REVIEW
VECTOR-BORNE AND ZOONOTIC DISEASES
Volume 11, Number 2, 2011
ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089=vbz.2009.0071
Malaria and the Campaigns Toward its Eradication
in Romania, 1923–1963
Raul Neghina,* Adriana M. Neghina,* Iosif Marincu, and Ioan Iacobiciu
Abstract
Malaria was common in Romania until largely successful campaigns of the 20th century. Researchers Ioan
Cantacuzino, George Zotta, and Mihai Ciuca carried out important early contributions to the understanding of
malarial endemo-epidemic situation in Romania. The malarial endemy registered a peak in 1942 with an incidence of 1218 cases per 100,000 inhabitants as a result of the disastrous effects of the Second World War. In the
following years the incidence increased from 421.5 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in 1944 to 735.1 cases per
100,000 inhabitants in 1946. A Malaria Commission was formed in February 1947 with the mission to reorganize
the fight against malaria in Romania based on international guidelines. Following the adoption of proper
malarial eradication methods, namely coverage of endemic areas by spraying of residual insecticides, associated
with chemotherapy and, eventually, chemoprophylaxis with synthetic products, and by surveillance, indigenous
cases disappeared rapidly, relapsing cases were much reduced, and imported and induced cases remained
constant or even increased slightly, probably due to the increase in traffic and in the use of blood transfusions.
No indigenous cases have been registered in Romania since 1962. In 1963 the Romanian authorities declared
malarial eradication in the territory to the World Health Organization.
Key Words: Epidemiology—Malaria—Parasitology—Transmission—Vector-borne.
Background
A
dvances in understanding the etiology of malaria and
transmission control that were made in the very late 19th
century (1898) led, in the 20th century, to an optimistic belief
that malaria could be eradicated.
Malaria became a complex public health in which control
efforts of infected Anopheles mosquito proved difficult, and
early confidence in stopping malaria began to slip. Even
though concerted efforts focused on the vector and its habitat,
more information needed to be gathered on aspects of the
environment (e.g., rainfall patterns) and the human behavior
in infection if the conditions for malarial infections were to be
understood more thoroughly.
Confidence in the eradication of malaria between the First
and Second World Wars was replaced by a determined effort
at control. By the 1940s a new drug, chloroquine, and an effective insecticide, dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT),
renewed the past initiative. In 1955, the World Health Orga-
nization (WHO) launched a global campaign to eradicate
malaria.
As will be shown below, the antimalarial campaign in
Romania was initiated in 1923, but the official eradication
campaign began later in 1947. Malaria was common in Romania until the largely successful campaigns of the 20th
century. The disease was gradually brought under control
through a combination of vector control strategies and
chemotherapy, and today only sporadic import cases are
reported in Romania.
The present review assesses the campaigns against malaria
and their significance in the context of Romania’s historical
geography and antimalarial leaders.
From an epidemiological perspective, the campaigns
against malaria shed light on how malaria was acquired and
identify effective strategies deployed to combat the disease.
As a result of the campaign between 1923 and 1926, a mass
of data was assembled on the habitat of the Anopheles
mosquito in relation to human settlements and the necessary
Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania.
*These two authors contributed equally to this work.
103
104
strategies that could be deployed to attack its breeding sites.
Data were also assembled on the use and distribution of the
most effective drugs that could be supplied to people affected by the disease. From the perspective of historical geography, about 30% of the Romania’s territory at that time
presented favorable conditions for endemic malaria (Ciuca
1957a).
Antimalarial campaigns were led by some key figures.
Professor Ioan Cantacuzino (1863–1934) was a distinguished
member of the Romanian Academy and member of the
Hygiene Committee in the Nations’ League. In 1901 he
founded the first laboratory of bacteriology in Romania,
which was the basis for Dr. Ioan Cantacuzino Institute
founded in 1921 in Bucharest. His disciples, Professor Mihai
Ciuca (1883–1969) and Professor Geoge Zotta (1886–1942),
were both members of the Romanian Academy and dedicated their activities to the antimalarial campaign. Professor
Mihai Ciuca was the secretary of Malaria Commission of the
League of Nations (1928–1938), and vice-director of Dr. Ioan
Cantacuzino Institute (1934–1962). He was awarded the
prize of Darling Foundation in 1966 for the international
missions successfully accomplished on behalf of the League
of Nations and WHO.
The Romanian Red Cross was continuously involved in
the fight against malaria in Romania until its eradication.
In 1922, 11 sanitary teams acted in malarial endemic regions. Figure 1 shows the Romanian Red Cross’ ambulance
taking action in a campaign against the ague (the common
term for malarial fever). In the winter of 1921, quinine was
distributed to the rural population to prevent the occurrence of the disease in the spring of the following year.
In the international fight against malaria, the Romanian
Red Cross offered financial support to other societies like
NEGHINA ET AL.
Armenian Red Cross (The Romanian Red Cross Website
2009).
The Foundations of the Antimalarial Campaign
Malaria was first mentioned indirectly on the actual territory of Romania in the ancient times by the Latin poet and
philosopher Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BC–18 AD), exiled in 8
AD by the Roman emperor, Augustus Caesar (62 BC–14 AD),
on the coast of the Black Sea (Ciuca 1966). He lived in the
ancient city of Tomis (Constanta nowadays) where malaria
constituted one of the causes of the desolation described in his
poems ‘‘Epistolae ex Ponto’’: ‘‘O land never free from cruel
enemies and snows, will a time ever come when I, Naso, shall
leave you, bidden to an exile in a place less hostile? Or must I
ever live in such a barbaric land, am I destined to be laid in my
grave in the soil of Tomis? . . . Seldom is there a tree and that
unproductive rising in the open fields . . . Scarce could you
recognize my features should you see them, and you would
ask what has become of my former colour. But little vigour
pervades my emaciated limbs; I am paler than fresh wax . . . I
drink marshy water mingled with the salt of the sea . . . I am a
sick man, gazing with failing pulse upon the doctor; while the
last of life remains to me, stand by to help.’’ As quoted above,
the region around Tomis was generally flat, treeless, and
marshy. He often describes these aspects and also speaks of
the bad water that, together with the rough food, may have
caused the frequent illnesses that are mentioned. The poet
suffered himself from indigestion, fever, insomnia, and
‘‘an aching side’’ (Ovid 1939).
The ancient chronicles of Mohacz (1580–1619) mentioned
the presence of malarial fever on the territory of Transylvania
region.
FIG. 1. Ambulance of the Romanian Red Cross acting in the campaign against the ague in 1922. Reproduced courtesy of the
Romanian Red Cross.
ERADICATION OF MALARIA IN ROMANIA
At the beginning of the 18th century a Romanian historian,
Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723), mentioned in his work entitled ‘‘Descriptio Moldavie’’ that malarial fever made more
victims than plague in Moldavia region at that time.
During the period 1892–1897, the official documents registering the incidence of malarial consultations per year indicated an increase from 3930 consultations per 100,000
inhabitants in 1892 to 5008 consultations per 100,000 inhabitants in 1897 (Ciuca 1966). For the next 7 years (1898–1904) the
incidence of consultations dramatically increased from 6817
to 8392 per 100,000 inhabitants (Ciuca 1966).
The median incidence of the malarial cases before 1924 was
considered to be of about 5000–6000 per 100,000 inhabitants.
Favorable climatic and hydrographical conditions of Romania’s territory included the following: presence of the early
springs with adequate temperatures for evolution of the
vector, relative humidity maintained constantly at 85% especially on the seacoast, and increased quantity of precipitations in spring with the result of large inundation areas (Ciuca
1957a).
Organization of Malarial Control, 1923–1946
The recrudescence of malaria from the beginning of the
First World War (1914–1918) in all regions prompted in 1923
the beginning of several investigations and antimalarial
measures, being more general and progressively better organized.
During the first 2 years (1923–1924), many unknown foci of
malaria were discovered, owing especially to the operations
of documentations and statistical collaboration. In 1924, the
Malaria Commission set up by the Health Committee of the
League of Nations (including country expert, Mihai Ciuca)
completed the first tour of investigations in the malarial
southeastern and eastern European countries—Yugoslavia,
Greece, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Soviet Union, and Italy—
to study the antimalarial methods used in these countries and
to make recommendations for organizing the fight against
malaria. The results of these studies formed the subject of two
reports about malarial endemicity in Romania, presented to
the League of Nations by Ciuca and Swellengrebel (1925).
Another critical study led in 1927 to the establishment of
‘‘principles and methods to be applied to malaria control in
the European malarial countries’’ (HCLN 1927). The Malaria
Commission agreed that before any method of antimalarial
work was decided upon, it was a priority to first treat the sick,
then to kill the malarial parasite, whether by patient treatment
or targeting infected mosquitoes near homes. Concerted
antimalarial work was planned after a careful study of the
local malarial problems (HCLN 1934).
The constitution of a technical commission for the antimalarial campaign under the direction of Professor Geoge
Zotta in 1925 was of great assistance to solve the malarial
problem in Romania in the period that immediately followed
the First World War.
Investigations and research undertaken during 1926–1946
by the Parasitology Section of Dr. Ioan Cantacuzino Institute
and Health Institutes from Bucharest were important contributions to the understanding of aspects and characters of
malarial endemo-epidemic situation in Romania. Based on
Cantacuzino’s recommendation in 1926, a study of malaria in
river areas, including the Danube Delta, was initiated under
105
the auspices of the International Malaria Commission
(Cantacuzino 1927).
Epidemiological investigations, performed by George
Zotta in the Danube Delta, showed since 1926 a remarkably
reduced number of malarial cases despite the high density of
local anophelins (anophelism without malaria) (Zotta 1927,
1932), compared with the severe character of the endemic
valley of Prut. Epidemiological investigations performed in
1927, 1928, 1931, and 1938 in the Danube Delta ascertained the
same reduction in cases (Zotta 1932, Zotta et al. 1944).
Studies concerning the ecological particularities of the
Anopheles maculipennis (Missiroli et al. 1933) group were
conducted to identify factors for continued transmission and
define the peculiar characteristics of the zones of malarial
endemicity in Romania (Martini and Zotta 1934). The epidemiological investigations undertaken by George Zotta and his
collaborators (Zotta 1938) established, in 1938, three major
malarial regions in Romania as follows:
1. The great flood and water stagnation regions. These
included the flood zones of the Danube River and its
main effluents (Prut, Siret, Arges, Olt). This region was
characterized by the circulation of the species An. maculipennis messeae and the disproportion between the
increased number of anopheline mosquitoes and relative low frequency and mild clinical progression to the
disease.
2. The inner regions of the country represented by the
Romanian Plain characterized by the presence of An.
maculipennis maculipennis, An. maculipennis atroparvus,
and An. maculipennis messeae species and a great endemicity, severe course of the disease with large splenomegaly.
3. The Black Sea coast characterized by the presence of An.
sacharovi (ellutus) and An. maculipennis atroparvus species and the high endemicity with a very severe course
of the disease, numerous complications, and significant
mortality rates.
The three malarial zones described above were spread over
about 30% of the Romania’s territory as follows: 2=3 of the
Moldavian territory, the entire Dobrogea (except for the zones
of high hills), the Romanian plain (Muntenia and Oltenia),
and a strip along the western frontier of the country in Banat
region (Fig. 2).
Some malarial field laboratories, created in 1931, functioned for only 6 months a year (May–October), but starting
from 1937, they functioned during the whole year.
Centers of Malaria therapy were created in 1927 at the
Socola Hospital in Iasi, and in 1935, at the Central Hospital in
Bucharest. These centers offered, at the same time, the possibility of studying the natural infection and the bases for experimental research in connection with the biological strains
of the local parasites; the chemotherapeutic value of different
synthetic drugs; the physiopathology and malarial immunity
(Ciuca et al. 1934) along with the susceptibility of local species
of malarial parasites and the selective parasitic specter of
every substance (Cantacuzino and Lupascu 1944, Ciuca et al.
1948, 1951a, 1951b).
During the period 1925–1940, the incidence of malarial
cases ranged between 473.1 per 100,000 inhabitants in 1928
and 1389 per 100,000 inhabitants in 1935 (Fig. 3), with a
median incidence of 879.6 cases per 100,000 inhabitants.
106
NEGHINA ET AL.
FIG. 2.
Map of Romania.
A malarial evaluation on geographical regions made in 1936
showed a wide variation among the great Romanian regions:
a registration of 0–24 new cases per 100,000 inhabitants in
Transylvania, 25–500 new cases per 100,000 inhabitants in
eastern regions, and more than 4000 new cases per 100,000
inhabitants in the regions comprising Tulcea County (Danube’s
Delta), Danube’s valley, Prut, and Siret rivers (Ciuca 1966).
Treatment was generally performed with quinine salts. As
research became more coordinated on the discovery of synthetic products, starting in 1931, extended progressively, the
use of atebrine (schizontocide), plasmochine (gametocide),
and chinoplasmine became more frequent, besides mixtures
of alcaloides from the quinine cortex (La therapeutique du
paludisme 1932; La traitement du paludisme 1937).
FIG. 3.
In the same period, measures against the vector insect were
confined to the Paris-green and Kerosene larvicidal methods,
utilization of larvivorous fish, application of small and unsystematized antilarval methods, and execution of sanitation
works (Anghelescu 1940). Mechanical protection and destruction through existing insecticide (Flit, Fly-tox, Kerosenepyrethrum, and simple Kerosene oil) were exclusively applied
on the Black Sea coast (Zotta et al. 1943) and in the zones of
rice plantations (southern Muntenia) (Zotta et al. 1946).
During the Second World War period (1941–1944), the
malarial endemy registered a peak in 1942 (Fig. 3) with an
incidence of 1218 cases per 100,000 inhabitants as a consequence of the disastrous effects of the war. In the immediately
following years (1944–1946), the incidence increased from
The incidence of malarial cases in Romania during the period 1925–1953.
ERADICATION OF MALARIA IN ROMANIA
421.5 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in 1944 to 735.1 cases per
100,000 inhabitants in 1946 (Fig. 3).
A hyperendemic burst of the disease was registered in 1946
in Tulcea County situated in eastern Romania that comprises
the Danube’s Delta. Malaria affected up to 70% of the population, with Plasmodium falciparum being identified in about
80% of the cases. The mortality rate reached 210 cases per
100,000 inhabitants (Ciuca 1966). The aggravating epidemiological conditions, created by the Second World War, urgently
demanded a systematical reorganization of an antimalarial
campaign with the use of the newest fighting methods.
Eradication of Malaria in Romania, 1947–1963
According to the above mentioned circumstances and the
continued presence of malaria in the entire country, the
Romanian Ministry of Health formed a Malaria Commission
in February 1947 with the mission to reorganize the fight
against malaria based on the international guidelines. The
program included chemoprophylactic and chemotherapeutic
approaches and measures regarding the interruption in the
transmission of the disease using DDT and hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) insecticides. The fight against malaria
began with an experimental stage during the period 1947–1948
characterized by scientific research regarding the usage in an
experimental titer of the insecticides in peripheric areas and
the methods for the interruption of the transmission in accordance to local conditions. During the year 1948, malarial
morbidity reached the highest peak in history with 338,198
cases for the whole country (2131 cases per 100,000 inhabitants) including 210,111 new cases and 128,087 relapses (Ciuca
1966) (Fig. 3).
In 1949 the Ministry of Health created a vast special network of antimalarial institutions formed in the first years by a
number of 28 malarial stations, 36 subcentres, annexes, and
one independent base centre, distributed in 12 districts of
intense or moderate malarial endemy. These sections, including a staff of 800 highly trained specialists, malariologists,
entomologists, microscopists, sanitarians, laboratory technicians, etc., were equipped and endowed with hematological
and entomological laboratories, as well as with equipment,
materials, and apparatus required for the employment of the
antianopheline methods (Ciuca 1957a).
Special units and those belonging to the main sanitary
organizations—regional dispensaries, hospitals—were provided by the Health Department with sufficient quantities of
antimalarial drugs to be freely distributed to the population.
The success of the quick distribution of drugs to a large
number of diseased people was also assured by the voluntary
collaboration of people in the malarial zones and grouped in
sanitary mass organizations.
The process of combating the vector was known as desanophelization. The three main anopheles species identified
were An. maculipennis typicus, An. maculipennis messeae, and
An. maculipennis atroparvus. Specialists of those times
considered that the minimum density of about 20 anopheles per household make the transmission of the disease
possible.
The spraying campaign started annually in May and
lasted until July. The main insecticides used in the process
were DDT and HCH (Lindane). Chemically, DDT differed
from other insecticides both in its high toxicity to insects
107
and its unique action. DDT was a residual spray: that is, its
effective action continued long after spraying. The houses
were sprayed with a solution of 5% DDT dissolved in
kerosene on walls (40 mL=m2) leaving a deposit of about
2 g=m2. A solution of 6.25% HCH dissolved in kerosene
was sprayed on walls (40 mL=m2) leading, after kerosene
evaporation, to a final amount of 1 g HCH=m2. The more
impervious surface, the longer the residual effects lasted,
even for as much as 1 year (Ciuca et al. 1951b). The best
efficiency was demonstrated when the houses were sprayed
at 6-month interval for DDT and 3-month interval for HCH
(Ciuca 1957a).
Concomitant with the specific entomological activity, the
hematological examination of the samples collected for diagnostic purposes represented another main activity.
The locally- developed R.18-Ungureanu staining was
widely used instead of the classical Giemsa staining in the
northeast Romanian region of Moldavia. It was invented by
Professor Ernest Ungureanu (1923–2003) from the University
of Medicine and Pharmacy in Iasi. Its main quality was that
any source of clean water could be used for the staining solution instead of buffered distilled water at pH 7.4. Thus, the
blood samples (thin and thick blood smears) could be prepared in any situation and examined also under natural light
(Voiculescu 2006).
Technical control and guidance were supplied, during the
first period, on the field by malarial sections of Dr. Cantacuzino Institute and the Institutes of Hygiene in Bucharest, Iasi,
Timisoara, and afterward by the Institute of Medical Parasitology and its provincial branches. The national fight campaign against malaria included four stages distributed as
follows (Ciuca 1956):
1. First stage (1949–1950) had the following aims: to fight
against the anopheline vector, to reduce the epidemics,
and to implement chemoprophylaxis for the exposed
population. The results were immediate and extraordinary, reducing the morbidity with about 30% at the
end of 1949 (1462 cases per 100,000 inhabitants) as
compared with 1948 (2131 cases per 100,000 inhabitants). In 1950, morbidity decreased to 585.3 cases per
100,000 inhabitants (Fig. 3).
2. Second stage (1951–1952) continued the spraying of
insecticides that had begun in the first stage and
strengthened the previously obtained results. The total
number of desanophelized localities increased from 701
in 1949 to 984 in 1951. Nevertheless, the total eradication of the vector was impossible. Inactivation of the
human reservoir included early and correct diagnosis of
the new malarial cases and application of chemoprophylactic therapy during the whole malarial season
(from April to October). Consequently, the morbidity
marked a new and important diminution, dropping to
63 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in 1952 (Fig. 3).
3. Third stage (1953–1954). The insecticide sprayings were
stopped in the regions where no new malarial cases or
only sporadic cases were diagnosed. In 1954, the morbidity decreased to 5.3 cases per 100,000 inhabitants
(Ciuca 1966) (Fig. 4).
4. Fourth stage (1955–1963). The Expert Committee on
Malaria prepared a guide to the technical and administrative principles involved in the attainment of
108
NEGHINA ET AL.
FIG. 4.
The incidence of malarial cases in Romania during the period 1954–1965.
malarial eradication (WHO 1956). The above mentioned
program was strictly applied in Romania beginning
with 1955 when morbidity registered 2.2 cases per
100,000 inhabitants (308 new cases and 75 relapses)
(Ciuca 1966) (Fig. 4).
During the cold season, malaria-focused meetings were
organized in Bucharest to discuss the results and difficulties
of the eradication process. The conference for Malaria in
April 1955, examining statistical data on antimalarial activity
begun in 1947, outlined (Ciuca 1957a) the following: (1) the
reduction by 99.4% of the new cases and 98.4% of the relapses in the whole country, at the end of 1953, compared
with malarial incidence in 1948; (2) 66% decrease of the incidence at the end of 1954 (compared with the year 1953); (3)
maintenance of the endemic index at 0 in the zones cleared
of malaria and protected against reinfestation by insecticide
barriers; (4) no reappearance of epidemic foci among collectivities that continuously and periodically were subjected
to ‘‘imagocide’’ protection—with residual insecticides, associated with chemotherapy and, eventually, chemoprophylaxis with synthetic products—during a period of 6 years; (5)
there was no sign of acquired resistance in vectors (Ciuca
1957b, Young 1962, Ciuca et al. 1964) at the time when the
international scientific literature (Malaria Control 1954)
brought thoroughly verified scientific facts about the physiological resistance acquired in at least seven species of
Anopheles; and (6) apparition of small foci, strictly limited in
nondesanophelized collectivities.
Following the adoption of proper malarial eradication
methods, namely total coverage of residual endemic areas by
spraying of residual insecticides, and by surveillance, indigenous cases disappeared rapidly, relapsing cases were much
reduced, and imported and induced cases remained constant
or even increased slightly, due probably to the increase in
human mobility and in the use of blood transfusions (Table 1).
And, beginning in 1962, no indigenous cases were registered
in Romania (Gramiccia 1964).
As a result, in 1963, the Romanian authorities informed
WHO about the malarial eradication on its territory.
Measures Implemented in the Postmalaria
Eradication Period
After successful eradication of malaria in 1963, the following measures were implemented: periodic hematological
control of all malarial patients and suspected cases; routine
hematological control of blood donors; mandatory hospitalization of the new malarial cases and administration of the
specific therapy, strict evidence, and surveillance of the cases
confirmed in the previous 3 years through the primary health
care system, local control regarding the possible presence of
the vectors, control of the travelers from the endemic areas,
warning on the possibility of imported malaria, and indica-
Table 1. The Reported Origin of Malarial Cases that Occurred in ROMANIA from 1958 to 1962
Year
Total no. of slides
examined
Total no. of malarial
cases found
Indigenous
Relapsing
Imported
Induced
Nonclassified
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
226,164
247,583
414,448
527,099
554,925
46,247
738
184
83
28
23
5
711
114
46
1
–
–
8
51
11
6
3
–
7
–
1
–
3
–
9
14
22
21
17
5
3
5
3
–
–
–
ERADICATION OF MALARIA IN ROMANIA
tion to seek medical care in case of fever paroxysm; and
sanitary education of the population. During the period 1964–
1965, a total of only 31 relapses and import cases were registered (Ciuca 1966).
The campaigns against malaria demonstrated that human
actions can overcome and defeat the disease that had once
ravaged entire families. From then on, no documented autochthonous cases occurred; only a median number of about
20 imported cases per year were reported (WHO Regional
Office for Europe 2009).
Perspectives
There are numerous predictions stating that malaria, a
disease widely perceived as tropical and which was common
in the period known as Little Ice Age (between 16th and 18th
centuries), will move northward into Europe if global climates
continue to warm, but the great majority of these publications
sidestep the following key factors in the transmission and
epidemiology of the disease: the ecology and behavior of
humans and of the vectors, and the immunity of the host and
of the host population (Reiter 2000, 2008). Thus, although the
vectors are still present in Romania (Nicolescu et al. 2004), the
eradication of the parasite has eliminated the disease that is
not limited by climate. The main determinants are related
to ecological, societal, political, and economical factors not to
the common and obsessive hypothesis of ‘‘global warming’’
(Reiter 2000, 2008).
In conclusion, with a good surveillance and correct prophylaxis, malaria is unlikely to return in Romania even if the
climate gets warmer.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to the Romanian Red Cross for
permission to include Figure 1 from its photo archive.
Disclosure Statement
Funding—none.
Competing interests—none declared.
Ethical approval—not required.
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