A Handbook of Phags-Pa Chinese

A Handbook of
'PHAGS-PA
CHINESE
www.uhpress.hawaii.edu
W. South Coblin
ABC Chinese Dictionary
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'Phags-pa Chinese is the earliest form of
the Chinese language to be written in a
systematically devised alphabetic script. It
is named after its creator, a brilliant thir-
teenth-century Tibetan scholar-monk who
also served as political adviser to Kublai
Khan. 'Phags-pas invention of an alphabet
for the Mongolian language remains an
extraordinarily important accomplishment,
both conceptually and practically. With it
he achieved nothing less than the creation
of a unied script for all of the numerous
peoples in the Mongolian empire, including
the Central Asian Turks and Sinitic-speak-
ing Chinese.
'Phags-pa is of immense importance for
the study of premodern Chinese phonol-
ogy. However, the script is difcult to read
and interpret, and secondary materials on
it are scattered and not easily obtained.
The present book is intended as a practical
introduction to 'Phags-pa Chinese studies
and a guide for reading and interpreting the
script. It consists of two parts. The rst part
is an introductory section comprising four
chapters. This is followed by a glossary of
'Phags-pa Chinese forms and their corre-
sponding Chinese characters, together with
p ny n and stroke-order indexes to those
characters. The rst introductory chapter
outlines the invention of the 'Phags-pa writ-
ing system, summarizes the major types of
material preserved in it, and describes the
historical and linguistic contexts in which
this invention occurred. Following chapters
detail the history of 'Phags-pa studies, the
alphabet and its interpretation, and the
salient features of the underlying sound
(Continued on back ap)
(Continued from front ap)
system represented by the script, comparing
it with those of various later forms of Chi-
nese that have been recorded in alphabetic
sources.
A Handbook of 'Phags-pa Chinese will be
of special interest to Chinese historical
phonologists and scholars concerned with
the history and culture of China and Central
Asia during the Yuan period (12791368
A.D.).
W. South Coblin is professor of Chinese
at the University of Iowa. His primary
academic interests have centered on Chi-
nese historical phonology, comparative and
historical dialectology, and the history of
Chinese koins. In addition, he has worked
actively in the elds of Old Tibetan and
Sino-Tibetan comparative and historical
linguistics. He is the author of six books
and monographs and numerous articles on
these subjects. His concern with 'Phags-pa
Chinese arose directly from his interests in
Tibetan and Chinese historical linguistics.
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A Handbook of 'Phags-pa Chinese
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A Handbook of
'Phags-pa Chinese
w. South Coblin
ABC Chinese Dictionary Series
University of Hawai'i Press
Honolulu
Coblin, W. South.
2007 University of Hawai'i Press
All rights reserved
Primed in the United States of America
12 11 10 09 08 07 6 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data
A handbook of 'Phags-pa Chinese / W. South Coblin
p. cm. - (ABC Chinese dictionary series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8248-3000-7 (cloth: alk. paper)
ISBN-IO: 0-8248-3000-8 (cloth: alk. paper)
1. Mongolian language-Alphabet-Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. 'Phags-pa alphabet-Handbooks, manu-
als, etc. 3. Mongolian language-Phonology-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title. II. Series
PL402 .C63 2006
494' .23813-dc22
University of Hawai'i Press books are primed on acid-free paper and
meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the
Council on Library Resources.
Text prepared by the author.
Primed by IBT Global
2005056867
In Memory of
Fang-kuei Li
Contents
Preface IX
Abbreviations xi
Introduction xiii
I. The 'Phags-pa Chinese Script: Its Invention, Textual Attestation,
and Historical Background 1
II. A Brief Review of 'Phags-pa Chinese Studies 23
III. Analysis and Interpretation of the 'Phags-pa Alphabet 32
IV. A Structural and Historical Consideration of the 'Phags-pa
Chinese Sound System 69
Glossary of 'Phags-pa Chinese Forms 105
PInyIn Index to Chinese Characters in the Glossary 177
Stroke Order Index to Chinese Characters in the Glossary 213
Index of Transliterated 'Phags-pa Orthographic Forms in the Glossary 287
References 299
Vll
Preface
During the compilation of this work I have received help and encouragement from
many friends and colleagues. Particularly notable among these are David P.
Branner, Victor Mair, Jerry L. Norman, and Axel Schuessler. I am also grateful to
an anonymous reviewer for a number of suggestions and corrections. I am of
course responsible for all remaining errors and weaknesses.
Research for the project was supported in part by a Career Developmental
Assignment from the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at the University of Iowa.
Over a period of several years I was also afforded the services of two research
assistants, Ms. Jungim Chang and Mr. John Schlitz, whose prodigious labors on the
indexes to the text were invaluable to me. It is a pleasure to acknowledge their help
and the generous support of my Department in assigning them to me.
ix
Abbreviations
BJX
Baijiaxlng s*fri
GH Guanhuit
Inscr Inscriptions
JY Junast and Yang (1987)
LC Luo and Citi (1959)
LR Left Readings of Sin Sukchu
MGZY Menggii ziyun
PR Popular Readings of Sin Sukchu
QYS Qieyun System
RR Right Readings of Ch'we Sejin
SR Standard Readings of Sin Sukchu
Su Sutras
xi
Introduction
China is blessed with one of the oldest continuously used writing systems in the
world. But this unique script has been the bane of historical phonologists, because
it is logographic rather than alphabetic. Due to this peculiarity, the script effectively
conceals from phonologists the pronunciations that underlie it. This is not to say
that there is no field of Chinese historical phonology. Quite to the contrary, there
has been such a field for well over a century. But it is a curious and often vexatious
discipline. To pursue it certain complex and idiosyncratic textual materials, such as
fanqie &.tlJ collectanea, rime tables, versified texts, and sets of structurally related
logographs, are juxtaposed, shuffled, and manipulated to construct abstract systems,
whose phonetic reality is then postulated using formalized sets of assumptions and
procedures. The products of these procedures are conventionally called
"reconstructions," and they often differ considerably from one investigator to
another. The result is that for any given period in the history of Chinese one may
find a perplexingly broad choice of these "systems," all arising out of the same
corpora of data. The fact that these systems are called "reconstructions" is in a
sense potentially misleading. For the procedures underlying them are for the most
part rather different from those applied by historical linguists who use the classical
comparative method and the method of internal reconstruction to study the sound
systems of earlier languages. In fact, the sinological approach probably has more in
common with the techniques of textual analysis and phonetic interpretation familiar
to students of ancient written languages like Latin, Greek, Old English, etc. The
difference is of course that these languages are written alphabetically and the
interpretation of their writing systems is simpler by many orders of magnitude than
what is done in Chinese. This may in good part account for the existence of the
multiple systems in the Chinese field. To wit, it may be that the available data simply
cannot bear the weight sinologists place upon them. Put another way, while it may
indeed be feasible to learn significant things about earlier Chinese phonology from
the written sources in question, it may not be possible to reconstitute entire sound
systems on that basis. In any case, it seems clear that the field of Chinese historical
phonology as it is practiced today is so peculiar and exacting that it lies essentially
beyond the reach both of sinologists who have not received specialized training in
it and of the broad range of historical linguists who might wish to familiarize
themselves with it. One may, if one wishes, consult handbooks and learn anything
Xlll
Introduction
from a bit to a great deal about English, French, German, or Spanish historical
phonology. But pre-modern Chinese phonology remains for most non-specialist
readers a closed book.
Interestingly, however, besides the abovementioned logographic sources, there
exists for certain varieties of standard Chinese a corpus of systematic alphabetic
records, commencing in the thirteenth century and continuing to the present day.
(We exclude here the sizable corpus of Tibetan, Uyghur, and other transcriptional
materials of Tang times, since these do not employ systematic orthographic
systems.) This alphabetic material begins in 1269 with Chinese recorded in the
'Phags-pa alphabet. Then, from the mid-1400s, we have Korean transcriptions
written in a specially modified version of the Han' gUl alphabet. These materials
record both a reading pronunciation and a spoken pronunciation for the southern
sound system (i.e., the so-called Nfmyln) of the Ming !jJ3/Qlng m koine,
known in traditional times as Guanhua Alphabetic materials for this same
southern-based Guanhua pronunciation resume in the late sixteenth century in the
orthographies developed by Western missionaries and continue until the demise of
the Nfmyln in the nineteenth century. Starting in the sixteenth century we also have
Korean records for the northern pronunciation (i.e., Beiyln of the Guanhua
koine. And in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there are records of this type
of speech in Manchu orthography. And again in the eighteenth century there are
Western (mainly French) records of this type of speech. Then, in the nineteenth
century we find a wide range of Western sources on the Beiyln, which ultimately
feed directly into twentieth-century recordings of Gu6yu
It seems clear that this rich corpus of orthographic material, covering a span of over
seven centuries, can and should form the basis of an alphabetically based history of
standard Chinese pronunciation. For the period in question, at least, Chinese
historical phonology can be described with the same rigor, clarity, and precision
found in handbooks treating alphabetically recorded languages in other parts of the
world.
A history of the sort envisaged here should begin with the type of Chinese
recorded in 'Phags-pa script. But with this there are a number of problems. For the
'Phags-pa sources have hitherto been difficult both of access and interpretation.
They can be obtained, to be sure; but finding them requires considerable effort and
an active familiarity with the field of 'Phags-pa studies. And once they have been
acquired, there remains the question of how to locate things in them and how then to
read and construe what one has found. The result is that 'Phags-pa data have seldom
xiv
Introduction
been taken into consideration by Chinese historical phonologists who were not
themselves 'Phags-pa specialists. And, when such data have been cited by those
specialists, they have been viewed warily by other linguists, for the quite
understandable reason that these readers have had no way to assess for themselves
the cited material. To overcome these obstacles, what is needed today is a source
book which introduces the 'Phags-pa data in an easily understandable and accessible
form. Such a work would allow all concerned readers to find what interests them
and analyze it for themselves. The present handbook is intended as a reference
source of this kind.
The work consists of two main parts, an introductory section comprising four
chapters, and a glossary of 'Phags-pa Chinese forms and their corresponding
Chinese characters, together with pInyIn and stroke order indexes to those
characters. The first introductory chapter outlines the invention of the 'Phags-pa
Chinese writing system, summarizes the major types of material preserved in it, and
describes the historical and linguistic contexts in which its invention occurred. The
second chapter is a brief history of 'Phags-pa studies. The third chapter deals
specifically with the alphabet and its interpretation. The fourth and final chapter
describes certain salient features of the underlying sound system represented by the
script and compares it with those of various later forms of Chinese which have been
recorded in alphabetic sources. The field of 'Phags-pa studies has justifiably been
considered a complex and even arcane one. It is our hope that the present work will
enable all readers to gain control of the 'Phags-pa material and use it to the fullest in
their own research on the history of the Chinese language.
xv
I
The 'Phags-pa Chinese Script
Its Invention, Textual Attestation, and Historical Background
1.1 The Invention of the Script
The 'Phags-pa script is named for its creator, the 'Phags-pa (lit., "excellent,
glorious") Lama, a Tibetan who was active in the court of the Mongol emperor
Qubilai (i.e., Kublai Khan, Yuan Shizu 7GtI:t*L 1215-1294). The full name of the
'Phags-pa Lama (which epithet is actually a title rather than a name) was 'Gro-mgon
'Phags-pa Blo-gros rgyal-mtshan. There exists a surprisingly large corpus of
biographical information on him in Chinese, Tibetan, and Mongolian sources. A
discussion of these, with a digest of their contents and a comprehensive list of
translations and related studies, is given by Nakano (1971: 24-41). For a very
detailed recent study of the Tibetan bibliographical sources, see Wang Qllong
(2001). The lama was born in Tibet in either 1235 or 1239, a scion of the noble
Sa-skya clan. As a young man he accompanied his uncle, Sa-skya pal)Qita, on a trip
to Mongolia, where he remained after his uncle's death. In 1253 he was summoned
by Prince Qubilai, who received him in audience and was much impressed by him.!
From that point on he became a member of Qubilai's retinue. In 1260 Qubilai
ascended the throne and appointed the 'Phags-pa Lama National Preceptor (GuoshI
~ gjfi), charging him with the task of developing an alphabet. This alphabet was
completed in 1269, whereupon it was promulgated in an imperial edict. The text of
this edict is preserved in the Yufmshf 7G5t: and is reproduced by Luo and Cai
(1959: 9-10) and Jlinast and Yfmg (1987: 1). It has been translated into Western
languages a number of times. An English translation that includes part of the wider
Yuansh f passage in which it occurs was made by Leon Hurvitz and included in
Poppe (1957: 5). Another English translation is that of Cheng (1985: 148, n. 15).
Parallel passages from other sources are translated by Nakano (1971: 35-36, n. 42).
We now reproduce part of the edict text, together with a translation adapted from
those of Hurvitz and Cheng. Having discussed the general benefits of writing and
the Mongols' previous lack of a practicable system, the edict continues as follows:
2

0
If we examine this matter with regard to the Liao and JIn, and to the countries
of remote areas, as a rule each has its own script. Nowadays civilized polity
has gradually come to flourish, and yet we lack a writing system. The
institutions of our dynasty are in fact not yet complete. Wherefore, we
specifically command the National Preceptor, 'Phags-pa, to create a new
Mongolian script, in order to transcribe all writing systems, our expectation
being simply to facilitate smooth communication. From this time forward,
whatever documents are issued under the Imperial Seal are to use the new
Mongolian script, with the national writing of each [other] country alongside.
From this passage several significant points emerge. At the outset it becomes
clear that the new writing was to be first and foremost a "Mongolian script," i.e., a
national writing system for Mongolian, such as the Khitans and Jurchens, also
non-Sinitic peoples who had conquered China, had possessed for their own
languages. It therefore seems probable that the writing of Mongolian was the first
problem the 'Phags-pa Lama had to address in his orthography project. However,
the new script was also to be used to "transcribe" (ylxie other scripts. This
did not simply mean that these materials were to be translated into 'Phags-pa
Mongolian. Rather, it was specifically stipulated that the new forms should appear
beside native written forms of languages other than Mongolian and should thus
phonetically transcribe those languages in the new system. This might seem to
imply that the script was intended to have a single, unified phonetic value, like
today's International Phonetic Alphabet, so that readers of the Mongolian system
could then pronounce forms written in other languages. But in actual practice this
does not seem to have been the case. For we know, for instance, that Chinese
'Phags-pa had letters which Mongolian 'Phags-pa did not. And it appears, in fact,
that each language had its own transcriptional conventions. For example, in the
2
Chinese 'Phags-pa system, the letter h in syllable internal position (concerning
which see Chapter III, section 3.3.9 below) is generally thought to have been a
diacritic governing a following vowel.
3
But in the Sanskrit 'Phags-pa system internal
h was used to help transcribe Sanskrit voiced aspirated letters. For example,
Sanskrit 'Phags-pa ba = Skt. ba, Sanskrit 'Phags-pa b + ha = Skt. bha, etc. Thus, it
is not possible to take values known from a particular system and read them into one
of the others without further ado. Each system must be dealt with on its own terms.
Comparison between systems can at most give us hints regarding interpretation.
1.2 The Propagation and Use of the Script
Virtually nothing is known about the progress of the 'Phags-pa Lama's work
on the new script. As suggested above, we may suppose that the Mongolian system
had primacy and was definitely ready in 1269, as the histories report. According to
Lu6 and Cai (1959: 32), the first section (out of four) of the Chinese 'Phags-pa
inscription on the Hnglu Ch6ngyfmg Wanshoug6ng shengzhl bei
stele is reliably datable to 1269. Poppe (1957: 6) notes that in that same
year 'Phags-pa script schools were established in all provinces and that in the
following year positions for teachers in these schools were established. In the
immediately following years further steps of various kinds were taken to promote
the use of the script. In 1272, three years after it had been introduced, a report was
submitted to the throne to the effect that "in spite of the establishment of a state
school of Mongolian script, children and the younger brothers of Chinese officials
were not being taught this script .... The upshot of this report was a decree
according to which all edicts were to be written thenceforth with Mongolian (i.e.,
l).P'ags-pa) script, and that the children and younger brothers of Chinese officials
were to be sent to school" (Poppe, loco cit.). We may be reasonably confident that
what was required of the Chinese here was not the learning of the Mongolian
language per se but rather mastery of the 'Phags-pa orthography for their own
language. This suggests that that orthography was already complete in all its
essentials by at least 1272, and in fact almost certainly by the time the schools were
established in 1269. The final touch in the effort to establish and propagate the new
writing was the establishment in 1275 of a special department of the Hanlinyuan !fi$!
fHJG to deal with the script.
The 'Phags-pa Chinese orthography was used throughout the Yuan period on
3
a number of written media. Surviving examples of it will be discussed in section 1.4
below. The script in all its forms was virtually abandoned at the fall of Yuan. The
highly stylized seal version of it survived in the carving of seals in Tibet. Interest in
it remained alive for some time in Korea, where is was still known by at least some
individuals in the fifteenth century (Ledyard 1997).
1.3 The Form and Ordering of the Alphabet
The earliest known description of the 'Phags-pa writing system is found in the
same Yu{mshI section containing the edict mentioned above. We reproduce the
pertinent passage here, substituting our own translation for that of Hurvitz.
Its syllables number only somewhat over a thousand, while its letters are
forty-one. As to the way it forms syllables by linking components
4
with each
other, there is a method in which rimes are linked. And as for the way it forms
syllables by combining two, three, or four elements,5 there is a method for
making the rimes congruent.
6
But as to its essential concern, it takes making
the initials congruent as its guiding principle.
This account, while formulaic and couched in the language of the traditional
Chinese philological discipline known as shengyunxue does convey certain
essentials about the 'Phags-pa system. It had forty-one letters, from which over a
thousand separate syllables could be formed. The letters for the initials acted as the
real foundation of the written syllable, to which further elements bearing on the
finals might then be added. And, finally, there were letters which could be used to
stand for the codas of syllables, exclusive of the rimes as a whole.
7
Like Indic-
derived scripts in general, it assumes an inherent vowel a in all syllables unmarked
for other vowels, and those other vowels must then be indicated by special graphic
devices. Thus, for example, if the letter b is written alone as a distinct syllable, it is
read as ba, etc.
8
Not surprisingly, given its origin, the 'Phags-pa script is generally recognized
as Tibetan-based. However, there are elements in it which are clearly not of Tibetan
4
origin; and the provenance of these constitutes a special area of inquiry within the
field of 'Phags-pa studies. Full lists of the 'Phags-pa alphabet are given in three early
sources. Two of these, the Fifshakifo of Sheng Xlming EY3 (fl. Yuan
Dynasty, 1206-1368) and the Shashf huiyilO. (published 1376) of Tao
Zongyi , contain essentially the same list. Facsimiles of the original texts
containing the lists, together with translations by Hurvitz, are given in Poppe (1957:
10-15), and a useful numbered version of the list is provided by Nakano (1971: 39).
A facsimile of another text version of the Shashf huiyilO passage is reproduced by
Clauson (1959: 321), with a translation (ibid., pp. 302-303). We give the list below,
with Nakano's numbering inserted:
1. =m 2. ICi 1!); 3. a 4. 2 m; 5. a 1t; 6. as 1fi;
7. E 8. rr=I 1)l; 9. '1'8; 10. EI M; 11.:z: 12. OJ
13. 2J U; 14. CJ 15. 2J *; 16. O.j .; 17. '\5l
18. 1* (> 19. :5l 20. f:zs: *:f; 21. ;;fi; 22. ::3 iii;
23. r2 !ThJ; 24. \AI $; 25. I Ill; 26. [21 *I; 27. 51
28. 19>; 29. 30. II U5i1; 31. C\I 1ft; 32. 33.
34. A 35. 36. rEI D; 37. it; 38. [:>l
39. c: -ili; 40. <J 1%; 41. t:: $
Both texts state that the list contains forty-three letters, but in fact neither has
that number. The Shashf huiyilO version has forty-one, while the Fifshakifo has
forty-two. The list above is that of the Shash f hu iyilO. Between numbers 37 and 38
of the list, the Fifshakifo has another letter which appears to be essentially the same
as 38 and lacks a Chinese character equivalent. It is generally believed to be a
copyist's error. Thus, the list represented in the two texts actually has forty-one
members, in complete agreement with the number given in the Yufmshf account.
Both texts also state that, when the alphabet is used to write Chinese, three letters are
discarded, i.e., 25 :::r:, 35 38 [:>l; and four new ones must be added, i.e.,
42 51,44 <ij, and 45 LN. It will be noted that in the basic list each
'Phags-pa letter is assigned a Chinese character equivalent.
lo
One has only to glance
at these to recognize that they are connected in some way with the transcriptional
alphabets used by Six Dynasties and Tang/Song Chinese Buddhist translators of
Indic texts.
l
! And Nakano (1971: 39-40) finds that those occurring in our list are
essentially identical with the particular transcriptional character set given in the
Irngyou Tianzhu ziyufm of 1035 by Weijing 'li1*. It is important
5
to take special note of this point, because the Chinese equivalent characters in the list
have sometimes been cited as evidence for or against certain phonetic interpretations
of the 'Phags-pa letters. This approach is erroneous, for these character equivalents
of course date from much earlier than the time of the framing of the 'Phags-pa
script. They should not be used as ancillary evidence for the sound values of the
'Phags-pa letters. The basic order of this list is immediately recognizable as the
traditional one of the Tibetan alphabet. We shall therefore refer to it here as the
"Tibetan Ordering."
The third early alphabetic list is found in the front matter of the famous
syllabary Menggu ziyun (published 1308; hereafter MGZY), about
which we shall have more to say in section 1.4.3.2 below. Its list is as follows:
1. i3I J!; 2. (2S 3. =m M; 4. 2 5. ::z::: 6. EI m;
7. 5E; 8. c::] rJB; 9. E 10. CEi 11. a 12. rn
13. 2J .; 14. El 15. 2J 31ft; 16. '0-1 f!J3; 17. 18.
19. :; 20. {7\&; 21. :5l 22. m; 23. '5l ii;
24. IL,\; 25. ::3 26. E 27. CEi Ef; 28. a I*; 29. 51
11; 30. 51 :t'; 31. 32. f1:1 32a. [1:'1]1::; 33. r2
33a. W [1:'1]1::; 34. Iljfu; 34a. W [1:'1]1::; 35. ['2.1 *; 36. B;
37. C\I; 38. 39.::;a; 40. 7'\:; 41-42. 43. t:::: (If:t-t*fMfi
1ljfutiJ: )
This list too has Chinese equivalents, and these are identical with the famous
"Thirty-Six Initials" (sanshiliu z'imu .=: + ;\*tiJ:), which are integral to the
structure of the Song rime tables and which first occur in materials found in the
Dunhuang Cave Library. This arrangement is uniquely Chinese and will be called
here the "Chinese Ordering." It is worth noting that numbers 32, 33, and 34 each
have two 'Phags-pa letters for one and the same traditional Chinese initial. For
numbers 37-43 we have the added note "These seven graphs are assigned to the yu
Iljfu initial." Numbers 41 and 42 are joined together in the list but are counted
separately in the added comment. The fact that this list has forty-three members is
interesting, for we note that this is in fact the erroneous number given in both the
Fashiikao and the Shiishf huiyao for their lists. It seems possible that their
accounting has been tampered with in some way to bring their numbers into line
with that of the MGZY.
Pulleyblank (1970: 359) has remarked regarding the Tibetan ordering that is
6
"no doubt the original arrangement," but he does not elaborate on this. While we
do not not disagree with his assessment, it seems worthwhile to give it some further
consideration. The Tibetan Ordering is of course the expected arrangement for a
Tibetan-based alphabet. If the 'Phags-pa Lama created the system in this sequence,
that would hardly be surprising. The "Thirty-Six Initial" set, on the other hand, is a
uniquely Chinese configuration, developed from Indic parallels but intended for use
in Chinese philological materials. As we shall see below, it forms an integral part of
the MGZY's organizational matrix, the purpose of which was surely to assist
Chinese readers in accessing the data in that text. The Chinese Ordering of the
'Phags-pa alphabet is, therefore, an artifact of the compilation of the MGZY. Now, as
we have noted above, the primary charge received by the 'Phags-pa Lama was the
creation of a new Mongolian script, which was then to be made applicable to "all
writing systems." This being the case, it seems unlikely that the ordering of the
specifically Chinese "Thirty-Six Initials" would have provided the initial template
for the Tibetan lama's work. The Tibetan Ordering would seem to be a much more
likely starting point for that. Thus, Pulleyblank's view can be accepted. It seems
probable that the Tibetan Ordering is the original one, and the Chinese one is
secondary to it and specifically to be associated with the compilation of the MGZY.
1.4 The 'Phags-pa Chinese Textual Corpus
Sources in Chinese 'Phags-pa orthography can be roughly divided into three
types:
1. Paleographical Materials
2. Forms recorded in Buddhist Sutras
3. Normative Spelling Materials and Transcriptional Aids
1.4.1 Paleographical Materials. The 'Phags-pa Chinese paleographical materials
which were generally known and available for study as of the 1950s are summarized
and discussed by Luo and Cai (1959: 16-40) with plates and full references to
sources, related studies, etc. The types of materials included in this category are:
1. Monumental inscriptions, mainly on steles
2. Official or governmental seals
3. Private or signature-type seals
7
4. Badges of rank or identification (paifu #*t4 or paizi #J1f!y)
5. Paper currency
6. Coins
7. Steelyard weights
An updated list of such sources, with more recent finds included, will be
found in Jiinast and Yang (1987: 4-6).
The monumental inscriptions, together with most of the other materials in the
above list, are "dual script" texts, in that the 'Phags-pa and Chinese character
versions are both given, in either parallel or interlinear fashion. This is in keeping
with the wording of the edict quoted in section 1.1 above, where it was stipulated that
one was "to use the new Mongolian script, with the national writing of each [other]
country alongside." Thus, the majority of these inscriptions, when they are studied
today, are not really "read" in the way the Mongolian 'Phags-pa texts treated in
Poppe (1957) are. Instead, what one really does is read the Chinese character
versions and compare the 'Phags-pa ones.
1.4.2 Forms from Buddhist Sutras. Material of this type is rather scant. It has been
collected and tabulated together with data of other types in Hashimoto (1974:
100-112). This has been reprinted in Hashimoto (1978: 134-146).
1.4.3 Normative Spelling Materials and Transcriptional Aids. Two texts of this
class survive today. As argued by Cai Meibiao in Luo and Cai (1959: 88-89) and
Cheng (1985: 45-46), they were almost certainly compiled as aids to Chinese
officials and other persons who were required to write Chinese in the new script.
See also Ning (1997: 159) regarding this point.
1.4.3.1 The Baijiaxing ("Surnames of the Myriad Households"). This is
a 'Phags-pa version of the famous traditional list of Chinese surnames. The text is
preserved in the Shilin guangji a rare work of Yuan times. Four
versions are currently known. They are listed and briefly discussed by Jiinast and
Yang (1987: 5). One of them, a Ming printing of 1418 (Jiinast and Yang: SD),
was published by Ligeti (1956). Two more, a Yuan printing of 1340 (Jiinast and
Yang: SB) and a Japanese version of 1699 (Jiinast and Yang: sC), were
published in Luo and Cai (1959: 59-67 and 71-82). The fourth, a Yuan edition of
1330-1333 (Jiinast and Yang: SA), was published by Jiinast in 1980 (1980a). The
8
texts are in dual script fonnat. A new critical edition of them by Jiinast has recently
appeared (2003).
1.4.3.2 The Menggii zlyun ("Rimes in Mongol Script"; abbreviation:
MGZY). This is unquestionably the most important textual source for the study of
'Phags-pa Chinese and has been the subject of intense scrutiny ever since it became
known to the scholarly world.
The MGZY survives in a single manuscript version, held by the British Library
in London. The final two pages of the manuscript are missing. According to a
cataloguing note attached to the item, it was purchased from one Mrs. Rushell on
April 6, 1909 (Luo and Cai 1959: 84). Ozaki (1980: 168-169) and Ledyard (1997:
76, n. 24) suggest on the basis of internal evidence that the manuscript dates from
the Qianlong period (1736-1796). There are two prefaces, both of which are
dated 1308. The first is the invited or courtesy preface by a man named Li6 Geng
The second is the main or author's preface by Zha Zongwen **)t. Li6
Geng states that Zha Boyan (i.e., Zha Zongwen),12 who was Li6's own
student, was an expert in Mongol studies ("tong y6 Menggu zhI xue"
Zha is said to have "supplemented the Menggii zlyun and corrected the errors
in the Mongol rimes" ("zeng Menggu ziyun, zheng Menggu yun wu"
, In this he is said to have perfonned a loyal service to the text,
comparable to that rendered by an earlier editor of the works of the poet Du Fu *
m. Zha himself has the following to say about his editorial labors:

B 0 , , 0
In the Menggii zlyun graph and sound fit together. It is truly the pivotal
instrument for pronunciation and the essential guide for the study of rimes. I
earlier had occasion to use the Chinese rimes of the many authorities to verify
its correctness, but they had all inherited errors and inconsistencies, and there
was no way to know what to accept and what to discard. It was only the Giijrn
yunhu 1 ["The Ancient and Modem Rime Assemblage"] which at the head of
each character perforce uses the four tones to gloss it. Only from this did
one know that (the initial of) the characters jian, jIng, and jian was [the
9
'Phags-pa letter] a. The Thirty-Six Initials being complete in the Yilllhul, it
can assuredly be called definitive. Therefore, I have used this work in collating
the erroneous characters in the various editions, and have arranged these at the
head of the work, to await correction by my learned readership.
Li6 Geng's remarks indicate with absolute certainty that Zhu Zongwen was
not the author of the MGZY. Instead, his role was that of an editor, who
supplemented and corrected an already existing text. Zhu himself tells us that his
collation work encompassed various editions of the text; and he in fact mentions two
of these, a H6beiben and a Zhedongben #fT*=:;zjs:, in the list of emendations
he places at the beginning of his collated edition. In addition to his collation work,
Zhu tells us that he has tried to verify the MGZY text using a number of traditional-
style Chinese rime books, but that these proved difficult to use because they
contained errors and inconsistencies of various kinds. However, he did find one
work which was helpful to him. Its title, he tells us, was Gujln yilllhul.
The Gujfn yilllhu 1 was a large lexicographical compendium compiled by
Huang :J!:i}*t! (ob. 1297).13 It was never formally published and is
believed never to have actually been completed (Cheng 1965: 21-24; 1985: 43). A
preserved preface for it by Li6 Chenweng is dated 1292. What survives
today is an abridgement of the text, entitled Gujln yunhul juyao
published in 1297 by Xiong Zhong Although it is remotely possible that Zhu
Zongwen saw and used the Gujfn yunhul in his work on the MGZY, the likelihood
of this is slight. Instead, what he almost certainly saw was the Gujfn yunhu 1 jUyilO.
His use of the title Gujln yunhu 1 in his preface is probably a shorthand reference
to the 1297 abridgement, a practice also seen among later writers and bibliographers
(Cheng 1965: 24-25).
Hattori (1946, chapter 3) did a full comparison of the phonological systems
inherent in the Gujfn yimhui juyao and the MGZY and concluded that the two
were nearly identical, though differing in certain particulars. The differences and
similarities led him to conclude that, while neither text could simply have been
copied from the other, both must derive from a common source, which he supposed
was the Gujfn yimhul. This theory has subsequently been called into serious
question by Cheng (1965: 26-37; 1985: 43), but Hattori's comparative observations
remain valid and of interest. 14
Ligeti (1956: 37, n. 25) averred that the MGZY is in fact based directly on the
Gujln yunhul. He said, "Dans sa Preface, **Jt Tchou Tsong-wen, l'auteur du
10
Mong kou tseu yun, nous dit clairement qu'il s'est appuye, en composant son oeuvre,
sur Ie bien connu tl-::y{fjtf;r Kou kin yun houei." But as we have seen in the preface
passages cited above, this is a misreading of ZhU's remarks. For Zhn did not write
the MGZY. He merely edited the received text of it. Whether Ligeti knew of the
difference between the Giijrn yunhul and the Giijln yunhul jiiyilO is unclear. In
any case, the wording of the MGZY preface cannot be used to establish its
derivation from either of these texts.
There is in fact an emerging consensus among specialists in the history of the
Giijrn yunhu 1 jiiyao that this work ultimately takes as its source the Llbu yunliie
We find this same view expressed in Cheng (1965: 76, n. 7, paragraph
2), Ning (1997: 41), and Wang Shuoquan (2002: 4-5). The Llbu yunliie
("Summary of the Rimes of the Ministry of Rites") was a rime book completed in
1037. It embodied the rime classes prescribed for the official examinations, which in
the Song period were administered under the aegis of the Ministry of Rites. But the
Giijrn yunhu 1 jiiyao (as an abridgement of the Giijln yunhu 1 ) was not simply a
rote copy of the Llbu yunliie. It was on the contrary a complete recasting of the
material in the earlier work. And apparently integral to this reworking was a book
called the Menggii yunliie ("Summary of the Mongol Rimes"). This
title is mentioned in full several times in the Giijrn yunhul jiiyao. More common
there, however, is another term: Menggu yun which literally means
"Mongol rimes" and which very probably refers here to Menggii yunliie material. 15
No book having the title Menggii yunliie is extant today. Ning (1997: 195-207)
believes it was identical with the MGZY. Cheng (1965, 1985) and Wang Shuoquan
(2002: 44-46, 158) think the two were separate works. In a sense, these two views
are not totally contradictory. Wang (loc. cit.), for instance, suggests that the Menggii
yunliie was in fact one of the primary source texts used by Zhn Z6ngwen in the
compilation of his version of the MGZY. In any case, it seems clear that 'Phags-pa
lexica played a role in the formation of the Giijln yunhu 1 jiiyao. If anything, it was
the latter which derived in some way from the former, rather than vice versa.
Of considerable interest in this connection is yet another work, entitled
Menggii yunlei ("Mongol Rime Categories"), by a person named Lr
Hongdao **ffi. This book is no longer extant, but a preface for it has been
preserved in the Jiacon leigao of Wang Ylshan ;JJUJ(1214-1287).16
In this preface, Wang includes some descriptive notes. The book, he tells us,
abandons the traditional 206 rime classes and substitutes a simpler system of fifteen
categories. In the text, syllables in all four tones are arranged together (presumably
11
when they have the same syllabic shape); and yet it is still possible to discern which
ones fall under which traditional tones. Similarly shaped characters are grouped
together. And a system of thirty-two zimu *a is somehow woven into the
structure of the text. Now, as we shall presently see, this description is strikingly
reminiscent of the MGZY itself. As Ledyard remarks, "It is clear that the Menggu
yunlei is the same book, or the same kind of book, as the Menggu ziyun" (1997: 77,
n. 26). And, significantly, this work existed at least ten years before the publication
of the GujTn yunhui juyilO.
Let us now summarize what we have learned. The MGZY is directly derived
from somewhat earlier 'Phags-pa handbooks, and is the fruit of the editorial efforts
of Zhu Z5ngwen. At least two of his sources were simply different versions, i.e., the
so-called Hubei and Zhed5ng editions, of the MGZY itself. But there may have
been others as well. Perhaps works like the Menggu yunliie and the Menggu yunlei
were also among the materials he consulted. These earlier works, though they cannot
have been copied from the GujTn yunhui juyilO, which clearly postdated them,
shared with the JuyilO a very similar, though not entirely identical, set of
phonological categories. The JuyiLO in its tum was intimately and intricately
interrelated with a constellation of Song-time rime books, all of which were in some
way associated with the standard rime system used in the official examinations of
the time and embodied in the Lfbu yunliie. The exact filiation of these texts, which
has exercised specialists in their histories for decades, is not of paramount
importance to us here. What is of direct concern is the nature of the connection
between the MGZY and the underlying set of distinctions found, in one variation or
another, in these rime books. Why does this connection exist?
As noted earlier, works such as the 'Phags-pa Baijiaxing and the MGZY were
apparently glossaries intended for the use of Chinese speakers who wished to learn
how to spell Chinese syllables in the new writing system. They may have arisen in
connection with the 'Phags-pa schools initially founded in 1269. Or, as suggested
by Ledyard (loc. cit.), they may have been compiled by the Hanlin Academy's
'''Phags-pa department," which had been established in 1275. In any case, they
were at base compendia of data listing Chinese characters together with their
corresponding 'Phags-pa orthographic forms. To use them, persons literate in
Chinese would have first have needed ways to find particular Chinese characters in
them. In the case of the B aij iax lng this would have posed no difficulty. All Chinese
schoolchildren were taught to recite this text from memory. No literate person would
have required an index to it. But a glossary like the MGZY was quite another matter.
12
Without an accessing apparatus of some sort, finding things in such a work would
have been prohibitively time-consuming. The solution to this was to take advantage
of all educated readers' familiarity with the standard rime sets mandated in the
official examinations. Mastery of these involved memorization of groups of
characters which could rime in the poetry sections of the examinations. Licit rimes
were determined not by ear but by co-occurrence in these inter-riming sets. Thus,
every well-educated person had to memorize standardized lists of inter-riming
characters. In principle, no particular ordering of these lists vis-a-vis each other was
necessary to the fashioning of correct rimes. It was rather the membership of each
list that was the crucial matter. However, in practice the lists were learned from rime
books, and their ordering in these texts was determined by convention. In the formal
or Qieyun tvJt System (QYS) there were 206 rimes, divided first among the four
classical tones and then listed in a long-established order. By Southern Song times
the number of these rimes had been reduced to 106 or 107, an inventory which has
since become known as the Pingshulyun .3f*OO. The term Pingshulyun has also
been used to refer to particular rime books.
1
7 One of these is the XTnkan yunliie *JT
of Wang Wenyu published in 1227.18 Various features of this text,
including the very order in which characters are listed in certain sections of it, have
led Ning (1997: 161-165) to conclude that it, or something very like it, was actively
used in the compilation of the MGZY urtext. 19 In any case, it seems clear that the
MGZY was compiled with an eye to preserving enough of the traditional rime book
structure that Chinese readers could capitalize on their familiarity with it in accessing
the material in the MGZY.
To begin, since the 'Phags-pa script does not indicate tone, segmentally
identical syllables under different tones are spelled the same way. To accommodate
this lapsus, the MGZY abandons the primary division by tone which forms the
framework of all traditional rime books. Syllables spelled the same way are always
placed in the same entry line of the MGZY, but with the contents of the entry divided
according to the four classical tones, i.e., ping .3f, shang J:., qu .:::li;, and ru A.
20
The
tonal division is therefore at the lowest level in the MGZY, rather than at the highest,
as in the earlier rime texts. Next, in the MGZY the received 106- or 107-rime list is
drastically reduced to fifteen units. These fifteen units are still called rimes (yun
in the text; but they in fact correspond more closely to the she 3lI (combinatory rime
groups), which are inherent in the structure of the early rime tables and explicitly
demarcated in the later ones. The names of the fifteen combinatory sets are chosen
from those of the ping-tone rimes in the original longer list.
21
All traditional ru-tone
13
rimes are abolished, and their constituent syllables are redistributed among the
fifteen MGZY rimes, though of course always still identified by tone in each
individual MGZY entry.22 Within each MGZY "rime," entry lines are organized in
groups according to the 'Phags-pa spellings of their finals. A commonly seen but by
no means universal ordering of final types is the following, as illustrated in the Yfmg
IWi Rime:
1. plain vowel: -ang
2. y or y plus vowel: -yang
3. w plus vowel: -wang
4. other spelling types: _hang, -ong, -wyang
Where a particular traditional rime type falls under a MGZY rime that conflicts
with the 'Phags-pa spelling in some way, the traditional ordering is nonetheless
maintained, apparently because readers would be expected to follow the traditional
order when looking up characters. For example, the graph xiong :tit is spelled
Hyung but placed under the Geng ~ Rime (where finals in -ing, _hing, etc., would
be expected). The principle here was clearly not phonetic or orthographic
compatibility but convenient accessibility in terms of the received system.
Within each orthographically determined common sub-set, a further
refinement is introduced: the individual entry lines are organized according to the
Thirty-Six Initials of the rime table tradition. This arrangement would have been
familiar to some literate readers, but by no means to all of them, for knowledge of it
was not required of candidates who sat for the official examinations. For this reason,
a list of the initials is, as we have seen in section 1.3, provided at the beginning of the
book. This, combined with a familiarity with the traditional arrangement of rime
books as incorporated into the text, would have enabled readers to find entries in the
book with relative ease. We can summarize the organizational hierarchy of the
MGZY as follows, beginning with the highest level (1) and moving downward to the
lowest one (4):
(1) Rime group (yun ~ ) . Explicitly identified in the text by a subtitle consisting of
number and name. Example:
III. IWi ~ yang.
(2) 'Phags-pa orthographic final group. Not explicitly demarcated in the text, but
14
identifiable by the orthographically identical spelling of finals. Example: seven
adjacent entry lines ending in the orthographic final-ang within the Yfmgyim
(See entries 98-104 of the Glossary.)
(3) Individual entry lines of the text. These are pseudo-homophone groups, in that
they comprise syllables under different tones which share the same syllabic
spelling forms. They are explicitly identified in the text by the 'Phags-pa
orthographic forms at the head of each line. Example:
khang [k' al]] ping t:f ' shang tlji , t'* ' qu m ' 00 ' '
11C ' :re.
(4) True homophone groups. Explicitly identified by tone designation. Example:
ping It.
As mentioned earlier, the MGZY is by far the most important source for the
study of 'Phags-pa Chinese. For this reason, we have adopted an abridged version of
it as the nucleus of our Glossary of 'Phags-pa forms in the present work.
1.5 The Linguistic and Demographic Background of 'Phags-pa Chinese
23
1.5.1 The Northern Song and Liao Periods. The founding of the Song * Dynasty
in 960 ended a long period of disunion in China. The national capital, Dongjlng *
:g, was established at Kaifengfli 00;1;1 J& in the Central Plains. This area remained
the political and cultural center of the dynasty for 166 years. The conventional view
today is that the standard language of this period was a Central Plains-based lingua
franca or koine, probably centered in the Kaifeng-Luoyang area. Zhou Zum6
m fll.l has characterized it as "Zhongzhou zhI hengyan" 9=' 1+1 "the
prevalent speech of (north) central China" (Zhou 1966: 582). This prevailing view
of course deserves further study and verification, but at present there is at least no
strong evidence against it.
There is however, one further point which requires notice here. North of the
Song lay the Khitan empire (907-1119), whose dynastic name in the Chinese
histories was Lilio For information on it we rely here primarily on Wittfogel
(1949) and Twitchett and Tietze (1994). In 937, before the founding of Song, the
short-lived nn 1J Dynasty had ceded to the Khitans an area known as the Sixteen
15
Prefectures (Yanyim shiliuzh5u /\1'['1), which corresponded roughly to the
northern part of modem H6bei rEfit Province (Twitchett and Tietze 1994: 70-71).
Despite a number of efforts, the Song were never able to retake this area, and it
remained under Khitan control for approximately 200 years. The inhabitants of this
territory were almost all Chinese, and the Liao placed them under a special form of
governmental administration, differing from that by which they ruled the rest of their
empire. At the town of Y5uzh5u 1'['1 they built a new administrative center, called
NanjIng fjJJ(, the southernmost ofthe five capitals oftheir state, to govern their
new Chinese subjects. From this place, after many changes and vicissitudes, the
modem city of Peking would ultimately evolve. Now it is of some interest here that
the large Chinese population of this region, which the Liao called the Southern
Capital Circuit (NanjIngdao fjJJ(lli), was cut off from the Central Plains dialect
area to the south for two centuries. Although we have no proof for it, we may
speculate that in this linguistic rupture lie at least some of the beginnings of the
distinctive type of north Chinese dialect which would later come to be associated
with the Peking area and points to the northeast.
1.5.2 JIn and Southern Song. We now shift farther east to the Jurchen, a Tungusic
people who founded the JIn 1f2 Dynasty (1115-1234). Our information on them
comes from Tao (1976) and Franke (1994). Their ancestral homeland was in eastern
Manchuria, rather near the Pacific coast. They were originally subjects of the Liao,
who were their western neighbors. In 1115, after consolidating their power, they
established their own dynasty and began a war which resulted in the destruction of
the Liao in 1122. It was in fact at the end of that year that they actually occupied the
Liao city of NanjIng and first became overlords of a large population of Chinese-
speaking subjects. They then very quickly pressed their attack against Song.
Kaifeng fell in 1127, and the Chinese dynasty collapsed. In the course of this rather
short five-year war the JIn made extensive use of Chinese subjects of the former
Liao and also of a large number of turncoat Song civil and military officials. Later,
they governed their Chinese holdings, which extended southward to the Huai it
River, through a Chinese officialdom who had previously been Northern Song
functionaries. At the site of the former NanjIng of the Liao, the JIn established their
own Zh5ngdU whereupon they took the former Song capital, Kaifeng, as
their NanjIng. It is interesting to note that, as of the year 1211 Kaifeng was still a
bigger and more populous city than the central capital at Zh5ngdU. It was in fact the
largest metropolitan area in the JIn empire (Franke 1994: 279).
16
After the fall of Northern Song a new Chinese state, called Southern Song
(1127-1278), was founded in the south, with its capital at Lin'an g m ; ~ (modern
Hfmgzh5u #Lv'I'/). It is probable that the standard language of the southern court was
in fact merely a transplanted variety of the northern Song lingua franca, brought
south by refugees from the fallen dynasty (Simmons 1992, chapter 7; cf. also Chao
1928: xiv). And, in the north, it seems likely that the large body of Chinese officials
who remained behind and served the JIn continued to speak what they had spoken
before, i.e., the same general Song standard. Here we should also note that
diplomatic, trade, and other contacts between the JIn and the Southern Song
remained frequent, even during times of active hostility, with representations on the
JIn side conducted by Chinese-speaking officials. It seems probable that the two
sides communicated with each other in, at most, variant forms of what had earlier
been their common standard language. At present we have no way of assessing the
linguistic input of the former Liao subjects from the NanjIngdao who came south
with their new masters in 1127; but it seems unlikely that their influence on the
general standard speech community of the Central Plains can have been inordinately
great, in view of the relative population numbers involved. Finally, we may note that
by the end of the JIn, which lasted for slightly longer than a century, even the
Jurchen officials and nobility had come to prefer Chinese to their own language.
One may guess that what they spoke was what their Chinese colleagues and social
counterparts spoke. In summary, then, though we are sadly lacking in hard evidence
on the matter, there do not seem to be any strong a priori grounds for assuming
marked differences between the standard languages of north and south China during
the JIn-Southern Song period.
l.5.3. The Mongol Period. The Mongol period brings us at last to the crucial
historical stage for the development of 'Phags-pa Chinese. Our principal sources for
it are Rachewiltz (1966), Allsen (1994), and Rossabi (1994). For the history of the
city of Dadu, we rely primarily on Lr (1981) and BeijIng daxue lishrxl (1985).
The Mongol conquest of China began with a war against the JIn. In 1214 the JIn
court abandoned Zh5ngdu and fled to Kaifeng. Zh5ngdu was subsequently sacked
and partially burned. Information on the situation there at that time is supplied by
Allsen (1994: 362-363):
An envoy of the Khwarazmshah Muhammad who reached Chung-tu shortly
after its surrender in 1215 encountered there a most grisly scene: The area
around the former Chin capital for the distance of several days' march was
17
strewn, he reports, with the bones of uncounted dead, and disease, spread
owing to the great number of unburied corpses, continued to claim new
victims, including members of his own party.
In their campaigns against the JIn and later against the Southern Song, the
Mongols made large-scale use of defectors. In fact, after an initial period of
wholesale slaughter and destruction, there was a change in approach to conquered
areas and populations, and defection was actively encouraged. Military personnel,
often comprising entire units who had surrendered peaceably, were treated leniently
and accepted into the ranks of the conquerors. Civil officials who did not resist and
remained at their posts were in many cases simply put back to work in the new
administration. Throughout the JIn and later the Southern Song territories, the
indigenous Chinese-speaking officialdom served as an important medium through
which the Mongols prosecuted the war and administered the peace among the
Chinese.
Of special interest here is the person of Qubilai, grandson of Chinggis Khan
and actual founder of the Yuan dynasty, who, as we have seen in section 1.1 above,
commissioned the creation of the 'Phags-pa script. As a young man Qubilai held an
appanage at Xingzhou 7 f ~ 1'1'[, in the southwest comer of modem Hebe i. Here he
gathered around him a large coterie of Chinese scholars from various areas of the
country, both north and south, who served him as advisors (Rossabi 1994: 415-
416). As his career advanced, he moved from place to place, either on campaign or
performing administrative duties, and throughout this period he continued to
maintain his Chinese retinue, which was also expanded to include advisors from
other nationalities. One of these was the 'Phags-pa Lama.
It was in 1260, the first year of his reign as emperor and the year when the
'Phags-pa Lama was appointed National Preceptor, that Qubilai took up residence
in the area of the former JIn capital of Zhongdu. Because the city site itself was
not suitable for occupancy, he chose as his residence a detached palace, the
Da'ninggong *$'8, which had survived relatively undamaged (LI 1981: 194). It
lay somewhat northeast of the ruined JIn city site. In 1267 work was begun on the
construction of a new city, with the site of the detached palace as its center. The first
formal court audience was held there in 1274. This city, named Dadu * i l ~ , was
officially completed in 1276.
With these points in mind, let us now return to the topic with which we began
this chapter, the creation of the 'Phags-pa script, and more specifically, to its
18
application to the writing of Chinese. We may suppose that the 'Phags-pa Lama's
first and most important exposures to spoken Chinese occurred with his entry into
Qubilai's retinue, where he rubbed shoulders with the Confucian advisors mentioned
above. What form of Chinese would these men have spoken? They were highly
educated literati from various parts of China.
24
It seems likely that they spoke to
each other in whatever Chinese lingua franca was current at the time. And the
probability is that this was some variety of the same general koine that had been in
use in late JInflate Southern Song times. For a period of at least seven years, and
before the Mongol court settled at the site of the future Dadl1, this would
presumably have been the form of Chinese which the 'Phags-pa Lama regularly
heard and with which he was most familiar. Then, in 1260, he received his charge to
develop the new alphabet, one of the purposes of which was to write Chinese. He
finished this task in 1269, seven years before the new city of Dadl1 was completed.
What form of Chinese would he have taken as the object of his labors? Would he
have drawn upon the general standard used by his educated colleagues in Qubilai's
court, or would he have gone out and sought among the ruins and construction sites
around the Da'ninggong for informants who spoke the local dialect of that region?
In our view, it must have been the educated standard which served as his primary
model. It would have in a sense been a composite, in that it would have reflected a
linguistic consensus reached by those who wished to communicate in it. It is
unlikely to have been the dialect of one particular place, if by "dialect" we mean a
particular regional vernacular. Certainly it is very unlikely to have been the local
vernacular of the Dadl1 area. And most significantly, as we have attempted to show
in detail elsewhere (1999), it differed in fundamental ways from the system
underlying the later Yuan-time rime book, Zhongyu{m yTnyun ~ ~ ~ t f f f i i . The
linguistic basis for this text is currently disputed.
25
But, whatever sort of sound
system it represented, 'Phags-pa Chinese pronunciation must have differed from that
reflected in the Zhongyu{m yfnyun.
Notes
IThis point is particularly noteworthy when we consider that 'Phags-pa was merely in
his teens at this time.
2For the original text, see the Po-na edition, 202.1b-2a, or the Zhonghua shuju edition,
202.4518.
19
3In the present study 'Phags-pa letters will be paleographically transliterated in boldface
type according to a system explained in detail in Chapter 3. The phonetic interpretation of the
graphic elements is also discussed there.
4In the later technical terminology of traditional Chinese philology, the term niu m
refers specifically to syllable initials. However, in pre-Qlng times it was less narrow and could
denote both initials and finals.
5The terms erhe =it, sanhe = it, etc., refer to the traditional glossing practice used,
for example, by Chinese Buddhist transcribers of Indic texts, wherein two or more characters are
read together as a single syllable to transcribe Indic syllables containing consonant clusters or other
foreign sound concatenations.
6yuyun "imM is apparently a copyist's error for xieyun "to harmonize rimes," a
traditional philological term which parallels another such term, xiesheng "to harmonize
initials," in the following phrase.
7This was a genuine innovation in the analysis of the Chinese syllable, as has been
noted by Ledyard (1997: 50-51).
8For a detailed discussion, see Chapter 3.
9pashakaohas mOSf.
such equivalents are given for the supplementary list, i.e., nos. 42-45.
IlFor a convenient list of these, see Lua (1963, tables between 64 and 65).
12Bayfm is a transcription of Bayan, a Mongol name.
13Regarding this date, see Cheng (1965: 23).
14por a later study of the sound system of the Gujfn yunhui jUyilO, using the Karlgrenian
"reconstructive" approach, see Zhli (1986).
15The following is a passage in which the two terms are actually used together:
0 0 (Peking: Zhonghua, 2001, 2.4a [po 40]). In our
view, the correct translation of this line should be, "In the Menggu yunliie the character yi 11:
belongs under the yi initial. In the old phonological scheme (i.e., of certain earlier rime lexica)
it belonged under the yU initial. Now we emend it on the basis of the Mongol rimes." The term
20
"Mongol rimes" is probably a general reference to Chinese forms written in 'Phags-pa script, as
represented in handbooks, glossaries, etc. Here it of course refers specifically to forms quoted from
the Menggii yimliie. But in our opinion it is not an abbreviation of that title. Likewise, when it
(or its reduced form Mengyun appears in other works of this or later periods, it should be
interpreted as meaning "'Phags-pa Chinese orthographic material" rather than a specific book.
160ur dates for this man come from the Zhonggubliditi renming ditcidiiin r:p
(Shanghai:Guji, 1: 164). The Menggii yunlei is discussed by Cheng (1965: 20-21), who
mistakenly assigns to it the title Menggii yunbian and states that it dates from a time
much later than the MGZY. In his preface, Wang Yishan at one point characterizes the Menggii
yunlei as a Menggu yunbian "compilation of Mongol rimes," but this clearly is not its
formal title. Furthermore, it cannot date from as late as Cheng supposes, since Wang Ylshan had
seen it before his death in 1287. The Yrnyunxue cidiiin (Changsha: Hunan
chubanshe, 1991, 121) correctly identifies U Hongdao **m: as the author of the Menggii
yunlei, but then states that he was a person of the late sixteenth century. This error is due to
confusion with U Hongdao *Lm:, a classicist and historian of the Ming period and an entirely
different individual from the U Hongdao **m: of Yuan times. Ledyard (1997: 76-77, n. 26)
identifies the Menggii yunlei by its correct title and time frame in his discussion of the text.
17The name Pingshulyun itself is said to be connected with the RenzI xrnkan LIbU
yunliie of Liu Yuan published in 1252. It is variously said to derive
from Pingshul in ShanxI, where the printing blocks for the text were engraved, or, according
to a different theory, to another Pingshul which was Liu Yuan's native place.
18This date is sometimes incorrectly given as 1223. See Ning (1997: 141). The last
character of Wang's name is written in one source. Alternate names for his book in later sources
are Wang Wenyu PingshuIyun Xrnktin PingshuI yunliie and
PingshuI yunliie
19Ning used three different editions of the Xrnkan yunliie in his work. The version seen
by us is that of the Shanghai Municipal Library, as reproduced in the Xuxia siku quansha
(Shanghai: Guji, 1995, 250, 209-387).
2<To view the format of the MGZY, see the Glossary section below, which adopts the
structure of this text as its organizational framework.
21Exactly how this was effected is laid out in detail by Ning (1997: 165).
22Regarding how this was done, see Ning (loc. cit.).
21
23Substantial portions of this section are taken from Coblin (1999: 87-91).
24The names and identities of many of these individuals are known. See Rachewiltz
(1966).
25Some major published theories are that it represents: (1) the pronunciation of the
Yuan-time city of Dada, (2) the pronunciation of the Kaifeng/Luoyfmg area, or (3) a general north
Chinese koine pronunciation rather than the sound system of a particular place or region. For a
summary of the various theories, see JIn (1999: 13, n. 1).
22
II
A Brief Review of 'Phags-pa Chinese Studies
The single most informative source on the history of 'Phags-pa studies in
general and of the Chinese 'Phags-pa field in particular is the introduction to
Nakano (1971), especially pages 8-23. Also of considerable interest are the
bibliographical notes and annotations in Ligeti (1956; 1961), Hashimoto (1978;
1978-79: 70-120), and Cheng (1985). For Japanese studies in particular, see
Hashimoto (1978: 2, notes 4 and 8). For work done in China since the 1970s, see
the notes and references in the various articles and books by Jrinast listed
in the first section of the bibliography to the present work. The standard reference
for Mongolian 'Phags-pa is Poppe (1957). To this may now be added Junast
(1990-91), and a review of this work by HugjiIt (1992).1
The field of Chinese 'Phags-pa studies may be conveniently divided into four
periods: (1) the early period of interest, beginning in the first decades of the
nineteenth century and lasting until the 1920s; (2) the period of increasing focus on
Chinese 'Phags-pa, from the 1920s through the 1940s, when Mongolian and
Chinese 'Phags-pa became separate fields and 'Phags-pa Chinese was recognized as
a branch of Chinese historical phonology; (3) the period of textual discovery and
dissemination, beginning in the 1950s and lasting until the mid-1980s, during which
the introduction of the Baijiaxing and, more important, the MGZY into the
discussion revolutionized the field; and (4) the current period, representing
developments since the late 1980s.
2.1 The Early Period of 'Phags-pa Studies
Work in this period involved the study of epigraphical materials and was of an
exploratory and pioneering nature. Incidental references to the 'Phags-pa script
23
began to appear in early nineteenth century sources (see Nakano 1971: 8, n. 4, and
19, n. 11, for examples). The first systematic contribution in the field was by von der
Gabelentz (1839). A more general study was Pauthier (1862). The mid and later part
of the century saw an increasing concern with the Juyongguan 5Mim wall
inscriptions. An important early example is Wylie (1870), which also gives a
summary of 'Phags-pa studies up until that time. This was followed by many more
detailed works, as the inscriptions were analyzed, facsimiles were published, etc.
2
The latter part of this period is characterized by Nakano as one of discovery of
materials, in which mongolists and sinologists collaborated in what was viewed as a
common undertaking. Much of the grammatological work of this early period is
now mainly of historiographical or antiquarian interest, having been in great part
superseded by later developments. However, a number of the published facsimiles
of inscriptions remain standard sources for epigraphical research.
2.2 The Period of Focus on 'Phags-pa Chinese
Beginning in the 1920s, Paul Pelliot published a number of articles, short
notes, comments, etc., dealing with or touching upon 'Phags-pa problems. These are
in the main concerned with Mongolian 'Phags-pa, but they often raise points relevant
to the Chinese side as well. For a convenient listing, see Poppe (1957: 139).
Bernhard Karlgren included discussions of 'Phags-pa questions in his earlier
studies on Chinese historical phonology (Karlgren 1915-26)? Following this, in
1930 Aleksandr Dragunov made extensive use of Karlgren's "Ancient Chinese"
system to discuss the phonology of 'Phags-pa Chinese. In the same year, there
appeared in Japan an article by Oshibuchi Hajime (1930) which is characterized by
Nakano (1971: 17, n. 17) as parallel to Dragunov' s. Oshibuchi used not Karlgren' s
system but the structure of the Zhongyuan yfnyim to study the 'Phags-pa material.
His work is noteworthy for the fact that he also consulted a copy of the British
MGZY manuscript. Somewhat later, Karlgren's system was again brought to bear
on 'Phags-pa questions in a book by Lewicki (1949, chap. 3). Lewicki also used a
copy of the MGZY manuscript (1949: 26, n. 2).4
Dragunov's paper is of particular interest because it takes issue with his
predecessors' assumptions regarding the linguistic basis and dialectal identity of
'Phags-pa Chinese. Karlgren and Pelliot had assumed the existence of a unitary
standard variety of Yuan-period Chinese to which not only the 'Phags-pa data but
24
'Phags-pa Chinese Studies
also other textually attested material of that time must belong. For them, all these
things must somehow be reconcilable with each other from the standpoint of the
putative Yuan standard system. A logical outgrowth of this approach was that, where
the 'Phags-pa system has features which appear to be "archaic," "conservative," or
in some other way not consonant with the systems reflected in the so-called "Old
Mandarin" rime books, 'Phags-pa was assumed to have been intentionally archaized
by its framers on the basis of older traditional-style rime books, rime tables, etc. It is
with this view in particular that Dragunov took issue. He concluded (1930: 646):
We have not sufficient reasons to consider the phonetic structure of the Ancient
Mandarin language to have been homogeneous. On the contrary, our sources
enable us to state that there existed two large dialects (or groups of dialects)
widely divergent from the point of view of their consonantic system: one of
them, let us call it type A, embodied in the hPhags-pa inscriptions, [Hung wu]
Cheng yiin, Ch'ieh yiin chih nan, the other, let us call it type B-in various
transcriptions of foreign names and in the Persian transcription. Moreover, it is
very likely that the phonetic forms of the A dialect (i.e., of the hPhags-pa
inscriptions) also served for political reasons as a certain official standard for
some regions, where the spoken language belonged to the B type. These regions
consequently had two parallel pronunciations of the characters-one of them
official, registered by the hPhags-pa script, and the other a more modernized
vernacular, registered, e.g., by the Persian transcription. In such cases the
Ancient Mandarin pronunciation embodied in the hPhags-pa script may be
actually archaic.
Pelliot, while interested in Dragunov's idea, explicitly rejected it in a review
(PelIiot 1932), and the KarlgreniPelIiot position probably remains the one more
widely accepted today. But the discussion has remained an active one in 'Phags-pa
studies. For example, a rather similar position to that of Dragunov was espoused by
Hashimoto (1978-79). After considerable discussion he stated (1: 74),
From these ... points we assume that the Chinese characters were actually
pronounced in more or less the same way as they are spelled by hPhags-pa
script. These pronunciations were used in official proclamations to the literate
intellectuals; then the phonological system inferred from these transcriptions
should reflect some formal speech which the great majority of the intellectuals of
the period spoke or at least understood.
And further, on page 76,
25
We may conclude that the language reflected in the hPhags-pa transcriptions is
very likely a natural variant of Chinese at that time, though it may not be a stage
in the linear development from Ancient Chinese to Mandarin.
Reduced to its essentials, the earlier view admits the existence of only one
linguistic entity underlying both the 'Phags-pa texts and other contemporary sources
such as the Zhongyu{m ylnyun and certain transcriptional materials. Where the
'Phags-pa system varies in the direction of increased complexity, these variations are
held to be archaizing and artificial. The second view finds at least two varieties of
Chinese in the relevant sources. The 'Phags-pa texts would represent a more formal,
"official" dialect, while the other sources reflect a vernacular idiom of some sort.
5
Dragunov's work is also noteworthy for the fact that he was aware of the
Bai j iax ing text and attempted to take account of the material there, though, as he
himself conceded (1930: 629), he lacked access to a satisfactory version of the text.
Finally, we may mention here Earl R. Hope, who published a monograph on
Chinese 'Phags-pa in 1953. Hope was a colorful character, a polyglot, professional
translator, and a close personal friend of the great mongolist, Nicholas Poppe.
6
In
his study, which he printed privately, Hope issued strident challenges to the leading
sinologists of his day, including Karlgren. His ideas are sometimes interesting but
tend to be both unsystematically argued and lacking in supporting evidence.
7
2.3 The Period of Textual Discovery and Dissemination
This period was marked by the publication of the Baij iax ing and MGZY
texts. The general availability of these materials, particularly of the MGZY, has
revolutionized the study of 'Phags-pa Chinese.
An event of the utmost importance for the study of the Bai j iax ing was the
publication in 1956 of Louis Ligeti's article, "Le Po Kia sing en ecriture 'phags-
pa." This paper included a full facsimile of the text from which Ligeti worked, plus
a transcription and editorial notes comparing material from the earlier works of
Oshibuchi (1930), Dragunov (1930), and Lewicki (1949). Ligeti's article was soon
followed by Luo and Cai's book-length study of 'Phags-pa Chinese, where two
more full versions of the Baijiaxing were reproduced (1959: 57-82). It was now
possible for all interested scholars to work with the Baijiaxing corpus, and Ligeti
himself soon produced a new paper dealing with the material (Ligeti 1961).
26
Work on the MGZY manuscript text actually began in the 1920s and 1930s,
but publication of this research was delayed by the outbreak of the Second World
War. A photostatic copy of the manuscript was acquired by Ishihama Juntaro in
1924-1925 during a trip to Europe,s and was consequently made available to
Japanese scholars for study. As we have seen, Oshibuchi had access to it. By the
outbreak of the war, a book by Hattori Shiro, containing a chapter dealing with the
MGZY materials, was ready in manuscript; but much of this was destroyed before
the end of hostilities (Nakano 1971: 18). It was finally published in 1946 but did
not become generally known outside Japan and Taiwan until decades later. A
facsimile of the the Ishihama text was published by Kansai University in 1956; but,
again, this copy does not seem to have been readily available outside Japan.
In the meantime, a photographic facsimile of the London text had reached
China. This copy was made by YU Daoqufm and then passed through
several hands until it reached Luo Chfmgpei Luo reported his impressions
of it in 1939. Afterwards, he continued to study it together with his student, Cai
Meibiao Their joint work on it was published in 1959, a year after Luo's
death (1959: 83-127). Included in their treatment was a tracing of the photographic
facsimile of the MGZY text, minus two missing pages.
9
With this, the text became
generally available to interested readers.
As noted earlier, copies of the MGZY were in the hands of some Western
scholars, such as Lewicki in Poland, by the 1940s. British scholars of course had
continuous access to it, and Clauson (1959) included material from it in his
discussion of the 'Phags-pa script. By the 1960s it had become the primary basis for
the study of 'Phags-pa Chinese.
Denlinger (1963) investigated the material in the MGZY from the standpoint
of Chinese historical phonology. Pulleyblank (1970) interpreted the data in terms of
his own views on the structure of the pre-modem Chinese syllable, particularly as
represented in the rime tables. Cheng Tsai Fa wrote two monographs on 'Phags-pa
studies, Cheng (1965) and (1985). Cheng (1965) dealt mainly with textual
questions, in particular those concerning the relationship between the MGZY and the
Song-time rime books. Of special interest in this work is a reconstructed
supplement for the putative contents of the two missing final pages of the British
MGZY manuscript (Cheng 1965: 102-103). This reconstruction is effected in the
following way. The probable number and identity of the missing entry lines is
determined by comparison with the corpus of parallel material in the GiijTn yimhu 1
jiiyao, and the characters which belong to each lost group are identified. Then, the
27
'Phags-pa inscriptions and the Baijia:xing are combed for any examples of the said
missing characters. Using this method, at least one example can be found for each
of the missing lines, though by no means necessarily for every homophonous tone
set belonging to each line. Cheng's 1985 monograph is of a very different type. It
offers a phonetic interpretation of the 'Phags-pa Chinese system from the standpoint
of Chinese historical phonology. In addition to the two monographs, Cheng also
wrote a long article in which he critically examined a large number of variant
spellings from 'Phags-pa Chinese sources and arranged his results in the order of
the MGZY (Cheng 1967).
An important contribution of this period is Nakano (1971). This monograph
provides a comprehensive summary of 'Phags-pa studies and a detailed phonetic
interpretation of the 'Phags-pa Chinese orthography. Of particular significance is a
synopsis of the contents of the MGZY (105-134). In this section, all entry lines of
the MGZY text are numbered consecutively. Both a paleographic transcription of the
original spelling forms and a phonetic interpretation are given for each entry. This is
followed by the head character of each true homophone group in the line, marked by
tone. The numbered entry lines are keyed to the page numbers of the Kansai
University and Luo and Cai facsimiles. Thus, one can juxtapose this list with
whichever facsimile one has in hand and match any particular line in both. At the
end of the list (1971: 133-134), Cheng Tsai Fa's supplementary material is added.
Nakano's consecutive numbering system is exceedingly useful and greatly
facilitates access to the MGZY data. It is this system which has been adopted in the
Glossary section of the present handbook.
Mantaro J. Hashimoto dealt extensively with 'Phags-pa Chinese in his doctoral
dissertation on Ancient Chinese, which was completed in 1965 but not published
until much later (Hashimoto 1978-79). Throughout the late 1960s and on into the
1970s he wrote often on 'Phags-pa matters. Hashimoto (1967), (1968 [1978]), and
(1971) dealt with specific problems in the phonetic interpretation of the script.
Hashimoto (1974) is actually a work of monographic length and consists of two
parts. The first is a table in which all syllable types in the MGZY are arranged
according to the QYS, as represented in the Fangyfm diiLOChft zibiiio 7 J W E J ~ *
* promulgated by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The second part tabulates,
according to the syllabic order of occurrence in the MGZY, all forms from the
Baijia:xing, the 'Phags-pa inscriptions, and the Buddhist sutras. In preparing this
compendium a critical edition of the Baijia:xing was compiled, based on all four
known versions. But this collation has apparently not been separately published as
28
such. Hashimoto (1975) tabulates the occurrence of QYS rimes in the MGZY. This
table is thus in a sense the reverse of that found in the first part of Hashimoto
(1974). All the articles mentioned here, from (1967) through (1975), have been
reprinted together as a single monograph, Hashimoto (1978).
2.4 The Current Period
Mainland Chinese scholars have played an increasingly prominent role in the
field of 'Phags-pa Chinese studies since the advent of the 1980s. Three early
contributions are lunast (1980b), Yang and Jiinast (1981), both of which are of a
general or introductory nature, and Zhang (1983), which deals with a specific
problem in the interpretation of the orthography.
Of particular importance has been the publication of a complete photostatic
copy of the MGZY manuscript by Jiinast and Yang (1987). This must now be
viewed as the optimum source for consulting the original text. The book contains a
brief but informative introduction. Then, after the facsimile of the manuscript, it
gives a reconstruction of the final, lost section. This utilizes several more recently
discovered inscriptional sources not available to Cheng (1965). But it also differs
from Cheng's work in another way. Cheng's approach may be called "narrow
reconstruction," in that he only includes characters actually found in 'Phags-pa
written sources. lunast and Yang go beyond this by including in their restored
homophone groups more characters from the parallel passages in the GujIn yunhui
jUyilO. This can be thought of as a "broad reconstruction." Each approach is useful
in its own way, and the two can be said to complement each other. An even
"broader" reconstruction is offered by Ning (1997: 185-188). Jiinast and Yfmg
also provide a syllabic index (150-157) for the MGZY text that is somewhat
comparable to the synopsis given by Nakano. Their table is arranged by page
number of the original manuscript and gives below this the 'Phags-pa orthographic
head forms for each entry line, in romanized transcription. These forms are not
numbered, but in subsequent references to them they are nonetheless denoted by
number. Thus, the first entry line in the entire text would be identified as "L}\a 1",
the second as "L}\a2", etc., but in the index itself one must count the romanized
forms in order to locate a particular line. The numbering system is therefore
somewhat less convenient than the consecutive one used by Nakano. The MGZY
manuscript in its received version contains many scribal errors and infelicities.
29
Junast and Yang (159-178) provide an extensive list of suggested corrections and
emendations. Another such list has been compiled by Ning (1997: 168-184). The
two lists are by no means identical. The primary reason for this is that, while Jl1nast
and Yang base their critical decisions on the text of the Gujrn yimhu i juyiw, Ning
uses the Xrnkan yimliie as his guide.
A new critical edition of he Baijiaxing has recently been published by Jl1nast
(2003). This will now supplant his older critical versions (Jl1nast 1980a and 1990-
91). Junast has been an indefatigable laborer in the field of 'Phags-pa studies
throughout the past two decades. In addition to his work on Chinese 'Phags-pa, his
contributions to many different aspects of Mongolian 'Phags-pa studies are legion.
For the most part these lie beyond our purview here. Several, however, can be
mentioned for their bearing on problems that involve both systems, i.e., Jl1nast
(1987, 1988, 1989, 1999).
There has recently been a renewal of interest in 'Phags-pa Chinese in North
America. In particular we may note two newly published articles by Zhongwei Shen
(2000, 2001). The first of these discusses a long-standing problem in the structure
of the QYS from the standpoint of 'Phags-pa Chinese. The second attacks a
particular orthographic problem in the 'Phags-pa system. To these may also be
added two as yet unpublished contributions, i.e., Shen (in press) and Shen (Ms).l0
Finally, two recent papers by the present writer deal with the placement of 'Phags-pa
Chinese vis-a-vis the development of competing standard forms of Chinese
pronunciation as attested in alphabetic records of the past six centuries (Cob lin
1999,2001). These papers challenge the conventional stance that the sound system
of 'Phags-pa Chinese should be viewed as an orthographically aberrant form of the
system found in the Zhongyufm yrnyim, and they point out that many of the
supposedly archaic features of the 'Phags-pa system were in fact still present in
certain varieties of standard pronunciation of Ming times. It is suggested that there
may have been competing varieties of standard pronunciation in the thirteenth
century, as there were in later times, and that the 'Phags-pa system may have
incorporated elements from such competing varieties. This view would be consonant
with the probable historical and demographic background of the script, as outlined
in section 1.5.3 of Chapter 1 above.
Notes
lWe know of Junast (1990-91) only through Hugjilt's review.
30
2Por a detailed listing of such works, see Nakano (1971: 10, esp. note 12).
3See, for example, Karlgren (1915-26: 360).
~ e w i c k i cites the text under the romanized title Mong-kou tseu-yin.
5 As indicated in the closing lines of Chapter I, our own findings in this matter (Coblin
1999) tend to support in principle the position of Dragunov and Hashimoto as against the older
and more common view.
6See Poppe (1983: 232-233).
7Por a list of Hope's sometimes lively exchanges with his critics and antagonists, see
Nakano (1971: 158). On Hope's scholarly approach, see Hashimoto (1978: 11, n. 23). Por some
more recent comments on his work, especially as regards his use of Korean evidence, see Ledyard
(1997: 56).
8We are grateful to an anonymous reviewer for this information.
9These missing portions are in addition to the two lost pages of the original manuscript.
lOWe are grateful to Professor Shen for providing information on these unpublished
works.
31
III
Analysis and Interpretation of the 'Phags-pa Alphabet
The analysis and interpretation of the 'Phags-pa alphabet involves four different
but interrelated issues. Of these, the one about which there is the most agreement is
the mechanical functioning of the script. The second area comprises the basic
assumptions of the investigator about the historical and sociolinguistic nature of the
underlying language. The third, concerning which there was in traditional times much
discussion but about which there is now considerable agreement, is the paleographic
origins of the individual graphemes. Fourth is the actual phonetic interpretation of the
graphemes. This is the area of maximum disagreement among specialists, but even
here there is consensus on many issues.
1
In the present chapter, we will begin by
discussing the first and second of these four topics. The third and fourth ones will
then be dealt with seriatim as we discuss the individual letters of the alphabet.
3.1 The Mechanical Functioning of the Alphabet
The 'Phags-pa script is written vertically. The constituent elements of individual
syllables are composed vertically, and the resulting syllables then proceed down the
page from top to bottom. Lines most often progress from left to right.
Graphically, there are two syllable types in the 'Phags-pa writing system. The
first of these, which accounts for less than 1 % of possible syllables, has no initial
consonant at all. There are only three such syllable types, of which the following are
examples:
2
284. -::?5 u shang E.
32
763. A 0 qu ~
437. ~ on qu m
The 'Phags-pa Alphabet
The second syllable type, which comprises over 99% of the syllables in the
system, consists at the minimum of an initial consonant or semivowel, which serves as
the "anchor" of the syllable. In the manner of Indic alphabets, if no other vocalic
information is added, the initial consonant or semivowel embodies an inherent vowel
a. For example, the letter ~ th-, when written alone, will yield:
S2. ~ tha ru ~
The inherent a is overridden by the addition of a vowel sign, which is written
below the anchoring consonant. An example is the following, where the vowel sign
A 0 has been added:
734. ~ tho ping 1m
A medial semivowel can be added between the consonant and any vowel letters
or in the presence of inherent a. In the following, the semivowel ~ w has been
added between th- and -0:
748. ~ thwo ping ~
Two diacritics or diacritic-like elements may also be added to certain of the
vowels to further modify them. These will be discussed in section 3.3.9 below.
Final consonants and semi vowels can be added at the end of a syllable. In the
following example, the consonant 'OJ m has been added to the syllable tha:
653. ~ tham ping ~
The system lacks any form of tonal marking. As mentioned in Chapter 1, in the
MGZY text characters are arranged in tonally identified homophone groups. But when
the script is actually used, as for example in the inscriptions, it is completely toneless.
33
3.2 Assumptions Regarding the History and Nature of 'Phags-pa Chinese
We must begin this section on a negative note. First, as outlined in section 1.5
of Chapter 1, there appears to be no historical basis for the common claim that
'Phags-pa Chinese was the language or dialect of the city of Dadu. No actual historical
evidence has ever been offered for this claim; and, on close examination, there appears
to be none. On the contrary, all available indications suggest that this language was
already in existence before the formation of the imperial metropolis as it existed in
Yuan times. Furthermore, no concrete linguistic or demographic evidence has ever
been adduced that ties 'Phags-pa Chinese directly to the local vernaculars spoken in
the area of the pre-Dadu JIn-time city of Zhongdu. If there is such evidence, no
cogent or detailed presentation of it has ever appeared in print. Second, it is universally
recognized that the sound system embodied in the Chinese 'Phags-pa orthography
differs both in broad outline and in detail from the structural framework underlying
the Zhongyuan ylnyun, whatever that text is assumed to represent.
3
Though opinions
differ about the reasons for this divergence, its existence as such is incontrovertible
and has in fact never been questioned. And, third, to our knowledge no historical,
demographic, or linguistic evidence has ever been presented that 'Phags-pa Chinese is
directly ancestral to any known later Chinese dialect or koine, either a textually attested
pre-modem one or a currently spoken one. Any claim for such a tie would need to be
rigorously demonstrated before it could be seriously entertained.
Now, let us shift to a more positive tack. Though we have no direct historical
statements regarding the linguistic basis of 'Phags-pa Chinese, there is a theoretical
possibility, outlined in section 1.5 of Chapter 1 above, that it may have been a lingua
franca of late JIn/late Southern Song times, and in particular one which was used in
the personal entourage of Prince Qubilai (later Emperor Sh'izu of Yuan). Historical
accounts indicate that the Chinese members of this retinue were educated persons
from different parts of China (Rachewiltz 1966). And it flies in the face of all we
know about polite discourse in late traditional and early modem China to assume, as is
sometimes still done, that such persons would have attempted to talk to each other in
the regional vernaculars of their several native areas. Instead, all evidence and
precedent suggest that they would have conversed in some form of more generally
intelligible koine or tOngyu W ~ . This observation leads us to review what is currently
known about the phonological aspects of Chinese koines of the traditional period.
The first point we may consider is that the pronunciation of traditional koines
often comprised different sub-varieties. A good example is the Guanhua koine of
34
Ming and Qlng times. We know from native sources that there were at least two
major regional ways of pronouncing this language. One, called Nfmyln 1i'", or
"Southern Pronunciation," was originally rooted in the J iang-Huai iI1l-type
Mandarin pronunciation of the Yangtze watershed, though it was later used by
officials from many parts of China and was in fact the preferred system until
the nineteenth century. The other type was called Beiyln 3t'", or "Northern
Pronunciation," and reflected the speech patterns of north China. It gained increasing
prominence in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and is directly ancestral to the
pronunciation of the modem koine, Guoyu It seems likely
that such koine sub-varieties existed in late JIn/late Southern Song times, especially
given the fact that the country had at that time been politically divided for a
considerable period. And if this is true, then the variant pronunciation systems in
question would almost certainly have been represented among the different speakers
present in Qubilai's retinue. Indeed, we can reasonably assume that the type of sound
system they used was a leveled or consensually adjusted amalgam of the variant
pronunciation types current among them, the ultimate goal always being an optimal
level of mutual intelligibility.
A system of the type envisaged here is by definition a composite, in that it
encompasses elements derived from different koine sUbtypes. But it is not "artificial"
or "unnatural," as these terms are normally understood. For all of its constituent
elements and configurations would have been native to someone among the body of
speakers who used it. The survival of anyone of these traits for any length of time
would have been contingent on an evolving consensus among those speakers. A
feature which failed to gain or maintain for itself such a consensus would fall out of
general use. That disparate elements and patterns existed in competition with each
other in 'Phags-pa Chinese can be seen from cases such as that of the following word:
631.1 ng"iw shilng 1Jl
In the GujTn yunhu i jUYEW the syllable OU 1M is said to have been read with the
initial ylng in the Menggu yun, which term, as we have seen in section 1.4.3.2 of
Chapter 1 above, almost certainly refers here to the Menggu yunliie. Now, from the
Chinese Ordering of the alphabet presented in section 1.3 of Chapter 1, we see that the
name ylng refers specifically to 'Phags-pa letter no. 33. (2 of the Chinese list. From
35
this we conclude that the Menggii yunliie must have had the following spelling for 1M:
"iw
What this tells us is that in the language we have chosen to call '''Phags-pa
Chinese" there was internal variation. The two different 'Phags-pa lexica, i.e., the
MGZY and the Menggii yunliie, have selected different variants for the reading of this
syllable. Interestingly, if we look at the early Ming NanyIn pronunciation of
Guanhua, we see that the same type of competition existed there. In the Standard
Readings (i.e., ZhengyIn lEy) of the Korean sinologist Sin Sukchu (1417-
1475), the word 1M is recorded as l]dW (1:), while in Sin's Popular Readings (i.e.,
SuyIn the spelling is dW (1:).4 Thus, in dealing with 'Phags-pa Chinese, we
should not be surprised to encounter indications of a composite sound system of the
type evinced by the later Guanhua koine, where disparate elements appear and are
sometimes in competition with each other.
Though the formation of the 'Phags-pa Chinese sound system may originally
have been a matter of informal consensus, its reduction to writing was in effect a type
of standardization. The compilation of works such as the MGZY and the Menggii
yunliie can be considered formal acts of codification in which standards were being
established by the 'Phags-pa schools and/or the Hanlin Academy. The existence of
such standards always raises the problem of idealized systems versus linguistic
reality. For example, modem standard Chinese, as codified in the zhuyIn fuhao tty
t15JjE syllabary and in the pInyIn romanization, makes a strict distinction between
dental and retroflex sibilants, and there are definitely speakers of the koine who can
and do consistently make this distinction. But, by the same token, there are millions of
speakers who do not. In fact, in some venues, such as Taiwan, there are almost no
speakers who make it in ordinary conversation. It is probably true, however, that
nearly 100% of speakers would consider the distinction in some sense a "valid"
feature of the ideal and established standard system. Even those who never make it
would not assert that it is artificial, archaizing, or in some other way illicit. Similarly,
the early Ming NanyIn pronunciation of Guanhua, as codified in the H6ngwu
zhengyun carefully distinguished a zhuo 1;) or murmured series of initials
from voiceless plain and voiceless aspirated series. Sin Sukchu was able to find
speakers from the Yangtze watershed who made this distinction. In fact, he left a
36
description of its phonetic characteristics. However, it seems virtually certain that at
that time many speakers from various areas of north China did not make the
distinction when speaking the koine. Again, the fit between an established standard
pronunciation system and the spoken realization of that system can be imperfect for
many, and in some cases perhaps even the majority, of speakers. But the speakers
themselves do not recognize this as an inconsistency, and they do not view such
imperfect fits as flaws in need of correction. This principle must be kept in mind when
we interpret the 'Phags-pa script. To wit, we must at the outset try to determine what
phonetic features the framers meant to convey in their particular orthographic forms.
The question of who could or could not meet these standards is a separate problem
and must be addressed only after the standards themselves are fully understood.
3.3 Transliteration and Interpretation of the Alphabet
Since the 'Phags-pa alphabet is derived in great part from the Tibetan script, it is
convenient to use a Tibetan-based romanization to transliterate it. The fundamental
principle of an accurate transliteration is that any reader, having learned the system,
will be able to reconstitute the original script forms from the transliterated ones
without recourse to any other information. We are guided by this principle here, and
our transliteration is wherever possible based on the Wylie system for transliterating
Written Tibetan. Transliterations are given in bold type. Where appropriate, MGZY
tone categories are identified along with the transliteration, using Chinese names
romanized in the pInyIn system. Phonetic interpretations of the 'Phags-pa letters
appear in IP A and are enclosed in square brackets.
3.3.1 The Velars
g [k]
kh [k']
m,:rn k
[9]
2 ng
37
The Tibetan letters k 7f"]' kh fz:J' g z:J'l' and ng ~ are the origin of the 'Phags-
pa fonns in this set. Their phonetic interpretation in Chinese 'Phags-pa is not
controversial. The two fonns for 'Phags-pa k are graphic variants.
A famous enigma in the script is the fact that Tibetan voiced stops and
affricates are used to write Chinese voiceless plain initials, called qlng m "clear"
in the Chinese philological tradition. Conversely, Tibetan voiceless plain letters
correspond to the initial class traditionally called z h u 6 ~ ; "turbid." The reasons for
this oddity have been widely discussed and remain controversial. In our view the
most convincing solution is that suggested by Nakano (1971: 61-63) and Nonnan
(1988: 51).5 Norman comments, "This situation, so startling at first sight, can be
readily understood if only we remember that the 'Phags-pa script was devised for
writing Mongolian and only secondarily applied to Chinese. Middle Mongolian had
only a two-way contrast of stops, one of which was lenis and unaspirated, the other
fortis and aspirated; the first of these series was written with the Tibetan letters
representing b, d, g, while the second was transcribed with the Tibetan aspirates ph,
th, kh." Thus, when it became necessary to render the Chinese zhu6 initials, only
the Tibetan plain consonant letters p, t, and k remained available to the 'Phags-pa
transcribers. It is generally agreed today that the two traditional sound classes, i.e.,
qlng (voiceless plain) and zhu6 (voiced or munnured), were clearly distinguished in
the 'Phags-pa orthography. However, there has been doubt about whether this
distinction actually existed in the real underlying fonn of Chinese represented by the
script. In other words, it is sometimes assumed that the distinction is completely
artificial and derives from earlier dictionaries, rime tables, etc. Two major arguments
have been advanced in favor of this idea. One is that the distinction does not occur
in the Zhongyuan ylnyun. If one believes that this text and the 'Phags-pa orthography
represent one and the same underlying language, then one cannot accept the 'Phags-pa
distinction at face value. But, as we have argued earlier, there is no valid reason to
conflate these two systems. On the contrary, available evidence suggests that they were
not based on the same underlying language. Here we may also mention again the early
Mlng Nanyln fonn of Guanhua pronunciation, as observed and recorded by Sin
Sukchu. In this system, we see that the zhuo series was still preserved in at least one
variety of standard Chinese pronunciation at a time later than the creation of the
'Phags-pa script. There is therefore nothing implausible about finding it in another
fonn of standard pronunciation from two centuries earlier.
A different type of objection to the phonetic reality of a 'Phags-pa zhuo class has
38
been raised by Cheng (1985: 50). He cites an interesting set of examples from the
'Phags-pa inscriptions where, when faced with the practical task of producing Chinese
texts in the 'Phags-pa script, the writers failed to maintain the zhuo distinction
consistently. This, he feels, indicates that the distinction was not a real one when the
script was developed. In our opinion, what Cheng's examples show is that during the
Yuan period there were indeed individuals who did not have the zhuo distinction in
their speech. In effect, they could not spell correctly by ear.
6
However, it does not
prove that the framers of the script had created a nonexistent distinction. To use a
modem parallel, many speakers from central China and Taiwan are unable to maintain
the retroflex/dental sibilant distinction in alphabetically transcribing modem standard
Chinese, but this does not prove that the distinction is a artificial. On the contrary,
choosing a different set of speakers as our transcribers, we would find the distinction
clearly in place. In the end, we have no real reason to doubt the work of the script
framers here. Like Sin Sukchu, they may very well have found speakers among their
informants who could make the q Ing/zhuo distinction. Since this was also the
authorized configuration found in native Chinese sources of the period, it must be
included in the orthography. On the other hand, this does not constitute a blanket
claim that the distinction existed in all spoken vernaculars, or even in the prevalent
lingua francas of particular areas in Yuan times. There was almost certainly
considerable variation in both speech types. In studying pre-modem Chinese
language, we should on the one hand avoid conflating the issues of koine and regional
vernacular pronunciation, and on the other set aside the older sinological view that
koine pronunciation was homogeneous and free of layering and internal variation.
3.3.2 The Labials
2J
b [p]
ph [p']
2.J
p [b]
m [m]
39
These letters are direct borrowings of Tibetan p y, ph Lq, b q, and m O.j.
There is general agreement regarding their interpretation.
3.3.3 The Labiodentals
Hw [f]
hw [f]
Hw [v] ?
w [U-,-w]
The Tibetan alphabet having possessed no labiodental fricatives, the first three
members of this set are specially created digraphs. They have been formed by
combining the letters Hand h with the medial letter w (concerning all of which see
section 3.3.7 below). In various texts and in the MGZY they are often simply written
as juxtapositions of the two constituent elements, rather than as real digraphs. As we
have seen in Chapter 1, section 1.3 above, the Tibetan Ordering of the alphabet has
only one fricative letter here, corresponding to the one we transcribe as Hw. The
Chinese Ordering in the MGZY lists three letters here, which are identified with the
traditional zlmu names fei ~ F , fo ~ , and feng . The first and third of the three are
written in the same way in that list. In actual usage, including that of the MGZY itself,
there is often no clear distinction between the three. However, certain authorities, such
as Hashimoto (1978-79: 93), believe that the outlines of a distinction can be discerned.
One of the consonants in question corresponds to the first two elements above and
would be voiceless. The other would be voiced and correspond to the third. A
distinction of this type did still exist in the Nfulyln Gurumua pronunciation of early
Ming times, as represented in Korean transcription. Perhaps it was also present
among certain Yangtze watershed speakers of 'Phags-pa Chinese two centuries earlier.
We indicate it as a possibility in our interpretation.
The fourth letter, which is an adaptation of the Tibetan letter w ~ , occurs both
initially and finally in 'Phags-pa Chinese syllables. In initial position we interpret it as
40
a voiced labiodental approximant. In final position, we take it as a voiced rounded
labiovelar approximant.
3.3.4 The Dentals
d [t]
th [t']
t [d]
n [n]
These letters are direct borrowings of Tibetan t '?, th gj, d S' and n q. Their
interpretation is uncontroversial.
3.3.5 The Retroflexes and the Palatal Nasal
E
j [ ~ ]
ch [ ~ ' ]
a
c [ d ~
51
sh [ ~ ]
51
zh
[ ~
fi [1). ]
These forms are based on the Tibetan palatals c :;;0, ch 05, j E\' sh '9' and ny ~ .
'Phags-pa zh is a modified form of 'Phags-pa sh rather than a direct borrowing of a
Tibetan letter. The nasal member of this set is universally interpreted as palatal. The
41
oral members are interpreted as palatals by nearly all authorities. Nakano (1971) takes
them as retroflexes. Cheng (1985: 83) classes them as retroflexes but then refers to
them in his subsequent discussion as "alveolar-palatals" (loc. cit.). It is therefore not
clear how he really views them. In the absence of contemporary evidence, it is very
difficult to make an objective choice between these alternatives. The palatal choice,
which is usually not discussed at all by those who make it, seems to be based on the
phonetic values of the Tibetan letters and the presumed values of the Mongolian
'Phags-pa counterparts. But neither of these points proves anything about the 'Phags-
pa Chinese values. The comparable initials in the Nfmyln pronunciation of early
Ming times are described by Sin Sukchu as retroflexes (i.e., juansh6 dian'e : O f f 1 5 ~ 6
JllI!J "one curls up the tongue and touches the palate"); but, again, this proves nothing
about their 'Phags-pa Chinese values. In the end, we have little of a substantive nature
to guide us here. This being the case, our own choice is to follow Nakano and view the
sounds in question as retroflexes.
3.3.6 The Sibilants
:5l
dz [ts]
:;s:j
tsh [ts']
~
ts [dz]
?\J
s [s]
z [z]
The fourth and fifth members of this set are the Tibetan letters s ~ and Z ::::;j,
respectively. The first, second, and third are not Tibetan in origin. Hashimoto (1967:
162) has proposed that they ultimately derive from the Devanagari letters c :or, j
'Jf, and fi o:r, respectively. For a slightly different sorting of the Devanagari
equivalents, cf. Nakano (1971: 54-55). There is general agreement among 'Phags-pa
specialists regarding the phonetic interpretation of this group of letters.
42
3.3.7 The Laryngeals and Semivowels
(31) ~
~
h [x]
(32) fZI
[!!
X [v]
(32a) '? ~ J : . H
(33) r2 ~
,
-
[?]
(33a) IN ~ J : .
y
[?j]
(34) ~
utr
x [fi]
(34a) W ~ J : . y [j]
Within the alphabet as a whole this set of letters has constituted the area of
maximum disagreement among specialists in 'Phags-pa Chinese. Our list follows the
Chinese Ordering of the MGZY. The individual letters are numbered for convenience
of reference. In addition, we have added the MGZY's Thirty-Six Initial designations.
To begin, we note that two of the letters are uncontroversial. Letter (31) is a borrowing
of the Tibetan letter h ~ and is universally held to be a voiceless guttural fricative in
'Phags-pa Chinese. We interpret it as [x]. The 'Phags-pa letter 34a is an adaptation of
the Tibetan letter y V-J and is generally recognized as a high front unrounded glide or
semivowel [j]. It occurs both initially and finally.
Letter (32) is non-Tibetan in origin and thus has no counterpart in the Wylie
system. We transliterate it as capital X. Hope (1953: iii) and Poppe (1957: 22)
suggest that it is a combination of the Mongolian 'Phags-pa letter q r<::J (not used in
Chinesef and the medial semivowel letter w <::l (see section 3.3.10 below).
Hashimoto (1967: 169-171) rejects Poppe's paleographical theory (without
mentioning Hope) and instead suggests that the 'Phags-pa letter derives from
Devanagari gh 'Ef.8 Among those who regard X as a validly distinct entity in the
script, it is almost universally interpreted as a voiced velar fricative [y], i.e., the voiced
or zhuo counterpart of h [xl Cheng is an exception here in that he sees it as a voiced
43
laryngeal fricative [fi]. The value of the comparable initial in the early Nanyln
pronunciation of Guanhua, a system which also preserved a separate zhuo class of
initials, was [v].
There has, however, been a different school of interpretation, represented early
on by Hope (1953). This school rejects the existence of any voiced or zhuo initials in
'Phags-pa Chinese. A prominent later exponent of this view was Clauson (1959: 317),
who felt there could be no real difference between Chinese 'Phags-pa h [x] and X [V]
because "there is ample evidence to show that by the thirteenth century the sounds of
the two tzu mu in question had converged, for example in the indiscriminate use of
words with both initials in the transcription system of the 'Secret History' and the
Hua-i i-yti." Another strong proponent of this view is Pulleyblank (1970: 368-372)
who remarks (368): "The first point that must be made is that from the other evidence
we have it is clear that these Chinese voiced, or 'muddy', initials had lost their voicing
by the Mongol period. This is shown by the CYYY [i.e., Zhongyuan ylnyim], where
the distribution is like that of Modem Mandarin, as well as by the Chinese
transcriptions of foreign words at that period." Inherent in these arguments is the
older sinological view, strongly espoused by Karlgren, that (1) in each particular
period of Chinese history there was a single standard form of pronunciation which all
written records must be seen to represent, and (2) that the standard pronunciation of
one period must be viewed as the direct progenitor of that found in the next period,
forming a unified chain of development from the distant past down to present day
modem standard Chinese. But the fact is that research in recent decades on the history
of traditional Chinese koines suggests that the picture has been far more complex than
this. As regards the present problem, we have seen in Chapter 1, section 1.5.3 above,
that 'Phags-pa Chinese was surely not identical with the forms of north Chinese which
Clauson and Pulleyblank cite as guidelines for their judgments here. In particular, we
may suppose that there were in Qubilai' s entourage persons who could and did
distinguish the sounds written by 'Phags-pa hand X. We know that this distinction
was made by Yangtze watershed speakers of Ming-time Guanhua, and we also know
that two hundred years earlier there were natives of the Yangtze watershed present in
the coterie of Chinese scholars in Qubilai's court. It is consequently reasonable to
suppose that these persons could and did make the distinction in question here when
they spoke their subtype(s) of standard Chinese, and that the 'Phags-pa orthography
has recorded that distinction here. To assert this is by no means to claim that north
Chinese speakers of the Yuan period made such a distinction when they spoke either
their native dialects or their own varieties of the lingua franca. In all probability they
44
did not. But the system as a system almost certainly reflects the pronunciation of
someone who could and did make the distinction. Finally, there is no reason to
assume that 'Phags-pa Chinese is ancestral to the sound system of modem standard
Chinese. No evidence has ever been offered for such a view, and the assumption is
unwarranted in the absence of such evidence.
Letter (32a) is a modified fonn of letter (31) h and/or Tibetan h. We transliterate
it as capital H. In the MGZY alphabet list it is followed by the designation t6ngshang
[qIJ:, which here simply means "ditto," i.e., that the traditional zimu designation for
it is the same as that for the preceding letter. To wit, both letters (32) and (32a) fall
under the traditional zimu known as xia [!. In the 'Phags-pa orthography it is usually
followed either by the medial elements y or y, or, rarely, by the combination -wy-,
while the letter h does not occur in these environments. This has led to the general
assumption that H is a fronted or palatalized allograph of h, or as Clauson (1959:
315) puts it, a "yodicized" variant of h. We have represented it as [Vi] in the chart
above, but the raised j is redundant in transcribing full syllables and can be
suppressed.
Letter (33) has been adapted from the Tibetan letter '- (or 'a) R, often called
'a-chung in Western tibetological works. Disagreement over its phonetic interpretation
in 'Phags-pa Chinese led to the famous exchanges between Hope and others working
in the field. In Karlgren's "Ancient Chinese" system, syllables written with this
'Phags-pa letter were supposed to have a glottal stop initial. Modem Wu dialects still
have such an initial in these cases today. North Chinese dialects, on the other hand,
often have zero initials in these places, and a zero initial is also posited for such
syllables in the Zhongyuan yfnyun system. The argument in 'Phags-pa studies
concerns whether or not the glottal stop initial could have existed in standard
pronunciation in 'Phags-pa times. In a way, the question is similar to that of the zhu6
initials mentioned above. The fact is that in the Zhengyln-type Nanyln pronunciation
of Ming-time Guanhua, Sin Sukchu recorded a glottal stop at exactly the points where
the 'Phags-pa letter '. occurs. If we assume that Yangtze watershed speakers of the
'Phags-pa koine also had this feature in their speech, it should not surprise us that it is
preserved in the orthography. To reiterate what has been said above, this is in no way a
claim that northern speakers of this koine would have had such a feature in their
speech. In fact, it seems likely that they did not. But the 'Phags-pa system, as system,
appears to have been like the Ming-time Nanyln here, in that there were persons who
did have this feature in their speech. Accordingly, we interpret it as [?].
Letter (33a) is a modified fonn of (34a), which, as we have seen, is derived from
45
the Tibetan letter y. For this reason we transliterate 33a as capital Y. It is said to
belong to the same z'imu as letter (33) '_, i.e., to the yrng ~ initial. It could therefore
be characterized as a "y-like" or palatal allograph of '-. We represent it phonetically
as [1'j]. There are places in the orthography where ,- [1'] and Y [1'j] contrast, and in
such environments the element [j] must be included in the phonetic interpretations.
The following pair illustrates this:
306. ~ 'ay ping [1'aj] :$f
307. ~ Yay ping [1'jaj] 1
Letter (34) is a borrowing of the Tibetan letter \3\J ,often called a-chen in the
tibetologicalliterature and left untranscribed in the Wylie system. Since it is
paleographically useful to have a symbol for it, we transliterate it here as x. It has an
interesting distribution in that it appears almost exclusively before finals having high
rounded onsets. The following are examples, where, in anticipation of the discussion
in sections 3.3.9 and 3.3.10 below, our phonetic interpretations of the finals are added:
228.
~
xue [?-ue] ping fe;
280.
~
xyu [?-y] ping
~
793. ~ xwa [?-wa] shang
Ii
Here we see that x occurs before [u], [y], and [w]. An exception to this is the
following example:
S37. lS-1 xa ping IWJ
But this syllable does not occur in the surviving text of the MGZY. It is, on the
contrary, restored on the basis of three examples found in sutras. Whether or not it
46
ever really appeared in the MGZY text is questionable. The canonical MGZY reading
for the word in question is found in the following entry:
743. IX '0 ping IWJ
Thus, the position of IWJ as an exception to the general occurrence pattern for x
is problematic. To account for this more general pattern, Nakano (1971: 79-80)
interprets x as a high front rounded semivowel [q], which she customarily writes as y.
However, this solution has the disadvantage that in syllables like that in example 793
above it posits two adjacent rounded semi vowels , i.e., a [y] and a [w] (the latter written
i:i by Nakano), at the head of a single syllable. It has in fact never been accepted by
other scholars.
Many authorities interpret the underlying entity represented by x as initial zero.
Hope designates it as "muddy pitch null" (1953: i),9 while Denlinger (1963: 424)
characterizes it as the "zero initial in a lower register." Hashimoto (1978-79: 100)
states that it "can be interpreted simply as a character showing the absence of initial
consonant." The problem with this solution is that it fails to account for examples of
the following type, which we have in fact already seen in section 3.1:
437. ~ on qu m
763. A 0 qu ~
284. ~ u shang Ii.
Neither Hope nor Denlinger seems to have been aware of these examples.
Hashimoto (1978: 75-160) includes them as syllable types in his tables but
transcribes them with initial 0-, which is the same form he uses to render the letter x.
Thus, a reader who did not have the original forms before him would have no way of
detecting the presence or absence of x and would simply assume from Hashimoto's
data that the written forms were *xu, *xo, and *xon, respectively. In the end, these
examples vitiate the argument that x is simply a symbol for initial null in syllables
which lack any other initial. From a graphic standpoint it is interesting that many
syllables having initial x could not in fact be written without it. For example, IWJ xa, if
47
we remove the letter x-, disappears completely from the page, while xyu ~ and xwa
]i could not be written without x-, because -y- and -w- in these cases are medial
elements and cannot stand on paper without an initial letter above them to serve as
anchor. On the other hand, examples 284, 437, and 763 again indicate that,
mechanically at least, a syllable beginning with a vowel can be written without an
anchoring initial. Thus, for example, the word ~ xue could theoretically be written
alone as *ue, if for some reason one chose to construct it that way. This is not a
graphic impossibility. One cannot, then, remove x from consideration as a mere
artifact of the graphic system.
Cheng (1985: 80) has approached the problem from an entirely different angle.
The Gujln yunhu1 jUyilO, which contains no 'Phags-pa writing as such, uses a system
of formulas, made up of Chinese characters, to denote the letters of the 'Phags-pa
alphabet. The formula for letter x is as follows:
Now, as Cheng points out, the elementjiao ftEJ here denotes the yayYn ?f1:f or
velar class of consonants. And c'izhuo c iyln *111 *1:f means "voiced fricative". 1 0
Thus, the letter is classed as a voiced velar fricative, and Cheng accordingly interprets
it as [V].
What can be done with the information we have gathered here? The formula
Cheng has cited from the GujTn yunhul juyao is intriguing and does seem to indicate
the existence of some sort of underlying fricative-like guttural, at the phonetic level at
least. We can represent this as [fi]. Since our task in the present study has been to
arrive at a phonetic interpretation rather than a strictly phonemic one, we can consider
the job done at this point and interpret x as [fi]. But it is worthwhile to go a step
further and consider briefly the phonemic problem raised by the work of others who
have addressed the problem of x. Can we combine initial [fi] and [0] as a single
phoneme here? We can begin by assuming, as the data themselves suggest, that [fi]
occurs exclusively before high rounded elements. This will account for its absence
from the syllables represented by the written forms 0 and on in examples 437 and
763, respectively, which really do begin with phonetic [0]. Example 284 is a problem,
for here we have an absence of [fi] before the vowel [u], which stands alone after [0].
Since there is no contrasting *xu [fiu] in the system, we could simply list the syllable
type [u] as "special" for some unknown reason, and leave it at that. It is a solution,
though not a particularly satisfying one. Some scholars would take a further step and
48
combine this "lower register zero" with "upper register" initial '. [7] to form a sort
of "grand phoneme 10/." In order to do this, one should have a clear picture of the
tonal system underlying the 'Phags-pa Chinese sound system as a whole. The script
sheds no direct light on this, for tones are not indicated there. The MGZY arranges its
data according to the four classical tones. The fact that the language distinguishes a
zhuo series of initials suggests that there may have been phonetically distinct upper
and lower register types for at least some of the tones. On this basis one might
speculate that [7] (in upper register) and [fi] plus [0] (in lower register) formed a
common phoneme 101 in the language. All depends on how much guessing one is
willing to do about the tone system.
3.3.8 The Liquids
I [1]
Zh [r]
The first letter of this pair is adapted from Tibetan l RI. Its interpretation as
Chinese [1] is uncontroversial.
The second letter is a borrowing of Tibetan zh C9.' We transliterate it as Zh and
interpret it as a voiced retroflex continuant, to be represented phonetically as [r]. Note
that this sound contrasts with the voiced retroflex fricative 51 zh [ ~ in the system.
3.3.9 The Vowels
i [i]
"A"
49
u [u]
e [e]
o
In absolute initial position, the vowel signs begin with a horizontal stroke or bar.
Elsewhere in the syllable this bar is omitted.
As we have seen in section 3.1 above, the vowel a [a] is not separately indicated
by the script. Instead, it is inherent in syllables which are not marked in some way for
other vowels. Because it is embedded in the system rather than specified by the script,
some 'Phags-pa specialists enclose it in parentheses when transliterating it. This
convention has not been adopted here.
The letter <N i is a borrowing of Tibetan i C""'--..... It is generally interpreted as
having the cardinal value oflPA [i].
The element ~ hi is a digraphic combination, in which the letter h serves as a
superscribed diacritic on the following vowel i. Our transliteration is intended to
reflect this superscription. After sibilants and retroflexes hi is generally believed to
have represented an apical vowel. Our assumption here is that, as in the case of
modem northern dialects, there were probably plain and retroflex realizations of this
vowel, i.e., b] and [1], respectively, after the two different initial types. In other
environments it can be interpreted as [g], as has often been suggested in the
literature. I I
The letter 0' h can also serve as a diacritic on the vowel a. In this case, h
appears after the initial consonant of the syllable, with no following vowel symbol.
We transliterate this configuration as ha, as in the following example:
151. ! tang ping #
Syllables of this type contrast in the system with others, such as the following:
105. ~ jang [ ~ a l J ] ping 5:&
The phonetic value of ha has been the subject of some discussion. At the outset
50
we may observe that the orthography itself suggests for ha a single underlying vowel,
which was "a-like" but in some way different from [a]. Zhang (1983) in fact believes
that in syllables such as zhuang itt, ha represented "[a] par excellence," and that the
diacritic element had the effect of suppressing all medials. Thus, one would have
underlying forms of the following type here:
These forms are quite similar to those actually attested in Sin Sukchu's
Zhengyln forms for early Guanhua, i.e.,
The problem is, however, that the 'Phags-pa orthography clearly does not reflect
a system of this type. On this point, 'Phags-pa Chinese and Sin's Guanhua were
different.
Ligeti (1956: 29) takes a very different tack. He suggests that ha is really an
abbreviation of hi + a. Thus, a syllable like zhuang itt should be read as (t ang =)
tiang, where hi is to be interpreted as the apical vowel, written by him as [1]. This
theory is tacitly adopted by Hashimoto (1978-79: 109-110), clearly on the grounds
that Hashimoto felt a 'Phags-pa -lal) (in his transcription) would better yield a -iial) in
certain later forms of Chinese, such as that recorded by Nicolas Trigault in the Xlru
(1626), as well as modem standard Chinese. Hashimoto is
followed here by Cheng (1985: 74). This interpretation is problematic on two
grounds. First of all, there seems to be no basis for Ligeti's speculation. It is merely a
conjecture for which there are no parallels elsewhere in the script. Second, as outlined
in section 3.2, we have no grounds for assuming that 'Phags-pa Chinese was directly
ancestral to modem standard Chinese or related varieties of north Chinese. On the
contrary, if anything, it is structurally more similar to the type of Guanhua
pronunciation reflected in Sin Sukchu's Zhengyln system at this particular point. We
would do better to envisage a single vowel opposite ha here.
This has in fact been the approach of Nakano (1971) and Shen (2001). If we
assume that 'Phags-pa a had the cardinal value of this vowel, then it stands to reason
that ha represented something else. Nakano and Shen both posit varieties of [a] here.
Nakano (1971: 74), comparing modem standard Chinese and certain Wu dialects,
chooses [0], an open back rounded vowel. Shen posits [0], an open back unrounded
51
vowel, on the basis of structural and acoustic arguments for a unified acoustic
behavior of h as a diacritic. It is worth noting that these two investigators agree in
proposing back vowels here. Neither has suggested a front variety of a. As to the
question of rounding, we may say that nothing in the script itself suggests this feature,
which would seem to tilt the scale in favor of Shen's interpretation. But we are dealing
here with very fine phonetic detail, and such matters are inevitably conjectural in cases
of this sort. Other possibilities exist, for example [u], a not quite fully open central
unrounded vowel. Given the uncertainties here, our choice is to demur and represent
the vowel in question abstractly, as "A," which is to be understood as some a-like
vowel other than the cardinal vowel [a].
The letter:::, u is derived from Tibetan u '-..::>. Its interpretation as [u] is
uncontroversial.
The letter ~ e is believed to be derived from Tibetan e .......... Shen (2000: 96)
suggests that it is an inversion of the Tibetan letter. It is generally interpreted as a mid
front vowel of some sort most often transcribed e, e, or e in the literature. We shall
interpret it as [e]. The graphic form of the letter tends to vary in the texts, with one
variant being -d. This form is unfortunately quite similar to one of the usual writings
of medial w (see section 3.3.10). The two are consequently often confused,
particularly in the MGZY, which makes no real distinction. In many cases distribution
can be used to distinguish them. In others, comparison with text examples in
inscriptional and other sources allows us to disentangle them. As a result, the forms
in the MGZY can be normalized to indicate the distinction. In our Glossary and
examples we use the variant A for this vowel. By contrast, medial w will be
conventionally written -=:::::t to provide maximal differentiation between the two.
The letter X 0 is derived by inversion of Tibetan 0 -v--'. X is the form used
in absolute final position. Elsewhere a vertical bar is added in the center to link the
vowel with a following element, thus: ,/f\:. The letter is thought to represent a mid back
rounded vowel. We interpret it as [J].
3.3.10 The Medial Semivowels
Ll, <],...q w [-w-]
y [-j-]
52
r::::
[-j- + vowel fronting]
The first letter of this group is derived from the Tibetan medial letter w .d. It is
written in several slightly different ways. In our glossary we conventionally represent
it as ~ in order to differentiate it from the letter e A, concerning which see
section 3.3.9 above. We interpret it as the rounded labiovelar approximant [w]. In
keeping with the convention of the Wylie system, we transliterate medial w with the
same Latin letter used for initial and final w ~ , concerning which see section 3.3.3
above. No confusion is possible between the two, since ~ does not occur medially.
The medial y, written t:=: or ~ , is a borrowing of the Tibetan medial y =! .
The second form is an attempted replication of the Tibetan letter. The first is a restyled
adapation which employs the typical angular or quadratic ductus of the 'Phags-pa
script. We have adopted the first form in the present work. In keeping with the usage
of the Wylie system, we romanize it with the same Latin letter used for the initial and
final semivowel y W ,concerning which see section 3.3.7 above. There is no
confusion between the two, since the medial occurs only syllable internally, while
W does not appear in this position. In the MGZY, medial y is never clearly written as
t:=: . Instead, it is consistently miswritten as r:::: . These anomalies can be normalized
by comparing the correct writings of the affected syllables in other 'Phags-pa sources.
Medial y is also sometimes written as ~ in the MGZY. This form is in tum
sometimes corrupted into w or e, in their realizations as -<l - -<:J and ~ ,
respectively. These errors too can be corrected by comparison with other materials.
Medial y has a rather peculiar distribution in the system. In the received version of the
MGZY it occurs exclusively before the vowel a. In examples from other 'Phags-pa
sources it also appears before i in syllables from one homophone type (see entry 97
of the Glossary) and before u in five homophone sets (see entries 231-235 of the
Glossary). In any case, it appears to have a close association of some kind with the
vowel a.
The letter r:::: is one of the most problematic elements in the 'Phags-pa alphabet
and has been the subject of considerable disagreement. The discussion has in general
involved three different but intimately related questions, i.e., (1) the paleographic
origins of the letter, (2) its position in the traditional Tibetan and Chinese lists of the
alphabet, and (3) the manner in which it functions in the orthography.
There have been two theories regarding the graphic origin of r:::: . The older of
these seems to have originated with Pelliot. In oral remarks at a 1927 meeting of the
53
Societe Asiatique, he said,
Le 'phags-pa a ete tire de l'ecriture tibetaine adaptee a la phonetique particuliere du
mongol. Cette adaptation elle-meme n'a rien d'original; elle s'est inspiree d'une
notation ancienne du ouigour, consistant a rendre les voyelles palatalisees au
moyen de l'adjonction d'un i: par exemple, it est ecrit ui, etc. En 'phags-pa, cet
element i, sous la forme y, est prefixe a la voyelle: ainsi 0, it s'ecrivent yo, yu; a
apres consonne, ya (a initial e). Le meme procede est employe dans les textes
ouigour en brahmI d'Asie centrale: ainsi kyork = kork; kenendya = kininda; a
initial est rendu par e, comme en 'phags-pa. (Pelliot 1927: 372)
The prefixed y mentioned here by Pelliot is in fact the 'Phags-pa letter c:::: . It is
therefore clear that he thought of this letter as some form of Tibetan y and/or 'Phags-
pa y t= - ~ . Hope (1953: 38) explicitly states that 'Phags-pa c:::: is derived
from Tibetan medial y. Denlinger (1963: 411) and Pulleyblank (1970: 359) are of the
same opinion. Nakano (1971: 57) notes the striking similarity between c:::: and
'Phags-pa y t= without commenting on the question of paleographic derivation.
Hashimoto (1978: 69; 1978-79: 116) has a very different view. He believes that
c:::: is derived from the vowel sign ~ , w h i c h is the Devanagari writing for the
diphthong ai and is also used in Tibetan to transcribe Sanskrit ai. To the best of our
knowledge this idea has never been endorsed by anyone else. On purely structural
grounds, at least, a link between c:::: and t= seems much more promising than an
association of c:::: with ~ . In addition to this, we must note that 'Phags-pa c:::: is
not used to represent ai when Sanskrit is written in the 'Phags-pa script. Instead, this
Sanskrit diphthong is rendered by the 'Phags-pa combination Ie. For example,
Sanskrit 'Phags-pa dIe = Sanskrit dai, etc.
1 2
In the end, then, the paleographic theory
of Pelliot and others is the more convincing one.
The question of c:::: 's position in the alphabet lists arises from the expectation
that the ordering there will throw light on its function as a semivowel or a full vowel.
In his discussion of c:::: ,Pulleyblank remarks regarding the letter (1970: 359),
In form it is clearly based on the subscript -y- and this association is confirmed by
its position in both extant lists of the alphabet. In what is no doubt the original
arrangement, following the usual Tibetan order, it occurs at the very end, after the
normal subscript -y- and -w-. In the prefatory material to the MKTY [i.e., MGZY],
where the alphabet is arranged to fit the standard Chinese list of 36 initials, it also
occurs at the end, after the vowel signs and along with the other subscript
semi vowels.
More recently, Shen (2000: 96-97) has discussed the alphabetical ordering
54
question. However, whereas Pulleyblank mentioned both the Tibetan and Chinese
Orderings, Shen limits his remarks to the Tibetan one. He says,
The seven hP'ags-pa letters are listed below according to their original order as
seen in the Fa Shu Kao by Sheng Xi-ming of the Yuan dynasty
and the Shu Hui Ju Yao by Tao Zong-yi 1l*J*1i dated 1376. The
corresponding Tibetan letters and their phonetic values are listed below also.
[Here follows the promised table. We reduce it to its 'Phags-pa component, which
suffices to establish the ordering to which Shen refers. In the third line, we add for
reference our own paleographic transliterations in square brackets.]
hP'ags-pa letters ( )

c:=; < .-:::::l
Phonetic values a U (e1) 0 (e2) j w
[ a i u e o ? y w
[Here follows a lengthy discussion of letters and their values. Shen then
continues:]
... The puzzle is the letter listed between the vowel letters and the medial letters
[the letter identified as e2 by Shen]. This letter does not have its corresponding
prototype in the Tibetan alphabet and is listed after [sic] two medial letters. From
its order it is difficult to tell whether it represents a vowel, a medial, or something
else.
Pulleyblank and Shen agree in considering the Tibetan Ordering primary and of
decisive value in assessing the nature of c:=; . But their characterizations of this
ordering are strikingly different. Pulleyblank says that c:=; occurs at the end of the
list, after the medials. Shen's chart places c:=; after the vowels and before the medials.
His initial comments on his chart seem to accord with this tabulation. There then
follows a remark that c:=; is listed after the medials. Perhaps the word "after" here is
a mistake for "before." In any case, Pulleyblank's remarks and Shen's chart convey
entirely different pictures of the Tibetan Ordering. If that ordering is as important as
they think it is, then we have no choice but to reexamine the original Tibetan list here
and clarify matters. The list has already been given in section 1.3 of Chapter 1 above.
Let us now look at it again:
1.::m 2. res 3. 3] Pft; 4. 2 m; 5. a 6. CEi ]fI; 7. E
8. fi=l 15G; 9. '['B; 10. EI t}i; 11.:z:: 12. o::J 13. 2J !lit;
14. El 15. 2J *; 16. '0.1 m; 17. -\5l 18. 1* (> 19. :5l
;g; 20. *'; 21. ;fi; 22. ::::3 iII; 23. r2 ifnJ; 24. W 1$; 25. ;::c;
55
Ill; 26. ['2.J 27. 51 28. <'I 1Y; 29. 30. lS-1 0.2; 31.
1ft; 32. 'ZOl 33. !!; 34. ::?'\: l; 35. r:q 36. f:l ;
37. 1:ft; 38. r:>I 39. c:: -tQ; 40. <l 1%; 41. t= Iff)
In this ordering the vowels are found to be as follows: 31 i, 32 U, 33 e, and 34 o.
Numbers 35 through 38 are consonants, two of which (i.e., 35 and 38) are not used in
Chinese 'Phags-pa. Numbers 39 through 41 are medials. The internal ordering of
these medials requires a digression here. Clauson (1959: 321-322) and Nakano
(1971: 39) read the list as it is given above. To wit,
39. c:: -tQ; 40. <:I 1%; 41. t= Iff)
? -w- -y-
Their reading is in agreement with the canonical Tibetan alphabetic order, where
w should precede y and, by association, medial -w- should precede medial -y-.
Pulleyblank, on the contrary, reverses this order, as follows:
39. t= -tQ; 40. <l 1%; 41. c:: Iff)
-y- -w- ?
In fact, the actual written forms for t= and c:: in the published facsimiles of
the Fashakao and the Shashf huiyilO are aberrant and somewhat difficult to assess.
IS
We are frankly not entirely certain which reading is correct here. But what is clear is
that c:: is definitely classed with the medials in the Tibetan Ordering. It is nowhere
near the vowels in that list and is separated from them by four consonants. Shen's
table and discussion are clearly wrong here, and his table also errs in placing w at the
absolute end of the list rather than between the other two medial letters.
In this connection, we should also reexamine the Chinese Ordering of the
MGZY:
1. C5l J!; 2. [Cj 3. =m M; 4. 2 5. :z:: ftffij; 6. a 7. fl2
IE; 8. o:J 1m; 9. E 10. C6 11. a 12. rr=! PIt 13. 2J .;
14. El W; 15. 2J :tIft; 16. 01 1Yj; 17. 18. IQ:; 19. *;
20. fW:; 21. :5] ;m; 22. m; 23. -\51 {j; 24. <'I Jl,'; 25. ::3
26. E 27. C6 28. a J5T(; 29. 51 30. 51 mI; 31.
56
32. [!!; 32a. [I"IlJ:.; 33. r2 33a. W [I"IlJ:.; 34. II !!@I; 34a.
W 35. [2J *; 36. B
37. "0:1; 38. 40. 7'\:; 41-42. 43. t= !!@Ie)
In this list the vowels and medials form a separate subset at the end. The vowels
(i.e., 37-40) come first, followed by c:::, t=, with c::: and -<::::J joined
together by an apparent scribal infelicity. This ordering is identical to that in Shen's
chart, except for the misplacement of -<::::J there. What has apparently happened is that
he has mistaken the Chinese Ordering for the Tibetan one in his discussion.
What may we conclude from all this? Both Pulleyblank and Shen accord
primacy to the Tibetan Ordering in the discussion, and the placement of c::: in that
ordering vis-a-vis the vowels and medials is unambiguous. c::: goes with the medials,
not the vowels. In the Chinese Ordering, on the other hand, the placement is indeed
ambiguous in that c::: falls between the vowels and medials. All else being equal, and
if we had only the Chinese Ordering to go on, the formal status of c::: in the alphabet
would be moot. But all else is definitely not equal. The Tibetan Ordering confirms
beyond doubt that even in the Chinese Ordering c::: should be read with the medials
that follow it, not with the vowels that precede it. Pulleyblank is unquestionably right
here.
In this connection it is interesting to take some note of the Chinese
transcriptional characters which have been juxtaposed to initials 39 and 41 of the
Tibetan Ordering. As mentioned in section 1.3 of Chapter 1, all of the equivalents in
this list are taken from the medieval transcriptional character sets found in Buddhist
sutras of earlier times. Nakano (1971: 39-40) believes that the set used here is that of
Weijing 'Iiti*, as given in the Jfngyou Tianzhu zlyufm In
Weijing's set, Sanskrit y is transcribed by the character ye Jm, a usage which
Weijing had carried over from earlier sets. But there were also other characters used
for this purpose in various early transcriptional texts. For example, tj, ili, and
are also utilized in one set or another to transcribe Indic y. 16 Now, what is of interest to
us is that the compiler of our Tibetan Ordering has selected ye ili , another of these
traditional y equivalents, to stand opposite initial 39 c::: . Regardless of how he
pronounced this character himself in Chinese, his choice of it here suggests that he
viewed number 39 as in some sense belonging with the Indic y class, in the same way
that 41 t= Jm did. He has also added here the note qInghii "pronounce
lightly" after Jm. This sort of gloss is common in the early Buddhist transcriptional
57
lists, and we have no way of knowing for certain whether our compiler framed it
himself or took it from elsewhere. In any case, it is clear that he viewed both 39 and 41
as y-like entities. c: was not a vowel from his standpoint.
With these points established, we can now transliterate c: . Paleographically it
appears to be derived from y by a slight graphic modification, and systematically it is
classed with y and w in the traditional alphabetical order as a medial semivowel.
Consequently, we shall represent it as y, where the purpose of the umlaut is to suggest
a graphic modification of y.
Finally, there remains for us the task of determining how y operates in the
orthography. We have already seen Pelliot's remarks on the function of this letter in
Mongolian 'Phags-pa. The matter has also been discussed by Poppe (1957: 25-26),
among others. Briefly, when the letter y is placed before another vowel in Mongolian
'Phags-pa, the result is fronting of the said vowel and concurrent disappearance of y
itself. Thus, we have yu > ii, and yo > o. By the same token, ya will yield ii (or e).
Thus, in Mongolian 'Phags-pa it is, as Shen (2000) points out, something like an
umlaut. Now, since what we transliterate as ya will actually appear in the script as c:
followed by nothing at all, there has been a tendency to think of y as if it were in fact
simply an ii or e. This fact has led to a convention in Mongolian 'Phags-pa studies
whereby the letter y c: itself is simply transliterated as ii or e. But if one chooses to
write e for c: , then one must of course pick some other symbol for the 'Phags-pa
vowel e ~ . Poppe, for example, transliterates c: as e and n as e. Thus, for yu,
yo, and ya he writes, eu, eo, and e, respectively. Others reverse this, writing e for c:
and e for ~ , e t c . , e.g., JUnast and Yfmg (1987). Another group of scholars uses
entirely different letters to render the two 'Phags-pa graphemes. For example, some
use e for nand e for c: , etc. What is of interest to us here is that the practice of
rendering y with a vowel symbol has been transferred from mongolistics into the field
of Chinese 'Phags-pa studies and has in fact become quite common there. We have
not adopted this convention in the present study, for the reasons outlined above. But
one must expect to find e, e, or e in place of our y when utilizing other sources on
'Phags-pa Chinese. For a useful comparative table of the varying usage, involved here
as of ca. 1970, see Nakano (1971: 45-46).
Among earlier students of Chinese 'Phags-pa, many of whom were in fact
mongolists, it was assumed that the Chinese system should be interpreted in the same
way as the Mongol one. An alternative opinion is that the conventions of the two
systems were not necessarily the same. This is the view adopted in the present work,
as outlined in Chapter 1, section 1.1 above. For a more discursive statement of it, see
58
Denlinger (1963: 410-413). An instructive case is the following pair of examples:
43. ~ ging [kil)] ping
*
92.
;
gying [k?il)] ping
*3
These cases tell us several things:
(1) Since y cannot occur before i in Mongolian 'Phags-pa, we can state
categorically that the orthographic conventions of Mongolian 'Phags-pa and Chinese
'Phags-pa regarding y are not the same in all cases.
(2) Since i is a front vowel, it cannot be further fronted. Consequently, y cannot
be categorically described as having a fronting or "umlauting" effect on vowels in
Chinese 'Phags-pa. A better graphological characterization might be that Chinese
'Phags-pa y is the y-type medial which can stand before any vowel, as opposed to y
proper, which occurs only or mainly before a. In any case, Y's function here is
unquestionably different from anything seen in Mongolian 'Phags-pa.
(3) Since y is the distinguishing factor between the two syllable types in the
above example, it cannot be viewed as having disappeared from the syllable jlng *3.
Instead it must have been retained there in some way. This too differs from y' s
umlaut-like behavior in Mongolian 'Phags-pa.
As regards the way in which y is realized phonetically in i-vowel syllables like
jlng *3, there is a fairly broad consensus today that it represented a high front medial
semivowel there. For example, Hashimoto (1978: 47), Pulleyblank (1970: 362),
Cheng (1985: 169), and Shen (in press) all interpret this gying as [kjiI]]/7 a view with
which we concur (Cob lin 1999). Thus, we can interpret the combination yi as phonetic
Ui] in 'Phags-pa Chinese.
Let us now move to the combination ya. Pulleyblank (1970) and Cheng (1985)
both believe that y represented a high front medial element here as well. Hashimoto
(1978-79: 102-105), though he transliterates our ya as e, nonetheless interprets it as
[Ie], thus agreeing with Pulleyblank and Cheng. I
8
Shen (2000: 110) writes our ya as
e but expresses uncertainty about whether or not a medial was present. This is, he
says, "still a question to be answered." In fact, the question here is whether or not ya
59
should be interpreted as medial [j] plus vowel, or as the vowel alone. The latter is the
older interpretation of the mongo list students of Chinese 'Phags-pa. The former is a
more recent view espoused mainly by sinologists. Ideally, we should find a way to
disprove one view or the other, but the paucity of evidence makes this difficult. As
matters stand, we have already seen in the preceding discussion that y can stand for [j]
when it occurs in combination with the vowel i. There is then no general principle in
Chinese 'Phags-pa for dropping it. As mentioned earlier, the idea that Chinese 'Phags-
pa must necessarily be read according to the rules of Mongolian 'Phags-pa is patently
untenable. In the light of these points, we should require compelling evidence before
deciding to drop medial [j] in the present case. Absent such evidence, it is more
consistent to interpret ya in parallel with yi and read it as [je]. This is our solution
here.
The combination ye is a positional variant of ya which occurs exclusively after
the letters X, h, and H in entry lines 519, 702, and 703 of the MGZY. It can be
interpreted as [je].
Let us now consider the combination yo. This configuration is of very limited
occurrence in Chinese 'Phags-pa, appearing exclusively in the final-yon, which is
itself quite rare in the system.
1 9
Shen (in press) interprets it as [q'm], which is its
Mongolian reading. Hashimoto (1978-79: 104) takes it as [Ion], and Cheng (1985:
175) similarly reads [jon]. Another possibility along these lines would presumably be
[jq,n]. Pulleyblank (1970: 365) reads yo as medial [y] followed by an unrounded
vowel, i.e., either [e] or [ ~ ] , but he does not explain how he arrives at this reading.
Taking the same line we did earlier, it seems most consistent to assume the presence
of an underlying medial here. However, on the basis of the 'Phags-pa data alone it is
difficult to decide between unrounded (i.e., [j]) and rounded (i.e., [y]) as the actual
realization. Since we have assumed in the two preceding cases that [j] was the sound
in question, it would perhaps be more consistent to retain [j] here. But the fact is that
in those earlier cases the main vowels of the finals were themselves unrounded, while
here the vowel is, as written at least, a rounded one. Thus, though Pulleyblank has not
elaborated on his reasons for proposing medial [y] in this case, we cannot simply
discard this interpretation without further ado. It remains a possibility. The matter
being moot, it seems worth noting that in the Guanhua koine varieties of the Ming and
QIng periods syllables of the sort written with 'Phags-pa -yon are usually found to
have final [yen] or [yen]. Compare, for example, the following cases, where standard
Guanhua forms are cited from Sin Sukchu and the Spanish missionary, Francisco
Varo (1627-1687):
60
Sin Sukchu Varo
516.

gyon shang ffl kyen (j::) kiuen [kyen]
517.

khyon qu IJJ k'yen (::Ji;) k'iuen [k'yen]
However, in another type of "missionary Guarrhua," recorded in the
Portuguese-Chinese Dictionary attributed to Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and/or
Michele Ruggieri (1543-1607),20 these syllables are represented as follows:
ffl chiuon [ky:)n]
In these cases, we have a final which has medial [y] followed by [:)n]. This does
not prove that the 'Phags-pa final-yon had this same shape, but it does give us as a
possible model an alphabetically attested parallel from a pre-modem variety of
standard Chinese pronunciation. Faute de mieux, it can serve us as a working
possibility for further study; and it is in this spirit that we adopt it here. Perhaps we
should assume that the actual form was [ym], but for the nonce we shall eschew this
nicety and retain [y:)n] as our interpretation.
The element yu is the last y combination with which we must deal. The
Mongolian reading of it would be [y]. A reading which retained the medial semivowel
would be Uy]. As Pulleyblank remarks (1970: 365), either interpretation would be
theoretically possible. Hashimoto (1978-79: 103) and Pulleyblank (loc. cit.) write [til,
and Shen (in press) joins them with [y]. Cheng (1985: 174) has Uu]. Early Guarrhua
alphabetic sources, together with the pronunciation of the corresponding final in
modem Mandarin dialects, all point to [y]. We consequently join Hashimoto,
Pulleyblank, and Shen in choosing this value here. A special case is the final -yung.
The Mongolian reading of this would be [yI)]. An alternative which included the
medial would be UyI)]. Hashimoto (1978-79: 102) writes Cheng (1985: 173)
has UUI)]. Pulleyblank gives the final in transliteration only, without a phonetic
interpretation. It is in fact rather difficult to determine the exact phonetic nature of the
underlying form here. By way of comparison, the corresponding final in modem
standard Chinese, spelled -iong in pInyIn, is interpreted in a number of different ways
by modem observers. For example, in a reading which is strikingly reminiscent of the
Mongolian 'Phags-pa one mentioned above, Jiangsu sheng he Shanghai shi (1960:
61
573-575) writes the modem final as [yI]]. The common or "traditional" rendering of
it is [jUI]]. Chao (1968: 24) writes it as [icuI]]. Norman (1988: 141, 143) transcribes it
as [yCUN] and remarks that the medial element is actually rounded. Li (1999: 44) has
the same view and writes [YuI]], etc. In fact, there is considerable variation in the
pronunciation of this final among speakers of modem standard Chinese. For example,
while rounded medial readings such as those mentioned by Norman and Li are indeed
heard among Pekingese and other northern speakers, in Taiwan Mandarin today one
definitely hears [jUI]] and [jOI]] as well. In a broader range of Mandarin dialects [jUI]],
[yUI]], [yOI]], etc., all OCCUr.
21
All else being equal, an argument in favor of selecting a
high rounded onset is the fact that this final takes the initial letter x, which, as we have
seen in section 3.3.7, occurs almost exclusively before phonetic [u], [y], and [w]. For
this reason, our solution here is to interpret -yung as [yUI]].
3.4 Some Residual Orthographic Issues
3.4.1 Matters involving y, etc. Where initial y- and medial-y- co-occur, it is assumed
that they correspond to a single glide [j] in the underlying syllable. For example,
782. ~ yya [je] riI m
Likewise, where Y [?j] is followed by y, a single high front medial after [?] is
assumed:
578. ~ Yyaw [?jew] ping !.lI
When Y is not followed by y, it nonetheless implies the existence of [j] in the
syllable, and this must be indicated in the phonetic transcription. Compare the
following pairs of examples:
306. ~ fay [raj] ping ::a
307. ~ Yay [?jaj] ping 11
62
355. ~ lin [tin] ping ~ ) t :
356.
~
Yin [?jin] ping IZ
The presence of y will of course often affect the reading of the main vowel of the
syllable, as illustrated in the following pairs:
781.
~
Yya [?je]
r U ~
S21. LN Ya [?ja] ru j:flJ
670.
~
Yam [?jam]
h
V
JIz:
S ang ",,8
697.
~
Yyam [?jem] shang 11
The medial combination wy is now widely thought to represent an underlying
medial semivocalic [y] (Hashimoto 1978-79, Cheng 1985, Shen in press). We concur
with this view (Coblin 1999). Examples are:
499.
~
kwyan [gyen] ping
fi
804.
~
swya [sye]
r U ~
3.4.2 Functional Overlap of I. and Y. As we have seen in section 3.3.7 above, Y [?j]
was a palatal allograph in the 'Phags-pa script whose purpose was to stand for the
glottal stop before high front medials (i.e., UJ and [y] in medial position) or, in some
instances, to specifically stand for the glottal stop plus UJ. The non-palatal counterpart
whose function was to represent the glottal stop in other environments was I. [?]. The
normal distribution of these two graphs in the orthography is therefore
complementary. However, there are several exceptions to this. Four are the first
members of the following pairs:22
63
37. !
'yung [?yu1]] ping , fi ' II ' , , ' jf , ' shang 30/1 '
'm''''jJ:
, qu '5'1E ' {Bit' r7'fE
39. Yyung [?YU1]] ping
495. 'yan [?jen]
qu II
496. Yyan [?jen]

p ing , 1! ' f$.f; , , shang 1m ' e ' , , '
ping , , , ' qu * ' ,
511. ii 'wYan [?yen 1 ping.\i; liI: !if: liIIi 'ffi ;W shllng liIIi !iIii Jlj
, IHJg , 31t! ' n ' qu
513.

Y wyan [?yen] ping rJ#! ' 1m ' , tll ,
780.

'ya [?je]
'm iji\ JJt[ '<=I ru "" , , {EI
781.

Yya [?je] rU
In each pair, the 'Phags-pa heading of the second entry line (i.e., lines 39, 496,
513, and 781) is canonically spelled, while the fonn in the first entry line (i.e., 37, 495,
511, and 780) violates the orthographic canon by placing '. before y or wy. The
pronunciations of the syllables in each pair were, so far as we can determine,
homophonous,z3 Why, then, has the compiler of the text gone out of his way to
separate the paired lines in these sets? The answer to this is that the separate lines
belong to different homophone groups in the traditional rime books of the Song
period. For example, in the Xfnkan yunliie, the character sets found in pairs 495/496
and 511/513 are quite far apart from each other,24 while those in pairs 37/39 and
64
7801781 occur under entirely different rimes.
25
Readers of the MGZY would have
expected to find them separated, and the compilers took this into account. However, it
is an implicit principle in the text that the 'Phags-pa headings of different lines in the
same rime cannot be spelled the same way. In order to maintain that pattern here, it
was apparently necessary to depart slightly from the spelling canons of the script and
place '- before y or wy in lines 37, 495,511, and 780.
3.4.3 The Role of Final -e as Semivowel. The vowel e occurs as the second member
of two graphically diphthongal finals, -ue [ue] and -yue [ye]. In diphthongal
sequences of this type, we are of course curious about which vowel is the main one.
This can be established by comparisons such as the following:
203.
~
gue [kue] rU
[@
815.
~
gwe [kwe] rU
Ji
205.
~
kue [gue] ping
~
817.
~
kwe [gwe] ping
~
These two syllable sets constitute minimal pairs, and in the second member of each
pair the rounded segment of the final is unquestionably a glide. From this we can
conclude, that in the first members, the segment u must represent a full vowel [u] in
the final -ue. The situation is analogous in the following pair:
231. ; gyue [kye]
798. ~ gwya [kye]
, .:'t+r.
fUO;;::
We have noted in section 3.4.1 that the combination -wy- is to be read as medial
or semivocalic [y]. This leads us to conclude that the element [y] in the syllable ju ~
65
here is a full vowel. What all this suggests is that in the finals -ue [ue] and -yue [ye]
the element e [e] is to be understood as a glide. Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996:
323) discuss a number of cases in languages of the world which have semi vowels that
correspond to mid-vowels. There are also such cases in current forms of Chinese. For
example, the city dialect of Nanking is said to have the diphthongs [ae] and [oJ]
(corresponding to modem standard Chinese -ai and -ao), where the elements [e] and
[J] appear to function as glides following the full vowels [a] and [0] (Liu 1995: 25).
Similar cases are reported in other Yangtze watershed dialects. Ladefoged and
Maddieson mark such glides by placing a breve over the vowel letter in question, and
this convention can serve us here as well. Thus, we can transcribe our two finals as
[ue] and [ye].
The finals -ue and -yue have been interpreted differently by different authorities.
For example, Hashimoto (1978-79: 103) takes them as and [ibn Cheng (1985:
168) has [wej] and [yej], respectively. Similarly, Pulleyblank (1970: 365) writes
for -ue. Shen (2000: 99-101) takes a different tack, interpreting the sound we now
transcribe with e as an allophone of the final semivowel [j] in finals such as -ay [aj]
and -hiy This is quite reasonable as a phonemic refinement of the phonetic data.
However, in a phonetic interpretation of the script, such as we have attempted here, it
seems advisable to retain our e as is. Just as field dialectologists have given us
interesting phonetic information about Yangtze watershed dialects by reporting finals
such as [ae], [are], etc., rather than normalizing them as lajl, at the present stage in our
study of 'Phags-pa Chinese there are advantages to recovering as much phonetic detail
as possible from the alphabetic record before proceeding to higher levels of analysis.
Notes
lFor a useful table comparing all interpretations current as of ca. 1970, see Nakano (1971:
43-46).
2The head numbers in the examples are those of the appropriate entry lines in the
Glossary. Bold text transliterations of the 'Phags-pa letters will be discussed in section 3.3.
3 As indicated in Chapter 1, views on the linguistic basis of this text are far from
unanimous.
4Sin's forms are cited from Kim (1991).
5For a summary of earlier discussions of this question, see Hashimoto (1967).
66
6The misspellings collected by Cheng (and also tabulated by Hashimoto 1978) also
occasion another observation. It is sometimes asserted, for example by Pulleyblank (1970: 369), that
the writing of 'Phags-pa Chinese was a purely mechanical process in which forms were copied down
from normative glossaries like the MGZY. However, irregular forms such as those under
consideration here show that this was by no means always the case. Clearly, some writers were doing
the job by ear, resulting in spelling errors that reflected features of their own pronunciation of Yuan
period standard Chinese.
7Poppe (loc. cit.) describes this Mongolian sound as an "unvoiced deep velar stop." In
modem handbooks it is characterized as a voiceless uvular plosive.
8The sound represented by this letter in north Indian languages today is characterized by
Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) as velar voiced aspirated (58) or velar breathy voiced aspirated (70).
9"Muddy" renders the traditional philological term zhuo.
lOpor a full exposition of the formulas used in the Gujfn yunhu 1 juyiw, see Cheng (1965:
35). Compare also Nakano (1971: 78) and Wang Shuoquan (2002: 111).
IlPor a summary of earlier interpretations of hi, see Shen (2001: 462).
12Por an example of this, see the sample passage from a Sanskrit 'Phags-pa inscription
reproduced in Hope (1953, insertion between 52 and 53), together with Hope's comments.
13[This is apparently an error for ShUshf hUlyiw if
lSTwo of these facsimiles are found in Poppe (1957: 10-13). The third appears in Clauson
(1959: 321).
16por a comparative list of these, see Luo (1963: tables between 64 and 65).
17Hashimoto actually writes not [kjil)] but [kjing] in such instances.
18Note that Hashimoto adopts slightly different transcriptional conventions for his phonetic
interpretations in (1978) and (1978-79), but his basic view is the same in these two works.
19Por a discussion of this final in the context of the 'Phags-pa Chinese system as a whole,
see Chapter 4, section 4.2.2.3 below.
67
200n the background and interpretation of this work, see P. Yang (1989) and Coblin
(1997).
21Himyu fangyfn zihui (1989: 369).
22The other exceptions occur in lines 279, 596, and 810, the latter two involving rare
graphs.
23It is interesting in this connection that the framers of the 'Phags-pa inscriptions did not
adopt the non-canonical spelling 'yan for ~ . Instead, they wrote Yyan for this syllable. See
Hashimoto (1978: 141-142). For the other pairs, i.e., lines 37/39, 511/513, and 780-781 of the
example, no data are available in the inscriptions or other epigraphical sources.
24In the Xuxia Siku qufmsha edition they occur on pages 263/260 and 261/262,
respectively.
25Pages 9/24 and 368/372, respectively.
68
IV
A Structural and Historical Consideration of the
'Phags-pa Chinese Sound System
4.1 Preliminary Matters
4.1.1 The Comparative and Historical Study of Standard Forms of Pronunciation.
The types of language which serve as koines are invariably those which have some
sort of wider application in an extended speech community. And of these, the ones
which are reduced to writing and come to serve as standard written languages
usually have not only broad currency but also social and/or political prestige of
some sort. It is these traits of particular languages which have given rise to the
majority of written records with which historical linguists deal. The extensive
recording of specifically non-standard or regional vernaculars (i.e., "dialects") is a
phenomenon of recent times. It was little known in the past. Furthermore, so far as
we know, incontestably direct descent from some earlier standard form of language
has not been a criterion for selecting and recording a current language as standard.
Whether such direct descent has been present or not seems to have been a matter of
happenstance rather than design. In this connection, it is interesting to consider
briefly two sample cases from the histories of languages other than Chinese.
4.1.1.1 Old English and Middle English.l In the Old English period (mid-fifth
century to mid-eleventh century) there were four major dialect types: Kentish, West
Saxon, Mercian, and Northumbrian. In the ninth century, cultural ascendancy
devolved upon the kingdom of Wessex; and during the time of King Alfred (849-
899) his capital, Winchester, became the chief center of learning in England. As a
result, West Saxon was the language in which important texts of this period were
written. In fact, it is the texts in this language, together with those transcribed into it
from other dialects, which form the literary corpus of what is normally spoken of as
"Old English." "Standard Old English" was, in other words, a West Saxon-based
language.
69
Middle English (mid-eleventh century to ca. 1500) can actually be divided into
two sub-periods, i.e., Early Middle English (mid-eleventh century to mid-fourteenth
century) and Late Middle English (mid-fourteenth century to 1500). It is in fact to
the latter period that the term Middle English is commonly applied. Late Middle
English was rooted in the language of London. For example, Geoffrey Chaucer
(1342/43-1400), author of The Canterbury Tales, Troilus and Criseyde, etc., which
are often thought of as prototypical Middle English texts, was born and died in
London. In the second half of the fourteenth century, London saw a massive
immigration from the Midlands area, and as a result its speech contained numerous
Midlands features. This language was not a "Midlands dialect" as such. It was
instead a composite koine in which Midlands features were preponderant. Now,
looking backward to the Old English period, we see that the Midlands dialects were
derived not from West Saxon dialects but rather from Mercian ones. Thus, Middle
English and its more or less direct descendant, Modem Standard English, are not the
direct phonological descendants of Old English. As a convenient fiction they are
sometimes spoken of as if they were, but this usage is imprecise and is not found in
technical works on the history of English.
4.1.1.2 Middle High German and Modem Standard German.
2
The medieval period
of German language history is usually said to date from 1050 to 1500. The term
Middle High German conventionally refers to a written or literary language dating
primarily from ca. 1170 to 1230 and called mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache
("Middle High German poetic language") by specialists. Textual evidence attests
to a number of spoken dialect groups or types for the German Middle Ages. Three
of these are of interest to us here. In a broad swath of the central part of German-
speaking Europe was found Middle German. In the south was Upper German
("upper" referring to topographical altitude), of which there were two sub-types, a
western one called Alemannic and an eastern one called Bavarian. In addition to the
ordinary dialects as such, in the High Medieval period there began to form in the
princely courts a polite, socially elevated chivalric language, sometimes referred to as
the Rittersprache ("language of the knights"). Since many of the ancestral estates
of the landed nobility were in Franconia and Swabia (the latter in the Alemannic-
speaking area), the speech patterns of these regions played prominent roles in the
formation of the courtly koine. A particularly elevated and refined literary adaptation
of this koine was the language used in the writings of the great Middle High
German poets. The works of these individuals were preserved in manuscripts, and
70
The 'Phags-pa Chinese Sound System
these were later collected, compared, and orthographically regularized or normalized
in various ways by editors, among whom the legendary Karl K. F. W. Lachmann
(1793-1851) is the most notable. The corpus of Middle High German literary texts
we see today is the result of such text critical and normalizing efforts. Regarding the
dialectal complexion of these texts, Wells (1985: 116) remarks, "The language of
medieval German chivalric literature around 1200 was supra-regional in style,
vocabulary, and ethos ... but it was regional in spelling, sounds, and form. The
editors' texts and the grammars based upon them usually orientate themselves
according to one regional type, namely U[pper] G[erman] of an essentially
Alem[annic] bias, following the practice of Karl Lachmann, who had taken as
exemplary a limited number of literary texts." From this we see that, phonetically
speaking, Middle High German in its received and edited textual form is dialectally
an Alemannic-based language.
By the end of the medieval period, there had arisen in the recently settled East
Middle German area a set of relatively uniform dialects which, due to the migration
patterns of the settlers who spoke them, comprised elements from both West Middle
German and Upper German. As time passed, certain of these dialects became the
basis for chancellery languages (Kanzleisprachen) in the states of that area. The
language of one of these, Saxony, became the basis for the Bible translation of
Martin Luther (1483-1546). This translation was widely read in Protestant areas, its
cadences were replicated in sermons and church services, and its grammar and
orthography began to be recognized as authoritative by schoolmasters. This process
was accentuated by the newly introduced technology of printing, for publishers felt
that Luther's language would give their books the widest possible currency. In the
end, this language became the springboard from which modem standard German
evolved. What is of interest to us is that the sound system of modem standard
German cannot be viewed as directly descended from that of Middle High German.
It is not an Alemannic dialect or an Alemannic-based language. On the contrary, its
direct ancestor was the chancellery language of Saxony, an East Middle German-
based regional standard language. Although Middle High German and Modem
High German are sometimes spoken of in common parlance as if they had a direct
filiation, this characterization of their relationship is inaccurate and is not found in
formal linguistic treatments of German language history.
4.1.1.3 Chinese Parallels. Let us now ask, what if we were to claim that the Old
English of ca. 900 was the direct ancestor not only of the standard Middle English
71
of Chaucer's London but also of all the various fonns of English used elsewhere in
England at that time and preserved in written sources?3 And what if we were then to
go a step further and assert that all these different materials of Chaucer's time really
represent not different fourteenth-century English language types but rather one
unitary standard fonn of "Middle English," with all observable orthographic
divergences to be explained as textual archaisms, blind reliance on old dictionaries,
and scribal malfeasance of various types? We would of course be laughed out of the
Anglicists' hall. But all of this is in fact reminiscent of the sorts of claims regularly
made by those who have conflated the 'Phags-pa Chinese and the Zhongyu{m
yfnyun systems and then proceeded to derive them directly from the QYS. What we
as sinologists learn by examining the histories of other languages is that koines of
successive eras are not necessarily related by linear filiation, and that it is fallacious
to assume such a relationship as a given when we begin our work. Only when
historical, demographic, and linguistic facts have been adduced to prove it can such
an affiliation be considered established. We must remain mindful of this as we
proceed to the next section.
4.1.2 The Study of 'Phags-pa Chinese Phonology. The comparative and historical
study of 'Phags-pa Chinese phonology has been approached from a number of
different angles. For example, the detailed treatment of Nakano (1971) brought the
general structure of the QYS, the sound categories of the Zhongyuan yfnyun,
alphabetic fonns from the Xfru ermuzf of Trigault, and data from the modem
dialects to bear on the problem. Cheng (1985) used primarily the QYS and
Zhongyuan yfnyun frameworks in his analysis. Hashimoto worked mainly from the
perspective of the QYS but also considered the Xfr6 ermuzf. The recent articles of
the present writer have involved comparison with the Zhongyuan yfnyun system
and the later Guanhua alphabetic sources (1999; 2001).
It is probably fair to say that comparison of the 'Phags-pa system with the
QYS reached its apogee in the work of Hashimoto. His very detailed comparative
study (1978-79), together with his indexes, reverse indexes, and tables (1978) now
make it possible see at a glance how 'Phags-pa Chinese pronunciation relates to the
sound classes of the QYS. In its presentational fonnat, this type of comparative
work has taken the particular path found generally in Chinese historical linguistics.
That is, the QYS has been assumed to represent the actual pronunciation of some
standard fonn of Chinese, and the 'Phags-pa system has then been assumed to be
directly derived from that earlier standard fonn. Depending on how the individual
72
investigator conceives of or "reconstructs" the pronunciation of the QYS, the
'Phags-pa sounds are then viewed as direct reflexes of the QYS sounds.
The matter of the Zhongyu{m ylnyun comparisons is different. To be sure, the
system found in the Zhongyufm ylnyun tends to be treated as directly descended
from the QYS. But the relationship of the 'Phags-pa system to that of the
Zhongyuan ylnyun is, as mentioned in Chapters 1 and 2 above, not a matter of
consensus. One school holds that the Zhongyufm ylnyun and 'Phags-pa systems
represent the pronunciation of the same underlying language. Where the 'Phags-pa
system does not accord with that of the Zhongyuan ylnyun, incongruences are
viewed as archaisms, artificialities, or other such anomalies. Once these
embarrassments are removed, the remaining 'Phags-pa orthographic elements are
freely drawn upon to aid in "reconstructing" the Zhongyuan ylnyun system. A
hallmark of such reconstructions is that, not surprisingly, they have a strongly
'''Phags-pa-like'' appearance wherever the categories of the two systems agree. On
the other hand, investigators of the Zhongyuan ylnyun who do not accept the
'Phags-pa link, and pursue their work without considering the 'Phags-pa material,
tend to produce Zhongyufm ylnyun reconstructions which might be characterized as
"Karlgrenian" rather than 'Phags-pa-like, in that they resemble the reconstructive
work of Karlgren and those who have adopted his ideas about the shape of early
Chinese syllables. There are various gradations and hybridizations of these two
prototypes. Our own earlier comparison of the Zhongyuan ylnyun and 'Phags-pa
systems differed from other studies in that our primary purpose was to highlight the
differences between the two systems and to demonstrate that they could not have
been based on the same underlying language (1999).
Older comparisons with Guanhua, as embodied in the Xlru ermuzI (Nakano
1971; Hashimoto 1978-79), assumed that the 'Phags-pa system should be treated as
ancestral to Guanhua pronunciation. In our 1999 study, we pointed out similarities
between the 'Phags-pa system and those of several later Guanhua varieties. And in a
later paper (2001) we tested the hypothesis that the 'Phags-pa system might be
ancestral to the Standard Reading system of Sin Sukchu, with which it clearly shares
many common features. Our conclusion there was that there could be no direct
filiation between the two, their similarities notwithstanding.
In the present work, we shall draw on the QYS whenever its categories and
attendant terminology aid in reference and presentation. Those who desire a full
comparison of the QYS with 'Phags-pa Chinese should refer to Hashimoto's tables,
as mentioned above. We shall not concern ourselves with the Zhongyuan ylnyun
73
here. For comparisons with that system, one can consult Cheng (1985: 159-176),
Yfmg (1981), and our 1999 study. Our concern here will be comparison of the
'Phags-pa system with later systems preserved in alphabetic form. The comparisons
are intended to be typological rather than historical, in that we make no claims about
direct historical filiation. In fact, we doubt that such filiation exists, for, on the one
hand, the alphabetic data themselves do not support a direct connection and, on the
other, we know of no historical or demographic reasons for assuming one. The
situation is in fact similar to those described for English and German in sections
4.1.1.1 and 4.1.1.2 above. Our hope is nonetheless that this sort of typological
comparison can throw light on the nature and origins of the 'Phags-pa system.
4.1.3 Source Materials for Guanhua. As mentioned in Chapter 3, the pronunciation
of Ming/Qlng Guanhua (hereafter GR) can be divided into two types, i.e., a
southern one, traditionally called Nfmyln, and a northern one called Beiyln.
Alphabetic records are available for both types. Those to be used in this chapter are
described below.
4.1.3.1 Nfmyln Materials. The earliest Nfmyln sources date from the fifteenth
century. They are in Ran'gUl transcription and are attributed to the Korean linguist
and sinologist Sin Sukchu $,}0ZFr(1417-1475):
(1) Standard Readings (zhengyln .IE-tr, abbreviated here as SR), as preserved
in the Hongmu chong'un yokhun completed in 1455, and the
Sasong t'onggo (completed ca. 1450), a lost work whose spellings are
preserved in the Sasong t'onghae (completed 1517) of Ch'we Sejin *m
(1467-1542).
(2) Popular Readings (suyln {.fr-tr, abbreviated as PR), as preserved in the
Yokhun and the T'onghae.
(3) The so-called Left Readings (zu5yln lr:-tr, abbreviated as LR) in the
Ponyok No Go[tae and the Ponyok Pak Tongsa of Ch'we
Sejin. The LR in these works are believed to derive from Sin Sukchu and, like the
PR, to reflect spoken GR pronunciation (Kim 1991). They can be taken together
with the PR as representing a common system.
74
Sin's orthographic forms will be cited from Kim (1991) and will be
supplemented with materials from Endo (1990). The transcription of the Korean
spellings follows Kim, except that his phonemicized IjuJ is here interpreted as [y] in
most environments and his Iii is read as Tonal side-dot designations for the LR
are: no dot = pingsheng .:lfZV, one dot = qusheng $:V and rusheng AV, two
dots = shangsheng J:V.
For later Ming and Qlng Nfmyln pronunciation we must tum to Western
alphabetic sources. The materials cited here are as follows:
A. Late Ming Period
(1) Romanized Chinese essays of Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), written during
the decade before his death. The material survives today in a collection known as the
Xfzi (see WenZl gaige chl1banshe [1957]).
(2) The Xfru ermuzf@1$1} , a GR syllabary compiled by Nicolas
Trigault (1577-1628) and printed in 1626.
B. Early Qlng Period
(1) Francisco Varo, Arte de la Lengua Mandarina, Canton 1703; actually
completed in Fuzhou in 1684. This text is a grammar of early Qlng GR. It is cited
here after Coblin and Levi (2000). The Arte forms are supplemented with material
from Varo' s manuscript lexicon of GR, entitled "Vocabulario de la Lengua
Mandarina." Versions of this text are held by the German State Library in Berlin
and the British Library in London. Items taken from it will be identified with the
bracketed insert "Voc."
(2) Joseph Premare, Notitia Linguae Sinicae, a grammar of GR completed ca.
1730. Data are derived primarily from a printed version of 1893 and secondarily
from an earlier printing of 1831.
75
C. Mid-QIng Period
(1) Robert Morrison, Dictionary o/the Chinese Language, in Three Parts
(Macao and London, 1815-22), Part II, vol. II, Chinese and English, Arranged
Alphabetically (1820).
(2) S. Wells Williams, English and Chinese Vocabulary in the Court
Dialect (Macao, 1844).
4.1.3.2 Beiyln Materials. The oldest Beiyln forms were recorded by Ch'we Sejin
in the early decades of the sixteenth century. Ch'we' s forms are called youyln ti1f
("Right Readings," hereafter: RR). Ch'we gathered material in Peking, and also in
Liaodong the part of China which lay closest to Korea and to which Koreans
had relatively free access in Ming times. The material he recorded was different
from that of Sin's Standard, Popular, and Left Readings, and it is generally believed
to be of northern provenance. In our opinion, it represents north Chinese koine
pronunciation, i.e., the Beiyln system. Tonal side dot designations for the RR are:
no dot = shang 1:, one dot = ylnping or qu -$;, two dots = yangping
For the later Beiyln of the nineteenth century many alphabetic materials are
available. In the following discussion we will cite data from Wade (1867).
In the examples given below, QYS forms are added for reference to the
traditional phonological inventory. The QYS spellings are those of Bernhard
Karlgren, as emended by F. K. Li. Superscript numbers 3 and 4 in these spellings
identify Division III and IV ch6ngniu mm forms. OR orthographic forms are
followed, when necessary, by phonetic interpretations in square brackets.
4.2 The Sound System of 'Phags-pa Chinese
Among OR pronunciation systems preserved in alphabetic form, it is the
southern or Nanyln systems which most resemble that of 'Phags-pa Chinese. The
highest degree of similarity is found with Sin Sukchu's SR system. But there are
also points of similarity with other systems, both northern and southern. A full,
point-by-point comparison of the 'Phags-pa Chinese system with Sin's SR is found
in Coblin (2001). Wider comparisons with other types of OR are included in
76
Coblin (1999). In the following sections, we will focus on some features of the
'Phags-pa system which are of special comparative interest.
4.2.1 Syllable Initials. The 'Phags-pa Chinese sound system, as we have
interpreted it in Chapter 3, had the following initial consonants:
p p' b m f v u
t
t' d n 1). 1
ts ts' dz s z
t ~
t ~ ' d ~
~ ~
r
k k'
9
1) ? x y fi
0
With this inventory we can now compare that of Sin's SR initials, as follows:
p
p' b m f v u
t l' d n 1
ts ts' dz s z
t ~ t ~ ' d ~ ~ r
k k'
9
1) ? x y
o
The two sets are grossly quite similar, the only difference being that 'Phags-pa
has two consonants, [1).] and [fi], which are not found in the SR system. However,
there are at certain points significant differences in the distribution of the shared
elements. Our discussion will focus on the dissimilarities between the two systems.
77
4.2.1.1 'Phags-pa w- [v]. This initial generally corresponds well to its OH
counterpart. For example:
wang 111 QYS mjwang-
'Phags-pa 149 wang ("*") [val)]
Sin Sukchu SR val) ( "*"); PR -; LR .val)
However, there is a significant set of cases where this is not so, as the following
examples illustrate:
meng ~ QYS mjung-
'Phags-pa 16 wung ("*") [vul)]
Sin Sukchu SR mUl) ("*"); PR -; LR -
mou ~ QYS mj;;)u
'Phags-pa 628 wuw (-) [vuw]
Sin Sukchu SR m;;)w (-); PR -; LR -
mti QYS mjuk
'Phags-pa 254 wu C\) [vu]
Sin Sukchu SR mu (A); PR -; LR .mu?
mti tJ( QYS mjuk
'Phags-pa 254 wu (A) [vu]
Sin Sukchu SR mu (A); PR -; LR -
In these cases, 'Phags-pa has initial w [v] where all later OR materials show
initial m. The QYS finals -j;;)U, -juk, and -jung in these forms normally gave rise to
dentilabialization of labial initials in north Chinese dialects, but this process failed to
occur where these particular finals followed QYS m-. Now it would seem that in
'Phags-pa Chinese the expected dentilabiaIization did indeed take place, yielding
labiodental v- where the OR varieties have m-. Other examples of this phenomenon
are unknown in modem north Chinese dialects. A striking parallel, however, occurs
in at least one ancient form of Chinese, which is attested on the verso side of the
London Long Scroll (Takata 1993). The Long Scroll is a large Tibeto-Chinese
transcriptional document from Dunhuang, and it comprises a number of separate
78
texts. On the recto of the scroll, the word mu EI (QYS mjuk) is found in the
expected Tibetan transcriptional form 'bug, probably representing a well-attested
medieval northwest Chinese [mbuk]. But on the verso side, line 156, it is transcribed
as 'wug, which may reflect something like [mvuk] or [vuk]. (It should be noted that
EI is also spelled once as 'bug in verso line 122.) A similar case in the Long Scroll
corpus is the word mou.$ (QYS m j ~ u ) . This syllable occurs many times in the
Scroll texts. On the recto it is always spelled as Tibetan 'bu [mbu], while the verso
equally consistently renders it as 'wu [mvu] or [vu]. The corresponding 'Phags-pa
form is 628 wuw (3f) [uuw]. It would therefore seem that certain materials on the
verso side of the Long Scroll reflect a language sub-type which, like the 'Phags-pa
system, underwent dentilabialization in syllables of the type in question here. On the
other hand, the historical GH varieties followed the path taken by all known modem
northern dialects, where dentilabialization was blocked.
4.2.1.2 'Phags-pa n- [1).]. The 'Phags-pa system has two nasals at the coronal
position, a dental n- [n] and a palatal n- [1).]. These are in full phonemic contrast, as
the following examples illustrate:
6 nung (.:5:fL) [nu1]] II 10 nung (.:5:fL) [1).u1]]
If 104 nang (.:5:fL) [na1]] ~ ~ 108 nang (.:5:fL) [1).a1)]
1m 164 ni (.:5:fL) [nil Ft:. 168 ni (.:5:fL) [1).i]
In the earlier GH varieties, pairs of this sort always have n- in both members.
However, in the later GH period, the Portuguese-Chinese Dictionary (Port-Chin
Dict in examples) sometimes has either a palatal nasal or palatal and dental nasal
variant readings in competition in such cases. Compare the following examples:
niang ~ N QYS l).jang
'Phags-pa 109 nang (.:5:fL) [1).a1]]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR nja1] (.:5:fL); PR -; LR nja1]
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault nifun [nia1]]
Port-Chin Diet nia' [nia1]]; Dialogues-
79
nang QYS I)jwong, (nung)
'Phags-pa 10 fiung [1).UI]]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR nUI] PR -; LR -
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault num [nuI]]
Port-Chin Diet gnium, gniu [l).iUI]]; Dialogues-
nu 1x QYS I)jwo:
'Phags-pa 270 fiyu (1:.) [1).y]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR ny ( 1:.); PR -; LR :ny
Late Ming:
Ricci niu [ny]; Trigault niV [ny]
Port-Chin Diet nu, gnu [ny -1).Y]; Dialogues-
In general, 'Phags-pa fi- [1).] corresponds to the QYS niang initial, 1)-, as can
be seen in the cases above. This might lead to the suspicion that fi is an artificial
entity based solely on the traditional rime books. However, the following example,
where fi does not correspond to the traditional niang initial, would seem to rule
against this possibility:
nl 1fJ\ QYS nY:
'Phags-pa MGZY iii (1:.) [1).i]
Sin Sukchu: SR njej ( 1:.); PR ni; LR :ni
In closing this section we may note that in traditional Division II-type syllables
the niang initial is consistently realized as n- rather than fi- in 'Phags-pa Chinese,
e.g., (QYS I)an:) 414 nan ct) [nan], rrm (QYS I)am) 655 nam [nam].
4.2.1.3 'Phags-paj In most cases, this initial corresponds directly to Sin
Sukchu's SR e.g.,
cheng fj QYS <;ljang
'Phags-pa MGZY cing
Sin Sukchu: SR PR -; LR
80
However, there is a significant set of exceptions to this, where the correspondence is
with SR as illustrated in the following:
shen :t$ QYS dijen
'Phags-pa 342 cio (.lfL)
Sin Sukchu: SR (.lfL); PR -; LR
shi it QYS dijdk
'Phags-pa 167 ci (A)
Sin Sukchu: SR (A); PR -; LR
sheng #.1111 QYS dijdng
'Phags-pa 53 ciog (.lfL)
Sin Sukchu: SR (.lfL); PR -; LR
shi 7J\ QYS dii-
'Phags-pa 167 ci (*)
Sin Sukchu: SR ( *); PR LR -
shu QYS dijuet
'Phags-pa 269 cyu (A)
Sin Sukchu: SR (A); PR -; LR -
shun JII& QYS dijuen-
'Phags-pa 386 cyuo (*)
Sin Sukchu: SR ( *); PR -; LR
sh i QYS
'Phags-pa 191 chi (*)
Sin Sukchu: SR ( *); PR LR
sh i QYS
'Phags-pa 191 chi (1:)
Sin Sukchu: SR ( 1: *); PR LR -
81
Many of these cases involve the QYS initial dz- (chuangsanmu W--=:. fE: ).
Several others have QYS (chuangermu W = fE:). In the 'Phags-pa orthography
these are combined with QYS z- (shanmu :tfE:) to form a common 'Phags-pa
initial, In the SR system they are not so combined and have instead become
part of SR '4-. Later forms of GH resemble the SR system in that they all have
fricative initials here. An early medieval language which resembled 'Phags-pa
Chinese in this regard is the late sixth-century language of the Nanking area as
reflected in the MahamayilrI transcriptions of Sanghabhara. In this form of Chinese,
QYS dz- and z- had merged into a common voiced affricate initial which was used
to transcribe Sanskritj (Coblin 1990: 206-207). QYS does not occur in the
Mahamayilrlmaterial at all, so we cannot be certain if the parallel is perfect. But it
seems clear that on this point the 'Phags-pa configuration reflects some ancient
sound system similar to that manifested in the Sanghabhara transcriptions. The SR
system and the later GH forms were on the contrary quite different here.
4.2.1.4 'Phags-pa zh [z..]. This 'Phags-pa initial for the most part corresponds to
Sin's SR '4-, e.g.,
shan QYS zjan:, zjan-
'Phags-pa 480 zhen C1:.) ['4en]
Sin Sukchu: SR ( .1: -$:); PR ( -$:); LR (.1:)
However, there are exceptions:
chang 1%' QYS zjang
'Phags-pa 121 zhang (1jZ) ['4al)]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR (1jZ); PR -; LR
Late Ming:
Ricci ch'am [t'al)]; Trigault c'ham, xam [t'al) -
Port-Chin Diet ciam, cHi [t' al)]; Dialogues cia' [t' al)]
Early Qlng: Varo ch'ang [t'al)]; Premare t'chang, tch'ang
chang 1r QYS Zjang
'Phags-pa 121 zhang (1jZ) ['4al)]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR (1jZ); PR -; LR
Late Ming:
82
Ricci xarn Trigault c 'harn, xarn al)
Port-Chin Diet sciarn Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo ch'ang (Voc.) Prernare-
chang, shang QYS zjang
'Phags-pa 121 zhang (3fL) [z.al)]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR dzjal) (3fL); PR zjal); LR zjal)
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault xfun, c'hfun
Port-Chin Dict -; Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo ch'ang (Voc.) Prernare-
cheng PX QYS zjang
'Phags-pa 64 zhing (3fL) [z.il)]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR dz.il) (3fL); PR -; LR dz.il)
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault c'hIrn, xirn
Early Qlng: Varo ch'lng Prernare t'chIng, tch'lng
cheng :fJ QYS zjang
Late Ming:
Ricci c'hirn Trigault c'hIrn, Xlrn
Port-Chin Dict cin Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo ch'lng, Fr. tch'fne Prernare-
cheng QYS zjang
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault c'hfrn, xfrn
Early Qlng: Varo -; Prernare-
83
cheng QYS zjgng
'Phags-pa 64 zhing
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR PR -; LR -
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault c'him, xim -
Port-Chin Dict sin [sin]; Dialogues cin
Early Qlng: Varo ching' (Voc.) Premare tch'ing
These examples all involve ping tone syllables with the 'Phags-pa main vowels
a [a] and i [i]. The Sin forms have initial rather than and most of the GH
forms have initial -. However, it is significant that in these cases Trigault' s forms
always show variant readings in which corresponds well to the 'Phags-pa fricative
initial forms here. It would seem that later Nfmyln GH pronunciation represents
several different strains, and 'Phags-pa Chinese is in agreement with the strain"
here.
4.2.1.5 'Phags-pa ng [I)]. When this initial occurs before the 'Phags-pa vowels a [a]
and 0 [::>], the corresponding forms in the SR system and the later GH varieties
usually also have I)-:
ai QYS
'Phags-pa 287 ngay (-$:) [I)aj]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR I)aj ( -$:); PR -; LR .I)aj
Late Ming:
Ricci ngai [I)ai]; Trigault gai [I)ai]
Early Qlng: Varo gay (Voc.) [I)ai]; Premare ngai [I)ai]
WQ flt QYS nga:
'Phags-pa 732 ngo (1:) [I)::>]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR I)::> ( 1:); PR ::>; LR :::>
Late Ming:
Ricci ngo [I)::>]; Trigault go [I)::>]
Port-Chin Dict ngo [I)::>]; Dialogues ngo [I)::>]
Early Qlng: Varo go [I)::>]; Premare ngo [I)::>]
84
In syllables having the 'Phags-pa vowels i [i] and e [e], the OR forms tend to
show some variation in their realizations:
yl ~ QYS ngje-3
'Phags-pa 160 ngi ( ~ ) [1)i]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR i ( ~ ) ; PR -; LR .i
Late Ming:
Ricci nhf [l).i]; Trigault ni, i [ni - i]
Port-Chin Dict gni, i, y [I).i - i]; Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo y [i]; Premare f [i]
yi 1L QYS ngje3
'Phags-pa 160 ngi (3fL) [1)i]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR i, (1)i) * (3fL); PR -; LR 1)i, i
*Following the Menggu yun ~ r:!:l lfJt .
Late Ming:
Ricci nhi' [I).i]; Trigault ni', i' [ni - i]
Port-Chin Dict gni, i, y [I).i - i]; Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo y [i]; Premare i' [i]
yi ~ QYS ngji'
'Phags-pa 160 ngi (3fL) [1)i]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR i, (1)i) * (1f); PR -; LR 1)i
*Following the Menggu yun ~ r:!:l lfJt .
Late Ming:
Ricci nhi' [I).i]; Trigault ni', i' [ni - i]
Port-Chin Diet gni, i, y [I).i - i]; Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo y [i]; Premare i' [i]
ye ~ QYS ngjBp
'Phags-pa S35 nge (A) [1)e] )
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR I]je (A); PR -; LR -
Late Ming:
Ricci nhie [I).ie?]; Trigault nie, ie [nie? - ie?]
Port-Chin Dict gnie', ie' [I).ie? - ie?]; Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo nie (Voc.) [nie?]; Premare-
85
yan 1 QYS ngjBn
'Phags-pa 469 ngen (3fL) [1)en]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR jen (3fL); PR -; LR jen
Late Ming:
Ricci yen [ien]; Trigault ien [ien]
Port-Chin Dict yen [ien]; Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo ien [ien]; Premare ien [ien]
yan ~ QYS ngjBm
'Phags-pa 676 ngem (3fL) [1)em]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR jem (3fL); PR jen; LR jen
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault nien, ien [nien - ien]
Port-Chin Dict gnie' [IJ.ien]; Dialogues gnien [I).ien]
Early QIng: Varo ien, nien (Voc.) [ien - nien]; Premare-
In these cases, the SR will nearly always have a zero initial. Sometimes there is
also an 1)- initial variant, and this is often identified as having been copied from
'Phags-pa sources of some sort. Thus, in the SR system the zero initial is the "real"
SR reading. In the LR system, though, there are sometimes valid readings or variant
forms in 1)-. In the later OR varieties, there are often variant readings with initial zero
and a nasal initial. Some varieties, such as those of Trigault and Varo, have n- here.
Others, such as those of Ricci and the Portuguese-Chinese Dictionary, have a palatal
nasal, which is a distinct phoneme in these languages.
4
In all of these cases, the QYS
initial of the syllable in question is ng-, the so-called yimu ~ E J . A related example
is the following:
niu 4- QYS ngj;:m
'Phags-pa 602 ngiw (3fL) [1)iw]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR 1)iw, iw (3fL); PR niw; LR niw
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault nieu, ieu [nieu - ieu]
Port-Chin Dict neu, gneu, gnieu, yeu [neu - IJ.eu - I).ieu - ieu]; Dialogues neu
[neu]
Early QIng: Varo nieu (Voc.) [nieu]; Premare nieou [nieu]
86
Mid-Qlng: Morrison new (common reading), yew (dictionary reading) [niu - iu];
Williams nit12 [niu]
In this example, the common word for "bovine," readings in n- were already
present in Sin's PR and LR systems and became dominant during the later history
of southern OR. Interestingly, the zero initial forms also persisted into the
nineteenth century as literary readings.
There is another class of curious 'Phags-pa ng- initial examples which do not
have the QYS yimu:
you :fi' QYS j ; ~ m :
'Phags-pa 602 ngiw (J:.) [l)iw]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR iw ( J:.); PR -; LR :iw
Late Ming:
Ricci ieu [ieu]; Trigault ieu [ieu]
Port-Chin Dict yeu [ieu]; Dialogues hieu, yeu', hyeu, ye [xieu(?), ieu]
Early Qlng: Varo ieu [ku]; Premare ieou [ieu]
you ::x. QYS jgU-
'Phags-pa 602 ngiw (-A-) [l)iw]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR iw ( -A-); PR -; LR .iw
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault i6u [ieu]
Port-Chin Dict -; Dialogues yeu [ieu]
Early Qlng: Varo i6u [ieu]; Premare ieou [ieu]
you :ti QYS jgU-
'Phags-pa 602 ngiw (J: -A-) [l)iw]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR iw (J:. -A-); PR -; LR :iw
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault i6u [ieu]
Port-Chin Dict -; Dialogues yeu, yen [ieu]
Early Qlng: Varo i6u [ieu]; Premare ieou [ieu]
In these examples the traditional initial is the yusanmu DifrJ =: 1:, and all
syllables take the QYS shape jgu. 'Phags-pa Chinese is perhaps unique among
87
known Sinitic languages in showing an initial velar nasal in such words. There are
no n- or 1).- variants in the later OR varieties in such cases.
4.2.1.6 'Phags-pa x [fi]. If we put aside the final set of examples in the preceding
section, the 'Phags-pa initial which corresponds most regularly to the traditional
yusanmu is x [fi]. As we would expect from our discussion of the distribution of
this initial in section 3.3.7, it occurs before finals with rounded onsets, e.g.,
wang .=E QYS jwang
'Phags-pa 149 xwang [fiwal]]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR wal] PR -; LR wal]
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault vam, uam [val] ual]]
Port -Chin Dict guam [yual]]; Dialogues gua' [yual]]
Early QIng: Varo vang [val]], vuang (Voc.) [vual]]; Premare ouang, vang [ual]
val]]
wang tt QYS jwang:
'Phags-pa 149 xwang ct) [fiwal]]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR wal] ( 1:); PR -; LR :wal]
Late Ming:
Ricci vam [val]]; Trigault uam [ual]]
Port-Chin Dict uam [ual]]; Dia10gues-
Early QIng: Varo vang [val]], vuang (Voc.) [vual]]; Premare ouang [val]
ual]]
wei QYS jwe
'Phags-pa 228 xue [fiue]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR uj PR -; LR uj
Late Ming:
Ricci guey, guei [yuei]; Trigault goei, uei [yuei uei]
Port-Chin Dict guei [yuei]; Dialogues guei [yuei]
Early QIng: Varo goei [yuei]; Premare ouei [uei]
yong 7k QYS jwung:
'Phags-pa 38 xyung (1:) [fiyul]]
88
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR jujl) (1:); PR jUl); LR :jUl)
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault ium [iUl)]
Port-Chin Diet -; Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo iung [iul)]; Premare-
yu ffi QYS ju:
'Phags-pa 280 xyu (1:) [fiy]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR y ( 1:); PR -; LR :y
Late Ming:
Ricci yu [y]; Trigault iV [y]
Port-Chin Diet yu [y]; Dialogues iu, iii [y]
Early QIng: Varo iiI [y]; Premare iu [y]
In these examples, the initial in Sin's forms is always zero. But in the later OR
varieties the situation is more complex. Where the 'Phags-pa final begins with [u] or
[w], the later OR forms sometimes show a velar or laryngeal initial of some sort,
spelled g in the missionary sources and interpreted in the above examples as [y].
This feature appears to correspond to 'Phags-pa x [fi] here.
In another set of examples the QYS initial type is ng-:
wa EL QYS ngwa:
'Phags-pa 793 xwa (1:) [fiwa]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR l)wa ( 1:); PR wa; LR :wa
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault ua [ua]
Port-Chin Diet gua [yua]; Dialogues gua [yua]
Early QIng: Varo va [va]; Premare oua [ua]
wai j} QYS ngwai-
'Phags-pa 228 xue ("*) [fiue]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR l)waj ( "*); PR l)waj, waj; LR .waj
Late Ming:
Ricci vfti [vail; Trigault vfti, ufti [vai - uai]
Port-Chin Diet guai [yuai]; Dialogues guai [yuai]
Early QIng: Varo vfti [vail; Premare ou<n, Vll [uai - vail
89
yu ~ QYS ngjwo
'Phags-pa 280 xyu (.3:fL) [fiy]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR lJY (1fL); PR -; LR lJY
Late Ming:
Rieci -; Trigault ii) [y]
Port-Chin Diet -; Dialogues iu [y]
Early QIng: Varo ill [y]; Premare ifi [y]
yuan 7C QYS ngjwBn
'Phags-pa 512 xwyan (.3:fL) [fiyen]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR lJyen ( .3:fL); PR -; LR yen
Late Ming:
Ricci iw8n [yen]; Trigault iuen [yen]
Early QIng: Varo iuen (Voc.) [yen]; Premare iuen [yen]
yue J"3 QYS ngjwBt
'Phags-pa 811 xwya C\) [fiye]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR lJye (A); PR -; LR lJye?
Late Ming:
Ricci iue [yet]; Trigault iue [yet]
Port-Chin Diet iuo [yJ?]; Dialogues Juo' [yJ?]
Early QIng: Varo iue [yet]; Premare iue [yet]
In cases such as this, the SR will invariably have initiallJ-. The LR forms
sometimes have this initial if the final begins in [y]. The later OR varieties will never
have initiallJ- in such examples. An interesting curiosity is the following case:
yue B QYS jWBt
'Phags-pa 811 xwya (A) [fiye]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR lJye (A); PR -; LR -
Late Ming:
Ricci iue [yet]; Trigault iue [yet]
Port-Chin Diet -; Dialogues iuo, iuo', yuo, yuo' [yJ?]
Early QIng: Varo -; Premare iue [yet]
90
Here, though the traditional initial is yusan, the SR fonn surprisingly has 1)-.
Since the word in question is entirely literary, one might suspect that this was a fluke
or a misspelling of some sort. But the case is not so simple. In the Tibeto-Chinese
transcriptional corpus from Dunhuang, the word yue B is usually transcribed ywar,
ywa[r], 'war, etc. (Takata 1988: 372-373, no. 0735). All of these correspond to the
QYS fonn for the word. But in addition there is another variant spelling in one text:
'gwar. And initial 'g- here is the nonnal rendering for QYS ngin the Tibeto-Chinese
transcriptions. Thus, it would appear that there already existed in the Late TanglFive
Dynasties period a variant reading in 1)- or I)g_ for the word yue B.
4.2.1.7 'Phags-pa Zero. True initial zero occurs in 'Phags-pa Chinese only in the
syllables 0 [::>], on [::>n], and u [u]. The following are examples:
WQ ~ QYS nguft-
'Phags-pa 763 0 ("*") [::>]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR 1)::> ("*"); PR ::>; LR .::>
Late Ming:
Ricci guo [1)u::>]; Trigault go [1)::>]
Port-Chin Dict guo [1)u::>]; Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo go (Voc.) [1)::>]; Premare-
wan m QYS nguan-
'Phags-pa 453 on ("*") [::>n]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR 1)w::>n ("*"); PR w::>n; LR -
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault uon, uon, uan [u::>n - uan]
Port-Chin Diet cuon, cuoa, guan [xu::>n - xuan - yuan]; Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo UlID (Voc.) [uan]; Premare ouan, oUlin [uan]
wu 1i QYS nguo:
'Phags-pa 284 u (1:) [u]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR 1)u (1:); PR -; LR :1)u
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault u [u]
Port-Chin Dict u [u]; Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo il [u]; gil (Voc.) [1)u]; Premare ou [u]
91
The SR system invariably has initial l)- in such cases, while the LR system has
this initial only in examples of the third type. In the later southern GR varieties, such
as those represented in these examples, syllables such as wo 1M normally have initial
l)-, while those like wan m do not. In cases like wu 1i there is much variation
among the later varieties. For example, Varo knew variant readings in both [u] and
[l)u]. In the northern (i.e., Beiyln) pronunciation of GR, there was no initial l)- at
all, and all syllables such as these had initial zero. 'Phags-pa Chinese seems to have
sided with this type of language here.
4.2.2 Syllable Finals. We have found the following syllable finals in the 'Phags-pa
Chinese sound system:
1 1
i ji yl il) jil) in jin win iw jiw im jim
u ue ye Ul) wUl) YUl) un uw
y yn
aj jaj waJ al) jal) wal) yal) an jan wan aw
waw* jaw am jam a ja wa
AI]
en Jen yen ew jew yew* em jem e je we*
ye*
:Jl) :In Y:Jn :JW :J W:J
gj* gl) gn gW gm
(Finals followed by stars occur exclusively in the rusheng tone category in the
MGZY.)
92
The vowel system inherent in these finals is as follows:
1, U u
a A
The vowel represented by the letter "A" here is interpreted as [0] by Nakano
(1971) and as [0] by Shen (2001). Syllable codas are -j, -w, -E, -n, -1), and -m. No
final glottal stop is indicated in the orthography. The possible existence of such a
coda is taken up in section 4.2.3 below. It is assumed that prevocalic [y] joins [j]
and [w] as a medial semivowel.
When the 'Phags-pa final system is compared with that of Sin's SR system,
and also with later forms of GH, a number of differences obtain, involving individual
syllables or small sets of syllables. These have been discussed in some detail in our
two earlier articles (1999; 2001), and will not be dealt with again here. Instead, we
shall concentrate on several points of wider comparative interest.
4.2.2.1 Medial [j]. Medial [j] occurs before the vowels [a], [e], and [i]. It is not
found before [}], [1], [A], or [g]. Medial [y] occurs before the back rounded vowels
[u] and [:)] in our analysis. Certain other investigators interpret our medial [y] as [j]
here (see 3.3.10).
'Phags-pa Chinese is decidedly unusual in contrasting the syllable nuclei [i]
and [ji]. To the best of our knowledge, no other form of alphabetically recorded or
modem spoken Chinese shows a contrast of this type. The following are some
examples:
jI m QYS kiei
'Phags-pa 198 gyi (:ljZ) [kji]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR kjej (:ljZ); PR ki; LR ki
jI ~ QYS kj'i
'Phags-pa 157 gi (:ljZ) [ki]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR kjej (:ljZ); PR ki; LR ki
93
jIng # QYS kieng
'Phags-pa 92 gying (.IfL) [kjiI]]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR kil) (.IfL); PR -; LR kil)
jIng :;; QYS kjung
'Phags-pa 43 ging ( ~ ) [kil)]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR kiI] ( ~ ) ; PR -; LR -
However, within the 'Phags-pa system as a whole, the configuration [ji] is no
more unusual than are [je] and [ja]. It is worth noting here that one never finds such
contrasts as [-ja-] versus Ha-] or [-ja-] versus [-jia-], etc., in 'Phags-pa Chinese, or
in any other alphabetically recorded form of pre-modem Chinese, for that matter.
The interaction between forms with and without medial [j] in 'Phags-pa
Chinese has been of some interest to Chinese historical phonologists because in
certain cases it is found to replicate the so-called s Ideng IJ] ~ ("four level" or
"four division") arrangement of finals found in the Song rime tables. Examples:
'Phags-pa Sin SR Varo
I. T 409 gan [kan] ( ~ ) kan ( ~ ) kan [kan]
II. Fs9 463 gyan [kjan] (.IfL) kjan ( ~ ) kien [kjen]
III. Jt 466 gen [ken] ( ~ ) kjen ( ~ ) kien [kjenJ
IV. J! 484 gyan [kjenJ ( ~ ) kjen ( ~ ) kien [kjen]
Here we see that 'Phags-pa Chinese shows distinctions not found either in
Sin's SR system or in later forms of GH, as represented by the Varo data. In the
'Phags-pa forms all rime table categories are indeed distinguished. If a speaker of
'Phags-pa Chinese had chosen to read this set of rime table syllables aloud, this is
what he would have heard in the mid-thirteenth century. But are we then justified in
projecting the distinguishing features seen here back to the time when the earliest
prototypes of the tables were produced, whenever that was, and claiming that this
very configuration is what the table-makers heard and tried to incorporate into their
charts? Of course not. No evidence for such an idea has ever been adduced. We do
94
not know who the table-makers were, when or where they worked, or how their
language or languages may have been related to 'Phags-pa Chinese. All we can say,
until these questions have been addressed and convincingly answered, is that in the
thirteenth century this particular set of finals was distinguished in this way.
4.2.2.2 The 'Phags-pa vowel e [e]. The 'Phags-pa vowel e [e] is interesting in that it
corresponds almost exclusively to the combination [je] or [je] in the SR system and
various later forms of alphabetically attested Chinese. This is illustrated in the
following examples:
bian m QYS bjan:3
'Phags-pa 476 pen Cr.) [ben]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR bjen (J::.); PR -; LR :bjen
Late Ming:
Ricci picn [pien]; Trigault pien, picn [pien]
Early QIng: Varo pien [pien]; Prcmare-
lifm ~ QYS ljan
'Phags-pa 482 len (3:JL) [len]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR Ijen (3:JL); PR -; LR Ijen
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault lien [lien]
Port-Chin Dict -; Dialogues lien, lie' [lien]
Early QIng: Varo lien [lien]; Prcmare lien [lien]
In some cases of this type there is no significant contrast involved. For
example, there is no 'Phags-pa syllable *lyan [ljen] opposite ~ len (3:JL) [len]. But
in others there is a definite contrast. The syllables j ian Jt (gen [ken] ) and j ian ~
(gyan [kjen]) in the preceding section illustrate this.
The philological significance of the contrast found in the following pair is of a
different sort:
zhan it QYS .tjan
'Phags-pa 474 jen [ten] (3:JL)
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR t ~ j e n ( $;); PR -; LR -
95
zhan 1m QYS tsjan
'Phags-pa 486 jyan (.IfL)
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR ( $:); PR -; LR -
In 'Phags-pa Chinese the QYS E 1: (i.e.,,t-, etc.) and zhengchr (i.e.,
ts-, etc.) initials are not distinguished. However, in the present pair of syllables, the
traditional distinction survives in the 'Phags-pa finals. It is not preserved in the SR
system, where the two syllables are homophones.
4.2.2.3 'Phags-pa Final -yon [-y::m]. This final has a very limited distribution. The
entry lines of the Glossary in which it appears are the following:
516. gyon [ky;)n] shang;ff' , qu , 1m ' ;ff
517. khyon [k'y;)n] ping , ;ffi , shang f.fg , qu 'ff ' If]
518. lyon [ly;)n] ping.' shang , , qu
As mentioned in 3.3.10, syllables of this type belong to a larger group whose
finals tend to be realized as [yen] or [yen] in many of the known GH types and as
[y;)n] in certain others. Mixture of the two types in a single language variety is not
characteristic of the GH materials. The following examples illustrate this:
quan 7:. QYS khiwen:
'Phags-pa 498 khwyan (1:) [k'yen]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR k'yen (1:); PR -; LR -
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault k'iuen [k'yen]
Port-Chin Diet chiuon [k'y;)n]; Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo k'iuen [k'yen]; Premare k'uen [k'yen]
chuan l' QYS Qjwan
'Phags-pa 502 cwyan (.IfL)
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR (.IfL); PR -; LR
96
Late Ming:
Ricci c'huen [t{;'uen]; Trigault c'huen [t{;'uen]
Port-Chin Dict -; Dialogues ciuo [t{;'u::>n]
Early Qlng: Varo chuen' (Voc.) Premare tch'ouen [t{;'uen]
quan it QYS dzjwan
'Phags-pa 505 tswyan (1jZ) [dzyen]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR dzyen (1jZ); PR -; LR dzyen
Late Ming:
Ricci <;'iuen [ts'yen]; Trigault '<;iuen [ts'yen]
Port-Chin Dict <;iuon [ts'y::>n]; Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo <;h'iuen, Fr. ts'iuen [ts'yen]; Premare t'suen [ts'yen]
yuan QYS ?jwtm
'Phags-pa 511 'wyan (1jZ) [?yen]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR ?yen (1jZ); PR -; LR -
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault iuen [yen]
Port-Chin Dict yuon [y::>n]; Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo iuen (Voc.) [yen]; Premare iuen [yen]
yuan j)] QYS jwan
'Phags-pa 512 xwyan (1jZ) [fiyen]
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR yen (1jZ); PR -; LR yen
Late Ming:
Ricci yuen [yen]; Trigault iuen [yen]
Port-Chin Dict yuon [y::>n]; Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo iuen (Voc.) [yen]; Premare iuen [yen]
Here we see that it is only in the regional GH varieties of the Portuguese-
Chinese Dictionary and the Dialogue texts that [y::>n] occurs. 'Phags-pa Chinese
seems to represent a mixture of the two types. Perhaps this is not that surprising, if
we are correct in viewing the 'Phags-pa system as a composite one. However, the
fact is that the mixture here is not random, for the syllables having final-yon [y::>n]
invariably occur in syllables belonging to the third level (or "division") of the rime
tables. Syllables which contrast with them in the system and have final -wyan [yen]
97
appear in the fourth division of the tables. The following are the pertinent
contrasting fourth division-type entry lines, which constrast with lines 516 and 517
above:
497. gwyan [kyen] ping 1A ' , , , shang I!jj\ , qu , , ,

498. khwyan [k'yen] ping
5
7:.
Now, it defies credence to suppose that this is an accident. How has it come
about? The answer may be as follows. In the rime books of the Song period, such as
the Xlnkan yimliie, the characters in lines 497/516 and 498/517 are in separate,
non-contiguous homophone groups. Consequently, the inclination of the MGZY
compilers would have been to separate them. However, such a separation would
require that their 'Phags-pa head forms differ in spelling. It seems likely that none of
the speech types on which the 'Phags-pa system was based actually made such a
distinction, and the script did not readily lend itself to an artificial or purely
orthographic differentiation at this point.
6
Consequently, different pronunciation
types from different koine sub-varieties were chosen to represent the distinction.
Our assumption is, then, that no single "real" koine sub-variety made the
distinction seen here. But both realizations of the finals in question, i.e., [yen] and
[y::m], were actually found among speakers of the various koine sub-types.
4.2.2.4 'Phags-pa _hang [Al)] and -wang [ual)]. In 3.3.9 we noted that the 'Phags-
pa equivalent of final [al)] in Sin Sukchu's SR system is sometimes _hang [Al)].
However, there is another interesting equivalence, which the following examples
illustrate:
shuang QYS
'Phags-pa 146 shwang (.3:fL)
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR (.3:fL); PR LR
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault xoam, xuam
Port-Chin Diet sa', san, xan [san - Dialogues-
Early Qlng: Varo xoang Premare choang, chouang
98
zhuang :fj QYS <;iang-
'Phags-pa 145 cwang
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR ( PR LR
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault chofun, chufun
Port-Chin Dict zam, cia', ciam, zan, can [tsal) - - tsan - Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo choang Premare-
In these cases the 'Phags-pa equivalent to the SR final is -wang [ual)], in
agreement with the other forms of GH, except that of the Portuguese-Chinese
Dictionary. Now it is notable that these examples involve the QYS final-ang, while
those cases where 'Phags-pa _hang [Al)] obtains are invariably syllables having QYS
-jal) after QYS retroflex initials:
zhuang M QYS
'Phags-pa 151 tang
Early Ming: Sin Sukchu SR PR LR
Late Ming:
Ricci -; Trigault chofun, chufun
Port-Chin Dict za' [tsal)]; Dialogues-
Early QIng: Varo choang, (Voc.) - tsial)]; Premare tchming,
tchouang
Thus, 'Phags-pa Chinese preserves here a distinction which has been lost in all
alphabetically recorded forms of GH, for these will invariably represent the two
QYS finals the same way, whether as [al)] or as [ual)].
4.2.3 Rusheng Tones and Finals. The MGZY arranges syllables according to the
four traditional tone categories, i.e., ping, shang, qu, and ru. This was ostensibly the
ideal or "standard" tone system of the language underlying the script. However,
because the received four-tone classification is in fact the traditional one of the QYS,
one must wonder how well it accorded with reality. For example, comparison of
modem Mandarin dialects of both north China and the Yangtze watershed suggests
that these languages developed from a seven-tone prototype in which lower register
shang had merged with lower register qu (Baxter [2000]: 106-108). It seems likely
99
that most speakers of 'Phags-pa Chinese would have had, at the least, a tonal
reduction of this type in their speech. But we are hard put to say anything beyond
this.
The nature of the rusheng in 'Phags-pa Chinese is a complex question. In OR
of later times the Nfulyln pronunciation had a checked or glottal-stop ru tone, while
the Beiyln had no ru tone at all. It seems likely that Yangtze watershed speakers of
'Phags-pa Chinese would have had checked finals in traditional ru tone syllables.
But it is equally possible that northerners did not have this feature in such syllables
when they spoke the koine. Of particular interest here are rusheng syllables which
have 'Phags-pa diphthongal finals. The following are examples of these:
'Phags-pa Ch'we (1510) Trigault (1626) Wade (1867)
S 295 bay [paj] -/:p'J pe [pet] pai
3
/p02
it 214 bue [pue] :pgj/:p'J pe [pet]
pei3/
p0
4
298 may [maj] -/- me [me?]
mai
1
.4/m04
m

217 mue [mue] : m;:}j/:m'J me [me?] mei
4
/m0
4

294 cay ge [tse?] chai
2
/tse
2
330 tshiy [dZdj] :ts;:}jI- ge [tse?]
tsef /tse
2
,4
In this table, 'Phags-pa forms are accompanied by early Beiyln RR forms of
Ch'we Sejin, mid-period Nfulyln forms of Trigault, and late Beiyln forms of
Thomas Wade (1867). In the two Beiyln columns, right-hand forms are formal or
authorized Beiyln readings, which are in fact northern attempts to replicate
contemporaneous Nfulyln pronunciation. The left-hand forms are vernacular
northern pronunciations of the etyma in question which have forced their way into
the formal Beiyln reading system. It is noteworthy that in the early vernacular
Beiyln forms two different finals are in play, i.e., -;:}j and -aj, while in the
forms there is only a single final, -e? The late Beiyln vernacular forms of Wade
match the early ones of Ch'we. The late formal Beiyln forms show what is
historically one final, whose two different forms, -0 and -e, are determined by
100
syllable-initial types. Now, what is of interest to us here is that the 'Phags-pa forms
match the Beiyln vernacular ones, not only in the distinction made by the latter, but,
to a considerable extent, also in the actual phonetic shapes which manifest the
distinction. The 'Phags-pa forms are, in other words, much more like the northern
vernacular ones than like those found in the Nimyln system of traditional times.
This suggests that at this point the framers of the 'Phags-pa script may have based
their orthography directly on northern usage. The situation here is therefore the
opposite of that which we have seen for the initial consonants, where, in preserving
the zhuo series of initials, the framers hewed to southern usage.
If this observation is correct, what implications does it have for the way the
script was actually read? In the case of the syllables in the table above, a northerner
could perhaps have simply read the orthographic forms letter by letter. But what
would a southerner have done? To begin, he would presumably have added the
glottal stop automatically to any rusheng word he encountered.
7
But how would he
have handled the diphthongs, if, for example, he spoke a variety of the Nanyln like
those of Trigault, Varo, etc., which had monophthongs here? In fact, the problem
may not have been that difficult to deal with. It would be a fairly easy matter for
such a person to internalize a "reading rule" that -ay and _hiy were to be read as [e]
when occurring before his inserted final [?]. A similar rule could reduce -ue rue] to
[e] under the same circumstances. Conventions of this sort would be no more
difficult to learn and implement than those needed by northerners when faced with
the tripartite initial system embodied in the script. To add a further example
involving a different syllable type, consider the following:
'Phags-pa
i 532 paw [bawl
Ch'we (1510)
-/:pwJ
Trigault (1626)
po [pJ?]
Wade (1867)
pa0
2
/p02
Here the northerner would read the 'Phags-pa final as spelled. The southerner
would need to add the glottal stop and substitute the vowel [J] for -aw [awl before
this consonant.
Let us now consider what these speculations suggest regarding the nature of
the 'Phags-pa Chinese language on the one hand and the Chinese 'Phags-pa
orthography on the other. We have envisaged the spoken koine as composite and
multifaceted, comprising several different sub-types. In this respect it may have
resembled Taiwan Guoyu . ~ ~ ~ of the 1950s and 1960s. At that time one
heard a number of different sub-types of this koine in the city of Taipei. These
101
included, for example, (1) a northern sub-type usually close in pronunciation to the
recommended "textbook" sound system and spoken by a fairly small number of
mainland immigrants, (2) several closely related central or Yangtze watershed
varieties spoken by a rather large number of mainland immigrants, (3) several
closely related "southernized" varieties used by native Taiwanese speakers of Min
and Hakka dialects, (4) other assorted varieties spoken by individuals of various
origins. 'Phags-pa Chinese may have been similar to Taiwan Gu6yu in certain
respects as regards its typological complexity.
The 'Phags-pa Chinese orthography that was meant to write this composite
language may have been a "pan-koine diasystem," in that it could be read and
pronounced by speakers of the different koine sub-types included under the rubric
"'Phags-pa Chinese." In writing a particular syllable, such a system would need to
make the maximum number of orthographic distinctions necessary to enable any
particular user of the koine to pronounce it in his own sub-variety. Consider, for
example, the following cases:
532. paw [bawl ping #I
Northern reader: paw [bawl ~ [p'aw]
Southern reader: paw [bawl
532. paw [bawl ru I
Northern reader: paw [bawl ~ [paw]
Southern reader: paw [bawl ~ [bawl] ~ [bJ?]
For the first syllable in this pair, a ping tone word, the northerner must be
prepared to read the initial b- as voiceless aspirated. The southerner required no
changes. For the second syllable, both readers would need to make adjustments. The
northerner must select his plain voiceless initial. He could then read the final as
spelled. The southerner would, as mentioned earlier, add the glottal stop and then
select the appropriate "pre-glottal-stop" monophthong [J] in place of the
orthographic diphthong. Conventions of this sort are found in most known
alphabetic writing systems that are meant to encompass more than a single type of
underlying pronunciation, and it is our suggestion that they were also inherent in the
'Phags-pa Chinese orthography. This hypothesis must now be tested by comparing
the received orthographic corpus with our steadily growing body of information on
102
early koine pronunciation types. If it proves to be correct, what would it mean for the
field of 'Phags-pa Chinese studies as a branch of Chinese historical phonology?
Essentially, it would force us to set aside efforts to restore a unitary 'Phags-pa
Chinese sound system as such. Instead, we must begin thinking in terms of the
different koine sub-types which are encompassed by the orthography. It is these and
only these which will have had historical reality as varieties of early Chinese
pronunciation. Finally, to what extent does the linguistic nature of 'Phags-pa
Chinese parallel those of earlier koines, such as, for example, the ones which existed
in Tang times, in Qieyim times, or earlier? These are questions which the study of
'Phags-pa Chinese will enable us to address with greater realism and precision.
Notes
lReferences for this section are Baugh (1935), Goriach (1997), and Fennell (2001).
2References are Lockwood (1965), Waterman (19765), and Wells (1985).
3There is in fact a considerable corpus of such sources.
<!Por a more detailed discussion of these GH initials, see Coblin (2002).
STone sic!
6In 3.4.2 we have seen cases where such an orthographic distinction was made by
exploiting the fact that two different letters, '- [7] and Y [7j], were used to write the glottal stop
in the system. But no such strategy serves in the present case.
7We must remember here that the script would be tonally unreadable to anyone who did
not have access to the corresponding written Chinese forms, whence came the need for parallel
'Phags-pa and Chinese character texts. A reader would automatically know the correct tone once he
had seen the character.
103
Glossary of 'Phags-pa Chinese Forms
This Glossary contains a selection of Chinese characters from the MGZY, arranged
according to the format of that text. The material is not intended as an actual edition
of the MGZY. The facsimile editions already published by Lua and Cai (1959) and
Jiinast and Yang (1987) should be used in formal textual studies. We have excluded
certain characters for two reasons. The first is that many of the excluded items are
rare or unusual characters which are mainly of philological or antiquarian rather than
linguistic interest. The second is that the rare graphs do not occur in the Chinese
font used to print the glossary. However, where a particular entry line of the MGZY
is represented exclusively by such rare graphs, one or more have been specially
created to serve as exemplars of the sound classes represented by the lines in
question. Furthermore, wherever the MGZY uses variant or unusual forms of
common graphs, the current modem forms have been substituted here. There are
many scribal errors among the characters found in the original MGZY manuscript.
Corrections of these have been suggested by Cheng (1967), Jiinast and Yang
(1987), and Ning (1997, Chapter 5). In cases where their emendations are
obviously valid we have substituted the correct characters for the erroneous ones. In
all other cases we have left the material as it stands. This does not mean that we
reject the unadopted emendations, but only that we reserve judgment regarding them.
Entry lines of the MGZY are numbered consecutively from 1 to 818, following
Nakano (1971: 105-134). Nakano's arrangement of the reconstructed material from
the lost final two pages of the text is also adopted, with the entries numbered S I-S37
and placed at the end of the Glossary. Her data have been supplemented at certain
points with forms taken from the notes of Jiinast and Yang (1987: 140-144). See
2.3 and 2.4 for further discussion of this material. Each entry line of the Glossary
begins with the MGZY 'Phags-pa script form. This is followed by a paleographical
transliteration in bold type and a phonetic interpretation in IP A, enclosed in square
brackets. For full discussion of the transliterations and interpretations, see Chapter
3. Characters in each entry line are divided by traditional tone category as in the
MGZY, i.e., ping .IfZ, shang 1:, qu 1i;, and ru J\, with the tone names given in
pInyIn romanization. A number of the 'Phags-pa entry forms in the MGZY are
105
generally believed to be erroneous. In some cases, the errors are simple
misspellings. Entries of this type take the form below:
35. ; ~ ; cyung > zyung
The first 'Phags-pa form here is the one actually found in the MGZY. This is
followed by an arrow pointing to the presumed correct form. Both forms are then
transliterated and are separated by a derivational symbol.
In other cases, the original form in the MGZY is corrupt in that it is in some
way at variance with the known letters of the 'Phags-pa script. Anomalies of this
type are illustrated in the following:
77.
In this example, the first letter of the MGZY form is unknown but is
presumably a corruption of the 'Phags-pa letter CD ch. The correct form is given
after the arrow. In cases of this type, only the correct form is transliterated.
In a third type of example, one finds in 'Phags-pa sources other than the
MGZY, such as the inscriptions or the Baijia:xing, forms which regularly and
systematically differ from their MGZY counterparts. The following is one such
instance:
128. ~ (- ~ ) khyang (- khyang)
In this case the MGZY form comes first, followed by the alternate form in
parentheses. In examples of this type, we transliterate both forms, bracketing the
second one.
Justification for emendations of the above type is found in the textual notes of
Nakano (1971) and Jiinast and Yfmg (1987) among others and is not repeated here.
For the source materials from which the variant forms are derived, see Hashimoto
(1978: 134-146).
In addition to the material from the MGZY, we have added, for comparison,
forms from the inscriptions, the sutras, and the Baijia:xing. These have been taken
from Hashimoto (1978: 134-146). Our selection includes only cases where forms in
these other sources differ from the canonical ones found in the MGZY. For the far
more numerous cases where there is complete agreement with the MGZY material,
106
see the tables in Hashimoto (op. cit.). The forms we cite are arranged under the
pertinent MGZY entry lines and are identified using the following abbreviations:
Inscr: Inscriptions
Su: Sutras
BJX: Bftijiaxing
Cross-references to the page numbers of the Luo and Cai (1959) and JUnast
and Yang (1987) editions of the MGZY are inserted throughout the Glossary on the
right-hand side of each page, in bold type. The abbreviations used in these cross-
references are:
LC Luo and Cai (1959)
JY
JUnast and Yang (1987)
There are three indexes to the Glossary. The first is a pInyIn index to the
Chinese characters in the material, the second a stroke order index to the same
characters, and the third an index to the transliterations of the 'Phags-pa forms into
the Latin alphabet.
107
2.
3.
4.
6.
7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

[LC 99; JY 27]
I. * dung [tUl]]
ping - ' Jj; , I ' Jjz: , , gt, shang. ' qu ,
khung [k'ul]] ping , , , , shang JL ' , , qu
+.it , {1ft , 'lc ,
:Ix I. = 'l".::e
dung [tul]] ping * ' <* ' , _, shang]l, _ ' tl' qu <* '
1*
thung [t' ul]] ping 3m ' , 11PJ ' shang 1m ' tm 'qu ;1m, #JE
nung [nul]]
ping. '
[LC 99; JY 28]
jung ping , , ' , ' !R't ' , :Iii ' shang ,
, !JI ' fit ' & 'qu , , fit '
chung ping '1'$ , JE ' liE' %' 1'* ' 1IJ' .. ' 'I'l ' shang ft
cung ping *
I
Jij.
nscr: ffi cyung
Dung [IJ.ul]] ping.' 1,1 , ,
bung [pul]] shang
pung [bul]] ping , , , ' 1t ' shang 0$ , qu 0$
108
13.
mung [mul]] p ing , * ' , ,IZ , g%Z ' '3f. ' $%Z ' ;t , , ,

M,;t, 'It
14. hwung [fufj] ping)li\' iJl! ' i'I' ' III ' ZII. ' M ' f,J , j;j; , , '*' '
, 1! ' shang , $ , qu W!\ ' JOO. ' , m
15.
16.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.
24.
25.
[LC 99; JY 29]
Hwung [VUl]] ping , 1)j1 , , , :$: , shang , qu Ji\. ' ,

wung [uul]] ping If ' , 'It, qu
dzung [tSUl]] , , , , 1* ' * ' shang , i!& '
il@ , 'fez {i21 ft.ez
qu $, JCJ.\' )1VJ\
tshung [ts'Ul]] ping "0 ' lJ& ' :@: , Jl! ' , qu ,!&
tsung [dzul]] ping
fez W
:Z';qA Jf' 1]\' /F'
sung [sul]]
ping , qu * '
shung ping fi ' ;g , iU
zhung ping
'Ill
[LC 23; JY 30]
hung [XUl]] ping.' ,
Xung [YUl]] ping m ' I , fo.[ , !Ill ' , ;u , ;tjt , m: ' 11 ' II '
, 31! , * ' #JL ' , , , 5b ' ,jb ' 00 ' shang , qu ,
;tjt , , 11
'ung [?Ul]]
ping , shang , 1i ' qu m ' ,
109
26. lung [lUI)] ping Ii ' , V ' U ' , , , , shang Ii '
qu W
27. ;
28. ;
29.
30. ;
31.
;
32.
i
33.
!
gyung [kyul)] ping '7 ' !B ' , ' , , 11 ' , shang
jjt , * ' , , [tlJ , , qu
khyung [k'yul)] ping 't3 ' 1 , shang , qu ,
kyung [gyUl)] P ing , :Ii ' ]=13 ':M , qu
cyung ping A ' , * ' m ' frp , shang m ' qu 1rp , m
Inscr: m jyung
[LC 100; JY 31]
dzyung [tsyul)]
, m '/ft.
ping ill' , qu i 'ill
tshyung [ts'yUl)] ping Tiif
tsyung [dzyul)] ping 1; , qu 1;
34. syung [sYUDl p ing , , , T , , r$ , shang , iL* '
35. ; ; cyung> zyung [zyul)] ping M ' qu 0][ , ' j0
BJX: fl syung.
36. ! hyung [xyuDl ping JIWJ N 1]''\ li!iJ 'fiji qu jI
37. ! 'yung [?YUlJl II tii U" flIIt Ji' B, shang fliI' '
, qu *i ' '
110
38. xyung [fiyuIJ] ping JJ&j , , , shang :7k ' qu 7k ' 17k ' ,
Inscr: yyung
39.
40.
41.
42. ;
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
Yyung [?YUIJ] ping
[LC 100; JY 32]
yyung [jyuIJ] ping , , , , , ' :tI ' , ., , ,

qu m
lyung [lYUIJ] ping ' M ' jJi , , shang ' !I
Zhyung [ryuIJ] ping 7:X; , , ' , if ' shang JL ' m
II. ; gying [kjiIJ]
ging [kiIJ] ping Ii ' * ' WrJ ' 3m ' # ' shang If ' 11;& , , ;lj[ ,
IX ' qu i!J: ' :jt ,
khing [k'iIJ] ping , qu !l
king [giIJ] ping wt ' JjJ , , , , qu 3m ' 1J,
nging [IJiIJ] ping jill , {m ' qu jill , {m
ding [tiIJ] ping T ' ' ;EJ , 11 ' shang ' , , lU ' qu WE '

111
[LC 100; JY 33]
48. thing [t'il)] ping 1T ' , Ja ' shang m ' 1M ' , qu
49. ting [dil)] ping ffii ' , H ' , ' , 1 ' f.,ff , 9M ' m ' ,
shang m ' 1m ' m ' n ' qu JE ' , tE
50. ning [nil)] ping $: 'shang * ' 0: ,
51. jing [til)] ping ffi[ , , , itt ' JJJ ' ' IE ' , IIi: ' ,
shang , , i71<' qu iE)z: , IE ' IDE '
Inscr: ffi[ cing; Ll& cing, t ing
52. ching [t'il)]
, ff
ping , m ' m ' 1,Eij. , shang , , qu , ,
53.
54. bing [pil)] ping:%' fr ' {Jj( , tEE ' shang pg , , m ' * ' mt '
m ' m ' mt ' , qu ffl ' 'l'l73 ' 1M ' m ' fr
[LC 100; JY 34]
55. phing [p'il)] ping , ' qu , yJiJ
56.
57.
58.
ping [bil)] ping."Sf' ' , fSJE ' nIL ' l!i!t ' m ' , m ' , ,
shang :ill[ , qu m ' ."Sf ' '
ming [mil)] ping , I'J)j , M ' , i1 ' 1t ' , , , , ,
, shang illl ' ;;g , , qu tiP '
dzing [tsil)] ping , ffl ' -= ' , , m ' ' , 1% ' shang
# ' qu
59. tshing [ts'il)] ping m ' -ff ' shang , qu , m ' ,
112
60. tsing [dzi1)] ping , , *1l ' , w1l ' shang 1! ' , m ' qu

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.
68.

69.
70.

71.

72.

[LC 101; JY 35]
sing [si1)] ping ' ' , ti ' shang , , ti ' qu , frl '
t1
zing [zi1)] ping
shing ping , Jt ' R- ' , Mf ' qu , Mf '
zhing ping RIG ' , , Wi ' , ;ifk , 7R ' qu Wi '
Xing [yi1)] ping t!:i
ling [?i1)] ping , , , , , II ' h
V
li!/
s ang , qu ',,",'
Ying [?ji1)] ping

shang m ' qu , ,
ying Ui1)] ping
??:I ' Ai ' " ' iI ' TIk ' .I! ' (qu =) shang , ,
, qu , , Zf!.
[LC 101; JY 36]
ling [li1)] ping 47 ' II ' , , , , , III ' ' , ,

qu47
Zhing [ri1)] ping 1)] ,
ghing [kg1)]
ping *1'iI ' qu Ii ' t!:i
khh ing [k' g1)]
shang
113
73.
i
dhing [tgl)] ping , ' , shang , qu U&: ' m ' ' :
74.

t
h
ing [ddl)] ping !JI ' g* ' , fjI , JJI '
qu
75.
I
nhing [ml)] ping j'$ , i$ ,
76.
Z
jh ing
ping T ' ' * ' shang *T ' qu , ,
[LC 101; JY 37]
77. Z -> Z ch'ing [1ll'aD]
, Etj ti3 f'r1 :m
pIng 'If' If' ' 'If '''Ea' 7.f
78.
!
c
h
ing [d1;.dl)]
ping *' m
79. ! bhing [Pdl)]
ping M ' 00 ' #J1 ' :tJJ ' #Jt ' iff ' qu ill
80.
I
phhing [P'dl)]
ping z ' -7 ' tf
8l.
!
phing [bdl)] ping Ji3 ' ffig , J3Jj , :rAg , , jAg , shang iff ' qu iff
82.
Z
dzhing [tSdl)] ping , , , , ,
83.
Z
tshing [dZdl)] ping Jij , , qu
84.

shing [Sdl)] ping , ti
85.
i
shhing
ping .. ' , tt ' ' , , shang , 1!f
86.
i
lhing [ldl)]
ping 1E ' , , shang
114
[LC 101; JY 38]
87. ; (- !) gyung (- gyung) [kyuI)] ping frJ , , tfiiJ ' shang
88. ; (- I) khyung (- khyung) [k' yUI)]

ping {);) , l::J[ , shang l::J[ , {);) ,
89. (- kyung (- kyung) [gyuI)] ping JI ' 'If ' , 'If
90. I (- i) hyung (- hyung) [xyUI)] shang Mil]
91. Hyung (- Hyung) [YyUI)]
shang ill ' 1fiiJ ' 1fi!J
ping ftt ' , $k , fk ' 1if '
92. ;
93.
94.1
gying [kjiI)] ping , 11! ' ]e! , , JJt ' ' *# ' #& ' , shang
, , #l ' ffi ' Jfk ' ' I[ , gu ]e! , , , , , -gfu
khying [k'jiI)] ping ' :% ' , , , shang ,

fIa
, =
=
hying [xjiI)] ping JW ' ' , , gu
95. i --> 1 Hying> hying [l\iiq] ping
[LC 102; JY 39]
96. 'wung [?WUI)] ping 15L
97. i (- i)
Hying (- Hying) [yjiI)] ping 17 ' ' iT ' JJ ' M ' ,
, tfU ' , , fjflJ ' ?JQ ' shang , , ft ' ' f '
' , gu 17
Inscr: 17 hwu; iti Xwung
115
9S.
99.
100.
101.
102.

III. yang [jal)]
gang [kal)] ping ImJ ' Itlfj , :liE ' IMJU ' idJ ' tilMJ ' JG ' qu
khang [k' al)] ping *, *', shang 'Ijj , qu m ' , 1J1; , 1JL ' JG
ngang [l)al)] ping m ' .m
dang [tal)] ping '& ' ' it ' , mr ' , shang ;I; , R: ' 'J; ,

p"" I3=! :riE
thang [t'al)] ping , 'shang Ili' 1. ' :m- 'qu 1., ,

103. 2 tang [dal)] ping m ' 1m ' ;ft , lj , 91 ' , :f:j , 1m ' *m ' 1lt '
, shang ;W; , , ' qu :if ' , 1 '
[LC 102; JY 40]
104. nang [nal)] ping Ii ' shang :II 'qu if(
105. jang [tal)] ping iJ.& ' , , W: ' *' ' , , III ' JlJ '
shang :R ' 1t ' iJl ' qu , , , ;!:!J , , $: , III
106. -? chang [t'al)] ping , iffi: ' , , til ' , shang 7W '

Inscr: cang
107.

cang
ping :R ' * ' !m ' , shang ;t , ft ' it ' qu 1t '
:R
lOS.

nang [l).al)]
ping , frJ ' qu Il
109.

bang [pal)] ping. ' fr$ , , , shang , ,
110.

phang [p' al)] ping rJj , wj , ,
[LC 102; JY 41]
111. pang [bal)]
ping , in ' m ' 'f ' Jli ' , shang 1$ , !!If ' :f$ ,
qu ,
116
112. mang [rna!]] ping , 'l't ' , 11 ' , , , shang
113. Hwang [fa!]] ping TE ' 1J ' :tJj , JjE ' 17] , fJ}j , 1!f ' shang 8Jj ,
1JjJ , 1tx ' iJj , iJj , kifj , , qu 1tx ' J[1j , Wi
114. hang> hwang [va!]] ping m ' IW ' :tJj , f!,fJj , qu IW
115. wang [va!]] ping L ' :r: ' , , %t: ' fg , shang f.i!l ' , ,
7W ' 'l'ftJ ' tI ' qu * ' , fg ,
116.

dzang [tsa!]]
117.

tshang [ts' a!]]
118. tsang [dza!]]
ping JJ@Z , ' Wf ' AA ' shang '1m' qu
ping it ' if ' , m- ' shang if
ping iZ ' shang * ' qu iZ ' )31
[LC 102; JY 42]
119. sang [sa!)] ping * ' , shang I1i ' , , qu
120. shang [I?a!]]
, rPJ
121. zhang [2;.a!)]
J::
ping 1m ' , , , , , shang ,. , III ' qu
, ;>lL. ,....,. f- lM'f. h
V
L ';>lL.
pmg f% ' I>lJ ' :& ' , , J1i,jf , sang i.. ' qu I>lJ '
122. Xang [ya!]] ping ' 1T ' , 1JL ' shang m: ' i1L ' qu ITJt ' 1T
123. 'ang [la!)] shang t3:!: '13k:' qu :t
124. yang [ja!)] ping , , , m ' ' , , , -* ' i- '
i- ' 1- ' $ , shang ' $ , 1tf ' i ' qu , , * ' , ,
f*,.,i
125. lang [Ia!)] ping , , , TN ' , 1M ' , ' , !RN ' :EN '
j'N ' shang J5!J3 ' qu ' , :tN '
126. Zhang [ra!]] ping 11, , :tJ ' 11 ' M ' shang J!l ' 11 ' , qu
I
117
[LC 103; JY 43]
127 . (- gyang (- gyang) [kjaI]J ping]l,., ,I ' 7Ii ' 1iI ' 11 '

m ' qu 51 ' , !Ill
128. (- khyang (- khyang) [k'jaI]J
shang
ping , !1m ' , , it '
Inscr: gyang
129. (- kyang (- kyang) [gjaI]J ping 7$ , 51 ' shang 51
ngyang (- ngyang) [IJjaI]J ping fCD 'qu fCD 130.
131.

132.

(- dzyang (- dzyang) [tsjaI]J ping , ' , m ' shang
, , , , qu '
(- tshyang (- tshyang) [ts' jaI]J
Wr ' Tit
ping , Tit ' , , ,
133. (- tsyang (- tsyang) [dzjaI]J
itt ' #i ' qu 1ft
ping #1 ' JrI' frl' 11 ' 'iI '
134. (- syang (- syang) [sjaI]J ping t.I ' , Jf , , t , i,;f ,
hk a:!lli h
V
;;t '+R
m ' , sang JD' ' qu '1'1=1
[LC 103; JY 44]
135. (- zyang (- zyang) [zjaI]J
f*, 1*
ping M ' ff ' rn ' , shang ,
136.
137.
(- hyang (- hyang) [xjaI]J ping W ' , , gr ' shang. '
, m ' tI ' , ' qu rPJ ' tI
Hyang (- Hyang) [yjaI]J ping , , iff[ , ffi ' ffifp ,
shang Jj , ffifp , qu ,
118
138.
139.
140.
141.
(- 'yang (- 'yang) [?jaI]] ping:f2:' , 731: ' , f!R: ' ,
, shang
lyang (-lyang) [ljaIJ] ping , * ' , ' , '
, , , shang fAPj , \Ii ' qu % ' , *m ' fAPj , tN ' ,

gwang [kwaIJ] ping :YC ' iYC ' f17IC ' shang JJi ' qu 3'I

khwang [k' waIJ]
ping g: , , t[ , [ , qu !II ' f!I ' , #1
142. kwang [gwaIJ] ping 51
143. jwang ping ti ' qu j!
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
chwang ping $ , tfft
cwang ping tl ' ti ' i* ' qu ti
shwang ping
hwang [xwaIJ] ping Jft ' , shang 'I'm ' 11l
'wang [?waIJ] ping 11: ' tr! ' shang 1.1 ' qu 11:
[LC 103; JY 45]

2 ----r 2 tshwang > xwang [fiwaI]] ping.=:E' shang 11 ' , qu ff '
8]:' .=:E
Iwang [lwaIJ] ping
! jhang ping m: ' ! ' , #:9; , qu #
! ch'ang [t,<;' AI]J ping ,ilIJ ' jjlf , shang III ' qu JPlI ' 1'iIJ ' 'tI1r ' lffir
119
154.
155.
156.
ping W ' qu flj\
[LC 103; JY 46]
sb
h
aug [1ArJl
ping ;Ii , , PI ' shang , ,
Xong [Y:)I)] ping , :It' , it ' , , , , '
, , , , , fi ' , , shang :% ' , , qu 11 '
11 ' fff.t
i i Hwyang > hwyang [xyaI]] shang t7l 'qu 1Jt
N. 3t ji [ti]
157. gi [id] ping fi ' , , til ' M ' , & ' ;tt , , , ,

158. khi [k'i] ping!lffi]-,;Itt, shang *iIT ' , fe ' We ' B ' 11 ' qu ,
ru
[LC 104; JY 47]
159. ki [gil ping , , ' ' ;tt , M ' 1Jl ' !1m ' , :Jt ' ;ijt ,

, qu , , , 113 , ,i5; , , , if ' , , JJz.. ' ;&: ,
i1fj , frfi' 16 '
Inscr: JJz..' khi
160. ngi [I]i] ping 1r ' , , 1!I ' , ' 1fT ' , shang , .. '
!lIft ' ' ' 1tE ,1M, J1f ' , , qu , m ' , , , )(U '
X'x'ru
Inscr: lr, 1fT 'i; yi
161. di [til ping {E ' .ffj , 11-'- ' 1l& ' shang , , , :f:l& ' ,
120
[LC 104; JY 48]
162. thi [t'i] ping , , shang fI ' 1* ' qu , ' 1* ' JW: ' rU
, , {)!J , jfI , , , ,
163. ti [di] ping om, JI ' J ' tfT ' , tm ' , W ' M '
, #Jf: ' shang $ , , , JI ' qu $ , , , , *'* '

164. ni [nil ping 1fB ' , shang tm ' 15m ' qu 1fB ' , ru ,
[LC 104; JY 49]
165. ji ping ' jQ , , , m ' 5Z ' JB ' rFs ' ifi ' ' ,
g , 11& ' , m ' , z ' z ' shang m ' , Q ' :1:1& ' , F8 '
tR ' , m ' ( , , , It. ' , 111: ' ' ;l:l1: ' 1t: ' ' qu 9l ,

rr'
166. chi ping , ;/ffJi ' , Jf ' , , , 3r ' m ' '
shang If,G ' tK ' {3r ' , qu i1' , ' , W ' 2 ' fflt '

[LC 104; JY 50]
167. ci ping ,Wl' 1m' m ' NJo ' , ;l:1& ' , , 1-E! ' ,

qu , *' 1i1 ' fll ' r1 ' fflt ' m ' jf\ , ru , f,&( , , ,
' III ' , 11 ' ,. , ' it ' j!i!
lnser: 1-E! ji; chi; jf\ zhi
168. iii [I).i] ping J't:, , , shang , {f]I , nm ' qu !1m ' rU am ' 8M '

lnser: J't:, ni; Su: J't:, ni
121
169. bi [pi] ping , r. ' .' , shang frlt ' ftt ' It '
i. ' qu , , W ' J!E ' IJ ' , ' , rU , , __ ' ' '
y, ' t,;f , , fib ' g$ , , 1]1 ,
Inser: .l:t bue
170. phi [p'i] ping m ' tIt, shang , It ' ilt ' qu " ' frl ' yw. ' rU

[LC 105; JY 151]
171. pi [bi] ping , , t!lp , t$ , *' ' It ' Wlt .l:t ' :EE ' , ' '
;ttt, shang , m ' , , N ' qu .. ' .l:t ' m ' ;tlt ' 31li ' g$ ,

172. mi [mi] ping 5j , , , fJ ' shang r5lf ' 3:t} , , *' t,
* ' , qu i!* ' , R' rU , , , ,
18'
173.
174.
-7 hi > hwi [fi] ping * ' m ' m ' f.0IF ' ' , ' ' ,
' shang , 1fg , , 11 ' 'm ' , * ' Bill ' '
qu 1!J1j , m ' ' If! ' m ' If ' Hm
Hi> Hwi [vi]
175. wi [vi] ping 17\& ' iY.& ' shang ffi ' jI , qu * ' '*
176. dzi [tsi] ping If ' jlf , ii ' p}Jf , m, i'M ' qu .' i'M'
, , , ru , , fj , if ' Nw ' jj!rJ)l, m, ilP , Ii ' JW ' t!P ,

1A 1*
[LC 105; JY 52]
177. tshi [ts'i] ping , , , , 'II ' a ' shang ' , qu

178. tsi [dzi] ping '/!ff: ' ' t74' ' shang f!f ' qu ffl' ' , ' , '/!ff: '
'11f'ru tff'

179. si [si] ping iZ , rJ ' ;trB ' , Illt'T ' shang 17t ' yiZS ' qu ' ,
rU
122
180. zi [zi] rU frt ' 57 ' 3T ' !if ' , , , iii ' fI
181. shi ping iii[ , 1Jili ' F ' , WE ' ' , shang ' , ,
yf1 ' qu Y?B ' 1Ji!i ' '&' tit ' W ' ' ru , , ,

Inscr: ji
[LC 105; JY 53]
182. zhi ping , JWj , m ' , tll! ' , shang , .B:; , , HJ '
'I=if ' , qu ER ' rI! ' , M ' , , W ' 1fi ' , rU E ' ,

183. hi [xi] WI' HI ' fl ' , frl ' :ti ' ' # '
am ' , , ffff ' shang , m ' , , qu , '

184. r;:] 'i [?i] ping , , , t ' Ii ' , ot ' f1:( , , shang f* '
, , qu It ' f ' , m ' 'rU Z ' ' , {-t ' ijj , M '
;i: , tm ' . , 'I'B ' 1B
[LC 105; JY 54]
185. Yi [?ji] ping 1ft ' OW ' K ' , ' qu , , HI ' 71 ' rU ,

186. yi Ui] ping , ;fJJiH' ' @fu , ffii ' !llt ' , , , ,

Il ' $Je ' 37G ' ft ' , , shang , ffii ' :Effi ' .DJ ' B ' m, qu

[LC 106; JY 55]
187. ';:Iii [Ii] ping , IiI ' M ' fM ' 1M ' 111 ' WJ ' ii,

, shang ' , !Ii ' JfI ' ' tf ' * ' l!. ' fr!. ' f-'. ' :tl ' '

123

Su: tlJ Zhi
188. Zhi [ri] pIng 5l ' rm ' , ' , , 1ffii ' shang m ' B ' ,
, qu = ' , m ' ll} , Oj: , ' rU B ' ,8 ' A
[LC 106; JY 56]
189. ti [1$\.] pIng m ' , , ,ffi ' , shang , J3$ , qu , ru

190. chhj pIng E ' !lJ ' qu )]frj
191.
192.
chi pIng shang ' { ' , FB ' , , qu
dzhi [tSl] pIng , , , , B ' , , ' ' , ti '
, 15z ' ' , {T ' shang , ' , ' fJlJ ' T ' *t ' f=r '
tf ' qu {Sf , ;{
193. tshhj [ts'1] pIng JHi ' shang tt ' {ret' lret ' 1llt ' qu wU ' wU ' * '

194. tshj [dzt] ping , :on ' :I ' ti ' )JZ , , , f.rfE ' mJ:t ' iii ' qu

Inscr: tshhj
195.
[LC 106; JY 57]
196. zhi [zt] ping , tPJ ' shang 3G ' , tB ' "9tJ ' 8 ' *8 ' 18 '
qu :B= ' ifflllJ ' , jt
Inscr: tB chi, shi; shi; ifflllJ chi
124
197. Shhi [R] ping gffi ' shang , 9: ' iJe' qu , , iJe ' ri:t r0 '

198.
199.
200.
gyi [kji] ping , ;fg , tH ' H ' qu ' 1* ' , frJ ' , ,

Inscr: ;fg gi, khi
khyi [k'ji] ping , , , 118 ' shang , , , ;fg , if: '
JE.x ' qu , if: ' JE.x ' , , 3 ' ru Ojg ,
kyi [gji] ping flX ' 7f\ ' ili.x ' ll:.x ' , ,1 ' V ' , iT
[LC 106; JY 58]
201. hyi [xji] ping
202. Hyi [yji] ping , tit ' 1* ' shang
qu * ' fjg , , ru , ' ax
203. gue [kue] ping fJ1J ' A ' &w' it':Et' shang , :tm ' !ft ' ,)L ,
1i ' , 91: ' [f1i , * ' qu tM ' tlib ' it ' it ' Ht ' M ' ifWl ' 1tf ' lWG
Jii ' lWU ' Wr ' it ' tit ' :bii ' 'II ' , IR ' ru
204. khue [k'ue] ping Jt'iJ ' 'I::tk ' * ' , '1:' ' f@: , shang lEfe; , qu ,

205. kue [gue] ping , , , , , shang lEfe; , qu II ' If '
i'!I,.,&w
206.

due [tue] ping
:Lt'
ji[ , w.. ' qu Jt ' 1M ' t)t:
207.

thue [t'ue] ping m ' it ' shang , qu
[LC 107; JY 59]
208.

tue [due]
, '* IF
p lng ' J.r! ' , ,
qu 5t '

209.

Due [nue] shang , qu [7g
125
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
jue [tue] ping lli ' m ' 1 ' , ' shang , ' qu '!'1M ' ,
:a=

chue [t'ue] ping 8X ' 1):. , 3t ' qu 8X ' tfj ,

cue (tue] ping tf ' , ' 1t ' qu ,1M, , ji!

nue [l}.ue] qu
bue (pue] ping , , , Yffl ' 1l ' , ifu: ' shang 1Bt. ' ,
qu ' t!E\ , W ' , , , iE\ , ' 'W ' Ii ' ru ,
, , {j , $M ' :It
Inscr: bung; pue
215. phue [p'ue] ping , , , ::f ' iff' ,IH ' M ' , :tf ' {f '
shang , qu , iJ ' Me ' ' rU J:j , , m ' MU
Inscr: ::f, Me pue
[LC 107; JY 60]
216. pue [bue] ping EZ ' , 1m ' , , , fg: , , shang fN '
=6 ' :l:c' qu , fN ' , fi, M ' , 'W ' 15m,
rU 5B5'W' 1m'i]' 'lj,
217. I mue [mue] ping ,1ft, J , um ' iffiJ ' ;tFgj , , , tz '
, fJJJ ' :3( , 1*' m;, fij , shang 1ft, fJY& ' 00 ' a ' qu

218.
219.
dzue (tsue] ping 1lflJ ' shang , qu M ' a$'

tshue [ts'ue]
$)t'14S'i4S
ping , it ' m ' shang qu , , JW: '
220. tsue [dzue] ping 11 ' , shang qu ' '1$' , :Ii
[LC 107; JY 61]
221. sue [sue] ping Ilt ' *$; , Ell ' l , shang qu , W '

126
222. zue [zue] ping , , qu , , , , , , M ' ,

223.
224.
225.
226.
227.
228.

Inscr: cue
shue shang *, qu f5? ' g5? ' ,
zhue ping , , mt ' 11 ' shang M ' qu IW ' JiM
hue [xue] ping 1ik ' shang Jm, qu tj1 , , , ailJ
Xue [vue] ping , @] , , ;fl , 1@l , , @ , shang M' IrI '
qu 11, 11' t.I ' IVJ ' , rU , ,
'ue [?ue] ping , , , , Ill!!' , , 1N ' ,
shang , itA ' :fit ' * ' qu ' fIB ' , II ' m ' , if,

[LC 107; JY 62]
xue [fiue] JTI:, Wfe: ' rjJff , , , , ' [I] , IVJ ' , 1$ ' ,

' ' 5ii ' , qu , {fz: ' , Wl ' , , ' ' ,
WJ''J},1ji
229. lue [lue] ping , -. ' , II ' qu ' , , , *J[ , mI '
* ' M ' ' g , m ' ' shang , , i'm' :!:, & ' * ' ,
11 '11'.
230. Zhue [rue] ping shang * ' qu pg , NJ ' M '
231. (- gyue (- gyue) [kye] ping j(J[, J1 ' , 00 '
shang , qu * ' 11 ' ru ,
[LC 108; JY 63]
232. ; (- khyue (- khyue) [k'ye] ping , m ' , , !U '
shang ' J1 ' ' rU Iil
233. kyue (- kyue) [gye] ping shang qu
127
234.
235.
236.
(- hyue (- hyue) [xye] qu og
Hyue (- Hyue) [yye] ping , m ' tl' !Ill'.' '
Hl1' qu '1\1 ' , m ' J! ' ' rU Jj%
syue> hyue [xye] ping.' , J' ' 1:, ' *' ' , If '
, t$' shang , , M3' ER ' ff ' qu , ff '
, ru 1lf1l ' 1lf1l '
Inscr: J' Hyue
237. 'wi [?wi]
, :*
qu ,"'"
238.
[LC 108; JY 64]
v. m xyu [fiy]
239. gu [ku] ping:ml' 1J.[' M ' , & ' , !15 ' am ' fMl ' $ , fJIl '

1* ' , E ' , il ' 18 ' 'Iil
240. khu [k'u] ping M' ' shang E 'qu J!l[' , rU !jg , W! '
W][ , , Jffi ' liZ:
241. du [tu] ping W ' 'shang lijf' , :!:1lf ' qu f].p , II ' J ' rU

242. thu [t'u] shang ' a ' f* ' qu , * ' a ' , rU , ,

128
[LC 108; JY 65]
243. tu [du] ping:fIE' m ' m ' , , 1%' IiII ' shang H '
g ' ' qu , X , , Jjf , rU 1; , MI ' If ' , D ' 71 ' ;fJ ,
ill'.' 1',41,
244. nu [nu] p ing ' , , :m ' jj , shang , , -g , qu ,
, -"-m
ru prJ
245. ju [t:u] ping m ' shang , , qu ill '
246. ehu [t:'u] ping fJJ ' , shang , W'! ' m ' ru Ii
247. eu ping , ' lit ' , shang lII. ' qu J1}]
248. bu [pu] ping W ' M ' Hm' shang fffi ' ' 11m ' qu W ' 11m ' {til '
rU
lnser: pu
249. phu [p'u] ping mm ' , shang ff ' 1W ' 1m ' qu J[1!J ' mm ' rU =i+ '

[LC 108; JY 66]
250. pu [bu] ping '1m' iff, Ii ' M' shang fi ' , qu fm ' rrjij ,

251. mu [mu] , , , shang ' , tiff) , qu W ' ,

252 .
253.
Hwu [fu] ping Nft ' , 11 ' mj(' x':fj(, fZ ' , , -' ' ,

11 ' Iff ' m=' )(, , sf1 ' qu {1 ' Jm\: ' fW ' J!1 ' J ' 1[" , rU :flii '

lnser: m bu
hwu> Hwu [vu] ping:fj(, * ' t1 ' , X ' Wi ' shang
)( , m ' " ' , , qu [)f1 ' ff1 ' , ' ' ru {t , ii[ ,

Su: {t hwou (sic!)
129
[LC 109; JY 67]
254. wu [uu] ping ' z;Jl , shang , ' , 11iJ ' ,
rutt ' , !!1m ' , ' qu ?JJ ' , , , rit , , , ,

255.
256.
257.
258.
dzu [tsu] ping fB' il: ' shang tB ' :f.. , #B ' qu {t ' ru , ---
tshu [ts'u] ping II ' 1m ' !ffIJ ' qu m ' , , rit , , ,
"$
tsu [dzu] ping m. ' m ' shang fB ' t'F ' ifF ' WF ' rit 1ffi( , W
su [su] ping i.* ' , , qu ' , ' * ' , , m ' ru

[LC 109; JY 68]
259. --7 zhu > shu ping Mt ' tm ' m ' !iii ' M:f ' iltu ' shang fiff '
IJ ' qu Mt ' IJ ' i@ , If ' IE1S ' * ' r/J ' "
260. hu [xu] ping a ' Jli ' ' iJ$ , , shang JJE ' :m ' , qu iii '

261. Xu [yu] ping J!iij , , ' , Jiifl ' , , M! ' , 5Jn ' f '
, , shang P , II ' tt ' , M ' 8F ' UJii ' Ji ' M ' qu ,

1Jili '
Inscr: f hu; hwu
262. 'U [?u] ping q!1ff ' m ' t'5 ' 1R" ' , shang , qu , 1f '
ill' 1f:..'
263. Iu [Iu] ping ill ' , J;Ii: , Jif. ' 0 ' ' ' U ' ' ' ,
shang W ' it ' , ' , qu , B ' ' , ' lJE& ' Jm '

264.
[LC 109; JY 69]
gyu [ky] ping 5 ' fJiS ' :tJiS ' lJi!f ' , * ' :t1:iJ ' ,fiij , :t'* ' ,
shang , , ' g , :tE ' qu , , @ , Ji!JiS ' , HI ' Ia] ,

130
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
khyu [k' y] pIng:J;W, r! ' ;fm ' ' ]!I , ' , !It ' , shang
ffB
kyu [gy] pIng , ' * ' , , ' 00 ' m ' .M ' , tiJJJ '
, , #,1i] , , shang E ' ' tE ' ffi ' jffi , 1E ' 3 ' m; , W '
gil ' ' 'II ' Jt ' ril ill ' , JfM ' Wi ' Il ' =rftll
Inser: kew; m gyu
jyu [ty] ping , mi ' , , ;f* ' , * ' , #* ' ,
shang ' ;f1!:f ' , [It' , m ' ' , tt ' gil , , a ' '

[LC 109; JY 70]
ehyu [t'y] ping:tll' m ' , i1 ' fr-* ' shang ;f1!:f ' W ' , ;ff '
, gil , ril 1*]( , , i:\1lli ' t!
eyu [dzy] P ing , 1&1 ' 1M! ' f?* ' , 1M ' JJJ , , shang 1T '
#'9 ' ;ff ' ff ' T ' #'f ' 1f ' ;f ' gil , , 1.t ' ril ' , m '
;fm ' f(q , , j!Jf , JfI ' Jft ' Vlt ' 1f{rJ
Inser: 1.t jyu
270. nyu [I).Y]
Jfr!tI:
ping ftlIl ' Wi ' , shang -g , gil -g , ril , JrJJ ' tEl: '
271. dzyu [tsy] ping B. ' , 1[ , , , gil t. , m. ' JE ' ,

272.
Inser: 1], tsu
[LC 110; JY 71]
tshyu [ts'y] pIng ill ' , u.. , , 1[ , 1], , 1 ' !Jl ' m ' J!:& '
shang I'3( , gil , , , ril 1}t
273. tsyu [dzy] shang ' 1], , , , gil , . ' Jf$
131
274.
275.
276.
277.
278.
279.
zyu [zy] ping f* ' shang *;:Z , , }j; , , ru %-. ' 1i)- , )(

shyu ping:w' , #-f ' ' shang , , , M ' qu
ffR'B(;'ru tR'fR,;mz'5R
BJX: 5R su
zhyu [zy] ping , 13K ' , 1* ' * ' 9: ' shang , , W '
tll ' qu , , W ' W:j , ru 1A ' ' trJR ' , )=1 ' MSZ ' IJ ' '
1M
[LC 110; JY 72]
hyu [xy] ping J.!![ , !$}: , , H ' Of ' t1JX ' shang fff ' , O'f. '
, , qu 8t1j , , , rU if ' if ' 'Ii ' fig , fj , liJj , ;J?X
'yu [?y] ping 1R- ' , #-f ' ft ' shang , qu ' , , ,

Inscr: 1R- 'u, xyu, yyu; BJX: 1R- 'u

280. xyu [fiy] ping '1m' J1i ' , , , Wf.!l\ ' , :bli ' , '
281.

fjlj , qu , , ' , ' ' m ' 5m ' ru , 3W\ ' Ulft!l ' ffi[ ,
18
Inscr, BJX: T yyu. This graph is not included in the MGZY proper.
132
[LC 110; JY 73]
282. lyu [ly] ping IS ' 00 ' .. ' ' if ' lIgJj , =- ' shang g ,
1* ' ' , , 18 ' f,I , it ' fJ ' qu Ii ' , rU /\ '

283. Zhyu [ry] ping"tzO' '$ , , trIff ' 'I'W ' Um ' , shang 1;( , & '
*ft ' '$ , ' qu tIo ' '$ , 11 'rU , , , W ' , #Ji ' fi
284. u [u] ping:g., , , Jg , , m ' shang 11. ' iIi ' q:. , it '
qu @! , 'IN ' Ji: ' 'It ' fr ' Bt:f ' 'IN ' m ' rU 7L ' fJI ' :tTl: ' iliJ[ , ,
JTf&: ' flU
[LC 110; JY 74]
VI. gyay [kjaj]
285. gay [kaj] ping , , , , , , shang cj( , qu }f , '

286. Ea khay [k'aj] ping 00 ' shang tMt ' 1m ' :f:i ' ' rWI ' qu , ,
, '
287. 53
288.
289.

290. W
[
.] > "'''' 1Wt ,-++-
ngay IJaJ p mg P.R ' flX. ' qu X. ' lfJJE
day [taj] shang --7 ' qu m ' ,
thay [t'aj] ping Ml ' EI ' , qu * ' tk ' t ' jf ,
tay [daj] ping"'.' til ' fa ' 1 , ' shang 7'i:! ' g , ,
#-i:! ' EI ' , qu *- ' 1* ' ii ' 11i ' it ' , , ,
291. 03 nay [naj] ping , shang 7J ' , , , fr/j\ , qu , * ' ffij ,

292. EZJ jay ping , qu 11 ' , , rU ' Di ' ' ' aF '

133
[LC 111; JY 75]
293. chay [t$'aj] ping iJZ ' X ' , shang m ' qu , , ' rU fffi '

294. BJ cay ping , , , 1J!f ' shang , , qu , , ru

295. bay [paj] shang:tflli' j:J$ , qu ff ' j:/\ ' 5& ' , 1$ , jJ! ' rU fs '
s,fs'.'ill
296. 53 phay [p'aj] qu ' ffif ' , 1$ , rU :ftl ' m '
297. VJ pay [baj] ping #* ' 13F ' ' shang , fig , qu ** ' W ' f! ' '
rU B ' ,
BJX: B bay
[LC 111; JY 76]
298. may [maj] ping ill[ , , R: ' shang , qu -. ' , fM ' t;t ,
, 1* ' rU [58 , ' , ?It ' ' , JW ' ID! ' )R
*This item appears to have been rniscopied here from the following entry.
299. dzay [tsaj] ping 15< ' , , m ' shang * ' #, , , qu } ,
#,
300. tshay [ts'aj] ping , ' shang * ' j:* ' 1.* ' * ' , qu ,
*,:1:*
301. tsay [dzaj] ping , iI ' ' ::t ' ;ft , shang :tE ' qu , :tE '

<ZI
302. vJ say [saj] ping !t( , qu '
303. zhay > shay shang 1,1 , qu 6,1 , ' , rU , tif '

304.

hay [xaj] ping oil ' shang $I: , I[
305.

Xay [yaj]
ping , , shang *- ' qu i!i '
306.

'ay [?aj]
ping $. , :1:-* ' if/x' qu R ' ?Jt ' fff ' ' nff '

134
307.
308.
309.
310.
311.
312.
[LC 111; JY 77]
Yay [?jaj] ping ' ' o:l ' shang , qu , ' om ' oj ,

yay Uaj] ping , & ' fU ,
lay [laj] ping 31<: ' * ' , qu , , ' ' , j1f
gway [kwaj] ping * ' , *{&j , , ' qu '1' ' , , i1 '
rU
khway [k'waj] qu '[1( , Off ' , , '
chway shang tffff ' qu Oi
313. zhway > shway ping , , qu grjJ , $
314.
315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
hwaj [xwaj]
[LC 111; JY 78]
Xway [ywaj]
.'
ping , t! ' 1* ' ?! ' qu ' * ' E ' fU JI '

'way [?waj]
ping !ltE ' rU it
tshway > xway [fiwaj] qu I
gyay [kjaj] ping , ffi ' , 1!" , w& ' , ,
shang , qu , , ., JM ' , it\(; , W ' ft ' :Iff ' fir '

InSCf: gue
khyay [k'jaj] ping f& ' shang , , qu r;JJ ' f& ' fU
hyay [xjaj] rU mw ' Iffi
135
321. Hyay [yjaj] ping tt ' , , shang M ' , 3m ' iiJ '
' , qu , , , M ' , ru , II ' , , #t.
[LC 112; JY 81]
I"i:5
322.

khhiy [k';:}j]
ru ' :R: ' JW.
323.

dhiy [tdj]

324. --> zhiy > thhiy [t'oil 'rt tE ru Jt:\
325.

thiy [d;:}j]
Inscr: dhiy, thhiy
326.
j'iy ru l7!: ' fA '
327.

chhiy [t$';:}j]
ru ' tltU '
328.

chiy
, ..........
ru j1U
329.

dzhiy [ts;:}j]
rU fliJ
330.

tshiy [dZdj] ru
331.
i
shiy [s;:}j]

[LC 112; JY 82]
332. --> zhhiy > shhiy [!Oi]
, 1S ztz:. T
m
ru '[::!' Ill!
136
333.

lhiy ru if] , ;j:n ' ijjJ , ijJ ,
334.

hiy [xij] 'm
ru JI"
335. Xiy [yij] rU
VII. jin [!liin]
336. gin [kin] ping rtJ ' IT ' ij9J ' , shang I , 1'1 ' * ' 'Iii ' ,
:Ei ' qu IT ' 1iW
337. kin [gin] ping Jj] , JF ' , 'Iii, shang lli ' qu lli ' il ' ft ' Jl '
:Ei,S,:I:i
338.
339.
340.
ngin [I) in]

ping m ' 00 ' , tN ' #r ' lIT ' M ' shang OfT ' qu
nin [nin] ping f.iJJ
jin [!liin] ping 3t ' , Ii ' :j:J,N , Blt ' shang !It ' Blt ' t , #.'& '
, ft ' W ' :ri ' , qu ' :j:J,N , , , ,
[LC 113; JY 83]
341. -7 ; chin [!li'in] ping , , , shang , qu :jj( ,
342. cin ping 1$ , ' , shang ' , qu '
Inser: t$ zhin, zhim
343. bin [pin]
-l:*

344. phin [p'in]
p ing , m ' ' it ' tit ' [Ij , 5Jj) , il ' qu il ' JJ: '
ping f,1J
137
345.
346.
pin [bin] ping g;j , Jj! , , 1Jt ' BS ' ' , Jf ' shang tr. ' ijl
; min [min] ping , , , me, , , shang , '1'00 ' 00 ' '

347. dzin [tsin] ping $ , 1* ' shang 3'1 'qu , m ' iii ' ,
348. ; tshin [ts'in] ping 'qu
349. tsin [dzin] ping * ' _ ' shang 3'1
[LC 113; JY 84]
350.

sin [sin] ping :$ , fJT ' qu 11f ' T\ ' ill ' 1n
35l.

zin [zin] ping .. ' 1.1 ' ,
352.

shin ping $ , 1$ , t1$ , , , , shang '
353. zhin [:zin] ping , , , @ , shang , M ' fiN ' , qu
m
354.

Xin [yin]
ping * ' shang jN ' qu t&
355.

'in [lin]
, Eft h
V

pmg ::x. , "0.' ' sang .",.' qu .",.
356.

Yin [?jin] ping IZ9 ' e ' , Ii! ' , , , t113l ' frlN ' , J '
qu fp
357.

yin [jin]
ping j[ , ji[ , shang ij I ' ' ' qu JiL ' , '51
358.

lin [lin] ping , , , ' , m ' , ' M ' , ,
shang , qu , 1= , rif ' , !lm
138
[LC 113; JY 85]
359.
Zhin [rin] ping A ' 1- , shang ?J ' qu IJJ ' , 1'J] , Jli3J ' t!JJ '

360.

gun [gun] ping re ' t&! ' m ' , ' ' shang , , '
' Jlim
361.

khun [k'un] ping :1:$ , , shang rnm ' tm ' 'I'm ' 00 ' i[ , qu 12
362.

dun [tun] ping WY.. ' '1$ , :It/( , qu iii]
363.

thun [t'un] ping B!J: ' shang 1M
364.

tun [dun] ping , )j8Z , ff ' m ' shang

3li ' qu , , 3li
365.

nun [nun] qu
366.

bun [pun]
ping :n ' jt , shang * ' tIf
367.

phun [p'un] ping m ' , qu
368.

pun [bun] ping :fJJ. ' qu
[LC 113; JY 86]
369. mun [mun] ping F5 ' , , ' shang , , qu ,
370.
371.
Hun> Hwun [fun] ping 7t ' 1M ' 5} , , Jf!. ' , it. '
shang , ;% , qu 1ft ' ;% , ' rl ' '1'1 ' If
hun> hwun [vun] ping 1}j , it. ' , $[ , ;f)J , !I!S' ' * '

qu 7t ' :1:51
139
372.
373.
374.
375.
376.
377.
378.
379.
380.
381.
382.
383.
384.
385.
khun > wun [uun] ping)(' [il:j , , 3.t ' !I& ' shang rI?o '
mU ' :j)( , , qu , 1)( , 11 ' ill ' * ' [il:j , :j)(
dzun [tsun]
ping. ' ' *' ' , shang :t, ' , qu

tshun [ts'un]
tsun [dzun]
ping t1 ' shang '1'1 ' qu ':t
ping ff ' , shang ' ffI!I
[LC 114; JY 87]
Sl
sun [sun]

;
;

;
i
hun [xun] ping .I' , 'l'W ' , t;j
Xun [yun]
'un [?un] ping 1If1r ' shang it
Iun [lun]
, "-A * '''-A
pmg I!ll ' 11'1'- , '11ffl ' qu I!ll
gyun [kyn] ping ;g , 1j[ , , >j , , r>J ' , qu :m '
khyun [k'yn]
ping III ' W
kyun [gyn]
jyun

chyun
ping f:f ' f! ' shang g , W ' m ' qu
ping , , , , shang i'f ' <t ' t:$ , , qu
ping 7f ' *if ' :II ' , shang Z ' j)!if
140
386.
387.
388.
389.
390.
Glossary of 'Phags-pa Chinese Fonus
[LC -; JY 88]
; cyun ping , 1M ' shang J , :j:} , , qu , tJ
Inscr: chyun
; dzyun [tsyn] ping jl , 1Jl ' qu , , ,

tshyun [ts'yn] ping ,
syun [syn] ping 1fJ ' , , wa; , :Effi ' '11V ' shang , , if, ,
, qu , 1f ' i$t
; zyun [zyn]
1m
ping 1] , , ' #JII ' 1J , , , tJ , qu 1m ' 7BJ '
391.1 shyun [1yn]
qu
392.
393.
394.
395.
396.
397.
398.
I zhyun
hyun [xyn]
gl ' qu
--> Yyun > yyun Uyn] ping Is] shang j't :It Jft
--> Iyun [lyn] ping iIfl; iIiifii 1TIl! J!ili

Zhyun [ryn]

[LC -; JY 89]
ping , shang , qu , WMJ
ping ' Ji!R ' qu N
shang
141
399.
400.
401.
402.
403.
404.
405.
406.
407.
408.
th'in [t'gn] ping B: ' qu fl
I j'in ping , ?i ' 1* ' 1*
I ch'in [1{;'gn]
qu tI ' 1:1 ' , ilt
ping $ , , tt ' %t ' ' f5t ' !$
, \ZSI
pmg
i sh'in [1'>n]
i "in [1,n]
; gyin [kjin]
i hyin [xjin]
ping JV\ ' tFf ' Stf ' ' rtf ' qu ' 1JfX ' rff
[LC 114; JY 90]
Hyin [yin] ping til

'win [twin] ping If ' , i ' tEa. ' shang 'I!fit ' IK ' 1i. ' , M '
qu
' il!i[l , '1'131 , 1([1 , tIlJ , ,.131
r::urrt ..rm JllilU jl[[Il flIIJ.
xwin [fiwin] ping , , iJf ' ' fi ' j1 , -:E. ' , li. '
shang 7ffi! ' , ,. , qu , , JI '
VIII. Xan [yan]
409. gan [kan] ping T ' U ' : ' ' ff ' ff ' shang 'jgJ , ** ' '
, qu Sf ' f: ' , H
142
410.

khan [k'an]
ping tU shang 1frL 1fT qu 1fri iff
411.

ngan [IJan]
p ing qu J Offi
[LC 115; JY 91]
412.

dan [tan]

E!.
413.

than [t'an]
ping it ol It shang is qu Jx ol
414.

tan [dan]
ping :l:ll ff ;J:' ,w. ,m shang {S i.E!.
, 5'''' {S 1-' I''''
qu .!f!.' _ { 'Ej'! ,
415.

nan [nan]
ping It shang qu It
416.

jan
shang "9 ii
417.

chan
shang it qu it
418.

can
ping m 1M shang :8 qu #JE
419. ban [pan] ping:PJI' ili[ b'1 IXl ;J:R shang ;fEZ

420. phan [p' an] ping ;J:R WZ qu !l)j- !r5
421.
422.
423.
424.
[LC 115; JY 92]
pan [ban] qu iff fJ
man [man] ping]l qu
han> hwan [fan] ping B Mi 11 $I * f.;i
,& shang,& qu
Han> Hwan [van] ping lEI m fJ
fW 11 * JJI fji # f* shang qu
425. wan [van] shang Bjc iJfJG fi J!lt qu Jj !I
143
426.

dzan [tsan]
427.

tshan [ts'an] ping 'qu
428.

tsan [dzan] ping , , shang fl
[LC 115; JY 93]
429. san [san] ping ' fOO ' frlffi ' shang fl. ' *f ' $: , qu fl.
430. --7 zhan > shan ping , ' r! ' LlJ ' shang r! ' J '
, 1 ' qu ' 1W
431. han [xan] shang ' 8l ' 1i ' qu 11 ' 8l ' 1i
432. Xan ryan] ping * ' , f$J , i:fl3 ' 1f ' shang , qu f$J , :tf '
ff ' 1f ' , , ,
433. 'an [ran] ping tJ;i: , f:l( , qu , *
434. Van [rjan] ping]g)l' qu ,
435.
436.
yan Uan] ping , shang , qu Hi ' ]I
Ian [Ian] ping Xi'1 ' M ' il ' , ill ' tr'1 ' ' shang , ,
qu 11 '
437. on [In]
ping rIl7G ' ffU ' tlG ' !Rn ' in ' Jiffi ' qu m ' Yn ' Jlm
438.
439.
[LC 115; JY 94]
gon [kJn] ping 1' , % ' fi ' E ' fg , fEr ' shang :g , % ' m '
, l' , m ' qu , f* ' , fI ' 111 ' -. ' 1:1 ' m ' m ' fi
Su: fi khyu
khon [k'Jn] ping J[ , ' shang ff,x , m
440. don [tJn] ping , shang m ' qu $ , if
144
441.
442.
443.
444.
445.
446.

thon [t'::m] ping frM ' shang Wi ' qu -% '

ton [d::m] ping , '[$ , fJ. ' yt ' shang 1M ' qu .f&

non [n::m] shang , ,
bon [p::m] ping , qu #- ' i.ff
phon [p'::m]
ping YI ' W ' qu *U ' yf ' yft
pon [b::m] ping , !Bi ' tt ' * ' 11 ' fif ' , g* ' M ' ' ,
!II ' :#- ' shang 1* ' qu f'}j , IIF ' if
[LC 116; JY 95]
447. mon [m::>n] ping fiJi , ' ' , , shang , , qu ,
448.
449.
450.

dzon [ts::>n]

tshon [ts' ::>n]
tson [dz::>n]
ping It ' shang ' *I ' 11 ' , qu It
qu it '
ping fI ' UI ' liX ' qu fI
<'I
451. son [s::>n] ping M ' j3( , shang. ' ' qu # '
Inscr: swan

452. 0) hon [x::>n] ping IJ( , '[I ' ,fi ' , 11 ' qu , , ,
453.
Xon [yon J ping fg 7'G 1L JJIi: It\ 10; m fIJt @'
shang , m ' yj{; 'qu ' , m
145
454. 'on [?::m] ping ' , , shang , qu , Wi!
455.
456.
[LC 116; JY 96]
r2.J
Ion [bnJ ping , JIlt ' ffi ' , , m ' shang , qu iJJL
gwan [kwan] ping , fflI ' :J:I ' , , # ' qu , , m '
$
457. jwan ping
458.
459.
460.
461.
chwan an] qu.
cwan J shang m ' jJi ' , , qu jJi
Xwan [ywan] ping , $ , , ![ , iJ ' lliil ' ffi! ' , ,
shang ' 1 ' % ' qu }itl ' :J:I ' '[ , , , i.J
'wan [?wan] ping.' , shang #,
462. --7 tshwan > xwan [fiwan] ping jj
463. gyan (- gyan) [kjan] ping Fa' , ' M ' ' rg , shang
M ' * ' 1* ' qu , Fa' , 1FEl5 '
[LC 116; JY 97]
464. (- khyan (- khyan) [k'jan]
p ing ' 'i:?:
465. (- Hyan (- Hyan) [yjan] ping M ' Fa' , ' 100 ' , 'l'1JJ, ,
shang {OO ' ' qu J[ , iH
146
IX. 7t syan [sjen]
466. gen [ken] ping.' shang jI , W ' qu Jt
467.

khen [k' en] ping)(j'!t'.' qu '
Inscr: khen. This graph does not occur in the MGZY proper.
468. ken [gen] ping , , shang it ' ' 11 ' it ' qu
469.
470.
471.
472.
473.
474.

ngen [I)en] ping , , 7.% ' shang il!I ' ' iFi ' qu , n ,

den [ten] ping M ' Ii; , , , , shang $ , qu
then [1' en] ping::R.' shang , , jlijJ[ , qu Jffi;
[LC 116; JY 98]
ten [den] ping E8 ' iff! ' ffij( , iffi ' , IVJ ' shang , , , ,

nen [nen]
jen [ten]
ping if. ' shang , , qu gJl ' fi '
, 'I!!ii
P mg "jji , ''';! , qu ,,&iJJ.
475. cen
ping ' ' a ' *I
476.
477.
ben [pen] ping m ' !II ' ,* ' , ' ;ErG ' , 1W ' , -'f '
shang m ' , m ' fflf ' , qu -t ' ;J:t ' 'l't ' 00 ' #- '
men [men] ping , *fB ' shang *lID ' {rg , {lID ' s.g , *i2 ' :92, , ,
it ' , qu , , gi9 ' jlijJ[ , 00 ' {OO
478. tsen [dzen]
ping M ' , ' $j , , qu W ' 11 ' tff ' H ' $j
147
479.
480.
481.
482.
483.
484.
485.
[LC 117; JY 99]
zen [zen] ping 'qu

zhen ping ju; , "- ' , n ' W ' if If ' 1'fJ ' shang ;g , ,
, , qu *g , it" ' , :t-' '
yen [jen] p ing , , , , , ju; , vlf ' 1iJf ' shang ,
' , qu ' , ,
Zhen [ren] ping , , shang
gyan [kjen]
qu J!
ping , , ' it ' , JJi ' shang lElf ' ' lIJ '

khyan [k'jen]
ping * ' m ' U!Jf ' shang J! ' qu 1Jl
486. jyan
jJ[
ping ' fl$j , m ' IE ' , shang ,m , fi ' qu '
487.
488.
chyan

byan [pjen]

489. phyan [p'jen]
,iii
[LC 117; JY 100]
p ing , shang IVJ ' , , ,
ping , Jj! , jji , , , shang *i! ' ti ' , qu
ping. ' {!1M ' , , shang , , qu Jt '
Inscr: pyan
148
490.
491.
492.
Glossary of 'Phags-pa Chinese Fonns
dzyan [tsjen] ping , , , , AA ' , shang , ti '
, ' qu !.I ' frJ ' !m '
tshyan [ts'jen] ping -=f ' ' ::f:= ' , 'I ' shang , qu 11 '
S'
syan [sjen] ping 7'G ' J1I ' 1ill ' , , shang JiJt ' ' ' ,
jj , , #.I ' '#.I 'fi' qu It ' 7'G '
493. zhyan > shyan

ping fI ' tM; , :tJ[ , 'qu ,
494. hyan [xjen] ping $f ' W\ ' , shang rpJ , , qu IX ' )I
Inscr: H wyan
[LC 117; JY 101]
495. 'yan [{jen]
qu :t[l
ping 7% ' , f$g , , shang 1Il ' , , HI ' '
496.
497.
498.
499.
500.
Inscr: 7% Yyan
Yyan [{jen]
II gwYan [kyen]

ping , , , , qu * ' , ' H ' ,
ping , , , , shang Iltk ' qu , , ,
I khwyan [k'yen] ping *-
i kwj'an [gyen] ping lill ' i ' l!Il ' !# ' TI ' shllng I!!I ' qu ji/< ' I!!I
Inscr: gwyan. This graph does not occur in the MGZY proper.
i jwyan ping 1!J. ' ill ' 'J!i- ' shiing iI$ , 'J ' qu II1II ' P!!- ' iI$
501. I chwj'an
ping , j[ I ' shang 74 ' O-Iffi ' qu mJI! '
149
502.
503.
504.
505.
506.
507.
508.
509.
510.
511.
512.
c,ryan [d'l)'en 1
ping Btl- ' , i$ , shang , , qu i$
i

dzwyan [tsyen]
tshwyan [ts'yen]
ping ,
ping , , if: ' jl , , , , 1'i '
[LC 117; JY 102]
i tswyan [dzyen] ping , * ' ti ' shang , qft

;
;

i

swyan [syen]
ping ' , f , , shang , qu
zwyan [zyen] ping 1fJE ' f1f ' fME ' , qu 1fJE
zhwyan ping
hwyan [xyen] ping , 1:1 ' , frft ' , B' , 11' , '!If ' , ,
' 1[ , shang $ , 1. , Ol[ , qu f.iirr ' , 11 ' ill
'wyan [?yen] ping g , , ' , % ' 1& ' shang , rrt '
m ' , , fJ[f , % ' qu 1&
xwyan [fiyen] ping 7C ' , , , , ' ii: ' 1JG ' ' 8: '
m = h
V
r
-R ' R ' .J-E. ' , liZ ' 'J.!5l.. ' m ' .R ' IdI ' lBl ' ?!5l.. ' sang 1% ' ffi '
, Ii!ii'i "'" '. {Z-
qu , ' , W}J\ , ..vL5Z ' :1,bt , '}/5t.. ' 1m
150
[LC 118; JY 103]
513. Ywyan [(yen]
514.
515.
516.
517.
518.
519.
520.
521.
522.
ywyan Oyen] ping fJ ' ;I); , ' m ' :It ' j(j: , , shang YI; ,
1ft ' tJt ' qu t]Z'
i Zhwyan [ryen] ping JJJi! ' shang lIX '
gyon [kyon] shang 1l; , m ' qu , II\l ' 1l;
khyon [k'yon] ping , tl ' shang , qu :ff ' If]

lyon [ly;:m]
, !;;a" hV """ ""'"
p mg 'i!j' , s ang , '3'i:: ' qu

Xyen [yjen]
, J;!
ping 'Ii ' ' , , tt ' shang , 15% ' , qu
x. II syaw [sjew]
[LC 118; JY 104]
gaw [kaw] ping i% ' ' , , tjWj , ' , , * ' W '
shang , =* ' tjWj , #,liWj , qu f5 ' , 15 ' #,liWj , ' fU ,

khaw [k'aw]
ngaw [I)aw]
shang ::g: , 7!z 115 ' tjWj , :t! ' , qu , rU 'i:fr
ping m: ' , fi ' ' , , Ii ' iI} , $J. ,
523. daw [taw] ping)]' , t7J ' , shang {iU ' , , Jl% ' qu
U ' ' {iU
151
524.
525.
[LC 118; JY 105]
526. naw [naw] ping j'* ' j'! ' , ofrJ ' , ttzJ ' HI ' shang , ,
qu , 1!J1 ' rmJ ' ru if
527. jaw ping , shang m ' m ' j]t , fi ' qu , tJR
528. chaw ping tY , shang PJ> ' qu tY ,
529. caw ping =* ' qu W '
530. baw [paw] ping , 1:g , , shang. ' 1* ' , :fI* ' , ,
qu , ' ' 1:1 ' *' ' rU tw ' 1:1 ' 11 ' , ' fj , , ,

BJX: 1:g paw
531. phaw [p'aw] ping JffiZ ' ' ttill ' m ' qu :mJ ' uEz ' rU , ,

[LC 118; JY 106]
532. paw [baw] ping @ , rJliZ ' , m ' m ' J@ , , , shang ,
, tBz ' qu ' , , HI ' if ' fi ' ru , , 18 ' rEi ' '1'8 '
t'lit
BJX: baw
533. maw [maw] ping = , , 1 , 1Ji , , !Ii ' , shang .gp ,
:gp , , qu , , 1 , ' , '@ , 1Ji , , ru , , ,

Inser: mwo
152
534. Hwaw [yaw] fU ' 'II
535.
536.
537.
538.
539.
540.
dzaw [tsaw] ping;m, fI ' shang !P , ' , m ' , ' '
** ' qu , fU it ' fg

tshaw [ts'aw]
ping t* ' shang ' '1* ' qu t* ' , '1m ' , fU

tsaw [dzaw] ping if ' 11 ' 01 ' !Ill ' 1m ' 11 ' shang ' , qu
11'fu B'F'fF'YF,fg'ff'W
[LC 119; JY 107]
saw [saw] ping J:i , ti ' , ** ' ' , ffi5fl ' shang ' 1* '
tw ' , '1'11 ' qu * ' 0* ' , tw ' 1* ' rU %"
shaw ping , , , ti ' 1m ' , , qu
fi haw [xaw] ping "Ii; , , m ' shang iff ' qu f ' ft ' iff ' ,
0iWj
541. Xaw [yaw] ping , ' , , 1:f ' , shang SiS' ' * ' ,

542. law [raw] ping.' shang , , , fr.I#r ' , qu , 'rl '

[LC 119; JY 108]
543. Yaw [?jaw] ping:J:l4J' shang , qu fijJ , WJ ' rU ' , ii: '

544. yaw Uaw] ping , 'ff ' shang OX ' qu , , , rU , -fir '

545. law [law] ping , , , , , shang , *l ' , ,
, qu iJff; , , , , , rU m. ' *fr ' , , , , ,

153
546.
547.
548.
549.
550.
khew [k'ew]
ping @i , , ri:t :P

kew [gew] ping 1i ' , 11 ' 1i' ' qu ' ri:t 01 ' M ' M
Inscr: 1i kya
ngew [IJew] ping , ru , WI
tew [dew] ping ill ' , , Sjg , , ' , E ' *JWJ ' {Il '
shang ?Jg , j:lj[ , j:jE ' qu lj , j:lj[ , W!J ' , l!I ' WJ5
[LC 119; JY 109]
551. jew 8B ' m ' ' , shang 1t3 ' qu , fB '

552. ; chew
cew
B'
553.
554.

bew [pew]
tJ'
555.

pew [bew]
556.

mew [mew]
frj/ ,
557. shew
558.
zhew
ping jB ' ru 1,;j[ ,
ping [ , , , shang ' ' fEl1 ' :fjJg , :tjE ' qu
ping. ' ' , , 1'1 ' , tJ ' , shang fl '
ping Il\ ' ' , shang j'J ' ffiI: ' 7fJ. ' J ' qu
ping S3 ' fs!i ' fe!i ' shang Itt' ' Wy , , tv ' , qu
ping m ' shang :Y ' qu m ' :Y ' ru ,
ping 00 ' , qu 1,;13 ' 13G ' B ' ?3JJ ' ri:t , J ' k'j
154
559. hew [xew] ping ' m ' (!ff( , ru W!
560.
56l.
562.
[LC 119; JY 110]
few [lew] ping iff. ' :tJ( , ' 7::. ' shang 7::. ' 7;k , ru *1
g yew Uew] ping , , , {it ' ,* ' , , ' tIE ' m '
, 'j, ' , ' Jit ' shang II! ' , qu , *1 ' , 1:1 ' BI '
lEI' 11' *,11
Inscr: Yyaw; BJX: tIE yyaw
lew [lew] ping , 1f ' , , , *4 ' , if* ' , {* ' ,
, , , shang 7 ' , , , , , {]t , qu *4 ' ,
!Il&'m
563. Zhew [rew] ping , m ' , shang :tf ' , , rU , ,

Inscr: Zhiw
564. gyaw [kjew] m ' 'liZ ' , shang EX ' , qu i!Z '
fIJJ.
565. khyaw [k'jew] ping Kit ' qu ill:
[LC 120; JY 111]
566. kyaw [gjew] ping , I& ' @
567. dyaw [tjew] ping m:? ' :::; , l}!J , <m ' , ' , shang , It '
qu ffi ' 93 ' j"J ' It
568. thyaw [t'jew]

569. j nyaw [njew]
ping , , ' ' shang , 3 ' qu Jm ' !!3E '
155
570.
571.
572.
573.
574.
575.
576.
577.
578.
; chyaw ping Jm ' 'I'B ' rU m '
pyaw [bjew]
P
'lng ':i@ , , '1@1,i!;J;J , shaVng f:"@,Q'qu'i!'iIJ"I@
7rt 7J"'
dzyaw [tsjew] ping , , JlI.t ' , 1r1N ' shang *n ' *U '
qu , , , aj , 11 ' ru f,J , , il
tshyaw [ts'jew] ping m ' shang 'l'J! , 'Irk, qu {J! , oi! , tlli!3 ' rU
m,
tsyaw [dzjew] ping , , , , qu "j:lj , rU om
[LC 120; JY 112]
syaw [sjew] ping:l{' ' ' , , .. ' W3 ' , ill ' f.ii!3 '
ui!3 ' oi! , ii!3 ' ' m ' shang , , IJ\ , qu , iJI ' f:i:j , :fI!J '
rU i!3U
hyaw [xjew] ping Ojt , , shang

Hyaw [yjew] shang
Yyaw [?jew] ping , '1m ' , , , , , shang ,
1l ' '!E ' qu
Inscr: ngaw
579. gwaw [kwaw]
580. khwaw [k'waw]
Inscr: m gwaw
581. nwaw [nwaw]
582. jwaw
156
583.
584.
585.
586.
587.
588.
589.
590.
591.
592.
593.
J chwaw ril 3! ' , IW ' frJE ' ilE ' til ' m
[LC 120; JY 113]
cwaw ill 1JE ' ' , , fi ' al ' w '
j shwaw [shwaw] ril ifi,lj , ilJ/iX ' , IZ
hwaw [xwaw] ill , ' 5'1 ' tI
Xwaw [ywaw] ill:ft, it ' it
'waw [?waw] ril B ' !Ii ' *I
Iwaw [lwaw] ril
(- gyaw (- gyaw) [kjaw] ping 3t ' !lrx: ' U5( , , , rz '
, , , shang fr()z , jx ' 1x ' , fr-x ' m ' qil , ,

m, it, m
khyaw (- khyaw) [k'jaw] ping , , , shang J7j ,
qil 1ij , ril , , 'fit ' 1it ' , #
[LC 120; JY 114]
hyaw (- hyaw) [xjaw] ping ftJJG ' 3m ' , u;Wj , ott ' 1::t '

Hyaw (- Hyaw) [yjaw] ping , 1iW ' , $: , 5t ' m '
shang 1x ' qil ' , tx ' , ril , , Ii
Inser: i'x Hyaw; hyaw
594. J gwyaw [kyew 1
157
595.
596.
597.
598.
.i! kh,.yaw [k'yew] riI!fI
Ii 'wyaw [?yew]

xwyaw [fiyew]
ba'o [pao] (This form is a variant spelling of baw [paw]
listed under no. 530 above. It was reserved for imperial use.)
XI. :1t .& ngiw [l)iw]
599. j giw [kiw] ping M!; , i* ' shang 11 ' !A. ' , {f< , li ' qu #3z '

[LC 121; JY 115]
600. i .& khiw [k'iw] ping , shang
601.
602.
.& kiw [giw] ping , in ' ::fr ' , t! ' * ' ** ' , it ' *dt ' ft '
:f3jt , i* ' shang , 8 ' , qu Ii '
.&
ngiw [l)iw] ping 4- ' :1t ' re ' [it , !EI) , shang , ::b ' 1ii. ' qu
'W ' :x ' i;b , ttl ' ffi) ,
603 . .& jiw [q;iw] ping ,* ' if,} , ffi ' mJ ' v'I'1 ' , , ' , ' 11+1 '
shang ' ffl ' qu ' ' U; , tJt
604.
I chiw [q;'iw] ping iff! ' '11tl ' m ' MI ' , shang :B: ' HI: ' 1'5 ' M '
qu tf' *'
Inser: tf giw
158
606.
607.
608.
609.
610.
611.
612.
613.
614.
& fiiw [n.iw]
shang till ' &If ' ffi ' m ' qu
biw [piw]
[LC 121; JY 116]
@I miw [miw] ping fj) , qu , fj)
Inscr: fj) muw
j
dziw [tsiw] ping Ofk ' , fk ' shang 11m ' qu {gt
&
&
tshiw [ts'iw] shang f;k' , ' Ik ' ffk
tsiw [dziw]

rg siw [siw]
j ziw [ziw]
shiw
W
ping @ , m ' qu gt ,
ping {Ii ' , If ' shang mf ' qu * ' l3' , #,I , m
ping III ' qu fffi ' dlffi
ping , shang , , -'tr ' qu , i* ' -'tr ' ,
615. zhiw [z}w]
ping m ' ' shang , ' #!ff. ' i:
616. hiw [xiw 1 shang II/L qu ltIi 1;;;
617. Xiw [yiw] ping , , , jf* ' , , shang W ' , J ,
, qu , , , i1* ' J ,
618.
619.
i 'iw [?iw]
Yiw [?jiw]
[LC 121; JY 117]
ping , , , *I
ping [Ig , rl@ , shang If] ,11m ' qu m
159
620. yiw [jiw] ping , Jtt ' , nE ' {I)( , EI3 ' , mgg , !l;iJf , 1ff. ' {1fj. ,
, ' shang @ , , Iii ' Eft ' , , , M ' qu JJ\ ' ;fffi ,

621.
622.
623.
624.
625.
626.
627.
628.
629.
.& liw [liw] ping ' WI ' ,11 ' , M ' , , ' , Wrt ' ,
, m ' shang iPD ' Ii ' ' qu rW? ' ' , M ' WI ' $I]
&
Zhiw [riw]

iI--7 iI cuw > buw [puw] shang m
iI phuw [p'uw] shang:g.U, qu 11, , lffl
[LC 121; JY 118]
iI puw [buw] ping -R ' if ' m ' shang , ;l::g , %13
muw [muw] shang $: , t ' , 1m: ' , , qu , fi ' T# '

--> Hwuw> hwuw [fuw] ping or ' jlf , shang ffi ' i'i' ' or '
qu ;U ' 11' , N ' I; , $j
khuw> wuw [vuw]
ping , , -$ , {$ , ::y , , ,

Inscr: -$ mo
I g"iw [kow] ping jjfy , j;IJ , :lfIi ' lifE ' ' ffjJ , 1] , 'iii) , shilng 1fi '

Inscr: 10 giw
160
630. J kh'iw [k'ow]
W
ping S!@ , f[@ , shang 0 ' to ' op , ~ D ' qu Jt& ' to '
631.
632.
633.
Inscr: Jt& khiw
J ng"iw [rpw]
~
I
shang ~ , ~ , m ' ~
ping SJ32 ' shang -4- ' t4 ' !i!4 ' ~ ! E ' qu r ~
ping {tu ' Mtr ' shang II ' qu ~
[LC 122; JY 119]
634. ~ t"iw [dow] ping !Ii[ , ~ , fit: ' qu R ' .. ' m; , ~ , li ' tIl
635. 1--> J c'iw > nhiw [now] shang qu ;/Jil
636. I jhiw [t:;ow] ping liII ' lI1Il ' ~ , shang J!Ii ' qu lW!i ' ~ , till
637. J chhiw [t:;'ow]
ping m ' w ' 1* ' qu m
638.
639.
640.
1--> 1 zhiw > chiw [dzJw] ping Ji& ' qu ~ , ~
j dzhiw [tsow] ping l!Iit ' ~ , J!Ii ' J!Ii ' shang ;<E , qu '* ' ;<E
Inscr: * thhiw
i tshhlw [ts'ow] shang MI3 ' !f;z , qu ~ , ~ , ~ , ) j ~
161
641. j ts'iw [dzow]
, fHllir
pmg ",,'lJ-
642. j shiw [sow]
shang !!l ' Ii ' mz ' , qu 0JfX ' ,
643.
644.
j
645.

646.
I
647.
!
648. J
649.
zhhiw > Shhiw
qu
ping B ' JJ: ' :i: ' shang ,
[LC 122; JY 120]
Ihiw [fdW] ping , , lID[ , , , shang , , , qu
r;
gyiw [kjiw] ping , shang , , Ifg
kyiw [gjiw] ping ' , , shang
hyiw [xjiw] ping {* ' Uft ' ' R* ' shang ;f7J ' qu
Inscr: {* hiw
Hwow [vJw] ping r-' ' 1 ' @ , -!J ' F , Wi ' !R ' shang frfff '
, , , qu ii ' 1* ' tI '
Inscr: Hwow; hwu
162
XII. Jf{f tam [dam]
650. gam [kam] ping tt ' # ' m ' ' shang , :Ef:Q: ' ' qu '
651. kham [k'am] ping Ii ' :l:ft ' ri ' shang :l:jz , qu m ' III '
[LC 122; JY 121]
652. dam [tam] ping n ' 1ft ' m ' tt ' !t ' tt ' {l , shang !t ' Jlli '
#':X ' qu tt ' tIt ' 1Jt ' 15
653. tham [t'am] ping , n, JfM' shang , OJ: , N ' , qu '
, IJik ' n
654. tam [dam] ping Jf{f , ' ' , 1:l ' ' , 'Ilk ' ,

, , , 'Ilk ' qu , 'Ilk ' , , , '
655.

nam [nam] ping WI ' , t-I4 ' ;fflJ , Wi ' rJij
656.

jam shang !WT ' qu ft '
657.

cham
ping it ' shang it ' IU ' qu
[LC 122; JY 122]
658. cam ping , , , ilit ' shang 111t ' qu
659. hwam [fam]
660.

Hwam [vam]
ping fL ' $JL ' :tB ' *fL ' shang m ' m ' i8 ' '
qu ;t , $JL
661.

warn [vam] shang
662.

dzam [tsam] ping , ,; , shang , it
663. tsham [ts'am]
ping , , shang , '1'1 ' ,
163
664.
tsam [dzam] ping II ' j;i , 'I$T , If ' shang IZ ' qu fl ' I[ , If
665.

sam [sam] ping , , , shang , qu
666. sham ping ii ' , 1;; , 1;; (duplicate) , , :: ' shang ,
,
qu 19
667. ham [xam] p ing , shang
[LC 123; JY 123]
668. Xam [yam] ping , , Ml ' ill ' rut ' shang , , lID ' qu

669.
'am [lam] ping 1f , , , , lFll ' shang at ' , m ' qu
Bif ' M
670. Yam [?jam] h
V
R 11#
sang "" '""s
671. yam Uam] ping ffi ' , .. ' shang
672. lam [lam] ping , tJ;fb , ,@l , m ' , shang :f:l ' ' M ' ;fI ,
qu ' *I ' om
673.

gem [kern] shang , qu
674.

khem [k'em]
qu 'J\.
675.

kern [gem] ping 1tf ' m ' , , , , shang fiR ' 7f.
676.

ngem [IJem] ping , shang' {il ' qu IW '
[LC 123; JY 124]
677.

dem [tern] shang , lti ' qu r;g , ttl ' 15 '
678.

them [t'em] p ing , shang
679.

tern [dem]
ping W ' '115 , shang ' ifj
164
680. nem [nem] ping tti qu ;@:
Inser: ;@: oem
681. jem ping:m' rdi fi !li t=i shang !M qu t=i
682. chern
ping tt r& shang 815 qu tt
683.

oem [I)m] ping
684. bern [pem] ping 1Q shang qu
685. dzem [tsem]
ping )iI 11 qu f:f'
686. tshem [ts' em]
ping :ft shang qu !I
[LC 123; JY 125]
<sl
687. 3J
sem [sem] ping
688.
689.
690.
691.
692.
693.
694.

shem ping -;5 shang 00 qu 00 -;5
loser: sem
zhem
ping shang qu Wi
'em [?em] ping [iJ M shang ;f# at ffl:
It qu
lem [lem] ping!t:. 1* 1& m shang qu

'em> Zhem [rem] ping shang flj. } qu
gyam [kjemJ ping a lit
165
695.
696.
697.
698.
699.
700.
701.
702.
703.
704.
705.
706.
khyam [k'jem]

tsyam [dzjem]
Yyam [?jem]
gyam [kjam]
khyam [k'jam]
hyam [xjam]
Hyam [yjam]
Il: ' qu
hyem [xjem]
Hyem [yjem]
[LC 123; JY 126]
ping , shang tl ' , {l , qu {l ,
p ing ' shang 1$1
ping ' JB ' shang II ' m ' qu m ' ' JB
ping , Ei ' 1!l ' shang , qu ' , Ei
qu
shang OflX
ping AA ' , , {jij , shang Fj , :til: ' iii ' 1m '
ping fX ' shang , ,
ping
XIII. tshim [ts' im]
[LC 124; JY 127]
gim [kim] ping 3i: ' -5;- , f:i ' m ' , shang ' qu

khim [k'im]
kim [gim]

ping ,
ping , m ' , , , , shang , qu r!0J '
707. ngim [I)im]
ping r!0J '
166
708. jim [tim] ping ijt , , i!W ' ' , , shang tt ' qu tt
709. chin [t'im] ping , , m ' shang III ' , qu MJ
710.

cim ping m ' shang M* ' qu , g
711.

fiim [l).im] 'w qu
712.

bim [pim] shang
713. phim [p'im] shang
p
r:!r:!
[LC 124; JY 128]
714. dzim [tsim]
ping i'3! ' qu 13! ' , 15t
715. tshim [ts'im] ping 1i: ' f.& ' , shang ill ' , , qu
716.
717.
718.
719.
720.

a:l sim [sim]

zim [zim]
ping , :i' ' , = '
shim P ing , shang if[ , 'If ' III ' , :ti ' tll
Inscr: shin
g:j zhim
ping Wt ' tt ' 1:ft ' shang ft ' qu g

'im [tim] ping W ' , m ' shang ix ' qu , it ' g , ix
Inscr: g in
721. Yim [?jim] ping
722. yim [jim] ping i ' , fr '
723. lim [lim] ping ** ' Iff ' m ' , !@; , shang JJj , ,
167
[LC 124; JY 129]
724. Zhim [rim]
pIng if: ' :f ' M ' shang 1 ' ' ii- ' qu ' #'f '
if:
725. ! j'im [t!'lm]
726.
!
chhim
727. I
chim [dz.gm]
728.
I
shhim
729.
!
hyim [xjim]
730. S(I go [k::>]
!U'
pIng m
pIng 'qu
pIng '?4 ' 1-*
pIng ** ' , , qu ,
pIng W\
XIV. *x S(I go [k::>]
731. kho [k'::>] pIng , shang ru ' , tPJ ' qu tPJ ' rU 11 ' , $ ,

[LC 124; JY 130]
732. ngo [1p] pIng , Oft ' ' , , 1ft ' , shang iZ ' m '
qu
733. do [t::>] ping:g" shang , qu $:
734. tho [t'::>] pIng it ' 1m ' 't ' !I!t ' qu fffi
168
735. to [d;:,] ping ' II ' i.tt: ' ' n: ' lEt ' , ' ng , , 1t '
shang re ' mt ' qu , *-
736. no [n;:,] ping , ' shang , , qu ,
737. XI dzo [ts;:,] shang tr. ' qu 16: ' tr.
738. tsho [ts';:,] ping , 3i ' 1& ' M: ' shang :1
739. tso [dz;:,] ping M ' , ,
[LC 125; JY 131]
740. so [s;:,] ping , 19-> ' Ti9i ' IiI* ' , qu
741. ho [x;:,] ping , QPJ ' shang ru , ,
742. Xo [y;:,] ping 16]' , iij]' , ro ' , '11j , shang ro ' qu , rU ,

743. IX '0 [?;:,] ping!friJ' WIT ' ru , , , , ' :'ii; , Q/5
Su: !friJ xa
744. 10 [b] ping *I ' Jf ' it ' ifI ' ' }I , m ' shang it
745. gwo [kw;:,] ping j(; , , ' shang , , j* ' qu , ru 13 '
is ' iftf ' *15 ' ' ffi ' 13
746. khwo [k'w;:,] ping f4 ' m ' m ' Sff4 ' shang '1 'qu ,

747. dwo [tw;:,] shang:tj,,,, * ' rU ,
Inscr: :tj da
[LC 125; JY 132]
748. thwo [t'w;:,]
ping , shang if: ' frlli ' TIli ' qu oj , rU , Jill.
749.
[!3
);:! two [dw;:,]
shang m ' :t>R ' , 'fw ' qu m ' 'fw ' rU ' ,
750. nwo [nw;:,]
ping , qu f1m ' 'f1m '
169
751. bwo [pw:)] ping iiSl. ' iI ' 11 ' shang 1fEl ' i ' "I ' qu 11 ' i '
i'fU R'1i'Wf,g
752. phwo [p'w:)] ping , t&: ' JEt ' shang [[ , , qu l1BZ ' ru ti '
ii
Inser: l1BZ phYo. This form is clearly a scribal error fOf phwo.
753. pwo [bwo] ping , SI ' M ' rU JW: ' gft ' , 1ft ' IW: ' R ' tft
754. rnwo [mw:)] ping.' II ' M ' , shang , qu M ' ru * '
87K'1*'T*'?5K
Inser: M rnue; Su: rna
755. dzwo [tsw:)] qil , , rU 1'1 '
756. tshwo [ts'w:)] shang , qil :*U ' , , fil 1'1
757. tswo [dzw:)] ping , , shang , qu , '*

758.
759.
760.

[LC 125; JY 133]
swo [sw:)] ping , ii: ' n* ' , shang ,
hwo [xw:)] shang!k' qil , rU ,
Xwo [yw:)] ping fD ' %: ' M ' shang t/iU ' , ' qil fD ' rU

761. 'wo [?w::>] ping , #ib ' 1\% ' , qil m ' ru
762. lwo [lw::>] ping , , 11 ' ' shang ff if ' ' qil ,

763. A 0 [::>] ping , a1t ' qil fV-.
170
xv . 0-1 rna [rna]
764. gya [kje] rU , ffi ' , fa ' , , , , ,
765. ! khya [k'je] rU fi ' , ,
[LC 125; JY 134]
766. dya [tje] rU , ,
767. thya [t'je] fU.' , , tti ' ' ,
768. nya [nje] rU ilE ' 7i ' , ' ' fdJ. '
769. 2 jya [t:je] ping , shang fl ' 1ffl ' qu fn ' , , m ' rU rg- ,

Su: je
770. chya [t:'je] ping 1$[ , ' shang , rU m ' 11tZ '
771. bya [pje] fU 5j , M ' It ' , 55U
772. phya [p'je] fU.':fI
773. my a [rnje] shang i2 ' rU ft! ' , , 1iJj , ,
S
-YT I'
u: L::; me, mI, I
774. -? dzya [tsje] ping III ' fi ' shang , , qu {i ' rU ti1J '
, , f:& ' , ' , i!K
[LC 126; JY 135]
775. tshya [ts'je] shang B. ' fU fJJ ' , ,
776. -? sya [sje] ping @ , shang 'm ' , qu rEP , , fU , ,

777. -? zhya> shya ping , , shang , * ' qu * '

778. hya [xje] fU , , 11
779. Hya [yje] fU , tI ' i!fj , , , , {;K
780. -?!; 'ya [?je] rU , , JJtit ' iE3
171
781. Yya [?je] rU flI ' nit! ' IJC
782. yya [je] fU It ' * ' , , ' , ,
[LC 126; JY 136]
783. lya [lje] fU 37U ' jl!l , ?fa ' , , ru ' )jil , 3M ' " ' Nit
784
RX Zh [.] h
V
;(5' --H- '5l;-h n,g
. ya fJe sang J"" ' :;;Et , ru , ' HJ1l1.
785. gwa [kwa] ping JJl ' , fiPnJ ' , PI&1 ' shang , , rU i5iJ
786. khwa [k'wa] ping , :;f!j , , , shang H ' qu ,
787. nwa [nwa] fU
788. jwa ping M ' , fU m '
789. zhwa > shwa shang 1i ' , rU imU
790. hwa [xwa] ping * ' 1t ' , qu 1t
791. Xwa [ywa] ping * ' ,W ' ' ' shang JE* ' qu m ' ;f1i , 11 '

[LC 126; JY 137]
792. 'wa [?wa] ping m ' ' n ' m ' 01
793. xwa [fiwa] shang]i' JjU
794. gya (- gya) [kja] ping , * ' 110 ' , mJ ' " ' , ,
mIT ' tva ' shang 11 ' ' , I( , , qu ?#!: ' 1* ' fJiJ. ' ?#!: '

:tftI ' ' ;*' ' 1jtf
795. (-I) khya (- khya) [k'ja] shang '1m ' qu , rU , 'fir, m '

796. (- hya (- hya) [xja] ping pllZ ' o;f , qu IJ ' iWJ ' , fU ,
OftI
797. (- Hya (- Hya) [yja] ping , pllZ ' ' , , ' EIlZ '
shang T ' 1:: ' JJl ' qu HIlZ ' T ' 1:: ' T ' rU ' * ' ,

172
798. gwya [kye] ril :j( , 1fm ' gf{ij , R , , , AA ' , 1* ' fi
[LC 126; JY 138]
799. khwya [k'ye] ru
800. jwya ru , , ttl:! ' ;f)t
801.

chwya rillX
802.

dzwya [tsye] ru ,,,
803.

tswya [dzye]
,
ru )11
804.

swya [sye] ril:
805.

zwya [zye]
ril iiIT
806.

shwya
'm
ru ='
807.

zhwya [zye] ru rJi
808.

hwya [xye] ru Ita.
[LC 127; JY 139]
809.

Hwya [yye] ril'/\
810.

'wya [lye]

811. xwya [fiye] ril A ' ,FlU ' $)[ , , , , tfJ! ' ' B
812.

ywya [jye] ru , )t , r-uJ
Inscr: r-uJ xwya
813.

lwya [lye]
, !j;
ru ' '"
814.

Zhwya [rye]

173
815.
816.
gwe [kwe] rU , ' ,
Inser: JWX khwe

khwe [k'we] rU fifJ;J
Inser: khwya
817. kwe [gwe]
818 Hwe [ywe]
ping , rU "
ping [no examples]
Supplement
S 1. da [tal shang:tT' rU t. ,
S2. tha [t'a] rU rm ' Jfi ' , m
S3. ta fda] rU ,
S4. 01 na rna] pIng , rU 3* ' %Vg
[End of Received MGZY Text]
S5. E ja [1:a] ping ' , shang ifF 'qu Of; , tH:; , rU 0jJf , %1]
S6. C6 cha [1:'a] ping:sz.' shang ' qu tE ' YX ' ru , 5tH ' E8
S7. a ca ping;m;, f:t ' shang ;m; , qu "F ' ru lJ '
S8. 2J ba [pal ping t3 ' shang :tB ' qu , rU J\
S9. a pha [p'a] ping B , qu $t:l ' rU 1/\
S1O. pa [ba] ping:f1:l' qu ' 1m ' rU :tP
SI1. 0-1 rna [rna] ping.' shang , qu
S 12. hwa [fa] ru , ,
S13. Hwa [va] ru {Jt ' 1m
S14. wa [va] rU
SIS. :51 dza [tsa] [Iff , m ' [Z
S16. tsha [ts'a] ru
S17. "\5l tsa [dza] ru , 5\$
S 18. sa [sa] rU., fi!&
174
S19. 51 sha ping , shang ' qu rit , E&1\
S20. ha [xa] shang
S21. LN Va [?ja] ping , shang u. , qu Q ' rit :$L ' tft!
S22. W ya [ja] ping ;f , shang m ' qu
S23. la [la]
S24.

ge [ke] ping , rit ' ffl ' , .:r-
S25.

khe [k'e] ping , rit , &
S26. ke [gel ping fiJa ' rit , lEa' '
S27.

nge [1)e]
rit
S28.

te [de] rit ,
S29.
ce ping , qu ' fU ' J5
S30.

pe [be] rit , JjU
S31.

tse [dze]
qu fi 'fU
S32.
21
ze [ze] ping , shang 1:ih ' qu @t ' tf
S33.

zhe shang , qu U ' fU , 1Jf
S34.

he [xe]
S35.

ye [je] shang i:f1 ' If ' qu , rit , itt
Inscr. yaw
S36. me [me] rit-J2
S37. l1 xa [fia] ping IfriJ
175
PInyIn Index to Chinese Characters in the Glossary
This index is arranged according to the pInyIn spellings of the Chinese
characters in the Glossary. Numbers refer to the entry lines in the Glossary text.
a JWJ 743 ' S37; Jmt 780
al R ' , fjJ 306
ai s}t , 287
ai m 306; 307; B 743
ai x: ' 287; tj , B ' , , If ' , f1f 306; , ' om ' OJ ,
m 307
an !Ji: ' 433; mr ' , , M ' m: 669
an at ' 669; {tit 690
an ' J$ 411; 411 ' 464; , 433; B- , M 669; 670' 671
ang Jmt 780
ang ,.cD 100
123
ao 1JJ. ' m ' , , ' , , Ii ' m ' $. , III 522; 542; ,
if 544
ao , , ' *- 542; 543
ao 279; , , ' W 522; Jl ' , , , , 542; :J:1j]
543
ba E}' J\ S8
ba zz 751 ' 753; Eft ' , , 753; tft 753 ' S10
ba S8
ba fill 297 ' SlO; S8
bai B 297
bai m ' jilf , fs ' 13 ' tEl 295
bai ff ' f/\ 295; J[!z 295 ' 297; *. ' 1'.
ban FJI ' $[ , b'J@ , ' , t& 419; 419 ' 444 ' 446
ban ' t& ' ' fi 419; 423
ban iJ ' If 421; , 444; 1* 446
bang .' MJ ' tm ' 109
bang tm 109 ' ffl' ' #f ' tm 109
bang *', , f$ , {'# ' 1'# 111
bao , - , 530; Jm 531
bao , rI 532
bao If 530' 598; , :i:1: , ff* ' , 530
bao , ' , , ti ' 530; i@.' ff2 ' ' , , ffJ ' i" ' m
532
177
ben
ben
beng
beng
beng
bI
bi
bI
bl
bian
bian

biao
biao
biao
bie
bie
bIn
bin
bIng
bIng
bIng
bo
b6
b6
bo
bu
bli
btl
ca
, tJ!f.' l1iI 169; , , , 1ftE 214
:It 214
' 214; 'W 214' 216; tEl ' 1fEZ. ' m ' itJ) , gf , 1J'rP 216; , jJ!
295; f , 1! 297
:n ' -. 366
*' 366
M ' , #JJ ' to ' #Jf ' 1* 79
, 11; 1$ 12
ill 79
E$ , 169; m ' 1i ' $ilWi 214
.. 171
lt ' frlt ' rrt ' {J!f. 169; fEz: ' , 214

Z ' , 1]1 , 169; M 169 ' 771; 169, 171; lt 171 '
214; fr!lf ' , , M ' trt ' 3i ' Z ' , , , , Jt ' f&;, ,
171; , ' ' , , f& ' , 1!b ' ' , J:t 214; ,
'I'M ' m ' MU 215; , 5fB 216; M ' ,It 771
476 ' 488; jf , rf ' #vffii ' 488; fiZ 684
476 ' 488;:fi 488; #! 489; , 684
rft 421 ' 476; m ' m ' -t ' tt ' 'I't ' 00 ' #- ' 476; , 488

tJ ' *- 554
, ffj 555
fi: ' 771
5jU 771 ' S30; S30

fl ' 7J: ' W ' jjl 343; JJt 345
, it ' pJ< ' 54
pg , , ffl ' , m ' ' M ' m ' :M 54; i.t 488; 712
ffl ' 'I'fj , :tm ' m ' it 54; irft ' m 56; 1* 81
530; 1Bl ' 11 751; :tit ' 1* ' ff.i 751; :EEl 752
216; m ' , \W ' '1$ , f# ' , 1' 250; fs ' fB 295; FB '
297; iW ' ' ff ' , , 530; l@i , 'I's ' i ' fit 532
751 ' 753; 751
295; 11 ' , 751
W' M' am 248
:fffi' r-- 248
m ' [IJ , f1J] , l' 248; '1m 249; 7f ' , 1m ' * ' :!l% 250; , %11
625
S16
178
PInyIn Index
Cal jF!f ' 300
dli , ' ' ;t , ;f:J 301
cai * ' t* ' *IE ' * ' 300
di , * ' j:* 300
can 427; , 663
dm Jjj , 428; K ' j{ , '1l/iJT 664
can , '1'1 ' , 663; '1'1 686; 728
dm , , 427
cang , if ' , 117
cfmg 118
cang if 117
cao t* 536
dio fJ ' fl ' 01 ' !Ill ' 1m ' m 537
cao 1j![ , 't* 536
do 1* ' , , r3f! 536; m 537
ce mrr 190; fffi ' fffiJ ' m ' !if. 293; 326; ' ' 327; $I 583
cen 726
cen Zf- ' 1-* 727
ceng 60; , W 83
cha 3 293; JZ.. 293 ' S6; S6
cha S6; 1& ' lE S7
cha 3 293; *U S6
chai , JZ.. ' 3 293
chai , , M ' fM 294
chai -m 293
chai 3 ' , iii 293
chan fI 657; , :ft 682
chan , , i@ 418; JFI ' ' B ' #1 475; j[ , '&i ' , :w ' , 1Wi
480; IU 657; , ' , UJI 658; 9\1i 689
chan Wi 417; , ' Yff 430; III ' , rPfl! ' , 487; 85 682
chan 657
chang {;R , , , , 106
chang JWj , 107; , , 'I" ' 11 ' 121
chang J]<' , Ii\iQ: ' Jl$( 106

chao t9;' , tJ> 528 ' 740; 552; 1m ' 'I 570
chao 527; 529; :n ' Ij!Jj , 553
chao 1'J> 528
che ' 1i$ 770
che 770
che :f;JT 293; mz 769; m 769, S29; f/lV: ' 11 769 ' 770; 770
179
chen
chen
chen
cheng
cheng
cheng
cheng
chI
chi
chi
chi
chong
chong
chong
chou
chou
chou
chou
chii
chu
chu
chu
chuai
chuai
chuan
chufm
chuan
chuan
chuang
chuang
chuang
chuI
chui
chiin
chun
, , 341; , ' m 709
' 342; , ,i: , , t2 353; ilL 710; WI; , tt ' 11 719
if)( , 341; ' tJ! ' Vi] , tmt 401; rwJ 709; 726
, 52; , , , , , , ' m 77

7}:. 64; H 76; t:& ' ti 78
, ,!J 52
m ' , , ff 52
157 ' 158; 199; #-m ' fff][ , , JII ' mJ ' )g , , $ , 1M ' frl
166; 776
1m' m ' , :l:g;, , JJI ' , 167; , if 182;
R 191
' *li: ' , , m ' R '!l1R 166; ER 182

Yn 181
'l'q:r , Jt: ' lft ' 3'6 ' iii ' {iI ' If ' ti 8; ff ' , m 21
*' 9; ffR' ' 11 ' frp 30
R8
tff! ' m ' frEll ' 604; , 637
604; 1'1 ' , WI ' ' r%J ' #,iff! ' #%J ' f%J 605; it ' 615;
638
it ' ffi ' IDt; 604

tB 211; fJJ 246; , , ' tB 268
246; ' ' lit ' 247; , , , f?* ' , JfJ ' lIT '
269; !I!* 277
, , ttl! 246; 1if 267, 268; ftf ' tt ' 268
A 246; lilSZ ' f,;tfj 267; J1L ' iIT'R ' M 268; tf 604
fffij 312
DI 312
, JlI 501
f.J'd ' , l' 502; , lITID 508
74 ' u-;m 501
&1[1 , 501
iB ' rtit 144; ;!J ' 152
ti ' W ' 145; W 153
if;} , ;IJ ' tt ' 152
8'lZ ' 1)\ 211
206; , 210; , , it 212; , , 13i ' iI 224
, 1i ' Wi!! ' *tl 385
W ' 386; M ' f,;lH , ' , ' 1$ 392
180
PInYIn Index
chun Z' Jm 385
chuo , JilEIi: 583
chuo *!j[, fr 552; m ' 570; , frfE ' IE ' til 583; 800; IX
801; 807
cI i: ' 190
ci Jltl 193; , m ' :it ' n ' >5Z ' , , , JEt 194; , :tPJ '
196
cl 1J1 ' IJ1 177' 193; lI:t, 193
cl WU ' WU ' Yx. ' {;'l\ 193; 195
cong I,I!( , , \I!( , 18; f1fE 32
cong '1* ' 1* ' 'I: 19; f; 33
cong 18
cou JOO 640
cou , , 640
cu II ' Iffi ' 256; 257
cu , , J$ , 256; 256 ' 640; , IS 271; {,IE 272
cu{m tI, tl$l , i1X 450
CUM it' II 449; 458
cuI m 219; 1M ' {1M 219' 220
cUI , It 219
cui 211 ' 219; , JW; , W ' 1$ 219; ' '1$ , W 220
cun *1 374; 388
ctm t ' itt 375
cun '1'1 374
cun --t 374
cuo , I& ' t& 738; 738 ' 756; ' tl 756
cuo M ' , , 739; , 757
cuo ill 256; 256, 536; 536; 755; ' 756 ' 788
dt 'l'B ' 1= Sl; 31 S3
da tT Sl
da "* 735
dai y 288
dai m ' fW1 ' 288; it 289; JtI ' ;@, , m ' *tI ' gtl ' , "* ' 1* ' 1i: .
m ' Ji ' , ! ' , m 290
dan '&i ' , H ' 7-' ' .. 412; lft ' 11 ' Itt ' it ' {t 652; l1t4 653
dan , 412; It ' , #x 652; *' ' g 654
dan g 412; , {B ' , , {B ' 1ff1 ' , 414; rtt ' it ' ilL ' ,
181
E 652; Vl ' 8 ' , , O. ' , , 1& ' tt ' , ,
654; 1$: 733
dang tm ' , , 31lt 101
dang 'Ii,}t, 101; 11 155
dfmg 101; Y!i ' fa ' 11 ' 7Et ' m ' , 103
dao 7J ' , '17J ' 523
dao fiG ' fI ' , , 523
dao jU ' fiG 523; m: ' , fi' II ' '1$ , Jf , Et ' Ji ' ,
525
de , 323
deng 73
deng 73
deng 53; !lJ!f ' m ' ' 11! 73; W ' 74
dI {E& ' g , , fE; , , 161
di , , , , m 161; 161' 181; 3* ' , , II ' M ' ft '
83 ' , , &tR ' 3m 163
d I , )g; , , :f:E; , , , , M ' , 'g 161
d i * ' * ' , , ' , iiL ' , 93 ' 161; m ' frA5 ' 'I#] , 31 '
, , m ' ** ' tW ' , 1* ' , M'[ , 31 ' , :i:-[g 163
dian M';Ii' , JW: ' 470; IS 677
dian 470; 677
dian 470 ' 472; , , ' f;J: , 1iV ' 1m ' ' rI1 472; IS, r;5 , j:S '
16 677; .. 679
diao , , IE ' mB 567
diao :j:lj!' ' 'Ii. ' , 1Il ' PI ' jfrJt 550; tft ' 93 ' ikJ 567
die O.i 166; , , 766; S28
dIng T' ' ;EJ ' n 47
dIng 1T' rnL ' ID 47
ding 1ifE' ' in 47; "J ' 5E 47 ' 49; if ' }f , 49
dong *' {* ' , _ 3
dong 11, _ ' 'Iii 3
dong {*' 1* 3; Ih' tfilJ ' 'I'IPJ ' 'IIV 5
dou 241; !JIG 632
dou -4- ' 14 ' !!!4 ' 632
dou 632; R ' .. ' m; , R ' tE 634
du ' , 241
du m ' j , B ' J , R ' Jj , fI ' ill ' Q , 41 ' "$ , II 243; Q
277
du 1m ' mr ' , 241
du frp , It 241; X 241 ' 243; H ' ' ' 7li , Ii 243
duan ftflij 440
182
PInyIn Index
duan 440
$ 440; 440' 442; .: 442
dUI tl ' fl. 206
du 1 f-t ' ME. ' t)[ 206; >t ' , , ' , 208
dUn fl. ' '1$ , :WJ 362; 364
dun ilij 362; lIm ' fl. ' Jl , 14! ' , m ' 364; @" , ;tJ 386
duo :g, 733; 747
duo 525; 747; , }& 749
duo 212; .. 733; tj , ' 747
duo 1l 525; tt ' 735; m ' , ;fj , 749
e !rnJ ' 743
e , !l#; , , d@ , 1!t! ' {fJ( , , 732; 743; ' oft 763

522; , 542; 732; mz ' , , OB 743
en 403
er , ffiJ ' flffi ' ' ffif ' iIiiI ' 1ffii 188
er 'm ' , t: ' , , 3lj: 188
er = ' m; , I1.ij 'IfU 188
fa S12
fa , S13
fa , 1* S12
fan , :bii ' m ' $I , :m: ' , $I , f.I ' & 423; tl 751

fL ' $A ' fA 660; 753
fan & ' 423
fan 423; 424; ' , 659; m ' $Jl ' Ifr"B ' , Jt ' 660
fang t-n ' 1J ' :tJj' mJ' W ' fJ}j '7f 113
ffmg m ' IVJ ' j:jj 'jJj 114
fang Bjj , tot ' til. ' {jj , {jj , #5 ' , fJD ' Wi 113
fang 1b. 113
fe i * ' m ' , ' , , ' JF ' , ' 173
fei m:s ' jF ' 1!JB 174
fei , m ' * ' fl ' 'lfff: ' , * ' , t#p 173; , II 174
fei 1* ' ffi ' JF ' JJl ' , It ' nw 173; , m. ' uj\ 174
fen 5t ' ' 5} , W ' , M 370; ffi 370, 371; * 371
fen 17t ' ffi ' , 7E'[ , fJ1 ' !ll5f ' fi ' ' fit ' m ' 371
183
fen 370; ?t 371
fen , ' ' If 370; '1'1 370' 371; Jjf , m ' ;I;tr , 11m ' jt , 9r 371
feng , ' , , ' it ' ft ' , , -$ , , 1*' 14
feng <,'ll , 1Ji ' 3i ' , * 15
feng , j:' 14
feng W!\ ' , , ft 14; ' !it ' {$ 15
fo 253
fou /f 627
fou * 627
fou ffi 137 ' 627; , /f 627
fU Nft ' , rI ' , , 1* ' IQ: ' M ' w ' , f 252
fil 216; -' ' , { , , w. ' f ' 1!i , , , , , , 5ll@ ,
, 5t ' Wt ' #JJ. ' 1ft ' #,$ , , m ' ftft ' /f ' , rfr. 252; 1* '

, to ' m 253; 1 ' f ' ;fBz , , G , m ' 649
fU m ' ' :if ' , 1M ' JM ' 11 ' 1m ' Ii ' , m ' 5ft 252; m ' ,
, , Em 253; 627
fil fii 216' 253; 11 ' ' {f. ' jJ , "8l ' Jm: ' fl ' ,ij[ , !iU ' q;f 252; ,
' ff1 ' ' ' , I[ , JMt 253; *t 534; !iU ' 11, , q;f , 627;
' , .f? ' {jr , fii ' , q;f , fl 649
ga 1 , , , , , 285; 318
gai j;j( 285
gai , rIllE ' i'l!t 285
gan -=f ' , : ' f ' ff ' rf 409; tt ' m ' 650
gan "M ' , ' f1j! 409; , Jf!Z ' 650
gan 1; tit 1 ' 650; Bf ' , , tif 409; 1ff 465; 1i ' jt 650
gang [Nj , IWl ' :f:1E ' , &/lUJ ' ilWUJ ' 1L 98; U ' ;t1 ' U ' :fiI 127; I 136;
mr 137
gang 11 127
gang &/lUJ 98
gao i% ' ' * ' , , ' , , * ' 520
gao 1i; , * ' 520
gao *5 ' , 15- 520; 15 521
ge 1Z 160; x ' ;til] , i& ' , ii,!@ 730; :X 745
ge , fljl8 , , , 318; 318 ' 795; 520; , 00 ' ir ' !Ei1 '
730; 'R 795
ge , ' , 730
ge :g. 520; ffID ' {@J 730
gei #.if! 157
184
PInyIn Index
gen tN ' 397
gen N 397
gen N 397
geng #.IYi 71; m ' , 1! ' , Jjf , ' *Jt 92
geng ' tJ: ' ' ffi ' J1ik 92
geng Ii. ' t?if 71; 1! 92

27
gong m ' It ' , m 27
gong , ' 1.1 ' !HI 1; 27; 27, 29
gou 1. 136 ' 629; , W ' , -= ' :j=1ij , 1;] , 629
gou kIj , /g] , ttl] , friJ 629
gou W 616' 630; tJ , m ' , 1iJl, , frffi ' &M ' , fl ' i'M ' 1:i] 629
gU m ' j!$ , iJr!; , , & ' , !l5 ' uN ' fW ' $ , i'1ll ' m 239

;fr , , ' i8 ' ilit 239; BiB ' 261
gu & 239 ' 261; Jij , Jm ' i!Oc ' , 1m ' M ' rim' 15 239
gua frf9J ' #,f9J ' 310; JJ1 ' , #,f9J ' , EIJ 785
gua ,. , pM 785
gua , ii ' iir ' -gi ' 310
gual * 310
gua i il': ' :=R: 310
guan ' , % ' R ' m ' fi , t 438; tHJ ' , , #'1fll ' 456
guan 1f ' % ' :g , :E' , m ' ff 438
guan W ' 1* ' Jl ' , ' 11 ' m ' m ' R 438; '1:1 ' , m ' '* 456
guang jC' iJl: ' 140
guang 140
gUT @; , A ' ' {Jig, 203; 203 ' 226; m ' : ' , IJ ' 231; :Ei
231 ' 232
gu r m: , :If&: ' J}l , ' 1'1 ' , n ' 11K ' % 203; 231
gUt .. ' l'i ' fiU ' tt ' , lfI 203; lffe: 204, 205; \I: ' 111 ' 205;
231; l'i 745
gun $t , , , tiES ' fES 360
guo 310; , 579; si 579, 586; 745; 745
guo 203; W't ' , , M 310
guo * ' , 1* 745; fJ 760
guo J 745
hai Qi1 304
185
hai , 305; 321
hai m ' ft 304
hai , !f ' "t)) 305; , 321
han 667; It 668
han , ' 432; -@r , , , ffi ' 668
han 431; 667 ' 700
han 431 ' 483; il ' BJ 431; -' ff ' if ' , , M '
432; 460; , , , , 668
hang ' 1T ' , tTL 122
hang 1J1: '1m' 0Jl: ' 1T 122
hao , 540
hao , ' , 0* ' if ' if{ 541
hao iff ' 540
hao *=8 ' f=13 ' iff 540; 8* ' , f$ , i* ' , , , , 541;
593
he 307 ' 741; friJ ' rrnJ ' 741
he rim 239; , rz ' 261; 318; "t)) 319; $B , Ii ' , ft 321;
741; fPI ' rPJ ' 1BJ ' , , it ' ,]!a, Iil ' , -g- , ,
fi;. 742; fD ' 7f: ' m 760
he 183; 261; M ' riJ 320; , olWi 540; 1ijI:j 593; 1BJ ' 742
hei 334
hen * 354
hen 354
hen tr! 354
heng JW ' !'j! 94
heng i'i 24; t?:i 65; !'j! 94; ' J1J ' iT 97
heng i'i 24
hong ' , 23

5[. , 5k ' 00 24; i5L 96; !Ill 24 ' 127
hong yJJ[ , r!ft ' m ' 00 24
hou , , , jj* ' , 617
hou OfL 616
hou J!1. ' itt ' J , , , itt ' , ij* ' J , 318 617
hu Of ' , ' i)$ , , , , 260; f ' )$ 261

' 261
htl JJE ' WE ' 260

261
hua $ , 1t 790
186
PInYIn Index
hua 790; ' '. ' ' 1ft ' m- 791
hua ' rs 315; 1G 790; g* ' g , w ' ' t;$ 791
huai ifl 226; , 1ft ' r.!! ' IU 315
huai 310' 315
huan We ' 'II ' , ifi ' 31 452
huan , Ik ' , t.&G ' 453; , ' ][ , , IE ' , , iR 460;
460' 509
huan 453
huan 412; offi!: ' 1ff;! , , 452; m ' m ' , m: 453; :j:1 456' 460;
lifJ, ' Elf ' , , iJ 460
huang m, 'I'm ' 147

:fl ' , Ji 155
huang 'I'm, 1:JJ 147; :W, , , 155; 'l:5L 156
huI , 204; J3( 225; IJJ ' m 235; ,. , , :j:f ' , ** ' Sf ' I[ ,
, t 236
hui , @] , r@l , 1@J , @ 226
hUI , 225; , m ' , mg , m 236
hu'i ii ' g 222; ': 222' 228; ailj 225; Ii ' Iii ' fr ' #,I: , IWJ
226; , Wl ' ii 227; 228; I 234; , , m ' 11 '
235; 236; 237
hun 1" , '1'1 ' , 377
hun , 378
hun 1,EB , , !![ , , 378
huo fr5 ' 115 745 ' 760
hue I}( 759; 760
hua EJX; , 226; , tl 314; jI 315; :j:l 316; m ' ' 11 586; '
, 11 587; Hi ' !Ii ' 588; 759; 11% ' -fD 760; tl
791
jI
, 157; .' B' , , liY))i , gJ ' 1fJ' i,;i 176; fJ
176, 192; m ' , ' H ' , 198
ji , i& ' 1& ' t.& ' Ji ' , m ' 157; Hz. ' R ' frfj , frfj' is'
159; if ' lf1f ' 1m ' , 1* 176; * ' ' , ' iff ' m ' iZ ' ,
, , 178; , 189; 5 198; 1:& 774; R S25
jl , #'c ' a ' , 157; 1j!j , m 157; m 'i'/If 176
j'i #'c ' itr ' , ' , , ' ,\I , C ' III 157; :J5Z ' fJ5Z ' , ,
, , , tEl ' , , , 159; :& 160; ", i'/If'

178; H ' iJ ' 198; 218; 231; 'I" 233
187
jia 293 ' 764; BE 318; , 764; 774; , * ' no ' , '
, ffj[j , iYJa 794; Jll!I S24
jia 318 ' 794; , , 764; JI ' !k ' , m ' 794; :fJ( S15;
S26
j ia 11 ' , 1F1 ' ' , Ej3 , gfjl , :fEf1 ' 794
jia , , 1* ' fit ' 11 ' 1F1 ' 794
jian Fs' , ' , rg 463; 466; , , ' :fi ' 484; , ,
, M ' 490; , , , 11 685; , , , ,
694; , Ei ' m 698
jian 1m ' * ' , trl!j 463; , * 466; ' iii 484; , U ' ,
490; 673; 675; 698
jian Fs' , , 463; Jl 466; 14 ' ' m ' m ' 1Yt 468; , ' ,
, # ' rtr ' ifff 478; 5! 484; , 1m ' l'm ' 490; 673; 11
685; IT 685 ' 696; ' , Ei 698; 11: ' ' iii ' Ii 701
jiang :!:'.' '-I ' 71 ' 1iI ' 11 ' 11 ' , 1I 127; , , , 131
jiang ii, m ' , 127; , , , 131
jiang Jij:'!IlI 127; 51 127' 129; za: ' 131; III 133; , fliJ 137
j iao , ' , 546; , WJ: 564; , , JJ! ' , f,jjz , 572;

jiao ni- 574
jiao m ' , 11 ' NI ' mm 546; , J35( , B!x ' WJ ' 564; ' 572;
#<J. ' y)( , , frY. ' 11 ' ftEJ ' 590; 1x 590, 593
jiao , 11* ' m ' ai- ' m 572; , g , TX ' , , fl ' It 590
jie fir ' .I" , 1f:T ' , W& ' 1f:T ' r& 318; , *' ' 774; , 794;
795; S24
ji6 Wi'i 189; 199; #-6 ' ffi ' , f6 764; ' , 1i ' frl 774; j!fJ[
794; i5iJ 795; llG S17' S31; "f ' t); , f S24; m' S26; :fl
S32
jie 318 ' 321; 319; 774
j ie fff 178; t.;$ , , ffX: ' Ji! ' it ' EF ' m ' iii ' iF ' ' , 318;
1't' 774; ft 178' S31
jIn rtJ ' JT ' 1f9J ' 336; $ , fJi 347; :ili: ' , , , 704
jin aI ' 11 ' I ' :I ' , 'II, if. 336; , :I 337; W 347; 404;
704
jin 'II, if 336; lli: ' if. ' R ' 7f ' !I 337; , m ' , , fJi 347;
W 349; if ' 1.1 ' ' Pli 351; 704; , 706; , ,
714
jIng It, * ' mJ ' ft ' # 43; 45; , ffl ' ' , , , :Mt ' 1%
58; , 92; :M 97
jing fj 27; tf' 1fx' ji\]J 43; -# 58; ' 92
188
PInyIn Index
jlng 1lR' , 43; '!m ' 45; ' , {' ' m ' 1m 60; , #.lli ' ,
, 92
jiong tfiiJ 87
ji6ng [flj 27; 87; 88; J ' 1:\Ol ' 1fiiJ 91; 383
j iii 599; Ufk ' , r-tk 609; 646
jiu n ' !A ' , :1k. ' 599; 199 609; *.LJ ' fg[ 646
jiu , :1k. ' , :1G ' 599; M ' S ' , Ji ' 601; fwe 609; ,
Ii 611
jii m 245; g , fJiS ' tJiS ' ;EJiS ' , ' t11] , , t* ' i:f1: ' , m ' ,
m , tffij 264; i'J 265; gJ 266; H '!k. 271; 1t 271 ' 272; ill '
1i. , , m. 272; g 774
ju , 231; , , 264; , JW; , Ji%} 266
ju ti 247; , , ' ' 264; 265; ali 273
ju 'U 159; , , @ , IS ' , HI ' 1:0 ' *'PJ ' 264; E ' ' tE '
fE ' Ji!t! ' ;tI:! ' ' Ja ' =1= ' if ' ' 'II ' :Wi 266; tEl. 271; 1l3.
271 ' 273; gfl. ' 273; 11 548
juan , , 497; m 503; 503 ' 506; m 513
juan 516
juan , *f , 497; {!g 499; m 505; , , 516
jue J9fj 264; -om ' Il ' tlili 266; 'II 534; Jij 546; , 548; ji} 572; oj
574; Jl ' i'fiJ ' H ' :j:jlj , if 590; 31 ' 11 ' Jl 594; 595; ;E;!;: ,
, , , M ' , , f!ljz , , if!:. 798; 802; *@ 803; 1*
810; I5Z ' , tffiX ' 815; 817
jiin ;g, jj[ , 1! ' :l$] , , f!8 ' 381
jun m 381; m ' m ' 383; , , Wi ' 387; UI3f: ' nI ' i8t 389
kai 00 286; r& 319
kai ii ' ' riI ' 286; r& ' 319
kai 'Ii, , tx 286
kan 410; A ' tl ' , m 651
kan iJiL' ftl 410; :f:jz 651
kan 410; III ' B!& 651
kang 99
kang tiJ 99; 122
kang m' I%J ' 111: ' in ' 1C 99
kao 1'13 ' m ' Ji: 521
kao m 521
ke 1il 286; fPJ 731; 1i ' 1il 731; =m 742; fit ' , , ' 'J[ 746
ke 590
ke PJ ' :f:Q] , 1i 731
189
ke 319' 731; 322' 335; , Jill 322; 521; 731; 746
ken 72; , 398
keng ' m ' U ' 93
kong , d@:, , 2
kong fL ' , 2; 28
kong , , , if 2; , 28
kou , j:I 630
kou 0 630
kou 616; 10 ' Op , ' 630
ku tr!i ' %U ' @ , fffl ' ;; , 1fz: 240
kli E 240
kil J$ , , W! ' 240
kua 1* ' 7f ' ifij , 786
kua H ' , 786
kuai , , fi ' fr ' 1Jii ' {t ' JjWf , 203; :rY1?, 204; 5t 203 ' 310; tk:'
ut ' , 311
kuan j[ , R 439
kuan ff,x , tt 439
kuang ill 140; OC ' , 1['[ , [ 141
kufmg JI 142
kuang 1il 1; 140; 5: ' 8M ' :iM ' fIi 141; ' yR 156
kuI Jt7J ' t!t!. ' 1& 204; , fl ' !U 232
kui 14 204; , , , , 1Jj 205; , 232; 233
kUI R ' '5(J{ 232; 233
kUl tM ' tl ,1[1 203; 204; ' ' 1( 205; tl 226; .' 311
kun .ffi ' ' , lEE ' fiE ' 360; ;1:$ , 361; 1m 378
klin , fIN ' 'l'1!! ' MJ ' i[ 361
kiln 12 361
kuo til 155 ' 580; m ' , 580; 115 ' ;fr5 ' m 745; , '* 746
la Oitr S23
la *'1 ' !It S23
Uti * ' * ' 309
lai W 176; , fJ{ , * ' * ' iii ' W 309
Um , 1Ij , ill ' til ' m ' JI ' 436; , it ' If ' m: 672
Ian PI ' 436; , fI ' JI: ' :tJ: ' 11 ' 672
Ian 436; l! ' ' om 672
l[mg :N ' , , , , JIm ' , , , !IlEZ ' f,N 125
lang 1m 125
190
PInyIn Index
Hmg 00 ' , , 125
lao if 545
Hio , '$ , , 545
Hio , 1* ' , 1t ' 545
la
' 0 -Iff! m 545
, i'7i ' { .... 'f" ' ';f:J , S'"I::f
Ie 1f;/J , :j:n ' J3JJ ' {f] , 333; 545
lei , .. ' , fm, , 1m, , g , , ill ' 11 229
lei * ' , , , !I: ' ;Ii , ** ' , 11 229
lei , , , , , 229; J3JJ 333
leng 69; 1E ' , 86
leng 69' 86
Ii
M! ' , , ,11 ' ' 11 ' Ii ' , fJi ' ,AU 187
11
m ' 187
11 , M ' flj , mz ' , Ii ' m ' fYU ' ' 1II ' , , , 1% ' iJU '

187; 187 ' 545
lifm W ' , , , , 482; Jji , 1ft ' ' ' 1iJ ' m 692
lian fJ! 482; , W 692
liffil *'* ' , t* ' it 482; 518; , 692
liang .&' , m ' ' , ' ;. , , , 139
liang Jl.IlI' B 139
1 iang #.m ' Jl.IlI ' tN ' ' m ' 139
liao 1't 527; 545; JllJp , , , , , *4 ' , , J!j , {t ' ,
, , , ** 562
liao 7 ' , , , , {J1t 562
liao *4 ' m 562
lie 371J ' , l.!J ' {yU ' , rrJ ' }j)j , 1jl , It ' Nil 783; :f; 813
lin , M ' , , 1im ' , Iff\f , ' , , , 358; # ' '* '
me ' # ' !@; 723
lIn 358; !j; , , {ffF!: 723
nn , 1= , lIi ' 1im 358; :it 711
1 ing 17- ' 11 ' , , ' , , M ' ' , , , , , ,

lIng , 69
lili ;U ' fD ' , , ffli ' , ' t1E ' , , , ' fsJ ' ' ffli
621; 647
liiI /\ 282; , .. ' fD ' :gp 621
long Ii ' Ig , ' U ' , m ' Bll ' t; 26; ' , , 41; 150
191
long 26; /l!l[' II 41
lou 11 ' , ' tl ' !II ' !if 645
lou :fI ' 645
lou , , ' 645
lu ' :!tit,S ' ' ' U ' rJi ' #, ' , 1Jj 263; J1I ' Jjf 263 '
282; !iii 282
Iii , ift ' mi ' , 263
lu
263; 1i1J ' 263 ' 282; ' , fi ' , , 1ff- ' M ' , Jt
282
III 00 ' ' frgj , 282
III g , nK ' , fK ' ft ' 18 ' iii ' 11 ' tI ' )I: 282
III II ' 1$ , i\ ' jj , , 2$ , 282
luan , ' ffi ' , , mI 455; , 1Jff ' 518
luan 455
luan filL 455
We I!Ii1 ' m 562; 813
lun -gffij , , ;fjfff 380; nfff ' , 1mr ' , MH 395
lun -gffij 380
IUQ 762

luo W' m ' g , m 762
luo 263; m ' , , , , , mE ' 545; 589; 762
rna Sl1
rna Sl1
rna Sl1
mai :tJI ' , 298
mai 298
mai Jf ' , NJ ' , JlJR ' W; 298
man 422; fl!i ' , ' 447
man 1m ' 447
man , ' 422; 422 ' 447; 425 ' 447; ' t ' ;l:J. '
447
mang gr , m 13; rt: ' 'I't ' , 11 ' , , 112
mang 112' 251 ' 626
mao fs!j 533 ' 556
mao :: , , E , 1J:t ' "* ' !Ji 533; :T ' 628
mao .gp , J)p , HP 533
192
PInyIn Index
mao 217 ' 533; , , , ' '1 , , Mt. 533; a; , w ' m '
626
mei J , IIffl ' , ;fJI , , ;f)( , , ' J5<: ' 11 ' 1l ' ?f1j , 217
mei , fJI ' , Ei 217
mei i!* ' :fR 172; , Jtt ' ft7K ' #iJ ' 217; 87K ' 1* 217 ' 298; l*
298
men , , , 369
men 'It ' , 369
meng , * ' , , , ;'J , , * ' !lIt, Jj;, Eiij, Blt ' 3
13; if ' , 'It 16; M 57; tr2; 112
meng , 'It, 13
meng jfu , M ' * ' 'It 13; , if 16
mi 15; , , g 172; , , fI.t ' 217; 5m 172 ' 771
mI i5li ' j.E} , 15; , *' ;&, * ' 11* 172; fI.t 217
mI , , , , , , ' 18 ' 172; , !.0 217
mifm , *113 477
mian *00 ' 1WJ ' 100 ' El], , 9'r!2 ' :92. ' iJfJJ ' it ' , 100 ' jl 477; fi 489
mian , , , 00 477
miao ffi ' filE 556
miao gI}; , 1!l3> ' , tJ> ' 556
miao , 556
m1e t:1 773 ' S36
mie , .. ' , iI ' , 773
min , ill,a; , , R 346
mIn lIIl 57; fMi ' , '1'00 ' 00 ' 'iIt'y: , , 1R: ' 1; 346
ming , Eij3 , , is ' 141 ' , , , , , , 1S ' 57
mIng 1f[J 57
m l
' u' ?l?I 608
,
mo 533
mo , 11m ' , 251; J1l 533; ' JJl ' M ' , m 754
mo , , 217; ' 7J9. 251; !)B , ' ' , IDR ' IN 298; ,
, , , , , 533; M ' * ' 87K ' 1* ' f* ' 1* 754
mou , $ , .$ , 1$ , , 628
mou * 626
mil , tzHJ 251; -BJ: ' ' 1m: ' 626
mu .' *' W, ft' 251; ,
, , 254; 533
na S4
193
na * ' 736; 787; oils 814; 1* ' iiils S4
nai 291
nai n ' ill ' im ' tIl ' frf]l 291
nai * ' * 291 ' 736; mIT ' im 291
nan it 415; m ' , @ , iftj , , ofj 655
nan , 415
nan It 415
nang It 104
nang 104
nang it 104
nao j'* ' j'! ' , , , , JlOO 526
nao , '['f:l 526
nao 1!j! , ImJ 526
ne ils 244; oils 814
nei 209
nei pq 209
nen 365
neng j$ , 1$ 75; 75 ' 291
ni 1m ' f!! 164; , 168; {)l , , Il ' ,JG ' j'x ' ft ' ffiJt ' 186
ni , , 160; tI ' 15m 164; , 1fJ\ ' Dffi 168
nt 160; 1m ' W ' 164; ' , , 168; 5G 186
nian !if 473; tS 680; , *ti 683
nian , 1,'g , fi ' 473; :;: 482
nian 680
niang fjJ 108
niang @I 108
niao , J,; 567; , 569
nie 186; , 7i ' iI ' NI ' ' f;!J. , 768; W ' =* ' 8 ' WB '
[lJ;l , , W:lJ! 782; , 0:1 784; !Ji ' Mi\ S27
ning 46; $: 50
ning 1$ 50
n tng Wl ' 1i ' 1$ 50
niu 4 602
niu t.iB: ' m ' HI: ' j'H 606
niu 606
nang JI: ' , ill 6; 14 ' , tl ' 11 10
nong # 26
nOll 635
nu f)J. ' , Yi ' m ' jj. 244
nu , -g 244
nu 244
194
nil
,
nil
nuan
nile
nuo
nua
au
au
au
pa
pa
pa
pal
pai
pai
pan
pan
pan
pang
pang
pang
pao
pao
pao
pel
pei
pei
pen
pen
pen
peng
peng
peng
pI
pi
PInyIn Index
tx. 270
tx. ' , RJJ. ' fH ' ID!H 270
BI ' 11 ' 443
, g 549; 559
, ' 736
fi 291 ' 581; t 526; Tm ' 'I'W ' 11 750
644
, , , 631; , 644
100; 644
BB S9
tB SlO
'I's 532; ' 1)\ S9
1B 296
216; 297
1* ' iff 296
' iR ' 420; 11 ' it 445
, !!m: ' tt ' $ , nI ' , , , ' , 91 ' #- 446
lID 420; *U ' 1* ' 1ft 445; fR ' Bf 446
r1f ' , % ' * 110
, 1)] , m ' 50/ ' Jft '
Jjt 446
)@ , Jf ' ftt1J 531
fel: ' rtf:g , , 1 , , N , f , 532
i'P2 ' mI ' 531
tI ' Mq , Jjf ' :Ef 215
, * ' ;1:if ' M 216
214; ' @B ' P2 215; 1Jl!R ' wt 216; 1m 295 ' 296; 296
11, 367
1JJ. 368; m 370
367; ?l 368
, 7 ' =tf 80
lj 11; , , , If ' 11 ' 12; , tM ' JjJj , , , 5EE 81
14
#Jt ' =tit' 170; fEz ' , , /G ' ,\[E , {:f ' fI 215
, , ;1:.$ , f$ , tllf. ' g , it, ffi ' ' HI ' ' tit 171; mlt
171 ' 194; Jm 214; E!. ' ml ' 216
195
pi
pi
plan
pian
pian
PlaO
piao
piao
piao
PIe
pin
pin
pin
pIng
ping
po
po
po
po
pou
pou
pou
pou
pu
pu
pu
pu
qI
qi
qi
qi
, it ' i1t ' 121 ' @ , 170; , :Fe 216
'WI ' frl ' 1:W ' ffl ' Z ' iIl 170; yJ 215
, , mm ' 489
m ' !II ' ,!]t , ' i!! ' ;fff ' , 3f 476
J:!r ' 489
I) , 571
' , 555
Y ' Jf. 555; #!fi: ' e 571
t" ' 555; , ' 571
, 11 772
, jJ , f$ , :flt ' !ill ' .. ' WHi ' Jt 345; :fit 476
713
, frIlg 55; 345
, 11* 55
3f ' , , ff ' ftFi ' m ' m ' ff: ' m ' {,\ , 56; ,* 476
531; , fez 752; wi ' 752
, Ei 753
[[ , 752
ill 295; m ' 296; 752
624
if' m 625
m 623; ifU 624; :!::g. 625
624
wm ' :J+ 249; 249' 252; 11" 252, 624' 627; 531; 249 '
531 ' 532
iJ' 'lJ 216; , 248; 249; , 1m' :g, $ , M ' 250;
, ;fl 531
, 11m 248; , ' im 249
248 ' 250; wm 249; Hi 250
Uff;J , 158; , , 'I'J ' ' --t ' y* ' JllG ' JW '
177; , , 199

m ' tJT ' frJ[ , , Uff;J , ;l:ff , m 159; 7{If' , tJlf 178; ' !iBZ
199; tEE ' jf\ , wiZ ' ilit ' , ,H; , " ' , if 200
, , te ' We ' B ' W ' z: 158; m ' , , m ' it: 199
157; , tiffi ' , ffj , , , YiL ' Fs 158; 111:)] , 1iJf ' wU ' #i '
1l ' ' :&: 177; m ' '1'2: ' 183; , it: ' ' , 199;
765
ill 795
196
qia
qlan
qifm
qian
qian
qlang
qifmg
qiang
qlao
qiflO
qiao
qiao
qle
qie
qie
qie
qln
qin
qin
qln
qlng
qing
qing
qlng
qlong
qi6ng
qlU
qiu
qiu
qu
qu
qu
qu
quan
qufm
PInyIn Index
, 'Ii'! ' r!Ji?i 795
464; fa' 467, 494; $' m, WJf 485; T' 1Yf'
' , M 491; W't ' 514; , ri 686; 695
$Z , m 468; M ' iJ@ 478; fir ' W ' ' !i ' , 675; 11 696;
!i 706; iI 717
467; m: 467 ' 485; 491; 'It ' 695
{J[ 485; fi ' lS ' 491; 7Z 675; !fI ' 686; if 695; 695 '
699
5E ' !Il5t ' , , fit 128; , i'! ' , , 'MiT 132
' 129; MI ' Jfi ' ' 1'1 ' tI ' , J!i 133
11 127; 152
535; , 544' 591; ;m , 547; m 565; jfk 573; 591
, 1l ' 11 ' , 548; 1& 566; , , ! , 574
, 'Itk 573; Vj 591
iI 565; 566; , , U!i1:l 573; 574; :/Wi 575; , 591
fJJ 775
150 794; ilJa S26
L 775
fJJ 177 ' 775; , , , 765; , * ' 775; S25
m 348; ' 705; 714; , , 715

717
715
715 ' 716
gNP 44; , Wi ' 59; 1);]{ , tj 88; 93
WI- ' WJJ ' 45; 'Ii ' 60
59; J::j 88
JJ: 44; , Wi ' 1m ' 59; 88; , W 93; m 348
28
, fit ' ;tf3' 29; , 'If ' B: ' 'If 89
600; f:k' I): , tfk 610
t.t 599, 601; , {n ' , n ' , * ' i# ' , 11 ' ' tt '
.f* 601; gg , ill 611; III 613; ' ' 647
*$! 600, 646
Jffi 264' 265; , r! ' ' 1iI ' "rm; , , 11 ' , "rm; , , tfj
265; arB ' m ' 272; a! S25
, ' , , i ' ' iIJ ' M ' M ' , 1lj}] , frij , tgJ ' *121 266
1M ' fffi 265; ]f3Z 272' 640
00 232; * 265; ' , m 272
Ei1 499; 504; , ti! 517
Ii!: 457; il ' ' IDi ' , :ff ' t'g 499; , {:i ' , 1i ' : ' ,
504; , * ' 505
197
quan 8jjt 497; 7:. 498; 517
quan 517
que fIi;R: 799; 816
que j\f 817
que tiP 158' 547; 521; '* 572; W ' m ' i!1Z 573; m ' it ' :ft 590;
iW& ' 'fJt?; , 1it ' , #fj 591; liflJ 593; IiJ 799
qiin , M 382; 388
qun f=f ' :m 383
rfm , 483; 693
ran 483; -14 ' } , 693
rang ' , tl ' ii{ , JJl 126
rang m ' rl ' 126
rang l 126
rao m ' m ' 563
rao jJ: , , , 563
re ;g , ;:.fi 784
re 784; 814
ren A ' 1- 359; f:f ' :E 724
ren Hif, 359; if 724
ren #ZJJ 339; TJJ ' ' m ' fJ] , ' "I1 359; ' ffI7, , ' #,1 ' i:f 724
reng 1Jj , 70
r1 B ' ' A 188
rang 38; ' , 11 ' , i@ , , ?It ' 40; tJ(; , , , ,
If 42
rong 7L ' IE 42
rau * ' j,* ' ' '* ' f* ' '* ' if* 622
rou '* 622
rou 283
ru ftIO ' Wi ' j. 270; ' fri ' 11 ' iI ' 'II ' U]I , m ' ri'm 283
ru !x. ' & ' *ft: ' ' , m 283
ru A 188; itIO ' , :00 ' , 1Ji 283
ruan :!:W 515
ruan 396' 515; we 512; 515
rut n ' 230
rut * 230
rut Jffij 224; pg , r7'J ' 230; ' 238; m 230' 814
rua 750
ruo ;:.fi , , 563; 814
198
PInyIn Index
run 396
run M ' 396
sa 1,1 303; Ji ' S18; 1,1 303, S19
Sal [W 302; 331
sai 181; ' 302
san ' .=:. ' 665
san fl: ' , $: 429; 665
san fl: 429
sang , 119
sang , , 119
sang 119
sao ' 11 ' , , , ft ' 'II 538
sao ' iff} , tff} 538
sao * ' 0* ' tw ' iff} , 1* 538
se , , 3;N , 1lliE 197; 331; 5 ' Tit ' Ti 332
sen 666; 728
seng , fi 84
sha 19;- , S 19
sha 1l 789
sha III 307 ' S19; S19
shai 8.1 ' 303
shan gOO ' f!!!T ' frfffi 429; ffiFJ ' M ' W 430; fl ' tM; , iJll ' , 493; ,
666; -;5' 688
shan 653; , 00 688
shan "W ' 1W 430; , , t, ' Ifl ' E!) , , , Hi ' mr 480; 493;
, -;5' 688; 689
shang p,}j' , 1J ' , M ' , 120
shang 120; L 121
shang 121
shao fF , tF , 5F , , 1m ' 1l'f ' 539; m 557
shao 19 161 ' 558; 00 ' kJ 558; 558 ' 561
shao & 557
shao & 557; ' , B 558; Btl 558 ' 566
she , 777; 1t S5
she E 734' S29; E S29; 1il S33
she , <@r 777
she 167; 'II ' 769; <@r , iJf!x ' $: , tl ' , 'Ix ' U ' -g9: 777;
S29; * ' S33
shei ME 224
199
shen
shen
shen
shen
sheng
sheng
sheng
sheng
shy
shi
shl
sht
shou
shou
shou
shu
shu
shu
shu
shua
shuai
shuai
shuan
shuang
shuang
shui
shul
shut
shun
shun
shuo
shuo
sy
sl
$ , 1$ , *$ , Q$ , Mf ' J1r 352; ' %t ' gyt , 15t 402;
666; 718; , 728
f$ 342
' Qj 352; iff 709; WJ 709 ' 718; m ' ' , , 718
, M ' :filZ ' )jJlZ , 353; 710' 719; it: 719; 728
, ft- ' , ' 1m 63; , , tt ' , , 85
*,1ffi ' 111 53
85
* ' *u ' )jI , @: , iE) , 53; , 1m ' 63; , Jil 64
f.;fli , flffi ' F ' B!!& ' WE ' , , * ' 1!J, 181; @ffl' 197; lB 259

it ' :tE- ' + 182
5fu ' * ' , 181; 9:: ' 197; 202

$\ , fr!J ' m ' 181; , .E\: ' , rtf ' , , Ex ' , ,
, &j , , if ' HK ' m; 182; ' 1 ' t$ , FE ' 191
614
'- 614
, !* ' 614; 'X ' ' f. , t: 615; 1!ll 643
iEfrt ' ;fJrt , lEi ' Mt 259; j)j , , fr* 268; tf 269; *f 269, 276; W '
' fgtr , t;z , , ;f& 276; )i# ' 9:: ' 1rm 277
m ' Jtt 269; , !1A ' , JJl ' 277
259; , , , mt 276; i!f ' Bi ' :;] , M 277
259; :pfq , tt ' V!t ' 1i1l 269; ?ZtB ' ffl: ' jj(; , * 276; , , ,
fE ' It 277
frllU 789
:iR ' t 313
$ , @rjJ 259' 313; 259
:t3: 504
146; , M ' 154
M ' 154
ME 224
7]<. 223
$)l 219' 223; m ' )l , 223; lE 224
J 386; :tJ , ifj 386, 390; lift 505
)Iif[ 386; , J!t ' 391
m 806
551; , 557; tfiJ3 ' 0JfJ: ' , 585; 5t!j\ 642
rOOf 179; ,IGl ' R] , M ' ** ' ' fk ' wr ' OOT ' JJJc: ' ' ti ' ,
195
7E 195
200
PInyIn Index
sl {* ' 191; [9 , , 1[J] , ' m ' {i'i] , ,E(!;l 195; , 10l ' tB ' 1M '
B ' f , 1B ' , ' ' tt 196
song 20; , 34; 35
song '1*, ftt ' 34
song *' 20; 1}Ji ' ' 35
sou m5'l 538; ft, H ' @l , :i: 643
sou 5ll ' fi ' IIM1 642; if 643
sou , iiIiX ' W}( 642
sU JM( , ' W* 258
su {% 275
su ' 1Jf ' * ' 1* ' , m ' , , , m ' 258; W 258 '
303; 258 ' 274; Jmi 259; !f ' m ' m ' WI. ' 274;
tt, 303
suan 451
suan g 451
suan .' # ' Wf; 451
SUI !Ii ' , M ' :!* 221; mE 221 ' 272
sUI Jlf! ' 222
sUI Ii 221
su 1 , , n ' *- ' g$ , , , 1i$ 221; , , , ,
, , 222
sUn 1* ' m ' H* ' Jtt 376
sun f1':l 376; , m ' $ , 389
sun 11 376
suo , flY' l* 740; 19> ' , 0i ' 758
suo PH 259; * 303 ' 538; ' 758; :m: 789
suo 740
ta 1fu ' '2: 734
ta III ' jI , , S2; S3
tai M:r 289
Hii 13 ' 289; ,;: , II ' fi=l ' 11: ' 1ii ' 290
tai * ' '1* ' -x. ' 289
tan 1Ji ' , It 413; ffit ' 653
tfm J:l ' 1.1 ' 5lf. 414; .. ' 1l ' f!: ' , ik ' , '11R. ' , ' M '
654
tan m 413; rEI. 414; , N ' fig 653
tan 1M ' fJ( , o.l 413; 480; 652' 653; , 653; 654;
688
tang , it 102
201

tang !Ii ' 11 ' -m- 102
tang 11 ' l$j , 102
tao W ' , '1'5 ' OJ] , {I* ' :j:jt ' #JEJ ' j'it ' 15 524; ;J:{tf] 525
tao 1Jt 524; , f,;1JH ' , DJt ' 1Jt ' fg , , r$) , rID ' , m ' III 525;
550
tao 524
te rt ' , 324; , 1m 325
teng JJI ' , , jJi , JJt 74
tI , , ,m 162
ti rPrlf ' , ' :fff ' m: ' rm ' , W ' M ' t7t' , #Jl! ' 163
t'i ffI 162
t i 161; 1!f ' ' , Jf!tt, 1JEJ ' lEI ' ' , 162
tian *- 471; 678
tian EE ' 1ff! ' ffij( , ' , IiJ 472; mt ' i[i5 679
tian MI! ' , jJ1. 471; 1% 678
tian 471
tiao tit ' 1Jt ' , 568
tiao ill ' {I* ' , tllR ' !W!J ' , ':B ' , 550
tiao 1iS 550; Jjt ' 568
tiao R ' gJt ' ' JI1t 568
tie '['r!i ' ' ' 767
tie ' '. ' 767
tie , 767
tIng 1T ' , 48
ting rg , , }i , , "'F ' , , m ' m, g 49
t'ing , 1M ' mi 48; m ' Jru; 49
ting 48
tong W 4
tong 4; 4 ' 5; [PJ , , :it ' 11 ' ' , 1m ' JJl ' 81 ' m ' 11 '

tong :j:m ' 1m ' #JE 4
tong m 4
tou 1to ' MrJ 633
tou iIJ[ , , 'rot: 634
tou l 633
tou m 633
tu
- 7.i<::: , , m 242
:JL.; /Ji;iJ /'-
til 242; , m ' m ' , , , , III ' !J[ 243
tii ' o 242
tit !J[ , if1 ' o ' 242
202
tufm
tuan
tuan
tuI
tui
tUl
tUI
tun
tun
tun
tu5
tuo
tUQ
tUQ
wa
wa
wa
wa
wai
wan
wan
wan
wan
wang
wang
wang
wang
WeI
wei
wei
wen
wen
wen
PInyIn Index
frffl 441; , 'I' ' i9: ' 442
ffii 441
, t%z 441
i 207; 11 207 ' 211
7tJ[ , 7iI ' , Wi 208
JM 207' 363
, 3B 207
tf 399
4::!: ' , 364
III 363; :fJl& 399
, *E ' 524; ft: ' 1if1. ' B ' fill 734; , 748; 748 ' 749
,W 414; ' II ' , wt ' 1t: ' ' WE ' it ' tfu ' , it 735
* ' , illti 748
, :j:{j , ' fe ' , Wl 524; I!j 748
, u.! 307' 792; !I!t 316 ' 792; .%% ' frf9J 785; )J;\ , 792
307
EL 793
S14
1'i- 228
' :wg , 454; ., , 461
WJG ' 5rU ' tlt ' ' tJG ' m ' 437; jG , J:L ' #J\ ' ' Yt 453; jJ[
462
, fJfJa ' 1% ' 425; 454; 3% ' % 460; 461; , W. ' m '
, IlIg , l* ' m 511
, Jj , 425; , JJn 454; 661
11: ' tl! 148
L ' t ' , , mr: ' 115; .:E 149
, , ,/fj , , 115; tI 115' 148; 11. ' 149; Htt 155
, , , 115; , 81 ' .:E 149

mY: ' iY.& 175; fe; , , rpt , , , '1ft' [I[ , IVJ ' , m ' tm: '
* ' m: 228; 'It, *1 ' m ' ' nt 238
r=g , 175; 213; , M ' ul 227; * 227 ' 228; 1lfB ' M ' 1.& '
@; , , {fg , j@ , m ' 8@ , 1$ , ;f@ , , *' ' * ' fBJ[ , 228

, , tiT ' ti.w: 228; 237; m 238; IlJ: 317; !ME 620; 759
ylfI!. 379
)z:: , , * ' 3t ' !l& 372
rJ?;J , mU ' , , * 372; 1'1 379
203
wen
weng
weng
weng
wi)
wo
WD
wii
wu
wu
wu
Xl
Xl
Xl
Xl
Xla
xifl
xia
xia
Xlan
xifln
xian
xian
X lang
xiflng
, 1)( , , *ffD ' 372
25
25
%1; , !I ' fI 25
!HJ% 310; , #i!b ' 11% ' 761
732
17::. 262; , J1 ' fi: ' , 01 543; J1I ' !Ii ' Ji 588; , 761;
763
' IE 254; , , f;f , t'5 ' m: ' , , H ' , iU 262
, -ill ' 254; l- , , , :Eg , , ffi 284; 791
ff;\ , _ ' , 14J , , m ' , fWli ' , 254; 1i ' 11i ' q:: , 1t
284
?E ' , , R ' ' 0/] , o/j , ll&J 254; , 262; , 'I.g , 1li '
'It ' ft ' sg , 'I.g , 7t ' Tn ' iJt ' UIJ[ , uJ[ , JriB 284; rt 626
iZ , tJ ' ;j:gg , , tf ' it'T ' tff 179; 57 ' 180; 11 ' J! '

183; , 1%1 199; 1m 201; , , m ' fit ' , ,
'* 202; 11 ' !II ' ' ' IIli 235
w ' mr ' , ' ' 'I'1' 179; fft ' lit ' , ' , lit ' 180;
m 182; t! ' 86J1. 202
17t ' ri 179; * ' m 183; 1YE ' m ' * ' Jl 195; Jfj 197; 202 '
796
'BP 158; *ffi ' 19 , 179; , ' , , , fA ' , IJ '
, 183; 1* ' 198; * ' , 202; 202; !f75 420
796' 797; D!J ' , Dft1 796

, jft1 ' , tft1 ' , fft1 797
fitrJ S20
Ifjj 320' 796; 796; T ' , Jj! , =F 797
402; 7t ' J1I ' 1ill ' m ' 492; 'f ' j:JfX 494; 686' 687; '
, , #1 687; tx 702
I*J ' , , ' , '1'00 465; m 479; W ' jz ' , , 519;
ffl 653 ' 689; }I3lZ , , , 1lU 701
484; ' r7t ' fi!JfG ' f2t ' , , ' , ' fi 492; '
494; jiR 692; Ilft' , 702
100 ' ' J[ 465; gJ[ 473; 479 ' 481; ' 7t ' 492; fA '
494;' 510; , m ' 8J[ , Ji ' :ER 519; Fj , 701; 703
, , Jf , , t , *f , *f , 134; w' m 136
, # ' rn ' $ 135; 137
204
xiang

xlao
xiao
xiao

xle
xie
xie
xie
xIn
xin
xin
xIng
xing
xIng
xing
xIong
xiong
xiong
XIU
xiu
xiu
xU
xu
xu
xu
xuan
xuan
xuan

xue
xue
xue
PInyIn Index
120; 134; ' , m ' , -? 136
m 120; [I] 120' 136; if 134; 1* ' {* ' ft 135; 136; :r:j , t!;: ,
137
m 540; 549; K ' m ' t!fJ( 559; , 564; ' ' If ' '
, ' , Wf ' ill ' , , , , , m ' 575; ol '
576; ME ' j'Ift ' till ' oiWj , a1 , 592
, $: , 593
, ,;J\ 575; f% 576; 577
, qI , 575; , # 592; 7j'!1. ' ifx ' '15<: ' 593
@ 776; S34
318; 1f1 ' r& ' 321; ' 'Ii, 11 778; , 11 ' ni[ , m ' ,
779; S32
1JJ; 776; Ifn 808
'1M' 318; M ' ' j'1 ' , U@ ' , JI ' , m ' 321; fED '
, , , Ji ' {;S , f.iitt ' W: ' , ftl ' , Jfj , 776; 1:fu '
S32
:$ , 350; JTX ' tFf ' 8JT ' ' rtf 405; ie., 716; w: 729
m 406; 717
350; 11: ' 1JV\ ' rtf 405
,\W ' :1:* 34; JF.' , rw ' 61; V ' 94
17 ' , , ffU ' , flfU ' 1iJffJ ' M 97
rw ' , 61; 62
frl ' '1:1 61; 94; fr ' :;g. , ff ' ' ff ' t$ , , 17 97
gij , , , 1ij , 36; 95
ft1 ' 91
36; iiJ 90
fl1f ' , 'If 612; {* ' Uft\ ' ' J{:f 648
*'5 604; mf 612; *5 648
'* ' :E* ' f.I ' m 612; fffi ' iliff! 613; 648
W ' , , #,I , 1W ' , fl(; 274; )][ , JJ ' , H ' Of ' fi]J 278
1* 275
, 274; t , , , t;m , , 811] , 278
179; jj\j 235; 1Jill ' flfiJ. 236; , rolP ' tlfrr ' wit 274; , , J; ,
ft. ' )( 275; , , tf ' 'Ii, ;f@ , :Ej , iJ ' 3* 278

JjJ , If ' m ' Ji 507; , , , 510
506; rff ' og 509
?if!; , ill ' if 509; , , , m ' , Bt ' , 510
575; iW 776
593; 805
' 804; Ifn 808
205
xue
xUn
xim
xun
ya
ya
ya
ya
yan
yan
yan
yan
yang
yang
yang
yang
yao
yao
yao
yao
ye
ye
ye
yI
yi
yI
yl
575; .rfil 808; 1\ 809

:WR ,,,5/J WJ T!rt g.-m ...!:::F!- M Dim ,..-.-........"
75 , , , ilitiJ ' rm ' '111] 389; iij , , ' i,:JI/ ' iJ , WiJ 390; fJl
654; , 717
"T\ ' ill ' HI. 350; , , 376; gjl/ 393
tf 794' 797 ' S21; Olf 796; S21
Y!I 160; ?f S22
O.51 307 ' S21; mE S22
2 ' ,L S21; S22
469; 469 ' 495; , , 495; , , OiZS! ' glZSl 496; %t '
dltt! ' fil ' M 690; 697; J3t 780
435; 469; , j:}[ , , fJI ' fi ' j[ , , 481; 1ti 514;
W ' , !ii 671; Jf& 676; , , m ' 1m ' it ' 1i 691
N 435; ' iIi 469; ' ' 481; 1if ' , 111 ' ffill 495; '3t '
Vt ' He 514; * 650' 690; 670; {Ii 676; 689, 691; ,
1i ' til: ' , if. 690; 691; 743
, U$ 411 ' 469; , R 434; JiI ' JIf 435; , rr 469; uJ!
481; J1l 495; * ' , ;I; , H ' ' OiZS! 496; 676; ft!t
690; Ii ' I@ , m ' , 691; ' 697; fIR 697, 781
:9(: , ;& , 73( , , , , 138

:E;k: , 123; .' $ , ;Ii , 124; 1m 130; :If!k: 138

iffi ' tJ( , , 7::. 560; , I! ' , HI ' OJ ' 578
fr5 558' 561; , , Ji ' 1 ' '* ' , , jjt ' t{;iE ' 1 ' ,
'1' ' , 561; , tm ' , :)( 593
!J3( 544; 7jJ. 560; At ' 1Mi 561; 569; , 1 , 578
fjj; , WJ 543; ifjJ 549; , *1 ' , 1:1. ' fli. ' , 561; 578
780
-m ' If S35
780; OiZS! 781; Bf ' "* S27; , , flit S35

4* , IBl , egg. , hi!f. , G , - 185
mlnf. >Pl ll. IE .5i!..

ali 186; ts 186' 660
, ' !l!ft ' ' Ii ' , 160; ' , , {R ' Z ' 184;
, , , j;). , B ' m 186
, illi ' , 'J ' , ){iJ ' x ' )t 160; , ' ,
206
PInyIn Index
ft ' ' !t ' )li , trp , ES ' '1'15 184; , til: ' 115 ' 185; ,

, , :l ' , !IJ ' ' J: ' , , , 186; 1)t: , N
238; rB 184 ' 780; rJf 781
yIn , 355; I2SI ' i!i ' , rM1 ' , , it ' filZi! ' , ;I:.m ' 356;
fl 669; 1f ' , m 720; 'It 721
yin ' 00 ' , ;tN ' ;!:JT , lIT ' 338; Jil ' it 357; QS;- , 707; 1 '
m, 722
yIn OJT 338; 1\1 355; i I ' ' , '51 357; jt 394; 720
yin , Jg 338; fP 356; ' 357; ifi ' , , 720

67
ying 11' 38; 38 ' 39; 1ft ' , 40; ill1 46; ?II ' I{ , ' ' ,
68; , , 1ft 91
Ying fJ[ 40; 66; m 67; !"1m ' , Y:! 68
ying ill1 46; B;f( , 66; , , 67; , 68
yong 11 8 ' 40; 'II 22; ?! ' ' II ' , , ' Jf' 37; ' :II' '

yang , OM 38
yong ' 37; 7J<' ' 171< 38; ffi ' 1m ' , , 'tl ' fl 40
yong , ' 37; m 40
you 'l't1J 578; , 11 ' It; , *I 618; , 01j] , '1m 619

W' 620
you , 1ff. 602; 619; "@ , ItI ' !ff ' , , 2J( , 620
you , Y... ' :ti ' it ' :ttl ' !1ll ' 602; m 619; , j},\ ' 1/\ ' :fffi ' fM! '
620
yil , frif ' ff 279
yu 'I'@] 259; 1F:- 279; m ' ffA ' Ji; , , , , til/l , , , '% ' '

281
yu !IJW 275; 279; R ' jg , !l ' m: ' [iJ , e ' , II ' , >J>J ' ,
m ' * ' 280; W ' , , DWr ' 1iri ' 281
yu 226; , , , , 227; 236; :$ , , , iif 238;

' 1M ' 1M 279; 00 ' ' R ' , ' ' m ' .=f ' J[A , tlVlli '
FF;1 , 08 280' Fftr , :rib , $ , :W: , .m , 111i ' .E1R , :v; , y:$ , -}/A' , '
l1i.! i J>=t I==f ./ .... ./.... ,/.... J:..A. 1J;:t tt::r ill1
l
J
ntr , fit ' 1f ' , ' 1:1i ' , tiX ' m ' , , ft ' U!fr 281
yuan , , , n ' 511; 1J#1 ' B ' ' 'l'1: 513; 514
207
yuan 1')ffi , Pn 437; ]I; , , i)j , ,I( , , iJt ' ' ii ' R ' zt
JB 1m ' jl PI 1'R ' , 1m ' [II , il 512; m ' , 514
yuan 512
yuan 7'& 511; !9J[ , , , ;EI 512; 514
yue *,fi 543; f.t"J 560; EI 811
yue Jjlj 284' 811 ' 793; , ffi ' , " 544; iii ' , , 11 561;
596; 597; 760, 811; Jjlj 793; H ' fJ[ .. ' ,
' EI 811; , , 1m 812
yun if ' , i1
yun ':5] , 394; , , iI ' 1.i ' fi ' , A ' , "ii 408
yun ft ' 1ft 394; , , 11 408
yun qz. 68; , t!l ' 'I'!f! ' , m ' , fit 407; , , 'I: ' ,
408
za ill S 15
za S15; m S17
zal 1. ' *Z ' , m- 299
zai * ' iX 299
zai iX 298 ' 300; ** 299; J1X 1 ' 301
zan i" 662; 662 ' 725
zan fl 448; , JI 662
zan ' 426; :EJ 428; tJf 450; If ' ;X , IT ' J[ 664
zang , .: ' ' jj:l(;, 116
zang 116
zang 116; * ' , 111 118
zao m ' fI ' 1f!. ' i%! ' , 11" ' , m ' #'* 535
zao 535 ' 537
zao 1f!. ' i%! 11" , m ' t* ' *'* 535
zao 535; !fi ' 537; 538; i!i 637
ze ' , ' 'if ' rtF ' rr ffF ' 292; [Ill :t ' r 294; 329
ze f:t!:. ' IX 326; m 328
zei m 330
zen m 725
zeng , 60; , , W ' Jfi Il ' 82
zeng 58; 83
zha tB 774; fJ! S5
zha D1JT ' S5; 11 ' S7
zha fF S5; !lZ S 15
zha u:t ' S5; -'F S7
208
PInyIn Index
zhai , m 292
zhfli , 294
zhai 292; , i%' 294
zhai 1. ' , 292; 294
zhan 414 , 474; , 474; !I ' flft ' ffi ' It ' 486; :m ' {tt" ' Ji' '
!It ' r!=i 681; 682
zhan 9 ' , S 416; M ' 486; ljiff 656; j4 681
zhan 418 ' 490; , , *JE 418; , 486; ft' 656; 658;
r!=i 681
zhang 5:R' lift ' , , , :Ef ' , , 1f 105
zhang iJL 105

zhao IlWJ 527; :m ' s:g , m ' , 551
zhao JT\ ' , Jm 527; 1B 551
zhao JR ' 527; W ' 11 529; , iE ' g?3 551; ' ' 1m ' 1ff6 ' ,
B 553
zhe 769
zhe m 167; 292; rg- , !if ' $[ , fg , 1JT ' V ' 'II ' , 769;
769' S29; 1JT S33
zhe m 182; ;fr , 769
zhe tE ' , ffl': ' #JT 769
zhen JJi 340' 484; , ti:l: ' ti:l: 51; 76; , , j:KZ 340; , * '
, 1* 400; 1il ' Eti ' i4 ' ' , 708
zhen , !lit ' , f.:'& ' , M; , If ' rM ' 1l 340; 341; TX 708
zhen R ' 1M ' , , l ' :FJ! 340; *51 ' ' 342; 342 ' 710; tt
708; t 710
zheng , fIE ' M ' :IE ' , , m: 51; T ' * ' * ' fi
76; :fi- 637
zheng 51
zheng Jt3z: ':IE , ' i& 51; 53; 76
zM
, z ' Z ' 11 ' , 1+ ,!It 165

182; m ' :l:1[ 182; 167' S28

Nll: ' ;tJJ: ' :it: ' 165

' 165; .. 165' 181; 166; 11 ' ' 9i ' Wlf ' If'if ' ,

167' 189; g 181; 167 ' 294; 165 ' 769
209
zhong
zhong
zhong
zhou
zhou
zhou
zhou
zhii
zhu
zhu
zhu
zhua
zhuan
zhuan
zhuan
zhuang
zhufmg
zhuI
zhul
zhiin
zhun
zhun
zhuo
zhuo
zI
zl
zl
zong
zong
zong
zou
zou
zou
r:p 7
* ' , JW ' ' JEi 7; it 30
r:p , , ' m 7; 1$ , :m: 30
5*5 267; lj!* ' 1f.t ' ft ' rnJ ' 1\[\[ , , lVWJ ' I ' , ' r1+[ 603
m ' fEB 269
Bt ' ffl 603
' u* ' r; , f5G 603; M ' , @"t ' a=r ' i&* ' ffn 605; , ,
636; , 1165 638
, m ' , , ' , *= ' J5K ' ** ' !I!* 267; , 1* ' * 277
1'1 ' , J}L , , , tEl ' 11 ' m 267; 268 ' 269; '
269

267; 1er ' til7 ' iT ' fr ' T ' *-t ' , 13: 269
tm 527; , 788
457; W ' lfi ' ' trJ 500
" 500
:tn ' tl ' , 459; , " 500; l' 500' 502; * ' 502;
JIl 658
iU 143; m: ' J ' , #tz: 151
143; :fl 145; M 151; AA 153
, m ' 1 ' ,!l , 210
'!'i'ffi ' , 210; IM ' , 212
, , , 384
, <t ' , 384
ff 384
tJE' m 582; till ' f)t 800
551 ' 553; iJg , 11fT ' 1kJ ' kJ ' fJ ' fIJJ. ' 1Ij[ , :t'* 551; ffff 551 '
584; 572' 584; IDlJT ' , , , 582; 1,@ , :;: , , ,
, , 584; m 788; till ' f)t 800
7lll;{ 176 ill , ill , y( , iii,,, , i 189 , , g)( , ,rt.b , ::-!R. , , * ,
mJ 'C; s:! il! 'l'S:l)l!S:l = C'ljJ J'3"l r::l :7j'(;:

'jj$ 189; , ' , , f$ , T ' tr ' ' iT 192
189; ?f 192; * ' H= ' ' , m 194; 294
, , , , 1*, * 17; , m 31
, tJ@, ' il@, 17
**' il@,' ** 17; 31; 1; 31 ' 33
271; , , 636; flI& ' ;fI& 639; 641; 636, 639'
642; #J& 639 ' 755
tII& 271; JE 639
* ' JE 639
210
PInyIn Index
zfi ril. ' it 255
zu 255; -+ 255 ' 271; 11* 257; Nit ' JE 271; ' 273
zu ' ' -m 245; t. ' Jil. ' #.!. 255; m 257; f.. 257 ' 272
zuan Ii 448
zuan ' ' 448
Ii 448
zUl 'Iff 218
zul M ' B$ 218; liI 220; 218 ' 220
zfin , f' ' 373; 373 ' 375; m ' 387
zun :t, ' rI# 373
zun 373; ffi-JI. 375
zuo :j$ 257; at ' W 537
ZUQ tr. ' 1tc 737; :tl 755
ZUQ 1t 255 ' 535; :tf ' ifF ' Wf 257; WF ' 'l"F ' 1'F 537; 755; , J*
757
211
Stroke Order Index to Chinese Characters in the Glossary
This index is arranged by stroke order and then by KangxI radical. Numbers
refer to entry lines in the glossary.
One Stroke
Y:
107
r/l
336
L 121 -=f 409
185
11. 453 ~ 186
Z 184
fL 660 ~ 301
~ 599
Two Strokes
i,.
578
Z 158
Four Strokes
T
76
1ft S35
fl: 604
-t 177
-=f
280
/f
248,252,627
Y... 160
L 115
q::r
7
l'J
291
JC 284
-$ 14
tJ
773,S36
YJ 359
ft 412
1L 599
"'J 551,558
Z 165
T
562
5Z.
293,S6
jt
394
188
D 630
T 281
A
359

242,243
408 r:.
A 188

191
#
58
/\ S8
57
180
Ii 261
7J 523
7::.
290, 735
1i 284
~ 567
1;(
270,283 -'---
98,99
fL
11
187
-T
192
{-
359
+
182
~
S24
{t 182
r-
248
>t
374
iT
47
Y..
602
I J \
575
1 ~
252,624,627
F
181
{ft 601
LlJ 430
{Jj
70
Three Strokes
)II
501
A
704 I
I 1
ft 318
lJ 425
C 157
-
665
]X
326
-
e 186
T
797
:JC 512
E 196
213
it
394 IB
364,384
4-
602
Il\]
209 f3 S8
*-
498
---L.
282 !L.; 460 I 149
/\
~
202 ~ 161,567
0
1
ijl
357
JC 42
ILl
716
Five Strokes
~
36 J<: 745
~
54
7t
370,371 F 261
t!t 181
t)J
177,775
*
614
~ 215
;(Ij
160 ~ 165
y ~ 456
~
394 X 372
13. 271, 775
10
629 -4
632
::E 267
1)]
254 IT
336
1:
S7
lZ:f 170 11 113
f
261
~
284 B 188
t) 186
Jt
63 B 811
{t 252
-t
476
J=j
811
{f 192
rn 100
*
251
{ 191
Iff
307 X 674
1ift 734
:n:
601 ll::. 165
~ 5
1ff..
602
)7
288
it
107
&
159
)t
277
{-t 290
N.
423 ill 254
A
69
T1
: 724 .tt 169,171
{W 492
7(
471
::
533
OJ 359
~
252,253
,B;;
182
ft 8
t:.
289
*
223
Jt. 95
~
310
*-
759
tit
693
-3(
542,560 m 527
fffi
293
fL
2
)l'..
252,253
~
3
--
Y
557 X 593
It
211,268
7t
602 h 489
ffl 410
R
166 ;f S22
214
Stroke Order Index
no
794 E 734 ft 165
:rjJ
1
,........
269 7k 38
T
'E2
530
11
203 t 165
m
18 Ft!. 168 n 48
~ t
214

266 112 659
~
186 !:h 187 ?/\ S9
!Iff
S15
l1}
591 112 660
*
444 ii 737 :z 510
ff
236 m
182 3i 280
~
681 1h
248 J1\ 785
on 533 If
56,476
Ii 793
m: 165
*JJ
619
1j
650
1i;
265 #
446,476 : 85
-aT
731 n::
170 m 40
r5
239 5L 24 EE 472
15
602 ~
252 E8
620
13
553,558
&\ 169 Et' 794
un 630
1m
523 $ 352
OJ]
524 rX.
626 B 297
R]
195 tT Sl El 216
[[
752 f/\ 295 illl 57
.R 165 H
249

254
I:
197
fj] 333 ~ 628
ot 166 fF
166
*-
181
.L.->.
186,289 El 412 15
182,652
I=l
t]
264,629
1ft
269 7J\ 167,200
IZB 195 is:
366
*
760
I]
613
*
175 1\ 809
Pi-
228
*
754
-'-
187 lL
!R: 138 IE 51
7f<.
64
*
181 -IE 626 7fi 71
~ Y . . 244 ~
346
lfl
68
ff,
161
215
Six Strokes
284 409
793,811 173,215
)Z:.
590
jj:1J
437 540
(Jj\
186
1;
813 283
--p;,
305

141 551
1jj 113
I1I
133 S6
111: 99
En 356
*
194
itt 185
frL 228 ff
375
fE. 284

198
280
t=J
1x S13

187 614

648
[PJ
5 t
294
ft 253
ffl 567
433
1t 649
U
...
196 242 'i'"
1$ 30
nf 278
WJ[ 284
14
468

520 We 158
1f 724
rPJ
120, 136
1'1'1
603
1rp
130
57 660
ftt
170
A
730, 742
*
54
t=J
if: 199
nz: 157, 158
1F
473
fN 157
J
617 J 151
1t
284
uf S5

186
1ir
318
lEI 356 rt 181
Yt
140
[ill
226 sfu
181
36
j;-fu
163
551
553
1
301 'It
112
)Ie
492
-*
231
'1'1
374
505
j;E
186,660
t*
289
.:f
27,29
:te 216 'l'z: 183
/'\
}
299
wt
274 fX 42
<J./<
54

733 B<:
274
JIJ 783

186 8G 276
lflJ 97
4?j
786 64
mlJ
372

115 to 630
216
Stroke Order Index
tI 127
1J(
225
1-1 97, 122
tT
432
iF
628
tz 184
tJL 284 345
[
179
614
Jf
411
tB
112
if.
535 fJ 47 29
c::.
165
8
295
491 EI
1iJ
390 t'J 267
it.
278
*
172
HB 265 tfi 137,627
Seven Strokes

186 $ 124
$ 456
1f
602 280
-&
80 7
f7
648 545
111: 228
H
531 521
11 269
*
267 ffil 188
fT 269

747
*
229
it 734, 735
n
47 188
50
*T
76 238

446
*-
193 283
1*
253
lIt 193 333
{PI 742
7E
195 157
16 239
& 283

353
16: 737
rf
432
El
194
115 602
H
262 165
{JJlJ
S26
rI 127 8 601
1PJ 195
rtE 167, 735
!5
S29
1$ 352
rill
430
j4
501
{HI 472
m 350
fit
603
1W- 196
tA 453
.N. 397
f8 414
tfL 659 5 332
it 255,535
rB 196 3t 160,287
168
t;k 290
Jt
601
is 295
r5Z S6
R
236
161
rl.
183 Ifrr 808
if] 69
217
#? 281
284
Mp:
151
{W 248 53
241
186
g
282 113
{&\
171 11
381 169
215
l::I::.
239,520

556

5
0)\
211 560
Jt
208
pm
372 481
R:
322 183 ff 281

477
OJc 505 159
li
54

814 724 /,
1m
27 174 'll:
748
ffJ
69,86 IlfL 616 437
JlIJ 771,S30 OJr 796

592
tlJ
445 '2t
668 1)( 192
flJ 187
[1A
7 706, 707 $ 252
jffiij
430 Off 338
'*
250
1M
252 Pit 763
e:..
453 7C
tdJ
S24 I3SI 361
*
20
!lJJ 247
364
7f;.
24

244
j;;}J
113, 114 )12 112
tiJh
266
*Jt
93 tt! 148
BJJ 558
*11:
165 !ifJ 266
BJJ 566

381
*
175
[!l!
797
:l:).:
651
1liJ( 200

620 757
':j.
727
176 if 215 :& 160

455 #r 159,338 Iliff 485
1!i 358 M 151 lliir. 437
OJt 122 1l 368 llim 254
tf
399
J}1
371 254
E.
284 :l:Jt 371
;ffi- 183

216,627 $ 15 $E S9
Um 307
794 tt 652
218
Stroke Order Index

275
f:k:
810
tJ 666
lEE
169 fH
604
H 127
'*
153 S8
ifs 554,558,561
ff 49 fm 307
262
3t
199
fIt 170

604
:
26
fN
419,420
t-t 186
ft
4f
371
if
269
t*
163

163
tJT
163,769,S33
tTC 284
ID
5
151
371
iff
192
ID
97

634
iffL 660
115
111,113
fJl\ 527
ti1 250
238
tm 184
!ff
217
C:::
115
tz 372
>It 601
a
159
tt
476
iy
S19
IL:!",\

165
tit
437 715, 716
Je,.,
7JJ
359
tf
625 m: 710, 718
'lJt
719
t1
165
yiC
512
'11<:
311
tft
514
rm
295,296
tIt 270
25?: 285 r3: 148
it 324 Jj(
1
R: 798
'l't 476
f& 620
?t 251
'1'71: 437

521 364

165
!i!
432
m
239
'l'rp 8
1!
92
# 30

284
af 409

251
tIT 405
*
276
y3(
262
HX:
318
*
187 r& 157
tit 732
e 97 Yn- 371
Fe 191
t-t
301
yf[
122
t:J; 528, 740
H
374
372
tJt 99
if 243 r!i. 261
f5i
159
tt
107
477
t*
252,253
ifc 158
1fT 160
219
Iff
485
?p
431
353
Ii 408

575 ff 279
18
172
=
147
186
18 280 409
m 350
Ill: 165 603 183
Wq
230
ijI
136
390
1ft
514
ij
243
0
184 13
1ft
445 40
97
?a
167
ff
281

S32

551

139 109

299 C 115

736
3<-
599 280 51'\) 343
S32
"Ej
161,558
@
620
2f:
545
T
797 lE 187
t 626

28 114
t3J 359
-H-
158 512 D
1)( 163
491
M
60
31 142
-H-
12 423 }L
ill
606 A
453 93
3ft 394
YL
484,519 307
:fJ.- 599
f1j
590 165
:ff 409 S
469
m
40
:&
1=1
239,281
ffi
252 R 634
Eight Strokes

655
181
TIft
1aJ
53,472

167,294
56
*
160 295
*
310
Ejl
537
166
$L 283
fk 195
It
639
$ 191
:9
JE

740, 776
612 271
Jf: 242 J1t 352
5:2 S21
E
Jt 599 JJ
264, 770
=r-
94,136
*
202
*
350
*
43
220
Stroke Order Index
1$ 124 139 Oil. 273
it<
184
il
266 0$ 352 / ....

182
it
157, 159 Oft! 796
/"
11 318
JIl
470
UBI 532 / ....
fEe
197 i71J 783 OSf 260
27 668
O)l\
239
WIJ 187
322,335 526
*
309
517 fD 760
1JIt 410 FrtJiJ 789 mJ 603
1ft
79,81 wiJ
177,193 Of 292

166 iJ 523
;6..
57
pn
1Rilt
216
liJ 785

r:::I
520,601

550,568 itlJ 165 S25
1it
186
Iffj 188 253

602
ffj
232 PJJJ 619
1i 504
240 OEl 304

590,593 ttJJ 152
239
tx 193 tJJ 305,319
382
HflJ
97 an 795 IfiI 69
16
159 3ID
264 :liiJ 731
786
255,256,271 JEl 752
itt 193 tJR 779
:1:8
413
11UJ 4,5 Ji 582 :1:$ 361
11V 390
169 #'F 293
19c
402 310 it!J 677
ii5 745
499,516
:I:;9c
123
ii5 760 am 776 iiiJ 87
{IfIl
236
JfiIp
274
161, 165, 167
1m 603 272,640
4J
543
1iF
628

276
S35
242

615
*
15

186, 188
u'"*
175

157, 159
7l:!
196 oUT 741
:;b(
m 291
221
itt 690 tlJffi 613 ?tt 370

366
m
290
'rtfi
249
*
775
i:
544

310
f-.W

177 tlJi!i 261 '1'13 532

227 mll 272
'lit
186

217 m 692 '1:1 61
239 ffl
603

168
Ij{JJ:
251 767
253
774 1ft
297 t Sl
9Iffi
429 M
102,244 372

181
215 'l'i:!i
261
61

167 54
192 $ 97

570
604 m
92 'l'ti
767
291 h!f
677 tR.
156
PJ-j 196
IN
252 tEl. 271
f
13
161, 165
'I''F
537 .III].
M 239 :
532 tJJJ 578,619

231 481 526
c':7
17 5:Y; 519
'I'i'l
482
m
k
47,49 sJJl
261
EJX
226
'
438
244
M:lG
116, 133
::
160 StS
552
428
EE
605
524
m
111,114
n 511
252 m 187

,
217,253 s5:
161 plT 259
,.......
103 f1 149 71\ 64
15
firJ 121 fIE 51
t-
445
Jlli 264,265 f&:
214

252
J\5
264 11.
257,272
t*
754
Jltl 318
678 264,266
tlJR 346
J::f:l
7
tB
551 JD\
J$ 411
f@
260 215
222
Stroke Order Index
:t:fi 524 :n 63 fix 405
:tU
753, SlO Bn 113
it
254
531
Sp
261
1tZ 200
tti
680

346
251
fZP 80
IX
326 "7J(
560
:fffi
604
ijji
253 13
fJ
794, 797, S21 81
m
370,371
till 800 ffi:
122 tiL 158
iff} 626 fJi 113 tt
267
t8
296 tt 708
r*
38
t!\:
161
*
3 735
f 532
*
745 Y&\ 214
i'iiJ
264,629

578 rJE 164
fffi
734 fe: SlO
yriJ
742
fJJJ 543 fit 171 5 239
tEl
290
;f5(
165
tti
681
ttit
S35 H
723 B 551
1)1( 166 fEi 419
y&:
751
tEl. 774 tI 115,148

754
15!J. 113 35 t S12
1f
252 fJT 179 riJk 96
WT
132
f'f
268
173

262,279
if)(
217 ttlt
186, 776
HI 149 f4
632
Y8=I
620
.:f
179 ff
269 m. 156
s

186 tJ> 556 m. 271,272,273
s
106
*
520
y[9
195
a
fB 360 m
198
123,138
En
100 385
yfr 514
Sj]
57 ill
606
Yi:l
167
%}
377 fPi 230 reI 531
BJT 405 fR 702
yz
659

541 t;} 371
YB
532
223
r*
217,298
J)[
217
769

346 Jef 111
ijflj
173
ifS: 165 345,476 174
H'l 69
fj(
798 165
S3
fir
318 ij1L 1
r!:
510 ffit 13 lID: 239
r*
445
W
169

484
y-11 650
189

593
illt 269 160
ijjJ
113
.it 252
@:
599 ft-f 183
f5JJ
333 S"J 161
..Lt:.
72
!=l
m
91 If
409 I?A 763

186 280

281
m
253
-.::!::::
13
'@;
777
rtF
258 00:
167
523
if( 99 165
11
113
%
V<. 691 Uf
409 Z 165
'fry 528 IiI 127

253
211
J[
284
:5
666
ik.
165, 769
liZ
240
--H-"
337
IT
1fT
405 Wet S33
--H-"
790 1t
76 mB 196 5t
370
!tJX
419
200
iF
318

254
*
54
-:!:::t'
408 :w;
tm 254 1=E S7
::'i!::
173,252
rtJ
#j\
153 2 1E 165
5t
797 'tJt
28

389
5ilJ 629
3J
180
rq
230
5m
261
I!!J:
267 533
31\ 620

646
:o/j
254

174 115 X 675
fJC 437 Je 128
::!S:
706
I
II 590
-I1f-
-=p
172 m 260
224
Stroke Order Index
fJJ 246 173 ;t 514
W.
554
/31
533
!/!L S21 lff 438
)ill
46
Nine Strokes
S6
423
illX 157, 158

162
ill 337 =
?
49
1lJ1J 575
3f 149
..LL.
478
139
f'jIJ
n

384
{ 350
wlJ S23

284
715
rut 322

558
f*
617
328

161
ff.!
476
92
600
779
*11
756
216
573

40
171
f*
530
477
54
{@ 272
fJJ 250
432
fg 282
92
215
252
1ID
250
216
191
m
655
289
f3t 387

158,547
r>\
7K
300
275
JffB 284

704
fBj 254
Jf. 617

105,107
f}X 732
112
369
f*
198
446
J 649
ft 187
U3(
544,590
735
92
-R
306

743,S37

280

r::r
192
245
{W,
485,519

299

253
55
I8X
701

214
183
U 307, 792
WF 257
477
Ul!!i 352,496,781
1*
210

t=I
713
48
QQ
m
"
280
245
Ujt
24

59
*<
R8 165
Fl
281
225
rIf*
648 561
*
186
UW 185

463
795
DB
509
227 Wi 270
DIj:
188
356
619
Df 166
159

135
DjE
525 WX
34
J!t
243,525
D*
603
iflj
786 Jff 167
:j:
177 tfci
629
Iff
648
10!9
522

268
}I
466
'7
I1lI
280,602 305

:?t-
186

224

506

650,690 ...
-f
ru! 97 m
460
51l
172
;l:N
338 181

517
;l:s
512

319, 731 441
;l:J
629
602 469
mx
64
*
550
290
285 M
14 1@J 226
;l:JE 553
'*
202 1$ 282
jffi
203 1#
54,56 1m 390

749 we 181 1&
617
lj)\
"'ft:.
186 m 262

124

199, 765
I/f,f
167

JQ.a\ 244
*
639 dJliIJ 5

195

232 285 S 290
.=I::.
452 dfe:
228
157
S5 Urm 389
:)lIZ
511
*
127
'-'-'
37
I
J 187
'Iil
795

192 ffi: 228 '1:& 354
590
186

204
186 137 '1'& 65, 71
307
m
336
'I>
182
e. 'f

251
*
161
'1'3
679
167,S28
grtJ 259,313 'l'rnJ
4,5
226
Stroke Order Index

521 flf. 385 tlf 56
tlfIl 274 BE 551 tEfl 797
593
BJ;!:
66 t1 161

186
e*
217,298,754 fB 735
tt 545 182 t# 446
'l'1I
141
61 {tit 186

568 8f 537 tl 215
11iJ
389
!
281
fE
769 if-

36 if! 106 ;fhu 794
m
476,488,489 BJ: 510 168
Jffii
87 Bit 168 fflt
655
f-f
295
Bty
278 fJ 559
fg;: 433
@
662 fR 165
fA 181 tm
533 teJ 649

167
742
M
239
15
764
ffij
191
:z!s:
291, 736

f:J:t 27 693
195
51 U
269 'riJX 278
t3
745
*
622
*
138

182
626 'Jfl 290

504
*
463 711. 257
:WE
524,550,568 794 442
ti 310 tt!i
240

243
-a:J:

S4
fIIfr
293 mIt 171,194
flQ] 5
601 r&
, ,
214
165
filJ
730 505
S15 54 r$ 124
ifj( 51 m 650
603
i!O[
239 tHI 269,620
t.it
/, 24
nIT
551
f1l] 629 rfiE
621
Dtli
181 fB
295 $ 347
&if
157 ff 537 r7E
179,492
1H
620 WP 621 3
745, 760
227
797 512 7J:? 68

296
tt
85
1J;.
368
36
239

Jill. 214
545 161
b'ri 30
m
228 614

61,85
140 IN 354 f 134
186 590
J!
217
524 lr5 677 410
T3] 390 II 429

364,386
113
159 JEt 752 420
1M 236
;EfJ
69

556
186 340 477
ri 307, 792 lB 296 533
r!1
262 JM 169 420
riffi
179,303 510
r4'
43,456
r{f
478 1ft 8 352
rrtt
177,193 l. 255 liH 481
iroJ 283

25 Em 177
nm
226 :& 719

314
r*
277
227 ffrlC 560
57 W- 318 WllI: 166
24,137 af7\ 497
ffifT
159
mn
188 1II!x: 472
iiiK
200
510 ItJ 394
tJj
113

228
IH,&
423
tn 79
1:p;j 54 238

206
1
266
m 318

280
;tIiJJ
91
f}(
341
r4
746
'-'-'
413
tt 602 tk 610 ER.
532 fEf. 200 ftt 169
1:B
551

231 frp
30
1:1
267
318 l=E 540
m
532
149, 155

501 II \\
228
Stroke Order Index

242 lID: 165
]t
271
1B
384

265
-++-
272 l3.

409 M:
753
n
186

280 173
m
549
*9:
283 WF 257 !!II
1,24,127
*t
605 189 13
rl 24 !x: 165 M! 236
me 157 Th
S6 fir 481
mE
339 m
660 fn
410
*Z:
261
"*
533

578
*"J
560
-H-
r:iT
742 t 198
mf
279
:e;
240 T 47,49

390 no 794 252
*Jt
453
;fi 563, 784

51
arr 137 If
626

649

649 f!
693 lEt
252

217 83
556
646
A

620
66
'ij[
381
9'fl
186 FE
267, 788 203
533
-;tt
p 290
269
it
291 rri
279,511 S24
H
192
:
530

m 550

446

69 163

274
tij
629
j@
91
ijI 215 :9ff
533 m
295

228
:!if::
187

290 .l.L m
S=!
Pl
605

\ . 171 164
W
214,216
ZjS
56 tt
292
i!iJj
261 1st
751, 753 590
ijEfi 794
252 125
ijil 289 % 8 rm 279
531 75 688 742
357 75
688
231
229
64 499
511
165 2
}j[
57
/"

267
i'
15
*
7,13
389
59,491
,*
3
617
i 97

53,69
-@f
611
@[
167 it 384
@T 47
iii 774 1m 567
11 30
184

177

465 1$11 523
{'
60

645
690
gfj
624

298 i:R 106 JEll 454

127, 137
iJili 266 162

285

264 [MJll
98

188

264
1j{fj
530
00
477 106 689,691
l
318 730 747
:XL
228 617 JiJJ 45
&!
599

297
173
::IT.
720 612 44
s
Jj,
14 761 JJf.: 512
m 173 1}l 186
5ll
642
*
167, 186, 196

169 of'3 573,575

614 {1ffi 395
m
103
W
136 45
o-
p 469
1$ 219
730
478
f!f 769
Ten Strokes {iji
582 758
*
{t;(
268
Uffl
250
53
162

240
fl?; 438
28
<=I
408,512
{ff

297

117 0;
592
113
101 oft 732
{m 252
694

176
230
Stroke Order Index
01jj
183 M! 49
275
ntJl S5 1*
376
279
uJIZ 112
c2
299
.3'=:
124
"*
JD\
1Uj
730

q 305
::0:
192
UB
743
496 Jf;G 166
U2i 668
*
794
::CA
Jt:.\ 28
U-*
764
'
27

Jb\ 276

278
W
575

27
II
248 ?i!r
40

;C,.\ 403
1m
280 !1J1
167, 186,S29

179
:tl 298 W
252 'l'f!J
573
J*
306
776
'I'a
284
125
486

34
rftj
591 573
'I'
432
338
797
'1m
225
:t 34

389 'I#} 163

755 IlIa 281

812
]{
797
732
f
250
H
A
118
1lI*
14
M
318, 794

202
523
:*
237 Ie.,

740 tlrJi! 519
rm
;Q.,\ 270

108
190,293
{::f
;L::.i' 724

736 1m
180

139

513 Bm 197 tfJi:
318

280
m
219,223
'I'B
184
157
}ij!
240, 777

513
Mf
352
49 '1:1 187,204
163
'*
757 'I'll] 361
f$c 425,477
ffl
203

504
9ft 732

563
369

187 539

493
55 1IE
243

184
583 92

'
499
231
fIl. 765 553
187
539

276
m
478
s

764,779,SI5 Hi 165
lifii
188
fm
340
64 ff 165
fm 250 ifiA 585
ffl
486
fl!!
361 342,710
f3
745
f;E 582 AA
125

286
m
514 270 ilix 202
it
425 mE 568 Sx 741
}Ii 755
590,593 167

270 ft
321
7*
277
i5l<
264,599,601
433 JiI] 390
m
4 HI 453 355,434
fFoJ 264 fN
397
f2l;
492
m 381 f1 231 251
185 f1J 278
/=
*"
158
t!\\
762 ffrE 259
,e:
356 '<j"
ItiR

221 187
*
289
373
"'"
119 N 125
*

590
299,301

162

92
294 575
1j'j.
593
5 92
;& 172

318 rm
249

562 tiE 525 714
*
111
f*
267 $ 304
282 fiB
228 #JT 769
fjfil 216
182 497
:tm 486
fit
54 itV S33
Dt 533
521
f
649
182 f:fi
545

389
1ili.
347

186 m 281
s

434 Wi 179 541
:5:
155 fft 27 iffi 40
232
Stroke Order Index
473
f*
267 Ht
340

774, 797 fl 231,232
166
rlE 768 545

85 :I
B
184, 780 J}!;
27 264

727
ffl
188
liti 708
i3t 453 mt 177,193
liBt 752

250 nil 389 165
i*
258,274 ff1 97 684
iiJ 592 278 iiEl 272
iIE 584
bJi
-r,' 69
ijfJ
531
68 Eli 186 WJc 55
1t
217 402 :tM 214
itk
191
BIf
446
:tt
602
5 JBJ. 626
tQj
196
tit
24

278,604
I=t\
221
'"
133 7l'>
7W 783
tf
366 ti 255
262
fJ1
621 t$ 342
rH 509
340 t51: 267,603
m
51

327 ttl 165
lin
1*
1\\\ 592
*
178
t'F
257

325
(pg
56 if1 253
Wf
116 mi 216 rn 182
t
194 ill 272 ro 524
ti 505 mo 794
t15
261
1N
125 fr!i 677 tft 252
797

520 fZJS 52
3Jt 295 icif 185
f*
754
3'
187

742
#(
138
497 123 fEl 255

526
-=
340

349
451 477 f9(
167
fJI 419
lIZ S15 214
Wl 216
H*
217 fE 266
233
215
*51
342
167
f$ 192 *Y
269,276
#
281

292
*t
601
jlJj[
122
JJJ 578 mR
799 jij1J 113

684 Wi 239

419,444,446
'& 578
13

246
m
267 m 774 TL: 112

531,621 m
239
-=t!!:
1IL 147
m
792

520
ffh
187
J\\\
yr!l
656
239
ffij
43

575 YM
181
if
42
*
198
/,U.

25 1$ 478

159
24
1fi
536

S25 $ 370 00 356
m
527 188 226
*)}
370
*i
408 1 724
*1i
113
*jj:
92 n 192, 194
*Sl:
372
*t
540
rui
283
*
372 Wt 652

57
*-
7h
258

92
m
389
;W 303,538
nyc
140 5R 277
mrH
384,392
165 1ff. 194
m
606
778 504
*!t
170 nlN 496
590
t& 157 MB
219 285,318
*i
408
36 if
42
mPi
S4 Illi1 298
163, 186
*a
165 291 1m 491
*61
370 75
fr]
783
itt
652
1f
176
.......
194
*f
724
M
476 I& 566
*1'
627
240, 786
:g;
318
*:ft
24

604, 782
1*
253
234
Stroke Order Index
-+-+-
97 524, 748
540 1'f

166,293
393 68

468 157
794
Mf.
592

278
252
JJJf. 195

359
520
372
.!=!,i
158
im 609 R

632,647

294 @C 215
357 530 551

535
411,464
gg;j
605
m
166 301
@!B
186

111
=
1 47
ffi!

7
--"'"

324 708

437,512
Ii]
158 551
171
27 253
199 !lIf
494
f\,
688
!llR 166 !lIE 359 Ilif! 342
230,814
$J[
811 632
!i!'n- 371 $fL 660 171
Sa 811
283
688
mIlt 270 20 269

313 160 97
;W
7 172 63
-==..
512 207 165
-!m.
rR
172
291
11
165

381
jJm
226
389

704 525 w!L 157

705 210
fl 47
157 617 Sl1
H
S24 ill 79 if 239

524
ill
783
rWJ 520
24 745 F
31
J 632
gili 430
37 187,318
350 383
gj
607
235
'*'
106 lIt 155
1/
499 I::::::.
*
203
rutr
490

203 77
/!Ill 215,252,627
II
280
lu 262 227
Eleven Strokes
f.M 785 484
l1J 333 542

409,468

254
:ti
206
1ffi& 228
IJJ 651 171

49
;}]
5 157

794
'MJ
216,253 : 103
{II 495

532

241
{l 228
m;
182 A 165
468
m
168
216,625
631

265,644
;l:J:
384
227
Ii 203
182
318

663,665,748 290
52, 76

425,447 tw 538
326
]tij
120

186
{WI
633
UtfL
S23 tM 81
{,;
489
582 481,493
fa 184
US2 307,S21
*
336
{oo 477
106
;1:*
300
{i 214
u*
654
f?f
777 1!7{
@
543
372

272
195,300
U&1 525

645
159
I1i 238 511
{fij
52
m
615 649
{lli 224
UN 807

672
155
187 171
649
O@
654
377
167
U,
12

753
!fi2 632
U,
12 M! 774
m
477
ott
669

97
236
Stroke Order Index

271 J;l 529

499
tIr
552
121

162
722 1rf
288
'1m
604

277
IP*
105 'tt
238
277 $1 228

233
IT!
630 99
t
m
JC,i) 260
m
357 1M
40

362

157 tft
276 2, 128
JM: 178
669
'1":'7
)J\ 19
m
274,612

281
'1'1<
'X.
654
W
217 5.R
105
800
!! 662 5$ 129 173

*
300 5/lfJ 81

377

227,279
;j;$
222,228
187
-=r
500

343 JmX
177

131

300
794

243

n5 567
261
Fwt
162 323
tg 139,562
g}.
9 fJE 195
2, 128

2
1[ 31,33
tft
516
Uffit
158, 159

216 186
mJifl
266,280 280
652,653
308 460
t*
774

360
179
tJ!
S32
'-'-'
79
{r5(
620
t*
14
I'm Jt:::..
*
219,220 1'JB 454
ifttl
266
1M
380 '1$ 220 itT
256
ijJ
593

177
1t 690

34
60
t
550
1M}
98 tR 106 tm 538
-
690 til 179 310

273
'I!
525
369
1i 707 115 tiE
207,211
237
flfH
395
261
fBi
217
f$ 637 !WT 656 fFB 165
f*
300 1m
257
11*
550
1*.1
264
M
507

187
m
297 58

564

525 om 168 f1C 439
tJTX
494 1% 58

125

777

603

171 ..E3.
1ft
j]\ S4

425
fN
214
1M
623,625
Bg
284

714
1
257
353

68
V lk
688 BEJ 225

252,649

636,639,642 Bm 183
f3t
748,800

747 VI
537
fili
239
i@
795 fih
278

590
1rS
264 'iI. 115 ti:lJ 740
f", 295 em 248

250

750 519 fH 634
mJ 54
tR
165 f5R
303
s
ii 493
ff
769

281

59
506
!X
642

171
m,
71":
139
183
95!J.
522 fl*
162
it'x
306
*!J.
599 f
192 303,S19
f!J.
590
1{
660

555

295
fm
4
541

297
@
361

601

199
ffi
284 479
346

92 r,fj'( 139
}ljz
749 321 itt 392
275 m
49
r6
IJ\
19, 145
W!J.
166

199 186

280 758 rJR. 654
238
Stroke Order Index
rtR
279 526
ffEi 56

678 iff<
282
194

491 174 679
m
59 718 430
tIt 159
-s-
80 562 -', ;K'\
#f
723 7.% 495,469 Bli 235
rii 160,308 it
14
*
169
277
393 W 186
rfg 690
JR
276

165, 167
rim
239
154
iffit 259
378 $ 485
m 167
iWrf 513

187
354
#ft
179 93 m 194
iJ
177 t15 239 504

267

300 186

668 13
W
124

229 106 ax 564

722
5*
745
J!J<.
.llI1. 204
tim
395 r1
256
--
.on. 742

718

184
64
tiE
315 JJJl 592 516
m
593 17C 186
n'r:t.
3Ji( 7
189 $ 259,282,313 ON 435
l'1
649
*
263 Oil 141

219 IN 125 H$ 628

582 f3R 601 HiE 568

650 :EI 187
Il* 172
'r'?
{IE 472 fJl 519
i
221

761 Jet 284
298

69 510

178,294

227
ijf
48 166
261 J% 612 uHij 97
iW 170 261 tiiB 228
239
ua 545
mH
558
Iffl
69
*$
135

252
ID4
653
5'S ..
.:>J">
176,292
*ili
267 252
tiE 568
mID
179
ij}t
748, 749
*
282 m$ 352
Mi
612

294 rJi 255 353

776
229
'I
386

186
*:1Z
7
Ifft
460

794
*t!!
776
695

165, 766 rJJ: 252 97

x
561
*''''
fiT 269 531
231
*TI
735

756
I;:tr
187
*1:t
650
503 ..lL
IE
163 mOO 605
H'
94
m
163
167
t
21
1':4
253
*1!!
181 735
1r 85
264,266 519

1=1
166
*,1-
>?
340
ME! 297

292
Ml
290 502
;f[J
29 ffi$ 751
730

409 310 Mm 269
m
195 m
612
ilJF 292
HH'
550

124

252
13 7J'<
tD
629
IT
269
758

69
m
161

438,460
--n 7C

244

186

402 ->-L.
#
424 69 764
fiL 187

180
M 97
fll 257 186

112,251,626
*6
683 m 167
533
**
444

252
-H-
264
*!
519
*g
196
}if
151
rJ'C
4
lWP
562

fI}:. 217
240
Stroke Order Index

620
f0
;:/ 340 Jfj( 252
1iif
742
626

484
tJ(
163 WJ
543 199

243
290 199
Iff
252
14

S18
J[
465 J1t
172 307
:e
115 231
'X
515

-::tt
634 AA 798
,It
200
!IT.
@
259
256
jf!
575

97 Mi
113
jH1
4

252,555
S22

634
756, 788
798
482

49
244
258

732
278 WI 182

268 777
268,269
Jf8 607 0 35 92
m 253 763
52
11ft
261 405

536,537
m
!Irt
186,734,S29 X 602 633
239
7(
560
12, 15, 111
!Ill!. 271 182 162
!l!tl 69
364
243

519 484 ilil
248
VIti 269
787 601
510
420 388
360
-
292 250,625
ffi.l.
f'& 216

438 579
ffi'l.
fEl 414 759 241
fm 613 653
1.<B
?k
654
fPJ 532
]t
345
)$
654
r! 510
415

709
t-t
424 '1& 777
278
265 Nt 165 ftt
652
241
634
263 trm 163
JIlT S35
m
263 667, 700
293
298 307, 741
630
/Ilfi!t
Sl1 UfM 501

567
-='="
183
..5!..
=
wi'l
501
Twelve Strokes

119, 119
n
127
u[
543
wf 432

111
Ul 766
*\
186
1w
252
Om 655

183
1iii
216

412,480
666

S26

204,311
M
169, 771
1*
203
ul 748
tJ 432
1f
590
452

216

695
UWl 281
69
1*
258

548 raJ

342
{& 561
1lfJ: 609
282

429
Of* 617
720
593
199

171
*Jt
402
Uffi 236

525,561
mt
218
669
701
It 152
411,469
IlI& 639
WI 286
578
M
267

730
318

572
EIJ
152
38

280,804
'IJ
53
OJj:!
24

.:no.
105
If! m
':h
545
III 228
43
63
11
509

47
WJ
393
*. 561
tJ[
88

27
:tjK
651
205

530

107,120
it 524

264,815
:tl 495
280
*
181
530
=
567
If
509
530
242
Stroke Order Index
761
715 214
:ti*
617
373 369
it 356 W 717 11 235
515 611
765
280 672

61
743 fi'B
202

522

..........
'!W
747 J'J:rJ
328
749
159, 176, 178 !lV
217
327
215
ilif1\ 280 '!'IM
210
522

17
286
="'"
185 m
186 'i'f!
526
E
-=b-
261
t:=l
671
155
'Sli:
Ea
472
*
282 '!WI
259
W:
522
BB
376 '!fx
573

217

214,252
158,286
frtrf 179 533
Yo
682
frl 217
76
438
fjj
512
228
159
310, 785
543
,r-;<
... 164
9j
203

157
721

776

159 'tIl!
407

254
JIm 125 ti
215
570
IJW 190 'tiJ
89

419 ;m
134
157
633
599
173,174

155
585 216
11jM
166, 770
$ 192, 194
m
167 105
m 418

ll--/ 81 1i'i'i
556
432
1l
216,253,649
f*
463

627 1J 390
frg 319 =
I'EI
;j;
280
155
1*
622
172
W<:
It.:!I.\ 226
233
'i"'r
182
!ill
262,542 ffM
312
7E JD\
243

163, 182
Jim
621 tl
212
fi 543
.::il:fl:
249
fJffl
81
s
fit
185 Bw 60
tit
267,268

158,S24
13
58
*
371
EE
fiji 236
.
43 774 JT1,
fH! 210
J!
276

517
m
512 9& 165 86

453
203
78
fm
54
ti
82,83 f1& 639
m
124

162 227
W
236
B
218
tlJ 265
776 at
669,690 f9< 281
jl 468 IItl: 155

169, 171,281

514
BY.<
IV<
653
171
ttt
669,690

663
flfB
380
fWJ 281
Wj
159

173

227
!jl,ij
551,553
371

386,390
m
438

199

106

.iJ\
17

439
!z
206, 362, 364,

103 158
442

157 705
l)(
650

535

1kA
278
tf)( 429
fat
184 428
768
f*
3 182
{Xl
419

728
G[!.
n-:x.
590,591

173
tl
418,490

593
343

529
!J< 653
""

794

111

211,219

281

179 m 127
WI 195
@
163 7tH 620
551
tJt
159
r!i 243
582
f@ 167, 182
*
640
:&g
553
572

266
244
Stroke Order Index
543
182 709
698
314 159
r!
652,658 rtx 609 360
it 134 tJi 15

jJ\ 19
i1JJ 250 #f
690

511

261 370
rY.<
'!k
691
il 356
371

11
228 m
572 416
761
1:@ 691 fft5 264
102
4Hf
254 267
11\\

102, 120
483 263
r-lJb 731 :W: 267 JJJ 567
rIM 441 1ft 378 77
my
556 W
551 471
mlJ 327 1frX 405
166
iff
296
fjj,
'0<
691
1)3
85
ntrJ
281 #$ 297

ffi
50
l'
378 490
:.t
315 .

192

179

423, 751

285
*!J:
396

387

452
5@ 620
tt
281
rOO 477

617 :rm 4
Ym! 217 85 1m
249,252
l
512

697 m
575
155
5*
526 757

556
741
ifij
217
rtf 158 fJ=t 159
zg
li 73
7 49 $ 723

S12
*
482 rJ 582
a*
541
itli 318 fm 260 388

172 :&e 171 525
'J.
j'1$ 228
706 162

274
f'
438 473
245

460
m
141
l
252
497
mi
5
l
649
lffi
238

SI

183 p
?1?1
440 1fJ 389 745
r& 757
jjjJ
336
Ii 274
575
A-A-
267 454
;tfl.
68
*
746 128
1iJl 481 504 1J11 186
ltk 797

274 nJff 253
93
5*5
267
W 353
@
732

192 105
fjfij
593
*5t
590 WI! 471
n'
770
*
111=1 764 171
tHQ 285
**i
42
780
714
*@
803 MF 174
ti!i
521

192 281
ffi 539
wg
274

189
fj
53
**
195 179
;m
223

545
Jii
266
f,$
183
*b
>1=1 157

276

125

509 179
tA'J
163

321
391

252
m
79
M
110

242
mI
356
::El:
250 p
flj!
409

229

220
i;
383
**
267
56
ii 144

504

463
m
590
ifM
56

177
<=I
=
5 i&6 137

58 Hi
Y;R 34
i&6
137

790, 791
73

480

69 I=l
293 135 i: 669
214

497
246
Stroke Order Index

267,269,551,
!I!f
316, 792 tlt 186
553
165 J!t 274

309
!lr*
267

90
fjjf
239

730

265
SJj
13
1i
29

!'it=!
186,290
IE
383

29, 128

187
=

276
1!r 318

186

173

301

567

264

783
n
,,1' 267
281
7f;k 253 767

227
15
764
flt
188
1m
525
f#i
794, 797

186
*
300
tmI
270
.:;:!:t.

214
107
"i3'6"
654

366,371
F!.
1m
216
:f5t
182

173,214
Ji 242,243
682
W
742
;f+"
742
III
195
-'!.
203
iPJ
!'!
W.
511
it
161
'Wl
298
::!:if:
774
M
239 684

1k
653
267 fl 626

"I"
11

38 ffif 289
l& 450
56 156
X
159
196
Ji
181
;f
34
51

760,811
il
668

239 1m 570
106
=m
Qt=! 551 341
@
654
gil
245
/Jill
272
1i
453
161 735
iFj
161
Wf
258 266
m
189,299

Q'l 340 N,ft 753
532
1iJ 741 429
278
214 532
590
E 266 NE( 751
247
186 ffI:
537 tLi 91

165
l!.
139 178 .m

766 528, 740
Ji
239,261
N1l 273 606 372
lEfi
252 381
%'

408
$UJ 731 364 59
110
!lim 269 "7
675 '!Jt. 370
!lije 186 252 lfi"l
161
!liM 753 i& 419 137
!lig 558,561 336 IUfi 386
!liR
165 tt
514
1fI
// 274

266,629 24
376
!lift 161 00
346 724

340
rM1
396 424
!iiI
267 1m
286 720

239 M
465 166

163,290 Fa9 463,465 WJ( 279

205
24 15,56
186 00
79 280

347 I*J
99 184

227

208 N 155

453 W'6
318
*
276

570,583
222 334
jfk .'<
282
124

522

280
602
41
Thirteen Strokes
136 155
iilL

408
[)j
224
455
rf
217
161
... 412
rut 668 l!
70
i.
8,40
M
258
[)N
227
1f
292
735
782
1!i 522
&
239,261
n
S22
1$ 500,502
248
Stroke Order Index
11
337
0""
J!'!
341 166
ftJ! 88
oj
307,S19

203
219

538 714

120 37
-
165
fl
789
[i1
512
.!<
34 r'i'h
1"
17
III
512 190, 739

492

302,331
53
279 258 rum 782
{t 282
tm
103
*
227
it
776 243
*
228
{Wi 652 7
*
228
A-..
!i!Q 686
;!:J
340,472 155
572
;!:Jl
204
$1f
/, 172

555,571

182
446
rfq
187

40
409
500

172
Iii
692

251 509 JJl 797
li!n
572 J11: 286

167,294
in 337
I1t
63
M
226
In
176 Jff 178 643
Iri
226 JIE 98
*A
181
774

361
*'"
629 sa
01 119

542

228

182
tzj(
794

111
m:.
332

178 175
!Bl
uja
742
703 202
196 629 280
262 542
=
184 ;'is,
648 538
tt
Jl!J,'\ 194
541 tee 170
JHX:
It,;:.,,'> 650
U*
258
Ii
512
*g
134
540,592
569 306
185 217
;g
784
249

;l.::J\ 638 347
68
1frr
Jt.::,/.' 281
ffm 773 ftfrJ 281
353 291,581
f*
482

147

637
tJ
217
187

187
{'g
509
'Ii
407 fl
119
ti 186

183,286 43
t!!!
360

152
fW
708

143,385
'Il
203
350
m
468

346 nw 539
626
286 Btf 669
t*
622
'ti
278
Bij!
236

795
'If
695 !Wi 797

227
Hi 538 'I:
408

502
'ii
778 443
11
509
'ii
239
B'
509 ;fm 749
'till
561 124
1tX
610
'l'@ 524
780
1f
476

651 WI
203,226
11
386
189
at
228
11
390
SX 301

346

774
205
125

251
738
.illL.
S27
1m
166
*
tW 530
246 S34
}511 643
m
318,319
tzk,
M 729
11 538
fij
655
356
fft
376 159
att
S19
ffi
152 285
fttJ.
221
m
561

124 157
523

51 %t 236
'.l'.x

609 f.& 774
YEl
470,472
tl 590
m
86
mm 281
t@
307 tJl
14
742
250
Stroke Order Index
lliit 259
496
Jj
512
M
186
1:l 424 280

189 Jl 217

EEl
101
t1:f
40
HB
551
157 ,I \ '\

110 1ft 281
mn 511

512 124 ?J<. 654
rR
136,629
8',:;]
278
220 JI \\
ij; 470 1:i
155
169

773
452
1fn 166
iw
249
m
227
m 438
&
731

443
m
243

164
l'
236
267
379 il
228

743
239, 791 S7
Ii
239
$ 384
m
719
m 171
iii
621 S28
m 171

117
620
fM 179
{g
524
m
512 W5i 573

199
m
791 416
rl 187
jJffi
437

13,57 lIIL
iJ8
103

376 -1M. 263
i'l
/, 57 125 58
':
7J\'\\ 561 fm 261 Hi 254
r*
400 IFl 797
I"'l
241
riff
283
,3:30
197 Htl 241

269
Jffij
224 HJC 186

155 217,533 Hi 221,272

378 66 Hi 272
'!!!
{B. 160 liN 281 H 221
253 19 506 516

643
Jij!
228
307

25 106 E$ 221
wr
11\\
490

502 263,282
251
214
8"
264 195
EtE
206
49
*,
186
WE 47 rf
537 578
Ei1t
254

139 107
iiti
573

92 61
tft
159
427 ijJEt 302
111<
263 .. 811 546
;f2t:
704

92 ijl 7

438 *1:1 nF.J 497
252
;I; 425 r
,;9: 221 526
tt;
706 524

640
86

163

601

167
*
92 797
*fflJ
605 r
''f
252 if 49
:!f:
712
*'*
601

393

282
715
-g
545
fllii
165

166

509 ..E!..

297

49
-++-
233
f
384

372
::t
228

279

575
j
777,S35
g
240
*6
9C
453
116

746
m
165 1!
730

258
527
522
H
654
W
220
ji
3
774
277
jffi
S9
408

227 l'li
794
182

743
'3f f
56
1#1:
438
160
M
228
7C

125
479,481
E
14

451
M
383

578
W
293, 794 ilj 575
E
710, 719

5 63

227
ff
539
55
if
177
252
Stroke Order Index

195 M
318,321
192
m
245
fYG
1

239, 794
ii 224
1J#
192,218
Jtfi 225

489
S6
j!
192
m
789 285
1i
711
*I
24 135 263

280
gJ\:
181
00 183

263

p'f 181 if! 269

541

PI=!
199 if2 272
m
49
786 568
fir
181, 769 204 lbJ'Ji 176
;]
277

186 397 as
!I!fX
160, 732

64 786

223
315 263

14

267 550
m
353
gm
203 WB 204,205

484
gU]
389 232
S!f{
125,139
gi
504 167

539,575
W
616,630 492

513
681 lfr 457

649
308

S26

277

192 590
=
ilj
186

310
298,299,301
s.
f!
383
278
'A
181
fm
248
IDtt
192
'1
165

601

229
476
M

151
IDt
402

263,321
rE
281 460 !MJ 603

625

298

264
rlN
340,353

298,318 B 169,170,171
rH 277
@
453 11 6

794

648 408
568 330 620
253

525 "11
69
R
336

222 510 ;51 357
3i
S3 266
ffl
281
,'"
Xl!!
214
215
jiJi
462
jI
228

472
362

797 735 JJ! 278

280 267 7JJ! 371,419

743 51
35

745 811
-'-g
It, 122
;ii 488 551

232

;@f 155

675, 767
@
159

281 iil 247
wit]
196
jI
364
i-*
138 w:l 186

611 182
i
530

103, 162
85
181
lliU 508 214
i;Q\
171

52
M
S20 167

636
mJ
476 735
541

307 390
100
283
318 161

192
408

267
262 ME 37
iff
465
WH
615

505
fA
227
@fi 545

167

:n..
361

57
{yft
629
f!JJJ
523
m
5

EEl
229
Jt 253
239 472 m 599
W
675

532
157
753

--n
69,482
1m 618
jffI 794

13
@
477

"Q 514

13

47

532

138 5i
239
629 60
M
276
254
Stroke Order Index
Fourteen Strokes

653 562
MI
442

167

84
iii
243

294
fit 5
1m 342
Wf
715
11
183
277

284

562
:tl 43 S6
250
251 t1 206
1t
135
677
,.
282

548
686
197

387,459

277
197
fl11'
465
154 265
t?X
609
:tl 40

105
545
jl
337 726
11
418
ji
447

171
f'
414
!I
645

533

572
j!j[
105 M
310
{W 685

533 i
447
IIJ 315
--
615
292

Ji1J
186
n
760 m
580
II 205

16 m
562

697, 781
fi
357
"
288

642
-=
749 iii
720
';:
121
Ii
692

630
s

585,642

:ft/
105 161, 181
!f!/
U!I
644
9j
365
769, 777
Ul 413
til
279 355
=b"
794

512
$

495
522

545

289
ie."
UJl 292

422
'f1l
99
ut 537

187

422
590

533 'Ilt
456
U!J 234
50
,tt]
5
.gp.

794

785
'l1J
664
255

663, 728
762
m 173
11
22,40
tft
456

520

258 17

585
303 1itt
144
fx
695,699

591
591 730
378
287
iWA
559
'1"
442
fM
590

408
tl 464
761 604
'I'!!!i
""
571 ilJt 159 m
591
'II
336,337
106

.m1 407

562
157, 159 105
'If&
769
57 481

251
Ea.
520 187
I'm
'II
645 S25 r[j 161
'r1:.
m 536 115
*
124
-:fif:
.11.:!i' 376 m
109 533

S17,S31

520,521 rJi 194

490
38
645

467
629 571
tl
772 tl
400 l 431
fjiiij 292 tt 590 447
f*
313
S2 tm 166, 167

769, 770
621
*
177

251,533
tl
226 fX 642
m
310 tE
77,132 i$JT 685,696
fi
220

409 ri 105
fElt
165
446 I 537

166
tm
103 rl 447

268 t& S7 fIt 769

630
"'J1.
*){
239 184

555
165 280

303 til
731 728
M
791 fl
794
163
256
Stroke Order Index

263 f 561
252

91 758
tiBJ 760
ffif
260
fJg
203 1$ 163
580
226

202
iii 430
mt
103 356
v.m
263
!
40
m
217
rt
442 11 738
tIt
184,236

644
JtX
340,471
163
386 I3i 527 fl 7

169
IE
132
W}
52
t![l 412
Ii
340,484
215
r)$ 260

636 fBl 157

19 DII 441
f1
792
219 m
165

720
s
'm l' 612 160 281

522 M 549
ylJJ
S26
ri
469
m
124 Mffl
440
11
493
281
{fg;
g 438

91
if!
720 Jt 157

179 Ii
381 490
M
91
:3'!:
347,349

481
!k.. 'tl::tt
if@j 260

JTIl. 698

451
ml
407 232 fit 675

393
238 rs 532
11
103 224 $ 76

778 m
194
iii
730
Ii
188

214

169
109
182

169
m
318
lig 708 2

521 103
fJe 167

589
@
671
Ii 382
280 r1
797
Ii 383
105
51 S5
257

253
*Jg
481
ffl
250
*$
221

159
=
451
*6
/J\ 17
199
285, 730
fl1i
58 88
m
51

105
*'m
139
f*
376
358 M
195
:;:
643
f14!
297
219
:if
117
*JE
418
174

758
*g
461
163,294

25
**
17
267
i
125

552
178
*
178

69 lifJ 372 57

282

273

694

404
553
*
400

210
253

181

115

520 M 250

98 207,363 $ 283

158

282
563
*1
524,605

185
182

477 mf! 212
m
255
if'
"*
300 m
171
iii]
311
r" -AU
395,456
:JgJ;,
:Fl
562
1Fi
491
*1
238 JX 116

244

275

290
iiW
762

615
ill
281
JIi 266 -',

517

254
!k7i!
454,511

775 13
172
rJN 639, 755
-+.t-

40 58

227
=!rl:
540 186 r'i"h
*s
Itt; 360
11
180
!I!jIJ
165

173
If
278
mm 167

230

13 !l!%J 550

525
"ff1i
187
!lee
128
258
Stroke Order Index

3 620 495

226 140
495
!l!1t
159
574 451
!I!(
620
93

240

481
216 243

419

541
M 250
fir
174

183 53
m
173
183 229

121

187 357

216 we 533 590

745 is: 343 338

762 340 5

165

,IJ\ 777 57

171 320

277

268 Jfl 553 504
1m 605
jfoJ
266 701
ftg
690
159 54
19
264 $m 253 492

202 !iiI[ 769 687
M:J< 647

93 550,561
M*
258
425 28
35 512
M
231
Ol
PIC.'
165
629
fMl
346
E.
280 376 M 520
I=If:l
254
'JB

467,485
00 730
?JJ
359
561
158 i=l'Jc,\
'"
318
jI
163
105
g
182
jI
163
105
=
284

;I.E!! 621

m 176
223

214 JlttE 193

806,812

40
545
&
520 252
m 274 i'll=l
gm
225

261 59
259
5 24
B 525
ff 794
Bi 216
XfJ 543
j( 138
298
fVl 252
t1.7J 558
so
AA 752
69
18 681
m# 54
188
120
530
311
798
ma 188
,= 165
iJt 122
634
533
113
654
t!; 204
il. 378
57
:f; 511,514
JIt 15
181
I! 754
.. 171
178
261
Fifteen Strokes
{t 184

160
i 170
it 127
il
794
iM
6
it
203
1fi 675
181

43
509
{;
346
if
306
it
652
,J
638
723
J!IJ
159

170
IIJ 621
673
ill 203

203
BI! 779
ltVJ 298
Jfj;
187
U'-
562

527
Iyj
278
260
Oi 781
nj
367
lOOT 179
U! 575
373
576
654
Il!j!
413,487
III
312
Ull 654

167
1J!lli 265

82
jj
371
212
Ill! 235, 749
362
tl 751
**
544,591

480

181, 183
183
9rJJ 465
480
AAft 254
546
563,569

748
Ifii 791
*
562
K
439
718
776
Stroke Order Index
11
83

281 547 II.:!J."

187 ti
8, 145 t, 373
Jfj
776

482
f'
653
73 'tOO 346
11
157

358
82

653,664,689
rutJ 60 iIi!
414
J-'
414,480

561
370,371
m
546

548 'liIE
11\\ 254
265
r[J!f!
487 21

36
260

Jt.:!.l\ 165, 769 163
166 'tJe
576

252

423 t!
235
I)[
259,585
Ii
173
tl
663,686 582
fJ
269
'I"
562

251
Jij
556 203
fD
664
mR
195
'roo
465

250,532
Jl
140
t;a:
[ii) 546 HII 168
)iij
106
481 Bl 431

475 282
124
Jj
254

754 f!jt 105
5'
414

165 579

579,586
il
145
m
21
w
)j'J 66
249,531,532
268
1J@ 323
m
545
f@
m
554

51, 165
77 fl 537
!!
44
m
459

251
g
,Col"
235 fij 751
fl
645
JJI 282
526,540
424
II
324 Ji 755

131
-+>-
251 fi 756
544,545

618 JI 751 Mrf 32
J;IDG
177 f1m
251,252 fjiilj 161
t.t
227 f1'& 473

258
261

620 717
:q1jIj
369
1'1 336 rH
/, 376
601

646 179 647
I'll S5 1* 187 18
m4
261

358 40,67
666 545 105

782 i. 367 187
!Jt! 686 24 II 336,337
1'J
229 267 219
00;)(
644 277 159
Jj(
413

650 lIi
186
9i 120
195 293, 739
91 337 iI 155
184

160 ?ffi
269

456

644 iffi 798
f1j
815

665 53
jf
470
131 rl 176 m 178
7i 5 it 183
M
621
tIl 53

277
M
621

752
15'J.
522
ml
643 ,fin
545
784
ifi
152
764

279 446
564 87 Bll 287
. 654
431,483

541
m
430 fr& 186 577
m
696
WI
620
m 636
553
131

.on. 446
ill
418

171

796
l'
226

522
Wg

477

396 527 341
fa'
463 1'; 235
m
89

11 445
rm 507 li! 692
74 fi 482 228
262
Stroke Order Index

199
261
HI
645
pJi 227
606 Jilf 17
fr& 738, 756
*m
163 155
Ei
591
**
482 616

229 *cb.
,j!
228 360
liII
473

698 256
pffii 286, 731
*00
477 256

446

177 222

mIl, 551 Iii
488 1! 495
Sll

514
ji
186

195
*\7'R
492

392
fJ
340
453 11 161
f*
794
163 11 207
f!
198, 199
*"
378
282,562

176 $tZi 71

282
f5
525 m
134 It 567

561
346 550

29

310

728
S
281
*f9J
785 769
%i
186
*w
195 169
m
765
488
j1
227,279
wu 575 11
621 482
*'tg
543 W
216,297, SlO lfflt 259

490 fRm 489
j!i
720
mlJ
*i
134

437
?I 425
ii!
660
if
236
mt 773
firZ 708 490 *f 131

502

631 300
m
489 533 Ii 216
*
155 nl 179 12
iI 210 590 18

617 II
252
m
274

269
)j$
282
69
263

310

139
653,688
g,'f,

620 654 Mi 769
620 384 100
272,640

396,515

414
}Ii
583

228

59,60 216,624
iit=J

514
Mf
267 Jf$ 273
D
252

746

176

533
213 lJlrM 163
252

682

583
iiS
796, 797

550,603

761
310,785

224

478

197

380
w*
791 iiRB

476,488 76
103,162
155

ii-r
221 !fjU 167

746 g?F 173
j,@
264
1W 228 281

236
fir 8
il
WI!
454

800
742
!l!&
277
V.
214
.E.
fii
252,649

169

482

530 267 iliiffl 395
11*
530
,.g:.
ffi;l 120 !liiii 189
fiW
281
p.it
252
m
115
Ii
488
478
,IE
360
fJE 165, 182

241

139
fj
441
W
519

418

620

298

760
ffil

271
195

603
582
if
165

186

718
II
92
161, 181
iii
338 603 769

170
=-
19

522
If
159
jll
176,309
31 535
g1r
160
J{W
709 491
264
Stroke Order Index
163 00
812 Ji 244
jJI
364
00
125
:I;
794

358

361 264
53

208 253
W
74
-=
S7
JH 215

480

296 .Im 116

60 ft
251
.Ii]
87
&!!3
412

575
IEl
290
392
11
49
550

218 R
340

216
M 256
ml
60

S12

690
'1i.
433

693
215
'1
321 ImJ 526
416

27 217
M
282
ftfl
730
e)1l
296
125 779, 794
e)1l
524
&1 661
252
M 753
&*
601

305

263

764 rm 228
ffdj
114

715 rm 228

165

284, 791
IIY
783
m 530
&t: 115

194 419

813

248
HI 435
if
49

258 710
217
387
S21
262
:I
124
798

668

732
M 532
575
209
252
249

281
236
247 735 187
238 M 267 217

14
m
195
186

282 197

172
265
im
291 m 169
667
Iii
166 398
338
*1
414
536
Sixteen Strokes
37

186
If
370

654
-==
762

283
!WI.

564
11
605
tli 133

686,687
fl
343
Pi 509
486

294

169 11 480
i$ 75
m
593 1m 37 f
if
g
460
11
290
-R 101
11 160

525
1'-
668

157
186

264
46
321
l'
294

183
Wn 702
1*
536

178,218
iW
732, 782

692
.!J 160

127, 129

706
J.jJJ
393
m
172
tt
652
184,307
11
723
11 456,460
522
lit
133 43

706
1M
318
til
583
0*
538
Ji
203 m 51
$ 158

564 546
P}j
548
J! 494
M 187
306
f! 56 576
OllZ 182
158 31 687
n;;
603
filtf
297 at S27
lit
311
tl
672, 723

654
III
460
ti
184
Hj
5
II 186
t'-
668

363
*J
672
JIm
542
Hi 185
i$ 186
1M
318

120
279,542

208 iji
5
266
Stroke Order Index
fjft 165 ffl1. 227, 759 692
*1
145
rgg
182
1t 203,310

82 iM
321 243
W
811
#I
203 II 424
f. 654 Ii
472 lil 347
f. 679
*
535 II 155
fJK
545,562 iJJ 10 157
It!,,"

230 , 294 358

524
r;j
584
J]t
27
ft 373 187 531

248
279,542 J.1\ 555

791
198 M 644
78 iii 654
:t: 13
ftf 24 rJ. 480
fiji
161
f; 231 tffl 281 $: 105
f!j 277 rlli 53 817
748 ri
460 M 645

135 166 604

548 364 ifI 533

574 1!! 557
"'"
292

157 1!! 557 762

563 iff 73 .. 263

183, 777 496 m. 438

278
"""'"
183 77
.S!.
Jfi\

185 562 Ii 447
J'f
412 483
W 772
187

654
If 16
106 685
r'rb
w
16
42 r!jl 414,487 Hl 533

453

574
M 754
170
11
424
93
189 5 iii 177
iNfi
263 1M 321
1iIDJ
""
280
267

176, 192

219
103
fJ! 40
*I
283

254

254

261
A 220
fMZ
258
*1lI
>llIl 407

266
W
176

74

631

266

212
It
408
W
568

109

563
m
232 1M
227 W!! 230
trft
520
,m
187

205,311
r'S'l

267 fi 183
391

241
432

187

458
432
'* f"i'iJ
548
M
169 522

620

768
321
136

584

261,593
m
802

629 m
635 532

187
480
9@
103

173
J;t
168

349
ii
269
424 160

451 753 57

637 Jlmt 254
m
91
m
600,646 Jlmt 260
itT
805
*18
103 Hl 572 40

:mI: 185 fm 782 74,325

694

400
1jj
97

38,39
00
94 fm 399
7f':
" ....
*'
534 538 fJi 283

510 186 11
167

if,(iij
520
II
235 ml
407
*g
'El
347
i9i3(
815

:;m 467

636

423,424
l{
569
*l
536
572,574

88
W
299
If
575
*Ji
348
268
Stroke Order Index
wi
281
52
I! 163

169
lffi
385 61
509 163 49

701 265 264
655 476 256,536
274 WOO 281

478,490
559 JW
163 $1Ml 98
"00
n7S
522 40 179
';13
WE
182
j*
622
282
476
jj
7

77

IWIl
167 $; 252,627 210

177 $It 178 704

161 $ftU 276
159, 160

411,469

640 360

463 620 360
",r,.
236
$*
622 239

628 730 189

321
253 &f 208,392
192 $Ml 385 480,481

526 }$ 421,476 S2

780 iJ
421 698
,;!B
228 387 743

14

358

241,S33

281 506
1MI
236

pa 669 167
iii 690
nt 719

562
jkj
106

509 XI 238
Ii]
377

281 563 lfij 691

794 238

222
fs3
533,556 13
[ijf
222
*i
309 203 702
II
14
rlM
261 279
11
351

274 542
269
JW 567

545
UI
283
g
681 itt< 321
320, 796

723 1m
318, 795 nil 161
m
586

198
uj!f
178
=

186 24,137 672

173
jIg
532 fi 306
Ii
177 S5

541

60 253 509
iii
471,477 239

67
,14 575
138 i$. 345
510 69
291
{Ii 550
549 550
tJti.
a=li 12 266

283
764
489
1ft
264
!i!Ji 92
166

275
345 m
267

69
h
13",
668
381 W 544
634 652
M
160
JlJi 208
'J\
217
525,605
mi
48

111'7 675, 706

13

':k
654
mf
192
M
109
j1
427
41
51
172,771
fg
438

203 236

jG 478 f!! 66

593 iii 3

250
Seventeen Strokes

398

530
283, 750 " ,,,Y,.
fl
188
618
m
626
11

42
121
337
356
{I 229
'tj!f 178
402

269

183,260
321
{! 554
fiX 288
476
Jh 187
WJ
45
270
Stroke Order Index

198 r$ 50 197

295 il 343
II 266

176 m- 176 Ii 460,509
m
S16 if 541

427
fi
160 13 tlli 58
fi
584
il
525 fllfli 254
fl
316 rr 672 358
' -
JnL
Hi 343 rr
701
111 41
' -
JnL

186 ri 584 ifI 173

241,243 rEll
197 $: 412, 733

692 389 465

171 283, 750 562
Bit 277 it 261,587 am 753
306
181 l4 102,103
fl
414
I
248 358

202
i*1
238
Ql
709, 718
fn
673 1. 215 317
ft
203, 745 t3t 222 m 53
189

40
651
tii
133 427 391
l!
691

538
II]{
562

45
1Jj
267 546

222

236
82

52
279,542

544,591
788
W
572 iiI 446

706

IBI 133 1i* 266
525

75 161
fl 127 11
315
358
ff
246
11
492 1M 73
IX
664 222
iii 157
JI 127 Ii 101 ti 183
1&
658
m
263 ffirp
480

486
It
535
157
271
fi 5
31 IN 463
m 582

538 ri
532
f! 222

424,446
m
229
Wi 41
$iIIi

571 If 127

256,640
m
127

133 !Eil
if
645
*1
422,447
ff
776
N 773
666
fJj
175
12

187

23
f1j
575
**
282 i1 198
ltir
430
*'
169
::!;!;
184
&
,iW,
f1g
263
ru*
561,605,620
=iZ
521

n
-=!- 222
217 m
424

292
165 M 321

500
185
fj
281
li 583

93
g
263
203 iIiJ$ 796 746

169
!H
185
*i
167
637
186
11
279
g[5
625
!if
63,544
if
227
*I 99
18 WJ. 540

217 482
m
407

370
34
'i]
204
m 535 184 259
536
169 103
665
ff
364

645
*m
259
!II
6 762
*1
176
652

310

254,608
lit
203 !I 179

282
548

357
*w
229 538 1 537
*Jlil
79 !ib
723
161
$! 15
Jm
537 647

17
264
m
522
272
Stroke Order Index

167
JIMt
658
i'1 797
Ik
628 If
302 &i 24
m
131
629

617
$i 7 IHf
53
628

554 ftt 253

622
fI
127 m 272
23

666 Nt 738

243

776 M
525
fR
468
m
182
202
&"*
482

134
470

745
fl
282 1m
176
212
WJ[ 157
132 7
ml 57 11
466
&fx
573

629
'*
797
m
440

202, 796
!II
473,486 $1 460
575
239

124

466
fJil
281
&mr
''7 522
512
171
rrm
746
"''''''
341
266

799

I'l
172
460
1*1
436

109
507
ri1
228
695
298

355

127 3M
321
M
669

561 578
iii
356

S32
jI
474
00
232
Jjf
74 636

176
\
172
Ii
407

180
I'lnn
tt 759 rM
604

187

199 304
!lifE
221
gl
701
'J:<J:
38

154
;ff'f
11
343 739

797 I'lj!

202
319

66

171
675, 708

2
273

54
217
11 563

264,266 628
m
295

432 633 ffiJ! 779
fN
106

683 fift
440,442

687 677 ill 423

746 Illi 268
HI
393

408
619 Hi 561
M 261
290

13

443
252 til
205

62 8 512 701
307
371 fi
529
617

292 fi 525

310 It 401 fI
791
669 1M"
561 WX
281

173 M
203,205

34 ri
343
715
Eighteen Strokes
184
432
11 401
776
,'ffi 509

19
il 709
,'ffi
--
509
136
243
207

338

490
52

216
rl
248,250,532
387
:t1l 141
621

539 554

229
lin
VI
Ah
788

718
475
If
12
iii
546
rl 124
402,492

186
rif 67
m& 590
ril!li
369,447
iMl 267
rJ,
.It:!.!,
24
'1'111 621
263,531
730

165
ii
561

188
fLi 268

492

603 11 393
tl
155,580
.I.,'
it
484
till
167
11
351
274
Stroke Order Index
.. 525 rt
530

290
1it
783 a. 252

490
.\'I
169

679

228 =.
Jf
507 545 W 281
leW 281
HH'
:It 73
160
iIi 652

389 Ii 550

25
*1
139

351
1M
170

165, 167 298

187

480
fij
228
1m
276
563

555
564
*"
562 183
'im 239 *I
612
grg
183
:g
239
*'11
60

722
M
264,266
*i
423
157
WJi 681

221
m 136
PI 127
Ii
429 Jfl 480

591
*'
226
A
30

591 W'" ,,:If! 487 446

246 566
m
252,627,649
tl 187 423 157

332
JI(
165 135
227
ill
768
m,
463

10 Imf
178 JJl 337
m
222 ijl
345 120
it
449
III
526 251

565
[t,
393 336
If
575
:m-

601

608

155 iX 118 292

11
662, 725 !l 672
644
.. 412

556 260
'!fir
205
*i
178, S31
!.
422,447
IlX

463
JI
393
oo
!=tIC' 18
m
103

178

-g
544
275
if
93 1 340
gj
66
!ml
14

541 38
.R
ff1t
17 -mit 186 308, 743

268 206,212 435

294 &! 77 Jl!1i 163
W
165, 181 286 500
W 210 169 R
124
if:
271 ill
621
)t
767

31 67
183
JijI
176 Ml
286

530
N'
169 00
782
n
253
lmi
259 Ml
742

159
161 r!lJ 709

309
N! 165 11
472 263,282

132
816 173
1l S30

,,,J,, 235
525
If
664 /lift
187 210

265
S17
786
!Ii'
500 if
146
171
!Ii'
500

247 499

769,S29 198

17

188 nl 588

20
221 37
!!1m
717

II
184 II
621 228
If
131
11
408
Ii
139

187
1m
298

115

571 m
466 U 208
M
201

264
I!
92

545

622 ffrll! 187

187
fj:
610
MJ
176
&R

40
fj!
488 497

110 D 228 732
758

777
261
276
Stroke Order Index
163 II 191 If 187
159
1ii
203 fA 229
231 HI 141
' ,
It
421

e:11\'
281
HI
250,532
i!
67
242 fl 243
WI
605
II
280 282 127
797 ft
263

13
'l 5 trm
229
ji
588

371 ff
187 Ii 698

182
JIj
520 ut 532
fMl
620
Ie
801 287
IfZ
261 71 243
tl
523
rftli
150
tm
164
Nineteen Strokes

321
ffl
178
fl
5fi!l<
315 208
irJ 657
rl 40
11
587

345
ri. 68
f, 379
f}!
263
If
575
11
692
tfl 310,315
?Wl 309
M
250
!I 41

432

751
*1
436
ill 187
11
691
496
iIi 263 rtH 605
n
8
iI
530

409
m
494

557
if
101
In
111
11
147

535
111 282

814

538

53

243
11
318

315

243

198,202
11
436
m 530
ill
484
11
13,16
ik
614
$'
186
fI 586
5,1 S2
$QIl 53
420
m 195
m
744
fftli
26
ft 89
551,564
277
m
25
11
10 m
271
.. 172
fIi
682
358
1m
214
fIi
682

418
11 493
ft
203
Mi
423

92

321 111$ 196
-=-
229

272

341
m.

225

165 iI 488

509
208

572
ilfi
S23
526

654
ij!
554
!ft
235
249

160
725
If
40

101

11/, 459

177

554

751

621

275

790

127

li
229
.Mt
248

533
111=1

187
181 522
iI
423

51 &l 43

186

654 &f 417
fi
642
"''*
iji!}J 798
255

631
157 77,102

561
l
n,,\\ 574

447
160
371 542

68 P,ti 83 132
It
321

426 &I 645
!II!
689 if
407 93
iii
762 iii 547 664
ffl
509
424 232
M
293
546 mm 456
m
330
546,565
41
m
101
HI
375 H
415
m
704
m
269
aw
722

542 1M
203,815
f!
254
rff 222 1m
73, 74

180
278
Stroke Order Index
1ft
217
360

240
fEi
524 !G 186
tI
126

408 91 511 til
154

446 92 fJI
108
tm
629 58
S27

407
264

530,598
119

264
dt
658

240
242 Pfi
183

160
567
11
530
*"
229 IJ
253
!liN;
It:!.I\
510
J9Ji 512

484 657
470 210
126
a
561
186
fl
436
ft
538
392
Ii
657
ft
643 254 :tlJ
67

279 573
fiW
281

447 81
26

337 IMt
159 ffl 183

251,254 PI
187

26
,Ii
489 it
263
401

205
ft
186
26

173
265 fl
315
lWx 797 mill
252
f}fl
187
163 BIT
338 fJ! 263

310, 785
732
17 11
436

155
Twenty Strokes
i1i
164, 172
it3 795
fIfJ
517
$ 692
fi
212
uijg
26

126

747
UI 67
il 370

?fi 45
fi
676
572,584
m
51,59 rnw
561 JI\\fj
uW 574
iN
641

733
m
691
279
nI
263
M
67
Pi 689

604 561
535
iJ\
494,494
'.1J
525 ROO 269
fftg 26
iji
282 169
1ft 372 Iii 701

460
11
124 rI 535

460

187
m
306 31
512

187 IQJ 358
184
01
141 II
263,282

266
"
594
IDt
345

548
iii
406 fi
258 WI 10

773 Ii
407
186
iii
165 Ii
407 m
187
UI
1 11
586

181

187
524 &i 7
fe
424 tJr
200 526
iii
187
112 208

554
00
97
373,375

282
tMi

280

717
11
634
345 662
ft
43,45
178 562
LgJ;

605 24

PH.. 73

672 13 798
j! 178 588

791

162
fl:
590 572

163 268

752
m
750
160
178
ti 476
V
170 00
226
=

344
W
43
ri1
183
=
*ti
198

186 IUl 487

448

riM 702

492
*tM
274
236
m
654

393 m: 68

580
280
Stroke Order Index
III
271
fI
172
"
104
R 571

794

67

180

477

436

562
,.
101
fl 666

621
!j!-"-
45
685

184
ft
670
ri! 438
11 14
tii.
187
ii
166 , I

370

284
717

459
III
247 ill 37
205
If]
69

436

563
ll>7J
Imr.:t
550
1:1
572

157 183

94 jl 452

467
Twenty-One Strokes
fI
67
1ft
469

494
11
187
U
26
RI
74
11
744
8 309 538
{1ft 736

475 512
i. 448
*'
275 636
JlJ 754
*-
141
Ij
621
UI
784
229

165
"$I
500
U1 779

592
K
559

217 tf 200

205

229 If
340
1M
267,277
229 495
Jt
228
e 229 Ix 610

37
II
618 til 261
'II
266
II
436
495
11
769
Ji
492 742
'tt
452
jI
266

522
11
768, 777
Wi
133
1)111
I; 194
11
235
J}J
424

610

436
m 773
701
281
W
424 iii
S2
it
67
K
385 G S8
561

187 a
170
739

762 R
263 Itt 654
11
530
157
1ft
670,671

181

228
Ii
171

672
W
136
9
520
1=1
-"'111
!ill!
467 n
621
If
513

261
239
If
176

281

541
If
192

603
136 IN
338
III
351 if
486 it
782
III
116 ,t'!! 18
IfI 162
663
m
561
R
522
Twenty-Two Strokes
m
176 .. 165
ft
23 265
It
175,369
Ii
701

555

676
m
476
Jj
298
1M; 102
IB
14
'I
762
II
104

393 I!
645
01 744
M8
283

754

518

264 M
166
6
470

266

455
456
I-U
460 ft
694
WI
450
m
222

694
'I
461

535

G.:X
184
186
,\I.e,

692

187
11
413
IX
767
W
434
11
450

77,101
iI
261
fl
499
525

247
IX
452
1) 584
I}
621
iI
303,S19

503

117
iii 413,414
282
Stroke Order Index

187
W
214

154
11
438

187,545

154
fI
438
426
353
m
If!..
277 448
:I
584
M
126 1$ 187

771

492 . 267
:R
166
m
67 698

185
81 572 &l 343 I; 561
rl
126 &1 587 ftJ! 495
II
126
if
176
I
280
fi
524 a 298 IlE 583
J!
282 ft 13 U
27

490 243 a 651
ii
26

277
m
760
if
309
g
127

163 Jj 486

263
If
524
Twenty-Three
V 37
Strokes
26

48

358
IU 187
!Ji 118

791
770
It
180

414
iJI
fI
596
401 546

ft
163
564
469
1ft
g
798
11
116
671
518
243
fi
274
II.,!..'

J!I 269
Ii
84
415
'tl
IJl
435
III
651
534

Jij[
165 I; 281
518
tl
RiM 269 \J 522
594
11
WI
475

771
590
tl
492
jI
555
155

187

769
al 303

644
455
783
283
*'
744 697 fJI 453
JI
594
Ii
43
ft
246
II 428
"
186
tI
229
11
37 676 it
157

775

767 ill
664
fi
686 9
414 .. 241
if
561 9
474

235

266 a 221 iii
266
*1
134 e 162 Ml
126
m
67 ill
243
658
*1
687 Ii
460
726

301
j,
375

436

656
g
751

436
II
744
358 776
fi
187
373
776
Ii
176
562

S18
A 239 iIi
238 I@ 691
hi
497

546

1,650

488 572

108
tit
615

611 69
V
769 :\I
496 MI
572

263
465

263
31 187 358 B 187

762

663 II 69
M
496

185
ii
306
&I 165 i}l 186 ii
743

'"
554 290

557 I
491
jl 530
Twenty-Four

345
Strokes
I
261
,fR
638
gj
261
15
267
fIJ. 474
ID1
494
fI
(B!l!l
187
672

II
697
jJj
541

203
284
Stroke Order Index
"
343
IT
405
II 595
fI
66 ~
561
WD 676
~ i
263 &I 530 m1 259
~ ~
199 ~ 306

448
I ~
486 I.D
263 fit S27
, ~ 160 ~
658 m 455
II! 691 f!i
121

744
U
522 J! 544

235
i t ~
265 mI
439 ~
S14
fi
783 f!1 522

24 is 263
Twenty-Five Strokes
II
735 Ii 243

697
&
48

691
IT
267
Twenty-Six to
~ 535,537
fI
672
Thirty-Two Strokes
~ 67
ill
461
it
449
it
104 iii
455
,II
134
III
102 ttl
69
II 187
~
488 it
455
~
279

187

1
e 438
~
744 15
267
It
455
!m
568 ~
143
fi
499
11
448 a 68
ij
281
II
243,525
ii
597
1m 279
::R..
~
518
~ I
426
~ 243

164
~
469

187
fk
229

768
lti
691
W
422 ,a
282
II 256
n
438 ,m
452
MI
235
W 157
MI
784
*1
672
Mi
452 ~
ro", 101
III
768
285
Index of Transliterated 'Phags-pa Orthographic Forms in the Glossary
This index is arranged according to the order of the Latin alphabet. Forms in '. are
placed first. Phonetic interpretations are added for reference. Numbers refer to entry lines
in the Glossary.
'am [lam] 669 'yan [?jen] 495
'an [?an] 433 'yang [?jal)] 138
'ang [?al)] 123 'yu [?y] 279
'aw [law] 542 'yung [?YUl)] 37
'ay [?aj] 306
'em [?em] 690
'ew [lew] 560
ba [pal S8
'hin [ ? ~ m ] 403
ba'o [paw] 598
'hiw [?gw] 644
ban [pan] 419
'i [?i] 184
bang [pal)] 109
'im [lim] 720
baw [paw] 530
bay [paj] 295
'in [lin] 355
bern [pem] 684
'ing [?il)] 66
ben [pen] 476
'iw [?iw] 618 bew [pew] 554
'0 [?;)] 743
bhing [pgl)]
79
'on [?;)n] 454
bi [pi] 169
'u [?u] 262
bim [pim] 712
'ue [?ue] 227
bin [pin] 343
bing [pil)] 54
'un [?un] 379
biw [piw] 607
'ung [?Ul)] 25
bon [p;)n] 444
'wa [?wa] 792 bu [pu] 248
'wan [?wan] 461
bue [pue] 214
'wang [?wal)] 148
bun [pun] 366
'waw [?waw] 588
bung [pul)] 11
'way [?waj] 316
buw [puw] 623
bwo [pW;)] 751
'wi [?wi] 237
bya [pje] 771
'win [?win] 407
byan [pjen] 488
'wo [?W;)] 761
'wung [?WUl)] 96
'wya [lye] 810
ca [dz;.a] S7
'wyan [?yen] 511
cam [dz;.am] 658
'wyaw [?yew] 596
can [dz;.an] 418
cang [dz;.al)] 107
'ya [?je] 780
caw [dz;.aw] 529
287
cay 294 chyu 268
ce S29 chyun 385
cen 475 ci 167
cew 553 cim 710
cha S6 cin 342
cham am] 657 cing 53
chan an] 417 ciw 605
chang 153 cu 247
chang aIJ] 106 cue 212
chaw 528 cung 9
chay aj] 293 cwan 459
chern Em] 682 cwang 145
chew EW] 552 cwaw 584
chhang AIJ] 152 cwyan 502
chhi 190 cyu 269
chhim 726 cyun 386
chhin 401 cyung 30
chhing 77
chhiw 637
chhiy 327
da [tal Sl
chi 191
dam [tam] 652
chi i] 166
dan [tan] 412
chim 727
dang [taIJ] 101
chin 709
daw [taw] 523
chin 341
day [taj] 288
ching 78
dem [tErn] 677
ching iIJ] 52
den [tEn] 470
chiw 604
dhing 73
chiw 638
dhiw 632
chiy 328
dhiy 323
chu 246
di [til 161
chue 211
ding [tiIJ] 47
chung uIJ] 8
do [t;)] 733
chwan 458
don [t;)n] 440
chwang 144
du [tu] 241
chwaw 583
due [tue] 206
chway 312
dun [tun] 62
chwya 801
dung [tuIJ] 3
chwyan 501
dwo [tW;)] 747
chya 770
dya [tjE] 766
chyan 487
dyaw [tjEW] 567
chyaw 570
dza [tsa] S15
288
Index of 'Phags-pa Forms
dzam [tsam] 662
ghin [k;;m]
397
dzan [tsan] 426 ghing 71
dzang [tsalJ] 116 ghiw 629
dzaw [tsaw] 535 gi [ki] 157
dzay [tsaj] 299 gim [kim] 704
dzem [tsem] 685 gin [kin] 336
dzhi [tSl] 192 giw [kiw] 599
dzhing 82 go 730
dzhiw 639 gon 438
dzhiy 329 gu [ku] 239
dzi [tsi] 176 gue [kut] 203
dzim [tsim] 714 gun [gun] 360
dzin [tsin] 347 gung [kulJ] 1
dzing [tsilJ] 58 gwa [kwa] 785
dziw [tsiw] 609 gwan [kwan] 456
dzo 737 gwang [kwalJ] 140
dzon 448 gwaw [kwaw] 579
dzu [tsu] 255 gway [kwaj] 310
dzue [tsut] 218 gwe [kwe] 815
dzun [tsun] 373 gwo 745
dzung [tsulJ] 17 gwya [kye] 798
dzwo 755 gwyan [kyen] 497
dzwya [tsye] 802 gwyaw [kyew] 594
dzwyan [tsyen] 503 gya (- gya) [kja] 794
dzya [tsje] 774 gya [kje] 764
dzyan [tsjen] 490 gyam [kjam] 698
dzyang [tsjalJ] 131 gyam [kjem] 694
dzyaw [tsjew] 572 gyan (- gyan) [kjan] 463
dzyu [tsy] 271 gyan [kjen] 484
dzyun [tsyn] 387 gyang [kjalJ] 127
dzyung [tsyulJ] 31 gyaw [kjew] 564,590
gyay [kjaj] 318
gyi [kji] 198
gam [kam] 650
gyin [kjin] 404
gan [kan] 409
gying [kjilJ] 92
gang [kalJ] 98
gyiw [kjiw] 646
gaw [kaw] 520
gyon 516
gay [kaj] 285
gyu [ky] 264
ge [ke] S24
gyue (- gyue) [kye] 231
gem [kern] 673
gyun [kyn] 381
gen [ken] 466
gyung [kyul]] 27,87
gew [kew] 546
289
ha [xa] S20 Hwya [yye] 809
ham [xam] 667 hwya [xye] 808
Han> Hwan [van] 424
Hwyan [yyen] 510
han [xan] 431
hwyan [xyen] 509
haw [xaw] 540
Hwyang [xyal)] 156
hay [xaj] 304
Hya (- Hya) [yja] 797
he [xe] S34
hya (- hya) [xja] 796
hew [xew] 559
Hya [yje] 779
hi [xi] 183
hya [xje] 778
hiw [xiw] 616
Hyam [yjam] 701
hiy [xij] 334
hyam [xjam] 700
ho [X;)] 741
Hyan [yjan] 465
hon [x;)n] 452
hyan [xjen] 494
hu [xu] 260
Hyang [yjal)] 137
hue[xue] 225
hyang [xjal)] 136
Hun> Hwun [fun] 370
Hyaw [yjaw] 593
hun> hwun [vun] 371
hyaw [xjaw] 592
hun [xun] 377
Hyaw [yjew] 577
hung [XUl)] 23
hyaw [xjew] 576
hwa [fa] S12
Hyay [yjaj] 321
Hwa [va] S13
hyay [xjaj] 320
hwa [xwa] 790
Hyem [yjem] 703
hwaj [xwaj] 314
hyem [xjem] 702
hwam [fam] 659
Hyi [yji] 202
Hwam [yam] 660
hyi [xji] 201
hwan [fan] 423
hyim [xjim] 729
Hwang [fal)] 113
Hyin [yin] 406
hwang [val)] 114
hyin [xjin] 405
hwang [xwal)] 147
Hying [yjil)] 97
Hwaw [yaw] 534
Hying [xjil)] 95
hwaw [xwaw] 586
hying [xjil)] 94
Hwe [ywe] 818
hyiw [xjiw] 648
hwi [fi] 173
hyu [xy] 278
Hwi [vi] 174
Hyue [yye] 235
hwo [Xw;)] 759
hyue [xye] 234
Hwow [V;)w] 649
hyue [xye] 236
Hwu [fu] 252
hyun [xyn] 393
hwu> Hwu [vu] 253
Hyung [yyul)] 91
hwung [ful)] 14
hyung [xyul)] 36,90
Hwung [VUl)] 15
Hwuw [fuw] 627
290
ja S5 khang [k' al)] 99
jam 656 khaw [k'aw] 521
jan 416 khay[k'aj] 286
jang 105 khe [k'e] S25
jaw 527 khem [k'em] 674
jay 292 khen [k'en] 467
jem 681 khew [k'ew] 547
jen 474
khhin [k'gn]
398
jew 551
khhing [k' gl)]
72
jhang 151
khhiw [k' gw]
630
ti [tal
189
khhiy [k' gj]
322
jhim 725 khi [k'i] 158
tin 400 khim [k'im] 705
ting 76 khing [k'iI]] 44
tiw 636 khiw [k'iw] 600
tiy 326 kho [k'::>] 731
ji 165 khon [k':Jn] 439
jim 708 khu [k'u] 240
jin 340 khue [k'ue] 204
jing 51 khun [k'un] 361
jiw 603 khung [k'ul)] 2
ju 245 khwa [k'wa] 786
jue 210 khwang [k' wal)] 141
jung 7 khwaw [k'waw] 580
jwa 788 khway [k'waj] 311
jwan 457 khwe [k'we] 816
jwang 143 khwo [k'w::>] 746
jwaw 582 khwya [k'ye] 799
jwya 800 khwyan [k'yen] 498
jwyan 500 khwyaw [k' yew] 595
jya 769 khya (- khya) [k' ja] 795
jyan 486 khya [k'je] 765
jyu 267 khyam [k'jam] 699
jyun 384 khyam [k'jem] 695
khyan [k' jan] 464,485
khyang [k' jal)] 128
ke [gel S26
khyaw [k' jew] 565,591
kern [gem] 675
khyay [k' jaj] 319
ken [gen] 468
khyi [k'ji] 199
kew [gew] 548
khying [k' jil)] 93
kham [k'am] 651
khyon [k'y::>n] 517
khan [k'an] 410
khyu [k'y] 265
291
khyue [k'ye] 232 lue [lue] 229
khyun [k'yn] 382 lun [lun] 380
khyung [k' yUl)] 28,88 lung [lUl)] 26
ki [gil 159 lwang [lwal)] 150
kim [gim] 706 lwaw [lwaw] 589
kin [gin] 337 lwo 762
king [gil)] 45 lwya [lye] 813
kiw [giw] 601 lya [lje] 783
kue [gue] 205 lyang [ljal)] 139
kwang [gwal)] 142 lyon 518
kwe [gwe] 817 lyu [ly] 282
kwyan [gyen] 499 lyun [lyn] 395
kyang [gjal)] 129 lyung [lyul)] 41
kyaw [gjew] 566
kyi [gji] 200
kyiw [gjiw] 647
rna [rna] Sl1
kyu [gy] 266
man [man] 422
kyue [gye] 233
mang [mal)] 112
kyun [gyn] 383
maw [maw] 533
kyung [gyUl)] 29,89
may [maj] 298
me [me] S36
men [men] 477
la ria] S23 mew [mew] 556
lam [lam] 672 mi [mil 172
Ian [lan] 436 min [min] 346
lang [lal)] 125 ming [mil)] 57
law [law] 545 miw [miw] 608
lay [laj] 309 mon 447
lem [lem] 692 mu [mu] 251
len [len] 482 mue [mue] 217
lew [lew] 562 mun [mun] 369
Ihing [lgl)]
86 mung [mul)] 13
lhiw [lgw]
645 muw [muw] 626
lhiy [lgj]
333 mwo 754
li [li] 187 my a [mje] 773
lim [lim] 723
lin [lin] 358
ling [lil)] 69
na rna] S4
liw [liw] 621
nam [nam] 655
10 [b] 744
nan [nan] 415
Ion [bn] 455
nang [nal)] 104
lu [lu] 263
292
fiang [I).a1)] 108 nyaw [njew] 569
naw [naw] 526 fiyu [I).y] 270
nay [naj] 291
nem [nem] 680
fiem [I).em] 683
o [J]
nen [nen] 473
763
ngan [1)an] 411
on [In] 437
ngang [1)a1)] 100
ngaw [1)aw] 522
ngay [1)aj] 287
pa [ba] SlO
nge [1)e] S29
pan [ban] 421
ngem [1)em] 676
pang [ba1)] 111
ngen [1)en] 469
paw [bawl 532
ngew [1)ew] 549
pay [baj] 297
ng'iw 631
pe [be] S30
ngi [1)i] 160
pew [bew] 555
ngim [1)im] 707
pha [p'a] S9
ngin [1)in] 338
phan [p'an] 420
nging [1)i1)] 46
phang [p' a1)] 110
ngiw [1)iw] 602
phaw [p'aw] 531
ngo [1)J] 732
phay [p'aj] 296
ngyang [l)ja1)] 130
phhing [p' 80
nhing 75
phi [p'i] 170
nhiw 635
phim [p'im] 713
ni [nil 164
phin [p'in] 344
fii [I).i] 168
phing 81
fiim [I).im] 711
phing [p'i1]] 55
nin [nin] 339
phon [p'Jn] 445
ning [ni1)] 50
phu [p'u] 249
fiiw [I).iw] 606
phue [p'ue] 215
no [nJ] 736
phun [p'un] 367
non [nJn] 443
phuw [p'uw] 624
nu [nul 244
phwo [p'wJ] 752
nue [nue] 209
phya [p'je] 772
fiue [I).Ue] 213
phyan [p'jen] 489
nun [nun] 365
pi [bi] 171
nung [nu1)] 6
pin [bin] 345
fiung [I).u1)] 10
ping [bi1)] 56
nwa [nwa] 787
pon [bJn] 446
nwaw [nwaw] 581
pu [bu] 250
nwo [nwJ] 750
pue [bue] 216
nya [nje] 768
pun [bun] 368
293
pung [bul)] 12 shwaw [shwaw] 585
puw [buw] 625 shway 313
pwo [bwo] 753 shwya 806
pyaw [bjew] 571 shya 777
shyan 493
shyu 276
sa [sa] S18
shyun 391
sam [sam] 665
si [si] 179
san [san] 429
sim [sim] 716
sang [sal)] 119
sin [sin] 350
saw [saw] 538
sing[sil)] 61
say [saj] 302
siw [siw] 612
sem [sem] 687
so [s;:,] 740
sha S19
son [sJn] 451
sham 666
su [su] 258
shan 430
sue [sue] 221
shang 120
sun [sun] 376
shaw 539
sung [sul)] 20
shay 303
swo [swJ] 758
shem 688
swya [sye] 804
shew 557
swyan [syen] 506
shhang 154
sya [sje] 776
Shhi 197
syan [sjen] 492
shhim 728
syang [sjal)] 134
shhin 402
syaw [sjew] 575
shhing 85
sYu [sy] 274
Shhiw 643
syun [syn] 389
shhiy 332
syung [sYUl)] 34
shi [S}]
195
shi 181
shim 718
ta [da] S3
shin 352
tam [dam] 654
shing [Sgl)] 84
tan [dan] 414
shing 63
tang [dal)] 103
shiw [Sgw]
642
taw [daw] 525
shiw 614
tay [daj] 290
shiy [Sgj] 331
te [de] S28
shu 259
tern [dem] 679
shue 223 ten [den] 472
shung 21 tew [dew] 550
shwa 789 tha [t'a] S2
shwang 146 tham [t'am] 653
294
than [t' an] 413 tshhi [ts'1] 193
thang [t' aIJ] 102 tshhiw [ts' gW ]
640
thaw [t'aw] 524 tshi [dZ}] 194
thay [t'aj] 289 tshi [ts'i] 177
them [t'em] 678 tshim [ts'im] 715
then [t' en] 471 tshin [ts'in] 348
thhin [t' gn]
399 tshing [dzgl]]
83
thhiw [t'gw]
633 tshing [ts' il]] 59
thiw [dgw] 634 tshiw [dzgw]
641
thhiy[t'gj] 324 tshiw [ts'iw] 610
thi [t'i] 162 tshiy [dzgj]
330
thing [dgl]] 74 tsho [ts'J] 738
thing [t' i1]] 48 tshon [ts'Jn] 449
thiy [dgj]
325 tshu [ts'u] 256
tho [t' J] 734 tshue [ts'ue] 219
thon [t'Jn] 441 tshun [ts'un] 374
thu [t'u] 242 tshung [ts'Ul]] 18
thue [t'ue] 207 tshwo [ts'wJ] 756
thun [t'un] 363 tshwyan [ts'yen] 504
thung [t' Ul]] 4 tshya [ts'je] 775
thwo [t'wJ] 748 tshyan [ts'jen] 491
thya [t'je] 767 tshyang [ts'jal]] 132
thyaw [t'jew] 568 tshyaw [ts'jew] 573
ti [di] 163 tshyu [ts'y] 272
ting [dil]] 49 tshyun [ts'yn] 388
to [dJ]e 735
tshyung [ts'yUl]] 32
ton [dJn] 442
tsi [dzi] 178
tsa [dza] S17
tsin [dzin] 349
tsam [dzam] 664
tsing [dzil]] 60
tsan [dzan] 428
tsiw [dziw] 611
tsang [dzal]] 118
tso [dzJ] 739
tsaw [dzaw] 537
tson [dzJn] 450
tsay [dzaj] 301
tsu [dzu] 257
tse [dze] S31
tsue [dzue] 220
tsen [dzen] 478
tsun [dzun] 375
tsha [ts'a] S16
tsung [dzul]] 19
tsham [ts' am] 663
tswo [dzwJ] 757
tshan [ts' an] 427
tswya [dzye] 803
tshang [ts' al]] 117
tswyan [dzyen] 505
tshaw [ts'aw] 536
tsyam [dzjem] 696
tshay [ts' aj] 300
tsyang [dzjal]] 133
tshem [ts' em] 686
tsyaw [dzjew] 574
295
tsyu [dzy] 273 xwa [fiwa] 793
tsyung [dzyuI]] 33 Xwa [ywa] 791
tu [du] 243 xwan [fiwan] 462
tue [due] 208 Xwan [ywan] 460
tun [dun] 364 xwang [fiwaI]] 149
tung [duI]] 5 Xwaw [ywaw] 587
two [dw::>] 749 xway [fiwaj] 317
Xway [ywaj] 315
xwin [fiwin] 408
u [u] 284
Xwo [yw::>] 760
xwya [fiye] 811
xwyan [fiyen] 512
wa [va] S14
xwyaw [fiyew] 597
warn [vam] 661
Xyen [yjen] 519
wan [van] 425
xyu [fiy] 280
wang [vaI]] 115
xyung [fiYUI]] 38
wi [vi] 175
wu [vu] 254
wun [vun] 372
Ya [?ja] S21
wung [VUI]] 16
ya [ja] S22
wuw [vuw] 628
Yam [?jam] 670
yam [jam] 671
Yan [?jan] 434
xa [fia] S37
yan [jan] 435
Xam [yam] 668
yang [jaI]] 124
Xan [yan] 432
Yaw [?jaw] 543
Xang [yaI]] 122
yaw [jaw] 544
Xaw [yaw] 541
Yay [?jaj] 307
Xay [yaj] 305
yay [jaj] 308
Xin [yin] 354
ye [je] S35
Xing [yiI]] 65
yem [jem] 691
Xiw [yiw] 617
yen [jen] 481
Xiy [yij] 335
yew [jew] 561
Xo [y::>] 742
yi [ji] 186
Xon [y::>n] 453
Yi [?ji] 185
Xong [Y::>I]] 155
Yim [?jim] 721
Xu [yu] 261
yim [jim] 722
xue [fiue] 228
Yin [?jin] 356
Xue [yue] 226
yin [jin] 357
Xun [yun] 378
Ying [?jiI]] 67
Xung [YUI]] 24
ying [jiI]] 68
296
Yiw [?jiw] 619 Zhin [rin] 359
yiw [jiw] 620 zhin [z;.in] 353
ywi [yi] 238 Zhing [riI]] 70
ywya [ye] 812 zhing [z;.iI]] 64
Ywyan [?yen] 513 Zhiw [riw] 622
ywyan [jyen] 514 zhiw [z;.iw] 615
Yya [?je] 81 Zhue [rue] 230
yya [je] 782 zhue [z;.ue] 224
Yyam [?jem] 697 zhung [z;.uI]] 22
Yyan [?jen] 496 Zhwya [rye] 814
Yyaw [?jew] 578 zhwya [z;ye] 807
yyu [jy] 281 Zhwyan [ryen] 515
Yyun> yyun [jyn] 394
zhwyan [z;yen] 508
Yyung [?yUI]] 39
Zhya [rje] 784
yyung [jyuI]] 40
Zhyu [ry] 283
zhyu [zy] 277
Zhyun [ryn] 396
ze [ze] S32
zhyun [z;yn] 392
zen [zen] 479
Zhyung [ryuI]] 42
Zhang [raI]] 126
zi [zi] 180
zhang [z;.aI]] 121
zim [zim] 717
zhe [z;.e] S33
zin [zin] 351
Zhem [rem] 693
zing [ziI]] 62
zhem [z;.em] 689
ziw [ziw] 613
Zhen [ren] 483
zue [zue] 222
zhen [z;.en] 480
zwya [zye] 805
Zhew [rew] 563
zwyan [zyen] 507
zhew [z;.ew] 558
zyang [zjaI]] 135
zhi [Z}]
196
zyu [zy] 275
Zhi [ri] 188
zyun [zyn] 390
zhi [z;.i] 182
zyung [zyUI]] 35
Zhim [rim] 724
zhim [z;.im] 719
297
References
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--. 1985. Ancient Chinese and Early Mandarin. Journal of Chinese
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Clauson, Gerard. 1959. "The HP'ags-pa Alphabet." Bulletin of the School of
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Coblin, W. South. 1999. "Thoughts on the Identity of the Chinese 'Phags-
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Richard V. Simmons, 84-144 Berkeley: Journal of Chinese Linguistics.
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1-62.
Denlinger, Paul. 1963. "Chinese in hP'ags-pa Script." Monumenta Serica
22.2: 407-433.
Dragunov, Aleksandr A. 1930. "The hPhags-pa Script and Ancient
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Gabelentz, Hans Conon von der. 1839. "Versuch tiber eine alte
mongolische Inschrift." Zeitschriftfiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes
2.1: 1-21.
Hashimoto, Mantaro J. 1967. "The hP'ags-pa Transcription of Chinese
Plosives." Monumenta Serica 26: 149-174.
299
--. 1968 [1978]. "The hP'ags-pa Transcription of a Medieval Chinese
Vowel." Original version included in a festschrift for Wataru Masuda,
published as a volume of Jimmon kenkyu in 1968. Later
revised and republished in Hashimoto (1978), 65-73.
--. 1971. "The hP'ags-pa Transcription of the Geng-she Syllables."
Journal of Asian and African Studies 4: 1-37.
--. 1974. "Medieval Chinese in hP'ags-pa Script: Part 1." Journal of
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Hugjilt, W. :Itt . 1992. "Baslba z'i he Mengguyu wenxian'
pingjie" Minzuyuwen
2: 25-33.
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In Minzu yuwen lunwenji 267-269.
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1: 37-43.
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liangzh6ng tlxi" /\J!'l
Minzu yuwen 4: 1-6.
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300
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* Beijing: Wenwu.
JUnast and Yfmg NaisI 1987. Menggii ziyunjiilOben
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Lewicki, Marian. 1949. La Langue mongole des transcriptions chinoises
du XIV siecie. Warsaw: Drukarnia Uniwersytetu i Politechniki we
Wroclawin.
Ligeti, L. 1956. "Le Po Kia sing en ecriture 'phags-pa." Acta Orientalia
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--. 1961. "Trois notes sur l'ecriture 'phags-pa." Acta Orientalia
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Lua Changpei 1939. "Menggu ziyun ba" Beijfng
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Lua Changpei and Cai Meibiao 1959. Basfba zi yu Yuandili
Ii
' v B K
anyuJ J!.J\u7-/,,7C eIJIng: exue.
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About the Author
w. South Coblin is Professor of Chinese Language and
Linguistics at the University of Iowa. His special areas of
research are Chinese historical phonology, comparative
and historical dialectology, and Sino-Tibetan linguistics.
He has a particular interest in early forms of Chinese
recorded in alphabetic scripts. He is the author of six
books and monographs and numerous articles in these and
related areas.

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