Proceedings of TEAM 2018
9 International Scientific and Expert Conference
under the auspices of the International TEAM Society
10–12th October 2018
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management
Novi Sad, Serbia
th
University of Novi Sad
Faculty of Technical Sciences
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management
Novi Sad, Serbia
Proceedings of TEAM 2018
9th International Scientific and Expert Conference
10 – 12th October 2018,
Novi Sad, Serbia
All papers are reviewed.
The authors are only responsible for the accuracy and contents of all published material. The
Editors do not accept any liability for the accuracy of articles, or responsibility for mistakes
(editorial or typographical), nor for any consequences that may arise from them.
Acknowledgement
The conference has been supported by:
Autonomous Province of Vojvodina
Provincial Secretariat for Higher Education and Scientific Research
Republic of Serbia
Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development
Editor in Chief: Bojan Lalić
Editors: Nemanja Tasić, Danijela Gračanin
Technical Editor: Marko Penčić
Cover Design and Prepress: Ivan Pinćjer
CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији
Библиотека Матице српске, Нови Сад
62(082)
INTERNATIONAL TEAM Society. International Scientific and Expert
Conference (9 ; 2018 ; Novi Sad)
Proceedings of TEAM 2018 / 9th International Scientific and Expert Conference,
10-12th October 2018, Novi Sad ; [editor in chief Bojan Lalić]. - Novi Sad : Faculty
of Technical Sciences, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, 2018
(Novi Sad : Grid). - 441 str. ; 30 cm
Tiraž 100. - Bibliografija uz svaki rad.
ISBN 978-86-6022-098-3
a) Техника - Зборници
HYPERLINK
"http://www.vbs.rs/scripts/cobiss?command=DISPLAY&base=COBIB&RID=325738247" \n
Honorary Committee
Prof. dr. ing. Jozef Peterka,
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology in Trnava, Slovak
University of Technology, Slovakia
Prof. dr. sc. Vlado Guberac,
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Dražan Kozak,
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Ivan Samardžić,
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Josip Juraj
Strossmayer University of Osijek, Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Antun Stoić,
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Josip Juraj
Strossmayer University of Osijek, Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Mr. Sc. Josip Jukić,
College of Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. dr. Lóránt Kovács,
John von Neumann University, GAMF Faculty of Engineering
and Computer Science, Kecskemét, Hungary
Prof. dr. ing. Jozef Zajac, CSc.,
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with seat in Prešov,
Technical University of Košice, Slovakia
Prof. dr. sc. Krunoslav Zmaić,
Faculty of Agriculture, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of
Osijek, Croatia
Prof. dr. Radivoje Mitrović,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Serbia
Prof. dr. Aleksandar Sedmak,
Structural integrity and life society, Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr. sc. Marin Milković,
University North, Varaždin, Croatia
Program Committee
Prof. dr. sc. Dražan Kozak,
Faculty of mechanical engineering in Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. dr. Zoran Radaković,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Serbia
Prof. dr. Vojislav Simonović,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Serbia
Prof. dr. Zorana Golubović,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Serbia
Prof. dr. Aleksandar Sedmak,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Serbia
Prof. dr. Nenad Mitrović,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Serbia
Prof. dr. Milos Milosević,
Innovation Centre of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr. Sanja Petronić,
Innovation Centre of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr. Katarina Colic,
Innovation Centre of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Belgrade, Serbia
Prof. dr. Snezana Kirin,
Innovation Centre of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Belgrade, serbia
Prof. dr. Srdjan Tadić,
Innovation Centre of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Belgrade, Serbia
Prof.dr. Zsolt Csaba Johanyák,
John von Neumann University, GAMF Faculty of Engineering
and Computer Science, Kecskemét, Hungary
Prof. dr. Lorant Kovács,
John von Neumann University, GAMF Faculty of Engineering
and Computer Science, Kecskemét, Hungary
Prof. dr. Erika Török,
John von Neumann University, GAMF Faculty of Engineering
and Computer Science, Kecskemét, Hungary
Prof. dr. Judit Pető,
John von Neumann University, GAMF Faculty of Engineering
and Computer Science, Kecskemét, Hungary
Prof. dr. Árpád Ferencz,
John von Neumann University, GAMF Faculty of Engineering
and Computer Science, Kecskemét, Hungary
Prof. dr. sc. Ivan Samardžić,
Faculty of mechanical engineering in Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Antun Stoić,
Faculty of mechanical engineering in Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Želiko Ivandić,
Faculty of mechanical engineering in Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Goran Šimunović,
Faculty of mechanical engineering in Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Ivica Kladarić,
Faculty of mechanical engineering in Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Lidija Ćurković,
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and
Naval Architecture, Croatia
Doc. dr. sc. Irena Žmak,
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and
Naval Architecture, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Adisa Vučina,
University of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Prof. dr. sc. Vlado Guberac,
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Croatia,
Prof. dr. sc. Sonja Marić,
Faculty of agriculture in Osijek, Croatia
Prof. Ing. Jozef Zajac, CSc.,
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with seat in Prešov,
Technical University of Košice, Slovakia
Assoc. prof. Ing. Ján Piteľ, CSc.,
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with seat in Prešov,
Technical University of Košice, Slovakia
Assoc prof. dr. Ing. Peter Monka,
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with seat in Prešov,
Technical University of Košice, Slovakia
Prof. RNDr. Dušan Knežo, CSc.,
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with seat in Prešov,
Technical University of Košice, Slovakia
Dr.hc. prof. Ing. Karol Vasilko, DrSc.,
Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with seat in Prešov,
Technical University of Košice, Slovakia
Prof.dr. Ailer Piroska,
Kecskemét College, Kecskemét, Hungary
Prof. dr. sc. Zvonko Antunović,
Faculty of agriculture in Osijek, Croatia
Prof.dr. Nicolae Balc,
Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Romania
Prof. dr. sc. Darko Kiš,
Faculty of agriculture in Osijek, Croatia
Assoc. prof. dr. Mislav Balković,
Algebra, Zagreb, Croatia
Prof. dr. sc. Jasna Šoštarič,
Faculty of agriculture in Osijek, Croatia
Prof. dr. Jozef Bárta,
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University
of Technology, Slovakia
Mr.sc. Josip Jukič,
College of Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Assoc. prof. dr. sc. Krunoslav Mirosavljević,
College of Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Dr. sc. Teuta Benković-Lačić,
College of Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Ivica Lacković,
College of Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Milan Stanić,
College of Slavonski Brod, Croatia
Prof. Ing. Milan Marônek, CSc.,
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University
of Technology, Slovakia
Assoc prof. dr. Ing. Mária Dománková,
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University
of Technology, Slovakia
Prof. Ing. Miloš Čambál, CSc.,
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University
of Technology, Slovakia
Prof. dr.sc. Ing. Alexander Čaus,
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University
of Technology, Slovakia
Prof. dr. Ing. Maroš Soldán,
Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, Slovak University
of Technology, Slovakia
Prof. dr. Bojan Lalić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Prof.dr. Slađana Benković,
University of Belgrade, Serbia
Prof.dr. Pavel Beňo,
FEVT, Technical university of Zvolen, Slovakia
Prof. dr. Ivana Bilić,
University of Split, Croatia
Prof. dr. Zlatan Car,
University of Rijeka, Croatia
Prof. dr. Somnath Chattopadhyaya,
University of Dhanbad, India
Prof.dr. Robert Čep,
Technical university of Ostrava, Czech Republic
Prof.dr. Ante Čikić,
High Technical School, Bjelovar, Croatia
Prof. Dražena Gašpar,
University of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Prof.dr. Nenad Gubeljak,
University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof.dr. Fuad Hadžikadunić,
University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Prof.dr. Sergej Hloch,
Technical University of Košice, Slovakia
Prof.dr. Udo Traussnigg,
Campus 02 University of Applied Sciences, Graz, Austria
Prof.dr. Grzegorz Królczyk,
Technical University of Opole, Poland
Prof.dr. Vlado Tropša,
University North, Varaždin, Croatia
Prof.dr. Leon Kukielka,
Technical University of Koszalin, Poland
Prof.dr. Nicolae Ungureanu,
Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Romania
Prof.dr. Stanislaw Legutko,
Technical University of Poznan, Poland
Prof.dr. Jan Valíček,
Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
Prof.dr. Marin Milković,
University North, Varaždin, Croatia
Prof.dr. Ilija Ćosić, Emeritus,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Prof.dr. Mirjana Pejić Bach,
University of Zagreb, Croatia
Prof.dr. Djordje Vukelić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Prof.dr. Marko Rakin,
University of Belgrade, Serbia
Prof.dr. Slobodan Morača,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Prof.dr. Pero Raos,
University of Osijek, Croatia
Prof.dr. Darko Stefanović,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, nSerbia
Prof.dr. Alessandro Ruggiero,
University of Salerno, Italia
Ass.prof.dr. Nemanja Tasić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Prof.dr. Bahar Sennaroğlu,
Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Ass.prof.dr. Danijela Gračanin,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Prof.dr. Stevan Stankovski,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Ass.prof.dr. Milan Delić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Prof.dr. Mladen Šercer,
University of Zagreb, Croatia
Ass.prof.dr. Uglješa Marjanović,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical Sciences, Serbia
Organizing Committee
Chair:
Prof. dr. Bojan Lalić, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Tehcnical
Sciences, Serbia
Members:
Asst. prof. dr. Nemanja Tasić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Branislav Bogojević,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Nela Cvetković,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
Asst. prof. dr Danijela Gračanin,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Jelena Ćurčić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Nenad Medić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Marko Pavlović,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Slavko Rakić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Miroslav Stefanović,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
Asst. prof. dr. Aleksandar Rikalović,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Goran Tepić,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
Asst. prof. dr. Uglješa Marjanović,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Tanja Todorović,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
MSc Angela Fajsi,
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TECHNIQUE
QUALITY ESTIMATION OF THE BOILER STEEL 13CrMo4-5 BY THE METALLOGRAPHIC REPLICA METHOD.................1
I. PUTNIK , I. OPAČAK , V. STARČEVIĆ , T. ÖZKAN
MODEL DEVELOPMENT FOR THE CONTROL OF WAREHOUSE OPERATIONS WITH THE USAGE OF RFID..................6
B. STEVANOV , Z. TEŠIĆ , M. GEORGIJEVIĆ
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE BEAM BUCKLING LOAD...........................................................................13
S. KOTŠMÍD , P. BEŇO
EXERGY DESTRUCTION MINIMISATION OF A REGENERATIVE BRAYTON CYCLE.........................................17
M. RAUCH , M. HOLIK , A. BARAC , A. GALOVIĆ
MACHINE LEARNING TECHNIQUES FOR SMART MANUFACTURING: APPLICATIONS AND
CHALLENGES IN INDUSTRY 4.0.....................................................................................................................................29
B. BAJIC , I. COSIC , M. LAZAREVIC , N. SREMCEV , A. RIKALOVIC
CAX SYSTEMS WITHIN THE ENGINEERING EDUCATIONAL PROCESS.............................................................................39
K. MONKOVA , P. MONKA , J. TKAC
THREAD INSPIRED 3D PRINTED CLAMPS FOR IN VITRO BIOMECHANICAL TESTING........................................45
I. GRGIĆ , Ž. IVANDIĆ , D. ŠOTOLA , D. KOZAK , M. KARAKAŠIĆ
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION OF THE DOORS ON THE FALNS FREIGHT WAGON.................54
D. LIOVIĆ , D. KOZAK , G. MATANIĆ
MACHINE OVERLAY WELDING OF SINGLE TUBES....................................................................................................61
D. MARIĆ , D. ŽUBRINIĆ , T. ŠOLIĆ , M. DUSPARA , A. STOIĆ , I. SAMARDŽIĆ
EYEBROWS MECHANISM WITH 2 DOFs FOR EXPRESSING
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION OF SOCIALLY INTERACTIVE ROBOTS.....................................................66
M. PENČIĆ , M. ČAVIĆ
THE EFFECT OF CARBURIZING ON THE PROPERTIES OF STEEL 20MNCR5 AND 18CRNI8.................................71
S. KLADARIĆ , I. KLADARIĆ , M. GUDELJ , M. PEJNOVIĆ
COMPARATIVE STRESS ANALYSIS OF AN ARTILLERY PROJECTILE BODY................................................................77
V. MILOVANOVIĆ , M. ŽIVKOVIĆ , G. JOVIČIĆ
POSSIBILITIES OF NC PROGRAM CREATION WITHIN
INFORMATION SYSTEM DESIGNED UNDER INDUSTRY 4.0 REQUIREMENTS....................................................81
P. MONKA , K. MONKOVA , R. HRICOVA , M. EDL , H. ZIDKOVA , V. DUCHEK
SPLINE INTERPOLATION OF SRIM DATA FOR QUANTITATIVE RUTHERFORD BACK SCATTERING ANALYSIS.87
S. MINÁRIK , O. BOŠÁK , E. LABAŠOVÁ , V. LABAŠ , S. LUKIČ-PETROVIČ
EFFECT OF THE ARRIVAL FREQUENCY PROCESS
ON THE LINK PERFORMANCE FUNCTION OF A SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION.................................................95
T. KOVACS , E. CSIZMAS , R. ALVAREZ GIL
SINTERING OF SLIP CAST COMPOSITE AL2O3- ZRO2 CERAMICS.............................................................................99
I. SEVER , L. ĆURKOVIĆ , I. ŽMAK
APPROXIMATION OF THE ON-STATE
PROBABILITY OF ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES BY RADIAL BASIS FUNCTION NEURAL NETWORK...................105
Z. DOMOTOR , L. KOVACS , R. DRENYOVSZKI
PREPARATION OF ALUMINA FOAMS BY THE POLYURETHANE SPONGE REPLICA METHOD....................110
Z. ŠVAGELJ , L. ĆURKOVIĆ , V. MANDIĆ , V. REDE , B. BUŠETINČAN
NANOINDENTATION STUDY OF ULTRAFINE- GRAINED TITANIUM-BASED MATERIALS..........................117
D.R. BARJAKTAREVIĆ , M.P. RAKIN, B.I. MEĐO, V.R. ĐOKIĆ
SAFETY MECHANISM FOR STUBBLE CULTIVATORS: KINEMATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS....................122
S. CAKO , M. ČAVIĆ , I. KNEŽEVIĆ , M. PENČIĆ , M. RACKOV , S. BOJIĆ
CUTTING FORCES IN INTERRUPTED HARD TURNING................................................................................128
D. SMOJVIR , M. DUSPARA , K. STOIC , A. STOIC , M. STOIC
MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF DEFORMATION OF CUTTING TOOL DURING CUTTING.....................134
I. MIKULIĆ , K. STOIC , M. STOIC , A. STOIC
ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT OF WALL THICKNESS................................................................................140
M. ČULETIĆ ČONDRIĆ , V. DOMANOVIĆ
TESTING THE RANGE OF A LPWAN IOT RF MODULE BASED ON THE TEXAS INSTRUMENTS CC1200 CHIP..147
L. TARJAN , B. TEJIĆ , S. TEGELTIJA , I. ŠENK , N. ĐUKIĆ
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT IN THE CASE OF DEVICE FOR PLATE ROTATION.............................................154
I. LACKOVIĆ , S. ŠIMUNIĆ , M. MATANOVIĆ , D. KRIŽAN , A. VRHOVAC
WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS OF GEAR OIL USED IN TUNNEL BORING MACHINE..........................................163
A. KUMAR AGRAWAL , S. HLOCH, D. KOZAK, S. CHATTOPADHYAYA
SURVEY ON VEHICULAR AD-HOC NETWORKS..........................................................................................168
S. BOUCETTA , Z.C. JOHANYÁK , A. BOUZID
BMW’S CAR-SHARING SERVICES IN CHINA AND GERMANY USING SERVICE INNOVATION.......................175
N. ZIVLAK , W. BRAUN
WELDING OF 2099-T83 ALUMINIUM - LITHIUM ALLOY BY ELECTRON BEAM..........................................181
J. BÁRTA , B. ŠIMEKOVÁ , M. MARÔNEK , M. SAHUL
LASER WELDING OF AW2099 Al-Li ALLOY WITH Al-Mg FILLER METAL....................................................185
M. SAHUL , M. SAHUL , J. BÁRTA , M. MARÔNEK
MIGRATION FROM TIBCO BW5 TO TIBCO BW6 INTEGRATION PLATFORM............................................190
D. BABIĆ, T. LOLIĆ, D. STEFANOVIĆ, S. RISTIĆ
IMPLEMENTATION OF LEAN PRINCIPLES IN MINING INDUSTRY – CASE STUDIES....................................196
M. ANĐELOVIĆ , S.A. SEDMAK , S. KIRIN , B. ĐORĐEVIĆ , N. MILOVANOVIĆ
LEAN APPROACH AND RISK MANAGEMENT...............................................................................................200
S. KIRIN , D. KIRIN , A. SEDMAK
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF CRACK GROWTH IN INTEGRAL STRINGER PANEL USING XFEM.............206
A. Sghayer , A. Grbović , A. SEDMAK
EDUCATION
MEASURING STUDENT SATISFACTION WITH E-LEARNING PLATFORM...................................................211
N. RADOJČIĆ , N. SIMEUNOVIĆ , N. CVETKOVIĆ , J. ĆURČIĆ , S. RAKIĆ
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND BODY LANGUAGE IN THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT...................215
A. KULAŠ MIROSAVLJEVIĆ , M. GAVRAN
THE EFFECT OF A FOOTBALL TREATMENT ON
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOTBALL PLAYERS NK „OTOČAC”........................................220
H. SIVRIĆ , T. LOPAC , J. VUJČIĆ
EMPLOYERS' PERSPECTIVE ON EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS OF CROATIAN ENGINEERING GRADUATES........226
N. DUBRETA , L. BULIAN
ACTIVE LABOUR MARKET POLICY PROGRAMS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE IN THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA........233
V. BARTOLOVIĆ , V. VUČEMILOVIĆ , M. KUNTIĆ
EXPERIMENTS WITH A RANDOMIZED METHOD FOR PROBABILITY MAXIMIZATION...............................237
E. CSIZMÁS , T. VAJNAI , C.I. FÁBIÁN
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
AND INNOVATION PERFORMANCE: A LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................241
M. ŽIŽAKOV , S. VULANOVIĆ , M. DELIĆ , B. KAMBEROVIĆ , V. VRHOVAC
AGILE PROJECT MANAGEMENT BEYOND SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT: CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS...245
D. CIRIC , D. GRACANIN , N. CVETKOVIC , A. FAJSI , I. GRAIC
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT FOR VIRTUAL REALITY TRAINING....................................................................253
U. MARJANOVIC , S. TEGELTIJA , N. MEDIC , M. LAZAREVIC , N. TASIC, B. LALIC
EVALUATION OF STUDENTS IN DUAL HIGHER EDUCATION......................................................................257
E. ANGELI , E. TÖRÖK , D. NAGY
USE OF DIGITAL MEDIA WITH AN AIM OF IMPROVING THE TEACHING PROCESS...................................263
LJ. DUĐAK , L. GRUBIĆ-NEŠIĆ
AGRICULTURE
THE NEW INSECT PEST RELEASED BY THE CLIMATE CHANGE IN HUNGARIAN AGRICULTURE................268
V.J. VOJNICH , CS. SZABÓ , J. PETŐ , A. HÜVELY , A. PALKOVICS
EFFECT OF NITROGEN FERTILIZER TREATMENT ON THE PRODUCTION OF HYDROPONIC LETTUCE........273
V.J. VOJNICH , A. PALKOVICS , A. HÜVELY , J. PETŐ
IoT APPLICATION IN AGRO-INDUSTRY.....................................................................................................277
G. OSTOJIĆ , S. STANKOVSKI , S. TEGELTIJA , B. TEJIĆ , I. BARANOVSKI
THE EFFECT OF NUTRIENT SUPPLY ON THE DECORATIVE VALUE OF PETUNIA........................................283
ZS. TURINÉ FARKAS , J. PETŐ , A. HÜVELY
INVESTIGATION OF SOME SOIL PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
OF THE NEW PLANTATIONS IN THE SOUTH-EASTERN PART OF HUNGARY...............................................287
J. PETŐ , A. HÜVELY , A. PALKOVICS , V.J. VOJNICH
LOCAL EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE SAND DUNES OF HUNGARY.............................................292
Á. FERENCZ , ZS. DEÁK , V.J. VOJNICH
EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR SHORT FOOD SUPPLY CHAINS IN HUNGARY...293
ZS. DEÁK , F. ÁRPÁD , V.J. VOJNICH
UV-VIS DETERMINATION OF POLYPHENOLS AND FLAVONOLS IN SLAVONIAN PROPOLIS.......................304
M. ERNJEŠ , D. ZIMA , T. BENKOVIĆ-LAČIĆ , K. MIROSAVLJEVIĆ
PRACTICAL SAMPLING PROCESS FOR NEMATODES COMMUNITY...........................................................309
T. BENKOVIĆ-LAČIĆ , K. MIROSAVLJEVIĆ , R. BENKOVIĆ , D. KIŠ ,M. BRMEŽ
EFFECT OF GROWING MEDIA ON TAGETES PATULA NANA PLANTS QUALITY.........................................314
B. JAPUNDŽIĆ-PALENKIĆ , K. JAGODAR , N. ROMANJEK FAJDETIĆ , LJ. BOŽIĆ-OSTOJIĆ
ANALYSIS OF POSSIBLE TRIBOLOGICAL LOSSES DURING STEMMING OF TOBACCO.................................321
I.OPAČAK , A. MARUŠIĆ , P. KLJAJIĆ , V. MARUŠIĆ
APPLICATION OF MACHINE LEARNING
IN THE COLOR SORTING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.........................................................................326
I.Medojević , D. Marković , V. Simonović , A. Joksimović
STRUCTURE OF FARMERS EDUCATION AND
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT IMPORTANCE OF MELIORATION INTERVENTIONS...........................................333
R. BENKOVIĆ , B. JAPUNDŽIĆ PALENKIĆ , T. BENKOVIĆ LAČIĆ
MANAGEMENT
IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION ON ENTERPRISE...................................................................338
L. DUSPARA , S. KNEŽEVIĆ , R. ŠOŠIĆ
THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC COMMERCE..............343
I. BLAŽEVIĆ , S. ANĐELIĆ , J. JUKIĆ
INNOVATION FOR THE BRAVE................................................................................................................349
M. COBOVIĆ , V. JAKOBOVIĆ , M. VRETENAR COBOVIĆ
IMPORTANCE OF INNOVATIONS IN BUSINESS ECOSYSTEM....................................................................353
A. VEKIC , J. BOROCKI , A. FAJSI
THE EVOLUTION OF LOCALIZED INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS INTO INNOVATIVE GLOBAL NETWORKS.........359
A. FAJSI , S. MORACA, J. BOROCKI , A. VEKIC
SOFT SKILLS AS THE BASIS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES.......................364
L. GRUBIĆ-NEŠIĆ , S. MITROVIĆ VELJKOVIĆ , LJ. DUĐAK
KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER IN VIRTUAL TEAMS............................................................................................368
B. JOKANOVIĆ , B. BOGOJEVIĆ , I. KATIĆ
THE ROLE OF TRUST IN KNOWLEDGE SHARING AMONG EMPLOYEES....................................................372
A. NEŠIĆ , D. LALIĆ
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IT AND NON-IT
COMPANIES WITH RESPECT TO INTERNAL ADDITIONAL COMPENSATIONS......................................377
S. TODOROVIĆ , M. RADIŠIĆ , D. STEFANOVIĆ
EXAMINING THE IMPACT OF LEAN TOOLS ON TIME-BASED
EFFICIENCY AND INVENTORY PERFORMANCE IN THE CONDITIONS OF TRANSITIONAL ECONOMY...........382
D. BLAŽIĆ , M. DELIĆ , I. ĆOSIĆ , V. VRHOVAC, M. ŽIŽAKOV
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE IN E-LEARNING: A KEY FOR BUSINESS SUCCESS.........................................389
B. SOKOLOVIĆ , B. MILIĆ, I. KATIĆ
THE IMPORTANCE OF WORKING INSTRUCTIONS AS A PART OF THE LEAN INITIATIVE...........................393
M. LAZAREVIĆ , U. MARJANOVIĆ , S. TEGELTIJA , M. MEDOJEVIĆ , B. LALIĆ
EVOLUTION OF ERP SYSTEMS IN SMES – PAST RESEARCH, PRESENT FINDINGS AND
FUTURE DIRECTIONS................................................................................................................................400
D. BERIĆ , D. SEKULIĆ , T. LOLIĆ , D. STEFANOVIĆ
THE UNEMPLOYMENT PROBLEM AND ITS CONSEQUENCES IN THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA..................406
S. KNEŽEVIĆ , L. DUSPARA , D. EZGETA
DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL TOURISM IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF ORIOVAC..............................................411
M. STANIĆ , M. STANIĆ ŠULENTIĆ , M. PALKOVIĆ
EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND RISK AVERSION: DO MONEY-MAKERS CARE MORE FOR THE MONEY?.....416
M. FERENČAK , D. DOBROMIROV , M. RADIŠIĆ
UNIVERSITY KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS - STUDENTS PERSPECTIVE...........................................422
N. Tasić, M. Delić, R. Maksimović, B.Lalić, B.Bogojević, M. Ćikušić
TECHNIQUE
Quality Estimation of the Boiler Steel
13CrMo4-5 by the Metallographic
Replica Method
I. Putnik a, I. Opačak a, V. Starčević b, T. Özkan
a
b
c
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Ivane Brlić Mažuranić 2, 35000 Slavonski Brod,
Croatia, E-mail: {iputnik, iopacak}@sfsb.hr
Đuro Đaković Termoenergetska postrojenja, dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod,
Croatia, E-mail: valnea.starcevic@ddtep.hr
c
Sakarya University, Kemalpaşa Mahallesi Űniversite Cd. Esentepe Kampűsű,
54050 Serdivan/Sakarya, Turkey, E-mail: turgayozzkan@gmail.com
Abstract
During the projected lifespan, most components of the boiler are exposed to increased values of
temperature and pressure, flue gasses and variable loads, which are causing significant changes in the
structure of the material. Since we live in a time when survival is almost impossible without electricity,
halting of the entire power plant in order of taking samples for examination represents enormous
expense. Application of metallographic replicas as a method of non-destructive examination of the
structure represents a practical and reliable way of detections changes in the layer under the surface, as
well as changes in structure caused by work on elevated temperatures. This method can be used for
examination of entire constructions, as well as finished products from the industry. In the experimental
part of the work, quality estimation of material used for manufacturing of boiler the headers made of
low - alloyed steel 13CrMo4-5 was performed. The aim of the test is a determination of workability of
tested components, as well as evaluation of the possibilities for further course of exploitation.
Keywords: steel 13CrMo4-5, metallographic replica, quality, structure changes
of this steel type, due to its very good
weldability.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to good mechanical properties, chemical
stability and gas corrosion resistance at elevated
work temperatures, application of low alloy
boiler steels such as 13CrMo4-5 are widely
spread in the manufacturing of pressure parts for
the purpose of a thermal power plant. This type
of steel is especially used in thick – section
components such as steam pipes, steam
collectors and the headers. Particularly, these are
tubing steels for the cooler section of reheaters
and superheaters, membrane walls etc. [1,2]
Cr and Mo in the structure are forming
special carbides (Mo2C and Cr7C3) which are
slowing down creep and rising hardenability,
while Mo is preventing embrittlement failure.
Temperature range of application of above mentioned steel is 450-580°C: on higher
working temperatures carbides are coagulating,
the ferrous matrix is depleting with Mo, which
results with a lower temperature of
recrystallization. The microstructure of low
alloy steels is ferritic – perlite structure (in case
of conducted normalization) or bainitic. [2]
The relative low content of carbon in
structure (Cekv<0.25) also benefits the application
1
Conducted MT examination of a base
material of the headers outside of welding zone
has also shown a large amount of indications,
but according to standard EN 1369:2014, criteria
of acceptability for linear indications were
satisfied.
One of the significant representatives of low
alloy boiler steels is 13CrMo4-5, whose
chemical composition is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of 13CrMo4 steel [3]
Content of chemical elements in base material, [%]
C
Si
0.140 0.25
Mn
Cu
Cr
Ni
Mo
Al
Later, indications were tried to remove with
grinding, but without success: indications were
still present on the the surface of the material
and it was decided to withdraw them from the
manufacturing.
0.52 0.15 0.93 0.150 0.47 0.02
Above mentioned steels are seamless hot
rolled tubes, normalized at 900°C, slowly cooled
on still air, hardened at 730°C and cooled on air.
3. METALLOGRAPHIC REPLICA
2. PROBLEM DESCRIPT
Storage tanks, pressure vessels, pipework,
valves, and various safety critical components
are designed that during the lifespan encompass
gasses, liquids and solids on a way that loss of
containment does not happen. Leakage of above
- mentioned items of equipment may ultimately
result with the major accident on site or in the
workshop. [4,5]
During the routine examination after
welding, a large amount of linear indications has
been noticed in weld zone the header –
connection.
In spite of fact that inspection
certificate for the material of the headers was
valid, a base material of all the headers from the
same batch (219,1 x 40 x 2 170 mm) was
examined with MT testing.
The presence of hidden flaws (defects),
corrosion or cracks in the structure of these
components can result in the integrity of such
systems being compromised and increase the
likelihood of failure. Application of non destructive testing (NDT) as a measure of
discovering and identification of irregularities in
the structure of the material is widely spread in
practice. Often, only with the application of
some od NDT methods current state of process
plant can be obtained. [4]
Fig. 1. MT examination of 13CrMo4-5 the headers
During the lifespan, many machine elements
and parts of construction are subjected to change
of structure caused by high values of pressure
and temperatures. Even with various available
NDT, it's not always easy to monitor the
changes in structure. The metallographic replica
has proven to be very appropriate and reliable
method of non-destructive examination of
structure from almost any construction, no
matter flat or curved the surface was. [1]
In thermal power plants where many parts of
construction are exposed to elevated values of
pressure, temperatures and aggressive flue
Fig. 2. MT examination of 13CrMo4-5 the headers
2
gasses, shutting the whole plant just for taking
the specimens represent enormously costs.
Possibilities of application of metallographic
replica for examination of the surface and
subsurface structure changes are wide, but the
application of this method is very interesting for
thermal power plants and nuclear plants.
4. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
I order to find out possible reasons of the
appearance of indications on the the surface of
the the header, first, it was necessary to examine
the the microstructure of selected the header
with field test method by taking the print of
structure – replica.
Fig. 4. The principle of applying the replicas
type of steel). The surface of the specimen after
fully performed preparation is shown at fig.5.
Examination of the the surface with the
metallographic replica is carried out ISO 3057:
1999 (ISO 3057: 1998).
From the the header 2 170 mm length it was
taken the section in length of 255 mm by saw
with intense water cooling during the entire
cutting process (Fig. 3).
Fig. 5. The surface of the header prepared for taking
the replica
On the fig. 6 is shown a selection of positions
for taking metallographic replicas for the
examined the header. The first replica is taken
on the place where the header and nozzle are
connected (welded). Replica number 2 is taken
from the side of the header where the is noticed
damage of the surface.
Fig. 3. The specimen for metallographic replica
Preparation of the specimens from steel and
steel alloys consists of grinding, polishing and
etching the surface of the specimen with the
adequate chemical solution. [2]
On the fig. 4 is shown grinding of place
where replica number 2. With the grinding most
of the impurities such as corrosion, dust etc. are
removed from the surface of the metal.
Next step after grinding is polishing, and
after polishing is performed, the specimen is
etched in the chemical solution (nital, for this
Fig. 6. Defining the position of taking the
metallographic replica
3
13CrMo4 - 5 is a mixture of ferrite and pearlite,
while in pearlite areas colonies occur where
cementite lamellas are parallel to one another.
[2] Within a single pearlite area, these colonies
are arranged at different angles in relation to one
another. The example of the characteristic
structure of 13CrMo4-5 steel in initial state is
shown in Fig. 9.
After preparation of the surface is performed,
next step is preparation replica foils. Replica
foils need to soften in solvents like acetone or
methyl - ethyl acetone, then inserted on the
surface of material and evenly pressed (fig. 7).
[2]
Fig. 9. The microstructure of base material of the
header in initial state
Fig. 7 Metallographic replica number 1
On fig. 8 is represented applied replicant
foils (manufacturer Struers – Transcopy) for the
examination of the microstructure of the header
(13CrMo4 - 5) in experimental part of paper.
Replicant foils are plastic foils covered with a
thin layer of metal for reproduction of the
surface and the subsurface of the replica.
The example of characteristic structure of
13CrMo4-5 steel in heat affected zone of replica
1 is shown at fig.10.
Fig. 8. Principle of applying the replicas
Fig. 10. The microstructure of heat affected zone of
replica 1
Layer of metal on the surface of foil provides
effective reflection of light while testing the
replica with an optical microscope, and allows
safer and easier handling of the replica during
the further examination of structure. [2]
In the heat affected zone, under the influence
of heat inserted with welding the grain has
occurred. The growth of the grain size can be
taken as one of the major mechanism of
degradation in process of welding, especially
when large amount of heat was inputted.
5. EVALUATION OF RESULTS
Also, value of hardness will be greater in
heat affected zone than in base material: this
change will depend on the amount of heat input
The test results in the form of structure
images of the examined material are shown in
fig. 9 – 11. In the initial state, the structure of
4
and the cooling rate. During the process of
heating, a complete transformation of the ferritic
– pearlitic the microstructure of the base
material occurs into the austenitic structure. Due
to the high temperatures in this part of welded
joint and cooling with great speeds, austenite is
transforming into bainite with Widmanstätens
structure on the grain boundary.
Indications on the surface of the headers are
most likely defects occurred during the hot
rolling process. Also, during the entry control of
material grinding traces are spotted at the the
surface of material, and it was assumed that
there might be visible to the bare eye (removed
by manufacturer).
The example of structure from the side of the
header where damage on the surface of material
is noticed at fig.11. Structure observed on fig. 11 is
7. REFERENCES
[1] Z. Kovačević et. al., Assessment of
residual life boiler drum in view of
microstructure welded joints: Processing.
Proc. of the Int. Congress on Process
Engineering, Serbia, (2017).
similar to structure of base material of the header –
pearlite.
[2] Š. Klarić; D. Krumes,V. Pecić, Application
of on – site metallography for the
microstructure analysis of casting. Proc. of
the 14th Int. Foundrymen Conf., Opatija,
Croatia, pp. 81-86, (2014).
[3] The header certificate,
Žielezarne Podbrezova
manufacturer
[4] On – site metallographic examination and
preparation, Struers, last access 18/09/2018.
Fig. 11. The microstructure of material of replica 2
[5] ATM Handbook Committee: ASM
Handbook – Vol 09 Metallography and The
microstructures, ASM Int. Metals Park,
Ohio, USA, (2004).
6. CONCLUSIONS
The aim of this paper is the microstructure
examination of the headers made from
13CrMo4-5
low
alloyed
steel
with
metallographic replica.
[6] S. Jana, Non – destructive in situ
replication metallography. Journal of
Material Processing technology 49 (1-2)
(1995), pp. 85-114.
Based on large number of linear indicions in
weld zone of the header – nozzle, joint, it was
decided to examine base material outside the
welding zone for all the headers with same
dimensions (219,1 x 40 x 2 170 mm) from the
same batch of material.
Based on conducted examination of the
microstructure with metallographic replica (and
later mechanical properties), it can be concluded
that, regardless to indications on the surface of
material, after grinding and then closer
examination with some volumetric method of
NDT (such as radiography) examined material
can be used for original purpose (bottom the
header of front wall in boiler power plant).
5
Model Development for the Control of
Warehouse Operations with the usage of
RFID
B. Stevanov a, Z. Tešić a, M. Georgijević a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {branisha, ztesic, georgije}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Supply chain efficiency greatly depends on effective support from the available warehouses. Customer habits
are a changing category and with the expansion of online ordering, their requirements are targeted towards fast
delivery times with no errors and with minimal costs. In comparison with the manually operated warehouse, an
automated warehouse offers better fulfilment of the given requirements with less errors and higher reliability.
Warehouse control system plays an important role in the everyday management of automated warehouse
operations. The control system manages the requirements for goods identification and picking, its
transportation inside the warehouse; it also enables the monitoring of the goods manipulation equipment and
provides statistical data necessary for the decision making. This paper presents the analysis of requirements and
the development of a model for the control and automation of experimental logistics warehouse (developed for
the educational and research purposes) with the usage of RFID. The model would further serve as a basis the
control system development for enabling the supervision of warehouse operations and the equipment. The
paper also presents the analysis of trends in the logistical goods manipulation like application of Internet of
Things and Cyber-Physical Systems. Following the trends analysis, the recommendations for the further
development of warehouse operations management system are given.
Keywords: warehouse control, automation, model, RFID
locations, grouping goods from various customer
orders by destination and loading the picked
goods to transport vehicles [1]. In this process the
items can be hard to track and they can be easily
misplaced, which leads to the increased
warehouse costs and late deliveries to the
customers. For the purpose of dealing with these
problems, the Radio Frequency IDentification
(RFID) technology is applied along with the
appropriate software better known as the
warehouse management system (WMS).
1. INTRODUCTION
The role of the warehouses in the supply chain
is very important since their performances often
influence how quickly the ordered product is
shipped to the final customer. Since the todays
buyers tend to completely move towards online
shopping, the efficient supply chain demands the
fast and reliable execution of the warehouse
operations. Warehouse processes complexity is
growing with the development and growth of
production and service systems. The time
demanded for an item to be stored or retrieved
from storage location is getting shorter. Most
common warehouse operations include goods
receipt from transport vehicle, transportation of
received goods to storage location and the storage
itself, picking the ordered goods from its storage
To further investigate the application of these
technologies, this section presents the literature
review on RFID technology and its application in
the warehouse operations and in the supply chain.
Also, the review on new approaches in logistics
goods manipulation like Cyber-physical systems
6
stored randomly at any free location. When the
item is needed the same reader is used to activate
the pushing device to put the wanted item on an
output container.
(CPS) and Internet of Things (IoT) is given.
Second section of this paper represents the
methods and materials used for the research,
followed by the case study presented in the third
section. The third section also presents the
developed model for warehouse control. Fourth
section represents conclusions and further research
directions.
1.1
RFID
technology
and
application
in
managing
warehouse operations
Another example of RFID enabled warehouse
management system is presented in [4]. In the
warehouse, similar items are packed into pallets
which are then put into available storage locations.
The control system presented consists of three
parts. First part is the warehouse management
system, second is the guided system for forklifts
and the third part is the warehouse database and
the storage rules database. Warehouse
management system enables visual representation
of the storage space and helps in inventory
management. Warehouse management system
links the data about the pallet and the storage
location using the ID fields on RFID tags (which
exists both on pallet and storage location), and
generates the storage locations map. The forklift
guided system receives the commands from the
management system and helps the drivers to
locate the pallets at storage locations via map. The
third part of the system enables responsiveness to
the events which carry out in the operational
environment.
its
the
RFID represents the technology with the
function of objects identification presuming that
an object has an attached tag (transponder) with
the information which can be read by the reader
[2]. The information stored on the tag can be item
ID, location, name of the item, company name etc.
Tags and readers can be active and passive. Active
RFID tag has a battery which enables information
sending in certain time spans. Passive RFID tag
only emits information when it receives a signal
from a reader. Readers can also be passive (only
receives information from tag) or active (can emit
and receive information). Distance is also
important when RFID technology is used. If RFID
technology enables only small reading distance
then it is called near field, and if the reading
distance is larger (several meters for instance) then
it is called far field RFID [2].
In [5] the RFID technology is used for the
warehouse resource management. System
comprises of two modules. First module is used to
collect data from passive RFID tags placed on the
pallets and items, and data from active RFID tags
which are placed on moveable warehouse
resources like forklifts. For passive tags the
readers have integrated antennas to collect data
within their range. For active tags the ultra-wide
band technology is used to track resource location
within the warehouse. Second module enables the
resource tracking and resource management.
Resource tracking is realized through the server
which stores previously collected data and
calculates the resource positions. Resource
management uses data from resource tracking to
optimize resource usage and allocation. The
second module is also backed up with the data
warehouse which manages all internal data and
the data from company’s suppliers and buyers.
The application of RFID technology in the
warehouse enables item identification and
improved data accuracy [3], automation and realtime locating and tracking of stored items [4],
optimization of everyday work operations [5], and
inventory information sharing between different
actors in the supply chain [6].
In [7], a warehouse management system
backed up with the RFID technology is described.
Presented system contains the RFID reader at the
warehouse entrance which is used for the
incoming and outgoing items identification. Items
are packed into boxes and transported to the
storage location which is also equipped with the
RFID reader which automatically reads the item
data and transmits it to the warehouse
management system database. Tagged items are
7
The RFID system presented in [8] provides
better visibility of warehouse operations and
increase in productivity. System is composed of
three tiers. First one represents the data collection
via RFID devices in order to accurately show the
current status of the work operations. It is possible
to track location data, quantities data, and
operations status data. Second tier is the database
management system used for storage of collected
RFID data and for providing the data via SQL
queries. The third tier provides meaningful means
of retrieved RFID data from the database. It
enables equipment selection for the material
handling, the determination of the location of
warehouse resources and the optimized routing for
stored unit retrieval.
1.2 Adopting the RFID in
warehouses of the supply chain
information system. RFID technology is
implemented in the warehouses of distribution
centers where the readers are put at entry and exit
gates, and can collect data from tagged pallets in
real time and send it to the information system.
This has enabled elimination of some manual
operations, improved information accuracy and
visibility of the incoming and outgoing warehouse
items.
1.3 Application of new technologies in
combination with the RFID
Further development trends in the warehouse
management consider greater integration of RFID
technology and warehouse management systems
with other elements of supply chain [11]. As all
supply chain participants tend to integrate, with
improved communication between transportation
and the warehouse, the operations can be better
planned and executed. Application of concepts
like Cyber-physical systems and Internet of
Things will increase the transparency levels of
goods flow in the supply chain, enable
automation of logistic operations such as goods
loading, picking and inventory checking, with
restricting the human role to supervisory one [12].
The transportation and storage units will change
and adapt for the integration into IoT. The
example of this is presented in [13] where the
intelligent bin is developed in way that it contains
sensors, micro-processors and solar cells to
autonomously communicate with the logistic
environment and be energetically independent.
Also, with more emphasis put on the customized
products produced in a mass production
environment, the role of RFID is seen as crucial
in enabling real time information about the
movement of product items [14].
the
In [9] it is presented how the RFID technology
is deployed in the warehouses for the
humanitarian supply chain in India in order to
prevent inventory inaccuracies, shrinkage and
misplacement. The supply chain includes
procurement agency and shops with several
warehouses on the government and state levels
between. Warehouse operations include packet
receipt, putting away the packets, picking of the
packets and dispatching. The packets are tagged at
the procurement agency and then distributed from
one warehouse to another. Every warehouse has
RFID antenna positioned at the warehouse gates
and also in every warehouse the handheld RFID
readers are used for tracking the packets. This way
the humanitarian packets can be tracked through
the whole supply chain.
As presented in [10], the supply chain
processes for spare parts are redesigned with the
use of RFID technology. The presented supply
chain consists of headquarters, central distribution
center, local distribution centers and several
hundred repair shops. Participants in the supply
chain possess the information system which helps
them in doing everyday operations for inventory
replenishment. The main problems to solve are the
large number of manual operations in the
warehouses causing the long waiting times, and
the inventory information inaccuracy in the
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
The scope of the research is the application of
RFID technology in the experimental warehouse
and its integration with the warehouse
management system. Based on the analysis of the
related solutions and approaches to similar
8
problems reported in the literature, the model of
the RFID control system is made and explained.
The proposed model of the control system is
presented in Figure 4. We propose a solution
which is based on the RFID data collection with
tagging the pallets on isle A (18 tags) and tagging
the pallets (12 tags) and boxes (432 tags) on the
isle B. The products in the isle B which are put in
the boxes should be barcoded. RFID readers can
be used as handheld devices by operators and also
are to be put on the resources used for item
manipulation and at the warehouse doors and at
the loading/unloading point. All tags are passive.
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
The experimental logistics warehouse
(developed for the educational and research
purposes) consists of two isles which are marked
with letters A and B (Figure 1). Isle A is used
strictly for pallet storing (Figure 2) and comprises
of 18 pallet locations. The pallet contents are not
changed.
Fig. 2. Warehouse isle A
Tag memory should be enough to support the
keeping the data about pallet ID, barcode IDs of
the items stored on the pallet, time of storage,
storage location. The created data is to be
transfered to warehouse management system.
Fig. 1. Experimental warehouse
For the pallet manipulation the forklift is used.
Isle B is used for storing the pallets which contents
can be changed (Figure 3). There are 12 pallet
locations on isle B, where every pallet has a
capacity of 36 boxes in which the product items
reside. For box manipulation the vertical crane is
used (Figure 3).
The warehouse management system is the
second part of the control system which will
enable the inventory management, warehouse
operations management, resource management
and reporting.
By analyzing other examples reported in the
literature, the RFID technology cannot stand for
itself in the warehouse. Besides it, the warehouse
management system (WMS) is needed, since it
contains the logic behind the item manipulation.
The control system should have connection to the
supply chain management system (SCM
software).
Inventory management is the functionality
which provides information about what is stored,
when it is stored and where it is stored. This
functionality is to be realised with SQL queries
which can provide such information.
Warehouse
operations
management
functionality refers to the management of items
reception, putting and storage of the items, their
9
picking and dispatching. The first step is to unload
the products from the transportation, barcode them
and pack them on the tagged pallet (isle A) or
pack them into the tagged box and then on the
tagged pallet (isle B). Each item’s barcode is
scanned prior to packing and entered
automatically into PC which sends the data to the
RFID writter (writting the data to RFID tag) and
to WMS database. Next step is to retrieve the free
storage location from the WMS and to transport
the pallet. Storage location status is updated and
the products are stored. Basically, the system
should enable connecting the pallet with its
content and also connecting a pallet with the
storage location. This implies that the storage
locations should also have RFID tag for the
purpose of tracking the state of the location (free
or occupied) and the contents.
the retrieved items, which is to be sent to a WMS
in order of updating the inventory database
information.
Reporting functionality enables the periodical
reports concerning the warehouse operational and
resource efficiency.
Resource management is to be realised with
the controling of the vertical crane for retrieving
the boxes and with informing the forklift operator
from which location the pallet should be taken.
Both resources need to be equiped with the RFID
readers which can collect the information about
Fig. 3. Warehouse isle B
Fig. 4. Model for the control of warehouse operations with the use of RFID
10
tobacco industry:a case study. International
Journal of Production Research 48 (2010),
pp. 2513-2548.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The research in this paper presented a
model for the control of the warehouse with
the use o RFID technology. The model was
created by analyzing the developed systems
applied in other warehouses. The next step is
to test the proposed solution under various
conditions with varying demand and resource
availability, and to analyze the system
performance. After the system is confirmed by
tests its implementation is to start. Also, other
concepts should be further explored like the
implementation possibilities of smart item
storage units (similarly like presented in [13])
and the possibilities of autonomous resource
communication with WMS.
[5] H.K.H. Chow; K.L. Choy; W.B. Lee; K.C.
Lau, Design of a RFID case–based resource
management system for warehouse
operations.
Expert
Systems
with
Applications 30(4) (2006), pp. 561-576.
[6] Y.Bendavid; S.F.Wamba; L.A. Lefebvre,
Proof of concept of an RFID-enabled supply
chain in a B2B e-commerce environment.
Proc. of the 8th Int. Conf. on Electronic
commerce:
The
new
e-commerce:
innovations for conquering current barriers,
obstacles and limitations to conducting
successful business on the internet (2006),
pp. 564-568.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[7] S.Alyahya; Q.Wang; N.Bennett, Application
and integration of an RFID-enabled
warehousing
management
system–a
feasibility study. Journal of Industrial
Information Integration 4 (2016), pp. 15-25.
Research presented in this paper was supported
by Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of Republic of
Serbia, Grant TR-35036, Title: "Application of
information technology in the ports of Serbia – the
monitoring machine to a networked system with
EU environment ", for the period 2011-2018 year.
[8] T.C. Poon; K.L. Choy; H.K. Chow; H.C.
Lau; F.T.Chan; K.C. Ho, A RFID case-based
logistics resource management system for
managing order-picking operations in
warehouses.
Expert
Systems
with
Applications 36(4) (2009), pp. 8277-8301.
6. REFERENCES
[1] M.K. Lim; W. Bahr; S. CH Leung, Rfid in
the warehouse: a literature analysis (19952010) of its applications, benefits, challenges
and future trends. International Journal of
Production Economics 145(1) (2013), pp.
409-430.
[9] A. K.Biswal; M. Jenamani; S.K. Kumar,
Warehouse efficiency improvement using
RFID in a humanitarian supply chain:
Implications for Indian food security system.
Transportation Research Part E: Logistics
and Transportation Review 109 (2018), pp.
205-224.
[2] Y. Duroc; S. Tedjini, Rfid: A key technology
for humanity. Comptes Rendus Physique
19(1) (2018), pp. 64-71.
[10] J.C. Chen; C.H. Cheng; P. B. Huang, Supply
chain management with lean production and
RFID application: A case study. Expert
Systems with Applications 40(9) (2013), pp.
3389-3397.
[3] E. Sahin; Y. Dallery, A literature review on
the impact of inventory data record
inaccuracies on inventory management and
the potential of the RFID technology to
tackle this issue, Ecole Centrale Paris,
(2007).
[11] L. Barreto; A. Amaral; T. Pereira, Industry
4.0 implications in logistics: an overview.
Procedia Manufacturing 13 (2017), pp. 12451252.
[4] H.W.Wang; S.Chen; Y.Xie, An RFID-based
digital warehouse management system in the
11
[12] E. Hofmann; M. Rüsch, Industry 4.0 and the
current status as well as future prospects on
logistics. Computers in Industry 89 (2017),
pp. 23-34.
[13] J. Schuhmacher; W. Baumung; V. Hummel,
An intelligent bin system for decentrally
controlled intralogistic systems in context of
Industrie 4.0. Procedia Manufacturing 9
(2017), pp. 135-142.
[14] M. Liukkonen; T.N. Tsai, Toward
decentralized intelligence in manufacturing:
recent trends in automatic identification of
things. The International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology 87(912) (2016), pp. 2509-2531.
12
Experimental Determination
of the Beam Buckling Load
S. Kotšmíd a, P. Beňo
a
a
Technical University in Zvolen, Faculty of Environmental and Manufacturing
Technology, Študentská 26, 960 53 Zvolen, Slovak Republic, E-mail: {stanislav.kotsmid,
pavel.beno}@tuzvo.sk
Abstract
Two ways of a beam buckling load determination are discussed in this contribution. When performing
the buckling experiments, the steel tubes with six different lengths and two diameters were used.
Except the axial load, a lateral and axial displacement were measured. The buckling load was
determined as a maximum tangent value from the load – displacement curve, where both axial and
lateral displacement were used. The relation between the axial and lateral displacement was derived
analytically and the results were compared with those obtained from the experiment. Moreover, the
maximum load was measured for a comparison. The effect of both approaches for the buckling load
determination is presented and their interchangeability in the range of our experiments is proved.
Keywords: Beam Buckling; Buckling Determination; Experimental Buckling Load.
Turkmen [4] applied the Southwell plot for
the buckling load evaluation. At this approach, a
linear slope created from the load and lateral
displacement is a base for the buckling
computation. Bedon and Amadio [5] used this
method for their research of flexural-torsional
buckling of rectangular laminated glass beams.
Borowitz and Bank [6] used this approach for a
web buckling determination.
1. INTRODUCTION
Space trusses have been widely used in
engineering structures. They are mainly
composed of long steel members loaded by an
axial force. Therefore, a buckling occurs there.
The determination of the buckling load is
essential to access the reliability and safety of
space truss structures.
Several authors have discussed the buckling
load as a maximum measured force of the
buckling test (the LM approach in our text).
Likewise, the asymptotic method is mostly used
which determine the buckling load on the basis
of a load – displacement curve. Shariati et al. [1]
used the load – lateral displacement curve for
take a peak value to determine the buckling
load.
As a base for the buckling determination,
Ziółkowski and Imiełowski [7] compared the
load – axial displacement curve and the load –
lateral displacement curve. They mentioned that
the first one provides clear information on the
energy aspects of the buckling. On the other
hand, the second one is very good for the
buckling event detection. Ye, Hajirasouliha and
Becque [8] compared both mentioned ways for
their research of cold-formed steel column
buckling and brought the same conclusions.
The “Top of the Knee” method was
described in the book of Jones [2] and in the
report of Nishino, Ueda and Tall [3]. The
procedure of the buckling load determination is
based on the load – displacement curve.
Dundu [9] created the load – axial
displacement curve for his research of short
cold-formed lipped channels. Because the curve
13
Hence, the arc length is computed as follows
raised linearly until the maximum loads, these
values were taken from the graph as the
buckling loads.
l
⌢
π
π
f (x ) = ∫ 1 + wmax cos
l
l
0
Considering the maximum measured force as
the buckling load, there is no needed to measure
deformation neither axial nor lateral. In case of
elastic models, there is a question, whether the
maximum tangent load should be used which is
analogical to the proportional limit. Another
question is, whether the axial or lateral
displacement should be used for the load –
displacement curve. In this contribution, both
approaches will be compared and discrepancies
will be evaluated.
1
2
2
x dx = l0 = l + u B
(2)
After modification the Eq. 2, we get
l0 −u B
∫
0
π
π
1 + wmax
cos
l0 − u B
l0 − u B
x
2
1
2
dx − l0 = 0
(3)
Solving the Eq. 3, the relation between the
maximum lateral and axial displacement is
2
π 2 wmax
2(l0 − u B )
(4)
− uB = 0
As it can be seen, the Eq. 4 is not depended
on the beam cross-sectional parameters.
Therefore, only the beam lengths are enough to
be taken into account.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
When considering the load status of a beam
during the buckling, a deflected line is
investigated as shown in Fig. 1.
Let us consider an elastic part of the load –
axial displacement and the load – lateral
displacement curve as a linear function. When
the buckling load has the same value at both
approaches and both lines start at zero, u should
be linearly depended on w. This assumption is
greatly simplified, but acceptable on the borders
of our use.
When performing the experiments, six
different lengths and two diameters of the steel
tubes with flattened ends were used. We
continued on the research which was aimed at
the investigation of a tube ends flattening effect
on the critical buckling force [10]. The
following parameters of tubes were used:
Table 1. The dimensions of the steel tubes
dext (mm)
12
436
14
520
Fig. 1. Buckled Beam Line
Let the deflection line is in the form of sine
function:
f (x ) = wmax sin
π
l
x
482
574
l (mm)
532 578
632 690
624
742
672
798
* the thickness of the tubes was 1 mm
(1)
These lengths correspond to the slenderness
of 112, 124, 136, 148, 160, and 172. All
specimens belong to the elastic buckling area.
where wmax is the maximum lateral
displacement of the beam with the length l0.
After deflection, the beam takes a new shape
with the length l. The beam length l0 is also an
arc length of a neutral axis.
Figure 2 shows a typical curve for the axial
load as a function of the axial and lateral
displacement obtained in the buckling test.
14
Fig. 3. The axial-lateral displacement relation for the
beam dext = 12 mm; l0 = 436 mm
Fig. 2. Course of the Axial Load
For a test evaluation, three values of the load
were taken from the graph. The first one was the
maximum value of the axial load (LM), the
second one was the maximum tangent value of
the load – axial displacement relation (LAD)
and the last one was the maximum tangent value
of the load – lateral displacement relation (LLD)
as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 4. The axial-lateral displacement relation for the
beam dext = 14 mm; l0 = 798 mm
Fig. 5 and 6 show the standard deviation
intervals of measured buckling loads, where
proximity of the LAD and LLD can be seen.
3. RESULTS
On the basis of Eq. 4, 12 different courses for
the axial – lateral displacement relations can be
built. Due to their high similarity, we have
limited on the shortest and the longest specimen
length, where behaviours are shown in Fig. 3
and 4.
When considering the interchangeability of
the LAD and LLD approaches, the axial
displacement should be in a linear dependence
on the lateral one and so a linear trend line is
modelled there. From the experiment, an area of
linear load increasing is situated between 0.7
and 2.0 mm of axial displacement depending on
the tube length and diameter. When making a
trend line through this curve area, the
coefficients of correlation are higher than 0.99,
which means a good agreement with the linear
function.
Fig. 5. Standard deviation intervals of the LM, LAD
and LLD approaches for dext = 12 mm
A paired t-test was performed for knowledge
of significance between the load obtained by the
LAD and LLD approach. Despite some
significant discrepancies between the ones, the
average discrepancy of the load means is 3%,
which is negligible in practice.
Fig. 6. Standard deviation intervals of the LM, LAD
and LLD approaches for dext = 14 mm
15
Fig. 7 and 8 show the 95% confidence
intervals of measured buckling loads.
6. REFERENCES
[1] M. Shariati; M. Sedighi; J. Saemi; H. R.
Allahbakhsh, A Numerical and experimental
study on buckling of cylindrical panels
subjected to compressive axial load.
Strojniški vestnik – Journal of Mechanical
Engineering 56 (2010), pp. 609-618.
[2] R.M. Jones, Buckling of Bars, Plates, and
Shells. Bull Ridge Publishing, Virginia,
(2006).
[3] F. Nishino; Y. Ueda; L. Tall, Experimental
investigation of buckling of plates with
residual stress. Fritz Laboratory Report, no.
290.3, (1966).
Fig. 7. Comparison between the LM, LAD and LLD
approaches for dext = 12 mm
[4] D. Turkmen, Experimental investigation of
the phenomenon of buckling for steel and
aluminium struts. Journal of Engineering
Sciences 1 (1995), pp. 39-43.
[5] Ch. Bedon; C. Amadion, Flexural–torsional
buckling:
Experimental
analysis
of
laminated glass Elements. Engineering
Structures 73 (2014), pp. 85-99.
Fig. 8. Comparison between the LM, LAD and LLD
approaches for dext = 14 mm
[6] D. T. Borowicz; L. C. Bank, Web buckling
in pultruded fiber-reinforced polymer deep
beams subjected to concentrated loads.
Journal of Composites for Construction
18(3) (2014).
4. CONCLUSIONS
As shown in the results, there are no significant
discrepancies between the LAD and LLD
approaches. Therefore, we may prefer the method
which is easier and more suitable in a concrete
situation. Mostly, it is the relation between the
axial load and axial displacement. It is not
depended on a lateral deformation direction of a
specimen. In particular, a specimen deformation at
the spatial stability lose is sometimes hard to
predict. In this case, the measurement of the axial
displacement for the buckling load evaluation is
easier. Last but not least, modest sensor
technology can be used for this experiment.
[7] A. Ziółkowski; S. Imiełowski, Buckling and
post-buckling behaviour of prismatic
aluminium columns submitted to a series of
compressive loads. Experimental Mechanics
51 (2011), pp. 1335-1345.
[8] J. Ye; I. Hajirasouliha; J. Becque,
Experimental investigation of local-flexural
interactive buckling of cold-formed steel
channel columns. Thin-Walled Structures
125 (2018), pp. 245-258.
[9] M. Dundu, Buckling of short cold-formed
lipped channels in compression. Journal of
the South African Institution of Civil
Engineering 56 (2014), pp. 46-53.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Slovak
Research and Development Agency under the
contract No. APPV-16-0194, the grant project
KEGA No. 001TU Z-4/2017 and the grant
project VEGA No. 1/0826/15.
[10] S. Kotšmíd; Ch-H. Kuo; P. Beňo, Buckling
loads for steel tubes with flattened ends.
Archive of Applied Mechanics 87 (2017),
pp. 949-960.
16
Exergy Destruction Minimisation of a
Regenerative Brayton Cycle
M. Rauch a, M. Holik b, A. Barac b, A. Galović
a
b
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, Ivana Lučića 5, 10002
Zagreb, Croatia, E-mail: {mrauch, agalovic}@fsb.hr
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Trg Ivane Brlić Mažuranić, 35000 Slavonski Brod,
Croatia, E-mail: {mholik, abarac}@sfsb.hr
Abstract
In this paper, a Brayton cycle with regenerator in which an air is preheated by the exhaust gases
leaving the turbine is analysed. In the model, by utilizing the air-standard assumptions, the
combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process in the heat exchanger
where the air is heated by the stream of constant temperature. The regenerative Brayton cycle is
optimized using the three criteria: the maximum effective specific work out, the maximum thermal
efficiency of the cycle and the minimum exergy destruction of the cycle. The processes in the turbine
and compressor are adiabatic, with the given values of their isentropic efficiencies. The analysis is
performed in the non-dimensional form, using the pressure ratio as variable, in the interval from
2 to 20. The effect of the regenerator on the thermal and exergy efficiency of the cycle is presented
and the criterion which refers to the justification of the installation of the regenerator is given.
Keywords: regenerative Brayton cycle, thermal efficiency, exergy efficiency, exergy destruction
high pressure ratio, [2]. Cheng and Chen [3]
investigated the effect of regeneration on the
power output and thermal efficiency in an
endoreversible, regenerative Brayton cycle.
They calculated the maximum power output and
the corresponding thermal and the second law
efficiencies using the optimum values of cycle
temperatures. Medina, Roco, and Hernandez [4]
applied the method of power density
maximization (output power per maximum
specific volume in the cycle) to regenerative gas
turbines and showed that the thermal efficiency
at the maximum power density may be greater
or smaller than the thermal efficiency at the
maximum power output depending on the value
of the recuperator effectiveness. Chen et al. [5]
theoretically analysed a closed, regenerative,
internally irreversible Brayton cycle with
variable temperature heat reservoirs. Haseli [6]
performed an analysis of the regenerative, open
Brayton cycle and its optimization on the basis
1. INTRODUCTION
The Brayton cycle represents the operation of
a gas turbine engine. Gas turbines have many
advantages, like low capital cost to power ratio,
high flexibility, high reliability without
complexity, short delivery time, early
commissioning and commercial operation and
fast starting–accelerating, but low thermal
efficiency, about 40%, is their main
disadvantage [1]. Therefore, different processes
are added to the basic cycle to improve thermal
efficiency. One of the most known ways to
improve the thermal efficiency of the Brayton
cycle is the simple regenerative Brayton cycle.
In the regenerator the heat from the exhausted
gases leaving the turbine is utilized for
preheating the airflow before it enters the
combustions chamber. Regenerative Brayton
cycle has greater thermal efficiency at low
pressure ratio, but its efficiency decreases at
17
of the maximization of work output and thermal
efficiency and the minimization of entropy
generation. Durmusoglu and Ust [7] optimized
an irreversible regenerative closed Brayton
using a thermoeconomic objective criterion
which is defined as the ratio of net power output
to the total cost rate. Recently, Živić et al. [8]
conducted the optimization of regenerative
Brayton cycle with respect to three different
thermodynamic criteria by using two concise
diagrams for each criterion.
Also, the effectiveness of the regenerator
installed between the compressor and turbine is
investigated.
2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Gas turbine engines usually operate on an
open Brayton cycle. Air at ambient conditions is
sucked into the compressor, where its
temperature and pressure are raised. The highpressure air then enters the combustion chamber,
where the fuel is burned at constant pressure.
The resulting high-temperature gases then enter
the turbine, where they expand to the
atmospheric pressure while producing power.
The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are
dumped into the atmosphere.
Exergy is a measure of the usefulness or
quality of an energy form. It can be defined as
the maximum amount of work that can be
produced by a system or a flow of matter or
energy, as it comes to equilibrium with an
environment, [9]. Exergy analysis is used to
detect and quantify the causes of the
thermodynamic imperfection of the process
being considered and indicate the possibilities
for thermodynamic improvement of the process,
[10].
In our model, by utilizing the air-standard
assumptions, the combustion process is replaced
by a constant-pressure heat-addition process
where air is heated in the heat exchanger from
the stream at constant temperature. Also, in the
regenerative Brayton cycle, the regenerator is
installed between the compressor and turbine.
In the present study the optimization of a
regenerative Brayton cycle by the maximization
of the thermal efficiency, maximization of the
work output and minimization of the exergy
destruction is performed.
The scheme of the gas turbine engine is
shown in Fig. 1 and Brayton cycle in the
temperature-entropy (T,s) diagram in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. Schematic view of the gas turbine engine
18
p
λ = 2
p1
ηc =
T1 − T2s
T − T4
; ηt = 3
T1 − T2
T3 − T4s
ε reg =
rT =
T2* − T2
T4 − T2
T3
T1
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Energy equation for the regenerator can be
written in the following form
Fig. 2. T,s diagram of the regenerative Brayton cycle
In the compressor, the air at state 1,
considered as ideal gas, is adiabatically
compressed to state 2, at pressure p2, whereby
friction is taken into account. After that, air
enters the regenerator, where is heated at
pressure 2, by the hot exhaust gases leaving the
turbine, to state 2*. The preheated air after
leaving the regenerator enters the heat
exchanger where is heated by the stream at
constant temperature Tg to state 3 in which the
temperature T3 is usually prescribed. The air,
after that, enters the turbine where is
adiabatically, with friction, expanded to state 4*,
flows through regenerator, and then coming out
into the atmosphere at known state, pressure p0
and temperature T0. The pressure drops in the
heat exchanger and regenerator are neglected, so
it is: p2 = p2* = p3, and p3 = p4* = p4.
T2* − T2 = T4 − T4*
(7)
Heat added to the air in the heat exchanger is
expressed in the non-dimensional form
q
= rT − 1 + (1 − λ ) / ηc − ε reg ( rT − η t rT (1 − 1 / λ ) − 1 + (1 − λ ) / ηc )
CmpT1
(8)
The extreme of the above function we shall
find from the condition
d q
=0
dλ CmpT1
(9)
Maximum of this function exists for the
following value of λ.
λ=
2.1. Energy analysis of the Brayton
cycle
Heat added to the air in the heat exchanger is
defined with the following expression
q = Cmp (T3 − T2* )
κ −1
κ
(1)
Effective specific work output at the turbine
exit is
wef = wcomp + w turbine = C mp [(T1 − T2 ) + (T3 − T4 )]
(2)
ε regηcη t rT
1 − ε reg
(10)
We assume that value of pressure ratio p2/p1
lies in the interval 2.0 ≤ p2/p1 ≤ 20.0 which
means that value of λ lies in the interval
1.219 ≤λ ≤ 2.353 for the value of heat capacity
ratio 1.4. By incorporating the equation (9) in
the equation (8) the value of non-dimensional
maximal heat added to the air in heat exchanger
can be obtained which will be presented in the
chapter with the results of the calculation.
Equation (2) in the non-dimensional form is
the following:
The following expressions are taken into
consideration
wef
λ −1
= η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) −
ηc
CmpT1
19
(11)
This function has the extreme, the local
maximum, for the following value of λ
λ = rTη cη t
T
p
X = qn H m − H m0 − T0 ( S m − S m0 ) = qn Cmp (T − T0 ) − T0 Cmp ln − Rm ln
T0
p0
(15)
(12)
The expression for the exergy transferred by
the heat in the heat exchanger with one stream at
constant temperature Tg is
The expression for maximum effective
specific work output is obtained by substituting
equation (11) in equation (10).
(
)
wef
2
= η c η tη c rT − 1
C T
mp 1 maks
T
X heat = Φ 1 − 0
T
g
(13)
EXERGY
DESTRUCTION
COMPRESSOR
In the present analysis, we assume that all
values, except the value of λ, are known, so the
only variable is λ .
(16)
IN
THE
Compressor with the exergies at the entrance
and exit is schematically shown in Fig. 3.
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle
is obtained by dividing the equation (10) with
the equation (8)
λ −1
ηc
η=
rT − 1 + (1 − λ ) / ηc − ε reg ( rT − η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) − 1 + (1 − λ ) / ηc )
η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) −
(14)
The extreme of the above function, because
of its complexity, can not be obtained explicitly
like in the previous two cases. This maximum
will be obtained numerically, which will be
presented in the chapter with the results of the
calculation.
Fig. 3. With the exergy balance of the compressor
Exergy destruction in the compressor
follows from the exergy balance of the
compressor
2.2. Exergy analysis of the Brayton
cycle
Exergy analysis is carried out using the
second law of thermodynamics. Since, in the
analysis the pressure drops in the regenerator
and heat exchanger are neglected, the
irreversibility and related exergy destruction in
the considered cycle are caused by the heat
transfer between the streams of different
temperatures and adiabatic process with friction
in the compressor and turbine. The exergy
destructions in the compressor, turbine,
regenerator and heat exchanger are calculated
individually and then for the whole cycle.
X dest, c = Pc − X 2
(17)
and can be transformed in the non-dimensional
form:
X dest,c
CmpTok
= ln
EXERGY
TURBINE
ηc − 1 + λ
ηcλ
DESTRUCTION
(18)
IN
THE
Turbine with the exergies at the entrance and
exit of the turbine are schematically shown in
Fig. 4.
The known equation for the exergy of the
ideal gas stream is
20
X dest,reg
CmpTok
1= ln
1-λ
ηc
1-λ
+ ε reg rT − η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) − 1 +
ηc
+
1-λ
1-
ηc
1-λ
rT − η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) (1 − ε reg ) + ε reg 1- η
c
ln
rT − η t rT (1 − 1/ λ )
(22)
EXERGY DESTRUCTION IN THE HEAT
EXCHANGER
Fig. 6 schematically shows the heat
exchanger with the exergies at the entrance and
exit
Fig. 4. With the exergy balance of the turbine
The exergy destruction in the turbine follows
from the exergy balance of the turbine
X dest,t = X 3 − X 4 − Pt
(19)
and can be transformed in the non-dimensional
form:
X dest,t
= ln λ -η t ( λ − 1)
CmpTok
EXERGY
DESTRUCTION
REGENERATOR
Exergy balance of the
schematically shown in Fig. 5
(20)
IN
Fig. 6. With the exergy balance of the heat exchanger
Exergy destruction in the heat exchanger
follows from the exergy balance of the heat
exchanger
THE
regenerator
is
T
X dest, heat_ex = X 2* + Φ 1 − 0
T
g
− X 3
(23)
and in the non-dimensional form it is
X dest, heat_ex
CmpTok
r
T
−
= ln
1-λ
1-λ
+ ε reg rT − η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) − 1 +
1
ηc
ηc
and the expression for the exergy
destruction in the regenerator follows from the
exergy balance of the regenerator:
1-λ
1-λ
rT − 1+ ε reg rT − η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) − 1 +
ηc
ηc
∆T
rT +
T1
(24)
X dest,reg = X 2 − X 2* + X 4 − X 4*
where ∆T = Tg – T3 = 100 K .
Fig. 5. With the exergy balance of the regenerator
(21)
In the non-dimensional form, this destruction is
21
EXERGY DESTRUCTION
BRAYTON CYCLE
OF
0.50 and 0.75. The state of the ambient is
defined with the pressure p0 = 1 bar and
temperature T0 = 288.15 K, and this is the state
of the air at the entrance of the compressor. It is
assumed that the air is ideal gas with the
constant value of molar heat capacity.
THE
The exergy efficiency of the whole cycle,
according Fig. 7, can be expressed in the
following form
Diagram in
Fig. 7. With the exergy balance of the entire plant
ηex =
ηex =
wef
(25)
T
q 1 − 0
T
g
η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) −
(r
T
λ −1
ηc
T
− 1 + (1 − λ ) / ηc − ε reg ( rT − η t rT (1 − 1/ λ ) − 1 + (1 − λ ) / ηc ) 1 − 0
T
g
)
(26)
The exergy destruction of the recuperative
Brayton cycle follows from the exergy balance
of the cycle
T
X dest,Br = Φ 1 − 0
T
g
− X 4* − Pef
(27)
where Pef = Pt - Pc
By dividing the equation (27) with the
product (CmpTok) we get the expression for
X dest,Br /(CmpTok), which is equal to sum of the
exergy destructions of the compressor, turbine,
regenerator and heat exchanger.
Fig. 8 (left) shows the non-dimensional
specific effective work of the Brayton cycle as a
function of pressure ratio rp. Parametric quantity
is
the
temperature
ratio
rT = T3/T1 whose values are 3.724; 4.418 and
5.112.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present numerical analysis the next
three values of the air temperatures at the
entrance of the turbine are taken: T3 = 800, 1000
and 1200 °C. For the regenerator effectiveness
the following values are varied: εreg = 0.0; 0.25;
22
Fig. 8. Variation of the effective specific work output (left) and the thermal efficiency (right) with respect to rp for
various rT
Fig. 8 (left) has a maximum and for the
greater value of rT the maximum has a higher
value. The optimum value rp,opt, in which
effective specific work output has a maximum is
moved to higher values for the greater value of
rT. The effective specific work output is not
dependent on the regenerator effectiveness
because the regenerator has no effect on the
work output.
The each curve in
23
Diagram in
Fig. 8 (right) shows the thermal efficiency of
the Brayton cycle as a function of rp for defined
parametric values of rT. It can be seen that the
thermal efficiency is higher for the greater
values of rT. Also, each curve has a maximum
for the value rp,opt which is greater for the greater
value of rT.
Diagrams in Fig. 9 show the thermal
efficiency of the Brayton cycle as a function of
rp for different values of regenerative
effectiveness; for isentropic efficiencies of
compressor and turbine, ηc = 0.85; ηt = 0.90.
Fig. 9 (left) refers to value of rT = 3.725 and Fig.
9 (right) to rT = 5.112.
Fig. 9. Variation of the thermal efficiency with respect to rp for variousεreg (ηc = 0.85; ηt = 0.90)
with due respect of rT = 3.725 (left); rT = 5.112 (right)
24
From the diagram in Fig. 9 (left) it can be
seen that for each parametric value of
regenerator effectiveness, the maximum value of
thermal efficiency is achieved. The optimum
value of rp, because of complexity of the
function for thermal efficiency (expressed by the
equation 13) can not be found; but numerical
values from the output file of the computer
program can be read. For the value of rT = 3.725
the pairs of values (rp; ηmaks) for εreg = 0.0; 0.25;
0.50 and 0.75 are (12.4; 0.3234); (8.80; 0.3218);
(6.2; 0.3394) and (4.20; 0.3856).
As can be seen from the diagram in Fig. 9
(right), the trend of the curves are very similar
as in the diagram in Fig. 9 (left). The point of
intersection of all curves is at rp = 18.21
(λ = 2.29). So, in the case of greater rT the
installation of the regenerator makes sense in the
larger interval of the pressure ratio, for
rp < 18.21.
For the value of rT = 5.112 the pairs of values
(rp; ηmaks) for εreg = 0.25; 0.50 and 0.75 are:
(17.2;
0.4143),
(10.8;
0.4294)
and
(6.20; 0.4775). For εreg = 0, rp,opt is greater than
20 and the maximum cannot be seen in the
diagram.
With the increase of the εreg, the values of
rp,opt decreases. All curves of the thermal
efficiency have one point of intersection, at
value rp = 10.12, and can be concluded that the
regenerator's installation makes sense for the
values of pressure ratio rp < 10.12. In this
interval the higher values of thermal efficiency
are valid for greater values of εreg . For the
rp > 10.12 the installation of the regenerator is
not physically justified.
Diagrams in Fig. 10 show the exergy
efficiency of the Brayton cycle as a function of
rp for different values of regenerative
effectiveness; for isentropic efficiencies of
compressor and turbine, ηc = 0.85; ηt = 0.90.
Fig. 10 (left) refers to value of rT = 3.725 and
Fig. 10 (right) to rT = 5.112.
Fig. 10. Variation of the exergy efficiency with respect to rp for various εreg (rT = 3.725; and T0/Tg = 0.246 - left);
(rT = 5.112; and T0/Tg = 0.183 - right)
εreg = 0.25; 0.50 and 0.75 are: 0.5072; 0.5257
and 0.5846.
The curves of thermal efficiency and exergy
efficiency are very similar. Cause lies in
equations (13) and (26) and can be explained by
the equation (25). It is clear that the exergy
efficiency is greater than thermal efficiency.
Diagrams in Fig. 11 show nondimensional
exergy
destruction
in
the
individual
elements of the Brayton cycle and total exergy
destruction as functions of rp for rT = 3.725 and
rT = 5.112.
For rT = 5.112, the values rp,opt subject
to maximum exergy efficiency, obtained for
25
Fig. 11. Variation of the nondimensional exergy destruction in the compresor, turbine, regenerator and heat
exchanger with respect to rp for εreg = 0.50 and rT = 3.725 (left); rT = 5.112 (right)
The total exergy destruction, for rT = 5.112,
has a minimum at value of pressure ratio
rp = 10.8.
It can be seen that the exergy destruction in
compressor and turbine increases with the
increase of rp. The exergy destruction in the
regenerator falls to zero and then increases. The
total exergy destruction also has a minimum at
the pressure ratio rp = 6.24, (for rT = 3.725). It
should be noticed that the value rp subject to
maximum exergy efficiency is equal to value rp
subject to maximum thermal efficiency.
Diagrams in Fig. 12 show the total exergy
destruction as a function of rp for values of
regenerator effectiveness εreg = 0; 0.25; 0.50 and
0.75.
Fig. 12. Variation of the exergy destruction with respect to rp for various εreg, rT = 3.725 (left); rT = 5.112 (right)
each curve of the total exergy destruction has a
minimum. The value of this minimum is less if
the effectiveness is higher. For rp > 10.12, the
total exergy destruction continuously increases,
which means that the existence of regenerator is
If there is no regenerator in the installation,
the total exergy destruction continuously
decreases with the increase of rp. It can be seen
in Fig. 12 (left), if the regenerator is installed,
regardless of its effectiveness, for rp < 10.12,
26
counterproductive. In the case rT = 5.112, the
limit value of pressure ratio to which makes
sense to install the regenerator is 18.21.
rT = 4.418, this interval is 2.0 ≤ rp < 13.872
while for rT = 5.112 this interval is
2.0 ≤ rp < 18.21.
Equation (28) gives the value of λ at which
the temperature T2 at the compressor exit is
equal to the temperature T4 at the turbine exit. It
is clear that, at this value of λ , the exergy
destruction in the regenerator is equal to zero. If
the value of rp (and appropriate value of λ) is
greater than limit value, temperature T2 is
greater than temperature T4 and in the
regenerator the temperature of the air decreases
because the heat is transferred from the air at the
compressor exit to the air at the turbine exit. The
existence of a regenerator, in this case, loses its
meaning.
In all cases of rT, the minimal values of
exergy destruction are obtained for εreg = 0.75.
The maximal exergy destruction takes place in
the heat exchanger.
5. REFERENCES
[1] A.L. Polyzakis; C. Koroneos; G. Xydis,
Optimum gas turbine cycle for combined
cycle power plant. Energy Conversion and
Management 49 (2008), pp. 551-563.
[2] M. Goodarzi, Usefulness analysis on
regenerator and heat exchanger in Brayton
& inverse Brayton cycles at moderate
pressure
ratio
operation.
Energy
Conversion and Management 126 (2016),
pp. 982-990.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The carried out analysis showed that the
regenerator has no effect on the maximum
effective work output. The regenerator has a
great effect on the thermal efficiency of the
cycle, the total exergy destruction or exergy
efficiency of the cycle. For the three
investigated values of temperature ratio
rT = 3.724; 4.418 and 5.112, for the regenerator
effectiveness εreg = 0.5 the values of optimal
pressure ratio subject to maximum effective
work out, maximum thermal efficiency and
minimum exergy destruction are identical and
they are: rp,opt = 6.248; 8.426 and 10.870
respectively. These results matched with the
results of Haseli [11] who argues that the
optimization based on the three criteria lead to
different results for optimum pressure ratio;
implying that the maximum work output, the
maximum thermal efficiency, and the minimum
entropy production are three different
operational regimes, but, at a regenerator
effectiveness of 0.5, these three optimization
objectives become identical.
[3] C.Y.
Cheng;
C.K.
Chen,
Power
optimization
of
an
endoreversible
regenerative Brayton cycle. Energy 21(4)
(1996), pp. 241-247.
[4] A. Medina; J.M.M. Roco; A.C. Hernandez,
Regenerative gas-turbines at maximumpower-density conditions. Journal of
Physics D 29 (1996), pp.2802-2805.
[5] L. Chen; F. Sun; C. Wu; R.L. Kiang,
Theoretical analysis of the performance of
a regenerative closed cycle Brayton engine
with internal irreversibilities. Energy
Conversion and Management 38 (1997),
pp. 871-877.
[6] Y. Haseli, Optimization of a regenerative
Brayton cycle by maximization of a newly
defined second law efficiency. Energy
Convers Manage 68 (2013), pp. 133-40.
[7] Y. Durmusoglu; Y. Ust, Thermodynamic
optimization of an irreversible regenerative
closed
Brayton
cycle
based
on
thermoeconomic performance criterion.
Applied Mathematical Modelling 38
(2014), pp. 21-22 and pp. 5174-5186.
Then the analysis showed that increasing the
value of the temperature ratio increases the
interval of the pressure ratio in which the
installation of the regenerator makes sense. For
rT = 3.724, this interval is 2.0 ≤ rp < 10.12; for
27
[8] M. Živić; Z. Virag; A. Galović, Another
view on the optimization of the Brayton
cycle with recuperator. Technical Gazette
24(2) (2017), pp. 419-425.
[9] Y. Haseli; I. Dincer; G.F. Naterer, Unified
Approach
to
Exergy
Efficiency,
Environmental Impact and Sustainable
Development for Standard Thermodynamic
Cycles. International Journal of Green
Energy 5 (2008), pp. 105-119.
[10] L. Ozgener; A. Hepbasli; I. Dincer, Exergy
analysis of two geothermal district heating
systems for building applications. Energy
Conversion and Management 48 (2007),
pp. 1185-1192.
28
Machine Learning Techniques for Smart
Manufacturing: Applications and
Challenges in Industry 4.0
B. Bajic a, I. Cosic a, M. Lazarevic a, N. Sremcev a, A. Rikalovic
a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: bojana.nikolic.ftn@gmail.com,
{ilijac, laza, nextesla, a.rikalovic}uns@ac.rs
Abstract
The Industry 4.0 is now underway, changing traditional manufacturing into smart manufacturing and
creating new opportunities, where machines learn to understand those processes, interact with
environment and intelligently adapt their behaviour. Big data and artificial intelligence (AI) make
machines in industrial production smarter than before addressing the question of how to build
computers that improve automatically through experience. Machine learning (ML), as a subfield of
AI, has become the main driver of those innovations in industrial sectors, which provides the
opportunity to further accelerate discovery processes as well as enhancing decision making. However,
ML algorithms learn directly from the examples, data and experience and are able to figure out how
to perform important tasks by generalizing from them. This paper summarizes challenges and future
trends of ML applications for smart manufacturing and provides an overview of several ML
algorithms (e.g. support vector machine, k-nearest neighbour, neural network etc.) that are able to
give the answers to those issues and avoid the potential problems in the future.
Keywords: artificial/computational intelligence, deep learning (DL), industry 4.0, machine learning (ML)
[5]. ML uses increased computing power and
various software for gaining the meaningful
information and knowledge from the big data,
which are collected from the environment, but
also, has ability to learn from those data by
getting the artificial/computational intelligence
[5], [6]. For some specific tasks, ML is able to
achieve a higher level of requirements than
human. This highlights the importance of the big
data from which the information is obtained.
However, the balance has to be found. Too
much information can lead to delay of the
actions or the wrong conclusions of the certain
problem and the lack of the information may not
lead to problem solving [4]. Another great issue
is related to security aspect of the data [7].
Having that issue in mind, ML has to utilize the
different techniques and algorithms in order to
achieve maximal benefit from the data [4], [6].
1. INTRODUCTION
The Industry 4.0 lays on the increment of
available data sets. Different types of available,
large and complex sets of data, namely big data,
cannot be processed by using existing
conventional technologies. Advanced methods,
technologies, algorithms and software must be
used in order to collect and extract data from the
manufacturing environment [1]–[4]. Big data
changes the way decisions are made inside the
manufacturing environments based on different
scientific areas such as computer science,
mathematics and advanced statistics [4]–[6].
The field, that combines together all of these
sciences is machine learning (ML) [4], [5]. ML
is becoming the most important method that is
used for predicting and classifying the difficulty
solving problems inside the production systems
29
The most important techniques that are used for
learning, classified by the available feedback,
are supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement
learning methods [8]. This paper focuses on the
challenges and applications that ML faces with
in today’s manufacturing systems. Also, the
accent is put on future trends of ML in
manufacturing applications where the primary
objective lays behind the utilization of big data
in order to accomplish cost efficient, fault-free
and optimal quality manufacturing process [9].
data and its corresponding output while
determining the structure in the machine so that
mapping can be learned [5].
Different
researches
have
different
approaches to structure the field of machine
learning, but the structure that is most widely
used is classified by learning processes, and that
is supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement
learning, shown in Figure 1 [4], [8], [14].
2. BACKGROUND
This section presents an overview of the
related studies of Industry 4.0 and ML, as well
as the ML techniques.
2.1.
Industry
Learning
4.0
and
Machine
Fig 1. ML techniques and algorithm (adapted from [4])
al of Precision Eng
The rapid development of technologies
interconnected with ICT and internet of things
enables the growth of manufacturing which has
led to the Industry 4.0 [10]. The implementation
of CPS combined with IoT can provide
intelligent, flexible systems capable of selflearning which presents the core of Industry 4.0
[1]. In order to achieve intelligent and flexible
systems, the big data is required. In knowledge
discovery in databases (KDD) of big data,
machine learning plays an important role along
with data mining, statistic, pattern recognition
and other methods [11], [12]. ML, as a part of
intelligent system in Industry 4.0, is broadly
implemented in various fields of manufacturing
where its techniques are designed to extract
knowledge out of existing data [13]. The new
knowledge (information) supports the process of
decision-making or making prediction of
manufacturing system. But the end goal of the
ML techniques is detection of the patterns among
the data sets or regularities that describe the
relationships and structure between those sets [4].
The supervised learning is machine learning
technique, specified for large amount of input
data (training sets), are applied to the systems
where the correct response is provided by the
knowledgeable expert [4], [5].
In supervised learning, a system is trained
with data that has been labelled. The labels
categorise each data point into one or more
groups. Then the system learns how this training
data is structured and uses this to predict in
which categories to classify new output data [3].
The final goal of completed supervised learning
process is that the outputs are close enough to be
useful for all given input sets [15].
The most common supervised machine
learning assignments are classification and
regression
[4],
[16].
In
classification
assignments, the program has to learn how to
predict the most likely category, class or label
for discrete output values from one or more
input data sets [16]. Similar to classification,
regression problem, also requires supervised
learning techniques. The difference in regression
problems is that programs must foresee and
predict the value of a continuous output by
themselves [17].
2.2. Machine Learning techniques
ML system, that maps an input into an
output, needs to be trained in order to learn. The
system training is achieved by giving an input
30
Reinforcement learning system receives
inputs while interacting with manufacturing
environments and making sequential decisions
in order to maximise future rewards [6]. It
addresses assignments where some of the data
presents labelled training sets and other data
does not [5]. In reinforcement learning, instead
of training datasets that indicate the correct
output for a given input, the training datasets are
presumed to provide only an indication whether
an action is correct or not. If an action is not
correct, there still remains the problem of
finding the correct action [18].
According to Wuest et al. [4] as well as
Jordan and Mitchell [18], the supervised
learning is the most commonly used ML
technique, because majority of applications can
provide labelled data.
UNSUPERVISED LEARNING
The unsupervised learning represents the
intelligent learning where evaluation of the
action is not dependent, provided nor
supervised, because there is no knowledgeable
expert [4], [5], [15], [19]. Unlike supervised
learning, the unsupervised learning does not
learn from labelled data. Instead of that, it
discovers patterns among the data [16].
3. ML ALGORITHMS IN
MANUFACTURING
The assignment of unsupervised learning is
to discover groups of related observations of the
input data, namely clusters [6]. Such
observations within groups have cognation
based on some similarly measurements where
similar points are grouped together [6], [16].
The main goal of unsupervised learning is to
discover the unknown relationships between
classes using the clustering analysis [4].
According to Jordan and Mitchell [18] and
Hackeling [16] the another unsupervised
learning task is dimensionality reduction. It
represents the process of discovering the
relationships between input data sets and can be
used for visualising. Considering that some
problems might contain thousands and
thousands of input data, problem with big data
becomes impossible to visualize [16].
This section provides an overview of ML
algorithms used in manufacturing processes.
3.1. Support Vector Machine
Support vector machine (SVM), a supervised
learning algorithm, is used for linear as well as
for non-linear problems, such as classification
and regression [5], [16], [20]. SVM was formed
based on the idea of creation the flat hyperplane
or set of hyperplanes [21]. The hyperplanes
divide the high-dimensional or infinitedimensional vector space into distinguished
parts with maximum margin distance between
the two nearest training data points of classes
[20], [21]. SVM test point of data is said to
belong to one class if it is located below the
hyperplane, and the other way around [21]. The
mapping into an infinite-dimensional vector
space is preformed by kernel functions which
led to the main goal of SVM and that is fixing
the computational predicting problems [21],
[22]. The goal of an SVM is to produce a model,
based on the training data, that predicts the test
point of data where is needed a subset of the
training data [5]. In order to achieve the goal,
i.e. to achieve prediction of maximum accuracy,
SVM requires a large sample size [23].
REINFORCEMENT LEARNING
Reinforcement learning presents another ML
technique that has focus on learning from
experience [4]–[6]. According to report of The
Royal Society [6] and Jordan and Mitchell [18],
reinforcement learning presents combination of
unsupervised
and
supervised
learning
techniques, where the information available in
the training data is intermediate between
supervised and unsupervised learning, while
Wuest et al. [4] and Hinton [5] consider it as “a
special form of supervised learning”, known as
semi-supervised learning.
However, the advantage of SVM is its ability
to work with incomplete data as well as the
speed of classification. The biggest drawbacks
31
of SVM is slow speed of learning and its lack of
explanation ability to humans [23].
3.4. k-Nearest Neighbour
The k-nearest neighbour (k-NN) is the ML
algorithm used for non-linear problems, i.e.
classification and pattern recognition that
requires computation of distances between
sample of data where each input data is labelled
of its k closest neighbouring samples [26].
3.2. Decision Tree
Decision tree is machine learning algorithm
that is easily understandable and humans
interpretable due to its graphical representation
[5], [24]. The challenging issue is finding an
optimal type of decision tree for training data
sets. Two types of decision trees are mentioned
by Hinton [5]. The first type is classification tree
which gives a categorical output, while the
second type is regression trees, which gives
numerical output. Another disadvantage of
decision tree is the inability to solve non-linear
problems unlike the SVM algorithm, but it has
quite high speed of learning [23]. Decision tree
has wide utilization in exploration and
prediction problems due to its ability to score so
highly on critical features of data mining [25].
Ismail et al. [25] consider that k-NN as a
prediction algorithm, similar to clustering due to
its ability to predict and compare similarities of
the big data. According to Kotsiantis [23], k-NN
algorithm is very sensitive to data values that are
missing, noisy, fuzzy, irrelevant and redundant,
and the speed of classification is slow. That
leads to accuracy in general which is quite low.
Also, the k-NN is hard to interpret due to its
unstructured collection of training big sets of
data. Contrary to that, k-NN has a great speed of
learning which makes it one the fastest learning
ML algorithms [23]. Figure 4 represents an
example of k-NN where the space is divided in
four different areas by coloured circle. An
empty circle presents a new data, which falls in
green area.
3.3. Rule – Based Learners
Rules-based learners, also known as expert
systems [5], are considered to be one of the
major forms of machine learning in combination
with data mining. Also, rule-based learners are
used for extraction the information based on
statistical significance with the help of “if-then”
rules [11]. Although they have application in
both, supervised and unsupervised learning, they
have the greater utilization in unsupervised
learning environments for KDD due to its
comprehensibility [23], [25]. As Hinton [5] and
Kotsiantis [23] noticed, the drawback of rulebased learners is classification accuracy due to
acquisition of the knowledge. However,
classification accuracy can be improved by
automatic feature construction algorithms and
combining different characteristics where the
background expert knowledge is used.
Fig 4. An example of k-NN algorithm
3.5. Naive Bayesian
Naive Bayesian (NB) represents ML
algorithm, which is defined as a very simple
model composed of acyclic graphs. Acyclic
graphs of NB model have only one parent and
multiple children. The parent represents the
unobserved node, while the children are
observed nodes [4], [23].
Another advantage of the rule-based learners
is that the system is able to explain the process
how the result was generated where the learning
algorithm always methodically checks the entire
sets of data [5]. Considering the noise, rulebased learners are resistant to it due to their
pruning strategies which avoid overfitting the
data [23].
According to Kotsiantis [23], naive Bayesian
algorithms are usually less precise that some
other ML algorithm that are more sophisticated
(i.e. ANN) due to the supposition of
independence among children. The opposite of
32
Kotsiantis opinion, Hastie et al. [15] consider
that NB algorithm can often outperform some
more sophisticated algorithms due to the fact
that it cannot affect the estimation dramatically
and that NB has significant advantages over
other algorithms.
which it is constructed. There it can be multiple
hidden layers, not just one as presented.
However, if there is a greater number of hidden
layers with very large dataset, than is talked
about deep neural networks (DNN) [29].
Naive Bayesian is useful for problems related
with classification, regression, clustering and
others [27], [28]. Also, it requires little storage
space during both stages: training and
classification [4]. But the major advantages of
the NB classifier are its short computational
time for training, fast process of learning and
ability of working with big, fuzzy, noisy and
incomplete data [4], [23].
3.6. Artificial Neural Network
Fig 5. An example of ANN (adapted from [30])
Artificial neural network (ANN) is ML
model that is used for nonlinear classification
and regression problems [11], [16], applied in
various fields of manufacturing due to the fact
that it plays an important role in today’s
problem solving by parallel processing, where it
simulates the decentralized “computation” of the
humans central nervous system. The ANN
allows an artificial system to perform
supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement
learning assignments [4]. The challenging task
for ANN is achieving the high accuracy where
the big data is required. Another issues are
related to dealing with overfitting, missing data
values, speed of learning and complexity of the
models they produce [23].
DNNs are based on fundamental concept of
ANN. A deep structure of DNN exploits
multiple hidden layers with multiple neurons in
each layer, a nonlinear activation function, a
cost function and a back-propagation [31]
algorithm for information-processing in a
hierarchical
architecture
for
pattern
classification problems [32].
In comparison with ANN architectures,
DNNs are able to learn high-level features,
which are more complex and abstract, by
integrating feature learning [31] and model
construction into a single model. That model is
created by selecting different kernels or tuning
the parameters by end-to-end optimization
where the parameters of DNN model are trained
jointly withоut human supervision [33], [34].
Similarly to SVM, ANN is capable of
handling the high-dimensional data, continuous
features and high-variance, but the process of
learning is slow [23], [25]. The ANN is good for
KDD for hidden patterns or trends due to its
abilities of processing which has similarities
with human brain [25]. In contrary to that, АNN
requires complete records of data to do their
work. In other words, the data must not be
fuzzy, noisy or incomplete. Another drawback is
that the large size of sample is required in order
to achieve its maximum prediction accuracy
[23]. The example of ANN algorithm is shown
on Figure 5, where is presented the layers of
4. APPLICATIONS,
CHALLENGES AND FUTURE
TRENDS OF MACHINE
LEARNING
Machine learning techniques bring many
improvements inside the manufacturing
environments. The conducted review led to
identification of application, challenges and
future trends of ML which are discussed in the
following subsections.
33
building a qualitative knowledge base where the
results of a simulation experiment are used.
Also, the supervised learning is employed for
investigating the decision-making and processplanning problems in manufacturing [38].
4.1. Application
The application of ML techniques is in
constant enlargement over the last couple of
decades [35]. Growing application of ML has
led to the availability of complex big data that
has certain patterns [36], database technologies,
computer power [37] and usability of ML
techniques [4].
Nowadays, the ML algorithms have wide
utilization in different manufacturing areas such
as optimization, troubleshooting and quality
control [36]. The result of the scientific research
has shown that ML techniques is consider to be
a powerful tools for permanent quality
improvement in a large and complex processes,
e.g. semiconductor manufacturing [38].
From the perspective of manufacturing,
various types of big data sets can be captured,
collected, extracted and analyzed in order to
improve the traditional manufacturing systems
[1], [37]. Finding the knowledge in big data and
transforming it into information is done by KDD
with the help of ML techniques [1]. According
to Escobar Diaz and Morales-Menendez [37],
the primary objective of ML applications in
combination of big data analytics is the
achievement of defect-free and fault-free
processes.
Machine
learning
techniques
have
application in LEAN manufacturing systems as
well by using just-in-time (JIT) and kanban
tools. The results of implementation of ML into
LEAN manufacturing systems show that the
neural networks and decision trees represent two
most practical algorithms with special abilities
for adjusting the number of kanbans in a
dynamic JIT manufacturing environments [38].
Most of the manufacturing issues appertain
under classification problems, where the experts
of industrial field have to determine a label of
the class to specific object or a situation based
on the big data set [38]. Problems of
classification do not have to be related only to
manufacturing but can relate to the entire
industry. As Rikalovic et al. [39] mentioned
application of machine learning techniques in
combination with ANFIS (adaptive neuro-fuzzy
inference systems) that rely on expert
knowledge has utilization in intelligent decision
support system for industrial site classification.
The ML has many security applications for
controlling the access and verification. On the
one hand, security application uses pattern
recognition along with other methods where the
goal is to decide if the given face needs to be
classified or labelled as unfamiliar. On the other
hand, the goal of verification is to decide
whether person is the person he claim that he is
while dealing with various conditions, e.g.
lighting conditions, facial expressions etc. [35].
The application of ML algorithms such as knearest neighbour and naive Bayesian have
utilization in building predicting models such as
predicting the failure of airplane components
before they stop working [38].
The applications of ML in manufacturing refer
to pattern recognition in existing sets of data. That
is beneficial for development of foreseeing the
future behaviour of the manufacturing system with
the end goal of detecting the present behaviour
patterns or regularities that describes relations
between data [1], [4].
Another very important application of ML is
related with transparency as “the ability of an
organization
to
unravel
and
quantify
uncertainties to determine an objective
estimation of its manufacturing capability and
readiness” [40]. The transparency can be
achieved as reducing the complexity of the
results where ML algorithms evolve the patterns
from existing data and extracting the knowledge
Another advantage of ML application is its
ability to further improve the extracted
knowledge by learning from results where ML
has ability to create new valuable information
[4]. As Pham and Afify [38] mentioned in their
paper, the supervised ML technique is used for
34
[45]. Due to such concerns, the additional
researches are needed in order to improve the
storage as well as the security of big data.
However, sometimes the nature and size of big
data does not allow the big data to be located in
the single space, but has to be distributed over
the distinct physical locations. In order to
achieve connection as well as the learning
system between the big data from the entire
manufacturing environment the communications
through wireless devices is required [43].
used for decision-making and giving an
approximations about future behaviour [4].
Also, as Lee and Lapira [41] and Lee et al. [42]
stated that the increment of transparency in
manufacturing environments has a number of
advantages, but the application of ML leads to
the major cost reduction in every aspect of the
transparent manufacturing environment.
4.2. Challenges and future trends
Machine learning is still young scientific
field that is growing rapidly due to its practical
applications. Having that in mind, one of the
major trends is related with the environment in
which a ML algorithms operate due to issues of
parallelism [43]. ML systems are interconnected
with the complex software collections which run
on computing platforms and provide a range of
algorithms and services to data analysts [43].
Due to that, as mentioned before, trends but also
the challenges are related with big data from
which knowledge can be extracted [13].
Another major challenge as well as the future
trend is development of the ML algorithms as
well as the improvement of existing ones
implemented in manufacturing systems that are
able to handle various situations and learn from
them [1]. As the Wuest et al. [4] consider that
the question what ML technique and algorithm
to choose is a great issue due to their advantages
and disadvantages. Because of that the so called
“hybrid
algorithms”
that
present
the
combination of various ML algorithms, are
becoming more and more used in the flexible
manufacturing systems [46]. However, the
biggest challenge for the development and
application
of
ML
algorithms
that
manufacturing is facing today is finding the
human experts in data science and optimization
scientific fields having in mind that different
skills are required [47].
Today, manufacturing is facing an increment
of challenges related to complexity and dynamic
behaviours [44] while adding the fact that the
manufacturing is affected by uncertainty [4]. In
other words, the constant enlargement of big
data and its availability, high-dimensionality,
variety as well as homogeneity represents the
main challenges in manufacturing environment
because the knowledge cannot be extracted. In
order to overcome these challenges, the machine
learning techniques and algorithms are used [4].
However, the gathered big data has tendency to
contain irrelevant, missing and redundant
information which can lead to the impact on the
performance of the ML learning abilities [1].
5. DISCUSSION AND
CONCLUSION
This paper provides the preliminary literature
overview of the machine learning techniques as
a part of intelligent system (i.e. supervised,
unsupervised and reinforcement learning) and
the mostly used algorithms as well as their
advantages and disadvantages within the
Industry 4.0. Due to the fact that there can be
confusion when it comes to machine learning
and statistics, a detailed comparison is given and
the differences are presented between these two
methods. Also, the application, challenges and
future trends of machine learning represent the
the main focus of this paper.
The major concerns related with collecting
new kinds of big data, motivated by its
economic value, is privacy and security issues
since the big data are stored in virtual cloud
platforms [28], [43]. The misuse of big data in
manufacturing, as well as in entire industry, is in
increment, because of the wireless remote
control of the physical devices. Therefore, it is
possible to take control over the physical
machinery if the data is not properly secured
35
The application of ML is closely related to
big data without which the development and
implementation of ML techniques would not be
possible due to the fact that extracting the
knowledge is the most important action that lead
to the achievement of defect-free and fault-free
processes. Also, the further improvement of ML
application enable the the learning process
where the artificial/computational intelligence
plays the most important role. Today, the ML
algorithms have wide utilization in different
manufacturing areas such as optimization,
control,
troubleshooting,
security
and
verification where the increment of transparency
of the entire manufacturing environment is
beneficial for cost reduction without affecting
quality of production. Also, ML algorithms have
application in semiconductor as well as in
LEAN manufacturing environments where the
results of the experiment show an improvement
in process quality.
development of ML and its implementation
inside intelligent manufacturing environments
with focus on Industry 4.0.
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38
CAx Systems within the Engineering
Educational Process
K. Monkova a, P. Monka a, J. Tkac
a
a
FMT TUKE with the seat in Presov, Sturova 31, 080 01 Presov, Slovakia,
E-mail: {katarina.monkova, peter.pavol.monka}@tuke.sk
Abstract
The article deals with the influence of CAx systems on engineering educational process. There are
also analysed the requirements for the education development to increase its quality and wide key
competencies in the article. The basic issues, that are necessary to consider to be the process of
education more effective, are described in the paper. Authors also provide a basic overview of study
at universities focusing on the technical fields of study. The main part of the manuscript is focused on
the possibilities to use CAx systems within the technically oriented lessons as the tools of a modern
approach to the schooling. Advantages and disadvantages of this modern approach to education
enable to know its strengths and weaknesses. This know-how subsequently will allow to improve
both professional and computer skills of students and so prepare them better for their career. In
addition to computers, textbooks still remain a support tool for education as it was in a previous time
period. New trends are also being introduced to prepare study materials to better explain the problem
through visualization. They are described in the last part of the paper.
Keywords: engineering educational process, computer aid, development, requirements, e-documentation
term, in the form of better labour market
prospects throughout an individual’s working
life.
1. INTRODUCTION
Education has a role to play in providing the
skills and competencies needed to operate in this
new world. It has the potential to influence the
life outcomes of the most disadvantaged and is a
powerful tool to reduce inequity. It can also help
in teaching basic skills as well as instilling
values and helping to define identity. Some of
the ways education can affect and be affected by
global trends are obvious and immediate, for
example through the teaching of foreign
languages, global competencies for business and
trade, and raising awareness of climate change
effects and science.
In recent decades, access to tertiary
education has expanded remarkably, involving
new types of institutions that offer more choice
and new modes of delivery. In parallel, the
student population is becoming increasingly
diverse in gender and in study pathways chosen.
Students are also becoming more likely to seek a
tertiary degree outside their country of origin. In
most countries, the fields of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics are less popular.
In half of the OECD and partner countries with
data, the combined share of students graduating
from the fields of natural sciences, mathematics
and statistics, engineering, manufacturing and
construction,
and
information
and
communication technologies is still lower than
the share of students graduating from business,
administration, and law. [1]
Investing time and money in education is an
investment in human capital. For adults, the
labour market outcomes of higher educational
attainment outweigh the initial cost of pursuing
education. Investment in education is costly in
the short term but accrues benefits in the long
39
Fig. 1 Education spending per student and as a percentage of GDP [2]
which will require higher investments in
education.
Fig. 1 [2] shows education spending (per
student and as a percentage of GDP) that covers
expenditure on schools, universities and other
public and private educational institutions.
Spending includes instruction and ancillary
services for students and families provided
through educational institutions.
It will be necessary to better harmonise
the supply and demand for skills on the
labour market that will be increasingly
dominated by services, also through the
system of monitoring and evaluation of
needs of the labour market and
cooperation of all concerned parties.
The relationship between per capita GDP and
expenditure per student by educational
institutions is difficult to interpret. However,
there is a clear positive relationship between the
two at both primary and secondary levels – in
other words, less wealthy countries tend to spend
less per student than richer ones. Although the
relationship is generally positive at these levels,
there are variations, even among countries with
similar levels of per capita GDP. [2]
Deserved attention will have to be paid to
issues of development of lifelong education and
lifelong consultancy systems, as well as to new
types of services of employment in a “regionspecific“ combination with other social services
as open regional systems.
Recent advances in information and
communication technology (ICT) have a
profound effect on education. The world is also
becoming increasingly interconnected and the
connections are both officially established and
spontaneously created. Most countries are
rethinking their education systems with
globalization in mind. These new developments
require a re-evaluation of the goals and methods
of education. The wide range of methods is used
in engineering and science: general logic
method, non-logic method and hypothesis
method, mathematical method especially the
numerical calculation and simulation method is
in a wide range, including signal and image
processing,
control
design,
test
and
measurement, analysis and computations. [3]
2. ENGINEERING
EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
2.1. Requirements for the education
development
In view of the ongoing development and
trends, three main issues should be considered:
In the mid and long-term horizon, a huge
potential for creation of jobs, including
new jobs, exists at the level of regions.
Requirements for skills, abilities and
qualifications will considerably increase
for all types and levels of employment,
40
Therefore, effective education has to be
variable and adaptive to current situation. A
good teacher understands that there are core
skills and knowledge that have to be learned, but
they have to be presented in a way that students
find relevant, even if not in their immediate
lives. The science of teaching requires content
knowledge, organization, management skills,
and detailed planning. The art of teaching is not
about possessing an outgoing personality, but
making connections to students, as well as
connecting the curriculum to the real world in a
relevant manner. Thus, today´s teachers should
create and maintain relationships with their
students for the sake of tomorrow’s success.
2.2.
CAx
systems
within
technically oriented lessons
The key for the achieving of these goals is
a flexible system in which universities react
mainly to the requirements of young people, but
also to the demand for lifelong learning of
experts. Through their activities, the universities
should also be the "engine" of social and
economic development of region in which they
are situated.
In Slovakia, the content and methods of
teaching within the framework of individual
subjects are in full competence of universities
and faculties in agreement with fundamental
rights and freedoms of higher education
institutions. In higher education institutions the
choice of teaching methods is determined by the
type of teaching and specificities required from
individual subjects. The determination of length
of the practice teaching falls within the
competence of the appropriate higher education
institutions. Lectures, seminars, proseminars
(combined form of teaching made up of lectures
and seminars), exercises, courses, consultations,
excursions, practice teaching, seminar papers are
the main forms of teaching. In technical and
science subjects it is a laboratory work. As a
part of lectures, the dialogue methods are used
combined with computer technology and other
teaching aids. In seminar and practical parts of
teaching a use is often made of simulation
methods. [5]
the
Current education has to provide the general
skills for all students and primarily reflect the
actual and anticipated needs of labour on the
market. The reforms in education system have to
reflect a high degree of student freedom to
choose a form and content of education. This
has to be connected with universal sophisticated
system of quality measuring of institutions,
founders and the teaching. At the same time, it is
necessary to innovate the school equipment at
all levels of education to improve the
relationship teacher-student. It requires the
following general steps: [4]
Utilization of computer aid at the technically
oriented lessons turns into certainty today. The
most available and commonly used software in
technical practice are: Autodesk Inventor, PTC
Creo, Solid Works, CATIA, NX, Solid Edge and
other. Fundamental properties of the software
mentioned above are the parametric modelling
and associative operation, what means that any
change in construction activities will be
reflected in the whole design and everything,
what follows this change, is automatically
updated.
the contextual and procedural transition of
the traditional school into a modern
school with the implementation of
changes to the program of teaching from
information memorizing to the ability to
acquire, to process and to use them,
the supporting and improving of the
education
in:
foreign
languages,
information technology, basic business
knowledge and skills of every graduates,
the quality of teachers increasing,
especially by adding of the attractiveness
for good-class teachers in their profession
and by improving of conditions for
teacher continuing education and skills
development.
The operating basis all of these software
applications is 3D model. It is the reason why
the teaching process, related to the technological
devices design, starts off by creation three
dimensional objects with required shape and
41
manufacturing operation allows to generate
cutter location data and after the
postprocessing to make the NC program for
the selected control system of the machine in
very short time.
dimensions. Students learn to use available
techniques of software as effectively as possible
such that the part should be generated with the
minimum number of steps. Primarily students
learn to create simple shapes of the bodies and
consequently the complexity of the part rise.
Students are able to prepare 3D models of
technical usage as it is shown in the Fig. 2.
− Movable sets are represented by various
types of mechanisms e.g. quick return
mechanisms,
cam mechanisms,
gear
mechanisms, as well as machines or others.
Students learn to execute the kinematics
analysis of mechanism by three various
methods (numerical, graphical and with
computer aid) and so they can consider
advantages and disadvantages of them.
Students study planar mechanism, but the
same principles can be used for space motion
of mechanism in the future and real practice.
Fig. 2 Virtual model with basic shapes
To understand the assembly behaviour, it is
necessary to simulate the kinematics motion and
within the software to define the joins through
the easy connections as are pin, ball joints,
sliders and other. After the mechanism
modelling, after joints and input parameters
specification, it is possible to activate kinematics
or dynamic analysis. Output data can be
displayed as values, vectors or as graphs, or it
can be sent to other software for the next
processing. The type of assembly with
components motion in space is represented by
robots. Special module of software application
facilitates to imitate trajectory of every selected
point and to generate a workspace of robot, so
called working envelope. Created envelope can
be saved as the virtual part for next usage.
Figure 3 shows 3D model of manipulator with
the force analysis in one of its hydraulic
cylinders and its working envelope.
Advanced modelling makes use of operations
with surfaces, especially in automotive industry,
so complex designs with unconventional shapes
can originate. Virtual model can be generated as
original (prototype) or as the imitation of
existing body. Ones modelled enables not only
visualization and quick modification of the
object (the dimensions editing or designing of
the similar entity), but it also enables an
optimization of structural solution before the
part production.
The next advantages of 3D model can be
summarized to the following points: [6,7]
− Definition of the couples, loadings, materials
and other 3D model properties allows to
execute the various types of analysis on the
object and so predicts the object behaviour in
real conditions.
− Very simple preparation of the negative
shape for manufacturing of mould.
All parts and devices can be included to the
production system. The modelling of the
manufacturing process in real time is one of the
most difficult parts of process planning, because
it has to imply knowledge from all fields of
production (design, technology, ergonomics,
safety and other).
− By means of the created 3D model it is
possible to simulate the machining process
and so to find out the collisions between the
tool and the workpiece. Simulation of
42
Fig. 3 Manipulator with output data of dynamic analysis and working envelope
The designing of the process is done step by
step; at the first the features of process were
prepared, then they were placed according to
workspace plan and at the end the entire process
was animated. The output of process planning is
a movie file that can provide to the designers all
collision places and so they can solve the
problems before the workshop building.
handle 3D objects without necessity to buy of
expensive CAD/CAM or simulate software. One
of the formats that satisfy requirements
mentioned above is PDF format achieved for all
students. It provides the wide scale of set up
possibilities so the transferred document very
exactly adapts to the using purpose. Through the
software Adobe Reader students (or other users)
can rotate 3D objects to reach sufficient
overview about the model. They can check the
model display, detect model dimensions or they
can make cross section analogous to CAD
software. The model in the interactive picture
can also be scaled and rendered with variable
types of light, colour of the background can be
changed and assemblies can be exploded or
Hardware and software represent tools that
can help students with problems identification,
with brainstorm ideas, with a discussion about
possibilities, with testing ideas and drawing
conclusions. However, it's not technology
"itself" that facilitates learning. To achieve
required results, it is necessary to prepare
suitable textbooks and scripts for students in all
types and stages of their study.
2.3. E-documentation as a tool for
learning support
Higher education institutions are autonomous
also in selection of textbooks or educational
software as well as in their development. In case
that a university teacher writes a university
textbook this output is partially considered at
determination of a subsidy for the given higher
education institution. A special system of
support at development of teaching materials, or
university textbooks at the central level, does
not exist. In some years, development projects
were supported in higher education institutions,
aimed at the use e-learning modules. [8]
Modern forms of electronic documentation
enable to put in electronic documentation 3D
models instead of classical pictures. It raises
efficiency of education due to the possibility to
Fig. 4 Virtual assembly in electronic textbook
43
[2] OECD Handbook for Internationally
Comparative Education Statistics, OECD
Publishing, Paris, (2017).
unexploded. The example of virtual 3D
assembly inputted into electronic textbook and
dimensions measurement at one of the assembly
components are shown in Figure 4. Another
advantage of modern electronic lecture note
consists in the opportunity to use video-sections
(e. g. in *.avi or *.mpeg formats).
[3] J. Kadarova, et al., Proposal of performance
assessment by integration of two
management tools, Quality Innovation
Prosperity 17(1) (2013), pp. 88-103.
[4] M. Ungureanu, et al., Innovation and
technology
transfer
for
business
development. Procedia Engineering 149
(2016), pp. 495-500.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The development of technologies in the
industry has brought a new thinking of
designers. They use more and more possibilities
of virtual visualization as a tool for successful
suggestion of manufacturing processes in its all
stages. This fact influences the requirements for
knowledge level of graduate students and forces
universities to adapt their study programs to the
new conditions of real practice. Education at
technical schools should reflect the needs of the
job market focused not only on current computer
skills (working with text editors, table and
database processors), but students should learn
to work with basic available CAD/CAM
software. Teachers prepare the intending
engineers to be able to use the computers in
design of technological devices or processes and
to be successful at their job interviews. In
despite of the fact that working out and
understanding of theoretical basis is essential
assumptions of education in today conditions,
the classical approaches should be update and
adapt to the actual trends.
[5] P. Baron, et al., Proposal of the knowledge
application environment of calculating
operational parameters for conventional
machining technology. Key Engineering
Materials 669 (2016), pp. 95-102.
[6] Beno, P. et al., Optimization of thin-walled
constructions in CAE system ANSYS,
Tehnicki Vjesnik 21(5) (2014), pp. 10511055.
[7] Knapcikova, L. et al., Utilization of
computer simulation at the selecting of
optimal finishing method. ATP Journal 8
(2011), pp. 38-40.
[8] Dobransky,
J.
et
al.,
Document
Optimization of the production and
logistics processes based on computer
simulation
tools.
Key
Engineering
Materials 669 (2016), pp. 532-540.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present contribution has been prepared
with direct support of Ministry of Education,
Science, Research and Sport of Slovak Republic
through the projects KEGA 007TUKE-4/2018,
VEGA 1/0795/19 and APVV-17-0380.
5. REFERENCES
[1] K. Schwab, et al., The Europe 2020
Competitiveness Report: Building a More
Competitive Europe, World Economic
forum, Insight report, Geneva, (2014).
44
Thread Inspired 3D Printed Clamps for
in vitro Biomechanical Testing
I. Grgić a, Ž. Ivandić a, D. Šotola a, D. Kozak a, M. Karakašić
a
a
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Trg I. B. Mažuranić 2,
35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia, E-mail: igrgic@sfsb.hr
Abstract
In recent biomechanical testing of soft tissues, many researchers have presented the usage of different
clamping techniques such as using frozen clamps, non-frozen serrated jaw clamps, a non-frozen clamp
which has lateral block boards and asymmetrical teeth yaws in order to prevent tissues from slipping
and without damaging it at high loads. In this study, for the purpose of future biomechanical testing of
human gracilis and quadriceps tendons, we present the usage of a 3D printing approach as a possibility
for making clamps. We took the measures of the existing pneumatic jaw clamps on Shimadzu AGS-X
10 kN machine and according to the measurements, we have designed and 3D print the clamps which
have different geometry inspired by cross-sectional view of metric, trapezoidal and buttress thread, to
act as extensions to existing ones and to be able to prevent tendon slipping and damaging during
compression. Based on the tensile tests using porcine tendons, we report our experience. It has been
shown that we can avoid expensive changes in existing equipment, buying commercially available
plastic and metal materials and manufacturing it or else use frozen clamps which are complex and
expensive. We have shown that using a low-cost 3D printer and cheap polyethylene terephthalate
glycol (PET-G) material can lead to successful scientific work. To our knowledge, by searching an
available literature, there is only one similar study published during writing this paper.
Keywords: biomechanical testing, 3d printed clamp, superficial flexor tendon, thread
and no problems with compression. Shatzmann et
al. [4] used water in containment chamber,
waited for the water to be frozen and then they
proceed with testing of human quadriceps
tendon-bone complexes and patellar ligamentbone complexes. Due to complex freezing
equipment other researches have reported some
different solutions. Cheung and Zhang [5]
presented non-frozen serrated yaw clamp made
of serrated plastic material. Ng et al. [6] have
tested the several gripping methods and evaluated
them, including serrated jaw, sandpaper, frozen
ends and air-dried ends on 1 kN Shimadzu
pneumatic grips and it was found that using the
pneumatic grips with cardboard lining the stress
concentration at the grip-specimen interface
reduced substantially. During writing this paper
one similar approach has been published [7]. In
that paper authors use quasi-static tensile tests
1. INTRODUCTION
Because of soft tissue viscoelastic
characteristics and low friction between the
clamp material and wet soft tissues, it is difficult
to hold them rigidly at in vitro loads and loading
speed. Excessive compression on the soft tissue
will elevate stress around the contact area, which
leads to rupture before target loads are achieved,
too little compression will result in slippage [1].
First succesful attempt to prevent abovemetioned problems was solved with „cryo-jaw“
clamp presented in 1982. by Remersa and
Schamhardt [2]. They use clamps made of brass
which can be connected together with four M8
screws to commpress the tendon ends and then
freezing with circulating liquid carbon dioxide.
Sharkey et al. [3] have applied similar method on
quadriceps and Achilles tendons without slippage
45
care of a space between the two pneumatic
clamps to see how much space do we have for 3D
printed clamps.
combined with digital image correlation and
fatigue trials characterized the applicability of the
clamping technique using 3D printed clamps.
They have reported that 3D printed clamps
showed no signs of clamping-related failure
during the quasi-static tests and in the fatigue
tests, material slippage was low, allowing for
cyclic tests beyond 105 cycles. Comparison to
other clamping techniques yields that 3D printed
clamps ease and expedite specimen handling, are
highly adaptable to specimen geometries and
ideal for high-standardization and highthroughput experiments in soft tissue
biomechanics. They used clamp design with 4sided pyramid structures in cross-sectional view.
For all 3D prints, the parts were produced with
100-micron layers using a 0,4 mm brass nozzle.
The clamps were printed in an upright position
for a lateral orientation of the pyramids, allowing
a very detailed quality of these surface structures.
The material used for 3D printing of clamps was
polylactic acid (PLA). In this study, we report our
preliminary experience using 3D printing
technique for the purpose of the future
biomechanical tests of human gracilis and
quadriceps tendons. This approach is based on
the analysing and measuring of the parts of the
existing equipment, 3D modelling, 3D printing,
mounting on the machine, testing and validation.
All parts of the approach will be discussed.
Fig. 1. Parts of the lower pneumatic grip
Fig. 2. Orthogonal projections
2.2. 3D model of clamps
When we look at the side view of the clamp,
we considered it as a cross-sectional view of a
one half of a bolt, which means that the clamp
thickness of 10 mm represents one half of a bolt.
If we add the additional material, in this case,
PET-G clamps, the thickness will rise. To
conclude, we act like we have a bolt which has 40
mm in diameter and according to that, we have to
choose appropriate metric M42x4,5 mm (M40 is
not listed into a group of normal metric threads
by the literature), trapezoidal Tr40x3mm and
buttress S40x3mm external thread according to
DIN 103. Therefore, using SolidWorks 2016, we
put the “bolt” axis on one side of the clamp and
on the other we have added thread profile. This
procedure is shown in Figure 3 and an example
of the complete 3D model in Figure 4. For the
purpose of 3D printing, all models were exported
as a .stl file.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
2.1. Analysis and measurement of 10
kN Shimadzu pneumatic grips
After reassembling the lower pneumatic grip
as shown in Figure 1, from the 10 kN Shimadzu
tensile test machine, we proceed with analysis
and measurement of grip parts. It has been
determined that clamps have next properties:
40x60x10 mm, two holes with M4x1 mm internal
thread, 4 mm deep, while the hole is 7 mm deep.
The middle hole is 16 mm in diameter and 4 mm
deep. Figure 2 shows all the other properties. The
same procedure has been done for the upper
pneumatic grip and clamps. We also have to take
46
Fig. 3. Metric thread design
Fig. 6. Mounted clamps
2.4. Biomechanical tests
Forty-two porcine superficial flexor tendons
were obtained from an abattoir within two hours
after sacrifice. After removing all connective
tissue, the tendons were finally isolated and
stored in airtight plastic bags and put in the
freezer at -20 °C. Prior to testing, the specimens
were thawed in water while they still left in their
plastic bags to avoid contact with the water
during the thawing process which has lasted
around 30 minutes. Each specimen was dried out
with a soft rag to remove surface moisture. 14
specimens were randomly selected for each of the
three clamping methods since we have
differences in their length and we intentionally do
not want to cut them on the same length. In
conclusion, we want random test without forcing
anything. Seven of them left in its natural shape
and seven of them were formed in dog-bone
shape per each clamp. To form the dog-bone
shape cutting area was marked. Subsequently,
five markers were put on the specimen surface,
three of them to serve as guide-points for cutting
curves and other two for tracking eventual
slippage. The procedure is shown in Figure 7 and
finally shape in Figure 8.
Fig. 4. 3D model of clamps (front and back isometric
view)-metric thread
2.3. 3D printing and mounting
All models were processed with the Ultimaker
Cura 3.4.1 slicing application prior to printing
and Creality Ender-2 3D printer was used. All
models were printed in the upright position with
polyethylene
terephthalate
glycol
(PET-G)
commercially available biodegradable material
with 200-micron layers and 0,4mm brass nozzle,
Figure 5. The temperature of the nozzle was set
to 225 °C and 60 °C for the bed. Figure 5 shows
the example of a 3D printed clamp with a buttress
thread during the printing process.
The same procedure was used for the tendons
which were left in their natural shape, of course
without dog-bone cutting paths. For each
specimen, the length and cross-sectional area
were measured 5 times and the mean value was
used.
Fig. 5. Clamp during printing with buttress thread
design
Next step was mounting 3D printed clamps on
the pneumatic grips, which is shown here in
Figure 6.
47
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
All presented data have been extracted from
the Trapezium X software.
Fig. 7. Markers on the specimen
3.1. Trapezoidal clamps
All tests which include dog-bone shaped
specimens were finished without slipping and
there were no specimen ruptures in the clamping
area. Also, all specimens failed in their middsubstance, and an example is shown in Figure 10.
Among seven natural shaped specimens, one
specimen failed in its midd-substance and three
specimens failed at the place where specimen
leaves the clamping area. Smith et al. [8]
compared the mean ultimate tensile strength of
tendons failing at the clamp with the mean
ultimate tensile strength of those failing in the
mid-substance and found no significant
difference between the ultimate tensile strength
of ‘clamp failures’ and the ‘mid-failures’. They
suggested that the data from clamp failure tests
could also be included with data from mid-failure
tests [6]. Slippage of 3 mm and rupture in the
clamping area occurred in three specimens tested
in its natural form, an example is presented in
Figure 11. It was excluded from further
observations. The recorded mean value of the
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was 50,16±13,51
MPa, ultimate stroke strain 30,04±6,10 % and
structural modulus 254,73±68,24 MPa. Results
for the naturally shaped specimens were as
follows, the mean value of ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) was 34,78±9,11 MPa, ultimate
stroke strain 32,29±7,57 % and structural
modulus 160,31±50,94 MPa. It can be noticed
that the difference of 30,66 % is between ultimate
tensile strengths, 7,49 % between ultimate stroke
strains, and 37,06 % between structural modulus
results. Results are also presented below on
Figures 12 and 13. Typical tendon tensile test
curves and the last tenth cycle of hysteresis are
shown in Figures 14, 15, 16 and 17.
Fig. 8. Final shape of the specimen (dog-bone)
Then the specimens were mounted on the
tensile test machine. Gauge length was measured
and it was approximately 35 mm long. The
pressure applied to the grips were set to 3 bar
(720 N clamping force). In order to reduce tissue
hysteresis, the specimens were preloaded with a
force of 2 N and preconditioned by a series of 10
cycles starting from the undeformed position (0
mm) up to the stroke of 1,5 mm with a stroke rate
of 10 mm/min. Five minutes after the
preconditioning phase, tendons were tested until
their failure. First, they were preloaded with a
force of 2 N to remove slack, zero force and
movement were established and the test started
with 10 mm/min of stroke rate until specimen
failure. Example of the experimental setup is
presented in Figure 9 with a tendon in its natural
form.
The mean values of the ultimate tensile
strength (UTS), ultimate stroke strain, and
structural modulus were measured. Note that the
structural modulus and ultimate stroke strain
differ from the actual elastic modulus and
ultimate strain of the tendon as they are based on
the cross-head motion of the grips. However, for
relative comparison between different grips,
these can be used [6].
Fig. 9. Setup of the experiment
48
Fig. 10. Clamping are and mid-substance failure of
specimen after tensile test
Fig. 15. Hysteresis curves of specimens in natural
form (specimens T1, T3, T6 rejected)
Fig. 11. Slippage of 10 mm and rupture
Fig. 16. Tensile tests of dog-bone specimens
Fig. 12. Results of dog-bone shaped specimen
Fig. 17. Tensile tests of specimens in their natural
form (specimens T1, T3, T6 rejected)
3.2. Metric clamps
One test of the dog-bone shaped specimen
was finished by slipping, three of them were
failed in the midd-substance and also three of
them at a clamp where tendon leaves the
clamping area. There were no specimen ruptures
found. Among seven natural shaped specimens,
two specimens failed in its midd-substance and
three specimens failed at the place where
specimen leaves the clamping area. Slipping of 2
mm occurred in two tests without ruptures and
they were excluded from analysis.
Fig. 13. Results of specimens in their natural form
Fig. 14. Hysteresis curves of dog-bone specimens
49
The recorded mean value of the ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) was 41,68±5,39 MPa,
ultimate stroke strain 23,74±3,66 % and
structural modulus 236,09±66,50 MPa. Results
for the naturally shaped specimens were as
follows, the mean value of ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) was 41,12±6,44 MPa, ultimate
stroke strain 22,49±3,31 % and structural
modulus 104,98±47,14 MPa. It can be noticed
that the difference of 0,86 % is between ultimate
tensile strengths, 5,26 % between ultimate stroke
strains, and 55,53 % between structural modulus
results. Results are also presented below on
Figures 18 and 19. Typical tendon tensile test
curves and the last tenth cycle of hysteresis are
shown in Figures 20, 21, 22 and 23.
Fig. 21. Hysteresis curves of specimens in natural
form (specimens T12, T14 rejected)
Fig. 22. Tensile tests of dog-bone specimens (T12-d.b
rejected)
Fig. 18. Results of dog-bone shaped specimen
Fig. 23. Tensile tests of specimens in their natural
form (specimens T1, T3, T6 rejected)
Fig. 19. Results of specimens in their natural form
3.3. Buttress clamps
Among seven dog-bone shaped specimens,
one was excluded due to slipping and one
because it had bad geometry (cuts caused by
imprecise dissection). Four of the specimens
failed at its midd-substance and the last one failed
at the place were tendon exits the clamping area.
Two slipping and rupturing cases in clamping
area occurred in two specimens tested in its
natural form and they were also excluded from
analysis. Slippage was 3 mm long.
Fig. 20. Hysteresis curves of dog-bone specimens
(T13-d.b rejected)
50
The recorded mean value of the ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) was 55,73±3,96 MPa,
ultimate stroke strain 24,31±3,96 % and
structural modulus 304,62±48,92 MPa. Results
for the naturally shaped specimens were as
follows, the mean value of ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) was 30,75±16,79 MPa, ultimate
stroke strain 26,29±2,05 % and structural
modulus 108,04±53,81 MPa. It can be noticed
that the difference of 44,82 % is between ultimate
tensile strengths, 8,14 % between ultimate stroke
strains, and 64,53 % between structural modulus
results. Results are also presented below on
Figures 24 and 25. Typical tendon tensile test
curves and the last tenth cycle of hysteresis are
shown on Figures 26, 27, 28 and 29.
Fig. 27. Hysteresis curves of specimens in natural
form (T15, T20 rejected)
Fig. 28. Tensile tests of dog-bone specimens (T17-d.b,
T20-d.b rejected)
Fig. 24. Results of dog-bone shaped specimen
Fig. 29. Tensile tests of specimens in their natural
form (specimens T15, T20 rejected)
3.4. Discussion
Fig. 25. Results of specimens in their natural form
The average 3D printing time was 2 hours and
15 minutes per clamp. Infill was set to 100%.
During printing, we did not have any issues.
Clamps fit extremely well at their places on the
tensile test machine. The only problem that we
had was the easily horizontal movement which
causes the small problem during mounting of
specimens. During writing this paper, one similar
approach was published and it was shortly
described above in the introduction, we will
consider their approach and find something
suitable solution for our mounting problem. We
Fig. 26. Hysteresis curves of dog-bone specimens
(T17-d.b, T20-d.b rejected)
51
tendons and then clamps with buttress thread. By
our experience, the metrical clamps should be
used only for testing tendons in their natural form
because these are the only clamps at which failure
occurred in midd-substance. To conclude, the
complete review of average values of tissue
properties between types of clamps are given in
Figure 30.
choose to use the clamping pressure of 3 bar and
it shows good clamping behaviour during tests
and we found no damage after all. In the [7] they
used 6 bar. Maybe we should consider the bigger
amount of pressure for the future tests to totally
reduce slipping but it could result in higher stress
concentrations in tendons tissue and more
ruptures in clamping area as well. After all, we
did not find any damage in the clamping area or
at any other place over the clamps, which
indicates that they are very reusable.
Tendons length average was 90 mm, thickness
average was 4 mm and width average was 8 mm
with an elliptical shape of the cross-sectional
area. For the purpose of testing of tendons in their
natural form, we had assumed that we have a
rectangular cross-sectional area. While creating
dog-bone shaped specimen, inspired by sample
preparation in [9], in some cases we had problems
to achieve well-shaped cross-sectional area, so
we should have in mind to use or to create some
special tool which could help us with this issue.
Still, by searching available literature, there is no
clear statement about either to test tendons by
creating a dog-bone shape or either to test them
in their natural form and also there are no
concrete statements about testing protocol. To
avoid possible corrosion appearance at our
equipment we could not prevent tendons from
dehydration by spraying them during tests. We
proceed with hysteresis tests and tensile tests.
Our rejection term was if a tensile test fails then
we will exclude hysteresis results as well. To be
clear, we could use them since there is no
slippage or rupture because of small loads and
displacements but we want 100 % success with
tensile tests. We also want to proceed with creep
and stress-relaxation tests and fatigue tests as
well, but since they are long-lasting tests and
since we could not provide tissue moistening, we
gave up. Since we have mentioned above
disadvantages of this work and the small sample
size per one clamp we do not provide any
statistical conclusions. But if one may ask us to
choose which clamp design could be better to use
among others, we will recommend trapezium
clamps for samples with dog-bone shaped
Fig. 30. Average tendon properties and types of
clamps
The key advantages of the 3D printed clamps
are the ease of use, adaptability, reusability,
modularity and the fact that they can be
manufactured easily and at local research
environments. Furthermore, recent developments
in prices, usability and variety of desktop FDMprinters (which was used in this study) allow an
easy integration into laboratory environments.
Without the maintenance time of the printer,
which is often reduced to some minutes (when
changing a filament spool or cleaning the buildplate), no additional working time is required for
the manufacturing of the parts for testing.
Geometries and print settings can be shared
easily, forming a basis for affordable add-ons to
existing testing devices for tissue biomechanics
[7].
Based on this study, in the future, our aim is
to develop clamps suitable for the existing
equipment and be able to work in special
environmental conditions to simulate human
body environment and also to avoid abovementioned slipping and compression problems.
We want to provide the standardized, specially
designed clamps for the purpose of soft tissue
testing. Our future tests will also be based on
52
porcine tendons and later on human gracilis and
quadriceps tendons.
[5] J.T.M. Cheung; M.A. Zhang, A serrated jaw
clamp for tendon gripping. Medical
Engineering & Physics (2006), pp. 379-382.
We will involve some additional methods
such as digital image correlation, methods to
prevent tissue dehydration, etc., to help us in the
determination of biomechanical properties which
will not be based on cross-head movement and
not be classified as structural. We will consider a
bigger sample size to provide statistically based
conclusions. Also, we will try some different
clamp pattern instead of thread design based
clamps and a different material such as polylactic
acid (PLA) or thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU).
[6] B.H. Ng; S.M. Chou; V. Krishana, The
influence of gripping techniques on the
tensile properties of tendons. Journal of
Engineering in Medicine (2005), pp. 349354.
[7] M. Scholze; A. Singh; P.F. Lozano; B.
Ondruschka; M. Ramezani; M. Werner; N.
Hammer, Utilization of 3D printing
technology to facilitate and standardize soft
tissue testing. Scientific Report 27(7)
(2018), pp. 1-8.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
[8] C.W. Smith; I.S. Young; J.N. Kearny,
Mechanical properties of tendons: changes
with sterilization and preservation. Journal
of Biomechanical Engineering (1996), pp.
56-61.
The authors acknowledge the support of local
slautherhouse Bebrinka d.o.o for the donation of
porcine tendons, specially to Ivica Mirković,
head of the slautherhouse and to Slavica
Baboselac, technologist at the slautherhouse.
[9] A. Herbert; G.L Jones; E. Ingham; J. Fisher,
A biomechanical characterisation of
acellular porcine super flexor tendons for
use in anterior cruciate ligament
replacement: Investigation into the effects of
fat reduction and bioburden reduction
bioprocesses. Journal of Biomechanics
(2015), pp. 22-29.
5. REFERENCES
[1] A. Arndt; P. Kom; G.-P. Briiggemann; J.
Lukkariniem,
Individual
muscle
contributions to the in vivo Achilles tendon
force. Clinical Biomechanics (1998), pp.
532-541.
[10] K. Smeets; J. Bellemans; L. Scheys; B.O.
Eijnde; J. Slane; S. Claes, Mechanical
analysis of extra-articular knee ligamnents:
part two: tendon grafts used for knee
ligament reconstruction. The Knee (2017),
pp. 1-8.
[2] D.J. Riemersa; H.C. Schamhardt, The cryojaw, a clamp designed for in vitro rheology
studies of horse digital flexor tendons.
Journal of biomechanics (1982), pp. 619620.
[3] N.A. Shareky; T. S. Smith; D.C. Lundmark,
Frezze
clamping
musculotendinous
junctions for in-vitro simulation of joint
mechanics. Journal of Biomechanics (1995),
pp. 631-635.
[4] L. Schatzmann; P. Brunner; H.U. Staubli,
Effect of cyclic preconditioning on the
tensile properties of human quadriceps
tendons and patellar ligaments. Knee
Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy
(1998), pp. 56-61.
53
Structural Analysis and Optimization of
the Doors on the Falns Freight Wagon
D. Liović a, D. Kozak b, G. Matanić c
a
Student at the Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Trg I.B. Mažuranić
2, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia, E-mail: liovic.david@gmail.com
b
c
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Trg I.B. Mažuranić 2,
35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia, E-mail: Drazan.Kozak@sfsb.hr
Đuro Đaković Special Vehicles d.d., Dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod,
Croatia, E-mail: goran.matanic@ddsv.hr
Abstract
Modern global trends in freight transport demand removal of all unnecessary freight wagon
components in order to reduce mass. Because of that, the idea of structural analysis and optimization
of the doors on the Falns freight wagon was born. By removing unnecessary mechanism, the mass of
the Falns 48 wagon could be reduced by 276 kg, but the maximum deformation of the doors lower
edges would increase from 0.04 mm to 3.76 mm. This increase in the maximum deformation of the
wagon doors lower edges can cause the cargo to leak out of the wagon and fall down on the rails, and
that is strictly forbidden. Therefore, it is necessary to implement optimization to find a certain
compromise, or find the optimal solution. The deformations and stresses of the initial constructional
solution of the wagon doors, with and without using the additional door holding mechanism, were
analysed by using the finite element method. After that, the optimization process was carried out. The
aim of the optimization is to reduce the maximum deformation of the doors lower edges at the
expense of mass increase. In addition, a new constructional solution for the wagon doors was
proposed and optimization of the proposed constructional solution was carried out. By analyzing the
results, it was concluded that the use of the additional door holding mechanism on Falns 48 freight
wagon, in the case of transporting iron ore, is not justified.
Keywords: Structural analysis, optimization, Falns 48, freight wagon doors finite element method
solutions and improvements
solutions are inevitable.
1. INTRODUCTION
Transportation of bulk cargo such as coke,
iron ore, limestone, sand, etc. can be done in
multiple ways, one of which being the rail
transport. Many different types of freight
wagons operate on railways, and one of them is
Falns freight wagon type. There are many
different trends coming out in the rail freight
transport today, and the trend of reducing the
wagon mass by applying better construction
solutions and better materials is one of them.
Therefore, in order for a company to be
successful on the competitive market,
investments in developing new construction
of
existing
Analysis of deformation and stress using the
finite element method of the Falns 48 wagon
doors was done as a part of this paper. A new
construction solution, for which deformations
and stresses have been additionally analysed, are
suggested, followed by an optimization of the
new construction solution with the overall aim
of reducing the deformation of the lower wagon
door edge at the expense of increasing the mass.
Falns 48 wagon is intended for iron ore
transportation.
54
Therefore, at first, the aim was to answer a
very simple question: “Is it justified to use the
mechanism for additional door holding on the
Falns 48 wagon doors?”
the Pascal’s law, and the state of stress within
soils can be described by using a mechanics of
materials equations. Soil mechanics equations
(Fig. 2.) can be used to describe the state of
stress (pressure) within a soil as follows [5]:
If the use of the mechanism for additional
door holding on the Falns 48 wagon doors
proves not to be justified, that would mean that
the mechanism could be removed from the
wagon. This would mean that the mass of the
wagon would be reduced by 276 kg and
consequently 276 kg of cargo more could be
transported by the wagon.
σ v = σ z = ρr ⋅ g ⋅ z
(1)
σ h = σ x = K0 ⋅ σ v
(2)
Hereby
σv
presents
vertical
stress
component, σ h horizontal stress component,
σ x i σ z are stress components in the direction
of the x and z-axis, g acceleration of Earth’s
gravity, z distance from the referent surface
(depth), ρ r bulk density and K 0 coefficient of
earth pressure at rest.
Fig. 1. Doors and mechanism for additional door
holding on wagon type Falns 48
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
Fig. 2. Vertical and horizontal stress in soil
The analysis of deformation and stress was
conducted by using solid (SOLID186), shell
(SHELL181) elements with and without midside
nodes, as well as solid-shell (SOLSH190) finite
elements. The four methods were used with the
aim of checking and comparing the received
results [1]. The wagon door construction was
optimized by using the response surface method,
that is, by using central composite design [2, 3,
4]. The structural analysis and optimization were
conducted by using Ansys 17.2 computer
software.
Fig. 3. Illustration of stress tensor transformation
The coefficient of earth pressure at rest is
approximately equal to [6]:
2.1. Behaviour of soils and fluids
The soils are, by their behaviour, between
solids and liquids. If there is no significant
normal stress, the soils cannot transmit bigger
shear stresses. The distribution of the hydrostatic
pressure within fluids can be described by using
K 0 ≈ 1 − sin(φ ) ≈
ν
1 −ν
(3)
Hereby φ presents the angle of internal
friction, while ν is the Poisson ratio.
55
In order to determine the pressure against the
surface of the wagon doors that are placed under
a certain angle α , it is necessary to apply the
transformation of stress tensor. In this case, the
shear stress component of the transformed stress
tensor were not important. That is the reason
why the equation for the transformation of the
shear stress component tensor was left out. This
step is carried out by using the expression for
transformation of stress tensor (Fig. 3.) [7]:
σx =
σx +σz
2
+τ xz sin ( 2α )
σz =
σx +σz
2
−τ xz sin ( 2α )
+
σx −σz
−
σx −σz
2
2
cos ( 2α )
cos ( 2α )
(Fig. 4.). Since the Falns 48 wagon doors are
symmetrical, boundary condition of symmetry
region was used. This approach decreases
computation time for a given mesh, because
only one half of the model has been observed.
2.3. Physical properties of iron ore,
slight sand and water
Falns 48 wagon doors were created with the
original purpose of transporting iron ore. In
order to determine the most critical situation in
which the irone ore exerts the most pressure, it
is neccesarry that the wagon is evenly filled up
till the brim of the wagon, and that the mass of
the cargo represents the highest possible
carrying capacity of the wagon. The biggest
carrying capacity of the Falns 48 wagon mt is
(4)
(5)
68.5 t. The capacity V of the Falns 48 wagon is
48 m3 which is why the highest iron ore bulk
density which whould secure that the wagon is
totally filled and the highest mass allowed is
reached is as follows:
m 68500
ρr = t =
= 1427.08 kg/m3
V
48
After equations (1), (2) and (3) are included
in equations (4) and (5) and have been sorted
out, the final expressions are as follows:
σx =
σz =
ρr gz
(6)
ρ r gz
(7)
2 − sin (φ ) − sin (φ ) cos ( 2α )
2
2 − sin (φ ) + sin (φ ) cos ( 2α )
2
Therefore, it is assumed that the granulation
of the iron ore transported by the Falns 48
wagon would be such that its bulk density
equals 1427.08 kg/m3, and the angle of internal
friction φ 37° [8].
2.2. Boundary conditions
In this subchapter, a way of determining the
boundary conditions of the limits for
displacement on the example of the initial
construction solution without the mechanism for
additional holding the wagon doors is described.
The chosen bulk density for the slight sand
equals 1380 kg/m3, and the angle of internal
friction φ is 30° for the roundly shaped
particles [9].
In the case that the wagon doors are under
water pressure, the chosen water density is
1000 kg/m3.
2.4 Mechanical properties of Durostat
450 material
For the analysis of the stress and deformation
of the initial construction solution for the Falns
48 wagon doors, as well as for the new
construction solution for the Falns 48 wagon
doors, the same material was used. The material
used is a material with the commercial name Durostat 450.
Fig. 4. Boundary conditions
56
Yield strength of the Durostat 450 material
Rp0.2 is 1250 MPa, and tensile strength Rm
3.1. Deformations and stresses
Figure 5 shows the field of equivalent
stresses of the initial construction solution
without the use of the mechanism for additional
door holding. The equivalent stresses do not go
over the yield strength of the material. The door
deformation field (Fig. 6.) and the deformation
of the lower door edge (Fig. 7.) are visually
presented as well. All three visually presented
results are connected with the analysis of the
shell elements without midside nodes. The mesh
consists of 168 774 nodes, or 56 567 elements.
The average skewness is 0.03 and the maximum
skewness is approximately equal to 0.913. This
mesh has poorer quality than the mesh obtained
with shell elements without midside nodes, but
it is still satisfactory. One of the reasons being
that some larger elements have been used here.
However, this does not have a significant impact
on the deformation field.
equals 1450 MPa. The chosen elastic modulus E
is 205 000 MPa [10].
2.5. Hypotheses
Hypotheses as a result of the model studied
in this article are as follows:
Iron ore, slight sand and water inside
Falns 48 freight wagon are observed like
a continuum,
The chosen iron ore bulk density is
1427.08 kg/m3 in order to describe the
worst-case scenario, that is the one in
which the wagon is filled up till the brim
and maximum capacity is reached.
2.6 Input and output
used for optimization
parameters
The input parameters chosen for optimization
are different for each wagon construction
solution. The relevant input parameters were
determined based on the Spearman’s rank order
correlation and correlation matrix. Thickness of
individual wagon door panels present the input
parameters. Output parameters are deformation
of the lower door edge and the mass.
The goal was, therefore, to find a solution
which will have the smallest deformation of the
lower door edge while the doors would be of the
smallest mass possible.
Optimization was created on the basis of
results received from the shell elements with
midside nodes.
Fig. 5. Equivalent stress – shell elements with
midside nodes
3. RESULTS OF STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS AND
OPTIMIZATION
In this chapter, the main emphasis is on the
results of the deformation of the lower door
edge. The results of the deformation of the lower
door edge are key elements in order to reach
conclusion on whether the use of the mechanism
for additional door holding is justified.
Fig. 6. Directional deformation
57
Fig. 9. Shell elements with midside nodes
Fig. 7. Directional deformation of the door’s lower
edge
3.2. Deformation convergence
Deformation convergence of the lower door
edge (Fig. 8., Fig. 9. and Fig. 10.) is presented
on the example of the analysis of the initial
wagon door construction without using the
mechanism for the additional door holding. The
chosen shell elements without midside nodes
size is 6 mm, 10 mm of the shell elements with
midside nodes, 8 mm of solid elements and 8
mm of solid - shell elements (Fig. 11.).
Fig. 10. Solid elements
Fig. 11. Directional deformation comparison of the
door's lower edges
Fig. 8. Shell elements without midside nodes
The deformation value received with the
shell elements with midside nodes was chosen
as the refenet value. The percentages above the
columns (Fig. 11.) represent the deviations of
the single displacement results from the referent
value.
3.3. Comparison of obtained results
The initial construction door solution has a
mass of 442.6 kg. If the doors are additionally
held with the mechanism for additional holding,
then the maximal deformation of the lower door
edge equals 0.04 mm. However, if the
mechanism for additional holding is removed,
58
other kinds of bulk goods (e.g. sand). Therefore,
the results of lower door edge deformation have
been compared for the cases in which the wagon
would be transporting iron ore, sand and water.
The results of lower door edge deformation refer
to the initial construction door solution without
the mechanism for additional door holding.
(Tab. 2.)
then the maximal deformation of the lower door
edge is in the middle of the edge and equals
approximately 3.76 mm. With additional
optimization and redesign of the doors, it is
possible to reduce the deformation of the lower
door edge, but that would result in increase of
the door mass (Tab. 1.).
Tab. 1. Deformations and masses of the doors for
iron ore as observed cargo
Mass
of the
door,
kg
Initial design
of the doors
before
optimization,
with
mechanism
for additional
door holding
Initial design
of the doors
before
optimization,
without
mechanism
Initial design
of the doors
after
optimization,
without
mechanism
New design
of the doors
before
optimization,
without
mechanism
New design
of the doors
after
optimization,
without
mechanism
442.6
Total
mass
reduction
of the
wagon, kg
0
Tab. 2. Max. deformations of the Door’s lower edges
for different load types (without mechanism for
additional door holding)
Max.
deformation
of the door's
lower edge,
mm
Load
types
Iron ore
Slight
sand
Water
0.04
Bulk
density,
kg/m3
Angle of
internal
friction, °
1427.08
37
Deformations
of door’s
lower edges,
mm
3.7637
1380
30
4.3629
1000
-
5.822
4. CONCLUSIONS
442.6
276
3.7637
494.82
68.72
3.0538
448.98
509.56
250.48
9.76
After analysis and optimization of the initial
and the new Falns 48 wagon door construction
solution have been conducted, it can be
concluded that the use of the mechanism for the
additional holding of the Falns 48 wagon doors
for transportation of iron ore is not justified.
However, if the user decides to use the wagon
for the purpose of transporting sand – the use of
mechanism for the additional door holding is
justified.
If the granulation of the smallest particles is
bigger than 2.8 mm in the case of static load of
the wagon, then, according to the results of this
analysis, there should not be any outpouring of
the particles from the wagon.
3.4687
During
further
development
and
improvement of the new construction solution,
the possibility of additional sealing by using
steel sealing elements should be considered. In
order to achieve additional sealing of the doors,
it is proposed to overly tension the bolts, or to
add properly shaped sealing elements on the
lower door edge.
2.7837
Even though the original purpose of the
Falns 48 wagon is to transport iron ore, there is a
possibility for it to be used for transportation of
59
5. REFERENCES
[1] E. Wang, Thin – wall structure simulation,
2006 International ANSYS Conference,
https://www.ansys.com//media/ansys/corporate/resourcelibrary/conf
erence-paper/2006-int-ansys-conf-22.pdf,
last access 30/8/2018.
[2] R. Plasun, Optimization of VLSI
Semiconductor
Devices,
Doctoral
Disertation, Wien, Techniche Universität
Wien, (1999).
[3] H.-H. Lee, Finite Element Simulations with
ANSYS Workbench 14, Tainan, Taiwan,
SDC Publications, (2012).
[4] H. Cajner, Višekriterijsko adaptivno
oblikovanje planova pokusa (Multicriteria
adaptive design of experimental plans),
Doctoral Disertation, Zagreb, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering and Naval
Architecture, (2011).
[5] A. Verrujit, Soil Mechanics. Delft. Delft
University of Technology, (2001).
[6] R.L. Michalowski, Coefficient of earth
pressure at rest. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering 131 (11)
(2005), pp. 1429-1433.
[7] I. Alfirević, Nauka o čvrstoći I (Strength of
Materials I). Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering and Naval Architecture,
Tehnička knjiga Zagreb, (1989).
[8] D. Ščap, Transportni uređaji (Transport
Devices). Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering and Naval Architecture, (2004).
[9] R. Gotić; I. Gotić, Foundations for structures
on improved soil. Journal of the Croatian
Association of Civil Engineers, Građevinar
53(2) (2001), pp. 78-81.
[10] Voestalpine AG, Linz, Voestalpine, 2017
Durostat 450 material data sheet,
https://www.voestalpine.com/division_stahl/
content/download/25527/245524/file/voestal
pine_heavy_plate_datasheet_durostat_EN_2
01709004.pdf, last access 17/8/2018.
60
Machine Overlay Welding of Single
Tubes
D. Marić a, D. Žubrinić b, T. Šolić a, M. Duspara a, A. Stoić a, I. Samardžić
a
a
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Trg Ivane Brlić Mažuranić 2, 35000
Slavonski Brod, Croatia, E-mail: dmaric@sfsb.hr
b
Đuro Đaković Termoenergetska postrojenja d.o.o, Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski
Brod, Croatia, E-mail: dalibor.zubrinic@ddtep.hr
Abstract
The paper describes the most frequent nickle alloy overlay welding procedures in protection of boilers
as well as automated overlay welding machine. In most cases, long overlay welding is done on
machines. Describes the basic pieces of equipment, as well as the principle of their work. The
experimental part includes the overlay welding for the qualification of the welding process on the
machine for single tubes in protection of four-component and two-component gas, and comparison of
the obtained results.
Keywords: nickle alloy, overlay welding machine, qualification of the welding process
disposed or destroyed. Because of the rising
energy prices we get from traditional sources but
also because of the more stringent
environmental protection measures, people are
forced to use solid waste to get energy. One of
the solutions to the problem is the possibility of
incinerating municipal waste or the use of waste
as a fuel in thermal power plants for obtaining
electricity and heat.
1. INTRODUCTION
Today, due to the constant increase in the
number of inhabitants in the world and the
cities, the growth of industry and living
standards is the problem of increasing electricity
consumption (Fig. 1.). Increasing the population
by itself raises the problem of increasing the
amount of waste that needs to be properly
Fig. 1. Energy consumption trend [1]
61
mechanized conduction of the welding torch. In
the boiler construction, this welding procedure is
applied for overlay welding of the single tubes
of the membrane walls, connecting pipes,
heating surfaces and the headers of membrane
walls (Fig. 3.).
2. OVERLAY WELDING IN
BOILER CONSTRUCTION
The overlay welding is the procedure of
electro welding by melting and applying
additional material on the surface of the base
material in order to achieve the desired
properties, dimensions and shapes. [2]
The welding source is a classic TPS source
(Trans Pulls Synergic 5000i) with wire feeders.
The welding machine consists of two sources
each having one welding torch. Torches makes
linear motion over the tubes length while the
tube is rotated. Other parts include sliding
guides, rigid drive positioners, cab displacement
motors and welding torches, operator cab,
control cabinet, process cooling system, gas
supply system, and an additional material
transport system. [4]
Hard facing is the application of a hard
material resistant to wear by a welding process.
Most commonly used materials for corrosion
resistance are carbon-based steels and lowalloyed steels with low carbon content, but more
and more are required for high-density
martensitic steels.
Very high temperatures and chemical
reactions arising from combustion of fuel in the
boiler furnace are among the biggest steel
enemies. The most corrosive parts of the boiler
furnace are membrane tubular walls which are
directly affected by flue gas, soot and products
of combustion, as well as overhead water vapour
on which soot deposits are formed. There are a
number of inconvenient chemical reactions in
the combustion of fuel that produce layers of
impurities that favour the formation of high
temperature corrosion on the steel. [3]
Fig. 3. Automat for single tubes overlay welding
2.2. Filler
material
welding (625 Ni Alloy)
for
overlay
Nickel alloy alloy SNi 6625 according to EN
ISO 18274 (NiCr22Mo9Nb), commercially
known as Thermanit 625, is used as an filler
material in the process of overlay welding of
single tubes on the membrane walls. The content
of iron in the filler material should not exceed
0.5% (Table 1).
Fig. 2. The overlay welded opening of the membrane
wall
The overlay welding in the boiler is
performed with MIG / MAG, TIG and MMA
procedures, and MAG process is most
prominent because of its economy and
simplicity. Enormous use in the boom has
mechanical and automated threading processes
that contribute to economic cost-effectiveness.
The property of nickel-alloy (W.Nr. 2.4856)
is high strength, corrosion resistance and
elevated temperature. This combination of
chemical elements provides high resistance to
corrosive environments in the boiler combustion
using waste as a fuel to the influence of high
temperatures that cause oxidation and
carbonization of the metal. [2]
2.1. Description of the machine for
single tube overlay welding
The automated MAG process has a
mechanized wire lead in the electric arc and
62
Given the high cost of a four-component gas,
solely helium, the goal is make welding in
protect of two-component gas, and reduce costs
by eliminating protective gas helium. In order to
reduce the cost of overlay welding, twocomponent gas protection (97.5% Ar + 2.5%
CO2) and a comparison of the results obtained
with a four-component mixture were accessed.
The filler material is used Thermanit 625, 1.2
mm in diameter, and batch 103488. Due to the
requirements of a minimum 5% Fe content on
the surface of the layer, it is necessary to
provide a minimum mixing of the basic and
filler material and again to achieve sufficient
bonding to avoid lack of fusion. The welding
was performed in parallel in two layers with two
burners. The burner positions are shown in
Figure 5.
Table 1. Chemical composition of 625
filler material [5]
Chemical element
Ni
Cr
Fe
Mo
Ni+Ta
C
Ma
Si
F
S
Al
Ti
Co
%
Min 58,0
20,0÷23,0
Max 0,5
8,0÷10,0
3,15÷4,15
Max 0,10
Max 0,50
Max 0,50
Max 0,015
Max 0,015
Max 0,40
Max 0,40
Max 1,0
2.3. Preparing the surface before
overlay welding
The surface of the tubes before overlay
welding is metal blasting with metal scrap to
remove surface impurities and residual corrosion
resulting from storage. After metal blasting
surface of the tube, it is grinded to metallic gloss
on a moderately rough surface. Figure 4. shows
the non-grinded and grinded tube. The picture
shows the difference in the visual appearance
and roughness of the tube.
Fig. 5. Position and direction of rotation of single
tubes
3.1. Observations
welding
during
overlay
After welding the tube has no deformation
because the overlay welding is circular and the
heat input is evenly distributed over the tube.
Before starting the overlay, we must take care of
the necessary length because the shrinkage of
tube (heat input).
Fig. 4. Surface of grinded and non-grinded tube
3. THE EXPERIMENTAL PART
OF THE OVERLAY WELDING
Four component gas mixture (Ar + 30% He
+ 2% H2CO2): (a good spreading of metal bath,
optimal overlay speed, optimal welding current,
the smooth surface, glossy surface)
The experimental part of the overlay welding
is carried out on samples in the protection of a
four-component and two-component mixture of
gases. Two samples were welded with the 4component gas mixture of the factory name
Cronigon Ni10 (30% He + 2% H2CO2 + Ar)
and two samples with a two-component gas
mixture of Inoxline C2 (97.5% Ar + 2.5% CO2).
A two-component mixture (97.5% Ar + 2.5%
CO2): (Weaker spreading of metal bath,
decrease the overlay speed, Reduction of
welding current, rough surface, unstable electric
arc, the unnatural dark colour of the overlay)
63
3.2. Visual comparation of sample
Comparing Figures 6 and 7, there is a
difference in the visual quality of the overlay.
Sampled in two-component gas protection from
Figure 6, the surface of the overlay is black with
a poor spreading. The surface is rough and
aesthetically bad. The sample in the fourcomponent gas protection of Figure 7 is a light
colour with excellent smooth surface. The
surface quality is exceptionally good. Figure 8
shows the places where measurements of
hardness and Fe content were made.
Fig. 8 Area of measurement
first layer is less than 4%.
From figure 9 we can see that the
measurements were made on the first layer
(measurements 6 to 10) and after the second
layer (measurements 1 to 5). The Fe content on
the surface on the booth samples is in the
required limits. On the samples referred to in the
two component gas mixture, the Fe content is at
the upper limit of admissibility (~ 4%), while
the content of Fe-a on samples welded in
protection the four-component gas already in the
Two-component gas mixture
Four-component gas mixture
Fig. 9 Measured values of the thickness and the Fe
content of overlay
The average overlay thickness on samples
welded in protection of the four-component gas
mixture is smaller than the samples in protection
of the two component gas.
Samples welded in protection of the twocomponent gas mixture have a higher thickness
well as increased iron content on the surface of
the overlay in both layers.
By analysing the hardness values for samples
we can conclude that the values do not deviate
too much by changing the protective gas as can
be seen in Figure 10.
Fig. 6. Sample overlay welded in protection of twocomponent gas mixture
Two-component gas mixture
Four-component gas mixture
Fig. 7. Sample overlay welded in protection of fourcomponent gas mixture
Fig. 10 Measured values of the thickness and the
hardness values
64
[4] James Evans, Fronius UK Ltd., Cold Metal
Transfer – Robotics, (2012).
4. CONCLUSIONS
Comparison of the obtained results, parallel
samples are used welding in protection of the
two-component and four-component gas
mixture. The results obtained differ depending
on the test and the used gas. The results obtained
on the single tube automation system meet the
required criteria for the surface thickness and Fe
content of the surface, while the visual state of
the surface of the samples of two-component gas
protection is significantly lower than the fourcomponent mixture of gases. By changing the
protective gas, it is not possible to achieve a
visually high quality of the layer while retaining
the existing welding speeds. As a result of
retaining the welding speed, we have open
porosity on the surface. With the reduction of
the speed, we have a thicker layer with a
conditional good bonding and a visual
appearance of the dark-coloured surface. By
comparing the results of the thickness and the
content of Fe, depending on the protective gas,
we can conclude that overlay welding in the
protection of two-component gases has an
increased thickness of the overlay and an
increased iron content at the surface. For
samples welded in the protection of a 4component gas mixture, Fe content is already
below the required limit on the first layer, and
we can conclude that it is suitable for thickening
lover than 2mm thickness, which is more and
more frequent to customer requirements.
[5] Special Metals, Inconel Alloy 625, kolovoz
2013, Special Metals Inconel Alloy 625.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Statista, Inc., New York, NY, BP Statistical
Review of World Energy, (2018).
[2] T. Marsenić, I. Samardžić, D. Marić, B.
Despotović, Overlay welding in production
of corrosion-resistant waste incineration
boilers. Proc. of the 4th Inter. Conf. on
Mechanical Engineering in XXI Century
(MASING), Niš, Serbia, (2018).
[3] CheMin,
10494-001
Mikroskopische
Untersuchung Claddingprobe, (2017).
65
Eyebrows Mechanism with 2 DOFs for
Expressing Nonverbal Communication of
Socially Interactive Robots
M. Penčić a, M. Čavić
a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: mpencic@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Although socially interactive robots are not human beings, they are expected to realize human-like
communication, verbal and nonverbal. The face is the most expressive part of the body, where the
nonverbal communication is realized in an intuitive and transparent manner. By activating the
characteristic facial parts – eyebrows, eyes and mouth, robots can express numerous emotions, such
as surprises, happiness, sadness, anger, etc. For this reason, special attention was paid to the eyebrows
and their structure. The paper presents an eyebrows mechanism for the expression of nonverbal
communication of socially interactive robots. Based on the set requirements, an eyebrows linkage
mechanism with 2 DOFs is proposed. It consists of a 6-bar piston mechanism that allows the rotation
of both eyebrows simultaneously, and a 2-bar linkage mechanism for lifting both eyebrows at the
same time. It is also possible to combine these two movements. By kinematic analysis the basic
parameters of the mechanisms are defined. The mechanisms are simple structures and have small
strokes and dimensions.
Keywords: socially interactive robot, nonverbal communication, eyebrows mechanism, kinematic analysis
Figure 1 shows a typical example of a social
robot whose name is iCat – an interactive cat,
which is able to communicate with the user in a
simple and intuitive manner, both verbally and
nonverbally.
Verbal
communication
is
accompanied by an appropriate intonation that
emphasizes the meaning of spoken words. For
realizing nonverbal communication, the robot
has 2 DOFs neck, 2 DOFs eyebrows, 2 DOFs
eyelids, 3 DOFs eyeballs and 4 DOFs mouth,
which is a total of 13 DOFs. By moving the
head and activating the characteristic parts of the
face, the robot is able to express happiness,
sadness, anger, surprise, fear etc.
1. INTRODUCTION
For the successful operation of socially
interactive robots in a human's immediate and
everyday environment, the interaction between
human and robot is essential. In addition to
verbal communication, social robots must be
able to realize nonverbal communication, which
expresses numerous emotions in a natural and
transparent manner. There are several generally
accepted
ways
to
realize
nonverbal
communication of robots, such as facial
expressions, gestures, shoulder shrugs, nodding
etc. However, facial expressions are the most
powerful means for generating emotions, which
makes them one of the main features of socially
interactive robots. It should be noted that in the
previous decade significant research efforts were
made in the development and realization of
interactive elements of the robot.
The paper presents 2 DOFs eyebrows
mechanism, as an addition to the assortment for
the expression of nonverbal communication of
socially interactive robots by way of their face.
66
3. KINEMATIC ANALYSIS
neutral
happiness
sadness
anger
surprise
fear
The basic requirement of the realization is to
enable rotation and lift of the eyebrows. Figure 2
shows an eyebrows linkage mechanism with 2
DOFs that allows rotation, translation and
complex motion of the eyebrows. The
mechanism consists of slider 2 – input link for
rotation movements and levers 3L,3R and 4L,4R –
working links, while link 5 represents the
input/working link for translation movements.
Fig. 1. The iCat’s facial expressions [1]
2. STATE OF THE ART
Based on the available literature review,
there are two basic approaches for the
realization of nonverbal communication of
socially interactive robots by way of their face.
The first is based on robots with a rigid face
with movable eyebrows, eyes, eyelids, and
mouth – emotional expression humanoid robot
WE-4RII [2], active-vision robotic head
MERTZ [3], bipedal humanoid robot KOBIAN
[4], human-friendly humanoid robot KIBO [5],
emotion-display robot EDDIE [6], expressive
anthropomorphic robot Kismet [7], mobile
dextrous and social robot Nexi [8], infant-like
humanoid robot Infanoid [9], emotional userinterface robot iCat [10], anthropomorphic robot
head Flobi [11], huggable robot Probo [12],
robotic platform Bandit III [13], emotional
expressive robot Melvin [14], social robot
Sparky [15], user-interface robot Lino [16],
humanoid head robot Amir-II [17] etc. The
second approach applies to robots who, instead
of faces, have a screen showing characteristic
facial parts, such as eyebrows, eyes and mouth –
social robot BERT2 [18], mobile platform
RASA [19], humanoid service robot R1 [20],
social robots iSocioBot [21] and Arash [22], etc.
In addition, humanoid platform for cognitive
and neuroscience research iCub [23] and Twente
humanoid head [24], combine these two
approaches by moving their eyes and displaying
eyebrows and lips using LEDs.
Fig. 2. Eyebrows mechanism with 2 DOFs
Therefore, link 5 performs a translatory
motion in relation to immovable link 1 –
distance y5, allowing the eyebrows to be lifted
simultaneously. Link 5 is connected to link 2
through links 3L,3R and 4L,4R. However, link 2
performs a translatory motion in relation to link
5 by the vertical guide k-k. Links 4L,4R are
connected by rotational joints to link 5 in points
CL,CR, while they are connected to link 2 by
levers 3L,3R – points BL,BR. The left and right
eyebrow are rigidly connected to links 4L,4R
Fig. 3. Mechanism for eyebrows rotation
67
respectively. By activating the input link 2 –
distance y2, the mechanisms 2,3L,4L and 2,3R,4R
perform the rotation of the left and right
eyebrow simultaneously.
Figure 3 shows the mechanism for eyebrows
rotation. Bearing in mind that the mechanism is
symmetrical, only one eyebrow is further
analyzed, so the indices L – left and R – right
can be neglected. During the eyebrows rotation,
link 5 does not move, so the mechanism can be
viewed as a piston mechanism. Thus, link 2
moves along the fixed guide k-k, while link 4
rotates around the axis passing through the fixed
point C. The dependence of the rotation angle of
the eyebrow φ4 from the position of the slider 2
is given by the equation:
ϕ4 = ϕd + arccos
r32 − d 2 − r42
2dr4
(a)
(1)
(b)
where:
ϕd = arctan
yC − y2
xC
d = xC2 + ( yC − y2 )
(2)
2
(3)
r3 – length of the link 3, r4 – length of the link 4,
xC,yC – coordinates of point C and y2 – position of
the slider 2. Figure 4 shows the characteristic
eyebrow positions – the initial position in which
the eyebrows are horizontal (a) and extremely
rotated eyebrows positions, upwards (b) and
downwards (c). Figure 5 shows a mechanism for
lifting both eyebrows simultaneously. Link 5
moves translatory for distance y5. Eyebrows and
mechanisms 2,3L,4L and 2,3R,4R move
translatory, together with link 5.
(c)
Fig. 4. Characteristic positions of eyebrows: (a) the
initial position in which the eyebrows are horizontal,
(b) the rotated eyebrows position upwards by the
angle –25° and (c) the rotated position of the
eyebrows downwards by angle +25°
The dimensions of the mechanism are as
follows: the diameter of the eye is 45 mm,
interpupilary distance is 90 mm, length of link 4
is r4=35 mm and length of link 3 is r3=45 mm.
The position of slider 2 when the eyebrows are
horizontal is y2=–10 mm. When the eyebrows
are rotated upwards by an angle of –25°, the
slider position 2 is y2=–24.35 mm, and when the
eyebrows rotate downwards to an angle of +25°,
the slider position 2 is y2=5.23 mm. The total
stroke of slider 2 is approximately 30 mm,
which is 15 mm in both directions.
Fig. 5. Mechanism for eyebrows translation
68
(Humanoids), Santa Monica, CA, USA, pp.
513-532, (2004).
4. CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents an eyebrows mechanism
for expressing nonverbal communication of
socially interactive robots. Based on the set
requirements, an eyebrows linkage mechanism
with 2 DOFs is proposed. It consists of two
mechanisms. The first one is a 6-bar piston
mechanism that allows the rotation of both
eyebrows simultaneously, and the second one is
a 2-bar linkage mechanism for lifting both
eyebrows at the same time. It is also possible to
combine these two movements. Within the
kinematic analysis, the basic parameters of the
mechanisms are defined. The mechanisms are
simple structures, have small strokes and
dimensions. Further work will include the
analysis of different mechanisms for motion
transmission from the actuator to the input links
– eyebrows, from the aspect of practical
realization. In addition, we will consider the
biological principles of eyebrows, such as
kinematics and anthropometry – the shape,
position and dimensions of the eyebrows, as
well as the distance between pupils. Based on all
of the above, we will implement biologically
inspired eyebrows, as an addition to the
assortment
for
expressing
nonverbal
communication using the face.
[4] N. Endo; A. Takanishi, Development of
whole-body
emotional
expression
humanoid robot for ADL-Assistive RT
services. Journal of Robotics and
Mechatronics 23(6) (2011), pp. 969-977.
[5] S. Lee; J.-Y. Kim; M. Kim, Development
and walking control of emotional humanoid
robot, KIBO. International Journal of
Humanoid Robotics 10(4) (2013), pp.
1350024-1–1350024-35.
[6] S. Sosnowski; A. Bittermann; K. Kuhnlenz,
M. Buss, Design and evaluation of
emotion-display EDDIE. Proc. of the
IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots
and Systems (IROS), Beijing, China, pp.
3113-3118, (2006).
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Bond; L. Cañamero; B. Edmonds (Eds.)
Socially Intelligent Agents, MASA, vol. 3,
pp. 149-156, Springer, Boston, MA, USA,
(2002).
[8] J.K. Lee; C. Breazeal, Human social
response toward humanoid robot’s head
and facial features. Proc. of the 28th ACM
Int. Conf. on Human Factors in Computing
Systems (CHI), Atlanta, GA, USA, pp.
4237-4242, (2010).
5. REFERENCES
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building social intelligence in a robotic
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S. Roccella; M.C. Carrozza; P. Dario; A.
Takanishi, Mechanical design of emotion
expression humanoid robot WE-4RII. In: T.
Zielinska; C. Zielinski (Eds.) ROMANSY
16, CISM, vol. 487, pp. 255-262, Springer,
Vienna, (2006).
[10] A.J.N. van Breemen, Animation engine for
believable interactive user-interface robots.
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Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS),
Sendai, Japan, vol. 3, pp. 2873-2878,
(2004).
[3] L. Aryananda; J. Weber, MERTZ: A quest
for a robust and scalable active vision
humanoid head robot. Proc. of the
IEEE/RAS Int. Conf. on Humanoid Robots
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robot Flobi: Key concepts of industrial
design. Proc. of the 19th IEEE Int. Sym. on
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Robot
and
Human
Interactive
Communication (RO-MAN), Viareggio,
Italy, pp. 107-112, (2010).
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Conf. on Humanoid Robots (IROS),
Nashville, TN, USA, pp. 346-351, (2010).
[12] J. Saldien; K. Goris; B. Vanderborght; J.
Vanderfaeillie; D. Lefeber, Expressing
emotions with the social robot Probo.
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Kashanin, Design and realization of a sign
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[13] R. Mead; E. Wade; P. Johnson; A.S. Clair;
S. Chen; M.J. Matarić, An architecture for
rehabilitation task practice in socially
assistive human-robot interaction. Proc. of
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(2010).
[20] H. Lehmann; A.V. Sureshbabu; A.
Parmiggiani; G. Metta, Head and face
design for a new humanoid service robot.
In: A. Agah; J.J. Cabibihan; A.M. Howard,
M.A. Salichs; H. He (Eds.) Social
Robotics: ICSR 2016, LNCS, vol. 9979, pp.
382-391, Springer, (2016).
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Designing and implementing an interactive
social robot from off-the-shelf components.
In: S. Bai; M. Ceccarelli (Eds.) Recent
Advances in Mechanism Design for
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design methodology for expressing emotion
on robot faces. Proc. of the IEEE/RSJ Int.
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(IROS), Vilamoura, Portugal pp. 45774583, (2012).
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Vossoughi; A. Eydi; E. Ahmadi; B.
Mozafari; A. Amoozandeh Nobaveh; R.
Tahami, Arash: A social robot buddy to
support children with cancer in a hospital
environment. Proceedings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of
Engineering in Medicine 232(6) (2018), pp.
605-618.
[15] M. Scheeff; J. Pinto; K. Rahardja; S.
Snibbe; R. Tow, Experiences with Sparky,
a social robot. In: K. Dautenhahn; A. Bond;
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Intelligent Agents, MASA, vol. 3, pp.173180, Springer, Boston, MA, USA, (2002).
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Breemen; K. Crucq; M. Nuttin; E.
Demeester, Lino, the user-interface robot.
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BERT2 infrastructure: An integrated
system for the study of human-robot
70
The Effect of Carburizing on the
Properties of Steel 20MnCr5 and
18CrNi8
S. Kladarić a, I. Kladarić b, M. Gudelj b, M. Pejnović
a
b
a
College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000, Croatia,
E-mail: skladaric@vusb.hr
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Trg Ivane Brlić Mažuranić 2,
35000, Croatia, E-mail: ikladar@sfsb.hr
Abstract
Carburizing is a thermochemical surface hardening process which is used to improve the wear
resistance while maintaining toughness and fatigue strength of the core. Carburizing steels are lowcarbon steels which surface layer is carburized to the achievement of high-carbon martensitic case
with increased abrasion wear resistance. In the experimental part of the paper, the effect of
carburizing on the surface hardness and case hardness depth of carburizing steels 20MnCr5 and
18CrNi8 was investigated. The process of carburization was carried out in a gas carburising furnace at
the same parameters for both steels. The samples were quenched directly into oil and then tempered.
After the treatment, a metallographic analysis was carried out and case hardness depths were
determined. The obtained test results have shown that initial composition of carburizing steel effects
on case hardness depth and does not effect on the value of surface hardness after carburizing.
Keywords: carburizing, surface hardening; case hardening depth
resistance while maintaining toughness and
fatigue strength of the core.
1. INTRODUCTION
Carburizing steels are structural steels
containing 0.1 to 0.2 %C before carburizing.
Because of the low-carbon content, before the
thermochemical processing, these steels have a
low hardness with good toughness.
Depending on the required use characteristics
and the subsequent machining requirements,
after carburization and hardening the material is
tempered, or deep cooled and tempered. [2]
The level of carbon in the surface layer
primarily depends on the carburizing effect of
the medium. The process of carburization may
take place in solid, liquid or gas source of
carbon. In pack carburizing, carbon monoxide is
given off by coke or hardwood charcoal. In
liquid carburizing, the CO is derived from a
molten salt composed mainly of sodium cyanide
and barium chloride. In gas carburizing, the
source of carbon is a carbon-rich furnace
atmosphere produced either from gaseous
Depending on the alloy composition,
carburizing steels are divided on unalloyed and lowalloyed Cr-; Mn-Cr- and Mo-Cr-; Ni-Cr-; Ni-CrMo- and Cr-Ni-Mo- steels. The selection of
appropriate alloying elements permits the
required hardenability from the surface to the
core. [1]
Carburizing is a thermochemical surface
hardening process which is used to increase
surface hardness and improve the wear
71
hydrocarbons or from vaporized hydro-carbon
liquids.
from surface to core, where hardness is
550 HV1.
After the diffusion of carbon atoms into the
surface layers of a metal, surface carbon content
is increased up to 0.8 to 0.9 %.
2. CARBURIZING OF STEELS
20MnCr5 AND 18CrNi8
When the iron or steel is cooled rapidly by
quenching, in the surface layer the austenite is
transformed to high carbon martensite with
hardness of 61 to 64 HRC. [1]
The effect of carburizing on the surface
hardness and case hardness depth was
investigated on carburizing low-alloyed steels
20MnCr5 and 18CrNi8.
Immediate (direct) quenching of the
carburization temperature is usually carried out
in liquid carburizing. In solid carburizing, the
workpiece is first slowly cooled and after that
heated to appropriate temperature and quenched.
Cr-Mn-alloyed steel 20MnCr5 is used for
components in mechanical engineering and
vehicle construction with higher core strength
(gear wheels, ring gears, counter shafts…). [4]
Cr-Ni-alloyed steel 18CrNi8 is used for
highly stressed components in mechanical
engineering and vehicle construction. [4]
After the carburization stage in the gas
furnace, the temperature is usually lowered for
about one hour before quenching to reduce the
risk of distortion. It is reasonable to assume that
the material is stress-free when the quenching
takes place. [3]
The chemical compositions of investigated
steels are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical compositions of steels 20MnCr5
and 18CrNi8 [5]
After quenching, case hardened components
are tempered at low temperatures (170 °C to
220 °C) in order to retain a high degree of
surface hardness.
Steel
C, %
Si, % Mn, % Cr, % Ni, %
20MnCr5 0.17-0.22 ≤ 0.4 1.1-1.4 1.0-1.3
18CrNi8 0.15-0.2 0.15-0.4 0.4-0.6 1.8-2.1 1.8-2.1
The core of carburized unalloyed steels is
ferritic-pearlitic and the core of carburized
alloyed steels is low-carbon martensitic, in case
that it is hardened. The structure of the lowcarbon martensit ensures high strength of the
core with increased fatigue strength and
toughness.
The 20MnCr5 steel sample has a round cross
section of 10 mm in diameter and the 18CrNi8
steel sample has a rectangular cross section of
12 × 18 mm. After the carburizing process,
surface hardness measurements using the HRC
method,
metallographic
testing
and
determination of case hardness depth by Vickers
method were carried out.
Alloying elements, in addition to their impact
to hardenability, also affect the rate of
carburization, the carbon content in the surface
layers and the case hardness depth. Carbide-nonforming elements increase the diffusion of
carbon in austenite and reduce the carbon
solubility in the surface layer. Carbide-forming
elements reduce the carbon diffusion into
austenite and thus increase the carbon solubility
in the surface layers.
2.1. Parameters of the carburizing
process
The temperatures of the particular stages of
the carburizing process and the quenching media
are shown in Table 2.
The process of carburization was carried out
in a gas carburising furnace at the same
parameters for both steels to determine the
difference between the case hardness depth and
the achieved surface hardness.
The case hardness depth (CHD) is
determined according to HRN EN ISO
4507:2008 and represents the depth, measuring
72
cooled in the furnace to a temperature of 820 °C,
during which time the diffusion process is
carried out, the diffusion time is determined for
20 min.
Table 2. Temperatures of the particular stages of the
carburizing process and the quenching media of
steels 20MnCr5 and 18CrNi8 [5]
Parameters of the
carburizing process
Carburization, °C
Surface hardening, °C
Core hardening, °C
Quenching media
Tempering, °C
Steel
20MnCr5
18CrNi8
880 - 980
900 - 950
780 - 820
800 - 830
860 - 900
840 - 870
Water, oil, hot quenching
170 - 200
170 - 210
Table 5. Determination of diffusion time based on
carburization temperature and case hardness depth
[6]
Carbur.
temperature
900 °C
930 °C
950 °C
980 °C
The selection of the carburization
temperature (Table 3) was performed with the
aim of increasing the depth of carbon diffusion.
Determination of the minimum and
maximum C-potentials for a particular
temperature for the Supercarb process is shown
in Table 6.
Table 3. Relationship between the temperature and
the case hardness depth [6]
Carburization temperature
900 °C
930 °C
950 – 980 °C
Case hardness depth
≤ 0.5 mm
0.5 – 1.2 mm
≥ 1.2 mm
Table 6. Determination of C-potential based on
carburization temperature [6]
Carburization temperature
900 °C
930 °C
950 °C
980 °C
For a case hardness depth of CHD ≈ 1.2 mm
the selected temperature is 930 °C.
The time of carburization is determined by
the temperature and the case hardness depth as
shown in Table 4.
C-potential
0.95 – 1.10 %C
1.05 – 1.20 %C
1.10 – 1.25 %C
1.20 – 1.35 %C
For carburizing temperature of 930 °C
according to table 6, the recommended Cpotential is between 1.05 and 1.20 %C. In the
experiment, the C-potential of 1.04 %C was
chosen due to the reduced possibility to create
harmful soot in the furnace chamber. C-potential
of diffusion is determined by the material as
shown in Table 7.
Table 4. Determination of carburization time based
on the carburization temperature and case hardness
depth [6]
Carbur.
temperature 0.5
900 °C
1.2
930 °C
0.7
950 °C
980 °C
Diffusion time, h
0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5
0.2 0.3
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.2
0.3 0.5 0.8 1.5 2.5
1.2 2.0
Carburization time, h
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5
3.3
1.8 2.8 4.0 6.2
2.1 3.0 4.6 8.0 12.5
4.5
7
Table 7. Determination of C-potential depending on
carburized material [6]
For carburization temperature of 930 °C and
case hardness depth of ≈ 1.2 mm, carburization
time of 4 h (240 min) was chosen.
Material
Unalloyed steels
Cr- and Mn-alloyed steels
Ni-alloyed steels
Diffusion
time
is
determined
by
carburization temperature and case hardness
depth as shown in Table 5.
C-potential
0.8 – 0.9 %C
0.75 – 0.8 %C
0.65 – 0.7 %C
The choosen C-potential of diffusion is
0.7 %C based on the types of steels which are
carburized.
The diffusion time for a temperature of
930 °C and case hardness depth of 1.2 mm
should be 0.7 h (40 min). Since no direct oil
quenching is performed, but the workpieces are
The process of carburization was carried out
in a gas carburising furnace at the same
73
furnace IPSEN DA-8 at a temperature 480 °C
for 120 min.
parameters for both steels. The samples were
cooled to 820 °C, quenched directly into oil and
then tempered.
Pre-heated samples were transferred to the
furnace for carburizing IPSEN TQF-7-(8). As
the carburizing gas, natural gas was used with
the addition of air for regulation of C-potential.
The atmosphere is controlled by an O2-probe
and a CO-analyser. The diagram of carburizing
is shown in Figure 1.
According to table 2, selected austenitization
temperature of the surface is 820 °C and
selected tempering temperature is 180 °C.
2.2. Carburizing process
Preheating of samples made of steels
20MnCr5 and 18CrNi8 was carried out in
Fig. 1. Gas carburizing in the furnace IPSEN TQF-7-(8)
After carburization for 30 min and cooling
up to 820 °C, direct quenching in oil was carried
out with intense mixing.
Table 9. Surface hardness after low-temperature
tempering
Steel
20MnCr5
18CrNi8
After hardening and washing of samples,
low-temperature tempering was carried out at a
temperature of 180 °C for 120 min.
2.3.
Measurement
hardness
of
65
66
64
65
60
58
HRCmean
59
58
For the metallographic testing, the carburized
20MnCr5 and 18CrNi8 steel samples were cross
over cut in half, plunged into plastic mass,
faceted, polished and corroded (Nital 3 etching).
At magnification 240:1, metalographic
images of the carburized surface layer, the
transition zone and the core of carburized steels
20MnCr5 (Figure 2) and 18CrNi8 (Figure 3)
were made.
Table 8. Surface hardness after hardening
HRCmeasured
65
66
HRCmeasured
59
59
2.4. Metallographic testing
surface
Both carburized samples were measured after
hardening (Table 8) and after low-temperature
tempering (Table 9) by surface hardness HRC.
Steel
20MnCr5
18CrNi8
59
58
HRCmean
65
66
74
2.5. Determination of case hardness
depth
Determination of case hardness depth is
prescribed by Standard HRN EN ISO
4507:2008.
Carburized
surface layer
Hardness measurement by HV1 method is
performed on transversally cut carburized
samples perpendicular to the edge to the point
where the hardness of 550 HV1 is reached.
Both of the samples were conducted
measurements of hardness on two opposite lines
(HV1I and HV1II) from the outside towards the
core to a depth of 1.5 mm and with a spacing of
0.1 mm.
Transition zone
The results of the cross-section HV1
hardness measurement of 20MnCr5 and
18CrNi8 carburized samples are shown in Table
10.
Core
Table 10. Hardness of cross section of carburized
steels 20MnCr5 and 18CrNi8
Fig. 2. Metallographic image of carburized steel
20MnCr5 (Magnification 240:1, Nital 3 etching)
Distance
from the
edge, mm
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Carburized
surface layer
Transition zone
20MnCr5
18CrNi8
HV1I
HV1II
HV1I
HV1II
766
766
722
779
792
772
825
779
760
742
713
636
581
533
487
742
772
798
805
798
798
785
785
766
760
699
624
581
541
498
805
805
772
760
742
713
686
636
613
551
515
498
467
452
446
792
785
792
772
742
660
660
636
581
571
524
515
482
468
452
The diagram of determination the case
hardness depth of the carburized sample of
20MnCr5 steel is shown in Figure 4.
Core
The diagram of determination the case
hardness depth of the carburized sample of
18CrNi8 steel is shown in Figure 5.
Fig. 3 Metallographic image of carburized steel
18CrNi8 (Magnification 240:1, Nital 3 etching)¸
75
Fig. 4. Determination of the case hardness depth of the carburized steel 20MnCr5
Fig. 5. Determination of the case hardness depth of the carburized steel 18CrNi8
The obtained test results have shown that
initial composition of carburized steel effects on
case hardness depth and does not effect on the
value of surface hardness after carburizing.
3. CONCLUSIONS
After the carburizing process carried out at
the same parameters on two low-alloyed
carburizing steels 20MnCr5 and 18CrNi8, the
analysis of the measured results of the surface
hardness, metallographic tests and the
determination of case hardness depth, it may be
concluded that:
4. REFERENCES
[1] M. Novosel; D. Krumes; I. Kladarić, Iron
materials – Structural steels (in Croatian).
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in
Slavonski Brod, Slavonski Brod, (2013).
Approximately the same surface hardness
of both carburized steels is achieved.
[2] Technical pocket guide, Schaeffler
Technologies
AG
&
Co.
KG,
Herzogenaurach, (2016).
The case hardness depth is greater for
20MnCr5 steel than for 18CrNi8 steel,
indicating the adverse effect of higher
chromium content and nickel addition on
carbon diffusion.
[3] ASM Metals Handbook Volume 4 – Heat
Treating, ASM International, (2002).
When
defining
the
parameters
of
carburization process, it is necessary to take into
account the mass portion and the type of
alloying elements. For more alloyed steels,
especially with chromium and nickel, it is
necessary to heighten the diffusion of carbon by
increasing the carburization temperature or
extending the carburization time.
[4] Case-hardening
steel
Carbodur
https://www.dew-stahl.com/fileadmin/files/
dew-stahl.com/documents/Publikationen/
Broschueren/053_DEW_Carbodur_GB.pdf,
last access 27/08/2018.
[5] The Key to Steel - Stahlschlüssel 2016 CD-ROM, version 8.0.
[6] IPSEN Atmosphãrentechnik Folgeseminar,
(2005).
76
Comparative Stress Analysis of an
Artillery Projectile Body
V. Milovanović a, M. Živković a, G. Jovičić
a
a
Faculty of Engineering University of Kragujevac, Sestre janjić 6, 34000 Kragujevac,
Serbia, E-mail: {vladicka, miroslav.zivkovic}@kg.ac.rs, gjovicic.kg.ac.rs@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper presents comparative stress analysis of an artillery projectile body using FEM and classical
theoretical method. The aim of this analysis is to show that results of stresses in characteristic cross
sections obtained by the classical theoretical method and stresses obtained by FEM calculation gives
good agreement. The projectile 105 HE M1 was used as an example for the comparative stress
analysis. Based on the results and their good match, it can be concluded that the numerical FEM
analysis can be reliably used for strength analysis of various types of artillery projectile bodies.
Keywords: artillery projectile body, 105 mm calibre, stress analysis, FEM, axisymmetric finite element
1. INTRODUCTION
conditions it is necessary to determine the state
of stress in the projectile body during the
process of firing.
Artillery projectiles are subjected to
extremely high loads during firing. Because of
that the design of artillery projectiles presents a
very serious task. During the design process it is
necessary to predict lot of issues: safety during
exploitation (primarily during projectile travel
through the barrel), proper effects on the target,
achieving a maximum possible range for the
given launching conditions, low cost production,
maximum productivity and etc. All of these
requirements are often contradictory and it is
necessary to find some kind of appropriate
compromise for optimum design. However,
safety conditions are at the first place.
There are many diferent methods strength
assesment of artillery projectile body during the
process of firing. Some analytical calculation
methods are developed, unabled and presented
in [1-3]. In addition to analytical calculations,
some authors also developed some numerical
methods for stress analysis of artillery projectile
body during the process of firing [4-5].
The aim of this paper is to present
comparative stress analysis of an artillery
projectile body using FEM and analytical
calculation method. As an example projectile
105 HE M1 was used.
During the movement process through the
barrel, the projectile is exposed to the effect of
force and momentum caused by action of the
gunpowder gas pressure. The parts of the
projectile, especially artillery projectile body
and the driving band, must be dimensioned so
that the stresses that occur during the process of
firing do not cause large deformations which
would trigger a projectile explosion in the barrel
or on the trajectory. In order to satisfy safety
2. CLASSICAL THEORETICAL
METHOD
Until the appearance of modern computers,
the methods for stress analysis of the projectile
body were very limited. The load and boundary
conditions which appear during firing process of
projectile exclude the possibility of direct
77
experimental measurement of stresses and
strains. Because of these facts classical
theoretical methods based on analytical
calculation were the only way to determine
stress state of artillery projectile body. The
projectile 105 HE M1 (Figure 1.) was used as an
example for analytical calculation and further
for comparative analysis of obtained results. All
the data necessary for analytical calculation the
axial stresses in the artillery projectile body are
given in Table 1.
Fig. 1. 105 HE M1 artillery projectile
Table 1. Basic data for calculation
Mass of the 105 HE M1 artillery projectile
m = 14.95 kg
Maximal pressure of the gunpowder gas pressure
pm = 230 MPa
Data for barrel of Howitzer 105 mm M56 (Figure 2.)
Number of grooves
n = 36
Inner diameter
d = 105 mm
Outer diameter
d 0 = 106.7 mm
Groove’s width
e = 5.3 mm
Angle of groove’s twisting
tan ϕ = tan 8o
Cross section area of the barrel
sc =
d 2π ne
+ ( d0 − d )
4
2
[ MPa ]
Forces and pressures
p pr = k1k2 k3 pm
Calculated pressure
[ MPa ]
k1 = 1.15 − 1.18; k2 =
Corection factors
1
; k3 = 1.15
1 ω
1+
2 ϕ1m
[N ]
Total from gunpowder gas pressure
Fb = p pr sc
Normal force on active surface of driving band’s tooth
N=
I x 4 tan ϕ p pr
sc
n d 2 cos ϕ m
Axial moment inertia of projectile
I xx
mm 4
Axial force on one tooth of driving band
Fna = N ( sin ϕ + f cos ϕ )
Friction coeficient (steel – cooper)
f = 0.2
Total axial force of driving band
nFna
Acceleration
d2z 1
mm
= ( p pr sc − nFna ) 2
2
dt
m
s
78
[N ]
[N ]
[N ]
The stresses in the zone of rear cone (cross
sections 16-18) were calculated using equation
(σ )
p i −i
=
1
d2z
2
mA 2 + nFna − p pr ( sc − ro π ) . (3)
Si −i
dt
In equations (1) - (3) mA represents mass of
projectile’s part left from cross section i-i
(including mass of fuse and TNT filling). Si-i
represents area of projectile body in cross
section i-i which can be calculating using
equation (4)
Si − i = π ( ro 2 − ri 2 ) ,
(4)
whereas ro and ri are outer and inner radius of
projectile body in cross section i-i.
Fig. 2. Cross section of Howitzer 105 mm M56 barrel
Stress distribution of 105 HE M1 artillery
projectile body in characteristic cross sections
calculated using classical theoretical method are
shown in Figure 4. Maximum value of the stress
in projectile body is 467.25 MPa and occurs at
the place of groove for driving band.
In order to calculate the stress state, it is
necessary to split the projectile body into crosssections, which are placed in characteristic
places where suddenly changes in the geometry
of projectile body occur, Figure 3. For each
cross section i-i, the inner and outer diameters of
the projectile body are determined, as well as the
mass of the part of the projectile in front of the
cross section.
Fig. 4. Stress distribution of 105 HE M1 artillery
projectile body – analytical calculation
Fig. 3. Cross-section of projectile body for
calculating stress state
3. FEM AND COMPARATIVE
ANALYSIS
The stresses in the projectile body were
calculated with different equations in
dependence on position of the cross section. The
stresses in the zone in front of driving band
(cross sections 1-11) were calculated using
equation
(σ )
p i −i
=
mA d 2 z
.
Si − i dt 2
In accordance to CAD model, the artillery
projectile body is modelled using the Femap
software with NX Nastran solver [6], which
operates based on the finite element method.
The model of projectile body in all cross
sections along longitudinal axis of symmetry
retains the same material and geometric
properties so for creating FEA model
axisymmetric finite elements were used. The
structure is modelled in details with 8077
elements and 8534 nodes. General element side
length is about 1 mm.
(1)
The stresses in the zone behind of driving
band, in front of rear cone (cross sections 12-15)
were calculated using equation
(σ )
p i −i
=
d2z
1
mA 2 + nFna .
Si − i
dt
(2)
79
4. CONCLUSIONS
As it was case in analytical calculation, the
fuse is not modelled. The fuse influence is
replaced with equivalent pressure acting on front
area of the projectile body. The value of this
pressure is product od fuse mass, acceleration
and area of fuse reliance on the projectile body.
Load and boundary conditions of projectile body
for numerical calculation are shown in Figure 5.
The aim of this paper was to present some
methods for determining the stress state of
projectile body during the firing process. The
comparative stress analysis of an artillery
projectile body using FEM and classical
theoretical method was done. Comparing the
numerical results with values of stresses in
characteristic cross sections calculated by
analytical method, it is shown that FEM gives a
little higher value of stresses. Based on the fact,
that it is not possible to perform a stress state
analysis experimentally, it can be concluded that
the numerical FEM analysis can be reliably used
for strength analysis of various types of artillery
projectile bodies.
Fig. 5. Load and boundary conditions of projectile
body
Stress distribution of 105 HE M1 artillery
projectile body using FEM are shown in Figure
6. Maximum value of the stress in projectile
body is 470.81 MPa and occurs at the place of
groove for driving band.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The part of this research is supported by
Ministry
of
Education,
Science
and
Technological Development, Republic of
Serbia, Grant TR32036.
6. REFERENCES
[1] R. Sutterlin, Course of the ammunition, (in
French), Ecole nationale superieure de
l’armament, Paris, (1966).
Fig. 6. Stress distribution of 105 HE M1 artillery
projectile body – FEM calculation
In order to show comparative stress analysis,
curves of stress distribution obtained using
analytical and numerical methods are shown in
Figure 7. Comparing the numerical results with
values of stresses in characteristic cross sections
calculated by analytical method, it is shown that
difference is approximately less than 10%.
[2] A. Stamatović, Design of the projectiles, (in
Serbian), Ivexy p.o., Beograd, (1995).
[3] V. Momčilović, The safety of the projectile
during firing process and movement in the
barrel, VTI 02-01-0067, (in Serbian),
Vojnotehnički institut, Beograd, (1987).
[4] D. Đurđevac, Possibility of the FEM
application for a stress condition analysis of
an artillery projectile body. Scientific
Technical Review 58(1) (2008), pp. 3-8.
[5] T.Y. Tsui; M.L. Chiesa; M.L. Callabresi,
Three-dimensional stress analysis of an
artillery projectile joint, DTI Center, Army
materials and Mechanics Research Center,
Watertown, MA, (1984).
[6] FEMAP Version 10, User Guide, Siemens
Product Lifecycle Management Software
Inc, Munich – Germany, 2009
Fig. 7. Stress distribution of 105 HE M1 artillery
projectile body – Comparative analysis
80
Possibilities of NC Program Creation
within Information System Designed
under Industry 4.0 Requirements
P. Monka a, K. Monkova a, R. Hricova a, M. Edl b, H. Zidkova b, V. Duchek
b
a
FMT TUKE with the seat in Presov, Sturova 31, 080 01 Presov, Slovakia,
E-mail: {peter.pavol.monka, katarina.monkova, romana.hricova}@tuke.sk
b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic,
E-mail: edl@kpv.zcu.cz, {zidkova, duchekv}@kto.zcu.cz
Abstract
The article deals with possibilities of NC program creation within the information system designed in
accordance with Industry 4.0 requirements. A specific situation in Slovak production is described in
introduction, where the problems of industrial companies have been shortly analysed. A necessity of
complex information system was identified as one of the requirements for manufacturing efficiency
increasing. Based on the findings, new information system with respect to specific features of
Industry 4.0. was designed at FMT TUKE. One part of the software application is devoted to NC
program creation. Possibilities to use the system in this way and an example of NC program
generation for a shaft created within group technology are presented in the article.
Keywords: information system, NC program, representative, Industry 4.0
product has to be competitive, it has to be up to
qualitative and functional standard, it has to
have reasonable price, efficacious design, and it
has to consider safety, ergonomic and other
aspects, which will decide about its
marketability. [1,2]
1. INTRODUCTION
The 20th century provided an extended period
of peace and prosperity as well as co-operation
and stability in much of the world. The
challenges confronting global decision makers
are now more complex, intertwined, and
growing in intensity and urgency. Traditional
methods of co-ordinating responses and
negotiating action to combat shared threats are
challenged by the speed and power of new
technologies, which allow individuals and
organisations to stay one step ahead of formal
regulations. Current situation in industry is
characterized as a period of intense progress of
technologies at the significant computer aid in
all branches of industry. In connection with the
technical progress, the pressure on the
manufacturers to develop and make the products
as soon as possible at a minimal cost in required
quality is still increasing. On the other hand, the
The substantial influence on the technical,
social and economic level of manufacturing
process improvement has the computer
technique implementation into technological
preparation of manufacturing. A company that
uses computer aid in this production phase is
able respond very quickly on the change
produced assortment. It is allowed also by high
computing power including hardware and
software. One of the most important issue of
company efficiency increasing is right selection
of CAPP (Computer Aid of Process Plan)
system that would be flexible and would be able
to modify already existed technological
81
within difficult systems, which are often
incompatible);
documentation or to create completely new
documentation. Knowledge-level system can
help the company to discover, organize and
integrate new knowledge into business and to
control the flow of paperwork. [3]
absence of tools, which would be able to
analyse dynamic system properties at
short time.
missing of the tools and time space for
other alternative solutions, including
possibilities of their testing and
optimization.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF
SLOVAK PRODUCTION
Many of Slovak plants were obliged to
transform their production schedule, quantity,
types and kinds of products, after 1989 (the year
of marked political-sociable changes in previous
Czechoslovak republic), but they work with
unchanged philosophy up to this day. This is one
of the reasons why they are still out of a
competition with west companies, despite
cheaper manpower. Currently, Slovak production
can be characterized in following ways: [4]
These facts force on manufacturers to debug
the limitations listed above. A management team
in a company needs to be more innovative to
have new business strategies as competitive
advantage. One of the solutions is to build
information systems, which integrate needed
data and provide live data to each workman, that
are necessary for labour-saving work and for the
receiving sufficient decisions. All information
represents the know-how of the plant, so it is
important to store this information. It is suitable
to archive all data in digital form today and use
it in various stages of the manufacturing
process. It is very important for the operator to
know the data flow and on the basis of this
knowledge made it as simple as possible. It
enables: [8-10]
Slovakia is specialised in low value-added
manufacturing goods - the share of
domestic value-added in exports is low,
because of mainly assembly or
components manufacturing.
Score of Slovakia on the Services Trade
Restrictiveness Index (STRI) is better
than the OECD average in 14 out of 17
service sectors, pointing to the relative
liberal regulatory regime applicable to
foreign entry in services.
to increase of production effectivity and
quality,
to adapt data structure dynamically to
actual situation and for user specific
conditions with minimum negative effects,
Position of Slovakia in global value
chains (GVCs) is relatively weak because
of the low input of R&D - 0.3% - in
OECD 1.6%. [5]
to select the way of process plan creation,
whether it will be used within group
technology or whether it will be done for
every part separately. If the part is made
by means of NC machine, the producer
should be able to decide in which way the
NC program will originate, whether it will
be written manually or whether it will be
created using CAM system;
Innovation capacity of Slovakia is still weak
and, as can be seen from Figure 1, the capacity
of Central and Eastern Slovak companies to
absorb technology is also weak.
Other problems of Slovak companies are: [6,7]
low level of information technology (live
data,
uniformity
of
information
structures).
to select the parts with the similar
material and dimensional characteristics,
with the similar process plans; therefore,
it will be considerably able to save the
batch time,
computer aid doesn´t have systemic
character (only subprograms are used
82
Fig. 1 Capacity of Central and Eastern Slovak companies to absorb a technology
to import processed parameters easier and
faster,
to short preparing time
technological documentation,
for
3. POSSIBILITIES OF NC
PROGRAM CREATION
WITHIN “IAS”
the
Introducing of PC into process plans creation
considers that every process plan consists of two
parts: [11,12]
to use information not only for the
generating
of
technological
documentation, but also to the processing
of details for store, economic and wage
records.
operating part, which determinates the
operation type (e.g. tooling, milling,
grinding, ...)
A requirement to dispose a software
application, that would satisfy all criteria for
information system and would be adaptable to
Slovak
market
conditions,
brings
to
manufacturers idea to create new system in
collaboration with academic researchers. That
was a reason why the Faculty of Manufacturing
Technologies of Technical University in Kosice
was connected to the practically oriented project
focused on the development of new information
system. Software application has been called
IAS, what means Individual Application
System. The input environment of IAS is shown
in Figure 2.
information flow, which represents
processing of all information needed for
the manufacturing operation controlling.
Both these parts listed above has found their
application at controlling NC machines in
flexible conditions of automated production
through NC programs.
To be newly designed IAS software
application more than flexible from the point of
view of NC machine operator, it was created so
to be operator able to prepare NC program using
following approaches:
“Hand programming” by direct writing of
NC program. It is suitable for very simple
operations. Typical example is a turning.
Partially automated program preparation
by direct selection of commands from the
IAS environment. It is usually used within
group technology for simple parts, mainly
at the turning, with possibility to apply
other types of machining, e.g. milling).
Automatically generated NC program
under CAD/CAM system conditions. NC
Fig. 2. Basic application Menu
83
program is saved in native format of
control system of selected production
machine through IAS software application
(NC program is related to the part - all
commands for NC processing are in one
file or it is related to the group of
operations that results to specific shaped
feature, for example no cylindrical hole).
This approach of NC program generation
is suitable for complex shaped parts,
where NC program can consist of several
thousand rows. The generation is done on
the basis of geometric data about part,
tool, jigs, etc. It depends on the choices
technology and execution strategy.
From the view of flexible accommodation to
concrete situation it would be suitable to prepare
NC programs of various representatives for
various control systems and these programs very
quickly modify in case of requirement or use
another type of process plan from IAS menu.
Also, it is necessary to say that functionality
every made NC programs is important to verify
in a practice and consequently the program to
debug. It is the same in the case of NC programs
prepared in the IAS conditions. Production
preparation based on the database principles
allows a greater flexibility a manufacturing unit.
On the basis of representative shown in
Figure1, PTC Creo as one of big CAD/CAM
systems was used for 3D model creation. It also
allows to create other similar parts within group
technology. It is realized in Family Table
module by the feature skip variation through
commands Yes/No or by dimensions changes.
The environment for new part definition on the
basis of already existed is on the Figure 4.
An example of possibility to create NC
programs generated in partially automated way
with utilization of group technology inside IAS
can be shown on group representative for shaft
parts shown in Figure 3. It contains most
frequent types of outside, respectively inside,
surfaces and features of shafts, such as
cylindrical surfaces, conical surfaces, threaded
surfaces, concave surfaces, convex surfaces,
chamfers, rounds.
Fig. 4. Preparation of new component within group
technology
Some parts generated by means of Family
table following one group representative are
shown in Figure 5.
Fig. 3. Complex - group representative
It is necessary to realise that utilization of
group representative for NC program creation
depends on many factors and NC program
already once generated may not be suitable for
another type of control system, respectively
another type of the machine. What makes CNC
so flexible and productive is the ability to run
different workpiece programs. With the right
program, machining is a pushbutton affair. [13]
Fig. 5. The parts generated based on group
representative
Also, a regime of the material cutting may
not be identical (e.g. the control system doesn’t
allow to made the same continual out surface
contour by the cycle, in this case it is necessary
to cut every individual surface separately). [14]
The parts in the figure above have originated
by varying some features (surfaces with the
certain shape, lock grooves, slots, chamfers,
rounds, etc.) which are included into these parts.
84
Verification of IAS was carried out based on
two possible approaches to the technological
documentation preparation. It was done
that NC program was fine-tuned and the final
version of the machining process was launched.
No problem occurred during machining and
shaft successfully produced
for a group representative or a component
classified into the set of the
representative,
4. CONCLUSIONS
for a component not classified in the set
of the representative.
On the basis of the aforementioned theory
characteristics, the information system was
created and applied into real production
conditions in the computer aided process
planning consisting of approximately 6,000
components. The given product was a result of
the co-operation between a German company,
providing investments and co-operation of the
activities, and Slovak companies providing
a technical process planning and the production
of a final product.
The process plans and NC programs in the
module Process plan creation were done for
every type. Consequently, these outputs were
generated through the Print sets:
Process plan,
NC program for derived part,
Production time summary.
Data and technological process verification
was realized for the part displayed in Figure 6. It
was prepared on the basis of group
representative (shown in the Figure 3) by means
of Family Table module in CAD/CAM system.
The main contributions of assigning IS,
elaborated on the basis of the multi-variable
process planning in the real manufacturing
conditions, can be summarized as follows:
reduction of the variability of warehouse
stock (at the first application by nearly 30
per cent),
immediate information about the product
elaboration,
fast acquisition of the details via
interfaces for the wage records and
accounting,
Fig. 6. 3D model of parts for NC program
verification
The model listed above was inside database
assigned
to
group
representative.
Its
characteristics were uploaded to IAS interface
and it is shown in Figure 7. .
Fig. 7. The object/component
the group representative
assignment
elastic analytical tools enabling the
adoption of better decisions,
acquisition of the statistical values of
parameters applicable to plan production
in the future.
The software tool was created in the way to
be easily implemented to an already existing
information company structure via flexibly
adjustable interfaces. It is also user-friendly,
developed with the characteristics of GUI,
typical for OS MS Windows, so that the basic
grasp of its functioning does not require
expensive trainings. Of course, if the
maintenance of this system is to be productive, it
must be familiarized with the given philosophy
to
CL data generated in CAM system were
transformed by means of postprocessor to NC
program for the selected control system. After
85
and possibilities of tactic and strategy planning,
through which the production can be optimized.
The priorities of authors in a near future is to
study:
[7] P. Baron et al., Proposal of the knowledge
application environment of calculating
operational parameters for conventional
machining technology. Key Engineering
Materials 669 (2016), pp. 95-102.
general format of process plan data,
[8] M. Lubyova et al., Labour market in
Slovakia,
Center
of
Social
and
Psychological Sciences, Slovak Academy
of Sciences, (2016).
production environs in other European
countries,
graphical
planning.
features
used
for
process
[9] D.I. Stoicovici et al., An experimental
approach to optimize the screening in the
real operating conditions. Manufacturing
Engineering 2 (2008), pp. 75-78.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present contribution has been prepared
with direct support of Ministry of Education,
Science, Research and Sport of Slovak Republic
through the projects KEGA 007TUKE-4/2018,
VEGA 1/0795/19 and APVV-17-0380.
[10] J. Ackerman, Presentation of contribution
integrative planning of logistics structures
and production plants in competence cellbased networks, Proc. of the Conf. on
Advances in Production Engineering,
Warsaw, (2007).
6. REFERENCES
[11] R. Krehel et al. Mathematical model of
technological processes with prediction of
operating determining value. Acta Technica
Corviniensis: Bulletin of Engineering 2(4)
(2009), pp. 39-42.
[1] A. Panda et al., Progressive technology –
diagnostic and factors affecting to
machinability. Applied Mechanics and
Materials 616 (2014), pp. 183-190.
[2] M. Ungureanu et al., Innovation and
technology
transfer
for
business
development. Procedia Engineering 149
(2016), pp. 495-500.
[12] S.M. Stojadinovic; V.D. Majstorovic,
Developing engineering ontology for
domain coordinate metrology. FME
Transactions 42(3) (2014), pp. 249-255.
[3] J. Kadarova et al., Proposal of performance
assessment by integration of two
management tools. Quality Innovation
Prosperity 17(1) (2013), pp. 88-103.
[13] A.V. Filippov et al., Mathematical support
for automated geometry analysis of lathe
machining of oblique peakless round-nose
tools. Journal of Physics 803 (2017), pp.
012041.
[4] K. Schwab et al., The Europe 2020
Competitiveness Report: Building a More
Competitive Europe, World Economic
forum, Insight report, Geneva, (2014).
[14] K. Monkova, P. Monka, Newly developed
software application for multiple ac-cess
process planning. Advances in Mechanical
Engineering (2014), pp. 539071.
[5] OECD Science, Technology and Innovation
Outlook, OECD, (2016).
[6] J. Markovic; J. Mihok, Legal metrology
and system for calibration and verification
of the radar level sensors. Quality
Innovation Prosperity 20(1) (2016), pp. 95103.
86
Spline Interpolation of SRIM Data for
Quantitative Rutherford Back Scattering
Analysis
S. Minárik a, O. Bošák b, E. Labašová b, V. Labaš b, S. Lukič-Petrovič
a
c
Research Centre of Progressive Technologies, Faculty of Materials Science &
Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Trnava, Slovak Republic,
E-mail: stanislav.minarik@stuba.sk
b
Faculty of Materials Science & Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Trnava,
Slovak Republic, E-mail: vladimir.labas@stuba.sk
c
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia,
E-mail: svetlana@df.uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Rutherford Back Scattering (RBS) is a well-established experimental technique widely used in nondestructive depth profiling of elements in surface layers of material [1]. Generally the exact
determination of depth profiles of elements using standard RBS data is still a non-trivial task because
of relatively complicated changes of ion energy losses that occur during transport of the probing ion
inside the material structure. Average energy losses of ion can be determined from Bethe-Bloch
analytical theory [3-8] (in high velocity region) and Lindhard-Scharff-Schiøtt (LSS) theory [9-12] (in
low velocity region). Currently there is no acceptable theory to determine energy losses of ion in
intermediate-velocity region [13] and experimental database must be used in this case. In our work we
present stopping power calculations in intermediate-velocity region of ion (i.e. in the region
uncovered by exact theory) based on quadratic spline interpolation of experimental data while
Bragg`s rule of additivity from individual constituent atoms is assumed for the target from mixtures
and compounds. Calculation has been carried out with experimental data that has been taken from
Ziegler, Biersack [14] and which are included in SRIM software library. Energy distribution of ion
along its trajectory inside the material was found.
Keywords: stopping power, Bethe-Bloch theory, Bragg`s rule, Rutherford Back Scattering, depth profiling, spline
interpolation.
atoms (nuclear stopping power Sn) and other
from processes of excitation and ionisation of
target electrons (electronic stopping power Se).
The total stopping power is determined by the
sum of mentioned components [14]:
1. INTRODUCTION
RBS is a technique suitable especially for
standard deep profiling in the case where data of
energy losses of ion in material structures are
available [2]. The problem of stopping power is
dominant in depth profiling from Rutherford
Back Scattering (RBS) data. The stopping power
is mean decelerating force applied to the ion
traveling in the material. Two basic energy
transfer mechanisms are dominant in this case.
One arises from collisions of ion with target
dE dE
Stotal = S n + Se =
+
dx n dx e
The electronic stopping power reachs its
maximum referred to as the Bragg peak at
87
energies which are higher in order of magnitude
then the nuclear stopping.
where ρ is the density of the material, e is
electron charge, ε0 is electric permittivity of
vacuum, z is charge state of ion, Z is atomic
number of target atoms, Mion is mass of ion mat
is mass of target atoms, ℏ is reduced Planck
constant and parameter a = 1,4.10-2 nm. The
nuclear stopping power is of the same order of
magnitude as electronic stopping power for very
slow ions and must be taken into account.
Slowing down force (stopping power) of ions
in matter is a subject which still receives a great
theoretical and experimental interest. It was
found that ions moving fast lose kinetic energy
mainly via electronic stopping [15]. If the ion
moves slowly, it carries all of its electrons with
it. If the ion is moving faster then fastest
electrons in target, it loses all its electrons and is
completely ionized. An ion moving slowly loses
energy only to the free electrons of the target
due to momentum exchange with them. This
leads to the linear dependence of the stopping
power velocity [16]. A high velocity ion can be
considered to be a point-like charge, which can
collide with all electrons in the target. The
electronic stopping power is then inversely
proportional to the square of the ion velocity
[17]. When the ion velocity is between two
cases, the ion is partially stripped leading to a
considerably more complicated description [18],
because the ion may lose electrons to, and
capture them from, the target. So the values of
velocity of the ion can be classified under one of
the following three regions:
2) High-velocity region, where the ion
velocity v > vm. vm is the mean velocity of
electrons filling the levels of a neutral atom with
nuclear charge z obtained from the ThomasFermi statistical theory [19]:
vm = v0 3 z 2
The ion moving by this velocity is called
swift and average electronic stopping power of
such ion results from Bethe-Bloch theory [3-8]:
dE
dx
Unfortunately there is no acceptable
analytical formula to calculate energy losses of
ion in intermediate-velocity and we have only
experimental data. In general it can be
concluded that velocity proportional energy loss
has been in fact observed experimentally for
most of common materials.
7
2
2
.(1.1)
32π 2ε 0ℏ 3 ρ 6 3
3
z
Z
z
Z
=−
+
v
2
mee
mat
=−
n
ρπ e2 a zZM ion ,
8ε 0 mat mat + M ion
2me 2
ln I v ,
3) Intermediate-velocity region, which is the
intermediate area between the low and high
velocities:
v 0 < v < vm .
(1.4)
The universal reduced nuclear stopping
power of ion in this low-velocity region was
determined by G. Moliere in the framework of
Thomas-Fermi potential [26]. The following
empirical formula can used to approximate
nuclear stopping power calculation near
maximum of Sn(E) :
dE
dx
2
where A its relative atomic mass of target atoms,
NA the Avogadro number, Mu the molar mass
constant and me is electron mass. In the Bethe
theory, the atoms of material are characterized
by the means of excitation potential I. The effect
of nuclear stopping power is very small for swift
ion and can be neglected in the high-velocity
region.
2
e
e
4π z 2 N A Z ρ e 2
=−
mev 2 AM u 4πε 0
(1.3)
1) Low-velocity region, where the ion
velocity v is below the Bohr velocity v0 of the
target electrons, i.e. the velocity of fastest
electrons in the material (in the electron gas
theory the limit is commonly the Fermi
velocity). The ion moving by this velocity is
called slow and average electronic stopping
power of such ion results from LindhardScharff-Schiøtt (LSS) theory [9-12]:
dE
dx
.
If the stopping power is known the distance
traveled by ion in media can be determined by:
(1.2)
88
first interval (for n = 1, i.e. at the lowest
energies of ion) mentioned function S(E)
follows directly from LSS theory and it has a
form:
E
x(E) =
∫
dε
S (ε ) .
(1.5)
E0
Formula (1.5) is essential for analytical deep
profiling. However, the main problem is to find
the analytical form of the function S(E) which
we need to integrate. Finite number of measured
values is not sufficient for that purpose.
Experimental values of stopping powers (S) for
various ions with energy (E) in different media
have been comprehensively given by ICRU49
(International Commision of Radiation Units
and Measurements) and by SRIM – 2000
(Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter, Ziegler
2001).
S (1) ( E ) = C E .
( 2.2 )
where C is constant. It is necessary to determine
the coefficients a0(n), a1(n) , a2(n) for polynomials
(2.1) in all N-2 energy intevals (except the first
interval). For this purpose we need 3(N-2)
independent equations. The coefficients of the
polynomials (2.1) must be determined such that
the function S(E) to be continuous in all points
[Ei, Si] and derivative of this function in the
mentioned points should be continuous too.
Therefore if we use designations:
The aim of our work is to introduce a
simple mathematical model for the study of
elemental deep profiles from experimental RBS
data mainly in the intermediate-velocity region
of ion.
S ( n ) ( En ) = S n
S ( n) ( En−1 ) = Sn−1 ,
,
dS ( n )
= Dn−1 ,
dE E = En−1
(2.3)
following conditions must apply for each point
n = 2,3,4,....N:
2. SPLINE INTERPOLATION OF
SRIM DATA
a2( n ) En2−1 + a1( n ) En−1 + a0( n ) = S n−1
We start from a set of points [Ei, Si], i = 1, 2,
... N, where Ei are values of energy and Si
represents corresponding stopping power
measured experimentally (see points in the
graph shown in the fig.1). These N points makes
(N -1) intervals between them. It is necessary to
know the function S = S(E) to apply the formula
(1.5) for the ion range determination. This
function can be designed using quadratic spline
interpolation [20-22] at which a piecewise
continuous curve passing through each of poins
is found. Two-point boundary value problem
must be solved in this procedure. In this section
we briefly describe procedure for determination
of this curve in the form of a separate quadratic
polynomial for each interval (each with its own
coefficients).
2a2( n ) En−1 + a1( n ) = Dn−1
( 2.4 )
( 2.5 )
( 2.6 )
a2( n ) En2 + a1( n ) En + a0( n ) = S n
For the first point (n = 1), i.e. at the lowest
measured value of energy E1 next formulas can
be written:
S (1) ( E1 ) = S1 = C E1 ,
( 2.7 )
dS (1)
S
D1 =
= 1 .
dE E = E1 2 E1
( 2.8)
Formulas for any coefficients a0(n), a1(n) , a2(n)
can be easily found from the system of
equations (2.4), (2.5), (2.6):
a2( ) =
n
ν n − Dn−1
( 2.9 )
,
( En − En−1 )
(n)
a1 = Dn−1 − 2κ n {ν n + Dn−1}
,
( 2.10 )
a0( n ) = S n−1 − Dn−1En−1 + κ n {( S n − S n−1 ) κ n − Dn−1En−1}
We are looking for the quadratic polynomial
in the next form:
(2.11)
S ( n) ( E ) = S n = a2( n ) E 2 + a1( n ) E + a0( n )
( 2.1)
for n = 2,3,4,.... It can be considered that in the
89
S n − Sn−1
En−1
, κn =
En − En−1
En − En−1
νn =
where :
and derivative Dn can be written in the next
form:
Dn = 2a2( n ) En + a1( n )
Values of the stopping power for individual
constituent in TeO2-PbCl2 glass structure was
taken from SRIM software library. Next the
Bragg`s rule of additivity was applied for the
stopping power values in the glass structure
determination. According to this rule for
mixtures a good approximation is to compute
the average stopping power weighted by the
fraction of atoms (electrons) in each elements,
i.e.:
1 dE
=
ρ dx
∑
Fig. 2. Piecewise continuous smooth curve as a
result of spline interpolation
3. RANGE OF ION
PENETRATING INTO SOLIDS
Energy loss processes of ions in various
media have been widely studied by a variety
methods. The understanding of those processes
is imperative in many areas of materials science,
both in application and basic research. It is also
very important in using practical analytical
techniques such as ion beam analysis.
wi dE
ρi dx i
i
where wi are weight fractions and ρi are densities
of the of each element. The result is shown in the
fig.1.
The energy losses of ion during transport in a
material structure can be calculated using results
presented in the previous section. The stopping
power of ions in matter S is usually given for
different energies of ion. If the function S(E) can
be evaluated in the form (2.1.1) for any interval
we have:
dE
S ( n) ( E ) = −
= a2( n ) E 2 + a1( n ) E + a0( n )
( 3.1)
dx
(n = 2, 3, 4, ... N). Next equation follows from
(3.1):
Fig. 1. Stopping power of H2+ in TeO2-PbCl2
glass determined from SRIM data using Bragg`s
∫
Applying results (2.9), (2.10) and (2.11) in
polynomials (2.1) and considering the
expression (2.2) we get interpolation function
S(E) in whole required energy interval.
∫
dE
= − dx .
n
n
a2 E + a1( ) E + a0( )
( n)
2
( 3.2 )
Three types of solutions of equation (3.2) can be
found in different energy intervals. Two of them
can be written in the form:
2
n
n
n
x ( ) ( E ) = xn+1 + ( n ) χ η ( ) ( En ) − χ η ( ) ( E ) .
ξ
{
The graph of this function in energy interval
from 0 up to 2 MeV for He2+ ion in the structure
of TeO2-PbCl2 glass is shown in the fig.2.
}
(3.3)
χ =χ(y) is function of argument y = η(E),
where:
90
η (n) ( E ) =
δ ( n ) ( E ) − λξ ( n)
,
λδ ( n ) ( E ) + ξ ( n )
( )
ξ ( n ) = 4a2( n ) a0( n ) − a2( n )
2
In any case we must consider x N +1 = 0 and
EN = E0 in (3.3) and (3.4) for n = N because the
traveled distance is equal zero at the moment
when the ion with energy E0 is entering into the
material (E0 is initial energy of ion). Finally in
the first interval (i.e. for n = 1) the equation to
be solved has the form (3.2) and next solution
can be written at the lowest energies of ion:
,
δ ( n ) ( E ) = 2 Ea2( n ) + a1( n ) ,
and λ is parameter. Equation (3.3) represents
two types of solution of equation (3.2) which
can be distinguished by means of parameter λ
and charcter of function χ(y) as follows:
The first type we have if 4 a2(n)a0(n)-(
a1(n))2 > 0. Parameter λ = 0 and function χ(y) =
arctg(y) in this case.
The second type we get if a2(n)a0(n)-(
a1(n))2 < 0. These solutions are characterized by
parameter λ = 1 and function χ(y) = ln(y).
More over there is third type of solution
for special case a2(n)a0(n)-( a1(n))2 = 0 having the
simple form:
(
E1 − E
)
where: C =
The importance of formulas (3.3), (3.4) and
(3.5) is clear, E is the energy of ion after
traveling a distance x in material. These results
enable the analytical calculation of energy losses
of ion which is slowing down in a material
structure.
δ ( n) ( En )
− 1 . ( 3.4 )
δ ( n ) ( E ) δ ( n ) ( E )
It should be noted that experimental values Ei
and Si (for i = N, ... 2) represent boundary
conditions to the solving of equation (3.1) and
different type of solution must be applied in
each of intervals.
x( n ) ( E ) = xn+1 +
2
C
S1
( 3.5)
E1
Bragg curve of ion in the material structure can
calculated using the algorithm based on
presented results (for example see fig.3).
x = x2 +
2
Above formulation for the stopping power
calculating of He2+ ion in the TeO2-PbCl2 glass
was used in intermediate-velocity region where
we can rely only on a database of discrete values
of stopping power in the evaluation of depth
profiles. Results are shown in the fig.3.
4. PRINCIPLE OF ELEMENTAL
DEPTH PROFILES
CALCULATION
A typical problem in RBS analysis is the
determination of the elemental composition of a
sample as a function of the depth. Such depth
profiles reconstruction from RBS data is an
inversion problem to the problem of ion-beam
and detector-induced energy spreads as well as
energy-loss
straggling
and
small-angle
scattering effects. Recently this inversion
problem is usually solved on the basis of
Bayesian probability theory, which provides a
method for quantifying and combining uncertain
data and uncertain additional information
[23, 24].
Fig. 3. Calculated Bragg curve for 1,7 MeV
He2+ ion in the TeO2-PbCl2 glass
Distance traveled by ion in material structure
must be determined step by step. Calculation
must begin with n = N, next n gradually
decreases by step 1 and values xn+1 always result
from the calculation with previous n (i.e. from
the calculation in the previous energy interval).
We assume, that depth profile only a single
element is calculated from the clearly identified
91
peak in RBS spectrum. Principle of RBS depth
profiles analysis is shown in fig.4. Let the angle
of incident beam with sample`s normal is α and
scattering angle is ϑ. Ion enters to the material
and after traveling distance x1 is reflected on
atom (see fig.4). If the energy of ion just before
the reflection is E, energy of reflected ion is Ed
while:
(4.1)
E d = kE ,
Calculated conversion curves obtained by
iterative method are shown in fig.5 and fig.6.
As can be seen from mentione graphs,
transformation of measured energy to depth
could be approximated by a linear funcion in the
near-surface area.
where k is kinematic factor determined by:
2
M cos (ϑ ) + m 2 − M 2 sin 2 (ϑ )
ion
at
ion
k =
( 4.2 )
+
M
m
ion
at
Reflected ion gets back to the material surface
after the passing distance x2, where the ion with
energy Emeas impacts to detector.
We note, that the energy of ion continuously
changes along the paths x1 and x2 due to energy
losses in the material structure.
We assumed that in intermediate-velocity region
the correlation between traveled distance and
ion energy x = x(E) during the movement of ion
in material can be estimated using discrete
SRIM
Fig. 5. Graph illustrating conversion of
measured energy into depth calculated from
interpolated SRIM data for 1,5 MeV He2+ ion
scattered on Te atoms in TeO2-PbCl2 (80-20)
target.
detector
ion beam
E0
Mion
Emeas
α
α
x1
E
inciednt ion
δ
hdepth
ϑ
mat
x2
Fig. 6. Graph illustrating conversion of
measured energy into depth calculated from
interpolated SRIM data for 1,6 MeV He2+ ion
scattered on Pb atoms in TeO2-PbCl2 (80-20)
target.
Ed
atom in the material structure
Fig. 4. Scheme illustrating the scattering
of incident ion under the material surface
Areal density of atoms in various depths
under the material surface can be deduced from
yeld of RBS spectra. Let Nimpact is the number of
ions incident on the material surface and Ncount is
nuber of scattered ions scanned by detector. In
general the number of incident ions is not equal
the nuber of ions registered by detector because
not all ions from the applied beam is scatteder to
the area of detector (i.e. to the angle ϑ). Number
of ions scattered into a certain solid angle is
data by means of results (3.3) and (3.4). As can
be easily found out, the depth of atom hdepth from
which the ion was reflected can be written as
(see fig.4):
hdepth = x1 cos (α ) = x2 cos (π − α − ϑ ) .
( 4.3)
Conversion of measured energy Emeas to depth
hdepth can be realized by means of equation (4.3)
taking into account the fact that:
x1 = x1 ( E ) and x2 = x2 ( Emeas ) .
( 4.4 )
92
determined by scattering cross-section that can
be written as [25] (in case of non-relativistic
Coulomb type of scattering):
{
dσ
=γ
}
2
mat2 − M ion
sin 2 (ϑ ) + mat cos (ϑ )
2
mat sin 4 (ϑ ) mat2 − M ion
sin 2 (ϑ )
dΩ
2
applicability of simple analytical algorithm for
quantitative depth profiling from RBS data.
Attention was devoted to the suitable processing
of experimental RBS signal consisting of ions
scattered close to the surface of the investigated
sample using SRIM database. RBS signal itself
relates directly to the composition of atoms at
any specific depth in the sample. The
quantitative evaluation of depth profiles requires
the conversion of a measured energy of ions
versus yield of RBS signal intensity into a
distance from the original surface versus true
areal density of atoms. Basically, this
conversion procedure comprises the evaluation
of the energy of ion after traveling a distance x
in the material structure using discrete stopping
power data from SRIM database. Data
processing formulas were presented, starting
with a very simple approximation of stopping
power dependence from energy using the spline
interpolation the SRIM data. The basic
mathematical procedures for the quantitative
depth profiling were stated and processed data
points were illustrated for two selected profiles
in TeO2-PbCl2 glass surface. It can be assumed,
that possible errors due to oscillations of
function S(E) obtained by spline interpolation
(see fig.3) are compensated by the integrating in
(1.5) and graphs of correlation functions
between depth and measured energy show no
such deviations (see fig.5 and fig.6).
2
( 4.5)
2
e2 zZ
where: γ =
.
8πε 0 E
Let the total number of ions applied on the
target surface area S0 during the RBS
measurement is Nimpact and n(i) is total number of
atoms of i-th element in the structure of exposed
area. Only some of applied ions are scattered on
atoms of i-th element. From standard
probabilistic rules follows that yeld from the i-th
element in RBS spectrum can be written as:
n ( i ) dσ
(i )
,
N count
= Nimpact
S0 d Ω
while: Γ ( ) =
i
n(i )
,
S0
( 4.6 )
( 4.7 )
is just the areal density of i-th compound. If Q is
the charge applied on the target surface (dose),
i.e.:
Q
Nimpact = ,
( 4.8)
ze
applying (4.5), (4.6) and (4.7) next formula for
the areal density of i-th compound can be found:
2
2
8πε 0 E (i )
Γ =
N count ,
Λ
Ze zeQ
(i )
where: Λ =
{
( 4.9 )
2
sin 2 (ϑ )
mat sin 4 (ϑ ) mat2 − M ion
}
2
mat2 − M ion
sin 2 (ϑ ) + mat cos (ϑ )
2
In conclusion, we analytically solved the
problem that is usually investigated using
statistical algorithms in order to simplify and
accelerate data processing. One can easily
understand that there is a correlation between
the energy of ion detected after scattering and
depth of the scattering centre if the energy of the
ion penetrating into material changes. This
correlation was mathematically demonstrated in
our contribution. Indeed, expressions (3.3),
(3.4), (3.5) and (4.3) allow one to investigate
this correlation. As an illustration we have
shown results for 126Te and 206Pb atoms in the
surface of TeO2-PbCl2 glass. This specific case
of material have used here because of its
.
Conversion of yield in RBS spectra to areal
density scale can be simply realized by means of
formula (4.9) taking into account the fact that:
hdepth = hdepth ( Emeas ) ,
( 4.10 )
5. CONCLUSIONS
The depth profiling of atoms in composites
using discrete data from SRIM database was
treated analytically in the contribution. Major
motivation of our work was to verify the
93
complexity but we believe that presented
procedure can be applied also for any materials.
implanted ions. Jpn J. Appl. Phys., 11(2)
(1972), pp. 134-142.
[13] P.C. Zalm; P. Bailey; M.A. Reading; A.K.
Rossall; J.A. van den Berg, Quantitative
Considerations in Medium Energy Ion
Scattering Depth Profiling Analysis of
nanolayers. Nucl. Instr. and Meth. B,
387(2016) (1998), pp. 77-85.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Institutional
project IVVP 2018/1607 and APVV project DS2016-0038. This work was also funded by the
ERDF - Research and Development Operational
Programme under the project "University
Scientific Park Campus MTF STU - CAMBO"
ITMS: 26220220179.
[14] J.F. Ziegler; J.P. Biersack; U. Littmark, The
Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter.
Pergamon, New York, (1985).
[15] K.S.C. Trautmann; R. Neumann, Electronic
Excitations
and
Heavy-Ion-Induced
Processes in Ionic Crystals. Nucl. Instr.
Meth. Phys. Res B 209(73) (2003).
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Ions in the Bethe Regime. Nucl. Instr.
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[5] H. Bethe; J. Ashkin, Experimental Nuclear
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York, p. 253, (1953).
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Flores Interaction of Charged Particles with
Solids and Surfaces, Plenum Press, New
York, (1991).
[6] U. Fano, Chr.: Studies in Penetration of
Charged Particles in Matter, Nucl. Sci.
Rpt., 39, U. S. National Academy of
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quadratic spline interpolation at midpoints,
(1982) to appear in BIT.
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Ranges in All Elemental Matter, Pergamon,
New York, (1977).
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of splines and their applications, Academic
Press, New York, (1967).
[8] P. Sigmund, Particle Penetration and
Radiation Effects. Springer Series in Solid
State Sciences, 151. Berlin Heidelberg:
Springer-Verlag, (2006).
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Englewood Cliffs, N.J., (1973).
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Fys. Medd. Dan. Vid. Selsk. 36(10) (1968).
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Theoretical
spread of
94
Effect of the Arrival Frequency Process
on the Link Performance Function of a
Signalized Intersection
T. Kovacs a, E. Csizmas a, R. Alvarez Gil
a
a
John von Neumann University, Izsaki 10, 6044 Kecskemet, Hungary,
E-mail: kovacs.tamas@amf.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
Traffic flow theories generally use two different kinds of traffic flow – serving time (shortly link
performance) function: the Beckman type (power function) and the Nesterov de Palma type (step
function). Nevertheless, the actual link performance functions can be unique in every cases,
depending on the characteristics of the specific road or intersection. It is well known that the random
process of the arrival frequency of the vehicles affects considerably the link performance function of
a signalized intersection. In the present work we investigate the specific effect of the long period (815min) fluctuation property the arrival frequency random process on the link performance function,
especially on its theoretical (Beckman or Nesterov de Palma type) character. We determined the link
performance functions of a straight one-lane road with a signalized intersection at the end by a traffic
micro-simulator. Different periods of the fluctuation of the arriving frequency were applied. It was
found that the long term fluctuation affects the character of link performance function considerably.
Keywords: signalized intersection, link performance function
type function [3] and the Nesterov & de Palma
function [4]. In the Beckmann model the link
performance function is monotonous increasing
and convex, generally a power-function. In the
Nesterov de Palma model the link performance
function is a step-function, that is constant when
the traffic load is below the maximal roadcapacity (or simply road capacity) and jumps to
infinity (or a very high time-value) when the
load reaches the road capacity. This latter
obviously makes the traffic assignment problem
easier to solve while the Beckmann is generally
considered to be more realistic.
1. INTRODUCTION
One purpose of the traffic-flow analysis is to
obtain a reliable mathematical model that helps
the traffic control or urban road-planning. The
so called “traffic assignment problem” (i.e. the
calculation of the flow rates on the roadnetwork) has two theoretical approaches:
calculating the “User Equilibrium” or
calculating the “System Optimum” according to
the first and the second Wardrop’s Principle,
respectively [1].
The solution of traffic assignment problem
relies heavily on the so called “link performance
function” [2], that determines the travelling time
on a specific road (i.e. link) as a function of the
traffic load, which is given by the passing
vehicle units per time unit (generally unit/hour).
Regarding the link performance function, two
basic model became popular: the Beckmann
Figure 1 shows the Nesterov de Palma
function and three different Beckmann type
functions (labelled by BPR 1, 2, and 3 see ref.
[5]) as an illustration.
However, the real link performance function
of a specific road can be dependent on numerous
95
2. DETAILS OF THE
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The arrival frequency distribution in case of
a signalized intersection is supposed to be
Poisson or some generalized Poisson with more
than one parameter (see for e.g. [11] or [12]). In
this work we introduce a special Poisson based
distribution that has a fluctuation of the traffic
load with a time period much longer than the
traffic-lamp cycle. We will work with traffic
lamp cycle of 60s, so the arrival time frequency,
denoted by f(i), is measured as the arrival events
under 60s at the ith cycle. If we suppose a
simple one parameter Poisson distribution, then
f(i) is given by:
Fig. 1. The Nesterov de Palma link performance
function (black line) and three Beckmann type link
performance functions (BPR 1, 2 and 3)
static parameters and, among these, on the
arrival frequency random process. Especially it
is true when the road ends in a signalized
intersection. The specific type of the link
performance function affects considerably the
solution of the traffic assignment problem as it
was shown by Chudak et al. [6]. In order to
determine the link performance function,
beyond measurement, numerous theoretical or
simulation method can be used [7,8,9,10].
f (i) = Pλ (i )
(1)
where Pλ(i) is the ith random number from a
Poisson series with λ parameter. Here the index
i measures the minutes. If altogether N unit
vehicle (passenger car) arrives under T time,
then
λ = N /T
(2)
We define the special fluctuated arrival
frequency random process as:
However, the real link performance function
of a specific road can be dependent on numerous
static parameters and, among these, on the
arrival frequency random process. Especially it
is true when the road ends in a signalized
intersection. The specific type of the link
performance function affects considerably the
solution of the traffic assignment problem as it
was shown by Chudak et al. [6]. In order to
determine the link performance function,
beyond measurement, numerous theoretical or
simulation method can be used [7,8,9,10].
f (i, p ) = PG ( λ ,σ )( p ) (i)
(3)
where G(λ,σ)(p) is the pth random value of a
Gaussian distribution series with λ mean and σ
variance, and this Gaussian random number
steps to the next value at the end of a Tp period.
In other words, the λ parameter of the Piosson
process changes once in every Tp minute period,
so this introduces a fluctuation in addition of the
simple Poisson process with a time period Tp.
Figure 2 shows an example of such a fluctuated
Poisson random sequence with the parameters:
The aim of the present work is to investigate
the effect of the random process of the arrival
frequency on the link performance function. To
be more specific, we use arrival frequency
processes, where the traffic load has a
considerable long period fluctuation in time,
which often happens in real traffic. In the next
section the mathematical details are given.
Section 3 introduces the results and in the last
section we conclude.
σ / λ = 0.25, Tp = 8 min
(4)
Note that if the σ parameter (and so the σ/λ
ratio) tends to zero, then this fluctuated Poisson
sequence crosses over to be a simple Poisson
sequence with parameter λ. So the random
process introduced above can be considered as a
“kind of” generalized Poisson process with a
96
limiting case of a simple Poisson at σ=0. This,
however, is not the same as the known
“Generalized Poisson” random process [12]. In
that case it is not possible to introduce such
fluctuation in the λ parameter with arbitrary
weight and period.
In order to obtain a brief picture on the effect
of the λ parameter fluctuation we ran T=32400s
(9 hours) long simulations in the above context
with the parameter set:
σ / λ = {0; 0.25},
T p = {480s, 900s},
(5)
N = {900, 1800, 2520, 2880, 3240, 3600, 3780}.
When σ=0, the experiment yields the simple
Poisson case, so we use this as a control for the
fluctuated case. The numbers of the vehicles (N)
determines the traffic load, so they were chosen
so that we obtain data distributed in the load
range under the road capacity but more data near
the critical point of the capacity limit.
The experiments have shown, that the
capacity limit of the applied road-intersection
context is 21 vehicle-unit/min (that is 21/60
vehicle-unit/s), and in sketching the link
performance function we used the relative traffic
load value that is the ratio of the actual traffic
load divided by the road capacity limit (21
unit/min). In this way the capacity limit is 1 on
the graph, similarly to the graph given in Figure
1. The results are shown in Figure 4.
Fig. 2. Illustration of the fluctuated Poisson random
sequence. Dashed line shows the values of the λ
parameter that changes in every 8 minutes.
3. SIMULATION AND RESULTS
In order to examine the effect of such a long
period random fluctuation we apply a selfdeveloped and Intelligent Driver Model based
traffic micro-simulator [9]. The simulation
context is a simple one lane road of length 500m
controlled by a traffic-lamp, with 60s cycle and
40s green time for the road at hand. Figure 3
shows simulator snapshots of the signalized
intersection (A) and a road-segment with a row
of unit vehicles (B).
Fig. 4. The link performance functions of the
experimental context by using a simple Poisson and
two fluctuated λ Poisson random processes.
It can be seen from the results that all three
link performance function are of a Beckmann
type, however, the graph of the control process,
i.e. the simple Poisson process, is much closer to
the Nesterov de Palma function than the other
two. In other words, the fluctuation property in
the λ parameter results in a more forceful
Fig. 3. Illustration of the examined traffic context.
The parts A) and B) show the intersection at a closer
view and a bigger part of the context with a row of
the vehicles. The lanes are indicated by blue lines,
the grey shapes are the unit vehicles.
97
Beckmann character of the function graph.
Nevertheless, the effect of the Tλ interval
parameter is not clear yet, since the two graphs,
with Tλ = 480s and Tλ =900s , are not separated
distinctly, and it is hard to decide which has
more
pronounced
Beckmann
character.
Probably, this is due to the short simulation
times that causes statistical uncertainty in the
measured mean travelling times. In the case of
these functions we need much longer simulation
runs to reduce this uncertainty.
transportation, CT: Yale University Press,
(1956).
[4] Y. Nesterov; A. de Palma, Optimization
formulations and static equilibrium in
congested
transportation
networks,
Technical report, CORE, (1998).
[5] Bureau of Public Road, Traffic assignment
manual, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Urban Planning Division, Washington,
DC., (1964).
[6] F.A. Chudak; V. Dos Santos Eleuterio; Y.
Nesterov,
Static
traffic
assignment
problem. a comparison between Beckmann
(1956) and Nesterov & de Palma (1998)
models, Proc. of the 7th Swiss Transport
Research Conference, STRC, (2007).
4. CONCLUSIONS
In the present work it was found that the long
period fluctuation affects the character of link
performance function considerably. In the case
of a simple Poisson process, without long period
fluctuation, the link performance function is of a
Becmann type, but quite close to the Nesterov
de Palma function type. While the link
performance functions obtained by applying a
[7] F.V. Webster, Traffic signal settings, Road
Research Technical Paper No. 39, Road
Research
Laboratory,
Her
Majesty
Stationary Office, London, UK, (1958).
long period (8-15min) fluctuation of the λ
parameter of the Poisson process have a much
stronger Beckmann character.
[8] F. Dion; H. Rakha; Y. Kang, Comparison
of delay estimates at under-saturated and
oversaturated
pre-timed
signalized
intersections, Elsevier, Transportation
Research Part B 38 (2004) , pp. 99-122.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[9] T. Kovács; K. Bolla; R. Alvarez Gil; R.E.
Csizmás; Cs. Fábián; L.
Kovács; K.
Medgyes; J. Osztényi; A. Végh, Parameters
of the intelligent driver model in signalized
intersections. Technical Gazette 23(5)
(2016), pp. 1469-1474.
This research is supported by EFOP-3.6.116-2016-00006
"The
development
and
enhancement of the research potential at John
von Neumann University" project. The Project
is supported by the Hungarian Government and
co-financed by the European Social Fund.
[10] R.P. Alvarez Gil; T. Kovács, Közlekedési
lámpa
optimalizálása
IDM
alapú
szimulátorral. Innováció és fenntartható
felszíni közlekedés IFFK 2016, pp. 92-96.
6. REFERENCES
[1] J.G. Wardrop, Some theoretical aspects of
road traffic research. Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Part II,
(1952), pp.352-378.
[11] F.V. Webster; B.M. Cobbe, Traffic Signals.
Road Research Technical Paper 56, (1966).
[12] J.N. Darroch, On the traffic-light queue.
The Annals of Mathematical Statistics,
(1964), pp.380-388.
[2] Y, Sheffi, Urban Transportation Networks:
Equilibrium Analysis with Mathematical
Programing
Methods,
PrenticeHall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, (1985).
[3] M. Beckmann; C.B. McGuire; C.B.
Winsten, Studies in the economics of
98
Sintering of Slip Cast Composite Al2O3ZrO2 Ceramics
I. Sever a, L. Ćurković a, I. Žmak
a
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia,
E-mail: ivana.sever@fsb.hr
Abstract
Slip casting method can be used for forming monolithic and composite ceramics, in which a stable
aqueous suspension of ceramic particles is poured into a plaster mould. Zirconia-toughened alumina
composite ceramics possess many attractive properties such as high-temperature mechanical strength,
wear resistance, low thermal conductivity and good thermal shock resistance. Compared to
monolithic alumina ceramics, composite Al2O3-ZrO2 ceramics have enhanced fracture toughness and
flexural strength due to the embedded zirconia grains in the alumina matrix. In this paper, waterbased suspensions with a total of 70 wt. % solid phase content (monolithic Al2O3 and composite
Al2O3-ZrO2 ceramic suspensions) were prepared. The solid phase of composite ceramic suspensions
consisted of either 1 or 10 dry weight base (dwb) % addition of zirconia (ZrO2) powder, and the rest
was alumina powder. The used zirconia (ZrO2) powder was partially stabilized with the 3 mol %
yttria (Y2O3). A dispersant (Dolapix CE 64) and a binder (polyvinyl alcohol - PVA) were added for
the stabilization of water-based suspensions. The stability of 70 wt. % monolithic (Al2O3) and
composite (Al2O3-ZrO2) ceramic suspensions was evaluated by rheological measurements and
sedimentation tests. Suspensions were homogenized in a planetary ball mill and green bodies were
prepared by slip casting of stable suspensions in a plaster mould. After the sintering, the density of the
sintered monolithic and composite ceramic samples was measured and compared.
Keywords: alumina - zirconia composite ceramics, slip casting, stability, rheology
to high hardness and chemical stability of
alumina, ZTA ceramics are characterized with
high fracture toughness due to zirconia's
transformation of the tetragonal phase to
monoclinic phase [3]. These improved
properties such as high mechanical strength,
wear resistance, high flexural strength and
fracture toughness extend the application scope
of ZTA ceramics [4]. It has been used for
different cutting tools, biomedical implants,
dental ceramics, structural ceramic parts and
lately armour materials [5,6].
1. INTRODUCTION
The demand for new and improved ceramic
materials is constantly growing, especially over
the last few decades. Although monolithic
ceramics have a wide application scope, some
features such as brittleness and a low damage
tolerance make them inadequate for some
applications. Better features can be achieved by
embedding ceramic fibres or grains in a ceramic
matrix to obtain a ceramic composite with
improved properties [1].
The addition of zirconia grains (ZrO2) to
alumina matrix forms zirconia-toughenedalumina
(ZTA)
ceramic.
Engineering
applications of zirconia were made possible by
the discovery of the stabilization of the
tetragonal phase using either magnesium oxide
(MgO) or yttrium oxide (Y2O3) [2]. In addition
The transformation of the tetragonal phase to
monoclinic phase in stabilized zirconia acts as a
dissipative mechanism for fracture energy. This
dissipative fracture energy is due to volume
expansion during the tetragonal to monoclinic
phase transformation [7]. When a crack appears
99
suspensions. The stability of 70 wt. %
monolithic Al2O3 and composite Al2O3 - ZrO2
ceramic suspensions was evaluated by
rheological measurements and sedimentation
tests. Suspensions were homogenized in a
planetary ball mill and green bodies were
prepared by slip casting of stable suspensions in
a plaster mould. After the sintering at 1600 °C,
the density of the sintered monolithic and
composite ceramic samples was measured and
compared.
in the material, the grains next to the crack
transform into monoclinic phase. The changes in
volume and in shape of the crystal cells take
place on account of the elastic stresses during
the propagation of the crack. All these processes
lead to an increase in toughness of the ceramic
material [2].
Different technologies, such as dry-pressing,
tape casting, pressure casting, slip casting or
spraying can be used to produce composite
ceramics. All of these forming methods start
with a suspension of ceramic powder, water and
additives [8]. Slip casting is a colloidal
technique used for the consolidation of the
ceramic powder from an aqueous suspension.
The slip, i.e. the suspension, is poured into a
porous mould which withdraws water from the
slip producing a green body ready for sintering.
Slip casting is a widely used inexpensive
process suitable for producing both monolithic
and composite ceramics even for complex
geometries. However simple this technique may
be, it requires adequate understanding of colloid
suspensions and their behaviour [9,10]. In order
to obtain a material with high green density and
microstructural homogeneity, different casting
parameters must be properly adjusted such as
suspension viscosity and stability, as well as the
suspension composition. To achieve low
suspension viscosity, but also high green and
sintered density, various additives are added to
the suspensions, such as the dispersants and
binders [11]. The addition of dispersants
eliminates
the
powder’s
tendency
to
agglomerate due to the attractive intra-particle
van der Waals forces. The obtained slip has low
viscosity with high solid loading to ensure high
green density and homogeneous microstructure
[12].
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
USED FOR RESEARCH
2.1.
Preparation
of
monolithic
alumina and composite alumina zirconia ceramic suspensions
Monolithic alumina suspensions were
prepared with a total of 70 wt. % solid phase,
and composite alumina - zirconia suspensions
with 1 and 10 dwb % addition of the 3 mol %
yttria-partially stabilized zirconia (ZrO2) powder
(SkySpring Nanomaterials, Inc., USA). Highpurity Al2O3 powder was used, with the average
particle size 300-400 nm (Alcan Chemicals,
USA). A commercial carbonic acid based
polyelectrolyte dispersant Dolapix CE 64
(Zschimmer & Schwarz Chemie GmbH,
Germany) and binder PVA (polyvinyl alcohol,
Sigma Aldrich, USA) were used to stabilize
highly concentrated alumina and alumina zirconia suspensions. The optimal amounts of
the dispersant (Table 1) were determined in
preliminary experiments.
The binder (PVA) was dissolved in deionised
water at a temperature of 60 °C. The optimal
amounts of the dispersant (Table 1) were added
to the solution of the binder and water and added
into the grinding jar of the planetary ball mill.
After that, 70 wt. % of dry ceramic powder was
added into the grinding jar. Ten alumina balls
were used for the mixture homogenization,
which lasted for 90 minutes at a speed of 300
rpm. Alumina balls were separated from the
suspension after the homogenization using a
sieve. The suspension underwent an ultrasonic
In this paper, water-based suspensions with a
total of 70 wt. % solid phase pure Al2O3 as well
as mixture of Al2O3 and ZrO2 powder were
studied. Two composite ceramics were prepared
with 1 and 10 dwb % of the 3 mol % yttriapartially stabilized zirconia (ZrO2) powder. A
dispersant (Dolapix CE 64) and a binder (PVA)
were added for the stabilization of water-based
100
each.
Rheological
measurements
were
conducted just before each shear rate change.
treatment for 15 min in an ultrasonic bath –
Bransonic 220 (Branson Ultrasonics Corp.,
USA) to remove the air bubbles and achieve
better homogeneity.
2.3. Sedimentation tests
Aqueous ceramic suspensions (monolithic
and composite) with 20 wt. % of dry solid phase
were prepared with the corresponding amounts
of the dispersant and the binder (Table 1). The
pH value was adjusted using 0.1 M HCl, 0.1 M
NaOH and the pH-meter FE20/EL20 (Mettler
Toledo GmbH, Switzerland). 14 ml of
suspensions, each with a different pH value
(from 2 to 12) were poured into test tubes and
set aside on a stand. The ceramic powder will
remain dispersed in a stable suspension, while in
an unstable suspension the ceramic powder will
settle on the bottom of the test tube. Sediment
volume was recorded after 1 h, 24 h, 72 h and 7
days for each suspension.
2.2. Rheological analysis of ceramic
suspensions
Rheological
properties
of
ceramic
(monolithic and composite) suspensions were
determined using a rotational viscometer DV-III
Ultra (Brookfield Engineering Laboratories,
Inc., USA) in a small sample chamber with
spindle SC4-18. Pre-shearing lasted for 2 min at
a shear rate of 100 s-1. The shear rate was
gradually increased from 0.1 to 180 s-1, and then
reduced back to 0.1 s-1. The shear rate
increase/decrease interval was divided in 50
equal time frames, which lasted for 3 seconds
Table 1. Composition of prepared ceramic suspensions
1
Dry powder
content, wt.%
70
2
70
99 % Al2O3 + 1 % ZrO2
0.3
0.5
3
70
90 % Al2O3 + 10 % ZrO2
1
0.5
Suspension
2.4. Preparation and
ceramic green bodies
Composition of ceramic
powder
100 % Al2O3
Dispersant
content, wt.%
0.2
Binder content,
wt.%
0.5
sintering
hour; then 3 °C min-1 to 1600 °C. To complete
the sintering process, samples were held for 2
hours at a temperature of 1600 °C after which
they were furnace cooled to room temperature.
Monolithic alumina ceramics and composite
alumina – zirconia ceramics prepared by above
described process are shown in Figure 1.
of
Production of ceramics by slip casting
method involves pouring of highly concentrated
water-based slip (suspension) into a plaster
mould. To produce ceramic green bodies, water
is absorbed by the mould through capillary
action. This way, dense cast form is obtained
which minimizes shrinkage in the final sintering
process.
After 24 hours, green bodies were removed
from plaster moulds and dried at 100 °C for 1
hour. Finally, dried green bodies were grinded
and polished to form the desirable shape. Shaped
green bodies were then sintered at 1600 °C in an
electric furnace (Nabertherm P310, Germany).
Sintering process was carried out as follows:
1 °C min-1 to 600 °C, with holding time of 1
Fig. 1. Sintered ceramic samples: (A) 100% Al2O3,
(B) 99% Al2O3 + 1% ZrO2, (C) 90% Al2O3 + 10%
ZrO2
101
2.5. Density measurements
The density of the sintered samples was
measured using a laboratory scale with Density
Kit MS-DNY-43 (Mettler Toledo GmbH,
Switzerland). Sintered samples were weighed,
first in the air and then in a liquid (distilled
water) of known temperature. The density is
calculated by a computer program according to
the ASTM C373-88 (Standard Test Method for
Water Absorption, Bulk Density, Apparent
Porosity, and Apparent Specific Gravity of Fired
Whiteware Products, Ceramic Tiles, and Glass
Tiles). The density is defined according to the
standard by the equation:
(1)
where:
Fig. 2. Flow curves: (A) viscosity (η) vs. shear rate
(γ), and (B) shear stress (τ) vs. shear rate (γ)
V – sample volume, cm3,
α – correction factor (α =0.99985),
A – sample mass in air, g,
3.2. Sedimentation tests results
B – sample mass in liquid, g,
Values of sediment volumes at different pH
after 1 h, 24 h, 72 h and 7 days of sedimentation
are shown in Figure 3A for the alumina
suspensions without the addition of zirconia
powder. It is visible that the alumina
suspensions are stable in acidic (2-5) and
alkaline (8-12) pH region during the first hour.
After 7 days phase separation is visible
throughout the studied pH values.
ρ0 – liquid density, g cm-3,
ρL – air density, g cm-3 (ρL=0.0012 g cm-3).
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
3.1. Rheological flow curves
Rheological flow curves show the dependence
of shear stress (τ) on viscosity (η) as well as on
shear rate (γ), and can be used for predicting the
nature of interactions among particles in the
suspension. The alumina and alumina - zirconia
suspensions flow curves are shown in Fig. 2.
Values of sediment volumes at different pH
after 1 h, 24 h, 72 h and 7 days of sedimentation
for the alumina suspensions with the addition of
1 dwb % of zirconia powder are shown in Figure
3B. During the first few hours, alumina zirconia suspension is stable in the acidic (pH
2-4) and alkaline (pH 7-12) region. The pH
region of stability is shifted to the left with the
addition of zirconia powder. Phase separation is
also visible after 72 hours.
The obtained results show that the
suspension viscosity decreases with increasing
shear rate (Figure 2A), that is, all suspensions
show
typical
pseudoplastic
behaviour,
characteristic for non-Newtonian fluids [13].
Figure 2B shows that the shear stress increases
with the increasing shear rate for all
suspensions, which also confirms the previous
statement. The addition of zirconia powder
increases the viscosity and the shear stress.
Values of sediment volumes at different pH
after 1 h, 24 h, 72 h and 7 days of sedimentation
for the alumina suspensions with the addition of
10 dwb % of zirconia powder are shown in
Figure 3C. It is noticeable that the alumina zirconia suspension is stable only in the neutral
102
Table 2. Density (ρ) of the sintered samples
and alkaline (6-12) pH region. The pH region of
stability is shifted even more to the left with the
increase in amount of the added zirconia
powder.
Sample
ρ, g cm-3
ρ t, %
100% Al2O3
3.637
91.4
99% Al2O3 + 1% ZrO2
3.759
94
90% Al2O3 + 10% ZrO2
3.729
89.4
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, water-based suspensions with a
total of 70 wt. % solid phase (monolithic Al2O3
ceramic
and
composite
Al2O3 - ZrO2
suspensions) were prepared. Composite Al2O3ZrO2 ceramic suspensions were prepared with 1
and 10 dwb % addition of the 3 mol % yttriapartially stabilized zirconia (ZrO2) powder to
investigate the effect of zirconia addition on
density of the sintered ceramic samples.
The stability of 70 wt. % monolithic Al2O3
and composite Al2O3-ZrO2 ceramic suspensions
was evaluated by the rheological measurements
and the sedimentation tests. The rheological
measurements showed that the addition of
zirconia powder increases the viscosity and the
shear stress of ceramic suspensions. The pH
region of the stability of the prepared
suspensions is shifted to the lower pH values
with the increasing amount of zirconia powder.
The density of the sintered monolithic and
composite ceramic samples was measured and
compared. The results of the density
measurements showed that the addition of
zirconia powder to alumina increases the density
of the sintered ceramic samples. The density
closest to the theoretical one was observed for
the composition of 99% Al2O3 + 1% ZrO2.
Although the addition of zirconia powder
increased the density of ceramic samples, it is
still lower that the theoretical one. Therefore, it
must be considered to add various additives or
to modify the sintering process to further
increase the density.
Fig. 3. Values of sediment volume at different pH of
ceramic suspensions after 1 h, 24 h, 72 h and 7 days
of sedimentation: (A) 100% Al2O3, (B) 99% Al2O3 +
1% ZrO2, (C) 90% Al2O3 + 10% ZrO2
3.3. Density measurements results
The results of the density measurements
showed that the density of monolithic Al2O3
ceramic is 91.4 % of the theoretical alumina
density (ρ t = 3.986 g cm-3), Table 2. The
addition of the zirconia powder to alumina
significantly increased the density of the
sintered ceramic samples. The density of the
composite ceramic with 99% Al2O3 and 1%
ZrO2 was 94% of the theoretical density (ρ t =
3.999 g cm-3), whereas the composite ceramic
with 90% Al2O3 and 10% ZrO2 was only 89.4%
of the theoretical density (ρ t = 4.172 g cm-3).
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been fully supported by the
Croatian Science Foundation within the project
103
IP-2016-06-6000: Monolithic and Composite
Advanced Ceramics for Wear and Corrosion
Protection (WECOR).
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Erosion resistance of slip cast composite
Al2O3-ZrO2 ceramics. Energy Procedia 100
(2015), pp.1133-1140.
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104
Approximation of the On-state
Probability of Electrical Appliances by
Radial Basis Function Neural Network
Z. Domotor a, L. Kovacs b, R. Drenyovszki
a
b
b
University of Pannonia, Egyetem u. 10., 8200 Veszprém, Hungary,
E-mail: zeno.domotor@gmail.com
John von Neumann University, Izsaki ut 10, 6000 Kecskemet, Hungary,
E-mail: {rajmund.drenyovszki, lorant.kovacs}@gamf.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
Recently bottom-up electricity consumption models has been come to the fore, since measuring
appliance level consumptions has become possible by smart metering. Bottom-up models form a basis
to an alternative way of predicting the consumption of a given (small or large) population of
appliances/consumers. Increasing the accuracy of the prediction results in higher efficiency of the
electricity grid, because peak consumption could be shaved while consumption valleys can be filled
(assuming partly controllable appliances). Since the balance between production and consumption
(which is a crucial issue regarding the electricity grid) can be achieved by scheduling, more accurate
consumption predictions results in more efficient scheduling. The lack of above mentioned balance
results overproduction or overconsumption. To govern electricity consumption, we suppose a bottomup probability based consumption admission control algorithm, which was recently investigated by
the authors. However the probability based admission algorithm needs the on-state probability of all
the appliances connected to the smart meter. The main challenge here, that the probability of
consumption is non-stationary and depends on other non-electrical variables as well, such as presence
of the owner, outdoor temperature, solar power, etc. As a result, the problem of real-time estimation
of the statistical parameters of the appliances can be formulated as a multidimensional function
approximation task, for which Radial Basis Function Neural Network are known as proven in this
paper as efficient tool.
Keywords: consumption admission control, radial basis function neural networks
to as Demand Side Management (DSM) [1] in
the Smart Grid literature. There exist many
DSM methods, for instance night-time heating
with load switching, time-of-use pricing and
direct load control. In general DSM covers all
the activities or programs undertaken by service
providers to influence the amount or timing of
electricity use. The residential sector represents
an important part of the electricity demand and
contains flexible appliances in high number. The
amount of consumption involved in direct
control can eliminate the error between daily
prediction based generation and actual demand.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the main tasks of electricity service
providers is satisfying perfect balance between
supply and demand. On the other hand, there is a
high social pressure to increase the percentage
of renewable energy resources in the electrical
energy supply. The control of the supply side is
difficult in many cases because of the large time
constants of the basic fossil and nuclear plants;
the only solution is to use economically
inefficient extra gas and oil generators. Hence,
an alternative way to keep the balance is to
control the demand side. This concept is referred
105
In this paper we are investigating appliance level
statistical parameter estimation based on an RBF
neural network as part of our previously
proposed Consumption Admission Control
algorithm [2,3]. Smart metering enable us to
collect appliance level statistics, hence we can
use this additional information in our method.
Appliance level statistical parameter estimation
means the extraction of models describing how
appliances are used by residents. The aim of the
paper is developing an RBF approximator which
can estimate the current value of statistical
descriptors of a given appliance. In this paper
we focus on the non-stationary on-state
probability of a single appliance. The main
challenge here, that the on-state probability
depends not only on the time of day, but also on
other non-electrical parameters, such as indoor
and outdoor temperature, solar power, presence
of the owner, etc. This function is
multidimensional, unknown, and furthermore
can be different for different appliances. As a
result automatic function approximation tool is
needed to estimate the underlying probabilities.
The focus of the paper is the approximation of
the on-state probability based on time of day and
presence of the owner as input parameters. The
number of input parameters can be increased
without any problem, the reason of using only
two parameters in this paper is the limitation in
the given database we could use. Our concept is
depicted by Figure 1.
matrix, etc). This unknown mapping can be
interpreted as an unknown function which can
be approximated by a proper tool. The
approximator has to be optimized based on a
training set τ ( K ) :=
{( u
k
, z k ) , k = 1,..., K } . The
unknown function is denoted by Ψ (u) , where
z k = Ψ ( u k ) . Here variable u represents the
environmental parameter vector, whereas
variable z corresponds to the statistical
parameter vector. The underlying task is to
develop an algorithm F ( u, w ) , which is able to
capture Ψ (u) with a given level of accuracy.
Here vector w represents the free parameters of
the approximator which can be tuned to fit
F ( u, w ) to Ψ (u) over the training set τ ( K ) .
By using instead of Ψ (u) one must make
sure that it has the necessary (i) representation-,
(ii) learning- and (iii) generalization capabilities
needed to approximate Ψ (u) . In order to come
to grips with the tasks listed above, the Radial
Basis Function network implementations of
F ( u, w )
will be investigated (since the
universal approximator property and off-line
learning capability of this method).
2.1. Radial Basis Function
Radial Basis Function networks are onehidden-layer neural networks. All the processing
elements (neurons) of the first (hidden) layer get
the whole input vector. The input vector is
compared to the centre point of the given
neuron, and a nonlinear function of this distance
(in the Euclidean sense) gives the output. In the
Fig. 1. The approximator structure
2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
From a mathematical point of view there is
an unknown mapping between some
environmental parameters (such as time of days,
day of week, temperature, humidity, light
conditions, occupancy etc.) and the statistical
descriptors of the corresponding power
consumption time series model (e.g. probability
distribution function, Markov state-transition
Fig. 2. The RBF structure
106
Ua = d
second layer only one processing element makes
a weighted sum of the outputs of the hidden
layer neurons. The formulae that describe the
RBF network:
where U is the so called interpolation matrix,
and its elements are defined as
U ij = ϕ ( ui − u j )
K
f ( u ) = ∑ aiϕ ( ci , u )
(1)
2
ci − u
2σ i2
(2)
where u is the input vector, K is the
number of neurons in the hidden layer (the
The benefits of RBF implementation are the
following properties:
number of radial basis functions), ϕ (.) is called
Universal approximation in the L2 space;
the radial basis function, which is mostly the
Gaussian function as indicated above, and σ is
called the width parameter.
Learning can be carried out analytically
(solving a linear set of equations, if the
number of neurons in the input layer is the
same as the number of neurons);
The complexity of the network
The complexity of the network is determined
by the number of hidden layer neurons, i.e. the
number of the basis functions of different centre
points. The approximation is the weighted sum
of the basis function values for a given input.
The complexity (and hence the
approximation capability) of the network
can be controlled by the dimensionality of
the input vector;
Setting the width parameters
3. NUMERICAL RESULTS
The width parameters of the network can be
different for all the basis functions, however
they are mostly set to be equal. The
approximation quality is not too highly
dependent on the width parameters which are
mainly set by the following empirical nearestneighbour rule [5]:
σ=
1
K
K
∑c
i =1
i
−cj
(5)
and d is the desired response (i.e. the known
function values). If U is almost singular, the
Ua = d equation can be solved using the
regularization theory.
i =1
ϕ ( ci , u ) = exp −
(4)
In order to numerically evaluate the outlined
concept, one need a test database. However
there are many available test databases
containing electrical consumption time series,
none of them meets our requirements, i.e.
appliance-level measurements additionally
containing associated environmental parameters.
Hence, a multi-channel data acquisition tool
were developed, which is able to register the
consumption of 8 electrical devices, the outdoor
temperature, solar power, and presence of
human being in the underlying room. In this
paper the first 28 consecutive working days of
measurements
were
investigated.
The
consumption data for a given appliance (which
was the main lighting device of an office) were
averaged and normalized for 28 weeks, and for
15 minutes intervals. As a result on-state
probabilities were obtained (assuming no
seasonality effect during the 28 consecutive
days). As input parameters the time of day and
outdoor brightness parameters were chosen.
(3)
where c j is the nearest neighbour of ci in the
Euclidean sense.
Training of the network
The training of the network is carried out
based on a training set, i.e. some points of the
function to be approximated are known. If the
number of the known points is relatively small,
then the known points are used to centre points
of the basis function [5] as in our case as well.
In this case the weights of the network can be
calculated by solving a set of linear equations:
107
element was approximated. The result is
depicted by Figure 5 and 6. After going through
all the data points by this manner, the MSE
resulted to 0.0509, while MAE was 0.1376.
Switch-on probability of light
The measurement results can be seen in Figure 3
and 4 Brightness is measured in lux. On the time
axis the numbers mean the quarter hours of the
day (from 1 to 96).
Fig. 6. Approximated on-state probability of a
lighting device
Fig. 3. On-state probability of a lighting device as a
function of time and outdoor brightness
In Figure 7 and 8 the absolute difference
between the measured values and their
approximations are depicted.
Fig. 4. On-state probability of a lighting device as a
function of time and outdoor brightness
The RBF net was trained by equations (4)
and (5). The performance was evaluated by
cross validation and measured by the Mean
Squared Error (MSE) and Mean Absolute Error
(MAE).
Fig. 7. The absolute difference between measured onstate probability and its approximation
Brightness
In each step of the cross validation procedure
one of the original function samples was
reserved for test, while all the other samples
were used to train the net. After training the test
Fig. 8. The absolute difference between measured onstate probability and its approximation
4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE
WORK
In this paper Radial Basis Function Neural
Network was used as a function approximator in
Fig. 5. Approximated on-state probability of a
lighting device
108
order to learn the mapping between time of day
and outdoor brightness as inputs and and ONstate probability as output. The tool has been
proven to be able to estimate the ON-state
probability with a mean absolute error of about
0.1376, which makes the tool suitable for
plugging into Consumption Admission Control
algorithms to deal with time dependence of
statistical descriptors.
In the future work we try to extend the tool
for more input parameters and longer time
periods in order to enhance the performance of
the approximator.
5. REFERENCES
[1] G. Strbac, Demand side management:
Benefits and challenges. Energy Policy
36(12) (2008), pp. 4419-4426.
[2] L. Kovacs; J. Levendovszky; A. Olah; R.
Drenyovszki; D. Tisza; K. Tornai; I. Pinter,
A probabilistic approach for admission
control of smart appliances in Smart Grids,
Proc. of the TEAM 2013, pp. 18-21.
[3] L. Kovacs; R. Drenyovszki; A. Olah; J.
Levendovszky; K. Tornai; I. Pinter, A
probabilistic demand side management
approach by consumption admission
control. Tehnicki Vjesnik - Technical
Gazette 24(1) (2017), pp. 199-207.
[4] S. Barker; A. Mishra; D. Irwin; E. Cecchet;
P. Shenoy; J. Albrecht, Smart*: An open
data set and tools for enabling research in
sustainable homes. SustKDD, August 2012.
[5] S.
Haykin,
Neural
Networks.
A
comprehensive foundation, Macmillan
College Publishing, New York, (2001).
109
Preparation of Alumina Foams by the
Polyurethane Sponge Replica Method
Z. Švagelj a, L. Ćurković a, V. Mandić b, V. Rede a, B. Bušetinčan
a
a
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture,
Ivana Lučića 5, 10000, Croatia, E-mail: zsvagelj@fsb.hr
b
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology,
Marulićev trg 19, 10000, Croatia
Abstract
In this study, highly porous alumina ceramics with an open, three-dimensional network structure were
prepared by a simple and low-cost replica method. This method involves the impregnation of a
polymeric sponge (typically polyurethane) with a ceramic suspension followed by a heat treatment to
burn out the polymeric template. Two different types of commercial polyurethane sponge with pore
density of 18 ppi (pores per inch) and 30 ppi were used as the templates. These templates were
repeatedly immersed in stable aqueous alumina suspension containing 60 wt. % solid with different
additives to obtain uniform and sufficiently thick coating on the sponge struts and to prevent collapse
of the ceramic structure during a two-stage sintering at 1600 °C. Factors that predominately affect the
uniformity of the coating are the impregnating suspension rheological properties and its adhesion at
the polymeric sponge. Therefore, the rheology of aqueous alumina suspension was analysed prior to
impregnation. The resulting alumina foams were characterised on properties such as density, porosity,
morphological features and compressive strength. It was found that total porosity of alumina foams
decreased with increasing pore density of the polyurethane templates which consequently led to the
increase of the compressive strength of ceramic foams. The results show that prepared stable ceramic
suspension on behalf of above mentioned simple fabrication procedure are suitable for producing
highly porous alumina foams.
Keywords: alumina foam, porous alumina, replica method, ceramic suspension
Nowadays, several processing routes as
replica technique, sacrificial template and direct
foaming are available for the production of
ceramic foams [7]. Polyurethane (PU) replica
method is among the most used methods in the
ceramic foam manufacturing industry [2, 8]. By
utilizing this simple and low cost method it is
possible to obtain well-defined open-cell
ceramic structure with controllable pore size and
geometry just by choosing different PU template
[7-9]. Generally, the replica method consists of
impregnation of the PU sponge with a ceramic
suspension containing an appropriate amount of
ceramic particles and additives, followed by a
drying of green body and finally sintering.
During the high temperature sintering the PU
1. INTRODUCTION
Highly porous ceramic materials, i.e. ceramic
foams, are lightweight materials with open or
closed cellular structure and porosity greater
than 60 % [1, 2]. Due to their unique properties
such as low density, high chemical and
temperature resistance, pore interconnectivity
and permeability, ceramic foams have found a
wide range of applications, e.g. catalyst
supports, filters, thermal insulators, biomedical
implants and lightweight structural components
[3-5]. Open-cell ceramic foams, so called
reticulated ceramics, consist of irregularly
shaped
prismatic
or
polyhedral
cells
interconnected with solid edges (struts) [2, 6].
110
template is burn out leaving the final ceramic
foam which is a replica of the original PU
sponge [1, 4, 10]. The major drawback of this
method is the mechanical weakness of the
produced foams (e.g. strength values ranking
from 0.01 to 3 MPa) associated to the formation
of an internal void after burn out of the PU
sponge and the occurrence of cracks during
processing [10-12]. Several approaches as
reinforcing foams with the ceramic fibers,
repeated impregnation and drying steps and
recoating of sintered foam by a low viscous
suspension have been suggested to address this
problem [13]. A uniform coating on the PU
template is recognized as being a critical factor
for achieving mechanical reliability. In this
process, factor that predominately affects the
coating uniformity is a viscosity of ceramic
suspension. Generally, suspensions are required
to present shear-thinning behaviour to be
suitable for a template coating, typically in a dip
coating process [12]. Therefore, it is crucial to
optimize ceramic suspension by mixing
appropriate amount of ceramic particles and
additives as dispersants, binders and defoaming
agents prior to impregnation [14, 15].
2.1. Suspension preparation
Aqueous alumina suspension with 60 wt.% solid
loading was prepared by dispersing ceramic
powders and dissolving additives in distilled
water. In order to stabilize the suspension and to
improve its adhesion on the template, as well as
to achieve uniform coating, organic additives
were used in following amount (based on the
applied dry ceramic powder):
1 wt. % of Dolapix CE 64 (Zschimmer &
Schwarz Chemie GmbH, Germany) was
used as dispersant to prepare a welldispersed suspension,
3 wt. % poly(vinyl alcohol) 99+%
hydrolyzed (PVA; Sigma-Aldrich, SAD)
was used as binder to increase suspension
viscosity and green body strength,
0.5 wt. % of Foamaster MO 2111 (Basf,
Germany) was used as defoaming agent to
prevent foaming during the replica
process.
Initially, PVA was dissolved in distilled
water at 60 °C under magnetic stirring at 500
rpm for 1 hour. Afterwards, Dolapix CE 64 and
Foamaster MO 2111 were added to the solution
and the mixture was further stirred for 15
minutes at room temperature. Finally, alumina
powder was added into solution and
homogenised in a grinding jar of the planetary
ball mill (PM 100, Retsch GmbH, Germany)
with ten alumina balls at a speed of 300 rpm for
90 minutes.
In the present study, two types of highly
porous alumina foams are prepared by
impregnation of the two types of PU sponge
with a high concentrated alumina suspension.
The relationship between morphological
characteristics and compressive strength of
obtained alumina foams are discussed.
2.2. Replica method
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
The PU sponges were cut into rectangular
shapes of 17×17×17 mm and immersed into
previously described alumina suspension.
Subsequently, sponges were compressed to
remove the air and to allow the suspension to
fully impregnate the template. The excess
suspension was removed by centrifuging process
in which centrifugal forces are equally
distributed through body providing a uniform
coating layer on the surfaces of the PU sponges
[4]. After each impregnation - centrifugation
step, drying was conducted at 80 °C for 1h. Four
In order to prepare alumina foams, α-Al2O3
powder with 99.78 % purity, mean particle size
of 0.5 µm and specific surface area of 6.78 m2/g
(CT 3000 SG, Almatis GmbH, Germany) was
used as a starting ceramic material. The
commercial reticulated PU sponges with pore
density of 18 ppi and 30 ppi (Rekord-tim d.o.o.,
Croatia) were utilized as the synthetic templates
in the replica method.
111
constant temperature of 25±1 °C. Pre-shearing
was performed at a shear rate of 30 s-1 for 2 min.
The shear rate was gradually increased from 0.1
to 70 s-1 and then reduced back to 0.1 s-1 with
100 equal intervals. After each interval
measured values were automatically recorded.
To evaluate obtained results, Herschel-Bulkley
model (Eq. 1) was used since it is among the
most appropriate models for describing ceramic
suspensions, e.g. non-Newtonian fluids [14].
Above mentioned model can be expressed as
(Equation 1):
impregnation, centrifugation and drying steps
were conducted to reach acceptable coverage of
the PU template. After the last step, samples
were dried at room temperature for 24 hours and
finally subjected to a two-stage sintering
process, schematically shown in Figure 1.
(1)
where τ is the shear stress, τ° is the yield stress,
k is the consistency index, D is the shear rate
and n is the flow index which describes fluid
behaviour (n < 1 shear thinning behaviour, n = 1
Newtonian behaviour, n > 1 shear thickening
behaviour).
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the sintering process
Firstly, pyrolysis of the PU sponge and the
organic additives occurred in the temperature
range between 250 and 600 °C [16]. To prevent
structure from collapsing during burn out of
organic matter, slow heating rate of 1 °C/min to
800 °C with 1 hour holding time at 800 °C was
applied. Finally, the samples were heated to the
sintering temperature of 1600 °C at the rate of
5 °C/min and sintered in air for 1h. The
photograph of the sintered alumina foams is
shown in Figure 2.
The morphological features of alumina
foams were characterised with a scanning
electron microscope (Tescan Vega 3, Tescan,
Czech Republic) and an optical microscope
(Olympus BX51, Japan). In order to determine
the average pore size (face diameter) and the
average strut diameter, image analysis was
processed using software Motic Images Plus 3.0.
Due to the fact that the foams are not absolutely
isotropic and the cells are elongated, the face
diameter depends on the orientation of the
sample [17]. Hence, the shortest and the longest
face diameter being orthogonal to each other
were measured and presented as arithmetic
mean of at least twenty measurements.
Fig. 2. Photograph of sintered alumina foams
obtained by impregnation of PU sponge with pore
density of: left – 18 ppi, right – 30 ppi
Total porosities (ϕ) of sintered alumina
foams were calculated using the following
equation (Equation 2):
2.3. Characterization methods
=1−
Rheological behaviour of the alumina
suspension was determined using a rotational
viscometer
DV-III
Ultra
(Brookfield
Engineering Laboratories, Inc., USA) in
conjunction with Brookfield software, Rheocalc
V3.3. The viscosity was measured in a small
sample chamber with a spindle SC4-34 at
∗
(2)
where ρ is the bulk density of alumina foam
calculated from the mass to bulk volume ratio
and ρ* is the theoretical density of Al2O3 (3.986
g/cm3). Total porosity mean value was
calculated from eight porosity measurements for
each type of alumina foam.
112
The compressive strength (σ) of sintered
samples with dimension of approximately
15×15×15 mm was measured using universal
testing machine (WPM VEB Thüringer
Industriewerk, Germany) with a cross head
speed of 5 mm/min. The compressive strength
was determined from the maximum load at
failure and the loaded surface area. Eight
samples were tested to obtain an average value.
The low suspension viscosity during
immersion, when a high shear rate is applied by
compression and expansion of PU template,
allows suspension to enter, fill and uniformly
coat the template. Conversely, increasing in
viscosity at the end of the impregnation process
when a shear rate is low, enables the suspension
to remain on the template surface. Therefore, the
optimisation of the suspension composition to
achieve the pseudo-plastic behaviour seems to
be crucial for the production of ceramic foams
with desired properties.
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
The rheological parameters obtained by
fitting the experimental data to the HerschelBulkley model as well as the viscosity at the
shear rate of 70 s-1 are presented in Table 1.
3.1. Rheological properties
Rheological flow curves for the prepared
alumina suspension are shown in Figure 3. They
are expressed as a dependence of viscosity (A)
and shear stress (B) on the applied shear rates.
As can be seen in Figure 3, with increasing
shear rate the viscosity decreases (A) and the
shear stress increases (B), indicating the shearthinning (or pseudoplastic) behaviour of the
prepared suspension, necessary for a replica
process.
Table 1. Rheological parameters
η, mPa·s
185.45
k, mPa·s
962.6
n
0.55
τ°, N/m2
3.13
R2
1
The R2 value of 1 indicates that the applied
model perfectly fits the experimental data.
Considering that n < 1, shear-thinning behaviour
of the alumina suspension was confirmed.
3.2. Morphological characteristics and
compressive strength
It is well known that the compressive
strength of macroporous brittle solids depends
on the porosity, pore size, pore interconnectivity
and thickness of the struts [18]. Hence, the
selected morphological features and the obtained
compressive strengths are considered together
and summarized in Table 2. It can be seen from
the data in Table 2. that the compressive
strength of alumina foams increases with an
increase in foam density and decrease in a foam
porosity, strut diameter and pore size.
Except previously mentioned, the number of
defects in the foam structure as a consequence
of the coat quality (e.g. suspension properties),
the processing route and the heat treatment also
significantly affect the final properties of
ceramic foams. Figure 4 shows the SEM images
of 18 ppi foam (A1-3) and 30 ppi foam (B1-3).
As can be seen form the Figure 4, an open-cell
structure (originates form PU template) with
Fig. 3. Flow curves for alumina suspension
113
method, given that they occur during the PU
template burnout. Due to an angled shape of
voids and a high stress concentration in the
ceramic foams, the longitudinal strut cracks can
be easily generated (Figure 4. A3) resulting in
the low mechanical strength.
some characteristic defects was obtained for
both, 18 ppi foam and 30 ppi foam. More strut
defects (i.e. cracks along the foam struts) were
found for 18 ppi alumina foam (Figure 4. A2)
compared to 30 ppi alumina foam, which
support lower compressive strength of 18 ppi
foam. The above mentioned cracks were
probably induced due to the mismatch in
thermal
expansion
coefficient
between
polymeric PU template and inorganic ceramic
material, despite the low heating rate during
sintering.
The compressive strengths of 0.20 MPa and
1.40 MPa for 18 ppi and 30 ppi alumina foams
were obtained, respectively. Considering that
there has been no standard testing method, it is
difficult to compare results of compressive
strengths with those of other studies. However,
it has been found that the obtained results are
consistent with previous findings in the
literature [4, 14].
As can be seen in Figure 4., the struts of the
produced foams are hollow. These triangular
voids inside alumina struts are typical in replica
Table 2. Properties of produced alumina foams
Foam
Al2O3
ppi
18
30
ρ, g/cm3
0.23
0.51
ϕ, %
94.3
87.1
Strut diameter, µm
339.09
119.17
Pore size, µm
1997.27
765.42
σ, MPa
0.20
1.40
Fig. 4. SEM images of the alumina foams produced from 18 ppi PU template (A1-3) and 30 ppi PU template (B1-3)
method. Stable 60 wt. % aqueous alumina
suspension was prepared for impregnation the
18 ppi and 30 ppi PU sponges. Stability of
prepared suspension was achieved by addition
of different additives (Dolapix CE 64, PVA and
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this study, two open-cell alumina foams
with different porosities were successfully
prepared by an easy and low-cost replica
114
Foamaster MO 2111). After four time repeated
impregnation processes, the green bodies were
sintered by applying slow heating rates of
1 °C/min to 800 °C and 5 °C/min to 1600 °C, to
prevent collapse of the structure due to
mismatch in the thermal expansion coefficient
between PU sponge and alumina ceramics.
[3] Z. Chu; C. Jia; J. Liu; R. Ding; G. Yuan,
Effects of Sintering Time on Microstructure
and Properties of Alumina Foam Ceramics.
Journal of Ceramic Science and
Technology 8 (2017), pp. 499-504.
[4] E. Behravesh; L. Hupa; T. Salmi; D.Y.
Murzin, Alumina ceramic foams as catalyst
supports. Catalysis 28 (2016), pp. 28-50.
The porosity of produced alumina foams
(94.3 and 87.1 %), the average pore size
(1997.27 and 765.42 µm) and the average strut
diameter (339.09 and 119.17 µm) decreased
with the increase in PU template pore density
(18 and 30 ppi). The morphological observation
indicates that morphological features of alumina
foams together with defects in foam struts have
a significant effect on the compressive strength
of open-cell alumina foams. Therefore, the main
advantage of employing the replica method in
production of ceramic foams is the fact that the
important morphological features can be easily
controlled by selecting appropriate PU template
and, more importantly, by optimising
suspension rheological features.
[5] X. Chen; U. Betke; S. Rannabauer; P.C.
Peters; G.M. Söffker; M. Scheffler,
Improving the Strength of ZTA Foams with
Different Strategies: Immersion Infiltration
and Recoating. Materials 10 (2017), pp.
735.
[6] M.S. Sharmiwati; R.M. Mizan; A.B.
Noorhelinahani,
Preparation
and
characterization of ceramic sponge for
water filter. International Journal of
Science and Technology 3 (2014), pp. 103114.
[7] J.A. Cusidó; L.V. Cremades; M. González,
Experience on a Low Cost Way to
Obtainal-Ti Ceramic Foams. Materials
Research 18 (2015), pp. 769-774.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[8] A.B. Sifontes; M. Urbina; F. Fajardo; L.
Melo; L. García; M. Mediavilla; G. Mejias,
Preparation of γ-alumina foams of high
surface area employing the polyurethane
sponge replica method. Latin American
applied research 40 (2010), pp. 185-191.
This work has been fully supported by
Croatian Science Foundation under the project
IP-2016-06-6000: Monolithic and composite
advanced ceramics for wear and corrosion
protection (WECOR).
[9] Z.H. Wen; Y.S. Han, L; Liang; J.B. Li,
Preparation of porous ceramics with
controllable pore sizes in an easy and lowcost way. Materials characterization 59
(2008), pp. 1335-1338.
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[1] S. Ahmad; M.A. Latif; H. Taib; A.F.
Ismail, Short review: Ceramic foam
fabrication techniques for wastewater
treatment application. Advanced Materials
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[10] W. Acchar; F.B. M. Souza; E.G. Ramalho,
W.L.
Torquato,
Mechanical
characterization of cellular ceramics.
Materials Science and Engineering A 513
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[2] P. Colombo, Conventional and novel
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
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YSZ Foams Produced by Replica.
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Naghavi, Mechanical strength enhancement
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116
Nanoindentation Study of UltrafineGrained Titanium-Based Materials
D.R. Barjaktarević a, M.P. Rakin a, B.I. Međo a, V.R. Đokić a
a
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy,
Karnegijeva 4, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract
The commercially pure titanium (cpTi) and especially titanium (Ti) alloys are materials increasingly
used in orthopaedic and dental implants. In order to enhance the implant material properties, Ti-based
materials may be modified by severe plastic deformation (SPD) methods. One of the most attractive
SPD methods is high-pressure torsion (HPT), as a method for obtaining submicron-sized grains, with
the aim to improve, among others, mechanical properties of metallic materials. In the present study,
ultrafine-grained titanium (UFG cpTi) and ultrafine-grained Ti-13Nb-13Zr (UFG TNZ) alloy samples
were obtained by high pressure torsion (HPT) under a pressure of 4.1 GPa with a rotational speed of
0.2 rpm up to 5 rotations at room temperature. The homogeneity of the material was determined by
using Vickers microhardness tester and analysing the obtained microhardness profile along the
samples diameters. The results show that materials are reasonably homogeneous after HPT
processing. The aim of this study is to determine the mechanical behaviour of the commercially pure
titanium and titanium alloy before and after HPT processing using the nanoindentation technique.
Obtained results show that ultrafine-grained materials have lower modulus of elasticity than coarsegrained (CG) materials, which means that the values are closer to those of bones, making the
discontinuity of mechanical properties at the bone-implant interface less pronounced. On the other
hand, UFG materials have higher values of nanohardness than CG materials.
Keywords: biomaterials, high pressure torsion, modulus of elasticity, nanoindentation, titanium alloys
may be modified by different techniques, among
others by severe plastic deformation (SPD)
methods [5]. One of the most attractive SPD
methods is high-pressure torsion (HPT) [6, 7],
which is a method for obtaining submicronsized grains, with the aim to improve, among
others, mechanical properties of metallic
materials, Fig. 1. The possible inhomogeneity of
1. INTRODUCTION TO
BIOMATERIALS
The commercially pure titanium (cpTi) and
especially titanium (Ti) alloys are materials
increasingly used in orthopaedic and dental
implants [1]. The first generation of titanium
alloys has had good clinical results, but the
modulus of elasticity of this alloy (110 GPa) is
much higher than that of human bone (1030GPa) [2]. The newly developed α+β - type
and β - type titanium alloys have better
characteristics such as higher corrosion
resistance and lower modulus of elasticity,
which is closer to that of a bone [2-4]. One of
these alloys is Ti-13Nb-13Zr. In order to
enhance the implant material properties,
commercially pure titanium and titanium alloy
Fig. 1. Schematic of the HPT process
117
were wet-ground with 150 µm to 4000 µm grit
silicon carbide paper and polished.
metallic materials after HPT process is a very
important issue that should be checked. In this
study, inhomogeneity of materials was
determined by using Vickers microhardness
tester and analysing the obtained microhardness
profiles along the samples diameters.
2.2. Mechanical characterization
The nanoindentation test was performed on
the surfaces of the disc samples using
Nanoindenter G200, Agilent Technologies. The
test was controlled using total displacement of
2000 nm. Ten measurements were made on each
sample and the mean values were calculated. All
tests were applied to assess the surface
mechanical properties of materials after HPT
processing.
Behaviour of the metallic biomaterials is also
regulated by surface properties, which is a
crucial factor in interactions of the implant
material with the surrounding tissue. Because of
that, in this study nanoindentation technique was
used in order to determine the modulus of
elasticity and nanohardness of the commercially
pure titanium after HPT processing and titanium
alloy before and after HPT processing.
3. RESULTS
The HV of UFG Ti-13Nb-13Zr alloy and
UFG cpTi as a function of the diameter of the
disk - shaped samples before and after HPT
processing are presented in Fig. 2.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The commercially pure titanium (cpTi) and
Ti-13Nb-13Zr alloy (TNZ) in the initial state
were disk-shaped samples with a diameter of 28
mm and thickness about 2.2 mm. The samples
were subjected to HPT process in order to obtain
ultrafine-grained cpTi (UFG cpTi) and ultrafinegrained Ti-13Nb-13Zr (UFG TNZ) alloy. HPT
was performed at room temperature with a
device, which has two anvils with circular flatbottom depressions at the centre. Each disc was
placed between the anvils, a pressure of 4.1 GPa
was applied and the disc was torsionally strained
through rotation of the lower anvil. Strains were
imposed on the discs by processing at a constant
speed of 0.2 rpm through 5 revolutions. The
obtained samples of UFG cpTi and UFG TNZ
alloy were disc-shaped with a diameter of 34
mm and thickness approximately 0.7 mm.
(a)
2.1. Microhardness measurements
The Vickers microhardness (HV) was
measured on the surfaces of the discs samples
using TIME HVS-1000 microhardness tester
machine under a load of 4.903 N and a dwell
time of 5 s with a distance of 1 mm between
each indentation. The measurements were
performed along the diameters on each sample.
The value of HV for each indentation was
estimated from the average of four hardness
measurements. Before measurements, samples
(b)
Fig. 2 Vickers microhardness of UFG cpTi (a) and
UFG Ti-13Nb-13Zr alloy (b) as a function of the
sample diameter
As can be seen in Fig. 2a, the microhardness
value of cpTi significantly increases after HPT
118
microstructure is achieved after 5 turns of HPT
processing, with the exception of a narrow area
around the centre of the sample with diameter of
about 4 mm and a narrow area around one edge
of the disc from 31 mm to 34 mm in diameter
length (these parts of the sample are not used in
experiments).
processing, from 180 HV in the initial state to an
average of 350 HV. Also, the microhardness of
the Ti-13Nb-13Zr alloy was significantly
enhanced by HPT processing such that the
average hardness increased from 259.73 HV for
the coarse-grained (CG) sample to 350.34 HV,
Fig. 2b. Two important conclusions can be
drawn from Fig.2. First, the microhardness of
cpTi and Ti-13Nb-13Zr samples increases
significantly through HPT processing by
comparison with the CG one. Second, the HPTprocessed cpTi and Ti-13Nb-13Zr samples
processed through 5 turns have lower
microhardness values in the centre (between two
horizontal line in Fig. 2), in comparison with the
other parts of the samples. For the UFG Ti13Nb-13Zr alloy microhardness values are
changed from 301.7 HV in the centre to 342.9
HV to the edges, while for the narrow region
around the one edge, microhardness value is
about 400 HV (this part of sample is cut and is
not used in experiments). For the UFG cpTi
microhardness values are changed from 300 HV
to 350 HV.
The microstructure characterisation of ultrafine grained titanium and titanium alloys is very
difficult to do using usual microscopes, like
optical microscope or scanning electron
microscope. The microstructure characterisation
of ultra-fine grained metallic materials is usually
done on a transmission electron microscope, and
the available literature shows the homogeneous
microstructure after the HPT process [9, 10].
The microhardness value of Ti-13Nb-13Zr,
in the initial state, has no large deviations, which
indicates a homogenous microstructure. In point
of fact, decreasing of the grain size with HPT
processing in UFG Ti-13Nb-13Zr alloy leads to
a significant increase in the microhardness,
while the microstructure remains homogeneous
(except in the narrow zone around the centre of
the sample and the narrow zone around the one
edge of the sample). The results are in
agreement with I. Dimić et al. [10], who showed
that the average microhardness value of Ti13Nb-13Zr alloy increases from 230 HV in the
initial state to 300 HV, 355 HV and 360 HV
after HPT deformation up to 7.8 GPa and ¼, 1
and 5 rotations, respectively. They concluded
that microhardness increases with the increase
of the number of rotations in the case of this Tibased alloy. The results in this study confirm the
potential of using HPT processing to achieve
reasonably homogeneous microstructures.
Increase of the value of microhardness from
the centre toward the edges of the sample is
related to the fact that the value of torque is zero
in the centre increasing in the radial direction
and reaches its maximum at the edges of the
samples during the process of HPT. Also, due to
the variation in shear strain, γ, across each disc
during HPT processing, value of γ at different
positions of the disc is estimated by [8]:
=
(1)
where N is the number of revolutions, R is the
radial distance from the centre of the disc and h
is the disc thickness.
After the analysis of materials homogeneity,
examination of mechanical surface properties
was done using nanoindentation (as mentioned
previously, the region in the centre of UGF
processed samples is excluded from the tests).
The displacement during nanoindentation was
2000 nm for each sample, and maximum mean
values of load on the sample were
approximately 200 mN, 250 mN and 375mN for
CG TNZ, UFG TNZ and UFG cpTi,
For the specimen processed through 5 turns,
the obtained microhardness values, outside the
narrow region near the disc centre (between two
vertical lines) and outside the narrow region
around the one edge of disc (from 31 mm to 34
mm in diameter length), are narrowly distributed
from point to point variation (along the
horizontal line) of ± 16 HV, see Fig. 2b. So, it
could be said that the reasonably uniform
119
typically has a modulus of elasticity of 120 GPa
after the nanoindentation test [12]. This indicates
that UFG cpTi has lower modulus of elasticity
than the pure titanium.
respectively. Fig. 3 represents loadingdisplacement curves obtained during the
nanoindentation tests. Each curve consists of the
loading part, the dwell period at the maximum
load of the indentation and the unloading part.
The diagram shows the change in depth with the
dwell period at the maximum load.
Fig. 4. Modulus of elasticity obtained using
nanoindentation for examined materials
On the other hand, the nanohardness values of
ultrafine-grained materials are higher than those
obtained for coarse-grained materials, Fig. 5.
Fig. 3. Loading-displacement curves for examined
materials
The difference between the loading part and
the unloading part on the diagram indicates the
presence of the permanent (plastic) deformation.
The mean values of surface mechanical
characteristics, nanohardness and modulus of
elasticity, obtained from nanoindentation test,
are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 4 and 5.
Table 1. Mean values of mechanical properties
UFG
CG
UFG
cpTi
TNZ TNZ
Modulus of elasticity, GPa 104.56 61.301 59.987
Nanohardness, GPa
3.54
2.393 2.691
Materials
Nanohardness, HV
361
244
274
Fig. 5. Nanohardness values obtained
nanoindentation for examined materials
The results show that the modulus of elasticity
is lower after HPT process, Fig. 4. UFG TNZ
alloy has the lowest modulus of elasticity, which
indicates that it is the most acceptable material
for the metallic implant. The lower value of
modulus of elasticity and closer to that of a bone
is one of the crucial factors in accepting the
implant material from the surrounding tissue, and
reduces the possibility of slow disappearance of
bone in contact with the implant - “shielding
effect” [11]. The commercially pure titanium
using
4. CONCLUSIONS
The results show that high pressure torsion is
an acceptable process for metallic biomaterials.
The materials after HPT process show adequate
homogeneous microstructure. The values of
microhardness are higher after HPT process.
The nanoindentation tests show that UFG
materials have lower modulus of elasticity,
120
[5] R.Z. Valiev; I.P. Semenova; E. Jakushina,
V.V. Latysh; H. Rack; T.C. Lowe; J.
Petruželka;
L.Dluhoš; D. Hrušák; J.
Sochová, Nanostructured SPD Processed
Titanium for Medical Implants. Materials
Science Forum 584-586 (2008), pp. 49-54.
which make them more acceptable as metallic
biomaterials than CG materials. Future
examination will include the formation of a
nanotubular oxide layer on the surface of the
above mentioned materials and the examination
of surface mechanical properties using the
nanoindentation test.
[6] R.Z.
Valiev;
Y.Estrin;
Z.Horita;
T.G.Langdon; M.J.Zehetbauer; Y.T.Zhu;
Producing bulk ultrafine-grained materials by
severe plastic deformation. Journal of the
Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 58
(2006), pp. 33-39.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support of the
Ministry
of
Education,
Science
and
Technological Development of the Republic of
Serbia through the projects ON 174004and III
45019. Also the author gratefully acknowledges
Dr Anton Hohenwarter from Erich Schmid
Institute (Leoben, Austria) for the preparation of
HPT samples, Prof Dr Goran Stojanović from
the University of Novi Sad (Serbia) for help in
nanoindentation testing and Prof Ljubica
Radović, from the Military Technical Institute
(Belgrade, Serbia) for help in microhardness
testing.
[7] K.O. Sanusi; O.D. Makinde; G.J. Oliver,
Equal channel angular pressing technique for
the formation of ultra-fine grained structures.
South African Journal of Science 108 (2012),
pp. 1-7.
[8] M. Nie; Ch.T. Wang; M. Qu; N, Gao; J.A.
Wharton; T.G. Langdon, The corrosion
behaviour of commercial purity titanium
processed by high-pressure torsion. Journal of
Materials Science 49 (2014), pp. 2824-2831.
[9] K. Sharman; P. Bazarnik; T. Brynk; A.G.
Bulutsuz; M. Lewandowska; Y. Huang; T.G.
Langdon, Enhancement in mechanical
properties of a β- titanium alloy by highpressure torsion, Journal of Materials
Research and Technology 4 (2015), pp. 7983.
6. REFERENCES
[1] C.N. Elias; J.H. C. Lima; R. Valiev; M. A.
Meyers, Biomedical applications of titanium
and its alloys. Journal of the Minerals, Metals
& Materials Society 60 (2008), pp. 46-49.
[10] I. Dimić; I. Cvijović-Alagić; B. Völker; A.
Hohenwarter; R. Pippan; Đ. Veljović; M.
Rakin; B. Bugarski, Microstructure and
metallic ion release of pure titanium and Ti–
13Nb–13Zr alloy processed by high pressure
torsion. Materials and Design 91 (2016), pp.
340-347.
[2] Y. Bai; Y. Deng; Y. Zheng; Y. Li; R. Zhang;
Y. Lv; Q. Zhao; Sh. Wei, Characterization
corrosion behavior, cellular response and in
vivo bone tissue compatibility of titanium–
niobium alloy with low Young's modulus.
Materials Science and Engineering C 59
(2016), pp. 565-576.
[11] A. Ossowska; S. Sobieszczyk; M. Supernak;
A. Zielinski, Morphology and properties of
nanotubular oxide layer on the “Ti–13Zr–
13Nb” alloy. Surface and Coatings
Technology 258 (2014), pp. 1239-1248.
[3] M.T. Mohammed; Z.A. Khan; A.N.
Siddiquee, Beta Titanium Alloys: The
Lowest Elastic Modulus for Biomedical
Applications: A Review. International Journal
of Chemical, Molecular, Nuclear, Materials
and Metallurgical Engineering 8 (2014), pp.
822-827.
[12] P. Majumdar; S.B. Singh; M. Chakraborty,
Elastic modulus of biomedical titanium alloys
by nanoindentation and ultrasonic techniques
- A comparative study. Materials Science and
Engineering A 489 (2008), pp. 419-425.
[4] M. Roach, Base metal alloys used for dental
restorations and implants. Dental Clinics of
North America 51 (2007), pp. 603-627.
121
Safety Mechanism for Stubble
Cultivators: Kinematic and Dynamic
Analysis
S. Cako a, M. Čavić a, I. Knežević a, M. Penčić a, M. Rackov a, S. Bojić
a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: ivanknezevic@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Adequate soil cultivation is essential for the growth and high yield of crops. Modern agricultural
machinery, such as stubble cultivator, reduces the number of passes resulting less processing costs.
Stubble cultivators work in extreme conditions wherefore working links are often overloaded.
Therefore, special attention has been devoted to the structure of a stubble cultivator. The paper
presents the kinematic and dynamic analysis of the spring mechanism for overload protection on
cultivators. It consists of a 4-bar lever mechanism with an elastic element which allows the moving if
the working link in case of overload. Based on the set requirements, the kinematic analysis was done
and the characteristic positions of the working link were determined. By the dynamic analysis,
kinetostatic equations were formed and based on it, the value of forces which are acting on working
link were determined during the motion of it. By comparing the obtained value with the desired
values, it is concluded that there is a certain deviation of the working force.
Keywords: agriculture, stubble cultivators, safety mechanism, kinematic analysis, dynamic analysis
Reduced soil treatment systems provide 52%
less soil cultivation costs than conventional
plowing systems [2]. Direct sowing is a soil
treatment system where sowing of crops is
carried out in one pass using modern agricultural
mechanization. By direct sowing, only parts of
the soil around the plants is treated, so-called
soil preparing in rows. After some years of
application of the reduced or no-till soil
treatment, it is necessary to apply plowing to
avoid the effect of yield reducing [3].
1. INTRODUCTION
The main goal of the soil cultivation is the
forming of proper conditions for intensive
growth of plants. Adequate soil cultivation is
crucial for high yields of crops. There are three
basic systems for soil cultivation – conventional
treatment, reduced treatment and direct sowing
(no-till). Conventional treatment involves the
cultivation of soil with overturning – plowing.
However, its application is accompanied by high
costs. Even 50–55% of the total cost of land
processing refers to plowing, or 38–42% of the
total cost in the production of o crop [1].
Processing costs can be reduced by reducing the
number of passes and the depth of the soli
cultivations. In relation to conventional
treatment, reduced soil treatment systems
involve a modern soil cultivation process.
Modern agricultural machinery enables less
passes which results in less processing costs.
The paper presents a kinematic and dynamic
analysis of the safety mechanism for stubble
cultivators, in case of the Horsch – Terrano
cultivator.
2. STUBBLE CULTIVATORS
Stubble cultivators are agricultural machines
used for different types of reduced soil treatment
122
systems, instead of plows – Figure 1. Used for
shallow cultivation of plant residues immediately
after harvesting, for medium and deep cultivation
and intensive mixing of plant residues, for deep
cultivation on compacted lands, for seedbed
preparation in the spring, as well as for mixing
solid and liquid manure with soil. Working depth
are in range from 5 to 25 cm. Because of this,
stubble cultivators are efficiently applied for
basic cultivation instead of plows.
there are rocks in the soil, which cause a great
impact on the working link of the cultivator.
Because of the difficult and changing working
conditions, it is necessary to limit the intensity
of the working force that affects the working
link. The limitation of the force is carried out
using a safety bolt or a mechanism with an
elastic elements – spring. Manufacturers such as
Lemken [5], [6], Kuhn [7], Vaderstad [8] and
Horsch [9] produce stubble cultivators with both
of the overload protection systems of a working
link. Which system will be applied depends on
the type of soil and working conditions that
significantly affects the cost of the machine.
Overload protection system of cultivator
using a safety bolts, principally consists of a
working link attached to the basic frame –
Figure 1, by two bolts. One of them is a safety
element for overload protection, the other
represents joint around which the working link
rotates in case of overload. This is the simplest
and the cheapest solution. However, each time
the overload occurs, a safety bolt must be
replaced. During this time the machine is not in
operation.
Fig. 1. Stubble cultivator in operation
The land, which is treated with stubble
cultivator keeps, more moisture in the lower and
upper layers of the soil than the soil treated with
a plow. In addition, the use of cultivator
prevents the formation of compressed soil layer,
which is located just below the cultivated layer.
Also, the use of the stubble cultivator, increases
the capillarity of the soil, which is a significant
advantage.
All the aforementioned manufacturers of
stubble cultivators, use an overload protection
system using an elastic element in almost the
same way. During the cultivation of soil, when a
working link encounters an obstacle in the soil,
then the load – the force that affects the working
link, increases. When the force reaches the
critical value, the spring activates – compresses.
As a result, the working link moves upwards and
thus avoids the obstacle in the soil. After the
reduction of working force intensity, the force in
the spring overcomes the resistance of the soil
and thus returns the working link to the initial –
working position. The advantage of this
mechanism compared with the safety bolt to
automatically restore the working link into its
initial position. However, due to the
significantly higher price, the application of this
type of overload protection is justified on lands
which are difficult to cultivate, and the
mechanism often activates.
An analysis of the pulling force of the tractor
for the soil cultivation with stubble cultivators,
depending on the type of the soil and the
working speed is shown in [4]. Measurements
were made for two types of soil – sandy soil and
loam soil, depending on the depth of cultivation.
The tests showed the change in the pulling force
in relation to the depth of cultivation, but the
dependence of the working speed and the
pulling force has not been proven. Therefore, the
pre-testing in the working conditions is
recommended, before the selection of stubble
cultivator. An adequate selection of cultivator
provides significant saving, especially in fuel
consumption.
Stubble cultivators operate in very difficult
working conditions. It is a common case that
123
Figure 2 shows the safety mechanism –
overload protection of the working link of
stubble cultivators with helical compression
spring. The safety mechanism consists of a
mechanism support (1), guide (3), compression
spring (4) and working link formed of the
support (2a), tine (2b) and the share (2c).
the working link and its moving upwards the
force must not exceed 6 kN. After 1/3 of the
stroke, the force must decrease and at the end of
the movement has a minimum value. The stroke
of the working link should be 300 mm in the
vertical direction.
Fig. 3. Desired working characteristics of the
mechanism
Fig. 2. Safety mechanism with elastic element for
stubble cultivators: 1 – mechanism support, 2a –
support of working link, 2b – tine, 2c – share, 3 –
guide and 4 – compression spring; note: links 2a, 2b
and 2c forming the working link
Based on the adopted dimensions, the model
of the mechanism is formed and it is shown in
Figure 4. The kinematic analysis was made for
six characteristic positions of the working link –
the vertical movement of point D is yD=300 mm.
3. KINEMATIC ANALYSIS
The working efficiency and the reliability of
a stubble cultivator depends on the working
characteristic of the safety mechanism which
implies the dependence of the intensity of
working force – the resistance force of the soil
that affects the working link, and the stroke –
height of the lifting of the working link.
However, when the stiffness of the spring is
low, than the safety mechanism activates at a
low intensity of working force, and the working
link jumps on the soil, which is undesirable. If
the stiffness of the spring is too high then the
safety mechanism does not react, and in case of
overloading, the damage of the machine can
occur. Figure 3 shows the desired working
characteristics of the mechanism, adopted on the
basis of recommendations of manufacturer
Horsch [9].
It is desirable that the reaction force of the
mechanism is around 5 kN. By the activation of
Fig. 4. Kinematic scheme of the cultivator mechanism
124
Each position corresponds to the movement of
the tip of the working link for 60 mm in vertical
direction – the first is the zero position.
rCB
(6)
rAB sin AB rAC sin AC
rAB cos AB rAC cos AC
CB arctan
Taking into account that the working link
DAB is purchased as a final product – its shape
can not be changed, the value of the parameter
rAD is known and does not change during the
motion. Angle γ represents the angle between
vectors rAB and rAD which also does not change
(7)
Based on Eqs. (1), (2), (6) and (7), the
dimensions of the mechanism are determined in
all positions during the motion, as it is shown in
Table 1.
Table 1. Results of the kinematic analysis
during the motion. Parameter yD is defined by
the geometry of the working link and it is
measured from the axis of rotation of the
working link – point A, to the point of the acting
of working force – point D. Consequently, for
known parameters, yD, rAD and γ are adopted,
and based on it, φAD and φAB are defined.
yD
rAD
rAB cos AB rAC cos AC
cosCB
Position
0.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
yD
[mm]
–750.41
–658.56
–583.11
–512.78
–445.41
–380.09
rCB
[mm]
388.99
341.61
318.36
303.38
293.60
287.71
φAB
[°]
–352.74
–337.65
–328.81
–321.75
–315.63
–310.09
φAD
[°]
–71.33
–56.24
–47.40
–40.34
–34.22
–28.67
φCB
[°]
–98.99
–102.54
–106.06
–109.67
–113.32
–116.95
AD arcsin
(1)
AB AD
(2)
4. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
(3)
By dynamic analysis the drive forces of the
mechanism are determined. Using the
d'Alembert's principle, kinetostatic equations are
formed:
In vector contour:
rAC rCB rAB
known parameters are rAC, rAB, φAC and φAB,
where is rAC – length of the vector between the
axis of rotation of the working link and the
upper spring connection point, φAC – angle of
this vector, rAB is the length of vector between
the axis of rotation and the lover connection
point of the spring, and φAB – angle of this
vector.
F i 0
M Si ,i 0
(4)
rAC sin AC rCB sinCB rAB sin AB
(5)
(9)
where is Si – arbitrary point of i-th link.
Eqs. (8) and (9) contain workloads on the i-th
link, the inertial and gravitational forces of the ith link, the friction forces – dry and viscous, and
the reactions of the i-th link with the other links
of the mechanism. Considering the relatively
low mass of the links of the mechanism, the
inertial, gravitational and frictional forces are
negligible in relation to the workload – soil
resistance.
The parameters which have to be determined
are rCB and φCB, which represent the length and
angle of the vector between the lower and upper
connection points of the spring – points B and
C, respectively. These parameters define the
length and the position of the spring during the
motion. By projecting Eq. (3) to axes of the
coordinate system x and y, the following
equations are obtained:
rAC cos AC rCB cosCB rAB cos AB
(8)
Figure 5 shows the model of the mechanism
with loads which are acting on it. By
decomposition of the mechanism, for each link,
kinetostatic equations are formed. Based on that,
a system of 9 linear equations with 9 unknown
parameters was obtained. Their solution
provides the components of the reaction forces
in the joints, as well as the necessary driving
from which the variables are determined:
125
of the spring and the reduction of the length rBC,
during the motion of the mechanism, so:
(12)
FS 4 FS 0 l k
where is FS0 – pre-stressing force of the spring,
Δl – a change in length, or a shortening of the
spring, that represents the difference of distance
rCB at the beginning and at the end of the
motion, and k – the stiffness of the spring.
At the beginning of the motion Δl(0)=0,
while for the other positions it is determined
according to:
l i rCB i rCB i 1 , i 1, 2,...,5
(13)
Finally, the working force is determined by:
F
force: F34, M34, F14 (F14x, F14y), F23 (F23x, F23y),
F12 (F12x, F12y) and F.
Fy F sin
(11)
FS 0 l k
(14)
Table 2. Results of dynamic analysis
It should be noted that the start-up of the
mechanism takes place under the effect of the
soil resistance force F, wherefore this force is
considered as a driving force. This force has
components:
(10)
rAD sin AD
Table 2 shows the results of dynamic
analysis for the characteristic positions during
the whole motion, where in the initial position,
the pre-stressing force is FS0=10 kN, and the
adopted stiffness of spring is k=100 N/mm.
Fig. 5. Scheme of the loads on the mechanism
Fx F cos
rAB sin 90 AB
Δl
[mm]
0
47.38
70.64
85.61
95.39
101.28
where is θ – angle of direction of force F.
FS4
[kN]
10
14.74
17.06
18.56
19.54
20.13
θ
[°]
–30
–24
–18
–12
–6
0
F
[kN]
3.67
5.72
5.96
5.24
3.96
2.41
Figure 6 shows the working characteristics of
the safety mechanism – the change in the
working force depending on a stroke of the
working link. By comparing the results of the
working characteristics of the mechanism with
the desired characteristic, we conclude that there
is a certain deviation. The curves intersects at
1/3 of the stoke of the working link and have the
same maximum, approximately 6 kN. At the
beginning of the motion, and up to the 1/3 of the
stroke, the analyzed mechanism has lower value
of working force, which is significant. By
moving the working link further, the force
decreases, but all the time has higher values than
The angle of the direction of force F is very
difficult to determine analytically, and neither
experimental tests can be reliably determined. In
addition, each type of working link behaves
differently during the cultivation, which further
complicates the determining the direction of the
working force. Therefore, it is assumed that the
angle θ during the motion of the working link
decreases proportionally in each of the six
positions, in the range from –30° to 0°.
The force in the spring FS4 depends on the
force of pre-stressing of the spring, the stiffness
126
working link further, the force decreases, but all
the time has higher values than the permitted
value. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the
stiffness of the spring, as well as the influence of
geometric parameters of the mechanism, which
requires optimal synthesis.
6. REFERENCES
[1] D. Kovačević; S. Oljača; Ž. Dolijanović;
M. Oljača, The effect of modern tillage
systems on grain yield of main field crops
(in Serbian). Poljoprivredna tehnika –
Agricultural Engineering 33(2) (2008), pp.
73-80.
Fig. 6. Working characteristics of the analyzed
mechanism; the dashed-line curve represents the
desired characteristic
prescribed. Therefore, it is necessary to examine
the stiffness of the spring and the influence of
geometric parameters of the mechanism, which
requires optimal synthesis.
[2] C.G. Sørensen; V. Nielsen, Operational
analyses and model comparison of
machinery systems for reduced tillage.
Biosystems Engineering 92(2) (2005), pp.
143-155.
5. CONCLUSIONS
[3] T. Głąb; B. Kulig, Effect of mulch and
tillage system on soil porosity under wheat
(triticum aestivum). Soil and Tillage
Research 99 (2) (2008), pp. 169-178.
This paper presents the kinematic and
dynamic analysis of the safety mechanism for
stubble cultivators, in case of the Horsch –
Terrano cultivator. The safety mechanism of the
considered cultivator consists of a 4-bar lever
mechanism with an elastic element –
compression spring, which allows the motion of
the working link in case of overload. Based on
set the requirements, the kinematic analysis was
done and the characteristics positions of the
working link were determined – six
characteristic positions were analyzed. By
dynamic analysis of the kinetostatic equations
were formed. Based on this, values of the force
on the working link, during the whole motion,
are determined. By comparing the results of the
working characteristics of the mechanism with
the desired characteristics, we conclude that
there is a certain deviation. The curves intersects
at 1/3 of the stoke of the working link and have
the same maximum, approximately 6 kN. At the
beginning of the motion, and up to the 1/3 of the
stroke, the analyzed mechanism has lower value
of working force than the prescribed, which is a
significant advantage. Although, by moving the
[4] P. Novák; J. Chyba; F. Kumhála; P.
Procházka, Measurement of stubble
cultivator draught force under different soil
conditions. Agronomy Research 12(1)
(2014), pp.135-142.
[5] Broshure LEMKEN Karat 11/17. 17511868/en
[6] Broshure LEMKEN Kristall 06/17. 175 0641/en
[7] Broshure KUHN Cultimer 950 046 GB – 10.17
[8] Broshure VADERSTAD Cultus 900290-en-gb
[9] Horsch Terrano FX Broshure,
https://www.horsch.com/de/produkte/boden
bearbeitung/grubber/terrano/terrano-fx/
127
Cutting Forces in Interrupted Hard
Turning
D. Smojvir a, M. Duspara a, K. Stoic b, A. Stoic a, M. Stoic
a
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Trg I. B. Mazuranic 2, 35000 Slavonski Brod,
Croatia, E-mail: {dsmojvir, mduspara}@sfsb.hr, 2.antun.stoic@gmail.com
b
c
c
Strojarska tehnička škola Frana Bošnjakovića Zagreb, Konavoska 2,
10000 Zagreb, Croatia, E-mail: katarina.stoic666@gmail.com
College of Slavonski Brod, dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: marija.stoic@vusb.hr
Abstract
The paper presents the parameters that determine the variability of the cutting conditions in the
turning process. The experimental results are given for the measurement of the cutting forces during
turning of steel Č 1530. The experiment was done on the TNP 160 Prvomajska turning machine
using insert CNMG 120408 HA. The insert was clamped into the PCLNL 3225M12 tool holder.
Three 120-mm HBM sensors (measuring strips) are connected to the MGCPlus measuring device
with an A / D transducer from the cable holder. Values of force components are calculated in relation
to the deformation shown by the metering strip.
Keywords: turning, interrupted cutting, forces
different edge loading conditions, machining
becomes as a technologically demanding task.
The condition of the contact between cutting
edge and workpiece can be categorized in three
states (no cutting condition, entry / exit from the
cutting contact, cutting). These three completely
different processing states generate discontinuity
in machining operations.
1. INTRODUCTION
Today's machining processes become more
and more demanding and complex, both in
terms of the cutting process and in the machined
surfaces of the product. Although turning is
considered a process with unchanging
(continous) conditions, the absence of
continuous processing conditions in turning
processes occur when the surface layers are
removed and the "core" is removed and has
certain geometrical irregularities resulting in
variable conditions. Furthermore, in the
finishing processes, and in the processes coming
after heat treatment ("hard-machining"), the
traces of the passage of the rough processing
tool also generate variable turning conditions in
finishing cuts.
Hard turning of steel components is
increasingly being used as a replacement for
grinding operations, and furthermore, these
processes offer high flexibility, greater cutting
depth, and even the ability to dry processing [1]
comparing with grinding.
The problem of hard material processing
assumes additional requirements for cutting
tools as well as on machines, especially on their
stiffness and the reduction of the vibration
effects that are the preferred generator of
changing conditions in turning. Beside vibration
Realizing
such
processes
(so-called
discontinuous cutting processes) in which
simultaneously achieving more significantly
128
mechanical variable loads. The aim of this study
was to determine the dynamic loading condition
on the cutting tool edge while continuous
turning of steel Ck45 (Č 1531).
as a direct generator of variable cutting
conditions, as the second generators of variable
conditions by cutting in turning can be:
geometric deviations of the previous processing
operations (casting, forging, dragging etc.) result
in varying cutting depths (and hence the variable
cross-sectional area of the chips) directly affects
oscillation in the value of cutting force
components. Discontinuous cutting processes
can be caused also by the geometry of pretreated surfaces that contain proper and / or
irregular openings in their structure, lubrication
channels, various functional grooves and
pockets.
2. CONTINUOUS VS.
INTERUPPTED PROCESSES
2.1. Variable processing conditions
No cutting process can be said to be carried
out under ideal constant processing conditions.
There are always certain deviations in relation to
the parameter set values. As an obvious
example, the machining conditions during the
contact of the cutting tool and workpiece are not
constant during the phases of entry and exit
from the operation (Figure 1) where the two
parameters of the formed chips (b and h), or the
parameters ap and f has been intensively
changed. However, for machining processes
where relative changes (oscillations) become
lower values are said to be processes with
constant processing conditions, and for those
with relative changes (oscillations) of higher
value parameters, are said to be processes with
variable conditions.
The third possible generator of variable
cutting conditions is heat treatment that
generates thermal (geometrical) deformations
specially in the thin wall products as well as
inhomogeneity of the heat modified surface
layers (surface layers have different hardness at
the start / end of the induction hardening).
The fourth possible generator of variable
conditions is the transition from rough to final
machining, i.e., the relation of the value of the
feed f in the previous and subsequent passage of
the cutting edge. Namely, the different values of
walleys in rough machining and finishing can
lead to a situation where the cutting edge in the
intervals crosses the hills (large ap) and walleys
(small ap) which will be explained in more detail
later in the paper.
As stated in the introduction, there are
several reasons for generating changeable
turning conditions. One of the reasons for this is
that the processing conditions can be
significantly changed: turning processes in
which the depth can be changed.
Due to all above mentioned situations, there
are some limitations in the application of hard
turning when machining hardened steel with
non-continuous (interrupted) surfaces. Tools that
are mainly used for hard turning are hard
(possible fragile) and have very low impact
resistance, which are typical for the processing
of heat untreated surfaces. With the
development of new technologies and materials,
tools such as cubic boron nitride (CBN), cutting
ceramics, and light-weight carbides have been
found, in which hard layer processing that are
heat treated, hardened and nitrated coated are
becoming more and more acceptable. When
turning, the edge of the cutting tool is
continuously exposed to very high thermal and
Fig. 1. Variable cutting conditions
Discontinuous cutting processes are the
source of vibrations that are the result of
discontinuity in the process of particle
separation. Examples of such processing are the
129
processes with periodic variation of the cross
section of the cutting area, interrupt cutting
during the processing of the gear circumference,
interrupt cutting of the blades arranged per
circumference,
the
processing
of
the
eccentrically mounted shaft or the internal
processing of the asymmetric hole.
3. CUTTING FORCES
COMPONENTS
Cutting tool can separate parts (particles)
from the surface of the workpiece if the tool acts
on workpiece with cutting force F with values
that overcome cutting resistances and friction
forces. In the literature [3], the cutting force
vector is disassembled to the forces of cutting by
means of the equilibrium circle of forces, and
the calculation of the individual components is
also defined in terms of orthogonal cutting. Fc,
Ff , Fp are the three components of force most
often shown in the literature, and their vectors
are oriented in the direction of cutting speed,
feed and cutting depth (vc, f, a) of Figure 4.
In the case of forced vibrations, the biggest
problem is the possible appearance of resonance,
and the same can be caused by summing elastic
deformations of the tip of the cutting edge,
which increases the oscillation amplitude and
generates the restless operation of the machine.
The occurrence of large amplitudes can occur if
oscillations (elastic deformation) are not damped
from the previous impact, and before a new
shock occurs. If the impulses are dense, the
image is similar to the sinusiodal excitement.
To similar findings become D. Bachrathy
and I. Mészáros [2] (Fig. 2) in studying dynamic
problems in interrupted, very precise hard
turning.
Fig. 4. Force components on turning tool [3]
Changing of the cutting depth and feed ratio,
tool geometry (κr, δ, tool tip radius), increasing
of tool wear and mechanical properties of the
workpiece significantly affect the values of the
individual components of the cutting force.
Research results are very often only applicable
to certain combinations of input conditions and
shapes of wear because the differences in the
ratio of the individual components of the cutting
force under different conditions are too high.
Major changes in force component ratios during
cutting may be due to changes in processing
parameters (variable depth of cutting in castings,
wrought, over welded and heat threaded
workpieces), so the exact ratio is very difficult
to define.
Fig. 2. Shematic show of dinamic system and
parameters [2]
Emphasis has been put on the study of the
vibration occurring during processing and has a
significant impact on the size of the cutting
force and the quality of the treated surface. The
time period of each phase is marked, the cutting
cycle Trez and the Tfly for the phase without
touching the blade with the machining surface.
Fig. 3. the variable cutting conditions and tool
vibration accurance [2]
130
4. EXPERIMENT
The work piece on which the tests were
performed is made of the steel group for
hardening. Steel was heat treated to achieve
better mechanical properties. With heat
treatment martensitic microstructure by cross
section has been achieved, i.e., better hardness
profile in depth (Figure 5).
Fig. 5. High-grade martensite in steel
microstructure (amplification 500x) [4]
Table 1. Results of deformation and stresses obtained on the cutting tool model
Steel designation
DIN
HRN
C45
Č1530
diameter:
40-100 mm
C
Si
Chemical composition (%)
Mn
P.
S
Cr
Mo
Ni
0,40
≤0,40 0,50 to 0,80 <0,045 <0,045
<0,4
<0,10
Mechanical properties
hardness
strength (Rm)
strength (Rp0,2)
elongation (A5)
max 255 HB
630-780 N/mm2
min 370 N/mm2
min 17%
Heat tretment:
Normalisation:
1100 - 850°C/air
Soft annealing:
680 - 710°C
quenching:
820 - 860°C/water, oil
tempering:
550 - 660°C/air
0,45 to 0,50
The test sample was heat-treated by
quenching at 860°C and annealed at 660°C.
The test sample was a slotted rod of 70 mm in
diameter and 150 mm long with a grove of 8
mm wide and 10 mm deep (Figure 6) [6].
Groove had the purpose of obtaining so-called
"interruption turning" during machining.
separetely as a single measurement [6]. In total
27 measurements were made and three force
component were measured. Some results are
presented in the paper. The turning process
was carried out with carbide insert (TM), the
designation CNMG 120408HA (NC 3220) and
of producer Korloy. The dimensions of the
insert are: l=12.0 mm, t=4.76 mm, r=0.80 mm,
d=12.70 mm, d1=5.16 mm. The recommended
cutting parameters for this insert are: ap=0.8
mm till 3.50 mm, f=0,01 mm till 0,4 mm. The
PCLNL 3225M12 tool holder was used.
Fig. 6. Test sample geometry
The sensors (strain gages) were connected
to the MGCPlus measuring device, which
contained a 24 bit A / D inputs and converter
on each channel when measuring force
components. During the machining and
recording of the mesured values, the sampling
frequency was 1000 Hz. The capabilities of the
devices are up to 19.2 kHz per channel. The
schematic representation of the measurement is
shown in Figure 8. The force was measured
with three sensors (measuring strips) of the
HBM type of 120 . The signal analysis was
carried out using Computer Expert Application
Design.
Figure 7 shows the work piece in which the
tests were carried out. Wokpiece was
machined with different regime setups. Each
regime setup influence has been analysed
Fig. 7. Sketch of the test sample with marked
measurement locations
131
recognised by observing the force component
Fc. For measurement number 2 processing
parameters were: f=0.112 mm, ap=3 mm, n=710
min-1. The diagram shown in Fig. 10 shows the
values of the force for measurement nr 2.
Fig. 8. Force measurement setup [7]
For measuring no. 3, the machining
parameters were: f = 0.112 mm, ap = 3 mm, n
= 280 min-1. The diagram shown in Figure 11
shows the values of the force for measurement
nr 3.
For measurement number 1, the processing
parameters were: f = 0.075 mm, ap = 3 mm, n
= 710 min-1. The diagram of measurement
results for this setup was shown in Figure 9.
On the diagram of the main force of cutting Fc,
there is a very significant, sudden fall of the
force value . That part of the curve represents
the time interval when the cutting edge was not
in contact with workpiece, but is in the groove.
The values of the individual forces are visualy
reapeted in cycles during entire measurement,
so for all of the following illustrations, the
values of the force components are shown in
only three revolutions (three cycles).
Note: In the image, the force values for component Ff are
displayed in the negative area for better visibility
Fig. 11. Force values during measurement nr 3
5. CONCLUSION
The study of variable cutting conditions
was analyzed by measuring the cutting force
components. Test sample with milled groove
has signifact influence on variability of cutting
depth and on main cutting force. The
measuring diagrams in Figures 9 through 11
show the most noticeable influence of the
variable cutting depth (ap = 0 mm during the
passing of the cutting edge through the groove
and ap ≠ 0 mm for the rest of the time) if the
force component Fc is observed. According to
the results of the measurements it can be
concluded that for the larger cross section of
the undeformed chips, greater cutting force is
needed to separate the chips from the work
piece.
Note: In the image, the force values for component Ff are
displayed in the negative area for better visibility
Fig. 9. Force values during measurement nr 1
The picture shows that the influence of the
variable cutting depth (ap=0 mm during the
passing of the edge through the groove and ap
≠0 mm for the rest of the time) can be visualy
For equal cross section of undeformed
chips, as is the case for measurement number 2
and measurement 3, it can be concluded that
greater cutting force occurs at loweer cutting
speeds. It is precisely visible during
measurement nr 3. and if observed force
component is Fc. Therefore, the maximum
value of the cutting force was obtained during
Note: In the image, the force values for component Ff are
displayed in the negative area for better visibility
Fig. 10. Force values during measurement nr 2
132
hardness
zones,
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/downl
oad?doi=10.1.1.555.8783&rep=rep1&typ
e=pdf,01.05.2009.,
last
access
05/05/2018.
the regime setup with the smallest cutting
speed and the largest cross section of the
undeformed chips. The minimum cutoffcutting force value was obtained during the
machining with minimum cutting depth,
minimum feed and maximum speed.
[8] http://www.korloy.com/en/ebook/2016_2
017%20KORLOY%20CUTTING%20TO
OLS(EM)/assets/contents/download.pdf,
last access 05/05/2018.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Discontinuous
cutting:
failure
mechanisms,
tool
materials
and
temperature, Carou, Rubio, Davim,
http://www.ipme.ru/ejournals/RAMS/no_23814/02_23814_car
ou.pdf, last access 10/04/2018.
[2] B. Daniel; M.J. Reith, Optimal cutting
speeds and surface prediction in
interrupted high precision hard turning,
Meszaros,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
265794516_Optimal_cutting_speeds_and
_surface_prediction_in_interrupted_high_
precision_hard_turning,
last
access
18/06/2018.
[3] A. Stoić, Obradivost tvrdih materijala
visokobrzinskim tokarenjem, Doktorska
disertacija, FSB, Zagreb (2002.)
[4] S. Kožuh, Specijalni čelici-skripta,
Specijalni
čelici,
(2010),
https://www.simet.unizg.hr/hr/nastava/pre
davanja/diplomski-sveucilisni-studijmetalurgija/2-godina-diplomskogstudija/specijalni-celici/view, last access
30/06/2018.
[5] Material specification sheet, Saarstahl –
C45,
https://www.saarstahl.com/sag/downloads
/download/12970, last access 05/05/2018.
[6] D.
Smojvir,
Istraživanje
efekata
promjenljivih uvjeta rezanja u obradi
tokarenjem, Završni specijalistički rad,
Strojarski fakultet u Slavonskom Brodu,
(2018).
[7] A. Stoić; J. Kopač; T. Ergić, Turning
conditions of Ck 45 steel with alternate
133
Modelling and Simulation of
Deformation of Cutting Tool during
Cutting
I. Mikulić a, K. Stoic b, M. Stoic c, A. Stoic
a
a
Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Trg I. B. Mazuranic 2, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: ivan.mikulic@sfsb.hr
b
Strojarska tehnička škola Frana Bošnjakovića Zagreb, Konavoska 2, 10000 Zagreb,
Croatia, E-mail: katarina.stoic666@gmail.com
c
College of Slavonski Brod, dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: marija.stoic@vusb.hr
Abstract
This work simulates the stress and deformation of the tool holder for turning and determines the
elastic deformation value of the tip of the cutting insert. Cross-section of tool holder was 32x25 mm
and holder with cutting insert were modeled in SolidWorks. The ANSYS structural analysis software
was used to simulate the load using the finite element method. Two size elements of the network are
selected. One network has elements with size of 5 mm, and the other is a mesh with size of 1 mm.
The simulation was carried out for five different values of force acting on the model. Each of these 5
values of forces was carried out through simulation on the above-mentioned two different finite
element network arrangement.
Keywords: FEM, cutting tool, deformation, optimisation
Contact area between the tool and workpiece
and the tool and the chip affects cutting
conditions and performance of the machined
surface and tool life.
1. INTRODUCTION
Metal cutting (machining) is one of the
processes for obtaining a functional geometry
and shaping of the products. It is estimated that
significant value of all machine elements
functional surfaces is derived from machining
operations. However, despite its obvious
economic and technical importance, machining
remains one of the least predictable
manufacturing operations due to the fact that the
machining models are complicated for defining.
The geometry of cutting tool surfaces is one of
the crucial parameters affecting the quality of
manufacturing process.
Cutting is a process of extensive stresses and
plastic deformations. The high compressive and
frictional contact stresses on the tool face result
in a substantial cutting force F as shown in
figure 1.
The cutting force vector is defined in terms
of orthogonal cutting. Fc, Ff, Fp are the three
components of force most often shown in the
literature, and their vectors are oriented in the
direction of cutting speed, feed and cutting
depth (vc, f, ap) Figure 1.
When machining metals and alloys most of
the energy required to form the chips is
converted into deformation of contact surfaces.
This paper analyse the problems of contact
between tool and workpiece simulating the
134
Fig. 2. Model of cutting tool holder with insert
Fig. 1. Force components acting on turning tool
loading (and stresses distribution over tool
holder) and deformation.
3. MODELING OF TOOL
LOADING
The ANSYS structural analysis
structural analysis) software was
simulate the load using the finite
method. Using of the program
complicated [2]
2. CUTTING TOOL MODELING
For the simulation of the load, it is necessary
to create a 3D model of the cutting tool we are
exposing in the simulation. In this case, the 3D
model consists of two merged bodies: an
external turning tool holder and a cutting insert.
The dimensions of the model are defined by the
dimensions of the real holder and the insert. In
this case, it is the Corloy CNMG 120408HA
(NC 3220) insert. The dimensions of the insert
are: l = 12.0 mm, t = 4.76 mm, r = 0.80 mm, d =
12.70 mm, d1 = 5.16 mm. The insert was
inserted into the PCLNL 3225M12 toolholder.
The holder and the insert are modeled in the
package SolidWorks.
(ANSYS
used to
element
is not
For modeling the load and simulating the
deformation size, a static structural analysis tool
was selected.
Using ANSYS software - structural analysis,
it is possible to solve complex problems and
propose better solutions. The software uses
technique of finite element analysis. This
method enables simulation of problems in
multiple scenarios and with different
parameters. This tool is used in almost all
industries and enables product optimization and
cost savings caused by physical tests. [3] Since
the model of the tool has been made in
SolidWorks, model geometry needs to be loaded
(Import Geometry).
After designing the model of the holder and
the insrert, a new phase is opened in which the
two models will be merged to the body required
for the simulation. The body has been assembled
in the way that the model of the holder is
placed first as a fixed part inside the space.
Next, a insert model is added to the definition of
space on the basis of the fixed holder model.
Then we define the contact surfaces between the
parts (holder and insert) of the model and thus
define the position within the space. To obtain
accuracy of modelled stresess and deformation
during simulation, it is necessary to merge all
the contact surfaces to each other because the
forces in reality are transmitted over all of these
surfaces. The model, along with the defined
contact surfaces, is shown in Figure 2.
The loaded model is shown in Figure 3. In
the window you can change the model and
define the other settings required for the
simulation. For each step, or name, it is
Fig. 3. Imported model of cutting tool into ANSYS
package
135
necessary to define the settings correctly so that
the simulation succeeds. The cutting tool model
needs to be set in a specific space and define
Connections, also shown in Figure 3, contains
all of the contact surface joints defined when
creating a CAD model in SolidWorks.
space. In reality, this surface is equivalent to the
surface to which it is attached during real load,
ie that surface represents the stand of the model
in the space. For the working model, the surface
on the underside of the bracket was selected as a
fixed surface. When designing a CAD model,
this surface is defined with the intention of
being used as a support during simulation. The
holder is fastened to the machine during turning
and the bottom side is attached to it. That is why
the fixed surface is defined from the bottom of
the model. Figure 6 shows the selected fixed
area.
After that, the network of finite elements is
defined in the work area. After generating the
network, the model is displayed with the
network of generated finite elements. By
choosing a smaller size of elements, a model
with a flawed grid is obtained, ie the model has
multiple elements. Also, by choosing the finer
elements the results obtained by simulation are
more accurate. For comparison purposes, two
dimensions of the elements were selected for
this work. One net is less common (popular)
with the size of the 5 mm elements, Figure 4
and the other the mesh is louder with the size of
the 1 mm elements, Figure 5.
Fig. 6. Fixed surface of the model
The action of force is directed to the surface
defined when making a CAD model at the top of
the insert. This surface represents the surface of
the plate that is in contact with the work piece
during the turning. So the forces that occur
during the process work on that surface. The
forces are set in the direction of all three axes.
The amount of force and direction will be shown
in the pictures below.
Fig. 4. Spreading of FEM mesh over the cutting tool,
5 mm
Before the simulation starts, it is necessary to
select the desired results. Of course, as many
items are selected, longer simulations will last
because of the greater amount of math problems
that need to be solved. For this work two items
have been selected, ie two types of data / results
to be displayed. These are data on overall
deformation and strain. The icons "Total
Deformation" and "Equivalent Stress"
For simplicity, the equal values of the cutting
force components in the direction of the x and z
axis were selected (in reality, the passive and
shear components of the cutting force). The
highest value of the force is in the direction of
the axis y, which is also in real load conditions.
Fig. 5. Spreading of FEM mesh over the cutting tool,
1 mm
The first of the two conditions to be placed
on the model is Fixed Support. This is the
surface that is fixed during the simulation in the
136
The cutting deformation (δ) of the cutting edge
is particularly important as the size of the
deformation affects the machining accuracy, as
well as on other geometrical size tribology
processes on the cutting tool's contact surfaces. For
this reason, only the size of the deformation will
be presented in simulation results. deformation
values δ5 and δ1 are obtained for different FEM
mesh size 5 mm and 1 mm respectevely.
4. RESULTS OBTAINED AFTER
SIMULATION
The simulation was carried out for five
different values of force acting on the model.
Each of these 5 sums of forces that was carried
out through simulation of the above-mentioned
two variants of the finite element mesh
arrangement.
Table 1. Results of deformation and stresses obtained on the cutting tool model
Meas. nr
Total
force
F, N
Fc, N
(Fy)
Fp,N
(Fz)
Ff, N
(Fy)
1.
966,6
900
250
250
FEM - mesh size 5 FEM - mesh size 1
mm
mm
∆
∆
(σ 5- σ 1),
Deform. Stress Deform. Stress
(δ5- δ1), %
%
σ 5,
δ1,
σ 1,
δ5,
mm
MPa
mm
MPa
0,029264 1583,1 0,030605 1899,3
4,38
16,65
2.
1510
1400
400
400
0,045232 2448,4 0,047321 2978,9
4,41
17,81
3.
2053
1900
550
550
0,061202
0,064039 4058,8
4,43
18,35
4.
2596,2
2400
700
700
0,077172 4179,6 0,080758 5138,8
4,44
18,67
5.
3139,3
2900
850
850
0,093142 5045,3 0,097477 6218,8
4,45
18,87
Table 1 shows the results for five different load
combinations (five values of loading) and for
different FEM mesh size (two mesh size). The
picture of deformations shown in table 2 shows
that the greatest deformations appear at the very
top of the inserts, exactly where the force acts. In
the area of cutting tool support, they do not even
appear because they are rigidly fixed. As with
deformations, even the largest stress concentration is created at the site of action of force.
Table 1 shows that the results with the fracture
network are slightly different, or higher than
those of the previous ones. The reason for this is
just the amount of elements that are smaller in
size on the model. Thus, the results are more
precise, mathematical calculations take into
account the fewer surfaces. For example, taking
the 5 mm element size from the previous case, it
may be that one part of the element is more
stressed than the other part. Reducing the size of
the elements partially removes this effect and yields
more accurate results. But it is also apparent that the
differences in the model obtained deformations are
less than 5% (Table 1) which can be considered as
sufficiently accurate if a mesh with larger elements
is applied.
3314
5. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND
CONCLUSIONS
The results shown above and obtained by
simulation of the deformations and stresses of
the cutting tool using FEM analysis are
expectable during real machining conditions.
The obtained values of deformation are
relatively small comparing with cutting tool
model size, but the software has the possibility
of increasing them for a better visual display.
More important regarding deformation values is
that they do not greatly affect the dimensions of
the workpiece.
From the results shown in this paper, it is
evident that the increase in the force acting on
the model increases and the deformations and
stresses. In reality and so, if a body is loaded
with higher force, it will become more
deformed. Stresses also have a direct
proportionality to the force when have been
calculated. Greater the force on the same size
cutting tool model means higher stress and
higher deformation.
137
Table 2. Demonstration of deformation (δ5) distribution over the cutting tool model
Total
Meas.
force
Nr
F, N
1
966,6
2
1510
3
2053
4
2596,2
5
3139,3
Deformation values δ5,mm
138
It is also apparent that the differences in the
model obtained deformations for different FEM
mesh element size are less than 5% which can
be considered as sufficiently accurate if a mesh
with larger elements is used because of its very
fast results obtaining.
It can be also concluded that the results
obtained by the simulation even without the use
of the machine have real values and are usefull
for process optimisation. Without the realization
of the turning process in real, this simulation
offers the values of deformations and stresses
that occur during the real cutting process. This is
very important and useful specially for
optimizing the cutting process. During the
simulation, the model can be subjected to
various forces and processing modes without the
risk of damage and material distroying. Gradual
changes in the regime parameters after its
checking in the real process offer that the result
of simulation result with optimal values that can
be afterword used in real process. By optimizing
the process in reality instead of on a computer,
we will spend a loto f time, generate greater
material consumption and, most importantly,
there is a risk of fractures and failures due to
wrongly selected regime parameters.
5. REFERENCES
[1] CAD/CAM
Integration
Based
on
Machining Features for Prismatic Parts,
Hou,
Min.,
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/71df/a9fce
3ff745c1a739355873201956381b963.pdf,
last access 25/06/2018.
[2] Platforma
Obslugi
Nauki
Platon,
https://pcz.cloud.pionier.net.pl/, last access
25/06/2018.
[3] ANSYS, Inc., Canonsburg, Pennsylvania.
ANSYS
Structural
Analysis;
https://www.ansys.com/products/structures,
last access 25/06/2018.
139
Ultrasonic Measurement of Wall
Thickness
M. Čuletić Čondrić a, V. Domanović
a
a
College of Slavonski Brod, dr. M. Budaka 1, 35 000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: mccondric@vusb.hr, vjekoslavdomanovic@gmail.com
Abstract
The paper describes the method of ultrasonic measurement of the thickness of the wall. The work
consists of a theoretical and practical part. Theoretical part describes methods of non-destructive control
with an emphasis on the ultrasound method. The principle of ultrasonic measurement of wall thickness
and the equipment used for ultrasonic testing are described. In the practical part, a wall thickness
measurement was performed on the tank. The tank was already in operation and then changed for other
purposes. After the restoration of the tank, we measured the thickness of the walls on each of the
sanitized parts. Attention was drawn to the eligibility criteria and the tolerance prescribed by the norm.
Based on the practical work, the results were analyzed and a conclusion was drawn on the advantages
and disadvantages of this method.
Keywords: ultrasound methods, ultrasonic equipment, thickness measurement, tolerance
provide data on the volume state, ie the interior
of the test object, and are divided into
ultrasound and radiographic methods. Of the
other methods that do not belong to these
groups, it is often used to extract acoustic
emission, vortex currents, leakproofness
control, isolation testing on improperness and
hardness measurement.
1. INTRODUCTION
Quality Control is a set of methods and
procedures by which the quality criteria
determine compliance and meet the
requirements set. Quality control is a fully
standardized approach.
Depending on the types of tests carried out
on the material and the welded joints, the
quality control is divided into destructive
control and control.
In this paper an ultrasound method of wall
thickness measurement will be analyzed. The
aim of the paper is to describe the mode of
operation and to demonstrate the use of
ultrasound on a specific example. The work will
be divided into theoretical and experimental
part.
Non destructive control contains all methods
of test and measurement which, by their
application, do not affect the functionality of the
tested object. Destructive control methods
provide data on the condition of the test object
(surface quality, volume quality, grade of weld
quality, etc.).
In the theoretical part will be described the
principle of the ultrasonic method, the physical
basis of ultrasound and ultrasonic sources. I will
be dealing with ultrasonic waves and ultrasound
parameters as well as reflexion and fracture of
ultrasonic waves and parts of the beam. Special
attention will be paid to ultrasonic probes,
device and signal mode. When measuring the
The basic division of non-destructive
methods is on surface and volume. Surface
methods give data on the surface state of the test
object and are divided into visual, penetrant and
magnetic methods. Volumetric methods
140
repetition of a series of states at certain time
intervals (intervals). The parameters we use to
describe the titration are:
thickness of the wall, I will talk about the choice
of ultrasonic equipment and measurement
techniques, surface condition and test
personnel.
period T, time of one titre
frequency f, number of titers per second
elongation x(t), shift from equilibrium
position at time t
amplitude A, maximum elongation
The experimental section will show the wall
thickness measurement on a tank that was
already in use. Ultrasonic measurement will be
used when assessing the actual condition of the
object. According to the state of the surface of
the test object, a suitable test technique and an
ultrasound system will be selected. According
to the analysis of the results of the experimental
work, conclusions will be drawn on the
advantages and the lack of this method.
Free titration is the periodic motion of the
body caused by the action of elastic force
proportional to the displacement of the body
from the equilibrium position (Figure 1.). The
total energy of the free-titrating body equals the
sum of its kinetic energy and elastic potential
energy. [2]
The paper will use expert literature on
ultrasound control, Croatian and European
standards
2. ULTRASONIC CONTROL
The principle of ultrasonic control is based
on the transmitting of the ultrasonic wave to the
material, it is repelled from the obstacle and the
time required to revert the wave determines the
distance and shape of the object or some
irregularity in the material. Ultrasound is a
sound whose frequency is above the upper limit
of hearing for a normal human ear, which is 20
kHz. The average human sound is 16 Hz to 20
kHz.
Fig. 1. Graphic view of free titration
2.2.
The ultrasonic titration in the contact with
the agent will transfer the titration to the
surrounding substance. The particles in the
ultrasound device excite titers with the same
frequency as the source, but with a different
phase. The titration phase depends on the rate of
titration and the point in the space where the
state of the titration is observed. [1] The wave
velocity is calculated according to the
expression:
Transmission and reception of the
ultrasound into the test material is carried out by
ultrasonic transducer and ultrasonic sensor. The
ultrasonic wave pulses through the pass through
the probe and the material we measure, and such
a signal in the device is precisely measured as
the time of passing through the metering object.
2.1.
Ultrasonic sources
=
(1)
∙
where:
Physical basic of ultrasound
v velocity of wave propagation, m / s
λ wavelength, m
f frequency, Hz
Acoustics is an area of physics dealing with
the study of phenomena related to the
formation, transmission and reception of sound
or related tonsils in a wide spectrum of
frequencies and applications. [1]
Sound is generated by vibration, mechanical
titration, some matter. Titration is the form of
periodic motion caused by elastic body traits,
2.3. Creating
ultrasonic waves
ultrasound
and
The ultrasound probe by pushing on the
object transfers the titrating into the means they
141
are in contact with. An integral part of the
transducer is a titrator that generates ultrasonic
waves due to various external stimuli.
waves are the combination of longitudinal and
transverse titers in the medium. Most used are
Rayleighs, Lateral, Lambs and P-waves.
Ultrasonic waves can only be spread in a
homogeneous medium, and this is precisely the
basis for detecting errors in the object being
investigated. Waves at the boundary of the
medium, whether it is the walls of the test object
or the irregularities within the material, follow
the legitimacy of the wave motion. The proper
interpretation of the ultrasonic energy obtained
by tracing the test material can be used to
estimate the material condition and the
parameters of the detected errors.
Ultrasonic waves spread in their original
form only in infinite means. Since in practice
the means are limited by dimensions, the
infinite means is considered only as a means
whose dimensions are considerably larger than
the wave wavelength expanding. By analyzing
response, ultrasonic waves returning from the
boundary of the media, we can detect errors in
the test object.
For all waves Snell's law is valid, which is
calculated according to the expression:
Ultrasonic energy is the most commonly
used piezoelectric effect, and is based on the
ability of some materials to generate electrical
potential when subjected to mechanical
pressure. When such material is processed
appropriately, the active part of the inverter that
can produce and receive ultrasound is obtained.
Other ways of getting ultrasound are:
magnetostrictive, mechanical acceleration,
thermal
stimulation,
electrostatic,
electrodynamic.
(2)
=
where:
α1 is the angle of propagation of the
sound in the medium 1
α2 is the angle of spreading sound in the
medium 2
v1 speed of sound in the media 1, km / s
v2 speed of sound in the media 2, km /s
2.4.
Ultrasonic probes
Ultrasonic waves transmit the energy of
titration through the material. Depending on the
type of material through which energy is
transmitted and features such as the type of
material, shape and dimensions, and the elastic
properties of the material, various types of
waves will occur.
Ultrasonic test probes are a key part of the
ultrasonic system. When constructing the
probes, the following is taken into account:
inverter material, electrode configuration
silencer and its features, prism and / or mask for
transmitting ultrasound to the material, housing,
protective elements and masks.
There are two basic types of waves, which
are longitudinal and transversal. Longitudinal
waves are those waves in which the particles are
titrated in the direction of wave propagation,
causing dampening and dilution in the widening
medium. Transversal waves are those waves in
which the particles are titrated perpendicularly
to the direction of wave propagation, and do not
cause dampening and dilution in the medium
being widened. Longitudinal waves can be
spread in all three aggregate states, while
transversals can only be spread in rigid media.
In practice, the usual division of probes
toward the direction of transmitting and
receiving the ultrasonic beam in relation to the
object of the test, the mode of excitation, the
technique of work and the like. Standard probes
used in manual ultrasonic control are: flat,
double and angular probes.
The ultrasonic device consists of electronic
components that allow the operator to detect the
irregularities of the test object in structure and
dimensions by ultrasonic waves. The ultrasound
device produces high-voltage and short-life
electrical pulses, which convert the
Of the other waves used in ultrasonic
control, the most important surface and plate
142
piezoelectric transducer into the test probe into
mechanical oscillations in the ultrasound field.
These oscillations are in the subject of the test
as sound waves. The sound waves are reflected
on the boundary surfaces and the transducer of
the test probe receives them and is displayed on
the ultrasound device screen
are most often viscous, non-toxic gels or oils
which, by their structure and properties, do not
substantially affect the ultrasonic pulse and at
the same time ensure good contact between two
different materials. The contact medium should
be applied to the test surface in a thin layer.
Layer thickness can affect test results and signal
stability on the ultrasound device.
3. MEASUREMENT OF THE
THICKNESS OF THE WALL
We use etalone and reference samples to
check the characteristics of the equipment and
to adjust the ultrasound system. When
measuring the wall thickness, the measuring
system should be calibrated on one or more
reference samples, and the thickness of the
material or the ultrasound velocity should be
known for proper calibration.
Ultrasonic wall thickness measurement is
used in the industry to carry out precise
measurements on various types of materials,
parts and components.
It is useful to monitor the wall thickness of
various types of pipes and pressurized vessels in
exploitation, for comparison of loss of projected
thickness, bearing capacity of corrosioninduced corrosion or erosion. The principle of
ultrasonic wall thickness measurement is based
on measuring the time required for a short
ultrasonic pulse to pass through the material one
or more times.
The surface of the test object must be
accessible and cleaned of dirt, grease, oil,
without damaging the electrical arc or splash
and without residues of corrosive products.
Optimal measurement results are achieved on a
clean, preferably wiped, surface.
3.1.
The experimental part will explain the
method of measuring the thickness of the wall
on a tank that has been in use for a number of
years, and is now overwhelmed by cement
storage. Ultrasonic measurement of the wall
thickness was used when assessing the actual
condition of the object.
The thickness of the material is calculated
according to the expression:
=
∙
Experimental part
(3)
where:
d the thickness of the material, m
v known ultrasonic velocity in material,
m/s
t measured time pass through material, p
n the total number of impulse passages
through the material
To measure the thickness of the wall, the
handheld device PosiTector UTG C - Standard,
manufactured by DeFelsko (Figure 2), was
If measurements are performed in steel,
standard measurement methods can be
measured in thicknesses of 1 mm to 10 mm.
The choice of probes depends on the type of
equipment, the thickness of the material, the
condition of the surface and the possible coating
on the surface.
It is imperative to use a contact agent to
compensate for roughness and roughness in the
contact probe - material. The contact materials
Fig. 2. Test device and contact lenses
143
interior surface - thorough manual and
machine cleaning, level of primary
surface preparation by manual cleaning
method St 2
external surface - very thorough cleaning
with abrasive blasting, level of primary
surface preparation with abrasive
cleaning method Sa 2½
used. The device is designed to measure the
thickness of metal and nonmetal, and uses the
technique of single-sided measurement in its
work. As a contact agent, a DeFelsko
manufacturer's gel was used which is
chemically neutral and can be used at
temperatures from -15 ° C to 104 ° C.
In our case there was no technical
documentation, it was not known from which
material and the thickness of the test object was
made. Due to experience with similar objects of
similar use, it was assumed to be a structural
steel, of S235JR or less, in a sheet thickness of
3 mm to 8 mm. Two-point calibration was
accessed. For the purpose of the test, reference
samples of 3 mm and 8 mm thick were cut. The
two-point adjustment is based on calibration at
the lower thickness and then on the upper. For
proper reading of measured thickness results
must be within these two limits.
After the surface preparation (Figure 3) there
was another visual inspection of the object.
Fig. 3. External surface after cleaning
The tank bulkhead is worn out and the need
for a different type of opening is replaced by a
new one, and the roof is reinforced with a ribbed
lime. At certain sites, a phenomenon of deep
corrosion has been observed which could be the
potential cause of loss of the basic thickness or
design capacity of the facility. By grinding and
polishing on one characteristic part and then by
measuring the thickness of the wall, it has been
found that remedies can be performed in this
way and that loss of thickness is within the
tolerance set. All other critical sites were
remedied in a similar way. After all repairs, the
areas on which the measurement will be
performed are further polished for as accurate
results and as such an object was ready for the
test.
The measurement results show that the first
two sheaves, up to the funnel, were made from
a thickness of 6 mm, the other two from a
thickness of 5 mm and the last two from a
thickness of 4 mm. After that, the device
calibrated to the thickness to get the most
accurate result and started with the test.
The test facility has been outdoors for a
number of years, so the influence of
atmospheric conditions left a trace on its
surface. In such a situation the object was not
suitable for measuring the thickness of the wall.
The exact initial surface area assessment was
performed by visual inspection according to
HRN EN ISO 8501-2 [3] and the following was
concluded:
interior surface - the coating has been
damaged with little or no rust
external surface - the coating at the places
began to separate, part of the surface
began to rust, and a localized occurrence
of deep corrosion
The test object consisted of six sheaves with
three different thicknesses of sheets, 4 mm, 5
mm and 6 mm. Each cloak was measured from
the outside on 20 places, randomly selected on
a clean surface (Figure 4) and additionally at
any place where repairs were performed (Figure
5), which could result in up to 50 measurements
per strap.
In both cases it was decided that the previous
coatings and rusts were completely removed
according to HRN EN ISO 8501-1 [4]:
144
Table 2. Results of measurement
Measuring
site
Cloak 1
Cloak 2
Cloak 3
Cloak 4
Cloak 5
Cloak 6
Nominal
thickness
t (mm)
6
6
5
5
4
4
Average of
measurements
5,87
5,84
4,81
4,83
3,87
3,89
It is concluded that the thickness of the test
object is within the eligibility criteria and that
the facility meets the required requirements.
After the tests, the grinding parts were further
dampened for better adhesion and the surface
was protected with a non-metallic coating
(Figure 6).
Fig. 4. Measurement of the thickness of the wall
Fig. 5. Measurements on brushed parts
For hot rolled steel sheet tolerances of basic
requirements should be according to HRN EN
10029 [5], tolerance of thickness class A, unless
otherwise agreed. In our case, tolerances for 4
mm thick sheets are from -0.4 to +0.8 mm, and
for sheets of 5 mm and 6 mm are from -0.4 to
+1.1 mm (Table 1).
Fig. 6. The final look of the tank
4. CONCLUSIONS
Table 1. Tolerances to nominal thickness
Nominal
thickness
(mm)
3≤t<5
5≤t<8
Ultrasonic control is part of non-destructive
testing, and applying this method to the object
of the test does not affect its functionality.
The first part of the paper describes the physical
basics of ultrasonic control and detailed
parameters of the ultrasonic method as well as
the parts of the ultrasonic system.
Class A
Lover
tolerance
-0,4
-0,4
Upper
tolerance
+0,8
+1,1
When interpreting the measurement results,
average measurements were taken into the
broken parts (Table 2). Individual spots where
measured less than the permitted -0.4 mm or 0.4 mm to -0.7 mm were less than 5% of the test
surface. The highest measured deviation was
measured on the sheath of 3 and -0.48 mm.
Places where the measured values below -0.4
mm were few meters away so that multiple
faults were switched off in one.
Particular attention is paid to the method of
measuring the thickness of the wall. Ultrasonic
Thickness Measurement is a lightweight and
fast procedure that is often used for auxiliary
measurement based on which other material
parameters are calculated. The choice of
measurement technique and ultrasonic system
depends directly on the state of the test surface,
the properties of the material and the required
precision measurement. Prior to the
145
paints and related products - Visual
assessment of surface cleanliness - Part 1:
Degradation rates and steps for the
preparation of unprotected steel surfaces
and steel surfaces after complete removal
of the previous coatings.
measurement, the calibration procedure of the
measuring device on the reference blocks made
of materials of the same or similar properties
must be carefully carried out.
The experimental section shows the wall
thickness measurement on a tank already in use.
According to the state of the test facility, the test
technique and the ultrasonic system were
selected. After surface treatment and restoration
on the object, we measured the wall thickness.
The criterion of eligibility was based on the
tolerances laid down by European standards for
hot rolled steel sheets.
[5] HRN EN 10029: 2010 - Hot rolled steel
sheets of a thickness of 3 mm or more Permissible deviations of dimensions and
shap.
By analyzing the measurement results, it was
concluded that the reservoir meets the required
conditions and that the use of the facility is
allowed for the foreseen purposes. In this
example, the importance of wall thickness
measurements has been demonstrated since the
measurement results can be used when deciding
to continue working or rejecting the facility, so
it requires seriousness and professionalism in
the work and interpretation of norms.
Ultrasonic control is, in recent times, an
extremely important method that is increasingly
used in everyday work. In the future it is
possible to further advance these methods and
techniques.
5. REFERENCES
[1] V. Krstelj, Ultrasound control, FSB,
Zagreb, (2003).
[2] V. Domanović, Ultrasonic measurement of
wall thickness, Final work of a student,
(2018).
[3] HRN EN ISO 8501-2: 2006 - Preparation
of steel substrates prior to application of
paints and related products - Visual
assessment of surface cleanliness - Part 2:
Degrees of preparation of previously
protected steel surfaces after occasional
removal of previous coatings.
[4] HRN EN ISO 8501-1: 2007 - Preparation
of steel substrates before application of
146
Testing the Range of a LPWAN IoT RF
Module Based on the Texas Instruments
CC1200 Chip
L. Tarjan a, B. Tejić a, S. Tegeltija a, I. Šenk a, N. Đukić
a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Srbija, E-mail:{laci, tejic, srkit, ivanas, nikoladj}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
During the deployment of wireless communication infrastructure, one of the key tests is testing the
range of nodes that form the network. This paper is part of a project that explores the possibility of
implementing an alternative communication system that provides a means for mobile communication
even in the case of failure of the whole infrastructure of commercial mobile operators. Considering
the specific application domain, the network would be deployed with LPWAN IoT-based RF
modules, which, due to their low consumption, enable autonomy of operation in conditions without
network power. The paper presents the results of testing the range of the selected LPWAN IoT RF
modules that are based on the Texas Instruments CC1200 integral circuits as well as the method of
performing the experiment. The experiment was made in the territory of Novi Sad (Serbia).
Keywords: RSSI mapping, LPWAN based communication, IoT, Sensor network.
1
battery power in conditions when there is no
network power supply.
INTRODUCTION
Everyday communication between people
today
relies
heavily
on
wireless
communications, primarily on the use of mobile
phones [1] with the use of mobile data or WiFi.
This paper is part of a project that explores the
possibility for implementing an alternative
communication system that provides a means
for mobile communication even in the case of
failure of the whole infrastructure of commercial
mobile operators.
During the deployment of a new wireless
communication infrastructure, after choosing the
right equipment, one of the key tests is testing
the range of nodes that form the network. In
order to get the strength of the radio signal
between two network nodes (transmitter and
receiver), one of the common measures is RSSI
(Received Signal Strength Indicator). RSSI is a
quality measure of the signal from the
transmitter and received at the receiver at the
current mutual distance. Based on this measure
it is possible to assess the quality of the
connection between the transmitter and the
receiver [2].
Considering that during natural disasters one
can also expect disturbances in the supply of
electricity, when selecting the RF (Radio
Frequency) communication module, the
emphasis was put on LPWAN (Low-Power
Wide-Area Network) IoT (Internet of Things)
based RF modules. These modules are suitable
because of their low power consumption which
allows them great autonomy of operation and
This paper presents the results of measuring
the range of the chosen LPWAN IoT RF
modules, which are based on Texas Instruments
CC1200 integrated circuits. The modules are
connected in such a way that communication
147
can be initiated by a mobile phone through a
dedicated Android application. The experiment
was performed on the territory of Novi Sad
(Serbia) first in open space by the river Danube,
and then within the university campus which is
an urban area with high buildings and green
areas.
2
2.1
Connecting the node with the
mobile phone, tablet or PC
The chosen RF module can communicate
through SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), I2C
(Inter-Integrated Circuit) or UART (Universal
asynchronous receiver-transmitter) interface.
For the purpose of testing, these communication
interfaces were used through the BT (Bluetooth)
connection (Fig. 2) and USB (Universal Serial
Bus) connection (Fig. 3).
EQUIPMENT AND RSSI
MEASUREMENT
In order to provide comfortable and simple
communication between the mobile control
device, such as the mobile phone or tablet, the
communication with the RF module was
realized through HC-05 BT module [6] (Fig. 2).
The BT module is configured in the Bridge
communication regime where it enables
BT ↔ UART communication.
The goal of deploying an alternative
communication network is to provide an
additional network that would allow basic
mobile communication of the population in case
of failure of the complete infrastructure of the
commercial mobile operators during natural
disasters or catastrophic events. Based on
previous research [3], the idea of using LPWAN
IoT RF communication modules was found to
be justified, that enable longer range with low
consumption in standby mode. The chosen
nodes for this network are Yatto Ltd. [4]
operating at a frequency of 868-870 MHz (Fig.
1). This module is based on the Texas
Instruments CC1200 Radio Chip which allows
the use of 3 data transfer rates at: 0.5 kb/s, 150
kb/s and 1 Mb/s. The operating frequency is set
to 868.2 MHz. The module is designed for
applications in IoT, Smart Cities, Industry 4.0,
power plants, public safety, healthcare, and
other applications that require wireless
communication. The module uses a built-in
narrowband
ceramic
antenna
type
0868AT43A0020, by Johanson Technology Inc.
[5] with which, according to the manufacturer’s
specifications, it can have a range up to 15 km in
rural areas [4].
Mobile Phone
Tablet
PC
Bluetooth
communicatiom
Bluetooth
module
UART
communication
RF module
External 5V Power supply
from battery
Fig. 2. Connection diagram between the RF module
and the mobile phone
In order to provide higher autonomy of the
whole system during testing, the BT module was
powered by an additional 5V battery, instead of
the power supply of the RF module. The RF
module is powered by its own battery, so it does
not require an additional power supply.
PC
USB
communication
USB/UART
converter
UART
communication
RF module
Fig. 3. Connection diagram between the RF module
and the PC
Since modern computers, whether a desktop
PC or a laptop, rarely have a RS232 serial
interface ready to connect and communicate
with
other
devices
that
use
serial
communication, in order to connect the RF
module and the PC the widely used USB port
was used for communication, through a
USB ↔ UART converter realized with the
FTDI232RL integrated circuit [7]. The
USB ↔ UART converter is powered by the PC
Fig. 1. LPWAN node with Chip antenna and USB
connection for the PC
148
power supply available on the USB port (5V
with up to 2A). This power supply can also be
easily connected and allow charging of the
battery of the RF module through a simple LiPo
(Lithium polymer) single cell charger.
2.2
Android
application
measurement
allow the input of the current GPS coordinates
to two fixed nodes NODE 1 and NODE 2
respectively, which are placed on fixed positions
with a goal to cover a certain territory with RF
signal and communicate with the mobile nodes.
When inputting the current GPS coordinates for
a fixed node, it is required that the mobile phone
be next to the node, since the GPS coordinates
are taken from the GPS receiver in the phone.
The checkbox “Coord” enables or disables the
option for changing the current GPS location of
nodes. Since the position of the fixed node is
changed only when moving the fixed node to a
new location, this option should be enabled only
then, and disabled during the measurements.
The command buttons “NODE 1 RSSI” and
“NODE 2 RSSI” start the procedure for
measuring the RSSI values of the signal between
the nodes. After the measurement, the label
“Time=” displays the elapsed time in seconds
from the last sent command for measuring RSSI.
for
For measuring the signal strength during the
communication of the RF modules (nodes), a
dedicated application was developed for
Android 4.0+. Fig. 4 presents the user interface
of this application. The interface is designed and
realized to be as user friendly as possible. The
command buttons “SPEED 1”, “SPEED 2” and
“SPEED 3” enable the user to choose the
communication speed between the nodes (the
possible options are: 0.5 kb/s, 150 kb/s, 1 Mb/s
[4]). The radio buttons “Speed 1”, “Speed 2”
and “Speed 3” display the selected
communication speed. The command buttons
“NODE 1 COORD.” and “NODE 2 COORD.”
This information helps track the time from
the start of the communication, especially when
measuring RSSI at slower communication
speed, when the transmission can last up to 5-10
s. If the reply from the fixed node does not
arrive in a certain time period, it can be
concluded that there is no communication
between the nodes, i.e. that the fixed node is out
of range. ”GPS Lat” and “GPS Long” display
the current GPS latitude and longitude of the
mobile phone, i.e. the fixed node. The labels
”RSSI old” and ”RSSI new” display the old and
new measured RSSI value for both “NODE 1”
and “NODE 2”.
The measurement of the signal strength
between the nodes is straightforward, as the RF
modules are able to inform the control device
whether the message arrived successfully at the
receiving end or not. If the communication is
successful between the RF modules, beside this
information, the control device receives the
information on the RSSI value between the
communicating RF modules. An example of the
string transmitted to the node and the received
acknowledge string is shown in Table 1. The
Command string is a byte array, where the first
Fig. 4. Interface of the Android application for RSSI
measurement
149
two bytes define the string length, followed by
one byte that defines the message type, then
seven bytes representing the physical address of
the receiving node, then two bytes defining the
command itself and at the end an array of bytes
with the transmitted data. In the example in
Table 1 the string length is 13 bytes (0x00
0x0D), the message type is 0x52, address of the
receiving node is 0x00 0x00 0x00 0x00 0x00
0x00 0x03, the command is 0x00 0x04 and the
transmitted data in this case is only one byte
with the value 0xDD. A single byte message is
enough for measuring the RSSI value and the
value 0xDD is arbitrarily chosen. After
receiving the message, the addressed node
replies in the same format, where the Message
itself is replaced with the RSSI value for this
transmission. In the example in Table 1 it is the
byte 0xB2 in the Acknowledge string, which
corresponds to -78 dBm.
The measurement locations are marked on
the map in Fig. 5. The points MP1 and MP2
show the positions of the fixed nodes, and the
colored region around them is the measurement
area. The small circles show the positions where
the communication was successful.
When the application receives the
Acknowledge string, it displays the current RSSI
value in the label “RSSI new”, while the
The first testing was performed on the
location MP1 (Fig. 5). The GPS position of the
fixed node is: 45.22969938, 19.80260845. The
2.3
Measurement
location
method
and
The goal of measuring the RSSI values for
the RF modules is to determine their range, so
that the final node configuration can be set in the
realization of the network in order to fully cover
a certain region. In order to get the results for
different field configurations, two locations
were selected:
1. MP1 – open space on the bank of Danube
near the Kamenjar settlement, and
2. MP2 – urban part of the city within and
surrounding the University campus.
Table 1. Communication string structure
Length [2]
Type [1]
Address [7]
Command[2] Message [-]
Comm. 0x00
0x0D
0x52
0x00 0x00 0x00 0x00 0x00 0x00 0x03 0x00 0x04
0xDD
Acknow. 0x00
0x0D
0x52
0x00 0x00 0x00 0x00 0x00 0x00 0x03 0x00 0x04
0xB2
[] - length in bits
node is mounted on a tripod stand on the roof of
a car on the height of 3 m above the ground
(Fig. 6 left). In this location the measurements
were performed on all communication speeds
(0.5 kb/s, 150 kb/s and 1 Mb/s) for two antenna
types. The first antenna is a a built-in
narrowband
ceramic
antenna
type
0868AT43A0020, by Johanson Technology Inc.
[5], and the other is a 15 cm omnidirectional
GSM antenna (Fig. 6 right) with amplification
of 5-6 dB. After these measurements it was
found that the communication is the most
reliable when using the slowest communication
speed of 0.5 kb/s, and that the range is slightly
better when using the omnidirectional GSM
antenna.
previous value is displayed in the label “RSSI
old”. In order to visually help the measurement
process, these labels turn red when transmitting
the message for the specific node, and turn back
to green when the value is successfully received,
accompanied by a sound signal that confirms the
successful end of the measurement. All the
measured RSSI values are recorded on the
mobile phone in a CSV file. The format of the
CSV records is: node label NODE 1 or NODE
2, GPS lat and long coordinate of the fixed node,
date and time of the measurement, current GPS
lat and long coordinate of the mobile phone, i.e.
the mobile node, and the measured RSSI value.
150
The first measurement was on the location MP1
out of urban area (Fig. 5), where the RSSI value
was measured for each communication speed
with the built-in antenna of the RF module, as
well as with the omnidirectional antenna with
the communication speed that provided the
longest range.
The first two charts on Fig. 7 show that for
communication speeds of 150 kb/s and 1 Mb/s,
the RF signal range is only 345-346 m. Also,
they show that the RSSI value required for
communication is -77 and -78 dBm. These
communication speeds are fast enough, so the
user has the impression that the sent data is
received instantly (in less than 1 to 2 s). The
longest range, 586 m, is achieved with the
communication speed of 0.5 kb/s (third chart in
Fig. 7), and in this case the required RSSI value
for stable data transmission is only -95 dBm. In
this case the data transmission takes 10 to 12 s.
Fig. 5. Locations of the RSSI measurements
The second testing was performed on the
location MP2 (Fig. 5). This is the location of the
Assistants’ dormitory, where two fixed nodes
were set up on the 10th floor (highest in this
building), on 33 m above ground. The first node
is set up facing north-east toward the
Petrovaradin fortress, and the other facing southeast toward city areas Liman I, II, and III. The
GPS position of the first fixed node is:
45.246881, 19.848906, and the position of the
second: 45.246671, 19.848898. For nodes on
this location only measurements on the slowest
speed (0.5 kb/s) with the GSM antenna were
performed, since the previous measurements
showed that this setup is the best.
As the slowest communication speed
provided the longest range, the measurements
were repeated with this speed, but with the
omnidirectional GSM antenna, which transmits
the signal evenly in all directions in space. As
shown in the third chart of Fig. 7 this antenna
provided almost the same range as the built-in
antenna, but when comparing the distribution of
the points with successful measurements (Fig.
8), this antenna provides a more even
distribution of points in the whole area, so this
configuration was selected for further
measurements.
Fig. 6. Fixed node MP1(left), GSM antenna (right)
The second part of testing involved
measurements in location MP2 (Fig. 5) which is
an urban area of Novi Sad with high buildings,
cars and green areas (trees and hedges). In this
part two fixed nodes were set up in a window of
the Assistants’ dorm in the university campus,
on the 10th floor. In order to get better coverage,
two nodes were set up: one facing north-east and
one facing south-east. The first node (facing
north-east) (fifth chart in Fig. 7) provided the
range up to the river Danube (613 m), and the
other one (facing south-east) (sixth chart in Fig.
7), had significantly longer range (a maximum
of 1002 m), since there was optical visibility
During all measurements the mobile node
used the built-in narrowband ceramic antenna
type 0868AT43A0020, by Johanson Technology
Inc. [5], and the position of the node was fixed
on 1 m above ground. The measurements were
performed in the end of July 2018. in dry and
sunny weather with temperatures in the range of
32-35 °C, and relative humidity of 55-70%.
3
MEASUREMENT RESULTS
As described in the previous section, the
measurements were performed on two locations.
151
along a major boulevard. The communication
required the signal to be 10 dBm stronger
compared to the open space, which is probably
the consequence of higher interference of radio
waves due to high buildings. In all cases, almost
absolute
visibility
was
required
for
communication between the fixed node and the
mobile node. In the areas where the view of the
dorm was blocked, the communication could not
be achieved
Fig. 8. Distribution of points with successful
measurements
4
CONCLUSIONS
The measurement results presented in this
paper show that when measuring the
communication range of the selected LPWAN
IoT RF modules, based on Texas Instruments
CC1200 integral circuit, the longest range can
be obtained when using the slowest
communication speed. Since the planned
alternative communication network is intended
for use in emergency situations and disasters,
when there is no other way of communication,
this speed is adequate for the intended purpose,
because the main goal is to transfer the message
to the receiver, while the time is not critical on
the level of seconds.
This paper presents the measurements in a
peer-to-peer configuration, while in the real
network each node can be a repeater, which
could extremely extend the communication
range, provided that each node has optical
visibility with another node. The tested antennas
have relatively low amplification, while the final
realization can use stronger omnidirectional
Fig. 7. RRSI measurements at MP1 and MP2
152
antennas with higher amplification, and that way
increase the range. The measurements showed
that the RF module can communicate even with
RSSI values of -96 dBm in the open space and 89 dBm in the urban area.
[4] Yatto, High Performance network platform
for Industrial IoT, SmatCity and edge
computing applications, Product Website,
(2017). http://yattoltd.com/, last access
12/01/2018.
Further work on this project will be focused
on deploying a test network with several nodes
which are interconnected, as well as the required
software for mobile phones and PCs for
providing adequate communication over this
network.
[5] JohansonTechnology, 868 MHz Antenna
for small form factor applications, Data
Sheet,
(2016),
https://www.johansontechnology.com/datas
heets/antennas/0868AT43A0020.pdf, last
access 10/01/2018.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[6] Robotic Solutions, HC-05 Bluetooth
Module User ’s Manual V 1.0,” User
Manual, (2015). https://www.gme.cz/data/
attachments/dsh.772-148.1.pdf.
The results presented in this paper are a part
of the research financially supported by the
Provincial Secretariat for Higher Education and
Scientific Research of the Autonomous Province
of Vojvodina, through the project: Application
of Internet of Things with low energy
consumption and distributed intelligence in
conditions of natural disasters and catastrophic
events, number 142-451-3578/2017, as well as
by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of the Republic of
Serbia, through the project: TR 35001 –
Automated systems for identification and object
tracking in industrial and nonindustrial systems.
[7] FTDI, FT232R USB UART IC Datasheet,
Technology,
(2008).
http://www.ftdichip.com/Support/Documen
ts/DataSheets/ICs/DS_FT232R.pdf,
last
access 14/02/2018.
6. REFERENCES
[1] F. Richter, Landline Phones Are a Dying
Breed, The Statistics Portal, (2018),
https://www.statista.com/chart/2072/landlin
e-phones-in-the-united-states/, last access
20/08/2018.
[2] Metageek, Understanding RSSI, WiFi
Lessons,
https://www.metageek.com/
training/resources/understanding-rssi.html,
last access 01/08/2018.
[3] L. Tarjan; B. Tejić; D. Dragičević; G.
Ostojić;N.
Đukić,
An
alternative
communication possibility during a natural
disaster by using Low-Power Long-Range
RF modules, Proc. of 17th Int. Sym.
INFOTEH-JAHORINA 17 (2018), pp. 9499.
153
Product Development in the Case of
Device for Plate Rotation
I. Lacković a, S. Šimunić b, M. Matanović c, D. Križan c, A. Vrhovac
a
b
a
College of Slavonski Brod, Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: ivica.lackovic@vusb.hr, adrian.vrhovac@gmail.com
Termoenergetska postrojenja d.o.o., Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: slaven.simunic@gmail.com
c
Harburg-Freudenberger Belišće d.o.o., Radnička 5, 31551 Belišće, Croatia,
E-mail: {mladen.matanovic, davor.krizan}@hf-group.com
Abstract
This paper describe design of the conceptual solution of the device for plate rotation to facilitate and
accelerate the preparation time for production of plates by using a manual or electric drive and thereby
increase production productivity. The heating plates are use on a tire curing presses for different vehicle
types. During plate machining, it is necessary to rotate the plate, which takes a lot of time, therefore we
designed three different conceptual solution of device for rotating the plate. Conceptual solutions are
design, made 3D models and basic dimensioning and payload calculations are made.
Keywords: Design, Development, Plate, Rotation
a manual or electric drive and thereby increase
production productivity. The heating plates are
use on a tire curing presses for different vehicle
types. During plate machining, it is necessary to
rotate the plate, which takes a lot of time,
therefore we designed three different conceptual
solution of device for rotating the plate.
Conceptual solutions are design, made 3D
models and basic dimensioning and payload
calculations are made. Three versions are made:
A table version, Crane version (solid) and Crane
version (loose).
1. INTRODUCTION
The course design theory is taught in the fifth
semester of professional undergraduate study
program in production engineering on College of
Slavonski Brod. The course design theory is
divided into two parts, a theoretical and practical
part. The theoretical part is 30 hours and covers
basic concepts of the theory of the product, the
product as a system, theory and technology of
construction and process of mechanical design
and techno-economic evaluation. The practical
part is 30 hours, students are divided into groups
and each group has a different project. Four or
five students have the same goal but they must
have a different conceptual design (different
solution).
2. DESIGN THEORY IN BRIEF
There are many approaches to explaining
what it is design theory, there are many
definitions that describe what design is, there are
many elaborate methods of design that have a
particular algorithm. Regardless of what design
problem we are solving, we always, consciously
or unconsciously, take some basic actions [1]:
This paper presents a summary of student
work. The goal of the work is design of the
conceptual solution of the device for plate
rotation to facilitate and accelerate the
preparation time for production of plates by using
154
Partial function of the system (a set of
machine elements)
Elementary function of the system (one
machine element)
Establish the need or realize that there is a
problem to solve.
Plan how to solve the problem.
Understand the problem by developing
requirements and uncovering existing
solutions for similar problems.
Generate alternative solutions.
Evaluate the alternatives by comparing
them to the design requirements and to
each other.
Decide on acceptable solutions.
Communicate the results.
Morphological table
The morphological table entries are possible
solutions
to
certain
partial
function.
Morphological table enables connection of
individual solutions for partial functions on the
principle of tolerance. Such a combination allows
getting more variants to solve a problem. Each
student in the group chooses its own solution or a
variant.
We also divide the whole process on few steps [2]:
Goal (problem) explanation
Sketching
Each group is thinking and talking about the
topic of work, the idea for the product, this paper
describes an exact problem at work.
For variants that our preliminary analysis
shows prospects of success, students made rough
sketches of individual solutions in the rough
scale. Based on the list of requirements, desires
and morphological table approaches are being
outlined and all sub-assemblies, detail, sizing ...
during sketching students discover problems in
their ideas and must be changed, corrected
individual requirements, preferences, functions.
"Optimization of conceptual solutions"
System of information
The second step is to review the existing
similar solutions, today the largest source of
information is Internet and also printed
catalogues, shops and general understanding of
the environment and everyday life.
A list of requests and wishes
3D Modelling
Planning task boils down to specifying all the
information that can help solve the task. Students
approach to creating a list of requests and wishes.
The requests are the product features that must be
met under all conditions, and without whose
fulfilment solution is not acceptable. Wishes are
product features that should be taken into account
if they are justified.
After the adoption of the dimensions, material
selection, rough calculation follows the creation
of 3D models. After modelling the components
approach the conclusion of sub-assemblies,
subassemblies and hope the conclusion of the
assembly to final assembly of the machine. After
the positions are modelled, they are assembled in
subassemblies and then the subassemblies are
assembled in the product itself.
Partial function
The overall function of the system should be
divided into partial functions in a way that for
each partial function if it is possible to find more
than one solution (partial functions become
partial tasks within the given task).
Structure
includes [1]:
function
mechanical
Calculation
The calculation may include sizing, check the
type and amount of stress and comparison with
the permissible (search critical of the structure),
calculating the required output energy sources
etc., Calculation kinematic sizes such as speed,
acceleration, radius of action and the like the
calculation of characteristic parts and specific
characteristics.
system
General (overall) function of the system
(the entire mechanical system)
155
tightening
methods
from
mechanical
engineering, etc. In the table 1. we can see a list
of requests and wishes. In the table 2. we can see
a Morphological table with partial functions.
Evaluation
In order to choose the best solution should be
carried out evaluation (assessment goodies) using
some of a valuation methodology commonly
used techno-economic evaluation. The basis for
evaluating solutions is a list of requirements.
Table 1. List of requests and wishes
requests or
wishes
R
W
R
R
W
R
R
W
Ž
Z
3. DESIGN OF DEVICE FOR
PLATE ROTATION
3.1. General information
The goal of the work is design of the device
for plate rotation. For the system of information
we have used examples from various
manufacturing activities, for example cranes in
production plants, manipulators in warehouses,
description
Use waste material
Easy handling
Minimal human effort
Sufficient loads
Mobility
Save time in production
Adjust the diameter for capture
Reduce the number of parts
Possibility of manual service
Easy maintenance
Table 2. Morphological table
PARTIAL FUNCTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
dimensions of heating plates
material
shape of device
mechanism of rotation
tightening mechanism
6.
prevent slipping
7.
8.
9.
10.
mobility
speed of rotation
position regulation
corrosion protection
PRINCIPLE OF SOLUTIONS
Ø1100 mm
metal
combined
electro motor
manual
metal clamping
surface
crane
no tact
two positions
tenifer
Ø1150 mm
metal - plastic
table version
manual
pneumatic
plastic clamping
surface
wheels
30 sec/360°
without
basic colour
Ø1200 mm
metal - rubber
hanging
hydraulic
hydraulic
sipaks clamping
surface
forklift
in tact
four positions
blue creasing
see a sketch of a table version, and on figure 2.
we can see 3D model of table version.
3.2. Table version
The first version is conceived as a table
version. The heating plates are positioned by a
crane on the work table, clamped by the jaw and
turned by an electric motor. On figure 1. we can
Fig. 2. 3D model of a table version
Fig. 1. Sketch of a table version
156
The following pictures show description and
details of worktable version.
Fig. 5. Clamping devices with electromotor
Fig. 3. 3D model of a worktable with positions
Fig. 6. Clamping devices with handle
Calculation
Calculation of wheel load for worktable
Maximum dimensions of heating plates:
Dgp = 1200 mm = 1.2 m
dgp = 270 mm = 0.27 m
hgp = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Symbol explanation:
Dgp – Outside diameter of heating plates
dgp – Inside diameter of heating plates (diameter
of hole for heating plates)
hgp – Thickness of heating plates
Fig. 4. 3D model of a table version with positions
Table 3. Name of the position of a table version
position
name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
tube 100x100
tube 100x100
tube 100x100
tube 100x100
tube 100x100
tube 100x100
tube 100x100
electromotor
tube 80x80
tube 100x100
wheel
No. of
pieces
1
1
4
4
2
2
1
1
2
2
6
Calculation for mass of heating plates without
hole (mass of roller)
m
=
∙ π ∙h
m
= 0.6 ∙ π ∙ 0.05 ∙
444 kg
∙
(1)
= 43.90 kg ≈
Symbol explanation:
rgpv – Outside radius of heating plates
ρ – Average density of steel (kg/m3)) [3]
Calculation of „mass of hole for heating
plates“:
m
On the next pictures we present some detail of
table version.
=
∙ π ∙h
∙
m
= 0.135 · π · 0.05 · 7850 =
„22.47 kg“ ≈ „22.5 kg“
157
(2)
P
Symbol explanation:
rgpu – Inside radius ( radius of hole) heating plates
m
Mass of heating plates without holes:
h
=#r
š
= 444 − 22.5 = 421.5 kg
· &
m
· &− #r
š
%
· π ·h
(
· π ·
(3)
3.3. Crane version (solid)
The second version is made as a version for
the crane. It is conceived of a rigid construction
that connects to an existing crane in operation.
The heating plate is engageable with adjustable
pods, raised with a crane, and the panel is rotating
by hand or with the help of a handle.. On figure
7. we can see a sketch of a crane version, and on
figure 8. we can see 3D model of crane version.
Total weight for wheel load:
Q (* = 300 + 28 + 368 = 696 kg
300 ∙ 0.016
∙ 9.81 = 49.56 W
0.95
mgp – Mass of heating plates
vd – Lifting speed (m/s, ( approximate value))
η – Efficiency of the gearbox, approximate value
mgp = 300 kg
+ m,- + m*./
=
Symbol explanation:
Heating plates are partly hollow because of
space required for the steam, than for
simplification in calculation, mass of 121.5 kg
will be subtracted from total mass and final
weight of heating plates will be 300 kg.
Q (* = m
78
(4)
Symbol explanation:
mem – Mass of electric motor on the
workbench for heating plates
mkrs – Mass of steel construction for the
workbench for heating plates
Fig. 7. Sketch of a crane version (rigid)
For simplification of calculation, assumption
is made that all wheels are equally distributed.
Workbench has six wheels, so the calculation for
one wheel is displayed:
F* =
123
4
(5)
F* = 116 kg · g = 116 · 9.81 = 1137.96 N
≈ 1138 N
Selected wheel is from the manufacturer
Kama S3202 MMB 100 which displays max load
of 150 kg, calculation satisfies. [4]
Fig. 8. 3D model of a crane version (rigid)
The following pictures show description and
details of crane version (rigid).
Electric motor power calculation for load
lifting
Calculation is simplified and the fact that
electric motor and gearbox are lifting load.
Required power of electric motor for lifting is
selected based on the power required for lifting
with equal speed.
P
78
=
-9: · %;
<
(6)
Fig. 9. 3D model of a crane version with positions
158
Fig. 12. handle with swing shaft
Fig. 10. 3D model of a crane version with positions
Table 4. Name of the position of a crane version
position
name
1
2
3
tube 100x100
tube 100x100
tube 100x100
position
name
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Axle spindle
housing
wiper
Supporting sheet
Supporting sheet
tube 100x100
hook
girder
slip ring
No. of
pieces
1
1
4
No. of
pieces
Fig. 13. Brake rods
Calculation
Calculation of bearing rod full round cross
section (shaft) for bending
For calculation simplification assumption is
made. In the middle of shaft is placed one
reactive force in one support. Also simplified is
that on a distance of l/2 = 460 mm from support
is on maximum force calculated with
multiplication of mass of heating plate with
gravity. Shaft mass is ignored.
4
2
2
1
1
2
2
6
F(* = (m
+ m%/? + m/č ) ∙ g
(7)
F(* = (300 + 90 + 18) ∙ 9.81 = 4002.48 N
≈ 4003 N
On the next pictures we present some detail of
crane version.
Symbol explanation:
Fuk – Total load for shaft
mgp – Heating plate mass
mvsc – Hanging tube assembly mass
msč – Mass of the clamps
Maximum bending moment:
M/-CD = F(* ∙
E
(8)
M/-CD = 4003 ∙ 460 = 1841380 Nmm
Axial resistance moment of cross section for
full rod:
Fig. 11. clamping devices
159
G ∙ HI
J
WF =
G ∙ KLI
J
J
WF =
50266 mm
done by means of a steel rope or by hand. On
figure 14. we can see a sketch of a crane version
(loose), and on figure 15. we can see 3D model
of crane version (loose).
(9)
= 50265.482 mmJ ≈
Allowed strain for bending:
M/H7 =
NO
P
M/H7 =
250
= 83.33 N/mm
3
(10)
Material is construction steel S235JO with
upper yield point Re = 250 N/mm2. [5]
Rod cross section dimensioning:
d ≥ T
I
J ∙ UVWXY
G ∙ ZV;[:
(11)
32 ∙ 1841380
d ≥ \
= 60.829 mm
] ∙ 83.33
Fig. 15. 3D model of a crane version (loose)
I
The following pictures show description and
details of crane version (loose).
Selection for shaft circular cross section is
made to 80 mm so M20 thread can be made.
Bending strain:
M/ =
UVWXY
^_
(12)
M/ = 36.64 Nmm ≤ 83.64 Nmm M/H7
Calculation satisfies.
3.3. Crane version (loose)
The third version conceived as a variant that
tied to the crane. The heating plate is connected
with the jaws that are connected to the crane over
the steel rope. When the plate is raised rotation is
Fig. 16. 3D model of a crane version (loose)
Fig. 17. 3D model of a crane version (loose)
Fig. 14. Sketch of a crane version (loose)
160
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Seger's ring
Seger's ring
Axle
pulley
Swinging hook
Clamping device
Clamp handle
Clamp cap
6
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Calculation
Fig. 18. 3D model of a crane version (loose)
Bolt calculation for bending and required
bolt dimensioning
Force on bolt:
F= m
∙g
F = 300 ∙ 9.81 = 2943 N
(13)
Max bending moment:
M/-CD =
M/-CD =
Fig. 19. 3D model of a crane version (loose)
name
1
sheet metal
Bearing tube
100x100
Housing
Swinging hook
wheel support
Bearing tube
Bearing tube
Closing plate
thread M20
Protective sheet
Imbus screw M10
Housing
shaft
Brake hose
Bearing
Wedge
carrier
Brake pin
Spring
Distant pike
Coupling pin
Imbus screw M4
Imbus screw M16
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
E
∙ bc ∙
Ed
e
f
(14)
12 24
2943
∙ g
+
h = 17658 Nmm
2
2
2
Symbol explanation:
l1 – Length (mm)
l2 – Length (mm)
Bolt stress for bending:
Table 5. Name of the position of a crane version
position
a
No. of
pieces
2
M/ = K j ∙
2
2
4
2
1
4
4
2
4
12
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
8
UVWXY
^
≤ M/H7
(15)
Symbol explanation:
KA – „Application factor depending on power
train and work machine: Light stress 1,0...1,1;
Medium stress 1,2...1,5; Hard stress 1,6...2,0;
Very hard stress 2...3.“ [6]
σsdop – Allowed stress for bending according to
material of bolt
Mk = 1 ∙
17658
= 81.87 N/mm
215.68
Axial moment of resistance for full round
cross section - rod:
l=
l=
mI ∙ G
J
13J ∙ ]
= 215.68 mmJ
32
Bolt diameter calculation:
161
(16)
d ≤ T
I
I
J ∙ no ∙ UVWXY
G ∙ Z;[:
d ≤ \
[3] http://emetallicus.com/hr/metal/celik/kalkulatorza-izracun-tezina/izracun-tezine-celicnoglima.html
(17)
32 ∙ 1 ∙ 17658
= 11.289 mm
] ∙ 125
[4] http://sinkro.hr/proizvod/1279/S3202MMB-100
Selected bolt is loose smooth bolt made of
material St 50-2 with allowed stress for bending
of 125 N/mm2 according to experience data. [7]
[5] https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granica_razvl
a%C4%8Denja
Diameter of bolt according to norm is d = 13
mm
[6] B. Križan; S. Zelenika, Pliers, bolts and
fuses (Zatici, svornjaci i osigurači), Faculty
of technical studies Rijeka, (2011).
Mk = 81.87 N/mm ≤ Mkmp = 125 N/mm
[7] K.H. Decker, Elementi strojeva, Tehnička
knjiga, Zagreb, (1980)
Calculation satisfies
4. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents one of the ways of design
a new product. The design process had these
steps, goal, system of information, list of requests
and wishes, partial functions, sketches, 3D model
and calculations. There are three different
variants of the device for turning plate. Because
of a large number of positions, and a number of
theoretical calculations can be made on the
devices, and some of the most important are the
power of the electric motors for turning the
heating plates, the carrying capacity of screws
and the like. We can conclude that all three
variants should be further elaborated and taught
deeply in model and calculations details so that
the rotation device be fully functional and
suitable for production process assistance. The
variant number three is rated as the simplest and
cheapest. Its main advantages are quick and easy
handling, small number of positions and ease of
making.
5. REFERENCES
[1] F. David; G. Ullman, The Mechanical
Design Process, McGraw-Hill, (2010).
[2] M. Kljajin, Design theory, lectures,
Mechanical Engineering Faculty of
Slavonski Brod, (2008).
162
Wear Debris Analysis of Gear Oil Used
in Tunnel Boring Machine
A. Kumar Agrawal a, S. Hloch b, D. Kozak c, S. Chattopadhyaya
a
b
a
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India,
E-mail: anil.102024@gmail.com
Department of Manufacturing Technology, Technical University Of Kosice, Slovakia,
E-mail: sergej.hloch@tuke.sk
c
University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia, E-mail: dkozak@sfsb.hr
Abstract
Wear is the cause of failure in most of the cases such as lighter or heavier machine like tunnel boring
machine. Wear is estimated by wear debris analysis by Ferrography. It is a remarkably helpful intends
to decide the wear state of machines. Before endeavouring to extricate the element parameters of wear
particles for distinguishing proof and investigation, it is important to isolated wear particles in
ferrograph pictures. Henceforth, wear molecule division is a basic initial step for savvy ferrography in
light of computer picture examination. Some exceptional wear particles, for example, ball, twisting
chip, and bit were additionally got on testing machine. Ferrous, ferrous oxide, non-ferrous oxide and
polymer were four type of wear particle found in used oil. Wear particle were scattered on the fixed
area of ferrogram , image of wear particle were captured. Each wear particle has its significance or
attributes on that basis they were categorised in different groups.
Keywords: wear debris, gear oil, ferrography
spur gearbox system by two technique
correlations, spur gearbox operates on constant
condition of cyclic overloading. Techniques
added new indication to diagnosis of the gear
box system, which used to gearbox inspection
[4]. One of the feature extraction and data
reconstruction algorithms were developed for
monitoring and reprocess the data of on line
visual ferrograph to eliminate the inherited
issues. The prediction of wear trend completed
by traditional and relevance vector machine
(RVM) model. There were two cases naturally
occurred at the test duration oil change and
abnormal wear which is used to evaluate the
model performance in this study. Relevance
vector machine has a greater accuracy of
prediction in comparison with traditional model
[5]. On the basis of wear performance and
morphology of wear debris analyzed by
1. INTRODUCTION
The Wear takes place in minute gaps
between interaction surfaces, measurement of
wear debris is difficult in real time without
changing interaction states of tribo-pairs.
Concentration of wear debris increase due to
large quantity of ferromagnetic debris occupied
into gearbox [1]. Due to irregularities of sliding
surface, a stick-slip oscillation detected in the
profiles of friction caused by applied load. The
increases in the surface irregularities and
significant appearance of plastic deformation of
the surface [2]. Surface area of component
constantly erodes in online image of wear debris
of chains, until the separation occurred
accumulated areas continuously reduced in size.
The advance specified condition for the
termination, separated areas eroded until they
vanished [3]. Explained about fault detection of
163
relationships between, viscosity, temperature
and strain rate. A small amount of sample
loaded between two plates, or cup and bob
system. A torque Applied to the top plate which
exerts a rotational shear stress on the sample and
the resulting strain (shear rate) is obtained.
Rotational Rheometer and viscometers works on
the same operating principle, but the Rheometer
have greater functionality and accuracy.
involved possible mechanism. Non- Euclidean
entity described by the fractal geometry was
applied to boundary texture qualitative analysis
of wear debris, qualitative assessment was not
enough effective to describe the morphology of
wear debris on the basis of geometrical variation
[6]. Under the lower loadings condition
significant change were observed in the thermal
behavior of wear debris formed during this
condition. The possible relationships between
structure and property and discussed the wear
debris morphological feature and mode might
have affected [7]. The characteristics of different
tribological behavior revealed of the coating of
the MoTiN and MoAlTiN against the sliding of
different counterpart, demonstrate that on wide
range of conditions difficult to achieve the
accuracy of wear resistance and friction of
coefficient low of Mo containing coated
lubricous. More investigation and special
protection were required for special application
where coating applied [8]. For the tests of wear
were obtained by rubbing action of a bearing
metal in paraffin oil against carbon steel. The
number and size could be measured in actual
time in circulating oil. The calculated volume of
each debris and, additionally, by accumulation
of all debris volume of the total wear quantity
was calculated during a given duration [9].
Developments progress in computable computer
image analysis, used to identify the wear
particle. Since there are many disciplines are
applied in this technical area of ‘infant-stage’ for
prediction and prevention of mechanical failure
and the morphological analysis of wear particle
through quantitative analysis of image [10]. The
wear management may become more feasible
with a greater understanding of the primary
processes of resin composite wear [11].
2.2. Ferrography
Scientific ferrograhy initiates with attractive
segment of wear debris and jetsam towards
magnetic field [12]. The gear oil test is weekend
for up gradation molecule precipitation and
attachment. The oil flow downward on a glass
slide called a ferrogram. The ferrogram stays on
a magnetic barrel, which attracts ferrous particle
out of the oil. Due to presence of magnetic field,
ferrous particle make a chain like pattern and
the biggest particle at the passage point. Nonferrous and contaminated, unaffected by
magnetic field, travel downward and are
randomly settle down on the slide.
The ferrogram is analysed through
bichromatic magnifying lens attached with
computerized camera. The magnifying lens
passes both reflected (top) and transmitted
(base) light to recognise the shape, size,
arrangements and condition of ferrous and nonferrous particle. The particles are ordered to
decide the sort of wear and repeat the
experiments for getting higher accuracy.
2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
2.1. Rheometer
Rheometer used in this work is Rotonetic
Drive. Rheology is a technique which is used to
obtain the behavior of Newtonian and nonNewtonian fluids. It is used to obtain the
Fig. 1. Ferrogram maker for oil testing
164
2.3.
Experimental
Ferrography
setup
There is a large inconsistency observed between
results, nominal uncertainty eventually exceeds
most of the obtainable literature measurements.
The quest of a reference association for the
sample viscosity requires the comprehension of
independent measurements by using numerous
rigorous investigational methods [16].
for
The glass testimony slide ferrrogram was of
size in 60mm x 25mm x 0.17mm. The wear
particles circulated along the section to the end
long around 50 mm and width around 3 mm.
Fig. 2 is a run of the mill picture of the
ferrogram of the gear oil test from the test rotate
gear in tunnel boring machine.
3.2. Ferrography investigation
The width of the wear molecule fastens
fluctuated from 5 to 20 miniaturized scale
meters. The diameter of the wear particles were
around micrometres to many small scale meters.
The particles estimate moved toward becoming
littler with the developing statement remove
from the section. On the account of ferrographic
investigation the image taken from at normal
temperature there is some impurities present in
the lubricant due to that impurities debris
particle not clearly visible, to remove the
impurities and dust from ferrogram it was heated
up to 100°C and impurities get removed in the
form of vapours from the ferrogram. It is clearly
visible that wear particles are in chain frame in
Fig 3.
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
3.1. Rheology investigation
In this paper we investigated that how
viscosity changes with respect to temperature. It
is clearly visible in (Fig 2.) that with the
increase in temperature the viscosity of both the
sample fresh and used lubricant was
continuously decrease or degrade. Due to
utilization of sample the viscosity is very low in
comparison with the fresh lubricant. For the
interpretation if density and nominal viscosity
are used than the reported permeability of
sample in a pressure-driven flow an effective
property of transport has to be considered. That
is the modification of permeability and viscosity
[13]. In the process of enhance the estimation of
these equations, modified mixing rules were
used by use of alternative constants. Oxygenated
mixture viscosities fount to be reasonable
prediction by the modified equations. Also
predicted the viscosity of biodiesel/ mixtures of
oils by extensively used expressions [14] after
the data analysis, a selection of experimental
data was considered for the calculations for the
change of surface tension and viscosity [15].
Fig. 3. Entry wear particle distribution on ferrogram
with distance from entry as (a) 0 mm; (b) 10 mm
More ferrographic pictures demonstrated that
the common wear molecule estimate were
around 10 µm on slide. The wear molecule
measure were 2– 3 µm at the area 10 mm.
Fig. 2. Viscosity and temperature graph
165
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to management
committee of PATEL ENGINEERING LTD. for
their valuable support otherwise we are unable
to perform our experiment.
6. REFERENCES
[1] S. Feng; B. Fan; J. Mao; Y. Xie, Prediction
on wear of a spur gearbox by on-line wear
debris concentration monitoring. Wear 336
(2015), pp. 1-8.
[2] B.Q. Ochieze; C.C. Nwobi-Okoye; P.N.
Atamuo, Experimental study of the
effect of wear parameters on the wear
behavior of A356 alloy/cow horn
particulate
composites.
Defence
Technology (2017).
Fig. 4. After heating wear particle distribution on
ferrogram with distance from entry as (a) 0 mm; (b)
10 mm
[3] T. Wu; H. Wu; Y. Du; N. Kwok; Z. Peng,
Imaged wear debris separation for on-line
monitoring using gray level and integrated
morphological features. Wear 316(1-2)
(2014), pp. 19-29.
Some uncommon wear particles, for
example, ball, twisting chip and fragment were
set up after heating (Fig. 4). The hard Ferro
ferric oxide molecule were squeezed and moved
between the sliding turn and the bearing
surfaces. The twisting and fragment cuts were
peeled off the steel rotate shaft by hard particles
or distensions of the gear surface.
[4] S. Ebersbach; Z. Peng; N.J. Kessissoglou,
The investigation of the condition and
faults of a spur gearbox using vibration and
wear debris analysis techniques. Wear,
260(1-2) (2006), pp. 16-24.
[5] W. Cao; G. Dong; Y.B. Xie; Z. Peng,
Prediction of wear trend of engines via online wear debris monitoring. Tribology
International, (2018).
4. CONCLUSIONS
The rheology test showed after running of
lube or gear oil its viscosity was decreased.
Viscosity was decrease due to wear debris and
contaminants. Wear debris analysis was done
with help of ferrogrpaphy. In ferrography
experiment used gear oil are used for testing at
different temperature. In this analysis, particles
are distributed in different manner. Ferrous
particles are distributed in chain form and non
ferrous particle distributed randomly. Due to
high wear of different machine parts, machines
are unable to perform their task. With the help
of ferrography it can easily find that which
machine part is worn out more. Replace or
refurbished the worn out part for continuous
operation.
[6] M.Q. Zhang; Z.P. Lu; K. Friedrich, On the
wear debris of polyetheretherketone: fractal
dimensions in relation to wear mechanisms.
Tribology International 30(2) (1997), pp.
87-102.
[7] M.Q. Zhang; Z.P. Lu; K.Friedrich, Thermal
analysis of the wear debris of
polyetheretherketone.
Tribology
international 30(2) (1997), pp. 103-111.
[8] Q. Yang, Wear resistance and solid
lubricity of molybdenum-containing nitride
coatings deposited by cathodic arc
166
evaporation.
Surface
and
Coatings
Technology 332 (2017), pp. 283-295.
[9] Y. Iwai; T. Honda; T. Miyajima; S.
Yoshinaga; M. Higashi; Y. Fuwa,
Quantitative estimation of wear amounts by
real time measurement of wear debris in
lubricating oil. Tribology International,
43(1-2) (2010), pp. 388-394.
[10] S. Raadnui, Wear particle analysis—
utilization of quantitative computer image
analysis: a review. Tribology International,
38(10) (2005), pp. 871-878.
[11] A. Tsujimoto; W.W. Barkmeier; R.L.
Erickson; K. Nojiri; Y. Nagura; T.
Takamizawa, Wear of resin composites:
Current
insights
into
underlying
mechanisms, evaluation methods and
influential factors. Japanese Dental Science
Review, (2017).
[12] X. Dai; Y. Wang; S. Yu, Ferrographic
analysis of pivot jewel bearing in oil-bath
lubrication. Wear 376 (2017), pp. 843-850.
[13] H. Tran; A. Sakhaee-Pour, Viscosity of
shale gas. Fuel 191 (2017), pp. 87-96.
[14] I.P. Kanaveli; M. Atzemi; E. Lois,
Predicting the viscosity of diesel/biodiesel
blends. Fuel 199 (2017), pp. 248-263.
[15] G. Di Nicola; M. Pierantozzi; S.
Tomassetti; G. Coccia. Surface tension
calculation from liquid viscosity data of
silanes. Fluid Phase Equilibria, (2018).
[16] T.V. Santos; M.F. Pereira, H.M. Avelino;
F.J. Caetano; J.M. Fareleira, Viscosity and
density measurements on liquid ntetradecane at moderately high pressures.
Fluid Phase Equilibria 453(2017), pp. 4657.
167
Survey on Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks
S. Boucetta a, Z.C. Johanyák b, A. Bouzid
a
b
c
University of Miskolc, Egyetemváros, 3515, Hungary,
E-mail: boucetta.imene@gmail.com
John von Neumann University, Izsáki út 10, Kecskemét, Hungary,
E-mail: johanyak.csaba@gamf.uni-neumann.hu
c
University of Miskolc, Egyetemváros, 3515, Hungary,
E-mail: qgebouzid@uni-miskolc.hu
Abstract
Inter-vehicular communication (IVC) has become a reality driven by navigational safety requirements
and by the investments of car manufacturers and public transport authorities. Thanks to the
availability of radio communication equipment like radio interface, access points, spectrum, and
standards, vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) set the stage for unlimited opportunities for vehicleto-vehicle applications. Navigation and road safety has now become an important priority for car
manufacturers as well as municipal transportation authorities. Although research in the field of
VANETs is relatively new, it is large and diverse. Indeed, consortia of researchers, car manufacturers
and standards organizations are currently carrying out substantial research in order to propose
standards for rapid deployment of the technology. This article covers the main ideas of VANETs and
discusses their most important features followed by the presentation of the wireless communication
standards in VANETs.
Keywords: vehicle engineering, VANET, IEEE 802.11p, ad-hoc, road safety
In this survey, we present the most important
features of VANETs including the available
communication types, challenges, applications,
main wireless communication norms and
research directions in the field of VANETs.
1. INTRODUCTION
Inter-Vehicle Communication (IVC) is
attracting considerable attention from the
research community and the automotive
industry, where it is beneficial in providing
Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) as well
as assistant services for drivers and passengers.
In this context, Vehicular Networks are
emerging as a novel category of wireless
networks, spontaneously formed between
moving vehicles equipped with wireless
interfaces that could have similar or different
radio interface technologies, employing shortrange to medium-range communication systems.
The distinguished characteristics of vehicular
networks such as high mobility, potentially large
scale, and network partitioning introduce several
challenges, which can greatly affect the future
deployment of these networks.
2. VEHICULAR AD- HOC
NETWORKS
Vehicular networks as shown in Figure 1. are
a new emerging class of wireless networks.
Vehicular Ad- hoc Networks (VANETs) are a
subclass of Mobile Ad- hoc Networks
(MANETs) where the nodes can be vehicles or
fixed infrastructure called Road Side Units
(RSUs) installed along the roads [1]. The
various nodes of the network have equipment
like computers, network interfaces and sensors
that allow them to communicate via wireless
168
Fig. 1. Example of a VANET network [3]
technologies and to collect information
concerning their environment and hence arises
the name of smart vehicle [2].
Fig. 3. Vehicle to Infrastructure communication
By combining these two types of
communication, one obtains an interesting
hybrid communication. The scopes of the
infrastructure being limited, the use of vehicles
like relay allows to extend the transmission
range.
3. COMMUNICATION IN
VANETS
One can distinguish
communication
in
Communication (Vehicle
Communication (Vehicle
described below.
3.1. Inter-Vehicle
(V2V)
two main types of
VANETs:
V2V
to Vehicle) and V2I
to Infrastructure) as
4. CHARACTERISTICS AND
CHALLENGES OF VANETS
communication
VANETs have the particularity to have a
high mobility (the vehicles circulate at very high
speeds), which gives an even more dynamic
topology than in the case of MANETs. The
mobile nodes are also restricted to move
according to a road map, in the sense that, in
general, a node cannot leave the road during his
move. The realization of VANETs requires
techniques and protocols that take into account
the uncertainties and requirements of these
networks. Vehicular networks arrive with
following configurations.
The purpose of car-to-car communication
(Figure 2.) is to transmit information such as the
road traffic on multiple hop to a group of
receivers.
Fig. 2. Inter-Vehicle communication [4]
HIGH TRANSMISSION RANGE
3.2. Vehicle
to
Infrastructure
communication (V2I)
Theoretically, the communication range is 1
Km; in practice, it is around 200 meters [1]. The
main advantage of the applied Dedicated shortrange communication (DSRC) is the very low
latency, below 100 milliseconds, which is ideal
for security applications that require a delay in
this range.
Road Side Units are located along the roads
(Figure 3.); they serve as collectors, distributors
and relays for various types of information,
including emergency notifications. They may
also accelerate the distribution of the information
along the road using specific wireless channels
established between them (Infrastructure to
Infrastructure - I2I communication).
UNLIMITED CALCULATION POWER
The power of the vehicles is not a constraint
as in the case of conventional ad hoc networks or
169
sensors, since the vehicle can provide the power
required for calculation and transmission
equipment, without having any energy or weight
constraints as is the case of laptops, smartphones,
tablets and other mobile equipment.
PREDICTABLE MOBILITY
Vehicles tend to have predictable
movements, which are limited to the structure of
the road. The Information about their mobility is
provided by positioning systems such as GPS,
card-based technologies or Dead Reckoning [6].
Given the average speed, the current speed and
the road trajectory, the future position of a
vehicle can be predicted. However, VANETs
have to deal with certain characteristics that
make difficult to design protocols capable of
dealing with all these problems.
Fig. 4. Applications in VANETs
communication applications must consider this
limitation.
NETWORK
TOPOLOGY
CONNECTIVITY
AND
Network traffic scenarios are different from
conventional ad hoc networks as vehicles move
and change their positions constantly; the
scenarios are highly dynamic. Therefore, the
network topology changes frequently with the
change of links in terms of connectivity. Indeed,
the degree to which the network is connected is
highly dependent on two factors: the range of
wireless links and the fraction of participating
vehicles.
LARGE-SCALE NETWORK
Most ad hoc networks, usually assume a
limited network size, vehicular networks can
extend to large scale relatively to the entire road
network and thus include many participants.
HIGH MOBILITY
The most important aspect of vehicles is their
high mobility with speeds up to 200 km/h in the
highway environment; this makes the network
topology highly dynamic. Furthermore, the
density of the nodes can be 1 to 2 vehicles per
kilometre on a route with less traffic, meanwhile
in urban areas speed cannot exceed 90 km/h
with high traffic densities especially during peak
hours, which makes the design of protocols
sensitive and specific to each configuration.
5. VANET APPLICATIONS
Various VANET applications are emerging
due to the development of new communication
techniques that permit data collecting and sharing
over the network. These applications are
classified into three main areas: road safety and
prevention, optimization of the traffic and
passengers comfort. Road safety can significantly
be increased by alerting the driver about
dangerous situations and enlarging the driver’s
perception about the road traffic. Therefore the
driver is warned about an eventual traffic jam, a
rockslide or an accident before he approaches it,
thus can avoid the road leading to it.
PARTITIONED NETWORK
Due to their high mobility, the network is
frequently divided. The dynamic nature of the
traffic can generate a large inter-vehicle distance
in sparsely populated cities, and consequently in
several clusters of vehicles.
Vehicle networks are also improving the
comfort of passengers; by offering services such
as internet access as a result, they can download,
send e-mails, view movies online, or participate
in internet games. Dynamic "Gateways" are
added to the network in order to provide
LIMITED BANDWIDTH
The nature of the radio link does not allow
increasing the bandwidth infinitely; Vehicular
170
messages between the vehicles and the
INTERNET. These applications use unicast
routing as the primary communication method.
Research in the field of VANETs is recent,
but that does not prevent it from being a vast
and diversified field of research and substantial
research has emerged to design new standards
for services and interfaces for vehicular
networks. These standards form the basis for
several applications. In what follows, we will
clarify these few standards.
6. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
NORMS IN VANETS
Fig. 5. DSRC frequency/channels repartition [7]
band of 5.9 GHz (Europe and the United States)
or 5.8 GHz (Japan).
6.1. DSRC and 802.11P
In order to establish V2V communication
within a group of vehicles, the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
adopted in 2002 a wireless standard called
DSRC
(Dedicated
Short
Range
Communication). In 2003, the IEEE working
group resumed this work to define a new
standard
dedicated
to
inter-vehicle
communications, called WAVE (Wireless
Ability in Vehicular Environments) which
includes the IEEE 802.11p standard. This
standard use the multichannel concept to
provide communication for security applications
and other Intelligent Transport services and is
based on the IEEE802.11e EDCA protocol for
channel access control including priority
mechanism.
The
European
Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) and the Federal
Communication Commission (FCC) define this
frequency band in Europe and the United States
respectively.
The frequency band is segmented into seven
channels of 10 MHz each, the set of channels is
functionally divided into one control channel
and six service channels. The control channel is
reserved for the transmission of network
management flow and messages of high priority,
like critical messages related to road safety. The
other six channels are dedicated to the
transmission of data from the various services
announced on the control channel. DSRC brings
together a series of standards and protocols
dedicated to vehicular communications at the
MAC and physical levels.
DSRC TECHNOLOGY
DSRC is an emerging technology developed
based on Wi-Fi standards. DSRC technology is
used in the ITS domain to provide secure and
reliable connections in both V2V and V2I
communication.
DSRC is designed to operate in dynamic
networks to support the rapid establishment of
links, minimize communication latency, ensure
reliability of service for security applications
taking into account the time constraints for this
type of applications and support other nonsecurity applications that require a Quality of
These links allow the transfer of data that is
necessary for the operations of different ITS
applications. DSRC operates in the frequency
171
Service (QoS) guarantee. DSRC is developed
for environments where short-term response
(less than 50 milliseconds.) and/or high data
rates are required in dynamic networks. The
IEEE 1609 working group has standardized the
rest of the DSRC protocol stack between the
link layer and the application layer. Therefore
IEEE 1609 is a standard for the high layers on
which WAVE is based. The WAVE standards
define an architecture and a complementary,
standardized set of services and interfaces that
collectively enable secure vehicle-to-vehicle
(V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I)
wireless communications. Together these
standards provide the foundation for a broad
range of applications in the transportation
environment,
including
vehicle
safety,
automated tolling, enhanced navigation, traffic
management and many others.
THE IEEE 1609 FAMILY OF STANDARDS
FOR THE WAVE
The family of IEEE 1609 standards for
WAVE
[8]
defines
the
architecture,
communications model, management structure,
security mechanisms and physical access for
high speed (up to 27 Mb/s) short range (up to
1000 m) low latency wireless communications
in the vehicular environment. The primary
architectural components defined by these
standards are the On Board Unit (OBU), Road
Side Unit (RSU), and WAVE interface.
THE 802.11P STANDARD
IEEE 802.11p is a custom variant of the
IEEE 802.11a "PHY layer" that combines parts
of the original standard with the 802.11e MAC
amendment for QoS support.
Table 1. IEEE WAVE family standards description [7]
Wave Standard
usage
IEEE 1609.1
Resource
Manager
IEEE 1609.2
Security
Services
IEEE 1609.3
Networking
Services
IEEE 1609.4
Multi-Channel
Operations
IEEE 1609.5
Communication
Manager
IEEE 1609.11
IEEE P1609.12
Over-the-Air
Electronic
Payment Data
Exchange
Protocol for
ITS
Identifier
Allocations
Description
This standard defines the services and interfaces of the WAVE Resource
Manager applications. It describes the message formats and the response to
these messages. It also describes the data storage format that is used by
applications to access other architectures.
This standard defines the security, formatting, and secure processing of
messages. It also defines how secure messages are exchanged.
This standard defines the routing and services of the transport layer. It also
defines alternative messages specific to IPv6 that can be supported by
applications. This standard also defines the Management Information Base
(MIB) for the protocol stack.
This standard defines the characteristics of the multi-channel in the
DSRC. It is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11a Media Access Control
Standard.
This standard specifies communications management services for
wireless access in vehicular environments (WAVE). This standard
defines communication management services for wireless connectivity
in vehicular environments between OBUs and RSUs
This standard specifies the electronic payment service layer and payment
and authentication profile for identity and payment data transfer in DSRCbased applications in wireless vehicular networks. This standard defines a
basic level of technical interoperability (vehicle-infrastructure) for
electronic payment equipment, namely on-board unit (OBU) and road unit
(RSU) that use WAVE
This standard specifies allocations of WAVE identifiers defined in the
IEEE 1609 series of standards
172
The IEEE 802.11p MAC Layer Extension is
based on the IEEE 802.11e MAC Layer, which
uses Enhanced Distributed Channel Access
(EDCA) as an enhancement to the DCF protocol
(IEEE802.11 CSMA / CA based access
function). All stations perform this same
algorithm in order to get access to the
communication channel.
6.3. Physical Layer
This layer is derived from IEEE 802.11a.
offers data exchange among vehicles (V2V) and
between vehicles and roadside infrastructure
(V2I) within a range of 1km ) and a vehicle
velocity up to 260 km/h [10] using a
transmission rate of 3Mbps to 27Mbps with
OFDM modulation (Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing.
Fig. 6. WAVE protocol stack
6.2. Mac Layer
Fig. 7. IEEE 802.11p structure [11]
makes routing a very difficult problem to
manage. In another hand, one of the problems of
VANETs is that each vehicle communicates
with all those in its coverage area, which can
lead to several problems, like a deterioration in
the quality of service (QoS) due to the increase
in the number of vehicles, information
redundancy, data loss (collisions), network
congestion, or the B roadcast Storm problem.
7. RESEARCH DIRECTIONS IN
THE FIELD OF VANETS
VANETs are open to several areas of
research, including safety, vehicle location,
routing, and dissemination. Considering the
sensitivity of the VANET applications, an
intrusion of a malicious vehicle would have
serious consequences for all the interconnected
vehicles. Furthermore, if one of the vehicles in
the network is to be located (in the case of an
accident for example), the others must be
informed about its position. The problem is that
not all vehicles are equipped with a satellite
tracking system (GPS); it is for this reason that a
locating mechanism without using the GPS is
necessary. In addition, one of the main feature
of VANETs is that they quickly change
topology because of their high mobility, which
8. CONCLUSIONS
VANETs
is
a
promising
wireless
communication technology related field that
could contribute to the improvement of road
safety and information services in order to make
driving more user-friendly and enjoyable. The
deployment of this type of network on the road
is one of the major concerns of the research and
173
industry community. In this article, the key ideas
of VANETs and their communication types
were presented alongside the most important
standards dedicated for the communication over
the network. Several research directions are
worth to investigate in this field such as the
dissemination of emergency messages over the
network, routing, and security.
[7] P.K. Sahoo; M.J. Chiang; S.L. Wu,
SVANET: A Smart Vehicular Ad Hoc
Network for Efficient Data Transmission
with Wireless Sensors. Sensors, (2014).
[8] M.J. Booysen; S. Zeadally; G.J. van
Rooyen, Survey of media access control
protocols for vehicular ad hoc networks.
IET Communications 5(11) (2011), pp.
1619-1631.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[9] A.M.A. Shereen; H.S.A. Sharifah; F.
Norsheila, Overview of Wireless Access in
Vehicular Environment (WAVE) Protocols
and Standards
This research was partly supported by EFOP3.6.1-16-2016-00006 "The development and
enhancement of the research potential at John
von Neumann University" project. The Project
is supported by the Hungarian Government and
co-financed by the European Social Fund.
10.
[10] Y.J. Li, An overview of the DSRC/WAVE
technology, In: Quality, Reliability,
Security and Robustness in Heterogeneous
Networks, pp. 544-558, Springer, (2012).
REFERENCES
[11] K. Bilstrup; E. Uhlemann; E. Ström; U.
Bilstrup, On the Ability of the 802.11p
MAC Method and STDMA to Support
Real-Time
Vehicle-to-Vehicle
Communication. EURASIP Journal on
Wireless Communications and Networking,
(2009).
[1] A. Ahizoune, A protocol for broadcasting
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Jerbi, Vehicle-to-vehicle communications:
applications and perspectives (in French).
Information-Commande-Communication,
Hermès Editions, (2006).
[3] Das European Autohaus,
https://daseuropeanautohaus.com/is-a-v2vcommunication-system-worth-it, last access
09/09/2018.
[4] S. Zeadally; R. Hunt; Y. S. Chen; A. Irwin;
A. Hassan, Vehicular ad hoc networks
(VANETS): status, results, and challenges.
Telecommunication Systems 50(4) (2010),
pp. 217-241.
[5] T. Varum et al., Microstrip antenna array
for multiband dedicated short-range
communication systems. Microwave and
Optical Technology Letters 53(12) (2011),
pp. 2794-2796.
[6] A. Bouzid; J. Vásárhelyi, Implementation
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Proc. of the 18th Int. Carpathian Control
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174
BMW’s Car-Sharing Services in China
and Germany using Service Innovation
N. Zivlak a, W. Braun
a
b
Emlyon Business School Asia, Shanghai, China, E-mail: zivlak@em-lyon.com
b
Center of International Programs, Donghua University, Shanghai, China,
E-mail: wolfbraun@hotmail.de
Abstract
Today, demands in the automotive industry are at an all-time high with innovation playing a vital part.
New concepts are shaped by creating significant structural changes in the business with environmental
concerns playing a major role. This paper will provide insights into the opportunities and perspectives
of BMW's processes to utilize service innovation for the development of pioneering business models
such as car-sharing in the German and Chinese market. The obtained data analyses BMW Germany
and BMW China standpoints on service innovation, and its practicality on the matter of car-sharing.
Further, in a more detailed analysis, this research will demonstrate the differences of opinions about
innovative means in the two countries showing specific alterations. Regarding BMW's car sharing
model, its on-the-rise business indicates a lot of potential and room for the future; thus profound
implications on the subject have been utilized in determining whether this may very well be the case.
Keywords: Service innovation, BMW, car-sharing, Germany, China
sharing services in the German and Chinese
market. It will analyze the future opportunities
and threats using a theoretical framework which
will complement the success of this business
model in the global market over the long run.
This will be carried out with the perspective on
BMW’s car sharing model by finding out their
current and future strategies regarding the idea
of generating innovation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The automotive industry is driven by
innovative practices to improve current
standards and to add value to their customers
with the aim of gaining an advantage over
competitors. The car culture has shaped how
billions of people live making it a significant
role in our daily life. Outcomes were an
unprecedented number of motor vehicles used
in the world that have led to a vast amount of
problematic consequences such as traffic jams,
the lack of parking spaces in urban areas as well
as environmental pollution. Automobiles
negatively affect the environment as it is the
most significant contributor to pollution since
the 18th century. Concepts such as car-sharing,
artificial intelligence, autonomous driving, and
electrification have been adopted and put into
the spotlight to use innovative methods to tackle
these problems. This research aims to establish
whether service innovation is substantial for car
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Innovation
There is no absolute definition of innovation,
and it is more than likely that no one will ever
come close to narrowing down any universal
description accepted within and across the
grounds. Nonetheless, well-known scientists of
the past condensed the meaning of innovation
allowing us to analyze the matter in a more
detailed and structured way. According to
175
Michael Porter in 1996 innovation should
not be confused for inventions as his studies
were differentiating among product innovation
and process innovation meaning doing things in
a new way causing the product fundamentally
to change and doing things differently leading
to specific improvements to the current product,
respectively (Porter, 1996).
Likewise, Joseph Schumpeter, who is
considered to be one of the greatest economists
on the field of innovation, believed that a pure
entrepreneur plays a crucial role in driving
economic development as its ideology creates
new ideas and implements them, therefore
contributing to the process of innovation
considerably (Schumpeter, 1942). He assumed
that an invention would ultimately become an
innovation once it is placed on the market by an
individual or business. More precisely he
defined innovation as a "creative destruction”
where new ways of technology would replace
old obsolete ones (Schumpeter, 1942). The
entrepreneur would eventually come up with a
new idea, method or key offering a robust new
approach to doing things that are more efficient
and effective.
Fig. 1. 4 Dimensions of service innovation by Den
Hertog
practices. Consider the case of the retail service
sector. New cash registration platforms are
provided throughout the retail store chain of a
company which amounts to technological
innovation (Dimension 4). These then have to
be customized to follow the characteristics of
the brand (Dimension 1) and to confirm a
connection with customers (Dimension 2).
Finally, employees also have to implement
these changes to their tasks which can be done
through training (Dimension 3).
2.3. Service Innovation
automotive industry
in
the
There have been disruptions in the
automobile industry over recent years in
particular that have made traditional organisms
redundant and have placed emphasis on new
ecosystems wherein services are playing a
pivotal role (Valente, 2017). Automobile
corporations are more and more adopting to
business models that relate to service
innovation to enhance their capital and to add
value to the company. An excellent example of
a successful interpretation of service innovation
in the car business dates back to Henry Ford
who fundamentally changed the appearance of
transportation. His accomplishment mainly
resulted from the transformation of the then
common business model which offered handmade products to limited wealthy customers to
a vehicle for Everyman at an affordable price.
In other words, he adopted process innovative
methods.
Ultimately, many factors encourage
innovation to take place, if it is for competition
or the proximity of the marketplace. Once
innovative practices are exploited successfully
this can cause the value of the economy and a
particular product or service to increase,
therefore enriching customer experience as well
as profits earned by a business which is
advantages for either party.
2.2. Service Innovation
There are four principal dimensions of
service innovation which were analyzed by den
Hertog (2000). First, the visual representation is
presented, followed by the written explanation
of each step as well as their inter-connectivity.
Once a new service is created its concept,
and the new delivery scheme will be established
resulting in the workforce to adapt to new ways
of doing things, including customer relations
while corporations will modify the course of IT
Nowadays, innovation is an essential factor
to sustain a robust competitive position within
176
state due to the dominant nature of the German
manufacturing division.
the auto industry. Product innovation, another
sub-division of service innovation, is highly
associated with automotive vehicles and can be
represented in the form of, for example, new car
design and the modification of manufacturing
methods with industrial robots. Reasons like
that are a crucial aspect of what car companies
rely on to operate in the long run as through
developments of their offered product, by using
innovation, a new value is added to the
customers who then go on to make the purchase.
2.5. China’s
innovation
stance
on
service
Chinese service innovation can be
considered to be an interaction in
manufacturing services and multi-participant
networks. This can be interpreted as firms are
tending to become more customer oriented
rather than producer dominated with an
outcome of great customization which is of
fundamental importance in services.
The automotive industry is relying heavily
on service innovation as it proves to give an
advantageous edge over competitors if carried
out successfully.
Concerning policies, China's main weight is
not on services and service innovation (Jing
Hua Li, 2012). Strict and imbalanced
regulations make it difficult for foreign firms to
be part of an un-perfect market. Specific rules
do the opposite then favor innovative practices
in services with heavy tax burdens. Furthermore,
a national non-governmental market union is
none existing which may get in the way of
professional services and their developments as
well as service innovation protection and
service research and development (Jing Hua Li,
2012). In other words, the development of
service innovative practices differs from
developing and developed countries and their
economic conditions.
2.4. Germany’s stance on service
innovation
Laws are mainly about the manufacturing
and the R&D side, but a justification for that
would be that manufacturing innovation can be
measured more easily than service innovation
making it an essential challenge for
improvements. Nonetheless, specific policies in
Germany have been introduced to entrench
service innovation in R&D and to provide better
regulation in favor of service innovation.
Furthermore, programs have been allocated by
the government which is devoted to the research
of innovation and concentrate about the
development of customers and employees as
well as the servitization of the industry (OECD,
2018). In other words, the goal is to attain
additional value from services. The government
of Germany is prioritizing innovation which has
led, as of 2016, services to account to 68.9% to
the total value added of economic activity
(World Bank Group, 2016) diversifying the
local economy from a dominant manufacturing
standpoint.
2.6. Car-sharing
Car sharing is similar to the structure of car
rental where an individual can rent any given
vehicle over a short period. It is intended for local
users to help them in their daily community
transportation and to benefit the environment as
its goal is to decline car ownership and distance
traveled. Furthermore, a fundamental concept of
car sharing is to provide affordable and
accessible vehicles for all communities while at
the same time lessening fossil fuels emissions.
(DriveNow, 2018)
The government of Germany is claiming that
they are providing policies that favor innovation
that will keep the edge of competitiveness of
local firms remarkably high. Nonetheless, the
government recognized that much has to be
done to endorse the service sector in the future
including several improvements to the current
2.7. BMW & DriveNow
BMW is a renowned German automotive
brand which in 2011, implemented DriveNow
which is their representation of car sharing. In
Europe, DriveNow is currently available in 13
177
survey together provide proper data allowing
new ideas and a better understanding of the
chosen topic.
countries with around 1 million customers. In
China, as of December 2017, it was launched in
Chengdu after incorporation with the local firm
EvCard and started with a small fleet of 100
BMW i3s. As of March of 2018 BMW and
Daimler AG are planning to merge their car
sharing operation and form a 50-50 joint
venture to consolidate their market share and
reduce risk in operating in an ever so rapidly
changing tech-environment (Sachgau &
Rauwald, 2018).
4. FINDINGS & ANALYSIS
The survey data confirmed the profoundly
embedded culture that BMW has with service
innovation and sees it as an excellent
opportunity to evolve further. Thereupon,
BMW can be described as a company using
service innovation as a strategic adaptation
based on Miles (2005). The assessment of the
primary data confirms this perspective. The
following figure shows the connection between
the dimensions of service innovation and car
sharing.
In practice, digital devices such as mobile
phones are essential for the usage of car sharing
applications as it provides a customer with the
location of any vehicle the subscribed company
is offering. True to its name, DriveNow offers
cars within a city where they are located
wherever and whenever it may be needed. At
first, a potential customer has to sign up and
register at the local BMW station where an
electronic sticker will be placed upon ones
driver's license which will turn it into a car key.
The DriveNow app offers a variety of functions
one of them being the location of all provided
cars near you. Once a vehicle has been chosen
the doors can be opened with the driver's license
including a pin that will be sent to an individual
via the app. This will allow the customer to
drive the car at a price that is built by the minute,
also including fuel expense. (BMW Group,
2017).
Fig. 2. Service innovation dimensions: car sharing
Referring to the research of den Hertog
(2000) the car sharing concept employed my
BMW called DriveNow can be associated with
each step of the theory. Starting with Dimension
1, also called the service concept, it can be
linked to the car sharing model such as
DriveNow as it is a new business model applied
by a firm. When it comes to dimension 2, the
client interface, BMW does work closely with
the customers to figure out what their wants and
needs are. The application (App) is located on
the user's phone, on which the business works
on, and can detect customer's behavior as it
gives a choice to writing reviews to deal with
some issues. Moreover, it offers clients the
opportunity to communicate with the staff of
BMW to permit interactions to take place to
improve the overall product. Dimension 3, the
service delivery system, can be related to the
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research was conducted using a qualitative
and quantitative approach to get all the
information. It is based on primary and
secondary data research which were conducted
with the BMW side in Germany and China and
other professionals. The information gathered
provides a descriptive and clarifying summary
of the findings. Secondary research was also
conducted from books, reports, journals, and
websites and are used to give more background
knowledge.
The in-dept interviews with BMW employees
both in Germany and China as well as the
178
service stations BMW has around the globe
where customers get started in signing up to use
the car-sharing services. This involves BMW to
train employees to be able to sell, advertise and
understand the new product to be productive
and efficient. Lastly, there is the fourth
dimension, more specifically the technological
options. IT is heavily relied on as car sharing
processes are done over technological devices
such as the cell phone, therefore enabling shared
mobility to take place.
away from a manufacturing industry while the
Chinese enthusiastically stood for it. Both, on
the other hand, approved Germany's economy
to be service oriented. Another variance came
about from the statement that people prefer to
own rather than share a car with employees
from Germany disagreeing and employees from
China agreeing to show again that the Chinese
market and its attitude towards car sharing has
an abundant environment.
Therefore product innovation, a sub-division
of service innovation, can be associated with car
sharing as it is a modification of an already
existing product that fulfills all the scopes of
service innovation.
5. CONCLUSION
As it is presented throughout this paper
service innovation provides substantial
prospects for BMW to operate in and shows
great potential for car sharing operations. The
importance of service innovation is understood
by BMW and therefore interpreted on a global
scale, both in China and Germany. Both
countries take the matter seriously, however, do
interpret it differently as China focuses more on
the customization part whereas Germany put
their perspectives on the general substance of
the theory.
4.1. Discussion of the Findings
According to the survey results, Germany
agreed that service innovation is a big
influencer that drives the automotive industry,
whereas China does not believe that to be the
case showing a clash of opinions. Nonetheless,
both countries have been showing similar trends
into thinking that car sharing has potential not
only in Germany but also in China and that
service innovation has and will lead to
substantial opportunities within that market
space. In general, the mindset from the
employees from China indicates China to be a
more suitable market for car sharing as they
believe they will get most out of innovative
practices due to the highly competitive nature of
the country. Additionally, more than the
majority of the Chinese survey participants
believe that the same does not apply to the
German market. On the other hand, workers
from Germany have faith and stated their
confidence in the potential of the car-sharing
business model to be roughly the same in both
areas.
In terms of car sharing, data shows that it
will lead to fewer car ownership and fewer
miles driven which will not only cause fewer
cars to be used on roads solving congestion and
traffic disputes but also will improve its
environmental footprint. Furthermore, as the
results suggest more people are willing to try car
sharing services and with the affordable price
tag it offers an optimistic approach to the
realization of the new business model. In
Germany, operations are continually expanding
and it has reached the point where other
strategies
have
been
taking
under
considerations such as the consolidation of
multiple brands into one entity. In this case
scenario, it would on the one hand combine
company's research on innovation and concepts
which can be advantageous towards growing
the business but on the other hand it results in
less completion and therefore less innovative
and competitive nature which may offset the
need for productivity. In China, the market is
When it comes to the services sector, it was
also addressed that China's economy is paying
more attention to services and that there is an
overall trend in that direction. This, however,
got mixed results as German survey applicants
disagreed with the statement of China moving
179
[2] P.D. Hertog, Knowledge Internsive
Business Services as Co-producers of
Innovation. Utrecht: Dialogic, (2000).
very modest; thus consolidation and keeping up
productivity levels will lead to more market
share and a competitive advantage giving the
business an edge of being successful.
[3] DriveNow, Privacy Policy, Retrieved from
DriveNow, (2018). https://www.drivenow.com/de/en/privacy
The collected data from the interviews and
survey suggests a positive attitude towards
innovation and its usefulness, and more precisely
expresses that Germany does have more
knowledge towards innovative processes used by
BMW at the current marketplace. This indicates
that Germany and China encourage service
innovation and in more detail, BMW Germany
and BMW China do fulfill all the step of the
theory.
[4] J.H. Li, Service innovation research in
China: past, present and future. Journal of
Science and Technology Policy in China,
3(1) (2012), pp. 68-91.
[5] OECD, Service innovation and nontechnological
innovation,
(2018).
http://www.oecd.org/sti/outlook/eoutlook/
stipolicyprofiles/competencestoinnovate/s
erviceinnovationandnontechnologicalinnovation.htm
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
[6] M.E. Porter, What Is Strategy, (1996).
https://hbr.org/1996/11/what-is-strategy
Along with service innovation “open service
innovation should also be incorporated. It
enables firms to get outside help from external
parties to recognize service innovation as it
leads to the inclusion of the public and outside
opinions. This would allow BMW China to
work closely together with their customers as
they can now offer their input on several matters,
and internationally, it would ensure for a greater
product with more efficient and effective
standards. Furthermore in order for employees
to be most efficient when it comes to the usage
of service innovation it is important to
comprehend what it really stands for. Therefore,
offering educational services such as workshops
or seminars can help boost awareness so that
BMW can get the most out of its employees.
Subsequently, analyzing and tracking the signs
of progress made would be constructive in
determining progression. As technology is
constantly advancing which is a large
contributor to service innovation, it is my belief,
that it is of utmost importance for the workforce
to be regularly informed so that the most up-todate procedures can be utilized.
[7] O. Sachgau; C. Rauwald, Thestar, (2018).
https://www.thestar.com/business/2018/03
/28/daimler-bmw-reach-deal-to-mergecar-sharing-units-car2go-drivenow.html
[8] J.A. Schumpeter, Capitalism Socialism
and Democracy, (1942). http://cnqzu.com/
library/Economics/marxian%20economics
/Schumpeter,%20JoesephCapitalism,%20Socialism%20and%20De
mocracy.pdf
[9] F. Valente, Automotive Companies Turn
to Service Innovation to Redefine Latin
America’s Mobility, (2017).
[10] World
Bank
Group,
(2016).
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.S
RV.TETC.ZS?end=2016&name_desc=fal
se&start=2016&view=map
7. REFERENCES
[1] BMW Group, Annual Report 2017,
Munich, Author, (2017).
180
Welding of 2099-T83 AluminiumLithium Alloy by Electron Beam
J. Bárta a, B. Šimeková a, M. Marônek a, M. Sahul
a
a
Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology,
J. Bottu 25, 917 24 Trnava, Slovakia,
E-mail: {jozef.barta, beata.simekova, milan.maronek, miroslav.sahul}@stuba.sk
Abstract
The paper deals with the welding of AW 2099-T83 aluminium lithium alloy used in construction of
lower wing stringers and aerospace applications. Electron beam welding with the accelerating voltage
of 55 kV was used for welding. Welded joints were inspected by computer tomography, macroscopic
and microscopic analysis, tensile strength test and microhardness measurement. Welded joints
exhibited good weld joint formation, typical to electron beam welding. Weld metal was structure was
dendritic formed by α solid solution. Decrease of microhardness was observed mainly in the centre of
weld metal due to dissolution of precipitates. Further research will focus on post-heat treatment of
welded joints in order to improve mechanical properties of weld metal.
Keywords: electron beam welding, AW 2099-T83, structural analysis, tensile strength, microhardness
wide publicity. The trend is the utilization of AlLi alloy in the production of fillet welds, which
are used to join the panels of the aircraft
fuselage. In order to eliminate deterioration of
the mechanical properties of weld joints during
laser welding, it was necessary to ensure
sufficient stirring [3]. Further data on laser
welding concern the use of fibre laser for
welding 2060 alloy with an Al-Mg-based filler
material. Microhardness in the weld metal
dropped to almost half the hardness of the parent
material and tensile strength of the weld joint
achieved approximately 63% [4]. The welding of
Al-Li alloy 5A90 without filler metal by
Nd:YAG laser received some publicity.
Similarly documented was the decrease in
mechanical properties due to reducing the
amount of precipitates in the weld metal [5].
1. INTRODUCTION
In comparison to other aluminium alloys, the
Al-Li hardenable aluminium alloys offer higher
elastic modulus, lower density, higher specific
strength and higher tolerance to damage. The
application of structural components made of
Al-Li alloys plays a key-role in the aerospace
industry in order to reduce the weight, increase
the payload and improve the fuel efficiency of
aircraft [1]. A possible solution to the problems
with fusion weldability is the application of solid
state welding methods, such as Friction Stir
Welding (FSW) [2], but unfortunately this
method can’t be always implemented.
In order to minimize effect of fusion welding
on final welded joint properties, the methods
with low heat input, i.e. laser and electron-beam
welding are preferred. The welded joints
fabricated by the mentioned methods exhibit a
very narrow HAZ and small deformations.
Information on welding by concentrated energy
sources is quite rare. The welding of 2196 and
2198 alloys by CO2 laser received some world-
As for electron beam welding, only the
analysis results regarding the welds fabricated of
Al-Li alloy 8090 have been published. The alloy
is considered as an experimental material. It is a
precipitation-hardened alloy based of Al-Li-Cu-
181
Mg. Anisotropic structure strongly influences
mechanical properties of the alloy 8090. Hot
cracking in the weld metal occurs due to the
formation of a eutectic mixture with low melting
point. The observed decrease of mechanical
properties of the weld metal was due to the
welding temperature cycle [6]. The objective of
this paper was to evaluate the possibilities of
joining the 2099-T83 aluminium-lithium alloy
by electron beam welding.
Fig. 1. EBW machine
2. METHODS
Within the experiment the welded joint
microstructure was analysed using standard
metallography procedure. Samples taken from
welded joint were grinded and polished. Keller
etchant (2 ml HF, 3 ml HCL, 5 ml HNO3, and
190 ml H2O) was used for etching. Subsequently
the microstructure of the welded joint was
analysed using optical microscope Neophot 32.
The aluminium alloy used within the
experiment was AW 2099-T83 with the
thickness of 25.4 mm. Typical chemical
composition of this alloy is provided in Table 1.
Table 1 Typical chemical composition of AW 2099T83 alloy
Element
Cu
Li
Zn
Mg
Mn
Zr
Weight %
2,4-3,0
1,6-2,0
0,4-1,0
0,10-0,50
0,10-0,50
0,05-0,12
Element
Ti
Fe
Si
Be
Other
Al
Weight %
0,10 max
0,07 max
0,05 max
0,0001 max
0,15 max
bal
Tensile strength of welded joints was
measured according to ISO 5178:2001 standard.
Three pieces from each sample were used in
order to obtain the average values of tensile
strength.
Microhardness was analysed in base material,
in the weld metal adjacent to the weld surface, as
well as in the centre and in the root section of
welded joint. Moreover, the microhardness was
also analysed in line starting from welded joint
axis towards the base metal.
Typical mechanical properties of the material
provided by manufacturer are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Typical mechanical properties of AW 2099T83 alloy
Tensile strength Rm [MPa]
Yield strength Rp0.2 [MPa]
Ductility A [%]
560
510
4
3. EXPERIMENT
The samples were welded in flat position
according to ISO 6947. The canon distance from
sample surface was 200±5 mm. Samples were
cleaned from grease after the cutting process.
Welding parameters are provided in Table 4.
In order to keep heat input as low as possible
and to provide minimum width of heat affected
zone, the electron beam welding (EBW) was
applied. The parameters of EBW machine are
provided in Table 3. The EBW device used for
the experiment is shown in Figure 1.
Table 4 Welding parameters
Sample
Accelerating Voltage [kV]
Focusing Current [mA]
Welding current [mA]
Welding Speed [mm/s]
Table 3 Basic parameters of EBW machine
Max. output power [kW]
Operating pressure [Pa]
Chamber volume [m3]
Max. accelerating voltage [kV]
30
2.10-2
5.6
max. 60
182
1
55
646
117
15
2
55
646
117
20
3
55
646
117
25
The microscopic analysis of base metal
shows deformed grains as a consequence of
rolling (Figure 4). The black particles represents
the precipitates, strengthening the alloy.
Figure 2 shows the weld surface appearance.
The full penetration was observed in all welded
joints. No significant spatter was observed.
Sample No.1 exhibited irregularities in width of
welded joint surface and the biggest weld root
reinforcement. The weld width of other two
samples was regular. All samples exhibited
reinforcement of weld root. Sample No. 3
exhibited also the reinforcement of the welded
joint surface.
2
3
Surface
1
Fig. 4. Microstructure of AW 2099-T83 alloy
2
The microstructure of welded joints exhibited
small difference in particular areas. Figure 5
documents the microstructure near the surface,
in the middle and in the root section of the
welded joint. Because of highest cooling rate in
the middle of the weld metal the microstructure
was formed by fine dendritic grains (with size
about 10 µm). The biggest grains were observed
near the weld surface as expected.
1
Root
3
Fig. 2. Welded joints appearance: 1 – Sample No.1, 2
– Sample No.2, 3 – Sample No.3
Figure 3 documents the macroscopic analysis
results. The macroscopy analysis revealed the
porosity in all welded joints. The weld width was
very narrow in all samples, as expected for
electron beam welding.
Fig. 5. Microstructure of weld metal
Figure 6 documents microstructure of the
transition zone from weld metal (WM) to base
material (BM). The heat affected zone is barely
visible,
however
the
microhardness
measurement confirmed
the2 presence 3of
1
annealed area next to the weld metal.
Fig. 3. Cross sections of welded joints: 1 – Sample
No.1, 2 – Sample No.2, 3 – Sample No.3
The results of tensile strength test showed the
average value of 366.43 MPa. The measured
values were significantly lower in comparison to
the base material. The tensile strength of welded
The maximum size of the observed pore was
283 µm. The lowest porosity was observed in
sample No. 3.
183
porosity of welded joints caused the tensile
strength drop to 65.43 %. Best results were
achieved in sample No.3. This sample showed
lowest porosity, no convexity in welded joint
surface and smallest weld root reinforcement.
Further research will be focused on more precise
analysis of the porosity using computer
tomography and heat treatment to improve the
mechanical properties of welded joints.
Fig. 6. Microstructure of transition area WM to BM
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
joint was only 65.43 % of strength declared by
manufacturer (560 MPa). Main reasons for this
significant decrease are the porosity in weld
metal and annealing caused by welding process.
Average microhardness value in weld metal was
79.65 HV0.1 and 173.1 HV0.1 in base material
what represents the 53.98 % decrease. The
microhardness differences in upper and lower
sections of weld metal were insignificant.
Reason of microhardness decrease was
dissolution of precipitates in the weld metal
caused by remelting of the base material. The
results also showed that the microhardness of the
base material was affected up to 2.6 mm from
welded joint axis (Figure 7).
This work was supported by the Slovak
Research and Development Agency under the
contract No. APVV-15-0337.
6. REFERENCES
[1] R.J. Rioja; J. Liu The evolution of Al-Li
base products for aerospace and space
applications. Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A 43 (2012), pp. 3325-3337.
[2] B. Cai; Z.Q. Zheng; D.Q. He; S.C. Li; H.P.
Li, Friction stir weld of 2060 Al-Cu-Li
alloy: microstructure and mechanical
properties. Journal of Alloys and
Compounds 649 (2015), pp. 19-27.
Hardness [HV0.1]
180
[3] J. Enz; S. Riekehr; V. Ventzke; N. Kashaev,
Influence of the local chemical composition
on the mechanical properties of laser beam
welded Al-Li alloys. Physics Procedia 39
(2012), pp. 51-58.
160
140
120
100
80
[4] X. Zhang; W. Yang; R. Xiao,
Microstructure and mechanical properties
of laser beam welded Al–Li alloy 2060 with
Al-Mg filler wire. Materials and Design 88
(2015), pp. 446-450.
60
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
Distance from weld axis [mm]
3,5
Fig. 7. Results of microhardness measurement
[5] L. Cui; X. Li; D. He; L. Chen; S. Gong,
Effect of Nd: YAG laser welding on
microstructure and hardness of an Al–Li
based alloy. Materials Characterization 71
(2012), pp. 95-102,
4. CONCLUSION
The results regarding weldability of
AW 2099-T83 aluminium lithium alloy by
electron beam welding are promising. Weld
metal exhibited dendritic structure having grain
size in range from 10 µm to 80 µm in
dependence on its position. As expected,
originally hardened base material was annealed
in weld metal as well as in distance from weld
metal axis up to 2.6 mm. The annealing and
[6] A. Ravindra; E.S. Dwarakadasa; T.S.
Srivatsan; C. Ramanath; K.V.V. Iyengar,
Electron beam weld microstructures and
properties of aluminium-lithium alloy 8090.
Journal of Materials Science 28 (1993), pp.
3173-3182.
184
Laser Welding of AW2099 Al-Li Alloy
with Al-Mg Filler Metal
M. Sahul a, M. Sahul b, J. Bárta a, M. Marônek
a
a
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology in Trnava, Department of Welding and Foundry, J. Bottu 25, 917 24 Trnava,
Slovakia, E-mail: {miroslav.sahul, jozef.barta, milan.maronek}@stuba.sk
b
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty of Materials Science and
Technology in Trnava, Institute of Materials Science, J. Bottu 25, 917 24 Trnava,
Slovakia, martin.sahul@stuba.sk
Abstract
Newly developed AW2099 aluminium lithium alloy with the thickness of 2.0 mm was studied within
the paper. Sound weld joints were produced under optimized welding parameters. Al-Mg 5087 filler
wire with the diameter of 1.2 mm was used for welding AW2099 Al-Li alloy. Argon was used as a
shielding gas. Weld metal microstructure and weld joints mechanical properties were investigated.
Microstructure of weld metal consists of α-aluminium solid solution. Interdendritic areas were
enriched in alloying elements. Narrow equiaxed zone was observed at the fusion boundary. This
feature is characteristic for welds in aluminium lithium alloys. Microhardness drop in the weld metal
was recorded. The optimized welding parameters are as follows: laser power 1.5 kW, welding speed
10 mm/s, focus position +1 mm and filler wire feed rate 1 m/min.
Keywords: aluminium lithium alloy, disk laser, laser beam welding, equiaxed zone, scanning electron microscopy,
mechanical properties.
Al-Li 2099 alloy has low density, high
stiffness, superior damage tolerance, excellent
corrosion resistance and weldability for use in
aerospace structures that require high strength.
The 2099 plate and forgings have better
strength, modulus, density and corrosion
performance than 7075-T73 and 7050-T74
aluminium alloy plate products [6,8].
1. INTRODUCTION
The addition of lithium to the aluminium is
beneficial from the weight reduction point of
view. Addition of 1 % of Li causes the decrease
in the aluminium alloy density by 3 % and
increase of modulus of elasticity by 6 % [1-4].
The 3rd generation Al-Li alloys is characteristic
by increased Cu/Li ratio and the addition of
other minor alloying elements [5].
Arc welding processes characterized by high
heat input result in the elimination of
strengthening of the materials in HAZ and weld
metal. Thermal cycle generated in welded
material causes the dissolution of phases such as
δ′ and T1 resulting in softening mentioned
zones. From that point of view, laser beam
welding is an attractive welding technique for
Al-Li alloys because of very concentrated heat
causing a formation of narrow weld joints with
Zn additions improved corrosion resistance.
The additions of Cu, Li and Mg form the
strengthening precipitates and small additions of
the dispersoid forming elements Zr and Mn
control the grain structure and crystallographic
texture during thermo-mechanical processing
[6].In mentioned alloys more than one
strengthening precipitate are precipitated and
dissolved at various temperatures [7].
185
narrow HAZ [9]. Furthermore, high welding
speeds lead to formation of minimum
deformations and residual stresses. Narrow HAZ
means softening region of much smaller
dimensions in comparison to arc welding
processes.
Al-Mg 5087 filler wire with the diameter of
1.2 mm was used for joining. Chemical
composition of filler wire is given in Tab. 2.
Table 2. Chemical composition of 5087 filler wire
Research focused on the weldability of Al-Li
alloys is underway worldwide. A few papers
focused on the welding of Al-Li alloys with the
Al-Si filler wire. Han et al. performed double
sided laser beam welding of 2 mm thick 2060T8 and 2099-T83 Al-Li alloys with the use of
4047 filler wire. Authors observed that
segregation in the weld was characterized by the
formation of T (LiAlSi), θ (Al2Cu) and eutectics
at grain boundaries. Furthermore, the interfacial
layer between T-phase and α-Al matrix was
found to be composed of alternately crystallized
θ-phases and Al-Si eutectics [10]. But
information on laser welding of Al-Li alloys
with Al-Mg based filler wire are still limited.
Si
Fe
Cu
Mg
≤ 0.25
≤ 0.40
≤ 0.05
Zn
Zr
Ti
Mn
Cr
4.5-5.2 0.7-1.1 0.05-0.25
Be
Al
≤ 0.25 0.1-0.2 ≤ 0.15 ≤ 0.0003
Balance
TruDisk 4002 disk laser with the wavelength
of 1.03 µm, beam quality (BPP) 8 mm.mrad and
maximum power of 2.0 kW was used for
production of weld joints. Spot size of the
focused laser beam was 400 µm. Argon with the
flow rate of 18 l/min was used as shielding gas.
The welding parameters are given in Table 3.
The weld joints were prepared by standard
metallographic procedure. Keller's reagent was
used to reveal the microstructure of the weld
joints. The analysis of microstructure was
carried out to understand the influence of
different thermal cycles experienced during
welding on the final microstructures in different
zones of the weld joints.
The aim of the study is to analyse the
microstructure and mechanical properties of
produced laser welds on AW2099 aluminiumlithium alloy.
Table 3. Parameters of welding AW2099 Al-Li alloy
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
AW2099-T83 aluminium lithium alloy was
proposed as base material. Initial thickness of as
delivered Al-Li alloy was 25.4 mm. AW2099
aluminium lithium alloy was reduced to the final
thickness of 2 mm. Solution heat treatment at
530 °C followed by rapid quenching was carried
out before cold rolling. The chemical
composition provided by Smiths High
Performance is given in Tab. 1.
Li
Zn
2.4-3.0 1.6-2.0 0.4-1.0
Ti
Fe
≤ 0.1
≤ 0.07
Si
Mg
Mn
Welding
speed
[mm/s]
1
2
3
1.35
1.4
1.5
10
10
10
Filler
Focus
wire feed
position
rate
[mm]
[m/min]
+1
1
+1
1
+1
1
JEOL JSM 7600 F scanning electron
microscope was used to study the microstructure
and chemical composition of weld joints in more
detail. Microhardness measurements across base
metal – HAZ – weld metal interface was carried
out on Buehler IndentaMet 1100 microhardness
tester. Loading force of 0.98 N applied for 10 s
was used. Distance between indents was 500 µm.
Table 1. Chemical composition of AW2099 Al-Li
alloy
Cu
Weld
no.
Laser
power
[kW]
Zr
0.1-0.5 0.1-0.5 0.05-0.12
Be
≤ 0.05 ≤ 0.0001
Al
3. RESULTS
Balance
The cross section of weld joint produced
with the welding parameters: laser power of 1.5
kW, welding speed 10 mm/s and filler wire feed
186
rate of 1 m/min is given in Fig. 1. No defects
like pores and hot cracking were observed in
weld metal. The width of weld metal is 4.3 mm
and the width of HAZ is 2.2 mm. No cross
section thickness reduction was observed
because of the use of 5087 filler material.
Fig. 2 HAZ – weld metal interface
refinement in that area. Equiaxed dendrite zone
is given in Fig. 4.
Fig. 1 Cross section of selected weld joint
Magnesium increases the solubility of
hydrogen resulting in avoiding porosity
formation being characteristic for welding of
aluminium and its alloys. HAZ – weld metal
interface is given in Fig. 2. Three zones from the
grain morphology point of view were observed,
i.e. equiaxed zone (EQZ), columnar dendrite
zone (CDZ) and equiaxed dendrite zone (EDZ).
A narrow EQZ with the width of about 30
µm consisting of equiaxed grains of average size
12 µm was found between the fusion boundary
and WM. The grain interiors are precipitate-free,
while eutectic was observed at the grain
boundaries [11].
Fig. 3 Microstructure of central zone in weld metal
Equiaxed grains were probably formed due
to heterogeneous nucleation at the lithium and
zirconium rich precipitates.
The higher temperatures acting towards the
weld centre cause Al3Zr precipitates dissolution
and promote the growth of columnar grains [12].
Tao et al. studied fiber laser welding using
eutectic alloy AA4047 filler wire. Authors found
that solute segregations of Si and Cu occurred at
the grain boundaries in the HAZ and WM. The
nondendritic
equiaxed
zone
was
the
minimum hardness and weakest region of the
whole joint [13].
Fig. 4 Equiaxed dendrite zone in weld metal
The content of copper was higher in the
bright particles than in aluminium solid solution
matrix because of segregation process. Grain
boundaries were enriched in copper. Copper
EDX linescan across particle – aluminium
matrix interface is given in Fig. 5. The drop of
copper content towards aluminium solid solution
was observed (Fig. 6). Contrary, red line
The zone of very fine dendrites was observed
in the central part of weld joint (Fig. 3). It is
worth underlining that Zr was present in the
5087 filler wire. Zirconium promoted grain
187
The course of microhardness across base
metal – HAZ – weld metal interface is given in
Fig. 7. The average microhardness of base metal
is 102 HV0.1. The increase of microhardness
towards HAZ was observed. The average
microhardness in that location was 115 HV0.1.
Contrary, the lowest microhardness values were
measured in weld metal. The average
microhardness of weld metal was 88.5 HV0.1.
Observed microhardness drop is associated to
the dissolution of strengthening precipitates.
indicating the course of aluminium content
revealed that aluminium content increased from
bright particle towards solid solution.
Fig. 5 Bright particle present in WM
Eutectics were observed at the grain
boundaries of EQZ and weld metal caused by
solute segregation due to non-equilibrium
solidification.
Fig. 7 Microhardness course across BM–HAZ–WM
interface
The use of filler metal improved the average
microhardness of weld metal. The average
microhardness was slightly lower in the case of
disk laser welding of AW2099 aluminium alloy
without
filler
metal.
The
averaged
microhardness was 72 HV0.1.
Fig. 6 Copper EDX linescan across yellow line
(in Fig. 5)
4. CONCLUSIONS
Zhang et al. studied microstructure and
mechanical properties of laser beam welded AlLi alloy 2060 with Al-Mg filler wire. Their
investigations
showed
that
icosahedral
quasicrystalline T2 phase formed in the laser
welded Al-Li alloy 2060 with lower Li content
as a result of segregation and replacement of Mg
element [14].
Microstructure
characteristics
and
mechanical properties on disk laser beam
welded 2099 Al-Li alloy were investigated in
the present study. The major conclusions are as
follows:
equiaxed zone being characteristic for
aluminium – lithium alloys was observed
at the fusion boundary – weld metal
interface,
columnar
dendrites
and
equiaxed
dendrites were found in direction towards
the weld joint centreline,
zirconium led to grain refinement in weld
metal,
AW2099 Al-Li alloy possesses high strength
mainly due to precipitation strengthening.
During thermal cycle of welding precipitates
dissolved. Re-precipitation was difficult because
of high cooling rates characteristic for laser
beam welding.
188
[7] M.X. Milagre; N.V. Mogili; U. Donatus;
R.A.R. Giorjão; M. Terada; J.V.S. Araujo;
C.S.C. Machado; I. Costa, On the
microstructure characterization of the
AA2098-T351 alloy welded by FSW.
Materials Characterization 140 (2018), pp.
233-246.
interdendritic areas were enriched in
alloying elements due to segregation,
microhardness decrease in the weld metal
was recorded due to dissolution of
strengthening precipitates caused by
thermal cycle.
[8] Y.E. Ma; Z.C. Xia; R.R. Jiang; W.Y. Li,
Effect of welding parameters on
mechanical and fatigue properties of
friction stir welded 2198 T8 aluminiumlithium alloy joints. Engineering Fracture
Mechanics 114 (2013), pp. 1-11.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Slovak
Research and Development Agency under the
contract No. APVV-15-0337.
[9] A.H. Faraji; M. Moradi; M. Goodarzi; P.
Colucci; C. Maletta, An investigation on
capability of hybrid Nd:YAG laser-TIG
welding technology for AA2198 Al-Li
alloy. Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 96
(2017), pp. 1-6.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Ch. Gao; R. Gao; Y. Ma, Microstructure
and mechanical properties of friction spot
welding aluminium-lithium 2A97 alloy.
Materials and Design 83 (2015), pp. 719727.
[10] B. Han; Y. Chen; W. Tao; H. Li; L. Li,
Microstructural evolution and interfacial
crack corrosion behavior of double-sided
laser beam welded 2060/2099 Al-Li alloys
T-joints. Materials and Design 135 (2017),
pp. 353-365.
[2] R. Xiao, X. Zhang, Problems and issues in
laser beam welding of aluminum–lithium
alloys. Journal of Manufacturing Processes
16 (2014), pp. 166-175.
[3] H.-S. Lee; J.-H. Yoon; J.-T. Yoo; K. No,
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Lei, Microstructure and mechanical
properties of newly developed aluminum–
lithium alloy 2A97 welded by fiber laser.
Materials Science and Engineering A 617
(2014), pp. 1-11.
[4] M.M. Khalilabad; Y. Zedan; D. Texier; M.
Jahazi; P. Bocher, Effect of tool geometry
and welding speed on mechanical
properties of dissimilar AA2198-AA2024
FSWed Joint. Journal of Manufacturing
Processes 34 (2018), pp. 86-95.
[12] N.E. Prasad; A.A. Gokhale; R.J.H. Wanhill,
Aluminium-lithium alloys. Processing,
Properties and Applications, (2014).
[5] Y.-L. Ma; X.-R. Zhou; X.-M. Meng; W.-J.
Huang; Y. Liao; X.-L. Chen; Y.-N. Yi; X.X. Zhang; G.E. Thompson, influence of
thermomechanical treatments on localized
corrosion susceptibility and propagation
mechanism of AA2099 Al-Li alloy.
Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society
of China 26 (2016), pp. 1472-1481.
[13] W. Tao; B. Han; Y. Chen, microstructural
and mechanical characterization of
aluminium-lithium alloy 2060 welded by
fiber laser. Journal of Laser Applications 28
(2016).
[14] X. Zhang; W. Yang; R. Xiao,
Microstructure and mechanical properties
of laser beam welded Al-Li Alloy 2060
with Al-Mg filler wire. Materials and
Design 88 (2015), pp. 446-450.
[6] T. Dursun; C. Soutis, Recent developments
in advanced aircraft aluminium Alloys.
Materials and Design 56 (2014), pp. 862871.
189
Migration from TIBCO BW5 to TIBCO
BW6 Integration Platform
D. Babić a, T. Lolić b, D. Stefanović b, S. Ristić b
a
b
Devoteam Serbia, Bulevar Oslobođenja 95, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia,
E-mail: dajanababic92@gmail.com
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia,
E-mail: {teodora.lolic, darkoste, sdristic}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Business logic migrations through different platforms are common thing in businesses today.
Depending on the resources that are at disposal, level of technical expertise in terms of number of
trained or certified developers, and finally demand on the market as well as the aspiration to follow
market trends, companies transfer their business logics through different platforms. This paper shows
the reengineering process by migration from one integration platform to another, saving all the
business logic. TIBCO Business Works 5 (BW5) integration platform is a stabile platform that had
been around for a long time, but TIBCO communicated that no additional research and development
will be committed to BW5, and therefore TIBCO Business Works 6 (BW6), as the next generation
platform, was more suited for the DevOps world and hybrid integration platforms. Also, all latest
TIBCO integration related products were closely linked to BW6 and made to work seamlessly with
the same integrated development environment (IDE), such as BW6 Container Edition, TIBCO Cloud
Integration, and TIBCO Mashery. In the paper a case study is presented to compare TIBCO BW5 and
TIBCO BW6 integration platforms.
Keywords: Integration platform, Middleware, TIBCO BW5, TIBCO BW6, EAI, Migration.
There are difficulties in getting these
different applications to work together, getting
seamless data to flow between applications, and
overall system stability. Enterprise application
integration employs a form of middleware in
which an EAI provider is configured using
standardized methods to make connections
between the various applications. EAI packages
adapt together for connectivity and a
transformation engine is configured to transform
data into a usable format for the consumer..
1. INTRODUCTION
The role of middleware is to allow the flow
of communication or data between two different
entities. Enterprise Application Integration
(EAI) is the way to bring together different
applications in such a way that operate as a unit.
Everyone wants the best technology that is
out there. As such, big corporations end up
utilizing different applications, whether as a
third party or as a built in-house, to service their
different needs. Large companies might have
individual applications that serve their
manufactured products, customer base, human
resources, and business logic. These four
different applications are completely unrelated
and built on varying platforms.
Middleware is known to be a software that
acts as a bridge between an operating system or
database and applications, usually on a network.
Integration middleware is the alternate term used
for middleware as the purpose of middleware is
mainly integration. There are various of
integration platforms that are being used, all of
190
which are based on the same concepts with
differences mainly in the execution during
development and implementation.
boundaries in recent years, there are strong
demands to integrate various distributed
applications in order to enhance or increase
enterprises' competitiveness [2]. Additionally,
the applications and devices may be developed
or provided by different vendors with different
programming languages, formats, and protocols.
Significant integration efforts are required to
enhance and increase the interoperability of
these applications and devices [2,3].
Some of these platforms to develop EAI
solutions, beyond others, are: TIBCO Active
Enterprise, Mercator Enterprise Broker 5.0,
Oracle Integration Server, HP Net Action IOE,
IBM Websphere Business Integration Suit,
Miscrosoft BizTalk Server 2004, Microsoft
.NET, Sun Open Net Environment, Vitria
Business Ware, Versata Global 2000, BEA
WebLogic Integrator, Web Methods and
SeeBeyond E*Gate Integrator [1].
The main characteristic of the IT world is the
necessity for keeping up with the changes and
trend fluctuations on the market in order to
maintain the business efficiency. Companies
may also decide to change an existing IT system
or platform and switch to another, newer and
improved due to processes of companies'
mergers, acquisitions, spin-offs or divisions.
This paper focuses on a TIBCO Active
Enterprise
platforms,
i.e.
on
TIBCO
ActiveMatrix
BusinessWorks
integration
platforms, whose components are designed to
support development in phases and to let
seamlessly moves from one phase to another.
Conversion from an old to a new IT system
may save money by re-using the functionality of
old assets within the new system. However,
money saved by re-using the functionality of old
assets will usually be outweighed by the
expenses associated with the manual conversion
and downtime during the time of change from
the old IT system to the new one. In addition,
the conversion process typically requires an
extensive knowledge of the differences between
them and is usually more expensive than a
simple upgrade to a newer version of an existing
IT system [4]. Since legacy systems represent a
considerable investment by an underlying
business which will frequently rely on the
legacy software for many day-to-day business
activities, many companies go with the decision
to migrate their legacy code to a newer platform,
maintaining the stability of their business
practice and keeping up with the technology
trends at the same time, not letting their systems
to go out of date.
While the TIBCO designer enables
configuration of adapter services and business
processes that contain activities provided in the
TIBCO pallet, TIBCO Enterprise Administrator
allows managing and monitoring those service
adapters via process engines that are previously
assigned to each of the adapters. There are
various types of messaging protocols that are
being used. The adapter services are accessed
using TIBCO Rendezvous. The web service is
accessed via Simple Object Access Protocol
(SOAP). The application service is accessed via
Java Message Service (JMS).
Following chapters of this paper will
describe, respectively, a motivation for doing
the research; methodology that describes
implementation methods in detail together with
the description of a specific use case example;
results represent arguments for migration from
different perspectives; and conclusion that
contains a short summary of the results.
3. METHODOLOGY
2. MOTIVATION
For the purpose of this research, a
comparison in developing specific service via
two different platforms is made. The goal is to
show the advantages and disadvantages of each
As the industry environments become
increasingly distributed and heterogeneous
across multiple organizational and geographical
191
platform from developers,
monitoring team perspective.
clients
and
monitors initial location and picks up all the
incoming invoices, XML and a matching PDF
file. The second one is a SOAP service process
triggered manually via SOAP UI testing tool.
SOAP is a lightweight protocol for exchange of
information in a decentralized, distributed
environment. It is an XML based protocol that
consist of three parts: an envelope that defines a
framework for describing what is in a message
and how to process it, a set of encoding rules for
expressing instances of application-defined
datatypes, and a convention for representing
remote procedure calls and responses [5]. Third
interface process is a Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) receiver that handles the
client's request for a daily report of an invoices
being processed on that particular day. There is
another process that handles monthly and
summary reports that triggers via timer activity.
Last but not least is Replay process that provides
users an opportunity to handle some of the old
invoices again that have not been processed for
some of the following reasons: invalid XML
invoice files, no matching PDF files, no contract
for an invoice or none of the suppliers are
related to the invoice.
Furthermore, this section is divided in two
parts, where the first one is focused on
description of the use of application and within
the second one is shown how the application is
implemented by means of TIBCO BW5 and
TIBCO BW6 platforms.
3.1. Use Case
The main function of the process is to
convert incoming invoices into a readable
format so that the Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) system can process them. The invoices
are placed by one of the 4 different suppliers on
a special server, also called the communication
server. Invoices are in a form of an Extended
Markup Language (XML) file with a matching
Portable Document Format (PDF) file.
Service client places the invoices into 4
different folders depending on the supplier that
is sending the invoices. Each supplier has its
own type of message and each invoice has a
PDF file as attachment separately delivered as
well.
The Enterprise Service Bus (ESB) process'
task is to pick these invoices and PDF
attachments files up and move them to another
server which lies within the domain of another
client. The next step is to convert the different
file formats of each supplier into a single format
that can be understood by the ERP system.
Secondary processes are:
All of the exceptions are handled and an
email is sent via application to the
corresponding users and monitoring team. Once
the flow is triggered, main part that obtains an
actual invoice processing is invoked and
implementation code is shown in Fig. 1 (BW5
code example) and Fig. 2 (BW6 code example)
in this paper.
archive the original invoices and PDFattachments into directories,
translate supplier-contract numbers into
department codes,
maintain a report of all processing results,
move invoices with zero-amounts into a
separate folder, and
provide the ability to re-process invoices
that have been manually corrected.
Main process contains mostly call process
activities for each supplier invoice that
represents an input, and based on it the flow is
being redirected. Since each supplier has its own
type of the message, implementation of each is
handled differently. If a matching PDF file
exists, XML invoice file goes through an XML
parse activity that extracts the data from
elements and transfer it further to the mapper
activity in which, based on the element values,
arithmetic operations are being executed. With
3.2. Implementation
In order to trigger the flow for this use case
there are 5 interface processes. First one
contains a file puller as a start activity that
192
Fig. 1. Invoice processing implementation code via TIBCO BW5 platform
file system. The concept and usage of shared
variables and shared modules is of an extreme
importance for a developer to be able to reach as
high as possible reusability percentage of a
code.
this, the processing of an invoice is finished.
Based on the content of an invoice, a status for
every invoice is being generated and stored into
a shared variable value that main process uses in
order to archive invoices properly through the
Fig. 2. Invoice processing implementation code via TIBCO BW6 platform
of the major improvements would be the
handling of logs through the application flow. In
BW5 all of the log activities are handled by
simply writing into a file which content will
later be used for debugging purposes. However,
in BW6, a usage of shared module is being
exploited in such a matter that all of the log
activity outputs are being transferred to the
The requirement for this invoice processing
BW5 legacy code to be migrated was that the
functionality of an application, external
invocations and its base implementation
methods should remain the same. This, of course
is not the reason not to implement all of the
possible improvements during migration of the
code into the BW6 platform environment. One
193
why BW6 platform makes life easier from the
developers' point of view. However, there is
more than one factor that impacts the decision to
migrate from one platform to another.
logging process located in the shared module
and from there directly written into the log
database. Needless to say, how this
improvement contributes the saving of resources
in terms of memory space, but in addition it also
improves a performance of an application and
reduces the amount of code. To be able to make
a comparison, an implementation in BW6 is
shown in the Fig. 2.
Fluctuations on the IT market in terms of no
additional research and development to be
committed to BW5, which means that bug fixing
or any future feature and plugins will be
committed exclusively to the BW6 platform.
This kind of logging procedure is completely
reusable and can be adjusted to any application.
It is implemented via two simple processes.
Implementation of an improved logging
procedure via BW6 code is shown in Fig. 3 & 4.
4. RESULTS
Reasons for migration to TIBCO BW6
platform, when comparing to the other
integration platforms, are various and meet the
requirements of various users, developers,
designers, testers or administrators. Considering
that the platform supports a complete
development lifecycle using of native Eclipse
features, development, debugging, testing and
deployment are all possible in one single
environment.
Fig. 3. Write to log procedure implementation code
via TIBCO BW6 platform
The JobContext shared variable contains the
data previously set in the processes that requires
logging and those data are being passed to
another process that writes the logs into database
or into a file. Both options are deliberately
provided by this log procedure for the purpose
of reusability in order to easily adjust to the
possible requirements of an application.
Managing the further course of the flow in this
case is conducted via simple boolean type of
properties: LogToDB and LogToFile. In
addition, a LogTreshold property prevents the
logs with large payload to be written.
LogSpawned, the second process, is the next
step in the logging procedure (Fig. 4).
From the developers' point of view, main
advantage is easy process, service and API
implementation thanks to the intelligent canvas,
a mapper that includes auto-complete features
and automatic warnings. Besides that, BW6
offers an easy and sophisticated model for
compensation handlers that enables defining
catch blocks in the form of a scope with
activities and exception handlers.
As already mentioned, TIBCO BW6 is an
Eclipse/Java base platform which means that the
combination of BW6 processes and Java coding
is possible. That enables a developer to create a
custom TIBCO function using java code and
since the function is able to be installed as a
plugin it does not affect the performances of an
application.
Through this example – part of the
implementation code, it is inevitable to conclude
From the client's perspective, one of the main
advantages would be the fact that in most tools,
each SOAP or Representational State Transfer
(REST) service operation has to be implemented
as a single process, while in TIBCO BW6, all
operations of a service can be implemented in a
single process, even both SOAP and REST
Fig. 4. Log spawned procedure implementation code
via TIBCO BW6 platform
194
[3] Y. Xu; R. Song; L. Korba; L. Wang; W.
Shen; S. Lang, Distributed device networks
with
security
constraints.
IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Informatics
1(4) (2005), pp. 217-225.
services can be implemented within one single
process implementation. It is important to
mention for the purpose of comparison that
BW5 platform does not support implementation
of a REST service at all. It is possible only to
invoke a REST service.
[4] S. Basu; K. Beg; B. Chartier; T. Chau; C.
Chu, Hewlett-Packard Development Co LP,
2005. System and method for code
migration, US Patent Application, pp. 3-4,
(2005).
One of the most important reasons for
migration from BW5 to BW6 is the continuous
integration and continuous delivery to enable
quick releases, bug fixes and change requests of
services. BW6 offers a specific Maven plugin,
but also supports other tools such Subversion
(SVN) or Global Information Tracker (GIT) for
version control management [6].
[5] World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
http://www.w3.org/TR/2000/NOTE-SOAP20000508/
[6] Kai Waehner, Comparison TIBCO
ActiveMatrix BusinessWorks6/Container
edition vs. BW5, (2016).
5. CONCLUSION
TIBCO BusinessWorks 5 is a stabile
platform that has been available for over 10
years now and will be supported for a very long
time since thousands of customers have
developed their legacy systems in it. On the
other hand, BW6 is a platform to which TIBCO
committed all of the future research and
development, therefore this platform is seen as
the future.
The migration of a code from one platform to
another should be performed for the old legacy
systems only if it’s necessary mainly because of
the resources spent in terms of money and time,
since not everything can be migrated
automatically. However, for the new projects,
with all of its features and improvements BW6
is most definitely seen as better solution.
6. REFERENCES
[1] K.
Qureshi,
Enterprise
application
integration. Proc. of the IEEE Int. Conf. on
Emerging
Technologies,
Islamabad,
Pakistan, pp. 340-345, (2005).
[2] W. He; L. Xu, Integration of distributed
enterprise applications: A survey. IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Informatics
10(1) (2014), pp. 35-42.
195
Implementation of Lean Principles in
Mining Industry – Case Studies
M. Anđelović a, S.A. Sedmak a, S. Kirin a, B. Đorđević a, N. Milovanović
a
a
Innovation Centre of Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljice Marije 16,
11120 Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract
Shown in this paper is the implementation of lean principles in mining industry, in form of two case
studies, involving mining sites in Nevada, USA and Efemcukur, Turkey. In both cases, the companies
struggled to survive due to a crisis, and it was decided to apply lean principles in an attempt to
improve their efficiency and reduce the costs. The first case was focused on increasing production,
whereas the second case involved better maintenance for the purpose of preventing considerable
downtimes. The application of lean management to both these situations provided positive results,
allowing both companies to recover and continue with their work.
Keywords: Lean management, Kaizen, mining site, preventive maintenance, validated learning
2. HISTORY AND PROBLEMS IN
BOTH CASES
1. INTRODUCTION
Recently, the concept of lean management
has found its use in various areas. Lean mana–
gement is based on the following principles:
The first case mentioned here involves the
Round Mountain (shown in fig. 1), that is
located in the Nevada, a four-hour drive from
Las Vegas. Gold mining represents one of the
most developed and important industry branches
in Nevada (USA). This area has seen gold
production for 110 years; and it had produced 14
million ounces of gold since 1977, whereas right
now it has around 900 people employed [1].
Taking into account the isolation of the mine
itself, and how lean management was applied to
it, it is evident that this approach can reach even
the most remote locations and facilities.
identify problems (value),
map the value stream
create flow
Establish pool
Seek perfection (constant improvement)
In this paper its application in mining
industry will be presented. It both cases, the
advantages of lean management are shown, but
in the different segments of mining industry.
The first case that will be shown here is how
lean management in a gold mine in Nevada USA created a strong CI team, and the second
case will demonstrate how similar principle of
lean management was successfully implemented
to improve the maintenance in a gold mine
located in Efemcukur –Turkey.
Fig. 1. Round Mountain mine site in Nevada, USA
196
The selection of cross-functional teams was
performed based on where people seemed to be
the most receptive and also on the impact these
teams would have on the business itself. Senior
management pointed employees in the right
direction, while still allowing the team members
to figure out improvements on their own.
The mine had a steady and good production,
until the crisis in 2012, when price of gold
started dropping, and thanks to lean
management, a disaster has been averted.
In second case shown, the problems also
started with the economic crisis in 2012, when
the price of gold dropped to the sink. At the
time, Tüprag was commissioning the
Efemçukuru site (fig. 2), hoping to start
production as soon as possible. To make a
difference they increased working hours and
pushed workers to the limit and that resulted in
total chaos, with production performance
dwindling and safety risks increasing. By 2013,
it was clear as daylight that the mine couldn’t
continue working like this. During next year the
price of gold kept dropping, putting a strain on
mining investments and mineral exploration
budgets around the world. It was at this time that
he mine turned to the Lean Institute of Turkey in
order to implement lean management. Lean
principles which were used at Tüprag included
the 5S and visual management [2], along with
kaizen activities to improve the maintenance.
The continuous improvement board (fig. 3) is
a management response on how to successfully
capture improvement ideas that are given by the
employees. In this was, it was possible to make
things visual, which helped in maintaining a
continuous stream of ideas that originated from
all levels of the organization – doing things this
way resulted in a total of 500 improvement ideas
submitted in one year at the mine site.
Fig. 3. The continuous improvement board used in
Round Mountain mine site
In this case, it is shown that improving
without ensuring that everybody knows the
ultimate goal of a company is not the right
approach. The line-of-sight principle is used –
also known as True North to the lean
practitioners – to help the employees to
understand that the mining site has an ultimate
goal and that both departments and individuals
have a contribution to make towards it. The
ultimate aim of the company is to have a 900strong continuous improvement team. Here the
lean training was gladly accepted with
enthusiasm. This is often not the case, as will be
shown in the second example. After training, the
employees where really trying to make a
difference. Sharing with employees the fact that
Fig. 2. Efemçukuru mine site in Turkey
3. IMPLEMENTATION OF LEAN
In the Round Mountain case, they started
developing people from the ground up. They
started to teach their employees to think lean,
and also give them all the necessary information
and tools for successful implementation of lean.
There were two basic elements for
developing people and these are the use of a
continuous improvement board – to encourage
them to take a more active role in the
improvement of processes – and the creation of
cross-functional teams [3].
197
they wanted all 900 of them to become active
improvers was one of the best things to do.
means that every transport and processing
operations represented pure waste, which
resulted in capacity loss in the plant and great
inefficiency. By implementing kaizen, all
available ore face engineering applications were
repeatedly questioned by mining engineers and
training on each technique was given to each
employee. The final result has been millions of
dollars in savings.
In the second case (Turkey), things were
different, and lean training sessions were met
with suspicion and resistance. They got
responses from employees like: “We are Turkish
miners, not Japanese carmakers”, “Mines are
different, unique environments” or “You can’t
apply 5S underground” [2]. But the management
was firm and persistent, thus in six months after
the first implementation pilot projects, kaizen
had begun to bring results and people started to
realize that the philosophy they had resisted can
actually help in solving of mining site problems.
The application of 5S and visual manage–
ment (continuous improvement board - fig. 4)
has resulted in a better-organized underground
work area. After the initial positive results were
obtained, it was decided that the 5S should be
spread to the whole mining site, including all of
its departments. As a consequence, 5S audits are
now performed in 95 locations across
Efemçukuru, above and below the ground alike.
Fig. 4. The continuous improvement board used in
Efemçukuru mine site
There are two main phases: labor- and
equipment-intensive underground production
and process- and energy-intensive ore benefit–
ciation [2]. At Efemçukuru, the company used
TPM (total predictive maintenance) along with
early equipment management as a means of
solving underground problems, whereas autono–
mous maintenance was applied to the rest of the
mining site, along the concepts of reliability and
energy efficiency.
4. BENEFITES OF
INTRODUCING THE LEAN
In the Round Mountain case, the biggest
success of lean was shortening the time between
finding the ore and delivering it to the
processing department. When determining the
quantity of material that could be carried by a
truck, they used to guess the amounts, which
usually resulted trucks being under- or overloaded – they had always worked that way and
nobody ever told them anything different. Here,
the visual management played a vital role, and
illustrations were of vital importance, so
communion improvement board shined in their
best light. This was a great way for minimizing
of operating costs, as a lot more haulage was
achieved with the same number of trucks and for
same amount of fuel.
They encountered two types of problems
here, the first was related to the fact that
completing one cycle took too much time. That
actually means that they evaluated both valuecreating and non-value-creating operations.
Thus, by doing this, they were capable to see the
problem and to solve it by creating standardized
material areas with storage bays that are refilled
every hour. In this way, waiting times and
material waste were eliminated, and as a result,
the cost per meter excavated was reduced.
Another great example of improvement by
lean was the shift change. A mining site is quite
different from a factory: it is necessary to have
people on the field at all times and inspect the
The second problem was that the overbreak
(excess material after excavation) was high. This
198
Lean wouldn’t be lean if it didn’t benefit
everyone involved, including all of the
community related to the mining site directly
and indirectly.
trucks before getting them on the road, resulting
in shift changes being all over the board. By
accurately measuring them, it was possible to
develop standards which significantly shortened
the travel time and the delay between shifts.
Hence, this study presented a very specific
application of lean, under somewhat extreme
circumstances (the isolation of the facilities in
question), and it was determined that both cases
gave successful results, even when the
implementation was not initially accepted by the
employees. It also pointed out the advantages of
maintenance and standardization of activities
and process in a typical mining site, while
emphasizing
the
advantages
of
lean
methodologies in terms of cost-effectiveness and
production efficiency.
What is also important is that with lean
approach constant maintenance of mining
equipment and preventive repairing is
introduced, and with that, the mining site
downtime is drastically lowered. Hence, the
amount of money lost due to the mining site not
working is minimized.
In Turkey, the implementing lean
management approach was an even bigger
success, since they started monitoring crucial
equipment and with that they could intervene
before failure occurs (preventive maintenance).
After identifying the sources of problems they
placed Fuguai Tags [4] at the affected machines.
The routine maintenance was introduced, and in
this way, rather than constantly putting out the
fires, the team is now performing root-cause
analysis to eliminate faults once and for all. By
doing thing like this, the breakdown rate has
decreased. Early equipment management was
also extremely useful, because prior to applying
of the lean approach, the mine site used to spend
hundreds of thousands of dollars in mobile
equipment for mine production that they could
not even properly use most of the time. Kaizen
was instrumental in tackling these challenges,
but it’s certainly not the only element of a lean
transformation that was relied upon.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors of this paper show their gratitude
to the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of Republic of
Serbia, for their support of projects TR 35040
and TR 35011.
7. REFERENCES
[1] https://planet-lean.com/kinross-gold-minelean management
[2] https://planet-lean.com/tuprag-leanmanagement
[3] D. Holland; D. Rhone, Lean Success
Methodology: How to make lean solutions
stick, Xlibris, (2014).
5. DISCUSSION AND
CONCLUSIONS
[4] J. Leflar, Practical TPM, Successful equip–
ment management agilent technologies.
The transformation that took place in both
mining sites after implementing a lean approach
is nothing short of a revolution. This is more
than just the combination of a couple of
technologies, innovations or investments, the
important thing here, which has to be the main
focus, is a structured, purpose-driven effort to
unleash the creativity of employees and develop
their capabilities.
199
LEAN Approach and Risk Management
S. Kirin a, D. Kirin b, A. Sedmak
a
c
Innovation Center of Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia, E-mail: skirin@mas.bg.ac.rs
b
Student, Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: darkokirin@gmail.com
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16,
11000 Belgrade, Serbia, E-mail: asedmak@mas.bg.ac.rs
Abstract
Today's age is characterized by accelerated technological development, changes in the natural
environment (extreme climate change) and rapid and turbulent socio-economic changes. Customer are
becoming more demanding, markets are becoming more dynamic & open, product life-cycles are
getting shorted In order to increase the productivity of the people involved and to minimize risk,
business has turned to process. But the process steps also need to be resilient against disruptions to
quickly return to their normal state This creates a pressure on processes and therefore they become
inefficient & wasteful. LEAN is modern answer to business challenges which involves new
approaches and tools which can be used in risk management too and this is the topic of the presented
paper.
Keywords: lean approach, risk management, error proofing
services can bring to the client. The core idea is
to maximize customer value while minimizing
waste. Simply, lean means creating more value
for customers with fewer resources. A lean
organization understands customer value and
focuses its key processes to continuously
increase it, [2]. (Kirin, Kirin, Sedmak and
Arandjelovic, 2018).
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Lean thinking
The term “lean thinking” encompasses a set
of lean practices and was first proposed by
James P. Womack et al.(1992). It can be
considered that the lean paradigm is:
„use less of everything – half the human
effort in the factory, half the manufacturing
space, half the investment in tools, half the
engineering working hours to develop a new
product in half the time. Also, it requires
keeping far less than half the inventory on site,
results in fewer defects, and produces a greater
and ever-growing quality of products“, [1] .
(Womack, Jones, and Ross 1990).
From that time to the present day, the
popularity of lean thinking has spread in the
business world.
The core idea of lean manufacturing is
relentless work on eliminating waste from the
manufacturing process. Waste can take many
forms, but the basic idea is to eliminate anything
and everything that does not add value from the
perspective of your customer. Waste is any step
or action in a process that is not required to
complete a process successfully. When Waste is
removed, only the steps that are required to
Inspired from the Japanese management
methods, the LEAN approach is intended to
have the enterprise think first and foremost
about maximizing the value that its products and
200
highest-level issues, and ensuring that people
have the skills, information, judgment, and
relationships that allow them to deliver vastly
improved results
deliver a satisfactory product or service to the
customer remain in the process.
Lean management strived to eliminate seven
kinds of waste including waste from
overproduction, waste of waiting time,
transportation
waste,
processing
waste,
inventory waste, waste of motion and waste
from product defects.
Learning instead of blaming becomes the
focus of every mistake, missed opportunity/goal.
Training and development are a constant high
priority.
At Toyota, millions of employee suggestions
are generated every year, with an adoption rate
of over 90 percent.' By contrast, many non-Lean
companies' suggestion programs are dormant
and ineffective. Principles of lean production are
Objectives of lean enterprise transformation
are: less waste, less design and production time,
continuous flow, less costs, more employee
empowerment, fewer organizational layers,
fewer suppliers, more flexibility and capability,
more productivity, improved quality, higher
level of customer satisfaction and long-term
competitive success. Three key pillars of Lean
are physical workplace, process and people.
Continuous Improvement - promotes
constant, necessary change toward
achievement of a desired state. The
changes can be big or small but must lend
itself toward improvement
5S methodology is utilized by Toyota in the
1970s. The core of 5S methodology is to provide
a clean, tidy, safe and productive workplace.
The 5S Methodology offered each employee a
level of importance and encouragement that
every job was essential to the process and end
product. Waste was kept to a minimum and
workspace organization led to timely outcomes
with genuine employee pride.
Respect for humanity - constant
communication, praise of a job well done,
listening to their ideas and helping out
when necessary. When people do not feel
respected, they tend to lose respect for the
company.
Leveled Production - the main tool for
this lean manufacturing principle is
utilization of a pull system.
The value specification process elaborates on
the outcomes. In this process the key
stakeholders determine first their values
(economical, social, enabling sustainability,
environmental and behavioural) and then rank
them based on their importance achieve their
goals. Value is determined by the customers
who want to buy the right product with the right
capabilities at the right price. Different values
are: quality, design, price, durability, variety,
ease of use, maintenance level.
Just In Time Production - to build what is
required, when it is required and in the
quantity required (works well with
Kanban - a pull system)
Quality Built In - design of the part, into
the manufacturing process, into the
packaging, shipping. Quality is a major
consideration.
1.2. Risk management
Lean thinking changes the focus of
management
from
optimizing
separate
technologies, assets, and vertical departments to
optimizing the flow of products and services
through entire value streams that flow
horizontally across technologies, assets, and
departments to customers. Manager’s role
changes from directing and inspecting work to
coaching, facilitating, resolving only the
The risk is usually defined by the probability
of the occurrence of an unwanted event and its
consequences. The common frameworks
established by a risk management plan involves
six steps: establishment of safety goals;
identification of risks and resources; assessment
of risks; prioritization and implementation of
201
actions; monitoring of effectiveness and
improvement according to new circumstances.
Technologies and ecosystem factors are
considered depending on the classification of
risks. High-risk systems are systems that are
complex in themselves (new technology,
interconnected components) and / or
use
hazardous substances in the workplace. The
development of technology creates constantly
new risks. The risk assessment for equipment is
based on historical data, maintenance data or
manufacturer declarations (for new equipment).
Risk management tools and techniques could
be qualitative, quantitative or combined.
Qualitative are root cause analysis, hazard
analysis, brainstorming, process mapping and
analysis, taxonomy-based questionnaires, Pareto
method, affinity grouping.
Some of quantitative methods are stochastic
and deterministic Modeling like Probabilistic
Risk Assessments (PRA) and Other Statistical
based Modeling and Analysis techniques; Cause
& Effects Analysis like Failure Modes & Effects
Analysis (FMEA) and Failure Modes, Effects
& Criticality Analysis (FMECA), Fault Tree
Analysis (FTA); Systems Engineering Analysis
and Risk Assessments.
Human error can be the result of operator
fatigue, insufficient training or lack of training
to work under certain conditions or apparatus,
disregard of rules and regulations, cognitive
constraints in complex tasks or health problems
during work.
When it comes to the methodology of risk
safety research, it can be said that security is a
dynamic "no event since the purpose of
assessment and decision making is to ensure that
the unwanted event does not occur. This raises
question: In which way and by which methods
can “non-event” be analysed. In old
technologies, the danger is the age of the
equipment, and its projected lifetime is an
important data for assessing the degree of risk.
The figure 1 is a model of the most important
factors affecting risk management process.
Risk management goals and objectives
should be consistent with and supportive of the
enterprise’s business objectives and strategies.
The organization’s business model provides an
important context for risk management. Aspects
of safety research include: human factor,
reliability and safe engineering, highly reliable
organisations, cognitive engineering, interaction
between man and machine, natural decision
making, safety culture, learning from accidents
and research, risk perception and regulation.
REGULATION/
STANDARDS
Existence
Aceptance
Application
•
•
•
CORPORATE
COUNTRY experience/
presence
RISK
•
•
•
•
Identification
Determination
Pondering
Mutual
interaction
PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION
PERSONAL
PAST EXPERIENCE
Fig 1 Factors related to risk management
202
The “5 Whys” is a technique which by
repeatedly asking the question “Why” in
maximum five steps leads to the root cause of a
problem. Every “why” should remove one layer
of a problems and discover new symptoms.
2. LEAN AND RISK
MANAGEMENT
It is necessary to present in details
assumptions of study to such an extent manner
that a reader could repeat that work if he/she
was going to confirm achieved results. This
information should be given in as short as
possible version.
Poka-yoke means methods or devices to
improve product quality and ensure consistent
process results and avoid defects. „Defects” are
the results, but “Errors” are the causes of the
results.
2.1. Lean production tools related to
risk end error proofing
Defect can be simply defined as a variance
between expected and actual. Defect is an error
found AFTER the application goes into
production. In other words defect is the
difference between expected and actual result in
the context of testing. It is the deviation of the
customer requirement.
Assessing manufacturing readiness level is
performed to define the current level of
manufacturing maturity, to identify maturity
shortfalls and associated costs and risks and to
provide the basis for manufacturing maturation
and risk management.
Traditional risk management approaches,
based on the static risk assessment leading to
control established before the risk activity has
occurred are not suitable for the dynamic
development and rapid changes in the
environment,
particularly in
emergency
conditions, [3]
The goal is to understand the concept and
practice of zero defects and how to develop
Poka-yoke to eliminate these defects.
Mistake proofing, or its Japanese equivalent
poka-yoke (pronounced PO-ka yo-KAY is any
mechanism in a lean manufacturing process that
helps an equipment operator avoid (yokeru)
mistakes (poka).
„Value stream map" became an common
term and central approach of lean methodology
in many places. Value stream mapping also
came to be used in Six Sigma methodologies.
The first step toward creating a lean
environment – increasing value and removing
waste – is analyzing the value stream. This
provides the foundation for creating an
improvement plan. By examining the current
state of a system, actions that add to value
creation can be clearly separated from those that
create waste, making it easier to locate
opportunities for improvement.
Its purpose is to eliminate product defects by
preventing, correcting, or drawing attention to
human errors as they occur.
The concept was formalised, and the term
adopted, by Shigeo Shingo as part of the Toyota
Production System.
2.2. Risk management
In high risk systems, building of a safety
culture is important, and represents a long-term,
continued process. During radical changes, it is
of great importance for the safety aspect to study
the hazards caused by beliefs and mindsets, both
individual and collective.
A3 Lean tool is known as „The A3 Thinking
Process“ and can be applied in almost any
problem situation. It consists of the ten steps :
Identify a problem or need, Understand current
position,
Target,
Root Cause Analysis,
Countermeasures,
Implementation plan,
Follow-up plan, Involve affected parties,
Approval, Implementation and Evaluation.
The human factor is one of the main subjects
of risk management, which is difficult to predict.
Human factors lead to hazardous situations due
to error, failure in operation, or due to some
disorder.
203
In risk management, perceptions of risk by
decision makers and their assessment of
hazardous activities and / or technology are
essential. Practice shows that risk perception
plays an important role in the adoption of
security policies, providing a basis for
understanding and anticipating adequate
responses to potential hazards. Risk perception
is an important factor in improving
communication and risk information between
technical experts and decision makers, [4].
recast the understanding of lean into a set of
such principles which we can compare and
contrast with those from risk management, table
1. It could be seen that there is very good fit
between them.
According to Pearce and others, [5], the main
difference in the function of risk management is
to explicitly address uncertainty, whereas lean
explicitly addresses wasted effort through the
optimisation of flow. In the risk management
there is value to protect and lean approach is
focused on providing customer value.
2.3. Principles of lean approach and
risk management
Both approaches are dynamic, systematic,
structured and based on existed data. Both
implementations consider cultural factor, respect
human, aim to affect the entire system, both
approaches facilitate continual learning and
improvement of the organisation.
Risk management is the topic of scientific
research for a longer period then lean approach.
During that period, a clear set of principles was
developed. Principles of lean are less strict. We
Table 1. Lean and risk management principles
Lean principle
Risk management principle
Creating value for customer
Part of the production process
Its tools help the decision-making process
Deals with „waste"
It has structured, systematic dynamic tools and methods
It is based on data about current conditions and values
for customer
Respect humans and create "lean" organisational culture
Observes the entire system and solves problems of flow
and bottlenecks
Promote continuous improvement
Determine values for protection
Part of every production process
An important part of the decision-making process
Deals with uncertainty
Has systematic, structured tools and methods
It is based on the best available data and information
Deals with organisation culture and human factor
It looks at the whole system and its critical parts
Continuously learn from previous mistakes
can bring benefits in risk management through
decreased number of failures, less errors and
mitigation of bad impacting various areas.
Supporting lean to meet business goals is the
decision of top management teams. The same
teams deals with the highest importance risks
and building a culture for sustainability. This
involves selecting the right methods at the right
time and it is shown that principles of both, risk
management and lean approach are the very
similar and techniques from lean approach could
improve risk management.
3. RESULTS
By applying the comparative analysis of the
principles of risk management and lean
principles, it can be seen that they clearly fit.
Because of that, tools developed in lean
management can be easily applied in order to
improve risk management. Fig 2 presents risk
management cycle and appropriate lean tools
with aim to improve process of risk
management.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Lean processes have risk associated with
them, and lean approach developed tools which
204
Fig. 2. Risk management process and lean tool
operacionim istraživanjima (SYM-OP-IS),
University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Transport and Traffic Engineering, pp. 522525, (2014).
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Ministry of Science
and Technological Development of the Republic
of Serbia that financed the “Monitoring and
Adaptive Risk Management in Opencast
Mineral-Raw Material Mining” (TR 33044)
since 2011. They also thank Professor Slobodan
Vujić, who started the project, Igor Miljanović,
who currently heads the project, Professor
Mirko Vujošević and other members of the
project team for cooperation, which has led to
new knowledge in risk assessment.
[5] A. Pearce; D. Pons, Implementing lean
practices: Managing the transformation
risks. Journal of Industrial Engineering,
(2013) (2013), pp. 790291-1–79029119.
6. REFERENCES
[1] J.P. Womack; D.T. Jones; D. Ross, The
Machine that Changed the World, Rawson
Associates, New York, (1990).
[2] S. Kirin; S. Kirin; S. Sedmak; Mihajlo
Aranđelović, Lean Approach in Theory
And Practice, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering in Belgrade, (2018).
[3] S. Kirin; I. Miljanović; A. Milutinović,
General approach to risk management in
emergency
condition
in
mining.
Internacionalni simpozijum o operacionim
istraživanjima (SYM-OP-IS), University of
Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic
Engineering, pp. 518-521, (2014).
[4] A. Milutinović; S. Kirin; G. Gajić; V.
Čebašek, Reaction to emergency condition
in mining. Internacionalni simpozijum o
205
Numerical simulations of crack growth
in integral stringer panel using XFEM
Abulgasim Sghayera, Aleksandar Grbovica, Aleksandar Sedmaka
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16, 11120
Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract
Shown in this paper is the implementation of lean principles in mining industry, in form of two case
studies, involving mining sites in Nevada, USA and Efemcukur, Turkey. In both cases, the companies
struggled to survive due to a crisis, and it was decided to apply lean principles in an attempt to
improve their efficiency and reduce the costs. The first case was focused on increasing production,
whereas the second case involved better maintenance for the purpose of preventing considerable
downtimes. The application of lean management to both these situations provided positive results,
allowing both companies to recover and continue with their work.
Keywords: Extended Finite Element Method, Integral stringer, Fatigue crack growth
1. INTRODUCTION
2. NUMERICAL MODEL
Morfeo/Crack is a software product for the
computation of the stress intensity factors (SIFs)
along the front of three-dimensional cracks and
the prediction of crack propagation under
fatigue loading using the extended finite element
method (XFEM). XFEM is an extension of the
finite element method that allows the presence
of cracks inside the elements and offers a high
precision on the stress singularity at the crack
front with special enriched degrees of freedom.
Numerical simulation of crack growth has been
performed on 4-stringer plate shown in Figure 1.
In this simulation two Al alloys, AA6156 T4 and
AA6156 T6, were used (Young’s modulus E =
71000 MPa, Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.33), with
different coefficients for Paris equations: m =
3.042 and C=4.7.E-011 MPa mm1/2 and m = 3.174
and C=1.77.E-011 MPa mm1/2, respectively, [1].
The central crack of the length a0=14 mm was
initiated and the load identical to that used for the
same pervious model was applied.
Between each step, it reads the Abaqus
solution, recovers richer, improved XFEM
solution in a small area surrounding the crack
using a tailored integration rule, accurately
computes the stress intensity factors which
determine the crack advance and updates the
Abaqus input file with the new crack position.
Moreover, Morfeo/Crack for Abaqus profits
from the nice and intuitive user interface
Abaqus/CAE since it is integrated in the latter as
a plug-in for the definition of the initial crack
position and the specific data for fatigue crack
propagation. Finally, Morfeo/Crack for Abaqus
offers the choice between post-processing the
results in Abaqus/CAE as usual or in a freely
available post-processor (gmsh), which renders
the solution at the crack tip.
Figure 1. Model of 4-stringer plate with 3D crack
used in simulation
The crack was propagated in total of 173 steps
(in each step crack length increased by 2 mm)
and after 68 steps, it reached the wall of the left
stringer and began to spread along it (Figure 2).
206
The crack is continuing spreading along the
base metal to completely damage the both
stringers after 130 steps. This can be clearly
shown from (Figure 4).
At the same time crack continued to spread
through the base metal plate, reaching the wall
of the right stringer after 78th step (Figure 3)
and beginning to spread along that stringer.
Figure 2 Crack in 4-stringer plate after 68 steps of propagation
Figure 3. After 78 steps crack begins to spread along the stringer.
Simulation of the crack growth stopped after
173 steps because the number of load cycles
necessary to propagate the crack by 1 mm
dropped under 100, indicating that the crack
started to propagate rapidly.
During the 160th step complete failure of the
left stringer occurred (Figure 5), after which the
crack continued to spread along the right
stringer and through the base metal plate.
207
Figure 4. Crack after 130 steps of propagation: both stringers are highly damaged.
Figure 5 Crack after 160 steps of propagation.
208
length a (mm), Fig. 6. Significant effect of
material resistance to fatigue crack growth is
evident, with approximately twofold longer
fatigue life in the case of AA6156 T4.
3. XFEM ABAQUS RESULTS
The crack growth results data is obtained by
XEFM for materials, i.e. different Al alloys, and
presented as the Number of cycles (N) vs. Crack
Figure 6. Crack propagation vs number of cycle N for T6 and T4 alloys.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Numerical simulation of fatigue crack growth
has been successfully performed by using the
extended FEM, as built-in in software MORFEO/
ABAQUS. The effect of material properties, i.e.
resistance to fatigue crack growth, has been
shown.
5. REFERENCES
[1]
A. Sghayer, Doctoral thesis, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, University of
Belgrade, 2018
209
EDUCATION
210
Measuring Student Satisfaction with
e-Learning Platform
N. Radojčić a, N. Simeunović a, N. Cvetković a, J. Ćurčić a, S. Rakić
a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {natasar95, nsimeun, nelacvetkovic, curcicj,
slavkorakic}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
In today's rapidly changing environment, higher education institutions as business systems are also
struggling for competitive advantage and a leading market position. In a last few years, increasing
attention has been devoted to distance and e-learning, as one of the determinants of competitive
advantage in higher education. Evaluation of educational service quality is essential for providing a
feedback on the effectiveness of educational systems in order to create high quality services.
Considering the trend of wide usage of online technologies in the higher education sector, the aim of
this study is to measure student satisfaction with e-learning system in order to improve their educational
experience. Therefore, in this research SERVPERF method will be used for measuring student
satisfaction with e-learning platform. The research was conducted at the Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad, and research results indicate increased satisfaction with the application of new
technologies in education.
Keywords: e-learning, user experience, education, service quality
of seeing in education, “system of interest” is
advocated for education designers of
contemporary learning environments involving
substantial e-learning dimensions [1]. Segrave et
al. think that contemporary learning environments
still demand teaching excelling in older forms of
traditional media teachingandin-person, but also
creative adaptations to e-learning opportunities
[2]. Wang et al. consider that the extent of
satisfaction can be measured by the model,
SERVQUAL [3]. Kigundu showed that there is
four categories of e-learning tools that can be used
to enable and sustain students’ engagement in the
learning processes in higher education [4]:
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper presents the analysis and evaluation
of electronic learning among students of the
fourth year at the Faculty of Technical Sciences in
Novi Sad. The aim of this paper is to examine the
students’ perception of electronic learning as well
as their satisfaction. Considering that the faculty
already applies electronic learning, it is important
to investigate how students respond to this kind of
distance learning. Due to rapid technology
development and improvements in educational
area, faculties which apply-learning systems need
to follow the changes and trends in this field,
regularly inform their users and conduct market
research in order to maintain customer
satisfaction at the high level.
learning management system (LMS),
synchronous collaboration applications,
other
computer
tools/applications
including asynchronous communication
applications,
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
There are many theoretical perspectives about
e-learning. Author Kuhn describes a different way
game play or simulation software;
211
Trust
Misut’s practical recommendations and
methodological materials in this field (etc.
development
of
education
content,
communication of e-learning participants,
related to the organization of education,
proposals for legislative changes regarding the
rights and obligations of e-learning participants,
counting workload of teachers in e-learning)
indicate positive influence not only on education
quality , but also on overall improvement of
attitudes of e-learning participants, and thus the
whole atmosphere in the institution [5].
Moodle contains
materials
the
Moodle as a system provides security
Tangibility
Moodle provides quick and efficient
reaction to students’ needs when they
using the materials
Moodle gives students the answers to
questions for a instructor
Moodle system supports
questions and comments
The methodology used in this research is the
SERVPERF model. The questions were designed
to contain all 5 dimensions of this method in
order to properly understand user expectations
and perceptions. For these reasons it is necessary
that each examined student realistically evaluates
his satisfaction in order to realize the correct
application and significance of this method when
analyzing and evaluating the quality of service
[6]. The survey was carried out electronically,
through the platform for distance learning. The
students answered 23 questions that were divided
into 6 sections and were related to their
satisfaction with their learning process and the
platform itself. These questions were rated by 5Point Likert Scale, where 1 represents that they
absolutely disagree with the given fact, and 5
represents their complete agreement with the
presented fact [6]. This research used the survey
presented by Udo et al. which consists of 5
dimensions [7]:
students’
Reliability
When students do the tests, the Moodle
system does not make a mistake
When students submitthe homework, the
Moodle system regularly updates their
activities
Moodle system supports secure update of
all students’ data
Quality Score
Moodle uses audio elements properly
Moodle uses video elements properly
Moodle uses animations/graphics properly
Moodle uses multimedia features properly
Moodle provides useful information
Moodle provides accurate information
Moodle provides high quality information
The information on the Moodle is relevant
to students.
Empathy
to
necessary
Moodle has a good rating system
3. METHODOLOGY
Moodle is made according
individual needs of students
all
In support of these in this paper will be presented
two research questions:
the
How are students satisfied with the content
provided on the e-learning platform?
Does ‘‘Empathy’’ has a positive
association with students’ perceptions of elearning quality?
Moodle helps the student’s best long-term
interests
Moodle encourages student activity
212
[8]. Furthermore, early study showed positive
association with students’ perceptions of elearning quality [7]. In accordance with early
research, both research questions are discussed
via radar diagrams which are shown in Figure 1
and 2.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Expected results will be mean in regards to the
theoretical framework that underpins the
research. Early studies in application of service
quality in new education system show that
students are satisfied with this way of learning
Fig. 1. Students’ satisfaction with the content provided on the e-learning platform
Figure 1 shows students’ satisfaction with the
content provided on the e-learning platform.
Eight questions measured the quality of Moodle
content and their mean is 4.30. It can be
concluded that students are very satisfied with the
content on the e-learning platform.
Fig. 2. Empathy dimension
learning quality. However, there are capacities
for improvements. In addition, Quality Score
assessment criterion with grade of 4.30 has the
least deviation, and the largest deviation has the
empathy rating criterion with grade 4.12.
Figure 2 shows Empathy dimensions.
Students’ answers to the three questions raised
within this field, resulted with the mean of 4.12,
of the empathy dimension. According to this
result, student’s empathy has a positive
association with students’ perceptions of e-
213
[6] N. Radojčić, Analysis and assessment of
students’ satisfaction with the e-learning
system, (2018).
5. CONCLUSION
This research examined the application of
SERVPERF model in e-learning platform.
Research was conducted at the University of
Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences with the
group
of
students
from
Engineering
Management. The results are consisted with
previous research, which showed that students’
empathy has a positive association with students’
perceptions of e-learning quality [7]. From the
survey results it can be concluded that the current
quality of e-learning at Moodle is satisfactory
among students. The weakness of Moodle could
be the lack of using multimedia content on the
platform, which was estimated by students with
lower grades. Future analyses could conduct a
core research with a high number of different
courses at the e-learning platform Moodle.
Hence, authors could compare results from
different courses and see student satisfaction with
e-learning.
[7] G.J. Udo; K.K. Bagchi; P.J. Kirs, Using
SERVQUAL to assess the quality of elearning experience. Computers in Human
Behavior 27(3) (2011), pp. 1272-1283.
[8] R. Diedericks; N. de Klerk; A.L. BevanDye, Students’ perceptions of service
quality at a South African traditional
university and a university of technology.
Journal of Social Sciences 43(2) (2015), p.
161.
6. REFERENCES
[1] T.S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific
Revolution, University of Chicago Press,
(1970).
[2] S. Segrave; D. Holt, Contemporary learning
environments: designing e-learning for
education in the professions. Distance
Education 24(1) (2003), pp. 7-24.
[3] R. Wang; Z. Yan; K. Liu, An empirical
study: measuring the service quality of an elearning system with the model of ZOT
SERVQUAL. Proc. of the Int. Conf. E-bus.
E-Government, ICEE 2010, no. 70972006,
pp. 5379-5382, (2010).
[4] S. Kigundu, Engaging e-learning in higher
education:
issues
and
challenges.
International Journal of Science Education
6(1) (2014), pp. 125-132.
[5] M. Misut; K. Pribilova, Measuring of
quality in the context of e-learning. Procedia
- Social and Behavioral Sciences 177
(2015), pp. 312-319.
214
Nonverbal Communication and Body
Language in the Business Environment
A. Kulaš Mirosavljević a, M. Gavran
a
b
College of Slavonski Brod, Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: anita.kulas@vusb.hr
b
Student of College of Slavonski Brod, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: mateagavran18@gmail.com
Abstract
Nonverbal communication is communication without words. It plays a major role in human
interaction. Every bodily movement, whether it is deliberate or involuntary, sends a specific message
to the receiver. That message depends on the context, of the surroundings in which people are present,
of the culture they belong to, etc... The human body, face, eye movements and touch complement a
person’s speech and in that way communicate a person’s mood and outlook on things. Non-verbal
communication complements explain and determines the course of the communication process. It is
therefore very important to get acquainted with the ways of nonverbal communication and mastering
that skill so that the mood of the interviewer is better detected or presented. The main goal of this
paper is to study and investigate how nonverbal communication and body language affects an
individual in a business environment. There is no second chance for a first impression so this paper
demonstrates better understanding and, application of body language. As part of the work carried out
a survey which is a concrete example shown what role has the body language in everyday human
relations. The answer is; a very important role. People are unconsciously reacting to the negative
emotions of the interviewee and on that basis, the respondent is negatively evaluated, and vice versa.
Keywords: nonverbal communication, body language, business environment
and anxiety. This is only a part of transmitting
certain messages to the interlocutor, and these
messages can be transmitted consciously or
unconsciously. It is therefore very important to
get acquainted with the ways of nonverbal
communication and mastering that skill so that
the mood of the interlocutor is better detected or
presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Provided that what is spoken and expressed
by word belongs to verbal communication,
accordingly nonverbal communication belongs
all that is not expressed verbally; facial
expressions, body language, movements of the
head, hands gestures, view ... In general, speech
is used to transmit information, and nonverbal
communication to transmit mood. Nonverbal
communication is not completely removable in
the overall understanding of the problem of the
communication process. It often complements,
clarifies and determines the course of
communication. A loving smile tells happiness
and good mood opens the way of relaxation and
calms the atmosphere. Shrugging tells ignorance
or disinterest. Nail biting indicates nervousness
2. NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION AND
BODY LANGUAGE IN
COMMUNICATION
Before the appearance and evolution of
language, body language was a communication
tool that served the understanding of the
215
primary functions needed in everyday life, also
serve to send and receive conscious or
unconscious
messages
in
nonverbal
communication. Some of the most basic moves
are:
messages that were to be sent or received.
During human history, and especially in modern
times, it becomes a subject of study and a better
understanding.
The study of the skill of nonverbal
communication began with the appearance of
the silent film. Actors had to learn how to show
feelings, attitudes, and position in society by
imitating the body language they embodied.
However true pioneer in the study of the body
language of humans and animals was Charles
Darwin in his book The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals of the 1872nd [1].
Serious study of body language occurred in the
60s of the last century when body language
became a subject of study in many areas such as
anthropology, social sciences, psychiatry and
even economics [2].
the usual movement of crossed arms, which
is "… the universal gesture that indicates
the defensive or negative mood" [4],
crossed hands with a squeezed fist, which
means that a person "... took up an enemy
and a defensive attitude" [4] and
crossed hands on the chest is a position
that reveals the strength.
When talking about the movements of legs,
harmonized are two basic seating positions,
which are:
legs that are commonly crossed may
signal nervousness, reserve or defensive
position, and
Nonverbal communication is all that is not
expressed in words when communicating. It
takes place by means of non-verbal signs, for
example, gestures, posture, touching, facial
expressions, view and etc.
legs in the 4 figure sitting position (socalled American position) is an attacking
nature.
Touch is a complex set of multiple senses,
which have special nerve endings in the skin,
muscles and elsewhere, and respond to different
stimuli and transmit the impressions to the brain
for their further processing [5]. Touch
communication can cause both positive and
negative effects, all depending on people or
circumstances. "The meanings that we attach to
touch vary depending on which part of the body
touches, how long the contact lasts, touch
strength, touch mode (...) and more frequent
touching" [3].
People pay eager close attention to the
messages that they read each other´s faces and
analyze the signs that their interlocutor sends
with his facial expressions such as surprise, fear,
disgust, anger, happiness, and sadness.
In addition, one of the important parts of
understanding the message that the recipient
decodes from the sender is also a head
movement (nodding as a sign of approval and
shake the head indicating disagreement).
It is equally important and eye contact. "The
view refers to the individual viewing behavior,
which can, but does not have to be directed
towards to another person. Mutual view refers to
a situation in which two persons interact with
one another, usually in the face." [3]. The basic
function of the view is to regulate the
communication flow, to monitor feedback, to
show cognitive activity, and to express
emotions.
3. ANALYSIS OF SURVEY ON
THE NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION AND
BODY LANGUAGE ON
EMPLOYEES IN THE
ACCOUNTING AGENCY
"KAJA"
The human body is capable of a wide
spectrum of movements that, besides the
With the consent of the employee, the survey
was conducted in company Accounting agency
216
are also those who do not actually follow the
body language of others.
"Kaja" based in Slavonski Brod. Accounting
agency "Kaja" is a legal form of crafts dealing
with other social and personal activities.
3.2. How much is body language
important in communication?
"Kaja" exists between 20.1 and 50 years and
has up to 25 employees, of which seven have
agreed to cooperate and participate in the
survey. Two men and five women make up the
composition of the survey. Five is aged between
41 and 50 years, and two between 51 and 60
years. All respondents are their secondary
education finished in Slavonski Brod, of which
six completed economic school and one
respondent completed the administrative school.
Given the time spent on the labor market and
age, all respondents have a working life of over
ten years.
The following graph shows how important
body language is in communication.
Fig 2. How much is body language important in
communication?
The surveyed employees were on this
question almost evenly divided. 43% of them
think that the body language is very important,
and 57% think that their body language in
communication is not very important. "Not
important" is not a categorical refusal of body
language and surveyed probably subconsciously
register signals and messages they receive from
others.
After collecting the basic data that generated
the image of the company structure and the
composition of the employees, they followed
issues related to the topic of final work.
3.1. What is for
communication?
you
non-verbal
To the question "What is for you nonverbal
communication?", responses were varied as we
can see on the graph below.
3.3. How can you improve your body
language?
The following graph shows how you can
improve your body language.
Fig 1. Why is business communication so important?
Two respondents indicated a rough definition
of the term and stated that nonverbal
communication is a communication with body
movements, and one of them supposed that it is
the way people communicate without words.
Some of the respondents see nonverbal
communication as an aid in business
collaboration with clients, and they believe that
nonverbal communication is an essential factor
in business communication. Interestingly, there
Fig 3. How can you improve your body language?
Some think that the key to improving your
own body language is self-control, probably
referring to actions interlocutor seeking their
reactions. Some say that the exercise is a basis
for improving the skills of body language, which
really says a lot about how the body language is
something that can master and learn.
217
much better business results?” answered "Yes",
while the rest was a little more cautious and
answered "maybe." Employees are aware that
the oral presentation of their goods and services
are only partially effective and to achieve better
business results, their verbal presentation must
be complemented by appropriate and adapted to
body language. Only an appropriate body of
speech will leave the impression of a serious and
quality service provider.
Another opportunity to improve their own
body language is through observation of others,
and it states that it is best to monitor the
behavior of the interlocutor. If you can read
interlocutor's mood, you will be able to adapt
your body language to the presentation and thus
create a better communication channel.
Finally, there are those who do not even
think about the body language and need to
improve it.
3.5. Mark on scale appropriateness
certain actions speaker between 1
and 5
3.4. Do you think that with body
language you can improve much
better your business results?
The
following
graph
shows
the
appropriateness of certain actions of the
interlocutor.
The following graph shows whether
employees think that body language can
improve the company's success.
At first, employees do not have a concrete
view of the speaker's forward-facing
communication, the uneven tone of voice, or the
serious expression of the face because such
actions cannot be evaluated outside the context.
For example, it is possible that a person with the
uneven tone of voice is just a cold and cannot
normally talk. There are, of course, people who
always have a serious facial expression, but that
does not mean they are happy or no happy. That
is why such things are difficult to evaluate out of
context.
Fig. 4. Do you think that with body language you can
improve much better your business results?
Most employees are on the question “Do you
think that with body language you can improve
Fig. 5. Mark on scale appropriateness certain actions speaker between 1 and 5 (where 1 means totally
appropriate, means totally inappropriate)
218
Uneasy posture, shaking hands, covering the
mouth with the palm, tapping his fingers on the
table and avoiding views interlocutor, have
negative emotions in the respondents and they
evaluate such behavior as inadequate.
important that people inspire confidence, that
the pleasant interlocutor and that their behavior
shows that they care about others with whom
they interact. Those should be both superiors
and subordinates, colleagues, mutually with
each other, people who need products or
services from others, or offer and sell them.
Employees see crossed hands and nod the
head as an appropriate action in communication.
Although crossed hands mark the defense and
reluctance
to
continue
communication,
respondents do not consider it a necessarily
negative one because they encounter it in
everyday life and are in fact ignored and
ignored. Nod the head is certainly a positive
reaction that confirms the recipient's status and
tells him to listen and appreciate what he
presents.
As part of the work is carried out a survey
which aimed at a specific example to show what
role has the body language in everyday human
relations. The answer is; very important role.
People are unconsciously reacting to the
negative emotions of the interviewer, and then
they are negatively evaluated. Likewise, positive
presentations are evaluated positively.
Body
language
and
nonverbal
communication is something that you really
need to pay attention to and study the nuances
that they manage and lead the flow of
communication. Only then an individual can
learn how to behave in a conversation about a
job, how to achieve a good relationship with
superiors or subordinates, how to behave and
deal with clients or associates. Then the business
environment will not be a source of stress
because of the misinformation of moods,
attitudes, or messages.
4. CONCLUSIONS
People are able to communicate with each
other even if they do not talk. Speech only
partially transmits the message you want to
send. In order for the message to be transmitted
as best as possible, the mood and the tone of the
message will be better served by the nonverbal
communication and body language, taking into
account the situation and context in which it is
and the way it wants its message to be
understood.
5. REFERENCES
The body language is taught and observed
from the moment when a man first time sees the
light of day. Touch is the man main stimulus
from the environment. By adopting the language
and observing people around you, you learn how
to apply body language to enrich the message
content you transmit. Then you have a tool to
communicate the full sense of the word.
Nonverbal communication is often used
unconsciously, but you can manage to show
what you want and think.
[1] E. Korn, How far down the dusky bosom?
https://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n23/erickorn/how-far-down-the-dusky-bosom, last
access 10/3/2017.
[2] www.study-body-language.com/body-languagecommunication.html, last access 10/3/2017.
[3] L.M. Knapp, A.J. Hall, Nonverbal
communication in human interaction
(Neverbalna komunikacija u ljudskoj
interakciji), Naklada slap, Zagreb, (2010).
Nonverbal communication is a skill, and
every skill can be learned and mastered with the
exercise. It all depends on what kind of message
you want to transmit and in what kind of
situation you find when communicate.
[4] A. Pease, Body language: How to read
others thoughts by their gestures (Govor
tijela: kako misli drugih ljudi pročitati iz
njihovih kretnji), AGM, Zagreb, (2007).
[5] R.
Majetić,
Touch
(Dodir)
http://www.skole.hr/dobro-jeznati/osnovnoskolci?news_id=1079,
last
access 19/3/2017.
The business environment is best to figure
out who is well mastered the technique of nonverbal communication. Specifically, it is
219
The Effect of a Football Treatment on
Morphological Characteristics of
Football Players NK „Otočac“
H. Sivrić a, T. Lopac b, J. Vujčić
a
b
c
College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: hrvoje.sivric@vusb.hr
University of Applied Sciences „Nikola Tesla“ in Gospić, Bana Ivana Karlovića 16, 53000
Gospić, Croatia, E-mail: tlopac@velegs-nikolatesla.hr
c
Vocational High school Matija Antun Reljković, Ivana Cankara 76, 35000 Slavonski
Brod, Croatia, E-mail: jasna.vujcic@gmail.com
Abstract
There are a number of factors that affect the performance of football players. One of the factors is
certainly morphological features. Football is probably one of the most popular and widespread sports
in the world and it can be said that so far a lot of researches have been carried out on football players
as well as those whose aim was to determine the morphological characteristics of football players. It
is already known that a greater amount of muscle mass produces more force that an athlete needs for
successful action in sports. Unlike muscle mass, excess ballast has an opposite effect (reduces running
speed, decreases explosive power, aerobic and anaerobic endurance). The main problem of this
research is the analyses of changes in morphological characteristics of amateur senior football players
under the influence of a programmed football treatment. The testing was conducted on 19 examinees
of amateur senior football players of NK „Otočac“. They trained regularly 5 – 6 times a week and
played competitive matches once a week according to football treatment through six micro cycles
during the preparatory period. The examinees underwent five tests, two times in a period of 6 weeks.
The results of the research show that specially designed and programmed football treatment can
significantly affect the morphological characteristics of amateur senior football players.
Keywords: football treatment, morphological characteristics, amateur senior players
the most popular and widespread sports in the
world, and it can be said that so far many
research have been carried out on football
players and so the those whose aim was to
determine the morphological characteristics of
football players. It belongs to the group of half
structural motions which means that complex
structures of cyclic and acyclic movements
dominate, and are made of complexes of simple
and complex movements in the conditions of cooperation of members of the sports team during
the match. According to Bangsbou et al. (2003)
a very high level of physical ability development
1. INTRODUCTION
There are a number of factors that affect the
performance of football players. One of the
factors is certainly morphological features.
Optimal morphological characteristics of
athletes are largely dependent on the type of
sport, but generally better results are achieved
by those whose body is adapted to the
requirements of a particular sport [1]. The need
for this adaptation is more pronounced in the
athlete at a higher competitive level, but also
does not diminish for the athlete at a lower
competitive level. Football is probably one of
220
is required: optimal physique, aerobic and
anaerobic system development, high muscle
strength level, highly developed speed and
agility, optimum flexibility and balance. It is
already known that a greater amount of muscle
mass produces more force that an athlete needs
for successful action in sports. Unlike muscle
mass, excess ballast has an opposite effect
(reduces running speed, decreases explosive
power, aerobic and anaerobic endurance). For
this reason, methods for determining body
composition are needed in order to make the
athlete ideal for earning maximum achievement
[3]. The main problem of this research is the
analyses of changes in morphological
characteristics of amateur senior football players
under the influence of a programmed football
treatment. The basic hypothesis can be defined
in the following manner: H1 – Specially
programmed football treatment will significantly
affect the changes in the morphological
characteristics of amateur senior football
players.
in which a large amount is found water that
easily supplies electricity. Body fat is a tissue
that has low electric conductivity. The BF-510
sends a very low voltage electrical circuit to the
body (50 kHz) and less than 500µA for the
purpose of determining the amount of fat tissue.
The flow of these characteristics does not feel
the body or feel during the application.
Resistance to the movement of electric current
through the body, body height, body weight, age
and gender are data based on which the
following values are calculated.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
Body weight (ABW): It is measured by digital
scales. Before the start of the measurement scale
is set in the prime position. The football player
is standing upright in the absence of a shoe.
Body height (ABH): It is measured by an
anthrop meter. A football player stands on a flat
surface with a weight equally spaced on both
legs. The arms are relaxed, the heels are
gathered and the head is placed in the so-called
Frankfort horizontal position, which means that
an imaginary line that connects the lower edge
of the left orbit and the left ear helix is in the
horizontal position. The horizontal arm of the
anthrop meter is dropped down to the head
(vertex point) so that it clings firmly but without
pressure.
2.1. Examinee sample
The samples of examinees represent 19
examinees of the amateur ranking seniors of NK
"Otočac", with an average chronological age of
25.05 + 6.20 years. They trained according to
the football treatment through six micro cycles
during the preparatory period.
Measurement of BMI: To calculate BMI
measure, the OMRON BF 510 uses the figure
for the body height that is entered in personal
profile or when you entered measurement data
in Guest Mode. If the level of fat tissue that has
been shown by BMI is higher than the
international standard, there is a higher
possibility of susceptibility to common obesity
diseases
2.2. Variable sample
The examinees underwent five tests, two
times in a period of 6 weeks. Their body weight,
percentage of fat tissue, percentage of visceral
fat, body mass index and percentage of muscle
tissue
were
assessed.
The
selected
morphological characteristics were measured by
anthrop meters and diagnostic scales Omron BF
510. The Omron model BF-510 is a tool that
evaluates the percentage of fat tissue using
bioelectric impedance. Muscles, blood vessels
and the internal organs are composed of tissues
Measurement of the percentage of fat tissue
(AFT): The percentage of fat tissue refers to the
amount of body fat in relation to the total body
mass expressed in percentage. OMRON BF 510
uses a bio impendence method to estimate the
percentage of fat tissue in your body. Depending
on where this fat tissue is distributed in the
body, it is classified as visceral fat or
subcutaneous fat.
221
linked to the bones and are used to trigger the
body. Skeletal muscles (chest muscle tissue) can
be increased by exercising and by other
activities. Increasing the proportion of skeletal
muscles means that the body can easily burn
energy, which means it is less susceptible to fat
tissue precipitation, which makes the
assumption of an energetic way of life. The
paper should be prepared according to the
requirements provided in Table 1. Please pay
attention to the fact that the subsection should be
not shorter than a half of the column.
Measurement of visceral fat tissue level
(AVF): Visceral fat tissue is fat that surrounds
the internal organs If a person has too much
visceral fat tissue, it is considered to be closely
related to increased level of fat in the
bloodstream, which is a condition that can lead
to serious disorders and diseases such as
hyperlipidemia and diabetes that endanger the
ability of insulin to transfer energy from the
bloodstream for the use in cells.
Subcutaneous fat tissue (AFT): Subcutaneous
fat tissue is accumulated not only around the
stomach, but also around the upper arm, hips
and thighs, and can cause distortion of body
proportions. Although it is not directly related to
an increased risk of diseases, it is thought it
increases
heart
pressure
and
causes
complications and difficulties. Subcutaneous fat
is not displayed on this device, but it is included
in the percentage of fat tissue that this device
expresses.
2.3. Experimental plan and program
The testing was conducted on a 19
examinees of amateur senior football players of
NK „Otočac“. They trained regularly 5 – 6 times
a week and play friendly matches once a week
according to football treatment through six
micro cycles during the preparatory period.
Their body weight, percentage of fat tissue,
percentage of visceral fat, body mass index and
percentage of muscle tissue were assessed. In
tables 1 to 3 one may see example of micro
cycles.
Skeletal muscles (AMT): Muscles are divided
into two types: muscles in the internal organs,
such as the heart, and skeletal muscles that are
Table 1. Example of introductory micro cycle
Monday
Dynamic stretching + stabilization exercise -20 ', aerobic endurance of low intensity through
auxiliary play - 40', play at 2 goals 11:11 - 15 ', static stretching 10'
Tuesday
Dynamic stretching + body stabilization exercises and proprioception - 25 ', aerobic endurance of
medium intensity - 30', play at 2 goals 11:11 - 20 ', relaxation exercises + static stretching - 15'
Wednesday
Dynamic stretching + body stabilization exercises and proprioception - 25 ', circuit training of
repetitive strength - 45', relaxation exercises + static stretching - 15 '
Thursday Day off
Friday
Dynamic stretching + body stabilization exercises and proprioception + speed exercises 30 ', aerobic
endurance of medium intensity - 30', play at 2 goals 11:11 - 10 ', strength toning exercises - 5'
Saturday Friendly match
Sunday
Day off
222
Table 2. Example of a specific micro cycle
Dynamic stretching + body stabilization exercises -20 ', anaerobic (g) endurance through technicalMonday tactical training (transition defense-offence) - 45' (small sided games), play at 2 goals 11:11 - 15 ',
relaxation exercises and static stretching - 15 '
Dynamic stretching + body stabilization exercise and proprioception + speed exercises-30 exercise,
Tuesday
technical-tactical training (attack phase) - 25 ', play at 2 goals 11:11 - 10', speed toning exercises -5 '
Wednesday Friendly match
Thursday Dynamic stretching -15 ', low intensity aerobic training - 15', static stretching - 15 '
Dynamic stretching + body stabilization exercises + speed exercises -30 ', anaerobic (g) endurance
Friday through technical-tactical training (transition offence-defense) -35' (small sided games), play at 2
goals 11:11 - 10 ', relaxation exercises and static stretching - 15
Saturday Friendly match
Sunday Day off
Table 3. Example of a situational micro cycle
Dynamic stretching + stabilization exercise - 20 ', aerobic training of high intensity (small sided
games) - 25', technical-tactical (situational) training - 25 ', static stretching - 10'
Dynamic stretching + body stabilization exercises + speed exercises -30 ', speed and agility training
Tuesday (intervals 5 "-10") -25', technical-tactical training (attack phase) - 20 ', relaxation exercises and static
stretching - 15'
Wednesday Dynamic stretching - 15 ', training match - 60', relaxation exercises and static stretching - 15 '
Thursday Day off
Dynamic stretching + body stabilization exercises + speed exercises -30 ', speed and agility training
Friday
(intervals 5 "-10") -25', technical-tactical training (attack phase) - 20 ', speed toning exercises 5'
Saturday Friendly match
Sunday Day off
Monday
parameters are calculated on initial results and
final results. The basic descriptive statistical
parameters show that all variables are normally
distributed and that there is no extreme data
scattering which is important for the upcoming
statistical processing. It can be noticed that the
average values of the results in all the tests,
obtained in the final measurement, have been
improved in relation to the values of the initial
measurement results, which is in line with the
expectations. Also, the parameters of the
minimum and maximum results show that the
range of results obtained in the final
measurement is smaller than the values of the
initial measurement results. The standard
deviation values are greater in the initial test
than in the final. The measure of asymmetry
show the values close to zero in all the variables,
which tell us that the dispersion of footballers'
results is symmetrically distributed. As far as the
curvature is concerned, most variables are
2.4. Methods of data processing
The data collected by initial and final testing
of football players have been analyzed by basic
statistical procedures: arithmetic mean, standard
deviation, minimum value, maximum value,
asymmetry degree and curvature degree.
Normality distribution is tested by KS test. The
differences
between
morphological
characteristics in the initial and final testing
were determined using the T-test for dependent
samples. Antropometar and diagnostic scales
Omron BF 510 measured the selected
morphological characteristics.
3. RESULTS THROUGH
DISCUSSION
Basic statistical parameters were calculated
with the use of descriptive statistics and the
results are shown in the Table 4. Descriptive
223
appropriate training process can affect the
morphological characteristics of amateur senior
football players.
platicurtic ones, which tells us about the great
variety of football players under consideration.
The results from the final testing have shown
how a programmed treatment with the
Table 4. Descriptive indicators of measuring variables – initial and
final testing
AGE
ABH
ABW-I
BMI-I
AFT-I
AMT-I
AVF-I
ABW-F
BMI-F
AFT-F
AMT-F
AVF-F
N
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
AS
25,05
181,84
85,21
25,76
21,04
38,68
7,53
83,42
25,20
19,75
39,78
6,58
Min
18,00
172,00
69,00
22,00
14,00
35,30
4,00
70,00
23,10
15,20
36,90
5,00
Max
39,00
188,00
96,00
27,80
26,20
43,70
11,00
91,00
26,90
24,70
43,30
9,00
SD
6,20
5,12
7,44
1,53
3,78
2,38
1,78
6,04
1,10
2,79
1,70
1,17
Skew
1,04
-0,69
-0,88
-1,05
-0,28
0,59
-0,05
-0,88
-0,67
-0,05
0,44
0,72
Kurt
0,22
-0,60
0,38
0,70
-1,03
-0,21
0,08
0,03
0,09
-1,05
0,00
0,26
AS–arithmetic means, SD–standard deviation, Min–minimum value, Max–
maximum value, Skew–asymmetry degree, Kurt– curvature degree
The differences between morphological characteristics in the initial and final testing were
determined using the T-test for dependent samples to verify the existence of statistically significant
differences in the measurement variables. The results are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. The differences between morphological
characteristics in the initial and final testing
ABW-I
ABW-F
BMI-I
BMI-F
AFT-I
AFT-F
AMT-I
AMT-F
AVF-I
AVF-F
AS
85,21
83,42
25,76
25,20
21,04
19,75
38,68
39,78
7,53
6,58
SD
7,44
6,04
1,53
1,10
3,78
2,79
2,38
1,70
1,78
1,17
N
t
df
p
19
3,98
18
0,0009
19
4,19
18
0,0006
19
3,40
18
0,0032
19
-4,32
18
0,0004
19
3,66
18
0,0018
AS–arithmetic means, SD–standard deviation, N-number of
Participants, df-degrees of freedom, p-statistical
significance, t-value of t-test
It can be said that a specially programmed
football treatment can significantly affect the
changes in the morphological traits of amateur
senior footballers.
According to the results given, there is a
significant difference in all observed variables
between the measured results under the
influence of programmed football treatment on
the morphological traits of the footballers of NK
"Otočac" and we fully accept the H1 hypothesis.
The highest t-test value is for the variable the
difference in the percentage of muscle tissue
224
difference which is -4.32 with 18 degrees of
freedom and subcutaneous fat 4.19 with 18
degrees of freedom and significance level p =
0.00. The lowest value of the t-test is for the
variable the percentage of visceral fat which is
3.66 with 18 degrees of freedom and the
significance level p = 0.00. These results are in
line with the expectations. In this way we can
indirectly affect one of the factors,
morphological features which influence the
performance of football players. As already
being mentioned in the text for the success of a
football player the optimal physical body is also
needed, which by the influence of the
programmed football treatment can be affected
at this level?
5, Lisabon, Madrid: Gymnos Editorial
Deportiva, (2003).
[3] M. Mišigoj-Duraković, Kinantropologija:
biološki aspekti tjelesnog vježbanja,
Kineziološki fakultet Sveučilišta, Zagreb,
(2008).
[4] J. Castelo, Nogomet: specifični trenažni
sadržaji i metode treninga, Bray d.o.o.,
(2011).
[5] S. Marković, Razlika u motoričkim
sposobnostima u odnosu na različite
pozicije
nogometaša.
11.
Godišnja
međunarodna konferencija Kondicijska
priprema sportaša, Zagreb. Kineziološki
fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Udruga
kondicijskih trenera Hrvatske, pp.192-196,
(2013).
4. CONCLUSIONS
[6] D. Sekulić; D. Metikoš, Osnove
transformacijskih postupaka u kineziologiji,
Sveučilište
u
Splitu,
Fakultet
prirodoslovno-matematičkih znanosti i
kineziologije, (2007).
The main goal of the research is to analyses
the changes in morphological characteristics of
amateur senior football players under the
influence of a programmed football treatment.
The testing was conducted on a 19 examinees of
amateur senior football players of NK „Otočac“.
They trained regularly 5 – 6 times a week and
play competitive matches once a week
according to football treatment through six
micro cycles during the preparatory period.
Their body weight, percentage of fat tissue,
percentage of visceral fat, body mass index and
percentage of muscle tissue were assessed. The
results of the research show that specially
designed and programmed football treatment
can significantly affect the morphological
characteristics of amateur senior football
players.
[7] D.
Dizdar,
Kvantitativne
metode,
Kineziološki fakultet u Zagrebu, (2006).
5. REFERENCES
[1] V. Cigrovski; D. Kos; I. Martinčević, Neke
morfološke
karakteristike
vrhunskih
nogometnih golmana, 19. Ljetna škola
kineziologa RH, Poreč, (2010).
[2] J. Bangsbo; P. Krustrup; M, Mohr, Physical
capacity of high-level soccer players in
relation to playing position. Proc. Of the
World Congress on Science and Football –
225
Employers' Perspective on
Employability Skills of Croatian
Engineering Graduates
N. Dubreta a, L. Bulian
a
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, I. Lučića 5, 10000 Zagreb,
Croatia, E-mail: {luka.bulian, niksa.dubreta}@fsb.hr
Abstract
Recent developments in work arrangements and a rapid growth in technological innovation constantly
challenge engineering education to transform itself and to meet demands of engineering practice.
Among different stakeholders these demands are covered in terms of employability skills and
competences engineers need in contemporary working arrangements. This paper aims to explore to
what extent the current academically driven set of engineering skills fits the expectations of Croatian
employers. Referencing corresponding research worldwide, a number of important skills were
included in the questionnaire administrated to Croatian employers. A total of 418 respondents
participated in the questionnaire, mainly coming from the private sector (360). In accordance with the
results of other research it was found that Croatian employers prefer mostly the so called transferable
skills such as professionalism and responsibility, teamwork and lifelong learning. Some important
differences in skills ratings were found with regard to respondents' gender and according to the type
of organisation's ownership. Since transferable skills are still underrepresented at Croatian academic
engineering study programs, these results make clear guideline in the process of further alignment of
engineering education with the needs of labour market.
Keywords: engineering, skills, learning outcomes, employers
engineering areas of work, primarily in the financial
sector, but also in different parts of the service
sector where analytical skills have become
increasingly
important
[3].
These
new
developments also influenced the public image of
engineering in general and of their nature of work.
1. INTRODUCTION
Over the past 30 years engineering embraced
not only the promise of a rapid technological
development and information era but has also
faced new challenges of engineering practice
and contemporary work arrangements [1]. While
the technological development since 1990s helped
to promote engineering as a vital branch of
economic growth in economies around the World,
placing the Science, Technology, Engineering and
Math field (STEM) in the centre of political agenda,
work arrangements for many engineers proved to be
double faced: promising and, at the same time, often
short-termed and precarious [2].
The engineering community has responded to
these social, economic and technological changes
with the promotion of new skills which should be
more strongly embedded in their education and
would support new graduates to establish
themselves as legitimate actors in the "brave new
world of work" [4], ie., as reliable professionals and
experts, dedicated to high ethical standards,
creative, open to new kinds of knowledge and, most
importantly, employable in a wide range of jobs and
employment circumstances [5].
Additionally, it turned out that the extent of jobs
for engineers has widened dramatically, with
possibilities for employment in non-traditional
226
of ICT students' proficiency in generic skills [10]. In
Britain, Markes has made a systematic literature
review showing that British employers perceive
transferable skills among the most important
engineering skills in contemporary firms [11].
Focus on new skills and competencies has been
clearly specified in documents of international
engineering associations as well as in
recommendations of accrediting bodies for
academic engineering education. For example, the
National Academy of Engineering (NAE) took into
account that engineering education should include
content which could advance career opportunities
for new graduates in traditionally non-engineering
jobs [6]. More precisely, NAE specified a number
of skills engineers will need in 2020 where
traditional analytical skills maintained its lasting
value but more than ever before were coupled by
creativity, ingenuity and so called transferable skills.
Almost all of these studies methodologically
refer to the set of engineering skills indicated in
ABET EC2000 Criterion 3. Considering its wide
methodological usage, Strauss and Terenzini
developed a psychometrically sound instrument for
assessing employers' viewpoints on engineering
learning outcomes [12] which resulted in a nine
factor solution representing the main engineering
skills. Strauss and Terenzini's study has served as a
guiding point for in conceptualizing the
questionnaire for Croatian employers.
Similarly, the Accreditation Board for
Engineering and Technology (ABET) established
EC2000 Criterion 3 as a frame of reference for
engineering studies worldwide, where among 11
student learning outcomes so called transferable
skills
like
professionalism,
leadership,
communication skills, ethics and ability to
understand the contemporary social and cultural
context has taken a significant part [7].
Since the reform of engineering study programs
in Croatia is still predominantly internally driven,
determined by academic evaluations, and followed
with just a few initial researches [13-14], our
primary research objective was to discern whether
the prevailing learning outcomes in engineering
study programs in Croatia meet the expectations of
Croatian employers. Additionally, possible
differences in employers' ratings of preferable
engineering skills were studied through comparison
of a number of independent variables like
employers' field of activity, enterprise size, type of
ownership and respondents’ gender.
In corresponding scientific literature these new
skills and learning outcomes were indicated as
employability skills. A number of research all over
the world has been conducted to assess different
stakeholders' viewpoints on outcomes with
employers' expectations as the most frequently
explored in this regard.
Some research results are available for fast
growing economies where the STEM field has been
taken as important for a national economic and
technological development. Blom and Saeki, for
example, indicated that the Indian economy still has
to balance its increasing need for engineers with the
quality of skills Indian employers needed [8].
Similarly, Zaharim et al. have provided a
framework for Malaysian engineering programmes
with engineering employability skills based on
comparative study of engineering skills and
attributes required by different accreditation bodies
in several countries around the World [9].
Corresponding research has been made in the most
developed economies like Australia, USA, and GB.
In the Australian context, Hagan has found that
40% of employers were not satisfied with the level
2. SAMPLE AND METHOD
Assuming that employers aren’t keen on
participating in studies an oversampling of
employers has been made using both the register
of Croatian’s Chamber of Commerce [15] and
the archive of the Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering
and
Naval
Architecture
(FAMENA)
[16]
“job
openings
and
scholarships” column. As the Chamber of
Commerce’s archive lists every legal entity in
Croatia, only active entities which had delivered
their financial report for 2015 were selected in
order to reach a, not only sufficient, but also
efficient sample.
Companies have been sorted by their annual
income in descending order, and categorized by
227
the number of employees into big (>250),
medium (50-249), small (10-49), and micro (19). With category size yielding no more than
250 employers in each category of the National
Classification of Occupation [17] the total
number of unique contacts was 7586. Adding to
it FAMENA’s contacts, as well as asking the
respondents to snowball the interview link
resulted in a final total of 8878 recipients.
partake in an employment process in the last
five years (69) were excluded from further
analysis, which brought the total sample to 349.
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
Even though the scale was originally 5 point,
after eliminating the middle value, 4 points were
retained, namely: “1 – not at all important”, “2 –
somewhat unimportant”, “3 – somewhat
important”, and “4 – extremely important”. Of
the 36 items, only one came close to being rated
as somewhat unimportant (General knowledge
about national and international events – x̅ 2.48),
while 17 were rated as extremely important, and
18 as somewhat important (Table 1).
2.1. Data analysis
SPSS 22 software was used in order to
statistically analyse data. Mean differences (one
sample t-test, t-tests of independent samples,
and ANOVA) were tested at p<.05 significance,
with ANOVA employing Bonferroni’s test when
equal variances were assumed, and Tamhane’s
T2 test when equal variances were not assumed.
Apart from the mean values being extremely
positively skewed, the overall standard deviation
of scores is low. Every item has a SD lower than
1, and the 9 highest items sorted by means have
an SD lower than 0.5, indicating not only that
employers want engineers who “have it all”, but
that all these skills are treated as equally
“extremely important” regardless of the
economic branch the organization conducts its
business in, its size, the specialists it employs or
its governmental/private/NGO ownership. Since
it would be of no significance to simply list all
the researched skills as valuable to employers, a
more extreme approach is undertaken while
interpreting data.
2.2. Sample’s profile
Out of the total of 418 respondents, a vast
majority came from the private sector (360)
while 56 respondents were from government
linked companies and only 2 from NGO’s.
Based on their size, 88 companies were micro,
169 small, 104 medium, and 57 big, with the
majority of them coming from economic
branches such as manufacturing (78),
construction (70), ICT (46), and professional,
scientific, and technical activities (33). The
majority of these organizations employed
engineers as in-house professionals (329), 27
outsourced them, while 62 of them used a
combination of the two.
Mechanical engineers (197) were the most
sought up professions, with computer engineers
(63), construction engineers (46), and electrical
engineers (30) following.
Professionalism, portrayed by the ability to
work under pressure and follow directions while
staying motivated, conscientious, and respecting
deadlines,
is
found vastly important.
Respondents want their employees to excel at
problem solving as well, which comes as no
surprise with engineers enjoying a reputation of
fixers and tinkerers. Such problem solving skills
include the ability to identify and define
problems independently, design practical
solutions to fix them as well as being capable of
approaching the problem from different angles.
Finally, in order to emphasize the importance
of gathered responses, respondents which didn’t
In contrast, skills linked to designing
experiments, data analysis and specialization
Respondents’
positions
within
the
organization were mainly those of directors,
owners or members of the supervisory board
(223), HR managers or employees (68),
managers of other departments (94) or other (33)
with 279 respondents being male, and 127
female.
228
extent, a practical experience during formal
education. Low scores on other items perhaps
accentuate the wants of employers to employ
engineers as “doers” and not “thinkers” and shed
some additional doubt on the social acceptability
quality of ethic and responsibility answers.
were rated statistically significantly lower than
all problem solving items, which leads to the
conclusion that employers seek engineers who
are “jacks-of-all-trades” and have innovative
designs rather than specialists in specific fields
who are “wasting time and money” on R&D.
That cream-of-the-crop approach seems to lead
employers’ thinking in other dimensions too.
3.1. Further analysis
In order to further explore possible
differences in skill appreciation between
employers, t-test and ANOVA analyses were
applied based on independent variables such as
respondent’s gender, their positions within the
organizations, the specialists they employ, as
well as the economic field, and their total
number of employees. While the majority of
tested variables showed just a few statistically
significant differences, respondents do seem to
value skills very differently based on their
gender and slightly differently based on the
organizations’ ownership.
Although teamwork is found extremely
valuable, employers favour abilities of working
in interdisciplinary teams, coming to optimal
solutions and understanding one’s role
statistically higher than emotion management,
empathy and abilities to lead teams. Likewise,
project management skills are rated only
somewhat important with the highest ranked
being the ability to write technical
documentation, while abilities to think
strategically and design quality management
systems seem to be less of a concern.
Generally speaking, women tend to value all
measured skills more than men, with a mean of
3.5 compared to the 3.3 of their counterparts,
and with 26 out of 36 skills being statistically
significantly higher, which makes them
somewhat harder to impress during the hiring
process. Specifically, women value all of the
items comprising the Communication skills,
Experimentation,
Ethics,
and
Project
management dimensions, as well as all apart one
from those of Professionalism and Problem
solving (“Ability to work under pressure” for the
former, and "Design of practical solutions“ for
the latter).
Communication skills are regarded as
extremely favourable in terms of abilities to
express oneself and to convey ideas and
solutions to a non-professional public, but the
ability to negotiate is regarded as a significantly
less favourable trait.
Items measuring ethics and responsibility are
ranked relatively low, with the exception being
the ability to follow and implement rules of the
profession, perhaps because of its connection to
the concept of professionalism.
Specific skills are rated moderately high,
with the ability to use and implement specific
tools, skills and techniques being seen as an
extremely important skill, while the ability to
use advanced computer software and the ability
to recognize interactions between elements in
technical systems are rated significantly lower,
perhaps because of their link with other domains
(experimenting and project leading one).
Although just a few skills rated significantly
different when compared on the available
ownership categories, their domain setup
showed an interesting, and perhaps expected
difference
between
respondents
from
government-owned
and
private
owned
organizations with the former valuing items
comprising the Ethics and responsibility domain
significantly higher than the latter, with the item
“Conscientiousness and ability to implement
rules of the profession” being the exception.
Finally, items defining the domain Other
sank to the bottom of the importance scale, with
the exception being an ability to understand a
foreign professional language and, to some
229
Table 1. Mean and standard deviation values of items operationalizing engineer skills
Item
Professional and conscientious approach to work tasks
Willingness for lifelong learning of engineering knowledge, skills and techniques
Motivated approach to work tasks
Conscientiousness and ability to implement rules of the profession
Ability to respect deadlines
Ability to come to an optimal solution while working with others
Ability to independently identify and define problems that need solving
Understanding and respecting one's and others' role in teamwork
Ability to find different solutions for existing problems
Concise and clear communication of ideas to non-engineers (public, clients...)
An active interest in engineering technology, knowledge, skills and techniques
Design solution to meet desired needs
Ability to communicate and express oneself clearly
Ability to work under pressure (deadlines, downsizings, demanding clients...)
Ability to choose and use specific engineering tools, skills and techniques
Ability to work well in interdisciplinary teams
Ability to follow directions when working on tasks
Understanding a foreign professional language
Ability to lead teams
Ability to write technical documentation
Ability to use advanced computer software
Ability to negotiate with clients and employers
Putting ethical standards at the foremost place when working on tasks
Ability to manage one's and recognizing others' emotions
Taking into account societal and environmental repercussions when designing solutions
Specialization in an engineering field
Ability to think, plan and lead projects strategically
Practical experience during formal education
Ability to recognize interactions between elements in technical systems and processes
Ability to design and lead experiments in order to test new technical solutions
Ability to design processes of quality management
Ability to analyze and interpret experiment results
Understanding the global repercussions of engineering solutions
Advanced understanding of mathematics
Understanding contemporary (economic, ecological, political...) problems
General knowledge about national and international events
N
317
326
321
324
318
320
322
327
321
332
322
322
331
319
314
327
320
312
324
315
316
326
320
326
319
321
317
314
311
323
314
323
305
305
311
306
x̅
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.5
SD
0.35
0.47
0.44
0.44
0.44
0.5
0.49
0.49
0.48
0.55
0.53
0.57
0.53
0.58
0.57
0.61
0.57
0.66
0.64
0.68
0.66
0.73
0.68
0.63
0.65
0.69
0.66
0.78
0.69
0.79
0.7
0.83
0.78
0.78
0.76
0.84
identify and define problems that need solving"
(one of the most valued learning outcomes) and
the "ability to analyse and interpret experiment
results" which seems to be relatively poorly
valued by Croatian employers. Additionally,
none of these specific engineering skills are
among the top three learning outcomes. It seems
that Croatian employers are either not worried
about specific technical learning outcomes in
Croatian engineering study programs or expect
4. DISCUSSION
Croatian employers value most of the
learning
outcomes
suggested
by
the
questionnaire highly. However, their ratings
aren’t quite consistent. This is most visible in
the case of so called specific engineering skills
like problem solving, experimentation and IT
skills where values differ significantly among
Croatian employers. Particularly in the
differences on the "ability to independently
230
value negotiation skills more, skills which are
not highly valued by part of the employers as
they could possibly result in harsher promotion
raise negotiations. Further, it seems that women
value all items measuring ethics and
responsibility far more than men do, suggesting
that women generally "find ethics important not
only in the workplace but in regard to the
environment as well" [18]. In sum, employers'
gender differences in regard to the perception of
engineering skills are evident and significant
and have yet to be explored in more detail to
allow for more elaborated explanation.
these outcomes to be raised along the graduates'
working experience
On the other hand, transferable skills are
undoubtedly extremely important to Croatian
employers. For example, the top ranked item
("professional and conscientious approach to
work tasks") suggests expectations that could be
theorized in terms of professionalism and work
ethic [18]. The next five top ranked learning
outcomes also belong to a wider set of
transferable skills, previously conceptualized in
terms of professionalism, lifelong learning,
teamwork, ethics and responsibility [18].
However, some inconsistencies regarding the
way employers value transferable skills and
learning outcomes are notable. Findings suggest
that employers approach transferable skills
mainly instrumentally and in terms of graduates'
potential organisational functioning. More
precisely, employers prefer learning outcomes
which could habilitate engineering workforce to
conscientiously approach work tasks, be highly
motivated, strictly adhere to rules of the
profession; meet the deadlines; be able to join
work teams successfully; and be ready for
lifelong learning in different strains of
engineering profession.
5. CONCLUSION
This research findings not only suggest that
employers value transferable skills in the daily
work of contemporary engineers, but are also
consistent with corresponding research on skills
and learning outcomes in engineering education
[1, 3, 6, 7]. Considering these and previous
results, engineering study programs should open
more room for courses dealing with issues such
as professional responsibility, ethics in
engineering, group processes in work teams and
communications.
Finally, our findings indicate women express
a more holistic understanding of engineering
skills which strongly corresponds to recent
demands of engineering skills in contemporary
engineering employability literature [8-14].
Since engineering is still a male dominated
profession in Croatia, these findings allow for a
conclusion that female employers possibly fit
more in the future visions of engineering
currently established by the most relevant
engineering organisations and corresponding
engineering education stakeholders.
Other aspects of transferable skills are far
less valued by Croatian employers. Although
NAE and ABET recommendations have
recognized the necessity for engineers to be
broadly educated, highly cultured professionals
and responsible citizens conscious of their
greater role in an ever more technological
society, it seems that Croatian employers do not
attach great importance to these attributes. For
example, items such as "understanding
contemporary (economic, ecological, political...)
problems" and "general knowledge of national
and international events" are the lowest ranked.
6. REFERENCES
Finally, regarding independent variables, it is
obvious that employers differ significantly in
preferences of learning outcomes according to
their gender. Generally, female employers
attribute greater value to all skills, both technical
and non-technical, than men [18]. Also, women
[1] L. Bucciarelli; E. Coyle; D. McGrath,
Engineering education in the US and the
EU, In: E. Cole (Ed.) Engineering
Education in the US and the EU, pp. 1-23,
Dublin Institute of Technology, (2009).
231
[2] R. Sennett, The corrosion of character: The
personal consequences of work in the new
capitalism. W.W. Norton & Company,
(1998).
European Journal of Engineering Education
31 (2006), pp. 637-650.
[12] L.C. Strauss; P.T. Terenzini, Assessing
Student Performance on EC2000 Criterion
3.a-k. Proc. of the American Society for
Engineering Education Annual Conference
& Exposition, American Society for
Engineering Education, Portland, Oregon,
(2005).
[3] S.
Beder,
Beyond
Technicalities:
Expanding Engineer Thinking. Journal of
Professional
Issues
in
Engineering
Education and Practice 125 (1) (1999), pp.
12-18.
[4] U. Beck, The Brave new World of Work.
Polity Press, Oxford, (2000).
[13] A. Deluka-Tibljaš; B. Karleuša; B. Štimac
Grandić, Definition of learning results
during civil engineering studies at the
University of Rijeka (in Croatian).
Građevinar 63 (2011), pp. 1-10.
[5] E. Conlon, The new engineer: between
employability and social responsibility.
European Journal of Engineering Education
33(2) (2008), pp. 151-159.
[14] MA4 Catalogue, Croatian Catalogue of
Knowledge, Skills and Competences for
Mechanical Engineering Studies (in
Croatian). Mechanical Engineering Faculty,
Slavonski Brod, (2015).
[6] National Academy of Engineering, The
Engineer of 2020: Visions of Engineering
in the New Century. The National
Academies Press, Washington DC, (2004).
[15] Croatian Chamber of Commerce: Register
of Business Entities, https://goo.gl/U2HdgY,
last access 13/7/2017.
[7] Engineering Accreditation Commission.
Engineering Criteria 2000: Criteria for
Accrediting Programs in Engineering in the
United
States,
Baltimore,
MD:
Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology, Inc., (1997).
[16] Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and
Naval Architecture: Archive of job and
stipend listings, https://goo.gl/fUYwUj, last
access 31/8/2018.
[8] A. Blom, H. Saeki, Employability and Skill
Set of Newly Graduated Engineers in India.
Policy Research working paper, WPS
5640. World Bank, (2011).
[17] The People’s Newspaper: National
Classification of Occupation, https://goo.gl/
32HrYq, last access 16/7/2017.
[18] N. Dubreta; L. Bulian, Engineering job
[9] A. Zaharim, Y. Yusoff, A. Mohamed, M.Z.
Omar, N. Muhamad, R. Mustapha,
Practical framework of employability skills
for engineering graduate in Malaysia. Proc.
of the EDUCON Education Engineering The Future of Global Learning Engineering
Education, Madrid, Spain, pp. 921-927,
(2010).
skills in Croatian economy: employers'
perspective. Interdisciplinary Description
of Complex Systems 16 (1) (2018), pp. 120.
[10] D. Hagan, Employer satisfaction with ICT
graduates. Proc. of the 6th Australasian
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Education
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(ACE2004), Dunedin, New Zealand,
pp.119-123, (2004).
[11] I. Markes, A review of literature on
employability skill needs in engineering.
232
Active Labour Market Policy Programs
for Young People in the Republic of
Croatia
V. Bartolović a, V. Vučemilović b, M. Kuntić c
a
College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: visnja.bartolovic@vusb.hr
b
c
PP Orahovica, Stjepana Mlakara 5, 33515 Orahovica, Croatia,
E-mail: Vesna.Vucemilovic@pporahovica.hr
Student on College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod,
E-mail: martinckica.k@gmail.com
Abstract
Active Labour Market Policy programs aim to enable unemployed young persons for labour market
through the professional training without establishing steady employment. In that way, young people
are being trained for their profession and employer gets free working labour because state pays their
salary. The subject of this research is to explore trainee’s satisfaction with the professional training
measure through several variables. Research was conducted among trainees and their mentors. The
research was carried through social media (Facebook) and “I worth more” initiative. The aim of this
research was to evaluate satisfaction and verify experience of professional training trainee's. In the
online research 508 respondents participated of which 465 was female, 43 male and 104 respondents
were trainee’s mentors. Based on the sample which participated in research we may notice that
professional training measure without establishing steady employment requires modifications of
certain elements such as the CES control of jobs performed by trainee, increase of compensation
amount, the right to sick leave and employers should be conditioned to employ trainees in future. In
that way, better satisfaction of trainees would be attained together with better usefulness for CES and
companies.
Keywords: professional training, young people, trainee’s satisfaction
The major difficulties that young people face
according to the attitudes and thinking of
employers are the following (Institute for Labor
Market Development, 2012): Young people
after graduation are not educated enough for the
occupations they have been trained for (71%).
Further, there is not enough incentives for youth
employment by the state (32%), the young
without experience are financially less profitable
because they "do not earn" their salary (24%).
According to the attitudes and thinking of
employers there are next facts found in the
research: they cannot get quality young people
1. INTRODUCTION
Active Labour Market Policy programs aim
to enable unemployed persons for labor market
through the professional training without
establishing steady employment. In that way
young people are being trained for their
profession and employer gets free working
labour because state pays their salary. The
transition of young people from the school to the
job needs to be realized through the relation
between the employer-education system [1].
233
through free employment services (16%) [2]. In
2018, measures of active employment policy
were presented with the aim of increasing the
number of employed person in Croatia and
reducing the number of long-term unemployed
persons. One of the measures of active
employment policy, that is the subject of this
research, is the professional training for work
without employment. At the beginning of this
year (2018) there was a change in this level of
employment, the percentage of people that the
public sector can receive after vocational
training has decreased from 10% to just 3%. [3]
A total of 70.7% of users are professionally
trained in state and municipal companies.
According to the type of job, on the
administrative work is 31.6% of users, work on
the ground is performed 2.8% of users,
bookkeeping tasks in order to 1.2%, of users,
accounting does the 5.6% of users, marketers is
3.4% of users, craftsmen does the 7.4% of users.
48.1% of users are doing something else.
Figure 1 shows the number of users
involved in the measure of professional training
for work without employment [4]
Fig. 3. Satisfaction with the professional training
measure without establishing steady employment [3]
According to the results 72,6% of
respondents are not satisfied with the
professional
training
measure
without
establishing steady employment.
Fig. 1. Number of users involved in the measure of
professional training for work without employment
for the period 2011-2017[4]
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
The subject of this research is to explore
trainee’s satisfaction with the professional
training measure through several variables: type
of company ownership, type of job, duration of
this measure, satisfaction with mentor, will for
remaining in the company after training and
total satisfaction with professional training
measure. The study included 508 participans, of
which 465 females, 43 males and 104 mentors.
[3]
Fig. 4. Satisfaction with salary [3]
8.7% of respondents said they were satisfied
with the salary, while 91.3% answered that they
were not satisfied with the salary.
Fig. 5. Duration of training [3]
91.7% of users were in training 12 months.
With mentor are satisfied 56,4% while rest of
trainees (43,6%) are not satisfied with their
mentor. One of the most frequent reasons why
Fig. 2. Type of company ownership [3]
234
they are not satisfied with mentor is: mentor is
too busy (37,6 %), unprofessional (10,2 %) or
indifferent (37,2 %).
Fig. 8. Whether the mentor devotes enough time to
the attendants (mentor's opinion) [3]
3. CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 6. Satisfaction with mentor care [3]
Why they are not satisfied with mentor is:
mentor is too busy, unprofessional or
indifferent. Totally 74,7% trainees would like to
stay working in the company after finishing their
professional training. Regarding mentors 87,5%
of them are not getting any remuneration for
mentorship, 62,4% regards that they are
devoting enough time for mentorship and 89%
consider that trainees are interested in learning.
The measure of professional training for
work without establishing employment is
designed to help young people gain first-time
job experience and to encourage employers,
mostly from the private sector, to recruit young
people.
The aim of these measures was that the state
help employers by taking the cost of young
workers during their training or to them by
employers thereafter retain the company as
permanent employees. A very small percentage
of young people have come to this goal. Many
young people this measure are greeted with
optimism and later with a great deal of
disappointment. They were given the
opportunity to acquire certain work experience
in the job for which they were educated. On the
other hand, they are disappointed by the attitude
of the legislator because during professional
training they do not have workers' rights as
"real" workers of these companies, such as the
right to sick leave. According to the results
72,6% of respondents are not satisfied with the
professional
training
measure
without
establishing steady employment. As the most
common reason trainees are mentioning low
compensation, amount and impression that they
will not benefit from this measure in future
employment process. Totally 56,7% trainees are
being professionally trained in company owned
by state, of which 91,7% in 12 months system
and 91,3% is not satisfied with compensation
amount. With mentor are satisfied 56,4% while
rest of trainees (43,6%) are not satisfied with
their mentor. One of the most frequent reasons
why they are not satisfied with mentor is:
One of the difficulties for the participants,
especially those who have health problems or
needs more free days than they can take
advantage of, is that if they are going to sick
leave they cannot be on sick leave for more than
30 days in continuity. After passing these 30
immediately following the cancellation of the
contract. [3]
Fig. 7. Remuneration for mentorship [3]
Regarding mentors 87,5% of them are not
getting any remuneration for mentorship.
37.6% of mentors believe they do not devote
enough time to the participants. They replied
that they have too much work, that are not
adequately paid and they are not interested.
These are the three most common reasons for
their dissatisfaction. 89% of mentors consider
that trainees are interested in learning.
235
mentor is too busy, unprofessional or
indifferent. Totally 74,7% trainees would like to
stay working in the company after finishing their
professional training. Regarding mentors 87,5%
of them are not getting any remuneration for
mentorship, 62,4% regards that they are
devoting enough time for mentorship and 89%
consider that trainees are interested in learning.
Based on the sample which participated in
research we may notice that professional
training measure without establishing steady
employment requires modifications of certain
elements such as the CES control of jobs
performed by trainee, increase of compensation
amount, the right to sick leave and employers
should be conditioned to employ trainees in
future. In that way, better satisfaction of trainees
would be attained together with better
usefulness for CES and companies.
4. REFERENCES
[1] A. Obadić, Nezaposlenost mladih i
usklađenost
obrazovnog
sustava
s
potrebama tržišta rada. Ekonomska misao i
praksa XXVI(1) (2017), pp. 129-150.
[2] The Croatian Employment Service,
Smjernice za suzbijanje diskriminacije i
promicanje raznolikosti na hrvatskom
tržištu rada.
http://www.hzz.hr/UserDocsImages/HR_G
uidelines.pdf, last access 30/03/2018.
[3] M. Kuntić, Stručno osposobljavanje za rad
bez zasnivanja radnog odnosa. Diplomski
rad, Veleučilište u Slavonskom Brodu,
(2018).
[4] I. Brkljača, Stručno osposobljavanje za rad
bez zasnivanja radnog odnosa (SOR):
uspon i prirodni pad, Ekonomski lab,
https://arhivanalitika.hr/blog/strucnoosposobljavanje-bez-zasnivanja-radnogodnosa-sor-uspon-i-prirodni-pad/,
last
access 01/08/2018.
236
Experiments with a Randomized Method
for Probability Maximization
E. Csizmás a, T. Vajnai a, C.I. Fábián
a
a
John von Neumann University, Izsáki Street 10., 6000 Kecskemét, Hungary,
E-mail: {csizmas.edit, vajnai.tibor, fabian.csaba}@gamf.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
We solve probability maximization problem by inner approximation. The method of the solution is
analogous to the classical method of the p-efficient points, but we approximate the epigraph instead of
the level sets of the probabilistic function. We experimented with controlling the accuracy in a
randomized method.
Keywords: stochastic programming, probabilistic constraints, probability maximization
2. ILLUSTRATING THE METHOD
USED
1. INTRODUCTION
The evolution of infocommunication
technologies, such as smart grid and transport
systems, requires the development of methods to
manage probabilistic constraints.
The problem solution consists of two parts.
The master problem is a linear programming
problem, the searching for an improving column
is a unconstrained convex minimization problem.
The process is iterative, we are always looking
for a new test point where the value of the target
function improves most. The method used is a
modified variant of Prékopa's dual approach [6],
in which we approach the epigraph of the
function, not a level set of the function.
Unconstrained minimization is done by a
gradient method in [3], using a random
approximation of the gradient in the randomized
procedure in [2]. In [3] we used inner
approximation of the probability function Fig. 1.
This method is accurate, but very work-intensive.
In the article [2] there is developed a random
variant of the inner approximation which was
used in the [3]. The method is good because if we
calculate the gradients imprecisely then we will
also give an upper estimate for the function. The
test points are not exactly, but we calculate the
function values quite accurately. (Fig. 2.).
We deal with two kinds of problems. On the
one hand, by maximizing probability in the
following form max P
≥
subject to
≤
. On the other hand, handle the probability
constraint in the following form min
subject
to P
≥ ≥ and
≤ .
In this problem vector is the vector which
contains the decision variables,
and
are
matrices, and are vectors with appropriate
sizes. The probability p is given (0 < < 1) and
the distribution of the random vector is known.
It is assumed that the joint distribution function
=
≥
is logconcave therefore the
Φ
= − log
is convex. In the following
we are working on this.
The randomized method and the applied
procedures are described accurately in the articles
[2,3]. In this article we present experiments
which we made on the test problems to find the
stopping condition.
237
where & ∈ ℝ and 1 ∈ ℝ% is a vector of 1 set. If (1)
can not be solved, there is no solution to the
original problem. On the other hand, if the target
value is not limited, 1 probability is available in
the original job.
Let " = 1& ∗ , where & ∗ is an optimal solution
of the (1).
Let ( ⊂ ℝ% be a cube with the outside
probability weight negligible. Since we work
with standard standard distributions, the !
dimensional ( cube is considered as symmetric
to the origin. In our experiments, we worked with
a cube with
( ≈ 0.995.
Fig. 1. The inner approximation of the probability
function
./0
Let
= 1./0 , . . . , %./0
be the
maximum vertex of the ( cube. In order to
facilitate the solution, " additionally initializes
the primary task by adding
3 4 =
1, . . , ! , %51 , %56
vectors,
where
3 =
./0
./0
./0
./0
are the
, … , 381 , 0, 351 , … , %
1
midpoints of the edges starting from the vertex
./0
of the ( cube and %51 = 0, %56 = ./0 .
Figure 2. shows these test points.
Fig. 2. Approximation of the probability function with
randomized method
The master problem was solved with the IBM
ILOG CPLEX Optimization Studio for Matlab
(12.6.3. version) with tolerance 1089.
3. IMPLEMENTATION
3.2. The oracle
We implemented the solution in Matlab. The
implementation consists of two parts. The first
part is the master problem and the second part is
the searching for an improving column. The
second part is called oracle in the following
discussion.
The oracle approximately solves the problem
max: {<
When we solve this problem we assume a
standard normal distribution. Let ! be the number
of the components of the random vector, which is
equal to the number of rows of matrix. First we
look for a suitable starting vector " ∈ ℝ% , which
is a possible solution of the primary task. This is
done by solving the following problem:
For each iteration, the function value and
gradient vector of the multi-dimensional normal
distribution function
must be calculated.
For this calculation, see chapter 6.6.4 of the
Prékopa book [7]. Using these formulas, the
calculation
of
the
gradient
of
the
multidimensional distribution function is
simplified to compute the conditional distribution
function values. For normal distributions
conditional distributions are normal.
max &
≤0
} in every iteration. We
minimize the =
− < function, where < is
the optimal dual variable of the master problem.
The vector
can be imagined as a possible
column of the master problem. The optimal
solution ∗ is the column vector to which the best
reduced price belongs in the simplex method.
3.1. The master problem
1& −
−=
(1)
≤ ,
238
The numerical calculation of the multivariate
normal distribution values was performed using
the QSIMVNV Matlab function implemented by
Genz [5].
5. TEST RESULTS AND
CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 3. shows the numbers of iterations with
different starting sample sizes and with different
increase strategies. Naturally less iterations are
needed when the starting numbers are bigger.
4. COMPUTATIONS
To test the randomized method, the tasks
described in [3] were used for the "cash
matching" problem. In the problem that is a
normal 15-dimensional problem with normal
distribution, some funds must be invested on
behalf of a pension fund by making certain
payments in the next 15 years. See detailed
description in [1,5].
The test problem was originally formulated as
cost estimation, with a probability limit. The
problem was translated to probability maximize.
The right-hand side of the cost constraints is set
so that the appropriate optimum probability level
is p = 0.9. For these calculations we used the
computer code of Szántai [8].
G=
Fig. 3. Number of iteration for different samples (ℬ
0.03)
Experiments were conducted to determine the
stopping condition by computing the ℬ described
in [4].
ℬ = @=A
−=
Run times don’t show significant differences
for different starting sample sizes, but the
increase strategies based on square of the
reciprocal of the norm result in longer running
times (Fig. 4.)
B
+ max@< − EB
:∈D
−
+ ∆ diag (
where the different addends represent
computation errors in function values and
gradients.
The code by Genz [5] applies simulation,
therefore sample sizes influence the accuracy. In
our experiments we compared iteration numbers
G below 0.03.
and run times needed to decrease ℬ
We tested different strategies to increase
sample sizes in the course of the optimization
process, each based on the reciprocal of estimated
gradient norm of the objective of the column
generation subproblem.
G = 0.03)
Fig. 4. Run time for different samples (ℬ
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We increased sample size either in proportion
to the reciprocal of the norm, or in proportion to
the square of the reciprocal of the norm.
This research is supported by EFOP-3.6.1-162016-00006 "The development and enhancement
of the research potential at John von Neumann
239
University" project. The Project is supported by
the Hungarian Government and co-financed by
the European Social Fund.
7. REFERENCES
[1] D. Dentcheva; B. Lai; A. Ruszczyński, Dual
methods for probabilistic optimization
problems. Mathematical Methods of
Operations Research 60(2) (2004), pp. 331346.
[2] C.I. Fábián; T. Szántai, A randomized
method for smooth convex minimization,
motivated by probability maximization.
2017.
http://www.optimizationonline.org/DB_FILE/2017/03/5920.pdf, last
access 12/11/2017.
[3] C.I. Fábián; E. Csizmás; R. Drenyovszki;
W. van Ackooij; T. Vajnai; L. Kovács; T.
Szántai, Probability maximization by inner
approximation.
Acta
Polytechnica
Hungarica 15(1) (2018), pp. 105-125.
[4] C.I. Fábián; E. Csizmás; R. Drenyovszki; T.
Vajnai; L. Kovács; T. Szántai, A
randomized method for handling a difficult
function in a convex optimization problem,
motivated by probabilistic programming.
Submitted for publication.
[5] A. Genz, Numerical computation of
multivariate normal probabilities. Journal of
Computational and Graphical Statistics 1(2)
(1992), pp. 141-150.
[6] A. Prékopa, Dual method for the solution of
a one-stage stochastic programming
problem with random RHS obeying a
discrete probability distribution. Zeitschrift
für Operations Research 34(6) (1990), pp.
441-461.
[7] A. Prékopa, Stochastic Programming.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
(1995).
[8] T. Szántai, A computer code for solution of
probabilistic-constrained
stochastic
programming problems, In: Y.M. Ermoliev;
R. J.-B. Wets (Eds.) Numerical Techniques
for Stochastic Optimization, pp. 229-235.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, (1988).
240
Relationship between Knowledge
Management and Innovation
Performance: A Literature Review
M. Žižakov a, S. Vulanović a, M. Delić a, B. Kamberović a, V. Vrhovac a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department for Industrial
Engineering and Management, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia,
E-mail: {marinazizakov, srdjanv, delic, bato, violeta.vrhovac}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to review literature evidence on the nature of relationship
between knowledge management and innovation performance. A critical review and
semantic synthesis of literature was conducted in order to identify key dimensions and
relations between aforementioned research concepts. Hence, upon results of semantic
synthesis, a research framework was conceptualised. The results of literature survey reveals
that studies in the field are contradictory, in some extent. While some studies claim that
knowledge management produce positive impact on organisational innovation, others point
to the, at best, shortcomings of knowledge management practices. Such contradictions still
draws attention of academic community. By shedding some light, the results of this study
might help scholars and practitioners to understand the deeper meaning of how coupling of
these organisational concepts can produce competitive advantage for the organisation, as
well to further clarify the fostering nature of knowledge management for the development
of organisational innovation.
Keywords: knowledge management, innovation, organisational innovation, literature revie
must facilitate the creation of new knowledge, in
order to gain and sustain competitive advantage.
Thus, gaining knowledge positively affects
organizational innovation [3].
1. INTRODUCTION
In a rapidly changing business environment,
innovation becomes a prerequisite for success or
even the survival of an organization. Therefore,
innovation is one of the most relevant factor for
the development of a company, as well as the
key element for market competitiveness. It
includes
new
ideas
transformed
and
implemented in products, services and processes,
which create a value for the company [1].
Moreover, in a turbulent economic environment,
innovation is considered to be a key driver of
sustainability, productivity, economic growth
and business competitiveness [2].
KM involves complicated process and
activities that create, identifies, shares, and
adjust organisation knowledge [4]. It is an
important strategy which can improve
organisation competitiveness and performance,
as the implementation of knowledge will lead
the organisation in becoming more adaptive,
innovative, intelligent, and sustainable [5].
Considering the need to understand the links
between knowledge and innovation, several
researchers explored the relationship between
Many researchers and practitioners have
concluded that knowledge management (KM)
241
number of papers that met the criteria were
omitted from the final selection, which resulted
in 25 obtained papers suitable for critical
appraisal of studies. After reading 25 papers, 10
papers where accepted as relevant, credible,
insightful and rigor enough to be included in
data extraction.
knowledge processes and innovation outcomes
[9-18].
The abovementioned interest creates the need
for a review of the crucial literature that
furthermore helps both practitioners and
scholars to understand how the organizational
concepts produce the competitive advantage for
the organization. Next to this it would help
making the notion of knowledge management in
the field of the development of organizational
skills more comprehensible.
For analysis of every paper is used CIMO.
CIMO framework is constructed from [8]:
Context:
- Clearly defined research
boundaries and research space; - Identification
of key aspects, factors, entities or elements;
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
- Identification of key characteristics of those
elements.
Research goal was to gather insightful
information about knowledge management and
innovations, and provide answers for important
questions: Does the knowledge managements
affect the development of innovations? As well
as, does the knowledge management affect the
organization performance?
Interventions:
Which,
of
the
aforementioned key elements, has a mediating
or moderating role?; - What is the intervention
of interest?
Mechanisms: - How interventions can occur,
with respect to given mechanisms?; - What are
the mechanisms of interest?
The data source utilized for that purpose is
Scopus and Science Direct. Scopus is the largest
abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed
literature, which includes scientific journals,
books and conference proceedings [6]. Science
Direct is a website which provides subscriptionbased access to a large database of scientific and
medical research. It hosts over 12 million pieces
of content from 3,500 academic journals and
34,000 e-books [7].
Outcomes: -What are the outcomes of such
mechanisms?
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
After reviewing and analyzing papers by
CIMO, in Table 1. are presented results for
“interventions” (In step 2. METHODS AND
MATERIALS USED FOR RESEARCH, it is
explained in detail).
Research criteria is built upon following
search
terms:
knowledge
management,
innovation, organisational performance, that
could occur in title, abstract or keywords.
Additionally, papers were limited to articles and
conference papers, published between years
2014 and 2018 and written in English language.
Relevant papers were imported into Mendeley,
where title and abstract review was conducted,
resulting in exclusion some papers because they
focused only on topic of knowledge
management or innovations, not on relationship
between two of them. In the next stage of
review, due to limited access to databases, a
KM AND INNOVATION
In table 1. the relationship between KM,
innovation and organisational performance is
shown. Analysed studies are from different
countries and different areas, but show the same
effect. KM has a positive effect on different
types of innovation, and it would be a
motivation for employees and managers to use
KM in their organisations. In this way they will
be more innovative, and achieve competitive
advantages.
242
Table 1. Synthesis of the literature review
Ref. Country
[9]
Iran
[10]
Brazil
[11]
Iran
[12]
Serbia
[13]
Malaysia
Object
Automotive
industry
Proven Relationship
KM has positive impact on organisational innovation (OI), organisational
learning (OL) and organisational performance
Technological acquisitions help biotechnology companies to access
technical expertise that can
support innovation.
Knowledge creation and absorptive capacity mediate the relationship
The study
between knowledge acquisition and
analyses 33
innovation.
papers published
Organizational factors and KM practices are mutually reinforced thus
in 21 journals
improving innovation performance
Knowledge Management (KM) successful programs help global software
firms to create KM-enabled value,
including innovation.
KM has positive effect on organisational learning (OL), organisational
Automotive
innovation (OI) and organisational performance
industry
(Iran Khodro
OL mediates the relationship between KM on OI
Company)
Technology and KM has positive impact on organisational innovation and organisational
knowledge
performance
intensive
industries
Manufacturing KM process, knowledge application and knowledge dissemination has
positive effect on innovation performance
sector
[14]
Jordan
Consultancy
firms
[15]
Taiwan
Firms of the
industrial
cluster index
[16]
Taiwan
Firms
[17]
Iran
[18]
Spain
KM Process (Acquisition, sharing, utilization) and KM Approach
(codification, social network, personalization) has positive effect on
innovation
Knowledge creation & acquisition, knowledge dissemination &
storage and KM has positive effect on innovation
Knowledge acquisition capability and knowledge sharing capabilities
has positive effect on radical innovation
120 firms
of the Iranian KM has positive effect on innovation and organisational performance
Power Syndicate
Technology
firms
KM creation and KM application practice has positive effect on
innovation
4. CONCLUSION
5. REFERENCES
In the end, from the abovementioned
literature review it was concluded that KM has a
positive
impact
on
innovations
and
organisational performance. The further studies
should show how to use KM in right way to
increase capabilities for innovation.
[1] Kolari, B., Srbija, T., & Mitrovica, I. J. S.
(2017). Dinamika odnosa upravljanja
znanjem I Relationships Knowledge
Management and Innovation as Relevant
Factors of, pp. 93-104.
243
innovation: An empirical study. Asian
Social Science 11(23) (2015), pp. 153-168.
[2] H.T. Smit; L. Trigeorgis, Strategic
investment: Real options and games.
Princeton University Press, (2012).
[12] N. Radovanović; V. Dmitrović; N. Žarkić
Joksimović,
From
Knowledge
to
Innovation and Back: Empirical Testing of
Knowledge-Intensive Industries in Serbia.
Entrepreneurial Business and Economics
Review 5(3) (2017), pp. 119-131.
[3] A.
Kaklauskas;
L.
Kanapeckiene,
Knowledge management and “BRITA in
PuBs”
project.
Technological
and
Economic Development of Economy 11(2)
(2005), pp. 78-86.
[13] M.M. Yusr; S.S.M. Mokhtar; R.A.
Othman; Y. Sulaiman, Does interaction
between TQM practices and knowledge
management processes enhance the
innovation performance? International
Journal of Quality & Reliability
Management 34(7) (2017), pp. 955-974.
[4] I. Nonaka, A dynamic theory of
organizational
knowledge
creation.
Organization Science 5(1) (1994), pp. 1437.
[5] B.M.
Nurul
Huda,
Knowledge
management in manufacturing industry,
(2007).
Retrieved
from
http://library.utem.edu.my/index2.ph?optio
n=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=35
08&Itemid=342
[14] B. Yousef Obeidat; M. Al-Suradi; R.
Masa'deh; T. Ali, The impact of
knowledge management on innovation: an
empirical study on Jordanian consultancy
firms. Management Research Review
39(10) (2016).
[6] https://www.elsevier.com/solutions/scopus
, last access 26/08/2018.
[7] https://www.sciencedirect.com/, last access
26/08/2018.
[15] Y. Lai; M. Hsu; F. Lin; Y. Chen; Yi-Hsin
Lin, The effects of industry cluster
knowledge management on innovation
performance. Journal of Business Research
67 (2014).
[8] J. Jesson; L. Matheson; F. Lacey, Doing
Your Literature Review: Traditional and
Systematic Techniques, Sage, London,
(2011).
[16] C.C.J. Cheng; C. Yang; C. Sheu, Effects of
open innovation and knowledge-based
dynamic capabilities on radical innovation:
An empirical study. Journal of Engineering
and Technology Management 41 (2016),
pp. 79-91
[9] K. Abdi; A. Mardani; A. A. Senin; L.
Tupenaite;
J.
Naimaviciene;
L.
Kanapeckiene; V. Kutut, The effect of
knowledge management, organizational
culture and organizational learning on
innovation in automotive industry. Journal
of Business Economics and Management
19(1) (2018), pp. 1-19.
[17] A. Mardani; S. Nikoosokhan; M. Moradi;
M. Doustar, The Relationship Between
Knowledge Management and Innovation
Performance. Journal of High Technology
Management Research 29(1) (2018), pp.
12-26.
[10] F.F. Batista; M. Massaro; F.D Mas; A.
Garlatti, The relationship between
knowledge management and innovation in
large companies: A structured literature
review, Proc. of the 18th European
Conference on Knowledge Management,
ECKM 2017, pp. 81-89, (2017).
[18] M.J. Donate; J.D. Sánchez de Pablo, The
role of knowledge-oriented leadership in
knowledge management practices and
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68(2) (2004), pp. 360-370.
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knowledge management on organizational
244
Agile Project Management beyond
Software Development: Challenges and
Enablers
D. Ciric a, D. Gracanin a, N. Cvetkovic a, A. Fajsi a, I. Graic
a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {danijela.ciric, gracanin, angela.sladic}@uns.ac.rs,
nela_cvetkovic@yahoo.com, igorgraic47@gmail.com
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to examine if agile project management (APM) is applied
beyond software industry and what are the main reasons for introduction of APM and also challenges
encountered in its application. In 15 years since APM has been in use, it has become a cutting-edge
approach practiced, primarily although not exclusively, in the software industry. There is a slowly
emerging recognition that APM have something to offer within the wider project landscape and
motivation for this research came from the fact that not many empirically grounded studies at the
moment exist and those that are present are limited by sample size, industry or geography and it does
not allow for generalizations. With the increased use of APM, it is of utmost importance to clarify if
and how this concept translates outside of software domain. The study combined literature review and
empirical research based on originally developed questionnaire distributed through PMI (Project
Management Institute) worldwide network. Data was gathered from a survey of 334 projects,
members of PMI network management professionals with 227 valid answers. Results has shown that
there are a companies beyond IT and software development that has been practicing APM in different
sectors.
Keywords: agile project management, APM, project management
agile-related topics are discussed, primarily, in
IT and software related literature, ability to
manage changing priorities, team productivity,
customer satisfaction, effectiveness in resolving
unexpected risks, as building blocks of APM,
are for sure something that is desirable beyond
software industry but still there is a lack of
understanding and well defined instructions how
to apply particular Agile in other domains, how
to identify situations when APM might be a
better solution and how to help organizations
integrate agile practices into their traditional
processes. Therefore, with the increased use of
APM in the last decade, it is of utmost
importance to clarify whether and how this
concept translates outside of software domain
and whether it coexists with or replaces
1. INTRODUCTION
With its roots in the Agile Manifesto, which
expresses the key principles and values of the
movement, and after 15 years of maturation,
agile project management (APM) now becoming
mainstream and a cutting-edge project
management approach in fast competitive
markets, with fast changing technologies,
innovation-driven clients, and high level of
uncertainties. Up to now, APM has been
adopted for software development in thousands
of companies around the world and it is on the
rise according to 2015 PMI’s Pulse of the
Profession report [1] with 38 % of responding
companies reporting its frequent use, which is 8
percentage points up since 2013. Although
245
However, other types of projects share many
of the challenges that APM solved in software
development. While APM is generally applied
by software development teams, the number of
project managers and business experts who
recommend the implementation of APM to
manage projects and teams outside the software
industry [6]is growing. Over time, APM
migrated to other domains as well, and 48% of
project managers stated that they also used agile
methods for projects that are not related to
software IT in the report "Agile Project
Management Software User Report (2015) ".
Scrum Alliances survey which covered 4452
Scrum users (Scrum is the most popular agile
method), more than half of respondents said that
their organization used Scrum outside of IT as
well, and the highest percentage was reported in
the development of new products (11%).
Though agile roots are in software development
organizations, changes in the business
environment (e.g., growing power of customer,
rapid pace of technology, and shorter business
cycles) are driving organizations to look at
additional ways to apply Agile. Components of
agile methodology (e.g., customer collaboration,
rapid production, and flexibility) allow
organizations to address many of the changes in
the business environment and thus it is
significance to investigate agile adoption and
applicability in managing projects beyond IT.
Customization and flexibility depend on the
level of innovation, character and degree of
changes etc. and the choice of methodology
remain a challenge and problem to be solved.
We identified a wave of interest from
researchers which proposed and investigated the
application of APM in non-software projects, in
variety of domains. Table 1 summarize the
findings on APM applicability beyond software
industry, available in literature, gain through
literature review which was conducted to
systematically locate, assess and aggregate the
outcomes from all relevant studies in a
transparent way.
traditional project management and under which
conditions. There is a slowly emerging
recognition that APM have something to offer
within the wider project landscape and
motivation for this research came from the fact
that not many empirically grounded studies at
the moment exist and those that are present are
limited by sample size, industry or geography
and it does not allow for generalizations. Based
on the aforementioned this study aims:
In the first instance, to provide academics
and practitioners with a coherent
overview of the available theory in this
new and still under-explored area.
In the second instance, through empirical
research to show which are the reasons
for introduction of APM and challenges in
its application in and beyond software
development.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. Agile Project Management
In the last decade the research on APM and
its adoption beyond software industry has
emerged expeditiously due to the fact that
projects are being more complex with uncertain
outcomes and goals changing over time.
The concept of APM has emerged in the past
decade from the software community, supported
by the development of a set of practices, tools
and techniques encapsulated in so-called “agile
methods” or “lightweight” methods[2]. Agile
methods are used to deliver customers value
while
dealing
with
inherent
project
unpredictability [3] relying on people and their
creativity rather than on processes [4], as a
counter
to
the traditional
“waterfall”
approach[2] which involves very disciplined and
deliberate planning and control methods
stressing the importance of requirements, but
limited in a way that projects rarely follow the
sequential flow, and clients usually find it
difficult to completely state all requirements
early in the project [5].
246
Table 1. APM in different domains.
Proposed domains for APM application
Authors
APM in innovation management and product
development
[7]–[10]
APM in construction and real estate
[11]–[16]
APM in education
[17]–[21]
APM in services
[22], [23]
The initial questionnaire dissemination
process was followed by a series of follow-up
email reminders, if required. After a 2-month
period, 334 responses were collected from which
227 was valid. Therefore, the study included 227
persons, 167 males (73.6%) and 60 female
(26.4%), with 28 (12.3%) respondents aged 25 to
34, 81 (35.7%) from 35 to 44, 66 (29.1%) from
45 to 54, 40 (17.6%) from 55 to 64 and 1
respondent 75 or older, from 49 different
countries worldwide. The sample encompassed
staff with extended project management working
experience. 148 respondents had 10 or more
years of project management working experience
(with 48 of them with 20-30 years and 8 with
more than 30 years). The organizations were
respondents were employed and to which all
furthered questions are related varied in size with
43 (18.9%) organizations with 1-50 employees,
30 (13.2%) with 51-200 employees, 21 (9.3%)
with 201-500 employees, 27 (11.9%) 501-1000
employees and 106 (46.7%) with over 1000
employees. In Table 2 the structure of industry
sector by respondents is presented. It could be
concluded from the table 2 that respondents come
from various industry sectors.
3. METHODS
3.1. Methodology and data sample
description
The aim of the empirical part of the research
was to find out if APM is applied in different
sectors beyond software development and what
are the most common reasons to introduce APM
and challenges encountered.
Data was collected from practitioners who
are members of PMI or members of LinkedIn
project management groups. Invitations to fill
out the originally developed and validated
questionnaire, via surveymonkey.com, were
posted on PMI communities, LinkedIn and
Facebook groups, and were also distributes
through contact lists of various PMI chapters
worldwide. The survey was targeted at project
managers but was not restricted to people who
managed projects. This study is extracted as a
part from research project entitled “Extending
agile project management beyond software
industry” which was granted by PMI under the
Theses research grant scheme.
The questionnaire was structured in 5
sections with 66 questions. This study is the
result of the analysis of the date collected from
the 5th section entitled “Your experience with
agile project management”. In first instance
respondents were asked if their organization has
experience with APM and if yes, whether APM
is used only for software development or IT
related projects or beyond. After that, according
to the subjective assessment of respondents,
reasons for introduction of APM, challenges and
enablers in APM application were ranked.
Descriptive statistics is use for analysis.
4. RESULTS
In this section, study results are presented,
using descriptive statistics. From the table 3 it
could be seen that 135 (59.47%) of respondents
declared that their organization have experience
with APM out of which 85 respondents declared
that their organization is using APM only in
software development and IT related projects
and 50 respondents declared that their
organization is using APM beyond software
development and IT related project.
247
Table 2. Industry sector
Frequency
Percent
Advertising & Marketing
1
0.4
Airlines & Aerospace (including Defence)
5
2.2
Automotive
2
0.9
Business Support & Logistics
7
3.1
Construction, Machinery, and Homes
20
8.8
Education
12
5.3
Finance & Financial Services
26
11.5
Food & Beverages
4
1.8
Government
17
7.5
Healthcare & Pharmaceuticals
9
4
Information Technologies
57
25.1
Insurance
7
3.1
Manufacturing
11
4.8
Nonprofit
2
0.9
Real Estate
2
0.9
Telecommunications
19
8.4
Transportation & Delivery
4
1.8
Utilities, Energy, and Extraction
17
7.5
Table 3. Your experience with agile project management
Does your organization have experience
with the agile project management?
For how many years your organization
has been using agile?
In your organization agile project
management is...
No
Yes
less than 1 year
1-2 years
3-5 years
5+ years
Missing
...only used for software
development or IT
related projects.
...used beyond software
development and IT
related projects.
Missing
Frequency
92
135
21
40
35
39
92
Percent
40.53
59.47
9.3
17.6
15.4
17.2
40.5
85
37.44
50
22.03
92
40.53
opportunity to give multiple answers. In
software development accelerate project/product
delivery was ranked as most important reason,
and enhancing ability to manage changing
priorities, better focus on client and increasing
productivity are ranked in top reasons. On the
other side reducing project cost, improving team
morale and improving project visibility had the
In table 4 reasons for introducing APM are
presented and ranked by respondents. A
comparative overview is given in order to see
the difference in reasons for APM introduction
in and beyond software development. A list of
reasons was created based on the most
commonly mentioned reasons for introduction
of APM in literature. Respondents had the
248
on client and reducing project risk are ranked in
top reasons. On the other side reducing project
cost, improving team morale and enhancing
delivery predictability had the lowest rank.
lowest rank. Beyond software development
enhancing ability to manage changing priorities
was ranked as most important reason, and
accelerate project/product delivery, better focus
Table 4. Reasons to introduce APM
Reasons for introducing APM
Percent
of Cases
Beyond software
development
Responses
Percent
of Cases
N
Percent
In software development
N
Accelerate project/product
delivery
Enhance ability to manage
changing priorities
Responses
Percent
61
17.30%
78.20%
31
12.90%
64.60%
45
12.70%
57.70%
34
14.10%
70.80%
27
7.60%
34.60%
22
9.10%
45.80%
22
6.20%
28.20%
19
7.90%
39.60%
24
6.80%
30.80%
13
5.40%
27.10%
26
7.40%
33.30%
19
7.90%
39.60%
Better focus on client
36
10.20%
46.20%
24
10.00%
50.00%
Improve project visibility
21
5.90%
26.90%
14
5.80%
29.20%
Reduce project risk
32
9.10%
41.00%
18
7.50%
37.50%
Reduce project cost
14
4.00%
17.90%
12
5.00%
25.00%
Better manage teams
25
7.10%
32.10%
19
7.90%
39.60%
Improve team morale
20
5.70%
25.60%
16
6.60%
33.30%
Total
353
100.00%
452.60%
241
100.00%
502.10%
Increase productivity
Enhance project/product
quality
Enhance delivery
predictability
Enhanced client
relationship
performance, lack of project management
strategy, formal guidelines and standard
processes and inability to handle interruptions
and urgent requests had the lowest rank. Beyond
software development work prioritization and
alignment among stakeholders on what to build
next was ranked as most important reason, and
incompatibility of agile methods with
organizational processes and functions, lack of
predictability of business value delivered and
visibility to client value at all levels (business,
project, team, customer), lack of project
management strategy, formal guidelines and
standard processes in top reasons. On the other
side insufficient time for testing, Inability to
handle interruptions and urgent requests had the
lowest rank.
In table 5 challenges APM application are
presented and ranked by respondents. A
comparative overview is given in order to see
the difference in challenges encountered in and
beyond software development. A list of
challenges was created based on the most
commonly mentioned APM challenges in
literature. Respondents had the opportunity to
give multiple answers. In software development
work prioritization and alignment among
stakeholders on what to build next was ranked
as most important reason, and insufficient time
for testing, long feedback loops, incompatibility
of agile methods with organizational processes
and functions are ranked in top reasons. On the
other side excessive preparation/planning, low
transparency in project status, progress, and
249
Table 5. Challenges in APM application
Challenges introducing APM
In software development
Responses
Beyond sofware development
Responses
N
Percent
Percent
of Cases
Excessive preparation/planning
15
5.60%
18.80%
7
5.30%
14.90%
Work prioritization and alignment among
stakeholders on what to build next
41
15.20%
51.20%
28
21.20%
59.60%
Insufficient time for testing
32
11.90%
40.00%
6
4.50%
12.80%
Inability to handle interruptions and urgent
requests
23
8.60%
28.70%
8
6.10%
17.00%
Long feedback loops
32
11.90%
40.00%
11
8.30%
23.40%
Unclear definition of roles in project team
25
9.30%
31.30%
12
9.10%
25.50%
31
11.50%
38.80%
16
12.10%
34.00%
33
12.30%
41.30%
19
14.40%
40.40%
16
5.90%
20.00%
10
7.60%
21.30%
21
7.80%
26.30%
15
11.40%
31.90%
269
100.00%
336.30%
132
100.00%
280.90%
Lack of predictability of business value
delivered and visibility to client value at all
levels (business, project, team, customer)
Incompatibility of agile methods with
organizational processes and functions
Low transparency in project status,
progress, and performance
Lack of project management strategy,
formal guidelines and standard processes
Total
N
Percent
Percent
of Cases
Interesting fact is that out of 227 respondents
135 declared that their organization has been
using APM with 50 (22.3%) of them declared
they have been using APM beyond software
development. Even though APM is not yet
grounded beyond software development nor in
theory or practice, this percent has shown that
the application of APM beyond software
industry exist and that it's not negligible.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Agile had its start in software development
and since the inception of Agile Manifesto
APM, as an innovative methodology, has been
practiced in software industry, mainly, but the
application of agile methods has been extended
to other fields. There is a wealth of literature and
evidences about positive effects of APM in
software industry; however, there is a lack of
empirical studies in other types of industries and
projects. Based on our literature review and
theoretical observations we identified a wave of
interest from researchers that discussed the
application of APM and its principles and
practices beyond software development projects,
yet some of selected papers are based just on
assumptions and ideas. There is a need to
implement these ideas in real-world scenarios.
In our study we wanted to identify if APM is
applied beyond software development by
respondents in our sample, consisted of project
management
professionals
worldwide.
If we formulate one general question-does
agile methodology work for all organizations
and all type of projects? Probably not. Just like
with everything else, there is no one size fits all.
There are projects with different characteristics
and organizations operating in various fields.
This necessarily means a diversity of solution is
required and each organization should reflect on
its own context and projects. But introduction of
agile necessitates a culture shift for
organizations, since in many ways it is contrary
to traditional organization, managerial structure
and how traditional project management works.
250
In our study the reasons to introduce APM are
ranked, and in and beyond software
development, most common reason are
accelerating project/product delivery and
enhance ability to manage changing priorities.
On the other hand most important challenges
encountered by respondents using APM in and
beyond software development are work
prioritization and alignment among stakeholders
on what to build next, insufficient time for
testing, long feedback loops, incompatibility of
agile methods with organizational processes and
functions. It could be concluded that there is not
much difference in respondents’ subjective
perception of reasons and challenges in and
beyond software development.
7. REFERENCES
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the
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debatable whether APM will be systematically
and widely adopted, there are sufficient results,
as a solid base, to believe that certain APM is
utilized for projects outside software domain
and it is likely that APM, will have something to
offer to project practitioner in more effective
execution of projects when facing with certain
types of projects and project scenarios. More
rigorous studies are needed to be conducted
before any credible advice can be given.
[5] K. Hass, The blending of traditional and
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and researchers, to gain a better understanding
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agile techniques wherever proven to contribute
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6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Project
Management Institute, under the PMI Thesis
Research Grant Program which supports
doctoral thesis research in the field of project
management.
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252
Content Development for Virtual Reality
Training
U. Marjanovic a, S. Tegeltija a, N. Medic a, M. Lazarevic a, N. Tasic a,
B. Lalic a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6,
Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {umarjano, srkit, medic.nenad, laza, nemanja.tasic,
blalic}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
This paper aim to provide practical guidance for the virtual training content development using simple
application that allows users to easily build their own 3D creations, animate them with code and
explore them in virtual settings. A summary analysis of the extant literature is provided. Valuable
contributions and fundamental methodological issues are identified and discussed. Practical
implications and future research avenues are also highlighted.
Keywords: virtual reality, virtual training, instructions, CoSpaces
virtual technologies and devices. VR provides
new sources of efficiency for all organizations
[7]. VR can significantly reduce the cost of
training, services, assembly, design and other
parts of the value chain [1]. It can also
significantly reduce production costs by reducing
the need for physical space. Key indicators for
the implementation of VR in the training process
are: (1) reducing training time, (2) a larger
number of users who can perform an operation
without previous experience, (3) reducing
training costs, and (4) reducing the risk of injury.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pioneering organizations, including GE, and
Boeing, are using Virtual Reality (VR) to
improve productivity, quality, and training [1].
By combining the strengths of humans and
machines, VR will dramatically increase value
creation for the organization [2]. VR replaces
physical reality with a computer-generated
environment. In turn, virtual training is a
promising solution to bypass the limitations of
hardware training and especially to test and
secure production processes [3]. This paper aim
to provide practical guidance for the virtual
training content development using simple
application that allows users to easily build their
own 3D creations, animate them with code and
explore them in virtual or Augmented Reality
(AR).
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
The effectiveness of the VR-based training
process depends directly on the quality of the
prepared training material, or on the quality of
the prepared virtual training environment. To
properly prepare the virtual environment, it is
necessary to go through the appropriate steps
shown in Figure 1 in the form of an algorithm.
Appropriate steps, or a defined procedure for the
preparation of a virtual training environment,
will be explained through an example of a
virtual training environment in the process of
assembly of water pumps.
The application of the VR concept requires
the use of very powerful hardware and software
that can provide a realistic virtual experience
(e.g. VR helmets, glasses, 3D software)[4]. In
contrast, AR joins real-world elements such as
3D objects, multimedia content or text data, and
thus provides a higher level of interaction with
the user [5]. VR systems include 3 key aspects:
integration, interaction and real visualization [6].
Attachment involves surrounding users with
253
process (getting to know the workplace and
preparing the workplace, familiarizing with the
position of tools and components used in
assembly procedures, adopting special tools,
adjusting and checking the correctness of the
tools, checking the correctness of the parts, etc.).
The main tasks are all those tasks that serve to
connect components in the assembly process
(setting components in the holders, stamping the
electric motor stator into the enclosure,
mounting bearings on the electric motor rotor,
pressing the sealing rings, and many other
tasks). The finishing tasks are all the tasks that
need to be done after the assembly process is
complete such as returning the tool to the
appropriate location, cleaning the workplace and
many others.
Figure 2 depicts an example of several tasks
that take place in the process of installing a
water pump (a - an installing the pump housing
on the carrier; b - placing the cover; c – screw
the grounding screw; d - controlling the quality
of component mounting). Each task in the
assembly process must be well-defined in order
for the training process to be carried out with a
quality that directly affects the quality of
finished products, production costs and others.
Fig. 1. Algorithm
A detailed overview of the product
documentation and the process of product
assembly (installation maps, design drawings,
3D models) enable the definition of all the
elements necessary for defining the training
process. The product assembly process is
divided into simple individual tasks and based
on them the training procedure is defined. The
division of the assembly process into simple
individual tasks depends on the complexity of
the products and the assembly procedures (the
smaller or higher the number of components the
final product consists of, whether the assembly
of products is carried out at one or more
workplaces).
Recording task execution during the
assembly process enables trainees to have a
clear insight into the execution of preparatory
tasks, main tasks and final assignments. The
operator who is familiar with the component
assembly procedures performs all the necessary
tasks that are recorded properly. For a person
who is trained to get to know the work
environment better, it is necessary to record as
much of the workspace as possible. During the
preparation of the training for the assembly of
water pumps, the operator who was familiar
with the process of assembly of water pumps
was at the workplace for the assembly of water
pumps and performed all the tasks necessary for
the assembly of water pumps.
An example of a complex final product is a
water pump consisting of many components
such as enclosure, electric motor stator, electric
motor rotor, bearings, sealing rings, power
connector, turbine wheel, and many more. By
defining tasks in the assembly of components to
obtain the finished product, various tasks can be
defined, such as preparatory tasks, main
assembly tasks, and finishing tasks.
To cover as much of the working
environment as possible in one shooting cycle,
360-degree camera Garmin Virb was used. In
order for the trainee to have as close as possible
a sense of assembly process, the camera is
mounted that the recorded material is as close as
possible to what the operator sees with his eyes,
allows trainees to have the approximately same
workplace perception and tasks execution in the
assembly process during training and later work
Preparatory tasks include all the tasks that
enable the preparation of the workplace, tools
and components for performing the assembly
254
are numerous dedicated 3D softwares for the
development of VR applications on the market.
To create a virtual training environment in this
paper CoSpaces Edu application is used
[https://cospaces.io/edu]. CoSpaces Edu is a web
platform, simple and easy to use, which provides
all the tools needed to create a VR environment.
Development of the VR environment can be
realized either in the web browser on a PC or
through the application for smartphones and
tablets. Creating a VR environment in CoSpaces
Edu is a simple process and most often consists
of inserting 3D virtual objects, or from the
existing library of the CoSpaces Edu platform or
by importing the virtual models that the user
created into a virtual environment. Virtual
environments or virtual objects added to the
virtual environment can be managed by
programming, using Blockly programming
language (visual tool for connecting logical and
function
blocks)
or
using
JavaScript
programming language. The virtual environment
can be created in the CoSpaces Edu platform
itself, ready-made solutions from the CoSpaces
Edu platform library can be used, or realenvironment images created using a 360-degree
camera or mobile phone camera in panoramic
photo mode or 360-degree mode (photosphere)
can be used. As a virtual environment within
this paper, recordings (created by 360-degree
camera) of workplace and executed tasks in the
assembly process of water pump are used.
Defined virtual elements are added to this virtual
environment, further explaining the tasks
performed in the assembly process (text
messages, audio and video, 2D and 3D
animations). The Figure 3 shows a part of the
virtual environment designed for training using
the VR technology realized in the CoSpaces Edu
application with the presentation of a virtual
instructor and by marking the basic elements of
the workplace.
Fig. 2. Example of tasks
in the real environment (there will be no
additional confusion if the perception is
different, adaptation to work in the real
environment is minimized).
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
Defining virtual elements in the training
process using VR technology depends on the
complexity of the product and the assembly
procedures to further explain the assembly tasks.
Virtual elements can be operator comments in
the form of audio and video recordings, textual
information, and 2D and 3D images and
animations to further clarify the specificity of
some of the tasks performed during the
assembly process.
To check the quality of the prepared virtual
environment for training using the VR
technology tests should be carried out on a
specific control group of trainees. By testing, it
is determined whether the virtual environment is
properly implemented. All instructions must be
clear and easily understood by the trainees. If
some part of the virtual training environment is
critical (poor or unclear instruction, poor angle
of recorded task execution during the assembly
process, etc.), the virtual environment must be
corrected.
Creating virtual training environments by
applying VR technology is a combination of
task shots performed by an operator during
execution of assembly tasks and defined virtual
elements that further explain the tasks that are
being performed in the assembly process. There
255
6. REFERENCES
[1] M.E. Porter; J.E. Heppelmann, Why every
organization needs an augmented reality
strategy. Harvard Business Review 95(6)
(2017), pp. 46-57.
[2] S. Benford; C. Greenhalgh; G. Reynard; C.
Brown; B. Koleva, Understanding and
constructing shared spaces with mixedreality boundaries. ACM Transactions on
Computer-Human Interaction 5(3) (1998),
pp. 185-223.
Fig. 3. Virtual environment in CoSpaces EDU
Depending on the need, the virtual
environment can be corrected by re-defining
individual tasks, re-capturing task execution,
redefining virtual elements, re-creating virtual
elements,
and
recreating
the
virtual
environment. After the correction, the testing
environment of the virtual training environment
is repeated. If no additional correction is
required, the virtual environment can be applied
to the training process for a large number of
trainees.
[3] D. Gorecky; M. Khamis; K. Mura,
Introduction and establishment of virtual
training in the factory of the future.
International
Journal
of
Computer
Integrated Manufacturing 30(1) (2017), pp.
182-190.
[4] M.-C. Hsieh; H.-C. Koong Lin, A
conceptual study for augmented reality elearning system based on usability
evaluation. Communications in Computer
and Information Science 1(8) (2011), pp. 57.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents the application of the
virtual reality system using the CoSpaces Edu
software platform in the process of assembly of
water pumps. Virtual reality can profoundly
change training and skill development, allowing
people to perform sophisticated work without
protracted
and
expensive
conventional
instruction. Companies can use this approach to
reduce training time, training costs and risk of
injury [1]. More research is needed on the
empirical testing of the phenomenon. Future
studies should implement VR training in the real
environment and measure the performance.
[5] Riva and Giuseppe, “Virtual Reality,” in
Wiley Encyclopedia of Biomedical
Engineering, London: John Wiley & Sons,
(2006).
[6] L.J. Rosemblum; R.A. Cross, The
challenge of virtual reality, In: W.R.
Earnshaw; J. Vince; H. Jones (Eds.)
Visualization & Modeling, pp. 325-399,
Academic Press, San Diego, CA, (1997).
[7] S. Choi; K. Jung; S. Do Noh, Virtual reality
applications in manufacturing industries:
Past research, present findings, and future
directions. Concurrent Engineering 23(1)
(2015), pp. 40-63.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented in this paper is supported
by a grant from the Autonomous Province of
Vojvodina (APV), Provincial Secretariat for
Higher Education and Scientific Research
(Project name Development of a methodology
for the introduction of virtual reality technology
in training processes in companies of the
manufacturing sector, project number 142-4513562/2017-01/01).
256
Evaluation of Students in Dual Higher
Education
E. Angeli a, E. Török a, D. Nagy
a
a
John von Neumann University, Izsáki Street 10., 6000, Kecskemét, Hungary,
E-mail: {angeli.eliza, torok.erika, nagy.dorottya}@gamf.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
Dual higher education contains a combination of theoretically and practically learned knowledge. At
John von Neumann University (JNU) students can choose out of many different courses where dual
system is available. On these dual courses, knowledge is transmitted parallel during the practical
terms when students are studying at a partner company, and during the theoretical terms at the
university. JNU has a number of partner companies and institutions of different sizes and different
economies, so monitoring the performance of dual students is a complex task. Measurements and
evaluations related to dual higher education are of particular importance because in Hungary, this
higher education method has a very short history. Developed measurement system and indicators
could measure or quantify the benefits of dual higher education system, the knowledge of non-dual
students differs from dual ones could be compared, and mistakes could be filtered and corrected. The
purpose of this study is to review the already existing student-evaluation techniques and to select
those ones by further research that are most suitable for our university to apply.
Keywords: education, dual education, practice oriented training, assessment method
well-established method the advantages of dual
system can be measured and quantified, even the
results with those of non-dual students can be
compared, and possible to filter out the
contingent faults. The purpose of this study is to
review the already existing student-evaluation
techniques, methods from all over the world and
suggest one or more appropriate ones to apply at
our university.
1. INTRODUCTION
Dual education system is applied at several
universities. It is called “Dual” in German, too
[1]. In English it can be called “dual” or
“cooperative” education [2]. However “co-op
practice” [3], “experiential learning” [2,4], “coop internship”, “work integrated learning” [5],
“work based learning” and “university-industry
partnership” mean similar systems.
For a detailed overview, types and
characteristics of dual study systems must be
known.
In dual education theoretical and practical
knowledge are synchronized. Students can study
in dual form at many departments of John von
Neumann University. Our university has several
dual partners (companies and institutes), which
are in different size from different sectors. For
this reason, monitoring the performance of dual
students is a complex task. The importance of
accompanying measurements and assessments
are particularly high, because there is no
ingrained method for this in Hungary. With a
2. FORMATION OF DUAL
HIGHER EDUCATION
Dual higher education ancestor is the stillused “sandwich program”, which was first
launched in 1903 in the UK. Essence of the
program is that usually the second university
year followed by a one-year traineeship, which
257
student can spend at one or more selected
companies. The first such type of education
started in engineering, but now it is also
available in business, finance, psychology and
sport sciences. In this form of dual education,
student may decide to study for 4 or 5 years at
the university. In 5-years-long type education,
there is one more year of practical training. In
America, the first dual-type training program
was introduced at University of Cincinnati in
1906 headed by Herman Schneider from whom
the idea came [2]. Schneider - who was an
engineer, an architect and a teacher – recognised
already during his university studies that
practical subjects can not really be effectively
taught in classroom environments. He noticed
that many of the eminent students were working
to earn money to finance their university studies.
When he started working as a teacher, than tried
to introduce innovations to make the lessons as
practical as possible. He developed a program
that allows students to study in working
environment, while they earn also money.
According to Schneider, the program was also
designed to make it easier for students getting to
be employed after their university studies by
facing labour market needs and by having
company relations.
Dual higher education is popular also in
Canada. The first such education was launched
in 1957. Canadian Association for Co-operative
Education (CAFCE) has been controlling the
operation of dual higher education and settling
the foundations for further dual type university
establishment as of 1979 onwards [5]. It also
provides advices and ideas on education and
evaluation methods are in use, which was
greatly helpful in making this study.
Three years later, in Boston Northeastern
University dean became aware of the program
and was pleased to introduce it on the
engineering course. The initiative was very
successful, so in a few years the Cooperative
School of Engineering became the largest
institution at Northeastern. The number of dual
courses and of dual students increased slowly.
Main turning point was in 1965 when it was
legislated that dual type state-run universities
receive subsidy. For this reason, over two years,
more than 100 universities had signed up for the
dual program. By 1980, dual program was
operating in nearly 1,000 American universities,
and more than 200,000 students studied in this
form. Dual program is spread all over the world,
and is now available in more than 60 countries,
not just in engineering, but also in economics,
liberal arts or design courses.
3. SPECIALTY OF DUAL STUDY
SYSTEM
In Hungary, the establishment of dual higher
education was required by the simultaneous
appearance of social, economic and educational
needs [6]. Dual higher education model of
Baden-Württemberg Dual University - founded
in 1974 - was the model established also in
Hungary for the requirement of larger
companies (Daimler-Benz, Bosch).
In Hungary, the first dual type vehicle
engineering course was launched in 2012, at
Kecskemét College (John von Neumann
University's Legal Predecessor) [7] where since
then 8 additional courses have been added to the
list of available courses. The form of dual higher
education was formally added into the
Hungarian higher education system in 2015.
Students, university and company participate
in dual education. Purpose of this type of
education is the dual students to have possibility
to synchronize theoretical and practical
knowledge and to expand their skills.
The theoretical and practical training can be
parallel (in part-time), alternating (in full-time)
or according to the semesters (practice at
summer). In most the universities, dual system is
not obligatory for all students, so dual and nondual students study together. There are many
advantages of dual study. Capabilities and skills
of students are improving, such as productivity
in teamwork, social and communication skills,
experiential skills. They have an extensive
258
overview on local market and could easily get a
full-time job [5, 6, 7].
Evaluation must contain the same
knowledge, competence and attitude aspects, as
it is required in the curriculum. According to
Bloom taxonomy- where there is six levels of
cognition
requirements:
knowledge,
understanding, application, analysis, synthesis,
evaluation-, measuring only knowledge is not
enough, more levels must be evaluated.
Companies get motivated and cheap
workforce. Students can be trained for longer
time, therefore dual partners have an economic
method to find new workforce. The partner
company can have an influence on learning
path, on specialization and training selection,
consequently students study what they need for
the job later at the company. Generally,
companies have the possibility to choose from
many students [6].
Exams must also be reformed. Instead of
forcing students to mug exact knowledge, the
focus is on information application skill, social
and professional skills. Students must filter,
apply and evaluate information that are not
measurable directly by tests; consequently
complex techniques must be used.
Dual education is beneficial for the
university, too. Having daily contact with
companies, knowledge and training fits well to
the industrial requirements. Education quality
may improve by developing curriculum. Dual
students are more motivated also at school.
Well-trained students mean a good reputation
for the universities, therefore more students take
up courses, thus no of teachers and disciplines
are broaden. Universities get feedback on
curriculum actuality, so it can be conformed to
the local market requirements. They can
participate in projects and get to know the recent
developments.
Important to make a difference between
evaluating methods. Exam type must reflect to
the teaching method used. More type of exams
must be used, as only limited information might
be gained about student performance by one
method. More and more common to take an
exam either face-to-face or in groups, applying
unfinished
sentences
and
questions,
presentations,
project
works,
computer
simulations, essays and portfolios. By using
more methods, the learning habits and
developments of students considered.
Determine the exact performance of students
is rather important, because this is the
substantial indicator of success.
4. IMPORTANCE AND TYPES OF
EVALUATION METHODS
The world is dynamically changing
nowadays and there is a lot of information
students get, therefore it does not make sense to
mug data but to review and evaluate how they
use and systematize information. [8]. There are
three types of evaluation according to its
function: diagnostic, formative and summative.
For an evaluation method, we must
determine the whole process, steps, aim and the
way of using data. If students feel responsible
for their performance, than they know how to
improve it and will try to do it so. There must be
no “blind-spots” and unknown parts in the
evaluation process.
Diagnostic method means monitoring the
actual state of knowledge. Formative method
follows personal development. While during
diagnostic method the teacher gets feedback,
than formative method provides student with
information about himself/herself. Summative
method helps to review what achieved, a typical
conclusive evaluation e.g. final exam [9].
5. EVALUATION OF DUAL
STUDENTS
5.1. Experiences
There are few studies on the evaluation of
dual students. One study mentions that half of
the evaluation studies deal with student
development, while the other ones investigate
259
Journal (writing report): although it is not
a formal evaluation method, journal still
allows students to express their thoughts
and ideas, and to develop their infotransfer skills. During self-assessment
process, students can review their
strengths, weaknesses, attitudes, interests
and info-transfer skills.
the dual education system [4]. In this study, 75%
of the investigations done by using a
competency-based survey (test writing), while
only 12.5% of the investigations were done by
interviews with students or used several
methods. In New Zealand, where many
evaluation methods are in use, students are
evaluated and interviewed, followed by a
workshop where university and company
representatives are present [4].
Interview (discussion): student interview
allows the teacher to confirm student's
knowledge and understanding. Discussion
allows student to present how he can use
information learnt and to clarify
understanding regarding the subject. Brief
discussion can take place between teacher
and student, but it can also be extended
(student, teacher, parents and / or
company
representative).
These
interviews help students to find their
strong/weak verbal presentation skills.
In Mosbach, Baden- Württemberg, dual
students evaluated at the end of the first, second
and third university years. At the first year end,
students receive “done” or “failed” rating from
the company. At the end of the second year,
students must do a project work and a report
must be made about. This documentation
reviewed by company specialists and a proposal
is made for the credit. After that, students have
to take an exam at the board of examiners
(university and company specialists), where
students choose one from predetermined topics
(items list) and get the final credit after the
exam. At the end of the third year, the thesis
defence (presentation) done [1].
Paper and pencil (written examination /
paper / report): this technique can be
formative or summative. In many
curriculum, written assignment has a
decisive role, can be used to assess
knowledge, understanding and concept
application of students.
Suggestions of a Canadian school for the Cs
as follows [8]:
Observation: this method provides
information relatively fast, either during
theoretical or practical lessons. Results
can be recorded in a checklist (yes / no),
in a score list (1-5), or in a short notes /
comments. Important to plan criteria
based on we want to monitor students and
to make questionnaires / evaluation sheets
ready and handy at the beginning of the
survey. Worth paying attention to
evaluate all students in a short time.
Presentation: graduates must be capable
of filtering, analysing and interpreting
information, identifying relationships,
working in team, reflecting and spreading
information.
Presentation
technique
makes it possible to evaluate these
activities the best.
Portfolio: portfolio must contain a longterm record of growth and development,
which includes the required knowledge
and skills. Progress monitoring is
important for self-reflection and selfassessment, but it is also relevant to share
with others. Portfolio making is exciting
for many students, because this way
progress is evident which is otherwise
difficult to see.
Performance: curriculum includes the
skills student needs to have. In order for
the students to take these skills seriously
and develop them consciously, they
should receive feedback. It is necessary to
evaluate how each student has developed /
develop in this field (before going to the
company and at the company).
Personalized placement learning plan:
existing skills of students assessed by this
260
technique and it makes a plan for those
skills they need to develop during their
practice at the company.
5.3. Comparing dual and non-dual
students
Possible that students complete a test before
they start university and after graduation to get
feedback on their development [2]. Both dual
and non-dual students can be compared by this
method. Common IQ tests are not really
appropriate for this purpose. Competence-based
professional test may be appropriate for students
studying on technical courses. Three
specifications of this test are available at John
von
Neumann
University:
mechanical
interpretation, diagram analysis (thinking
logical) and numerical analysis (economic
approach). In addition, the harder Raven test can
also be used, which measures general
competence. Harder means that this test type is
recommended for university students/graduates.
Suggested to inform dual partners about specific
competency tests, with the help of their
collaboration tests are easier to be completed
and approved by students. These tests are used
by many leading companies all around the
world, for example, as part of a job interview.
Quality of tests is proven, due to confidential
content, it can only be used on paper.
5.2. Suggestions
In order to ensure that all three participants
of dual higher education are satisfied, student
performance, company compliance and dual
program must also be investigated and
monitored [5].
In this case, our goal is to study and evaluate
the activities of dual students at the company.
Evaluation of company's compliance and of dual
program as a whole is not part of our
investigation. These areas require separate
research and analysis.
Based on the above examples, we consider to
combine various types of evaluation methods.
Monitoring of dual student development can be
easily done by techniques like presentation,
portfolio and project. Important the students to
know that they need this report and not being
annoyed by doing it. From this point of view,
presentation is beneficial, because it is
expressive, instructive and easy to make.
Student conferences and/or workshops are
feasible to perform presentations. Projects can
easily be traced by a portfolio that can even
digitally be made. Students should complete a
questionnaire at the end of their studies,
describing their experiences of work done at the
company and their development during the
training. Advantage of written communication is
that it provides anonymity; consequently
information will not be ‘sophisticated’ or
‘varnished’. From the time/energy saving point
of view, completing questionnaire online would
be beneficial.
Dual and non-dual students can also be
compared by completing a questionnaire. Short
sentences/questions help to keep student
motivation (utmost student to complete) and to
optimize evaluation time.
6. CONCLUSIONS
John von Neumann University has a number
of partner companies and institutions of
different sizes and different economies, so
monitoring the performance of dual students is a
complex task. Measurements and evaluations
related to dual higher education are of particular
importance because in Hungary, this higher
education method has a very short history.
Companies should complete a questionnaire
about student performance when student is
about to finish his/her study. Then, student and
company mentor must review it together. Next
step, when questionnaire is transferred to the
university where responsible teacher has a
discussion about it with student. Questionnaire
content should accommodate with student
responsibility.
The aim of this study was to take looking at
the already existing evaluating methods and
propose some methods, which can be
appropriate for JNU.
261
Assessment Literature on Cooperative
Education in Higher Education 2010.
https://peer.asee.org/a-review-of-theassessment-literature-on-cooperativeeducation-in-higher-education.pdf
Recommended to use more type of
evaluation methods (at least one written and one
oral type). Students monitoring by presentation,
portfolio or project work presentation.
Realization of presentations could be on events
such as workshops and conferences. For dual
and non-dual students, it would be expedients to
complete a questionnaire about their selfdevelopment. Possible to complete test before
the first and the last semesters, so students and
their development could be compared. By last
two methods also dual and non-dual students
can be evaluated, so differences between the two
learning types could be quantified. Before
compiling an evaluating system, we must take
into consideration test time, evaluation time and
information quality.
[5] CAFCE Co-operative Educational Manual
https://www.cewilcanada.ca/
_Library/_documents/coopmanual.pdf
[6] T. Erika, A duális képzés felsőoktatásban
betöltött innovációs szerepe. In: Fodorné
Tóth Krisztina (szerk.) Felsőoktatás, életen
át tartó tanulás és az ENSZ fenntartható
fejlesztési célok megvalósítása: Higher
Education,
Lifelong
Learning
and
Implementation of UN Sustainable
Development
Goals.
Budapest,
Magyarország, 2017.04.20-04.21. Pécs:
MELLearN Egyesület, pp. 187-197.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[7] Török Erika, Pap-Szigeti Róbert, Ailer
Piroska, Palkovics László: A Kecskeméti
Főiskola duális képzésének monitoring
vizsgálata a hallgatók visszajelzései
alapján. A jövő járműve: járműipari
innováció 6(1-2) (2014), pp. 32-36.
This research is supported by EFOP-3.6.116-2016-00006
"The
development
and
enhancement of the research potential at Pallas
Athena University" project. The Project is
supported by the Hungarian Government and
co-financed by the European Social Fund.
[8] Cooperative Education Curriculum, Prince
Edward
Island
(Kanada)
2007.
https://www.princeedwardisland.ca/en/infor
mation/education-early-learning-andculture/cooperative-education-curriculum
8. REFERENCES
[1] Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg
Stuttgart, http://www.dhbw-stuttgart.de
[9] R. Katalin, Milyen oktatási és értékelési
módszereket alkalmaznak a pedagógusok a
mai magyar iskolában? In. Kerber Zoltán
(Szerk.) Hidak a tantárgyak között.
Országos Közoktatási Intézet, Budapest.
pp. 131-167, (2006).
[2] S. White, An Analysis of the Best Practices
of Cooperative Education in the US with
the Purpose of Addressing Various
Armenian Engineering Education Problems
https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/3145
[3] T. Kato; Yukihiro, Development and
evaluation of cooperative education
program in the developmental stage: our
new evaluating approach for a challenging
higher education. ⅠCooperative education
at
Ritsumeikan
University
http://www.waceinc.org/papers/madrid/Tos
hiaki Kato and Yukihiro Hirose.pdf
[4] A. Joseph, Pace University and Mabel
Payne tanácsadó: A Review of the
262
Use of Digital Media with an Aim of
Improving the Teaching Process
Lj. Duđak a, L. Grubić-Nešić
a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {ljuba, nesle}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Significant potentials of digital media in the field of teaching and learning are reexamined. Various
opinions and strategies are analysed with an aim to create a set of simple, comprehensive and efficient
recommendations to future teachers. These recommendations will be subjected to further discussion
in order to introduce future standards with a primary aim to increase the quality, efficiency and
overall outcome of the teaching process.
Keywords: digital media, teaching process, improvement of the teaching process
link the choice of methodology with a theoretic
approach taken by educator. A significant
progress in this case depends on the essence and
the method to almost the same extent. Thus,
none of them may be underestimated as that
would diminish the importance of the other one
as well. Talking about analysis, the question is
how to modify the basic procedures when
applying the content analysis: operationalisation
of theoretical assumptions, sample selection,
analysis unit, classification criteria, coding and
decoding procedures of messages sent. Besides,
the issue relating to the content analysis is that
of comparability of results and observance of the
principle of generalization in the analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Digital media and networks have become an
inseparable part of our lives and therefore of the
teaching process as well. When addressing a
complex issue of education for information
society and society of knowledge, considering a
methodological approach to education is
unavoidable. Digital media are to contribute to
maintenance, enhancement and proliferation of
knowledge. Digital media encourage drawing up
and use of various multimedia contents,
interaction between the content and the user and
among a group of users, as well as development
of team work and creativity of students.
The purpose of education is to equip a young
person with knowledge and skills and to prepare
him/her for to assume an active role in a modern
society in which he/she lives. Using new media
in schools has to be in essence part of education
policy of a society.
2. THE DIGITAL AGE AND
LEARNING
Dominant educational prospects in the predigital age were reflected in the industrial model
of production. Such prospects have prevailed
even in some modern-time classrooms.
Accordingly, learning has been accomplished
under controlled conditions, with information
divided on specific topics. Students demonstrate
what they have learned from books or teachers.
Considering possibilities of selection of a
methodological framework in digital-mediasupported teaching process is based on two key
elements: one is a pragmatic approach that
implies understanding practical objectives, while
the other is related to the certainty of a need to
263
introduction of technology into teaching process
is time consuming, yielding more difficulties
than benefits (Sheingold and Hadley 1990).
Insufficient use of technology in the teaching
process is probably a consequence of a lack of
vision of possible improvements the technology
might bring to teaching and learning. The
efficiency of integrating technology into
education depends primarily on its capability to
engage students in the process of learning
(Dexter et al., 1999).
In a digital age, duplication of identical or
similar resources relating to the same concepts
for different courses turns out to be insufficient
and often impossible to accomplish (Thornburg,
1998).
Digital age teaching methodology is an
educational logic of selection of a certain
method of work whereby it is primarily
necessary to have an insight into teaching
material that is shared, as well as into
possibilities of its adoption and the learning
method most adequate for the given field,
necessary supplementary activities and similar.
The method must be in compliance with the
vision and purpose of the course, its values, as
well as general and specific objectives of
educational process. It must correspond to the
objectives of education and should answer the
following two questions:
Present-day
graduates
are
facing
technological competences that emphasize a
capacity for innovations, leadership, collective
identification of problems and multi-disciplinary
cooperation in a digital environment. Digital
media empower students to manage their time
(Sharples, 2000), enabling them to study when it
suits them best.
In addition to that, learning outcomes must to
be measurable and continuously checkable as
they relate to the principal learning factor and
need to take regard of a change in educational
process that so far has been in the domain of
teaching and now it is to be directed to
development of competences.
A worked out integration of technology is
accomplished when students possess tools
necessary for timely obtaining of information,
their consolidation and analysis (Harris, 2005).
Numerous researches show that to have a
devised integration of technology into a teaching
process learning is of crucial importance,
designed so to encourage students to learn in a
social context, assisting them to acquire new
knowledge, solve new problems, inciting
creativity and critical thinking (Griest 1996;
Hoffman 1997; Mergendollar 1997; Richards
1998).
3. PROBLEMS WITH
KNOWLEDGE-SHARING IN A
DIGITAL AGE
Lim and Tay (2003) classify ICT tools used
to improve the teaching process, distinguishing
among information, situational, communication
and constructive tools. .
Jacobsen (2001) believes that a vast number
of teachers worldwide are not capable of
adopting teaching and task learning technologies
whereby the gap between the presence of
technology in schools and its efficient
application is too big. A poor and infrequent use
of technology in teaching process is a
consequence of a lack of vision of technology
potential in the improvement of learning and
teaching processes. Teachers believe that
Information tools are applications that store
and provide enormous quantities of information
in
different
formats
(e.g.
databases,
ecyclopedias, the Internet). Situational tools are
systems that place students into an environment
in which they can experience the context (e.g.
simulations and games). Communication tools
are systems facilitating communication between
students and other parties (e-mail), whereas
constructive tools can be used in information
Is the selected method in accordance with
the values being the content of education?
Is the selected method appropriate for the
specific objectives set for the given
learning programme?
264
manipulation, knowledge building or for
production of certain material goods (Lim and
Tay, 2003).
5. REFERENCES
[1] S. Dexter; R. Anderson; H. Becker,
Teachers’ views of computers as catalysts
for changes in their teaching practice.
Journal of Research on Computing in
Education 31(3) (1999), pp. 221-239.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Digital technologies offer an opportunity of
accomplishing more precise goals in the
teaching process. If goal formulation is viewed
as an oprerationalization of different outcomes
of learning we want to accomplish in the course
of educational process, it is essential how those
aims are translated into a specific outcome. How
to bring together aims relating to the welfare of
all parties involved in the educational process
and, on the other hand, of a broader social
community? Under modern-time circumstances
in which knowledge multiplies rapidly
implementation of motivation for lifelong
learning and development is crucial. The
educator’s (holder’s) position is thus the
following; not only must he/she know more
about the issue that is addressed and shared by
new technologies, but he/she is also to adapt,
translate and contribute to consolidation of
individual outcomes of learning and practice
requirements in an intelligible and acceptable
way.
[2] G. Griest, Computer education as an
obstacle to integration and Internet
working. Learning and Leading with
Technology 24(8) (1996), pp. 59-63.
[3] J. Harris, Our agenda for technology
integration:
It's
time
to
choose.
Contemporary Issues in Technology and
Teacher
Education
5(2)
(2005).
http://www.citejournal.org/vol5/iss2/editori
al/article1.cfm.
[4] B. Hoffman, Integrating technology into
school. Education Digest 62(5) (1997), pp.
51-55. ISTE – International Society for
Technology in Education, National
educational technology standards, (2003).
http://www.iste.org.
[5] M. Jacobsen, Building different bridges:
Technology integration, engaged student
learning, and new approaches to
professional development. Proc. of the 82nd
Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Seattle,
WA, (2001).
Education is a vibrant, dynamic and futureoriented activity and it should be carefully
contemplated which is the language of new
generations which they understand and to
change or, more precisely, adapt the
methodology of teaching process planning and
plan learning so that it corresponds to their
process of thinking.
[6] P. Lim; Y. Tay, Information and
communication technologies (ICT) in an
elementary school: Students’ engagement
in higher-order thinking. Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia
12(4) (2003), pp. 425-451.
A vast number of researches point to the
importance of use of technology in the teaching
process; introduction of new technologies poses
a challenge, and the biggest challenge for
teachers and educators is their evaluation.
However, a mere taking over of work
methodology in education has proved
insufficiently useful when certain problems are
concerned, as it is not possible to use them
without prior preparations and modifications as
to culturological frameworks.
[7] J. Mergendollar, Technology and learning:
The research. Education Digest 62(8)
(1997), pp. 12-15.
[8] T. Richards, Infusing technology and
literacy into the undergraduate teacher
education curriculum through the use of
electronic portfolios. T.H.E. Journal 25(9)
(1998), pp. 46-50.
265
[9] M. Sharples, The design of personal mobile
technologies
for
lifelong
learning.
Computers & Education 34(3-4) (2000), pp
177-193.
[10] K. Sheingold; M. Hadley, Accomplished
teachers: Integrating computers into
classroom practice, Center for Technology
in Education, Bank Street College, New
York, (1990).
[11] D.D. Thornburg, Reading the future.
American School Board Journal: Electronic
School, 185(6) (1998), pp. A-14–A-17.
266
267
AGRICULTURE
The New Insect Pest Released by the
Climate Change in Hungarian
Agriculture
V.J. Vojnich a, Cs. Szabó a, J. Pető a, A. Hüvely a, A. Palkovics
a
a
John von Neumann University, Faculty of Horticulture and Rural Development,
Mészöly Gyula Square 1-3, 6000 Kecskemét, Hungary,
E-mail: vojnich.viktor@kvk.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
The variability of the climate has a fundamental effect on the composition of the insect species in the
regional fauna and on the seasonal cenological changes in some local habitats (microhabitats,
biotopes). The direct impact of weather is influenced by the phenological and population dynamics
processes, which indirectly results in the transformation of area and biodiversity. In the case of a
number of insect species, their distribution area has been observed to be more northward and to
higher altitude. In Hungary, the following insect species appeared in climate change: South American
tomato moth (Tuta absoluta), Spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii), Southern green stink bug
(Nezara viridula).
Keywords: climate change, Hungarian agriculture, South American tomato moth (Tuta absoluta), spotted wing
drosophila (Drosophila suzukii), southern green stink bug (Nezara viridula)
Combustion of fossil fuels and carbon
dioxide emissions during deforestation is more
than the biosphere and the oceans can absorb
during this time. As a result, the carbon content
of the atmosphere is constantly increasing. Due
to climate change, environmental biotic and
abiotic factors are changing, the consequences
of which only appear in the long run. Due to the
levelling effect of Earth's oceans due to the high
thermal capacity and the slowness of other
mediation processes, the Earth's climate is
slowly following its modifying effect.
Therefore, even if the concentration of
greenhouse gases does not rise further [6].
1. INTRODUCTION
The biggest challenge for the 21th century is
climate change. Today, it is not arguable that the
planet's surface temperature and climate are
changing. This fact is supported by research
findings and observations [1]. Warming is
largely anthropogenic, and it is attributable to
the enrichment of atmospheric greenhouse
gases. Carbon dioxide is the second most
important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere
after water vapour. The amount of carbon
dioxide found in the atmosphere has changed
dramatically throughout the earth's history.
Before the industrial revolution, the Holocene
had a carbon dioxide concentration below 280
ppm [2], while from 1800 it has grown steadily
to 380 ppm [3],[4],[5]. International Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) estimates atmospheric
carbon dioxide concentrations for 2100 between
540 and 970 ppm [1].
The Hungarian contexts and changes in
global climate change can be traced in different
sectors. The spatial effects of the Hungarian
climate and the local phenomena of the weather
make it clear that Hungary needs to deal with
the peculiarities and the causes, the prevention
and the possibilities of remedying it. In
268
host plant, but T. absoluta also attacks other
crop plants of the nightshade family, including
potato, eggplant, pepino, pepper and tobacco
[14]. It is known from many solanaceae us
weeds, including Datura stramonium, Lycium
chilense and Solanum nigrum. The adult moth
has a wingspan around one centimetre. In
favorable weather conditions eight to ten
generations can occur in a single year.
Hungary, serious damage is caused to inland
waters, floods, droughts, flood-like rain, hail,
heat waves, rising UV rays, early and late frosts,
snow storms, wind storms, forest and fires, new
pathogens and pests. The impact of climate
change in Hungary is felt in all sectors.
The areas most affected by climate change
[7]: 1. Water management: flood, inland water,
drought, water management; 2. economy,
society, infrastructure; 3. human and animal
health, food safety, water supply; 4. Humanimpacted ecosystems; 5. natural ecosystems.
Human-impacted ecosystems - forestry, crop
production, animal husbandry, and gardening must also adapt to the consequences of climate
change. The mass influx of insect pests occurred
mainly in Transdanubia. Due to warming, drier
and warmer conditions are expected to be spread
more easily among the more adaptable species
(ragweed, woolly goat, sole) [7].
Fig. 1. Tuta absoluta
Among the causes of climate change
published in Hungary, I will describe four insect
pests: South American tomato moth (Tuta
absoluta); Spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila
suzukii); Southern green stink bug (Nezara
viridula).
The female puts a total of 250-300 eggs on
the leaves or on the stem. It does not
differentiate, it places eggs on both the colour
and the back of the leaf. The caterpillars are
released
under
favourable
temperature
conditions for 4-5 days. After a series of
shedding, the caterpillar gets caught in a leaf,
soil, or other hiding place. Often uses the
various plant tools, which can easily extend
from one place to another. The puppy stage is 910 days long. The females adults have a lifetime
of 10-15 days, the males are only 6-7. Females
mate only once a day, totalling 6 times in their
lives. Unrestricted generations of species are
constantly
present
under
appropriate
temperature conditions, up to 10 to 12
generations of growing plants can grow each
year, which overlap each other. Progression is
independent of a long day reality. The females
lay fertile eggs without mating, so it is able to
reproduce the species parthenogenesis.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
1, South American tomato moth.
Tuta absoluta biology: The tomato leafminer
T.
absoluta
(Meyrick)
(Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae) is one of the most devastating pests
of tomato in South America [8],[9]. This pest
was initially reported in eastern Spain in late
2006 [10], and has subsequently spread
throughout the Mediterranean Basin and Europe
[11]. T. absoluta (figure 1) was first reported
from Hungary in 2010. It first appeared in
greenhouse grown tomato in Kiskunfélegyháza
[12]. The larva feeds voraciously upon tomato
plants, producing large galleries in leaves,
burrowing in stalks, and consuming apical buds
and green and ripe fruits. It is capable of causing
a yield loss of 100% [13]. Tomato is the main
Protection: 1, Biological: Against pests are
well deployed in Macrolophus melanotoma
predatory bedbugs and Trichogramma achaeae,
of the stock of Baciullus thuringiensis var.
269
many fruits and in regions of scarce fruit; many
females will oviposit on the same fruit. In
captivity in Japan, research shows up to 13
generations of D. suzukii may hatch per season.
A female may lay as many as 300 eggs during
its lifespan. With as many as 13 generations per
season, and the ability for the female to lay up to
300 eggs each, the potential population size of
SWD is huge. It is also important to note that
males of Spotted wing drosophila become sterile
at 30 °C and population size may be limited in
regions that reach that temperature.
kurstaki [15] bacterial species used. 2,
Chemical: A chemical defense system of
insuring complementary role to get the bursts of
spinosad, imidacloprid pesticide can be used.
2, Spotted wing
suzukii).
drosophila (Drosophila
Drosophila suzukii biology: Spotted Wing
Drosophila (SWD) is a new fruit pest recently
discovered in Davis County, Utah (August,
2010). Because this pest is widespread in the
western and south-eastern United States, it is
considered “non-actionable,” meaning no import
or export restrictions or quarantines will be
implemented. SWD is similar to other vinegar
flies (genus Drosophila), except they can infest
unripe fruit. D. suzukii can infest un-ripened
(pre-harvest), ripe, over-ripe, and spoiled fruits.
SWD attacks a broad range of fruits, including
tree fruits, berry fruits, and vegetable fruits [16].
Drosophila suzukii (figure 2) was first reported
from Hungary in 2012 [17].
Fig. 2. Drosophila suzukii
The larvae grow inside the fruit. The
oviposition site is visible in many fruit by a
small pore scar in the skin of the fruit often
called a "sting". After 1 or 2 days, the area
around the "sting" softens and depresses
creating an increasingly visible blemish [19].
The depressions may also exude fluid which
may attract infection by secondary bacterial and
fungal pathogens [20]. Larvae may leave the
fruit, or remain inside it, to pupate.
The lifespan of D. suzukii varies greatly
between generations; from a few weeks to ten
months [18]. Generations hatched early in the
year have shorter lifespans than generations
hatched after September [18]. Research shows
that many of the males and most of the females
of the late-hatching generations overwinter in
captivity - some living as long as 300 days. Only
adults overwinter successfully in the research
conducted thus far. In Washington state,
Drosophila suzukii has been observed in
association with two exotic and well-established
species of blackberry, Rubus armeniacus (=
Rubus discolor) and Rubus laciniatus (the
Himalayan and Evergreen Blackberries,
respectively.) [19]. The fly has been observed
reproducing on many other species of softskinned wild fruit, however, research is still
ongoing to determine the quality of individual
species as reproductive hosts. Adults emerge
from overwintering when temperatures reach
approximately 10 °C (268 degree days) [19].
The fertilized female searches for ripe fruit,
lands on the fruit, inserts its serrated ovipositor
to pierce the skin and deposits a clutch of 1 to 3
eggs per insertion. Females will oviposit on
3, Southern green stink bug (Nezara viridula)
Nezara viridula biology: The adult males can
reach a body length (from front to elytral apex)
of about 12.1 millimetres, while females are
bigger, reaching a size of about 13.1
millimetres. The body is bright green (figure 3)
and shield-shaped and the eyes are usually
reddish, but they may also be black. They differ
from the similar green stink bug (Acrosternum
hilare) by the shape of their scent gland
openings, which are short and wide in N.
viridula, and narrow and long in the green stink
bug [21].
270
The female lays 30 to 130 eggs at a time, in
the form of an egg mass glued firmly to the
bottom of a leaf. The eggs are barrel-shaped,
with an opening on the top [21]. The eggs take
between 5 and 21 days to develop, depending on
the temperature [22]. The new-born larvae
gather near the empty eggs and do not feed until
three days later, after the first moult. They moult
five times before reaching maturity, increasing
in size each time. Each instar stage lasts about a
week, except for the last one before the
metamorphosis, which is a day longer [21]. Up
to four generations can develop in one year, with
eggs developing into adults in as few as 35 days
in mid-summer. Up until their third moult the
larvae aggregate together on the host plant, the
purpose of this aggregation is probably pooling
of chemical defences against predators, for
example ants [22].
3. CONCLUSIONS
The Hungarian contexts and changes in
global climate change can be traced in different
sectors. Due to warming, drier and warmer
conditions are expected to be spread more easily
among the more adaptable species (common
ragweed, woolly goat, sole). As a result of
climate change many new pests have appeared
in Hungary. New pest control is a new challenge
for farmers.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by EFOP-3.6.116-2016-00006
"The
development
and
enhancement of the research potential at Pallas
Athena University" project. The Project is
supported by the Hungarian Government and
co-financed by the European Social Fund.
5. REFERENCES
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M. Marquis; K.B. Averyt; M. Tignor; H.L.
MILLER, Climate Change 2007: The Physical
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the Climatic Effects of Increasing Carbon
Dioxide, pp. 237-257, Washington, USA,
(1985).
Fig. 3. Nezara viridula
Nezara viridula is a cosmopolitan species,
living in tropical and subtropical regions of
Americas, Africa, Asia, Australasia and Europe
between 45 degrees north and 45 degrees south
[22]. Its exact origin is unknown, but it is
believed to have originated from the Ethiopia
region of East Africa, from where it has spread
around the world thanks to its strong flight and
human trade routes [22]. N. viridula was first
reported from Hungary in 2002. Southern green
stink bug reproduces throughout the year in
tropics. In temperate zones this species presents
a reproductive winter diapause, associated with
a reversible change of body colouration from
green to brown or russet [23].
[3] U. Siegenthaler; T.F. Stocker; E. Monnin; D.
Lüthi; J. Schwander; B. Stauffer; T.F. JeanMarc; H. Fischer; V. Masson-Delmotte; J.
Jouzel,
Stable
carbon
cycle–climate
relationship during the late pleistocene.
Science 310 (2005) pp. 1313-1317.
[4] I.C. Prentice; G.D. Farquhar; M.J.R. Fasham,
The carbon cycle and atmospheric carbon
dioxide, In: J.T. Houghton; Y. Ding; D.J.
Griggs; M. Noguer; P.J. Van der Linden; X.
Dai; K. Maskell; C.A. Johnson, (Eds.) Climate
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J. González-Cabrera; D.C. Ruescas; E.
Tabone; J. Frandon; J. Pizzol; C. Poncet; T.
Cabello; A. Urbaneja, Biological invasion of
European crops by Tuta abosluta: ecology,
geographic expansion and prospects for
biological control. Journal of Pest Science 83
(2010), pp. 197-215.
Change 2001: The Scientific Basis.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Third
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, pp. 183-237,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
(2001).
[5] FAO, Livestock's Long Shadow –
Environmental Issues and Options (2006),
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e
00.pdf
[15] J. Gonzalez-Cabrera; O. Molla; H. Monton; A.
Urbaneja, Efficacy of Bacillus thuringiensis
(Berliner) for controlling the tomato borer,
Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae), Biocontrol 56 (2011), pp. 71-80.
[6] G.A. Meehl; W.M. Washington; W.D.
Collins; J.M. Arblaster; A. Hu; L.E. Buja;
W.G. Strand; H. Teng, How much more
global warming and sea level rise. Science 307
(2005), pp. 1769-1772.
[16] S.D. Ryan, Spotted wing drosophila, Utah
pest’s fact sheet, pp. 1-3, (2010).
[17] B. Kiss; G.D. Lengyel; Zs. Nagy; Zs. Kárpáti,
First record of spotted wing drosophila
(Drosophila suzukii, Matsumura, 1931) in
Hungary. Növényvédelem 49(3) (2013), pp.
97-100.
[7] I. Láng; L. Csete; M. Jolánkai, A globális
klímaváltozás: hazai hatások és válaszok. A
VAHAVA jelentés. Budapest, Szaktudás
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P.P. Estay, Temperatura base y constante
térmica de desarrollo de la polilla del tomate,
Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae),
Ciencia e Investigación Agraria 25 (1998), pp.
133-137.
[18] T. Kanzawa, Studies on Drosophila suzukii
Mats. Kofu, Yamanashi Agricultural
Experiment Station, 49 pp. (abstr.) in Reviews
of Applied Entomology 29 (1939), p. 622.
[19] D. Walsh, Spotted wing drosophila could pose
threat for Washington fruit growers, Press
Release, Washington State University, pp. 1-4,
(2010).
[9] M.M.M. Miranda; M. Picanco; J.C. Zanuncio;
R.N.C. Guedes, Ecological Life Table of Tuta
absoluta
(Meyrick)
(Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae), Biocontrol Sci Technol 8 (1998)
pp. 597-606.
[20] M.P. Bolda; R.E. Goodhue; F.G. Zalom
Spotted Wing Drosophila: Potential Economic
Impact of a Newly Established Pest, Giannini
Foundation of Agricultural Economics,
University of California, pp. 5-8, (2009).
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García Marí; J.L. Porcuna, La polilla del
tomate, Tuta absoluta. Phytoma España, 194
(2007) pp. 16-23.
[21] J.M. Squitier, Southern Green Stink Bug,
Nezara
viridula
(Linnaeus)
(Insecta:
Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), University of
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service of the Netherlands, p. 24, (2009).
[22] J.W. Todd, Ecology and behavior of Nezara
viridula, Annual Review of Entomology 34
(1989), pp. 273-292.
[12] J. Ágoston; I. Fazekas, Recent data on the
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(Meyrick, 1917) in Hungary (Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae), e-Acta Naturalia Pannonica, 7
(2014), pp. 5-14.
[23] D.L. Musolin, Surviving winter: diapause
syndrome in the southern green stink bug
Nezara viridula in the laboratory, in the field,
and under climate change conditions.
Physiological Entomology 37(4) (2012), pp.
309-322.
[13] J. Apablaza, La polilla del tomate y su manejo.
Tattersal 79 (1992), pp. 12-13.
[14] N. Desneux; E. Wajnberg; K.A.G. Wyckhuys;
G. Burgio; S. Arpaia; C.A. Narváez-Vasquez;
272
Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer Treatment
on the Production of Hydroponic
Lettuce
V.J. Vojnich a, A. Palkovics a, A. Hüvely a, J. Pető
a
a
John von Neumann University, Faculty of Horticulture and Rural Development,
Mészöly Gyula Square 1-3, 6000 Kecskemét, Hungary,
E-mail: vojnich.viktor@kvk.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa convar. capitata L.) is a significant vegetable, rich in vitamins, and has
several beneficial characteristics in the course of growing without soil: faster development, higher
average of yield, balanced and schemed development, and furthermore, growing can be automated,
environmentally friendly, and growing does not require significant manual labour. The aim of this
research was to determine the optimal nutrient concentrations of nitrogen to quantify the proper
fertilizer concentrations for hydroponic lettuce (Lactuca sativa convar. capitata L.) cultivation in the
aspect of biomass production.
Keywords: lettuce, nitrogen fertilizer, hydroponic, yield, greenhouse
solution can circulate several times a day in the
hydroculture channel system [4]-[13].
1. INTRODUCTION
Lettuce became from a seasonal vegetable
into an all-year grown food having a wide range
of species. Modern technologies, by using
hydroponic lettuce growing, permit continuous
cultivation of lettuce for 12 months every year
[1]. The average consumption of the plant
increased during the previous decade, so it can
be inserted into modern healthy nourishment.
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa convar. capitata L.) is a
significant vegetable, rich in vitamins and
minerals as well. Growing in hydroculture has
several beneficial advantages compared to the
soil growing as regard of: faster development,
higher average of yield, balanced and schemed
development. Furthermore, growing can be
automated by electric technologies, in an
environmentally friendly way, and the
production does not require significant manual
labour [2], [3]. By the use of an automated
(electronic technology) system, the nutrient
The aim of this research was to determine the
optimal nutrient concentration of nitrogen to
quantify the proper fertilizer concentration for
hydroponic lettuce (Lactuca sativa convar.
capitata L.) cultivation in the aspect of biomass
production. In the course of the experiment, the
nutrient element concentrations nitrogen was
determined in the leaves of lettuce.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
The hydroculture experiment was set up in
two periods: In spring of 2017 and 2018
(nitrogen treatment). The experiment was
conducted in the greenhouse of the Faculty of
Horticulture and Rural Development at the John
von Neumann University, Kecskemét, Hungary.
During the course of the experiment in 2017
and 2018 springs, the nitrogen supplements were
273
treatment had the highest EC values in both
years (4.11 and 4.65 mS/cm). The EC values
increased along with the nitrogen concentration.
added in the form of NO3. The following doses
of nitrogen were added to the standard nutriment
solution in our experiment: 100-, 200-, 300mg/L solution. The treatments were carried out
with 3 repetitions in randomized block design.
In the control treatment plants were grown with
the use of standard nutriment solution without
nitrogen supplement. The necessary nutrient
solution was made from the following watersoluble fertilizers: 80 g Ferticare complex (N
14%, P2O5 11%, K2O 25%); 359 g Ca(NO3)2 (N
15%, Ca 19%, CaO 26%); 20 mL 60 m/V%
HNO3 added to 120 litres of water.
Experimental plants were propagated by seeding
and subsequent transplant raising in glasshouse.
Seedlings were transplanted to multi-cellular
transplant raising trays on 6th of March 2017.
The lettuce seedlings were placed into rock
cotton cubes, and put into hydroponic growing
channels on 17th of March. The first harvest took
place on 11th of May 2017, when the biomass
was recorded. In second year (2018) a seedlings
were on 1st of March 2018. The lettuce seedlings
were placed into rock cotton cubes, and put into
hydroponic growing channels on 21th of March.
The first harvest took place on 14th of May
2018.
We took samples from the hydroponic tanks
to test their pH (Table 2.). The control had the
highest pH values in both years (7.71 and 7.63).
The 300 mg/L N treatment had the lowest pH
values in 2017 (6.83) and in 2018 (6.87). The
pH values decreased along with the nitrogen
concentration.
Table 2. pH values of nutrient solutions (2017-2018)
Treatments
Control
100 mg/L N
200 mg/L N
300 mg/L N
Years
2017
7.71
7.13
7.00
6.83
2018
7.63
7.25
7.06
6.87
The lettuce grew at a proper rate in the stone
wool. The development of the lettuce head
weight is shown in Figure 1. in 2017 spring, and
in Figure 2. in 2018 spring. The highest lettuce
head weight mean was measured in the 300
mg/L N treatment (197 g) in 2017 spring. The
lowest head weight mean was measured in the
control group (149.8 g) in 2017.
Electrical conductivity in nutrient solutions
was measured by laboratory EC-meter (type
ORION 3Star) in both year, in two repetitions
(in two growing channels), respectively [14].
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
We took samples from the hydroponic tanks
to test their EC. Changes in the electric
conductivity are shown in Table 1. The control
had the lowest EC values in 2017 (1.34 mS/cm)
and in 2018 (1.35 mS/cm). The 300 mg/L N
Fig. 1. Lettuce head weight (g) in 2017 spring
Table 1. EC values of nutrient solutions (2017-2018)
Treatments
Control
100 mg/L N
200 mg/L N
300 mg/L N
Years
2017
1.34
2.15
3.09
4.11
2018
1.35
2.27
3.38
4.65
Fig. 2. Lettuce head weight (g) in 2018 spring
274
purchased materials (stone wool, medium raw
material) can be used cost-effectively in the
hydroponic cultivation.
The 100 mg/L nitrogen treatment (180.8 g)
and the 300 mg/L N treatment (172.5 g) lettuce
head weight values are similar in 2018. The
lowest head weight mean was measured in the
control (145.1 g) in 2018 spring.
Human labor is only needed for planting into
stone wool, filling in the nutrient solution and
harvesting. More work is needed for production
on a field. In the case of hydroponic growing
there is no need for weeding, fertilizing or
groundwork. The leaves turning brown and
rotting can be avoided with using adequate
nutrient solutions. Higher salt concentration or
excessive nutrient ratios may easily cause
inadequate growing or disorders.
The highest nitrogen concentration were
determined in the leaves (Figure 3.) was the 300
mg/L treatments (3.84 m/m%) in 2017. The
lowest was the control (2.8 m/m%). The 100
mg/L and the 200 mg/L nitrogen values were
similar in 2017.
The highest lettuce head weight mean were
measured in the 300 mg/L N treatment (197 g)
in 2017 and the 100 mg/L nitrogen treatment
(180.8 gram) in 2018.
The lowest lettuce head weight mean were
measured in the control group values in both
years (149.8 g and 145.1 gram).
Fig. 3. Nitrogen content of dry matter in the lettuce
leaves (m/m%) in 2017 spring
The highest nitrogen concentration were
determined in the leaves (figure 3. and figure 4.)
was the 300 mg/L nitrogen treatments values in
both years (3.84 m/m% and 3.94 m/m%).
The highest nitrogen concentration were
determined in the leaves (Figure 4.) was the 300
mg/L treatments (3.94 m/m%) in 2017. The
lowest was the control (2.68 m/m%). The 100
mg/L and the 200 mg/L nitrogen values (3.74
and 3.67 m/m%) were similar in 2017.
The lowest lettuce leaves nitrogen
concentration were measured was the control
values in both years (2.85 m/m% and 2.68
m/m%).
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by EFOP-3.6.116-2016-00006
"The
development
and
enhancement of the research potential at Pallas
Athena University" project. The Project is
supported by the Hungarian Government and
co-financed by the European Social Fund.
Fig. 4. Nitrogen content of dry matter in the lettuce
leaves (m/m%) in 2018 spring
4. CONCLUSIONS
6. REFERENCES
Despite the widely and commonly used
traditional agricultural production technologies,
hydroponic growing also has a great role in
nowadays and in the future as well. In the course
of our experiment we found that the easily
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solution. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae,
Agriculture and Environment 3 (2011), pp.
122-131.
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growing, Agriculture publisher, Budapest,
(2000).
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Hungary, Vegetable – Fruit Market and
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előadás,
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276
IoT Application in Agro-Industry
G. Ostojić a, S. Stankovski a, S. Tegeltija a, B. Tejić a, I. Baranovski
a
a
Faculty of Technical Science, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {goca, stevan, srkit, tejic, baranovski}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
This paper aims to present IoT technology and its implementation in agro-industry. IoT technology
can of great help when implementing in tracking state of food during not only supply chain but also in
production phase. In fruit production different types of protective nets can be implemented. In this
paper a concept of implementation of exclusion nets as a protection of pests with integrated IoT
technology with the purpose of monitoring micro-climate conditions is presented.
Keywords: IoT, food production, sensors, exclusion net
important to balance the resources engaged in
each phase of food product life cycle.
1. INTRODUCTION
Internet of Things (IoT) system is complex
technology domain and it consists of distributed
devices as well as distributed services. This
complex system, and its components are
collaborating with each other in order to fulfil
common goals of IoT applications. IoT
application can be in different fields:
environmental monitoring [1], healthcare [2]
and its sub application medical [3], and
pharmaceutical [4], telematics [5], personal and
social [6], home automation [7], media and
entertainment [8], logistics [9], industrial
automation [8], energy management [10], traffic
management [11], payment [12], insurance [8].
The first and most important phase in food
product life cycle is food production. If food
quality at this stage is at a lower level, the final
food quality will be also at lower level thus
causing lower sale price. IoT technology can be
implemented in this phase in order to maximize
the food product quality. In this paper a concept
of implementation of IoT technology in orchards
is presented, with the purpose of monitoring
micro-climate conditions.
2. IOT IMPLEMENTATION IN
ORCHARDS WITH NETTING
There are also some of applications that are
related to agro-industry field [13], [14], [15].
IoT can be used at different levels in the agroindustrial production chain [16], [17]. This
means that IoT can be implemented in following
agro food phases: production, distribution,
processing and sale of food products.
IoT is built on three pillars, related to the
ability of smart objects to [18]:
be identifiable - object must have unique
identification),
to communicate - object must have
hardware and software capabilities to
connect to network and communicate
with other objects)
Monitoring of different important factors,
which are specific for each phase of food
product life cycle, influence the quality of sold
food product. Since the price of final food
product depends on quality of food it is very
to interact - either among them-selves,
building networks of interconnected
objects, or with end-users or other entities
in the network.
277
Full canopy netting—The net is held
permanently by a rigid structure of poles
and tensioned cables over the entire
orchard (Fig 1.).
Basic
technology
needed
for
IoT
implementation in orchards is wireless sensor
networks (WSN). WSN consist of spatially
distributed autonomous sensor-equipped devices
to monitor physical or environmental conditions.
If implemented in orchards, basic micro-climate
information that can be collected with WSN are:
air temperature, air humidity, soil temperature
and soil humidity. WSN is very convenient
technology since it allow different network
topologies and multihop communication (in
most cases Bluetooth communication is used).
Recent technological advances in low-power
integrated circuits and wireless communications
have made available efficient, low-cost, lowpower miniature devices for use in WSN
applications which is of most importance since,
in most cases orchards are in distant location,
which is far away from any durable/stable power
supply.
Tunnel netting—A series of light frames
connected by wires are erected at intervals
along the row to support the net and hold
it away from the tree (Figure 2). The nets
are placed over the frame only when the
fruit approaches maturity and are taken
down after harvest.
There are some research that analyse microclimate conditions under hail netting which is, in
most cases used in Serbia (Figure 3.). In
research on hail-netted apple orchards in
Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria [21]
studied the changes to the under-net
microclimate. It was found that:
Light levels, assessed by measuring
photosynthetically active radiation, were
reduced by 20–27% under black net, 18%
under grey net and by 12–15% under
white net.
In orchards, there are several types of
protecting nets that can be implemented. For
cherry and stone fruit coverage, there are
drapeover nets for bird protection. For apple
orchards there are, in most cases, net protection
from birds, sun and hail damage. Dimension of
nets depend on the size of the trees, row spacing,
and the terrain upon which the orchard is being
grown. Micro-climate conditions depend not
only on type of net but also on its colour, e.g.
mean daily temperatures varied more than 0.5 to
1 degree [19].
Humidity was consistently increased by
up to 10%. After rainfall the humidity
under the net remains high and takes
longer to fall than under non-netted trees.
In recent years another type of net protection
occurred for controlling vertebrate pests and
some insect pests- exclusion net. This type of
netting is reliable because it places a full
physical barrier between the pest and the crop,
which is different from other kind of netting that
covers only treetop. In case of vertebrate pests
there are other solutions (cheaper ones) which
can be implemented like sound and light
systems to deter animals from feeding in an
orchard, but these systems can be ineffective in
some situations (e.g. when animals are starving).
Fig. 1. Full canopy netting
There are two types of exclusion netting
systems that can be used by growers [20]:
Fig. 2. Tunnel netting
278
microcontroller sensor board can collect data
with a minimum of six sensors. At the moment,
there are four sensors connected to this board:
air temperature, air humidity, soil temperature
and soil humidity sensors. It is planned that,
beside these sensors, also light sensor and wind
speed sensor be connected.
After measurement, the values from the
sensors (air temperature, air humidity, soil
temperature and soil humidity) are transferred
via
Bluetooth
communication
from
microcontroller sensor board to a Raspberry Pi
computer. The data collection system then sends
the measured data to the appropriate web
service, if the internet connection is available. If
for some reason the Internet connection is not
available, the measured parameters are stored
locally in the database at Raspberry Pi itself.
When the internet connection becomes
available, unsent data is resent, and
synchronized with database in cloud.
Synchronization is done in only one direction,
from sensors to the cloud. In the event that an
internet connection is not available throughout
the entire measurement period, the data can be
downloaded in .csv format, using a portable
memory (USB flash or SD card memory) and
then processed, analysed or manually sent to the
web service.
Fig. 3. Hail netting
Hail net had a minimal effect on air, grass
or soil temperature. On warm to hot days
air temperatures under the net, measured
in a Stevenson screen, were reduced by 1
°C to 3 °C when compared to recordings
in a Stevenson screen outside the net. The
Stevenson screen excludes radiation and
restricts wind, permitting a ‘true’ measure
of air temperature. The temperature under
black hail net may ‘feel’ cooler because
light levels are reduced. The temperature
under white net may ‘feel’ higher on hot
days because of reflected light off the net.
Wind speed is reduced by up to 50%
within the netting.
Hail net has little effect on night time
temperatures and does not offer frost
protection.
All this leads to a conclusion that hail netting
has influence on micro-climate conditions.
The central unit is a Raspberry Pi 3 model B
with computer (Figure 4). The computer core is
Broadcom BCM2837 SoC (System on Chip)
which has a quad ARM Cortex-A53 processor
with a maximum clock speed of 1200 MHz. The
computer has 1GB LPDDR RAM, running at
900 MHz. Part of the RAM is shared with the
GPU (Graphics Processing Unit). The GPU is
Broadcom VideoCore IV. The computer has
four USB 2.0 ports (one port is used for Ethernet
connection).
3. IOT SOLUTION
There are no researches on how exclusion net
influence micro-climate conditions, and since it
is full netting in case of exclusion net and not
only treetop, as in hail net, the assumption is that
in case of exclusion nets micro-climate
conditions will be significantly changed.
For the purpose of monitoring the microclimate conditions of orchards under exclusion
nets, proposed solution with central unit made
up of a Raspberry Pi computer with peripheral
devices, microcontroller sensor board with
sensors and a web service for accessing the web
database is used. The reason for choosing this
set-of is because it is economical and most
effective for further research. The chosen
This version of Raspberry PI has capability
of wireless communication over 2.4 GHz
802.11n, and also Bluetooth 4.1 classic and
Bluetooth Low Energy wireless communication.
279
FE A.A | B.B | C.C | D.D | I | J | K | L | FF
FE – start of message;
A.A – air temperature;
B.B – air humidity;
C.C – soil temperature;
D.D – soil humidity 2;
I, J, K, L – the status of the appropriate
sensors (0 - if everything is correct and if the
value is different from zero there was an error);
Fig. 4. Raspberry Pi 3 model B
On Raspberry Pi 3, Microsoft Windows 10
IoT operating system is installed. An application
that communicates with the microcontroller
sensor board and the local (and cloud) database,
was developed using Microsoft Visual Studio
2015 in C# language, using the .NET 4.5
framework. The Windows 10 IoT platform was
selected to take advantage of the .NET
framework and know-how in C#.
FF – end of message.
All values of temperature and humidity for
air and soil, which are measured, are then sent,
in hexadecimal format, via Bluetooth
communication.
Development of web service was done using
php and MySQL database. MySQL database can
be accessed through the REST service. The
service implements all standard operations over
a database called CRUD (Create Read Update
Delete). REST service accepts and returns JSON
(Java Script Object Notation) objects.
On the other hand there is a sensor unit
controlled by Atmel Atmega32 microcontroller,
to which sensors are connected. It is possible to
connect two sensor types, analog and digital, to
the sensor unit. Values from analog sensors are
read through the A/D converter on the
microcontroller itself and the value with digital
sensors is read through digital communication
(I2C, 1-wire and SPI). The measurement range
is defined for each of the analog sensors and if
the measured value outside of the range, the
corresponding error for the given sensor is sent.
For digital sensors the same principle applies,
which is the extent of measurement. In addition,
some digital sensors offer the possibility of
sensor's auto-diagnostics.
The developed database consists of one table,
where columns are: column ID, measured data
from sensors (air temperature, air humidity, soil
temperature and soil humidity) and the
measurement time. Data in the database can be
loaded as individual measurement or as a set of
individual measurements (bulk inserts). Also,
data from the database can be taken as a single
record (individual measurement). It is possible
to download the entire table or as measurements
within a given period of time. REST service
allows pagination in case the service needs to
return a large number of records.
The following sensors were used for the
experiment:
All components of developed solution,
central
unit
with
peripheral
devices,
microcontroller sensor board with sensors and a
web service, enable users to easily access all
measured data, in order to determine microclimate conditions in orchard, which are
protected by exclusion net.
Temperature and humidity of the air,
Temperature and humidity of the soil.
After the measurement and diagnostics of the
sensor, the sensor board unit sends the data to
the central unit in the following format:
280
Vojvodina, Republic of Serbia, through the
project: “Implementation of IoT tracking system
for fresh food produces from Vojvodina”, and
Ministry
of
Education,
Science
and
Technological Development, Government of the
Republic of Serbia, through the project:
III46001 - “Development and application of new
and traditional technologies in competitive food
manufacturing value-added products for the
domestic and global market - create wealth from
the riches of Serbia”, and TR35001 “Automated systems for identification and
tracking of objects in industrial and nonindustrial systems”.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Netting of orchards change the orchard
environment. Some of these changes may be
beneficial and others may be damaging.
Advantages of orchard netting are that:
harvesting season begins earlier when orchard
has nets, fruit quality is improved, management
of orchard is improved and netting provide
chemical-free control of some orchard pests.
Disadvantages of orchard netting are: high
capital cost and in some cases, returns may not
justify the expenditure, pollination where in
some cases, where are used nets with small
holes, access of bees and other pollinators can
be limited or in worst case excluded.
6. REFERENCES
In the netting is used to protect orchards from
weather conditions or pests, agricultural
producers must have in mind that micro-climate
conditions in orchards will be changed.
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micro-climate conditions in orchard enable
collected data to be available for analysis by
agricultural producers, buyers, sellers, scientific
institutions and state authorities. First results/
measurements after implementation of IoT
solution in orchard, indicate that exclusion
netting has different influence on micro-climate
conditions to hail netting, which is in most cases
used in Serbia.
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determining precise influence of netting to air
and soil in orchards (temperature, humidity).
After that it is planned to add light sensor and
wind speed sensor for thorough analysis of
micro-climate conditions. Final goal is to define
algorithm for making decision to net or not to
net orchards and if yes with what kind of nets
concerning advantages and disadvantages and
changed micro-climate conditions.
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5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been supported by the
Provincial Secretariat for Higher Education and
Scientific Research of Autonomous Province of
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282
The effect of Nutrient Supply on the
Decorative Value of Petunia
Zs. Turiné Farkas a, J. Pető a, A. Hüvely
a
a
John von Neumann University, Faculty of Horticulture and Rural Development, Mészöly
Gyula str. 1-3. 6000 Kecskemét, Hungary, E-mail: turine.zsuzsa@kvk.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
One of the most excellent ornamental plants of the balcony boxes and hanging cages is petunia. In the
Hungarian climate intensive care of it is resulted with magnificent flower flood.A loose, N-poor soil,
with medium nutrient supply is preferred, and application of complex fertilizer in 10-14 days is
offered to maintain optimal nutrient levels. During the experiment, we used the blue flower Petunia
hybrid WFL® 'Bingo® Blue' variety of the German PAC Elsner breeding company. The nutrient
supply was carried out with a 2.4 mS/cm EC solution of Volldünger fertilizer and a FitoHorm 24 Mg
magnesium medium in a 1.5% solution as a leaf fertilizer. During our research we measured the effect
of nutrient supply on decorative value of the plants: plant height, number of shoots and number of
flowers.
Keywords: Petunia hybrids 'Bingo ® Blue', FitoHorm 24 Mg, plant height, number of shoots, number of flowers
of Petunia hybrids are grown: ’Bingo Magma
Red’, ’Bingo Orange’, ’Bingo Peachy Keen’,
’Bingo Pink’, ’Bingo Pink Morn’, ’Bingo Blue’,
’Bingo Purple’, ’Bingo White’, ’Bingo Yellow’,
’Bingo Coral’, ’Bingo Rose’, és a ’Bingo
Red’[6].
1. INTRODUCTION
The main decorative value of annual
ornamental plants is intense, varied color and
habit.[1]
In the selection of annuals and balconies, the
petunia occupy a prominent position, the market
of petunia is developing [2]. The largest variety
of balcony plants can be reached from a number
of petunia varieties [3]. Previously, long-lasting
balcony plants were fashionable, though in the
last years, breeding companies place emphasis
on the development of upwards growing, bulky
and economically sustainable crops [4].
Selections of the recent years have resulted in
incredible color and form richness, coupled with
a variety of growth and flowering abilities.
Balcony petunias require loose, good waterpermeable medium. Iron deficiency soon causes
chlorotic symptoms. Favorable iron absorption
is best achieved in pH = 5. Do not add Noverweight fertilizers, otherwise the longitudinal
growth of the shoots will be too strong. Keep the
soil evenly damp [7], [8]. Nutrient solution
among 0.8 to 1.2 EC is optimal [9].
The Klasmann TS 4 medium + clay mixture
contains 1 g / liter of PG mix, suitable for
rooting and cultivating plants. The medium
maintains its loose and airy structure even
during intensive irrigation and nutrient supply,
so it can be used as a soil of plants held in pots,
balconies and amphorae pots [10].
Variety tested by Nébih and certified as
GMO-free in the Bingo series: WFL 'Bingo®
Blue', WFL ’Bingo® Magma Red’, WFL
’Bingo® Peachy Keen’, WFL ’Bingo® Purple’,
WFL ’Bingo® White’ [5]. At Plant Alliance
Hungary, 12 varieties of the Bingo variety series
Magnesium is a very important plant
nutrient, participates in photosynthesis, in the
283
biosynthesis of amino acids and proteins, in the
energy balance, in maintaining the cation
balance, in the development of resistance to
diseases [11], [12]. The proper Mg supply
protects the plants from intensive radiation [13].
For petunias, getting iron-enriched nutrient
supply in a large bowl, it is easier to bear the hot
summer days [14].
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
Our research work was carried out in
Kecskemét, in a Primor-1 type greenhouse of
the Faculty of Horticulture and Rural
Development of the John von Neumann
University. During the experiment, the PUN
Elsner breeding company’s Petunia hybrids
were used: a blue flowering WFL® 'Bingo ®
Blue Impr.' (Figure 1), which is blue floral, early
bloom, habitus upward and a moderate growth
variety [15].
Fig. 2. Growing of petunia in pots
180 mg / l K2O, 100 mg / L Mg + trace
elements). The nutrient supply was made by a
2.4 mS / cm (EC) solution of fertilizer
Volldünger Linz (14-7-21 + 1% Mg + 1%
microelements: B, Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn) until the sale
(end of May) week. A part of the stock was
treated with a 1.5% solution of FitoHorm 24 Mg
magnesium medium (6.6% MgO + 18% SO3) as
a foliar fertilizer from April 4th weekly, a total
of five times. In our research, the effect of
FitoHorm 24 Mg magnesium media on
ornamental value was investigated. We
compared the treated and untreated plants
regarding the beginning of flowering time,
flower number, plant height and number of
shoots. The measured data were recorded and
evaluated by mathematical calculation via
Microsoft Excel program. At the end of the
growing season, a leaf analysis was carried out
at the Soil and Plant Testing Laboratory of the
Faculty. About 50 leaves were washed and dried
at 70 oC in a drying oven. Air-dry samples were
homogenized. Powdered samples were prepared
for elemental analytical assays in the presence of
concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide
by microwave digestion (Milestone Ethos Plus).
P, K, Ca and Mg were analyzed with the ICPAES spectrometer type Ultima 2. Kjeldahl
nitrogen content was measured after sulfuric
acidic destruction in FOSS Kjeltec 2300
instrument. The content of the elements (N, P,
K, Ca, Mg) was given in m/m% air dry matter.
Fig. 1.Petunia cuttings rooted in paper cylinders
Cuttings rooted in paper rolls were planted
on 14 March 2017 into 9 cm diameter pots, the
TS 4 medium plus clay type media purchased by
Klasmann Company (Figure 2).
The mixture is medium-sized decomposed
white peat mixture (0-25 mm white peat + white
peat fiber + 10 to 25 mm white peat bricks) with
20 kg / m3 clay granules, wetting additives and
added nutrients (140 mg / l N, 100 mg / l P2O5,
284
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
3.1. The effect of leaf fertilizer on
flowering time
According to our observations, the effect of
leaf fertilization on the beginning of flourishing
time was not significant, but the treated stock
flourished few days earlier than the untreated
plants.
Fig. 4. Impact of leaf fertilizer on plant height
(22.05.2017)
3.2. The effect of leaf fertilizer on
the number of flowers
3.4. Effect of leaf fertilizer on the
number of shoots of plants
Figure 3 illustrates the value of the average
flower number of plants. As can be seen in the
figure, the treated stock had more flowers than
the untreated.
Figure 5 illustrates the average number of
shoots of plants, from which it can be seen that
the number of plants in the treated stock was
more than in the untreated plants.
Fig. 3. The effect of leaf fertilizer on the number of
flowers (22.05.2017)
Fig. 5. Effects of leaf fertilizer on the number of
shoots (22.05.2017)
3.3. The effect of leaf fertilizer on
plant height
3.5. Effect of leaf fertilizer on the
nutrient content in the leaf plate
Figure 4 illustrates the average height of the
plants. The plants in the treated stock were
higher than the untreated ones, but the
difference in the growth was negligible.
The results of the leaf analysis are shown in
Table 1. The nutrient content of the leaves
demonstrate the positive effect of leaf
fertilization, as the leaves of the treated stock
have higher levels of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium and magnesium compared to
the untreated controls.
Table 1. Leaf analysis of Petunia hybrids WFL ‘Bingo Blue Imp.’
Nutrient
Unit
Untreated
Treated
Nitrogen
m/m % air-dry matter.
3.19
3.21
Phosphorus
m/m % air-dry matter.
0.706
0.800
Potassium
m/m % air-dry matter.
3.63
3.68
Calcium
m/m % air-dry matter.
2.72
2.88
Magnesium
m/m % air-dry matter.
0.312
0.330
285
Dísznövénytermesztési és
Tanszék, Budapest, (2011).
4. CONCLUSIONS
Magnesium is an important building element
of chlorophyll and plays a basic role in plant
life. Based on our research we can conclude that
FitoHorm 24 Mg magnesium leaf fertilizer had a
positive effect on the flowering time of petunia,
the number of flowers, plant height and number
of shoots (Figure 6). It was shown, that the use
of the fertilizer resulted higher macro- and
meso-element content in leaves as well. Of the
examined parameters, the positive effects in the
treated plants on the flower and shoot numbers
were probably due to the foliar fertilizer. These
results are preliminary research results, so there
is a need for further testing.
Dendrológiai
[2] A. Merényi, Petunia: now in the front
(Hungarian) Kertészet és Szőlészet 11
(2008), pp. 20.
[3] E. Pap, Balcony plants in priority.
(Hungarian) Kertészet és Szőlészet 36
(2013), pp. 6-7.
[4] E. Pap, Resistant balcony plants.
(Hungarian) Kertészet és Szőlészet 33
(2015), pp. 21-23.
[5] Pete A-né, The petunia case. (Hungarian)
Kertészet és Szőlészet 23 (2018), pp. 26-27
[6] Petunia
Bingo
fajtasor,
http://www.plantalliance.hu/ro, last access
22/8/2018.
[7] Greenhouse Production of Petunias,
http://www.aces.edu, last access 22/8/2018.
[8] Petunia-vegetatív,
http://www.floretum.hu/szaktanacsok.php,
last access 22/8/2018.
[9] Petunias, http://www.danzingeronline.com,
last access 22/8/2018.
treated
[10] Merényi A., Excellent propagating material
in excellent media: satisfied customer!
(Hungarian)
http://www.kertplusz.com/hu/cikk/kertszolo
cikk_201202/, last access 22/8/2018.
untreated
Fig. 6. Petunia hybrids WFL® 'Bingo® Blue Impr.'
before sale (22.05.2017)
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[11] D.M. Huber; J.B. Jones, The role of
magnesium in plant disease. Plant Soil
368(1-2) (2012), pp. 73-85.
This research is supported by EFOP-3.6.116-2016-00006
"The
development
and
enhancement of the research potential at John
von Neumann University" project. The Project
is supported by the Hungarian Government and
co-financed by the European Social Fund. We
also thank for providing the rooted propagation
material to Plant Alliance Hungary, a
horticultural and commercial enterprise in
Csólyospalos.
[12] T. Horinka, Complete nutrient supply of
horticultural plants (Hungarian) Kertészek
kis/Nagy Áruháza Kft. Kiadó, Mórahalom,
(2010).
[13] I. Cakmak, E.A Kirkby, Role of magnesium
in carbon partitioning and alleviating
photooxidative
damage.
Physiologia
Plantarum 133 (2008), pp. 692-704.
6. REFERENCES
[14] W. Algeier, Summer end annual plant
presentation (Hungarian) Kertészet és
Szőlészet 38 (2017), pp. 6-9.
[1] Honfi et. al., Modern ornamental plant
cultivation and trade (Hungarian) BCE
Kertészettudományi
Kar
[15] PAC_katalog_2018/19,
Elsner
http://www.pac-elsner.com, last
22/8/2018.
286
pac
access
Investigation of Some Soil Physical
Parameters of the New Plantations in
the South-Eastern Part of Hungary
J. Pető a, A. Hüvely a, A. Palkovics a, V.J. Vojnich
a
a
John von Neumann University, Faculty of Horticulture and Rural Development,
Kecskemét, Mészöly Gy. tér 1-3. 6000, Hungary, E-mail: {peto.judit, huvely.attila,
palkovics.andras, vojnich.viktor}@kvk.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
The rural development and agricultural EU grants help to promote the competitiveness of the
agricultural activities. Plantation grants take great interest in the south-eastern part of Hungary.
Farmers need to make soil tests before plantation of fruit and grape. Making soil physical tests and the
required analysis of the test results help the farmers work efficiently and contribute to the realization
of economical and environmentally friendly activities. In our present study, we investigated the
distribution of some of the most important physical properties of the soil in the planned vineyards.
We followed the frequency of occurrences of their risky values and the correlations among the
parameters. The results of the soil tests show some strong relationships between the determined
physical parameters.
Keywords: plantation, vineyard, soil tests, lime content, organic matter.
In the fruit and vegetable framework of the
EU program, supports can be granted to
supplementary planting operations, changes in
the breed structure of plantations, re-plantation
for modernization purposes and to the
establishment of new plantations in orchards and
vineyards. Support for the plantation and
replantation of orchards is supported exclusively
under the Rural Development Programme. EU
grants supported plantation of vineyards and
orchards in Hungary as well, and farmers made
efforts to use modern innovation and economic
growing technics in these areas. Hungary is a
rural country, about two-third of its area is
classified as rural. Rural Development
Programme for Hungary promotes preserving
and enhancing of the economic growing
methods in agriculture. Hungary's geographic
and climatic characteristics provide excellent
opportunities for quality fruit and grape growing
and consumption. The southern part of the Great
1. INTRODUCTION
Creation of new vine and fruit plantations is
a major professional, and long term task in
horticultural growing. Making soil physical tests
and the required analysis of the test results help
the farmers work efficiently and contribute to
the
realization
of
economical
and
environmentally friendly activities. In our study
we evaluated the results of some soil tests and
the main relationships among the most
important physical parameters of the examined
soil samples.
In our earlier study we showed the
distribution, size and type of plantations in our
region in a five-year time period [1]. We showed
that most new plantations were vineyards in our
region. The ratio of fruit tree orchards in
plantations was the highest in 2013. The average
area of the planned fruit gardens was about 33%
greater than that of vineyards [1].
287
protection, being in relationship with the Soil
and Plant Testing Laboratory of the Faculty.
Soil samples were taken in the planned
plantation fields of the farmers, from soil
segments in different depths (0-150 cm) and
topsoils (largely 0-30 and 30-60 cm; and 0-20
and 20-40 cm depths in the case of berries). The
test results of 2840-3150 samples were
processed in this period for each examined
parameters.
Hungarian Plain is the largest horticultural area
of the country.
Common Agricultural Policy of the
European Union promotes farming practices that
support soil conservation and maintenance [2].
There is a continuous need for monitoring of the
soil quality and technical methods aimed at the
optimization of soil protection. Our aim was to
follow if the areas were adequate for the
establishment of vineyards on the base of the
results of some soil tests.
2.2. Analytical methods and statistics
Analytical testing methods were made in the
Soil and Plant Testing Laboratory of Faculty of
Horticulture and Rural Development, John von
Neumann University (Kecskemét) and in the
predecessor institutions (Pallasz Athéné
University and Kecskemét College Faculty of
Horticulture).. Laboratory continuously uses
standard methods involved in the accreditation
certificate (NAT-1-1548/2011 and 2015).
Standard analytical methods were used for the
measurement of the commonly used physical
parameters. Water-soluble salt content was
estimated by electrical conductivity of the soil,
filled up with water, and using the data table of
the standard description (MSZ-08-0206-2:1978).
Lime content was expressed in m/m% calcium
carbonate. CaCO3 content of air-dry samples
was determined after reaction with 10 m/V%
hydrochloride
solution
in
calcimeter
(Labsystem). pH was measured in two ways: in
1:2.5 aqueous soil suspension and in 1:2.5 1
mol/dm3 potassium-chloride suspension after 16
hours storage.
Among the soil physical parameters soluble
salt concentration is in great interest. Soil
salinization may be a frequent problem in
Europe. It may be caused by the use large
amount of inorganic fertilizers and soil
conditioner compounds. The accumulation of
soluble salts in the soils may be a result of
inadequate irrigation technique, including the
use of saline water or poor drainage conditions
[3]. The thresholds and baselines of salt
concentrations used to assess salinization are
well defined and almost universally accepted.
Some composition of the irrigation water in our
region was described in our other studies [4]
In sandy soils, the use of very high doses of
nitrogen fertilizer often occurs. Occasional overwatering or large amounts of biomass left on the
fields may contribute to the undesirable load of
the environment.
In our study we followed some physical
characteristic of the soils of the planned new
plantations in the south-eastern part of Hungary
and followed the relationships between the
individual physical characteristics.
Statistical analysis and demonstration of data
were performed by Microsoft office excel
program. Average levels, standard deviation and
correlation coefficients (Pearson’s r value) were
estimated. Statistically significant differences
were determined in 5%, 1% and 0.1% levels [5].
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
2.1. Collection of soil samples.
The collection of the soil samples took place
from 2009 and 2016 in the south-eastern part of
the country, mainly in the Danube-Tisza
Interfluve, and dominantly in Bcs-Kiskun
County. The collection of soil samples have
been done by registered experts of soil
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
The dominant plantations in our region were
vineyards, except in 2012. In this year the total
288
m/m%. In 8.6% of the samples lime content was
lower than 1 m/m%.
planted area was the smallest in the examined
time interval, which was resulted from the lack
of the plantations of vineyards. The result of
soluble salt determination is shown on Figure 1.
Our soil samples showed low salt
concentrations. Soluble salt levels in the soil
aqueous solution were under 0.02 m/m%, in
three quarters of samples. Soluble salt
concentration were in the 0.06-0.10 m/,% range
in the 1.7% of samples, while it was above 0.10
m/m% in negligible manner (<0.2%). Soluble
ion concentration did not exceed 0.15 m/m%
level in any cases.
Fig. 2. Frequency of the occurrence of the different
lime content levels in the soil
As shown in Figure 2., calcium carbonate
content showed a wide range of distribution in
our samples. The average concentration was
6.24 m/,% with 5.31 m/m% standard deviation.
The number of the tested was significant.
We followed the correlation between some
physical parameters as well (Table 1.). Lime
content was in strong positive correlation with
the alkalinity of the soil. We showed strong
positive correlation between lime content and
pH measured in aqueous solution, in 0.1%
significance level (r=0.443). Similarly, pH
measured in KCl solution was strongly
correlated with lime content (r= 0.343; p<0.1
level). Lime content was not related with
soluble salt content (r=-0.080, p>0.05) There
were no statistically significant differences
Fig. 1. Occurrence of the different soluble salt
concentration levels in the soil
Calcium carbonate content of the soil is very
important factor in structure stabilization and pH
maintaining of the soil. The distribution of lime
content is shown in Figure 2.
As shown in Figure 2, most of the samples
showed calcium carbonate content in the 1-7
m/m% concentration range, representing mildly
calcareous soil properties. In about 3.5% of the
samples CaCO3 content was higher than 20
m/m%, and in 2.1% it was higher than 25
Table 1. Correlation coefficients between some physical parameters in the soil samples
pH(H2O)
pH(KCl)
Soluble salt
CaCO3
pH(H2O)
1
0.839***
-0.431***
0,443***
pH(KCl)
0.839***
1
-0.441***
0.343***
Soluble salt
-0.431***
-0.441***
1
- 0.080
CaCO3
0.443***
0.343***
-0.080
1
***p<0.001 significance level
289
Natural and environmentally friendly land
use and agricultural farming methods are
promoted and regulated in Hungary. Optimizing
of grape and fruit growing technology including
fertilization, more effective organic waste use,
plant protection and irrigation are all important
from both economical and environmental points
of view [9, 10]. These efforts influence most of
the physical, chemical and biological processes
in the soil. Greater scientific knowledge is
critical to avoid soil loss problems [11]. Soil
degradation must be avoided. Soil Thematic
Strategy of EU is addressed to the management
of soils, soil monitoring and harmonization of
the soil data [12]. Developing cost/benefit
analysis and multi-actor approaches to soil
protection strategies in EU is promising.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Planting and modernization of plantations is
supported in Hungary, which means installation
of new plantations and modernization of the
existing plantations e.g. with making the
possibility of irrigation and hail damage
avoiding. Soil texture in the south-eastern part
of Hungary, and mainly in Bacs-Kiskun County,
with large area of sandy soils, is very suitable
for growing vineyards. Grape is not a nutrient
demanding plant in usual, so many varieties
grows efficiently in soils with poor nutrient
supply.
Soil
physical
and
chemical
characteristics are very important for planning
vineyards and orchards, so soil parameters
should be determined before planting. The
results of our study confirmed that soils showed
low soluble salt content, the average level was
about 0.02 m/m%. It shows that our soils are not
risked regarding high salt loading. Soluble salt
content never exceeded 0.15 m/m% level. This
very favorite result shows that soils in the
examined area were not contaminated in
significant manner. In EU, there remains a need
for soil monitoring networks and decisionsupport systems aimed at optimization of soil
quality in the region. As the pressure on
European soils seems to continue in the next
decades, clearly defined regulatory frameworks
and regulation is needed [2]. In usual, a sandy
loam or gravelly soil is considered the best for
grapes, but they can grow on many type soils
[6]. The soil should have a fairly high waterholding capacity, not be waterlogged at any time
during the year [7, 8].
Our result data emphasize the importance of
the fact that the quality of the soil should be
monitored before planting, and regularly
controlled thereafter.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank to our colleagues
in the testing laboratory for the expert technical
assistance. This research is supported by EFOP3.6.1-16-2016-00006 "The development and
enhancement of the research potential at John
von Neumann University" project. The Project
is supported by the Hungarian Government and
co-financed by the European Social Fund.
6. REFERENCES
[1] J. Pető; A. Hüvely; I. Cserni, Plantation
programs and their observations in the
South-eastern Hungarian region. Proc. of
6th Int. Sci. and Expert Conf. of the
International TEAM Society 6(1) (2014),
pp. 78-80.
Solis in the tested area had moderate CaCO3
contents. Lime content in the soil help to
stabilize soil structure and pH. Calcareous soils
are frequent in our region. Lime content was in
strong positive correlation with pH (measured
both in aqueous and KCl solution), while it was
not related with soluble salt content. The large
number of samples emphasizes the role of
(re)plantations in our region. The size of the
tested area was closely 1900 ha among 2009 and
2016.
[2] I. Virto; M.J. Imaz; O. Fernández-Ugalde;
N. Gartzia-Bengoetxea; A. Enrique; P.
Bescansa, Review. Soil degradation and
soil quality in Western Europe: current
situation
and
future
perspectives.
Sustainability 7 (2015), pp. 313-365.
290
[3] G. Tóth; L. Montanarella; E. Rusco (Eds.).
Threats to Soil Quality in Europe. Office
for Official Publications of the European
Communities, Luxembourg, p. 151, (2008).
agriculture. Environmental
Policy 38 (2014), pp. 45-58.
Science
&
[12] R. Zornoza; J. Mataix-Solera; C. Guerrero;
V. Arcenegui; F. García-Oresnes; J.
Mataix-Beneyto; A. Morugán, Evaluation
of soil quality using multiple lineal
regression based on physical, chemical and
biochemical properties. Science of the
Total Environment 378 (2007), pp. 233237.
[4] J. Pető; E. Hoyk; A. Hüvely, The role of
ground and artesian waters as nutrient
sources in the irrigation on the Great
Hungarian
Plain.
Növénytermelés
64(Suppl.) (2015), pp. 43-46.
[5] I.
Szűcs,
Alkalmazott
statisztika.
Agroinform Kiadó, Budapest, pp. 251-260,
(2002).
[6] J. Pető; A. Hüvely; E. Pölös; I. Cserni,
Leaf macro nutrient composition of grapes
in south plain hungarian vineyards. Review
on Agriculture and Rural Development 3
(2014), pp. 250-255.
[7] M.C. Ramos, J.A. Martínez-Casanovas,
Impact of land leveling on soil moisture
and runoff variability in vineyards under
different rainfall distributions in a
Mediterranean climate and its influence on
crop productivity. Journal of Hydrology
321 (2006), pp. 131-146.
[8] M. Bogoni; A. Panont; L. Valenti, A.
Scienza, Effects of soil physical and
chemical
conditions
on
grapevine
nutritional status. Acta Horticulturae 383
(1995), pp. 299-303.
[9] J.R. Lamichhane; S. Dachbrodt-Saaydeh; P.
Kudsk, A. Messéan, Toward a reduced
reliance on conventional pesticides in
European agriculture. Plant Disease 100(1)
(2016), pp. 10-24.
[10] M. Diacono; F. Montemurro. Effectiveness
of organic wastes as fertilizers and
amendments
in
salt-affected
soils.
Agriculture 5(2) (2015), pp. 221-230.
[11] R.P.O
Schulte; R.E. Creamer; T.
Donnellan; N. Farrelly; F. Reamonn; C.
O’Donoghue; D. O’hUallachim. Functional
land management, a framework for
managing soil-based ecosystem services for
the
sustainable
intensification
of
291
Local Effects of Climate Change on the
Sand Dunes of Hungary
Á. Ferencz a, Zs. Deák a, V.J. Vojnich
a
a
John von Neumann University, Faculty of Horticulture and Rural Development, Mészöly
Gy. Square 1-3. 6000 Kecskemét, Hungary, E-mail: ferencz.aprad@kvk.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
Global climate change is endangering today's and even more so future generations’ living conditions.
In our work, we examine climate change in Hungary, projecting it onto agriculture where extreme
weather conditions are most noticeable. As a testing area, we chose the Hungarian Sand Dunes
(Homokhátság) area because of the diversified agricultural production here and because this part of
the country is the most affected by climate change. The Homokhátság occupies a significant part of
Hungary and has always been a major agricultural production center. The homestead farms
established here define the image of the Hungarian Great Plain. Preserving them has recently become
a key issue. The preservation and development of this form of farming is indispensable for sustainable
landscaping. In the area threatened by climate extremes negative impacts are even more pronounced
causing numerous losses. Interviews with local farmers provide an overview of the impacts of climate
change and measures taken to mitigate the expected and future damages in the farms surveyed.
Keywords: climate change, farm management, mitigation steps
soil structure which will result in increased soil
erosion. Rising water levels increase
evaporation which in turn will change weather
patterns. This results in a worldwide increase in
the formation of extreme storms, rising strength
hurricanes and hectic cyclones. In the wake of
these storms, an abundant amount of rainfall
suddenly leads to devastating floods and soil
erosion. [4]. The complexity of the problem is
stemming from the fact that climate change is
affecting all countries of the Earth, thus it is
insufficient to address the issue only on a local
or national level. This is means major problems
not only for food production, water management
and energy generation, but also creates political
and health issues. As a consequence, there is
significant migration from certain desertified
areas to more advanced European countries,
causing social and political tensions [5].
Agriculture is the most vulnerable sector to
climate change, mainly due to declining
production yields and harvest failures. The
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change and global warming are often
used as synonyms nowadays, as these concepts
have a cause and effect relationship. Both
phrases are correct, as both refer to the changes
in climatic factors. The fundamental difference
is that while climate change mainly describes
natural processes, global warming primarily
focuses on man-made changes [1]. Climate
change is a natural process in which the
warming and cooling periods cyclically follow
each other [2]. Human activity, in particular, has
caused global warming which by no means can
be classified as a natural process. Due to the
intensive use of fossil fuels (coal, crude oil and
natural gas) - since the beginning of the
industrial revolution - the atmosphere of our
planet is warming which by now has resulted in
dramatic consequences [3]. Due to global
warming the arctic ice is melting, causing
seawater levels to rise resulting in changes in the
292
precipitation-poor weather and the shift in its
timing and its unpredictability represent an
increased irrigation task [6]. Agricultural crops
produced through traditional farming methods
no longer produce acceptable quantities of and
quality which requires the development and
application of new drought-tolerant species.
This increases cost which is immediately
reflected in the price of the produce. In higher
winter temperatures parasites are able to
hibernate and protection against them requires
additional costs in the next cycle of production
[7]. The effects of climate change are also
strongly felt in Hungary. It is projected that
global warming will result in frost damage, wind
storms, forest fires, and flooding due to sudden
large amounts of rainfall [8]. In Hungary, further
drying of summer will undermine the chances of
crop production, the main problem being the
replenishment of water supply. The positive
effects of the increased number of sunny hours
cannot be utilized due to the low precipitation
and can even cause serious damage. The usage
of water is considerably increasing during heat
waves, however due to the decreasing
precipitation and increasing evaporation the
amount of water needed will become harder to
cover. During drought periods the moisture of
the soil is reduced which additionally also
results in the sinking of groundwater levels [9].
Fig. 1. The area of the Sand Dunes
the soil surface. The other significant soilforming factor was the regulation of rivers
which resulted in a completely different
landscape of the Great Plain and its water
conditions. The combined effects of soil and
climate change over the decades have already
created serious problems for the water supply of
the area. The effect of global warming is most
felt here. The changing climate takes on
Mediterranean features causing the summers to
become warmer and drier, so that the land
started to dry up and to rapidly lose its water
reserves. Most of the area is located on sandy
soils, and there are also alkaline, meadow and
forest soils. Thanks to the mainly sandy soil, the
water absorption capacity of the area is great but
the water storage and water retention capacity is
very poor.
The alkaline areas of the Homokhátság are
inadequate for agricultural cultivation due to
their high salt content. Homesteading is typical
of the Sand Dunes area. The number of
homesteads with agricultural function decreases
from time to time. This way of life is less
attractive to young people. Another reason is the
current poor profitability of agriculture in this
area. Nonetheless, nearly half of the homestead
farms still have an agricultural function within
which small-scale production is typical.
In our work, we do not aim to examine the
path leading to these changes, but rather the
adaptation to the situation already presented.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
2.1. Characteristics of the Sand Dunes
area
The Homokhátság in Hungary is situated on
the plains of the Danube-Tisza interfluve,
covering an area of almost 10,000 square
kilometers, at an altitude of 80-140 meters. The
Homokhátság includes around 15 micro-regions
and about 104 settlements (Figure 1).
2.2. Methods
Based on secondary research, we continued
our primary research through conducting
interviews. We have questioned farmers on the
effects of climate change in personal meetings.
We have strived to get answers from the most
As a consequence of deforestation, the
amount of cultivated and grazing areas grew,
however it has also contributed to the erosion of
293
prominent people. The interview included
answering semi-structured questions, but for
each question we have also provided an
opportunity for respondents to formulate their
personal comments in an informal way. We
have contacted 42 homesteads with decadeslong history that were typically second- and
third-generation businesses.
They had an
established production system so changes in it
could be tested effectively. The smallest farms
are managed on 3 hectares while the largest on
180 hectares. In particular, arable crop
production was characteristic, but significant
amount of grape and fruit production was also
present, and we have also visited several
livestock farms.
frequently observed change is seen in the
extremes of weather phenomena. Against the
sudden storms that are often accompanied by
hail there is simply no possible defence. Hail is
now to be expected not only in spring but also
early summer. Another consequence of
whimsical weather is the sudden, abrupt
temperature fluctuation of 10-15 ° C. More than
half of the farmers attribute rising temperatures
to climate change. Interestingly, it was not the
summer heat mentioned first, but the mildness
of winters. In terms of rainfall, half of the
respondents feel a change in its quantity and
unevenness. There are fewer rainfalls in the
spring and early summer when it is most needed.
Thus, the irrigation periods are getting longer,
resulting in significant cost increases. Half of
the respondents think that there is a noticeable
change in the living world as well. All of them
have met with new invasive species appearing in
their farms, against which a change in the
proven defence methods is needed.
The Sand Dunes area is ideal for research in
many respects. In Hungary, this is the area that
is ranked first in terms of climate sensitivity, and
on the other hand, agricultural production in
homestead farms has endured in this area.
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
In our research, we sought answers to a
number of questions, from which we only
highlight the most important results.
3.1. Assessing climate change in the
Sand Dunes area
All respondents are aware of climate change,
and we have received unequivocal responses
from the experiences of climatic conditions.
According to Figure 2, producers have
independently classified the same phenomena.
The first and most noticeable effect is seen in
the change of seasons. It is of special importance
that the winter months are mild and often frostfree, affecting next year's production. The
aridification process can already be observed in
the region, which over time can lead to
desertification. The tendency of recent years
shows that even during the harvest period
significant losses have to be reported due to the
uneven distribution of precipitation. This
phenomenon often affects winter soil works.
According to farmers, the second most
Fig. 2. The effects of climate change
3.2. Effects of climate
production
change
on
Respondents see the effects of climatic
change on agriculture mainly in the decline of
production yield (Figure 3.). On the one hand,
the damage was caused by extreme weather
events (storm, hail, etc.) and on the other hand
due to heat waves and low precipitation. More
than half of the farmers thought the quality
deterioration of crops, the proliferation of pests
and the decline of water resources were caused
by the negative effects of climate change. Only a
handful of them thought that the deterioration in
soil quality was also the result of these changes.
294
quality are the persistent heat and lack of
rainfall. The proliferation of pests associated
with climate change and the additional cost of
defence are mentioned at about the same
frequency. The respondents reported that the
defence was made more difficult by the
appearance of many new parasites that did not
yet have an effective form of protection. The
surveyed livestock farmers encounter unknown
new species and a significant increase in known
pathogens.
Fig. 3. Effects of climate change on production
3.3. Damages due to adverse weather
conditions
The unfavorable weather factors listed above
are mainly understood for the summer period.
We asked for the last 10 years to be evaluated.
Figure 4 shows, that farmers consider heat as
well as the drought associated with it to be the
worst climatic effect. This is especially a
problem in those areas where neither field crops
nor vine and fruit plantations have irrigation.
Farmers mentioned almost in the same
proportion the adverse effects of hail and
thunderstorms. The surveyed livestock farmers
did not report any significant direct negative
effects of the weather phenomena, their effects
affected them indirectly.
Fig. 5. Losses sustained due to climate change
3.5. Loss mitigation
Our questions were aimed at preventing
future damage. All respondents agreed that the
costs of prevention could significantly reduce
the damage caused by climate change. Figure 6
shows that respondents thought that utilizing
new species that are more suitable for droughts,
better adapted to the new climate and more
resistant to pests would be the most effective.
Associated costs of this are much lower than, for
example, building an irrigation system. There
are very different opinions about irrigation. Crop
producers and plantation owners often cannot
afford the costs of drilling wells and the
construction of irrigation systems even with the
help of subsidies. However, farmers engaged in
horticulture place great emphasis on irrigation,
especially through the modernization of the
growing equipment. Expanding the machine
fleet is an essential prerequisite for efficient
production by all farmers. Here larger
landowners have the advantage, while people
with smaller land use equipment leasing
services. In order to improve the water retention
capacity of the soil, producers mainly utilize
mulching.
Fig 4. Damages due to adverse weather conditions
3.4. Losses sustained due to climate
change
We were especially interested in the adverse
effects of natural phenomena caused by climate
change. Figure 5 shows that almost every
respondent ranked decreasing yields in first
place. Among the reasons, mainly aridification
(droughts, heatwaves), storms and hail were
mentioned. At second place has been the
deterioration of quality which results in a serious
loss of income. The causes of deterioration in
295
resources. Water conservation, the use of water
retention techniques, and sustainable use of
water wells could improve the situation. It
would be a step in the right direction to capture
rainwater, store it and then incorporate it into the
irrigation system. Of the weather phenomena,
the biggest problem in the region is the heat and
the drought associated with it. Farmers'
livelihoods depend to a large extent on the
extreme weather conditions that are becoming
more and more commonplace due to climate
change. The losses generated by extreme
weather conditions are so high that they already
threaten the operations of farms. Farmers are
willing to take the steps to prevent damage.
Changes are mostly carried out through
introduction of new resistant species and
protection
against
pathogens.
Water
replenishment techniques are not fully agreed on
among farmers. As far as subsidies are
concerned, the producers are well aware of the
opportunities and take advantage of them. They
are primarily in need of specific financial
support, but there is also a growing demand for
knowledge transfer of new methods to mitigate
risks.
Fig. 6. Forms of prevention
2.6. Forms of support
Farmers have already implemented a
number of improvements from their own funds,
and they have also taken out loans, but they are
having difficulty keeping pace with the rapidly
changing conditions. Based on our question
“What kind of assistance do you expect in the
future” (see Figure 7), most respondents think
that primarily monetary support is needed. The
extension of the consultancy network is
considered by most respondents as important if
it comes in the right time. Half of the
respondents would like to expand the system of
tenders for subsidies and make them more
accessible and simplified. The need for
education was primarily named by younger
farmers.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by EFOP-3.6.116-2016-00006 project. The Project is supported
by the Hungarian Government and co-financed
by the European Social Fund.
6. REFERENCES
[1] http://www.metnet.hu/?m=kislexikon&id=3
40, last access 20/09/2018.
Fig. 7. Forms of support available
[2] M. Renner, Climate change and migration
(in Hungarian), In: É. Varga (Ed.) A világ
helyzete 2013. Van e még esély a
fenntarthatóságra, Föld Napja Alapítvány,
Budapest, (2013).
4. CONCLUSIONS
Each of the surveyed farmers is aware of
climate change and is monitoring its effects. As
to the impact of climate change on agriculture,
they are mainly focusing on short-term losses.
Quantitative and qualitative deterioration of
yields has come to the forefront as a result of the
degradation of the soil or the decline in water
[3] K. Reményi, Energy, CO2, Global
Warming (in Hungarian). Akadémia Kiadó,
Budapest, (2010).
296
[4] J. Rakonczai; Zs. Ladányi; E. Pál-Molnár
(Eds.) The many faces of Climate change
(in Hungarian), GeoLitera Kiadó, Szeged,
(2012).
[5] J. Lindmayer, Possibilities for mitigating
the effects of climate change in Hungary (in
Hungarian),
http://hadmernok.hu/2012_3_lindmayer.ph
p, last access 20/09/2018.
[6] M. Birkás, The impact of climate change on
plant cultivation practices (in Hungarian),
In: J. Rakonczai (Eds.) Környezeti
változások és az Alföld. Nagyalföld
Alapítvány Kötetei 7. Békéscsaba (2011),
pp. 257-269.
[7] I. Terbe; K. Slezák; N. Kappel (Eds.)
Developmental disorders of horticultural
and arable crops (in Hungarian),
Mezőgazda Kiadó, Budapest, (2011).
[8] J. Bartholy; A. Kern, Global and regional
climate change (in Hungarian), In: Zs.
Harnos Zs; M. Gaál; L. Hufnagel (Eds.)
Klímaváltozásról mindenkinek, Budapest,
(2008).
[9] Zs. Harnos; L. Csete (Eds.) Climate
change: environment - risk - society (in
Hungarian), Szaktudás Kiadó Ház,
Budapest, (2008).
297
Evaluation and Development
Opportunities for Short Food Supply
Chains in Hungary
Zs. Deák a, F. Árpád a, V.J. Vojnich
a
a
John von Neumann University, Faculty of Horticulture and Rural Development,
Mészöly Gy. Square 1-3. 6000 Kecskemét, Hungary,
E-mail: deak.zsuzsanna@kvk.uni-neumann.hu
Abstract
In the 2014-2020 EU budget periods, one of the priorities for rural development is the establishment of Short
Food Supply Chains which means reducing distance between local producers and local consumers and
prioritizing local markets. In our work, we aimed at mapping the place of local producers within the distribution
channels and evaluating local producer groups. We were looking at what tender opportunities producers are
utilizing that can directly or indirectly link them to the Short Food Chain Program. To this end, we have set up
several hypotheses. Firstly, we assumed that the change in consumer habits greatly influences producer's supply.
Second, we investigated whether producers choose the sales channel where they can sell at the highest price or
where the most products can be sold. Our hypothesis was also that more and more of the local producers are also
involved in product processing. The research was conducted via questionnaires, during which 265 forms were
filled out at traditional markets and also at cafeterias and restaurants.
Keywords: short food supply chain, producer groups, consumer behavior study
There are three main types of individual direct
sales: 'producer does not move', 'consumer does
not move' and 'producer and consumer meet in
the middle' [6]. Selling to directly to consumers
is one of the possibilities for the producer to
increase its share of consumer prices, thus
excluding some of the intermediaries from
distributing the products. For a successful sale, a
change of attitude is indispensable: instead of
the production orientation that is typical of
agriculture, marketing orientation is a priority,
in which producers must take into account
consumer needs and adapt to [7]. SSCs can be
implemented in Hungary as follows. An open
economy means selling at a farm, a local shop, a
village table or through pick constructs. At sales
points, we mean the farmers market, producer
market, festivals, fairs, and farm shops operating
in settlements. The SSC can be implemented
through home delivery, e.g. with a box system
1. INTRODUCTION
Local Food System is a geographically
identifiable, regional environmental initiative
with socioeconomic characteristics and cultural
traditions that creates food self-sufficiency
through the relationship between local food
producers and consumers [1]. The short supply
chain (SSC) expression covers a variety of sales
channels. Beside the small geographical, social
and cultural distance between the producer and
the consumer, a common characteristic is the
need for healthy food grown in an
environmentally friendly way [2]. Similar to the
French definition, the Hungarian position also
calls for a specific distance (40 km). In
Hungary, the conditions of small-scale food
production and sale are governed by the VM
52/2010 (IV.30) decree [3], [4]. In another
approach, emphasis should be placed on direct
sales when delimiting short food chains [5].
298
clearly understandable and problem-focused
thematic subprogram [5].
or with a mobile shop. In the case of short SSC,
the producer sells himself or in cooperation with
an intermediary (hospitality, catering, food
retailing) [8].
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
The EU's thematic sub-program aims to
make the Short Supply Chain in the food sector
contribute to a diverse and growing source of
income for producers. Help create a closer
relationship between producers and consumers
by raising awareness of the importance of the
agricultural sector to the sustainability of
society. Increase fresh, high quality, less
processed food supplies at local level to promote
healthy eating without causing any additional
costs for consumers [9]. SSC is a supply chain
formed by a limited number of economic actors
committed to cooperation, local economic
development and close geographic and social
links between producers and consumers [10].
SSC can improve the revenue of producers and
ensure the survival of many farms due to greater
profit margins and the fact that the farm is less
reliant on the food sector. From a cultural and
social point of view, they encourage joint
decision-making and more self-governance
responsive to local needs, and promote and
support the preservation of local traditions by
linking the product to the geographical area of
origin of producers and consumers [11].
2.1. Locations of the short supply
chain study
The investigations were carried out at local
producers, on traditional producers' markets, at
catering services and in welfare stores. From
local vendors, we included fruit and vegetable
producers,
animal
products
producers,
beekeepers and winemakers. Since for domestic
producers farmers market sales are the most
prominent in terms of sales revenue, and this is
one of the most popular ways of direct sales, so
the interviews were completed mainly at
traditional markets, fairs and market halls. We
were pleased to find that in some settlements,
not only did a local distribution system has been
created to encourage self-sustaining, sustainable
life, but also efforts were made to familiarize
consumers with products thus ensuring that
income thus generated remained local. They
have developed a local product brand and placed
great emphasis on local product development
organizations. We also visited those public food
service companies that buy local products for
their activities: hospitals, restaurants, groceries.
We have also asked shoppers in the so-called
welfare stores. Here, the buyer can buy at a
discount of 30% using a coupon book received
from the local government. The small book can
be claimed on a need only basis. The owner can
use it for one year for purchases of up to 10,000
HUF per month. The shelves have two prices for
each product, one is the normal commercial
price, which is the same as the supermarket
prices. Below this, the 30% a more favourable
price is shown.
The Hungarian thematic sub-program seeks
to involve few operators in the system who are
committed to cooperation, local economic
development, close geographic and social links
between producers, processors and consumers.
The primary objective, however, is to increase
the competitiveness of producers by improving
their integration into the agri-food chain through
quality systems, increasing the added value of
agricultural products and promoting local
markets and short supply chains, producer
groups and professional organizations [12]. In
Hungary, farmers participating in short supply
chains are typically the smallest (single or micro
enterprises). Their self-organizing, advocacy
and tender capabilities are weak. Therefore,
realizing visible results with this target group
can only be achieved by an efficiently separated,
2.2. Methods
Our research was empirical studies, based on
questionnaires and deep interviews. Producers
were questioned by means of a questionnaire,
and we processed 265 evaluable questionnaires
in our work. We got data from public food
service companies and welfare stores through
299
deep interviews. In order to have as many valid
questionnaires as possible, 95% of them were
made to fill out the forms personally. Almost all
sample subjects were willing to help. In addition
to the primary data, some secondary data were
also taken into account in evaluating the results.
The questionnaire used for sampling consisted
of 26 questions, consisting mostly of open,
closed and some alternative questions. In each
of the questions, we also provided the
opportunity for respondents to formulate their
own personal comments in an informal way. We
endeavoured to get answers from the most
competent people.
from the family. Almost half of the farms work
with 2 people, and 27% of the farms answered
that it is the owner himself that is doing all the
work. Dairies employ the most workers.
Fig. 2. Production profile
43% of the surveyed producers only deal
with crop production, 22% with animal
husbandry and 35% in mixed farming (Figure
2). 43% of livestock farmers raise dairy cattle
and 28% of them pigs. 41% of respondents sell
processed products.
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
In our research, we sought to answer a
number of questions, from which we only
highlight the most important results.
3.1. Characteristics of the enterprises
in the study
24% of respondents produces on plots under
one hectar, almost half of them are between 1
and 5 ha, and 28% of them above this land area
(Figure 1). Those with an area below 1 hectare
produce vegetables and fruits for their own
consumption, and the surplus is sold on the
market for supplementary income. Those with a
land size over 10 ha are mainly engaged in fruit,
grape or arable crops production. 90% of the
respondents carry out farming on their own land.
Of those that are leasing their plot 66% have at
least 50 hectares of land. Among the
respondents, 94% of the permanent staff are
Fig. 3. Food stuff produced
Figure 3 shows the proportion of processed
products that are delivered to consumers in the
form of direct sales. 26% of the respondents
made jam from the fruit produced, mostly
without preservatives. Of the processed products
examined, 17% sells walnut or paprika powder.
One of the new consumer trends is the prepackaged soup vegetables, sold by 9% of the
respondents. Fruit juice ratio is very low, only
6%. Some small-scale family farms produce
fashionable health-conscious products such as
tubers, baked yam, pumpkin balls, pumpkin
salad, pumpkin chips, various sprouted seeds,
whole grain spelled wheat or rye flour.
Fig. 1. Production areas
300
3.2. Relationship of SSC and public
food services
We have reviewed several hospitals’
purchasing assignments. When purchasing raw
materials, price is the main determinant, so they
cannot think at all on quality. Most raw
materials are purchased from wholesalers with
whom they already have a well-established
connection. It is a great help to them to get the
raw materials from one place and having it
delivered, saving time and energy. One of the
biggest obstacles for the purchase of raw
materials is the high price. Mainly potato, apple,
beetroot and pumpkin is purchased this way. An
additional problem when purchasing in large
batches is that the issue of storage is not
resolved. These big purchasers are more willing
to buy frozen raw materials for easier handling.
We also studied the procurement of raw
materials in kitchens catering for schools. Based
on the in-depth interviews potatoes, green
onions, lettuces, apples, juices, pickles, peppers,
pumpkin, milk and pasta are the most likely to
be purchased through SSCs.
Fig. 4 Sales channels utilized
For the producers, SSC offers a number of
sales forms. 44% of respondents sell on
traditional markets (one of the main reasons for
this high value is that most of the questionnaires
were filled out in traditional markets). Sales
from their own farms are also very significant
(24%). Largest sales occur through wholesale
markets, but for this a much larger stock is
needed. In case of large-scale production, sales
to through producer organizations (TÉSZ) are
typical. In the area under investigation selling of
raw milk through vending machines is typical,
30% of the milk intended for sale is sold in this
form. The automats were placed at a wellestablished supermarket. Farmers can sell 32%
of their production through direct sales to
homes, which mainly means milk, smoked meat
products and pre-prepared chicken products.
Sales of juice in this form are not typical. There
is also a special sales form called the box
system. The buyer orders pre-arranged boxes to
be delivered weekly for a given season, and the
producer undertakes to produce the goods and
supplies them at a fixed price directly to a home
or to distribution points.
Restaurants are purchasing regularly eggs,
meat products, fruit, vegetables, milk, cheese,
cottage cheese and honey from the local
producers. Those restaurants that want to
provide a long-term quality service to their
guests buy regularly from a local producer, that
is, they are planning for the long run. Those who
buy little or no raw materials through SSCs,
have either no interest in quality catering (i.e.
hospital kitchens) or are struggling to survive, so
their decisions are primarily determined by the
price. Many have complained that producers are
not always able to guarantee the same quality
and quantity, and the option of home delivery is
missing from their service. Based on our
experience, it can also be said that purchasing
decisions have a lot to do with management
attitudes. Essentially, shopping decisions are
based on economic and convenience
motivations.
301
many cases, consumers associate farm products
with high prices and fluctuating quality, and
they are also missing the option of home
delivery.
3.3. Attitudes of welfare shop buyers
The attitudes of welfare shop buyers are
shown in Figure 5.
The in-depth interviews show that public
catering companies primarily choose products
acquired through SSC based on price. At the
same time, some caterers regularly buy from
local producer as they want to establish longterm clientele through quality service.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by EFOP-3.6.116-2016-00006 project. The Project is supported
by the Hungarian Government and co-financed
by the European Social Fund.
Fig. 5 Opinion of welfare shop consumers
The most important aspect of this customer
segment is low price. Relatively important are
the packaging size and product appeal which are
also closely tied to price. The quality of the
product, the server's personality and low
assortment does not affect this consumer
segment.
6. REFERENCES
[1] B. Balázs, Development of local food
networks (in Hungarian), In: S. Kerekes
(Eds.) A fenntartható fogyasztás környezeti
dilemmái, pp. 264-274, Budapest, (2011).
4. CONCLUSIONS
Small and wholesale producers are both
involved in short supply chains, however, this
form of sales is mainly used by small businesses
in Hungary. It can be stated that most of the
products sold through these channels are of plant
origin, especially horticultural products, but the
marketing of processed animal products is also
becoming increasingly important. Interestingly,
fruit juices represent a very small proportion in
the SSC. More and more farmers are processing
their products thus trying to adapt to the new
needs. Hungarian economic and legal changes
facilitate this endeavour. Our surveys also reveal
the need to broaden the use of SSC channels,
which could, among other things, help increase
both demand for processed products and
willingness to engage in this activity.
[2] Zs. Benedek; I. Fertő; L. Baráth; J. Tóth,
How can farmers be linked to modern food
chains? The domestic features of short
supply chains: the experience of an
empirical study (in Hungarian), MTA
KRTK, Budapest, (2013).
[3] 52/2010 (IV.30) VM statute.
[4] K. Kujáni, Evaluation of Sustainability and
the use of domestic short supply chains,
PhD thesis (in Hungarian), Gödöllő,
(2014).
[5] A. Juhász, SSC thematic subprogram
(manuscript) (in Hungarian), Budapest,
(2013).
[6] A. Juhász; É. Mácsai; K. Kujáni; E. Hamza;
D. Györe, The role and potential of direct
sales in the domestic food market (in
Hungarian), Agrárgazdasági Kutató Intézet,
Budapest, p. 120, (2012).
Our research reveals that young producers
primarily opt for sales channels where they can
sell at the highest price or where the most
products can be sold. In contrast, older
producers often also show emotional investment
in their marketing practices. Unfortunately, in
302
[7] É. Mácsai, Direct sales at the agricultural
products market (in Hungarian), Gödöllő,
(2014).
[8] I. Fertő; J. Tóth, Market Relations and
Innovation in the Food Economy (in
Hungarian), Aula Kiadó, Budapest, p. 180,
(2012).
[9] Short Supply Chain Workshop, Italian
NRN contribution to the „short supply
chain”, Bad Schandual, (2011).
[10] 305/2013/EU statute Green Paper on
Promotion and Information on Agricultural
Products, Brüsszel, p. 5, (2011).
[11] K. Tószegi-Fattyas, The 2014-2020 Rural
Development Program, Short Supply Chain
Thematic Subprogramme (in Hungarian),
Budapest, (2014).
303
UV-VIS Determination of Polyphenols
and Flavonols in Slavonian Propolis
M. Ernješ a, D. Zima b, T. Benković-Lačić c, K. Mirosavljević
a
Graduate of Polytechnic in Požega, Vukovarska 17, HR-34000 Požega, Croatia,
E-mail: mirela.ernjes@gmail.com
b
c
c
Polytechnic in Požega, Vukovarska 17, HR-34000 Požega, Croatia,
E-mail: dzima@vup.hr
College of Slavonski Brod, Ulica dr. Mile Budaka 1, HR-35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: {krunoslav.mirosavljevic, tblacic@}vusb.hr
Abstract
Propolis is one of the most important bee products because of its impact on human health. The
chemical composition of propolis is complex and depend on various factors but polyphenols and
flavonols, as essential compounds in it, play significant role in the inhibition of certain enzymes,
stimulation of hormones, free radical absorbance capacity and helping in disease curing. It is well
known that the propolis have many antibacterial, antitumorial, antifungal, antiiflammatory and
antiHIV characteristics. It can also be used as local anaesthetic compound. The samples were
collected in 2013. UV-VIS determination of polyphenols (with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent) and flavonols
(with AlCl3 reagent) in Slavonian propolis showed mutual proportionality and obtained results are
comparable with literature. Dry matter content couldn’t be directly related to total concentration of
polyphenols and flavonols.
Keywords: Agro-Ecology and Organic Farming, UV-VIS spectrophotometry, propolis, polyphenols, flavonols.
Propolis is the most interesting bee product
of firm consistency. It is fragile at a temperature
below 15 °C, and at 30 °C is sticky and comes
as a substance in the lumps. The colour,
chemical composition and taste depend on the
origin of the resin that the bees collect and
process and move to certain places in the hive.
The propolis colour may vary between
yellowish (pine), reddish (poplar) and black
(birch). Up to date 67 species of plants from
which bees collect propolis material are known.
[4]
1. INTRODUCTION
Polyphenols and flavonols are well known
for the inhibition of certain enzymes, stimulation
of hormones, free radical absorbance capacity
and helping in disease curing. Due to the strong
antioxidant activity they possess, polyphenols
and flavonols greatly affect the quality and
positive effects of propolis on human health. By
its origin, propolis is a resinous strain of bushy
buds (cane, cucumber, pine, chestnut, birch,
etc.) and tree bark that bees in dams use to
defend
themselves
from
harmful
microorganisms. The bees collect propolis and
mix it with the secretion of the jaw glands,
enzymatically modified so that the most
important constituents, such as polyphenols and
flavonols, become pharmacologically active
substances. [1-3]
Typical bee communities collect 100 g to
150 g of propolis annually. The most common
propolis is that autumn one, because the bees are
then preparing for the winter and put propolis in
the form of chin on the bottom legs and incase
the honeycomb walls. In today's practice, to
304
centres of the organism: they activate the
process
of
growth,
reproduction
and
development and participate in the process of
creating blood and also have a positive effect on
the function of the gland. For example, zinc (Zn)
prolongs the action of pancreatic hormone insulin that sharpens vision. Propolis also
possesses various aromatic acids such as
benzoic acid, caffeic acid, phenolic carboxylate,
etc. [5] It also contains some enzymes such as
succinate
dehydogenesis,
glucose-6phosphatase, adenosine triphosphatase and
phosphate acid. [9]
increase propolis yields, various wooden or
plastic grids are used. They can be cooled and
by their bending propolis breaks and in easier
and faster way the propolis separates from the
grids. In this way, the annual propolis yield is
increased and can range from 250 g to 400 g of
propolis per heifer. [5]
The chemical composition, aroma and colour
of propolis are complex and depend on various
factors: geographical zones of collection, time of
collection and the type of plants from which it
was collected. The colour of the propolis can be
from dark green to brow, and the taste may vary
from sweet as honey to the brittle bitter taste. [6]
Previous research has shown that the propolis
contains more than 300 different substances.
More detailed analysis has shown that natural
propolis contains about 55% vegetable resins
and balsams, 30% beeswax, 10% essential and
aromatic oils, 5% floral powders and various
mechanical primers. [7]
It is well known that the propolis have many
antibacterial,
antitumorial,
antifungal,
antiiflammatory and antiHIV characteristics. It
can also be used as local anaesthetic compound.
[10-12]
Polyphenols come in various forms and
concentrations, depending on the foods and the
recommended daily intake is 3-70 mg. [13] The
largest source of polyphenols are herbs, more
than 8,000 polyphenolic constituents have been
discovered in various plant species. Plants
primarily serve as molecules involved in the
protection from UV radiation or pathogen
attack, pigmentation, growth and reproduction.
[14] Polyphenols, as secondary metabolites of
various plant species, form a large group of
chemical compounds that can be classified into
several groups with regard to structure and
chemical properties. The major groups of
polyphenols are: flavonoids, lignans, phenolic
acids, stilbene and other phenols, which are
divided into smaller subgroups. [15]
Essential oils and organic propolis
components contain phenols of very small
molecular weight that are considered to have
biologically
active
properties,
namely
flavonoids, phenolic acids, esters, aromatic
aldehydes and terpenoids. It has been proven
that propolis contains up to twelve different
flavonoids such as pinocembrin, acacetin,
chrysin, routine, catechin, naringenin, galangin,
luteolin, cacferol, apigenin, miricetin, quercetin
and two phenolic acids; caffeic acid and
cinnamic acid and a resveratrol stilbene
derivative. [8]
Propolis also contains numerous vitamins: A
<10 μg / 100 g propolis, B1 = 1.45 mg / 100 g
propolis, B2 = 0.062 mg / 100 g propolis, B6 =
2.25 mg / 100 g propolis, C <1 mg / 100 g
propolis, E, nicotinic and pantothenic acid and
others. [8] In addition, propolis is rich in
provitamin A and carotenoid. Mineral
substances in propolis are magnesium (Mg),
calcium (Ca), iodine (I), potassium (K), sodium
(Na), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn)
iron (Fe). Zinc (Zn), manganese (Mg) and
copper (Cu) and they are very important to our
organism because they activate the biological
Flavonols are yellow coloured polyphenols
and are the most widely used flavonoids in food.
They are present in the glycoside form
associated with the sugar unit, usually glucose
and rhamnose, but other sugars (such as
galactose, arabinose, xylose) may also be
present. Because of the positive effects on health
flavonoids are very important part of human
nutrition. People with normal diets will inject 12 g of flavonoids per day, especially from fruits
and vegetables. The bioavailability, metabolism
and biological activity of flavonoids depend on
305
dry matter was carried out on twenty samples of
alcoholic tincture of propolis.
the configuration, the total number of hydroxyl
groups and the substitution of functional groups
within their nuclear structure. [16]
The UV-VIS spectrophotometric method
with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent is based on the
oxidation reaction (the phenolate ion) reduction (FC reagent) in the alkaline region,
whereby the reaction mixture is the blue liquid
tested. Many active propolis components, such
as phenolic acids and flavonoids, have a
phenolic group and can be evaluated by this
method. The total concentration measurement is
done using the UV-1800 Shimadzu double-beam
spectrophotometer. The supernatant absorbance
was measured at λ = 760 nm.
The aim of this paper is to find out more
about Slavonian propolis through its chemical
and physical composition and to draw attention
to active substances in propolis, such as
polyphenols and flavonols that contribute
significantly to its quality and ultimately
positively affect the health of propolis
consumers.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
The base of the colorimetric method with
AlCl3 is that it forms an acid stable complex
with a C-4 keto group or a C-3 or C-5 carboxyl
group of flavonols and flavones. AlCl3 produces
acid unstable complexes with the O-dihydroxy
group in the A or B ring of flavonoids.
Compounds with AlCl3 that produce flavonols
with C-3 and C-5 hydroxyl groups such as
galangin, quercetin, miricetin have a maximum
absorbance λ = 415 to 440 nm.
Studies were conducted with alcoholic
tincture of propolis, which was previously made
of propolis lump dissolved in 96% refined ethyl
alcohol and purified water. After pouring
propolis with refined ethyl alcohol and water,
propolis is allowed to settle in a dark bottle with
occasional shaking for at least three weeks.
After the rest time has elapsed, the propolis is
filtered through a filter paper. 20 analysed
samples of propolis were collected from the
geographic areas of Slavonia, specifically Nova
Bukovica and Slatina in 2013.
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
The following studies were conducted: dry
matter content, total polyphenols concentration
by UV-VIS spectrophotometric method with
Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and total flavonols
concentration by UV-VIS spectrophotometric
method with aluminium chloride reagent.
The results obtained by determining total
concentrations of polyphenols and flavonols and
dry matter content in alcoholic tinctures of
propolis are graphically shown in Figure 1. It
can be seen from these results that the total
concentrations of polyphenols and flavonols are
proportional. The dry matter content results in
alcoholic tinctures of propolis are different, and
there is no always proportionality to the
concentration of total polyphenols and
flavonols.
Determination of the total dry matter was
carried out during drying of the examined
samples of alcoholic tincture of propolis in the
drying oven. Dissolved 3 g of alcoholic tincture
of propolis are placed in a drying oven. The
extract was then evaporated to dryness on a
water bath and dried in a drying oven at a
temperature of 100 °C to 105 °C for 3 hours,
then cooled in a desiccator via diphosphorus
pentoxide R or anhydrous silica gel and
extracted. The results are expressed as a
percentage by weight or in g/l. Determination of
The results obtained from experiments on
Slavonian propolis are comparable and similar
to those in above-mentioned literature, which
largely demonstrates the quality of Slavonian
propolis
306
Fig. 1. Concentration of total polyphenols and flavonols and comparison with dry matter in alcoholic tinctures
of propolis
[2] A. Scalbert; C. Manach; C. Morand; C.
Remesy, Dietary polyphenols and the
prevention of diseases. Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 45 (2005), pp.
287-306.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This work had aim to find out more about
chemical and physical composition of Slavonian
propolis and to draw attention to active
substances in it, such as polyphenols and
flavonols that contribute significantly to its
quality and ultimately positively affect the
human health. The results obtained by UV-VIS
spectrophotometry are total concentrations of
polyphenols and flavonols and dry matter
content (by drying) in alcoholic tinctures. The
total concentrations of polyphenols and
flavonols are proportional. The dry matter
content results in alcoholic tinctures of propolis
are different, and there is no always
proportionality to the concentration of total
polyphenols and flavonols. The results obtained
from experiments on Slavonian propolis are
comparable and similar to those in abovementioned literature, which largely demonstrates
the quality of Slavonian propolis.
[3] The Effect of Flavonols on Health and
Exercise,
http://easacademy.org/trainerresources/article/the-effect-of-flavonols-onhealth-and-exercise-eas-academy,
last
access 12/6/2018.
[4] V. Bauer (Ed.), Zdravlje iz košnice,
Paradox d.o.o., Rijeka, (2013).
[5] O. Milojević, Prirodno liječenje pčelinjim
proizvodima, E. Begulić (Ed.), Begen
d.o.o., Zagreb, (2015).
[6] E. Ghisalberti, Propolis: A review. Bee
World (1979), pp. 59-84.
[7] K. Erski-Biljić; Đ. Dobrić, Praktikum iz
pčelarstva, Novi Sad, (2003).
[8] S. Sobočanec, Učinak propolisa na
oksidacijski/antioksidacijski status u cba
miša, Zagreb, (2006).
5. REFERENCES
[1] K.B. Pandey; S.I. Rizvi, Plant polyphenols
as dietary antioxidants in human health and
disease. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular
Longevity 2(5) (2009), pp. 270-278.
[9] A.
Tikhonov;
I.N.S.
Mamontova,
Production and Study of a lyophilized
phenolic polysacharide preparation from
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propolis. Farmatsevtichnii Zhurnal (1987),
pp. 67-68.
[10] E.H. Park; J.H. Kahng, Suppcessive effects
of propolis in rat adjuvant arthritis.
Archives of Pharmacal Research (1999),
pp. 554-558.
[11] C. Ota et. al. Antifungal activity of propolis
on different species of Candida. Mycoces
44 (2001) pp. 375-378.
[12] M. Shimazawa et. al., Neuroprotection by
Brazilian green propolis agains in vitro and
in vivo ishemic neuronal damage.
Evidence-Based
Complementary
and
Alternative Medicine 2 (2005), pp 201-207.
[13] A. Russo; A. Acquaviva, Bioflavonoids as
antiradicals, antioxidants and DN, cleavage
protectors. Cell Biology and Toxicology 16
(2000), pp. 91-98.
[14] C. Manach; A. Scalbert, Polyphenols: food
sources and bioavailability.
American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79 (2004), pp.
727-747.
[15] K.B. Pandey; S.I. Rizvi, Plant polyphenols
as dietary antioxidants in human health
anddisease. Oxidative Medicine and
Cellular Longevity 2 (2009), pp. 270-278.
[16] S. Kumar; A. K.Pandey, Chemistry and
biological activities of flavonoids: an
overview. The scientific World Journal
(2013), pp. 1-16.
308
Practical Sampling Process for
Nematodes Community
T. Benković-Lačić a, K. Mirosavljević a, R. Benković a, D. Kiš b, M. Brmež
a
b
College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: {tblacic, krunoslav.mirosavljevic, robert.benkovic}@vusb.hr
b
Faculty of Agriculture in Osijek, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia,
E-mail: Mirjana.Brmez@pfos.hr
Abstract
The nematode community can reflect soil conditions and they are used as indicators of soil conditions
in crops cultivar. For studies, it is necessary to separate nematodes from the environment in which
they live their life cycle. Sampling is a process that requires knowledge of the nematodes life cycle,
tools for soil sampling, sampling pattern, best sampling time, storage and care of samples. It is
necessary to make a proper distribution or sample plan. When sampling it is necessary to pay
attention to certain features: crop type and field history, areas planted to different varieties, type of
soil, moisture of soil, soil compaction, seasonal changes of clime etc. Sampling pattern is important
because of better cumulative representation of the nematode populations at the field. Sampling
process have some phases which can affected on inaccuracy such as mixing soil samples, washing
samples, analysing samples, taking additional sub-samples and washing and analysing sub-samples.
Results inaccuracy can be partly avoided by taking a larger and higher number of samples and subsamples.
Keywords: methods, sampling, nematodes, soil
conventional and ecological agricultural
cultivation [9] in assessment of soil pollution by
heavy metals [10] and many other situations.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nematodes are a group of multicellular
organisms belonging to the microfauna of the
soil. So far about 26646 species of nematodes
are discovered. [1] The nematode community
can reflect soil conditions (porosity, texture,
chemical composition of soil), climate
(temperature, humidity), plant cover (plant
species, fertility potential) and organization of
production, as well as interrelationships between
organisms in soil. [2] Nematodes are used as
indicators of soil conditions in crops cultivation
[3], in the mechanical disturbance [4], when
using pesticides [5], herbicides [6], and
fungicides. [7] They also used as indicators of
soil in study of influence of various organic
mulch [8], in assessing soil quality in
The nematode attack leads to relatively
unspecific symptoms of plant disease
(development retardation, chlorosis, etc.) which
can easily be attributed to other causes. [11]
For studies, it is necessary to separate
nematodes from the environment in which they
live their life cycle. Special methods have been
designed for this purpose. It is also necessary to
make a proper distribution or sample plan of a
field where nematodes are studied. A sample
plan consists of a collecting pattern, the number
of samples comprising that pattern, the number
of composite cores in the samples (= size), and
the cost of collecting, processing, and counting
309
to a depth of 20 to 30 cm is probably adequate.
[15] Sampling at higher depths is necessary for
plants with deeper root and trees. [16]
the nematodes. [12] For design of the good
sampling plan it is important of have some
knowledge about variation in space and biology
of the nematodes, ass wall as correct choice of
tools, sample number and sampling pattern. [13]
If it purpose of sampling is qualitative study
(taxonomic studies, diagnosis of plant diseases)
the accuracy in such cases is relatively low and a
simple sampling plan is enough. If it purpose of
study is to determinate a nematodes population
and the species composition, sampling must be
done more accurately. The highest level of
accuracy must be done in phytosanitary research
as part of legal requirements and inspection
regulations. [13]
2.1. Tools for sampling and sampling
pattern
Sampling can be taken with different tools
depending on the purpose of sampling. Useful
tools include: root cutting knife, scissors, shovel,
tubes, soil corers or augers, and blade.
Collecting tools always needs to be clean and it
should be cleaned before taking samples in a
separate field. Between sampling clean tools by
thoroughly washing with water or disinfecting
them with alcohol (70% ethanol).
Figure 1. shows the most commonly used
field sampling tools.
Sampling is a process that requires
knowledge of the nematodes life cycle, tools for
soil sampling, sampling pattern, best sampling
time, storage and care of samples.
2. SAMPLING
In order to determine which nematodes are
present in the soil, a laboratory analysis of
samples should be carried out. When sampling it
is necessary to pay attention to certain features:
crop type and field history, areas planted to
different varieties, type of soil, moisture of soil,
soil compaction, seasonal changes of clime and
temperature, distribution of nematodes on field
and seasonal behaviour of the nematode. [14]
Fig. 1 Shovels and other devices used for collecting
soil samples: (A) Classic point-shovel. (B) Hand
shovel. (C) From left to right: cylindrical tubes,
trowel, tubes, soil corers or augers. [17]
Distribution of soil nematodes is clustered
and that can create a problem in sampling. Also
their vertical or horizontal distribution in soil
may cause a problem, because they can be found
up to a few metres of depth, depending on crop
root, texture of soil and species.
Shovel is good because there are ease to use
and quite available, but may cause the
temptation to take large samples. Soil can be
sampled with a trowel but this method is less
reliable than using a cylindrical tubes. A
cylindrical tube can be used for sampling at
greater
depths.
Cylindrical
tubes
are
approximately 25 mm in diameter and 300 mm
to 450 mm in length. Soil corers or augers are
available in a different diameters as well as few
different styles designed for different conditions
in the soil. Soil corers or augers are often 50 mm
to 65 mm in diameters.
In generally, larger number of nematodes is
found in the upper 0 cm - 25 cm of the
cultivated soil. [13] If a sample of soil is taken
around the tree or orchard, it is necessary to
sampling it in the deeper layers of the soil. The
sampling depth may be up to 40 cm. [13]
Samples are most commonly used from the
ground surface layer (10 cm to 20 cm in depth),
but if the nematode population is not a concern,
then a sample collected through the soil profile
310
Recommendations on size of sampling vary.
In order to get the right situation in the field it is
necessary to take the sufficient number of
samples and sub-samples. For an area of 0.5 ha
to 1 ha it is necessary to take minimum of 10
core sub-samples up to 50. [14] Van Bezooijen
suggests that the sample consists of 60-70 cores
taken at a fixed distance from each other. [13]
Fig. 3. Sampling pattern for single tree [20]
Samples should be taken from several
pleases on the field and also included the area
whit poor growth as well. The number of soil
samples is presented in Table 1.
For row crops is best to collect subsamples
from the feeder-root zone within the rows
(Fig.4.a.). For solid-seeded crops is best to
collect at least 20 subsamples from each fouracre section (Fig. 4.b.). [20]
Table 1. Number of soil samples required to estimate
nematode populations [18]
Area
Number of soil sample
2
< 500 m
8 - 10
500 m2 - 0.5 ha
25-30
0.5 ha - 2.5 ha
50-60
When taking samples, the sampling pattern is
important because of better cumulative
representation of the nematode populations at
the field.
a)
The samples can be taken systematically or
randomly (Fig. 2.). Random sampling plan can
only be representative in a small area.
b)
Fig. 4. Sampling pattern a) row crops and b) solidseeded crops [20]
For perennial plants, collect two
subsamples from the dripline of each plant
(Fig.5.). [20]
A systematic sampling plan (cores at regular
intervals) is often better than random sampling
because it gives much more certain results [19]
and is easier to apply [12] because it requires
less time.
Fig. 5. Sampling pattern for perennial plants
(orchards) [20]
Fig. 2. Sampling patterns. (a) random sampling (b-d)
systematic sampling [14]
The size of a sample can be given as volume
(100 ml or 200 ml soil) or in weight (100 g or
200 g of soil) depends of a purpose of research.
Sampling pattern for soil depends on the type
of crop and the pattern of planting.
2.2. Sampling time
For single plants (trees) it is need to collect
about ten sub-samples: five near the trunk and
five from the dripline (Fig. 3.). [20]
Sampling time often effects on the results
obtained so it is necessary to take sample at the
311
right time. The optimum time varies between
field crops and the growth stage of crops, as
well as cultivation practices. For the predictive
sampling optimum time for sampling is often
done early in the season (before planting or at
the end of cropping season). [14] For diagnostic
sampling it is necessary to collect evidence
throughout the season and not just at the end of
harvest. To choose the optimum sampling time
knowledge of the nematodes life cycle is
necessary. For example, many species of
nematodes increase in number during the
growing season in summer, because of high
temperatures and abundant of food as a result of
root development. [13, 14] Ectoparasites
nematodes species are clustered in the
rhizospere, while endoparasites nematodes
species are present in the roots and their highest
number in the soil is right after the harvest.
affected on inaccuracy such as mixing soil
samples, washing samples, analysing samples,
taking additional sub-samples and washing and
analysing sub-samples. Results inaccuracy can
be partly avoided by taking a larger samples and
sub-samples and a higher number of them,
which provides additional information about
field plot and soil.
4. REFERENCES
[1] J.P. Hugot; P, Baujard; S. Morand,
Biodiversity in helminths and nematodes as
a fielg of study: an overview. Journal of
Nematology 3(3) (2001), pp. 199-208.
[2] G.W. Yeates, Populations of nematode
genera in soils under pasture. III. Vertical
distribution at eleven sites. New Zealand
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pp. 107-121.
2.3. Care and storage of samples
Samples need to be collected and stored in
plastic bags to prevent drying. Bags must be
label systematically with waterproof marker and
identification numbers. Label basic information
about samples: name and address of the farmer,
sampling date, crop plant and the history of the
field (previous crops, fertilisers, pesticides
applied), location of the field.
[3] C. Villenave; T. Bongers; K. Ekschmitt; D.
Djigal; J.L. Chotte, Changes in nematode
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after fallow periods of different length.
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Nematodes are sensitive multicellular
organisms and it is very important to take the
necessary measures to keep them in good
condition after sampling. Samples should not be
leave exposed in the field, or in direct sunlight,
or in a vehicle. After collection samples must be
handled properly and storage in the cool box or
boxes and placed it in a cool and dark site.
Samples can be stored in a refrigerator for up to
fifteen days and their survival decreases over
time. [14]. Even for carefully–collected
nematode samples, coefficients of variation can
be of 50-100%. [21]
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soil following manipulation of the soil food
3. CONCLUSON
Sampling result is to estimate the nematode
number in a field as accurately as possible.
Sampling process has some phases witch can
312
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[16] K.R. Barker; C.J. Nusbaum, Diagnostic and
advisory programs, In: B.M. Zuckerman;
W.F. Mai; R.A. Rohde (Eds.) Plant
313
Effect of Growing Media on Tagetes
Patula Nana Plants Quality
B. Japundžić-Palenkić a, K. Jagodar a, N. Romanjek Fajdetić a,
Lj. Božić-Ostojić a
a
College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. M. Budaka 1, 35000, Croatia, E-mail: bjpalenkic@vusb.hr
Abstract
One of the most important conditions needed to be fulfil in Marigold pot-plant production is a
selection of apropriate growing medium. The aim of this paper was to determine influence of growing
medium on morphological parameters of growth and development of Tagetes patula nana Champion
mix. In this experiment substrate for transplants and substrate for ornamental flowers as well as soil
were used. The seeds have been plant in containers with 104 cells filled with substrate and with the
soil. After developing 4 leaves, 50 plants were transplanted in pots No. 10 in different experimental
variants (soil – soil, soil – substrate for ornamental flower, substrate for transplants – soil and
substrate for transplants – substrate for ornamental flower). On mature plants these parameters have
been measured: number of leaves, above ground plant height, number of side branches, mass of plant
above the ground, number of buds and flowers and the diameter of flower. The plants grown in
variants substrate for transplants – substrate for ornamental flower showed significantly different
(P≤0.01) in growth performances then grown in variants soil – soil. Also, transplants grown in
substrate for transplants developed 4 leaves within 24 days and those in soil developed 4 leaves
within 37 days which indicates the influence of growing medium on growth and development of
Tagetes from the stage of transplants and importance of growing medium on plant quality.
Keywords: tagetes, growing media, quality
medium with nutrients and that is not heavy for
marigold pot-plant production [9,3]. Substrate
enables correct root growth and the development
of the abovegrond parts which constitute the
plant quality. Evera substrate should have the
appropriate physical characteristics, in particular
high porosity, high water capacity, durable
structure, and availability of nutrients [4].
Composts is usually used for improving of
normal plant development especially for
ornamental plants which is very depending of
growth medium [10]. In the production of
greenhouse-grown plants peatmoss is the
primary component of substrates [11]. The
influence of growth medium on morphological
characteristics, as indicators of quality of
marigold plants, is the object of investigation
many investigators [10,11,2,12,4].
1. INTRODUCTION
Marigold are flower species which
cultivation is widely prevalent in city parks [1]
and infields (house landscape) [2]. They are also
popular flower for cut flower or pot-plant
production [3]. French marigold (Tagetes
patula) is one of the major sorts as garden
plants. Also, among the available marigolds
species Tagetes patula (French marigold) have
the greatest economic importance [4]. Popularity
of Tagetes sp. is a result of their vivid bloom
colours and relative small ecological conditions
demand [5] and soil [6]. The growing medium
have influence on quality of Tagetes sp. in the
stage of seedlings [7,8]. In contemporary
production of transplants it is necesary to ensure
adequate condtions to get highly productive
plants which implies choice of adequate growth
314
7 mm), density 100 kg/m3, total porosity 85 %,
pH(H2O) 6, and conductivity (EC) 40 mS/m. It is
composed of black sphagnum peat and white
sphagnum peat with added fertilizer in quantity
of 1.5 g/l. Content of sulfur is 150 mg/l, nitrogen
210 mg/l, phosphorus (P2O5) 150 mg/l,
potassium (K2O) 270 mg/l and magnesium (Mg)
100 mg/l. The soil used for sowing and growth
is analized according ISO standards: pH reaction
(HRN ISO 10390, 2005) [18], concentration of
humus (HRN ISO 14235, 1998) [19],
contrentration of phosphorus (P2O5) and
potassium (K2O) AL-method (Egner et al.,
1960) [20], concentration of carbonates (HRN
ISO 1069, 1995) [21], soil texture (ISO 11277,
2009) [22]. Results of soil analysis: pH(H2O)
7.36; pH (KCl) 6.41; AL-P2O5 8.36 mg/100 g;
AL-K2O 20.11 mg/100 g; humus 2.41 %;
CaCO3 2.09 %; coars sand 0.99 %, fine sand
4.90 %, coars silt 18.01 %, silt 26.28 % and clay
49.82 %. After developing 4 leaves plants were
transplanted info plastic pots No. 10 (374 cm3)
in different experiment variants (soil – soil, soil
– substrate for ornamental flower, substrate for
transplants – soil and substrate for transplants –
substrate for ornamental flower). According
declaration, using substrate for ornamental
flower are all-purpose potting soil with highabsorption clay granules and high water-storage
capacity. It is a mixture of poorly decomposing
white sphagnum peat, high-quality frozen black
sphagnum peat ang clay granulas with added
hydrosoluble fertilizer. Total added quantity of
fertilizer is in ratio: NPK 14:10:18+
microelements, and pH(H2O) 5.5 – 6.5. On mature
plants these parameters have been measured:
number of leaves, above ground plant height,
number of side branches and, mass of plant
above the ground, number of buds and flowers
and diameter of flower. The experiment was
performed in five replication with 10 plants for
each combination. The results have been
statistically analyzed by programe package SAS
under GLM procedure and ANOVA procedure
with applied F and LSD(LSD0.01) test.
Growth indicators which describe quality of
seedlings [13], transplants [14,15] and plants are
hight [10] or number of leafs [10,4]. Number of
buds and flowers [3,4], diameter of flower
[4,16], number of side branches and the mass of
plant above the ground, are parameters which
can also be used as growth indicators.
Generaly there is no optimal medium for
every pot-plants. Materials used for it vary in
physical and chemical properties [17]. Increase
of hortycultural production of ornamental
flowers is based on using ready-made supstrates
produced on an industrial scale from single
components, mostly divergent combinations of
peat on different level of decomposing and
origin enriched with mineral fertilizers. These
substrates are easy to use and do not require a
long period of preparation as a standard garden
topsoil [4].
However, pot planting plants are usualy
replant in the soils of parks and other open
spaces
where
physical
ang
chemical
characteristics of that soil affects on further
plant development. Apart from that, beacause of
their popularity in Croatia, those enviromental
plants are usualy sow directly in the infield soils.
The aim of this study was to determine influence
of growing medium on morphological
parameters of growth and development of
Tagetes patula nana Champion mix from the
period of sow through transplants developmnt to
the mature plants.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
Marigold plants has been cultivated in
Slavonski Kobaš (Brod – Posavina County)
2018. The seeds of
Tagetes patula nana
Champion mix with declared germination of 90
% with validity period till December 30, 2021
has been used. The seeds have been sowing
April 9, 2018 in containers with 104 cells filled
with substrate for transplants and soil.
According to declaration (Rp. no. 030) substrate
for transplants is fine structure substrate (0 mm -
315
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analyses of morphological characteristics of
plants at 21st day after replanting shows that
substrate properties used for transplant and plant
growing significantly influence on number of
leaves (NL), above ground plant height (HAG),
number of side branches (NSB), mass above
ground (MAG), number of buds and flowers
(NBF) and diameter of flower (DF) (Table 1).
Table 1. Signifficance of growing variants on number of leaves (NL), above ground plant height (APH), number
of side branches (NSB), mass above ground (MAG), number of buds and flowers (NBF) and diameter of flower
(DF)Tagetes patula
ANOVA F test
P value
NL
250.09
< 0.0001
APH (cm)
89.14
< 0.0001
NSB
54.57
< 0.0001
A
Number of leaves
Height above ground (cm)
25
B
20
C
15
D
10
5
0
Substrate-substrate
Substrate-soil
Soil-substrate
Soil-soil
Fig. 2. Above ground plant height Tagetes patula
nana leafes in different growth variants
Number of side branches depended of growth
medium (Table 1) and it was from 5.52 and 13.4
(Figure 3). There was a significant difference
(LSD0.01 1.3024) in number of side branches. In
plants growth in variant substrate-substrate the
highest number of side branches has been
determined (13.4). In variant soil-substrate for
ornamental flowers, that number was 9.4 and in
120
100
B
C
60
40
D
20
0
Substrate-substrate
DF (cm)
1.83
0.0465
30
A
80
NBF
4.09
< 0.0001
transplants-substrate for ornamental flowers
(28.09) (Figure 2).
Number of leafes was between 12.62 and
128.2 (Figure 1). Significant influnce of growth
variant has been determined (LSD0.01 5.7654).
The highest number of leafes had plants in
growth variant substrate-substrate (128.2). Less
number of leafes had plants in growth variant
soil-substrate for ornamental flowers (52.96).
Lesser than that was number of leafes in plants i
growth variant substrate for transplants-soil
(40.36). The least number of leafs was
determined in growth variant soil-soil (12.62)
(Figure 1).
140
MAG (g)
161.80
< 0.0001
Soil-substrate
Substrate-soil
Soil-soil
Fig. 1. Number of plants Tagetes patula nana leafes
in different growth variants
A
14
Number of side branches
In addition, above ground plant height plant
Marigold (Table 1) was under significant
influence of growth variant (LSD0.01 1.6799).
The above ground plant height was between
7.61 cm and 28.09 cm (Figure 2). As well as
with number of leaves the increase of above
ground plant height was determined from
variant soil-soil (7.61 cm), soil-substrate for
ornamental flowers (14.17 cm), substrate for
transplants-soil (17.92 cm) and substrate for
12
B
10
8
C
6
4
D
2
0
Substrate-substrate
Soil-substrate
Substrate-soil
Soil-soil
Fig. 3. Number of side branches Tagetes patula nana
in different growth variants
316
variant substrate for transplants-soil, it was 5.52.
The smallest number of side branches was in
variant soil-soil (1.31) (Figure 3).
Number of buds and flowers
6
The growth medium has significant influence
(Table 1) on the mass above ground of Tagetes
patula nana (LSD0.01 1.6799). Measured values
of Marigold plants mass above ground were in
range between 5.01 g i 47.85 g (Figure 4).
B,C
2
C
1
Soil-substrate
Substrate-soil
Soil-soil
Fig. 5. Number of buds and flowers Tagetes patula
nana in different growth variants
established depending diameter of flower and it
was in a range from 0.23 cm to 1.47 cm (Figure
6). Significant difference (LSD0.01 0.8605) in
diameter of flower was determined between
variants soil-substrate for ornamental flowers
(1.47 cm) and soil-soil (0.23 cm) as well as
between variants substrate-substrate (1.42) and
soil-soil while in variants soil-substrate for
ornamental flowers and substrate for transplantssoil (0.76) and substrate-substrate and soil-soil
were no significant difference (Figure 6).
A
Mass above ground (g)
B
3
Substrate-substrate
50
B
30
C
20
D
10
1,6
Soil-substrate
Substrate-soil
Diameter of flower (cm)
0
Substrate-substrate
4
0
The highest mass above ground had plants
growth in variant substrate-substrate (47.85 g).
Lesser mass above ground (37.74 g) had plants
in variant soil-substrate for ornamental flowers.
In growth variant substrate for transplants-soil
determined mass above ground was (16.88 g.).
The smallest mass above graound had plants in
growth variant soil-soil (5.01 g) (Figure 4).
40
A
5
Soil-soil
Fig. 4. Number of side branches Tagetes patula nana
in different growth variants
Number of buds and flowers Marigold
(Tagetes patula nana) was under signifficant
influence og growth medium (Table 1), and it
was between 0.98 i 5.06 (Figure 5). The
diffrerences (LSD0.01 1.6655) in number of buds
and flowers of Marigold growth in variant
substrate-substrate (5.06) and all of the others
has been determined. Between plants growth in
variant soil-substrate for ornamental flowers
(3.08) and in variant substrate for transplantssoil (2.02) no significant difference in number of
buds and flowers has been determined. Also,
between variants substrate for transplants-soil
(0.98) and variant soil-soil no signifficant
difference has been determined (Figure 5).
A
A
1,4
1,2
1
A,B
0,8
0,6
B
0,4
0,2
0
Soil-substrate
Substrate-substrate
Substrate-soil
Soil-soil
Fig. 6. Diameter of flower Tagetes patula nana in
different growth variants
The cultivation of the Marigold is popular
among the proffesional flower and ornamental
plants breeders in Croatia because of the
easiness in cultivation, long duration of
flowering as well as due to the wide
addaptability of Marigold to varying soil and
climate conditions.
Although, the results of many investigations
as welll as in present experiment, indicates that
growth medium has signifficant influence on
Marigold quality. Best quality Marigold
seedlings were produced when peat is the
principal component of the growing media
Among plants Tagetes patula nana growth in
different variants (Table 1) the significant
influence of growth medium has been
317
Materials suitable for amending soil for
container plants must provide good drainage and
aeration must be low in soluble salts, it must be
light in weight, capable of retaining moisture
and nutrients and releasing them as the need
arises [17]. According Strojny et al. (2004)
mixture of medium structured white peat and
black peat (very low bulk density, very high
porosity, easy available water and air-filed pore
space) enables most intensive growth Marigold
[24]. The substrates used in this experiment
meet the above conditions because they have
been produced for ornamental flowers growing.
However, soil used in this experiment, which is
widely prevailing in a Brod-Posavina County
have no required chemical and more important
physical characteristics (due to high clay
content) needed for uninterrupted development
of Marigold plants although they are known as
not demanding for growing.
[23,7]. In these experiment transplants grown in
substrate for transplants developed 4 leaves
within 24 days and those in soil developed 4
leaves within 37 days. In experiment Maslanka
et al. (2017) the tested Marigold substrates (with
peat) where characterized by much better
growth (increased by height) and significantly
better flowering in comparison with the other
substrates used [4]. Using soil and mix media as
growing medium for Tagetes erecta L.,
Sharafzadeh et al. (2013) were geting enhanced
plant height and leaf number in mix media (1/3
soil, 1/3 sand, 1/3 peat) [2]. Higher plant height,
number of flowers and flower size has been
achieved when growing Marigold in mixing
media (compost, bio-organic fertilizer and rice
husk charcoal) in comparison with those grown
in soil [3].
Beside plant, height and leaf number in this
experiment a positive influence of substrate,
which comprises peat, was determined on mass
above ground and number of side branches.
Although, the decreasing of values that was
statistically significant was determined on plants
grown in soil. Within values of measured
parameters (plant height, leaf number, mass
above ground and number of side branches), the
regularity of decreasing can be observed
regarding variety of growing: substratesubstrate, soil-substrate, substrate-soil and soilsoil.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The influence of growing media on
morphological properties of Tagetes patula nana
has been determined in all growing stages. The
transplants growth in substrate were developed
faster than those in soil. The difference in plant
height, leaf number, mass above ground and
number of side branches was depending of
growing variant (P≤0.01). Values of measured
parameters were running from highest to lowest
as followed: substrate-substrate, soil-substrate,
substrate-soil and soil-soil. The highest number
of buds and flowers was determined in variety
substrate-substrate and the lowest in soil-soil
(P≤0.01). The smallest difference among
varieties was determined for flower diameter. In
the average, all plants morphological
characteristics, were limited by the soil
properties.
Although in this experiment, the influence of
growing media has been proven regarding
number of buds and flowers and diameter of
flower. There was no evidence of significant
difference between different variety of growing
Ekwu et al. (2007) have not determined
significant difference regarding number of
flowers and diameter of flowers growing
Marigold in mixture topsoil and river sand or
ricehull and riversand [17]. Sharafzadeh et al.
(2013) found no significant difference in flower
diameter of marigold growing in soil and mix
media (1/3 soil, 1/3 sand, 1/3 peat), but they
determined more blooms in those growth in soil
[2].
5. ANNOTATION
In this part author can thank to people and
institutions co-operating in the research or
mention the name of the grant or project name
and the name of the funding agency.
318
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320
Analysis of Possible Tribological Losses
during Stemming of Tobacco
I. Opačak a, A. Marušić b, P. Kljajić c, V. Marušić
a
Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Slavonski Brod, Trg Ivane Brlić-Mažuranić 2,
35000 Slavonski Brod, E-mail: {iopacak, vmarusic}@sfsb.hr
b
c
a
Technical Department of College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1,
35000 Slavonski Brod, E-mail: antemarusic80@gmail.com
Geofon d.o.o., Osječka 24/D, 21000 Split, E-mail:”petar.kljajic24@gmail.com
Abstract
Primary stage of Burley type tobacco in thresher machines includes separation of fine parts of tobacco
leaves from the ribs, the so called “stemming”. Thereby cutting edges of knives are exposed to wear
by abrasive particles. Analysis has been performed of the influence of two kinds of protective layers
on thresher knives on quality of stemming, depending upon tobacco leaves blend. It has been
established that operation with worn knives is most negatively reflected on the most quality tobacco
fractions – those having the greatest market value. It has been proved that application of sprayed layer
instead of installation of plates made of hard metal, followed by partial exchange of worn knives can
tribological losses even up to 6 %.
Keywords: tribological losses, efficiency, stemming of tobacco, knives
threshing (III. stage). The size of these threshers
is 36". From stemmed tobacco, by the system of
sieve ø5 mm separates the hay, and then
separates it from tobacco dust. Tiny residue is
mixed with the previously separated slice
(subsequently dried in the so-called redryer). In
the next phases, the separated fractions are
dried, conditioned and pressed and packed, after
which they are ready for dispatch on the further
final processing in a smoking form. Also, after
extra drying by the sieve system is separated
large from the small ribs, and even after the
packing is ready to be delivered for finishing to
separate the parts suitable for use in preparing
the cigarette.
1. INTRODUCTION
After harvesting and natural drying to
15÷17% of moisture content, tobacco is
classified into grades. The best quality is the
leaves from the middle of the stem, and less
quality the ones from the upper and bottom part.
Lower leaves are necessary to dusted - clean
from soil and sand particles. Dusted and
classified (by size) tobacco leaves are
conditioned (with water, water vapor and with
hot air temperature about 150 ºC) and they come
across the dispenser to the stemming line. On
the threshers in several stages by picking is
made the stemming/separation of the fine part of
leaves from the ribs. Dimension of threshers in
I. and II. stage are 42", in III. and IV. 30".
In the mentioned stages of primary treatment
of tobacco wear are the most exposed knives of
thresher on which the main stage of processing
is perfomed – stemming of tobacco. The aim of
test is to determine whether and how much wear
of the knives affects on the quality of stemming,
So partially stemmed tobacco leaves are
drawn to classifiers where the slice fraction (by
size) is separated into 7 stages. Unstemmed
parts after each of stages are taken to the again
321
determined by analysis of ash composition after
tobacco combustion. The orientation ash
composition of the tobacco leaves is as follows:
potassium 19 ÷ 29 %; calcium 27 ÷ 50 %;
magnesium 7 ÷ 15 %, phosphoric acid 2 ÷ 5 %,
silicon 5 ÷ 18 % and chlorine 0,55 ÷ 9 %. Figure
2 shows a characteristic tobacco leaves. Along
the central part of the leave is located the main
rib. Around him the peripheral ribs are located.
The upper surface of the leaves is covered with
thick hairs which produce tires and juices (oil
tar). This oil tar during the harvest in the form of
black rubbery clusters accumulations is sticking
for hands and machines and can be sticking to
the knives when stemming in threshers.
which should help in choosing of the knives
protection procedure.
2. TRIBOSYSTEM OF THRESHER
Figure 1 shows an open thresher with an
arrangement of working parts in the open
housing. On each side in the row are fixed 17
fixed knives. These knives during their work do
not change their position, they are fixed from
each side of the thresher stator to the side doors.
They are placed perpendicular to the axis of the
rotating drum at angle 180°. The rotating knives
are fixed on the circumference drum in the 6
rows. Each row contains 16 knives, and the rows
are rotated with each other for angle of 60°, and
the thresher drum contains a total of 96 rotating
knives.
a)
b)
Fig. 2. The characteristic appearance of tobacco
leaves: a) dry leaves and b) schematic view of the
position of slice and ribs
Fig. 1. The appearance of open thresher
The main and peripheral ribs, due to their
armature roles, contain stronger connective
tissue which after drying and moisture loss
becomes woody. When filling a thresher, the
leaves of tobacco in the work area fall across the
entire surface between the fixed and rotating
knives, providing maximum resistance to the
machine when picking.
The composition of tobacco leaves depends
on the position of leaves on stem, fertilization,
and on the type of soil on which the plant is
grown. The following types of soil are
characteristic for the central and eastern part of
Slavonia: clay, slightly humus and less sandy. In
unstemmed tobacco is characterized by the
following percentages [1]: nicotine (0,78 ÷
4,59); cellulose (7,36 ÷ 15,76); starch ≈ 3,34;
citric acid ≈ 6,3; malic acid ≈ 3,2; ammonia ≈
0,55; resin ≈ 5,6; waxes ≈ 0,2; pectins ≈ 17 and
total nitrogen ≈ 2,2. On the stem of tobacco,
especially the lower leaves are exposed to
deposition and sticking of the soil particles (due
to rain and wind). The aim is to remove dust and
sand.
3. CONDITION ASSESMENT
It was noted that knives are made with one of
the following two types of protective layers [3]:
hard metal tile;
sprayed layer.
Schematic appearance of individual knives
with a protective layer is shown in Figure 3. The
characteristic appearance of knives after wear is
shown in Figure 4.
Tobacco is a plant that abounds in minerals
that can be in the form of oxides, carbon or
mineral salts [2]. The elements which involved
in the composition of the minerals were
322
possible mixtures (position of leaves from the
stem). The reason: this significantly affects on
the price. Tables show the results of the share of
individual fractions for each mixture:
work with new knives, and
work with partially damaged knives.
Table 1 shows the percentage ratio of the
share of fractions of the slice size 1/2" + 1" in
the control mass of 12 samples of the tobacco
mixture during a single campaign. It is noted
that the differences in the share of these
fractions when working with new knives
compared to worn work ranges from 0 to 4,5 %.
The same is true for the tobacco rib.
Fig. 3. Schematic view of fixed and rotating knife
a)
Table 1. The share of fractions for 1/2" + 1/4" of
slice size when stemming a mixture of tobacco when
using new and worn knives.
Number of
sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
b)
Fig. 4. The characteristic appearance of knives
thresher worn by use: a) fixed knife and b) rotating
knife
It was found that knives with hard metal tile
are more prone to sticking of oil tar than knives
with sprayed layer. As the procedure of
removing these clusters is perfomed by hits with
a metal cutter, it often happens to crack the hard
metal tile [4].
4. TEST RESULTS
In order to determine how much wear of the
thresher knives affects on the quality of
stemming, tests have been performed on the
share of individual fractions (size of the stem)
after the treatment of tobacco with new and
worn knives. The control of stemming was
performed in the laboratory by standard method
on the prescribed equipment. By standard of the
vibration sieves they are separated by three slice
size (fractions): first: 1"x1"; second: 1/2"x1/2"
and third: 1/4"x1/4".
Share of fractions, %
New knife
Worn knife
87,8
83,0
83,8
80,9
90,5
82,2
88,8
83,5
87,1
83,0
92,7
85,7
87,9
87,4
86,9
86,5
91,3
88,3
87,8
85,5
89,6
87,7
88,6
86,3
By observing the share of the smaller
fractions (1/2" + 1/4" + 1") of the mixture has
been determined that it does not depend on the
intensity of the wear of knives. It should be
noted that these smaller fractions on the market
achieve a lower price. Table 2 shows the share
of fractions after stemming the mixture of upper
and middle leaves. It is noted that almost the
same results are obtained by stemming with new
and worn knives.
This is true for share of fractions 1/2" + 1" as
well as for fractions 1/2" + 1/4" + 1", as well as
for the tobacco rib.
At this time, the largest fraction is at the
same time the highest quality and the one on the
market achieves the highest price. The share of
fractions was monitored on each of the three
323
for the share of high quality fractions (1/2" + 1")
and the fractions of lower price (1/2" + 1/4" +
1") for the three basic groups of tobacco leaves
mixtures indicate the following:
Table 2. The share of fractions for 1/2" + 1" of slice
size when stemming a mixture of upper and middle
leaves depending on the wear of knives.
Number of
sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Share of fractions, %
New knife
Worn knife
98,63
97,84
97,81
98,60
96,63
98,22
98,47
97,33
97,46
98,52
97,53
97,70
97,90
97,73
98,68
98,08
98,58
97,13
97,35
96,88
97,33
97,98
97,82
97,93
for a mixture of tobacco difference in
share of quality fractions (1/2" + 1") when
working with new knives it is up to 4,5 %
compared to work with worn knives,
for the mixture of upper and middle
leaves, the effect of knives wear on the
share of the individual fractions is not
observed,
for the mixture of middle and lower
leaves mixes the difference in the fraction
of quality fractions (1/2" + 1") when
working with new knives it is up to 6,25
% compared to work with worn knives.
Table 3 shows the share of fraction after
stemming the mixture of the middle and lower
leaves. It is noticed that share of fractions 1/2" +
1" when working with new knives is up to 6 %
higher than when working with worn knives. At
the same time it was noted that at these smaller
fractions (1/2" + 1/4" + 1") of this mixture, as
well as in the tobacco rib, these differences
reach up to 1,5 %.
According to available data [5], tobacco
production in Croatia is about 12,000 tons per
year. To estimate possible savings, it is
sufficient to say that, depending on market
relationships (defined every year at the
beginning of the purchase and primary
processing of tobacco), each percentage of
worse stemming reduces the fraction price for at
least 2, most often 3, and in some years up to 4
%.
Table 3. The share of fractions for 1/2" + 1" of slice
size when stemming a mixture of middle and lower
leaves when using new and worn knives.
Number of
sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Share of fractions, %
New knife
Worn knife
87,92
83,59
88,44
87,20
87,02
83,65
86,10
83,08
85,37
82,19
88,69
82,44
88,43
84,49
87,79
83,71
89,50
85,17
6. REFERENCES
[1] K. Fagerström, Determinants of tobacco
use and renaming the FTND to the
fagerström test for cigarette dependence.
Nicotine & Tobacco Research 14(1)
(2012), pp. 75-78.
[2] B. Primack; J. Sidani; A. Agarwal; W.
Shadel; E. Donny; T. Eissenberg,
Prevalence of and associations with
waterpipe tobacco smoking among U.S.
university students. Annals of Behavioral
Medicine 36(1) (2008), pp. 81-86.
5. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND
CONCLUSION
[3] H. Koivuluoto; J. Lagerbom; M.
Kylmälahti; P. Vuoristo, Microstructure
and mechanical properties of low-pressure
cold-sprayed (LPCS) coatings. Journal of
Due to the aggressive anti-smoking
campaign, the tobacco industry is in a specific
position. And therefore the possibility to present
research results in this area. The results of test
324
Thermal Spray Technology 17(5-6) (2008),
pp. 721-727.
[4] H. Lee; A. Raghavanpillai; J. Li; J. Pollino;
B. Rosen; S. Shenoy, Comparative
examination of adhesive and cohesive
properties of fluorinated coatings on
stone/tile surfaces. Journal of Coatings
Technology and Research 11(6) (2014), pp.
933-942.
[5] Croatian Bureau of Statistics, Foreign in
Goods of the Republic of Croatia, (2017).
325
APPLICATION OF MACHINE LEARNING
IN THE COLOR SORTING OF
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS
Ivana Medojevica, Dragan Markovica, Vojislav Simonovica,
Aleksandra Joksimovica
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, Kraljice Marije 16, 11120
Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract
Machine learning is a learning field that gives computers the ability to learn without explicitly programming them. The two
main components of machine learning are data and algorithms. Algorithms process data, train (train) parameters, and in this
way acquire the ability to make decision-making decisions by adapting new data. Machine learning is widespread in various
fields both in agriculture and in the food industry, either in terms of fruits, vegetables, finished products, cereals or meat
industry. It takes a special application in machine vision, which allows machines to learn from experience, adapt to new
technologies and perform human tasks. Mechanical vision provides an alternative as an automated, non-destructive and costeffective technique for achieving demands and expectations in terms of health food safety prescribed by international
standards.
The industry will also have a great role to play, including full digitalization and automation of production, or the networking
of smart digital devices with products, machines, tools, robots and people. It is imperative to create "smart factories" where
autonomous cyber-physical systems monitor physical processes and make decisions, and the ultimate goal is to increase
productivity and efficiency, and therefore competitiveness in the global market.
Deep Learning is an encouraging concept of artificial intelligence due to its ability to extract features from images and high
precision in the field of digital image processing and thus the agricultural and food industry in the field of quality control.
Keywords: machine learning, inspection, quality, agriculture
typically used as illustrative basic examples,
similar to writing code for writing of the words
“Hello world” on-screen. Machine learning
algorithms are used for: classification,
segmentation, regression and recommendation
systems. Machine learning can be used for the
purpose of automating of repetitive tasks.
1. INTRODUCTION
Everything that was created by technology
up to now actually represents a product of
intelligence. For many years, artificial
intelligence has been intensively developed and
applied in both various industrial fields and
medicine. Machine learning represents the
combination of Data science and artificial
intelligence. Challenges and problems solved by
machine learning can be difficult, however, by
developing complete software solutions, they
are much easier to solve, through various
approaches and algorithms.
Extensive research on the subject had shown
that it has considerable potential for inspection
and evaluation of fruit [1], vegetables, grain and
legumes quality [2], bruise and disease detection
[3,4], as well as for evaluation of other various
food [5-8], meat products [9-11], and combined
with machine sight [12-14]. In addition to its
wide application in agricultural product
processing, machine learning algorithms are
successfully applied in combining of menus and
recipes, diet recommendations [15,16], customer
behaviour predictions, etc.
Initial research and the term itself date from
the fifties era of the twentieth century. The
development of a system for automatic
recognition of hand-written numbers which uses
neural networks were considered as demanding
engineering problems. Nowadays, these systems
are designed in very quick manner, and are
326
The readiness of the consumer to purchase a
product mostly depends on its organoleptic
properties, which typically include colour,
which represents a subjective feeling of each
consumer. Colour can also be considered as an
indicator of freshness or maturity [17], wherein
a combination of machine sight and learning can
show its full potential during the inspection,
sorting and classification of agricultural goods.
false, option 1 or option 2), the value range,
categories, classes, etc, as well as gathering of a
certain number of data which will be used for
learning, validation and tests. All of the above
influences the type of learning which will be
applied.
In general, it is necessary to gather or
develop a certain number of training data which
will contain a set of attributes and probable
outcomes.
Different physical systems were developed
for the purpose of avoiding subjectivity during
colour analysis that can be performed visually,
or by using specific instruments. Conventional
instruments only analyse a small part of the
sample, hence they are not always adequate for
products with a heterogeneous surface. As a
consequence, artificial visual systems were
developed recently in order to overcome these
issues, making the colour analysis more accurate
and comprehensive, including the entire surface
of a product during its processing [18]. In this
sense,
non-destructive
technologies
for
agricultural product quality assessment, such as
machine sight, represent a quality control tool,
used for evaluating, sorting and selection.
The goal of this training is to create a model
which will provide accurate answers to the given
questions in most cases. In order to successfully
train the model, it is necessary to gather the
input data which contain a large number of
variations. Further, it is necessary to select the
features which best describe the model, based on
which the algorithm will provide an accurate
output. When it comes to agricultural products,
it is mostly the physical properties which are
evaluated, such as geometric features [19],
colour values in various colour ranges [20], as
well as statistical values of these parameters
[21].
How good a predictive model is depends on
the quality and quantity of input data. This
process is called exploratory data analysis,
EDA, and it aims to review the data in visual and
non-visual manner to familiarise itself with and
recognise the samples and patterns which appear
in the data, in order to finally decide how to use
this data in further analysis. In addition, it is
required that the data belong to a similar or the
same scale, thus in the case that the ‘raw’ data
do not, it is necessary to scale or normalise the
data, mainly for the purpose of reducing data
processing times using the selected algorithm.
Data scaling is typically performed over an
interval of -1 to 1:
2. BASICS OF MACHINE
LEARNING
Machine learning algorithms do not require
long codes to be written, mainly due to
vectorisation, which allows the processing of
arrays in a much faster way, without the need to
use loops.
x
Figure 1. Life cycle of machine learning
The initial step involves the creation of a
model and the testing process (the so-called
training model). This includes the defining of
the desired output format, in terms of whether it
is a discrete value (1 or 0, yes or no, true or
n
ni max
(1)
and the following two equations can be used for
normalisation:
327
x
ni i
n i
or x i
max ni min ni
Si
Data processing time represents one of the
key factors in applying of real time sorting of
agricultural products with industrial capacities
within the order of magnitude between 1 and as
much as 50 t/h. Due to significant amounts of
data per unit time, it is recommended, but also
necessary, to develop an efficient algorithm
which requires shorter data processing times.
(2)
It is necessary to have 2 sets of data: the
training set and the test set. In certain cases, a
third set are also taken into account (the
validation set or the development set), which is
used before the comparison set for multiple
algorithms and/or regularisation methods.
Gathered data for training algorithms can be
divided into sets according to the following
groups: 70% training set – 30 test set, although
values of 65% - 35% and 80% - 20% are
sometimes taken into account. When using the
validation set, the division is as follows: 60% 20% - 20%. Recently, during the so-called Big
Data era, wherein the amounts of data exceeds
several millions, the use of validation tests, if
necessary, requires a lower percentage, 1-2% of
data, in order to decide which algorithm
structure gives the best results. Same applies to
the test set. One of the requirements is that both
the validation and test set originate from the
same data source.
For the purpose of evaluating the success–
fulness of a developed model, the measure F is
used, which is calculated as follows:
F 2* R * P / P R
which provides insight into the accuracy of the
algorithm [11].
P - (Precision) is the measure which shows the
ratio between correctly classified objects within
a certain class and the objects classified as that
class, and is determines according to the
following formula:
P TP / TP FP
R TP / TP PN
the appropriate Θ which minimises the cost
function. The most commonly used algorithm
for this problem is the gradient descent, which
simultaneously updates the weight factors, until
the convergence is achieved [22].
2
(6)
TP – (True positive) represents the positively
identified, FP (False positive) – the incorrectly
positive and FN (False negative) – incorrectly
negative.
vector form: h T X . It is necessary to find
1
h xi yi
2 I
(5)
R - (recall) is the ratio of correctly classified
objects and the total amount of objects in that
class.
The main goal is to find a hypothesis
function y=h(x), which corresponds to every
example in the training set yi=h(xi), where y
represents the output and x represents the input
value of a feature. The simplest model in this
case is the linear regression. The hypothesis
function can be written as h j x j , or in
J
(4)
3. MACHINE LEARNING TIME
AND APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY
Two basic types of machine learning are the
supervised learning and the unsupervised
learning. Supervised learning algorithms have a
wider applications, wherein the inputs, x1, x2, …
xn, are those that best define the model or an
object, and where the outputs y1, y2, … yn. are
known for input characteristics and the
relationship between them is also known. They
can be divided into two learning categories:
regression and classification. Algorithms which
are most commonly used include: linear
(3)
Due to a large number of data, especially
when it comes to colour images, some
researchers first reduced the number of input
data by using specific statistical techniques, one
of which is the widely used Principal
Component Analysis, PCA [23-25].
328
terms of real time needs and conditions, compared to the four previously proposed methods
which did not include machine learning.
regression, multivariate regression, logical
regression, neural networks [26,27], support
vector machines – SVM [28] and many others.
Classification is most commonly encountered
when using machine sight during agricultural
product inspection, wherein the separation of
non-conforming products from the conforming
ones takes place, and represents the final step of
this segment of the industrial line. In addition, it
is common practice to sort agricultural products
by class (degree of ripeness, size…) or
according to sorts where machine learning
algorithms have shown impressive results.
Artificial intelligence algorithm application to
inspection and quality assessment of agricultural
products is a broad and inexhaustible subject for
many researchers in the field of agricultural and
food industry [29,30].
SVM algorithm was used for detecting of
apples in boughs, through the use of two sets of
data for two different years, wherein the
algorithm that was trained in the first year
provided satisfying results for the next year as
well, under different lighting conditions [33].
A combination of machine sight and neural
network for the purpose of classifying fowl parts
in real time was described in paper [11]. For
each of the 5 specified classes, 100 samples
were prepared and recording was performed
using an integrated machine sorting system.
Features that were used in the neural network
include product shape, colour parameters in
RGB and HSV spectrums and product texture,
described using entropy, energy, contrast and
homogeneity. The machine capacity was around
0.85 t/h, which corresponds to the industrial
capacity of the meat industry. The result at
maximm transporter spped of 0.2 m/s was 94%.
It was agreed upon by the authors that deep
neural networks would have achieved a
significantly better results in this particular case.
The authors of paper [31] have compared
three algorithms: SVM, neural networks with
two hidden layers and the Random forest
algorithm, in the case of pictures of bananas, in
clusters, rather than individual pieces. Features
that were considered included the colours in the
RGB colour spectrum (red, green, blue) and the
banana length, measured from the beginning of
the cluster. The aim was to sort the bananas into
four classes. All three models provided highly
satisfying results, with the classification
accuracy F up to 87-90%, wherein the Random
forest algorithm gave the highest accuracy rating
of over 94%. It was determined that higher
values of RGB parameters and measured lengths
corresponded to a higher class. The banana
length parameter had a bigger part in the
classification process, since in certain cases
there was an overlap in number values.
Unsupervised learning represents an approach to problem learning related to situations
where the learning algorithm is only presented
with data that have no output, and is expected to
observe certain laws in the provided data on its
own. It can derive the results by, e.g., classing of
data based on the relationship between the
variables in a data set – also known as
Clustering. In the case of unsupervised learning,
there are no recalls based on prediction results.
Machine learning also represents an
attractive approach to detecting of fruit in the
boughs. In paper [32], SVM was used to
recognise objects in the orchard during the
picking. Parameters that were used included the
texture of the products from the specific interest
regions. Tests have shown an accuracy of more
than 86%, even in the case of products which
did not fully mature, under different lighting
conditions. Thus, the results were satisfactory in
4. DEEP LEARNING
The last developed branch of machine
learning is the Deep Learning. It is used to
describe a set of algorithms based on the neural
network concept. In general, these algorithms
attempt to imitate the neuron functionality,
which enables them to efficiently learn by
example and then apply what they have learned
to the new data. A recent increase of interest in
deep learning has largely resulted from the
329
ledge, above all in a mathematical sense, but
also of knowledge about specific fields of application, along with their adequate formalisation.
availability of powerful graphic processing
units, which can train and perform deep learning
algorithm in an efficient manner. This allowed
the scientific community to enhance the research
and application within this field, leading the
algorithms to a point in which their performances surpass the majority of traditional machine learning algorithms in several categories.
The results of machine learning algorithm
application to evaluation and inspection of
agricultural products provided impressive
outcomes, since they can significantly reduce
the data processing time, as well as the
percentage of good agricultural product loss.
Once the model is created and trained using one
of the artificial intelligence methods, it can then
be used independently for predicting (detection)
of conforming products and the contaminity, by
using new input variable values. Such a model
can be used by engineers or employees with
different levels of knowledge, without the need
to know how simulations software works. In
time, models can be additionally expanded and
trained using a larger number of variable, which
would make their application more comprehensive. By applying these models, the subjective influence of the operator behind the
machine, who decides on the range of parameter
values for features that define the appropriate
product, decreases with time.
Their widest application is in the field of
machine sight, wherein a single 150x150 pixel
image (and these resolutions are typically much
higher) can be transformed into 22500 neurons
in the input layer, which represents a
considerable issue for classic neural networks.
Colour images represented in various colour
spectrums usually have 3 channels (RGB, Lab,
HSL…), giving 67500 neurons to a layer. Such
problems are usually solved using convolution
neural networks – CNN. The best known models
are the AlexNet [34], VGG16 [35] and
Inception-ResNet [36]. The idea of CNN is to
place a larger number of layers for detecting of
important features of input data. In accordance
with this idea, convolution filters are applied to
the image in order to determine and map the
useful features.
The development of efficient software packages for non-destructive inspection of agricultural products represents and imperative in
creating of new technologies in the agricultural
and food industry branches.
The middle component in achieving and
maintaining of high performance of applications
based on deep learning is the possibility of continued model updating, simultaneously with gathering larger amounts of data, which enables
increased model accuracy. All of the deep
learning characteristics mentioned above are
applicable to and necessary for enhancing the
performances in areas where machine sight is
used. As the application of deep learning
represents a relatively young field, its use in
agriculture is best described in the literature
review paper [37].
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There is a significant need for machine
learning in the global market. The development
of this areas had always been based on complementary relating of theory and experiments,
hence future development also requires the
extension and strengthening of theoretical know-
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332
Structure of Farmers Education and
Knowledge about Importance of
Melioration Interventions
R. Benković a, B. Japundžić Palenkić a, T. Benković Lačić
a
a
College of applied sciences in Slavonski Brod, Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod,
Croatia, Email: {robert.benkovic, bjpalenkic, tblacic}@vusb.hr
Abstract
The questionnaire survey about education, years of age and willingness to invest in constant and the
stabile yield through melioration interventions of Slavonian farmers was carried out in year
2016/2017. in the County of Brod-Posavina. Sample of questionnaire consisted a total of 255
respondents from this Slavonian county. The aim of the paper was to provide a kind of link between
education, years of age, melioration systems and possible yield increase through twenty-four
questions. The questionnaire found that the majority of respondents have a high school education,
agriculture is not their primary activity, and their age is generally from 45 to 60 years of age.
According to the conducted questionnaire, 65% of agricultural producers have a problem of lack of
water during the vegetation period. Farmers awareness of the importance of melioration interventions
does exists, but 77% of them are not ready to invest in irrigation or drainage.
Keywords: agriculture, melioration, education, investment
time, the price of water used for irrigation has a
significant impact on production costs. Income
from the agricultural economy due the water
price used for irrigation and construction of the
melioration system can reduce revenues by 25%
to 40%. It can significantly effect on farmers
quality of life. [3], [4]. Research the effect of
irrigation on yield of oilseed rape (Brassica
napus), shows that all investigated irrigation
systems increase the number of plants per plant
and the mass of 1000 grains [3], [4]. The results
of researches of different irrigation systems
(underground irrigation, irrigation Drop by
Drop, furrow irrigation) on the yield and quality
of sugar beet shows that highest yield was on
Drop by Drop irrigation method, and the highest
concentration of sugar was on furrow irrigation
method [5]. Studying of irrigation and water
prices on profits in the Mediterranean Spanish
regions show that the price of water significantly
effect on the price of produced fruit. By that fact
1. INTRODUCTION
All branches of agricultural production are
very important in the food production chain for
nearly ten billion people on planet earth. During
the last two decades we have met unstable
climatic conditions which effect on the quality
of life through the lack of drinking water and the
destruction of agricultural soil. To insure
constant and stable yield during intense rain
seasons or irrigation during long-lasting dry
periods we can affect by applying melioration
measures. In the Republic of Croatia there is a
whole range of regulations, measures and plans
in the area of water protection. There is a total of
2 695 037 ha of agricultural soil, but only 1 100
000 ha are cultivated [1]. Under the
underground drainage and other drainage
systems in Croatia there are 134,000 to 166,000
ha of agricultural soil [2]. Easily available and
plant accessible water has a very important role
in securing and increasing yields. At the same
333
primary activity, but for 71% of respondent
agriculture is their supplementary activity. Total
questionnaire survey took place on 255 family
agricultural estates. Results of agriculture
branch activity show that 28% of are covered
with agriculture crops, 18% with vegetables and
flowers, 8% with fruit, 6% with wine yards and
cattle breeding is present with 4%. Most of
family agricultural estates simultaneously
dealing with more branches of agriculture
production (35% of them).
farmers are encouraged to produce more
profitable fruits with lower requirements for
water and state is supporting them to carry out
the sustainable water system in agriculture Water Directive (WFD) [6]. Irrigation can be
recommended as an effective measure of
constant yield or even measure for increase corn
yield in this highly variable climatic conditions
(confirmed with monitoring of soil moisture
content by electrical resistance measurement)
[7]. Melioration measures are a widely
researched, valuable and sustainable strategy for
the development of agricultural production
especially in regions with variable climatic
conditions. The primary aim of irrigation is to
provide enough water in all phases of plant
development which leads to maximizing of
water productivity and stable yields, but not to
maximum yields [8]. The aim of this paper was
through twenty-four questions asked in the
questionnaire to get a link between education
and year of age of Slavonian farmers and their
willingness for investments in melioration
interventions to insure constant and stable yield.
3.1. Economic and social structure
Questionnaire survey about size of
agricultural production areas show next: size of
1-3 ha are represented by 25%, size of 3-10 ha
are represented by 22%, area of less than 1 ha is
significantly represented at 21%, soil surfaces of
10-50 ha occupy 14%, areas 50-200 ha are
represented by 15%, and the least represented
area are those greater than 200 ha represented
with 3%. Figure 1. presents respondents
education level, while Figure 2. presents years
of age of the respondents in Brod-Posavina
County.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
The questionnaire about education and year
of age of Slavonian farmers and their
willingness to invest in melioration systems was
carried out in 2016/2017. at the BrodskoPosavska County as part of the Slavonia region
in the Republic of Croatia. The sample consisted
255 respondents employed in agriculture as a
primary activity or in other activities with
agriculture as a supplementary activity.
Questions in the questionnaire survey was about
the level of education, years of age, primary and
supplement activity of the respondents,
melioration systems, investment willingness and
farmers knowledge of possible yield increase.
Fig. 1. Education of the respondents
Fig. 2. Years of age of respondents
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
Most respondents have high school (81%),
then 2nd or 3rd Bologna cycle (VSS) has 12% of
respondents, while the least number of
respondents has 1st Bologna cycle (VS) of 4%
Questionnaire survey show that 29% of
respondents are employed in agriculture as their
334
30-60% increase, while only 18 respondents
expect increase of yield more than 60%. Future
investment in melioration systems through
tenders in EU financing funds is planned by
15% of respondent farmers, while 85% of
respondent farmers are not planning to compete
on tenders. The main reasons for not compete on
tenders are: complicated paperwork, project
cost, and own estimation that they are without a
chance to win a project.
and elementary school (NKV) 3% as level of
education. Year of age questionnaire survey
research shows that 45 to 60 years of age has
35% of respondents who are mostly employed in
agriculture and 6% of respondents are older than
60 years of age. Respondents between 25-35
years of age and 35-45 years of age are
represented with similar 23%, and
respondents with 18-25 years of age are
represented with 13% of all respondents.
3.2. Recognition of water problems
during the vegetation period
Problem with overmuch of rainwater or
underground water has 56% of respondents,
while 44% of respondents doesn’t have that
problem in their agricultural production soil.
The problem with the lack of water during the
vegetation period has 65% of respondents, and
35% of the respondents does not. Most farmers
do not plan to invest anything (Figure 3.) in any
of melioration measures (77% of them), while
31% of farmers are planning to invest 10-30%
of their net profits in some of melioration
systems. Significant investments of 30-60% of
net profit will invest 1.5% of respondents while
more than 60% of net profit will or planning to
invest only 0.5% of respondents.
Fig. 4. Interest in compete in EU finance fund tenders
4. CONCLUSIONS
Questionnaire involved total of 255 family
agricultural farms. Surveys results show that
29% of respondents are employed in agriculture
as a primary activity, while 71% of respondents
are employed in other activities with agriculture
is a supplement activity. Most of farmer
respondent (35%) are 45 to 60 years of age,
while 18 to 25 years of age respondents are
present with only 13%. At the same time 81% of
respondents has high school education (SSS).
Sufficient number of respondents has higher
education level, 2nd or 3rd Bologna cycle (VSS)
has 12% and 1st Bologna cycle (VS) has 4%. All
agricultural producers from this questionnaire
are familiar with the advantages of melioration
systems that provide constant or even higher
yields. Survey shows remarkable high level of
unwillingness of the respondents (77%) to invest
part of the profit in some kind of melioration
systems. Most of respondents (85%) are also not
interested in financing a melioration system
through EU financial fund tenders. The need for
water and sustainable water management leads
to the farmers need to expand their professional
knowledge in building and improving of
melioration systems.
Fig. 3. Part of profit reserved for melioration
3.3. The benefits of irrigation systems
and co-financing
Agricultural
producers
from
this
questionnaire are familiar with the benefits of
irrigation and possible yields increase. In case of
using some of the irrigation method 127
respondents would expect yield increase of 1030%, similar number of respondents (50 and 59
of them) expect yield increase of less 10% and
335
Implementation of irrigation scheduling
based on monitoring of soil moisture
content in extreme weather conditions,
Proc. of the 6th Int. Sci. and Expert
Conference TEAM 2014, Kecskemét, pp
34-38, (2014).
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to the students of the 2nd year
of Horticulture course at College of applied
sciences in Slavonski Brod who assisted in the
implementation of this questionnaire survey as
part of the Agricultural melioration module.
[8] S. Geerts; D. Raes, Deficit irrigation as an
on-farm strategy to maximize crop water
productivity in dry areas. Agricultural
Water Management 96(9) (2009), pp. 12751284.
6. REFERENCES
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V.
Zebec,
336
337
MANAGEMENT
Impact of Technological Innovation on
Enterprise
L. Duspara a, S. Knežević a, R. Šošić
b
a
College of Slavonski Brod, Ul.dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonki Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: {lduspara, sknezevic}@vusb.hr
b
student, College of Slavonski Brod, Ul.dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonki Brod,
E-mail: ruzica.sosic@skole.hr
Abstract
In the business world only innovations-based enterprises, something new or new-fashioned, achieve
success and thus increase the satisfaction of all involved in economy process. The local, regional and
especially global success of a company depends on the ability to innovate and introduce innovations
into production processes where the main source of competitive advantage is creativity. Creativity is
the ability to create and develop new products and services, their introduction into everyday business
and life of an enterprise; as an improvement of the production process, the creation of a new product
or a new way to market. Unfortunately, in Croatia, creativity and innovation are not on the scale of
prophecy, which is why Croatia is far behind the developed world even though is recognized as a
highly creative in history because it is commonly known that in the past Croatian inventors and
innovators with their inventions. Croatian innovators are very successful in presenting their
innovations and technologies. This paper deals with the topic of influence that technological
innovation has on the company. The goal of the paper was to study the impact of innovation on the
economy, especially on the development of enterprises and entrepreneurship. It starts with the
conceptual definition of enterprise and entrepreneurship, the technology and the way that technology
changes business, definition and characteristics of innovation as well as the impact of innovation on
the enterprise in Croatia.
Keywords: innovation, technology, enterprise, entrepreneurship
foreign markets. In the broadest sense,
innovations include new products and services,
new technologies, new manufacturing processes,
new marketing methods, and new enterprise
management models. The subject of this paper is
the impact of technological innovations on the
enterprise. The aim of the paper is to explore how
innovations affect and develop business
operations and entrepreneurship at all.
1. INTRODUCTION
Creativity is a necessary prerequisite for
change, but it is not sufficient in itself, because
development and progress depend on inventive
and enterprising individuals or entrepreneurs who
will creative ideas push into the market. The
world's largest producers are always afraid of
losing market share. They are often under
constant pressure to innovate, as the challenges
facing businesses today are increasingly complex.
Lack of investment in R & D greatly affects the
competitiveness of companies because research
and development are the key elements of
successful enterprise innovation and the main
source of competitive advantage on domestic and
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF
ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND
INNOVATION TECHNOLOGY
The concept of entrepreneurship means not
to wait for something to happen only from itself,
338
production costs and run the development phase.
IT has enabled enterprises to benefit and
progress as a result of the programming process
of the production process, improved control,
computer integration and greater flexibility. By
networking, electronic data exchange, wireless
systems have achieved better and better
communication in enterprises”. [1]
but to take action, even though the ultimate
outcome. In Croatia, it means to be extremely
brave, confident and passionate in achieving the
goal. Entrepreneurship is the process of creating
something new, either improving the existing or
creating entirely new products, processes, etc. In
this process of creating new values for different
activities, the entrepreneur recognizes a new
business opportunity, establishes and manages
the enterprise, collects all the necessary
resources for realizing business opportunities,
product, overcomes the market, sells the
product, distributes new value and recognizes a
new business opportunity.
2.1.
Technological
progress
and
enterprise entry into development
and research
The main drivers of economic activity are
generally innovative technologies so called:
"Technology push" and "Market pull"
innovation models. The "Technology push"
approach includes new, improved, innovative
products and process drivers for economic
development or enterprise development. The
main argument for the "Technology push"
approach is that advances in basic scientific
research are guiding the flow of innovative
activities. Product innovations create new
markets. "Technology push" approach is based
on the positive influence between research
development activities and inactivation, as well
as the causal relationship between intensity and
technological change. "Market pull" approach
determines innovation as a result of influencing
market demand. "Market pull" approach
examines whether the technological change is a
result of market demand or research
development activities. A large number of
research points to the positive impact of the
market size on the company's inventive activity,
but also on the fact that the growth of economic
output is driven by the growth of investment in
activities and innovations in the long run. [2]
An entrepreneur is a person who takes on
uncertainty and risk, a person who organizes and
manages a company that has knowledge in
marketing, finance, management, business
decision making. The entrepreneur gained
professional knowledge at school, which is not
necessary because a huge number of today's
entrepreneurs who succeeded in entrepreneurial
waters are without formal education related to
entrepreneurship and management.
Today's businesses are unthinkable without
information technology (IT). Influencing and
contributing to information technology is
evident in the area of operations of business and
employee control, internal and external cooperation, knowledge management, etc. It has
enabled business activities to be improved by
influencing the speed of business processes and
cost reductions, because companies are much
more organized to perform tasks with the help of
various systems, most influencing the sale by
allowing the Internet to offer its products
directly to other companies on the business
market and to end-users for sale. IT greatly
affects the design of a new product, shortens the
time and automates the production process,
improves collaboration between companies with
customers, partners, and so on. IT enables better
co-ordination, teamwork, and problem solving
in the company. Production works on method to
reduce cost while simultaneously increasing
product efficiency and quality, and IT is
affecting excellence. “Allows for reduction of
2.2. Innovations
Innovations have been a driving force since
the Stone Age and even today's economies in
many countries and are key to the growth and
development of modern enterprises. Enterprises
that want to survive and be successful in the
conditions of high competition must invest in
development and introduce innovations. “By not
introducing innovation forces companies to have
339
Changes in the organization of the
industry or the market - the uninterested
ones are all interested. Changing the
structure of an industry requires that all
employees of this industry behave
enthusiastically.
bad business results, lack of development, and
leads to destruction by competition and the
environment
that
effectively
introduces
innovations”. [3]
2.3. Systematic innovation and seven
sources of successful innovation
Demographic Indicators - changes in
population, age structure, composition,
employment, education and revenue.
These changes are measurable and their
consequences are most predictable.
Systematic innovation means organized
search for change, favourable opportunities for
economic and social innovations that can be
pointed out through changes. This means careful
monitoring of the seven sources of successful
innovation. The first four sources are in the field
of business activities in companies, public
service institutions and industry or service
sectors. The other three sources of favourable
opportunities for innovation include changes
outside an activity:
Changes in perceptions, behaviour, and
thinking - in taking advantage of these
changes to introduce innovations, it is
important to determine the best moment
for some innovation and possibly be the
first to introduce it. Due to the uncertainty
and
implications
of
introduction,
conceptual-based innovation must be
simple and specific.
“Unexpected - unexpected success is the
area that offers the most favorable
opportunities for successful innovation
and in this area opportunities have the
smallest risk and the greatest satisfaction
with success. This innovation source
consists
of
unexpected
success,
unexpected failure and unexpected
external circumstances.
New knowledge or new knowledge knowledge-based innovation is the star of
entrepreneurship. The time span between
the emergence of new knowledge and
their application in technology is long
because it takes a long time for new
technology to become a product, process
or service of market value and therefore
innovations of this type have the longest
empty strokes of all innovations.” [4]
Incompatibility - is a symptom of a
favourable moment for innovation. There
are several types of disparities: the
discrepancy between the economic
realities of some industrial activity, the
discrepancy between the actual state of an
industry and the image that governs it, the
disparity between the desire of an industry
and the values and expectations of their
customers, internal incompatibility in the
rhythm or logic of a process
Knowledge-based innovations are expected
to fail and are premature until all new
knowledge is fully available and available.
Innovations based on a smart idea are more
numerous than all other categories together.
These seven areas and sources of innovation are
a large extent overlapping and the delimitations
between them are very small. [4]
Innovation based on the needs of the
process - quite specific and exists within
the process of the enterprise is not general
and indefinite; it starts from the work that
needs to be done, focused on the task
rather than on the situation. This
innovation sometimes makes it possible to
establish a process by providing a missing
link.
3. CROATIAN NATIONAL
INNOVATION SYSTEM
Creating an innovation system in Croatia as a
small country with limited resources represents
the ability to create its own development,
starting with the basic idea of National
340
the companies in this year: Infinum, Nanobit
and Code Consulting from Vukovar. Rimac
Automobiles took 101st place, with a growth
rate of 1059 percent, and Code Consulting found
it at 229th with a growth rate of 545 percent.
Growth for Hangar 18 was 368 percent, and they
were at 321, and Gauss stood at 347 percent in
340th position. The growth of 315 percent of
Infinum's business was enough for the 378th
position on the list, and Nanobit's 430th place
was 288 percent higher. The list of 500 fastest
growing technology companies in the region,
including Europe, the Middle East and Africa,
has been creating the Deloitte Global Sector for
Technology, Media and Telecommunications for
seventeen years”. [7]
Innovation System (NIS). “Under conditions
where 90% of all available resources for
development and research are concentrated in
the ten most developed countries, the transfer of
technology and knowledge from developed
countries to developing countries is a natural
solution for the acquisition and accumulation of
their own technological abilities”. [5] The
purpose of the NIS in Croatia is the strategic
integration of technological, industrial and
scientific policies into a new policy of economic
development. Croatia has no choice to create
cooperation
between
science,
industry,
government and finance and develop its
innovation system. Creating technology
abilities, innovation and use, and creative
adaptation to other technologies should be the
result of creating NIS. Croatia is in transition to
modern society determined by the ability to
manage technological change, the ability to
innovate, produce new technologies or the
creative transfer of foreign technologies. [5]
3.1.
Encouraging
examples
innovation in entrepreneurship
Croatia
4. CONCLUSIONS
From all of the above it can be concluded
that there is no simple formula for creating,
introducing and applying, both technological
and
other
innovations
in
enterprises,
entrepreneurship and the entire economy. There
is no recipe for simply transforming the
economy from obsolete, inefficient and ruthless
into a vigorous, lively and powerful economy
that quickly adjusts to change, follows the
market and trends, responds quickly and thus
becomes knock-on and profitable. Development
in Croatia continues there is still insufficient
awareness of the need for a strong and rapid
adaptation of the ways and structures of
production to new technological and economic
ways and requirements. The future of innovative
Croatia is largely based on information
technology technologies, which is evident from
start-up examples - new companies with a
completely different business model from the
past, which are also proof that the situation.
Company needs to create an atmosphere that
will encourage creative and innovative ways to
address the problems they face in their business.
of
in
INOVA is a traditional national exhibition of
innovations since 1971. regularly maintains and
shows the successes of Croatian inventive work.
INOVA is the initiator and symbol of innovation
in Croatia, and has so far brought together,
inspired and made public thousands of Croatian
and hundreds of innovations from abroad. The
Croatian Association of Innovators has been
organizing national exhibitions outside of
Zagreb since 2003 and successful exhibitions
have been held in Ogulin, Samobor, Rijeka,
Čakovec, Osijek, Sibenik and Karlovac.
“INOVA will be held this year in Zagreb in
early November and is an opportunity to meet
Croatian innovators and entrepreneurs with
foreign counterparts and to launch innovation on
the Croatian market. [6]
“Six companies from Croatia are at Deloitte's
500th fastest growing technology companies in
2017, led by Deliveroo from the United
Kingdom. Companies from last year's list:
Rimac Automobili, Hangar 18 and Gauss joined
5. REFERENCES
[1] P. Drucker, The Practice of Management,
Heineman, London, (1965).
341
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[3] S. Posavec; M. Šporčić; D. Antonić; K.
Beljan, Poticanje inovacija – ključ razvoja
uhrvatskom šumarstvu. Šumarski list 5-6
(2011), pp. 243-256.
[4] P. Drucker, Inovacije i poduzetništvo,
Praksa i načela, Globus nakladni zavod,
(1992).
[5] J. Švarc, Što je nacionalni inovacijski
sustav i je li on potreban i moguć u
Hrvatskoj. Ekonomski Pregled 52(9-10)
(2001), pp. 1053-1077.
[6] INOVA, budi uzor 2017, Osijek
http://www.savez-inovatora-zagreba.hr/
?rezultati=inova-budi-uzor-2017-osijek,
last access 18/05/2018.
[7] Šest hrvatskih kompanija na listi 500
najbrže
rastućih
tehnoloških
tvrtki
http://www.poslovni.hr/domacekompanije/sest-hrvatskih-kompanija-nalisti-500-najbrze-rastucih-tehnoloskihtvrtki-335253, last access 20/02/2018.
342
The Impact of Globalization on Further
Development of Electronic Commerce
I. Blažević a, S. Anđelić a, J. Jukić
a
a
College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: {ivona.blazevic, josip.jukic}@vusb.hr, suzana.andelic@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper explores the term of globalization as well as the concept of electronic commerce, and then
examines the advantages, disadvantages, features and implications of globalization. The paper
explores the role and impact of electronic commerce in the process of purchasing, selling or
exchanging products, services or information, determining the benefits of e-commerce for retailers
and customers as well as its disadvantages. Internet trade is considered to be the most profitable form
of trade for simplicity and low cost, and as such will become a more significant and more powerful
component of trade. Research in this paper is focused on the very concept of e-commerce,
globalization, but also the shopping trend on internet. There will be examples of electronic commerce;
Amazon.com and eBay.com. The aim of this paper is to show and explain the impact of globalization
on further development of electronic commerce. During research of facts and possibilities that
currently exist, for the formulation of the research results in this paper, the following research
methods are used in a different combination: historical method, the method of analysis and synthesis,
classification and description method.
Keywords: globalization, electronic commerce, internet, bather, seller, trade spread
force of today's globalization is the free market,
because as economies open up more to free
trade and competition, it will be more successful
and dynamic.
1. INTRODUCTION
Globalization is not just a phenomenon or a
transient trend, it is an international system that
today encapsulates and shapes internal politics
and international relations in almost all countries
of the world and as such, it has to be understood
and accepted.
Launching and running electronic business,
especially the one in which the framework needs
to conduct multiple transactions, requires new
technology,
business,
marketing
and
management knowledge. Customers want access
to products and services 24 hours a day, seven
days a week, what is called the 24x7 principle.
Companies that enable it, ie, providing the most
trustworthy, most functional, the most
sophisticated and fastest customer service will
have the greatest chances for success [1].
The globalization system, which is the
backbone of the paper, is not static but a
dynamic process that is progressing and
developing,
has
its
advantages
and
disadvantages, these important features and
implications. Globalization has already brought
the unstoppable integration of national markets,
states and technology, to a degree that has not
been recorded so far in economic history.
Globalization
has
enabled
individuals,
entrepreneurs, companies, but also states to
reach all corners of the world, faster, deeper and
cheaper than ever before. The basic driving
2. GLOBALIZATION
Globalization is the process of economic,
political, social and cultural activity at a
343
Moreover, globalization today is an
indisputable fact, it can not be removed from the
system, nor neglected, it must be accepted and
properly directed and shaped.
supranational level, ie a process that changes the
established political, economic, social and
cultural relations globally.
Often it is said that the globalization of
economic activity with a related governance
issue appeared only after the Second World
War, especially during the 1960s. Then the
period after 1960 marked the activities of
multinational companies and the rapid growth of
international trade. The collapse of Brett
Wood's semi-fluctuating exchange rate system
in the period 1971 – 1973 has really stimulated
the expansion of investment in securities and
auctioneers. Likewise, the capital markets and
particularly the money markets have become
internationalized very rapidly, increasing the
complexity of international economic relations
and announcing what is often seen as the
globalization
of
an
integrated
and
interdependent world [2].
Table 1. Positive
globalization [3]
and
negative
effects
3. ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
Electronic commerce is broadly understood
by the concept of electronic business, which
includes electronic trading transactions, business
partnerships, distance learning as well as a
number of other activities through the computer
network that improve the overall business of the
company.
Electronic commerce can in principle be
divided into two basic areas, that is trade
between business entities - Business to Business
or B2B as well as the trade oriented towards the
final
consumer
market
of
everyday
consumption, ie Business to Customer or B2C.
Table 2. Electronic commerce areas [4]
of
Targeted to the
final
Positive effects of
globalization
Negative effects of
globalization
Greater civil and
political rights
It brings great differences
within the country itself
At the
initiative of
Less representation of
corruption
It creates inequality and
deepens it
business
consumer
Internet traffic of
citizens
Spread of infectious diseases
consumers
Targeted to the
business
consumers
B2C
B2B
(a business
consumer to
(a business
consumer to a
business
consumer)
a final consumer)
At the
C2C
C2B
initiative of (a final consumer to (a final consumer
the final
a final consumer)
to a business
consumer
consumer)
Creating value
An increase in transnational
networks and alliances
crime
Globalization as well as every other process
has its positive and negative effects on
individuals, enterprises, states and supranational
institutions, which can be seen in Table 1.
Table 2. shows the areas of electronic
commerce, ie business models that are most
important in electronic commerce.
The speed and extent of the acceptance of
electronic commerce depend on the state and
sector in which it is applied. The expansion of
electronic commerce is not the same for all
states, but Internet access is a common feature
and a necessary tool for digital products.
An
important
determinant
of
the
globalization process is the technological
development that allows the spatial and
temporal reduction of the world. Indeed, the
process of globalization has its own negative
aspects such as the danger of creating an
ideological concept that would impose universal
standards in the interests of individual states.
344
Table 3. E-sales and turnover from e-sales, by firm size, EU, 2010 - 2017 (% of enterprises, % of turnover) [5]
Enterprise with e-sales (turnover >1%) %
Turnover from e-commerce
2010
2014
2017
2010
2014
2017
All enterprises
13.3%
15.2%
17.8%
13.9%
14.8%
18.3%
Large (250+)
31.3%
35.3%
39.3%
19.1%
20.2%
25.7%
Medium (50-249)
19.8%
22.0%
25.5%
11.3%
11.1%
13.0%
Small (10-49)
11.6%
13.4%
15.8%
4.9%
5.8%
7.4%
The opportunities of e-commerce have been
largely exploited by Ireland, Sweden and the
Czech Republic as it can be seen from the
following figure.
Large companies are usually first which use
the new technology and acquire an electronic
philosophy. Likewise, there are no obstacles for
small businesses to use the Internet for the same
purpose as large companies, which in practice is
not the case as evidenced by table 3.
The share of companies conducting e-sales
and the turnover from e-sales varies
significantly according to size.
The share of small enterprises making e-sales
(15.8 %) is less than half compared to the share
of the large ones (39.3 %). Even more striking is
that the share of the e-sales’ turnover on the total
turnover by small enterprises (7.4 %) is less than
a third of the share generated by the large ones
(25.7 %) [5]. 25.5 % of medium sized
enterprises made e-sales, corresponding to 13 %
of total turnover in this size class.
Fig. 2. E-commerce index [5]
SMEs in Ireland over-perform in all the ecommerce dimensions considered in the
indicator. 29.5 % of Irish SMEs are selling
online (more than half of them are selling crossborder). This helps them to generate nearly a
quarter of their turnover (22.9 %) [5].
4. BENEFITS AND
DISABILITIES OF
ELECTRONIC TRADE
Electronic commerce its exponential growth
and popularity owes to numerous benefits
compared to classic trading methods. There are
many advantages of electronic business that can
be divided into benefits for buyers and
companies and for the benefit of sellers
themselves. On the other hand, when it comes to
deficiencies, the sellers themselves by
mismanagement
caused
some
of
the
shortcomings, certain deficiencies have been
created by the states and their legal regulations,
while other shortcomings are attributed to the
Fig. 1. Trends in e-commerce, EU [5]
One out of five enterprises in the EU-28
made electronic sales. The percentage of
turnover on e-sales amounted to 18 % of the
total turnover of companies with 10 or more
persons employed.
In the EU-28, during the period 2010-2017,
the percentage of companies that had e-sales
increased by 5 pps and the companies' turnover
realised from e-sales increased by 4 pps [5].
345
as the possibility of errors about data entry,
delivery of ordered goods and similar.
failure to implement the modern marketing
concepts.
4.1. The benefits of e-commerce for
customers
5. ELECTRONIC TRADE IN THE
WORLD
Customers can compare their offer via
catalogs that they receive by email or surfing the
web pages. Shopping is simple and "private" clients have less common problems and do not
have to contact the sales staff and expose
themselves to their persuasion. Business
customers can be informed about products and
services and buy them without waiting and
losing time for additional conversations with
sellers [6].
4.2.
The
benefits
commerce for sellers
of
With the expansion of globalization, ecommerce has grown from year to year, and the
internet is becoming increasingly present in
market operations. Of course, the speed and
extent of e-commerce acceptance depends on
the country and the application sector. The US is
the leading country in the area of electronic
commerce, where the total internet trade exceeds
billions of dollars, and in the future is expected
to be even more profitable in the same way. The
best known and most common internet stores in
the world are Amazon.com and eBay.com that
will be displayed below.
electronic
With the help of modern technology, an
online retailer can choose small groups or
individual customers, personalize his offer in
response to their needs, and advertise such offer
via direct communication. In addition, its clients
can ask questions, but also give their opinion.
Based on such interaction, companies can
increase value for customers and their
satisfaction through improving products or
services. Using the internet for direct contact
with business partners companies reduce costs,
which ultimately leads to savings for customers.
4.3.
Disadvantages
commerce
of
5.1. Amazon.com
Amazon.com is an American Internet
commerce based in Seattle. The first product
sold through electronic commerce was a book
and it happened through Amazon.com.
Amazon.com was founded in 1994, and initiated
in 1995 by Jeff Bezos.
electronic
The disadvantages of electronic commerce
from the position of e-commerce owners are
usually the costs of equipping electronics stores
for efficient and secure business as well as the
lack of staff qualified for quality management of
electronic commerce.
On the other hand, disadvantages of
electronic commerce from the e-commerce
user's position are; there are doubts about safe
internet business and e-transaction security, as
well as the need to check the seller's quality and
experience and the credibility of the information
provided. As a disadvantage, potential privacy
threats may also be taken into account for
collecting data on customer preferences, as well
Fig. 3. Net sales revenue of Amazon from 2004 to
2017 (in billion U.S. dollars) [7]
The figure 3. shows the net revenue of
Amazon.com's e-commerce and service sales
from 2004 to 2017, in billion US dollars. In the
last reported year, the multinational e-commerce
company's net revenue was almost 178 billion
346
U.S. dollars, up from 135.99 billion US dollars
in 2016. More than 50 percent of Amazon's
revenue were generated in electronics and
media.
with the knowledge of many states that they
need each other to survive economically. The
boundaries, of course, are not completely gone,
as nation-states still have a reason to control the
movement of goods and people in accordance
with the needs for state security, but taking into
account the four key factors of business life communications, capital, corporations and
consumers, the world has, in many ways,
become a place without borders.
5.2. eBay.com
eBay is the largest worldwide auction
internet platform for sale. It was founded in
California in 1995 by Pierre Omidyar in San
Jose (California) under the name Auctionweb.
Shortly after its establishment, platform is
developing into a place to buy and sell new
products, used items, rarities, collecting items,
books, automobiles, etc. [4].
What the world really has set aside is the
development of the internet that began in the
mid-1990s, which continues to this day. This is
a technology that is available to many and
widely accessible everywhere by personal
computers and mobile devices. Through the
Internet, there is a trade turnover for which the
borders have disappeared.
Advances in telecommunications for many
companies meant that they no longer have to be
related to the company's center in a particular
city. If the circumstances so required, they could
also separate themselves from their place of
origin in legal terms and move to a more
favorable location [9].
Fig. 4. eBay's annual net revenue from 2013 to 2017
(in million U.S. dollars) [8]
The figure 4. shows the annual net revenue
of eBay from 2013 to 2017. In 2017, the online
auction and selling website's net revenue
amounted to close to 9.7 billion U.S. dollars, up
from 8.99 billion U.S. dollars in the preceding
year. The majority of eBay’s revenues are
generated via marketplace transaction fees.
In the modern, developed economies, the
share and significance of exports in industrial
production is increasing. Countries that direct
most of their production to the world market, or
which have export-propulsive and not importsubstitute growth, are developing faster. From
this, it can be concluded that the globalization of
the world economy has brought untapped pole to
foreign trade and that it carries a trend that is
constantly progressing.
6. IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION
ON THE FURTHER
DEVELOPMENT OF
ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
7. CONCLUSIONS
Globalization represents the process of
uniting the world into one entity or system.
Because of the overall ongoing information and
communication technology advancement, the
world became mutually integrated. Internet
commerce is no longer something that needs to
be developed, it is already there, deeply
integrated into everyday consumer behaviour,
and the only question is which extent domestic
Today's borders between the states represent
a far smaller obstacle than it was before. The
weakening of the border can be partly due to
technology, but also to international, bilateral
agreements, especially in the field of trade. The
world is increasingly becoming a place without
borders, or the customs disappear in parallel
347
companies will know how to use, and how much
the foreign companies will use what is provided.
Electronic commerce is one of the fastest
growing branches of the economy, and all
indicators show that this trend will continue as
merchants can no longer ignore the internet as a
sales channel so many will have to redirect their
businesses exactly to virtual markets. While ecommerce is naturally evolving through an
entrepreneur's initiative, driven by market needs
and easier final-user access, this form of trading
largely depends on the confidence of
entrepreneurs and consumers in the security of
electronic transactions.
[4] I. Alardić, E-commerce – earning online (etrgovina – zarada putem interneta), College
of Slavonski Brod, Slavonski Brod, (2013).
Interestingly, just over a dozen years ago, in
most countries, very few people used the
Internet, and today the Internet is considered as
the common and unavoidable infrastructure of
every citizen irrespective of the age or level of
education, so of course it will be expected that
e-commerce will continue to move upward.
Electronic commerce therefore has a handful of
potentials that need to be utilized. For many
businesses, the digital era will mean searching
for a new model of practice and marketing
strategy, as the internet brings a change in
thinking and the way values are created.
Merchants will have to adjust to change in order
to survive under the new conditions that are
determined by technology and the development
of globalization.
[7] E-Commerce, B2C E-Commerce, Amazon,
https://www.statista.com/topics/846/amazo
n/, last access 11/08/2018.
[5] Integration of Digital Technology, Digital
Economy and Society Index Report 2018,
file:///C:/Users/Korisnik/Downloads/4DESI
ReportIntegrationofDigitalTechnologypdf.p
df, last access 10/08/2018.
[6] R. Babić; A. Krajnović, Electronic
commerce attainments in Croatia and in the
world (Dosezi elektroničke trgovine u
Hrvatskoj i svijetu), http://hrcak.srce.hr/
file/111604, last access 10/08/2018.
[8] E-Commerce, C2C Commerce, eBay,
https://www.statista.com/topics/2181/ebay/,
last access 11/08/2018.
[9] K. Ohmae, A new global stage (Nova
globalna pozornica), Mate d.o.o., Zagreb
pp. 21, (2007).
8. REFERENCES
[1] Ž. Panian, Electronic business of the
second generation (Elektroničko poslovanje
druge generacije), Ekonomski fakultet
Zagreb, Zagreb, (2013).
[2] P. Hirst; G. Thompson, Globalization in
questions (Globalizacija), Liberata, Zagreb,
(2001).
[3] Globalization – measurement and its
consequences (Globalizacija – mjerenje i
njezine posljedice), https://www.slideshare.
net/Sunceko13/globalizacija-13066218, last
access 10/08/2018.
348
Innovation for the Brave
M. Cobović a, V. Jakobović b, M. Vretenar Cobović
a
b
a
College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: {Mirko.Cobovic, Maja.Vretenar}@vusb.hr
Student of College of Slavonski Brod, Braće Radića 307, 31410 Strizivojna, Croatia,
E-mail: viki912.jakob@gmail.com
Abstract
In today's business world there can be no progress if there are no innovations, advancements, and
investments in business. In this paper, companies are encouraged to introduce eBusiness which is
supposed to help increase sales, improve the business, attract new customers while keeping the old
ones, and reduce the expenses. By implementing these improvements, the company would be ahead of
the competition. As an example of this, Mozart Fast Food were advised to develop an app since they
are usually very beneficial for the customers and easily attract new ones. They were also advised to
introduce a hologram into the kitchen so as to improve the food production, and to use a drone as a way
of delivery which would significantly reduce the expenses. Using these innovations, the company
should shorten their delivery time and improve their service. Faster food delivery and shortened
production process are supposed to ensure a faster, higher quality service. This means more work could
be done and all of it would be done with lower costs and a better quality. This way the company will
expand its business a new market and easily outrun the competition.
Keywords: innovation, e-business, hologram, Mozart application, drone
and make ordering more accessible for the
customer
introducing holograms makes orders more
manageable for a chef
introducing drone delivery lowers the costs
and improves the delivery
1. INTRODUCTION
In this paper eBusiness is proposed for the
Mozart Company, as a way to increase the sales,
lower the costs, attract more customers, and
expand onto a new market, which is something
every company has as a goal. Mozart app,
hologram, and a drone would bring with them
new possibilities while at the same time reducing
the costs.
2. E-BUSINESS
"E-business is the use of information and
communication technologies (ICT) as support for
business activities. E-business enables businesses
to combine business processes and thus
significantly simplify customer relations and
suppliers. "[2] “With e-business, companies earn
more money and save time using the latest
technology. E-business needs to be steadily
invested in order to improve the organization's
competitiveness, expand its market, and increase
the number of customers.”[4]
The purpose of the paper is to encourage the
Mozart Company to introduce eBusiness to
increase sales, reduce the costs, attract new
customers, and help find ways to deal with
problems that might come up while introducing
eBusiness.
Hypothesis:
introducing the Mozart app will enhance
the business, reduce the costs, save time,
349
An online store, also known as e-store, web
shop, e-commerce, virtual shop, is becoming a
huge and ever-growing part of e-business. This
allows consumers to purchase and sell goods or
services over the internet. "E-commerce is a
branch of e-business that uses the Internet as a
media for the implementation of transactions the purchase, transfer or exchange of goods,
services and / or information over the Internet. An
example of e-commerce is a web shop." [2]
"The way the e-business takes place is
changing rapidly because of new developments
resulting from technological changes, so MSPs
can not ignore new trends and opportunities that
can increase their competitiveness, for example:
use of social networks to find customers
Use of video games for various purposes,
from marketing to training
mobile applications
Cloud computing
processing of goods and inventory in real
time” [2]
With
e-business,
companies
can
communicate, promote, get business information,
conduct online sales and trade, pay bills via
Internet banking, work with state bodies, such as
paying taxes through Internet banking. Ebusiness enables companies to earn more, saving
money and time using ICT, especially the
Internet, the world's computer network. It enables
companies to merge business processes, create
information, and streamline data and documents
into a single business entity together with
suppliers and partners. It also increases the
quality and meets the expectations and needs of
the customers.
Fig. 1 eBusiness process [3]
Figure 1 shows the e-business process that
takes place cyclically, ie all actions are circular
one after the other and are repeated. First, the
internet search for the desired product is followed
by selection and purchase, after which the
product is paid online, then the transport of the
selected product to the customer and the delivery.
Through the Internet, the package consignment
monitoring is enabled, ie the consumer can check
where his shipment is located by means of the
packet code so that the e-business process takes
place cyclically.
For small companies this will be simpler
because big companies have more complex
business. Better market competitiveness enables
the Internet by increasing the availability of
information and purchasing opportunities, thus
creating equal market opportunities for smaller
companies. The Internet makes all segments of
business activity.
3. INNOVATION FOR THE
BRAVE
Introducing eBusiness has been suggested as
a way to increase sales and reduce the costs, as
well as to attract new customers and expand the
business.
„ Some of the benefits of e-business are:
improving
internal
communication
between departments through the
company's web portal
use of inexpensive models for business
marketing such as social networks or
Google marketing tools
search for business web portals in order to
find valuable information
the use of established internet shops such
as Amazon or auction sites such as eBaya
tracking shipments, tracking stocks” [2]
Namely, using the Mozart app, holograms,
and drones are only some of the ways to lower the
overall costs and subsequently increase the sales.
The first idea is to create the Mozart
smartphone app which would enable the
customers to order the food quickly and easily.
The Mozart Company and its app would have to
be advertised on social media and its own
350
as shown in fig 3 with the ‘extra cheese’ addition.
Green check mark confirms the order. Tap on the
‘OK’ gives a choice between ‘save’, ‘send’, and
‘Chat’.
website, with clear instructions on how to use it
and why it is beneficial.
The app would allow customers to go through
the menu and in a simple tap order a meal tailored
to their wishes. The customer would also get
feedback and would be given the option to track
the location of their order.
Order can be saved with ‘save’, and ‘Chat’
allows a customer to leave a comment and give
feedback about the service. This option gives the
company valuable information which can then be
applied to enhance the service experience. ‘Chat’
offers tracking the order by tapping on the ‘track’
The ‘send’ option opens the order and a customer
can now choose either to confirm it (green check
mark) or to remove it (red ‘X’).
This smartphone app would also serve as a
cash register for the waiters, and thus would
allow for easier and faster orders, which are then
automatically sent onto a hologram located in the
kitchen. This would also mean there is no need
for the waiters to go into the kitchen.
Fig. 2. Mozart application [4]
Upon opening the app, one can choose
between ‘menu’, ‘entertainment’, and ‘saved’.
There are numerous games under the
‘entertainment’ tab and by playing them,
customers can collect points which promise
discounts or even free food packages. A single
tap on a saved order allows for a quick and easy
order. Choosing ‘menu’ opens up the entire meal
list (sandwiches, pizzas, meat, fish, salads, side
dishes, drink) and a tap on, for example, a pizza
as shown in fig 2 displays the varieties of pizza
toppings offered by Mozart. Finally, a customer
places an order.
They receive the signal (a message) via the
app when the order is ready. This means the food
will be served faster because the waiter is not
going back and forth to check whether or not the
meal is ready.
The hologram is conveniently located in the
kitchen for the chef and the staff to receive the
order as soon as it is placed.
Fig. 4. Hologram [4]
Hologram would be connected to the Internet
and would put similar orders together (with
similar addresses, in cases where they can be
delivered at the same time or in the same way). It
would also put some orders above others if they
fit well with the earlier ones. Fig 4 shows how the
order 4B was placed above 3B because the orders
2B and 4B are at nearby addresses. This lowers
the costs and ensures a faster delivery. The
Fig. 3. Mozart application II [4]
When a customer chooses the kind of pizza
they want, they can also choose the size they want
and are informed about the price. Changes can be
made by tapping on the red ‘X’ at the bottom, and
tapping on the blue ‘+’ allows to add new items,
351
an order is on time which proves the second
hypothesis. Drone delivery would reduce some of
the costs and make delivery more efficient, which
confirms the third hypothesis. Hologram is the
one that helps decide whether a drone or a car
delivery is optimal in a given moment.
hologram also shows when the delivery should be
made, and which ones have already been made
(when they do so on time and without problems).
It follows the traffic and calculates whether it
makes more sense to deliver with a car or with a
drone. When there is a traffic jam, the hologram
will suggest using a drone, but it will also inspect
the weather and if it is raining, snowing or if it is
windy delivery by car will be recommended. It
weighs the package as well because a drone
cannot handle a heavy one. The weight of each
item is saved in the main PC.
The Mozart Company would grow after
implementing eBusiness, would expand its
business and the service might appeal to a great
number of customers who appreciate simplicity
and quick deliveries. All this would ensure
Mozart stays ahead of the competition.
After the delivery is made, the drone sends a
signal and it is saved onto the hologram as
delivered, and at the same time the customer is
informed that their order has arrived. The
notification about the delivery stays on the
hologram for the next ten minutes, and later all of
the orders made during the day are listed and
accounted for. The drone delivery is made
possible by the online banking in the Mozart app.
Hologram checks if there is enough money to
cover the cost if the delivery and it charges once
the delivery has been made.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Mozart website, http://brzaprehranamoz
art.hr/, last access 5/8/2018.
[2] E-commerce for the competitiveness of your
company
in
the
modern
world,
https://loomen.carnet.hr/pluginfile.php/778
803/mod_resource/content/1/ePoslovanje%
2C%20Konkurentnost.pdf, last access
5/8/2018.
[3] Electronic
business
process,
https://perla.hr/informacije/tekstovi/eposlovanje/55&bih=686#imgrc=WTLrl_5y
u9D 2BM:, last access 5/8/2018.
If the drone is used in cool weather,
Styrofoam food containers are used because of
their light weight suitable for drones and because
they provide enough isolation to keep the food
warm.
[4] V. Jakobović, Analysis of e-business Mozart
Company, Final work, Veleučilište u
Slavonskom Brodu, Slavonski Brod, (2018).
4. CONCLUSIONS
The Company was suggested to upgrade the
website, advertise the service on social media,
and enhance the business with the Mozart app.
Another idea was to implement a hologram into
the kitchen and a drone as an alternative delivery
system, all to contribute to a faster and a higher
quality service. The paper explains how the
Mozart app works, as well as how it cuts the
expenses and saves time, while making it easy for
a customer to place an order. All of this proves
the first hypothesis.
Considering the way, the hologram functions,
it is clear that it would make it easier for a chef to
manage the orders quickly and with easy, thus
saving time and bettering the service. It ensures
352
Importance of Innovations in Business
Ecosystem
A. Vekic a, J. Borocki a, A. Fajsi
a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {vekic, borocki, angela.fajsi}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Innovations today take a very important place in all business segments, and the business ecosystem is
one of the most important drivers for development and promotion of innovations. In addition,
business ecosystems have a key role and critically important implications for society, economy,
technology progress and business activities, therefore innovation represents a driving mechanism to
achieve success in these areas. Establishing an effective system for encouraging and promoting
innovations is an important task, which requests a lot of effort and commitment, and connections with
external and internal factors of innovation. Also, to achieve this goal, business ecosystem needs to
provide different resources in the form of capital, partners, suppliers, and customers to create
cooperative networks and appropriate business models. The aim of this paper is to show that business
ecosystem promotes innovation process to strengthen its position and creates a sustainable
environment that enables its development in a positive direction.
Keywords: innovation, business ecosystem, sustainability, technology progress, benefits
Moore defined business ecosystem as
“extended system of mutually supportive
organizations; communities of customers,
suppliers,
lead
producers,
and
other
stakeholders, financing, trade associations,
standard bodies, labor unions, governmental
and quasigovernmental institutions, and other
interested parties. These communities come
together in a partially intentional, highly selforganizing, and even somewhat accidental
manner”[1].
This
definition
highlights
decentralized decision-making and selforganization as a model for achieving business
success.
1. INTRODUCTION
Modern business is faced with the challenge
of constant innovation in order to be sustainable
and to further develop. One way of
strengthening the companies as a whole is their
functionality within the established business
ecosystem, which should encourage innovation
and facilitate the entire business operation of
companies.
In order to strengthen, a business ecosystem
in modern business conditions should thrive to
direct the road to their development, which
includes support for overcoming the barriers that
appear on that path. One of the biggest
challenges that follows the process of company
development through innovation is the
introduction of modern technologies.
In view of ecosystems as meta-organizations
that “resemble biological super-organisms, a
multitude of individual organisms that coexist,
collaborate, and coevolve via a complex set of
symbiotic and reciprocal relationships, which
together form a larger organism” [2].
Companies
become
embedded
in
interdependent
relationships
with
other
institutions and organizations, and this is
foundation of business ecosystem.
Business ecosystem is very complexity
whole, whose complexity stems from the
353
diversity of relationships, the number of diverse
relationships,
and
the
resultant
interdependencies [3].
products and processes and significant
technological changes of products and
processes. An innovation has been implemented
if it has been introduced on the market (product
innovation) or used within a production process
(process innovation). Innovations therefore
involve a series of scientific, technological,
organizational, financial and commercial
activities” [9].
The performed roles of each business entity
and relationship between them inside the
business ecosystem are established in order to
provide an overview of their involvement in
cooperation process and business ecosystem
performance [4]. Relationship between them
should be dynamic and adaptive, with
characteristics of complexity. Like organisms
within the biological ecosystem, business
ecosystem entities must constantly adapt to
changes in the given system, as well as the rules
that apply to it. Certainly the most important
adjustments relate to the process of innovation
that is constantly present within the business
ecosystem. One of the basic features of the
change is their dynamism, which is also one of
the basic characteristics of business ecosystems.
Sharing experience of business entities
through business ecosystem in domain of
innovation, has an immeasurable significance,
both for the concrete subjects which implement
the process of innovation and for the business
ecosystem as a whole. That is certainly reflected
in the strengthening of the innovative activity of
whole society where this ecosystem functions.
The role of business ecosystem is also to
provide knowledge for entrepreneurs, innovative
companies and policy makers in the area of
innovation.
“Like an individual species in a biological
ecosystem, each member of a business
ecosystem ultimately shares the fate of the
network as a whole, regardless of that member’s
apparent strength”[5].
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
In order to present possibilities for
innovation and their significance for business
ecosystems, we performed a literature review.
For this purpose, we have used academic and
management literature and other open sources
on internet, therefore we have investigated a
number of articles and research which are
relevant to this topic. The work was based
mostly on conceptual analyses.
It is important to emphasize that business
entities direct each other within the business
ecosystem, towards
implementation of
innovations and provide support through this
process.
Today's business can not be imagined
without the implementation of innovations
within it. According to Schumpeter innovation
can be explained „as process of introducing a
new product or modifications brought to an
existing product“ [6]. Tidd &Bessant state that „
Innovation is driven by the ability to see
connections, to spot opportunities and to take
advantage of them“ [7]. The European
Commission defined innovation as: „Successful
production, assimilation and exploitation of
novelty in the economic or social environment“
[8]. Very important role in modern business has
technological innovation. OECD gave the next
definition
of
technological
innovations:
“Technological innovations comprise new
3. ACTORS OF BUSINESS
ECOSYSTEM AS DRIVERS OF
INNOVATIONS
Business ecosystem operation is determined
to a large extent by the participants in it. Modern
trends indicate the need for continuous
improvement in all segments of the business
ecosystem and at all levels. It is understood that
business ecosystem is a very complex entity,
within which a thorough interpretation of the
existing relationships and connections between
354
the participants is necessary. It is also necessary
to consider adequately their flexibility and
readiness to adapt to changes in the internal and
external environment, which directly influences
the implementation of innovations in given
business ecosystem.
business assistance organizations,
agencies, policy makers, etc.) [13].
funding
Relationships between actors proved to be
the primary mechanism for managing in the
business ecosystem [12]. Organizational
activities are now happening in specific ecosystematic space, competition is between
business ecosystems not organizations and it is
necessary to consider changes in business
environments to be success in this space, to
make changes in minds to be prepared for these
variations, even sometimes move beyond and
make these changes [11].
The term business ecosystem was introduced
by Moore, who also defined its participants.
According to Deloitte analysis "business
ecosystems are dynamic and co-evolving
communities of diverse actors who create and
capture new value through both collaboration
and competition" [14]. Ecosystems typically
bring together multiple players of different types
and sizes in order to create, scale, and serve
markets in ways that are beyond the capacity of
any single organization—or even any traditional
industry. Their diversity—and their collective
ability to learn, adapt, and, crucially, innovate
together—are key determinants of their longerterm success [14].
Fig.1. Participants of business ecosystem according
to F. Moore[10]
Business ecosystem is a developed system
from organizations which protect each other
[11]. Each member of this concept influences
and contributes to its functioning and it can be
said that in this way affects of the whole
business ecosystem destiny. The participants
recognised that in the ecosystem composition
phase, it is important to confirm the involvement
of a broad spectrum of actors, while
membership dynamics (i.e., entry and exit of
actors) were emphasized in the orchestration
phase [12]. The actors include the material
resources (funds, equipment, facilities, etc.) and
the human capital (students, faculty, staff,
industry researchers, industry representatives,
etc.) that make up the institutional entities
participating in the ecosystem (e.g. the
universities, colleges of engineering, business
schools, business firms, venture capitalists,
industry-university research institutes, federal or
industrial supported centers of excellence, and
state and/or local economic development and
All participants in business ecosystem should
have focus on creating and delivering customer
value. Business ecosystems need to help startup
entrepreneurs and incumbent businesses and
collaborate more effectively, especially in
introducing new innovations. Balancing
collaboration and competition with a broad
range of ecosystem actors is central to engage in
cross-cutting innovation [15]. Ecosystem actors
have many reasons to stay together or actively
participate in the orchestration of their
ecosystem [16].
Innovations by ecosystem actors tend to use
novel technologies, modern and flexible
business models. This should lead to the
development of the entire business ecosystem
and enable the sustainability of all actors within.
Actors in the business ecosystem are faced
with great challenges that must be successfully
managed, so that the ecosystem can survive. In
355
order to achieve this successfully, a greater
commitment of all participants and good
communication between them is necessary.
3.1.
Dimensions
ecosystems
of
understand the changing definition of
“value” that ecosystems create.
Ecosystem expansion can result in
unexpected partnerships for organizations.
Partners could include organizations
within the primary industry, adjacent
industries or, most unexpectedly, farneighbor industries outside of the
business’s industry (i.e., travel and
healthcare).
Large organizations will most likely be
involved in multiple ecosystems. The key
is to understand how these ecosystems
interact, identify potential fractures and
overlaps, and acknowledge constraints
and implications.
business
According to Gartner, we can distinguish 8
dimensions of business ecosystems [17]:
In modern business conditions, success
requires a strategic integration of
technology, information and business
processes. Organizations that do not work
toward understanding their business
ecosystems
risk
falling
into
a
participatory role only, enabling other
competitors or partners to take the
leadership role and thus define the rules
for engagement in that ecosystem. The
main people of companies or CIOs are
responsible for the technology that will
enable the business ecosystem strategy
now and in the future.
Fig.2. Eight dimensions of business ecosystem
One of important requests for business
ecosystem is to choose appropriate
strategy, and this affects individual
players on the roles that will be selected
within that business ecosystem as: leader,
disruptor, niche player, orchestrator, or
something else.
The degree of openness within
ecosystems is driven by strategies,
common goals and shared interest. An
ecosystem may be public, private or a
hybrid. Many organizations actually
participate in a hybrid of public and
private ecosystems.
Today, participants in business ecosystem
need to figure how to integrate new
technologies, things such as: smart
advisors and artificial intelligence.
Modern
platforms
provide
new
possibilities for business ecosystem such
as:
integration,
application
and
management
services.
Platforms
connected participants with different
goals and objectives and support
mediating in relationship in ecosystem.
Ecosystems
enable
companies
to
exchange products and services for
information or analytics. It’s important to
4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
INOVATION AND BUSINESS
ECOSYSTEM
Today, innovation is, more than ever,
generated by the interrelation and convergence
of many participants within an business
ecosystem. All participants in business
ecosystem participate in the process of moving
innovations
from
discovery
through
commercialization, and in this way comes the
creation of an innovative ecosystem. It is very
important to provide support by all stakeholders
for all innovation activities carried out within
the ecosystem. Author Jackson defined
innovation ecosystem as “ the complex
356
logic of action. These two types of business
ecosystem are dynamic, changing and also
changeable through ecosystem orchestration.
Implementation of innovations in each system
leads to uncertainty and major changes, so their
rapid acceptance and implementation is very
important for healthy functioning of the whole
ecosystem.
relationships that are formed between actors or
entities whose functional goal is to enable
technology development and innovation” [18].
Some of the main tasks for entities in
innovation ecosystem are [19]:
Gathering of the right people involved in
the ecosystem
Cultivating the network
Educating others participants.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Innovation ecosystems integrate exploration
(knowledge) and exploitation (business)
ecosystem. Business and innovation ecosystem
are two very connected terms, with some
differences [15]:
The future of business ecosystems will be
largely conditioned by their flexibility, degree of
complexity, co-operation of their actors, and, of
course, readiness to accelerate innovation.
Business ecosystems will enable next-generation
value chains and new sources of innovation,
while driving demand for new skillsets [20].
Table 1. Different type of ecosystems and their
characteristics
Baseline of
Ecosystem
Business
Ecosystems
Resource
exploitation for
customer value
Innovation
ecosystem
Companies in business ecosystem need to be
in state of constant adaptation as they innovate
and develop new products and services. It is
essential for the ecosystem leader to understand
what possibilities exist to guide other actors to
achieve the expected product or product idea
[21]. As with biological ecosystems, business
ecosystems need permanent care of its actors, in
order to ensure its sustainability in the condition
of uncertainty.
Co-creation of
innovation
Geographically
Global business
clustered actors,
Relationships
relationships both
different levels of
and
competitive and
collaboration and
Connectivity
co-operative
openness
Innovation
policymakers,
Suppliers,
local
customers, and
Actors and focal companies intermediators,
as a core, other
innovation
Roles
actors more
brokers, and
loosely involved
funding
organizations
A main actor that
operates as a
platform sharing Geographically
resources, assets, proximate actors
and benefits or interacting around
Logic of
aggregates other hubs facilitated by
Action
actors together in intermediating
the networked
actors
business
operations
The importance of innovation can be seen
especially in current digital revolution, where
changes are taking place faster than ever before.
Most innovations relate to changes in
technology which will play a significant role in
enabling the ecosystems of the future. In the age
of the knowledge economy and rapid change,
successful economic development is intimately
linked to capacity of existing business
ecosystems to generate, acquire, absorb,
disseminate, and apply innovation towards
advanced technology products and services. Due
to the large number of possibilities which exist
in modern societies, creation of new business
ecosystems is necessary. Their role in these
societies is of great importance for further
development and efficient implementation of
innovations as an indispensable part of this
development process.
Table 1. summarizes the differences between
business and innovation ecosystems in terms of
their outcomes, interactions, actor roles, and
357
ECCON Annual meeting, Organisation as
Chaoric Panarchies, (2016).
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support
of the Ministry of Education and Science of the
Republic of Serbia, within the Project No. 47028.
[12] K. Valkokari; T. Valjakka, Managing actors,
resources, and activities in innovation
ecosystems both at the inter-organisational and
the interpersonal level, Service Science
Odisey,
(2016),
https://vttserviceodyssey.com/2016/12/12/man
aging-actors-resources-and-activities-ininnovation-ecosystems-both-at-the-interorganisational-and-the-interpersonal-level/,
last access 09/09/2018.
7. REFERENCES
[1] J.F. Moore, The rise of a new corporate form.
Washington Quarterly 21(1) (1998), pp. 167181.
[2] R. Gulati; P. Puranam; M. Tushman, Metaorganization design: rethinking design in
interorganizational and community contexts.
Strategic Management Journal, 33(6) (2012),
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[13] D.S. Oh; F. Philips; S. Park; E. Lee,
Innovation ecosystems: A critical examination.
Technovation (2016), pp. 1-6.
[14] E. Kelly, Business ecosystems come of age,
Deloitte University Press, (2015).
[3] I. Visnjic; A. Neely; C. Cennamo; N. Visnjic,
Govering the city: Unlasihng value from the
business ecosystem. California Management
Review 59(1) (2016), pp. 109-140.
[15] M. Sako, Business ecosystems: how do they
matter for innovation? Technology Strategy
and Management, (2018).
[4] E. Galateanu (Avram); S. Avasilcai, Business
ecosystem „reliability“, Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences 124 (2014), pp. 312-321.
[16] K. Valkokari, Business, innovation, and
knowledge ecosystems: how they differ and
how to survive and thrive within them.
Technology Innovation Management Review,
(2015).
[5] M. Iansiti, R. Levien, Strategy as ecology,
Harvard Business Review, (2004), pp.68-78.
[17] K. Panetta, 8 dimensions of business
ecosystems,
Gartner,
(2017),
https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/8
-dimensions-of-business-ecosystems/,
last
access 05/09/2018.
[6] L.I. Popa; G. Preda; M. Boldea, Theoretical
approach of the concept of innovation,
Managerial Challenges of the Contemporary
Society, Faculty of Economics and Business
Administration, Babes-Bolyai University,
(2010).
[18] B.D.J. Jackson, What is an innovation
ecosystem?, Washington (2011), http://ercassoc.org/sites/default/files/topics/policy_studi
es/DJackson_Innovation Ecosystem_03-1511.pdf, last access 06/12/2018.
[7] J. Tidd, J. Bessant, Managing innovation:
Integrating technological, market and
organizational change, Wiley, London, (2016).
[8] European commission, Green paper on
innovation, (1995).
[19] A. Markman, How to create an innovation
ecosystem, Harvard Business Review, (2012).
[9] OECD, The Measurement of Scientific and
Technical Activities Standard Practice for
Surveys of Research and Experimental
Development, Frascati Manual, (1993).
[20] Z. Bahrololoumi, Forget platforms: Business
ecosystem are future, Accenture, (2017),
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[10] N. Alizadeh; H.E. Dariani; A. Smida, Bussines
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[21] P.E. Harland; S. Wüst; O. Dadehayir,
Innovation processes in business ecosystems:
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[11] E.D. Hartigh; M. Tol; W. Visscher, The health
measurement of a business ecosystem,
358
The Evolution of Localized Industrial
Clusters into Innovative Global
Networks
A. Fajsi a, S. Moraca a, J. Borocki a, A. Vekic
a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {angela.fajsi, moraca, borocki, vekic}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
The current turbulent market leads to growing customer and stakeholder demands. Therefore,
companies, especially Small and Medium enterprises (SMEs) tend to establish collaborative
environment in order to cope with these challenges and achieve desired market position. Some of the
challenges facing SMEs are the lack of resources and less skilled personnel. Networking could help
them to overcome these barriers, then to increase their productivity and to improve the competitiveness
in the market. One of the most effective forms of business networking is an industrial cluster, which
aims to increase the productivity with which companies can compete on the national and global market.
Since industrial clusters enable resource, knowledge and information sharing among their members,
they have become an essential part of dynamic and complex business environment that provide work
force specialization, companies grow and national economy development. The purpose of this paper is
to examine how cluster competitiveness increases in terms of improved innovative activities on the
global market that are characterized by collaboration based on the triple helix model.
Keywords: industrial cluster, innovation, networking, value network
explains how results and outcomes of
collaboration within network can be managed
and generated. Third chapter includes the
literature review on the position and role of
industrial clusters in the networked business
environment. Then, in the fourth chapter is
examined influence of advanced technologies on
the process of evolution of local industrial
clusters into global value networks. In the end,
authors made conclusion remarks on the
discussed topics and defined implications for the
future research.
1. INTRODUCTION
The last few decades in the business literature
are characterized by collaboration and
partnerships among organizations, strategic
alliances,
networks,
inter-organizational
cooperation and cross-sector partnerships among
organizations. New business models and
paradigms motivate researchers to look in the
cooperation issues in different ways. Also, new
technologies bring a lot advantages to process of
collaboration among organizations, especially
ones that operate in the virtual environment.
This paper has aim to examine how cluster
competitiveness increases in terms of improved
innovative activities based on the triple helix
model and supported by new technologies.
2. WHOLE NETWORK THEORY
Many authors have examined networks in the
context of organizational and social networks
rather than examining whole network. Whole
network theory explains how networks evolve
during the years, how they are explained to
In the next chapter, it will be examined
literature on the topic of whole networks, which
359
stakeholders and how results and outcomes might
be generated [1]. Brass et al. (2004) defined a
network as “a set of nodes and the set of ties
representing some relationship, or lack of
relationship, between the nodes.” [2].
3. INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS IN
THE NETWORKED
ENVIRONMENT
Nowadays, cluster need to become visible on
the international market and to be globally
recognized. Cluster Excellence organization1
awarding cluster organizations which achieve
positive business results and which are
committed to continual improvement in terms of
the cluster structure, governance, financing,
strategy and services.
Authors, who examine organizational
networks, prefer to write about partnerships,
cooperative arrangements and business deals,
inter-organizational
relationship,
strategic
alliances, value constellations, etc. [1], [2], [3].
During the research on the topic of organizational
or business networks, all aforementioned terms
need to be used as a keywords, otherwise research
may result with partially explored literature on
this topic. Organizational networks are only one
part of whole network theory, it covers wider
range of network aspects.
Small companies within the cluster perceives
the possible benefits of local knowledge,
resources, technologies, equipment. There are a
large number of literature that provide
explanations and reasons why SMEs need to
operate in the networked environment.
Whole networks can be observed from two
different points of view: the view from the
individual organization and the view from the
network level of analysis [1]. Some other authors
also make distinction, they view networks on the
micro and macro level [3] or as egocentric
network via the whole network [4].
Much of the early literature concerned the
importance of localized industrial clusters and
their benefits to SMEs and local economies.
However, the recent literature concerns not only
importance of local operations but focus is put on
the global market and SMEs internationalization
and visibility.
Whole network has a task to review and
analyze inter-organizational networks at the
network level of analysis. Understanding this
concept can help authors and researchers in the
process of understanding and observing global
value networks.
SMEs have advantages in terms of flexibility,
reaction time, and innovation capacity that make
them central actors in the new economy. In this
complex business environment, SMEs must
develop themselves strategically in order to
remain growth, competitiveness, and prosper [5].
Dynamic business environment creates such
conditions where is not enough that SMEs and
cluster operate on the local level, but it is
necessary to evolute in global networks.
3.1. From local to global: evolution of
SMEs and clusters
The word “global” has now become key word
in the business and economics. Many authors
seen particular region, continent or even whole
world as a one market. Therefore, it is necessary
to understand advantages and disadvantages of
the process of SMEs and cluster globalization.
Figure 1 presents product and market
development before globalization.
Both the cluster and global value network
approaches are oriented towards upgrading in
order to achieve competitive position on the
market. Both approaches emphasize importance
of governance and research institutions in the
evolution from local organizations to become a
member of global business networks.
1
European Clusters Excellence, available at
http://www.clusterexcellence.org
360
collaboration and networking with participants
through the entire value chain. Such kind of
networking in the literature is termed as value
network. Value network can be defined as ''any
set of roles and interactions in which people
engage in both tangible and intangible exchanges
to achieve economic or social good''. [7 ] This
concept is based on the cooperation among
various participants, e.g. universities, research
institutes, companies, government bodies, in
order to achieve their own objectives and the
common objective on the network level as well.
This kind of cooperation in the literature is
recognized as Triple helix model.
Fig. 1. Vectors for strategic development of
manufacturing companies before globalization [6]
Before globalization focus is put on the
product development and diversification. [6]
Companies were striving to place new products
on the new markets, still operating more locally
than globally.
3.2. Triple helix model
Triple helix model represents innovative
environment based on science, technology and an
entrepreneurial initiative. This model enables
companies and industrial cluster to emerge
around new technologies and operating globally.
[8] Model is based on the cooperation among
government, industry and research institutions
(Figure 3).
Due to dynamic business changes and
globalization, market has become more open for
external parties. [6] Market became global and
companies start to change their business
philosophy. Figure 2 presents strategic view of
market and products after globalization.
Fig. 3. Triple Helix Model: cooperation among
government, industry and research institutions [8]
Fig. 2. Vectors for strategic development of
manufacturing companies after globalization [6]
Triple helix model helps researchers and
practitioners to understand the importance of
innovation, cooperation and dynamic interaction
among different network participants which
should result in increased competitiveness and
regional development.
After globalization local SMEs become part
of global networks together with world-class
SMEs. Strategic decision to become part of a
network comes from their perspectives and
performances that they have been developed
through years. [6]
Due to rapidly development of networking
technologies,
cooperation
among
aforementioned participants goes beyond local,
One of the prerequisites for a company’s
successful process of globalization is its
361
geographically closed markets. Global market
now seems to be very close and companies and
clusters begin to recognize advantages of running
business on the global level.
networking, instead of sharing computing
resources, the whole network can be shared [14]
Cloud Networking is not centralized system, it
allows more network management functions into
the cloud, therefore network participants could
utilize more network resources from the cloud.
Although, triple helix model is not new
concept, it is still topic of many studies and
discussions, especially when it comes to less
developed regions and countries.
Cloud Networking architecture enables
visibility and control with reduced costs and
complexity of infrastructure services for users
and providers (Figure 4).
In the literature, it can be found upgraded
model called quadruple helix model. This model
is expanded by new category, society.
Leydesdorff & Etzkowitz (2003) stated that each
helix represents specialization which evolve from
and within civil society. [9] This model has a
number of advantages, but one disadvantage is
related to its subjective preference of the fourth
helix. [10] Most economies, especially ones in
less developed regions, still is using triple helix
model in order to avoid
4. NEW TECHNOLOGIES
TOWARDS INDUSTRIAL
CLUSTER GLOBALIZATION
Fig. 4. Cloud Networking architecture [15]
One of the main challenges of this
technology is limited support for control
functions, such as, the ability to ensure security
around the network, performance guarantees, etc.
[15] [16]
For the effective functioning of the Triple
Helix model in the global cluster environment it
is necessary to use advanced networking
technologies, especially one in domain of
innovative software-defined networking. Using
this type of technology means solving some
market challenges and could be used in creating
efficient business solutions.
Using a Cloud networking in cluster-based
environment could involve many solutions such
as interconnection of virtual servers of
universities, companies and research institutes.
Simplified process of data and resources sharing
among these organizations may result in the
evolution of localized industrial clusters into
innovative global networks.
Nowadays, workplaces have become more and
more virtual and the key enabler for all
virtualizations is the Internet and various
computer networking technologies, such as Cloud
Computing and Cloud Networking [11], [12].
Cloud computing can be explained as clusters of
distributed computers (largely vast data centers
and server farms) which provide on-demand
resources and services over a networked medium
(usually the Internet). [13]
5. CONCLUSIONS
Understanding the reasons why SMEs and
clusters tend to evolve into global networks, help
researchers to look at the further directions of
their development. Consideration of ties among
network member enables SMEs and other
participants to strengths their cooperation and to
become competitive on the global market.
Creating an innovative environment based on
Cloud networking closely relies on the
concept of cloud computing, where computing
resources are put on the same place in order to be
shared with customers or clients. In cloud
362
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triple helix: a conceptual framework. Triple
Helix Association, Working Paper, 1. (2013).
advanced networking technologies, enable small
companies and industrial clusters to become
visible and competitive on the global market
Some issues such as industry structure, firm
strategy, the nature of intra-industry competition
and the relationship between knowledge and
technology [17] need to be subject of further
researches.
[9] L. Leydesdorff; H. Etzkowitz, Can “the
public” be considered as a fourth helix in
university-industry-government
relations?
Report of the fourth triple helix conference.
Science and Public Policy 30(1) (2003), pp.
55-61.
[10] C. Colapinto; C. Porlezza, Innovation in
creative industries: from the quadruple helix
model to the systems theory. Journal of the
Knowledge Economy 3(4) (2012), pp. 343353.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial
support of the Ministry of Education and Science
of the Republic of Serbia, within the Project No.
35050.
[11] B. Theophilus; A. Akella; A. Shaikh; S. Sahu,
CloudNaaS: a cloud networking platform for
enterprise applications. Proc. of the 2nd ACM
Symposium on Cloud Computing, p. 8,
(2011).
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363
Soft Skills as the Basis for the
Development of Professional
Competencies
L. Grubić-Nešić a, S. Mitrović Veljković a, Lj. Duđak a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {nesle, mslavica, ljuba}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Professional requirements for employees in modern organizations are defined by an increased level of
competence, responsibility, commitment and motivation. In such organizational design of knowledge
and skills, employees represent the basis of the organization's development. Knowledge Economy and
the growing demands of competitors and clients are placed before each and every organization,
managing high criteria of sustainability and success. Duration in business requires from each
organization proactive approach, technological management changes, risk management, balance
between economic growth and ecological sustainability, lifelong learning of each employee, as well
as continuous development. The competencies needed for the realization and development of work
are all more complex and require much more than professional knowledge and basic knowledge
and/or technical skills. Combining professional competencies and development of organizations is
only possible with the appropriate development of soft skills of employees at all levels of work
processes. Soft skills of employees determine their organizational behavior, skill and efficiency of
communication, management conflicts, change management, successful teamwork, increased
frustration tolerance, which all affect the quality of the organization's business.
Key words: soft skills, employees, organization
2. SOFT SKILLS OF
1. INTRODUCTION
EMPLOYEES
Job requirements in modern organizations
have increased significantly and refere to
professional competencies of employees,
related to the performance of work operations
alone, but also to personal ones, skills and
abilities to turn competence into performance.
The speed of creating new knowledge, new
products and services has opened up many
opportunities for new jobs and new ways of
doing business. Organizations that are focused
on excellence have recognized the need to
develop soft skills of employees such as
motivating communication, willingness to
work in a team, successful work under
pressure and stress, adequate response in
conflict situations.
Changes in business practices contributed
to changes in employee requirements, both for
individuals and working groups. Employee
competencies related to the work itself, such as
technical, technological and other, must be
supplemented with soft skills. It is even
considered that hard skills contribute only 15%
of success, and the remaining 85% depends on
soft skills [1].
Hard skills relate to technical and
administrative, while soft skills are related to
human, conceptual and social behavior. Soft skills
are different from so-called hard skills, but also
they add more value to hard skills. Categories of
soft skills include achievements and actions, the
364
measures and activities in the sense of
practicing the skills of communication,
behavior and thinking, as well as solving
problems and negotiating. A proactive attitude
in conflict means that at least one or all of the
parties take a positive and active role in
seeking its solution. Of course it is not possible
to determine a clear and simple way to resolve
the conflict. One of the basic principles is that
human beings do not behave mechanically and
predictably in accordance with previously
defined rules of diving. Conflict, like humans,
is multidimensional, complex and predictable
only in some cases with rather narrow
boundaries. The conflict solution must be
adaptive, flexible, sensitive to small and
frequent changes and ready for unexpected.
The advantages of a constructive conflict in the
organization can be seen through many
parameters. The most important consequences
are that it brings out the problems to light, it
increases the understanding of the viewpoint of
the other party which enables the change, it
leads to better decision-making, increases
loyalty to the group, and increases
organizational commitment.
influence and development of others, as well as
personal success [2]. Hewitt Sean thinks that
employers value soft skills because they are
equally good indicators of job performance as a
traditional qualification for a job [3].
According to Sean, soft skills are nontechnical, intangible, specific skills that
determine the individual's strength as a leader,
listener and negotiator, or as a mediator of the
conflict. Soft skills are the characteristics and
abilities of attitude and behavior; these are not
knowledge or technical abilities [4]. When
talking about soft skills, we think primarily
about personality traits, communication skills,
stress response, readiness to change, engaging
in team performance... It is possible to
distinguish the emotional skills that involve
recognizing and naming feelings, expressing
feelings, assessing intensity of feelings,
managing feelings, controlling the drive,
reducing stress. There are also the cognitive
skills, such as analytics, understanding and
interpretation of other people and social
events, problem solving and decision making,
understanding someone else's view, selfawareness, willingness to work in a team.
Conflicting work roles often contribute to
conflicts in organizations. The conflicting work
role is present in those situations where an
individual must perform mutually incompatible
tasks and when they are extorted. Then such a
person forcible performs those jobs which does
not want to and which considers not to be in his
/ her jurisdiction. Such jobs do not fit into the
image the worker has about his place in the
organization and he is considered incompetent
for that performance. Fear of conflicts in these
working situations only contributes to
dissatisfaction and poor performance. Coping
with the wrong work role is the communication
skill (with oneself and others) that has a
significant impact on positive work results.
3. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
AND PREVENTION
Attitude towards conflict situations largely
determines our business behavior. Conflicts
involve competition, tension, misunderstanding,
diversity, disagreement, controversy, and strife
[5]. Disagreement arises when one party
considers that there is a marked divergence of
values, needs, interests, opinions or goals.
Negative emotions are often the triggers of
conflicts and the reasons why conflicts continue.
Competence for conflicts resolution
involves an analytic approach to conflict, that
demands the most appropriate way that will
allow (the prevention or) resolution of conflict
situations. Preventing conflicts involves
creating a prerequisite that no destructive
conflicts arise at all. It implies a number of
4. STRESS MANAGEMENT
Different characteristics of individuals and
differences between people condition a
365
communicate with himself, he / she will not be
able to find adequate business communication
with others. An assertive style supports
individuals who clearly express their opinions
and feelings and firmly represent their rights
and needs without compromising the rights of
others. Assertive communication is born of
high self-esteem, people value themselves,
their own time, emotional and physical needs
and represent their interests while at the same
time
respecting
others.
Aggressive
communication involves a style in which
individuals express their feelings and opinions
and represent their needs in a way that violates
the
rights
of
others.
Aggressive
communication highlights the exploitation of
others and self-promotion on someone else's
account. The
style of
non-assertive
communication is one that encourages others
to exploit us [7].
different response to stressful situations in
work. People have different tolerance to stress,
the way of reaction and the consequences, or
the effects of stress. Stress is the physiological
and psychological reaction of a person to
external situations that disturb ones balance.
Stressful situations, the so-called stressors,
which are part of our everyday life, hurt the
person, make the man tense and nervous,
which causes numerous physical and
psychological changes in the individual.
One precondition for a reduced experience
of stress is the increase in tolerance for
uncertainty, according to which people are
significantly different, and which, beyond
doubt, is associated with the experience of
stress. People with low tolerance to the
uncertainty of change, unclear and undefined
situations, ambiguity or equivoque of the role
experience more stress then those who have a
high tolerance for uncertainty. Raymond
Flannery [6] suggests that it is possible to
create personal preconditions for stress
reducing, or the strategies for its overcoming.
It is important to bear in mind:
One of the most successful ways of
communicating with other people is the
motivating communication that produces
positive effects for others and for oneself.
Motivating communication is:
Communication with trust
Personal control, the belief that the
environment can be controlled and that
they have specific skills for effective
response in specific situations,
Communication that includes all
relevant segments of business processes
Readiness to hear and understand the
interlocutor / associate
Engagement in the performance of
certain tasks that are thoughtfully
chosen and have a certain meaning,
Empathy in communication
Respect and high estimation regardless
of who is the co-worker
Appropriate diet, regular physical
exercises and, during the day, specified
time for relaxation,
Continuous
positive
commitment
towards the chosen goal (not
ambivalent: time positive-time negative)
Using social support in your own social
network.
Rewarding even small success
Impuniting errors, whatever they may
be, understanding them as part of the
normal processes, draw attention to
them, and point out possible removals
5. MOTIVATING
COMMUNICATION
Ignorance of business communication is
one aspect of business failure, and the other,
much more serious is the inability to
communicate honestly with yourself. Under
conditions where an employee is unable to
Disciplined to adhere to the agreed goal
until the team agrees otherwise, and not
change it without notifying other
employees about the idea of change
366
[4] P. Tobin, Managing Ourselves- Leading
others. ICEL 2006, inspiring Leadership:
Experiential learning and leadership
development 2 (2006), pp. 36-42.
Offering opportunities for progress,
change, activity
Determination in the idea, emotion and
attitude [8].
[5] R. Binsaeed; S. Unnisa; L. Rizvi, The big
Impact of Soft Skills in Today’s
Workplace. International Journal of
Economics, Commerce and Management
5(1) (2017), pp. 456-463.
Motivating communication is one of the
tools in human resource management, but also a
powerful tool for motivating workers. The
results of numerous studies have shown the
importance
and
role
of
motivating
communication.
[6] T. Coleman; K. Kugler; L. BuiWrzosinska; A. Nowak; R.Vallacher,
Getting down to basics: A situated model
of conflict in social relations. Negotiation
Journal 28(1) (2012), pp.7-43.
6. CONCLUSION
The fact that all soft skills are taught and can
be adopted at any age and with any educational
level provides the possibility of their easier
adoption. The reasons why soft skills are not
attached to higher importance can be seeked
exclusively in ignorance and fear of emotional
reactions. The development of professional
competences is much faster and complete if it is
supported by the development of soft skills. In
addition, the development of soft skils is in fact
the development of the personality, whose
development could improve organizational
performances and quality of life. The development
of one's own personality would contribute to the
possibilities of managing yourself, which is
always
an
improvement
in
business
circumstances.
[7] N. Nair, Towards understanding the role
of emotions in conflict: a review and
future directions. International Journal of
Conflict Management 19(4) (2008), pp.
359-381.
[8] H. Ongori; J. Agolla, Occupational stress
in organizations and its effects on
organizational performance. Journal of
Management Research 8(3) (2008), pp.
123-135.
[9] R. Flannery, Towards stress-resistant
persons: a stress management approach to
the treatment of anxiety. American
Journal of Preventive Medicine 3(1)
(1987), pp. 25-30.
[10] H. Widhiastuti, The Effectiveness of
Communications
in
Hierarchical
Organizational Structure. International
Journal of Social Science and Humanity
2(3) (2012), pp. 185-190.
7. REFERENCES
[1] M. Watts; R. Watts, Developing soft skills
in
students-retrieved
fromhttp://l08.cgpublisher.com/proposals/
64/index_htm
[11] L. Grubić-Nešić, Razvoj ljudskih resursa.
FTN izdavaštvo, Novi Sad, (2014)
[2] E. Rainsbury; D. Hodges; N. Burchell; M.
Lay, Ranking workplace competencies:
Student and graduate perceptions. Asia
Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education
3(2) (2002), pp. 8-18.
[3] H. Sean, 9 Soft Skills for Success,
http:/www.askmen.com/money/career_10
0/121_career.html
367
Knowledge Transfer in Virtual Teams
B. Jokanović a, B. Bogojević a, I. Katić
a
a
Departmant of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, Faculty of
Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, 21000 Novi Sad,
Serbia, E-mail: {bojanajokanovic, bogojevic, ivana.katic}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Purpose: Having in mind the fact that more and more organizations work internationally, the main
purpose of this paper is to analyze and highlights the significance of knowledge transfer in virtual
teams.
Design: This paper work provides an overview of existing literature in the field of knowledge transfer
and virtual teams. Virtual teams are characterized by use of information and communications
technology (ICT), high geographical dispersion, cultural and linguistic diversity, and therefore
transfer of knowledge is more difficult in such types of teams.
Findings: This paper provides information about main issues and challenges for knowledge transfer
in virtual teams.
Implications for practice: This paper provides useful insights and base for researches in order to
expand futher research in a way of better understanding of knowledge transfer in virtual teams.
Keywords: knowledge transfer, virtual teams, collaborative work, communication
communications
technology),
knowledge
transfer among team members is difficult
because of linguistic and cultural barriers, a
difficult coordination and operation due to
different time zones and locations, a
complicated process of motivation, and the
difficulty in strengthening the team spirit.
1. INTRODUCTION
Teamwork in modern organizations is
increasingly recognized as one of the essential
components in the effort to develop high-quality
workers with good social competences.
Growing competition in the global market has
been challenged by western companies such as
General Motors, IBM, General Electric and
others to look for strategies for continuous
improvement of quality [1]. Along with the
ever-increasing changes in the world, there has
been an increasing interest in the performance of
work teams [2]. Successful organizations have
discovered the potential and contribution of
virtual team as way to reduce costs, better
quality products and higher productivity. Virtual
teams promotes creativity and originality,
because the best way to get a good idea is to
have a lot of ideas.
In spite of everything, work of virtual teams,
which is not conditioned by borders, space and
time, facilitates and accelerates the process of
globalization, since it can gather cheap and
high-quality labor, while at the same time
relieving many costs that would otherwise occur
under traditional working conditions.
2. KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER
Knowledge transfer is a key dimensions of
learning organizations. There is no benefit of
knowledge, errors and omissions that are only
documented in the database or exist in the minds
of individuals. To avoid mistakes in the future,
they must be visible to all members of the
Considering that communication and
collaboration of virtual teams depends almost
exclusively on ICT (information and
368
Virtual teams include participants from
different culture settings and organizations.
They often work on non routine task. Virtual
teams provide lower costs, flexibility and better
resource using, in order to to deal with a
dynamic environment in an adequate way [5,6].
organization so that they can learn from them
and choose the best possible way to avoid them.
O'Dell and Grayson [3] cite an example of
Chevron, which has cut its costs by more than $
2 billion in seven years, exclusively through an
example and sharing best practices. Similarly,
Texas Instruments has increased its capacity for
innovation by transferring best practices
between 13 plants [3]. Without a sufficiently
strong supportive culture of cooperation and
trust, transfer of knowledge will not lead to the
desired results [4]. A high level of trust is a
necessary condition for cooperation between
individuals and groups. Certain practices in the
organization can foster trust among employees.
When decisions are made openly and when
information is widely available and accessible to
each member of the organization, the frequency
of communication increases as well as
willingness to share information.
Virtual teams ensure a lot of advantages, but
also include some costs. Figure 1 summarizes
the most important opportunities and liabilities.
Fig. 1. Characteristics of virtual teams [7]
As Goh [4] further notes, the culture of
cooperation alone is not sufficient for a
successful transfer of knowledge. Culture must
encourage employees to search for problems,
solve them and consider them as a challenge and
opportunity to improve the quality of products
or services.
4. KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER IN
VIRTUAL TEAMS
Considering the existing literature of
knowledge management, knowledge transfer
and virtual teams, Sarker et al. [8] identified
four Cs (communication, capability, credibility
and culture), combined with individuals who
transfer significant amounts of knowledge to
remote members.
3. VIRTUAL TEAMS
The incentive for the formation of virtual
teams is an increasingly dynamic environment,
the complexity of tasks, globalization and
decentralized expertise and knowledge. When
specialists from different fields associate, the
effect of synergy is achieved, so certain task is
solved in the best way.
Mutual trust is a prerequisite for the
knowledge transfer. Numerous studies show that
mutual trust positively influences the knowledge
exchange [9,10]. Trust entails mutual concern,
reliability and competence. If there is trust
among the members of the virtual team, the
sharing of information will be freer, the
coordination of knowledge among team
members is more effective, and the quality of
shared knowledge and information is much
greater. Also, organizational context and
communication among the members of virtual
teams is essential for knowledge transfer.
Virtual teams support flatter organization
structure. Nothing is more substantial for
successfully virtual team performance than
Virtual teams are groups of people who
primarily cooperate through ICT in order to
connect physically distant members, with the
intent to achieve common goals. Unlike classic
teams, members of virtual teams can
communicate face-to-face only occasionally and
if necessary. The observed business connection
has the following basic characteristic: the
possibility of engaging experts regardless of
their geographical distance.
369
communication, because communication over
distance can make difficult transfer of
knowledge. Leaders of virtual teams must
ensure that team members get proof of effective
communication, enhance a sence of belonging
and build supportive environment. Some studies
indicate that a geographical dispersion has a
negative impact on more deeply tacit knowledge
transfer in virtual teams [11]. Wong and Burton
[12] finds that the success of knowledge transfer
in virtual teams depends on context (dispersion),
composition (organizational and cultural
heterogeneity) and structure (model of
relationships among members in virtual teams).
good communication tools that will be used by
team members and also the choice of
appropriate technology.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In
today’s
business
environment
characterized by competitiveness, fostering
economic development, more and more short
product life cycles, organizations must to found
virtual teams, in order to deal with the fast
changing ambience. Economics, standardization
of services and efficiency are criteria of modern
business and functioning of which impose the
necessity of forming virtual teams as a part of
inevitable globalization. Because of this facts,
virtual teams have attracted increasing interest
among researchers and practitioners.
Futher, Bosch-Sijtsema and Rispens [13]
developed a theoretical framework and social
network approach in order to stimulate
communication and knowledge transfer in
different knowledge field. They realized that by
using social network approach and assessing and
reusing the data with members of virtual team,
the communication structure within distributed
team became more obvious. In their case study,
two types of knowledge transfer were included:
organizational knowledge transfer, related to
way of virtual team organization and task
knowledge transfer, which refers to way of
problem solving. They found that the friendship,
good relationships and trust (social context)
made knowledge transfer easier.
Some research proposes that virtual team
members can’t believe that their behaviour in
traditional teams will be successful in virtual
environments. For knowledge transfer, virtual
collaboration and building trust among team
members, new improved type of communication
competencies is needed.
We should be aware of the fact that in spite
of many advantages that virtual teams offer,
they naturally limit the effectiveness of
knowledge flows, because of time and spatial
boundaries. The introduction of information
systems
can
increase
efficiency
and
productivity, eliminate unnecessary duplication
of data collection, increace the quality and
efficiency of work.
5. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
The main purpose of this paper was to
provide some insights, factors and major
challenges which affect to knowledge transfer in
virtual teams. This study has implications for
practitioners and future testable hypotheses
development for the academia in the field of
knowledge transfer and virtual teams. Greatest
challenges in working processes of virtual teams
are in maintaining good relationship among
team members, so cultural issues and differences
must
be
taken
into
consideration.
Communication is one of the most important
things in virtual team. It begins with selection of
Virtual teams are a great challenge that
requires a lot of tasks to be successfully guided
by managers. To be successful virtual teams
must be well structured, guided and supported.
Mutual trust of members must be at a high level,
because social relations are important for the
success of such teams and knowledge transfer.
7. REFERENCES
[1] D.A. Garvin, Competing on the eight
dimensions of quality. Harvard Business
Review (Nov.-Dec.) (1987), pp. 101-109.
370
[2] J.H. Arnold; D.C. Feldman; G. Hunt,
Organizational Behaviour: A Canadian
Perspective.
McGraw-Hill
Ryerson,
Toronto, (1992).
[12] S.S. Wong; R.M. Burton, Virtual teams:
What are their characteristics, and impact
on team performance? Computational &
Mathematical Organization Theory 6(4)
(2000), pp. 339-360.
[3] C. O’Dell; C.J. Jr. Grayson, Knowledge
transfer: Discover your value proposition.
Strategy & Leadership (Mart-April) (1999),
pp. 10-15.
[13] P.M.
Bosch-Sijtsema;
S.
Rispens,
Facilitating knowledge transfer in virtual
teams through a social network approach.
University of Groningen, (2003).
[4] S.C. Goh, Managing effective knowledge
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some practice implications. Journal of
Knowledge Management 6(1) (2002), pp.
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D.L.
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manage virtual teams. MIT Sloan
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[8] S. Sarker; D.B. Nicholson; K.D. Joshi,
Knowledge transfer in virtual systems
development teams: An exploratory study
of four key enablers. IEEE Transactions on
Professional Communication 48(2) (2005),
pp. 201-218.
[9] B. Renzl, Trust in management and
knowledge sharing: the mediating effects of
fear and knowledge documentation.
International Journal of Management
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[10] C. Zárraga; J. Bonache, Assessing the team
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empirical analysis. International Journal of
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371
The Role of Trust in Knowledge Sharing
Among Employees
A. Nešić a, D. Lalić
a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: {ana.nesic, danijela.lalic}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Trust among the employees is a significant prerequisite for establishing organizational relationships in
which individual knowledge is shared and thus organizational knowledge is increased. The process of
trust is created as a result of the realized expectations of an individual in relation to another individual
or group in the achievement of the natural and moral social order, as well as the expectations of
competence and correctness in business communications. This paper analyzes the role of trust in
knowledge sharing process in organizations, as well as key factors that link these two processes. The
matter of trust among employees became more significant lately, since great changes emerged in a
way of performing certain work processes. On the other hand, the highly specialized jobs and
knowledge which it requires, contribute to the conditions in which the transfer and sharing of
knowledge is one of the most important factors for the development of the organization.
Key words: trust, knowledge sharing, employees, organization
organization, various rules that secure trust, as
well as psychological categories such as the
power of emotion or motivation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Communication among employees in
organizations is focused on the free flow of
ideas and information, thus creating that
specific synergy, which leads to new solutions
and creative work. Modern business trends
have contributed to strengthening the
coherence between the organization and the
individual, at the same time, reinforcing the
impact on the way they are managed.
Trust is defined as the willingness of one
party to accept the actions of the other party on
the basis of the expectation that the other party
will carry out a particular action important to
ones, without the possibility of controlling its
work [1]. According to Zaheer and his
associates, trust is an individual tendency
towards belief in something that you have
determined [2]. Trust implies reliability on
both sides in communication, faith in good
intentions and ability of the other and
uncertainty in relationships [3]. The tendency
to trust is often seen as a personality trait, but it
can also be influenced and shaped in a culture
that is dominant in one society [4].
2. TRUST IN BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
Trust is a complex psychological and
sociological category, that refers to multilayered orientation towards other people. The
essence of trust is knowledge and experience,
as well as the belief that the established trust
will be maintained. The status of trust can be
influenced by membership in a particular
group, the role that an individual has in the
Multidimensionality
of
trust
in
organizational behavior involves consideration
of several dimensions of trust: trust in one's
ability, trust in one's intentions, contractual
372
knowledge-based trust and trust based on
identification [7]. On the other hand, there is a
routine trust [8], based on a combination of
rational foundation and psychologically
experienced cause. Benefits for all participants
in trust-based communication are reflected
through cohesion in joint activities, reduction
of potential opportunistic activities, reduction
in the use of formal contacts, greater reliability
in creating outcomes, predictability and
openness in communication, and increasing
effectiveness [9]. According to Mishra, there
are four dimensions of organizational trust:
competence, openness and honesty, care for
employees and reliability. Recent studies of
Shakley-Zalabak, Elis and Vineyards revealed
another factor that is of equal importance for
consideration, as well as the four listed - it is
identification [10].
trust, voluntary trust, interpersonal trust and
institutional trust. People have a need to trust
because of the fear of punishment if they do
not do what is expected of them, in order to
realize their own interests, to demonstrate
empathy, identification and friendship; or
simply because they want to give their trust.
The reasons for trust building, as well as the
basics on which trust is based are different.
Some scholars believe that there are three
different dimensions of trust - cognitive,
affective and emotional dimension, and also
the dimension of behavior.
The cognitive dimension implies that trust
is built after learning about the personal and
institutional characteristics of another person,
group, institution or system. The affective
dimension involves an emotional connection
and investment in the relationship of trust
between the actors, and the behavioral
dimension of trust involves taking the risk
during the action. Luis and Weigert argued that
trust in everyday life is a mixture of feelings
and rational thinking, which is not clearly
differentiated and it's very difficult to separate
them. Most often, in the literature, we actually
find the distinction between emotional trust
and cognitive trust, and both of it have been
studied in special research. Emotional trust is
the result of specific behaviors and perceptions
of an individual. Cognitive trust is based on
concrete relationships, such as common
experiences that contribute to reducing
insecurity in interpersonal relationships [5],
and both types of trust play a role in fostering
the exchange of information within the
organization [6].
High level trust organizations tend to create
products and services with lower costs, as
employees are more motivated, they take risks,
create innovations, they accept more easily the
vision, mission and values of the organization.
3. KNOWLEDGE SHARING IN
ORGANIZATIONS
Modern business has imposed requirements
to employees on more open and complex
business communication. In such conditions,
the problem of sharing and transferring
knowledge has been highlighted as one of the
key factors for successful business, especially
in service activities and organizations dealing
with information technology. Knowledge
transfer, seen as an organizational process,
plays a key role in creating new business
opportunities and generating new ideas [11].
The traditional concept of knowledge
management was essentially based on
information systems that would store
knowledge in the most adequate way, making
it readily accessible. The new knowledge
management model is based primarily on
employee engagement and on the mutual
There is also difference between the initial
trust, which occurs early in communications
and is based on affective, emotional and
cognitive signs, and a more lasting trust, based
on real experience between people at a given
time. As shown, concept of trust has been
examined through various aspects, of which,
probably the best known is the one from
authors Lewicki and Bunker, who distinguish
three levels of trust: trust based on calculation,
373
It is believed that organizational trust is
particularly important for creating new
knowledge and innovations. Organizational
learning is a process of acquiring new
knowledge and adapting to changes, so it is
often emphasized that organizational learning
is a special way of adaptation the organization
to external influences and changes. The
greatest part of the overall effect of
organizational trust in knowledge creation
arises from the direct effect of trust, as well as
from the indirect impact through the processes
of knowledge sharing. Creating a new
organizational knowledge requires the
confidence that must be contained in the
organizational culture [14].
transfer of knowledge, that is the basis for
development [12].
The basic principles in knowledge sharing
are: reciprocity that implies the equal benefit
of sharing knowledge both for the organization
and for the individual, then recognizing that
there is a shared ownership of knowledge
between the individual, the organization and
the wider community, as well as the
application and use of knowledge. The key
question that arises is why employees would
share knowledge if knowledge is their personal
competitive
advantage?
Under
what
circumstances does knowledge sharing
contribute to greater success?
One of the most important problems in
modern organizations is how to translate ones
knowledge into the understandable and
practically applicable knowledge of other
people and organizations as a whole. Under
conditions where knowledge is effectively
transmitted through an organization, the most
important result is improving employee
performance and improving organizational
performance [13]. According to researchers, in
organizations where there are no adequate
knowledge transfer mechanisms, there are a
number of problems that are always reflected
in the ultimate management and business of
the organization.
The complexity of the relationship between
these two phenomena has been shown by
numerous studies. For example, the study of
Chowdhury provides an empirical overview of
the impact of interpersonal trust on a complex
knowledge sharing, using dyads within the
team, as a unit of trust analysis and knowledge
sharing between two people working in the
team. The research has shown that even two
variables (gender diversity and team size)
control the level of trust within the dyad and it
significantly predicts the scope of complex
knowledge sharing. A practical conclusion
drawn from this extensive research shows that
trust must be developed between each member
of the team and not only among certain
individuals [15]. Different research on
relationships between trust and knowledge
sharing were based on the study of the effects
of alternative types of trust on a general
knowledge transfer [16]. McAllister develops
and empirically examines the difference
between the two types of trust: influence based
trust, build on mutual concern between
employees and trust based on knowledge, build
on the reliability and competence of associates.
Also, he questions the effects of how do
employees connect the impact on trust and
willingness of to share and use their
knowledge [17]. Research has shown that
influence based trust significantly affects
4. THE CONNECTION OF
TRUST AND KNOWLEDGE
SHARING
The basic prerequisite for transferring
knowledge
is
communication
among
employees, and this communication would
also certainly entail trust among the
participants. Linking trust and knowledge
sharing can be viewed through two
approaches: one approache refers to research
that consider that organizational trust directly
influence the creation of knowledge, and the
other one relates to opinions that reveal
indirect mechanisms of influence of trust on
knowledge sharing.
374
new results and future research will certainly
show other dimensions of these connections.
readiness to share individual invisible
knowledge, while trust based on cognitive
aspects (trust based on knowledge) has a
greater role in readiness to use it.
6. REFERENCES
The research of Swift and Hwang aimed at
showing differences in the level of knowledge
sharing between associates in conditions of
high and low trust level, on cognitive and
affective aspects of trust, as well as implicit
and explicit knowledge. The results revealed
significant differences in levels of knowledge
sharing in high and low trust frames, with the
effect greater for trust based on impact and
implicit knowledge [18]. The strategic
importance of sharing knowledge and its
relationship
with
organizational
and
management mechanisms has also been
explored through the consideration of personal
characteristics that contribute to the exchange
of knowledge through interpersonal trust,
which points to new, non-organizational
aspects that significantly influence the sharing
of knowledge in organizations [19]. One of the
questiones raised in knowledge management
refers to the establishment of policies and
procedures in the knowledge sharing process,
as well as clear knowledge management
strategies based on the trust of employees and
stakeholders in interaction [20].
[1] R.C. Mayer; J.H. Davis; F.D. Schoorman,
An integrative model of organizational
trust. Academy of Management Rewiev
20(3) (1995), pp. 709-734.
[2] A. Zaheer; B. McEvily; V. Perrone, Does
trust matter? Exploring the Effects of
inter-organizational and interpersonal
trust on performance. Organization
Science 9(2) (1998), pp. 141-159.
[3] C. Moorman; R. Deshpande´; G. Zaltman,
Factors affecting trust in market research
Relationships. Journal of Marketing 57
(1993), pp. 81-101.
[4] F. Fukuyama, Trust: The Social Virtues
and the Creation of Prosperity, The Free
Press, New York, (1995).
[5] C. Ziegler; J. Golbeck, Investigating
interactions of trust and interest similarity.
Decision Support System 43(2) (2007),
pp. 460-475.
[6] D. Levin; R. Cross, The strength of weak
ties you can trust: the mediating role of
trust in effective knowledge transfer.
Management Science 50(11) (2004), pp.
1477-1490.
5. CONCLUSION
Knowledge sharing process is one of the
most important prerequisites for the growth of
both organizations and employees. Factors that
condition it are primarily the adoption of new
knowledge of employees in organizations, but
also the communication in which trust among
employees contributes to the quality of
knowledge sharing and its consequences for
the organization, first indirectly, through
employee relations, and then directly through
economic performance. There is a large
number of scientific papers showing the
connection of trust and knowledge sharing,
which require more space for analysis. The
development of business relations will lead to
[7] R.J. Lewicki; B.B. Bunker, Developing
and
maintaining
trust
in
work
relationships. In: R.M. Kramer; T.R.
Tyler (Eds.) Trust in Organizations:
Frontiers of Theory & Research. Sage
Publications, (1996).
[8] B. Nooteboom, The trust process. In: B.
Nooteboom; F. Six (Eds.) The Trust
Process in Organizations: Empirical
studies of the Determinants and the
process of Trust development. Edward
Elgar Publishing Inc, (2003).
[9] R. Steppanen; K. Blomqvist; S.
Sundqvist, Measuring inter-organizational
375
trust – a critical review of the empirical
research
in
1990-2003.
Industrial
Marketing Management 36 (2007), pp.
249-265.
[19] T. Mooradian; B. Renzl; K. Matzler, Who
Trusts? Personality, Trust and Knowledge
Sharing. Management Learning 37(4)
(2006), pp. 523-540.
[10] P. Shockley-Zalabak; K. Ellis; G.
Winograd, Organizational trust: What it
means, why it matters. Organization
Development Journal 18(4) (2000), pp.
35-48.
[20] E. Bertino; L. Khan; R. Sandhu; B.
Thuraisingham,
Secure
knowledge
management: confidentiality, trust, and
privacy. Transaction on Systems, Man
and Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and
Humans 36(3) (2006), pp. 429-438.
[11] D. Teece, Strategies for managing
knowledge assets: the role of firm
structure and industrial context. Long
Range Planning 33 (2000), pp. 35-54.
[12] J. Duffy, Knowledge management: What
every information professional should
know. Information Management Journal
34(3) (2000), pp. 10-16.
[13] M. Alavi; D. Leinder, Knowledge
management and knowledge manageent
systems: conceptual foundation and
research issues. MIS Quarterly 25(1)
(2001), pp. 107-136.
[14] A. Sankowska, Trust, knowledge creation
and mediating effects of knowledge
transfer processes. Journal of Economics
and Management 23(1) (2016), pp. 33-44.
[15] S. Chowdhury, The Role of affect- and
cognition-based
trust
in
complex
knowledge sharing. Journal of Managerial
Issues 17(3) (2005), pp. 310-326.
[16] L. Lucas, The impact of trust and
reputation on the transfer of best
practices.
Journal
of
Knowledge
Management 9 (4) (2005), pp. 87-101.
[17] D. De Long; L. Fahey, Diagnosing
cultural
barriers
to
knowledge
management. Academy of Management
Executive 14 (2000), pp. 113-127.
[18] P.E. Swift; A. Hwang, The impact of
affective and cognitive trust on
knowledge sharing and organizational
learning. The Learning Organization
20(1) (2012), pp. 20-37.
376
The Differences between IT and Non-IT
Companies with Respect to Internal
Additional Compensations
S. Todorović a, M. Radišić a, D. Stefanović
a
a
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia,
E-mail: todorovic.sanja1989@gmail.com, {mladenr, darkoste}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
The paper aims to present variables that can highlight general differences between IT (information
technologies) and non-IT companies with respect to overall internal additional compensation policies.
IT sector has experienced a significant development over the last 10 years and was manifested as the
most efficient in the economies all over the world, including developing markets. It is thus interesting
to present potential variables that can help in realizing whether there are some general differences
present between IT and non-IT firms in this particular domain of personnel management. Therefore,
this paper presents potential variables to be observed in order to determine differences of
compensation systems with respect to internal additional compensations. Implementation of welldefined internal additional compensations policy, i.e. additional material and non-material
compensations policy, could equip a company with higher employees satisfaction, better motivation
and, consequently, better business results which is the main goal of every enterprise. The companies
should make adjustments of their compensation systems continuously and in accordance with the
specific needs, increase the effectiveness of compensation incentives and ultimately realize the goal
of attracting, retaining and stimulating employees
Keywords: IT and non-IT companies, additional compensations, compensations timing
compensation policy and more focus on
additional compensations in order to keep their
employees.
1. INTRODUCTION
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
take significant roles in many industry branches.
Therefore, SMEs as the driving force of
economic growth have an important effect on
the economic activity. The basic characteristic
of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
is flexibility, which means that they experience
fast adaptation to everyday market changes.
SMEs are the most important actors for
developing
innovation,
competitiveness,
entrepreneurship and the establishment of an
effective innovation system for both advanced
and developing countries.
„Nowadays, when market environment is
more and more globalized, brand value building
and managing is a significant challenge for
managers” [1]. Therefore, well-designed
compensation
policy
and
employees
satisfactions are important factor in the
development of business results (e.g. revenues)
in SMEs. The process of improving
competencies of employees in SMEs affects the
motivation, satisfaction and success at the
individual level and the productivity and the best
business results at the organizational level.
Recent years showcase that it has been
important for SMEs to make well-designed
377
expected utility
productivity. [7]
2. SME AND COMPENSATIONS
The SME plays an important part in modern
economy, proving to be the most attractive
innovative system and good employement
posture.
increases
with
observed
„Compensation is output and the benefit that
employee receive in the form of pay, wages and
also same rewards like monetary exchange for
the employee’s to increases the performance”
[8].
Peter Drucker said that small enterprises
represent the main factor of economic
development.
„Those
small
businesses
contribute intensely to
achieving the
fundamental goals to any national economy,
becoming the backbone of social-economical
progress” [2].
The most common division of compensations
is into basic (wages/salaries) and additional. [9],
[10]. The goal of basic compensations is to
ensure material position of employees and to
improve it at the same time, while additional
compensations are more of ad hoc nature and
can be further divided into material and nonmaterial additional compensations. Whether
they take a form of additional material
compensations (bonuses - usually in cash,
benefits, stocks and options, etc.) or additional
non-material compensations (e.g. professional
training, development programs, etc.), additional
compensations are considered as operational
costs that top-up fixed personnel costs.
When we speak about their definition, SMEs
are usualy defined by the number of employees.
SMEs have a range of 0-250 employees. [3]
Small businesses’ size standards vary by the
industry within which the business operates:
construction,
manufacturing,
mining,
transportation, wholesale trade, retail trade, and
services. [4]
In many developed and developing countries,
SMEs form a large part of private sector. „Small
and medium size firms face larger growth
constraints and have less access to formal
sources of external finance, potentially
explaining the lack of SMEs contribution to
growth” [5].
There are two forms of compensations for
employees: basic and additional.
Basic compensation (salaries / wages) are
made up of different forms of motivation
which are directed to ensure and improve
the material position of employees and are
considered as material compensation for
the work.
2.1. Compensations
„Compensation refers to all forms of
financial returns and benefits that an employee
receives as a part of an employment contract”
[6].
Additional compensation consists of
various types of benefits and long term
incentives and it can be divided into
material and non-material.
A completly understanding of policy of
compensations is very important to developing a
viable theory of the firm, since these incentives
determine to a large extent how individuals
inside an organization behave.
Additional material compensation - an
individual incentive in the form of cash or
other equivalent that an employee
receives.
The higher performance requires greater
effort or that it is in some other way associated
with disutility on the part of workers that
economic models of compensation generally
assume. The existence of reward systems that
structure compensation so that a worker's
Additional non-material compensation the one that contributes to raising the
skills and knowledge of employees and
where they do not receive cash or other
equivalent from their employer.
378
Support from enterprises, whether in the
form of an additional material compensation or
non-material compensation for them represents a
financial cost. It is necessary to determine how
much of the total cost is allocated to
salary/wages and how much to the additional
compensation.
normally concerned with limited size especially
salient with regard to innovation and finance.
[13]
One study in India concluded that a
significant difference in the mean agreeability
scores on financial and non-financial
performances of SMEs exists when it comes to
examining relationship and impact of
compensation and rewards practices on
organizational performance. [14]
2.2. IT and non-IT SMEs
IT sector has experienced a significant
development over the last 10 years and was
manifested as the most efficient in the
economies all over the world, including
developing markets. Nowadays most of the big
international companies found that virtual
communications are very useful. They can use it
to hold a virtual conference between companies
in different countries at any time and any day.
Well-performing small firms in developed
economies use more of material (e.g. cash)
incentive compensation at every level in the
organization. [15]
3. POTENTIAL VARIABLES TO
BE OBSERVED
“The importance of existence of a strong and
dynamic high technology companies sector in
the current world economy is enormous as it
largely influences the potential for global
competitiveness of individual nations or regions.
In the developed, post-industrial economies the
high technology companies sector is commonly
regarded as the area with the largest use of and
dependence on the so called special means of
production – knowledge and human resources”
[11]. In this article, the author concluded that IT
companies invest in knowledge and education of
employees, which is one of the most important
segments
of
additional
non-material
compensations. [11]
The main goal of every successful enterprise
is implementation of well-defined internal
additional compensations policy, i.e. additional
material and non-material compensations policy,
that could equip a company with higher
employees satisfaction, better motivation and,
consequently, better individual and in the end
business results. The companies should make
increase the effectiveness of compensation
incentives, adjustments of their compensation
systems continuously and in accordance with the
specific needs, and ultimately realize the goal of
stimulating, attracting, and retaining employees.
When we have focused on IT and non-IT
companies, it should be further researched the
differences between IT and non-IT companies
with
respect
to
internal
additional
compensations.
Non-IT SMEs have limited financial resources
which represents a huge problem with respect to
additional non-material compensations.
We can conclude, based on some research,
the existence of differences between IT and nonIT companies with respect to internal additional
compensations, where high-tech firms generally
pay higher levels of total compensation than
low-tech firms and grant larger amounts of
additional compensation. [12]
In addition to many variables that can be
observed to determine the difference between IT
and non-IT companies with respect to internal
additional compensations, we can focus on
several variables that can support owners and
managers in understanding the best possible
relation between investment in more
compensation and potential business outcome on
organizational level. Such variables can be used
for further amplify the relationship between
The first challenge in providing employee
benefits (EB) is an issue of additional costs.
SMEs’ biggest developmental challenges
379
additional compensations policy and revenues.
Herewith we present four variables and they are
given in Figure 1. These include the following:
Observed variables and their interaction can
help SME owners and managers and give a
framework pattern useful for day-to-day
business operations when deciding on additional
compensations realization. Therefore, defined
compensation policy will effectively respond to
these challenges and ensure that the enterprise
offers a flexible response to every change in the
frequently turbulent environment.
Industry sector to which SMEs belong
(differentiation between IT and non-IT).
The IT sector has developed significantly
over the last 10 years and proved a great
success in the economy around the world.
It would be interesting to compare it with
other sectors SMEs and show results.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Employee
category
receiving
an
additional compensation (differentiation
between management and operations). It
would be interesting to determine and
compare whether there are differences
between employee levels, i.e. to present
how and in which way management and
operations levels are compensated.
The commercialization of IT is widespread
throughout the world, so that IT can create new
business opportunities. IT also enhances the
competitiveness by integrating the supply chain
partners with the inter-organizational functions.
[16]. Across many industry branches and within
numerous SMEs additional compensations
policy has become widely applicable and it
strives to provide added-value to employees. At
the same time, it should have a clear cost-benefit
analysis for entrepreneurs and owners and
managers and this paper contributes in this
respect. Therefore, the expected contribution of
this paper can help professional business owners
and
managers
are
given
additional
compensations insight useful for their day-today business operations. This might help them
to understand better how certain observed
variables influence the overall revenues growth,
by exploring the cross-sectoral differences.
Interval (percentage) top-up on basic
compensations costs (i.e. percentage of
total fixed costs for staff). Likert scale
which represents different intervals of
percentage of total fixed costs for staff
could be used.
Timing of compensation (number of
quarters in a year when additional
compensation is performed). Usually,
compensations are made quarterly,
biannually or once per year. It would be
interesting to divide compensations in
four quarters (I, II, III and IV) and enable
selection of multiple quarters at the same
time.
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Fig. 1. Compensations-revenues dependence observed
variables
380
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381
Examining the Impact of Lean Tools on
Time-Based Efficiency and Inventory
Performance in the Conditions of
Transitional Economy
D. Blažić a, M. Delić a, I. Ćosić a, V. Vrhovac a, M. Žižakov
a
a
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6, 21000
Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: dragan92blazic@gmail.com, {delic, ilijac, violeta.vrhovac,
marinazizakov}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the nature of relationships between Lean tools and
organizational performances. Specifically, the impact of Lean tools implementation on time-based
efficiency and inventory performances was studied, with the particular interest on how aforementioned research constructs are coupled in the conditions of transitional economy. For the research
purposes, a questionnaire as a research instrument was distributed to 217 organizations. The sample
was consisted of respondents from various industry sectors. The results show that not all Lean tools
have a positive effect on organizational performances. In particular, the effects of 5S and One-peace
flow are the only tools that produce statistically significant impact on organizational performance (i.e.
time-based efficiency). Bearing in mind that studies from developed economies are, in most cases,
proponents of positive impact, the results of this study are contradictory in nature. Such shortcomings
might be due to the unfavourable climate and transitional conditions, in which research organizations
tend to manage their everyday business.
Keywords: lean tools and practices, time-based efficiency, inventory, organizational performance
efficiency and productivity, with improved
speed of delivery, minimum stock levels and
optimum quality [4].
1. INTRODUCTION
The enterprise environment is highly
changing and uncertain due to many factors of
which globalisation, shorter product lifecycle,
increased product variety, etc.; therefore the
manufacturing systems have to be agile or
flexible to face such changing environment
while keeping high performance [1]. To achieve
dramatic result in cost, quality and time, best
strategies need to be applied to enhance the
process performance [2]. Lean manufacturing
has been widely used to increase operational
excellence and performance in manufacturing
systems [3].
Lean manufacturing should be considered
not just a set of tools and techniques, even that
involves a large set of them, but a working
philosophy that adopted by the company can
make significant improvements in terms of their
operational performance [5].
The relationship of Lean tools and timebased efficiency and inventory have been
examined in this paper. In accordance with the
literature, the included Lean tools in this paper
are: Kanban, Continuous Flow manufacturing,
Visual Management (VM), Statistical Process
Control (SPC), Total Productivity Maintenance
The Lean manufacturing practices enable
companies to gain increasingly high level of
382
5 items grouped into dependent variable
- inventory.
(TPM), 5S Housekeeping, Value Stream
Mapping
(VSM),
Poka-Yoke,
Cellular
manufacturing (CM), Standardize Work, SingleMinute Exchange of Dies (SMED) and Onepiece Flow.
2.2. Dimensions and hypotheses
Following, brief explanations of each
independent dimension in the model are given
and hypotheses are presented.
The effect of aforementioned dimensions on
time-based efficiency and inventory has been
examined using multiple regression analysis.
Kanban: By providing more control at the
operational level and reducing the risk of
material shortage Kanban is viewed as an
efficient system for the improvement of the
process flow between suppliers, manufacturing
warehouse and the assembly line [6].
Implementation of Kanban supports decrease of
WIP inventory and reduction of non-value
added time. Based on these facts, the following
assumption was set:
The findings reveal that dimensions 5S and
One-piece flow show positive effect on timebased efficiency.
Even it is found, in most cases, that the
implementation of Lean tools provides a very
useful basis for the improvement of
organizational performance in developing
countries, it seems that some of the key
dimensions do not affect organizational
performances in an unfavourable environment as
expected.
H1: Kanban has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
Layout - Continuous flow manufacturing:
The results from different studies show that
continuous flow is crucial for Lean
manufacturing implementation (Zahraee 2016).
Continuous flow manufacturing should provide
an effective material flow path with no
backtracking,
congestion,
undesirable
intersections with other paths, and bypassing [7]
where the efficiency of a layout is typically
measured in terms of material handling
(transportation) cost [8]. The optimization of the
layout of a plant can improve productivity,
safety and quality of products. The layout
optimization allows reducing materials handling
and storage. [7] The aforementioned statements
imply following assumptions:
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
2.1.
Measures,
questionnaire
development, distribution and data
gathering
Developing of the questionnaire was in
accordance with Saraph, et al. (1989) using a
five-points Likert scale to obtain subjective
assessments by the respondents (Nunnally,
1994).
516 (72.98%), of total 707 organizations
which were contacted, have taken part in this
research.
To each organization an electronic version of
the questionnaire was distributed and 217
(30.69%), of total 516 organizations which have
participated, filled out the questionnaire, after a
three-month period.
H2:
Layout
continuous
flow
manufacturing has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
Visual management (VM): As a response to
complex and heavily textual work instructions,
which rarely assist the overall operational
performance [9], adoption of visual management
(VM) has been gaining on importance. VM can
be explained as economically affordable and
effective sensory information tools integrated
into the workplace in order to increase the
The research instrument contained:
12 dimensions of Lean concepts,
5 items grouped into dependent variable
- time-based efficiency and
383
information availability and transparency [9],
(Tezel et al. 2016). VM has demonstrated
practical implications such as reduction in
process and motion wastes and delivery delays
[10], [11] and better utilization of resources. In
accordance to the previously said, the following
assumption was set:
designate different types of tools for easy
access, enhancing productivity of the shop [14].
Moreover, workplace standardization increases
space utilization, decreases redundant workers
movements, time and material, improves
productivity and safety and helps decrease of
inventory. This implies:
H3: VM has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
H6: 5S has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
Statistical process control (SPC): Unstable
and uncontrollable process results in production
of nonconforming product, which affect the
overall production performance. To overcome
this, the implementation of SPC is being
proposed, in order to achieve continuous
improvement of the production capabilities [12].
The purpose of SPC implementation is to
improve the product quality, improve
productivity, reduce wastes, reduce defects and
improve customer values [13] and to identify the
significant defect and reduce the process
variations to consistently produce more
conforming products, consequently contributing
to the cost improved manufacturing process
[14]. This implies:
Value Stream Mapping (VSM): VSM is
viewed as a basis of the Lean strategy on the
most important measures of operational
performance, i.e. speed, quality, flexibility and
cost. Studies show that application of VSM
facilitates
identification
of
different
improvement possibilities necessary for
accomplishment of results, such as WIP
reduction, reduction of final products inventory
and decrease of processing time [14]. On this
basis, the following assumption was set:
H7: VSM has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
Root cause analysis and elimination
(RCA): Root cause analysis presents a problem
solving method used to identify the root causes
of problems, acting as a pro-active tool of
continuous improvement [15]. A case study in a
manufacturing company [15] marked that
reducing process variations results in a higher
quality product and financial savings from
reducing scrap, defects, labor costs, etc.
Accordingly, we assume the following:
H4: SPC has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
Total Productivity Maintenance (TPM):
The TPM technique helps the companies to fare
well in terms of setup time and cost reduction
[14]. Used as a tool to prevent failures and
delays in the manufacturing process TPM is led
by the implication that all the facilities and
machines are maintained in controlled working
conditions. Related to this, the aim is to
maximize overall equipment effectiveness
(OEE), implying that facilities are at maximum
utilization level, without malfunctions and
scrapped products or semi-final products,
eliminating the possibilities for additional costs.
Accordingly, the assumption is:
H8: Root cause analysis and elimination
has a positive effect on time efficiency and
inventory
Cellular manufacturing (CM): CM
indicates that the entire process is systemized for
a particular product or related products into a set
or cell that includes all the necessary equipment,
machines and operators (Zahraee 2016a).
Among
many
techniques
in
Lean
manufacturing, cellular manufacturing is
associated mainly with the inventory and the
lead times [15]. Existing literature reveals that
the main motives for implementation of CM are
H5: TPM has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
5S Housekeeping: The purpose of the 5S
application is to discard unnecessary tools and
384
minimization of the throughput time,
improvement of the product quality, reduction of
the WIP levels and stocks which furthermore
decrease the cost. On this basis, the following
assumption was set:
3. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
3.1. Regression analysis and results
Focus area of this research model is impact
of Lean tools on time-based efficiency and
inventory performance. Using SPSS software
(V2.3), multiple linear regression is performed
to examine the impact of Lean tools on
dependent variables (time-based efficiency and
inventory).
H9: CM has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
Standardize
work:
It
is
highly
recommended to create work instructions for
standard operation procedures (since they make
it certain that the processes are consistent,
timely and repeatable), as a result high overall
performance and enhance human effectiveness
in production processes would be ensured [15].
Thus, the assumption is:
Correlation coefficients between these
dimensions should indicate the level of Lean
tools influence on time reduction and inventory
performance improvement, which are a desired
outcome.
H10: Standardize work has a positive effect
on time efficiency and inventory
Delivered R2 (0.481), i.e. R2 (0.476) implies
adequate relationship between Lean tools (5S
and One-piece Flow) and time-based efficiency
and inventory, where Lean constructs depicts
48% of variation in time-based efficiency
performance, i.e. 47% in inventory (Figure 1).
SMED - change-over times: The SMED
technique represents Lean tool intended to
reduce waste in the production system and to
standardize machine changeover times [16],
[17]. Although, the main goal of SMED is to
reduce machine changeover time, with the
standardization of the changeover necessary
resources are planned and quantified, enabling
inclusion of certain improvements to reduce
necessary resources (Lozano et al. 2016). We
assume the following:
According to the obtained results, hypotheses
H(11) and H(23) are not being rejected. Onepiece Flow has the greatest positive influence on
time-based efficiency; it obtains significance
path value with 0.007. Significance path
coefficient with 0.036 has 5S concept, as the
last, but not least, tool which has positive impact
on time-based efficiency (Figure 1).
H11: SMED has a positive effect on time
efficiency and inventory
On the other hand, Lean tools that showing
no significant impact (significance path
coefficient > 0.05) on time-based efficiency are:
Kanban, Continuous Flow, Visual Management,
SPC, TPM, VSM, Poka-Yoke, Autonomous
Work Units, Standardization and SMED.
Considering this, assumptions H(1), H(3), H(5),
H(7), H(9), H(13), H(15), H(17), H(19), H(21)
are being rejected.
One-piece flow: One-piece flow is Lean
tools mostly used for reduction of inventory
(Belekoukias et al. 2014). From an economic
point of view, short throughput times, high
schedule reliability, high utilization and low
work in progress inventory are very important
logistic objectives [18]. The following
assumption was set:
H12: One-piece flow has a positive effect on
time efficiency and inventory
Nevertheless, all hypotheses that describe
impact of Lean tools on inventory are being
rejected.
385
Fig. 1. Research model
j) ratio of finished products stock value
and raw materials stock is constantly
decreasing.
3.2. Correlation analysis
To investigate existence of correlation
between manifest variables which built
dependent variables (time-based efficiency and
inventory), correlation analysis is performed
using SPSS software (V2.3).
Correlation coefficients between these
dimensions indicate the existence of a
significantly high degree. It is a positive sign of
all correlation coefficients, which could mean
that with the growth / fall of one variable, the
other variable will increase / decrease (table 1).
Manifest variables which built time-based
efficiency are:
a) the average preparation time for a new
product is constantly decreasing,
Shown in the table 1, the highest degree of
correlation coefficient is between manifest
variables b (the average lead time is constantly
decreasing) and c (the average tact time is
constantly decreasing) with r = 0.811, but the
lowest degree is between manifest variables e
(the average time for development of new
product is constantly decreasing) and j (ratio of
finished products stock value and raw materials
stock is constantly decreasing) with r = 0.257.
b) the average lead time is constantly
decreasing,
c) the average tact time is constantly
decreasing,
d) the average unavailability of equipment
is constantly decreasing,
e) the average time for development of
new product is constantly decreasing.
Manifest variables which built inventory are:
3.3. Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)
f) profit is constantly increasing,
g) annual turnover of
constantly increasing,
inventories
In order to identify the presence of
multicollinearities between the independent
variables in regression analysis, the most
commonly used is the Variance Inflation Factor
(VIF) and Tolerance Test.
is
h) ratio of inventory value and total income
is constantly decreasing,
i) ratio of value of incomplete production
and total sales is constantly decreasing,
386
Table 1. Correlation analysis between manifest variables - Pearson Correlation
Manifest variables
Mean
StDev
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
a
3.70
1.136
1
b
3.67
1.180
.767**
1
c
3.29
1.231
.699**
.811**
1
d
3.63
1.095
.674**
.641**
.636**
1
e
3.45
1.162
.545**
.490**
.549**
.581**
1
f
3.56
1.148
.548**
.499**
.392**
.495**
.418**
1
g
3.23
1.073
.474**
.520**
.438**
.451**
.371**
.567**
1
h
3.19
1.000
.390**
.533**
.480**
.410**
.309**
.363**
.444**
1
i
3.55
0.996
.595**
.631**
.538**
.513**
.405**
.500**
.485**
.474**
1
j
3.20
1.038
.534**
.541**
.479**
.506**
.257*
.410**
.367**
.779**
.706**
1
** Statistically significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed),* Statistically significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Both tests show that there is no presence of
multicollinearity between independent variables.
Multicollinearity is when there is correlation
between predictors (i.e. independent variables)
in a model; it’s presence can adversely affect
regression results. The numerical value for VIF
means what percentage the variance is inflated
for each coefficient. VIFs are calculated by
taking a predictor and regressing it against every
other predictor in the model.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This paper is a contribution to the
organizational performance. Its subject is the
impact of Lean tools on organizational
performances such as time-based efficiency and
inventory in transition conditions. The results
confirm significant relationships between some
Lean dimensions (One-piece Flow and 5S) and
time-based efficiency.
A rule of thumb for interpreting the variance
inflation factor:
≤ 1 - not correlated,
1 ≤ x ≤ 5 - moderately correlated,
> 5 - highly correlated.
It is assumed that the main causes of
unexpected results are insufficient awareness of
employees about benefits of applying Lean tools
and insufficient top management commitment in
strategic planning of introduction of Lean in
varied contexts.
Last, but not the least, tolerance above 0.1
indicates presence of multicollinearity. VIF and
Tolerance tests were performed and results are
shown in the table 2.
Table 2. VIF and Tolerance test (1/VIF)
Independent variables
Kanban
Continuous flow
Visual Management
SPC
TPM
5S
VSM
Auton. Work Units
Standardization
SMED
One-piece Flow
VIF
1.808
1.481
2.515
2.719
2.802
1.702
2.065
1.300
1.986
1.891
1.777
Based on these results, it can be argued that
the benefits of applying Lean tools in transition
conditions are arguable and probably
predetermined by various factors, such as
production characteristics, size of the plant,
geographic location and organizational structure.
1/VIF
0,55
0,67
0,40
0.37
0.36
0.59
0,48
0.77
0.50
0.53
0.56
Nevertheless, according to the experiences of
some authors, some organizations in Serbia
apply Lean tools. Success of application of Lean
tools in these organizations represent good
business practice with a healthy core of
systematic improvement of performance and
organizational culture.
387
[10] J.H. Ablanedo-Rosas; B. Alidaee; J.C.
Moreno; J. Urbina, Quality improvement
supported by the 5S, an empirical case
study
of
Mexican
organisations.
International Journal of Production
Research 48(23) (2010), pp. 7063-7087.
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388
Organizational Culture in e-Learning: A
Key for Business Success
B. Sokolović a, B. Milić a, I. Katić
a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, E-mail: drakula.bojana@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper discusses the theoretical and practical nature and quality of relations between
organizational culture and e-learning processes within organizations. In multinational businesses with
a global presence, work groups often span between distant offices, co-working space and even private
homes and hotels, commonly known as virtual teams. Technology allows companies to use the best
global talent and drastically reduce their costs, but this available technology can also be used to
deliver educational content through internet or intranet networks and offer flexible learning solutions
to employees who already manage their work flexibly. The main purpose of this paper is to stress the
importance of e-learning within organizations and discuss the possible effects of organizational
culture which is seen as an important prerequisite for successful e-learning implementation.
Keywords: organizational culture, e-learning, virtual teams
technology to manage learning within an
organization.
1. INTRODUCTION
In multinational businesses with global
presence, e-learning is recognized as a
prerequisite to doing business in manner of
development and implementation knowledge
through the companies, achieving best results
and decrease the costs, respecting different
cultural values of employees, as well as other
stakeholders. It provides easier adjustment to
modern ways of doing business. Organizations
tend to recognize themselves as more flexible,
identifying major trends of E-learning for
employees and managers. Organizational culture
playing a crucial role in learning processes,
changing
processes,
communication,
competency system which imply business
according to the right development in the
modern age. Most researchers and practitioners
agree that culture, however it is defined, plays
an important role in virtually every aspect of an
organization’s performance.
2. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizational culture can be defined as “the
pattern of basic assumptions that a given group
has invented, discovered and developed in
learning to cope with its problems of external
adaptation and internal integration, and that have
worked well enough to be considered valid, and,
therefore to be tough to new members as the
correct way to perceive, think, and feel in
relation to these problems”. A given group is a
set of people who have been together long
enough to have shared significant problems,
who have had opportunities to solve those
problems and to observe the effects of their
solutions, and who have taken in new members.
A group’s culture cannot be determined unless
there is such a definable set of people with a
shared history [1]. Corporate culture has a
determinant role in the working environment. As
per the knowledge-based view theory of
It was discussed challenges of culture with
respect to its impact upon the use of information
389
and learning, disseminating information and
knowledge in institutions of higher learning and
organizations. However, it continues to be
challenging to fully engage all academicians and
employees in productive use of the available elearning offerings. The shift to e-learning and
mobile learning represents an organizational
cultural change. It needs to be demonstrated to
academicians and employees that e-learning is
not only about using technology but more about
delivering improved and effective methods of
teaching and learning.
organizational culture, personal ideas are
considered as an intangible asset, which plays a
vital role in corporate development. It is difficult
to define culture as one concept, since it can be
defined variously according to perspective or
purpose, but culture can be referred to as a
collective term of all the things acquired by
learning. Accordingly, organizational culture
means a culture formed in accordance with
organizational goals by sharing the things
acquired by learning, and comprises all the
values, activities, philosophy, ideals of an
organization. Once formed, it does not change
easily. It greatly affects the values and
behaviours of employees as well as organization
performances [2].
E-learning systems can assure employees
flexible access to learning contents, regardless
of the location of the workplace, gender and
cultural differences [4].
VIRTUAL TEAMS – in the literature
3. E-LEARNING
Authors [9] examined in their paper few
questions related to Global virtual teams: 1)
what are the cross-cultural challenges faced by
global virtual teams? 2) how do organizations
develop a knowledge sharing culture to promote
effective organizational learning among
culturaly-diverse team members? And 3) what
are some of the practices that can help maximize
the the performance of global virtual teams?
E-learning is often described as a learning
process that is delivered, enabled or mediated by
electronic technology for the explicit purpose of
training in organizations [3]. It is often utilized
to foster professional development as it is
capable of delivering information and
knowledge to individuals across organizations.
[4]. E-learning systems can offer multiple standalone courses that do not require an instructor’s
physical presence and learners get to control
their own learning process [5].
Virtual temas exclusively use information
and communication technologies exclude social
or physical presence and rely on a
depersonalized form of communication between
team members. [10] Virtual teams must
accommodate diverse national cultural values
and norms. Cultural dimensions also extend to
the level of teams. At the team level, values,
beliefs and norms are observed in team cultures
that determine the organization, distribution and
coordination, communication and monitoring of
work.this characteristics are believed to affect
virtual team performance [11]. Virtual teams are
considered as one of the new forms of
knowledge sharing. These type of teams require
state-of-the-art communication and learning
capabilities for different team members to
effectively work together across cultural,
organizational and geographical boundaries.
This is feasible with assistance of modern
Adopting information technology (IT) is
essential for organizations because it influences
work performance, organizational culture and
organizational development [6]. IT provides a
practical way to deliver information and
knowledge within organizations and to support
employees’ learning opportunities overall. Chen
and Hsiang [7] argued that e-learning should
help foster a learning organization and an
organizational culture based on knowledge
sharing. According to some authors [8]
informational
technologies
in
global
organizations has been used to support learning,
enhance performance development and promote
organizational development and growth.
E-learning and mobile learning are becoming
more popular as an effective method of teaching
390
Authors G.Dafoulas and Linda Macaulay[14]
research virtual software development teams and
how cultural differences between them or their
members may affect activities in different stages
of the learning. Cultural differences are one of
the most important issues that should be
addressed for the teams to work effectively.
Finally they suggested what kind of support is
necessary for effective solve conflicts, how to
form teams, how to allocate roles, and how to
manage software engineering project in
culturally different environment.
information and communication technologies. It
is important to create a knowledge-sharing
culture within virtual teams, providing intrateam respect, mutual trust, reciprocity and
positive individual and group relationship. [12]
4. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
AND E-LEARNING IN THE
LITERATURE
A handful of studies from a limited group of
researchers have examined the impact of
organizational culture on e-learning.
5. CONCLUSION
Yoo and Huang [4] investigated the effect of
e-learning systems on increasing development of
learning organizations in the service companies
in South Korea. In this study, information
technologies were used in e-learning systems for
communication and assistance in learning and
employee development. The results of this
emphasises the critical role of e-learning
systems for the development of learning
organizations within the workplace in South
Korea. The authors suggest that HR
professionals should consider creating specific
roles that would use technology to contribute to
creating a stronger workplace culture.
As the available communication media
becomes more sophisticated and advanced, while
the technology costs are lowering down, the
trends in organizational learning will tend to be
more and more virtual. Organizations are, and
will be, facing many challenges. On the one
hand, organizations are being spread across
different locations and cultures, while trying to
achieve the same goals and be guided with same
mission, vision and values. While the researchers
are dealing with the challenges of cultural
differences it is crucial to stress the importance
of fostering the organizational culture that is
going to help employees who are different on so
many levels to blend in virtual organization of
effectively collaborating and coordinating
members. While it is important to get a bigger
picture in global context, it is also important to
shift research on organizational level. Every
researcher and
manager dealing with
organizational culture needs to be aware of the
multiplexity and multiple dimensions of
organizational culture.
Other researchers argued impacts of cultural
differences and have not investigated the
cultural impact on the organizational level.
For example, Nathan [13] examined how
adults learn and what is the influence of their
cultural background on their approach to
learning. In this study he focused on manner in
which technology is used to deliver learning
solutions. He presented several issues in
practical learning methodologies caused by
technology. For instance, while broadband
Internet access is not available everywhere in
the world, a single multinational organization
may have a slowdown in e-learning. If the
learners have access to e-learning technology,
the flexibility and potential cultural neutrality of
that environment may in fact allow more
learning across cultures.
Studying the organization related to elearning we can conclude that every business has
to become global. It means organizational culture
have to become global. Over the last few years,
differences between national culture become less
significant. Using the internet and computers in
every field of work and our daily life, differences
between people, and as well companies in
different countries are reduced. Organizational
391
[5] S. Byun; S Lee, SEOUL: Korean Research
Institution for Vocational Education and
Training, Evaluation e-learning institutions,
(2007).
culture based on that assumptions make it easier
to implement e-learning in the companies. This
way companies are faced with challenge to
educate and train employees multicultural, to
evolve adaptive experiences related to new
media uses, to use digital and internet tools in
their daily business, to communicate using
technologies such as presentations, e-platforms,
e-mails and online networks of commerce and
exchange. For conclusion, organizational culture
should be adjusted to new way of doing business
in the age of electronic communications
supporting global gender differences, different
languages, visual symbols, implementing eplatforms, evolve digital skills of employees and
e-communications.
[6] A. Daghfous, Industrial modernization
initiatives:
a
technology
transfer,
organizational learning and knowledge
management perspective. International
Journal of Management and Enterprise
Development, (2004).
[7] R. Chen; C. Hsiang, A study on the critical
success factors for corporations embarking
on knowledge community-based e-learning,
informational Sciences, (2007).
[8] A.D. Benson, S. Johnson, P. Kuchinke, The
use of technology in the digital workplace:
A framework for Human Resource
development. Advances in Developing
Human Resouces, (2002).
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper represents a part of a research in
Project “Improving the competitiveness of
Serbia in the EU accession process” (No. 47028)
funded by Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of the Republic of
Serbia.
[9] Norhavati Zakaria, Andrea Amelinckx and
David Wilemon, Working Together Apart?
Building a knowledge-Sharing Culture for
Global
Virtual
Teams,
Blackwell
Publishing Ltd, (2004).
[10] Ketrow, S.M., Nonverbal Aspect of Group
Communication, The Handbook of Group
Communication Theory and Research, Sage
Thousand Oaks, CA, (1999).
7. REFERENCES
[1] E.H. Schein, Coming to a New Awareness
of organizational culture, MIT, Sloan
Management
Review,
(1984).
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definiti
on/organizational-culture.html
[11] M.Workman, virtual team culture and the
amplification
of
team
boundary
permeability on performance. Human
Resource Development Quarterly 16(4)
(2005), pp. 435-458.
[2] H.K.
Moon,
Mediaing
effect
of
Organizational Identification on the
Relationships between Organizational
culture, Job satisfaciton and Job conflict.
Master’s thesis, pp. 6-15, (2009).
[12] A. Townsend; S.M. DeMarie; A.
Hendrickson, Virtual teams: technology
and the workplace of the future. The
Academy of Management Executive 12(3)
(1998), pp. 17-29.
[3] CIPD,
E-learning
Section,
http://www.cipd.co.uk/eLearning,
last
access 2/1/2010.
[13] E.P. Nathan, Global organizations and elearning: leveraging adult learning in
different cultures, John Willey, (2017).
[4] S.J. Yoo; W.D. Huang, Can E-learning
system enhance learning culture in the
workplace?
A
comparison
among
companies in South Korea. Journal of
Educational Technology 47(4) (2015), pp.
575-591.
[14] G. Dafoulas; L.Macaulay, Investigating
cultural differences in virtual software
teams, EJISDC, 7,4, 1-14, (2001).
392
The Importance of Working
Instructions as a Part of the LEAN
Initiative
M. Lazarević a, U. Marjanović a, S. Tegeltija a, M. Medojević a, B. Lalić
a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 7, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia,
E-mail: laza@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Each production or service system has the appropriate organizational structure. The research that has
been conducted shows that in most cases members of this organizational structure don’t have clearly
defined tasks that they perform. Carrying out the work tasks of employees in such conditions is
reduced to an experience that eventually becomes larger. The consequences of this situation are
numerous problems, and some of them are that the scope of individuals' work is unpredictable; quality
of their performance is often debatable, employee training takes too long, etc. These problems are
especially important in cases where workers are often changed. Creating work instructions today is
going along with the introduction of ISO standards. Their quality, in most cases, is only to satisfy the
ISO documentation format. Research is carried out in the appropriate production facility of textile
industry, aimed to investigate the consequences of the state of lack of work instructions in the work
processes. In addition, the research will also show the results after creating and using work
instructions in individual workplaces, as well as their correlation with the application of the LEAN
production strategy in the system.
Keywords: work instructions, process, lean strategy, learning, system
this area or complete lack of information. In
some cases, it is noticeable that there are
working instructions and procedures in the
system, but most employees within the system
have no idea what the SOP and WI they need to
know in their work position.
1. INTRODUCTION
The notion of work instructions (WI) is
already widely discussed and well-described
topic. However, there is a common dilemma for
those who create WI, what is the difference
between Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
and WI? When researching and staying in
different production and service systems, there
was noticeable absence of any written
instructions for work in any form. Employees
with lower education levels in most cases did
not have any information about whether there
are instructions for performing work tasks at
their workplace. In addition, there is a frequent
occurrence and lack of knowledge among
workers positioned at higher positions. The
largest number of cases indicated that there is
not a sufficient high threshold of knowledge in
LEAN production strategy, which today has
a wider application, basically aims to eliminate
from the process all activities that do not add
value to product in the manufacturing. In most
of the observed systems, when searching for a
research partner, there was no systematic
approach to defining
neither the work
process nor its individual elements. The question
asked is how to apply LEAN in the process if
we do not have defined and assigned tasks?
Bearing in mind the mentioned above, a
research was conducted aimed primarily at
393
presenting the situation in this segment of the
designing the work process, as well as the
consequences of not recognizing the importance
of WI in production and service systems. In
addition to the current state presentation, the
results obtained after the implementation of WI,
improvements in certain segments of the
production process will also be shown.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Fig. 1: Learning efficiency pyramid [3,4]
The research that was carried out was
requiring necessary knowledge resources, as
well as the appropriate production or service
system in which the research will be carried out.
in addition to simply “how” to perform the task
[5]. The difference between SOP and WI is
The knowledge that was necessary for
research included two areas:
How high the importance of work
instructions is best illustrated by the research
carried out in that field. In line with these
surveys, new approaches and technologies for
improvement in this area are being developed.
that WI is lower on a hierarchical scale of
business documentation [5].
Identifying the situation and trends in
the field of creating work instructions,
Basic LEAN production strategies.
2.1
Basics
of
creating
procedures - literature review
Some of the areas are: how WI should look
[3], creating dynamic work instructions [8],
electronic and multimedia WI [9, 10], etc. From
this, it can be noted that in this area, there is a
very active wide area of research that converges
to one goal-the adoption of standards for WI
which gives the best results in the result of the
application.
work
The explanation of what WI is in the
literature is often interpreted in various ways.
Basically, it can be said that WI are in a broad
sense, which include instructions delivered in
both verbal form (words, communicated orally
or in writing) and non-verbal form (pictures,
images, models, gestures, etc.) [2].
2.2 Lean as production strategy
Lean as a production strategy increasingly
becomes the standard in production systems.
The development of new production systems
often involves the application of LEAN within
its production processes.
There are more types of work instructions.
Written work instructions are easier to create,
but are not very suitable for operations with
complicated tasks that can be found in complex
production systems. Rather than that, visual
work instructions take place. Not only for that,
but according to the learning pyramid (refer
with: Fig. 1) a recipient remembers about twice
as much of all information if these is conveyed
through visual content [3,4].
What is the basis of the LEAN approach is
difficult to explain briefly. There are different
views on this issue, but it is quite possible to
accept the opinion that its essence is described
in five principles [6, 7]:
Defining values - market research and
defining the product that the customer
needs. Only the product that the buyer is
willing to pay at a certain price is a value.
However, it is not uncommon for the
literature to find cases in which the Standard
Operating Procedure (SOP) and Work
Instruction (WI) are identified. SOPs do provide
instructions for workers. However, they are
intended to include “why” a task is performed,
394
Mapping the flow of values - by moving
through the assembly process, the product
gets value only in certain parts of the
process. In order to see the whole
situation and see the zones in which there
is no added value, it is necessary to create
a flow-value map.
The first part of the activities was carried out
with the aim of identifying the integrity of the
process as well as the flow of materials, which
are (Fig. 2):
Creating a stream by eliminating losses the observed losses in the previously
created flowchart of the value flow should
be eliminated, all with the goal of
establishing a continuous flow.
Partial analysis of the
process
Process identification
Processing information collected
during the analysis and
Problem identification
The demand response - the created value
flow should be able to respond to
customer requests. In this situation,
customers only withdraw products when
they need it.
Creating a proposal for
improvement (WI)
The pursuit of excellence - no matter how
perfect it looks, the designed system
certainly contains parts of the process that
still generate losses.
Monitoring the results
Fig. 2. Conducted research activities
The factory consists of several separate units,
each of which functions almost independently in
relation to other parts.The process as a whole
consists of (Fig. 3):
It is worth mentioning that the corresponding
LEAN terms (often referred to as tools,
techniques, LEAN methods) are used to achieve
these five principles. The most common are
terms such as 5S, SMED, Poka Yoka, Visual
Management,
Value
Stream
Mapping,
Standardization, etc.
knitting unit,
sewing unit,
unit for painting preparation,
painting unit,
LEAN approach, in the result of the
application of the aforementioned concepts and
principles, improves the performance of the
production systems and creates conditions for
the continuous elimination of losses from the
production processes.
packing units.
Process stages (Phases) of socks production
1
Knitting
Sewing
2
Previous
packaging
3
Dyeing
4
5
Finished
products
Final
packaging
Fig. 3. Stages (Phases) of socks production
3. METHOD AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
Also, interviews were conducted at different
levels to gain full insight into the technology
being implemented and the knowledge that
comes with it. It was found that the level of
education is very low, many of which are even
illiterate. According to the number of
employees, the company belongs to mediumsized enterprises (more than 250 employees). In
order to extract certain segments of the process
The research that will be presented is carried
out in the textile industry. In its character, the
production system is at the transition between
medium-sized
and
large-scale
quantity
production. The system is characterized by a
wide production program.
395
for carrying out the research, this part of the
information collection proved to be very
important in this regard.
operations, mostly
elementary school.
workers
were
with
3.2 Processing information collected
during the analysis
3.1 Partial analysis of the process
The processing of information gathered in
the production process has shown that for all
operations in the process, the basic problem is
the absence of any work instructions, regardless
of the type of work being done. The quality of
performance of work operation mainly relies on
the work experience of the worker and the
individual attitude towards the work tasks. It
was very often critical to advocate individual
workers in carrying out their work tasks. The
lack of knowledge was justified by the low level
of education in certain parts of the process as
well as the individual characteristics of the
workers.
After production process has been mapped
and defined, wider analysis of individual
elements of the system and individual jobs has
been conducted.
Analyzes were carried out to a wider extent
in the part located in the knitting part, partly in
the seam and in the end, because of the
complexity of this production part and the nature
of the work tasks, a part of the painting process
was selected.
Cause-related links between the lack of work
instructions for describing work tasks and
problems that occur are shown in the table
(Table 1).
The above data in Table 1 should be a
sufficient argument when discussing the need to
introduce WI into work processes. Of course, it
should be borne in mind that for the
comprehensive creation of work instructions in
production and service systems, you need to
invest in WI creation. However, the spectrum of
the consequences of their non existence is an
entirely sufficient argument for stepping in that
direction.
Fig. 4 Part of the knitting plant in which the analysis
was carried out
The analysis was reduced to conducting
interviews with workers at different levels in the
organizational structure. The interview was
conducted with workers in the control of
products in the part of the knitting unit, with
shift managers and machine workers. Similarly,
interviews were conducted in other parts of the
process. In addition, the method of direct
observation was used.
4. SOLUTION PROPOSAL FOR
IMPROVEMENT
Based on the information and conclusions
made in the table (Table 1), it was decided that
one of the first steps for improvement in the
system would be to prepare a WI instruction.
The preparation or creation of a WI is for
conducting the experiment in workplaces with
the highest intensity of work and the most
needed training, due to frequent changes in the
workers and where the results will be most
rapidly achieved after the introduced changes.
Information on the status and quality of the
applied technology and its modernity were
collected. Particularly in this section emphasis is
placed on the maintenance of the system as well
as the situation in that sector.
Each of the analyzed jobs did not require a
high level of education. When it comes to work
396
Table 1. Corelation between WI missing and the problem occurrence
WI missing causes a problem:
1. Uneven product quality
2. Difficult capacity planning
3. Inability to plan worker load
4. Worker dissatisfaction
5. Difficult training of workers
6. Extended training of workers
7. Reduced safety
Explanation
Consequence
Workers work according to their experience so
that they do not have a standard work assignment
There are no clearly defined norms that are
related to work instructions
Workers are often manipulated by work
obligations due to lack of norms
Different attitude towards work is caused by a
conflict between workers
Inequitable product
quality
There is no clearly
defined capacity
Reduced level of
worker utilization
Poor working
atmosphere
Trainings are often
poor and incomplete
Loss in time and
effect
Endangered worker
safety
Frequent changes
slow down production
and reduce the degree
of capacity utilization
Because of the
inability to control
The nodes of
information are not
clearly visible
Small number of
promotional proposals
submitted
There is no WI so training is extensive
There is no WI, so it often depends on the one
who is implementing it
There are no clear instructions on potential
workplace hazards
8. Difficult adjustment of production
As a result of employee change, it is difficult to
manage capacities with variable quality and the
number of workforce
9. Reduced working discipline
It is difficult to maintain a work discipline
without corresponding KPI indicators
10. Difficulty gathering information from the
process
It is difficult to get to know the process of work
and, therefore, to notice KPI
11. Loss of workers knowledge
12. Difficult management
13. There is no motivation to involve employees
in business processes
14. Unstable business processes
15. Worse interpersonal relations
16. Inability to control the consumption of
materials in the process
17. Undefined competencies of individuals
18. Inability to correctly design the production
system
Workers can hardly be involved in LEAN and
KAIZEN events without clearly defining their
responsibilities
Without discipline and clearly defined norms and
load capacity
Passive and indifferent attitude towards the
workplace and obligations without the desire to
improve
Stress caused by a constant threat of failure to
fulfill the production plan
The diversity of doing the same or similar tasks
and the results achieved, are the main cause of the
conflict. It is especially expressed when the work
is paid according to the norms
Reduced productivity
Non-inclusion of
workers in acquiring
knowledge
It varies quality and
productivity
There is no
communication
between the workers.
Expressed intolerance
There are no written
Undefined tasks leave room for inadequate use of
rules of material
available materials
consumption
Overheating or
Failure to perform work tasks
avoiding work
Large losses caused
Undefined time capacities prevent correctly
by poor lay-out
designing work tasks and work places
project
20.etc.
The most commonly present point in creating
work instructions was that it was unnecessary.
However, research has shown that the existence
of a vacuum in the WI section left room for
individuals to carry out work activities in the
"original" way, resulting in the creation of large
losses of materials, energy, product quality and
most importantly - time.
knitting process (Figure 3) of the article, and a
similar procedure is made in the sewing and
painting section of the article.
For the creation of WI, a transitional solution
from the pyramid of learning efficiency was
used to a large extent. A method for learning by
reading in combination with visual add-ons was
used. The subject of the research was also the
creation of the appropriate audio-visual material
for giving instructions, which is by its efficiency
from the learning pyramid to a somewhat higher
When creating WI, special emphasis is
placed on their appearance-form. The following
figure shows the part of the WI prepared for the
397
quality and safety of their tasks. As a result, a
large number of suggestions for improving the
performance of work tasks were obtained. Also,
a large number of proposals have been received
in terms of improving both the appropriate
technical solutions and technology.
5.1 First conclusions after application
of WI in practice
A large number of problems mentioned in
the previous table (Table 1) with the application
of WI in practice began to slowly disappear in
the first iteration. Training in individual
workplaces, which lasted for two months or
more, could now end in a shorter period
(approximately seven to ten days and in some
cases shorter). Training could have been
exempted to a certain extent those who had
previously been engaged in this job. With the
creation of the WI, conditions have been created
for the quality of knowledge and training to be
able to deal with other people, which
significantly "pushes out" from training the
scope of the problem that was previously there.
Of course, the greatest problem and scope of
work was that appropriate work instructions had
to be developed for all work tasks and for all
tasks.
Fig. 5. Partial view of WI
quality. Standard cameras with standard video
were used to create these instructions. Basic
problem was non-inclusion of workers in
knowledge acquiring.
5. RESULTS AND
ACHIEVEMENTS
The application of the appropriate WI
solutions for certain jobs, but with the first
applications, gave good results. Some of the
training that lasted several months was
significantly reduced. Material prepared in the
form of work instructions has significantly
relieved the obligation to transfer knowledge to
older workers. Until then, the usual way of
training has significantly reduced the stress of
those who transfer knowledge and those who
need this knowledge in new circumstances. The
previous training period has significantly
burdened the relationships between older and
new workers caused mainly by dissatisfaction
with the transfer of knowledge. Older workers
generally expected faster acceptance of
transferred instructions. New employees have to
some extent shown dissatisfaction with the
quality of the way knowledge transfer. Also, the
lack of confidence in the field and the volume of
knowledge transferred are expressed. The
dynamics of knowledge transfer is an important
element of the training process.
Particular emphasis in this research was
partly placed on the type of work interactions
that will be applied. In this sense, the
corresponding number of audio visual WIs has
been created. The first uses of this form WI
showed slightly better results than the
conventional approach described above (Figure
5). The workers responded positively and
accepted this approach better. However, the
sample and time of the study, until writing this
report, were not large enough to statistically
quantify the comparative results of these two WI
creation approaches and thus performed a
comparative analysis. What is perceived as a
certain limitation in the application of audiovisual WIs is the creation of technical
capabilities for their implementation. The
previous version does not require expensive IT
support. The method of realization of audiovisual work instructions requires better training
The application of WI has managed to help
workers better recognize the boundaries of their
obligations and expectations regarding the
398
[2] A. Haug, Work instruction quality in
industrial
management.
International
Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 50 (2015),
pp. 170-177.
in the implementation of multimedia
applications, which is in itself an expensive
process. Also, the infrastructure for use is more
complex. When creating work instructions in the
original case, it is possible to work parallel to
the development of WI.
[3] M. Beluško; M. Hegedüš; G. Fedorko,
Creating visual work instructions to ensure
safe and fluent operation of the semiautomatic production lines.
6. CONCLUSIONS
[4] K. Sandahl, How to create visual work
instructions,
Gluu
ApS,
https://www.gluu.biz/visual-workinstructions
The impact of WI on the withdrawal of a
large number of problems, identified during the
research, shown in the previous table, is a
extensive work. It is necessary to spend a longer
period of time in order to determine the factual
situation in this regard. The time and method of
reacting the system to the proposed
improvements is a very important parameter. In
order not to draw prematurely and insufficiently
confirmed conclusions, it is necessary to
continue the research.
[5] R.H. Schmidt; P.D. Pierce, Handbook of
Hygiene Control in the Food Industry, pp.
221-234, (2016).
[6] D. Dragičević, Metoda za projektovanje i
optimizaciju
sistema
za
montažu
zasnovanih na lean konceptu, doktorska
disertacija, Univerzitet i Novom Sadu,
Fakultet tehničkih nauka, Novi Sad, (2017).
[7] M.S. Khan; A. Al-Ashaab; E. Shehab,
Define value: applying the first lean
principle
to
product
development.
International Journal of Industrial and
Systems Engineering 21(1) (2015), pp. 1-28.
In addition to the results directly and
indirectly related to WI instructions, it is
important to emphasize that the LEAN initiative
also began to play its roots. A large number of
suggestions for improvements, as well as
communication with employees at different
levels of the organizational structure, are the
first indicators of things going in the right
direction.
[8] G. Watson; J. Butterfield; R. Curran; C.
Craig, Do dynamic work instructions
provide an advantage over static instructions
in a small scale assembly task? Learning and
Instruction 20 (2010), pp. 84-93
[9] O. Adesope, J. C. Nesbit, Animated and
static concept maps enhance learning from
spoken narration, Learning and Instruction
27 (2013), pp. 1-10.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented in this paper is
supported by a grant from the Autonomous
Province of Vojvodina (APV), Provincial
Secretariat for Higher Education and Scientific
Research (Project name Development of a
methodology for the introduction of virtual
reality technology in training processes in
companies of the manufacturing sector, project
number 142-451-3562/2017-01/01).
[10] P. Ayres; N. Marcus; C. Chan; N. Qian,
Learning hand manipulative tasks: When
instructional animations are superior.
Computers in Human Behavior journal,
(2009).
8. REFERENCES
[1] I. Sutton, Process Risk and Reliability
Management, (2014) Chapter Operating
Procedures, p.p. 272-369.
399
Evolution of ERP Systems in SMEs –
Past Research, Present Findings and
Future Directions
D. Berić a, D. Sekulić a, T. Lolić a, D. Stefanović
a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6, 2100 Novi Sad, Serbia,
E-mail: dunja.s.ns@gmail.com, {teodora.lolic, darkoste}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
Today, industries are trying to improve their competitiveness by combining business per se with
information technology. Modern management relies heavily on information as a necessary resource
for developing other resources and gaining advantages over the competition. Information system is a
system that through formalized procedures provides managing at all levels in companie with
appropriate information based on data from internal and external. Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
system is one of the most widely accepted choices to obtain competitive advantage for manufacturing
companies. Since ERP systems have a major impact on SMEs, in this paper is given literature review
about past development and research, present findings and future directions in ERP systems.
Keywords: ERP systems, SMEs, information technologies, cloud ERP
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system
is a package used for planning enterprise
resources, composed of integrated modules
which manage all of the core business processes
of the organization. Main objective of the
system is to seamlessly incorporate business
processes within and across the functional and
technical boundaries in the organization with
improved workflow, standardization of business
practice and access to up-to-date real time
information [1].
1. INTRODUCTION
Growing importance of competition in market
and continuous pressure on raising enterprises
operations efficiency results in searching for new
solutions and technologies, and increases
importance of modern IT systems. Modern
management relies heavily on information as a
necessary resource for developing other
resources and gaining advantages over the
competition. Information system is a system that
through formalized procedures provides
managing at all levels in companie with
appropriate information based on data from
internal and external. Enterprise resource
planning (ERP) system is one of the most widely
accepted choices to obtain competitive advantage
for manufacturing companies. The Enterprise
Resource Planning (ERP) system is an enterprise
information system designed to integrate and
optimise the business processes and transactions
in a corporation.
ERP systems are considered cross-functional
and process-centred and are designed to improve
key operations such as e.g. finance, accounting,
human resources, purchasing, manufacturing
and sales [2]. Within ERP systems, these key
operations are called modules and organizations
traditionally
purchase
these
modules
individually based on their needs [3].
400
3.1. Definition of ERP system
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
USED FOR RESEARCH
“Enterprise resource planning (ERP) has
come to mean many things over last several
decades. Within the literature, different authors
have defined ERP in a different way, for
example, according to Jacobs and Bendoly [12],
ERP can be defined as a concept and as a
system.According to Davenport (1998), ERP
systems generally comprise different software
modules, which allow organisations to automate
and integrate the majority of business functions
by accessing, and sharing common information,
data, and practices across the enterprise in
realtime [14].
Literature reviews represent a well-established
method for accumulating existing knowledge
within a domain of interest. The research
methodology used in this study is the review of
literature on ERP systems. The period of
publishing was set to the years between 2000 2018 in order to narrow down the search. To find
relevant articles for this review, various keyword
searches were in the KOBSON, Google Scholar,
and IEEE Xplore databases. The search was
made using keywords such as enterprise resource
planning,
enterprise
resource
planning
performance measurement, enterprise wide
systems, Cloud ERP, Cloud Computing and etc.
Akkermans et al. [13] also state that ERP can
be defined from different perspectives such as
functional, technical, or from business
perspective that provides strategic value
encompassing the entire organizations.
3. WHAT IS ERP?
ERP is a software system aims to integrate
all functional units of the enterprise in a
cooperative way. It may also extend to include
parties outside the enterprise for example
supplier and customer to involve them in the
integration.
Tarantilis et al. [17] define ERP as a system
that
integrates
traditional
accounting,
manufacturing, sales, management, and other
management products to offer an “all-in-one”
solution that deals with all business management
aspects of organizations.
“The heart of an [ERP] system is a central
database that draws data from, and feed data into
a series of applications supporting diverse
company functions. Using a single database
dramatically streamlines the “flow of
information throughout a business.”[18]
Fig. 1. ERP Database [5]
At the operational level, Gable defines ERP
as a “comprehensive packaged software
solution, which seeks to integrate the complete
range of business processes and functions in
order to present a holistic view of the business
from a single information and IT architecture.”
Similarly, Nah et al. and Stemberger and
Kovacic define ERP systems as a “packaged
business software system that enables
companies to effectively and efficiently manage
resources (material, human resources, finance
etc.) by providing a total integrated solution for
an
organisation’s
information-processing
needs.” [15], [16].
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
systems are software packages composed of
several modules, such as human resources,
sales, finance and production, marketing,
distribution, providing crossorganization
integration of information through embedded
business processes. Comprehension the history
and evolution of the ERP system untill today is
essential to understand importance of ERP
systems for the business of an organization. In
many aspects, ERP system is designed to
overcome the operational problems that the
organization has experienced.
401
employees to have a unified view of all business
functions across all departments [10]. ERP II
focuses mainly on company’s supply chain area.
The ability to reduce company costs throughout
operations as well as managing vendor and
supply chain issues is what ERP II functions are
known for. Companies have been relying on
ERP II for a number of years to produce higher
quality products at a lower cost. With all of this
in mind, the main function of ERP II is to add
operational excellence by allowing you to “think
outside the box” when it comes to supply chain
processes.
3.2. Evolution of Enterprise systems
The fundamental structure of enterprise
systems date from the early fifties of the
twentieth century, with the introduction of
computers into business. In the 1960s,
production systems put a focus on stock control
and how to manage large quantities of supplies
in the most efficient way. In that period, first
applications automated manual tasks such as
bookkeeping, invoicing, inventory managemen.
and reordering.
The early inventory control systems (ICS)
and bill of material (BOM) processors gradually
turned into standardized material requirements
planning (MRP). The development continued in
the 1970s and 1980s with the MRP II and CIM
concept [6]. The term Enterprise Resource
Planning is originally coined in 1990 by The
Gartner Group to describe the next generation of
MRP II software [7]. ERP evolved from
material requirement planning (MRP) and
manufacturing resource planning MRP II
systems. MRP and MRP II systems were
designed to systemically link different aspects of
process information within specific business
context such as manufacturing [8]. In the 2000s
ERP systems evolved from enhancing
operational efficiency to supporting competitive
advantage innovations and strategy [7].
The integration of customers (single
customers as well as corporate customers) into
an ERP systems lays in the essence of the ERP
III concept. It may be adapted by the
implementation of the last and most
sophisticated achievements in IT. The focus of
ERP III is not only real customers but also
potential customers. Thus market information
about future sales may be analyzed and
integrated into ERP systems taking account of
real business transactions. Extended marketing
analytics are key features of ERP III [11]. The
ERP III concept which is the most newly known
concept focuces on implemetnig cloud
computing and GRID technologiest in ERP
systems. The vendors of ERP like Oracle, SAP,
PeopleSoft, J.D Edward, etc. developed different
modules to cover and support all functional units
of the enterprise.
With time passing ERP systems faced a lot of
evolution and upgrade processes to enhance its
functionality and increase the integration
capabilities. According to [5] ERP is a key
element of an infrastructure that delivers a
solution to the business. The need for soloving
some information problems leads to extending
concept ERP to ERP II. Modern ERP systems
(ERP II) are built for use over the internet. It
enhanced with e-commerce capabilities and the
ability for integration and collaboration with
suppliers, partners, customer portals, and
enhanced tracking of incoming row material and
outgoing final products to extend the visibility
and control inside and outside the enterprise [9].
4. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
New trends change the way organizations
deploy services, platforms and infrastructure of
Information Technologies. Nowadays, “the
cloud” has been a buzzword in the last few years
and has caused a revolution in the Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT)
industry [21]. In an environment of global
competition, there is a growing recognition of
the central role of IT in determining the overall
success of organizations. Enterprise Resource
Planning (ERP) systems have played an
important role in the integration of business
ERP II systems share common data in a realtime environment that enable management and
402
Table 1. Enterprise systems in retrospect
Decade
50
60
70
80
90
00
10
Concept
Inventory control systems (ICS
Material requirement planning
(MRP)
Manufacturing resource planning
(MRP II)
Computer-integrated
manufacturing (CIM)
Enterprise resource planning
(ERP)
Enterprise resource planning
(ERP II)
Enterprise resource planning
(ERP III)
Function
Forecast and inventory management
Requirement calculations based on bill-of-material (BoM)
Closed-loop planning and capacity constraints
Automation, enterprise models
Integrated processes
Integrated processes, internet integration
Extends ERP I and ERP II (integration between manufacturing
enterprises and their downstream partners – mainly customers)
Cloud
computing
is
a
computing
environment which provides availability,
scalability, and flexibility of computer reassures
at a deferent level of abstraction with low
running cost. Cloud computing can be defined
as a computing method to provide computing as
the utility to meet the everyday needs of the
general business community.
functions within organizations to support the
generation of products and services [19].
In today’s highly competitive business
landscape, the trend for organizations is to focus
their resources and efforts on what they do best
and leave the supportive services in the hands of
more specialized third parties. The world’s
economic model in IT today is moving from
“buy and own” (on-premise) to a subscription
based, payper-use (cloud-based) model. The
migration from traditional (on-premise) ERP to
cloud-based ERP could help organizations to
manage their costs efficiently and improve their
operations [21]. Cloud-based ERP provide
organizations with the possibility to choose the
provider that best suits their needs, eliminating
inflexible traditional on-premise ERP solutions.
The cloud computing services provided in
three models[24], Software as a Service (SaaS),
Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure
as a Service (IaaS). Software as a Service
(SaaS), targets the end user or business.
Platform as a Service (PaaS) is the delivery of
middleware which contains tools, services and
platforms targeted the software developers, to
allow them to build SaaS application.
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) is the delivery
of computing power hardware and software
targeted towards administrators. Cloud ERP
systems belong to Software as a Service (SaaS).
4.1. Cloud computing
Cloud computing has become new promising
trend of computing which left the attention in
the academic researches and as well as in the
software industry. As IBM states “Cloud
computing, often referred to as simply ‘the
cloud,’ is the delivery of on-demand computing
resources, everything from applications to data
centers over the Internet on a pay-for-use basis”
[20]. According to Gartner, cloud-based services
can be defined as “massively scalable system
capabilities delivered as a service to external
users using Internet technologies” [22].
4.2. Cloud ERP
Nowdays the success of cloud computing
combined with the increasing pressure on
organizations to respond to unique customer
needs in the increasingly competitive business
environments of today, has given rise to the new
model for ERP, also referred to as cloud-based
ERP or SaaS ERP. This new model of ERP
systems functions in the same way as a traditional
ERP systems. Infrastructure is the main difernece
403
between traditional ERP system and Cloud ERP.
The ERP in a SaaS model is accessed over the
Internet while the application and data is
controlled by the cloud service provider and
offered as a “ready-to-use” product to the end
client for a monthly subscription fee [23].
6. REFERENCES
[1] T. Wozniakowski; P Jalowiecki; K
Zmarzlowski; M. Nowakowska, Erp
systems and warehouse management by
wms. Information Systems in Management
7(2) (2018), pp. 108-119.
A cloud-based ERP system uses the
advantages of cloud computing to offer a new
and more flexible approach to host and use ERP
systems. The Cloud based ERP system should be
accessed via the user browser over the internet
without installing or configuring the system at the
user side [18]. Benefits which Cloud ERP brings
is that the enterprises do not need to pay for
building the computing environment it just pays
for accesses the environment over the internet.
Also, working over the cloud allows the
enterprise to access and use specialized
technology and advanced computing resources
available over the cloud.
[2] M. Haddara; H. Moen, User resistance in
ERP implementations: A literature review.
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[3] R.E. Hustad; M. Haddara; B, Kalvenes,
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[4] V.B. Genoulaz; P.A. Millet; B. Grabot,
Survey paper: A survey of the recent
research literature on ERP systems.
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[5] M. Ali; E.S. Nasr; M.H. Gheith, A
requirements elicitation approach for cloudbased software product line ERPs. Proc. Of
the 2nd Africa and Middle East Conf. on
Software Engineering, Cairo, Egypt,
(2016).
5. CONCLUSION
In very dynamic business enviroment, ERP
systems are widely spread and fast developing in
recent years. The base concept ERP containing
mainly the MRP and MRP II concepts are going
further. The need for fast integration with
suppliers, vendors and customers leads to
creating the ERP II concept. ERP II is a concept
where mainly downstream partners are
integrated. The ERP II concept has the idea to
integrate upstream as well as downstream
partners in supply chains. The ERP III concept
is mainly influenced by the development of new
IT such as service-oriented architecture, cloud
computing, business intelligence and knowledge
management.
[6] C. Moller, ERP II: a conceptual framework
for next-generation enterprise systems?
Journal
of
Enterprise
Information
Management 18(4) (2005), pp. 483-497.
[7] E. Nazemi; M.J. Tarokh; R. Djavanshir,
ERP: a literature survey. International
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Technology 61 (2012), pp. 999-1018.
[8] M. Iansiti; R. Levien, Strategy as Ecology.
Harvard Business Review 82(3) (2004), pp.
87-78.
New approaches to ERPs turns some of the
weaknesses of traditional ERPs into benefits.
The main benefits of cloud-based ERPs are its
scalability and lower investment costs, creating
opportunities for SMEs. However, the main
weaknesses and threats to this new approach are
the security. Regard of this, some of the next
research will be dedicated to increasing the
security of the new generation ERP systems.
[9] M. Ali; E.S. Nasr; M. Geith, Benefits and
challenges of cloud ERP systems - A
systematic literature review. Future
Computing and Informatics Journal,
(2017).
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ERP implementation:
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(2015).
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Lujan-Mora, Moving ERP Systems to the
Cloud - Data Security Issues. Journal of
Information Systems Engineering &
Management 2(4) (2017), pp. 21.
[13] HA. Akkermans; P. Bogerd; E. Yucesan.
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[23] B. Johansson; P. Ruivo, Exploring factors
for adopting ERP as SaaS. Procedia
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pp. 285-296.
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405
The Unemployment Problem and Its
Consequences in the Republic of Croatia
S. Knežević a, L. Duspara a, D. Ezgeta
b
a
College of Slavonski Brod, Ul.dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonki Brod, Croatia,
E-mail: {sknezevic, lduspara}@vusb.hr
b
student, College of Slavonski Brod, Ul.dr. Mile Budaka 1, 35000 Slavonki Brod,
E-mail: dezgeta@vusb.hr
Abstract
Unemployment is a major problem of today with far-reaching consequences. The consequence of
unemployment is not just the decline in financial power of individuals, ie. poverty, but also the cause
of many disorders such as stress, depression, emigration. This paper examines the problem of
unemployment in the Republic of Croatia and poverty as its consequences, and this is precisely the
case in the last decade, especially in recent years, as one of the main reasons for emigrating Croatians
to more developed countries. The aim of this paper is to show the unemployment as the fastest
growing problem of the Croatia. The aim is to identify the causes of unemployment, the impact of the
crisis on the reduced need for labour force, and this will be achieved by identifying the reasons why a
large number of people emigrate. In this study is included the analysis of the collected statistical data
and it will also analyse the data on the actions that need to be taken to ensure that emigration, if not
completely eradicated, than reduced to the lowest possible rate.
Keywords: unemployment, Croatia, emigration, poverty
people with a clear vision of their own skills,
overseas due to lack of job offers, inadequate
working conditions, unsatisfactory pay or poor
working conditions. Croatia with relatively
weak economic growth in recent years
increasingly feel a lack of workforce.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to the great world and economic crisis,
unemployment in the EU member states and the
Republic of Croatia as one of the members
increased, and therefore an attempt to reduce
unemployment and increase the number of
employed persons has become one of the
priorities of the European Council and the
European Parliament. Unemployment in Croatia
is a long-standing phenomenon that today is
among the biggest problems of the Croatian
economy. High and long-term unemployment
can have significant social and psychological
consequences. A large number of unemployed
people in Croatia are long-term unemployed. A
social group that is particularly affected by the
growth of unemployment is a young people, ie
active working population aged 15 to 24 years.
That is why one of the consequences is the
"brain drain", the emigration of highly educated
2. UNEMPLOYMENT IN
REPUBLIC OF CROATIA
“Unemployment is a condition in which part
of working-able members of the society can not
be employed adequately with their abilities and
qualifications, with the usual salary.”[1]
Unemployment is a rooted, not a local, but a
global problem, whose solution requires a long
process with quality determinants and a high
degree of renunciation in order to feel progress
and reduce unemployment. It can be said that
the crisis in the world was largely caught by
406
extremely rich and extremely poor. As the
middle layer almost dwindled, it can be said that
the curve that would show the ratio of financial
status to individuals simply "suffers" because it
shows data indicating two opposite and
incompatible extremes. The unemployment rate
is an important measure of a country or region’s
economic health that shows graph that follows.
Croatia, which, as a small and insufficiently
developed country, did not have the ready
answers and ideas to overcome instability in the
global sector.
The most obvious consequence of the crisis
is the spreading or loss of the middle layer and
division not to the rich and the poor, but to the
Graph 1. Unemployment rate in Croatia and European Union [Authors according to 2]
The graph 1. shows the trend of
unemployment rate in Croatia and European
Union from 2008 to 2017. The graph shows that
the unemployment rate in Croatia as well as in
EU is increasing from 2008. The peak is 2013
year. The rate in Croatia was 17,4%. Although
the unemployment rate has been reduced, it is
still at a high level and much higher than the
European Union average.
unemployed people who do not report or leave
the Employment Office for various reasons. “By
far the lowest unemployment rate among EU
member states recorded Czech Republic, the
unchanged 2.4 %. Following are Malta and
Germany, with 3.5 %, and Hungary, with 3.7 %
in January. The highest rates of unemployment
are still in Greece, with 20.8 % in December
2017, and Spain with 16.1 %.” [3] According to
a statement by the European Statistical Office,
Croatia was ranked again in the group of
countries with the largest drop in the annual
unemployment rate. Still, it may be expected
that future unemployment will fall slower
because there is not much room for further
reduction in the number of unemployed.
As far as data for 2018 is concerned
'”Eurostat estimates that 17.207 million men and
women in the EU-28, of whom 13.656 million
were in the euro area (EA-19) were unemployed
in May 2018.'”[3] The unemployment rate in the
EU in 2018 (February) has been declining on a
monthly and annual level, and similar trends
have also been registered in Croatia, which is
included in the Eurostat report in the group of
countries with the largest drop in the annual
unemployment rate. According to Eurostat
figures, Croatia slipped to 9.6 % in February this
year, from 9.8 % in the previous month. The
reason for this is probably the high demand for
seasonal workers, the outflow of young people
abroad and the increasing number of
3. IMPACT OF UNEMPLOYMENT
ON THE EMIGRATION OF
RESIDENTS
FROM
THE
CROATIA
Young people are strongly focused on
finding a job and they are aware of the fact that
finding an adequate job is what can provide
407
them first money, and then getting to know new
people, and thus enabling career advancement.
However, the problem of unemployment in
Croatia is not only affecting younger but also
older people. Middle-aged people are often
marginalized as "unnecessary" because there is a
belief that they cannot follow the trends for their
years and that what they have learned in the
current working age cannot or will not change,
and do not match all variants of the same
workplace tasks and job descriptions. In
addition, young people after completing high
school or college have a problem finding a job.
Since they have no experience or can have,
opinions are emerging about their lack of
interest in learning and following the policy of
the company they are starting to work on. It is
precisely the problem of the existence that
stands out as the biggest problem, and there is
an insufficiently developed standard of living, as
well as a lack of motivation and perseverance in
seeking an adequate place of work. The record
decline in unemployment is partly due to the
mass emigration of the population. However,
data on the movement of the number of
employees indicate that things in the labour
market are still improving. In recent years, we
have witnessed significant emigration from
Croatia, but it is difficult to ascertain exactly
how it is measured by the decline in
unemployment. The following table shows
international migration of population of Croatia.
Graph 2. International migration of population of Croatia [Authors according to 4]
instability. Social stability is the pillar in trying
to improve the state of the state. In addition,
unemployment becomes such a problem and one
can even say that it reduces rights that are
guaranteed, both older and especially young
people.
Graph 2 shows emigration, immigration
and net migration from 2008 to 2017. It shows
the rising trend of emigration from Croatia,
which is the result of a bad net migration.
4. CAUSES AND POTENTIAL
SOLUTIONS OF
UNEMPLOYMENT
The reasons for the lack of job supply on the
market are a bad and uncertain economic
situation, but it is necessary to analyse the
problem in several areas. Although there is no
document in which the reasons for
unemployment are to be quoted, it is easy to
conclude that the lack of education related to the
development of the profession and the reduced,
limited and halted economic growth are
sufficient reasons to create a mismatch between
supply and demand on the labour market. In
An attempt to reduce unemployment and
increase the number of employed persons is one
of Croatia's top priorities. Primarily, work is
indispensable so that young people can find and
secure stability and realize their aspirations. If
young people are in an environment where this
dream is unavoidable, there is a possibility of
increasing instability and that of social
408
solved. A big problem is uncertainty for young
people to go looking for a better life because
they do not know when and will they even find a
job that meets their demands. In addition, it is a
worrying fact that people have a job in Croatia,
often a regular job with regular income, but
abroad can earn much higher incomes and thus
provide better financial resources. Strong
reliance on the tourism sector causes a
significant seasonality in movements in the
Croatian labour market, with instability or shortterm employment, but also the demand for
specific occupations needed in that sector.
order to eliminate this problem or at least to the
lowest possible level, it is vital for young people
to have existential security, which can be
supported by designing and starting their own
business, either by self-employment or by
opening up larger companies. The person who is
now deciding to start his own business can be
called bravely, and although the market situation
is uncertain, every effort to solve the
unemployment problem is praiseworthy. That is
why the EU offers Measures of Active
Employment Policy: “Training aid, Selfemployment support, Education of the
unemployed, Training at work, Professional
training for work without establishing a working
relationship, Public work, Support for job
preservation, Permanent season “[5]
As one of the problems, also an education
system is quite flexible for labour market needs,
so that the new labour force entering the labour
market often lack the knowledge and skills
required by employers while adapting to the
dynamic dynamics of the globalized world. In
addition, there are relatively high labour costs
compared to some comparable countries in the
environment, while employees are often low in
terms of living costs.
It is not enough just to achieve the right to a
certain measure, but it is necessary to respect the
agreed
conditions.
Without
trusting
relationships, all measures can only be properly
displayed on paper, but if they are used in
practice only for financial relief, then it only
creates a springboard for emigration.
The EU has enabled its members, including
the Republic of Croatia, to use financial support
and employment measures, thus helping to
combat unemployment. The lack of knowledge
of potential entrepreneurs is associated with a
lack of information on the possibilities of using
material resources received by the European
Union. People are often afraid to risk, and
although they want to change, they have a sense
of fear of failure. The establishment of one's
own company and its survival in the Republic of
Croatia is not only for the individual but also for
the homeland itself. Employment aid means
better paying power for individuals as well as
their families, which will ultimately result in
greater inflow of money into the state treasury.
Unemployment causes a completely reverse
result. A jobless person has no compelling
power, his costs will be reduced to a minimum,
which means a total of less money to the state. It
is difficult to predict its end as well as the
consequences, but only by dealing with the
problem, it can be successfully and lastingly
5. CONCLUSIONS
Unemployment is a global problem faced by
a large number of people in the Republic of
Croatia every day. To resolve this problem, it is
necessary to improve the economic situation in
the country and to open new jobs that need to be
safe. The labor market and employment are
influenced by many factors that need to reverse
in order to improve trends. Although the rate of
decline is always a case in the interpretation of
data, it is necessary to observe a wider context
and never make conclusions alone on the basis
of one figure.
One of the biggest problems is the lack of
entrepreneurial initiatives, but also the general
apathy and the state of society without
optimistic expectations for the future. Recovery
on the labour market is noticeable, but it is
mostly about passive causes. The problem of
unemployment remains a key issue for the
development of the labour market in Croatia.
409
6. REFERENCES
[1] Bejaković,
P.:
Unemployment,
http://www.ijf.hr/pojmovnik/nezaposlenost.
htm, last access 12/4/2017.
[2] Eurostat,
http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/sub
mitViewTableAction.do,
last
access
20/07/2018.
[3] Eurostat,
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/299
5521/9034240/3-02072018-APEN.pdf/bfcf5c1a-fca8-4541-aa0a2d5dc2e090da, last access 28/07/2018.
[4] Croatian
Bureuau
of
Statistics,
https://www.dzs.hr/default.htm, last access
02/08/2018.
[5] A new package of active employment
policy measures „From measures to
career“,
http://www.hzz.hr/default.aspx?id=37349,
last access 2/5/2017.
410
Development of Rural Tourism in
the Municipality of Oriovac
M. Stanić a, M. Stanić Šulentić a, M. Palković
a
b
b
College of Slavonski Brod, Dr.Mile Budaka 1, 35000, Croatia,
E-mail: {milan.stanic, marina.sulentic}@vusb.hr
student of College of Slavonski Brod, Dr.Mile Budaka 1, 35000, Croatia,
E-mail: martina.palkovic@vusb.hr
Abstract
This paper deals with the initiative of the Municipality of Oriovac and the Tourist Association of the
Municipality, which aims to launch rural tourism and its further development with the intention of
creating a new branch of economy in the area of the municipality. The paper also analyzes the
existing resources for rural tourism, the existing opportunities and advantages for tourism
development, but also the problems and disadvantages that are a potential barrier for future
development of rural tourism. The municipality has created a Strategy for rural tourism development
in the area of the municipality, which defined the advantages and disadvantages and set specific tasks,
vision and goals that should initiate the development of rural tourism. The goal is to make
municipality Oriovac an attractive rural tourism destination that attracts more and more visitors every
year with its preserved natural and cultural assets. In this way, the municipality plans to achieve a
visible shift in improving the existing economy and raising the quality of life in its area.
Keywords: turism, rural tirusm, Municipality of Oriovac
well as insufficiently qualified human resources,
which significantly slows the possible
development of tourism in rural environments.
Because until recently there was no planned
deliberation on the development of tourism, the
development of the Tourism Development
Strategy for the municipality of Oriovac has
great importance in managing the tourist
development of this region. Only deliberate
strategy, building the necessary tourism
infrastructure and the creation of tourist
products which already has the necessary
resources, can become recognizable and
interesting destination for rural tourism.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tourism is a separate activity, a separate
industry that is daily dependent on global
influences, primarily economic, climatic,
communication, information, technological and
other. Therefore, tourism is experiencing
constant and varied changes depending on the
changing lifestyles of people, but also seeking
for constant innovation of tourism products,
changing and new experiences, new emotions
and depednds on educational, cultural, sociopsychological and many other parameters.
Although rural tourism has an increasing
popularity and there is a growing interest in the
world tourism market, there are still a number of
constraints on rural tourism development, which
are manifested through the lack of a long-term
development vision, very little awareness of the
possibilities of dealing with rural tourism, as
2. TOURISM AND TOURIST
PRODUCT
Tourist destination is travel destination and
with its attractions it represents the basis of
411
tourist offer or tourist product. Tourist
destination includes a wider, integrated space
that builds its tourist identity on the concept of
cumulative attraction, allowing experience and
with additional tourist infrastructure represents a
gathering place for tourists. The tourist
destination is conditioned by the wishes,
preferences, interests and needs of tourists. [1]
Tourist product is made of products and services
of series of different economic and uneconomic
activities (hotel management, restaurant
industry, traffic and communal infrastructure,
trade, manual trade, sport, entertainment,
culture, tradition, ethnosocial characteristics of
local inhabitants and other) but the satisfaction
of tourists with some destination depends on
more widely factors as hospitality, security, state
of
life
surrounding,
arrangement
of
environment, communal infrastructure, climate
circumstances and other. [2]
landscapes, monuments, experiences, etc.) that
are offered to tourists during his or her stay in a
selected place or destination. However, for
economic and marketing science, the tourist
destination is more than a recognizable
geographic area. Very often tourists experience
the destination as a whole, so that the area is not
only considered as a "tourist place", but also
becomes a "tourist product" “. [4]
The elements of tourist destination quality
include all that what is offered to tourists on
certain area. Those elements are: infrastructure
(traffic and communal), state of life surrounding
and arrangement of environment, culture and
entertainment, sport and recreation activities,
hotel and catering buildings, informing tourists,
shopping, characteristics of local inhabitants
(culture, tradition, folklore, hospitality), security
and protection of guests (life security, health
security and property protection). [2]
In many countries where tourism is an
important part of economic activity, strategies
and plans with visions of tourism development,
strategic goals and action plans are brought to
the national level. However, in decentralized
societies, it is the cities and towns that are the
basic level of planning and administration. [3]
3.1. Natural Tourist Resources
In the area of the municipality, the climate of
continental features prevails in warm summers
and relatively cold winters and is suitable for a
better development of rural tourism. The slopes
of Dilj and opposite them, the lowland area
along the Sava River and the Jelas field and
ponds are an excellent place for a pleasant stay
in nature and for sport and recreational activities
such as sport fishing and alike.
3. TOURIST RESOURCES ON
THE TERRITORY OF THE
MUNICIPALITY OF ORIOVAC
Jelas field and complex ponds measuring
about 800 hectares in which carp is mainly
cultivated with other types of freshwater fish as
well, surrounded by the typical rural, Slavonian
landscape, oak forests and meadows. It is a
habitat for many and varied, very rare species of
waterbirds, gray heron, white-tailed eagle,
spoonbill, black-headed gull, several species of
ducks and others, which is an excellent tourist
resource with the potential to develop a specific
form of "bird watching" tourism which is very
popular with people who love nature. Ponds are
important nesting ground, winter habitat and
feeding ground for rare and protected
waterbirds, as well as otter habitat.
The important structure in tourism and tourist
development makes area with all its
components, population and its characteristics
and features, geographical and natural
characteristics, material and immaterial values,
customs, sights and specialties in the ecological
and gastronomic offer of this area and region.
A significant role in creating a tourist
destination brand has a destination management.
Traditionally, the destination is considered as a
mix of direct and indirect tourist facilities (eg
accommodation, catering, public and private
transport and roads, visitor information,
recreational amenities, etc.), and a wide range of
natural and cultural tourist attractions (e.g.
412
The wider area of the pond evaluated as the
IBA (Important Bird Area, Natura 2000) also
has exceptional tourism potential, and with
additional active protection measures, and small
investment in tourism infrastructure (e.g.
interpretive panels and bird observation posts)
and quality promotion, can turn into a
recognizable tourist product, since it is an
important nesting gruond, feeding srea and
winter habitat for birds and habitat of other
animal species (e.g. otter and spruce). Up to now
there are recorded over 230 bird species, of
which 122 species are nesting birds.
3.2. Social Tourist Resources
Social resources of tourist area make all
objects, all manifestations, events and
occurrences that contribute to the creation of a
recognizable tourist product. These resources
are divided into cultural-historical, artistic,
environmental and manifestation resources.
Additionaly, various monuments of culture,
sacral objects, archaeological sites and similar
locations are also an important social tourism
resource.
Archaeological excavations in the area of the
municipality of Oriovac revealed the traces of
different cultures from several periods. Findings
in the form of remains of dwellings, tools and
bones point to the presence of the SopotLengyel culture in the period from 3100 to 1300
BC. The finding of stone arrows, clayey ballast
for making fishing nets heavier, stone axes,
stone blades, scrapers and drills indicate that the
population was engaged in hunting and fishing.
From the Neolithic period, on the wider territory
of Brod-Posavina country were found the
remnants of Baden, Lasinja, Kostolac and
Vučedol culture from the period from 2400 to
1850 BC.
The Orljava River, which springs under the
Psunj mountain and in the area of the
municipality of Oriovac flows into the Sava
River is also suitable for the development of
fishing tourism and as excursion site. There is
also the Lake Čaplja in Oriovac, an artificial
lake created in the middle of the 20th century,
which is nowadays regulated and maintained by
the municipality and sport fishing association
"Sharan" from Oriovac. It is registered in the
Croatian Fishing Water Registry and as such can
be included and used as a significant tourist
resource. Next to the lake there are sports fields
for basketball, indoor football and similar sports
which the municipality plans to renovate and
arrange and which could also be part of the
tourist offer.
Findings from the Jelas field in the form of
decorative dishes reveal Brod culture from the
younger Bronze Age. Close to the necropolis in
Oriovac, which is located at 95 m above sea
level, is found a large number of graves with
urnes and remains of bones and ashes of
deceased. In the Malino settlement, remains of
the Celtic necropolis were found together with
the iron sword and spearhead that were put in
the graves of warriors. Nearby are also found the
remains of prehistoric gold jewelry from the late
Bronze Age.
The fauna of these water and fishing areas
consists of many spieces. About twenty of them
are considered to be endangered and very rare,
while forty species are strictly protected by the
Nature Protection Act. There is also a very
diverse flora which, along with other natural
resources, makes this area an attractive and high
quality natural resource for the development of
future tourism. In the area of the municipality
there are hunting societies "Orljava" from
Slavonski Kobaša and "Oriovac" from Oriovac
that have been using and looking after the four
hunting grounds. There is a variety of wildlife
such as wild pigs, roe deer, rabbits, pheasants,
deer, wild cats, marten and other wildlife that is
common to this area and which is an important
resource for hunting tourism.
3.3. Sacral Heritage
In the area of the municipality there are
several churches of exceptional architectural and
historical value. Church of St. John the Baptist
and the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary at
Kloštar in Slavonski Kobas and Church of St.
Emeric in Oriovac are on the list of protected
cultural goods of the Republic of Croatia.
413
2. Development of selective forms of tourism
Cultural monuments from the older and those
from a recent history, attract tourists and fans of
cultural and monumental values. In the area of
the municipality, all the already mentioned
cultural and sacral objects from older history, as
well as recent ones, have a particular importance
for the population of this area and they are
certainly interesting and attractive to tourists and
passers-by. The Municipality of Oriovac has
many different associations that organize
various manifestations and events, all of which
can, with better organization and good
marketing, become part of the tourist story and
tourist product of future rural tourism in the
municipality.
3. Promotion of the destination and education
of tourist parties for joint participation in the
tourist market
The basic assumption for the development of
tourism is a quality and maintained tourist
infrastructure. The tourist infrastructure consists
of wine roads, cycling trails, promenades,
gazebo, bird watching towers, hunting lodges
and similar locations. Resources such as forests,
hunting grounds and water resources should be
used. With the promotion of tourist products and
tourist destinations, it is important to educate
tourism stakeholders and local residents to point
out the opportunities and benefits of tourism to
them. It is also necessary to create a specific
brand of this destination, as well as a
recognizable original souvenir of the
municipality, whose creation should involve all
potential stakeholders in tourism.
4. DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES
AND MEASURES
In order to encourage and motivate family
farms to engage in tourism, the municipality has
created a Rural Tourism Development Strategy
as a fundamental document that should point to
opportunities, strengths and weaknesses that
slow down the development of tourism. A key
step in the development of this strategy was
SWOT analysis, which defines strengths and
weaknesses, as well as opportunities and threats
for future tourism development. The SWOT
analysis also determined development goals and
measures to achieve desired success in the
development of tourism. The principles and
specialties of the municipality which promise
optimum management of the existing resources
have been taken into account, as well as the
potential supply and demand parameters. An
important detail that must be an integral part of
the tourism development strategy of the
municipality is the promotion of tourism and
tourism activities that actually links the factors
of supply with the factors of demand.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The municipality of Oriovac is an area that
has many different advantages that can be
foundation of future rural tourism development.
The benefits are preserved and diverse nature
and natural resources, rich Slavonian
gastronomic and wine offer, geographical
position, two rivers (Orljava and Sava) and other
water areas, protected landscapes of Jelas fields
with rare and protected species of waterbirds.
Insufficient number of tourist family farms,
lack of accommodation capacity and inadequate
cooperation between the public and private
sectors, are the also disadvantages that slow
down the development of tourism. The tourist
association of municipality of Oriovac tends to
initiate tourism development through the
construction of tourism infrastructure projects.
The development of the Rural Tourism
Development Strategy is also an indicator of the
readiness of the municipality of Oriovac to
initiate tourism activities. Therefore, the
municipality and the Tourist association of the
Municipality of Oriovac will monitor the tenders
of the Ministry of Tourism and the Croatian
The development goals derived from SWOT
analysis are:
1. Improvement of tourism infrastructure and
other public infrastructure necessary for
tourism development
414
National Tourist Association to apply for
development projects in tourism, cultural
heritage conservation projects and encourage
families to engage in this branch of the
economy.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Ž. Župan, Consideration of destination
brand through the prism of strategic
management in tourism, Proc. Conf.
Međimurje Polytechnic in Čakovec 5(2)
(2014), pp.73-81.
[2] D. Jovičić; V. Ivanivić, Benchmarking and
quality managing of tourist destinations.
Tourism and Hospitality Management
12(2) (2006), pp. 123-134.
[3] R. Tomljenović; S. Boranić Živoder; Z.
Marušić, Stakeholder support for tourism
development. Acta Turistica 25(1) (2013),
pp.73-102.
[4] M. Vukman; K. Drpić, Influence of internet
marketing on the development of tourist
destinations brand (Utjecaj internet
marketinga na razvoj brenda turističke
destinacije). Practical Management: A
Professional Journal of Management
Theory and Practice 5(1) (2014), pp. 141145.
[5] Sintagma, Rural Tourism Development
Strategy of the Municipality of Oriovac for
2013.-2016 (Strategija razvoja ruralnog
turizma općine Oriovac 2013.-2016.),
Minicipality of Oriovac, Nova Gradiška,
(2013).
[6] A.V. Hudolin, Good stories 2 (Dobre priče
2), Radio Bljesak d.o.o. Okučani, Okučani,
(2017).
415
Employment Status and Risk Aversion:
Do Money-Makers Care More for the
Money?
M. Ferenčak a, D. Dobromirov a, M. Radišić
a
a
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia,
E-mail: {ferencak, ddobromirov, mladenr}@uns.ac.rs
Abstract
The scope of this paper is to present results of risk aversion testing among two different groups:
employed money-makers and unemployed, when probabilities of outcomes are unknown. The reason
for testing was to establish if there is difference in risk aversion under ambiguity between subjects
who earn money for themselves and subjects who currently do not earn money for themselves.
Previous researches suggest that older, more experienced and employed decision-makers tend to be
more risk averse than younger, inexperienced and unemployed decision-makers, however most of
those test were done in laboratory environment using methods that usually do not reflect situations
that could be met in reality. Methodology for risk aversion measurement in this research was based on
stock-market simulation, with the data better suiting the real behaviour of investment decisionmakers. In the research it is not confirmed that employed subjects are more risk averse than
unemployed subjects, but that unemployed decision-makers, when faced with investment decision
under ambiguity, will approach it with the caution, while decision-makers who earn their payments
will be more reckless. Implications of this research can be used both by policy makers and investment
institutions on order to formulate an approach to different types of investors according to their
employment status.
Keywords: risk aversion, investment decision-making, decision making under ambiguity
Emotions and human nature are hard to passby, so new approaches in decision-making
process try to integrate behavioural approach
into decision-making theory. The concepts such
as loss aversion, risk aversion, and heuristics are
being extensively researched since the
publishing of the Tversky and Kahneman work
in 1979 and their publishing of the prospect
theory principles. Since then, behavioural
approach in decision-making has become widely
accepted part of decision-making theory.
1. INTRODUCTION
No matter how important, decisions are part
of people’s daily lives, more often that they
realize. From the simplest ones to more
complex, people make numerous decisions in
just one day. However, business decisions are
approached with more attention since they can
cause significant financial gains or losses for
business and individual. Because of the
monetary dimension of the decision, decision
makers tend to more cautious and implement
some form of decision–making tool, which
usually require some resources. However, no
matter how developed or high-tech business
decision support is, there is always room for
different influences, both external and internal.
One of the relatively unexplored differences
among decision makers is the difference
between decision makers that earn their money
and those that don’t. Because there are different
influences, both external and internal, on the
process of decision-making, it is important to
416
which
decision-making
is
made.
[3]
Programmed decisions are characterized by their
predictability since they the problems to witch
decisions are related to tend to occur regularly,
regardless of their complexity. Hence the
programmed decisions are based on practices,
rules and procedures that are result of past
experiences. The decisions are usually
decomposed on elements that can be defined,
predicted and analysed in order to create bestpractice documents, procedures or policies that
will help with making programmed decisions.
understand attitudes towards risk of decisionmakers with different personal traits.
2. DECISION-MAKING
The decision involves choosing from a set of
at least two options (alternatives, actions) to
which we can achieve the desired goal. If we
have only one option, then there are no
dilemmas regarding the choice, and therefore
there is no problem of decision-making. [1]
Options must be defined so that they mutually
exclude each other, while the set of options must
be final in order to be able to speak about the
correct alternatives.
Non-programmed decisions are those
decisions that decision-makers make for the first
time and are related to new problems without
pre-destined algorithm for its solving, with
increased uncertainty compared to the
programmed decisions. Behavioral theory is of
great significance in making non-programmed
decisions because it views decision-making
process as a sequential, repeating process of
alternative elimination. The rationality is applied
on one choice among possible choices that
satisfy given criteria of decision-making.
The goal of decision-making process is to
come with the best possible alternative that will
maximize the positive aspects and minimize the
negative aspects concerning the choice.
However, for that to happen, there must be
enough information about the alternatives, the
probabilities should be known and decisionmakers must possess enough knowledge,
experience, tools and resources in order to
process information in the best possible way.
However, decision-makers often do not have
adequate information about the core of a
problem; they do not have time or means to get
information and often are incapable to
understand the given information. They are
facing the impossibility of memorizing so many
information and limited ability of counting. [2]
Those situations are called bounded rationality.
Investors are often subjected to bounded
rationality due to the quickly changing prices
and trends, and decisions must be made in the
shortest time possible.
2.1.
Programmed
and
Programmed Decisions
Non
2.2.
Optimal
decisions
and
satisfactory
Depending on the clarity and probability of
the outcome of the decision, two types of
decisions can be identified: optimal and
satisfactory decisions.
Optimal decisions are those decisions that
maximize the outcome of the action, either
being financial outcome or some other type.
They are usually made in such cases where there
is enough information and the possible
outcomes of actions are clear and the process of
decision-making concerning optimal decisions is
connected to the classical theory of decision
making. Much of the optimal decisions can be
made by using decision-making software. Also,
mathematics, statistics and algorithms are often
used in making optimal decisions.
-
Depending on the previous knowledge and
experience with the problem, decision-maker
faces two types of decisions: Programmed and
non-programmed
decisions.
Programmed
decisions are those decision whose basic
characteristics are the routine performance of
activities, the predetermined procedures for
making the decision and the experience by
Satisfactory decisions arose from the cases in
which optimal decisions couldn’t be made due
to the lack of information or the probability
distribution. Given that financial utility can’t be
417
measured, satisfactory decisions present
solutions that are “good enough” given the
circumstances. The goal of making satisfactory
decision is to bring the decision-maker least
possible regret concerning the decision.
Satisfactory decisions find support in
behavioural decision making theory, which
states
that
psychology,
anthropology,
philosophy and other social sciences have
influence on decision-making of the individual.
2.4. Experience
investors
differences
among
The difference among decision-makers with
different previous experiences have been
thoroughy researched, especially among workers
with different entrepreneurship background.
Researchers found different risk aversion levels
among public and private sector workers, where
private sector workers exhibit less risk aversion
behaviour [7]. Risk-tolerant individuals can
benefit more from the entrepreneurship training
than risk-averse individuals [8], supporting the
claim that entrepreneurs are generally more risk
tolerant than other individuals.
2.3. Decision-making process
Decision-making process is a part of broader
process called problem solving, which includes
these phases:
The attitude of decision-makers according to
their employment status has been researched;
however the results of different researches are
somewhat in contradiction. While Halek and
Eisenhauer [9] found that unemployed subjects
in their research are much more prone in
financialy risky behavior, Pannenberg research
showed that unemployed job seekers are risk
averse [10].
Current situation (initial state) observation
and problem identification;
Precision problem definition;
Goal definition (of choice criteria);
Alternative action (option) direction
identification;
Information gathering;
Alternative evaluation;
Choosing the alternative;
Action implementation;
Results dissemination and analysis. [4]
3. RISK, UNCERTAINTY AND
AMBIGUITY
By valuating efficiency (overseeing the
results) it can be concluded if the decision has
made expected outcome. In that way decisionmaking process can be presented as a system
with its own subsystems that are interconnected
and influence one another. [5]
Risk represents the state where numerical
probability for occurrence of certain events is
known, such as in case of a coin toss, where the
probability for either heads or tails to occur is
p=0.5. The decision-making under risk is
common practice in programmed decisions,
because the frequency of occurrence can provide
decision-makers with a number of instances and
better probability calculation.
The process of decision-making is passing
though several stages:
Collection and analysis of needed information;
Business system goals definition;
Expected results elaboration;
Decision concerning resources needed;
Alternative decisions elaboration;
Choice of the decision;
Decision implementation. [6]
In case where there is no known probability,
but the probability can be calculated from past
events by using statistical methods or by expert
opinion, decision will be made in uncertainty.
Uncertainty represents risk where the numerical
probability is set with smaller degree of
confidence due to the either lack of necessary
information or different use of given
information by different decision-makers.
The goal of decision-making process is to
help the decision-makers choose the best
possible alternative among several alternatives
given the information that are available.
418
Effects that, according to the behavioural
economist influence decision-making are
numerous, and some of better researched are:
Ambiguity is defined as a decision
environment when there are no probabilities that
decision-makers can assign to the outcomes of
their actions. This situation usually happens
when decision-makers are dealing with new
problems.
Loss aversion: One of the basic
phenomena of choice under both risk and
uncertainty is that losses loom larger than
gains. The observed asymmetry between
gains and losses are to extreme to be
explained by income effects or by
decreasing risk aversion. [12]
Investors usually work in either uncertainty
or ambiguity. In the case of the investments, the
future cash flows are usually projected on the
basis of current market situation and the results
of the similar projects in the past. However, not
all investors possess the knowledge or
experience needed to interpret data in a way that
would help them maximize their wealth. In their
case, even with the information that is provided
to them, they make decisions under ambiguity.
Heuristics – represent the wide group of
psychological tools that help decision
makers during their decision-making
process under bounded rationality.
Heuristics doesn’t necessary help
decision-makers make best decisions, but
they just speed-up the process of decision
making, sometimes leading to the
decisions that are neither optimal nor
satisfactory. Notable heuristics include
anchoring,
representativeness,
availability, etc.
4. INVESTMENT DECISIONMAKING
Investments represent conscious renunciation
of current consumption in order to acquire larger
gains in the future. Although the term
investment is colloquially associated with
finance, investments can be made in other
domains as well, since money is not the only
resource that can be invested. However, humans
as decision-makers doesn’t always maximize
their incomes from decisions, as first described
by Bernoulli in 1713, but their decision is ruled
by
the
expected
utility
that
the
actions/consequences of their decisions will
have upon them. Namely, not all gains are
measured equally.
Risk aversion – Decision-makers are risk
averse in that sense that they prefer sure
gains over possibility of larger gains
coupled with the possibility of loss.
Ambiguity aversion – people prefer
lotteries with known probabilities over
those with unknown probabilities.
Investors decision-making under ambiguity
is characterized by the lack of information given
to the investors, or misunderstanding of the
information due to the lack of knowledge. As it
is almost impossible to come to the precise
probabilities of directions of price movements
on the market, it can be argued that investors
work either under uncertainty or under
ambiguity, with the prior experience, knowledge
and access to information making the difference
between the two states.
Prospect theory, set by Tversky and
Kahneman in 1979 and expanded in 1992,
define that decision-makers are influenced by
the psychological factors more than it was
believed before, and that humans are often
unable to make optimal decisions. This is due to
the two phase decision model, which consists of
preliminary analysis of the choices given and
their simplification (editing phase) and later
evaluation. Because decision-makers during
editing phase are susceptible to the certain
psychological effects, their decisions are not in
line with the expected utility theory. [11]
Although there are certain models of
decision-making under ambiguity, such as
method for measuring loss-aversion under
ambiguity by Abdellaoui et al [13], those
models are not suitable for the research of
419
subject, as well as his previous knowledge and
experience about stock-market exchange. The
first part was used as a check of consistency, as
all students who received invitations for
research either attended courses connected to the
stock-market exchange or were part of the
simulation.
investors, due to specific scenarios in which
investors operating on the stock exchange might
find them. The stock market, in contrast to the
most models, is not a lottery, meaning that the
maximum gain can’t be measured. Also, the
usual volatility of the prices presents a problem,
because most of the methods take linear
approach to the price change, which is usually
not the case. However, most of the researchers
found that the coefficient for loss aversion is in a
region of 2, meaning that people tend to ask for
two units in case that one unit can be lost.
Although widely accepted, some researchers
found that current evidence current evidence
does not support that losses, on balance, tend to
be any more impactful than gains. [14] Gal also
contest that loss aversion is not responsible for
some of the effects it produce. [15]
Second part of the questionnaire was
presented as a hypothetical scenario in which
subject took the role of the investor with a
certain amount of financial resources. They had
a choice of three different stocks that had the
same price. The only difference between the
stocks were the spread between the potential
gains and losses, as the first one had small
spread, meaning smaller potential gains and
smaller potential losses, second had larger
spread between potential gains and losses, and
third was presented as a stock with both high
potential gains and losses. The only information
that subjects had been given is that the market is
stable and it is predicted it will remain stable in
the near future. By not giving information
needed for the proper assessment of the stocks,
the subjects were put under ambiguity for the
decision making, as no probabilities were given.
5. METHODOLOGY AND
SAMPLING
To measure ambiguity aversion under risk,
we prepared an on-line questionnaire. The
research was done as a part of PhD thesis
research on models of decision-making under
the ambiguity. The subject group consisted of
the current and past students of Industrial
engineering and management department of
Faculty of technical sciences, University of Novi
Sad. Total of 214 invitations were sent, of which
145 were opened and 89 answered the research,
of which 50 were women, and 63 were
employed at the time. The choice of such subject
group was done in order to have a subject group
that either has a theoretical or practical
knowledge of the stock market principles, as the
researches wanted to find out how investors with
knowledge and/or experience on the market
react in situations under ambiguity. The research
was anonymous. The questions were on Serbian
language. There were no infractions of the
process and not a single result was dropped.
Service used for distribution of questionnaire
and collection of answers is sogosurvey.com,
and excel was used for graphical and statistical
presentation of the results.
6. RESULTS AND
INTERPRETATION
The result show that unemployed decisionmakers exhibit higher risk-aversion under
The questionnaire was divided into three
parts, of which two will be presented. The first
part consisted of questions concerning date of
birth, employment status and gender of the
Fig. 1. Stock selection depending on the gain-loss
spread among different groups
420
Sector Workers? Industrial and Labor
Relations Review 34(3) (1981), pp. 408-412.
ambiguity than employed decision-makers,
which is in contrast to the previous researches.
The results of the research can be seen on Fig 1.
The risk-aversion among all subjects follow the
pattern of risk aversion in general, however it can
be noted that employed subjects exhibited more
risk-tolerating behaviour, and where inclined
towards risk-neutral behaviour (26 to 21).
[8] R.W. Fairlie; W. Holleran, Entrepreneurship
Training, Risk Aversion and Other
Personality Traits: Evidence from a Random
Experiment, University of California Santa
Cruz Working Paper Series, (2014).
[9] M. Halek; J.G. Eisenhauer, Demography of
Risk Aversion. The Journal of Risk and
Insurance 68(1) (2001), pp. 1-24.
7. CONCLUSION
Differently to the expectations and somewhat
previous researches, we found that unemployed
decision-makers will be more risk-averse than
employed ones. This result could provide that
among our subject group unemployed subjects
tend to value their money more than their
employed counterparts, which gives a notion that
unemployment benefits will not be wasted and
that it will be respected among those in need.
[10] M. Pannenberg, Risk Attitudes and
Reservation Wages of Unemployed
Workers: Evidence from Panel Data.
Economics Letters 106(3) (2010), pp. 223226.
[11] A. Tverksy; D. Kahneman, Prospect theory:
an analysis of decision under risk.
Econometrica 47 (1979), pp. 263-291.
[12] A. Tversky; D. Kahneman, Advances in
prospect theory: cumulative representation
of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and
Uncertainty 5 (1992), pp. 297-323.
8. REFERENCES
[1] D. Pavličić, Decision – making theory.
Teorija odlu Belgrade, Faculty of
Economics publishing center, Serbia,
(2010).
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D. Dolder, Measuring loss aversion under
ambiguity: a method to make prospect
theory completely observable. Journal od
Risk and Uncertainty 52(1) (2017), pp. 1-20.
[2] H. Simon, Administrative behaviour, Free
Press, New York, USA, (1976).
[3] H. Simon, Theories of decison-making in
economics and behavioral science. The
American Economic Review 49 (1959), pp.
253-283.
[14] D. Gal; D. Rucker, The loss of loss aversion:
will it loom larger than its gain? Journal of
Consumer Psychology 28(3) (2018).
[15] D. Gal, The psychological law of inertia and
the illusion of loss aversion. Judgment and
Decision Making 1(1) (2006), pp. 23-32.
[4] S. Cooke; N. Slack, Making management
decisions. New York, Prentice Hall, USA,
(1991).
[5] Ž. Radosavljević, Trade management,
Belgrade, CERK, Serbia, (2006).
[6] B. Leković, Management
Proleter, Bečej, Serbia, (2011).
principles,
[7] D. Bellante; A.N. Link, Are Public Sector
Workers More Risk Averse than Private
421
Un ive r sit y Ke y Pe r for m a n ce I n dica t or s
– St u de n t s pe r spe ct ive
N e m a nj a Tasić a , Milan Delić a , Rado Maksimović a , Bojan Lalić a ,
Branislav Bogojević a , Maja Ćukušić b
Universit y of Novi Sad, Facult y of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6,
21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, nem anj a.t asic@uns.ac.rs; delic@uns.ac.rs; rado@uns.ac.rs;
blalic@uns.ac.rs; bogoj evic@uns.ac.rs
a
b
Universit y of Split , Facult y of Econom ics, Cvite Fiskovića 5, 21000 Split , Croat ia,
m aj a.cukusic@efst .hr
Abst r a ct
Systems of Key Performance Indicators - KPI’s in universities has become very popular tool not just
for measuring progress of the achieved goals as a basis for more efficient resource allocation, but also
for informing stakeholders and comparing instituions. One of the main issues in the process of
designing system of KPI’s is the selection of appropriate indicators which directly depends on the
purpose of the system and on the stakeholders view. The objective of this paper was to select relevant
performance indicators from the students perspective, as one of the most important stakeholders, as a
basis for developing performance indicators system, and to present their use for the purpose of more
efficient resource allocation. Students were expected to give their opinion of relevance and actual
values on each performance indicator which was than used for comparing the relevant (desired) value
of indicators with their actual (observed) value, providing further guidelines for improvement and
better resource allocation. Perfomanse indicators were selected by ranking most relevant indicators,
from students perspective, using Mean-Variance methodology which were than compared to their
actual value. The survey included a sample od 204 student form the area od Industrial Engineering
and Engineering Management within the field of Technical and Technological Sciences in Serbia.
Results showed the gap between desired and actual value on all relevant indicators, which indicates
the existance of systemic deviation caused by systemic factor pointing further to the need for
realocating reosurces in the most relevant areas of student interests.
Ke yw or ds: Key Performance Indicators, University, Students, Relevance.
place, in an increasing number of students all
over the world, but also in regional integration
of higher education institutions and systems, the
growing internationalization of the instututions,
their diversification, incerased privatization, and
so on [1]. Trends listed above, together with
growing complexity of higher education systems
caused the decline in the quality of teaching due
to mass enrollment of students, increase of total
costs of studying, etc. In addition, the traditional
relationship between government and universitiy
has changed. More and more, universities today
are expected to justify rational use of resources,
to demonstrate value for money and to be
transparent [2]. At the same time, students are
investing their time and money, focusing not
1 . I N TROD UCTI ON
Higher Education Institutions in Europe and
all over the world have experienced significant
changes in the last three decades. Rapid growth
and development of world economy, followed
by the development of new technologies, caused
strategic objectives of the education systems to
be redefined in order to provide their further
development. In the knowldege based society,
where the value of intangible assets greatly
exceeds the value of tangible assets, the
develoment of new knowledge, experience and
skills, took one of the primary places, changing
also the world of higer education. This caused
many factors to change, resulting, in the first
422
just on gaining university degree with good
potential for employment, but expecting much
more from the whole process od education,
inculding “enjoyable extended period of
personal and social development” [3]. Similarly,
employers are expecting to get skilled work
force with sufficient knowledge in the specific
area of education. Therefore, it is evident that
Higher Education Institutions are operating in
the complex environment, fulfilling the needs of
various stakeholders, all of which are expecting
different objectives to be met.
2 . SYSTEM S FOR MEASURI N G
PERFOMAN CE
Systems for measuring performance in
companies evolved over time. Traditional
systems, in the past, were primarly focused on
financial data [5] which was in line with the
economic and business concepts of that time,
when the value was created and expressed on
the basis of tangible asset. Over the last three
decades, the value of companies is not based
solely on the tangible assets, but also on
intangible assests, which are not completely
included in the accounting balance sheet and are
mostly related to the value arising from
intelectuall capital [6]. This caused lack of
ability of old systems to portray the whole
picture of company performances, and it was
clear that it was necessary to include nonfinancial measures, when developnig systems
for measuring performances. Among the first,
Kaplan and Notron [7] concluded that
performance measures must be regarded as an
integrated system in the function of an
organization's strategy. On that basis, new
systems, like BSC (Balanced Scorecard), or
SMART (Strategic Measurement Analysis and
Reporting Technique), etc., emerged and very
soon found their application not only in profit
but also in non-profit sector. Specific
characteristic of HEI’s, such as absence of profit
motivation in public universities along side with
diversified objectives, makes measuring
performances very difficult [8], which made this
type of performance indicator systems more
suitable for use.
All mentioned above, caused the need for
development of a systems that will provide
informations for improving the management of
institutions, and at the same time for informing
interested parties. Also, the interest for
comparing institutions is growing regionaly and
on international level resulting in an emergence
of numerous rankig systems. Therefore, it was
necessary to focus on systems for measuring and
monitoring the parameters of quality, that is, to
the introduction of key performance indicators
(KPI) that are used in the assessment of the real
state of the business and determine the main
directions of action in the future [4].
In the process of development of
performance indicators systems in universities,
one of the main challenges is the selection of
indicators with respect to different stakeholders
perspectives. Depending on the purpose of
indicator system, different criteria are used for
selection of performance indicators – relevance
to stakeholders, availability of informations,
comparability, validity, reliability, etc.
This study explored the criteria of relevance
over the set of performance indicators among
one specific group of stakeholders – students, as
a basis for developing performance indicators
system. Also, students were expected to give
their opinion of the actual value on each
performance indicator which was than used for
comparing the relevant (desired) value of
indicators with their actual (observed) value,
providing further guidelines for improvement
and better resource allocation.
3 . DESI GN I N G SYSTEM S OF
PERFORM AN CE I N DI CATORS
Before selecting appropriate performance
indicators, the first step in developing system of
performance indicators is defining the purpose
for designing such systems. Most authors agree
that the systems of performance indicators in
higher education are commonly used in one of
the following purposes: evaluation, monitoring,
planning, dialogue and resource allocation [1],
[9], [10]. These roles are not mutually exclusive,
423
project [11]. The questionnaire was designed to
represent all ever used indicators from [11]
which were adapted to the Srbian language as
well as to the specific caracteristics of the higher
education system in Serbia. First, the
questionnaire was tested in the pre-test phase
checking the content validity of the questions
individualy with 20 students enroled in the study
programmes in the area of Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management. The results
of the pre-test were used to improve measurement scales in the questionnaire and the
comprehensibility of the content. As a result, the
final questionnaire contained 64 particles, two of
which were control variables (gender and
enroled year of the stdudy) and on 62 questions,
students were asked to gave their opinion on the
relevance of the indicators and their opinion on
the actual value on each of the offered
performance indicator. To measure students
opinion on relevance and actual value of the
indicators, a Likert scale was used in which
respondents were offered to express their
agreement or disagreement with the statement
on the scale from 1 to 5, with grade 1 - I
completely disagree and grade 5 - I completely
agree. The questionnaire was distributed to the
students enroled at the second, third and fourth
year of Bachelor studies and to student enroled
in Master studies from the Faculty of Technical
Sciences in Novi Sad and Technical Faculty
“Mihajlo Pupin” in Zrenjanin both within
University of Novi Sad, and from the Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Nis.
From the nearly 2.000 students enroled at this
programmes in three different Faculties (without
students enroled in the first year), the
questionnaire was completed by
204
respondents. Female and Male respondents
(Table 1) participated almost equally with
59.3% and 40.7% respectively.
but they are driven by different forces which
further affects the choise od appropriate
performance indicators. For example, systems
for planing and improvement need informations
from organizational processes that use
managers. The issues of evaluation and
efficiency are mostly the interest of government
which uses different indicators to contol for
policy fulfillment and incentives, etc. These
different roles require different criteria which
are used for selection of indicators such as:
relevance
of
indicators
for
different
stakeholders, reliability, comparability, validity,
availability of information for calculating
indicators, multidimensionality, measurement,
resistance to manipulation, etc. In ths paper, the
selection of indicators is focused on the criteria
of relevance of key indicators for stakeholders
with a focus on the students population.
Generaly, the problem of selection of
appropriate key performance indicators reflects
on the quality of informations that are being
provided. The main reason is that performance
indicators represent an attempt to portrait the
whole complexity of the system in a balanced
vay. A larger number of indicators is difficult
and expensive to monitor and it creates
”information noise“, and vice versa, the smaller
number of indicators can not provide the whole
picture of complex environment. Also, the one
who is selecting indicators is imposing his
aspect on quality of entity, and that is why it is
very important to explore which indicators are
relevant to different stakeholders [10].
4 . RESULTS AN D
ACH I EVEM EN TS
In this paper, the results of the research of the
relevance of university key performance
indicators from the students perspective in the
area of Industrial Engineering and Engineering
Management within the field of Technical and
Technological Sciences in Serbia will be
presented.
Table 1 - The ratio of respondents by gender
Frequency Percentage
As a measuring instrument for this research,
the questionnaire was developed, using the
framework and principles from U-Multirank
Male
Female
Total
424
83
40.7
Valid
40.7
121
59.3
59.3
204
100.0
100.0
Percentage of respondents from 2nd year of
Bachelor academic studies (BAS) was 14,7%,
from 3rd year of the same level 52,2% and from
the 4th year 15,7%. From the 1st year of Master
academic studies (MAS) totaly 17,6% students
participated (Table 2).
Table 4 – The least relevant indicators
Rank
Table 2 - Ratio of respondents by enrolled year
Frequency Percentage
Valid
BAS 2nd year
30
14.7
14.7
BAS 3rd year
106
52.2
52.2
th
32
15.7
15.7
st
34
17.6
17.6
204
100.0
100.0
BAS 4 year
MAS 1 year
Total
St.dev.
1.
C23
4.66
0.635
2.
C17
4.63
0.693
3.
C19
4.55
0.690
4.
C07
4.51
0.803
5.
C02
4.49
0.839
6.
G10
4.47
0.850
7.
C14
4.43
0.831
8.
C20
4.45
0.855
9.
G09
4.43
0.854
10.
F10
4.42
0.873
58.
E10
3.27
1.300
59.
F08
3.17
1.347
60.
D05
3.08
1.280
61.
C10
3.07
1.279
62.
E11
3.02
1.252
According to Table 4, the indicators that are
of least relevance for the respondents include:
E11 - Citing scientific papers of my professors
in patents; C10 - Number of students who
completed their doctoral studies at my Faculty;
D05 - Quotation of teacher work in scientific
journals; F08 - The number of foreign students
who have obtained a Ph.D. in my Faculty; E10 Earnings from sold licenses.
Table 3 – The most relevant indicators
Mean
St.dev.
According to Table 3, the indicators that
have the highest relevance for the respondents
include: C23 - Availability of information
through the Faculty website; C17 - Possibility
to conduct professional practice during the
studies; C19 - Organization of teaching; C07 Laboratory equipment at the Faculty; C02 Possibility of employment after graduation; G10
- Possibility of employment in companies from
the region; C14 - Laboratory equipment at the
Faculty; C20 - Interpersonal relations at the
faculty (the relation of other students and
teachers towards me); G09 - Possibility of
conducting professional practice in companies
from the region; F10 - Possibility of
employment in international companies.
Due to the limited space of exposition, only
the 10 most relevant and the 5 least relevant
indicators, out of 62 indicators in total, are
presented in the Table 3 and Table 4.
Indicator
Mean
It can be seen that the 10 most relevant and 5
least relevant indicators remained the same as in
the pilot-research [13] but their rank order
changed slightly.
Data, gathered from students, was analysed
using customized version of Harry Markovitz’s
Mean-Variance method [12]. This method was
used in order to get the list of ranked indicators
in order of relevance to the students population.
It is based on calculating the mean value and the
standard deviation for each question. The mean
value indicates the level of relevance of the
indicators for the respondents, and the standard
deviation shows the measure of the uncertainty
of the respondents in the relevance of the each
indicator. Indicators with higher value of the
mean and the lower value of the standard
deviation are considered to be more relevant to
respondents than in the oposite case.
Rank
Indicator
After the process of ranking, the mean values
of relevant (desired) value of indicators is
compared to the mean values of the actual
(observed) value of indicators according to the
students opinion. The results of the comparison
are presented in Table 5 and on the spider chart
on Figure 1.
425
professional practice in companies from the
region, points to the need to develop a long-term
relationship between the Faculty and enterprises
and to establish a model of professional practice
at the highest level of quality. That is significant
signal for higher education institutions to invest
time and effort in developing the most suitable
model of students internsip, as it is shown in
some positive examples in [14] and [15]. It is
also very interesting to notice that indicators
C07 and C14, which both found their places in
the first ten most relevant indicators out of 62 in
total, are measuring the same thing - Laboratory
equipment at the Faculty. Indicator C14 was set
in the questionnaire as a control question which
was used to verify answers and to control for
acquracy and consistency of the questionaire.
Their close values confirmed that students were
responding carefuly and with neccesary atention to
all other questions which makes all other anwers
more valid. Also, these answers confirmed that
quality of Laboratories is also highly valued
among student population and that they represent
one of the most valuable infrastrucuture resources
in which Faculties should be investing in order to
meet student expectations.
The results unambiguously shows that there
exist the gap between relevant (desired) value
and actual (observed) value of indicators
according to students opinion, which indicates
the existance of systemic deviation caused by
systemic factor pointing to the need for
realocating reosurces in the most relevant areas
of student interests in order for further quality
improvements. Students consider the most
relevant indicator to be C23 - Availability of
information through the Faculty website. Also,
the actual value of this indicator is quite close to
desired value (Table 5 and Fig. 1), showing that
this indicator is not just the most relevant
indicator for students, but that it meets students
expectation on much higher level than other
indicators. However, student experience web
site not just as a place where they can get all the
relevant informations, but also as a tool that
saves their time when applying for an exam, a
certification of a semester, communicating with
Faculty members, etc, which all indicates that it
is of great importance for students to develop
on-line communication and on-line solving of
administrative issues.
Table 5 – Difference between desired and actual value
Rank
Indicator
Mean_
Relevant
The indicator with the smallest gap between
desired and actual value is C20 - Interpersonal
relations at the faculty (the relation of other
students and teachers towards me) indicating
that students expectations on this issue are most
close to be met. It shows that there exist a good
academic climate on the Faculties that is fruitful
for fostering cooperation and mutual exchange
of knowledge, skills and experience. However,
the indicator with the highest gap between
desired and actual value is G09 – Possibility of
conducting professional practice in companies
from the region. This is a very clear message
from students that the internship in regional
companies is very highly valued, but that their
expectations on this issue are least fulfilled
considering all other indicators among first 10
most relevant. These represent the potential for
further imrpovements and places where
Faculties should invest more efforts and
resources in achievening students expectations.
Mean_
Difference
Actual
1.
C23
4.66
4.11
2.
C17
4.63
3.51
3.
C19
4.55
3.95
4.
C07
4.51
3.68
5.
C02
4.49
3.77
6.
G10
4.47
3.25
7.
C14
4.43
3.75
8.
C20
4.45
4.02
9.
G09
4.43
3.21
10.
F10
4.42
3.24
0.55
1.12
0.60
0.83
0.72
1.22
0.68
0.43
1.22
1.18
Also, indicators C02, G10, and F10, which
fall into the group of factors related to
employment opportunity, are rated among the
most relevant indicators. All of them, with two
indicators which also scores among the
indicators of highest relevance for students C17
- Possibility to conduct professional practice in
enterprises and G09 - Possibility of conducting
426
Fig. 1. Comparison of the relevant (desired) values to actual (observed) values
indicators has one direction, ie, the desired
values are higher than observed values
considering all relevant indicators. This
implies that this is not an issue caused by a
random, but systemic deviation, indicating
that students generally expect indicators to
be of more higher value than the actual
values are, considering their opinion.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This study indicated student’s opinion on
what it is important to be measured in
Higher Education Institutuions and where
the scarce resorces should be allocated to
make significant improvements of the
quality of system. First of all, the results
showed that there exist a broad concesuns of
the student population in the area of
Industrial Engineering and Enginering
Management in Serbia and their awareness
on which indicators are considered to be of
relevance when measuring quality of
institutions and study programmes.
This conclusion only implies that further
causes of the problem should be looked for
and that search should be focused on finding
the systemic factor(s) that have affected the
occurrence of systemic deviation. This
results can not be taken as a coincidence and
should be observed more carefuly with
respect to limitations of the research and
considering Serbian higher education system
in terms of economic, cultural, historical and
language specificity.
The main conclusion that can be drawn
from analysis and comparison of students
opinion on desired and actual value of
indicators is that their values are not nearly
equal. It is obvious, at first glance, from the
diagram presented on the spider chart, the
existance of deviation of actual values from
desired values on all relevant indicators.
Also, it is clear that this deviation on all
Further research in this field mostly
arises from the limitation of this research
which are at the first place mainly related to
the selected sample of the population. It
427
in higher education: An application of
data envelopment analysis to economics
graduates from UK Universities 1993,”
Eur. J. Oper. Res., vol. 174, no. 1, pp.
443–456, Oct. 2006.
remains unclear what variations would
occurr with inclusion of samples from other
Departments and other Faculties, which are
in the same field of technical sciences but in
different sub-fields, which leaves wide
space for further research in the field.
[9]
F. J. R. C. Dochy, M. S. R. Segers, and H.
F. W. Wijnen, “Selecting performance
indicators,” in Peer Review and
Performance Indicators, L. C. J.
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[10]
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[11]
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[12]
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N. Tasić, R. Maksimović, B. Lalić, U.
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“Istraživanje
relevantnosti
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indikatora performansi u visokom
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nauke u Srbiji,” 2017, pp. 269–272.
[14]
B. Lalić, N. Tasić, M. Delić, A. Katić, I.
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A. Katić, I. Katić, N. Tasić, B. Lalić, and
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inženjerstvo i menadžment fakulteta
tehničkih nauka,” in Trendovi razvoja:
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6 . ACKN OW LED GEM EN TS
Research presented in this paper was
supported by Ministry of Education, Science
and
Technological
Development
of
Republic of Serbia, Grant TR-35050, Title:
”Development of software to manage repair
and installation of brake systems for rail
vehicles”, for the period 2011th – 2018th.
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