Translated by Maria Priscilla Kreitlon Images translated by Niury Novacek, Rubens de S. Duarte and Carlos R. S. Milani Executive Secretary Pablo Gentili Academic Director Fernanda Saforcada Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales – Conselho Latino-americano de Ciências Sociais EEUU 1168| C1101 AAX Ciudad de Buenos Aires | Argentina Tel [54 11] 4304 9145/9505 | Fax [54 11] 4305 0875| e-mail clacso@clacso.edu.ar | web www.clacso.org CLACSO is supported by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) An electronic version of this book is available at CLACSO’s Network of Virtual Libraries. Copyright © 2015, the authors. All rights reserved to the Publishers of the Latin American Council of Social Sciences (CLACSO). No part of this publication may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the publishers. An electronic version of this book is available at CLACSO’s Network of Virtual Libraries. The Portuguese version of the Atlas was published thanks to the cooperation between CLACSO (electronic version, 2014) and EDUERJ (printed version, 2015). This project was developed by the following team of the World Political Analysis Laboratory (Labmundo) participation: Tássia Camila de Oliveira Carvalho (Graduate Research Assistant); Allan Medeiros Pessôa (Cartographer); Isabela Ribeiro Nascimento Silva (Cartographer); Niury Novacek Gonçalves de Faria (Undergraduate Research Assistant); and Rafael Fidalgo Carneiro (Undergraduate Research Assistant). English language translation: Maria Priscilla Kreitlon Images translated by Niury Novacek and Rubens de S. Duarte, under the supervision of Carlos R. S. Milani This project was funded by FAPERJ – Foundation for Research Support in the State of Rio de Janeiro; CNPq – National Council for the Development of Science and Technology; and FINEP – Studies and Projects Funding Agency. CLACSO Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales – Conselho Latino-americano de Ciências Sociais EEUU 1168| C1101 AAX Ciudad de Buenos Aires | Argentina Tel [54 11] 4304 9145/9505 | Fax [54 11] 4305 0875 clacso@clacso.edu.ar web www.clacso.org Executive Secretary: Pablo Gentili Academic Director: Fernanda Saforcada Atlas of Brazilian foreign policy / Carlos R. S. Milani ... [et al.]. 1a ed . - Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires : CLACSO, 2016. Libro digital, PDF Archivo Digital: descarga ISBN 978-987-722-181-7 1. Política Exterior. 2. Brasil. I. Milani, Carlos R. S. CDD 327.1 Cataloging date : 10/05/2016 The cartography of Brazil in the world Preface by Maria Regina Soares de Lima Due to its continental dimensions, Brazil tends to be an inward looking country. As a result of its great territorial extension, the country presents a remarkable diversity among its regions, which makes the study of regional differences, in several matters, an object of investigation altogether more attractive since the country is a world in itself. The Atlas of Brazilian Foreign Policy removes Brazil from self-contemplation and projects it into the world in two ways. Firstly, it does so by choosing thematic cartography to graphically represent the quantitative and qualitative aspects of an impressive amount of data using, as a parameter, the visual representations of the same indicators across several other national territories. Because of the centrality given to territorial space, thematic cartography practically demands the use of a comparative perspective. Secondly, by choosing a specific cartographic projection, one that places the country at the centre of the globe, it reminds us that all cartographic projections are arbitrary and reflect each researcher’s subjective preferences. The Atlas situates Brazil at the centre of the planet in regard to other national realities, but it also relativises our alleged national specificities and avoids taking the Brazilian case as unique. Its pioneering spirit, in addition to the narrative malleability of the language of maps, is also reflected in what its creators have decided to show and compare. This is not a conventional foreign policy atlas. The five thematic chapters give account of events, processes, and some quantitative and qualitative topics that very often, as in the chapter on the country’s formation, can easily encompass a hundred years; however, brevity is achieved by the creative use of timelines crossing the centuries and locating these Brazilian events in temporal and spatial perspective. At the same time, processes often treated today as constants are put into a historical perspective. This is the case, for example, of trade relations with the United States which since the beginning of the 1950s have systematically declined, in parallel with the diversification of Brazilian foreign trade. The implication is that the old opposition between two models of foreign policy, alignment versus diversification, no longer makes sense. Is Brazil an emerging superpower? Our material and symbolic assets are shown here in a rich variety of images. The resources are many, but each one of them represents a particular challenge not only for international cooperation, but to society, politics and the economy of the country. It is not just a matter of adding up our national capabilities and comparing them with those of other emerging countries. We have resources that, if properly managed, can put us at the frontline of global discussions on issues such as food, water, and megadiversity, as well as on the risks inherent in their predatory exploitation, here and in other countries. Our resources also pose another challenge for us: namely, to set up a domestic agenda and international cooperation committed to the reduction of inequalities, the guarantee of human rights, and democratic participation. The plurality, diversity and heterogeneity of actors and agendas that directly or indirectly take part in foreign affairs are perhaps the most impressive feature of Brazil’s new face to the world. In tandem with the universalisation of foreign policy, evidenced by the significant increase of diplomatic missions in recent years, Brazilian society has also become internationalised. This is due to: the expansion of its investments abroad; the international presence of some of its organisations, social movements, and religious actors (Brazil is the second largest exporter of missionaries in the world); the growing number of Brazilians living abroad; the new sub-national diplomacy; and the numerous public policies it has exported to countries of the Global South, in particular Latin America and Africa. Within the context of Brazilian democracy’s consolidation, the challenge for foreign policy is to open up a dialogue with civil society, to develop a robust public diplomacy, and to coordinate the international negotiation of numerous public policies that make up the Brazilian international cooperation agenda today. In a democratic system, and given civil society’s growing demand for consultation and participation, foreign policy leaves its insulation and becomes just another type of public policy. The portrait of Brazil’s place in the world that emerges from this publication is of a diverse and complex country, a mass democracy implementing a many-faceted foreign policy, and having all the credentials to be a model for countries of the South caught in the stormy waters of a globalised and unequal economy. It is also part of a stratified geopolitical order, but with some multilateral spaces; above all, it possesses a huge heterogeneity of culture and values whose management requires international actors that make tolerance, fairness and respect for diversity the core of its international integration. Congratulations to the Labmundo team at IESP-UERJ, coordinated by my colleague Carlos R. S. Milani and comprising Enara Muñoz Echart, Rubens de S. Duarte and Magno Klein, for regaling us with this splendid Atlas, so necessary in today’s turbulent times. Maria Regina Soares de Lima is Senior Researcher at the Institute of Social and Political Studies of the University of the State of Rio de Janeiro (IESP-UERJ), and Coordinator of the South-American Political Observatory (OPSA). at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y I Trajectory of a partnership Presentation by Marie-Françoise Durand and Benoît Martin It is a great pleasure to see the end product - turned out so quickly and with such remarkable professionalism - of this ambitious Atlas of Brazilian Foreign Policy project, which began as a fruitful and stimulating collaboration between the Atelier of Cartography of Sciences Po and the Labmundo-Rio, a research group at IESP-UERJ. History of a collaboration This collaborative project was developed and refined over the course of several years, and it has included from traditional academic exchanges of lecturers and researchers to networked activities. The Year of France in Brazil, in 2009, was an important step in this process, since it provided institutional and financial support to several publications (mainly the translation of The Globalisation Atlas and the organisation of the book International Relations: French perspectives, by Carlos Milani), which were widely disseminated in Brazil. Within the framework of this cultural and scientific event, which took place in 2009, the exhibition The spaces and times of Brazil, comprising 27 panels, was our first partnership work around maps, charts, photos and short comments. Essentially, the panels presented “scientific images” that were well worth the visit. The publication of the Atlas of Brazilian Foreign Policy, initially in two languages (Portuguese and Spanish), in print version and also available for free download on the internet, thanks to the partnership between the Editors of the University of the State of Rio de Janeiro (EdUERJ) and the Latin American Council of Social Sciences (CLACSO), signals a change in current understanding of Brazil’s international integration II at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y dynamics. It is, indeed, a very thorough and fluid piece that combines scientific exchanges, training, and implementation, bringing together partners from different disciplines (political science and international relations, geography, history, sociology) and professional traditions (researchers, lecturers, doctoral candidates, cartographers) of two countries, Brazil and France. Thus, the team at Labmundo-Rio has relied on a diversity of individual talents and, at the same time, it has produced a work of considerable consistency, despite the organisational challenges involved in a project of this nature. this Atlas go well beyond what its title suggests (at least according to how foreign policy tends to be understood in the French context). The second change of scale regards temporalities. Not as in the classical conception of history (i.e. focused on origins, descriptive, and teleological), but as in research that captures the historical elements constitutive of powers, territories, exchanges, and societies and thus allows us to understand the present. This “re-historicising” makes it possible to avoid some current pitfalls, such as the overestimation of economic causes within temporalities that are too short, or culturalist explanations of social phenomena – mistakes often made alternatively or simultaneously. In addition to a methodology that attempts to articulate temporal and spatial scales, and which brings together the partners in this project, a rigorous scientific effort dovetails with an ambitious educational vision aimed at disseminating what has been accumulated in years of research, in order to stimulate public debate. The cartographic representation is the prime tool of this strategy. Scientific Approach This work revisits, develops and applies to a new object (i.e. Brazilian foreign policy) the concepts, notions and methods that were already shared by our teams, on both sides of the Atlantic, around the contemporary processes of globalisation. We emphasise, among other things, a methodological approach truly essential to the comprehension of international and intersocial dynamics, which is: to systematically consider changes of scale both in space and time. The first change of scale is to identify and analyse the territorial and reticular dimensions of societies’ space at the local, national, regional and global levels (and in the opposite direction too). Therefore, the Atlas of Brazilian Foreign Policy is, at the same time, a study of Brazil’s participation in the world, of its foreign policy in the broad sense of the term, and of the transnational dimension of nonstate actors. As general practitioners of international relations and graphic information design who specialise in globalisation processes and their spatial restructuring, we appreciate the fact that the issues dealt with in Thinking about substance and form This Atlas bears witness to the impressive, quick and thorough assimilation of cartography’s graphic language by the Labmundo team. As a result, it offers images that make comprehension easier, but also encourage reflection, debate, and action. It is not, therefore, “classical mapping” in editorial terms, i.e. closely illustrative of an argument. Nor is it that very contemporary and sometimes “spectacular” kind of cartography, made easier by the software available these days - but whose function and results may not differ very much from the first category of cartography. It is not a geopolitical cartography excessively based on conflicts, on culturalist approaches or inter-state relations (as tends to occur in the French context, particularly), but which does not incorporate enough of the actors’ diversity. These two ways of seeing and making the world visible, which reduce the field of international relations exclusively to relations between states, are still widely used, in spite of obvious In practice, this entails a sometimes long task, i.e. the operationalisation of a series of steps: reflecting on the concepts to be explained, researching the information considered to be relevant, processing the data, and in the end being able to represent them graphically. We will not comment on each one of these steps in detail - suffice it to say how resourceful and creative the authors have been in identifying, comparing, criticising and selecting appropriate sources for the arguments they put forward. This confirms that having strong research skills in the social sciences is extremely useful in finding the relevant sources and data, making aesthetic “details” secondary. The “graphic exercise” (la graphique), as reflected upon and developed by Jacques Bertin, had two essential stages: exploring the data, and then a versatile communication of such data. This means that the time spent treating the data relative to the problem that is dealt with in the two pages of each item of the Atlas’s chapters, and in articulating graphic results with texts can, in some cases, lead to abandoning certain lines of inquiry or to producing some apparently simple documents - but they stem, in fact, from many attempts, modifications and substitutions. Despite this difficulty, the Atlas presents a wide variety of graphical representations, including some original ones (such as the collections of logarithmic curves and the ordered matrices). These types of graphical representation, although very effective, remain little explored because the software currently available does not offer them automatically. It is necessary to use several software packages in order to create these representations, and to work manually on some occasions. At the same time, the authors of the Atlas were inspired (as in the case of flow charts) by some interesting innovations that emanate from the current explosion of dataminings and dataviz. The Atlas of Brazilian Foreign Policy is the innovative outcome of this series of operations which, along with its publication, advance some very useful ways of thinking and savoir-faire for research. The collected data has been processed only partially and new databases remain unexplored awaiting further research. Therefore, this important step taken by the Labmundo team is also just the beginning. We have witnessed Labmundo`s researchers` command of graphic methods and maps, for instance during their presentations at the 9th Meeting of the ABCP (Brasilia, 4-7 August 2014). Greatly enriched, thanks to many original graphic documents, these presentations ultimately reinforce each other at the scientific level and in terms of communication. Labmundo thus becomes an important centre of reference regarding the use and dissemination of graphical treatment as “good practice” in research, education, and science popularisation in the field of Political Science and International Relations. Marie-Françoise Durand is a geographer, and the coordinator of the Atelier of Cartography at Sciences Po. Benoît Martin is a geographer, cartographer at the Atelier of Cartography of Sciences Po, and a PhD candidate at the Centre d’ Études et de Recherches Internationales de Sciences Po. Enara Echart Muñoz global changes. One of the great virtues of this Atlas of Brazilian Foreign Policy is to have managed to dissociate itself both from classical mapping and spectacular cartography. at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y III List of acronyms and abbreviations ABC – Brazilian Cooperation Agency AfDB – African Development Bank AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ALADI – Latin American Integration Association ALALC – Latin American Free Trade Association ALBA – Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas ALCA – Free Trade Area of the Americas ALCSA – South American Free Trade Area ANA – National Water Agency ANCINE – National Film Agency ANTT – National Land Transport Agency ASA – Africa–South America Summit ASPA – Summit of South American and Arab Countries ASSI – Advance Sworn Statement on Imports ASSS – Advance Sworn Statement on Services BFP – Brazilian Foreign Policy BNDES – Brazilian Development Bank BRIC – Group of countries comprising Brazil, Russia, India and China BRICS – Group of countries comprising Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa C40 – Cities Climate Leadership Group CAF – Andean Development Corporation CAFTA – Central America Free Trade Agreement CAN – Andean Community CAPES – Brazilian Federal Agency for the Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education CARICOM – Caribbean Community CASA – South American Community of Nations CBERS – China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite CBF – Brazilian Football Confederation CDIAC – Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center CDS – South American Defence Council CEED – Centre for Strategic Defence Studies CELAC – Community of Latin American and Caribbean States CELADE –Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre CEPAL – Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean CIA – Central Intelligence Agency CICA – Central American Indigenous Council CLACSO – Latin American Council of Social Sciences CNI – National Confederation of Industry CNM – National Confederation of Municipalities CNPq – National Council for Scientific and Technological Development CNT – National Transport Confederation COB – Brazilian Olympic Committee COBRADI – Brazilian Cooperation for International Development COMIGRAR – National Conference on Migration and at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Refuge COMINA – National Missionary Council CONAB – National Food Supply Agency CONARE – National Committee for Refugees COSIPLAN – South American Infrastructure and Planning Council COP – Conference of the Parties (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) CPLP – Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries CPS/FGV – Centre for Social Policies / Getúlio Vargas Foundation CSN – South American Community of Nations DAC – Development Assistance Committee (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) DFID – Department for International Development (United Kingdom) DNPM – National Department of Mineral Production EAP – Economically Active Population ECOMOG – Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group ECOSOC – Economic and Social Council (United Nations) EDUERJ – Rio de Janeiro State University Press EMBRAER – Brazilian Aeronautics Corporation S/A EMBRAPA – Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation EPE – Energy Research Company EU – European Union FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization (United Nations) FAPERJ – State of Rio de Janeiro Research Foundation FDI – Foreign Direct Investment FGV –Getúlio Vargas Foundation FHC – Fernando Henrique Cardoso FIESP – Federation of Industries of the State of São Paulo FIFA – International Federation of Association Football FINEP – Financing Agency for Studies and Projects FIOCRUZ – Oswaldo Cruz Foundation FIVB – International Federation of Volleyball FOCAL – China-CELAC Cooperation Forum FOCALAL – Latin America-Southeast Asian Cooperation Forum FOCEM – Structural Convergence Fund of Mercosur FT – Free Trade FUNAG – Alexandre de Gusmão Foundation GATT – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDP – Gross Domestic Product GEF – Global Environment Fund GR-RI – International Relations Think Tank HDI – Human Development Index HR – Human Rights IAEA – International Atomic Energy Agency IBAS – Group of countries comprising India, Brazil and South Africa (also known as IBAS Forum) IBGE – Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics IBP – Brazilian Institute of Oil, Gas and Biofuels ICC – International Criminal Court ICCA – International Congress and Convention Association ICD – International Cooperation for Development ICJ – International Court of Justice IDB – Inter-American Development Bank IEA – International Energy Agency IEP de Paris – Paris Institute of Political Studies (Sciences Po) IESP-UERJ – Social and Political Studies Institute – Rio de Janeiro State University IFAD – International Fund for Agricultural Development IIRSA – Initiative for the Integration of Regional Infrastructure in South America ILO –International Labour Organisation IMF – International Monetary Fund INESC – Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering INFRAERO – Brazilian Company of Airport Infrastructure INPE – National Institute for Space Research IOC – International Olympic Committee IOF – Financial Operations Tax (Tax on Operations Involving Credit, Exchange and Insurance, or Relative to Equities and Securities) IOM – International Organisation for Migration IPEA – Institute of Applied Economic Research ISARM – Internationally Shared Aquifer Resources Management (UNESCO) JICA – Japan International Cooperation Agency LABMUNDO – Laboratory for World Politics Analysis LNA – Non-Automatic Licensing LRF – Fiscal Responsibility Law MAB – Movement of People Affected by Dams MAC – Competitive Adaptation Mechanism MAPA – Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply MDG – Millenium Development Goals MDIC – Ministry of Development, Industry and Foreign Trade MDS – Ministry of Social Development and Fight against Hunger MEC – Ministry of Education MERCOSUR – Southern Common Market MINURSO – United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara MINUSTAH – United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti MMA – Ministry of the Environment MRE – Ministry of Foreign Affairs NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NDP – National Defence Policy NDS – National Defence Strategy NGO –Non Governmental Organisation NIEO – New International Economic Order NPT – Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons NSA – National Security Agency NSP – Nuclear Suppliers Group NYC – New York City OACI – International Civil Aviation Organisation OECD – Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OCMAL – Observatory of Mining Conflicts in Latin America OAS – Organisation of American States OECS – Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States OLCA – Latin American Observatory of Environmental Conflicts OMAL – Observatory on Multinationals in Latin America OPEC – Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries OSAL – Latin American Social Observatory (LatinAmerican Council of Social Sciences) OSCE – Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe ODA – Official Development Assistance OTCA – Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organisation PAA – Food Acquisition Programme PALOP – Portuguese Speaking African Countries PARLASUL – Mercosur Parliament PARLATINO – Latin American Parliament PCN – Calha Norte Programme PDVSA – Venezuelan National Petroleum Company PEC-G – Exchange Programme for Undergraduate Students PEC-PG – Exchange Programme for Graduate Students PNAD – National Household Sample Survey (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) QUAD – Group of countries comprising the US, the European Union, Canada and Japan REBRIP – Brazilian Network for the Integration of Peoples REDLAR – Latin American Network against Dams and for Indigenous Communities RENCTAS – National Report on Wildlife Trafficking SC/UN – Security Council / United Nations SDP – Secretariat of Production Development SDR – Special Drawing Right SECEX – Foreign Trade Secretariat SEGIB – Iberian-American Secretariat General SEM – Educational Sector of Mercosur SENAI – National Service for Industrial Training SERE – State Secretariat for Foreign Affairs (Itamaraty) SESU – Higher Education Secretariat (Ministry of Education) SIPRI – Stockholm International Peace Research Institute SSC – South-South Cooperation TFDD – Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database TIAR – Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance UAB – Open University of Brazil UAE – United Arab Emirates UCKG – Universal Church of the Kingdom of God UERJ – Rio de Janeiro State University UFFS – Federal University of the Southern Frontier UFMG – Federal University of Minas Gerais UFRGS – Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul UFRJ – Federal University of Rio de Janeiro UFRRJ –Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro UFSC – Federal University of Santa Catarina at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y UN – United Nations UNAMAZ – Association of Amazonian Universities UNASUR – Union of South American Nations UN Comtrade – United Nations International Trade Statistics Database UNCTAD – United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESP – São Paulo State University “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFICYP – United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus UNHCR – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNIAM – University of Amazonian Integration UNICA – Brazilian Sugarcane Industry Association UNICAMP – Campinas State University UNICEF – United Nations Children’s Fund UNIDIR – United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research UNIFIL – United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon UNILA – Federal University of Latin American Integration UNILAB – University of International Integration of the Afro-Brazilian Lusophony UNIRIO – Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro UNISFA – United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei UNMIL – United Nations Mission in Liberia UNMISS – United Nations Mission in South Sudan UNOCI – United Nations Operation in Côte d’ Ivoire UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNWTO – United Nations World Tourism Organisation US – United States of America USAID – United States Agency for International Development USP – University of São Paulo USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics WFP – World Food Programme WTO – World Trade Organisation ZOPACAS – South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Contents Introduction: The use of thematic cartography Theoretical and methodological choices . . . . . . . . . . . 4 How are the images to be interpreted? . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 The choice of a projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 The world political map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Chapter 1: The formation of Brazil The conquest and formation of colonial Brazil . . . . . From seat of the colonial Empire to imperial Brazil . . The Republic and the United States’ hegemony . . . . Development and industrialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Globalisation and the new order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cultural diversity and ethnic pluralism . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 2: Brazil, an emerging power? Agribusiness: breadbasket of the world? . . . . . . . . . . The industrial complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Logistics and challenges to development . . . . . . . . . . The energy matrix and the environment . . . . . . . . . . Water: vital and strategic resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mining and extractive industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Genetic wealth and biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Population and diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Poverty and inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security and defence policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Global and transnational threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culture as soft power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collective sports and individual talents . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism and the national image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Religious pluralism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 16 18 20 22 24 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 Chapter 4: South America: Brazil’s geographical destiny? Integration projects in the Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . From Latin America to South America . . . . . . . . . . . Integration in South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Argentina: a strategic partnership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defence and security in the region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy, infrastructure and integration . . . . . . . . . . Asymmetries and inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social networks: Latin America or South America? . 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 Chapter 5: New coalitions, multilateralism and South-South cooperation Brazil in North-South relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 UN system: the environment and human rights . . 102 World economic agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 New partners and coalitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Towards a more democratic global governance? . . . 108 Cooperation: from recipient to donor status? . . . . . 110 South-South Cooperation: main actors . . . . . . . . . . 112 South-South Cooperation in education . . . . . . . . . 114 South-South Cooperation: Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 South-South Cooperation: Latin America . . . . . . . 118 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Chapter 3: Actors and agendas The Itamaraty and public diplomacy . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Presidential diplomacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Congress, ministries and agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 The international action of federated states . . . . . . . 66 The international action of cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Main Brazilian multinationals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Non-governmental organisations and social movements 72 Religious actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Brazilians abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Research centres and universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Introduction: Enara Echart Muñoz The use of thematic cartography Enara Echart Muñoz Theoretical and methodological choices This is the first Atlas of Brazilian Foreign Policy. Begun in 2012, it is the fruit of a partnership between the Atelier of Cartography of Sciences Po and Labmundo-Rio, a CNPq research group at IESP-UERJ; the project also had the participation of Unirio’s School of Political Science. The elaboration of the Atlas was inspired by some previous initiatives between Sciences Po and Labmundo, such as the translation into Portuguese of the Globalisation Atlas and its publication in Brazil in 2009. Thanks to an institutional cooperation with the Atelier of Cartography of the IEP in Paris, and our academic partnership with colleagues Marie-Françoise Durand and Benoît Martin, this project has been successful in reaching its goals. To both dear colleagues we extend our most sincere thanks. The work done through this international network was as important as the collective action planned at the local level, which mobilised lecturers, researchers, doctoral candidates, master’s students and undergraduates from two higher education institutions based in Rio de Janeiro, in addition to the two geographers and cartographers who joined the project on a fellowship. Teamwork, frequent face-to-face and virtual training, the interdisciplinary dialogue of Political Science and International Relations with Geography, the appreciation of ongoing research, and the opportunity to carry out new studies are some of the major factors that explain the unfolding of this project up to its most anticipated outcome: the Atlas’s publication. The main objective of the Atlas is to share some new readings on international politics and Brazilian foreign policy with researchers and students interested in the many forms of integration that Brazil exhibits on the world stage - whether from the 4 at l a s o f t h e b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y economic, political, social, cultural, or environmental point of view. It can be extremely useful to lecturers and students (in postgraduate, undergraduate, and secondary education), as well as journalists and other media professionals, diplomats, international cooperation managers working in the public or private sectors, civil society leaders and foreign policy activists. The images (i.e. maps, graphs, matrices, and timelines) and the texts (i.e. a brief overview of each theme) constitute an ensemble: always presented in two pages, they cover various topics, agencies, and dimensions of Brazil’s international integration. By having the contents organised in this manner, readers who tend not to follow international debates too closely can have an introduction to foreign policy issues without risking superficiality; those who are better informed, or who already work in the field, will be inspired to ask some new questions and to update their perspectives. Each item of the chapters has been designed so that text is used to accompany and complement the images, in what can be considered as an invitation to the reader to examine the semiology and aesthetics more carefully, establishing a dialogue with the different ways of expressing the content and the message that the authors have chosen. The use of images to illustrate arguments within written texts or in presentations is not new. Visual resources are widely relied upon nowadays: in presentations done with overhead projectors, in journalistic writing (e.g. infographics), in textbooks, and academic papers. The employment of images to convey data is very useful to facilitate access to information, to clarify ideas and concepts, to illustrate historical facts, geographical realities, and statistics. Images, just like text, send out messages, and reflect world visions and interpretations. The choice of classification and the establishment of cut-off points, as in the case of a map of South America, or the Gini index in Brazil, demonstrate this statement very clearly. Within the field of Political Science and International Relations in Brazil, this Atlas innovates in terms of graphical representation, semiology and aesthetics, especially when we consider Brazilian foreign policy studies. The Atlas makes it possible to visualise more clearly the internationalisation of public policies; the comparison of one or more variables in different situations; the sometimes complementary, but sometimes contradictory presence of various national and international actors in foreign policy agendas; and the complexity of overlapping data on different spatial scales: from local to national, from regional to global. Viewing international politics phenomena through the lenses of thematic cartography reiterates the notion that national state borders have become quite diluted in contemporary international relations - diluted but not erased. The persistence of national borders actually underscores the economic asymmetries and political inequalities among states and societies in the region and in the international system. The use of images in the cartography of Brazilian foreign policy brings us to a second major transformation. Changes in society and culture have left readers with less time to focus on written texts. Increasingly, it is necessary for authors to find ways of communication that make their messages more clear, dynamic, that engage the public’s attention and are, therefore, more easily understood and remembered by readers. The amount of data available grows daily, thanks to new technologies, to academic dynamism, and the efforts towards transparency made by many public and private institutions. Greater data availability does not, however, automatically imply improvement in the quality, or understanding of information. Thematic cartography plays, therefore, the social function of translation and of a bridge between different worlds. This does not mean, of course, that texts should be abandoned or always passed over in favour of images. Nothing of the sort! The Atlas was conceived by researchers who built it upon numerous critical readings and INTRODUCTION Thematic cartography can thus be converted into another instrument aimed at the continuous process of updating and democratising scientific knowledge, in this case in the area of foreign policy. In societies that become gradually more familiarised with internet technologies, thematic cartography opens the way for a more modern, dynamic and interactive language, easily adaptable for e-books, portals, and web sites by using colours, geometric objects, and other sorts of visual appeal. TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION IN MAPS Hypothetical data used in the maps Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Paraguay Peru 0,46 0,93 0,53 0,49 0,31 0,21 0,11 0,40 0,56 Bolivia 0,93 Index The chapters of this Atlas were organized according to these premises, but there is no pretension to be exhaustive in the coverage of themes. We have tried to put forward the historical and formative dimensions of Brazilian foreign policy, although the focus of the Atlas is on contemporary politics as they take place around Brazil’s power resources (hard and soft), foreign policy’s actors and agendas, regional integration 0,13 0,42 0,24 Classification based on data mean Maximum - 0,93 (Bolivia) Peru 0,56 Brazil 0,53 Chile 0,49 Minimum - 0,11 (Guyana) 0,93 - 0,11 = 0,82 0,82 ÷ 4 = 0,205 0,93 + 0,205 0,725 + 0,205 0,52 + 0,205 0,315 + 0,205 0,11 Argentina 0,46 Uruguay 0,42 Paraguay 0,40 Colombia 0,31 Venezuela 0,24 Ecuador 0,21 Suriname 0,13 Guyana 0,11 0,93 0,725 0,52 0,315 0,11 No data available Classification based on units mean Quantity of countries = 12 Quantity of classes = 4 Democratising knowledge on foreign policy is essential; especially if we start from the premise that foreign policy is a sui generis kind of public policy. Its uniqueness derives from two main aspects: (i) its dual insertion: systemic (i.e. international, regional, “outside” of the border) and domestic (i.e. relative to the interests and preferences at stake in a democracy); (ii) its simultaneous concern with issues on the international agenda (e.g. territorial integrity of the state, sovereignty, and the protection of national interests), which impart a “state policy” character to it, but also with strategic guidelines, political options, and development models that may vary in the course of history and in accordance with the situation (i.e. its government policy side). Suriname Uruguay Venezuela 12 ÷ 4 = 3 Bolivia 0,93 Peru 0,56 Brazil 0,53 Chile 0,49 Argentina 0,46 Uruguay 0,42 Paraguay 0,40 Colombia 0,31 Venezuela 0,24 Ecuador 0,21 Suriname 0,13 Guyana 0,11 0,93 0,53 0,42 0,24 0,11 No data available Source: Own elaboration. Concrete example of the Gini index in Brazilian municipalities in 2010 Classification by quantity of municipalities Classification by variable factor mean 1 1 0,54 0,75 0,5 0,49 0,45 0 Source: IBGE, 2010b. and, finally, multilateral relations, new coalitions, and South-South cooperation. In the next two sections of this Introduction we will present some technical and methodological notes on thematic cartography that may be of help to our readers. We hope you enjoy the 0,25 0 Labmundo, 2014 interpretations about the role of Brazil in the world. We have predicated its design on the scientific and academic use of maps, graphs, and matrices, all from internationally respected and well-published sources. In the same way that visual tools are being used more in newspapers and magazines in print, and in other types of media and social network documents, we believe that academia too can take ownership of this kind of language and develop semiology based on its own content, often emanating from researches developed over the years. reading and make productive and fruitful use of the maps, images, and texts. More information on the project and additional data about the Atlas of Brazilian Foreign Policy may be obtained at www.labmundo.org/atlas, where the reader will also find a glossary to facilitate understanding of some topics discussed here. at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 5 How are the images to be interpreted? TYPES OF SCALE IN GRAPHICS Data used in the graphics Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 State A 9 000 7 000 9 000 11 000 13 000 16 000 State B 10 000 8 000 6 000 9 000 40 100 140 State C 10 12 000 10 000 200 300 Graphic arithmetic scale 16 000 State A 12 000 Thematic cartography consists of techniques of georeferencing and of transformation of data into maps, graphs, and matrices which can be used for the representation of various social, political, historical, economic and international issues, many of which are difficult to measure. This requires techniques capable of dealing with qualitative and quantitative data. For the purpose of clarification, the main tools of thematic cartography used in this Atlas will be presented in what follows. VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS Representation of a variable on the plane Variation in one dimension representing absolute quantities 0 Year 1 State C Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Using the logarithmic scale State A 10 000 State B 1 000 State C 100 1 2 3 4 Variation in two dimensions representing absolute quantities 16 4 1 16 4 1 Value scale variation for relative amounts More value Less value Representation of more than one variable in the plane In colours to show differences In geometric shapes to show differences Source: Durand et al., 2009 at l a s o f t h e b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Labmundo, 2014 In texture to show differences 6 4 000 Visual representations (the maps, graphs, and matrices) affect the reader’s perceptions, and may be influenced by variables related to absolute quantities (shown in one or two dimensions) and relative quantities (i.e. greater or lesser value, depicted by different colours and visual representations). There may be relations of proportionality, order, and difference among the data. In the case of proportionality and of order by hierarchies, usually points, dashes, squares or circles of different sizes are chosen: the larger one represents a higher value, but the caption should explain what the graphic relationship to the quantitative data is. When it comes to representing the same variable on a plane, the use of bars, columns, and the thickness of arrows is necessary to indicate variations in the quantity of this single variable. Difference, in turn, is expressed by the use of colours, fills, or distinct geometric formats. In order to demonstrate different variables, it is necessary to change the colour or the texture used, showing the existence of two or more variables, which can also have scales of value in them. Different shades of the same colour family 10 1 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Graphic logarithmic scale 16 000 9 000 300 0 x3 State C x 1,778 State A State B x0 Year 1 Source: Own elaboration. Year 6 Labmundo, 2014 654321 6 5 4 3 2 1 The images featured in the Atlas arise from extensive research work, data collection and processing, choice of projections, semiological and aesthetic definitions. The entire process has to be conducted with the utmost rigour, because it directly impacts on the interpretation of maps, graphs, and matrices. Different types of scale (arithmetic and logarithmic) are used according to what needs to be compared or demonstrated: arithmetic scales permit the comparison of values, while logarithmic scales permit each curve’s evolution to be compared. In the hypothetical case illustrated on this page, the logarithmic scale clearly allows us to see a growth rate of Country “C” not evidenced by arithmetic scales. State B 8 000 INTRODUCTION It can be argued that images work well to illustrate numbers, and to facilitate the comparison of one or more variables among a variety of cases. When comparing the energy matrix of several countries, for instance, in order to show how the Brazilian energy matrix is mostly clean, a long text with lots of figures might actually hinder a quick grasp of the comparison the author is trying to make. In addition, an excess of information in the same paragraph can make reading very time-consuming, truncated and tedious, eventually causing the reader to become uninterested. Through the use of images (whether graphs with circles, bars, or maps), the comparison becomes much more evident. Reading and understanding are immediate, “noise” in communication is avoided, and Collor Itamar FHC Lula Dilma** Dilma TOTAL 13 7 14 53 88 18 193 Cent. Am. & C. 0 0 0 5 22 1 28 North Am. 5 3 1 14 19 5 47 Europe 3 9 0 31 54 1610 000 107 Africa 2 4 1 4 34 10 7000 52 Middle East 0 0 0 0 10 300 0 10 Asia 2 1 0 8 16 16 4000 31 Oceania* 0 0 0 0 0 10 0000 0 TOTAL 10 40 100 140 200 300 Africa al cir c les Europe tio n or ro p rep res en ted by p South America TO TA L Di lm a* * Lu la C FH r lo Co l I ta m ar Absolute amount of presidential trips Am ou nt s North America Asia Central America 468 Middle East 193 Oceania* 18 TOTAL *Oceania was not visited in the period **Dilma Rousseff’s trips until December 2013 Source: Planalto, 2014 comprehension of the message that the sender wishes to transmit is greatly facilitated. Finally, the sources used when collecting data are very important in the process of producing images such as the ones gathered here. Some difficulties may arise along the way. The quality of each nation state’s statistics bureau varies considerably; in the case of Brazil, data production and access has much improved since the mid-1980s. The data put out by international bodies (UN agencies, World Bank, OECD, etc), as well as by civil society organisations and large corporations (an increasingly important trend nowadays), can help in the construction of meanings about the world’s reality. Data may reveal realities that do not, however, always coincide with each other, depending on their sources. In many cases, triangulation of data turns out to be crucial, as is the diversification of sources, and making sure Labmundo, 2014 In the field of foreign policy specifically, the use of thematic cartography has several advantages. When an image is shown, the territory becomes that much clearer to the reader, particularly in subjects under the direct influence of political geography. In addition to borders (which indicate states’ territories), flows can be visualised too (e.g. economic, social, cultural, and environmental). For example, in a display about migration, territorial proximity exerts great influence on the movement of people; the arrows’ thickness and orientation indicate departing and arrival points, thus helping to visualise and quickly understand the major worldwide migration flows. Through cartographic representation it is possible to identify the main routes chosen by migrants and how geography facilitates, or creates obstacles to (e.g. mountains and seas) the movement of people. Sarney South Am. ey The choice of how to demarcate classes is also important. There is no single method for creating classes; these can be divided according to the number of units, to the mean of a variable, or in a discretionary manner. Each one of these methods results in a different image, which may suggest different conclusions. The cut-off point of classes can lead the reader into error, if the caption does not explain it properly. Reading the maps’ captions attentively is therefore highly advisable in order to better understand what phenomenon is being represented, and how. INTERPRETATION OF TABLES WITH PROPORTIONAL CIRCLES Data used in the table Sa rn are then applied, from darker tones to lighter ones. that selections are made according to the type of message the author intends to create. Visualising and comparing maps and matrices on the basis of different data was also a constant exercise when developing this Atlas. For example, the topic on energy uses data from the Central Intelligence Agency in the US, because the most complete source - apart from the CIA - would be the World Bank. But the Bank does not break down data according to types of energy sources, including the hydropower sector, which we wanted to present separately. In the end, we opted for the CIA data because it is internationally trusted, having been previously used in the production of other Atlases in Europe, the US, and Latin America. It is important to emphasise that data collection was conducted between 2013 and 2014. Standardisation of usage and references is also essential. For instance, the term “dollars” has been adopted as a standard and indicates US dollars. at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 7 The choice of a projection Maps are never exhaustive or complete, nor totally objective. Should it be North-oriented? Show Europe at the centre? Reduce the size of the Pacific region and Africa? One of the most important decisions in designing a map regards the choice of projection. Cartographic projections can be understood as an instrument of representation of the world by means of a drawing. It is an exercise in transformation of a three-dimensional object into a flat representation, which is why projections are the object of frequent questioning, criticism, and debate. Projections always generate distortions, more or less pronounced, of parts of the planet’s territory. DISCONTINUOUS GOODE PROJECTION Goode projection unchanged Distortions can be observed more easily as we approach the poles. In some cases, such as in the Mercator projection, the American state of Alaska is made to look larger than the Brazilian territory. Another example of the distortions embedded in the projection developed by Gerard de Kremer is Greenland, represented by a territory equivalent in size to that of the African continent, whereas in fact it is 50 times smaller. In addition to image distortions, there are other issues often associated to the design and use of cartographic projections. The first concerns the disposition of content on the plane: traditionally, because of the influence of European cartographers, Europe is represented in the centre of the projection. Also due to the influence of the main schools of cartography in Europe and in the US, the geographic North is usually represented at the top of the Southern hemisphere. It is worth pointing out that, since planet Earth is a geoid, there is no need to represent the North at the top; the South, the East or the West can equally be at the top. Areas removed to create the Atlas’s standard projection Projection provided by the Cartographic Studio of Sciences Po 8 at l a s o f t h e b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Labmundo, 2014 The Atlas’s standard projection In other words, the choice of projection is not neutral, it arises from decisions made by the cartographer, and it is up to the researcher to decide which model is best suited to their goals. If the event being studied occurs mainly in the Northern hemisphere, it is natural that they should give preference to projections highlighting this region of the globe to make the image clearer to the reader. Similarly, if the purpose of the image is to represent some event by arrows, preference should be given to projections that depict the continents further apart (such as the Fuller projection), so that the arrow does not INTRODUCTION The Labmundo Atelier of Cartography believes that the choice of projection should also take into consideration the political nature of representations. We avoid projections that overestimate the Northern hemisphere at the expense of the Southern hemisphere. We prefer using the Fuller, Bertin, and Goode projections. In addition, we also declare a preference for projections that are not Eurocentric but rather put Brazil at their centre. The projections used in this Atlas focus, for the most part, on the American continent and do not contain any relevant distortion regarding the size of the Northern hemisphere. We chose to keep representing the North at the top - and this was due to the perhaps excessive novelty that might constitute, to the eyes of Brazilian readers still unaccustomed to it, the use of projections with the geopolitical South at the top of a world map. On the Atlas’s website readers may find examples of maps using that kind of projection, which also illustrates our cover. This project was only made possible because it has counted with institutional support and the partnership of researchers, colleagues, and friends. Financial support obtained from Faperj, Finep, CNPq was decisive. We thank IESP-UERJ for its institutional support and for the physical space allocated to the Labmundo-Rio research group. Our thanks go also to the colleagues and researchers who have helped us in the collection of data, the production of analysis, in drafting or reviewing the items of each chapter. In particular, we would like to thank Breno Marques Bringel, Henrique Sartori, Cristiano A. Lopes, Bernabé Malacalza, Rafael C. Fidalgo, Renata Albuquerque Ribeiro, Danielle Costa da Silva and Wallace da Silva Melo. We also thank the colleagues Daniel Jatobá, Elsa Sousa Kraychete, Leticia Pinheiro, Maria Regina Soares de Lima and Miriam Gomes Saraiva for their comments, criticisms, and the suggestions made during the academic seminar that we organised at IESP-UERJ in September 2014. Finally, it is important to note that all the photos illustrating the chapters were taken by Enara Echart Muñoz, who kindly assigned their rights to the publication of this Atlas DIFFERENT PROJECTIONS AND THEIR DISTORTIONS Bertin Projection Fuller Projection Gall-Peters Projection Mercator Projection Miller Cylindrical Projection Robinson Projection Projection Brazil Alaska India Mercator Miller Cylindrical Fuller Bertin Goode Projection provided by the Cartographic Studio of Sciences Po Labmundo, 2014 pass “on top of ” key territories, hiding them or polluting the image. at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 9 World Political Map Canada Kyrgyzstan Mongolia Tajikistan United States of Ameri China Afghanistan Nepal Pakistan India Myanmar Laos Bangladesh Thailand Singapore Sri Lanka Maldives British Indian Ocean Territory a- Cayman Islands b- Turks and Caicos c- Virgin Islands (USA) d- British Virgin Islands e- Anguilla (United Kingdom) f- Island of San Martin (France) g- Collectivity of Saint Barthélemy (France) h- Montserrat (United Kingdom) i- Saint Kitts and Nevis j- Antigua and Barbuda k- Guadalupe (France) l- Dominica m - Martinica (France) n- Saint Lucia o- Barbados p- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines q- Grenada r- Dutch Caribbean s- Curaçao t- Aruba Source: Own elaboration. at l a s o f t h e b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Mexico Mariana Islands Macau Vietnam Guam (USA) Philippines Palau Micronesia Marshall Islands Nauru Kiribati Cambodia Brunei Malaysia Central America and Caribbean: 10 Japan South Korea North Korea Taiwan Hong Kong Bhutan Indonesia Papua New Guinea Timor-Leste East Timor Solomon Islands Vanuatu New Caledonia (France) Australia Tuvalu Tokelau (New Zealand) Wallis and Futuna (France) Samoa American Samoa Niue French Polynesia Cook Islands Pitcairn Islands (United King Tonga Fiji New Zealand INTRODUCTION Europe Europa 1- Guernsey 2- Jersey (United Kingdom) 3- Andorra 4- Belgium 5- Luxembourg 6- Netherlands 7- Monaco 8- Switzerland 9- Italy 10- Germany 11- Liechtenstein 12- Denmark 13- Vatican 14- San Marino 15- Austria 16- Slovenia 17- Czech Republic 18- Slovakia 19- Hungary Croatia 20- Crotia 21- Bosnia and Herzegovina Greenland (Denmark) 22- Montenegro 23- Albania 24- Macedonia 25- Kosovo Iceland 26- Serbia 27- Åland (Finland) Isle of Man (United Kingdom) 28- Estonia 29- Latvia Ireland Lithuania 30- Lituania 31- Romania United Kingdom 32- Bulgaria Moldova 33- Moldavia 34- Belarus 35- Cyprus 36- Northen Cyprus Portugal Malvinas Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 100 km Labmundo, 2014 Sweden Norway 27 Finland 28 29 Russia 12 30 6 34 4 5 10 Poland 17 1 2 Ukraine Kazakhstan 11 15 18 19 31 33 France 8 16 9 20 21 26 Azerbaijan 3 32 7 14 22 25 Uzbekistan Georgia 24 Spain 13 23 Turkmenistan Turkey ica Tunisia Armenia Greece Azores 35 36 Syria Malta Lebanon Madeira Island Bermuda Bermudas Iraq Morocco Iran Palestine Israel Jordan Kuwait Algeria Bahrain Libya Dominican Rep. Egypt Bahamas Western Qatar Cuba UAE Saudi Belize Sahara Puerto Rico b Arabia cd e a Oman f g Mauritania Mali Jamaica j k Niger Senegal hi Sudan Eritrea Yemen Honduras Haiti l Chad m n o Cape Verde t s r p Burkina Djibouti Nicaragua q Faso Gambia Guinea Trinidad Guinea Bissau Somalia Nigeria Guatemala and Tobago South Venezuela Ethiopia Ghana Central African Sudan Sierra Leone Guyana Republic Liberia El Salvador Suriname Costa Rica Colombia Cameroon Togo Uganda French Guiana Panama Benin Kenya Democratic Ivory Coast Ecuador Rwanda Republic Burundi Sao Tome and Príncipe São Principe of the Congo Comoros Tanzania Equatorial Guinea Seychelles Gabon Congo Brazil Peru Angola Mozambique Zambia Bolivia Mauritius Zimbabwe Malawi Madagascar Botswana gdom) Namibia Chile Paraguay Reunion Swaziland Argentina Island Uruguay Lesotho South Africa at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 11 Chapter 1: Enara Echart Muñoz THE FORMATION OF BRAZIL Enara Echart Muñoz Brazil’s historical formation and development process as a nation-state have imbued its international integration strategies with certain specific traits and and structural constraints. For the analyst of international relations and of Brazilian foreign policy (BFP), it is necessary to understand how the territorial consolidation of the country took place, the economic cycles it went through, and the importance of international migration flows. Brazil’s more than five centuries of international integration - first as a colony of the Portuguese Empire, then as a Kingdom united with Portugal, and finally as an independent state - were marked mainly by the agrarian exporter paradigm, which would only be modified in the mid-20th century. Sugarcane, coffee, and rubber monocultures, along with the exploitation of minerals such as gold and diamonds, played a decisive role in Brazil’s foreign affairs, and also underpinned the historical characteristics of its social, political and productive makeup. In this chapter, we will present the historical roots of BFP, as they are essential for the temporal comprehension of several issues which, in the next chapters, will have their current dynamics analyzed. Themes such as migration, multilateralism and economics are connected to subsequent units and the text clearly indicates these complements (in the "See also" sections), thus suggesting a non-linear reading of the contents that is a feature of the Atlas as a whole. The last items of this chapter will present, in historical perspective, the great changes that have come to mark Brazil’s international integration today, such as its recent activism on global issues or, in the domestic context, the demand for greater social participation in the formulation of Brazilian foreign policy. The conquest and formation of colonial Brazil of cultural, political and economic factors led to Europe’s projection on the world stage. The first Europeans to arrive in the region found indigenous peoples divided into more than 2,000 AMERICAN CONTINENT AT THE EVE OF THE EUROPEAN CONQUEST Main indigenous groups and cultural areas The colours represent cultural areas defined by ethnologists and archaeologists who have carried out a classification of multiple Aboriginal societies. INUIT LTH -NU AH CH NUU - North America OJIBWE Cultural areas share livelihoods, political and social organisation. Moreover, they sometimes are unified by the diffusion of dominant languages such as Nahuatl in Mesoamerica or Quechua in the Andes. ALONQUIAN IS HURON UO IROQ CHEYENNE SHOSHONE CHEROKEE NAVAJO COMANCHE, NATCHE APACHE Arctic Subarctic Northwest Coast Plateau Great Bay California Southwest Great Plains Northeast Southeast Mesoamerica NAHUATL They result from the mix of several groups: sedentary and nomadic, farmers and warriors. Each group has its own peculiarities. They are not, however, closed worlds. On the contrary, the cultural areas are spaces of circulation by land and by sea. MAYA OTOMI ARAWAK CARIBBEAN CHIBCHA O R A JI V ARAWAK ECHUA QU TUPI AYMARA In millions of British pounds, between 1500 and 1822 TUPI AR Caribbean Orinoco Savannah Andes Tropical Forest Atlantic South Gold and diamonds 170 GU South America Sugar 300 TUPI A NI Mesoamerica COLONIAL EXPORTS QUECHUA 1000 km ALAKALUF Sources: L’Histoire, 2012; Barraclough, 1991. Labmundo, 2014 ALEUT INUIT Demarcation of the territory was established by the Treaty of Tordesillas, but its terms were neither clear nor adhered to rigorously. The union of the Iberian royal courts contributed to increase Portuguese presence in the Spanish colonial territories. The Treaty of Madrid in 1750 consolidated the new spatial division between the Portuguese and the Spanish. But the sovereignty of Portuguese America was threatened by other kingdoms, such as France and England. The Dutch occupied the Northeast for a long period of time, creating an influential political and economic system of lasting impact. Their expulsion was a milestone in the formation of Brazilian 15 Leather 15 Brazilwood and other types of woods 12 Tobacco 12 Cotton 4.5 Rice 4 Coffee 3.5 Labmundo, 2014 The arrival of the Europeans in the Americas resulted from a process of maritime and commercial expansion at the beginning of the internationalisation of capitalism. A combination nations and tribes. The interaction between the two sides was beset by conflict rather than friendship, with the brunt being borne by the indigenous peoples. It was marked by capture, acculturation, fostering of tribal rivalries, and the spread of European diseases for which individuals had no immunity. Apart from extractivism, the colonisation project in Brazil did not start until 1530. The territory was divided into captaincies and sugarcane monoculture was implanted. Initially, labour was provided by captured indigenous people, and later on by African slaves. Cocoa and various types of spices Total: 536 Source: Simonsen, 2005. COLONIAL BRAZIL, 1500 - 1808 1625 1492 The French occupy the Guanabara Bay (currently, Rio de Janeiro) 1494 1602 The Dutch establish the East India start acting in the Company and sbecome active in delta the of the Amazon river Amazon River delta Tordesillas Treaty 1500 Expedition Cabral sailing lead ship byreaches Cabral reaches Porto Seguro, Bahia 1612-1615 1492 1580-1640 1580-1640 Iberian Union Luther starts the Protestant Reformation in Europe Domestic events Coups and regime changes International events Brazilian foreign affairs at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 1624-1625 Iberian Union 1529 The Dutch occupy Salvador Zaragoza Treaty 1651 The French occupy Maranhão 1517 14 Publication of the On the Laws of War and Peace by Hugo Grotius 1555-1567 The Columbus expedition reaches America 1630-1654 1530 Establishment of the captaincies in Brazil 1545 1598 Start of Dutch occupation in the Brazilian Northeast THE FORMATION OF BRAZIL EUROPE CONQUERS THE WORLD Main expeditions between the 15th and 16th centuries * the dates indicate the approximate arrival at the farthest point from departure John Davis, 1587 (England) Portuguese Empire in the 16th century Jacques Cartier, 1534 (France) Jean Cabot, 1497 (England) Territories unknown to the Europeans in the 16th century Areas already reached by the Europeans in the 16th century Christopher Columbus, 1492 (Spain) Vasco da Gama, 1498 (Portugal) Amerigo Vespucci, 1497 (Spain) Zara g o z aT rea ty Pedro A. Cabral, 1500 (Portugal) Territory declared by the Catholic Church as a Portuguese area of influence (except Europe) Sources: Barraclough, 1991; Duby, 2003. national identity. The international integration of colonial Brazil was based on direct dependence on the metropolis (and on England, more indirectly), and on an economic activity characterized by monoculture exports (agricultural produce, sugarcane). The discovery of gold contributed to the urbanisation process, the expansion towards the hinterlands, and the diversification of the professions, in addition to the emergence of a middle class. Because of mining, the country’s economic and political axis shifted from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The invasion of Portugal by Napoleon Bonaparte put an end to the colonial period. The arrival of the Portuguese royal family, the elevation of Brazil to the status of a Kingdom united with that of Portugal, and the choice of one of the latter’s members to govern Brazil after 1680 Colonia del Sacramento foundation 1681 1648 Portuguese fleet partially manned by natives sails from Rio de Janeiro and reconquers Angola from the Dutch 1651 1657 The quantity of slaves brought from Angola reaches one million 1687 Foundation of the Seven Peoples of the Missions War between Portugal and the Netherlands regarding overseas recognises the disputes. Portugal signs a peace loss of(1661) easternrecognizing territories, by treaty thesigning loss a treaty of territories peace (1661) of Eastern (1661) 1673 Arrival of the first Azorean settler settlerscouples 1000 km its independence help to explain the maintenance of the country’s territorial integrity and its relatively peaceful process of independence. SEE ALSO: Brazilian Empire p. 16 Cultural diversity p. 24 South-American integration p. 86 North-South relations p. 100 1750 1789 Portugal and Spain sign the Treaty of Madrid French Revolution 1755 Earthquake destroys Lisbon, the capital of the Portuguese Empire 1759 Marquis of Pombal expels expelled thethe Jesuits from Brazil 1763 1694 Brazil’s capital is transferred transfered from from Salvador in Bahia to Rio de Janeiro Discovery of the first gold goldmines mines in Minas Gerais 1773 The Kingdom Kingdom of Portugal of Portugal abolishes abolishes slavery in its territories 1703 Portugal and Britain sign the Treaty of Methuen 1704 1810 Treaty illas des Tor Ferdinand Magellan, 1522 (Spain) Labmundo, 2014 Bartolomeu Dias, 1488 (Portugal) 1782 1757 The English move out from Trindade Island at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 15 From seat of the colonial Empire to imperial Brazil After the Court’s arrival, Brazil became the centre of the Portuguese Empire, although the opening of its ports to friendly nations in 1808 confirmed a submissive stance towards England. Not even independence changed the unequal character and hierarchical relations between Brazil and England the first foreign debt incurred by Brazil, in order to pay compensation to its former metropolis, was contracted from the British Crown. TRIPLE ALLIANCE WAR, 1864-1870 The newly independent Brazil was in sharp contrast with the rest of Latin America: it was the only monarchy among the republics of the region. This fact, compounded by the elites’ homogeneity and the political and social stability of the Brazilian Empire, created in the local political imaginary of the time a vision of a civilized country in the midst of caudillo-run republics. As for regional relations, the rivalry with Argentina was evident, as was the effort to make sure the region of the La Plata River basin did not threaten Brazil’s borders and interests, in a regional balance of power system. Throughout the 19th century the country strove to maintain its hegemony in the region. Between 1821 and 1828 it kept possession of the Cisplatin province. After Uruguay became independent, Brazil tried to influence the political life of the new country, an upshot of its rivalry with Buenos Aires. BOLIVIA* Corumbá Coxim Albuquerque Forte Coimbra Miranda ot as n er w e time d r o th b The shed at bli esta Nioaque Laguna Dourados uay river rag Pa Cerro Corá BRAZIL 165 km na ri v Assunción Itororó Avaí Humaitá Curupaiti a Tuiutí ar er PARAGUAY P Corrientes Riachuelo Main battles Itaqui Jataí Maximum reach of Paraguayan control during the war Uruguaiana ARGENTINA r Paraguayan troops’ movement Areas of conflict between Paraguay and its neighbours URUGUAY S. Lopes’ death and end of the war Sources: Albuquerque et al., 1977; Goes Filho, 1999; Wehling e Wehling, 2002; Gurnak et al., 2010. * Bolivia did not participate in the war Montevideo Labmundo, 2014 Parana riv e Current borders São Borja Brazilian interventions in the area, and the economic expansion of Paraguay, altered the regional balance of power and resulted in the largest armed conflict in the history of South America, involving Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay. The War of the Triple Alliance had significant consequences for Brazil, such as the consolidation of its army, the increase of its debt with England, and indirectly contributing FORMATION OF THE BRAZILIAN STATE, 1808 - 1889 1801 1822 1800 1845 1823 British parliament endorses the bill Aberdeen Aberdeen Bill US President announced announces the the Monroe Monroe Doctrine Doctrine 1824 1810 Treaties of Commerce and Navigation and of Alliance and Friendship between Portugal and Britain at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Alves Branco Tariff Annexation of Cisplatin Province D. João orders the occupation of Cayenne with British support 1810 1844 1821 1809-1814 16 1835 Independence of Brazil Farroupilha Revolution (ends (end inin1845) 1845) Portugal intervenes in the Banda Oriental 1807 1843 1825 Flee from Flight fromLisbon Lisbon Opening of the first 1817 Beginning of the Cisplatin War (end in 1828) ConsulateConsulate of Brazil in Brazilian in 1808 Revolt in Pernambuco 1827 China (Guangzhou) Arrival of the court Court 1820 Brazil and the USA interrupt diplomatic relationship Opening of ports Liberal Revolution of Porto 1811 1850 Treaty of Badajoz 1820 Confederation of the Equator externalpublic publicloan, loan,from fromthe theBritish British First foreign D. Pedro I Regency 1830 D. Pedro II 1840 THE FORMATION OF BRAZIL Over half of the Brazilian borders were defined during the 19th century. Making use of uti possidetis, Brazil held several negotiations with its neighbours. The Southern region proved to be the most difficult, due to neighbouring countries’ concerns and the extension of the borders under dispute. There was a succession of international agreements from the second half of the 19th century onwards, but also several armed conflicts that aimed to ensure national sovereignty over the territory. In general, the use by the Brazilian government of diplomatic solutions to territorial disputes was prevalent. The extension and the unity of Brazilian territory were achieved also at the expense of internal separatist movements, such as the Confederation of the Equator, the Cabanagem, the Farroupilha Revolution, the Juliana Republic, and the Inconfidência Mineira, which were all ruthlessly supressed. As regards the economy, commodities such as coffee, sugar, rubber and cotton were produced for export. In the case of coffee, the technology evolved slowly, but by the end of the 19th century new techniques were Border consolidation was completed at the beginning of the 20th century, BRAZILIAN BORDERS IN HISTORY Venezuela 1859 Colombia 1907 1817 England 1904 France Some border disputes 1900 Treaty ofde Tratado Madrid, Madrid, 1750 1750 Peru 1851 Treaty ofde Tratado San Santo Ildefonso, 1777 las (149 4) desil Fronteiras Current borders atuais Conflicts Conflitos resolved resolvidos Por tuguese Lost Áreasdisputes ainda em disputa Areas still in dispute America Trindade Island 250 km England 1895 Argentina 1895 * The dates indicate the year when the two countries agreed on a common border in the indicated region Uruguay 1851 Sources: Goes Filho, 1999; Gurnak et al., 2010; Albuquerque et al., 1977. 1861 1850 Christie Issue between Brazil and Britain Enactment of Eusebio de Queirós Law and Land Law The US presses Brazil for free navigation rights in the Amazon River 1850 Brazil intervenes in Uruguay 1871 1863-1865 Brazil and Britain sever diplomatic relations interrupt diplomatic relations Brazilian troops invade Uruguay 1859 Prussia forbids emigration to Brazil Paraguay War 1866 30 Sugar Rubber Cotton 10 Leathers and furs Tobacco 1830 1850 1870 1890 Source: Almeida, 2001. increasing farm productivity and a new form of labour began to be employed: the African slaves were gradually replaced by European immigrants. Between 1819 and 1883, around 540,000 immigrants landed on Brazilian shores, out of which 220,000 were Portuguese, 96,000 Italian, 70,000 German and 15,000 Spanish. The international consumer market for Brazilian coffee expanded, as new urban centres sprung up and a new middle class emerged in the US and in Europe. South-American integration p. 86 Argentina p. 88 Global governance p. 108 South-South Cooperation p. 112 Proclamation of the Republic Brazil e Peru interrupt diplomatic relations 1884 1876 D. Pedro II is the first monarch to visit the US USA 1864 1854 50 1884 1867-1869 Law of Free Birth 1853 Coffee SEE ALSO: Labmundo, 2014 Paraguay 1872 Sum in each decade as a percentage of the total, between 1821 and 1890 In the run-up to the Republic, Brazil had a population of little more than 14 million, already highly mixed and mostly of low-level education. The country was essentially rural; it was sparsely integrated in economic and territorial terms, and Rio de Janeiro (500,000 inhabitants) was its only large urban centre. Treaty ofde Tratado Badajoz, Badajóz, 1801 1801 Tr e a ty o f To r Bolivia 1867 and 1903 BRAZILIAN EXPORTS Labmundo, 2014 thanks to the leadership of the Baron of Rio Branco, both before and during his term as Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Baron participated in the agreements that ensured Brazilian sovereignty over the territories of Acre, Palmas and Amapá. Amazon River is opened for international navigation 1879-1883 Start of the Berlin Conference 1889 US, Argentina USA, Argentinaand andUruguay Uruguayrecognise recognise the new Brazilian republican regime Ist International American Conference, in Washington War of the Pacific involving Chile against Peru and Bolivia, in which Brazil remains neutral 1888 Abolishingofofslavery Abolition slavery 1900 to the abolition of slavery. National borders were also redrawn: Paraguay, for example, lost about 40% of its territory. Deodoro F. Peixoto P. de Moraes C. Sales 1860 1870 1880 1890 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 17 The Republic and the United States’ hegemony COMMERCIAL RELATIONS Brazilian trade, between 1901 and 2010 (in million dollars)* 100 000 10 000 1 000 100 01 920 930 940 950 960 970 980 990 000 010 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 *Logarithmic scale was adopted RIO TREATY Participation in the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, between1947 and 2014 1 000 km Original members States that joined later on* States that withdrew** Labmundo, 2014 *Accession dates: Nicaragua (1948), Ecuador (1949), Trinidad and Tobago (1967) and Bahamas (1982). **Mexico (in 2004) as well as Bolivia, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Venezuela (in 2012) withdrew from the treaty. Sources: Itamaraty, 2013a; OEA, 2014 During the transition to the 20th century, the economic and political relations between Brazil and the United States became crucial in defining BFP’s priorities and strategic guidelines, and gave birth to different visions of Brazilian diplomacy. Two main positions can be identified as interpretative frameworks developed inside the Itamaraty on Brazil-US relations: one of alliance with the US; the other, a universalist and diversified diplomacy (trade with Western and Eastern Europe, with the Asian and African continents, with Latin America and the Middle East). Much about 20th century republican BFP Trade share of trade with the US, between 1901 and 2010 (% of total) 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 /2 /3 /4 /5 /6 /7 /8 /9 00 1/1 0 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 /2 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 991 20 1 Exports from Brazil to the US Brazilian imports from the US 0 /1 01 19 Labmundo, 2014 The Empire of Brazil (1822-1889) kept In the early 20th century, the strengthties of loyalty with European royal fam- ening of Brazil-US relations aimed to ilies and monarchies, while it watched “republicanize” BFP. The 1870 Repubfrom a critical distance the unravelling lican Manifesto stated: “we are Amerof the Monroe Doctrine. But relations icans and we want to be Americans”. between Brazil and the United States As a result, BFP’s positions were less fachanged with the advent of the Re- vourable towards Europe, while there public, not just because of the ideolog- was a rapprochement with the Unitical proximity of both political regimes ed States and the Hispanic neighbours. and their affirmation of republican ide- Some examples of this approach: the als in the American continent, but also Customs Cooperation Agreement due to the coffee barons’ export-related signed in 1891 with the United States; economic interests. Relations between the support given by the US – along Brazil and the United States would, in with the English, Portuguese, French the course of the 20th century, become and Italian – to military republicans the most important systemic element under the leadership of Floriano Peixof Brazilian foreign policy (BFP). oto in 1893; and the Treaty of Cooperation signed with Argentina in 1896. Source: MIDC, 2008. can be explained in the light of conflicts between these two positions. In the first thirty years of the 20th century, Brazil remained aligned with the United States’ interests, aiming at the advantages in conditions of continental security guaranteed in Latin America by the international prestige of the new power. In this manner, the relative autonomy of “an unwritten covenant” with the United States (according to the expression coined by Bradford Burns in 1966), and the domestic strengthening of BFP under the leadership of Baron of Rio Branco (1902-1912), were able to guarantee good results to Brazil in its territorial negotiations with neighbouring countries in South America. OLIGARCHIC REPUBLIC, 1889 - 1930 1904 1895 1891-1894 Customs agreement with the US US arbitration on award the on issue the issue of Palmas with Argentina Treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation with Japan Announcement of the Roosevelt Corollary corollary to the Monroe Doctrine 1900 Swiss arbitration award Amapá issueissue in the Amapá 1905 Exchange of embassies between Brazil and USA US 1902-1912 Baron of Rio Branco becomes Minister of Foreign Affairs Foreign support to the republicans Republicans onthe theArmed ArmedUprising Uprising in 1902 1890 Announcement of the Drago Doctrine in Argentina Deodoro 1894-1896 P. de Moraes 1895 18 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y IIIrd Pan-American Conference in Rio de Janeiro 1907 1903 British occupation of the Trindade island of Trinidad island F. Peixoto 1906 Treaty of Petrópolis with Bolivia Acreissue issueof Acre regarding the C. Sales Rodrigues Alves 1900 Rui Barbosa at the IInd Hague Peace Conference Afonso Pena 1905 1910 1893 N. Peçanha THE FORMATION OF BRAZIL Intervention in the Dominican Republic, in 1965 1 60 1,1 Labmundo, 2014 At times, BFP leaned heavily towards association or almost automatic alignment with the US (during the Dutra government, the first years of the authoritarian regime, or the military intervention in the Dominican Republic). Juraci Magalhães, an SEE ALSO: Security and defence p. 46 New coalitions p. 106 Global governance p. 108 South-South Cooperation p. 112 1926 1922 1916 The US becomes Brazil’s main trading partner surpassing the United Kingdom Baron of Rio Branco’s death Edwin Morgan becomes the US Ambassador in Brazil (until 1933) 1917 The rise of Fascism fascism in in Italy Italy with Mussolini US Navy mission in Brazil Modern Art Week in São Paulo Brazil enters Ist World War against Germany 1914 Pacifist treaty with the USA 1919 Establishment of the ILO and the League of Nations French military mission in Brazil Brazilian participation in the peace conference of the League of Nations Ist World War Hermes da Fonseca Venceslau Brás 1915 30 in order to neu- Guatemala tralise German Nicaragua influence. It should be not- Costa Rica ed that Germany, in 1930, was responsible for 25% of Brazilian imports, slightly above the Brazil US. There were cooperation initiatives in the military (especially as regards the modernisation of airports in the Northeast of Brazil) and in the inParaguay dustrial field (the steel sector, for in500 km stance, saw US financing of the Volta Redonda plant construction), alUruguay though the Armed Forces were divided: while the Navy leaned towards the United Kingdom, the Army was split Source: White, 2013 between Germany and the US. Vargas’ “double game” between Germany and the US (1935-1941), known as the ambassador to the US who became political strategy of Pragmatic Equi- chancellor later on, declared that distance, clearly linked BFP to the “what is good for the US is good for challenges of national development, Brazil”. At other times (those of the but placed it in an area under patent Independent Foreign Policy, or the American influence after 1945. The Responsible and Ecumenical Pragmabalance between a preferential option tism), BFP broke with its usual confor the US and the diversification of tinuity, daring to come out from the partnerships is considered an explan- Northern hegemon’s shadow and auatory variable of BFP throughout the tonomously devising its own strate20th century. gies of international inclusion. 1912 1910 Amount of troops (over 150 soldiers) Honduras Pacifist treaty involving ABC countries Proposal regarding ABC Pact between Argentina, Brazil and Chile 0 Invading countries 1915 1909 42 ,6 0 EUA D. Moreira Epitácio Pessoa 1920 Artur Bernardes Brazil vetoes bans entry the entry of Germany of Germany in the League of Nations in the League of Nations Brazil leaves the League of Nations because of "national dignity" in the name of "national dignity" 1927 Report sets out the priorities of Brazilian foreign affairs in South America 1929 Crash of the stock New York Stock exchange Exchange 1930 But the Great Depression of 1929, the instability in Europe, and the dissatisfaction of Latin American countries with US policy in the region, among other factors, brought about changes in the United States’ stance towards Latin America from 1930 onwards. Despite Franklin D. Roosevelt’s rhetorical promises of economic cooperation, the actual content of US policy did not change, and it continued to base its leadership on the Monroe Doctrine. The cooperation discourse did, however, help the US to secure its sphere of influence at two key moments of the 20th century: the Second World War and the Cold War. Brazil remained neutral in the conflict until 1942, when it sided with the United States. This alignment was facilitated by concessions made by the Americans to Vargas. The US sought to involve Brazil in its power system USA AND BRAZIL IN THE INTERVENTION IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 184 Brazil accepted the Roosevelt Corollary and did not support the Drago Doctrine announced by the Argentinian government in 1902. This doctrine stated that no foreign power should be allowed to use force against an American nation in order to compel it to pay its debts. Argentina was perceived by Brazilian elites as the main rival in the Southern Cone, and relations between Brazil and the US during this period also served to undermine Argentina’s project of regional leadership. In 1905, Rio de Janeiro and Washington agreed to raise their diplomatic representations to the category of embassy, and the US retained the same ambassador (Edwin Morgan) in Rio de Janeiro between 1912 and 1933, a fact that strengthened even more the rapprochement between the two countries. In 1914, Ambassador Cardoso de Oliveira, Brazilian representative in Mexico, acted as a mediator of American interests in that country. Washington Luís 1925 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 19 Development and industrialisation BRAZILIAN POPULATION Evolution of the urban population share, between 1940 and 2010 (in %) 90 in Brazil 80 70 60 50 in the world 40 decrease in the market demand for Brazil`s main commodity export: coffee. Getúlio Vargas attempted to build a compromise government capable of balancing the interests of several political groups influential in Brazil (except during the Estado Novo). This led to the concentration of power in the Office of the Presidency (whereas before it was much more fragmented among the federated units), which permitted an industrialisation project guided and protected by the State. There were industries in Brazil before the 1930s, usually associated with capital surplus from the coffee economy. However, the industrialisation project that started in 1930 and was then followed up - to a greater or lesser degree - by successive governments was decisive, and became known as the “import substitution industrialisation” model. In spite of what the expression might suggest, the goal was not immediate reduction of import flows. From the outset, imports were encouraged in order to increase the productive capacity of the Brazilian economy. The development plan envisaged various industrialisation stages, covering basic industry as well as the industries of durable and non-durable goods. In this manner, national production would gradually EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRY Share of the Brazilian GNP, between 1945 and 1995 20 Labmundo, 2014 15 10 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 Sources: IBGE, 2013a; Ipeadata website, 2013 and Bonelli et al., 2013. 30 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Sources: ONU, 2013a; IBGE, 2013a. Population growth between 1940 and 2010 190.8 mi 150 mi 100 mi 50 mi 0 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Source: ONU, 2013a. add value to its outputs. The investments that enabled industrialisation were based on an “economic tripod” formed by government capital, domestic private capital and international private capital, which varied in degree and importance over time. The dynamic centre of the Brazilian economy was thus displaced from the foreign sector to the domestic one. As an agro-exporting country, the greater part of its wealth, jobs and income was linked to the production for foreign markets. Brazilian industrial development changed the country’s economy, as it became based on the internal consumer DEVELOPMENTALISM AND THE NATIONAL PROJECT, 1930 - 1989 1950 1940 1932-1935 Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay Agreement to sell strategic materials to the US 1952- Military agreement with the US Brazil declares war on the Axis 1945 Trade agreement with the US Trade agreement with Germany 1938 Agreement to purchase weapons from Krupp (Germany) 1930 1953 Establishment of the UN 1936 1947 Rupture of diplomatic relations with the USSR Signature of the Rio Treaty 1948 Creation of the Eclac IInd World War const. gov. Vargas Estado Novo 1940 20 1951 1942 1935 prov. gov. Vargas Brazil delivers a memorandum to the US expressing the "frustration of the Brazilian government with the lack of reciprocity in bilateral relations" The Mining Code bans foreign participation in mining and metallurgy The US agreeds to finance the construction of a steel company in Volta Redonda 1930 Revolution at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Dutra Vargas 1950 Creation of the Petrobras and oil nationalisation 1956- Targuet Plan 1958 Operation Pan American proposal 1960 1930 Labmundo, 2014 The period between 1930 and 1980 saw the outline of some important economic strategies which were to influence Brazil’s economic and industrial growth in the 20th century, as well as its international integration. These five decades were also the scene of great social, demographic and political changes, in a world that witnessed the Second World War and the Cold War. The 1930s were very important in ensuring that the industrial surges Brazil was going through actually became a government project of lasting impact. The year of 1930 marked the rise to the Presidency of a government less committed to the rural oligarchy that had been in power for more than 30 years. This polical change was accompanied by the aftershocks of the 1929 international crisis, which meant a Juscelino Kubitschek THE FORMATION OF BRAZIL COOPERATION FOR DEVELOPMENT market. Many social factors played a role in this shift: among them, demographic growth accompanied by strong urbanisation and regional integration schemes. G77 members, in 2014 In this period, a guided process of Brazilian migration to the hinterlands – which peaked by the end of the 1950s - was taken further, and linkages among regions increased. Since Brazil was an export-orientated country, integration between its regions was fragile. The Targets Plan opted to build numerous roads interconnecting the national territory, as a means to overcome lack of infrastructure in a short time, and to attract the automobile industry to Brazil. Energy and telecommunications were structural bottlenecks that became the focus of state intervention too. As the project aimed at reorientating the productive sector towards the domestic market, there was a clear need for international funding to facilitate industrialisation and this brought external debt in its wake. In addition, this development model was incapable of overcoming problems such as the economic disparity between regions, social inequality, poverty and other imbalances. In fact, strong economic growth was accompanied by a deepening of income concentration. Founding members Founding members that withdrew The Non-Aligned Movement at its foundation Full participants 1000 km Source: Belgrade Declaration of Non-Aligned Countries, 1961 instrument of the development project. Getting closer to the American superpower was understood as a means to guarantee diffuse returns in other areas. Brazilian political elites did not question the government’s allegiance to the capitalist bloc, but saw Brazil as a peripheral country in need of growth and development. That is why some Brazilian initiatives displayed some degree of autonomy, demanding more fairness and justice in the international scenario and seeking greater diversification of partners, including in the communist world. This pragmatism of Brazilian diplomacy was all the more evident when domestic economic performance increased and Industrial complex p. 30 Logistics p. 32 New International Economic Order proposal Recognition of the Beijing communist government 1965 USAID-Ministry of Education and Culture Agreement Rupture of diplomatic relations with Cuba Cuba is suspended from the OAS and Brazil abstains from voting 1982 The Malvinas War Brazil declares moratorium 1978 1975 1968 Refusal to sign the Treaty of Nuclear Non-Proliferation 1985 Amazon Cooperation Treaty 1979 Tripartite Agreement (Itaipu-Corpus issue) Recognition of Angola’s independence under the Popular Movement for Liberation of Angola’s government IInd National Development Plan Support for the creation of the Contadora Group 1986 Establishment of the Rio Group Establishment of the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Responsible Pragmatism JQ J Goulart Castelo Branco Costa e Silva Médici 1970 Geisel 1990 1960 JK Brazilian multinationals p. 70 North-South relations p. 100 1974 Economic Action Governmental Programme Independent Foreign Affairs SEE ALSO: Ist National Development Plan 1964 1962 systemic restrictions decreased (e.g., the NIEO proposal). Due to its high external debt – the result of an industrialisation model too reliant on foreign liquidity - Brazil faced macroeconomic imbalances, which finally exhausted the model devised in 1930. Consequently, the quest for autonomy in foreign policy also suffered a major setback at the end of the 20th century. 1972 1964 Civil-Military Coup Brazil participates in the Non-Aligned Movement Conference as an observer Labmundo, 2014 Observers Brazil gravitated even more towards the US area of influence, joined the Allies’ war effort and became part of the western bloc in the context of the Cold War. This alignment was very seldom automatic or ideological, but sought instead to bargain for economic or political advantages. Although Brazil’s geographical location restricted its autonomy because South America was considered to be in the US’s area of influence, foreign policy was used as an 1961 1000 km Source: G-77 website, 2014 Figueiredo José Sarney 1980 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 21 Globalisation and the new order At first, the end of the military regime and the country’s democratization did not bring any radical changes in foreign policy. The Itamaraty continued to be the chief foreign policy maker and its focus remained on the promotion of national development, despite the growing importance of emerging actors in the international agenda. The Sarney government was primarily concerned with internal affairs, as it was marked by strong economic instability, high inflation rates (they quadrupled between 1985 and 1988), low economic growth, a debt crisis (suspension of interest payments in 1987, followed by commercial sanctions from the US), and successive macroeconomic stabilization programs (the Cruzado Plan in 1986, the Bresser Plan in 1987, and the Summer Plan in 1989). As for the Latin American context, a closer relationship was developed with neighbouring Argentina (kick-starting an integration process that would lead to the creation of Mercosur a few years later), and diplomatic relations with Cuba were restored. Thus the regional dimension of BFP gained greater relevance, in comparison with previous decades. BRAZILIAN FOREIGN TRADE Exports in 1990 Imports in 1990 Asia in billion dollars Asia Middle East 1,005 4,731 10,460 Middle East Africa Africa Europe Europe Trade balance (in billion dollars) USA 0 -2 Europe USA 2 4 6 South America South America Middle East deficit 1000 km surplus Source: MDIC, 2008 Labmundo,2014 USA Asia Africa South America Collor’s foreign policy promoted a rapprochement with the US (seen as an indispensable ally for domestic economic reforms) and adopted the neoliberal economic model, based on free trade and competitive insertion in the international market (“modernisation by internationalisation”). Looking to improve its own image and credibility (a necessity, in order to renegotiate the foreign debt), Brazil began to adhere to international regimes and signed some major declarations and treaties: on trade, the environment (resulting from Rio-92), and nuclear non-proliferation. In this context, the Itamaraty lost power to a presidential diplomacy that was made stronger in Fernando Henrique Cardoso’s (FHC) and Luiz Inácio ‘Lula’ da Silva’s governments. There was greater participation of a wider range of actors: the business sector at first, but also social organisations, sub national bodies, academia, etc. The pressure mounted for the formulation of BFP to be more pluralistic and, in some cases, more democratic. At the regional level, the signing of the Treaty of Asunción, in 1991, led to the creation of Mercosur – a regional integration process that contributed to open the economy but also strengthened the position of its members (especially Brazil) in international negotiations. After Collor’s impeachment, the Itamar Franco government maintained the same foreign policy agenda: economic liberalization, development, and greater autonomy. There were two important chancellors: FHC (19921993) and Celso Amorim (1993-1994), who sought to participate in the drawing up of international regimes (for example, the UN’s development or human rights agenda) and in the numerous conferences of the 1990s. Brazil began to insist on reform of the GLOBALISATION AND INTERNATIONAL INTEGRATION, 1990 - 2003 1994 German reunification End of Apartheid in South Africa Brazil ratifies the International Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 1990 1991 Soviet Union breakdown Ist Ibero-American Summit Treaty of Asuncion 1992 Accession to the American Convention on Human Rights 1969 Eco-92, in Rio de Janeiro Ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 Fernando Collor Itamar Franco 1992 22 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Establishment of the NAFTA Ist Summit of the Americas Ouro Preto Protocol 1995 Start of the Real Plan Brazil takes a part in Peace Mission in Angola, with with a contingent of 1,300 people Ratification of the Inter-American Convention on the Eradication of Violence Against Women Brazil contributes to the signature of the Itamaraty Peace Declaration by Peru and Ecuador 1996 Establishment of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries Fernando Henrique Cardoso 1995 1997 1990 THE FORMATION OF BRAZIL Security Council (demanding a permanent seat in it) and to take part in UN peace operations. On the multilateral level, South American regional integration was expanded, in order to oppose the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). In 1994, the Real Plan was implemented by the Brazilian government, who hoped to increase its economic and political credibility, take control of runaway inflation and improve the country’s indicators, as well as its external image. and by worldwide economic instability (the Mexican, East Asian and Russian crises all affected the Brazilian economy), Fernando Henrique Cardoso’s government put great emphasis on liberal reforms: macroeconomic stabilization policies, open and flexible trading rules, privatisation and fiscal responsibility. It also increased Brazilian participation in forums about the new Post-Cold War international order. In debates about the Third Way, FHC stressed the importance of cooperation and of multilateral mechanisms for collective action to guarantee Brazilian In the growing interdependence scenario brought about by globalisation IMPORTS AND EXPORTS Evolution of Brazilian international trade by origin and destination, between 1980 and 2006 (in billion dollars) 22.7 Imports Exports 31.6 20.9 TOP 10 FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN BRAZIL in million dollars, between 1980 and 1990 31.0 USA Germany Switzerland Liberia Japan Kwait Italy France Panama Netherlands Antilles South America 16.0 3.5 24.8 Asia 14.4 1.6 20.8 Europe United States 8.2 Canada Germany USA Japan France U. Kingdom Luxembourg Liechtenstein Cayman Virgin Islands 7.4 United States South America 2.7 5.4 3.5 Asia 2.0 1.1 Africa 1.1 7.8 5.8 1980 1.0 2000 1990 1980 2006 1990 2000 2006 Source: MDIC, 2008 1997 Year: 1990 500 Global and transnational threats p. 48 Presidential diplomacy p. 62 Regional integration p. 82 North-South relations p. 100 September 11 attacks Beginning of the WTO Doha Round Ist World Social Forum, in Porto Alegre 1998 Establishment of the International Criminal Court Accession to the Non-Proliferation Treaty 1999 1997 250 2001 Asian Financial Crisis Approval of the Kyoto Protocol F H Cardoso 50 500 SEE ALSO: Labmundo,2014 3.1 250 Source: Banco Central do Brasil, 2013 Africa Middle East Middle East Year: 1980 50 Establishment of the financial G20 Opening of the first section of the Brazil-Bolivia gas pipeline End of the Real-Dollar parity 2002 The Euro begins to circulate Establishment of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization Brazil signs the Kyoto Protocol Fernando Henrique Cardoso 1999 2004 4.1 Labmundo, 2014 Europe 3.5 interests. At the regional level, the Ouro Preto Protocol (1994) gave legal structure to Mercosur, while the first steps were taken to build the South American Community of Nations (CASA); both processes helped to promote Brazil’s leadership role in South America. Lusophony acquired a new political and multilateral dimension with the creation of the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP) in 1996. The major characteristic of post-democratization governments, and a constant feature of BFP, was the aspiration to turn Brazil into a global actor. To achieve this goal, democratic Brazil has been trying to balance the search for international credibility and the development of autonomy (while maintaining flexibility, greater freedom and diversification of partners) in the field of BFP Lula da Silva 2002 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 23 Cultural diversity and ethnic pluralism Brazilian society was born from the encounter between its numerous native populations and the people who came later on to establish themselves in the territory. Indigenous Brazilians (the original inhabitants, estimated at comparison with other South American and European countries, the history of migration to Brazil is crucial in order to understand its social landscape and the international dynamics within which the country is situated. Indigenous peoples were enslaved at the beginning of the Portuguese occupation, but were soon replaced by African slaves. The enslavement of Africans to work on Brazilian plantations was one of the most pivotal instances of forced migration in history. The slave trade took advantage of flows that already existed on the African continent, and it was an enterprise exploited by Brazilians too. The diverse origins of the captive Africans helps to explain several million when the first Europeans arrived) were joined by groups from Europe, Africa and Asia, throughout a five hundred year process still under way. Although immigration flows are currently not significant, particularly in SLAVE TRADE Routes used by traffickers between the 15th and 19th centuries from Gulf of Guinea Coffee plantations Belém Sugar plantations São Luís Fortaleza Natal bia gam ene S from Recife Main zones of riots S. F ran ci iver or sc Salvador Salvador from Gulf of G Slaves trade routes fro m Vitória São Paulo up to 18th century Rio de Janeiro from fro m m fro n Za up to 19th century Porto Alegre zib ar Ca bin da Lua nda Lua nd a-B eng uel a Labmundo, 2014 from 15th to 17th centuries la ue ng Be Porto Seguro Belo Horizonte uinea m fro Settlement of African slaves (up to 1850) 500 km Source: King et al., 2010 BRAZILIAN FOREIGN POLICY IN THE 21ST CENTURY 2009 2006 The US invades Iraq IBSA Dialogue Forum Establishment of the G-20 in the WTO Beginning of Wikileaks scandle Bolivia nationalises oil and gas activities First Africa-South America Summit China becomes the Brazil’s main trade partner First BRIC Summit 2004 2003 Brazil participates in the UN military intervention in Haiti Brazil announces its recognition of China as a market economy Establishment of the South-American Community of Nations Announcement of the “Bolsa Família” governmental programme Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva XV Pan-American Games in Rio de Janeiro 2008 2005 Establishment of the South America-Arab Countries Summit Establishment of Parlasul Beginning of the “Mensalão” scandal at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y International Financial Crisis Establishment of the Union of South American Nations Brazil wins the dispute at the WTO against the US regarding cotton subsidies Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2007 24 2010 2007 Brazil and Turkey broker a deal with Iran, regarding the nuclear programme 2011 2003 THE FORMATION OF BRAZIL SLAVES TO BRAZIL Amount of slaves by destination, between 1500 and 1859 Contemporary Brazilian diplomacy is affected by this historical process. The Lula government declared that Brazilian society has a historical debt to Africa, a fact that would justify such measures as the cancellation of debts, the support of cooperation for development projects, and the establishment of a university in Brazil to contribute towards the training of young Africans: the University of Afro-Brazilian Lusophony International Integration (Unilab). The end of the slave trade and the gradual abolition of slavery changed the profile of the labour force in Brazil. From the end of the 19th century to the early 20th century, hundreds of thousands of Asian and European immigrants came to Brazil, many in search of work on coffee plantations. The number of Europeans who immigrated to Brazil between 1815 and 1930 is estimated at 4.3 million. Total in the world Brazil Southeast (Rio and São Paulo) 1550 1650 1750 1850 100,000 50,000 Embarked 75,000 from the Angola region), but had quite important differences with the groups that arrived in Salvador. Such distinctions have resulted in specificities that still mark Brazil’s religious and linguistic heritage nowadays. Died during the journey Disembarked on Brazilian soil Labmundo, 2014 25,000 Source: Eltis et al., 1998. The assimilation of such diverse groups contributed to the cultural formation of Brazil and its national identity - but not without conflicts. The current configuration of society is a result of these flows and it influences the country’s internationalisation process. Brazil is home to the largest Japanese community outside of Japan, to one of the largest Lebanese communities outside Lebanon, and it has Portuguese, Spanish and Syrian communities of equivalent importance. In 2013, the Italian embassy estimated at 30 million the number of Italian descendants in Brazil. In diplomatic discourse, the country presents itself as the largest black nation outside Africa and as a transatlantic bridge between MIGRANTS TO BRAZIL European and Asian migrants between 1819 and 1939 Nationality 1819-1883 1884-1940 Italian Portuguese Spanish Japanese German Russian Austrian Turkish Polish French English Yugoslav Syrian Swiss Quantity of persons 1,000,000 Labmundo, 2014 some cultural differences that exist in the country today. Most of the groups that ended up in Rio and Recife shared a strong cultural identity (they came 100,000 50,000 10,000 Source: Alvim, 1998. cultures. Descendants and immigrants can develop bonds with their countries of origin, participate in local collective actions, and maintain links with their families and communities (via remittances, among other things). Following this brief historical introduction, the next chapters will focus on contemporary issues related to the country’s international integration, its most relevant actors and political agendas. SEE ALSO: Population and diversity p. 42 Organisations and social movements p. 72 Religious actors p. 74 Social networks and regional integration p. 96 2012 UN Rio + 20 Conference Establishment of the Pacific Alliance 2015 Assessment of the MDGs at the UN 2013 NSA scandal Deterioration of the Syrian crisis World Youth Day in Rio de Janeiro Bolivian senator was granted asylum in Brazil’s embassy in La Paz and flees to Brazil 2016 Parliamentary coup against President Dilma Rousseff Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro Dilma Rousseff FIFA World Cup in Brazil Establishment of the BRICS Development Bank Announcement of the creation of China-Latin America Cooperation Forum Argentine crisis regarding the "vulture funds" Ukrainian crisis 2019 2011 2014 Dilma Rousseff 2015 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 25 Chapter 2: Enara Echart Muñoz BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? Enara Echart Muñoz The beginning of the 2000s saw the comeback of a notion that had already circulated among Brazilians and foreigners in the 1970s, i.e. that Brazil is a world power. The terms used in regard to the typology and the concept of power were quite varied, such as: middle power, regional, emerging, or developing power, but the perception that the country had a place among the most important players on the world’s chessboard was always present. This image that Brazil has of itself, and that others have of the country, is based on several factors: a) some are economic, such as the increase of absolute GDP in relation to other middle-income countries (e.g. Argentina, Mexico, etc.), and industrialised countries too (e.g. the United Kingdom and France); b) some are political, and can be seen in the domestic public policies that have come to serve as models internationally (e.g. poverty reduction, the environment, nuclear non-proliferation, and financial recovery); c) others have a material basis, since the country has a large territory rich in mineral reserves, water, and biodiversity; and d) some are of a social and cultural nature (e.g. the size, diversity, and racial miscegenation of its population, the organisation of its civil society, the internal consumer market, the musical heritage and its different rhythms, etc.). However, Brazil has some characteristics that make its international integration difficult, and forestall its being perceived as a power by other countries. High rates of illiteracy and infant mortality, social inequality, economic disparities among the regions, the population’s high levels of mistrust in their political representatives, lack of infrastructure and logistical capacity, land conflicts, deforestation, arms and drugs trafficking, child prostitution... Agribusiness: the breadbasket of the world? Agribusiness encompasses industry and commerce in the rural sector, livestock farming, fishing, and agriculture, all of which is tied in with the production of knowledge and the creation of applied technologies. It has historically been one of the most dynamic sectors of the Brazilian economy, accounting for around one-third of its gross domestic product. Brazil is one of the leading exporters of a number of products, such as soybeans, grains, fruit, and beef. The strength of the sector becomes evident when compared to traditional large exporters of food (e.g. Canada, Argentina, Australia, the United States, and the expanse of arable land which has not yet been exploited. These two facts, combined with government incentive policies for the sector (e.g. research support, the opening of new markets, etc.) suggest a strong potential for agribusiness in Brazil. European Union). The search for expertise (and here the work done by Embrapa must be emphasised) has helped Brazil overcome the idea that temperate climates would be more suitable for food production, and it has placed an essentially tropical country among the world’s major producers. There is no denying the sector’s importance for the good performance of the Brazilian trade balance and for increasing its foreign currency reserves. The country exhibits a steady, longterm rise in its rates of productivity per hectare, and it also boasts a vast From 1976 to 2010, Brazilian productivity grew 2.5 times, thus allowing production to increase 213% in a grain and oilseed planted area that is only 27% bigger. Some estimates suggest that the sector’s exports crossed the $100 billion dollars mark in 2014, and that its growth between the years 2005 and 2014 may have been 34%. However, Brazilian agribusiness faces challenges comparable to its potentialities: land reform, deforestation, logistics, support for family farming, rural WORLD FOOD MARKET Brazil's position in exports and production, in 2010 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Sugarcane Coffee Orange juice BREADBASKET OF THE WORLD Soybeans* Current and estimated Brazilian participation in world food production between 2010 and 2021 * preliminary data Beef **position in 2009 Beef Crop 2020/21* Crop 2014/15* Crop 2010/11 12% 11% 10% 12% Pork *projections Corn Source: MAPA, 2011. Poultry Corn Pork Labmundo, 2014 Soybeans Sugar cane Ethanol ** Labmundo, 2014 Chicken 11% 10% 30% 30% 28% 33% 32% 31% 49% 47% 44% Tobacco** In exports In production Source: MAPA, 2010. MARKETS FOR AGRIBUSINESS Destination of Brazilian agribusiness exports in 2011 EU South Korea Russia Japan USA China Iran Algeria Taiwan Hong Kong Egypt Venezuela Thailand UAE Saudi Arabia Malaysia Indonesia 20 Source: Instituto de Economia Agrícola, 2012 28 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Total Brazilian exports Argentina 10 5 98.9 256.0 Agribusiness participation 1 1000 km Labmundo, 2014 Paraguay * Only total sales above 1 billion dollars are represented. BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? exodus and the financing of production are some of the important challenges that have made the industry a priority theme in the last presidential elections. AGRIBUSINESS Value of agricultural production and regional distribution, in 2006 Agribusiness has been an important part of Brazilian exports, benefiting from China’s growing demand for commodities. Despite its diversified agricultural production, the industry has increasingly specialised in soybeans, mainly geared towards the Chinese market. The agribusiness sector holds strategic value for Brazil, but it still has to prove its ability to expand while simultaneously causing low social and environmental impacts, as well as being able to deal with resistance to the opening of new markets, in the European Union and the US in particular. The Brazilian government has recently taken on a new challenge, i.e. exporting the Brazilian agricultural model to SOY COMPLEX Data between 1983 and 2012 Production (thousand tons) x4.6 66,383 14,533 Planted area (thousand hectares) 8,412 25,042 x1.5 2,651 1983/84 Source: CONAB, 2014. 1999/00 2011/12 Labmundo, 2014 Productivity (kg per hectare) 1,728 x3 High Low Source: IBGE, 2010a. 300 km Labmundo, 2014 China is the destination of a considerable share of Brazilian agricultural production. Some analysts debate a possible dependency and the impacts for Brazil of an eventual Chinese economic crisis. Recent studies attempting to anticipate the future prospects of food consumption in China have suggested that the population’s dietary patterns seem to follow more stable trends, when compared to the Chinese model of economic development. The country will probably expand its demand for commodities in which Brazil’s production has advanced, as in the case of maize, soybeans, beef, pork, and poultry. other countries, notably Mozambique, and taking into consideration the chalin the projects known as Pró-Savana lenges mentioned above, the counand Pró-Alimentos. In addition, the try might be able to realise its moniker sector has investments in several neigh- - “breadbasket of the world” - created bouring countries that play an impor- in the Vargas government, and contant role in the production of grains tribute to feed a world population esand cattle, especially in Paraguay and timated at 9 billion in 2050, which will Bolivia. In these countries the indus- have higher incomes and higher contry is accused of creating large land- sumption patterns than the current holdings and engaging in illegal land ones. According to forecasts published occupations. The presence of the Bra- by FAO in 2014, grain production will zilian agro-export model in countries have to increase by half by the mid-21st involved in cooperation with Brazil, century, while that of beef will have and its encouragement from the fed- to double. These are ambitious tareral government, have caused many gets in a world that faces difficulties in civil society organisations to rebuke expanding its arable land, solving the the export of contradictions and fail- water supply problem, grappling with ures inherent in the Brazilian model to the ecological crisis, and ensuring the countries where the concentration of right to food. In this scenario, Brazil land ownership and the importance of shows great potential in responding to family farming are even more serious. the challenges put to the international community, and it could strengthen Despite the fact that there is no real in- even more its position on the internategration among the productive chains tional food market. of agribusiness in the region, Latin America is now considered the world’s largest exporter of food (in net terms). SEE ALSO: According to an IDB report released in Logistics p. 32 2014, the region provides approximate- Brazilian multinationals p. 70 ly 11% of the value of the world’s food Organisations and social movements p. 72 production, but has about 24% of all Energy and infrastructure p. 92 cultivable land. In the case of Brazil, at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 29 The industrial complex Development by means of industrialisation has been one of the major objectives of Brazilian political leaders since the 1930s. The Brazilian government has since promoted a series of developmentalist policies, and has invested in infrastructure and technology. It has also offered tax incentives to industries willing to establish themselves within the national territory, and has guaranteed trade tariffs as a way to protect the country’s budding industries. It was due to this development through import substitution process that Brazil saw strong industrial growth in the second half of the 20th century. One of the characteristics of this process is the central role played by the state in the economy, outlining strategies and priorities as well as providing lines of credit. This development model is based on three economic pillars (public, domestic private and foreign private investment), and it has created a correlation between industrial growth and the increase in government spending. Political representatives of the industrial sector usually go public to demand free trade agreements, arguing how important these are in order to further improve their international sales. However, some politicians and academics contend that although the industrial sector publicly requests policies of a liberal nature from government, it also benefits from the protective measures awarded by the state (e.g. exchange rate and pricing policies, granting of special lines of credit, or government procurement). This model has allowed Brazil to greatly develop its industrial complex, rising above those that exist in Latin America and in other peripheral countries, but it also has contributed to the emergence of a certain type of capitalism relatively averse to risks without the protection of the state. As the international price of commodities began to go up at the beginning of the 2000s, the export of agricultural products has intensified. This has raised concern among some economists and policy makers that a process of regressive specialisation of Brazilian exports might be underway. This phenomenon refers to the relative decline of industrial products in total foreign trade volume, but should it be categorised as de-industrialisation? There is no consensus on the issue in academic circles, but if the concept of de-industrialisation is understood as a loss of industry participation in the economy of a country, the “Brazilian Miracle” of the 1970s also exhibited this characteristic, according to World Bank data. On the other hand, in the 1980s and 1990s - which were marked by a number of crises and by retraction of the national economy – the participation of industrial production in total GDP actually increased. INDUSTRY PARTICIPATION IN NATIONAL ECONOMIES Per decade between 1970 and 2010 (in %) -10 from 1970 to 1979 Loss 0 10 No data available Gain 1000 km from 1980 to 1989 1000 km from 1990 to 1999 INDUSTRIALISATION IN THE WORLD Evolution of gross value added between 2001 and 2011 (in trillion dollars, current prices) Brazil ( ), Western countries and China Brasil ( ) and emerging countries China 3 0.5 USA 2.5 Russia India 0.4 1000 km Mexico 2 from 2000 to 2010 0.3 1.5 Turkey 0.2 Germany South Africa France 2001 2006 Source: World Bank Data website, 2013 30 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 2011 0 2001 2006 2011 1000 km Source: World Bank Data website, 2013 Labmundo, 2014 Argentina United Kingdom Labmundo, 2014 1 BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? INDUSTRIAL CONCENTRATION Industry distribution by type and by federated unit, in 2013 Fo o Au to m d DF ob ile Te No Co P xt C ni pa ulp mp ph he m Be le a m ut pe an a et an ve nd rm ic Eq er M a ri d d ra llic fo et ac al a ui in nd to g o al pm du e n e g ba s us tw ut d lu o Fu st try en od cc rg ica ea ry el o y t r s l Ot Fu r he ni tu re ri nd us tri es The map represents the total amount of industries by Brazilian federated unit, in billion reais. Midwest MS MT GO North PA AM Others Northeast SE 600km PE BA Others R$ 50 billion R$ 25 billion R$10 billion R$ 1 billion South SC PR RS * Only values above R$ 0.01 billion are represented. R$ 50 billion RJ R$ 25 billion R$10 billion MG R$ 1 billion SP Source: IBGE, 2013a Despite economic and political wor- - for example, aircraft production by ries regarding a supposed de-indus- Embraer. A large number of Brazilian trialisation, the industrial sector’s industries are assemblers who import loss of participation in total GDP is a high-tech parts instead of developtrend in many countries of the Amer- ing these technologies domestically. icas, Africa, and Europe. The excep- That is why - although there is no firm tions to this trend are - besides China consensus on this – economists have - some African and Asian countries been increasingly pressing for policies that have started their industrialisa- that promote industrial specialisation tion process more recently. In abso- and, in some cases, require nationlute terms, it is quite clear that Brazil al components in the supply chain. continues to increase its industrial ca- Since most investments rely on state pacity. The value added of its industry overall is higher than most emerging countries’ and also comparable to that LOSS OF INDUSTRIAL PARTICIPATION of European countries. The produc- Evolution of the participation of industry in GDP, tion in some sectors stands out, such between 1975 and 2010 as in machinery and electrical equip20% ment, pharmaceutical, and automotive industries. 15% 10% 1980 1990 2000 Sources: IBGE, 2013th; Ipeadata website, 2013; Bonelli et al., 2013. 2010 Labmundo, 2014 The disadvantage confronting Brazilian industrial production is its limited development of high-end products. Only 10% of total industrial value added comes from high-tech components Labmundo, 2014 Southeast ES participation, it is argued that resources (scarce by definition) should be focused on those industrial niches that are most competitive, over the less efficient areas. Industrial production concentrates in the more dynamic regions of the national territory, thus aggravating spatial economic inequalities. In spite of efforts made by the federal government and by some states, industry is localised mostly in the South and Southeast regions, as then it can be closer to consumer markets that have higher purchasing power (including the Mercosur), and a better quality infrastructure in place. SEE ALSO: Logistics p. 32 Brazilian multinationals p. 70 Energy and infrastructure p. 92 North-South relations p. 100 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 31 Logistics and its challenges to development TRANSPORTATION IN BRAZIL Roads, in 2013 Roads Privatised roads The economic model that was imposed on Brazil by the metropolis based on the export of primary goods which were essential or complementary to the development of the European powers - prevailed up until the end of the 19th century. According to this model, the industrialisation of the colonies was thwarted by European countries in order to create a consumer market for the latter’s products. It was the colonies’ duty, in turn, to export their primary commodities. As a result of this colonial CARGO TRANSPORT IN BRAZIL Distribution by transport mode, in 2013 60% 50% 40% 30% Source: CNT, 2013. 32 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Ai r e in el Pi p w ay W at er ilw ay Ra Ro ad 10% Labmundo, 2014 20% economy controlled by foreign interests, the spatial organisation of the territory that came to belong to Brazil was very similar to an economic archipelago: the regions of the territory hardly communicated with each other, because the most important political and economic relationship was with Europe. Therefore, the dynamic niches of the economy were linked to the coast to sell their products but remained unconnected among each other. This pattern of integration into the world economy did not change quickly, not even after independence, and has contributed to perpetuate the legacy of a certain physical arrangement: of roads and ports that favoured almost exclusively the export of primary goods. At the beginning of the 20th century, railways were very important in the process of national integration. Although most railways ran along the coast and in the South of the territory, they represented a significant means of moving people and products around. Gradually, they lost their importance in Brazilian history in comparison to other modes of transportation (e.g. by air and sea). The rail model’s diminishing relevance was a consequence of the Brazilian government’s decision (encouraged by other international actors) to prioritise highways. A state-guided process of migration towards the hinterlands began in the 1930s under Getúlio Vargas, but it reached its peak in the 1950s as a result of the Targets Plan during Juscelino Kubitschek’s government. There was a common view then that the transportation network had to be substantially expanded in a short period of time. In comparison with rail, the road model was deemed to accomplish the goal of connecting Brazilian regions much faster, making quick industrialisation possible and thus reaching the same industrialisation levels as European countries. In this sense, the choice of 300 km Sources: Ministry of Transports, 2014; ANTT, 2012 Railways, in 2013 300 km Source: Ministry of Transports, 2014 Airports, in 2013, in million passengers 21.2 13.2 1.4 300 km Source: Infraero website, 2012 Ports, in 2013, by cargo value , in billion dollars 63.8 23.9 3.8 Ports that transport less than 1 billion. 300 km Source: MDIC’s AliceWeb website, 2013 Labmundo, 2014 A country in search of international projection must have material capabilities and know how to use them rationally. For example, production in mining or in manufactured goods is an important indicator of a state’s economy, but the ability to sell this production (for export or in the internal market) directly affects competitiveness and service quality. Having an infrastructure for transportation, telecommunications (telephone and internet), and energy, for instance, can make it easier to manage state bureaucracy, create conditions for new economic ventures, promote regional integration, and ensure control over all regions of the national territory. In the case of Brazil, given the continental dimensions of its territory and a historical investment deficit, infrastructure is still a challenge. BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? ROADS INTERNET USERS IN THE WORLD In percentage of the population, in 2012 Paved in 2010, % of total Total, in 2010 in thousand km USA 420 United Kingdom 1,028 France 137 Egypt 367 Turkey 199 Iran 0 Australia 372 Mexico 78 Chile 1,851 Brazil 0 20 40 Source: World Bank Data website, 2014 60 80 100 the road model was also an act of rational calculation that sought to industrialise the country. Along with protectionist trade tariffs, the guarantee of a consumer market for motor vehicles attracted multinationals from the automotive sector, which have installed assembler industries in Brazil. The original project was meant to connect several regions of Brazil by means of highways that would crisscross the country in multiple directions, linking these regions to the new capital, Brasilia. Despite the plan, many of these roads are in poor condition or have not yet been built. The heaviest investments continued to be made in the most economically productive region: the country’s Centre-south. Means of transportation there are of higher quality and quantity, especially when compared to those of other Brazilian regions. The concession of highways to private companies is also more INVESTMENT IN TRANSPORTATION Between 2011 and 2014, in billion reais 50 50 75 common in the Centre-south. Brazil still needs significant investments in order to expand and improve the quality of its transport network (not just its roads). High maintenance costs are another negative consequence of the road option. Compared to railways, roads have lower construction costs and demand less time to be built, but they need high and constant investments on maintenance, as tarmac degrades more quickly. Together, these factors constitute some of the main causes of what is conventionally called “Brazil cost”. The phenomenon refers to the high transportation costs inherent in production and distribution in Brazil. Investors in the country have to deal with slow, inefficient, and expensive transport services. As road maintenance is not always carried out properly, accidents are common and vehicles break down, which further aggravates the costs and delays the delivery of goods. In addition, Brazil has become very dependent on imported diesel, one of the most common types of fuel used in the transportation of cargo in the country. Diesel fuel has to be imported because national refineries lack the capacity to produce it in large enough quantities from the oil produced in Brazil. Moreover it is not a source of clean energy, and the use of biodiesel is encouraged. 40 PRIVATISATION OF THE SYSTEM 30 Roads, in 2013 100 No data available 1000 km Source: World Bank Data website, 2014 Labmundo, 2014 826 25 Railways, in 2013 Labmundo, 2014 6,545 The road option was accompanied by the progressive abandonment of other means of transportation - a policy which showed signs of being reverted only towards the end of the 20th century, thanks to investment in waterways and railways. Most investments in logistics are made by the state or by public-private partnerships. The government’s policy of leasing roads to private companies, which was very frequent in the 1990s and 2000s, is also worthy of note. The policy is often challenged because private investment in logistics does not seem to follow Brazil’s needs. Almost all the railways, for instance, are under concession to the private sector, and yet users complain about inefficiency and lack of investment. The investment deficit in Brazil also affects those areas where technology is concerned. Services such as telephony and internet access are rather expensive, inefficient, and the object of numerous consumer complaints. In a globalised economy these services are crucial for production networks and chains, but also for the success of several other economic activities. Despite the high cost and low quality of these services, some Brazilian niches continue to stand out. The use of mobile telephony and internet are growing at a very fast pace, making Brazil one of the largest consumer markets for telecommunication services and internet shopping. 20 Labmundo, 2014 w ay s ts or Ai rp W at er ts Po r ilw ay s Ra Ro ad s Source: Ministry of Transports, 2014. Total 1,584,402 km Source: CNT, 2013. Privatised 28,692 km Total 30,129 km Labmundo, 2014 SEE ALSO: Privatised 14,786 km 10 Brazilian multinationals p. 70 Integration projects p. 82 Energy and infrastructure p. 92 North-South relations p. 100 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 33 The energy matrix and the environment TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION Industry Transportation Residential Food Energy sector Pulp and paper Agricultural Commerce Ceramics Public sector Textile Others 10% 20% 30% Source: Empresa de Pesquisa Energética, 2012 Energy is one of the most strategic issues in international politics. Tensions due to the geopolitics of oil have been the source of many conflicts among countries (e.g. in the Middle East), and have also had an influence on a number of major international economic crises (such as the oil crisis of the early 1970s). Some energy resources are fixed and physically located within the territory of sovereign states. This does not mean that transnational interests and flows are absent from the debate, but it implies that large corporations have to negotiate with states in order to have access to oil, gas and, more recently, fuels having lower environmental impact (e.g. hydropower, biofuels, etc.). These days, because of concerns with environmental sustainability, renewable energies have acquired a strategic dimension. Diversification of the energy matrix has become for states an answer to society’s demands, and a competitive advantage in the international energy market. In addition, there is a clear relationship between energy consumption and economic growth: the more developed countries consume far more energy than the less developed ones. Energy consumption is essential for industry, for transportation development, for food production, as well as for household use. There are, nevertheless, national and local variations regarding more or less judicious patterns of energy consumption. Energy production and consumption are both closely related to development models, which can be more or less destructive of ecological systems and environmental resources. Energy can be seen as a fundamental variable in the development equation. On the global and regional levels, energy resources are part of economic relations and international politics. Mindful of the volatility of oil prices and the uncertainty of supply, many countries have tried to attain energy security by making sure they have access to the energy resources necessary for national development. They attempt, for example, to reduce the margins of uncertainty and dependence by trying to ensure greater production at the national level, and greater energy integration at the regional level. Not by coincidence, one of the origins of the integration process in Europe can be found in the European Coal and Steel Community. Similarly, in the case of Unasur, integration of the energy infrastructure is considered strategic for the future of the region. In the case of Brazil, security has been sought through a process of diversification of the energy matrix, thanks to the various natural resources available in the country. The Brazilian energy matrix is composed of 42.4% renewable energy while the world average is 13.2 %, according to the International Energy Agency. In comparative terms, Brazil has the cleanest electricity matrix in the world: hydroelectric Labmundo, 2014 Per sector, in 2012 power corresponds to approximately 84.5% of the matrix. The industry sector is the most energy-intensive, followed by transport, and household consumption. A 2013 report by the International Energy Agency - an autonomous intergovernmental organisation established within the framework of the OECD – pointed out that fossil fuels will continue to dominate the global energy matrix at least until 2040. In addition, the demand for energy will increase by 56% over the next 30 years because of China’s and other emerging countries’ growth. According to the report, renewable energy sources will have an increasingly important role, rising 2.5% per year thanks to ecological awareness and the numerous environmental crises that the world is going through (e.g. climate change and sea level rise). In this scenario, Brazil would have some advantages, and might emerge in the near future as a strong leader in renewable energy resources. As a result of investment in research and technology started during the Vargas government in the 1930s, Brazil has expertise in renewable energy. The share of renewable sources in its energy matrix has only increased since then. The construction of large hydroelectric power stations undoubtedly brings about social and environmental impacts, but they also ELECTRIC MATRIX DIVERSIFICATION Breakdown by country and by source, in 2012, in % 80 60 20 Brazil Source: CIA, 2013 34 Turkey India Hydroelectricity at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y China Fossil fuels Mexico Nuclear France Russia USA Germany Other sources (solar, geothermal, wind, etc.) United Kingdom South Africa Labmundo, 2014 40 BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? ETHANOL AND SUGARCANE MARKET Data between 2010 and 2012 United Kingdom Netherlands 173 478 South Korea Corea 528 USA 888 Trinidad eand Tobago 157 Nigeria 138 Sugarcane production, in 2012 (million tons) Brazilian ethanol exports between 2010 and 2012 (million dollars) 0.3 2 10 100 1000 km No data available Sources: FAO, 2012; SECEX, 2011 generate lower emissions of harmful gases into the atmosphere. It should be remembered that all forms of energy production cause some negative impact (e.g. environmental, social, etc.). The key would be to find a balance between the gains and losses incurred. According to the IEA, Brazil is gaining prominence in the production of biofuels. Together with the US, it will be responsible for more than half of the supply of biofuels by 2040. Their production in Brazil is divided in two segments: ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is a highly flammable biofuel that can be obtained from sugarcane, maize, sugar beet, cassava, potato, among other sources. As for biodiesel, it can be defined as a renewable fuel derived from vegetable oils (sunflower, castor bean, soybean, babassu and other oilseeds), in addition to alternative raw materials such as animal fat or waste frying oils. The production, marketing, and consumption of biofuels raise a series of debates about the real sustainability associated with their use. However, the Brazilian government’s official position is that this production, particularly of sugarcane, does not cause deforestation in the Amazon. Critical researchers argue that the production of biofuels could lead producers to plant food crops further inland or in the Amazon, leaving the land situated along the coast preferably for the production of biofuels. This would contribute to an increase in food prices. Brazil’s wager on biofuels and hydroelectric power can guarantee self-sufficiency to the country’s consumption needs. Since the discovery of pre-salt oil reserves in 2007, however, the national strategy has aimed at transforming Brazil into an important actor in the global energy market. Assuming that negotiations about oil are fundamentally political ENERGY AND DEVELOPMENT Per capita energy use in kg of oil or equivalent, in 2011 Labmundo, 2014 Jamaica 327 India 174 SUGARCANE PRODUCTION Amount and variation of crops by federated states Production growth, between 1998 and 2012 - 63 % 300 km 0 + 100 % + 200 % Crops, in 2012, in tons + 638 % 300,000 Cultivation starting after1999 100,000 10,000 No data available Source: UNICA, 2013 *Production in Santa Catarina during this period is zero Labmundo, 2014 Japan 436 and economic, in order to become a strong exporter in the energy sector Brazil needs to be prepared to meet the challenges of the world’s geopolitics of energy. In addition, it needs to solve internal problems of infrastructure, such as storage and stockpiling, to invest in research and technology, and – this is a very important and sensitive point – in skilled labour. SEE ALSO: 3,206 691 0 Source: World Bank Data website, 2013. No data available 1000 km Labmundo, 2014 1,539 Brazilian multinationals p. 70 Integration projects p. 82 Energy and infrastructure p. 92 North-South relations p. 100 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 35 Water: a vital and strategic resource WATER DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD Per capita drinking water availability, in thousands of cubic meters in 2013 1000 km Labmundo, 2014 533 70 50 30 10 0 No data available Source: World Bank Data website, 2013. By proclaiming the International Decade for Action “Water for Life” (2005-2015), the United Nations has demonstrated the political and strategic importance of this resource. Water is vital for the survival of living organisms, to ensure decent living conditions, for the economy, and for the functioning of ecosystems. Many fields are directly or indirectly linked to water (e.g. health, sanitation, the environment, biological diversity, food and agriculture, contamination, energy, and the prevention of ecological disasters); this is why coordinated action HYDROGRAPHY AND BORDERS aiming towards better management, more sustainable use, and more equal access to water resources is essential. Given the transnational nature of a large number of river basins - 19 countries depend on the Danube, 13 on the Congo, 11 on the Nile, and 9 on the Amazon, Brazil among them - the issue not only gives rise to some major conflicts, but it also offers unique opportunities and has seen some interesting cooperation experiences. Due to its characteristics and diplomatic negotiation skills in multilateral bodies, Brazil could play a very important role within this agenda. The main conflicts are motivated by access to and control of water resources, thus proving that in this arena too, there is an overlap between power relations and the unequal distribution of resources. Many countries have a strong dependence on external water, importing more than half of their domestic consumption (as is the case of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay in Latin America). Against this background, Brazil is a water superpower, given its large reserves of underground water (almost 13% of all the planet’s fresh water), the heavy rainfalls that hit large parts of its territory, and the fact that it is one of the world’s major exporters the fourth, behind the US, China, and India - of what is known as “virtual water”, or water footprint, as it exports products that require a lot of water for their production, such as beef (in order to produce one kilo, 15,500 litres are required), rice (3,000 litres per kilo), or coffee (140 litres per cup). According to Unesco, Brazil indirectly exports about 112 trillion gallons of fresh water per year through its commodities. In the context of large global scarcity, Brazil occupies a prominent position thanks to its water resources, but this requires prudent policies from the state, both internally and externally. While the use of water is essential in the production of commodities (and for exports), its relevance to food sovereignty and environmental sustainability must not be forgotten. Excessive and unregulated water usage, well above the supplying source’s replenishing capabilities, affects many of the large international basins in all continents, with particular impact in North Africa and the Middle East. In the US and in Europe - the world’s major water consumers in non-agricultural Main Brazilian river basins, in 2014 MAIN TRANSBOUNDARY RIVER BASINS Distribution in the world, in 2014 Atlantic (North) Atlantic (Northeast) Amazon Tocantins S. Francisco Paraná Atlantic (East) Sources: ANA, 2010; ISARM website, 2014. 36 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y Other international basins 1000 km Source: Oregon State University, 2014 Labmundo, 2014 Atlantic (Southeast) 500 km Labmundo, 2014 Basins regulated by international treaties Uruguay BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? WATER USE IN BRAZIL POLLUTED WATER WORLDWIDE Trade flows of polluted water in million litres, in 2011 Non-renewable use, breakdown by sector, in %, in 2012 60 50 40 30 20 1000 km 10 sectors - growing urbanisation and industrialisation have had a strong negative impact. In addition, the consequences of climate change and pollution cause a significant decline of water levels in arid and semi-arid regions (e.g. the Northeast of Brazil), and have repercussions for harvests, food supply, and poverty. Several studies and international meetings have drawn attention to the increasing number of people that live in and depend on basins improperly operated. 1 0 -1 -10 The map represents the trade flows of the “grey water footprint”. “Grey” water is the volume of polluted water associated with the production of goods and services for individuals or communities. imports pollution exports pollution When something is produced, some water is polluted. Therefore, every product is responsible for the pollution of a certain amount No data of water. If a country shows deficit (in brown), it means that it available imports more water polluting products than it exports them. If a country shows surplus (in blue), it exports more water polluting products than it imports them. Source: Water Footprint Network, 2014. Water represents an essential dimension of human security. However, despite important advances, a billion people still do not have access to sufficient water. Inefficiency in water usage, water pollution, or overuse of underground reserves tend to coexist. Diseases due to the lack of clean drinking water and basic sanitation ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER AND SANITATION People with inadequate access to water supply and sewage, in %, between 1991 and 2010 2000 2010 15 600 km 10 600 km 5 600 km 0 Source: UNDP, 2013b. Labmundo, 2014 1991 SITUATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN BRAZIL Demand in June 2010 (in m³ / s) Planned investment on water supply between 2010 and 2015 (in millions reais) Total waste of drinking water in 2010 (in%) Maximum: Japan: 20.9 United Kingdom: 11.5 USA: 9.9 Minimum: China: -53.6 Russia: -26.7 India: -16.5 Labmundo, 2014 Source: ANA, 2012 Labmundo, 2014 Ru ra l du st ria l In Ag ric ul tu ra l Ur ba n 10 lead to 2 million deaths per year, i.e. more than in armed conflicts, in addition to causing hunger and malnutrition, thus putting food security at risk. Moreover, floods are responsible for 15% of the deaths from natural disasters. Clean water is essential for the survival of human beings and the planet, and preserving it is one of Rio+20’s Sustainable Development Objectives. The world has enough water to ensure water security for all societies. Distribution is the main challenge, which requires collective accountability and joined-up actions among various state, private, and civil society actors in order to guarantee sustainable access to this resource. Cooperation offers interesting opportunities for the integrated management of water resources and is in fact the most usual option in conflict resolution. There are 145 agreements on hydroelectric energy, consumption, flood control, industrial distribution, navigation, pollution, and fishing. Although its resources make it a water superpower, Brazil faces great challenges ahead: domestic asymmetries in water distribution and access, inadequate and inefficient use, as well as pollution of its rivers and lakes. SEE ALSO: 0 10 20 30 Source: ANA, 2012 600 km 0 400 800 1200 600 km 0 20% 40% 60% 100% Labmundo, 2014 600 km Minerals and mining p. 38 Brazilian multinationals p. 70 Organisations and social movements p. 72 Research centres p. 78 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 37 Mining and extractive industries EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES Production in the main federated states, in 2013 M m eta in lli er c al s Hy dr oc ar bo ns N m onin m er et al al s lic Co a l South PR SC RS Midwest MS GO MA Northeast SE RN BA North AP PA essential to development in the hands of a few countries can become a means of obtaining political goals. Mineral resources are classic material elements of state power. They are also strategic for national economies around the world. Countries rich in important minerals have their economic and political possibilities increased on the world chessboard. Self-sufficiency in energy and raw materials, for instance, reduces the dependence of a country and makes it freer to act internationally. In the case of countries that are major exporters of strategic products, there is a political element in addition to the economic factor. Control over these materials can ultimately influence the viability and the cost of other states’ development projects, which become vulnerable to the exporter’s political decisions. As shown by the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in the 1970s, concentration of a product BRAZILIAN EXPORTS ES In billion dollars per year between 2007 and 2012 Southeast SP RJ 5.2 + 33 MG % Iron ore R$ 50 billion R$ 25 billion R$10 billion * Only values above 30 million reais are represented. .1 + 191 Liquid fuels .5 % + 187 R$ 1 billion The map represents the total amount of extractive activities by federated state. Crude oil R$ 50 bi R$ 25 bi R$10 bi R$ 1 bi + 127. Semi-finished iron Aluminium - 4.7 % Flat rolled steel - 5.4 % 9% Gasoline 2007 -8 Source: IBGE, 2013b. 38 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y % 2,000.0 214.9 Source: AliceWeb at MDIC website, 2013 2012 Labmundo,2014 300 km Labmundo, 2014 8 .3 45,951.7 30,000.0 Brazil is in a comfortable situation as regards mineral reserves. Due to its position in Pangaea and to major morphological changes throughout geological eras, the structure of the Brazilian territory can be considered highly diversified. The Brazilian Shield and the Guiana Shield are the two oldest geological formations in the national territory and represent 36% of its land mass. It is in these regions that most of Brazil’s mineral resources are concentrated. This is the case, for example, of iron ore, which can be found mainly in Carajás (Pará), in the Iron Quadrangle (Minas Gerais), and in the Urucum Massif (Mato Grosso do Sul). Brazil is a major exporter of iron ore, while China, Japan, South Korea and some European countries are its main consumer markets. In addition to iron ore, Brazil also stands out in the extraction of manganese, tin, bauxite and other metals, such as niobium. The Brazilian production of niobium is concentrated in two deposits (one in Minas Gerais, the other in Goiás), which represent approximately 75% of the world production of this ore; according to estimates, Brazil holds more than 95% of its world reserves. Niobium is widely used in the production of lighter and more resistant metals. Metal alloys containing niobium are usually used in the construction industry, in automotive vehicles, aircraft, spacecraft, etc. Despite the importance of this ore for the development of various products, and Brazil’s near monopoly on it, its international price is considered low. This upsets some specialists, whereas others claim that an increase in the international price would encourage the production of rival alloys, because niobium can be replaced by other metals. Back to the geological formation of the Brazilian territory: in addition to the shields, there are also sedimentary basins, both continental and marine. With great public effort and investment from the 1930s onwards, Brazil became a major producer of hydrocarbons. In spite of this, a large share of the natural gas consumed in the country is imported, mainly from Bolivia. The main areas of oil exploration are in sedimentary marine basins, which BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? In billion dollars, per country, in 2012 Iron 1000 km 1000 km 14.9 Source: AliceWeb at MDIC website, 2013 5.5 2.9 0.8 KNOWN MINERAL SITES In 2014 The Brazilian territory is also rich in other strategic materials such as monazite sands, which are an essential mineral for the production of nuclear energy. That is why Brazil is a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSP), a group of countries that are major exporters of materials used for nuclear purposes. Due to the strategic importance of these materials, there is a great deal of control on the part of this group of countries with regard to commercialisation of their products. Being a member of the NSP means taking part in decisions related to this issue on the international agenda, thus also defining norms and priorities. On the other hand, the economic exploitation of mineral resources offers ecological risks and potential environmental degradation effects. The Serra do Navio, in Amapá, is a remarkable example of the harm which may be caused by extractive activities. The site, which was known for its production of manganese, has been abandoned because the company that operated the deposit decided that the activity was no longer economically attractive. The legacy left for the community is a huge crater, and other after-effects that jeopardise its future sustainable development. In the case of oil, overdependence can create economic problems (e.g. the “Dutch disease”), while deep water production also poses human, environmental and ecological risks. Labmundo, 2014 Oil Gold Tin Titanium Aluminium 600 km Diamonds Coal Tupi field Hydrocarbons 600 km 600 km Nickel Iron ore Lead Aluminium Copper Niobium Manganese 600 km 600 km Tungsten 600 km Beryl Fluorine Uranium Lime Phosphorus Zinc 600 km Salt 600 km 600 km Sources: IBGE, 2013b; IBP, 2013; Ross, 1996; and DNPM, 2003. Labmundo, 2014 This technology has also contributed to the discovery and, more recently, production of oil in deposits located in the pre-salt layer. Although its prospection is quite difficult (because it is located in ultra-deep waters, below various layers of rock and petrified salt), the oil from the basins of Tupi, Iara, and surroundings areas is considered of good quality, and its reserves exceed 33 billion barrels. The discovery of these oil fields has significantly increased Brazilian reserves of hydrocarbons. BRAZILIAN EXPORTS OF IRON AND OIL MAIN OIL PRODUCERS AND MAIN HOLDERS OF OIL RESERVES Production, in 2013 (in million barrels/day) 10 8 6 4 10 2 1st SEE ALSO: Agribusiness p. 28 Research centres p. 78 2nd Russia 8th 3rd USA 11th 4th China 14th 5th Canada 3rd 6th Iran 4th 7th UAE 7th 8th Kuwait 6th 9th Iraq 5th 10th Mexico 17th 11th Venezuela 12th Nigeria 10th 13th Brazil 15th 14th Qatar 13th 15th Norway 19th 16th Angola 16th 17th Security and defence p. 90 Global economic agencies p. 104 Source: British Petroleum, 2013. 20 30 40 1st Kazakhstan 12th 18th Algeria 18th 19th Libya 9th 20th Reserves, in 2013 (in billion tons) Saudi Arabia 2nd United 20th Kingdom Labmundo, 2014 has led Brazil to develop cutting-edge technology in deep water oil drilling. at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 39 Genetic wealth and biodiversity (and of the community knowledge associated with its use). Brazil suffers from biopiracy practices and wild animal trafficking. Biopiracy refers to the illegal exploitation, manipulation, export, or marketing of biological resources or the appropriation of traditional knowledge derived from indigenous and local communities. The concept was developed in the Convention on Biological Diversity during the Rio Summit (in 1992), which established the sovereignty of countries over their territories’ biodiversity. This problem affects Brazil in various spheres, including in its sovereignty. In order to address the issue, a Parliamentary Inquiry Committee fully dedicated to the theme was created in 2003. Its final report indicated that the country lost over 5.7 billion dollars per year due to illegal animal trafficking of its fauna, and traditional cultural knowledge and medicines taken from its forests. BIODIVERSITY IN THE WORLD Biodiversity indicator, in 2002 0.50 Megadiverse countries 0.25 Like-minded megadiverse countries 0.10 0.05 Sources: Groombridge & Jenkins, 2002. Brazil is a country of continental dimensions with a great diversity of climate zones and biomes. As a result, it has an enormous wealth of fauna and flora, which makes the country the most biodiverse in the world. Biodiversity plays a key role in the national economy: agricultural exports make up more than 30% of total exports; activities such as forestry and fisheries employ more than 3 million people; and plant biomass accounts for The data indicates the diversity of species (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and vascular plants) and their endemicity. Only countries with more than 5000 km2 have been considered. 30% of energy production in the country. There is an expectation of obtaining greater economic benefits from patents and new technologies based on the study of biodiversity. However, conservation and sustainable exploitation of this potential do face major challenges, such as advancing the knowledge about Brazil’s fauna and flora. The current panorama is one of underuse of this genetic wealth, but also underprotection of native species MEGADIVERSE COUNTRY Data from 2002 Amphibian species Brazil Colombia Ecuador Peru 798 714 467 461 Mammal species Mexico DR Congo Cameroon Brazil China Birds species Colombia Peru Indonesia Brazil 1,695 1,538 1,519 1,492 491 450 409 394 394 Source: Groombridge & Jenkins, 2002. 40 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y An average was used for 1993 and 1994 25 15 Labmundo, 2014 56,215 51,220 32,220 29,375 26,071 The appropriation of traditional cultural knowledge, or the pharmaceutical industry’s discovery of therapeutic substances by irregular means, has caused the country to lose the right to patents of elements originating in its own biodiversity. For example, Merck laboratories hold the patent to the active ingredient of jaborandi, an Amazonian plant, used to DEFORESTATION IN THE LEGAL AMAZON Deforestation, in thousands of km2 per year, between 1988 and 2012 Brazil has between 15% and 20% of all the world's fauna and flora species Vascular plants species Brazil Colombia China Indonesia Mexico Trafficking of wild animals is a very serious problem. Some species may be worth more than 60 thousand dollars on the international market. The UN has defined it as the third most profitable criminal activity in the world, just behind drugs and arms trafficking. The impact on biomes can be quite serious: of every 10 birds caught in the country for the purposes of illegal commerce, only one or two survive and arrive at their destination. 5 1988 1992 1996 Source: INPE, 2013. 2000 2004 2008 2012 Labmundo, 2014 1000 km Labmundo, 2014 No data available BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? BIOPIRACY AND WILDLIFE TRAFFICKING Value by species in the international market, in thousands of dollars, in 2003 Private collectors and zoos Lear's macaw Harpy Golden lion tamarins Ocelot (dwarf leopard) Scientific purposes 1g of poison - True coral snake 1g of poison - Brown spider Jararaca-ilhoa 1g of poison - Scorpion Some beetle species Surucucu-pico-de-jaca (snake) Pets White-headed marmoset Scarlet macaw Tegus Toco Toucan Boa constrictor 5 20 60 Açaí Andiroba Ayahuasca Copaiba Cupuassu Espinheira Santa Jaborandi Jararaca poison *Some of these patents have already been reversed Sources: Sarney Filho, 2003; RENCTAS, 2001. Labmundo, 2014 Brazilian species patented by other countries* Origin of plant species and animals that are economically relevant to Brazil (selected cases) Asia Horses China Soybeans Orange India Cattle Philippines Rice Middle East Wheat Central America and Mexico Cocoa Pine New Guinea Sugarcane Africa Grass Ethiopia Coffee Brazil Pineapple Peanut Brazil nut Manioc Cashew Carnauba Australia Eucalyptus 1000 km Labmundo, 2014 Many patents of Brazilian species have been registered abroad in an irregular manner. In addition, they do not always benefit the indigenous communities possessing that traditional knowledge. At the Convention on Biological Diversity, Brazil made a commitment to put 10% of its ecosystems under protection, but by 2010 it had only reached the 1.5 % mark. Still, the goal of putting 30% of the Amazon under some sort of legal protection has been surpassed, having reached a total of 40% of the region. One of the biomes least protected by law and least known by scientists is the sea, which has been defined by the Ministry of the Environment as “the great gap” in the National System of Conservation THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE LAND Fonte: MMA, 2006. Units. The Brazilian marine biodiversity is not as varied as those of other countries, but even so it has been estimated that Brazil holds around 6% of the existing “non-insect” species of invertebrates, the majority of which live in the sea. Another of the country’s unexplored potentials is fish consumption. It stands below the amount suggested by FAO (12kg). The annual per capita consumption was 11.17 kg in 2011, a historical record, which meant an increase of 23.7% compared with the previous two years. Part of this progress is credited to actions taken by the Ministry of Fisheries - a special secretariat created in 2003 that became a ministry in 2009. Despite such modest consumption, a survey carried out by the federal government between 1995 and 2006 indicated that approximately 80% of the species commercially fished were already fully exploited or overexploited, putting long term consumption at risk. On the multilateral scene, the importance of Brazil’s genetic and environmental wealth to the world and its activism in environmental diplomacy make the country a key actor in debates and negotiations. The Foreign Ministry and the Ministry of the Environment participate in multilateral forums on biodiversity, such as the Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries group, which is organised as a mechanism for consultation and cooperation around the interests and priorities of member states in relation to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. One of the gravest environmental problems faced by Brazil is deforestation. As a result of land conversion for agriculture, livestock breeding, logging, Illegal occupation, runaway urbanisation growth, or even the construction of infrastructure such as dams and roads, deforestation results in forced population displacements, generates pollution, allows native flora invasion by exotic species and contributes to global warming. Brazil has managed to keep a downward trend in deforestation rates in the Amazon (the most watched over area) since 2004. At the end of 2013 there was a reversal of this trend, which saw a 28% rate increase, although it was still the second lowest annual average since 1993. Domestically, Brazil has confronted the challenges of deforestation and environmental degradation while seeking to contribute, at the international level, to negotiations on climate change (based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities). FORESTS Countries with the largest forest areas, in million hectares, in 2010 Russia 809 Brazil 520 Canada 310 USA China 304 207 D. R. Congo 154 Australia 149 Indonesia 94 Sudan 70 India 68 Others 1,347 Source: FAO, 2010. Labmundo, 2014 fight baldness and glaucoma. The US lab Squibb took advantage of public knowledge disseminated by Brazilian scientist Sergio Henrique Ferreira, in the 1960s, about the jararaca snake venom to create a drug against hypertension that is marketed to this day. The Brazilian researcher has since publicly denied that this was a case of biopiracy, but the example highlights the country’s inability to take advantage of its biological wealth. SEE ALSO: Agribusiness p. 28 Reseach centres p. 78 UN system p. 102 South-South Cooperation p. 112 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 41 Population and diversity With a population of more than 200 million inhabitants according to the IBGE, Brazil is the fifth most populous country in the world. As population density is relatively low (22.4 inhabitants per km2), the geographic distribution of this population is very uneven. It is heavily concentrated in the Southeast, where density reaches 87 inhabitants per km2: São Paulo is the BRAZILIAN DEMOGRAPHICS Population density in 2010 Urban population in 2010 (in million persons) most populous state (with almost 44 million inhabitants), followed by Minas Gerais (20 million) and Rio de Janeiro (16 million). At the other extreme, the North has a density of 4.12 inhabitants per km2, and Roraima is the least populated state, with only 500,000 inhabitants. Urban concentration is also growing, and urban population already represents 84.9% of the total. This urbanisation is associated, among other things, to the emergence of megacities such as São Paulo (more than 23 million inhabitants - it is the seventh most populous city in the world) and Rio de Janeiro (13.6 million). Regarding the composition of the population, the improvements in average life expectancy (from 69.8 years in 2000 to 74.8 in 2013) and a drop in LARGE URBAN AGGLOMERATIONS Evolution of large conurbations, between 1950 and 2050 1950 2010 2050* Tokyo (Japan) 38.66 mi New Delhi (India) 40 14 8 2 0 32.94 mi 11.27 mi 300 km Mumbai (India) 26.56 mi 300 km 1.37 mi Rural population, in 2010 (in %) MA PI PA BA AC SE RO AL CE PB RR RN TO AM PE MT ES SC RS MG PR MS AP GO SP DF RJ 4 2 1 0.5 0 300 km Population by gender and age group, in 2010 (in million persons) 8 42 6 4 Source: IBGE, 2010b. at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y > 80 75 a 79 70 a 74 65 a 69 60 a 64 55 a 59 50 a 54 45 a 49 40 a 44 35 a 39 30 a 34 25 a 29 20 a 24 15 a 19 10 a 14 5a9 1a4 <1 2 Men 5 15 25 35 4.3 mi 2.86 mi 2.88 mi 12.34 mi Mexico City (Mexico) 24.58 mi Ney York (USA) 23.57 mi São Paulo (Brazil) 23.17 mi Dhaka (Bangladesh) 22.91 mi Beijing (China) 22.63 mi 2.33 mi Karachi (Pakistan) 0.34 mi 20.19 mi Kolkata (India) 1.67 mi 1.06 mi 4.51 mi 18.71 mi Manila (Philippines) 16.28 mi Los Angeles (USA) 15.69 mi 1.54 mi 4.05 mi Buenos Aires (Argentina) 15.52 mi Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) 13.62 mi 2 Women 4 6 8 Labmundo, 2014 Rural population in 2010 (in million persons) Shanghai (China) 28.40 mi 5.10 mi *For the 2050 data, the UN average projections were considered. 2.95 mi Source: ONU, 2013a Labmundo, 2014 444 100 50 10 0 BRAZIL, AN EMERGING POWER? SOCIAL CLASSES IN BRAZILIAN REGIONS People by class and region, in 2009 Regions (in million persons) North Midwest 13.9 This composition has its roots in the migratory flows which have constituted the Brazilian population throughout history. For a long time Brazil was considered a country of immigrants: the Portuguese colonists, African victims of the slave trade, migrants from the Old World at the end of the 19th century (mainly Portuguese and Italian workers, followed by Spanish, Germans, Japanese and Syrian-Lebanese, among others), thus changing the appearance of several regions, which today exhibit the cultural heritage of these flows. In comparison with these trends of the past, the data today shows only 0.4% of immigrants (versus 0.7% of emigrants), in spite of relatively increasing flows more recently. The Brazilian population still suffers from several problems caused by social inequality (such as access to education, decent work, and health care) and by various forms of discrimination, which are being gradually tackled. The distribution of social classes is changing: the C class underwent a major expansion, as it has incorporated almost 30 million people from the D class in a decade. According to data from the Getúlio Vargas Foundation, the C class represents 52% of the population (against 28% belonging to the lower classes). Social class 12.4 AB South 27.7 C Northeast 53.9 D E Southeast 80.3 Quantity: 10 million 1 million Source: CPS/FGV, 2014. However, this new C class face challenges - such as high levels of debt and problems in access to basic services, thus laying bare the limits of a conception of citizenship based only on income and consumption patterns. Data from UNDP shows a low IMMIGRANTS IN BRAZIL Immigrants living in Brazil, in 2010 (in thousand persons) n Ger ma Po rtu gu e Japanese level of citizen satisfaction with health care (only 44% of Brazilians said they were satisfied), education (53.7%), or citizen security (40%). Demonstrations calling for the expansion of various rights have occupied the streets since June 2013, demanding improvements in transportation, housing (7% of the urban population live in precarious settlements, which defies the right to housing), health care (there are only 1.7 doctors per 1,000 inhabitants, and the situation is even worse in rural areas), and education (despite advances in school enrolment, much still needs to be done to improve quality). an ish Ko rea n se Labmundo, 2014 the fertility rate (from 2.4 children per woman in 2000 to 1.8 in 2013) anticipate a scenario of ageing population, which today is still relatively young (the “demographic bonus”). As for skin colour, 47% define themselves as whites, mostly in the South and Southeast regions (55% and 78% of the population, respectively), 43% mixed race (who are the majority in the North and Northeast), 7% blacks, and 0.4% native Indians (concentrated in the North). SEE ALSO: n Sp l Ita an Paraguayan 55.37 214.51 Source: World Bank Data website, 2011. U r u u ay g A r g e n ti n e 17.24 1000 km Labmundo, 2014 ia Chilean Bolivian Cultural diversity p. 24 Poverty and inequality p. 44 Social networks and regional integration p. 96 South-South Cooperation p. 112 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y 43 Poverty and inequality 44 at l a s o f b r a z i l i a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND INEQUALITY high human development Gini values of 2010 and HDI values of 2013 *Not all countries are represented; HDI and Gini index are available only for the 135 countries shown. Israel Georgia Argentina Uruguay Malaysia Costa Rica Chile Panama Ecuador Venezuela Dominican Republic Jamaica 0.8 Brazil South Africa Namibia HDI index Germany Norway Sweden New Zealand Finland Austria Slovenia Luxembourg Spain Greece Poland Russia Hungary Slovenia Croatia Latvia Romania Albania Bosnia Belarus Bulgaria Serbia Ukraine Iran Peru Jordan Paraguay Honduras Micronesia 0.6 United States Qatar Estonia Lithuania Mexico Colombia Bolivia Ireland Switzerland Canada Belgium Australia Italy El Salvador Turkey Sri Lanka Tunisia Thailand Gabon Cape Verde Swaziland Guatemala Sao Tome and Principe Congo Kenya Lesotho Angola Haiti Philippines China Palestine Mongolia Nicaragua Morocco Ghana Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Camboja Kazakhstan Armenia Azerbaijan Moldova Tajikistan Indonesia Egypt Syria Vietnam Iraq East Timor India Pakistan Bangladesh Nigeria Nepal Togo Laos 0.4 Zambia Rwanda Central-African Republic Gambia Madagascar Senegal Djibouti 60 Sudan Afghanistan Uganda Mauritania Ivory Coast Sierra Leone Mozambique Republic of the Congo Cameroon Burkina Faso Chad Guinea 50 high inequalty Ethiopia Yemen Benin Malawi Liberia 40 30 low inequalty Gini index South America Oceania Africa North America Europe Asia Central America and Caribbean Population of the countries, in 2007 (in million persons) 250 100 10 Source: PNUD, 2013a. Guinea Bissau Burundi Mali Niger Labmundo, 2014 As for Brazil, its progress in achieving the MDG has been publicised all over the world, especially with regard to extreme poverty (the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty dropped from 25.6% in 1990 to 4.8% in 2008) and the fight against hunger (the percentage of children considered underweight for their age went from 4.2% in 1996 to 1.8 % in 2006). The results obtained by government programmes such as Bolsa Família and Fome Zero have turned them into international references as well as the focal point of Brazilian South-South cooperation. As an institutional practice, they inspire other income transfer programmes (including in cities of the Global North, such as New York – see Opportunity NYC: Despite these advances, 8.9 million Brazilians still suffer from extreme poverty, and internal inequalities still remain very important among regions (the poor are five times more numerous in the Northeast than in the South), between urban and rural areas (rural poverty is three times higher than poverty in