The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)

The Ijes  The Ijes

The use of empirical models for the comparative study of the correlation functions for the estimation of global solar radiation in Kano, Nigeria has been carried out. The models used are based on relative sunshine duration alongside the measured global solar radiation data, such as: the linear model = (a +b), the quadratic model = [ a + b +c() ]and the cubic model = [ a + b() + c() + d() ]. The models constants a ,b ,c and d will be used in calculating the estimated value of global solar radiation and also the agreement between the measured and estimated values. The statistical parameters used for the comparative techniques are: the mean bias error (mbe), mean percentage error (mpe) and the root mean square error (rmse), which will be use to determine the efficiency of the estimation. Subsequently, the result obtained for the models constants a and b are 0.045 and 0.051 respectively and the estimated values of global solar radiation are 21.4, 22.6, 22.2, 22.2 and 21.8 for the year 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 respectively. Similarly, the correlation functions obtained for all the three models are above 0.8, which shows that the estimation is good. Consequently, the developed model will be use confidently for Kano and nearby locations which has similar climatic conditions.

Precise knowledge of solar radiation distribution at a particular geographical location is of great significance for the development of solar thermal and photovoltaic energy devices. The monthly mean daily data for global solar radiation and sunshine hours for a period of ten years for Makurdi (Latitude 7.7322°N, 8.5391°E) were obtained from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency, and used to develop a number of first order Angstrom-type correlations. The regression constants of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in Angstrom-page equation were found to be 0.273 and 0.558 respectively. Maximum and minimum measured monthly mean global solar radiations were 20.09 and 13.25MJ/m/day which occurs in the months of November and August respectively. Estimated monthly clearness index and monthly sunshine duration were used in modeling four temperature-based and two sunshine-based models. Estimated values of global solar radiation by the various models and the measured solar radiation were tested using statistical tools...

Monthly average daily values of global solar radiation and relative sunshine hours over a period of five years (1987-1991) using multi-linear polynomial form of the Angstrom-Prescott model have been developed to estimate global solar radiation at Minna which lies on latitude 09.37°N and longitude 06.32°E and 256.4 m above sea level. It was found that the fourth order polynomial utilizing relative sunshine hours gave the best overall estimate of the total solar radiation in Minna. The correlation coefficient of 0.932 were found in the forth order polynomials and was the highest value compared to order models. The dependency of the developed equation was tested in terms of mean percentage error (MPE), mean bias error (MBE) and root mean square error (RMSE) and were found to have low error values when compared to other models. INTRODUCTION Solar energy occupies one of the most important places among the various possible alternative energy sources [1]. It is the energy provided by the sun. The radiation from the sun that is arriving on the earth's surface is dependent on the atmospheric conditions of the place hence a study of the solar radiation under local atmospheric conditions is very necessary. However, lack of measuring instruments and techniques involved or maintenance culture especially in developing countries has led to unavailability of solar radiation data. In the absence of these measurements there is, therefore, the need to devise a model to predict and estimate the global solar radiation of a place using some meteorological parameters. One of such meteorological parameters used is the sunshine hours.

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 01-16||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 The Optimization, Design and Economics of Industrial NSC Oxidative Pressure Leaching Of Complex Sulfide Concentrates Dr. Corby G. Anderson Harrison Western Professor Kroll Institute for Extractive Metallurgy George S. Ansell Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Colorado School of Mines Golden, Colorado 80401 ---------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------Nitrogen Species Catalyzed (NSC) pressure leaching of complex sulfide concentrates has been carried out. This entailed performance of bench scale test work on a representative composite sample to ascertain indicative recoveries and identify lead deportment in the residue particularly with regards to avoidance of formation of plumbojarosite and the production of lead sulfide. A major equipment list including materials of construction, equipment size and power requirements was also provided. Detailed block flow diagrams showing each unit process were provided along with basic testing mass balances. Finally, order of magnitude CAPEX and OPEX was ascertained to + /-30%.In summary, industrial NSC pressure leaching was effective in leaching silver, zinc, copper, nickel and cobalt well over 90 % to solution from the complex sulfide concentrates. The NSC treated concentrate composite residue sample was produced as lead oxide and lead sulfide in the DOE testing. In the subsequent locked cycle NSC work, this was optimized to produce only lead sulfide leached residue suitable for conventional smelting. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 23, October, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20, November, 2013 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION The application and optimization of Nitrogen Species Catalyzed (NSC) pressure leach sulfide oxidation of complex sulfide concentrates with production of lead sulfide residue was studied. This entailed lab testing at the scoping and optimization level for partial NSC sulfide oxidation. This focused on optimization of NSC results, locked cycle testing of the optimized flowsheet along with a detailed order of magnitude capital and operating cost assessment for the application of NSC to complex sulfide concentrates. II. NSC THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS As a first step, the basics of nitrogen species catalyzed (i.e. NSC) hydrometallurgical pressure oxidation will be outlined. The commonly reported leach reaction of a sulfide mineral with nitric acid in conjunction with sulfuric acid is shown below. 3MeS (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) + 3H2SO4 (aq)  3MeSO4 + 3S° (s) + 2NO (g) + 4H2O (1) However, it has been postulated and confirmed that the actual reaction species is NO + and not NO3- (Anderson, 1992, Anderson, 1996, Baldwin, 1996, Gok, 2009). The addition of or presence of NO2- instead of NO3accelerates the formation of NO+. As shown in Table 1, the NO+/NO couple is capable of an extremely high redox potential (Peters, 1992). So, NO + is readily formed from nitrous rather than nitric acid. For example, a convenient source of nitrous acid can be sodium nitrite (Anderson, 1992, Anderson, 1996). When it is added to an acidic solution, nitrous acid is readily formed. NaNO2 (aq) + H+  HNO2 (aq) + Na+ (2) Nitrous acid further reacts to form NO+. HNO2 (aq) + H+  NO+ (aq) + H2O (3) The NO+ then reacts with the mineral and oxidizes the sulfide to sulfur. MeS (s) + 2NO+ (aq)  Me2+ (aq) + S° + 2NO (g) (4) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 1 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Of course, at higher temperatures and/or nitrogen species concentrations the sulfide can be fully oxidized to sulfate. Table 1. Relative Potentials of Hydrometallurgical Oxidizers. Oxidant Fe3+ HNO3 HNO2 O2 (g) Cl2 (g) NO+ Redox Equation Fe3+ + e-  Fe2+ E°h (pH = 0, H2 ref.) 0.770 V NO3- + 4H+ +3e-  NO + 2H2O 0.957 V NO2- + 2H+ + e-  NO + H2O 1.202 V O2 + 4H+ + 4e-  2H2O 1.230 V Cl2 (g) + 2e-  2Cl- 1.358 V NO+ + e-  NO 1.450 V As can be seen, nitric oxide gas, NO, is produced from the oxidation of sulfides. As this gas has a limited solubility in aqueous solutions, it tends to transfer out of solution. In the pressure leach system, a closed vessel with an oxygen overpressure is used. The nitric oxide gas emanating from the leach slurry accumulates in the headspace of the reactor where it reacts with the supplied oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide gas. The NO is then regenerated to NO+. Overall this can be viewed as: NO (g) + O2 (g)  2NO2 (g) (5) 2NO2 (g)  2NO2 (aq) (6) 2NO2 (aq) + 2NO (aq) + 4H+  4NO+ (aq) + 2H2O (7) Since the nitrogen species is continuously regenerated, its role in the overall reaction as the actual oxidizer is not obvious. The net overall reaction has the sulfide mineral reacting with the acid solution and oxygen to solubilize the metal value into the sulfate solution and form some elemental sulfur. 2MeS (g) + 4H+ + O2 (g)  2Me2+ (aq) + 2S° + 2H2O (8) Of course, at higher temperatures and/or nitrous acid concentrations the sulfide would be fully oxidized to sulfate. Overall, the nitrogen intermediates serve as an expedient means to transport oxygen to the surface of the solid particle and allow the resulting reaction to take place at a heightened redox potential. This inherent asset of the unique novel NSC system eliminates the need for the use of high temperatures and high pressures, which lead to higher costs in other pressure leach processes. For example, commonly available stainless steel can be used for the reactor vessel. And, complete oxidation of sulfide to sulfate can be achieved without the excessive conditions found in other pressure leach systems. Thus, the rapid kinetics of the system leads to smaller reactor volumes and higher unit throughputs. Finally, 99.9% of the nitrogen species utilized in the leach system report to the gas phase when the pressure vessel is flashed and they are readily destroyed and contained by commercially available scrubber systems. So, environmental impacts are minimized and the NSC leach plant solutions contain little or no nitrogen species. In summary, NSC was first used industrially from 1984 until 1995 on silver bearing copper concentrates. It has also been found to be applicable to and effective in the treatment of zinc, gold, lead, nickel, cobalt, copper PGM and molybdenum concentrates. III. COMPLEX CONCENTRATE ANALYSIS A complex concentrate comprised of mixed sulphides and precious metals was tested with NSC pressure oxidation. The goal was to dissolve and recover the Ag, Cu, Co, Zn while leaving an insoluble PbS residue suitable for conventional smelting. . Some general concentrate mineralogy information is as follows: Copper Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) observed visually, chalcocite may also be present, cobalt and nickel are associated with the copper minerals and also occur as fine grained intergrowths of siegenite (CoNi) 4S3 in the copper minerals. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 2 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Lead Primarily as galena (PbS), cobalt nickel and silver are associated with the lead minerals with fine grained intergrowths as siegenite in the galena. Cobalt Primarily occurring as siegenite, cobalt is intimately associated with nickel and is associated with and intergrown in both copper and lead minerals. It tends to be concentrated in the presence of Mn and diminishes as Zn increases. Nickel Primarily occurring as siegenite, nickel is intimately associated with cobalt and is associated with and intergrown in both copper and lead minerals. Silver Primarily associated with lead. Zinc Present as sphalerite ((Zn,Fe)S), zinc is present in much of the orebody at low levels. Zinc tends to increase as Co content diminishes and increases to the west. Iron Primarily present as pyrite (FeS2), the orebody is generally pyrite deficient, particularly where high levels of galena are found. There is little evidence of cobalt associated with pyrite. Carbon (as kerogen and/or graphite) is found throughout the orebody. It is higher in copper lenses (~6% C) and lower in lead lenses (~2% C). It slimes over particles unselectively during fine grinding and must be depressed during flotation. Sulfur is primarily associated with copper, lead, iron, cobalt, nickel and zinc. Two separate complex sulfide concentrates were analyzed and treated with NSC pressure leaching. The first was treated with baseline scoping testing using optimized conditions. The second was treated with Stat Ease DOE based optimization and locked cycle testing. These concentrate analysis were very similar and are summarized as follows in Tables 1 &2 and Figures 1 through 6. Table 1. Complex Sample #1 Elemental and Size Analyses. Pb, % Zn, % Co, % Cu, % Ni, % Ag g/T TS, % TC, % 28.5 2.56 0.47 0.85 0.40 59.1 16.0 7.5 Ind. Wt. (g) Ind. Wt. % Cum. Wt. % Pass 300 147 106 75 53 44.6 37.5 31.5 26.5 22.3 18.7 15.8 13.3 11.1 9.4 7.9 6.6 0 0.3 0.92 8 20.91 8.31 10.49 12.40 13.24 13.08 11.94 12.19 11.43 11.51 9.76 10.40 8.57 0.00 0.17 0.52 4.52 11.82 4.70 5.93 7.01 7.49 7.40 6.75 6.89 6.46 6.51 5.52 5.88 4.84 100.0 99.8 99.3 94.8 83.0 78.3 72.3 65.3 57.8 50.4 43.7 36.8 30.3 23.8 18.3 12.4 7.6 5.6 4.7 6.32 5.20 3.57 2.94 4.0 1.1 3.9 1.87 1.06 0.0 Size (µm) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 3 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Figure 1. Complex Concentrate #1 XRD Pattern Figure 2. Complex Concentrate #1 MLA Phase Analysis. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 4 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Figure 3. Complex Concentrate # 1 MLA Elemental Analysis. Table 2. Complex Sample #2 Elemental and Size Analyses. Pb, % Zn, % Co, % Cu, % Ni, % Ag g/T TS, % TC, % 21.6 2.66 0.81 2.02 0.66 53.0 18.9 8.5 Size (µm) 300 147 106 75 53 44.6 37.5 31.5 26.5 22.3 18.7 15.8 13.3 11.1 9.4 7.9 6.6 5.6 4.7 3.9 www.theijes.com Ind. Wt. (g) Ind. Wt. % 0 0.09 0.08 1.82 6.05 3.20 4.21 12.65 15.97 15.36 17.03 18.31 17.88 17.17 16.02 14.05 12.16 9.21 7.02 2.48 0.00 0.05 0.04 0.95 3.17 1.68 2.21 6.63 8.37 8.05 8.93 9.60 9.37 9.00 8.40 7.37 6.37 4.83 3.68 1.30 The IJES Cum. Wt. % Pass 100.0 100.0 99.9 99.0 95.8 94.1 91.9 85.3 76.9 68.9 59.9 50.3 40.9 31.9 23.5 16.2 9.8 5.0 1.3 0.0 Page 5 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Figure 4.Complex Concentrate #2 XRD Analyses. Figure 5. Complex Concentrate #2 MLA Phase Analysis. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 6 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Figure 6. Complex Concentrate #2 MLA Elemental Analysis. NSC DOE OPTIMIZATION TESTING. For optimization, Stat-Ease Design Expert software was used. The ¼ testing matrix shown in Table 3. was set up and the NSC tests were run on concentrate #2 according to this table and the conditions shown in Table 4. Table 3. Stat Ease DOE NSC PARTIAL OXIDATION MATRIX. Std Run Grind Time Initial Acid Max Temp 1 1 0 Min 50 g/L 150 C 7 2 0 Min 200 g/L 130 C 5 3 0 Min 50 g/L 150 C 10 4 5 Min 125 g/L 140 C 3 5 0 Min 200 g/L 130 C 4 6 10 Min 200 g/L 150 C 6 7 10 Min 50 g/L 130 C 2 8 10 Min 50 g/L 130 C 8 9 10 Min 200 g/L 150 C 9 10 5 Min 125 g/L 140 C Leach Time 120 Min 60 Min 60 Min 90 Min 120 Min 60 Min 120 Min 60 Min 120 Min 90 Min TABLE 4. NSC PARTIAL OXIDATION CONDITIONS Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Partial Oxidation Leach Conditions. Grind Time = Table 3 Initial Free Sulfuric Acid = Table 3 Reactor Working Pressure = 620 kPag Slurry Solids Content = 100 g/L Maximum Temperature = Table 3 Total Tine = Table 3 Nitrogen Species Concentration = 2.0 g/L www.theijes.com The IJES Page 7 The Optimization, Design And Economics… TABLE 5. NSC PRESSURE OXIDATION TESTING RESULTS Std Run Grind Time Initial Acid 1 1 0 Min 50 g/L 7 2 0 Min 200 g/L 5 3 0 Min 50 g/L 10 4 5 Min 125 g/L 3 5 0 Min 200 g/L 4 6 10 Min 200 g/L 6 7 10 Min 50 g/L 2 8 10 Min 50 g/L 8 9 10 Min 200 g/L 9 10 5 Min 125 g/L Max Temp Leach Time 150 C 120 Min 130 C 60 Min 150 C 60 Min 140 C 90 Min 130 C 120 Min 150 C 60 Min 130 C 120 Min 130 C 60 Min 150 C 120 Min 140 C 90 Min Cu% 85.1 92.2 82.3 87.2 92.8 84.4 98.2 97.6 89.1 86.9 Co% Zn% Ag% 87.3 85.2 0.0 91.3 90.8 93.2 81.1 78.2 0.0 84.3 81.3 10.7 93.2 91.7 94.3 82.3 79.2 91.3 97.1 98.7 0.0 96.9 98.1 0.0 89.2 87.9 95.5 85.1 81.6 10.9 Ni, % 84.7 91.7 83.1 86.5 92.1 85.1 97.7 96.6 89.3 86.1 These results were then input into the Stat Ease Design Ease software, modeled and optimized. Table 6 illustrates the optimized NSC criteria and results. Table 7 illustrates the results of testing these optimized conditions on Complex concentrate #1 at 200 g/l slurry density. Figures 7 through 10 illustrate various MLA and XRD analysis on a composite sample of the leached NSC residue from the optimization testing. TABLE 6. STAT EASE DOE MODEL OPTIMIZED NSC PARTIAL OXIDATION CONDITIONS WITH SILVER RECOVERY. Best Conditions for the Considered Variables and Variable Range Factor Name Level A Grind Time 10.00 B Acid 200.00 C Temp 130.00 D Leach 60.00 Response Cu, % Co, % Zn, % Ag, % Ni, % Prediction 97.3 96.2 97.1 92.2 97.2 95% CI low 95% CI high 94.80 99.83 92.60 99.49 92.63 101.18 90.80 93.72 96.18 98.18 TABLE 7. STAT EASE DOE OPTIMIZED CONDITIONS APPLIED TO COMPLEX CONCENTRATE #1. Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Partial Oxidation Leach Conditions. Grind Time = 10 minutes Initial Free Sulfuric Acid = 200 g/L Reactor Working Pressure = 620 kPag Slurry Solids Content = 200 g/L Maximum Temperature = 130 C Total Tine = 60 minutes Nitrogen Species Concentration = 2.0 g/L Particle Size = 80% passing 10 micron Copper Recovery = 98.5 % Silver Recovery = 92.4 % Cobalt Recovery = 95.4 % Zinc Recovery = 97.2 % Nickel Recovery = 96.7 % www.theijes.com The IJES Page 8 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Figure 7. MLA Phase Analysis of NSC DOE Leach Testing Treated Residue Composite Sample. Figure 8. MLA Elemental Analysis of NSC DOE Leach Testing Treated Residue Composite Sample. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 9 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Figure 9. Semi Quantitative XRD Analysis of DOE NSC Leaching Treated Composite Sample. Figure 10. XRD Qualitative Phase Analysis of DOE NSC Leaching Treated Composite Sample. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 10 The Optimization, Design And Economics… TABLE 8. STAT EASE OPTIMIZED LOCKED CYCLE NSC PARTIAL OXIDATION FINAL RESULTS Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Partial Oxidation Leach Conditions. Locked Cycles = 7 Recycle Percentage = 25 % Grind Time = 10 minutes Initial Free Sulfuric Acid = 200 g/L Reactor Working Pressure = 620 kPag Slurry Solids Content = 100 g/L Maximum Temperature = 130 C Total Tine = 60 minutes Nitrogen Species Concentration = 2.0 g/L Copper Average Recovery = 95.1 % Silver Average Recovery = 96.2 % Cobalt Average Recovery = 97.3 % Zinc Average Recovery = 98.4 % Nickel Average Recovery = 96.8 % From the locked cycle testing and the NSC plant operating experience of personnel a general flowsheet was generated. The NSC process battery limits were concentrate regrind through to the flash system. This is illustrated in Figure 11.. Figure 11. Proposed NSC POX Flowsheet. ORDER OF MAGNITUDE CAPEX AND OPEX. Based on the testing data and the NSC plant operating experience of personnel, CAPEX and OPEX estimates were generated. Again, the NSC process battery limits were concentrate regrind through to flash. Table 9 illustrates the concentrate annual tonnages and quality. Tables 10 and 11 illustrate the order of magnitude capital and operating cost estimates with silver recovery. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 11 The Optimization, Design And Economics… TABLE 9. COMPLEX CONCENTRATE ANNUAL PROJECTED QUANTITY AND QUALITY. Tonnes Per Annum Assay Pb Cu Co Ni Zn Ag Fe TS 841,000 25.00 2.8 0.74 0.44 1.41 43.29 6.71 12.83 % % % % % g/T % % TABLE 10. ORDER OF MAGNITUDE CAPITAL COST ESTIMATE. Equipment Costs $5,250,000 Installation Piping & Instruments Engineering Sub Total 43% 20% 25% $2,257,500 $1,501,500 $2,252,250 $11,261,250 Contingency 30% $3,378,375 TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS USD: $14,639,625 TABLE 11. ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OPERATING COST ESTIMATE. Regrinding of Feed 15 kWh/t $ 0.1351/kWhr All In Annual Cost Agitation and Pumping 400 kWh/tS 0.1351/kWh Annual Cost Oxygen 160 Kg/T O2 $ 150.00/t Annual Cost $ $ 15 0.12 1,705,438.00 $ $ 400 0.10 5,830932.21 160 $ 140.00 $ 20,197,632.00 Maintenance 5 $/t S Annual Cost $ $ 5.00 539,501.50 8 Operators Annual Cost $ 800,000.00 $ 1.00 per T Con Annual Cost $ $ 1.00 841,000.00 Labor Supplies Sulfuric Acid with Silver Recovery 100 Kg/tonne $ 132/tonne Annual Cost www.theijes.com The IJES 100 400 $ 11,108,698.00 Page 12 The Optimization, Design And Economics… Nitrogen Species 10 Kg/Tonne $ 1,050/T Annual Cost $ $ 10 1,050.00 8,830,500.00 $ 0.50/tonne Annual Cost $ $ 0.50 420,500.00 NOX Scrubbing TOTAL ANNUAL COST USD $ 69,739,713.50 COST PER TONNE USD $ IV. 82.92 SUMMARY NSC pressure leaching of complex sulfide concentrates was carried out. This entailed performance of bench scale test work on representative composite samples to ascertain indicative recoveries and identify lead deportment in the residue particularly with regards to the formation of plumbojarosite. A major equipment list including materials of construction, equipment size and power requirements was also included. Detailed block flow diagrams showing each unit process were provided along with basic testing mass balances. Finally, order of magnitude CAPEX and OPEX was ascertained to +/-30%. In summary, NSC pressure leaching was effective in leaching silver, zinc, copper, nickel and cobalt well over 90 % to solution from the complex sulfide concentrates. This was confirmed in optimized testing of another complex concentrate previously received. The NSC treated concentrate composite residue sample was produced as lead oxide and lead sulfide in the DOE testing. In the subsequent locked cycle NSC work, this was optimized to produce only the desired lead sulphide leached residue. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Abel, E., and Schmid, H., 1928, Z. Physc. Chem. (Leipzig), 132: 56-64. Abel, E., Schmid, H. and Pollack, F. 1936, Monatsh, Chem., 69: 125-143. Ackerman, J.B., Anderson C.G., S.M. Nordwick and L.E. Krys. 1993. Hydrometallurgy at the Sunshine Metallurgical Complex. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Hydrometallurgy. Littleton, Colorado, SME. Anderson, C.G. and K.D. Harrison. 1990. Optimization of Nitric-Sulfuric Acid Pressure Leaching of Silver from Refractory Sulfide Concentrate. Precious Metals 1990. International Precious Metals Institute, Allentown, Pennsylvania, 119-151. Anderson, C. G. and Harrison, K. D., 1991, "Improvements in Plant Scale Nitric-Sulfuric Acid Pressure Leaching of Refractory Sulfide Concentrates", Preprint No. 91-183, AIME-SME Annual Meeting, Denver, Colorado. Anderson, C.G., L.E. Krys, and K.D. Harrison. 1992. Treatment of Metal Bearing Mineral Material. US Patent 5,096,486. Anderson, C.G., K.D. Harrison, and L.E. Krys, edited by R.K. Mishra. 1993a. Process Integration of Sodium Nitrite Oxidation and Fine Grinding in Refractory Precious Metal Concentrate Pressure Leaching. Precious Metals 1993. International Precious Metals Institute, Allentown, Pennsylvania, 19-45. Anderson, C.G., and L.E. Krys. 1993b. Leaching of Antimony from a Refractory Precious Metals Concentrate. Proceedings Of The Fourth International Symposium On Hydrometallurgy. Salt Lake City, Utah, August 1-5. Anderson, C.G. and S.M. Nordwick. 1994. The Application of Sunshine Nitrous-Sulfuric Acid Pressure Leaching to Sulfide Materials Containing Platinum Group Metals. Precious Metals 1994. Proceedings of the 18th Annual IPMI Conference, Vancouver, B.C., 223-234, June. Anderson, C.G., K.D. Harrison, and L.E. Krys. 1996. Theoretical Considerations of Sodium Nitrite Oxidation and Fine Grinding in Refractory Precious Metals Concentrate Pressure Leaching. Minerals and Metallurgical Processing, AIME-SME, Volume 13, Number 1, February. Anderson, C. G., Harrison, K. J., and Krys, L. E., "The Application of Sodium Nitrite Oxidation and Fine Grinding In Refractory Precious Metals Concentrate Pressure Leaching", Minerals and Metallurgical Processing, AIME-SME, Volume 13, Number 1, February, 1996. Anderson, C.G. 2000a. Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Pressure Leaching of Copper Ores and Concentrates. ALTA Copper 2000, Adelaide, South Australia, October. Anderson, C.G. 2000b. The Design, Optimization and Operation of an Industrial Copper Solvent Extraction and Electrowinning Circuit at a Commercial Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Pressure Leaching Plant. ALTA SX/IX 2000, Adelaide, South Australia, October. Anderson, C.G. 2001a. The Industrial Non-Cyanide Hydrometallurgical Recovery of Silver and Gold Utilizing Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Pressure Oxidation. Cyanide Social, Industrial and Economic Aspects. Symposium Proceedings, TMS Annual Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, February. Anderson, C.G. 2001b. Industrial Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Pressure Leaching and Alkaline Sulfide Gold Recovery from Refractory Gold Concentrates. Precious Metals 2001, 25 th Annual IPMI Meeting, Tucson, Arizona. June. Anderson, C.G. April 2002a. The Chemical Analysis of Industrial Alkaline Sulfide Hydrometallurgical Processes. The Society of Mineral Analysts and the Canadian Mineral Analysts Annual Meeting, Spokane, Washington. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 13 The Optimization, Design And Economics… [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] Anderson, C.G. May 2002b. The Mineral Processing and Industrial Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Pressure Leaching of Formation Capital's Cobaltite and Chalcopyrite Concentrates. ALTA Ni/Co and Cu International Conference, Perth, W.A. Australia. Anderson, C.G. June 2002c. The Application of Industrial NSC Pressure Leaching in the Recycle and Recovery of Secondary Precious and Base Metals. TMS Fall 2002, Recycling and Waste Treatment Meeting. Lulea, Sweden. Anderson, C.G. 2003a. Alkaline Sulfide Recovery of Gold Utilizing Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Pressure Leaching. Hydrometallurgy 2003. Vancouver, B.C., October. Anderson, C.G., and E. Rosenberg. 2003b. Single Step Separation and Recovery of Palladium Using Nitrogen Species Catalyzed Pressure Leaching and Silica Polyamine Composites. Hydrometallurgy 2003. Vancouver, B.C., October. Anderson, C.G. 2003c. The Application and Economics of Industrial NSC Pressure Leaching to Copper Ores and Concentrates. COBRE 2003, Santiago, Chile, December. Anderson, C.G., E. Dahlgren and D. Stacey. 2004. Unpublished research. Anderson, C.G. and L.G. Twidwell. 2006. The Control of Iron and Arsenic in the Treatment of Gold Bearing Enargite Concentrates, Iron Control In Hydrometallurgy, Proceedings of the 36 th Annual Hydrometallurgy Meeting of CIM, October 2006, Montreal, Quebec Anderson, C.G. and L.G. Twidwell. 2007. Hydrometallurgical Processing of Gold-Bearing Copper Enargite Concentrates, 6 th COPPER/COBRE Conference, John Dutrizac Hydrometallurgy Symposium, 37th Annual Hydrometallurgy Meeting of CIM, Toronto, Ontario, August. Anderson, C.G. and L.G. Twidwell. 2008. Hydrometallurgical Processing of Gold-Bearing Copper Enargite Concentrates, Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, John Dutrizac Hydrometallurgy Symposium Special Issue. Anderson, C.G. 2008. NSC Pressure Leaching: Industrial and Potential Applications, Hydrometallurgy 2008 Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium, SME, 858-885 Awad, H.H., and Stanbury, D.M., 1993, Autooxidation of NO in aqueous solution. Int. J. Chem. Kinet. 25: 375-381. Baldwin, S.A. and G.V. Van Weert. 1996. On the Catalysis of Ferrous Sulfate Oxidation in Autoclaves by Nitrates and Nitrites. Hydrometallurgy, Elsevier Science, B.V., Vol. 42. Balachandran P., Kamath, A.K. Mitra, S. Radhakrishnan and Kiram Shetty, 2003. Electrolyte Impurity Control at Chinpada Refinery of Sterlite Industries (India) Limited, Eco-Tec SM Technical Paper 167. Bardt. 1919-1923. Recovering Metals Contained in Metalliferous Ore, Waste Residues, and Alloys. German Patent 353,795, Canadian Patent 233,566, Chemical Abstracts 173,154. Barth, T.R., A.T.C. Hair, and T.P. Meier, edited by J.E. Dutrizac et al. 1998. The Operation of the HBM&S Zinc Pressure Leach Plant. Zinc and Lead Processing, The Metallurgical Society of CIM. Beake, B.D., Constantine, J. and Modie, R. B., 1992, The kinetics and mechanism of the reaction of nitrous acid with 4substituted phenols in aqeous solution. J. Cem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 2: 1653-1654. Beattie, M.J.V., R. Randsepp, and A. Ismay, edited by G.S. Dobby and S.R. Rao. 1989. Arseno/Redox Process for Refractory Gold Ores. Proc. Intern. Symp. Processing Complex Ores. Pergamon, Oxford, 431-439. Bjorling, C. and G.A. Koltz. 1964. Oxidizing Leaching of Sulfide Concentrates and Other Materials Catalyzed by Nitric Acid. Proc. 7th In. Mineral Processing Cong., New York, NY. Bjorling, G. and G.A. Kolta. 1966a. Oxidizing Leach of Sulfide Concentrates and Other Materials Catalyzed by Nitric Acid. Proceedings of 7th International Mineral Processing Congress. Gordon & Breach, New York, NY, 127-138. Bjorling, G. and G.A. Kolta. 1966b. Wet Oxidation of Iron Sulfide Concentrates Catalyzed by Nitric Acid. J. Chemistry, U.A.R., 9(2):187-203. Bjorling, G. and P. Lesidrenski. 1968. Hydrometallurgical Production of Copper from Activated Chalcopyrite. AIME Annual Meeting, New York, NY. Bjorling, G. and G.A. Kolta. 1969. Wet Oxidation as a Method of Utilization of Chalcopyrite, Sphalerite, and Molybdenite. Chemistry U.A.R., 12(3):423-435. Bjorling, G., edited by D.J.I Evans and R.S. Shoemaker. 1973. Leaching of Mineral Sulfides by Selective Oxidation at Normal Pressure. International Symposium on Hydrometallurgy. AIME, New York, NY, 701-707. Bjorling, G. and W. Mulak. June 1976a. Kinetics of NiS Leaching in Nitric Acid Solutions. Trans. Inst. Min. & Met. C98C101. Bjorling, G. et al., edited by J.C. Yannopoulos and J.C. Agarwal. 1976b. A Nitric Acid Route in Combination with Solvent Extraction for Hydrometallurgical Treatment of Chalcopyrite. Extractive Metallurgy of Copper. Vol. 2. AIME, New York, NY, 725-737. Bodenstein, 1918, Z. Elektrochem., 24, 183 Bodenstein and Linder, 1922, Z. physic.Chem. 100, 87 Bodenstein, M. and Geier, M.G., 1980, The Speed of Reaction Between Nitric Oxide and Oxygen, Rockwell Hanford Operations, US Department of Energy, 44 pgs. Bosio, S., Ravella, A., Saracco, G.B., and Genon G., 1985. NOX Absorption by Ferrous Sulfate Solutions, Ind. Chem. Process Res. Dev., 24:149-152 Brennecke, H.M. 1975. Recovery of Metal Values from Ore Concentrates. US Patent 3,888,748. Brennecke, H.M. et al. August 1981. Nitric-Sulfuric Leach Process for Recovery of Copper from Concentrates. Min. Engineering. 1259-1266. Bunton, C.A., Stedman, G., 1959, Mechanism of the Azide-Nitrite Reaction. Part III Reaction in [ 18O] water. J. Chem. Soc. 3466-3474. Butler, A.R., and Ridd, J.H., 2004, Formation of nitric oxide from nitrous acid in ischemic tissue and skin, Nitric Oxide, 10: 2024. Caldon, F. 1978. Treatment of Metal Bearing Mineral Material. US Patent 4,084,961. Chmielewski, T. and Charewicz, W.A., 1984, The oxidation of ferrous iron in aqueous sulfuric acid under oxygen pressure, Hydrometallurgy, 12:21. Daugherty, E.W., A.F., Erhard and J.M. Drobnick. 1973. Process of Recovery of Rhenium and Molybdenum Values from Molybdenite Concentrate. U.S. Patent 3,739,057. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 14 The Optimization, Design And Economics… [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] [90] Dresher, W.H., Wadsworth, M. E., Fassel, W. M., 1956, A Kinetic Study of the Leaching of Molybdenite, Mining Engineering, Transactions of AIME, Littleton, Colorado, June 738-744. Edwards, C.R., edited by A.D. Zunkel. 1985. Engineering the Equity Concentrate Leach Process. Complex Sulfides: Processing of Ores, Concentrates and By-Products. Proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the Metallurgical Society of AIME and the CIMM, TMS-AIME Fall Extractive Meeting, San Diego, CA, 197-219, November 10-13. Epstein, I.R.,Kustin, K. And Simoyi, R.H., 1982, Nitrous acid decomposition catalyzed by and iron (II) complex: Tris (3,4,7,8tetramethyl-1, 10-phenanthroline). American Chemical Society. 104: 712-717. Eugene, S.A, edited by A. Sutulov. 1979. Cymoly Process, in International Molybdenum Encyclopedia, Vol. 2, Processing and Metallurgy, Antermet Publications, Santiago, Chile, 105. Fair, K.J., J.C. Schneider, and G. Van Weert, edited by R.D. Salter. 1987. Options in the Nitrox Process. M. Proc. Intern. Symp. Gold Metallurgy. Pergamon, Toronto, 279-291. Fair, K.J. and F.J. Basa, edited by G.S. Dobby and S.R. Rao. 1989a. Treatment of Agnico Eagle's Silver-Bearing Flotation Concentrate by the Nitrox Process. Proc. Intern. Symp. Processing Complex Ores. Pergamon, Oxford, 411-420. Fair, K.J. and G. Van Weert, edited by B. Harris. 1989b. Optimizing the NITROX PROCESS through Elemental Sulfur Formation. Precious Metals 1989. The International Precious Metals Institute, Montreal, 305-317. Fayram, T. and C.G. Anderson. October 2003. The Development and Implementation of Industrial Hydrometallurgical Gallium and Germanium Recovery. Hydrometallurgy 2003, Vancouver, B.C. Fedulov, O.V. et al. 1966. Oxidation of Molybdenite by Nitric Acid Solutions. Sb. Statei Aspir. Soiskatelei, Min. Vyssh. Sredn. Spets. Obrazov Kaz. SSR, Met. Obogashch. (2) 86-94, Chemical Abstracts 69,3260 In. Fedulov, O.V. et al. 1967a. End Products of Nitric Acid Decomposition of Molybdenite. Sb. Statei Aspir. Soiskatelei Min. Vyssh. Sredn. Spets. Obrazov Kaz. SSR, Met. Obogashch. (3) 170-177, Chemical Abstracts 70,89848ym. Fedulov, O.V. and V.D. Ponomarev. 1967b. Nitric Acid Decomposition Kinetics of Molybdenite. Sb. Stratei Aspir. Soiskatelei. Min. Vyssh. Sredn. Spets. Obrazov, Kaz. SSR. Met. Obogashch. (3), 129-139, Chemical Abstracts 70,9llSOg. Fedulov, O.V. and V.D. Ponomarev. 1967c. Oxidation Process Mechanism of Molybdenite by Aqueous Nitric Acid Solutions. Sb. Statei Aspir. Soiskatelei Min. Vyssh. Sredn. Spets. Obrazov. Kaz. SSR, Met. Obogashch. (3), 12208, Chemical Abstracts 70,91182v. Fossi, P., L. Gandon, C. Bozec, and J.M. Demarthe. July 1977. Refining of High-Nickel Concentrates. CIM Bull. 188-196. Freeport McMoRan Copper and Gold, 2010, Bagdad Mine Molybdenum Concentrate Pressure Oxidation, Personal Communication. Gok, O.S., 2009. On The Role of Low-Concentration Nitrite In Oxidative Leaching with Oxygen, PhD Thesis, Colorado School of Mines, USA. Gok, O.S., Anderson, C.G., Çiçekli , G., Cöcen E. I., 2014, Leaching Kinetics of Chalcopyrite Concentrate in Nitrous-Sulfuric Acid, Physicochem. Probl. Miner. Process, Vol. 50, No. 1., 14 pgs. Gok, O. S. and Anderson, C. G, 2013, Dissolution of Low-Grade Chalcopyrite Concentrate in Acidified Nitrite Electrolyte, Hydrometallurgy, 134-135, 40-46 Habashi, F. 1973a. The Action of Nitric Acid on Chalcopyrite. Trans. Soc. Min. Eng. AIME 254, 224-228. Habashi, F. 1973b. Treatment of a Low-Grade Nickel Copper Sulfide Concentrate by Nitric Acid. Trans. Soc. Min. Eng. AIME 254, 228-230. Habashi, F., edited by B. Mishra. 1999. Nitric Acid in the Hydrometallurgy of Sulfides. EPD Congress 1999. TMS-AIME, Warrendale, PA, 357-364. Haver, F.P., and Wong, M.M., 1972, Making Copper Without Pollution, Mining Engineering, Littleton, Colorado, June, 52-53. Heckner, H.N., 1973, Potentiostatic switching experiments for the cathodic reduction of nitrous acid in perchloric acid with the addition of nitric acid. Electroanalytcal Chemistry and Intefacial Electrochemistry. 44: 9-20. Himmelblau, D.M., 1960, Solubilities of inert gases in water 0 O C to near the critical point of water, Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, 5: 10-15. Huffman, R.E. and Davidson, N.J., 1956, Kinetics of the ferrous iron-oxygen reaction in sulfuric acid solution. Amer. Chem. Soc. 78: 4836. Huang, H.H. 2002. StabCal Modeling Software, September. Jeffrey, M. and C.G. Anderson. 2002. A Fundamental Study of the Alkaline Sulfide Leaching of Gold. The European Journal of Mineral Processing and Environmental Protection, October. John, C.I.A., R.C. Sathe, and V.S. Kasongamulilo. 1991. Improving Flotation Performance at the Nchanga Concentrator of Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Limited. Copper 91/Cobre 91, Volume 3, Mineral Processing and Process Control. Pergamon Press, New York, NY, 19-33. Joseph, T.B. 1916. Metal Leaching Process. Canadian Patent 173,452. Chemical Abstracts 12,130. Kerfoot, D.G.E. and R.W. Stanley. 1976. Hydrometallurgical Production of Technical Grade Molybdic Oxide from Molybdenite. U.S. Patent 3,988,418. Kingsley, G.E. 1915. Process for Treating Complex Sulfide Ores. US Patent 1,144,480. Krysa, B., B. Barlin, and D. Wittleton. May 1988. The Application of Zinc Pressure Leaching at the Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co. Limited. Projects ’88, Paper #8. 18 th Hydrometallurgical Meeting CIM. Kunda, W. 1984a. Hydrometallurgical Processing of Silver Concentrate. Precious Metals: Mining, Extraction, and Processing. Proc. Joint Symp. AIME-IMS/IPMI, 397-423. Kunda, W., edited by V. Kudryk et al. 1984b. Hydrometallurgical Processing of Silver Concentrate. Precious Metals: Mining, Extraction, and Processing, Proc. Joint Symp. AIME-TMS/IPMI, 397-423. Lane, J.W., Bender, F.N., and Ronzio, R.A., 1972, Recovery of Molybdenum from Oxidized Ore at Climax, Colorado, AIME Transactions Volume 252, 77-82. Le Nickel. 1968. Recovery of Nickel and Other Secondary Metals from Nickel Mattes. French Patent 1,597,569. Lunt, R.R., D.K. Modrow and G.K. Roset. October 2003. Adaption of Dilute Mold Lime Dual Alkali Scrubbing at Stillwater Mining Company’s PGM Smelter. Hydrometallurgy 2003, Vancouver, B.C. Mahmoud, M.H., C.G. Anderson, and C.A. Young. June 2002. Sulfuric Acid-Chloride Leaching of Platinum, Palladium and Rhodium From Catalyst Residue. Recycling and Waste Treatment in Mineral and Metal Processing. TMS Fall 2002 Recycling and Waste Treatment Meeting, Lulea, Sweden. Markovits, G.Y., Schwartz, S.E., and Newman, L., 1981, Hydrolysis equilibrium of dinitrogen trioxide in dilute acid solution. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 15 The Optimization, Design And Economics… [91] [92] [93] [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] [109] [110] [111] [112] [113] [114] [115] [116] [117] Inorganic Chemistry. 20: 445-450. Molybdenum Corporation of America (Molycorp). 1973. Solvent Extraction Process for Recovery of Molybdenum and Rhenium from Molybdenite. U.S. Patent 3,751,555. Mulak, W. 1987. Silver Ion Catalysis in Nitric Acid Dissolution of Ni 3S2. Hydrometallurgy 18, 195-205. Ouellet, R., A.E. Torma, and J.P. Bolduc. 1975. Extraction du Nickel d'un Concentre de Pentlandite par HNO3 - H2SO4. Can. Met. Quart. 14(4):339-343. Olsen, D., 2008, Kennecott to invest $ 270 million in molybdenum processing facility, The Enterprise. Pauling, E.. 1940, Nassmetallurgische Aufarbeitung schwer aufzubereitender Komplexerze. Metall und Erz 35, 451-455. Park, J.Y. and Lee, Y.N. 11988. Solubility and Decomposition Kinetics of Nitrous Acid in Aqueous Solution. J. Phys. Chem. 92: 6294-6302. Peters, E. 1976. Direct Leaching of Sulfides: Chemistry and Applications. Metall. Trans., 7B, 505. Peters, E. 1992. Hydrometallurgical Process Innovation. Hydrometallurgy 29, 431-459. Prasad, M.S. 1991. Concentration Capacity in Treating Copper-Cobalt and Copper-Zinc Ores at Gecamines. Zaire. Mining Engineering, 43(1): 129-133. Prater, J.C., P.B. Queneau, and T.J. Hudson. 1973. Nitric Acid Route to Processing Copper Concentrates. Trans. Soc. Min. Eng. AIME 254(2):117-122. Queneau, P.B. and Prater, J.D., 1974, Nitric acid process for recovering metal values from sulfide ore materials containing iron sulfides. US Patent 3793429, Chemical Abstracts. Rankin, H.D. 1915. Method of Treating Metalliferous Materials and Recovering Solvents Used. US Patent 1,150,787. Shukla, P.P., T.K. Mukherjee, and C.K. Gupta. 1978. A Nitric Acid Route for Processing a Nickel-Copper Sulfide Concentrate. Hydrometallurgy 3. 55-56. Stumpf, A. and Berube, Y. 1973, Aqueous Oxidation of Molybdenite in Chalcopyrite Concentrates, Transactions of AIME, Vol 254, December, 305-309. Topol, L.E., Osteryoung, R.A. and Christie, J.H. 1965. Electrochemical Studies of NO + and NO2+ in Concentrated H2SO4 (1965). 112: 861-864. Turney, T.A. and Wright, G.A. 1959. Nitrous Acid and Nitrosation. Chem. Rev. 59: 497-513. Van Weert, G., K.J. Fair, and J.C. Schneider. 1986a. Prochem's Nitrox Process. CIM Bull. 79, 84-85, November. Van Weert, G., K.J. Fair, and J.C. Schneider. 1986b. The Nitrox Process for Treating Gold-Bearing Arsenopyrites. Annual Meeting TSM-AIME, Denver, Colorado. Van Weert, G. 1988a. An Update on the Nitrox Process. Randol Gold Forum, 209-210. Van Weert, G., K..J. Fair, and V.H. Aprahamian. 1988b. Design and Operating Results of the Nitrox Process. Gold Mining 88, Society of Mining Engineers of AIME, Littleton, Colorado, 286-302. Van Weert, G. and K.J. Fair. 1989. Capital and Operating Costs of the Nitrox Process for Auriferous Arsenopyrites. Extraction Metallurgy '89. Institution of Mining & Metallurgy, London. Vizsolyi and E. Peters. 1980. Nitric Acid Leaching of Molybdenite Concentrates. Hydrometallurgy 6, 103-119. Weber, F.W. 1925. Silver from Sulfides. US Patent 1,555,615. Chemical Abstracts 193,473. Westby, G.C. 1918a. Nitric Acid and Copper Ores. Metallurgical & Chemical Engineering. 18(6):290-296. Westby, G.C. 1918b. Treating Sulfide Ores of Copper, Zinc, or Other Metals. US Patent 1,244,811, Chemical Abstracts 12,131. Yurkevich, Y.N. and K.Y. Shapiro. 1967. Decomposition of Molybdenite by Nitric Acid. Met. Vol'frama, Molibdena, Niobiya, 53-56. Chemical Abstracts 69,98546e. Zelikman, A.N., L.V. Belyaevskaya, and T.E. Prosenkova, 1969, Decomposition of Molybdenite by Nitric Acid, lzvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh, Zavedenii, Tsvetnaya Metallurgiya 12 (6) 43-48, Chemical Abstracts 72,81734d. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 16

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) || Volume || 2 || Issue || 11 || Pages || 43-51 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Suggestion Scheme and Workers Commitment in Nigerian Banking Industry 1 1 Seth Accra Jaja, 2Tarela Okpu Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nigeria 2 Niger Delta University Nigeria ---------------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-------------------------------------------------------This study examined the effect of Suggestion Scheme - a form of Employee Voice and Workers Commitment. Using Cross Sectional Survey design, a sample size of 357 workers from the banks in the South-South zone of Nigeria was used as respondents. We found that suggestion scheme had a significant positive effect on employees’ continuance and normative commitment but no significant effect on employee’s affective commitment. This result suggests that when organizations utilize suggestion scheme as a form of employee voice, workers will be morally obliged to remain with the organization and will stay because they would not want to lose their investment. Keywords: suggestion scheme, affective commitment, continuance commitment, normative commitment, employee voice. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 30 October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 05 December 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Management practitioners believe that to achieve the goals of their organizations, they need to harness the commitment of workers. A committed and loyal employee will enable organizations maintain a competitive edge in their industry (Ardrey et al 2001; Salami 2008; Dordevic 2004; Ahiauzu and Asawo 2012; Gbadamosi 2003; Muthuveloo and Rose 2005). Owing to this contention, several researchers have highlighted the importance of workers commitment in organizations. Dixit and Bhati (2012) believe that employees who are committed to their organization will bring about sustained productivity. Salami (2008:31) posits that “Organizations need committed workers in order to face the worldwide economic competition”. Gbadamosi (2003) argued that workers commitment enhances performance which leads to organizational effectiveness. The importance attached to organizational commitment has made several researchers examine the effect of organizational factors on commitment such as performance (Zabid et al 2003; Oladejo et al 2011), Monetary rewards (Omolayo and Owolabi 2007), Effectiveness (Angle and Perry 1981), psychological and demographic factors (Salami 2008), structure (Ardrey et al 2001), withdrawal intentions (Carmeli and Gefen 2005), work family role (Akintayo 2010), human resources management practice (Gbadamosi 2003), communication climate and job satisfaction (Trombetta and Rogers 1988). While there is a proliferation of literature on commitment and other constructs, there has been little research which examined the effect of Suggestion Scheme as a form of employee voice on workers commitment. Lloyds (1996) believe that if employees do not have voice by means of a suggestion scheme, they may engage in behaviours that would be obstructive or even destructive to the organization. Buech et al (2010) also reiterated the importance of suggestion schemes in ensuring that organizations benefit from employees innovativeness. In the same vein Nicol (2002) argues that a good suggestion scheme makes employees believe that management cares for them and listens to them. This builds trust for the system. Research (Farndale et al 2011; Martin 2008) shows that when employees trust management, their commitment will improve. Therefore this piece of work is carried out to investigate the effect of suggestion scheme on workers commitment in the Nigerian Banking Industry. There is paucity of research in this area. To fill this gap, we examined the theory of Suggestion Scheme, Workers Commitment and the implied relationship between suggestion scheme and worker’s commitment. II. LITERATURE SURVEY Suggestion Scheme Milner et al (1995:4) defined suggestion scheme a “formalized mechanism which encourages employees to contribute constructive ideas for improving the organization in which they work”. Implemented ideas can be rewarded by a monetary award or some other form of recognition – usually proportionate to the benefits generated. “Employee suggestion schemes are a way to capture employee’s ideas on areas that are often not within their control” (ILO 2010:1). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 43 Suggestion Scheme And Workers Commitment In Nigerian Banking Industry Suggestion schemes are the oldest form of employee voice and are very useful for any organisation that wishes to introduce change in its culture, structure or technology (Lloyd 1996). Suggestion scheme as a form of employee voice produces good ideas for improvement, increases employee commitment to the implementation of such ideas, elevates cooperation, enhances workers sense of power and dignity, improves loyalty and identification with the organisation, educates employees in goal setting and helps to identify leaders (Carnevale and Sharp 1993). Suggestion schemes are a valuable means for employees to participate in improving the efficiency of an organization. This is because they help to reduce the feelings of frustration workers have when they believe there are no recognized channels of communication for them to air their ideas/views. Suggestion boxes are usually provided with forms given for entering a suggestion (Armstrong 2003). A suggestion scheme involves employees writing their suggestion on a piece of paper and placing it in a box that is easily accessible. The manager in charge publicly empties the suggestion box on a regularly scheduled basis and reads the suggestion. A committee then decides which suggestions to implement and responds to suggestions (ILO Report 2010). According to Milner et al (1995) when organisations are establishing a scheme, a likely starting- point for them is to ensure that suggestion scheme aligns with the organization’s mission, objectives and values. It must also be viewed as being a key human resource initiative and as such should seek to integrate with the goals of recruitment, training and appraisal of staff at all levels. Senior management should demonstrate their faith in the scheme, promote and support it and encourage all managers to view it as a positive force for continuous improvement. Suggestion schemes help organisations to become more innovative and help them reduce cost (Carnevale and Sharp, 1993; Buech et al 2010). The following factors have been identified by Milner et al (1995) as being necessary to successfully implementing a suggestion scheme in an organisation: 1. It is important for senior and middle management to be totally committed to the scheme. A member of the senior team of staff should be clearly identified as the overall ideas champion of the service. 2. All employees should be encouraged to participate in the scheme. Everyone in the organisation will be eligible and this should be made clear in recruitment materials, job descriptions and in publicity material for the scheme. 3. Careful consideration should be given to the evaluation strategy. Those who are given responsibility for evaluating suggestions must be fully committed to the success of the scheme. 4. The suggestion scheme must be supported by effective administrative backup with sound procedural systems to ensure that suggestions are processed within published timescales. 5. An adequate budget must be provided to fund awards, other forms of recognition, the purchase of equipment and promotion and publicity of the scheme. 6. Every opportunity must be taken to promote the scheme throughout the organization. There is little point in launching a scheme if nobody knows that it exists. It must be publicized at regular intervals throughout the year, in order to ensure that everyone is aware of its existence. 7. The success of a suggestion scheme can be measured by the number of suggestions that are actually implemented. Implementation is important because implemented ideas demonstrate the continuing success of the scheme and implemented ideas provide the suggestor/(s) with personal satisfaction at seeing their idea in operation – having the knowledge that they have made a difference. 8. It is important that everyone in the organization is aware of the benefits gained from implemented suggestions, so that they too may be encouraged to think about ways in which they can contribute. Lloyd (1996) was able to demonstrate through his research of British Gas how the use of suggestion schemes can encourage employees not only to think more creatively, but also to share their ideas for the benefit of the organisation. This will make them more committed and motivated, especially if they receive the appropriate reward and recognition for their ideas, and see them implemented and actually improving the organization. Research carried out by Income Data Services (1991) reports that the greatest obstacle to implementing a suggestion scheme in organisations is the fear by middle managers that such schemes will undermine their importance in the organisation. An ill-conceived and undefined suggestion scheme can turn employees off and generate ill-will, cynicism and misunderstanding in the organisation (ILO 2010). Carvenale and Sharp (1993) also reports that suggestion schemes can backfire on the organisation if they become overtly bureaucratic. This can be as a result of unclear ground rules, complex and excessive paperwork, lengthy processing time, inexperienced or overburdened evaluators, rejections without clear and sufficient reasons, long delays in implementing approved ideas or in delivering rewards, insufficient communication with suggesters, and processing proposals through layer after layer of the hierarchy, can lead to disillusioned and demoralized participants. With these views in mind, we therefore examined how the use of suggestion schemes in organizations influences workers’ commitment by first reviewing the literature on commitment and the relationship between suggestion schemes and worker’s commitment. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 44 Suggestion Scheme And Workers Commitment In Nigerian Banking Industry III. WORKERS COMMITMENT Workers Commitment is a multidimensional construct (Meyer et al 2002), hence there are several definitions explaining this concept. Porter et al. (1974:604) defined commitment as “a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization’s goals, a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and a definite desire to maintain organizational membership”. Wiener and Vardi (1980:90) describe organisational commitment as “behavioural intention or reaction, determined by the individual's perception of the normative pressure”. O’Reilly (1989:17) sees it as “an individual's psychological bond to the organisation, including a sense of job involvement, loyalty and belief in the values of the organisation”. Mowday, et al (1982:26) define commitment as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organisation characterized by strong acceptance or a belief in an organisation’s goals and values; willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organisation; and a strong desire to maintain membership of the organisation.” Meyer and Herscovitch (2001:301) sees commitment as “a force that binds an individual to a course of action of relevance to one or more targets” From these definitions, organizational commitment is conceptualized as a psychological construct, an inner feeling in the worker that propels him/her to act in a certain way that will enable organizations realize their goals. This view strongly mirrors Allen and Meyer’s (1990) definition of worker’s commitment as “a psychological state that characterizes the employees’ relationship with the organization which has implications for the decision to continue or discontinue membership in the organization.” Allen and Meyer (1990) developed the Three Component Model of measuring worker’s commitment to their organization which has its critics (Swailes 2000; Jaros, 2007; Solinger et al 2008). Irrespective of the criticisms levied against Allen and Meyer’s Three Component Model of Commitment is still the most influential current model of measuring workers commitment to their organization. This is because several studies (Kazari and Emami 2012; Meyer and Allen 1991; Herscovitch and Meyer, 2002; Ko, et al, 1997; Speechley, Noh, and Beggs, 1993; Gross and Fullager, 1996) have been conducted to test the applicability of the three-component model of organisational commitment. These studies provide strong evidence for the generalizability of Meyer and Allen’s (1991, 1997) model of commitment. Meyer and Allen (1991) assert that the three components used in measuring organizational commitment are: affective, continuance and normative commitment. Affective Commitment is concerned with the individual’s emotional attachment and identification with the organisation. Employees with affective commitment stay with the organisation because they want to. Affective commitment shows the emotional bond and identification the employee has with the organization. This is portrayed by feelings of devotion, belongingness, and stability (Meyer et al., 2003). There has been strong support in other researches for affective commitment, (Meyer et al 2002; Malhotra and Mukherjee 2004) showing how it leads to better performance of employees Continuance Commitment is more calculative. Employees with continuance commitment are aware of the cost associated with leaving the organisation and they stay with the organisation because they need to for material benefits. Allen and Meyer (1990) proposed that the continuance component of organizational commitment develops on the basis of two factors: the magnitude and/or number of investments (or side-bets) individuals make and a perceived lack of alternatives. When employees believe they have fewer employment alternatives, their continuance commitment to their current employer will be stronger. This side-bets or economic exchange (Meyer and Allen 1997; Taing et al 2011) and lack of employment opportunities show different forms of continuance commitment. Normative Commitment has to do with feelings of obligations employees have to continue with the organisation. Meyer and Allen (1990) stressed that employees whose parents have been long-term employees of an organization would have a strong normative commitment. This may result if the parents had stressed the importance of being loyal to their organization. Jha (2011) believes normative commitment is influenced by cultures that stress the importance of loyalty and devotion to institutions such as family, marriage, country, religion and employment organizations. Meyer and Allen (1991) suggest that employees can experience all three forms of commitment to varying degrees and the strength of each is influenced by different factors. Affective commitment is influence by the extent to which employee’s needs and expectations about the organisations are matched by their actual experience. Continuance commitment comprises of personal sacrifice associated with leaving and limited opportunities for other employment. While normative commitment is influenced by societal norms and culture. Martin (2008:601) reports that “affective commitment positively influences normative commitment and continuance commitment is determined by normative commitment and affective commitment.” Research (Taing et al 2011) has demonstrated that employees that perceive loss of economic benefit by leaving the organization were more committed than those that felt they had fewer employment alternatives. Meyer et al (2002) found that strong affective commitment influences employees’ job satisfaction, perceived organizational support, organizational justice, and transformational leadership. Also affective and normative commitments are strongly correlated. In line with these Meyer et al (2012) report that organizations will benefit if their workforce have a strong Affective and Normative Commitment because this combination is more superior to having employees with a strong Affective commitment alone. They also report that a strong continuance commitment is also good, so long as it is supported by a strong affective and normative. All three forms of commitment binds an individual to the organization and reduces the likelihood of leaving (Meyer et al 2012) In this study, we have identified suggestion scheme as an emerging research area of interest. We therefore examined the hypothesized relationships between suggestion scheme as a form of employee voice and the measures of workers commitment. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 45 Suggestion Scheme And Workers Commitment In Nigerian Banking Industry IV. SUGGESTION SCHEME AND WORKERS COMMITMENT Landau (2009) posit that employees will be more committed if their suggestions facilitate improvement or change in the organisation. Similarly Lloyd (1996) believe that when organisations encourage employees to think more creatively and share their ideas for the benefit of the firm by the use of employee suggestion scheme, it will make employees more committed and involved in the organisation. Martin (2008) is of the view that commitment is determined mainly by the interaction between management and employees. Therefore when management encourages employees to participate in organisation processes and changes through the use of suggestion schemes, it will increase employee commitment to the organisation. From the foregoing, we proposed the following hypotheses: Ho1: there is no significant relationship between suggestion schemes and employees’ affective commitment. Ho2: there is no significant relationship between suggestion schemes and employees’ continuance commitment Ho3: there is no significant relationship between suggestion schemes and employees’ normative commitment V. METHODS This study collected data from members of the banking industry in the South-South zone of Nigeria using cross sectional survey design. The population for this study included all senior and junior employees in the listed banks in the Nigeria Stock Exchange. We used the employees in the bank’s headquarters in the six state capitals as our accessible population. The population figure was sourced from the bank’s nominal role. A total of five thousand employees made up the total population. The sample size for this study was determined using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table on sample size determination. Our sample size was three hundred and fifty-seven employees. However when we distributed our questionnaire, the completed and usable copies for the analysis was 315, representing 88.24% of respondents who genuinely participated in our study. The instrument used for data collection was the questionnaire and in-depth interview. The questionnaire was divided into two sections. Section A comprised of demographic information such as age, gender, length of stay in the organization and educational qualifications. Section B elicited respondent’s views concerning the study variables. The questionnaire adopted the 5-point Likert Scale rating, where respondents were asked how strongly they agree or disagree with a statement or series of statement. The scale used for measuring Suggestion Scheme was adapted from the work of Nicol (2002). Workers Commitment was measured using Allen and Meyer’s (1990) Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) which we adapted for our study. The OCQ measured affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment. Affective commitment had nine items, while continuance and normative commitment had eight items each. The variables that were employed for this study were sourced from existing literature and had been pre-tested and validated in previous studies (Allen and Meyer, 1990; Meyer and Allen 1991; Herscovitch and Meyer, 2002; Pittorino 2008; Nicol 2002). Therefore the variables had construct validity. Cronbach Alpha was used to test for reliability in our study. Cronbach alpha is commonly used in research to test internal reliability. According to researchers (Bryman and Bell 2003; Nunally and Berstein 1994; and Sekaran 2003) an alpha coefficient of 0.80 is generally accepted as a good level of internal reliability of the instrument, though an alpha level of 0.7 is also considered to be efficient. For test of reliability the following Cronbach Alpha Coefficients were obtained for our scales: Suggestion Scheme (0.731), Affective Commitment (0.771), Continuance Commitment (0.724), and Normative Commitment (0.708). Hence all our variables had internal reliability. Frequencies and percentages were used to classify our demographic data. Our variables were subjected to univariate and bivariate analysis. Inferential statistics using Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient was used to establish the association between Suggestion Scheme and Worker’s Commitment. VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results from our demographic data indicated that majority of the workers had been working for the bank between 1-3years which represents 47.94% of respondents, 24.8% of workers had been working between 4-5years, while employees who had worked between 4-8years represented 3.2% of respondents and those with over 8years represented 7.6% of respondents. Males working in the banking industry were 168 representing 53.3% of respondents, while females made up the remaining 46.7% and were 147 in number. 47.3% of respondents were between the ages of 20-29, 45.7% were between the ages of 30-39, 6.7% were between the ages of 40-49 and only one person was 50 and older. Respondents with Bachelor’s degree were 157 in number representing 49.8%, Diploma/Certificate 85 (27%), Post Graduate Degree 66 (21%) and West African Examination Certificate or its equivalent were 7 in number representing 2.2% of respondents. This indicates that most workers were highly educated in the banking industry in Nigeria. Using univariate analysis, we obtained the following mean scores (x) for our variables. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 46 Suggestion Scheme And Workers Commitment In Nigerian Banking Industry Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Suggestion Scheme SSC1 SSC2 SSC3 SSC4 SSC5 SSC6 SSC7 SSC8 Valid 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 2.4794 2.6476 2.0603 1.6444 2.0190 1.5397 1.7175 1.6667 Std. Deviation 1.23718 1.72826 1.18893 1.22107 4.37126 .81047 .93389 .97745 Skewness -.465 3.386 -.129 .306 9.125 .124 -.141 .112 Std. Error of Skewness .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 Minimum .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Maximum 4.00 14.00 4.00 4.00 45.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 N Source: SPSS COMPUTATION Table 2: Descriptive Statistics of Affective Commitment ACS1 ACS2 ACS3 ACS4 ACS5 ACS6 ACS7 ACS8 ACS9 Valid 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 1.8825 2.7841 2.5175 2.1048 1.6063 1.5810 2.3778 1.4921 1.6317 Std. Deviation 1.39683 1.04260 1.30732 1.27137 1.08726 1.10972 1.29679 1.09534 1.36760 Skewness .049 -1.374 -.852 -.320 .278 .364 -.809 .364 .214 Std. Error of Skewness .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 Minimum .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Maximum 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 N Source: SPSS COMPUTATION Table 3: Descriptive Statistics of Continuance Commitment CCS1 CCS2 CCS3 CCS4 CCS5 CCS6 CCS7 CCS8 Valid 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 2.1238 1.8571 2.3079 2.2349 2.1651 2.0857 2.1714 2.1937 Std. Deviation 1.26965 1.18989 1.26079 1.36682 1.32036 1.29512 1.31472 1.25833 Skewness -.103 .062 -.674 -.567 -.407 -.178 -.201 -.206 Std. Error of Skewness .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 Minimum .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Maximum 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 N Source: SPSS COMPUTATION Table 4: Descriptive Statistics of Normative Commitment NCS1 NCS2 NCS3 NCS4 NCS5 NCS6 NCS7 NCS8 Valid 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 2.2730 1.8190 2.3175 2.3111 1.8825 2.0952 1.9778 1.6476 Std. Deviation 1.37136 1.20599 1.28719 1.43157 1.22689 1.17178 1.31484 1.35426 Skewness -.398 .352 -.591 .470 .496 .077 .024 .079 Std. Error of Skewness .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 .137 Minimum .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Maximum 4.00 4.00 4.00 12.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 N Source: SPSS COMPUTATION www.theijes.com The IJES Page 47 Suggestion Scheme And Workers Commitment In Nigerian Banking Industry Table 5: Descriptive statistics of variables N Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. Error SSC 315 1.9718 .84234 2.217 .137 ACS 315 1.9975 .64236 .364 .137 CCS 315 2.1425 .75092 .028 .137 NCS 315 2.0405 .74410 .591 .137 ValidN (listwise) 315 Source: SPSS COMPUTATION The overall mean score (x) for Suggestion Scheme (SSC) = 1.97, Affective Commitment (ACS) =1.99, Continuance Commitment (CCS) =2.14, and Normative Commitment (NCS)=2.04. For the bivariate analysis the Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient is calculated using SPSS to establish the association between Suggestion Scheme and Workers Commitment. To test the hypotheses, the following guidelines were used to accept or reject the null hypotheses: when the statistical test of significance (P-value) is less than 0.05 i.e., P<0.05, the null hypothesis was rejected, when P>0.05, the null hypothesis was accepted. This is in line with Kathari’s (2006) decision rule. The confidence interval was set at the 0.05 (two tailed) level of significance to test the statistical significance of the data in this study. Table 6 presents the result of the association between Joint Consultation (JCS) and Workers Commitment – Affective Commitment (ACS), Continuance Commitment (CCS), and Normative Commitment (NCS). Table 6: Association between Suggestion Scheme and Workers Commitment Spearman's rho SSC SSC ACS CCS NCS Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .092 .243(**) .328(**) Sig. (2-tailed) . .104 .000 .000 N 315 315 315 315 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). From table 6, for hypothesis one r = 0.092 and p = 0.104, therefore our first null hypothesis is accepted. There is no significant relationship between suggestion scheme and affective commitment. From table 6, for hypothesis two, r = 0.243** and p = 0.000. Therefore our second null hypothesis is rejected. There is a significant positive relationship between suggestion scheme and continuance commitment at the 0.01 level of significance. From table 6, for hypothesis three, r = 0.328** and p = 0.000. Therefore our third null hypothesis is rejected. There is a significant positive relationship between suggestion scheme and normative commitment at the 0.01 level of significance. Therefore our hypotheses can be stated thus: H01: there is no significant relationship between suggestions scheme and Affective Commitment. H2: there is a significant positive relationship between suggestion scheme and Continuance Commitment H3: there is a significant positive relationship between suggestion scheme and Normative Commitment This result is consistent with the in-depth interview conducted. Notes were taken in recording participant’s responses. The questions were based on the survey instrument and elicited information about bankers views of the use of joint consultation and how it affects their commitment to their organization. Two participants from the six states were selected and a total of twelve banking personnel interviewed. Most bankers agree that their bank has a suggestion scheme in which suggestions are made and put in a suggestion box. Many employees have made suggestions for improvement. Majority of people interviewed report that management did not acknowledge their suggestions, and the whole idea just filtered out. Though few others report that their suggestions were acknowledged and they received a non monetary award, such as their picture in the banking hall, proclaiming them employees of the month. Some were given shares in the bank. They also received a little token of money from management, which they considered equitable for their contribution. As one participants report: “I felt very good with myself when I was recognized by management as an innovative staff for the suggestion I proffered.” Since it was perceived that management appreciates their effort for improvement, they are willing to stay in the organization and help achieve the goals of their bank. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 48 Suggestion Scheme And Workers Commitment In Nigerian Banking Industry Our findings revealed that Suggestion Scheme has a significant positive effect on Workers Continuance and Normative Commitment. Suggestion Scheme does not have a significant effect on Workers Affective Commitment. Since suggestion scheme encourages employees to contribute constructive ideas for improving the organization they work in, it is not surprising to find that employees are committed to the goals of the organization. Their level of commitment was continuance commitment which signifies that they are calculative about their intentions to stay with the organization. They remain in the organization because of the fear of losing status or money (Gurses and Demiray 2009). This view is also backed by the social exchange theory, which also implies a give and take relationship between management and workers. Workers in the Nigeria Banking Industry make useful suggestions for improvement and in return are given monetary and non-monetary reward for their accepted suggestions. Gurses and Demiray (2009) explained that employees with continuance commitment stay with their organizations because of their investment of time and effort to the organization. They believe that if they leave the job they will have fewer choices. Our findings also revealed that workers in the Nigeria Banking Industry exhibit normative commitment to their organizations. By making suggestions and receiving a reward for the suggestions they feel morally obliged to remain with their banks. Loyalty is a key reason for workers to remain with the organization. Researchers (Gurses and Demiray 2009) have shown that employees with normative commitment believe that they have to give back to the organization for taking them in during their time of need. They pay back with loyalty since they feel morally obliged to remain with their banks. Workers see the reward given to them as being equitable to their proffered suggestions and as such believe it is only proper to stay with such organizations. Normative commitment hence draws on feelings of societal expectations. Hence our findings support Lloyd (1996) contention in the literature that the use of suggestion schemes by organizations increases employees’ commitment. Therefore the use of suggestion schemes as a form of employee voice by the Nigeria Banking Industry produces positive effect on workers continuance and normative commitment. VII. CONCLUSIONS The conclusions drawn from this study are that the use of suggestion scheme as a means of employee voice significantly increases employees continuance and normative commitment but has no significant effect on workers affective commitment. We found in this study that suggestion scheme is a form of employee voice in the banking industry in Nigeria and it leads to employees’ commitment. According to Carnevale and Sharp (1993) suggestion scheme increases employee commitment, elevates cooperation, enhances workers sense of power and dignity and improves loyalty and identification with the organization. Workers in our study had a moral obligation to remain with the organization because they believe that the organization had invested hugely on them. They also remain with the organization because they are aware of the personal sacrifice associated with leaving and the limited opportunities for other employment. According to Coetzee (2005) the perceived cost associated with leaving the organization is influenced by the threat of losing attractive benefits such as money, seniority based privileges or wasting the time and effort spent in acquiring nontransferable skills. The moral obligation to remain with the organization is influenced by family or cultural orientation. Nigerians are strongly influenced by family or cultural orientation because most employments are obtained owing to the connection the worker has to those in authority in the organization. According to Ahiauzu (1999:213) ‘family, ethnic and tribal relationship between a job seeker and the existing members of an organization should be considered an advantage to the job seeker, while considering him or her for employment in that organization’. Therefore employees who got their jobs through family or tribal connection would have a strong moral obligation to remain with the organization because he/she would not want to disappoint the person that placed him/her in the job position. When managers are cognizant of the type of commitment employees have to the organization they will be able to channel this towards achieving organizational objectives. This study has contributed immensely to the literature on employee voice as a means of increasing workers commitment to their organization. When workers are given opportunity to contribute to decision making in the organization, through the use of different voice forms, they become more committed to the organization and hence their loyalty is won. A committed employee will happily help the organization achieve its objectives by exerting extra effort on behalf of the organization. Professor Seth Accra Jaja is a professor of Organizational Behaviour. He lectures in the department of Business Management, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nigeria. He has several published journal articles and textbooks to his credit. He holds a B.Sc degree in Business Administration, MBA in Business Administration, and PhD in Organizational Behaviour. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 49 Suggestion Scheme And Workers Commitment In Nigerian Banking Industry Dr. Tarela Okpu is a lecturer in the department of Business Management, Niger Delta University Nigeria. She has a B.Sc in Business Education (Secretarial Option), MBA in General Management, MA in International Business Administration, and PhD in Management (Human Resource Management). REFERENCES [1.] [2.] [3.] [4.] [5.] [6.] [7.] [8.] [9.] [10.] [11.] [12.] [13.] [14.] [15.] [16.] [17.] [18.] [19.] [20.] [21.] [22.] [23.] [24.] [25.] [26.] [27.] [28.] [29.] [30.] [31.] [32.] [33.] [34.] [35.] [36.] [37.] [38.] Ahiauzu, A. (1999) The African Industrial Man. CIMRAT Publishers Port Harcourt, Nigeria Ahiauzu, A. and Asawo, S.P. (2012): Impact of Clear and Compelling Vision on Worker’s Commitment in Nigerian Organizations: An Examination of Workplace spirituality. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics, Vol.9(6), pp 113124 Akintayo D.I., (2006) Influence of leadership orientation and managerial effectiveness on organizational commitment among church members in Oyo State, Nigeria Unpublished MMP Project University of Ibadan, Ibadan Allen, N.J. and Meyer, J.P. (1990) “The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment”, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 63, pp. 1-18 Angle, H.L. and Perry J.L. (1981) An Empirical assessment of Organizational Commitment and Organizational Effectiveness Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol.26, pp1-14 Ardrey, W.J., Pecotich, A.J. and Ungar, E. (2001) Sturcute, Commitment and Strategic action for Asian Transitional nation’s financial systems in crisis. International Journal of Bank Marketing 19(1) 18-36 Armstrong, M. (2003) A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practices, 9th edition Kogan Page Limited. London Bentein K, Vandenberghe C.V.R., Stinglhamber F. (2005) The role of change in the relationship between commitment and turnover: A latent growth modeling approach, Journal of Applied Psychology, 90; 468-482. Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2007) Business Research Methods second edition Oxford University Press UK Buech, C.I.D., Michel, A. and Sonntag, K. (2010) Suggestion Systems in Organizations: what Motivates Employees to Submit Suggestions? European Journal of Innovation Management, vol.13, no.4, Pp 507-525 Carmeli, A. and Gefen, D. (2005) The Relationship between Work Commitment Models and Employee Withdrawal Intentions. Journal of Management Psychology, vol.20, no.2, pp.63-86 Carnevale, D.G. and Sharp, B.S. (1993) The Old Employee Suggestion Box. An undervalued force for productivity Improvement, Review of Public Personnel Administration, pp92 Coetzee, M. (2005) Employee Commitment, Chapter 5, University of Pretoria ETD http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/ Dixit V. and Bhati, M. (2012) A study about Employee Commitment and its impact on sustained productivity in Indian Autocomponent Industry. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences volume 1, No.6, pp 34-51 Dordevic, B. (2004) Employee Commitment in times of radical change Economics and Organization, vol.2, no.2, pp 111-117 Farndale, E., Ruiten, J.V., Kelliher, C, and Hope-Hailey, V. (2011) The Influence of Perceived Employee Voice on Organizational Commitment: An Exchange Perspective. Human Resource Management Vol.50, No.1, Pp113-129 Gbadamosi, G. (2003) HRM and the Commitment Rhetoric: Challenges for Africa. Management Decision, vol.41, no.3, pp.274280 Gross, A.B., and Fullager, C. (1996). Professional association participation: An application and extension of labor union models. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Diego, CA. Gurses, N., & Demiray, E. (2009). Organizational commitment of employees of T.V production center (educational television) The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology 8(1). Herscovitch, L. and Meyer, J.P. (2002) Commitment to Organizational Change: Extension of a three-component model. Journal of Applied Psychology, vol.87 (3), pp.474-487 Income Data Services (1991) Suggestion Schemes: Study 495, London International Labour Organization (2010) Setting up an Employee Suggestion Scheme. Good Practice Guide www.ilo.com Accessed 04/06/11 Jaros, S. (2007) Measurement issues in the Meyer and Allen model of organizational commitment. ICFAI Journal of Organizational Behavior, 6: 7-25. Jaros S., Jermier J., Koehler J. and Sincich T. (2004) Effects of continuance, affective, and moral commitment on the withdrawal process: An evaluation of eight structural equations models. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 951-995. Jha, S. (2011) Influence of Psychological Empowerment on Affective, Normative and Continuance Commitment: A study in Indian IT Industry International Journal of Organizational Behaviour, vol.15, no.1, pp53-72 Ko, J. W., Price, J. L., & Mueller, C. W. (1997). Assessment of Meyer and Allen's three-component model of organizational commitment in South Korea Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 961−973 Kathari, C.R. (2006) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, 2nd edition New Age International Publishers, New Delhi Krejcie, R.V. and Morgan, D.W. (1970) Determining Sample Size for research activities Educational and Psychological Measurement, vol.30, pp. 601-610 Landau, M. (2009) Staff Suggestions: a rewarding idea? http://www.landaumorley.co.uk Accessed 20/9/13 Lesabe, R.A. and Nkosi, J. (2007) A Qualitative Exploration of Employees’ views on organizational commitment SA Journal of Human Resource Management 5(1) 35-44 Lloyds, G.C. (1996) Thinking beyond the box, Health Manpower Management vol.22, no.5 pp37-39 Malhotra N. and Mukherjee, A. (2004) The relative influence of organization commitment and job satisfaction on service quality of customer-contact employees in banking call centre. Journal of Services Marketing, vol.18, issue 3, pp 162-174 Marshall, W. (2013) Suggestion Schemes www.reform.gov.bb/page/nespdf accessed 27/10/13 Martin, S.S. (2008) Relational and Economic Antecedents of Organizational Commitment, Personnel Review, vol.37, no.6, pp589-608 Meyer J. P. and Allen N. J. (1991) A Three-Component Conceptualisation of Organisational Commitment Human Resources Management Review Vol.1, no.1, P61-89 Meyer J. P. and Allen N. J. (1997) Commitment in the Workplace Theory, Research and Application Sage publications, Thousand Oaks, California. Meyer J.P., Allen N.J., Smith C.A. (2003). Commitment to organizations and occupations: Extension and test of a threecomponent conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psycholology, 78: 538-551. Meyer, J.P., Stanley, D.J., Herscovitch, L. and Topolyntsky L. (2002) Affective, Continuance and Normative Commitment to the Organization: a meta-analysis of Antecedents, Correlates and Consequences. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 61, 20-52 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 50 Suggestion Scheme And Workers Commitment In Nigerian Banking Industry [39.] [40.] [41.] [42.] [43.] [44.] [45.] [46.] [47.] [48.] [49.] [50.] [51.] [52.] [53.] [54.] [55.] [56.] [57.] [58.] [59.] [60.] Meyer, J.P., Stanley, L.J. and Parfyonova, N.M. (2012) Employee Commitment in Context: The nature and implication of commitment profiles. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 80, 1-16 Meyer, J. P., & Herscovitch, L. (2001). Commitment in the workplace: Toward a general model. Human Resource Management Review, 11, 299–326. Milner, E., Kinnell, M., and Usherwood, B. (1995) Employee Suggestion Schemes: A Management Tool for the 1990s. Library Management, Vol.16, No.3, Pp3-8 Mowday R. T., Porter L. W., and Steers, R. M. (1982) Employee Organization Linkages: The Psychology of Commitment, Absenteeism and Turnover. New York: Academy Press. Muthuveloo, R. and Rose, R.C. (2005) Typology of Organizational Commitment. American Journal of Applied Sciences, vol.2, no.6, pp1078-1081 Nazari K. and Emani M. (2012) Antecedents and Consequences of Organizational Commitment, Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, vol.3, no.9, pp484-493 Nicol, A.J. (2002) Report on ‘Launchpad’ the staff suggestion scheme, Scottish Borders Council Scrutini, item no. 5 Nunnally J.C. and Bernstein, I.H. (1994) Psychometric Theory, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Publishers, New York. Oladejo, M.A., Akinpelu, S.O., Fagunwa, A.O. and Morakinyo, A.R. (2011) Job Related Factors, Leadership, Motivation and Career Commitment in a Nigerian College of Education. Pakistan Journal of Business and Economic Review, vol.1, no.1, pp.41-58 Omolayo, B. and Owolabi, A.B. (2007) Monetary Rewards: A Predictor of Employee’s Commitment to Medium Scale Organiztions in Nigeria. Bangladesh e-journal of Sociology, vol.4, no.1, pp.42-48 Oreilly, C. (1989) Corporations, Culture and Commitment: Motivation and Social Control in Organizations. California Management Review, vol.31, no.4, pp 9-25 Pittorino, L.A. (2009) The Relationship between Culture, Commitment, and Performance in a South African Electricity Utility. http/eprint.ru.ac.za/1570/1/pittorinoMBA2009.pdf Accessed 22/06/11. A Published Thesis Work Porter, L.W.; Steers, R.M.; Mowday, R.T.; & Boulian, P.V. (1974) Organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover among psychiatric technicians Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 603-609. Salami, S.O. (2008) Demographic and Psychological Factors Predicting Organizational Commitment among Industrial Workers Anthropologist, vol.10, no.1, pp.31-38 Sekaran, U. (2003) Research Methods for Business John Wiley and Sons New York Speechley, M., Noh, S., & Beggs, C. (1993) Examining the psychometric properties of a scale on a smallish sample: An example using an occupational commitment scale Canadian Journal of Rehabilitation, 7, 90-93. Solinger, O.N., Van-Olfen, W. and Roe, R.A. (2008) Beyond the Three-Component model of Organizational Commitment Journal of Applied Psychology, vol.93, no.1, 70-83 Swailes, S. (2002): Organizational Commitment: a critique of the Construct and Measures. International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol.4, Issue 2, pp 155-178 Taing, M.U., Granger, B.P., Groff, K.W., Jackson, E.M. and Johnson, R.E. (2011) The Multidimensional nature of Continuance Commitment: Commitment owing to Economic Exchanges versus lack of Employment Alternatives. Journal of Business Psychology, 26, 269-284 Trombetta, J.J. and Rogers D.P. (1988) Communication Climate, Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment: The Effects of Information Adequacy, Communication Openness and Decision Participation. Management Communication Quarterly, vol.1, no.4, pp494-514 Weiner, Y. and Vardi, Y. (1980) Relationships between Job, Organization and Career Commitment and work outcomes – an integrative approach, Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance 26, 81-96 Zabid, M., Rashid, A., Sambasivan, M., and Johari, J. (2003) The Influence of Corporate Culture and Organizational Commitment on Performance. Journal of Management Development, vol.22, no.8, pp.708-728 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 51

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) || Volume || 2 || Issue || 11 || Pages || 35-42 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Traffic Count on Ikorodu-Sagamu Road as an Index for Traffic Flow in Ikorodu Engr. Muritala Ashola ADIGUN, B.Eng; M.Sc Civil Engineering Department, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria ---------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------Consequence of the importance of road in national development and the fact that roads with larger traffic volume are usually given priority by government because of their economic implication, the traffic flow along Ikorodu-Sagamu Road was investigated using traffic count. The traffic count took place from Monday 17th to Sunday 23rd September, 2012. Hourly average each day were 2417, 2053, 1839, 1566, 1876, 1292 and 854 respectively. The hourly probability distributions which range between 0.05 and 0.13 were also illustrated. The result showed that the traffic volume was high in the morning for all working days except Thursday but relatively low in the afternoon for all days. The traffic volume increased again in the evening for all days. The correlation coefficients relationship amongst days indicated both positive and negative coefficients separately for the paired-days. The correlation coefficients values ranges from -0.04 to + 0.92. The study detailed flow pattern along the route which can be used in planning road movement by the road users. Keywords: Vehicles, Traffic, Index, Flow, Analysis. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------Date of Submission: 04 November 2013 Date of Acceptance: 05 December 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- I. INTRODUCTION At the very basic level of infrastructure provision, it is undeniable that transportation is indispensable to modern economic development especially in a developing country like Nigeria. Vehicular traffic census like the population census is a phenomenon which helps the government in developmental planning. The volume of vehicular traffic on a particular route is by implication an indication of the number of people and the volume of goods being transferred along the route. Ideally, this determine the position of the road on the preferential scale for development such as grading, surfacing and expansion, introduction of flyover construction for vehicles and /or pedestrians, and construction of bye-passes to ease or avoid traffic congestion. This is demonstrated in the National Development Plan periods of 1962-1968, 1970-1974 and 1975-1980 where 65.4%, 77.4% and 85.3% respectively of public expenditure in the transportation sector were allocated to road and rail development programmes. It is reported that greater proportion of this investment was in road development projects [1]. Similarly, the quantum of pollution in the form of noise and air pollution from vehicular fuel combustion could be inferred from traffic census. It has also been established that vehicles account for 4.7% of total worldwide pollution [2]. It is also reported that transportation fuel combustion account for 27% of 3.3 billion tons of CO 2 release annually [1]. Road development would aid technical and economic development. Small scale industries such as vulcanizer, automobile mechanics and rewires are established near and along the route. Spare parts shops and filling stations could also spring up where the traffic is heavy. The study area is a section of Ikorodu-Sagamu Road located in the northern part of Ikorodu It is within the Ikorodu North Local Government Area of Lagos State in Nigeria [3]. The study route covers from Ile-epo-Oba to Ikorodu garage rotary intersection and takes into consideration, the adjoining land uses. Ikorodu garage is a major Central Business District of Ikorodu serving as the socio-economic and cultural nerves of the city. It has greater access to pedestrians and vehicular transportation including terminals for both intra and intercity bus terminals. Ikorodu-Sagamu Road is dual carriageway from Lagos road end up to about 500m after Ile-epo Oba roundabout and single carriageway from this point to Sagamu. It is a major route into and out of Ikorodu town from Lagos to other states of Nigeria. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 35 Traffic Count On Ikorodu-Sagamu Road As An Index For Traffic Flow In Ikorodu The objective of this paper is to find out the vehicular traffic volume and its flow pattern along Ikorodu-Sagamu road in Ikorodu, how this has affected movement of people, aided goods and service delivery and the environmental impact arising from the vehicular movement. II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The traffic census was carried out when all primary schools, post-primary schools and the Lagos State Polytechnic were on vacation. Also no special festival was taking place during the census. The traffic census took place for seven days from Monday 17th to Sunday 23rd of September, 2012. On each day the census was done for 12 hours from 7.00 am to 7.00 pm. The station points were Ikorodu roundabout and Ile-Epo Oba junction. Modus operandi adopted for the counting was manual counting. The approach of marking a vertical stroke of line on a paper designed and ruled for the census on hourly basis was used. At the end of the counting,, the tallies were added on hourly and daily basis. The results were finally analysed and compared using simple statistical principles. III. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS The results of the traffic census for each of the days are as presented in Table 1 to Table 7. The Mean, Deviation, Variance, Standard deviation, Probability-Distribution and Correlation Coefficient were determined using the following formulae [4 and 5]: Mean, X  X n i  Deviation   Xi  X  Pr obabilty  Distributi on  Variance , S   X X n 1 i S tan dard `Deviation   Xi  Xi 2  X X n 1 Correlatio n  Coefficien t  i  2  X  X Y  Y  X  X   Y  Y i i 2 i 2 i The probability distribution values for the days are as indicated in Table 1 to Table 7. The Means, Deviations, Variances and Standard Deviations for each of the days are as presented in Table 8. Details of all correlation coefficients are as given in Table 9. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 36 Traffic Count On Ikorodu-Sagamu Road As An Index For Traffic Flow In Ikorodu TABLE 1: TRAFFIC CENSUS RESULT FOR MONDAY, 17/09/2012 ith No. Class Interval (Hrs) Class mid point No of Vehicles X 1  X1  X 1  X1  2 Xi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 7-8 8-9 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 15 - 16 16 - 17 17 - 18 18 - 19 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 TOTAL X Xi i 2642 224 50,261 0.09 0.09 2773 356 126,473 0.10 0.19 2149 -269 72,205 0.07 0.26 2144 -273 74,502 0.07 0.33 1916 -501 250,851 0.07 0.40 2067 -350 122,731 0.07 0.47 1862 -555 307,925 0.06 0.54 2581 164 26,821 0.09 0.63 2585 168 28,227 0.09 0.71 2427 10 101 0.08 0.80 3078 661 436,802 0.11 0.90 2783 365 133,349 0.10 1.00 1,630,248 29008 AVERAGE Cumulative Probability Probability 2417 TABLE 2: TRAFFIC CENSUS RESULT FOR TUESDAY, 18/09/2012 No of Vehicles X  X  X  X  Probability Xi  Xi Cumulative Probability Class Interval (Hrs) Class mid point 1 7-8 7.5 2051 -2 4 0.08 0.08 2 8-9 8.5 2649 596 355,093 0.11 0.19 3 9 - 10 9.5 2527 474 224,673 0.10 0.29 2139 86 7,402 0.09 0.38 2008 -45 2,061 0.08 0.46 1680 -373 139,087 0.07 0.53 1605 -448 200,886 0.07 0.60 1480 -573 328,654 0.06 0.66 1779 -274 75,275 0.07 0.73 2200 146 21,450 0.09 0.82 2437 384 147,377 0.10 0.92 2083 30 891 0.08 1.00 ith No. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 15 - 16 16 - 17 17 - 18 18 - 19 Xi 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 TOTAL 24637 AVERAGE 2053 www.theijes.com 1 1 2 1 1 1,502,853 The IJES Page 37 Traffic Count On Ikorodu-Sagamu Road As An Index For Traffic Flow In Ikorodu X  X  X  X  TABLE 3: TRAFFIC CENSUS RESULT FOR WEDNESDAY, 19/09/2012 ith No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Class Interval (Hrs) Class mid point 7-8 7.5 8-9 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 15 - 16 No of Vehicles Xi 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 Probability 2 1 1 1 1 Xi  Xi Cumulative Probability 2704 865 747,697 0.12 0.12 2375 536 287,398 0.11 0.23 1870 30 929 0.08 0.31 1808 -31 961 0.08 0.40 1446 -394 154,862 0.07 0.46 1330 -509 259,147 0.06 0.52 1235 -604 365,378 0.06 0.58 1303 -537 287,966 0.06 0.64 1836 -3 12 0.08 0.72 94,332 10 16 - 17 16.5 2147 307 0.10 0.82 11 17 - 18 17.5 2070 231 53,276 0.09 0.91 12 18 - 19 18.5 1948 109 11,862 0.09 1.00 TOTAL 22072 AVERAGE 1839 2,263,821 X  X  X  X  TABLE 4: TRAFFIC CENSUS RESULT FOR THURSDAY, 20/09/2012 No of Vehicles Xi  Xi Cumulative Probability 369,917 0.05 0.05 -209 43,643 0.07 0.12 1822 255 65,174 0.10 0.22 2030 463 214,547 0.11 0.33 2063 496 246,206 0.11 0.44 1401 -165 27,195 0.07 0.51 1151 -416 172,813 0.06 0.57 1137 -429 183,962 0.06 0.63 1417 -150 22,353 0.08 0.71 1529 -37 1,392 0.08 0.79 1940 374 139,945 0.10 0.89 1991 425 180,363 0.11 1.00 Class Interval (Hrs) Class mid point 1 7-8 7.5 958 -608 2 8-9 8.5 1357 ith No. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 15 - 16 16 - 17 17 - 18 18 - 19 Xi 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.5 TOTAL 18796 AVERAGE 1566 www.theijes.com 2 1 1 1 1 Probability 1,667,509 The IJES Page 38 Traffic Count On Ikorodu-Sagamu Road As An Index For Traffic Flow In Ikorodu TABLE 5: TRAFFIC CENSUS RESULT FOR FRIDAY, 21/09/2012 No of Vehicles ith No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Class Interval (Hrs) Class mid point 7-8 7.5 8-9 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 13 - 14 14 - 15 2 Xi 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 X  X  X  X  Probability 1 1 1 1 Xi  Xi Cumulative Probability 2363 486 236,549 0.10 0.10 2934 1,058 1,118,736 0.13 0.24 2326 449 201,838 0.10 0.34 1795 -82 6,691 0.08 0.42 1536 -340 115,897 0.07 0.49 1379 -497 247,324 0.06 0.55 1368 -508 257,979 0.06 0.61 1629 -247 61,086 0.07 0.68 53,807 9 15 - 16 15.5 2108 232 0.09 0.77 10 16 - 17 16.5 1729 -148 21,761 0.08 0.85 11 17 - 18 17.5 1827 -49 2,395 0.08 0.93 12 18 - 19 18.5 1522 -354 125,469 0.07 1.00 TOTAL 22517 AVERAGE 1876 2,449,533 X  X  X  X  TABLE 6: TRAFFIC CENSUS RESULT FOR SATURDAY, 22/09/2012 ith No. Class Interval (Hrs) Class mid point No of Vehicles Xi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-8 8-9 9 - 10 10 - 11 11 - 12 12 - 13 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 2 1 1 1 1 Probability Xi  Xi Cumulative Probability 710 -582 338,551 0.05 0.05 1066 -226 50,937 0.07 0.11 1339 47 2,184 0.09 0.20 1499 207 42,761 0.10 0.30 1568 276 76,004 0.10 0.40 1451 159 25,309 0.09 0.49 499 7 13 - 14 13.5 1314 22 0.08 0.58 8 14 - 15 14.5 1320 28 764 0.09 0.66 9 15 - 16 15.5 1302 10 93 0.08 0.75 10 16 - 17 16.5 1343 51 2,598 0.09 0.83 1347 55 3,048 0.09 0.92 1246 -47 2,167 0.08 1.00 11 12 17 - 18 18 - 19 17.5 18.5 TOTAL 15505 AVERAGE 1292 www.theijes.com 544,916 The IJES Page 39 Traffic Count On Ikorodu-Sagamu Road As An Index For Traffic Flow In Ikorodu TABLE 7: TRAFFIC CENSUS RESULT FOR SUNDAY, 23/09/2012 ith No. Class Interval (Hrs) Class mid point No of Vehicle s 7-8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2 1 Xi 1 X  X  X  X  76,248 0.06 0.06 763 -91 8,214 0.07 0.13 983 129 16,587 0.10 0.23 1015 162 26,131 0.10 0.33 887 33 1,115 0.09 0.41 831 -23 519 0.08 0.49 704 -150 22,497 0.07 0.56 706 -148 21,866 0.07 0.63 823 -31 978 0.08 0.71 916 62 3,845 0.09 0.80 1001 147 21,553 0.10 0.90 1040 186 34,607 0.10 1.00 9.5 10 - 11 10.5 11 - 12 11.5 12 - 13 12.5 13 - 14 13.5 14 - 15 14.5 15 - 16 15.5 16 - 17 16.5 17 - 18 17.5 18 - 19 18.5 Xi  Xi -276 8.5 9 - 10 1 1 Cumulative Probability 578 7.5 8-9 1 Probability TOTAL 10246 AVERAGE 854 234,159 Table 8. Values of Means, Variance and Standard Deviation DAYS MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION VARIANCE Monday 2417.33 148204.37 384.97 Tuesday 2053.04 136622.98 369.63 Wednesday 1839.37 205801.87 453.65 Thursday 1566.31 151591.76 389.35 Friday 1876.38 222684.82 471.89 Saturday 1292.05 49537.78 222.57 Sunday 853.83 21287.21 145.90 TABLE 9. Correlation Coefficients relationship details Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday 0.38 Wednesday 0.63 0.68 Thursday -0.04 0.44 -0.08 Friday 0.42 0.67 0.74 -0.20 Saturday -0.49 -0.18 -0.74 0.62 -0.61 Sunday 0.06 0.44 -0.06 0.92 -0.21 www.theijes.com The IJES 0.62 Page 40 Traffic Count On Ikorodu-Sagamu Road As An Index For Traffic Flow In Ikorodu Fig. 1: Graph of Probability Distributions versus Hours IV. DISCUSSION A total of 29008, 24637, 22072, 18796, 22517, 15505 and 10246 were recorded for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday respectively. Also, average vehicles per hour for these days were found to be 2417, 2053, 1839, 1566, 1876, 1292 and 854 respectively. The traffic pattern shows a general characteristic of high volume in the morning from 7.00am to 11.00am, thereafter, the traffic volume dropped during the mid-afternoon from 11.00am to 3.00pm. The traffic volume surged upward again in the evening from 3.00pm to 7.00pm. It is also noted that unlike other working days, the traffic volume on Thursday is lower in volume and devoid of the early morning high volume which characterize other working days. Traffic during the weekend shows a reduction in traffic volume. Saturday traffic in addition to its lower volume has similar trend with Thursday traffic pattern. The traffic count also revealed that Sunday had the least traffic volume with value less than half of most of the working days. The probability distributions against the hours within the period of traffic count for each day are as shown in Fig. 1. Simple correlations for the seven days are as shown in Table 9. The correlation coefficient values gave an indication that there are fairly strong correlation ranging from +0.57 to +0.74 for the following pair days: Mondays and Wednesday; Tuesday and Wednesday; Tuesday and Thursday; Tuesday and Friday; Wednesday and Friday; and Saturday and Sunday. Similarly, a weak positive correlation ranging from +0.18 to +0.38 existed between the following pair days: Monday and Tuesday; Monday and Thursday; Monday and Friday; Wednesday and Thursday; Thursday and Saturday; and Tuesday and Sunday. On the other hand, weak negative correlations ranging between -0.18 to -0.21 were found to exist between the following pair days; Tuesday and Saturday; and Friday and Sunday. A moderately high negative correlation existed between the pair days of Wednesday and Saturday; Friday and Saturday; and Monday and Saturday. The pair days of Monday and Sunday; Thursday and Friday; and Wednesday and Sunday show no correlation. V. CONCLUSION The vehicular traffic flow along the road was high on each working day with peak period in the mornings. This could be attributed to people going to work outside Ikorodu which is substantially residential area in nature. Another contributing factor to this could be people travelling out of Ikorodu. In the afternoon, people are still at work, hence, the reduction in traffic volume during this period. In the evening, the traffic volume increased again because people have closed from work and are returning back. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 41 Traffic Count On Ikorodu-Sagamu Road As An Index For Traffic Flow In Ikorodu It can be inferred that the high volume of vehicular traffic will result in air pollution in the form of noise and gaseous auto-combustion products such as hydrocarbons. The pollution is expected to increase and decrease proportionally with the pattern of traffic flow each day. The high traffic volume is evident from the regular traffic congestion usually experienced by motorists at the approaches of the two roundabouts along the route. REFERENCES [1.] [2.] [3.] [4.] [5.] O.A Olayemi, Land Transportation: “Its Problem and Effects on Nigeria’s Economic Development”, Proceedings of NISER Conference, Ibadan, 1977. J. N Saddler, Biochemical conversion of forest and agricultural plant residues, (C.A.B International Publishers, Wallingford 1993). O.S Adegoke, Strategic Planning for a strategically located satellite town: The case study of Ikorodu, IDRDG lecture series No. 4, 2003, 7-22. Peck, Roxy, Chris Olsen, and Jay Devore. Introduction to Statistics & Data Analysis, (4th edition, Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole 2010). William Mendenhall and Terry Sincich. Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences (4th edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1995). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 42

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 05-12||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 On the Rate of Convergence of Newton-Raphson Method Ranbir Soram1, Sudipta Roy2, Soram Rakesh Singh3, Memeta Khomdram4, Swavana Yaikhom4 , Sonamani Takhellambam1 1 Manipur Institute of Technology, Takyelpat, Imphal-795004 Department of Information Technology, Assam University, Silchar-788011 3 Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Bangalore-560032 4 National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology, Akampat, Imphal-795001 2 ------------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT--------------------------------------------------------A computer program in Java has been coded to evaluate the cube roots of numbers from 1 to 25 using NewtonRaphson method in the interval [1, 3]. The relative rate of convergence has been found out in each calculation. The lowest rate of convergence has been observed in the evaluation of cube root of 16 and highest in the evaluation of cube root of 3. The average rate of convergence of Newton-Raphson method has been found to be 0.217920. KEYWORDS : Computer Program, Cube Root, Java, Newton-Raphson Method, Rate of Convergence. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 21, October, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November, 2013 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Numerical analysis is a very important branch of computer science that deals with the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation in mathematical analysis. It involves the study of methods of computing numerical data. It has its applications in all fields of engineering and the physical sciences including the life sciences. The stochastic differential equations and Markov chains have been used in simulating living cells for medicine and biology. Numerical analysis computes numerical data for solving numerically the problems of continuous mathematics. So, it implies producing a sequence of approximate values; thus the questions involve the rate of convergence, the accuracy of the answer, and even time consumed to report the answer. Many problems in mathematics can be reduced in polynomial time to linear algebra, this too can be studied numerically. Root-finding algorithms are also used to solve nonlinear equations. If the function is differentiable and the derivative is known and not equal to zero, then Newton-Raphson method is a popular choice. Linearization is another technique for solving nonlinear equations. The formal academic area of numerical analysis varies from quite foundational mathematical studies to the computer science issues involved in the creation and implementation of several algorithms. NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD In numerical analysis, Newton-Raphson method is a very popular numerical method used for finding successively better approximations to the zeroes of a real-valued function x : f ( x)  0. Even though the method can also be extended to complex functions, we shall restrict ourselves to real-valued functions only. NewtonRaphson method has been used by a large class of users as it works very well for a large variety of equations like polynomial, rational, transcendental, trigonometric, and so on. It is also well suited on computers as it is iterative in nature. This feature of Newton-Raphson method has attracted many scientists and many scientiﬁc application programs use Newton-Raphson method as one of the root finding tools.The Newton-Raphson method in one variable is implemented as follows: Given a function f ( x) defined over the real x, and its derivative f '( x) , we begin with a first guess x0 for a root of the function f. Provided the function satisfies all the assumptions made in the derivation of the formula, a better approximation x1 is f ( x0 ) x1  x0  (1) f '( x0 ) Geometrically, (x1, 0) is the intersection with the x-axis of a line tangent to f at (x0, f (x0)). The process is repeated as www.theijes.com The IJES Page 5 On the Rate of Convergence of… xn 1  xn  f ( xn ) (2) f '( xn ) until a sufficiently desired accurate value is obtained. The idea of the method is as follows: one starts with an initial guess which is reasonably close to the true root, then the function is approximated by its tangent line (which can be computed using the tools of calculus), and one computes the x-intercept of this tangent line (which is easily done with elementary algebra). This x-intercept will typically be a better approximation to the function's root than the original guess, and the method can be iterated. Suppose f : [a , b]  R is a differentiable function defined on the interval [a, b] with values in the real numbers R. The formula for converging on the root can be easily derived. Suppose we have some current approximation xn. Then we can derive the formula for a better approximation, xn+1 by referring to the fig. 1 given below. We know from the definition of the derivative at a given point that it is the slope of a tangent at that point. Fig. 1: Geometrical Interpretation of Newton-Raphson method That is f '( xn )  y x  f ( xn )  0 xn  xn 1 (3) Here, f ' denotes the derivative of the function f. Then by simple algebra we can derive xn 1  xn  f ( xn ) (4) f '( xn ) We start the iteration with some arbitrary initial value x0. The method will usually converge, provided this initial guess is close enough to the unknown root, and that f '( x)  0. We reproduce here the algorithm for Newton-Raphson method and it is from [2]. Algorithm 1. Newton-Raphson Method 1 Read x0, epsilon, delta, n Remarks: Here x0 is the initial guess, epsilon is the prescribed relative error, delta is the prescribed lower bound for f ' and n is the maximum number of iterations to be allowed. Statements 3 to 8 are repeated until the procedure converges to a root or iterations equal n. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 6 2 3 4 5 for i  1 to n in steps of 1 do f0  f ( x0 ) f0  f0 ( x0 ) ' ' if f0  delta then goto 11 '  f0  '   f0  6 x1  x0   7 if x1  x0 x1 8 On the Rate of Convergence of…  epsilon then goto 13 x0  x1 endfor 9 Write “ does not converse in n iterations”, f0 , f0 , x0 , x1 ' 10 Stop 11 Write “ slope too small ”, x0 , f0 , f0 , i ' 12 Stop 13 Write “ convergent solution”, x1 , f ( x1 ), i 14 stop II. ESTIMATING THE RATE OF CONVERGENCE Let us take a sequence x1 , x2 ,..., xn . If the sequence converges to a value r and if there exist real numbers λ > 0 and α ≥ 1 such that lim n  xn 1  r xn  r   (5) then we say that α is the rate of convergence of the sequence. Many root-ﬁnding algorithms are in fact ﬁxedpoint iterations. These iterations have the name fixed-point because the desired root r is a ﬁxed point of a function g(x), i.e., g (r )  r . For ﬁxed-point iterations, if a value close to r is substituted into g(x) then the result is even closer to r so we are tempted to write xn 1  g ( xn ). It might be very convenient to deﬁne the error after n steps of an iterative root-ﬁnding algorithm as en  xn  r . As n → ∞ we see from equation (5) that en 1   en en   en 1  (6)  (7) Dividing equation (6) by equation (7) we get the following formula given in equation (8). en 1 en   en   en1  e  n en 1  (8) Now we solve for α and it gives  log en 1 en log (9) en en 1 Using the formula given in equation (9), we can determine the convergence rate α from two consecutive error ratios. But there is still a diﬃculty with this approach as to compute en we would need to know the root r which in fact we don’t know. Anyway we can use the ideas above to develop a formula to estimate the rate of www.theijes.com The IJES Page 7 On the Rate of Convergence of… convergence of any method that behaves like a ﬁxed-point method. If the method converges, then the sequence xn it generates must satisfy the relation xn1  r  xn  r , for n > N where N is some positive integer. As mentioned above, to compute en  xn  r we need to know the value of the root r which we still do not know. We will overcome this by assuming that the ratio of consecutive errors can be approximated by the ratio of consecutive diﬀerences of the estimates of the root: en1 xn1  r xn1  xn   en xn  r xn  xn 1 (10) This allows us to approximate α with  log xn 1  xn xn  xn 1 x  xn 1 log n xn 1  xn  2 (11) Even though this only gives an estimate of α, in practice it agrees well with the theoretical convergence rates of Newton’s method and gives us a good measure of the eﬃciency of various forms of ﬁxed point algorithms. Another formula that we can approximate the convergence rate α of Newton-Raphson method is 1 (12)   scaling factor X No. of Iterations X f ( r ) where r is the estimated root and in case f (r )  0, the formula fails. III. WHY DO WE USE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD The beauty of Newton-Raphson method lies in its efficiency and accuracy. The number of correct digits in each intermediate solution roughly at least doubles in every iteration and thus, a very high accuracy is obtained very quickly and it can be judged from the fig. 2. Thus, the use of Newton-Raphson method is highly demanding. In a problem where the Newton-Raphson method converges in one iteration, it amounts to f ( x0 ) in order to obtain the desired root. Rather using and evaluating one single formula: xroot  x0  f '( x0 ) than solving any equations the users are just evaluating functions. In practice a single evaluation of the formula may fail to give the root, but two successive evaluations may give the solution. This again amounts to using the formula twice and is still reasonable and attractive. Although the functions involved may not converge so easily or the values of their derivatives at some points are too small to be used in the formula, a sufficiently small neighborhood can be found out in which they are almost convergent and the values of their derivatives at that neighborhoods can fit in the formula. By focusing our attention to such a neighborhood, Newton-Raphson method would yield the desired root in two iterations, if not in one. The starting point plays a very important role in the working of Newton-Raphson method. In general, a starting value far away from the actual solution may take more iteration to get the desired root. Sometime it may also happen that the iterations oscillate around the solution refusing to converge to it. There are many ways to avoid these conditions. Generally, choosing the initial guess sufficiently close to the solution is attractive. The closer to the zero of the function, the better it is. But, in the absence of any information about where the root might lie, a guess method might narrow the possibilities to a reasonably small interval by using the intermediate value theorem. Table 1: Rate of convergence of Newton-Raphson method in the calculation of roots of f(x)=x3-n=0. S.No Function No. of Iteration 1 f(x)=x3-1=0 1 2 f(x)= x3-2= 0 7 3 f(x)= x3-3= 0 8 www.theijes.com Value of the Root 1.000000000000000000000000000 00000000000000000000000000000 0000000000000 1.259921049894873164767210607 27822835057025146470150798008 1975112155300 1.442249570307408382321638310 The IJES Rate of convergence Time taken in ms 5.000000 0 1.058113 14 2.089114 16 Page 8 On the Rate of Convergence of… 4 f(x)=x3-4=0 5000 5 f(x)= x3-5= 0 9 6 f(x)= x3-6= 0 9 7 f(x)= x3-7= 0 9 8 f(x)=x3-8=0 9 9 f(x)= x3-9= 0 9 10 f(x)= x3-10= 0 9 11 f(x)= x3-11= 0 10 12 f(x)=x3-12=0 5000 13 f(x)=x3-13=0 5000 14 f(x)= x3-14= 0 10 15 f(x)= x3-15= 0 10 16 f(x)=x3-16=0 5000 17 f(x)= x3-17= 0 10 18 f(x)= x3-18= 0 10 19 f(x)= x3-19= 0 10 20 f(x)= x3-20= 0 10 21 f(x)= x3-21= 0 11 22 f(x)= x3-22= 0 11 www.theijes.com 78010958839186925349935057754 6416194541688 1.587401051968199474751705639 27230826039149332789985300980 8285761825216 1.709975946676696989353108872 54386010986805511054305492438 2861707444296 1.817120592832139658891211756 32726050242821046314121967148 1334297931310 1.912931182772389101199116839 54876028286243905034587576621 0647640447234 2.000000000000000000000000000 00000000000000000000000000000 0000000000000 2.080083823051904114530056824 35788538633780534037326210969 7591080200106 2.154434690031883721759293566 51935049525934494219210858248 9235506346411 2.223980090569315521165363376 72215719651869912809692305569 9345808660401 2.289428485106663735616084423 87935401783181384157586214419 8104348131349 2.351334687720757489500016339 95691452691584198346217510504 0254311588343 2.410142264175229986128369667 60327289535458128998086765416 4139710413292 2.466212074330470101491611323 15458904273548448662805376017 8787410293377 2.519842099789746329534421214 55645670114050292940301596016 3950224310599 2.571281590658235355453187208 73972611642790163245469625984 8022376219940 2.620741394208896607141661280 44199627023942764572363172510 2773805728700 2.668401648721944867339627371 97083033509587856918310186566 4213586945794 2.714417616594906571518089469 67948920480510776948909695728 4365442803308 2.758924176381120669465791108 35852158225271208603893603280 6592502162799 2.802039330655387120665677385 66589401758579821876926831697 The IJES 0.003202 1310 0.210722 31 0.185394 16 0.167897 16 5.000000 15 0.100250 16 0.158022 15 0.117827 15 0.000235 1389 0.000235 1357 0.078721 15 0.061548 16 0.000185 1357 0.193048 31 0.050412 31 0.154323 32 0.050715 16 0.032744 31 0.041051 16 Page 9 On the Rate of Convergence of… 23 f(x)= x3-23= 0 11 24 f(x)= x3-24= 0 11 25 f(x)= x3-25= 0 11 9783733783750 2.843866979851565477695439400 95865185276416517273704810465 3425230235441 2.884499140614816764643276621 56021917678373850699870115509 2832389083375 2.924017738212866065506787360 13792277853049863510103004142 2573510072560 Average rate of convergence 0.072259 32 0.030560 31 0.155596 31 0.217920 IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION We have calculated the cube roots of integers from 1 to 25 using Newton-Raphson method in the 8 interval [1, 3] with an initial guess of 1 in each case. We have used equation (12) with a scaling factor of 1x10 . “0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001” is the tolerance limit used in our program. The rate of convergence, value of roots of the functions, and time takens in millisecond to obtain the roots are shown in Table-2. In the calculation of cube root of 1 and 8, we have taken α as 5.0 as f ( r ) equals 0 in each case. As this will affect the average rate of convergence, we have excluded them in the calculation of the average rate of convergence. As an example, we choose to calculate a root of the equation f ( x)  x  21  0. The graph showing the value of each intermediate value at each iteration is given in fig. 2. The graph showing the time taken in 3 millisecond to calculate a zero of f ( x)  x  n  0 for n  1 to 25 is shown in fig. 3.The speed at which the program reports a root of the function is highly attractive. In most cases, the program has taken less than 33 milliseconds to calculate a root of the function. It is highly surprising as we use “0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001” as the tolerance limit in the program. We can improve the program a lot if we choose different initial guess for each function. The program executed very quickly in the calculation of cube root of 2 and it had taken 14 milliseconds to report a root. The most time consuming execution of the program was reported in the calculation of a cube root of 12 as it took 1389 milliseconds to report the root. The graph in fig. 4 shows the relative rate of convergence in the calculation of cube roots of integers from 1 to 25 of Newton-Raphson method in the interval [1, 3]. 3 Fig. 2: Value of function f(x)=x3-21 from iteration 1 to 11 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 10 On the Rate of Convergence of… Fig. 3: Time taken in millisecond to calculate a root of f(x)=x3-n=0 V. CONCLUSION The highest rate of convergence of Newton-Raphson method has been observed in the calculation of cube root of 3 and is equal to 2.089114. The lowest rate of convergence of Newton-Raphson method has been observed in the calculation of cube root of 16 and is equal to 0.000185. Average rate of convergence of NewtonRaphson method is calculated to be 0.217920. Fig. 4: Rate of convergence in reporting a root of f(x)=x3-n=0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The first author thanks his daughter Java and son Chandrayan for not using his laptop during the preparation of the manuscript. The fourth author thanks her husband for his understanding and support in the preparation of the manuscript. The fifth author thanks her family and teachers for their supports in the writing of this manuscript. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Zoltan Kovacs, Understanding convergence and stability of the Newton-Raphson method (Department of Analysis, University of Szeged, 2011). V. Rajaraman, Computer Oriented Numerical Method (Prentice-Hall of India, 2005). E Balagurusamy, Computer Oriented Statistical and Numerical Methods(Macmillan India Limited, 1988) C. Woodford , C. Phillips, Numerical Methods with Worked Examples: Matlab Edition (Springer London , 1997). N. Daili, Numerical Approach to Fixed Point Theorems, Int. J. Contemp. Math. Sciences, Vol. 3, 2008, no. 14, 675 – 682. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 11 On the Rate of Convergence of… Ranbir Soram works at Manipur Institute of Technology,Takyelpat, Imphal, India. His field of interest includes Network Security, NLP, Neural Network, Genetic Algorithm, and Fuzzy Logic etc. Sudipta Roy works in the Department of Information Technology, Assam University Silchar. Soram Rakesh Singh is a PG student in the Department of Computer Science & Engineering at Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Bangalore. Memeta Khomdram works at National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology (Formerly DOEACC Centre), Akampat, Imphal. Swavana Yaikhom works at National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology, Akampat, Imphal. Sonamani Takhellambam works Technology,Takyelpat, Imphal, India. www.theijes.com The IJES at Manipur Institute of Page 12

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 113-117 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Profitability of Dry Season Tomato (Lycoper sicon esculentum Mill.) Production in Fufore Local Government Area of Adamawa State Nigeria. 1 Usman, J.and 2 Bakari, U.M. 1 Depa r tment of Agr icultur a l Economics a nd Extension, Ada ma wa Sta te Univer sity, Mubi. P .M.B 25, Ada ma wa sta te Niger ia 2 Depa r tment of Agr icultur a l Economics a nd Extension Modibbo Ada ma Univer sity of Technology Yola , Ada ma wa Sta te Niger ia . --------------------------------- -------------- ABSTRACT ---------------------------------------------The study a na lyzed the pr ofita bility of dr y sea son toma to pr oduction in fufor e loca l gover nment a r ea of Ada ma wa sta te, Niger ia . A multista ge sa mpling technique wa s used to select eighty (80) toma to fa r mer s in the study a r ea . P r ima r y da ta wer e collected with the a id of str uctur ed questionna ir es for 2011/2012 cr opping sea son. Descr iptive sta tistics, gr oss ma r gin a nd net income a na lysis wer e the a na lytica l tools employed . The r esults showed tha t ma jor ity (88,75%) of the r espondent s wer e ma le, ma r r ied (82%) who wer e in their a ctive a ge s of their life. The level of educa tion of the r espondents wa s ver y low a s most of them (50%) ha d only fir st living cer tifica te, with little fa r ming exper ience . The r esult of the p r ofita bility a na lysis r evea led a ver a ge gr oss ma r g in a nd net income per hecta r e of N125,500 and N105,012.91 respectively. This indicated that dry season tomato production is a profitable venture in the study area. The analysis further identified inadequate farm credit, poor storage and processing facilities and inadequate extension services as the main problems faced by farmers. The study therefore, recommends that farmers should be encouraged to form cooperative societies so as to enable them obtain loans from commercial banks and agricultural and rural cooperative bank, at regulated interest rates. Government should provide efficient extension services in the study area by organizing workshops, training and make provision to facilitate their work and provide adequate storage facilities. KEYWORDS: Da ta , F ufor e; Ir r iga tion ; P r oduction; Stor a ge; Toma to. Exchange rate: 157.60NGN to 1USD ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 17,Sep tember 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November2013 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Study Background Irrigated Agriculture has a significant role in expand ing the level of food production leading to the attainment of food self -sufficiency and the overall agricultural development in Nigeria. Vegetable production forms a substantial percentage of the major food crop cultivation in Nigeria. Tomato is perhaps th e most important popular vegetable crop grown all over the country. Both the wet and dry season cropping system contributes immensely to the national requirement; though bulk production is from the dry season cropping . Tomato (Lycoper sicon esculentum Mill.) is one of the most cultivated vegetable in most regions of the world, ranking second in importance to potatoes in many countries (Ojo et.al., 2009). In Nigeria, an annual total area of one million hectares is reportedly used for its cultivation and it makes up about 18 percent of the average daily consumption o f vegetables in Nigerian homes (Chidi 2 012). Nigeria is also ranked second largest producer of tomato in Africa and thirtieth largest in the world, producing 1.701 million tonnes of tomato annually at an average of 25 -30 tonnes per hectare (FAO 2010). Dry season tomato production in Adamawa state is done mainly in swamp y (Fadama) areas along river bank . Most nutritionists are of the opinion that fresh fruits and vegetables are very important source s of vitamins and minerals that are essential for healthy human diet (Chidi 2012). According to report from ADADP (2010a) , dry season tomato production is on the www.theijes.com The IJES Page 113 P r ofita bilityOf Dry Season Tomato Product… increase, it occupied large hectares of all vegetables grown between 99 -2010 a total of 12.83(000ha) were cultivated to tomato in Adamawa state and the total produce was 78.4(000mt) with an average production of 6.11 tones/ha for the same period. While a total of 1.49(000ha) of land was put under tomato production in the state in 2010 alone with a total production of 7.5(000mt) ; gives an estimated average yield of 5.03 tons /ha within the period. The result also indicates increasing average production in tomato farming in the state as the average annual yield stood at 5,050 kg/ha for the year under r eview. It is observed that other vegetable s have restricted demand as they are c onsumed exclusively only b y the urban affluent/elite class, the demand for the tomato is universal, for it is consumed by both affluent/elite and poor classes. Tomato is regar ded as the vegetable of the largely poor masses (Adepetu 2005). The highly perishable nature of tomato makes it difficult to cultivate by many farmers at commercial level in Nigeria; despite its numerous demand and importance in the nutrition of the people . This is because the producers of the crop are mostly small -scale farmers who still operate within the frame work of traditional agriculture. It is in view of the prospect which this crop holds for the agro -allied industries and domestic home consumption in Nigeria, that there is a clear need for the conduct of studies on profitability analysis of dry season tomato production in Fufore Local Government Area of Adamawa state. 1.2 Study objectives The broad objective of the study was to analyze the profitab ility of tomato production in Fufore LGA of Adamawa State. Specifically the study would [1] Examine the socio -economic characteristics of t omato farmers in the study area. [2] Determine the profitability of tomato enterprise in the study area. [3] Identify the constr aints to tomato production in the study area . . II. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Study Area The study was conducted in Fufore Local Government Area (LGA) of Adamawa state. Fufure is one of the largest of the 21(LGAs) in the state. The area lies between latitude 10 0 N and longitude 12 0 .30E (Adebayo 1999) . It has land area of 5078.14(sq. km) with a population of 209,460 that comprised 105,626 males and 103,834 females(NPC 2006). The study area lies in the humid climatic zone of Nigeria with mean annual rainf all ranging from 700mm – 1000mm. The rainy season lasts for four to five months (Adebayo 1999). The predominant ethnic groups found in the area includes: Verre, Bwatiye and Fulani. The local government is situated in the northern guinea savannah; with large swampy (Fadama) areas which supports tomato production during dry season. Other crops grown in the area includes groundnut, rice, maize and sorghum (Sajo et. a l., 1999). The major economic activity of the inhabitant is agriculture (far ming, fishing and live-stock production). 2.2 Sampling Techniques and Data Collection The study employed the use of well structured questionnaires designed in line with the objective of the study. Multi -stage sampling procedure was employed. In the first stage fufore local government area was selected based on aprior knowledge that it is a tomato producing area. In the second stage five villages namely:(Ribadu, Dasin house, parriya, wurobokki, and farang) were purposively selected from eleven wards of the LGA because of thei r proximity to swamp y (fadama) areas which support tomato production . Third stage involve the random selection of eighty (80) tomato farmers in proportionate to the farmers population sizes of the sampled villages. 2.3 Methods of Data Analysis Frequency tables and p ercentages were used to analyze the socio-economic characteristic of the respondents, (age, gender, education, marriage , occupation, farm size and farming experience) as well as prob lems faced by the respondents, while profitability of tomato farmers was determined by Gross M argin and Net Income analysis . Afolami (2002) defined gross margin ana lysis as the difference between the gross farm income (GFI) and the total variable production cost (TVC); while Net Farm Income (NFI) was defined as the difference between gross margin and total fixed production cost. It is express as follows: www.theijes.com The IJES Page 114 P r ofita bilityOf Dry Season Tomato Product… GM = TR – TVC ... (3.1) Where; GM = Gross Margin ( N/Ha) TR = Total Revenue (N/Ha) TVC = Total Variable Costs ( N/Ha) And NFI = GM – TFC …(3.2) Where; NFI = Net Farm Income ( N/Ha) TFC =Total Fixed Cost (N/Ha) The variable cost s mention include, seed, family labour, hired labour , tractor hiring, transportation, fuel, empty basket, fertilizer, and agrochemicals. While Fixed c ost includes: depreciation of fixed asset and rent on land. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Socio-economic characteristic s of the respondent s. Table 1presented the socio -economics distribution of the respondents . The table Sho wed that majority ( 88.75%) of the farmers involved in tomato production were male s while only 11.25% were female s. This indicated that women were also in the business but to a smaller extend. The dominance of tomato production by men in the study area may be as a result of high labour r equirement in tomato production. T his is in line with the studies by Usman and Bakari (2013) and Zalkuwi et. a l.(2012), who reported that males dominated tomato production in Ad amawa State . The age distribution of the respondent s revealed that majority (88%) of the respondents were within the age range of 31 years and above which implied that the production wa s dominated by adults who were in their active ages . This also agrees with the findings of Usman and Bakari (2013) who found that tomato production wa s dominated by adults. The table further revealed that most of the respon dents (82%) were married who produce tomato most likely to cater for their family needs. The table also reveled that 50% of the farmers had primary education. This implies that far mers may be responsive to the challenges of new technology in the stud y area . This result is consiste nt with the findings by Babalola et. a l. (2010). About 45% of the respondent s had less than five years of experience in tomato production. This may affect their efficiency, because the more experienced a farmer is the more efficient he may on the farm and vice versa. The table further indicated that majority (84%) of respondents were small scaled and command farm holdings 0.1-2.0 hectares. This implied that mec hanized farm production among the respondents could not be feasible. 3.1 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 115 P r ofita bilityOf Dry Season Tomato Product… 3.2 Average Cost and Return per H ectare. Table 2 showed the profitability analysis of tomato production among the respondents. The average gross revenue per hectare generated by t o mato farmers in the study area was N321,350.33 while the total average cost of production incu rred during the production was N216,337.42. The average gross margin and net farm income per hectare therefore were N125,500.88 and N105,012.91 respectively. Hired and family labour, empty basket, loading and transportation, as well as fertilizer accounted for 72.06% of the total variable costs. The farm gross ratio was 0.67; the ratio showed that the total farm cost was about 7 % of the gross revenue which is in line with Olukosi and Erhabor ( 2008) which states that a gross ratio of less than one is desirable for any farm business. There fore, based on the information in table 2, it is obvious that dry season tomato production was a profitable venture in the study a rea. Table 2: Average Cost and Returns per hectare Vriables Variables Cost Fertilizer Agrochemical Seed Family Labour Hired Labour Loading & Transportation Fuel Empty basket Total Variable Cost (TVC) Value(N) (%) 21,969.24 20,019.62 5,713.29 34,756.86 48,418.56 22,250.03 14,220.93 28,500.92 195,849.45 10.16 9.25 2.64 16.07 22.38 10.28 6.57 13.17 90.53 Fixed Cost Rent on land Depreciation of fixed Assets Total Fixed cost (TFC) Total cost of production (TVC+TFC) 5,254.43 15,233.54 20,487.97 216,337.42 2.43 7.04 9.47 100 Returns Gross Revenue (GR) Gross Margin (GR-TVC) Net Farm Income (GM -TFC) Farm Gross Ratio (GM/GR) Source: Field Survey, 2012. 321,350.33 125,500.88 105,012.91 0.67 Table 3: Constraints Associated with Tomato production Constraints Inadequate farm credit Poor storage and processing Facilities Inadequate extension services Attack by Pests and disease Shortage /high cost of inputs High cost of fuel Land Shortage Total Source: Field survey, 2012. • Multiple responses Frequency 60 58 50 42 40 30 20 300 • (%) 20.00 19.33 16.67 14.00 13.33 10.00 06.67 100.00 Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The result in Table 3 sho wed the constra ints faced by the respondents . The table revealed that, the major problem faced by dry season tomato producers is inadequate credit facilities which account ed for 20%. This is in line with the study by Usman and Bakari, (2013), who reported inadequate capital hinders tomato farmers from expanding their www.theijes.com The IJES Page 116 P r ofita bilityOf Dry Season Tomato Product… business. This was followed by poor storage and processing facilities (19.33%).This problem causes the price of tomatoes to fluctuate with season . Farmers are forced to sell their produce at harvest at a very low price. Inadequate extension services among producers were also a major challenge to most produc ers (16.67%). Because of this problem dissemination of new production technologies among the respondents was bound to be limited. Similarly, 14% of the respondents pointed out high in cident of pest and disease as a constraining factor . Another problem mentioned by the farmers was shortage/high cost of inputs which necessitate d farmers to use organic manure. This is in line with the report of Afolami (2002) noted high input cost among tomato farmers in Ogun State. In addition, about 10% of the respondent s mentioned high cost of fuel and 6.6 7% shortage of land as other problems facing tomato farmers in the stud y area. These problems singly or put together can limit farm output and profit. This can go a long way in explaining the prevalent poverty cycle among th e respondents. IV.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The results indicated that majority of the tomato farmers in the study area were males, married, who we re in their active ages and had first school leaving certificate as their highest qualification. The stu dy also showed that most of the respondents we re small-scale farmers with little experience in tomato production. However, the respondent make good farm profit with average gross margin and net farm income per hectare of N125,500.88 and N105,012.91 respectively. While inadequacy of farm credit was identified as the most significant problem among the respondents, land shortage was the least significant constraint. The study therefore, recommended that farmers should be encouraged to form cooperative societies so as to enable them obtain loans from commercial banks and agricultural and rural cooperative bank, at regulated interest rates. Government should ensure efficient extension services in the study area by organizing workshops, training and make provision to facilitate their work and also provide adequate storage facilities. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Ad a ma wa Agricu ltu ra l Develop m ent Progra mm e [ AD ADP a] (2010 ). Annua l R ep ort . Ad a ma wa Agricu ltu ra l Develop m ent p rogra mm e [ AD ADP b] (2010 ). Tomat o p roduct i on Su rvey 1999 -2010. Ad eba yo, A. A. (1999 c limat e “ I a nd II” Ad a ma wa St at e in Map s, Ad eba yo, A. A and Tuku r A. L (ed s ) Depa rt m ent of Geograph y, Federa l Uni versit y of Tec hn ology, Yola. 1 s t edit ion. 52 :7 Pa rac let e Pub li sh er, Yola ISB N 978 - 35157 -0 -5 a . Pp 20 -26 Ad ep etu , A. A. (2005 ). Produce -t rad er int eracti on in vegetable m ark etin g in J os , th e ca s e of Fa rin Ga da . Tomat o m ark et, UK n etwork res ea rch p rogram . Depa rt m ent of In t erna ti ona l Develop m ent. Afola m i, C. A. and Ayi nd e, I. A. (2002). E c on omi cs of t omat o p roduc ti on in Yewa North Loc a l Govern m ent Area of Ogun Stat e, Ni geri a. Agro Sci en c e J ou rn a l of Tropica l Agri cu ltu re Food, En viron m ent and ext ens i on, l (1 &2 ): 17 -23. Bab a lola , D. A. Makind e, Y. O. Om on on a, B . T. and Oyek anmi , M .O. (2010 ). Det erminan ts of p ost ha rvest l os s es in t om at o p roduct i on. J ou rna l of Li fe and Ph ys ic a l Sci enc e. AC TA SATC H 3(2 ): 14 -18. Chid i, Aja . (2012 ). Tom at o, nut rit i ous veget ab le. Sevent een Ni gerian Ec on om ic Sum mit . Manu fa ctu rin g t oda y Ni geria. Ala frican p ost web t eam . Pp1 -3. Food and Agricu ltu ra l Organi zat i on (FAO) (2010 ). (Globa l and n ati ona l t omat o p roduct i on), GT IS (Trad e for fresh t omat o -c od e 0702000 ),t omat o n ews (Tom at o produ ct s c on sumpt i on. M sh elia , S. I. Ih eana ch o, A. C. and Ili ya s u , A. (2005 ). Ec on om ic Ana lys i s of padd y Ric e p roc es sin g in Ad ama wa Stat e – Ni geri a : jou rna ls of s ust ainab le d evelopm ent in a gricu ltu re and en vi ron m ent . Vol.1 .pp19 -21. Nati on a l Popu la ti on C omm is sion [ NPC] (2006 ). Popu lati on C en su s for Ni geri a. Nati on a l Popu lati on C ommi s si on, Abuj a Oj o, M. A. Ib rah im , O. A. and M oha mm ad, U. S . (2009 ). Profitab i lit y and p roduct i on functi on of s ma ll sca le i rri ga t ed t omat o p roduct i on in Ni ger Stat e, Ni geria. C ontin enta l J ou rna l of Agri cu ltura l Ec on om ics 3 : 16 -22. Oluk osi, J. O .and E rhab or, P.O. (2008 ). In t roducti on t o Fa rm Mana gem en t, E c on omi cs Princip les and App li cati on s. Agit ab Pub li sh ers Lt d, Sa ma ru Za ria. Pp 66 –79. Saj o, A. A Ka dam s A.M . (1999). Food and C ash C rops . In Ada ma wa st at e in map s. Depa rt m ent of Geograph y fed era l uni versity of t echn ology Yola Ad a ma wa sta t e. 1 s t edit i on. 52 :7 Pa ra c let e pub li sh ers. Yola Ni geri a. ISB N 978 -35157 -0 -5. pp.37 -40. Us man , J. and Baka r, U.M. (2013 ). Profit abi lit y of Sm a ll Sca le Dry Sea s on Tom at o (Lyc op ersic on es cu lentum Mi ll.) p roducti on in Ada ma wa Stat es, Ni geri a. AR PN J ou rna ls of Sci enc e and t echn ology. vol.3. No. 6. ISSN 2225 -7217. Za lku wi, J. Mau ri c e, D. C. Ga rba , A. and Us man , J. (2012 ). Profitab i lit y of s ma ll-s ca le Dry s eas on Tom at o p roducti on in Gu yuk Loc a l Govern m ent Area of Ad a ma wa st at e, Nigeri a. J ou rna ls of t echn ology and educ ati on R es earch (J OTER ),5 (1 ):86 -90 . ISSN2 006 -3148 . www.theijes.com The IJES Page 117

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (Ijes) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 17-22||2013|| Issn(E): 2319 – 1813 Issn(P): 2319 – 1805  Effect of Vowel-To-Vowel Coarticulation of Disyllabic Sequences in Chinese Maolin Wang, Wei Xiong College of Chinese Language and Culture, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China --------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT----------------------------------------------------------In this study, the Vowel-to-Vowel (V-to-V) coarticulatory effect in the Vowel-Consonant-Vowel (VCV) sequences is investigated. The stimuli are in the form of C1V1.C2V2, which is designed for V1 to affect V2. The subjects are twelve native speakers of standard Chinese, and the F 2 onset value, as well as the F 2 delta value, is analyzed. Results show that, due to long temporal separation between vowels for the aspirated stops relative to the unaspirated ones, the effect of aspiration is obvious, and in the contexts of aspirated stops, the effect of place of articulation is restrained. KEYWORDS : Coarticulation, formant, speech, stop, vowel -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission:. 6 November, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I. INTRODUCTION The realization of a segment may be influenced by the neighboring segments, which is called ‗coarticulation‘. For example, all else being equal, the back vowel [u] in ‗two‘ is produced farther forward than the same vowel in ‗who‘ due to the influence of the adjacent coronal consonant. Coarticulation effect may vary with its specific context or the phonological system of a language. In his classic spectrographic study of VCV sequences in three languages, Öhman [1] found that F2 values of target vowels varied more due to vowel context in English and Swedish than in Russian. He attributed the coarticulatory differences to the languages‘ consonant systems, arguing that the requirements on the tongue body imposed by contrastive palatalization in Russian, but not in English or Swedish, restricted transconsonantal coarticulation in Russian. Consonant restrictions on V-to-V coarticulation have also been reported by Recasens [2], who found less V-to-V coarticulation across the velarized lateral of Catalan than across the ‗clear‘ lateral of Spanish and German. He and his colleagues ascribed the coarticulatory differences to different lingual constraints for these laterals. Phonetic segments possess inherent properties, referred to as ‗coarticulatory resistance‘, that limit the extent to which they can be influenced by neighboring segments [3]. Using this concept within a coarticulatory approach to speech production, Recasens [4] developed the ‗degrees of articulatory constraint‘ (DAC) model to account for coarticulatory effects of both vowels and consonants. Recasens‘ model predicts that the more a specific region of the tongue is involved in the occlusion for the C, the more the C affects V, but the less it can be shaped by the vowel, and the less the transconsonantal V-to-V coarticulation. There have been a number of studies on the coarticulatory effect of segments in Chinese, including the analysis of the acoustic coarticulatory patterns of voicelese fricatives in CVCV [5], the study of vowel formant pattern and the coarticulation in the voiceless stop initial monosyllables [6], the acoustic study of intersyllabic anticipatory coarticulation of three places of ariculation of C2 in CVCV [7], vowel segmental coarticulation in read speech in Standard Chinese [8], and anticipatory coarticulation in V1#C2V2 sequences [9]. It is found that coarticulation exists in segment adjacent and trans-segmental contexts in Chinese. Coarticulation affects the smoothness and naturalness of the synthesized speech in Text-to-Speech. Therefore, the naturalness of synthesized speech will be greatly improved if speech coarticulation is properly solved [10]. The research presented in this paper aims to investigate the V-to-V coarticulation in VCV sequences in Chinese. Coarticulation may be generally classified as carry-over (left-to-right) or anticipatory (right-to-left) ones [11], and the present study will focus on carry-over coarticulation. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 17 Effect Of Vowel-To-Vowel Coarticulation… II. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Speakers, Stimuli and Recording Twelve native speakers of Standard Chinese, six male and six female, participated in the recording. Regarding the stimuli, disyllabic words, in the form of C1V1.C2V2, are used, with V1 providing the ‗changing‘ vowel context, V2 the ‗fixed‘ vowel, which is designed for the changing vowels to affect the fixed vowel. The fixed vowel is /u/, and for the changing vowel context, vowels /i/ vs. /u/ is used to influence the onset of the F 2 frequencies of the fixed vowel. The intervocalic consonant C2 includes /b, p, d, t/, two unaspirate stops /b/, /d/ and two aspirated ones /p/, /t/. All the words used are in normal stress, without neutral tone syllables. An example of a pair of words used is ‗jidu‘ and ‗sudu‘, which means ‗extremely‘ and ‗speed‘ respectively. Two sets of words of identical combinations are used, so there are 16 words in the word list (4 stops × 2 changing vowel contexts × 2 sets). Recording was done in a sound-treated room and the acoustic data were recorded directly into the computer at a sampling rate of 16 kHz using the recording software of Cool Edit Pro. 2.2 Procedure and Measurements The speakers were asked to read the word list three times, in random order for each repetition, in normal pace, so each speaker produced 48 tokens: 16 words × 3 repetitions. In total, 576 tokens were acoustically analyzed (48 tokens × 12 speakers). 1) F 2 onset value: This study aims at investigating the extent of V-V coarticulation in VCV sequences, and vowel formant is examined. Formant values are extracted using Praat [12], and the effect of trans-consonantal coarticulation is analyzed by measuring the F2 onset value of the fixed vowel. F2 onset frequency is taken at the onset of the fixed vowel V2, both for unaspirated and aspirated stop contexts. Fig. 1 displays the waveform and spectrogram of ‗idu‘ (Fig. 1a) and ‗itu‘ (Fig. 1b), as in the sequences of ‗jidu‘ (extremely) and ‗ditu‘ (map), with the former an example of unaspirated stop context, and the latter of aspirated context. For both of the two cases, F2 onset values are taken at the onset points of the vowels, that is, point ‗A‘ on both graphs. (a) ‗idu‘ (b) ‗itu‘ Fig. 1. Waveform and spectrogram of (a) ‗idu‘ and (b) ‗itu‘ www.theijes.com The IJES Page 18 Effect Of Vowel-To-Vowel Coarticulation… 2) F 2 delta: In order to compare the extent of coarticulatory effects under various consonant contexts, besides the F2 onset values, their differences caused by the changing V1 contexts are also calculated. Coarticulation effects due to changing V1 contexts are indexed by F2 delta values obtained at the V2 F2 onset, and F2 delta (Hz) is derived by calculating the difference in onset frequencies of the fixed vowel in each sequence pair. Fig. 2 displays the F2 contours of the sequence pair ‗jidu‘ (extremely) and ‗sudu‘ (speed), with the contour of ‗jidu‘ in solid line, and that of ‗sudu‘ in dashed line. In this sequence pair, for the changing vowel context, F2 of /i/ is high and that of /u/ is low. If V2 F2 onsets differ in this pair, then it is reasonable to attribute the frequency difference to the high vs. low F2 contexts in V1. The greater the F2 delta value is, the greater the coarticulatory effect of V1 is on V2. Fig. 2. F2 contours of the sequence pair ‗jidu‘ and ‗sudu‘, with the former in solid line, and the latter in dashed line A repeated measures ANOVA was performed with two within-subjects factors— aspiration (unaspirated, aspirated) and place of articulation (labial, alveolar). F2 delta was the dependent variable in all ANOVA analyses. III. RESULTS 3.1 F2 VALUE Fig. 3 graphs the F2 onset values for male speakers (Fig. 3a) and female speakers (Fig. 3b), broken down by the contexts of aspiration, place of articulation and changing vowels. The changing vowel contexts are indicated by /i/ and /u/, which refer to changing vowel context of /i/ and /u/ respectively. Repeated measures ANOVA results show that, as far as main effect is concerned, the effects of aspiration, place of articulation, and changing vowel are all significant, aspiration: F(1, 71) = 446.9, p < 0.001; place of articulation F(1, 71) = 661.8, p < 0.001; changing vowel F(1, 71) = 127.4, p < 0.001, with F 2 onset values in the unaspirated context greater than the aspirated context, in the alveolar context greater than the labial context, in the /i/ context greater than in the /u/ context. Frequency (Hz) /i/ /u/ 1200 950 700 450 200 Labial Alveolar Unaspirated Labial Alveolar Aspirated (a) F2 values of male speakers www.theijes.com The IJES Page 19 Effect Of Vowel-To-Vowel Coarticulation… Frequency (Hz) /i/ /u/ 1400 1000 600 200 Labial Alveolar Labial Unaspirated Alveolar Aspirated (b) F2 values of female speakers Fig. 3. F2 onset values for male speakers (a) and female speakers (b), broken down by the contexts of aspiration, place of articulation and changing vowel For the purpose of elaborating the coarticulatory effect under various consonant contexts in detail, F2 delta value will be analyzed in the next section. To be specific, the extent under the contexts of place of articulation and aspiration will be presented. 3.2 F2 Delta Value Table 1 presents the F2 delta means and significance results for the main effects. From Table 1 it can be seen that, in terms of overall main effect, there is significant effect for both place of articulation and aspiration, with the effect in the alveolar contexts greater than that of labial, and the effect of unaspirated stop contexts much greater than that of the aspirated ones. When interactive effect is examined, it is shown that the place of articulation × aspiration interaction is significant: F(1, 71) = 6.02, p = 0.017, which is attributable to the disproportional effect of place of articulation and aspiration. The effect of place of articulation is not consistant under different aspirational condition. In the next subsection the effects of the factors will be described in detail to help inform and elaborate on the main effects. Table 1 F2 delta means (in Hz) and statistical results for the main effects Place of articulation Aspiration Labial Mean 71.7 Statistical result Alveolar 111.9 F(1, 71) = 7.47, p = 0.008 Unaspirated Aspirated 138.7 44.9 F(1, 71) = 43.0, p < 0.001 3.2.1 The effect of place of articulation a) The unaspirated stop contexts: Fig. 4 shows the F2 delta under the effects of place of articulation and aspiration. Result from repeated measures ANOVA shows that, in the unaspirated stop contexts, the effect of place of articulation is significant: F(1, 71) = 9.03, p = 0.004, with the extent of alveolar context exceeding that of labial context. F2 delta (Hz) 200 150 Labial Alveolar 100 50 0 Unaspirated Aspirated Fig. 4. F2 delta under the effects of place of articulation and aspiration www.theijes.com The IJES Page 20 Effect Of Vowel-To-Vowel Coarticulation… b) The aspirated stop contexts: When the intervocalic stops are aspirated, there is no significant difference: F(1, 71) = 0.000, p = 0.985. No significant difference exists in the coarticulatory effect of the contexts of place of articulation in the case of aspirated stop context. 3.2.2 The effect of aspiration a) The contexts of labial: It is shown from repeated measures ANOVA result that the difference between unaspirated and aspirated stop contexts is significant: F(1, 71) = 5.49, p = 0.022, with greater extent of coarticulation for unaspirated stop context than the aspirated one. b) The contexts of alveolar: In the context of alveolar stops, the difference between unaspirated and aspirated stop contexts is also significant: F(1, 71) = 43.8, p < 0.001. The unaspirated stop context exceeds the aspirated one in the extent of coarticulation. IV. DISCUSSION Analysis in the previous section shows that, when F2 onset value is investigated, the effect of the changing vowel context is significant, with F2 onset value following vowel /i/ higher than that following /u/. This implies that trans-consonantal carry-over vowel to vowel effect exists in Chinese. In regard to the F2 delta values, when main effects are examined, there is significant effect for both place of articulation and aspiration, with the effect in the alveolar contexts greater than that of labial, and the effect of unaspirated stop contexts greater than that of the aspirated ones. The DAC model [13] predicts that obstruents, particularly alveolopalatals, that maximally engage the tongue dorsum for the occlusion gesture would reduce V effects, that is, stops like /d/ and /t/ exhibite reduced extents of V-V coarticulation. In this study, regarding the main effect of place of articulation, the result is not in accordance with the DAC prediction. This implies that the pattern of ‗degrees of articulatory constraint‘ is not consistent among languages. For consonants of similar place of articulation, it is possible that their degrees of articulatory constraint diverse among languages. The articulators for labials are the lips, and that for the alveolar is the tongue tip. The tongue tip is small and flexible, so in the production of alveolars, its contacting area with the gingiva might not be quite large. On the other hand, when producing the labials, the contacting area of the lips is larger than that of the tongue tip, so the degree of articulatory constraint is high for labial, and low for alveolar in Chinese. As for the effect of aspiration, analysis in the previous section shows a general tendency for coarticulation effect to be greater for unaspirated stops than the aspirated ones, regardless of the context of place of articulation. From this a conclusion can be drawn that aspiration can be taken as one of the important factors in blocking coarticulatory effect, and an explanation for the great effect of aspiration might be due to the long temporal separation of the aspirated stops relative to their unaspirated counterparts. Table 2 displays the mean temporal intervals between V1 and V2 for different stop contexts. From Table 2 it is shown that the intervals for aspirated stops are much longer than the unaspirated ones. Result from a one-way ANOVA shows that there is significant difference between them (F(1, 575) = 581.9, p<0.001). Therefore, it is shown that long temporal separation between V1 and V2 reduces the coarticulation effect. Hence, it is reasonable to suggest that the long time interval between measurement points for aspirated stops account for the low coarticulatory effects. Table 2 Mean intervals (in ms) between V1 and V2 for various stop contexts Place of articulation Mean Labial Alveolar Unaspirated 118.6 116.3 117.5 Aspiration Aspirated 186.4 187.9 187.2 Detailed examination on the coarticulatory effect under various consonant conditions shows that, the effect of place of articulation exists in the unaspirated stop contexts, with the extent of alveolar exceeding that of labial. As is mentioned above, this is due to the greater degree of involvement of lips in articulating labial than that of alveolar. However, when the intervocalic stops are aspirated, the effect of place of articulation disappears. We speculate that this is also because of the long temporal separation between V1 and V2 in the aspirated stop context. In this context, the time intervals between the vowels are longer than those of the unaspirated ones, as is shown in Table 2. The long intervals reduce and interfere with the coarticulation effect, as a result, the effect of place of articulation is restrained in these contexts. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 21 Effect Of Vowel-To-Vowel Coarticulation… V. CONCLUSION In this study, the V-to-V coarticulation in the VCV sequences is investigated, and it is found that, due to long temporal separation between vowels for the aspirated stops relative to the unaspirated ones, the effect of aspiration is obvious, with the extent in the unaspirated stop contexts exceeding the aspirated ones. Long temporal separation between V1 and V2 reduces and interferes with the coarticulation effect, and aspiration is a prominent factor in blocking coarticulation effect. Regarding the effect of place of articulation, the result is not in accordance with the DAC prediction, which implies that the pattern of ‗degrees of articulatory constraint‘ is not consistent among languages. In the contexts of aspirated stops, due to the long intervals between the vowels, the effect of place of articulation is restrained. This study is significant in speech engineering. In speech synthesis, the effect of trans-consonantal coarticulation must be taken into consideration, as this effect exists in all of the consonant contexts, labial, alveolar, unaspirated and aspirated. The extent of coarticulation in the unaspirated stop contexts exceeds that in the aspirated contexts, so much attention should be paid in these contexts. However, when the intervening consonants are aspirated, the difference of coarticulatory effects between labial and alveolar can be neglected, as it disappears. Therefore, this study is helpful in speech engineering technology.  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported in part by the Social Science Research Project of Guangdong Province, Grant No. GD11CWW04, as well as the Humanity and Social Science Research Project for Colleges in Guangdong Province, Grand No. 11WYXM012. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] S. E. G. Öhman, ―Coarticulation in VCV utterances: spectrographic measurements,‖ Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 39, pp. 151–168, 1966. D. Recasens, ―An acoustic analysis of V-to-C and V-to-V coarticulatory effets in Catalan and Spanish VCV sequences,‖ Journal of Phonetics, vol. 15, pp. 299–321,1987. R. A. W. Bladon and A. Al-Bamerni, ―Coarticulation resistance in English /l/,‖ Journal of Phonetics, vol. 4, pp. 137–150,1976. D. Recasens, ―V-to-C coarticulation in Catalan VCV sequences,‖ Journal of Phonetics, vol. 12, pp.61–73, 1984. Z. Wu and G. Sun, ―Acoustic coarticulatory patterns of voicelese fricatives in CVCV in Standard Chinese‖, Report on Phonetic Research, Institute of Linguistics, CASS, 1990, pp. 1–19. J. Yan, ―A study of the vowel formant pattern and the coarticulation in the voiceless stop initial monosyllable of Standard Chinese‖, Report on Phonetic Research, Institute of Linguistics, CASS, 1990, pp. 30–54. X. Chen, ―A study on the coarticulation of segments in Chinese‖, Chinese Linguistics, vol. 5, pp. 345–350, 1997. G. Sun, ―Vowel segmental coarticulation in read speech in Standard Chinese‖, Report on Phonetic Research, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 1998. Y. Li and J. Kong, ―Anticipatory coarticulation in V1#C2V2 sequences in standard Chinese,‖ Journal of Tsinghua University, Vol. 51, No. 9, pp 1220-1225, 2011. M. Wang, P. Chai and M. Xie, ―Research on the Coarticulation of Two-syllable Word for Mandarin Speech Synthesis,‖ Computer Engineering, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 182-184, 2002. G. Modarresi, H. Sussman, B. Lindblom and E. Burlingame, ―An acoustic analysis of the bidirectionality of coarticulation in VCV utterances,‖ Journal of Phonetics, vol. 32, pp. 291–312, 2004. P. Boersma, ―Praat, a system for doing phonetics by computer‖, Glot International, 5:9/10, pp. 341–345, 2001. D. Recasens, ―An EMA study of VCV coarticulatory direction,‖ Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 111, pp. 2828–2841, 2002. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 22

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) || Volume || 2 || Issue || 11 || Pages || 07-12 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 An assessment of groundwater potentials of the Central Area District and its environs, Federal Capital City, Abuja, Nigeria 1 1, 2 Abam, T.K.S and 2Ngah, S. A. Institute of Geosciences and Space Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria --------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-------------------------------------------------The movement of administrative headquarters of Nigeria from Lagos to Abuja and return to civilian rule, under the bogus presidential system of government with retinue of political aids and associates resulted in unprecedented influx of people just as commercial activities sprang up to service the large population. Satellite towns and semi urban and rural settlements emerged. Water supply projections were overshot and supply became grossly inadequate. Residents particularly in the satellite towns have to source their water supply. Surface water sources are few and distant. Groundwater became attractive as the source for domestic water supply. This paper examines the groundwater potentials of the Federal Capital City, Abuja. Although the area situates on the basement complex, the occurrence of thick regolith comprising weathered basement which overlies a highly fractured basement combines with high rainfall to create large subsurface water reservoir into which precipitation drains. The regolith receives the rainfall and transmits it to storage sites formed by deep seated interconnected fractures. Thickness of weathered basement can be as high as 70m with an average of 30m. Local communities obtain their water supply from shallow hand dug wells lined with concrete rings and motorized boreholes are constructed in the metropolis. Yield of motorized boreholes are as high as 20m3/hr – 40m3/hr and depth to water level varies from 4m – 19m. The weathered basement has excellent water yielding properties but the water level is very responsive to seasonal changes. Conjunctive use of both surface and groundwater sources will ensure uninterrupted water supply to the Federal Capital City. Key Words: Groundwater potentials, Federal Capital City, Nigeria --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 05 November 2013 Date of Acceptance: 30 November 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------- I. INTRODUCTION The new Federal Capital City (FCC) and its environs form part of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja which has a total landmass of about 8000 km2. The FCT is bounded by latitudes 8o45’N and 9o40’N and longitudes 6o50’E and 8o55’E (Fig. 1). However, the FCC study area lies between latitudes 9o00’N and 9o07’N and longitudes 7o25’E and 7o30’E (Fig. 2). The major establishments in the study area are aligned along the General Muhammed Buhari express Road that traverses the whole area. The geologic formation in the area comprises of basement complex rocks that formed prominent hilly physiographic features where gully erosion has formed deep valleys. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 7 An assessment of groundwater potentials of the Central Area District and its environs… The people of the area have from time to time been faced with acute problem of water shortages as a result of rapid population growth, urbanization and the non-conventional scientific siting and development of boreholes that were not backed with any hydrogeological and geophysical studies. The gap therefore exists to identify and characterize the geologic structures and aquifer units in the study area that could define and control the groundwater and surface water resources of the area. Since the area comprises essentially of hard rocks, occurrence of groundwater will depend not only on the climate and physiography of the area but also on the existence of adequate proportion of geological structures favourable for housing and transmitting groundwater. An extensive review of the physiography and geology therefore becomes imperative. II. PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE AND DRAINAGE The area is characterized by hills and valleys that are fairly covered by vegetation and soil, though there are several areas where the bed rock outcrops. The topography is rugged and undulating with the basement rocks outcropping as hills and inselbergs. The Gwagwa plains occurring at the west of the FCT are underlain by migmatites and gneisses, and stand about 305m in the south-west and 516m in the east above mean sea level. These plains form part of River Usumanu that originates in the Bwari-Aso hills. Abuja enjoys a tropical continental climate characterized by two distinct seasons; the dry and rainy seasons. The rainy season spans Mach/April to September/October, while the dry season extends from October to May. The mean annual rainfall is 1630mm, while temperatures vary from 22oC around December/January to 35oC in March/April. The weather conditions reflect the rugged nature of the area with the hills and inselbergs occasionally inducing orographic (relief) rainfall in their immediate vicinity. Vegetation is characterized by thorn bushes and trees, herbs, shrubs, and mango trees, the area being in Guinea Savanna Vegetation zone of Nigeria. The drainage pattern generally varies from trellis to dendritic. The area is drained by many rivers in and around Abuja including Rivers Gwagwalada and Usmanu while Rivers Wupa, Wosika and other smaller seasonal southerly-flowing streams form the tributaries and drain the study area. These rivers depend on rainfall for their recharge. As such, their stages are high in rainy season and decrease appreciably in the dry season. III. GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURES The study area is located within the Central Nigeria Precambrian Basement Complex.The geology of the area has been studied and discussed by previous workers like Oyawoye (1972), McCurry (1976) etc,. They described the rocks as comprising mostly granite, gneisses, mica schists, hornblende and feldspathic schists and migmatites. The rocks are highly fractured and jointed showing essentially two fracture patterns, NE – SW and NW – SE. These fractures control the drainage and flow patterns of rivers in the area, (Fig. 2). However, minor Cretaceous deposits of Nupe sandstones occur in the southern part of FCT between Kwali and Abaji, extending to Rubochi and the border with Nassarawa State. Similarly, metasediments have also been mapped along a general NNE-SSW direction through the west of Kusaki (in the south) and east of Takushara (in the north) (USGS 1977). Mica schists and amphibolite schists occur around Kusaki and Buze villages outside the study area. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 8 An assessment of groundwater potentials of the Central Area District and its environs… The rocks comprise migmatites, migmatitic-gneisses, fine to medium grained gneisses, mica schist, calc-silicate rock, amphibolite, coarse grained older granites occasionally overlain by superficial deposits that include laterites, soils and alluvium deposits. The gneisses and migmatitic gneisses formed the bedrock at the low-lying areas while the migmatites occur as very large massive and well-formed hills with the gneisses occurring as cluster of elongated hills. The migmatite constitutes about 35% of the study area outcropping in the SW part while the migmatitic gneiss occur in the central and eastern part constituting 40% of the area. The gneisses outcropping as fine to medium grained granite gneisses in the NE part cover about13% of the surface area, while the coarse grained Older Granites are exposed in the extreme NE corner where they constitute about 6% of the area forming smallsized residual hills with rounded tops. Minor lithologies take up the remaining 1% of the surface area and include amphibolite and calcsilicate rocks as well as mica schist. The schists form rounded ridges and valley forms due to their low resistance to erosion (UNIFE, 1979). They are commonly seen to have weathered into reddish micaceous sandy clay capped by laterites and other superficial deposits such as alluvium deposits and soils. While the reddish brown laterites partially or completely overly and conceal other lithologic units, the alluvial deposits are found in river and stream channels in the area. A general NNE-SSW orientation of lithological facies exist in the area apparently related to PanAfrican orogeny. Similarly, there is the presence of dense fracture network which is the dominant structural control of groundwater occurrence in the area. The fractures take the form of cracks and tensional joints resulting from stresses occasioned by alternate heating-up and cooling of the rocks. Both horizontal and vertical joints are very common, with the width of the fractures generally decreasing with depth. Major NW-SE and NESW fault lines had been reported by Avci (1983). The fractures increase the hydrologic significance of the basement rocks by providing the necessary porosity and permeability; factors necessary for the occurrence and movement of groundwater in subsurface environments. Porosity receives the precipitation and provides storage sites while permeability enables the transmission of water thereby fulfilling the two primary functions of an aquifer; storage and conduit functions. IV. HYDROGEOLOGY The water resources of the area comprise both the surface and groundwater sources including the streams and rivers that occur in the sloppy terrains in the south. Lower Usumanu and Jabi dams which supply water to the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja are located in the area. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 9 An assessment of groundwater potentials of the Central Area District and its environs… The groundwater component of the water resources of the area are contained in the aquifers and basement rocks. Hydrogeologically, two types of aquifers are recognized namely, the regolith or weathered basement aquifers and the fractured zone aquifers. Therefore geology and climate are the limiting factors of groundwater occurrence in hard rocks. Fortunately there exists in the area a thick loose and discontinuous blanket of decayed and decaying rock debris (regolith). A combination of thick regolith and high rainfall and favourable temperature pattern in the FCT offers a conducive condition for occurrence of groundwater. The decayed/decaying and fresh rock fragments lie on top of, below and adjacent one another in an irregular manner creating intergranular spaces between rock fragments lying together. Precipitation introduces water into the regolith through the usually numerous porespaces. The regolith therefore acts as a storage medium for water from rainfall and can also transmit water vertically and horizontally to underlying rocks. If the underlying bed rock has high fracture density, regolith can serve to transmit water to underlying bedrock storage sites. The occurrence of the groundwater is a function of the overburden thickness, the type, composition and texture of rock fragments that constitute the overburden and the degree density and interconnections of the fractures. The overburden aquifers occur extensively and receive recharge directly from rainfall. Some measure of artificial recharge come from the Lower Usumanu and Jabi dams. Villagers extract the groundwater from the overburden through hand-dug wells. Most of the boreholes are located on the overburden aquifer and have shown the depths to bedrock to vary from 0m (where the bedrock outcrops) to about 73m with an average of 30m. The direction of groundwater flow is generally downhill converging in the valleys and river channels. Depths to water table vary from place to place (Table 2) with the water level rising during the rainy season and falling during the dry season resulting in seasonal fluctuation in the actual volume of water in storage. The various aquifer parameters obtained from developed boreholes sited in adjacent areas show that the area has low to moderate water yielding properties (maximum 18m3/hr) The yields of boreholes vary from one rock type to another. For instance yields are generally lower in parts of Garki, Wuse and Maitama where migmatites and schist are dominant compared to areas with granites and granite gneisses. Wherever the weathered basement is deep and underlain by highly fractured bedrock, borehole yields are generally high. For instance, resistivity surveys (vertical electrical sounding) carried out at a location at the Presidential Palace and another at the Nicon Noga Hilton Hotel revealed the existence of deep fracture systems below the overburden. Boreholes drilled and completed into these deep fractured basement rocks have depths of 100m each and yielded 40m3/hr and 21.6m3/hr respectively with drawdowns of 26.5m and 46.5m respectively after 120 minutes of pumping (Offodile, 1983). Table 1. Location, depths of boreholes and static water tables in some boreholes within F.C.T. Abuja (D.R.D., 1989) S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Location Kwali Dobi Agyana Paikon Kore Anagada Zuba Jiwa Gwagwa Tungan Maje Total Depth (m) 47.0 70.0 42.2 70.0 72.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 69.0 47.0 70.0 42.2 70.0 72.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 70.0 69.0 Abaji I Garki Central Area I Garki Central Area II Asokoro Bwari Garki Garki Abaji Atako Central Area V. Static water level (m) 4.0 6.7 19.0 3.6 3.1 2.0 10.7 3.2 3.2 3.1 4.0 6.7 19.0 3.6 3.1 2.0 10.7 3.2 3.2 7.1 GROUNDWATER QUALITY Etu-Efeotor (1998) undertook an evaluation of hydrogeochemical properties of surface and groundwater in the study area and compared the values of the physic-chemical parameters with WHO standards for drinking water supplies, (Table 4). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 10 An assessment of groundwater potentials of the Central Area District and its environs… Table 2. Hydrogeo-chemical data of ground water from Central Nigeria (Etu-Efeotor 1998) Geochemical parameter Dobi Nija Clear 2 0.45 7.1 354 95.2 93.7 5.90 0.20 3.50 2.20 0.5 Gwagwalada Specialist Hospital Clear 1.0 0.64 7.1 106.6 76.6 9.80 0.42 8.2 1.08 0.4 Appeareance Colour (Hazen units) Odour Turbidity (NTU) Ph Conductivity (µScm-1) Alkalinity mg/1 Hardness mg/1 B.O.D. mg/1 Calcium (Ca++) mg/1 Magnesium (Mg2+) mg/1 Sodium (Na+) mg/1 Potassium (K+) mg/1 Zinc (Zn++) mg/1 Copper (Cu++) mg/1 Total Iron (Fe2+. Fe3+) mg/1 Carbonate (CO32-) mg/1 Bicarbonate (HCO3-) mg/1 Chloride (Cl-) mg/1 Sulfate (SO42-) mg/1 Nitrate (NO3-) mg/1 Phosphate (PO42-) mg/1 Suspended Solids mg/1 Dissolved Solids mg/1 Lead (Pb) Selenium (se) Arsenic (As) Chromium (Cr) Cyanide (CN) Cadmium (Cd) Paiko -1 Paiko -2 Izom WHO Clear 1.0 0.82 7.40 495 123.4 114.3 16.50 1.80 11.40 3.60 0.02 0.02 0.5 UniABUJA Clear 2 0.56 7.2 110.8 80.8 7.40 0.86 6.5 0.96 0.5 Clear 3 0.52 7.1 246.0 101.4 84.5 4.60 0.70 5.60 2.50 0.10 0.4 Clear 2 0.78 7.2 868 97.4 72.6 8.40 1.10 3.20 1.60 0.08 0.3 Clear 2 0.48 6.7 98.7 92.1 12.85 1.24 10.2 0.68 0.5 clear 5 No odour 5 7.0-8.0 50-100 100 72-200 30 5.0 1.0 0.3-1.0 85.4 22.6 9.26 0.52 213 74.3 21.6 10.16 0.31 276.6 90.6 28.6 11.8 0.24 306.8 86.1 22.0 9.04 0.46 230.2 84.6 20.4 8.1 0.61 198.6 70.2 22.5 7.7 0.80 206.4 84.2 26.5 8.8 0.68 284.8 200 200 50 500 500 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.01 His work shows that basement geology played a domineering role in the chemistry of groundwater in the area. The order of dominance of major cations in groundwater is as follows: Ca>Na >K>Mg and for anions, HCO3->Cl->SO42-. The sequence is believed to be related to the basement geology as the boreholes were drilled in area dominated by granites, and feldspathic quartz schists which will normally yield more Na and K than Mg. Generally, the groundwater is adjudged potable except for slightly elevated values for iron. VI. CONCLUSIONS The Federal Capital City (FCC) is underlain by crystalline basement rocks that consist of migmatites, gneisses and granites. Surface outcrops of these rocks are seen to be highly fractured. Fracture density is high and the fractures are highly interconnected although fracture widths tend to reduce with depth. Elsewhere, the area is overlain by thick regolith comprising decayed and decaying rock fragments which are loosely arranged creating large and numerous porespaces that permit easy infiltration of rainfall. They are capped at some places by laterites and other superficial deposits. High rainfall prevalent in the area furnishes water to the regolith which is believed to serve to store and transmit infiltrating rain water into deeper basement storage sites provided by the dense fracture networks. Additional recharge also comes from Lower Usmanu and Jabi dams. The combined thickness of the resulting aquifer (regolith and the fractured basement) can be as high as 70m. The local communities obtain their water supply via hand dug wells lined with concrete rings to prevent collapse. In the metropolis, boreholes are drilled and completed into the fractured bedrock using motorized rigs. Yields of the boreholes vary but can be as high as 20m3/hr – 40m3/hr. Climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall play significant role as water level fluctuations occur in dry and rainy season. Not minding that the area is basically a bed rock area, prospect for water supply using groundwater as a source is high. However a conjunctive use of both surface and groundwater sources will ensure uninterrupted water supply to the Federal Capital City. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 11 An assessment of groundwater potentials of the Central Area District and its environs… REFERENCES [1.] [2.] [3.] [4.] [5.] [6.] [7.] [8.] [9.] [10.] Avci, M., (1983). Photogeology and Structural interpretation of the Southern section of the New Federal Capital City site, Abuja, Nigeria. Nig. J. Min. Geol., 20 (1&2), 51-56. D.R.D. (1989). Department of Rural Development, Ministry for the Federal Capital Territory, DFRRI Water Borehole Projects, Abuja. Etu-Efeotor, J.O. (1998). Hydrochemical Analysis of Surface and Groundwaters of Gwagwalada Area of Central Nigeria. Global Jl Pure and Applied Sciences Vol. 4 No 2 Federal Ministry of Water Resources of Nigeria, (1978). Pre-drilling Hydrogeological Investigation of Area I-Final Design. McCurry, P. (1976). The geology of the Precambrian to Lower Paleozoic rocks of Northern Nigeria. In C.A. Kogbe (Ed). Geology of Nigeria. Elizabethab Press. Lagos. pp 15-39 Offodile, M.E., 1983. The occurrence and Exploitation of groundwater in Nigerian Basement rocks. Nig. J. Min. Geol., 20 (1& 2): 131-146. Oyawoye, M.O. (1972). The Basement Complex of Nigeria (In) African Geology (T.F.J. Dessauvagie and A. J. Whiteman, Eds. Ibadan Univ. Press pp 67-99 UNIFE (1979). Geology and Engineering Geology of the Federal Capital City Site. University of Ife, Nigeria. USGS (1977). Preliminary Engineering Geologic Report on selection of Urban sites in the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria. Project Report Nigerian Investigations (IR N-1. WHO (1984). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. World Water 1988. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 12

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 52-61||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Hydropower Resources as Target of Terrorism: Case Study of Selected Water Bodies In Northern Nigeria. BY Mohammed A. Al Amin Department of Geography Nigerian Defence Academy ----------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT -----------------------------------------------------Energy demand is a major issue facing both the developed and developing nations and is always at the front bunning of government policy at all levels. Part of the current consideration by governments in terms of energy security is the factor of supply stability and infrastructural safety; especially in the wake of post September 11 attacks on the United States. As the level of terrorism is increasing, so is with the attention to energy security. This paper is therefore on attempt to analyze a sector of Nigeria’s energy source-Hydropower, within the current security challenge facing the northern part of the country. After a through background on the issues surrounding hydro-terrorism at the global level. The paper had explored the Nigeria’s hydropower asset and actimately assessed its vulnerability to insurgent attacks of especially the Boko Haram terrorist that dominated the study area. The evaluation consist of target attractiveness, vulnerability assessment, Risk assessment and the assessment of consequences which were evaluated on the four major river-basins that hold over 90% of the hydropower resources in the region. The study indicated the highest risks on the Hadeja -Jama’are and Kamadugu Yobe basins. This was attributed to their geographical locations, socio-economy of the residents and porocity of the boarders that warrants the smuggle of small arms and light weapons. Recommendations were made on both physical and small measures to safeguard the hydropower assets involved. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------Date of Submission:. 01 October, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Nigerian’s Hydro potential is high and hydropower currently accounts for about 32% of the total installed commercial electric power capacity. The average large scale potential is in excess of 11,000MW. Nigeria has considerable hydropower potential sources exemplified by her large rivers, small rivers, and streams. Nigerian rivers are distributed all over the country with potential sites for hydropower schemes which can serve the urban, rural and isolated communities. In order to realize these said potentials, there is the need to carefully review these sites within the spectacle of terrorism risks, going by the current escalation of violence particularly in the Northern part of Nigeria.There is a long history of water related violence and conflicts, including what must be categorized as environmental terrorism targeting water resources and infrastructure. The threat of future attack is real, but the plans for responding to such attacks appear to be inadequate especially in the northern states of Nigeria; which is recently plagued by the Boko-Haram insurgency.It must be noted that water as a fundamental resource for human and economic welfare and modern society depends on complex, interconnected water infrastructure for domestic water supply as well as for generation of hydropower. It is therefore imperative to articulate effective measures towards protecting these critical infrastructures from the attack of terrorist in what is commonly known as environmental terrorism.Environmental terrorism as defined by Gleck (2006) as the unlawful use of force against environmental resource or systems with benefits in the name of a political or social objective.Some important water facilities, such as dams, reservoirs, power equipment and transmission facilities (including flow values, turbines, generators, transformers etc) are open to the public, for recreational visits. 65% of Nigeria’s dams and reservoirs are located in the northern part of the country, where the activities of insurgents are at its highest ebb in recent times. The new move of government to exploit its power generation through utilizing these water bodies makes them a clear and susceptible target for terror. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 52 Hydropower Resources As Target… This chapter reviews history of past attacks on water bodies across the world. It then attempted to identify the vulnerability and risks of some selected water-bodies that are planned for hydropower generation. The purpose is to identify where productive and protective efforts are needed to reduce the risks. The chapter also ended with recommendations on proper and appropriate safeguards to reduce the identified risks, as well as to reduce the consequences should an event occur. II. HISTORY OF HYDRO-TERRORISM There is a long history of the use of water resources as both a target and tool of war and terrorism (Gleck, 1993, 2004.) Water supplies can be poisoned; dams can be destroyed to harm downstream population or to sabotage power generation. The recorded history of attacks on water systems goes back to 4,500 years ago, when Ulama, king of Agos from 2,450 to 2,400 BC, diverted water from his region to boundary canals, drying up boundary ditches to deprive the neighboring city-state of Umma of water. Similarly, in an early example of bio-terrorism, solon of Athens besieged Cirrha around 600BC for a wrong done to the temple of Apollo and put the poision hellebore roots into the local water supply. This reportedly caused the cirrhaens to become violently ill and facilitated the subsequent capture of the city (Eitzen and Takafuji, 1997). Many of the recorded instances of violence by individuals and non-state groups concerning water focused perceived inequities associated with water development projects or controversial decisions about allocations of water, often marginalized groups faced with the construction of water systems that appropriate local water resources have responded by threatening or attacking those systems. This violence may be related to both absolute deprivation, where access to the most basic needs is denied to a group or region, and to relative deprivation, where basic needs are met, but water allocations or control are perceived to be unfair or in equitable.In one f the earliest reported acts, an angry mob in New York in 1748 burned down a ferry house on the Brooklyn shore of the East River, reportedly as revenge for unfair allocation of East River water rights. Similarly, in 1840s and 1850s, groups attacked small dams and reservoirs in the Eastern and Central USA because of concerns about threats to health and to local water supplies. Likewise, between 1907 and 1913, farmers in the Owens valley of California repeatedly dynamited the aqueduct system being built to divert their water to the growing city of Los Angelos (Reisner, 1993).The first reported attack by the Palestinian National Libration Movement, Al-Fatah, was in 1965 on the diversion pumps of the Israeli national water carrier (Naff and Matsm, 1984) and the region has seen many more examples. In 2001, Palestinians accused Israel of destroying a water cistern, blocking water deliveries and attacking materials for waste water treatment project (Kraelline, 2001; ENS, 2001) Rivers and water infrastructures such as reservoirs can be easily vulnerable to this type of terrorism, since they are publically accessible in many places. In July 1999, engineers discovered an unexploded bomb in a water reservoir near Pretoria, South Africa. The bomb which had malfunctioned, would have been powerful enough to destabilize a nearby military base, and a hydrological research facility from the possible rapture of the dam’s embarkment.Motive for such attacks can be economic as well as political. In July 2000, workers at the cellatex chemical plant in northern France dumped 5000 liters of sulfuric acid into Meuse River; when they were denied worker benefits. More recently, a series of events in India, Pakistan, the Persian Gulf and the Middle East have reaffirmed the attractiveness of water and water systems as targets for terrorists in a wide range of unrelated conflicts and disputes; but with similar undertone to that of Boko Haram in northern part of Nigeria. III. REVIEW OF HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA The country’s topography ranges from lowlands along the coast and in the lower Niger valley to high Plateau in the north and Mountain along the eastern boarder. Most part of the country is linked with productive rivers which are scattered virtually all over the country. About two-third of Nigeria falls within the watershed of the Niger River, which empties into the Atlantic at the Niger Delta, with its major tributaries. Benue in the Northeast, the Kaduna in the North Central, the Sokoto in the Northwest, and the Anambra in the Southeast. There are also several rivers of Northeastern Nigeria, including the Komadugu Gana and its tributaries which flow into Lake Chad. The lake Chad rests in the centre of a major drainage basin at the point where Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon meet. Similarly, there is the Kainji Lake created in the late 1960s by the construction of the Kainji Dam on the River in Nigeria. The first major work to identify potential hydropower sites was carried out by Motor Columbus in the 1970s as shown on Table 1 below: www.theijes.com The IJES Page 53 Hydropower Resources As Target… Table 1: Potential Hydro Power Sites in Nigeria Location River Average Discharge (m3/s) Max. Head Installed Capacity (pf=0.5) MW Donko Jebba Zungeru II Zungeru I Shiroro Zurubu Gwaram Izom Gudi Kafanchan Kurra II Kurra I Richa II Richa I Mistakuku Kombo Kiri Kramti Beli Garin Dali Sarkin Danko Gembu Kasimbila Katsina Ala Makurdi Lokaja Onitsha Ifon Ikom Afikpo Niger Niger Kaduna Kaduna Kaduna Kaduna Jamaare Gurara Mada Kongum Sanga Sanga Daffo Mosari Kurra Gongola Gongola Kam Taraba Taraba Suntai Donga Katsina Ala Katsina Ala Benue Niger Niger Osse Cross Cross Cross 1650 1767 343 343 294 55 75 55 14.5 2.2 5.5 5.0 4.0 6.5 2.0 128 154 80 266 323 20 45 170 740 3185 6253 6635 80 759 1621 1704 17 27.10 97.50 100.60 95.00 40.0 50 30 100 100 430 290 480 400 670 37 30.50 100 79.2 36.60 180 200 45 49 25.90 31.40 15.25 50 47 15.5 10 225 500 450 500 300 20 30 10 40 5 25 15 25 36 20 35 40 115 240 135 46 130 30 260 600 1950 750 30 400 180 180 Source: ECN 2007. The potential hydroelectric schemes recommended for the country as at that time are shown in TABLE 2 below Table 2: Potential Hydroelectric Schemes in Nigeria (ENERGY) GENERATION Gwh/h) Scheme Proposed station Head (m) capacity Firm Secondary Total Average Remark Kainji4 700 142 2226 1676 3902 In operation Shiroro5 600 375 2300 406 2080 Under const. 4 Jebba 560 103 1828 816 2644 Out to tender Ikom6 400 65 2300 Under study www.theijes.com The IJES Page 54 Hydropower Resources As Target… Lokoja6 1950 1000 550 1950 64 57 50 64 9050 1550 10600 8000 1770 9770 Under study Including advantage of Makurdi project Excluding Makurdi Makurdi6 600 180 80 91.5 85 70 2300 870 3170 960 430 Under study Excluding regulating Advantages of upstream project Mambilla7 1000 103 4470 4470 Suggested Source: ECN 2009 The first generating plant was built in Lagos in 1898 by the colonial government and was managed by the Public Works Department (PWD). The federal government established electricity corporation of Nigeria (ECN) through the instrument of ordinance No.15 of 1950, which was vested with the responsibility of running the generating station, subsequently in 1962 the Niger Dam Authority (NDA) was established to built dam. However, the first large scale hydro power station in Nigeria was built in Kainji on the river Niger with an installed capacity of 760MW and with expansion to 1.150MW in 1968, then followed by Jebba in 1984 and Shiroro in 1990 with installed capacity of 570MW and 600MW respectively. Table 3 below show the proposed commissioning dates of hydroelectric schemes in Nigeria. Table 3: Commissioned Hydroelectric Schemes Location Capacity (MW) Commissioning date Shiroro 600 1990 Kainji 760 1968 Jebba 570 1984 Source: As the population grew and demand for energy increased, the Federal Government in the period 1982 to 2002 projected for some hydropower station for the plan period 1982-2002 to meet the increasing growth of power requirement in the country which was then put at 20% per year. These hydro power stations are shown in Table 4. Below Table 4: Planned Hydro Power Station (1982-2002) Location Capacity (MW) Ikom 730 Lokoja 1050 Zungeru 450 Mambilla Hydro 3960 Makurdi Hydro 1062 Onitsha Hydro 1050 Gurara (Abuja Hydro) 300 Source : ECN 2011. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 55 Hydropower Resources As Target… IV. OVERVIEW OF SMALL HYDRO POWER (SHP) RESOURCES IN NIGERIA Hydropower potential sites are distributed in 12 States and in the four river basins. However, SHP potential sites exist in virtually all parts of Nigeria. There are over 278 unexploited sites with total potentials of 734.3 MW (4). So far about eight (8) small hydropower station with aggregate capacity of 37.0 MW has been installed in Nigeria by private company and the government as shown in TABLE 5. Some around Jos Plateau, where there is 2MW Station at Kwall fall on N’Gell river (river Kaduna) and 8MW station at Kurra at Kura fall, which was developed by a private company (NESCO). Table 5: Existing Small Hydro Schemes in Nigeria S/No. River State Installed Capacity [mw] 1. Bagel (I) (II) Plateau 1.0 2.0 2. Kura Plateau 8.0 3. Lere (I) (II) Plateau 4.0 4.0 4. Bakalor i Sokoto 3.0 5. Tiga Kano 6.0 6. Oyan Ogun 9.0 Source: Aliyu 1990. Table 6 below shows the small hydropower potentials in some states. Table 6: Small Hydro Potentials in Surveyed States in Nigeria S/No. State River Basin Total Sites Potential Capacity (mw) 1. Sokoto Sokoto-Rima 22 30.6 2. Katsina Sokoto-Rima 11 8.0 3. Niger Niger 30 117.6 4. Kaduna Niger 19 59.2 5. Kwara Niger 12 38.8 6. Kano Hadeja 20 46.2 7. Borno Jama’are 29 20.8 8. Bauchi Chad 20 42.6 9. Gongola Upper-Benue 38 162.7 10. Plateau Upper-Benue 32 110.4 11. Benue Lower-Benue 19 69.2 12. Cross River Lower-Benue Cross River 18 28.1 Source: ECN 2011 The next table however, shows the hydropower potentials of Nigeria based on some selected river basins. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 56 Hydropower Resources As Target… TABLE 8: RIVER BASINS IDENTIFIED HYDRO POTENTIAL Organization Potential site Status Capacity Upper Benue River Basins Development Authority Jada Dam Monkin Dam Kiri Dam Waya Dam Dandin kowa Dam Pre-feasibility level 5MW 500Kw 1083Kw 61.8KW 33KW Owena Benin River Basin Development Authority River OWENA Ele River River Okhuanwan Pre-feasibility level 1.3MW 1.29MW 600Kw Anambra-Imo River Development Authority River Igwu Imo River Ivo River Identified 7.55KW Chad Basin Development Authority Biu site Janga Dole Dam site Majeekin Dam site Identified Ogun-Oshun River Basin Development Authority Oyan River Dam Ikero Gorge Dam Lekan Are Dam Oke-Odan Eniosa Ofiki I Ofiki II Sepeteri I Sepeteri II Okuku Igbojaiye Pre-feasibility level 9MW Source: Asif 2005. V. TERRORISM VULNERABILITY OF SELECTED HYDROPOWER RESOURCES. There are four major River basins in the northern part of Nigeria, which have a lot of potentials for hydropower. These river basins are assessed based on certain factors in order to classify them on risk scales for vulnerability to the attacks of insurgents.The first factor considered is the rate of escalation of insurgent activities in the communities where the hydropower asset is located, then followed by the potent of ideological and economic consideration around the river basin. The other issues factored are the closeness of the river basin to any Nigerian boarder that could be infiltrated by illegal alliance. The last factor considered was that of unemployment and poverty which were agreed to be push factors of indigent people into the unfortunate crime of terrorism.Those five factors were ranked form 1 to 10 and evaluated at the studied river basins in order to find the risks with which such hydro potentials are subjected to. The figure of 1 represents the least of risks and 10 represents highest level of risk. Table 9 below give a summary of the assessment. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 57 Hydropower Resources As Target… S/No River Basin 1. States covered Terrorism Sociorecord factor ideological factor Boarder proximity factor Poverty & unemployment factor Aggregate Sokoto –Rima Kebbi R.Basin Sokoto zamfara Katsina, Kaduna 6 5 5 6 22 2. Hadeja-Jama’a Kano, Jigawa, Yobe, Bauchi 8 7 8 7 30 3. KomaduguYobe Yobe, Borno 8 8 9 7 32 4. Upper-Benue Adamawa, 6 Gombe, Taraba 4 4 5 19 Source: Field work 2013 There are several factors that could be considered in evaluating the vulnerability of the hydropower resources to insurgency attacks. The choice of the factors to be considered are dependent upon the site specific it is located. To this extent, terrorism record and proximity to boarder is considered as the site specific factors, while socioideological and poverty/unemployment were considered as the most important factors of the socio economy. 5.1 Target Attractiveness: This is an estimate of the real or perceived valued of target to insurgents. Hydropower resources in communities were associated based on its individual attractiveness to insurgent’s attacks. It is noteworthy to mention that not all target are of equal value to adversaries, however target attractiveness is one factor that influences the likelihood of security event. Therefore, the target attractiveness as shown on table ….. is having Komadugu Yobe basin with the highest risk assessment of 32/40, then followed by Hadeja-Jama’are river basin with 30/40 and the least of which is the upper Benue basin with 19/40. This clearly shows that even the hydropower resources of the least vulnerable basin of the upper Benue represent a risk factor of about 50%, while the vulnerability factor of the Komadugu basin staggered around 75%. 5.2 Vulnerability Assessment: This refers to any weakness that can be exploited by an adversary to gain unauthorized access and subsequent destruction of the particular facility or asset. Vulnerability can result from, but are not limited to weakness in current management practices, physical security or operational practices. The result of our investigation on selected hydropower sites in the four river basins of this northern states of Nigeria revealed that Sokoto-Rima basin has an aggregate vulnerability level of 50%, the Hadeja-Jama’are river basin is assessed as having a vulnerability value of 70%, Kamadugu-Yobe 80% and the least came from the upper Benue basin with a value of 40%. 5.3 Risks Assessment: Risk is an expression of the likelihood that defined threat will target an successful exploit a specific vulnerability of a facility or asset and cause a given set of consequences. In order to determine of Nigeria, several variables were used to compose an estimate. This include target attractiveness, the depress of threat and the degree of vulnerability. This is depicted in the matrix provided below. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 58 Hydropower Resources As Target… The risk indicators showed that Komadugu-Yobe basin has 90% value risk of attract from the insurgents, which is the highest in the while of the northern states of Nigeria. The least risk value is recorded from the upper Benue river basin with a risk value of 40%. There seems to be a relationship between distance to the boarder and the risk value of studied hydropower resources of the studied river basin. 5.4 Assessment of Consequences: The severity of the consequences of a security event is generally expressed in terms of the degree of damage that would result of there was a successful attack on a particular hydro resources. This may involve effects that are more severe than expected with accidental risks. In order to have a clear and precise evaluation of the possible consequences of insurgent attacks in the selected hydropower resources, the following parameters were used to evaluate the outcome i, injuries to workers and the public ii, severe environmental damage iii, Economic loss to the community, state, region and the nation.The result of the study indicated that both Hadeja-Jama’are and Kamadugu Yobe river basin have 70% of severe consequences. The other four basins of SokotoRima and upper-Benue were assessed as having moderate of consequences. The severity in Kamadugu Yobe and Hadeja-Jama’are is likely to be connected with the already fragility of the two ecosystems, together with the high population density of the community. VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Regarding physical security of a hydropower resource, a key question is whether protective measures should be focused on the largest hydro systems and facilities, where risks to the public are greatest, or on all, since small facilities may be more vulnerable. A related question is responsibility for additional steps, because the federal government has direct control over only a limited portion of the water infrastructure sector. The distributed and diverse nature of ownership (federal, non-federal government, and private) complicates managing risks, as does the reality of limited resources. The adequacy of physical and operational security safeguards is an issue for all in this sector. One possible option for federal facilities (dams and reservoirs maintained by the River Basins Development Authorities) is to restrict visitor access, although such actions could raise objections from the public. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 59 Hydropower Resources As Target… Closure dams and reservoirs indefinitely to all fishing, hiking, and boating and blocked access to some roads are some vital recommendations.Measures that could improve coordination and exchange of information on vulnerabilities, risks, threats, and responses must be articulated in response to the outcomes of especially the assessment of Komadugu-Yobe and the Hadeja-Jemaare river basins. This should be a key objective, and an issue to relevant Ministries, Departments and Agencies in the ongoing security efforts by other federal government and non-federal entities that operate water infrastructure systems.Another identified issue is that of duplication of roles and responsibilities. The growing potential for duplication and overlap among agencies must be checked to allow for proper responsibility sharing and a hitch-free coordination. Currently, for example, policies are being developed both by federal and state governments, and both agencies are being assisted by separate advisory groups. In order to ease this there should be a Water Sector Coordinating Council. Similarly, information sharing and dissemination even in this one sector are occurring through several different mechanisms. Some have questioned the multiple authorities that exist and in particular the potential that the several mechanisms for sharing Nigerian security information could transmit inconsistent information and make the exchange of information more complicated, not less. Others are optimistic that the systems and agencies must be sorted clearly into compatible and complementary networks of information sharing. The cost of additional protections and how to pay for them are issues of interest, and policymakers continue to consider resource needs and how to direct them at public and private sector priorities. An issue of great interest to hydropower resources protection is how to pay for physical security improvements, since currently there are no federal funds dedicated to these purposes. Notwithstanding, government must consider a special funding mechanism to finance The vast Hydropower resources that are scattered across the whole country and particularly those in the northern part; where the Boko Haram insurgency is more pronounced. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] Aliyu, A. (1990). Prospects for small Hydropower Development for Rural Applications in Nigeria, Nigerian Journal for Renewable Energy, vol 1, pp 74-86. Asif, M. (2005). Energy Supply, its Demands and Security issues for Developed and Emerging Economies, Renewable and Sustainable Reviews, p. 2-25 White House, (2003) National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets, [http://www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/physical.html]. DHS-Department of Homeland Security, (2003) “Potential Indicators of Threats Involving Vehicle-Borne Improvised Explosive Devices (VBIEDs),” Homeland Security Information Bulletin, [http://www.apta.com/services/security/ FBI-Federal Bureau of Investigation, (2006) FBI Community Outreach Program for Manufacturers and Suppliers of Chemical and Biological Agents, Materials, and Equipment [http://www.vohma.com/pdf/pdffiles/SafetySecurity/ChemInfofbi.pdf Baybutt, Paul, and Varick Ready, ,(2003) “Protecting Process Plants: Preventing Terrorism Attacks and Sabotage,” Homeland Defense Journal, Vol. 2, Issue 3, pp. 1–5, [http://www.homelanddefensejournal.com/archives/pdfs/Feb_12_vol2_iss3.pdf]. CRS-Congressional Research Service, (2002), Terrorism and Security Issues Facing the Water Infrastructure Sector, Feb. 7 [http://carper.senate.gov/acrobat%20files/RS21026.pdf]. Hallett, Amber, (2012) Hydropower: Environment, Safety, and Politics. Institute for Dam Safety Risk Management, Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan [http://www.engineering.usu.edu/uwrl/idsrm.htm]. Sambo, A.S. (2005). Renewable Energy for Rural Development: the Nigerian Perspective. ISESCO Science and Technology Vision Vol. 1 pp 12-22. Witherspoon Roger, (2003) “U.S. Reconsiders Terrorist Targets,” Journal News, Institute for Dam Safety Risk Management, Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, OTA-Office of Technology Assessment (1990) The consequences of a simultaneous terrorist attack on multiple substations is discussed in the U.S. Congress, Physical Vulnerabilities of the Electric Systems to Natural Disaster and Sabotage,. NRC-Natural Resources Canada, 2004 “Energy Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada, “Government of Canada Position Paper on a National Strategy for Critical Infrastructure Protection Alexander E. Farrell, (2004) “Energy Infrastructure and Security” 29 Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 427. [Farrell] Eitzen, E. M. & Takafuji, E. T. (1997). Historical overview of biological warfare. In Textbook of Military Medicine, Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. The Office of The Surgeon General, Department of the Army, USA, pp. 415 – 424. Gleick, P. H. (1993). Water and conflict. International Security, 18(1), 79 – 112, (Summer 1993). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 60 Hydropower Resources As Target… [18] [19] [20] [21] Gleick, P. H. (2004). The water conflict chronology. In The World’s Water 2004 – 2005: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Gleick, P. H. (ed.). Island Press, Covelo, CA, pp. 234 – 255. Gleick, P. H. (2006). Water and terrorism. In The World’s Water 2006 – 2007. The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Gleick, P. H. (ed.). Island Press, Covelo, CA. Macintyre, A. J., Christopher, G. W., Eitzen, E., Gum, R., Weir, S., DeAtley, C., Tonat, K. & Barbera, J. A. (2000). Weapons of mass destruction events with contaminated casualties. Journal of the American Medical Association, 283(2), 242 – 249. Naff, T. & Matson, R. C. (eds) (1984). Water in the Middle East: Conflict or cooperation? Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado. National Security Directive 42 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 61

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) || Volume || 2 || Issue || 11 || Pages || 52-55 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Assessment of Gamma Dose Rate within Idu Industrial Area of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja, Nigeria 1 1, 2, 3 James I. U, 2 Moses I. F, 3 Vandi, J. N Nuclear Technology Centre, Nigeria Atomic Energy Commission, Sheda-Abuja, P.M.B O7, Gwagwalada, Abuja ------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------The gamma dose rate within Idu Industrial Area of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja has been carried out using Atomtex 1117M Radiation Monitor. Readings were taken in twenty three different locations. Five different readings were taken at each location and the mean equivalent dose rate was used to calculate the annual equivalent dose rate. It was observed that the average dose equivalent varied from 0.106±0.001 μSv/h to 0.139±0.004 μSv/h with a mean of 0.117±0.006 μSv/h which is below the standard background radiation of 0.133 µSv/h. The study also revealed that the average annual equivalent dose rate is 0.205±0.017 mSv/y which is lower than the value of 1.0 mSv/yr averaged over five consecutive years according to the dose limit recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). This indicates that the people living and working within the area are safe and are not exposed to high doses of radiation as a result of activities in the Idu Industrial Area. Keywords: Background Radiation, Dose Limit, Equivalent Dose, Industrial Area, Radiation Monitor ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 29 October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 05 December 2013 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------I. INTRODUCTION The earth’s atmosphere especially the human populace is exposed to both non-ionizing and ionizing radiation from different sources, which include natural and artificial sources. Prominent among the natural sources are the primordial 238 radionuclides ( 137 232 U and 40 Th and their progenies, and K), while the artificial sources include, anthropogenic radionuclide 90 such as Cs, Sr, etc. [1, 2]. Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) which may be technologically enhanced generate radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium, carbon, polonium, lead, radon and potassium. These radioactive isotopes are present in rocks, solid minerals, and soil, building materials, consumer products, foods and human bodies [2]. Terrestrial radiations, which comprise ionizing radiation from rocks, solid minerals and soil, vary significantly depending on geographical locations [3]. The determination of ionizing radiation levels at the premises of industrial plants and buildings is receiving greater attention as the nation places emphasis on environmental standards required by the industries for their operations [4]. Scientists and environmental professionals make critical, objective and what can be considered legally defensible use of analytical data. These data are obtained from sound laboratory and in-situ techniques with adequate understanding of the theory and practice of toxicity testing and proven competence in calculating the risk that a given level of contamination may present to an ecosystem [5]. Environmental radiation monitoring has been carried out in some industries and industrial areas in Nigeria [4-8]. The importance of the estimation of the natural gamma radiation level in an environment lies not only in its epidemiological and dosimetric usefulness but also in its forming a basis for the assessment of the degree of radioactive contamination or pollution in the environment in the future [9]. Hence this study has been undertaken to assess the significance of the level of gamma radiation in an industrial area in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja. The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) is a relatively new creation of the Federal Government of Nigeria sequel to a decision in 1975 to relocate the seat of the central government to Abuja, a city within the FCT, from the former capital city of Lagos. The seat of government formally moved to the area in the December of 1991. In-between when the idea was born until the first phased movement, the FCT much like other modern new cities was elaborately planned to house and host all expected paraphernalia of the Federal Government and supporting infrastructure including industrial development. The Territory is still in its formative stage as infrastructural development is carried out through a planned and step wise implementation of approved master plan. So, area layouts mapped for hosting industrial infrastructure are also being gradually inhabited. With a land area of 8,000 square kilometres and located within latitude 7º25' N and 9º20' North of the Equator and longitude 5º45' and 7º39', there are two main types of soils in FCT; the sedimentary belt in the southern and south-western extremities of the territory and the pre-Cambrian Basement complex rock country which accounts for more than 80 percent of the territory. Fig. 1 is a map of the Abuja Phase III General Land Use showing the (Idu) Industrial District area of FCT. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 52 Assessment of Gamma Dose Rate within Idu Industrial Area of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT)... The Idu Industrial area is located in the suburb of Nigeria’s Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. It is a well-planned industrial zone with a functional road network and functional sewage system. The Idu industrial layout covers about 588 hectares of land that is demarcated into 208 commercial plots and is the government’s approved industrial cluster for the Federal Capital Territory. The present study was conducted to monitor and quantitatively document the background radiation levels within Idu Industrial Area of the Federal Capital territory, Abuja using a radiation monitor. Fig 1. Abuja phase III general land use showing the industrial area 1 of FCT II. MATERIAL AND METHODS An in-situ approach of background radiation measurement was adopted and preferred to enable samples maintain their original environmental characteristics. A radiation monitor, Atomtex AT 1117M with serial no 14199 was used. The Atomtex AT 1117M is a portable combined multifunction radiation monitor with digital readout, designed for measuring X-ray, gamma and neutron radiation ambient dose equivalent, density of alpha and beta radiation flux density from contaminated surfaces, alpha and beta radiation surface activity and neutron flux density. The AT1117M radiation monitor consists of a processing unit and a set of detection units. Radiation monitor operation algorithm provides measurement continuity, calculation moving average values, real time display of detection unit data on integrated display, statistical processing of measurement results, realtime statistical fluctuation estimation and rapid accommodation to changes in radiation level. The monitor was suspended in air at one meter above the ground level. Readings were obtained between the hours of 1200 and 1600 hours since the exposure rate meter has a maximum response to environmental radiation within these hours. Five readings were taken at each location and the mean values were recorded. The equation below is used to calculate the annual effective dose equivalent received outdoor. Annual Dose Equivalent (mSv/y) = Equivalent dose rate (μSv/h) × 8760 (h/y) × 0.2 (occupancy factor) × 0.001 (μSv/mSv) (1) [10] III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Data for the average equivalent dose rates of the areas measured and the annual effective dose rate are presented in Table 1 below. A total of 115 measurements were taken across the 23 locations in the Idu Industrial Area. Generally, from the result, the average equivalent dose rates for each area ranged between 0.106±0.001 μSv/h to 0.139±0.004 μSv/h. The mean value from INDY 23 shows the highest equivalent dose rate while the equivalent dose rate from INDY 13 was the lowest. The total equivalent mean dose rate in all the twenty three locations is 0.117±0.006 μSv/h. INDY 2, INDY 1 and INDY 22 recorded the second, third and fourth highest in-situ gamma radiation of 0.134±0.001 μSv/h, 0.133±0.011 μSv/h and 0.132±0.026 μSv/h respectively. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 53 Assessment of Gamma Dose Rate within Idu Industrial Area of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT)... Table 1: Average Equivalent dose rate and annual effective dose rate of different locations measured S/n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Location code INDY 1 INDY 2 INDY 3 INDY 4 INDY 5 INDY 6 INDY 7 INDY 8 INDY 9 INDY 10 INDY 11 INDY 12 INDY 13 INDY 14 INDY 15 INDY 16 INDY 17 INDY 18 INDY 19 INDY 20 INDY 21 INDY 22 INDY 23 Location Authentic Plast Ltd Omnia Nig Ltd Sunny Patze Aluminium Industry NASENI NIPRD Oyi Shelter & Allied Services Ltd Interstate Contractors Ltd Pharmaceutical Council Of Nig NEIC Ltd Main Yard Korsten Muller Ltd (Nig) Eagle Aluminium Industries Ltd Banrut Rolls Nig Ltd Lingo Gas Bouygues Construction (Nig) Ltd Safari Petroleum Products Ltd A-Z Petroleum Gas Plant Polystyrene Industries Ltd Dumez Nig Plc ITEX Julius Berger Yard Artco Industries Ltd Nigeria Bottling Company Seven-Up Bottling Company Average Equivalent Dose Rate* (μSvh-1 ) Annual Dose Equivalent (mSvy-1 ) 0.133±0.011 0.134±0.001 0.121±0.002 0.113±0.002 0.109±0.002 0.115±0.001 0.115±0.001 0.114±0.001 0.112±0.001 0.112±0.001 0.111±0.002 0.109±0.002 0.106±0.001 0.109±0.004 0.109±0.002 0.108±0.005 0.109±0.004 0.120±0.015 0.114±0.011 0.122±0.028 0.122±0.013 0.132±0.026 0.139±0.004 0.233 0.235 0.211 0.198 0.191 0.201 0.201 0.199 0.196 0.196 0.194 0.190 0.186 0.192 0.190 0.190 0.191 0.210 0.200 0.214 0.214 0.231 0.243 *Values represented as Mean ± Standard Deviation Fig 2 shows the comparison of the mean equivalent dose rate radiation levels with the standard background radiation level of 0.133 μSv/h recommended by ICRP [11]. The result shows that the entire equivalent dose rates of all the locations, except INDY 23 and INDY 2, where below or exactly the value of the Standard Background Radiation (0.133 μSv/h). Equivalent dose rate is the measure of the amount of radionuclides absorbed by the human body for a given period. To avoid any somatic, epidemiological and radiological health side effect, ICRP recommended and consequently set the maximum permissible limit for non–radionuclide industrial worker and the public as 1.0 mSvy-1. Fig 3 shows the comparison of the annual dose equivalent with ICRP maximum permissible limit. The results revealed that the dose levels in all of the locations were below the maximum permissible limit for the public. Fig 2: Comparison of different locations mean equivalent dose rate with standard background dose rate www.theijes.com The IJES Page 54 Assessment of Gamma Dose Rate within Idu Industrial Area of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT)... Fig 3: Comparison of different locations mean annual dose rate equivalent with standard annual equivalent dose rate IV. CONCLUSIONS The environmental monitoring of radiation dose rates has been computed in and around the Idu Industrial Area of the Federal capital Territory, Abuja using in-situ measurement method. This was meant to determine the background ionization radiation level of the study area. The study revealed a radiation level within the acceptable limit for the general public. The annual equivalent dose rate obtained for all the locations sampled did not exceed the safe limit recommended by the international bodies on radiation protection. This work revealed that the average dose equivalent varied from 0.106±0.001 μSv/h to 0.139±0.004 μSv/h with a mean of 0.117±0.006 μSv/h which is below the standard background radiation of 0.133 µSv/h. The study also revealed that the average annual equivalent dose rate is 0.205±0.017 mSv/y which is lower than the value of 1.0 mSv/yr averaged over five consecutive years according to the dose limit recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). This indicates that the people living and working within the area are safe and are not exposed to high doses of radiation as a result of activities in the Idu Industrial Area. The results from this work will form the baseline data which will be useful in assessing contribution to radiation in the environment from future activities of the Industrial Area. REFERENCE [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] UNSCEAR (2000). United Nation Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and effect of Ionizing radiation. Report to the general assembly with scientific annexes. United Nations; New York Avwiri, G. O. Enyinna P. I and Agbalagba E. O. (2010). Occupational Radiation Levels in Solid Mineral Producing Areas of Abia State, Nigeria. Scientia Africana, Vol. 9 (No.1), pp 93-97. Tchokossa, P; Olomo, J. B; Balogun, F. A; Adesanmi, C. A; (2012) Radiological Study of Soils in Oil and Gas Producing Areas in Delta State, Nigeria. Radiat. Prot. Dos. Vol 153 (1) 121-126 doi: 10.1093/rpd/ncs101 Sigalo, F. B; Briggs-Kamara, M. A (2010). Industrial ionising radiation activity: a case study of western geophysical industry in port Harcourt, Nigeria. Research journal of applied sciences 5 (2): 112-114 Nwankwo, L. I; Akoshile, C. O (2005a). Monitoring of external Background Radiation Level in Asa Dam Industrial area of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. J. App Sci. Environmental Management 9 (3):91-94 Nwankwo, L. I; Akoshile, C. O (2005b). Background Radiation study of Offa Industrial area of Kwara State, Nigeria. J. App Sci. Environ. Management 9 (3): 95-98. Avwiri, G. O; Ebeniro, J. O. (1998). External environmental radiation in an industrial area of Rivers State. Nigerian Journal of Physics. 10:105-107. Ogunremi A. B and Olaoye M. A (2011). Assessment of gamma dose rate within agbara industrial estate of ogun-state, Nigeria. Yctijenvscs 1 (2): 32-36. Ajayi, I. R. and Ajayi, O. S. (1999). Estimation of Absorbed Dose Rate and Collective Effective Dose Equivalent due to Gamma Radiation from selected Radionuclides in soil in Ondo and Ekiti state, South-Western Nigeria. Radiation Protection Dosimetry Vol. 86, No. 3, pp. 221–224. Tayyeb, A. P; Hamed B; Maryam S (2012). Evaluation of High Level Environmental Background Radiation Areas and its Variation in Ramsar. Iranian Journal of Medical Physics Vol. 9, No. 2, 87-92 International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) (1999). The 1995 – 99 recommendation of the International Commission on Radiological Protection Publication 76. Pergamon Press. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 55

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 10||Pages|| 97-110||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Development and Evaluation of Straw Chopping System for Fluidized Bed Gasifiers A. E. Ghaly1, A. Ergudenler2, S. Al Suhaibani3 and V. V. Ramakrishnan1 1 Process Engineering and Applied Science Department, Faculty of Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada 2 Air Quality and Management Division, Policing and Planning Department, Greater Vancouver Regional District, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada 3 Agricultural Engineering Department, College of Agriculture and Food Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-------------------------------------------------------A straw chopping system, designed to provide continuous flow of straw to a fluidized bed gasifier, was constructed and evaluated. The system consists of a frame, a revolving chute, a cutting drum, a depth of cut controlling mechanism, a concave, an output hopper and a power unit. The performance characteristics (rotational speed, feed rate, depth of cut, length of cut and the energy required for chopping of straw) were determined. The chopping of straw was achieved with low energy consumption due to the proper design of the input hopper in that provided a uniform cutting of straw from the bale, the design of the input cutting mechanism with adjustable depth of cut and the correct sizing of the output hoper to provide an efficient removal of uniformly chopped straw. Both the depth of cut and the cutting speed significantly affected the length of straw, the straw feed rate and the power required for cutting the straw. Decreasing the depth of cut and/or increasing the cutting speed increased the straw feed rate while increasing the depth of cut and/or increasing the cutting speed increased the power consumption and decreased the straw length. The feed rate for chopping straw ranged from 1.48 to 10.52 kg/min, the power consumption ranged from 1.76 to 7.76 hp and straw length ranged from 14.49 to 18.85 mm, depending upon the depth of cut and cutting speed used. The unit power (hp.h/t) improved with increases in the cutting speed due to increases in the feed rate. The energy of cut was less than 0.2% of the energy content of the straw. The sieve analysis of the sample indicated that 85-90% of the samples were collected in the sieves 2 (2.38 mm). The remaining 10-15% had a straw length of 0.59-2.38 mm. KEYWORDS: Biomass, cereal straw, chopping, feeding, continuous flow, fluidized bed, gasification. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 08 October 2013 Date of Publication: 00 October 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Cereal straw, the most abundantly available agricultural crop residue is an excellent fuel for thermochemical conversion (combustion and/or gasification) with relatively low ash content(5%) and high energy content (17.4 gigajoules/tonnes) (Jenkins et al., 1998). However, the problem often encountered during straw use stems mainly from its poor physical form and low bulk density (40-50 kg/m3) (Tabil et al., 2011). Straw is collected and transported in small bales (46 cm x 48 cm x 70 cm), large cube bales (1.8 m length) or large round bales (1.8 m length x 1.8 m diameter). The direct combustion of the small and large bales has lower energy recovery efficiency. Dense smoke and particulate emissions are always associated with this type of operation (Nutalapati et al., 2007). Slag formation occurs as a result of high temperature (1200-1400°C) which also causes deterioration of the metal after burner and firebrick lining (Gilbe et al., 2008). In order to maximize the utilization factor and to address these problems, a fluidized bed gasification system utilizing biomass materials has been developed and used successfully (Sadaka et al., 2002). However, the gasification system requires a continuous flow of chopped straw that is consistent in length. Straw, being a highly pliable material, represents difficult conditions in cutting operation and can easily bind up the cuttings edges and stall out the power source. Thus, the chief objective of chopping baled straw is to reduce the material to a length that can be handled by a screw feeder. A theoretical cut of 1.5 to 2.0 cm is usually fine enough for gasification purpose (Brigdewater, 1995; Werther et al., 2000). Kargbo et al. (2009) reported that the large sized agricultural feed stock causes fuel conversion efficiency problems such as incomplete combustion of biomass. Particle size of the biomass also influences the heat transfer. Jenkins et al. (1998) stated that smaller sized biomass materials are thermally thin and it heats up rapidly, while coarser and www.theijes.com The IJES Page 97 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... larger particles are thermally thick and heats up very slowly. Thompson et al. (2003) reported that the chopped straw (≤ 1.9 cm) was not physically separated and the contact surface area and the mass are increased due to chopping of straw. Mani et al. (2004) reported that particle size reduction increases the total surface area, pore size of the material and the number of contact points and reduces the cellulose crystallinity which is required for the thermochemical conversion of feedstock during gasification. The theoretical length of cut (the amount of advance of the feed mechanism between the cuts of successive knives) and energy requirement for the size reduction are affected by the cutting speed, the initial particles size, moisture content, material properties, feed rate of the material, the diameter of the holes in the concave and the knives - concave clearance (Ghaly, 1973; Tavakoli et al., 2009). Tavakoli et al. (2009) studied the effects of drum speed, screen size and number of blades on each flange on the power requirement for the size reduction of wheat straw. They reported that the power requirement increased with increases in the drum speed (from 500 to 800 rpm) and decreases in screen size (from 4 cm to 2.5 cm) and number of blades (from 8 to 4) in each flange. The power requirement for the size reduction of wheat straw ranged between 0.985-5.377 kW and the average power requirement was 2.763 kW. Ghaly (1973) studied the effects of rotational speed and concave - hole diameter on the length of straw and the energy of cut. Concaves having hole diameters ranging from 22 mm to 45 mm and rotational speeds ranging from 500 to 1200 rpm (2100 to 5000 m/min) were investigated. The length of straw varied from 2.5 to 6.0 cm. The energy of cut (hp-h/t) remained constant. Increasing the hole diameter and decreasing the speed increased the length of straw. However, speed higher than 900 rpm did not significantly reduce the length of straw. The aims of this study were to: (a) design, construct and evaluate a straw chopping system that will chop baled straw (small bale) and transfer chopped material to the fuel feeding unit and (b) to study the effects of speed and depth of cut on the feed rate, the cutting energy and length of straw. II. DEVELOPMENT OF STRAW CHOPPING SYSTEM The straw chopping system (Figure 1) was designed for chopping (small bales of straw). The system consisted of: (a) a frame, which is used to raise the chopping drum and the hopper to a level where the chopped straw could be easily transported to the straw feeding unit, and provide mounting support for the power supply and the power transmission system, (b) a revolving chute, which is used for the temporary storage and feeding of baled straw to the cutting drum, (c) a cutting unit, which consists of a cutting drum with rotating blades, a casing, a concave and a hopper (d) a power supply and (e) a power transmission system, which consists of various belts and pullies. Figure 1. The Chopping system. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 98 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... The Frame The frame (Figure 2) was used to support the cutting drum and rigidly connect the power system with the cutting drum and chute. It was made of 50.8 mm mild steel angle iron arc welded together. The cross members of the frame were bolted together using 12.7 mm x 25.4 mm UNC hex head bolts and nuts. The frame consisted of three sections: (a) the primary section, (b) the secondary section (c) the torque meter section. The primarily section had a rectangular base of 1150 mm x 820 mm and a height of 1320 mm. Two cross braces were bolted onto the uprights of the sides with 19.7 mm x 40 mm hex head bolts and nuts at heights of 1067 mm to 330 mm. The primary section of the frame supported the cutting drum and revolving chute. The secondary section of the frame was an extension of the primary section made of a 650 mm x 820 mm horizontal rectangle bolted onto the vertical uprights at a height of 960 mm. Cross braces were bolted onto the outside of the rectangle section at a height of 50 mm. An additional section was used to support the torque meter sensor and the necessary couplings and bearings. This section was made of 75 mm wide x 35 mm deep channel iron and was supported on the outside by a mild steel square bar of 30 mm x 30 mm and on the inside by the upper edge of the primary section. The square bar was supported on the lower side by the secondary section of the frame. The Revolving Chute The chute (Figure 3) was made of a large open ended box with a cross-section of 420 mm x 520 mm and a height of 1520 mm. The box was constructed of 16 gauge galvanized steel. It was used to house 2 small bales of straw above the cutting drum. The two bales of straw in the chute created a downward force which kept the straw in contact with the cutting blades. A large circular plate of 4 mm thickness and 730 mm diameter was arc welded to the bottom of the box. The circular plate had a 40 mm wide flange welded underneath its outer edge. Figure 2. The frame. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 99 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... (a) Side View (a) The blade shaft (b) Bottom View (b) The blade Figure 3. The revolving chute. Figure 4. The cutting unit. The Cutting Unit A solid round bar of 30 mm diameter and 840 mm length was used to support 16 cutting blades (Figure 4a). The shaft was supported by a slip bearing at each end. The first blade arm was located 180 mm from the driven end of the blade shaft, with the other 15 arms located at 35 mm intervals. The arms were arc welded onto the shaft whereas the blades were connected to the arms by 12.7 mm x 20.0 mm hex head bolts and nuts (Figure 4b). The arms were made of mild steel circular plates of 5 mm thick and 140 mm diameter. The blades were made of high tensile steel and were 80 mm long, 80 mm wide at the base and 20 mm wide at the tip. A driven pulley of a 135 mm diameter was fastened to the blade shaft by a 5 mm x5 mm key. A drive pulley of 100 mm diameter was mounted outboard of the blade shaft driven pulley and was used to supply power to the revolving chute. The drive pulley was fastened to the blade shaft by a 5 mm x 5 mm key. The casing of the cutting drum (Figure 5a) was a 230 mm high x 800 mm wide x 730 mm long mild steel box with two small rectangular openings on the upper surface was 250 mm x 670 mm. It was centered in a circular ring of 700 mm diameter and 35 mm height. A wide teflon strip was connected to the circular ring with 18 flush mount 10 mm x 15 mm machine screws. The opening on the lower surface was 250 mm x 670 mm. A concave having 12 mm diameter holes was connected to the casing under the cutting drum. The knives— concave clearance was 25 mm at the front and 12 mm at the back. A large galvanized sheet metal hopper was connected to the bottom of the cutting drum casing. The hopper (Figure 5b) was 670 mm x 560 mm at the top and 305 mm x 305 mm at the bottom with a height of 340 mm. A sliding door (305 mm x 360 mm) located at the bottom of the hopper was used to empty the hopper. The theoretical length of cut was varied by the movement of a restricting grate in relation to the blades. The restricting grate (Figure 6) consisted of 16 prongs welded to an end bar. Each prong was 295 mm long, 10 mm wide and 10 mm thick. The prongs formed an arc around the rotating blades. A notched arm connected directly to the end bar of the arced grate was used to allow more or less straw to come in contact with the blades. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 100 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... (a) The cutting drum (b) The hopper Figure 5. The casing of the cutting drum. Figure 6. The Restricting Grate. The Torque Meter A torque meter sensor (Intertechnology 1105 - 10K, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) was utilized to measure the torque output of the engine (Figure 7). The signal from the sensor was transmitted to a dial (Vishay Instruments Bridge Amp meter) to give a scale reading. The sensor was rigidly mounted on the channel section iron with four 14.3 mm x 45 mm hex head nuts and bolts. Two couplings (Lovejoy L11O I.500) were used to connect the torque meter sensor shaft to the torque meter input and output shafts. The two couplings were connected to the torque meter sensor input and output shafts with two 5 mm x 5 mm keys. The torque meter input and out shafts were supported by 2 non expansion, 2 bolt pillow blocks each. The pillow blocks were bolted onto 41 mm horizontal angle iron support using two 14.3 mm x 50.4 mm UNC hex head bolts and nuts. The horizontal angle iron support was arc welded onto the channel section of the frame. The pulley on the output shaft (Figure 7b) had a 100 nun diameter while the diameter of the pulley on the input shaft (Figure 7c) was varied to provide various blade shaft rotational speeds. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 101 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... (a) The torque sensor (b) The torque sensor output unit (c) Input unit Figure 7. Torque meter system. The Power System The power unit was used to rotate the blades and the revolving chute. An 8 hp, 4-stroke, single cylinder gasoline engine was used as a power supply. The engine was mounted on a moveable platform on the secondary frame section. It was fastened onto the platform with 20 mm x 45 mm hex head nuts and bolts. A 115 mm diameter pulley with a 15 mm deep groove was connected to the 25 mm diameter output shaft of the engine. A 5 mm x 5 mm key prevented the pulley from rotating on the shaft. A 450 mm rubber belt was used to connect the engine pulley to the pulley on the torque meter input shaft. Another 760 mm rubber belt was used to connect the pulley on the torque meter output shaft to the pulley on the blade shaft. An engaging/disengaging mechanism made of 90 in diameter idler pulley and lever arm was used to engage and tighten the belt around the pulleys of the blade and torque meter shafts (Figure 8). A 910 mm belt was used to connect the outboard pulley on the blade shaft to a small input pulley on the transfer case of the chute which was used to change the plane of motion from vertical to horizontal. The transfer case consisted of an input pulley, a gear set and an output pulley (Figure 9). The gear set consists of two bevel gears which operated at a 90º angle, with the vertical gear connected to the pulley and the horizontal gear www.theijes.com The IJES Page 102 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... Figure 8. The blade shaft engaging mechanism. Figure 9. The transfer case. connected to the output pulley. To rotate the revolving chute, a 2800 mm rubber belt was used to connect the flange of the revolving chute and the small output pulley on the transfer case. A clutch system (Figure 10) consisting of a 90 mm diameter idler pulley and an engaging/disengaging arm, allowed the starting and stopping of the revolving chute. Four idler wheels (Figure 11) made out of were hardened rubber were bolted to the top of the casing to keep the revolving chute in line with of the circular ring on the top of the cutting drum. The idler wheels were fastened using 20 mm x 75 mm hex head bolts and nuts. A belt guide was added to each bolt to prevent the belt from running off the edge of the plate. Each guide was made of a 60 mm x 25 mm mild steel piece of 3 mm thickness, bent 90° to form two 30 mm x 25 mm rectangles. One side of the guide was mounted on the bolt under the idler wheel and the other side was pointed up towards the centre of the lower surface of the idler wheel. III. EVALUATION OF STRAW CHOPPER Straw Collection Monopol variety winter wheat straw was used in this study. The wheat straw was initially collected in the form of small bales (0.46 m x 0.48 m x 0.70 m) from a field on the Dyke View Farms situated at site at Port Williams, Nova Scotia. To maintain a uniform straw composition, straw was collected during the same harvesting season and from the same field. The straw bales were placed in a drying system and dried by blowing warm air (35°C) before they were chopped, in order to obtain a consistent moisture content of the feedstock. Experimental Design Seven blade rotational speed (800, 1000, 1250, 1400, 1750, 2000 and 2500 rpm) were investigated. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 103 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... IDLER WHEEL Figure 10. The revolving chute engaging mechanism. Figure 11. The idler wheel. This allowed a cutting velocity in the range of 12.56 to 39.25 rn/s. For each blade speed, 7 theoretical lengths of cut (3.9, 8.2, 12.1, 16.7, 21,8, 27.0 and 32.0 mm) were carried out. Three replicates were carried out for each length of cut - blade speed combination. This resulted in 147 experimental runs. Testing Protoco1 Two bales of straw were placed in the revolving chute and the baling wires were removed. The pulley of the torque meter input shaft was changed to give the required blade shaft speed. The engine output pulley was connected to the torque meter input pulley with the rubber belt. The belt tension was adjusted by moving the engine mounting platform. The depth of cut controlling lever arm was then placed on the selected notch. The blade shaft pulley was disengaged using the engaging/disengaging mechanism. The engine was turned on and the throttle was opened to increase the engine speed to 300 rpm. The blade shaft pulley and revolving chute were engaged by moving their respective engaging arms. The blade shaft rotational speed was fine tuned using the engine throttle. The hopper door was closed and the stopwatch was started. A large extra heavy duty trial plastic bag, labelled with the blade speed, the notch number and the trial number was then placed under the hopper. The hopper door was reopened and the experimental run lasted 2 minutes. Ten readings each were taken of the blade shaft speed, the torque meter input shaft speed and the torque meter sensor scale during the 2 minute period of each experimental run. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 104 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... The blade shaft pulley was then disengaged and the chute refilled with two bales. The notch selection lever arm was then moved up one notch and the test procedure was repeated. The torque meter input shaft pulley was changed and the above procedure was repeated. The weight of the trial bag was recorded for feed rate computation. A sample of the output chopped straw was retained and the rest of the straw was disposed off. The test was repeated three times for all notches. Straw Analysis Samples of the chopped straw were collected randomly for sieve analysis to determine the size distribution (length, width and weight fractions) of straw particles. An electrical sieve shaker (Hoskin Scientific Limited, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada), driven by a 0.25 hp (0.19 KW) electric motor was used. The motor runs at 1725 rpm (115 volts, 5.8 A and 60 Hz). The shaker contained six standard sieves and a bottom pan whose specifications are given in Table 1. The sieves were arranged according to the size of their openings. The bottom pan was placed under seive No. 6 and designated sieve No. 7 with sieve No. 1 at the top, sieve No. 2 directly below it and so on until sieve No. 6. The system of sieves was placed onto the electrically operated sieve shaker. A sample of the chopped straw was weighed and put into sieve No. 1 which was then covered with the sieve lid. The shaker was operated for 30 minutes. The chopped straws, collected in each sieve, were then analyzed for weight, length and width distribution. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The performance characteristics of the straw chopping system were evaluated at various rotational speed and depths of cut (notch number). Both the feed rate and energy of cut were calculated. The length, width and weight of straw were determined. Feed Rate The straw chopper output (feed rate) was calculated at various depths of cut and cutting speeds. An analysis of variance was performed on the feed rate data using Minitab (Ver 16.2.2, Minitab Inc., Pennsylvania, USA). The results are shown in Table 2. Both the depth of cut and cutting speed had significant effects on the feed rate at the 0.001 level. There was also a significant interaction between the depth of cut and cutting speed at the 0.001 level. Tukey Test was also performed on the data to test the differences among the means as shown in Table 3. All the levels of the depth of cut were significantly different from each other at the 0.05 level. The highest average feed rate (5.52 kg/min) was achieved at 3.9 mm depth of cut. All the levels of the cutting speed were also significantly different from one another at the 0.05 level. The highest average feed rate (10.52 kg/min) was achieved at the cutting speed of 2500 rpm. The results showed that decreasing the depth of cut and/or increasing the cutting speed increased the feed rate. The values ranged from 1.48 to 10.52 kg/minute depending on the depth of cut and cutting speed used. Elsaied et al. (2009) reported that feed rate increased linearly with increase in the drum speed, but the straw sizes decreased with increase in the drum speed and decreases in the moisture content of the material. Sudajan et al. (2003) and Sudajan et al. (2002) reported that when the drum speed was increased from 650 to 750 rpm the feed rate of the sunflower increased from 698 to 1058 kg/h, but when the drum speed was further increased to 800 rpm, the feed rate of the sunflower decreased to 965 kg/h. Vejasit and Salokhe (2004) reported that the feed rate played an important role in the rotational speed and capacity of the drum during threshing of soybean. They indicated that when the feed rate was increased the capacity of the drum increased with all rotational speeds and at different moisture content of the material. Emara (2000) and El-Behiry et al. (1997) reported that the straw sizes decreased with increasing drum speed and decreasing moisture content. Table 1. Sieve specifications. Sieve Number Mesh Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4 8 14 30 50 100 Bottom Pan www.theijes.com The IJES Size of Opening (mm) 4.7600 2.3800 1.4100 0.5950 0.2970 0.1490 Bottom Pan Page 105 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... Table 2. Analysis of variance of the feed rate data. Source DF SS MS F TOTAL 146 1515.77 MODEL 48 1442.65 30.06 40.28 D 6 106.09 17.68 23.70 S 6 1183.20 197.20 264.29 D*S 36 153.36 4.26 5.71 ERROR 98 73.12 0.75 D = Depth of cut (cm) S= Speed (rpm) R2 = 0.95 CV = 1.724% Table 3. Mean values of feed rate as affected by the depth of cut and cutting speed. Parameters Level N Mean Feed Rate (kg/min) Depth of cut (mm) 3.9 21 5.52 8.2 21 5.09 16.7 21 4.68 21.8 21 4.20 27.0 21 3.85 32.0 21 3.45 Speed (rpm) 800 21 1.48 1000 21 2.37 1250 21 3.43 1400 21 4.80 1750 21 5.53 2000 21 6.94 2500 21 10.52 Means with the same letters are not significantly different from one another at 0.05 level. P>F 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 Grouping A B C D E F A B C D E F G Energy of Cut The effects of both the depth of cut and cutting speed on the energy of cut were investigated. An analysis of variance was performed on the energy data as shown in Table 4. Both the depth of cut and cutting speed had significant effects on the power required for cutting the straw at the 0.001 level. There was also a significant interaction between the depth of cut and cutting speed at the 0.001 level. Tukey Test was also performed on the data to test the differences among the means as shown in Table 5. The depths of cut 12.1, 16.7, 21.8 and 27.0 mm were not significantly different from each other at the 0.05 level. However, they were significantly different from the depths of cut 3.9, 8.2 and 32.0 mm at the 0.05 level. The highest power consumption (5.02 hp) was observed with the 16.7 mm depth of cut. The results showed that the energy consumption increased when the depth of cut was increased up to 16.7 mm and then decreased when the depth of cut was further increased (from 16.7 to 32 mm). The cutting speeds 1000, 1250 and 1400 rpm were not significantly different from each other at the 0.05 level. They were, however, significantly different from the speeds of 800, 1750, 2000 and 2500 rpm at the 0.05 level. The highest power consumption (7.76 hp) was observed at cutting speed of 2500 rpm. The power required for cutting the straw varied from a low of 3.69 hp to a high of 5.02 hp (36%) when the depth of cut was changed from 3.9 mm to 32.0 mm (720%) while the power required to cut the straw varied from a low of 1.76 hp to a high of 7.76 hp (340%) when the speed was changed from 800 rpm to 2500 rpm (212%). The unit power (hp.h/t) improved by increasing the speed due to increases in the feed rate. The energy of cut was less than 0.2% of the energy content of the straw. Tavakoli et al. (2009) analyzed the power requirement for the particle size reduction of wheat straw on the basis of rotation speed of drum, screen size and number of blades. The results indicated that rotation speed of drum had significant effect on the energy consumption for cutting of wheat straw. When the rotation speed of the drum was increased from 400 to 800 rpm, the energy consumption increased from 1.506 to 5.144 kW and from 1.134 to 4.093 kW for screen sizes 2.5 and 4 cm, respectively. Increasing the rotation speed of drum increased the feed rate of the wheat straw which required greater power for size reduction of material when it passed through the threshing drum and screen. The energy required to cut straw increased with decreasing www.theijes.com The IJES Page 106 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... Table 4. Analysis of variance of the horse power data. Source TOTAL MODEL D S L*S ERROR D = Depth of cut (cm) S= Speed (rpm) R2 = 0.88 CV = 20.30% DF 146 48 6 6 36 98 SS 647.36 568.74 30.19 447.54 91.01 78.62 MS F P>F 11.49 5.03 74.59 2.53 0.80 14.77 6.27 92.97 3.15 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 Table 5. Mean values of power consumption affected by the depth of cut and cutting speed. Parameters Level N Mean Power (hp) 3.9 21 3.69 8.2 21 4.31 12.1 21 4.45 Depth of cut (mm) 16.7 21 5.02 21.8 21 5.01 27.0 21 4.45 32.0 21 4.27 800 21 1.76 1000 21 2.97 1250 21 3.87 Speed (rpm) 1400 21 4.58 1750 21 4.89 2000 21 5.07 2500 21 7.76 Means with the same letters are not significantly different from one another at 0.05 level. Grouping A AB C C C C B A B B B C D E screen size. Eight blades in each flange provides much finer straw particles and decreases the amount of energy required to cut the straw when compared to that of using 4 blades on each flange. Sieve Analysis Samples were collected at the third trial of the 800 rpm and notch number 4 combination and sieve analysis was performed. The straw collected from each sieve was analyzed for weight, length and width. The results are shown in Table 6. The sample whose analyses are reported was collected having at the third trial speed of 800 rpm and notch number 4 (1.2). Most of the straw (85-90%) was collected in sieves 2, 3 and 4. In general, there were more variations in the length of straw collected in each sieve than in width of the straws. The following are descriptions of the straw collected in each sieve. Sieve No. 1: The length of the straw collected in this sieve varied from 8 mm to 86 mm with an average length of 42.6 mm. Most of the straws was between 30 and 59 mm in length. The width of the straw varied from 1.5 mm to 7 mm with an average width of 3.8 mm. Most of the straw collected here were not sheared longitudinally and has nodes. Sieve No. 2: The length of the straw collected in this sieve varied from 3 mm to 50 mm with an average length of 22.5 mm. Most of the straws were between 10 and 35 mm in length. The width of the straw varied from 1 mm to 4 mm with an average width of 2.6 mm. Most of the straws were about 3 mm in width. Most of the straws collected were halved longitudinally. Many nodes were found in this sieve but the nodes here differed from the nodes collected in sieve No. 1 in that they were smaller in width and the parts of the stalk connected to the nodes were relatively very short. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 107 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... Table 6. The sieve opening size and straw weight, length and width distribution for a typical experimental run Sieve Number Opening Size (mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4.7600 2.3800 1.4100 0.5950 0.2990 0.1490 Bottom pan Weight (g) 1.82 14.90 22.30 16.75 4.81 2.58 0.53 63.69 (%) 2.90 23.39 35.01 26.30 7.55 4.05 0.80 100.00 Length (mm) Range Average 30.0-59.0 42.6 10.0-35.0 22.5 3.0-19.0 13.3 2.0-13.0 9.0 1.1-5.0 2.0 0.1-2.0 0.5 dust dust Width (mm) Range Average 3.0-5.0 3.8 2.0-3.0 2.6 1.5-2.0 1.7 1.0 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 dust dust Sieve No. 3: The length of the straw collected in this sieve varied from 3 mm to 38 m with an average length of 13.3 mm. Most of the straws were between 3 and 19 mm in length. The width of the straw varied from 1 mm to 3 mm with an average width of 1.7 mm. Most of the straw was about 2 mm in width. Most of the straw resulted from about 3 times longitudinal shearing of the straw stem. No nodes were found. Sieve No. 4: The length of the straw collected in this sieve varied from 2 mm to 19 mm with an average length of 9.0 mm. Most of the straws were between 2 and 13 mm in length. The width of the straw varied from about 1 mm in width. Most of the straw resulted from about 5 to 10 times longitudinal shearing of the straw stem. Sieve No. 5: The length of the straw collected in this sieve varied from about 0.5 to 20 mm with an average length of 2.0 mm. Most of the straws were between 1 and 5 mm in length. The width of the straw varied from very minute particles to about 0.3 mm with an average width of about 0.2 mm. Most of the straws were about 0.2 mm in width. Most of the straw resulted from about 25 times longitudinal shearing of the straw stem. Sieve No. 6: The length of the straw collected in this sieve varied from very tiny particles (about 0.1 mm) to 10 mm with an average length of 0.5 mm. Most of the straws were between 0.1 and 2 mm in length. The width of the straw varied of about 0.1 mm. Most of the straws were about 0.1 mm in width. Most of the straw resulted from about 50 times longitudinal shearing of the straw stem. Sieve No. 7 (Bottom Pan): Fine fluffy dust with straw fibres of about 3 mm long and about 0.05 mm in width were collected in this pan. The dust (tiny particles, not fibres) made up most of the contents of this pan. The straw fibres might have resulted from about 100 times longitudinal shearing of the straw stem. Straw Length The weighed average of the length of the straw values of each sieve was determined. Analysis of variance was performed on the length of straw data as shown in Table 7. Both the depth of cut and cutting speed had significant effects on the length of straw at the 0.001 level. There was a significant interaction between the depth of cut and cutting speed at the 0.001 level. Tukey Test was also performed on the straw length data (Table 8) to test the differences among the means. The results indicate that the length of straw was not significantly affected by the depth of cut at the 0.05 level. The longest average length of straw (17.20 mm) was obtained at the 3.9 mm depth of cut and the shortest average length of straw (15.82 mm) was obtained at the 32.0 mm depth of cut. The speeds of 1250, 1400, 1750 and 2000 rpm were not significantly different from each other at the 0.05 level. They were, however, significantly different from the speeds of 800, 1000, 2000 and 2500 rpm at the 0.05 level. The longest average length of straw (18.85 mm) was obtained at the cutting speed of 800 rpm. Adapa et al. (2011) and Adapa et al. (2010) studied the size reduction of barley, oat, canola and wheat straw using various screen sizes (1.6, 3.2, 6.4 and 30 mm) and calculated the geometric particle diameter or length, particle density and bulk density. The geometric mean particle length of the chopped straws ranged from 0.456 to 3.373 mm, 0.367 to 2.415 mm, 0.404 to 4.153 mm and 0.452 to 4.220 mm for barley, canola, oat and wheat straws. The average feed rate of the straw varied from 24 to 224 kg/h depending upon of the screen size. The results indicated that increase in screen size increased the geometric particle length, but decreased the bulk density, particle density and specific energy requirement Mani et al. (2004) determined the mean particle size diameter of wheat, barley and corn straws and switch grass (having moisture content less than 10%) using various screen sizes (0.8, 1.6 and 3.2 mm). The www.theijes.com The IJES Page 108 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... Table 7. Analysis of variance of the length of straw data. Source TOTAL MODEL D S D*S ERROR D = Depth of cut (cm) S= Speed (rpm) R2 = 0.72 CV = 8.89% DF 146 48 6 6 36 98 SS 647.36 568.74 30.19 447.54 91.01 78.62 MS F P>F 11.49 5.03 74.59 2.53 0.80 14.77 6.27 92.97 3.15 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 Table 7. Mean values of straw length as affected by the depth of cut and cutting speed. Parameters Level N Mean Straw Length (mm) Depth of cut(mm) 3.9 21 17.20 8.2 21 16.87 16.7 21 16.73 21.8 21 15.82 27.0 21 15.52 32.0 21 15.82 800 21 18.85 1000 21 17.95 1250 21 16.57 Speed (rpm) 1400 21 16.17 1750 21 16.07 2000 21 14.94 2500 21 14.19 Means with the same letters are not significantly different from one another at 0.05 level. Grouping A A AB BC BC C A B C C C D D results indicated that the mean particle size diameter of wheat, barley, corn and switch grass ranged from 0.28 to 0.6 mm, from 0.32 to 0.69 mm, from 0.19 to 0.41 mm and from 0.25 to 0.46 mm, respectively. The particle size increased with increases in the screen size. Chou et al. (2009) used a chopping system to cut air dried rice straws (ranging from 60 to 104 cm) into smaller sizes (10-5, 5-2 and <2 mm). The rice straws were cut by rotating blades while the straw is being smashed between the inner wall of the chamber and the rotating knife. The straw particles exit when they are smaller than the sieve. They indicated that the average feed rate increased as the rotation speed was increased. For the 10 mm length straw, the average feed rate increased from 2.3 to 2.5 kg/min as the rotation speed was increased from 620 to 980 rpm. V. CONCLUSIONS A straw chopping system, designed to provide continuous flow of straw to a fluidized bed gasifier, was constructed and evaluated. The system consists of a frame, a revolving chute, a cutting drum, a depth of cut controlling mechanism, a concave, an output hopper and a power unit. The performance characteristics (rotational speed, feed rate, depth of cut, length of cut and the energy required for chopping of straw) were determined. The chopping of straw was achieved with low energy consumption due to the proper design of the input hopper in that provided a uniform cutting of straw from the bale, the design of the input cutting mechanism with adjustable depth of cut and the correct sizing of the output hoper to provide an efficient removal of uniformly chopped straw. Both the depth of cut and the cutting speed significantly affected the length of straw, the straw feed rate and the power required for cutting the straw. Decreasing the depth of cut and/or increasing the cutting speed increased the straw feed rate while increasing the depth of cut and/or increasing the cutting speed increased the power consumption and decreased the straw length. The feed rate for chopping straw ranged from 1.48 to 10.52 kg/min, the power consumption ranged from 1.76 to 7.76 hp and straw length ranged from 14.49 to 18.85 mm, depending upon the depth of cut and cutting speed used. The unit power (hp.h/t) improved with increases in the cutting speed due to increases in the feed rate. The energy of cut was less than 0.2% of the energy content of the straw. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 109 Development And Evaluation Of Straw... The sieve analysis of the sample indicated that 85-90% of the samples were collected in the sieves 2 (2.38 mm). The remaining 10-15% had a straw length of 0.59-2.38 mm. VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The research was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] Adapa, P., L. Tabil and G. Schoenau, 2010. Physical and frictional properties of non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw grinds, Powder Technology, 201, 230-241. Adapa, P., L. Tabil and G. Schoenau, 2011. Grinding performance and physical properties of a non-treated and steam exploded barley, canola, oat and wheat straw, Biomass and Bioenergy, 35, 549-561. Bridgewater, A. V., 1995. The technical and economic feasibility of biomass gasification for power generation, Fuel, 74(5), 631653. Chou, C. S., S. H. Lin and W. C. Lu, 2009. Preparation and characterization of solid biomass fuel made from rice straw and rice bran, Fuel Processing and Technology, 90, 980-987. El-Behiry, A. A., M. I. Ward and A. M. El-Sherbieny, 1997. Performance evaluation of some wheat thresher machines under different conditions, Misr Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 14(4), 149-160. Elsaied, G. H., A. Elfatih and E. M. Arif, 2009. Studying a new combine threshing rotor design, American Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 3(4), 4085-4093. Emara, Z. M. I., 2006. Modification of the threshing drum of a stationary thresher to suit separating flax crop, Misr Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 23(2), 324-345. Ghaly, A.E. 1973. Some factors affecting performance of a locally made threshing machine. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis. Alexandria University, Alexandria. Jenkins, B. M., L. L. Baxter, T. R. Miles Jr. and T. R. Mile, 1998. Combustion properties of biomass, Fuel processing Technology, 54, 17-46. Mani, S., L. G. Tabil and S. Sokhansanj, 2004. Grinding performance and physical properties of wheat and barley straws, corn stover and switchgrass, Biomass and Bioenergy, 27, 339-352. Nutalapati, D., R. Gupta, B. Moghtaden and T. F. Wall, 2007. Assessing slagging and fouling during biomass combustion: A thermodynamic approach allowing for alkali/ash reactions, Fuel Processing Technology, 88, 1044-1052. Sadaka, S. S., A. E. Ghaly and M. A. Sabbah, 2002. Two-phase biomass air-steam gasification model for fluidized bed reactors: Part III-model validation, Biomass and Bioenergy, 22, 479-487. Sudajan, S., V. M. Salokhe, K. Triratanasirichai, 2002. Effect of type of drum, drum speed and feed rate on sunflower threshi ng, Biosystems Engineering, 84 (4), 413-421. Sudajan, S., V. M. Salokhe, S. Chusilp and V. Plermkamon, 2003. Power requirement and performance factors of a sunflower thresher, Agricultural Science Journal, 34 (4-6), 205-208. Tabil, L., P. Adapa and M. Kashaninejad, 2011. Biomass feed stock pre-processing-part 1: Pre-treatment. In: Aurelio, M and D. S. Bernardes, Biofuel’s engineering process technology. InTech, 411-438, ISBN: 978-953-307-480-1. Tavakoli, H., S. S. Mohtasebi, A. Jafari and D. Mahdavinejad, 2009. Power requirement for particle size reduction of wheat straw as a function of straw threshing unit parameters, American Journal of Crop Science, 3(4), 231-236. Vejasit, A. and V. M. Salokhe, 2004. Studies on machine crop parameters of an axial flow thresher for threshing soybean, International Commission of Agricultural Engineering (CIGR), 6, 1-12. Werther, J., M. Saenger, E. U. Hartge, T. Ogada and Z. Siagi, 2000. Combustion of agricultural residues, Process in Energy and Combustion Science,26, 1-27.54 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 110

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 129-135 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Microcontroller Based Green House Control Device 1 Alausa Dele W.S, 2Keshinro Kazeem Kolawole 1 Department Of Computer Engineering the Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Department of Computer Engireeng Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu 2 -----------------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT----------------------------------------------MICROCONTROLLER BASED Green House control device is used in the automatic control and monitoring of Equipments and quantities such as screening installations, heating, cooling, lighting, temperature, soil Moisture level and other quantities/conditions in a Green House, with effective monitoring of all quantities therein, hence eliminating need for Human monitoring. With an enhanceable feature it integrates and automates by turning ON or OFF all monitoring devices in the house as well as provides suggestions for remedies when the need arises. This is due to the MCU technology that can be easily modified and re-modified with portability. There is also an alarm circuit to call the attention of the Supervisor. This study focuses on determining the effectiveness and functionality of green house control device. Keywords: green house, heating, radiation, temperature, watering, ventilation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 30, July - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November - 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- I. INTRODUCTION A greenhouse is a building in which plants are grown for commercial or research purposes. These structures range in size from small sheds to very large buildings, with different types of covering materials, such as a glass or plastic roof and frequently glass or plastic walls; it heats up because incoming visible solar radiation (for which the glass is transparent) from the sun is absorbed by plants, soil, and other things inside the building. Air warmed by the heat from hot interior surfaces is retained in the building by the roof and wall. In addition, the warmed structures and plants inside the greenhouse re-radiate some of their thermal energy in the infrared spectrum, to which glass is partly opaque, so some of this energy is also trapped inside the glasshouse. However, this latter process is a minor player compared with the former (convective) process. Thus, the primary heating mechanism of a greenhouse is convection. Ventilation is one of the most important components in a successful greenhouse. If there is no proper ventilation, greenhouses and their plants can become prone to problems (Zagade, Kawitkar, 2012). The main purposes of ventilation are to regulate the temperature to the optimal level, and to ensure movement of air and thus prevent build-up of plant pathogens (such as Botrytis cinerea) that prefer still air conditions. Ventilation also ensures a supply of fresh air for photosynthesis and plant respiration, and may enable important pollinators to access the greenhouse crop. Ventilation can be achieved via use of vents - often controlled automatically - and recirculation fans. Embedded green house monitoring and control is proposed to provide a highly detailed micro-climate data for plants within a greenhouse environment with an innovative method of growing temperate crops in a tropical environment using microclimatic conditions. The greenhouse was equipped with conventional wired sensors that provide readings of the air temperature, light intensity and nutrient solution temperature in the mixing tank. The acidity and concentration of the nutrient solution were manually measured, and adjusted accordingly, and high resolution data, collected with the deployment of a network of wireless sensors to provide sufficient data to develop a model for the growth of these crops under aeroponic conditions(Leong et al., 2009). The proposed system is an embedded system which will monitor and control the microclimatic parameters of a greenhouse on a regular basis round the clock for cultivation of crops or specific plant species which could maximize their production over the whole crop growth season and to eliminate the difficulties involved in the system by reducing human intervention to the best possible extent using sensors, Analog to Digital Converter, microcontroller and actuators (Stipanicev, Marasovic 2003).When any of the above mentioned climatic parameters cross a safety threshold which has to be maintained to protect the crops, the sensors sense the change and the microcontroller reads this from the data at its input ports after being converted to a digital form by the ADC (Leong et al., 2009). The microcontroller then performs the needed actions by employing relays until the strayed-out parameter has been brought back to its optimum level. Since a microcontroller is used as the heart of the system, it makes the set-up low-cost and effective nevertheless. As the system also employs an LCD display for continuously alerting the user about the condition inside the greenhouse, the entire set-up becomes user friendly. Thus, this system eliminates the drawbacks of the existing set-ups and is designed as an easy to maintain, flexible and low cost solution(Kiran et al., 2012). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 129 Microcontroller Based Green House … II. IMPORTANCE OF GREEN HOUSE Greenhouses protect crops from too much heat or cold and help to keep out pests(Gill et al., 2006). Light and temperature control allows greenhouses to turn in arable land into arable land, thereby improving food production in marginal environments because greenhouses allow certain crops to be grown throughout the year, greenhouses are increasingly important in the food supply of high latitude countries(Thomas et al., 2001). One of the largest greenhouse complexes in the world is in Almeria, Spain, where greenhouses cover almost 50,000 acres (200 km2). It is sometimes called the sea of plastics. 2.1 Problem and Solution Encountered On Green House Irrigation is the important thing on a greenhouse system. The water we provide, which is the main element will make sure the plants survive on certain circumstances. As we all know, most of the gardener use the manual system to irrigate their plant but this system is not efficient. The plants will either die if there is not enough water supplies to the plant or vice versa. Plus the gardener must often monitor their greenhouse to ensure the conditions of their plant are in the good health. In order to maintain the condition and overcome the problem, the automatic watering system and remote monitoring is used. This will reduce the time if using automatic rather than manual way of watering. Fewer workers are needed to maintain the plants or crops. The sensors such as temperature sensor (Thermistor) and soil moisture probe are used to control the temperature and watering in the greenhouse. (Kenneth, 1998). III. METHODOLOGY This project involved the implementing of a green house control device in order to control, monitor and maintain the desired temperature in the green house by turning ON the Heater/cooling system as when due also study the soil moisture content (when water is needed) by turning the water valve ON or OFF. 3.1 Description Of The Device The block diagram below shows how the inputs section is connected into the microcontroller through an arrow, the arrow indicate that data is passing through the microcontroller. The output section is connected out of the microcontroller through the arrow. Furthermore, the input section are assign to their own pins in the microcontroller and processed to give an output, while output section are assign to their own pins in the microcontroller, to archive the construction of green house control device. POWER SUPPLY UNIT CONTROL UNIT (MICRONCONT ROLLER) TEMPERATURE SENSOR (NTC THERMISTOR) SOIL MOISTURE PROBE OUTPUT SECTION (LED, BUZZER) FLOAT SWITCH Fig 1: Shows the block diagram of a green house control device. 3.2 Various Units Of The Device This unit consists of an AC power supply unit, well rectified into DC and further regulated to 5v respectively. The system comprises of rectified 5v with the AC or a 9volts battery, since the operating voltage of all the units is 5volts, a Thermistor, measuring the temperature of the surrounding or anybody brought near the sensor, a pair of black and red probe used to determine the result of the output section, the co-ordinating section, and an output section made of devices like LEDs, Buzzer. This entire device works based on the instruction sent to them by the CPU to carry out a specific operation in maintaining or correcting a condition(Kiran et al, 2012). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 130 Microcontroller Based Green House … Transducers A transducer is a device which measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer (Kiran et al, 2012). The sensors used in this system are: 1. Light Sensor (LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)) 2. Humidity Sensor 3. Temperature Sensor Analog to Digital Converter In physical world parameters such as temperature, pressure, humidity, and velocity are analog signals. A physical quantity is converted into electrical signals. We need an analog to digital converter (ADC), which is an electronic circuit that converts continuous signals into discrete form so that the microcontroller can read the data. Analog to digital converters are the most widely used devices for data acquisition. Analog world Transducer Signal Conditioning Analog to Digital Converter Microcontroller Fig. 2: Getting data from the analog world Microcontroller (pic16f873A) The microcontroller is the heart of the proposed embedded system. It constantly monitors the digitized parameters of the various sensors and verifies them with the predefined threshold values. It checks if any corrective action is to be taken for the condition at that instant of time. In case such a situation arises, it activates the actuators to perform a controlled operation. Liquid Crystal Display A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel consists of a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Relays A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier. Power Supply Connection The power supply section consists of step down transformers of 230V primary to 9V and 12V secondary voltages for the +5V and +12V power supplies respectively. SOFTWARE MPLAB: The MPLAB is an integrated development environment used to create software to be run on embedded systems (like a microcontroller). It allows for such software to be written either in assembly or C programming languages and for that software to be simulated on a computer before being loaded onto the microcontroller. Device Database: It contains information, about more than 400 supported microcontrollers. Peripheral Simulation: The MPLAB provides complete simulation for the CPU and on chip peripherals of most embedded devices. Programmer The programmer used is a powerful programmer for the PIC series of microcontrollers. Major parts of this programmer are Serial Port, Power Supply and Firmware microcontroller. Serial data is sent and received from 9 pin connector and converted to/from TTL logic/RS232 signal levels by MAX232 chip. A Male to Female serial port cable, connects to the 9 pin connector of hardware and another side connects to back of computer. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 131 Microcontroller Based Green House … 3.2.1 Central Processing Unit This unit is solely made up of a Microcontroller and its circuitry, the MCU accepts all inputs from its input ports/ transducers, process the inputs commands and sends out the required output through its output ports to the output devices. The microcontroller is available only in 28 pins packages, I/O ports are port A, B, C, each ports are assign its own features; Port A pin 2 to pin7, Port B pin 21 to pin 28, Port C pin 11 to pin 14, pin 15 to pin 18. Each ports and pins are used to perform the input and output operations in other to archive the desired goal (green house control circuit). Additional functions may include A-D converters, serial communication, flash program memory and more. Fig 3: Shows pin-out of the microcontroller pic16f873A 3.2.2 Input Section This unit is made up of Input devices like Thermistor, Soil Moisture Probe and Float Switch to measure and monitor the required quantities/conditions. The thermistor is connected to the microcontroller through Port A pin 3 RA1/AN1, the soil moisture probe is connected to Port A pin 2 RA0/AN0, power supply +5v VDD to microcontroller pin 1 MCLR/Vpp and float switch is connected to the microcontroller Port C pin 11 of RC0/T1OSO/T1CK1. This unit sends the results to the CPU for further processing and performing of the solutions. 3.2.3 Output Section This unit is made up of output devices like LEDs, Buzzer, water valve, Heater control Unit. The buzzer is connected to Port B pin 22 RB1 of the microcontroller buzzes on the instruction of the CPU, Its function is to raise an Alarm, the LEDs is connected to microcontroller Port B pin 24 RB3/PGM as water valve and pin 27 RB6/PGC as heater. This entire device works based on the instruction sent to them by the CPU to carry out a specific operation in maintaining or correcting a condition. IV. CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING 4.1 Construction Of The Microcontroller Circuitry The Microcontroller sockets were soldered onto the Vero Board, and then soldered were the 4MHz crystal oscillator and 33pF ceramic capacitor to the socket’s pin 18 and 19 respectively. Also, soldered were the wires to all the input and output pins on the socket so as to aid easy linking of the central processing unit to the other peripheral units. 4.2 Construction Of The Input And Output Section The input devices were connected to the appropriate pins of the Microcontroller, so also the output devices. The microcontroller’s output was connected to the BC 547 Transistor with 10 kilo ohms resistor to reduce the flow of current into the transistor. Then the collector leg of the transistor was connected to the negative terminal of the 12v buzzer and the emitter leg to the ground of the circuit respectively. The transistor serves as a switch; it switches ground to the buzzer as soon as it is biased by the microcontroller. The positive terminal of the buzzer is connected to the output of the power supply unit. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 132 Microcontroller Based Green House … 4.3 Testing The physical realization of this work was carried out to achieve the conceived idea. Here the work will be seen not just on paper but also as a finished hardware. After carrying out all the paper design and analysis, the hardware was implemented and tested to ensure it’s working ability and was finally constructed to meet desired specification (Kiran et al, 2012). SOIL MOISTURE Tolerance= ± 0.2 V at 270C TABLE 1: SOIL MOISTURE SENSOR READINGS Soil Condition Soil is dry Optimum level of soil Moisture Slurry soil LIGHT Transducer Optimum Range 0V 1.9- 3.5V >3.5V Tolerance = ±0.1V TABLE 2: LIGHT SENSOR READINGS Illumination Status Transducer Optimum Range OPTIMUM ILLUMINATION DIM LIGHT DARK NIGHT 0V-0.69V 0.7V-2.5V 2.5V- 3V 3V-3.47V HUMIDITY Tolerance= ±0.1V RH = ((Vout / Vcc) – 0.16)/0.0062, typical at 25°C where, Vsupply = 4.98V TABLE 3: HUMIDITY SENSOR READINGS Percentage RH(RELATIVE HUMIDITY) 0% 0% to 9.81% 12.9% to 20.1% 22.7% to 30.06% 30.8% to 40.5% 41.3% to 50.3% 51% to 60.02% 61.6% to 70.5% 71% to 80.2% 81.1% to 90% 91% to 100% Transducer Optimum Range 0-0.8V 0.8-1.1V 1.2-1.45V 1.5-1.725V 1.75-2.05V 2.075-2.35V 2.375-2.65V 2.7-2.975V 3-3.275V 3.3-3.6V 3.6-3.9V TEMPERATURE Temperature (0C) = (Vout /5) *100 (0C /V) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 133 Microcontroller Based Green House … TABLE 4: TEMPERATURE SENSOR READINGS Temperature range in degree Celsius 100C 100 to 200C 200 to 300C 300 to 400C 400 to 500C 500 to 600C 600 to 700C 700 to 800C 800 to 900C 900 to 1000C Temperature sensor output( Vcc ) 0.5V 0.5-1.0V 1.0-1.5V 1.5-2.0V 2.0-2.5V 2.5-3.0V 3.0-3.5V 3.5-4.0V 4.0-4.5V 4. 5-5.0V 4.4 Implementation And Procedure The implementation of this work was done on the breadboard. The power supply was first derived from a bench power supply in the laboratory. (To confirm the workability of the circuits before the power supply stage was soldered). Stage by stage testing was done according to the block representation on the breadboard, before soldering of circuit commences on Vero board. The various circuits and stages were soldered in tandem to meet desired workability of the hardware. Three general steps were followed to appropriately select the control system (Kiran et al, 2012): Step # 1: Identify measurable variables important to Production. Step # 2: Investigate the control strategies using threshold sensors that directly affect actuation of devices. Step # 3: Identify the software and the hardware to be used considering factors such as reliability, support, previous experiences with the equipment (successes and failures), and cost. 4.5 Programming Of The Microcontroller The microcontroller controls all the activities of other devices and all other components are connected as input and output peripherals to it. The Microcontroller is programmed to always check on the input port from the input devices, this aid continuous monitoring and efficient maintaining of the required conditions. Step 1: Writing of the source code using Notepad. Step 2: Assembling of the Source Code to Machine Code (Object code) The source code is assembled using ASM-4 assembler; the assembler assembled the source code successfully without errors. Separating the HEX file to be burned to the Microcontroller. Step 3: Burn the HEX files to the Microcontroller using a universal programmer and a Turbo Link program. After burning of the HEX files to the Microcontroller, eject the chip from the programmer. V. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The design result was achieved when the thermistor (NTC) is connected to the microcontroller through Port A pin 3 RA1/AN1 as input, outputting through Port B pin 27 RB6/PGC as heater or temperature. When the temperature is above 20oc the voltage across the thermistor will be greater than 1.4v the LED will turn ON, when the temperature is below 20oc the voltage across the thermistor will be less than 1.4v, the LED OFF. The soil moisture probe is connected to Port A pin 2 RA0/AN0 as input, outputting through Port B pin 24 RB3/PGM as water valve. When Pin 2 (RA0/AN0) is pulled up to 5v, the moisture probe is placed in water (i.e. moisture is present in the soil) there will be a resistance across the probe thereby developing a voltage across the probe, as such the voltage on that (RA0/AN0) pin 2 will reduce below 5v. When the voltage drops below 5v the moisture LED will be OFF, but when there is no moisture in the soil the LED come ON indicating a dry soil. The float switch is connected to the microcontroller Port C pin 11 of RC0/T1OSO/T1CK1 and it can be set up to sense either rising or falling water levels - rising water to measure when a container is full or water has reached a certain maximum level, falling water to measure when a container is empty or has reached a certain minimum level. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 134 Microcontroller Based Green House … VI. CONCLUSION A step-by-step approach in designing the microcontroller based system for measurement and control of the four essential parameters for plant growth, i.e. temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and light intensity, has shown that the system performance is quite reliable and accurate. This will reduce the time of using the manual way of watering. Fewer workers are needed to maintain the plants or crops. The sensors such as temperature sensor (Thermistor) and soil moisture probe are used to control the temperature and watering in the greenhouse. The system has successfully overcome quite a few shortcomings of the existing systems by reducing the power consumption, maintenance and complexity, at a reduced cost and at the same time providing a flexible and precise form of maintaining the environment. REFERENCES [1.] [2.] [3.] [4.] [5.] [6.] [7.] [8.] [9.] Stipanicev D., Marasovic J. (2003). Network embedded greenhouse monitoring and control. Proceedings of 2003 IEEE Conference on Control Applications. PIC microcontroller Data Sheet, Microchip. SENSORS- The Journal of Applied Sensing Technology, Advanstar Communications Inc. S.U. Zagade, R.S. Kawitkar (2012). Wireless Sensor Network for Greenhouse. International Journal of Science and Technology, Volume 2 No.3, ISSN 2224-3577 Thomas, Andrew L. and Richard J. Crawford, Jr. (2001). Performance of an energy-efficient, solar-heated greenhouse in southwest Missouri. Southwest Missouri Agricultural Research and Education Center 2001 Research Report. University of Missouri-Columbia. Gill, S., R.A. Cloyd, J.R. Baker, D.L. Clement, and E. Dutky(2006). Pests & Diseases of Herbaceous Perennials: The Biological Approach. Ball Publishing Co., Batavia, IL. Kenneth M. Chomitz (1998). Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions:Problems, precedents, solutions. Development Research Group, Carbon Offsets Unit. Kiran Sahu, Susmita Mazumdar (2012). Digitally Greenhouse Monitoring and Controlling of System based on Embedded System. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 3, Issue 1, ISSN 2229-5518. Leong Boon Tik, Chan Toong Khuan, Sellappan Palaniappan(2009). Monitoring of an Aeroponic Greenhouse with a Sensor Network. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security.Vol.9. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 135

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 32-41||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Environmental Impact of Tombia Bridge Construction Across Nun River In Central Niger Delta, Nigeria E.I. Seiyaboh*, I.R. Inyang and A.H. Gijo Department of Biological Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, P. M. B. 71, Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria --------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-------------------------------------------------------An assessment of some aspects of the Environmental Impact of Tombia Bridge Construction across the Nun River was carried out. The construction phase of the Tombia bridge project was observed by this study to have the potential to increase erosion, turbidity, sediment deposition and accumulation levels around and downstream of the project site. The test results showed high turbidity values of 64 NTU in the Bridge Station and 8 – 18 NTU recorded at the downstream and upstream stations of the Bridge. Phosphate values of 0.12 – 0.14mg/l recorded at the Bridge stations were higher than the 0.06 – 0.09mg/l in the other stations. Nitrate values of 4.12 – 4.15mg/l recorded at the Bridge stations were also comparatively higher than 0.5mg/l in the other stations. These results were indicative of influence of Bridge construction on turbidity, phosphate and nitrate levels. Therefore, bridge construction activities within the channel of the Nun River have adverse effect on the water quality. The bridge construction activities also have the potential to cause a temporary increase in suspended sediments. Aquatic habitat will be disturbed in the vicinity of the construction area. Aquatic life uses of this portion of the Nun River will be negatively impacted. The bridge structure itself was observed during this study to cause a constant upwelling of sediments around the bridge location and is confirmed by very high turbidity values of 64NTU recorded in the area and downstream of the bridge location. The distribution of particle size fractions shows a high proportion of sand particles at the Bridge stations; indicative of higher energy environment. Sediments in the study area were generally acidic (ranging from 4.21 –5.61): acidic sediments can have an adverse effect on fisheries distribution and other benthic organisms. Available Phosphate values of 2.71 – 17.24mg/l and Nitrate values of 3.11 – 13.4mg/l recorded in this study were higher than those in other studies. Bridge construction activities within the cannel of the Nun River have adverse effect on the sediment quality. KEYWORDS: Environmental Impact, Tombia Bridge, Nun River, Central Niger Delta ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------Date of Submission:. 2 November, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- I. INTRODUCTION This study addresses potential short- and long-term water quality, sediment quality and biological impacts from the various activities associated with the Bridge construction. Sediments threaten the integrity of many rivers and coastlines. In this study the threat to Nun River ecosystems – biological communities and physical habitats – posed by increased turbidity, accelerated sedimentation rates and change in the nature of sediments (for example, from sandy to muddy) was investigated. Such changes in sediment regime may be caused by both land-based (such as catchments development, production-forest harvesting, road building) and water-based (bridge construction, eradication of noxious vegetation) activities. Tombia Bridge is located along Amassoma – Tombia – Okutukutu road crossing the Nun River in Bayelsa State (Central Niger Delta). The length of the Bridge is 639.2m and the width is 11m. The foundation consists of driven groups of pile steel casings of 914mm and 812mm diameter in water and 406mm diameter on land. Pile caps were reinforced insitu concrete and the piers were also reinforced concrete, rectangular shaped with curved ends. The super structure is a Post – tensioned box girder of 13 spans.With a total length of 195km and average width of 370m, the Nun River is considered the largest in Bayelsa State (FPD, 1980). It flows through several communities in Bayelsa State, where it is used for domestic / drinking purposes, recreational, fishing and ecological assets. But, owing to rapidly expanding developmental activities within its channels, it is subject to the effects and influences of these developments. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 32 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge… II. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research tools employed in this study includes the following: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Water Quality Assessment (Physico-chemical & Biological Monitoring) For the purposes of this study the area was divided into the stations. Water samples were collected from two (2) points on each of the stations. The samples for gross physico-chemical parameters were collected in pre-rinsed 1 litre plastic containers. The samples for dissolved oxygen (DO) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) were collected in 150m / DO bottles. The samples for BOD 5 were fixed after five days incubation at ambient temperature (28oC) in the absence of light. Physicochemical parameters analysed were Temperature, pH, Turbidity, Conductivity, DO, BOD 5, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Phosphate and Nitrate. All the samples were treated and analysed using the methods described by APHA (1990). Sediment Quality Assessment Sediment samples were collected from three (3) points on each of the stations in the study area. Sediment samples were collected by scooping bottom sediments using a grab into black cellophane bags. The following sediment physico-chemical parameters were analysed in the laboratory; pH, Particle Size analysis, Phosphate and Nitrate. The samples were treated and analysed using methods described by APHA (1990). Symtomized Questionnaire Survey Symptomised questionnaires were administered to 30 respondents from Tombia which is the community where the bridge is located. The purpose of this survey is to identify their perceptions; coping strategies during the bridge construction activities; and their willingness to participate in mitigation measures that will be aimed at reducing their level of vulnerability to possible environmental and ecological change. Semi-structured interviews with key informants which includes all stakes holders in the matter including independent environmental organisations, Observation and terrestrial photography at the sample community; and Desk study for the review of literature on bridge construction hazards, impacts, mitigation measures, approaches and stakeholders participation in sustainable impact mitigation. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the concentration of various parameters in river water and sediment samples are shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The following potential Environmental Impact observations were made during the course of this study: [1] SEDIMENT DEPOSITION & ACCUMULATION Deposition refers to the temporary emplacement of particles on the seabed. Accumulation is the net sum of many episodes of sediment deposition and removal. The difference between rates of deposition and accumulation affects the ability of an environment to record sedimentary events (McKee et al., 1983).The design of culvert and bridge systems is based on allowing the natural and storm flows to pass through the system, while also maintaining some minimum freeboard upstream. Sometimes, the design criteria force the culvert or bridge geometry to be wider than the natural width of the channel. In these cases, an artificial channel expansion is required. Artificial expansions disturb the natural flow of the channel, and these disturbances can lead to sediment deposition within the culvert or bridge system. Sediment deposition within a culvert or bridge system may cause significant problems to the hydraulic performance of the system in the event of a large storm event. In addition, the deposition also poses a maintenance problem that must be addressed.It was observed during this study that there was significant occurrence of sediment deposition and accumulation around the bridge location which is indicative of direct effect on fish spawning and production. Sediment transport and eventual deposition within culvert and bridge systems can be a significant problem. It has been well documented that increased sediment deposition can adversely change sediment habitat conditions. Potential direct effects of sediment deposition and accumulation as a result of the Bridge construction on fish include changes to (Anderson, et al., 1996): 1. Fish behaviour (e.g. habitat selection), 2. the abundance and/or type of food organisms, 3. survival and, or development of egg; and, www.theijes.com The IJES Page 33 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge… 4. fish survival as a result of mortality, or increased stress which can reduce their growth rates and/or resistance to disease; In addition, sediment deposition and accumulation can modify the suitability of fish habitats. Identified mechanisms causing changes in sediment suitability include: 1. 2. 3. altered porosity in the streambed affecting the development of fish embryo and benthic invertebrate production; reduction in he area of intergravel habitat for and juvenile fish; and benthic organisms, reduction in available over wintering habitat for fish by filling of pools and interstitial voids. [2] RIVER CURRENT DYNAMICS Rivers are restless and willful. Water flowing in a smooth and uniform channel behaves in straightforward, predictable ways, following rules laid down by the laws of physics. When water and landscape meet to form rivers, however, the result is always a complex harmony—and sometimes chaos.Now when a river finds an obstruction—a mid-stream boulder, say, poking up above the surface. The river flows around it. The once-straight lines of the current spread apart, only to close together as soon as the obstruction has been left behind. Moreover, water now flows back upstream just behind the rock, striving to fill the "hole" in the river left by the temporary parting of the waters. If the river's current is slow, the result is a gentle eddy. But if the river is speeding along in flood, and particularly if the boulder is then completely submerged, the result is a "hole" in fact as well as name, often with a steep wave breaking upriver at the downstream edge (Tamia, 2001). Midstream boulders aren't the only things to get in the way of a river's rush to the sea, of course. Wherever a ledge extends out into the channel from one bank, the river must either cascade over it or go around the end. When it goes around, the whole force and volume of the river is squeezed through the remaining gap, whether large or small. The river speeds up there, and the resulting tongue of water, or chute, can be both fast and turbulent. A pair of mid-river boulders can have the same effect, forcing much of a river's current through the narrow gap between them. The characteristic downstream-pointing "V" that identifies the resulting chute is one of the whitewater paddler's watermarks. And what if a ledge extends all the way across a river, reaching right from one bank to the other? Then it has the same effect as a man-made dam. As the pool behind the dam continuously overflows, a river-wide upstream eddy—a reversal—forms below the ledge. If a reversal is powerful enough— the drop would not be very great if the volume of water flowing over it is sufficient, and the lip of the ledge is smooth—it can be deadly, holding any unlucky swimmer in a recirculating trap with no exit but a fluctuating downstream jet at the very bottom of the river (Tamia, 2001). The description above confirms the observations in this study. The Tombia Bridge is suspended by massive boulders that have been driven into the streambed, these are current breakers. This study revealed water turbulence around the bridge location.The implication of this is that there is a continuous upwelling in the area, and as a result, there is a continuous resuspension of sediment in the area (Reid and Anderson, 1998). The result of this phenomenon is that the Nun River is highly turbid around this area, which confirms the very high turbidity values recorded in this study i.e. 64NTU. A further confirmation is the colour of the river around this area. [3] DREDGING AND CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY During dredging, resuspension of sediment in the water column is likely to occur as a result of dredging action at the sediment-water interface, transfer of the sediment to a transporting vessel, slop or leakage from the vessel, and disposal of the sediment. Resuspension of the sediments causes increased turbidity which may adversely affect aquatic life by clogging gills, decreasing visibility, and preventing oxygen diffusion. However, since the increased turbidity is expected to be short term and only cover a limited area, the impact should not be significant (Richard, et al., 1997). Resuspension of sediments may result in release of constituents such as heavy metals from the sediment into the water. Therefore, water quality parameters, such as turbidity, heavy metals, and nutrients could be affected during the dredging operations. However, studies have found that there is little release of metals from reduced sediments in oxygenated water during dredging operations. Water concentrations of some metals have been shown to decrease by four orders of magnitude within one hour of dredging, with metals released from anoxic marine sediments tending to adsorb onto freshly precipitated iron/manganese oxyhydroxides in less than an hour (Burton and Allen, 1992). Any increase in the above parameters is likely to be short term, and the water quality is expected to return to normal levels shortly after. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 34 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge… Disposal of Dredged Material for Levee Reinforcement This section addresses the use of dredged material for levee reinforcement. Short- and long-term impacts associated with use of dredged material for levee construction and/or reinforcement are the potential release of contaminants from the dredged material and their possible introduction into surface water and/or ground water. The major reactions resulting in contaminant release are oxidation and acidification. In the water environment, most sediments exist in an anoxic, or oxygen free environment. The diffusion of oxygen in sediment is so slow that the oxygen content declines rapidly with increasing depth. A strong oxygen concentration gradient may exist over a depth of millimeters. Upon transfer of the sediment to land, previously anoxic sediments slowly become oxygenated, or oxidized. This process may take a period of years, depending on the amount of dredged material, the redox potential of the sediment, and the amount of oxidizable matter. During this process, metals, trace elements and other contaminants associated with the oxidizable fractions may be released as these fractions are oxidized. Oxidation of the dredged material may result in acidification of the sediment; this confirms the findings of this study. Oxidation reactions result in the production of hydrogen ions and lower the pH of the sediment. The amount of acidification is dependent on the neutralization capacity of the sediment. Acidification may result in the displacement and release of metals by the increased concentration of hydrogen ions. Rainfall can percolate through the dredged material, and depending on the nature of the material, may carry contaminants to groundwater and soil. Surface runoff from rainfall can flow over the dredged material, carrying the contaminants into surface waters. The potential for loading of contaminants into the aquatic environment are a potential concern to aquatic life or human health if concentrations are above water quality standards. Exposure of Contaminated Sediments A long-term impact associated with the removal of sediments during dredging is the potential exposure of contaminated sediments. Mining and other sources of pollution can result in contamination of surface sediments. Over time, deposition of upstream sediments can bury the contaminated sediments, effectively sealing them off from the aquatic organisms. During the dredging activities, the upper layers of sediment are removed, potentially exposing previously contaminated sediments. Benthic organisms are exposed to the contaminants through uptake from pores, body walls, respiratory surfaces, and through ingestion. There is also the possibility that dredging may remove more contaminated sediments and expose less contaminated sediments, thereby improving the benthic habitat. [4] WATER HYACINTH (Eichhornia crassipes) This study revealed the presence of water hyacinth congregated around the bridge location. The environmental impacts of water hyacinth observed during this study are discussed below. Water hyacinth is one of the worst weeds in the world – aquatic or terrestrial (Holm et al., 1977). Its floating mats can weigh up to 200 tons per acre. Economic Importance Water hyacinth is listed as one of the most productive plants on earth and is considered the world’s worst aquatic plant. It forms dense mats that interfere with navigation, recreation, irrigation and power generation. These mats competitively exclude native submersed and floating-leaved plants. Low oxygen conditions develop beneath water hyacinth mats and the dense floating mats impede water flow and create good breeding conditions for mosquitoes. Water hyacinths are a severe environmental and economic problem in many areas of the world with a sub-tropical or tropical climate. This species has rapidly spread throughout inland and coastal fresh water bays, lakes, and marshes in Nigeria and in other countries. Environmental Impact  Eichhornia crassipes mats clog waterways, making boating, fishing and almost all other water activities, impossible. This explains findings by the researcher during this study of the reluctance of fishermen to fish around the bridge location, as a result of the accumulation of water hyacinth in the area.  Water flow through water hyacinth mats is greatly diminished  An acre of water hyacinth can weigh more than 200 tons; infestations can be many, many acres in size; mats may double their size in as little as 6 – 18 days (Mitchell 1976).  Water hyacinth mats degrade water quality by blocking photosynthesis, which greatly reduces oxygen levels in the water, blocking the air-water interface, eliminating underwater animals such as fish (Penfound & Earle 1948). This creates a cascading effect by reducing other underwater life such as fish and other plants. This probably explains low dissolved oxygen level in one of the bridge stations and the reduction in fish catch and species distribution around the bridge station. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 35 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge…  Water hyacinth greatly reduces biological diversity: mats eliminate native submersed plants by blocking sunlight, after emersed plant communities by pushing away and crushing them, and also alter animal communities by blocking access to the water and / or eliminating plants the animals depend on for shelter and nesting (Gowanloch, 1944). The presence of water hyacinth around the bridge location can also contribute to the alteration of the area as a spawning ground. This probably explains a low species distribution in the area observed during this study. [5] NOISE & VIBRATION EFFECTS A social survey conducted in the study area with the aim of obtaining information prior and during the bridge construction revealed the following: 1. 2. 3. huge pillars were driven into the river bed as framework to support the massive boulders, the noise/vibration generated during this activity was very enormous, and Fishermen usually come out in the morning to see fishes in shock and often killed littered all over the place. Construction of the bridge would generate noise from equipments such as motors, chain saws, frontend loaders, cranes, pile drivers, power generators, and diesel-fueled trucks. The effects of construction noise would be most noticeable in the area immediately surrounding the construction site. Construction noise in these areas could disrupt residential activities (HDR Alaska, 2001).If blasting with explosives and pile driving is required during construction, vibration as well as noise would be generated. In-water blasting and pile driving would generate pressure waves that would pose a consistent and adverse threat to fish and other marine resources. BIOLOGICAL MONITORING Biological monitoring tracks the health of biological systems. Measuring and evaluating the condition of biological systems, and the consequences of human activities for those systems, is central to biological monitoring. It aims to distinguish between naturally occurring variation and changes caused by human activities. Biological assessments are evaluations of the condition of waterbodies using surveys and other direct measurements of resident biological organisms (macro invertebrates, fish, and plants). Biological assessment results are used to answer the question of whether waterbodies support survival and reproduction of desirable fish, shellfish, and other aquatic species -- in other words, if the waterbodies meet their designated aquatic life uses.In the past, chemical criteria and related monitoring have been the traditional mechanism employed by regulatory agencies responsible for protecting aquatic life and assessing the condition of surface waters. Significant improvements in water quality have been made in the last several decades utilizing this approach. However, human actions impact a wider range of water resource attributes than water chemistry alone can measure. The degradation of Minnesota’s surface waters can be attributed to a multitude of sources including: chemical pollutants from municipal and industrial point source discharges; agricultural runoff of pesticides, nutrients, and sediment; hydrologic alteration from stream channelization, dams, and artificial drainage; and habitat alteration from agricultural, urban, and residential development (MPCA, 2005). Biological communities are subjected to the cumulative effects of all activities and are continually integrating environmental conditions over time. They represent the condition of their aquatic environment. Biological monitoring is often able to detect water quality impairments that other methods may miss or underestimate. It provides an effective tool for assessing water resource quality regardless of whether the impact is chemical, physical, or biological in nature. To ensure the integrity of surface waters, the relationship between human induced disturbances and their effect on aquatic resources, must be understood. WATER QUALITY OF STUDY AREA Aquatic organisms can be negatively affected by water quality problems. This section describes how the water quality of Nun River is assessed using two different types of data, biological and physico-chemical, to give as complete a picture as possible. Biological surveillance is the only means whereby changes to the riverine ecology can be detected, and it forms the essential complement to the longer-established physicochemical monitoring of water quality (ENFO, 1999). Broadly, it may be said that: Physico-chemical monitoring will measure the causes of pollution and the quantity of pollutants, and Biological surveillance will measure the effects of pollution.The rivers and streams are influenced by the surrounding land uses and land management practices. Water quality is generally excellent in upland bush areas, but deteriorates markedly in urban and lowland farming areas www.theijes.com The IJES Page 36 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge… Water in rivers, aquifers, and lakes naturally contains many dissolved materials, depending on atmospheric inputs, geological conditions, and climate. These materials define the water’s chemical characteristics. Its biological characteristics are defined by the flora and fauna within the water body, water temperature, sediment load, and color are important physical characteristics. Water ―quality‖ is not only a function of chemical, physical, and biological characteristics but is a value-laden term because it implies quality in relation to some standard. Different uses of water have different standards. Pollution can be broadly defined as deterioration of some aspect of the chemical, physical, or biological characteristics of water (its ―quality‖) to such an extent that it impacts some use of that water or ecosystems within the water. Major water pollutants include organic material, which causes oxygen deficiency in water bodies; nutrients, which cause excessive growth of algae in lakes and coastal areas—known as eutrophication (leading to algal blooms, which may be toxic and consume large amounts of oxygen when decaying); and toxic heavy metals and organic compounds. The severity of water pollution is governed by the intensity of pollutants and the assimilation capacity of receiving water bodies—which depends on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of streamflow— but not all pollutants can be degraded. The concentration of various parameters in water sample collected from the study area is presented in Table 1 The subsurface water temperature values were within national and international standards (FEPA/WHO) for discharge into inland waters, streams, sewers and drinking water sources. The recorded temperature value for the various stations is suitable to support fisheries. The pH values for the various stations in the study area were slightly alkaline ranging from 7.4 to 7.6. This agrees with earlier findings from tropical aquatic ecosystems (Welcome, 1986) and these values fall within WHO/FEPA standards. The recorded turbidity values far exceed recommended WHO/FEPA standards. The results therefore showed that the waters from the various stations were highly turbid and therefore affected the surface water quality of the sampled areas. The high values could be attributed to the organic wastes discharged into the aquatic ecosystem from domestic and municipal activities via surface runoff in the study areas (Ekweozor and Agbozu, 2001). The results indicated that the highest turbidity values of 64NTU were recorded in the bridge stations (Tom-Br 1 & 11). Turbidity is a good indicator of sedimentation and erosion in a catchment. This supports findings from this study of a high level of sedimentation, around the bridge area. Higher turbidity also reduces the amount of light penetrating the water, which reduces photosynthesis and the production of dissolved oxygen. Suspended particles can clog fish gills, reduce resistance to disease in fish, lower growth rates, and affect egg and fish larval development. As particulates settle, they can blanket the stream bottom and smoother fish eggs and benthic macroinvertebrates (aquatic insects). This supports the indication of a sparse distribution of fisheries around the bridge area (Seiyaboh et al., 2007b). Turbidity can be useful as an indicator of the effects of runoff from construction, agricultural practices, logging activities, and wastewater discharges. Turbidity can also impart color to water. A clear mountain stream might have a turbidity of 1NTU whereas a large river like the Mississippi had a dry weather turbidity of 10NTUs, which compared to the turbidity values of 5NTU recorded at the control station that indicated absence of impact due to bridge construction activities. The influence of this activity however, resulted in the high turbidity of 64NTU recorded within the bridge area and 8-10NTU recorded at the downstream and upstream stations of the bridge area. The conductivity values of between 87 – 95umhos/cm recorded for the various stations in the study area far exceeded WHO/FEPA standards. This high concentration could be attributed to the continuous discharge of some minerals containing silica, magnesium, potassium, carbonates e.t.c into the river system (Nnodu and Ilo, 2000). The study did not however show any major difference with the various stations indicating that the bridge construction activities did not influence the conductivity of the river to any reasonable extent.The DO values recorded in the various stations located within Tombia community were above the 68mg/l recommended by WHO (1985) and FEPA (991) except for Tom-Br 1 which was 4.8mg/l and Tom-Up 11 which was 5.2mg/l. Low DO values indicate that the surface waters are not suitable for drinking and aquatic life (Ekweozor and Agbozu, 2001). However, these values compare favorably with those reported elsewhere by Agbozu (2001) in the Niger Delta freshwater ecosystem. The immediate bridge environment recorded lower DO levels which were related to the high turbidity recorded in the area. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 37 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge… The BOD values of between 2.6 – 4.3mg/l recorded for the various stations in the study area were within recommended standard limits by WHO/FEPA except for one of the bridge stations (Tom-Br 11) which was 4.3mg/l. The level of BOD of 2.6 - 4.3mg/l show some type of relationship with the high turbidity recorded in the river system, as with increased turbidity there will be increased biological activity. The observed BOD in Tom-Br 11 is an indication of high organic load in the waters sampled. This could be responsible for the sparse distribution of fisheries observed in the bridge stations.The total dissolved solids values of between 62.1 – 67.9mg/l recorded in the various stations in the study area were below WHO/FEPA standards and therefore could not constitute environmental stress in the study area. The results of this study indicate that TDS values would not affect the water quality, so the bridge construction activities did not affect the TDS values to any reasonable extent as the values did not differ much with stations. The phosphate concentrations of between 0.06 – 0.14mg/l recorded in the various stations in the study area were within limits recommended for public water supply (Lehninger, 1982) and WHO/FEPA standards. The highest phosphate values of 0.12mg/l and 0.14mg/l were recorded for the bridge stations (Tom-Br 1, TomBr11) respectively. The values of 0.12 – 0.14mg/l recorded at the bridge area were higher than those of 0.06 – 0.09mg/l of the other stations. This is indicative of the influence of the bridge construction activities on the phosphate levels of the aquatic system and has a likely influence on the productivity of the water.The nitrate values recorded for the various stations in the study area were within limits recommended by WHO/FEPA for inland waters. The highest levels of 4.12mg/l and 4.15mg/l were recorded in the bridge stations (Tom-Br 1, Tom- 11). Higher values of 4.12 – 4.15mg/l were recorded at the bridge area compared to less than 0.5mg/l at the other stations. The results along with those of turbidity and phosphate indicated the influence of bridge construction activity on the nitrogen levels. These high levels could be attributed to increased sedimentation following the bridge construction activities. SEDIMENT QUALITY OF STUDY AREA Sediments are complex environments, with varying physicochemical characteristics, such as content and type of organic matter, particle size distribution, and pH (Ristola, et al., 1999).Contaminated sediment is a significant environmental problem affecting many marine, estuarine and freshwater environments throughout the world. Most assessments of water quality have historically focused on water-soluble compounds, with relatively little attention paid to sediment, a repository for sorbed contaminants (UWM, 2005).Concern about sediment contamination and how to assess sediment quality has risen as more information becomes available on the potential adverse effects of sediment contamination. These concerns include: • • • • • Various toxic contaminants found only in barely detectable amounts in the water column can accumulate in sediments to much higher levels; Sediments serve as both a reservoir for contaminants and a source of contaminants to the water column and organisms; Sediments integrate contaminant concentrations over time, whereas water-column contaminant concentrations are much more variable and dynamic; Sediment contaminants (in addition to water column contaminants) affect bottom-dwelling organisms and other sediment-associated organisms, as well as both the organisms that feed on them and humans; and Sediments are an integral part of the aquatic environment that provide habitat, feeding, spawning, and rearing areas for many aquatic organisms (EPA, 1996). Sediment is a very important compartment in the marine ecosystem. Anthropogenic compounds enter the aquatic environment via riverine or atmospheric input. Depending on their physical and chemical properties some substances remain dissolved in the water phase whilst others bind onto particles, sink to the ground and become part of the sediment. In this way, an accumulation of many hydrophobic (and in general strongly adsorbing compounds) takes place. Therefore sediments are assumed to represent a sink for special kinds of pollutants. Due to resuspension processes. However, the compounds can be remobilized again, so that sediments can as well act as a source for contaminants. In order to gain deeper insight into the accumulation of certain compounds and their metabolites, it is necessary to identify and quantify anthropogenic substances in the sediments of ecosystems (Biselli, et.al. 2005).Sediment quality assessments are useful in determining sediment quality in receiving streams of whole effluents, previously impacted sites, and other contaminated areas. The purpose of the sediment characterization task in the study area is to describe the nature and extent of contamination in the sediment of the system, to evaluate the effects of contamination on ecological and human health, and to identify and evaluate remedial action alternatives. Most contaminants of concern are chemically and biologically reactive and rapidly become associated with particles in freshwater systems. Consequently, uptake or sorption onto www.theijes.com The IJES Page 38 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge… particles is the primary mechanism for removing chemically reactive contaminants from the water column, and sedimentation is the principal mechanism for the accumulation of these contaminants in off-site areas over long time periods (Cook, et al., 1993).The essence of this section was to assess environmental conditions in the study area by evaluating particle size analysis and measuring the concentrations of parameters in bottom sediments. The percentage of mud (silt/clay) in estuarine sediments can impact both the structure of the biotic assemblage as well as the bioavailability of certain contaminants to local biota. The sediment analysis data for samples collected in the study area is presented in Table 2 The distribution of the particle size fractions are shown in Tables 2. Particle size is a fundamental physical property of sediment which can inform researchers much about sediment origin, history, transportation and, in some cases, environmental impacts due to activities within the water column. The conditions of transport and deposition of sedimentary particles can also be inferred from the particle size distribution, and the size distribution is also an essential property for assessing how soils or sediment behave under loading conditions like storm waves, oceanographic currents, and earthquakes The results of this study show a higher proportion of sand particles in the bridge station i.e it is characterized by sand sized sediments indicative of a higher energy environment. These results indicate a high degree of sediment deposition and accumulation around the bridge location. The high degree of sediment deposition and accumulation might not be unconnected with the dredging activities following the bridge construction. The amount of sedimentation can deteriorate water quality and maximize the impact of upland activities on the water (Seiyaboh, et. al., 2007a). The area around the bridge location was relatively very shallow, and a social survey conducted in the community revealed that it was not so before the bridge construction. This can have adverse effects on fisheries along the river. Sediment characteristics reflect the sequence of changes that have taken place over time in a given area, and during their formation and digenesis, take an active part in the biogeochemical cycles of the elements that affect the overlying water column through many processes.The pH values for the sediment samples in the various stations studied indicates the presence of an acidic pH in all the various stations sampled, with the pH varying from 4.21 to 5.61. Among the various stations.Tom-Br1 was the least acidic with a pH of 5.61 and Tom-Do111 the most acidic with a pH of 4.21. Sediment pH is one of the most important properties that influences the distribution and abundance of the benthic community and the relationship between ion exchange capacity and nutrient availability (Foth, 1990). Sediments are an integral part of the aquatic environment that provides habitat, feeding, spawning, and rearing areas for many aquatic organisms (EPA 1996). Acidic sediment can have an adverse effect on fisheries. Species distribution in the various stations of this study reflected the influence of an acidic sediment pH (Seiyaboh, et al., 2007b). The Available Phosphate values recorded in the various stations varied from 2.71 to 17.24mg/g. The highest value was recorded downstream of the bridge (Tom-Do11). The sediment phosphate levels had been shown to follow the same trend as those of the overlying water except that sediment retains more nutrients (Ekeh, 2005). The values recorded in this study of 2.71 – 20.74mg/g were very much higher than those of 2.2 – 2.9mg/g recorded in a previous study in Amadi and Nwaja creeks (Ekeh, 2005). The nitrate values recorded in the various stations varied from 3.11 to 13.40mg/g. The highest nitrate value in was recorded downstream of the bridge (Tom-Do111). Nitrate levels varied within stations with higher values recorded at the bridge area. The values recorded in this study were relatively higher than the 1 – 3.3mg/g (Ikomah, 1999) and 3.07 – 6.47mg/g (Umesi, 1999) previously recorded in various areas of the Niger Delta. IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Despite strong legal mandates and massive expenditures, signs of continuing degradation in biological systems are pervasive- in individual rivers (Karr et al., 1985), and around the globe (Hughes and Noss 1992; Moyle and Leidy 1992; Williams and Neves 1992; Allan and Flecker 1993; Zakaria-Ismail 1994; McAllister et. al. 1997). Aquatic systems have been impaired, and they continue to deteriorate as a result of human society’s action.Despite efforts intended to protect water resources, and some success against certain forms of chemical and organic contamination, the nation’s waters continue to decline. The problem has been a failure to see rivers as living systems and a failure to take biological monitoring seriously in management programs. We need a new approach, one that integrates and informs us of the ways our rivers, landscape and society interact.Bridge built across river systems, undoubtedly are sometimes the best option for an easy access, but the final bridge design should be cost-effective and successful at minimizing impact to the river ecosystem. Work should be conducted during the periods that ensured that the fisheries resources were not impacted.A primary goal in every bridge construction project should be to develop construction methods that would minimize or alleviate disturbances to the underlying ecosystem as much as possible. The bridge has to be sensitive to the environment, earthquake resistant and meet safety standards. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 39 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge… REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] Agbozu, I.E., (2001). Levels and Impacts of some Pollutants on the Aquatic Ecosystem in Etelebou Oilfields in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. PhD Dissertation RSUAT, Port Harcourt. Allan, J.D. and Flecker, A.S., (1993). Biodiversity Conservation in Running Water. Biosciences, 43: 32 - 43 Anderson, P.G., Taylor, B.R. and Balch, G.C., (1996). Quantifying the Effect of Sediment release on Fish and their Habitats. Canadian Manuscript. Report of fisheries and Aquatic science, No. 2346:110p\ APHA, (1975). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. 14th edition. APHA-AWA WPCF. Washington DC. Pp. 1007-1151. Biselli, S., Reineke, N., Kammann, U., Franke, S., Huhnerfuss, and Theobald, N., (2005). Bioassay – directed Fractionation of Organic Extracts of Marine Surface Sediments from North and Baltic Sea – Part 1:Determination and Identification of Organic Pollutants, Soils Sediments in press online first: http://dx/dai/10.1065/jss2994.10.124 Burton, Jr. and Allen, G., (1992) Sediment Collection and Processing: Factors Affecting Realism in Sediment Toxicity Assessment, Burton Ed. Chelsea, Michigan Lewis Publishers: 37-54 Cook, R.B., Frank, M.L., Kszos, L.A., Adams, S.M., Gentry, M.J., Lehew, R.F., Beauchamp, J.J., Creely, M.S., Levine, D.A., Bevelliner, M.S., Halbrook, R.S., Murray, K., Blaylock, B.G., Harris, R.A., Phipps, T.L., Brandt, C.C., Holladay, S.K., Skiles, J.L., Etrier, E.L., Hook, L.A., Suter, G.W., Ford, C.J. and Howell, P.L., (1993). Energy Systems Environmental Restoration Program – Clinch River Environmental Restoration Program. Phase 2 Sampling and Analysis Plan, Quality Assurance Project Plan, and Environmental Health and Safety Plan for the Clinch River Remedial Investigation: An Addendum to the Clinch River RCRA Facility Investigation Plan 60e/OR/01-1111EDR3 Ekeh, C.A., (2005). The Study of Plankton in Amadi and Nwaja Creeks of the Upper Bonny Estuary. M.Sc Thesis, Department of Applied and Environmental Biology. Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt. Ekweozor, I.K.E and Agbozu, I.E., (2001). Sutface Water Pollution Studies of Etelebou Oilfield in Bayelsa State, Nigeria, African Journal Sci., 2. 246-254 ENFO, (1999). Information on the Environment: Department of the ENVIRONMENT Heritage and Local Government Water Pollution. Measurement of River Water Quality. URL: http://www.enfo.ie/pub/main.htm EPA, (1996). Load-based Licensing: Draft Operational Plan, Environmental Economic Series, EPA Publication 96/38, Environmental Protction Authority, Sidney. FEPA, (1991). Federal Environmental Protection Agency: National Interim Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution Control in Nigeria: 54-58 Foth, H.D.,(1990). Fundamentals of Soil Science. John Wiley & S ons, New York. USA FPD, (Flood Protection Delegate). From the Democatic Republic (DPR) of Korea (1980). Report on the Investigation of Possible Flood Protection Measures in Nun and Forcados River Area. Niger Delta Basin Development Authority (NDBDA), Federal Republic of Nigeria. Gowanlock, T. and Peech, M., (1965). Chemical Soil Test. Cornel Uni. Agric. Esp. Station. Bull, 960 HDR Alaska, (2001). Gravina Acess Project. Construction Technical Memorandum. Draft. DOT & PF Project 67698. Federal Project ACHP-6922(5) Holm, L.G., Plucknett, D.L., Pancho, J.V. and Herberger, J.P., (1997). The Worlds worst weeds: Distribution and Biology. Honolulu University press of Hawaii, 609pp Hughes, R.M. and Noss, R.F., (1992). Biological Diversity and Biological Intergrity: Current Concerns for Lakes and Streams. Fisheries, 17(8): 11 - 19 Ikomah, F.B., (1999). The Impact of Fertilizer Plant on the Ecology of the Literal Benthos of the Okrika (NAFCON) Creek. M.Sc Thesis, RSUST, Port Harcourt. Karr, J.R., Toth, L.A. and Dudley, D.R., (1985) Fish Communities of Midwestern Rivers: A History of Degradation. Biosciences, 35: 90 - 95 Lehninger, A.L., (1982). Principles of Biochemistry. School of Medicine, the John Hopkins University, Delhi India CBS Publishers and Distributors. P.85 McAllister, D.E., Hamilton, A.L. and Harvey, B., (1997). Global Fish Water Biodiversity Striving for the Intergrity oh Freshwater Ecosystem. Sea Wind, 11(3): 1 – 140 Mitchell, D.S., (1976). The growth and management of Echornia crassipes and Salvinia spp.in their natural environment and in alien situations. In Varshney CK, Rzaska J, editors, Aquatic weeds in Southeast Asia. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk b.v., Publishers. 396pp Moyle, P.B. and Leidy, R.A., (1992). Loss of Aquatic Ecosystems: Evidence from Fish Fauna. Pp 127 – 169 in P.L. Fielder and S.K. Jain, eds. Conservative Biology. The Theory and Practice of Nature Conservation, Preservation and Management, Chapman and Hall, New York. MPCA, (2005). Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. Biological Monitoring: Fish Monitoring. URL: http://www.pca.state.min.us/water/biomonitoring-stream-fish Nnodu, V.C. and Ilo, I.C., (2OOO). Comparative Quality Evaluation of Sources of Domestic Water Supply in Enugu Urban. Env. Res., Vol. 3. No.1 Reid, S.M. and Anderson, P.G., (1998). Suspended sediment and turbidity restrictions associated with in stream construction activities in the United States: An assessment of biological relevance. In: Proceedings of the International Pipeline Conference1998. Calgary, Alberta. Richard, S., Denise, W., Ian, W. and Jim, H. (1997). Environmental study of Dredged Materials in Old River. Water and Sediment Quality Study for the Interim South Delta Program – Memo Report. Potential Environmental Impact. Ristola, T., Pellinen, J., Ruokolainen, M.A. and Jussi, V.K., (1999). Effect of Sedimentary Type, Feeding Level and Larval Density on Growth and Development of a Midge (Chironomus riparius). Solar Journal, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry: No. 18, Pp 756-764. Seiyaboh, E.I., Ekweozor, I.K.E., Ogamba, E.N and Alagha, W.E., (2007a). Effect of Tombia Bridge Construction on the Water Quality of Nun River in Central Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science. Vol. 10(3):7148-7156. Seiyaboh, E.I., Ekweozor, I.K.E., Otobo, A.J.T and Ogamba, E.N., (2007b). Effect of Tombia Bridge Construction on the Fisheries of Nun River in Central Niger Delta, Nigeria. World Journal of Biotechnology. Vol. 8(1):1272-1279. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 40 Environmental Impact Of Tombia Bridge… [34] Tamia Nelson, (2001). River Rap- the Dynamics of Mining Water. Rhythm and Temple Paddling Articles: Venloren Hoad Productions. Umesi, N., (1999). Sediment Quality and Macro-fauna Benthos of the Rumueme Creek in the Upper Limits of the Bonny Estuary. M.Phil Thesis, RSUST, Port Harcourt. UMW, (2005).University of Wisconsin Madison. Engineering Professional Development: Contaminated Harbour and River Sediment Analysis. Url: http//epdweb.engr.wisc.edu/onsite/courses/ee01./asso Walcome, R.L., (1986). The Niger River System. London Longman Group Ltd. Pp. 9 - 23 WHO, (1985). The International Standard for Drinking Water Quality, Geneva. Williams, J.E. and Neves, R.J., (1992). Biokogical Diversity in Aquatic Management. Trans. N. Am. Wldl. Nat. Resour. Conf., 57: 343 – 432 Zakaria – Ismail, M., (1994). Zogeography and Biodiversity of the Fish Water. Fishes of Southeast Asia. Hydrobiologia, 285:41 48 [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] Table 1 Concentration of Various Parameters in Water Samples S/NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SAMPLE PO4- TEMP STATIONS ( oC ) 26 Tom-Br1 26 Tom-Br11 26 Tom-Do1 26 Tom-Do11 26 Tom-Up1 26 Tom-Up11 26 Tom-Co1 26 Tom-Co11 pH 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.4 7.6 7.4 7.6 7.5 TURBIDITY NTU 64 64 18 15 10 8 5 5 COND. (umhos/cm) 89 90 90 89 87 90 95 90 DO mg/l 4.8 6 7.2 6.8 6 5.2 7 6.2 BOD5 mg/l 2.9 4.3 3.6 3.4 3 2.6 3.5 3.5 TDS mg/l 63.6 64.2 64.3 63.4 62.1 64.1 67.9 64.3 3 mg/l 0.12 0.14 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.06 NO3N mg/l 4.12 4.15 0.32 0.34 1.7 0.38 0.35 0.32 Table 2 Concentration of Various Parameters in Sediment Samples S/NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 SAMPLE PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS STATIONS SAND(%) 86 94 63 36 77 66 60.4 82 59 72 65 61 Tom-Br1 Tom-Br11 Tom-Br111 Tom-Do1 Tom-Do11 Tom-Do111 Tom-Up1 Tom-Up11 Tom-Up111 Tom-Co1 Tom-Co11 Tom-Co111 www.theijes.com SILT(%) 10.2 3 2 9 2 3 2.3 6 2 4 1 3 CLAY(% ) 3.8 4 35 55 21 31 37.3 12 39 24 34 36 The IJES TEXTURE CLASS Sandy Loam Sandy Loam Sandy Loam Clay Loam Sandy Loam Sandy Loam Sandy Loam Sandy Loam Sandy Loam Sandy Loam Sandy Loam Sandy Loam pH AVAL. P NO3N 5.61 4.71 4.73 4.82 4.56 4.21 4.73 5.31 5.12 5.41 5 4.82 mg/kg 15.36 2.98 4.54 3.5 17.24 15.05 4.54 11.2 10 10.34 2.71 6.41 mg/kg 12.3 4.99 5.11 7.42 10.1 13.4 5.11 6.13 5.16 3.43 4.11 3.11 Page 41

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 48-57 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic Growth Factor and Bulk Hygroscopicity of water Soluble Aerosols 1 D.O. Akpootu and 2N. N. Gana 1 Department of Physics,Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria. Department of Physics, College of Education (Technical), Lafiagi, Kwara State, Nigeria . 2 --------------------------------------------------------- ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------In this paper, the hygroscopicity properties of water soluble aerosols component based on microphysical properties of urban aerosols using data extracted from Optical Properties of Aerosols and Clouds (OPAC) incorporated with FORTRAN program were modeled to determine the effect of relative humidity on hygroscopic growth factor and bulk hygroscopicity at spectral range of 0.25-1.00 m for eight relative humidities (RHs) (0, 50, 70, 80, 90, 95, 98 and 99%). The extracted microphysical properties are number mix ratio and volume mix ratio as a function of RH. The hygroscopic growth was observed to increase with RH from 0-99% RHs while the bulk hygroscopicity decreases with increase in RH from 0-99% RHs. We observed that the different models adopted excellently fits the data in terms of their coefficient of determination. The analysis further obtain the varying particles hygroscopicity from the proposed one-parameter equation. KEYWORDS: Relative humidity, hygroscopic growth factor, bulk hygroscopicity, aerosols, water soluble. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------Date of Submission: 21, October - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November - 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION The hygroscopic growth of aerosol particles are of current interest due to their effects on light scattering and absorption properties of particles which thereby affect the air quality, visibility, Earth’s radiation and the climate (Charlson et al., 1992; IPCC, 2007). On a global basis, sulfates, nitrates and chlorides contribute the largest to the mass budget of fine atmospheric particles (IPCC, 2007; Li et al., 2009; Shen et al., 2009). These inorganic salt aerosols are hygroscopic by nature, thus their size, phase and subsequently the optical properties would be strongly influenced by the ambient relative humidity (RH). Based on recent studies, the effect of sulfate particles on the annual-average global direct radiative forcing, arising from the fluctuation of atmospheric particles between aqueous and solid state, is estimated up to as much as 24% (Martin et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2008a, 2008b). Thus, close attention has been paid to study the hygroscopic properties of these inorganic salts. The interaction of aerosol particles with water vapor is among the central issues of current research in atmospheric and climate science, and numerous studies have investigated the hygroscopicity of aerosol particles and their ability to serve as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Köhler theory is the main tool to describe the hygroscopic growth of particles as a function of relative humidity (Pruppacher and Klett, 2000; Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006), and various types of Köhler models have been developed and applied for the analysis of laboratory and field measurement results as well as in numerical models of the atmosphere and climate ( Junge and McLaren, 1971; Fitzgerald, 1973, Shulman et al., 1996; Kulmala et al., 1997; Laaksonen et al., 1998, Raymond and Pandis, 2003; Bilde and Svenningsson, 2004; Mikhailov et al., 2004, 2009; Huff Hartz et al., 2005; McFiggans et al., 2006; Svenningsson et al., 2006; Rose et al., 2008). A central aim of hygroscopicity measurements and Köhler model studies is to relate the critical supersaturation of CCN activation to the hygroscopic growth factors observed at subsaturated conditions ( Rissler et al., 2004; Kreidenweis et al., 2005; Mochida et al., 2006; Petters and Kreidenweis, 2007; Wex et al., 2008; Gunthe et al., 2009; Petters et al., 2009; Good et al., 2010a, b; Irwin et al., 2010; Roberts et al., 2010; Cerully et al., 2011; Duplissy et al., 2011; Fors et al., 2011; Metzger et al., 2012). For this purpose, Petters and Kreidenweis (2007) proposed a single-parameter Köhler model where the hygroscopicity parameter provides a volume-based measure of aerosol water uptake characteristics and CCN activity. For water soluble organic and inorganic compounds, the relative differences between values derived from CCN and growth factor measurements are usually less than 30% and can be explained by non-ideal behavior of concentrated solutions ( Wex et al., 2008; Mikhailov et al., 2009). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 48 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… This paper provides the impact of microphysical properties and relative humidity on the hygroscopic growth factor and bulk hygroscopicity of atmospheric water soluble aerosols. However, it is important to note that it is still less details till now to distinguish the impact of size-effect and RH on the growth factor of inorganic aerosols. Thus, to consider the impact of size-effect and RH synchronous will provide a new insight into visibility degradation and air quality improvement under ambient atmospheric condition. II. METHODOLOGY The models extracted from OPAC are given in table 1 Components Insoluble Water soluble Soot Total Table 1: Compositions of aerosols types (Hess et al., 1998) Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 No.density No.density (cm-3) No.density No.density (cm-3) (cm-3) (cm-3) 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 15,000.00 20,000.00 25,000.00 30,000.00 120,000.00 120,000.00 120,000.00 120,000.00 135,001.50 140,001.50 145,001.50 150,001.50 Model 5 No.density (cm-3) 1.50 35,000.00 120,000.00 155,001.50 The data used for the urban aerosols in this paper are derived from the Optical Properties of Aerosols and Clouds (OPAC) data set (Hess et al., 1998). In this, a mixture of three components is used to describe Urban aerosols: a water soluble (WASO) components consist of scattering aerosols that are hygroscopic in nature, such as sulphates and nitrates present in anthropogenic pollution) water insoluble (INSO) and Soot. The principal parameter used to characterize the hygroscopicity of the aerosol particles is the aerosol hygroscopic growth factor gf(RH), which indicates the relative increase in mobility diameter of particles due to water absorption at a certain RH and is defined as the ratio of the particle diameter at any RH to the particle diameter at RH=0 and RH is taken for seven values 50%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98% and 99%. (Swietlicki et al. , 2008; Randles et al., 2004): (1) The HGF can be subdivided into different classes with respect to hygroscopicity. One classiﬁcation is based on diameter growth factor by Liu et al.,(2011) and Swietlicki et al., (2008) as barely Hygroscopic (gf(RH) =1.0–1.11), Less Hygroscopic (gf(RH) =1.11–1.33), More Hygroscopic (gf(RH) = 1.33–1.85) and most hygroscopic growth (gf(RH) >1.85) Most atmospheric aerosols are externally mixed with respect to hygroscopicity, and consist of more and less hygroscopic sub-fractions (Swietlicki et al., 2008). The ratio between these fractions as well as their content of soluble material determines the hygroscopic growth of the overall aerosol. Particle hygroscopicity may vary as a function of time, place, and particle size (McMurry and Stolzenburg, 1989; Swietlicki et al., 2008). Prediction of hygroscopic growth factors with Köhler theory requires detailed knowledge of particle composition as well as a thermodynamic model, which describes the concentration dependence of the water activity for such a mixture. The hygroscopic growth factor of a mixture, gf mix(RH), can be estimated from the growth factors of the individual components of the aerosol and their respective volume fractions, V k, using the Zdanovskii-Stokes-Robinson relation (ZSR relation; Sjogren et al., 2007; Stokes and Robinson, 1966; Meyer et al., 2009; Stokes et al., 1966; Stock et al., 2011): (2) where the summation is performed over all compounds present in the particles. Solute-solute interactions are neglected in this model and volume additivity is also assumed. The model assumes spherical particles, ideal mixing (i.e. no volume change upon mixing) and independent water uptake of the organic and inorganic components. It can also be computed using the corresponding number fractions n k as (Duplissy et al., 2011; Meier et al., 2009): (3) Where nk is the number fraction of particles having the growth factor gf k . www.theijes.com The IJES Page 49 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… The RH dependence of gfmix(RH) can be parameterized in a good approximation by a one-parameter equation, proposed e.g. by Petters and Kreidenweis (2007): (4) Here, aw is the water activity, which can be replaced by the relative humidity RH at equilibrium (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006), if the Kelvin effect is negligible, as for particles with sizes more relevant for light scattering and absorption. The coefficient κ is a simple measure of the particle’s hygroscopicity and captures all solute properties (Raoult effect). Humidograms of the ambient aerosols obtained in various atmospheric conditions showed that gfmix(RH) could as well be fitted well with a γ-law (Swietlicki et al., 2000; Gysel et al., 2009; Putaud, 2012) as (5) Particle hygroscopicity is a measure that scales the volume of water associated with a unit volume of dry particle (Petters and Kreidenweis, 2007) and depends on the molar volume and the activity coefficients of the dissolved compounds (Christensen and Petters, 2012). The bulk hygroscopicity factor B under subsaturation RH conditions was determined using the following relation: (6). III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Generally, there is an overall increase in aerosol hygroscopic growth factor for number mix ratio model with increase in RHs from 50-99% RH. However, the rate of increase in the aerosol hygroscopic growth factor with RHs is more pronounced as from 90-98% RHs and subsequently decrease at 99% RH; this shows that the aerosols absorbs more water vapour at 90-98% RHs and becomes saturated at this point of deliquescence. The bulk hygroscopicity, B decreases with increase in RH. More so, we observed that as we moved from model 1-5, the increase in growth factor with RHs from 50-99% RHs increases as well, and this implies that the particles absorb more water vapour. Similarly, the bulk hygroscopicity, B increases as we moved from model 1-5. Figure 1: A graph of growth factor of the mixture using number mix ratio (model 1-5) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 50 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… Model1 Model3 Model5 0.15 0.14 Model2 Model4 0.13 Bulk Hygroscopicity 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 50 60 70 80 90 100 Relative Humidity (%) Figure 2: A graph of bulk hygroscopicity of the mixture using number mix ratio (model 1-5) Figure 1 shows a non-linear increase in aerosol hygroscopic growth factor with RHs. The deliquescence point was observed as from 90-98% RHs. However, from 50-80% RHs indicates that the smallest particles are found in this region; this is line with that reported by (Dawei et al., 2010) that smallest particles show the highest growth factor. It is important to note that as seen from the figure the growth factor gradually lift up with increasing RH. This may be attributed that higher RH means more moisture in the atmosphere leads the aerosol particles to absorb more water vapour on particle surface. From the range of values observed, for the gfmix the mixture as depicted in figure 1 can be described as barely hygroscopic, less hygroscopic and more hygroscopic growth (Liu et al., 2011; Swietlick et al., 2008). The bulk hygroscopicity, B decreases with increase in RHs as displayed in figure 2 Table 3: The growth factor for number mix ratio using model 1 RH (%) gfmix RH/1-RH gfmix^3 ln(1-RH/100) lngfmix 50 1.031847 1.000000 1.098617 -0.69315 0.031351 70 1.050366 2.333333 1.158835 -1.20397 0.049138 80 1.069407 4.000000 1.223007 -1.60944 0.067104 90 1.113423 9.000000 1.380321 -2.30259 0.107439 95 1.176771 19.000000 1.629582 -2.99573 0.162774 98 1.289956 49.000000 2.146467 -3.91202 0.254608 99 1.386338 99.000000 2.664450 -4.60517 0.326666 Table 4: The growth factor for number mix ratio using model 2 RH (%) www.theijes.com gfmix RH/(1-RH) gfmix^3 ln(1-RH/100) lngfmix 50 1.040609 1.000000 1.12684 -0.69315 0.039806 70 1.063925 2.333333 1.204294 -1.20397 0.061965 80 1.087696 4.000000 1.286834 -1.60944 0.084062 90 1.141954 9.000000 1.489177 -2.30259 0.132741 95 1.218640 19.00000 1.809783 -2.99573 0.197736 98 1.352600 49.000000 2.474615 -3.91202 0.302028 99 1.464478 99.00000 3.140860 -4.60517 0.381499 The IJES Page 51 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… Table 5: The growth factor for number mix ratio using model 3 RH (%) gfmix RH/1-RH gfmix^3 ln(1-RH/100) lngfmix 50 1.048607 1.000000 1.153022 -0.69315 0.047462 70 1.076201 2.333333 1.246466 -1.20397 0.073437 80 1.104129 4.000000 1.346045 -1.60944 0.099057 90 1.167204 9.000000 1.590159 -2.30259 0.154611 95 1.255062 19.000000 1.976950 -2.99573 0.227185 98 1.405932 49.000000 2.779029 -3.91202 0.340701 99 1.530176 99.000000 3.582812 -4.60517 0.425383 Table 6: The growth factor for number mix ratio using model 4 RH (%) gfmix RH/1-RH gfmix^3 ln(1-RH/100) lngfmix 50 1.05598 1.000000 1.177518 -0.69315 0.05447 70 1.087439 2.333333 1.285921 -1.20397 0.083825 80 1.119073 4.000000 1.401442 -1.60944 0.112501 90 1.189877 9.000000 1.684637 -2.30259 0.17385 95 1.287323 19.000000 2.133351 -2.99573 0.252565 98 1.452408 49.000000 3.063837 -3.91202 0.373223 99 1.586911 99.000000 3.996300 -4.60517 0.46179 Table 7: The growth factor for number mix ratio using model 5 RH (%) gfmix RH/1-RH gfmix^3 ln(1-RH/100) ln gfmix 50 1.062781 1.000000 1.200416 -0.69315 0.060889 70 1.097737 2.333333 1.322804 -1.20397 0.093251 80 1.132690 4.000000 1.453227 -1.60944 0.124595 90 1.210317 9.000000 1.772953 -2.30259 0.190882 95 1.316083 19.000000 2.279551 -2.99573 0.27466 98 1.493314 49.000000 3.330071 -3.91202 0.400998 99 1.636507 99.000000 4.382821 -4.60517 0.492564 Tables (3-7) shows the data obtained using equations (4) and (5) for the number mix ratio The results of the modelling using equations (4) and (5) are displayed in the table below Table 8: Summary of the results of Used equation 4 0.962 0.016 5 0.973 4 0.962 0.020 5 0.978 4 0.962 0.025 5 0.982 4 0.962 0.029 5 0.984 4 0.962 0.032 5 0.986 Constant 1.198 -0.047 1.255 -0.048 1.307 -0.048 1.356 -0.047 1.402 -0.045 for the number mix ratio. Model used Model 1 -0.077 Model 2 -0.048 Model 3 -0.098 Model 4 -0.106 Model 5 -0.113 The fitted curve can be represented by one of the empirical parameters fit in the form of either equations (4) or (5) However, we observed that equation (5) gives a higher coefficient of determination, www.theijes.com The IJES Page 52 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… Table 9: The growth factor and bulk hygroscopicity of the aerosols using volume mix ratio for model(1-5) RH 50 70 80 90 95 98 99 Model 1 gfmix Bulk Hyg 1.12039 0.28170 1.20384 0.26560 1.29096 0.25695 1.48494 0.23963 1.73739 0.21771 2.12661 0.17410 2.41833 0.13209 Model 2 gfmix Bulk Hyg 1.13706 0.32587 1.22672 0.30175 1.31790 0.28763 1.51575 0.26155 1.76819 0.23227 2.15357 0.18158 2.44184 0.13628 Model 3 gfmix Bulk Hyg 1.14951 0.35971 1.24315 0.32857 1.33670 0.30980 1.53643 0.27678 1.78820 0.24201 2.17057 0.18640 2.45641 0.13891 Model 4 gfmix Bulk Hyg 1.15920 0.38654 1.25555 0.34928 1.35054 0.32654 1.55127 0.28796 1.80222 0.24896 2.18226 0.18975 2.46639 0.14074 Model 5 gfmix Bulk Hyg 1.16688 0.40814 1.26524 0.36576 1.36126 0.33972 1.56237 0.29646 1.81256 0.25416 2.19075 0.19221 2.47359 0.14206 Generally, there is an overall increase in aerosol hygroscopic growth factor for volume mix ratio model with increase in RHs from 50-99% RH. However, the rate of increase in the aerosol hygroscopic growth factor with RHs is more pronounced as from 90-98% RHs and subsequently decrease at 99% RH; this shows that the aerosols absorbs more water vapour at 90-98% RHs and becomes saturated at this point of deliquescence. The bulk hygroscopicity, B decreases with increase in RH. More so, we observed that as we moved from model 1-5, the increase in growth factor with RHs from 50-99% RHs increases as well and this implies that the particles absorb more water vapour. Similarly, the bulk hygroscopicity, B increases as we moved from model 1-5. Though, we observed that the relative differences between the hygroscopicity parameter, k, values derived from the growth factor are less than 30% using the volume based mix ratio measure of aerosol water uptake and this is in good agreement with the single-parameter Köhler model proposed by Petters and Kreidenwis (2007) and can be explained by nonideal behavior of concentrated solutions (Wex et al., 2008; Mikhailov et al., 2009). However, it is slightly above 30% at RH between 95% and 98% RHs. 2.6 Model1 Model3 Model5 2.4 Model2 Model4 2.2 gfmix(RH) 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 50 60 70 80 90 100 Relative Humidity (%) Figure 3: A graph of growth factor of the mixture using volume mix ratio (model 1-5) Model1 Model3 Model5 Bulk Hygroscopicity 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36 Model2 Model4 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 50 60 70 80 90 100 Relative Humidity (%) Figure 4: A graph of bulk hygroscopicity of the mixture using volume mix ratio (model 1-5) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 53 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… Figure 3 shows a non-linear increase in aerosol hygroscopic growth factor with RHs. The deliquescence point was observed as from 90-98% RHs. However, from 50-80% RHs indicates that the smallest particles are found in this region; this is line with that reported by (Dawei et al., 2010) that smallest particles show the highest growth factor. It is important to note that as seen from the figure the growth factor gradually lift up with increasing RH. This may be attributed that higher RH means more moisture in the atmosphere leads the aerosol particles to absorb more water vapour on particle surface. From the range of values observed, for the gfmix the mixture as depicted in figure 3 can be described as less hygroscopic, more hygroscopic and most hygroscopic growth (Liu et al., 2011; Swietlick et al., 2008). The bulk hygroscopicity, B decreases with increase in RHs as displayed in figure 4 Table 10: The growth factor for volume mix ratio using model 1 RH (%) gfmix RH/1-RH gfmix^3 ln(1-RH/100) lngfmix 50 70 1.120392 1.203843 1.000000 2.333333 1.406405 1.744656 -0.69315 -1.20397 0.113679 0.185519 80 1.290965 4.000000 2.151508 -1.60944 0.25539 90 1.48494 9.000000 3.274361 -2.30259 0.395374 95 1.737393 19.000000 5.244381 -2.99573 0.552386 98 2.126606 49.000000 9.617480 -3.91202 0.754527 99 2.418332 99.000000 14.14320 -4.60517 0.883078 Table 11: The growth factor for volume mix ratio using model 2 RH (%) 50 70 80 90 95 98 gfmix 1.137065 1.226718 1.317898 1.515746 1.768195 2.153567 RH/(1-RH) 1.000000 2.333333 4.000000 9.000000 19.000000 49.000000 gfmix^3 1.470130 1.846012 2.288999 3.482407 5.528282 9.987927 99 2.441843 99.000000 14.559720 ln(1-RH/100) -0.69315 -1.20397 -1.60944 -2.30259 -2.99573 -3.91202 lngfmix 0.12845 0.204342 0.276038 0.415908 0.569959 0.767126 -4.60517 0.892753 Table 12: The growth factor for volume mix ratio using model 3 RH (%) gfmix RH/1-RH gfmix^3 ln(1-RH/100) lngfmix 50 1.149513 1.000000 1.518945 -0.69315 0.139339 70 1.243153 2.333333 1.921206 -1.20397 0.217651 80 1.336697 4.000000 2.388353 -1.60944 0.290201 90 1.536433 9.000000 3.626943 -2.30259 0.429463 95 1.788204 19.000000 5.718097 -2.99573 0.581212 98 2.170568 49.000000 10.22634 -3.91202 0.774989 99 2.456412 99.000000 14.82189 -4.60517 0.898702 Table 13: The growth factor for volume mix ratio using model 4 RH (%) 50 70 80 90 95 98 99 www.theijes.com gfmix 1.159196 1.25555 1.350544 1.551275 1.802217 2.182261 2.466388 RH/1-RH 1.000000 2.333333 4.000000 9.000000 19.000000 49.000000 99.000000 gfmix^3 1.557653 1.979256 2.463351 3.733071 5.853571 10.39251 15.00321 The IJES ln(1-RH/100) -0.69315 -1.20397 -1.60944 -2.30259 -2.99573 -3.91202 -4.60517 lngfmix 0.147727 0.227574 0.300508 0.439077 0.589017 0.780362 0.902755 Page 54 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… Table 14: The growth factor for volume mix ratio using model 5 RH (%) gfmix RH/1-RH gfmix^3 ln(1-RH/100) lngfmix 50 1.166878 1.000000 1.588824 -0.69315 0.154331 70 1.265245 2.333333 2.025461 -1.20397 0.235266 80 1.361256 4.000000 2.522432 -1.60944 0.308408 90 1.56237 9.000000 3.813747 -2.30259 0.446204 95 1.812563 19.000000 5.954965 -2.99573 0.594742 98 2.190749 49.000000 10.51424 -3.91202 0.784244 99 2.47359 99.000000 15.13503 -4.60517 0.905671 Tables (10-14) shows the data obtained using equations (4) and (5) for the volume mix ratio The results of the modelling using equations (4) and (5) are displayed in the table below for the volume mix ratio. Table 15: Summary of the results of Used equation 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 Constant 0.974 0.997 0.971 0.998 0.969 0.998 0.968 0.999 0.967 0.999 0.131 0.134 0.136 0.138 0.138 1.938 -0.054 2.077 -0.033 2.177 -0.018 2.251 -0.006 2.310 0.003 Model used Model 1 -0.203 Model 2 -0.201 Model 3 -0.199 Model 4 -0.198 Model 5 -0.197 The fitted curve can be represented by one of the empirical parameters fit in the form of either equations (4) or (5) However, we observed that equation (5) gives a higher coefficient of determination, IV. CONCLUSION In this manuscript, we present a number mix and volume mix microphysical properties based hygroscopicity parameter model approach for efficient description of water uptake by mixed particles water soluble atmospheric aerosols. The analysis for the relative differences between the hygroscopicity parameter values obtained from the growth factor using the volume based mix ratio measure of aerosol water uptake are found to be less than 30% and this is in good agreement with the single-parameter Köhler model proposed by Petters and Kreidenwis (2007), though, we observed that it is slightly above 30% at RH between 95% and 98% RHs, however, there was relatively small percentage values for number based mix ratio model. The results shows that the growth factor increases with increase in RH and is more pronounced at 9098% RHs, similarly, the bulk hygroscopicity decreases with increase in RHs. From this fact, we can safely conclude that there is a direct and inverse variation between the hygroscopic growth factor and bulk hygroscopicity with RHs. The growth factor indicates that the mixture are described to be barely hygroscopic, less hygroscopic, more hygroscopic and most hygroscopic growth. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 55 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16]. [17]. [18]. [19]. [20]. [21]. [22]. [23]. [24]. [25]. [26]. [27]. [28]. [29]. Bilde, M. and Svenningsson, B. (2004): CCN activation of slightly soluble organics: the importance of small amounts of inorganic salt and particle phase, Tellus B, 56, 128–134. Cerully, K. M., Raatikainen, T., Lance, S., Tkacik, D., Tiitta, P., Petӓjӓ, T., Ehn, M., Kulmala, M., Worsnop, D. R., Laaksonen, A., Smith, J. N., and Nenes, A. (2011): Aerosol hygroscopicity and CCN activation kinetics in a boreal forest environment during the 2007 EUCAARI campaign, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12369–12386, doi:10.5194/acp-11-12369-2011. Charlson, R.J., Schwartz, S.E., Hales, J.M., Cess, R.D., Coakley, J.A., Hansen, J.E. and Hofmann, D.J. (1992): Climate Forcing by Anthropogenic Aerosols. Science. 255: 423–430. Christensen, S. I. and Petters, M. D. (2012): The role of temperature in cloud droplet activation, J. Phys. Chem. A 116(39): 9706–9717. Dawei, H., Liping, Q., Jianmin, C., Xingnan, Y., Xin, Y., Tiantao, C., Wen, F. (2010): Hygroscopicity of Inorganic Aerosols: Size and Relative Humidity Effects on the Growth Factor, Aerosol and Quality Research., 10, 255-264. Duplissy, J., DeCarlo, P. F., Dommen, J., Alfarra, M. R., Metzger, A., Barmpadimos, I., Prevot, A. S. H.,Weingartner, E., Tritscher, T., Gysel, M., Aiken, A. C., Jimenez, J. L., Canagaratna, M. R., Worsnop, D. R., Collins, D. R., Tomlinson, J., and Baltensperger, U.( 2011): Relating hygroscopicity and composition of organic aerosol particulate matter, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1155– 1165, doi:10.5194/acp-11-1155-2011. Fitzgerald, J. W. (1973): Dependence of supersaturation spectrum of CCN on aerosol size distribution and composition, J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 628–634. Fors, E. O., Swietlicki, E., Svenningsson, B., Kristensson, A., Frank, G. P., and Sporre, M.(2011): Hygroscopic properties of the ambient aerosol in southern Sweden – a two year study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 8343–8361, doi:10.5194/acp-11-8343-2011. Good, N., Topping, D. O., Allan, J. D., Flynn, M., Fuentes, E., Irwin, M., Williams, P. I., Coe, H., and McFiggans, G. (2010a): Consistency between parameterisations of aerosol hygroscopicity and CCN activity during the RHaMBLe discovery cruise, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3189–3203, doi:10.5194/acp-10-3189-2010. Good, N., Topping, D. O., Duplissy, J., Gysel, M., Meyer, N. K., Metzger, A., Turner, S. F., Baltensperger, U., Ristovski, Z., Weingartner, E., Coe, H., and McFiggans, G. (2010b): Widening the gap between measurement and modelling of secondary organic aerosol properties?, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 2577–2593, doi:10.5194/acp-10-2577-2010. Gunthe, S. S., King, S. M., Rose, D., Chen, Q., Roldin, P., Farmer, D. K., Jimenez, J. L., Artaxo, P., Andreae, M. O., Martin, S. T., and P¨oschl, U.(2009): Cloud condensation nuclei in pristine tropical rainforest air of Amazonia: size-resolved measurements and modeling of atmospheric aerosol composition and CCN activity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 7551–7575, doi:10.5194/acp-97551-2009. Gysel, M., McFiggans, G. B., and Coe, H. (2009): Inversion of tandem differential mobility analyser (tdma) measurements, J. Aerosol Sci., 40, 134–151, doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2008.07.013. Hess, M., Koepke, P and Schult, I (1998): Optical Properties of Aerosols and Clouds. American Meteorology Society. Huff Hartz, K. E., Rosenørn, T., Ferchak, S. R., Raymond, T. M., Bilde, M., Donahue, N. M., and Pandis, S. N. (2005): Cloud condensation nuclei activation of monoterpene and sesquiterpene secondary organic aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D14208, doi:10.1029/2004JD005754. IPCC (2007): Climate Change 2007: The Scientific Basis. In Solomon, S., Ding, Y., Griggs, D.G., Noguer, M., Vanderlinden, P.G., Dai, X., Maskell, K. and Johnson, C.A. (Eds). Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. Irwin, M., Good, N., Crosier, J., Choularton, T. W., and McFiggans, G. (2010): Reconciliation of measurements of hygroscopic growth and critical supersaturation of aerosol particles in central Germany, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 11737–11752, doi:10.5194/acp- 10-11737-2010. Junge, C. and McLaren, E. (1971): Relationship of cloud nuclei spectra to aerosol size distribution and composition, J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 382–390 Kreidenweis, S. M., Koehler, K., DeMott, P. J., Prenni, A. J., Carrico, C., and Ervens, B. (2005): Water activity and activation diameters from hygroscopicity data – Part I: Theory and application to inorganic salts, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1357–1370, doi:10.5194/acp-5-1357-2005. Kulmala, M., Laaksonen, A., Charlson, R. J., and Korhonen, P. (1997): Clouds without supersaturation, Nature, 388, 336–337. [20] Laaksonen, A., Korhonen, P., Kulmala, M., and Charlson, R. J. (1998):Modification of the K¨ohler equation to include soluble trace gases and slightly soluble substances, J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 853–862. Li, W.F, Bai, Z.P., Liu, A.X., Chen, J. and Chen, L. (2009): Characteristics of Major PM2.5 Components during Winter in Tianjin, China. Aerosol Air Qual. Res., 9: 105–119. Liu, P. F., Zhao, C. S., Gobel, T., Hallbauer, E., Nowak, A., Ran, L., Xu, W. Y., Deng, Z. Z., Ma, N., Milderger, K., Henning, S., Stratmann, F., and Wiedensohler, A. (2011): Hygroscopic Properties of Aerosol Particles at High Relative Humidity and their Diurnal Variations in the North China Plain, Atm. Chem. Phys., Discuss., 11, 2991-3040. Martin, S.T., Hung, H.M., Park, R.J., Jacob, D.J., Spurr, R.J.D., Chance, K.V. and Chin, M. (2004): Effects of the Physical State of Tropospheric Ammonium-Sulfate-Nitrate Particles on Global Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4: 183– 214. McFiggans, G., Artaxo, P., Baltensperger, U., Coe, H., Facchini, M. C., Feingold, G., Fuzzi, S., Gysel, M., Laaksonen, A., Lohmann, U., Mentel, T. F., Murphy, D. M., O’Dowd, C. D., Snider, J. R., and Weingartner, E. (2006): The effect of physical and chemical aerosol properties on warm cloud droplet activation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2593–2649, doi:10.5194/acp-6-2593-2006. McMurry, P.H., and Stolzenburg, M.R. (1989): On the sensitivity of particle size to relative humidity for Los Angeles aerosols. Atmos Environ., 23:497–507. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(89) 90593-3 Meier J., Wehner, B., Massling, A., Birmili, W., Nowak, A., Gnauk, T., Br¨ uggemann, E., Herrmann, H., Min, H., and Wiedensohler, A. (2009): Hygroscopic growth of urban aerosols particles in Beijing (China) during wintertime: A comparison of three experimental methods., Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 6865–6880, www.atmos-chem-phys.net/9/6865/2009/ Metzger, S., Steil, B., Xu, L., Penner, J. E., and Lelieveld, J.(2012): New representation of water activity based on a single solute specific constant to parameterize the hygroscopic growth of aerosols in atmospheric models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 5429– 5446, doi:10.5194/acp-12-5429-2012. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 56 The Effect of Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic… [30]. [31]. [32]. [33]. [34]. [35]. [36]. [37]. [38]. [39]. [40]. [41]. [42]. [43]. [44]. [45]. [46]. [47]. [48]. [49]. [50]. [51]. [52]. [53]. [54]. [55]. [56]. [57]. Meyer, N. K., Duplissy, J., Gysel, M., Metzger, A., Dommen, J., Weingartner, E., Alfarra, M. R., Prevot, A. S. H., Fletcher, C., Good, N., McFiggans, G., Jonsson, A. M., Hallquist, M., Baltensperger, U., and Ristovski, Z. D. (2009): Analysis of the hygroscopic and volatile properties of ammonium sulphate seeded and unseeded SOA particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 721–732, doi:10.5194/acp-9-721-2009. Mikhailov, E., Vlasenko, S., Niessner, R., and P¨oschl, U.( 2004): Interaction of aerosol particles composed of protein and saltswith water vapor: hygroscopic growth and microstructural rearrangement, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 323–350, doi:10.5194/acp-4-323-2004 Mikhailov, E., Vlasenko, S., Martin, S. T., Koop, T., and Pöschl, U. (2009): Amorphous and crystalline aerosol particles interacting with water vapor: conceptual framework and experimental evidence for restructuring, phase transitions and kinetic limitations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 9491–9522, doi:10.5194/acp-9-9491-2009. Mochida, M., Kuwata, M., Miyakawa, T., Takegawa, N., Kawamura, K., and Kondo, Y. (2006): Relationship between hygroscopicity and cloud condensation nuclei activity for urban aerosols in Tokyo, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D23204, doi:10.1029/2005JD006980. Petters, M. D. and Kreidenweis, S. M. (2007): A single parameter representation of hygroscopic growth and cloud condensation nucleus activity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 1961–1971, doi:10.5194/acp-7- 1961-2007. Petters, M. D., Carrico, C. M., Kreidenweis, S. M., Prenni, A. J., DeMott, P. J., Collett, J. L., and Moosm¨uller, H. (2009): Cloud condensation nucleation activity of biomass burning aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D22205, doi:10.1029/2009JD012353. Pruppacher, H. R. and Klett, J. D. (2000): Microphysics of clouds and precipitation, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Putaud, J.P. (2012): Aerosol hygroscopicity at Ispra EMEP-GAW station by M. Adam et al., Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 12, C1316–C1322 Randles, C. A., Russell, L. M., and Ramaswamy, V. (2004): Hygroscopic and optical properties of organic sea salt aerosol and consequences for climate forcing, Geographical Research Letters., Vol. 31, LI6108, doi: 10, 1029/2004GL020628. Raymond, T. M. and Pandis, S. N. (2003): Formation of cloud droplets by multicomponent organic particles, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4469, doi:10.1029/2003JD003503. Rissler, J., Swietlicki, E., Zhou, J., Roberts, G., Andreae, M. O., Gatti, L. V., and Artaxo, P. (2004): Physical properties of the submicrometer aerosol over the Amazon rain forest during the wetto- dry season transition – comparison of modeled and measured CCN concentrations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2119–2143, doi:10.5194/acp-4-2119-2004. Roberts, G. C., Day, D. A., Russell, L. M., Dunlea, E. J., Jimenez, J. L., Tomlinson, J. M., Collins, D. R., Shinozuka, Y., and Clarke, A. D. (2010): Characterization of particle cloud droplet activity and composition in the free troposphere and the boundary layer during INTEX-B, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 6627–6644, doi:10.5194/acp-10-6627-2010. Rose, D., Gunthe, S. S., Mikhailov, E., Frank, G. P., Dusek, U., Andreae, M. O., and P¨oschl, U.( 2008): Calibration and measurement uncertainties of a continuous-flow cloud condensation nuclei counter (DMT-CCNC): CCN activation of ammonium sulfate and sodium chloride aerosol particles in theory and experiment, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1153–1179, doi:10.5194/acp-8-1153-2008. Seinfeld, J. H. and Pandis, S. N. (2006): Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Shen, Z.X., Cao, J.J, Tong, Z., Liu, S.X., Reddy, L.S.S., Han, Y.M, Zhang, T. and Zhou, J. (2009): Chemical Characteristics of Submicron Particles in Winter in Xi’an. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 9: 80–93. Shulman, M. L., Jacobson, M. C., Carlson, R. J., Synovec, R. E., and Young, T. E.( 1996): Dissolution behavior and surface tension effects of organic compounds in nucleating cloud droplets, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 277–280, doi:10.1029/95GL03810. Sjogren, S., Gysel, M., Weingartner, E., Baltensperger, U., Cubison, M. J., Coe, H., Zardini, A. A., Marcolli, C., Krieger, U. K., and Peter, T. (2007): Hygroscopic growth and water uptake kinetics of two-phase aerosol particles consisting of ammonium sulfate, adipic and humic acid mixtures, J. Aerosol Sci., 38, 157–171, doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2006.11.005. Stock, M., Cheng, Y. F. Birmili, W., Massling, A., Wehner, B., Muller, T., Leinert, S., Kalivitis, N., Mihalopoulos, N., and Wiedensohler. A. (2011): Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 4251–4271, www.atmos-chemphys. net/11/4251/2011/ doi:10.5194/acp-11-4251-2011 Stokes, R. H., and Robinson, R. A. (1966): Interactions in aqueous nonelectrolyte solutions. I. Solute solvent equilibria, J. Phys. Chem., 70, 2126–2130. Svenningsson, B., Rissler, J., Swietlicki, E., Mircea, M., Bilde, M., Facchini, M. C., Decesari, S., Fuzzi, S., Zhou, J., Mønster, J., and Rosenørn, T. (2006): Hygroscopic growth and critical supersaturations for mixed aerosol particles of inorganic and organic compounds of atmospheric relevance, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1937–1952, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1937-2006. [48] Swietlicki, E., Zhou, J., Covert, D. S., Hameri, K., Busch, B., Vakeva, M., Dusek, U., Berg, O. H.,Wiedensohler, A., Aalto, P., Makela, J., Marinsson, B. G., Papaspiropoulos, G., Mentes, B., Frank, G. and Stratch. F.( 2000):Hygroscopic properties of aerosol particles in the north-eastern Atlantic during ACE-2.Tellus 52B, 201–227. Swietlicki, E., Hansson, H.-C., H¨ameri, K., Svenningsson, B., Massling, A., McFiggans, G., McMurry, P. H., Petӓjӓ, T., Tunved, P., Gysel, M., Topping, D., Weingartner, E., Baltensperger, U., Rissler, J., Wiedensohler, A., and Kulmala, M. (2008): Hygroscopic properties of submicrometer atmospheric aerosol particles measured with H-TDMA instruments in various environments 10 – a review, Tellus B, 60(3), 432–469,. 6892, 6898, 6906, 6909 Wang, J., Hoffmann, A.A., Park, R.J., Jacob, D.J. and Martin, S.T. (2008a). Global Distribution of Solid and Aqueous Sulfate Aerosols: Effect of the Hysteresis of Particle Phase Transitions. J. Geophys. Res. 113: D11206. doi: 10.1029/2007JD009367 Wang, J., Jacob, D.J. and Martin S.T. (2008b). Sensitivity of Sulfate Direct Climate Forcing to the Hysteresis of Particle Phase Transitions. J. Geophys. Res. 113: D11207. doi: 10.1029/2007JD009368. Wex, H., Stratmann, F., Hennig, T., Hartmann, S., Niedermeier, D., Nilsson, E., Ocskay, R., Rose, D., Salma, I., and Ziese, M. (2008): Connecting hygroscopic growth at high humidities to cloud activation for different particle types, Environ. Res. Lett., 3, 1–10,doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/3/035004. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 57

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 01-04||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Assessment of Water Quality of Hand-Dug Wells in Zaria LGA of Kaduna State, Nigeria By Samuel Yakubu Department of Geography, Osun State University, Okuku Campus, Nigeria ----------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT--------------------------------------------This study assessed the water quality of some hand-dug wells in Zaria Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Water samples were collected from eight (8) different wells at strategic positions and determined to ascertain how safe the water is for directly human consumption without treatment. The physical and chemical parameters assessed include temperature, pH, total hardness, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nitrate, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, lead and nickel. The result revealed high variation between the WHO standard for potable water and the obtained values. The implication is that water from most wells in the study area is not in any way safe nor suitable for direct human consumption. Closeness of wells to refuse dumpsites was blamed for the increase levels of concentration of pollutants. To avoid further pollution of groundwater, the study therefore recommends that the site for well should be at least 30m away from source of contamination most especially refuse dumpsite, the surrounding environment of the existing wells should be kept clean and tidy to avoid or reduce contaminations, disinfection of wells water by chlorination and continuous monitoring to determine any change in the level of pollution at the sources. KEYWORDS: water quality, pollutants, hand-dug wells, suitability ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 05 November, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 30 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I. INTRODUCTION Water is a resource that is both invaluable and vital to the existence of all living organisms, but this valued resource is increasingly being threatened as human populations grow and demand more water of high quality for domestic purposes and economic activities. Water value is linked to the provision and quality of ecosystems service. According to Annan, (2003) „„portable water is precious, we cannot live without it and human activities have profound impact on the quality and quantity of water available‟‟. Domestic water is used for drinking, cooking, bathing and cleaning, however, access to safe drinking and sanitation is critical in terms of health. For instance, unsafe drinking water contributed to numerous health problems in developing countries such as the one billion or more incidents of diarrhoea that occur annually (Mark et al., 2002). While water may appear to be clear and pure, and has no specific taste or odor, it may contain elements that can have undesirable effects on health. Water is classified under two main categories based on its location and these are surface and ground water (Appelo and Postma, 2005). The quality of any body of surface or ground water is a function of either or both natural influences and human activities. Without human influences, water quality would be determined by the weathering of bedrock minerals, atmospheric processes of evapotranspiration, and the deposition of dust and salt by wind. Others include, the natural leaching of organic matter and nutrients from soil, hydrological factors that lead to runoff, and by biological processes within the aquatic environment that can alter the physical and chemical composition of water (UNEP, 2006). Contrary to widely held theoretical view of groundwater being the “safest” water, wells are found to be polluted in terms of temperature, mineral contents, particles solute, organic matter and bacterial concentration. The quality of groundwater is determined by testing various parameters of interest on which results is compared with the standard qualities required for water intended for human consumption and use (Appelo and Postma, 2005). A well is an excavation or structure created in the ground aquifers. The well water is drawn by a pump, or using containers such as rubber or iron bucket that are raised by hand. Well can vary greatly in depth, water volume and may require treatment to soften it. Several studies such as Dada (1988), Abdullahi (1989), Akungbo (1990), Gideon (1999), (Folorunsho, 2010), Adediji and Ajibade, (2005) among others showed the relationship between ground (well) water quality and refuse dumpsites. For instance, Dada (1988) studied the faecal www.theijes.com The IJES Page 1 Assessment Of Water Quality Of Hand… pollution of well water in Zaria city; Abdullahi (1989) worked on the isolation and identification of salmonella typhoid and vibro-cholerae from wells in Zaria. Ariziki (1991) in his study of some physiochemical and bacteriological qualities of shallow wells in Samaru, Zaria observed that polluted water wells of Samaru were due to poor location of such wells. Gideon (1999) studied the quality of water in wells found in Samaru, Zaria and observed that all the wells were polluted with pollution strength varying with locational qualities, land use and well construction design. He also observed seasonal variation in the pollution which he attributed to high total bacteria count levels in wells. Inadequate access to portable water is closely associated related to poverty (Taylor et al, 2002). In Ghana for instance, only 6% of the poorest wealth quintile had indoor piping compared with 78% of the wealthiest (Songsore and McGranahan, 1993). Various shallow wells have been sunk in the study area due to inadequate potable water supply. Water consumed plays a key role in determining the physical, mental and social health of any one (Yakubu and Baba, 2010). While human senses can only analyze the aesthetic quality of water, it cannot go beyond that to ascertain the chemical quality of drinking water. As a result, the overall process of evaluating the physical characteristic and elemental concentration of heavy metals contained in drinking water is expedient. The objective of the study is to determine some physical and chemical characteristics of well water consumed and to compare the parameters with the WHO standards in order to evaluate any possible health effect on the consumers. This is very important because drinking water quality guidelines and standards are designed to enable the provision of clean and safe water for human consumption, thereby protecting human health as well as the environment. The guidelines are usually based on scientifically acceptable levels of toxicity to either humans or aquatic organisms. Water quality is not static over time, rather, it vary in both time and space and requires routine monitoring to detect spatial patterns and changes over time. II. METHODOLOGY The study area The study area is Zaria which lies on latitudes 11° 07”N and 12° 00‟‟N, and longitude 07° 44”E and 8° 00”E. Located at a distance of about 962 kilometers from the Atlantic Ocean, it is about 80 kilometers from Kaduna (the state capital). Zaria lies at a height of about 700 metres above sea level and is part of the Hausa High Plains of the northern Nigeria. The area falls within the tropical wet-dry climate and experiences two distinct seasons namely; the wet and dry seasons which are caused by the movement of the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD) under the influence of two major air masses namely the tropical continental (cT) and the tropical maritime (mT). It has a mean annual rainfall of about 800mm, concentrated in a wet season between April and October (Yakubu, 2009). The temperature is high throughout the year, with the monthly mean rising from January (21 0C) and attaining a maximum in April (290C). A decade mean annual temperature (1999-2008) is 26oC (Yakubu, 2009). Zaria is drained majorly by Galma River with three other rivers as its tributaries which are River Kubanni, Shika and Saye. Data collection and Analysis Water samples were collected from eight (8) wells (w1-w8) in households at specific locations. The wells were basically considered as of small, medium and large sizes given the common sizes of wells in most homes in the study area. A small plastic bottle of one (1) litre capacity rinsed with distilled water was used to collect water samples. Water sample collected from each well was taken to the laboratory for analysis the same day for the following parameters: temperature, pH, total hardness, BOD, nitrate, copper, iron, manganese, zinc, lead and nickel using standard laboratory techniques. The analysis was carried out at the Centre for Energy Research and Training (CERT), Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. The results obtained were compared with the secondary data gotten from publications of the World Health Organization (WHO) Standard to ascertain conformity with the national and international guidelines. Results and Discussion From the analysis of the samples, variations in the levels of both physical and chemical concentration were observed. The values of each of the parameters examined from well 1 to well 8 are tabulated in table 1. However, Table 2 which is the summary of data in Table 1 shows the variation in terms of range, mean level of concentration of each parameter examined, WHO standard and deviation from the standards. From Table 2, the results show that most parameters tested were either above or below the international and national standards with the exception of pH, which fall within the range. The mean value of temperature for instance is 25.3 which is above the WHO standard. A high temperature causes thermal pollution and adversely affects aquatic life. More so, a rising water temperature lowers the viscosity of water and so causes faster settling of solid particles. Total hardness has the mean concentration of 197.9mg/l higher than the 100mg/l WHO standard. This excess according to Appello and Postma (2005) causes cataract, diuretics disease and diarrhea in man and scouring disease among livestock. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 2 Assessment Of Water Quality Of Hand… Table 1: Values of Well Water Sample Parameter Temperature (oC) W1 24.0 W2 25.5 W3 25.8 W4 24.4 W5 26.9 W6 25.6 W7 26.9 W8 23.8 pH Total Hardness BOD Nitrate (mg/l) Manganese (mg/l) Iron (mg/l) Copper (mg/l) Zinc (mg/l) Lead (mg/l) Nickel (mg/l) 7.8 200 15 1.2 2.02 3.20 2.10 0.52 0.1 0.04 7.5 182 20 1.8 0.84 1.14 2.40 0.18 0.07 0.05 6.8 150 18 1.5 1.03 5.25 1.80 1.21 0.5 0.07 8.0 302 20 1.7 0.42 2.88 0.82 0.56 0.03 0.12 7.4 242 16 2.0 0.80 1.90 4.30 2.11 0.08 0.06 7.8 132 18 1.7 2.33 4.20 1.44 1.42 1.00 0.09 7.3 250 21 1.6 1.80 3.50 2.51 1.90 0.04 0.02 7.0 125 12 1.5 2.20 0.72 1.80 1.12 0.85 0.03 Note: W = well Table 2: Suitability of drinking water quality Parameters Range Mean Temperature pH Total Hardness BOD Nitrate Manganese Iron Copper Zinc Lead Nickel 22.6 - 8.0 6.8 – 8.0 125 - 302 12 - 21 1.2 – 2.0 0.42–2.33 0.75-5.25 0.82-4.30 0.18-2.11 0.04-1.0 0.02-0.12 25.3 7.45 197.9 17.5 1.63 1.43 2.85 2.15 1.13 0.33 0.06 WHO Standard (2004) 23.5 6.5 - 8 500 10 1.5 0.4 0.3 1.0 5.0 0.01 0.02 Deviation +1.81 +0.95, -0.55 -302.3 +7.5 +0.13 +1.03 +2.55 +1.12 -3.88 +0.32 +0.04 Field observation, the contamination or high levels of heavy metal content observed in the selected wells could be attributed to the indiscriminate dumping of refuse around most of the wells, which could leached down from the surface. Several other studies such as Akungbo (1990); Ariziki (19991), Gideon (1999), (Folorunsho, 2010) revealed that refuse dumps distance is not the only factor responsible for the level of concentration of pollutants in wells. Other factors such as nature of the geologic material developed on the poorly weathered crystalline basement complex rocks, poor drainage and sewage systems, discharge from industries and application of fertilizers could also be responsible for the level of pollution in the well water. The health risk with manifesting symptoms of acute toxicity is only associated with known exposure and or ingestion. While heavy metals reaching toxic levels have health risks associated with it, some symptoms associated with this health risk are experienced by some consumers and it is an indication that ill-health affect efficiency in one way or the other (Yakubu and Baba, 2010). Similarly, Okechukwu et al (2012) reported rampant cases of water borne diseases like typhoid fever in some hospitals in Nsukka metropolis. It is obvious that this common resource - water brings with it the blessing of continual survival but where carelessly handled is accompanies with it a silent epidermic, capable of hindering the attainment of individual‟s goal, wrecking havoc to the society' potential labour force and thus becomes the bane of national development. III. CONCLUSION From the study, it is observed that the water quality of the eight wells present a vivid picture of the nature of pollutants found in the well water where many consumers relay on. Based on the WHO standard for safe drinking water, most of the wells are in critical state of pollution. This means that water from most wells is not in any way suitable for direct consumption as practiced in the area. However to avoid further pollution of groundwater, the study therefore recommends that the site of any well to be dug should be at least 30m away from any source of contamination, the surrounding environment should be kept clean and tidy to avoid or reduce contaminations from dirt around the wells, disinfection of wells water by chlorination and continuous monitoring to determine any change in the level of pollution at the sources. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 3 Assessment Of Water Quality Of Hand… REFERENCE [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] Adediji, A. and Ajibade, L.T. (2005). Quality of Well Water in Ede Area, Southwestern Nigeria. J. Hum. Ecol.,17(3): 223-228. Akungbo, A. (1990) Pollution of water in Samaru, Unpublished Dissertation Department of Geography Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria. Annan, K. (2003) On: World Water Day, Special United Nation Report, March, 2003 Appelo, C.A.J. and Posma, D.C. (2005). Geochemistry of Groundwater and Pollution Published by Balkema,Leiden. Ariziki, A.L. (1991) Some Bacteriological and Physiochemical Qualities of Shallow wells in Samaru, Zaria, Unpublished Dissertation Department of Geography Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria. Folorunsho, J.O. (2010). An assessment of the quality of water in shallow wells in Sabon-Gari, Zaria, Kaduna State. The Zaria Geographer, 18(1); 71-82. Gideon, R.K. (1999). An Assessment of Current Level of Pollution of Hand-dug wells in Samaru Zaria, Unpublished Dissertation Department of Geography Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria. Mark, W.R., Ximing Cai and Sarah A.C. (2002): World Water and Food to 2025: Dealing with Scaraty. International Food Policy Research Institute, NW, Washington, DC, USA. Okechukwu M.E., Ogwo V., Onuegbu C.U. and Mbajiorgu C.C. (2012). Water Quality Evaluation of Spring Waters in Nsukka, Nigeria. In Hydrology for Disaster Management; Special Publication of the Nigerian Association of Hydrological Sciences, pp 224-230. Songsore, J. and McGranahan, G. (1993). Environmental, Wealth and Health: towards an Analysis of Intral -urban Differentials within the Greater Accra Metropolitant Area, Ghana. Environment and Urbanization 5, pp 10-34. Taylor, P. Boussen, C.R., Awunyo-Akaba, J. and Nelson, J. (2002). Ghana Urban Health Assessment. Environmental Health Project Activity Report No. 114, Washington DC. USAID. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) (2006). Water Quality for Ecosystem and Human Health, United Nations Environment Program/Global Environment Monitoring System (UNEP/GEMS) Program 2006, pp 1-132. World Health Organization (WHO) (2004). Standard for drinking water. Yakubu, S. (2009). Effects of municipal soil waste application on soil properties and crop qualities in Zaria urban area northern Nigeria. PhD. Thesis, Dept of Geog. University of Abuja. Yakubu, S. and Baba, B. (2010). Assessment of water quality consumed by students and its health implications on their academi c performance. Journal of Studies in Science and Mathematic Education, 1(1), 103-111. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 4

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) || Volume || 2 || Issue || 11 || Pages || 31-34 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Socio-Economic Impact Study of Jamuna Kotma Coal Field Region Anuppur District MP 1 Dr. Manisha Garg, 2Arun R Joshie, 3Dr.Sandhya Choudhary ------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------The present paper makes a realistic attempt to examine the socio economic impact rendered by the mining operations carried out in the Jamuna Kotma Coal Field Region in the district of Anuppur, Madhya Pradesh (India). Based on the participatory field methods used with the impacted population and Kendall’s ranking coefficient method, the study area has been categorized into different socio-economic development regions that may indicate the impact of ongoing mining activities in the area. Regional disparities in the levels of development have become a major concern for any type of spatial planning development. This is a multi dimensional phenomenon which is governed by several factors an area In order to reduce or eliminate such regional disparities it is essential to pay attention to the regions of low development because population and society are dynamic factors of region .The villages that are highly developed in terms of their social, economic and demographic factors can also show significant growth and development in terms of optimum land use and agricultural efficiency. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 13 November 2013 Date of Acceptance: 05 December 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- I. INTRODUCTION Mining is a site-specific activity and is done at the sites where minerals exist. Also, Mining is considered as an environmentally unfriendly activity. Globally, attention has been drawn towards the environmental impacts of mining and associated activities in mining complexes, and the action that are required to be taken for minimization prevention and mitigation of these impacts. The activities in mining complexes affect all the components of the environment and these effects could be temporary or permanent reversible or irreversible repairable or irreparable and beneficial or harmful. Mining activities also impacts on socioeconomic conditions of the area from beginning and end of the operations. It enhances the economic status of the people and provides the other facilities like health, education and other infrastructures. Jamuna Kotma area situated in Anuppur District of M.P. Area falls under SOI toposheet No. 64E/16 and 64I/4 in range of latitude in between 23 o0’ and 23o15’ and longitude in between 81o45’ and 82o 05’.Anuppur - Chirimiri section of SECL Railway is passing through it. National Highway 78 is also passing along northern side of the area. Mine area headquarter is situated about 6.5 km south of Kotma railway station (Fig1). Kewai River is passing along the north – south of the study area. The area is gently undulating with the general slope towards River Kewai. The surface attains maximum and minimum elevation of 573.47 and 512.42 m respectively from msl (Mean Sea Level). At places, particularly, the areas at the fringes of river Kewai exhibits “bad land” topography. Haraful Nala, perennial stream, traverses the eastern part of the colliery and drains into river Kewai that mainly controls the drainage in the area. The temperature varies from 4.9o to 44o c. Average annual rainfall is 1430 mm. Topography of the area is gently undulating. The locations of the villages are shown in fig.2. II. METHODOLOGY For regional disparities analysis, socio economic data obtained from the competent mining authority and the data collected from the primary survey through questionnaire and personal interviews with the various groups (PRA technique) were utilized. With the help of Kendall’s ranking coefficient method, the identification of regional disparities was made. These indicators were broadly divided into social, economic and demographic. Because of the different approaches of various authors viewing development from various angles, the selections of these indicators here were purely made on an arbitrary base (Aslam1986, Coutinho1989. Landau, and Everitt, 2004. Luecht, et. al, 1989. Martin, 1994, Nagaraj and Krashna Murthy 2007, Nagarajan 1993 Sahu, 1986) Present study includes 11, 14 and 5 indicators of social, economic and demographic respectively (Table 1). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 31 82000’ 820o5’ N 81055’ 81050’ Socio-Economic Impact Study of Jamuna Kotma Coal Field Region Anuppur District MP 23015’ 23015’ 23010’ 23010’ LEGEND 8205’ 82000’ 81055’ 23005’ 81050’ 23005’ scale 0 9000 Fig.1 Location Map of Study Area Fig.2 Village location Map www.theijes.com The IJES Page 32 Socio-Economic Impact Study of Jamuna Kotma Coal Field Region Anuppur District MP Formula used in socio economic study Population Density = (Population/Area) *100 Work Density = (Total worker/Population)* 100 Crop Intensity = Grass Cropped area/ Net area shown Land Use Intensity = Total Cultivated area/ Total culturable area Culturable Area = Cultivated area + culturable waste Table1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 had showed the various indicators that had been used for analysis of socioeconomic study. We had used following indicators: Table 1 – Indicators (Social, Economic, Demographic) S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Social (TS) Number of primary school (PS) Number of middle school (MS) Number of high school (HS) Electricity for domestic purpose (ED) Electricity for All purpose (EA) River water (R) Tank water (TK) Nala water (N) Post office (PO) Economic (TE) Forest Land Irrigated Land(Ha) Grass Irrigated Unirrigated Land Net crop area Culturable waste Co operative society Godown Bank 10. 11. 12. Telegraph office (TO) Other facilities (O) cultivated/culturable Number of well Number of Hand pump 13. 14. Demographic (TD) Population Area Density of population Total worker Literacy (% of total population) Number of Road Number of Tank Water III. ANALYTICAL FINDINGS Regional disparities in the levels of development have become a major concern for any type of spatial planning development. This is a multi dimensional phenomenon which is governed by several factors an area (Joshi 1979). Now a days the central theme of research and planning relates to the socio economic upliftment of the rural sector the modes of development like planning, industrialization, rapid development of transport and communication, development of banking facilities (with branches in most villages, towns and cities) and establishment of different types of educational institutions, health facilities, technological and institutional innovations in agriculture are the major factor contributing to regional development (Nagraj 2007). However, in actual practice these infrastructural facilities may not be available in a uniform distribution pattern in a region. As a result, regional disparities do occur in a given time and space. Table 6 Year 1991 2001 Class Very High High Rank Village <25.18045 Banka Tola, Deogawan 25.18045 Padaur,Pali, Pipariya,Kikari Ponri, Harad, 31.00855 Kotmi Sakola, 31.00855-36.93366 Jamuniha, Daikhal, Payari, Dhurvasin, Latar, Parasi 36.93366-42.7647 Beliya,Badra, >42.7647 Mauhari Mean = 31.00855 Rank Village <30.85147 Kotmi,Banka-tola,Pali, 30.85147-38.27747 Jamuniha Padaur, Kikaripond,Harad,sakola Deogawan 38.27747-45.70347 Mauhari, Payari, Dhurvasin, Parasi, Badra, Piparia, Daikal, 45.70347-53.12947 Latar >53.12947 Beliya Mean = 38.27747 SD = 5.8281 SD = 7.426 Medium Low Very Low IV. VERY DEVELOPED REGION Socioeconomic table 6 deciphered that during both period (1991 and 2001) Banka Tola was very high developed, while the Deogawan which was very high developed, in 1991, falls down under the high developed village. In 2001 two villages (Kotmi and Pali) were comes under the very high developed village due to the development of new mines area in Pali and Kotmi. Development of these region was due to the establishment of primary school, middle school, High school and agricultural implement, regulated markets major cause of development and it is only due to the mining activities going on this region. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 33 Socio-Economic Impact Study of Jamuna Kotma Coal Field Region Anuppur District MP V. HIGH DEVELOPMENT REGION In 1991, seven villages namely Padaur, Pali, Pipariya, Kikari Ponri, Harad, Kotmi and Sakola fall under this categories while six villages viz Jamuniha Padaur, Kikar – pond, Harad, sakola Deogawan during 2001. These villages are leading in some of indicators like agriculture co-operative society, primary school and middle school, number of literacy of total population, use of agricultural implements and net shown area (Table 6). Besides these it seems that mining activities also play an important role in the development of the region. VI. MEDIUM DEVELOPED REGION Six villages namely Jamuniha, Latar, Parasi, Dhurvasin, Payari, and Daikhal fall under these categories in 1991. Seven villages namely Bhadra, Payari, Mauhari, Parasi, Dhurwasin, Daikhal, Pipariya falls under this categories in 2001. (Table 6) VII. LOW DEVELOPMENT REGION Two villages namely Badra and Beliya during 1991and only one village namely Latar in 2001 fall under these categories. This group had the least rank score in many of the indicators. The low development can be also explained by the physical constraints of the roughed terrain, the less fertile soil and less rain fall area. (Table 6) VIII. VERY LOW DEVELOPMENT REGION Mauhari in 1991 and Beliya in 2001 was very low development region. Demographic, social and economic indicators are responsible for this. (Table 6) IX. CONCLUDING REMARKS No doubt mining activities have both type of impact have shown on this area. Positive impacts especially on the socioeconomic conditions of the people have increased many times but it is not equally distributed amongst the neighboring villages. In order to reduce or eliminate such regional disparities it is essential to pay attention to the regions of low development because population and society are dynamic factors of region .The villages that are highly developed in terms of their social, economic and demographic factors can also show significant growth and development in terms of optimum land use and agricultural efficiency. The reverse may be the case in those villages in which the regional infrastructure is poor. It is believed that the regional disparities- in this study based on 37 factors- can also have an indirect influence on the level of agricultural development (Nagraj 1997; Srivastav1983). The ranks of all villages of Jamuna Kotma region with respect to each selected indicator and the total rank order scores of the levels of development is given in (Table 2, 3, 4 and 5). The standard deviation grouping technique is applied to divide the Jamuna Kotma region into very high, high, medium, low and very low developed regions based on combined rank scores of 37 indicators (Table 1). X. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The Authors are thankful to Prof. K.B. Pandey, Vice Chancellor, MGCGV and Dr. S K Tripathi of the Dept. of Energy and Environment, MGCGV, for their valuable guidance and support. REFRENCES [1.] [2.] [3.] [4.] [5.] [6.] [7.] [8.] [9.] [10.] [11.] [12.] Aslam, Mohammad (1986), Statistical Methods in Geographical Studies, Rajesh Publications, New Delhi. Coutinho,O. and T.C. Sharma (1989), Disperities in Crop Yields in Uttar Pradesh-A Diagnostic Enquiary, Annals, Nagi, Vol. IX, no.1, pp.28-40. Joshi, Y.G. and Juliet Dube(1979), Measurement of Regional Dispartiy of Agricultural Development in Madhya Pradesh, Dccan Geograprapher, vol. 17, no.3, pp. 587-593. Kurian, N.J. (2000), Wdening Regional Disparities in Agricultural Disparities in Agricultural Development in Madhya Predesh, Ind.J. Regional Sc.,Vol. 15, no.2,pp.55-60 Nagarajan, H. (1993), Changing Pattern of Agricultural Development in Madhya Pradesh, Ind.J. Regional Sc., Vol. 15, (2): 5560. Nagarajan, H. (1997), Changing Pattern of Agricultural Development in Chitradurga District- ASpatio-Tamporal Analysis, Published Ph.D. Thesis, Bangalore University. Nagaraj, H. and Krashna Murthy (2007), Geographical Analysis of Regional Disparties – A case Study of Chitradurga District, Karnataka, Transactions, Vol.29, No. 1, pp 75-82. Pang, Xiaomin and Becky P.Y. Loo, (2001), Regional economic and technological co –operation, in Victor F.S. Sit and Dadao Lu (ed.) China`s Regional Disparity: Issues and Policies, New York: Nov Science, 2001; 105-130. Sahu, K.C. (1986), Environmental and Socio economic impact of small Mineral Deposits, Nat., Conf., Small Minerk Depo. Delhi. Min. Geol., Mct. Inst. Ind. Singh,Vasudev., and T.N. Singh (2004), Environmental Impact due to surface mining in India,Minetech,Vol.25,No. 1, pp.3-7. Srivastava, Snehalatha (1983): Regional Disparities in Agriculture development in Madhya Pradesh, Ind. J. Regional Sc., Vol.15,(2): 55-60. Tomas, Gremlica, (2007): Renewal of Ecological and Aesthetic Functions of the Kladno Landscape in Parts Disturbed by the Mining of Black Coal, 11th Conference on Environment and Mineral Processing Part III, pp.389-394. ISBN: 9788024814315. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 34

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 01-04||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Implication of Poor Energy Supply on the Productivity of Nigerian Manufacturing Industry By UZORH AUSTIN C. Mechanical Engineering Department Federal University of Technoloy Owerri PMB 1526 Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. -----------------------------------------------ABSTRACT----------------------------------------------------------A comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness and delay contribution due to power outages and fluctuations is presented. The purpose of this study is to reveal the implications of poor energy supply on the effective utilization of the input resources in a typical Nigerian Manufacturing Industry. Delta steel company .Delata state Nigeria was used as a casestudy. Data on power outages were collected from the energy distribution unit, steel melting shop and the rolling mill. Additionally, the total delays, standard or planned production and actual production were determined from the records, from which the power delay contributions and effectiveness were evaluated. Results from this study revealed that power delay contributed more than 6% and the monthly effectiveness was more than unity throughout year 2010. Analysis of data collected for 2010 production period showed that the energy distribution unit experienced 54 outages with a total duration of 11472 mins, while a total of 44947 mins was lost in the steel melting shops due to power outages and under-voltage. More so, 25 billets worth 44tonnes were scrapped and 20811 mins were lost as a result of power failure and fluctuations. The implications clearly showed that poor power supply lowers the productivity of the company. KEYWORDS: Energy, Manufacturing, Productivity. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 11, March, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November, 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I. MANUFACTURING SECTOR AND ENERGY SECTOR Every manufacturing industry requires energy to power their machines, computers, lighting and establishment for various purposes. However, in Nigeria, power requirement of the manufacturing sector far outweighs the available power being generated, transmitted and distributed by power holding company of Nigeria (PHCN) to both manufacturing and non manufacturing sectors. This energy deficiency has resulted in the emigration of some companies to other companies as exemplified by Mitchelin, which relocated their production capacity to ghana , some industries lying moribund as experienced by most textile industries in Nothern Nigeria and some industries resorting to diesel engines as prime movers of industrial alternators, which supplied inadequate power and cannot run continously for many days. Also, the running cost of these diesel engines are on the high sides , thereby increasing the cost of production and in many cases, lowers productivity. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Pertinent to this study is the understanding of the keywords: “Manufacturing” and “Productivity”. MEANING OF MANUFACTURING The word manufacturing is derived from the latin word manus and factus meaning hand and made respectively. That is the literal meaning is “made by hand”. However, in the modern sense, manufacturing means making of goods or articles from raw materials by hand and/or machinery by following a well defined plan for each activity required. DEFINITION OF PRODUCTIVITY Productivity has become an everyday watch word that is crucial to the welfare of the industries as well as the economic progress of the country. Productivity is the measure of how well the resources are brought together in an organization and utilized for accomplishing a set of objectives (Telsang 2008). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 1 Implication Of Poor Energy… Productivity is the ratio of outputs of goods or services from the conversion process to input consumed in the generation of these outputs (Arthur, 1978). Productivity is a summary measure of the quantity and quality of work performance with resource utilization considered (Schermerhorn, 1986) Productivity can be defined as the optimum utilization of all the resoures of organization: Men, material, money and machinery, energy, space, technology, etc (Sharma, 2006). II. MEASUREMENT OF PRODUCTIVITY Productivity is the arithmetic ratio of amount produced (output) to the amount of resources(input). Mathematically: Productivity= Output/Input Productivity refers to the efficiency of the production. (Telsang, 2008). The basic component of productivity measurement is a means of comprising output forecasts with actual output at selected intervals. In general system theory, effectiveness is defined as the degree to which the actual output of the system corresponds to its desired or planned outputs. Productivity is a function of effectiveness and efficiency (www.authorsden.com). Effectiveness= Actual Outputs/Desired Outputs Productivity = Actual Production/ Standard Production III. DELTA STEEL COMPANY AS AN INTEGRATED STEEL PLANT Delta Steel Company(DSC) is an integrated steel plant with iron making, steel making and rolling mill facilities. These three important plant consume a lot of power during production and adversely lower the productivity of the company when there is power fluctuations or failure. However, the steel melting shop and rolling mill were functional during the period under study. IV. DATA COLLECTED AND PRESENTED PROCEDURE Power outages in DSC were collected for one year (January-December 2010) from the energy distribution unit. The record which show the specific date , timeout, timein, duration and feeders has been summarized as shown in table 1. The delay due to power outages, insufficient power to run the furnaces and preheat ladies, power fluctuation and power failure that resulted in the abortion of heats were determined from one year record and percentage contribution of the power failure to total delay was determined and compared to the productivity of the steel melting shop. See table 4.2. Moreso, delay due to power outages, cobbles due to power outages, percentages contribution of power failure compared to the total delay was determined and compared to the productivity of rolling mill (see table 4.3) V. POWER UTILIZATION IN THE STEEL MELTING SHOP Melting in the plant is achieved with Electric Arc Furnaces (EAF), which cannot do without electric Arc Furnaces (EAF), which cannot do without electricity. The melting point of steel is about 1539c, its superheat temperature before tapping into the preheated ladle is 1700c and the casting temperature in the continuous casting platform is 1600c. when there is power failure and the temperatture of the liquid steel is below 1600c, the usual option is to abort the heat by quickly tapping into the ladies and pouring the liquid steel on the ground floor before it solidifies. More so, when the Power failure is experienced at a temperature of about 1200c, the metal is left in the furnace, while heating and melting continue when the power is re-instated. VI. POWER UTILIZATION IN THE STEEL ROLLING MILL Both power fluctuation and failures are very dangerous and highly undesirable in the rolling mill. This is as a result of the formation of cobble which can occur when a billet undergoing deformation derails due to the stoppage or malfunctioning of the mall stands, shears, approach or roller table and loppers along the mill train. Power fluctuation or failure causes cobble formation in this mill, thereby grounding the rolling operation. Also, the temperature 1200c of the heated billets drops when there is power failure. When cobble forms, the mill is shut down, and cobble removal crew cut and remove the cobble, while the maintenance/production crew reinstates the plant before production continues. VII. RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS The results from the data collected are summarized in tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3, while the implications of poor power supply are revealed in the tables 4.2 and 4. 3 and presented as shown below: www.theijes.com The IJES Page 2 Implication Of Poor Energy… VIII. IMPLICATIONS OF POOR POWER SUPPLY IN THE STEEL MELTING SHOP The implication of poor fluctuation and failure are listed as follows: [1] Loss of consumables and ferroalloys are used in the treatment of aborted heat. [2] Loss of money accruable from 110 tons (furnace capacity) of steel had it been successfully casted. [3] Devaluation of already treated steel to scrap. [4] Increased expenditure on the cutting of the aborted steel to sizeable form for easy loading into the EAF. [5] Consumption of more energy in re-melting or continued melting because of temperature drop. [6] Loss of money paid to PHCN for power expended on return or aborted heat. [7] Increased idle times of workers because the entire plant get heated up and polluted when there is heat abortion. [8] Loss of man hours especially when heat is aborted. [9] Inability to make the planned or standard production [10] Productivity ratio or effectiveness is always less than one with respect to the production quantity. IMPLICATIONS OF POOR POWER SUPPLY IN THE STEEL ROLLING MILL The Implications of power fluctuations and outages in the steel mill includes: [1] Devaluation of the billet to scrap [2] Loss of a would be income if the billet was successfully rolled [3] Extra expense on the oxygen and acetylene used in cutting the cobbles [4] Maintenance and repair of damage damage parts due to cobble [5] Expenditure on the treatment of injured perssonnel or compensation on the family when a worker is entangled by cobble (death situation) [6] Increased downtime [7] Increased idle time of some workers [8] Increased energy consumption when the furnace temperature drops [9] Loss of man-hour and expenditure on power when cobble forms [10] Productivity is always less than unity because actual production was always less than the planned production. [11] Loss of machine hours as some machines take up to thirty minutes before assuming normal operating condition. COMMENT ON THE RESULT Table 4.1: The cause of the outages includes system collapse, system disturbance, high frequency, under voltage, over-voltage and poor generation. The number of power failure times was found to be 54 and the outage duration totaling 11472mins in 2010. GIW – Ughelli Supply, S4W – Sapele Supply Table 4.2: A total of 44937min delay due to power outages and inadequacy was recorded in 2010 and the steel melting shop which contributed 7. 37% to the total delay and resulted in the abortion or return of heat worth 1107tonnes of liquid steel. No monthly target was achieved throughout 2010, as revealed by the effectiveness. EAF II and EAF IV delays due to power are presented in second column. Table 4. 3: when the effectiveness is 0.82, the power delay contribution is 2.90% , while the effectiveness of 0.50 resulted when the power delay contribution is 17. 32%. These clearly show that power delay affect the productivity adversely. Also, the total number of billets devalued throughout 2010 was 25. Total delay due to power failure was calculated to be 20811mins with a contribution of 6.27% to the total delay. The effectiveness from January to December, 2010, was found to be less than unity. IX. CONCLUSION Obviously, poor energy supply lowers the productivity of manufacturing industries in Nigeria as shown by the two functional plants in Delta Steel Company. This is due to its associated unwanted events such as increased idle time, delivery time delay, Increased cycle time, reduced machine output, increased expenditure on material recovery and recycle, increased maintenance and repair expences , semi finished product devaluation, compensation to injured personnel or family of dead personnel, downtime, loss of consumables, alloys and extra expenses on raw materials or semi-finished product protection. All these implications arise due to power fluctuation and outages and in some cases the use of diesel engines as an alternative source of power supply. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 3 Implication Of Poor Energy… Table 4.1: Power Outages for 2010. Source: Energy Distriburtion Unit August GIW 2201 325 Month Feeders Distribuion February March April May June July GIW, S4W GIW, S4W GIW GIW GIW GIW 790 1319 68 520 238 642 Number failures 4 5 4 6 3 10 www.theijes.com The IJES of power Page 4

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 17-23||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 ABO Incompatibility And Its Role In Neonatal Jaundice In Zaria, Kaduna State Of Nigeria 1, 1, Ella, E. E., 2,Garba, S. A. , 3,Ogala, W. N Centre for Biotechnology Research and Training, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 2, Dept. of Microbiology, F. U. T. Minna 3, Dept of Pediatrics, Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital Zaria -----------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT----------------------------------------------The blood group of mother and child assay with ABO incompatible was 5 (10%). The values Percentage Reticulocyte count, Percentage Neutrophils and Basophils were elevated in the ABO compatible group as compared with the compatible group. The severity of the jaundice as evident by the mean bilirubin levels observed for the infants with ABO incompatibility was 20.84 ± 8.1 mg/100ml. This was higher than the mean value of 16.35 ± 6.5 mg/100ml observed for the group ABO compatible group. The bilirubin levels was high in the samples of babies with blood group A or B born to mothers with blood group O with 27.1 mg/100ml for the baby with blood group B. The difference was however not statistically significant (P > 0.05). All (100%) of the cases with ABO incompatibility were Coomb’s positive while only 6 (16.2%) of the ABO compatible cases were Coomb’s positive. The level of maternal antibodies in the neonatal circulation was as high as 512 in both cases with over 50% of ABO incompatible group having titres of 256 and above. All (100%) of the ABO incompatible cases were hemolytic in the presence serum compliments and 4 (80%) were hemolytic even in the absence of compliments. However, in the ABO compatible cases, 56.8% were hemolytic in the presence of serum compliments while only 19% were hemolytic in the absence of compliments. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------Date of Submission: 25October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Despite the advances made in the diagnosis and treatment of Rh hemolytic diseases of the newborn, the role of the A and B factors, as a cause of a similar disease has not received sufficient treatment.1 Zuelzer and Cohen pointed out the importance of ABO incompatibility as a contributing factor to neonatal jaundice 2 and Robinson, et al. associated hyperbilirubinemia to ABO incompatibility. 3 The factors that hindered the general appreciation of A-B hemolytic disease according to Rosenfield could generally be that whereas Rh disease is readily recognizable with the aid of the direct anti-globulin test, A-B disease may not be recognized easily.1 An unusual antibody is not present in the serum of the mother since anti-A and anti- B are normally present, the usual form of the disease has little or no anemia and a variable degree of jaundice and less than 10 percent of all severe cases of hemolytic disease of the newborn are due to the A-B factor.1,4 Alongside the discovery, of the ABO system in 1901, Karl Lansteiner also reported the presence of antibodies directed against the A and B antigens in the sera of his colleagues. 5, 6 Thus, individuals belonging to Blood group A has antibodies against B antigen in their sera while those with group B blood has antibodies against the A antigen in their sera. Group O individuals have both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in their sera while those with AB cells possess neither of the antibodies. These antibodies are referred to as iso-antibodies 5, 7, 8 Cases of hemolytic diseases do result from pregnancies involving a group A, B, and AB infants in which the mother is O group. It is said to be an important diagnosis in cases of neonatal jaundice and anemia, with very severe cases requiring exchange blood transfusion.9 This often occurs where the infants inherit a blood group from the father that is not compatible with that of the mother, leading to the maternal response to the fetal cells.6, 10 Determination of hemolytic anemia is usually presumed in cases of an Rh negative woman immediately after birth once the baby’s blood is known to be positive. 10 This is not routinely carried out in cases involving the ABO incompatible births. Newborns incompatible with their mothers in the ABO system presents a potentially higher risk of severe hyperbilirubinemia especially in the presence of a positive direct coomb’s test.11 The objective of this study therefore is to asses the extent to which ABO incompatibility is implicated in neonatal jaundice in Zaria www.theijes.com The IJES Page 17 ABO Incompatibility And Its Role In Neonatal… II. MATERIALS AND METHODS The Study design: The project spans a period of four months from the month of March to July. Within this period, a total of 50 newborn admitted into the Hospital and diagnosed, as having jaundice were included in the study. Subject Study and inclusion criteria: - The period under study, only neonates (ages 0-28) admitted into the hospital and clinically diagnosed, as having jaundice was included. This excluded every other admission in respect of illnesses other than jaundice as well as children above 28 days old. Sample Collection A total of three milliliter (mls) of blood was obtained aseptically from neonates and another three milliliters (mls) were obtained from the mother into separate tubes. All the samples were collected by venous puncture using a sterile disposable 5 mls syringe and needle. The blood was transferred into a 5 mls sterile Kahn tubes respectively containing 0.01 gm of Ethylene diamine tetra – acetic acid - E.D.T.A. (BDH) and well stoppered. The sample were transported to the laboratory in a cool pack and subjected to the following analysis. Blood Group Determination: Blood grouping was carried out by the slide agglutination method,12 using monoclonal antibody reagents obtained from Biotec laboratories (U.K.). Packed Cell Volume (P.C.V.): This was done using whole blood for the neonate only. The heparinised blood was allowed to flow into a capillary tube by capillary action. One end of the capillary tube was then sealed using the flame of the Bunsen burner. It was placed in the haematocrit centrifuge (Hawksley microhaematocrit centrifuge Patent No 891481) and centrifuged at 5000rpm for 10 minutes. At the end of centrifugation the haematocrit was read using the PCV reader (Hawksley micro-haematocrit reader 850179). The haematocrit reading is equal to the P.C.V. White Blood Count: The total white blood count was determined for the neonate blood using the haemocytometer (Neubauer improved chamber S.748) In the process 0.05ml of heparinised blood was pipetted into the white blood cell pipette and it was filled with the white cell diluting fluid (3.0 percent Acetic acid containing 0.01gm of gentian violet in distilled water) to the 1ml mark to make a dilution of 1:20. It was allowed to stand at room temperature for 10 minutes after which a Pasteur’s pipette was used to fill the haemocytometer chamber with a cover slip in place by capillary action. The preparation was placed on the binocular microscope (Olympus model BH2) stage and the cells counted using the medium power objective (x40), and the total white blood count determined per cubic ml of blood. Differential Leucocyte Count: A thin blood film was prepared using the neonate blood on a clean grease free microscope slide and stained with Wright’s stain. The stained film was air dried and observed using the high power objective (x100) of a binocular microscope (Olympus model BH2) and the various cells and their percentages determined i.e. number of each cell type per 100 white cells counted. Reticulocyte Count: This was also performed for the neonate’s blood. Three drops of the whole blood was placed in a Kahn tube and three drops of 10 percent New Methylene blue stain was added (New Methylene blue in citrate-saline). The mixture was incubated at 37˚c for 30 minutes in an incubator (Gallenkamp model 150). After staining a thin film was prepared from it and was allowed to air dry .It was then viewed using the high power objective (x100) of a binocular microscope. Reticulocytes were counted and percentage occurrence calculated. This is the total number of reticulocytes (nucleated red cells) per 1000cells counted. Coomb’s Test: Both direct and indirect Coomb’s tests were carried out on the neonate’s red blood cells, using Human Antiglobulin reagent (Biotec Laboratories U.K.). In the direct test, the neonate’s washed cells were mixed and centrifuged at 1500rpm for 15 seconds. The tubes was gently shaken and observed for clumping of cells under a binocular microscope (x40) (Olympus BH2). While in the indirect test, the washed neonate cells were first sensitized in a tube with the mother’s serum and excess serum washed by addition of saline and centrifuging repeatedly for three times. Human Antiglobulin reagent (Biotec Lab. U.K.) was then added to the sensitized cells and the cells centrifuged at 1500rpm for 15 seconds. After which it was placed on a microscope slide and observed for clumping of cells under the medium power objective (x40) of a binocular microscope. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 18 ABO Incompatibility And Its Role In Neonatal… Bilirubin Determination: This was determined by the method of Malloy and Evelyn.12 The method is based on the formation of a purple compound Azobilirubin, when bilirubin reacts with the diazotized sulphanilic acid introduced by Vander Bergh. Into 2.7mls of distilled water was added 0.1ml of serum in two different tubes. 0.7mls of a mixed diazo reagent was added to the test while the blank was mixed with 0.7mls of diazo A reagent only. A standard was prepared using 0.2mls of standard bilirubin as control. 2.6mls of distilled water was added to a third tube containing 0.2mls of the standard bilirubin in 3.5mls of methanol to which was also added 0.7mls of mixed diazo reagent. All three tubes were incubated at room temperature for 5 minutes. The absorbance was read at 540nm using a spectrophotometer (Cecil 1000 Series). The bilirubin level was calculated using the formula; Key. T=Test Bilirubin = T-B × 171µmol/L S=Standard S-B B=Blank Titration of Maternal Sera: The maternal sera were titrated in a two-fold dilution to a dilution of 1:2048 using sterile saline. To each dilution was added 2mls of a 5 suspension of washed neonatal red cells. All the wells were incubated for one hour at 37°C and were observed for agglutination or settling of cells. Hemolysin Determination: Using a sterile pipette, 0.2mls of maternal sera was transferred into two serological tubes separately. One was placed in a water bath (GallenKamp 20H) held at 56°C for 30 minutes to inactivate complement. The other was used unheated. Into both tubes was added a 0.2mls of 5 suspension of the neonate’s red cell and both were incubated at 37 ˚C for one hour. They were then centrifuged to determine presence of cells or occurrence of hemolysis of the cells by the action of the maternal sera. Saline Agglutination: This was performed using the slide agglutination method used for blood grouping using 5 of the neonate’s red cell. A drop of the cell suspension was mixed with one drop of undiluted serum of the mother. The method was repeated using saline diluted serum. All were mixed individually and observed for agglutination. Serum from a different mother was used to serve as a positive control. Statistical Analysis: The results were analyzed statistically using the student’s t test and the chi’s squares to determine the significance of the results obtained and used to interpret the data obtained from all the analysis. RESULTS The blood group of mother and child assay showed that the number that was incompatible by this reaction was 11(22%) and in this ABO incompatible were 5 (10%) as presented in Fig. 1. the other six (12%) were rhesus incompatible and excluded in the result. 45 39 40 Nouber of cases 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 6 5 0 ABO incompatible Rhesus incompatible ABO and Rhesus compatible Compatibility status Fig. 1: Determination of Blood group compatibility of mother and child The hematological indices indicated reduced levels of Packed cell volume (PCV), Full blood count (FBC), Percentage Lymphocyte, Percentage Monocyte and Percentage Eosinophils in the ABO incompatible as www.theijes.com The IJES Page 19 ABO Incompatibility And Its Role In Neonatal… compared with the values from the compatible groups. The values Percentage Reticulocyte count, Percentage Neutrophils and Basophils were elevated in the ABO compatible group as compared with the compatible group (Table 1). The severity of the jaundice as evident by the mean bilirubin levels observed for the infants with ABO incompatibility was 20.84 ± 8.1 mg/100ml. This was higher than the mean value of 16.35 ± 6.5 mg/100ml observed for the group ABO compatible group. The bilirubin levels was high in the samples of babies with blood group A or B born to mothers with blood group O with 27.1 mg/100ml for the baby with blood group B. The difference was however not statistically significant (P > 0.05) (Table 2). All (100%) of the cases with ABO incompatibility were coomb’s positive while only 6 (16.2% of the ABO compatible cases were coomb’s positive (Table 3). The level of maternal antibodies in the neonatal circulation was as high as 512 in both cases with over 50% of ABO incompatible group having titres of 256 and above (Table 4). All (100%) of the ABO incompatible cases were hemolytic in the presence serum compliments and 4 (80%) were hemolytic even in the absence of compliments. However, in the ABO compatible cases, 56.8% were hemolytic in the presence of serum compliments while only 19% were hemolytic in the absence of compliments (Table 5). Table 1: Hematological parameters of ABO compatible and incompatible infants Parameter Reticulocyte (%) PCV (%) FBC (cumm) Lymphocytes (%) Neutrophils (%) Monocytes (%) Eosinophils (%) Basophils (%) Bloodgroup Compatible ABO incompatible Compatible ABO incompatible Compatible ABO incompatible Compatible ABO incompatible Compatible ABO incompatible Compatible ABO incompatible Compatible ABO incompatible Compatible ABO incompatible N 39 5 32 5 38 5 39 5 39 5 39 5 39 5 39 5 Mean / SD 2.98 ± 1.27 3.4 ± 0.84 45.78 ± 5.19 42.4 ± 4.6 10250.53 ± 3089.9 7850 ± 3449.3 43.5 ± 9.2 37.6 ± 7.2 32.95 ± 9.6 41 ± 4.9 12.3 ± 3.9 10.8 ± 2.0 10.5 ± 2.8 9.6 ± 2.7 0.41 ± 0.82 1.2 ± 0.83 Table 2: Determination of bilirubin levels in neonates ABO incompatible ABO Compatible Blood group Baby Mother B+ O+ A+ O+ OAO+ B+ A+ O+ Mean Mean Bilirubin mg/100ml 27.1 16.8 26.2 8.4 25.7 20.84 ± 8.1 16.35 ± 6.5 Table 3: Determination of maternal antibody in neonate’s circulation by coomb’s reaction Case Bloodgroup ABO Compatible O+/O+ A+/A+ B+/B+ A+/AB+ Total ABO Incompatible Total www.theijes.com B+/O+ A+/O+ O-/AO+/B+ Coomb’s reaction Positive Negative 5 25 0 3 0 2 1 1 6 (16.2%) 31 (83.8%) 1 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 5 (100%) 0 The IJES Total 30 3 2 2 37 1 2 1 1 5 Page 20 ABO Incompatibility And Its Role In Neonatal… Table 4: Determination of maternal antibodies in the neonate’s circulation Titer 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 Total ABO Compatible 1 2 _ _ 2 5 11 10 6 37 ABO Incompatible 1 2 _ _ _ 1 1 _ _ 5 Total 2 4 _ _ 2 6 12 10 6 42 Table 5: Hemolysin reaction in the presence and absence of compliments Blood Group B M Unheated Serum + Total - B+ O+ A+ O+ OAO+ B+ TOTAL 1 2 1 1 5 (100%) O+ O+ A+ A+ B+ B+ A+ AB+ Total 17 2 0 2 21(56.8%) Heated Serum + ABO incompatible group 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 0 5 4 (80%) ABO compatible group 13 30 9 1 3 1 2 2 0 0 2 0 16(43.2%) 37 10(27%) 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 0 0 1 1 (20%) 1 2 1 1 5 21 2 2 2 27 (73%) 30 3 2 2 37 Table 6: Determination of Saline Agglutination reaction 1(-) 2(+) 3(++) 4(+++) Total 13 22 2 37 Compatible 2 2 1 5 Incompatible 13 24 4 1 42 Total Key +++ Highly Positive ++ Mildly Positive + Weakly Positive DISCUSSION The study showed that ABO incompatible was responsible for 10% of the cases studied. The values obtained from the hematological findings showed a slight variation from the normal values. The mean reticulocyte count for the compatible group was slightly lower than the values of the incompatible group. However the statistics showed no significance in the values (P > 0.05). Moreover, both figures were within the range indicated by Gupta.13 The PCV values were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the incompatible group as compared to the compatible group. This reveals a mild degree of anemia in the incompatible group. Anemia is a known symptom associated with ABO incompatibility.10 The value of the compatible group was within the range stated by Gupta.13 Our findings agree with the report of Koenig.14Likewise, the bilirubin levels differ significantly in the two groups (P < 0.05), the level in the incompatible group being higher than that in the compatible group. This is indicative of the severity of the jaundice characterized by massive destruction of red blood cells and the accumulation of bilirubin in the baby’s circulation. These agree with other findings that jaundice resulting from incompatibility usually present higher levels of serum bilirubin above20mg/100ml.15, 16 Physiologic jaundice is therefore likely in the case of most of the compatible group though some of them presented a positive coomb’s result. These antibodies so detected could be cross-reacting antibodies or other maternal immunoglobulin, which usually occur in the fetal circulation. This finding is supported by the work of Beard and Nathanielsz.17 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 21 ABO Incompatibility And Its Role In Neonatal… A survey of the white cell counts analysis did not reveal any unusual trend. The count for both compatible and incompatible were low as compared to the normal value given by Gupta.13 When the values were subjected to chi-square 2 analyses at P = 0.05, no significant difference was indicated in the compatible group and the normal accepted value while the incompatible group showed a remarked difference. The differential leukocyte counts obtained from both groups revealed a similar pattern. The range of the counts was found to be within the range indicated by Lanzkousky (1980)18 as presented in Table 5. These figures also agree with the findings of Read, et al that blood counts in cases of hepatic and obstructive jaundice are usually normal unless there are cases of blood loss.19 The count was fairly low with the incompatible cases, which is indicative of mild anemia associated with hemolytic jaundice. Similarly the white cell counts (W.C.C.) for the compatible group fell within the range of that indicated as normal values for neonates in the first week of life. These values are useful indices in detecting cases of bacterial infections, which are known to result in neutrophilia (Baker, et al., 2001). The incompatible cases were all Coomb’s positive (a case of 100% positivity). The findings of Rosenfield on the ABO incompatible cases, showed that 88.4% cases of the total samples they analyzed as Coomb’s negative.1 Risemberg et al on the other hand reported that Coomb’s reaction of infants with a bilirubin level at which hyperbilirubinemia is indicated was 60% positive and 40% negative in ABO incompatible cases.4 The present study showed that all the cases of ABO incompatibility were Coomb’s positive thus agreeing with the use of Coomb’s test for the establishment of cases of hemolytic disease due to incompatibility.11 The high level of cases with a positive Coomb’s result could be due to incompatibility in other blood group antigens erstwhile not given attention. The existences of incompatibility in these rare antigens and the attending reactions have been documented.5, 6, 7 Findings from these reports revealed that incompatibility in these blood group antigens occurring between mother and child result in maternal antibodies which cross the placenta barrier into fetal circulation.7 The findings from this research brings to the fore the need to consider the role of ABO incompatibility, a contributing factor to neonatal jaundice in the population studied. As other factors are considered in the diagnosis of neonatal jaundice, the role of ABO incompatibility should be considered as well as it contributes considerably to the incidence and severity of neonatal jaundice. III. CONCLUSION It can be seen from the studies that ABO incompatibility is responsible for 10% of cases of neonatal jaundice with a mean bilirubin level of up to of 20.77mg/100ml. it is therefore a factor to be considered in the diagnosis of neonatal jaundice and should be considered as such. IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The contribution of the hospital staff in the collection of samples is dully acknowledged as well as the ethical board for the permit to undertake the work. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] Rosenfield, R.E. (1955). A-B hemolytic disease of the newborn. Analysis of 1480 cord blood specimen with special reference to the direct antiglobulin test and to the group O mother. Blood 10: 17.28. Zueler, W.W. and Cohen,I. (1957). ABO Hemolytic disease and hetero-specific pregnancy. Pediatric Clinics of North America 4: 405-428. Robinson, G.C., Dunn, H.H., and Wong, L.C. (1960). Clinical and laboratory findings in hetero-specific pregnancy with a note on the incidence of ABO hemolytic disease. Acta Paediatrica 49(120): 53-62. Risemberg, H.M., Mazzi, E., Macdonald, M.G., Peratta, M. and Heldrich, F. (1977). Correlation of cord bilirubin levels with hyperbilirubinemia in ABO incompatibility. Archives of Disease of Childhood 52: 219-222. Zmijewski, C. M. and Fletcher, J. L. (1972). Immunohamatology (2eds). Appleton –Century – Croft. New York. Pp 334. Bryant, N. J. (1976). An introduction to Immunohematology. (eds) W. B. Saunders Company. U. S. A. Pp 253 Bloodbook, (2001). http://www.bloodboook.com/type-sys.html. Pp.1-6 Hull, J.W. (2003). ABO incompatibility. http://www.drhull.com/EncyMaster/A/ABO-incompatibility.html. Pg1. Brimblecombe, F., and Barltrop, D. (1978). Children in Health and Disease. (eds) Williams Clones, Bailliere,Tindall Publishers, London. Pp 91-145. Merck manual. (2003). Hematologic disorders. http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/section19/chapter260/260h.htm Pp 1-7. Orzalesi, M., Gloria, F., Lucarelli, P. and Bottini, E. (1973). ABO system incompatibility: relationship between direct coomb’s test positivity and neonatal jaundice. Pediatrics 51: 288-289. Baker, F.J., Silverton, R.E. and Pallister, C.J. (2001). Introduction to Medical Laboratory Technology. (7eds). Bounty Press, Ltd. London. Pp. 348-419. Gupta, S. (1978). A Text Book Of Pediatrics. (eds) Vikas Publishing House. (PVT): New Delhi. Pp 375-408. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 22 ABO Incompatibility And Its Role In Neonatal… [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] Koenig, J.M. (2000). Evaluation and treatment of erythroblastosis fetalis in the neonate. In: Christensen R, ed. Hematologic Problems of the Neonate. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders: Pp. 185-207 Hansen, T.W.R. (2002). Jaundice neonatal. http:// www.emedicine.com/ped/topic/061.htm. Pg 1-21. Beeby, P. (2003). Jaundice.http://www.cs.nsw.gov.au/rpa/neonatal/htm/newprot/jaund2.htm pp1-9. Beard, R.W., and Nathanielsz, P.W. (1976). Fetal physiology and Medicine. W.B. Saunders Co. London. Pp17-42. Lanzkousky, P. (1980). Pediatric Hematology – Oncology. McGraw-Hill Inc. U.S.A. Pp 224-249. Read, A.E., Barritt, D.W., and Hewer, R.L. (1979). Modern Medicine. A textbook for Students. (2eds). The Pitman Press. Great Britain. Pp 61-64 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 23

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 31-43||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management In A Deregulation Economy 1, 1, Gbadamosi Olaniyi Mufutau , 2,Osho Victoria Mojisola Federal Polytechnic Ado –Ekiti School Of Business StudiesDepartment Of Purchasing And Supply 2, Federal Polytechnics Ado-Ekiti School Of Business Studies Department Of Marketing ---------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------------This Study Is All About Appraisal Or The Roles Of Supply Chain Management On A Deregulating Economy, Also The Study Tended To Find Out The Meaning And Application Of Supply Chain Management In Our Economy Sector. The Study Discussed The In Depth Of Supply Chain Management And It Roles And Applications, Also Elucidate The Sound Opinion Of Different Scholars And Researcher On Purchasing And Supply Chain Management Field. A Quite Number Of Authorities On Supply Chain Management At The Chartered Institute Of Purchasing And Supply Management Nigerian (CIPSMN) Were Also Cited, The Like Of ALIYU M.J Abdul Mamman, The Foreign Authority Cited Were The Like Of Lyson C.K., Gattorna, Lamer Lee And Burt, Strauss G., Osstreft. F And Smith). This Study Recommends An Ideal Structure Of Supply Chain Management For Better Understanding F The Position Of Supply Chain Management Within The Scope Of The Best Practice ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------Date of Submission: 2 October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 30 November 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- I. SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT The term “Supply Chain” has been defined as “the network of organization that are involved through upstream and downstream linkages, in the different processes and activities that produce value in the form of products and services in the hands of the ultimate consumers.The Supply Chain can be likened to a wellbalanced and practiced relay team in which the entire team is co-ordinated to run the race, there are several points about Supply Chain .According to Aliyu (2006) “It is a concept that can be described as the management of all activities, information, knowledge and financial resources associated with the flow and transformation of goods and services up form the raw materials suppliers, component suppliers and other suppliers in such a way that the expectations of the end users to the company that the expectations of the end users to the company are been met or passes.Supply Chain management therefore differs from purchasing, in that it encompasses also all logistics activities. Moreover, it entails the management of relationship not only with the first tier suppliers but also with lower tiers suppliers. Supply Chain Management can be summarized to mean timely activities that encompass the processes and functions in purchasing, procurement. Logistics, stores, warehouse and supply management.Supply Chain emphasize the process approach concerned with how a product or service is delivered to the customer, this approach is based on the recognition that the customer is concerned that the required product or service is delivered at the right price and at the right place. Customers are largely unconcerned with how this is accomplished.A process is simply a „set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a defined business outcome‟. II. SUPPLY CHAIN DIFFER There is no single supply chain organization from network of chains with common point of interconnection. Each organization is both a supplier and a customer, as it looks both up and down a particular chain. Acknowledging the individuality of particular chain does not pre- adopt the concept as a means of analyzing how operations may be improved Supply Chain are linked to value chains, the first point states that each activity within a value chain provides inputs. After processing, each input provides added value to the output which the ultimate customer receives in the form of a product or service of as the aggregate of value at the end of the value chain, the amount of added value is determined by subtracting the sum of the bought out materials and services comprising an activity from the increased worth of a product or services at the end of that activity within the supply chain.Gathering and Walters state that apart from identifying activities, the value chain indicates the relative importance of activities and that by allocating cost to activities rather than functions we identify the true costs involved in service delivery. A simple method of value chain analysis is to call the price charged to the customer, at the end of the supply chain, 100% and by working backwards estimate the amount of value added by each supply chain activity. Flint point out the that the optimization of the supply chain costs and as shown on the diagram below, suggest supply chain cost areas where specific ideas for cost savings can be made. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 31 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… Procurement expertise can add value by generating savings and offering improved services to internal customers. Savings can be achieved not only by price reductions or enhanced value in the prices of bought items but by such means as reducing the supply base and numbers of purchase orders or accounts Improved services include times, and paper work, the benefits to be derived by the internal customer receiving the services should as cannon says be quantified in money terms, as should be cost delivering it. It is only if there is a net benefit that the service is worth delivering. Cannon also suggests that money based service levels should be benchmarked against other organization as a further check on the functions effectiveness. Value analysis can also be sued to determine more accurate costs for providing services to internal customers using the activity-based costing. Supply Chain costs are linked to time, in the shorter the Supply Chain , the lower costs. This emphasized the importance of the time compression approach. Supply Chains emphasize cross-functional teams, Womack, Jones and Roos state that at Toyota and Honda project leaders or Shusas assemble small team that are assigned to the development project for its life. Team members come from functional departments with whom they retain links, source their career success depends on moving up through their functional specialty. An example of cross or intra-functional organization is shown on the figure below. SUPPLY CHAINS Definitions There are many definitions of the term „Supply Chain;, of which the following is typical: a Supply Chain is that network of organization that are involved, through upstream and downstream linkages, in the form of products and services in the hands of the ultimate customer or consumer. Author. The above definition emphasizes key characters of supply chain: www.theijes.com The IJES Page 32 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management…     SUPPLY CHAINS ARE NETWORK: Traditionally Supply Chain where loosely linked associations of discrete business. The network concept implies some coordination of cow to customer processes ad relationships. An alternative definition is that a supply chain is: A network of connected and interdependent organizations mutually and cooperatively working together to control, manage an improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to end users. Networks are further considered in section 4.3 Supply Chain linkages are upstream and downstream: Upstream means against the current and relate in relationships between an enterprise and its suppliers. Downstream is with the current and relates to the relationship between an enterprise and its customers. There can also be upstream-downstream, as is the case with organizations that have returnable containers pallets, drums and so on or trade-in products. LINKAGES: The coordination of supply chain process and relationships. A supply chain is only as strong as its weakest PROCESSES: In the context of a business, a process is defined by Cooer et al, as: a specific ordering of work activities across a time place with a beginning and as end and clearly identified inputs and outputs, a structure of action. From a purchasing standpoint, the processes that comprise the supply chain are shown if figure 3.6 Figure 3.6. supplier chain processes from a purchasing perspective Search Acquire Use Maintain Dispose Source not seen From a supplier‟s standpoint the process are shown in figure 3.7  VALUE is defined by Porter (2005) as what buyers are willing to pay‟. Superior value stems from offering lower price for equivalent benefits or providing unique benefits that are more than offset a higher price.  THE ULTIMATE CUSTOMERS: A customer is simply the recipient of the goods or services that result from all the processes and activities of the supply chain. A function or subsystem can be the customer of the preceding or succeeding link in a supply chain. Figure 3.7. Supply chain process from a supplier‟s perspective Research Design Manufacture Or Provide Sell Service Customers may be either internal or external. The definition refers to the „ultimate customer or consumer‟s so that the supply chain may extend beyond the customers from whom the direct order for goods or service emanate. 3.4.2 Types of Supply Chain Supply chain can be classified in numerous ways. An organization such as a food retailer will have many types of supply chains reflecting difference in products, services, production and distribution methods, customer-supplier relationships and information flows. Supply chain may be roughly classified according to four customer-supplier characteristic and also in relation to virtually, scope, service, complexity, products, purpose and value. Customer-supplier characteristics These may give rise to:  Concentrated chains found in businesses such as the automotive industry that have: o Few customers but many suppliers o Customers with demanding requirements o EDI systems or a requirement for JIT deliveries  Batch manufacture chains that have:  Many customers and many suppliers  Complicated relationship webs – an undertaking with which an enterprise is in contact may, at different times. Be a customer, supplier, and competitor orally.  Retail and distribution chains that have:  Customized methods, such as vendor-managed inventory (VMI) of facilitating dealings with suppliers. Service chains that implement the mission statement of organizations such as hospitals, libraries and banks concerned with the delivery of services, books, information and financial service or restaurants and cinemas delivering food and entertainment, for example-essentially services chains are not different www.theijes.com The IJES Page 33 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… frommanufacturing chains as every service involves people, something physical (an asset or part something performed), an action and a time element. Other characteristics  Virtuality: Virtual is the opposite of real. Thus, a „virtual‟ enterprise is the counterpart of a real, tangible business. As Christopher (2006) „a virtual supply chain is in effect, a series of relationships between partners that is based upon the value added exchange of information‟s‟. In a virtual supply chain, information replace the need for inventories. A mail-order business may have no inventory and simply call for supplies from the manufacturer when orders are received from customers.  Scope supply chains be local, regional and international in scope. Some suppliers of gas, such as BP, for example, have the ability to put together delivery chains to bring gas suppliers from Trinidad to Spain, from Siberia to China and from North Africa to Southern Europe.  Complexity Mentzer et al. (2008) identify three degrees of supply chain complexity: „direct‟, „extended‟ and „ultimate‟. A direct supply chain, as shown in Figure 3.8, is comprised of a company or supplier and a customer involved in the upstream and/or downstream flow of products services, finances and information. Figure 3.8 Direct supply chain Supplier Organization Customer An extended supply chains, as shown in Figure 3.9. Includes suppliers of the immediate supplier and customers of the immediate customers. Figure 3.9 Extended supply chains Suppliers‟ Supplier Suplliers Organization Customer Customers Customer An ultimate supply chain, as shown in Figure 3.10, includes all the organizations involved in all the upstream flows of products, services, finances and information. From the ultimate supplier to the ultimate customer. Figure 3.10 Ultimate Supply Chain Purpose: A purpose can be made between efficient and responsive supply chains. Efficient supply is primarily concerned with reducing the cost of operations, as in lean supply chains.  These work best when forecast accuracy is high and product variety low. Responsive supply chain are primarily concerned with minimizing the delivery circle time, as in agile supply chain. These work best when forecast accuracy is low and product variety high.  Products supply chains vary widely according to the end product. Examples are build-to-forecast and buildto-order supply chains and ones for innovative and functional product. VALUE CHAINS ANALYSIS Value supply chains is concerned with a detailed examination of each subsystem in a supply chain and every activity these subsystem with a view to delivering maximum value at the possible total cost, thereby enhancing value and synergy throughout the entire chain. Porter (2007) sates that there are two ways in which an enterprise can obtain a sustained competitive advantages: fist cost and, second, differentiation.Cost analysis with regard to value chains is performed by assigning costs to the value chain activities. The approach of activity-based costing (ABC) is, as stated above, of particular relevance in this context.Porter (2006) identifies ten major cost divers that determine the value or cost of activities. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 34 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management…  Economic or diseconomies of scale: Fixed costs spread over a large volume of production are more costeffective that producing small quantities of an item. Diseconomies of scale in procurement can occur if large requirements meet an inelastic supply, forcing up input prices.  Learning and Spillovers: learning can reduce costs and can spill over from one industry to another via suppliers, ex-employees and reports of representative.  Capacity utilization: Changes in the level of capacity utilization will involve costs or expanding or contracting.  Linkages between activities: The cost or value of an activity is frequently affected by how other activities are performed. Linkages with suppliers centre on the suppliers products design characteristics, such as service and quality. The way in which a supplier performs activities within the value chain can raise or lower the purchasers‟ costs.  Interrelation Sharing: A value activity with another business unit can reduce costs. Certain raw materials can be procured more cheaply by combining units requirement.  Degree of vertical Integration: Every value activity employs purchased inputs and thus poses integration choices. The cost of an out bound logistics activity may vary depending on whether or not the enterprise owns its own vehicles.  Timing of market entry: An enterprise may gain an advantage from being the first to take a particular action.  Firm’s policy of cost or differentiation: The cost of a value activity od always affected by policy choices firm makes independently of other cost drivers. Policy choices reflect a firm‟s strategy and often deliberate trade-offs between cost and differentiation.  Geographic factors: Location relative to suppliers is an important factor in inbound logistical cost.  Institutional factors: Government regulations, taxation, unionization, traffic and levies constitute major costs. An enterprise that controls the above drivers better than its rivals will secure a competitive advantage can also be gained by reconfiguring the value chain so that it is significantly different from those of competitor. Such configuring chains can derive from deferring production processes, automation, direct instead of indirect sales, new raw materials or distribution channels and shifting the location of facilities relative to suppliers and customers. DIFFERENTIATION Porter (20060 states that a firm differentiates itself from its competitors when it provides something unique that is valuable to buyers beyond simply offspring a new price. A differentiation advantages can be obtained either by enhancing the sources of uniqueness or reconfiguring the value chain. The drivers of uniqueness are often similar to the cost drivers listed and include:          Policy choices: about what activities to perform and how to perform them, such as what product features to include, services to provide, technology to employ or quality of outputs. Linkages between activities such as delivery time, which is often influenced not only by outbound logistics but also by the speed of order processing. Timing being the first to adopt a product image may pre-empt others doing so. Location convenience of use for customers and other such factors. Interrelationships sharing technologies or sales effort, for example Leaning and spillovers learning how to perform an activity better-Porter (2008) observes that only proprietary learning leads to sustainable differentiation. Integration providing a serve in-house instead of leaving it to supplier may means, that the organization is the only one to offer the service or provide the service in unique way. Scale large –scale operation ca allow an activity to be performed in a unique way not possible at a smaller volume. Institutional factors goods union relationships may avoid losses in production time due to strikes and so on.Reconfiguring a value chain to create uniqueness can involve deserving a new distribution chain or selling approach, forward integration to enhance quality and the adoption of new production technologies. THE MAIN STEPS IN VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS Porter (2006) provides lists of the main steps in strategies cost analysis and differentiation analysis. [1] Identify the appropriation value chain and assign costs and assets to it. [2] Diagnose the cost drivers of each value activity and how they interact. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 35 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… [3] Identified competitor‟s value chains and determine the relative costs competitors and the sources of cost difference. [4] Develop a strategy to lower your relative cost position by controlling cost drivers or reconfiguring the value chain and/or downstream value. [5] Ensure that cost reduction efforts do not erode differentiation or make a conscious choice to do so. Test the cost reduction strategy for sustainability. Porter report the following rang of expenditure as percentage of sales dollar for sample of USA manufacturing organization.       Purchasing Transport Labour Inventory System and Administration Facilities 55-65 percent 3.5 percent 2.5 6 percent 3-9 percent 1.5 -3 percent 0.7-2 percent Porter observes that, although c costs could be reduced in almost every category, most paled in comparison to purchasing, Dramatics results were recorded as organization focused some of their best talent on this, most costly segment. Supply Chain Optimization Supply chain optimization is different from SGM. The latter concentrates on controlling the various elements in the supply chain. Optimization is about removing the non-value added steps that have infiltrated or been designed into the link or process that constitutes a particular supply chain. Optimization is concerned with the removal of supply chain inefficiencies and been defined as: The management of implication supply chains in their entirely with the objectives of synchronizing all valueadding production and distribution activities and the elimination of such activities that do not add value. The objectives of Supply Chain Optimization The above definition emphasizes the importance of:  Synchronizing all value adding production and distribution activities.  Eliminating activities that do not add value. Other objectives include the following  Providing the highest possible levels of customer service. Research shows a strong relationship between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty. Customer service levels should aim to create delighted customers by exceeding customers expectations. Such expectations include responsiveness and value.  Achieving cost- effectiveness: Cost effectiveness is also referred to as value for money and may be expressed as ratio: Value of benefit received Cost of the benefit  Achieving maximum productivity from resources expended or assets employed. Productivity is also a ratio, relation, outputs to one or more inputs. An increase in output per unit is an increase in productivity. Thus, the total productivity of a supply chain is: Total output Total input The challenge is to increase the value of output relative to the cost of input. Productivity also increase when the same output is achieved with less inputs. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 36 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management…  Optimizing enterprise profit Cudahy, (2007) points out that the logic and aim of enterprise profit optimization (EPO) is the simultaneous optimization of the supply and demand sides of a business both within an enterprise and throughout its trading network. Thus by simultaneously improving operational efficiency and achieving profitable growth, EPO can enhance revenue and thereby complement cost reduction and asset productivity as a means of enhancing profitability. Cudahy (2007) states that the introduction of a pricing and revenue optimization (PRO0 system involves the following four basic steps:  Step 1: Segmenting that market identifying from historical transaction data the selection of groups of people who will be most receptive to a product. Frequent segmentation methods include demographic variable, such as age, sex, rage, income and occupation, and psychographic variable. Such as lifestyle, activities, interest and opinions.  Step 2: calculating customer demand use of pricing software to predict how a customer or micro segment will respond to products and prices based on current market and other conditions.  Step 3: Optimizing prices. This is concerned with deciding what prices to offer to a particular customer to maximize a particular profit objective, market share on other strategic goals. Based on an analysis of cost, demand, market position, price elasticity and competitive pressures, it recommends optimum- not lowest prices to achieve these goals.  Step 4: Recalibration prices: This is the fine-tuning of prices to customer buying behavior. Cudahy (2006) observes that pricing and revenue optimization are not about competition on price but extracting the maximum value from a company‟s products and capacity.      Achieving maximum time compression: Time compression is an important aspect in achieving customer satisfaction, cost effectiveness and productivity. Welding (2008) rightly observes that while cost and transfer price comparisons are across all supply chain partners. Speeding up the flow or materials productivity, provides competitive advantage by virtue of rapidly responding to customers requirement and eliminates non- value adding process time. Beesley (2007) claims that at least 95 percent of process time is accounted for by non-value –adding activities. The compression has implications for all aspects of the supply chain but is of particular importance as, unlike material, time waste cannot be replaced. In general, non-value-adding activities relating to time can be categorized as: Quenching time-material s waiting to be processed ] Rework time- rectifying errors Time wasted due to managerial decisions (or indecisions) Cost of inventory in the supply chain. Regarding inventory, Beesley (2007) claims “as a general rule the volume of inventory held in a supply chain is proportional to the length of time expressed as the total time to customer.” If the supply chain is compressed work-in-progress, cycle and buffer stocks are reduced, with consequent lower overhead, capital and operating costs. Factors In Supply Chain Optimization The important factors in supply chain optimization are described below: Reduction of Uncertainty Davis (2006) refers to three distinct sources of uncertainty that plague supply chain:  Suppliers failure to fulfill delivery promise  Manufacturing machine breakdown, computer foul-ups that route materials to the wrong place and so on.  Customers uncertainty regarding order quantities and the bullwhip effect or increase in demand variability further up the supply chain, III. MATERIALS MANAGEMENT (a) Introduction: A close analogy exists between materials management (MM) and marketing. With the latter the aim is to co-ordinate effectively a number of related activities. i.e market research, product, sales analysis, forecasting, promotion and selling, under one executive. MM seeks a similar coordination of activities relation to materials. The essence of the MM approach is shown by Dean S. Ammer in Figure 3.12, where (a) and (b) represent the pre-MM and MM approaches respectively. (b) (i) Definitions Materials management is concerned with the flow of materials to and from the manufacturing department.‟ (Dean S. Ammer) (16) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 37 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… (ii)   (iii) Materials management is a co-ordinating function responsible for the planning and controlling of materials flow. Its objectives are as follows: Maximize the use of the firm‟s resources Provide the required level of customer service (Arnold) (17). The management process which integrates the flow of suppliers into, through and out of an organization to achieve a level of service which ensures that the right materials are available at the right place at the right time, of the right quantity and quality and at the right cost. It include the functions of procurement, materials handling and storage, production and inventory control, packaging, transport and associated information systems and their application throughout the supply, manufacturing. Service and distribution sectors.‟ (The institute of Logistics (GB). (c) Activities assigned to materials management. The above definitions confirm Ammer‟s statement that there is no general agreement about precisely what activities are embraced in materials management (16). He restricts the activity as extending to the point where manufacturing coverts it (material) into a product‟, although he later concedes that the materials manager may also provide warehousing, traffic and transportation services for manufacturing and purchasing. The institute og Logistics includes „finished products‟ and distribution sectors‟. Some aspects of MM that may be included under one or other of the five principal stages of the materials „flow‟ are: Materials flow Typical activities Planning Preparation of materials budgets, product research a development, value engineering and analysis, standardization of specifications. Procurement Determining order quantities, processing of work and www.theijes.com The IJES Page 38 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… stores requisitions, issue of enquiries, evaluation of quotations, supplier appraisal , negotiation, pacing of contracts, progressing of deliveries, certifying payments, vendor rating. Storage Stores location layout and equipment, mechanical handling, stores classification, coding and cataloguing, receipt of purchased items, inspection, storage or return, protection of stores, issues to production, provision of cost data, stock records, disposal of obsolete, surplus or scrap material. Production control Forward ordering arrangements for materials, preparation of production schedules and sequences, issue of orders to production, emergency action to meet material shortage, make or buy decisions, quality and reliability feedback and adjustment of suppliers flow to production line or sales trends. Distribution Warehousing, packaging, external transportation. Some factors influencing the activities assigned to MM include the following: (i) (ii) (d)   Purchasing is frequently the „key‟ activity. Production planning and control may be assigned to MM or manufacturing. The former tends to apply when production is material oriented, e.g in an assembly factory; the latter when production is machine/process oriented. Appraising materials management. In general, the MM approach is especially applicable when: Materials cots make up a large part of total costs Purchasing is regarded as a profit-oriented rather than a service The advantages claimed for MM include the following: (i) Improved co-ordination of related functions and a reduction in conflict between activities which, if departmentalized, might have differing objectives. (ii) The MM approach facilitates the introduction of data processing and operational research techniques which improve decision-making, co-ordination and control. The growth of materials administration as a development of the increase in computer-oriented thinking in a large part of industry‟ (Ericsson). (iii) Materials management encourage the co-ordination of materials „flow‟ from the supplier to the plant once within the plant. (iv) Reduction in costs of purchased items, inventory, materials handling, transportation, derical procedures and staff. (v) Improved supplier relations. (vi) Improved customer services due to smoother scheduling of requirements and purchases. (vii) Improved morale, especially for smaller subfunctions which recognize more clearly their contribution to the effectiveness of the organization. Some possible disadvantages are as follows: (i) MM may be unsuitable for some undertakings, e.g industries which process basic raw materials such as sugar where material prices are subject to frequent fluctuation and material quality is crucial. (ii) Co-ordination between activities such as purchasing and production can liaison personnel such as purchase liason engineers. Such co-ordination, however, may be non-value adding. (iii) Materials managers having a sound grasp of all the diverse activites involved are difficult to recruit. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT Definitions The process of strategically managing the acquisition, movement and storage of materials, parts and finished inventory (and the related information flows) through the organization and its marketing channels in such a way that current and future profitability is maximized through the cost-effective fulfillment of orders. Gattorna. (18). Logistics is the total management of the key operational functions in the supply chain- procurement, production and distribution. Procurement includes purchasing and product development. The production function includes manufacturing and assembling, while the distribution function involves warehousing, inventory, transport and delivery. (Knight wendling) (19) Logistics systems consist of the integration of procurement, transportation, inventory management and warehouse activities to provide the most cost-effective means of meeting internal and external customer requirements (20). The process of managing both the movement and storage of goods and materials from the source to the point of ultimate consumptions and the associated information flow (21). The time –related positioning of resources (22). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 39 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… (b) The Logistics Concept Logistic, from the French verb larger (to lodge or quarter), was initially a military term referring to the techniques of moving and quartering armies ( i.e quartermaster‟s work). Later, the expression was widened to mean the organization of supplies.Some definitions of both material management (MM) and logistics management (LM) make it difficult to distinguish the activities that may be assigned to each filed. It is however, useful to differentiate between MM and physical distribution management (PDM). The former refers to be input phase of moving bought-out items such as raw materials and components from suppliers to production; the latter relates to the output phase of moving finished goods from the factory through the appropriate channels of distribution to the ultimate consumer. Figure 3.13 shows that activities such as storage, inventory, control and transportation are common to both the input (MM) and output (PDM) phases and that logistics management subsumes both:It has been stated that the perspective of the logistician is what flows can be made to flow faster‟. From this standpoint, the logistician studies the costs incurred, beginning with the initial input factor, spanning the production process, and terminating when the customer pays for the product or service received. The longer the time at each stage of the supply chain, the higher the costs incurred by the enterprise. A reduction in the time at any stage will provide an opportunity of cost reduction which can, in turn, lead to a reduction in price. This can be explained by the cost value curve shown in figure 3.14. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) The lowest cost value is at the procurement stage when suppliers are purchased. During transportation of supplies, value remains low because little capital is invested until raw materials and components enter production; the only costs incurred refer to acquisition and holding costs. The curve becomes steeper as raw materials and components are gradually incorporated into the final product. This is because are accumulated manufacturing cost and increasing interest costs that reflect the value of the capital invested. The curve becomes flatter at the end of the production process because no more manufacturing costs apply. At this stage the invested capital is at its highest value and the cost of stocking finished goods instead of selling them involves higher opportunity costs than holding the initial suppliers. This shows why the logistician is, if anything, more concerned with PDM than MM, since the potential for cost reduction is the highest at this point of the total supply chain. Cost reduction by speeding flows of materials, work-in-progress and finished products is not the only concern of the logistician. Logistics management involves tow flows. The fist, as stated above, is the flow of materials and work in progress across the organization to the ultimate customer. The second, as shown in Figure 3.15, is a reverse flow of information in the form of orders or other indicators on which future demand forecasts can be based. Such forecasts, as Gatterna (2008) states, can in turn „trigger replenishment order which produce inventories at distribution cnetres. These order influence production schedules which, in turn, help determine the timing and quantities with which raw materials are procured. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 40 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… Logistics management should be regarded as a total system rather than a function. Essentially it is a way of thinking about, planning and synchronizing related activities. Figure 3.15 also shows how logistics management crosses conventional functions. (c) Some important logistics concept (i) Total systems management, emphasizing a total than a limited department viewpoint. Total systems management has been facilitated by the availability of information technology. (ii) Trade –offs. A trade-off is where an increased cost in one area is more than offset by a cost reduction in another, so that the whole system benefits. This may give rise to interdepartmental conflicts due to different objectives. Thus, purchasing may discounts. This policy might be opposed by finance because of money tied up in working capital and by inventory because of the increased cost of warehousing. The conflict should be settled on the basis of which policy yields the greater trade-off. Similarly, purchasing may have to consider whether the security of supply consequent on having a number of suppliers is offset by the economics resulting from lower ordering costs and larger production runs obtained from single-source buying. Thus the effect of trade-offs may be assessed by their impacts on total systems cost and sales revenue. Purchasing Production Finance Marketing Distribution Thus, higher inventory costs may result from increased stocks, yet quicker delivery may increase total sales revenue. Obtaining the information to computer trade-off requires the breaking down of functional information sharing. (iv) Co-opeative planning. This can work forwards to customers and backwards to suppliers. The change from product to customer oriented supply chain, and thus faster supply responses, can with alternatives such as make to stock, make to order and finish to order. Conversely, from the inward supply side, effective co-operative planning may relate to zero defects, on-time delivery, shared products and information exchanges relating to such matters as shared specification, design support, multi-year commitments, technology exchange. Overall, both supply and customer can benefit from reduced costs of inventory, capacity, order-handling and administration. This utilizes, as appropriate manufacturing and scheduling techniques including: Manufacturing Computer Aided Design (CAD) Computer Integrated Manufacture (CIM) Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) Materials Requirements Planning (MRP) Manufacturing resources Planning (MRP II) Optimized Production Technology (OPT) Strategic Lead Time Management (STM) Production Just-in-Time (JIT) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 41 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) Manufacturing resources Planning (MRP II) (d) Logistics management objectives. The whole purpose of logistics is to provide „availability‟. Everyone will be familiar with the old cliche, the right product in the right place at the right time‟. If one adds at the least cost‟ than that is precisely the objective of logistics management. Apart from reduced costs and increased availability, logistics management seeks to: [1] Reduce conflict and promote co-operation and co-ordination between subsystems concerned with material and information flows, based on the recognition that their activities are interrelated and interdependent. [2] Reduce the time spent at every stage of the chain from procurement to delivery to the customer, i.e lead time, production time, transportation time. [3] Add value at every step of the logistics „pipeline‟ [4] Ensure the highest possible level of customer service and satisfaction by achieving the right combination of product availability and dependability. [5] Control and, where possible, reduce inventory of materials, work in progress and finished goods to provide stock level at which the costs of stockholding are balanced by production requirements and customer service. [6] Encourage a commitment to quality improvement so that both bought-out suppliers and the products in which they are incorporated are right first time, every time. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) THE CONTRIBUTION OF PURCHASING TO SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT Purchasing can contribute to supply chain management by: Providing expert analysis of forecasting, servicing, delivery and supplier information throughout the supply chain. Providing critical information to strategic management on material price, availability and suppliers issues. Rationalizing the number of suppliers Forging effective long term partnership with key suppliers and resolving problems that may arise. Providing suppliers with accurate forecasts of requirements and facilitating such approaches such as MRPI, MRP II and JIT. Securing the maximum possible value in materials cost through the implementation of value engineering and analysis. Negotiating the best possible terms in respect of transportation and distribution. Advising on make or buy decisions, outsourcing, leasing and similar strategies. Reducing costs, throughout rimes and manual paperwork through EDI supported purchasing planning, information and disposition systems. Ensuring that purchasing staff training provides an understanding of all the elements in the supply chain systems, and the specialized aspects of global purchasing. IV. RECOMMENDATION & CONCLUSION The purchasing process has four major components. One of the most crucial is the selection of the right sources. The right source provides the right quality, on time, at the right price, and with right level of service. Selection of the right source is more important now- adays than ever before, since more firms are entering into long-term partnerships with a single source of supply chain. The benefit of such partnership is many, but the risks are great. Careful selection of suppliers and the professional management of the relationships within the supply chain is very essential V. ACKNOWLEDGMENT I acknowlegde the authors of books, journals, and other references materials used in the process of this paper work, and also to the peoples who stood by us in time of challenges, equally, deserving recognition is our publisher. The International Journal of Engineering and Sciences whose advice and guidance contributed immensely to the quality of this paper indeed all their assistance will always be remembered. REFERENCE www.theijes.com The IJES Page 42 The Roles Of Supply Chain Management… [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] ALIYU M.J (2008) The rule of Professional in Supply Chain Management System. A paper presented at the mandatory Proficiency of CIPSMN, Ibadan, pg 1 – 10 ABDUL A.M (2008) Fundamental of Purchasing/procurement, the Building block of World Class Professionalism, presented at the mandatory Proficiency of CIPSMN, Ibadan, pg 8 – 16 CROOMS (1998) Press Release in Electronic Purchasing Warwock Business School pg 10-16 DONALD W, DOBLER Purchasing and supply management text and cases EDWARD FRAZELLE World Class Warehousing and Materials Handling, MC Graw Hill New Delhi, pg16 KENNETH LYSON Purchasing and Supply Chain Management 5th ed. (2004) Pearson UK pg 12 - 32 SYSON R (1992)Improving Purchasing Performance, Pitman Publishers UK pg 86 – 88. GATTOORNAL J. & Managing the Supply Chain, Macmillan pg 223 –4 WALTERS D.W (1996) CIPS (UK) Pamphlet 1995. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 43

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 124-128 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 In Vivo Anti-Trypanosomal Activity of Ethanolic Root Extract of Carissa Spinarum (Wild Karanda) In Mice Infected With Trypanosoma brucei brucei Spp. Onotu. C.S1, Jingfa. Y. E2, Benjamin. J.E1, Kugu. B. A1 , Andrew. T1, Okoh. K. E1 1 Department of Vector & Parasitology Studies, Nigeria Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research, PMB 2077, Kaduna. 2 Department for Trypanosomiasis Research, Nigeria Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research, PMB 2077, Kaduna. --------------------------------------------------------- ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------Carissa Spinarum plant used for treatment of joints, muscle & chest pains by the massai people in Kenya is also implicated as cancer & antiviral supplement for HIV treatment in Tanzania. Acute toxicity and minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) using four (4) microorganism (proteus, e.coli, staphylococcus aureus spp & enterobacter spp) of ethanolic leaf extract was evaluated in mice. Phytochemical analysis of the extract was carried out while evaluation for in vivo anti-trypanosomal activity against federa strain of Trypanosoma brucei brucei across a four days suppressive, curative effect against established infection and prophylactic models of anti-trypanosomal studies were also established. The median lethal dose of the extract was determined to be ≥ 100mg ∕ kg body weight. The extract (12.5, 25, 50mg / kg) exerted some dose dependent suppressive effects at the different levels of infections tested, with no significant curative effects recorded. However, further antitrypanosomal property can be explored for the management of trypanosomiasis. KEYWORDS: Carissa spinarum, antitrypanosomal, albino mice, trypanosome brucei brucei, ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------Date of Submission: 19, August - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November - 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- I. INTRODUCTION African trypanosomes are protozoan parasites that cause sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in domestic livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. An epidemic involving several hundred thousand people that spread through Sudan, the Central African Republic, DRC and Angola in the 1990’s, demonstrated how socially and economically devastating these diseases are [17]. Trypanosomes kill more than 3 million cattle annually and those animals that survive display low productivity due to the wasting effects of the disease [11]. The annual losses from trypanosomiasis in cattle amount to more than US $4.5 billion [7]. Trypanosomes, by influencing food production, natural resource utilization and the pattern of human settlement, are thus seen by the African Union as one of the greatest constraints to Africa’s socio-economic development [12]. Sleeping sickness is known to have a prevalence of 300,000 – 500,000 [15] as well as three (3) million deaths to livestock occurring every year [15]. Despite this prevalence rate, few drugs are available for treatment and some known to be toxic, old, expensive and not readily available [6]. In addition, resistances to these major drugs as well multiple drug resistant populations have been described for different species of the parasite [1]. Relapses of unknown etiology are also reported with melarsoprol in recent epidemics. Hence, there is urgent need to seek for new sources of therapeutic agents [9]. II. MATERIAL AND METHOD The plant was collected from Gombe, Gombe State, which is Northeastern zone of Nigeria and was identified at the Herbarium of Ahmadu Bello University, Samaru – Zaria, which is in the Northwestern zone of Nigeria with voucher Det: U.S Gallah 8/02/2012. All reagents and solvents used were of analytical grade. Root part of the plant were harvested, dried under the shade or in open air in the laboratory. Dried materials were pounded in laboratory mortar into small particles. Fifty grams (50g) of the pounded dried plants materials were weighed and extracted with 3 X 150ml ethanol (70%) and allowed to macerate for 3 days, then filtered to obtain the extract which is then dried under electric fan and stored in a refrigerator at 4 oC until required. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 124 In Vivo anti-Trypanosomal Activity of ethanolic Root Extract… Animals Four (4) weeks old albino mice weighing between 18-20 g obtained from the Animal house of NITR, Kaduna were used for the study, they were housed in plastic cages with saw dust as beddings and given food and water ad libitum. Acclimatized for two (2) weeks before commencement of research. Phytochemical Screening The ethanolic root extract of Carissa spinarum was screened for the presence of secondary metabolites and constituents using conventional protocols for detecting the presence of steroids, alkaloids, lignin and phenols [8]; fatty acids, glycosides, triterpenoids and saponins [5]; tannins, leucoanthocyanins and emodins [20]; reducing sugars [19]; anthraquinons [2], flavonoids [16] and coumarins [18]. Determination of Parasitaemia Parasitaemia was monitored in blood obtained from the tail of the mice, pre-sterilized with methylated spirit. The number of parasites was determined microscopically at X 400 magnification using the “Rapid Matching” method of Herbert and Lumsden [10]. Briefly, the method involves microscopic counting of parasites per field in pure blood or blood appropriately diluted with buffered phosphate saline (PBS, pH 7.2). Logarithm values of these counts obtained by matching with the table of Herbert and Lumsden is converted to antilog to provide absolute number of trypanosomes per ml of blood [3], [4]. Minimum Inhibition Concentration Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) involves the lowest concentration of an antimicrobial that can inhibit the visible growth of the microorganism after the overnight incubation. In this case, four (4) common microorganism namely, e.coli, enterobacter, staphylococcus aureus app and proteus were subjected to inhibition properties with the ethanolic root extract of Carissa spinarum via serial dilution incubation of the extract with each microorganism (fig ii). Acute Toxicity Test Acute toxicity test of Carissa spinarum root extract was carried out using the modified Lorke’s method [14]. The study was carried in two phases, the first phase requires 9 (nine) mice randomized into 3 groups of three mice & each given intraperitoreally 10, 100 & 1000mg/kg body weight of the extract. The mice were observed for signs of toxicity which included but not limited to paw licking, salivation, stretching of the body, weakness, sleep, respiratory stress, coma & death in the first four (4) hours of extract administration and subsequently daily for hours. In the second phase, another fresh set of 9 (nine) mice were randomized into 3 groups of three mice again & administered with 1600, 2900 & 500mg/kg of the extract intraperitoreally based on the result of the first phase (fig iii), further observation of signs of toxicity & mortality for the first 4 (four) critical hours and daily afterwards. The oral median lethal dose was calculated using the formula: LD50 = √ minimum toxic dose x maximum tolerated dose Anti-trypanosomal activity Assay. Following in vivo studies, Mice inoculated with Trypanosoma brucei brucei federe strain were intraperitoreally treated with 10 mg/kg body weight of the extracts when average parasitaemia was approximately two parasite per field for therapeutic & zero parasite per field for prophylactic. Preliminary investigation indicated relatively poor efficacy with 2.5 and 5 mg/kg doses of the extracts (fig iii). The treatment continued daily with continuous monitoring of parasitaemia for 4 days. After withdrawal of treatment, parasitaemia was also monitored daily until the 5th day and thereafter monitoring was reduced for surviving animals. Three animals were used per treatment group. An infected but untreated mouse was included as a negative control. III. RESULT Phytochemical screening of the ethanolic root extract of the plant Carissa spinarum indicated the presence of the following compounds; Terpenoids, Flavonoids, Alkaloids, Tannins, Saponins and Steroids(fig i). Behavioral signs of toxicity was observed in all mice administered with various doses and mortality of 3 (three) mice recorded in the first 4 (four) hours at 1000mg of extract / kg body weight & subsequent loss of 2 (two) mice at dosage of 100mg extract per Kg weight of mice after several hours. The median lethal dose LD50 was determined to be ≥ 10mg / kg body weight (fig iii). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 125 In Vivo anti-Trypanosomal Activity of ethanolic Root Extract… Post mortem from toxicity mortalities of mice indicated visible enlarged kidneys for all doses and further enlarged spleen, fluids in peritoneal, haemorrhage in Liver, severe haemorhage & inflamed lungs & accumulated fluid in subcuteaneous for dosage induced mortalities of 1000mg extract per Kg weight of mice (fig va-vd). (fig i) Phytochemical composition of ethanolic Root extract of Carissa spinarum Phytochemical Inference Alkaloids Coumarins Flavonoids Leucoanthocyanins Reducing sugars Saponin Steroids Tannins Terpenoids Components Present Absent Present Absent Absent Present Present Present Present (Fig ii) Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (Mic) Of Ethanolic Root Extracts Of Carissa Spinarum Plant. NO TEST ORGANISMS ROOT EXTRACT ( 10-1mm) 0.5ML 1 E.COLI - - - - 2 3 ENTROBACTER PROTEUS STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 16.8mm 17mm - - - - - - 4 ROOT EXTRACT (10-2) 0.5ML ROOT EXTRACT (10-3) 0.5ML CONTROL (ETHANOL) 0.5ML (Fig iv) Effect of Ethanolic Root Extract Of Carissa Spinarum On Parasiteamia For 5 Days. Chart Title 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 7.5 7.5 8.6 7.87 9 8.07 7.5 7.58 7.77 7.5 6.4 7.37 Day 1 www.theijes.com Day 2 Day 3 9 9 9 9 9 9 8.07 8.45 Control Dosage (2.5mg/kg) Day 4 The IJES Dosage (5mg/kg) Dosage (10mg/kg) Day 5 Page 126 In Vivo anti-Trypanosomal Activity of ethanolic Root Extract… IV. DISCUSSION That the anti-trypanosomal effect observed under in vivo condition following administration of ethanolic leaf extracts of carissa spinarum (as seen above) is attributable to the extracts, appears to be confirmed by the death of all members of the control group that were infected with the parasite but left untreated in less than 7 days of infection, while most survived beyond the 7 days signifying the prophylactic properties of the extract. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration indicates that inhibition of common microorganism occurred with only Proteus while the other three (3) showed no extract inhibition. The phytochemical analysis indicate the presence of alkaloids & saponins, which in most cases are positive indicators of antitrypanosomal activity, Tannin on the other hand is an antinutrient and may be responsible for the enlarged kidneys observed in the mice from high dose (fig va-vd). The weakness observed in the mice of different groups with continuous administration of the extracts; even after parasites were eliminated from the blood stream suggest that the extracts may have some cumulative toxic effects at the high dose used. However, put together, these results suggest that Carissa spinarum possess significant anti-trypanonosomal effect to warrant further detailed studies utilizing bioassay-guided fractionations under varied pharmacological conditions in order to unequivocally establish its therapeutic efficacy. Acknowledgement: We wish to acknowledge the contribution of the Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (NITR) for its contribution in the use of its facility towards this work and for providing the trypanosome parasite used in this work. REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. Anene B.M., Onah D. N., Nawa Y. (2001) Drug Resistance in pathogenic African trypanosomes: What hopes for the future? Vet. Parasitol, 96: 83-100. ASEAN countries. Standard of ASEAN herbal medicine, Vol.1 Jakatra: Aksara Buena Printing, (1993): 116-28. Atawodi S.E, Ameh D. A., Ibrahim S., et al. (2002) Indigenous knowledge system for treatment of trypanosomiasis in Kaduna state of Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol, 79(2): 279-282. Atawodi S.E., Bulus T. Ibrahim S., et al. (2003) In vitro trypanocidal effect of Methanol extract of some Nigerian Savannah Plants. Afri J. Biotechnol, 2(9): 317-321. Ayoola, G.A., F.M. Lawore, T. Adelowotan, et al. (2008) Chemical analysis and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Syzigium aromaticum (clove). Afr. J. Microbiol. Res., 2: 162-166. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 127 In Vivo anti-Trypanosomal Activity of ethanolic Root Extract… [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16]. [17]. [18]. [19]. [20]. Brun R., Schumacher R., Schmid C., et al. (2001) The phenomenon of treatment failures in Human African Ttrypanosomiasis. Trop. Med. Intl. Health, 6(11): 906-914. Budd LT (1999) DFID-funded tsetse and trypanosomiasis research and development since 1980 (V. 2. Economic analysis). London: Department for International Development. Gibbs, R.D., 1974. Chemotaxonomy of Flowering Plants. Vol. 1, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal and London. Gutteridge NE. (1985) Existing chemotherapy and its limitations. Brit. Med. Bull, 41(2): 162-168. Herbert, W.J. and W.H.R. Lumsden, 1976. Trypanosomabrucei, a rapid “matching” method for estimation of host’s parasitemia. Exp. Parasitol., 40: 427-431. Hursey, B.S., 2001. The programme against African trypanosomiasis-aims, objectives and achivements. Trends Parasitol., 17: 23. Kabayo JP: Aiming to eliminate tsetse from Africa. Trends Parasitol 2002, 18:473-475 Kristjanson, P.M., B.M. Swallow, G.J. Rowlands, et al. (1999) Measuring the costs of African animal trypanosomosis, the potential benefits of control and returns to research. Agric. Syst., 59: 79-98. Lorke D (1983). A new approach to practical acute toxicity testing. Arch. Toxicol. 54: 275-287 Mhlanga, J D M. (1999) Sleeping sickness: perspectives in African trypanosomiasis. Sci Progress, 79: 183-187. Peach K and Tracey MV, Modern methods of plant analysis. Vol.3, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1956. Pepin J. and Meda. H.A.(2001).The epidemiology and control of human African trypanosomiasis Advances in Parasitol. 49: 71132. Rizk AM, Constituents of plant growing in Qatar. I. a chemical survey of sixty plants. Fitoterapia, (1982); 52: 35-42. Satyanarayana, K. and Rehse, K. (1998), Organic Azides. Arch. Pharm. Pharm. Med. Chem., 331: 207–210. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4184(199806)331:6<207::AID-ARDP207>3.0.CO;2-5 Trease, G.E., Evans W.C. (1985) Introduction and General Methods In Pharmacognosy, 12th Edition, Published by Alden press, Oxford London pp. 469-474. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 128

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 42-45||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Isolation And Identification Of Food-Borne Micro Flora From Zobo (A Nigerian Drink) Prepared From The Calyces Of Hibiscus Sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae) E.I Seiyaboh,* I.Y Oku, and O.M Odogbo Department of Biological Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, P. M. B. 71, Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. --------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-------------------------------------------------------This study was undertaken to determine the different types of food-borne micro flora associated with Zobo, a Nigerian drink prepared from the calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa. Five (5) different categories of Zobo products were prepared and the pour plate method was used in isolating pure cultures. The identification sequence specified for single bacterial culture in the manual for identification of medical bacteria was used in identifying the isolates. Four different organisms isolated were identified as: - Micrococcus sp, Bacillus sp, Proteus sp and Escherichia sp. KEYWORDS: Food-borne Micro flora, Zobo drink, Hibiscus sabdariffa ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------Date of Submission:. 24 October, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Moulds, yeast and bacteria exist almost everywhere on earth (Frazier and Westhoff, 1978). They flourish in the soil of the farm that grows our grains, fruits and vegetables, on the hides and feathers of our meat (animals) and on the fins and organs of the seafood we eat. Many of these microscopic floras create serious problems in close encounters with our food supply (Frazier and Westhoff, 1978).Microbial spoilage is damage or waste caused by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi (including yeast) in general due to their invasion. Various members of these groups may cause changes in the character of the food, which may be classified as “positive” or “negative.” The products of positive microbial transformation include cheese, yoghurt and wine, which can be seen as increasing the nutritional value or keeping quality of products with a short shelf life. Negative effects of microbial growth include food poisoning, mainly caused by different and less widespread bacteria.As they grow, microorganisms release their own enzymes into the liquid surrounding them and absorb the products of external digestion (Pelczar, et. al., 1986:1993). This is the main basis of microbial spoilage which lowers nutritional value of the product. As a result, products develop undesirable flavours, odours, appearances or textures via microbial action. Bacteria and moulds may also produce waste products, which act as poison or toxins, thus causing the renowned ill effects. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Malvaceae is a tropical plant of considerable economic importance (Faye and Neela, 2004; Stephen, 1994). The main edible part is the fleshy sepal, called a calyx surrounding the seed. The calyx is bright red, acid and closely resembles the cranberry (Vacinium spp) in flavour (Morton, 1987; Faye and Neela, 2004; McCaleb, 1996). In the West Indies, Sorrel is a prized drink during the Christmas holidays (McCaleb, 1996), and calyces can be chopped and added to fruit salad (Morton, 1974). In Africa, they are frequently cooked as a side dish eaten with pulverized peanuts for stewing as sauce, for making a fine-textured sauce or juice (zobo), syrup, jam, marmalade, relish, chutney or jelly. The seeds are somewhat bitter but have been grounded to a meal for human food in Africa and have also been roasted as a substitute for coffee.This study was therefore carried out to characterize the various organisms associated with Zobo drink stored at ambient temperature. This information is vital in creating a regime for the preservation of Zobo drink. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Collection www.theijes.com The IJES Page 42 Isolation And Identification Of Food… Dried zobo plant calyces, the red variety of Hibiscus sabdariffa, Ginger (Zingiber officinalis), and Black pepper (Piper guineense) were bought from Swali market in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. They were subsequently professionally verified. Preparation of Zobo drink Thirty grammes (30g) of the dried calyces were put into a conical flask containing 500ml distilled water. It was allowed to stand for 40minutes at 100 oC in a water bath as outlined in the method of Faye and Neela, (2004). The calyces were removed from the solution by filtration using a sieve cloth. The zobo drink was then aseptically collected into 250ml sample bottles. To one of the bottles 15g of grounded sugar was added (Product 1) and to the other none (Product 2). The method described above was used in preparing spicy zobo drink, but before been placed in the water bath, the spices were added. 2g each of the spices was added. The spicy zobo drink was collected into 250ml bottles after filtration. To one 15g of grounded sugar was added (Product 3) and to the other none (Product 4). The method described above was also used in preparing the spicy, flavoured zobo drink. To the spicy zobo drink in 250ml sample bottle, 1ml of pineapple flavour and 15g of sugar was added to make a complete zobo drink. Isolation of Microorganisms The spread-plate method was used in isolating pure cultures. The organisms were isolated from the zobo drink samples on the first day of storage. Samples (Product 1-5) were aseptically collected and spread on agar plates using a bent sterile glass rod. The plates were incubated at 37 oC for 24 hours. Identification of Isolated Microorganisms Discrete colonies were picked with a sterilized wire loop and transferred aseptically to fresh agar plates. The essence was to obtain pure cultures of organisms that can be used for further analysis. The identification of microorganisms was based on such tests as: - Gram Reaction, Colonial Morphology, Cell Morphology, Biochemical tests and Sugar fermentation reactions. Biochemical tests carried out included:motility, citrate utilization, methyl red, vogues posteur, indole, coagulase and catalase tests. The identification sequence for single bacterial culture in the manual for identification of medical bacteria (Cowan and Steel, 1974) was used in identifying the isolates. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the biochemical and sugar fermentation reactions of the various isolates from Product 15 showing a probable microbial identification at the end are presented in Tables 1-5 respectively. In Product 1, Two (2) of the isolates were Gram positive while Two (2) were Gram negative, consisting of one (1) gram positive cocci; one(1) gram positive rod; and two (2) gram negative rods. Product 2 consists of one (1) gram positive cocci and one (1) gram negative rod. Product 3 consists of one (1) gram positive rod and one (1) gram negative rod. Product 4 consists of one (1) gram positive cocci and one (1) gram negative rod. Product 5 consists of two (2) gram negative rods. The organisms isolated from the five zobo product were Micrococcus, Bacillus, Proteus and Escherichia species. Micrococcus sp was isolated in Product 1, 2 & 4. Bacillus sp was isolated in Product 1 & 3. Proteus sp was isolated in Product 1 & 5. Escherichia sp was isolated in all the Products Micrococci are found in water, soil and on mammalian skin. They are spoilage bacteria that are not thought to be pathogenic. They can grow in the presence of salt and are capable of spoiling foods, particularly cured meat, fish and poultry products. They are aerobic bacteria but can function as facultative anaerobes (Air Products, 2007).The members of the Bacillaceae produce spores as well as vegetative cells. The spores can survive adverse conditions such as drying and pasteurization. These organisms are common in the environment and in many foods. Some strains produce enterotoxins if allowed to grow, for example Bacillus cereus in rice dishes and high moisture flour products and members of the B. subtilis - licheniformis group in meat and pastry products and meat or seafood rice dishes. The toxin of B. cereus is particularly heat resistant (126°C for 90 minutes) whereas the diarrhoeagenic toxin is inactivated by exposure to 56°C for 30 minutes. High levels (>105 per gram) are necessary to produce enough Proteus is found in water and in the soil. They are capable of spoiling foods, particularly fresh / raw meat and eggs (Air Products, 2007).Coliforms, faecal coliforms and Escherichia coli coliforms were one of the first groups of bacterial indicators used in the water and dairy industries (Air Products, 2007). They are those members of the Enterobacteriaceae that ferment lactose, and include Enterobacter, most Eshcherichia, Klebsiella and Citrobacter species. These organisms are not exclusively of faecal origin. Thermotolerant coliforms are those coliforms that can multiply at 44°C. This group includes E. coli types I and II and occasional strains of Klebsiella and Enterobacter. Most faecal coliforms are able to multiply at 44°C. Whilst the presence www.theijes.com The IJES Page 43 Isolation And Identification Of Food… of E. coli in food is generally undesirable because it indicates poor hygienic conditions, certain serotypes are pathogenic and may cause gastroenteritis (Air Products, 2007). Verocytotoxin-producing strains of E.coli (VTEC) e.g. E.coli 0157 may be particularly virulent and can cause symptoms ranging from mild diarrhoea to severe bloody diarrhoea (haemorrhagic colitis), sometimes progressing to haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) and kidney failure. IV. CONCLUSION The organisms isolated from the various zobo products - Micrococcus, Bacillus, Proteus and Escherichia species indicates the presence of contamination from soil, water, humans and animals.These organisms have been implicated in food spoilage from the literature (Air Products, 2007), therefore their presence in the various zobo products can result in spoilage when the product is stored at ambient temperature. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] Air Products, (2007) Microbiology: Principal Spoilage Microorganisms © 1996-2007 by Air Products and chemicals Inc. Cowan, S.T and Steel, K.J., (1974) Manual for Identification of Medical Bacteria (3rd Edition). Cambridge University Press pp 340. Faye, D.H.C and Neela, B., (2004) Consumer acceptance and Physicochemical quality of processed red Sorrel / Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) sauces from enzymatic extracted calyces. Food Science Technology. 4(4) 141-148. Frazier W.C and Westhoff, D.C., (1978) Food Microbiology (3 rd Edition). MacGraw-Hill Publishing Company. New York pp 194-214. McCaleb, R., (1996) Roselle Production Manual (Hibiscus sabdariffa). Herb Research Foundation, USA pp 1-5 Morton, J.F., (1974) Renewed interest in Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) the long forgotten „Florid Cranberry‟. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural society. 87: 415-8 Morton, J.F., (1987) Roselle in fruits of warm climates (ed CF Dowling Jr.). pp 281-286. Media Incorporated: Greensborough NC Pelczar, M.J., Chan, E.C.S and Krieg, N.R., (1986). Microbiology. McGraw-Hill Inc. U.S.A. Pp 67-147 Pelczar, M.J., Chan, E.C.S and Krieg, N.R., (1993). Microbiology. McGraw-Hill Inc. U.S.A. Pp 67-147 Stephen, J.M., (1994). Roselle Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Fact sheet HS-659. A series of the Horticultural Science Department, Florida Cooperation Extension Services, Institute of Food and Agriculture, University of Florida. Table 1: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 1 on the first day of Storage Key: G – Gas Production, A – Acid Production, + Positive, -- Negative www.theijes.com The IJES Page 44 Isolation And Identification Of Food… Table 2: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 2 on the first day of Storage Key: Same as Table 1 Table3: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 3 on the first day of Storage Key: Same as Table 1 Table 4: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 4 on the first day of Storage Key: Same as Table 1 Table 5: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 5 on the first day of Storage Key: Same as Table 1 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 45

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 54-57||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis among Female Students attending a Selected University Health Services in Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria 1, Ella , 2,E. E., 3,Shenge, H. And 4,Ajoge, H. O. 1,2,3,4,Department of Microbiology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria ---------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------------The study area was the Health Services Sickbay of a tertiary institution in Zaria attended by staff and students as well as a population living within the academic community. However, the study population was limited to all the female students attending the within a period of six months who gave their consent to be enlisted in the study. Staff and non- students attending the health facility were excluded. Similarly approval for the study was obtained from the Authorities of the Health Centre. A total of 92 female students were analyzed and of this number, 26 representing 28.26% were seropositive. In respect to age distribution, it was found that 78 of the 92 students sampled were in the 18-23 age range where 23 (29.49%) of the 78 female students within the 18 – 23 age range were seropositive while 3(25%) out of the 12 female students in the 24-29 age range were seropositive. A prevalence of 28.21% (22 cases out of 78) was established for the unmarried female students to Chlamydia trachomatis IgG while the married had a prevalence of 28.57 % (4 out of 14 cases). From the result obtained in this study, it can be seen that the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis was quite high for an enclosed population of women. KEYWORDS: Seroprevalence, Elisa, Chlamydia trachomatis, IgG ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------Date of Submission: 25 October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 30 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Chlamydia trachomatis was the first Chlamydia agent discovered in humans (Ryan and Ray, 2004) and was referred to as a large virus because of its obligate parasitic living. It is a worldwide infection highly prevalent among the sexually active age group and also, studies have shown that Chlamydia trachomatis is very high among young women precisely blacks but the cause for this situation is yet to be known (Parks, et al, 1997). Many of these infected women are known to have more than one sex partner. The high regions of the world with high prevalence include Northern Africa, Middle East and Asia. It is also among the commonly reported sexually transmitted diseases in the United States of America (Stamm, 2011). Studies of the natural history of genital Chlamydia infections in human are scarce and faced with study design limitations. An improved understanding of Chlamydial natural history may influence recommendations for elements of control efforts such as Chlamydia screening frequency or time parameters for partner notification. Persistent infection more often progressed to develop clinical signs at the time of treatment. Chlamydia trachomatis is the most commonly reported sexually transmitted bacterial infection, with a majority of infected persons being asymptomatic and as a result detection of the infection often relies on screening (Parks, et al, 1997). About 50-70% of Chlamydia trachomatis infections are asymptomatic with undetected or multiple infection in up to 70% women population who are at risk of developing a severe reproductive sequelae including pelvic inflammatory disease and tubal infertility (Tukur et al, 2006, Carey and Beagly, 2010). The susceptibility in children is due to mother to child transmission through the birth canal of an infected parent while adults or sexually active age group acquire the bacteria through sexual intercourse with an infected partner (Johnson, et al. 2002). In view of the insidious nature of infection and paucity of report on this bacterial infection in this part of the country, this research is embarked upon to determine the seroprevalence of Chlamydia trachoma is among female students attending Health Services Sickbay of a tertiary institution in Zaria in order to provide base line data for the control programme of the government in the study population. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 54 Prevalence Of Chlamydia Trachomatis… II. MATERIALS AND METHOD Study area The study area was the Health Services Sickbay of a tertiary institution in Zaria attended by staff and students as well as a population living within the academic community. However, the study population was limited to all the female students attending the within a period of six months who gave their consent to be enlisted in the study. Staff and non- students attending the health facility were excluded. Similarly approval for the study was obtained from the Authorities of the Health Centre. A total of 100 female students who reported to the hospital irrespective of their diagnosis were samples for the assay. Sample collection Using a 5ml syringe, 2ml of blood sample was collected from the 100 female students aseptically by venepuncture, dispensed into a vacutainer and allowed to clot. The serum was then separated from the whole blood using a micropipette and dispensed into another vacutainer for use. Assay procedure All the samples were analyzed for Chlamydia trachomatis IgG using the Chlamydia trachomatis ELISA kit (Diagnostic Automation and Cortez Inc., U.S.A.). All the specimens and kit reagents were brought to room temperature (20 – 25˚C) and 1: 40 dilutions of the test samples, negative and positive controls were prepared in the sample diluents provided. Using a micropipette, 100μl of diluted sera, the calibrator and controls were dispensed into the appropriate wells and 100μl sample diluent was dispensed in well A-1 to serve as blank. The holder was tapped to remove air bubbles from the liquid and mixed well and incubation was done for 30 minutes at room temperature, the liquid was then discarded from all wells and then washing was repeated three times with washing buffer and then blotted. A total of 100μl of enzyme conjugate was dispensed to each well and incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature and after incubation the enzyme conjugate was discarded from all wells and the washing was repeated three times with washing buffer and blotted dry. After blotting, 100μl of TMB chromogenic substrate was dispensed to each well and incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature. This was followed by the addition 100μl of 2N HCl to stop the reaction. The optical density was then read at 450nm with a microwell reader. III. RESULTS A total of 92 female students were eventually analyzed as the kit had provision for blank and controls and of this number, 26 representing 28.26% were seropositive. This is presented in Figure I below. Figure I. Distribution of Chlamydia trachomatis IgG among Female students in A B. U. Zaria. In respect to age distribution, it was found that 78 of the 92 students sampled were in the 18-23 age range where 23 (29.49%) of the 78 female students within the 18 – 23 age range were seropositive while 3(25%) out of the 12 female students in the 24-29 age range were seropositive (table 1). A prevalence of 28.21% (22 cases out of 78) was established for the unmarried female students to Chlamydia trachomatis IgG while the married had a prevalence of 28.57 % (4 out of 14 cases) (Table 2). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 55 Prevalence Of Chlamydia Trachomatis… Table 1: Age Range Distribution of the Assayed Female Student Samples Age Range Number of Samples Number of Positive (%) 18-23 78 23(29.49 %) 24-29 12 3(25 %) 30-35 2 0 Total 96 26 (28.26%) Table 2: Marital Status of the Assayed Female Student Samples. Marital Status Number of Samples Number of Positive (%) Married 14 4(28.57 %) Single 78 22(28.21 %) Total 92 26 (28.26%) IV. DISCUSSION The prevalence of 28.24% in this study was lower than the prevalence of 38.18% (Jatau, et al 2009) in an earlier study among pregnant women and 51% in women attending pre and antenatal clinic in the University of Lagos, Nigeria (Mawak, et al., 2011). These works were among pregnant women while this was predominantly among single ladies. Many reports have attributed higher prevalence to the married (Parks, et al, 1997). In this study the lower Age range of 18 – 23 had the highest prevalence of 29.49 %. This agrees with Jatau et al (2009) which also established that a prevalence of 43.65% among the 21-30 years age group. Women in the higher age bracket were few as the study was conducted among students thus providing a poor contrast between the age brackets. Further studies including significant women in all age brackets would provide a better picture on this finding. However, the degree of promiscuity among the single students and other risk factors such as overcrowding in hostels resulting from increase in university and the attendant poor and limited infrastructure make them prone to this bacterial pathogen. This agrees with the views by Kotchick et al, (2001), that Chlamydia trachomatis can be transmitted through sexual intercourse and at a lower rate during birth from an infected mother it can be deduced that these female students assayed must have contacted the infection through sex or contact with contaminated surfaces like for example the toilet seats (Kotchick et al, 2001). Chlamydia trachomatis infections are asymptomatic with undetected or multiple infection in up to 70% women population who are at risk of developing a severe reproductive sequelae including pelvic inflammatory disease and tubal infertility (Carey and Beagly, 2010), showing that the infection is a silent epidemic. In most part of Nigeria, Chlamydia trachomatis are not routinely screened for, and hence relative information about frequencies of the organisms is scarce. There is need therefore for routine screening of women for Chlamydia and subsequent treatment to protect them from prolonged infection which could have effect on fertility due to tubal blockage. History of infertility and pelvic inflammatory disease, other sexually transmitted diseases and spontaneous abortion have been associated with the of infection with Chlamydia trachomatis (Geisler, 2006) From the result obtained in this study, it can be seen that the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis was quite high for an enclosed population of enlightened people and due to facts that infections due to Chlamydia is highly endemic and asymptomatic, it is therefore recommended that further research should be carried out by health services to screen patients who are suffering from sexually transmitted diseases for Chlamydial infections. The risk factors and the strains of this pathogen can also be researched for. V. CONCLUSION The IgG seroprevalence to Chlamydia trachomatis among women attending the Health Services Sickbay of the selected tertiary institution in Zaria was found to be 26(28.26%). The seroprevalence showed no significant difference between the married and the single. Similarly, the prevalence did not show significant difference between the faculties of different students. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 56 Prevalence Of Chlamydia Trachomatis… REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] Carey A.J, and Beagly K.W. (2010).Chlamydia trachomatis, a hidden epidemic: effects on female reproduction and options for treatment. Amreican Journal of Reproductive Medicine 63:(6),360 - 363 Geisler WM. (2006) Management of uncomplicated Chlamydia trachomatis infections in adolescents and adults: evidence reviewed for the Center for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Clin Infect Dis.3:577 - 581 Jatau, et al 2009 Johnson, R.E., Newhall, W.J., Papp, J.P., DeLisle, S. (2002), Screening tests to detect Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoea infections. MMWR Recomm Rep.18:51(15),1-38 Kotchick, B.A., Shaffer, A., Forhand, R. and Miller, K.S. (2001). Adolescent sexual risk behaviour:A multi system perspective. Clinical Psychology Review.21:(4),493-519. Mawak J.D., Dashe N., Agabi Y.A. and Panshak B.W (2011), Prevalence of Genital Chlamydia trachomatis among Gynecologic Clinic attendees in Jos, Nigeria. Shiraz E-medical Journal. Shiraz Iran. 12:(2) Parks, K,S., Dixon, P.B., Richey, C.M., Garlo, G.G., Alpha,O., Soon, J. and Chaw,S.J. (1997) Spontaneous clearance of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in untreated patients. Sex Transm Dis. 24:(4), 229-235 Ryan, K.J., and Ray, C.G.(editors)(2004), Sherris Medical Microbiology(4th ed). McGraw Hill pp.463-70 . Stamm W.E (2011), Commonly Reported Sexually Transmitted Diseases in U.S.A. Int’l Encyclopedia of marriage and family.20:ac279149, pp1-17. Turkur, J., Shitu, S.O. and Abdul, A.M. (2006). A case control study of active genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection among patients with tubal infertility. Tropical Doctor Royal Society of Medicine Press.12:ac89026 Augenbraun M, Bachmann L, Wallace T, et al (1998). Compliance with doxycycline therapy in sexually transmitted diseases clinics.Sex Transm Dis.25:1 Bachmann LH, Stephens J, Richey CM, Hook EW (1999)3rd. Measured versus self-reported compliance with doxycycline therapy for chlamydia-associated syndromes: high therapeutic success rates despite poor compliance .Sex Trans Dis. 26:272 Bedson SP and Bland JOW. (1932). A morphological study of psittacosis virus with the description of a developmental cycle. British journal of experimental pathology13, pp 461-466.. Carey AJ, and Beagly KW. (2010).Chlamydia trachomatis, a hidden epidemic:effects on female reproduction and options for treatment. Amreican journal of reproductive.63:(6),360 Foglia, G., Rhodes, P., Goldberg. M., St Louis, M.E.(1999). Completeness of and duration of time before treatment after screening women for Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Sex Transm Dis 26:421 . Geisler WM. (2006) Management of uncomplicated Chlamydia trachomatis infections in adolescents and adults: evidence reviewed for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines.Clin infect Dis.3:577 Gordon FB, Harper IA, Quan AL. et al, (1968).Detection of Chlamydia (Bedsonia) in certain infections of man. J infect Dis 120:451. Hobson,D.,Johnson,F.W.A.,Rees, E. and Tait,I.A.(1974). Simplified method for diagnosis of genital and ocular infections with Chlamydia .Lancet ii,pp555-556. Joanne MW, Linder MS, Christopher JW (2008). Prescott, Harly and Kliens Microbiology (7th edn) McGraw Hill Int’l NewYork. pp 531-532. Johnson, R.E., Newhall, W.J., Papp, J.P.,DeLisle, S. (2002), Screening tests to detect Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoea infections. MMWR Recomm Rep.18:51(15),1-38 Kalwij, Sebastine; Macintosh, Marry; Baraitser paula. (2010). screening and treatment of Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Journal of America Sexually Trasmitted disease association.37:(2).pp 63-67 Mawak JD, Dashe N, Agabi YA, Panshak BW, (2011), Prevalence of Genital Chlamydia trachomatis among Gynecologic Clinic attendees in Jos, Nigeria. Shiraz E-medical journal. Shiraz Iran. 12:(2) Mohammed, Tafida A, Christian E (2009), Causes of blindness and visual impairment in Nigeria.Investigative ophthalmogy and visual science, an ARVO Journal. 5:(9),4114-4120 Nichols, R.L.(1971). Trachoma and related disorders caused by Chlamydia agents .Cong.series no.23 Parks, K,S.,Dixon, P.B., Richey, C.M., Garlo,G.G.,Alpha,O.,Soon,J.,and Chaw,S.J.(1997) Spontaneous clearance of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in untreated patients. Sex Transm Dis. 24:(4), pp229-235 Robinson E, Kur LW, Ndaba A, Lado M, Shafi J, McClelland RS, Kolaczinski JH. (2010). Trachoma rapid assessments in unity and northern Bahr-el-Ghazal States, Southern Sudan.Anthony.R Feeks veterinary laboratories agency United Kingdom.5(10), pp1-7 Ryan, K.J., and Ray, C.G.(editors)(2004), Sherris Medical microbiology(4th ed). McGraw Hill pp.463-70 . Stamm, W.E(1999),Chlamydia trachomatis infection: progress and problem.J.infect Dis.179:5380-383 Stamm W.E (2011), Commonly Reported Sexually Transmitted Diseases in U.S.A. Int’l Encyclopedia of marriage and family.20:ac279149, pp1-17. Turkur, J., Shitu, S.O. and Abdul, A.M. (2006). A case control study of active genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection among patients with tubal infertility.Tropical Doctor Royal Society of Medicine Press.12:ac89026. Kotchick, B.A., Shaffer,A., Forhand,R., and Miller, K.S.(2001). Adolescent sexual risk behaviour:A multi system perspective. clinical psychology review.21:(4),493-519. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 57

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 42-47 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Comparative Study of Uptake of Heavy Metals in Three Wetland Plants in Banks of two flowing Rivers and a Stream in Southern Nigeria Denise, EM and Akhere, M.A Department of Botany and Ecological Studies, University of Uyo, P.M.B. 1017, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Benin, P.M.B. 1154, Benin City, Edo State. --------------------------------------------------------- ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------Comparative study of uptake of heavy metals in three wetland plant growing in banks of two flowing rivers and a stream in Akwa Ibom State was carried out in the month of August, 2012 to access the pollution status of these wetlands and to evaluate the uptake potential of these plants. Heavy metals in plants leaves were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) method. Iron and Nickel were the most abundant of all the heavy metals in the leaves of the three wetland plant. The concentration of Iron (Fe) ranged between (23.18 + 0.93) mg/kg to (78.79 + 71.80) mg/kg, Nickel ranges between (1.65 + 0.53) mg/kg to (1.86 + 0.20) mg/kg, Lead (Pb) ranges between (1.23 + 0.27) mg/kg to (1.48 + 0.31) mg/kg, Chromium (Cr) ranges between (0.60 + 0.43) mg/kg to (0.80 + 0.32) mg/kg and Mercury (Hg) ranges between (0.20 + 0.15)mg/kg to (0.81 + 011)mg/k. Acroceros zizanoides had the highest uptake potential for iron and mercury while Tristemna spp has the least uptake potential for these heavy metal but the highest for chromium, nickel and lead with Acroceros spp and Cyclosporium having the least for these. The results shows high uptake potential of heavy metals by the three wetland plants and hence could be used in heavy metal mop up in environmental management of heavy metal pollution. KEY WORDS: uptake potential, heavy metals,, wetland, environmental pollution, anthropogenic, ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------Date of Submission: 21, October - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10- November - 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- I. INTRODUCTION Environmental pollution is a global problem posing risk to man. The development of modern technology and the rapid industrialization are among the foremost factors promoting environmental pollution (Karplan et al., 2010). Heavy metal toxicity has been reported as one of the major environmental pollutants of health concern. It is more dangerous due to its bio-accumulation tendency in food chain (Aycicek et al., 2006). Various anthropogenic activities such as burning of fossil fuel, mining and metallurgy industries and transport sectors accounts for redistribution of toxic heavy metals into the environment. Heavy metals can persist for a considerably long period before they are transported to different components of the environment (Kaplan et al., 2010). Vital organs of man such as the liver, and kidney are good accumulators of heavy metals like AS Cd, Pb and Hg (Alloway and Ayres, (1993), Bansazek et al., (2000), Weis and Weis,2004; Kaznina, et al., (2005); Kotwal et al., (2005); Liphadzi and Kirkham, (2006); Andra et al., (2010). Alkaline precipitation, ion exchange columns, electrochemical removal, filtration and membrane technologies are some current available technologies for heavy metals removal. Phytoremediation of metals is a cost-effective “green” technology based on the use of specially selected metal accumulating plants to remove toxic heavy metals from soils and water. Wetland plants are plants that grows on wetland soils, they are technically referred to as hydrophytes or hydrophytic vegetation. Wetland plants are important tools for heavy metal removal. Wetland plants are preferred over other bio-agents due to their low costs, frequent abundance in aquatic ecosystems and easy handling. The extensive rhizosphere of wetland plants provides an enriched culture zone for the microbes involved in degradation. The wetland sediment zone provides reducing conditions that are conducive to the metal removal pathway. Wetland species can be split into two categories; emergent (floating) or submerged. The emergent species are used for phytotranspiration, phytoextraction and phytovolatilisation and are easily to harvest, if so desired (Kadiec et al., 1999). Submerged species do not transpire water but they do provide more biomass for the uptake and absorption of heavy metal contaminants through phytoextraction. Submerged plants are able accumulate metals in their tissues than the rooted emergent plants because their foliage is exposed to the water (Qian et al., 1998). Emergent wetland plants include cattails and rushes. It is suggested that a good metal accumulator would be a plant that has the ability to absorb the metals through the leaf surface (Qian et al., 1999). Since leaf www.theijes.com The IJES Page 42 Comparative Study of Uptake of Heavy Metals In… uptake is directly related to the amount of leaf surface area that is exposed to the water, plants that have a higher surface area and have a high planting density make good accumulators of heavy metals and other contaminants. Also the rate at which a plant accumulates biomass is critical to predicting if it will be a good accumulator of metals. Heavy metals can exercise an influence on the control of biological functions such as effect on hormonal system and growth of different body tissues (Underwood, 1977).These physiological function and role of heavy metal has prompted this studies which is aimed at accessing the pollution status of these wetlands and to evaluate the uptake potential of these wetland plants. II. MATERIALS AND METHOD Description of study location: The study was restricted to three industrialized and highly populated local government areas of Akwa Ibom State. Description of Sampling Station Station 1 is located at the bank of Inyang Ufok Ibok Ikot Ebiyak river in Etinan Local Government Area, Station 2 at the bank of Inyang Udo Nsinia rivers in Afaha Nsit village in Nsit Ibom Local Government Area and the bank of Ikot Okobo village stream in Nsit Ubium Local Government Area as station 3. Sampling was done during the rainy season (August 2012). Sampling Procedure Three dorminant wetland plants namely (Acroceras zizanoides, Tristemna mildbraedii and Cyclosporium striatus were collected from banks of three rivers and a stream in akwa ibom state. The plants were collected by uprooting thereafter they were carefully transferred into a polythene bag. The leaves of the collected plants were then separated from other parts such as stem and roots and were dried in the open within a temperature range of 370C and 400C until the leaves were properly dried. They were turned into powder form by grinding in a mortal. Powdered form were then placed in a clean sample bottles and labeled accordingly. These were then taken for laboratory analysis for heavy metal analysis. Determination of Heavy Metals Heavy metals were analysed by (AAS) using unicam 939 atomic absorption spectrophotometer according to the methods described in Adeniyi, (1996) III. RESULTS The results of comparative study on uptake of heavy metals in three wetland plants investigated in this study are illustrated in fig 1-5. Mercury (Hg) The mean concentration of mercury (fig 1) varied within the three stations, the highest value of 0.20 + 0.15mg/kg was recorded in station three while the least value of 0.18 + 0.11mg/kg was recorded in station one. Mercury concentration was highest in A. zizanoides (0.330mg/kg) and lowest in T. mildbraedii (0.030mg/kg) Lead (Pb) The highest mean concentration of lead (fig 2) was recorded in station three (3) (1.48 + 0.31) mg/kg and the least (1.25 + 0.30mg/kg) was recorded in station two. The highest value (1.830mg/kg) was recorded in T. mildbraedii at station three while C. striatus had the least concentration of lead at station one. The variation in these concentration was significant at (P>0.05). This high content of lead could be attributed to corrosion of water pipes, industrial waste as well as domestic activities which are predominant in these study areas. Nickel (Ni) Nickel was more abundant in station two with a mean concentration of (1.89 + 0.59) mg/kg (fig 3). Maximum uptake of 2.430mg/kg was recorded in T. mildbraedii while the least mean concentration of 1.170mg/kg was recorded in C. striatus at station one www.theijes.com The IJES Page 43 Comparative Study of Uptake of Heavy Metals In… Chromium (Cr) Relative abundance of chromium in leaves of wetland plants are depicted in fig 4. The highest mean value (0.80 + 0.32) mg/kg of Chromium was recorded in station one while station three had the least mean value of 0.58 + 0.25mg/kg. These variations were significant at (P > 0.05). T. mildbraedii from station 1 has the highest chromium content of (1.140mg/kg) while A. zizanoides has the least concentration of (0.300mg/kg) Iron (Fe) The highest means concentration of 78.79  1.80mg/kg was recorded in station three while the least value of 23.18  0.93mg/kg was recorded in station 1. A. zizanoides had the highest value of Iron 151.956mg/kg and T. mildbraedii had the least value (2.00mg/kg) fig 5. In this study, five (5) heavy metals reported TO HAVE health consequencies were used to evaluate the heavy metal load( pollution status) of three wetland in Etinan, Nsit Ibom, and Nsit Ubium Local Government Areas in akwa ibom state. the pollution levels between the three stations(l.g.a) varied significantly at (P> 0.05). Figure 1: Comparative variation of Mercury (Hg) in three wetland species Figure 2: Comparative variation of Lead (Pb) in the three wetland species www.theijes.com The IJES Page 44 Comparative Study of Uptake of Heavy Metals In… Figure 3: Comparative variation of Nickel (Ni) in the three wetland species Figure 4: Comparative variation of Chromium (Cr) in the three wetland species Figure 5: Comparative variation of Iron (Fe) in wetland species www.theijes.com The IJES Page 45 Comparative Study of Uptake of Heavy Metals In… IV. DISCUSSION Plants that grow in polluted environments may show stress symptoms due to bioaccumulation of metals through direct uptake by the plants roots, stems, or shoot, Godbold et al., (1984) Baker, (1987); Dahmani-muller et al., (2000), Monni et al., (2001). However, metals accumulate in the soil and are drawn up into the tissues of plant and exert long-term effect. In general some wetland plants are very good accumulators of metal and some have the potential to convert toxic forms of the metal to non-toxic forms (Qian et al., 1999). Iron, Mercury and Lead were higher at station 3 (Nsit Ubium local government area) and lower at stations 1 (Etinan) and Station 2 (Nsit Ibiom local government area). Chromium and Nickel were higher at Stations 1 and 2 and lower at 3. This pattern is an indication of difference IN pollution load of these heavy metals at the various L.G.A, this can be trace to the various industrial activities such as crude oil drilling and other related crude oil prospecting activities in these locations. This high amount is an indication of increased heavy metal load in the various locations. The highest amount of uptake was recorded at Nsit Ubiom L.G.A. This could be due to reduction in water current of wetland. Water current was minimal in this wetland. Deposition from run off would probably have increased the level and with the sence of maximum stream flow transportation and distribution to other areas will be minimal, this could have accounted for this pattern and could had leads to high content in these station Iron (Fe) was the highest heavy metal in the three wetland plants. This could be due to comparative uptake ability of the three wetlands plants for iron than any other heavy metal investigated. A. zizanoides from (station 3) accumulated the highest concentration of iron (151.956mg/kg) and the lowest of 30.632mg/kg from (station2) accumulated. the reason for these high levels of accumulations could be due to the plants physiological makeup. Also,the plant may have developed certain strategies in order to withstand the high level of accumulation recorded. According to Sharma et al; (2001) high rate of metal accumulation could result from soil texture, temperature, nutrient availability, pH, and organic matter content. From the observation, it can be deduced that A.zizanoides is more tolerant to high concentrations of iron than other two wetland plants. The reason for low amount of mercury (0.030mg/kg and 0.330mg/kg.) in all stations could be as a result of reduced pollution load of mercury in the wetland than other heavy metals. The high content of lead (range of 0.750mg/kg and 1.830mg/kg) could be attributed to corrosion of water pipes, industrial waste as well as domestic activities which are predominant in these study areas. The concentration of nickel ranged between 1.170mg/kg to 2.430mg/kg,in the plant tissues in all the stations indicates high pollution level of nickel in the wetland. This could be due to industrial waste in form of effluent released into the wetland. Chromium concentration ranges between 0.270 mg/kg in station two and 1.140mg/kg in station one. This is an indication that metal pollution is higher at station one. This could be due to domestic waste, run off and agro chemical from farm lands. V. CONCLUSION Comparatively, there was generally significant difference in uptake of heavy metals by the three wetland plants investigated. Iron was the most accumulated in all three stations. A. zizanoides had the highest uptake potential for iron and mercury while T. mildbraedii has the least uptake potential for these heavy metal but the highest for Chromium, Nickel and Lead with A. zizanoides and C. striatus having the least for these. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 46 Comparative Study of Uptake of Heavy Metals In… REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16]. [17]. [18]. Adeniyi, a. a. (1996). determination of cd, cu, fe, pb, mn and zn in waterleaf (talinium triangulare) in dumpsite. environment, 22(2): 259-262. Alloway, b. j., ayres, d. c. (1993). chemical principles of environmental pollution blackie academic and professional, glasgons, u. k. Andra, s. s. sarkar d, makris k. c and bach s. b. (2010). synthesis of phylochelatins in vetivar grass upon lead exposure in the presence of phosphorus. plant soil 326: 171-185. Aycicek, M. O., Kaplan, O. and Yaman, M. (2006). Effect of Cadmium on germination, seedling, growth and metal contents of sun flower (Helianthus annus L.) Asian J. Chem., 20: 2663-2672. Baker A. J. M. (1987). Metal Tolerance. New Phytol; 106: 171-185. Banaszak, A., Lajeunesse, T., and Trench. R. (2000). The Synthesis of Mycosporine-jike Amino acids (MAAs) by Cultural, Symbiolic Dinoflagelletes. J. Exp. Mar. Bcol. Ed. 249:219-233. Demchik, M. and Garbutt, K. (1999). Growth of woolgrass in Acid mine drainage, J. Environ. Quality. 28: 443-449. Godbold, D. L., Horst, W. J., Collins, J. C., Thurman, D. A. and Marschner, H. (1984). Accumulation of Zinc and Organic acids in roots of Zinc tolerate and non-tolerate Ecotypes of Deschampsia caespitosa J. Plant Physiology 116: 59-69. Karplan, O., Yildirim, N. and Cimen, M. (2010). Toxic elements in animal products and environmental health. Asian Journal of animal Veterinary Advance. Kaznina, N. M., Laidinen, G. F., Tifov, A. F. and Talenov, A. V. (2005). Effect of lead on the photosynthetic apparatus of annual grasses ser. Biol., 2: 184-188. Kotwal, S. K. (2005). Industrial Pollutants and Animal Health Review Indian J. Anim Sci 75: 713-722. Liphadzi, M. S, and Kirkham, M. B. (2006). Heavy-metal Displacement in Chelate-treated Soil with Sludge during Phytoremediation J. Plants. Nut. Soil Sci. 169 (6): 737-744. Monni, S., Uhlig, C., Hansen, E. and Magel, E. (2001). Ecophysiological Responses of Empetrum nigrum to Heavy metal Pollution. Environment Pollution 112: 121-129. Qian, W. M., Zayed, A., Zhu, Y. L. and Terry, N. (1999). Phytoaccumulation of trace elements by wetland plants. J. Environmental Quality, 28: 1448-1455. Sharma, P. Dubey (2001). Level Toxicity in Plants. Plants Physiology 17: 35-52. Terry, N. Lytle, C. M., Lytle, F. W. and Zayed, A. (1998). Reduction of Cr (Vi) to Cr (III) by wetland pants. Environ. Sci. and Technol., 32: 3087-3093. Underwood, E. J. (1977). Trace element in human nutrition. P. 545. Weis and Weis, P. (2004). Metal uptake, transport and release by wetland plants. Implications for phytoremediation and restoration. Environ. Int., 30: 685-700. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 47

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 24-30||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Understanding the Bidding Process and Procedures for the Procurement of Goods Work and Services 1, 1, Gbadamosi Olaniyi Mufutau , 2, Osho Victoria Mojisola Federal Polytechnic Ado –Ekiti School Of Business Studies Department Of Purchasing And Supply 2, Federal Polytechnics Ado-Ekiti School Of Business Studies Department Of Marketing ----------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------------What and how to understanding the bidding process and procedures for the procurement of goods and services is one of the most important decisions that an organization makes. It is a major cost containment strategy that is being applied across all business activities. As a result supply and contracting still sets to gain maximum advantages and reduce risk when act on sourcing activities. This paper focuses on the areas of expertise needed by those involved in the outstanding bidding an negotiations process so that the primary objectives of outsourcing and bidding process will be met. The necessary data used in this paper was collected through secondary source; include textbooks from reputable authors, journal and newspapers. The paper has offered some recommendations aimed at improving the bidding process in supply outsourcing. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------Date of Submission: 30 September 2013 Date of Acceptance: 30 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION In business is a recognized way of competing with other business for a contract to do a project. The hiring company or organization examines and compares bid proposals from the different businesses to choose the firm with the best overall from proposal. Bidding is used for many types of business work and supplies that range from construction projects to needed equipment. Compares inviting bids from contractors or supplies usually specify how the winning bid will be chosen. If a company is only interested in a low price for products or services, it will often ask for competitive bidding. This term indicates that the winning bid will be selected on the lowest price quote only. A price quote is the fees for which a contractor or vendor will provide the requested goods or services knowing upfront that the bidding is competitive saves bid write a lot of work since other detail aren’t going to be as important in the proposal as the price quote. Open competitive bidding is a business term that means all who want to view the opening of the scale bids may do so. Closed bidding proposal situations are those in which only selected individuals in the bid receiving, company or organization, view the bid. A bid is also called a tender. An invitation to tender usually placed on a company or organization website or in the trade journal or news papers.When be request aren’t specified as competitive, other factors beside financial ones will be considered for the type of tender proposals, a company or organization may use a bid form or template. This kind of request for proposal (RFP) requires bidding vendors or contractors to fill in information on a standard form the company uses for all its bid request; non-competitive (RFP) typically ask for detail such as turn around time and product specifications. The company then compares each bid proposal sheet to choose the best overall product or service offer. Sometimes, the bid requesting firm doesn’t decide the winning proposal from the bids alone instead, the creates a short list of possible vendors or contractors. This procedure is much like a job interview process in which the interview narrows down the search for candidates. In a request for proposal (RFP) bidding process company or organization on the short list usually prepare an in-person presentation. The winning businesses are often, the one that shows visual evidence such as testimonials or photographs to prove why it’s the best choice for the project. Bidding and negotiation is a tool for effective procurement of goods works and services. One a buyer or sourcing teams of an organization has identified the potential suppliers to be invited to submit bids (or proposal) a decision must be made whether to use bidding or negotiation (or the two together) as the basis for sourcing selection. When bidding is used bidding by private organization requests for bids are traditionally sent to three to eight potential suppliers depending on the naira size and complexity of the purchase. Request for bids as supplies to quote the price at which will perform in accordance with the terms and conditions of the contract, should they be successful bidder? Government buyers generally are not to restrict the number of bidders to only eight, rather, all suppliers desiring to bid are permitted to do so (for large purchase, the number are literally in the hundred under competitive bidding industrial buyers generally, but not www.theijes.com The IJES Page 24 Understanding The Bidding Process… always award the order to the lowest bidding. By law, government buyers are routinely required to award the order to the lowest bidder provided the lowest bidder is deemed qualified to perform the contract. Bidding can be defined as the highest price any buyer is willing to pay for a given security at a given time, also bid price or quoted bid is a maximum price a market maker will pay for a security. An offer of a specific amount of money is exchange for product and services as in auction. In some cases this term also refers to maximum that an acquiring company is willing to pay for a take over target e.t.c. II. FIVE REQUISITES FOR EFFECTIVE BIDDING The proper use of competitive bidding is dictated five criteria. When all criteria prevail competitive bidding is an efficient method of source selection and pricing. The criteria are: 1. The naira value of the specific purchase must be large enough to justify the expenses to both buyer and seller that accompanies this method of source selection and pricing. 2. The specifications of the item or service to be purchased must explicitly clear tooth buyer and seller. In addition the seller must know from actual previous experience, or be able to estimate accurately from similar post experience, the cost producing the item or rendering the service. 3. The market must consist an adequate number of sellers. 4. The sellers that make up the market must be technically qualified and actively want the contract and therefore, be willing to price competitive to get it. Frequently criteria 1, 2, and 3 prevail, yet there is no real competition, because the sellers are not anxious to backlog of work in some potential supplies plants may prevent competition. Under such circumstance, additional orders, would entail overtime operation and its attendant problems of scheduling difficulties and premium wage payment. Under such circumstance, if bids are made at all, they are not at price that include numerous contingencies. 5. The time available must be sufficient for using this method of pricing supplier competing for large contracts must be allowed. Time to obtain and evaluate bids from their sub contractors before they can be calculate their best price. Bidders must also have time to perform the necessary cost analysis required within their own organization and to assure themselves of reliable sources of materials. The time requires for preparing mailing, opening and evaluating bids is usually considerable longer than does unfamiliar with this system would expect that thirty days is not on uncommon time. There are four to five situations where biding should not be employed. 1) Situation in which it is impossible to estimate costs with a high degree of certainty such situations frequently are present with a high technology requirement with items requiring, a long time to develop and produce under condition of economic uncertainty. 2) Situation in which price is not the only important variable; for example ,quality schedule and service may well be negotiable variable of equal importance 3) Situation in which purchasing from anticipate a need to make changes in the specification or some other aspect of the purchase contract when unscrupulous suppliers anticipate changes; they may ”buy” in with the expectation of getting well; and even wealthy on the resulting changes. 4) Situation in which special tooling or set-up costs are major factors. The allocation of such cost and title to the special tooling are issues best resolved through negotiation. III. COMPETITIVE TENDERING AND OUTSOURCING Tending by negotiation for the supply of facilities and /or services has been a common activity in the procurement goods work and services for many decades. The high level of current interest in the topic stems from the growing tide of economic reform in services sub-sectors where the level of subsidy from consolidated revenue has become unacceptable. The “new” emphases on last recovery, productive efficiency, and the private sector in area of services provision, commonly the domain of the public sector, has spawned a healthy debate on the merit of competitive tendering of services in order to reduce the financial burden or escalating deficits on the state.The debate on competitive tendering (or competitive bidding) recognizes that markets and forms are alternative instruments for completing a related set transactions ought to be executed between firms (across markets) or within a firm depends on the relative efficiency of each approach. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 25 Understanding The Bidding Process… The costs of writing and executed contracts across a market very with the characteristics of the decision markets who are involved with the competitive tendering process on the one hand and the objectives properties of the market on the other such as the number of potential competitors. A competitive tendering (CT) can be defined as a bid for a contractual promise to supply a pre-defined services during a pre-determined period of time in exchange for a contract fees, which allows for the level of anticipated cost or revenue generated by the service. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN COMPETITIVE TENDERING (CT) AND COMPETITIVE FRANCHISE (CF) WITH PROCUREMENT OF GOODS WORK AND SERVICES The difference is inherent in the specification of the end-services to be supplied. In the case of competitive tendering (CT), the end-services pre-determined. All potential bidders compete for the right to supply a common service. A competitive franchise (CF), by comparison, require each potential competitor to design their owe end-service supply.There has been a tendency to opt for competitive tendering (CT) in the goods work and service because it is view as an administratively easier alternative. The ability to evaluate the bid and to arrive at a minimum cost supplier for the given level of service removes complexities associated with evaluating a hetro generous set of proposals.Tendering is the process of making an offer, bid or proposal or expressing interest in response to an invitation or request for tender. Organizations will seek other businesses to respond to a particular need; such as the supply of goods and services, and will select an offer or tender that meets their needs and provides the best value for money. Tender request documents also referred to as invitations to tender. Requests for tender (RTF) requests for proposal (RTP) etc. outline what is required, that is what the requesting organization’s needs are. These documents also outline the particular requirement criteria, and instruction that are to be followed. Future tenders are generally widely advertised to offer opportunities to a number of suppliers encourage competition and provide a greater pool of offers to select from interested suppliers will then prepare a tender the documents that outline the offer that they are making and will include price, schedules as well as their eligibi9lity for the project or procurement, they will outline their advantage over competitors; provide information on qualifications, competencies and experience. Further, they have to demonstrate hoe their bid offers the best value for money. The submitted tenders are then evaluated with regard to defined criteria. In normal tendering situation, this process should be conducted fairing and honestly, and in a manner that is free from bias or favour. The offer that best meets all of the requirements outline in the request, and provides value for money should win the contract. The tendering process is generally utilized for procurements or contracts involving substantial amounts of money. Tendering is a utilized by. (1) Government departments offices and agencies (2) Private sector companies and businesses (3) Overseas markets and businesses. While the concepts of tendering may see daunting at first, it can be easily tackled by having a plan of attack. When becoming involved in a tendering process, it is important to understand your business suitability for the project. Whether your business current situation will allow you to tender; as well as your ability to manage the contract ,if you are successful in winning the tender. By understanding these points and ensuring you can demonstrate that you are able to meet the criteria and offer a competitive bid, you will increase your chances of success, Which may be based on different services levels? There are two major categories of competitive tendering (CT): a cost-only contract and a minimumsubsidy contract, the former involves the tendering authority paying the operator for supplying a specified service, with receipts in part or full remitted to the tendering authority or netted of against cost. In submitting a bid for procurement of a business service, in mufaty procurement and General Service limited, for example, the applicant is supplied with a service specification for days of operation, timetable, route, type of vehicle and inter-working requirements with other service. The risks associated with services supply are largely carried by the tendering authority. The minimum contractor to satisfy a service and a return for an obligation from the tendering authority to provide a subsidy in line with the level of receipts collected. Cost-only contracts and minimum-subsidy contracts can be either scaled-bid tendering or bids open to public seutiny. In the latter situation, the prices and the range of tender received and the successful tenderer are usually published. There are many variations on each types of contract however there are some broad specifications that we now focus on. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 26 Understanding The Bidding Process… IV. THE COMPETITIVE TENDERING APPEAL It is essential that there is a clear set of responsibilities between the contractor and the client (or tendering authority), and that the criteria for evaluating the bids are both simple and unambiguous to all parties. The experiences in a number of countries serve to highlight some of the more important issues, which are briefly summarized below. [1] The client has the responsibility for determining the appropriate areas for competitive tendering, designing appropriate contracts, pre-screening the contractors, undertaking the tendering process, evaluating and selecting the successful tender, monitoring performance, and controlling the contractor. An internal tendering unit has the task of determining the competitive range for unit costs and preparing a programme for reducing internal units costs to the competitive range. [2] Since work practices condoned/supported by an employee union influence the productive efficiency of service supply, it is critical to time the competitive tendering (CT) process on the client side to the contractor schedule for negotiating reduced costs with the union (s). This is a major source of cost reduction and is essential where the threat of competition could result in a loss of activity to a nonunionized (or different union-based) supplier. There are a growing number of instances where union have been increasingly willing to negotiate in the interest of preserving jobs for the majority of the incumbentworkforce. [3] Quality gain often accompanies competitive tendering due to the increased emphasis on performance standards, as well as job requirements by both management and staff. The quality gain in highly dependent on the quality of implementation of competitive tendering (CT). The ability to terminate contracts and to monitor performance not only reduces costs, but also increases the quality of performance. [4] The growing popularity of contract hire and rental to cover specific requirements. [5] A detailed specification may be very costly to prepare and many discourage the less articulate the size of recoverable cost, the length of the contract, and the perceived probability of success will be critical factors in determining how many bidders come forward that is the selection process could be anticompetitive if made too complex. The large incumbents are likely to do everything legal to reduce the competitiveness of the selection process. This latter situation has encouraged a view that incumbent dismemberments is often a desirable pre-condition to successful competitive tendering. For example, the development of independent public business operations at the department level or the braking up of a rail network or airports and ports is likely to be necessary if some competitive threat is to be achieved from a range of potential sources (existing industry operations, worker and /or management group buy-outs) without any actual ownership profile necessarily arising as the service providers becomes productively more efficient. [6] In contexts where public or privately regulated-monopolies have existed for more periods to time, it is likely that the tendering authority will have a symbolic relationship with the main tender. This relationship, real or perceived, will take time to eliminate through staff changes. This can create some major obstacles for a transparent tender bidding systems that at the very least will be viewed suspiciously by potential new entrants. [7] A less desirable but alternative approach could follow a modification of the French gerance contract in which management teams bid for the right to rum a private company to supply services in which the financial risk is taken largely by the public authority. V. A BRIEF STATEMENT ON THE THEORETICAL EPILATES The discussion up to this point has identified the salient features of competitive tendering documented some of the points of principle and practice that procurement of goods work and services has tried to accommodate in a number of application of competitive tendering. These experiences can be used to assist in identifying the strands of a theoretical framework that may help us to better understand the process of a competitive tendering (CT), if for no other reason, theoretical insight may eventually provide guidance on the relationships which need to be identified between the actors in the process and the process itself, the success or failure of competitive tendering is strongly linked to the behavioural motivations and abilities of human beings. The opportunity for strategic game-playing, incentives involved, and opportunism behavior may very easily make a mockery of traditional interpretations of the way market operate. This is the Australia school of thought on markers at work transaction cost theory , developed many years ago; has long recognized that a transaction (e g a deal ; a contract; e t c ) can be accomplished through either market or internal procurement . The choice of source of supply is tied in with the relative transaction cost. These costs are an important component of the assessment procedure and must enter into the calculation of the net efficiency benefit of alternative approaches. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 27 Understanding The Bidding Process… The renewed interest in transaction lost economics coincides with the growing interest in determining the role of competition and ownership in the supply of many services which have trachtionally been the domain of the pulic sector.transaction cost economics is nothing more than a comparative institutional assessment of alternative means of contracting (Williamson,1987)including the real possibility of internal contracting. VI. RECOMMENDATION & CONCLUSION Competitive tendering (and franchising) provides an opportunity to introduce competition into contract negotiation and in so doing should contribute to improving the overall efficiency of service provision. The success of any form of competitive tendering will be very dependent on the existing level of potential competition and the ability of the tendering process to encourage the emergence of completion through time. We antrupate a growing commitment to competitive outsourcing in procurement of good work and service markets as a way of reinforcing the conservative nature of the procurement industry, where complete reliance on the market through economic deregulation is still viewed with great suspicion. It is thus essential that any proposal to consider the introduction of competitive tendering pay special attention to the following. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Contracting out the supply of goods and services involves a two step decision process. The first is whether to make or buy: the second is how to structure the contract so that performance will be sustained over its life time. The former decision involves a straight forward comparison of costs; the latter is more subtle and requires consideration of four essential elements. First, specifications of the services or product will need to be determined, together with the design of the competitive tendering mechanism that will be used to identify potential operators. The theoretical implications of using different bidding schemes are comprehensively surveyed in Me Afee and MeMillan (1987) and discussed also by Waterson (1988). The selection of the winning bid. This turns out to be a more complicated decision than would appear at first sight. For example, selecting the lowest bidder in a sealed tender auction can sometimes results in serious performance problems after the contract is awarded. Dombarger et al. (1982) discuss some of the evidence when a very detailed pre-registration process in not in place to ensure that the lowest price is reflective of a cost efficient operation and not one which struggle to survive because of poor costing in arriving at a bid price. To ensure contract compliance the supplier will have to be monitored during the contract term. This involves collecting and interpreting information that can be used to determine whether the specified good/ services are being delivered. Finally to correct deviations of actual from desired performance the contract will have to be enforced. Enforcement will be based on incentives and penalties that will be applied when such deviations are observed. The uncertainty associated with contractor selection arises from two sources. The contract specifications will need to be precise, but it may nevertheless be difficult if not impossible to encompass all the required performance characteristics in them. Hence the contracting authority will need to ascertain the other source of uncertainty, which is potentially more troublesome, is that the output or service contracted for is not observable at the time of purchase; Hence the quality of the prospective contractor is essentially unknown and the contracting authority has to rely on performance as a proxy, that is, on reputation. The use of reputation process for goods and services whose characteristics are difficult to ascertain at the time of purchase is a widespread phenomenon. Its importance has been recognized and explored in the theoretical contributions of Klem and Leffler (1981) and Shapiro (1983), among others. In these circumstances contracting authorities resort to screening devices, the most important and ubiquitous of which are pre-qualification restrictions a preliminary retting process of potential contractors. Prequalification allows the contracting authority to sort potential operators into those of high and low completed quality before the tendering actually takes place. Such separations is important because if low and highly quality contractors bid simultaneously, difficulties will arise in distinguishing low bids that are due to cost efficiency from those that involve reduced quality of service. Moreover the trade-off between price and expected quality is not one that can easily be made explicit. It is therefore preferable to establish the minimum level of quality expected from the contractor, identify those contractors that are deemed to satisfy those requirements, and only then invite this group to submit a tender. This two stage process ensures that tendered prices are strictly comparable and do not reflect element that is refrained will also ensure that the cost of provision does not stay far from the minimum consistent with the required quality standard. Where tendering accuses frequently because contractors are short lived, there will be economics in using an existing prequalification list. It is also worth nothing that the costs of bidding incurred by potential contractors are www.theijes.com The IJES Page 28 Understanding The Bidding Process… [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] sun they cannot be recovered if the bid is unsuccessful. Hence by screening out contractors who are unlikely to be selected irrespective of their bid, price, total sun costs can be significantly reduced. Another potential problem to be addressed at pre-qualification stage is known as the winner’s curse. This occurs in common-value’ auction where bidder’s have to estimate the value of the object that is bid for. In the context of publicly contracted services, a serious under estimate of the costs of provision could lead to serious deterioration in performance after the contract is let. Pre-tender screening allows the contracting authority to select those contractors whose previous performance record makes such outcomes unlikely. The problems face by a public sector organization in its efforts to secure contract compliance fall into the classic principal agent mould. The principal is the contracting authority (the contract and the agent is the contractor hired to perform a pre-determined level of service. The agent can have an incentive to reduce the degree of input effort, particularly where a highly competitive bid resulted in slim profits. This in turn jeopardizes the quality of service provided by the contractor, asymmetric information the principal’s difficulty in observing the agent’s actual activities serves to exacerbate the incentive problem. Some variations in the agent’s contractual performance may be beyond it control due to random factors. A result the principal will not always be able to disentangle the effect of the agent’s efforts from the consequences of random factors. Rewarding or panelizing contractors according to service performance under these circumstances becomes a serious issues of effective contract enforcement. To mitigate information asymmetries and adverse incentives, specific monitoring, pricehansion, should be written into contractors. The most common are regular inspections, the use of performance indicators, and citification of contract compliance period to payment. To further align incentives with respect to specifications, contracts might include renewal clauses that are conditional on satisfactory performance over the contract term. The structure of the existing supply which is planned for completive tendering (CT) needs to be well understood. Will effective competition require dismemberment to a size that is attractive to potential entrants? What are the consequent trade-offs if economics of scale network density, and scope exist? An implication of these questions that reasonable time is required to enable effective negotiation with the incumbent so that suitable preparation and compromise can be achieved maximize the efficient implementation of competitive offers from internal units. What responsibilities should the tendering authority and the contractor have? For direct procurement of goods work and services it is essential to consider the trade off between the size of the tendered entity and the objective that the tendering authority wishers to accommodate e.g. maintenances of an integrated pricing policy, subsidization of certain non-commercial services the size of the irrecoverable costs, the length of the contract, and the perceived probability of success will also be critical factors in determining how many bidders come forward as well as the type of contract. Innovation in contracts is always encouraged but it must be balanced against increased barriers to entry. For example, an opportunity via the specification of contracts of broaden the specification condition to include environmental and social obligations (ESOs) has been implemented in Sweden performance of it is desirable that the tender evaluation committee comprise members from withi the industry as a whole and that each member should make on independent assessment according to a small number of well – defined common criteria, competitive learning is essential and can be achieved by a further set of well-defined feedback rules so that committer is not overburdened. VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I acknowledge the authors of books, journals and other references materials used in the process of this paper work, and also to the peoples who stand by us in time of challenges. Equally, deserving recognition is our publisher. The international Journal of Engineering and Sciences whose advice and guidance contributed immensely to our success, indeed, all their assistance will always be remembered. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] Addis B.and Talbot R. (2001) Sustainable contraction procurement: A Guide to Delivering Environmentally Responsible projects. Construction Industry’s Research and Information Association. Allan Ashworth (2012) Contractual Procedures in the constructions Industry (sixth Edition). Arrows Mith. S. (edt) (2000) public Private partnerships and PFI. Sweet and Maxwell Ashworth A. (2008) Pre-contract studies: Development Economic, Tendering and Estimating, 3rd edition. Black well. Bower G.H. (1976) Experiments on story understanding on recall; Quarterly Journal of experimental psychology 28: 5 11 – 34. Burcau of Industry Economics (B/E) (1994). International performance inductors overview Research Report 53, www.theijes.com The IJES Page 29 Understanding The Bidding Process… [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] Christopher M. (1998), Logistics and supply chain management strategies for reducing cost and improving services 2nd edition London: Pitman. Cox, W, Kraus; J. and Mundles; S, (1997), competitive contracting of transit services: Denver experience paper presented at the 5th international conference on competition on ownership in land passenger transport, Leads UK May 1997. Cyert, R, M. and March, J.G (1963) A behavioural Theory of the firm, Englewood clefts NJ: prentice Hall. D. Borger, B, Wouters, S. Mayeris I, and provosts (1996): Social cost pricing of Urban Passenger transport in Aensher et al (1996) 385 – 93. Deserpa, A.C (1971) A theory of the Economics of Time; Economic Journal, 18: 828 45. Domberger, S. Hensher, D.A and Wedde, S, (1993) competitive tendering policies in the public and private sectors, Australian journal of public Administration 52/4 (dec), 401 – 11. Defetel, L. (1991): Job evaluation: still at the frontier compensation and benefits Es Review 23/4: 53 – 67.(1989s) Competitive tendering in the Transportation sector, lecture presented at a workshop on competitive Tendering and contracting out, held at the Graduate school of management and public policy University of Sydney 4 Oct, 1988 Economic Papers 8/1 (Mar) 1 – 11. Donold W. Dobler and David N. Burt (1996) Purchasing and supply Management text and cases. Klein B, and Leffler, K. B (1981). The role of market forces in assuring contractual performance; Journal of political Economic 89/4: 615 – 41 Mc Afee, R.P and Ma Millan J. (1987): Auctions and Bidding; journal of Economic literature 25: 699 – 738 Porter, M.E (1990) competitive strategy London: Collier Macmillan (1990) the competitive advantage of nations New York: The free press. Welch J.A and Nayak, P.R (1992): Strategic Sourcing: a progressive approach to Make-or-buy decision Academic of Management Executive, 6: 23 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 30

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 05-07||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Optimal Model of the Multi-Item Transportation With Different Trucks Gao Yunjing, Chen Xiang, Pi Huihuang Zhen Jiang Watercraft College, Zhenjiang, China -------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------------Aimed at the low efficiency of the road transportation, the optimal model with the maximization of the loading capacity rate and the volume capacity rate was established, which is based on the characteristic of the muti-item transportation. KEY WORDS: loading of goods; muti-item; transportation; optimization. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 06 November 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. INTRODUCTION Almost all of the city logistics transportation is completed on the road. This is because, compared with the railway transportation, road transportation can provide more convenient, lower cost and higher levels of distribution service. However, in comparison with other modes of transportation, the road transportation existed a lot of problems such as low loading rate, high cost and so on.In the distribution center, how to make full use of the trucks’ loading weight and capacity under the premise of meeting a variety of loading limitations, can bring great benefits for the enterprise and society. It has a double meaning. From the company's perspective, correct and reasonable arrangements for cargo loading can improve the loading capacity rate, reduce the empty-loaded rate, reduce the damage to the goods, reduce the transportation costs, improve the quality of customer service and economic benefits of the company, finally achieving the scientific management. From the social’s perspective, reasonable loading can improve the utilization rate of trucks, reduce the road occupancy, short the time of transportation. Then the goods will be timely to the customer. Our society will become more and more harmonious.Due to the complexity of its theory and the wide application in real life, the loading problem has attracted a lot of Chinese and foreign scholars to participate and have obtained a more effective progress. For details about loading problem see the paper of Dowland and other scholars [1-4]. These studies have different considerations on weight, volume, center of gravity and other constraints, but did not consider the problem of some goods can not be mixed.According to the number of trucks which will be loaded, the loading problem can be divided into single-truck loading and multi-truck loading. The problem considered in this paper is the multi-truck loading with different models of truck. Given a different kinds and different sizes batch of goods which are to be loaded, the optimal model is set up aimed at the minimum number of trucks. With the volume constraint, weight constraint, some of the goods can not be mixed taken into consideration, and the value of the goods themselves are not taken into account, this model can tell us the suitable number of trucks as well as the quantity and the type of goods loaded on every truck. 1 Assumptions (1) All the goods arrive at the same destination; (2) Any goods can be placed in any type of truck; (3) The extrusion deformation of goods can be ignored; (4) The volume or weight of any good can not exceed the maximum loading capacity of any truck; (5) The total volume or weight of goods which are loaded on the same truck can not be more than the maximum loading capacity of this truck; (6) Some goods can not be mixed, such as food and chemical products. Then we need to consider the quarantine restrictions; Dividing the goods into heavy and light based on their weight. When packing, the heavy goods can be calculated by 80% of the truck loading weight. The light goods can be calculated by 50% of the truck loading weight or 80% of the truck volume, the calculation method in this paper is 50% of the truck loading weight[5]. (8) Tthe same kind of good is best loaded on the same truck. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 5 Optimal Model Of The Multi-Item… II. 2.1 MODELING AND ANALYSIS Symbols assumption Total number of the goods to be loaded Quality of the good i , i  1, 2 ,  , n n mi Volume of the good i , i  1, 2 ,  , n vi Whether good p and good i are mixed or not. r pi r pi  1 means good p and good i can be mixed, otherwise r pi  0 . p , i  1, 2 ,  , n Total number of the trucks can be loaded m G Maximum load of truck j , j  1, 2 ,  , m j Vj Volume of truck j , j  1, 2 ,  , m x ij Decision variable. x ij  1 means good i is loaded into truck Yj  n If  i 1 j , otherwise x ij =0. i  1 , 2 ,  , n , j  1 , 2 ,  , m Depending on the state of x ij . x ij  0 ，then Y j  1 , it means the truck j has been used, otherwise Y j  0 [5] . Truck loading capacity utilization rate, 80% for heavy goods and 50% for light goods. 2.2 Modeling Based on the above assumptions, mathematical model is set up as follows. The optimization objective is to minimize the number of trucks, so the objective function can be expressed as: Y m min j 1 j The model should satisfy the following conditions: (1) Every good must be loaded on one of the trucks.  m j 1 x ij  1 , i  1, 2 ,  , n . (2) The weight of the goods loaded on the same truck can not exceed the maximum loading capacity of this truck.  n i 1 m i x ij   G j , j  1 , 2 ,  , m . (3) The volume of the goods loaded on the same truck can not exceed the volume of this truck.  n i 1 v i x ij  V j , j  1 , 2 ,  , m . (4) x ij  1 means good i is loaded into truck j , otherwise x ij =0. x ij  0 或 1 , i  1 , 2 ,  , n ， j  1 , 2 ,  , m . (5) The loading scheme should satisfy the separation limited of different goods. x ik x jk (1  r ij )  0 , k  1, 2 ,  , m ; i , j  1, 2 ,  , n . (6) The value of Y j depends on the state of x ij .  n If i 1 x ij  0 ，then Y j  1 , otherwise Y j  0 . www.theijes.com The IJES Page 6 Optimal Model Of The Multi-Item… III. LOADING OPTIMIZATION AND SIMULATION EXAMPLE Suppose there is a batch of goods. The weight of goods and the type of trucks are described in the following table. In the case of some kinds of goods cannot be mixed, the requirement is to minimize the number of selected trucks and to make full use of the loading capacity of the truck. Table 1 Types Light goods Table 2 Types 1 2 3 Total weight (t) 3260.0 42.0 170.0 178.0 87.5 7.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 Heavy goods Remarks The heavy goods and the light goods can not be mixed. The type of trucks can be used for loading Long * wide * high (mm) 8830*2100*2480 10155*2490*2870 1968*2438*1219 Table 3 Types Number The weight of goods Loading capacity (kg) 5990 17800 3000 The optimization results 1 25 2 146 3 8 IV. CONCLUSION This paper studies the complex constraints of truck loading optimization problem. Considering the practical constraints, such as truck loading capacity, volume constraint, goods separation constraint and loading utilization, the optimization model was set up, and its feasibility has been proved by an example. It can be directly used in practical application. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Pisinger D. Heuristics for the Container Loading Problem. European Journal of Operational Research, 2002. huang WQ,He K. A Caving Degree Approach for the Single Container Loading Problem. European Journal of Operation Reseach,2009. Xu Tianliang, Liu Xiaoqun. Optimization for the loading of multi-category goods [J]. Huazhong Univ. of Sci. & Tech (Nature Science Edition), 2003, 31. Qin Yunmei, Wang Lingling. Research on optimal model for freight matching [J]. Journal of Guangxi University of Technology, 2007, 18. Du Wen, Li Bing. Scheduling problem of the multi-item transportation with container [J]. China Journal of Highway and Transport, 2003, 16. Huo Jiazhen, Chen Yao. Study on System for Optimizing Multi-Sized Products Loading[J]. Journal of Tongji University (Nature Science),2005,8. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 7

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) || Volume || 2 || Issue || 11 || Pages || 01-06 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Performance Evaluation of a Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine with Jatropha as Fuel 1 R. Ganapathi, 2Dr. B. Durga Prasad, 3B.Omprakash 1 Lecturer, Mech. Engg. Dept, JNTUA College of Engineering, Anantapuramu. Professors, Mech.Engg. Dept, JNTUA College of Engineering, Anantapuramu. 3 Assistant Professor, Mech.Engg. Dept, JNTUA College of Engineering, Anantapuramu. 2 -------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT--------------------------------------------------Increasing industrialization, growing energy demand, limited reserves of the fossil fuels and increasing environmental pollution have jointly necessitated for exploration of some substitute of conventional liquid fuels. Vegetable oils had been considered as one of the appropriate feasible substitute diesel fuel since very early. The vegetable oil based substitute fuels, popularly known as biodiesel, are commercially available in the developed world due to their distinct advantages over conventional diesel fuel. Vegetable oils present very promising alternative fuels to diesel. Properties of these oils compare favourably with characteristics required for C.I.engine fuels. The usage of vegetable oil in an engine depends on the properties of the oil. Jatropha oil properties are almost closer to diesel, particularly cetane rating and heat values. These oils are renewable and are produced easily in rural and forest areas An objective of this work aims to find out suitability of Jatropha oil in an insulated engine. An Air gap liner and PSZ coated head and valves have been used in the present study. Experimental investigations have been carried out to assess the suitability of Jatropha oil as C.I. Engine fuel. Experiments were conducted on the base engine and also in an insulated engine. A solemn attempt has been made in this research to study the usage of Bio-diesel of Jatropha oil in place of diesel so as to study the engine performance. Key Notes: Low heat rejection, Jatropha, alternative fuel. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 20 November 2013 Date of Acceptance: 30 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Jatropha oil is non-edible oil and has a cetane number which is comparable to diesel and makes it an ideal alternative fuel as compared to other edible oils. It is significant to point out that, the non-edible vegetable oil of Jatropha has the requisite potential of providing a promising and commercially viable alternative to diesel to as it has the desirable physicochemical and performance characteristics compared to diesel. Jatropha oil will be a renewable and low capital input alternative to diesel as compared to other sources. It will not require massive infrastructure for its distribution as it has the advantage that it can be produced almost everywhere in India in a decentralized manner. The major problems to use raw oil as bio diesel are its high viscosity, high flash point, high pour point, low volatility. Due to these problems, Jatropha oil is not directly used because these may affect the engine performance which leads to poor fuel atomization and inefficient mixing with air which contributes incomplete combustion, poor cold engine start up, deposit formation, ring sticking and lube oil dilution and degradation. The initial flash point of Jatropha oil is 1100C as compared to 500C in case of diesel. Due to higher flash point Jatropha oil has certain advantages over Petroleum crude lie greater safely during storage, handling and transport. However, the higher flash point may create only initial starting problem of the machine. Similarly, higher viscosity of Jatropha oil could pose problems of smooth flow of oil in fuel supply pipes and nozzles. II. NEED OF THE PRESENT WORK Agricultural and transport sectors are almost Diesel dependent. The transport sector remains the most problem sector as no alternative to petroleum based fuel has been successful so far. The various alternative fuel options researched for Diesel are mainly biogas, producer gas and vegetable oils. India still imports huge quantity of edible oils, therefore, the use of vegetable oils like Jatropha oil has been tried in this research. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 1 Performance Evaluation of a Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine with Jatropha as Fuel III. OBJECTIVE OF THE WORK An objective of this work aims to find out suitability of Jatropha oil in an insulated engine. A solemn attempt has been made in this research to study the usage of vegetable oils in place of Diesel with Jatropha oil in a base engine and in an insulated engine, so as to study the engine performance. IV. FABRICATION OF INSULATED COMPONENTS A detailed study was carried out as a preliminary to the design of the insulated components. The insulated engine components which include Liner, cylinder head and valves are fabricated to constitute the combustion chamber of the low heat rejection engine. There are three major concepts that have been adopted for an adiabatic diesel engine to reduce the heat loss. 4.1 Cylinder Liner Insulation In this case air with its low thermal conductivity was used as the insulating medium. A thin mild steel sleeve was circumscribed over the cast iron liner maintaining a 2mm layer of air in the annular space between the liner and the sleeve. The joints of the sleeve were sealed to prevent seepage of cooling water into the air-gap region. Fig. 1 shows the constructional details of the air gap liner. Insulation of the liner brought about considerable reduction in the heat lost to the cooling water and an increase in overall thermal efficiency of the engine. 4.2 Cylinder Head Insulation Ceramic coating is a simpler method of insulation for cylinder head compared with other methods. The head was insulated by coating the area exposed to the combustion chamber with PSZ. The combustion chamber area f the cylinder head was machined to a depth of 0.5 mm. The surface was then sand blasted to form innumerable pores for ceramic deposition. 4.3 Insulation of Valves The bottom surfaces of the valves were machined to a depth of 0.5mm and coated with PSZ material of equal thickness. With the valves assembled on the cylinder head the area of the combustion chamber was about 90-92% of the total area. V. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS The photographic view of the experimental set up for diesel operation and the instrumentation are shown in Fig.2. The engine used for the experimental investigations was a Kirloskar, single cylinder, four stroke, water cooled, vertical and direct injection diesel engine. This engine can with stand higher pressures encountered and also used extensively in agricultural and industrial sectors. Therefore this engine is selected for carrying experiments. Moreover necessary modifications on the liner and the cylinder head can be easily carried out in this type of engine. Hence this engine is selected for the present work. Exhaust temperature was measured by an iron-constantan thermocouple fitted very near the cylinder head in the exhaust manifold and was measured directly from a mill voltmeter in degree Celsius calibrated for iron-constantan thermocouple. Four gas analyzer, for evaluation of the pollutants in the exhaust gas was attached to the engine. This analyzer was used to measure four important pollutants that is Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon Dioxide (CO 2), un burnt Hydrocarbons (HC) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx).Smoke meter is used to test the characteristics of the smoke. The different characteristic includes opacity, absorptivity. Opacity measures the darkness of the smoke. So with this meter we could measure the intensity of darkness of smoke. At a rated speed of 1500rpm all the variable load tests are conducted. The outlet temperature of the cooling water is maintained at 700C. For all the experiments, the lubrication oil temperature is maintained at 600C. The load on the dynamometer, air flow rate, fuel flow rate, exhaust temperature, manifold pressure, cooling water flow rate, cylinder head and cylinder liner temperatures, HC, CO and smoke readings are noted and recorded after allowing sufficient time for the engine to stabilize. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 2 Performance Evaluation of a Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine with Jatropha as Fuel The experimental set-up is designed to suit the requirements of the present investigations. Experiments were conducted on the standard engine and also in an insulated engine with diesel and jatropha. The engine was operated under no load for the first 20 minutes and for each load the engine was operated long enough to stabilize the condition. All the tests were conducted at the rated speed of 1500 rpm. VI. RESULTS The experimental results obtained for both the conventional engine and partially insulated engine. Also the performance curves (graphs) and heat balance sheets for both conventional engine and semiadiabatic engine are shown. The results obtained for both engines have been compared, analyzed, and discussed in this section. The results obtained from the experiments conducted on 3.68 KW KIRLOSKAR single cylinder, 4-stroke, water cooled conventional diesel engine and semi-adiabatic engine are tabulated and the corresponding graphs are plotted and are shown in Exhibit 1 through Exhibit 6. VII. ANALYSIS & DISCUSSIONS Exhibit 1 shows a plot representing the relation between the brake output. It is clear from the plot that the brake power of the insulated Engine is more than that of the base engine. THIS IS FIG. 2 PHOTOGRAPHIC VIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP Due to less heat rejection in semi-adiabatic engine compared to the conventional engine. The study suggests that the insulation provided on the engine reduces heat losses and in turn the brake thermal efficiency of the engine increases. The plot representing the relation between the Brake Power and the Specific energy consumption is shown in the Exhibit 2. It reveals that the Specific energy consumption is less for insulated engine than that of base engine. This is possible due to high temperature prevailing in the cylinder which increases the combustion efficiency and further leads to the instantaneous high pressure in the chamber. The variation of exhaust smoke intensity (opacity and absorptivity) for different insulated configurations compared to base engine configurations is shown in Exhibit 3 and Exhibit 4. It is clear from the Figures that the pollutants smoke intensity (opacity and absorptivity) were found to be highest in case of Diesel and least in case of insulated configuration. Better oxidation of the soot particles due to higher operating temperatures is the main reason for reduction in smoke levels. And the other reasons may be better combustion in insulated engines. The HC emissions of different insulated configurations are compared in Exhibit 5. The main sources of these emissions in CI engine are lean mixing, burning of lubricating oil, and wall quenching. Because of hotter combustion chamber, HC formation is found to be less in all the insulated engines. The Carbon dioxide emissions of different insulated configurations are compared in Exhibit 6. Because of better and complete combustion in the insulated engines, Carbon dioxide levels are higher for insulated engines. It indicates that the level of Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the exhaust is highest for insulated configuration. Higher Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the exhaust is an indication of complete or better combustion Carbon monoxide levels in the exhaust of base engine and all the insulated configurations are shown in Exhibit 6.Because of better and complete combustion in the insulated engines, CO levels are lower. Lowest CO emissions are observed in the case of insulated configurations compared to part loads, the reduction is more at higher loads. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 3 Performance Evaluation of a Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine with Jatropha as Fuel Due to the insulation of the engine cylinder, the exhaust gas temperatures are bound to be higher in insulated engines. Exhaust temperatures increase with the engine load. The variation of exhaust gas temperature for all the configurations is shown in Exhibit 8.The exhaust temperature changes are shown against the brake power output. The peak pressure variation with respect to the power output is shown in Exhibit 9. The peak pressure is higher for the base engine compared to the insulated configurations. This may be due to the drop in ignition delay and hence reduction in the fuel accumulated during the delay phase of combustion. VIII. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions can be drawn from the processed results of the experimentation.  Insulated engines performed better when compared to base engine with Jatropha  For the insulated configuration (an Air gap liner and PSZ coated head and valves), the brake thermal efficiency improvement is found to be 22% at the full load operation compared with the base engine.  All insulated configurations resulted in a good reduction of smoke emissions.  Insulated configurations have shown reduced HC emission levels, the maximum reduction is observed for the insulated configuration which is around 250 ppm at the full load when compared with the base engine.  As a result of better combustion, insulated configuration with jatropha has shown a significant reduction in the CO emission and is about 0.28% by volume.  Exhaust temperatures are higher in all insulated configurations when compared relatively with the base engine because of insulation of the engine.  From the experimental investigations, it can be concluded that the insulated configuration with Jatropha performs well. REFERENCES: [1.] [2.] [3.] [4.] [5.] [6.] [7.] [8.] [9.] [10.] [11.] [12.] [13.] [14.] [15.] [16.] [17.] [18.] [19.] [20.] A review of thermal barrier coating effects on diesel Engine performance and components lifetime, International Journal of Automotive Engineering Vol. 3, Number 1, March 2013 Analysis of LHR Extended Expansion Engine with Variable Speed Operation for Different Compression Ratios/International Journal Of Advanced Engineering Sciences And Technologies Vol No. 11, Issue No. 1, 121 – 128 Comparative Studies on Exhaust Emissions from a High Grade Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine with Carbureted Alcohol and Crude Jatropha Oil /International Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering (IJSCE) ISSN: 2231-2307, Volume-3, Issue-2, May 2013 22. Experimental Investigation on LHR Extended Expansion DI Diesel Engine Emission Controlling Injection Timing/International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) ISSN: 2277-3878, Volume-1, Issue-6, January 2013 Improving of Emissions and Performance of Rice Brawn Oil in Medium Grade Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine/ International Journal of Renewable Energy Research P.V. K. Murthy et al., Vol.3, No.1, 2013 Investigations into performance and emission characteristics of lHR CI Diesel engine for patchy speed operations/ ISSN: 23198753 International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology Vol. 2, Issue 7, July 2013 Performance and emission characteristics of a low heat rejection spark ignited engine fuelled with E20+ /Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology 26 (4) (2012) 1241~1250 Performance Evaluation of Rice Brawn Oil in Low Grade Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine /RESEARCH INVENTY: International Journal of Engineering and Science ISSN: 2278-4721, Vol. 1, Issue 5 (October 2012), PP 1-12 www.researchinventy.com Performance And Exhaust Emission Analysis Of Direct Injection Diesel Engine Using Pongamia Oil / International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 2, Issue 12, December 2012) 341 Potential of a high grade low heat rejection diesel engine with Crude tobacco seed oil/ International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering Research and Development (IJMPERD) ISSN 2249-6890 Vol. 3, Issue 1, Mar 2013, 61-78. ―Performance and Energy Balance of A low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine Operated with Diesel Fuel and Ethanol Blend‖ Murat Ciniviz, /Transaction of the Canadian society for mechanical engineering, Vol. 34, No.1, 2010. ―A Comparative Evaluation of al2o3 coated low heat rejection diesel engine Performance and Emission characteristics using fuel as rice bran and pongamia Methyl ester‖ M. Mohamed Musthfa,2. S.P.Sivapirakasam and 3. M. Udayakumar Journal of renewable and sustainable energy, 2010. ―Performance studies of a Low heat rejection engine operated on non- volatile Vegetable oils with exhaust gas recirculation‖ N.R. Banapurmath, P.G. Tewari. International journal of sustainable engineering /2009. ―Exhaust emission characteristics of a low heat rejection diesel engine fuelled with 10 Percent ethanol and 90 percent diesel fuel mixture‖ C. hasimoglu/ j. Automobile Engineering. /2007. ―Use of vegetable oils as I.C. engine fuels—A review‖ A.S. Ramadhas et al. / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 727–742. ―Thermal analysis of functionally graded coating Al Si alloy and steel pistons‖ E. Buyukkaya / Surface & Coatings Technology 202 (2008) 3856–3865. ―Experimental investigations of performance and emissions of Karanja oil and its blends in a single cylinder agricultural diesel engine‖Avinash Kumar Agarwal *, K. Rajamanoharan/Applied Energy 86 (2009) 106–112. Goering, C.E. . Schwab, A.W et al., ―Fuel Properties of Eleven Vegetable Oils‖, Trans. ASAE, 25 (4-6), 1982, P.1472-1477. Kusy, P.F., ―Transesterification of Vegetable Oils for Fuels, Proceedings of the International conference on Plant and Vegetable Oils as Fuels‖, Fargo, North Dakota, ASAE, P.127-137, 1982. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 4 Performance Evaluation of a Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine with Jatropha as Fuel [21.] [22.] [23.] [24.] [25.] [26.] [27.] [28.] Pradheepram,O., ―Improving the Efficiency of a Diesel Engine by Minimizing the Heat Losses Through the Cylinder Liner‖, M.S. Thesis, IIT Madras, 1982. Senthil Kumar,M., Ramesh,A., and Nagalingam,B., xperimental Investigations on a Jatropha Oil Methanol Duel Fuel Engine‖, SAE Paper No.2001 – 01-0153. Domingo, N. and Graves R.L.,‖A study of Adiabatic Engine Performance‖,on National Laboratory report under preparation(2003) . Jaichandar,S., . Tamil Porai,P., ―Low Heat Rejection Engines – an Over View‖, SAE Paper No.2003-01-0405. 24. ―Use of vegetable oils as I.C. engine fuels—A review‖ A.S. Ramadhas et al. / Renewable Energy 29 (2004) 727–742. ―Thermal analysis of functionally graded coating Al Si alloy and steel pistons‖ E. Buyukkaya / Surface & Coatings Technology 202 (2008) 3856–3865. ―Experimental investigations of performance and emissions of Karanja oil and its blends in a single cylinder agricultural diesel engine‖ Avinash Kumar Agarwal *, K. Rajamanoharan/Applied Energy 86 (2009) 106–112. ―Effect of injection timing on the exhaust emissions of a diesel engine using diesel–methanol blends‖ Cenk Sayin a, Murat Ilhan b, Mustafa Canakci c,d,*, Metin Gumus a/Renewable Energy 34 (2009) 1261–1269. Exhibit.2 Comparison of Specific Energy Consumption with Power Output Exibt.2 Compression of Specific fuel consumption with power out put www.theijes.com The IJES Page 5 Performance Evaluation of a Low Heat Rejection Diesel Engine with Jatropha as Fuel www.theijes.com The IJES Page 6

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 27-30||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Computer Aided Diagnosis for liver Cancer Feature Extraction Ms.Vincey Jeba Malar.V M.E, Department Of CSE, Adhiymaan College Of Engineering, Hosur. ------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------Liver Cancer is one of the most difficult cancer to cure and the number of deaths that it causes generally increasing. The signs and the symptoms of the liver cancer are not known, till the cancer is in its advanced stage. So, early detection is the main problem. If it is detected earlier then it can be helpful for the Medical treatment to limit the danger, but it is a challenging task due to the Cancer cell structure. Interpretation of Medical image is often difficult and time consuming, even for the experienced Physicians. Most traditional medical diagnosis systems founded needs huge quantity of training data and takes long processing time. Focused on the solution to these problems, a Medical Diagnosis System based on Hidden Markov Model (HMM) can be presented. This paperdescribes a computer aided diagnosis system for liver cancer feature extraction at an early stage from the chest CT images. KEYWORDS: CT image, Segmentation, Morphological operation, Feature Extraction. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------Date of Submission: 19 November 2013 Date of Acceptance: 05 December 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- I. INTRODUCTION Liver cancer, also known as hepatic cancer is a cancer which starts in the liver, and not from another organ which eventually migrates to the liver. In other words, there may be cancers which start from somewhere else and end up in the liver - those are not (primary) liver cancers. Cancers that originate in the liver are known as primary liver cancers.Liver cancer consists of malignant hepatic tumors (growths) in or on the liver. The most common type of liver cancer is hepatocellular carcinoma (or hepatoma or HCC), and it tends to affect males more than females. According to the National Health Service (NHS), UK [3], approximately 1,500 people in the United Kingdom die from HCC each year. The World Health Organization (WHO) [4]says that liver cancer as a cause of death is reported at less than 30 cases per 100,000 people worldwide, with rates in parts of Africa and Eastern Asia being particularly high. Experts say that common causes of HCC are regular high alcohol consumption, having unprotected sex and injecting drugs with shared needles[1],[2]. Signs and symptoms of liver cancer tend not to be felt or noticed until the cancer is well advanced. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) signs and symptoms may include Jaundice , Abdominal pain, Unexplained weight loss, Hepatomegaly , Fatigue, Nausea, Emesis (vomiting), Back pain, General itching, Fever. Liver cancer, if not diagnosed early is much more difficult to get rid of. The only way to know whether you have liver cancer early on is through screening, because you will have no symptoms. High risk people include those with hepatitis C and B, patients with alcohol-related cirrhosis, other alcohol abusers, and those that have cirrhosis as a result of Hemochromatosis. Diagnostic tests may include Blood test, Imaging scans(either an MRI or CT scan) and Biopsy(a small sample of tumor tissue is removed and analyzed). Unfortunately, because symptoms do not appear until the liver cancer is well advanced, currently only a small percentage of patients with HCC can be cured; according to the National Health Service (January 2010) only about 5%. Some of the CAD system uses Support Vector Machine(SVM), Fuzzy Logic, Artificial Neural Network(ANN)algorithm. Their disadvantages are time consumption and needed a lot of data for training. Focused on the solution to the above problem, Hidden Markov Model (HMM) can be presented for getting more advantage. II. PROPOSED METHOD CT scan A computerized axial tomography scan (CT scan or CAT scan) is an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. A CT scan is used to define normal and abnormal structures in the body and/or assist in procedures by helping to accurately guide the placement of instruments or treatments. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 27 Computer Aided Diagnosis For Liver… It is a medical imaging method that employs tomography[11]. Tomography is the process of generating a two-dimensional image of a slice or section through a 3-dimensional object (a tomogram) (Figure 1).CT scans of the abdomen are extremely helpful in defining body organ anatomy, including visualizing the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, aorta, kidneys, uterus, andovaries. Figure 1. Block Diagram of Automatic Liver Cancer Detection CT scans in this area are used to verify the presence or absence of tumors, infection, abnormal anatomy, or changes of the body from trauma. The Original chest CT image is shown (Figure 2). Figure 2. Chest CT image The CT image is Sufficient for analysis for this proposed method. Moreover MRI Scan is very costly and the tissues can’t able to view clearly. But the CT is not so costly but also the tissues can be clearly visible in CT scan. Noise Removal The most important technique for removal of blur in images due to linear motion and also due to vibrations. Normally an image is considered as the collection of information and the occurrence of noises in the image causes degradation in the quality of the images. So the information associated with an image tends to loss or damage. It should be important to restore the image from noises for acquiring m aximum information from images. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 28 Computer Aided Diagnosis For Liver… Since CT images contain more Gaussian noise, a Gaussian filter is used for noise removal. Gaussian filters are a class of linear smoothing filters[10]. The weights are chosen according to the shape of Gaussian function. The Gaussian smoothing filter is a very good filter to remove noise drawn from a normal distribution. Segmentation After the primary noise removal, the segmentation has to be carried out. The goal of the segmentation is to simplify and/or change the representation of an image into something that is more meaningful and easier to analyze. Image segmentation is typically used to locate objects and boundaries (lines, curves, etc.) in images. The segmentation of medical images of soft tissues into regions is a difficult problem because of the large variety of their characteristics[8]. All connected components in the eroded image are labeled and number of connected components is computed. The labeled components are segmented depending on region of interest.Here the region growing techniques is used. This technique is enough for segmented the lung region. Moreover it will take less time. Here from a seed it starts growing. It will compare their neighbor-hood values and grows up. Figure 3. Segmented CT image using Region Growing The segmentation process will result in separating the liver tissue from t he rest of the image and only the liver tissues under examination are considered as the candidate region for detecting tumor in liver portion. Morphological Operation Inorder to smooth the liver boundaries and to retain the original liver shape, the morphological operations have to be carried out. The most basic morphological operations are dilation and erosion. Dilation means adding new pixels to the boundaries of an object in an image. Erosion means removing pixels from the boundaries of an object in an image.The number of pixels added or removed from the object in an image depends on the size and the shape of the structural elements used to process the image. Feature Extraction When the input data to an algorithm is too large to be processed and it is suspected to be notoriously redundant (much data, but not much information) then the input data will be transformed into a reduced representation set of features (also named features vector). Transforming the input data into the set of features is called feature extraction. If the features extracted are carefully chosen it is expected that the features set will extract the relevant information from the input data in order to perf orm the desired task using this reduced representation instead of the full size input[5],[12]. Feature extraction involves simplifying the amount of resources required to describe a large set of data accurately. Analysis with a large number of variables generally requires a large amount of memory and computation power. Figure 4. Feature Extraction Feature extraction is a general term for methods of constructing combinations of the variables to get around these problems while still describing the data with sufficient accuracy. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 29 Computer Aided Diagnosis For Liver… III. CONCLUSION In this paper, a novel method of segmenting the CT images been discussed. This research work carried out by taking 2-D CT images. The proposed work was carried out in 4 phases. In first phase, image acquisition of liver features and the second phase is removal of the noise. Third phase is related to the segmentation of ROI features of liver which can be determined using segmentation algorithm such as region growing approach. Fourth phase is feature extraction, it extract the corresponding liver nodule. In this paper we analyses the result for 2-D images. So early detection of Liver Cancer cells can be highly possible and it reduces the risk as well. This Bio-imaging methods will enhance the proper radiotherapy treatment for Liver Cancer patients. IV. FUTURE SCOPE Our current investigation is to further obtaining a clear identification of Liver Cancer by performing classification for the obtained features. Hidden Markov Model algorithm can be applied for classification. By this process time complexity can be reduced and diagnosis confidence can be increased. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] Cancer Research UK, liver cancer causes, signs and symptoms, http://www.cancer researchuk.org National Cancer Institute, http://www. cancer.gov/cancertopics National Health Service, http://www. cancerresearchuk.org World Health Organization, Liver cancer report, http://www.cancer researchuk.org Anita chaudhary, SonitSukhraj Singh, “Lung Cancer detection on CT images by using Image Processing”, 2012 International Conference on Computing Sciences.featex Blessingh.T.S, VinceyJebaMalar.V, Jenish.T, “CAD system for Lung Cancer using Statistical model and Biomarker”, CIIT International Journal Of Digital Image Processing, Volume 5, No 4, April 2013, ISSN 0974-9691. Clifford Samuel C, Saravanan V, Vimala Devi MR. Lung nodule diagnosis from CT image using Fuzzy Logic. International Conferenceon Computational Intelligence and Multimedia Applications. 2007. Ghahramani Z, Jordan MI. Factorial hidden Markov models. Machine Learning. 1997; 29: 245-273. Y, Niki N, Satoh H, et al. Computer-aided diagnosis for pulmonary nodules based on helical CT images. Compute.Med. Image Graph. 1998; 22 (2): 157-167. Marius George Linguraru, William J. Richbourg, Jianfei Liu, Jeremy M. Watt, VivekPamulapati, Shijun Wang, and Ronald M. Summers, “Tumor Burden Analysis on Computed Tomography by Automated Liver and Tumor Segmentation”, IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging, vol. 31, no. 10, october 2012. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 30

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 10||Pages|| 23-26||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 A Singular Value Decomposition and Wavelet Based Robust Watermarking Scheme N.Tirumala1, B.Veeresh Kumar2, T.Sravanthi 3 1 P.G. Student, Department of Electronics and communication, VBIT college, Andhra Pradesh. Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and communication, VBIT college, Andhra Pradesh. 3 Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and communication, VBIT college, Andhra Pradesh. 2 --------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-------------------------------------------------This paper presents a robust watermarking technique using discrete wavelet transform and Singular Value Decomposition. In proposed method the blue channel of the color host image is selected for embedding watermark because it is more resistant to changes compared to red and green channels, for embedding watermark singular values are used. In this the watermark is embedded into singular values of the host image. They embedded the singular values of the watermark image into the singular values of the host image. The blue channel is decomposed into n levels using discrete wavelet transform because this is an invertible transform and has the property of exact reconstruction and smoothness. This method is shown to be robust against many signal processing operations as well as geometrical attacks. KEY WORDS: Attacks, Copyright Protection, Digital Image Watermarking, Discrete Wavelets Transform, Robust Watermarking, Singular Value Decomposition. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission:. 1 November, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I . INTRODUCTION With the growth of the Internet and the immediate availability of computing resources to everyone, “digitized property” can be reproduced and instantaneously distributed without loss of quality at basically no cost. Until now, intellectual property and value has always been bound to some physical container that could not be easily duplicated, there by guaranteeing that the creator benefits from his work. Clearly, there is business like the music or photography industry that cannot adopt this paradigm since they trade basic content and therefore have to stick with traditional copyright enforcement to guarantee income. As audio, video and other works become available in digital form, it may be that the ease with which perfect copies can be made will lead to large-scale unauthorized copying which will undermine the music, film, book and software publishing industries. The rapid evolution of digital technology makes the development of reliable and robust schemes for protecting digital still images, audio and video from piracy a matter of urgency. The use of digitally formatted image and video information is rapidly increasing with the development of multimedia broadcasting, network databases and electronic publishing. This evolution provides many advantages such as easy, fast and inexpensive duplication of products. However, it also increases the potential for unauthorized distribution of such information, and significantly increases the problems associated with enforcing Copyright protection. II . 2D DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM The 2D DWT is computed by performing low-pass and high pass filtering of the image pixels as shown in Figure 1. In this figure, the low-pass and high-pass filters are denoted by h (n) and g (n), respectively. This figure depicts the one level of the 2D DWT decomposition. At each level, the high-pass filter generates detailed image pixel information, while the low-pass filter produces the coarse approximations of the input image. At the end of each low-pass and high-pass filtering, the outputs are down-sampled by two (↓ 2). In order to compute 2D DWT, 1D DWT is applied twice in both horizontal and vertical dimension. In other words, a 2D DWT can be performed by first performing a 1D DWT on each row, which is referred to as horizontal filtering, of the image followed by a 1D DWT on each column, which is called vertical filtering as shown in figure 1. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 23 A Singular Value Decomposition and Wavelet… Fig.1. One level 2D DWT decomposition of an input image using filtering approach Fig.2. Two level 2D Wavelet based transforms The higher level sub bands are more significant than the lower level sub bands. They contain most of the energy coefficients so embedded in higher level sub bands is providing more robustness. On the other hand lower level sub bands have minor energy coefficients so watermark in these sub bands are defenseless to attacks. The higher level approximation sub band (LL2 sub band) is not suitable for embedding a watermark since it is a low-frequency band that contains important information about an image and easily causes image distortions. In second level, embedding a watermark in the diagonal sub band (HH2 sub band) is also not suitable, since the sub band can easily be eliminated, for example by lossy compression as it has minor energy coefficient. So the middle frequency sub bands (Vertical & Horizontal) of higher level are the best choice for embedding. Further the LH2 sub band has more significant coefficients than the HL2 sub band. III PERFORMANCE EVALUATION Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR): It is the ratio between the maximum possible power of a signal and the power of corrupting noise the affects the fidelity of its representation. It is the most easily defined via the Mean Squared Error (MSE) which for two m x n images I and K where one of the images is considered as a noisy approximation of the other. MSE and PSNR can be estimated below equations. (1) ……… (2) IV PROPOSED WATERMARKING METHOD In embedding process, first separate the R, G & B channels of the color image and the blue channel is selected for the embedding because this channel is more resistant to changes compared to red and green channels and the human eye is less sensitive to the blue channel, a perceptually invisible watermark embedded in the blue channel can contain more energy than a perceptually invisible watermark embedded in the luminance channel of a color image. The blue channel is decomposed into n-level using discrete wavelet transform Let select a bmp image of size 128 x 128 as watermark and convert it into a 1-D vector, for embedding watermark bit 0 & 1 in mid frequency sub bands of higher level decomposition of the channel. Finally reconstruct the watermarked image using inverse discrete wavelet transform. Now calculate the Mean Squared Error & Peak Signal to Noise Ratio between original host image and watermarked image to evaluate the perceptual Similarity between these two images by using equation 1 & 2. In extraction process the end user separates the R, G & B channels of the watermarked image. The blue channel is decomposed into n-level using discrete wavelet transform. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 24 A Singular Value Decomposition and Wavelet… V SINGULAR VALUE DECOMPOSITION SVD is a Mathematical tool used to analyze matrices. In this a square matrix is decomposed into three matrices of same size. A real matrix A of size NxN can be decomposed into a product of three matrices. A= USVT Where U and V are left singular and right singulars vectors of A and S is diagonal matrix. For calculating singular values, we need to find DET of the matrix, Eigen values, Eigen vectors and inverse transform after that we can get the singular values. SVD is having so many properties like Orthogonal matrices, Scaling property, The Stability of singular values, Rotation and translation invariance. VI EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Baby.jpg color image of size 256X256 is selected as a host and best.bmp bitmap image of size 128X128 is chosen as a watermark. Figure 3 shows the original host image & l-Level decomposed blue channel using discrete wavelet transform. In Figure 4 host image, watermark, watermarked and extracted watermark on the receiver side is shown. Fig.3. Original host image & decomposed blue channel using wavelet transform Fig.4. Original host image, original watermark, watermarked image and extracted watermark Fig.5 shows watermarked image at a different embedding factors for (a) α =0.1, MSE=0.0023,PSNR=74.4430. (b) α =0.5, MSE= 0.0224, PSNR=64.6298. (c) α =0.01, MSE= 2.3376, PSNR=94.4430. The performance of the proposed method is tested by applying different geometric and image processing attacks, such as salt and pepper noise, Random noise, Rotation, Additive Gaussian noise, Gamma, Blurring and Motion Blurring attack. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 25 A Singular Value Decomposition and Wavelet… Table1. Shows the different attacks performed in this paper. Attack Blurring Salt & Pepper Random Noise AWGN Motion blurring Rotation Gamma PSNR 78.6082 78.4430 76.5514 78.3875 74.4430 76.5514 94.4430 VII. CONCLUSION In this paper a new robust watermarking technique for copyright protection has been proposed. We applied the singular value decomposition along with the Discrete Wavelet Transform. Since the technique utilizes the properties of both DWT and SVD the proposed technique is more robust against different attacks. The innovation of this paper is that the security of the algorithm is increased with the on the watermark image. The robustness of the technique is justified by giving analysis of the effect of attacks and still we are able to get good visual quality of the embedded watermark. The performance of the proposed method is tested by applying different geometric and image processing attacks, such as salt and pepper noise, Random noise, Rotation, Additive Gaussian noise, Blurring and Motion Blurring attack. The proposed method, with stands for all these attacks. Future Scope: The watermark embedding scheme can be extended to include encrypted watermarks. Watermark extraction algorithm can be extracted to perform watermark validation automatically. Suitable feature extraction & matching techniques have to be explored. In case of the progressive image transmission the schemes for optimizing the data for each phase needs to be studied. The phase wise data compression & decompression schemes need to be evaluated. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] C.Venkata Narsimhulu and K.Satya Prasad, “A hybrid watermarking scheme using contourlet transform and singular value decomposition”, IJCSNS International Journal of Network security, VOL.10 No.9, September 2010. Ibrahim Nasir, Ying Weng and Jianmin Jiang, “New Robust Watermarking Scheme for color image in spatial Domain”, University of Bradford, UK. Gonzalez, F.P., and J.R., Hernandez, 1998. “A tutorial on digital Watermarking”, Tech. Rep., University of Vigo, Spain. J. J. K. Ó Ruanaidh, W. J. Dowling, and F. M. Boland, “Watermarking digital images for copyright protection,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vision, Image and Signal Processing, vol. 143, pp. 250–256, Aug. 1996. R. B. Wolfgang and E. J. Delp, “A watermark for digital images,” in Proc. 1996 Int. Conference on Image Processing, Lausanne, Switzerland, Sept. 1996, vol. 3, pp. 219–222. S. Kay and E. Izquierdo, “Robust content based image watermarking,” in Proc. Workshop on Image Analysis for Multimedia Interactive Services, WIAMIS’ 2001, Tampere, Finland, May 2001. I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, F. T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum watermarking for multimedia,” IEEE Trans. Image Processing, vol. 6, pp. 1673–1687, Dec. 1997. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 26

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 19-26||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Investigating The Effects Of Selected Heavy Metals On Topsoil At The Vicinities Of Two Automobile Mechanic Villages, Owerri Municipal,Nigeria 1, Okoro , A.C, 2,Chukwuma, G.O, 3,Chukwuma, E. C and 4,Nwachukwu , 5, C.Ezeh, K.A. 1,2,3,4,5, Department of Agric and Bioresources Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. -----------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT----------------------------------------------------The increased persistence of farming activities within mechanic villages poses health risk to the consumers of these agricultural produce. Studies on heavy metal contamination of top soils at the vicinities of two automechanic villages was aimed at determining the concentrations of heavy metals, at the top soils of Nekede and Orji automobile mechanic villages located at Owerri municipal, Nigeria. The Soil samples were analyzed for selected heavy metals contamination namely: Cd, Cu, Pb and Cr. Soil samples were obtained in triplicates at the top soil 0-20, 20-40 and 40-60cm depths. The Overall, values of Cd, Cu, Pb and Cr in the workshop soil samples ranged from 8.83 to 18.67; 191.00 to 590.00; 693.33 to 2917.30 and 5.42 to 26.82 mg.kg-1respectively; they decreased with an increase in depth in the two auto-mechanic villages when compared to the established intervention, target and allowable limits set for soils in Nigeria and some countries, the contamination of top soils at the two automobile mechanic villages were clearly higher in most cases. The soil pH was slightly acidic and alkaline ranging from 5.24 to 7.27. For soil particle size, the distribution of sand fraction was highest followed by clay and then silt. The recommendations of the study included enacting laws prohibiting indiscriminate dumping of refuse at the workshops; execution of some form of phyto-remediation measures at the village and enforcement of other environmental protection regulations as it affects farming within mechanic villages to arrest the ongoing buildup of these metals at the top soils in those locations. KEY WORDS: Soil, Contamination, Heavy Metal, Automobile mechanic, Nigeria. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 29 October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 05 December 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I. INTRODUCTION Imo State has a total of three mechanic villages located at Nekede with an area of 550,362m2, Orji 408,725m2 and Okigwe 299,462m2 of land (Nwachukwu et al., 2011). Nekede and Orji mechanic villages started with few workshops which have grown into many more shops. Activities conducted at the mechanic villages are typical of auto-mechanic repairs and invariably involves working with and spilling of oils, grease, petrol, battery electrolyte, paints and other materials which contain heavy metals unto bare soil. Heavy metals are chemical elements mostly with density greater than 4g/cm3 found in all kinds of soil, rock and water in terrestrial and fresh water ecosystem. The very low general level of their content in soils and plants as well as the definite biological roles of most of them made them microelements (Lacatusu, 1998). Heavy metal contamination of urban topsoil has been of major concern regarding their toxicity, persistence and non-degradability in the environment [Mellor and Bevon, (1999); Al-Chalabi and Hawker, (2000); Onianwa,(2001)]. Adverse effects of elevated concentrations of heavy metals to soil functions, soil microbial community composition and microbial growth have long been recognized under both field and laboratory conditions (Tyler et al., 1989).Heavy metal contamination of urban topsoil usually derives from anthropogenic sources such as emissions from automobile exhaust, waste incineration, land disposal of wastes, use of agricultural inputs, emissions from industrial processes and wet or dry atmospheric deposits [Onianwa et al., (2001); Zhenli et al., (2005)]. There has been little attention given to vicinities of automobile-workshops, which are also liable to pollution arising from gasoline combustion exhausts, lubricating oil spills, and other chemical inputs to automobile operations. In Nigeria, pollution problems associated with incidents of oils spills around automobilerepair workshops, resulting in metal contamination of topsoil, have been the subject of many reports [Onianwa et al., (2001); Osibanjo et al.,(1983); Oyindo and Agboola (1983)]. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 19 Investigating The Effects Of Selected Heavy Metals… Since the activity of auto-mechanics is one of the major routes for entry of heavy metals into the environment to cause heavy metal contamination of soil and drinking wells and crops, monitoring heavy metal contamination of soils is therefore necessary. This paper is aimed at determining top soil contamination by heavy metals at the vicinities of automobile mechanic villages at Orji and Nekede, Owerri Municipal, Imo State. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS 1.2.1 Study Area Study areas  Orji  Nekede Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing Imo state and the study area (Nwachukwu et al., 2010) Table 1: General Information on the mechanic villages studied S/n Site Area Location (L.G.A) Year Established 1 A NEKEDE OWERRI WEST 1983 2 B ORJI OWERRI NORTH 1987 L.G.A: LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA. 1.2.2Soil Sampling Random samples of the mechanic village were taken. Three samples were collected each at Nekede and Orji at the depth of 0-20, 20-40 and 40-60cm.The topsoil was denoted by T(0-20cm) while the deep soils were denoted by D1(20-40cm) and D2(40-60cm). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 20 Investigating The Effects Of Selected Heavy Metals… A green uncontaminated site at the Ministry of Agriculture was used as a control. These samples were collected using a soil auger. Each sample was immediately placed in a fresh plastic bag and tightly sealed. All samples were transported to the laboratory where analytical procedure commenced immediately. The samples were collected by October 2012. 1.2.3 Heavy Metal Analysis. The soil was spread on a clean plastic sheet placed on a flat surface and air dried in open air in the laboratory under room conditions for 24 hours. Afterwards the soil was sieved on a 2mm sieve and 5gram of sample was taken from the sieved soil and put in a beaker 10ml of nitric acid 2:1 was added to the samples for digestion. Next HCl and distilled water ratio 1:1 were added to the digested sample and the mixture transferred to the digester again for 30minutes. The digestate were then removed from the digester and allowed to cool to room temperature. The cool digestate was washed into a standard volumetric flask and was made up to the mark with distilled water. Determination of heavy metal concentration was done in an atomic adsorption spectrophotometer (AAS Model 210 VGP) after calibrating the equipment with different standard concentrations. The pH was determined by an electronic Jenway glass electrode pH meter (Model 3510). Particle size will be determined by the hydrometer method using sodium hexametaphosphate as the dispersant (Bouyoucous, 1962).The results were analyzed using the GenStat statistical package. ANOVA was used to determine differences between treatment means and were separated using the Duncans new multiple range test (DNMRT) at 5% level of significance. 1.2.4 Contamination Factor and Pollution Load Index To assess the extent of contamination of heavy metals in soils and to provide a measure of the degree of overall contamination in a particular soil, contamination factor and pollution load index has been applied (Hakanson,1980). The contamination Factor (CF) parameter is expressed as: CF = Cmetal / Cbackground ……………………………………...equation (i) Where; CF = contamination factor, Cmetal = concentration of pollutant in sediment Cbackground = background value for the metal. The CF reflects the metal enrichment in the sediment. The geochemical background values in continental crust averages of the trace metals under consideration reported by Taylor and McLennan (1985) was used as background values for the metal. The CF was classified into four groups (Mmolawa et al., 2011). Where the contamination factor CF < 1 refers to low contamination; 1 ≤ CF ≤ 3 means moderate contamination; 3 ≤ CF ≤ 6 indicates considerable contamination and CF > 6 indicates very high contamination. The pollution load index at the study area also was evaluated for the extent of metal pollution by employing the method based on the pollution load index (PLI) developed by Thomilson et al., (1980) as follows: PLI = n√ (CF1 × CF2 × CF3 × ........ CFn) ………………………….equation (ii) Where; n = number of metals studied (five in this study) and CF = contamination factor calculated as described in an earlier equation. The PLI provides simple but comparative means for assessing a site pollution quality, where a value of PLI< 1 denote perfection; PLI = 1 represent that only baseline levels of pollutants are present and PLI>1 would indicate deterioration of site quality (Thomilson et al., 1980). III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. The results as presented in table 2, showed the concentration of Copper, Lead, Cadmium and Chromium at locations A, B and control. Lead(Pb) was highest in topsoil contamination with Cadmium(Cd) least in the two auto-mechanic villages in Owerri. Their order of abundance were Pb>Cu>Cr>Cd. There was a significant difference for the elements at p < 0.05 at locations A and B except the control. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 21 Investigating The Effects Of Selected Heavy Metals… Table 2: Heavy metal content of two auto-mechanic villages in Owerri. Imo State. Depth(cm) Parameter(Mg.kg-1) Control A B SE T(0-20) Cu Pb Cd Cr 40.00b 0.24b 0.08b 0.03b 498.00a 2917.30a 18.67a 26.82a 590.00a 2332.70a 18.34a 23.43a 91.17 479.35 311.86 4.32 D1(20-40) Cu Pb Cd Cr 16.00b 0.18b 0.30b 0.03b 378.33a 1719.30a 11.62a 12.83a 405.00a 1340.70a 11.14a 10.05a 66.77 303.49 192.11 2.02 D2(40-60) Cu Pb Cd Cr 13.00b 0.05b 0.16b 0.05c 285.00a 1134.00a 8.85a 7.80a 191.00ab 693.33a 8.83a 5.42b 48.38 181.54 151.31 1.19 Values are means of three measurements. a, b – means at the same row with different superscripts are significantly different at p<0.05; A- Nekede; B- Orji; SE- Standard error; Cu- Copper; Pb- Lead; CdCadmium; Cr- Chromium. Table 3: Soil PH in two auto-mechanic villages in Owerri, Imo State. Depth(cm) A B Control SE T(0-20) 7.27ab 6.20b 8.27a 0.38 D1(20-40) D2(40-60) 5.14c 5.31b 6.50b 6.42a 8.70a 7.27a 0.55 0.32 Table 4:Textural composition of two auto-mechanic villages in Owerri, Imo State Depth(cm) Parameter(%) Control A B SE T(0-20) Sand Silt Clay 82.00 5.67 13.00 74.67 5.00 13.00 81.33 6.33 19.00 2.08 0.47 2.17 D1(20-40) Sand Silt Clay 78.00a 7.33 15.33b 68.67b 5.00 17.00a 77.33a 5.00 26.00b 1.62 0.62 1.90 D2(40-60) Sand Silt Clay 62.33b 7.00b 17.33 63.33b 20.67a 17.67 75.67a 9.33b 26.33 2.61 2.22 2.14 Values are means of three measurements. a, b – means at the same row with different superscripts are significantly different at p<0.05; A- Nekede; B- Orji; SE- Standard error Table 5: Target and intervention values for some metals for a standard soil. Metal Target value (mg.kg-1) Intervention value(mg.kg-1) Ni Cu Cd Pb As Hg 140.00 0.30 100.00 35.00 200.00 85.00 720.00 10.00 380.00 210.00 625.00 530.00 (DPR-EGASPIN, 2002) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 22 Investigating The Effects Of Selected Heavy Metals… Soil pH was significance at P < 0.05 for locations A and control sites, whereas B had no significance (table 3). Soil pH at A was highest at the top soil T(0-20cm) and decreased with an increasing depth at the deep soils D1(20-40cm) and D2(40-60cm), while at B it was least at the top soilT(0-20cm). It increased and later decreased with depth. From table 3, 82.00% and 74.67% were recorded as the highest values of sand at the top soil T(0-20cm) for A and B respectively. Silt was least at the top soil T(0-20cm) for locations A and B with the values 5.00% and 6.33%. Clay known to affect the concentration of heavy metal in the soil had their least values at the top soil T(0-20cm) 13.00% and 19.00% for locations A and B respectively. Sand decreased with an increase with depth while silt and clay generally increased with an increase with depth. The highest values of Cu measured at locations A and B (table 2) were within the top soil T(0-20cm) when compared to the deep soils at D1(20-40cm) and D2(40-60cm). These values were several times higher than the target and intervention values in a standard soil (Table 5) and the toxic limit of 250mg.kg-1 set by USEPA (1986) for agricultural soils. It was also high when compared to the control values at the top and deep soils (table 2). Concentrations of Cu were high in the mechanic workshops under low clay composition in the soils of A and B. It had also been demonstrated that clay is an important parameter for predicting the exchange capacity of soil (Kadeba,1978), the higher the clay content the more the exchange capacity of the soil. Elevated levels of copper on the top soil of the auto-mechanic locations may also be traceable to high use of copper conductors and wires, tubes, solders and myriads of other maintenance items made from copper. According to Alloway (1990) and Lenntech (2009) when copper ends up in soils, it strongly attaches to organic matter and minerals. As a result, it does not travel very far after release. Perhaps this explains why in this study, the highest values of copper recorded in most of the locations were at the top soil T(0 to 20cm) depth (figure 2). As a result of this limited mobility, applied copper tends to accumulate www.theijes.com The IJES Page 23 Investigating The Effects Of Selected Heavy Metals… in soil (Slooff et al., 1989). On copper rich soils, only a limited number of plants have a chance of survival. In surface water, copper can travel great distances, either suspended on dust particles or as free ions. Soil types have finite holding capacities for copper ions, and leaching can occur when the copper levels applied exceed this capacity (Adriano, 1986).When the values of lead (Pb) (table 2) at the top soils T(0-20cm) were compared to values for the target and intervention limits of heavy metals concentrations in a standard soil(table 5), it showed a clear increase in heavy metal contamination of top soils (figure 3). These values were also above the range (30-300mg.kg-1) set by USEPA(1986) described as toxic to agricultural soils. The control values did not exceed the standard limits set by other countries (table 2), implying that high levels of lead(Pb) contamination of soil at A and B are basically from the activities at the auto-mechanic villages. Higher values of Pb was recorded at the topsoil T(0 to 20cm) for locations A and B than at the deep soils D1(20-40cm) and D2(40 to 60cm) which corroborates with the observed high retention of Pb in the top soil by Davies (1995) who stated that Pb is especially prone to accumulate in the surface horizons of soil because of its low water solubility resulting in very low mobility. Adelekan and Abegunde (2011) reported higher soil retention of lead (15,000Mg.kg-1) at 30 to 45cm depth compared to that recorded at the top layer. Adie and Osibanjo (2009) found a range of 243 to 126,000 mg.kg-1in soils from the premises of a battery manufacturing plant. Nwoko and Egunjobi (2002) found Pb concentrations which were described as being highly elevated in soil and vegetation in an abandoned battery factory site, which was as a result of local Gold miners, who mine and process Gold within the village thereby putting the villagers at risk. When the values of cadmium (Cd) (table 2) at the top soils T(0-20cm) were compared to values for the target and intervention limits of heavy metals concentrations in a standard soil(table 5), it showed a poor concentration of Cadmium at the two auto-mechanic sites. Almost all the values for locations A, B and control were below the range set by (MAFF,1992 and USEPA,1986) permissible for agricultural soils. Cadmium was relatively same at locations A and B, decreasing with an increasing depth (figure 4). Nwachukwu et al., (2010) reported a result in consonance with that obtained from this work. Higher levels of measured Cd at the topsoils of the auto-mobile mechanic villages may be because Cadmium is a “modern metal” been used increasingly in corrosion prevention (Alloway, 1990). Mostly, It is often used instead of zinc for galvanizing iron and steel (Tucker et al., 2003).This may suggest a high level of Cd deposits on the soil when these iron metals are weak. Also, low pH generally increases mobility of heavy metals and table 3 showed a high pH value across the study areas, implying low mobility for Cd. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 24 Investigating The Effects Of Selected Heavy Metals… Locations A and B have their values of Cr higher at the top soil T(0-20cm) than at the deep soil D1(20-40cm) and D2(40-60cm)(table2). The value of Chromium (Cr) at the top soilT(0-20cm) was within the target and intervention limit set for a standard soil(table 5) while those of the deep soil D1(20-40cm) and D2(4060cm) were below these standards. The value of chromium decreased with an increase in depth (figure 5). However, the maximum value measured is below the limit of 750mg.kg-1 set by the CCME (2009) for agricultural soils. Top soil values for Cr in locations A and B were low. This implies that Cr do not contaminate top soils at the two automobile mechanic villages. Chromium is one of those heavy metals with high environmental concentration which is steadily increasing due to industrial growth, especially the development of metal, chemical and tanning industries. Contamination factor (CF) and pollution load index (PLI) of heavy metals The contamination Factor (CF) for each heavy metal at various depths and PLI values for each depth of the study site was calculated as in Table 5 below: Table 6: Contamination Factor (CF) and Pollution Load Index (PLI) of heavy metals at Nekede Orji and mechanic villages. depth 0-20cm depth PLI Cu Pb CF Cd Cr Fe 21.65 18233.13 103.72 670.50 34.73 248.80 16.45 10745.63 64.56 320.75 12.64 135.85 12.39 7087.50 49.17 195.00 5.10 84.45 20-40cm depth 40-60cm depth The CF values which suffered considerable enrichment for all the heavy metals assessed decreasing with an increase in depth. The order of contamination at the top soil T(0-20cm) depth was Pb>Cr>Cd>Cu while at the deep soil D1(20-40) and D2(40-60cm) it followed the trend Pb>Cr>Cd>Cu. The pollution load index values as calculated were all above „1‟ implying an urgent need for an intervention checking disposal culture and farming activities at the study areas. The values decreased with an increase in depth thereby endangering farming activities as the top soils known to contain lots of nutrient is contaminated around the mechanic village. 1.4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The high level of heavy metals at the top soils in Orji and Nekede mechanic villages pose health risks to inhabitants of these mechanic villages that engages in backyard farming. This also raises significant environmental concern on the level of soil contamination which can be easily drained to nearby water sources used for portable uses at the study area. This may extend to nearby farmlands if measures to control the activities that increase the concentration of heavy metals at these sites are not implemented. It was also obvious that while lead(Pb) and Copper(Cu) were in excess, Cadmium(Cd) and Chromium (Cr) were either within or lower than permissible limits set for agricultural soils. It is therefore pertinent to recommend as follows: [1] Strict adherence to proper disposal of auto-mechanic wastes should be ensured. [2] Strict compliance to regulatory limits in sludge to be released from these villages into the environment is recommended. [3] The suggested phyto-remediation measures of soil should also as a matter of urgency started at these locations. [4] Keeping the auto-mechanics abreast of the information on the level of soil contamination by heavy metals always is recommended. [5] Seminars should be conducted for farmers living within these areas on the need to refrain from planting around mechanic villages as the top soils are highly contaminated by heavy metals. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] Adelekan, B.A. and Abegunde,K.D.(2011).”Heavy metals contamination of soil and groundwater at automobile mechanic village in Ibadan, Nigeria. International Journal of the physical Science. 6(5):1045-1058.. Adie, G.U. and Osibanjo,O. (2009). Assessment of soil polution by slag from an automobile battery manufacturing plant in Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science.3(9):239-250 Adriano, D.C. (1986). Trace elements in the terrestrial environment. Springer Verlag, New York. Al-Chalabi, A.; Hawker, D.(2000). Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 118, 299. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 25 Investigating The Effects Of Selected Heavy Metals… [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] Alloway, B.J. (1990). Soil processes and the behaviour of metals. In: Heavy metalsin soils, B.J.Alloway, ed. Blackie and Son Ltd. Glasgow. Bouyoucous, G. J. (1962). Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analysis of soil, Agro. (54) :464. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, CCCME (2009). Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for the Environment and Human Health: Summary Tables. In CanadiaEnvironment Quality Guidelines.Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg. Davies, B.E. (1995). Lead. In, Heavy Metals in Soils, Second Edition (BJ Alloway, ed.). Blackie, New York. 206-223. DPR-EGASPIN, (2002). Environmental guidelines and standards for the petroleum industry Nigeria (EGASPIN) Department of petroleum industry in Nigeria. European Commission Director General. Hakanson, L. (1980). Ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control.A sedimentological approach. Water Res.14(5):9751001 Kadeba, O (1978). Nutritional aspect of afforestation with exotic tree species in the savannaregion of Nigeria. Commonwealth Forest Res.57: 191-199. Lacatusu,R.(1998). Appraising levels of soil contamination and pollution with heavy metals. In: Land information system for planning the sustainable use of land Resources. Herinike,H.J, Eckelman,W. Thomasson,A.J, Jones,R.J.A., Montanarella,L. Burkley,B(Eds). Eur. Communities, Luxembourg. 393-402 Lenntech, W. (2009). Chemical Properties, Health and Environmental Effects of Copper. Lenntech Water Treatment and Purification Holding B.V. www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cu.htm. Mellor, A.(1999). Bevan, J.R. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 112, 327. Nwachukwu,M.A., Huan,F. and Kennedy,A. (2010). Integrated study for automobile wastes management and environmentally friendly mechanic villages in the Imo River, Basin, Nigeria. African Journal of Environ sci. 4(4):234-249. Nwoko,C.O. and Egunobi,J.K(2002). Land contamination of soil and vegetation in an abandoned battery factory site in Ibadan, Nigerian Journal of Sustainnable Agricultural Environment. 4(1):91-96. Onianwa,P.C. (2001). Roadside Topsoil Concentrations of Lead and other Heavy Metals in Ibadan, Nigeria soil sediment contamin., 577-591. Oyindo, C.O.; Agboola, E.A.(1983). Proceeding of the International Seminar on the Petroleum Industry and the Nigerian Environment, 67. Osibanjo, O.; Abumere, S; Akintola, F.(1983) Field survey on environmental sector plan for Nigeria 1983-2000, Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation: Lagos. Slooff, W. Clevan, R.F., Janus, J.A. and Ros, J.P.M. (1989). Integrated Criteria DocumenCopper. Report No. 758474009. National Institute of Public Health andEnvironmental Protection, Bilthoven, Netherlands. Taylor, S.R. and McLennan, S.M. (1985).“The Continental Crust:Composition and Evolution” Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford Thomilson, D.C. Wilson,D.J., Harris, C.R. and Jeffrey,D.W.(1980).“Problem in heavy metals in estuaries and the formation of pollution index” Helgol WissMeeresunlter. 33(1–4):566–575. Tucker, R.M., H.D. Hardy, and C.E. Stokes. (2003). “Heavy Metals in NorthCarolina Soils”. Journal of Environmental Science. (9):45-60. Tyler, G.; Balsberg-Pahlsson, A.M.; Bongtsson, G.; Baath, E; Tranvik, L. (1989).Water, Air and Soil Pollution. 47, 189. USEPA,1986. Test methods of evaluation of solid waste visser,WJF (1993), contaminated land policies in some Industrial Countries. TCB report R02.UK.38-41. MAFF,1992.Code of good agricultural practice for the protection of air. MAFF, London, UK. 87-153 Zhenli, L.He.; Xiaoe, E.T.; Peter, J.S. J. (2005). Trace Elements Med. Biol. 19, 125. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 26

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 77-81||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 The Role of Computer Technology in Mechanical Engineering Education in Kenyan Universities Ogur, E. O 1 . and Ogola, W. O 1 . 1,2 ,Department of Mechanical & Mechatronic Engineering, Kenya Polytechnic University College, P.O. Box 52428 – 00200, Nairobi -------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT--------------------------------------------------This paper examines the extent of exposure of mechanical engineering students in two Kenyan universities and colleges of technology to engineering computer application programmes. In view of this, a survey study was adopted, two research questions were raised and a null hypothesis formulated. The population of the study consisted of 225 final year engineering students from two leading Kenyan universities of technology that offer mechanical engineering education programme. The findings of the study indicate a relationship between engineering computer application programmes and engineering education programmes in Kenyan universities. The study also reveals a significant difference between the exposure of engineering students to engineering computer application programmes and the expected exposure in Kenyan universities. To address these deficiencies revealed by the study, the researcher recommended among others the expansion of the curriculum of engineering education programmes to include courses like introduction to Computer Aided Design using 3-D modelling software, introduction to programming languages like Matlab or MathCAD and introduction to finite element modelling packages for numerically solving a wide variety of mechanical engineering problems. KEYWORDS: Computer aided design, programming, finite element modelling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 28 March 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I. INTRODUCTION Recent developments in Mechanical Engineering have been paralleled by the development of the computer as an important adjunct to the modern engineer. The relationship between Mechanical Engineering practice and computational problem solving techniques already has been considerable, but the full impact of computers on Mechanical Engineering education is very vast. The rapidly enlarging capabilities of computers have already enlarged the scope of practical and theoretical problems which confront the Mechanical Engineer. These capabilities constitute the computer technology with which graduating Mechanical Engineers must be familiar. What impact does the computer have on the educational process? The effectiveness of engineering teaching is in part related to the understanding and utilization of principles of learning by the teaching staff. Curriculum planners must therefore give serious consideration to what, how much, and where instruction in computational problem solving techniques is to fit into the Mechanical Engineering curriculum [1]. 1.1 Statement of Problem Interactions with the graduates of mechanical engineering education from Kenyan universities and colleges that offer mechanical engineering programmes reveal that the graduates of mechanical engineering in this era of advanced computer software technologies are missing out on opportunities to develop soft skills that will enable them to design and simulate manufacturing processes and operations. This is as a result of their inadequate exposure to the practical application and use of advanced computer aided engineering technologies such as computer simulation analysis packages. 1.2 Objectives of the study The objectives of the study are to: (i) determine the relevance of computer aided engineering application packages (Matlab, MathCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, Moldflow and SolidWorks) for the mechanical engineering education programme in Kenyan universities and colleges. (ii) determine the extent to which university mechanical engineering students are exposed to practical application of Matlab, MathCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, Moldflow and SolidWorks. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 77 The Role Of Computer Technology... 1.3 Research Questions Based on the above stated specific objectives of the study, the following research questions were raised:(i) How relevant are computer application packages such as Matlab, MathCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, Moldflow and SolidWorks to mechanical engineering students in Kenyan universities and colleges. (ii) To what extent are the engineering students in Kenyan universities exposed to Matlab, MathCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, Moldflow and SolidWorks? Null Hypothesis:  There is no significant relationship between mechanical engineering education programme in Kenyan universities/ colleges and computer aided engineering problem solving techniques. 1.4 Significance of the Study The findings of this study would be significant to curriculum designers to expand the curriculum of mechanical engineering education programme in Kenyan universities and colleges to include the study of computer aided engineering packages and other related simulation analysis software that are relevant to mechanical engineering students. The mechanical engineering students too would be adequately exposed to the practical applications of advanced engineering software for numerically solving a wide variety of mechanical engineering problems It is understood that this early exposure to computers affords the student a structure for building their own perception and gaining useful experience in determining those areas in which computers may have immediate application [2]. II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study was conducted using the following research methods: 2.1 Research Design. The survey research design was adapted for this study since the study required the use of a questionnaire to collect data from the sampled population. 2.1.1 Population for the Study The population for the study was 225. This consisted of 225 final year engineering students from the department of Mechanical engineering. The choice of final year engineering students was based on the researcher’s assumption that the graduating students were expected to have adequate exposure to computer aided engineering problem solving techniques. 2.1.2 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure The sample size of the respondents for questionnaire distribution is computed using the formula as follows [3]: n N 1  N (e) 2 Where: N = Study population e = Marginal error n = Sample size Now, computing the sample size at 95% confidence level (i.e. e = 0.05), we have: n Therefore, 144 questionnaires were administered. III. 225 1  225 (0.05 2 ) n  144 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The number of the questionnaires completed and returned by our respondents totalled 144, which represents 100% of the total number of questionnaires administered. The questions and responses on them are presented in the table 1 below: www.theijes.com The IJES Page 78 The Role Of Computer Technology... Table 1: Contingency Table of the Responses of our Respondents Strongly Agree (5) Questions Q1. How relevant are computer programming and engineering computational methods? Q2. How irrelevant are computer programming and engineering computational methods? Q3. Are computer programming and engineering computational methods relevant for teaching of mechanical engineering education in university? Q4. Are computer programming and engineering computational methods taught in your university/college? Q5. Are MathCAD, Matlab, AutoCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics taught in your university? Q6. Are Finite Element Modelling and Computational Fluid Dynamics courses taught in your university? Q7. Do you have access to computers for practical training in your university/college? Q8. Have at least 3 credit hours been allocated in your university/college for computer programming and engineering computational methods? Q9. Do you possess the ability to use computers to solve engineering problems? Total Responses Undecid Agree ed (4) (3) Disagree (2) Strongl y Disagre e (1) 132 12 144 21 3 123 18 27 108 9 18 117 3 3 3 144 6 12 27 84 15 144 15 117 9 3 21 111 12 24 54 63 3 387 552 141 165 18 72 30 144 3 144 144 144 144 144 51 After testing the hypothesis using Chi-Square (χ2), the value obtained for the calculated value of  0.95 2 as Tot al  Calc 2  0.95 2 , 129 6  Calc 2 is 1632.0742, while the critical value at 5% significance level and a degree of freedom of 32 gives the value of 46.2. Since the calculated value of is greater than the critical value of the study therefore rejects the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between mechanical engineering education programme in Kenyan universities/ colleges and computer aided engineering problem solving techniques. IV. RESEARCH QUESTION ONE How relevant are the computer application packages like Matlab, MathCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, Moldflow and SolidWorks to mechanical engineering students in Kenyan universities?Questionnaire item 1 dealt with the relevance of computer programming and engineering computational methods in mechanical engineering education programme in Kenyan universities. On the whole, 144 respondents, representing 100% of the total respondents to item 1, affirmed that computer programming and engineering computational methods are very relevant. Questionnaire item 2 sought to find whether computer programming and engineering computational methods are not relevant to mechanical engineering education programme in Kenyan universities. Total agree for questionnaire item 2 representing 16.67% against total disagree representing 70.83%. The undecided represented 12.5%. Questionnaire item 3 sought to know whether computer programming and engineering computational methods relevant for teaching of mechanical engineering education in university. Total agree representing 97.92%, against total disagree, representing 2.08%. This implies that computer programming and engineering computational methods are relevant to mechanical engineering education. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 79 The Role Of Computer Technology... Questionnaire item 4 sought to know whether computer programming and engineering computational methods are taught in the university/college. Total agree stood at 135, representing 93.75%, against 9 for the undecided representing 6.75%. This implies that computer programming and engineering computational methods is relevant to mechanical engineering education. V. RESEARCH QUESTION TWO To what extent are the engineering students in Kenyan universities exposed to Matlab, MathCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, Moldflow and SolidWorks? Questionnaire item 5 sought to know whether MathCAD, Matlab, AutoCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics taught in the university/college. On the whole, total agree scored 135, representing 93.75%, while total disagree scored 6 representing 4.17%. The undecided represented 2.08%. This implies that the majority of mechanical engineering students in Kenyan universities know about advanced computational software. It is observed in this item that knowing about the programs’ existence does not mean that the students use these programs for their education and development [4].Questionnaire item 6 stated that “are Finite Element Modelling and Computational Fluid Dynamics courses taught in your university”. On the whole, total agree scored 18, representing 12.5%, while total disagree scored 99, representing 68.75% with the undecided representing 18.75%. This implies that mechanical engineering students in Kenyan universities are not taught Finite Element Modelling and Computational Fluid Dynamics. Questionnaire item 7 dealt with the issue of students having access to computers for practical training in the university/college. On the whole, total agree scored 132, representing 91.67%, while total disagree scored 9, representing 6.75% with the undecided representing 2.08%. Questionnaire item 8 was on whether students had at least 3 credit hours allocated in the university/college for computer programming and engineering computational methods. The total score for agree stood at 132, representing 91.67%, while the total score for disagree stood at 8.83%. This implies that most of the mechanical engineering students have access to the computers in the department for practical work.Questionnaire item 9 sought to find out whether students possessed the ability to use computers to solve engineering problems. The total sore for agree stood at 78, representing 54.17%, while the total score for disagree was 3, representing 2.08%. The undecided made up 43.75% of the total. This implies that there are almost as many student with knowledge of computational problem solving skills as are those who do not have the knowledge. More effort is required in this regard. VI.   CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions are drawn: Computer aided engineering software application packages like Matlab, MathCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, Moldflow and SolidWorks are relevant to mechanical engineering education programme in Kenyan universities and colleges There was significant difference between the exposure and application of mechanical engineering students to computer aided engineering software application packages and the expected exposure of mechanical engineering students in Kenyan universities. 68.75% of the students were not adequately exposed to the practical application of computer application packages such as Matlab, MathCAD, ANSYS, COMSOL Multiphysics, Moldflow and SolidWorks®. The consequence of this is that the university mechanical engineering graduates do not possess the ability to use computers to solve engineering problems. To address the problem of non-exposure of mechanical engineering students to computer aided engineering software and application packages, it is recommended that the Curriculum Experts should expand the curriculum of mechanical engineering education programme in Kenyan universities and colleges to include the following suggested courses:Introduction to Finite Element Modelling using CAE software Students should be introduced to the fundamentals of finite element modelling using software like ANSYS and SolidWorks®. This will enable them gain a working knowledge of computer modelling, design and problem solving of complex challenges which are beyond the analytical theories taught. Two lecture hours per week and two hours of laboratory per week is suggested for this course. Introduction to 3-D Computer Aided Design using SolidWorks®. Students should be introduced to 3–D computer aided design to allow students to develop soft skills that will enable them to design parts, assemblies and drawings on the computer. This will greatly improve their product design skills allowing them to make as much iteration as necessary in order to get their design right first time. Two lecture hours and two laboratory hours per week are suggested for this course. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 80 The Role Of Computer Technology... REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] Rath, A. and Hsu, S., “Conclusion: The Need for Systematic Educational Computing R&D,” Journal of Research in Computing Education, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2000. Quinn, R.G., “Drexel’s E4 program: A Different Professional Experience for Engineering Students and Faculty,” Journal of Engineering Education, Oct. 1993, pp. 196-202. Yamane, T. (1967): Statistics: An Introductory Analysis. New York: Harper & Row Lasse C., Christoffer L., Lennart L., Implementing Advanced CAE Tools in Automotive Engineering Education at Chalmers University of Technology, 3rd ANSA & μETA International Conference, September 9-11, 2009 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 81

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 44-53||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Mechatronics – A New Trend In Machine Control Emmanuel I. Igweonu1 And Ikenna U. Mbabuike2 And Kalu K. Okwara3 1 Department Of Electrical/Electronic Engineering. 2 Department Of Mechanical Engineering. 3 Department Of Computer Science. Akanu Ibiam Federal Polytechnic, Unwana. Ebonyi State, Nigeria. ---------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------------Mechatronics has now become a relatively new trend in the design of systems, devices and products aimed at achieving an optimal balance between basic mechanical structures and its overall control. In fact, the mechatronic idea would rightly be adjudged to be a product of persistency, innovativeness and excellence. This paper describes a laboratory theory-proving-system (TPS-3920) mechatronic command set; the system’s programming method and language, and a chosen example. The TPS-3920 system is accompanied with the SESLATHE software. KEYWORDS: Mechatronics, Engineering, Machine Tool, G & M-Code Program ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------Date of Submission: 25 October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 30 November 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------- I. INTRODUCTION The term `mechatronics’ is coined out from two words; mechanics and electronics. Integrated mechanical – electronic systems emerged from suitable combination of mechanics, electronics and control or information processing. Mechatronics in its fundamental form can be regarded as the fusion of mechanical and electrical disciplines in modern engineering processes. In the IEEE/ASME Transactions on mechatronics a preliminary definition is given as, “the synergetic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacturing of industrial products and processes”,(Rolf Isermann,2005) (see figure 1). This integration is between the computers (hardware) and the information driven function (soft ware), resulting in the integrated systems. Their development involves finding an optimal balance between the basic mechanical structure, sensor and actuator implementation, automatic digital information processing and overall control. II. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW The word “mechatronics” was probably first created by a Japanese engineer; Kyura Oho in 1969. On or before 1900, pure mechanical systems like; the steam engines of 1860s, DC motors of 1870s, circular pumps and combustion engines of 1880s, AC motors of 1889, mechanical typewriters, and tool machines were all associated with the era of increasing electrical drives. By 1920, electro-mechanical systems with electrical drives like; relays, solenoids, hydraulic and pneumatic pumps, electric amplifiers, the PI-controllers of 1930s were associated with the era of increasing automatic control (Rolf I., 2005). By 1935, mechanical systems with automatic control like; the transistors of 1948, thyristors of 1955, steam turbines and aircrafts were also associated with the era of increasing automatic control.Between 1955 and 1975, mechanical systems with analog electronic and sequential control like; the digital computers of 1955, process computers of 1971, realtime software of 1966, micro-computers of 1971, digital decentralized automations of 1975, and electronic controlled lifts were associated with the era of increasing automation with process computers and miniaturization.By 1985, mechatronic systems like; mobile robots, Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM), magnetic bearings, automotive control (ABS/ESP) were also associated with the era of increasing integration of processes and microcomputers. DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS The design of mechatronic systems requires a systematic development and utilization of modern software design tools. As with any design, mechatronic design is also an iterative procedure. Figure 2 shows that www.theijes.com The IJES Page 44 Mechatronics – A New Trend In… in addition to the traditional domain specific engineering, an integrated simultaneous (concurrent) engineering is required. A CASE FOR MACHINE TOOL The Lathe is a machine tool. From history, it was among the pure mechanical systems of the 19th century that were associated with the era of increasing electrical drive. Hence, with mechatronic ideas, the integration with intelligent computer control makes the modern Lathe machine, a wonderful engineering master piece for mass productions with high levels of accuracy and automation. THE MODERN LATHE MACHINE The CNC Lathe 225 for instance, is a mechatronic system. It is a computerized and numerically controlled turning machine system for sliver processing of metallic products. Now, what makes a mechatronic system is the integration between the hardware and the software as earlier stated. Therefore, to build a software, a special programming language is created for CNC machines. This is the G & M-code which is peculiar to each machine. THE SES-LATHE G-code COMMAND SET 1) G0 Xxx Zzz: Idle movement on straight line (in a Cartesic axes system) to point xx,zz at maximum speed. Examples: G0 X2 Z-30 G0 Z15.2 2) G1 Xxx Zzz Fff: Turning movement on straight line (in a Cartesic axes system) to point xx,zz at ff speed. Examples: G1 X1 Z-30 G1 Z15.2 3) G10 Rrr Ccc Iii Kkk: Idle movement on straight line (in a Polar axes system) to point on a circle's perimeter at maximum speed. R is the circle radius. C is the angle (in degrees) of the point. I and K are the X,Z coordinates of the center of the circle. R Examples: o I,K 4) 0 G10 R10 C30 I25 K20 G10 C180 G11 Rrr Ccc Iii Kkk Fff: Turning movement on straight line (in a Polar axes system) to point on a circle's perimeter at ff speed. R is the circle radius. C is the angle of the point. I and K are the X,Z coordinates of the center of the circle. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 45 Mechatronics – A New Trend In… R C o o 0 I,K Examples: G11 R10 C30 I25 K20 F2000 G11 C180 5) 6) 7) G02 Iii Kkk Rrr Ccc Eee Fff: Clockwise turning circular movement (arch) at ff feed. R is the circle radius. C is the angle (in degrees) of the starting point. E is the angle (in degrees) of the ending point. Note: The instruction G02 means move in a straight line to the arch starting point (indicated by C) and then to the arch ending point (indicated by E). Examples: G1 X-5 G1 Z-30 G2 K-30 I-6 C90 E0 R1 G2 Z2 X-6 G03 Iii Kkk Rrr Ccc Eee Fff: Counter clockwise turning circular movement (arch) at ff feed. Examples: G1 X-5 G1 Z-30 G3 I-5 K-31 C180 E220 R1 F150 G3 Z2 X-6 G4: "Wait" instruction, usually applied for stopping in order to replace the turning tool or the processed material. A message appears on the screen and the PC waits for clicking OK to continue. THE SES-LATHE M-code COMMAND SET 1) 2) M4 Sss - Command to start the spindle Motor CCW at ss speed in RPM. M5 - Command to stop the spindle Motor. III. SYSTEM PROGRAMMING METHOD The G-Code language is a very simple programming language and this is the secret of its popularity. The programming file is a text file written by a text editor (a simple word processing).The programming rules are as follows:    Every instruction to the machine should start with the letter G or M (this is the reason for the name G&M-Code). The software ignores lines that do not start with the letter G or M. For example, G1 X10 Z-35 F250 meaning: Move in straight line (on X-Z plane) to point X,Z = 10,-35 from the current location at feed of 250 millimeters per minute. All the parameters should be given in millimeters. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 46  Mechatronics – A New Trend In… SES-LATHE software allows using the decimal point. i.e.: G1 X10.5 Z20.7 The parameters are optional. It means that the current value of a parameter that is not indicated in an instruction remains without change. We use the '/' sign to indicate relative values. i.e.: G1 X/7.3 Z/-5 which means: move 7.3 millimeters forward on X and 5 millimeters backward on Z from the current location at previous feed. A CHOSEN EXAMPLE A 80 x 20mm rod is to be turned into the pattern as shown on figure 3 Aim: To process the rod mechatronically Objective: 1. Understanding the turning process. 2. Writing the turning program according to a scaled drawing. 3. Running the program on simulation. UNDERSTANDING THE TURNING PROCESS In turning we have several processing types: Turning, Grooving and Threading. The processed material (a rod of metal, plastic or wood) is installed in the spindle bore and rotates fast. When the turning tool goes on Z dimension, it removes slivers from the perimeter of the rod (like peeling). The turning tool speed on Z direction should not be faster than the spindle rotation. When the Z movement is faster than the spindle rotation we get a thread. When the turning tool goes on X direction only into the rod, it creates a groove along its perimeter. 15 The turning drawing shows only half of the part projection. This is enough because of the complete symmetry. The drawing includes a symmetry axis. 14 13 12 3 1 2 4 5 6 5 6 2 3 7 8 9 10 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 11 4 Z 1 -70 -66 -50 -38 -36 -26 -16 -6 -2 Face (Forehead) Figure 3: Half part projection of the pattern The symbol indicates the project home position. It is also the origin of the axes. The X,Z absolute values relate to this point. The numbers on the right show the distance from the home project on X axis. The processing is done as by turning one millimeter at a time as described in the figure 3. With a special turning tool and on grooving process we cut off the required processed material from its base. The rod is cut when the groove depth is equal to the rod's radius. We define the starting point outside the main material. We turn an extra part in front of the required processing area. This part is called 'Face' or 'Forehead'. Usually, we use a rod with a diameter greater than required and we turn it to the required diameter, in order to ensure straight and symmetrical rod. Important note: Because the setup of the turning tool can be done only on the unprocessed rod, the program is run on simulation until a complete turning program is achieved. This is a gradual and painstaking process whereby only 1mm of rod is cut at a time to avoid breaking the tool and/or jamming the machine. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 47 Mechatronics – A New Trend In… WRITING THE G & M-Code PROGRAM ACCORDING TO THE SCALED DRAWING OF FIGURE 4 M4 G0 G1 G1 G0 G0 G1 G1 G0 G0 G0 G1 G3 G0 G0 G1 G1 G3 G0 G0 G0 G1 G1 G0 G0 G1 G1 G0 G0 G1 G2 G0 G0 G1 G1 G2 G0 G0 G1 G1 G2 G0 G0 G1 G1 G2 G0 G0 M5 S2000 X-9 Z-66 F200 X-10 Z-70 Z0 X-8 Z-38 X-9 Z-50 X-10 Z0 X-7 Z-36 R2 I-8 K-36 C150 E180 X-8 Z0 X-6 Z-36 R2 I-8 K-36 C90 E150 X-8 Z0 X-5 Z-26 X-7 Z0 X-4 Z-16 X-7 Z0 X-3 Z-2 R4 I0 K-6 C-48.6 E-90 X-4 Z0 X-2 Z-2 R4 I0 K-6 C-30 E-48.6 X-4 Z0 X-1 Z-2 R4 I0 K-6 C-14 E-30 X-4 Z0 X0 Z-2 R4 I0 K-6 C0 E-14.5 X-4 Z0 www.theijes.com ; range 1 ; range 2 ;range 3 ;range 4 ;range 5 ;range 6 ;start spindle motor at 2000 RPM move to 9mm from the rod center ;move to point 2 ;move to point 1 ;return move to 8mm from the rod center ;move to point 4 ;move to point 3 ;move out ;return move to 7mm from the rod center ;move to point 5 ;move to point 4 ;move out ;return ;move to 6mm from the rod center ;move to point 6 ;move to point 5 ;move out ;return move to 5mm from the rod center ;move to point 8 ;move out ;return move to 4mm from the rod center ;move to point 10 ;move out ;return move to 3mm from the rod center ;turning the forehead ;move to point 11 ;move out ;return ;move to point 12 ;return ;move to point 13 ;return ;move to point 14 ;move out ;return ;stop spindle motor The IJES Page 48 Mechatronics – A New Trend In… THE PROGRAM SIMULATON PROCEDURE www.theijes.com The IJES Page 49 Mechatronics – A New Trend In… M Select FILE NAME and OPEN Simulation option? N K Y Simulation mode Run? N Stop Y Execute program Is simulation graph correct? N K Y Save FILE finally Stop www.theijes.com The IJES Page 50 Mechatronics – A New Trend In… PROSPECTS OF MECHATRONICS In this age of human population boom, mechatronics has greatly proved to be the latest trend of modern engineering endeavors. Programmed files saved in the computer’s disk enables the engineer to manufacture the exact amount of products required, at the same level of accuracy. All it takes for mechatronic systems is to load the computer with the appropriate file and run the program. This process turns manufacturing activities significantly flexible hence; mechatronic machines are otherwise regarded as flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). IV. CONCLUSION Admittedly, despite the issues, problems and challenges in developing mechatronic systems, there are prospects of: sustainable design and pattern benefits for manufacturing industries and governments, which can be derived, beyond what has been reviewed by this paper. However, the key points to note are; 1. Flexibility in manufacturing, and optimum utilization of raw materials. 2. Unwavered automation with attendant advantages like: - High speed of operation - Increased quality control (less wastage) - Improved accuracy - Safety assurance and so on. Figure 1: Mechatronics- synergetic integration of different disciplines (Isremann, 2005) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 51 Mechatronics – A New Trend In… System Definition Traditional Engineering (Domain specification) Mechanical and electrical engineering Process Design Requirements & Engineering Specification Electronic Engineering Electronic Hardware Design Information And Control Engineering Operating Engineering Info. Processing And Control Engineering Human-machine interface design Integration of Components (hardware) Integration by information Processing (software) System integration (Hard- & Software) Integrated(simultaneous) engineering Integrated mechatronic system System Testing Manufacturing Engineering Mechatronic system Fig. 2: Design procedure for Mechtronic systems.( Isremannn, 2005) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 52 Mechatronics – A New Trend In… REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Isremann, R. (2005): Mechatronic Systems Fundamentals. Spring-verlag London Ltd. Craig, J. (1989): Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control, 2nd edn. Addison-wesley, Reading. AIM IEEE/ASME Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics. Atlanta (1999), Como (2001), Kobe(2003) Dorf, R.C., Bishop, R.H. (2000): Modern control systems, 9th edn. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff. Science and Technical Education Training Manual: CAD – CAM with SOLIDCAM for Turning. http://www.mechatronicconcept/turning.com Date accessed: 09/01/2013 http://www.mechatronics/edu.com Date accessed: 09/01/2013 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 53

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 || Pages || 37-41 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Phytoextraction of Total Petroluem Hydrocarbon In Polluted Environment Using An Aquatic Macrophyte Heteranthera callifolia Rchb. Ex Kunth Denise E.M, Akhere M.A, Udoh Elsie and Okpo Ruth Department of Botany and Ecological Studies, University of Uyo, P.M.B. 1017, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Benin, P.M.B. 1154, Benin City, Edo State. --------------------------------------------------------- ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------Laboratory study on phytoextraction of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) in polluted Environment using Heteranthera callifolia was carried out. The sea weed was grown in the laboratory in 0%, 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% concentrations of water saturated fraction (WSF) of Hexane for 4 weeks. The various concentrations of TPH bioaccumulated in roots, petioles and leaves were estimated using standard laboratory procedures. The leaves had the highest concentration of TPH (0.434 ± 0.170) mg/L followed by the petioles (0.202l ± 0.116) mg/L while the roots had the least uptake of TPH (0.096 ± 0.080) mg/L. The result of this study shows that the experimental plant exhibit high level of uptake of TPH. This could be useful in setting up a list of aquatic macrophyte that could be used as bio-indicator of TPH pollution in aquatic ecosystem and could be added to the list of aquatic plants with TPH uptake potential and can also be implicated in bioremediation protocol. KEYWORDS: Sea weeds, Bioenergy, Phytoextraction, uptake potential, bioremediation protocol, Petroleum hydrocarbons, pollution, bioindicator. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------Date of Submission: 21, October - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November – 2013 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Heteranthera callifolia is a glabrous, aquatic herb about 2.5cm high with submerged stems rooting in the substrate that reproduces from seed. The leaves have long hollow petioles up to 25cm long that raise the leave blades above the water. The blade are ovate to lanceolate, about 5-7cm long and 1.5cm wide, heart shaped or rounded at the base rather thin, smooth and with numerous ascending nerves at the undersurface. The inflorescence is a few-flowered spike; the flowers are small and white and have tubes about 5mm long and lobes that are about 4mm long. It is found in shallow water or immersed at edges. It is also a weed of lowland rice and water logged soils, it is widely distributed throughout West Africa. The plant can tolerate extremes water level fluctuation and seasonal variations in flow velocity and variation of nutrient availability, pH, temperature and toxic substances [5]. Due to its extremely high rate of development is an excellent source of biomass and thus Play unique role in bioenergy production. Various plants have been identified for their potential to facilitate the phytoremediation of sites contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbon. In the majority of studies, grasses and legumes have been singled out for their potential [4,10,7]. However, [11] reported that water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) significantly accumulated petroleum hydrocarbon. Prairie grasses are thought to make superior vehicles for Phytoremediation because they have extensive, fibrous root system [11]. They also exhibit an inherent genetic diversity, which may give them competitive advantage in becoming established under unfavourable soil condition [4]. Legumes are thought to have an advantage over non-leguminous plants in phytoremediation because of their ability to fix nitrogen. They do not have to compete with micro-organisms and other plants for limited supplies of available soil nitrogen at oil contaminated sites [6]. Heteranthera califolia belongs to the family Pontederiaceae, and this family possesses some species of weeds described as the most troublesome in the world, they have been linked to several problems like obstruction to water transportation, micro-habitat for disease vectors, obstruction to fishing and reduction in biodiversity. Recent studies have shown that this macrophyte can be used for the production of paper, biogas, fertilizer and fish feed. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 37 Phytoextraction of Total Petroluem Hydrocarbon In… This paper is aimed at evaluating the ability of H. califfolia to grow in polluted environment with petroleum hydrocarbon and also to ascertain its uptake potential and finally to assess its bioremediation capacity in cleanup of the environment. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Plant: The plant used in this study is Heteranthera callifolia. It was collected from a drainage system emptying into a stream at Ikpa road in Afaha Oku village, behind University of Uyo, Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. This was identified using West African weeds by [2]. Climate Of The Study Area: Uyo Local Government Area is located north of the equator, within the humid tropics and its proximity to the sea makes it generally humid. It is characterized by two season, dry and wet or rainy seasons. Generally, the wet season is characterized by relatively heavy rainfall and high humidity with heavy clouds covering the sun. Less rainfall, low cloud cover and air increase in solar radiation reaching the earth surface due to less cloud cover in contrast characterizes the dry season. Geography of the area: Uyo Local Government Area lies between latitude 5.05 0degree north and longitude 800. This is within the equatorial rainforest belt, which is a tropical zone that house vegetation of green foliage trees, shrubs and oil palm species. Stabilization of Test Plant: On introduction of Heteranthera callifolia into the laboratory, the roots were rinsed with running tap water to remove any contaminant from the field from where it was harvested. It was then transferred to a 950ml transparent round bottom culture bottle filled with tap water and left for four days to stabilize and adjust to culture life. These were then Transfer to experimental set up containing the various concentrations of the petroleum hydrocarbons after four days of stabilization. Experimental Vessels: The experimental vessels used were 950ml round bottom transparent bottle. They were washed thoroughly with detergent and rinsed with 70% sulphuric acid and nitric acid solution to remove any trace of algal spore present. Preparation of water saturated fraction of hexane: Water saturated fraction (WSF) was prepared according to the method of [3]. A sample of hexane was slowly mixed in an equal volume of distil water in ration 1: 9 in a 2 litre screw – cap conical flask. This was placed on Gallen-kamp table top magnetic stirrer and stirred with 7cm magnetic rod for 24hrs at room temperature (27 0C+20C). After mixing, the water and oil mixture was allowed to stand overnight in a separating funnel. The filtrate which is the water saturated fraction was separated from the supernatant and referred to as stock or 100% WSF. The stock was diluted with distilled water serially to give the various experimental concentrations (0%, 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% ) respectively. Statistical Analysis: The results were subjected to a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the level of significance [14]. III. RESULTS Percentage uptake and extraction potential of H. callifolia in different concentrations of WSF of hexane is shown in fig 1-3. There was substantial uptake in the three different parts of the experimental plant namely roots, petioles and leaves. Uptake followed expected pattern. The highest uptake (0.434 ± 0.170) mg/L was recorded in the leaves of the experimental plant. Fig 1: shows percentage uptake of petroleum hydrocarbon (hexane) in roots of H. callifolia at different concentrations. The value (0.101 ± 0.044) mg/L, (0.116 ± 0.011) mg/L, (0.123 ± 0.014) mg/L, and (0.0138 ± 0.033) mg/L were taken up by the root of H. callifolia in 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% concentrations respectively. These values were highly significant (p<0.05) when compared to (0.003 ± 0.001) mg/L in the root of the control plant. Percentage uptake of petroleum hydrocarbon in petioles of H. callifolia in different concentrations is shown in fig 2. A mean of (0.172 ± 0.008) mg/L, (0.216 ± 0.005) mg/L, (0.232 ± 0.013) mg/l and (0.388 ± 0.012) mg/l were recorded for petioles of H. callifolia grown in 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% concentrations. These values were also significantly high compare to (0.001 ± 0.005) mg/l obtained in control plant. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 38 Phytoextraction of Total Petroluem Hydrocarbon In… Fig 3 shows the percentage uptake of petroleum hydrocarbon in leaf of H. callifolia in different concentrations of water saturated fractions of hexane. A total mean of (0.431 ± 0.016) mg/L, (0.518 ± 0.082) mg/L, (0.542 ± 0.008) mg/L, (0.684 ± 0.037) mg/L were taken up by the leaves of H. callifolia in the different concentrations. In general, the amount of petroleum hydrocarbons taken up by H. callifolia increased gradually with increase in concentration. The highest uptake was recorded in 8% concentration in all three parts of the plant investigated. Legend (1=0%, 2= 2%, 3=4%, 4= 6%, 5= 8%) Fig 1: Percentage uptake of petroleum hydrocarbon in root of H. callifolia in different experimental concentrations Legend (1=0%, 2= 2%, 3=4%, 4= 6%, 5= 8%) Fig 2: Percentage uptake of petroleum hydrocarbon in petioles of H. callifolia in different experimental concentrations www.theijes.com The IJES Page 39 Phytoextraction of Total Petroluem Hydrocarbon In… Legend (1=0%, 2= 2%, 3=4%, 4= 6%, 5= 8%) Fig 3: Percentage uptake of petroleum hydrocarbon in leaves of H. callifolia in different experimental concentrations IV. DISCUSSION Land and water are precious natural resources on which rely the sustainability of agriculture and the civilization of mankind. Unfortunately, they have been subjected to maximum exploitation and severe degraded and pollution due to anthropogenic activities. The pollution includes point sources such as emission, effluents and solid discharge from industries, vehicle, exhausts and nonpoint sources such as soluble salts, insecticides, pesticides, disposal of industrial and municipal wastes and excessive use of fertilizers [8,9,13]. One of the most common pollutants in the Niger delta coast is crude oil pollution. This has released tremendous amount of hydrocarbons into the coast and its surrounding water sheds and wetlands. This study however seeks to evaluate the efficiency of using H. callifolia in cleanup of petroleum hydrocarbon (Hexane). The following findings were observed in this study.     Heteranthera callifolia was able to absorb various amounts of water saturated fractions of Hexane. The highest uptake was observed in plants grown in higher concentrations 6% and 8% The leaves had the highest concentration of the TPH (0.434 ± 0.170) mg/L followed by the petioles (0.202l ± 0.116) mg/L, the roots had the least uptake of TPH (0.096 ± 0.080) mg/L. The result of this study shows that the experimental plant exhibit high level of uptake of TPH. This finding corroborates the findings of [10] who observed that in a three year field plot that prairie buffalo grass accelerated the reduction of naphthalene in a clay soil compared to unpolluted clay soil. The authors conducted a parallel experiment to assess the performance of 12 warm seasons grass species to remove various PAHs from contaminated soil. Results indicated that prairie buffalo grass, common buffalo grass, Meyer Zoysia grass and Verde Klein grass accelerated the loss of the low molecular weight PAHs naphthalene, fluorine and phenanthrene compared to the control. [15] investigated the degradation of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) in the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil of three domestic plants namely alfalfa (Medicage sativa), broad bean (Vicia faba) and ryegrass (Lolium perenne). Although the three domestic plants exhibited normal growth in the presence of 1% TPH, the degradation was more profound in the case of leguminous plants. [1] found that the legume plant (Vicia sativa) was able to grow in soil contaminated with diesel fuel and the total numbers of nodules were significantly reduced in contaminated plants as compared to control plants, but nodules on contaminated plants were more developed than corresponding nodules on control plants. These authors found that the amount of diesel fuel remaining after 4 months in the legume plant Vicia sativa was slightly less than in the ryegrass planted soil. [12] studied the decomposition of used motor oil in soil as influenced by plant treatment. Soil contaminated with used motor oil (1.5% w/w) was seeded with soybean (Glycine max) green bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris), sunflower (Helianthus annus), Indian mustard (Bressica juncea), mixed grasses/maize (zea mays) and mixed clover (Trifoleum partense, L. Trifoleum repense). After 150 days in the clover treatment, the added oil was no longer detected. A total of 67% of the oil was removed in sunflower/mustard and with addition of NPK fertilizer; treatment resulted in a 38% oil reduction, which increased to 67% with fertilizer application. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 40 Phytoextraction of Total Petroluem Hydrocarbon In… The experimental plant exhibits high level of uptake of TPH. The leaves had the highest concentration of the TPH (0.434 ± 0.170) mg/L followed by the petioles (0.202l ± 0.116) mg/L, the roots had the least uptake of TPH (0.096 ± 0.080) mg/L. This pattern of uptake could have been influenced by physiological process involves in translocation and transpiration in plants. Manufactured products of photosynthesis are reported to be transported down from the regions of production. Water and mineral salts are transported in opposite direction to products of photosynthesis. The various concentrations in leaves and petioles could have been transported to this region for storage and utilization in photosynthesis. V. CONCLUSION The result of this study shows that H. callifolia exhibits excellent capacity to biaccumulate petroleum hydrocarbon (hexane) in the roots, petioles and leaves and thus could be assayed for bioremediation potential for petroluem hydrocarbons in respect to hexane pollution. VI. RECOMMENDATION Based on these findings, and the level of work done, it is recommend that further work should be carried out using other petroleum hydrocarbons to compare the uptake ability of these hydrocarbons by this aquatic macrophyte. REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. G. Adam, H.Duncan. Environmental Pollution, 2002; 120: 363 – 370. I. O Akobundu, C. W Agyakwa. A handbook of West African Weeds. 1987. PP 120 – 121. J. W. Anderson, J. M. Neff, H. E. Cox, G. M Hightower. Marine biology 1974; 27:75-88. W. April, R.C Sims. Chemosphere Journal 1990; 20: 253- 265. B. Gopal; Elesevier, 1987; New York. NY. C. Gudin, W. J Syratt, Environmental Pollution, 1975; 8: 107-112. T. Gunther, U. Dornberger, W. Fritsche Chemosphere Journal, 19963; 3: 203- 216. S. P. McGrath, F. J Zhao, E. Lombi. Plants Soil, 2001; 232(1/2): 207-214. J. O. Nriagu, J. M. Pacyna,. Nature 1988; 333(61/69):134-139. X. Qiu, T. W. Leland, S. I., Sorensen E.W Kendal. Phytoremediation of soil and water contaminants. Edited by Kruger, E. L., Anderson T. A. Coats J. R. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. 1997. K. A Reilley, M. K Banks, A. P Scwab, J. Environ. Qual, 1996; 25: 212 – 219. E. D Rosado, J Pitchel, Environ. Eng. Sci. 2004; 21:169-180. E. Schalscha, I. Ahumada, Water Sci. Technology, 1998; 37(8):251-255. R.M Ubom. Biometry. Abaam publishing Co. Uyo, Nigeria. 2004. A. Yateem,M. T. Balba, N. Al – Awadhi; International Journal on Phytoremediation, 2000; 2. 183 – 191. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 41

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) || Volume || 2 || Issue || 11 || Pages || 13-18 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Evaluation of the Hepatoprotective Efficacy of Moringa oleifera Seed Oil on Ccl4-Induced Liver Damage in Wistar Albino Rats 1 Olatosin TM, 2Akinduko DS, 3Uche CZ 1 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Niger ia. Department of Chemical Pathology, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. 3 Department of Chemical Pathology, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. 2 --------------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------------Studies have shown that certain parts of Moringa oleifera Lam plant, such as its leaves, roots, flowers, and seeds possess antihepatotoxic activity. Also in recent times, there has been a surge in local demand for Moringa seed oil, largely due to its reportedly high medicinal potential. The study was aimed at evaluating the hepatoprotective activity of Moringa seed oil against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatotoxicity in Wistar albino rats. Using the intragastric tube, Moringa seed oil (2mL/kg body weight) was administered orally on the CCl4-intoxicated Wistar rats. Antihepatotoxic effects of Moringa seed oil was evaluated by assaying for the activities of liver marker enzymes alanine transaminase (ALT) (EC 2.6.1.2), aspartate transaminase (AST) (EC 2.6.1.1), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (EC 3.1.3.1) in serum. Histopathology of liver sections was also examined. Substantially elevated serum activities of hepatic marker enzymes (ALT: 123.7±1.05 U/l and AST: 133.30±5.95 U/l) in CCl4-intoxicated rats were significantly (p< 0.05) lowered towards control values (ALT: 64.33±11.90 and AST: 106.00±17.72) by the administration of Moringa seed oil. The histopathological appearances also clearly supported the biochemical findings. Results strongly indicated that Moringa seed oil possesses remarkable hepatoprotective potential underlining its ability to reverse CCl4-induced liver injury in the experimental animals. Keywords- CCl4, Hepatoprotective, Liver injury, Moringa oleifera seed oil, Recovery --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 13 October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 30 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I. INTRODUCTION The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals; it lies below the diaphragm in the abdominal-pelvic region of the abdomen, where it performs a wide range of metabolic activities necessary for homeostasis, nutrition and immune defence [1]. The liver‘s highly specialized tissues regulate a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions [2]. Most of the toxic compounds in the body are metabolized in liver. The entry of these toxicants into the body is principally via the gastrointestinal tract, and after absorption, they are transported through the hepatic vein to the liver. Carbon tetrachloride is one of the most potent hepatotoxins and is widely used in scientific research to evaluate hepatoprotective agents [3]. The metabolism of CCl4 to the highly reactive and unstable CCl 3 radical by cytochrome P450 in the liver leads to hepatocellular membrane damage [4]. Covalent binding of the metabolites of CCl4, trichloromethyl (CCl 3) free radicals and subsequent derivatives to cell proteins is considered to be the initial step in a chain of events that eventually lead to membrane lipid peroxidation and finally to cell necrosis [5]. The elevation of serum activities of hepatocellular enzymes ALT, AST and ALP is a reflection of their increased passage into the serum from damaged liver cells. Specific isoenzymes of AST are present in the liver cell mitochondria and cytoplasm whereas ALT is confined to the cytoplasm [6]. The transaminases are one group of enzymes that are sensitive indicators of liver cell injury [7]. Their serum levels are especially altered in hepatocellular disease particularly in acute diseases and they are often referred to as hepatocellular enzymes [6]. Many bioactive compounds and extracts from plants have thus been investigated for hepatoprotective and antioxidant effects against hepatotoxin-induced liver damage [8, 9]. Medicinally, herbal drugs have made a significant contribution for the treatment of hepatotoxicity [10, 11]. Prominent among those herbs is Moringa oleifera Lam (MO) which, owing to its high medicinal value has in recent times attracted much interest among Nigerians. Moringa oleifera Lam (MO) belongs to the genus Morigacea (Syns Moringa Pterigosperma Gaertn). The plant is native to North India but it is now found throughout the tropics [12]. Instances of lifesaving nutritional rescue that are attributed to Moringa have been documented in the literature [13, 14]. The medical evidence for nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties of Moringa oleifera plant was described in a comprehensive literature review by Fahey [15]. Furthermore, most recent reviews [16, 17] have been focused on the medicinal uses, along with important phytochemical and pharmacological properties of different parts of the plant. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 13 Evaluation of the Hepatoprotective Efficacy of Moringa Oleifera Seed Oil on… Most parts of the plant have also been used in folk medicine in Africa and South Asia [15]. The World Health Organization [18] estimated that 80% of the populations of some Asian and African countries depend on traditional medicine for primary health care. Numerous studies now point to the elevation of a variety of detoxification and antioxidant enzymes and biomarkers as a result of treatment with Moringa or with phytochemicals isolated from Moringa [19, 20, 21, 22]. Hepatoprotective activity of the M. oleifera leaves, flowers, roots and seeds have been well documented in the literature [12, 23, 24, 25]. Aside the common use of this plant both as food and as herbal medicine in Nigeria, there is also a growing increase in consumption of Moringa seed oil among local consumers. In view of this, the study was therefore designed to evaluate the hepatoprotective efficacy of the oil in carbon tetrachloride (CCL4)-intoxicated Wistar rats. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Experimental Animals Twenty four Wistar albino rats (all male) weighing 150 to 180g were purchased from the Department of Animal science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. The experimental animals were thereafter kept in cages at the animal house of the Department of Biochemistry, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. The process of acclimatization lasted for two weeks as they were fed with standard diet (Grower‘s mash) and water. Treatment lasted for ten days as the animals were distributed into four groups (1, 2, 3 and 4) of six animals each and Group 1 served as control. The different doses of Moringa oleifera seed oil administered to the other groups are:  Group 2 (CCL4-treated) animals received 1ml CCl4/kg body weight once (on the 10th day);  Group 3 animals (treated with CCL4 + Moringa seed oil) received 2ml of Moringa oil/Kg body weight for 10 days and intoxicated with CCl4 (1ml/Kg) once (on the 10th day);  Group 4 (Moringa seed oil-treated) animals received 2ml of Moringa oil/Kg body weight for 10 days. 2.2 Extract (Moringa oleifera Seed Oil) The Moringa oleifera oil was obtained from Millennium Quality Oil factory in Gombe, Gombe state, Nigeria. 2.3 Collection of Blood and Liver Tissue Samples At twenty four hours after administering all the appropriate doses, blood samples were collected through cardiac puncture and liver tissues were removed. Serum samples were obtained by centrifugation of the clotted blood at 3500 rpm for 15 minutes using a bench top centrifuge, and preserved at -20◦ C for analysis within 48hours. The liver tissue samples removed were subjected to the following histological procedure:  Fixation of tissue specimen in 10% formaline for 24 hours.  Dehydration in increasing grades of alcohol (70%, 90%, 100%).  Cleared in xylene in three changes for I hour each.  Infilterated in three changes of paraffin at 60◦C oven for 1 hour each.  Embedded in paraffin wax  Paraffin tissue block attached to wooden block, trimmed and nickel at one edge.  Sectioned at 5 microns (5µ) using rotary microtome.  Deparaffinization and hydration of tissue sections followed by staining with haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining method.  Examination under the light microscope 2.4 Assay for Alanine Transaminase (ALT) The alanine transaminase (ALT) activity in the plasma and tissue homogenate was estimated by the method of Reitman and Frankel [26]. The assay is based on the following reaction of the enzyme: Glutamate + pyruvate ⇌ α-ketoglutarate + alanine By reaction with 2, 4, dinitrophenylhydrazine, the keto acid produced (in the equation above) will then form the corresponding colored hydrazone. The assay for the activity of the enzyme was carried out by adding 0.2ml of serum sample to 1ml of ALT buffered substrate. The mixture was incubated at 37°C for 30mins. After incubation, 1ml of color reagent (2, 4, dinitrophenylhydrazine) was added to the mixture. The solution was allowed to stand at room temperature for 20 mins. Sodium hydroxide (10 ml of 0.4 M NaOH) was then added, mixed and allowed to stand for at least five minutes. A blank containing 0.2ml of distilled water was similarly treated. Absorbance of the sample was read against the blank at 505nm. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 14 Evaluation of the Hepatoprotective Efficacy of Moringa Oleifera Seed Oil on… 2.5 Assay for Aspartate Transaminase (AST) Activity The Aspartate transaminase activity in the plasma and tissue homogenate was estimated by the method of Reitman and Frankel [26]. The assay is based on the following reaction: Aspartate (Asp) + α-ketoglutarate ↔ oxaloacetate + glutamate Procedure for the assay of AST activity was carried out by adding 0.2ml of serum sample to 1ml of AST buffered substrate. The mixture was incubated at 37°C for 60mins. After incubation, 1ml of color reagent (2, 4, dinitrophenylhydrazine) was added to the mixture. The solution was allowed to stand at room temperature for 20 mins. Sodium hydroxide (10 ml of 0.4 M NaOH) was then added, mixed and allowed to stand for at least five minutes. A blank containing 0.2ml of distilled water was similarly treated. Absorbance of the sample was read against the blank at 505nm. 2.6 Assay for Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) Activity The activity of this enzyme was determined in the plasma and tissue homogenates by the method of Annino and Giese [27]. When P-nitrophenylphosphate is incubated with alkaline phosphatase, it is hydrolyzed to Pnitrophenol (with a change in color from almost colorless to yellow in alkaline solution).Addition of sodium hydroxide stops the enzyme reaction and brings out the color of the P- nitrophenol. P- nitrophenol phosphate P- nitrophenol +Pi The assay for the enzyme activity was carried out by adding 0.1ml of sample to 1ml of alkaline phosphate buffered substrate. The solution was mixed and incubated at 37°C for exactly 30mins, after which 10ml of 0.02M NaOH was added. A blank that contained 0.1ml of water was also similarly treated. Absorbance was read at 410nm setting the blank at zero. 2.7 Statistical Analysis The experimental data were statistically analyzed using SPSS version 17 for windows and a one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) method was employed to compare the mean differences observed among the various groups. The results are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) with the level of significance set at p< 0.05. III. RESULTS The levels activity of Aspartate transaminase (AST), Alanine transaminase (ALT), and Alkaline phosphate (ALP) were taken as indices for hepatotoxicity induced by CCl4, and the hepatoprotective efficacy of Moringa oleifera seed oil. Serum levels of the enzyme activities were therefore analyzed in the different groups and the results are presented in Table 1. Significantly higher ALT and AST activities (p<0.05) were observed in both groups II (ALT123.7±1.05; AST- 133.30±5.95) and III (ALT- 64.33±11.90; AST- 106.00±17.72) compared to group 1 (ALT34.33±4.94; AST- 70.00±5.36). However, significantly lower (p < 0.05) AST activity was observed in group 4 (50.50±3.84) in comparison with the control (70.00±5.36). Significantly elevated ALP activity (p < 0.05) was also observed in group 3 (16.68±4.71) compared with the control (5.53±1.31). The results of histopathological examinations of the liver sections as depicted in figures 1-4 also indicate the hepatoprotective efficacy of the Moringa seed oil. Table1. Effect of Moringa oleifera Seed Oil on the Serum Activities of ALT, AST, and ALP in CCl 4-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rats. GROUP 1 (CONTROL) 2 (CCl4) 3 (CCl4+OIL) 4 (OIL ONLY) ALT (U/l) 34.33±4.94a 123.7±1.05b 64.33±11.90c 27.33±4.10a AST (U/l) 70.00±5.36a 133.30±5.95b 106.00±17.72a,b 50.50±3.84a,c ALP (U/l) 5.53±1.31a 15.05±2.49a 16.68±4.71b,a 7.47±0.76a n=6 for each group; b and c values are significantly different from ‗a‘ (control) values at p<0.05 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 15 Evaluation of the Hepatoprotective Efficacy of Moringa Oleifera Seed Oil on… Fig 1. Control Hepatic cells Liver section of the control, with normal architecture: the central veins, portal tracts, hepatocytes and sinusoids appear normal. The lobular unit is also well identified. Fig 2. CCl4-damaged hepatic cells Extensive areas of patchy and confluent hepatic necrosis, and lobular inflammation; sinusoidal spaces are flooded with inflammatory cells. Fig 3. CCl4+Moringa Seed Oil-Treated Hepatocytes Hepatotoxicity of CCl4 appears to be prevented as no necrosis is seen. The central vein and portal triads also appear normal. Fig 4. Moringa Seed Oil-Treated Hepatic Cells Normal hepatocellular architecture. There are no significant pathological changes compared to the control. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 16 Evaluation of the Hepatoprotective Efficacy of Moringa Oleifera Seed Oil on… IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 is widely used for experimental induction of liver damage [28]. The study was undertaken to demonstrate the protective ability of Moringa oleifera seed oil on CCl4-induced hepatic damage in Wistar rats. From the study, markedly raised serum hepatocellular enzyme (ALT and AST) activities in rats treated with only CCl4 (group 2) compared with the control, strongly suggest the high level of hepatotoxicity inherent in acute exposure to carbon tetrachloride, and is consistent with earlier reports by Hamza [29]. This evidence of CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity was further demonstrated by the significantly elevated activities of the enzymes (ALT & AST) in both group 2 and 3 animals as against the controls. Administration of M. oleifera seed oil therefore appeared to exert a protective effect against the CCl4-induced hepatic damage as indicated by the marked decrease in ALT and AST activities in the group 3 animals treated with both Moringa oil and CCl4, compared with the group II animals treated with only CCl4 (Table 1). This finding is also consistent with those previously reported from similar studies [30, 31, 32, 33]. The histological features of liver sections from the various groups (fig.1-4) appear to be occasioned by the biochemical changes that occurred in the liver cells. The abnormal histology revealed by figure II clearly demonstrated the extent of hepatic damage induced by CCl 4 intoxication. This evidence supports the findings recently reported by Ezejindu et al. [1] indicating extensive fatty change (steatosis) and presence of necrosis as parts of the histological features of CCl4-damaged hepatocytes. Evidences from histological examination of group 3 animals in this study were also consistent with further reports by Ezejindu et al. [1] which indicated very little fatty change in liver sections, with an appearance suggesting the recovery of most areas of the hepatic cells of Wistar rats treated with both Moringa extract and carbon tetrachloride. We can thus infer from this study that M. oleifera seed oil possesses a very high therapeutic potential which underlines its ability to bring about recovery from CCl 4-induced hepatic damage. It also appears M. oleifera seed oil is capable of reversing or inhibiting lipid peroxidation in liver cells; further studies are therefore needed. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. Jerry Orhue, Dr. Agoreyo (Mrs.), Mr. Sylvanus Inni, Mr.Agu, and Mr. Ogunbiyi Oluwagbenga for the technical assistance they offered while the study was being carried out. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Ezejindu DN, Chinweife KC, Ihentuge CJ. The Effects of Moringa Extract on Liver Enzymes of Carbon Tetrachloride Induced Hepatotoxicity In Adult Wister Rats. The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES), Volume 2 (Issue 7), 2013, Pages 54-59. Maton A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CW, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D, Wright JD, Human Biology and Health (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall, 1993). ISBN 0-13-981176-1. OCLC32308337. Doherty, R.E. "A History of the Production and Use of Carbon Tetrachloride, Tetrachloroethylene, Trichloroethylene and 1, 1, 1Trichloroethane in the United States: Part 1—Historical Background; Carbon Tetrachloride and Tetrachloroethylene". Environmental Forensics, 1 (1), 2000, 69–81. Ohta Y, Sasaki E, Nishida K, Kongo M, Hayashi T, Nagata M & Ishiguro L. Inhibitory effect of Oren-gedoku-to (Huanglian-JieDu-Tang) extract on hepatic triglyceride accumulation with the progression of carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury in rats. Journal Ethnopharmacology, 61(1), (May 1998), 75-80. Recknagel RO, Glende EA Jr, Dolak JA, Waller RL. Mechanisms of carbon tetrachloride toxicity. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 43, 1989, 139–54. Wilkinson HJ, Diagnostic enzymology (Edward Arnold Publishers ltd., London.775., 1976). Mayers CW and Jones RS, Textbook of liver and biliary surgery (J.B. Lippin-Cott Company Philadelphia 47-8, 61, 209, 1990). Yousef MI, Omar SA, El-Guendi MI, Abdelmegid LA. Potential protective effects of quercetin and curcumin on paracetamolinduced histological changes, oxidative stress, impaired liver and kidney functions and haematotoxicity in rat. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48, 2010, 3246–3261. Choi, JH, Choi CY, Lee KJ, Hwang YP, Chung YC, Jeong HG. Hepatoprotective effects of an anthocya nin fraction from purplefleshed sweet potato against acetaminophen induced liver damage in mice. Journal of Medicinal Food, 12, 2009, 320–326. Li R, Guo W, Fu Z, Ding G, Zou Y and Wang Z. Hepatoprotective Action of Radix Paeoniae Rubra Aqueous Extract against CCl4-Induced Hepatic Damage. Molecules, 16(10), 2011, 8684-8694. Yen FL, Wu TH, Lin LT and Lin CC. Hepatoprotective and Antioxidant Effects of Cuscuta Chinensis against Acetaminophen Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 111, 2007, 123-128. Fakurazi S, Nanthini U and Hairuszah I. Hepatoprotective and antioxidant action of Moringa oleifera Lam. against acetaminophen induced hepatotoxicity in rats. International Journal of Pharmacology, 4(4), 2008, 270-275. Fuglie LJ, The Miracle Tree, in Moringa oleifera: Natural Nutrition for the Tropics. (Church World Service, Dakar, 1999) 68 pp. Revised in 2001 and published as The Miracle Tree: The Multiple Attributes of Moringa , 172 pp. http://www.echotech.org/bookstore/advanced_search_result.php?keywords=Miracle+Tree. Fuglie LJ. New Uses of Moringa Studied in Nicaragua. ECHO Development Notes #68, June, 2000. http://www.echotech.org/network/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=194. Fahey JW. Moringa oleifera: a review of the medical evidence for its nutritional, therapeutic and prophylactic properties. Trees for Life Journal, 1, 2005, 5. Pandey A, Pandey RD, Tripathi P, Gupta PP, Haider J, Bhatt S, and Singh AV. Moringa oleifera Lam. (Sahijan) - A Plant with a Plethora of Diverse Therapeutic Benefits: An Updated Retrospection. Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, 1, 2012, 1. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 17 Evaluation of the Hepatoprotective Efficacy of Moringa Oleifera Seed Oil on… [17] Anwar F, Latif S, Ashraf M and Gilani AH. Moringa oleifera: A Food Plant with Multiple Medicinal Uses. PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH 21, 2007, 17–25. [18] World Health Organization (WHO). Traditional Medicine, December 2008. www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/ [19] Fahey JW, AT Dinkova-Kostova, and P Talalay, The ―Prochaska‖ microtiter plate bioassay for inducers of NQO1, Chapter 14 in Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 382, Part B, 2004, pp. 243-258 (Eds.) (H. Sies & L. Packer, Elsevier Science, San Diego, CA.) [20] Kumar NA, and Pari L. Antioxidant action of Moringa oleifera Lam. (drumstick) against antitubercular drugs induced lipid peroxidation in rats. Journal of Medicinal Food, 6(3), 2003, 255-259. [21] Rao KNV, Gopalakrishnan V, Loganathan V, and Shanmuganathan S. Antiinflammatory activity of Moringa oleifera Lam. Ancient Science of Life 18(3-4), 1999, 195-198. [22] Faizi S, BS Siddiqui, R Saleem, S Siddiqui, K Aftab, and AH Gilani. Isolation and structure elucidation of new nitrile and mustard oil glycosides from Moringa oleifera and their effect on blood pressure. Journal of Natural Products 57, 1994, 12561261. [23] Alaaeldin A and Hamza. Curcuma longa, Glycyrrhiza glabra and Moringa oleifera ameliorate diclofenac – induced hepatotoxicity in rats. American Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 2(2), 2007, 80-88. [24] Ruckmani K, Kavimani P, Anandan R and Jaykar B. Effect of Moringa oleifera Lam on paracetamol – induced hepatotoxicity. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 60, 1998, 33-35. [25] Gilani AH, Janbaz KH and Shah BH. Quercetin exhibits hepatoprotective activity in rats. Biochemical Society Transactions, 25, 1997, 85. [26] Reitman S & Frankel S. A colorimetric method for the determination of serum glutamic oxalacetic and glutamic pyruvic transaminases. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 28, 1957, 56-63. [27] Annino JS, Giese RW. Clinical chemistry, principles and procedures, 4th edition, (Little Brown and Company, Boston. pp. 7682, 1976). [28] Parola, M, Leonarduzz, G, Biasi, F, Albono, M, Biocca, G, Polic, Dianzani, MU. Vitamin E dietary Supplementation. Protects against CCl4 induced chronic liver damage and cirrhosis. Hepatology, 16, 1992, 1014-1021. [29] Hamza AA. Ameliorative effects of Moringa oleifera Lam. seed extract on liver fibrosis in rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48, 2010, 345-355. [30] Ujah OF, Ujah IR, Johnson JT, Ekam VS and Udenze ECC. Hepatoprotective property of ethanolic leaf extract of Moringa oleifera on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced hepatotoxicity. Journal of Natural Product and Plant Resources 3 (2), 2013, 1522. [31] Rajesh MG and Latha MS. Protective activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. on carbon tetrachloride-induced peroxidative damage. Indian Journal of pharmacology 36, 2004, 284-287. [32] Yan-Jun L, Jie-ping Y, Zhao- hong S, Wang L. Ginkgo biloba extract reverses CCl4-induced liver fibrosis in rats. World Journal of gastroenterology, 10, 2004, 1037-1042. [33] Ulicna O, Greksak M, Vancova O, Zlatos L, Galbavy S, Bozek P, Nakano M. Hepatoprotective effect of rooibos tea (Aspalathus linearis) on CCl4-induced liver damage in rats. Physiological Research, 52, 2003, 461-466. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 18

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 27-31||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 IN-VIVO QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF Dambu-nama TREATED WITH SOME HURDLES Eke, M.O1 ; Ariahu, C.C1 and Igyor, M.A1 Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, P.M.B. 2373, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria ------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------- A study was conducted to assess the protein quality of beef based Dambu-nama “A shredded dried Nigeria meat product” by IN-VIVO studies using Swiss Strain Albino rats. Four hurdles were used in the preparation of three samples namely; Citric acid at 0.1 (B), 0.2 (D) and 0.3 (G) % levels of concentration, Salt at 2.0%, Sugar at 4.0% and All spices (ginger, garlic, onions, hot pepper, sweet pepper and magi cube) was added at 2.0% and 4.0% respectively and a control (AB) which was not treated with any hurdles. Result showed that the proximate composition of the test diets B, D, G, AB, BD and CD (Casein diet) , varied significantly at (P≤0.05). All diets recorded positive weight gain except BD (Basal diet) that was negative. The Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER), Protein Utilization (PU), Net Protein Ratio (NPR) and Apparent digestibility (AD) values varied significantly (P≤0.05) in all diets. Faecal nitrogen, liver nitrogen and carcasses nitrogen also varied significantly in all at P≤0.05. Rats fed basal diet (BD) recorded a negative PER (-2.26) while those fed on 0.3% citric acid (G) have a value of 2.32and those fed on 0.2% 0.1% citric acid (D and B) have a PER value of 2.34 and 2.40 respectively and the control (AB) which was untreated have a lower PER value of 2.18. This implies that the use of citric acid significantly increase the protein quality of dambu-nama and may as well increase the shelf-stability due to the reduction of the activity of micro-organisms. KEYWORDS: Dambu-nama, In-vivo, Albino Rats, Hurdles, Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission:. 27 October, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I. INTRODUCTION The dearth of animal protein in the diets of persons living in developing countries has been an issue of concern to Government and Individuals over the years. This is because what is obtained from the major sources of meat supply can no longer sustain the growing demand due to increase in human population (1). In order to bridge the gap between demand and supply of animal protein, preservation of meat is therefore necessary. The microbial safety and stability as well as the sensory and nutritional quality of most foods is based on an application of combined preservative factors called hurdles (2). From an understanding of the hurdle effect, the hurdle technology has been derived (3), which means that hurdles are deliberately combined to improve the microbial stability and the sensory quality of foods as well as their nutritional and economic properties. Thus, hurdle technology aims to improve the total quality of foods by application of an intelligent mix of hurdles. According to (2), the most important hurdles used in food preservation are temperature (high or low), water activity (aw), acidity (pH), redox potential (Eh), preservatives (e.g. nitrite, sorbate, sulfite), and competitive micro-organisms (e.g. lactic acid bacteria). Some hurdles (e.g. mallard reaction products) will influence the safety and the quality of foods, because they have antimicrobial properties and at the same time improve the flavour of the products. The same hurdles could have a positive or a negative effect on foods, depending on its intensity. In developing countries the application of hurdle technology for foods that remain stable, safe and tasty if stored without refrigeration is of paramount importance. The inclusion of animal products in the diet of an average Nigerian has been diminishing from year to year mainly due to poverty, high cost of animal feeds and political and economic instability coupled with poor infrastructural development (4).The use of citric acid, salt, sugar and all spices hurdle combination for this study significantly improved the sensory, microbial stability and nutritional quality of the dambu-nama. Citric acid, a food acidulant is not only often used in meat marination to improve the waterholding capacity and tenderness of beef muscle but is also commonly used as a chelator to control the activity of pro oxidants metals (5, 6). The salt, sugar and spices also play preservative roles as well as improving the sensory and nutritional quality of dambu-nama. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 27 In-Vivo Quality Assessment Of Dambu-Nama.... The objective of this research is to investigate the effect of citric acid, salt, sugar and spices (hurdles) on the nutritional and sensory qualities of dambu-nama using albino rats as the vehicle. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Procurement and Preparation Pre-rigored beef from the hind quarters was purchased from Makurdi International Market abattoir. All spices (onions, ginger, garlic, sweet pepper, hot pepper and maggi), salt, sugar and citric acid (food grade) were also purchased from Makurdi International Market. Grand cereal vegetable oil used for frying was purchased from a supermarket in Makurdi. Four kilogram (4kg) of beef was used for each treatment (four) totalling 16kg. The beef was trimmed of fats and connective tissue and cut into nearly equal sizeable sizes and then cured in 0.02g of meta-bisulphate for 30 minutes (7). 500ml of clean tap water was poured into each treatment containing 4kg of beef, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3% of citric acid, 2.0% of salt and sugar and 4.0% of all spices (processed into dry powder), mixed properly and cooked for 90 minutes. The cooked tender beef was then pounded into a soft matrix using pestle and mortar. The matrix which is fluffy in nature was then separated manually. The shredded fluffy beef was dried briefly for 30 minutes at 60 oC to reduce the moisture content before frying in a hot air oven . The beef was then fried mildly for 10 minutes and re-dried in a hot air oven at 60oC for 3 – 4 hrs. The shredded dried meat (Dambu-nama) is then cooled and packaged in a high density polyethylene (HDPE) from were samples were drown for subsequent analysis. Feeding Trials with Rats Swiss strain of albino rats aged between 10-12 weeks were purchased from NITROM (National Institute of Trypanosomiasis Research, Vom, Plateau State) and were used for the feeding experiment following a modification of the method described by (8) as reported by (9). Thirty rats were randomly distributed to six stainless cages with 5 (five) rats per cage. The rats were given food and water ad Libitum. Each of the animal groups was fed one of the test diets (B, D, G, AB, CD and BD) respectively. Weight gained by the rats and food consumed were measured every day for 21 days. Faeces were collected daily during the first 7 days and last 7 days and stored in a freezer. The faeces were later pooled together, thawed, air (sun) dried and ground into powder, packaged in airtight bottles until when required for analysis. At the end of the twenty one (21) days of the experiment, the rats in each cage were scarified following the procedure described by (9). The rats were anaesthetised using chloroform; the dead rats were incised vertically through the stomach, the neck and the head. Individual organ were removed, weighed separately and dried in a hot air oven at 60 oC. Subsequently ground into powder and packaged in an airtight plastic container from where samples were drawn for Nitrogen analysis. Assessment of Protein Quality Protein quality of Dambu-nama – a shredded dried Nigerian meat product which were fed to weaning albino rats was evaluated following method described by (8) were used to calculate PER, FCE, NPR, PU, AD and TPD respectively. Statistical Analysis Data collected were subjected to statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA) and significant differences between means were separated using Duncan’s Multiple Range test using SPSS 17.0 package. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the proximate composition of the test diets fed to the albino rats is as presented in Table 1. The crude protein value showed some level of significance (P≤0.05) and ranged 16.45% to 28.25% respectively. The basal diet (BD) has the lowest while diet treated with 0.2% citric acid (D) has the highest value. Table 2 shows the result of nitrogen content of diets, carcasses, liver and faeces. Significant difference exist at (P≤0.05) for the nitrogen content in liver, faeces and diets but no significant difference for nitrogen in carcasses. According to (10) higher liver nitrogen is a function of protein quality, nitrogen intake and digested nitrogen because nitrogen is used in the synthesis of liver. The result of the body weight changes, feed intake and feed conversion efficiency of albino rats fed with test diets (dambu-nama) is as presented in Table 3. The mean weight gain (MWG) for the rats fed diets which was not treated with any hurdles (AB-control) was lower (46.45g) and the group fed basal diet (BD) have a weight loss (-2.68g). The nitrogen intake and protein intake showed some level of significance at (P≤0.05) for rats fed the test diets. This observation is in agreement with the reports of (9) who fed their albino rats with protein enriched mumu. Similarly, (11) who fed rats with extruded African bread fruits based diets observed similar trends. Table 4 presents the result of the protein quality indices of the test diets. The protein efficiency ratio (PER = weight gain of test group/protein consumed by test group) is the official method in www.theijes.com The IJES Page 28 In-Vivo Quality Assessment Of Dambu-Nama.... Canada and the United State for assessing protein quality of foods. PER values less than 2.0 are attributed to low quality protein foods while PER values of more than 2.0 are for normal quality protein foods (12,13). The result showed PER values for diets with 0.3% and 0.2% citric acid (G) and (D) have a PER values of 2.34 and 2.32 respectively while that treated with 0.1% citric acid (B) have 2.40 , the untreated sample (AB – control) have a PER value of 2.18. The reference standard Casein (CD) has a value of 2.58. The PER as an index of protein quality shows the relationship between weight gain by the test animals and the corresponding protein as N- intake (11). According to (14) the addition of citric acid at higher intensity may affect the sensory attributes. Similarly, the microstructure of beef muscle changes dramatically upon citric acid acidification but returns to a surprising normal structure upon readjustment back to the normal post mortem pH of raw beef muscle. PER (protein efficiency ratio) has been heavily criticized and NPR (Net protein ratio) has been the recommended method by the AOAC and the Protein Advisory Group of the United Nations (15,16). The NPR (weight gain/loss by 0.0% protein group/weight of protein consumed) credits the protein used for both growth and maintenance (12). IV. CONCLUSION The result of the PER demonstrate that the value are above 2.0 as recommended by the protein Advisory Group of the United Nations except the group feed basal diets that recorded a negative value. The mean weight gain (MWG) also showed significant increase with increase in hurdle concentration. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The corresponding Author is most grateful to the University of Agriculture, Makurdi for the training leave granted and to TETFUND for the research grant provided. REFERENCE [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Fakolade, P.O and Onoja, A.B. Conference on International Research on Food Security, Natural Resources Management and Rural Development. University of Hohenheim, 2008, OCT 7-9. Lother .L. Basic aspects of food preservation by hurdle technology (Review), 2000, International Journal of Food Microbiology (55) 181-186. Leistner, L. Hurdle technology applied to meat products of the shelf stable product and intermediate moisture food types. In : Simatos, D. Multon, J.L (Ed), properties of water in foods in relation to quality and stability, Martins Nithoff Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1985, PP 309-329. Umoren, U.E, Effiong, O.O and Akpan I.E. Assessment of the Nutritional Quality of Processed horse eye bean (mucuna urens) by in VIVO rat bioassay. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 2007 5(2) 132-135. Decker, E.A and Mei, L.Y. Antioxidant mechanisms and application in muscle foods. Reciprocal meat conference proceedings, 1996, 49, 64-72. Ke .S. Effect of pH and Salts on tenderness and water holding capacity of muscle foods: PhD Dissertation, University of Massachuselts Amberst 2006. Eke, M.O, Ariahu, C.C. and Okonkwo, T.M. production and quality evaluation of dambu-nama – A Nigerian dried meat product. Nigerian Food Journal. 2012, 30(2), 65-72. Ariahu, C.C, Ukpabi, U and Mbajunwa, K.O. Production of African Bread Fruit (Treculia Africana) and Soybean (Glycine Max) seed based food formulations, effect of germination. Ingbian, E.K and Adegoke, G.O. Nutritional quality of protein-enriched mumu – a traditional cereal food product. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2007, 42, 476-481. Obizoba, I.C. protein quality of diets based on tuber, legumes and cereals in weaning rats. Plant foods for Human Nutritional, 1995, 35, 35-41. Nwabueze, T.U. Weight analysis and nitrogen balance assay in rats fed extruded African Bread fruit (Treculia Africana Decue) based diets. Nigeria Food Journal, 2008, 26(1) 27-41. Sarwar, G. and McDonough, F.E. Review of protein quality evaluation method: evaluation of protein digestibility – corrected amino acid score method for assessing protein quality of foods. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 1990, 73: 347-356. Sakanata, S.K, mitsuya, T.K., Gutierrez, M.A and Juneja, R.L. Protein quality determination of dilapidated egg York. Journal of food Composition and Analysis, 2000, 13, 773-781. Shuming, Ke, Yan, H, Eric, A.D, Herbert O.H. Impact of citric acid on the tenderness, microstructure and oxidation stability of beef muscle. Meat Science, Elsiver, 2008, 82, 113-118. PAG. Guideline on protein rich mixtures for use in weaning foods. New York NY: Protein Advisory Group United Nations. Pallet, P.C. and Yang, V.R. Evaluation of protein quality. NAS-NRC publication 1100, Tokyo United Nations University Press. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 29 In-Vivo Quality Assessment Of Dambu-Nama.... Table 2: Nitrogen Content of Diet, Carcasses, Liver and Faeces www.theijes.com The IJES Page 30 In-Vivo Quality Assessment Of Dambu-Nama.... www.theijes.com The IJES Page 31

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 118-123 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 On The Use of an Almost Unbiased Ratio Estimator in the TwoPhase Sampling Scheme Olusegun Alfred O. --------------------------------------------------------- ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------There has been an extensive use of auxiliary information in ratio estimation for estimating population parameters in forestry. Tree heights, measured during forest inventory programs is an important component required for determining a forest site’s productivity. We consider the problem of obtaining precise estimates of the mean height of trees in a finite population. Using simple random sampling without replacement, data on the total height of Tectona grandis (THT), the study variate and its diameter-at-breast height (DBH), which is the auxiliary information were obtained via the two-phase sampling approach at the Oluwa Forest Reserve, Ondo State, Nigeria. The estimators considered in this study are the unbiased estimator, the usual ratio estimator, the Bahl and Tuteja (1991) estimator and the almost unbiased (AU) estimator. The Bias and the mean square error (MSE) of these estimators were then obtained to the first degree of approximation, using the Taylor’s linearization method as described by Wolter (2007). The inequality which expresses the relationship obtained from a direct comparison of the MSE of estimators, an observation of findings,indicate that AU ratio estimator has the highest percent relative gain in efficiency. KEYWORDS: Auxiliary Information,Mean Square Error, Ratio Estimator, Tectona grandis, Two-Phase Sampling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------Date of Submission: 11, September - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November - 2013 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Demand of statistics on various facets of economy in all the countries is increasing at a fast rate. In developing countries, basic data are needed for formulating development plans and for subsequent assessment of their progress. For this purpose, it becomes necessary to collect relevant information regarding the different sectors of economy for each of the administrative divisions. With respect to wood and timber in the forestry and paper industry, data on various aspects of its cultivation are needed for planning, fixing the target of production and for assessing the progress of various development programmes being conducted in the sector. Census, which is a complicated and costly operation, cannot be operated on a very frequent interval in order to obtain the needed information. Hence, this necessity, which has led in part, to this research work, the considerable development in the applications of efficient and modern sampling techniques based on probability theory. Teak trees with botanical name Tectona grandis is a genus of tropical hardwood trees in the family verbenaceae native to south and south-east of Asia, the timber from teak is used in shipbuilding, boat decks and in the manufacture of outdoor furniture and other articles where weather resistance is desired. In south-western Nigeria, Tectona grandis is one of the most prominent species in the man-made forests. It is regarded as a very suitable specie for the rapid production of large volumes of timber, fuel-wood and poles of uniform and desirable quality (Akindele 1991), e.g. PHCN poles. Teak is also used extensively to make doors and window frames as it is resistant to termite attack Oyamakin et al (2010). The concept of double sampling was first introduced by Neyman (1938). He felt the need of double sampling technique while examining the problem of stratification. The technique of stratification improves the precision of estimate of character under study provided it is possible to choose an appropriate character highly correlated with the character under study for the purpose of stratification. Hidiroglou and Sarndal (1998) said that double sampling is a cost effective sampling design, and precision of ratio and regression estimates of study variable under two-phase sampling increases if there is a high degree of correlation between the auxiliary variable and study variable. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 118 On The Use of an Almost Unbiased Ratio... Double sampling is usually presented under the assumption that one of the samples is nested within the other; this method in particular is known as two-phase sampling, which is precisely a sampling scheme involving two distinct phases, in the first of which information about (a) particular variable(s) of interest (the auxiliary information) is collected on all members of the sample, and in the second, information about other variables is collected on a sub-sample of the individuals in the original sample. This technique consists of taking a large sample of size by simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR) to estimate population mean of auxiliary variable while a sub-sample of out of units is drawn by SRSWOR to observe the characteristic under study. The use of the auxiliary information in ratio estimation can be used to achieve greater precision in estimation as it takes advantage of the correlation between the auxiliary variate and the variate of interest . When information about the auxiliary variable is available, it increases the precision of the population variance. Snedecor and King (1942) mentioned the application of a two-phase sampling procedure for determination of corn yield. They found out that it was easier and cheaper to count the number of ears of corn in a given unit area than to harvest the yield and obtain the dry weight of kernels. The high cost of making dry weight determination led to the use of two-phase sampling in which ears were not counted and measured in many fields but harvested in only a portion of fields, thus, taking advantage of the correlation between study variable (the dry weight of kernels) and the auxiliary variable(length-diameter of the ear). Hartley and Ross (1954) developed exact ratio estimator. Freese (1962) presented detailed description of its application in forestry. He selected an auxiliary variable to achieve primary objective of two-phase sampling i.e. to reduce total inventory time without sacrificing the precision about the point estimate. Basal area is commonly utilized as auxiliary variable with two-phase sampling for volume estimates. This is because of the high correlation between basal area and volume and also the fact that basal area can be determined very quickly. Singh et al. (2007) have suggested modified ratio estimators by using different pairs of known value of population parameter(s).Singh et al. (2008) then proposed the Almost Unbiased (AU) estimator, a modification which utilises a linear combination of the usual ratio estimator and the exponential estimator due to Bahl and Tuteja (1991). II. MATERIALS AND METHODS The data utilised in this study is primary in nature. It was obtained at the Oluwa Forest Reserve (OFR). The study sites are located within Oluwa Forest Reserve (OFR). OFR is located in Odigbo Local government area of Ondo state, Nigeria within latitudes 06 0 52' and 70 20’ N;and longitude 30 45’ and 40 32’ E. Oluwa Forest Reserve is approximately 828 km2 with much of it lying approximately between 300 and 600m above sea level (Iloeje 1981). The sampling frame consists of a population of 481 trees, in which 204 initial sample trees of Teak were measured for diameter-at-breast height (DBH) alone and subsequently, 60 second stage samples were then measured for both the Total Height of Tree (THT) and DBH. Both samples were collected using SRSWOR and their sizes determined from a pilot survey of 30 trees using an optimum allocation in two-phase sampling method. The correlation value which is used in analysing the improvement in efficiency due to ratio estimation and also determining the optimal samples sizes was obtained from a pilot survey of 30 trees in which information was collected on both Diameter-at-Breast Height (DBH) and the Total Height of Tree (THT). 2.1 The Almost Unbiased (AU) Ratio Estimator Considering a finite population; of units. Let denote the values of the units included in a sample of size n, drawn by SRSWOR. In order to have a survey estimate of the population mean of the study character y, assuming the knowledge of the population mean of the auxiliary character x, we have; (1) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 119 On The Use of an Almost Unbiased Ratio... And Such that the population mean . , where denotes the set of all possible ratio type estimators for estimating The Almost Unbiased (AU) estimator is given as; And this is a linear variety if; for denotes statistical constants and denotes the set of real numbers. Where Noting that setting the constant and in to 1 and 0 respectively, transforms to the usual ratio estimator, and correspondingly to the Bahl and Tuteja (1991) estimator . 2.2 The AU ratio estimator in two-phase sampling When is unknown, it is sometimes estimated from a preliminary large sample of size only the characteristic Let denote the sample mean of , be the sample means of In two-phase sampling, the estimator and based on the first sample of size , and respectively, based on a second phase sample of size (7) (8) and . Noting that setting the constants ratio estimator, . will take the following form; for Where on which and and in the above equations to 1 and 0, transforms correspondingly to the Bahl and Tuteja (1991) estimator to the usual , both for use in two-phase sampling.  The estimators with their biases and MSE’s (under two-phase sampling) are given below: The Usual Ratio Estimator (9) (10) (11)  Where; , , , The Bahl and Tuteja (1991) Estimator (12) (13) (14)  The Almost Unbiased Estimator (15) (16) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 120 On The Use of an Almost Unbiased Ratio... Given that: , and (17) Where: (18) (19) (20) 2.3 Analysis of Improvement In Efficiency Due To Ratio Estimation: From Cochran (1977), it is shown that the ratio estimator improves efficiency if; (21) Hence, data obtained from the study site pilot survey, shows that the ratio estimator which is being considered for use in estimating the population total in this research will improve efficiency as compared to the mean per unit estimator . 2.4 Critical range of assumed Costs: , being the cost for obtaining information on DBH and a Using an assumed cost of , for the THT of each tree during the pilot survey. cost for a given Equation (22) from Cochran (1977)gives the critical ranges of sampling more profitable. that makes two-phase (22) It is shown that the assumed costs satisfies the critical ranges profitable for a given To compute for the optimum sample sizes, we have; that make double sampling more (23) (24) (23) and (24) due to Raj and Chandhok (1998), are the optimal values of and given a correlation value between the auxiliary variable and the study variable. Hence, and were conveniently chosen as 204 and 60 respectively. Based on the first phase sample, the following parameters were estimated as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of The First Phase Samples Mean Name Variable Variance Standard Deviation Diam.-at-Breast Height (DBH) www.theijes.com 204 0.28810294 The IJES 0.0089842244 0.0947851485 Page 121 On The Use of an Almost Unbiased Ratio... A second phase sample of size 60 was taken from the first phase sample , which records only the measure of height (in metres) of the study variable , the following parameters were measured and are shown in Table 2. Name DBH THT Table 2:Descriptive Statistics of The Second Phase Samples Variable Variance Stand. Deviation Mean 60 60 III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The values of the Average Height of Teak trees in Oluwa Forest Reserve, obtained using the various estimators considered in this study is summarized in the table below. Table 3: Values of The Population Mean Obtained Using Different Estimators Estimator Population Mean Estimates 18.039 20.957 20.40869 21.6010 The Bias, a measure of deviation of the estimates from the true value of the population parameter under study in this research work are presented in Table 5.1.2 below; Table 4: Bias of Estimators Estimator 0.009612 0.001161 0.00000179 Table 5 shows the Variance of the unbiased mean per unit estimator (MSEs) of the usual ratio estimator , the Bahl and Tuteja (1991) estimator and Mean Square Errors and the AU ratio estimator. Table 5: Variance/MSEs of Estimators Estimators 0.372194 0.1997189 0.1586222 0.14407924 The inequality below shows the relationship among various estimators being considered; This indicates an agreement with previous literatures which holds that the Bahl & Tuteja (1991) estimator is more precise than the usual ratio estimator . The Percent Relative Gain in Efficiencies (PRGEs) of the estimators computed with respect to the unbiased estimator all are listed in Table 6. Table 6: Percent Relative Gain in Efficiencies (PRGE) of Estimators Estimators 46.34 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 122 On The Use of an Almost Unbiased Ratio... 57.38 61.29    The correlation between the variables THT And DBH is strong and positive with a value of The estimate of the population mean height of trees in the Oluwa forest reserve, Ondo State, Nigeria, using the almost unbiased ratio estimator is 21.601m The Mean Squared Error (MSE) of the estimates based on the AU estimator is relatively lowest with respect to the Bahl and Tuteja (1991) estimator and the usual ratio estimator, all under the two-phase sampling scheme and given the same assumed costs. IV. CONCLUSION This shows clearly that the Almost Unbiased Ratio Estimator considered with considerable gain in efficiency. is more efficient than other estimators Hence we can conclude that the estimator is to be preferred in practice over the unbiased and the Bahl and Tuteja (1991) estimator , when estimating estimator , the usual ratio estimator population means, not only in agricultural studies but also in food processing, education and other sectors where a decent level of precision is needed for obtaining estimates required for planning purposes and decision making. For further study, one would suggest the development of a modification of the AU estimator for use in stratification, such that the enhancement of precision which come about as result of classifying the population based on their shared attributes could be exploited. REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. Bahl, S. and Tuteja, R.K. 1991. Ratio and product type exponential estimator. Journal Information and Optimization Sciences 12.1: 159-163. Wolter, K.M. 2007. Introduction to Variance Estimation. 2nd Ed. Springer, New York. Akindele, S.O. 1991. Development of a site index equation for teak plantations in south-western Nigeria.Journal of Tropical Forest Science 4.2: 162-169. Oyamakin, O.S., Julius, A.J., Asaolu, J.O. and Oyeleye, B. 2010. Sampling techniques procedures in sustainable forest management; a two-phase sampling approach.American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research.667-670. Neyman, J. 1938. Contribution to the theory of sampling human populations.Journal of the American Statistical Association, 33.201: 101-116. Hidiroglou, M.A and Sarndal, C.E. 1998. Use of auxiliary information for two-phase sampling.Survey Methodology 24: 873-878. Snedecor, G. W. and King, A. J. 1942. Recent developments in sampling for agricultural statistics. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 37.217: 95-102. Hartley, H.O. and Ross, A. 1954. Unbiased ratio estimators.Nature 174: 270-271. Freese, F. (1962). Elementary forest sampling. Agriculture handbook/Forest Service.USDA 232. Singh, R., Chauhan, P., Smarandache, F., &Sawan, N. (2007). Auxiliary information and a priori values in construction of improved estimators.Infinite Study. Singh, R, Kumar, M. andSmarandache, F. 2008. Almost unbiased estimator for estimating population mean using known value of some population parameter(s).Pakistani Journal of Statistics and Operations Research 4.2: 63-76. Iloeje, N.P.: A New Geography of Nigeria. New Revised Edition, Longman, Great Britain (1981). Cochran, W.G. 1977.Sampling Techniques 3rd Ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. London. Raj, D. and Chandok, P. 1998. Sample Survey Theory. Narosa Publishing, New Delhi. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 123

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 08-16||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Evaluation of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties for Shallow Foundation Design in Onne, Rivers State, Nigeria 1, Ngah, S.A And 2,Nwankwoala, H.O 1, Institute Of Geosciences And Space Technology, Rivers State University Of Science And Technology, PMB 5080, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Nigeria 2, Department Of Geology, College Of Natural And Applied Sciences, University Of Port Harcourt, PMB 5323, Choba, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. -------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT--------------------------------------------------This study aims at establishing the sub-soil types and profile to ascertain the engineering characteristics of the underlying soils in Onne area of Rivers State, Nigeria and recommend appropriate foundation design and construction for large scale ground and elevated water storage facilities in the area. Four borings were accomplished using a percussion rig with the aid of augers. Representative samples were analyzed in the laboratory in accordance with relevant geotechnical engineering standards. Results of the study revealed that within the maximum depth of 15m of boring, the area was found to consist of about 0.2m thick of organic topsoil followed by light brown sandy-clay underlain by a light brown to yellowish brown fine to medium grained, medium dense sand up to 15m depth of investigation. The study also reveals that superficial light brown sandy clay is suitable in quality to carry shallow or raft foundation load development and also has thickness to completely dissipate the influence of such foundations in the area. For such foundations which could be placed between 1.0m and 3.0m depth, an average allowable bearing pressure qa of100kN/m2 is recommended for the area. The size of projects in the area in terms of loading presupposes that a shallow foundation placed at a minimum of about 900mm below existing ground level may be appropriate. For such foundation and for a maximum consolidation settlement of about 60mm, an allowable bearing pressure of 100kpa is recommended.. KEY WORDS: Sub-soils, Geotechnical Properties, foundation design, Construction, Niger Delta. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 28 October 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION It has been observed in recent times, that many property developers in Nigeria ignore drastically the role of geotechnical information in the planning, design, construction, operation as well as safety of civil engineering infrastructures. This neglect results to failure of structures (Annoret al., 1987; Amadiet al., 2012; Youdeowei &Nwankwoala, 2013). Frequent structural failure of civil engineering infrastructures in parts of Port Harcourt Metropolis has become a source of worry to so many persons. It is for this reason that a clear understanding of the occurrence, composition, distribution, geologic history as well as the geotechnical properties of subsurface soils in the area is necessary. Considering the fact that the Eastern Niger Delta is within the coastal zone, geotechnical investigation /considerations are very desirable. The coastal zone which comprises the beach ridges and mangrove swamps is underlain by an alternating sequence of sand and clay with a high frequency of occurrence of clay within 10m below the ground surface. Because of the nearness of these compressible clays to the surface, the influence of imposed loads results to consolidation settlement. The impact of the imposed load is exacerbated by the thickness and consistency of the compressible layer. This, in addition to other intrinsic factors contributes to the failure of civil engineering structures. The knowledge of the geotechnical characteristics of Onne, Rivers State, Nigeria is very desirable for design and construction of foundation of future civil engineering structures in order to minimize adverse effects and prevention of post construction problems. Some studies have been carried out on geotechnical properties of the sub-soils generally (Nwankwoala &Amadi, 2013; Oke &Amadi, 2008; Okeet al., 2009).For the purpose of generating relevant data inputs for the design and construction of foundations for proposed structures, it is imperative that the site be geo-technically characterized through sub-soil investigation. This paper therefore, aims at establishing significant subsoil types and profile, investigation of the engineering characteristics of all such sub-soils to generate the required data relevant to the foundation design and construction of structures. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 8 Evaluation Of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties… Description of the Study Area The study area is located in Onne (Fig.1), Rivers State, Nigeria. The terrain is generally flat or near – flat typical of the Niger Delta region. Generally, the area lies within the flat land/plain of the Niger Delta commonly characterized by superficial stratum of deltaic lateritic materials directly overlying coastal plain sand of the Benin Formation. Generally, the Niger Delta Sedimentary Basin is made up of three rock types. Lithostratigraphically, these rocks are divided into the oldest Akata Formation (Paleocene), the Agbada Formation (Eocene) and the Youngest Benin Formation (Miocene to Recent). Generally, the present knowledge of the geology of the Niger Delta was derived from the works of the following researchers (Reyment, 1965; Short &Stauble, 1967; Murat, 1970; Merki, 1970) as well as the exploration activities of the oil and gas companies in Nigeria. The formation of the so called proto-Niger Delta occurred during the second depositional cycle (Campanian-Maastrichtian) of the southern Nigerian basin. However, the modern Niger Delta was formed during the third and last depositional cycle of the southern Nigerian basin which started in the Paleocene. The geologic sequence of the Niger Delta consists of three main Tertiary subsurface lithostratigraphic units (Short &Stauble, 1967) which are overlain by various types of Quaternary deposits (Table 1). Table 1: Quaternary deposits of the Niger Delta (after Etu-Efeotor&Akpokodje, 1990) Geologic Unit Lithology Alluvium Age Gravel, Sand, clay, silt Freshwater Backswamp, meander belt Saltwater Mangrove Swamp and backswamp Sand, clay, some silt, gravel Medium-fine sands, clay and some silt Active/abandoned beach ridges Sand, clay, and some silt Sombreiro-warri deltaic plain Sand, clay, and some silt II. Quaternary METHODS OF STUDY Field Investigation The field investigation took place within the first week of December,2012.The field activities among other things included three numbers of hand-auger soil borings distributed across the site and one deep boring at the center. Borings were accompanied by disturbed and undisturbed sampling. As at the time of field investigation, groundwater stood at 9.00m below the ground surface. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 9 Evaluation Of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties… Soil Boring The three borings were accomplished using a 100mm diameter hand-auger, advanced to a depth of about 5.0m below the existing ground surface while the deep boring was studied by boring one (1) hole (BH4) to a depth of 15m using a Percussion boring rig with the aid of augers, clay cutter or shell. . Soil Sampling During boring, disturbed soil samples were collected at regular intervals of about 1.0m or at significant changes in soil types. Undisturbed samples were also collected in U100 open tube samplers in two randomly selected boreholes at 1.0m and 1.5m depths. Shown in the borehole lithologs are the various sampling types and depths. All samples were examined, identified, classified roughly in the field and all data and information carefully recorded in the borehole logs which are presented in Fig. 2. Laboratory Testing All samples obtained in the field were carefully preserved and transported to the laboratory where they were subjected to more detailed visual inspection and descriptions. Thereafter, representative samples were selected from each stratum for laboratory analysis in accordance with relevant geotechnical engineering standards including BS 1377 (1990).Disturbed samples so selected were subjected to the following laboratory classification tests:(i) Particle size analysis by sieving. (ii) Atterberg limits (liquid and plastic limits).(iii) Natural moisture content. Sieve analysis of cohesive soils particularly involved soaking oven-dried samples in water overnight and washing through sieve No. 200 (75 microns opening) while remnants retained on sieve No. 200 were oven-dried and sieved mechanically. This procedure ensures greater accuracy in determining actual proportion of fines or materials finer than sieve number 200. Such fines were then analysed using the hydrometer method based on Stoke’s Law. The undisturbed and mostly cohesive samples collected in the course of boring were subjected to: (i) unconsolidated–undrained or quick triaxial tests at cell pressures of 100kPa, and 300kPa; and (ii) Oedometer consolidation test. The shear strength parameters cu and u of the cohesive soil samples were obtained from unconsolidated undrained triaxial test, while shear strength parameter of the granular soils were evaluated from average SPT-number of the respective stratum. The dimensionless bearing capacity factors after Vesic has been adopted in computing the bearing capacity for shallow foundation: qu = cNcSc + D(Nq - 1) Sq + 0.5 BNS Where qu = ultimate bearing capacity C = undrained cohesion q = effective overburden  = effective unit weight Nc, Nq, Ny= Bearing capacity factors Sc, Sq, Sy= Shape factors The net allowable, qn(a), bearing capacity of the soil has been evaluated with a factor of safety (F.S) of 3.0 and a summary of the net allowable bearing capacity are presented in Table 4. The submerged unit weight introduced in the analysis is to account for the effect of water on the Surcharge component of bearing capacity. Ultimate pile capacities for axial loading for 406mm, 500mm and 600mm tubular driven steel piles have been estimated for the project. Soil profile and geotechnical data obtained from the site were used for the analysis. The following relationships were used for the calculations: (i) Qu = Qb + Qs (ii) Qu = 9CuAb +CuAs (iii) Qu = P’oNqAb + ksPo’ tanAs for Clay for Sand Where, Qu= Ultimate bearing capacity of pile (kN) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 10 Evaluation Of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties… Qb= Total end bearing (kN) Qs = Skin fiction resistance (kN) Cu =Undrained shear strength of the soil (kN/m2) As = Surface area of pile shaft (m2) =  BD Ab = Base area of pile shaft (m2) =  B 2 4   P’o = Effective overburden pressure = w D 2 B = Diameter of pile D = Depth of penetration = Adhesion factor  = Friction angle between the soil and pile wall = 0.60 ks= Coefficient of horizontal soil stress = 1.5ko ko = Coefficient of earth pressure at rest = 1-Sin The calculated ultimate pile capacities for borehole are shown below. Allowable axial pile capacity has been obtaining by applying safety factor of 2.5 for driven piles. Plot of depth of penetration versus allowable pile capacity for the various boreholes is shown in the Appendices, Settlement Analysis Total consolidation settlement (c) has been computed for foundation breadth (B) between 1.002.50metres, subjected to a net allowable bearing capacity of 100kN/m2. Based on the soil lithology, the thickness of the consolidating layer for a square foundation is taken as the depth to the point where the induced vertical stress () is equal to 0.55qn. The induced vertical stress () at the centre of the consolidating layer has been used in computing c. The consolidation settlement has been computed from the expression. pc =gPoed = mvzH = mv x 0.55qn x 1.5B whereg = Coefficient which depends on the type of clay Poed = Settlement as calculated from oedometer test mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility qn = Net foundation pressure B = Breadth of foundation. An mv value of 0.20m2/MN, which corresponds to the adopted net allowable bearing capacity for the site, has been used in the settlement analysis. III. RESULTS 3.1. Soil Stratigraphy The data obtained from the boring, soil sampling, field penetration tests and laboratory gradation tests were interpreted to determine the stratification of subsoils underlying the site. Within the borehole termination depth of about 15m, the site is characterized superficially by light brown sandy- clay underlain by light brown to yellowish brown fine to medium grained, medium dense soil materials. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 11 Evaluation Of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties… IV. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF MAJOR SUB-SOILS From results of field and laboratory analyses on samples of the soil superficially dominating the site up to borehole termination depth of about 15.0m, the site is characterized by the light-brown sandy- clay. Some selected engineering characteristics for this soil material is summarized in Table 2. Table 2: Engineering Properties of the soil Engineering Properties Natural moisture content (%) Bulk Density (kN/m3) Liquid Limit (%) Plastic Limit (%) Plasticity Index (%) Dry unit weight (kN/m3) Effective unit weight (kN/m3) Undrained cohesion (kN/m2)  Undrained (degree) Void ratio Classification (Unified) Min 23.3 18.8 39 25 14 15.0 9.0 40 3 Max 28.6 19.4 58 28 30 15.4 9.4 44 6 Mean 26.0 19.2 49 27 22 15.2 9.2 42 4 0.33 Cl 0.58 CH 0.45 CH Physical Properties of Sand: Medium Dense Sand: The sand is fine to medium grained, well graded, medium dense. The layers are almost of uniform gradation.The relevant engineering parameters of sands are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Relevant Engineering Parameters Engineering Properties Effective particle size, d10 (mm) Effective particle size, d30 (mm) Effective particle size, d50 (mm) Effective particle size, d60 (mm) Coefficient of uniformity Cu=d60/d10 Coefficient of curvature Cc = d230/(d60 . d10 ) Specific Gravity Classification (Unified) Min 0.02 0.25 0.50 0.60 18 3.56 2.59 SP Max 0.05 0.40 0.70 0.90 30 5.21 2.79 Mean 0.04 0.35 0.60 0.75 24 4.39 2.72 Table 4: Bearing Capacity BH No 1 2 www.theijes.com Depth of Sample (m) Unit Weight γ (kN/m3) Angle of friction  (degrees) Undrained Cohesion ‘cu’ (kN/m3) 1.00 18.80 5 42 2.00 18.80 5 42 3.00 18.80 5 42 1.00 19.10 5 40 2.00 19.10 5 40 3.00 19.10 5 40 The IJES Breadth/ Length ration 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 Allowable bearing capacity ‘qa’ (kN/m2) 108 116 123 113 120 126 116 125 130 104 111 117 108 114 121 112 118 125 Page 12 Evaluation Of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties… 3 4 1.00 19.40 5 41 2.00 19.40 5 41 3.00 19.40 5 41 1.00 19.20 6 41 2.00 19.20 6 41 3.00 19.20 6 41 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 1.00 107 114 120 111 117 124 114 121 128 113 120 127 118 124 131 122 129 136 Table 5: Axial Pile Capacity for Pile Foundation Pile Size (mm) Depth of Penetration (m) Ultimate Pile Base Resistance (kN) 53 53 146 80 80 222 116 116 320 5.0 10.0 15.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 406 500 600 Ultimate Pile Shaft Resistance (kN) 33 186 267 59 229 331 71 274 398 Ultimate Axial Pile Capacity (kN) 34 95 166 56 123 221 75 156 287 Table 6: Total Consolidation Settlement Settlement c (mm) Foundation breadth, B (m) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 16.50 24.75 33.00 41.25 V. DISCUSSIONS Results of the study revealed that the major sub-soils underlying the study area have about 0.2m thick organic topsoil followed by light brown sandy- clay which exists to about 10mdepth underlain by light brown to yellowish brown colored medium dense sand up to termination depth of about 15m. VI. SHALLOW/RAFT FOUNDATIONS Shallow or raft foundation is the most appropriate in the area since a soft to firm silty-clay exists up to 10m depth and underlain by another fine to medium grained sand. The calculated bearing capacities could be used in determining the foundation type for structures. An average bearing capacity of 100kN/m 2 is recommended. VII. PILE FOUNDATION Axial Pile Capacity: The types of piles to be adopted in the study area are those that are driven (displacement piles) e.g. pre-cast concrete and steel cased piles. However, the versatility and cost effectiveness of a particular type of pile is the governing factor in the recommendation. The safe working load of piles are dependent on factors such as pile diameter, founding depth and method of installation which is usually best determined by a specialist-piling contractor from a pile load test. The values of total consolidation settlement are presented in Table 6. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 13 Evaluation Of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties… The computed settlement values presented above for a square foundation size of between 1.00 – 2.50m is less than the allowable maximum settlements suggested by Skempton and MacDonald (1956) for isolated foundations on clays of 65mm, Hence the foundation can sustain the suggested allowable bearing pressure of 100kN/m2. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 14 Evaluation Of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties… Fig.5: Consolidation Test for BH 2 @ 3.OOm Fig. 6: Axial Pile Capacity Analysis for BH 4 VIII. CONCLUSIONS The superficial light brown sandy clay is suitable in quality to carry shallow or raft foundation load from proposed development and also possesses thickness to completely dissipate the influence of such foundations. For such foundations which could be placed between 1.0m and 3.0m depth, an average allowable bearing pressure qa of100kN/m2is recommended for the site. The safe working loads of piles are dependent on factors such as pile diameter, founding depth and method of installation which is usually best determined by a specialist-piling contractor from a pile load test. Ultimate pile capacities for axial loading for 406mm, 500mm and 600mmtubular driven steel piles have been estimated for the project. Soil profile and geotechnical data obtained from the site were used for the analysis. It is generally accepted that pile foundation design is not complete without pile load test. Therefore it is recommended that pile load test be conducted at the site to ensure the design adopted can be safely carried. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] Amadi, A.N; Eze, C.J; Igwe, C.O; Okunlola, I.A and Okoye, N.O (2012).Architect’s and geologist’s view on the causes of building failures in Nigeria. Modern Applied Science, Vol.6 (6): 31 – 38. Annor, A.E; Olasehinde, P.I and Pal, P.C (1987). Basement fracture patterns in the control of water channels – An example from Central Nigeria. Paper presented at the 23 rd Annual Conference of the Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society, Benin, pp9. British Standard Methods of Test for soils for Civil Engineering Purposes. B.S 1377: Part 2, 1990. Published by the British Standards Institution, pp 8 – 200. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 15 Evaluation Of Sub-Soil Geotechnical Properties… [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Etu-Efeotor, J.O and Akpokodje, E.G (1990).Aquifer systems of the Niger Delta.J. Mining Geol. Vol.26 (2), pp279-285 Merki, J.P.(1970). Structural Geology of the Cenozoic Niger Delta.African Geology. University of Ibadan Press.pp251-268 Murat, R.C (1970). Stratigraphy and Paleogeography of the Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary in Southern Nigeria. In: Dessauvagie, T.T J and Whiteman, A.J (eds.). African Geology, University of Ibadan Press, Ibadan, Nigeria.Pp251 – 266. Nwankwoala, H.O and Amadi, A.N (2003).Geotechnical Investigation of Sub-soil and Rock Characteristics in parts of ShiroroMuya-Chachaga Area of Niger State, Nigeria. Oke, S.A and Amadi, A.N (2008).An assessment of the geotechnical properties of the sub-soil of parts of Federal University of Technology, Minna, GidanKwano Campus, for foundation design and construction. Journal of Science, Education and Technology, Vo.1 (2):87 – 102 Oke, S.A; Okeke, O.E; Amadi, A.N; Onoduku, U.S (2009). Geotechnical properties of the sub-soil for designing shallow foundation in some selected parts of Chanchaga area, Minna, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Science, 1(1):45 – 54. Reyment, R.A (1965). Aspects of Geology of Nigeria. University of Ibadan Press, Nigeria. 133p Short, K.C and Stauble, A.J (1967). Outline geology of the Niger Delta. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol Geol. 54:761 – 779 Skempton, A.W and MacDonald D.H. (1956): The Allowable Settlement of Buildings, Proc. Inst. Of Civil Engineers, Part 3, Vol. 5, pp. 727-784. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 16

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 58-78 || 2013 || ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating Global Solar Radiation in North-Eastern Nigeria. 1 1 N. N. Gana and 2D.O. Akpootu Department of Physics, College of Education (Technical), Lafiagi, Kwara State, Nigeria. 2 Department of Physics, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria. ---------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------An accurate knowledge of solar radiation distribution at a particular geographical location is of vital importance for the development of many solar energy devices. In this study, global solar radiation received on horizontal surfaces and sunshine duration for Bauchi, Dutse, Ibitaraba, Maiduguri, Nguru and Yola for the period of fifteen years were analyzed and tabulated. A set of constants for Angstrom-type correlation were obtained to establish the linear regression model capable of generating solar radiation at any given location in North-Eastern, Nigeria. The study resulted in the development of respective Angstrom linear regression models for each of the six meteorological locations, which culminated in the development of the Angstrom model for North-Eastern, Nigeria. Moreover, three sunshine-based models of first, second and third order to estimate annual average global solar radiation has also been obtained employing sunshine hour’s data (1990-2005). In general, the three sunshine-based models performed well in terms of their coefficient of determination with R2 = 99.74% given by the linear Angstrom-Prescott (1940) model, for Ogelman et al., (1984) model, R2 = 99.89% while the Samuel (1991) model proved to be the best estimator with R2 = 99.93% in North-Eastern, Nigeria. The calculated global solar radiation is in good agreement with the three sunshine based models. This study shows that more than one sunshine-based model can be used to predict solar radiation across the North-Eastern, Nigeria. In order to test for the performance of statistical significance of the models, mean bias error (MBE), root mean square error (RMSE), mean percentage error (MPE) and t-test values were adopted, the results shows that despite overestimation and underestimation of the models, there are fairly good level of significance at both confidence level of 95% and 99%. The results of the coefficient of determination indicate that the calculated clearness index and relative sunshine duration shows excellent data. Keywords: Global Solar Radiation, Sunshine Hours, Regression Constants, North-East, Sunshine-based Models, Nigeria. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 19, October - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November - 2013 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Solar energy occupies one of the most important places among the various possible alternative energy sources. It is the energy provided by the sun. Nigeria receives abundant solar energy that can be usefully harnessed with an annual average daily solar radiation of about 5250 Whm-2 day-1. This varies between 3500 Whm-2 day-1 at the coastal areas and 7000 Whm-2 day-1 at the northern boundary. The average amount of sunshine hours all over the country is about 6.5 hours (Chineke and Igwiro, 2008,Yakubu and Medugu, 2012). Accurate quantitative data of the variation of solar radiation reaching the earth surface, together with relevant meteorological parameters are essential requirements for conducting a wide range of scientific studies. Typical examples are found in hydrological studies when calculating soil moisture deficits (Mills, 2000), investigation of biological process (Kudish and Evseev, 2000), climatology (Dissing and Wendler, 1998), thermal design of environmental control of buildings (Agboola, 2011) and quantitative evaluation of eco-physiological system for the determination of irrigation water needs and the potential yield of crops (Tardieu, 2013). The design and estimation of performance of solar heating, cooling and distillation systems also requires detailed knowledge of solar radiation data (Tarawneh, 2007). According to Augustine and Nnabuchi (2009), Sambo (1985) developed correlation with solar radiation using sunshine hours for Kano with the regression coefficients a= 0.413 and b= 0.241 for all the months between 1980- 1984, Arinze and Obi, (1983) developed a correlation with solar radiation using sunshine hours in Northern Nigeria with regression coefficients a= 0.2 and b= 0.74, Burari et al., (2001) developed a model for estimation of global solar radiation in Bauchi with regression coefficients a= 0.24 and b= 0.46. Other workers (e.g. Ojosu, 1984; Fagbenle, 1990; Folayan, 1988; Adebiyi, 1988; Turton, 1987; Bamiro, 1983) developed theoretical and empirical correlations of broad applicability to provide solar data for system design in most Nigeria cities. They observed that the regression coefficients are not universal but depends on the climatic conditions. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 58 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… In the absence and scarcity of trustworthy solar radiation data, the need for an empirical model to predict and estimate global solar radiation seems inevitable. These models use climatological parameters of the location under study. Among all such parameters, sunshine hours are the most widely and commonly used. The models employing this common and important parameter are called sunshine-based models (Ahmad and Ulfat, 2004). However, the main objective of this study is to develop empirical correlation model capable of predicting the mean monthly global solar radiation for the North-Eastern Nigeria. Three sunshine-based models of estimation are employed as to develop new constants for the first, second and third order Angstrom type correlations with the view of establishing the most suitable model of prediction in six different locations in the North-Eastern Nigeria. The meteorological data comprises of global solar radiation on horizontal surfaces and sunshine hours used in this study was collected from the Nigeria Meteorogical Agency (NIMET), Abuja, Nigeria for the period of fifteen years (1990-2005). II. METHODOLOGY The original Angstrom-type regression equation is related with the monthly average daily radiation to the clear day radiation at the location and the average fraction of possible sunshine hours (Angstrom, 1924). Page (1961) and others have modified the method using the values of extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface rather than that of clear day radiation (Duffie and Beckman, 1991): H H o  S   a b   So  (1) where H is the monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface (MJ.m -2.day-1), H o the monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface (MJ.m -2.day-1), S the monthly average daily hours of bright sunshine, S o the monthly average day length, and “a” and “b” values are known as Angstrom constants and they are empirical. The values of the monthly average daily extraterrestrial irradiation ( H O ) can be calculated from the following equation (2) (Duffie and Beckman, 1991):  2 w s   360n   1 0 .0 3 3 c o s       c o s  c o s  s in w s     3 6 5      360  24  HO    I SC      s in s in       (2) Where I S C is the solar constant (=1367 W m-2),  the latitude of the site, δ the solar declination, w s the mean sunrise hour angle for the given month, and n the number of days of the year starting from the first of January. The solar declination (δ) and the mean sunrise hour angle ( w s ) can be calculated by the following equations (3) and (4), respectively in Akinoglu and Ecevit, (1990):    2 3 .4 5 s in  3 6 0 w S  cos 1    ta n  284  n   365  ta n  (3)  (4) For a given month, the maximum possible sunshine duration (monthly average day length ( s o ) which is related to Ws, the mean sunrise hour angle can be computed by using the following equation (5) (Duffie and Beckman, 1991) s o  2 15 w (5) S www.theijes.com The IJES Page 59 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… Then, the monthly mean of daily global radiation H was normalized by dividing with monthly mean of daily extraterrestrial radiation H O . We can define clearness index ( K T ) as the ratio of the observed/measured horizontal terrestrial solar radiation  H  , to the calculated/predicted horizontal/extraterrestrial solar radiation  H O  (Falayi et al., 2011) KT  H H (6) O In this study, H o and S o were computed for each month by using Equations (2) and (5), respectively. The regression coefficients a and b in Equation (1) was obtained from the graph of H H ca l a g a in st O S . The SO values of the monthly average daily global radiation H and the average number of hours of sunshine were obtained from daily measurements covering a period of 15 years. The regression coefficient a and b has been calculated from the relationship given by (Tiwari et al, 1997):  S  a   0 .1 1 0  0 .2 3 5 c o s   0 .3 2 3    SO  (7)  S  b  1 .4 4 9  0 .5 5 3 c o s   0 .6 9 4    SO  (8) To compute the estimated values of the monthly average daily global radiation H C a l , the values of a and b calculated from equation (7) and (8) were used in Equation (1) (Yakubu and Medugu, 2012). Three models were selected for this study. They are Angstrom- Prescott (1940), Ogelman et al., (1984) and Samuel (1991) models of estimation of monthly mean of daily horizontal global solar radiation as summarized in the Table below: Table 1: Sunshine-based models Model no 1 Regression equation H H o  S   a b   So  2 H H O 3 H H O Source Angstrom- Prescott (1940)  S   S  =a  b   c   So   So     S S  c  a b     SO   SO Ogelman et al., (1984) 2   S   d      SO 2     3 Samuel(1991) Sunshine-based models The most commonly used parameter for estimating global solar radiation is sunshine duration. Sunshine duration for a given period is defined as the sum of that sub-period for which the direct solar irradiance exceeds 120Wmˉ ². Solar radiation intensity is taken as incoming short-wave radiation measured in MJ/m² /day. Sunshine duration can be easily and reliably measured, and data are widely available at the weather stations. Most of the models for estimating solar radiation that appear in the literature only use sunshine ratio S ( ) for prediction of monthly average daily global radiation. The following are the sunshine-based SO Models utilized in this study: www.theijes.com The IJES Page 60 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… 1). Angstrom – Prescott model. The Angstrom – Prescott (1940) model is the most commonly used model as given by:  S   a b   So  H H o (9) Where H is the global solar radiation, HO the extraterrestrial solar radiation, S the actual sunshine hour, So maximum possible duration, a and b are empirical coefficients. Ho and So were calculated using equation (2) and (5). However, equation (9) may be termed the first order and is linear. 2). Ogelman et al model. Following equation has been presented by Ogelman for estimating global solar radiation (Ogelman et al., 1984): H H O  S   S  =a  b   c   So   So  2 (10) Where a,b and c are empirical coefficients. However, equation (10) may be termed second order and is quadratic in nature. 3). Samuel model. Samuel estimated global solar radiation on a horizontal surface by the following equation (Samuel, 1991):  S   S   S   a b  c   d    So   So   So  2 H H o 3 (11) Where a-d are empirical coefficients. Similarly, equation (11) may be termed third order and is polynomial. In this study, the accuracy of the estimated global solar radiation data was statistically tested by mean bias error (MBE), root mean bias error (RMSE), mean percentage error (MPE%) and t-test (t) and are defined as follows:   where H i ,ca l and H i ,mea s is the ith calculated and measured global solar radiation values and n is the total number of observations. In general, a low RMSE is desirable. The positive MBE shows overestimation while a negative MBE indicates underestimation (El-Sebaii and Trebea, 2005) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 61 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1: Calculated monthly mean of global solar radiation and input parameters of monthly mean average of global solar radiation for Bauchi (1990 – 2005) Months Jan Feb Marc Apri May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Hcal 19.55 21.09 21.65 22.99 24.06 23.36 20.89 21.72 22.65 23.36 21.44 19.25 H₀ 30.57 32.76 34.90 38.45 39.18 38.01 37.21 38.29 38.92 36.98 32.86 29.56 S₀ 11.41 11.55 11.79 12.09 12.36 12.56 12.60 12.46 12.20 11.91 11.63 11.44 S 7.93 8.23 7.46 6.95 7.61 7.75 6.29 6.36 6.59 7.96 8.76 8.54 Hcal/H₀ 0.6394 0.6438 0.6204 0.5978 0.6141 0.6147 0.5613 0.5672 0.5820 0.6319 0.6524 0.6511 S/S₀ 0.6951 0.7124 0.6329 0.5750 0.6157 0.6171 0.4993 0.5105 0.5401 0.6684 0.7534 0.7465 Table 2: Calculated monthly mean of global solar radiation and input parameters of monthly mean average of global solar radiation for Dutse (1990 - 2005) Months Jan Feb Marc Apri May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Hcal 18.90 20.30 21.41 23.13 25.08 22.39 22.22 22.48 23.38 23.66 21.25 18.95 H₀ 29.83 32.13 34.49 38.36 39.39 37.45 37.65 38.60 38.96 36.69 32.31 28.88 S 7.6 7.65 7.43 7.09 8.47 8.31 7.07 6.77 7.09 8.49 9.03 8.74 S₀ 11.32 11.49 11.75 12.10 12.41 14.48 12.68 12.53 12.23 11.90 11.57 11.36 Hcal/H₀ 0.6335 0.6318 0.6207 0.6029 0.6367 0.5978 0.5904 0.5825 0.6002 0.6449 0.6578 0.6561 S/S₀ 0.6713 0.6660 0.6321 0.5860 0.6823 0.5739 0.5574 0.5405 0.5797 0.7136 0.7802 0.7696 Table 3: Calculated monthly mean of global solar radiation and input parameters of monthly mean average of global solar radiation for Ibitaraba (1990 – 2005) Months Jan Feb Marc Apri May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec www.theijes.com Hcal 18.74 19.82 19.67 23.07 23.09 21.48 18.65 19.53 20.96 21.89 21.58 19.42 H₀ 31.61 33.63 35.45 38.55 38.83 37.38 36.54 37.81 38.83 37.35 33.62 30.52 S 6.51 6.48 5.77 6.97 6.99 6.54 5.16 5.23 5.61 6.56 8.29 7.93 The IJES S₀ 11.53 11.65 11.83 12.07 12.28 12.44 12.47 12.36 12.16 11.93 11.71 11.56 Hcal/H₀ 0.5927 0.5891 0.5548 0.5984 0.5947 0.5746 0.5105 0.5165 0.5399 0.5862 0.6418 0.6361 S/S₀ 0.5645 0.5564 0.4877 0.5776 0.5690 0.5257 0.4138 0.4231 0.4614 0.5499 0.7082 0.6861 Page 62 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… Table 4: Calculated monthly mean of global solar radiation and input parameters of monthly mean average of global solar radiation for Maiduguri (1990 - 2005 Months Jan Feb Marc Apri May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Hcal 19.34 20.95 21.94 23.76 24.63 23.30 21.63 22.43 23.41 22.95 21.33 18.78 H₀ S₀ S 29.81 32.10 34.48 38.35 39.39 38.43 37.66 38.61 38.96 36.68 32.29 28.86 8.28 8.61 8.01 7.61 8.01 7.51 6.65 6.73 7.11 7.69 9.27 8.4 Hcal/H₀ 11.32 11.48 11.75 12.10 12.42 12.64 12.69 12.53 12.23 11.90 11.57 11.35 0.6490 0.6527 0.6364 0.6196 0.6252 0.6062 0.5744 0.5809 0.6009 0.6256 0.6606 0.6507 S/S₀ 0.7316 0.7497 0.6815 0.6290 0.6452 0.5940 0.5241 0.5372 0.5813 0.6464 0.8011 0.7398 Table 5: Calculated monthly mean of global solar radiation and input parameters of monthly mean average of global solar radiation for Nguru (1990 - 2005) Months Hcal H₀ S S₀ Hcal/H₀ S/S₀ Jan 19.09 29.28 8.35 11.26 0.6518 0.7418 Feb 20.72 31.65 8.65 11.44 0.6546 0.7563 Marc 21.73 34.18 7.94 11.73 0.6356 0.6768 Apri 24.11 38.27 7.97 12.11 0.6299 0.6582 May 25.35 39.53 8.68 12.45 0.6413 0.6970 Jun 24.85 38.70 8.89 12.70 0.6420 0.6999 Jul 23.42 37.95 7.92 12.75 0.6172 0.6212 Aug 23.89 38.81 7.76 12.58 0.6156 0.6170 Sept 24.30 38.96 7.83 12.25 0.6236 0.6391 Oct 23.74 36.46 8.77 11.89 0.6510 0.7378 Nov 20.94 31.90 8.85 11.53 0.6565 0.7674 Dec 18.65 28.37 8.73 11.30 0.6574 0.7728 Table 6: Calculated monthly mean of global solar radiation and input parameters of monthly mean average of global solar radiation for Yola (1990 – 2005) Months Hcal H₀ S S₀ Hcal/H₀ S/S₀ Jan 19.82 31.12 7.89 11.47 0.6369 0.6877 Feb 21.11 33.22 7.91 11.60 0.6353 0.6818 Marc 21.34 35.19 7.04 11.81 0.6063 0.5961 Apri 23.00 38.51 6.94 12.08 0.5974 0.5747 May 24.42 39.00 8.02 12.32 0.6260 0.6509 Jun 21.84 37.68 6.69 12.50 0.5795 0.5353 Jul 20.07 36.86 5.88 12.53 0.5445 0.4692 Aug 21.18 38.04 6.09 12.41 0.5566 0.4908 Sept 22.36 38.88 6.41 12.18 0.5751 0.5263 Oct 23.18 37.18 7.67 11.92 0.6236 0.6435 Nov 21.84 33.26 9.15 11.67 0.6567 0.7841 Dec 19.62 30.07 8.71 11.50 0.6525 0.7573 Table 7: Calculated annual average of global solar radiation and input parameters www.theijes.com The IJES Page 63 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… Stations For North-Eastern, Nigeria (1990 – 2005) H₀ S₀ Hcal/H₀ S Hcal S/S₀ Bauc 21.8339 35.6404 7.5358 11.9988 0.6147 0.6305 Yola 21.6476 35.7516 7.3667 11.9990 0.6075 0.6165 Ibitara 20.6592 35.8420 6.5050 11.9991 0.5780 0.5437 Dutse 21.9289 35.3942 7.8117 12.1518 0.6213 0.6461 Nguru 22.5650 35.3401 8.3617 11.9985 0.6397 0.6988 Mai 22.0379 35.4686 7.8233 11.9986 0.6235 0.6551 Table 8: Summary of monthly mean average of regression constants, extraterrestrial solar radiation, measured and calculated values, measured and calculated clearness index and relative percentage error for Bauchi (1990 - 2005) Months A b H₀ Hmeas Hcal Hmeas/Ho Hcal/Ho Error % Jan 0.35 0.42 30.57 14.79 19.55 0.4838 0.6394 -32.16 Feb 0.35 0.41 32.76 16.46 21.09 0.5025 0.6438 -28.12 Marc 0.33 0.47 34.90 18.21 21.65 0.5218 0.6204 -18.90 Apri 0.31 0.51 38.45 17.47 22.99 0.4543 0.5978 -31.59 May 0.32 0.48 39.18 16.87 24.06 0.4306 0.6141 -42.62 Jun 0.32 0.48 38.01 14.64 23.36 0.3852 0.6147 -59.58 Jul 0.28 0.56 37.21 13.88 20.89 0.3730 0.5613 -50.47 Aug 0.29 0.55 38.29 13.86 21.72 0.3619 0.5672 -56.71 Sept 0.30 0.53 38.92 15.39 22.65 0.3954 0.5820 -47.19 Oct 0.34 0.44 36.98 16.36 23.36 0.4425 0.6319 -42.81 Nov 0.36 0.38 32.86 16.88 21.44 0.5137 0.6524 -27.00 Dec 0.36 0.39 29.56 14.39 19.25 0.4868 0.6511 -33.77 Table 9: Summary of monthly mean average of regression constants, extraterrestrial solar radiation, measured and calculated values, measured and calculated clearness index and relative percentage error for Dutse (1990 - 2005) Months A b H₀ Hmeas Hcal Hmeas/Ho Hcal/Ho Error % Jan 0.34 0.44 29.83 23.07 18.90 0.7734 0.6335 18.09 Feb 0.34 0.45 32.13 24.99 20.30 0.7779 0.6318 18.77 Marc 0.32 0.47 34.49 26.51 21.41 0.7685 0.6207 19.24 Apri 0.31 0.50 38.36 26.05 23.13 0.6791 0.6029 11.22 May 0.34 0.43 39.39 24.06 25.08 0.6109 0.6367 -4.22 Jun 0.31 0.51 37.45 22.24 22.39 0.5938 0.5978 -0.66 Jul 0.30 0.52 37.65 20.05 22.22 0.5326 0.5904 -10.85 Aug 0.29 0.53 38.60 19.26 22.48 0.4989 0.5825 -16.74 Sept 0.31 0.51 38.96 20.63 23.38 0.5296 0.6002 -13.35 Oct 0.35 0.41 36.69 22.7 23.66 0.6187 0.6449 -4.22 Nov 0.37 0.37 32.31 23.78 21.25 0.7360 0.6578 10.63 Dec 0.37 0.37 28.88 22.63 18.95 0.7836 0.6561 16.27 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 64 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… Table 10: Summary of monthly mean average of regression constants, extraterrestrial solar radiation, measured and calculated values, measured and calculated clearness index and relative percentage error for Ibitaraba (1990 - 2005) Months a b H₀ Hmeas Hcal Hmeas/Ho Hcal/Ho Jan 0.30 0.51 31.61 22.51 Feb 0.30 0.52 33.63 Marc 0.28 0.56 Apri 0.31 May Jun Error % 18.74 0.7121 0.5927 16.77 23.52 19.82 0.6993 0.5891 15.75 35.45 22.91 19.67 0.6463 0.5548 14.16 0.50 38.55 21.51 23.07 0.5580 0.5984 -7.23 0.31 0.51 38.83 19.56 23.09 0.5038 0.5947 -18.06 0.29 0.54 37.38 18.38 21.48 0.4917 0.5746 -16.85 Jul 0.26 0.61 36.54 17.54 18.65 0.4800 0.5105 -6.35 Aug 0.26 0.61 37.81 17.5 19.53 0.4629 0.5165 -11.58 Sept 0.27 0.58 38.83 18.03 20.96 0.4644 0.5399 -16.27 Oct 0.30 0.52 37.35 18.33 21.89 0.4908 0.5862 -19.44 Nov 0.35 0.41 33.62 20.92 21.58 0.6223 0.6418 -3.14 Dec 0.34 0.43 30.52 22.18 19.42 0.7267 0.6361 12.46 Table 11: Summary of monthly mean average of regression constants, extraterrestrial solar radiation, measured and calculated values, measured and calculated clearness index and relative percentage error for Maiduguri (1990 - 2005) Months a b H₀ Hmeas Hcal Hmeas/Ho Hcal/Ho Error % Jan 0.36 0.40 29.81 26.48 19.34 0.8884 0.6490 26.95 Feb 0.36 0.39 32.10 27.44 20.95 0.8547 0.6527 23.64 Marc 0.34 0.43 34.48 27.13 21.94 0.7868 0.6364 19.11 Apri 0.32 0.47 38.35 24.68 23.76 0.6435 0.6196 3.71 May 0.33 0.46 39.39 21.23 24.63 0.5389 0.6252 -16.01 Jun 0.31 0.50 38.43 19.18 23.30 0.4991 0.6062 -21.46 Jul 0.29 0.54 37.66 17.56 21.63 0.4663 0.5744 -23.19 Aug 0.29 0.53 38.61 17.76 22.43 0.4600 0.5809 -26.29 Sept 0.31 0.50 38.96 20.52 23.41 0.5267 0.6009 -14.09 Oct 0.33 0.46 36.68 24.35 22.95 0.6639 0.6256 5.77 Nov 0.38 0.35 32.29 26.58 21.33 0.8232 0.6606 19.75 Dec 0.36 0.39 28.86 26.3 18.78 0.9114 0.6507 28.60 Table 12: Summary of monthly mean average of regression constants, extraterrestrial solar radiation, measured and calculated values, measured and calculated clearness index and relative percentage error for Nguru (1990 - 2005) a b H₀ Hmeas Hcal Jan 0.36 0.40 29.28 21.52 Feb 0.36 0.39 31.65 Marc 0.34 0.44 Apri 0.33 0.45 Months www.theijes.com Hmeas/Ho Hcal/Ho 19.09 0.7349 0.6518 11.31 24.07 20.72 0.7604 0.6546 13.92 34.18 25.89 21.73 0.7574 0.6356 16.07 38.27 26.49 24.11 0.6921 0.6299 8.99 The IJES Error % Page 65 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… May 0.34 0.43 39.53 25.33 25.35 0.6408 0.6413 -0.07 Jun 0.35 0.42 38.70 23.62 24.85 0.6103 0.6420 -5.20 Jul 0.32 0.48 37.95 20.76 23.42 0.5470 0.6172 -12.82 Aug 0.32 0.48 38.81 19.83 23.89 0.5109 0.6156 -20.50 Sept 0.33 0.47 38.96 20.77 24.30 0.5331 0.6236 -16.98 Oct 0.36 0.40 36.46 22.1 23.74 0.6061 0.6510 -7.40 Nov 0.37 0.38 31.90 21.74 20.94 0.6816 0.6565 3.68 Dec 0.37 0.37 28.37 20.73 18.65 0.7306 0.6574 10.02 Table 13: Summary of monthly mean average of regression constants, extraterrestrial solar radiation, measured and calculated values, measured and calculated clearness index and relative percentage error for Yola (1990 - 2005) Months a b Jan 0.34 0.43 Feb 0.34 Marc H₀ Hmeas Hcal Hmeas/Ho Hcal/Ho 31.12 13.74 0.43 33.22 0.31 0.49 Apri 0.31 May Jun 19.82 0.4415 0.6369 -44.25 20.48 21.11 0.6165 0.6353 -3.06 35.19 21.31 21.34 0.6055 0.6063 -0.12 0.50 38.51 20 23.00 0.5194 0.5974 -15.02 0.33 0.45 39.00 18.64 24.42 0.4779 0.6260 -30.99 0.29 0.53 37.68 16.97 21.84 0.4503 0.5795 -28.68 Jul 0.27 0.58 36.86 15.21 20.07 0.4126 0.5445 -31.97 Aug 0.28 0.56 38.04 14.9 21.18 0.3916 0.5566 -42.11 Sept 0.29 0.54 38.88 16.64 22.36 0.4280 0.5751 -34.37 Oct 0.33 0.46 37.18 18.65 23.18 0.5017 0.6236 -24.30 Nov 0.38 0.36 33.26 19.96 21.84 0.6001 0.6567 -9.43 Dec 0.37 0.38 30.07 19.06 19.62 0.6339 0.6525 -2.94 www.theijes.com The IJES Error % Page 66 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… Table 17: The equation with regression and statistical indicators for North-Eastern, Nigeria (1990 - 2005) Stations a b MBE RMSE MPE R R² t Bauc 0.389 0.358 6.0672 6.2661 6.0672 0.9899 0.9799 12.849 Dutse 0.417 0.316 -1.0686 3.1439 -1.0686 0.9890 0.9781 1.199 Ibitara 0.334 0.449 0.4160 2.8534 0.4160 0.9882 0.9766 0.489 Nguru 0.453 0.268 -0.1725 2.6664 -0.1725 0.9943 0.9887 0.215 Mai 0.416 0.317 -1.2296 4.8486 -1.2296 0.9850 0.9702 0.869 Yola 0.386 0.36 3.6843 4.3163 3.6843 0.9846 0.9695 5.434 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 67 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… www.theijes.com The IJES Page 68 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… www.theijes.com The IJES Page 69 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… www.theijes.com The IJES Page 70 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… www.theijes.com The IJES Page 71 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… www.theijes.com The IJES Page 72 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… The extraterrestrial solar radiation, HO (MJ/m2/day), and the monthly day length, SO (hr), were computed for each location using equations (2) and (5), the input parameters for the calculation of the mean monthly global solar radiation for six locations and as well as North- Eastern, Nigeria (1990- 2005) are shown in the Tables 1-7 respectively. It was observed from table 7 that the approximate values of sunshine durations for the six locations and the North-Eastern, Nigeria for the period of fifteen years under study are Bauchi=63%, Dutse=65%, Ibitaraba=54%, Maiduguri=66%, Nguru=70% and Yola=62% throughout the year while for the North-East as a whole was 63%. However, using these parameters, the regression constant „a‟ and „b‟ are evaluated, as a = 0.318 and b = 0.470. Using these parameters, the regression constants for each location „a‟ and „b‟ is being evaluated respectively. Substituting these values into equation (1), we now established the Angstrom- type empirical correlations for the estimation developed for six locations as follow: 1. H H Bauchi ca l o 2. H H H ca l o H ca l o H ca l o H  S   0 .3 3 4  0 .4 4 9    So  (18)  S   0 .4 1 6  0 .3 1 7    So  (19) Nguru ca l o 6. H (17) Maiduguri 5. H  S   0 .4 1 7  0 .3 1 6    So  Ibitaraba 4. H (16) Dutse 3. H  S   0 .3 8 9  0 .3 5 8    So   S   0 .4 5 3  0 .2 6 8    So  (20) Yola ca l o  S   0 .3 8 6  0 .3 6 0    So  www.theijes.com (21) The IJES Page 73 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… In Bauchi, the value of H ca l H (= 0.5613) correspond to the lowest value of (= 0.4993) and Hcal So o H (20.89MJ/m2/day) in the month of July, the value of H S S ca l (= 0.5825) corresponding to the lowest value of o H (= 0.5405) and Hcal (22.48MJ/m2/day) in the month of August for Dutse, also, the value of ca l H So S 0.5105) corresponding to the lowest value of (= o (= 0.4138) and Hcal (18.65MJ/m2/day) in the month of July So for Ibitaraba, for Maiduguri, the value of H ca l H (= 0.5744) also correspond to the lowest value of H H S (= So o 0.5241) and Hcal (21.63MJ/m2/day) in the month of July, likewise, the value of corresponding to the lowest value of S ca l (= 0.6156) o (= 0.6170) and Hcal (23.89MJ/m2/day) in the month of August for So H Nguru and lastly, the value of ca l H (= 0.5445) correspond to the lowest value of S (= 0.4692) and Hcal So o (20.07MJ/m2/day) in the month of July for Yola which are indication of poor sky condition. These conditions correspond to the general wet or rainy season (June – September) observed in Nigeria, during which there is much cloud cover. It is observed from Equations (16) - (21) that neither a nor b vary with latitude or altitude in any systematic manner. However, the values of the sum of the regression constants a + b, which represent the maximum Clearness Index ( S ฀ 1), averaged over the period of analysis, are found to be almost equal for the So six meteorological stations, El-Sebaii and Trabea(2005) and Salima and Chavula (2012). The values of (a + b) obtained for six locations in North-Eastern, Nigeria are 0.75, 0.73, 0.78, 0.73, 0.72 and 0.75 respectively. Averaged results for the linear regression models for the six locations were used in developing the linear regression model for estimating global solar radiation in North- East, (1990-2005): H H ca l o  S   0 .3 6 0 2  0 .4 0 1 9    So  (22) With coefficient of determination R2 (99.74) and maximum clearness index equals 0.6397 at Nguru. The regression constants (Table 8-13), a and b of different months were evaluated from equations (7) and (8) for the six locations. To compute the calculated values of the mean monthly average of global solar radiation Hcal , the values of a and b were inserted into equation (1) and the correlation may be used to compute Hcal at other locations having the same altitude. Looking at these values of measured and calculated clearness indexes; it is observed that some locations had the lowest values in the months of July or August. The lowest clear index H mea s H 20.89MJ/m2/day) and H o c a l H o mea s H H (= 0.3730), (= 0.3619), H ca l H (= 0.5613) with Hmeas (=13.88MJ/m2/day), Hcal (= o ( = 0.5672) with Hmeas (=13.86 MJ/m2/day) , Hcal (= o 21.72MJ/m2/day) for Bauchi was observed in the months of July and August, H m ea s H www.theijes.com The IJES o (= 0.4989), H H ca l (= o Page 74 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… 0.5825) with Hmeas (19.26 MJ/m2/day) and Hcal (= 22.48 MJ/m2/day) for Dutse occurred in the month of August, H mea s H = (0.4800), H H o 0.4629), H ca l H = 0.5105} with Hmeas (=17.54MJ/m2/day), Hcal (= 18.65MJ/m2/day) and ca l H mea s H o (= o (= 0.5165) with Hmeas (=17.50MJ/m2/day) , Hcal (= 19.53MJ/m2/day) for Ibitaraba was also o observed in both July and August, H mea s H 21.63 MJ/m2/day) and H mea s H o = 0.4663, H o (= 0.4600), H H H ca l ca l = 0.5744} with Hmeas (=17.56 MJ/m2/day), Hcal (= o (= 0.5809) with (Hmeas =17.76 MJ/m2/day , Hcal = 22.43 o MJ/m2/day) for Maiduguri was seen in the months July- August, while for Nguru, H mea s H (= 0.5109), H H o ca l (= o 0.6156) with Hmeas (19.83 MJ/m2/day) and Hcal (= 23.89 MJ/m2/day) was observed in the month of August, and H mea s H (= 0.4126), H o 0.3916), H H H ca l ca l (= 0.5445) with Hmeas (=15.21MJ/m2/day), Hcal (= 20.07MJ/m2/day) and H mea s H o (= o (= 0.5566) with Hmeas ( =14.90MJ/m2/day) , Hcal (= 21.18MJ/m2/day) for Yola was observed in o July- August which can all be traced to the meteorological conditions of locations. The results presented in Table 14 shows that the values of calculated clearness index corresponding to the relative sunshine hour for the six locations seems to be good throughout the fifteen years (1990-2005) with their respective calculated and measured values of global solar radiation with Nguru having higher annual average sunshine hour of about 8.36hours which is an indication of clear sky condition in the North-Eastern, Nigeria (Ojosu, 1987). The relative percentage error for these locations and North-Eastern, Nigeria were estimated and their error ranged between the following minima and maxima values:(-59.58%, -18.90%) for Bauchi, (-16.74%, 19.24%) for Dutse, (-19.44%, 16.77%) for Ibitaraba, (-26.29%, 28.60%) for Maiduguri, (20.50%, 16.07%) for Nguru, (-44.25%, -2.94%) for Yola and for the North-Eastern, Nigeria (-38.48%, 5.28%). Figures (1-6) and 7 shows regression constants and regression of determination (R²) for all the locations and as well as North-Eastern, Nigeria (1990-2005). It was observed that models for these locations and North-East have excellent fits for the data. The correlations of monthly variation of calculated clearness index and sunshine fraction for the period of fifteen years are shown in Figures (8-13) for the six locations. Though there is a similarity in both patterns, however, there is significance difference in the values of both parameters for these locations. It is clearly observed that there is a defined trough in the curves for the months of July – August at six locations. This is an indication that the atmospheric condition over these locations and their environs were at a poor state in which the sky were not clear. The value of the clearness index and the relative sunshine fractions for the six locations were observed to be as follow: 0.5613 and 0.4993 in the month of July for Bauchi, 0.5825 and 0.5405 in the month of August for Dutse, 0.5105 and 0.4138 in the month of July for Ibitaraba, at Maiduguri, it was 0.5744 and 0.5241 in the month of July, 0.6156 and 0.6170 in the month of August for Nguru and that of Yola were 0.5445 and 0.4692 in the month of July respectively. The results suggest that the rainfalls at these locations are at peak during the months of July – August when the sky is cloudy and the solar radiation is fairly low. However, just immediately after the August minimum, the clearness index and the relative sunshine fraction increased remarkably with the cloud cover crossing over the clearness index. The values of the clearness index and relative sunshine fraction for the six locations which reached peaks at the months of November are Bauchi (0.6524 and 0.7534), Dutse (0.6578 and 0.7802), Ibitaraba (0.6418 and 0.7082), Maiduguri (0.6606 and 0.8011), Yola (0.6567 and 0.7841) while in December reached peaks at 0.6574 and 0.7728 for Nguru. This implies that a clear sky will obviously fell within the dry season and hence a high solar radiation is experienced. Obviously, this is generally the dry season period in Nigeria. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 75 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… Moreover, the correlation of annual average variation of calculated clearness index and sunshine fraction for North-Eastern, Nigeria for the period of fifteen years (1990 - 2005) is shown in Figure 14. Although there is similarity in both patterns, however, a significant difference between clearness index and sunshine fraction is also observed. There is a dip in the curves in Ibitaraba. This is an indication that the state of the atmosphere in Ibitaraba and its surroundings was at poor condition in which the sky was not clear. The values of the clearness index and the relative sunshine duration were observed to be 0.5780 and 0.5437 respectively. However, just immediately after the minimum at Ibitaraba, the clearness index and the relative sunshine duration increased remarkably with the cloud cover crossing over the clearness index and Nguru reached peaks at 0.6397 and 0.6988 respectively. This implies that a clear sky will obviously be met within the dry season and hence a high solar radiation is experienced. In the sunshine-based models proposed for this study, three models were used to show the validation of relative sunshine duration and clearness index for North-Eastern, Nigeria for the period of fifteen years (1990 2005). Figures 15-17 show the results of the performance of each model in terms of regression of coefficient (R²), correlation coefficient (r). The empirical correlation models were also developed for the three sunshinebased models for North-Eastern, Nigeria (1990 - 2005). The results for the three sunshine-based models were summarized below: 1. The empirical correlation for Angstrom-Prescott (1940) model in equation (9) was H ca l H o  S   0 .3 6 0 2  0 .4 0 1 9    So  (23) The coefficient of determination, R2 (99.74%) obtained for this analysis shows that the model is excellently fits for the data. 2. The empirical correlation model for Ogelman et al., (1984) model in equation (10) was H H ca l o  S   S   0 .2 5 5 2  0 .7 4 4    0 .2 7 6 9    So   So  2 (24) The coefficient of determination, R2 (99.89%) obtained for this analysis shows that the model is excellently fits for the data. 3. The empirical correlation model for Samuel (1991) model in equation (11) was  S   S   S   1 .7 0 4  6 .2 8 2 4    1 1 .0 2 4    6 .0 2 9 2    So   So   So  2 H H ca l o 3 (25) The coefficient of determination, R2 (99.93%) obtained for this analysis shows that the model is excellently fits for the data. The obtained values of the regression constants of Eqs. (23)- (25), coefficients of determination (R2) along with correlation of coefficient (r) for six locations are summarized in Table 14. From the results of Table 14, it is obvious that for all these locations, the values of both coefficient of determination (R2) and correlation of coefficient (r) are higher than 0.95 which indicate excellent fitting between the clearness index H ca l H relative sunshine duration S and the o . So The values of annual average daily global solar radiation estimated by equation (1) for the six locations are shown in Table 16. The values were plotted and then compared with the three sunshine-based models in Figure 18. The development of the Angstrom-type correlation of the first, second and third order will enable the solar energy researchers to use the estimated data with confidence, because of its good agreement. These correlations will also be useful for the places with similar climatic conditions and having no facilities of recording the global solar radiation data. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 76 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… The validating of the calculated data was tested by calculating the MBE, MPE and t-test along with their coefficient of determination (R2) and correlation of coefficient (r) for each of the locations with standard techniques. The values of these statistical indicators are shown in Table 17. Statistical results from this table show that both values of (R2) and (r) are higher than 0.90 and 0.95 respectively for the six locations. This is an indication that the models are both significant. The values of RMSE are found to be in the range 2.67 – 6.27(MJ/m2/day) i.e. 2.67 ≤ RMSE ≤ 6.27 indicating fairly good agreement between the measured and the calculated values of global solar radiation. The negative and positive values of MBE and MPE show overestimation and underestimation respectively of global solar radiation. The six locations are statistically tested at the (1- α) confidence levels of significance of 95% and 99%. For the critical t-value, i.e., at α level of significance and (n-1) degree of freedom, the calculated t-value must be less than the critical value (tcritical= 2.20, df=11, P < 0.05). It is shown that at tcal ˂ tcritical value, the model of calculated t-values for Dutse, Ibitaraba, Nguru and Maiduguri was significant at the degree of freedom to the tcritical value and insignificant at the model of calculated t-values for both Bauchi and Yola. Furthermore, the critical value, i.e., at α level of significance and (n-1) degree of freedom, the calculated t-value must be less than the critical value (tcritical = 3.12, df=11, P < 0.01). It is observed that at tcal ˂ t critical value for both Bauchi and Yola, t-values are insignificant at the degree of freedom to the t-critical value while for Dutse, Ibitaraba, Nguru and Maiduguri was significant at the degree of freedom to the t-critical value. IV. CONCLUSION The need for radiation data covering entire areas led to the development of radiation models that allow the calculation of radiation parameters within certain margins of error. These models grew particularly important in connection with the use of solar energy. The study resulted in the development of respective Angstrom linear regression models for each of the six meteorological locations, which culminated in the development of the Angstrom model for North-Eastern, Nigeria given by equation (22). North-Eastern, Nigeria is endowed appreciable with solar radiation and large rural dwellers lived in villages without proper infrastructure to develop an electricity grid, the use of photo voltaic (PV) is seen as attractive alternative because of its modular features, namely, its ability to generate electricity at the point of use, its low maintenance requirements and its non-polluting characteristics. In general, the three sunshine-based models performed well in terms of their coefficient of determination with R2 = 99.74% given by the linear Angstrom-Prescott (1940) model, for Ogelman et al., (1984) model, R2 =99.89% while the Samuel (1991) model proved to be the best estimator with R2 = 99.93% in North-Eastern, Nigeria. Based on the result shown in Table 15, we can conclude that more than one sunshine-based model can be used to predict the global solar radiation across the North-Eastern, Nigeria. Looking at statistical analysis of the models, we also observed that despite overestimation and underestimation of the models, there are fairly good level of significance at both confidence level of 95% and 99%. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the management of the Nigeria Meteorological Agency, Abuja, Nigeria, for making the data of global solar radiation and sunshine hour available. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 77 Angstrom Type Empirical Correlation for Estimating… REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16]. [17]. [18]. [19]. [20]. [21]. [22]. [23]. [24]. [25]. [26]. [27]. [28]. [29]. [30]. [31]. Adebiyi, G.A (1988). An empirical correlation of solar radiation data for Nigeria. The Nigerian Engineer 32(2): 50 - 57. Agboola, O. P (2011). Importance of Climate to Architectural Designs in Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Issues and Agricultural in Developing Countries Volume 3.No. 1 Ahmad, F.and Ulfat, I (2004). Empirical model for the correlation of monthly average daily global solar radiation with hours of sunshine on a horizontal surface at Karachi, Pakistan. Turkish J. Physics 28: 301-307. Akinoglu,B.G and Ecevit, A. (1990). Construction of a quadratic model using modified Angstrom coefficients to estimate global solar radiation, Solar Energy 45, 85-92. Angstrom, A.S (1924), Solar and Terrestrial Radiation Q.J.Roy. Met. Soc. 50, Pp. 126, Arinze, E.A and Obi, S.E (1983). Solar energy availability and prediction in Northern Nigeria. Nig. J. Solar Energy 3: 3 -10. Augustine, C and Nnabuchi, M.N (2009). Relationship between Global Solar Radiation and Sunshine hours for Calabar, PortHarcourt and Enugu, Nigeria. International Journal of Physical Sciences 4(4): Pp 182-188. Bamiro, O.A (1983). Empirical relations for the determination of solar in Ibadan, Nigeria. Sol. Energy 31(1): 85 - 94. Burari, F.W, Sambo, A.S, Mshelia, E.D (2001). Estimation of Global Solar Radiation in Bauchi. Nig. J. Renewable Energy 9: 34 - 36. Chineke, T.C and Igwiro, E.C (2008). Urban And Rural Electrification: Enhancing the Energy Sector in Nigeria Using Photovoltaic Technology. African Jour Science and Tech.Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 102 – 108 Dissing, D. and Wendler, G (1998). Solar Radiation Climatology of Alaska. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 61, 161-175 Duffie, J.A. and Beckman,W.A (1991). Solar Engineering of Thermal Processing, 2nd Ed. Madison: John Wiley &Sons, Inc. El-Sebaii, A.A and Trebea, A.A (2005). Estimation of global solar radiation on Horizontal surfaces over Egypt. Egypt.J.Solids,Vol.(28),No. (1) Fagbenle, R.O (1990). Estimation of total solar radiation in Nigeria using Meteorological data. Nig. J. Renewable Energy 1: 1-10. ]Falayi, E.O, Rabiu, A.B and Teliat, R.O (2011). Correlations to estimate monthly mean of daily diffuse solar radiation in some selected cities in Nigeria. Advances in Applied Science Research 2(4): 480-490. Folayan, C.O (1988). Estimation on global solar radiation bound for Some Nigerian cities. Nig. J. Solar Energy 3: 3-10. Kushi, A.I and Evseev, E (2000). Statistical Relationship between Solar UVB and UVA Radiation and Global Radiation Measurement at Two sites in Israel. Int.J. climatol.20: pp 759-770 Mills, G. (2000). Modeling the Water Budget of Ireland Evapotranspiration and Soil moisture. Irish Geography Volume 33(2), 99-116. Ogelman H, Ecevit A. and Tasdemiroglu, E (1984). A new method for estimating solar radiation from bright sunshine data. Solar Energy, 33, 619–25. Ojosu, J.O (1984). Solar Radiation Maps of Nigeria. Nig. J. Solar Energy 8: 370 – 384. Ojosu, J.O (1989). Solar Radiation Maps of Nigeria. A paper presented at the solar energy Society of Nigeria (SESSN), National solar energy forum (NASF „89) held at Nsukka, 17th -20th May. Page, J.K (1961), „The Estimation of Monthly Mean Values of Daily Total Short Wave Radiation on Vertical and Inclined Surface from Sunshine Records for Latitude 40oN – 40oS‟, Proceedings of UN Conference on New Sources of Energy, 4(598), 378–390 Prescott, J.A (1940). Evaporation from a water surface in relation to solar radiation. Trans Roy Soc Aust 64, 114-48. ]Salima, G and Chavula,G.M.S (2012). Determining Angstrom constants for estimating solar radiation in Malawi. International Journal of Geosciences, 3, pp 391-397. Sambo, A.S (1985). Solar radiation in Kano: a correlation with meteorological data. Nig. J. solar Energy 1: 59. Samuel,T.D.M.A (1991). Estimation of global radiation for Sri Lanka. Solar Energy, 47, 333-7 Tarawneh, M.S.K (2007).Effect of Water Depth on Performance Evaluation of Solar still: Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. 1(1). Tardieu, F. (2013). Plant Response to Environmental Conditions: Assessing Potential Production, Water demand, and Negative effects of Water Deficits. Frontiers in physiology 4(17). Tiwari, R.F and Sangeeta, T.H (1997): Solar Energy. 24(6) pp. 89 – 95. Turton,S.M.A (1987). “The relationship between total irradiation and sunshine in humid tropics”. Solar Energy 38: 353-354. ]Yakubu, D and Medugu, D. W (2012). Relationship between the Global Solar Radiations and the Sunshine Duration in Abuja, Nigeria. Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 5(3). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 78

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 79-90 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits in Northeastern Part of Akwa Ibom State, Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria Udo, I. G.1, Mode, A. W.2 1, 2 Department of Geology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria ---------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------Conglomerates abound in northeastern part of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria along a belt of about 550 kilometers square. The conglomerate deposits consist of six sedimentary facies: paraconglomerate (Cm) consisting of matrix supported massive conglomerates with a matrix of clayey sand , orthoconglomerate (Cc) comprising clast-supported normally graded conglomerates with poorly sorted fine to very coarse sand forming the matrix, massive sandstone (Sm) that is made up of fine to coarse grained massive and poorly sorted pebbly sandstones, crossbedded sandstone (Sc) consisting of medium to coarse grained crossbedded sandstones, parallel laminated sandstone (Sp) comprising fine to coarse grained poorly sorted sandstones with parallel laminations, mudstone (M) consisting of massive claystones and siltstones that lack any observable sedimentary structure and also include bioturbated mudstone. The gravelly, sandy and mudstone facies are stacked in ascending order and it is interpreted as a succession of channel-bar-overbank deposits of a braided fluvial system. Keywords: Conglomerate, facies, braided stream, model, environment and sandstone. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 18, October - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November - 2013 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Conglomerates abound in northeastern part of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria along a belt of about 50km long and 11km wide. The belt cuts across Ini, Ikono, Ibiono Ibom, Itu, Uruan, and Uyo Local Government areas of the State. The deposits show a northwest southeast trend. There are diverse opinions on the depositional environment(s) of these conglomerates. Amajor (1986) studied the conglomerate deposit in Itu Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. He interpreted the conglomerate beds to be of alluvial fan origin. Petters (1989) worked on the conglomerate deposit in Itu and Ikono Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State. He proposed a beach (marginal marine setting) for the deposit although a close scrutiny of his pebble morphometric result suggests fluvial origin. Amajor (1986) indentified four facies namely: Facies A: Quartz-pebble conglomerate Facies B: Pebbly sandstone Facies C: Interstratified pebbly sandstone and sandstone Facies D: Sandstone The present study is necessary in order to provide a regional interpretation of the sedimentary Facies. GEOLOGIC SETTING Stratigraphically, the conglomerate deposits belong to Ameki Formation. Reyment (1965) described Ameki Formation as a series of highly fossiliferous grey-green sandy clays with calcareous concretions and white clayey sandstones. The lower part consists of fine to coarse sandstones and intercalations of calcareous shale and thin, shelly limestone, the upper with coarse, cross-bedded sandstones, bands of fine sandstones and sandy clays. It is locally rich in Molluscs, foraminifera and Ostracods. Lithologically, Ameki Formation is very heterogeneous (Wilson, 1925; Reyment, 1965; Adegoge, 1969). Arua and Rao, 1986 noted the presence of pebbles in Ameki Formation. Agagu et. al (1985) and Petters (1978) have interpreted the Ameki Formation to be Estuarine, Lagoon and open marine setting. The Ameki Group consists of the Nanka sand, Nsugbe Formation and Ameki Formation (Nwajide, 1979). The Formation has been considered to be either Early Eocene (Reyment, 1965) or early to Middle Eocene (Berggren, 1960; Adegoke, 1969) and deposited in estuarine, lagoonal and open marine environment content. White (1926) assigned an estuarine environment because of the presence of fish species of known estuarine affinity. Adegoke (1969), however, indicated that the fish were probably washed into the Ameki sea from inland waters, and preferred an open marine depositional environment. Nwajide (1979) and Arua (1986) suggested environments that ranged from nearhore (barrier ridge-lagoonal complex) to intertidal and subtidal zones of the shelf environment, whereas Fayose and Ola (1990) suggested that the sediments were deposited in marine waters between the depth of 10m to 100m. According to Nwajide and Reijers (1996), the progradational Nanka Formation marks the return to regressive conditions. The outcropping deposits of the Eocene regression, which marks the beginning of the Niger Delta progradation, constitute the Ameki Group, which include the tidal facies and backshores as well as pro-delta facies. The prograding shoreface and river deposits are reflected in the subsurface deposits of Agbada Formation in the Northern depobelts of the Niger Delta. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 79 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. FIG.1 GEOLOGICAL MAP SHOWING THE STUDY AREA II. METHODOLOGY Field mapping was carried out using the topographic map of Ikot Ekpene, sheet 322 as the base map. All rock exposures within the study area were sedimentologically logged and described. Attitude of the beds were measured using a compass clinometer. The studied lithologic sections were systematically sampled and important features photographed. Rock samples obtained from the field were subjected to laboratory analyses. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 80 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. Fig 2: Sample location map Fig. 3. SAMPLE LOCATION MAP www.theijes.com The IJES Page 81 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. III. RESULT Sedimentary Facies Conglomerate and loosely consolidated sand beds form a belt of about 50km long and 11km wide in northeastern part of Akwa Ibom State. The conglomerate deposits consist of six sedimentary facies, defined on the basis of textural attributes, lithology and sedimentary structures. Most of them are sandstone to conglomerate dominated facies. Mudstone dominated Facies are less common. CONGLOMERATE -DOMINATED FACIES Cm: Paraconglomerate This Facies consists of matrix-supported, massive conglomerate in beds 1.2 meter to 15.4 meters thick. Clasts range from 0.5cm to 8cm in diameter and made up of granules, pebbles and cobbles set in a matrix of clayey sand. They are subrounded to rounded, poorly sorted and consist of quartz. The long axes of the clasts are randomly arranged and there is neither an imbricated nor a horizontal fabric. The facies is poorly consolidated and has a reddish brown or white colour. There is complete absence of fossils. The base of this lithofacies is irregular and scoured. The presence of irregular bases gives a channel-like appearance to this facies. This facies forms about 10% of the conglomerate deposits. The facies is similar to Facies Gms of Miall, 1977. Plate 1: Paraconglomerate (Cm) Cc: Orthoconglomerate Lithofacies Cc is the dominant lithofacies in the conglomerate. This facies consists of clasts-supported, normally graded conglomerate in beds 0.5 meter to 12.4 meters thick. The conglomerate is normally graded from cobble as basal lag deposit to pebble size clasts and granules. Clasts range from 0.4cm to 8cm in diameter, subrounded to rounded, poorly sorted and made up of quartz. The matrix is fine to very coarse grained sand and fine grained gravels, occassionally with some amount of plant fragments. The fabric is highly unordered or disorganized with no clasts imbrication and stratification. The conglomerate has a reddish brown or white colour. Fossil is absent and the facies is poorly consolidated. Thin beds of sand occur. The sandstone beds consists of gravelly, very coarse sandstones that is massive, cross stratified or horizontally stratified. The sandstone bed range in thickness from 10cm to 50cm. The grain size of the sediment is identical to that of the matrix of the underlying conglomerate. Occasionally, there is gradation from conglomerate to sandstone bed, but in most cases the junction is abrupt. The base of this lithofacies is irregular and erosional. A thin ferruginized band marks the lower contact at some places where the Facies overlies shale bed. The band is probably formed as a result permeability barrier between the two lithologies which traps the percolating rain water from where iron precipitates out. This facies is overlain by sandstone and clay. It forms about 70% of the conglomerate deposits. The facies is similar to facies A of Amajor, 1986 and facies Gm of Miall, 1977. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 82 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. 1m Plate 2: Orthoconglomerate facies (Cc) exposed in a quarry. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 83 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. 1m Plate 3: Orthoconglomerate facies (Cc) showing thin beds of sand. IV. SANDSTONE-DOMINATED FACIES Sm: Massive sandstone This Lithofacies is a minor component of the conglomerate package, but commonly occurs within the sandstone rich section. It consists of fine to coarse grained massive sandstone in beds a few meters to centimeters thick. The sand grains are angular to subrounded and poorly to moderately sorted. Scattered pebbles ranging from 1cm to 2cm in diameter are present at some locations. Small organic fragments occur. The facies is friable, unconsolidated and does not exhibit any sedimentary structure nor contain any fossil. The colour of this facies is white or reddish brown. The base of this facies is sharp. This facies occupies about 10% of the conglomerate deposist. The facies is similar to facies B of Amajor, 1986. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 84 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. Plate 4: Massive sandstone (Sm) 1m Plate 5: Facies Sm (Massive sandstone) exposed in a quarry. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 85 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. Sc: Crossbedded sandstone This lithofacies is a small proportion of the conglomerate package as a whole, but a major component of the sandstone rich fraction. It consists of medium to coarse grained, planar and trough crossbedded sandstone in beds a few meters to centimeters thick. Set thicknesses range from 30 to 100 centimeters. The sandstone is pebbly at some locations. Maximum pebble size observed is 2cm. The sandstone is poorly sorted, angular to subrounded with granules concentrated in some forests. The Facies is unconsolidated and does not contain any fossil. The colour of this Facies varies between shades of yellow, red, brown and white. The base of this Facies is abrupt. This Facies forms about 5% of the conglomerate deposits. The Facies is similar to Facies Sp of Miall, 1977. M Sc Plate 6: Crossbedded sandstone (Sc). The sandstone is overlain by mudstone. Sp (Parallel laminated sandstone) This lithofacies is characterized by parallel laminations. The stratifications appears as changes in grain size and by the presence of very thin fine grained siliciclastic rock laminae. The sandstone is fine to coarse grained, subangular to subrounded, poorly sorted, friable and has a white colour. There is complete absence of fossil. The base of this facies is sharp. This facies make up about 5% of the conglomerate deposits and either overlies the conglomerate or occurs as interbeds. The facies is similar to facies Sh of Miall, 1977. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 86 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. Plate 7: Facies Sp (parallel laminated sandstone) V . MUDSTONE-DOMINATED FACIES M: Mudstone This Facies consists of massive claystone and siltstone that lack any observable sedimentary structure, and also include bioturbated mudstone. This fine grained facies is Whitish, yellowish brown and mottled. Organic fragments are apparent. The base of the facies is flat or irregular but not erosional. This facies make up about 5% of the conglomerate deposits and mostly overlies the conglomerate and sandstone facies. The facies is similar to facies Fm of Miall, 1977. M Sm FIG.15: Sharp contact between facies M and Facies Sm. Plate 8 Facies Cc, Sm, M displaying a fining upward sequence. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 87 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. Fig.3 Vertical sedimentary facies model for the conglomerate deposits. Interpretation of Depositional Processes/Discussion The coarseness of the paraconglomerate facies (Cm), its poor sorting, absence of grading and stratification, lack of fossils and pebble imbrications and the general absence of associated crossbedding are all suggestive of a debris flow mode of origin (Blissenbach,1954; Beaty, 1963; Hook, 1967; Johnson, 1970, Fisher, 1971; Bull, 1972, Walker, 1975; Lowe, 1976; Kim and Lowe, 2004). The absence of preferred fabric means that the clasts were restricted in movement reletative to each other. The channeled form on some conglomerates of this facies came into being because the flows passively occupy preexisting channels (Miall,1996). The thickness of the orthoconglomerate facies (Cc) beds and the arenaceous matrix implies the operation of mass-flows or streams of considerable magnitude. The presence of framework support may be due to the rolling and accretion of clasts along a bed. The matrix of very coarse sandstone is thought to have been transported in suspension simultaneously with bedload rolling of the large clasts. The essentially unstratified nature of the conglomerates or paucity of imbricated fabric indicates that bedload rolling of clasts in equilibrium with ambient flow conditions was limited. The graded bedding of this facies Cc indicates deposition from a single current as the energy and flow strength diminished. The erosional base of this facies represents channel scour that was formed by avulsion at relatively high water stage (William and Rust, 1969; Miall, 1977; Yagishita, 1997). It may also implies that facies Cc was deposited following a flood that eroded the strata below this Facies. The gravelly very coarse sandstone wedges of facies Cc could have been transported in suspension by the same flow which was transporting the gravels of the underlying conglomerate as bedload (Walker,1975a). The sandstone wedges may therefore represent the upper part of a conglomerate sandstone couplet, deposited towards the end of the discharge cycle after flow velocities had wane slightly. The generally abrupt contact between orthoconglomerate and overlying sandstone wedge reflects the change from bedload rolling to suspension as the main transport mechanisms, and need not reflect sudden or large decrease in flow strengths. Based on the aforementioned interpretations, it is likely that the gravelly facies suggests deposition in channels. facies Cc is overlain by sandy and fine Facies Sm, Sp, and M. Sedimentation in a given channel or channel complex results in aggradation above the surrounding area and a progressive loss of stream competency in response to the reduction in slope. This processes are reflected in the gross finding upward sequence. Probably during a flood event, the channel wall is breached and flow is diverted into topographically lower areas. The old channel or channel system is abandoned and the last sediment formed are fine grained deposit (Miall, 1977; Dyer,1970). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 88 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. Massive sandy beds of facies Sm might be formed in response to depositional processes (McCabe, 1977; Jones and Rust, 1983) or by post depositional deformation (Allen, 1986). In the present interpretation, deformation is considered as irrelevant based on the absence of its indicators in any bed associated with facies Sm. Accordingly, this facies is interpreted as resulting from transport and deposition by short-lived mass flows. The presence of planar cross-bedding, the grain size variations, and the thickness of the sets of crossbeds of facies Sc suggest that it might be formed by migration of 2-D dunes or bars. Their lee faces were the likely sites of avalanching of coarse sands and granules. Textural variations, where the coarse sands and granules tend to concentrate in foresets, were formed because sand is typically sorted by the process of ripple migration up to the stoss side of the dune or bars (Miall,1996). The horizontal stratification exhibited by facies Sp is probably due to upper flow regime plane bed conditions. Considering the nature of facies Sm, Sc and Sp and their close relation with facies Cc and M, these sandy facies are interpreted as channel to bar deposits. They are overlain by facies M. The massive nature of facies M may be due to a very homogeneous and possibly rapid deposition from suspension or to lack of platy grains (Collinson and Thompson, 1982). facies M represents floodplain deposition. Based on the aforementioned interpretations, it is clearly indicated that the overall fining upward association represents a sequence of channel-bar-overbank deposits of a braided fluvial system. Pebble morphometric result on these conglomerates support fluvial origin of the deposits (Udo in press). The linear outcrop pattern of the conglomerates is consistent with deposition in a valley confined braided river. The conglomerates are not alluvial fan deposits of Amajor, 1986 because alluvial fans are localized accumulations formed where a stream emerges from a confined onto a trunk river or broad alluvial plain (Rust, 1979). In the case of the conglomerate of the study area, evidence showing that they are localized by any structural features or ancient mountain fronts have not been encountered. The poorly sorted nature of the conglomerates, paucity of imbricated fabric and discoidal pebbles nullifies the beach origin of Petters, 1989. The conglomerate deposits are not meandering stream deposits because such deposits are made up of mainly sand, silt and clay (Nichols, 1998). The presence of larger clasts and the absence of facies usually associated with meandering stream environment in the study area suggest that these deposits are definitely not meandering. Furthermore, the absence of striations means that the conglomerates are not of glacial origin. The conglomerates are not turbidity currents deposits because of the absence of Bouma sequence of sedimentary structures. VI. CONCLUSION This study reveals that the conglomerate deposits in Northeastern part of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria which hitherto were regarded as either alluvial fan (Amajor, 1986) or beach (Petters, 1989) in origin, were likely deposited in a braided fluvial system. VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to Udom, G. J. for his helpful comments. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 89 Sedimentary Facies Analysis of Conglomerate Deposits…. REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16]. [17]. [18]. [19]. [20]. [21]. [22]. [23]. [24]. [25]. [26]. [27]. [28]. [29]. [30]. [31]. [32]. [33]. [34]. [35]. [36]. [37]. [38]. [39]. [40]. [41]. Adegoke, O. S., 1969. Eocene stratigraphy of southern Nigeria. Bull. B. R. G. M. Mem. V. 69, p. 2348. Agagu, O. K., Fayose, E. A. and Petters, S. W., 1985. Stratigraphy and Sedimentation in the Senonian Anambra Basin of Eastern Nigeria. Nig. Jour. Min. Geol. v. 22, p.25-36. Allen, J. R. L., 1986. Earthquake magnitude frequency, epicentral distance, and soft sediment deformation in sedimentary basins. Sed. Geol. V. 46, p. 67-75. Amajor, L.C., 1986. Alluvial fan Facies in the Miocene-Pliocene Coastal Plain Sands, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Sedimentary Geol. Vol. 49; p. 1-20. Arua, I., 1986. Paleoenvironment of Eocene deposits in Afikpo syncline, southern Nigeria. Jour. of Afric. Earth Sci. v. 5, p 279 284. Arua, I. and Rao, V. R., 1986. New stratigraphic data od Eocene Ameki Formation, Southeastern Nigeria. Jour. of Afric. Earth Sci. vol. 3, p. 1-7. Beaty, C. B., 1963. Origin of Alluvial Fans, White Mountains, California and Nevada. Annvi. Ass. Am. George. V.53, p. 516535. Blissenbach, E., 1954. Geology of Alluvial fans in Semi-Arid Regions. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. V.65, p. 155-190. Berggren, W. A., 1960. Paleocene Biostratigraphy and Planktonic Foraminifera of Nigeria (West Africa). Proc. 21st Int. Geol. Congr. Copenhagen, Sec. 6, 41-55. Bull, W. B., 1972. Recognition of Alluvial Fan Deposits in the Stratigraphic Record. In: Recognition of Ancient Sedimentary Environments (ed. By J. K. Rigby and W. K. Hamblin). Spec. Publs. Soc. Econs. Paleont. Miner., Tulsa, v. 16, p. 63-68. Collinson, D. J. and D. B. Thompson, 1982. Sedimentary Structures. London: Allen and Unwin. Dyer, K.R., 1970. Grain Size Parameters for Sandy Gravels. Jour. Sed. Petrol., Vol. 40(7) p. 616-620. Fayose, E. A. and Ola, P. S., 1990. Radiolarian occurrences in the Ameki type section, eastern Nigeria. Jour. of Min. and Geol. v. 26, p.75-80. Fisher, R. V.,1971. Features of coarse grained high concentration fluid and their deposits. Jour. Sed. Petrol., vol. 41, p. 916-927. Hooke, R., 1967. Processes on Arid Region Alluvial Fans. In: Depositional Sedimentary Environments (eds. H. E. Reineck and I. B. Singh). Berlin Heidelberg, New York, 1975, p. 255-256. Johnson, A. M., 1970. Physical Processes in Geology. Freeman, San Francisco, Calif. 575pp. Johns, B. G. and B. R. Rust, 1983. Massive sandstone Facies in the Hawkesbury Sandstone, a Triassic fluvial deposit near Sydney, Australia. Jour. Sed. Petr. v. 53, p. 1249-1259. Kim, B. C. and Lowe, D. R., 2004. Depositional processes of the gravelly debris flow deposits, South Dolomite Alluvial fan, Owens Valley, California. Geosciences Journal, Vol.8 No.2, p.153-170. Lowe, D. R., 1976. Gain flow and Grain Flow Deposits. Jour. Sed. Petrol., v. 46, p. 188-199. McCabe, p. J., 1977. Deep distributary channels and giant bedforms in the Upper Carboniferous of the Central Pennines, northern England. Sedimentology, v. 24, p. 271-290. Miall, A. D., 1977. A review of the braided river depositional environment. Earth Sci. Rev., v. 13, p. 1 -62. Miall, A. D., 1996. The Geology of Fluvial Deposits: Sedimentary Facies, Basin Analysis and Petroleum Geology. Berlin: Springer Verlag. Nichols, G., 1998. Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Blackwell Science Ltd. 354pp. Nwajide, C. S., 1979. A lithostratigraphic analysis of the Nanka Sands, southeastern Nigeria. Nig. Jour. Min. Geol. v.16, p. 103109. Nwajide, C. S. and Reijers, T. J. A., 1996. Geology of the southern Anambra Basin. In: Reijers, T. J. A. (Ed), selected chapters on geology: Sedimentary geology and sequence stratigraphy of Anambra Basin, ( pp. 133-148) SPDC Corporate Reprographic Services, Warri, Nigeria. Petters, S. W., 1978. Stratigraphic Evolution of the Benue Trough and its implications for the Upper Cretaceous Paleogeograhy of West Africa. Jour. Geol., v.86, p.311-322. Petters, S.W., 1989. Akwa Ibom State Physical Background, Soils and Land use Ecological Problems. Technical Report of the Task Force on Soil and Land Use Survey, Akwa Ibom State. Government Printers Uyo, 603. pp. Reyment, R.A., 1965. Aspects of the Geology of Nigeria, Ibadan University Press, Ibadan, 143pp. Rust, B. R., 1979. Facies Model 2. Coarse Alluvial Deposits. In: Facies Model (Edited by R. G. Walker). 5th Reprint. Geoscience Canada, Ontario. P. 9-12. Walker, R. G., 1975a. Generalised facies models for resedimented conglomerates of turbidite association. Geo. Soc. Amer. Bull.,86, p.737 – 748. White, E. L., 1926. Eocene fishes from Nigeria. Bull. Geol. Surv. Nigeria v.10, p.1-82. Williams, P. F. and Rust, B. R., 1969. The sedimentology of braided river. Jour. Sed. Petr. v. 39, p.649 -679. Wilson, R. C., 1925. The geology of th Eastern Railway, Section 1, Port Harcourt to Enugu. Geol. Surv. Nigeria Bull. 8, 1-95. Yagishita, K., 1997. Paleocurrent and fabric analysis of fluvial conglomerate of the Paleogene Noda Group, northeast Japan. S ed. Geol. V. 109, p.53-71. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 90

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 18-24 ||2013|| ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 Corrosion Properties of Plain Carbon Steels Engr Dr A.C Uzorh Head of Department, Mechanical Engineering Department Federal University of Technoloy Owerri PMB 1526 Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. ----------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT----------------------------------------------------------This paper looks at the corrosion characteristics of two grades of plain carbon steels of Ajaokuta steel company limited, namely, DIN 35-2 (Ribbed rod) and DIN 37-2 (plain rod). In three environments: Salt solution, Tap water and Moist soil. The company is located in Northern Nigeria. The corrosion characteristics of these two grades of plain carbon steel were studied under cold work condition and as rolled or untreated condition in the aforementioned media for a period of 22 days. Result obtained show that corrosion rates increases with increasing degree of cold work. In addition, it was found that corrosion rates of these products vary in the different corroding media with moist soil having the highest corrosive ability, followed by tap water and then 3% by weight of sodium chloride salt solution. Also the rib rod samples essentially corroded more than the plain rod samples in these various environments. Keywords: Corrosion, Plain Carbon Steels, Cold work, ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------Date of Submission: 11 March, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November 2013 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Corrosion is recognized as a major problem both in developed and developing nations of the world. Millions of naira are being spent every year to control tosses of corrosion. With the added interest of steel technology and steel production in Nigeria, it is of paramount importace that thorough studies and investigations be carried out to estimate how these steel products behave in use. In this respect, their corrosion properties are of paramount importance. This paper looks at the corrosion properties of steels produced by Ajaokuta Steel company limited in different corroding environments namely: tap water, moist soil and 3% by weight of sodium chloride solution. Three percent of sodium chloride was used because its corrosive ability had been studied and known. Also salt solution stimulates the natural sea water in the laboratory because sea water in the laboratory does not truly represent the natural environment. This is also a consequence of the changes that occur in it on storage. Majorly the research will dwell on the two common known steels: 1) 2) Plain carbon steel Alloy steels (UHLIG+, H.H. 1963) Experiment is carried out on plain carbon steel because they are the most common sued steels in the industries. Plain carbon steels are divided into three groups: 1) 2) 3) low carbon steel medium carbon steel high carbon steels Steel – Carbon Steel It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to maximum of 1.5 – 2.0%. The carbon occurs in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness and strength of the steel. Other certain elements like silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and manganese are also present in greater or lesser amount to impart certain amount of desirable properties to it. Most of the steels produced recently is the plain carbon steel or carbon steel. A carbon steel is defined as a steel which has its properties mainly due to its carbon content and does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon and 1.5% of manganese. (R.S Khurmi, J.K. Gupta 2005) (DEUTCHMAN, A.D. et al 1975). The plain steels are usually classified in their carbon content, the commonest of the range being mild steel carbon content. (W.A.J. Champion 1972). www.theijes.com The IJES Page 18 Corrosion Properties of Plain Carbon Steels... APPLICATIONS OF CARBON STEELS (Chapman 1985) CARBON % Dead mild 0.1-0.125 Mild (low) 0.15-0.3 0.3-0.5 (0.05% - 0.30) Medium carbon (0.5 – 0.7) 0.7 – 0.9 (0.3% - 0.5%) High carbon (0.9-1.1) 1.1 – 1.4 (0.50% - 2.0%) USES Wire rod, thin sheets, solid drawn tubes, etc Boiler plates, bridge work, structural sections, drop forgings, general workshop purposes. Axes, drop forging, high tensile tubes and wire agricultural tools. Springs, locomotive tyres, large forging dies, wire ropes, hammers and snaps for riveters. Springs, small forging dies, spear blades, cold setts, wood chisels. Cold chisels, press dies, punches, secrewing dies, wood working tools axes, picks. Razors, hand files, drills,gauges, metal-cutting tools. This research paper is expected to help us understand how steel products of Ajaokuta Steel company and other related steel products corrode in different environments. It will also assist in finding means of minimizing or even preventing corrosion for it is said that “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound a pound of cure”. Or better say “prevention is better than cure”. Plain Carbon Steel The two types of carbon steels are plain carbon steel and alloy steel. Plain carbon steel is one which contains in addition to carbon and iron certain elements notably manganese, phosphorus, supphur and silicon in small quantities. It may also contain traces of elements like: copper, boron, cobalt and so on. Plain carbon steel is divided into three groups: 1) low carbon steel 2) medium carbon steel 3) high carbon steel (YOUNG, J.F.1982 Materials and Processes). Hot And Cold Working Of Plain Carbon Steel Rolling , forging, drawing, compression and extrusion and typical methods by which metals are worked especially steels have great effects on their mechanical and metallurgical properties. Cold working refers to the act of permanently deforming a cold metal. The term cold is relative. Even room temperature may be hot for such metals i.e as lead. A metal is said to be cold when it is worked at a temperature below recrystallization temperature but below the melting or boiling point is termed hot working. Metals are subjected to mechanical working for two general purposes: a) To reduce the original block or slug of metal approximately to the finished dimension of the part or mill form, thereby saving material, machining cost and time. b) To improve the mechanical properties of the material thoroughly Definition of Corrosion Corrosion may be defined broadly as the destruction or deterioration of metal by direct chemical and electro-chemical reaction with its environment. Most simply stated, metallic corrosion is the reverse of electroplating. The metal being corroded forms the anode while the cathode is that being electroplated. Metallic corrosion occurs because in many environment most metals are not inherently stable and tend to revert to some more stable combination of which the metallic ores as found in nature are familiar examples. Factors Influencing Corrosion Of Plain Carbon Steels Generally, the factors affecting the rate of corrosion of plain carbon steels are either material dependent or environment-dependent or a combination of both . Some of the factors which are associated mainly with metals are: 1) Over voltage of metal on the hydrogen. 2) Chemical and physical homogeneity of the metal surface. 3) Inherent ability to form an insoluble protective film 4) Hydrogen ion Activity (PH) in the solution 5) Influence of oxygen in the solution adjancent to the metal 6) Rate of flow of solution in contact with metal www.theijes.com The IJES Page 19 Corrosion Properties of Plain Carbon Steels... Significance of Corrosion Corrosion has a lot of significance economically, socially and otherwise. This led J.M. West to write, "Corrosion kills people, waste resources and cost money we can ill afford". But except for a few corrosion reactions which are of practical importance for example, the corrosion of metallic lead, the effects of corrosion are nothing to write home about. Some of the disadvantage of corrosion includes: (a) (b) (c) (d) Wastage of material, money, time and man power due to over design, because of corrosion. Contamination of products eg damage of entire batch of soap by a corroded copper Cost of replacing corroded structure or components Loss of products for example oil or gas losses in corroded pipes. II. METHODOLOGY In this chapter, the focus includes methods and techniques adopted as well as the materials used for this study. This contains material used, working samples adopted and relevant carbon test carried out. III. DESCRIPTION Ajaokuta steel company limited was visited and some relevant materials were obtained for the study from this company. The material gotten from the company is Plain Carbon steel in the form of 16mm plain rolled rods ( steel grade: DIN 37-2) and 16mm ribbed rods (DIN 35-2). These rods were subsequently reduced to the required dimensions for the experiment using the lathe machine, grinding machine and hack saw. The diagram below shows reduction procedure adopted using the lathe machine. Mounting steel/rod on a lathe machine for reduction process Fig 3.2: Reduction process of steel/rod on a Lathe Machine After machining the materials they were further polished and cleaned with emery paper.The ribbed rods were reduced to 10mm in diameter and 20mm by length, this was done to ensure that ribs were completely removed for easier calculation of the exposed surface areas of the specimens. Then the plain rolled rods were reduced to 13mm in diameter and 20mm in length. All these measurements were done using the vernier callipers. These diameters were chosen in this manner wit diameter of samples being about one-half the length, to enable us compress the sample without them experiencing buckling effects. Specimens produced were 108: 56 plain rolled rod and 56 ribbed rod. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 20 Corrosion Properties of Plain Carbon Steels... Cold Working Of Samples Coldworking of samples was achieved by compression. The compressive behaviours of each of the two different materials was determined using the 40-ion universal testing machine (UTM) in the laboratory. The testing was done to determine the different degrees of compression to which the material could be subjected without necessarily crushing them. 18 specimens of the ribbed rod were subjected to a compressive load of 7000kgf which compressed the length from 20mm to 17.8mm and enlarged the diameter from 10mm to 10.6mm. Also 18 more specimens of the ribbed rod were subjected to a compressive load of 7500kfg reducing the length of each of the 18 specimens from 20mm to approximately 15.7mm with diameter enlarged to 11.29mm. The percentage of cold work in the above two cases were calculated as follows: % cold work (%CW) = Change in cross-sectional area Original corss-sectional area %CW : 1 = 12.36% %CW : 2 = 27.5% Similarly, 18 plain rolled samples were given about 16% cold work by subjecting them to a compressive load of 7500kgf which compressed each of them from a length of 26mm to 22.4mm and increased their diameter approximately from 13mm to 1.401mm. In addition, 18 more samples of plain rolled rod were subjected to 9000kgf(compressive load) which gave about 30% cold work to each of them by reducing their length from 13mm to 1.482mm. Corrosion Tests Preparation Of Corroding Media Three types of corroding media were used, namely 1) Tap water – a sufficient quantity of weight 890 per bowl was used. The quantity was large enough for complete immersion of the corrosion specimen. 2) Moist soil – sandy loam soil of the following properties was used: PH value in H20=4.2, in Kcl=3.7 3) NACL solution – 3% by weight of NACL solution was used. The solution coomprised of distilled water and common salt(NaCl), mass of distilled water used per bowl was 790g. using the electronic weighing balance, mass of NaCl was 24.432g Corrosion Of Samples Eighteen plastic bowls were provied for eighteen groups of sample products. Specimens were weighed with electronic weighing balance, wih exposed surface area calculated. The compressed samples were again measured to determine the changes in lengths with new diameters calculated. The samples were arranged in three subscripts i.e tap water, salt solution and moist soil respectively. Care was taken not to allow samples to touch one another in order not to initiate galvanic action. As corrosion of samples proceeded day after day, distilled water was added to the salt solution or tap water solution to make up for losses due to evaporation. Decrease in the moisture conent was noticed by occasionally filling and reweighing the bowls to determine the loss in weight. Determination of Weight Lost No corrosion of sample was noticed the first day, corrosion was noticed the third day and care was taken to remove only the corrosion products. The samples were weighed with electronic weighing balance to determine their new weights. The weight loss of each of the samples was determined and recorded. The process of washing,drying,weighing,deterination of weight loss and recording was repeated for the 6 th, 10th, 14th, 18th, 22nd days. Experimental Results And Analysis The lengths, diameter and surface areas for the three groups of each of the two grades of plain carbon steel namely DIN 35-2(ribbed rod) and DIN37-2(plain rod) are given in the tables of three samples ( As Rolled Samples ARS; Compressed Samples with 1st degree of cold work CDW1 and Compressed samples with second degree of cold work CDW2) below: www.theijes.com The IJES Page 21 Corrosion Properties of Plain Carbon Steels... Table 4.1 TYPICAL INITIAL PARAMETERS for Ribbed Rod (Din 35-2) Samples Group ARS CDW1 CDW2 Diameter,D (cm) 1.000 1.060 1.129 Length,L (cm) 2.00 1.78 1.57 Total Surface Area(cm2) 7.8540 7.6925 7.5708 Table 4.2 TYPICAL INITIAL PARAMETERS for Plain Rod (DIN37-2) Samples Group ARS CDW1 CDW2 Diameter,D (cm) 1.300 1.400 1.482 Length,L (cm) 2.60 2.24 2.00 Table 4.3 As Rolled Samples(ARS), Group 1 DAYS SAMPLES 0 3 6 10 14 18 22 A B C D E F G Material: Ribbed Rod INITIAL WEIGHT (kg) 12.110 12.115 11.987 12.105 12.082 11.985 12.110 WEIGHT LOSS (mg) 0 4 13 24 32 37 53 Table 4.4 Compressed Samples (CDW1), Group 2 DAYS SAMPLES 0 3 6 10 14 18 22 H I J K L M N INITIAL WEIGHT (kg) 12.154 11.943 12.148 12.001 12.110 12.010 12.154 0 12 19 28 37 48 57 SAMPLES 0 3 6 10 14 18 22 O P Q R S T U INITIAL WEIGHT (kg) 12.000 11.997 12.090 12.011 11.989 12.003 12.000 Table 4.6 As Rolled Samples(ARS), Group 4 DAYS SAMPLES 0 3 6 10 14 18 22 A2 B2 C2 D2 E2 F2 G2 www.theijes.com INITIAL WEIGHT (kg) 12.103 12.002 12.000 11.998 12.100 11.993 12.103 WEIGHT LOSS (mg) 0 13 22 32 41 50 60 0 3 9 18 28 33 37 The IJES WEIGHT LOSS/SURFACE AREA(mg/cm2) 0.0000 0.5093 1.6552 3.0558 4.0743 4.7109 6.7482 Medium: Tapwater EXPOSED SURFACE AREA(CM2) 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 WEIGHT LOSS/SURFACE AREA(mg/cm2) 0.0000 1.5600 2.4699 3.6399 4.8271 6.2398 7.4098 Material: Ribbed Rod EXPOSED SURFACE AREA(CM2) 7.5708 7. 5708 7. 5708 7. 5708 7. 5708 7. 5708 7. 5708 Material: Ribbed Rod WEIGHT LOSS (mg) Medium: Tap Water EXPOSED SURFACE AREA(CM2) 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 Material: Ribbed Rod WEIGHT LOSS (mg) Table 4.5 Further Compressed Samples (CDW2), Group 3 Tapwater DAYS Total Surface Area(cm2) 13.2732 12.9422 12.7617 Medium: WEIGHT LOSS/SURFACE AREA(mg/cm2) 0.0000 1.7171 2.9059 4.2267 5.4155 6.6043 7.9252 Medium: NaCl Solution EXPOSED SURFACE AREA(CM2) 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 WEIGHT LOSS/SURFACE AREA(mg/cm2) 0.0000 0.3819 1.1459 2.2918 3.5651 4.2017 4.7110 Page 22 Corrosion Properties of Plain Carbon Steels... Table 4.7 Compressed Samples (CDW1), Group 5 DAYS SAMPLES 0 3 6 10 14 18 22 H2 I2 J2 K2 L2 M2 N2 Table 4.8 DAYS 0 3 6 10 14 18 22 INITIAL WEIGHT (kg) 12.101 12.237 11.990 11.989 12.001 12.121 12.101 Material: Ribbed Rod WEIGHT LOSS (mg) 0 7 10 19 29 38 43 Medium: NaCl Solution EXPOSED SURFACE AREA(CM2) 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 7.6925 WEIGHT LOSS/SURFACE AREA(mg/cm2) 0.0000 0.0100 1.3000 2.4699 3.7699 4.9399 5.5899 Further Compressed Samples (CDW2), Group 6 Material: Ribbed Rod Medium: NaCl Solution SAMPLES INITIAL WEIGHT LOSS EXPOSED WEIGHT WEIGHT (mg) SURFACE LOSS/SURFACE (kg) AREA(CM2) AREA(mg/cm2) O2 12.172 0 7.5708 0.0000 P2 11.987 8 7. 5708 1.0567 Q2 11.998 13 7. 5708 1.7171 R2 12.003 21 7. 5708 2.7738 S2 11.997 31 7. 5708 4.0947 T2 12.013 40 7. 5708 5.2835 U2 12.172 46 7. 5708 6.0760 IV. OBSERVATION After the first day, each samples were surrounded by yellowish deposits evident in the tap water than salt solution. As days progress the deposits turned brown identified to be ferric hydroxide. Some shiny white patches of particles were suspected to be ferrous hydroxide formed due to the presence of insufficient oxygen. On withdrawal of specimed immersed in the moist soil, dark brown deposits of ferric hydroxide were noticed on them. The corroding media (tap water and salt solution) were observed to decrease continuously in volume due to evaporation of water. The decrease in the volume of media was evident from the ringed marks on the bowl inducating the original levels of the media. On washing of sample from salt solution and tap water, it was observed that the deposit on them were relatively easily removed except for the dark patches of samples which took quite some time, but samples of moist soil were not easily washed off. Analysis Of Result Based on the results deduced from the table, the analysis of result shows that on the whole, the ARS have the lowest corrosion rate, followed by CDW1 and the CDW2 having the highest corrosion rate. If a graph is plotted , the as rolled samples curve (ARS) will follow a gradual increase in corrosion attack on the first 6 days and then increase suddenly 4 days after followed by a gradual increase in the next 8 days and another increase in the last 4 days. Curves CDW1 and CDW2, has relatively high corrosion on the first 6 days. On the whole, the as rolled samples have the lowest corrosion rate , followed by CDW1 and with the CDW2 having the highest corrosion rate. Sudden change in the rate of corrosion attacks of the metals mentioned could be associated with the physical breakdown of the barrier films of the corrosion products which encourages corrosion attacks by exposing new surface area of the metals. In the case of moist soils the changes could be explained by the effect of making up of moisture loss which tends to promote corrosion. The marked low corrosion rates in the initial days mentioned especially for as rolled samples might be attributed to the effect of the surface finish of the samples. The as rolled samples have better surface finish of the samples. The as rolled samples have etter surface finish than the compressed samples. On the other hand the low corrosion rates experienced as the corrosion progressed after many days are likely indications that the protective films (corrosion products) accumulated over the past days tend to lower the rates of corrosion attack by not allowing enough contact between samples and corroding media. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 23 Corrosion Properties of Plain Carbon Steels... The general trend obtained whereby the compressed samples corroded higher than their corresponding as rolled samples might be as a result of the increased rate of dissolution of the higher energy (strained) grains produced by the cold work effect by the corroding media. The fact that the samples coldworked to a higher degree corroded more than that cold worked to a lesser degree indicated that the increased rate of dissolution of the high energy (strained) grains is highest for them. V. CONCLUSION In general, the rate of corrosion of plain carbon steels is dependent on both the environmental conditions, structural and compositional properties of the steel. Within the limits of experimental error, conclusions drawn based on observations and result of the research are: 1) In corroding media for example, NaCl solution, tap water and moist soil , corrosion of plain carbon steel depends on the amount of oxygen dissolved in the media. 2) Among the three corroding media used in the experiment, moist soil has the highest corrosive ability followed by tap water and then NaCl solution. 3) The degree of cold water increases the corrosion of plain carbon steels of Ajaokuta steel company limited. 4) Plain carbon steels of Ajaokuta steel company limited as comparable to its counerparts from other places. Suggestions For Future Work a) To eliminate or reduce errors in future investigations of corrosion properties of materials by weght lost per unit area method, the following are sugested: b) The use of a better means of removing adherent corrosion products, say by the use of chemical means. c) An open building with the roof covered for better air circulation than the present laboratory should be provided for the experiment to allow better free circulation of air and real atmospheric condition to play their natural parts in corrosion process without rain necessarily disrupting the project set up. d) It is suggested that future researchers wishing to investigate properties of materials formulate mathematical relations existing between the extent of corrosio attack and time as well as investigation of corrosion properties of other steel products of Ajaokuta steel company limited and other local steel producing companies. Limitations Of Experimental Results The possible sources of errors are likely to be from: 1) The instument used: such errors include errors due to low sensitivity of instruments, faulty instruments etc 2) The method of preparing the samples by machining , grinding and cleaning with energy paper may not have ensured uniform surface finish and dimensions where necessary. Also in the compression process, the stress developed in the process may not have been uniformly distriuted. 3) The physical method of removing corrosion products can introduce errors, since the corrosion product may not be properly and completely removed. 4) The atmospheric condition that obtains in the laboratory may not compare favourably with that obtained in a better open place. Hence free circulation of air and real atmospheric conditions may not be allowed to play their natural part in the corrosion well enough. REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. Chapman, F. A. (1985): Corrosion testing procedures 2nd Edition, Chapman and Hall Publishers, Incorporated, London. Duetchman, A.D. et al (1975): Machine Design, Theory and Practice, Collier Macmillian Publishers, (Inc) London. J.k Gupta. (2005) : 4th Edition, R.S. Khurmi Machine Design. West J.M. (1980) Basic corrosion and oxidation, Ellis Hordward Publishers, Manchester. Young, J.F. (1982): 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/products/journals/journals.htm?id=acmm http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/corrosion-d_986.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion http://www.corrosionprevention.org.uk/ www.theijes.com The IJES Page 24

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume|| 2 ||Issue|| 11 ||Pages|| 91-96 || 2013 || ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805 The Role of Agricultural Mechanization in the Economic Development for Small Scale Farms In Adamawa State D.A. Mada1, Sunday Mahai2 1 Department of Agricultural Engineering Technology Adamawa state college of agriculture Ganye-Nigeria 2 Department of Agricultural Extention and management Adamawa state college of Agriculture, Ganye -Nigeria ---------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------The economic situation at agricultural industry has been change rapidly in Adamawa state from 1999-2013, the population in farming areas decreased sharply and the labor demand increased. The farm size and farm rural wage have been increased. These were the driving force of agriculture mechanization industry. It had made off farm employment opportunity and improves socio economic status of rural farmers. To sustain income status of small scale farmers and Welfare of rural farming communities, the manual power in Adamawa state is gradually replaced by single axle multipurpose machines from land preparation to post- harvest. They should be plan for joint utilization system of agricultural machinery, to improve quality and quantity production of agricultural products. Also the market status of agricultural production should be opened to other foreign countries to boast small scale farmer’s income. Keywords: Agriculture, Econmics, Development, small-scale farm --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 15, October - 2013 Date of Acceptance: 10, November - 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Human labor is still the main source of power used in agricultural work in developing countries (Jaffrey and O`Neil 2000). It is also responsible for approximately half of the cultivated area in the world (Ramansamy, 1994). In small-scale farms like this agricultural machinery with low cost and technological adequacy make rural farmers easy to operate. Agricultural mechanism in economic development was adapted in Great Britain by AG engineer, Ferguson, in 1930. He visualized a tractor and implement working together as a single integrated machine rather operating as two units. He reported that ‘’Agricultural is more important to mankind that all other industries put together. In 1974, UK earned at least £1000 (or USD billion) estimated for sales and export of tractors (B.A. May 1988). By statistical observation, Agriculture provides 80% of the occupation in Nigeria and crude oil about 20% (federal statistical report 2010) Agricultural mechanization is an enterprise that create wealth and youth empowerment in which one liter of palm oil or groundnut oil is more expensive than one liter of petrol or diesel in Nigeria. The situational changes to Agricultural sector, such as hikes in rural wages, increase in offfarm jobs opportunities, strong demand for improved welfare and lack of government interest to purchase farm machinery had retarded agricultural mechanization in the study zone. More than 80% of Adamawa state farming population are small-scale farmers, cultivating less than 2ha on quite widely distributed farms. Farming is mostly a rain fed activity in the study zone and operation is critical. If there is no rain; there no business for mechanize service provider. A range of agricultural machinery such as tractors, harvesters, boom sprayers, planters, Power drillers, slasher, riggers and single axle multipurpose machine are commonly use in the study zone to provide timely and affordable mechanized services to small scale farmers who cannot Alford machinery on their own www.theijes.com The IJES Page 91 The Role of Agricultural Mechanization in the… II. MATERIALS AND METHODS This research work uses data from agricultural mechanization practices and small scale farm enterprises. Farmers were interviewed along the agricultural machinery service beneficiaries across the state. The role of agricultural mechanization in the economic development should be challenge with aid of state government to improved agricultural production in study zone, using the following methodology. Hoffen in (1960) reported, that farmers in developing countries have been using hand tools for thousand years, draught animal for century and mechanization for decades. Stout (2000) stated that, to ensure an adequate and safe food supply for expanding world population tractor is the prime source of power in agriculture mechanization in the developing countries. The peak demand period of machinery from statistical data spread from May to august in the northern Adamawa state, where a single cropping season dominated as a result of single rainy season. The pattern allows for about 55 days of effective operations In the southern Adamawa state, two cropping season are possible and the peak demand spreads from April to August during major raining season. Yam production season spreads from October to December allowing 120 days effective operation in total 2.1 Agricultural Mechanization Investment Theory for Business Firm Mechanization service provision is considered as business run by a firm. Investment theory in Agricultural mechanization services was described by Diao, Yeldon, and Roe (1998), who adopted it from Barro and Salai Martin (1996). It was adapted in Ghana Agricultural mechanization, to maximize profit, taking market prices of tractors, fuel maintenance and laborrate as given in 10years.The goal of farm business is to maximize its net profit. (I) Revenue Gt=P*Ac-Ac (F*L)-M--------------------------------- (1) where Gt= annual service provision revenue minus variable cost P= market plowing charges /Acre Ac= acres plowed F= fuel and lubrication cost per acre L= labor cost per acre M= maintenance cost and fixed cost per year. Fixed operating cost per year (P, F, L, & M) (II) Net profit N=P*Ac-Ac (F+L)-m-(r+б) l___________________(2) Where N=net profit r =annual saving interest б= capital depreciate rate (III) N=Gt –(r+б) _____________________(3) Define the annual net profit from investment in tractor, 2.2 Agricultural mechanization working environment should be improved The youths in the study zone do not actively take to farming because of difficulties and dirty working environment characterized of using hand tools. The user of hoes and machetes for farm work demands a lot of energy. The effect on the health is better imagining than experience. With method of introducing machines in figures 2-6 the suffering is transferred to a machine. The advantage of removing the drudgery in farm work is that anybody, young or old, male or female can work in the farm. When small –scale farm are mechanized, production level increase from subsistence to commercial level to improve the socio- economic status of rural community. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 92 The Role of Agricultural Mechanization in the… 2.3 Agricultural Mechanization Requirement in the Study Zone The requirement of mechanized agriculture in the developed world is still labor- intensive. Human labor accounts for 2/3 of the power input in agriculture, draft animals ¼ and machines power is less than 1/10. Thus, basic farm mechanization methodology requirement include: 1) Suitability of single axle – multipurpose machine for small – scale farm as shown in fig 1-5 2) Simple design and easy to operate in rural areas. 3) Versatility for using in different farm operation. 4) Affordability in terms of cost to small – scale farmers. 5) Supply of low powered and multipurpose machine. 6) Solar paned energy water pumps for small – scale irrigation should be developed. 7) Locally available materials must be incorporated is design and fabrication of machines to reduce the manufacturing cost. 2.4 Agricultural enterprise and marketing The picture of agricultural mechanization in the study zone will not be completed without method of marketing agricultural products, Livestock and fisheries. Domestic market predominant, but there are many market where high value commodities such as flowers, fruits, forest product, vegetable, animal product and plantation crops will be important value added. Processing of commodities should be encouraged to reduce losses and enhance profit in the study zone as shown in table 2 Table2 :Market Status Of Agricultural Product And Estimation Of Income In Adamawa State-Nigeria s/no size of agric enterprise Duration of production in months Estimated income Naira(N) in million 1 1000 cat fish 8 N60 2 1000 layers of bird 24 N100 3 1000 head of cattle 24 N50 4 1000 swine 24 N30-40 5 1000 bags of rice 3-4 N3-4 6 5000 liters of honey 24 N15-20 7 1000 bags of cowpea 3-5 N10 Source: Agricultural Enterprise A key to youth empowerment and wealth creation 2013 Ganye -Nigeria III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The result of experimental data obtained from different source is presented in tables. Assessing the profitability in equation 1, based on field survey and theoretical net profit Or various cost and revenue assumption.. In a theoretical model the tractor operational efficiency is assumed to be the same. 3.1 Calibrate the model to Adamawa state situation. N=P *A –A- (F*L) –M-(r-б) L To calibrate equation 1 using actual data and information from parameters P,F,L with assumption of б=0.1and r=0.07, parameters were estimated using field survey conducted in the study zone on plowed cost /acre, price of tractor with regard to L . In table 2 it shows agricultural production and enterprise for small scale farms are model of wealth creation for youth empowerment. If mechanization standard is improved and more supply of multipurpose machines to transfer farmers labor and fatigue to machines will improve agriculture production in future Federal statistics information and data reported in (2010) in Nigeria that agriculture provides 80% of the population occupation and crude oil about 20%, the result of market status in Nigeria challenges us that a liter of ground oil or palm oil is expensive than a liter of petrol or diesel www.theijes.com The IJES Page 93 The Role of Agricultural Mechanization in the… Agriculture mechanization is an enterprise that creates job opportunity with application of machines as showed in figures 2-5.It reduces drudgery and save time in of routine farm operations. kyu-hong and sukwa kang reported (2000) that, the total population lived in farming area is rapidly decreasing by 58%,demand for off- farm sector is increasing on daily basis. The rural manual farmers population is decreasing by 4,000 every year from 1980-2000. If it continuous what will be the fate of agriculture in future? Thus, mechanized farms should be encouraged in the study zone. The result of the study shows that, conventional production practices in agricultural sector in Adamawa state still dominantly remain to be high doses labor and with relatively small input. Therefore, mechanization emerges as essential for management of economic development. The implementation of agricultural mechanization has to be done by involving the active participation of agric business society including; consumers/farmers, related industry, producers and financial institution (Hendriadi and Allihasyah (2007). Mechanization systems are often categorized into man, animal and engine powered technology on the basis of sophisticated capacity to do work and in some cases precision and effectiveness. Table3 shows the geographical variation, reflects environment, historical factors and the stage of Agricultural development. Region Asia Table3Agricultural power by source and geographical region total Kw /ha % of available power/ha engine man 0.16 23 26 Nigeria Land America Animal 51 0.08 58 35 7 0.19 71 9 20 Source; Giles (1975) Mechanization increase Economic returns to small scale farmers .With mechanization and more lands under cultivation, the scale of operation of the farmer is increase. If a farmer is using hand tools, he may be restricted to 2 ha, but with mechanization he can cultivate farm land up to 10 ha in size. In sufficient tractors and other power unit for farm operation in rural areas is the greatest factor of production in study zone. Agricultural mechanization technology to succeed in the study zone there must be adequate tractors, electric motors, diesel and petrol engines to power the field implement and stationery equipment associated with them. Most of these machines are mot found in Nigeria. Single axle multipurpose machines for small scale farmers are shown in figures 1-6 In table 4 the availability of engine power for agriculture is too low in study zone. Table4: source of power for overall agricultural production. Soule of power Africa% Nigeria% USA% Human power 89 90 4 Animal power 10 8 1 Engine power 1 2 95 Source8.Odigbon and Onwuala (1994) Mechanization systems are often categorized into man, animal and engine powered technology or the basic of sophisticated capacity to do work effectively.wheras 2% of engine power for Agriculture in Nigeria and up to 95% in USA. Thus, the benefits of power overall in agricultural production as shown in table4 above have helped the developed countries of Europe and North America developed their agriculture, such that only few parentage of farmers involved in farm production. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 94 The Role of Agricultural Mechanization in the… IV. CONCLUSION The observation in this research paper indicate that the current focus on agriculture Mechanization in study zone had improved the economy status of small scale farmers from 1999-2012, while the demand for mechanizations is increasing in the study zone. Most of the demand concentrates on single axle multipurpose machines for pre- harvest and post- harvest operations. Agricultural mechanizations had played role in transforming small scale holders but with introduction of suited and lower cost multipurpose machines available in the market., REFERENCES [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. B.stout,The Role of agriculture engineering in the economy devolvement United nation Asia and pacific for agricultural engineering and machinery 2002 N. Houssou, Diao, F. cassar P Abaagye is specialization in agricultural mechanizations a Viable model? agricultural mechanizations in Ghana 2013 international food research Institute Accra. A. zahid , role of farm mechanizations in the development of Pakistan (2012) B. A may agricultural engineering in third world country 1988 D.A.Mada, I-D hussaini, A.G idris S-mahai, the role of agricultural engineering to take agriculture to greats high in adamawa state Nigeria vol 8, 2013 international journal of agriculture, Canada. A.P. Onwuala, G.O Akubuo I.E Ahineku foundation of engineering for agricultural. (immalate problication limited) Enugu –Nigeria (2006) W.J chancellor, Mechanization of small form in west Malaysia by tractor hire service (1969) AESD (agricultural engineering service directorate establishment of agricultural mechanization services enterprise centres (AMSEC) (2009) ministry of food and agriculture /Accra, Ghana. H.Binswanger, The economic of tractor in west Asia. And analytical review, agricultural devolvement council new York. And international crop research institute for 6 the seminal tropic, Hyderabad, India (1979) S. Li Agricultural mechanization promotion in china current situation and future. agriculture engineering international ,(CIGR) journal of scientific research and development invited over view paper vol 7 2005 P. Pingali agricultural mechanization promotion pattern and economy impact chapter 54 in handbook of agricultural economics vol 3 2007 Food and agricultural organization (FAO) agricultural mechanizations in sub-Sahara Africa. Time for new look Rome. Food for agricultural organization of the united nations (2008) P.G.Agbo Agricultural production and enterprise: A key to youth empowerment and wealth creation ,Ganye- Nigeria, July,2013 Figure1: single axle Tractor, size14.92kw Source: college of agriculture, Ganye-Nigeria Workshop www.theijes.com The IJES Page 95 The Role of Agricultural Mechanization in the… Figure2:sigle axle Tractor, Size2.44.kw Source:college of agriculture Ganye- Nigeria Workshop Figure3:A two row planter/maize seeder Source: authors’file www.sdd adi.alibaba.com Figure4: Rice combine harvester Source: authors’ File www.nongjitong.com www.theijes.com The IJES Page 96

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 70-76||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Conversion of Kitchen Waste into Biogas Ogur, E. O. 1 and Mbatia, S. 2 1, 2 Department Of Mechanical And Mechatronic Engineering, Technical University Of Kenya, P.O. Box 52428 – 00200, Nairobi Department Of Mechanical Engineering, Kabete Technical Training Institute, P.O. Box 29010-00625, Nairobi ----------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------Facing energy crisis and climate change, the world is in need of a green, efficient, carbon- neutral energy source to replace fossil fuels. The search for energy alternatives involving locally available and renewable resource is one of the main concern of governments, scientists, and business people worldwide. Biogas, formed by anaerobic digestion of organic materials, makes sustainable, reliable and renewable energy possible. There is potential for biogas production from kitchen waste, and at the same time the waste themselves can be treated to minimize the environmental impact and provide nutrient rich organic fertilizer. The study’s main objective was to design an anaerobic digester which utilizes food waste to generate biogas for use in Kabete Technical Training Institute’s (KTTI) kitchen. The institute’s main source of energy was mainly wood fuel, supplemented with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) which is very expensive. The amount of waste generated from the kitchen was found to be of sufficient quantity to generate enough biogas for use in the kitchen hence the level of biogas production would in turn mean that this technology could be a viable investment for the institute to make. KEYWORDS: Biogas, organic waste, anaerobic, aerobic, organic fertilizer --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------Date of Submission: 30 March 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Everything, in essence, is about energy. There is no doubt now that energy is fundamental for our development. Energy is vital for the internal and external security of a country and energy issues are at the core of social, environmental and economic security challenges. The world is experiencing an economic downturn and in these dire times, individuals and institutions are more likely to consider options for renewable energy or other measures that help the environment. As the demand for the world’s fossil fuel increases and with their price increase, interest has rightly begun to be given to the development of renewable energy sources. The search for energy alternatives involving locally available renewable resources is one of the main concerns of governments, scientists and business people worldwide [1]. Biogas is defined as a combustible mixture of gases produced by micro-organisms when biological wastes are allowed to ferment in the absence of air in closed container [2]. Biogas is mainly composed of 50 to 70 percent methane (CH4), 30 to 40 percent carbon dioxide (CO2) and low amount of other gases. Biogas is about 20 % lighter than air and has an ignition temperature in the range of 6500C to 7500C. It is odourless and colourless gas that burns with clear blue flame similar to that of liquid petroleum (LPG) gas. Its caloric value is 20 Mega Joules (MJ) /m 3 and burns with 60 %efficiency in a conventional biogas stove. Biogas refers to a gas made from anaerobic digestion of agricultural and animal waste [3]. The gas is useful as a fuel substitute for firewood, dung, agricultural residues, petrol, diesel, and electricity, depending on the nature of the task, and local supply conditions [4]. 1.1 Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to find out how the food waste at KTTI could be converted into biogas and to design an anaerobic digester which uses food waste to generate the biogas. The waste generated in kitchen in the form of vegetable refuse, stale cooked and uncooked food, waste milk and milk products could all be processed in this plant. Research has shown that One kg of kitchen waste in 24 hours can produce the same amount of biogas as 40 kg of cow dung in 40 days. That means more than 400 times efficiency can be achieved by using kitchen waste as compared to cow dung. Thus the efficient disposal of kitchen waste can be ecofriendly as well as cost effective. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 70 Conversion Of Kitchen Waste... 1.2 Objectives of the study The main objective of this study is to design a biogas digester utilizing kitchen waste for KTTI. To achieve this, the following specific research objectives would have to be met: [1] To analyze the systems and methods used in the institute to dispose kitchen waste. [2] To establish how kitchen waste could be converted to biogas. [3] To analyze the extent to which biogas generation will impact the KTTI’s operations. [4] To determine the benefits of kitchen wastes biogas plant over conventional biogas plant. [5] To determine how improper kitchen waste disposal affects the environment. 1.3 Significance of the Study The study was to provide information to help KTTI adapt the use of an anaerobic biogas system to replace the expensive LPG and wood fuel sources. The study was also to provide the institute with a basic explanation of the mechanics of a small, continuous flow anaerobic digester which the management could adopt for use. This would assist the KTTI adopt strategies that would reduce waste disposal and fuel costs by converting food waste into feedstock for the biodigester which would be used for cooking. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials A biogas production system consists of the following features: a) Substrate inlet This consists of a receptacle for the raw fresh organic waste and pipe of at least 10 cm diameter leading to the digester. The connection between the inlet pipe and the digester must be air tight. b) Digester This is the reservoir of organic wastes in which the substrate is acted on by anaerobic micro organisms to produce biogas. c) Gas Storage /Reservoir Depending on the proposed design, this may be simply an empty but enclosed space above the slurry in the digester, an inverted floating drum whose diameter is just slightly smaller than that of the cylindrical digester or an air tight polythene tube with an inlet –outlet outfit. d) Gas Burner This may be a special lighting lamp or a modified burner for cooking. e) Exhaust outlet This consists of a pipe of similar size to the inlet pipe connected to the digester at a slightly lower level than the inlet pipe to facilitate outflow of exhausted slurry as shown in Figure 1. To kitchen Reservoir Water trap Outlet Gas pipe Digester Inlet Fig.1: Biogas Production System Methods Biogas can be obtained from any organic material after anaerobic fermentation by three main phases. The fermentation of organic wastes under anaerobic conditions to produce biogas occurs in the following three stages as illustrated in Figures 2 and 3: 2.2 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 71 Conversion Of Kitchen Waste... 1. First Stage Complex organic compounds are attacked by hydrolytic and fermentative bacteria, which secrete enzymes and ferment hydrolyzed compounds into acetate and hydrogen .A small amount of the carbon converted will end up as volatile fatty acids, primarily propionic and butyric acids. Hydrolyze and ferments organic substance Cellulose decomposing bacteria Saccharides Protein decomposing bacteria Fat decomposing bacteria Amino acids Fatty acids Volatile acids H2 and CO2 Fig. 2: Fermentative Bacteria 2. Second Stage The hydrogen- producing acetogenic bacteria continue decomposing by converting the volatile fatty acids into acetate and hydrogen producing acetogenic bacteria. Decompose the substances produced in the first stage Acetic acid,H2 and CO2 Fig.3: Decomposition of Fatty Acids 3. Third Stage Methane –producing bacteria convert the hydrogen and acetate into methane .There is a certain amount of specialization in that different bacteria act on different substrates .In order for these bacteria to work properly and achieve the desired end products, the following conditions have to be well balanced .  The dilution of the substrate i.e. amount of water to dilute the animal waste.  The optimum temperature which should be 350C  Type of substrate (due to their suitable carbon to Nitrogen (C: N) ratio and total solid content cattle, pig and poultry manures are recommended).  Rate of feeding the digester (overfeeding can lead to accumulation of volatile fatty acids). The study aimed to evaluate the viability of designing a biodigester for biogas generation at KTTI kitchen utilizing food waste generated. Table 1 shows the type of fuel used and cost, whereas Table 2 presents data collected on type of waste and amount generated daily. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 72 Conversion Of Kitchen Waste... Table 1: The type and cost of fuel used at KTTI kitchen on monthly basis Fuel used Wood fuel Amount ( Kg ) 4000 Cost (Ksh ) 20,000 Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) 200 40,000 Table 2: Type and amount of kitchen waste generated from the KTTI kitchen Type of waste Amount ( Kg / day ) Food leftovers Vegetable peelings 40 60 Others 20 III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Design based on end-use-substitution of biogas for cooking The wood consumption of KTTI is 4000 kg/month which has a Biogas equivalent of 0.18m3/kg of wood. A comparable biogas volume would then be (0.18 x 4000) = 720m3 = 0.5m3/kg. Therefore the required daily biogas volume = 720/30 = 24m3. The proposed biogas plant is of fixed dome type of digester constructed in cylindrical shape. The relevant dimensions for the flat bottom digester are shown in Figure 3. Fig. 3: Diagrammatic sketch of digester with flat bottom (Source: Niangua, 2006) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 73 Conversion Of Kitchen Waste... The related parameters are defined as: W = Weight of kitchen waste available per day (kg/day) G = Gas production rate (m3/day) VS = Active slurry volume in the digester (m3) SD = Slurry displacement volume (m3) H = height of the cylindrical portion of the digester up to the top edge of the inlet/outlet opening (m) D = Diameter of the digester (m) h = slurry displacement in the inlet and outlet tanks (m) l ,b = length and breadth of the inlet and outlet tank (m) 3.2 Gas production rate, (G) One kilogram of kitchen waste, if well digested, yields 0.3m3 of biogas according to Dublin, 2008. The gas production rate (G) for the available kitchen waste, working with 80kg/day was found to be given by: G = W X 0.3 = 80 X 0.3 = 24m3/day. 3.3 Active slurry volume, (V) The active slurry volume in the digester is directly related to the hydraulic retention time (HRT). This is the theoretical time that a particle or volume of liquid waste added to a digester would remain in the digester . It is calculated as the volume of the digester divided by the volume of slurry added per day and is expressed as days (Niangua, 2006). Active slurry is therefore given by: Vs = 3.4 HRT  2 W , for the kitchen waste, HRT = 30 days, 1000 Vs = 4.8m3 Calculation of height (H) and diameter (D) of the digester The relative values of height and diameter were calculated from the volume of the digester, VS   4 D2 H In practice the ratio of D/H is taken as 2 (Niangua, 2006). Since the active slurry volume is 4.8m3, then, 4.8 = π/4xD2xH, but D = 2H, hence 4.8 = π/4. 4.H3 H = (4.8/π)1/3 H = 1.15m, and D = 2 x 1.15 = 2.30m 3.5 Slurry displacement inside the digester, (d) The selection of a suitable value of d depends upon gas usage pattern. Since cooking at KTTI is usually done three times a day, 50% of the gas to be produced in a day will be made available for one cooking span. But since there is a continuous production of gas from the digester, the gas generated during cooking time should also be considered .The total cooking time is about 4 hours, the variable gas storage volume (SD) is obtained from the equation: 4/24G + SD = 50/1 00G. By simplification, SD = 50/1 00G – 4/24G, SD = 0.333G= 0.333 x 24 = 7.992m3 = 8m3. Then d is obtained from the equation, SD = π/4.D.d, 8 = π/4 x 2.3 x d = 1.93m. 3.6 Slurry displacement height (h) in the inlet and outlet tanks. The maximum pressure attained by the gas is equal to the pressure of the water (slurry) column above the lowest slurry level in the inlet and out tanks as shown in Figure 1. This pressure is usually selected to be 0.85m water gauge as a safe limit for brick/concrete dome type of digester as the proposed design. Therefore, h + d = 0.85m, and h = 0.85 – 1.93= -1.08m (negative sign means the height is below the tank level). 3.7 Length (l) and breadth (b) of the inlet and outlet tanks. A rectangular shape of the cross section of the inlet and outlet tanks is taken and usually. L= 1.5b is selected. The cross section areas are selected as identical hence: SD = 2 x l x b x h where h = 1.08, SD = 8m3 8 = 2 x 1.5b2 x 1.08, from which b = ( 8/2 x 1.5 x 1.08 )1/2 = 1 .57m and l = 1.5 x 1.57 = 2.36m. 3.8 Material selection for the proposed fixed dome digester The methods of estimation of basic raw materials like cement, sand, brick and steel was made for items like concreting, brickwork and plastering. Concreting is required at the digester bottom and at the base of inlet and outlets tanks. The foundations are taken as 0.1m thick. For the construction of the biodigester the quantity of material vary according to the type and size of the unit. Table 3 shows information on material www.theijes.com The IJES Page 74 Conversion Of Kitchen Waste... estimate of various sizes of biogas digester obtained from Kenya National Domestic Biogas Programme [5]. From the information on data in the table, an estimate and cost of a 4.8m3 digester was selected. In Table 4, an outline of the actual cost estimate for the biodigester is presented. Table 3: Average actual biogas digester table of quotation (Source: [5]) Quantity per given sizes Item Cement 50kg bags Sand in ton Gravel in ton Machined cut stones 6x9 Fired bricks pieces 4m3 14 3 1 6m3 17 5 2 8m3 20 6 3 10m 3 24 7 4 12m 3 27 7 4 Cost/Unit 700 2000 1300 180 200 250 300 420 30 150 200 300 350 400 5 Round bars 3/8” ( R8) 2 3 3 3 3 450 Round bars 1/4” ( R6) 2 3 4 4 4 250 1 1 1 1 1 650 PVC elbow 4 inches 45 1 1 1 1 1 400 Nails 3 inches in Kgs 1 1 1 1 1 150 Nails 4 inches in Kgs 1 1 1 1 1 180 1 2 2 2 2 120 Excavation 2000 4000 5000 5000 5000 - Plywood 1 2 2 2 2 500 Water proof additive 1” Galvanized pipe 3 5 5 7 10 200 1 1 1 1 1 1200 Manual labour Plumbing Technical fee ( Ksh) Total Cost ( Ksh) 3000 4000 18,000 56,400 6000 4000 20,000 68,610 6000 4000 25,000 75,800 6000 4000 30,000 101,070 8000 4000 35,000 110,660 300 PVC pipe 4 inches 0 Binding wire in Kgs Table 4: Cost estimate of the proposed 4.8m3 biodigester Item Quantity of 4.8m3 size Cost /Unit Cement 50kg bags 5 700 Sand in ton 4 2000 Gravel in ton 1.5 1300 Machine cut stones 6x9 200 50 Fire bricks 180 10 Round bars 3/8” ( R8 ) 3 500 Round bars 1/4 “ ( R 6 ) 3 300 PVC pipe 4 inches 1 650 PVC elbow inches 450 1 400 Nails 3 inches in Kgs 1 150 Nails 4 inches in Kgs 1 180 Binding wire in Kgs Excavation Plywood www.theijes.com 2 120 2,400 - 2 500 The IJES Page 75 Conversion Of Kitchen Waste... Water proof additive 4 200 1” Galvanized pipe 1 1200 Manual labour 3,600 300 Plumbing 4,000 - Technical fee ( Ksh) 19,000 - Total Cost ( Ksh ) 59,470 - V. CONCLUSIONS Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusion can be drawn:  The biogas digester is simple but effective option to save cost on power.  It was established that there was enough waste (100kg per day) for production of sufficient biogas of about 24m3 per day to substitute the use of wood fuel and liquid petroleum gas.  Any excess gas generated should be sold to the neighbourhood.  Organic fertilizers can be made from the slurry generated after the biogas production process. This can also be sold to generate income for KTTI. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Deublin, D. Steinhauser A., (2008), Biogas from waste and renewable resources: An introduction; Wiley –VCH- Verlag, Weinheim. Giampietro M. (2008), Studying the “addition to oil” of developed societies using the multyscaintegrated analysis of societal metabolism (MSIASM). In: Sustainable Energy Production and Consumption. Benefits, Strategies and Environmental Costing. Barbiar & Ulgiaty (eds). Springer Science & Business Media B.V., Dordrecht, Netherlands. Drapcho, C.M., Nhuan, N.P. and Walker, T.H. (2008), Biofuels Engineering Process Technology, McGraw Hill, U.S.A. Planning and Installing Bioenergy Systems: A Guide for Installers, Architects and Engineers, James & James, U.K. http://www.kenfapbiogas.org/ (website accessed 15th October 2012) www.theijes.com The IJES Page 76

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 62-69||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805  Finger Knuckle Print Recognition Techniques-A Survey Esther Rani P , Shanmugalakshmi R 1, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kalaingar Karunanidihi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 2, Department of Computer Science Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore -----------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT----------------------------------------------------------Biometric traits are now highly explored by researchers to establish a system that can be used to accurately identify a person. Personal identification based on biometric features is becoming more popular these days because it is more reliable than traditional methods and has got numerous applications. The performance of such a system depends on the biometric characteristic that is utilized. Many traits like fingerprint face iris, palm vein, DNA and many others have been used for personal identification. One new biometric trait that has attracted researchers in the recent years is the finger knuckle print. The finger knuckle print refers to the inherent skin patterns that are formed at the joints in the finger back surface. Recently it has been found that the finger knuckle print is highly rich in textures and can be used to uniquely identify a person. Hand based biometrics have the advantage of higher user acceptability and this new trait has an added advantage of not getting easily damaged. This paper presents some of the methods used by the researchers for acquisition and techniques used for recognition systems based on finger knuckle print. Most of the researchers have made use of the database containing 7920 samples collected from 660 individuals that is publicly made available by the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Performance comparison of the different techniques proposed in the literature is also presented. KEYWORDS : Biometrics, finger knuckle print, features, recognition system. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date of Submission: 8 November 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Biometric features have been widely used in personal authentication system because it is more reliable when compared to conventional methods like knowledge based methods e.g. password, PIN number and token based methods eg.passports, ID cards. Different physical or behavioral characteristics like fingerprint, face, iris, palmprint, hand geometry, voice, gait, signature etc., have been widely used in biometric systems. Among these traits hand based biometrics such as palmprint, fingerprint and hand geometry are very popular because of their high user acceptance. Recently it has been found that image patterns of skin folds and creases, the outer finger knuckle surface is highly unique and this can serve as distinctive biometric identifier [19]. It has got more advantages when compared to finger prints. First it is not easily damaged since only the inner surface of the hand is used widely in holding of objects.. Secondly it is not associated with any criminal activities and hence it has higher user acceptance [17]. Third it cannot be forged easily since people do not leave the traces of the knuckle surface on the objects touched/ handled. Also the FKP is rich in texture and has a potential as a biometric identifier. The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 discusses about the various methods used for capturing finger knuckle print (FKP), section 3 summarizes the various technique used for personal identification system based on FKP and section 4 the concluding remarks II. FINGER KNUCKLE PRINT ACQUISITION Woodward and Flynn are the first scholars who made use of the finger knuckle surface in their work. They set up a 3D finger back surface database with the Minolta 900/910 sensor. This sensor captures both a 640x 480 range image and a registered 640x480 24 bit colour intensity image nearly simultaneously. The sensor dimensions are 213mm x 413mm x 271mm and it weighs around 11 kg. The sensor cost, size and weight, limits the use of this sensor in a commercial biometric system. During data collection, the sensor is positioned approximately 1.3 m from a flat wall which has been covered with a black piece of cloth. Black cloth was chosen as the background to simplify the hand data segmentation task. Prior to data collection, the subject was www.theijes.com The IJES Page 62  Finger Knuckle Print Recognition… instructed to remove all jewelry. The presence of jewelry during range image capture causes the emitted light from the sensor to scatter when contact is made with its reflective surface. The result is missing or inaccurate range image data near and at that location. The subject was instructed to place his or her right hand flat against the wall with the fingers naturally spread as the image is captured. Between image captures, the subject is instructed to remove his or her hand from the wall and then return it to approximately the same position. A total of 1191 hand range images were collected by the researchers which are publicly available. Figure1 (a) shows a sample 640x480 color image of a hand. Figure 1(b)is a pseudo intensity of the same hand rendered using the 640x480 range image as a polygonal mesh. Figure1(c) depicts the surface detail detected near a knuckle. The only requirement for hand placement is that the fingers are placed such that there is space between two adjacent fingers. No constraints like pegs were used for acquiring the images. After preprocessing and segmenting the fingers they used the 3D range image of the hand to calculate the curvature surface representation of the index, middle and ring fingers. Normalized correlation coefficient was used for similarity comparison.[18] Next C.Ravikanth et al.[19] developed a system for acquiring the finger back surface images. This imaging system uses a digital camera focused against a white background under uniform illumination. The camera has been set and fixed at a distance of 20 cm from the imaging surface. Non-uniform illumination cast shadows and reflections at the hand boundaries which significantly reduces the performance. Therefore, the image acquisition is uniformly illuminated by a fixed light source above the hand. The resolution of the acquired image is 1600 x 1200 pixels. Each subject is requested to place the hand on the support with their back hand facing the sensor. The subject can visualize the placement of their hand from the live-feedback on small plasma display. The acquisition of a sample image is shown in figure 2(b). Next Lin Zhang et al. [1] development a system for FKP acquisition. This consists of four components FKP image acquisition, ROI (region of interest) extraction, feature extraction and feature matching. The figure 3(a) shows the FKP recognition system, Figure 3(b) shows the captured image and figure 3(c) the extracted ROI which is now publicly available in the PolyU database. The FKP images were captured using this device in figure from 165 persons. The people who provided the database were in age group from20-50 years. The www.theijes.com The IJES Page 63  Finger Knuckle Print Recognition… samples were collected in two different sessions and the time interval between these two sessions was around 25 days. Six samples was collected from left index, left middle, right index and right middle fingers of each person and thus a total of 48 samples was available. The database thus consists of 7920 images from 660 fingers. III. RECOGNITION ALGORITHMS A bio metric system can recognize a person based on the algorithm built in to the system. These recognition algorithms are generally of two types1) Identification algorithm which computes the template of the user and compares it with the templates stored in the database. It is also referred to as one to many matching. 2) Verification algorithm requires identity such as ID card, smart card or ID number for authentication. The user template is then matched with the master template for recognition. It is also known as one to one matching. The verification algorithms must be accurate and identification algorithms must be accurate and very fast. The performance of a biometric system is based on the error rates. Two types of error rates are defined; False Acceptance Rate (FAR) and False Rejection Rate (FRR).They are defined as: The threshold value at which the FAR equals the FRR value is called the Equal Error Rate (EER) [30].The accuracy of the biometric system is defined as: Accuracy = max (100 – (FRR+FAR)/2) (3) The same formula was used by Rattani et al. in [26] The recognition algorithms proposed in the literature may be grouped under the following categories (i) Subspace based methods (ii) Coding methods (iii) Other methods (iii) fusion methods. Some of the algorithms are discussed as follows. 3.1Subspace based Methods The subspace techniques [2, 3, 14, 27] that can create spatially localized features are receiving increasing attention in the literature. Such techniques are expected to be more tolerant to the occlusion as the localized features help to implement region-based identification [19].These techniques include Principal Component analysis (PCA) Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Independent Component Analysis (ICA).The subspace coefficients are used to represent the feature vector and for matching distance measure or classifiers are employed. They are also used for dimensionality reduction, Jun et al.[14] proposed a new linear feature extraction approach called Weighted Linear Embedding(WLE).It combines Fisher criterion with manifold learning criterion like local discriminant embedding analysis. From the manifold learning theory it is understood that local information is more important than non local information and hence both these features are extracted. Gaussian weighting is utilized to combine local and non local information.WLE aims to find a mapping vector such that the ratio between weighted class scatter to the weighted within class scatter is maximized. The classification is based on the nearest neighbor classifier. The authors have also tested the same algorithm on palmprint and have made a comparative study of PCA, LDA, LDE and WLE .The WLE is applied on right index finger of 1000 persons and a recognition rate of 78.2%is achieved.Yang et al. [2] inspired by the work that Gabor wavelets have been applied successfully in image analysis and pattern recognition, used it for feature representation in FKP. PCA was used to transform Gabor features in to low dimensional space. Further orthogonal linear discriminant analysis (OLDA) transformation in www.theijes.com The IJES Page 64  Finger Knuckle Print Recognition… PCA subspace is done and classified using nearest neighbor classifier and efficiency as high as 98% was obtained. This paper compares the performance of the individual fingers and shows that the left index finger provides better performance.Jing et al.[3]simultaneously considered distances and angles between image data vectors to measure data similarities in hope of more sufficiently capturing the manifold structure. In order to highlight the distinction among angles between different data and enhance the complimentary information of angles compared with distance, a new type of image angle measurement in a shifted image space that is centered at the data mean is proposed. Both angle and distance are fused using the parallel fusion strategy based on which the complex locality preserving projection is used extract the low dimensional feature that can better preserve the manifold structure of the input data set. In order to remove the redundant information, orthogonal complex locality preserving projections (OCLPP) is used. Four images were randomly selected during the training process and recognition rate of 88% was achieved for the left index finger. This method is compared with other subspace methods like PCA, CPCA, LPP, CLPP and OCLPP in their proposed work. 3.2Coding Methods Different coding algorithms are proposed in the literature. [5, 13, 15, 17] and basically iris code is the foundation of these coding algorithms. These coding techniques have been used widely for palmprint recognition [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29] and have provided good recognition results. The finger knuckle surface is highly rich in lines and creases which are curved but are highly unique in individuals. Hence Ajay Kumar [17] in his work exploited the local information in comparison to the global information for reliable performance. The preprocessing step accentuates texture features and helps to cope with illumination variations. To avoid wrap around due to inherent modulo operation Finite Radon Transform (FRT), the Modified Finite Radon Transform (MFRT) is used to efficiently and effectively ascertain the orientation of the knuckle lines/greases in the local neighborhood region. The dominant direction at every pixel is then coded using b binary bits and it is known as the knuckle code. Normalized Hamming distance was used for similarity measurement and provided a recognition accuracy of 98.6%. Lin et al.[13] designed a system to capture FKP images and proposed a method to align the FKP images by adaptively constructing a local coordinate system for each image. The bottom of the FKP image is stable because of acquisition method. Hence this is considered as X axis of the ROI coordinate system by fitting this boundary as a straight line. A curve model for FKP was established and the convexity magnitude is determined. This magnitude will reach the minimum at the center of the phalangeal joint and this position can be used to set the Y axis of the coordinate system. Once this coordinate system is fixed then an ROI sub image of 110 x 220 is extracted. Gabor filtering is used from which the orientation information is extracted and represented as Competitive Code. Angular distance is used for matching and an EER of 1.09% was achieved. Next the author in [1] developed an Improved Competitive and Magnitude code by extracting the orientation and magnitude information using Gabor filters .These features are used to set up a code map based on the competitive code. Angular distance and magnitude distance is computed for the code maps during matching. The two distances are fused and the minimum of the resulting distance is considered to be the final distance. The proposed method is compared with the other standard coding methods and found to show better performance. Fusion of features from all four fingers resulted in an equal error rate (EER) of zero percent. Lin et al. [15] proposed a fast feature extraction and coding method called the Monogenic code based on the Monogenic signal theory and is used for FKP recognition. For a two dimensional signal f(x) the monogenic signal is defined as the combination of f and its Riesz transform which is a vector valued extension of the Hilbert transform in the 2D Euclidean space. The code represents each pixel as a 3 bit code obtained by extracting the signs of the three components of the monogenic signal. It reflects the local orientation and phase information of the pixel under consideration. This method is shown to achieve similar verification accuracy in comparison to the state of art FKP verification methods. Lin Zhang et al. [5] used coding method because they have the merits of high accuracy, robustness, compactness and high matching speed. Hence, based on the findings that Riesz transform can well characterize the visual patterns this work proposes to encode the local patches of FKP images by using second order Riesz transform. A six bit coding scheme namely the Riesz Compcode was developed. This code integrates the advantages of Riesz transform and Compcode in characterizing the local image features together. At the matching stage the normalized Hamming distance is employed. This coding scheme is shown to have a better performance in terms of verification accuracy when compared to other coding based methods. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 65  Finger Knuckle Print Recognition… 3.3Other Methods In the literature [7, 8, 11, 16] various image processing techniques are employed either independently or combined to extract the texture, local, global or line feature from the finger knuckle print. The local and global information have been combined [8.11] to provide more information and better recognition results. To explore FKP recognition technology Zhu Lei Quing [9] proposed a robust FKP feature presentation and matching method based on Speeded-Up Robust Features (SURF). It is an improvement on scale invariant feature transform. First a coordinate system is defined based on the local convex direction map of FKP to align the images and a ROI is cropped for feature extraction. Secondly the key points are extracted using Fast Hessian detector to which an orientation was assigned accordingly to the Haar wavelets responses inside the neighbor circle area of the keypoint and an orientation invariant descriptor is constructed for each key points. In matching the distance of the closest neighbor that of the second closest neighbor is compared and all matches in which the distance ratio is less than 0.6 is retained. Thus the initial tentative correspondence between two key point set of training image and template are got. Then RANdom SAmple Consensus (RANSAC) is employed to establish a geometric constraint for removing the false matching. The amount of final matched point pairs is referred to decide the consistency of the palm images. This method is invariant to rotation, scale and view point changes which proves its robusticity. The method provides an accuracy of 90.63% for verification and 96.91% for identification. Lin et al. [11] based on the results of psychophysics and neurophysiology studies which show that both global and local features are crucial for image perception, proposed, the Local Global Information Combination (LGIC) technique. For local feature extraction, the orientation information extracted from Gabor filters using four scales and six orientations is coded using the competitive coding scheme. This method is suitable for images containing abundant line like structures and has the advantages like high accuracy, robustness to illumination variations, and fast matching. Next the scale of the Gabor filter is increased to infinity by which the Fourier transform of the FKP image is obtained. The Fourier coefficients of the image are taken as the global feature. For matching two competitive code maps, angular distance based on normalized Hamming distance is used. Band Limited Phase Only Correlation (BLPOC) is used to measure the similarity between Fourier transforms (Global Information) of the images. Thus the local and global features are matched separately and two distances, d1 and d2 is achieved which are fused according to the Matcher Weighting (MW) rule distance. An Equal Error Rate (EER) as low as 0.402 is achieved using this technique. Rui Zhao et al.[16] proposed a novel approach using a single knuckle print only, for personal identification. This method reduces the burden of a large data base to train the classifier. The edges of an image are characterized by discontinuities in the gray levels. Thus the main lines in a finger knuckle print are the result of grey level discontinuity. Hence to eliminate the noise and to extract the main lines a self defined convolution template of 3x5 is in the spatial domain is used as a gradient operator for edge detection and extracting the line features. Further he used a method to reduce the possibility of wrong decision that may be caused by the variation in the precise location of the acquisition device of the different standing posture of the user during the collection of images. Eight different images were obtained by translation operation and this along with the original image totaling to nine was used for confirming the user’s identity by maximum of cross correlation coefficient. The experiments verified that the knuckle print is reliable as one of the biometric traits and provided a recognition rate of 95.68% at 30 threshold value. Z.S.Shariat Madar and Karim Faez [7] in their work used a bank of Gabor filters to extract the orientation information from the FKP images. Five different scales and eight different orientations were selected keeping the remaining parameters constant Next principal component analysis is applied for dimensionality reduction. Since a combination of PCA and LDA provides good effect on feature selection LDA is applied on PCA weights. Euclidean distance is used for matching .The proposed algorithm was tested on all four fingers and it is found that right middle finger provides better performance with an recognition rate of 75.25%.Feature level information fusion was carried out for different finger combinations and a maximum recognition rate of 98.79% was obtained for all four fingers. 3.4 Fusion Method Fusion is a promising technique that is used to increase the accuracy of the biometric systems [20]. Different biometric traits are combined using different fusion methods[2,4,6,8.27] These include (i) Sensor level fusion (ii) Feature level fusion (iii) Rank level fusion (iv) Sore level fusion. In finger knuckle print recognition score level fusion has been used widely.Z.S.Shariat Madar and Karim Faez [8] proposed an efficient method for FKP recognition by using information fusion at different levels. For each image two feature vectors were extracted. The ROI image was divided in to twenty two segments of 1100 pixels each and Average Absolute Deviation (AAD) was computed in individual segments. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 66  Finger Knuckle Print Recognition… Next for the same ROI, Log Gabor transform of five scales and ten orientations is obtained and for each of these fifty images, the AAD is computed. By this process 1100 features were obtained. For dimensionality reduction, a combination of PCA and LDA algorithm was applied and 164 most important features were selected. The two feature vectors were combined and minimum Euclidean distance was used for comparing. Two experiments were conducted in which each finger was evaluated separately and then different combinations of the fingers were used to get the best recognition result. Left index finger gave an accuracy of 89.9% and the fusion of all four fingers provided 96.56% using feature level fusion.Abadallah Meraoumia et al.[4] have designed a biometric recognition system based on the fusion of FKP and palmprint modalities. This scheme uses Phase Correlation Function (PCF) for matching. Two dimensional DFT of the palmprint image to be verified and registered are obtained. The cross correlation of the two dimensional inverse DFT of the phase components is got. This is known as PCF. The PCF has a distinct impulse which is used for matching. When two images are similar, the PCF gives a distinct sharp peak and when they are different the peak drops significantly. Analysis is done for separate fingers and the right index finger is shown to have better performance. The two modalities are combined and fusion at matching score level is applied. L.Shen et al.[2] in his work aims to improve the accuracy of the personal identification when only a single sample is registered as a template by integrating multiple hand based biometrics i.e. the Palmprint and FKP. To extract Gabor features for the palmprint, the image is convolved with a set of wavelets of different frequencies, orientations and scales. A two bit code representing the local feature information at a pixel is then defined. The same process is applied to the FKP images and a fusion code is obtained. Then the scores are combined at decision level fusion strategy and Hamming distance measure is used to calculate the similarity between two subjects. Y.Zhang et al.[6] presents a novel approach by fusing two kinds of biometrics i.e. palmprint and middle inner surface of the finger. Discriminant features are obtained by combining the statistical information and structural information of each modality which are extracted using locality preserving Projections (LPP) based on wavelet transform to reduce the effect of affine transform, mean filtering is used to enhance the robustness of the structural information in order to improve the discriminant ability of the high frequency sub bands in the palmprint. The two types of features are fused at score level for the final hand based single sample bio metric recognition. A recognition efficiency of 99.56% is obtained. A summary of the techniques discussed above is given Table I and Table II Table I:A summary of first three methods Database Size Method Sub space based method Coding Methods Other Methods Technique Principal Component analysis(PCA) Class size 100 No of samples 12 Liner Discriminant Analysis (LDA) 100 12 Liner Discriminant Embedding(LDE) 100 12 Weighted Linear Embedding 100 12 Gabor Feature and OLDA 165 12 Orthogonal Complex Locality Preserving Projections Modified Finite radon Transform Competitive Code Improved Competitive Code and Magnitude Code Monogenic Code Riesz Transform based coding Speeded-Up Robust Features 165 12 158 165 165 5 12 12 165 165 165 12 12 12 LGIC technique 165 12 Edge detection 98 - Gabor filter +PCA+LDA 165 6 www.theijes.com The IJES Classifier Nearest Neighbor Classifier Nearest Neighbor Classifier Nearest Neighbor Classifier Nearest Neighbor Classifier Nearest Neighbor Classifier Fused angle and Euclidean distance Distance measure Angular distance Angular distance Hamming distance Hamming distance RANSAC matching strategy Hamming distance and BLPOC Cross Correlation coefficient Euclidean distance EER Recognition rate 55.7 76.0 76.2 - 78.2 98.06 87.87 1.14 1.09 1.48 98.6 97.96 - 1.72 1.26 96.91 0.402 95.68 - 89.9 Page 67  Finger Knuckle Print Recognition… Table II A summary of fusion method Method Fusion Method Technique Curvature based shape index PCA+LDA+ICA Gray level intensity + Log-Gabor feature Gray level intensity + Log-Gabor feature 2D-DFT Locality Preserving Projection Directional coding and ridgelet transform Multiple fingers Multiple fingers Multiple fingers Multiple fingers Palmprint and FKP Palmprint and FKP Palmprint and FKP Database Size Class No of size samples 86 8 Fusion level EER Recognition rate score level fusion 98 105 6 score level fusion 98 165 6 feature level fusion 96.56 165 6 score level fusion 95.45 150 12 score level fusion 100 10 score level fusion 50 10 SVM fusion based 99.56 score .0034 IV. CONCLUSION Finger knuckle print is anew biometric trait that has entered the biometric family a few years ago. It contains curved line like structures and is rich in texture. Different image processing techniques that were used in personal identification biometric systems have been applied to finger knuckle print and shows promising results. From the above discussions it may be seen that fusion techniques results in high recognition rates. Only a very few works has been reported in this area and it has scope for expansion REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] Lin Zhang, Lei Zhang, David Zhang and Hailong Zhu, “Online Finger-Knuckle –Print Verification for Personal Authentication” Pattern Recognition, vol. 43, pp. 2560-2571, 2010. YANG Wanknou, SUN Changyin and SUN Zhongxi, “Finger-Knuckle-Print Recognition Using Gabor Feature and OLDA”, Proceedings of the 30th Chinese Control Conference, pp.2975-2978,July 22-24, 2011. Xiaoyuan Jing, Wenquian Li, Chao Lan, Yongfang, Yao, Xi Cheng and Lu Han, “Orthogonal Complex Locality Preserving Projections based on Image Space Metric for Finger-Knuckle-Print Recognition”, 2011. Abdallah Meraoumia, Salim Chitroub and Ahmed Bouridane, “Fusion of Finger-Knuckle-Print and Palmprint for an Efficient Multi-biometric System of Person Recognition”, Proceedings of ICC, 2011. Lin Zhang, Hongyu Li and Ying Shen, “A Novvel Reisz Transforms based Coding Scheme for Finger-Knuckle-Print Recognition”, Proceedings of International Conference on Hand Based Biometrics,2011. Yanqiang Zhang, Dongmei Sun and Zhengding Qiu, “Hand-based single sample biometrics recognition”, Proceedings of ICIC, 2010. Zahara S.Sharaiatmadar, Karim Faez, “A Novel Approach for Finger-Knuckle-Print Recognition Based on Gabor Feature Fusion”, 4th international Congress on Image and Signal Processing, pp.1480-1484, 2011. ZHU Le-quing, “Finger Knuckle print recognition based on SURF algorithm”, Eight International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge Discovery (FSKD), pp.1879-1883, 2011. Goh Kah Ong Michael and Tee Connie and Andrew Teoh Beng Jin, “ Robust Palm Print and Knuckle Print Recognition System Using a Contactless Approach”, 5th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, pp.323-329, 2010. Lin Zhang, Lei Zhang, Davind Zhang and Hailong Zhu, “Ensemle of local global information for finger-knuckle-print recognition”, Pattern recognition,vol. 44, pp. 1990-1998, 2011 LinlinShen, Li Bai and Zhen Ji, “Hand-based biometrics fusing palmprint and finger knuckle-print”, Lin Zhang, Lei Zhong and David Zhang, “Finger-Knuckle-print: A New Biometric Identifier”, ICIP 2009, pp1981-1984, 2009. Jun Yin, Jingbo Zhong Jin and Jian Yang, “Weighted Linear Embedding and Its Application to Finger Knuckle-Print and Palmprint Recognition” “Proceedings of the International Workshop on Emerging Techniques and Challenges for Hand Based Biometrics, 2010. Lin Zhang, Lei Zhang and David Zhang, “Monogenic Code: A Novel Fast Feature Coding Algorithm with Applications to FingerKnuckle-Print Recognition “Proceedings of the International Workshop on Emerging Techniques and Challenges for Hand Based Biometrics, 2010. Rui Zhao, Kunlun Li, Ming Liu and Xue Sun, “A Novel Approach of Personal Identification Based on Single Knuckle print Image”, Asia-Pacific Conference on Information Processing, pp. 218-221,2009. Ajay Kumar and Yingbo Zhou, “Personal Identification using Finger Knuckle Orientation Features”, Electronic Letters Vol.45, no 20, pp.1-7,September 2009. Zhang Lin “Personal authentication using finger knuckle print” doctoral diss., The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Jan 2011 D.L. Woodard, P.J. Flynn, Finger surface as a biometric identifier, Computer Vision and Image Understanding 100 (3) (2005) 357– 384. A. Kumar, C. Ravikanth, Personal authentication using finger knuckle surface, IEEE Trans. Information Forensics and Security 4 (1) (2009) 98-109. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 68  Finger Knuckle Print Recognition… [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26]. [27] [28] [29] [30] A. Ross, A.K. Jain, Information fusion in Biometrics, Pattern Recognition Letters 24 (13) (2003) 2115–2125 W.K. Kong, D. Zhang, Palmprint texture analysis based on low-resolution images for personal authentication, in: Proceedings of 16th International Conference on Pattern Recognition, vol. 3, 2002, pp. 807–810. A.W.K. Kong, D. Zhang, Competitive coding scheme for palmprint verification, in: Proceedings of International Conference on Pattern Recognition, vol. 1, 2004, pp. 520–523. A. Kong, D. Zhang, M. Kamel, A study of brute-force break-ins of a palmprint verification system, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Part B 36 (5) (2006) 1201–1205. A. Kong, K.H. Cheung, D. Zhang, M. Kamel, J. You, An analysis of Biohashing and its variants, Pattern Recognition 39 (7) (2006) 1359–1368. D. Zhang, W.K. Kong, J. You, M. Wong, On-line palmprint identification, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 25 (9) (2003) 1041–1050. A.Rattani, D.R. Kisku , M.Bicego, and M. Tistarelli feature level fusion of face and fingerprint biometrics . Inbiometrics: theory, Applications and systems pages 1-6, 2007. Shubhangi Neware, Kamal Mehta, A.S. Zadgaonkar, Finger Knuckle Identification using Principal Component Analysis and Nearest Mean Classifier, International Journal of Computer Applications, Volume 70- No.9, May 2013 Choras M, Kazil R, “Knuckle Biometrics Based on Texture Features”, International Workshop on Emerging Techniques and Challenges for Hand-Based Biometrics (ETCHB), IEEE, 2010. Kumar A and Zhou Y, “Human identification using knuckle codes”, Proceedings BTAS, Washington, 2009. Damon L. Woodard, “Exploiting finger surface as a biometric identifier”, doctoral diss., Notre Dame, Indiana December 2004 Ms.Esther Rani P received the M.E. degree in VLSI Design from the Anna University Chennai in 2006. She is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree at Government College of Technology, Coimbatore under Anna University Chennai as a part time Scholar. She has been working as an Associate Professor in Kalaignar Karunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore since June 2013. Her research interests are Digital image processing, embedded systems and VLSI design techniques. Dr.R.Shanmugalakshmi was born in Coimbatore, India. She received the Master of Engineering degree in year 1990 and Ph.D in the year 2005 from Bharathiar University, Coimbatore. She is working as Associate Professor in the department of Computer science and Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore. Her research interest includes Image compression, Genetic Algorithms and neural Networks. She has published more than 50 papers in National and International Journals www.theijes.com The IJES Page 69

The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) ||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 11||Pages|| 46-51||2013|| ISSN(e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN(p): 2319 – 1805 Bacteriological Spoilage of Zobo (A Nigerian Drink Prepared From The Calyces of Hibiscus Sabdariffa L. (Malvaceae) E.I Seiyaboh*, I.Y Oku and O.M Odogbo Department of Biological Sciences, Niger Delta University,Wilberforce Island, P. M. B. 71, Yenagoa Bayelsa State, Nigeria. ----------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------This study was undertaken to detect the bacteriological spoilage of zobo drink prepared from the calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa using sugar, pineapple flavour and spices - Ginger (Zingiber officinalis), Black pepper (Piper guineense). The pH of the various products was analyzed over a six days period. The pH was found to reduce as the days went by due to bacterial activity, with product 2 having the lowest pH due to its high nutritive value. The effect of spices was noticed as they prevented bacterial activity. The bacterial count of the products varied from 8.1x104 to 2.5x106cfu/ml on the first day of storage. The change in colour and aroma of the products stored for 3 days was studied. In all the products, the colour was bright red on the 1 st & 2nd day and on the 3rd day it became dark red. Product 1&2 had a berry like aroma on the 1 st & 2nd day and on the 3rd day it became sour, Product 4&5 had spicy odour on the 1 st & 2nd day and on the 3rd day it became off odour, Product 5 had a fruit odour on the 1 st & 2nd day and on the 3rd day it became sour. The organisms isolated from the zobo products were:-Micrococcus, Bacillus, Proteus & Escherichia species. The results suggest that zobo drink if not properly processed is very susceptible to microbial deterioration due to its high nutrient content. It was found to have a shelf-life of 2days after which it became undesirable when stored at ambient temperature. KEYWORDS: Bacteriological Spoilage, Zobo drink, Hibiscus sabdariffa ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------Date of Submission:. 24 October, 2013 Date of Acceptance: 20 November 2013 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- I. INTRODUCTION Microbial spoilage is damage or waste caused by microorganisms like bacteria anf fungi (including yeast) in general due to their invasion. Various members of these groups may cause changes in the character of the food, which may be classified as “positive” or “negative.” The products of positive microbial transformation include cheese, yoghurt and wine, which can be seen as increasing the nutritional value or keeping quality of products with a short shelf life. Negative effects of microbial growth include food poisoning, mainly caused by different and less widespread bacteria.As they grow, microorganisms release their own enzymes ito the liquid surrounding them and absorb the products of external digestion. This is the main basis of microbial spoilage which lowers nutritional value of the product. As a result, products develop undesirable flavors, odours, appearances or textures via microbial action. Bacteria and moulds may also produce waste products, which act as poison or toxins, thus causing the renowned ill effects. Fruits and vegetables are normally susceptible to infection by bacteria, fungi and viruses (Pelczer, et al., 1986, 1993). Deterioration of raw vegetables and fruits may result from –physical factors, action of their own enzymes, microbial action, or combination of all of these (Frazier and Westhoff, 1978).Frazier and Westhoff, (1978) reported the variety of microorganisms present in deteriorating fruits and vegetables. They are:- Pseudomonas, Yeast, Rhizopus, Streptococcus, Bacillus, Erwinia, Aspergillus, Chromobacteria, Penicillium, Fusarium, Flavobacterium, Xantomonas, Enterobacter, etc. The character of the spoilage will depend upon the product attacked and the attacking organism. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Malvaceae is a tropical plant of considerable economic importance (Faye and Neela, 2004). The main edible part is the fleshy sepal, called a calyx surrounding the seed. The calyx is bright red, acid and closely resembles the cranberry (Vacinium spp) in flavour (Morton, 1987; Faye and Neela, 2004; McCaleb, 1996). In the West Indies, Sorrel is a prized drink during the Christmas holidays (McCaleb, 1996), and calyces can be chopped and added to fruit salad (Morton, 1987). In Africa, they are frequently cooked as a side dish eaten with pulverized peanuts for stewing as sauce, for making a fine-textured sauce or juice (zobo), syrup, jam, marmalade, relish, chutney or jelly. The seeds are somewhat bitter but have been grounded to a meal for human food in Africa and have also been roasted as a substitute for coffee. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 46 Bacteriological Spoilage Of Zobo Drink Prepared… Zobo drink has become a household name in almost every Nigerian home in recent times. The drink if not preserve is, however very susceptible to deterioration by food-borne microorganisms. Therefore, the aim of this study is to: 1. 2. Isolate and identify food-borne micro-organisms associated with the spoilage of zobo drink. Check the effect of sugar, spice and flavour on the bacteriological spoilage of zobo drink. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Collection Dried zobo plant calyces, the red variety of Hibiscus sabdariffa, Ginger Zingiber officinalis), Black pepper (Piper guineense) were bought from Swali market in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. They were subsequently professionally verified. Preparation of Zobo drink Thirty grammes (30g) of the dried calyces were put into a conical flask containing 500ml distilled water. It was allowed to stand for 40minutes at 100 oC in a water bath as outlined in the method of Faye and Neela, (2004). The calyces were removed from the solution by filtration using a sieve cloth. The zobo drink was then aseptically collected into 250ml sample bottles. To one of the bottles 15g of grounded sugar was added (Product 1) and to the other none (Product 2). The method described above was used in preparing spicy zobo drink, but before been placed in the water bath, the spices were added. 2g each of the spices was added. The spicy zobo drink was collected into 250ml bottles after filtration. To one 15g of grounded sugar was added (Product 3) and to the other none (Product 4). The method described above was also used in preparing the spicy, flavoured zobo drink. To the spicy zobo drink in 250ml sample bottle, 1ml of pineapple flavour and 15g of sugar was added to make a complete zobo drink. Determination of pH The pH of the zobo products 1-5 was measured using the pHs– 25, digital pH meter. Viable Count of Bacteria The method used for the serial dilution of samples was that described by Pelczar, et. al., (1993). The spread – plate method was used in determining the viable count of the various samples of zobo drink. One milliliter of the various dilutions were transferred to sterile nutrient agar in Petri dishes that had been oven dried at 37oC for 30 minutes. A bent sterile glass rod was used in spreading the diluted samples properly on the surface of the nutrient agar plates. The plates were incubated at 37 oC for 24 – 48 hours. Different bacterial colonies present in the plates were counted and multiplied by the reciprocal of the appropriate dilution factor to obtain the viable count. Isolation of Microorganisms The streak plate method was used in isolating pure cultures. The organisms were isolated from the zobo drink samples on the first day of storage. Loopful of the samples (Product 1-5) were aseptically collected and streaked on agar plates. The plates were incubated at 37oC foe 24 hours. Identification of Isolated Microorganisms Discrete colonies were picked with a sterilized wire loop and transferred aseptically to fresh agar plates. The essence being to obtain pure cultures of organisms that can be used for further analysis. The identification of microorganisms was based on such tests as:- Gram Reaction, Colonial Morphology, Cell Morphology, Biochemical tests and Sugar fermentation reactions. Biochemical tests carried out included:motility citrate utilization, methyl red, vogues posteur, indole, coagulase and catalase tests. The identification sequence for single bacterial culture in the manual for identification of medical bacteria (Cowan and Steel, 1974) was used id identifying the isolates. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The pH values of the various zobo products stored for six days are shown in Table1. Zobo product 1 had a pH value of 0.68. Product 2 had the lowest pH value of 0.53. The spicy zobo drink had a pH value ranging from 0.69 in Product 4 to 0.71 in Product 3 and 5. The microbial load of the various Products on the first day of storage is shown in Table 2. Product 1 had a bacterial load of 8.1 x 10 4cfu/ml. Product 2 had the greatest microbial load of 1.21x 105cfu/ml. The spicy zobo drink had a lower microbial load ranging from 2.5 x 104cfu/ml in Product 5 to 3.2 x 104cfu/ml in Product 4. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 47 Bacteriological Spoilage Of Zobo Drink Prepared… The change in colour and aroma of the various zobo products store for 3 days is shown in Table 3. The cultural, biochemical and sugar fermentation characteristics of bacterial isolates of the various zobo products is shown in Table 4 – 8. The organisms isolated from the five zobo product were Micrococcus, Bacillus, Proteus and Escherichia species. Micrococcus sp was isolated in Product 1, 2 & 4. Bacillus sp was isolated in Product 1 & 3. Proteus sp was isolated in Product 1 & 5. Escherichia sp was isolated in all the Products. The pH value of Product 2 was the lowest when compared to the others. Oxidation of sugar in Product 2 may have led to the decrease in the pH value. pH decreases with the presence of sugar molecules. Product 3 had a higher pH than Product 2 because it did not contain sugar. Product 3 and 4 shows the effect of spices on zobo drink with or without sugar. The spices hindered the bacterial activity thereby making it’s metabolic activity to be reduced. Product 4 had a lower pH due to the presence of sugar which provides additional nutrients which may enable organisms to grow despite the high level of acidity; the spices in it hindered the bacteria from completely oxidizing it. When product 3 was compared to product 1, it was seen that spices had a great role to play in reducing bacteria population. Product 5 was seen to have pH value same as product 3, the pineapple flavoring agent must have contained some substance that have acted with the spices to reduce the metabolic activity of bacteria. The bacterial count of the zobo drink samples ranged from 2.5 x 10 6cfu/ml to 8.1x104cfc/ml. The colour of the zobo drink sample varied from bright red to dark red in the various zobo drink products (Table 3). The control sample was bright red. There was no difference in colour among the various samples from the 1 – 3 days of storage. The aroma of the control was berry-like on the first and second day of the storage after which it became undesirable throughout the storage period. Zobo drink product 2 had a berry-like aroma on the first and second day of storage after which it became undesirable throughout the storage period. Zobo drink product 3 and 4 had a spicy odour on the first and second day of storage after which it became off odour throughout the storage period. The spicy odour in product 3 and 4 was due to the inclusion of spices on the zobo drink. The product 5 had a fruit odour due to the inclusion of pineapple flavors to the zobo drink on the first and second day of storage after which it became sour throughout the storage period. The gradual change in the aroma of the zobo drink products during storage was due to an increase in bacterial activity in the samples. The bacteria isolated from the five zobo drink product were Micrococcus, Bacillus, Proteus, and Escherichia species. (Table 4 – 8). Micrococcus species which were detected or isolated in product 1, 2 and 4 of zobo drink are harmless saprophytic bacteria occurring on the skin of humans and animals. Bacillus species which was isolated from zobo drink product 1 and 3 are habitants of soil and are able to withstand high temperature due to their ability to form spore (Pelczar et. al., 1993). The presence of Proteus species in product 1 and 5 sample might have come from either the water used or from the ingredients used because it is found in water and soil. Escherichia species, which occurred in all zobo drink products are inhabitants of the mammalian intestine and are opportunistic bacteria. Some strains are known to cause gastro-enteritis while others cause urinary tract infections in humans. Escherichia is a concern to public health because it is an indicator organism in water and its presence in water is undesirable.The spoilage phase of various samples was found after 48 hours of storage at ambient temperature. The processing and storage condition influenced the presence of spoilage organisms in the zobo drink. From the result one can tell that zobo spoils after 2 days of storage at ambient temperature and that spoilage may be cause by the presence of the above-mentioned bacteria. Hence, zobo drink should be consumed within 48 hours of purchase at room temperature. IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Most fruits and vegetables are very susceptible to deterioration by fungi and viruses, more especially by bacteria (Pelczar et. al., 186, 1993). Zobo drink has become a household name in almost every Nigerian home in recent times. The drink if not well preserve is very susceptible to deterioration by food-borne microorganisms. It had been showed from the results that there were less microbial growth in products 3, 4 and 5; this is attributed to the fact that species such as ginger and black pepper had antimicrobial properties which hindered the growth of most bacteria. The bacteria organisms isolated from the various zobo drink samples were Micrococcus, Bacillus, Proteus and Escherichia species, which indicates the presence of contaminants from soil, water, humans and animals. www.theijes.com The IJES Page 48 Bacteriological Spoilage Of Zobo Drink Prepared… The pH reduces with increases in microbial population due to the metabolic activities of the microorganisms. From the result one can tell that zobo drink spoil after 2 days (48hours) of storage at ambient temperature, hence, zobo should be consumed within 48 hours of purchase at room temperature. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Faye, D.H.C and Neela, B., (2004) Consumer acceptance and Physicochemical quality of processed red Sorrel / Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) sauces from enzymatic extracted calyces. Food Science Technology. 4(4) 141-148. Cowan, S.T and Steel, K.J., (1974) Manual for Identification of Medical Bacteria (3 rd Edition). Cambridge University Press Pp 340. Frazier, W.C and Westhoff, D.C., (1978) Food Microbiology (3rd Edition). McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. New York Pp 194-214. McCaleb, R., (1996) Roselle Production Manual (Hibiscus sabfariffa). Herb Reaearch Foundation, USA. Pp1-5 Morton, J.F. (1987) Roselle in fruits of warm climate (Ed Cf Dowling, Jr) pp. 281-286. Media Incorporated: Greensborough NC. Pelczar, M.R., Chan, E.C.S and Krieg, N.R., (1986) Microbiology: McGraw-Hill Inc. USA PP 67-147 Pelczar, M.R., Chan, E.C.S and Krieg, N.R., (1993) Microbiology: McGraw-Hill Inc. USA PP 67-147 Table 1: Effects of Sugar, Spices and Pineapple Flavour In the pH of Zobo Drink Samples SAMPLES Z-S Z+S Z- S + S Z+S+S Z+S + S + F 1 2 3 4 5 DAY 0 2.43 2.43 2.56 2.50 2.53 DAY 1 2.35 2.36 2.46 2.45 2.47 DAY 2 2.27 2.24 2.40 2.38 2.39 pH DAY 3 2.17 2.14 2.18 2.16 2.18 DAY 4 1.12 1.11 1.18 1.27 1.32 DAY 5 0.93 0.87 0.98 0.92 0.97 DAY 6 0.68 0.53 0.71 0.69 0.71 Key: Z-S Z+S Z-S + S = Z+S+S Z+S+S+F = = = = Zobo drink without sugar Zobo drink with sugar Zobo drink without sugary with spices Zobo drink with sugar with spices Zobo drink with sugar with spices and with pineapple Flavour ` Table 2: the Effect of Sugar, Spices and Flavour on the Bacterial Counts of Zobo Drink Product Samples on the first day of Storage ZOBO DRINK SAMPLES Z-S 1 Z+S 2 Z- S + S 3 Z+S+S 4 Z+S + S + F 5 DILUTION 10-3 10-3 10-4 10-4 10-5 COLONIES ON PLATES 81 121 26 32 25 BACTERIAL COUNTS (CFU/ML) 8.1 X 104 1.21 X 105 2.6 X 105 3.2 X 105 2.5 X 106 Key: Cfu -----------Colony forming units Others -------- Same as Table 1 Determinations were done in duplicates . Table 3: Changes in Colour and Aroma of Zobo Drink Samples Stored for 3 Days. Key: Same as Table 1 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 49 Bacteriological Spoilage Of Zobo Drink Prepared… Table 4: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 1 on the first day of Storage Key: G – Gas Production, A – Acid Production, + Positive, -- Negative Table 5: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 2 on the first day of Storage Key: Same as Table 4 Table 6: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 3 on the first day of Storage Key: Same as Table 4 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 50 Bacteriological Spoilage Of Zobo Drink Prepared… Table 7: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 4 on the first day of Storage Key: Same as Table 4 Table 8: Characteristics of Bacteria Isolated From Zobo Drink Product 5 on the first day of Storage Key: Same as Table 4 www.theijes.com The IJES Page 51

Log In

The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)

The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)

Related Papers

RELATED PAPERS