DOCUMENT RESUME FL 024 136 ED 399 809 AUTHOR TITLE Greyling, Willfred J. Sinclair & Coulthard Revisited: Global- and Local-Allocational Turn-Taking Mechanisms in the Language Classroom. PUB DATE NOTE 95 PUB TYPE EDRS PRICE DESCRIPTORS IDENTIFIERS 28p.; In: Pragmatics and Language Learning. Monograph Series Volume 6; see FL 024 134. Evaluative/Feasibility (142) Reports Speeches /Conference Papers (150) MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. Behavior Patterns; *Classroom Communication; Discourse Analysis; Foreign Countries; Group Dynamics; *Interaction; Interpersonal Communication; Language Fluency; *Language Patterns; Language Research; Linguistic Theory; *Pragmatics; Second Language Instruction; Second Language Learning; *Second Languages; Student Behavior; Teacher Behavior; *Teaching Styles *Turn Taking ABSTRACT A study examined global- and local-allocational preselection mechanisms for turn-taking in the language classroom, using two corpuses of classroom discourse illustrating both accuracyand fluency-based modes of language teaching. It was found that teacher-directed accuracy work yielded Initiation-Response-Feedback patterns governed by local-allocational projection mechanisms for turn-taking, while the fluency-based work was characterized by global-allocational preselection mechanisms for turn-taking, which allow learners to produce multiple-utterance responses. The two corpuses of data display typical discourse features that are related to restricting or facilitating learner initiative, single-utterance versus multiple-utterance learner response, and form versus content feedback. It is shown that these typical discourse features may be used as evidence to confirm or invalidate teacher claims about their modes of language teaching. It is suggested that teachers who are aware of theses features may generate and test specific predictions about their interactions with learners. A set of if-then predictions is generated for each corpus. Data excerpts are appended. Contains 27 references. (Author/MSE) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. **AAk*****1 ****************************AA***A, SINCLAIR & COULTRARD REVISITED: GLOBAL- AND LOCAL- ALLOCATIONAL TURN-TAKING MECHANISMS IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM Willfred J. Grey ling One of the aims of this paper is to outline global- and local- allocational preselection mechanisms for turn-taking in the language classroom. For this purpose, theoretical sampling was used in collecting two corpuses of classroom discourse. Adopting the fluency-accuracy interface, we collected both accuracyand fluency-based classroom discourse. It was found that teacher-directed accuracy work yielded Initiation-Response-Feedback patterns governed by local-allocational preselection mechanisms for turn-taking, while the fluency-based work was characterised by global-allocational preselection mechanisms for turn-taking which allow learners to produce multiple-utterance responses. The two corpuses of data display typical discourse features which are related to restricting or facilitating learner initiative, single-utterance versus multiple-utterance learner responses, and form versus content feedback. It is shown that these typical discourse features may be used as evidence to confirm or invalidate teacher claims about their modes of language teaching. Indeed, teachers who are aware of these discourse features may generate and test specific predictions about their interactions with learners. It is proposed that teachers cast such predictions in the if-then format in which the ifclause specifies conditions, and the then-clause encapsulates the lingual action or experience which may subsequently occur. A set of if-then predictions is generated and discussed for each corpus of data. INTRODUCTION The fluency-accuracy interface in ELT (Cf. Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, p. 98; Brumfit, 1984, p. 52 and 57) and second language acquisition studies (Cf. Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991, pp. 323-325) formed the basis for collecting two corpuses of classroom data. It was argued that these data types would display typical differences. The main aims of this paper are, first, to show that the two modes of language teaching are founded on distinct preselection mechanisms for turn-taking in the language classroom; second, to fuse elements of Personal Construct Psychology and Sinclair & Coulthard's model in generating a discourse-based construct system for predicting the occurrence of distinct Initiation-ResponseFeedback sequences in accuracy- and fluency-based teaching; and finally, to indicate that an awareness of these typical IRF patterns, and a concomitant construct network, may promote teachers' decision-making in the classroom. These aims indicate that the focus is not only on studying classroom discourse for its own sake, but also on how these findings may be used to empower teachers in their decision- making and to promote their awareness of classroom processes. The teacher may use the discourse-based construct system in generating if-then predictions for accuracy- and fluencybased activity, and then, in the interactive phase of the lesson, the teacher may confirm or U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Dew Office of Educational Research and Improvement E his document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. e. TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) o 2 Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. 20 Willfred J. Grey ling invalidate these predictions (Cf. Gribling, Koole, Ten Thije & Tromp, 1983, pp. 50-69 for the distinction between the proactive planning and the interactive emergence of lessons). Both processes of confirming or invalidating our predictions may lead to diversification of our construct systems. For a detailed outline of how constructs are created and modified, see Kelly's theory for more information on the experience, construction, modulation, fragmentation and other corollaries (Kelly, 1955, pp. 72-77 and p. 83; Hergenhahn, 1984, pp. 271-276). METHODOLOGICAL ORIENTATION A selected sample of Initiation-Response-Feedback exchanges was taken from both accuracy-based and fluency-based lessons collected at primary and secondary schools, and tertiary institutions in Bloemfontein from 1987 to 1990. The IRF exchange was found to be overwhelmingly present in both corpuses of data. The following criteria were used in classifying exchanges as either accuracy- or fluency-based. Accuracy-based interactional exchanges display the following features: a) b) c) d) e) a metacommunicative focus (i.e., teachers and pupils talk about language)(Cf. Stubbs, 1976, p. 83; Widdowson, 1978, pp. 12-15); teacher control of the discourse (i.e., the teacher takes two out of three turns; or insists on pupil bids as floor seekers, or employs nominations to identify next speaker; or activates a preselection system which is locally managed from one turn to the next); learner responses are single utterances; learner non-responses are followed by one or more teacher clues, directives, re-elicitations, informatives, and/or extended IRF sequences (Cf. Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975; Sinclair & Brazil, 1982; White & Lightbown, 1984, p. 235; Mehan, 1985, p. 122); and the teacher provides form feedback which focuses on the accuracy of learner responses (Cf. Harmer, 1983, p. 202). Fluency-based interactional exchanges display the following features: a) a communicative focus which requires reciprocal language activity (i.e., pupils are required to solve a communication problem or task as found in information gaps, reasoning gaps, and opinion gaps) (Widdowson, 1978, pp. b) c) 22-32; Prabhu, 1987, pp. 46-47; Hoey, 1991, p. 68); the teacher structures an interactional space in which communication-gap activities have to be completed (Cf. Stevick, 1980, p. 20; Maze land, 1983, p. 100; learner answering moves consist of learner-learner exchanges across several turns-at-talk, and if the teacher becomes a co-producer of discourse in a response, he/she abandons his/her authority relationship as a teacher to assume the role of co-communicator; 3 Turn-Taking d) 21 the teacher's role in case of learner difficulties in dealing with a communication task is to facilitate the learners' construction of effective e) messages within a preselection system which is globally managed (i.e., with multiple learner-learner exchanges preselected by the teacher) (See appendix 4 for an excerpt); and the teacher provides content feedback which focuses on the effectiveness of learner communication as goal-directed, reciprocal language activity (Harmer, 1983, p. 202). The selected exchanges were then analysed in terms of the columns specified in Sinclair & Coulthard (1975; 1992). Moreover, a methodological procedure from Personal Construct Psychology was used in identifying constructs for the interpretation of different discourse manifestations of the IRF exchange pattern. Kelly (1955) claims that we create reality in accordance with our construct systems. In fact, our construct systems allow us to make predictions about future events, and our subsequent experiences will then allow us to confirm or invalidate these predictions. If we hope to function within the domain of conscious choice, we have to become aware of our construct systems; and, indeed, this also applies to practising teachers who have to know why they do what they do. For this reason, it is important to clarify the concept 'construct' and the procedure for identifying constructs. Kelly (1955, pp. 8-9 and p. 12) defines a construct as follows: Man looks at his world through transparent patterns or templets which he creates and then attempts to fit over the realities of which the world is composed ... Let us give the name constructs to these patterns that are tried on for size. They are ways of construing the world ... we consider a construct to be a representation of the universe, a representation erected by a living creature and then tested against the reality of that universe. Since the universe is essentially a course of events, the testing of a construct is a testing against subsequent events. In other words, a construct is tested in terms of its predictive efficiency. This would imply that if the teacher is able to generate if-then predictions in terms of a set of discourse-based constructs, he/she may confirm or invalidate their predictive efficiency against the discourse evidence from the language classroom. Next, Kelly (1955, pp. 59-61) states that a construct is dichotomous, and that a continuum of possibilities exist in between the poles of a construct. The procedure for identifying the poles of such a construct is the following: If we choose an aspect in which A and B are similar, but in contrast to C, it is important to note it is the same aspect of all three, A, B, and C, that forms the basis of the construct ... In its minimum context a construct is a way in which at least two elements are similar and contrast with a third. 22 Willfred J. Greyling Given the methodological orientation, both a language practitioner and a registered psychologist/academic assisted in triangulating the classification and analysis of the data in terms of the guide-lines outlined above (Cf. Van Lier, 1988, p. 13). Then discourse-based constructs were generated for making if-then predictions in the proactive planning of lessons within these modes of ELT. These constructs were used in generating if-then predictions for both an accuracy and a fluency activity. The discourse collected during the interactive phase of the lesson seemed to validate the predictive efficiency of the construct system. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN INITIATION - RESPONSE - FEEDBACK EXCHANGES The methodological procedure is applied in the analysis of three excerpts of data: (1) (The teacher is discussing describing words with learners.) Exchange type Opening move (Initiation) Answering move Act (Response) inf (NV raises eliciting The tall man hand) stands in the hand) garden. Now Tall what is your describing word el in that sentence? Yes. nom (2) Follow-up move Act (Feedback) Act bid It is tall. The acc tall man. (The teacher is asking closed-type questions about the words in a poem. The aim is to negotiate an understanding of the term paradox. See appendix 1 for the extended sequence of IRF interactions.) Exchange type Opening move (Initiation) Answering move Act (Response) eliciting Shimmering surely applies to which of our senses? el NV Follow-up move Act (Feedback) (NV:various hands) bid Eyes. rep Eyes. Right. Act nom Yes. 5 acc 23 Turn-Taking (3) (Pupils have prepared several dialogues. Pupil 1 (P1) plays the role of Peter Jacobs, an employee of Mr Pieterse, who is played by pupil 2 (P2). Pupils have to produce utter-utter sequences. Abbreviations: m =marker; ms= metastatement; dir =directive; rep=reply; nom =nomination; acc =accept) Exchange type opening move (Initiation) Answering move Act (Response) eliciting Right Now ... good. Your instruction is to practise this dialogue with a friend and then to put together three more dialogues in which Peter Jacobs first succeeds and then does not succeed in making a definite appointment with Mr Pieterse. Good.Choose a friend and then you start practising. m eliciting Right Let's hear how it goes with three of these dialogues.Let's hear what these guys have done. Let's hear what it sounds like. Pay attention. m Pl:Mr Pieterse, I want to talk to you about my salary right el now. Follow-up move Act (Feedback) Act ms el (Pupils are practising) rep el el el el In:[Hatters:0h' nom It's old Jacobs again.] Yes,but dir I don't have dir much time. I'm very busy at the moment. PI:[Mutters:The egghead! I know that he isn't busy.] You must rep postpone. I'm very serious. P2 :[Mutters: oh dear! I can't get away from him.] Yes,sure. Come to my office right Good. now. it. 6 That's acc 24 Winfred J. Grey ling When these IRF exchanges are compared, they are similar yet different. In exchanges (1) and (2) the IRF pattern emerges from one turn to the next with the teacher taking every second turn, while in (3) the IRF pattern spans six turns of which the pupils take four. Exchanges (1) and (2) are founded on a local-allocational preselection system of turn-taking in which the teacher as the dominant participant self-selects and/or selects next speaker. It would seem that the recursive rule system proposed by McHoul (1978, p. 188) can adequately deal with such teacher-dominated accuracy-based data. However, in exchange (3) current speaker, the teacher, selects a configuration of next speakers for what turns out to be four utterances that constitute an answering move. The teacher not only directs speakership, but employs a global-allocational preselection system of turn-taking in his initiation which allows us to predict how turns are going to be taken by the learners. The teacher specifies the learners' interactional space, their roles, and the pattern of interactional exchange. The teacher sets up a learner response which consists of several learner-learner exchanges. Within this global design, learners are required to produce what Hoey (1991, p. 68) refers to as free pairs, or from a turn-allocation point of view, are required to engage in a learning experience which appears to simulate the local-allocational system for turntaking in ordinary conversation (Cf. Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974). The teacher initiations in (1), (2) and (3) may be interpreted along the same lines. The aspect of similarity is that these teacher moves are initiations. While (1) and (2) are similar, they differ from (3) because in the former the teacher restricts learner initiative to their giving a minimal response. However, in the latter initiation the teacher maximises learner initiative because learners are expected to cope with an interactional pattern which has been prespecified by the teacher. We could argue that in (1) and (2) the teacher engages in an initiative-minimising initiation, while in (3) the teacher embarks upon an initiativemaximising initiation. In both cases the teacher exerts control over the discourse process. Paradoxically, it appears that the teacher may structure learner freedom to take initiative in the classroom. Indeed, the teacher seems to be a designer of speech exchange systems that may promote language development in the learner. Put in the words of Stevick (1980): As far as I can see, "control" by the teacher is legitimate even in "progressive," or in "humanistic" education. ... Seen in this way, "initiative" and "control" are not merely two directions along a single dimension. That is to say, "control" on the part of the teacher does not interfere with "initiative" on the part of the student: when the teacher tightens her "control" of what is going on, she need not cut into the student's "initiative"; often, in fact, she will actually increase it (Stevick, 1980, p. 17 and p. 19). Later Stevick (1980, p. 20) reiterates this view: In exercising "control," then, the teacher is giving some kind of order, or structure, to the learning space of the student. In encouraging him to take "initiative," she is allowing him to work, and to grow, within that space. Similarly, we may argue that in (1) and (2) we encounter single-utterance learner responses, while in (3) we find multiple-utterance learner-learner exchanges functioning as a response. In addition, (1) and (2) contain form feedback in which the teacher judges 7 25 Turn-Taking the accuracy of the learner responses, while in (3) the teacher provides content feedback in which he comments briefly on the effectiveness of the learners' communication in response to his initiation. In sum, we may argue that accuracy-based data in this study are characterised by a local-allocational preselection system for turn-taking, initiative-minimising teacher initiations, single-utterance learner responses, and form-focused feedback. Clearly the teacher exerts very tight control over turn-taldng and turn content. Indeed, when the teacher encounters a non-response to a teacher initiation, he/she may embark upon a re-elicitation, informative, directive, clue or extended sequence of interactions to circumvent the short circuit in the interaction. These aspects of control are evident in the extended sequence of IRF exchanges in appendix 1. The fluency data are characterised by global- allocational preselection mechanisms for turn-taking, initiative-maximising teacher initiations, answering moves that consist of multiple-utterance learner-learner exchanges, and content feedback in which the teacher evaluates the effectiveness of learner-learner communication in producing an appropriate response to his initiation. These observations may be summarised in the following construct network: (4) FLUENCY ACCURACY -Global-allocational Local-allocational Preselection mechanisms in IRF exchanges *The teacher self-selects. *The teacher selects next speaker. *The student can only select the teacher as next speaker. *If the student does not select next speaker, that student may self-select, or the teacher may self-select as superordinate. *Student non-responses are followed by elicitations, clues, directives, informatives or extended IRFs Initiativeminimising *The teacher self-selects. *The teacher selects a configuration of next speakers. *The configuration of students has to implement the speech exchange system specified by the teacher. *The teacher may structure a speech exchange system in which current speaker (a student) selects another student as next speaker. *During or upon completion of the response, the teacher may self-select. Teacher initiations Single- utterance Learner responses Initiativemaximising Multiple-utterance learner-learner exchanges Content Form-focused Feedback 8 Winfred J. Grey ling 26 RULES FOR FLUENCY-BASED CLASSROOM TALK From a conversation analysis perspective, the rule system proposed by McHoul (1978) may be supplemented by additional rules. In the subsequent paragraphs, the relevant rules from McHoul are listed with additions to accommodate the normative orientations encapsulated in the fluency-based data: (5) (I) For any teacher's turn, at the initial transition-relevance place of an initial turn-constructional unit: (A) If the teacher's turn-so-far is so constructed as to involve the use of a 'current speaker selects next' technique, then the right and obligation to speak is given to a single student; no others have such a right or obligation and transfer occurs at that transition-relevance place (McHoul, 1978, p. 188). The problem with this rule is that it does not account for the teacher selecting a configuration of learners who have to perform a communicative task in a prespecified interactional space. For this reason, the rule has to be supplemented by at least the following rule: (6) Rule 1 (a) fluency: If the superordinate selects a configuration of next speakers, the so-selected configuration has to implement the preselected turn- taking system within the interactional space specified. McHoul (1978) also refers to the normative mechanisms governing the taking of turns subsequent to a student turn: (7) (H) If I(A) is effected, for any student-so-selected's turn, at the initial transition-relevance place of an initial turn-constructional unit: (A) If the student-so-selected's turn-so-far is so constructed as to involve the use of a 'current speaker selects next' technique, then the right and obligation to speak is given to the teacher; no others have such a right or obligation and transfer occurs at the transition-relevance place (McHoul, 1978, p. 188). This rule implies that the student can only select the teacher as next speaker. The fluency data in excerpt (3) contradict this rule because current speaker (student in the role of Jacobs) selects next speaker (a pupil in the role of Mr Pieterse). The rule proposed by McHoul (1978, p. 188) has to accommodate the notion that the teacher may direct speakership, and specify the pattern of participation for learners in a subsequent interactional exchange: (8) Rule 1 (b) fluency: If the so-selected subordinates engage in the preselected turn-taking system within the interactional space specified, the subordinates will select next speaker in accordance with the superordinate's preselected and prespecified speech exchange system. 9 Turn-Taking 27 In addition, a rule would have to be included to account for switching from one mode of language teaching to the other. This would probably require a rule of the following kind: (9) Rule 1 (c) transition from fluency to accuracy modes: If the superordinate self-selects upon the completion of a response produced by a configuration of learners, he/she may, but does not have to, re-activate rules 1 (a) and 1 (b) above, or use the rule system proposed by McHoul (1978) as normative orientation to change the mode of language teaching. It is clear that these 'rules' derive from the teacher's design of speech exchange systems: the teacher is able to specify different configurations of next speakers and determine the rules governing such speech exchange systems. MAKING AND TESTING IF-THEN PREDICTIONS Kelly (1955, pp. 122-127) claims that construct networks are used to make predictions about experiences; so, if this construct network is consistent with our experiences of specific modes of language teaching, then we should be able to make predictions about the discourse in those contexts of learning. Kelly (1955, pp. 122-127) proposes the if-then format for generating predictions. The if-clause contains reference to a set of conditions, while the then- clause specifies the behaviour or experience that may occur. Such prediction systems are found in communication rules research (Shimanoff, 1980), conversation analysis (Sacks et al., 1974), learner strategies research (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990), and computer programming (Riley, 1987). However, human action is not wholly predictable; indeed, when experiences contradict our predictions we may have to generate new predictions, re-interpret the experience, and/or modify our constructs. What kind of predictions may teachers generate in terms of the construct network outlined above? The following sets of predictions may be formulated: (10.1) If the teacher engages in accuracy-based teaching, then (10.1.1) the teacher exerts control over turn content and the floor through a local-allocational preselection system of turn-taking, (10.1.2) the teacher embarks upon initiative-minimising teacher initiations, (10.1.3) learners produce single-utterance responses, and (10.1.4) learner non-responses are followed by one or more teacher clues, directives, re-elicitations, informatives, and/or extended IRF sequences, and (10.1.5) the teacher embarks upon form feedback in which he/she comments on the accuracy of learner responses. BEST COPY AVAILABLE 10 Wilfred J. Greying 28 (10.2) If the teacher engages in fluency-based teaching, then (10.2.1) the teacher structures learner freedom by means of a globalallocational preselection system of turn-taking, (10.2.2) the teacher embarks upon initiative-maximising teacher initiations, (10.2.3) learners engage in multiple-utterance learner-learner exchanges which function as responses to the teacher initiations, (10.2.4) the teacher's role in case of learner difficulties in dealing with a communication task is to facilitate the learners' construction of effective messages within a preselection system which is globally managed (i.e., with multiple learner-learner exchanges preselected by the teacher), and (10.2.5) the teacher embarks upon content feedback in which he/she comments on the effectiveness of learner exchanges as goal-directed discourse. Given these sets of predictions, we employed theoretical sampling in eliciting data to confirm or invalidate these hypotheses. It was argued that if these predictions were true, we would be able to elicit discourse evidence to confirm them. The following activities were categorised as accuracy- and fluency-based: the first emphasises the metacommunicative focus and control exerted by the teacher in the accuracy mode, while the second seems to fall within the realm of fluency work: (11) Step 1: Deal with the following tense: The Simple Past Tense, which is used to refer to events that were completed in the past. Last week I went to Kimberley. In 1948 two veterans completed the race. The men walked all the way to town. The girl sang a song. (12) Picture-stimuli - Story-telling Level: Purpose: Materials: Procedure: Intermediate, advanced Practising narrative skill Producing coherent spoken and written texts Focusing on learner-learner interaction Pictorial cards (at least ten per pair) Learners are asked to pair off. They are handed their cards. The cards have to be put down so that the pictures face down. Learner 1 picks up a picture card and tells a story based on the picture. Learner 2 picks up the next picture, continues with the story told by learner 1, and has to link the story to the second picture. They take turns until all the cards have 29 Turn-Taking been used up. Learner 2 ends off the story. After the oral phase learners have to write out a coherent text based on the pictures. In appendices 2 and 3 classroom discourse is found which was collected with a view to confirming the if-then predictions emanating from the construct system. In appendix 2, the predictions for accuracy-based data are confirmed. The teacher embarks upon a local-allocational preselection system in which the IRF pattern evolves from one turn to the next. The teacher selects next speaker, and upon the completion of the student turn, next turn reverts to the teacher. It is clear that the teacher embarks upon initiative-minimising initiations, while learners produce single-utterance responses. The teacher then provides form feedback. Similarly, in appendix 3 the predictions for fluency-based data are confirmed. Diagrammatically the global design of the IRF exchange in the data may be represented as follows: (13) Turn 1 Turns 2 to 87 An initiative-maximising teacher initiation Initiation Multiple-utterance learner-learner exchanges per pair or group Response (Simultaneous lingual activity in all groups) Turn 88 Content feedback Feedback INVALIDATING CONSTRUCTS AND DIVERSIFYING CONSTRUCT SYSTEMS Confirming one's predictions is only half the story; what happens if one's classroom experiences contradict one's predictions? Several possibilities exist, according to construct psychologist George Kelly. First, one may reinterpret, perhaps distort, the experience so that one's construct network and predictions are confirmed. Second, one may decide to abandon one's predictions, and generate new predictions. Third, one may create a new set of constructs, and proceed to test their predictive efficiency. The following diagram explains the process of testing predictions: 12 30 Wilfred J. Grey ling (14) Selecting a construct or constructs Confirm predictions Utility of construct 4--- 1 Use the same construct: make new predictions Select a new construct Devise a new construct Making predictions Invalidate predictions and utility of construct 1 Testing predictions against classroom experiences To create intersubjective or shared meanings, the discourse evidence and the construct systems we use for prediction purposes have to be made explicit. Because human actions including those in the classroom cannot be cast in a strait-jacket, it seems reasonable to presume that the dynamic interface between experience and the normative dimensions of classroom discourse precludes our defining the final rule or construct system for participation in the classroom. However, permeable and changeable constructs will allow us to see different dimensions of classroom discourse, and to interpret/reinterpret the discourse evidence. CONCLUSION If teachers are supposed to make informed decisions in the classroom, then it seems that a discourse-based construct system, which may yield testable predictions about the interactive phase of lessons, may be useful in promoting teacher awareness of what they are doing. Teacher decision-making and empowerment are at the heart of the prediction system outlined in this paper. The teacher is able to direct speakership and design speech exchange systems consistent with his/her views of language teaching and learning. And teachers should be aware of their choices, and teacher-training should, as Bowers (1987) has suggested, promote teachers' perceptions of classroom processes; otherwise, as Stubbs (1986, p. 6) has claimed, teachers may become victims of unprincipled imitation. THE AUTHOR Willfred J. Grey ling is an Associate Professor in Applied Language Studies at the University of the Orange Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa. His main interests include the study of discourse in contexts such as the classroom, psychotherapy, and newspaper 13 Turn-Taking 31 language. The corpuses of classroom data used in this study, as well as a longer version of this paper, are lodged with the author, whose E-mail address is fgwg@engl.uovs.ac.za REFERENCES Bowers, R. (1987) Developing perceptions of the classroom: Observation and evaluation, training and counselling. In ELT Documents 125: 138-179. Brumfit, C.J. (1984) Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching: The roles of accuracy and fluency. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Finocchiaro, M. & C.J. Brumfit. (1983) The Functional-Notional Approach. From Theory to Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gribling, M., T. Koole, J. ten Thije & P. Tromp (1983) "En de leerkracht knikte Petra glunderend toe." In H. Mazeland & J. Sturm (eds.), Onderwijs als Interactieprobleem, 2B: 50-69. Harmer, J. (1983) The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Longman. Hergenhahn, B.R. (1984) An Introduction to Theories of Personality (2nd edition). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Hoey, M. (1991) Some properties of spoken discourses. In R. Bowers & C. Brumfit (eds.) (1992), Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching. Bristol: MacMillan. Kelly, G.A. (1955) The Psychology of Personal Constructs. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Larsen-Freeman, D. & M.H. Long (1991) An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. New York: London. Mazeland, H. (1983) Openingssequenties van lesbeginnen. In H. Mazeland & J. Sturm (eds.), Onderwijs als Interactieprobleem, 2B: 95-121. McHoul, A. (1978) The organization of turns at formal talk in the classroom. In Language in Society, 7/2: 183-213. Mehan, H. (1985) The structure of classroom discourse. In T.A. van Dijk (ed.) (1985), Handbook of Discourse Analysis: Discourse and Dialogue. Vol. 3: 119-131. O'Malley, J.M. & A.U. Chamot. (1990) Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Prabhu, N.S. (1987) Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Riley (Jr.), J.H. (1987) Programming Using Turbo Pascal. Boston: PWS-KENT Publishing Company. Sacks, H., E.A. Schegloff, & G. Jefferson. (1974) A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking in conversation. Language. 50/4: 696-735. Republished in Schenkein (1978): 7-55. Schenkein, J. (ed.). (1978) Studies in the Organization of Conversational Interaction. New York: Academic Press. Shimanoff, S.B. (1980) Communication Rules: Theory and Research. Beverley Hills: Sage. Sinclair, J. McH. & D. Brazil. (1982) Teacher Talk. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sinclair, J. McH. & R.M. Coulthard. (1975) Towards an Analysis of Discourse. The English Used by Teachers and Pupils. London: Oxford University Press. Sinclair, J. McH. & R.M. Coulthard. (1992) Towards an Analysis of Discourse. In M. Coulthard (ed.) (1992), Advances in Spoken Discourse Analysis. London: Routledge. itir 32 Winfred J. Greyling Stevick, E.W. (1980) Teaching Languages. A Way and Ways. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. Stubbs, M. (1976) Language, Schools and Classrooms. London: Methuen. Stubbs, M. (1986) Educational Linguistics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Van Lier, L.A.W. (1988) The Classroom and the Language Learner. London: Longman. White, J. & P.M. Lightbown. (1984) Asking and answering in ESL classes. In The Canadian Modern Language Review, 40/2: 228-244. Widdowson, H.G. (1978) Teaching English as Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 15 33 Turn-Taking APPENDIX 1: AN EXTENDED SEQUENCE OF INTERACTIONS In this excerpt the teacher and his pupils negotiate an understanding of the term paradox. Exchange type opening move (Initiation) Answering move Act (Response) eliciting Isn't there something else? el Did you find anything else? el eliciting Let me ask the the question this way:Oosty, nom what does 'shimmering' el mean? That's unfair, isn't it? Be didn't even work on the poem and I am asking him a question. What does shimmering el mean? eliciting Somebody, give me an example of where you have seen something shimmer? el Act Follow-up move (Feedback) Act (dispreferred non-response) (dispreferred non-response) Sun on water. rep Sun on water. acc ev eliciting Another example. el Is it like shake? Is it like rep shake? eliciting Is it like milkshake? el No, vibrating. rep Vibrating. Yes, perhaps you could use it ev that way. eliciting But we had sun inf on water. Can That kind of you give me anshimmering that other example? you see in the el Anybody. I'm distance, which driving through is a mirage,and (Students offer the Karoo on a bid which, in a cl responses) hot day. Mirage ... the way, makes you think,you know, mirage. that the road disappears into ev water. BEST COPY AVAILABLE 16 34 Willfred J. Grayling Exchange type Answering move Act (Response) Opening move (Initiation) when you are having a braai - above the eliciting braai. eliciting But, hang on, Warren. What is she (the poet) talking about? el The swallows. eliciting We have just been discussing inf shimmering. Shimmering surely applies to which of our el Eyes. senses? eliciting So now you can see a sound. You switch on the radio and say,'Look at that great (Feedback) Act Yes, there's an ideal example. The heat waves ev rep that you get above the fire of a braai you can see the heat waves shimmering. rep Come on. ev rep Eyes. Right. acc rep Both. acc inf inf hits' Is the poet going moggy or are we? informing Reed totally disagrees. Follow-up move Act Both el inf (laughter) rep informing Its really tough to convince him that poetry is -pshsomething else and for normal inf (laughter) people. rep ' 17 35 Turn-Taking Exchange type Opening move (Initiation) Answering move Act (Response) eliciting Come on.what is that shimmerel ing sound? What would we el call it? informing Maybe you are going to learn a new word there. Ever heard of paradox? eliciting Somebody try and spell it. (Feedback) Act (dispreferred non-response) No. (Muffled responses) Some people think they might have. we haven't used rep the word 'before. Para...? el inf el Follow-up move Act ev el eliciting informing Paradox. el Paradox. rep Paradox. acc eliciting Go, Gary. el P-a-r-r/ rep Uhm-hu (No) ev P-a-r-a-d-o-x rep Right. acc eliciting eliciting what's a para- el dox? You gentle -man with the You're on the nom (NV activity as dictionaries, right track; they look up what's a parayou are just el the word)(mands dox? bid struggling to go up). Someexpress it nom thing oppositeYea. there. saying something opposite. rep ev eliciting well, let's see what the dictionary says. somebody got it? Yeah. Johny. (Bell rings) It's break already. el nom A statement which seems absurd or selfinf contradictory, but may be true. Alright. A statement which seems absurd or selfcontradictory; in other words, rep contradicting itself, but which may be true. 18 BEST COPY AVAILABLE ev 36 Willfred J. Grey ling Exchange type Opening move (Initiation) eliciting Now does this seem absurd: "shimmering sound"? Answering move Act (Response) el Follow-up move Act (Feedback) Act rep Yes, it does. acc rep A very highpitched trill. ev No.(solitary bid) eliciting Does this seem absurd at first sight? el Yes. (Various bids) eliciting OK. It seems absurd, but can inf it be true? el A shimmering sound - what kind of cry do (Dispreferred swallows make? el response) eliciting Come, you nature boys. el A very high pitch. eliciting And what is a trill? el (Dispreferred non-response) eliciting A sound that almost ...? el shakes. eliciting And what is the major feature of a shimmering image? el It vibrates. rep vibrates. A sound that almost vibrates ev It seems to rep vibrate. acc Upon the occurrence of dispreferred or non-responses by pupils, the teacher may reinitiate and provide clues in facilitating student responses. Alternatively, the teacher may overcome short-circuits by using an informative act. However, the teacher may embark upon what Mehan (1985, p. 122) and White and Lightbown (1984, p. 235) refer to as an extended sequence of interactions in negotiating common ground: ... if the response is not immediate or if it is incomplete or incorrect, the teacher begins to work at getting it (the preferred response) through a series of repetitions and rephrasings. What may result is an extended sequence of interactions during which the student does not really answer the teacher's questions, but rather together, the teacher and the student create the student's answer. This is only possible, of course, if the teacher knows what answer he/she is creating... (White and Lightbown, 1984, p. 235) 19 37 Turn- Taking APPENDIX 2: ACCURACY-BASED DATA Exchange type Opening move (Initiation) Boundary So, firstly, then, we are going to look at the Simple Past Tense. Informing On the board I have four sentences. 1 would like you to take a look at these sentences. The first one is *Last week I went to Rimberley'; the second, 'In 1948 two veterans completed the race'; the third, 'The men walked all the way to town'; and the fourth, 'The girls sang a song'. Eliciting Now, I would like you to identify the verbs in those sentences. (5.2 seconds wait-time) Yes. Eliciting In the second? (4.2 seconds wait-time) Yes. Follow-up move Act (Feedback) Act m ma inf dir inf inf inf inf m el 'Went' in the nom first one. In the first one, the verb rep is 'went'. acc rep 'Completed' acc rep acc el nom Eliciting In the third? (2.33 seconds wait-time) Yes. Answering move Act (Response) 'Completed' el nom 'Walked' BEST COPY AVAILABLE 20 'Walked' 38 Winfred J. Grey ling Exchange type opening move (Initiation) Eliciting And in the fourth? Eliciting I would like you to take a look at these verbs ... so these are the verbs. (NV T points at the verbs). Would you agree that these are past tense verbs? verbs). Answering move Act (Response) Act (Feedback) Act el rep sang. Fine. acc Sang. Follow-up move dir inf el nom Yes. Eliciting Why? Is there a el clue in the first sentence to suggest that 'Last week' a past tense verb should be used? (3.2 sec el wait-time). Yes nom rep Yes. The words 'last week' suggest to us that we rep should expect the past tense to be used. acc Note: The single-turn IRF exchange is the predominant pattern in this lesson. For this reason, only turns 1 to 14 are quoted. 21 39 Turn-Taking APPENDIX 3: FLUENCY-BASED DATA - DESIGNING A SPEECH EXCHANGE SYSTEM Exchange type Opening move (Initiation) Answering move Act (Response) TURN 1 ML_ la TURNS 2 TO 87 Follow-up move Act (Feedback) Act TURN 88 Turn-by-turn transcription Teacher initiation Boundary in discourse Opening moves 1 T: Right Class, today we are going to do uhm we're going to have a story-telling session, and we are going to use cards in the story-telling session. So what I expect you to do is I would like you to work in groups or in pairs uhm and then you have to do the following. I'm going to give you some cards (NV Teacher takes out several picture cards from the middle of the pack). I'll take them out over here and I'm going to put them down like this (NV Teacher packs cards on table with pictures facing down)... in other words, the actual picture is going to be is going to have to face down. Now, I don't know what this picture is. So what you do is, you pick up the first picture, and you tell a story based on this on the picture and student 1 will then begin the story and will a tell a story focusing on this particular picture. The picture here is of a young lady in jeans, long hair ... and now I'm student 1 ... 'It's a little thing that happened the other day. When I got up at about six o' clock in the morning, I had to go outside because I noticed that someone was sitting on the lawn. I went to her, took a good look at her, and I knew that something was amiss. She wouldn't say a word. I walked around her, once, and then I noticed ... I noticed that on her left ear there was some kind of redness. (Laughter from students) And I knew that something was wrong.' Now, learner 2 has to extend the story, and has to link it to the next picture. And this is a picture ... well, it's a picture of a painting. 'And I should've known that she was an artist (Laughter from students) because the redness on the ear was paint... and I knew that there was I had to do something for her (laughter) because the redness on the ear distracted passers-by and there was a car crash...my neighbour took a look at this ear and he was so perplexed that he crashed into the concrete wall uhm alongside his driveway.' And now student 3 has to continue with the story, and has to link the story has to extend the story and link it to the next picture. 'But, of course, the women in the street were not pleased about her presence ...' Okay, you've got the idea? (Muffled yes responses). In other words, what I want you to do is in your groups and in your pairs I would like you to take a pack of cards, and I would like you to tell 22 Winfred J. Grey ling 40 a story along these lines, and I'll come and listen to you and uhm I will probably ask some of you to respond right at the end. (NV Teacher hands out cards). Once you've got your cards you may start. Learner response to the teacher initiation 11 Si: Kan ek maar uitdeel? (NV student hands out cards). S2: Moenie kroek nie. S3: Moet een maar begin en dan goon ons aan en aan. S2: Goed, begin. Si: Maar onthou jy mag the na die kaartjie kyk nie. S2: I suppose we have to speak English. Si: I think so too. S2: OK, maybe you should start. S3: Aren't we supposed to put them all down on the table? S2: Are we supposed to look at them only when we start the next turn? 12 13 14 S2: Heidi, will you start? Si: Uh (NV she looks at a picture of a woman with long hair). This is the woman 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 T: Yes. with the longest hair in the world, and she decided that uhm she decided that she was a little girl that she was never going to cut her hair but at this stage her hair got so long that it was hanging on the ground and she cannot get her hair to be combed out, so she cannot look anybody in the eye she walks straight up with her nose in the air all the time/ 15 S2: (NV picks up next picture) And this poor women, because she cannot turn her head or let it come down forward, she cannot look in the mirror. And once she won a whole batch of make-up a whole kit because she entered a competition for beautiful hair, but now she won all this make-up and she can't use it because she can't bring her head down to see her nails to put on cutex or look in the mirror to put on eye-shadow or lipstick... so I think it is quite tragic about this woman/ 16 S3: (NV picks up next card: picture of a frog). This woman actually wanted to be and actress and she portrayed the role of Rapunzel. Do you know that story about the woman with the very long hair? But unfortunately, when she acted in this play, because she couldn't wear any make-up and she couldn't look her lover in the eye, he couldn't fall in love with her. 17 Ss: (Laughter) 18 S3: And because he couldn't fall in love with her, she couldn't kiss him, so the frog couldn't turn into a prince. And so the love story turned into a tragedy and the poor woman is very very depressed, and now she lives all alone in this house. And then these two people they look after her and uhm this little car come past every day and it takes her for a drive and then she looks for that lover of her because she is looking for her to kiss him but she can't kiss him because she can't look down. 19 Ss: (laughter) 20 51: She's really got a problem. 21 S3: Yes, she is. Yeah, she's looking for her lover, her friend. She's alone/ 23 Turn-Taking 22 23 24 S2: Yeah (NV picks up the next card) Uh/ 25 Ss: (laughter) S2: to turn one into a prince, she ended up on a bench, and she decided/ 26 27 28 41 Si: She's found him. S2: Ohhh and the woman as she was driving in that little car you mentioned, running around kissing frogs/ S3: On the beach? S2: Uh yes, on the beach, and it was a lovely sunset, clouds of pink, and she decided that is going to go for a walk, and uhm there she was right into the water/ 29 30 S3: Shame/ Si: (NV picks up the next card) And because she has such long hair, she didn't drown, she actually floated on top of the water/ 31 Ss: 32 Si: Like a coconut, you know that is the reason why coconuts can float on the water because it has got a hairy surface! S3: Oh like hair? 33 34 35 Ss: (laughter) (Laughter) Si: And that is why they the coconuts land on islands and they can grow into coconut trees, so this poor woman uhm floating on the sea actually landed up in Greece/ 36 37 38 S2: Ohh/ where she met an old man who had a donkey and on the donkey there was baskets tied with rope and this baskets he carried flowers and fruit and wine and everything that he should take to the village to sell to the people, and actually this woman starting up in London with her long hair ended up in Greece/ S3: (NV picks up the next card) Ohh and then when she was in Greece then she met this adorable man he was hiding in the middle basket on the donkey/ S 1: (laughter) 39 40 41 42 Ss: 43 44 Ss: 45 S 1: 46 S3: a gondola, yes they were riding on that, and then she was about to meet the phantom of the opera/ Ss: (laughter, and an unintelligible comment) S2: (NV picks up next picture). As she met the phantom he decided to show her a movie, but unfortunately this is a very very horrible phantom, this is not the real actually nice phantom of the opera, she met the wrong phantom, and uh he showed her movies her movies in his chambers down below the opera house, and he showed her a movie/ 47 48 S3: but he was actually a genie, at least we think he was a genie/ Ss: (laughter) S3: and then he had this magic potion, and then he kissed her, she didn't have to kiss him, and then her hair got all curly and lovely and wonderful/ (laughter) S3: And when her hair was all curly and wonderful and lovely, she went to Venice, and there in Venice, they were riding on those little boats ... do you know what you call them?/ Gondola/ 24 Wilfred J. Grey ling 42 49 50 51 52 53 54 Si: (NV picks up next picture) of a mudslide/ S2: of a mudslide (unintelligible) and this woman decided that she cannot stand this any longer and that she has to go home because faint faint feeling that something is going to happen/ Si: (NV picks up next card) And because she wanted to escape from this phantom, she ran out of his chambers and she just ran down the street, and then suddenly she found herself in the circus, and in this circus she saw something that she has never seen in her life, something from England and landing up in Greece and Venice, she has never in her life seen an elephant/ Ss: Ohhh/ Si: and she was so excited about this elephant and all the things that it could do that she decided that she was going to look for the elephant in wild-life, and then she heard that the elephant lived in Africa, and she decided that she was going to Africa/ S3: (NV picks up the next card) To get to Africa she got onto this big boat with the army boys, and with her curly hair she began to sing like Lily Marlene/ (laughter) 55 Ss: 56 S3: and she became very famous and very popular and on this army boat she met this Arabian sheikh/ 57 58 Ss: uhm/ S3: yeah, she met him and as they got to Africa this man was there and then he 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 Ss: oeh/ seduced her/ S3: he seduced her/ S2: Good grief man/ Ss: (laughter) S2: Was he in the army? Ss: (laughter) S2: (NV picks up the next card) Like you said she was on the army ship and the sheikh's (unintelligible) so one of the sailors was actually in love with her as well, and once he heard about the seduction he jumped into this thing I don't know what you call it/ Ss: A tank/ S2: No/ 68 Ss: A tank/ 69 S2: A tank, yes/ 66 67 (laughter) and he decided to go to her rescue to rescue her/ 70 Ss: 71 Ss: Wow/ 72 SI: (NV picks up the next card) Ohh ... that night as they were sleeping he crawled into her chambers and he grabbed her and then they eloped on bicycles/ 73 74 Ss: 75 S3: (NV picks up the next card) And that unknown destination wasn't so unknown, they rode all the way to the Lost City in South Africa/ 76 77 Ss: (laughter) S 1: (laughter) and no one knew where they were because they got onto bicycles and they rode off into the sunset to an unknown destination/ S3: and there in the Lost City he was so romantic he leaves her a diamond ring her BEST COPY AVAILABLE 5 Turn-Taking 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 43 engagement ring he leaves it between all the money and stuff, and then they were playing this game and just as she was about to throw the dice she picked up this dice and then when she opened her purse diamond ring! S2: (NV picks up the next card) But unfortunately the excitement/ Ss: (raucous laughter) S2: became too much for her lover and he got tied down in a strait-jacket ... he got totally totally mad because her perm went out and he saw how long her hair actually is/ Ss: (laughter) S2: and he just couldn't take it and he went totally mad and they had to drag him away by his feet in a strait-jacket Si: (NV picks up the next card) That caused the poor woman to also go out of her mind because she was seduced and abducted and everything that happened to her, she went into a frenzy and she actually caused/ S2: a whirlwind/ Si: oh yes and now uh/ S3: a cyclone/ a cyclone SI: to come onto the people who did her so much wrong and she wanted to get them back, and she had this magic power that she didn't even know about and nobody knew, and when she was all (unintelligible), the cyclone came over the people/ Teacher content feedback. Evaluate and comment 88 T: OK, let's stop it there. Right ladies and gentleman, your attention please... your attention please, you have now ... that was good uhm I think it is difficult to bridge the gaps in between let's say what one person has said and what you want to say; in other words, there is a gap and you have to bridge the gap, you have to extend the story, you have to link it to the next uhm picture. In other words, you actually created a coherent story and of course while you sat there you nodded there was laughter there were on-line signals indicating that a message was being conveyed and not only conveyed you actually decoded the message. Now I want to go into the next phase of this session.... 26 Wilfred J. Grey ling 44 APPENDIX 4: THE TEACHER AS CO-COMMUNICATOR OR FACILITATOR OF COMMUNICATION In the next excerpt it is shown that the teacher initiation is followed by studentteacher interaction in which the teacher suspends the feedback move, and communicates as if he is a student: Initiative-maximising teacher initiation Opening move Teacher selects a configuration of learners Teacher: Right, this morning we're going to work in pairs again. I'm going to give you three statements, and in pairs you have to state whether you agree or disagree with them. You also have to give reasons for your point of view. Here are the three statements. The first one is, "I think all medical treatment should be free"; the second one is, "It seems to me that the country is going to the dogs..." and the third one, "Young people today have too much freedom and too much money." (T repeats the statements.) Once you have discussed the statements, write out a paragraph on each, in which you express your point of view. Multiple-utterance learner-teacher exchanges functioning as a response SEQUENCE 1 (Student-teacher interaction in which the student dominates, the teacher suspends form feedback moves, and contributes towards the discourse through encouragers and two relevant next turns in turns 15 and 17. In turn 19 the teacher reverts to the authority role.) 2 T: 3 S12: Right May I interrupt? I would like you to tell me ...uhm... whether you agree or disagree with the first statement. Uhm ... in some way I do disagree 'cause I think underprivileged people that ... like pensioners and things like that, should get medical treatment free. I take our laboratory, for instance, ...uhm... the doctors there get their treatment free, but the pensioners and things like that, they have to pay for it. I don't think that's fair. The doctors can afford to pay/ 4 5 T: S12: 7 T: S12: 8 T: 6 Uhm-hu. R100 for a test, but the pensioners who get a R100 a month, they must pay. I don't think that's fair/ Uhm-hu. and medicine too, it's extremely expensive to give antibiotics and things like that and I think it's unfair that underprivileged people should pay that much/ Uhm-hu. 27 Turn-Taking 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 S12: T: S12: T: T+S: S12: T: S12: T: T+S: T: but medical schemes do/ Yes. Do they pay out? Yeah, they do pay out. Uhm-hu. Yes. Fortunately. (laughter) Fortunately. I tell you if I didn't have a medical aid I would have had financial problems long ago. Yes, you see. I would have had cash flow problems. (laughter) Okay, you have to put those ideas into written form now, I have to listen to the others too. (After several interviews, the teacher goes onto the next phase of the lesson.) Feedback and re-initiation Teacher: Right, class. I listened to all the pairs, and you expressed very interesting ideas. Let us list some of the ideas you mentioned, before I give you the writing task. 28 45 JUN 18 "96 460 P02 CAL 202-659-5641 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of &amnions! Research and Improvement (OEN Educational Resources InInmurlon Center (ERIC) REPRODUCTION RELEASE 18:05 ERIC 0 (Specific Document) DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION; I. Tine: at Qm a- s 9- Aid hnr(x): t L. 3 1--it_0.er64-1) )V0Lr Prihlicatinn Note. 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