
Marketing of University of Pretoria, 1986 – 1989 and Chairman of
the Department of Business Management and Professor of Marketing
at Rand Afrikaans University, 1990 – 1999. His research includes advertising brand management and new product development and he
has published more than 20 articles, books and book chapters. He
serves on the editorial board of Communicare, the Advertising Industry Tribunal of the Advertising Standards Authority; he represents
AAA School of Advertising on the board of the Association for
Communication & Advertising and has served on many ad. industry
bodies in South Africa. He was a visiting professor to Kenan Flagler
Business School at University of North Carolina, USA.
Lwin, May O., Ph.D (National University of Singapore, 1997), is Associate
Professor of Communication and Associate Dean at the Humanities,
Arts and Social Sciences College in Nanyang Technological University (NTU) in Singapore. She was previously with the Marketing Department of the National University of Singapore Business School
where she received the Outstanding Educator Award. Her research
includes health and societal communication and advertising regulatory issues. May has published more than 100 articles, books/book
chapters, reports, and papers in international journals such as the
Journal of Communication, Journal of Health Communication, Journal
of Consumer Research, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, and Journal of Advertising. She
serves on editorial boards of the Journal of International Advertising
and the Journal of Consumer Affairs. She has judged awards like the
512
International Effies and served on the Singapore National Obesity
Task Force, Medical and Dental Board at the Health Promotion
Board and the Singapore National Heart Foundation Board. She is
also a Senior Fellow at the Asian Consumer Insight Institute.
Micu, Anca C., M.B.A. and Ph.D. (University of Missouri-Columbia,
2001, 2005) is Associate Dean and Associate Professor of Marketing
at the John F. Welch College of Business, Sacred Heart University.
She worked for BBDO in Europe before her academic career. She
was an assistant professor of marketing for 6 years and then became
Chairperson of the Department of Marketing and Sport Management at Sacred Heart University. Her research includes measurement
of emotions in advertising, examining the effect of synergy between
advertising and publicity messages in the Internet environment, and
identification of the passive shopping stage. Her work was published
in Management & Marketing, Journal of Advertising Research,
and Journal of Interactive Advertising. After BBDO, she worked or
consulted for a number of companies including The Estee Lauder
Companies, Time Inc. and the Advertising Research Foundation.
Mills, Patrick, BSc (Kings College, London, 1982), is Director of Professional Development at the Institute of Practitioners in
ing. Patrick started his career in advertising in 1988 at Generator, the
sister agency of Yellowhammer, where he worked on Mitsubishi Motors, Fuji Cameras and Barclays Bank. In 1994 he moved to
Hakuhodo to work on NEC computers, then in 1995 he moved toBates UK to manage the direct marketing and advertising for women’s fashion retailer Talbots, Owens Corning and the English Cricket
Board. After a spell at the Abbott Mead Vickers design, web and direct arm, The Open Agency, where he launched Demon Internet,
Patrick finished his agency career at SOUK, a digital advertising
agency, where he worked on travel brands including Flybe, Malta
Tourism and Emirates Airlines. Patrick has been at the IPA since September 2008, where he oversees the advertising industry Continuous
Professional Development programme, which includes award winning e-learning qualifications and experiential courses.
Moraru, Mădălina E., is a Senior Lecturer of the Faculty of Journalism
and Communication Studies, the University of Bucharest, Romania
since 2009. She teaches Advertising Agency, Advertising Production,
and Advertising Strategies. In 2010 she received a postdoctoral fellowship from Gaylord College, the University of Oklahoma (as a visiting
professor too), and in 2012, from Staffordshire University
513
and Buckinghamshire New University (both UK), part of a research
project on advertising glocalization funded by the European Union.
Her research focuses on the anthropological approach to advertising
in her PhD thesis and authored over 10 articles on the topic, as well
as a book on the relationship between myth and advertising, storytelling, and global-local influences (“Myth and advertising”). She is also
a member of Research Committee of European Institute of Commercials Communication Education (Edcom), representing Romania and
University of Bucharest at the international students’ competition in
advertising field (entitled Ad Venture) as well.
Ngu, Teck Hua, Ph.D (Pennsylvania State University, 1996), is Associate
Professor of the Department of Advertising at the Mara University of
Technology, Shah Alam, Malaysia. His research interest includes advertising regulation and ethics, and public health campaigns.
Nyitse, Gabriel T., Ph. D. (Benue State University, Makurdi Nigeria,
2012) is a seasoned journalism practitioner and administrator. He is
the Permanent Secretary in the Governor’s Office, Benue State. Prior
to that he was the Editor of the state owned newspaper, The
Voice. He was a senor journalist with The Concord news organization
before it was proscribed by Nigeria’s military government. His research interests are in mediating role of technology in news reporting.
Ogbu, Benjamin Ejuwa, is a Lecturer in the Department of mass communication, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria. He is widely
published.
Patti, Charles H., Ph.D. (Illinois, 1975) is Interim Dean and Professor of
Marketing in the College of Business at the University of Denver.
He is also the inaugural James M. Cox Professor of Customer Experience Management. Prior to joining the University of Denver in
2006, he was Head of the School of Advertising, Marketing, and
Public Relations at Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane,
Australia. His research covers advertising, marketing communication, and customer experience management and his work includes
journal articles, book chapters, and eight books on various aspects of
advertising and marketing. His research has appeared in the Journal
of Advertising, the Journal of Advertising Research, the Journal of Marketing, the Journal of Marketing Communications, Industrial Marketing
Management, and others. Dr. Patti serves on a number of editorial
boards. He has extensive international experience in teaching and
consulting with universities and companies in Italy, New Zealand,
Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, France, Finland, Germany, Chile,
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Hong Kong, and England. He is a past winner of the Marketing Educator of the Year Award and recently received the James Hershner
Free Enterprise Award.
Pennington, Robert, Ph.D. (University of Wisconsin, 1991) has held faculty postions at several universities in the USA and Taiwan in departments of communication, management, and foreign languages
and cultures. He specializes in the cultural development implications
of communication technology. His general interest concerns consumption and marketing communication as cultural processes for satisfying basic human needs. He has written previously about marketing communication development, advertising and brands within consumer culture, the meanings of consumer brands and psycholinguistic methodology.
Punyapiroje, Chompunuch, Ph.D. (University of Tennessee-Knoxville,
2002) works as an Assistant Professor of the Advertising Major at the
Department of Communication Arts, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi, Thailand and serves as
Head of Advertising Major from 2002 to 2009 and Chair of Marketing Communication Master Program from 2009 to present. Her research relates to advertising cultural values, product placements and
consumer protections and has published in World Communication,
Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, Asian Journal of
Communication and International Journal of Retail and Distribution
Management.
Roca Correa, David, (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 1993), Ph. D
(Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2001), is Associate Professor of
the Department of Advertising and Public Relations at Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona. In 2010 he was a Visiting Professor at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. His research focuses on
advertising creativity and gender. He has published in the International Journal of Advertising, Comunicación & Sociedad, Trípodos and
Zer. He also has published chapters related to advertising issues, most
recently Convergences and Divergences Between Advertising and Public
Relations at Palgrave Macmillan (2012). He also consults with the
Advertising Research Group (GRP) and has been the recipient of several Government grants including Is there gender bias when evaluating
advertising creativity?
Rodriguez, Lulu, Ph.D (University of Wisconsin, 1993), is James F. Evans
Endowed Professor of Agricultural Communications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She was a Professor at the
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Greenlee School of Journalism and Communication and the Biosafety Institute for Genetically Modified Agricultural Products at Iowa
State University, 1993-2013. She designs, implements, and evaluates
the impact of communication campaigns related to agriculture, renewable energy, the environment, food safety and food security. Her
research focuses on the communication of risks related to scientific
and technological breakthroughs, investigating people’s basic mental
models of hazard and their opinions about innovations that cause
controversies or may be perceived as risky. She also conducts research
on the visual representations of science and risk issues.
Sar, Sela, Ph.D (University of Minnesota, 2006), is an Associate Professor
of Advertising at Charles H. Sandage Department of Advertising,
University of Illinois. He was an Assistant Professor of Advertising
2006-2012 and an Associate Professor 2012-2013 at Iowa State University. He has published more than 18 refereed journal articles, 4
book chapters, and 12 refereed proceedings for major conferences.
His scholarship record also includes more than 30 refereed conference
papers presented at different premiere meetings and conventions of
the discipline. He serves on editorial boards of the Journal of Advertising, and the International Journal of Advertising. He also serves as an
Associate Editor for the Asian Journal of Communication. He is a recipient of the Journal of Advertising’s Best Reviewer Award for 2010
and an ad hoc best Reviewer Award for the Journal of Current Issues &
Research in Advertising for 2012.
Schultz, Don E., BBA (University of Oklahoma), MA and PhD (Michigan
State University) is Professor (Emeritus-in-Service) Integrated Marketing Communications, The Medill School, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. President of Agora, Inc., a global marketing, communication and branding consulting firm. He consults, lectures, and
holds seminars on integrated marketing communication, marketing,
branding, advertising, sales promotion, and communication management in Europe, South America, Asia/Pacific, the Middle East,
Australia, and North America. He is the author/co-author of twentyseven books and over 150 trade, academic and professional articles.
He is a featured columnist in Marketing News and Marketing Insights.
He was founding editor of the Journal of Direct Marketing, and is associate editor, Journal of Marketing Communications, co-editor of the
International Journal of Integrated Marketing Communication, and is
on the editorial review board for many trade and scholarly publications. He also holds or has held appointments as an adjunct/visiting
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professor at the Queensland University of Technology in Australia,
Cranfield School of Management in the UK, Tsinghua University
and Peking University, China, and the Swedish School of Economics,
Finland.
Shaver, Mary Alice, Ph.D (Indiana University, 1984) was most recently
the Hamrin Professor of Media Management at the Jonkoping International Business School in Jonkoping, Sweden. Previously she was
chair of the Nicholson School of Communication at the University of
Central Florida, director of the Advertising Department at Michigan
State University, and a Professor at the University of North Carolina.
Shaver was President of the American Advertising Association (2002),
President of AEJMC (2004-2005), and editor of the Journal of Advertising Education (1999-2004). Her research centered on the effects
of advertising in society, on comparative economics in the global environment, on the effects of competition in the media industry and
on consumer behavior with regard to influences of economic regulation and standards. She published in the Journal of Media Economics,
Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, the Newspaper Research
Journal and Journalism and Mass Communication Educator.
Shimamura, Kazue, M.A. in Commerce (Waseda University, 1981), is
Professor of Advertising of the School of Commerce at Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan. She was a lecturer and Associate Professor at
Saitama Women’s Junior College from 1989 to 1993, teaching Advertising and Marketing. Her research interests include advertising
education in Japan, advertising ethics and regulation, and global advertising creative. She has published numerous articles on these topics
in Japan. In addition, she has written and edited several Japanese advertising textbooks. She has served on the board of executive directors
of the Japan Academy of Advertising since 1995. In Waseda University she was the Director of the Faculty Development Center from
2008 to 2010, and the Director of the Open Education Center from
2010 to 2012. She is currently the Dean of the School of Commerce.
Taylor, Jonathan, (University of Strathclyde, 1979, 1st Class Honours) is
Head of Marketing Communications at the City of London Business
School, London Metropolitan University. He was a Visiting Professor in Marketing at the University of Strathclyde from 1990-93, and
co-author (with PR Smith) of Editions 3 & 4 of Marketing Communications, the leading UK academic textbook in the subject, adopted
by over 40 universities and colleges. He has been the Chief Examiner
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of CPD Certificates and Diplomas for the Institute of Practitioners in
Advertising since the inception of the programs in 2004.
Tena-Parera, Daniel (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 1992), Ph. D
(Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 1998), is Associate Professor of
the Department of Advertising and Public Relations at The Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. He has been teaching since 1982 and he
has specialized in the study of the aspects that affect communication
of organizations (advertising, publicity and public relations). He is a
specialist in the design and production of visual and audio-visual
messages in mass media from the formal and perceptive perspective.
His research also includes advertising, publicity and public relations
issues, and his publications include Pearson Hall (2004), Palgrave
Macmillan (2012), Trípodos (2012), and he is the editor of
the Grafica Journal of Graphic Design. He is also a member of the
Advertising Research Group (GRP) and the Psychology and Advertising Communication Research Group (GRPCP) with a focus on the
reception of the communication. Additionally, he is the Director of
two Masters programs at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona in
Journalism and Digital Communication, and Graphic Communication.
Vilela, Alexandra M. (Ph.D. University of Wisconsin-Madison) is an Associate Professor of Advertising and Corporate Communication in the
School of Media Arts & Design at James Madison University, in Virginia, USA. Her areas of research focus on cause-related marketing,
corporate social responsibility, gender, product placement, and crosscultural studies in advertising. She worked for more than ten years in
advertising, marketing, public relations, and journalism in South
America and Europe.
Waller, David S., B.A. (University of Sydney, 1985), M.Com (University
of New South Wales, 1988), Ph.D (University of Newcastle, 2000),
is a Senior Lecturer in the Marketing Discipline Group, University of
Technology Sydney. David has over 20 years’ experience teaching
marketing subjects at several universities, including University of
Newcastle, University of New South Wales and Charles Sturt University-Riverina. His research has included projects on marketing communications, advertising agency-client relationships; controversial advertising; international advertising; marketing ethics; and marketing
education. He has published several textbooks and over 60 refereed
journal articles, including Journal of Advertising; Journal of Advertising
Research; European Journal of Marketing, Journal of Business Ethics,
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Journal of Business Research; International Journal of Advertising; and
Journal of Marketing Communications.
Werder, Olaf H., M.S. (University of Illinois, 1994), Ph.D (University of
Florida, 2002), is Lecturer of Health Communication and Strategic
Public Relations at the University of Sydney, Australia. He was an
Associate Professor of Advertising at the University of New Mexico,
2002-2010. Prior to his academic appointment, he has worked in the
advertising industry on the media sales and agency side in the USA
and Germany for about ten years, during which he was also a member of the respective industry associations, the American Advertising
Federation (AAF) and the Gesamtverband Kommunikationsagenturen
(GWA). His research is centered on social marketing and sociocultural understanding of health in population and media with an
emphasis on community collaborative approaches. He has been an
investigator on funded research programs in health literacy, obesity
prevention and global impacts of infectious diseases and is the author
of 30 articles, books, and book chapters. He is an affiliated health
communication researcher at Sydney’s Charles Perkins Centre, a research network member on infectious disease prevention, and an executive board member of the Australian Association of Social Marketing (AASM).
Whitlow, S. Scott, Ph.D. (Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,
1975) is ISC Professor in the University of Kentucky' School of
Journalism and Telecommunications. Her interest in Canadian approaches to advertising education parallels her overarching interest in
academic pedagogy, a thrust that unites her research articles and book
chapters as well as service efforts. She structured UK's first Advertising program and also its current integrated program that advanced
the program's scope and status from 'sequence' to Major. She initiated the School's coordinator role and served both programs in that capacity. In 1989, she structured the School's first formal internship
program, initiating a rigorous application review of businesses to determine eligibility to host an intern.
Ye, Rebecca, MSc (University of Oxford, 2012), is Research Associate at
the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Her research interests include the sociology of education and work. Beginning fall of 2013,
she will be a doctoral candidate at the University of Stockholm,
where she will study social networks within the creative industries.
Yu, Jay (Hyunjae), Ph.D. (The University of Georgia, 2007), is an associate professor at the School of Communication, Sogang University,
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South Korea. He was an assistant professor at the Manship School of
Mass Comm., Louisiana State University, 2007-2010. His research
includes diverse issues about advertising/advertising industry (advertising appeals, creativity, cross-cultural perspectives, digital media advertising, privacy and consumers, effects on children, etc.) and Health
communication. He has published more than 30 academic articles in
the U.S. and Korea including Journal of Advertising, Journal of Consumer Affairs, International Journal of Consumer Studies, Appetite, Internet Research, Asian Journal of Communication, Journal of Promotion
Management, and Korean Journal of Advertising, etc. He was a copywriter at Cheil Communication, South Korea, before coming to academia (1996-2002).
Žabkar, Vesna, PhD (University of Ljubljana, 1999; Fulbright Grant for
1995/96 in the Marketing PhD program at Northwestern University,
Kellogg GSM), is Professor, Chair of the Marketing Academic Unit
and Head of the Institute of Marketing at University of Ljubljana,
Faculty of Economics (FELU). Her research interests include advertising effectiveness, agency-clients relationships and managerial view
of integrated marketing communications. She has published in Journal of Advertising Research, Journal of Marketing Management, European Journal of Marketing and serves as editor of the Economic and
Business Review. She was Vice-President of Advertising Arbitrary
Court and supervisor for the National Readership Survey in Slovenia.
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Editors
Lead Editors
Jef I. Richards
Jef is Professor and Chair of the Department of Advertising + Public Relations at Michigan State University. He served as 45th President of
the American Academy of Advertising in
2008, it’s 50th Anniversary. He has worked
as a photographer, a sign language interpreter, a lawyer, and an advertising professor. For the past two decades he has taught
in The University of Texas Advertising Department, serving as its Chair from 1998 to
2002. He is on the Board of Directors of
the Advertising Educational Foundation,
and on the Editorial Boards of the Journal of
Public Policy & Marketing, the Journal of
Advertising, the Journal of Interactive Advertising, the Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, the Journal of Consumer Affairs, the International Journal of Electronic Business, and the Advertising
& Society Review, as well as being an associate editor of the International
Journal of Internet Marketing & Advertising. He is author or co-author of
two other books and more than 50 articles and book chapters. Dr. Richards
holds a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin, and a J.D. from Indiana
University. And his middle name starts with the same initial as Bill’s.
Billy I. Ross
Bill was one of the founders and
the 2nd President of the American Academy
of Advertising in 1960. He also has served
as Chairman of the National Council of Alpha Delta Sigma (1967-69), President of
the Lubbock Advertising Federation (196869), President of the American Society of
Journalism School Administrators (197677), President of Kappa Tau Alpha national
honorary journalism society (1984-86), as
well as chairman, president, or board mem-
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ber of several other organizations. He is in the Texas Tech University Mass
Communications Hall of Fame, as well as in the Louisiana State University,
Manship School of Mass Communication Hall of Fame. Having taught at
both of those schools (and a couple of other schools) for many years, Bill
also was Chair of the Department of Mass Communications at Texas Tech
from 1970 to 1987. He has been teaching since the 1950s and writing
about advertising education since the 1960s. He has published 8 other
books and numerous articles and book chapters. Dr. Ross holds a Ph.D
from Southern Illinois University, and also is a retired Colonel in the U.S.
Army and a recipient of the “Legion of Merit.”
Copy Editors
Tom Bowers
Tom Bowers (BA, MA, PhD, Indiana University) was on the faculty
of the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill from 1971 until his retirement in 2006. He
was James L. Knight Professor of Advertising and was senior associate dean
from 1979 to 2005 and interim dean in 2005–06. He was president of the
Association for Education in Journalism and
Mass Communication (AEJMC) in 1988–
89 and editor of Journalism Educator from
1983 to 1988. He was on the Accrediting
Committee of the Accrediting Council for
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication for six years and chair of the
committee for two years. He was a member
of the Academic Committee of the American Advertising Federation and the National Advertising Review Board.
He was the author of Making News:
100 Years of Journalism and Mass Communication at Carolina in 2009, and he coauthored (with Alan Fletcher) Fundamentals of Advertising Research, which
was printed in four editions and widely used throughout the United States
and other countries. He published articles in numerous other scholarly and
trade publications. From 1988 to 1995, he was co-director of The Freedom
Forum Seminar for Advertising Teachers, a program that brought advertis-
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ing teachers to UNC-Chapel Hill for an intensive week of sessions on
course content and teaching styles.
He won the Silver Medal Award from the Triangle Advertising Federation (North Carolina) in 1994, the John L. Sanders Award for Distinguished Undergraduate Teaching and Service from UNC-Chapel Hill in
1997, and Distinguished Advertising Educator from the American Advertising Federation in 2007.
Joe Pisani
Joseph R. Pisani is Professor Emeritus and former Chairman of the
Department of Advertising at the University of Florida. Pisani, a New York
City native, earned his B.S. in marketing from Fordham University (1960),
M.B.A. from UCLA (1961) and Ph.D. in Economics and Business Administration from the University of Maryland, College Park (1972).
He joined the University of Florida advertising faculty in 1973 and
headed the Department for 19 years before stepping down in 2001. Previously he taught marketing and business administration at the College of
Business Administration at the University of Maryland, College Park
(1964-69), and advertising in the College of Communications at the University of Texas at Austin (1969-73). In 1978, he was a visiting professor at
the College of Communications, University of Kentucky.
Professionally, Pisani worked
for Goodwin, Dannenbaum, Littman
& Wingfield Advertising and Public
Relations in Houston, Texas. Since
1972 he has served as a part-time consultant to businesses, government
agencies, advertising agencies, media
and educational institutions. In 199192 he served as President of the
Gainesville Advertising Federation and
in 1995, the GAF awarded him the
AAF Silver Medal. Pisani served as
the 2003 President of the American
Academy of Advertising, a national
organization of advertising educators.
He published articles, book chapters
and case studies in multi-media instruction, media planning and advertising
management. He retired on May 31, 2005 and became an independent
consultant.
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In July 2013, Pisani returned to UF to serve as Interim Chairman of
the Department of Advertising. He and his wife of 42 years Philomena
D’Agostino of Washington, D.C. have two sons: Joe, 39, a senior project
manager for Accenture lives in St. Petersburg, FL with his wife Lacy and
daughter Sophia and Vincent, 35, a film, TV and stage actor/teacher based
in Atlanta.
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