Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DATA
SHEETS
FOR GEOLOGY IN THE FIELD,
LABORATORY, AND OFFICE
Third Edition
Compiled by
J.T. Dutro, Jr.
R.V. Dietrich
R. M. Foose
AMERICAN
GEOLOGICAL
INSTITUTE
Copyright @ 1965, 1982, 1989 by the American Geological Institute
4220 King St, Alexandria, VA 22302-1507
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electromc, mechanical, photoco-
pying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.
AGI data sheets: for geology in the field, laboratory, and office. Compiled by J.T. Dutro.
Jr., AV. Dietrich, A.M. Foose. 3rd ed. p. em
Includes selected, unchanged AGI data sheets from 1956-1984 set 1982 edi-
tion, as well as rev. and new sheets.
Bibliography: p.
ISBN 0-922152-Ql-2
I. Geology-Handbooks, manuals. elC. I. Dutro. J. Thomas, Jr., 1923-. II.
Dietrich, Richard Vincent, 1924-. Ill. Foose, Richard Martin, 1915- IV American
Geological Institute.
QE52.A36 1989
550-dc20
89-32B54
CIP
Design and production by MelOdy Oakes, Mark Schmidt, Bambi Setzer, Julie De Atley,
and Martin Communications, Inc.
December 1989
AGI Subcommtee on Data Sheets
J. Thomas Dutro, Jr. (chairman), United States Geological Survey
Richard M. Foose, Amherst College
Richard v. Dietrich, Central Michigan University
Contents
Preface iii
Major Geochrono!ogc and Chronostratigraphic Units 1.1
Precambrian T1me Scale 1.3
Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale 1.5
Late Cenozoic Polarity Time Scale 1.7
Standards for General Purpose Geologic Maps 2.1
Geologrc Map Symbols 3.1
Geologic Symbols 3.4
Fault Symbols 3.7
Symbols for Fluvial Nonmanne Sequences 4.1
U.S. Public Land Survey Grid 5.1
Stadia Tables 6.1
Trigonometric Formulas and Functions 7.1
Natural Functions 7.2
Correction for Drp 8.1
Dip, Depth, and Thickness of Inclined Strata 8.2
Conversion of Slape Angles 9.1
Contour Spacing from Slope Angles 9.2
Criteria lor Determining Top and Bottom of Beds 10.1
Folds 11.1
Joints and Faults 12.1
Mineral Hardness 13.1
Specrftc Gravity 13.2
Macroscopic Identification of Common Rock-forming Silicates 14.1
Data Pertaining to Important Nonsilicate Minerals 15.1
Separation Characteristics of Minerals 16.1
Gem Materials 17.1
Gemstone Durability 18.1
Gemstone Misnomers t8.2
Crystal Systems 19.1
Bravais Lattices 19.2
Structural Classification of Silicate Minerals 20.1
Field Classification for Igneous Rocks~Phanerites 21.1
Aphaniles 21.2
Textures of Igneous Rocks 22.1
Comparison Chart for Estimating Percentage Composition 23.1
Igneous Masses 24.1
Pyroclastic Sediments and Rocks 25.1
Characteristics of Fallout Tephra-Subaerial 26.1
Subaqueous 26.2
Volcanoes-Morphologic Types 27.1
Explosivily Versus Eruption Interval 27.2
Graph for Determintng the Size of Sedimentary Particles 28.1
Light Partrcles 28.2
Grain size Scales 29.1
Sieves for Detailed Size Analysis 29.3
Companson Chart for Estimating Roundness and Sphericity 30.1
Descriptive Terms for Megascopic Appearances of Rock and
Particle Surfaces 31.t
Names for Sedimentary Rocks 32.1
Contents
vi
Contents
----
vii
AGI DATA SHEET 1.1
Major Geochronologic and Chronostratigraphic Units
U.S.G.S. Geologic Names Committee, 1980 edition
f - - - - - - - + - 0010 -
117 ll l -
Cenozoc
F rr~or
f - - - - + - -- -L - - - - t - - - - - - - + - 63 163 661-
l aH! Fp orh or
Uope r Seues
Mesozo, c Crer aceuus P1~ r 1 o ~ f----- - - - - - t - 96 195 911 -
Phanernwr
:1 Sysn~m ' KI
F r ::~a r
Fan or
f ratt) em f---------------''-------~-138 1135 1411-
[onoth em
1\171
f - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - t - 105 11001 151 -
1 - - - - t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - -v 140 -
t rno r
f - - - - - - - ' I--'SCI.:yscle;::.m_::
.::. M"'I-- - - - - - + - J60
1
1360 3651-
f rat>jem f-----------------~-410 1405415: -
f----+--------'L---------------+-~ 570 -
Proterozo,c 1 - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - + - 800 -
Fonor PrrllerO lO IC Y IYI'
Fon orhem !et 1.600 -
1
Pri')!PIQ/CIC XIXI
f - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- ---+- !MC -
Arr.h ean
Eo nu1
Eon01 hen
IAI OIOeSI known oc ks 10 U S - t - 3.600 -
1
Ranges reflect un certamt 1es of IS Otopic and b10Strat1g raptuc age a11gnments Age or bo undar 1e s not cl osely br<1cket ed b)'
eA St lng data shown by -- Decay constan t~ and ISOtope rat::"l ernp loyed are c1ted tn Ste 1ger and Jager !1 977)
Rocks older than 570 m v also ca! 1ed Preca mbnan {pC). a ume te rm wi thou t sp ec drc rank
T1me terms Wltnout spec1hc 1ank.
Note
The 1983 edition by the U.S.G.S. Geologic Names Committee is essentially unchanged from
this version , except for incorporating the Precambrian Time Scale of Harrison and Peterman
(see Data Sheet 1.3).
Evernden. J.F. Savage. D.E., Curtis, GH. and James. G T, 1964: Am. J Sc1.. v.
262, p. 1451 98.
Odin, G.S .. ed .. 1982. Numerical Dating m Straltgraphy. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 2 volumes. 1040 p
Ste>ger. R.H .. and Jager. E. 1977 Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. v. 36. p 359-362.
500~E_O~N-+---E_R.A__ -~-1570
LATE
PROTEROZOIC
900
1000
U MIDDLE
Q PROTEROZOIC
~
1500 ffi 1- 1600
b
8: EARLY
PROTEROZOIC
2000
(/)
II:
<[
UJ
>
z 2500 2500
0
:::i LATE ARCHEAN
-'
i z<[
3000 3000
UJ MIDD~E
:I: ARCHEAN
u
II: 3400
<[
3500
EARLY ARCHEAN
'-- .- --nsco?)-- . . . . _. .,
4ooo I
'-------~~------~4550
Source J.E. Harrison and Z.E. Peterman, 1982, North Amencar: Comrn.sson orr Strat:~
graph1c Nomenclature Report 9-Adopt!oll of Geochronarretr'ic Un:ts for Dtv:smns ol Pre-
cambrian T1ms: AAPG BulL v 66. p. 801-802
This time scale for 1he Precambrian is recommended for use by ti"Je lntema~
!tonal Union of Geological Sciences (lUGS) Working Group on the Precambnan tor
the Umted States and Mexico and by the Canad1an and United States groups
preparing reports on the Precambrian. The scale conforms in tirne Intervals with
those recommended tor the Proterozoic by the lUGS Subcomm1sswn on
Precambrian Stratigraphy {Sims. 1979) and sugges1s subdiv<sions tor the Archean,
Which has not yet been divided by the Subcommtssion,
AGI DATA SHEET 1.4
Formal names for eons and eras are shown on the diagram. Subdivision of
eras into periods may become appropriate as new geochronometric and geologic
data for North Amenca accumu\a1e. The term prc~Archcan is an mformal designa-
tion for rocks older than 3800 m.y.
These recommendations do not requ~ro abandoning terms such as Penokean
or Helikean, which are meaningful in some regions. Such 'erms can be related to
the Precambnan time scale by defining their time spans in years and by not1ng
whether they directly correspond with one of the standard time units or whether
they ovelap standard boundanes. Similarly, definmg and nam1ng local geochrono
metric units based on the special needs of an area is encouraged, providmg that
such units are expressed 1n terms of years and aro referenced to the standard
umts of the t1me scale. Such local geochronome1nc terms should not be extended
beyond the local areas where they have geologic applicability because such exten
sions could Vl1Jate benefits of a standard time scale and introduce ambiguity in
communication.
References
Harnsor. J E .. and Pelorman, Z E ; 980, Norlh Amercan COrlmiSSIOI" on Stra!.g~aphc
Nome11c!ature Note 52-A prelim,nary propcsal a chrononetnc lime scale for tfle Pre
carr.bna'l ofihe United Stales and Msx1cc Geo! Am BulL v 91. no 6. p 377-38\J
Jarres. H.L., 1971l Subclivlsmn ot the Precambnan~A bnef re11u~w and a report on rece'1t
dec1S1Crs by the Subcomrmss~on on Precarnbnan Stratigraphy Precambrial? Res .. \1 7. '1C
3, p. 193-204
S1ms, P.K .. 1979, Precarnbria'l sJbdiVIOed Geotlmes, 'W. 24. no. 12, p. 15.
AGI DATA SHEET 1.5
GEOMAGNETIC POLARITY TIME SCALE
During periods marked in black, the Earth's north and south magnetic poles con-
formed to those at present, and during periods In while, the poles were reversed; num-
bers and letters identify magnetic intei"Ja.ls and reversals recorded by systematically
oriented magnetization of mineral grains in seafloor lava and mapped as magnetic linea
!Ions (after LaBrecque and others, 1977; Lanphere and .Iones, 1973; Larson and Hilde,
1975; and Van Hin\e, 19761.
__(}Witemary
Pliocene
Miocene
--
~
..c:- Oligocene
7A
9
11
30
~2 I-
~
........
1-
13 ~
a-
_
40
'l
18
'9
2C
Eocene
50
21
;
23
20
25 60
Paleocene 26
3<
Maestrichtian -70
References
LB. Elrecque, J.L., Kent, D.V.. and CarJde. S.C., 1977, nevi sed magne11c polaflty time scate for Late
Cretaceous E~nd Cenozoic ttme: Geology. v, 5. p. 330-335.
Lanphere, M.A. and Jonas, O.L 1 1973, Cretaceous time scale trom North America: Am. Assoc.
Petroleum Geol. Studies in GeoL, no, 6, p, 259-268,
larsen. Rl, and Hilde, T,WC, 1975, A reised lime scale of mognetic reversals for the E!lfly Cre
1aceous and late Jurassic; Jouc Geophys. Res . v 80. p, 2586,2594,
Van Hini:e, J.E., 1976a, A Jurassic tima scale: Amer. Assoc. Petro!e\.Jm Geologists Bull., v. 60,
p, 489-497
Van Hinte, J.E., 1976b, A Cretaceous time scale: A meL Assoc. Petrolet.~m Geologists Bvll., v. 60,
,, 498-516.
AGI DATA SHEET 1.6
Maestrichtian
Ill
..
0
::>
Campanian
80
~
~
.,....
(.)
CD
90
Cenomanian
100
Albian
.. Aptian
110
....
0
::> MO
~
"
(.) Barremian
:>o 120
~
w
Hauterivian
Valanginian
130
Berriasian
"
"iii
Ill
Tlthonl:r
~ I 140
..
~
....-;
Kimmeridgian
Oxfordian
------~~-
"
"iii
Ill
E Callovian
..,
..
:::1
'6
~~ --
"tl Bathonian
:i 160
AGI DATA SHEET 1.7
LATE CENOZOIC POLARITY TIME SCALE
.,"'
ii
~f ~~
K-Ar
Age
(m.y.) ~~ ~
!J)
w
I
Jaramillo
1.0
2.0
"'::::>
!J)
J.O <
Cl
40
5.0
Reference
Mankinen, EA and Dalrymple, G.B., 1979, Revised geomagnetic polarity time scale ror the inter
val 0-5 m.y.B.P.: Jour. Geophys. Res., v. 84. p. 615-626.
AGI DATA SHEET 2.1
A general purpose geologic nap portrays the distribUtion and structure of Earth
matena 1s in tt1e1r tr~_;e 'e!atmns to the configuration of the Earth's surface. Alt1ough the
map shows +eatures at or rear the surface, ttJe relationships porlrayed mal\e it poss1bie
to draw reasonable nferences about t1e geology at depth An acceptable general pur"
pose geologic map should meet the fo!low1rg cr1teria
i The map st"lould be on a base tha'! 11eets National Map Accuracy Standards. A
topograph:c base IS essent1al except 011 small-scale maps or n areas of such
low re!1ef tha: the absence a: contours does not hi~der geologic mtsrpretal!on
The completed map should be clearly readable and usable at pub!1cat1on sca!e"
All symbols on :he map should e11h.er be 1n co~rnon usage or be fuily explamed
m the marg1nal ma:eriaL T:w sources of geologiC data should be ndicated tor
all parts at the map, contacts nferrcd from geophysJcal, photogeologJc. or
remote sensng data should be idenflf1ed and explained
All geolog1ca!!y sigr11flcart ur~ts mappab:e at the scale should be shown, ana
geolog,c features should be depleted uniform!}' tr..roughout the area of t1e map.
4 Mines, prospects. quarnes. wells. and drill holes shou:d be shown il poss'ble at
!he map scale
AGI
AGI DATA SHEET 3.1
This data sheet lists map symbols commonly used on geologic maps published by the
U.S. Geological Survey.
BEDDING
25~ EB
Strike and dip of beds Horizontal beds Approximate strike and dip
25~
Strike of venical beds Strike and dip of beds where Strike and dip of overturned
top of beds can be beds
distinguished; used only m
areas of cog.;~l ~x overturned
1 9
Lfl5
./'"\ 50
Generalized strike and dip of Strike and dip of beds and Apparent dip
crumpled, plunge of slickensides
plicated,crenulated, or un-
dulating beds
/)/1 ) )
Altemattve symbols for other planar elements
+
JOINTS
60'\.
Strike and dip of Jomt
~0
Strike of vertical joint Horizontal joint
~75
Strikes and dips of multiple sys,ems
*The map explanation should always spec1ly the kind or cleavage mapped
AGI"DS"J\.d,99
AGI DATA SHEET 3.2
+
Ver11cal lineation
/
HonZDnta.l lineation
Double llneation
1125
Strike and dip of beds and
2S~
60
Strike and dip of foliation
IJiunge ol lineation and plunge ot hneation
;!20
Strike and diiJ of beds
6~
Strike and dip of
40/90
Vertlcal beds, showmg
showmg homontal lineation folfal!on showing plunge of lineation
hOtlzonial linea.tton
25,
Vertical beds, showtng
plunge of lineation honzontal lineation horizontal lineation
125
IS 60
Striko and dip of beds, Stnke .1nd dtp of foliation G~nerahzed suike: of folded
showtng rake of lmeation showmg ral\e at lineation beds or follation, showtng
p.unge of fold axes
CONTACTS
so 90
~
Concealed contact Conlact, showing dip Ve(tftal contact
-----------~-------
FOLOS
...1Q-f- ~~
40
Anticline, showing 0\ffHtumed anticline, show Minor anticline, showing
crestline and IJiunge ing trace of axial surtace, plunge
dip of limbs, and ptunge
--v- __,__
Approximate axes Inferred axes Concealed axes
~15
40
Fold with inclined axial plane, showing dip and
bearing of plane and plunge of axis
FAULTS
--rw-
Fault, snowing dip
90
__..+--
Vertical fault Approximate fault
.... -------
Inferred fault Concealed fault
,---?....... .
Doubtful fault, dotted where
concealed
u
~ D
Normal fault hachures on Fault, showing relative High angle fault.
dawn side movement movement-U (up) and D
(dawn)
~
Thrust or low-angle reverse
~
Normal fault, showing
~
+
Thrust or reverse fault,
fault,s: T. upper plate bearing and plunge of barbs on side of upper plate
relative movement of
downthrown black
40
?-
Fault, showing bearing and
~
Reverse fault, shOwing Lineament
plunge of grooves, bearing and plunge of
striations, or slickensides relative movement of
downthrown block (D)
See Data Sheets 3.7 and 3.8 for additional fault symbols.
AGI DATA SHEET 3.4
Geologic Symbols
CAOSS SECTIONS
r
High angle faults
~ overthrust
~ underthrust
T
Fault, showing relative
lateral movement
A, away from observer
T, toward observer
-~
Klippe Fenster or window
Oil well
0
Well location
~
Abandoned oi I well
~
*
Oil and gas well
Gas well
1:1-
Dry hole, with show of gas Abandoned gas well
Shut in well
AGI DATA SHEET 3.5
SURFACE OPENINGS
LARGE-SCALE MAPS
*CJ
Portal and open cut
Dump
or glory hole
SMALL-SCALE MAPS
~ ~
Vertical shaft Inclined shaft Portal of tunnel or adit
;-
Trench
X
Prospect pit
"X'
Mine, quarry, glory hole,
or large open pit
X.
Sand , gravel, or clay pit
~
Vein, showing dip H<Gfl-gracreoc-e Altered wall rock, showing
intensity of alteration
----- ----
Stringers or vein lets
of mineralization
0
Low-grade mineralization Vertical drill hole
Shaft at surface Shaft going above and below levels Bottom of shaft
~
v
v
\;:: Spacing of
chevrons can be Foot of raise or winze Head of raise or winze
used to indicate
~
V steepness
~ of workings
v
v
v
Inclined workings Raise or winze Ore chute
(chevrons point down) extending through level
Stapes
Cross sections
Sloped above
~
Stoped below
400
375
Elevation of roof Elevation of floor
OooOQoO
0000000
Lagging or cribbing along
drift
------l-----
----1-----
Caved or otherwise
inaccessible workings
----
~-~-~--
Filled workings
Use standard geological symbols for rock types, faults, folds, contacts, joints, lineations,
attitudes. etc.
AGI DATA SHEET 3.7
Fault
by Mason L. Hill, consulting geologist
INTRODUCTION: The following fault symbols are designed to remove the ambiguity
resulting from failure of traditional symbols to distinguish between fault slip and fault
separation. Where a linear geologic element is displaced, the actual relative movement
(slip) can be determined (e.g., displaced intersection of dike and bed). Generally,
however, where a tabular geologic element is displaced, only apparent relative move-
ment (separation) can be determined. Thus, for example, these symbols provide for the
important distinction between normal fault (only separation known) and normal slip
fault (slip known). Refer to 'Dual Classification of Faults,' Mason L. Hill (1959), A.A.P.G.
Bull., v. 43, p. 217-21.
GENERAL SYMBOLS
Ill 65
Leftlateral slip fault. Fault dip and slip plunge are illustrated.
/35 It dip-slip and strike-slip components are nearly equal, the
name reverse left-lateral slip fault is appropriate
Note: Triangles, rectangles, and barbs may be shown as appropriate and convenient along the map
trace of the fault. However, none of these symbols should be used on maps unless some evidence
of at least the approximate orientation of slip is obtained.
AGI DATA SHEET 3.8
SLIP SYMBOLS FOR SECTIONS
Note: Single barb arrows and letters (T and A) may be shown on either side of the section trace of
the fault, as appropriate and convenient. However, none of these symbols should be used on sac
!Ions if only separation Is determined.
Note: Letters indicating separation may be shown as appropriate and convenient on either side of
the fault trace. The symbols (+)and (-) may be substituted for U and D but none represents any
component of slip. Separation symbols are not needed for sections, and are only occasionally
necessary for maps because the displacement of tabular geologic units is usually obvious.
~Conglomerate,
Burrow, vertebrate
~J clast-supported
~ Conglomerate, Root cost
IIK::S matrix-supported
~ Rip-up clasts, Tree stump, in place
~ shale or mudstone
~ Rip-up clasts,
Tree stump, clast
[~_g sandstone
l'-%j Sandstone.
~:-:-o convoluted- lam inated I:XJ Load cost
~Sandstone,
~ para llel-laminated
I:=.. ~~ Siltstone
/ Paleocurrent azimuth
Mudstone or shale
////
//// Point bar sequence
~Carbonate
Townships are numbered north and south of the base line, and east and west of the prin
cipal meridian. Each township is a six mile square that is further subdivided into thirty
~~~h~7~ r;;'):ea~~~~~n c~i~~~- sections. The sections are numbered consecutively from
0
rowns!np .J Narttr
fiong~ 2 W11sf .J6sqm1
BASE LINE
1 5 11
St!ct 1 on 1 !8 9 10 i 11 l1z
Llh.!s ---~rr lfi 1~ IHII l13 ,_../~6'1~":_":;; 1
[ o ,, 22[2,_hli
~o_i 29 28 27: 215 !2~
t
~
Special land survey systems are used in the original thirteen states and in Texas, Louisiana, and
Kentucky, among others. Details about these systems can be obtained from the geological
surveys of the respective states. The Universal Transverse Mercator (military) grid. shown on most
topographic maps, is explained in Thompson (1979). Some helpful references:
Haney, D.C., 1979, Carter Coordinate and Topographic Index Map of Kentucky: Kentucky Geol.
Survey, Series XI, scale 1:1,000,000.
Newton, M.B., Jr., 1972, Atlas of Louisiana, a guide lor students: Louisiana State Univ. School of
Geosciences Misc. Publ. 72-1.
Sewell, G., and Rogers, M.B., 1973, The History of Texas Public Lands: Texas General Lend Office,
Austin, Texas, 53 p.
Thompson, M.M., 1979, Maps for America: U.S. Gaol. Survey Spec. Publ. 265 p.
AGI DATA SHEET 5.2
A section of land is one mile square containing 640 acres. In the following diagram,
Section 24
S[CTION
40 ACRES I 20A
I
SWir
160 ACRES
t,NI st"
SECT>ON
Measurements
One Link = 7.92 inches; 100 Links One Cham
One Rod =
16.5 feet; 25 Links
One Chain = 66 feet; 100 Links; 4 Rods
80 Chains =
5280 feet; One Mile; 320 Rods
One Acre = 43560 square feet; 160 square rods
A Side ol a Square Acre = 208.71 feel
One Arpent 2.9127 chains; 192.24 feet, or0.848398 of an acre
NOTE: In some places, lots were added to the north tier of sections 1n a township to
adjust ~rregularit1es in surveys Tracts (irregular surveys) are common in the West
along stream courses where homesteading preceded off1cai surveys, ownership
was fitted to the later surveys. In Canada. the sec~1on numbering system is the
reverse of that 1n the United States. and fract1onal sections are termed legal
subdivisions (lsd).
AGI DATA SHEET 6.1
Stadia Tables
compiled by R. L. Threet, San Diego State College
COMPUTATION OF VERTICAL DISTANCE
Multiply the stadia table value (factor), for the measured vertical angle, by the full stadia
Intercept on a plumb rod.
10 11" 12 13 14 15 16" 18 19
00 17.10 18.73 20.34 21.92 23.4 7 25.00 26.50 27.96 29.39 30.78
01 17.13 1o. 76 2u . .16 21.94 23.50 25.02 26.52 27.:llj 29.41 30.81
IJ2 17.16 1~. ";b 20.3~ 21.97 23.52 25.05 26.55 U.IJI 29.44 30.63
03 1<.11'1 1~.1:11 2U.42 22.00 23.55 25.08 26.57 2b.U3 29.46 30.81>
IJ4 17.21 hi.84 20.44 22.02 2:!.5h 25.10 26.59 28.06 29.48 30.87
()5 17.24 18.86 20.4 i 2l.05 z:u;o 25.13 26.62 2~.us 29.51 30.90
Oti 17.26 18.~9 20.50 22.08 23.63 25.15 26.64 211.10 29.53 30.92
u< I <.29 1~.92 20.52 22.10 23.65 25.li'l 26.67 2~.13 29.55 30.94
U8 17.32 18.95 20.55 22.13 23.61'1 25.20 26.69 21'1.15 29.58 30.97
09 17.35 18.97 20.58 22.15 23.70 25.23 26.72 28.18 29.60 30.99
10 I <.37 19.00 20.60 22.1~ z:L ~a 25.25 26.74 2g.2o 29.62 31.01
11 17.40 19.03 20.63 22.21 23.76 2.'i.28 26.17 28.22 29.65 31.03
12 17.43 19.05 20.66 22.23 23.78 25.30 26.79 21>.25 29.67 31.06
13 17.46 19.08 20.68 22.26 23.SI 25.33 26.82 2b.27 29.69 31.08
14 17.48 19.11 20.71 22.28 23.83 25.35 26.8~ 28.30 29.72 31.10
15 17.51 19.13 20.73 22.31 23.~6 25.38 26.1'17 28.32 29.H 31.13
16 1'i.54 19.16 20.76 22.34 23.88 25.40 26.89 28.34 29.76 31.15
17 17.56 19.19 2U.79 22.36 2l.9! 25.~3 26.91 2~.37 29.79 31.17
18 I 7.59 19.22 20.81 22.39 23.93 25.45 26.94 28.39 29.81 3l.l9
19 17.62 19.24 20.84 22.~1 23.96 25.48 26.96 28.42 29.~3 31.22
20 17.65 19.27 20.87 22.44 23.9~ 25.50 26.99 21'i.H 29.86 31.24
21 17.67 19.30 2tl.89 22.47 24.01 25.53 27.01 21'1.46 29.88 31.26
22 17.70 19.32 20.92 22.49 24.0~ 25.55 27.04 28.49 29.90 31.29
23 17.73 19.35 20.95 22.52 24.06 25.58 27.06 2~.51 29.93 31.31
2~ 17.76 19.38 20.97 22.54 24.09 25.60 27.09 28.54 29.95 31.33
25 17.78 19.40 21.00 22.57 24.11 25.63 27.11 28.56 29.97 31.35
26 17.81 19.43 21.03 22.60 24.H 25.65 27.13 28.56 30.0(J 31.38
27 17.84 I ~.46 21.05 22.62 2U6 25.68 27.16 28.61 30.02 3!.40
28 17.86 19.H 21.08 22.65 24.19 25.70 27.18 28.63 30.04 31.42
29 17.89 19.51 21.10 22.67 24,22 25.73 21.21 21'1.66 30.07 31.44
30 17.92 19.54 21.13 22.70 24.24 25.75 27.23 28.68 30.09 31.47
31 17.95 19.56 21.16 22.73 24.27 25.78 27.26 28.70 30.11 31.49
32 17.97 19.59 21.18 22.75 24.29 25.80 27.28 28.73 30.14 31.51
33 18.00 19.62 21.21 22.78 24.32 25.83 27.30 28.75 30.16 31.53
34 18.03 19.64 21.2~ 22.80 24.3~ 25.85 27.33 28.77 30.18 31.56
35 18.05 19.67 21.26 22.83 24.37 25.88 27.36 28.80 30.21 31.58
36 18.06 19.70 21.29 22.86 2~.39 25.90 27.38 28.82 30.23 3!.60
37 18.11 19.72 21.32 22.88 24.42 25.93 27.40 28.85 30.25 31.62
36 18.14 19.75 21.34 22.91 24.44 25.95 27.43 28.87 30.28 I 31.65
39 18.16 19.78 2!.37 22.93 24.47 25.98 27.45 28.89 30.30 31.67
40 18.19 19.80 21.39 22.96 24.49 26.00 27.48 28.92 30.32 31.69
41 18.22 19.83 21.42 22.98 24.52 26.03 27.50 28.94 30.35 31.71
42 18.2~ 19.86 21.45 23.01 24.54 l6.05 27.52 28.96 30.37 31.74
43 18.27 19.88 2U7 28.04 24.57 26.08 27.55 28.99 30.39 31.76
44 18.30 19.91 21.50 23.06 24.60 26.10 27.57 29.01 30.42 31.78
45 18.32 19.94 21.53 23.09 24.62 26.13 2< .60 29.04 30.44 31.60
46 18.35 19.96 21.55 23.11 24.65 26.15 27.62 29.06 30.46 3!.83
47 18.38 19.e9 21.58 23.14 24.67 26.17 27,65 29.08 30.48 31.85
48 18.41 20.02 21.60 23.17 24.7J 26.20 21.67 29.11 30.51 3!.87
49 18.43 20.04 21.63 23.19 24.72 26.22 27.69 29.13 30.53 31.89
50 18.~ 6 20.07 21.66 23.22 24.75 31.92
51 18.49 20.10 21.68 23.24 24.77 31.94
52 18.51 20.12 21.71 23.27 24.80 31.96
53 18.54 20.15 21.74 23.29 24.d2 3!.98
54 18.57 20.18 21.76 23.32 24.85 32.01
56 18.6U 20.20 21.79 23.34 24.87 32.03
56 18.62 20.23 21.81 23.37 24.90 32.05
57 18.65 20.26 21.84 23.40 24.92 32.08
58 18.68 20.28 21.87 23.12 21.95 32.10
59 18.70 20.3! 21.~9 23.45 24.98 92.12
On both diagrams and in the equations, lowercase Greek letters designate angles and upper
case Roman letters designate sides
RIGHT TRIANGLES
0
Sine= Ri~~:~~~~~e
Cosine=
Tangent=
Therefore: sin n cos a=!'! tan n and cot " = E:l etc.
c A
And: A=C sin a =B tan n Also: sin u =cos d ; tan u =cot ;1 ; etc.
B=C cos" =A cot Furthermore: C' = A2 + 8 2
C=-- =-B- And: rr + :3 = 90
sm n cos ct
OBLIQUE TRIANGLES
A B
sin,, sin ;i
Therefore: A = ~~~l
B =A sin J__
Sin a
etc.
A tabulation of numerical values of the functions is on the reverse side of this sheet Values
for fractions of angles-e.g., the sine for 256' ( =25 1/ 10 ")-may be calculated by interpola
tion. More extensive tables are given in several mathematics (trigonometry) and surveying books
and are available on appropriately keyed calculators.
AGI-DSrvd8.2
AGI DATA SHEET 7.2
NATURAL FUNCTIONS
-------
AGI DATA SHEET 8.1
Correction for Dip
1
55 _42
1
33 ' 39 20' , 35 7'126 " 2' zoo 7" 6' 1' 26'
~ 0 .40 4' 47' 140 " u 14 '130 ' 29' 24 '' 44 0 35' 1 1' 44
fS Is' 2' : so 53' 146 s~0: 4 r 11 36 15'
1 2~ " 2' 120" 25' 10 , 35' 2'' 9'
70 lfo 73' 57 36 '; 53 ' 57' 14<:> 16' ; 43 ' 13' : 35 25' 25 " 30' 13' 2b'l2 ' 45'
75 !~7 22 ' I 64 5c' 4:1 ' 57 37 ' I 5 I 55 ' I 44 32 57 ' 3 44 '
0
I ' ' I t: I '
vO !74 4o' ! n 75' 34' 67'. 21.1 u 43' 55 '' 44' 44 33' 26 ' 1s1 s 31
bS b2 IS' ol 20' tlO 5 ' 7'o ' 19 ' 75 o 3~' 71 ' 20' 63 ' IS' 44 " 54' II ' 17'
1
89 !lt>o 27' 8b IS ' !ab' 0 ' u7 38' J 7- 5' l:l 6 9' 84 IS' 78' 41'144 I
This table has been adapted from Appendix 1, p. 128 in A.R. Dwerryhouse's Geological and
Topographical Maps, published by Messrs. Edward Arnold, London. Adaptation is reprinted from
F.H. Lahee's Field Geology, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
AGI-DS-65
Depth
By permission from Field Geology, 5th Ed, by F.H. Lahee. Copyright (1952) McGraw-Hilt Book Co.
This table may be used lor determining the thickness ol inclined 5trata by the depth of a point In an
~~;~~~h~b~:JtRr~~~~~c~~ ~~ ~Qg ~~~ ~~g~~y :h~u~;~~t ~ t~~r~o,n~t!1n~u~~~~~~:n~~~~~i
0 0 8
Conversion from per cent grade to vertical angles in degrees and minutes of arc
per cent
grade angIe
per cent
grade
vertical
angle
per cent;
grade ver~!~:l
an llpe;r~ent
ade
vertical
angle
I. 7 14 24.9 27 5C.9 40 BJ .9
3.5 15 26' 8 28 53.2 41 86.9
5 2 16 28.7 29 55.4 42 90.0
7. 0 17 30.6 30 57.7 43 93 '2
8. 7 18 32.5 31 60.1 44 96.6
10' 5 19 )4.4 32 62.5 45 100.0
12.3 20 )6.4 33 64.9 46 IOJ. 5
14.0 21 38.4 34 6].4 47 107.2
15.8 22 40,4 35 70.0 48 I I
10 17.6 23 42.4 36 72' 6 49 115.5
II 19.4 24 44' 5 37 75.3 50 119.2
21.2 25 46.6 38 78. I
13 23. I 26 48.8 39 81.0
By permi&&ion from Field Geology, 5th Ed, by F.H. Lahee.
Copyright (1952) McGrawHill Book Co.
AGIDS-e5
AGI DATA SHEET 9.2
CONTOUR SPACING FROM SLOPE ANGLES
Contour Ft. = 10
1 2 5 20 25 50 1DO
i nterva 1
Slope or dip Contour spacing in feet on the ground
angle in degrees
1 57.3 104.6 286.4 573 1046 1432 2864 5729
2 28.6 56.3 143.2 286 563 716 1432 2864
3 19.1 38.2 95.4 191 382 477 954 1908
4 14.3 28.6 71.5 143 286 357 715 1430
5 II .4 22.9 57.1 114 229 285 571 1143
6 9. 5 19.0 47.5 95 190 237 475 951
7 8. I 16.3 40.7 81 163 203 407 814
8 7.1 14.2 35.5 71 142 177 355 711
9 6.3 12.6 31.5 63 126 157 315 631
10 5.6 11.3 28.3 57 113 141 283 567
II 5.1 10.3 25.71 51 103 128 257 514
12 4. 7 9.4 23.51 47 94 117 235 470
13 4.3 8. 7 21.6 43 87 I 08 216 433
14 4.0 8. 0 20.0 40 80 100 200 401
15 3.7 7.5 18.6 37 75 93 186 373
16 3.5 7.0 17.4 35 70 87 174 349
17 3.3 6. 5 16.3 33 66 81 163 327
18 3.1 6. 2 15.4 31 62 77 154 308
19 2.9 5.8 14.5 29 58 72 145 290.
20 2.7 5.5 13.7 27 55 68 137 270
21 2.6 5.2 13.0 26 52 65 130 260
22 2.5 4.9 12.3 25 49 62 123 247
23 2.3 4. 7 11.7 23 47 59 117 235
24 2.2 4.5 11.2 22 45 56 112 225
25 2.1 4.3 10.7 21 43 53 107 214
26 2.0 4.1 10.2 20 41 51 102 204
27 2.0 3.9 9.8 20 39 49 98 196
28 1.9 3.8 9.4 19 37 47 94 188
29 I .8 3.6 9.0 18 36 45 90 180
30 I 1.7 3.5 8.6 17 35 43 86 173
31 1.7 3.3 8. 3 16 33 41 83 166
32 1. 6 3.2 8.0 16 32 40 80 160
33
I
PHYSICAL
Tracing of beds or recognition of a known normal sequence. The top and bottom of ver-
tical or steeply inclined beds may be determined by tracing to or correlating with the
known normal (upright) sequence (A) in the area where these strata are either only gent-
ly folded (at B) or not at all deformed (at A).
~~~~~1~~J~~i~~~~l-
Conglomerates. Basal and intraformational
conglomerates may contain pebbles and
boulders which can be recognized as hav-
ing been derived from the beds below.
~
~~a1
Graded bedding. In sediments with graded
bedding, the texture will grade from coarse
below to fine above. This often does not
hold true in current-bedded deposits.
Graded bedding may be present under
various current, including turbidity current,
conditions. However, it should be borne in
mind that under these conditions a grada-
tion in texture may be from coarse to fine as well as from fine to coarse. As originally de-
~~t~~ ~~~~~~~?':e~~l1n~e~~~ug~~s~g~~a~:tr;~~i~ttirld~t~::, ~:~;~!~~ ~~~~~~~;~o~~~~
rent bedding" which is produced by "resorting and redistribution of material."
Cross-bedding. in cross-bedding one set of
layers or laminae are truncated by overly-
ing layers, but away from this contact the
layers sweep along a concave curve to a
conformable contact with the underlying
layers. The concave side of cross-bedding
generally points toward the original upper
side. Individual cross-bedded laminae may
show a downward gradation in texture
from coarse to fine.
AGI DATA SHEET 10.2
--- '
I
tible gradation of texture from coarse
below to fine above (graded bedding). On ..,.. ......
the side with coarser texture (bottom) the
angle between the fracture and the bed
ding will be larger or more obtuse than on
/ "
the side with the finer texture (top or face
of the bed). The convex side of the cur
vature of the fracture cleavage will bow out .
toward the original top of the bed.
~~.
Pebble dents. When the matri x is bulged
around an imbedded pebble on one side
only, this side is the original bottom (a). Ap
~~
parent denting of laminated sediments
above and below an embedded pebble may
result from the subsequent compaction or
compression of sediments (b). b
Reference
Shrock . R.R., 1948 Sequence in Layered Rocks. McGraw-Hill Book Co, Inc .,
New York-Toronto-London, 507p .. 397 figs .
AGI DATA SHEET 10.3
PALEONTOLOGICAL
Wut East
Wnt
Figure 1. Some varieties of folds. AP, axial plane. (A) Symmetrical (upright) folds.
(B) Asymmetrical folds. (C) Overturned folds (overfolds). (D) Recumbent folds.
8. Monocline (Figure 4) . Single limb dips in one direction but with differing
amount of dip.
9. Structural terrace (Figure 4) . Single limb nearly flat , bounded by two
monoclines.
10. Homocline. A homocline is a monocline in which the dip is constant or at
least without significant variation in amount.
11 . Fan fold (Figure 5) . Crest and trough flare out at AP.
12. Open fold (Figure 6) . During the folding there has been no "flowage ,"
even in soft, incompetent beds .
13. Closed (tight) fold (Figure 6). During the folding there has been
"flowage," and the incompetent beds thicken and thin .
~;"-.
~
c
Figure 2. Isoclinal folds. AP, axial planes. (A) Vertical isoclinal folds. (B) Inclined
..
isoclinal folds. (C) Recumbent isoclinal folds .
A a
Figure 3. Some varieties of folds . AP, axial plane. (A) Chevron fold. (B) Box fold .
A a
Figure 4. Monocline and terrace. (A) Monocline. (B) Structural terrace .
/ ....
\ ( --..i ;
a
Figure 5. Some varieties of folds . AP, axial plane. (A) Fan fold. (B) Kink bands.
A fracture may separate the kink band from the rest of beds.
AGI DATA SHEET 11.3
A B
Figure 6. Open and closed folds . (A) Open folds. (B) Closed folds .
A B
Figure 10. Cross sections illustrating flexure folding. (A) Anticline. (B) Syncline.
Figure 11. Cross sections illustrating shear folding. Heavy black line, xz, is a
bedding plane. Inclined light lines are fractures. (A) Before displacement on frac-
tures. (B) After displacement. (C) Because of friction, beds tend to parallel the
fractures. (D) Fold results if bed maintains continuity.
AGI DATA SHEET 11.6
If a= 85:
d = 2.2
t'= 0.09 w
Figure 12. Bed deformed by shear or flow folding. The maximum thickness of
the bed is at the hinge; the thickness is greatly reduced on the limbs
Tectonic
1. Folds of the outer lore/and. Because the outer foreland is at the greatest
distance tram the forces of deformation, the folds all tend to be simple,
symmetrical, open, parallel, flexural slip folds.
2. Folds of the inner /oreland. These folds, located closer to the forces of
deformation, tend to be asymmetnc or overturned, tight, similar, and
shear or flowage folds.
3. Folds of the disturbed belt, or core, located in the zone of maximum tec-
tonic forces and stress. These folds include very tight, isoclinal shear
and flow folds, and disharmonic folds.
References
Billings, Marland P., 1972. Structural Geology, 3ro ed. p. 50,53,54,55,56, 120,121,
124. Figures are reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey.
Darton, N.H., 1940, Some structural features of the Northern Anthracite Coal Basin,
Pennsylvania, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 193, p. 69-81.
AGI DATA SHEET 12.1
Joints and Faults
Complied by R. V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University
JOINTS
A joint is a fracture along which there has been only separation - i.e., the
only movement has been perpendicular to the break. A group of essentially
parallel joints is called a joint set. Two or more sets of joints that intersect so that it
appears they were formed as a result of the same group of stresses are called a
joint system. Many of these fractures may have been healed - i.e., filled with
minerals deposited by. lor example, ground water or hydrothermal solutions - and
now are veins.
In the field, the strikes and dips of joints are usually recorded. For reports, the
orientations of joints are often shown on maps and/or diagrams.
FAULTS
A fault is a fracture along which the rocks on one side of the break have
moved with respect to the rocks on the other side of the break - i.e., there has
been displacement of the blocks parallel to the fracture. Although some fault
zones have essentially vertical or horizontal dips, most do not. Figures 1 and 2
illustrate typical fault orientations. For example, based on the relative movements
of their two blocks, normal faults (Figure 2A) are those whose hanging-walt blocks
have moved downward with respect to their footwall blocks. In addition, faults with
strike-slip movements are often called right-lateral or /eft-lateral - if one stands
on one block, faces the other block and sees that it has moved to the right, then it
is right-lateral. The same relation is seen from either block.
HANGING- WALL
FOOTWALL
BLOCK BLOCK
Figure 1. Nomenclature of faults. This is a normal fault with an oblique slip- i.e.,
the displacement had both strike-slip and dip-slip components. The strike-slip
displacement is such that the fault is left-lateral.
!::; 1-
...I
:::1 :::1
<1: <1:
l.r. l.r.
...I 1.11
<1: 11.1
0::
~ w
0:: >
0 1.11
z 0::
1.11 1.11
:::1 :::1
0 \ 0
:::; :::;
II) II)
0 0
ti u
+ +
<( al
1-
...I
:::1
1- <1: 1-
...I
...I l.r.
:::1 1:1. :::1
:::; <1:
~ 11.1
l.r.
1.11
...I
<1:
t.U 11.1
::..! 0::
~ ;:c 1.11
0:: 1- >
w
0 11.1
z 0::
-i. u al
Figure 2. Types of faults. Of the faults shown. C. A+C, and B+C are also left-lateral
faults. (Modified and redrawn after W.B. Clark and C.J. Hauge, California Division
of Mines and Geology, Special Publication 39, 1973.)
AGI DATA SHEET 12.3
Low-angle faults- i.e., those with dips of less than about 30 degrees are
usually called thrust faults. In some places, one or more parts of the overthrust
plates (i.e., the hanging-wall block rocks) have been isolated as a result of
erosion. Elsewhere, erosion has led to exposures of footwall block rocks that are
surrounded by rocks of the overthrust plate. The isolated masses are called
klippen (singular, klippe); the exposures of the footwall rocks are called fensters
or windows. See Figure 3.
Klippe Fenster
-
~ Fault zone (arrows indicate relative movements)
weight in air
specific gravity
weight in air - weight in water
AGI DATA SHEET 14.1
Macroscopic Identification of Common Rock-forming Silicates
Compiled by David B. Jorgenson; updated and revised by KwoLing Chyl,
Central Michigan University
The following table, which lists only the common silicate minerals, is intended as a
guide to the rapid identification of these minerals in rocks. More detailed descriptions
can be found in a number of books, a few of which are listed below.
Major divisions are by color, cleavage, and hardness. "Dark-colored" and "U!i!ht
colored" are relative terms, and some minerals have been classified In both cate~nes.
~~~e;~~~ :~~J~~~ri~p~~n~r?.~a~~~ ~~~~ t~r~~~~~;al~~[~7b~e~rk~~alr,a?: :-;w~~::
pink, light gray, orange, yellow, light green, light blue, or a pastel color, and impart a
"light" color to a rock.
There are two subdivisions based on cleavage: "Cleavage Generally Conspicuous,"
and "Cleavage Absent or Inconspicuous." A mineral that typically displays at least one
well-developed cleavage direction will be classified as having generally conspicuous
cleavage. Some mineral species are listed in both cleavage categories.
Hardness is subdivided roughly on the basis of the hardnesses of common objects:
H < 3 (fingernail H = 2.5), 3 s H < 5 (glass H = 5; knifeblade "" 5.5), 5 s H < 7 (quartz H
~, 7), 7s H. Some minerals are given in more than one of the hardness categories.
References
Berry, L.G., Mason, B., and Dietrich, R.V., 1983. Mineralogy, 2nd ed. W.H. Freeman
and Co., San Francisco, 561 p.
Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J., 1966. An Introduction to the Rock Forming
Minerals. Longman Group Ltd., London, 528 p.
Dietrich, R.V., and Skinner, B.J., 1979. Rocks and Rock Minerals. John Wiley and
Sons. New York, 319 p.
Fleischer, Michael, 1987. Glossary of Mineral Species, 5th ed. Mineralogical Record,
Tucson, 227 p. plus appendix.
Klein, C., and Hurlbut, C.S., Jr., 1985. Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 596 p.
I. DARK COLORED
A. Cleavage
1
a.~
Mineral Name-Composilion
Color
Luster
)>
!2
Generally 2~ Hardness c
~
Conspicuous CJ!8. Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common Occurrence
H<3 Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3(AI,Fe)Si301o(OH,F)2
CJJ
:I:
Monoclinic Brn, blk, dark grn Micaceous cleavage; Phlogopite is general and m
Splendent dark color; elastic ly lighter colored; rocks; m
2 1/2-3 folia chlorite is inelastic -1
2.8-3.2 .....
Chlorite (Mg,Fe) (Si,AI) 4o 10(0H) (Mg,Fe)3(0H)
3 2 6
""'
;.,
Monoclinic or Varieties of grn Micaceous cleavage, Biotite is elastic Metamorphic rocks
tric!imc polytypes Vitreous to pearly green color; (diagnostic mineral of
2-2Y2 inelastic folia greenschist facies);
2.6-3.3 igneous as alteration
product.
Augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,AI,Ti)(Si,AI)206
~ Monoclinic Blk, dark grn Imperfect prismatic Chemically more Most common pyrox-
~ Vitreous
5-6
cleavage at near 90 ';
stubby prismatic
complex, but related
to dlopside. Horn-
ene. Dark-colored lg-
neous rocks; with
~ 3.2-3.3 crystals; dark color blende has similar olivine, Ca-
~ colors plagioclase,
hypersthene. Some
.
.., metamorphic rocks .
Dark grn to blk Prismatic habit and Augite has similar Igneous and
Monoclinic colors but different metamorphic rocks.
Vitreous cleavage at - 56 and
5-6 124; dark color ; cleavage angles. Widely distributed.
3.0-3.4 crystals elongate. Other amphiboles,
sometimes fibrous especially actinolite,
may resemble horn-
blende.
):1>
Monoclinic Grn Slender prisms, Hornblende is usually Metamorphic rocks;
Vitreous prismatic cleavage darker colored. characteristic of 9
5-6
3.0-3.3
(120.); green color greenschist facies
metamorphism.
c
~
Monoclinic Blue, lavender-blue Color; fibrous habit
Partial series be- Only in metamorphic ~
m
~~~Reg~~~~~~~~~
Vitreous rocks. With jadeite
6
and lawsonite it m
increasing Fe. reflects low temperature -1
3.1-3.4 Crossite is in
termediate member. ~~ra~~~s~~~- f
Mineral Name-Composition
I. DARK COLORED Color
A. Cleavage Luster
Generally Hardness
Conspicuous Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Featuras Similar Species Common Occurrence
5~H<7 Cummingtonite (Mg,Fe)7Si o22 (0H) 2
8
Monoclinic Light brn Needlelike, commonly Complete series be- Metamorphic rocks,
Silky; fibrous radiating; color tween cummingtonite commonly with horn-
51/2-6 (Mg>Fe) and grunerite blende or actinolite.
3.1-3.6 (Fe>Mg). Anthophyllite
and gedrite are similar
to cummingtonite.
Titanite CaTiSi05
Monoclinic Gray, brn, grn, blk, yel Luster, and wedge- Common accessory in
Resinous shaped crystals igneous rocks; larger
5-51/2 crystals in some
3.4-3.55 gneisses, schists,
marbles.
B. Cleavage Absent
or Inconspicuous
H<3 Chrysocolla (Cu,AI)2H2Si205(0H)4nH20
(Undefined) Grn to grn-blue Color; conchoidal Dioptase appears Oxidized zones of
Vitreous to earthy fracture; low hard- similar, but forms copper deposits; with
2-4 ness rhombohedral malachite, azurite,
2.0-2.4 crystals cuprite.
Orthorhombic Pale yel-grn to olive- Glassy luster, con- Mafic igneous rocks
grn choidal fracture. especially peridotite,
Vitreous Color gabbro, and basalt.
61/2-7 Associated with
3.27-4.37 pyroxenes. Common-
ly altered to serpentine.
)
Mineral Name-Composition
Color
I. DARK COLORED Luster
B. Cleavage Absent Hardness
or Inconspicuous Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common Occurrence
5:SH<7 Titanite CaTiSi0 5
Monoclinic Gray. brn, grn, blk, yel Luster, and wedge- Common accessory
Resinous shaped crystals in igneous rocks;
5-5V2 larger crystals in
3.4-3.55 some gneisses,
schists, marbles.
Chondrodite (Mg,Fe)s(Si0 4 )2(F.OH)2
Monoclinic ~il~r~~~;1 1'g ;:~nous Color; occurrence in
marbles
Other members of
the group are humite,
Metamorphosed
dolomitic limestones.
6-6 112 cllnohumite, and Associated with
3.1-3.2 norbergite, which are phlogopite, spinel,
megascopically in- pyrrhotite, and
distlngulshable from graphite. Commonly
chon<frodite. altered to serpentine.
7~H Almandine Fe Ai Si o
3 2 3 12
Isometric Deep-red to Color; Isometric Mg and Mn substitute Almandine is the
brownish-red crystal habit; hard- freely for Fe. Mg end most common garnet,
Vitreous to resinous ness member is pyrope, being widely
6V2-7 112 Mn end member is distributed in
3.5-4.3 spessartine. Ca- metamorphic rocks;
bearing garnets are also as a detrital
grossular, andradite, mineral. Pyrope oc-
and uvarovite. curs in ultrabasic ig-
neous rocks.
Andalusite AI Si0
2 5
Orthorhombic Flesh-red, reddish- Nearly square prism Variety chiastolite Metamorphic rocks ,
brn, olive-grn habit; color; hardness has colored carbon- especially argil-
Vitreous aceous inclusions ar- laceous, often found
7V2 ranQed in cruciform with cordierite; can
3.16-3.20 des1gns. Other occur with kyanite or
AI2Si05 polymorphs sillimanite.
are sillimanite and
kyanite.
Mlnarel Nama-Composition
Color
I. DARK COLORED Luster
B. Cleavage Absent Hardness
or Inconspicuous Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common Occurrence
7~H Staurolite (Fe,Mg,Zn)2Aig(Si,AI)4022(0H)2
Zircon ZrSiO 4
,.-------
Beryl Be 3AI 2(Si 6o 18)
Hexagonal Bluish grn or light yel Hexagonal prism Varieties of gem beryl Granitic rocks and
Vitreous form; color are distinguished by pegmatites. Some
7V>-8 color: aquamarine, mica schists.
2.65-2.8 morganite, golden
beryl, emerald.
Mineral Name-Composition Color
II. LIGHT COLORED
A. CleaYaga Lualer
GeneraBy Hardness
Con.IJ)Icuous Crystal System Speelllc Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Speclas Common Occurrence
H<3 Muscovite KAI2(AISI301 o)(OH,F)2 Granites, pegmatites,
May be confused metamorphic rocks,
Monoclinic Colorless; yel, pale Micaceous especially schists.
brn light color; with phlogopile or Fine-grained fibrous
Vitreous to pearly folia lepidolite; biotite is variety Is sericite,
2-2112 the dark mica common as hydro-
2.76-2.88 thermal alteration
product or retrograde
metamorphism. Also
forms detrital rains
Talc Mg SI 4o
3 10(0H) 2
Monoclinic Apple-grn, gray, wt Distinguished from
Pearly to greasy clay minerals by its
1 occurrence
2.7-2.8
talc
!I
Wt, gray; colorless Prismatic cleavage
Vitreous to pearly near 90': commonly
e shows polysynthetic
2.Ei2-2~7Ei twinning that appears
as striations
.:
1
:
1 Ort~:~~:~~n':':'ISI:Pa Vitreous to pearly
~.57
oo;
color; hardness microcline from
~~~~~~~~~s'l,a;~~a~~
hand sample.
As phenocrysts in ex
trusive Igneous rocks,
especially rhyolites
and trachytes.
Mineral Name-Composition
II. LIGHT COLORED Color
A Cleavage Luster
Generally Hardness
Conspicuous Crystal System Sileclflc Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common OccurTence
5:5H<7 Diopside
Enstatite
These minerals most commonly appear as dark colored and
Bronzite uVl~l.r~ole>>::ooe>L'" are described under that heading in this table. In some in-
Hypersthene , Mul.r"''""''~'--"' } stances, however, they appear relatively light colored; this war-
rants their mention here.
Actinolite ca (Mg,Fe)5Si8o 22(0HJ2
2
Amphibole! Glaucophane Na2(Mg,Fe)3AI2Sis022(0H)2
Sillimanite A1 Si0 5 Polymorphous with
2
Orthorhombic kyanite and an-
daluslte.
B. Cleavage Absent
01 Inconspicuous
3~H<5 Rhombohedral crystal
habit: lack of
cleavage; occurrence
flame test; fus, fusibility; h, hardness; It, light; mag, magnetic; prtg, parting; rad, radioac-
tive; sg, specific gravity; stl, steel; strk, streak; tab, tabular; tarn, tarnish; transp,
transparent; wk, weak(ly); xis, crystals.
Mineral Composition S&H S.G. Distinguishing Features
NATIVE ELEMENTS
Gold ................. Au ............................. l 3 19.3 met,y,malleable,sg
Silver ............... Ag ............................. l 3 10.5 Ag-w ,malleable,sg
Copper ............ Cu ..............................l 3 8.95 met,r,malleable,sg
Platinum ......... Pt .............................. J 4112 19. stl-gy ,sg,h
Sulfur .............. S ................................0 2112 2.07 y,res,burns
Diamond ......... C ................................I 10 3.53 ad,h,111,1T1
Graphite .......... c ................................H 2 2.23 blk to gy ,greasy
SULFIDES
~~~~~~~~e::::::~~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::.b2%2
7.4 sectile,met,dk-gy ,sg
5.8 sectile,Pb-gy
Bornite ............ cu~FeS ..................... I 3 5.08 met,br-bronze,purp-bl tarn
Galena ............ PbS ........................... I 2112 7.58 100,Pb-gy,sg,h
Sphalerite ....... ZnS ........................... I 4 4.1 res,110
Chalcopyrite ... CuFeS2 ..................... T 4 4.3 brass-y,h
Stannite .......... Cu2FeSnS ................ T 4 4.5 stl-gy to Fe-blk,fus 1 V2
Greenockite .... CdS ........................... H 31/2 4.9 y,vit
Pyrrhotite ........ Fe,xS ........................ H 4 4.65 bronze,massive,mag
Nickeline ........ NiAs .......................... H 51/2 7.78 Cu-r,h
Millerite .......... NiS ............................ R 3 112 5.5 pale brass y ,cap xis
Pentlandite ..... (Fe,Ni)9Sa .................. l 4 5.0 bronze,lll prtg,non-mag
Covellite ......... Cus ........................... H 2 4.76 indigo-bi,0001 _
~~~lit~::::::::: !~~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::9 ~
112 8.09 r,sg,scarlet strk,1010
3.48 r,res,01 O,h
3.49 y,res,010,h
Stibnite ........... Sb2SJ ........................ 0 2 4.62 Pb-gy,bladed,010,fus 1
Bismuthinite ... Bi.S3 .......................... 0 2 6.78 Pb-gy,010,fus 1
Pyrite .............. FeS2 .......................... 1 61/2 5.02 pale brassy
Cobaltite ......... CoAsS ...................... I 51/2 6.33 Ag-w,100
Marcasite ........ FeS2 .......................... 0 61!2 4.89 pale y,"cockscomb" xis
Arsenopyrite ... FeAsS ....................... M 6 6.22 Ag-w,cf. smaltite
Molybdenite ... MoS2 ......................... H 1112 4.73 Pb-gy,bl tone,0001
Calaverite ....... AuTe2 ........................ M 3 9.44 brass y to Agw,sg
Sylvanite ......... (Au,Ag)2Te ................ M 2 8.16 Agw,sg,010
Smaltite .......... (Co,Ni)ASJx ............... l 6 6.9 Ag-w,cf.arsenopyrite,Co test
SULFOSALTS
Polybasite ....... (Ag,Cu).6Sb~s~~ ........ M 3 6.2 short"hex"prisms,stl-gy to blk
Pyrargyrite ...... Ag,SbS, .................... R 2 112 5.85 deep-r,ad,10'f1
Proustite ......... Ag,AsS, .................... R 2112 5.57 rubyr,ad,1011
Tetrahedrite .... (Cu,Fe)~<Sb.s,, ......... 1 4 5.1 tetrahedrons,gy to blk
Tennantite ...... (Cu,Fe)~<As.s~, ......... 1 41/2 4.6 tetrahedrons,gy-blk to blk
Enargite .......... Cu,AsS ..................... 0 3 4.50 gy-blk to Feblk
Bournonite ..... PbCuSbS, ................. 0 3 5.86 stl-gy to blk, xis
Jamesonite ..... Pb.FeSb.s, .............. M 2112 5.63 gy-blk,acicular to fibrous
AGI-DSJidBn
AGI DATA SHEET 15.2
Mineral Composition S&H S.G. Distinguishing Features
SIMPLE OXIDES
Cuprite ............ cu.o ....................... l 4 6.14 r,ad,xls
Zincite ............. ZnO ......................... H 4 5.68 deep-r to or-y _
Corundum ...... AI.OJ ....................... A 9 4.1 h,sg,prtg 0001 and 1011
Hematite ........ Fe>Ol ...................... A 6 5.26 r-br to blk; r strk
Ilmenite .......... FeTiOJ ..................... R 6 4.76 Fe-blk,strk blk to br-r
Rutile .............. TiO .......................... T 61J2 4.25 ad,r to r-br to blk
Pyrolusite ....... MnO ........................ T 61!2 5.08 blk,blk strk
Cassiterite ...... SnO ......................... T 7 6.99 ad,br to blk,lt strk,sg
Anatase .......... TiO .......................... T 6 3.90 ad.rbr to blk,001,011
Brookite .......... TiO .......................... 0 6 4.20 met,ad,br to Fe-blk
Uraninite ......... uo ........................... l 6 10.63 blk,submet to dull,sg,rad
HYDROXIDES AND OXIDES CONTAINING HYDROXOL
Brucite ............ Mg(OH)................... H21J2 2.40 0001,pearly,w,gy,lt-grn
Boehmite ........ AIO(OH) .................. 0 3.1 01 O,in bauxite
Gibbsite .......... AI(OH)l .................... M31J2 2.42 001,pearly,in bauxite
"Psilomelane"BaMnMnaO,a(OH) .. 0 6 4.72 blk,submet,strk br-blk
MULTIPLE OXIDES
Diaspore ......... HAIO ....................... O 7 3.5 010,bladed,h,in bauxite
Goethite .......... HFeO ...................... 0 5 1/2 4.29 y-br to dk-br,strk y-br
Spinei... ........... MgAbO................... I 8 4.0 h,octahedrons,vit
Magnetite ....... Fe(FeO.).................. I 61!2 5.18 Fe-blk,blk strk,mg
Franklinite ...... Zn(FeO.).................. I 61!2 5.22 Fe-blk,dk-br strk,wk mag
Chromite ......... FeCr.o .................... l 51!2 4.8 submet,strk dk-br,Fe-blk
Chrysoberyi. ... BeAI.O .................... O 81!2 3.85 h,grn,br,y
Columbite ....... (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta).Oa ... O 6 5.25 Fe-blk,strk submet
HALIDES
Halite .............. NaCI ........................ I 2 2.17 100,salty taste
Sylvite ............. KCI. .......................... I 2 1.99 1OO,bitter taste
Cerargyrite ..... AgCI ........................ I 21J2 5.56 sectile, waxlike
Fluorite ........... CaF ......................... ! 4 3.18 111 ,cubes,h
Carnallite ........ KMgCb6H,O ......... O 21J2 1.60 deliq,no cl
Cryolite ........... NalAIFo ................... M 21J2 2.98 vit to greasy,"cubic" prtg
CARBONATES
Calcite ............ caco, ..................... R 3 2.71 h, 101\vit,HCI test
Magnesite ...... MgCO, .................... A 4 3.02 w,!Ilassive or 1011,sg,h
Siderite .......... Feco, ..................... R 4 3.97 1010,1t to dk-br,sg
Rhodochrosite Mnco, .................. R 4 3.70 pnk,10lO,h
Smithsonite ... Znco, ..................... R 41J2 4.44 eft in cld HCI,h,sg
Aragonite ....... CaCOJ ..................... 0 4 2.95 columnar xls,h,sg
Witherite ........ BaCO, ..................... 0 31J2 4.29 sg,eff in cld HCI
Strontianite .... Srco, ...................... o 31!2 3.78 sg,eff in cld HCI, Sr flm
Cerussite ....... PbCO, ..................... 0 31J2 6.57 sg,ad,h
Dolomite ........ CaMg(CO,) ............. A 4 2.86 curved rhombic xls,HCI test
Ankerite ........ Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(COa) A 4 3.02 like dolomite but y-br to br
Malachite ....... cu.(CO,)(OH)2 ......... M 4 4.07 brt-grn,eff in cld HCI
Azurite ............ cu,(CO,).(OH) ........ M 4 3.78 azurebl,eff in cld HCI
AGI DATA SHEET 15.3
Mineral Composition S&H S.G. Distinguishing Features
NITRATES AND BORATES
Nitratite ......... NaNO ............................ R 2 2.27 1011,cool taste,deliq
Niter ............... KNO ............................... O 2 2.11 011 ,cool taste,non-deliq
Kernite ........... Na2BOs(OH)2 8H20 ..... M 2112 1.91 001,1 OO,splintery cl,sg
Borax ............. Na2B.Os(OHJ 8H20..... M 2112 1.72 100,sweet alk taste,xls
Ulexite ........... NaCaBsO.(OH)65H20..Tr 2112 1.96 "cottonballs",h,tasteless
Colemanite .... Ca28e0,,5H20 .............. M 4V2 2.43 010,exfoliates if heated
Boracite ......... MgJBrO,JCI .................... O 7V2 3.1 11,isometric xis
SULFATES
Barite ............. BaSO ............................. o 3 112 4.50 sg,001, 110, tab xis
Celestite ........ srso .............................. o 31!2 3.98 sg,001,110,tab xis
Anglesite ....... PbSO ............................. 0 :: 6.39 sg,ad,concl1
Anl1ydrite ....... caso .............................. o 31f2 2.98 100,010,00.J
Gypsum ......... CaS0.2H20 .................. M 2 2.32 h,010,100,111
Chalcantl1ite .. cuso. SH20................. .Tr 2112 2.29 azure-bl,met taste
Melanterite .... FeSO. 7H20 .................. M 2 1.90 cap agg,met taste
Epsomite ....... MgS0.7H20 .................0 2112 1.68 cap agg,bitter taste
Antlerite ......... CUJ(SO.)(OH) ................ 0 3112 3.88 grn,010,non-eff in cld HCI
Alunite ........... KAb(S0.)2(0H)e ............. .R 4 2.9 massive,w,gy or reddish
Jarosite .......... KFeJ(SO.).(OH)e ............. R 3 112 3.26 y to br,strk pale-y
VANADIUM OXYSALTS
Carnotite ........ K2(U02)2V20a 8H20 .... M 2 5 y to grn-y,rad,001
Tyuyamunite. Ca(U02)2V.Oa nH20 ... 0 2 3.62 y,rad,turns grn in sun,001
REFERENCE: Fleiacher, Michael, 1987. Glossary of Mineral Species. 5th ed. Mineralogical Record.
Tuscon. 234 p.
AGI DATA SHEET 15.1
Ovec
8.0
80
75
7.0
6.5
Scheehtfl ! 60
5.5
Mora.ztte
Bastnaesite
5.C
Z1rcon
Xenot me Banle
4.5
Under
J 20
~-----,-.Weakly~~ Specific
Mugnetlc ' Mag netic Gruvlty
--~-~~.
Over
8.0
80
Galena 7.5
Ferbsrlte Wolframite
Cassiterite
7.0
6.5
Columbite~
Tantalite 6.0
5.5
Magnetite Samarskite
Euxenite
i Pyrite 5.0
llmemte-
ltmenite Hematite
; (high iron)
Davidite Chromite
I Molybdenile
4.5
I Rutile
Chalcopyrite
Brockite 4.0
' Limonite
:
Diamond 3.5
I 3.0
2.5
, Graphite
2.0
AGI DATA SHEET 16.3
Notes
Starting with a mixture of any of the minerals listed, it may be determined
whether or not they can be separated by high tension, magnetic, or gravity
methods and whether any one or a combination of methods is required. If the
minerals appear in different columns, they may be separated by high tension
and/or magnetic methods alone. Two or more minerals appearing in the same
column can be separated by gravity concentration if they have sufficient
difference in gravity (usually a difference of approximately 1.0).
It should be noted that grain shape and/or size may alter separation
characteristics. This is sometimes a detriment and other times useful. As an
example, mica and quartz may in some cases be separated by high tension due
to their grain shape.
Mineral-behavior characteristics shown are from tests made in Carpco's
laboratories rather than from results of theoretical analyses. Mineral
characteristics and behaviors sometimes differ from one deposit to another. The
behavior of minerals not shown can usually be predicted by the behavior of
similar minerals in the above table.
Reprinted, by permission of Carpco, Inc., Jacksonville, Florida, Copyright
1954. Carpco, Inc., now publishes an expanded version of this table titled
"Electrostatic and Magnetic Separation Characteristics of Selected Minerals."
AGI DATA SHEET 17.1
Gem Materials
J.l. Kolvula and R.C. Kammerllng, Gemological Institute ot America
Phenomena a. Other
Distinctive Vlaual
Chal'llderlstlc:s
. $YN.AunLE Etnt-~(-3301;
..llll.... dour>ling
~.1118-
2.903
287 OR
~
u . 4.28 .03 ........
-manlioelu-; 2417 SA 3.52.01
DIAIIONO 10
-
- .... dioponion (.00.) Cubic
cz
.,...c.-z-.., Strong dioponion (.080) 2.150 . 030 SA
Cubic
&.80.20 .....
QQQ(Qiodolllllum
loloder... ditpnion (.DoiS) 1.970 .080 SA
705:~ .....
--~
Cubic
1~-
C(r.,);S.-.m&nlne 000- DA U+
470~: e-m
. 1)40
ZIRCON -;mod.~(.038) 1.1114 -.14S 059 Tel<llgONI
........,_,.
SPUSAATITE Cotor concaintl some OJIU"'QQI 1.810 +.004
-020
SA
Cubic 41&:: 7-7Yo
AUIANOITE
~a..-
A
Oll.n cl8tk '" tone
1.790 t030 SA
Cubic 405:~ 7-71'1
CORUNOUIIIII A.CC;C(r.,.)
1.182-
1.770
+.009
-.005
008-
010
OR
Heugonat
U-
400~_:,g
SYN. COAUNDUfll A, CC. C (rorw): S111r 1.782- +.005
ooe OR u- 4.00 .03
~FJM~e'-1 cu.-tg.-honbode 1.770 -.003 Heqgonat
,,,,..,
SYN. CORUNDUM 1782-
1.770 ooe OR
~
u- 4.00 .03
AHOOOUTE 010 SA
a..- PurpleiDpUrpliohr8Cicolot ueo -.020 Cubic
3.84 .10 7-7Yo
GROSSULAAITE
~a..-
1 740 +"020
-.010
SA
Cuboc 361~~ 7-71,',
a... c..,...,
HYDIIOOROSSUI..A. 1720
+ 010
- 030
AGG
Cuboc 347~:
CC; Colo<Ma.ltgtn ~
SYN.SPINEL II'"" light 10 dorl< bluo
common
1728 +.01Z
- ooe
SA
CubiC 364~ \'i
~
CC:A(..,.) + 017 SA
SPINEl, 1718 360:
Colo~often"""Hiurat""' -008 Cubic
-
016 Wonochr'IIC
1660-
JADEITE
Oftwn g...-y"' ,."Y l u - 1.680 t
.1.66
ooe AGG
MonoclinJC 334::: &n-7
AGI-DSrvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 17.2
PERIDOT I 654-
t 020 035- DR 8+ 3 3A + 14 6 1h-7
OII\Oine I 690 038 O~norhomooc - 01
I 624- 018- DR U-
TOURMALINE
C.CC (rare)
Strong dtehrosm I 644
+ 011
- 009 040 Hexagonal 3os:~ 7-7 1/<z
I 619- 008- DR 8+
TOMZ t 010 353t 04
I 627 010 OnhorhombiC
I 610-
AGG
~
-
TURQUOISE Matmc poss1bie I 650
Tnchmc 276: 5-6
~ 61
BERYL C. A(rare)
I 577-
t 011 005- DR U- 272 + 18 7 1/z-8
I 583 009 Hexagonal - 05
SYN. EMERALD Syn. May fluoresce red to vsble 1588- + 008 005- DR U- 268t 03 71fz-8
a..yi[~IIIJ loghl I 573 ~ooa. 007 Hexagonal
SERPENTINE
Waxy to greasy luster. often I 580- + 004 AGG 2 57+ 23 2-6
resembles I 570 - 070 Monoclnc - 13
QUARTZ A,/lri,C.I
I 544-
I 553
t 000 009
DRorAGG/U +
Hexagonal 2 66: g~
PEARL 0 1 530-
155 AGG 2 70 + 15 2 1h-4
~-eullurecl] Dull to submetalhc luster I 685 -09
......_
ORTHOCLASE A,A<I.C
Vtreous to pearly luster
I 518-
I 526
+ 010
005-
008
DR 8-
Monochn1c
2 58 t 03 6-6 1h
I 670. 275 t 25
LAPIS LAZULI 1500
SR AGG 5-6
Definitions
Hardness Res>stancetoscratch>ng
Toughness ReSJStancetobreak>ng,chrppmg,orcracklng
Durabrlity Overallwearabht(
AGI-DS~t"'dB9
AGI DATA SHEET 18.2
Gemstone Misnomers
J.l. Kolvula and R.C. Kemmerling, Gemological Institute of America
GEMSTONE MISNOMERS
MlSND.MfB CORRECT NOMENCLATURE
'Mexican Jade" Dyed Green Marble Calcite
"Mexican Onyx (or onyx") Onyxmarble Calcite
"Aiexandrite" (or syn. Alexandrite") Synthetic Alexa ndritelike Sapphire
"Colorado Jade" (or "Pike's Peak Jade") Amazon Microcline Feldspar
colorado Ruby" (or "Arizona Ruby") Pyrope Garnet
"Transvaal Jade" (or "South African Jade") Translucent Grossularite Garnet
"Black Pearl" (or "Alaskan Black Diamond") Hematite
"Topaz Quartz" (or "Spanish Topaz") Citrine Quartz
'Herkimer Diamond" (or "Arkansas Diamond") Rock Crystal Quartz
'Smoky Topaz (or 'Scotch Topaz") Smoky Quartz
'Indian Jade" Aventurine Quartz
"Queensland Jade" Chrysoprase Chalcedony
"Chalcedony Moonstone White Chalcedony (or Milky Chalcedony)
"Swiss Lapis" (or "German Lapis") Dyed Blue Jasper Chalcedony
"Blue Onyx Translucent Dyed Blue Chalcedony
"Green Onyx (or "Chrysoprase') Translucent Dyed Green Chalcedony
"Korean Jade" (or 'New Jade") Bowenite Serpentine
AGIDS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 19.1
Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattices
AGlOS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 19.2
rJ]JffJQ
(B)
a
TMclinic
lil~b~C~B
a~f3~r~90
(b)
a
Monoclinic
a"'b"'c"'e
b
(J .. 900
(c) Monoclinic
(end-centered)
[]' a
(d) Orthorhombic
B~b"'C"'B
b
l
(e) Orthorhombic
(endcentered)
(f) Orthorhombic
(body-centered)
(g) Orthorhombic
(face-centered)
Revised after Berry, LG., and Mason, B., 1983. Mineralogy: Concepts, Descriptions, Determinations, 2nd edition
revised by R.V. Dietrich. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York, 561 p.
Formula of
Complex
Classification Structural Arrangement' Anion Si:O Example
4
Nesosilicates Independent tetrahedra rsio.J- 1:4 Forsterite, Mg2 (Si04)
~
Sorosilicates Two tetrahedra sharing one (Si207l- 6 2:7 Hemimorphite, Zn. (Sb07) (OHh H20
oxygen
~
Cyclosilicates Closed rings of tetrahedra,
each sharing two oxygens
- -~-
---- - ---- 1- -----
J; 4
-(- (Sip
8
Jimthompsonite (Mg.Fe) (Si 0
5
) (0Hl
3 82 2
Triple chain
Phyllosilicates Continuous sheets of tetrahedra, (Sb0,).;; 2 2:5 Kaolinite, Al4 (Si20sh (OH)s
each sharing three oxygens
-~ j.
~i!!d~Ciassifica~~n~ lgneou~~~cks_
lUGS Preliminary classificalion for plulonic rocks'
THE PHANERITES'
a-quartz
A-alkali feldspar'
P-plagioclase
F-"foid"'
Px-pyroxene
He-hornblende
01-olivine
b
a. General classification.
b. Ultramafic and gabbroic rocks, and anorthosites.
c. Ultramafic rocks.
I, granitoids; II, syenitoids; Ill, dlorltoids; IV, gabbroids; V, fold syenitoids; VI, foid dioritoids and
gabbroids; VII, foidolites; VIII, anorthosites; IX, peridotites; X, pyroxenites: XI, hornblendites;
II-IV, qualifier told-bearing" if folds are present; IX-XI, ultramafic rocks.
In order to plot a rock's composition in the appropriate triangle on "a", the three com-
ponents alkali feldspar (A), plagioclase feldspar (P), and quartz (Q) or the fold minerals
(F) are equated to 100 percent-i.e., the other components are subtracted from the total
mode and the remaining QAP or FAP percentages are normalized to 100 percent ... etc.
(lor "b" and "c").
Diagrams for the general nomenclature are presented on Daia Sheet 62. Addi-
tional diagrams outlining suggested use of prefixes leuco- and mela and giving
nomenclature for less common phanerites such as carbonatites and lamprophyres may
be found in the following references:
Dietrich. R.V. and Skinner, RJ., 1979, Rocks and Rock Minerals: Wiley, N.Y., 369p.
lUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks, 1973, Classification and
nomenclature of plutonic rocks: Geotimes, v. 18, n. 10 (Oct.), p. 26-30.
Streckeisen, A., 1976, To each plutonic rock its proper name: Earth Science Rev., v.
12, p. 1-33.
LIn the lUGS scheme, 'plutonic rock", which refers to phaneritic rocks, is not assumed tore-
quire an igneous orig1n
2. Alkali feldspar includes potassium feldspars, perthite (including its plagioclase component),
and anorthoclase
3. "foid" includes the fetdspathoids-leuctle and pseudoleucite, nepheline. sodalite, nosean,
hauyne. cancnmte, analc1me. etc
AGIC5-rvd 89
AGI DATA SHEET 21.2
lUGS Group name classification lor volcanic rocks
THE APHANITES'
I rhyolitoids
a II
Ill
dacitoids
trachytoids
IV andesitoids, basaltoids
V phonolitoids
VI tephritoids
VII foiditoids
VIII uitramafitites
F
Q-quartz; A-alkali feldspar (including orthoclase, sanidine, perthite, and anortho
clase); P-plagioclase; F-feldspathoids; Mel-melilite; 01-olivine; Px-pyroxene;
M-mafic minerals.
Most true aphanites cannot be named without knowledge of their mineral com
ponents, which requires employment of nonmegascopic procedures. Many aphanitic
rocks, however, are porphyritic and for those, the group names may be applied tentative
ly by estimating the overall percentages of the component minerals on the basis of the
assumption that the compositions of the phenocrysts reflect the bulk mineral composi
lion of the rocks.
A diagram for the lUGS general nomenclature scheme for volcanic rocks is given on
Data Sheet 62. Additional information and suggestions for naming aphanites and por
phyries may be found in the following references:
Dietrich, R.V. and Skinner, B.J., 1979, Rocks and Rock Minerals: Wiley, N.Y., 369p.
Streckeisen, A., 1978, Classification and nomenclature of volcanic rocks. .:N. Jb.
Min. Abh., v. 134, p. 1-14.
Streckeisen, A., 1979, Classification and nomenclature of volcanic rocks ... of the
lUGS Subcommission ... :Geology, v. 7, p. 331-335.
1. Under the lUGS scheme, these rocks are termed volcanic rocks.
AGI DATA SHEET 22.1
Textures of Igneous Rocks
Compiled by R.V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University
For many igneous rocks , texture is the chief clue used to interpret their consolida-
tion - especially their crystallization - histories . Texture depends upon such interre-
lated variables as the bulk chemistry of the magma (including the volatile-content), rate
of cooling, and the relative powers of crystallization of diverse minerals.
Terms that are frequently used to describe igneous rock textures are outlined below:
Crystallinity
Holocrystalline - 100 percent minerals
Hypocrystalline- minerals and glass
Holohyaline- 100 percent glass
Granularity
Grain size
Phaneritic- grains are visible with the unaided eye or with 1Ox magnification
Aphanitic- grains are not discernible with 1Ox magnification
(Glassy- does not consist of grains)
Grain equality
Equigranular- grains of main constituents are the same general size
(see Figure 1)
Porphyritic- large grains (phenocrysts) of one or more minerals that occur
in a matrix (groundmass) of the same mineral or other minerals or both
(see Figure 2)
Fabric- arrangement and interrelationships of constituent minerals
(see Figure 3)
Euhedral, idiomorphic, automorphic- all crystal faces developed
Subhedral , hypidiomorphic, hyautomorphic- some crystal faces developed
Anhedral , allotriomorphic, xenomorphic- no crystal faces developed
Crystal Faces A B c
all euhedral idiomorphic automorphic
some subhedral hypidiomorphic hyautomorphic
none anhedral allotriomorphic xenomorphic
A: Terms introduced by Cross et al. (1906) ; originally suggested for use in descriptions
of igneous rocks but now widely applied in descriptions of all kinds of rocks .
C: Terms introduced by Rohrbach ( 1885) ; used by many European geologists but sel -
dom used in America .
References
Cross, W., Iddings, J.P., Pirsson, L.V. , and Washington, H.S., 1906. The texture of igneous
rocks : J. Geol., v. 14, p. 692-707.
Rosenbusch , H., 1887. Mi;.roskopische Physiographie der Mineralien und Gesteine, Bd. 2.
Schweizerbart'sche Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart (E. Koch) , 877 p.
AGI DATA SHEET 23.1
Comparison Chart lor Estimating Percentage Composition
Prepared by Richard D. Terry and George V. Chllingar, Allen Hancock Foundation, Los
Angeles. Reprinted from Journal of Sedimentary Petrography, v. 25, n. 3, p. 229-234,
Sept. 1955.
1% 3% 7%
2% 5% 10%
AGI DATA SHEET 23.2
SUBJACENT MASSES
Subjacent masses have no known floor. They enlarge downward and apparently
merge into subjacent crust.
Abyssolith (A.A. Daly, 1933) A "bottomless mass" that hypothetically passes
downward into the "vitreous substratum."
Batholith* (E. Suess, 1885) A mass with no known bottom and an outcrop area of
greater than 40 square miles (100 km'). It is typically discordant but may be partly
concordant. Also spelled bathylith, batho/ite, batholyte, and batho/yth.
Boss A stock with a roughly circular outcrop area.
Stock* A mass with the characteristics of a batholith but with an outcrop area of less
than 40 square miles (100 km'). Depth of erosion may control naming a mass a
stock rather than a batholith.
INJECTED MASSES
Injected masses have all three dimensions known or inferred. A few petrologists
call these masses irruptive.
Akmolith (O.H. Erdmannsdorffer, 1923) A largely concordant mass, typically with many
apophyses, emplaced largely within the antiforms of decollements during folding.
Also spelled acmolith.
Apophysis* An irregular tongue-shaped mass, typically discordant, that is an off-
shoot from a larger intrusion. Also called tongue.
Asthenolith (B. Willis, 1938) A magma body formed by melting in response to heat
generated by radioactive disintegration. This can be either a subjacent or an in-
jected mass.
Bell-jar intrusion A bysmalith around which the adjacent strata have been domed
and fractured.
Bysmalith (J.P. Iddings, 1899) A roughly cylindrical, laccomorphic mass bounded by
faults.
Cactolith (C.B. Hunt et al., 1953) "A quasi-horizontal chonolith composed of
anastomosing ductoliths whose distal ends curl like a harpolith, thin like a
sphenolith, or bulge discordantly like an akmolith or ethmolith." (The compiler
presumes that this descriptio.n was made, at least in part, in jest and/or contempt.)
AGIDSrvd-1!9
AGI DATA SHEET 24.2
Chonolith (RA Daly, 1905) A "sack name" for any mass with a shape so irregular
that it cannot be called a dike, a sill, a laccolith, or other recognized body. Originally
spelled chonolite.
Dike A tabular mass discordant with either bedding or foliation of surrounding country
rocks. Some geologists, especially Europeans, apply the name only if the mass
is vertical or steep-dipping. Also spelled dyke.
Ring dikes and cone sheets have the overall configurations of walls of hollow
cylinders and hollow cones, respectively.
Ductolith A more or less horizontal igneous intrusion that is tear-drop shaped in cross
section.
Epiphysis An apophysis detached from its sovereign mass.
Ethmolith (W. Salomon, 1899) A discordant mass that is funnel-shaped in cross
section.
Globulith (A. Berthelsen, 1970) An intrusive mass or a group of spatially associated
masses with a globular or botryoidal shape and almost concordant contacts.
Harpolith (H. Cloos, 1921) A sickle-shaped mass: essentially a phacolith with aver-
tical or steeply plunging axis.
lnterformational sheet A tabular mass emplaced along an unconformity.
Laccolith (GK Gilbert, 1877) A concordant, floored. mushroom-shaped mass.
Originally called laccolite.
Lopollth (F. F. Grout, 1918) A large concordant, basin-shaped mass. The constituent
rocks are typically layered.
Phacolith (A. Harker, 1909) A concordant, lenticular (concavo-convex) mass em-
placed during the folding of surrounding country rock.
Pluton A general term for any igneous intrusion.
Ribbon injection A nail-sized sill, typically injected along a cleavage plane of a foliated
rock.
Sheet A general term for a tabular mass such as a dike, a sill, an interformational
sheet, or a sole injection.
Sill* A tabular mass concordant w1th the bedding or foliation of surrounding country
rock. Some geologists, especially Europeans, apply the name only if the mass is
horizontal or low-dipping.
Sole injection A tabular mass emplaced along a thrust-fault plane (zone).
Sphenolith (C. Burckhardt, 1906) A partly concordant, partly discordant mass that
pushed (wedged) the surrounding country rock aside, in some places overturning
the beds.
Stromatollth (J.C. Faye, 1916) A mass comprising tabular injections interfingered with
sedimentary strata.
Stromoconolith (S.I. Tomkeieff, 1961) A layered intrusion that is either conical or
funnel-shaped
Tongue See Apophysis.
TRANSITIONAL MASSES
Transitional masses bridge the gap between intrusive masses and volcanics. They
comprise both subsurface and supracrustal igneous rocks.
Diatreme A volcanic pipe consisting largely of breccia.
Neck* The mass that plugs the conduit of a former volcanic vent. The term is most
often applied to erosional remnants of such masses. Also called pipe or plug.
EXTRUSIVE MASSES
Extrusive masses are largely igneous and pyroclastic rocks that have formed at
or above the Earth's surface. Some geologists call these rocks eruptive.
Ash flow A deposit produced by gas-charged volcanic ash. Also called pyroclastic
flow.
Bedded volcano See Composite cone.
Bulbous dome See Lava dome.
Cinder cone A conical vent formed by the accumulation of cinders and other
vesicular ejecta, typically basaltic to andesitic in composition. Also called pyroclastic
cone.
Composite cone* A volcanic cone that consists of both lava flow and pyroclastic
materials. Also called strata-cone, stratovolcano, or less often, bedded volcano.
Cumulo-dome A seldom-used name for lava dome.
Fissure flow A lava flow formed as the result of an eruption from a fissure.
Lava cone A volcanic vent consisting largely of lava flow material. Also called shield
volcano.
Lava dome Another name for lava cone, especially one with a domical shape. Also
called bulbous dome.
Lava flow A mass of rock consolidated from lava that flowed from a volcanic vent
or fissure.
Maar* A low-relief explosion crater the walls of which consist largely or entirely of
loose fragments of country rock and possibly some magmatic ejecta. These ap-
parently volcanism-associated features are not, in the opinion of some geologists,
igneous in origin. Also called embryo volcano or explosion pit.
Plateau eruption An accumulation of successive lava flows that covers a vast area-
for example, a plateau basalt.
Pyroclastic cone See Cinder cone.
Pyroclastic flow See Ash flow.
Shield volcano A cone consisting wholly or largely of lava flow material. Also called
lava cone.
Strata-cone See Composite cone.
Stratovolcano See Composite cone.
Taphrolith (J.J. Sederholm, 1902) A trough-shaped mass at least part of which
flowed out along boundary faults into a trough or graben.
Volcanic cone A general term that includes cinder cones, lava cones and domes,
and composite (strata) cones.
Volcano A typically conical edifice, produced by extruded lava and/or pyroclastic
materials.
The following schematic diagrams show relations of a few of the masses de-
scribed: A, modified after R.G. Schmidt and H.R. Shaw (1971); B, redrawn after A.F.
Buddington (1929); C, based on descriptions.
Cinder
~Country
~Granite
~ ~Rock
AGI DATA SHEET 24.5
~Intruded
~~ Lopolith ~ country rock
References
Berthelsen, A., 1970, Globulith : A new type of intrusive structure, exemplified by
IT)etabasic bodies in the Moss Area, SE Norway: Norges Geologiske UndersrJkelse
(Arbok, 1969), no. 266, p. 70-83.
Buddington, A.F., 1929, Granite phacoliths and their contact zones in the Northwest
Adirondacks: New York State Museum Bulletin, no. 281, p. 51 -107.
Daly, A.A., 1933. 1gneous Rocks and the Depths of the Earth. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York.
Faye, J.C. , 1916, Are the " batholiths" of the Halliburton-Bancroft area, Ont., correctly
named?: J. Geol., v. 24, p. 783-791 .
Hunt, C.B., Averitt, P., and Miller, R.L., 1953, Geology and geography of the Henry
Mountains region, Utah: U.S. Gaol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 228.
Schmidt, R.G ., and Shaw, H. A., 1971, Atlas of Volcanic Phenomena : U.S. Geol. Surv. ,
20 sheets.
Tomkeieff, S.l., 1961, Alkalic ultrabasic rocks and carbonatites of the U.S.S.R.:
International Geology Review, v. 3, p. 739-758.
Willis, B., 1938, Asthenolith (melting spot) theory. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., v. 49, p. 603-614.
AGI DATA SHEET 25.1
Pyroclastic Sediments and Rocks
Richard V. Fisher, Department of Geological Sciences, University of California,
Santa Barbara
The term pyroclastic is commonly used to refer to volcanic materials ejected
from a volcanic vent. There are two main causes of explosive activity: (1) internal
gas expansion from within a magma body, and (2) magma-water interactions that
cause steam explosions. Type 1 activity produces particles known as pyroclasts;
type 2 activity produces hydroclasts. Volcaniclastic has a broader meaning and
applies to clastic deposits with particles of volcanic composition irrespective of
origin. Volcaniclastic particles are created in the following ways.
Pyroclastic particles (pyroclasts) form by disintegration of magma, as gases
are released by decompression and then ejected from a volcanic vent.
Hydroclasts form by magma-water interactions in two major ways. Explosive
fragmentation of magma and ejection through vents occur when magma and
water (such as ground water) come into contact and steam is generated in
confined spaces. Nonexplosive thermal contraction and granulation produces
particles when magma interacts with water in unconfined spaces.
Autoclastic fragments form by mechanical friction during movement of lava
and breakage of cool brittle outer margins, or gravity crumbling of spines and domes.
Alloclastic fragments form by disruption of pre-existing volcanic rocks by
igneous processes beneath the Earth's surface.
Reworking of the above fragment types by rivers, wind, turbidity currents, and
other agents results in reworked pyroclastic deposits.
Epiclasts are lithic clasts and minerals (usually silicates) released by ordinary
weathering processes from pre-existing consolidated rocks. Volcanic epiclasts are
clasts of volcanic composition derived from erosion of volcanoes or ancient
volcanic terrane with no volcanic edifice.
To interpret pyroclastic sediments and rocks, it is advisable to distinguish
between epiclasts and other volcaniclastic fragments so as to determine
contemporaneity of volcanism and sedimentation. Terms such as pyroclastic,
hydroclastic, and epiclastic also refer to the processes by which the fragments
originate. Thus, a pyroclast cannot be transformed into an epiclast merely by
reworking by water. wind, glacial action, etc. Recognizing the differences in these
materials and processes is important, because sediment supply rates commonly
differ by orders of magnitude between degrading ejecta piles and eroding
epiclastic terrains.
FRAGMENT NAMES
Blocks. Angular to subangular; cognate or accidental origin; size >64 mm.
Bombs. Fluidal shapes; shaped by aerodynamic drag of atmosphere on fluid clots
of lava; size >64 mm.
Spatter. Nearly molten bombs, usually basaltic, that readily weld upon impact to
form agglutinate.
Pumice. Highly vesicular glass; usually floats; commonly felsic; no size limitations.
Scoria. Less vesicular than pumice; sinks in water; more mafic than pumice; no
size limitations.
Accretionary lapil/i. Lapillus-size particles formed by concentric accretion of ash.
AGIDS!'I.'dB9
AGI DATA SHEET 25.2
l.AI'ILLI 75
PERCENTAGE OF l.AI'ILU AND ASH
COMPONENTS
AGI DATA SHEET 25.3
SOURCE OF FRAGMENTS
Essential (juvenile). Particles (crystal, lithic, vitric) derived from new magma.
Accessory (cognate). Particles derived from earlier eruptions at same
volcanic center.
Accidental. Particles of any origin or composition from rocks through which
the vent penetrates.
MANNER OF TRANSPORT
Pyroclastic fall. Particles derived from ejection of ballistic fragments and
eruption plumes that fall from the atmosphere onto land or into water.
0 (km')
F% is weight per cent of deposit finer than 1 mm along dispersal axis where
it is crossed by isopach line that is 10% of the maximum thickness (0.1 Tmaxl
isopach line. D is area of dispersal.
Eruptive
mechanism Pyroclastic flow Deposit Characteristic fragment
Epiclastic
TuHites (mixed (volcanic
pyroclastic and/or non- Clast size
Pyroclastic eplclastic) volcanic) limits(mm)
References
Cas, R.A.F., and Wright, J.V., 1987. Volcanic Rocks: Modem and Ancient. Allen
and Unwin, Winchester, Massachusetts, 528 p.
Heiken, G., and Wohletz, K.H., 1985. Volcanic Ash. University of California Press,
Berkeley, 246 p.
AGI DATA SHEET 26.1
Characteristics of Fallout
After Fisher and Schmincke, 1984
SUBAERIAL TEPHRA
Distribution (Fallout Pattern) and Thickness
Distribution is circular or fan-shaped (regular to irregular) with respect to source.
Secondary thickness maxima may occur far downwind.
There are flat wedges that systematically decrease in thickness along fan axes.
Some have displaced or multiple thickness maxima.
Thickness may be skewed to one side, perpendicular to fan axis.
Azimuth of fan axis may change with distance from source.
Apex of fan axis may not be on volcano (e.g., Mount St. Helens).
Structures
Plane parallel beds drape over gentle topography and minor surface irregularities.
Ash layers wedge out against steep slopes (> 35 or 40).
Laminations and thicker beds reflect compositional changes or textural changes;
either of these may cause overall color changes.
Minor lenticularity may occur close to source.
Grading may be normal or reverse in various combinations depending upon varia-
tions in wind and/or eruption energy. vent radius, or eruption column density.
Reverse grading in beds on cinder cones and on other steep slopes commonly
develops by downslope rolling or sliding of dry granular material.
Fabric in beds is typically isotropic because elongate fragments are uncommon.
Exceptions: phenocrysts such as biotite, amphibole, etc., and platy shards.
Bedding planes may be sharp if there are abrupt changes in eruptive conditions,
wind energy, or directions, or in composition.
Bedding planes are distinct if deposits are on weathered or erosional surfaces, or
on different rock types. They may be gradational if deposition is slow by small incre
ments so that bioturbation, wind reworking, or other soil-forming processes dominate.
Textures
Size and sorting parameters vary geometrically with distance to source. Spread of
values is greater in proximal areas than in distal areas.
Sorting: moderate to good. Inman sorting parameters, <T<j>, 1.0 to 2.0, are most
common. This applies to relatively coarse-grained as well as to fine-grained tephra.
Median diameter, Mdg,: highly variable; coarser close to source than farther away.
Mdq, IS commonly -1.0 to -3.0<h (2 mm to 8 mm) or smaller (phi values) close to
source. Farther from source, Mi::fd> may vary from O.Od> (1 mm) to 3.0q, ('/ mm) or
more.
Composition
Subaerial tephra composition is mafic to silicic, calc-alkaline to alkaline, etc. Silicic
or intermediate fallout is more widespread than mafic fallout because of usually
greater explosivity and volume of the eruptions.
Intermediate composition is commonly associated with large composite volcanoes.
Mafic composition is commonly associated with cinder cones and extensive lava
flows.
Bulk composition generally becomes slightly more silicic away from source due to
eolian fractionation.
Rock Associations and Facies
Close to source (within vent or on steep volcano slopes): lava flows, pyroclastic
flows. domes, pyroclastic tuff breccias. avalanche deposits, and debris flows.
Intermediate distance to source: coarse-grained tephra, some lava flows, pyroclas
tic flows, ash falls, and reworked fluvial deposits The coarser-grained pyroclastic
deposits gradually decrease, and reworked pyroclastic deposits gradually increase
away from source.
Far from source: airfall tephra, most easily recognized in marshy, lacustrine, wind
blown environments. Rock associations depend on environment of deposition There
are no related lava flows or coarse-grained volcaniclastics.
AGI-DS-...,_Il9
AGI DATA SHEET 26.2
SUBAQUEOUS TEPHRA
Distribution and Thickness
Distribution of airfall pattern may be modified by water currents -most often to
an irregular fan shape close to source. Distribution tends to become thicker toward
source but may be highly irregular.
Thickness of single layers is commonly < 50 em unless augmented by currents
in low places. Thick layers with many thin laminae may be multiple fall units.
Structures
Plane parallel beds extend over hundreds of km2. Normal grading is from crystal
and lithicrich bases to shard-rich tops.
Basal contacts are sharp; upper contacts diffuse due to reworking by burrowing
animals.
Structures may be inversely graded if pumice is present. Presence of abundant
pumice suggests restricted circulation and is more common in lacustrine than in
marine environments.
Structures on land-based outcrops may include post-depositional thickening,
thinning, and flow structures, especially if diagenetically altered, or they may include
water-escape structures and load or slump structures.
Textures
Size and sorting parameters vary irregularly with distance from source but over-
all, size tends to decrease.
Sorting: good to poor depending upon amount of bioturbation. Inman sorting
parameters, (J <b generally > 1.0"' and < 2.5!1>.
Median diameter, Mdq,: commonly > 3.0q,- fine-grained sand size and smaller.
Composition
Subaqueous tephra compositions range from mafic to silicic, with silicic ash
most widespread.
Composition is generally related to composition of nearest volcanic sources.
The Si02 content of glass shards may range 10 per cent within a single layer.
Bulk samples are more Si0 2-rich near top than bottom of single layers because
ot grading.
Ancient layers in terrestrial geologic settings are typically altered to clays (domi-
nantly montmorillonite) and zeolites and are commonly known as bentonite (ton-
stein in Europe).
Rock Associations and Facies
Tephra is commonly interbedded with pelagic calcareous or siliceous oozes, or
with terrigenous muds and silts depending upon proximity to land. Terrigenous
materials are commonly turbidites.
Ancient tephra layers on land are commonly interbedded with non-volcanic or
tuffaceous shale or siltstone.
Reference
Fisher, R.V., and Schmincke. H.-U., 1984. Pyroclastic Rocks. Springer-Verlag, New
York, 472 p.
_____._........_ il:'tl
Oiil
:rJ"CC
'tiiD
5i
r-a-
~
n
I
::I
0
-
::r
UJ
... 0
:I
m-
LAV.O. DOME CRATER ROW CINDER CONE TUFF CONE TUFF RING :I
FISSURE VENT SCORI.O. CONE :i l>
PUMICE CONE !!! ~
PYROCLASTIC CONES-
~
c;
c
:I ~
Schematic profiles (vertically exaggerated-2:1 shaded and 4:1 dark) from the data of R.J. Pike en
(1978, Proc. 9th Lunar Planet. Sci. Cont., p. 3239-3273). Shapes and relative sizes are only J:
m
approximate, as dimensions vary within each group. Illustration from Smithsonian publication !!I
Volcanoes of th8 World, 1981, Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa., 240 pp. More volcano data !\)
appears on Data Sheets 84.1-84.4. ~
VEl 6
5~ IL__:~~~----~(H~IG~H~LY~E=X~PL~O~S~I~VE:l
60 II FATAL
______JIIIIIIIII.. 111111111111 ,rm
)(
)>
E2
0
0
<~
en
.....
VEl 5
.... 5~ I =i en
L---~--------~-----
18 II FATAL
< ::E:
m
Vl:::> <
m -1m
zo
Oa< VEl A :II N
en .....
5~ I
--------~-----
~C)
31 !1 FATAL c: ;.,
en
=>>- m
....0<1--> 50
L__
VEl_3_ _. . . . :II
,
c:
______...._________
ll !I fATAL
0;;; " -1
g 5z
Z"-
0~ s; I
VE I 2 z-1
-----------~---
Jll FATAL
m
~J: :II
ou
.... -t ;;r
VEl I
O"" s~ I 2!1 FATAL
::::!
VEl 0 (NON-EXPLOSIVE)
5~ I l !1 FATAL
-----
0
- INTERVAL
------L-------------
10
BETWEEN ERUPTIONS
100
(YEARS)
1000 10,000
Increased explosivity occurs with longer eruption intervals. Data for histograms are from 4320 historic eruptions in which the time
interval from the start of the previous eruption is known. These are grouped by Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEl, see Data Sheet
84.2). For each group, the percentage of historic eruptions that have caused fatalities is also shown. Illustration from Smithsonian
publication Volcanoes of the World, 1981, Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa., 240 pp.
AGI DATA SHEET 28.1
Graph for Determining the Size of Sedimentary Particles
Data Sheet Committee, aided by George v. Chlllngar
DARK PARTICLES
I
d.= 10 mm d. = 15 mm
Place sand grains or rock particles in the central part of the circle. Compare the size of the par
ticles with those on the graph with the aid of a magnifying glass. Record the corresponding
number (1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 8) in notebook. For samples with particles of varying sizes, record the
most common size first .
Note: A comparator is available to make size comparisons in the field and laboratory
from Edmund Scientific Company, Barrington , New Jersey .
AGI Os-&5
AGI DATA SHEET 28.2
LIGHT PARTICLES
References: (1) George V. Chilingar, 1956, Soviet classification of sedimentary particles and
Vasil'evskiy graph: AAPG Bull., v. 40, no. 7. p. 1714. (2) M.S. Shvetsov, 1948, Petrography of
sedimentary rocks, 2nd ed. , 387 p. Gosgeolizdat, MoscowLeningrad
AGI DATA SHEET 29.1
Grain-size Scales
By Roy L. Ingram, University of North Carolina
GRAINSIZE SCALE USED BY AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS
Modified Wentworth Scale - after Lane, et al., 1947, Trans. American Geophysical
Union, v. 28, p. 936-938
AGIDS,....d-82
AGI DATA SHEET 29.2
GRAINSIZE SCALE USED BY ENGINEERS
(A.S.T.M. Standards D422-6_3_;D_64_3_-_78-'-)_ _ __
GRADE Ll MITS GRADE NAME
Boulders
305 12.0
Cobbles
76.2 3.0 3.0 in.~---
Gravel
4.75 0.19-- No.4
coarse
2.00 0.08 No. 10
medium Sand
0.425 No.40
fine
-0.074 No. 200
Silt
0.005 .. ~-~~---------
Gravel
2.0 0.08 No. 10 ~-
very coarse
1.0 0.04 No. 18
coarse
0.500- No.35
medium Sand
0.250- No.60
tine
0.100- No. 140
very fine
0.050 No.270
Silt
--0.002
AGI DATA SHEET 29.3
This sheet showing both sphericity and roundness suggests that particle shapes that
initially break out or weather from parent rocks tend to be either discoidal, rodlike
(prismatic), or spheroidal. It further suggests that as the particles are reduced in size by
abrasion and/or chemical weathering they tend to assume more nearly spherical
shapes. This , of course, is not invariably true, but it is the evolutionary process to be ex
peeled.
The chart below incorporates median rho values for roundness and sphericity, as sug-
gested by Folk (1955), because of the ease of handling these values statistically, and be
cause they represent midpoints of each roundness and sphericity class. After determining
frequency and cumulative percents for roundness and sphericity classes, each may be plot-
ted as histograms or as cumulative curves on probability paper. Such plots give a visual
reference for samples under examination and afford an opportunity to carry out statistical
nrocedures.
AGI-OS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 30.2
This chart has the following advantages over other charts such as the one given on
the 1953 AGI Data Sheet:
1. Most sedimentary particles between sand and cobble size will appear similar to
one of the particles illustrated.
2. When a "match" or near match has been found, the investigator has simultaneously
determined the roundness, the sphericity, and the general shape term that describe
the particle.
3. ~~~u~r~~~s:,f,s~~~f~~~ ~~a~ ~~~~~~~s~na~~t ~hr::~f~~~ig~~b~~~Ys~~~~r~~h~~rrr;:l~tf~~:
~~Wer?ci~~~i~s ~~~h ~~~e~~et~~~S:S ~s~~:~~~~)Pdc:fs~ ~~~d~o~fsi~~ud~~~b~t~nd
11 1
Dobkins, J.E., and Folk, R.L, 1970, Shape development on Tahiti-nul: J. Sediment. Pet., v.
40, p. 1156-1203.
Doyle, LJ., Carder, KL, and Steward, R.G., 1983, The hydraulic equivalence of mica: J.
Sediment. Pet., v. 53, p. 643-648.
Els, B.G., 1988, Pebble morphology of an ancient conglomerate: the Middelvlei gold plac
er, Witwatersrand, South Africa: J. Sediment. Pet., v. 58, p. 894-901.
Folk, A.L., 1955, Student operator error in determination of roundness, sphericity and grain
size: J. Sediment. Pet., v. 25, p. 297-301.
Komar, P.D., Baba, J., and Cui. B., 1984, Grain-size analyses of mica within sediments and
the hydraulic equivalence of mica and quartz: J. Sediment. Pet., v. 54, p. 13791391.
Krumbein, W.C., 1941, Measurements and geologic significance of shape and roundness
of sedimentary particles: J. Sediment. Pet., v. 11, p. 64-72.
Landon, R.E., 1930, An analysis of beach pebble abrasion and transportation: J. Geol., v.
38, p. 437-446.
AGI DATA SHEET 30.3
McBride, E.F., and Picard, M.D., 1987, Downstream changes in sand composition, round-
ness, and gravel size in a shan-headed, high gradient stream, Nonhwest Italy: J. Sediment.
Pet, v. 57, p. 1018-1026.
Powers, M.C., 1953, A new roundness scale for sedimentary panicles: J. Sediment. Pet., v.
23, p. 117-119.
Sneed, E.D., and Folk, R.L, 1958, Pebbles in the lower Colorado River, Texas, a study in
panicle morphogenesis: J. Geol., v. 66, p. 114-150
Visher, G.S., 1969, Grain size distributions and depositional processes: J. Sediment. Pet., v.
39, p.1074-1106.
Waag, C.J., and Ogren, D.E., 1984, Shape evolution and fabric in a boulder beach, Monu-
ment Cove, Maine: J. Sediment. Per., v. 54, p. 98-102.
AGI DATA SHEET 31.1
Descriptive Terms for Megascopic Appearances of Rock
and Particle Surfaces
Compiled by Meurice C. Powers, Elizabeth Cily State University
[Most definitions are slightly revised versions of those in the A.G.I. '"Glossary of
Geology" (2nd ed.)]
Burnished surface-Megascopically indistinguishable from polished and some var-
nished surfaces. Polished surfaces are marked by extremely fine scratches formed
by surface abrasion whereas burnished surfaces result from more nearly random
removal of multi-molecular sized pieces to form a nearly flat surface.
Chattermark-One of a series of small, closely spaced, short curved scars or cracks
~:Jrn~fo~~:=~~e~r~~P~~~eo~f~f~\~c~~~ brittle rock surface by rock fragments car
Crescentic gouge-A crescentic mark in the form of a groove or channel with a some-
what rounded bottom; it is formed by the removal of rock material from between two
fractures; it is concave toward the direction from which the ice moved (i.e., its
"horns" point in the direction of ice movement).
Desert varnish-A thin dark shiny film or coating, composed of iron oxide commonly
accompanied by traces of manganese oxide and silica, formed on the surfaces of
pebbles, boulders, and other rock fragments in, for example, desert regions after
long exposure. It is believed to be caused by exudation of mineralized solutions from
within and deposition by evaporation on the surface. A similar appearance produced
by wind abrasion is known as desert polish. Syn: desert patina; desert lacquer; desert
crust; desert rind; varnish.
"'
"'
N ~~
Oci
j!!U
;:;u
~~
0~
.,E
.5 ~
~Li:
~~
~6
Cllii\
~-~
-~LL
g~
.g~
~t_
0~
~g
~~
u;v-
'i:ll
~.._.~
~
(3
~j
.,t:~
"'"'
"' ~~
u; ~~
0
"0
c:O
.,,_
"'
"'"'0
lg
0
~~
~ 0.5
~-:::
~~
-~a
::;_
~~
-u
a:l<u
~~
<:>
~
o"'
<t::::l:
wacke
Names for Sandstones, Based an Composition. To name a rock: (1) determine the amounts a! the Yariaus
mineral and rock grains, (2) sum these amounts into the three groups shown at the earners af the triangle,
and {3) using the proportions between the groups. estimate a point in the triangle. A poorly sorted sand-
stone with equal amounts of quartz, feldspar, and slate grains. far example. would fall at point x (a
lithic, feldspathic wacke). Other detrital minerals that farm mare than 10 percent of the sand may be
used as adjectives in the name, as biatitic. From a diagram supplied by C. M. Gilbert.
Sandy M~ddy
congwmerate conglomerate
or brecc1a or brecc1a
calcilutite calcirudite
biosparite
intramicrite
(:;~;
b1om1cnte
micrite
~~ ~lif~.
dismicrite
~
AUTOCHTHONOUS
REEF ROCKS
Ooliths
~ oosparite
biolithite
Pellets
pelsparite pelmicrite
AGI-DS-jtd-82
AGI DATA SHEET 33.2
CLASSIFICATION OF LIMESTONES ACCORDING TO DEPOSITIONAL TEXTURE
Modified after R. J. Dunham, 1962.
(With permission of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists.)
Depositional
Depositional Texture Recognizable Texture Not
Recognizable
Original
components
were bound
Original components were not bound together together during
during deposition deposition
Contains mud J Lacks mud
Mud-supported Grain-supported
I
Less than 10, More than 10
percent grains percent grains
MUDSTONE WACKESTONE PACKSTONE I GRAINSTONE BOUNDSTONE
g~~~gNL.!-+~~
Particles of clay and fine silt size .
b To be subdivided according to classifications designed to bear on physical texture or diagenesis.
~ [\~~;!-~~
mudstone wackestone
boundstone crystalline
carbonate
The fine stipple represents mud matrix
References
Dunham, A. J ., 1962. Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture. In
Classification of carbonate rocks, W. E. Ham (ed.), 108-21. Amer. Assoc . Petrol. Geol. Mem. 1.
Folk, A. L., 1959. Practical petrographic classification of limestones. Amer. Assoc . Petroi.Geol.
Bull. 43, 1-38.
Greensmith, J. T., 1978. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks (Sixth Edition), p. 124-132. London:
George Allen & Unwin.
AGI DATA SHEET 34.1
Descriptive Classification of Metamorphic Rocks*
by Robert R. Compton, Stanford University
In this binomial system for naming metamorphic rocks, the main rock name is based on
~~dW;:~~e ndu~hs~ ~sc~~ a~~tW;.f~~rt~P!~~i~tm~~ a~ 9~~~i~;~o~~~;;i~~s ~~~n~~~~~dT~
6 1
names are meant to be applied on a descriptive basis; a schistose rock, for example,
should not be called a hornfels just because it Is found in a contact aureole.
TEXTURES
Schistose-grains platy or elongate and oriented parallel or subparalleL Foliated (lepidoblastic) if
fabric is planar, 1/neated (nematoblastic) if linear.
Granoblastlc-grains approximately equldlmenslonal; platy and linear grains oriented randomly or
so subordinate that foliation is not developed.
ROCK NAMES
SCHISTOSE ROCKS
Schist-grains can be seen without using a microscope.
Phyllite-all (or almost all) grains of groundmass are microscopic, but cleavage surfaces have
sheen caused by reflections from platy or linear minerals; commonly corrugated.
Slate-grains are microscopic; very cleavable; surfaces dull; tougher than shale and cleavage com
manly oblique to bedding.
Phyllonlte-appearance like phyllite but formed by cataclasis (see mylonite) and recrystallization
commonly of coarser-grained rocks, as Indicated by relict rock slices, slip folds, and
porphyroclasts.
GRANOBLASTIC ROCKS
Granulite or granofels-granoblastlc rocks, Irrespective of mineral composition; because granulite
can connote special compositions and conditions of origin, granolels may be preferred.
Quartzite, marble, and amphibolite-compositional names that generally connote granoblastic
texture; exceptions should be modified for clarity, as schistose quartzite or plagioclase horn
b!ende schist
Tactile (skarn)- heterogeneous calc-silicate metasomatic rocks of uneven grain. Common usage
implies a contact metasomatic origin.
HORNFELSIC ROCKS
All called hornfels, or, if relict features are clear, hornfelsic may be used with the original rock
name (as hom/elsie andesite).
be distributed evenly through the rock or may be concentrated locally so that some layers or
lenses are granoblastic or schistose (banded gneiss).
Modified after Data Sheet 27,1965, which was condensed from Manual of field geology, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962
AGI DATA SHEET 34.2
CATACLASTIC ROCKS
Mylonite- foliated, lineated rock. commonly with ribbons of quanz and lenticular porphyroclasts.
A metamorphic facies has been defined (Turner, 1968) as: a set of metamorphic mineral
assemblages, repeatedly associated in space and time, such that there is a constant and
therefore predictable relation between mineral composition and chemical composition." Points
to note are (1) the concept is petrographic, or field-oriented, (2) any one facies encompasses
all possible rock compositions, (3) facies are not defined in terms of pressure and temperature,
nor in terms of mode of occurrence, (4) facies are defined in terms of sets of mineral assem-
blages, ideally set out in a sequence of (triangular) paragenetic diagrams, showing changing
mineral compatibilities across the facies boundaries.
of~fssb~~:g~~~f~c~ii~~~~~s~t:~co;po~~~~=c~~i~~~~~?!~~~~~~~e~~:v:;~,l~~~=.n~~~:~
more, few metamorphic rocks can be satisfactorily depicted in triangular, three-eomponent
(for example, ACF) diagrams, or in projection onto triangular diagrams.
The accompanying tables show the characteristic mineral assemblages for eight widely
recognized metamorphic facies, keyed to bulk rock composition. For each facies, the upper
row gives the typical mineral assemblage, and the lower row ( ) lists possible additional min-
erals. Minerals in the latter may not necessarily occur throughout the facies, may be restricted
to fairly specific bulk compositions, and may be incompatible with others in the list. For exam-
ple, kaolinite and paragonite occur In highly aluminous petites in the zeolite facies, and should
not be accompanied by Kfeldspar. Rocks of basic (basaltic) composition provide the assem-
blage diagnostic of each facies (capitalized), with the possible exception of the sanidinite facies.
Assemblages in other bulk compositions may, in a few cases, be diagnostic of a specific facies,
for example, staurolite+ muscovite+ quartz (amphibolite facies). Individual minerals seldom
serve this purpose; for example, neither glaucophane nor lawsonite is restricted to the blueschist
facies. Accessory minerals have only been included where they are specifically known to char-
acterize a metamorphic facies.
The inferred pressure-temperature relationships of the faci~;~s are based on a combination
of field observations and experimental reversals of reactions. Although most of these reaction
boundaries are a function of PH,o in addition to Pso~ids and T, it appears in practice that there
is a sufficiently close relationship between the two pressure terms lor the metamorphic facies
to be interpreted in terms of Piithostatic and T. Possible exceptions, notably the granulite and
eclogite facies, are still a subject of debate among petrologists.
Reference
Turner, F. J. (1968) Metamorphic Petrology, Mineralogical and Field Aspects, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 403 p.
>
Facies Pelitic Basic Ultrabaslc ~
c
~
illite+ phengite +chlorite+ CA-ZEOLITE +CHLORITE+ lizardite + chrysotile + brucite+
quat'lz QUARTZ+ ALBITE magnetite+ chlorite
Zeolite (/.1
kaolinite, paragonite, prehnite, analcime, adularia, carbonate ::r::
pumpellyite m
m
....
phe ngite +chlorite + PREHNITE or ACTINOLITE+ lizardite + chrysotile +magnetite !.)
quar1z PUMPELLYITE+ ALBITE+ + brucite+ chlorite Cll
CHLORITE+ QUARTZ
;.,
Prel>nlle-pumpettylle/
Pumpellyite-actinolite
pyrophyllite, paragonite, lawsonite, stilpnomelane antigorite, carbonate, talc,
K-feldspar, stilpnomelane, diopside
hematite, lawsonite
muscovite (or phengite) + calcite+ dolomite+ quartz CHLORITE+ EPIDOTE+ antigorite+ chlorite+
chlorite+ albite+ quartz ALBITE +calcite diopside + m agnelite
Greenschist
chloritoid, biotite, K- talc, actinolite. K-feldspar actinolite (or hornblende), olivine, brucite,
feldspar, spessantne, biotite carbonate, talc
stilpnomelane, paragonite
(sJa}aWOI!>t) .ndaa
It)
It)
0
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0
'lit ,., ,
In 0 It)
N
0
N !!! 2 It) 0
0
I I I I I I I
' I I I
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--
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c
-
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0
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r- \
c
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en
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0
- 0
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0
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-'
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- \ 0
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-
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I I I J I I . 0
2
N 0
AGI DATA SHEET 36.1
And Classification Of Soils
Roy W. Simonson
DEFINITION: Soil is a natural, historical body with an internal organization reflected in
the profile and its horizons, consisting of weathered rock materials and organic matter
with the former usually predominant, and formed as a continuum at the land surface
largely within the rooting zones of plants.
HYPOTHETICAL SOIL PROFILE:
with notations for master horizons
pre-1980 current
nomenclatura nomenclatura
j
01 loose leaves and organic debris, largely undecomposed.
Oe Organic debris, partially decomposed.
A dark-colored horizon of mixed mineral and organic
A matter and with much biological activity.
A light-colored horizon of maximum eluviatlon; promi-
A2 nent In some soils but absent In others.
Transitional to B but more like A (or E) than B; may be
EB absent.
Transitional to A (or E) but more like B than A (or E);
BE may be absent.
Maximum accumulation of silicate clay minerals or of
82 sesQuloxides and or~anlc matter; maximum expression
of blocky or prismatic structure; or both.
~
BC Transitional to C but more like B than C; may be absent.
Weathered parent material, occasionally absent; forma
c tion of horizons may follow weathering so closely that
the A or B horizon rests on consolidated rock.
layer of consolidated rock beneath the soil.
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM: The system is described, and classes in the upper lour
categories are defined in U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 436 (1 975). Guides
are also included for defining classes in the tilth category (families). Changes since
1 975 are recorded in Soil Management Support Services Monograph 6, "Keys to Soil
Taxonomy: (Soil Management Support Services are in the Soil Conservation Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.)
The system consists of six categories. They are listed in descending sequence with
approximate numbers of classes in each (as of 1988): orders (1 0). suborders (50), great
groups (250), subgroups (1 ,550), families (5,500), and series (12,000). Numbers of fam-
Ilies and series are for the United States only.
The nomenclature of the system is systematic except for the series category. The
name of each class identifies the category to which it belongs. The name of each class
from families to orders identifies all parent classes of higher rank. Thus, the name of
each family includes all or parts of the names of the parent subgroup, great group, sub-
order, and order.
Names of soil groups used In the past-e.g., laterite, latentic soil, podzol, and cher-
nozem-are not used in the system. The term laterite has been restricted to sesquiox-
ide-rich materials that are hard or that harden upon exposure when they are wet and
then dry. Names such as podzols and chernozems and the phrase lateritic soils were
used for assortments of soils that are now classified under other orders of the system.
Further information about the classification system is given on Data Sheets 36.3
and 36.4.
AGI DATA SHEET 36.2
SOIL HORIZON DESIGNATIONS
Roy W. Simonson. Principal source is Guthrie and Witty, Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
J., v. 46, p. 443, 1982.
A. Capital letters, lowercase letters, and Arabic numerals are all used to form hori
zon designations. In addition, prime notations are used to make some distinctions.
1. Capital letters, singly or in pairs, identify master horizons, shown in the
hypothetical soil profile on Data Sheet 36.1.
2. Lowercase letters are used as suffixes with the capital letters to indicate
subordinate features of master horizons.
3. Arabic numerals are used in two ways: First, they are used as suffixes to
indicate vertical subdivisions of horizons. Second, they are used as pre-
fixes with the capital letters to indicate lithologic discontinuities within
profiles.
4. Prime notations are used to distinguish two or more horizons within a pro-
file that are separated by another horizon but have the same designation.
When two separated horizons have the same designation, the prime
notation is used for the deeper one, e.g., E and E'. If three separated hori
zons have the same designation, a double prime is used for the deepest
one, e.g., E, E', and E".
Examples of the names of great groups are Natriborolls for cold Mollisols
with natric horizons high in sodium in North Dakota and Ouartzipsamments for
sandy soils high in quartz in Florida.
Examples of the names of subdivisions of a soil order in progressively
lower categor1es for the Mohave series of the southwestern United States are
the following: Aridisol, Argid, Haplargid, Typic Haplargid, fine-loamy, mixed,
thermic Typic Haplargid, and Mohave series. Aridisols constitute the great bulk
of soils in the deserts of the world.
AGI DATA SHEET 37.1
percent sand
Names and sizes of classes of soil separates or "fine earth" fo rming ba ses for
texture determinations.
0
w
z ~
< "'
<..9d ~
O:Cil
~5l
0:
< ~
0
u
*
E
~ ell
~ 5
u
@
z
<
0:
(.9
uJ
z
u:
NOTES:
1. Boundary Classification: Soils possessing characteristics of two groups are designated by com-
binations of group symbols. For example. GW-GC. well-graded gravel-sand mixture with clay binder
2. All sieve s1zes on this chart are U.S. Standard.
3. The terms "silt" and "clay: are used respectively to distinguish materials exhibiting tower plasticity
from those With higher plast1c1ty. Tne minus no. 200 s1eve material Is s1lt 1f the liquid 11m it and plast1c1ty
index plot below the "A" line on the plasticity chart (next page), and Is clay lithe liquid limit and plasticity
index plot above the "A" line on the chan.
4. For a complete description of the Unified Soil Classification System. see "Technical Memorandum
No. 3-3.57," prepared tor Office, Chief of Engineers, by Waterways Equipment Station, Vicksburg. Mis
s1ssipp1, March 1953 (See also Data Sheet 29.)
AGI-OS-rvd82
AGI DATA SHEET 39.1
Outline for Environmental Impact Statements
Revised after O.B. Jorgenson, Las Vegas, Nevada
(Adapted from guidelines prepared by NEPA, HUD, and James A. Roberts Associates, Inc., Sacramento,
California. Summarized in: Burchell, R. W., and Listokin, 0., 1975: The Environmer.tallmpact Hand-
boo!<. Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, New Jersey.)
NOTE: Different lists might be prepared, but they should include the following:
I. Proposed project (e.g., construction, park site, mineral exploration, or development)
A. Purpose of project
B. Status of project
C. Location
D. Ownership and legal description of area and site
II. Current environment of area and site
A. Physical features and processes
1. Materials (e.g., water, soil, surficial rocks)
2. Processes (e.g., erosion, mass-wasting)
3. Rate and recurrence of processes
4. Topography and geomorphology
B. Vegefalion and biota
C. Wetlands (location, shape, and size)
D. Social or cultural characteristics
E. Archaeological features
F. Aesthetic nature
Ill. lmpacf of the environment on:
A. The project and its design
B. Project's inhabitants
C. Project's users
IV. Impact of proposed project on environment
A. The natural environment
1. Is the project controversial?
2. In what ways might it alter the patterns of behavior for mammals?
for fish? for amphibians? for reptiles? lor insects?
3. In what ways might it a~er the breedin~. nesting, or feeding grounds of birds?
4. How might the project affect existing b1ota and vegetation?
5. In what ways might it change water or air?
6. How might the water table be affected in the area?
7. How might the stability of the soils or the geology of the area be affected?
B. The cultural environment
1. Will the project produce changes in traffic?
2. Will it affect the aesthetics of the area?
3. Will it divide or disrupt existing land uses?
4. Will it affect current recreational uses?
5. Will it affect areas of unique interest or beauty, including those relating to geology,
paleontology, archaeology, anthropology, or history?
V Alternatives to the proposed action
A. Possibility of restricted or reduced development and construction
B. Use of alternative development or construction
C. Possibility of construction on another site
D. Other alternatives
VI. Anticipated adverse environmental effects, if any
A. Adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided within the proposed plan
B. Those which could be avoided by adopting alternative actions
C. Those which could not be avoided by any alternative actions
D. Those which will be avoided by choosing the recommended action
E. Actions taken by developer to mitigate environmental damage
VII. Description of relationship between short-term and long-term uses of the environment
A. Effects during construction
B. Short-term impacts
C. Long-term impacts
VIII. Description of irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources which would be made
if proposal were implemented
Name - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - D a t e - - - - - - - -
Professional A f f i l i a t i o n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
License or Certification
AGIOS~r m1-B9
AGI DATA SHEET 40.1
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Qualifications of writer
Nama ol proper!)', origin and purpose of report, and lima spent on survey
Conclusion
Recommendations
Signature and certification
PROPERTY
Name of properly and principal ore
Mining area or district
County and state
Old name or names
OWNERSHIP AND HISTORY
Operator lessee and address
Present owner or owners and addresses
Status of title: history of claims, how ownad, stock ownership, corporate structure, etc.
Previous owners
Past mining methods
Record of production
LOCATION
Latitude and longitude
Magnetic declination
'lo section. section, township, range, base. and meridian
Natural landmarks
Distances to shipping points, power lines
Name of and distance to nearest town
Type of claim; map of claims (A) (Use bar scales on all maps)
GENERAL INFORMATION
Geography, topography, relief, elevation, climate, rainfall, snowfall, length of open season
Water: supply, right, disposal problems
Labor: supply, unionization, taxes
Literature references, bibliography
List of previous repons, maps, shipping records, assay records, etc.
Names and address of informants
Photographs of property (B)
GEOLOGY (with par1icul11r attention to the features that bear on the deposit)
Map of areal geology and structure (C)
(Somettmes combined with developmenl map)
General
Hand-lens description of rock outcrops and wall rocks
Percentage of outcrops versus overburden
Topographic relations
Geologic age and stratigraphic position of rocks
Rock specimens (D)
Stratigraphic, long, t;md cross-sections (E)
Structures (note kind, attitude, spacing, and relationship to ore)
Formational or intrusive contacts, unconformities, relationships
Bedrock structures (bedding, jointing, and cleavage, etc.)
Faults and fault systems
Lodes
Altitude, shape and size of vein, lode, blanket, bed, altered zone, etc.
Kind, size, and amount of minerals in wall rock, gangues, and ore
Localization of ore and possoble causes
Classification (i.e .. primary, secondary, replaced; relationships)
Assay values; assay map (F), ore specimens or samples (G)
Placer, quarry, pot
~r~~ ~~~~~~!\~t, hillside, etc.)
Shape
Areal extent
Depth to bedrock
Thickness of overburden
Composition & size range of gravels
Presence of clay, boulders, etc.
Value per yard
Distribution of values
A.G!-OS-rmi-69
AGI DATA SHEET 40.2
NAME of examiner _ _ _ _ __
DATE of examination:_
Seismic intensity is a measure of the local disturbance caused by the shaking of an earth
quake. Seismic intensity differs from earthquake magnitude in that the strength of seismic shak-
ing differs from place to place, whereas magnitude is an absolute measure of the size of the
earthquake. Seismic-intensity studies indicate the geographic pattern of the earthquake dis
turbance (isoseismal maps) and the relation of the shaking to local or regional geologic con-
ditions.
The seismic-intensity rating is estimated from the amount of disturbance and local damage
~~=r~~~~ee~~7~~~~;:eai~~~f~,~e~~~~n~~~~~;~~fes~e~~~~~~~ ~~~a~fh~~!~:
may be misplaced as indicators of strength of shaking, particularly the ground failure effects
(Nason and Espinosa, 1977).
Intensity investigations should focus on accurate description of the earthquake disturbances
studied, so that accurate intensity ratings can be assigned later. The following compilation
lists most of the common effects of earthquake shaking.
Many seismic-intensity scales have been constructed and used in different parts of the world,
Wood (1911) describes early intensity scales and Barash (1969) lists different modern scales.
The 12-level Modified Mercalli (MM) scale of Wood and Neumann (1931) and Richter (1958)
is widely used in the United States and is similar to the scales used elsewhere in the wol1d
(except in Japan). Richter's (1958) version of the MM scale is listed here, with asterisks to mark
criteria that may be misleading as indicators of shaking.
References
Barosh, PJ., 1969, Use of seismic intensrty data to predict the effects of earthquakes and under-
ground nuclear explosions in various geologic settings: U.S. Geological Survey, Bull. 1279, 93 p.
Nason, R., 1982, Seismic Intensity studies in the Imperial Valley: in The Imperial Valley. Califoniia,
earthquake of October 15, 1979, U.S. Geologrcal Survey, Prof. Paper 1254
Nason, R .. and Espinosa, A.F., 1977, Proposed revision of the Modified Mercalli intensity scale (abs.)
Geol. Soc. Amer. Abstr., V. 9, n. 4, p. 473
Richter, C. F, 1958, Elementary seismology: W.H. Freeman Co., San Francisco, 738 p.
Wood. H 0 , 1911, The observalion of earthquakes: Seismol. Soc. Amer. Bull., v, 1, p 46-62
Woo<!, H.O, and Neumann, F.. 1931. Modified Mercalli intensity scale of 1931; Seismol. Soc. Amer
Bull.. v. 21, p 277-283.
AGI DATA SHEET 41.2
SEISMIC EFFECTS LIST
A. Description of shaking
Felt by: few, many, most, or all persons.
Felt outdoors: sitting only, standing, moving.
Felt indoors: sining only, standing, moving; on ground floor, upper floors, tall buildings only.
Type of shaking: weak, strong; rolling, sharp, episodic; what duration, what direction.
Disturbance of people
Sleepers awakened: none, few, many, most, all; beds moved, people thrown out of bed.
People standing: no problem, diHiculties, fall down.
Animals standing: no problem, difficulties, fall down.
People effects: nausea, dizziness, uncertainty.
Noises
Ground noises: none, rumbling, sharp (what direction).
Building noises: none, some, much (type of building).
Other noises: windows, doors, dishes, trees.
Other disturbances
Trees shaken, bent, branches/trunk broken.
Liquids moved, thrown from container.
Ringing of large/small bells.
Overhead wires vibrate, tighten, break.
Waves seen in ground: size, shape, direction, speed.
B. Disturbances In houses (type of building)
Small objects: unmoved, rocked, shifted, fallen; some, many.
Kitchen objects: unmoved, rocked, shifted, fallen.
Books on shelves: unmoved, shifted, fallen.
Fumhure
Light furniture: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Heavy furniture: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Tall objects: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Heavy appliances: unmoved, shifted (how much), broken (type).
Type of floor: carpet, wood, linoleum, cement.
Other
Hanging lamps: unmoved, swing, hit ceiling.
Hanging pictures: unmoved, shifted, turned, fallen.
Pendulum clocks: unchanged, stopped, started, lost time.
Water spilt: fish tanks, toilet tanks.
C. Disturbances in stores
Items fallen, shelves shifted.
Type of store, type of floor.
Furniture stores (small, medium, large, warehouse)
Shelf items: unmoved, shifted (how much), fallen (how many).
Tall items: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Heavy furniture: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned
Type of floor: carpet, linoleum, wood, concrete.
Food stores (small, large, supermarket)
Fall of shelf items: none, some, many, aisles blocked; wall shelves, central shelves.
Central shelves: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Bookstores, libraries (ground floor, upper floor)
Books: unmoved, shifted, fall (direction of shelves).
Shelves: unmoved, shifted, collapsed (anchored?).
AGI DATA SHEET 41.3
D. Building damage
Type: house, store, factory; one-story, multi-story; wood, brick, stone (type), concrete, adobe,
other.
Age: pre-1900, pre-1935, pre-1965, post-1965.
Damage: none, some, twisted, tilted, fallen walls, collapsed.
Brick/masonry walls: uncracked, cracked, fallen (how much); parapet, upper wall below para-
pet, whole wall.
Chimneys: uncracked, cracked, shifted, bricks thrown, fallen.
Foundation damage: slab, wall, pillar; concrete, brick, wood; no damage, cracked, shifted,
(how much), overturned.
Inside plaster: uncracked, cracked, fissured, fallen.
Outside plaster/stucco: uncracked, cracked, fallan.
House or store windows: uncracked, cracked, broken.
Root tiles: unmoved, shifted, fallen.
Air cooler: unmoved, shifted/rotated, fallen.
E. Other disturbances
Factory smokestacks: cracked, shifted, top fallen, fallen.
Heavy machinery: shifted, anchors broken, overturned.
Statues, cemetery monuments: unmoved, shifted/rotated, fallen; none, lew, many, most, all.
Water tanks: unmoved, shifted, fallen; water spilt; ground level, elevated, type of support, size.
Outdoor walls: loose stone, shaped stone, brick, concrete; undamaged, cracked, shifted, fal-
len (how much).
Parked cars: unmoved, rocked, shifted, rolled.
Moving cars: shaking not noticed, like flat tire, hard to control.
Railroad engines/cars (s1anding/moving): rolled, overturned.
F. Ground disturbance
Type of ground: rock, soil, clay/mud, wet/dry; level, sloped, cut-slope, fill, valley bonom.
Cracks: none, small, large (what size), ground shifted; panern, relation to topography.
Landslides: slight, minor, major (what size).
Rockfalls: single rock, many rocks (about how many).
River banks shifted; river bonom uplifted.
Fault cracks: primary, secondary, amount of offset.
Liquefaction effects: fountains, sand boils, land spreading.
Ground senlement: wavy surface, irregularities, grabens.
Escape of gas: flow, odor, flame.
Boulder movement in soil: deformed soil, shifted position, thrown.
Railroad tracks: straight, bent (how much), senled.
Streets/highways: cracked, broken-up, shifted, senled.
Underground pipes: size, type; leak, broken, shifted.
Bridges: twisted, compressed, piers shifted, span fallen.
Water springs: changed flow, dried-up, muddied, temperature change.
Water wells: changed flow, muddied, sanded, collapsed.
Dust rises:from fractures, from ground.
G. Distant effects
Oscillation of lakes, canals, rivers.
Changes in springs, water wells.
Motion of hanging objects.
Nausea, dizziness of people.
H. Aftershock information
Number, time, description of disturbance.
AGI DATA SHEET 41.4
MODIFIED MERCALLI SEISMIC INTENSITY SCALE
From Richter, 1958
FAULTS
Position: Map as accurately as possible_ Show dip.
Displacement: Normal, reverse, right- or left-slip. or combination?
Measure slip (magnitude and direction) at intervals along fault. II separation is mea-
sured, record enough data so that slip can be calculated. Give opinion as to whether
the series of measured slips probably includes the largest that occurred anywhere
on the fault
Identify measurement locations and remeasure displacements later to detect alterslip_
Note evidence of compression or extension.
Is apparent displacement distorted by horizontal or vertical drag or elastic rebound?
Measure change in displacement with increase of distance from fault.
Record length, orientation, and number of fractures within rupture zone.
Measure width of fractured or distorted zone at intervals along fault.
Material: Rock or unconsolidated deposit? Describe.
Effect of movement on material: gouge, breccia, slickensides, mylonite, other?
Relation to: Topographic features? Older fault? Zone of alteration?
Other faults of same age to form en echelon or other pattern. or horst and graben?
Cracks, pressure ridges, furrows, etc.?
Have strong or weak rock masses deflected trace of fault?
SCARPS
Position: Show on map and indicate upthrown side.
Record height of scarp; also vertical component of fault movement if possible.
Attitude: Record dip of scarp lace and, it exposed, of related fault_
Change in dip related to different material cut?
Relation to: Topography? Other scarps? Graben at their base? Earthquake fault, other fault, or
landslide?
Origin: Faulting, landsliding, lurching, liquefaction, compaction, other?
Elfects on: Drainage, streams, shorelines, structures, others?
FISSURES
Position: Map. If too numerous, record spacing, pattern, and orientatiOn. Relation to steep
slopes, faults, or landslides?
Dimensions: Width? length?
Attitude: Dip of walls? Relative movement of wails?
Material: Rock, sand, silt, or clay? At surlace; at depth? In place?
Origin: Faulting, landsliding, lurching, liquefaction, compaction, other?
Enlarged by runoff?
Time of opening relative to earthquake and rainfall?
AGI DS-rmt-82
AGI DATA SHEET 42.2
~~~~------~----------~----------~---
DISTORTION OF LINEAR OR PLANAR ELEMENTS
Position: Show on map; give amount.
Kind: Horizontal or vertical?
Related to drag, elastic rebound, or other processes?
Material: Rock or unconsolidated deposits? Kind? In place?
Ellects: Mole tracks and pressure ridges; relation to active fault?
Uplift, submergence, or tilting of shore lines? Amount?
Diverted, ponded, or distorted drainage?
Decreased slope stability causing slides, turbidity currents?
Deformation of artificial structures?
LANDSLIDES (includes rockfalls)
Position: Show location and size on map. Show scarps, slide mass, direction of movemant.
Relation to earthquake fault, other faults, older landslide?
Attitude: Inclination and orientation of original slope; of sliding surface?
Material: Rock or unconsolidated deposit? Kind? Wet or dry? Springs?
Are cohesive deposits soft or stiff?
Are noncohesive deposits loose or -:lense?
Thickness of slide material?
Movement: Amount?
By falling, toppling, flowing, spreading, sliding, or combination?
Broken into few or many parts? Did parts rotate? Time of movement relative to earth-
quakes?
Kind: Use classification of Transportation Research Board (Varnes, t978).
Effects: Production of scarps and fissures?
Diversion or damming of drainage? Production of waves in water?
Trees down or tilted? Other effects?
SUBSIDENCES
Position: Show amount and areal limits on map.
Material: Unconsolidated deposit or rock? Describe in same detail as for landslides.
Kind: Warp caused by tectonics, compaction, liquefaction, or other process?
Graben? Collapsed cavern? Lateral or vertical flow of underlying material?
Effects on: Surface, topography, drainage, etc?
Shorelines? Water table and springs? Artificial structures?
DISCHARGES OF WATER AND UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS
Position: Show on map by appropriate symbols.
Kind: Sand boil, sand mound, mud volcano, clastic dike, spring?
Earthquake fountains observed? Time relative to earthquake?
Height, duration, and time of How relative to strong shaking?
Material: Sand, silt, clay; water; other?
G1ve dimensions and grain sizes of deposits.
Source of material? Depth to source?
Relation to: Area of subsidence? Compaction? Trace of fault?
Changed water levels in wells? Changed or new springs?
MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS
Tsunamis, Location of shores affected and direction of wave movement?
Seiches, Height reached? Time of arrival? Number and periodicity of waves?
and Local Modification of landforms?
Waves: Transported objects: material, size, weight, distance moved?
Streams and Record changes in discharge, turbidity, temperature, etc. and relate to t1me of earth
Springs: quake.
Turbidity Starting time relative to main or subsequent eanhquakes?
currents: Size, speed, distance travelled?
Material and topographic setting at source; at site at deposition?
Position of source relative to earthquake fault or epicenter?
Boulders: Nests enlarged by rocking? Chipped by mutual impact? Thrown from nest? Rolled
from nest? Direction of movement? Boulder trails? Give size range of boulders that
moved vs. those that did not.
Trees: Record location, size, and direction of fall or tilt of trees affected by earthquake.
Glaciers: Advance, retreat, or no change? Note large avalanches onto glaciers.
Volcanic Describe, if seemingly related to the earthquake.
activity:
Reference
Varnes, D. J., 1978. Slope movement types and processes, In Schuster, R. L, and Krizak, R. J .. eds.
Landslides, analysis and control: National Research Council, Transportation Research Board Special
Report 176, p. 11-33.
AGI DATA SHEET 43.1
Checklist for Earthquake Effects
devised by Kart Steinbrugge
More complete checklists are in "Learning from Earthquakes," Oakland, California, Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute, 1977, 200p.
Type of etructure or I n s t a l l a t i o n : _ - - - - - - - -
Location; _ _ _ _ __
Date of i n s p e c t i o n : - - - - - -
AGI-DS-jtd-B9
AGI DATA SHEET 44.2
References
Directory of Geoscience Departments, 1989. American Geological Institute, Alexan-
dria, Virginia. 384 p. Updated annually.
Directory of geoscience organizations: Geotimes, October 1989, p. 16-25. American
Geological Institute, Alexandria, Virginia. Updated annually. Each issue includes a
column on new geologic maps.
Episodes, quarterly publication of the International Union of Geological Sciences
(lUGS). Address inquiries to Editor, P.O. Box 919, Herndon, Virginia 22070. Episodes
lists lUGS member countries and publishes a column on geologic maps available
from other countries.
Guide to Obtaining USGS Information, Kurt Dodd et al., compilers: U.S. Geo/. Surv.
Circ. 900, 34 p., 1989.
AGI DATA SHEET 45.1
State and Provincial Geological Maps
STATE GEOLOGICAL MAPS
AGIDSitd89
AGI DATA SHEET 45.2
Puerto Rica Provisional Geologic Map of Puerto Rico & 1964 240,000
Adjacent Islands. USGS Map 1-392
NOTE: For other general state maps, see Data Sheet 45.4.
AGI DATA SHEET 45.3
NOTE: Many other kinds of state and provincial maps (topographiC, geophysical, satellite image,
geothermal resources, mineral resources, etc.) are available. Contact the pertinent federal, state or
provincial survey for information. See Data Sheets 44 and 46
AGI DATA SHEET 45.4
Set of 12 maps shows geology, underlying structure, stratigraphic columns, and block diagrams
and includes a discussion of evolution of terrain. Scale is approximately 2,000.000. Each map is fold-
ed to a handy pocket size.
Texas 1973
Alaska-Hawaii 1974
AGI DATA SHEET 46.1
Map and Aerial Photograph Coverage of the United States
Compiled by David D. Ginsburg, Central Michigan University
MAPS
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SERIES
CHARTS
Nautical charts o,ooo to 1: 600,000
1: 1
See also Thompson, M., 1988. Maps for America, 3rd ed. U.S. Geological Survey,
Reston. Virginia. Makower. J., 1986. The Map Catalog: Every Kind of Map and
Chart on Earth and Even Some Above ft. Vintage Books and Modern Library
(Random House), New York.
AGI DATA SHEET 47.1
Bibliographies, Indexes, and Abstracts
Compiled by David D. Ginsburg, Central Michigan University
Most of these bibliographies, indexes, and abstracts are also accessible
online for computerized searching, although in some cases the online database
may include only the last few years. Most notable is the GeoRef database, pro
duced by the American Geological Institute and available online through three
worldwide search services: DIALOG, Maxwell Online, and STN. In Canada, the
GeoRef database is also available through CAN/OLE.
The GeoRef database includes records from the full files of the Bibliography
of North American Geology (17851970), the Bibliography and Index of Geology
Exclusive of North America (1933-1968), the Bibliography and Index of Geology
(1969-), as well as other sources. Consult your librarian for further information.
Abstracts of North American Geology. U.S. Geological Survey, 1966-1971. For-
merly Geological Abstracts (1953-1958) and GeoScience Abstracts (1959-
1966).
Annotated Bibliography of Economic Geology. Economic Geology Publishing Co.,
1928-1965.
Applied Science and Technology Index. H.W. Wilson Co., 1958-. Monthly with
annual cumulations.
Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts, Part 2: Ocean Technology, Policy and
Non-living Resources. Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 1971-. Monthly.
Astronomy and Astrophysics Abstracts. Springer-Verlag, 1969-. Semiannually.
Bibliography and Index of Geology. Geological Society of America and American
Geological Institute, 1969-1978. American Geological Institute, 1979-. Month-
ly with annual cumulations.
Bibliography and Index of Geology Exclusive of North America. Geological Soci-
ety of America, 1933-1968. Continued by Bibliography and Index of Geology.
Bibliography and Index of Micropaleontology. American Museum of Natural Histo-
ry, 1972-. Monthly with annual indexes.
Bibliography of North American Geology. U.S. Geological Survey, 1732-1970.
Issued in the U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin series. See below for publica-
tion details. Continued by Bibliography and Index of Geology.
Publication details of Bibliography of North American Geology
Years U.S.G.S. Year of
covered Title Bulletin number publication
1732-1891 Catalog and lnde~ of Contributions to 127 1896
North American Geology
1785-1918 Geologic Literature on North America
Part 1: Bibliography 746 1923
Part II: Index 747 1924
1919-1928 823 1931
1929-1939 937 1944
1940-1949 1049 (2 vols.) 1957
1950-1959 1195 (4 vols.) 1965
1960 1196 1964
1961 1197 1965
1962 1232 1966
1963 1233 1968
1964 1234 1966
1965 1235 1969
1966 1266 1970
1967 1267 1970
1968 1268 1971
1969 1269 1972
1970 1370 1973
AGJ-DS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 47.2
Notes
Some professional journals, e.g., Economic Geology and Gems and Gemology,
have abstracts of current articles of interest.
See also Ward. D.C.; Wheeler, M.W.; and Bier, RA Geologic Reference Sources,
Scarecrow Press, 1981.
AGI DATA SHEET 48.1
Classifications of
This data sheet has been compiled to help those who now and then visit unfamiliar libraries
mainly to browse. It should not be considered a substitute lor any library's card catalog or for
directions one might get from, for example, a reference librarian. In most libraries, periodicals
are classified under Library of Congress or Dewey Decimal systems. In some libraries, periodi-
cals are incorporated in the book collection; in others, they are housed separately.
The following lists give many of the more appropriate designations in the 1) Library of Con-
gress Classification, 2) Dewey Decimal system, and 3) U.S. Superintendent of Documents
Classification. Attention is also directed to Data Sheet 47. "Bibliographies. Indexes, and
Abstracts."
1) LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION:
G 1000-3100 Atlases
3190-9980 Maps-generally housed separately
GB Physical Geography
400-649 Geomorphology
651-2998 Hydrology
651-2400 Ground and surface waters
2401-2598 Glaciers
5000-5030 Natural disasters
GC Oceanography
83-87.6 Submarine topography
377-399 Marine sediments
1000-1023 Marine resources
0 Science
QA Mathematics
76-76.8 Computer science
QB Astronomy
275-343 Geodesy
981-991 Cosmology
QC Physics
170-197 Atomic physics
310.15-319 Thermodynamics
350-467 Optics
450-467 Spectroscopy
770-798 Nuclear physics
794.95-798 Radioactivity
801-809 Geophysics
811-849 Geomagnetism
851-999 Meteorology, Climatology
QD Chemistry
450-731 Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
901-999 Crystallography
QE GEOLOGY
1-350 General geology
351-399.2 Mineralogy (including meteorites and tektites)
420-499 Petrology
500-625 Dynamic and structural geology
515-551 515-516 Geochemistry
521-545 Volcanoes and earthquakes
640-699 Stratigraphy
701-996.5 Paleontology (including paleobotany)
761-899 Paleozoology
Sl UNIT PREFIXES
1
Pretlx Symbol Multiplication factor
18
E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 10
p 15
peta 1 000 000 000 000 000 10
kilo 1 000 10 3
hecto 100 2
10
deka da 10 10
deci 0.1 10''
AG1DS-jtd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 50.1
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is on the right. The expanded portion of the spectrum
that includes visible light is on the left; the ranges of wavelengths are indicated for each
color.
10
39ooA
Newton's seven
primary colors
(Wavelength limits)
4460 4500
Indigo
4640
Blue
5000 5000
Q)
Green
1- 5500
E~
Dl(f)
=u
5760
Q)
~-g
<!)
~
Yellow
5920 - 6000
(J) ttl iii
Orange 1- >~ 10 5 s
<!)
6200
0,
cQ)
1- 6500
~ttl
:s:
I
Red
- 7000
SHORT
RADIO WAVES
- 7500 10>0
nooA
BROADCAST BAND
I
r10"
AGI DATA SHEET 51.1
Measurement Conversions
ENGLISH TO METRIC
Known
cubic teet per second (ft3/s) 28.3161 cubic decimeters per {dm3/s)
second ( = liters per second)
cubic feet per minute (ft3/min) 0.47195 liters per second (1/s)
(=7.48 gall min)
gallons per minute (gat/min) 0.06309 liters per second (lis)
barrels per day (bblld) 0.00184 liters per second (lis)
(petro~E~um -1 obi= 42 gal)
AGIDS!\<d-89
AGI DATA SHEET 51.2
PRESSURE
pound (force)
per square inch (lb-flin2) kilopascal (kPa)
(=PSI) 6.8948 }
(1 Pascal= Lf'.leWll:ln
atm>Jsphere (atm) 101.325 m2
(=14.6960 PSI=1.01325 bars)
=~~~ec2)
bar 100.0
_( = 14.5038 PSI= 0.9869 al_rTJL_
TEMPERATURE---------
Additional conversions may be found, for example, in the annual editions of the Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics and on Data Sheets 53 and 54.
inches 1 2 3
ll'jll1"'" 1 11
111~ 111 1 ' 11
I I I
I I
I
em
J
2 3
I I
4 5 6 7 8
AGI DATA SHEET 51.3
METRIC TO ENGLISH
LENGTH
micron (IL) 3.9370 inches (in or")
( = 10,000 Angstrom units) X 10-5
PRESSURE
kilopascal (kPa) pound (force) per square (lb-f/in 2)
ir1ch (=PSI)
( 1 Pascal= 1 Newtor1 ::::69 atmosphere (aim)
m' - ( = 14.6960 PSI)
{
=kg m/sec') 0.01 bar
m' (:'~~38 PSI) -~
TEMPERATURE
temperature, degrees (DC) 9/5 (then temperature, degrees (OF)
Celsius add 32) Fahrer1heit
temperature Kelvirl (K) 9/5 (therl temperature, degrees (oF)
subtract Fahrenheit
45967
temperature Kelvin (K) subtract temperaiure, degrees ("C)
273.15 Celsius
THERMAL GRADIENT
1"c11 oo m = o.55F/1 oo ft = 29F/mi
CRUDE OIL VOLUME PER METRIC TON
Degrees Specific Barrels per
API gravity metric ton*
26 0.898 7.02
28 0.887 7.10
30 0.876 7.19
32 0.865 7.28
34 0.855 7.37
36 0.845 7.46
38 0.835 7.55
40 0.825 7.64
42 0.816 7.73
Note: Approximate figures 60F.
*Interpolate linearly for intermediate API's.
Additional conversions may be found, for example, in the annual editions of the Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics and on Data Sheets 53 and 54.
em 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TROY WEIGHT
1 Grain (gr) = 0.0020833 ounces (oz t.) 0.0648 grams (g)
24 Grams (gr) = 1 pennyweight (dwl) 1.5552 grams
20 Pennyweights = 1 ounce (oz t.) 31.1035 grams
12 Ounces (troy)(\) 1 pound (lb t) 373.2417 grams
1 Pound (troy) (t.) 0.622857 pounds avoirdupois
1 Ounce (troy)(!.) 1.09714 ounces avoirdupois
TO CONVERT
Pennyweight to Grams Pennyweight x 1.5552 ~Grams
Ounces (1.) to Grams: Ounces (I) x 31.1 035 =Grams
Grams to Pennyweights Grams x 0.6430 Pennyweights
Grams to Dunces (L) Grams x 0.0322 Dunces (I)
AGI-DS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 52.2
~t.)}
BRILLIANT: Averaoe Drameler 2 x Oeplh x .0062
n
!r;;
\J
Nole : Add rength and wrdlh . diirde sum by 2 IO determme 'Average Drameler"
olanoval slone
.q;
lhead1uslmenttactor used mlhelollowinglormulaslsbasedonthe length to wrdlh
ra 110 ot the dramond For eample. a stone w1lh a length of 9.00 mrlhmeters and
a wrdth ol6.00 mllhmelers would have a lenglh IOwrdlh ralro ol 1.50:1
Adtustmenl Lengthto.W1dth
__iillQ_r_ __R_alr_o_
EMERAlO CUT LengthxWrdthxOeplh .008 1.00:1.00
.0092 1.50:1.00
0
MARQUISE CUT Lenglh Wrdth x Depth x
.010
.0106
.00565
2.00:t.OO
2.50:1.00
1.50:1.00
.0058 2.00:1.00
0
PEAR SHAPE Lenglh x W1dlh x Oeplh x
.00585
.00595
.006 15
2.50:1.00
3.00:1.00
1.25: 1.00
~ .0060 1.50:1.00
.0059 1.66:1.00
~f .00575 2.00:1.00
All formulas are based on slones w1th mediUm grr dles. Ad1us1 werghr as follo ws tor
s1onesw1thth1Ckergrrdles
Shght1yTh1ck add2%
lh1ckto Exlremelylh1ck add41ol0%
A tO% correctron rs rare
1 mile per hr 1.467 It per sec 1 It ol head, fresh water 0.433 lb per sq in, pressure
1 mile per hr 68 It per min 1 lb per sq in, pressure 2.31 It of head, fresh water
1 It per sec 0.662 mile per hr 1 meter of head, lresh water 1.42 lb per sq in, pressure
1 It per min 0.0114 mile per hr 1 lb per sq in, pressure 0.704 meter of head
1 It per sec 0.3048 meter per sec 1 atmosphere (m.s.l.) 33.907 It of water
1 meter per sec 3.281 II per sec
Weight
-----------------------------------
1 cubic II of fresh water 62.41b 28.3 kg
1 cubic It of sea water 64.11b 29.1 kg
1 cubic meter of fresh water 1000 kg 1 metric ton
Rates of Flow
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------- ------
1 cubic ft per sec 448.83 U.S. gallons per min = 646,317 U.S. gallons per day .026317 cu meter per sec
1 cubic It per min 7.4805 U.S. gallons per min = 10,772 U.S. gallons per day .00047195 cu meter per sec
1 U.S. gallon per min 0.002228 cubic It per sec 0.13368 cubic It per min 1440 U.S. gallons per day =
.000063090 cu meter per sec
1 U.S. gallon per day .000093 cubic It per min .0006944 U.S. gallon per min
1 cubic ft per sec 1.9835 acrefl per day 723.97 acre-fl per year
1 acre-It per day 0.~17 cubic It per sec 36
~.~~~1 /c~~Jte~~r day
1 .014276 cu meter per sec
1 acre-It per year 0_00138 cubic It per sec
1 inch per hr on 1 acre 1 cubic It per sec (approx.)
1 inch per hr on 1 sq mi 645.33 cubic It per sec
Miner's Inch is a rate of discharge that has been fixed by statute in most of the western states:
1 cubic It per sec 50 miner's in (Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota)
1 cubic It per sec 40 miner's in (Arizona, California, Montana, Oregon)
1 cubic It per sec 38.4 miner's in (Colorado)
1 miner's inch .02 cubic It per sac (Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota)
1 miner's inch .025 cubic It per sec (Arizona, California, Montana, Oregon)
1 miner's inch .026 cubic It per sec (Colorado)
AGI DATA SHEET 54.1
Tables
Compiled by Judith L. Pluenneke
Reference
Energy Reference Handbook, Second Edition, Government Institutes, Inc., 1977
AGI DATA SHEET 55.1
Glossary of Statistical Terms Used in Geology
J.J. Connor, U.S. Geological Survey and D. F. Merriam, Wichita State University
Most of this list is based on terms appearing in the Glossary of Geology (1972, 1980,
1987), and is given here for quick reference by interested readers. The list is intended pri-
marily as a dictionary aid in the perusal of the geostatistical literature by readers unfamiliar
with or inexperienced in statistics. The list contains principally univariate terms, but some of
the more common multivariate terms are also given. Where appropriate, conventional sta-
tistical symbols are given in brackets following some of the terms. In this symbology, Greek
letters represent for the most part parameters (or summary properties) of a population, and
Roman letters represent statistics, which are estimates of the parameters. For mathemati-
cal definitions or equations, and descriptions of usage, the interested reader should consult
the following texts, all written by geological scientists for use in geological studies. The text
by Davis is a particularly good introduction to multivariate analysis; the text by Clark is a
particularly good introduction to the field of geostatistics.
Cheaney, R.F., 1983. Statistical Methods in Geology. George Allen and Unwin, Lon-
don, 169 p.
Clark, 1., 1979. Practical Geostatistics. Applied Science Publ., Ltd., London, 129 p.
Cubitt, J.M., and Henley, S., 1978. Statistical Analysis in Geology. Dowden, Hutchin-
son and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, 340 p.
Davis, J.C., 1983. Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology, 2nd ed. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 646 p.
Koch, G.S., Jr., and Link, R.F., 1970. Statistical Analysis of Geological Data, Vol. 1.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 375 p.
Koch, G.S., Jr., and Link, R.F., 1971. Statistical Analysis of Geological Data, Vol. 2.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 438 p.
Krumbein, W.C., and Graybill, FA, 1965. An Introduction to Statistical Models in Geol-
ogy. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 475 p.
Marsal, D., 1987. Statistics for Geoscientists. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 176 p.
Till, R., 1974. Statisticaf Methods for the Earth Scientist, An Introduction. John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 153 p.
AGIDS-NdB9
AGI DATA SHEET 55.2
two variables simultaneously (see Mult1vanate Dispersion The scatter of values about a mean
analysis) (see Standard deviation)
Harmonic mean see Mean. Mode [Mol The value, or range of va lues. that
occurs with the greatest frequency in a set of
Histogram A bar-graph representation ot a fre- data (see Bimodal distnbut1on, Polymodal dis-
quency distribution in which-the height of the tnbutlon) .
bars 1s proportional to the number of items
within a specified range of an observed Moments [!-', m] The expected values of the
variable . powers of a variable. all but the f1rst of which
are measured about the mean (the first mo-
Kriging A procedure used to produce the ment of a population IS the mean and the sec-
least-biased ("best") estimate of an ond is the variance).
unknown value at a given location.
Multiple correlation coefficient see Correlation
Kurtosis [g2 ] A measure of the peakedness of coefficient.
a frequency distribution; a distribution is Lep-
tokurtic if it is more peaked than a normal dis- Multivariate analysis Statistical examination
tribution, and Platykurtic ifflatter of three or more variables simultaneously.
Least squares method A method for fitting lines Nonparametric statistics Stati stics for which
or surfa ces to data such that the sum of squares no underly1ng frequency distribution is as-
of the distances between the points and the sumed .
line (surface) is minimized.
Normal distribution (also, Gaussian distribution)
Leptok.urtic distribution see Kurtosis. The most commonly assumed frequency dis-
tribution in geostatistical analysis: it is con-
Linear regression analysis see Regression tinuous, symmetrical, and bell-shaped.
analysis.
Null hypothesis [H 0 l Commonly, an assump-
Lognormal distribution A cont inuous fre - tion that two (sometimes more) population pa-
quency distribution which , if expressed on rameters are equal.
a logarithm iC scale. becomes a normal
distribution. Parameter A descnptive property, such as the
mean or variance, characteristic of a given
Markov chain A stochastic process which di- population or theoret1cal frequency distnbu-
vides a set of data into a fin1te number of states tion
through time or space and examines the tran-
sitions between each successive state to de- Parametric statistics Statistics for which some
termine if the probability of going from one underlying frequency distribution is assumed
state to another is greater or less than that pre-
dicted by chance alone: commonly used in ex- Platykurtic distribution see Kurtosis.
amining stratigraphiC sequences for cycles or
"memory." Poisson distribution A discrete frequency dis-
tribution used to describe the occurrences of
Mathematical model A set of formal rules, rare events; in th1s d1stnbution the mean is
commonly mathematica l equations, which de- equal to the variance (in fact, all moments of
fine re la tion s among variables; a Dete~ mims the di stribution are identica l)
tic model is one in which the relations are
completely predi ctable; a Stochastic model IS Polymodal distribution A frequen cy distnbu-
one in which the relat1ons are more or less un- tion with more than two modes
pr!ictable due to the presence of one or more
random vartables 1n the model. Polynomial model A mathematical equation in
wh1ch one variable is related to a sum of
Mean An average, defined in various ways; the weighted powers of other vanables; common ly
Anthmetic mean [1-',x,m] IS the sum of the used in trend-surfa ce analysis
data values divided by their number, n: the
Geometric mean [GM] is the antilog of the Population ll all poss1ble values of a variable;
arithmetic mean of the logarithms of the data commonly , geological popu lations are as-
values; the Harmonic mean [H] is the recipro- sumed to exh1bit normal, lognormal, binomial
cal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of or Poisson frequency distributions; 2) an in-
the data va lues (see Med1an, Model. ventory or count of 1tems from whi ch a sample
is drawn.
Median [Md] The value of the middle item in a
set of ranked data ; 1f the number of 1tems is Power In stat1st1cal test1ng. the probability of
even, the median is the arithmetic mean of the rejecting a hypothesis when it is false ; defined
two middle 1tems
AGI DATA SHEET 55.4
Regression analysis A procedure in which the Sum of squares [SS] The sum of squared
relation of a given (dependent) variable to one deviations.
or more predictor (independent) variables is
examined (see Trend-surface analysis); com- Trend-surface analysis A procedure in which a
monly, only one predictor variable is involved mathematically defined surface of any re-
and the relation defined is that of a straight line quired complexity is fitted to a set of spatially
(Linear regression analysis). distributed data.
Significance level [a] 1) the probability of a Variance lo->, S2 ] 1) the sum of squares of a
value or event occurring by chance; 2) the data set divided by the degrees of freedom; 2)
probability of committing a Type I error sometimes loosely used as the total variability
(which see). of a multivariate data set.
AGI DATA SHEET 56.1
Periodic Table of the Elements
Comments by R.V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University
The periodic table presents the chemical elements in sequence according to their atomic
numbers. It is organized into horizontal tiers called periods and vertical columns called groups.
Elements included in the same periods differ from each other in a systematic way from one
end to the other of their tier. From left to right, their outer shells are progressively filled with
additional electrons until the outer shell that is characteristic of the period is filled to its capa-
city, giving the appropriate noble gas element.
Elements included in a group are commonly termed congeners because they have similar
physical and chemical properties. For elements in the ~A" groups, the outermost shells con-
tain electrons equal to the Roman-number group designation- for example, each of the elements
in group IIA (i.e., the elements with atomic numbers 4, 12, 20, 38, 56, and 88) has two elec-
trons in its outermost shell.
Ions for elements in groups lA, IIA, and lilA are positively charged and are called cations. Ions
tor elements in groups VA, VIA, and VIlA are negatively charged and are called anions.
Elements in the groups on the left side and in the central part of the table are metals; their
characteristic properties include metallic luster, malleability, and high electrical and thermal
conductivity. Elements in the groups on the right side are nonmetals; their properties are rather
variable and unlike those characteristic of metals. Elements with intermediate properties are
generally referred to as metalloids. Included are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, anti-
mony, and tellurium from groups lilA, IVA, VA, and VIA. As the location of these transition
elements suggests, the metallic properties are most pronounced for elements in the lower left
corner of the table and the nonmetallic properties are most pronounced for elements in the
upper right corner (omitting, of course, the noble gases).
The groups are frequently named and briefly described as follows:
Group lA, the alkali metals soft light metals; most strongly electropositive, highly reactive.
Group IIA, the alkaline-earth metals - harder, heavier metals; strongly electropositive; reac-
tive; easily form oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, sulfates, etc.
Gr~~~~~~~~~ea~~r~~~::luf~;~u~s:o~~des~oron is metalloid whereas aluminum and its other
Group IVA, the carbon-silicon group silicon and germanium are metalloids; tin and lead are
metals; carbon plays a role in the organic world similar to that played by silica in the inorganic
world.
Group VA, the nitrogen or phosphorus group- a mixed group in which nitrogen and phos-
phorus are nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is generally con-
sidered to be a metal.
Group VIA, the oxygen (or chalcogen) group - oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals;
tellurium and polonium are generally considered to be metalloids.
Group VIlA, the halogen group nonmetallic; most strongly electronegative; highly reactive.
Group VIllA, the noble gases chemically inert; form very few compounds.
Groups IB through VIIB and VIII, the transition metals - each of these groups, which constitute
the central portions of the long periods of the table, has one of eight rather complex sets of
chemical properties.
The lanthanides (formerly lanthanoids) plus lanthanum and yttrium, and sometimes scandium,
are rather widely referred to as rare earths or rare earth metals.
The actinides (formerly actinoids) and actinium are radioactive elements sometimes referred
to as the uranium metals. The transuranium man-made elements are included.
To date, 91 elements have been recorded from natural occurrences on earth. Technetium
(43), promethium {61), and the transuranium elements except for plutonium (94) have not been
found.
For additional information, special attention is directed to the annually updated "Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics."
AGI-DS-rvd-82
key J:lo
GROUP ~
Atomic number VIllA c
lA
~
r---
sr..~~j~l
1 'i"'""-
H He UJ
1.001
3 4
IIA 1
I 5
lilA
I
IVA
7
VA
I
VIA
I
VIlA 4.G03
10
:::t
m
m
Li Be
6.939 9.012
B c N 0
10.111 12.011 14.007 15.991 11.111 20.113
F Ne
-t
U1
0'1
N
11 12 13 14 15 11 17 11
Na Mg
22.991 24.312 1118 IVB VB VIB VIIB ,--VIII~
GROUP
18 liB
AI Si p s
26.112 21.016 30.174 32.014 35.453 31.141
Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 21 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 31
K Ca Sc Ti v CrFe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Mn
39.102 40.08
37 31 39 ...
44.956 47.90 50.942 51.996
41 ....42 43
54.131 55.147 51.133 51.71
45 41
83.54 15.37 61.72
47 41 41
72.51
50
74.122 71.18
!11 52
71.101 13.10
53 54
Rb Sr y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
15.47 17.12
55
Cs
58
Ba
11.905 91.22
57
La
72
12.106 15.94
73 74 75
(II)
Hf Ta w Re Os lr Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
101.07 102.905 108.4 107.170 112.40 114.12 11e.n 121.75 127.10 121.104 131.30
76 77 71 71 10 11 12 13 14 15 ..
..
132.105
17
Fr Ra Ac
137.34 131.11 17'1.41 110.141 113.15
5
111.2 190.2 192.2 115.01 111.117 200.51 204.37 207.11 20I.IICI (210) (210) (222)
Th
232.03~
Pa (231)
U Np
(237)
231.03
Pu Am Cm
(242) (243) (247)
Bk
(247)
Cf
(241)
Es
(254)
Fm
(253)
Md No
(251) (254)
Lw
(257)
AGI DATA SHEET 57.1
Abundance of Elements
---------------------------------------
from Brian Mason and Carleton B. Moore, Principles of Geochemistry, 4th edition.
~c 1982 John Wiley & Sons, publishers. Used by permission.
The average amounts of the elements in crustal rocks In grams per ton or ppm*
4 Be 2.8 47 Ag 0,07
5 B 10 48 Cd 0.2
6 c 200 49 In 0.1
7 N 20 50 Sn 2
8 0 466,000 51 Sb 0.2
9 F 625 52 Te 0.01
II Na 28,300 53 I 0.5
12 Mg 20.900 55 Cs 3
13 AI 81,300 56 Ba 425
14 Si 277,200 57 La 30
15 p 1,050 58 Ce 60
16 s 260 59 Pr 8.2
17 Cl 130 60 Nd 28
19 K 25.900 62 Sm 6.0
20 Ca 36,300 63 Eu 1.2
21 Sc 22 64 Gd 5.4
22 Ti 4,400 65 Tb 0.9
23 v 135 66 Dy 3.0
24 Cr 100 67 Ho 1.2
25 Mn 950 68 Er 2.8
26 Fe 50,000 69 Tm 0.5
27 Co 25 70 Yb 3.4
28 Ni 75 71 Lu 0.5
29 Cu 55 72 Hf 3
30 Zn 70 73 Ta 2
31 Ga 15 74 w 1.5
32 Ge 1.5 75 Re 0.001
33 As 1.8 76 Os 0.005
34 Sc 0.05 77 lr 0.001
35 Br 2.5 78 Pt 0.01
37 Rb 90 79 Au 0.004
38 Sr 375 80 Hg 0.08
39 y 33 81 Tl 0.5
40 Zr 165 82 Pb 13
41 Nb 20 83 Bi 0.2
42 Mo 1.5 90 Th 7.2
44 Ru O.Ql 92 u 1.8
AGIDSjld-82
AGI DATA SHEET 57.2
ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
totai100.Q1
total100.0
AGIOSnd-82
AGI DATA SHEET 58.2
There are, of course, other pertinent calculations. See, for example, the following
works and papers listed in the references cited in them.
Mehnert, K.R., 1969: Composition and Abundance of Common Metamorphic Rock
~~~~~gk:(. u.~~\s9:
2
Geophysical Aspects of Structure and Composition of the Earth
and the Earth's Crust, p. 134-226.
Wedepohl, K.H., 1969: Composition and Abundance of Common Igneous Rocks, p. 227-
249.
, 1969, Composition and Abundance of Common Sedimentary Rocks,
p. 250-271.
[(All in Wedepohl, K.H. (ed.), 1969, Handbook of Geochemistry, v. 1: Springer-Verlag,
Heidelberg & New York, 442 p.)]
AGI DATA SHEET 59.1
Chemical Analyses of Common Rock Types
Compiled from cited references
IGNEOUS ROCKS ~
0
~ i
!!
~ ~:Ill
C':l
ia: ~l!
lI!! ~~
(!j~
0 (1).::: ~~ (I)== C) 1))"8
m~
(!It: (!It: (!jC:
cia
~
C( ~~
(1)1!
;:)(!I i :::)Q: ~ ~a
5102 71.30 72.64 69.11 72.82 73.43 66.09 6738
TI02 0.31 0.26 0.50 0.28 0.27 0.54 0.66
AI203 14.32 14.04 15.40 13.27 13.74 15.73 15.25
Fe 20J 1.12 0.87 1.08 1.48 0.49 1.38 1.77
FeO 1.64 0.96 1.45 1.11 1.23 2.73 2.31
MnO 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.04
MgO 0.71 0.38 0.76 0.39 0.29 1.74 0.96
CaO 1.84 1.39 1.94 1.14 1.17 3.83 2.02
Na20 3.68 3.32 4.07 3.55 4.18 3.75 2.80
K20 4.07 5.48 4.51 4.30 4.34 2.73 5.53
H~+ 0.64 0.34 0.55 1.10 0.34 0.85 0.57
H2o- 0.13 0.66 0.11 0.31 0.12 0.19 0.12
P205 0.12 0.09 0.14 0.07 0.05 0.18 0.28
C02 0.05 O.Q? 0.08 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.15
0.15 - others
,~ ~
~
a:
~
Q
!
~
{:.
.!!
'E
f.
en
t
~
~
0
:::E
dl
~ ~
0
C(
~ t cia
.l ~
dl
AGIDSMI-89
AGI DATA SHEET 59.2
!!!
~~ 6~
..... ~ ;r ~
=
d~
a~
0 ...
lH s
,;, ~~ .~ "!!
~~
~:I! !g,S ~ ~Q t !g~
~~ " "j
~
0
.a l ~~ )
.;
~
i i eta!
)ij!! !I=
"'
t
~
t ~~
~~ 1 ,~1..
~
E
.
0,'=
!g~
~
i
SI02 50.14 50.14 52.64 49.20 49.8 49.58 54.50 49.21
TI02 1.12 1.49 1.07 1.84 2.6 1.98 2.20 2.40
AI203 15.46 15.02 15.00 15.74 14.0 14.79 13.61 16.63
Fe20J 3.01 3.45 1.40 3.79 2.5 3.38 3.68 3.69
feO 7 62 8.16 8.72 7.13 6.5 8.03 8.80 6.18
MnO 0.12 0 16 0.17 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.16
MgO 7.59 6.40 6.62 8.73 7.2 7.30 3.46 5.17
CaO 9.58 8.90 10.96 9 47 11 3 10.36 6.92 7.90
Na20 2.39 2.91 2.15 2 91 2.2 2.37 3.27 3.96
K20 093 099 0.64 1.10 0.82 0.43 1.70 2.55
H2o+ 0 75 1.71 0.53 0.95 0.25 0.91 0.77 0.98
- 011 0.40 0.16 0.43 0.06 0.50 0.80 0.49
P,Os 0.24 0.25 0.14 0.35 0.32 0.24 0.36 0.59
C02 0.07 0.16 0.06 0.11 <0.05 0.03 0.03 0.10
i
c
g,
C(
Ql
c::
Gl
....:
iii e
~~
<J ... ~
~
~ !
(;
I ::..c:
C:lll
8.:
e
~
ci:: ...
g~
cnc:
Gl
><e
:e
::&!::
>c
CQ
~
...:.
"'~
<(
g.
<(
ii:GI
g.2
<(Ill
g.~
<(::!:
-g
0
(!)CD
en!!
:l(!)
g~
~c 'lit
Q:
::&!::
'lit
Si0 2 70.0 66.7 50.7 58.9 61.84 28.29 8.61 3.24 0.30 7.36
AI203 8.2 13.5 15.1 16.7 13.40 7.24 2.41 0.17 0.05 54.30
o
Fe 2 3 2.5 1.6 4.4 2.8 3.83 1.52 0.55 0.17 22.89
FeO 1.5 3.5 2.1 3.7 1.15 1.25 0.34 0.06 I 0.29
MgO 1.9 2.1 3.3 2.6 2.69 4.50 0.72 20.84 0.33 0.13
CaO 4.3 2.5 7.2 2.2 2.68 8.87 47.76 29.58 40.75 0.25
Na 2 o 0.58 2.9 0.8 1.6 0.97 2.66 0.11 0.04 0.09
K20 2.1 2.0 3.5 3.6 2.8 1.71 0.41 0.01 0.07
H2o+ 3.0 2.4 5.0 5.0 3.85 41.3 1.00 0.30 11.54
H2o- I 2.45 (LOI) 1 Total 0.42
HzO
Ti0 2 0.58 0.6 0.78 0.78 0.83 0.35 0.13 0.001 2.40
P205 0.1 0.1 0.10 0.16 0.44 0.29 0.12 0.13
MnO 0.06 0.1 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.042 0.09 0.04
C0 2 3.9 1.2 6.1 1.3 2.55 11.05 37.60 45.54 0.65 0.48
organics 0.18 I
503 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.44 57.60
(0.27 others)
#LOI =loss on ignition; includes water and hydrocarbons.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
The principal use for chemical analyses in studying a metamorphic rock is in determin-
ing what the rock's identity was prior to metamorphism. Because chemical mobility in
metamorphic reactions is usually on an extremely restricted scale, there is typically no
chemical compositional difference between the metamorphic product and its precursor
rock type, except for water content-for example, see Mehnert (in Wedepohl, 1969).
Therefore, an analysis of a metamorphic rock would not be compared with analyses of
other metamorphic rocks but with analyses of sedimentary and igneous rocks. Includ-
ing a table of metamorphic compositions in this compilation of data on common rock
types would thus be meaningless. This notwithstanding, there are metamorphic rocks
used as geochemical standards. These are:
1) ZGI-TB Slate; Si02:60.30, Al20~20.55, Fe603:0.91, Fe0:5.43, Mg0:1.94, Ca0:0.30,
Nat:0:1.31, K2C??85,H.2~+:.3.8~, Ti 2:0.93,_P2 5:0.10, ~n0:0.05, _co2:0.13;_and 2) U~GS
~~26:2~ ~~~~~~. ~~~~ t~ft~~ ~ ~~t?,t~i:o.~~~~~J5~b.~~. ri~~:~1g?d62:~~~-
5 9 0 1 3
References
Average igneous rocks after Le Maitre, R.W. (1976), J. Petrol., v. 17, p. 589-637. Geochemi-
cal Standards from Flanagan, F.J. (1973), Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, v. 37, p. 1189-1200.
(and) Flanagan, F.J. (1976), U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 840, 192 p.
Average sedimentary rocks after Wedepohl, K.H. (1969), Handbook of Geochemistry.
Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 250-271.
Knox dolomite from Pettijohn, F.J. (1975), Sedimentary Rocks, 3rd ed. Harper and Row,
New York, p. 362.
AGI DATA SHEET 60.1
EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS
1. Definition: The weight of an element or compound, in grams or other weight units, equal in com
bining capacity to 8.0000 units of oxygen measured in the same weight unit. The equivalent weight
of an element is calculated by dividing the atomic weight by the valence of the element; the
equivalent weight of a compound is calculated by dividing the molecular weight of the compound
~~~~~tR~~t~j=c~~~~:!l~~~~~~hv;l~~~~~~~~r~s~f:fd~d t~: tf~~~~~~d:~~ ~~~~~~~~'6~~~c~~~~i;=~~
or reducible component in the formula to calculate the equivalent weight.
2. Uses: For water analyses, each constituent reported is divided by the corresponding equivalent
weight to calculate the comparative combining capacity of each constituent in the analysis; if the
analysis is reported in parts per million, equivalents per million parts of water will be obtained,
from which the normality (equivalents per liter) of each constituent can be calculated (1).
For mineral analyses, the equivalent weights can be used to calculate from the analysis the atomic
ratios in the formula of the mineral, particularly where ion substitutions involve valence changes or
empty spaces within the atomic arrangement of the mineral, by adjusting the equivalents of
cations (metallic or positive ions) in the analysis to balance the equivalents of anions in the for
mula (4)
GRAVIMETRIC FACTORS
1. Definition: The factor by which a reported constituent Is multiplied to express the constituent In
another form or as a chemically equivalent quantity of another constituent.
2. Example of use: The content of AbO~ In the analysis Is multiplied by the appropriate factor
(0.5292) to calculate the content of AI in the analysis; the content ofF is multiplied by 0.4211 to
calculate the oxygen to which it is chemically equivalent; the content of FeO is multiplied by
0.7773 to express the content as Fe, by 1.6125 to express as FeCQ,, by 3.223 to calculate the
magnetite (Fe.O.) corresponding to the content of FeO reported, by 1.0742 to calculate the Fe~o.
that would be formed by oxidation of the FeO, by 1.1113 to calculate the Fe.Ot that would be
formed by oxidation, and by 1.4182 to calculate the fayalite (Fe,SiO.) corresponding to the content
of FeO reported.
For minerals, the factors refer to the idealized compositions given In the formulas. Isomorphous
~~:~~~g~~~~ c0~n~~~f ~f r~~ts~ 0f~~~r~vrrr::;~i~hf~c~~~~0~a~~(soab~r~~~dai~e ci~lc~)~~~~~t~pn~~~
analyses to end members represented by the idealized compositions expressed in the formulas (3}.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Most factors are expressed to only four or five significant figures. This Is because the atomic
weights o.f many elements are know~ to only four significant figures. For example, the atomic
weight of 1ron is given as 55.85, which Implies an accuracy of about 1 part in 6,000. Therefore, to ex
press the gravimetric factor for converting Fe to FeO as 1.2864816 rather than 1.2865 has little
justification. Where the factor begins with a small number, as in 1.2865, five significant figures are
g~gmt_o make them correspond with high values in the next lower order of magnitude, for example,
Similarly, in using the factors, values obtained by computation should not be expressed in more
than four or five significant figures.
For further discussion of significant figures, see Hillebrand et al. (2).
REFERENCES
1. John D. Hem, U.S.G.S. Water-Supply Paper 1473, p. 32 (1959)
2. W.F. Hillebrand, G.E.F. Lundell, H.A. Bright, J.l. Hoffman, Applied inorganic analysis, p. 6, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1953
3. Albert Johannsen, A descriptive petrography of the igneous rocks, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, p. 292, Univer
sity of Chicago Press, 1939
4. Rollin E. Stevens, U.S.G.S. Bull. 950 (1946}
AGI DATA SHEET 60.2
Formula .Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Ag 107.88 107.88 AgCI 1.3287
Ag20 1.0742
AgCI 143.337 143.337 Ag .75263
Ag20 .80844
AgzO 231.76 115.88 Ag .93096
AgCI 1.2369
AI 26.98 8.99 AbOJ 1.8895
Ab03 101.96 16.993 AI .5292
(corundum) AI(OH)l 1.5301
(gibbsite)
CaAI2ShOa 2.729
(anorthite)
KAIShOs 5.460
(orthoclase)
(microcline)
KAbSb01a(OH)2 2.604
(muscovite)
KAIShOs 4.281
(leu cite)
KMg3AISb01o(OH)z 8.186
(phlogopite)
biotite (3) 4.10
NaAISiO~ 2.787
(nephelite)
augite (3) 13.5
hornblende (3) 9.52
NaAIShOa 5.144
(albite)
As 74.91 (3+ )24.97 As203 1.3204
As2SJ 1.6421
(5 + )14.982 Asz05 1.5340
AsO. 1.8544
Aszs~ 2.0702
AszOJ 197.82 32.97 As .7574
Aso. 1.4044
As2SJ 1.2436
Asz05 229.82 22.982 As .6519
AsO. 1.2089
AszSs 1.3495
B 10.82 3.607 B20J 3.218
Bz03 69.64 11.61 B .3107
NazB.Or10HzO 2.739
(borax)
Ba 137.36 68.68 BaO 1.1165
BaCOJ (witherite) 1.4369
BaSO. (barite) 1.6994
BaO 153.36 76.68 Ba .8957
BaC03 (witherite) 1.2870
BaSO. 1.5221
Be 9.013 4.507 BeO 2.7752
BeO 25.013 12.507 Be .3603
Be3AizSi60u 7.163
(beryl)
Bi 209.00 69.67 Biz03 1.1148
BbSJ 1.2301
Biz OJ 466.00 77.67 Bi .8970
BbSJ 1.1034
AGJ DATA SHEET 60.3
Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Br 79.916 79.916 0 (equivalence) .10010
c 12.011 3.003 co~ 3.6642
COJ 4.9963
co~ 44.011 11.003 c .27291
col 1.3635
HCOJ 1.3864
BaCOJ 4.485
(witherite)
CaCOJ 2.274
(calcite)
CaMg(C03)2 2.095
(dolomite)
MgC03 1.916
(magnesite)
COJ 60.011 30.006 C02 .73338
HCOJ 61.019 61.019 C02 .72136
Ca 40.08 20.04 CaCh 2.769
CaCOJ (calcite) 2.497
Ca(HC03)2 4.045
CaO 1.3992
caso. (anhydrite) 3.397
CaCb 110.99 55.50 Ca .3611
Cl .6389
CaCOJ 100.09 50.05 Ca .4004
CaF2 78.08 Ca .5133
CaO .7182
F .4867
Ca(HC03)2 162.12 81.06 Ca .2472
HC03 .7528
CaO 56.08 28.04 Ca .7147
CaAbSi2Ce (anorthite) 4.961
CaCOJ (calcite) 1.785
CaMg(COJ)2 3.289
(dolomite)
CaMgSbOE approx. 3.862
(diopside)
augite (3) 4.79
hornblende (3) 17.2
Ca5(P04}3F, var. 1.799
(apatite)
CaSiOJ 2.072
(wollastonite)
caso. 2.428
(anhydrite)
CaS0.2H20 3.070
(gypsum)
caso. 136.15 68.07 Ca .2944
CaO .4119
SOJ .5881
so. .7056
CaS0.2H.O 172.18 CaO .3257
(gypsum)
caso. (anhydrite) .7907
Cb(see Nb)
Cd 112.41 56.21 CdO 1.1423
CdS 1.2853
CdO 128.41 64.21 Cd .8754
CdS 1.1251
AGI DATA SHEET 60.4
Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Ce 140.13 (3 + )46.71 CezOJ 1.1713
(4 + )35.03 CeOz 1.2284
Cez03 328.26 54.71 Ce .8538
CeOz 172.13 43.03 Ce .8141
Cl 35.457 34.457 CaCb 1.5651
KCI 2.1027
MgCiz 1.3430
NaG I 1.6484
0 (equivalence) .22563
Co 58.94 29.47 CoO 1.2715
CoO 74.94 37.47 Co .7865
Cr 52.01 17.34 CrzOJ 1.4614
Crz03 152.02 25.34 Cr .6843
Cs 132.91 132.91 CszO 1.0602
CszO 281.82 140.91 Cs .9432
Cu 63.54 (1 + )63.54 CuzO 1.1259
CuzS 1.2523
(2+)31.77 GuO 1.2518
GuS 1.5047
CuzO 143.08 71.54 Cu .8882
CuzS 1.1123
GuO 79.54 39.77 Cu .7988
GuS 1.2020
F 19.00 19.00 CaF 2.055
(fluorite)
0 (equivalence) .4211
Fe 55.85 (2 +) 27.93 FeO 1.2865
Felo. 1.3820
(3 +) 18.62 Fez03 1.4297
FeO 71.85 35.93 Fe .7773
FeCOJ 1.6125
FelO (magnetite) 3.223
Fe30. (by oxidation) 1.0742
Fez03 (by oxidation) 1.1113
FezSiO (fayalite) 1.4182
FeSiOJ (ferrosilite) 1.8363
FeTiOJ (ilmenite) 2.1120
augite (3) 14.5
hornblende (3) 4.52
hypersthene (3) 3.24
FeJO. 231.55 Fe .7236
(magnetite)
FeO (content) .3103
FeO (by reduction) .9309
FezOJ (content) .6897
FezOJ (by oxidation) 1.034
Fez OJ 159.70 26.62 Fe .6994
(hematite)
FeO (by reduction) .8998
FeJO (by reduction) .9666
augite (3) 21.7
hornblende (3) 6.14
FeSz 119.98 Fe .4655
(pyrite)
FeO (by reaction) .5989
FezOJ (by reaction) .665
s .534
SOz (by reaction) 1.0675
AGI DATA SHEET 60.5
Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Ga 69.72 23.24 Ga20J 1.3442
Ga20J 187.44 31.24 Ga .7439
Ge 72.60 18.15 Ge02 1.4408
Ge02 104.60 26.15 Ge .6941
H 1.0080 1.0080 H20 8.9365
H20 18.016 9.008 H .11190
0 .8881
OH 1.8881
H2S 34.082 17.041 s .940
Hf 178.50 44.63 Hf02 1.17
Hf02 210.50 52.63 Hf .848
Hg 200.61 (1 +) 200.61 HgCI 1.1767
Hg20 1.0399
Hg2S 1.0799
(2 +) 100.31 HgCh 1.3535
HgO 1.0798
HgS 1.1599
I 126.91 126.91 0 (equivalence) .06340
In 114.82 38.27 ln20J 1.2090
K 39.100 39.100 KCI (sylvite) 1.9068
K2C03 1.7674
KHCOJ 2.5606
K20 1.2046
KCI 74.557 74.557 K .52443
(sylvite)
Cl .47557
K20 .63173
KNOJ 101.11 101.11 K .38671
(niter)
K20 .46583
NOJ .61327
K20 94.20 47.10 K .83015
KCI 1.5830
KAISbOs 5.910
(orthoclase, microcline)
KAbSiJO,o(OH)l 8.457
(muscovite)
KMgJAISiJO,o(OH)2 8.860
(phlogopite)
KAISi20~ (leucite) 4.634
biotite (3) 8.93
La 138.92 46.31 La20J 1.1728
La203 325.84 54.31 La .8527
Li 6.940 6.940 Li20 2.153
Li20 29.88 14.94 Li .4645
LiAISi20e (spodumene) 12.456
Mg 24.32 12.16 MgCb 3.916
MgCOJ 3.467
Mg(HCOJ)2 6.018
MgO 1.6579
MgCI2 95.23 47.62 Mg .25538
Cl .7446
MgCOJ 84.33 42.17 Mg .2884
(magnesite)
MgO .4781
Mg(HCOJ)2 146.36 73.18 Mg .16662
HCOJ .8338
AGI DATA SHEET 60.6
Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
p 30.975 6.195 P20s 2.2914
P04 3.0662
P04 94.975 31.658 p .32614
PzOs .74730
PzOs 141.95 14.195 p .43642
PO. 1.3381
Cas(P04)3F, var. 2.369
(apatite)
Pb 207.21 103.61 PbO 1.0772
PbS 1.1548
PbS04 1.4636
PbO 223.21 111.61 Pb .9283
PbS 1.0720
PbSO. 1.3587
PbS 239.28 119.64 Pb .8660
(galena) PbO .9329
PbS04 303.28 151.64 Pb .6832
(anglesite) PbO .7360
Rb 85.48 85.48 RbzO 1.0936
RbzO 186.96 93.48 Rb .9144
s 32.066 0 (equivalence) .4990
FeSz (pyrite) 1.8708
(2-) 16.033 HzS 1.0629
(4+) 8.017 so2 1.9979
(6+) 5.344 S03 2.4969
so. 2.9959
SOz 64.066 16.017 s .5005
so3 1.2497
so3 80.066 13.344 s .4005
SOz .8002
sol 80.066 40.033 so. 1.1998
so. 96.066 48.033 so3 .8335
CaS04 1.4172
K2S04 1.8141
NazS04 1.4787
Sb 121.76 (3+) 40.59 Sbz03 1.1971
Sb2S3 1.3950
(4 +) 30.44 Sbz04 1.2628
(5 +) 24.35 Sbz05 1.3285
Sbz03 291.52 48.59 Sb .8354
SbzSJ 1.1653
Sb20 307.52 38.44 Sb .7919
Sb205 323.52 64.70 Sb .7527
Sc 44.96 14.99 Scz03 1.5338
SczOJ 137.92 22.99 Sc .6520
Se 78.96 0 (equivalence) .20263
(4 +) 19.74 SeOz 1.4053
(6 +) 13.16 Se03 1.6079
Se02 110.96 27.74 Se .7116
SeOl 1.1442
Se03 126.96 21.16 Se .6219
Se02 .8740
Si 28.09 7.02 SiOz 2.1392
sio: 3.278
SiOz 60.09 15.023 Si .4675
(quartz) SiOr 1.5325
AGI DATA SHEET 60.8
Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
a Birch, Schairer, and Spicer, Geoi.Soc.Am. Special Paper 36, p. 104, 1942
b Rankama and Sahama, Geochemistry, p. 798, 1942
~ ~~~=~6~~g,og~gf!g~c~~~e~~~~f~~~~ tf,Yp. ~~:34, 1955
1 1
THE ATMOSPHERE5
Total mass - 5.25 x 1Q21 g. Height: judged by twilight, 63 km; by meteors, 200 km:
by aurora. 44-360 km.
0 km 50 km 100 km 160 km
Pressure (mm Hg): 760 7.5 X 1Q-l 4.2 X 1Q-4 2x 10-6
Density (g/m 3 ): 1,220 1.3 8x 1Q-4 1.5 X 10-6
In order to plot a rock's composition in the appropriate triangle on the larger, double
triangle, the three components, alkali feldspar (A), plagioclase feldspar (P), and quartz
(Q) or the fold minerals (F) are equated to 100 per cent-i.e., the other components are
subtracted from the total mode and the remaining QAP or FAP percentages are nor-
malized to 100 per cent
The names to be applied to the rocks are as follows:
~~a~~~i~~~~~e5~~~~~~~~~~;
1b.', ~u;a~~r~~~a~{.~~lid~~;; ~Y!~~~~~-!,e}~~E:~~r~~~t;i~~; ~~~~~~irt~
monzonite; g, quartz monzodiorite/quartz monzogabbro; 10, quartz diorite/quartz gab-
bro/quartz anorthositec; 6, alkali-feldspar syenite; 7, syenite; 8, monzonite; 9, mon-
~~~~~~~~~~.0~~f9-~~~~f~g ~y~~~[~~e'N~b~~~~~~~si:;~n~o~~~-~~~r~~Pd-~:::~~~~~~
1
zodiorite/monzogabbro; 10', fold-bearing diorite/gabbro; 11, fold syenite; 12, foid monzo
syenite (syn. fold plagisyenite); 13, foid monzodiorite/fold monzogabbro (essex
ite =nepheline monzodiorite/monzogabbro); 14, foid diorite/fold gabbro
(theralite =nepheline gabbro, teschenite =analcime gabbro); 15, foidolites; 16,
ultramafic plutonic rocks (ultramafitolites).
a. Plutonic rocks were not assumed to be of igneous origin by the Subcommission responsible
for this nomenclature scheme.
b. Triangles tor these rocks are given on the reverse side of this sheet.
c. Diorites are distinguished from gabbros on the basis of the An-content of the constituent
plagioclase feldspar with An-50 the limiting value; anorthosites are rocks made up of 90 or more
percent plagioclase.
AGIOS-rv<l-89
AGI DATA SHEET 62.2
wehrltte
horzburgde
lherzoltle
401--+--------~40--
oltvtne f I
orthopyroxenore I
orthop~roxe note
01_ _
90 90
hornblende
-perodoto!es
pyroxene
Per! dot des
perodolites
pyroene-
hornb:ende
perodotiles
Pyro>en1tu
OIP11ne
pyrount!es oh'lflnt- oiPill1t ond
hornblende pyronne hornblend1le Hornblendotes
10 pyronnotes hornblendole 10
Px !'>0
IIJrOU~IlU
hornblende pyrooene hornblencltte
pyroun11n hornblndh
01-ollvine
Opx-orthopyroxene
Cpx-clinopyroxene
Px-pyroxene
Ho-hornblende
~
I
15ai15b
I
90 .!. 90 01 P
15c M&90-100
ANDESITE mela-andeslte
Silica
Content 52 1--------+---------1
(per cent)
leuco-basalt BASALT
The first criterion to be used is the Si02-content. It is suggested that, being so critical,
the value should always be determined In the same way-i.e., it should be taken from
rock analyses after they have been recalculated as H20 and C02free and normalized to
100 per cent.
The second criterion to be used Is color index, for this purpose defined as the percen-
tage of mafic minerals in a norm. The two different values are given because the color
Index derived from the CIPW norm (weight-based) is generally 1-2 per cent higher than
that from the Barth Katanorm (molecular-based).
Attention is directed to the references cited on the other sheet dealing with igneous
rock nomenclature- Data Sheet 21 -especially the following:
Streckeisen, A., 1979, Classification and nomenclature of volcanic rocks, lam-
prophyres, carbonatites, and melilitic rocks: Recommendations and suggestions of the
JUGS Subcommission on the systematics of igneous rocks: Geology, v. 7, p. 331-335.
AGI DATA SHEET 63.1
Optical Determinations
Kwo-Ling Chyi, Central Michigan University
The optic sign of a mineral can be determined using the appropriate (conoscopic)
setup and with an accessary plate. The figures on this sheet show how to determine the
optic sign with gypsum plate and quartz wedge (arrows indicate movement of isochromat-
ic lines) .
I. Uniaxial Mineral
Figure 1. Determination of the optic sign of uniaxial optic axis figures: 1B, 1C, and
1D- gypsum plate; 28, 2C, and 2D- quartz wedge.
20
Figure 1. Y - Yellow
B- Blue
A-Red
AGI -DS-rvd-89
II.
F Biaxial Mi neral
2. Deter n:'~atlon
gyps~m pi:~~
10 - lgure
extinction . . of the
quartz ,wedge
38, 3C, and 30 .!osition . oplate;
gypsum
. 28, 2C . anadl acute
ptlc sign of biaxi 20-bisectrix
45o f.lgures: 18 1C
pos1tion.
30
Figure 2. Y- Yellow
B- Blue
A-Red
AGI DATA SHEET 63.3
Figure 3. A: Estimation of 2Vangle from acute bisectrix figure. The maximum separation
of the isogyres (dark lines) in a 45" position is a function of the refractive index N~ and of
the numerical aperture (N.A.) of the obJeCtive lens. 8: The 2Vangle can also be estimat-
ed from the curvature of the single isogyre of an optic-axis figure
69ffiEB
15 30 4~
Nff = 1.7, N.A. = 0.85
A
60
Figure 3.
References
Bloss, F. D., 1961 An Introduction to the Methods of Optical Crystallography. Holt. Rine-
hart and Winston, New York, 294 p.
Ehlers, E.G., 1987. Optical Mineralogy, Theory and Technique. Blackwell Scientific Publi-
cations. Palo Alto. 158 p.
Phtllips, W.R., 1971. Mineral Optics, Pnnciples and Techniques. W.H. Freeman and Co.,
San Francisco. 249 p.
AGI DATA SHEET 64.1
An-Content of Plagioclase Feldspars
R. V. Dietrich, Central Miclligan University
100
AGIDS-rvd-8!<
AGI DATA SHEET 64.2
exhibit the greatest contrast between alternate twins when either set is at or near
extinction, and they have the same gray hue when the twinning planes are parallel
to the directions of vibration of either the polarizer or analyzer. Graphs for these val
ues are given above; graphs for other optical measurements are given in references
listed at the end of this data sheet-see Winchell and Winchell (1951); Deer et al.
(1961); Phillips and Griffen (1981).
Two methods relating to An-content, which are used for separating plagio
clases from associated minerals and in laboratory investigations, are based on
specific gravity of the diverse plagioclases and the refractive index values for pia
gioclase glass. Graphs showing these values are given below.
Refractive index
synthetic plagioclase
1.57 1.57
glass
1.55 1.55
1.53 1.53
1.51 1.51
1.49 1.49
10 30 50 70 90 100
Mole% An
Specific gravity
2.75 2.75
2.70
2.65 2.65
2.60 2.60
Oligoclase Andesine Labradorite Bytownite
0 20 30 90 100
(Refractive index graph based on data of Schairer. Smith. and Chayes. 1956)
References
Deer, W.A., Howie, A.A., and Zussman, J., 1963. Rock-Forming Minerals: Vof.4,
Framework Silicates. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Phillips, W.R., and Griffen, D.T., 1981. Optical Mineralogy, The Nonopaque Minerals.
W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.
Schairer, J.F., Smith, ~I.A., and Chayes, F, 1956. "Refractive indices of plagioclase
glasses." In Annual Report, Director, Geophys. Lab., Carnegie lnst., Washington, Yr.
Book, No. 55, p. 95.
Winchell, A.N., and Winchell, H., 1951. Elements of Optical Mineralogy Part II -
Descriptions of Minerals, 4th ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
AGI DATA SHEET 65.1
Calculation of Norms
D.M. Henderson, University of Illinois, Urbana
(Results are cation percentages of normins; these approximate volume percentages.)
RULES FOR SHORT FORM OF BARTH KATANORM
1. Compute norm base of cation percentages from analysis:
(See sample calculation of Data Sheet 65.7.)
a. Calculate molecular number, MN(FU), for each constituent via 1-cation formula weights
(FW's) of AGI Data Sheet 65 .5 (set for katanorm).
b. Sum MN(FU)'s to obtain cation MN total (TOT).
c. Divide each MN(FU) by TOT and multiply by 100 to obtain the cation percentage, C%;
check that these total 100.0 for the analysis.
d. (If analysis lists iron as total iron (FeO or Fe 20 3), distribute % to Fe 2 ' and 1fs to FeJ).
e. Combine any Mn and Fe2 as Fe 2 .
The following allotments are made from the foregoing cation percentages.
2. Any P and 1.67 times as much Ca are allotted to Apatite.
3. Any Ti and an equal amount of Fe2 are allotted to Ilmenite.
4. K and an equal amount of AI are allotted to provisional Orthoclase (Or').
(Here and elsewhere , sign' indicates provisional normin.)
5. Na and an equal amount of AI are allotted to provisional Albite (Ab').
Go to rule 8 if there is excess Na.
6. AI and half as much Ca are allotted to Anorthite.
7. Any remaining AI is allotted to Corundum.
8. Any remaining Na and an equal amount of Fe 3 are allotted to Acmite.
(If Na exceeds Fe3 , convert enough Fe2 to Fe 3 to use up all Na as A c.)
9. Any Fe 3 and half as much Fe 2 are allotted to Magnetite.
10. Any remaining Fe 3 is allotted to Hematite.
11 . Any remaining Ca is allotted to provisional Wollastonite (Wo').
12. Mg is allotted to provisional Enstatite (En').
13. Any remaining Fe2 is allotted to provisional Ferrosilite (Fs').
14. Re-form pyroxene normins:
a. Combine En' and Fs' as provisional Hypersthene (Hy") .
b. Find proportion of En' and Fs' in Hy"; this proportion of 'Mg' to 'Fe' is maintained in any
Diopside, Hypersthene, and Olivine.
c. Combine equal amounts of Hy'' and Wo' to make Diopside ; find amounts of Diopside"
(Di") and Hedenbergite (Hd'1 in Di by rule 14b.
d. If any Wo' remains after Di, excess forms final Wollastonite .
e. If any Hy" remains after Di, excess forms new provisional Hypersthene' (Hy') .
15. Make provisional determination of norm percentages:
a. Allot required amount of Si to each silicate normin made so far (see Data Sheet 65.6
for 'proportions).
b. Sum of cation allotments to a normin gives amount (cation percentage) of normin or
provisional normin.
c. Obtain total amount (T) of all normins so far.
d. If T < 100.0, allot difference (100- T) to Quartz.
Provisional Hy', Or', and Ab' become final Hy, Or, and Ab.
Go to rule 17.
e. If T > 100.0, rock is silica undersaturated and some or all of one or more provisional
normins has to be converted to a lesser silicated normin.
Determine amount (E) of excess Si via
E=T -100.0
AGI DATA SHEET 65.2
(Procedure for achieving silica balance is that of C. H. Kelsey, (1965), Min. Mag. 34, 276-282.)
AGI DATA SHEET 65.5
DATA FOR NORM CALCULATION
Explanation of Symbols
FU is formula unit
Ex: FeO represents 1 unit of Fe2 or FeO
Fe 2 0 3 represents 1 unit of Fe 20 3 or 2 units of Fe 3 +
FU 's for Barth katanorm are known as 1-cation units
FW is formula weight of indicated FU
MN is molecular number of indicated FU
MN(FU) (below) means molecular number for formula
unit FU; parentho-.s os do not indicate multiplication , but
are simply part of symbol
FW(FU) means formula weight of given formula unit FU
Normative Minerals (Normins) for Short Forms of Barth Katanorm and CIPW Norm
First letter of name and symbol of a normin is capitalized for katanorm, is in lower case for CIPW
norm
Conventional CIPW diopside corresponds to an augite-like combination of end-members diopside"
(di") and hedenbergite (hd") shown here. Original CIPW choice of name diopside was unfortunate.
AGI DATA SHEET 65.7
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF SHORT FORM OF BARTH KATANORM
(14a) Hy"= 7.0 + 1.9= 8.9 (14b) 'Mg'= 7.0/8.9 =0.787, 'Fe'= 1.9/8.9 = 0.213
(14c) Di=4.1 +4.1 .. 8.2 Oi"=B.2 .787=6.5, Hd"=B.2 .213=1.7
(14e) Hy'=8.9-4.1 =4.8
( 15a) See top row of table above (for AC = Si02).
(15b) See bottom row of table (totals for normins).
(15c) T =sum of bottom row= 104.2
(T not affected by choice of form of pyroxenes)
Silication of pyroxenes { g~. : ::~: ::~: ~ ~:~ ~~.: ~:~: ~:~: ;:~
(15e) T>100.0 E-104.2-100.0=4.2
(16a) Hy/"4=9.6/4~2.4 E>Hy/"4
Hy=O.O DI=0.75 9.6=7.2 Ea=4.2-2.4=1.B
Fo=7.2 .787=5.7 Fa=7.2 .213= 1.5
(16b) 0.40 Ab'=0.4 32.0=12.8 E.<0.4Ab'
Ne=t.5 1.8=2.7 Ab=32-(2.5 1.8)=27.5
Norm
Dr 16.5 Di" 13.0 Ap 1.2
Ab 27.5 Hd" 3.4
l Di 16.4
Mt 3.0
An 20.5
l PI 48.0
Fo 5.7 II 5.0
lQI 7.2
Ne 2.7 Fa 1.5
tOO.O
AGI DATA SHEET 65.8
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF SHORT FORM OF CIPW NORM
~
H2o ab
H2o- 329 152 557 524 278 232 60.1
7 4.3 4.1 7.2 32.5 25.0 7.2 0.8
(14a) hy": .115 + .031 = .146 (14b) 'Mg'= .115/.146= .788, 'Fe'= .031/146 = .212
(14c) for di: wo' = .021, hy" (in dt) = .021
(14e) hy'= .146-.021 = ~
(15a) See top row of table above (for AC = Si0 2 ).
(15b) S =sum of top row of table= .797 (or' through fs1 q= .810-.797 = .013
(S not affected by choice of form of pyroxenes)
(17a) Characterizing amounts underlined in table.
di"=.021 . 788=.017 hd"=.021 .212=.004
en=.125 .788=.099 fs =.125 .212=.026
(17b) See bottom 2 rows of table for ap, if, or, ab, an, mt, q.
% di"= .017 217=3.7 % hd"= .004. 248= 1.0
%en= .099 100=9.9 o/o fs=.026 132=3.4
Norm
q 0.8 di" 3.7 ap 4.3
di 4.7
or 7.2 hd" 1.0 mt 7.2
en 9.9
ab ~;:~ I pi 57.5 fs 3.4
hy 13.3
if 4.1
99.1+ 0.3(H 2 0) = 99.4
AGI DATA SHEET 66.1
Major Fossil Groups Used for Dating and Correlation of
Phanerozoic Strata in North America
Compiled by J. Thomas Dutro, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey
Empirically, certain kinds of fossils prove more useful than others for dating and cor
relating marine strata in different parts of the Phanerozoic of North America. Groups
with wide dispersal , occurrence in several facies, and rapid rates of evolution are most
useful. Within limits, all fossils are valuable fo r dating, correlation, environmental
analysis, paleogeographic reconstruction , etc. in certain areas or in specific parts of the
sequence. Nevertheless, listed below are the more commonly used fossils in the
Phanerozoic Systems and recent references to each group, which can be consulted for
details.
A major reference is the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, but several parts are
~~~a~~s~a~~v~n~~~~e~~~~~eb~eii~~o~~~~f~n ~~odst~~b~~~~~dftY~~a~~~!r~nn~;~t f~r ~~~
0
detailed studies. Index Fossils of North America by Sh imer and Shrock remains an
essential source for general biostratigraphy.
Neogene
I
Paleogene
Cretaceous
I Cambdan
i
AGI DATA SHEET 66.3
REFERENCES
Bassett, M.G., ed., 1976, The Ordovician System: proceedings of a Palaeontolo~ical Association
Symposium, Birmingham, September, 1974: University of Wales Press and Nat1onal Museum of
Wales, Cardiff. 696 p.
Berry, W.B.N., and Boucot, A.J., eds., 1970, Correlation of the North American Silurian Rocks: Geol.
Soc. America Spec. Paper 102, 289 p.
Dutro, J.T., Jr., Gordon, M., Jr., and Huddle, J.W., 1979, Paleontological zonation of the Mississip-
pian System, In Paleotectonic Investigations of the Mississippian System in the United States:
U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1010, part II, chapterS, p. 407-429.
Furnish, W.M., 1973, Permian stage names, in The Permian and Triassic Systems and their Mutual
Boundary, Logan, A. and Hills, L., eds.: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 2, p.
522-548.
Hintze, L.F., 1953, Lower Ordovician trilobites from western Utah and eastern Nevada: Utah Geol.
Miner. Survey Bull. 48 (for 1952), 249 p.
Holdsworth, B.K., and Jones, D.L., 1979, Preliminary radiolarian zonation for Late Devonian
through Permian time: Geology, v. 8, no. 6, p. 281-285.
House, M.R., 1978, Devonian Ammonoids from the Appalachians and their bearing on International
Zonation and Correlation: Palaeontological Association Special Papers in Palaeontology 21, 70 p.
House, M.A., Scrutton, C.T., and Bassett, M.G., eds., 1979, The Devonian System: Palaeontological
Association Special Papers in Palaeontology 23, 353 p.
Imlay, R.W., 1952, Correlation of the Jurassic Formations of North America, exclusive of Canada:
Geol. Soc. America Bull. v. 63, p. 953-992.
Kauffman, E.G., and Hazel, J.E., eds., 1977, Concepts and Methods of Biostratigraphy: Dowden,
Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. 658 p.
Kling, S.A., 1980, Radiolaria, in Introduction to Marine Micropaleontology, B.U. Haq and A.
Boersma, eds.: Elsevier, New York, p. 203-244.
Mamet, B.L., and Skipp, Betty, 1971, Lower Carboniferous calcareous Foraminifera: preliminary
zonation and stratigraphic implications for Mississippian of North America: Internal. Congress
Carboniferous Strat. and Geol., 6th, Sheffield, 1967, Compte Rendu, v. 3, p. 1129-1146.
Neogene
~ 4 5 6
~3 ~
....~--- lO Phyto~ours
Silunan
12'
*'' '
Turtles
Ordovician
4rjiJJIIJI~
Jowless fishes
.pS:;ons
1Ostrocoderms 2
c
Plocoderms
H.N. Andrews, 1947, Ancient plants and the world they lived in, Comstock
C.A. Arnold, 1947, An introduction to paleobotany, McGraw-Hill
~ E.H. Colbert, 1955, Evolution of the vertebrates, John Wiley & Sons
:g R.C. Moore, C.G. Lalicker, and A.G. Fischer, 1952, Invertebrate fossils, McGraw-Hill
..:. A.S. Romer, 1945, Vertebrate paleontology, Univ. Chicago Press
~ G.G. Simpson, C.S. Pittendrigh, and L.H. Tiffany, 1957, Life: an introduction to biology, Harcourt, Brace & Co
AGI DATA SHEET 67.2
1- Boct~rio
!-l~lga~
~Fungi
Cambrian .
B~o~ojs-Fil ~~
Brachi.lopo.lds~
0
~ly
IM
NautiloidsiJ
P~lecypodsl
~
I
~
r'I ['f'
l_j{j
'\
Cys.toods
Annelodsi1
Gropto:3ites~
Archoeocyatho--~:~:::ns
I ~ostropods
-I Merosfo=rms
Trilobites
Asteroods
Holothuroids
m "'D
a. ::::r
~- ~.
r- (")
. m
::1: -
Ill .,
~ a
Continental Terrace (Shelf and Slope) Environment; some average sediment physical properties. ~ ~
z ::a.
Bulk Grain Velocity Ratio
!:! i'
!!!. CIJ
Sediment No. Mean Grain Sand, Silt, Clay, Density,
Type Samples mm O;b % % g/cm3 Avg. SE
0 0
n -
Sand =
::J ::D
(D
Coarse 2 0.5285 0.92 100.0 0.0 0.0 2.710 2.034 38.6 1836 - 1.201 "'
'< (")
(D
!e. :::::s
Fine 22 0.1593 2.65 90.9 4.9 4.2 2.704 1.941 0.023 45.6 102 1749 11 1.145 0.006 ID -
Very fine 12 0.0960 3.38 81.9 10.5 7.6 2.684 1.856 0.022 50.0 0.97 1702 18 1.115 0.012 i 3:
Silty sand 27 0.0490 4.35 57.6 28.9 13.5 2.689 1.772 0.020 55.3 0.72 1646 10 1.078 0.006 ~ ~.
Sandy silt 26 0.0308 5.02 28.0 59.2 12.8 2.680 1.771 0.033 54.1 1.49 1652 12 1.080 0.007 i ~
Silt 19 0.0237 5.40 7.8 80.1 12.1 2.661 1.740 0.047 56.3 1.30 1615 8 1.057 0.005 (/)
CD
Sand-silt-clay 23 0.0172 5.86 32.3 41.6 26.1 2.701 1.596 0.022 66.3 1.53 1579 8 1.033 0.005 Q.
Clayey silt 62 0.0077 7.02 7.3 60.0 32.7 2.660 1.488 0.016 71.6 0.86 1549 4 1.014 0.003 3'
CD
Silty clay 19 0.0027 8.52 4.8 41.2 54.0 2.701 1.421 0.015 75.9 0.82 1520 3 0.994 0.002
all>
CIJ ~
Notes: Properties are mostly from top 40 em of sediment cores. Sediment types after Shepard (1954). Laboratory values: 23C. 1 atm;
c
~:~7~i:~o~~~~f~~n~~~~~~~~~: ~~m:ti!~d~~~ ~~~;r ~~~~~ ~~~~it~~g:~ ;r~~o~i~~i7t6~~;9~8~'}~~~~t~sit~ s~~-v;:~~: :.t ~rg(~n a~~s~)7
0
a
(/J
:::z::
m
m
-1
~
J>
e
c
Abyssal Plain and Abyssal Hill Environments; some average sediment physical properties. ~
)li
Environment Bulk Grain Density, Porosity, Velocity, Velocity Ratio CJ)
-sel:nment -Type ::::1:
No. Mean Grain Sand, Silt, Clay, Density, ~ % m/sec
m
Samples mm % o/o % g/cm3 Avg. SE ~SE ~sE Avg. SE m
-f
Abyssal PI!Jin Ql
C
Clayey silt 24 0.0052 7.59 4.2 55.7 40.1 2.655 1.454 0.022 74.2 1.58 1528 3 0999 0.002 N
Silty clay 51 0.0021 8.87 3.0 35.3 61.7 2.665 1.348 0.014 80.5 0.98 1515 2 0.991 0.001
Clay 6 0.0014 9.53 0.0 22.2 77.8 2.663 1.352 0.037 80.0 2.20 1503 2 0.983 0.001
Bering Sea and Okhotsk Sea (Siliceous-Diatomaceous)
Silt 1 0.0179 5.80 6.5 76.3 17.2 2.474 1.447 70.8 1546 1.011
Clayey silt 5 0.0049 7.68 8.1 49.1 42.8 2.466 1.228 0.019 85.8 0.86 1534 2 1.003 0.001
Silty clay 23 0.0024 8.71 3.0 37.4 59.6 2.454 1.214 0.008 86.8 0.43 1525 2 0.997 0.001
Abyssal Hill
Deep-sea ("red") pelagic clay
Clayey silt 17 0.0056 7.49 3.9 58.7 37.4 2.678 1.347 0.020 81.3 0.95 1522 3 0.995 0.002
Silty clay 60 0.0023 8.76 2.1 32.2 65.7 2.717 1.344 0.011 81.2 0.60 1508 2 0.986 0.001
Clay 45 0.0015 9.43 0.1 19.0 80.9 2.781 1.414 0.012 77.7 0.64 1493 1 0.976 0.001
Calcareous pelagic sediment
Sandsiltclayb 193 0.015 6.1 2.683 1.435 0.007 75.3 0.38 1556 2 1.017 0.001
Silt-clay 166 0.006 7.3 - 2.656 1.404 0.011 76.9 0.64 1536 1 1.004 0.001
Notes: See notes on previous page. "For approximate properties of thinner. coarser-gramed layers 1n abyssal platn turbtdttes see continental terrace in
the line sand to sand-silt-clay sizes (silt is most common). blncludes sandy clay, clayey sand, s1lty sand. and sandy stlt (coarser parttcles are mostly hollow
Foraminifera). clncludes clayey stlt and silty clay (mostly liner calcareous parttcles)
AGI DATA SHEET 69.1
ldenUfication of Minerals by Staining
CARBONATES, GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE
Gerald M. Friedman and Charles A. Sternbach, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
ETCHING
Hand samples, cores, or drill cuttings of carbonate rocks are etched in dilute hydrochloric acid
and washed in running water prior to staining. The acid solution consists of eight to ten parts
by volume of commercial grade concentrated hydrochloric acid diluted with water to 100 parts
(Lamar 1950; tves 1955); exposure to acid varies depending on fabric and mineralogy. Two
to three minutes of etching are usually adequate for most of these rocks. Experimentation soon
shows the best etching time and acid concentration for particular kinds of rock or purposes.
Textural and mineralogical relationships of etched carbonate samples, particularly in polished
surfaces, appear in three dimensions under the binocular microscope (Friedman 1977).
STAINING
Stain Specific for Aragonite
Feigl's Solution (Feigl1958; Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977).
Friedman (1959) termed this reagent "Feigl's Solution." The solution consists of the following:
1 g of solid (commercial grade) Ag 2 S0 4 is added to a solution of 11 .8 g MnS04 7H~ in 100
ml of water and boiled. After cooling, the suspension is filtered and one or two drops of diluted
sodium hydroxide solution is added. The precipitate is filtered off after 1 or 2 hours. It is impor-
tant that only distilled water be used; tap water leaves a white precipitate of silver chloride.
Stain Specific for Calcite
Alizarine Red S (Friedman 1959; 1971 ; 1977). Dissolve 0.1 g of alizarine red in 100 ml 0.2
percent cold hydrochloric acid. (The hydrochloric acid solution is made up adding 2 ml of com-
mercial grade concentrated hydrochloric acid to 998 ml of water.) With this solution, calcite
is stained deep red within 2 to 3 minutes and dolomite is not affected except on excess ex-
posure. This stain also is effective for use in thin sections.
Stain Specific for High-Magnesian Calcite
Titan Yellow or Clayton Yellow (Friedman 1959; 1977; Winland 1971; Choquette and Trusell
1978). This stain is specific for magnesium and in basic solution imparts a deep red color.
The solution consists of 0.5 g dye, 8 g NaOH, and 2 g EDTA in 500 ml of distilled water. The
degree of coloration reflects the amount of magnesium present. This stain is also effective
for use in thin sections. Stain colors range from pale pink in calcite containing relatively small
percentages of Mg to deep red in relatively Mg-rich calcite. Winland (1971) described the ten-
dency of the stain to fade quickly (often in an hour or less). Choquette and Trusell (1978) recom-
mend dipping the stained specimen in a 5 molar fixer solution of sodium hydroxide for about
30 seconds to prevent fading.
Stains Specific for Dolomite
Alizarine Red S, Titan Yellow (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977). Two tenths g of dye is dissolved
in 25 ml methanol, if necessary by heating. Methanol lost by evaporation should be replen-
ished. Fifteen ml of 30 percent NaOH solution (add 70 ml of water to 30 g of sodium hydrox-
ide) is added to the solution and brought to a boil. The sample is then immersed in this boiling
solution for about 5 minutes (occasionally it may take even more time). Dolomite is stained
purple in alizarine red, and deep orange-red in titan yellow alkaline solution. Inadequate stain-
ing imparts a yellow to yellow-orange color with titan yellow.
Stain Specific for Calcite and Dolomite Containing Ferrous Iron
Potassium Ferrjcyanide (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977; Evamy 1963; Katz and Friedman 1965).
This is a routine analytical test for iron. A staining solution is prepared by dissolving 5 g of
potassium ferricyanide in distilled water containing 2 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid, fol-
lowed by dilution to 1 liter with distilled water. A black color will be imparted to the specimen,
the deepness of color being proportional to the lfe2+ concentration.
Combined Stains for Calcite, Ferroan Calcite, and Ferroan Dolomite
Alizarine RedS and Potassium Ferricyanide (Evamy 1963; Katz and Friedman 1965; Dickson
1966; Friedman 1971; 1977). The reactions of alizarine red S and potassium ferricyanide in
the combined reagent are the same as those in the individual stain solutions. Katz and Fried-
man (1965) recommended the solution be made up as follows: dissolve 1 g of alizarine red
S with 5 g of potassium ferricyanide in distilled water containing 2 ml concentrated hydrochlor-
ic acid and bring the solution to 1 liter with distilled water. The following colors are obtained:
iron-free calcite, red; iron-poor calcite, mauve; iron-rich calcite, purple; iron-free dolomite,
(dolomite sensu stricto), not stained; ferroan dolomite, light blue; ankerite, dark blue.
Stain Specific for Gypsum
Alizarine RedS (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977). Dissolve 0.1 to 0.2 g of dye in 25 ml of methanol.
Add 50 ml of 5 percent sodium hydroxide (5 g of sodium hydroxide added to 95 ml of water).
AGI DATA SHEET 69.2
Immerse the specimen in the cold solution. Staining occurs within a few minutes, imparting
a deep color to the gypsum and a very faint tint of the same color to dolomite. The color differ-
ence is sufficient to distinguish the two minerals easily. Heating the solution increases the stain-
ing effectiveness. Anhydrite and calcite are not stained by these dyes.
Stain Specific for Anhydrite
Mercuric nitrate (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977; Hounslow 1979). The presence of anhydrite may
be determined by process of elimination (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977).
References
Choquette, D.W., and Trusell, F.C., 1978, A procedure for making the titan-yellow stain for Mg-calcite
permanent. J. Sed. Pel., 48, 639-641.
Dickson, JAD., 1966, Carbonate identification and genesis as revealed by staining, J. Sed. Pet., 36,
491-505.
Evamy, B.D., 1963, The application of a chemical staining technique to a study of dedolomitization,
Sedimentology, 2, 164-170.
Feigl, Fritz, 1958, Spot tests in inorganic analysis, 5th ed., Elsevier Publishing Co., 600 p.
Friedman, G.M., 1959, Identification of carbonate minerals by staining methods, J. Sed. Pet., 29, 87-97.
Friedman, G.M., 1971, Staining, p. 511-530, in: Carver, R.E., 1971, Processes in Sedimentary Petrology,
John Wiley.
Friedman, G.M., 1977, Identification by staining methods of minerals in carbonate rocks, p. 96-97, in:
LeRoy and LeRoy, 1977, Subsurface Geology, Colorado School of Mines.
Hounslow, A.W., 1979, Modified gypsum/anhydrite stain, J. Sed. Pet., 49, 636-637.
lves, William, Jr., 1955, Evaluation of acid etching of limestone, Kansas Geol. Surv. Bull. 114, pt. 1
Ka1Z, Amitai, and Friedman, G.M., 1965, The preparation of stained acetate peels for the study of car-
bonate rocks, J. Sed. Pet., 35, 248-249.
Lamar, J.E., 1950, Acid-etching in the study of limestones and dolomites, Illinois State Geol. Surv. Circ.
156, 47 p.
Winland, H.D., 1971, Nonskeletal deposition of highMg calcite in the marine environment and its role
in the retention of textures. p. 278-284in; O.P. Bricker, ed., Carbonate Cements (Stud. Geol., No. 19),
Johns Hopkins Univ.
AGI DATA SHEET 69.3
FELDSPAR
Gerald M. Friedman, Brooklyn College, and Northeastern Science Foundation,
Troy, N.Y.
Gabriel and Cox (1929) proposed a staining method to differentiate quanz from alkali
feldspars. The feldspar is etched by hydrofluoric acid vapor and treated with a con-
centrated solution of sodium cobaltinitrite. A coating of yellow potassium cobaltinitrite
appears on potassium feldspar, whereas quartz remains unaffected. This method is
simple in theory but difficult to apply, as indicated by several anicles (Keith, 1939;
Chayes, 1952; Rosenblum, 1956; Hayes and Klugman, 1959).
Bailey and Stevens (1960) proposed a method for staining plagioclase feldspar with
barium chloride and potassium rhodizonate after etching. Plagioclase takes on a red
coloration. This staining technique was combined with yellow staining of potassium
feldspar with sodium cobaltinitrite.
Laniz, Stevens, and Norman (1964) advocated a method for sequentially staining
plagioclase red with F.D. and C. Red No. 2 (amaranth) and potassium feldspar with
cobaltinitrite.
Reeder and McAllister (1957) proposed staining the aluminum ion in feldspar with
hemateine after etching. Doeglas et al. (1965) and Van Der Plas (1966) successfully
combined the techniques of Gabriel and Cox (1929) with those of Reeder and
McAllister (1957), based on experiments by Favejee (Van Der Plas, 1966).
AGIDSrmiB9
AGI DATA SHEET 69.4
For thin sections, the steps are as follows:
1. Etch the uncovered section in hydrofluoric acid at room temperature for 10
seconds. See the caution on using hydrofluoric acid on Data Sheet 69.3.
2. Immerse the section in saturated sodium cobaltinitrite solution for 15 seconds.
The potassium feldspar is stained light yellow.
3. Rinse the section in water to remove cobaltinitrite.
4. Dip the section quickly in and out of 5% barium chloride solution.
5. Rinse the slide quickly in distilled water.
6. Use a dropper to cover the thin section with rhodizonate reagent (see step 8 in
previous paragraph for preparation of this reagent). Plagioclase feldspar is
stained pink.
7. Wash the slide in water, dry, and mount with cover glass.
Staining with F.D. and C. Red No. 2, amaranth (Laniz, Stevens, and Norman, 1964)
This method is combined with a barium chloride and sodium cobaltinitrite treat-
ment. In this technique, a red coloration is obtained on plagioclase by absorbing
barium ion on the etched plagioclase and then dipping the specimen in the amaranth
dye. Various washings in this technique (see below) lead to a purple-red coloration
of the plagioclase that sharply contrasts with the yellow color of the potassium feldspar
(stained yellow by cobaltinitrite); quartz remains unstained. Pure albite does not stain
but can be stained by first dipping the sample in calcium chloride solution.
Hemateine Staining
For slabs and thin sections, the steps are as follows:
1. Prepare a hemateine solution (50 mg hemateine in 100 ml of 95% ethanol) and
a buffer solution (20 gm sodium acetate in 100 ml distilled water to which are
added 6 ml glacial acetic acid. This solution is diluted to 200 ml and buffered
at pH 4.8 with an acidity of 0.5 N).
2. Mix hemateine and buffer solutions in the proportions 2:1 prior to use.
3. Etch the sample in 1:10 HCI; after etching, pour the mixed hemateine and buffer
solutions (see step 2) on the slab or uncovered section, and leave for 5 minutes.
4. Rinse the sample with 95% ethanol and with acetone. Feldspars show a bluish
stain.
References
Bailey, E. H., and Stevens, R.E., 1960, Selective staining of K-feldspar and plagioclase
on rock slabs and thin sections: Am. Mineral., 45, p. 1020-1026.
Chayes, Felix, 1952, Notes on the staining of potash feldspar with sodium cobaltinitrite
in thin section: Am. Mineral. 37, p. 337-340.
Doeglas, D.J., Favejee, J. Ch. L., Nota, D.J.G, and Van Der Plas, L., 1965, On the
identification of feldspars in soils: Mededelingen van de Lil.ndbouwhogschoo/te W<Jgen-
ingen, 65(9), 14 p.
Gabriel, A., and Cox, E.P, 1929, A staining method for the quantitative determination
of certain rock forming minerals: Am. Mineral., 14, p. 290-292.
Hayes, J.R., and Klugman, M.A., 1959, Feldspar staining methods: J. Sediment. Pet.,
29, p. 227232.
Keith, M.L., 1939, Selective staining to facilitate Rosiwal analysis: Am. Mineral., 24,
p. 561-565.
Laniz, R.V., Stevens, R.E., and Norman, M.B., 1964, Staining of plagioclase and other
minerals with F. D. and C. Red No.2: US. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 501.8, p. 81528153.
Reeder, S.W., and McAllister, A.L., 1957, A staining method tor the quantitative deter
mination of feldspars in rocks and sands from soils: Canadian J. Soil Sci., 37, p. 57-59.
Rosenblum, Samuel, 1956, Improved techniques for staining potash feldspars: Am.
Mineral., 41, p. 662-664.
Van Der Plas, Leendert, 1966. The Identification of Detrital Feldspars. Elsevier
Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 305 p.
AGI DATA SHEET 70.1
Projection Nets
EQUAL AREA
~ - "-\~\:i~~-~~{):/a;Jf: -'
.~:. _-_.-.:-~~- :-~ : -: :f}:t?7; : \;:-~.:,: .:~ ~Y:1~:~ _:-<.:. .:_:-.
2
~--- <:,-:---.~ ._-'>:i:-.~:->::,/_.-,:. . \' . ~.. \' \' ." ', \ :'\><_'. -~
30,. ~ ~~ // .. ' + ' / + / + ' I + 'j + ~ \ \ ' I\ ' ' " '\ \. . ~
!- t ' / ~ I \ \ '\ "
I
I ; ( f
I
I / "' / +
~. ~7
.'
I
+
I
~ .
: j
\ t ~
I I
~ + i +8
+ 't ..
I I
I I
~ + I : -t .. ~ -+
27..
i r + ~ +
+ .....
I
t
.. 1 ~ 10
I I
25'
I
prOduced from chart prepared by the United States Department of Interior Geological Survey
AGIOS-&>
AGI DATA SHEET 70.2
EQUAL ANGLE WULFF NET
Points
45 55
40 I 20
10 70 20
c CaO
K K 20
In both of these cases, the oxide components are recalculated from the total chemi-
cal analyses of the rocks to a 100 percent total (molar) for the components plotted.
Some petrologists modify the above outlined calculations by computing total Fe as FeO,
thus eliminating the Fe 2 0 3 component from "A."
The following example is an ACF diagram for the amphibolite facies, modified after
Turner (personal communication, 1981 ). The phases that may coexist in equilibrium are
at the ends of the lines with no intermediate phases indicated or at the apices of trian-
gles not circumscribing any smaller triangle.
AGIDS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 71.2
M MgO
or A
Na + K }
Fe + Mn Atomic percentages
M = Mg
The following diagram is a schematic variation diagram that indicates fairly typical
alternative differentiation tracks that a basaltic magma might take.
Andesites
Tr11chytes
A._---------------M
References
Turner. F.J., 1981. Metamorphic Petrology, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Williams, H., Turner, F.J., and Gilbert. C.M., 1982. Petrography, 2nd ed. W.H. Freeman
and Co., San Francisco.
AGI DATA SHEET 72.1
Phase Equilibria Diagrams for Mineralogy and Petrology
H.S. Yoder, Jr., Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D.C.
The chemical analysis of an igneous rock can be reduced into normative minerals
(see Data Sheet 65.1) that closely reflect the species of constituent minerals. The most
abundant of these minerals can be used to characterize the rock. For example, a
basalt consists primarily of a clinopyroxene and plagioclase. The principal normative
species of the clinopyroxene are diopside and hedenbergite, and the plagioclase can
be represented by albite and anorthite. To achieve an understanding of the crystalliza-
tion or melting behavior of the rock, it is useful to examine the behavior of the simplified
systems consisting of the various combinations of these normative species or end-
member phases. It is customary to take the simplest combinations of the two most
important end members first, then to add additional end members until most of the
composition of the rock is included.
For an initial approach to the behavior of basalt, one can first examine the phase
relations of diopside-anorthite. If a systematic study of the crystallization behavior of
various combinations of these two end members is carried out at a series of
temperatures, a shorthand summary of the results can be presented in a phase
diagram (Figure 1).
A B
~ 1400
~-
~ 1300
CIJ
0.. 1200
E
CIJ
1- 1100 Diopside + Anorthite
:
l__l___l___j____L ----'---___L_-----L----'--'------'
Figure 1
The diagram shows that the mutual addition of the end members lowers the melting
temperature of each. As determined by experiment, both phases (diopside and anor-
thite) began to crystallize together simultaneously if the temperature is lowered to
1274C, provided the combination is exactly 58% diopside and 42% anorthite. Held
at this temperature, the eutectic temperature, all the liquid will crystallize. These pro-
portions of diopside and anorthite closely approach those in natural basalts. If com-
positions to the left, A, or right, B, of the eutectic are taken, then diopside or anorthite
will crystallize first, respectively. As the crystals form, the liquid moves down the li-
quidus curve (the curve along which liquid and crystals are in equilibrium, but above
which the system is completely liquid) until it reaches the eutectic composition, where
the remaining liquid crystallizes both phases. The resultant "rocks" will be a "pyrox-
enite" (A) if diopside is the dominant ( >90%) phase or an "anorthosite" (8) if anor-
thite is the dominant phase. Conversely, as the temperature is raised on any com-
position consisting of diopside and anorthite, the first melt will always form at the
eutectic temperature at the eutectic composition. Because basalts are represented
by the eutectic composition, basalts are the most common magma type on Earth
AGI-DS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 72.2
when the mantle is melted.
The effects of pressure and water on the diopside-anorthite system are displayed
in Figure 2.
1600
1500
~ 1400
~-
~ 1300
(l)
a.
E 1200
Ql
f-
1100
1000
Figure 2
Pressure increases the temperatures of the liquidus and solidus (the curve along which
liquid and crystals are in equilibrium and below which the system is completely solid)
whereas the solution of water in the liquid results in drastic lowering of the
temperatures and, more importantly, results in large shifts of the "eutectic" composi-
tion. An interpretation of this system suggests that anorthositic rocks are formed at
either very high pressures or in the presence of high water pressures. It is evident
that different types of rocks can be formed from the same materials at the same
pressure depending on the presence or absence of water.
The simplified basalt can be further refined by adding albite to the system, but first
it is necessary to work out the melting relations of albite-diopside and albite-anorthite.
The latter system displays a continuous series of solid solutions (Figure 3).
The composition C will begin to crystallize at the temperature of t 1 , and the crystals
will have the composition of X 1 With lowering temperatures, the liquid composition
follows the liquidus curve, and the crystals will change continuously in composition
along the solidus curve, also determined by experiment. At t2 the composition C will
be all crystalline, and the crystals will have the composition X2 Rocks, however, do
not always crystallize under equilibrium conditions, where the crystals can react com-
pletely with liquid as the temperature changes. For example, if crystallization takes
place so fast that continuous reaction between crystals and liquid cannot take place,
then crystals are effectively removed from the system. The result is that each time
a few crystals are formed and removed, the composition of the remaining liquid ad-
vances down the liquidus curve until it reaches pure albite. The aggregate composi-
tion of the crystals, however, will still have the initial composition C, having followed
the path X1 to X3 , but the zones produced around each crystal will follow the path
X1 to albite. The failure of equilibrium will, therefore, extend the temperature range
of crystallization and produce zoned crystals.
Because Diopside-Aibite is similar in general form to Diopside-Anorthite, except
for the displacement of the eutectic to lower temperatures toward albite, it is possible
to combine the three binary systems into the ternary system Diopside-Aibite-
Anorthite (Figure 4).
AGI DATA SHEET 72.3
1600
1500
1400
~
1300
~-
~c. 1200
~
~
1100
1000
Figure 3
Diopside
1133
Figure 4
1900
p 1bar
1800
I
Two Liquids
~
'
I
~- 1700 1695
~ Cristobalite
E
i 1600 Liquid
~
1557
1543
1500
+ Enstatite + Cristobalite
Enstatite
1400~--~--~--~~--~--~--~----~--~--~--~
Figure 5
1900 P 20 Kb
~ 1800
,
,,
IQ.
~
1700
,' High-Quartz + Liquid
1-
Enstatite + High-Quartz
1600
Forsterite Enstatite
Figure 6
Some minerals show a limited range of solid solution with each other, and the ex-
act partitioning of the elements as a function of temperature and pressure provides
useful geothermometers and geobarometers in characterizing the conditions for for-
AGI DATA SHEET 72.6
mation of a rock. For example, the Diopside-Enstatite system illustrates how the com-
position of each phase changes in the solid state after complete crystallization of the
liquid along each limb of the solvus (Figure 7), that is the line that separates a
homogeneous solid solution phase from two or more phases. As the two types of
coexisting crystals cool, they exchange calcium and magnesium so that each phase
approaches its end-member composition. Precise calibration of the composition of
the coexisting phases with temperature gives accurate measures of the temperature
of closure, that is the last temperature to which the crystals responded. For example,
if it can be shown by an independent geobarometer (e.g., At-content of enstatite) that
the pressure was 20 Kbar, and the compositions of the coexisting pyroxenes in a
nodule from an alkali basalt were determined to be En 95 Di5 and Di 80 En 20 , then the
closure temperature, according to Figure 7, was 1200C.
P 12Kb
1800
1700
1600
~ 1500 Enstatite 55
Q).
+
iQ.
1400
Diopside 55
~
1-
1300
1200
1100
1ooo~~~~~~~~--~~~~~
References
Many quantitative diagrams to help understand the melting behavior of rocks have
been prepared and assembled in the following books:
Phase Diagrams for Ceramists, American Ceramic Society, Westerville, Ohio:
Vol. I 1964 E.M. Levin, C.R. Robbins, and H.F. McMurdie
Vol. II 1969 E.M. Levin, C.R. Robbins, and H.F. McMurdie
Vol. Ill 1975 E.M. Levin and H.F. McMurdie
Vol. IV 1981 R.S. Roth, T. Negas, and L.P. Cook
Vol. V 1983 R.S. Roth, T. Negas, and L.P. Cook
Vol. VI 1987 R.S. Roth, J.R. Dennis, and H.F. McMurdie
Vol. VII 1989 L.P. Cook (in press)
Vol. VIII 1989 B.O. Mysen, R.S. Roth, and H.F. McMurdie (in press)
Basalts and Phase Diagrams, S.A. Morse (1980), Springer-Verlag, New York, 493 p.
AGI DATA SHEET 73.1
Fault-plane Solutions of Earthquakes
by R. F. Yerkes, U.S. Geological Survey
Fault-plane solutions of earthquakes are one of the most powerful tools available for inter-
pretation of tectonic regimes because they furnish the only evidence of the geometry and sense
of modern deformation at seismic depths; they also serve to correlate that deformation with
exposed structural elements. This introductory sketch outlines the basis of fault-plane solu-
tions, describes their derivation, identifies major pitfalls in construction and use, shows selected
examples, and identifies some of the important literature.
Fault-plane solutions are derived from the sense of first motions recorded on seismograms.
It is assumed that the first motions reflect the double-couple model of faulting. Figure 1, for
example, shows pure horizontal displacement on a vertical fault ana the corresponding fault-
plane diagram. The arrows show the directions of relative movement: the material ahead of
the arrows is visualized as being compressed or pushed away from the source, whereas that
behind the arrows is dilated or pulled toward the source. The region surrounding the earth-
quake hypocenter is thus viewed as divided into quadrants in which the first motions are alter-
nately compressions and dilations. The quadrants are separated by two orthogonal planes,
A-A' and F-F', the focal planes.
to ,A 2a
1b
F
8
-=
......
G ti.G
G
!.... F'
2b
W
@ B
I
s
+
0
I
E
1
3 4
-0 ~ ........_, __ T
5 6
Q-F I
<l >
Figure 1. a) Plan view of horizontal displacement on vertical fault AA' or F-F' and resulting distribution
of compressions (+)and dilatations ( - ); b) corresponding fault-plane ("beachball") diagram.
Derivation involves the following steps: 1) The directions of motion (up or down; away from
or toward the source) are read from seismograms from each recording station. 2) The observed
first motion for each station is projected back to the earthquake source and plotted in its cor-
rect geometric relation to signals from other recording stations on an imaginary sphere-the
focal sphere-surrounding the source of the earthquake. The focal sphere is usually represented
by an equal-area projection of the lower hemisphere. 3) The resulting radiation pattern of first-
motion polarities is then separated by use of the stereonet into quadrants of compressional
and dilatational signals so that adjacent quadrants have opposite polarities (Figure 2; see Lee
and Stewart, 1981, sec. 6.2 for methods). If it is assumed that the radiation pattern is produced
by impulsive rupture on a plane, one of the nodal planes defined by the quadrants represents
the fault. Determining which nodal plane represents the fault must be based on independent
evidence, such as the distribution of aftershocks. Step 3 determines the inferred stress axes
{P, compression; T, tension) uniquely. Once the fault plane is identified, the slip vector (axis
of net slip in the fault plane) and the relative proportions of vertical and horizontal displace-
ment can be determined. In principle, the P and T axes do not necessarily correspond to the
tectonic stresses that caused the earthquake; however, the latter can be determined to within
20 once the fault plane and slip vector are known {Raleigh and others, 1972, p. 283-284).
Figure 2 shows a resolved radiation pattern, in which the focal planes are tightly constrained
by well-distributed signals that are mostly uniform within quadrants. The dilatation signal near
the T axis, in an otherwise compressional quadrant, suggests that polarities were reversed
on the corresponding seismograph or that the seismogram was misread. The quality of radia-
tion patterns-and hence their interpretation-is directly dependent on the number and dis-
tribution of reliable recorders relative to the hypocenter and the adequacy of the velocity model
used, as well as proper polarity of recorders. Figures 3-6 show typical fault-plane solutions.
The "beachball~ symbol is derived from the resolved radiation pattern by showing compression-
al quadrants in solid or dark color and dilatational quadrants as blank.
~~~~r~~:~et~~~i~~J~~r~hs:~~~~~~:~~f~~~1~t~f~rrm~:i~:~~9~~~ ~~~~~~~e~!~~~~:
cal Research often contain interpretations based on fault-plane solutions. Hodgson (1957) pre-
sents one of the earliest reviews of interpretive methods and a summary tabulation of fault-
plane data on 75 earthquakes from around the world. Fara (1964) presents tabulated data on
all published fault-plane solutions for earthquakes around the world to April1964. Sykes (1967)
and !sacks et al. (1 968) apply the interpretive power of fault-plane solutions to plate tectonics
on a world scale. An excellent example of a special study is that of the 1971 San Fernando
earthquake (Whitcomb et al., 1973), in which the geometry and sense of displacement on the
failure surtace are derived. Stauder (1962) and Lee and Stewart (1981) present brief histories
of development of the method, formal derivations of analyses used in ray tracing, and methods
of resolving radiation patterns by use of the stereonet.
References
Fara, H. D., 1964, A new catalog of fault-plane solutions: Seismological Society of America Bulletin, v. 5,
p. 1491-1517.
Hodgson, J. H., 1957, Nature of faulting in large earthquakes: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 68, p. 611-652
lsacks, B., Oliver, J .. and Sykes, L.R., 1968, Seismology and the new global tectonics: Journal of Geo-
physical Research, v. 73, p. 5855-5899.
Lee, W. H. K., and Stewart, S. W., 1981, Principles and applications of microearthquake networks:
Advances in Geophysics, Supplement 2, Academic Press, New York.
Raleigh, C. B., Healy, J. H., and Bredehoeh, J.D., 1972, Faulting and crustal stress at Rangely, Colorado,
in Heard, H. C., et al .. eds., Flow and fracture of rocks: Geophysical Monograph Series, v. 16, p. 175-
284, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
Stauder, W., 1962. The focal mechan1sm of earthquakes: Advances in Geophysics, v. 9, p. 1~76, Aca-
demic Press, New York.
Sykes, L. R., 1967. Mechanism ot earthquakes and nature of faulting on the Mid Ocean ridges: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 72, p. 2131-2153.
Whitcomb, J. H., Allen, C. A., Garmany, J.D., and Hileman, J. A., 1973, San Fernando earthquake series,
1971: Focal mechanisms and tectonics: Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, v. 11, p. 693-730.
AGI DATA SHEET 74.1
Seismic Moment and Moment Magnitude
Thomas C. Hanks, U.S. Geologic Survey
Seismic moment (Me) is a measure of the strength of shear failure customarily identified as the
cause of crustal earthquakes. As such, it is a useful measure of the "size" of an earthquake
and is superior to conventional magnitude scales for two important reasons: Me is an absolute,
not a relative measure of source strength, and Mo does not "saturate" for large enough earth-
quakes, as any conventional magnitude scale must. Although Moisalmostalwaysderivedfrom
seismic wave data, it is readily related to the geologic expression of faulting accompanying
crustal earthquakes and thus is of great value for quantifying rates of slip and recurrence inter-
vals from the historic record of earthquakesjalong active crustal fault zones.
(Formally, seismic moment is a tensor quantity for general conditions of material failure that
could give rise to earthquakes. In almost every instance of crustal earthquakes, however, it
can be reduced to a scalar quantity, the magnitude of either of the equal and opposite mo-
ments to which earthquake faulting models can be reduced in the natural coordinate system
of the fault plane and the dislocation vector.)
The seismic moment of an earthquake can be determined from either its body waves or
its surface waves, after suitable corrections are made for wave-propagation effects. In an elastic,
homogeneous, and isotropic full space, for example, Mo can be determined from either the P
or S wave with the relation
M _ 4 1r P R Iv(P,S)p Ue(P,S)
o-RIJq>(P.S)
Here p. is the density of the medium, R is the hypocentral distance, and v(P ,S) and Ro (P,S)
are, respectively, the material velocity and radiation pattern for the P or S wave, as appropri-
ate; O~(P ,S) is the area under the displacement pulse of the P or S wave or, equivalently, the long-
period displacement spectral density.
Of great significance for geologic investigations of fault activity and recurrence intervals is
the relation that M 0 bears to the product of the average faulting displacement u that develops
across a fault surface of area A in the course of an earthquake:
Mo= J.i.UA
where J.1. is the shear modulus of the source region. Cumulative Mo sums for any fault zone
of interest can then be cast into a seismic slip rate, which can be compared with longer-
term slip rates determined geologically or paleomagnetically, or with geodetically determined
u
slip rateS.'2 Conversely, Me can be determined from field observations and estimates of and A
for any earthquake for which they are available.
Seismic moment can also be estimated from empirical relations between Mo and the area
enclosed by Modified Mercalli Intensity VI. These relations are of value when historical data
are available but instrumental data are not. For southern California the relation is3
log Me= 1.971og Av1- 2.55
where A" is in em<. A similar relation exists between log Mo and log Av1for eastern North American
earthquakes. 4
Seismic moment is the basis of the new M,. magnitude scale, 5 the moment-magnitude rela-
tion being
log Mo=1.5Mw+16.1.
This is virtually identical to empirically derived relations between M.(surface-wave magnitude)
and Mo6
log M0 =1.5M,+(16.1 0.1)
and ML (local magnitude) and M/
log Mo+ 1.5 ML +16.0.
Thus a single moment magnitude M may be written 8
M='!J log M 0 -10.7
which is uniformly valid with respect to 3 :s ML :s 7, 5 :S Ms :S 71/2, and Mwat larger magnitude,
apart from the usual scatter that accompanies empirical correlations between seismic moment
and magnitude.
AGIDSrmf-62
AGI DATA SHEET 74.2
A table of seismic moments and moment magnitudes for some important California earth-
quakes follows.3,B
Earthquake Date Ma(X1 ozs dyne-em)
II
Fort Tejon Jan. 9, 1857 530-870 7.8-7.9
Owens Valley Mar. 26, 1872 500 7.8
San Francisco Apr. 18, 1906 400 7.7
Kern County July 21, 1952 200 7.5
Lompoc Nov. 4, 1927 65 7.2
Imperial Valley May 19, 194Q 30 7.0
Santa Barbara June 29, 1925 20 6.8
San Fernando Feb. 9, 1971 10 6.6
Borrego Mountain Apr. 9, 1968 6 6.5
Imperial Valley Oct. 15, 1979 6 6.5
Long Beach Mar. 11, 1933 2 6.2
Point Mugu Feb. 21, 1973 0.1 5.3
References
1. Brune, J. N., 1968. Seismic moment, seismicity, and rate of slip along major fault zones, J.
Goophys. Res. 73, 777-784.
~~~~~~f~t~ta~~~~~n~~ s~u~he~nng~i~~r~~~.Ta~i h~ ~~~~i~!!~~~~ ~!e,2i;~~~~~~,~~~~ ~:,
2
.
1140-1146.
3. Hanks, T. C., Hileman, J. A., and Thatcher, W., 1975. Seismic moments of the larger earth-
quakes of the southern California region, Geo/. Soc. Amer. Bull. 86, 1131-1139.
4. Herrmann, R. B., Cheng, S. -H., and Nuttli, 0. W., 1978. Archeoseismology applied to the
New Madrid earthquakes of 1811 to 1812, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Amer. 68, 1751-1759.
5. Kanamori, H., 1977. The energy release in great earthquakes, J. Geophys. Res. 82,
2981-2987.
6. Purcaru, G., and Berckhemer, H., 1978. A magnitude scale for very large earthquakes, Tec-
tonophysics 49, 189-198.
7. Thatcher, W., and Hanks, T. C., 1973. Source parameters of southem California earthquakes,
J. Geophys. Res. 78, 8547-8576.
8. Hanks, T. C., and Kanamori, H., 1979. A moment magnitude scale, J. Geophys. Res. 84,
2348-2350.
AGI DATA SHEET 75.1
Calculating the Richter Magnitude of a Local Earthquake
from Seismological Laboratory, California Institute of Technology
500
.50
100
400
40 50
300
.}() 20
200 10
20
100 lO
60 H
6
40
0.5
0.2
20
0.1
Amplitude
~1agnitude (millimeters)
(M2)
Distance P
(kilometers) (sf:'comh)
AGIDStvd-82
AGI DATA SHEET 76.1
Application of Geophysical Methods*
by David Cummings
SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEYS
=~~!~~J!~~~!~r!f:~ ""~'"W$;:,::~
ble, location of faults, dynamic in situ
properties of subsurface materials,
v, \ ,-
\'
~
//
1
h
1
weathering, and static corrections for 1
large-scale seismic refraction surveys.
~~~~~s~i~~ip~=~~~i:~~~~ of~~; v2 __,.
AGIDS-rvd-82
AGI DATA SHEET 76.2
GRAVIMETRIC SURVEYS
02~/--~~-----
The data can be used to determine faults, depth to . ,
bedrock in deep alluvial-filled basins, lateral changes
of rock types, configuration of subsurface structures. 0.1 - - _ .... ~,.
Surveys require precise elevation and latitude con-
0
trol, and also corrections for instrument drift, earth -2 0 2
tides, and nearby terrain. (Supportive data of -0.1
measurement-station elevations to within 0.3 meters
are usually needed.) Data are collected quickly and Surface
easily by one person. Equipment is expensive, not
widely available, and very easily damaged. Interpreta-
tion of data is usually straightforward.
l~~
I
Three-component
' Three-component geophone
geophone
Shear
wave
AGI DATA SHEET n.1
Geophysical Well Logging Techniques
by David Cummings
The use of geophysical methods to investigate properties of rocks and soils in a borehole
can provide valuable geologic information. Application of these methods has been primarily
in the fields of petroleum and ground water. Recently, they have been used in engineering
geology and mining projects. Although the cost of equipment may be relatively high, the costs
of running the surveys are not, exclusive of the cost of drilling the borehole. A crew of 2 or
3 is usually required. Data interpretation is generally straightforward, although interpretations
of some sets of data are difficult for a non-geophysicist. Field surveys and interpretations are
generally done by geophysical companies.
Commonly, several different types of logs are run simultaneously-e.g., electrical resistivity
logs and spontaneous potential logs. These procedures save time in the field and aid in corre-
lation of rock or fluid properties.
The nature of the borehole and the absence of fluids in the hole will prevent certain logging
methods from being effective-e.g., the electrical resistivity method will not operate in a hole
that is dry or is cased; the sonic log method will be seriously affected by metal casing. Irregu-
larities in the borehole diameter will also affect the quality of detection of some data.
The table on the reverse side summarizes the commonly used logging methods.
In a two-dimensional stress system two perpendicular directions exist for which the Figure 1
shear stress ( 1) is zero; these directions are called the principal directions, and the cor-
responding normal stresses ( 0') are called the principal stresses. Defining the x and y
axes as principal directions, the equations for the normal and shear stresses on an ar-
,.
Mohr's circle
(J
The Mohr's circle is a nomograph that solves these equations; the locus of points that
represent the stress components on any arbitrary plane making an angle a with the
least principal stress axis is a circle, namely, Mohr's circle. The stress components ( a
and 1 ) vary with the angle a: and are represented graphically by Mohr's diagram in
whicn a and 1 are taken as coordinates. Each arbitrary plane corresponds to a
point on the ( o- , T ) plane. Mohr's circle is centered at (a c , 1 c ) = ( ~J!y , 0)
2
and has a radius of magnitude/ a,-; a Y/ Figures 1 and 2 are such diagra ms. The
following features of Mohr's circle make it the most useful of all methods for analyzing
stresses:
(1) Given the magnitudes and directions of the greatest and least principal stresses, the
normal and shear stresses on any arbitrary plane can be determined; in other words, a=~
l 2
+ Yi(o-.-2-}
ar\ 2.!- T..z
r
stresses are resolved by geometry rather than by algebraic manipulations.
(2) Given the normal and shear stress on any two perpendicular planes the direction of
the principal stresses can be obtained by a=~
3 2
First: plotting these two points on the ( a , T ) plane
Second: constructing Mohr's circle passing through these two points
Third: measuring the angle a that the principal stresses make with these
planes.
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion of fracture states that when failure occurs, the normal and
shear stresses on the plane of failure are connected by some functional relationship ~3-~
T = j(a). This curve is the envelope of all circles containing points that corres- 2 - 2
pond to the conditions of fracture. Specifically, the values of a, T, and a of the point
of tanQency of Mohr's circle with Mohr's envelope are the straight lines T =
f~c~io~o01 :;,:~te~iai~Fig~~~~~~~~dat~~P~~~1e:~~~~~ is called the angle of internal
Figure 2
typical Mohr's diagram
Mohr's circle relates the angle of internal friction to the angle of dip. In general the three T
axes of stress are unequal; the plane of the fault will strike parallel to the intermediate
stress axis, and it will be inclined to the least principal stress axis by the angle a: 4>
From Figure 2 it is seen that 2 a oo + 6 or a = 45 + <!>12 Thus, when the prin- 6 \0"/------
cipal stresses are horizontal and vertical, the dip of normal faults is 45 + 612 and
the dip of thrust faults is 45 - !JJ/2 . Strike-slip faults dip oo and the angles be- 1""-::;1""o >r
tween conjugate sets of faults are 90 > .
Experiments show that Mohr's envelope for most rock materials is very close to a
straight line of the form = 7Q + a tan 9 . The shear strength To and the angle of
internal friction of a rock are usually determined by triaxial tests. Since direct
measurements of these quantities are not feasible, Mohr's circles are determined by
measuring the lateral and axial stresses. The envelope of these circles gives the rela-
tionship between the normal and shearing stress. The results of a series of tests on
some typical foundation rocks, made by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in the manner
just described, are summarized in Table 1 (Data Sheet 78.2).The elastic constants of the
specimens have been determined by both static and dynamic tests. Dynamic tests sub-
ject the specimens to vibrations instead of static loads. The loads due to vibrations are
very small and of extremely short duration; the duration is seldom longer than 118,000th
second. The static constants are of significance in geology; the dynamic constants, on
the other hand, are significant in seismic wave propagation.
AGI DATA SHEET 78.2
Physical (Engineering) Properties of Rocks
Compiled by Lawrence C. Wood, Stanford University ::_
Table 1
~ _:_.:.~ - - __ ____ - -- ~ -- ___ ._ --- ~- --- --- ~ -- ---,-i -
HASTI C CONSTANTS
PREOI CTED Dl P
COHESION TAN Ass uming hori z. p. =P oisson's Rati o
AVERAGE AVERAGE
= Ang. and vert. prin- AVERAGE E = Young's Mo dulus
ROCK TYPE PSI of Int. cipal stress e s COMPRESSIVE SPECIFIC G = Shear Mod u Iu s
POROSITY
F rict io n in hoono~e n . rock STRENGTH GRAVIT Y STA T I C I>YNAMIC
10 6 PSI 106 PSI
"' NORMAL
FAULTS
THRUST
FAULTS PSI PER CENT p. E p. : E G
i
ANDESITE 4060 1 .0 67c 23c 19 150 2.57 4.80 0 . 18 7. 9 !
3970 1 .0 67 23 18710 3.60 0 . 16 5. 6
BASALT 4500 1.1 69 21 2445o 2. 74 4. 50 0 . 25 9. 2
6340 1. 2 70 20 3 1850 2 . 72 I .63 0 . 22 8. 7 I
2010 1. 4 18 12670 I. 00 0 . ]g l 4 . 40 "'Ts
~
Dl ORI TE QUARTZ 72 _] .~ 3.-
r:oo
____J
-
DIORITE GNEISS 1590 1. 3 I 71 19 9 3 10 1. 07 3. 1 I
2540 I .4 72 18 15140 ~- 0. 10 4.2
GRANITE, Med . Grnd.
51 i ght 1y a I t e red
S I i ght 1y a I tered
PEGMATITE
3250
1420
1150
1040
1.5
1 .6
I .8
1.5
73
74
76
73
17
16
14
17
21580
10460
9400
7000
2.63
2 . 63
2 . 61
2 . 61
-:59
- I
I .0
2. 36
I .0
0.12
0 . 20
0 . 09
*' l;~if
3 .9
1.0 a. 1a 2. 2
2.8
I
1
-r- -
I .0
The laboratory measurements tabulated here can be useful both for deter-
mining structural design and for understanding deterioration processes for build-
ing and monument stones. The variety of mineral composition, bonding, pore
shape and size, fabric, and anisotropy affect the physical properties so much
that an average value for one rock type would be misleading; only ranges of val
ues are given in the table. However, in rock in place, the presence of minor inho-
mogeneities such as shaley layers, cements, foliation, induration, microfractur-
ing, and incipient jointing are as important as laboratory tests and can justify
rejection of dimension stone blocks.
Porosity and permeability are probably the most important physical proper-
ties because they determine the a.;cessibility of water and gases and acidic
solutes, which can cause deterioration of the stones. Thermal and mechanical
properties are important because of their effects on permeability, strength, and
mineral integrity and bonding.
Bulk density, p, is the mass of mineral grains divided by the bulk volume.
Stones having p > 2.2 g /cm3 are too hard to work easily with masonry tools,
although they resist weathering better; stones having p < 1.7 g /cm3 are too soft
and easily weathered. Porosity, <jl, is the ratio of pore volume to pore plus grain
volume. Pores are important because they afford pathways and receptacles for
chemically active fluids, and they can be sources of weakness for ambient
stresses ranging from tectonic to ice-freezing pressure. Coefficient of permeabili-
ty, f-L, in negative logarithms of darcies, d, is defined empirically by Darcy's law,
by which f-L depends on the fluid pressure, viscosity, and rate of flow through unit
area and for unit length. Intrinsic f-L values (in the table) are measured on intact
samples; however, joints and fractures can increase f-L by 10 to 1,000 times.
Thermal expansion, a, is the decimal fractional length change per degree C.
Thermal stress by heating can produce microfractures in rock because of mineral
anisotropy, usually an irreversible effect A 70-bar increase in stress in a granodi-
orite surface was caused by a 25C temperature increase by solar heating.
Freezing ice, at -10C, fully constrained, would exert 1 kb tensile stress. Thermal
conductivity, K, is a measure of solid heat conduction rate per degree C through
unit area per unit length. The K of common rocks increases by a factor of two to
three for a decrease in <jJ from 40 percent to 1 percent; a temperature rise of
1oooc causes a 10 percent reduction in K in common rocks except basalts. Dif-
fusivity, k, is a measure of heat transfer and storage. This parameter is useful in
estimating fluctuating changes in temperature with depth; a 25C surface tem-
perature change produces only a 2C change at 8-m depth.
Hardness, H, like the Mohs' scale, is a relative scratch hardness and is a
measure of the ease of polishing stones. Young's modulus of elasticity, E, is the
ratio of stress to strain in compression. Most rocks behave elastically nearly to
the failure stress, so E can be used to estimate one parameter from the other.
Microcracking damage of stone due to temperature or stress effects will change
E and can be detected by acoustic velocity techniques. Compressive strength, S,
is the maximum stress attained before a rock fails, usually by brittle rupture at
strains of about 1 percent. Modulus of rupture, R, is measured by a simple bend-
ing test and is about equal to tensile strength.
References
Robertson, E.C., 1982. "Physical properties of building stone," and other papers. In
Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and Monuments. National Research Council,
National Academy Press, 365 p.
Winkler, E.M., 1973. Stone: Properties and Durability and Man's Environment. Springer-
Verlag, New York, 230 p.
AGI-DS-jld-89
:J:Io
~
Ra~s of Valuj~e~a~hJ~~=!.t~~!!l!erties of Building Stones
c
Density
Aqqre~~ation PrODerties
Porll5ity Pennea- Expan- Conduct- Diffus- Hard-
Medianica1 !Sr!!l!ert 1es
Young's Strength Modulus
!i
:J:Io
bil ity sion
ex.
fvity ivity ness Modulus of Rupture en
.P 4> f..t _1_ _ K lr. H E s R :I:
m
Rod TvDe q/cm
3 (1) (log d) (106 "C) ~
s ( w- 2cm 2/s) (Hb) (k.b) (kb)
m
....
.....
co
Granite 2.5-2.7 0.1-4 -9 to -6 5-11 3-10 0.5-3 5-7 0.3-0.6 0.8-3.3 0.1-0.7 IN
Gabbro 2.8-3.1 0.3-3 -7 to -5 4-7 4-6 1-2 5-6.5 0.5-1.1 1.1-3.0 0.1-0.7
Rhyoandes i te 2.2-2.5 4-15 -8 to -2 5-9 2-9 0.4-3 5-6.5 0.6-0. 7 0.6-2.2 0.01-0.7
Basalt 2.7-3.1 0.1-5 -5 to -1 4-6 2-5 0.4-1.5 4-6.5 0.5-1.0 0.5-2.9 0.1-0.9
Quartzite 2.5-2.7 0.3-3 -7 to -4 10-12 8-16 2-8 4-7 0.6-1.0 1.1-3.6 0.1-1.0
Harble 2.4-2.8 0.4-5 -6 to -3 5-9 3-7 0.5-1.5 2-4 0.2-0.7 0.4-1.9 0.04-0.03
Slate 2.6-2.9 0.1-5 -11 to -8 8-10 3-9 0.5-3 3-5 0.3-0.9 0.5-3.1 0.05-1.0
Sandstone 2.0-2.6 1-30 -3 to 0 8-12 2-12 0.4-5 2-7 0.03-0.8 0.2-2.5 0.01-0.4
Limestone 1.8-2.7 0.3-30 -9 to -2 4-12 2-6 0.4-1.5 2-3 0.1-0.7 0.2-2.4 0.1-0.5
Shale 2.0-2.5 2-30 -9 to -5 9-15 1-8 0.3-Z 2-3 0.1-0. I 0.3-1.3 0.02-0.5
Travertine 2.0-2.7 0.5-5 -5 to -2 6-10 2-5 0.4-1 Z-3 0.1-0.6 0.1-1.5 0.02-0.1
Serpentinite 2.2-2. 7 1-15 -7 to -3 5-12 3-9 0.5-3 2-5 0.1-0.5 0.7-1.9 0.05-0.1
Source: E. C. Robertson. "Physical properties of building stone. In Conserva~_l~ Historic Stone Buildiogs __and Monurne_l'll:s, 1982.
>
f1
c
CD
,
;;
6
(/1
S' ::::::1
l a
3
!UJ
m
31: ::::::1
Name Surface Atmosphere c.
~
0
yr
0.62 yr
1.00 yr
48.7
59.8
5.3
5.5
basalt, granite?
basalt, granite, water
AI
<
ni"
!fJ
'"
ca
CD
C/)
:0 I
Moon - - 27.32 d 0.7 3.3 basalt, anorthosites none
~
Marsb 228 1.52 1.88 yr 6.4 3.9 basalt, clays, ice 0.07 bar: 95% CO,
?'
Jupiter 778 5.20 11.86 yr 18,991 1.3 none H,,He,CH.,NH,, etc.
en
CD
Callisto 16.69 d 1.1 1.9 dirty ice none a: UJi
Ganymede
Europa
- 7.15 d
3.55 d
1.5
0.5
1.9
3.0
3
2
dirty ice
ice
nona
none
CD
3CD
lo 1.77 d 0.9 3.6 3 sulfur, SO, trace SO, ~'::J
Saturn 1,426 9.54 29.46 yr 5,686 0.7 36 none Hl,He,CH.,NH,, etc. m
~
Titan 15.95 d 1.3 1.9 3 ice? hydrocarbons? 1.5 bar: N,, trace CH.
Uranus 2,868 19.18 84.07 yr 866 1.2 21 ? H.,He,CH.,NH.h etc.
Neptune 4,494 30.06 164.82 yr 1,030 1.6 23 ? H,,He,CH.,NH,, etc. en
Triton
Pluto
-
5,900 39.44
5.88 d
248.6 yr
?
0.01
?
1.7
?
1
CH. Ice, liquid N,(?)
CH. ice
trace CH.
trace CH.
S'
'::J
9:
CD
::r
CD ]:1!>
Notes
Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., from David Morrison and Tobias Owens, 1988, The Planetary System.
'::J
Q, 9
!=I c
a R denotes retrograde rotation.
~ ~
lJi
b The belt of asteroids is between Mars and Jupiter. -1 en
:::r
0 :I:
m
~ m
-t
~
AGI DATA SHEET 80.2
The four small terrestrial planets are closest to the sun. Beyond the asteroid belt lie
the giant planets and finally the terrestrial-like planet of Pluto. In this diagram, distances
from the sun are given by a logarithmic scale and the diameters of the planets by
an arithmetic scale.
~
AGI DATA SHEET 81.2
Continents and Large Islands
CONTINENTS
Area in: Percent of
Sq. Miles Sq.Km. World's Land
Asia 17,128,500 44,362,815 29.5
Africa 11,707,000 30,321,130 20.2
North America 9,363,000 24,250,170 16.2
South America 6,875,000 17,806,250 11.8
Antarctica 5,500,000 14,245,000 9.5
Europe 4,057,000 10,507,630 7.0
Australia 2,966,136 7,682,300 5.1
LARGE ISLANDS
Area in:
Sq. Miles Sq.Km.
Greenland 840,000 2,175,600
New Guinea 305.000 789,950
Borneo 290,000 751,100
Madagascar 226,400 586,376
Baffin, Canada 195,928 507,454
Sumatra, Indonesia 164,000 424,760
Honshu, Japan 88,000 227,920
Great Britain 84.400 218,896
Victoria, Canada 83,896 217,290
Ellesmere, Canada 75,767 196,236
Celebes, Indonesia 72,986 189,034
South Island, New Zealand 58,393 151,238
Java, Indonesia 48,842 126,501
North Island, New Zealand 44,187 114,444
Newfoundland, Canada 42,031 108,860
Cuba 40,533 104.981
Luzon. Philippines 40,420 104.688
Iceland 39,768 103,000
Mindanao, Philippines 36,537 94.631
Ireland 31,743 82,214
Sakhalin, USSR 29,500 76,405
Hispaniola, Haiti & Dominican Republic 29,399 76,143
Hokkaido, Japan 28,983 75,066
Banks, Canada 27,038 70,028
Ceylon, Sri Lanka 25,332 65,610
Tasmania, Australia 24,600 63,710
Svalbard, Norway 23,957 62,049
Devon, Canada 21,331 55,247
Novaya Zemlya (north island), USSR 18,600 48,200
Maraj6, Brazil 17,991 46,597
Tierra del Fuego, Chile & Argentina 17,900 46,360
Alexander, Antarctica 16,700 43,250
from Hammond, Citation World Atlas
Copyright Permission: Hammond Incorporated
Maplewood, New Jersey
AGI DATA SHEET 82.1
Craters of the World
Prepared for the International Union of Geological Sciences Commission on
Comparative Planetology by R.A.F. Grieve and P.B. Robertson, Geological Sur-
vey of Canada, Energy Mines and Resources Canada.
Diameter Age
Name (km) (Ma)
1. Amguid, Algeria 0.45 <0.1
2. Aouelloul, Mauritania 0.37 3.1 0.3
3. Araguainha Dome, Brazil 40 <250
4. Azuara, Spain 30 <130
5. Barringer, Arizona, U.S.A. 1.2 0.025
6. Bee Bluff, Texas, U.S.A. 2.4 <40
7. Beyenchime-Salaatin, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 8 <65
8. Bigatch, K.S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 7 63
9. Boltysh, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 25 1005
10. Bosumtwi, Ghana 10.5 1.30.2
11. Boxhole, N. T., Australia 0.18
12. B.P. Structure, Libya 2.8 <120
13. Brent, Ontario, Canada 3.8 45030
14. Campo del Cielo, Argentina (20) 0.09
15. Carswell, Saskatchewan, Canada 37 1178
16. Charlevoix, Quebec, Canada 46 36025
17. Clearwater LEast, Quebec, Canada* 22 29020
18. Clearwater L. West, Quebec, Canada 32 29020
19. Connolly Basin, W.A., Australia 9 <60
20. Crooked Creek, Missouri, U.S.A. 5.6 32080
21. Dalgaranga, W.A., Australia* .021
22. Decaturville, Missouri, U.S.A. 6 <300
23. Deep Bay, Saskatchewan, Canada 12 10050
24. Dellen, Sweden 15 109.61
25. Eagle Butte, Alberta, Canada 10 <65
26. El'gygytgyn, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 23 3.50.5
27. Flynn Creek, Tennessee, U.S.A. 3.8 36020
28. Glover Bluff, Wisconsin, U.S.A. 6 <500
29. Goat Paddock, W.A., Australia 5 >50
30. Gasses Bluff, N.T., Australia 22 142.50.5
31. Gow L., Saskatchewan, Canada* 5 <250
32. Gusev, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 3 65
33. Haughton, N.W.T., Canada 20 21.51.2
34. Haviland, Kansas, U.S.A. 0.011
35. Henbury, N.T., Australia (14)* 0.15
36. Holleford, Ontario, Canada 2 550 100
37. lie Rouleau, Quebec, Canada 4 <300
38. llintsy, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 4.5 3955
39. llumetsy, Estonia, U.S.S.R. 0.08 0.002
40. Janisjarvi, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 14 69822
AGI-DS-jtd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 82.2
Diameter Age
Name (km) (Ma)
41. Kaalijarvi, Estonia, U.S.S.R. (7)* 0.11 0.004
42. Kaluga, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 15 380 10
43. Kamensk, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 25 65
44. Kara, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R.* 60 579
45. Karla, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 10 10
46. Kelly West, N.T., Australia 2.5 <550
47. Kentland, Indiana, U.S.A. 13 <300
48. Kjardla, Estonia, U.S.S.R. 4 51030
49. Kursk, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 5 25080
50. Lac Couture, Quebec, Canada 8 42525
51. Lac La Moinerie, Quebec, Canada 8 40050
52. Lappajarvi, Finland* 14 774
53. Liverpool, N.T., Australia 1.6 150 70
54. Logancha, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 20 5020
55. Logoisk, Belorussia, U.S.S.R. 17 405
56. Lonar, India 1.83 0.05
57. Machi, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. (5) 0.3 <1
58. Manicouagan, Quebec, Canada 100 2104
59. Manson, Iowa, U.S.A. 32 61 9
60. Middlesboro, Kentucky, U.S.A. 6 <300
61. Mien, Sweden* 5 1183
62. Misarai, Lithuania, U.S.S.R. 5 395 145
63. Mishina Gora, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 2.5 <360
64. Mistasin, Nfld. and Lab., Canada 28 384
65. Monturaqui, Chile* 0.46 1
66. Morasko, Poland (7) * 0.1 0.01
67. New Quebec, Quebec, Canada 3.2 5
68. Nicholson L., N.W.T., Canada* 12.5 <400
69. Oasis, Libya 11.5
70. Obolon', Ukraine, U.S.S.R.* 15 21525
71. Odessa, Texas, U.S.A. (3)* 0.168
72. Ouarkziz, Algeria 3.5 <70
73. Piccaninny, W.A., Australia 7 <360
74. Pilot L., N.W.T., Canada 6 4402
75. Popigai, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R.* 100 399
76. Puchezh-Katunki, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 80 1835
77. Red Wing Creek, N. Dakota, U.S.A. 9 200
78. Riacho Ring, Brazil 4
79. Ries, Fed. Rep. Germany* 24 14.80.7
80. Rochechouart, France* 23 16515
81. Rogozinskaja, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 8 555
82. Rotmistrovka, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 2.5 14020
83. saaksjarvi, Finland* 5 51412
84. Saint Martin, Manitoba, Canada 23 22540
85. Serpent Mound, Ohio, U.S.A. 6.4 <320
86. Serra da Canghala, Brazil 12 <300
AGI DATA SHEET 82.3
Diameter Age
Name (km) (Ma)
87. Shunak, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R. 2.5 12
88. Sierra Madera, Texas, U.S.A. 13 <100
89. Sikhote Alin, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. (122)* 0.0265
90. Siljan, Sweden 52 3681
91. Slate Is., Ontario, Canada 30 <350
92. Sobolev, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R.* 0.05
93. Soderfjl:l.rden, Finland 5.5 <600
94. Spider, W.A., Australia 5
95. Steen River, Alberta, Canada 25 95 7
96. Steinheim, Fed. Rep. Germany 3.4 14.80.7
97. Strangways, N.T., Australia* 24 <472
98. Sudbury, Ontario, Canada 140 1850 150
99. Tabun-Khara-Obo, Mongolia 1.3 <30
100. Talemzane, Algeria 1.75 <3
101. Teague, W.A., Australia 28 16855
102. Tenoumer, Mauritania 1.9 2.50.5
103. Ternovka, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 8 33030
104. Tin Bider, Algeria 6 <70
105. Ust-Kara, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 25 579
106. Upheaval Dome, Utah, U.S.A. 5
107. Veevers, W.A., Australia* 0.08 <450
108. Vepriaj, Lithuania, U.S.S.R. 8 16030
109. Vredefort, South Africa 140 1970 100
11 0. Wabar, Saudi Arabia (2) 0.097
111. Wanapitei L., Ontario, Canada 8.5 372
112. Wells Creek, Tennessee, U.S.A. 14 200 100
113. West Hawk L., Manitoba, Canada 2.7 10050
114. Wolf Creek, W.A., Australia 0.85
115. Zeleny Gai, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 1.4 12020
116. Zhamanshin, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.* 10 0.750.06
Feet Meters
Everest, Nepal-China 29,028 8,848
Godwin Austen (K2). Pakistan-China 28,250 8,611
Kanchenjunga, Nepal-India 28,208 8,598
Lhotse, Nepal-China 27,923 8,511
Makalu, Nepal-China 27,824 8,481
Dhaulagiri, Nepal 26,810 8,172
Nanga Parbat, Pakistan 26,660 8,126
Annapurna, Nepal 26,504 8,078
Gasherbrum, Pakistan-China 26,470 8,068
Nanda Devi. India 25,645 7,817
Rakaposhi, Pakistan 25,550 7,788
Kamet, India 25,447 7,756
Gurla Mandhada, China 25,355 7,728
Kongur Shan, China 25,325 7,719
Tirich Mir, Pakistan 25,230 7,690
Gongga Shan, China 24,790 7,556
Muztagata, China 24,757 7,546
Communism Peak, USSR 24,599 7,498
Pobeda Peak, USSR 24,406 7,439
Choma Lhari, Bhutan-China 23,997 7,314
Muztag, China 23,891 7,282
Cerro Aconcagua, Argentina 22,831 6,959
Ojos del Salado, Chile-Argentina 22,572 6,880
Bonete, L;nllle-,fl.raentma 22,541 6,870
Tupungato, ljnl!le-,funemma 22,310 6,800
Pissis, Argentina 22,241 6,779
Mercedario, Argentina 22,211 6.770
Huascaran, Peru 22,205 6,768
LlullaHiaco, Chile-Argentina 22,057 6.723
Nevada Ancohuma, Bolivia 21,489 6,550
lllampu, Bolivia 21,276 6,485
Chimborazo, Ecuador 20,561 6,267
McKinley, Alaska 20,320 6,194
Logan, Canada (Yukon) 19,524 5,951
Cotopaxi. Ecuador 19,347 5,897
Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 19,340 5,895
El Misti, Peru 19,101 5,822
Pica Cristobal Col6n, Colombia 19,029 5,800
Huila, Colombia 18,865 5,750
Citlaltepetl (Orizaba), Mexico 18,855 5,747
El'brus. USSR 18,510 5,642
Damavand, Iran 18,376 5,601
St Elias. Alaska-Canada (Yukon) 18,008 5,489
Vilcanota, Peru 17,999 5,486
Popocateptl, Mexico 17,887 5,452
Oykhtau, USSR 17,070 5,203
Kenya, 17,058 5,199
Ararat, 16,946 5,165
Feet Meters
Vinson Massif, Antarctica 16.864 5,140
Margherita (Ruwenzori). Uganda-Congo 16.795 5,119
Kazbek. USSR 16,512 5,033
Puncak Jaya, Indonesia 16,503 5,030
Tyree, Antarctica 16,289 4,965
Mont Blanc, France 15,771 4,807
Klyuchevskaya Sopka, USSR 15,584 4,750
Fairweather, Canada (British Columbia) 15,300 4,663
Dufourspitze (Mte. Rosa), Italy-Switzerland 15,203 4.634
Ras Dashan, Ethiopia 15,157 4.620
Matterhorn. Switzerland 14.691 4,478
Whitney. California, U.S. 14,494 4.418
Elbert, Colorado, U.S. 14,433 4,399
Rainier, Washington, U.S. 14,410 4.392
Shasta, California, U.S. 14,162 4,317
Pikes Peak, Colorado, U.S. 14,110 4,301
Finsteraarhorn. Switzerland 14,022 4,274
Mauna Kea, Hawaii, U.S. 13,796 4,205
Mauna Loa. Hawaii, U.S. 13,677 4,169
Jungfrau, Switzerland 13.642 4,158
Cameroon. Cameroon 13.350 4,069
Grossglockner. Austria 12,457 3,797
Fuji, Japan 12,389 3.776
Cook. New Zealand 12.349 3,764
Etna, Italy 11,053 3.369
Kosciusko, Australia 7,310 2,228
Mitchell, North Carolina, U.S. 6,684 2,037
~
Number of historically active volcanoes in each region is listed i~ pare~theses.
Elevation of summ1t ts in meters above sea level
First Hisle is year of first historically documented eruption; minus represents a B.C. eruption.
Most Recent represents the most recent eruption known as of October, 1989.
Yrs 4ct is number of years, since A.D. 1800, in which volcano erupted.
Global records in each category are boldfaced.
3
Volume ol Tephra (m ) <10 4 1o4S 106 107 10 8 109 1010
The Volcanic Explosrvity Index (VEl), a semtq~:antitative measure of explosive magnitude, is listed lor each ol the
notable eruptions in the loll owing data sheet. The criteria for VEl assignments are shown above
Source: Smithsonian Institution's Volcano Relere,ce File (Voicanaes of the World, Hutchi~son Ross, 1981) with
some fatality data lrcm R.J. Blong (Volcanic Hazards, AcademiC Press, 1984). VEl descriptions n Volcanoes of
the World and Newhall and Self, JGR (Oceans & Atmospheres) v. 87, 1982. Comments and correct ons are we~come
at Smithsonian Institution, NHB-GVP m.s. 119, Washington D.C. 20560.
AGI DATA SHEET 84.3
Notable Volcanic Eruptions*
YEAR MoDy VOLCANO NAME (region) VEr"Comment
-4895 CRATER LAKE (US-Oregon) 7 Post-eruption collapse forms caldera
-4350 KIKAI (Ryukyu Is-Japan) 7 Pyroclastic flows reach Kyushu
-1500 ETNA (Italy) 5? First historically documented eruption
-1390 SANTORINI [THIRA] (Greece) 6 Late Minoan civilization devastated
-179 SANTORINI [THIRA] (Greece) 2? First historic new vdcanic island
1783 0726 ASAMA (Honshu-Japan) 4 Pyroclastic flows and floods kill >1200
1790 11 KILAUEA (Hawaii) 4 Hawaii's last large explosive eruption
1792 0521 UNZEN (Kyushu-Japan) 2 Debris avalanche & tsunami kill14,500
1815 0410 TAM BORA (Indonesia) 7 History's most explosive; 92,000 die; climate
1822 1008 GALUNGGUNG (Java) 4 Pyroclastic flows and mudflows kill4011
~~~ ~~~~ g~~~G~~~L~~~~~~GJ (Chile) ~ :~~~~~~!~;~l:!i~~~~ations heard in Colombia
1854 0218 SHIVELUCH (Kamchatka) 5 Similarto 1956 Bezymianny, 1980 St. Helens
1856 0302 AWU (Sangihe Is-Indonesia) 3? Pyroclastic flows kill2606
1875 0329 ASKJA (Iceland) 5 Ashfall on Europe; caldera collapse follows
~ :: ~~~b ~~~~~AR~ (~~~~~::/and) ~ ~~~~r~~~::~~~~t~~~1 ~~~~~~most by tsunami
1892 0607 AWU (Sangihe Is-Indonesia) 3 Pyroclastic flows kiJI1532
1902 0508 MONT PELEE 0N Indies) 4 St. Pierre destroyed; 28,000 dead; famous spine
1902 0506 SOUFRIERE ST. VINCENT 0N I) 4? 1680 fatalities from pyroclastic llows
1902 1024 SANTA MARIA (Guatemala) 6 5000 killed; dome growth begins 20 yrs later
1907 0326 KSUDACH (Kamchatka) 5 Maar formation; 3 km 3 tephra
1912 0606 NOVARUPTA [KATMAI] (Alaska) 6 Largest 20th century eruption; ca. 33 km 3 tephra
1914 0530 LASSEN (US-California) 3 California's last historic eruption begins
1919 0519 KELUT(Java) 4 Mudflowskill5110,devastate 104villages
1932 0410 CERRO AZUL [QUIZAPU] (Chile) 6 18 km 3 tephra; ashfall inS Africa, New Zealand
1943 0220 PARICUTIN (Mexico) 3 New cone formation observed from start
1951 0121 LAMINGTON (Papua New Guinea) 4 Pyroclastic flows kill2942
1956 0330 BEZYMIANNY (Kamchatka) 5 Similar to 1980 St. Helens eruption
1959 1114 KILAUEA (Hawaii) 2 Kilauea lki: still cooling lava lake formed
1963 0317 AGUNG (Bali-Indonesia) 4 Climatic effects; 1148 killed
1963 1116 SURTSEY (Iceland) 3 New island appears after 2 days; 4-year eruption
1968 0611 FERNANDINA (Galapagos) 4 350-m drop of caldera floor follows eruption
1975 0706 TOLBACHIK (Kamchatka) 4 Major fissure eruption starts as predicted
1975 1220 KRAFLA (Iceland) 1 9-yr fissure eruption/intrusion event starts
1976 0812 SOUFRIERE GUADELOUPE (WI) 2 Evacuation of 74,000 residents begins
1977 0110 NYIRAGONGO (Tanzania) 1 Fluid lava flow; velocity 100 km/hr (avg 30 km/hr)
,
..
,\ . . .,...
~
~
sa * r~
1.
)
...
Filled triangles represent volcanoes with historically documented eruptions. Empty triangles indicate volcanoes active in Holocene
time. Small dots show thermal features and uncertain eruption reports. Ocean ridge volcanism is not shown. Coordinates are at
20 intervals. Map and data from Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program.
AGI DATA SHEET 85.1
AUSTRALIA
Murray Australia 410 1,060 25 0.7
EUROPE
Volga USSR 525 1,360 280 8.0
AGI-05-jtd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 85.2
River Country Drainage Average
area discharge
at mouth
(1,000 (1,000 (1,000 (1,000
mi 2 ) km 2 ) tP/s) m3 /s)
EUROPE (cont.)
Danube Romania, Yugoslavia, 315 817 231 6.5
Hungary, Austria
Pechora USSR 124 322 143 4.1
Dvina (Northern USSR 138 357 119 3.4
Dvina; Severnaya)
Neva USSR 108 281 92 2.6
Rhine Netherlands, West 65 169 78 2.2
Germany, France,
Switzerland, etc.
Dnieper (Dnepr) USSR 195 504 59 1.7
Rhone France, Switzerland 37 95 55 1.6
Po Italy 29 74 52 1.5
NORTH AMERICA
Mississippi h u.s. 1,250 3,240 651 18.
St. Lawrence Canada, U.S. 396 1,030 348 9.9
(-Great Lakes)
Mackenzie Canada 697 1,810 343 9.7
Ohio u.s. 203 526 281 8.0
Columbia U.S., Canada 258 668 265 7.5
Yukon U.S., Canada 328 850 225 6.4
Fraser Canada (British 90 232 125 3.5
Columbia)
Stave Canada 238 616 125 3.5
Grijalva(-Usumacinta) Mexico, Guatemala 46 120 118 3.3
Nelson Canada 414 1,070 94 2.7
Koksoak (Kujjuaq) Canada 52 133 85 2.4
Missouri u.s. 529 1.370 76 2.2
Peace Canada 117 303 74 2.1
Ottawa Canada 56 146 69 2.0
Tennessee U.S. 41 106 68 1.9
Mobile u.s. 45 116 67 1.9
Kuskokwim U.S. 48 124 67 1.9
SOUTH AMERICA
Amazon Brazil, Peru 2,370 6,150 7,100 200.
Orinoco Venezuela, Colombia 370 970 1.270 36.
Rio Negro Brazil 390 1,000 1.060 30.
Madeira Brazil 460 1,200 770 22.
Parana Argentina, Paraguay, 1,010 2,600 570 16.
Brazil
Tocantins Brazil 350 910 360 10.
Magdalena Colombia 93 240 265 7.5
Uruguay Argentina, Uruguay, 90 230 136 3.9
Brazil
Sao Francisco BrazH 250 640 110 3.1
Notes
All data are rounded to two or three significant figures.
a Tigris, Euphrates, and Karun rivers.
b Includes Atchafalaya River.
,
f) River Lengtha Drainage area 0
6 (miles) (square miles) 0
!f. 3
'2.
~ ;-
"' Atchalalaya (Red)c 1,420 a.
D"
532 '<
c..
1.450 246,000 (U.S.Mexico) 3,500 300,000 Jul. 1684 0
:r
:::J
Columbia 1,240 258,000 (US.Canada) 265,000 1.240,000 Jun 6, 1694 p
Copper 286 24,400 59,000 380,000 Aug 8, 1981 ;:-
3
(Canada) 125,000 536,000 May 31, 1948
3
Fraser 850 90,000 I'll
ca
500 46,000 (Mexico-Guatemala) 11 8.000 ~""'
!=
y>
Koksoak (Kuuuaq) 543 51,500 (Canada) 85,500 477,000 May 24, 1979
Q
I'll
Kuskokwim 724 48,000 (U.S.) 67,000 392,000 Jun 5, 1964 0
0
1.0
()"
!!.
(/)
Liard 693 107,000 (Canada) 66,500 572,000 Jun 6, 1979 c
Mackenzie 2,640 697,000 (Canada) 343,000 1,200,000 May 26, 1975 i
Mississippi 2,340d 1,150,000e (U.S.-Canada) 593.000' 2,080,000 Feb 17, 1937
~I 18
Missouri 2,540 529,000 (U.S. Canada) 76,200 Re~ Rock Cree~. 892.000 Jun, 1844 ~
(/)
::z:
-
I I~
Mobile 774 44,600 (U.S.) 67,200
Notes
Information is primarily from the U.S. Geological Survey, Water Survey of Canada, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Department of Transpor-
tation (Coast Guard), and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. All data are rounded to no more than three significant figures.
a From source to mouth. Because river lengths and methods of measurement may change from time to time, the length figures are subject
to revision
b At or near the mouth of the river.
" Continuation of the Red River; data on average discharge, length, and drainage area include the Red River but exclude about 167,000
ft 3 /s diverted from the Mississippi into the Atchafalaya River.
d The length from the source of the Missouri River to the Mississippi River and then to the Gulf of Mexico is about 3,710 miles.
e Excluding the drainage areas of the Red and Atchafalaya rivers.
f Includes about 167,000 ft 3 /s diverted from the Mississippi into the Atchafalaya River but excludes the flow of the Red River.
g Excludes water reaching the Gulf of California via floodway channels.
h Drainage area at the gaging station is 299,000 mi 2 .
AGI DATA SHEET 86.1
AGI-DS-jtd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 86.2
1960 Feb 29 Morocco, Agadir 30 N 9 w 10,000+ 5.9
1960 May 22 Chile 39.5 s 74.5 w 4,000+ 8.5
1962 Sep 1 Iran, Qazvin 35.6 N 49.9 E 12,230 7.3
1963 Jul 26 Yugoslavia, Skopje 42.1 N 21.4 E 1,100 6.0
1966 Aug 19 Turkey, Varto 39.2 N 41.7 E 2,520 7.1
1968 Aug 31 Iran 34.0 N 59.0 E 12,000+ 7.3
1969 Jul 25 Eastern China 21.6 N 111.9 E 3,000 5.9
~
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AGI DATA SHEET 87.2
*Circled type indicates an instruction to the printer. Other letters and words will be
typeset.
References
Bishop, Elna E., et al., 1978. Suggestions To Authors, of the Reports of the
United States Geological Survey, 6th ed. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
The University of Chicago, 1982. The Chicago Manual of Style, 13th ed. The
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986. A Manual of Style. Gramercy Publishing
Co., New York.
AGI DATA SHEET 88.1
Preparing and Presenting a Slide Talk
Duncan Heron, Duke University
The purpose of a slide talk is to communicate one or more ideas to an audience.
Data are presented as maps, graphs, charts, and photographs. Gathering scientific
data is often a long and expensive process. Prepare your presentation as carefully
as you gathered your data, and consider the following aspects: copy, production, and
showmanship.
Copy
Design and art production are separate but closely related parts of preparing slide
copy. Try to follow these rules for a design:
Keep the design simple with only one idea per slide.
Plan your design at a 2:3 ratio, using either 6" x g or a x 12" paper.
Keep the format horizontal.
Once you have a design, show it to a colleague and briefly explain the point of
the diagram. Then remove the diagram and ask questions. You should quickly know
if your design works.
You or an artist may prepare the art, using many methods, including a computer
(CAD); dot-matrix graphs do not, however, make good slides. Slide copy must be bold:
Letter size, line weights, and symbols should be large. Remember these guidelines
for art production:
Letter size is a function of copy size and viewing distance. Using Pratt and
Ropes' (1978) assumption that maximum seating distance is six projector
screen widths, to determine minimum letter size, take the longest dimen-
sion of the slide image area and multiply by 2. This gives the type point
size. Convert this to inches by multiplying point size by 0.014. Some examples
follow.
Longest image dimension Point size Inch size
9 18 0.25
12 24 0.33
18 36 0.5
Line weights should be thicker than those in journal illustrations. A minimum
of k,"
is use d .~ith a 6'' x 9" image area. Make prime data lines two times
1
heav1er, or i6 .
Bullet size for 6" x 9" should be no smaller than 0.10''. Use a larger size for
the most important data points.
Letter style should be simple and uniform. Avoid script and gothic, outlined,
and similar fancy letter styles.
Color should be used to emphasize the important point of the slide and to
replace cross-hatching and other patterns. Colors used on maps or sections
should conform to U.S. Geological Survey usage for rock types.
Production
Turning the finished artwork into a slide is essentially a copying process. Try to
follow these rules:
Use a copying stand equipped with 3200 K lights.
Use a 35-mm SLR camera in the manual mode.
Use daylight slide film with an BOA blue filter, or use tungsten film and no filter.
Align the copy so that it fills the frame and is square with the border of the frame.
Use anti-glare glass if reflections are a problem.
In the manual mode, determine the exposure on a gray card (a neutral test
card with 18% reflectance).
Make extra exposures by bracketing one stop above and one stop below the
gray card reading.
AGI-DSjld-89
AGI DATA SHEET 88.2
Showmanship
A polished slide talk is a result of well-planned slides, careful integration of the
slides with the oral presentation, and practice. One cannot overemphasize practice.
Some guidelines follow:
Clean and preload your slides.
Make certain the slide on the screen corresponds to what you are saying. The
slide acts as a prompt-card. When you change to another point, change
to a related slide. If you don't have a related slide, leave the screen black
or use a neutral gray blank slide.
Never return to a previous slide. Use a duplicate.
Look at the audience, not the screen.
Do not overuse a pointer.
Avoid the phrase "I apologize for this slide, but..." If you must apologize for
a slide, do not use it. If you must use a poor slide, do not apologize.
References
Bishop, Ann, 1984. Slides-Planning and Producing Slide Programs. Eastman Kodak
Company, S-30, Rochester, 159 p.
Heron, Duncan, 1986. Figuratively Speaking. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, 110 p.
Pratt, Dan, and Ropes, Lev, 1978. 35-mm Slides. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, 32 p.
AGI DATA SHEET 89.1
State Boards and Offices Regulating the Practice of Geology
Complied by Robert E. Tepel, Association of Engineering Geologists
This listing provides the name, address, and telephone number for each
state board of registration (or other office with similar function) in the United
States. The entries are based on information provided by the boards as of June,
1989. In addition, four states have adopted statutory definitions of "geology"
and/or "geologist" and related terms, but they have no regulatory boards or
offices; these states are Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, and Wyoming. Wisconsin
alone has a definition of "hydrogeologist" in its solid waste regulations, as well
as a certification statement required for reports submitted to its Department of
Natural Resources regarding landfills. For that reason it is listed below.
Alaska
Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development
Division of Occupational Licensing
Box D-LIC
Juneau, Alaska 99811-0800
(907) 465-2534
Arizona
Arizona State Board of Technical Registration
5060 N. 19th Ave., Suite 306
Phoenix, Ariz. 85015
(602} 255-4053
Arkansas
Arkansas State Board of Registration for Professional Geologists
c/o Arkansas Geological Commission
3815 W. Roosevelt Road
Little Rock, Ark. 72204
(501) 371-1488
California
State Board of Registration for Geologists and Geophysicists
1021 0 St., Room A-190
Sacramento, Calif. 95814
(916) 445-1920
Delaware
Delaware State Board of Registration of Geologists
Carvel State OHice Building
820 N. French St., 3rd Level
Wilmington, Del. 19801
(302) 571-3288
Florida
Board of Professional Geologists
Department of Professional Registration
130 N. Monroe St.
Tallahassee, Fla. 32399-0750
(904) 488-9912
Georgia
Georgia State Board of Registration for Professional Geologists
Secretary of State, Examining Boards Division
166 Pryor St., S.W.
Atlanta, Ga. 30303
(404) 656-3941 or 656-3900
AGIDSitd89
Index
Abstracts, 47.1-47.2 Fossils,
ACF, AKF, and AFM diagrams, 71.1-71.2 dating and correlation, 66.1-66.3,
Aerial photos and imagery, 46.1-46.2 67.1-67.2
An-Content of plagioclase feldspars, geopetal criteria, 10.3-10.4
64.1-64.2 Functions, 7.1-7.2
Aphanites, 21.2 Gemological weights and measures,
Asteroid belt, 80.1-80.2 52.1-52.2
Barth katanorms, 65.1-65.2, 65.5-65.7 Gemstones
Beds, determining top and bottom, durability 18.1
10.1-10.4 materials, 17.1-17.2
Bibliographies, 47.1-47.3 misnomers, 18.2
Bravais lattices, 19.2 Geochronologic units, 1.1-1.7
Building stones, 79.1-79.2 Geological surveys, 44.1-44.12
Canadian geological surveys, 44.5-44.6 Geologic maps 45.1-45.4
Carbonates Geologic symbols, 3.4-a6
limestones, 33.1-33.2 Geomagnetic polarity time scales,
staining techniques, 69.1-69.2 1.5-1.7
Cenozoic polarity time scale, 1.7 Geopetal features, 10.1-10.4
Chemical analyses of rocks, 59.1-59.4 Geophysical data, 61.1-61.2
Chronostratigraphic units, 1.1-1.7 Geophysical methods, 76.1-76.2
CIPW norms, 65.3-65.6, 65.8 Geophysical well logging techniques,
Cleavage, 10.2, 115 77.1-77.2
Composition, comparison charts, Grain-size scales, 29.1-29.3
23.1-23.2 Gravimetric conversion factors, 60.1-60.8
Continents, 81.2 Hardness, 13.1
Contour spacing, 9.2 Hydraulic conversion data, 53.1-5a2
Corrections for dip, 8.1 Igneous masses, 24.1-24.5
Correlation, Phanerozoic strata, Igneous rocks
66.1-66.3 aphanites, 21.2
Craters, 82.1-82.3 intrusions, 24.1-245
Crustal abundances, 58.1-58.2 phanerites, 21.1
Crystal systems, 19.1 plutonic. 62.1-62.2
Dating, Phanerozoic strata, 66.1-66.3 pyroclastic, 25.1-25.5, 26.1-26.2
Dip, 8.1-8.2 textures, 22.1-22.2
Earthquakes volcanic. 10.4, 62.3-62.4
effects, 42.1-42.2, 43.1, 86.1-86.3 Impact craters, 82.1-82.3
intensity, 41.1-41.4 Impact statements, 39.1
magnitudes, 73.1-73.2, 74.1-74.2, 75.1, Inclined strata, 8.2
86.1-86.3 Indexes, 47.1-47.3
Electromagnetic spectrum, 50.1 International geological surveys,
Elem~nts. 56.1-56.2, 57.1-57.2, 58.1-58.2 44.7-44.12
Energy conversion tables, 54.1-54.2 Intrusions, 24.1-24.5
Engineering properties, 78.1-78.2, Islands, 81.2
79.1-79.2 lUGS Oassifications
Environmental impact statements, 39.1 plutonic, 62.1-62.2
Equal angle Wulff nets 70.2 volcanic, 21.2, 62.3-62.4
Equal area projection nets, 70.1 Joints, 12.1-12.3
Facies, metamorphic, 35.1-35.4 Library classifications, 48.1-48.2
Fallout tephra, 26.1-26.2 Life forms, geologic distribution,
Fault-plane solutions of earthquakes, 67.1-67.2
73.1-73.2 Limestones, 32.1, 33.1-33.2
Faults, 12.1-12.3 Maps
Fault symbols, a7-3.8 coverage, U.S., 46.1
Feldspars geologic, 45.1-45.4
plagioclase, An-content, 64.1-64.2 standards, 2.1
staining techniques, 69.3-69.6 symbols, a 1-3.8
Fluvial nonmarine sequence symbols, Marine sediments, 68.1-68.2
4.1 Measurement conversions, 51.1-51.4
Folds, 10.1, 11.1-11.6 Metamorphic facies, 35.1-35.4
Index
Metamorphic rocks, 34.1-34.2 Sedimentary rocks
Minerals crustal abundance, 57.2
An-content of plagioclase feldspars, limestones, 33.1-33.2
64.1-64.2 names 32.1-32.2
Bravais lattices, 19.2 Sediments
crystal systems, 19.1 marine, 68.1-68.2
gem materials, 17.1-17.2 pyroclastic, 25.1-255
gemstone durability, 18.1 Seismic intensity, 41.1-41.4
gemstone misnomers, 1a2 Seismic moment and rooment
hardness, 13.1 magnitude, 74.1-74.2
nonsilicate data, 15.1-15.3 Separation characteristics of minerals,
opticai determinations, 63.1-63.3 18.1-16.3
physicai properties, 13.1-13.2 Silicates
separation characteristics, 16.1-16.3 identification of, 14.1-14.10
silicates, 14.1-14.10, 20.1-20.2 structural classmcation, 20.1
specific gravity, 13.2 Size analysis
staining techniques, 69.1-69.6 grain-size 29.1-29.3
Mine reports, 40.1-40.2 sedimentary particles, 28.1-28.2
Modified Mercalli scale, 41.141.4 Slide talks, 88.1-88.2
Mohr's Orcle, 78.1-78.2 Slope angles, 9.1-9.2
Mohs' hardness scale, 13.1 Soils
Mountains, 83.1-83.2 classification, 36.1-38.4, 37.2, 38.1
Natural functions, 7.2 field description, 37.1
Nonsilicate mineral data, 15.1-15.3 honzon designations, 36.2
Norms, 65.1-65.6 plasticity, 38.2
Oceans and major seas, 81.1 Specific gravity, 13.2
Optical determinations, 63.1-63.3 Sphericity companson chart, 30.1-30.3
Periodic table, 56.1-56.2 Stadia tables, 8.1-6.2
Phanerttes, 21.1 Staining techniques, 69.1-69.6
Phase equilibria diagrams, 72.1-72.6 Standards for geologic maps, 2.1
Plagioclase feldspars, An-content, State registration boards, 89.1-89.2
64.1-64.2 Statistical terms, 551-55.4
Planets, 80.1-80.2 Surface appearance, rocks and par-
Plutonic rocks, 62.1-62.2 ticles, 31.1
Polarity time scales, 15-1.7 Survey grids, 5.1-5.2
PctNers of Ten, 49.1 Symbols
Precambrian time scaie, 1.3 tau~. 3.7-3.8
Pressure temperature diagrams, 35.4 fluvial nonmarine sequences, 4.1
Professional registration, 89.1-1!9.2 map, 3.1-3.8
Projection nets, 70.1-70.2 Tephra, 28.1-28.2
Proofreader symbols, 87.1-87.2 Textures, igneous rocks, 22.1-22.2
Public land survey grids, 5.1-5.2 Time scales, 1.3-1.7
Pyroclastic sediments and rocks, Trigonometric formulas and functions,
25.1-255 7.1-7.2
Registration boards, 89.1-89.2 U.S. geological surveys 44.1-44.4
Richter magnitude, 75.1-75.2 U.S. public land survey grids, 5.1
Rivers, 85.1-85.4 U.S. state registration boards, 89.1-89.2
Rock-forming silicates, 14.1-14.10 Volcanic rocks, 10.4, 21.2, 28.1-28.2,
Roundness companson chart, 30.1-30.3 62.3-62.4
Seas, 81.1 Volcanoes, 27.1-27.2, 64.1-84.4
Sedimentary particles, 28.1-28.2 Well logging techniques, 77.1-77.2
surface appearance, 31.1