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CanadianTho$el on
Mjcrol~hlS.'.ice t

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. K 1A ON4 '
 "

. - '1": · :"": ,
.- . '. " ~4 by
@ ."':b~rt Smi t b Mcea~'.

~ ~Dissetta~i~n s~bmitted i n 'part;l a l i ulfi llmen't

o f th e r~uiremen ts '~or the degre~ of .

Doctor o f Philos o ph y

oe pa r tlDent. 'o f pthk l or'e

Me lllOri .l ~ n i versl ty o ~ Newfo undl e nd

Oc tober , 1 9 11 0

S t ~ 'John 's Newfoundlan d

....
. '<.
.:_ .-_: _---"'-.
 .:/"-. . ,ABSTRACT
. ..
The'primary'thesis of ' ,this wOr k is -t h a t occ~~~-:
.... '-tio n a l cUltur~ -1'8 .'s h'a pe d by. t h e wo r lt , pr~cesse,s ~~v~~~ed ' ~n
, POoduc~n9 . a , product" - : prov,i.d i n g a se~vi~e'. : . Al.l<. ?i~, t~e
expressive forms of interaction i n the work place ,':ar e l i J:lk ed .
to and '8ha~ed by : the ever ch 'anging wark."process ' a n d ·'i ts ..;

~'£~e~t, ~pon~rk' ~~h'a":ior • .:'ua i n/g, ext~,~' ~J:ye"exa_~~_~e,s fr~~ ,

:; ,n umbe r ot·.occupationa~ rv:
work c ulture , ' the forms and v ar i e t i e s o f the expressive .
part_~C ':ll~~ lY ~~_r e ' fight er~ '.
.

.J ' " , ' " " , , ', O f , ' : , -" , '. :"

a s pe c t s of "wo rker i n t e r a c ,t io n are ..examined . Th'e s e f o r ms

ran~~ f~m subst~ntive ,t o ·c e.r e moni al ~O~~k ;tect l hi' qUe,s ,

. .
phys;i.cal, s07~al .· a~d LdeoLoq d ce L. cu s tomary" ~ct i vities; as

we ll a s va rious f or ms . o f verbal e xp xes s Lon irom" t he basic

'- ' ." .
naming of t o o l s ~o group v erbal" "critiq u es an~:: ~iirrati've
sessl~ns. ~nd ~inallY' 't o 't he elabor~t~d' persona:i :re;p~~ience .

acc'ount. ~ ' BY ' a r r a ng i n g these expre~slv e f o rms ana con-e

timium ;from:-the-_most mund a ne \,term - to -t h e-mo re-recur rent'~~~~-
,1 " ' .' • . , ' , .' " . :
c en t ra l na r rati ve, se s sio ns a n d f ina l ly -t o the more unusual

.i~d!.Viduai ' n ar r a tive perf orman c e s; i t is' possibl~; ·t o . deter..,

. ~i:ne t:h0~e ~~xpressl~e modes of ' i n t.e r a c tio n wh i c h form ' ~he . '

. I critica l c€!ll ter. 'o f a worker' s ocgcpet.Lonaj, fOlkli.fc upon

whic h t he b ul k ~f ~orker intera~tion ( ";'e rb al a~d" ~on-V~rbal )

. ~s/judged. An i~i~ia l - s ectio n ' Pl,~ces, ~i~, :'llIo d e l in' a
r:

. 'd1Sc i p linl\r y and h istor i ~ a l pe r sp e c tive 'a n d 'a c o n c l 'ud i n9

." . .
's e~fion det.ai is t he prel1in1nary re sul
": - . . ' , .
ts
of ~n a~pi.i ed
. ~. . , I
s t lJd y of urb an fire f1 9h t"~ n9' cu ltur-=-.E.ased on _~ h_e ..theories
su 99,,;sted i n the d is serta ti~n . ·

' L
 '1~OWLi:O~EME~:rS .:... .
I-~e'1a~· ·~~~ ·;ie1d.WO:~ for th:S .d i-:~~r·t atio~ a; ;;--

". U~der9rad~~e foU"'lore st~dent .e t t~e Univers ity o f '"

Oregon -i n' on e -of Barre Toelken vs :f a l lO o r e s emi na r s in.-19 6!.• .

Litt lJ:!' ~id I know that an~ afternoo n .and: ~veni n g drinki ng
beer wi ~ some <a f.my old ' s mbk e j ump er buddies' WO.UUl l e a d t o
. .: t .....
1~"t el'ven · Y'~ro of H",~work and re se arch a " an
. occupat "io nal fOlklorist:~ Yeb 50~h~ every gro u"p t studied ,
uc~ o ne of " " th~uSanqs '~f \~~r~ers.·I· ha\e· , ·:~e.t a nc! the .

h u nqre.ds _I ha ve .i~ t erviewed a n ~_. ",:~r ~~d Witl\ h a s : ~a Ugh t : me

jus t a li ttle more a b o u t , how . ~c c up a ~ i_o na l ~111t ure if
shap~d and passed on i~om one pers ~'n to t he n e x t... . I no p e" ,
.. i) . that. ~his d~cwnen~ ~" ~ome, way ca~t~res t hose insights
. ,, " .r . . ' ' .
and bits o f information ' i n th i s a c a d e mic treatment of the
' . . '. . .
sUbj~c(i,"fJ:t.ile ! t aiso reflect~ .· th~ genuine honesty a nd.
'. fr~nk~ess wit~ ~hiCh, .1 " " t r i a ted. ,bY' virt~allY a'ii of ':;
--
" ~PE!oprerno?vewo~ i ~h over the years whi le i? al s,o

\ i inpa r t ,s . I " " " .$ O~ of t hei r , h umo r . , \ .

AS . t he title 'of , this work ind icates , ,I draw . \

• 1 he~v9
' , on . fir~ fight,iog- c Ul tureS .formy e x,unPles ': , .
Al thou h this .mi ght , in so me way skew '"my da t a " I .t ihLnk ,t ha t"
~n· . t '. i~' ~on~ervat~.s~. fr egion. ~ li t; '" t'i ~di,tiona li:,ty and

, un Ique ' r~le ; n ."'sod,ety. fir~ ~fi.ghting c ~ef1ect /"

: man y .of the q row inq ' p a i n s e xpe r f.enced by o the r . pr-ev.iQusly : -

iv
 ., . .
homoge ne ous', whi tE! male oc cupation s .At t he s ame time,
. , ' , " , .. . ",

the i~crea.sed use oO'/f helfco pters "and auto~ati c 'e xpl o s i ve s '

in , .for~ s t ' f ire : c on t rol , ~~d. . s~phistica't ed sprinkle ~ ~ys- ·

t erns a nd autom~tj,c diStr!buti~g no z a Lea in Urban r i r e

.fi9h t~~: , . r e ve a l ,that ,tn'i s ?,cc\lpa ti9naicu,~,ture .is ' ~fPeri ­

en~ing' teChn:oio9ical ' ,innovationan~ ch ange ' that, para~.lels ,
changes in o t he r lines ,of wo r k . . I,
~ Thre ; ;e a ntimbe,r . ~f ~ople who ~ave made ' 1t
. ~ss' i ble ' f 6r "me' to comPl~~e \ r i S ,work' . .. At Memoriai l. un i - .-
~. versity of NewfoWldland, ' Dean FtedAldrich and ' hi s s ta ff.
we~t ,t?ut ' of t he i r ' w'~~' to '~id \me dUri'ng :my . g taduate .... wo~
an d .t h e U~ivers ity also , prov.iaed me with a fe ~ lowship ~nd
'. ~S;'ist:antship: support that ~~~ i t ,po s s i b l e f Or rneit.c

concerit'~a~e on my' stU?fe 's : I,~ the"F~~klore' DePa,r tme .n't :

both f acuI,ty ~nd s t a ff" we ;e' e~trcme lY s upporti~e and help-

. . .
• p'r o fe s sor Pe te r Narvae ~ r ' i s a s si stance as a member- of
my coIllllii~fee-. Add~,tionai t ne nxe - ~b pr~fe~sor Kenneth'S ;

Goldst~in for e'ncoura9in~ me to attend Me mor i at univ~rsity

of Newfo~ndiand, 4;: de~ision ~t I a~, ~;IC~re~~y . happy
. .
t;ha.t I . mad e • . .zn ~ddi tion, I, would i lk e to . tha nk my ' f~llow
studen t s ' in ' th~ ' Fo l k l oTe nepar tmerrt ' f or , ,t h eJ.-r ch,allengi ng
support 'a nd encouragement , ' wi t h specia l thanks t o ' Ma r t i n
L~ba a~cl ~artin Lovei~ce · 'f ; r t he i r o pen , ·s h a r iiJ.g o f , 't he i r"
 !
"-~--r -- -

.Ill f
:~ts s~.
I
a nd. en tic '- .
~Ilree

I
J\ F inally. t he r e are f blklorists who I wo uld
~~e
l
t o a Ckn owIJ dge a's an a p pre c :tl t J.o n of thelr Ln f Luen ce

noI. 6u~port I
oveLt he yea r s .
.Theln1 rst 1 $ Ba rre Toe l k e n I
~b intro d uc ed to th e f i eld , alle nged me to work i n

- J n tempo ra ry o Jcupa tl.Onal c Ulturf and .l.11 us t r a t'e d the need

,f f r an~ f \aSl b fhtY of ap~lled f !olklore ~es~arCh w1 ; h h is

Na ti ve . ~e \iCar prO jec ~ ~ a nd ar 1101 ,es; ' \ Th.~ sec o n~ is .

ROber_~ ~Yi:.~tdn ,' who introdu~d r- into th~ . wider . , no n -

a c ademic f i eld o f _a p p lied folk loro , taught me , how to dea l ' .

Wi~hl the in~Jitable

I ·
in6ti~utional str~~tur~~' on~ ha:~ to
'co n'fr ont Ln order t o ec hr eve -che a ppli e d e n ds '1 wa s se~k -

log: wh i l e he ~\s~ s erved on my. co~~ tte~ a nd ; ave ,me

critical Ob~ecti~itY when r needed ,i t ' t h e mos t. .An d

,fi n a lly . 8 specia'~ than ks to: Bess ' Lo ma x Hawe s ~h~ g8 mhled

tha t my,. i de a f or a'n applie~ fo l k li fe ~'rojec t' wit h urban'

fire~ght~rs cOUl~, s-u~ceed an~ then ' C;;ontinuedt~ figh t
I . . - '. . . -\
, f o r a nd sup~rt :th e ~rOj e c t ev,:,n, whe n ~y . en e r~ ' ,~ nd. con-

: f idencc . began , to wa ne ,"

I This work i s ~edi9~ted t o fir e figh ters everywh~re
in th~ h o pe t h at ,th;OU~h" '~ better' ~~derstand ing of\them-
i' ~ eivea! ' , t:hey willbe'C~~\be'tier under s e o od " a n d appr~1ated
j by th e ' p~i' ic ~~~: s erve :" " , "

t . !O Z" d on " t get paid for what I do ,, ' . •

! 'I , ge~ p'ai:~ ~~~/'h~tI " m8y~~ve t o do > .,~ ' I
./"- (D h t r i c t of COIUml> i ~ fire figh t . ' )

vi

i /
. _ . _ _ ' ,_,.l',~~, ;.,
- '_ ~.:.",.......... , ~"-" ....., ,...: . ;".-..,.'

/
I'"":

, <I)
./" f-"'"
. T~LE -O F CONTENTS

. Pa ge "
. \ ,
"' 11 / ,, Abstr ~ct '. ii
:1
lIcknowledgemen ts • fv

. CHAP TER

~i~1
THE ~,~ST~ICT . OF COL W1Bli FI RE Fl: GUTE R ~ '.' .
P ROJ ECT . • • . • • , • '. • • • • • • '.

, I •conclusion : ' . :. • ." •. • ",' . • 32

I
II, A MODEL OF OCC UPATIONAL "F O L KLI F E 3.
I
,
III. THE ~ENi~ITY OF ~ORK ~ECI)NIOUE- 57
,"
IV, CUS 1'OM. I N THE WORK P ~E • • " .- {8 2

v. THE SpO KEN. S HOtmO' AND ~E RED wo~ • 1 0'

T he Ba s i c , Me taphor i > Th e ' Hun d ll n ~l
. Leve l • .; • • . • • • . . • • • :-• • • 110
COnve rsation , Cr i t i que - and Nar rati ve ;
. The Ce nt ral ,Level . • . • : "• • • • 11~ .
Th e Un u s uCll Level: The 'ElabOrated
.~ Persona l _. £x per ienct: Narr ati ve • 1 31 .
REFE~CES ' .' ._ • • •• • • ", • •• • 1. 2
B! BLIOG RAPHY • • • • -. • • • . .. ,;.. . . ' . ' 205
. ' .' .
)-

AP P ENDIX A : AP P ROAC HES TO ",WORK AN D ,

OCCUPAT ~ONS • 2j 2

. REFE RENCE S -, • 263

• vi~ •

( . \: . ~ , " "

,- .
 ena DIST RICT, OF COLUMBIA ' E:I RE FIGHTERS; "PROJ ECoi' : '

.,'Al tho u'gh there , has be en litt ~e ',if. , any systematic _j,
applied f olklor e 'r e s e a r c h, ou t ~i de: o f th~ ' Wo r ks Progress .
.,! AdJIinistration 's p roJects i n the 'ni n e t e e n' thi r ties"and

f~rdes ~hich'~~rE7 deS ignedtc; ~:reat~} jObs"'a .nd retufn" .

i !1d.i 9Em OUS ,Ame ric an cu l t ure ,to t he , foll~. (. th~re , i s ,~n ' l-
,c lltir e ,s ub-:-.f ieH of app~ied at.'thr pp 6 1 ogy dating ba ck ,t o
t he e 'i.ghte e nth ' ~en tury whi ch ha a d'eve lopeo. mO'd'~1R ~ for

c~l~~j;al i n terve nt ion b~ anthroPOldgi ~ t~,~ 1 The m~thQ~- .

~l~~~ ~' ~hi i~ soPhie s , " ~~. this 'i ~: t ';rve~:~ioni'st; ' fi e ld
h ave been ,d e b a t e d ' ,f o r sO ,me time t ,yet .the ~asi c 'theory

',b ehi n d t his type o f , researc~ has been ,suc';inctly ..6~::"

r h ed 'by Roger Bas tide : Wh,~ writes, t h at':
Applied anth~opolo9Y (en tails) ' • • • \Ob ,s e r v a t i o n ; :
e l aborations ,o f an h ypothe s i s (he r e a p rac tical .
. o ne not , a n e xp l ana t o r y o ne ) and t he experimenta l

.
verific ation of that hypo t hesis wi th in 'the ~ f i e ld .
~~a~~SW~~ ' t~~i~~i:~~~m~~, ~;;~~~~a:~~l~n, ~'~~~er I "
,tha n t h e s c i enc e of planniJi9.th9u9ht.2 " ..
Bo'rrowing f r 01\l' this field i 't s 'd"edica, tion' td usi n9
' . . . . " .
.:::j:::':::".::,::::"::'d::::i::'ri::a;:::a:h:n::;i::"~~ -:
-. o~" t~e speci.~~~ occu~tional fdlkli fe" ~~thcsts "upon r,
whi c h , i t is ' b as e d , but a lso ~to tes t t he utility of t he
r:
I

eo the '~ccup"a tiond commu!'!i t y . be ing 's t u di ed •

. The s pe ei fi c '!e" or e h upon wh i ch el i e f ire
:" ,'- . ," I ' . " , :.
~~ghter ' s proje.~t W ~'t . "" .9 ,r e w ou: o f f~el~~6rk '.and
p r esent ati o n p l ,,:na ge n e r ated duri ng ·t h e Smithsonia n

lristi t ut16n I s 1 9 7 6 Fe stiv ill o f 'Amer i c a n Folk lifeiJl. Wa ah-

in'li:o~. D. C . I arr~ved" at - the 'Smith son ian i n De ~~mber,' 'I

..t. preliminarY19i S - fe s~ival ' wi th ~bert BYi~gton ~' Pe t e r

usedt.o ~iJ.nt ' p ub l ic pr-e e ent a t.Ions o f O~'9up'ati~nal c u l t ure

.J ,, \ ' ,.
b a sed o~ som e ,as pect ·,o f ..vor k. pr- oc e ae th a t cou ld ,real i sti -

c'allY, o r ' ~Ymb6lica l1Y ~ S~and ~or th e. ac t ua l ,wo r k ,e'tfe r i - i

e nce c Working w ~ t h t ru~ke r s, fO~ exa rapfe , we .d e sign e d a, i .
.t'?ading 'platf~rm, wi '!=-h' ,,!- .•dispa t~h~': ' s, a rea ~ t o prov~de . th e I ,
. P~bl~~}ith· ~rioppo·rtu~l~Y : .0 se~a 'brea:~ :bUI,-.te~~.n:~.I · in .
a ction and "also sit , i n ,wh ile truckers told srcxdes about

. t heir exper iences on t he roea , Ye t t h ei~ · we re scee

tre~endous d i~i::repancies" between ou r somew~lIat . na i V,e' f~eld~,

wor~' : Ob,ser~a~l~ns , o"ur selectiono~ ""?" o~ ~upa- '
tional ' c ultur e for presen~ati.on\, and ' the present~tioDs
t he mselve s.

V;;in g . the tru:ker ~~ ~~~s~ntation a s .a n ~a~p~~, I

ap~ n t . four,: ~ays 'a n d nights on th e road wi th v~rio,u's truck-
ing firJ:?~ ' ,th~Oughout t h e ,northeast rid i nqw'ith . the drive rs;

sta y ing ..i n truck s t'?~ s and S l ,~inq i n , .~ ~~~p~ rs ove~· ,t h e .

.L - .,:, ' ~-'-_. -'-------'

 I /
road, " Is l.nce. "thJ.S ~as one of my"fi rs t " f i e l d survey s" I

' wa sn ' t r'eally sure Wh~t I wa~ l~oking 'f o r ~cet:!:t s h l ls

~an~ pxoc e sses presentable"-cn the ~a l.l . .~y · , t~e - time I ' :~
s~~m!?led back to' waSh in ,9'ton, I :~a'd' ,<) n~'~r of ..hast~ly •
· recorded -t~pes. ' o~, d"rive:s-:o .6cre?~ inq · th;, i ~ a ns we ~ s "t o m'/ :
' que"~tions ,ove r ' the .~ar- -of t h e : t r uc k , some ~ut 'o f f O'cus :
• I?hotOgrap~;~n<l: a va:gu e ,i de a ' fO~ a' ' ~r~senta~·d.on whi ch
'1, de~~r~~ed 1.,0' the f~llo~in9 m<!n~eb '. . . . .

s ince the "·pri.~arr fo lkloristic -i nte r e s t. I n '-t he

ac tual ,' d riving s.l..tuatiQn lies ' i n the ora l inter-
action wh ich , ta kes p lace , this aspect ,could ,be . · . ',-,
adequatel y preaeneed cIn a perforJ:!lance~onte )l: t
in which particu l arly "good . s torytel~e rs whp .
are ' or have been t ruckers could 'relate their,'
, ~~~e~~:n~:s~~i i~~;n~~ ~~v1~ga~~~~~~:~ , ~~~ lud7~' .
e eecetcn-ee a small 'dock wi th a sta tio nary
. ~~~t~~~t~:i~~~ ~~~~e:w~~ee~~~9he~~~~s f~/=.rai9P.t . I
. . dispatcher 's off ice and a truc ker 's 1'ounge seem
most feasible. 3 . , ' . ' .

. Thi~rcport ~llust~atc s' a f~~ ~'f ~he .limita t i o n s "

,",.9urap(lroach~ ,
of Due ' t o the' p r e s e nc e of a,' 'l a r ge nUmbel'

· of 1;ra ditional , genre:-oriented folk l orists o n the sta ff ,

"e; .' ( . I ! '. " .' .' - ' .
~e were:. st ~ l! l oo k:i ng for raconteur:" who could tell ""t.~~

. .. .
 . " .
------"---"-_.
r
. ....
:

..
~he . ~rue exPre.,s·ive cUlt~ie 'f r om· b.B} and secondly that . ·
· once ~e had~ our p roce~ses. w.e: knew ho w to s~age~ them. so
• tha~ . the public wasn ' t crushed und~r' an avalan~he of

.. ~~er~ machiDery .while ~e' ~X:k;U just ·. ~tood.bY a nd

e;Plaine~ how -re- .WOfk~ . An eq.~~llY i mpo rtant ' co nce r n .
~a5 " ~e pe.cu iiar perspec'~i;"e' of iabor unions towa r d 'pUb';'
'lie pre senta .M o n.s ,.of , any ' ki rid, beyond '''!- tra~ ~ hi; ~nion
l a bel s hOll' where unfo n p ublic r e l a t i o n s ilio n h a nd o ue; .
'b u t 't o ns And ' pene i 'I s wi th : ~~ion labe l ~ on the m lind tie , ' • .
' ,~ . " ' "" ..
. b alloo ns 'i n t o 'a n i~ l - Bha p~,s .

Th; .~e sults of ~·is ~superfi.cial .lield",ork ; l a'c k

., ... . ', ' . -. \. ,' , " ' '.
: o .f i n f o rmed a c a dePli c support o r understa nding of the rea l

.~~i~S"' Of the p~~r~1ll ~fr~ th~~ ~re ~'radl.t~~nfl f~l~IO~~,:I}S'

~~d ,the. _d UP U.~ i(ty of um'c n s i~:~IVC d ~ere p~ ~.ctable / To"

· provide .just -o~e e xampl e . th~ nig h t ~ for~ t he 1 97 5 '

f~stiV~l' ~;s· t o o pe n ; the . Te_ste~ ' s Union refus'ed ~
' d~~ate ' an~ o~ · tfll l. t.ruCkS ~ ' dOC~ equi~nt , or ·person~el
' ~~y ' ~ad ~romis~~"UIl tecaus the ' . : .-ha~~ng: so; ; .
t~ubl~ with " l~~l cOmPanie - ' Af t e r UkR / our 'a ppe a l s
al~~~ t ,o ~~ "c~~~e SSiona,1 ve l : "we , g ave~ ~p an~ put' : .
~g;ther '8 's he ll ~Of -cur . p~esentation with ' lbcal t r uc kers ' .
'., valunta'rii.Y , ·lIlanni ~g ,wha t l oo ked to a ll ' 'the'wo r l d. a s t he
.
iocatio~ lor festival , garba~e'- p i Ck up. , we , act~al l, Y . h~d
p~~k . 6e·r V:ice· .t r uc k s s t op a t · '~h; e nCl' !,f .f he fi rs t . da y a nd "
· b~~~ ' ~ p ~ · our ,·d~k.-. thinking 'it W~ S j ust t hat . ' re ",as '
· ~ ';mPl~ te disas~~r';'f ~om be<;inni,nq to e~d a nd ' on e folk~ " :

_ l ~ri s t s ~t~ af te r s he haf! to ur~ . ~e site , - I , do n ' t

:.,A ..· r
 • k no w wha t ,t his · s hi t. is; ' McCarl , but it s ure as h'e llain 't

f o l1 kl o r e . n , .' ,
Obvious ly ' ~ ~e trerlching. wa's in o rder prior to the

giga n ¥ c 197 6 'f e s t iV a l in which we would b e worKing with

~" o v er ~~ve n ty labor 'u,n i o'n ;; evex a three month' pe riod. In

a n a ttemp t .e c esta~~ish · t~ is presentational app roac h' to

occu pa.tio na l " cu lture as a l~'gitiina~e activity ' and, ~o p ro-
:\ " . ' ,'. ' ,
'
vide s ome ,the ore ~ ic: a l beckq eound to ou r effor~,-, ~ w r o t e

. '
a draf t .of t he ar ticle wh i ch "'fo rms t.he bas is for ~he
,. ... . . " .:.
t he o t y . ,s e c t i o n . of thi; di~sert.ation. '. I~ t hat artic}.e , I
attempted. to link the fest iva l rese~rch ,t o an. ~v61~i~g
~ ' ' .
int er'e s t in occup ationa l cu lture from 'a" mo~e complete ,
. '. .', ' , :. .' ' i
0- e'~nOgr:~~ic pers pe c t~v,e " " " j ust a p~rp e tu a ti on \~ f ' t h e
gener ic a pp zoach t o cccupe t Lcn a j, q r-oups th a ~ ha d us aee k-' "
ing r acon te urs .a n"d ~ork 's o ng s . I also ,s ou g h t to illus- .

trat~ "that " " , ~e C~~iqUe.~ , ~,f ..)~O rk ,a s we~~. ,a s .t he ve.!bal'~ ·

a ~pe ct ~ ha ve bo th an . ~ ~ r~ s ~ i v e dfmens Lcn , a nd a n imilo r-
. t a nt ' r ole in s hapi:'~g ,ocC?upat.ional.culture . .Atthe , same
t ime , Peter : Se ite l , who was wor':in g wi t h t he t.r a n s'por t.a -.
., , .
tion .un i on s , s ugge s t e d that ,we pla ce more empha s i s on

induced-cont~xt. na'rrativ~ saaatona · t o tr y ' to re cee aee at

: lea s t so ne of the , a rnbJ.en c e o f , n~J:mal v:e rb a l eXChan~{
<f.;.nd B~b Byington b,e gan , hi ring'add ition~ l fie ldwork ' h~.f.f
·f o r ' .o c c u pa t i o na l .r e s e a.r c;:h a n d al s o .b e g D. n to 'act a s a ecr-
w~rk ~~tween:' ~he m~.re . tLad~tional f~lklod~ts. , (m~ny of
·whom co~ tfn u ed .t6 be ' eeeessea wi t h · the .eI mo s t; mori bun d

s~n'~,i ng 14b~r.: mov~~nt of t~e . i:. ~irties a'nd" 'for~i~S) a nd

 . ,- " ., - . ..
those of us tr,ying t o wo rk _ w ~ th this new appeoach , Our

f inal ma jor h urdle 'wa s the . mono;Lithic . un ton s truc t ur e

i tsel.f wh i c'h ha d to h e t i ti llated , cajoled, b r o wb eaten
. " , " , ..
and st:i:'~~ed, on , a on.e -to -o~e b a s i s ,> . Ultimately "we

d evelo ped a me ~;hodol09~ f p r Plann i:\,9 ,re ~e-arChi n ,,! ~ a ~ _

p r e s enting ,o c c u pa tio na l fo lklife iri'~( PUbl1~_ -fe.5 tiv~ 1 . .
. \ A comp lete . description o f t~i,\ methodology ,wou l d .
be. muc h too l e ngth.x t o deta il he r e , but"in brief. o,::r .

a p pr o a c h to th i s: ma t e r .i al. proceeded i n , the foll owing

manner " .Once.,we had received a ~sit ive r e s p o.ns e, .to ':our..
inquh." ies to . va rious undcna i n ' a trade ( for e xa mp le , t h e
constructiotJ.trades i nvolVed ' o ver thirty , un ions a lone I • we
wo uld ar r a nge wi t h t he i nternat i on a l to send a fieldwo r ke r .'
. . ," I " i ' ' • .'

t o any ,p lace i n t he cp untry where we could get a fa irly

co mprehensive 0 :0 repre s e ntative vL ew of 'wha t' the ac tual
wo r k . O'( the ', tra~~' invo l ved . Ra t he r .t ha n trying t~ c a pt ure

the en ti re occu~ational ex 'pe rle nce o r ' Locetre good 's i ng e r s

o r "s t o r y t e lle r s , we sou5lh .t to identi fy within the work .

flow t hose key c ecbn I q ue e that cou ld ,be made u ndez-s eend-.
able to the public yet a t the s ame time , wo u l d : r e p r e Ben t
J ( i f on l y metaph orica l lyJat, l e a s t an a s pec t. of the occu pa-.
, . " . ' '. • I ' , . ,

t i on al e x pe r Ience , In the cement i nd u s t r y, for ex am~ l e ,

we deve lop ~d a present a~ion showing how po wder . monk eys

see and des ign t,~e'i r vario us charges o n .the qu a r r y face.

Using a. mode of a c e ment ki ln ~ . we show~d how .ro¢k is 'l

c rushed , ,11e ted, a nd turned :i nto c l i nk er' a nd ' t he n crus hed,

i n 1;o , ceme nt F.inl10 11y, we set up a sma l 1 ° 1ab with an :

,L
 -,
">;- -
- - ~~ .

. :

ex~erJ..·.enCed ,l a b o r a t o. r y teC.h nlClan who i llu st r :i't f;!d h6~ . he

, , .,
.

,
-. " , )
'

mi xed d i f f e r e nt types o f , cement f Qr diffe rent , ty pes of

" ' . .
Washington. " I told h i m about ou r plans and he i mme d i a te l y

_ . -
t:oul~ co nstruct. a .•f r ame bui ldi ~g in which they c oulci
~ hibi t. t he ir fi re fighting techniques throug h a simu l ated
fi r e s itua t ion . "Af t e r muc h discussio n wi-th the- folklorist s '
a nd ' t he un ions ', we agreed ~ri tll'li basic-plan and th~
• j . :,

pr-eeentaedon we nt ah e a d .

I n itially the f i re "f i g ht e r s were a c c o mmo d a t ing

bUt.- not pa~ticU.larlY ·mo t i ,va t e,d .. . ..Th e y likpd th~ idea of
p ub lic relati~ns but.. .t hough t thg t. , ~lYin9 t o e x pla i n and

demo ns t .re 't .e reai, fi re fig h ting techniques wouU,just bo re "

the publici". AS t i me went on , howe ve r , · t h e" numb ers of fire
fighte~s a sking ~o voiu~teer :', ' ~ ~r partic ;;~~tion~~~ t he
. ' . ' . " . ' .
L

" '

?emonstrationg:te w r a pidly . Toward - the end o f t.he t~o

.we,e k" period , t "riei r , p resej,ta ti~n.: was o ne 'o f the llI~st popular;
d ue " t o Pi.i'~ liC
int ere st, - our ability., it p rima ri l y to keep"
. .,' . ~
focus,edon ' work techni q ues and nar~ a ti ve s, a nd (perhaps
most importantly) . t h e _i ncreasing d e s i r e _o n the pa rt of
, t he occ~pational group rnemb~r, 't he~'eIve" to participate ; '
Fe stival ~ar t{ci'pation b~ membe r sLo f this 6ccupational

co mmunity bad pene t ra ted th~ ~ cu7tu,re .~o :t:e p~int t ha t

'.
me mbers o f t he gro up were -m ee reeeed i n di s cu s &ing a ddi -
tion a l o p portun'i t i e s for, p'resen tation of -their wo r k, cu .l - _

tu r e beyo nd the actual f estiva l itself ;

! n l a te O,!,t obe r ; 1976, ~ .was. Lnv.i tied t o a me ~ti ng

· at 1 1 En kine in -northeast Wa s hi ng t o n ' t o discuss' my ~'deas .

' f or ad dItiona{ r e , e , r Ch,nd\ p r e s e nt a t ' on of 'fi r e figIiti~9
c u ltur e wi th rneJilber s of the e xe c uti ve board of t })e- loc a l
" un f o nas ~e ll 'as t he uni~m ~~e ~id~n t, Dav~ 'Rya!l. Ba~ed
, . , ' .

on. 'that discuss io n, a nurnbe r- of.id;';;s

. ,"
wer~ generated
' ..
includi n g ' the f ollow1ng : 11 fire fighters kid t he ms elves
__ , \I ' . .
i.nto th i nki ng .that what they perceive , as rea lity , ba s ed on
, '

II high l y e s o t er l c traditiona l occu~ationa l c~ltu re " is ·

· a c tua ~ lY , the 'ltIa~ thing s a r e; . 2,) most , fire , f~gh t~.r s , are
too proud to ask for , help 'i n a ny situation o r t o readH y
a~i t \ fe ar; 3) . fi r e fightE!'r s a r e. "p e cu liar" pe op l e who
have' a self.,.ima ge ,un i q ue -eo theiroccupatlonal ' c ulture I
4) i n ceeer for me' to ' und e r s t a nd fire fighters f wo u ld

• ha v e t o iive and work wi th them for a t l e a s t a year ;

. \ . ' , . . ' ' ~ "

5 1 a n ho ne s t ·b ook or pr ese ntation ,o f fi re fighti ng . cu1 tur~

L
 .. ~

9' ;:

. ' . . ., ' "

sight -i nt o who and ,wha t ,t he y are - ; 6) I . sugge~t a ' book be
.
d~V'!ded fnio tec hn i qu e " C'Us~in and ';,~rr;"& ~e' w ~th b r-e a k- "
:. dOwns of the tr~·c k . engine a nd 8quad ~and a d.i.s c·{;.s iti on of '
-"': 'o~ii~e;"~ ~' and '-fi na l i y ; . 7) - 1f ,such a book were writt e n it
. 'J , .' <_ "';. "" . ... :.. '.. . . . "' 4 .
m ~9ht ~ ?f ,use. in'. ,t ~a ~ n.~,n9. r o ok i .e s n,ew t o t he ~t~a~e . " .r

.I n ·t he. ~op~, ,o f ke e p i ng thi s i n.terest a nd .momentum

gen;erated by the f e s t i v a l alive , I took my .ade e t o Be s s '

Lomax Hawe s a t · th~ -Nat lo,lJal E-"dO~9nt for the ~t5 , P"o lk .
Ar ts ' Pr o g r ';";', 'i n 'a n atte~Pt to g-ct s ome SU9g-estlon~ about'
~here _ '~ mi~~~ ,'t u rn ~O~· : 'fu~dinq . ·· '~'The '~rO j ~ct ' Whi~'h I
.
en v is i oned
," " . ' .
a t that point a s a bo o k - leng t h o r 's imi l a r
~~~ropriat~i.y i n - d e pth
' - &i fi;e fi9ht~~9
present.~tion
." .
' c ul -
- ' ,
ea r e , wa s to be d i r ected a t t he 'f i r e f ighters t hemse l ve s . /
~ot a t an OU~Sid~' ~r ~Cadt!~iC, aud;e ne e • . s~rprhin~~(She
suggested tbat the End~nt\JIlight p§'si blY fund such a

, ',project i f i t ~~re~l a~Pli~d' ~-;Y:}t[~nion . itself"" ,

an d 2) the _ in resul t was de signed 'P' ;inerea s e eClllll\uni ty
. '~ ~areness ~~t the ' occuP,atiOnal expe~~~nces a nil pe~spe~- ~
. tid v e s of the l -fol k q roup" ';'-::he o . C : fir~, fiq hIe r,s: . I .' ~ •
th~n (i' ~ , Jun~ ., 1 ~77) ' d~~fted a' ro u9h ' proPo~al,. tQ. ' t ha t ,
effect a nd sk a t e,be d out an o u tline J;lUdge~ ,., With a heavy '

"-
emphasi s on.-:aoit matche s" ) (the co~itment 0 un ion '
off'ieer' apace"~r/8er~1~~'S ratlie~ ;. ~han ha rd · s b ) ]je~ause
I knew tb~.t t~.'tu~on wOul~n ' t. :be a~i'~ t~ pf~ 'uP' muc h

=~ w. - ., pro, . , "~:r"'"
L

.r
un ion .c c eecme . In Septemb.~ r ~he un~on" submitted t he .
letter. and t he proposal .t c t he ' E ndowrne nt ' (s e~ '- b e lowl 1:11d
.I "

I '. ..
\ wi1:;h the 'pr o j e c t d a t e " set to be gib in J u ne of that year .
\ . .
( 1 was teachi ng - in ~anada ae ·'t he· t i me - an d ,t he r e f o r e d;<;1

not :' ~ dtuallY 'begin: ~r~ on t he ·proj~c~·.~n~il_/~~t~~e.r ... : e.

\1978 . ;. The ' prop o sal ' ie t t e r cont ained' -t he fo'l t owirig il')fOrnJt.-;
~i o n; -, .,. , . . ' , . ,

/
Ms . Bess Lomax Hawes
DiJ;e c tor, 'Fo). k , Ar ts Program
Na tional ·.En dowme n t for . the Ar ts
wa5hin9 to~., D.C .? O~0 6 .
De a r Ms . Haw e s:

The .Fire Fighters Associijltion Qf the Di s t'r i c:t'

of Colum!:Jia was organhed i n 1 90 1~ Th is Assoc ia -
tion ' ~ s striv ed .t c improve t-he .10 '1' of _the un i -
:~~~~~~O~~~~i~:dt~~ ~~:eh~:~~~~m:~~\~:~i~~~~S
. of . the Department, ' an d 's t r i ve d ' to ,i mpr o ve the
delivery and services to the commun i t y . We have
been ac tive partici pants in ma ny c ommun i t y efforts
over the year s and are long s t a ndi ng members of ,
many community'groups and .ee soc.tae.I c ne in Wash ing-
ton . , I n 1971 we published a b ook, 100 Yea rs of":
I)
" '£!2!Y., ~hi c~ is, the ' on ly ~~ll1piled his to ry of t he
D.C . Fl-re Oepartmenb. " Our .go a l s now, as always,
go far beyond .en o ee of a moe e tradi tion al 'labor
organ~zat ion. . .
- He bel ieve firefighter s c ompr i s e .t.he mos t
unusual g roup of public emp l oyees ,-a nd perhaps a
unique qroup among a l l occupational pursuits.
Although we make up - a segment of the professional
firelight ing f orc e . we are' somj;!tilllE!;s surprised
. a t ,the unusuat di s pl a ys and ' a t t i t ud e s o f o ur ,
membe rship . · I t , is not s ur prisi ng .t o us that those
outs-\de of our .p rof ee s i.on f a i l to ',u nd e r s t a nd why
men choose", fire fighting as , their ,p r o f e s s i o n f or

I i~~~t;~ ~~ta:~ ~~~~~~~,questibn f ,o r a fire -

 " ) .J "

" .. \.

II

~:. ":: TheI: e ,a £ e ,ma n/ th~oI:ies , a.~, to',-~hY ' 'f i-r e f i g hti ng
has a l ways been a so ug ht a fter f ield of ence evee '
to the e xtent ,tha t e ven wit h t od a y ' s dem /l.n d s on tim'li
lIla ny 'men a nd women a c t i ve l y vo lunteer their ' t ime to
I•
ser ve ',t h e c ommun i t y as fir e fi ghters. The v a r i e d
s c hcc j.a of though t range f r om job security to
d,ed ication to serve , others a nd from a thirst f o r"
e xc i t e ment ,to ccneen traen e. .un doing .n o t h i ng, I;lu t
no one set-of lllOti ves 'StteffiS to be c ons istentiy
a pp lica i:,)le . t o a ll ·fi r e fi g h t e r s • . It is afa'ct t h at
the .fi r e ae r wLoe Le . prima r ily comp rised of me n
t ha t ' c ome f rom s o me o t her'.fiel9-s of e ndeavor -to
'. ~:~~:i~/Ne~~~~i~rea~~~~iI~~ :~~;~r~a; ~g~~:i~~~;,: . .
is l ike , that a ttri buted to the sea bu t even those '
who have ma d e the tra ns i ,t i o n can no t accurately
idEmtifY ,the moving, force; We con s istently fi nd .
~ i t d ifficult· t o pOI:tray o ur s elve s t o t he co mmuni ty
in a wa y whi ch ,...,i l l ident ify who we reall y are and
' t h u s be be tte r un derstood a nd a c ce p t e d . -' It i s
o ur be l i e f that a more i n -p.epth "u nde I:s t a nd i ng -.
of ' f .ire f i ghte r s' , by the c o mmun i t y a,n d by t hem-
s e lves, ' wo uld en ha n ce the ag e o ldbatt~e of
~~o i~~=:~g live s a n d p rope rty from, th~ -r aveqes

One of th is Association 's mdr e rece~ e nd e a vo r s e- '

a t .a e r v Lnq ~he communi ty wa s o ur participation i n
t he Fo l k l l f e Festi va l sponsore d , by the Smi thsonia ri
In s t itu t i o n l a s~ year , Throu g h -t his ilctivi~ y we

I .
we r e i ntrOd uced t o t he concept ,o f c c cu p a t.Lo na I
studies by specialists who can o b jec t ive l y ana l y ze '
'~~ . ~~~~p:~~~~~: , ~~~~p~. -P~i~ i~~l=~oiri t:i:~~~ r~s~~~
pro fession a nd s everal .ho u.rs o f _d i s c u s s i o n- 9 a ve
birth to ne w i nsig hts into o ur wo rk ; ,_ I t vas ne r e
t hat. the c o ncept of a n Ln -ed.ept.h l oo k at professiona l
fi ref ight~ ~s ~a s bo r-?-., ( .. " ; - -..-:- - _. - _..
- The Fire Figh t ers ' _As s ociation of the ~ t}" ct

J ·' o f Columbia, Local 36 , r e p re s en t s the memb~;~

t he Distri c t of Colurnbia, Fir e Dep artment, ' a nd
a l t ho ug h ' its e l ected ;-ep resentatives re s pc n d. to the
po l i t ica l and e c on omi c needs o f f i re fi g h ters , t he
, ~~~~a~i~f~ :~~e~~~~~~ea~~ . ~~: i~~~e~~~~~e~~ I : hpse ,:
conuaunity 'we r e almo~t too c l ose for an y _o ne membe r
to \(iew o bj e c tively . We feel tha t b y emp loy ing
the services o f a specia l ist in occupa t iona l f o.lk- ·
l i fe like Bob McCarl , we c an accomp lis h two ve ry
impor t ant go a ls : . . 1) to be tte r u nde r sta nd o ur
o ccupation and ou rsel ve s py - o pen ing up our work
g roup to i n -depth p e r ce pt i o n and -do c ume n t a t i on by
L.

/
;, -.

a -train~d fieJ,dwo~ker. and 2) use the ,information

tha t is co l lected t o imprQve ·interna l a nd e:xt~rna l
communicatio n i n the cOllll\lunity • . We propose th a t
McCarl be housed in one- '.6rmore sta tio n ho us e s
in , t he District for a pe riod .of apPI"Ox.im~telY
a ye a r . and tha t he ' be a llowed t o participate i n
and ,docume n~ a l l aspects of a . fire fighter ~s daily
roun!l: from :c o 6 kin g lin d c leaning to riding the
'~;P:~~~~~:;;~f'~~~£h~nw~~~ ~~~ .~~t~~~o~~~;~~~t~~s .
which mig h t pr1ide h i m wi t h 'a n ih';"'dep ~h .f amilia'rity
r wi-th o ur wor x. At the end Of ,t h e doc wne ntary period , ' .
"Mc Ca r l wou l d w ite up his, find ings "f o r peesenxat.Lon
to t he , members 0,£ the Association. ' r he - scope of
this ma te r ,ial wil l. be cultural r a t h e r tha n ee onomic,
po lft ical ' o r s tati stical, that is we wi l l be per-
ceived and documented t hrough whllt. 'we , do and s ay; . ,
no t on t he basis, of external,ly deri ve d , i nformation
-: , although this information may shape . a nd be s ha ped
by our oc cupatio n al experience s . The As s oc i a tion,
based, u pon .the re s ults 9f Mc Ca r l ' s f i nd i ngs ; will
have' a n umber of , opt;~ons concern ing the use s to
whi c h ,t hi s ma t e r i a l)na y be put, uniotf pUblications ,
f i lm , r adio programs, sk i ll s de monstr a t i o ns, series
of .coromunity : works hops or the establis hment of a
o'l oc a l firefigh ters oral h i s t o r y / f o l k l o r e arch ive may .)
be employed to ' u s e t h is in formation t o ' b e st
·'a d va n t a ge by replay:i,ng it ,to o ur qiembe~ship and ,
the co romu nity, we serve. The fire fi gh te r s o f '
Washington , D.C; , l i ke fir e '-f i ghten; e lsewhere , a re
a ,f a mi l y - - a family wi t h a history a ndtrad itions- -
stori:es about the good t i mes and the b ad , a ccounts
of heroes and c lowns co upled with a s tro ng pride
'~~.;.!fur ski lls and the work that we do . Like an y
~l~heh~~::;~;t~~n~a~t~w~~~f~~fd;:la;~t" " :"
-~ hUman i sti c o utside r. ' W9 .neve be come convinced that
' t he s e a,t o r i e s 'we t e ll about , o ur own - be havior e s ,
f i r e f i g h t e r s , when t hey' re told , how the y de velop
and persist , (or fai l to) are an importan t key to
t,he unde rs t a nding we s eek . This i s _why we are
particular ly i nte reste d 'I n having a apec La I ds ti ,
like Bob McCarl , a n e x -fire - fighter"-himself a nd
i nteres t ed in ' co llecti'l9 o ur stories, un dertake
t his s tudy f o r , us .
T;; '.this end we 'a r e . a'sking you to 'c o ns i de r a
J, propos'a l t hat t he National End,oWltle n t f or the Arts
help u s in t h i s e ff ort . , We a re -unc e r ee .tn of t.h e
resu l ts o f s uch a study ,a nd are no t a rticulate i n
appl ying for prO gram~ _of. this ~atur~., We are
 . .1

i.r:
"r; .:
i

.. '1

' .\

' . ;

•
Q J
 14

no u ae in t he ci ty . . ,
.,
197 8. ,My strategy wa s t o vlsi"t a s many f i r e . nouses' as I
c ou l d dur ing t he firs~' mont h ;-0 ge t , a' f eel f or ,the
approachability . racia l ba lance, amou n t of .r rre acti vi ty,
I . ' ' .
and pe z-s on aL ' r e sp ons e s to me <l:!"d , my

some dea' l i ngs with o ne o f the bu sier downtown c ompan i es

pr o jeot. Having: had
I
I

~·~··I
d uring. 'l he - fo l k f es tiva l research, I r e tur ned to t ha t
hou~~, _ stAt~d' my obj ~ctive s ' t o th~ compa~y and t h e n r , ' . -,

re.turn~d t hli!'r"e t .he .ne x t, d.ay , t o be g iJ;lI my pre ll~i~ary s ur ve y. 1'£:1

.
'.
Afte r ~tayln9 t here ' fo r ~ boub a wec k ·~ . I went to othe r fi r e
hOIiS,es, ' i n' t he pity , spen~i.~9 anywhe;e f r o m tw o days ' to "';'
. 'week wo rk ing' wi'th t he fire. figh te r~ i n o ne pla t oo n to get
. . a · feel. for t heir d if ferent r unn ing :a r e a s .whi le I .at t :mpted

to l;Iolid ify my go a l s a nd app roach "t o

' ,\, ' . , '
th~ proj
.
e~t .
By the e ~ d. o e . Oet:o be.l" I h ad s J!len't ' t ime in fo ut: £.ire
. .i .
.', hou s e s i .n ~ if fe ren t par~s o f the c Hy, h~d at t e~ trai n'- ,
.Iing SCh?OJ, t ? q a dn some" of,tne b a s i c s of t heatta.c k an d the
e q ui pment (p ar t i cu l a rl y ' t he ' mas k ) and t hen ' r e t urned t o 16
Eng.i.~e (the dow nt own e ompa'ny) 'Wh i c h · I ,h.a d chosen a s my.

. preiililinary targ·et . '1 Cho,s~ thi s ' ho us e f or a n umbe r o f

'. reason s " inC ~Udin9 '.th~ f ac t t ha t I' kne w . a : nu~r o f th e men

there from. the ', ~Olk festiva l ' experience .•. Th~ co~pan~: .a l s o
had a go od m ix t~re of o l d e r and y o unge r me'n and it w~ s a }. '
: . ~ '. . ' ..
tigh t ;" Mrunnln i;~ . c o mpa ny; t he area c o ve r .ed by . th i- ~ p,a rt.i c ~-
la r hou s e varied frOm high 'r i s e a pa r t me n t s ' a nd bus ine s's es
to t e ne me nts a nd sing le -fa mi ly dwel1 i'ngs';, t he ' g roup seemed

L
 J

15

,'it :wa s a c c e s sible by mails : tr~n S i t: ; · .a r:ad it wa s a' dl?uble ·

h ouse (a.n e n gine a nd 't r '!-'c k company) e s. we l l · a s a chicf."',m d

deputy 's house., It had a lmost eve rything I , ne e d lld ex c e p t ,

a g O,a d whi te/~laok r atio · { th~re -.·wa.s only on e :ol~ck fi r e

fighter i n the company) and a .f ema Le fire fign ter . These

a spe cts o f the c uitu re I thoug ht I could ~~do c wD.e n t once I

i h~d ' ~pe n t some tirile working ....i th a m~re t raditioncU, ho mo -

g e neous 9 .r,OU.P; · wh i ch proved to be t he case.

My ' r e s e arch goal from. t h e 'o u t s e t w~s ' to'P~OdUC~ a

typ~' Of 'a ccessib'i e d~c~enta~ion thatwou id all'ow ' the fi re

.! i g h t e r s ' t~ gain a diffcrc'n t perspect ive 'about ,t .he ms e l v e s .

i s 's t a t e d "i n t h e origi na l pr~posa_l , . t he f orm in which the
d ata would be ·.'presented , ·~ou ld be

. . . . a u n ion publicati o n , fi l m" vid eotape , rad io ·

program , · skil l s d emon stra t ion , series . ofcQnunun ity
~rkshops o r the esta b lishmen t of I:l l o o a l fire .
fi g hter 's o ra l h i s ,t o r y /folklore archive . ' .

La t e r i i n Sept e mbe r, 1 9 78 , . t hi s , wll.s 'lre f ine d to two speci fi c

goals: . a bookl e t ' wh i c h wo u ~ d pxovfde. a n . ove rv i e w of my

r e s e arch I findings i n aforroat that wou l.d ba easily ac c e s s i-

b le a nd u nd er s t ll.ndab'i e to f ire fi gh t e r s themse'lvcs . ' a n d
. .
s e c o n d l y ; 'a n o ra l pre se ntatio n in wh i ch r wo u l d d i s cus s my
/ . ': '. ., '.
fi nd ings , sh ow 'my p h o t og r a phic dcc umen c e t Lo n , a nd p r ov i d e

a for um in ' wh i ch f i re . figh~e rs COUl d. .as~ess .the. jvalilUty

of the , p r o j e c t '~nd 'p e r h a p's 's ugg e s t f utu r e c e e e :o f ,t he ' ·

ma teria l. As i state in o ne o f ' ,my l ~ t te r s of : a ppe,~ l t o

the f ire chief:

, L

I : feel (and the' 'Endowme"n t , is, fu nd ing ' the 'pr o j e c t

o n this basis) t hat I am being paiq to document; .
t~e work proce s ses ana ' experience s o f urb an , fir~
f ighters and in ~ffect ac t .e e a mirror-- a mea ns
o f reflection through whic h wo rke rs in this t r a d e
can better understand~ eh e eeeave s a n d perhap,; be
e~;~:~e~n~e~~i~~ti~st~~~~:m~~~ tiheyT~~r:f~~~up
contr o l it . 6 . _~

Ev e n though I had worked in o c c u p atio n a l ' f~lk lor~'

, " "
both ' as II part i cipan t i n ; a v ari e ty o f c ccu pa t. Lon aL g r oups
a? iate r !'!s 'a fi cldworker " Whi ~~ ~t't'he sm ithsoni an " ~ .
Ja on' t ' ~xact' ly
sure
. '
-how't ~
begin such ,
. ' . ~. . " .a~ , underta~inq :'as"a
fulT- time ,j ob . ' I had begun a jo u~na l t~ .k e e p· track, o f

daily e venee "nd : ob servation s a~'d I au gme nted , tha t with

~'~ Sti~y ' wdtt~n ooe ee tha t ' I k~pt i~ , ,; s ma li p oc k e t note~ .
. ~oOk' ~~~ ' the'n' e'xpa~ded i n t h e j ou rn'al a ~'~e~ w~rk; ' Al~OU9h
, I wasn ',t .a e f i rs t aware .or the eme r q enoe of ' p a rt:i c u l a r

. intoraC: iona., .~.~". , w•• . , c.onfi~.• n.t - ~'hat by .' ,.first, l p

, ",l n q and d o cument,ingthe ke y t echn i qu e s o f eac h indi v idt~l
a ss~gnment on the fi ~a ground (i:ec~nicians', Offi ce r~', ,b ~r ,
hook '~ nd axe.. )l a.y o u t ~rip. l ine : pos itionG ) " I ' WOU~d gradua l .lY
be,g in to, better 'unde~sta~ the ~~r~ proces'ses' that Sh aped "
a n d informed t he other elements of' occupal:.ional experience ; '
, " ' . ..' I -' .

w,a_s" , , ~n. O~. h.e. '.~.di.atelY ~

g
' .I. . r word,s. .•. Pu. t t.i. n m?' .theo.rie.so.• .•..
occupa tional : culture .e o , the , test<. ;., " . ' , 'j'
In a d d ition t o participating ' in t h e daily housew r k

and c ooking . I a l s o stu~k with either the truck or the

engine company during the , fire runs', partici p a ted in 'the
, ' ' . '.
" attac k ' as much a s poss ible wi thou t s l o wi n g a n y on e down
• ' " ' " ',, -- ,I . ' . :, .
(mostly b y he lping wi th ligh ts a~d ~a ns or hum pi ng h os e up

\
 eap~' ,r ~CO:der ....h (!re ~er ' .I ·,We l}t . " I a lso star,ted ' interview~
lng . B,a ch , i nd i v idual i n ~he ,:ompa ny t o , c omp ile bio graphl c a l.
in,forma ~ion , gai n . a grcate~' . .insight~ 'in'to' trhc ir particul ar
" ,
te sponS ~bi ~ti~s : on the f ~:r:e ,g'r o und ; ,a n d .g a ve ' th~m ~n .:
' o ppo r t uni t y ' t o qu e sti on me ab o ut my J:>a c kg :r:ound , ' motivat :too s
• " I' ·
a nd experieqces . This prOVl.d~ me wit h a large a mount of
spectt"l.~ dat~d a l l owea me d bec o me. p ers o n a lly ac q ua·l.nted
wl.th e ach ma n ird l.Vl.d ua llY an d i n a s e nse negot i a t e my
go als i n th~ pr oJ e ct wl. th h l.s pOl.n t ' o f v iew . As soon a s

~saible af t ·e.,r e ach 'i nt e r v,i e w" I ' WO~~d rn~k~ '-a :1 0 9 of the
, " , , ' " ' "

~ape , s o, th~~ acc,es, s ,t~;th~ 'tnater,.i alS, 'W~U,~d ~e fa:~~l.~,t a~,,~d, "
, " ", I d e velo p e d a tape l og s ys t e m o f ta pe . c l a s s i f ca -
.' tiO~ wh~n I d i d . the 'inde x to ' the wbr k"i ng i.me r 'i c a rf' s t a ' s:
a fter 'th~ festi~ai· 'in' , 1;7~'-7 Faced~.:at t ha t , :t:::i mff ,wi t.h th e ' "

task 'o f provi~ in 9 ' a c c e s s t¢~ ove r , t hre e - h und r ed "ho u'r s of "

t ape. ' I 'de c i d e d ' that ' i t would b e fOo lish' a nd wa ste ful to
• u , .. ' /' ,~

pa y someon e' to t .r an s c ribe ' the 'whQl e, co r pus. . ~ the refore'

, .:listene~ , to each , tap~ and · .j '?t.te~ down not~s ,'a n~ :~ o~~~er
,n umbe r s o f f of the ' tap~ recorder a's' 1 went' a l o ng . ·,', ,I f 'a
" , ',

fire . f i g hte r; fO; e~~mPl~ , wa s d;!sci,ibi n~ hi s ride to ,wor k ,

1a fi:r:e , they had ye.-s'~e~day ~nd 'aS~iri~~ha~'s 'f o r' dinne:r: on .
. .', , . '
a' t ape . " it ,would , appea :r: a s
~ ' ,' '"' " •" c •
Wa t c h desk : FF'sW. S, P , a nd '{ , (thei:r: 'names ) , '
P: ( s i g n s in ~t 'desk) Ta l k s , abt·.g~t t ing fla t on
wa y to w<;lrk-- lucky ha,a spa:r:e
S: Asks about s a con~ ~ la:r:m " . "
P: ' No t much , to do 'o n .f i r e - - mon i t o r e d ' wlIt er ,suppl y ,
&~~~:~ up ;i l<tt ' o f pump tim~~ ~aSks What. .',S fo~ , '
. " , "
 y
once t 'he"i 09 "t\as been c~mpieted for, '~~c'h tape , th~~' I n d e x- .
log . ~he -~ter~' a l . is ,rna'd e: mtlc~'_ easier : an~ ' ~e~·e c"t.~d_ ' t~pes
can-be transcribed .w h~ re co mplete tran~~rip.ti;;~ is war "';
ran ted .
Photogra phically .it became 'i mme d i at e l y a ppar ent
' . .
that I wa s
.. . . ',' : ', . ,. ',"

in ,way ov e r my h e a d . Fi re photographers ,s p "e nd

,[
~ea;~- pe'rfe~tin9' the i r -t c:chn~~al abillti'es J.~ phatograp~ing
f'i~e fi~h~ers "·at .~ork •. , AS ' l ong as w~ w,ere i~ 'the hous e I
c~u1:'d t~~e, my shots " ~t ,IllY le liiure with no di,fflculty at, alL
au t · as ' , soo, ~ ~s we respond~d 'on II -e~ll " t he spee~ ~it~
whi ch e~erythiri9 happe ned r. cou p l ed with my' desi:.;e t o s tay
'wit~ the c o'mpa ny' as t hey. crawl e d' down ' ,a smok c - f ?-lled hall:... ·
way. made it ' impossib~c ' for 'me t o visU~ll; docurne~t the

_l
.Etlentually I had to, s tage . many ' o f t he .t e chn i que s . in ~rde r ,
t o .get t he m on film an d 'e v e n th~\the , i ndi v i d ua l cOJllpan ie~
. ,' . ' , \ . " '".':, . ~ " ' , ' : " , .', .
moved s o f ast when just "walkl.ng throug h- the steps of ..a
. ', . , . ' , "

i~~e f i g'hti n g , att~ck, t hat' I , missed 'p o r 6 o n s I o f the pr o cess .

.
As scenes began to 'emer ge .i n b o th ,t h e fire h ou s e ' {aro u n d .
. th~ watch desk', f .ire . crit~ques after , a fire) and on t h e
fire ground (racKing hose,, 'overhauling a burne d out c e i l-
i ng ) ', ,I could more compet~ntiy"a nt i c i p a t e the 'oc c u r r e n c e
I . :. .
of ' .t h e s e . s i~ n i fica n t i ~ t. e rac'tl. ona l periodslllI 'and ' photo9rap~'

', the~ ..a's th~y unfolded .

On a daily b~sis , ~'5 ~ew" fire fi ghters would be
d~' ~a iled for .a. day ' ~~ 'n i9ht to 16 Eng i~e. I would have: to .
,' . ,. 19

explain my presence ..· In _t h e: ini t~al 's t ag e s of my research

., ~r , · . , ' " " " . _, ', ,' ,
I would t al k about; the - f o l k-li f c fcstival , occupationa l
'c:'~ lture , et.c , , -b~t: so 'on 'lea rned t ha t t hat' did -li ~t ~e, to
explain why I wa s s tandlng _'in ,a group of f ire f i gh t e r s '

taki ng p Lc bur e s a nd r e cord i ng 't he i r 'ecneenes .a s I ,z:;a c ke d

hose with them a fter a fii'e. As r ' go~ "a .Lt.t rt.Le mor -e con-.
fident , my ' e x~ 1 a n a t ioJl inc luded the : foil,owing iQ formatio ~:
FF : What , 'a r e 'y ou doing t h i 's f'-on ' ,
Mc : , I was hired by the un j.o n , t o do c umen t how
i n f ormat i on i s passed frofii one g uy to t he nex e ,
say f rom an experienced man to a rookie. ' I try
t.o figure , ou t~t.he t.rick s , o f the : trade- - what "yo u
.: n e ed t.o know t.o be successfu l at any position
i n ,t he trade. , Ri gh t n ow I'm concen trating on
~~~r~~:t~~~e s~~~;~e:~:rau:~o~~Y~~'~ ~6wf~~~re .
skills are l earne d . 'Wh e n I 'm done . this Will , go 8
into a repor t that I · t~ e n turn ov e r to , you guys •

. Yet I fo und t hat in my attempt t .o e xpla i n .t he p u x - >

poses of t.he proj'e 'ct ' ~o 7.he , fire f ~~hte.rs the~seives I

became IIlOreconsciousof h ow t heir pe r ~ep-t i o n_s of thel!!-

. '.
occurred .i n ea r 'l y Dece~er ilhistra tes one as"pectof t h i.s
. di~cre pancy:

'necembe r '7 ,' Thursda y :No t h ing 'muc h going on until

ab out 2:3 0 AM whe n we 'got a r un to , 12th and T . NW
~~~~ ;:~~:-~~~d ~~~~ . (~p~r~t~~l~~~~~;n~~S~~iP_' "
. t ion o f the fire is g i ven he re . It wa s a ve r y hot
a nd s mokey fi r e in the -s t a ; rw ell ! probab ly set on
pu r pose . A nwnber of peopl e were injured e nd take n
. out o f win dows , o f f t h e f i r e escapes an d l e d t o .
' s a f e t y by ' the fire fi ght ers . ) .' onc e t he 'overha u l i ng
b egan J.n 'the f oy e r o f the ' bu ilding , Chie f Ca s e y
s tar ted se ndi ng peop'l e back in • •• . • At abou t thi s
t.i me a mid d l e -age d ,b l a c k man came ho lle ring do wn
~~d~~~ir;ta~~~t~~: ~~;~~;~Q~u~fe~~~ ' ~h~~~e{,= s he

i
I J
 said ) : ' The r e weren 't no moth ~ r fuck in fire in my
r oomJ ' He demande d t o k n ow wh a t .tthe fire fighte rs ~
we r e' going to do a b ou t i t and in creased ' h i s yel J,ing
an d hy s t erics when the news' ph otoqr~ phe r b egan to
shoot the sta'irwel l (wi~h a " television . c a me r a l ,
The f ir;e figh ters were : al 1- ,very tense ~nd ,q u i e t
with t he e xc e ption of a s e r geant ,who , tol d t he guY
~~m~~~ni;b~~t~~ 'cl, .g i Ve liim .somethin9. to r e a lly

On the way bac k rt:0 t he hous e t hi s ' incident 'c a u s e d ' a gripe
J . . • . " . . . •
. ' st;.ss ion a b o ut the. s tupidi ty and i n g r ati t ud e of b l a ck s t ha t
c on tinue d i n t he fire h o us e ' f o r about ha l f .·a n hour . The
. . , , . ~.

~ f i r e f i ghte rs had just done what they co nsidered a n excel -

.. " I '
l e ht j ob putting o ut a ve r y ho t ' f i r e i n a crowded 'ten emen t

l a t e at ':l~9ht . 'They we r e l oo k i ng ; o r-: g r a t i t ude • .noe

~ri-i:.icism even thOUqh lth~ man doing the , complaining CO~~d ; '
easi ly have been" the, v ictim of an cver aea Loue ,t r uc k ma n'

i tc h ing t~ ~bu5t' a ~ew w,1.ndows . I t bec ame mor e and . mo r e

ev i dent t o me that not '~nly would : I hav e to docl,llIlent the
'.. ; . " '", '! . "
fir e fig h t ing · c u l ture as I saw it a nd as ' I de t e rmine d t hat

t he f i re f ig ht e r s t he ms elve s saw it, bu t I wOu ld at 'tne

,same ,t i me have~o f ind ' a way t6 reflec~.my more ' Objectiv~
view' of them back to t he m ,w ~ t hou t a ppe ari ng. too cri.t.icaL
I n ,my attempt· to do an applied e thnogr~ph y I wo u l d 'h a ve to

f irs t ge nerate as obj ecti ve an, a c c o unt a s I ' could a nd t hen

present t hat account in II fr amework th a t provid ed me with

en ,·o Pl;>Or t l.;1nity ' t o n~'got1l1te my per~eption of fir e fiC;;rh ting

c u l t ure , wit h theirs .

As time went o n in my fi e ldwo~k. 1 .be qa n to b e c ome

,. awa r e .of , the 'te p eti tion ? f tn o t' ,on l y te chnique a~d . ~ehavl0r
i b~th on and o'ff o f t he
. fir~
. I .g~ound, · but; als o o f na r r ative
 21

s ee s to n s a nd even indiv i~ua l sto:l:'i.es and r e pe rt o rie s .

Th i s re/duildartcyreli'eved some of ~he 'f r u s t r 'il t i o n s I ~as

f eelin g co ncerning the vas t amou nt , of da ta. ,~ was amassing
and i t a lso: freed me up to r ange a little mor e w i dely i n
my research , beyond the ,"qual i ty speces " l ike ' th"e watch

d e ~ k, .s i t t i n g . r o o m and h o se ra ck ing a r ea s where -I ha d been

's pend i n g most ~f my.time . 10' Ha vi n g be en in the same ' ho us e

with th~ samE; 'gr o u p fo r . allllOst fiv e n:~~ths by \.his point ,

· I , star t ed , i~terviewing f i re fi.ght~ r ~ faini ~ie s; - ~eti:r-ed

I

, ' " " I . "

f ire f ~9hters-, .and atte nding ret irement dinners. 1 ~l$O

h a d gained the trust and acceptance o f t h e group . to ,t h e

tha~ '1 a~d
extent
,
was -a pa rticipa nt 'in the p ranking h o rs e....

p l a y a nd f el t .a & t.hough I ,ac t u a lly could l e nd a hand wi th

· th e ~ork i f not '~ s ' an~q~al th~n at least as a rec~gnized

associate .
It we s at; abou t ' ,this 't ime , h owe ver ; ' t hat ,'fIlY sponsor

· i n the labo r organization began t;' question my me t ho d s arid

t he r.e.liabilit.y, o f my d .a ta i f i I c~. n.t:ln. "d, worki. ~g with j us t .

.t h i s ~ne company . I h a d r~ li e d ~n th i s ma~' s j udgment
t. d ~uppor t t o s e e me thra"u9h a ll of the p r oce du r a l h assles

and 'p r o b l e ms th at arose when w e ; firs t be g an ,t he proj ect ,

and a 1 t hough rRnew he wa d ri g ht abou t t he re liability of

t .he ·d a t a 'f J: a l s~ . wa s a wa r e ,o f hOW 10n.9 i t h a d t aken' me , t~

g a i n the r appo r t ' a nd' openne ss ' I . :"~ S only j u st t h e n e x p eri-

encin g . '1 wa s beginnin g to 'get the fee l . of be i ng

. , ,' ,
4r

parti c i p an t , and n o t 'on l y was ,i t ' a p l easurable experi e nce ,

 cultu~a l' vi e w , of at~ least thi ~ g):-o up o t f i re fi-ghters • . As
~ . . ' ..
I seee e in mY".n otes: , / :
January 9 - ..Dav:e want s me to JJo to at. l e a s t' two
other ho uses and although I can . d c i t, it may
f o r ce me t o rethink my stra tegy . e, bit , • . • •
~~a~;:~~: ~~~, ~~~~ym~~b: '"~~c~st~~gh~~i~~~~~ical •.ll ''',
March ,9"",- Fi na l i y 8~t ' d bwn With Dave .ab t . llIov i n g
to a new station and h e went through the ros t er
and decided that it s h o ul d be 8 ,E Iigine . ,Tr uc k 7
on Plat o o n 13 because the r e was a goo d , c r oss
s ec tion o f bl a c ks on, tha t shift . As , perUsual
. I ' f e l t as th 6ugh a lot' of the t h ings , t s houl d
: have said- -particularly ab'out; union c o o pe r ation ,
~~~ ~t~~t l:~~e~t;~:I~f . s hou l d have be.en b r,oug.ht

t finally a9ree d that although I tho ug ht i t wou ld ru in my

rapport wit~ , 1 6 Engine, i t was t ime t ,o mo ve to a ',ne w 'house

wh i ch . r . di d in the ~iddl!3' , of April , 19 79. · ' I n orde r t o

ma:i nt ain co n tac t wil:.h my or.i g inal , c"oniPany ~ I retu rned
,t h e r e -a t l east' once a , to u r ,' a n d al tho ugh r 'wa s sti ll

. a"cc epte d , thi,S ,~ ~e., che n qed my r~'ta tio:-Sh~ll' 1 i t h thls

co,?pany but p erha p s ,',imp r oved mY bb je c tivi~y by maki ng me
\ , '"
le s s re liant on pe rsonal rela t i o ns h i p s a nd more p:r:ofe s sidh-

a l~y inde pendent . I t was alm~st as if I had se r ved ,a n

al pre n'ticeSh i P and n~ (with.Dave 's 90 ad 1n 9) I was goin g

ec try work ing as mo re o f .a journeyman .
The 'rtew ho use had . a heavi er conce n tra'U o n o f bl~ck
. \ . . . ...
fire ~i g hte rs , w,as in a totally di'1:ferent type of ' area (a
re siden~i'~l . old~~ ,ne i gh b.o r hoo d , prima rily'· b lack . wi th l a i ge
si':lg~e fa~'ilY d~el1 ings l '~ an1 pr~v~~ed me wi~h;'l , mu~h
d 'ifferent persp ective'; ' I l ea rned quickly :a bo ut : the
. - :' " . . . , - :
't 9 t ally different cultural pe e e pee e Ives of .t ue oxs tow a r d
. . ' . ~
 ',,.
\

the f ire se rv i ce, wi tne s sed so me of .t h e racl al c on fli c t s

tha t , 'a r os e
.' . ",
in t he . hous",e. and , saw tn:~ iso l atio n a~d d r a wing
: : ' 0," ,, :
inward
., ',
of ind i vi d u a l s who for o ne ,' r e ason
" " .
or a not her ' fe l t

ali~~~t~~ from the c capen y o~·

jU,i:. couldn ' t _ta ke the
s~~wer ' pa6o ~f be i ng i n. a ' hOUS~ ~hat . got f ew a c t u a l fy re
;r;i.lrl,,~ due - t o their ,l a'cat i on ; , At th e s ene t i me , ho wever,. :':1 :
b~an ' to compare my ' ne~ 'pe1r s pe c t i ve" t~ 'those I had t o e n c se

I -ha d forme d at 1 6 Engine a nd 'f o und that a : t hou9 h t~ere ,

wa s resentme n t on the pa r t o f 't he blacks i n t he c o mpany

.,. ' ',,' _ ". . ,l
abou t d. i scr imin~~ion in t h e :d ~ p a r tme n t l t hey .were . (f or t he
mo st p art ) more ' t o lerant o f t he whi t e s than the wh i t e s

we r e o f them. It a gain con f i r me d A. g row i ng a wa r e n e s & on

my part that t~e ma j o rity g r o lip of white fire 'fight e r s

. we c e i n su l ati nq t hemselVes i n ' the i r .s lowly erroding ,
" ho mogene ou s and ' traditio~a'l occupa t "io na l 'c ulture ~hile
b lacks an~_ as I ~ a ~er '/d i s c o ve r i d , women ," c o n !-i nu e d t~ m~ ke -,
i n r oa d s in to. t he group carrying wi th them the i r own uni q ue

cUltur~l per:spec7ives ~ha t - ca ; r ied over , int o ' t h"eix ccccpe-

tional e xpez-Lencee ,
By t h e e nd , o f Se p t embe r . 197 9 , I had 1pe n t an .

additi o n a l two a nd a half months" wi t h a h e a vy r escue s q u ad

while I a lso mai ntai ne d some re g ul ar c o nt act wit h the

down town a nd ' res·identialc~mpanie s . 'I d~.c ided to ' leav~
the fie ld afte r t ha t 'and o r ga n i z e, my dat.a s o t ha t 1 c o u ld

be~.1n t o write i t up . i had accumu~ated a t thi s , p~int

"-" a l mos t t wo- hu ndr 'ed hour s .Of , t a p e from r e cor d e d i nfonna l
, se s s i o~ s .ec dyadic '-I nt erv i ews , hundr e d s o f b l a ck a nd wh i t e

'~- ....o.- ,_' _' ' , ' u'

(" , ...
"

2'
photogra p hs. a.~d 'coior slide ~ '. field n o tes and ' not e b ooks "

. '~ ~"nd a dizzying emou n e . of Lmpreee Lona and' obee r ve uLc rr s s~im •.
' mi ,ng a ro und in ' my head. ' I also .~ad de veloped 'semi! very

c l o s e f riendships with some of t he fi r e fighters ' a n d

. wit hout t h a t pers onal. e nc o ura geme n t at t his po iri~ (n the

. . .
pr o j e ct 1: question wh e t he r or not I COUl d, ha ve completed

the mos t d iff icult p h a s e of t he p roj.e c t . the orga ni zation .

concepcue. j.Laac.Lc n a~d' "'dti ng ,Of t he ethnographic s ketch .

I , begap with the b lack and ·,.Ih i t:-e photos by o r ga':li z-

ing ~he rseq at.Lvee .e nd then - the cont ac t shee ts chrC!~o i~'~ ­

oe Lj y . I ' the n r emov e d a ll of the t ape l og's ~f~~l)l :;t.~~ir

'e ~velope ~ and
"
r~ad t h ;OU9h them and
, '.' . -'
m/ f~~l~"':nd;~;:~..i
- '. , ': <;:
cou p l e

of , t im~s· to ge t a broad picture . of what it i s f 1ha',j -in

hand. ( Th e t h i rd time through I b ega n to jot d own c e e e-

:: ': " " '
go rie r o f in ~o rma ti on suggested b y ,t h~ .mat e r i Al,_)Js e lf , o r

tried , t o : choose topics br o a d eno uqh t o c ap t u r e ' a good si zed , j

. ,' ,

screens. The c ategories ' t hat finally coapr Le e d t he i nde x '

I . . .
i n c luded , th e fo llowi n g l

A c cid ent s /
Axe (a truck compa ny position)
B ar ' '. "
Charac ters
C lose calls .
C ritiq ues- -fi re cri t iques
C ustoms
Drill
E n gi ne company/truck ' comp a ny
Engine of ficer
F athe r/son/fami ly/wives
F i r e h o us e c am ar ad erie
Indi vid ual fireho u s e s
J o.ki ng be havi?r

t.: .
 \ " ," , .
Layo u t ' (posi tion in an en gi"tl.e co mpa ny )
' ,Line I. , ", _ ' ' ,, ' -. ' , . ,
, Mot i v a tio n s t o be a fi r e -fi g h t e r
Narratives .
Offic ers/a ide s ' ' ....
Orders/terms / communic a t i ons
Poli c y / fir e figh te rs _(relati o ns between)
Pranks ~
·..,Pub l i c ·vi e w of fi r e 'fi g h t e r s
. Pumper 'dr .tver .
Rescues /fi rst a ~d
Rio ts (the -1 906 8 rio t's)
Rookie expez-Ience s ' .
Secon d jo b (fire fi ghter' s p art,:,"time j ob s )
Squa d - .-' , ' .
Teachers '
Technique
Til1er
Tools/appa ratus
Trends in , departme nt/ changes
_Tr uck driver . .
Tr uc» offi cer
Wag on dr i ver
Watch desk ex pe r i e nces .
Women

By , going through' e ac h t a pe l o g and transc ri ption I

the'n n oted t .he d a t e of the ' t a pe ; ' who 'was ' s peaki ng, the.ir

t opi c o f conve r s a t i on ' or ,na r r a t i on and ttle transc ri pt page

Nov . 26--W ':'.-Time e eeeeee 'k i ds - - i nt e r i o r a ttac;k p. J

• M • pvc f Wlle s- -onc e rea l bad • p. ' 48
• Being overweight--badon hea r t p. ,5
• Hidden , back p robl em--bad clinic d oc p.8 .
Dec . 6--FL--Hurt back on . fl oor when slick p. ~ -2B ~ .
. I .

Work ing f rom 'five to ,e i g h t ' ho u r s a day , thi s portion o f the

.· pro j e c t : took ae over five weeks to ccmpj.e t;e ," Had 1 - t ri e d

to "tr~n scribe e v e ry t ,a pe , it ~ould ,have ,taken tha t many

~ nth s a~d ' J: seri~usly , doub t , if, I' ev~r could hav'e cornpl~t.ed
the ' ethnO'1raphy in the ..allotted time .
~'
26

" , . ,On c e ,I had' eompletec:I my index ,~h e next ,ta sk '~as"tb

block 'ou t th~ethnog raphy itself .', ' B~scd on t h e material

and 9110ssa rial , i n f o r ma t i o n i ii t he . bo oklet to give .a t;t·ou t -

sider a g l impse i nto this o ccupat.Lonaj wo r l d . This dcveiop- .

me!1t of "\ ' b ridg~langu'age betwe en no t on ly th~ ocpu p a tio n a l

I
and academic, cultures, but a lso between t he occu pational
• ,, ' . ,J .
i ns ide view 'and . the outside wor:ld is pe rhaps the ma j ot...

c hal lenge o f appj. Ied fo l klor e u s i n g . t he ethnographic

, ' " , .
approach. ' The o riginal i n d e x I d eve l oped was br~k endown

in' the 'f o l l owi n g manner :

In trciduc tion
Motivations to be 'a fire ' f i ghte r
Fire h?u~ e life'
Work techni ques
Pumping water:
Blacks, whites ,a n d wome n
nccupatdonaj, stereotype s
Of f i c e r s I
Narratives
. Accident accounts
Conc lusion
Refere nce s
Glossary

I wrot.~· the moti~ations ·c hapt~.r'. fi~st " but .o e ce :r ~

had co mpleted i t it became ~b viousto me tha.t t he mo s~

s a l i e nt de termi na nt in an , individual 's cho i c e to become ' a

fire ,fi g h t e r wa s ethnic and ' fa!? i1 ial background.. a~

th~re' fore .r inc. o rpora t ed IIIOs t : of th i s material into the

chepber on wh ites ' . bl acks:"and women " " Ha v i ng c hosen my

cate'g,ories a rid dev~ ioped an index , to ' all'o w me. tolo c ate
virtu'ally any na r r ati ve in t~e corpu s, t he. n~~t . t~sk was' ·
to c hoose repDesen t ati v e na r r a ti ve s t hat woul d illustrate
- ~ ' .
my a rgUl\ICnt· · a nd a t t he s~me i,t i me be o ~ e n ough int er e s t
themsel ves t o ca rr y the flow of t he ove ra ll ac count
' whethe ~ it. wa s read ,by a n outsider o r a f ire fi g ht e r . .. The
s ,el e c t ing o f I£ep r esenta tive n ar r a tive s fo~ Plac~m~nt i'-II an

ethnographic fr a me work designed, to .b e re a d ~hy "i ~ s i de r s lind

'o ut s i d e r s i s something tha t fe~:f~l k lorists a nd anth ropolo- "
, . , ,---:'" ,~ . '
gi s ts hav e b e en adeq uately p repared to eo , I w i ll br i e fly

'i llustra te , t her e f o r e" how r : arrived at .mo s t of 'illY c h o i c es .

, Fol klorists ha ve "gene f re m the 'listing and eei I ece-.

.i ng of items of fo lklo;' e to ati , aw~ren~ss o f th~ need, for

co ntextual inforrna ~ion s ur r ound i ng t h at one ite ~, ' to an

a ppr e c ia tion of the var ying leve ls of meaning sugges ted by

v ery 'subtle ch anges in co nte x t in a whol e chun k of e l:h no-
. .
graphic. de s c r ip t ion. Ye t no mat ter how de e p o r "t hi ck"

o ur unders ta:~ding of t he i nsid e view . o~r de9criptio~ of

it is much "thi nn e r " be oeusa we a re fo rced to let .,th e

writte n pa rt . s tand f or ' t h e ethnogr~ph ic wh of e , 1 3 By . con-

..
centrat1n~' on the ' ~rk te~hn:iques of an o ccupa t io na l ' g roup
" , ,
we are isol a t in g a mor~ "critical c e n te r " o f t he cco u p e -

tiona :l . c ul t u re beca,use "rnost ~arrative"s, joki ng-, r e l a tio n -

ships,nicknames , " customary e e nev tccee and ' acti v i ties b o t h

comnien~ on ari~ re_f ~ect: ' these techniqUe~' ,as I have

 ._ ' - ~ -_ .- .- - :'-. -

. illustrated . Tb e '. joh of ·.a n e th noqraphe r i s to' select

28 ,.
, I:r
~xa~le5
'
whi ch
.
' IIO"~
' .
~rov~~;,iiVelY"Ulus'inte to ~he " .
. occu~ tio.na l g.XQ.u"p~~er.s thi!JTIs el':'es . the cen t er o~ tha t '.
critical s t ::"nc e from whi c h they an~. e valua t i nq ilie·ir .
.. . . . I. . : .. . . .
b.eha vio r . , At t he S lUIe t ime , howeve~ , . t he mo re esoteri c

technique s tha t take plac e f a r ther awa y from the centra l '
. .
processes o f the work qow .mus t be c a r eful l y wei g hed in
- , "

s uch .a pre s en t a t ~ on because the oo r e , e lAbo r ate a nd

, . .', . ' ,

detailed t he d~s6ription , the more diff i c u l t ~t i s , f or ' e ce -

a Lder-s t o ~, se e, into .t he c ult ure'." This can be mi t igll'ted

" somewhat by concentr lltin'g on th~ ce nt r al ' mo des of exprc s - , '
s Lve ~ehavi~r whi~~ have been is~iated ,by ~la~cing : 'them
bet~een Newna nn ' s ' Pola ri t i e s ' os: -mund a n e an d unus u a l f~rrD.S I
i
. ,... of ~"Pres~'ion . An ' or9an izati'c~ of d~ta" tha t ' tias informe~
th is e nti r e. a pproach .
. ·•. 1
~' ' " In t he ~k let ' ''pood Fi~ejBa.d · Ni9ht " \Whi ,?h i s the
final ethnog:raphic . sketch qener~~ed by th e p ro ject ; I can
" " ' : r ' ·
'. provi de a s Pecific eX4ml?le of how t~ l oc a tion ' o f th e '

critic~~ c~~ter:dds the' eth:OgraPh~r ~.his l el.~e;ti:n of

a repre:senta ti ~e narn tive: or . b ehavior". " ; n t he ~ section
about ; the wagon dr i v e r I ha d indexed o ver for t y' separa te
i
obse rvations , ' a ne!=d o t : s , ~~OJri,,"~; an~ i n lli gh t ~ ~e lating to ,
this , ke y ~ si t i on i n t he engifle compa ny. TJ:t ~ s e ent rie s
r a nge d fr~m pas.si~9' .o bs~ rva~ion s abo~t good wagon drivers' .

setti ng t he pace fo r the engine compa ny ; 'to s t o r i e s"a bo u t

wagon 'd r i ve r s . going the ', wro~q ' 'w~y to~: 'a 'f i r e • . to ,· ac~un t s
·o .f wagon d'rive;s ..,~thh~1dinq ,:o~t.~- change in formation fro. , "
J , •

L . --.--.- -· , - - -'------',.1:...__~~--._..- - _ _ --'

 enoughcto cba Lf. e nqe ,ihe'i r right to '~~e ' ~si tion . · Yet a ,s, I,

w7rl.t'down th e ~'i.st Of ' stoz-Les a n d ' ~~n,=, b'aCk -"th,~OU9~~ , ,

pers onal ac counts' of wagon dri ve r s ' describi n g the i r j cb s ..
, it beda'me ci.~a r to me ~at "6'ne c r iti~~ l : ~hing was ce~tra ~ '
'~~ ~e wag~n driver's'jOb~ " ,~i,~'ing a~'d '·a nt~~~'pation . I I,
,t h e r e,f C;lx e ~tot~t:hiS :>ectionof the ,b ooklet ,i n t he 'f'Ol1?"'-', :' .0

The wa gon driver , ( ~der the direct i 'on the'of

off ice r) is t he , p ace set ter of t he e ngi ne company',
I t i s his job to ta ke , til e appropr i ate runn i ng
route t o the fir e, to place t he piece as ' close as
hee an to the fi r e building withou t ·bl9cking o t her
compani es and to deliver th e wat er llnd, monito r ·the
wat er supply t o t he engi ne c o a pany when th~y , a r e
, i ns i d e . From t he speed wi th whi ch t he c o mpany
l eave s the hous e ' to t he 'pac e s et o v er t h e road
and f ina ~l y th e tillling o.f t h e W<1ter to t he li ne
,Ij ~~:in~h~fw:g~ne~~~~:ra~~~~~~~~ ,~~: f~li:.~~:
account t h'e mos t i llpor ta nt,part o f his , j o b,
ant i cipati o n , 'i s .des c r i bed: . '
' :~ut'1~0; ' ~~d~~dg~~;e~n~h~~~:rt~~~g~~:~,a ~~i~ was .
before I was a w a gon ' dr ive r~ bu t i ~ was .a lesson , "
that , s t uck wi th·meeven thro u gh' the time s t ha t ,I "
was a wagon driv:er- - here's o n e t ha t 1 did Hnd
;~~:~alW~Oh::i.~~rielDi~S:i thW:. ~~~e a a~~i,~ ~~n~ ~l ey
know wnat length line . i t was probabl y · thel o nges t ..
line we ha d . And we had to g o i n and work t hro ugh
the · l.ittle o ff~ce spaces t ha t they have i n the
f oyer portion o f a bowling a l ley , and down through
. and all the way .o ver to ,the side e nd we were wo r k-
i ng t owar d th e side where t he pi ns were . And I 'PI
on the lin e . ' An d'l get ~bou t a , th i rd of t he wa y to
90, and we · ve r un out o f line . -so now we're , think-
ing we better go back ' a nd l e n gth en t he L dne, : So
we s ta rt back b ut we ha,1n 't;:. g ot ten fi fty feet ' b ack
and here c-omes the 'wa g o n dr i v cr d rag ging two bags
of , stand.,.pipe hos e . ; And he'd ant icipated . . No body '
told him to do anything , but h e had ,ant i. c i pa t e d .: . ~
that th is . w a s a large.- deep build i ng an d there JIIay
be a need. And all he was going t o do wa s j q~ t
_br i n g ,th em ~p close ,s o , ,t hat . i n ca se ' we n ~ed e d th em',

1, _ ,"
r . '_. _~-,--
. • .:- .-. ..J
~-
.. ' ,I .'

• '" /.' , 30
~' tbl!re " d the y be;
"a nd 't h e r e ;"e o we r e , It" l ooked , . '
· : U .ke s o _ th i n g we had d r i lled tor~ the IIOst ipPQr ta nt
pa rt, w a B tha t he ..had an t i d pa ted . So man y tilM!:s
a f t e r that, y O'll kn Oll, as 011 wa g o n dr i ver af ter a
e<np<in y woul d 90 i n and . ,I 'd lIla k e . y h ook u ps • .I
woul d r enelllber that and i f i t fi t t h e si t u a tion . I:'
q r ab o n e of thole ba gs and t-ake i t ~ 10 that i't
wa s the: e . lf they- hee ded i ~ . 14 _. . . .

" Th i a sto ry pr ovides a glimpse into the cr i t i ca l

~nte~' o~ t he wa gon
.
~rive~ ' s
. '
j ob bec~use It ' ~efl~~~s ~ ' .
i d e "al performa'~~e' o f ' t~Chnique as, r~ta in od l it t he story • .
Thi's id eal . per f o :pnanc e ' l arid : o ther s .. like i t or r el ated to .
i t l:lke ' ~ tories 0 '£ llI'i s~akes~r SC~~W-U~S Of -'ide~l p~r.,. .'
'for ma nces .> then': b~com.e .rei. rence - p~in~9 ' ~t t he...c en t e r of .
,t he: Occupa tional , e xp.e rie nc e ' a gai n s t whi. ch ak L: pe rfo%lllance
.. .
(pa st, pe e sene and f u t urel are jUd9~d: Th e f olkl ore , t~en

1s t h a.t se l ected c ri t ical c oseenc (chosen on t he b as is of

. . .
., ,
i ts , cen t rali ty to
the :wor k ' proc~ s s~ ' '''h i e .h " bes t desc ribe,,: •

th e · rntra. l . t.c~nique of ,'a .g i ven ~~cupa tion~ l proce ss and

is , u fed a s an .e x aJIPl~ .w~th an e th n og ra p h i c .f~~ bro ader ..

t ha n ' j us t tha'<~pec:i f ic storytell .~ nq ~f.t~atio:n i tse ;U. T~e
j ob of the ', a ppl.ied f O lk'lor i ~ t is to not o nly d OCUlllent lind
.. , ' . ",.
"pr ese n t the s tor y t el l ing c o n t ext . b u t '; per ha ps IrIOs t
. , . .' , ,
i lllp or t an t ly , '1'.
' s hOw h O'ol' t hes e expre s iive .f o:nns . a r e U:Ud..

i n a ..gi~en . cUltU~~ 'bY , 1ico7pora.~ ing : illr.ge ch u n ks' of e.th~o- .

gr a p hi c backgr ou nd a n d ~,tternptin9 to de f i n? th~ cr i. Uc~ l . i
• I
center up on whieh exp r es si :ve 'f or ms "a re . rn a ni p u i a t ed agains t

tn a t baC~9-rOun~ . . " , • f
Rather t h lln w o r kin9. liS a -c o lle c t o r of da t a 'whose :

pr~ary ·i n t er es t ·is t h e cr~ ss-c~ tura l ' eo~~i latiori of'

." ~ .
 ,
----~_. _.... _._--- ---.--- - - ...~.' .. . ' ,
~'

, .., . II ",
t e xts. :
•
a-folklori~t:- takinrS .s appli·~d ·app~~ch· ~st
. -. ". " . I ' , ' " .. ' : __ : ,
be '

w i lli n g to develop. a ..l an ,gu llge. H~ s.e rvl a a : a bridge '

b e twee n cul t ur es . Tb i s b r id ge ~ua9'e i s . direc t ed

prilMrily '~t the ~ultural qro~P -bei~9 ~ t~ied a~d. ~~s . ".

b a s i c purpos e 11 t o . pr ee e n t t h e . i nsi dn~W by u "siri g .

lex~l.es ..ulu.!ki"'~~~g techni ques ''' ~ d ·.;"arf~·t~ves t;~'at '

"
d e s cri b e th e criti cal ' c e n t er o f t he cul tura l " experience in

the bO,PI th~t th is

. c reased aware ness of cul t u ral reality .
"
ne/per~pe9t.~v·~· ,:,ill'reG\;l~: i~ /,.n i~~"·~
t he s ame t ime ,
. . At
.
h ow.eve r ; enc:'ugh' ~f the es'ote~i c reali t y has bee n : filte red

.: thr~U9h t ile' .fOlk~Ori:'i st ' s. ~rc~Ptiyn>:h~t ;~~ i1i~~d'e' ~~ew l

c e ccee e unde r s ta nd a b l e to outs id~ '.a s,. wel l. ~ The mi r r or
· .that I h old '~ p as a n applied f olklo r is t sa:y ~ '~s ~-rn,?c( about '
.. me. .'
"as .it does
) . -
about th e -peopl e - I lUI pre sen t i ng .
.
~ . .
'her e a re t wo f i n~ l po i n ts ' about t h i s ty p~ "Of '

~'S~&rCh that ' ne~d to ~ _ntion~ 'p~~or. :~ J:.~ ··Conclud ing .'

~~nts ' . :Re9ardles~ of .- a n ·in~Hvidua l. folk 1o rfst'so r

e thnoqi::a phei ' s i~ten t • .the :-at e rial h e ;wri te .s ·.in th e -'

~escriptiOn o~f ~ cu1tur~ be come a ~11,c 8 t~telllent abo~t

that c·u i t ur e '. Cave a ts about ';c~pti~9 reBpon$ibilit\" f or
.. _. ; mi8i~te~ret~ t~o~ . cons.t ant: ;e·...:ie~ b~ ·.·t~S:t ~d· i nsider s .
aDd comparisons to p a r all.el work b~ ';'th~r' inve s t l. gat o r s

a re al~ nece~s~ry c h .e cks 'a nd b·~lanc~_s. Il~t .on.c e ' a doc u':: '

e~plici. t 'h i~ , bi~les agd' q~ls i n doi n g the , r esearch._,. "l:Ie

....
.'-
. ".~ .

.
_ - '--- - --'-'- ... . - - _.'
 t-

32
"mo s t movi ng and powe rf ul , a spec t s
. ," . "; ', '
of. the
.
. l;,!ultlJra~ ' e xperi -

ence mus t be ~ef t o ut o f ' t he de s cripti'on , ~i'the r ' b e c a u s e

t heY , a r e .i mPo,9a1 b l e ~o honeS~!r po~ttay . t o a n o u ts ide r .

,wo u l d un .d e r mi ne o r b etr ay .c c ve e e aspec ts. ,- of the
. c ulture ,
o r aren', t .a d.e q u a t e i y unde rstood by t lie investigator he r-

se lf. " When ,we as~ ume t~e : ro l e o f cultural d~s c :ipt i on a nd
pr e sentat ion we speak fo r the membe r s - of that culture ( a t
, l e a s t t h at is the wa y they wi,.l 'I pe r c e i ve i t), an d the~efo re
o ui': £abrica~io,i: ~f , th~ i r r e a'lit y mus ~ "ho t on~y ref.1 ect .I
t hei r ,cu l t u'r a1 : view', '..i t must. i n ' part' be based upon ' i t . TO
~ ,
r ".' do othe ~i.te ':1p ub li s'h ,'t h'e ·ob'j ec tive - " re por t~r i a l ac co un t
.- - -, . ' " .. .
without ' r e ga r d, for i ts i mpact o n t he communit.y) is to hide
.' . , " ,' . ' .
behi rid academf c 'c a n t , and/or'. exploit.: t he very cu~ t ure swe
~, ha';~ 'S:O U9~t . to _unders t~nd and eevcceee, f
Co n c lus i o n
'The £0 1lo"";ing :section ,a t' t e mp t s to compar-e. t he
results , of ' t h e .~ire' '- ~i~ht~r ' S pr o j e c t :' (to da t e ) wi th t h e '

~;~kgrounlls" ~eO~'etifal hypoth~ses <l~d basic premi ses .,llpo n

· Wh~~h ' i t ' i .5 h~sed . <
I' " ' ," , ' . ' .. . . " , , '
:: ,-", ' The: ba s i c motivatio n of early c c c u p ae Io neL f o lks on g:
· " " ,, ' ,' "., , ' . . " ,'
co+l ec to ~ s. ·wa s" ,.to , doc ume n t a n . i nd i g e no us ' Ameri can , ~ xpre s s i ve.

forrn--cawb~y , song5--1n Or de r t o p rove 't he ' exi~te n e~, o f a

I .... . . , ~ .. . '
uniqu e f o lk, i d i o m' in t t-h i s co untry. Tht'~, 'impuhe was maln-
. . ' ; ', ' '. '; . ,. , . ' '. ". ' "' , ., " . ' " ,. i , ', '. ,
· · t~ in':d " bY . ~<l t~ r' ; oc ~ upa t i ~ na 1 ' f o l kIo r .b ·ts ' l~~e Korson , B.e?:k.

,~ and a~o/Green . Wh O , S~.U9h1; :tO' .por.~-,;~~ . t h e , ,r 6 1 e' , ~ hye~, by ,

'folkso ng, an~ n a rx.:a.~ive i ~ .e x p r e :s:s i n g t he c h ange s , s .t;r ugg1es
 J .•.

'---'.- , ."-. _ ' ..

aa -
in;"'uiti• • and - hud .hip. Of ';orkera i n a n . .. r qin9capital- - _\.

,ts U c sta~'e •• ?,et. ' ;' i ~ ' ~h~ ' e,x cePtion_oi ~.a tri ght : none ~f
these invest-i,qato r s a c~u~l ~y tu rn~ th e ir atte n t i on t o t he
wo rk i t!el"f.r-it:o tht:" actual, proc e sses a nd tec hni q u e s upon
; 'w~ich these ·'· c o lle p tabl e " ·~xpr~ s i.v.~·: f orms were_ based~,
is. . .
. .'
Ev~n contempor ary f o lkl orists.: like N'i ck~rson a nd Bel l ',
p~~ c e the ve r b,aI '
. .
lIIa te r i ~ I
" .
in the
,
fo~eground a nd. relegate
L

"t h e a c c u ej, work proce a a to t h'e baCkgr~Und i n f o r ma tio n <.~"ee

The ;"pri~ary reason f~r thi s co n c enta-e edon o n vE;rb al

., fb'rms ' i s ' t ha t ' aj ;Ol~~Oristf1', th~y arE! train~d by a~ti~act

· collectors " ~us t i:ail~r . their ·r e .s e a r c h i n t h i s di'rectio n :

: . 'ar~ . unti ~ . ~e~ ~~.~ent-l: (with the.

a.6de l s· and theo rie s advocate d by lIymes , AbJ;'a halllS, -c .ra s s re
~~rac:i~g ~ ~. lin<]Uisti c .

..t> ." '. . . ~

~nd Ba uman ) they ha d no r eason to b e . i n te res ted i n .e n e

broader , e th~09z::aphic " c~nt~xt in whic h t he s e ,' eKp res s i o ns

• occur r e d . DU.~ · prilDar ~ ly .t o my expo sure to c ultural - '

. , a d vo c a cy work don e with · Na ti"e Ameri~ans b y Barre Toe lken
-. ~~d ~eodore I s t~rn at the un ivers ity o f dl-e go n i n t~e
,• •' ," J _ •
sixties , my' firm groundi ng~ i n a , l on g te rm e xposure t o f i r e

." .:
-" - ." ,'
, fight.i ng a nd fi r e f i g h ti n g c u l ture i n t h e Paci fic
' '"
Northwe s t~ ·
:. ' , ., , " I '
a nd my .o men disas trous but ' occasipna l ly s uc c e s s f u l
,~ p:r::e~~~tational efforts ' ~hile ., t : e ' smithso~i~ri . I
\ . :. .: '
g radu a i':k , c,on s t r ue,~ ~d ',a . mod~,l . that stressed ..t he ' p r irrl/a cy -.of

:echniqU~~ " sh~p.i,n g~. a ll o t he r exp:t' .essive .espeeee o~.. , •. _

o c ,?up ati o na .1, eU lture ~ a nd saw within th ~ t ,fra llleWcrk t he . v.
· .o p~.i tun·i ty t o u se , "~he·:~oc.w;:~ t~ tion I gene ra t ed'.frOlll sul?~
.~ ..

...... -_'--.--' _~
\ -
..'-',. __. - ...~ .' "
_._._ :- - _._-
. '
---_. ~ - - _ ...
 )

.34
• • - I

an .app~oach· t~ a ddr es s r e c urre nt problems ' o r .a e s ues in l;-he

",<:>r ~ plac e.

<This mode l is c:.lflIbe r some . ho wev e r, beca use it is

li ke a p a t c hwo r k qui-l t made up of e x a mpl es and ' pi e c e s

d rawn f rom v a rious di s c ipl in~s a nd type s of resea r c h .

R.a ther than inh~rltin9 a traditiona l met hOd?lo gy 0 / t heo-

r eti c al a p pr o a c h that could be shaped b y c'on t empo ra r y

r esea r ch , I f o und a ,l o os e .~nd spot t y interest. ' i n o c c u p a-

t iona l ' fo l klo re tha t , m,e r ely all owe d t r a d iti o nal , fol k l orists
t~ o c ca:J lona l l y ', t u r n their .i n t e r e s t s t oward an oo c upa- .
ti o nal 9roup~hen the opportunIty a r o s e . Hop efui l y ' a s

: add iti0tl:al research is conduc t e d in t he fiel~ by re searchers

. wh o e mp loy e )Cp li~i t approaches t o the i r mate r i al, t h i s

e~ lectic . -'patchwork model, wil l - be re fined , re futed ·or
revi·sed~ a",'-s.ed on the fire fi ghter I s rese~ rc"h . r - c <;,- n ~ke
' s o me t e n t a tive e uggest~ons a bout t he d f r e c c Lcns. in ",-hie? .
the se r e:vi 'sions rriiq~' j ..
. ' As stated in the prece:din q e xa mples d rawn fr~m t he
fire fightln g cultures c"i t e d ; even though e ve.r yo n e is

j U'd ge d by . the i r ·pe~ forman c e · on the f i r e . gr o und", a few of," .

-ere g r ou p memb·er s (oiten t~chnici ~ns , ,t r uc k dri'v~s. pumper
. ' 4"ri~e'rs , and till~rmenl have li.ttle to ' do with t he a e t ua ],
.' '- ' . -.
at t alJk of t he f ire once i t has b e en ventilate d and ."t h e
,.
:" ' . \ " . ' .... ' .. '
. wa t.e r supp l y_ established . Often t hes e l ess active ~u t

.. 's e n i o r meillber s o ~ the c omp a ny wil _c o mpe ns a t e fC!r· ',th ~ i r

1l

more passi v e role in 'the work .p ~ocess by t ·a k i'n q o~ extr·~

responsi~ility ':'~thin their .areas of exper t Lse ar:i~

- ."_ _- --_..
.. ' .
, - - - ~ - ~ ~ --,- -_ ._- _ . " - --- --" -
".
 ,\, 35

co mpe t e nce . An older pumP:er 'dr iv.~.r , ~or ~ x~Ple: ~igh t do

all , of the cooking in the h o us e,' .s t a nd e x tra wa t che s o r
• - i • •

c j e e n up the sink l a t e a t n i gh t : while an 'o ve rwe i g h t t ruck

" , .
dri;"er ~i9ht do e xtra body work o n autoIoobil es or f i gu re

income t ax as a co mpe nsatio n ' for ' his nece s saril y s lower

perfo r man c e on the f ire g rol,ln d . As a c u l t ure r , an oc cupa-

tio na l g ro up i~ a n organi c - ~ l1f!ctive .an d ' t here is a pla c e

for eve~one i n - ~e ' '9':OUP as .:l o n9 as . they mak.e a co ntri bu-

t ion t h~t is s a n Lo ned by the ' other mercbe r s-, The hea vy

emphasis , on t.e c hn : qu~ Stres sed .1'n the- model mi'ght c ause a';

i~ve~l~ga~o1<t t o ne glect ' ~he~e impo.~tan.~ ' compensa~.o ry 's k i ll s

i n the wor~ p l a c e while the da t a s ugges ts tha t there ma y b e, .
. ' . .
.a ' l e ve l of s ocial e q ui libr ium ' b e t we e n be ch ndq ue per formance

a nd ba s ic sccfat i nt e ra c tio n t hat is ..a s yet unde fin ed.

An6th~r problem wi t h the <mo<;le l is tha t i t is t oo
c ompa rtmentaliz ed . Tec h niqu,e, c us t o m a od ,verbal . e x pressic:"?
. ,
a re e x t ern a lly de r i ved c ate gorie s t ha t ha ve li t't-le Ejsoter~c

currency. A: retir~ment di~ner , for e xamp le : is. a ,c.i s t o mar y

event t hat sh~-cases narrat~v~" pe~for~ance an~ ve~b"';l

in't eracti~n , much o f i t ' ba s e d e n tech nique . pe r f o rmances •.
Perhaps the on'ly wa y t o realistically por tz:ay>~e inter-

p lay 'ie t~ee n the se , e x~res s ive - forms .as , t h ey , s~ade .i nt o each
othe r is , by , docUIlIe nting- them in f U:U. · l 'eng t h e t hno g r a ph ic

f ilms . . Co ns i c:le ri ng the' ,s t a t e ' of the '; rt ri g h t no...., ho ....-

ever, that s e ems t~ be a pa~ticularlY expensive un~ert.,~king

, .- t h8 :t. would nave' lit~.le institut ional s u p port unti'l ,,:,e hav~_,--~~ .'

i '
(' " " \, I·
"'"
I-
'/." _:. : .' . I., ., ..... . . ., , , 3 6 ",
I.
I
"demonst rate4 t he validi ty o f the ap pro a c h in sma l l er pi lo t

_
~roj ects ~ UC~

f iqbte.rs.
o ". • I'
as. the on e r { a ll c~lIlple tin9 with the fi r e

\
..

..>.. I
J

A third criticism o f the · ritodel i s ~ ha t it ~oe s n ' t I

· ~ , . . .".. . - 'i
p l a ce e no uqh .'i mpo r t a nc e on e xexa -oc cu p a e t on a r conc e r ns , an d
a c ti v i ~~e9 a s these flow aro un~ a nd t hroug h , t he wor k .c u l - .f.
. ttU=,e ,~ FIl~~lY b llc k qr o~ d a ..a~d c o ncer ns, ~e c re a tiona l

me d ia i nt e r e s t s,
,
h Obbi~s
",
and
" ,;
i n t e r e s ts a nd o r ga ni z ati o ris , sexua l pa t te r ns " a rt i s t i c and

part- t ~'me'
.,
j obs , vOI Ufl:t ee r
'

'
acti":~ties . , r~1'i9ious ba CJ:t.9r o\1ftd s a~d 'o the r ' ou t si de int~r- ,
ea ts a ll a ffe ct an indiVid,ua l'S parti c:~pa tlon i n an ~c:cupa - " '
t iona l cu~t ure. Al tho ug h . I recoqnf ee t he i mpor t ance of
these Concerns wit.hin oc C;;up!p.tiona l c ul t ur e , ,my inabili t.y .
I -. ~

to adequa telrJ do cUJDent ~e a r e a of ~cup~ tiona.l ' int e r a c t ion '

I .have already d~limit~ "mak~5 me h~si ta~ t_ t o a t,te mpt a ny :"

t h inq more ~rnp~~'h en5ive 'i n initial 'e tb noqraphi e s . "Aqa i n
• - "i ' • . \ : -.
as . lllOr e i n-depth ethnog~aph ic-

' ., ~ --i n ve s t i ga tor s' a r e attempted (aa -they were in the Ya nkee

· Ci~Y ~rojects) ; .. ,t he n opportu~it~es ' f o r. th~~~ o~~r

p ro jec t s employing _a n~er _

a s pec t,s
J'
of

' . .
o f ' o c c u pa t i o na l , c U l t~_re t o be ' adeq ~ t el Y ' s t u died wil l
i n c rea s e. ~5. . • ' .

- . The Unalquestion - re 9a r~s. the , ut i l i t y of t he .:

appl hd a ppro~ ch , an d its future i ,n the discipline . The ' .
bOOklet - Good Fl r ~/8a d Night - wa s ~ dis tributed. jon - Ma r~h • .

; 1 9 8 0 a~d a lllOn th later I r e turned to ' waShingto~ andpre~

senc e e my ccnc j.c a t ene a nd slides _a t a morrli ng llIeet i nq o pe n

' . . ' ". " . ..

- - -- - - - .. - - - -- ~ .....J
~------,- --_._-_ .-

--- ' - -"._-,--..:.. . . _..

37

to a l l f~re , f i g h t e r s . Only ..a bout f o r ty rne'n, ,s ho we d and

the ~,?SiC ccneensua of , ~heir, ~pwons was th"~ the ' b~ok
ntold "it l i ke it is " but do n ' ,t expec t t hem t o do ; a nyt;.hing

- .
$ta t eme nt about ,f i r e fi9hti~g t hat}).!! had ever read, but
-s Lnce fire f.ighters arc the mos t a p a t he tic ' gr i up i n the .

world wh'en it c o mes t o cha~g e. they .p r o b a b l y won ~t ever do

anything abou t the auqqes t Lon e and concerns e xp r es s e d i n

t he book . ' A ,n Umbe r o f the yo unge r fire f i gh ters a re opti -

- Af t e r having s pe n t almos t two y ear s ' o n , this project,

I wa s so illvolvedin the c onc ep~,s that I som ehow ,t ho u g h t

that their articulat ion wou l d lead to acti on . It may yet , ,"
perha;s i t is, t oo . soo~ to tell wha t , ~f any . ef£ec t the
material ' will.have . If nothi ng else , how e ver , i t . is en

accurate port:rait 'of fire fighter's culture In 19 8 0 a~d .a s .

such pro.vides+.a~ excel l ent opport.unity for compari"s~n in

the futu.re . Atth~ saIne .ti dme , the expecd e ncea , f rustra-

tions , ~E1ars , joys and techniq~es , learned in , this f~rst

att(lmpt at ap~lication will make ~ he; nex t efforts i n

r

CHAPTE R II

. A MODEL OF OCCUPATIONAL . FOLKLIFE

,Th e study .o f occupationa l g roups in urban and

, industria l ' settings b:y, f o l klo r i s t s demands no t o nly a ' new, '

theoreticai basis f or the stud~ o f l~re . but additi~nal -

theoretical j us t if i c a t i ons f or t h e re l a t ions hi p o'f oral

mate rial t o ' t he c los e l y r e l a t e q work techniques with whiCh

the se verbal materials a rc ' bo und in the work se t t i ng. ' The

u ee . o f ~od~ lS such a s ~his ~y fi el dworke r s "!-S t hl?:Y C~Jlec't

and interpr et the i r ' data is m~de doubly difficult· b~ the
, '

urii q ue con.6t~aints ~mpb6ed up on the, fo l k lor ist in, the ~ol-

lection , a pplica t ion and interpr eta t i on o f · t hi s , ki nd o f
material. l The fOll~wing ch~pter o utl.ine s such a ne w
approach to oc cupational c u l t ur e and , sugge sts' a few 'of t he '

un iq'Ue ~ha.uenges " ~~Ci~9 resear~hers ; i n this f~e~d. ,/

. Occupational culture is inex~ricably 1i~ke d to t he! '
wor k pr oce s s e s. a ndmfc ro-envdrcnmen t.e i n whi c h i t functio ns
and t 'he refore t he s ~lidy , o~ : e he s e 'pr oce s s e s de ma nd s a . com-
pr e h en s i v e view of the r e l a t i o ns h i p ' be tw e e n the , fo rms o f

cornrilUni~a ~ ion --a nd the cont.exc.d.n whi c h they occur: "ccna

t e x t he r e , i ~ not vie~ed a s a va r i a ble backg):joun d 'which

, " l
in fl ue nces t he n a t ur e of a pe rfo r mance , occupationa l con-
te~ts ' ~~~ part , of~he :C01M\url:ica.tion , its~ lf , Le. , eepect.s

38

i
 39
" ,
o f t he oCf up a tiona l e nv Lr-onmen t; 8S the y are ma n i pu l ate d by
t he worker can themselves .be in~erpret?d s'ymbo l'ical ly. 2
In t he a na lago1,l.S situation, Le v i - St r a us s details

the effective use by a shaman of r itua l manipulat ions ( use

' .
of t he Ron-s ymbo lic in a symbo lic ma nne r ) ' that communicates
.
a s ymbOlic co urs7 whi ch g uidI!s "a woman t h,rbugh a diffic ul t
childbir·t ~ . 3 He Points out : hat , ",

• • • ~ for i n s ta n c e , p utti n'g the cheek of the

patient i n contact wi t h the b reas t of t h e a na lyst .
Th e s ymbo l ic l o a d of s uch ac t s qua lifi,es them as
a, l an 9 uag ~ . Actually, t he therapis t h o l d s a
_d i a l o g u e wi t h the patient, no t t hrough the spoken
wo r d , bu t b y concrete action . • ; . 4

A' para lle l. s ituatlon ,e x ists i n mod e r n i ndustry whereot t 'en

. .
" ec t uo n s s peak louder t han words ; " and the pranks of tying

alllan's sweater to the lath and plastering it into the

. ' . ,
wa ll ar n aili n9 ,a lunch bucke t to the floor or wo r k ,b e n c h

ill ustratei:his language of t he -c c c upe td c ne t ~n'vi iofl,ment. 5

. .
Th i s form of communication .e x t e n d s wel l be yond the qes eu -
r a l , 6 a nd appro xi,ma tes tha t. de s c rL bed by Bi r d wh i s t e ll as
- , ' . ,. ' . - , 7 . '
(n on-ve r bal-- p a t t e r ne d, beha vioral co~unication) q r wh a t

Levi-S traus s 'h a s te rme d t he lang ua g e oetsc.t e nce of ' t he

. . .
co n cre t e thr o ugh . wh ich 'a n a r t i s t ' (o r wo rke r) " c o mmu n i c a t e s
th rough : the mani pu l ation of o bj e c ts o r ' mat eria is. 8 Justas

there are v aryi ng leve ls of la titud e, ' a b i l i t y a n d i n vo lve-

men e i n th ~ ar tis tic envi r onme n t with r egar d t o these

f1l!lni p ula t i o n;l _ .t.h'e r,e a re para Ue l l e v el s i n the wo:rk c o nt.e xt) '
Ea c h o ccupation' aema~ds the ~bil it~ to d o ,s o me t h i n g-
whe t-he 'r it is re peated lY ,.'s'cre.... i n~. a../ut to a ~olt 0;" 't h e
r '/

40

a s s e~ly '- lir: e , f ,r ami nq a s t ~ uc tu re . mac hi ning 7 he p arJ; s

,f o r . a n ~lectron microscope, o r -mo p pin-g the k itch en. floor . " -:-.~~<
In each ' case . the worker mus t ma k e deci sio ns a n a ma.nipu-
l ate 'o b j e c t s to produ e:e the de s i red res ul t -'a nd i t i s in'
: ' . . (
t he -manner a nd a ppr o priate ne s s _o f t he manip t:l a t i o n , (its
.
. Mt e c h n i q ue " ) 9 th<!t t he c ccupatd'onaj,
. " .-. .. . : ~ . .
' ~ etwork
is born
\ .
'an:
.perceived by other workers . What 1 s import an t i n this-
t e ch hique i s no ~
\
i t s i nhe rent da ng e r, di ff i c u lty o r ,t.r a di-
tion al nature, but t he way i n whi~h i t is fnfl tienced ~nd
-,
inte rpreted by o t h e r s in th ~ wor k g r o up . Te c hn ique

ee r.rec e e t he " work i ng know ledge" (wha t yo u need .ee kn ow 't o

do' th~ work ) 10. o f .-a ,'s pe c ifi c work gro up a nd 'a s i t . i s

pes sed from ,o ne wdrke r ,t o a nothe r t h ro u gh .i mita tio n an d

in ~truc tion, be gins to "r e ve a l ' a pa t :tcrn o f i~'teractiong
th a t is uniq ue It o t h'a t ' pa rt i c u lar grou p ' a nd a l mos t i nv isi-
\ ble to the c ues Ide observe r a nd ofte n management. ,

Th~ te rm t e chni qu e . i s us .ed r a ther th~n s ki l l

e e c e ue e as Kaufm a nn points ou t :
'rne diUiculty is ' that 'we continue t o. u se ' c ne word ,
' s k i l l ," , t o s igni f y bOth the thi ngs t h a t a man ca n
do wi th his hands ,a nd the th ings that he -k nows wi th
h is head . The y arJ;! not ' comparable a nd me rely to
~~y~~a~h:n;~~k~~n~~n~~~i~l~~~h;~i~~ ~~; j~~~i~g
Techni~que i s als o .f1 more us .cful..:t e rm be cause i t indieltes
. .
a -f o r m o f inteI'lI-etlan wi th tool s, en yir6nment and other

workers that ,co nno t e s ,e x~e~tif e a nd _e soteric k no wl e d ge ,

while at ,the "s a me time -i t ,p r o vi de s ' a ,mor e s p e c i f i c r e t e 'r e nt

.f i o m whic h 'work ~rocesses , an d patterns of behavior 'c :,,"o .b e --.

 : 41

viewed . Some occup ations, lik~ tool and d ie maki ':lg.

gcner<lte 'a more evident t e c hn i q ue t han do others, l i ke

a-~SemblY, li~e because~of th~ a~d diver~ity

l
wo r k . - n umbe l; of
. 'the pr?ces ses invo~ved' and t.h e varied c r i t e r i a upo n which
a " cra ft sman - i s judged by .o t he r 9~ouP me mbe r s: I n al l

cccupat.Lcne L ~ro ups ' t he s e crite~i? reflect ,the rna j o z- .

technica~ concerns of t h e ~6:k group prima rily while, o,n
the j o b site .o r i n t he company of other worke r s . At;other

times an individual may 'pa r ti cipa t e in ' groups o r expe~i-

e nc e e totally unrelated to wor k . This do e s notmi n iniize

the impact '6£ occupa~:lo.na ~ ,c u ltur e up o n e . work~r ' s expres- .

sive r e pe r t o r y, it mere ly m'akes a distinction be t ween
c u ltur al role s as thi s i ndivid ua l moves 'from o ne g roup to

anothe r .
Tec~ique ; t he n , i s the pat t e r n o.f m~~+pulat~cins,
ac t~ons a nd ,rhythms central", to. the ~ unc t io n o f a n cceupa -. .

~ ,.
tion al g r o u p wh i c h a r e prescr ibed by that group a nd used
. ' .' . .
a s c r iteri a for d etermina t i o rr 10 £ .member-shj.p and . .status
";ithin it. 'l'he prima~y ' te.chn ic;iue of tool and die maki ng
i s the s ha p ing of. posi tive/ne"~t ive molds by r emo vi ng '
met a l from both halv: s , ra ~hii'e the ;~imary . t e chni que of

glas s wqr k ina molding . facto,r'y · i s the ~mooth coordination

lind mo vement o f r a w g lass into 'the kiln , out a ga in , into
t he mol d ,and then ~nto the' l e hr . 1 3 T~cbnique ' i ~ th~ '
"S haping p rinciple - of an eeeupa t. Lo n ; lind its ' tran smis ~io'ri

from one gro u p ine~r t o t.he n e x t f o rms the ba si s ,o f

 i-n t;:er na l and exte rna l' concepts of a part icu la r trade.
Withi n ' t he ' oc eu pa t i o n i t. i~ k nown as . ~knowlng the trad~>
.. i. or being "a' 9'~' mechanic, ". where~~ ou~side of t he 'work

g r oup i t i s qen e xaj.I yYe fe r -red t o a s. ~s kil1 ~ or an .

. . .
i ndivi du al is Bim~iy r e f e r r e d to as ~ a membe r of ~- gener~l
wo r k g roup , (c arp e nte r . _ teacher, da ncer, etc : ' who ha_l>
" be en at i t a long. ' t i me ', n' i s "we ll respected , in 'the i 'x'

t r ad e , " or "really ca res about their work . " I

An example will il i ust r ate the p.ervasive ne.s~ '"cf I
wo r k t e ch n i q ue upon t he c!-1lture o f a wo r k g r o u p . In h i s
study oithe ~rkpl~c:;e -~f lonr; shoremen i n " Por tla nd, Or ego n,
Will i a m Pilch e r states tha t
. There is a genera l , dist i nction -'be twe~n ' th e - sh.ip and
t h e dock . Much l e s s .o f t he :beh<lvior desc r ibed
takes p lace whe n I Qng s ho r e me n are work i ng on t he
do ck t ha n when the same me n are wor king on board
s hips, and wha t does occur is much milder in tone.
I t i s al s o po ssible to distinguish betwee n the
~~~~: ' ~~g:O~~ _ ~~~:o~:~lO~e~~: :~~P=iat: :~~P~eing'
handled-, or where t he work i s especially ard uous .
seemi ng ly bit ter mutual ve r bal abuse i s a lmost
co n stant an d , mock assaults ar e ver y f r e qu e n t . On
other s hipboard op e r a t i on s , t h i s be havior is riot
. serious i n a p pearance an d clearly co nveys a s ense
o f -easygoing go od . fe l l o wshi p a s i t does . among men'
\ worki n g on ' the doc ks . 14
\ The w~rk process ' or f low q f the , l ongshoreman 's 'j ob i s
I " ,, - ' _ ' , ', ..
mov in9'I'bUlk, qo04~ into or ,o ut o f . a ship a nd ",stowing i t ems
so 't ha t they will ' no t 's h ift or fa l l • '. • o r c h afe-in to '
s~r(!ds. ,,1 5 ., Th i s techn ique (a c t uall y ' 'a constellation ' o f

te~hniq!Je s gained ave:.; years Of," experienceJ dem~nd,s

phy s ical a s ' well as oral a;-tic ulatio n a nd as c a n be s ee n

,J
 r- - --~ - -- -- - ~ _ ..- .-.... _-- -..

".
. . . ..
in ,th. e pre c eding _de5cri~tion , the re is .~, d ir.e~t rela~ion'": .
s hip betwe en shipboard an d dock techn ique a'~d ' t heir

· accompanying expre s sive behavior . I a m s ug gest ing t ha t

i n the work context ' thes~ t~ fO,IlDs of i nte r ac t 'i on are

parallel JDOdes o f communica t ion which are pe rceive d and
- 'uS~d a s suc~: by the work."ers · the~se~ves , i.e I ' . the re a r e

· 's i t ua t i o n s .1 ';' wh i c h the wo rk' grou p. p~ovide s fo r t he .

.; '-'::"~:ergence - 16 of ' perf~rmance (ve r ba l a~d non-vexbe I] f r om

b e yond the daily work f l ow a nd co nv ers ationa l b a c kg r o un d

?r envi r onme nt of -mea nioq fU'l- no i s e -s~ rround ing the w~ rk

s i t u.;lt i o n . 17 . , .
In orde r t o d istinguish COIIUIIunl c a tio n through .
. . . ,
technique f rolll da i l y ph ys i cal i nteraction, i t i s neces s~ry

i. :
' .
t o d iscern a pa tte rn through wh i c h mea ning ful o r ; colU. unica-
-

tive DO~~nt ' . manip u la tio n a nd rhythm l the ~ r fornianc.e of

. .
techni'q ue } can be separated fr om t ha t wh i ch i s no t , :
.' . .'
aea n i ng f u l - :"no t a 1' 1 ' a c t i v ity can be loa de d wittJ, sh~rcd .
· lIlCaning , . thu; bec~ing s~lic.18 , Er ving Goffman '~ '~on­
cepze o f s ubs tan tive and cereeome r r ubls o f conduct are
\ -
parti c ularl y u s efUl . i n\ this . re~ard . 1 9 " ~he daill:' ·movem~.nt
of mate rial s . on a nd off\the dock , .t a k i ng a pa tien t 's '
t emp e,r ature o r .we l d i ng a co ntinuo us , w i.n ~ow mUI~ion are
daily .ac t ivities ofa l on g s hore ma n , n urs e a nd sh eet met al
. wor ke r which mus t conform to 'c e r t a i n r U I ~ s of conduct tha t

faciiitat~ their ~~Pletion i ~ ~

. », ••
.
t he '
-
~ey a~d
.
work~r b~
g i v i ng h ila a char ter o r Cod~. of t.echnique th~t has little
 I . . .. .
·~
\ ---· -- I
44
I
 substantive 'an d cercmo nialrules ' 0t: conduct that' pervede
the entire wo;'k c u l t ur e. , Th is reiat:i.on~hip 'wi ll be
. ' - . ,

explored i n . g-reate:r; de 'tail .i n the foll o wing se~ti o ns . .

Gr~90ry Ba.teson , . in a - di.s cuss ion' b,f priffiit1ye ' a rt';
. state!,;" ,t ha t t he detenninat.i:0n of mea n i n?"'in cre acLve
i
action ,or "skill" is based .u po n Ehe "
;".
, .:• • ,i n t e r f a c e : between th~ con scious a nd t he
Unc on s c i o u s. ", ; ', The sensations an d q ~alitie s
o f s k i l l ,can neve r be pu t i n word s 'a nd yet t.h e
f a c t o f skil l , is co nsc dou s', 23 · ," ",

He .i llu s t r a t e s ,t h i s eonce p n- w~ th , ~ quo t ~ frdi' r saacra .n un-

c a n -e,n -;hi ch ,s he st~tes tha t MI t '1 C6U~d .te ]) you what ' it
t " -
mean t, there
.:" .
be e no point in danci ng- :it .,,24 Bateson
'WO U l d
.',- , ,
in'terprets tt\l-s a s a c omment about the distinctio R,'be twe e n ".

artis tic p r c c eee a nd-i>t:hc ',v e r b a li za tion of th~t' pr oc e s s,

but i~ 'i ~ ~lso ap~licable' to t-he di ~'tinct-i~n b~t~een tech -
. ~ ique ' and oral, e x p xe a aLo n in ' t he ' wa r>;:. place'." . u6th t ech-.

n.ique ~nd oral e~~res~ion r~flect · v a r y i.n g- l e ve lS 'of (:o~:"

. . . 'r
plex ity and : s o ph L enx oa t.Lon f r om ,t h e; u s e ' o f ja r~ on in , ~
senee nce t o' the p e r fo rma nc e o f a ' f ully developed c c cupa -

• ti~nal eXPer~ence n!l:r; r~~ive w~thopenin9' ~~d c losing 1II~~.­

ketsand coda ; 25 ' and from ' t he gesturalshrug-' th~~ugh t he

hi,gh:lY 'd ~vdoped ge,5t~~a1Sign \an~~a~e ,d escr~bediby

'Me i s s n r 'J26 ·1:0 ' the, c~~plex , te'ch~iques ',: f ,
a mod e l mi";ker' i n
7
a t ool itnd di~ ' shop ~ithin a l a r ge manufa~'t~rin9 p iant- o
. ." - ". c. . -, " ' .
Muc h' o f t h i s communication (gestural,; ' -verba L ~c'h n ic~l)

is ~ub~ta~tive ~n~at' it.·me~ely . aid·~ d'alIY"i~teraction

.-· :'~Y' providi~9: i' ctl,~ :r~,~ r : f~r ':i t , .- ·Wh:'rea,s Oe~.a ' s iOnaliy. it ~Vl
 46

be use d in o!I 'perfol:ritance (ceremonia l) ~apacity ' t o ' ad d r ess '

a: pa rticular' i s s ue or -m~kea'n i nd i v idual . 5t~t.ement-'. The '

c ho i c e ,o f expressive mod e is ~iqnifi~a~J;.' because -t ne x e - are .

statements that "c a n be made in one mode' t hdt cai-. not b e

made , through ~ an~t,,-~ r , ~he -~ool ' ~rid . dd.e . mak·~r·.::'for ; . :
e xa m'p I e , haS' to s ho w the a'pprent:i~~ how "tq mil l '~ certain
Pi~'~ e of sto~k ;bec~tise ' .:.:ords w6~1~, 'no,t Co~~~icate;'t h e
. . " , -'. . .. '.

mos t u s e f u,l information. In. a: r e vers e. manner;' .the ind us- \

, " " -, " " " , .'
trial . accide nt accou~~ mus t ,be ve ebe j.Ly presente~ ' for
o bv "{oQ,.s:reasons • . J u s t . as t llere are ~e'dia which - are mor e
. - .," - '.

apPicp.ria~ f or v~rious ki nd s : o f artis tic express~6n,

\.. .
occupationa l
'.
conte~ts
' . ".
s hape e xpxeeeton i n distinctive ways

t hat r e veal ~ he s tructur~s of wor k~n g kno wledge upon whi~h

, the y are b~ s;';d .

Bet wee n ,t h e or~ l and the 7echnical ' modes of com-

!liJ.{~cation. li ~ s. the ges t ural. ; , T~is ,mode .e a n . b e c~ h i gh l ~ :

....e .laborated in the , oc cu~a tion a .l, ~ on te x t ~here noise and

i s o l a tion r oe ce -wcek ece i nt.o a .r o rm Of ' ·communi cat.ion t ha t
. ' " ' .
. ·~s non-~erbal yet ' feqUire ~ .3.n , ~n.d ivid~al· ~o..m~ke and . ,
interp:t:;et' .s ymbol s whie? ,ha ve s y ntactical , r ela t i on s hi p :!l.-

!ike ,sentences. a n d d~ no.t, ~requir_e_ t h e fri.teract i o n be twee~

~ "the body a nd .t he Working· e'nvi'ronment ' ''(a s. d~es',techniquei
i~ ma~e' t~e'~ea~~~9 ' kri~. Me issner ma ke s .: u'sef~i' d~s"
.' " " , " '. . ' '.
t i nc t i on ~c tw.e en· , " i n ~ t:.:ume n_t,a P and "E!.xp r e s s i v e". co mmunica-
t~o~' 'i n' 't he , s awm'i U 'wh'ich ' P!l~aUel s t~at :1 ' h~ve; , ~orrowed
I fro~ ' Goffma~ : a nd h~ 'p r o v i de s ' 'the ' f ollowi ng' ex amp les l
' .! '. ' .. '

l_:~_~L £~\----,~~~~_
 ' ltihe n an "execUtive t our e d th e . p lan ~ with ' o n e
. you n g er and "two olde r woeen ; the sette r s i gned .......-:
.=~:~:i(~~~i~~)'= ~~~e:~~~ ~: .~i ~h:hot-
fOllow1.nq p a ss h e con~~-wOllan - ~..,en ty -
" ~i:~~f~~~~e~::~;D~~:i:~~~~S~n~·
second try . a nd on the f oUr th pass...he fin ished
with : she ' ( poin~ inql my-qi rl ~friend . .
. This conversat ion · netwo:tt. also se rved ' techni~ai"
func~ions " ' ·The ' h e ad sawyer once q ave a l i qht
signa l to the l .everman wl)i c h would have resulted
in sending , a work piece to the wronq de s tina t ion ,
fie t old t h e se tte r : I-p ush-bu t t on - wr on g - t e ll-
reve ee en . The se t ter tran sm ~ tte d ~ he message
s uccessfully to t h e reveoen , 'all owi ng h im t o
re trieve t h e pi ece by reve r s ~ ng r o l l s a n d 'send ing·
"it ' t o .t he righ t place a ll i n a matte r of. s.econ d s ,27
· Th~ .,first para graph describes a n · '-expr e s s i ve " or cer~':
I . "

: ~m,ial •mod e whe~as " " ~ecorid d:~c.ribe~ An "' i ns ~.n ta l .

or . s~~tantive ' mode o,f- commun~catici~ . , I n bo~ "" ": ljOign
lan9Uage is u ~ ~_d i n a pe rformance co ntext i n whi ch ' th~
se t t e r 'p r ese n t s in f o rma tio ;"; i rf"·the sa wm111 context "in a

pr e sc ri p t i ve fllan~er t h at indic:ate s a t .y pe o f lDessa ge!is

be i ng cofm'luni catcd . i : e ., the ac tor i s c ond uc ting hia self
" " . '

i n a aa n ne r that signals wh at t ype of :' inf ormat i on wi ll be

fo~thcouiing . 28 " The relationship o f thi s gest~ral' ianguage
to ~echn'i~ in 't~e lIbove,: e xamp l e ~ll ~~einPlii;ed b~ the .
pe·ri~i c punctuation 'o f , the .pas sing ~ar r iag e . This ·als?
re f lects the i n t e r stiti a l natur e of ge s t u r e as: <I, .co llllllu"nl c a-
tio n mode 'which f un ct i ons b~tw~~n t~ChniqU~': ~nd v e rblil .
r . ~" ~" ' - - -" '_ .~ ~" -'7'-- - ... .
.- _~ - -- - -----------

J
"

., /.
.: I ~
body ~ement that req uir e at le~ s ~. ~ p~rtial ~elIOval f rolll.
work proces Ses ~ a llo w si gn i nq . while verbal c OlIml'n ica,t ion

refe rs to th e work process b u t is a-lmost total ly re 1ia,nt

,j :
.
upon using rh ythmic breaks o r pre/ po s t / lunc h periods for
.: ~ ' . ". /
comm~~i~ation . th~OU9h o ral me~ns . In the, a~~i.ta l ~:rYn­
text , the situation -is C'c .plic at e d . by ,t h e fa ct that.-an
,indi . .
vidua l or
. .
9"~~UP
.
ma y 'en gage in 1111
. . /
t~ re ~ f;r;nS .~ lll1Os t

Sim.~l ~an e.O

. . ~!IlY a n.d eneeeec c e the on. l: :POSS~le ~ay ~ hey
cou1d be.d ocumented would be t hr ou9h ,f ilmr?r v i de ot a pe .

.' . .
at t e ntion ' pai d' t o it .b Y ear ly .invc·stig~ tors . it is no' more .

eas.i ly approa~he.~ lin d u nders tood tt'!a~ , t e c hnI q u e wi t h ~hich

it 1.s closely tied .

 4.
c ccup e tido ne.L . expez-Le nce story (or a l lusio ns '

to sto~ies k n own in common abOU~ tJe -boS5 '~~ q:iCk i n s ults '
or bit s of. j o kin g" b eh a viQr exp r es s b d j.~ ' paSsin~) is t he
bas i s o f ~ra l intcractio~ in a n occ upational g r o u p . As '

Siegf ried Neuu:a:n n p oints .'o ut ' t hese oral expr essions begin

to e;mibit 'a mi ddte poi nt: conc.entrat_;~n ("":h.en viewed b~

the ethnog r aphe r) betw.~ e~1 : ~e . d ay t o 'd a~' concerns of group
member~ ontnhe.one hand a nd un usua l occurr erices or 'd~ ama­
~ic event e ecerce a nd a c c i dent _accounts on . the o t her . 3D $'

Ne'umann' s irliddle p~int 'concept: is us~ ful b e ca us e ' 'i 't

- re veal s th at 't he o ccupa e do na j. e.xpressio~s 9f a par t i c u l ar

group- . form .~ ~ont ln uum f rom t he mundane ( p a t t e r n e d 'c o n -

. l .u nch , ' ov er ti. me , e tc; ), to ~ t' he central

v ersati ons about .
or

mid dl e 'pOi n t. (acCi:~ent: s to:Cie:" , abo ut a r ec urri ng .e'xpos ur e .

in th e . s hop ' like a - dange~:.::ous , catwa lk 'or ' a , particu'l ar j ob
, . ' ,
or mac hine that chroni c ally coneee ns ~he'" gra ul"l to ' the
e xtreme (int rod uc t .Lon of a nc w , job destructi piece of
eq ui.pmen t; or an. o n -the - j ob, fa t ity) . 'i vieWing th e
expre ss io ns ' ,o f a particu lar wo r k group i n ..t_h ~ s manner, ' ~ he _

detai ls ' and r ecurren ce , o f llIiddle po int e xpress ions as they

\'
". ' . ' ': " ,, .
function between the mundane a nd -the extr e me become a

d ist ing ui shing i::h aracte~is'tic ,o f t he qro up , An ~ when

V:i ewedas : a.n adju.nc t t o the s hapi ng 'p~in c i pl e ~ f_ t echni qu e,

they p r ?vide a ba sis f 015 compariso n - to o t h er occupat~na l

. , . '
qroup s. " The ,s ha p i ng pr i nci pl e of mak i ng cement~ f or

example, is the f~ow and pre ci\~e mi x t ur e of vari~)Us

.'; -

. .
mine r a ls a n d e le ments a s :t hey are crushed, fed, baked and .
.., ' .' .
f i nally mixed'and sacked . The , techn.iq~es ~~ 'wo r -ker -s in

/ t hi s ' tra~e demand an aware.ness of this flow and the

abili ty to keep h uge t r u c ks , , c on';e y o r s , 'i test p,nd e1~ctri':
ca1.~quipment in t~nty- foilr , .h our operation" t~ 'f e ed the

'i nsat i ab1e kiln I -..;',h.i1e the o~a1expressio ns, ref1ec~ a

t.
midd le ,point ccncem f o r incidents th at stop 't he flow:

h ands ' ca ug ht in t he cpnveyors, trucks disabled by quarried

. r ock , kilns and equipme~t, da maged 'b y meddiing 'sup~rv isors ,
• " I " . ' ' "
and men il\ jured b y people too eager to get damaged equip- :

n;ent r unning aga,t n. 31· The ' mi~d1e . p o i nt approac~ '~ rovide s
a basis fo r , (;omparison b etwee n g70 u p s i ff a given . o,:cupatio~ .·
or b e t~eeq" occupations while at the ,s am~ tillle i ,t r~\rea ls

. the"majO~ -conce~ns ~f t he ,~ccu~ation~fi Q~mmuilit~ as

expressed t hr ough ora1 'media . . " .
i
Host' work-gePf! rat~d. :,verbai cl<pression ' ~s , rel~ted
. ~
du ri n9 breaks, or 'at a time wh en work i s not, being. .do ne I

before or after the w?r~ day _ ,The , corm\ll n i ~~ t i o n s usual~y

have a 'spe c:ifi c g e nes i s (a ne e r -a t e s eccccne recollected
. ' .. , . ' "

by jJ. s imila~ inci de .nt t hat day . or ii ~to r.y abo u t one peno n
t hat · r emin ds ' soe e one c r a s im i-la r " Cha~ac terl an d t he y · are
often to ld i n t he ,,ver tla l .shorthand of j'llrgon o r i n f raq ~ .

-'Illen,~e d fo:r;mr- Th~ SAine expre.~s ion . tol d t o <In o u tsider ' (or
t o 'a n,6 t he r la udien c~ not indigenous to t he work' set ti n g )

r equd r e s greater elabo rat ion and e xp1ani! tion tha t ex t ends

, t he a~count And r a di cally ' a,l'l:-e r .s its f orm an~ r~focuses

 51

. it6 ~unc ~·io~ . 32 For examp Le ; a fire accQun.t. o r ~'U l~~/

e la~rate~ occ.upationa l ex p e rienc e . narrative ,t o l d by an

.u rb~n . f ~ :r ~man t o a f e llow fi r e fi9~~er might t.ak e t wo

j' mi~u te s- .to rec ount 'wit h suc'"!l" compacted term~ as "w.e h ad a
roa st o n our. h and --the Loo told ,Lewi's to take t he nob . "
. .
Th e "sam e s tor y told to a n a udien ce of o uts ide rs dema nds

the eXp lanat i on of t hesa · 'terms which" not o n"ly e:x t~ndS .t he
na r rat ive, ;b u t a lso refocuses its ~ un c t io n f rom ' specific
. , : . '

to· ge ner,al e d ucation and' .e ntert~ inrn~nt ~ . "

A goOd raconteur can sk il lful l y .we eve . exp j ana tdc n a

o f . jargon throughou t an ' ?ccupati~nal na rrative and " § ti~l
r eta in the dynami c rela t i on s hi p t o the deser"ibed ac tion .
. , ' , " '.' . '
A story ' ~old about a 'co nstruction man' S ,b a r , ~ICG.uiI"e ' e "

., p~~ i t. wa s,?-~' rigton , .D. C. ,. 'a s tol d t ,o ""a n "a ud i cn c e . a t the

1976 ,Fe s ti va"1 of Ameri~an Fo lk lif"e addscre'd i b iHty to the

c o ntent i on bf 't he .l. a t he r 't e l ling the s t o r y tha~ a c raft

.- . " ,
attitud~ and ' eepar e t.e ne s s still .,p e r v<\d e ur ba n "construction

wor k . ' Th e s a me story , 'r e d a c t ed ' a n d t o l d to a l a t her j ust

" . " , . .
a rr iying in t h e . capi t:al would coren unl.cece a n e rrt.Lre Ly di f -

, f e r e nt rang~ ' of . i?fOrm~~~o~t ·t he i:eas. ~ ·Of. which ~ight

• be a re cogniti o~ ,o f i e .pl a c e where t hIs en t erin g t r ade s man
migh ;ma ke job C'cin~~~ts. 33 . What i s in terest'~n9 a bo u t. t his

p h enomen on i s tha,t w~ile 'o c c upa t i o na l "narr ati~e i s h.i.g h ~y

g rou'rsp ec ific -, ~t c im : r.~:tai ri: i ts i nte g rity. and" ;~n her~nt

i n te rest" outside of t he occ upational e nvironme nt" eve n
'. "". ", \ ' .. ' , ' r'
' tho ugh" i t )s , ex te n?ed due t o t he ' t r ans "l a tion of , j a r g o n .
 52 ,

It has . in other wo r ds, t h.e po teDti a~· .fo r p eing a h i ghly

. ;I
pervasive a n d adapta ble form . T hi S: adap t-?b ility ~s : ir
reflec'te~ in t he p op ular borrowi ng ,o ~.j UCh- phrese s as " we

have to ~ l up' f or a new j ob , " ' or " t he dea l IlIas'sho rt

c ircu i te d," ev en'though i n t he fest iyal si t uation in s i de

.communications
. 'like
, .t he s e ar e told (related r ath e r . t han

,:,"c ted) . ~:r .a t - lea~t ~per.f.~ ~ed o ut of conte,x t rat~e~ tha~-, ~

"fully " perfo rmed i n th e ,oc cup'a t i ona l mili e u . 34 Both the
. , . . N
festiva~ and th e -wo r-k context ' a r e ~ia~~c fro:" a folk - !

lor i s t~ c point of v ie w eve n thou?h the -f? xmer i s a r ti-

o f 'icial,ly framed a n d faust be v i e wed with. re g,ir' d to the

ecree upon wh i ch the orig i na l perf.orma ~ce wa ~ based i~ th"e

wo r k con t ex t be f ore truly r epr e se nt a t i ve com pa r ative wo rk (

b .et ween · the t~. e n v frcnme nts c an be at~~mPted . ,
' Li nk e d t o the ,preceding -"el(pres s iv emedia of ~e~ h';'

n dquc and o ra l exp ressi o n are the CUS'tOlUS gener a t e d by the'

wo r k,. experience . . A s ,TOn ri i '; s ha s pc.Lnted ou t , c us tom . f a ~ ls

int o three general ca teg o ries : ' 1) "cu s t omar y action or

, ' , .
habi t. 2) a rul e or norm ' o f a c t i on ; a nd. 3) a wil l or

' ; " p s yc h i c disposition which 's e t s into . '~otion and p ervade s ~" ,
'Iir~.t is the
~o'~ tiiie
;
: ' c ertai n action . : 3's· An, e x ample o f t h e

followedby an older , t~~l 'a nd"' d i e 'lUaket . a iri~ing to work',"

p~ttin9-' :'hiS c oat ' o~ the ~ack'. 'wipin~ d?~n 't.h~ m~chine. --a nd
>

plac i ng , t he , stock o n th ~ ' jig "wi t h a' J egu lar ity generated

· h~bi t.. a nd repe~iti~ri .36 Secondly , a r u l e or .

/

53

"': exempl~fied by , the prescriptions p laced upon ~the ~d:ivi,:,"

t ies - of a r o okie 'i n fire fighting or a n apprentice in -t he
I, .' , '
pri nting trades. The rule s demand that t hese i nd i' v i du al s

act ,i n a certain ;"ay arid ' pe rform Obligatory ta sks like

cl~an in9 up , ,ma k i ng ,t he cCiffee ~ 'a nd b e ing ge~-era l
:"QOPh.e r s . ,,37" ' . .

The third Leve.L..o f cus tom ei n which the collea tive'

wil l of th'e gr o u p , is bo th ' exernp Ld f Le d and . " s e t into motion")

is' i l l u s t r a ted by t he custom followed on con struction

. ' . , - . .
sites' of walking off the job after ,a w~rk -'related

fa ta lity , 311 ~e~d~~9 . an apprentice ' fOX; : s ky hook s , - board

stretche rs or even glass .r ods 't o welda broke~indowl39

or t~~~~'gh -t he weari~9 of a: partiCUla r ' kind ofd~s' tha t

is o n ly a c c e ptab l e when a c~rtain statli's ~chieve~' a s i n
is

; the p o H;a - d ot ha~s worn by "p i p e li ne weld~r s. ~ O Ret~rning

.ec aoffma~" ' a . d"ic hotomy, examples , one a nd t.wo co u l d ~e
viewed as substantive mede a o f conduct while the t h i r d

illustrates t he cexemcnd a j, mode " throug h i ts use of t he

natural wo:r;1r. con~ex ~ "i~" ,a n exp~e~sive, symb olic ' ma nn~ r t o .

. mar k tran s i t i on s. I f, technique is t he central shaping

.
o " '
.
principle ""o f an " cccupaedon wh fch i s r e fl e c t e d in · and .co m-
I ' • ' , " .

ment ed upo n by oral expre s sion a nd gesture , ., then c ustom

an d ' r i t ua l mark "l1lOvement l n t oand "~ut of t he ' group and

ma i n t a i n ~i ts sol'i darity a nd " separ~tion.

The tec h~i~es . g:~stures . ~ra l ex presSions .e nd

" customs wh ich ccm pzLse th~ , "6 onvnun"ic'~ tions ne twork o f' a
. ..

-~
·lJ
r

·particular occup~tiona: gro up ar e the?retical': construc~s

· ....h i c h hav:~ be e n posited i n an att e mpt to p~o;V"i de a , b ac k--

ground ag a inst whi ch specific In ve'stiga"tions o f the s e

· el ements O foccupation<i.l · ~u l ture , can be ,a~a~YZed ' i~ sone

de p t h ' in the follow i~g~ cha p t e rs .. I n "t h e actu;al wo r k

Bi l:.Ua~'ion a 11 o£ ',t hes e cUl t "ural e l emen"t s a re f.i:a~ented,'

inverted, and 'c o ntinu a lly mixe dwi tfi o wtisfde e oncez-ns of a
pOPUl~r or fa~ilial nat'ur e (to naJ.TI€: just wc . I nfl ue nc es)
th~' t iri t e ract w:ith t he work culture by co ns,t antly bo~row­
I ng from and ,a d d i ng to. i ~ . I t mus t al~ o be poin.t~d ,-out ~

~ht ' e he ocnte mporer y "i ndus t r i al , ·'ra:t.ionaliz a ~~on .. 4 1 ,whi c h

~es u l tsi nll continue d di'v4-sion o f ".ark ta sk s 191:.0 a

gr e ater number , '0 '£ less fUlf il ~ ing " tech n iq~es (while at t he
same ~ilne ' eccu rree r mo ve eeo e I s deman'd i ng a",g reatcer ',va r i e t y
Oft~ch~iqueS 'fro~ SP~cial i~ts in r e pai r ~nd tecbn ic~l ·ser­
' il n~tw~rk
vi c e jobS ) 42 results . i :n ot . de ·f e ns ive communica ":'
tio ri s wbich 'area"n i n tegral p art o f any occu p a tional ' gr oup.
Georg~s Fr iedma.nn prOV~des ' ,'~ ~lear examp~~ of th e " cause~
and r e s ul t s ' of this n e t ....or k when h e wri t e s that ·

good toolmaker~ a t t he Estibl issemcrits Renault l

f ormer pup i l s of tiade ., s choo l s " have to l d ne h o w
im por t an t ,f o r them; was the da te of the a pplication
o f ' a 'new sye r ee which they felt lnjured , thelll" From
that mo ment th ey , s hamme d a nd I f aked ', like t he ' "
o the rs. i'lhe r e skill -exi sts ,it lIaY ,be i n t en t i o n ally
d egra d e d und er .en e i nf luence of t he econom i c and
'p s ych.o l oqi c a l co n d itio n s of t1)e 'comp an Y: ,4 3

Thi s sha~'i~g ' and ~ak ing lofte n d eve.lopi ng .,into sabo t aqe)
takes llIan y . f orms t ha t cut across the expres s~ve levels

di scus sed a bove' a~d , ~'n many . ways f o rms a co un t e r e x p res si.v,e

'i ~ h . •
 , 55

L
cul t u re" tha.t enepes' and ' informs the ,'~ ntj, ~e ....ork exp erience .
f : , ' -" . " ,
A~.fo lk~oris ts~ we mU!i\t be aware of "t hi s aspect of our
field by atte llpti nq t.o unde r s t a nd and i n t e r pr e t ho w suc h " .

. courite; techniqu~ is lea'r ~ed and used in t~e ' work pl ace .
The .. q"uestion of d oc umen t i ng and reporting this i~foi::nta:ti~n
i s fan " entirely differe nt matter and one ' .....hfch forces th~

i nve s t i gato r ~o_ deal -openly ~nd hon~'stlY with ' t he p eople '

~i th , whom h e .is working .

,
In this dis cu s s i on I · synthesize" from a number of

theoretical app roaches ~n developi ng a theory ' of,o~<?upa­

tio nai cuI e c r e , . My division of occupational experience '

~nto mode s of , c o~uni cation reflects "t h e anthropological!

li~9uistic foundation, of th i~ app roach. I have ' also

ga i ned a ,g r e a t, dei1 of ,i n s i g h t ' in.to· Occupa~'iona l experien ce

th rough the accounts of I>'ork , group. members who have

. pa r -
ti.c~pated in .an em~rging g'enre-occu~'ationai autobi09~-­
th at , has g reat value . f o r increasing ou r understanding,oY

in sid e pe rspect ives . 44 , OC~tipational ' cu I t ur e s , ho ld 'g r e a t

ptom i~e for i nc r e a s i n g o':!r unde r s t a.nding ' of the rule; unde r--e
, ' ,
l ying .wor k communica tion processes , pa rticularly if we

keep in m'ind the s'inni ltan.ei ty and varie ,ty of th~des of

commun i c a t io n and don't e xcl ude o rie i~ favor ' of ano ther :

/I.' con tin u Um f r o m conversat ion fs u bshn tivelto . f ul l per-

'. ' ~orm~nce (cere~on ial') , exis~s on :a 11 levelS o~ occupatioria i

• ' , ,' . ,' r

commun i cation. ' As ~o re in-de pth fi e ldwo r k is cQlMiuc ted ,

. , ".
'

will be discovered. an.d revi si on s 0:£ t hi s

r . .
. " - " '~'-'---.--- --~-_ .-

56

prelimi .ria;y ~~ l wil l e nable us t o .'be t t e r und ers ta "nd th~

va ri e ,ty of · w a ys i n I(h ~ ch express i ve ' eleme n t s are eeecc-

tured ' and used .

,We wi n n e ver g et 's uc h an opportunity, however, as

~ . " .
lo ng · as th o se ins~de the work pl ace vi ew the et;:hnog r apher
. . .
with" suspicio~ 'an d es anyth ing but an other wor ker , pri:l,(::t1~-
.- . , . . . .
i ng the te 'c hnique s of h is or he r occupat i o n . Unfo rt una t ely

there i s- justification for tha t sue p j cfon 'and' t ,hl S 1.5 "':8

s tigma: as i nsidi o us as t he d istin ction b~tWe~n · whi t e " lind -

·bl ue" col lar wor ke r s or as destr uc tive a s t he exclus i on ( ,n

. .
of wo~n: from t he wor,le place , and .1 t is t he mai n .r eason
t hat thi s ri ch reseJ~h 'fiel d 'has gone" l argel y unex plor ed . 4 5
!, .-
The model of o c c uf/atio nal f Ql klife ou:tlined i,rI
t hi s chapt er sug gesta that t h e , s t ud y of occupatio na l , cul~
; . ,..
. t ure mus t con'si?-er t~e i lllportan?e ' of wor k prooesses a nd
t echniques as ' a basis fO ,r ge n erati n g the oth e r expr e s s i ve
for ms ,i n
,
th~" ~rk ~tin9'
' , I
In . the _ chapters" th'a ~
. . . . ..
fo l low,

t he t~ree ma jo r aspe cts of oc.cupat Lcnal . .e xpr ee s ion , tie ch-

. '.
niq~e . _cus t o m a nd verba l interaction wi l l be eXPlo~~d . in
so me de t ail .
 ',', 'I
CHAPTER III

TH E CENTRA1I'rY OF, WORK TECHNIQUE '

The p recedi.ng material ' h as i~~ u s tr a ted t he iJnpor ';'

c e nce of unde rstanding t he Wor k ' t echn i ques of ,any given

J c ,"pa t io" a~ a .meaoo th rou,h whibh "o t.her . £0",' of "pr.; -

",,' , ' :' , .

interp lay be;wee n wo r k.e r , an d e n v i ronme nt t h a t al l othe r

o~p~rtunities : f or expree s I on ,a r e proV ided.~ I n a n,.a,ttempt

tO~l1ustrat~ th e irnpor~~ce' , Of . th i ~ concept , ',! beqin t h e

chapter with a n exam'in~t ion 'of thecommunicati~n of wor k

' technique " in ' ~ 'fis~ in9 sc~n~ in which IParticip,a~ed , i'n a
" , ' - ', ' ,".f
..s mall. ~iShing ., ~outpott · , villiu1e ~outh of .s e . j,ohn ' ~, : New~
f o undla n d :

Tl)e d,a ta u~on ~hich t h i s a~d t he f o 110'.'i n 9 oha p t e rs

,a r e ba s e / wa s genera~ed ' i n. a v a d et y ' of fieldwork situations .

" 'T he ~o"k~j~per materia l was "researC7"hed". ,frO!ll ,~,9~S to i 969

when '~ ,was e mployed i ri' t h e occ upatio'n ~to which I la te r "
~re~urned a~ ' a , ' field~orker in ' l~6,9. ' , T h e, ge n e ral occupa-

t i onal; 'eX~Pl~S , (construction,"" trad~ S . etc , I ~e;'e , ,d~cumented

 ,.
".--·1'
" '. • I

.'/.
$ ..
c i ted below·was. bas 'e d 011 a 'fieldw~rk project I Cond~ted . ~

.: - . : ', " , - ' -" .

whil e I was a gudua t e st udent i n folk~ore a t ,Kemor ial
· U~ivers'~ ty o~- -Newfo u ndla nd . ' All of . t h e lI~bari fir~'''f19'ht-
-. " f~ ~.nq...~ ate rb.l wa ~ ,t he .: ru 'u l t of Ov er ei : hte e n . :th~. _Of . _.". :
";' i n tensive res ea rc h .w i th t he District o f Col \UTlbii F ire .
. ,'-. " : . .; ' ' ... ."." i
Fi9 ht er s ,' Alsoci~tiO~ .r r.0.... se~t~~~, \1 9..7 .B• .t 0 Marc h .'. 980~ t
Th e nat u ra of . t ha} , proj ect is eX~l.a~ne~ in detail . in,th.e !.:

fi nal ' chapter .

. On t he
, . .' I. .
morning of August 6, 1977 , I accomp anied a

cOIllllerc:ia~ tis he riaan Oll't t~:' ~~ f~st/ ~r~Pfrset of f of t h e .

N~"'found land c'aast at Ball H ne• . a ~ll fi~t:i~'9 c~unity ' .....
. abo ut 't h i ; t y mil~~ south ~f St . J ohn; s • •1 C:riived '~ ~ the .I
, wh ar f by 4.l 00 ..'A.·.M" :· a nd ~·s -i vait~ i~ ', 'the d:ar~ess - ~ co~ld · .-
· hear the' opening a n d ' CI05'i~9 ,of d~rs ' a nd t h e . C~lJnk ,of . : ". ·_4
• rubbe.r b oo t s on the ··9 r a:.'e l. as "the f ishenen . i~" the COIII-
. . . ~ . - . .
mu nity .wal kecl down t he hil. l to t heir b oats • . By 5 : 00 A. M.
'. .. ~' . , (
I was scated ' i n the ster n of a small t.rap s kiff (a ~ ade
..

wo r t bo a t con s tr~ ted by the fi s herMn . hi'-self) as Jolln ' R .,

.. ' . , .' ', .

c a l m bu t overca St ' s e a . ' The re' wa~ lit t le con versa t iQ;, a's ' we
.' . -
:, ' ' . , , ',,"
" ,
': h e aded dOW]hB peni nsul a to th e . t rapB-· t he pock.e t a--, .

pock,i. o; e. '.n~i.n, ,c~Oi"i O~f 0' t~' .te,p'OCk.~.:~i:~f~

a n d wood ed i l ls o f ' t he , c o ,,"s t lioo . ' . J u s t at t he t ill\e we
we;~ se~tll.n9 . i~~' t he. '~.h Y~ of the ~weilsllnd the ~t~on
of the ~at.: J .o hn shut otf . the ~n9ille ' a~d we gli d e d

.....
. .;
~'" . ......
c.,-:---..,-------;---:--'-~.:..;:..--""'_'_~_;_,____:_~c+6=."...,..:.-.,1
. .' .;....., ~ ~' " - '
~~4to .bd,bt o,,"J:lo.t<. thet'~ .f".ar~ n
s t ood up , .. hooke~ t~e ir arms ,.under.--the e wependers of thei r '.
ne

ru bbef,pantB and ,p~t OI! '_~~~t~ooi~~ ~itt~. 'I'h~' sUenc~

o f '~ entire operation th.at fol ~owedwap broken only '? y '
" - , - ' . . " , ', "

t he sounds ,o f a n ,occ a s i ona l. grunt ,of ' ex e r tio n , i!i fish

t.hrown into themidt:%hip r0011 ;- a 9af~ h o ok' o r dip', r;.et

,bUmpi ng . ~g"clins t the gunwha1e , or the ~ur f br e ~ kin9' ,on' t he '

roc::ks ';-to whic'n the cod trap ' i~se l f was ' ~ttac h~ii: G~abbi~~
. .
a 'g~ff, hook, John's"son fisheJout : th~ cen~ral:0r spa,n

line the t raps .and the f o ur lIlen:-puli~d uliint.o· the

of
' - ., ," . . ," '. ' " , . . .
cC,e n te r of : the . ~et3 by_passing the~ine "o ver t .he Iio w , of , th~

boat and pulling .en i t in a hand:-ove,r-harid 'poor~ina t_e' d

A' ,ceid tra'p 'in Newfoundland "i s es scn'tially a large

" ' .,.: '"
net _box wei94ted at the bo t t o:ii wi th le~d sinkers ; There
- . .
' " .",'" " '" ' , ".
is a 91~g1e ent r y wa.r 'o'r door 'th r o ugh ,'Wh i ch ' t he fi.sh can
ente; th~ .er ep ,b ut'ou t Of':~hiCb i t"ili di;fl.cul/f~r 'them
t o e scape ~ " . EaCh.fo~rier: of the>,~;rap is, .s uppbr .t ed 'b~ ' ~loa ~ s
and by ha uling Ln th e ·vertical or, risa ',1ines " the'fi,sh'erman
har;;~sts h is .ca t~h ., · John's ilon beqan ha~li'ng- i n. t h e"fi r s t '
lin 'e and' t he net' at ' ' t he bow' w~.i. i~ ~i'B"f8tPer' began ' ~~e

tH!h ind the m·and ' el t he r. help e d 'to haul the t rap 'in', with a
qu~ck hand~o~e'~~hand"~t:~~n' o~ .r ep~~~~d ·" b~oke~ '~ shes w~th
a ,q u i ck s t itch .o f ,t h e netti ng nee d le. Xt to?k te~ minutes .:
~o. ha~1.the:.e nt~re tr~p up " i~~o the d •.i ff . ·
 . 60 · .

_pitifully 8n:ial~ . be~ ~~_ twenty fair, . ~ized cod with .a ·

. sprinkling o f ma c kerel and flounder .

Thro ugho ut. t he entire oPli'Jration- -haulinq j r e pa i r-

~n9 ·meabe-s . , extiic~t.ing fish f rom thetr~p. ~nd ev~~ ' l e a n-
1R'9 'Out. over .th e -8 ter~ todiseng4g ,e a 'fO~ led ~in:n~~ from "

th~ popeller-';e~ch ma~- ~as' c6~tinuany r eacting to ~arid.

C• rd'in:-~ing .hi s ·m.;;~ements_- With . _ t~e' ~ctiviti'e~ of th~'
. '.', ' . . .
when tlhe e ntire tr,dp , had been ' r e t u r ne d t? its .o d g i n a l
" .:. ~ . - - . ;' .' ... . . ..
position and 'the ;motor seeeeea , e~eryone s a t down an d ,li t .
, up. ' • As we ,t ~f~~d '. in a :s I c "! a~c t!J he a d for t he other

·; \ a p s ,. J.~h~ S~~d _~.iinpl:.~ ~F~~in tide s·, ;' · ~n~i;ca ting ..~hah .
the " late sea son tide s ha d 1>8 &n responsible for th'e poor
ca~~h ., : ~~~ea'd~d do~n the coast to' Mobl1e ,al\(\.' t~e
n~\~. ,' ~ery~ne in'"tl\e beat star~d Of :f 'at' the horiz~n"
or, to,;;a'~d ',t he' bi~d ,'f sla rids' . a"?d n.~dde~ ' ~ ~, si~'e~t, ,~9reement . , .
Th e ce n t r a l concepts '1 ' ~m ' concer-ned wi th in thb

scene ' a:~e" t he" ;eJ..ati~nBhi~Sbet~e~,;' verba~ a nd ' non~~etb~~ ~,'

c~~~i~a:tion in '.], ,Wor k cont~~ ', and h~~. as ' 'a:a " ~t~6gra~
ca~ '~btin9UiS~ ~twaen"8fgni'ficant. ~xp~~~siv~
pher . '1
..' ,:-- , ' ,~, .. :,:'
.

be ha vior ' and ,i n s t r ume n t a l "Jl\Oveme n t:

.-,:,', -"
.". ' ,: , ,"

Be foJ; e the s e q ues -

(' , ,

-tion s ca~: ~'answ~red~ , .h~~~t.- ~'tWlllbe '~ec:~~~ary to .

. " e' s tabli6~ a th~'~ke:t i~~l~~l~~~~h~P' ~tw~e~V~;b~l' ~nd;
. •' < . , .. i ' . . ..' . .
non-verbal , ~nt~,r ; ~,tion , ,~ ~' g e ne~al.. " ;,,1,,am , $U9.ge ~ ti n~. tha t
, 1~ the" ~~k ,~ nVlr.~~en~: ~ork';te,ch~iq~eS ': pro'(~de 'a', loc\1s ,
~ on
?~
the'~i9~ific'a:nt
. " behavi;'rs
. ...:' th~t. "ex t'e r na l i y ' ch ar a c t e r,ize'
.

rr:
1°, " , '~
 a particular <'wo r k group .e nd 'a r e' at.the same time " t~e/

c,:,ntJ;"~i media .th~~U9h Which ,·the, group internall y c ommun J:- ,

f' ,The, ha r ve s t ' of f~h o ff .o~\the ' Newf oundland c:oa.st

~ , -:-i8 stil l a culturally pervasiveoc.cupation in that the '
, entire· .social ·andtectmi~a'.t co~~~~~ of t~i~ work ',c? ns t i -, '

tute e a majorpa~t of the .d a ily lives of the p e o p l e who

' i i~e i,n 'the ' outPorts '~r ft shing (;f~~ni~~e~. F rom " ~e
fabricatio~, And rep~.ir of: s ear to b Uildin~. of boats and

the: · trans:~ rtation . procer ~l,ng .end e ati ng . .~f fi's h, t!t~ ~ .

.
techniques .o f . the inshore , f ishery i nfluence t he na ture of
. ' ,

interaction in ' these settlements . As i nd u s t ria l i sm (th~

, ' l nt r od uc't i o n ot l o ng l'~~rs and mech anical mean s of haul ing

~ets ~nd t raps) imp os e s a' .g r:e a t e r divis i on . Of l a bo r u~on

't he ' f ,i s he. ry , a more dramatic work/non-work

,
dicho tomy is
exec- bed o n . th e s ~ prev i~u s ly undiffe'r en tiat:ed s p h e re sj o f-

int~ra?'tion., . ' T~is modex;n i zati ? n has no t ; h 6 we v e r . ha:da'

tremendous i mpact upon t he ,s pe c ifi c f ishing ' t e c h ni q ue s
, ,
, e mp l o ye d by "the 1 f!she rmen . It has mere1!f 'altered the
r eiation ship . between wo.r k/ n o n- wo r k situations ~nd ha.~( sup~
. , , .
planted ha n'd-made nets, : flC?ats f , boats :a nd ' l:'I\ethods of

_p:OOUCi~9. ~wer , W~th ~onunerchi?~de products ,t ha.t con:- . , , '

ti~(I,'0 r be ~ • .;, i n hio tOrina 11, Y p~,!~on ~a.Y., T~' .ott;~g l,

,ha~ling .codtr~~s:~, , .s.a1mon nets ..~nd ji9~,in9. are , ~Y',
re'"".
a,nd c;»f.

p.r a~t1~ed ~~~Y" i~ muc h W8.Y: " " " :hav.~ been ~n past '
"I n . .t lie de signated fiUllilia1 . spo t 8 ~ l on9 t he coast. ,
r ._- -- - - - - - ---'
62
I
b
• ', ' , ' r. "J
oniy'- thra u'll:l' an , ~nder6tandi ng of - th~ , ~d\:ire range'
,o f ~ork , beha'!lor wi i~ it be ' po s s i bl e t; . vie;;th~tbetlaVio:r::
. " - \ ' .
f rom ,the : f isheJ:1llan ' s ' or worker' s perspe ctiye; On ce t h o!l t

has been accomplished, _ we can begin t9 "a pprec ia te the .'

subtleties ' apd fine po i!i"ts of speCific ~ommunicati~ns' ~ > ' .
· , ' . . . ~ ' "
Th i s kn owl e dge ca n on ly be gained th r oug h an i ni t i a l unde r-
stiMding 'of the 'dOr k ce c h nd que s } nvo l v e d because!n the.

worldof too ls, ' ~acnine s ~ .ma te tial s ·a'nd hi g h l y 's t yl i ze d

foms,o f ,b~ havior , th~se eech n dq uee c o~prise th e _p~imary
mode o'f : ex:pres sion vi~ 'b o t h verbal , ~d ncn-v e r baj. m e an s •
':. - ,. - "' :. . - .... ',
The, information t ha .t i s pa s s e d t hr ou gh these cha n ne l s

::~::~:::~:::::::~~:;:::::"::::::::t:::::::r:a:1i::
(i n 'which ~xper~~nced :'fiSh~~man/boatb~ild~,~r:::::::'~ :
an

',. nOJ;mativ~ : ve~t:'al ~nd non.~verbk\l "beha vi or

c ommurti c a ee his t echnique s t o a!nov i c e l .
i n ' a n 'a t t e mpt
, I n any o cc upa t i o n .
t~

ce men t 'WOr k , t oo l . 'a nd die \maki~9 ' et~-ograph~ , · o r ' c~asta l'
· .' . .. ' , .
f .i shing , now. o r in .t~~ p a s t, the ' r ela tion Shi p 'of t he

.
indiviqual t o hi s tools ', mac hines , . phys i cal environment ,

forma l a nd informa l work pro cesses ' a nd ' (mos t .impo r t a n t l y)

-. .
fell~w w~rkers is ce~tral, ,~o both
. .
~h~ accompli~~nt
.
- ~~
-' ,

wor k an d our .u(l(!e'r s.tarid irig af it bec aus e i t i s f r om these

I' proce~'ses "t ha t a ll. ~xp~e~6ive be~aV:i~r' i s . ~eriv~d. : If we ~

be; !n with - t~e process ·and :¥n ·t l, i~it. ·th.~ , ·~n'itia-i ~pp~~ach .
: to ;; certain t ype of ,eneric' mode

. . "0 best for efficien~'y disc~vcri I9 ,t~e ind

r ,, 'odoc t, .t he c hane·e e

de t ' 5 .POi~t
 of,. v iew .
"
WO rk technique' h as prev i (JUsly been defined as ' t he ". _ _~

-. pattern o f 114ni pulll. t :l:.0ns.- ec e j.cn e , rhythms a nd express ions

wh i c h· are
.. tho ·~ ,~~lt of th.' i.nte
. ract i o n be tween .a n. i n d. ~Vid­
Q
.
'.
.
-.
ual ; h i s 'g e a r and h i s wor k envi r o nmen t .
"e s se n t A l , t o
b y the ~r~'
~e :CCOlllPli~~nt · .Of
g r o up an d ,us e d . a~ c r i t e r ia f o r ,
deter~.i na tion·
Th e se p a t t e rn s
II task, 'p~escribe~
'

of membership and ~t~ tus~hi~ it. ~ . The re is a' oon5te11" - '

efon of work , ~~~hn ~n t he fi ~hin9 : scene:-~e sc ribed'
ear l ie r .
. The entire ' passage from the time we , r eached the
.
trap 'u nt i l J Qhn ' s ;comment a b o ut the tides can be usefull y
.

reg a rded as 'a un ft ,~f ' ~hav~o"r 'made - ep or hlerll rch1cally .

ar r~nged ·s ub - s e qme n t 's . ~ ginn'i';'g with ' th~ assu mp tion of

pos"it~ons .i n 't.h e ski t~ there is ,a c on t inuou s .

. ..
~~r i'es cit
'pe r;i Od i C?' cause a nd effect , a c t i v i t ies t ha t. res}11t "I n an

ever . e ,q, a ndf.nq 'a nd a dapta b l e ' r ange o f fu r t her a ctivit i e s • .

. ~ . .
TO prov~de jus t one e~ampl e frc.:l t.h,a t scene s at ~ the e nd
" o f th~ s equenc e o f a cti vities" resulting i n ' t h e ent ire t rap
:..
the ~li:~:t ei~h~r ~he :Cat .
"

being hauled, is 'i n o ; .aroun d :

Th~ n e xt s~rles of i n t e r a c ti o n s is a re ve ra.a l o f t he fi r st

. '. se ries , ~nd each man. pays, out t he ,line so ·t h a t · the t 'rap .

resume s i t~ ' fo~er p'~sition ~eneath 't~e f ioa'ts'.- '.. Ha ).f way .

n~t ."n~n ~~'~~h~t' on e of theH~n~t. · Wcau g,,: .0" tho

boat · a- pro pe l"ler . While he grab s a ga ff hook ( thus ' caus-
" ', ' ",; ..1 . ' . , ' ,' , .
I n g eve'ryo ne i n , 't h e , b o at t o , s t op a nd l oo k. b e c a u s e ,a n ew
.: : .. ..; ' . '".
patt~rn 'o f . beh a v i o r · is begun ' i n ' response t o John ' s rno\ie:'"

, ..
- .' Ile n t)· ,th: o~~'a .s~p 'and"' "s1"Cke~ their :i i n e s ' ~l~ng . th~. " :. ' .

.': .
. ."
r .. . .
' ....:. . , - - - - . - . _ -.-- -. ---- ~

- . . ' ".
gunwhales o f the ~a t so tha t whe n J o hn p laces bis ha nd
on , the tiller . a nd' leans o~t o ver the stern to unhook ,the

foul ed li~ne t- .
. he hall enough sl~c_k to ' f r e e t he ·,li n e . He
. . .
f r ees i t, pu ts' the hook down , returns to hi s f orme r posi- .
eden "' h U e t he oth~ rll r esume their prevlou's pos t u res 'a nd
t he preceding s e ries . ~f paying out" the line s is ' re ~umed : '
. - . , . - '."

IlIOvemc~t i t sel f wa s · encuqh . t o aU998st not _o nly a

J ohn ' s

c hange i n behavi or (stop payin9 ou t t he ' t r a p ) . bu t wha t "

s hould be do ne', i nstj;!ad . (prov ide s !a'-ckl.

" . , -. ; : ""

Th e expe r ience d wor ker doesn·t . m'a ~e £ewer mi stak e.s .

he jus t , doe ~n '.tfo llow them ou t to.-..t:.~e -'pOint where they

become . a ~lOck~furt;her , ~CiP~ted 'beh~v.i o~ J .._~-ad r

been hauling tf~r~JVfhe,:lbove descr iption, Jo hn wou ld
h a v e h:ad to .ve~ze :and ' e~p.I~~~ h is r equ e st 'to ~ top 'pa y-
, inq out the li~es beeaus~ mi inexpe~i en ce wou ld have
ca~sed ,~~. to~ 'as~ume t~t ;eo~ld c:om~'lete thl~ t l!'Sk a~~
. move C?i) to t he fina l objec t iVe : ,1 am res u lt oden ~~
eXc1us ~veIY . while 'the e~~ri;;nced .worke~ c omplete s e:ac h
seqment o f ' behavio~ ' i n order~y 'a nd s~thl y r hythmi c . s t.eps

relyinq o n.. t he e-nviro~~t ~ and ' othe r vorkers t.o d i cta te, ..
'.' . ,,.. . "
" , , " ' , '
h i s ac t.te ns r a ther t ha n on , sOIIle tilne s unnece s s ary a nd c umbe r -
some ' verbali ~at1~n to ' d~s~ri~ ' i t ·: : . 'T~ten as ' ~ wh~ie', . the '
. .' :. , ' ' , ' . .
,.
pass~nq Of ~ line ,, ~,~~ . fli Ck o f a "me'~~ : ~ePd ;d~q,nr~d l e , .~
·i
a re r e pe t i t i ve , be havi o r s. tha t ref~;ect a .h~bi.tua l , f ram e , o f
Intera~·t ion . 'I'h ey are styliz~ beh"aviors' ~at 'coordi nate .......
, a~~l~ity' Clnd ' ~e~~~o~~': r~'~le~t CO!1c~r~ ~~r.
\ .. d'aily a

\\ ~"
 as
substantive communifation. : The' non-verba l mode is COIll-

p rised of. material ob jects which . i n their juxtaposition

. .. ~

and manipula tion pose a s o r t 0'£ ncn-verbaa interrogative

. . -.
which can' qniy be . a r tic ~ l a ted using'the .s oc i o- t e c hn i c a l

complexes at , han~ ,( t he , setting ' and h auling o f the t'~ap) " t'

The answer. to ,thi s non-verbal q uestioni s a l uke - warm ,

a~firmative _.(indlcatinglhat t:~e catch ' wa s, ha .r dly . ~orth

~he 'e f f o r t ), a nd the parad iginat i c r espo ns e is a ,ve rba l
: hypothesis explaining t he reason , f o r the res ul t : , the
, n fookin tides. "

There is su fficient' evidence in: tha literatu.r;e to

.s ub s t~ t i a te a c laim that people in occupatio nal and o ther

.- '~roups can ""aI)i:1 ' do c ommun i cate -t hrhu g'h t he manipui~ tion of
tools and ~ateriaIS. as we ll' 'a s th~Oo9h ' unac c ompa nie d · gIHI ~ , .
;~ ure and'
.,
~'eibai expreSSiO~·.
2
. . ~e , mu~t, ~oweve~,
.. go beyond

t he ,observ'atia.n of ' superfici~l , non-verb~ l) beh ~vi~r t o ', ge t

a t . its ' u's e or meaning and as I have s uggested 'previous'ly ,
r ., · . '. : . " ". ' . ', ;
t his requi r e s an ,a,ttempt to ·approx~ate a s c l ose ly ,a s
'po s s i b i e' :t he ~ic S.it~ati(>n :-3 T'his ·', f~ Pike l&P~~­
str uctural fi rst step toany '-~thnoqraphic i nvestigation :
Although I am oniy ' superfici~llypresenting his comple x

. . -
• .7"", - "imp li ca t io~s for t he study of verbal : and 'no n- ve r b a l behav-

ior, .i n ' e n 'oc c upa tio na l se tting .

',-
I
 I. . . ",..
· isolat,:d within a p?,r.ticular ~roup and is v~ewed as , h~l;Vin9
a hierarchy of elements, abe9~nnin~ and :~nd and a 'cu i t.u ral
· pur,po s e .bY the g~oup me!l'lberS t hemis e l ves . 4 :' ThE; t r a p . haul-

· ing.
scene is ' a behavioreme ' as are ' the l o a d i ng of II tr'uck
' ' . .. '. , , . . , ',
at a ~ruck dock, t he I,;i pi ng o f lead .cable ,i n a ma~Ole.
t~~' 01-;an109' of II ' hquse', ' an~ the at.~ack of a ' 'bu-rn~;"\'- bui1d­

' l ng by, _fire f ighters. 'Wo r k ~echniquc ; is s i mpl y thr~ set of '
p ost ul a ted behavioremeswhic:h i t i s the -.job of . the e thnog-
r a ph er to discover and . docUment i n 'i t s na tural habi, tat
wi t h t h e int~nt of \ri~~ing ' it - ~s'.'i t· is 'v i e we d by .the

insider . . pike 'S 'c on c e pt :d.s : particu l~rly us~ful because it

suggests that this behavi'or may be either ve rb a l or non-

) , verb.al : " ~haref~~·e the motio~.~, .qe a e ur e e , ' r hy.t hms 'a n d
v

. , . a .ratchet
short-cuts used to tighten . on a tow in the St .
, Louis harbo r comprise 'a aeqm e nt; of work b~havior or 'a
, , '. ,I , .. . . , . . . . . ' , ' '.-
primarily non-verbal behavioreme ,t ha t ,c o u l d 'l a t e r be pre-
. I ' " . ~ " ' .' . '
senced in verbal form as a personal -e xpe r.i.ence na rrative.
~ There ,may ,be morc iex~reS~i~e Lfcen se in ' ~ he ' verbal. ac.c:urit
b~C~U5e the behavior 'hasoccurr~d i~ 't he pa~t .and ·s "e,rbal
I '. . . . . ' .. ... " . .. .. " "" , .
t reatment m,:y .concentr~te .up on ,- s p~ ci nc eaeaene.s "t o the
ex~iusion of others·'out o f norma l , ' tempot~lseofuence as
r ,. ..• .' . ' '.'5 ' " ., .
discussed in the work. .of Labovand wall~~zky. I t may ·

also 'be' pcissib.le ,. ~ciwev.er "th.~t th~ .i~onie's • . tones ., '$t~l~ S , . :­

; a nd ·d r a ;na tic i,nt~ic.a~ies of non-,ver.bal.beb~lVior are b~ing' :'·
e'xpresse'a "wi th as . high a 'd e g r e e of sUbtl ~ty, b~t we don ~t

LJ
 67

interpret these expressior;s . r Ano~cupationat spciologist ,

Jack 'Ha a s , ' has done. fie ldwork with ironworkers that a ug-
" ' ', : . . :
ge sts t ha t although fea r, is" a part .o f the ,wor k , t he expres-

sive ,b e h a v i o r e xh ibi ting "a l a c k of fear is indispensable

. to ,'the coo p e xat. Lc n-ne c e s sazy ~~tween ''two wo r k e r s in the

:trade; Therefore even t~e slightest ~alanCe~gaini~g­

s tumble or steel-grabbing gesture is read with incredible

c f osenessceven to , the point o f ,giving names to 'these

inappropr iate . - .f e a r' ~xhibiting , taw:: pas l ike tlsea-gul~ in9 . ~

'· c o o n i n g , • a nd ·?radl~ng· the 's t e e l . ~

Actual ', research in.to t he area of ,wo r k technique

,) -, " . .
(o u tside .o e .t he Mrational~zing ': time -motion studies done
by the ' Gi i b r e t h s fo11ow'ing TaY lo~ 's mode l in the 1920'~)'

;';as , do ne b y the British 'du r i n g Wo rl d Wa r II a nd pU~lished

by these industr i al.'·psyc::hologists j ~s t afterth~ wa r ,i n a

jo~rnal' entit l~d Oc::c::upationai P'sychO~09Y.i ,I n .r;n~ of ~he

ea r liest of ,t he s e art icles , t he piJneer social PSyc~':ldgist .
F .C. Bar tlett , who ha d be e n worki ng with Royal Air Force

homb S,q U~dronsto meas ure and .ilDprove " th~ir accura~y and
e~~i<:=,~EmCY'' , SU9ge,5,~ed: t hat' ~kill . (rea~ ',techn ique) , .i s not a
~l~~ence
'\ o f c oDti nu o u s ', ,ac ti v i t y bu t ' i~ .Ln reality a disco~':'
..
. ,~ "L)
tin~OI1 S a e e .rea o f eff e c ~or/re s ponde r chatne of ecuaons in
wh J.,hh eac h separa te r e a ction i s b ased on spec Lj Lc a n d
_ _itiC::iPa ted s t J.muli , a nd thes e ch ains ev e ntual ly r e sult in
, ' :,.. ','' , ', " ' " - '. "

' a n aC:h ievement or product whi c h i s merely t he fin a~ part

~f , th~ ·pr~ces~. 8 '!hi'~" i~ ~" usef~l; :,i n s i d bt . in( o work
r

: .' - . ' . ;. ,"

- , ' . "
"
t e c h n i q ue in ~.at it f orces t he ' investigator" to v i ew ' ~rk
a cti v i ty no t f r om ~ 'p roduct- , but f ro m a proc e s s -

perspec t i v e . The e x t e rio r of ' a . f inished hous e or the f a ct

.. "

t hat a bu ilding is b o l o'n ge r en g ul f e d ' in-, f lames , fo r "

rf -. , e xamp le . _ say _nothi ng '~bout the q'ua~i t y .,of the "t e c hn i q ue s

us e.d to build the s;tructur e or t o p ut out the fir e . Th i s

~ -is.·a l~vel .,of j ~dgme~t an d ~8oteric" eva~tiation that on~y l

" i n s i d e r s c a n determine an d ' a r tic u lat e into a c ritical vee- ,.

bal ~nd °no n - ve r b a l f.r a mework .

In _a sec o nd, par t; o f _his a rti~le on human sk1l1 ,
B ~ r tl ett 's ugge s t s 't ha t e,ac h 5'"',111 o r , technique 'ha s :a k ~Y~_
· _ ._ . ;_ ._

fe~Ul;e of rhy tht.n, pos,~ur~ . a:nticipation of .r e s po,ns e or

, '. centr al activity ~at LstunLque .t o th~t : portion o f , t h.e work

proce~s ..9 A hos e w~gon 'd r i ve ,r in ,t h~ Disti~ct Of. Columbia

f ire dep a rtment , . for ex ample ,may speed in t o '.i ntersec t ions .
·(b r a ki,ng s harply ' a t the _l a s t mi n ute a nd chargi~9" t.o - the

J-nex~ .i n t e r s'e c t i o n t o . do the s~m~l in.· a n e~~r'errtelY ~ggr~S~ive

way to get t hrou<;jh traffic by ~ntimida ti ng other drivers .
. - , ' . ."
Ano ther , wa go n dri'ver may a c co mpl i s h t he same - e esje ' u sing a
,
' Sho r ,t - c ut ' o n .t he roedia nst r ip or j u~t pau se f or a .b rie f

seCond ' in a ' more rh~ thmic_ manner,' at ,e a c;h ~nterse6tion ~ntil
M "ca~ · determine a s,_afe way ,t o w~a ve h i s way · .t .hr ou gh ' t :c:af,.
fi e. - Both -a ch i eve · the ' sam e, r es,ul ts, b ut t he - l a t t e r

d riyer . (t>e~~~s'e" o f h i s s~tlier ; mor e ~a~tio~s a pp r oa c h whlch

-, doe sn't e~danger the men , on . the back 'step)~ ·';"ould 'b~ v i e wed
: ~. Xhibiti~g :ti:dng -an d - techni~~e c' ~~s~s~.· ·~o
(.

'. V,
as
. . ''.0/.'' ".
J
 ·, .
performance . Ag ain a s Bartl e tt po i n ts ou t ',
."The re · i s one c hilrac t e ris"t i c wh i c h c r o ps up o ver
a nd o ve r again in descr i p t i ons o f 'e x pe r t , skil ~ecl.
per f ormanc e . The operator - i s s a i d t o h av e ' all
i ~:t tt:e ~~~r~:i~~rI~ ~~ed~b:~~~eh~-::~~S~pp~~r:~~ce
o f hvr ry in the who le ,a pe r a t i on . .The r e is no, •
jerkiness o r. snatching, no o b vious r ac ing t o
ca tch' up in one part and f arced saunter i ng t o 'I
~:k~e~~\~n,:~~i~~~ : ' ~ ~e : i3~rne l th.~t,., is "?" :"
This, :r eflect ion o f central o r key tec hniq ue
ex hi b,i ted throu.gh ,unh u r r i e d r h ythm a nd timlngc-:-n be

illustiate.d" i,~ ye ti . an othe r . e xaap j,e o f fi refigh~ing wor~

~-:--,--'_-,--'. p~.!!.-_~I n __t h~ _~o l_l owi ng _ ~ ~~~~ ~ c~~~':Ip a ny ~

. -:--:-~-,--'~~_
which .is r~~ponsib'l~ for 'v~ntilati;"g a str u cture , ' Pla~i~g
l a dde r s t~ th~ wi 'ridows a~d- roof ~nd r e'scuing an yo ne
. t r apped-- i~ th~ , b~ildin9 , e x h i b i ts co mpeeence i n p"e"r f orm ing

a :key t.echn fque s

(The . s cene ' is t he, watch desk i~ the front ' ~fthe
f ire .b ou se , The man t elling the is t o r y is a yo ung
£;ire chIe f ,who is su r r ounded , by . f our other ' fire '
fight ers ~nd Dlyse lf who are listening to h i s '
ac c o u n t ) •
Chief ; ' And I t hough t I 'wa s pre tty good ~hen "I I ..
wen t t o -1 Truck -a nd I found out that those g uys
~: ~i~~~ ~~1~g~e~~~yo~i~r.~f~s~~~~a~~:~_ ~'-~~e~;y
I :~;~d~e:U;~ :O~~~~~~d~~l~o~i~c~ii~\~~h ~~:
portable ladders . But on e of the little th ing s
that they d id before do i ng t.hat , the a xe man a nd
the , hook man - would,see to i t that wt-atever .Le dde r "
it wa s that they moved with toward the building ,
they'd see, that t he i r heck 'a nd their axe-we ee
lelining ¥s14 ethe front door. And then ' t he y went
o n their way doing thE! rest . of the things ·that . ."
t hey cou~d do : , Now when they- got ~ i nishe d putting
u p ',the ' po r t ab l e ladders ' a nd got ready-to go i n ,
that 'swher~ i t , wou ld be . _ ~heY 'd ,grab i ~' a nd go

d'
r
i '
70

on i n . ' I n th e mcantim~ / thou gh, ' i f somebody 90~

up there and s ome bo d y l).e eded,.something qu i ck, t.he
e ngine o ffic er.o~ the-chi e f or t he a i d e-- a l l . .
the differen t people . who came ' r unn i ng, t hrough that
do o r. s a w that ax e a nd tha t hook s i t t i ng t here lind
' so mebo d y yells , yo u know .~ give me the hook , qu ick .
O. K• • zip, no r unning a l l the wa y back to the
apparatus .o r an yth ing , t he r e it 'is right by ,t he
f r ont doo r a nd , they 'c o ul d .g r a b l l t a nd t a ke i t i n
the re • .so t hat wa s a lit tle piece o f eff iciency
4 Tr uck to t his d a y do e s ~.,.a nd I don ' t know of any
other c ompa nyiLn. the c i t y that d oes. I I
This narrative u nderscores the fact - that t h"e inere a c ccra-

p H ,Shlnen t of -a task (a ll ' t r uc k co mpanies eventually take' a

hook 'a nd ' a xe ' Lnt.o a fi r e 'build 1.n g ) ' does no t r e f l e c t the
~ . . - .
q Ua l t t y ,Or ,ab i litY ,Of the t eChn iqUe pe r f ormanc e s " "
r e sulte d i n t ha t a~comp lishme n t . By be ing .ewe xe i ni t t a lly

of t~e"basic ue ch n dqu e e 'ne eded to aJ com:~ish a par~ieu.hr

goal o r produ~ t ~ , a nd e valuating ~h.~s,~ techniqu~ '" ti he

ba s.i.s: o f the ,ke y .t e ch n i q ue su ggested by " t he pr actit ione rs

t!'Iemselv e s (us~allY in ~he f o r m of qualifi~~ pe rsonal

experience narrative s ) we ~a n , g-~ i n ' ~ 'c lose r ' ap p r o xima t i on
. '

o f how t he ins i d er , jud ge s a good p e r f orman c e . '

!
, Ye t, , ~ s BAr tl~tt. p.oi nts o ut , wh~n asked d"i r;~~tlY ,
• most e~perts in an y, ~ield . wi ll. a n s wer que:~tions a bou t ' pr C?pe r
technique . with re sponses 'tha t describe'not how to do a
. pa rtic u lar th ing , but with what and 'wh~n t o do ·it·. ,~? We
I . .
c a nno t, in ,o t he r words·~gain . a trern~ndO~ illlI~unt of ' knOWl~,
e:dge abo ut ke'y technique s t h r o ug h .d i r e c t qU:e·s tio~ing

be ~~u s e t he exper t >P~ac ti tione r ,t h i nks l e ss c on sci0 u.s ly

I " . ,' . , , : . .'. . . . '. -
a bout wa ys ,i n which i t i s don e physic:ally 'than he does

ab out th~ a~piopriatenEl.ss, ~nd' tiriliil9 : ~f · ~h~ te'cli~ique a,~~

 ' , 71
.. .
the r~ ticipa tion af his f uture respons~s. Th i s suggests
'. . ' ' . ," " . . ' , :
t ,ha ,t ''pe r ha p s t he 're ' ar,e leve ls o f technique upon wh i c h a , ': '

~orker, bas e s .hi s perception ?f wha t it is h e do e s , ' I n a

~ " later art iCle i n Occupa tiona l ps yc hology" C .A. Mace

aes c r ib~ s so mT' l e v e l s o f s kil l ', t h a t ma~ p x c vdde us wi~h a
way o f a'pproaching technique ' f o r e thno g r a phic purposes :' ,
Wha t ' we c all . phy e Lce I sk i ll ' (it , i s not purely
ph y sica l ) is t he ab i lity to p r a d,uce a c me r e q u iJ .ed,:;'
eff ec t , or group o f ' effects t;b-roug h ' bo di l y move -. C
me n t s ,g u i de d by ' s e nsory a nd perceptual cues .
There are a lso i ntelle c t u al ski l ls i n wh i ch .
ge n'e r ali ze d knowledge and .imagination ' play,an
, i mp o r t a nt par t" and aocda L sk i l ls i n Wh i c h ecbt.I e
e mot ional r e a c t i o n s t o pe rS'ona l i t y a nd · subtle
axpce s s Ions are t he chief ,<iete r mi n llnts of t he
r~ q~ i,red e f fec t. 1 3 '. ' . ..
S i mpli fie d ', these types o f ski ll :, (phys i c al, s ocial and

' ," , .' .' , ' ~" ,' ,

a n i nd ividu al deve lops a n a~ i li ty tp an tic ipa t e t he s e

" ' , ' ~ : \ . ; .:, ' . .
s timul i , ' h i s res pons e s be c ome l e s s conscious and
," ,

he beg ins .
.
.' . - .' . .
to anti~ipate what he thinks will. be t he nex~ or ev en the
" . ' . ' I . l.": :". ,. " . ' ,'
! o urth' o r , .(ifth s tep b e f or:, . h e e ve n ~ et s . e ne re . Co n s e-
qu e ntly when questio~ed a bOut', anyone pa r t i cula r t echniq ue
.. ,, ' . " , " ".'. ,. ', " .. .:
he : , ~an more ' eas ily p lace "t ha t technique 1n ,a c o ntin uwuthan ,

h'e ' ~~n d~cribe ~~.~\ ,~so~:a ~~~n'~ , :~ i;lui~~a~ed beloW,

. this s ho u l d sugge st t o")the ~thno9raphe r. .t J:lat th,e ,c ri tic a l
, ,' I ..... ' ,, " ' , .
'c oinme'n t s of a ' group o f 's pe c j,.a ll stfi d isc u~ si ng: a p a r t icu l ar
,,:.ror k :· activit y !base~·.' on a )lh~.red, , e'Vo~tiative, ,n et wo r-k or
 ,~ 72

will' yieid ' muc h nior~ meaningf ul ,eeee

. abO~~ ' aJ.I .t~~ee .i ev~l ~ of' techn'iqUe ,~h'~ n could ~~y ' indi~id"':.·'
u~~ a nswering the direct qu estions' of e ve n the most as:t"u~e
fnves t lg. Ator.

As an e xample, i n ' t he fire f i g h t i ng ' culture these

l e vels of t.e c hn I q ue ,mi g ht be bro ke n down ',in the .f o llo"":i n g
mamier: " t he a,ctu<tl fire .·fighting. situat ion ~n whi~h the
individual i s coping with the physical elemen t o f 'f i r e"
I ' " ' , , '. .
represents phys ica l technique . ;l.t the s a me ·t i me , h owe ver ,
'he must rery on ~h~ ~OI 1<l, c ti",:e act.Len s and ; ,r~sp~nses of h i s

. .
fe llow ,f i r e fighters t o eavenee the ho s e 1ines, '-t hrow the
'

l~dae ~~ a~d. s upply, t h e water', a s well as verbally- ·e~aluat.e

'. '- ~
"

t he , fi re . after it is over, clean a nd maintaitthe e quipm,en t

and t he 'f i r e hou s e arid define his ,p l a c e i n the ' group • .All
" ~f .t hese :l~tt~r :i nv O! v e mc n t s rcquir~ soc~~,i. ~s ':~~.~·l ' a~ "
\n~, t rum~ntal techniq~es . And ' f t no!tllY, as:~ h e ~~~~s' ' uP t h e "
adm~n i st rative h ierarchy, : he
~,
spends more time directing 't h e
. " .''. ' .-
, , ', ' "

group usIng soCial t~ ~hniques to aChieve" 'Ph ys i c 'a l ·.; e Sults ••

. " . ' ' . .
These directions , ho we ve r , . increasingly rely .on i J;ld i vJ.d ual

P~~1050PhY (idedl09i~~r tec~niq~eS):'. which are \lQd~~ . ~~e(" :

. 'c o n s t a nt scruti ny o f both t he admi n istra tor, his peers,
'a n,d thO~~' ~e di-r~cts . .1>r. ~ he -pxoceeda ':u p the · 2omm:anci : ~~ruc­

ecee , it appea'rs as ' thoug h rather ' tha n . lea v ing one .' l e vel
. " , " 1 ' .' ',, ' , ., " ., , " .. ', ' . '
o f t e c hn i q ue to pa s s on ano ther (say the phy s i c al to t he
'id~oio9 ic:~'i) , ,: ~' n '~-f fi~e7 in ' t~e "~i~?, ·seri'i~e' a:ccumu;a'tl~~ ?,
co nstellatio n , o f p hy .s i c .il.l., SO'1~~I ' ~~,d. id;';o~og-i~a~ : ~~~hn iq~eS
 73 /.'-.

. t h i 's i .n the f~ l1 owing .pessaqe e I

I
In a1l but the s imp i e s t ' s kills we may :d i 'stinguish
be tw een t wo f a c tors in c o gn itive contr ol : (i ) " 14
s i t ua tional i nfo rma tion an d (ii) . g e ne ra l , know l e dg e ~
. , ., ,' • I
He goe s on , t o provide ' the f opowing ex ample :.
The gen e r a l know i edge ··t' ha t a pl~ber ne e d s ! s t hat
which will e na ble ' h i m, to do" wha t ' he ' wa nts ' to do
und er a v a r i e t y "o f conditions , ' a nd wl l l en ab le
him 't o say whY,h e , doe s i t. ~.' • • So~ , de9 ree ,o f
gen e ra lit y in hi s knowle dge' is essenti a l t o , allow
for f l e x i bi l ity and transfe r e nc e · o f 's k i l l. ' He
needs to k now the rea sons fo r hi s ac t ions 80 a s
not ·to pe rfo,rrn an action whe n 'i t -,is . inappro pr i a t e . _ . .':. <
The aW<lre ne s s of reason s like gene,ra lity " e ndow s
a , s kill wi th flexibility .IS . , . ,, ' 0

It i s .' t hi s a b ilit y' 'to " ~O~ the re';lsons f o r ni s

 I.
-: . ... '. ', . :.... .
work , contE;xtB" folJa.oris~f1 ~y
, .' ,.J: . ..
not. .only ..galn an insight -
intto the - i~liid~r l s c~~ce~i: "of k~Y tebh~i~u~B'" i.e ., :b~t
a16~ ' be9in '~; pl~~e :'~ ~eth~r ~lS ~r~tical , ·C~~'n. de~l~p-
.'1n9. ,,~~ , ~sot~ric ,:vi ew.l;)f ~OW "'Ute ,p~rfo~n~~ ,~f , ' ~~,at. t~ch-'
niq-U~i~ j~d9~d~~-hOWd; .c ~~o~ is ' en£or~ed . ~e ,i~ , : i n:; .
'. Q~-er '_wo~-da~ : aFpr~~i~tlng the i nside v i e w......
. In ' ~n_ -~ffort.· to i11~strate th~ b:on~ept~rtd ··,itEi .
~/. -' , :" ": - '.' ',' . . ",- '. . . , ., . . . . '. -.
-', ' , ." . , :.
,ef.~ i~aay ~n ~:~p.p~~~ima:inq ~~ .~DBi~~~ Vi~~ . 9f ..~:~,~~qU~ , :,l , : .
provide~ tl:1f:l f.oll,6wl. ng ,e xll,lllple •. Th i s story , ~a s -t ol d ~~ound
,

. ih~. diIl~~7 bbie one ni9~t' a~ a ' yo~ng fireChi~f' ~aS' ·di8- ..
.'CUB s.i~g' .'t he,' ·Cha~~fng. role ~f' his ' ic:»bwi th cne . old~r ch ief
'Wh~le" a :,,'umb'er' ~: fir~ ' fig~ters ' ~ ~d '1 . iooked o n '., In..· · -" ~ ·
,:: .~ : res~nse ' ~"a': questlon ,ab/:)ut ~h,~ , d:tff~re~~~s betw~en Ql,d~'r
~ a?d\:y~~n~~~ ' , ~~ie.,fSt h,~ ' ~tated th,a~. ;'. , , '
'A .lot ' of , t he .o.l de i -, ctii e f s ,t ttOd t<f be- 'i. nsi £le "llIOr e'
• ' and ,~, 'lotof, .your , younger;'chiefs , t end , to be out- ,
',:'s i de more, butthat' sjupt kind ofa weak " ,'
gemiralization . ' J th ink its a question o:f e ffi:'"
· -(:leney , my!le l fo , I' rn.6u,=-side and i'fIcan ,po ss i b l y
_ be out; side "tha:t's 'wher e ' I ' ca n t ell ,wh a t ' s ' happening
f ar ,easil!r , fTornthe ' outs~de tha n '! c a n from the . -. .
inside . , ' Itds jU,s t: IDOr e efficient because if y~u "
are 'on the , J,nside ,tbere is a t e ndenc y, for , ,i nsi de , -
chie fs to ' become super'captains~ :, You ' r e ,Ln ,th e , . :
': hallways andp,ushing ,people this way ' and t hat ', ' ':', ' .
~e ll in9 the,m ,Wha t to d,o 4Ild ,ge"t th e , d oor a nd pu ll , r ..,'
· the : 'ceil~ng ' here. - :And there 's' ,B",lpt of people,. ' --: .
doing ,i t . , As , smatter.: of~fact " ,:that ' s ',on,:,! ,of the -
i.:\ " .-".' th i ngs , ,t ha t makes , me'think ,maybe ,l ' lll th e o n e who
' . . is: doinej , th i ngs ,~roniJ because.there 'a r e s Orna ny
.:i~:,~:,~~:~~~~;~i~~b~ . ~~~s~~::~~~~~:~a:~tt~~~:/h_a~ ',";
~ ', '".', _ ',,' ; ",::;~~'~~:~~k:~e,~~t~Uag~~i~:~~c'~~~:;h:x~\:~:~~:~ . :t; .! . ,'

\ " j " i~ " , ,~ .:. .,:"'~:' }~i~,t~:w~~,:~~!~~~:;~~:;~~i~~~:, ',i~E;"~r~~'\,,: :,".; ' :~.-:\:), ';.' ~
.•<:" -:::':.; , '•.' ~!!;~~!~~;'.d:~~.u,:~~~ (~~~~~~!.~1~;~~7·X >,> !;
'0 ' ... . ., ~/'> \ ". i·"o;:;; ·.,;.+~,'f . .•. ·,;.,i~;yi~,<i2\ ~:" . ... '"
•.
'\ ",: ~:'; : ::: X ,;{ " ' " ,~' ,\'.:'1,. :>~\ ,. '.' ::V' '~:{:~ ;"",;.:(" ,>;':',~':~ ~ ,.,> ., :'::\{~~~:l~::~: " , ";1 ~ ;::;,,;-~,'.;i(':{.'-i~( ·' "
 75

. that. O~~side you can' ~o~ what - 'i s ha~p~n'ingto the

whole buildfn g . You canieee where the fi r e i s ,
H its being h i t , i i it s , moving f rom o ne f l o o r
t o anothlilr, and gener ally cons ider,lng thing s like .
spec i a l units ,like the ma sk un it or 's ornet }:d: ng ,
and i f you 're pushing a r o und the hall s ,you don ' t
th~n~ . abi?U~ -t bc s e . ~hil).9S .1.£ '.. / ' '.' .. . ~ ', "
In ' i sol a tion this , ~ t:.ory does ~ · t.re.v e al, a tremendous
~unt about th~esoteric·Pe):s~cd.v:~·.,Of an ' ur b an f:i r e
C~~f;.~ ~u~· ~hen- ' v ~ewe-d -'~ith}-n '~ hii,;' c~n~'e xt ~f' t~~' ge~er~1
'fi r e - f~g-~ ting c~ft~~e·~-.- ··tw~ op~sin; ·'t~'c ~;~qiles""fo·r di rec-
. . .. " , ., ', ' , ' .
:' ti n g 'lire figh,ti~g""~ttac'k' , -~o~e'- into s har p' fO~ S : ' In the

O~d :days. b.~'f'~re _n~iO~.~~ , :~ ~'~ _~'ir'~ ' C:hi'~f :~h~d on ly t~ W~y's
to' '- 9~t o~de~s.t~,: hi~m:,n. bh , t~i f~re·,g~~Ii~d: . H~ , e it~r
shouted o ver',the r oar ' of th e --fir e 'with;. a megaphone or
>21U~9~ ' i~to ' _t be>~pildin~ a'nd .d ire~ted .'t ~e attilck-- f ro~ , tllc

., ::r::ft :~:'e::t;:. :::::;9::e~~::\:~h:;n:O;~;:::C::~: ,;

ex{remel~ - ~ec'h rii~ue con5ervati~e) : :u' i-5 ~~iiiti~na{ ~~-thod '.
:.h~' S J b:en'-:~assed'-~~ "t6' th e ' c~rren~ ·-g ene' ~ a~~-~ ~· of 6i:~:er_; . mo~~
,/
:::±' :~: ;~:';.';.;~ : : : ':;,u'~J
'o f unders t.andi ng t e c h niq u e , th~OU:9h' a car~ fulreadin~ 'of
: .... . ,
the ?O~. l~ctive .~ r it i ca l 'co mment s of exp er t s in ~ he ' fie l p...
'

One clifficul ty 'i n approaching . occupatio na l grou p s

"

(
 77

" 3 r d . ':FF : I .want t o tell 'YO~ SOme~hin9',- - 'm a:n (to

rookie) we should 'a had it .buddy , . We went right
on ' by that :d a mn thing, But that's what you q ot; .
all them o the r guys for is to back you up when
you ,c a n ' t find it. _ But 'we ' s ho u l d ' a had 'it . '.
Rookie : I te ll .you I went into ,t:hat -room. and
looked "around. l thoug ht we . were . really .90 nn al
~~ -~o . ~O~~~:l~~O~~~r~h~~~~~·: ,i~~~ · a s I -. c~~ id ~ .
But a f t e r, tl).e 'th ird , ' Get yer ass _out- of here . I
by, the/",hite ,hat over ·ther,e I couldn ' t ignore .
~~J~)I~~r~~ah ,Wh~"n it~,'time"to 'ge~ out . yo u got' ··
't o 'get out . .. L ikb ' tho se f' f r e s we ,c a ug h t the o t her .
tour when W, knocked him on hi 's a ss -t r y i ng, t o g e t
out. .' . . .' . ," . .
znd : FF ·: '· ' Tha t was .o n t h i r d s~reet, riqht? When,
I was on .t ne pipe ? . . '._ ' "
Ist_. FF : , The " one af:te r . that .
2nd~ , iT: - ! NO ~ " I "",asn 't on that .
. 13t;.. FF : , What fire , wa s i t tha t W. either run o ut
-o f .liror whate ver, bu t healrnost killed you ' when
he 'came out of ther~ ? .
O! ;iccr : " Mun i c i pa l Building .
2nd:FF : ' Oh Municipal :-• • " , oh -man , 1 h<ldn ' t r un
~~}i~:r;irOqIy~~S~~~:~ _ s~:~~~then'~were the~_~nry" .
one. Just because there was ,live , anunun i t i on a nd '
tea r gas exploding e ve rywhere. . , ; ".
4 tlJ. FF : Yeah 1 was n ' t scareci ,'a t all. I j u st
~~c~~e~a~:d f~;r~i~t~~t;~n~:ss~~;~_~ga~~ ;:i ';~cre~
, breath • . ~ think I only sucked , up e bo u c =? i ~ or
. seven i nches 'of concrete of! ' 6 f t ha t side wa l k
trying" to get some a !r-. 1 8 '
Th~ ilpn-verp~l a otivity (the actual '- ' fi~hti ~9' -of. the '
ha s ~lr~a~y · t.~k·~ n , p~ace ., ..As ' ~ "desc~ibe it ,i n: my '

' fi e l d _no t e s : .. .

' : No~ember ',9: .: Fourth run'·,t o M. ' se. , offi ~e ,_i?l d g ., ~1I1,d
the , PVC 'r e a lly ' h e a v y .a e -we finally get to the '"
. '. '~~~~~/~~~~ . ~h~tt~:~e:-h:hli~g9;~!~' ~~k~et a t3hi-~~~
before the ,smoke ,li"e a l,l Y :st a r t s ban~ing ,d : wn •. '. Weird
fir,e because .no oxygen',lEtft t o let it ·burn ,a n d
-~ ~~~~~~e:~~~oeit~ :-~r~~~ '.'~~~ng ,_~unf.:i.l, ~'t;~e. ,t r u c k .co . :
 ·, ' " . , '. . - '. . .
. In a big office , building ....he r e it i s di ff icul t to l ocate
' ,,- . ... . -- ,'- , .. .--
-, ". .. .
,. '. ' -. -,
a~de xti ng llish, a ,f.i .r e . ~~e k e y. ~~hn.iqu.e ist.o <?o ns erve as .
muc h .cr your air fo r a s : l ong ee safe ly possib 'le . "',Th iS 'ca n ,

be . ~o~~b~ ei~~er..Ja~~ng of f ' yo~ m~~~ _ in th~ stai~;llS

",here the ' a i r , i s prObablY '900d~; 'o r trying , t o 'br~athe i~

Sha l IOlo' ,pufi~ '-ra't~~~ "t h an i~ bi~ ' 9~lPS " '. Si nce in~xperi:.
 ·1

79

b y thec:iffice~' to qet. 'out ~ f ' the' building: " Us ually ~ ,goo d

co~'pan'y wi1~ , tim e ' itsel ~ and ~ach ' ~ndi";'iduai Nil! ',c o - ,
o r dina te' hi~ rhythm wi f.h that; ' o f . the'others so , tha:~ o f~~'~ .
" . ". ' '. -.: .' ' . " . '.
~he officer . i s literally just -along f or the' r i de. Bu t iii
., th~,~ 'c a s e . 't h~~ ~.f fi~'e~" h,!d , ~r. :a ~'sert his a~~hod;t.Y b~~'~ ~Be, "I .
:~.hf co.mp,an~ w~s . h st , a ppr o a c h i ng . t~ e . c rit.i~~~ '~ irne li mi t -

.' "a nd-,they -w~ ren I,t moving fas t e nou gh •. , I n this case, the '.
, .. ' ', ' ',' . .- - ,"
compe"t i e t ve . ea gerness to -b e t he co mpany t o '_ ~ ge t " 't h e flr e
. . ' " .
h ad c a u s ed ~ ; po s s ib~e mls:'-j udgme nt·<:l: n~ . the ' ofli.cer . (who
is t he , most .ex perd en ced worker -~n--~he ' .sce~e ) .h~d' ~o' - inVOKe
hi~ a~f.hori ty ;
Mac e ' s ' levels or: t y pe.s of:technique~-the phy~ical,
' .- . ' , ' , .. ' ." , .
soc iai ~ arid ideologica l .a re:-a l so well il l ~s t ra te d in t his
cOli~cti~e n a r r ativ: :i ri w~ic~ ,a' 'number . ~.f ,i nd i\iid~al·~ . _p' r~­
vid~ ..~: . Porti on . ~ ~ ..t l!(!'~~ t~~y . '.-~hYSiC~,l :. tech~i: ue s ran~e., ' ..'.
from.g a ugi n g air supply , to . l ocating a ,fi r e in a emcxe-. .
:~fille·d'.hallW~Y ~~; wel~ ' a~- lO~~tinq' : fires in'cer tain a r e as :,
. . ; . o~ ~~ ~it~~. The s6'~ ial :i:.ecim.iqUes , · air~d ~n ihiS"cr~ ti~u~ ,
" .;" ... .. :;" -, -- .,'. '._' -. ,. -- ' , ,. ' :- ;0 .... ""
'. are " a lmo~ t all ,directed, toward ,t h e r't0ki ~ i n an atte~pt ' to
 I
I
. I ·. . I,I'
Th{s/'hor~'~itiqu. au~' re~.," ".mend~~s ;O
amou~t ' abO~_" the k e y te ~hn 1qU e'S O f .a i r , co n s er va t i o n a n~ ;'
a

j udgm~nt lO . t hi 9.h .~i ~e, ~~i~d i~9',a6 . well a s , ~~ cri.~~cal

center of thi s oc c upatio n a l g roup which' i s theno e d t o be
'a ~le ~o totai lY~ tr~s~ your feilo~ firec"f'ig~'tei : i~ .a~~~ · .

" .' . : .- ', ' " " .. '

par~i cular r ooki e , is'we ll on his wa y t o eccep ee nce;
~s , ~n ~n~ " 'c=o~?:ectiVE1.'.n<irrative/ : t he: mai n topic ' i,6
,- . , discli.s s~d .£r~m~ ' n~r .of ' po Lnes ~~. ~i~W ·. In ~his .

c+Hie;t ue. the ~r co~ser';'ation' technique' is ...."ppr~ached in ' a

" .. '

niim,ber' _o~J d iffere nt ways ' from

" ' .
t he , exampl e o~ ~he fire "
':

" fi9hte~ ~tJ:o ~an ' ou t of a'l:r;, .to' the ·. o~dcr·' by 't he 6fficer . ·
. ~~" the ·' lli~9.h t~,: compad~on .t·~ ' a ': fire in. - ~_~-~. :~~ni~iPai:'. ~~iid~
i ng: i n: which ' th~ pOl icestor'age ~f , ~U~i ~ion ' atd t~~r-' ga~
-' . ' . . . . . ' ., . " . .... '

". ,"-~' "

\ .. .
 ai

. i t. bUddy • • ~ .'~ 0n.1.y t ,hen -- do e.s ,t he, ;-o Ok i e r ,: s pond ,' a n d i t

is .in ,th e rlos t s' e i: f-e ffa~inq ' tone h e ' c an muster: becaus e ' t o
. .. - - - ': " _ . ,r" , ~.:
have bragged' abo ut a g ood ,p e r f or ma nce , a t t.hat- po i nt ' would

have b~own: _hiS n ewl Y' £o~nd '-status : i n the cr.iti~al SC;'U~iny
Of:the. 9"rOU~> And i n _a " stateme~~- 'a ~~d o~liquel~ b u t '
", " ' , '- . ." .',
" , "

de f i nitel y in the. r oo k ie ' ,s di r ection " a n admissi on o f fe ar

bY On~' of the cf ficers ~nd -on~' of 't he' fire ' fig h ters
: fro~t ~f.' ~e entire ~ompany ' i~ 'a o .:-e~tremelY rar e e x p lici t
s:a temen t~~ut thiS ' ~e~a s~ye su"l::ij~~t " . , I f t~~ so<;i~ ~
: c~ui libr1 um o.f, co~lll\in ita ~' is : PO,s ~i ble ( and.::j.. n t hE!" qre
fi-~~ii~9 c:;~ur·e ·,_ it.::i S :- ~~lni~st : Obli9a~ryj ; . :~hen. t~.~, roOk,i~' ~ ~'
\ pe r f o r ma n c e of · fire- ~~ghting t echni que s .'has qua l i f~ed .hi m . ' : '
. .'. - ', '.. . .. , "-
eo s h ar e a ' .feeling..'of' e9ua1 i t y 'a s t he, g r oup,',membOrs ' cri t i -

:. ,. . . . .'- . " .:.', : .:

j ud ge d ' against t~e centra.l c o~cc r:n~ o ~e ' g r o up,~

Work :te.,:~niq~e , 'the n , is,:·a t .t he ce nt e r o f .oc c upa-
" . tion~l cultu~E!~ ' b~cause' ai i "w'or k' involve s ,t he aCOOmpli ShmEt~t
' of ~ask~ ~ :~~ ' t~'C:hniques 'a re '~h~ ""ai "wor'ker s i h a Par::tic~~
J ar : ~Ul~U:'~~' teach ';~'a c~ 'ci~~er' h~ :~~ ·ac~om~~i ~h t hose ' tasks •

." B; .: .~S~~~t,~ng.;'t:hek~~, ,· ~,r<,:f~ti~l t?_c~i~iie's· ~/ ~ 9i~en. ~<?~kr ,

,prC?ces~, · Le .,' p~~ci~g ~. ',~.h~ .. more ,s igni H~ant ,.t a,~kS .be.t we.en.: '

t~~?if~t7~:;f%~'1
,: ~OU9h,·. ,s to~'~ . ", they " reP\lii~ ·~h~ Very . fOWJ.da.tiOn . upon . w~ic.h :'
..:OOC~P';i~~ol ~'\Z i~ bu i l t . ' - ' . . .-.. . -
 ;. ,
,. .

CHAPTER IV

CUSTOM I N T HE' WQR}( PLACE

:'r
As in any .cener as pect o f occu pational cu l ture~
. , ." ' " .. - , I . _ .'
t he ' ro le of custOIll ex t ends . f r om the mimdane t o t he unusual ,
" , - '.' , "

" i~om hab~:tua.l, act!vitie~,Sb.ch .'a s -8 fir~ fiqlit,er cheCk~9 ':.','.',.

his '.bOot:s , h~t , :~ nd ,coa.t ' 't o. make 'a u re everything 'i s , i~
~. ord~r-, to 1:he' ~omp'lex -. ~'ites~passa9-e : a8S~~i~ted : Sith" ,~'n
in1 tiation', promotion 'or"r~ ti rem~nt • . Custo~ here i s '
'd~fil'led '1'0 it~ ' brcad~'st sense' to" in~lud~ ,a's Ruth"' B'enedi~t .

"

" .
, ,

·,::1··.·
··. t'
.. \
:<:~ .
 :"--"-, -'- - -- -- - - _ ._--

(' 83

. - • more condensed ' message f o rms wh"i ch " are

characteristic of " ritua l action "ar e gene rally
appro priate to a l l forms of communication i n
which spea ker and listener'are i n f a c e t o hoe
relat ions a ll:d ,s ha J:'e a common bodY, Of knowledge
. aoo ut th e. c o nt ex t of the " 9ituation~ 3
" eu s~omary ~e~aviors a nd comrnunic~tions. are "me r el y "a spe cia l

type , of interac ti~n ' empioY~d' by ' s uch face "to ' f ae e groups
;"heri ,t hey " 'mu6t' c onf r o n t "t he , many r e peti tive 's o cial,'c rise s

" ' " '.

'0,. r i c s :,' h 8"b i t s '. ' n~"s ,. and t hose cus~oms ~hat i n s o me "wa y
drama ti ze
- , . , '
the collective wil l 01 :t;he gr9up p rovide a, use- "
"' . "./ " "
". , ' " " . " ~ , ' .
fu l :" i~ i;ial 'divlsion" o~ the s~ectr~ o f cus~ om ' i l:l ~~e ' work
place! 'T he f irs t t wo Ieve Lsve re substantive ,in "t h a tthe y' "
 8'
a.ba[l~~a; 7. a n d as Pi lc he r ili ust~a.tes. lon9shoremen on the
yortla ~d wa t erfront are given work 4 s si gnmentS out of 't he
uni? n h all . ~ependinq u'PO~ what , work is. ayai1~ble, , ho w ~U~h'
,. .
se ni ority a man has on t he j ob and what time he r ePt>r.t:ed
f or ~ork.8 T~ese habituai' cu~torns, howev e r :. a 1so ,pervad'e

the _ ~ork tec hniques in~ occupational' cUltur~ . _ ,By exp loring
the ,'way
.
i~ whi~h . th~;
., - ,' . I
.bot h sh a pe an d a"r e
" ,· -' • . -." :
s~aped by 't h e
techni.qu e s o f f ire figh tinq," ,we se e ' thei r importance . in
: s hbpi n g i~i:orma{ work ·i n t er ac tion.

. " . - , . , . ' , .
f~re ._ ~ighte~~ s lt h e t~c~nical d imens' ~ o~l . the~~ a.re" a ~u.~·r
of habi t ual. c usto mary a c tivi ties tha't ,s t a nd ou t '• . In an
~nqine' comp~nyj f o r examp'ie , t he rccxte i~ illm~~: ~lway~
pu~ · on" .th e" noJ~~ or " "Pipe~', so "'l:bat he c a n qe t a ' ' C han~e.· , t o
',I - - f-/ ' "
a~t.,~a ~ ly,workth~ . ,fi,r~ a nd a l so ~e k e pt w it~ t he off ~ c~r

~ wh~ ma~i n~i~S p~~SicaC.,conta,~t w~th th~ ~ovic: .'a t a,ll time'7'. 9
Otb.er _t ec hnical Just Qms i nclu d e the pra c t iced a nllcipa tion
, - . " ~

'. of a ~,~?on ; d .d, ver ,w a; t2-nq un't it 'his compan~. ·reaches the
_ fire i nside ' a, bui l di ng .b efor e tw s hoots ' wa t er to them,
! . .
I ti"~n~ hi s action s by .c oun t i n g a mnem onic "c adence ,or wait-:-
. 1.
i ng-unHlthe ' ho~~ -lin~ st ops ~o~ing 'i n the dO'o~ay .10
t
! Additional :..h .;wit\1Al ~us tOlUS i~clude ' th e c arryi ng ,of - epecf a.L
}
tool~ . by:t~Ck 'me n ,' ~ik·~ . woode'ri wedges :~ o chQck' open c;1~ra .
";"".i
;.,.;. r. ~~-_ - lOCk~i,~ to 'OlS to~ pick - lOCkS'l~i , a~d '~h~' iocatio~ a~d
,.
lise ' of , t urn i nq''o r _. sto~pin~" ~u'idepos t a like -a' tree',' -p arki ng-.
me'fer, .~r :'~'~~~ 'us~ti\i~ a ' d-r;~er'
- , ' ,-- --
t~', '~ ndi~:at~"' :!~~er~,.t~"'s~P,
.. . ' - .
'. .
' ,-" .

.j~
.• ~~
·.· ···1
 85
--- ',;
up eo ~fo~e bac king 'i n t o a -st~tio'n , 12 'Many of '

these. techlli ca l cus toms merel y ' sanct ion 'o~ use ' certain
~~~cts Of\ he p~ySiea.l ' work envircin~ie~t i n pre scr'ipti ve

. j -. ...;..... .
 s,
.
I;
"

...
'.
.
D~r~n9

.. tiv~· pa'r .t fci pati cn

meal
, .:. - , . .
prepa z-atden an d clean- u p , thi s 'co llec-

i s .d s o , dus tomary a nd 'Lt

' . - ,

toe -r e s ul t s' 1 0/ 1,
.
".. ' /' "
,,/, 1

. ..
L
o~PCrt~~.iti~S :~;~ ex~i:n~~~ as .~~l1 as ~stru~lmt~}-be~v-. -.
: i~~. ':US ~~.~~ . ~ ~mbe~.o~ '.the. ~rn~~. ~rge8, ~.- ~ th~ ~,k ' : "
e i the r due to ab il~ ty .i n te:rest:. . or j u s t P l a ln · s l o th ~ :.

the ' pa-z::t _:t?~: ~h~:,~.ther~,in" ~r Co~panY . -. As cO?~ ,' t~~s' i~d~~ '
~i_d Ua,y' b~~8' ~h~, ~,,~l _~~? ·pr~par~ s i,: ~.n f~Y ,w~Y" h~ . ~a~ts .. ::
· '. Th o se .- ,i n·',on t he ~e'a l , · pay for t heir ~ hare 'an~, ..the n th ey \',. '
e i t~~~ c'lea~, 'u p as a 'grou p ,or ~ic~ ar~ roll~d and the ,tw~
; l o ";est me n dO" t he ' d i s hes . J us t , a s i n ' ' t he ' hos~ racking: . , , ' .': :

~it~tio~. "parti~~p~t~n" i~ '~e 'in~a;" An~ .c·l~an~~p -.8;~ns';~n,d~. ,'..

a3;l othe~ 's ~ tus l or' 'form:a1 ra nks . : a~d . o{f1ce r~ '~s" weli..as·' ',-.:.
r oo tie's a re ~xpeC:~~d ',to Pai~ici~ate .. < x~ · ~~ ~~nt years i't
.' .. ~ h..;, s bec.om~.'~re ~'d ~re c~n for.' 1.ndiv~~uals '~ci'_be' : _, -· ·;
' :.
'" c o m.ted , ..~t· ' · on : t1:e tle~ l s ·due to" die ~ary r_e a sonS. d1s ~n·": _~
. . ".

-, t~~rY ' o~an~~ atIb.n . ~f ' the ~al ·. , :" b~t,, ~'~ 5tiurbe~_t ~_i _- , .~ u!~ms ~.,
llke, ~::-Cki~,- t he,_hose" "n~' ' ~O,n, ~1~u'e :t o , ' ~ ~qUih; ,f u~i, , .. l': ~ ' ,',I

;'.:.:'~,: :
,..,..:,:.i::.i. :~..: .~:.: ;:.:.e.•.~..•.'~..:.•. ~.· ~ ~:.· ~·:;,:.t,j!'...;:'::.l(i~;
discov" whi'h .~
..:.':..'.:. :::::.:.:..::.'.::, :.n. k.:·.:, .:.•· •.:.•.:.. . .:.:.• . ..•

. .' ~" -"l.":7~:q~j'~l~~~~"~iij~r:j :

• fivo or te n y",,,, to the SOOoci a l 'oode s . •..
 p~.rhaps 't he ~st ' revea'i~n9' a6p~c.1:. , o~ _ customary ".'." :
ideolo~y_ 01: ··Phtlo 50~tiy.._about ~i~e - .t:i9"ht~~g' cent.~r"; ar~tind
<~e appr~ae.h,es ~f ~~f}.cen ·tow~td, \.hei~, I ' ~dmiri:i.s~ra,tiv~~
. ~ir~ ·~_~r.~un~ .r;,~pons:i~,fliti~.~ ~ ., bec~~ se it- ~:~.~~re-. th~t. . ~l\ ' .
i ndi v i dual ' s -personal ~i~t of vtew can' ~e tge . ' Serge/ints
. . . ... . , ," ' - , , .... '. " . ..
in "the fir~ 8:~ icea:r:e nOV i~~Of f~ce,rs . :W h~ .· r ~ve /r~m>ne
f~r_e.. )lOu,~tOthe ~: . -lis n,ewc~~er. 0-:~(:rei'y Qn: t h:'_.
~echnician~ i n uia~" ,house to ~w:,_ where : - tJie'y a r,e goi'~~ alld
~t ~hey wi~i fi nd when ' they q~f' t~:re . · . .~e'r9~~~~s -a r e ~er'~
.' , : ), . .. .. .. . . -
l It.e rallY at-· the .m,e rc~ · '_9£ ~e company. Although they' can
.fuake 6.dni~n'i strativ,e decisi~~.s cnce ~ey 'a r e on , th~ : f i re ": . -
"grou n d: t:he 'c ompim y c~n _~ke -or b,I-&ak them by t hel:r at.t~c~
on' ,the .fire and:-the i ,h'for 'l Iiati¢ri th~y:provide __c:i r"wi thh~ld .
C~BtO~~~i1~'~ :' the~ ~ " the'~ ~~~~ea~t ' o f te~: ~~fers to tlie j~d'g ;;:
.: m~~~'-, 0/ the' i;en~cJ·~~hn~~i·~n·.in'·t~b' ~o~pan~ , ~hile' : ~t ' t he
. sam~ ' :tilJl~ - t~~, ' co~pa.~y .'~id~,· hi~ ' i ~ -h is d~i.s ioiiri: abo~t th~
...fi re. ~ro~nd a:t.t ack .be c ause , ,t h ey do .riot ~,al;lt' :~t\~ ' make t helll- .
• ~~~~~·s .lfo~: b~d<r~O~'h~* ,c o~pa~ie,s .>m th~::'f·i:!.: 1,5.~, . ' 1. '."
' ,'" 'BI'or lieutenant~6 a~a capt~ins ..a r ,e pe . \a~eJ;lt1Y . : . ~
.. , '
ass i gpedl
dramati i
:z one c ornpany- or ~ 'i re ho use a n d ttheYl can h ave a
v.
pact o n the mora le and e f fect i veness 9£ a
, I

co:mp~.~Yf . An ..l nC id,~n~. ,t:~at : i l,lu,8 t r at~ 8 this o c c ur red when

:'.~,. ~.ew.dl~,~t~~~~,~ '.~~S.': ~,~~l~~~d ,'~, 'a~, V~~y ~,~x:' ~,O~~~~y ~ .t~at
'~ had ' , ~ell:n r un .by.. an ·~,treme l y ·lazy, officer be fore.h:i;c~ .

;" , ) '< ;.. · · ':;;:;(::::1:!:t~~i~;'~~:;:;,;::~0:jt::\::·~o~~.::" .

:3'·:Jij-"iJt";..~f<d.no~D~·h<S .~:. ahI11~?e·/·~~i~':"1~tt:ex" .
· :,t!;;:,l(_.~. .'>::< :-:.. ." . ~ . . ;.:' :- .; -:'~~" :'~-:~~~\~;;'~~;;:J>;~:L:i:; .:" .,.~ . . " ~'. ,:,;: ",-. ::,.'
 ,' -cc---~3': ,~,>L;'ct]~:~~-~::~'~'i-, '-"." -"-'-~i7! "
-... .':::·~~'t.:-:...~ ..,.
- /' -,
.:/ -,' :i~:'::'"-"'~/'~"' ' ' ':'-' ': '
-thl S~£ f.rceW:~~~EeTY . w~'-o~n-~,-c-;~flden·c·,~ .; :"?f -.
- ' " '/ ,.
co repany ',a nd tu r ne d , it:; i n,t o an e~e~Plar y fi re fi~h~.i.ng .unLe • __/ ':." ,' ,

/w,thOU; th. _,und.rl'ing,~p;o,~ t .nd 1~,;d.nce ;",,'i,~:fO,f-~~-?e,,; ~!"."!: <'

ha d _ e ~pe r i en ce d i n h ~a r lY care e r .a s. a-_ me m~~~.r:- 9 ~ .a run n i ng ~ . :

~·compan~. tithcompetit~ve but' _po:>it~:~ , 2:_e~l customary a nd / ' '.

a?:9re s s i ~e ne ss on ,.t he fire 'g roun51" ~e wcu fd ha ve h~4 d"fIIucf

oredif;~::::y~::: ::::::g i:"::eC:;~?a~~~ :::: . th~/

m
~PP~ba_ch<:,s o f batal1l.o.~ f~ re , c h .u~~s , towa r d t heu ~os ~tJons .
"1nside '.or outsid~ of' the f i re bu ilding . are e j.e e dic tat~d
. by tu~t~m.;17 . Thi~ pot; ~nlY il l_ust_;.ates.t h~ 'c onse rva ti>s~ :'
,w.it h wh ich the, t c"c h ni q ue s of one 's rol,c mo.~ ~ are passed
on within t he ~roup, .i t. also sUggcsts~ ,the .str(m.9ths 'a nd
. .
d iver s ity of i niormalwo~K c u-lt U'rC l,nrc n wi thi n , th e h ighly
stru6turcd , pa r a-m i ~ i lary orga nization . o f a large , me t r o-:

po lita nf ire de pa r tme nt. lla b'(.tua l work techniqu~~.' as

, ,. .
' i ~ lti s tr a ted i n ,the p r e c e d ~ ng examples' prov i de not o nl y a

c har t er f or th~ . acco~pli--sh~ent of ,w,o rk b~sed o~ p~ s t

ex pEfri en c c ; t he y a lso Sh?-P'; 'fu tur~ ccncept.s and approaches

" ,t o ~~~k , by ocre~ting a" p~es~riPt~ve f,iaf~or~aro~nd whl c h

, /
, ,~ rk pe r.f orm an ce c a n ' ,b e, cri ti c a ~
W Y _ ju~g e~ . I f, : ~ ec hn i que
shapes t he occupational e xpe r i c nc br di cta ti n g work '
'. , " 'I .' " •
pro ce sse s , txen c ustomar y as pect s at t be wo r k .f l o w provi de,
a hist~ricai-, fr~rk t:'h r pUg'h wh i c h t\ese t:c~~iq~'es ca n

'-"'< "-,b
..
eo~gan"~d andevaluated":
~"--. -- ' .. ' . , , ' .. : . . . '
~' . . ~e ~urn in9 . t o T~nn ie s ' tricho t~m: of c ustom- - h a~.i ~ .
.: nof m,' and c o f Iec t Lve will of- t he ' .9 r oup,,:,- we: ha ve seen how

. , .
- --- --,..- ~ -- . ~ . - -~ - -
J
 - . " , ','" , ,' '. ," , " ' , '.

~abi t;s ' ,an ~ c ust;o m,an y ~or k " tIf'Fhn~q UeS pr Ovi ~e t he_ ba s i ;c - , .

~-'"'~
. _fou~da.tiO~:.O·f oci;~,a40,n ~,,~ ' ~u~~cim" bY ~t~" ref l_~ C~~ng " ~;d -'
;------.:..~~_....t~en : regu.~ 'a eing ,. repe.~ted ;ndivid u al a~..g r o up. aC~i,v H!~7'-C: -"-~_
~vi~~g_ to c us tomer y •no rms ,i n. the ,work . pj.ace t a k,e s u s int:o
'a' more ' c ol1.ec;tive type of ' ~ 6 t i v i ty i n wh icbthe r epe ated
______, . -,J ' " ,. , -....
beha~ ior, ,O f g rO~p- rriembe r s i.n co n c e ~--:: is the ' mo s t imp~r tant
co~s idera t'ion. '.ir'urrli ng a?~, in to ' t he u rba~/ f ire f~gllting

cUlt,ur.e ·fo~ e,xamPl es , we f i nd no rms .co nc e r n i n g lateness , ,,

-;hys ic~l ·appeararic~ . so b rie ty o n t he job"joking re l a tio n .. \

s~~ps, a nd 'tou~hin~ ~~ a ll" o f ~~hiCh:'. ;a,ral1 e ~ . th~~'-s~atu: ~

h i e r a rchy o pera t i ng in any one fi r e ho use .
,
If • . f o r
.
e~amPle,' , ~ ~ookie ;:or iOloP ',, ~ tatus f Lr e fi9h t~ r, re po r ts ,f or
work l,a~e " u,nsh·a~e'n, or' ;dr~nk--h~ wil l PrO b b l y be a l lo wed
7
t o get a way wI t h i t on~ eo r may be tw i ce . . ' Bu t i f ' an y of
. , . , . '
.~.~e s l.i i n f~~tic;ns is ~ ep~a ted then it is the ' / c el;"' s j o b
.t o m a ~e it known ~th ", t . t h i ,s .i nd i v i d ual is v io l ~ t ~ ng t he
norms o ~ ' th~ fi r e nccse a,5 w-611 as 'i nc o nve n i e nc i ng a nd

, 'a nge r i ng ~~e ot~er f i r i t'igi\t~:~:~_;n 'th e ?omp~~y .,' I f , ho w-

e ver , t he i nd i vid ua l t ~ansg ressi n g-~th e r ules is an i ne xp e ri ":
e nce'd ' f ~ re fighter wi t l'i h igher stat~s : "~ben i t 'us l,l4 1 1y is '
, ' . .. ' . ~ '
o ne of ' t he group me mber s thems e lve s who wil l t ak e, the man
, aside an d' a t t e mpt to mak~' 'h i m a ware o f the fa ct'. th' ~t-· h~ . .is
' j e o p a r d i z i ng ' t he res t o f t he "g r o u p ,a s wel l as h.i.niown ,

safety a nd ' c a r e e r ., Cu s t o ma r y , no rms are linked di r.ec::.t ly

to pe r son ~ l s t atus wi thin: .~he group and al;,tho ug h t h e work.

col lec tive . is will ing to allow .for s ome f lexibility ,

 ~~,. , , - . " ' " ' ' e xe -
f "Ilu t h o n. t y. or by group - inembe:rs t hemselves' , dependi ng ,

-upo.n"tJ:i:e sta tuS :'~f th~indi~1d~'a lin'~~lV~d;

- - " aq en c s

t
'- ".

-.'<«:
'0 " -

il1~st~atio~ O~'~O\fl" t. n ese no rms. ~lI,re _~n ~or~.e d:. ~

c ee 9,f ., ~he e x:pex:~ eJ".lced fire f ight;e r:" repo rted for. wor k

! regu larly 'in an i n t o xi c ate d c o nditi o n." Th e :"r e s ponSIt8 Of t

i· t h e men i Ji t he company rang~d .'f r om an ii-;it ial amuse ment and

I · , . , " ,' . _ '_ , ' : '_
'· ,_~ _j,~kiI'l9 about' the ma n's c~ndition, t o an ,~b~IlIPt t~,'iq·~ O~e.
hi s i~t6x.i~at'iOl<, ~nd jus ,t put; h i m to bed . and finally. t o
r e pe a t E;.d i n d ,i vidua l entreaties to him t o' eeex professiona l
. ' '"', - , ' , ' - ' . " _. '
h el p bci fore h e i n j u r e d h i ms 'e l f, sO~Gone e l s e , or . l os t nre '

job. Although t he man we nt. ed to ,qu i t drink i ng , h e co u ld n' t ,

'.' ,: a n d / i t. :C1~~t. un·~i.i ,a' senior o£fi~er ~ho ~ new . hLm pe r :, o n',i lly .

- ~
_~~t h~
" ' . .
tGl.the c l inic" (under t h'e' .g u i s e :'o f
, "
a nother ai lm e nt) .
' ' .
tha t h e ~ sought ' an ? respo.nded t o . treatme'l't _ I n;: mal; .

domi na ted cultur e like t h a t ip , t tJe r t rc -ee rvr ce , ~he

i
' ~bHi ty to drink"a nd hold your"Uquo r i s desi r a b le-a nd
even a cu~tomary
. .a c t t vi t.y , Yet when this sanctioned
' "

~6tiV' itY qoets out of/ ha nd , t he 'occupationa l " c~it:ure' itself

has f e w ....a ys ' o f dealing wi t h' t h e sick i nd i 'vicl:lla l ' a nd mu~ t

seek o utsi de aid i n re -establ i shing the norJn; 'As, oc c upa-

t i onal c~l eu re e
are , ro r cec eo change more q u'i c kl y 't o' me e t'
, , :
accele rated ' techni,cal 0 '; s ocial che n qes , t he y wi ,11 re qui re

a d di t i ona l o utside assistance to e na b le them t o cope

<aberr~nt behavi or ' tha t ~il l 'no t ' r e s pOnd t o the , n o r mal '
, ,' ~ '. .. , 18
c u stomary sanc tions _,
 Th e examp Le svcd,ted

',- neee '~e f.l~c~' L~i ~ar r~l~.ti~~.S h~~~· i n ' t he ' ~mOke' j '~Pi~9 fi~e ..
fi.ghti":9' cuj e ure, de'sc ribea i1i ,,sjo llle l1eta il cerov'. . 'Joki ng

r_elati a"hS~iP~ o r .":_b i nging " a s. ./i t: has ~een d e s&ribe d - by '
occupat'io~al :sociolog i sts , ~ ~, a f orm o f , ve r ba .I" d ue ling .,i n
wh i c h two or s ometimes mor~prota9"onisbf , a.t temPt-. to be a t

ell~h 'other 'W i th }l'l: s'~ ltS , : humil ~~'tion$' P~t-dOwn s, or. puns.

T~C'. f o l ·l owi ng pass age fromo: .rny fie~~ . ~?_~e s prov i d es ail.
exampl e: .
~~cember ra. 'l,in 9;\
'l'h e sc ene is' 'thE; s itting room
in the 'fi rehou se , i~ j.a ee morning. Fi v e f ir ~
fighter s ' a nd :I: are seated , <I r o und t he ,t able r eadi ng
t he pa per a nd, dr i nki ng co f r ee when ' on e . o f the
. ,f
re g u l ar me mbe r s of the c omp a ny -c o mca -d o wn s ee.Lr s ·.1
f r o m ' t he Deputy c hief ' 5 office wh e re h e has be e n
o .do i n g J .h e chh;f 's , t yp i ng o. . .. \.
Chief ;~ he lP er; Tha' t 's :~iri9ht pussi'es"' - dOIi. '~
bo ther -t.o ge t u p . . , , ' , '
1st. FF :. pussies}!lY 'a ss. Turn , a round ' a nd re t vs s ee'
if t hos e kn ee pads c a u sed .e ny bu rn ma.r k s on tho se
c h u b by lit tle thighs • . , .
Ch ief ' s , helper : " You're j us t je a lous ca use .yo u
ca n '1- t y p e ' worth a dam n.
1s t .. FF , ' It a Ln e ty p ing he' s af l;e r ,- - let's s e c t .hose
lip s . !Ilnm, kinda chapp ed, ' a i nto t he y? Bee n working
, out up there...I see . . . , " 0 . , ..

. 2nd. , FF : Boys, .boy s , boys , p lease , yo u 'r e ,l nt e r .r;u p t i ng

~~~~r~~~ ~~h;~~~i~tfuCki,ng tra{~ . of though t you ' v\a
; had a ll we e k i s what ' a i n tho s e c oc k boo k s e nd ,
where your next drink's com'l ng , f rom o
(J u st then so me b od y shouts. " cop in t he a l re y ," and.
ev erybody ru ns o ut side to tr y to ke ep en e jne t e r-
maid f r o m t i c k e t ing t he i r, cars,--whi ch ' sbe d oes any-
way . · This is a . period ic ev e nt tha t angers the . fire
fig hters b e c au s e i t so .i rre g u l a r l y en for- c ed,
Then (0 add insul t to in jury, another policeman
(unawa.re of the meter maid' s ra i d o n t h e alley)
s t o p s in f or a c up of 'c o f f e e .a nd some conversa t i o n
wi th pne 1lf t he fi :e,' figh t er s who he knows . I -

. ~-
. ",""-"- _., _._..:". . ' -
-- , '.
_'.-~ ,. ,-,-"';"_. -~- _. ~
 .,':

r e e., FF : ( t opolicem.lln) Hey ma n, ."why do~'t you d o

something a bou t . t he i r ' t icketing our goddlllll c a t: s
i n the a l l e y? You guys .cce e in here drin king our
coffee, ,!"h y the he l l. • • ~ '" t · . '.
2nd. Fr: Shit -ma n , he d id n -' t kno w an y t hi ng ab o ut ·
tha t c unt - ~fllck ' o f f , lI'Ia n .
1 s t •. ~ F: Oh ye ah, . jump r igh t i n t o t he s h it , you _.:
. ug ly IIlOther f uc::ker--you ' r e not worried b e c euse ' .
" you c ar-poo l ed today • . Well I'll n o*".pa y i nq no
,"
t wen ty godd llJICd buc ks.· :
2nd. FF : I don ' t give a ,shit i f y OIl eeke the \
fucking t.i c lte t andjshove i t up you hinn i c ho j e , .
1 s t. Ff : . .we ll , my hinn,i e ho le is ., helluva a lot ,
·~ ' be t te r l.ookin tha n you r fu c king fac::e.
'2nd; FF:' .We ll y o ur hi nn ie .h o j, e . • • • . .

~~~~=h~~xP,~~~; ~e~~~i~ ~~~e t:~i: ~e ~l~~:b~ t t~~ ' ~~;:e

La b Le betwe e n t he t wo protag on i st s anll says): .~
Jrd . : FF : There, you dumb s h its, You mi ght a s we ll
argue with t hat l
1s t . FF: (war ming t o t he ta sk , edore s e es une s hoe
s h i ne box ) And I don ' t givea s hit.., ho yoti7a r c , .
llIot hah fuc::k a h , a int nobody gonna t a lk t o me 'li k e
t ha t! . { He s l a p s the s hoe - shi ne box a n d -'s tomp s o ut
o f t h e rooe to mixed a p pl a u s e ..a nd hoots from
e ve ryone .w a t c h ing) . 19 ', . . : ' .. '

I n wh at .. a y eppe a .r- t o be some ' pr e t t y rou9.h pu t-dow ns

" "
and a l l usions t o homosexua l ity . we a r c ac t u a lly e x pe r ic n c Lng .·
. a .c l e a r i n g ·o f ' t e ns i o n s tha' t "'bui l d up da ily i ,n th~ fi r e '
. . ho u s e . T~ i nsul t s and p u't -dOwns. b cec v e r , a r c ··moc k
;. ba t t l e s · i n wh ich t h e s~~ i da r ity 'o f the 'q r o u p' is re i n for~c'd ',
" "

b y ve r ba l pa rry <:l nd thru st. As l ong .a s ' yo u .:Clln t a ke a s .

we l l a s t:.bh iw ,a ve;r bal . ~dar.t· a n~ ke e p YD,u r . cool . then
eve r yo ne ha s at i e e e e ~orne i dea o f how ' yo~ feel o r how- y o u

" a 'r e 90in~ t O','re ac t t o pr eaeure , Some ..i ndi v idua l s r equ i r e f

o r i nvi cc t h is , ki nd o f "mc ~ a l temp~ r a. t u re .taking mor e' t h a n

o~her s. becau ~ e t he y . have mo re 'c h an ge'a b l e t em pe rature s . The

nO[lll bein g enf6rc::e d here i s one ' ~f ve rbar p r o bi ng . iIt Which" '"
.-,_:~. ~ c~un~l ' s tas i s ' is a c hie v e d in f ul .l v).~W ?f , t he gr~' u-p, \ .
f~
I

I f you' can : t ' ,t a k e th is k.~n.d of abu s e an'd : 9~ve '.i t .ba c k i n

~ind .. , the~ . y our ,0 PPot t u n i t i e S ·.f or .'b e c.omi n g an,: e q .U/'"1 i n t he

cu l tu re are severe l y l im i ted .
'. ~hYSical "rel<itiOllShiPS betw$~· indiViduals ~'.i. n the
f'i re 'h ouse' a l so reflec t
"
c~stom~ry m~thod6
.
~f tc's tin~
. . ' "

temperamen t and . showing f r iehdship an d s ~ atus e qua li t;i ~ :'" " "
yOU CIo n' t me s s wi t h t h o s e ab ove, or be lo w you 'i n th e ~tatuS ' -;
.
hi er-a z c by , J us t
.there ,a r e
a~ .
.'
t hose .wh,o , c xc;el i n verba l
duei i n'g or r epa rtee , ' t h ere a r c i nd.i vidua l s who eithe r
. , ' ~ .
, , ..
pre c i p itate or ' a r e the freque n t .r e s:i pi e.n t s of ~ario iJ s forms
-of phy s ica l contact . These ' r a nge fr om"bEiing gra'bb eu ' beh in d
'. , .
t he ne ck , t.dppe d ove r wr ure s ~ tting
' .: \
' i n a .cha i r , or mos t

commo nl y, goo se ~ -. I n the 'p~rt icu l ar .~i re hou s e l.'~ wh i c h . I

spe n t; a gre at d~a:l of time, .9 C?o s i ng ,' 'was r e f e r r e d t o ~ s
';s~oothln9 " and t he re was o~e ' i ridiy i dua l : w~~ ' did a ' cla ssic

. . Gle~son' " t ake'" '~ompie'te wi th flaili~9

J ac k.·ie' arms' and . <I
.
. l oud , " ~eeoow " e ver y 't im e . he g o::> :- i t . which w~a 5 9ft';!n.;
AIJ:lO st a ll 'of t he ,smoo thi!19 ,.t h a t weri t; on .i nv.ol ve d t his ;."
l: in~i vi d~a l )oIho coufd be. r elied upon to res pond '~ppr~p;,;:~~~'i y
' no ma t t e r wha t the oj rc urase a n c ee ; .. cooseq uen e.ry ~~~~ _

ch i ef .W~U ~d line ·'up· t he compa ny ?Dr an .' <lnno~n.~~,~:';~.t' ; · .t h e

"yeeoo w' wo u ld s end ' t ~e " ,f i~e : f,i9ht.er ~. t?PP~'~\.g : l 'i'ke ,'~ord~ .
wOOd-~much ' t~: ':~,.~i~':. '.qdi~g~;.:. ,;' :.;;~, ,: ~~·~~':';~f he·'~~~<lny would b~
downtown r a c king hose afte r a -r un , , t he " ye eoow" WOUld.

. (hope f ully ) at t r a ct. t he , atte n t io n of the women o n th e

' . . .
~treet .d.i?wn t own d U'ring th~ ir l unch h.our . I n mo s t 's itu a tion s \ .
 '~or, bO~;ng ' ~.it~at~o,n in suc~ '·.a ":.a/ tha~ ' ~~c : ent. Lr-e co~p~'ny
l

· was g~ iltless o f t he , tran 6~r~ s sion ;· Smoothing i a s ' i t

pia~~.~ced :b"Y"t his _'P,!-I:~'i'~~ l~r "_c ~mpany ' . was' 'a n:' inside
j Ok e ., !,;h a red b~ ' t h'e med r s of ' tpe c:ompanY ".:- "· Li~e other
fo 'rms .o r . phys i cal con tact , i t rein forced a :feeli'ng o f

camarad~rie . th~ t '-r e q Ui r e S

. .
cons t a nt b ol ste r'r ng d ue t o ' the
' .
, I man y b~ri ng ho~r!l, of 'inactivit~ ' th~t ' <J ~e paftot,,,tqL.s......
" , . ,2Q " , J . - ~
occupat i O~t l ex perience " . : , ~: .
. TJ:te final ~rea t o be dealt with i n th i s , discussion :
', ' ,:, " , , _-I , ., ': , .'
.o f o~cupat ional "c ustom'invo.lves th e. r Lt.ua L passage of 8'1 ,

;~.t sid~r to i ns i de r s t atus '~ n. a ' wa~k g'r:ouP . ~Xem~lifying Ton~.

nie s ' dr~m,atization o f, the ' c o ll e c t i v e wil~' ot" th~grOup .
. rf v e v e cti o sen to ill u s t r a t e t h i s , the' most ·.c omp l e}.; form of
.. . " . ,
" ' . .
c ustomary i nt e ra c t i on through an ' e x a mkna t.Lon of , a rite:-of-

• pa s aaqe in : smoke~ umpi~g, a 'f i r e fightl:l<j a~cl,1p~tion.in

'whi c h r wa,~ 'crnp IOyed f or f 6ur y ears'. 21 S moke j u mpers para:'

c hute ' i nt o t he 'f~rests of the nor t hw e s t e r n unt.t.cc St ates

---.:JL~~,- t _o _s--, p_,,_s_s~la ted . f or e s :,~3s c~USCd b y lightnirig- ~

u p;...:
Co n sisting of; a p p r ox imately t hirty.,.fivc me n 0'.£ coUe g'e , Age ,

this partic'u i a r g~O'U P ~ilS l~c~ ted a~ Redmon~ , b:re9o~·.

Here 't ~ e y u nderwen t a mo nt h of part ial i s ola t ~on. , from,' the
. ' . , ' "

ou tsidl( wor l d , .x Lqor ou s phys ica;L c o ndit.i on i ng an d sk.i l ~

~ . .. . . , .
training . an
ini t iatibn nigh t p rior .tc the firs t of s e ve n

· q ualif yi ng' jumps, a'nd an en ti re fi re season (a pproxi ma t ely

' thre e months as rOOkie ~ ~uring " Whifh ' t t me theY--l'lf!~ t~':lgh.t:
. . .. . , . ~.-
 95 ' J.I
· . .
'The ' s moke j umpe r "r oo k i e' arrives o n : t he b a s e a

~~~iC~> ~arachut'ist, b'~t

. ,. .an , ex~er'~~nce~ 'fi~~
fighter . fo r .
.
, he mua t; hav e h a d a t ',l eas t two years o( f i i e ficjht i'ng
. ," . ,-
e x pe rie n·ce to- q uali
.
fy 'fo r 'training. He lsrequbed
" _.
to'live
.
on -t he ' b a s e ' t hroughout t he fi re ~eason (Jun!l __ to Septem~r) .
'. ': ,.- ._ ' -
and Lsicn ca ll t wenty":four hours a day d u riJig .t ,h"a t period .
Th e fi rst month the -r cc k Le spends in' thi's en 'viron,meQ-t:" is '.

one Of', almost tot~l sub.missio~ to " a " stri ct regime n of

phys ica l con~i t~~n i':l9 (pa rachu t? h a n d lin g r la nd ing- tec h-

niques -. tower . jumps , equipment' conatruc ud ou and r e pa i r ,

tree cl i~bing •. ~e~ ~a~ ,c o n d i tio n i n g ,' 3nd, Ph~,~.~ 1 ha.rassment

, by expet:~enced J ump e r s , ,.~f qua d l ~ ad e r s .a n d p 1 1 o t s ~~_

· T.lie ,i i:n a l .we e k ·of 't he t r a i ning t;>eriod i s the

.. .
d Ul m,i hn t..i o ? o f , the i n itial Learn Lnq-procc sa . Di.lr,ing thi,s
.we. e k " ti h c rcokfe mus t make seven 'p r a c t i c e jumps. The ni gh t
, b e f or e the . first ' jump ' is i ni tiatio n nig h t ; ~nd the rook ies

(as ,'<I g r b up) . are sub j ec t.e d ec a numb: r o ( physical 8.:'Jd ve r~ ,

bal ab u ses , Because of .'t he i mpo r t a nc e of t hi,.s pe riod to

an U~deistan~~~g o~ ' smokejU~er i~i~i~tion, - I q~6te' , the

followi ng f rom my: fi~ld c o Boction :
. ' .
And -when ' I ','fi r s t came ' t o Redffio nd , there were four
p i f ive o f ..t he s e guys from Wint hr op , wa s h i ngton,
the Winthrop smo ke jumper base up the r e . And the
in i t i a tion con si sted of --well , 'lik e t he tra,ini ng
t o become a . smo ke j umper t a ke s a mon t h, an d a t the
, 'e nd of that month you ma ke seven practice) umps

L
 .. ,

eeveneeye i n a r ow, the ; l a ~ t two

\
,"
be ing -in timber
"
~i~~~~~e;~~:tt~t~i~:~n3u~~.': ~h~~~ni~i=;~babi~ the
t h e mght everyone 1.5 t he mo ~t nervous; is th e '
one pi cked by the nLd e r j ump e r s . as i ni tiatio n
night . And i n i t i at i o n f O,r me cons isted o f bei ng .
pulled, out of my-be d a t abou t ;tEl,n o 'c l o ck i n t he
evening and tie~ with p lastic ta p e, 'oIhi c h is
i mp o ss i b l e to break becau se it has a t e s t df - a bout
150 pounds , l thi nk, a nd I ha d a l l roy c loth es ,"
i~~~~ ~:t~ \:~~ ~~:~_ ~~~~e~O~~a;e~~~t r O~.o~~:' know
what else en me , and then ho sed ee dovn , and
there were ' twenty-fi v o of us , tha t t his h a ppened
l;Q. Arid then we turned around and did . t he same
th,ing t o the 'g u y s who ' had done i t t o' us. lind .
ene e ""as mote .c r- less it , e x cep t t ha t we were
kept up a 11 night , by . pe ople ' poun.dLnq on the door
and fi r e c r ac ke r s , a nd, bei ng s quirted, and had
our rO,9ffiS torn '~ p a r t and c V;Elr yt hi n 'g . , ·• • • ~ 2

In Van Genne'i, IS t erm s t he r ookie smo ke j umpe r has

. p ar t .Ic Lpate d in a ri~~'-of -pas3:age , -H~\as p aSfed ~hrOugh

t he sepa rati o n phase ('livi ng in barracks , d a ily t r aining
. -- \
re gimen, dis tinction be'twe cn roo ki e and e xperienced

j um~e~~L t o -t he t~a~Si~'~onar, pha s e ( ~niti~~ion ~1ght, tllc

first jump; :'She comple~io'~cif t r<1 i~i ngl , a n d pur ported l y

will become a member ~£ the smokc j umping g ro up dbr ing the

.' " ."' .-",.' . \_ ' '.
i.ncor~oration phase When . tie \.qo e s on the j U~p list ~ nd .:
attains the rights and privileges of - moreexperienced o
. ' 23'· ·
jumpers.
'\ " , ,'- \
Beyo n'd this, Van Gennep 's s y s t e m' i s in ild e qua t~ here

hecause' al~hough i -t is ch~racf~ristic o f tne r~'te i« quea-

tion , Iit prov ides no 'insigh t, i nto the unique c ommun i c a t i o ns
, . l , . ' I- "
of "th,is particular initiation ; i t is externally derived a nd
I. ". _- ,. ' . ; " , "
of£e ~_slittle mor~ , than .s upe r f LcdeI. class ifi ca tion Of, ±b e/
'.. mec hlnisms i nvolved. By viewing t;.Jte in i tia tion asa
- '.

I
I
 I,
i 97
. './ .-

> COriden ~ed series of . s~:lic an d ~r.amati_c "a ct ions whic h

'. ' . ' - .- - . -, "" -" .
ren~~I.t _grOUP-h eldexpec t~tions ",<a s i ,n. t he hahi,ts . ~tl~ n o.~mii
illustrated ip the urban. fire ' f i g hti n g · context above). we
g'~in 1
,
more us eful
',
, under'~tan~tn~
'
of
, '
~he'' -ini/ tiaii~n 'eve~t
'

and i ts re la tionship to other avenues o f c o mmuni c ation "i n

.' '. ' . ' " , ', ,
' '
t he ~mok e j ump i n q co ntext . ,Brok e n down ..,into its ba s i c,
. pa.r t' ~ ~ the t otil l ini~iation pr e c e ss is as fOllOws":

:\ ' ~~Vi~~~:~~~~ti'O~ . of r ? o\ i es , i~~o . smo ke jumPer

.' _,2." I nfusion o f r ookie s wit h symbo ls and t echnique s
l{'f · :-i~.~ s;~~ei ~~t~~ion eve·nt. '
~J'~;-'',' _I' 5.
4. Provi sional smokejumper s t at us "
Porma l ac cept ance a s srao ka jump e .r,
: ' ~ion T~7~~~~~0~b~:s~~?~e)ump~r S.ttI ~~S and eaaump-
I
' T'h ~ bas i c goa l . of :the i nitia t ion eve nt i s, to' dramatiz e 't' h e
, I ' . , ....
tr an s it i on o f an out s ide r t o i ns ider s t a tu s as a smoke- ,- '

ju~Per. A~ 'ioun9' i ndi ca te s, "th~ d r amati i ation ·'o f 'or~a;:i za.;.

tional purpose~ wh i ~h compri s es an in itia tion

. • ' • i s t he comrouni~~tion str~tegy t yp'i c ally, "

emp Loyed by solidari t y gr o u p s i n orde r to mai n -
t ,!i n th eir hig hl y organized ye t a l l th e more
vu.Lne reb Le , definition of ,the s i t uafio n. 24 , ",

l:'~ " dr amaturgical t e r ms , jth~n '; t he smOk"e ju mp e r 'i~itiation is

.' ~iayed a9ai~st ' t he '~ s tuge pfope.r- t.Ies " 25 of oral lore from

experie;;ced jumpe r s. the mat~ri~lS an d S~O l S of s moke-

j umping ( ~ire tools. 'parachute~ . " a nd jumpin,9 gea r ). ~nd ,t~e

ac tu al , f i i:e .f ighting
. situation
, .
. The a c t or
. :
s ' (rookies' ) a, . re ,

e s s.iqned a ro le -I"'hi.c h deme.nda t he. con t radi.ct nr y .e l ement s of

d~fer e n cc · and sUb::nis sion'a~wel la.s h um ili a tion by e ll:pe r i ~

, "e n c ed ~en . ,"' y~t. at. J;.!J.~ s.~~, tii!l~ ._ "t;,tll~:Y., " a~e._,';~pe~_i~nC!~9 _
';\

L
 . .
." : '. -. , '. ' ..' " ." .

the :'exhibitio~Of ' p ~ ide' and . f eel i ng s of s upe'r ior i t y' ·OV~[
. oth~r ,~ l['e fi9ht~~s" and memb e rs of 's oci e t y who a re n o t

slIOk ejumpe r s • .

I ; The dra~a (a 'pla~, 'j/ ithin a p,l ay) 2 .6 of. ,t he i~itia-

.,J
tion serv:s ~ to re veal , to ' tho: r ookie s ,l n. ,microc o sm, the
te n sion be t wee n e u be ue e i.on i..n d pr ide by fo r c i n g ' t he m ~
.: . -, . , "." . ,' . ::" -,'
800mi t , .t o be i n,g stripped, s~ a'sed " , and t ,ape d . . o ne" o f ' the

. ,pr i ma r y f.u nc~i?ns of th~ play · (.d ~i ly - slloke j ~pi n9 tasks '

per fo r med, by , th.~ ,r ooki E;: ) and t h~'l gl.a y 'wi t: h i n 1;..!}.e~e.t,a Y ( the
,' i ni t i a tion eve nt i t sel f -) i s to rOOl d ·t he r o oki e : in totha
idea l. actor 'who f ulfi lls 'the _expectatibn s of ,o t.her . g r oup

'm~eF5 ., ' - ~s YO,l;ln g stel: tes i~. ·his:'de~criptionof. "~ ale ' .

solidarity g ~oups,. the pl 'ay w ithi n t he pl.<i y r e v eal s

~ ...c:'~icrocosm t he.'
solicra~ty. • , i n a se tti ng tha t ma kes : the
domi~ant 'thcme ~', o f ma' i~ .'
i n it.ia t -e s t h e: cen t r al per former ~_ ,27 . •
'Th i s drama~i.trgical · a pp~oach - pro vides an i nsight '

, i nt o t he' ge~eni. l ' s t ruc t y r e. O f , the in::i'tia t ,ion , but , i~' fa~ls
to ar t1 cula t c "the mcani nq of t hes e ac t i o n s ' as . t heY-'a r e
viewed by the j unipe rs , themsel ve ~ . '~ nthon y F .C', wai 'l .accin
Cult u re an d 'Pe r s o n ali t Y prov ide s a ',f rame wo r k:' for i iwlil'sti-
q~ting"th~'~rf"a~to~s" th r ough t he applic~ t ion Of' an
. " , " r . ' , •
equ"i.v aIen c~ s tr ucture, c oncept whi ch e"~l a.iD9, '5 h at ,mi n i mum
 7· --·· · ~·--:-_·~
· .~1
:.}_:~. le~st ~~~ ~~~nce
28
of Variati~~' which ' l nvo l Ves ,'a ll
. . _ t~ en t i, tie s . . ': i.: ' ": . . _. . . -._. ...
S~i~ l i nte rac t i on', "th: b.
. . ., id
r · ··
not ba s e d upon s h ared
. inOti~A-
. ..
tiORS or c og nitions , b u t on .. ~ -. ,.-
.< •
.:>~.
.
;- . : ·~ . ~he recogni~ion it h a t __asll 'r es ;" lt o f
the be havior o f other peo pl e u n de r v a riou s cr rc ure- . _ ';
l ea r n i ng- - .· . ~
..,
sta nce s is p r e d i c tabl e. i rrespe c ti ve o f k n OWl e d g e .,
• of t hei r mot i vati o ns, and "th us i s c apable o f be i n g'
<
p r~d ic t ll. b l y r e l a t cd: t ? one-s o wn a.ct i ons .29
. . - .
. - ' . /

;.
",

Wit hin thi s fr amew or k... ritual is d e s ign e d t o q uickl y ' ac coa-.
•. 1 "
~': Pl~' S h the';'''social an~' PSY~~Oloqical t~ansformati~1I o f in di-

: viduals . , ~o·' ·Ag.ai~ i n e ompn i son ~~ th:~rb~n ', ~iie fi~~t~r.~ ·

hlI? its an.d J;10 r ms, r i t .u a l in ~e s mC/k e j ump i nq CU.l tu r e . i s . ·
. tr ans forma ~ iv4 as wel l a s c eUbr a t a ry "'h~ r;as ~he f O r1lMl \

"'mode s of cUs toma r y I n ceract.Lo ri are 'dellig~ed t o niodi fy, « ,

. con t rol 6 r ~the'r ~ise' aff~ct ~ri indiVidUO·~. 'S. ~~~o~ wi th :':" .

oul 'a pp r e cia b l y Ch~~giog h im b r. his r ol e . .i n ' t he .qro up :

t - Within t h'e ~~ntb-t of SIIOkC~~Pin9 . t h ;i s dEn,' · . .

::C::i::{::~~~::::t::.: ::"::::::::~~:r::~:::::t::::~> : ~
i n :'a s~c.t~on o'f h i s _boo k 'on , Smokej Wllpl'ng. . Rand l e Hurs t ,
~iles an e~ent wh i ch illustr'~tes the efficacy o'f \ h i s . . ...
-e ppe o e ch • ...AS II. ',p,lane .was f 1yi ng o v e.r a , j ump s~, ': a
jumpe ; na med Fr e d ilec ided to trr a' new e x it . ~hen the
5~ tter sla'ppe il him o n th.e 's~~ lde r' :~~ ' a n . illa'ication t t.o ·.
' . . . . .
• ' !um~. ,:,Fr e d , d id ,no t .pe :r:f orm ; he :~r.r.e.:.~ l egs dO .",:\ . h~~dS : .
.ove r · t he ·c he s t , s ki-j umper type e xi t ; but " i llste ad th~e ....·
. .' ,

hi s f e el u p o v er. ' h ls' he ad ,a n d exi te~ t he " plane '·u~ i~e : dow'"
This·.caus~d . his: ic ~ute ~·~i t\.the-, ed~e' of ' t he 'd oo r ' an~'his ..

. \
- ..
 -'J3I~
'
• I
I
-
II;
.
/
..,.
100
.r

l ". .' ",.J ' . /' . . .: .. ." :." .' . . .

ca~PY ito 'o~n up ins~d.e /th~ ' p~fne . The ~tt; r irui~.klY ', -

# ~·9 ather~ .~·~the ca~opy ~;;d dire~ i~' .~ u~ the:d~~ .~i~st

' ... ..~ f o llow i ng it o ut _,i n his haste • Burs t ' e nd s ~ ~he ' pass a g e ~

wi tlt the fo l lowi'rJ9 :

I don' t th i nk. anyo ne e ver told t hat hi s Fred

bac k pack .c aee apart i n th ~ door and a lmost
~~:~O::t~~eO:~;~:~~9 :~~i~~~~ "?" t r ied '; ".

The l e a r ne"d ' beha v i or ;;f smoke jumping ~e su{ts '1n 'a

'.
. ,',
.

I
I:
:. \. ~ .

.- . . ' . ' : .
. Hur s t. th e unexpecte d e;x'it by F r ~ c a u sed t he ' s p ot t e r - t o .

pr~ve'n t: 19a.s~e~~y qUiCklY PUSh~~9' tht!'. canopyci~t' ~h~ . ~ , ,/

.";
-.~
 .' - -_.-- -_.-,--.. '/- -
1 01 ,

we ight o f ,' hav ing to , r e:a et to the moti va t i 9ns o f e a ch

. -,' " ' , • J '
individua l , r a t her ,t h a n re l y ~ n'g on ~h e , s ha r e d e xpe c ta tion s
, . ,'
o f ' t he gr ollp ~ w~Hi ld de ma nd , a r evision of t he e q uf v e I en cy

·
's ~r~~ture
-i "
ea ch ' time ' a pl an e , lt~ft
- ." - .
'f o~ a f ire.
'
The ' fu nction

'O f"'Ue i n itiation ·'e v e nt - ~nd.' ~he o t her id~~tional . and

~teria~ commlini~~tion s <in , -tihe gt'o~p is :to ' re~ n fotee,-'the s'e
'. ~~ar~d' expec·t a.t.i~n s , and, t~ere £ore r ele a s e t he, .pa r t i"c'i Pa n t s
. , '-:.: ~f rom t he : riormal ~ conat.r-a dnt-s of, d aily h uman i ntercrOtion .

rne vc ne s~q~~nce 0'£ 'v~;~ation wn ich involve~ . a ll .t .he

.. e~,t it~'e ,~,\ j3' t;~- "~n:t.iat;o~ event it self " re~~ects S~mbOIS
and ac t i vities whi~h corap r Lse cbhe eq~'iva.iency ,b a se - '~(_ day ­
t o -day -i nt~rac~ion i~ t -he smoke j ump I nq gr?~p by d rll',W,~.t.iZi ng
inf?rma t ~on o f . ·a - ·socia l , ~motiona l , .e c ol og i c a l a nd 4.e~po ra l
, \
ne cure , ' ' A ,b r ise " iscu.ssion o~ ho w these i nfqrmationa l
geri~es~ ~rc xevee l ed i n' , t he in~:tiation event end their
-. re l a ti o n s~ ip 'to ea ch othe r , will c onc~u~e tl"!isdi scussion. ·
Thes~c;i~l . contex t of ~he , i ni t 'i ation ceeemoe y ' must
' .- ' , " J
i n c l ude . nc t . on l y t he r-e Lat. Lona h.t p a be tw ee n i ndi vi d ual
, .. ' .
jurnper s~ bu t . ~tween }dmpers as -a g,roup and -the o uts ide
W~;ld~_ · Th e presen c e o~ .wa ce r , t a pe, ' s oap , ~' nakedn.ess
i~ the lC'tua l initi atio!,!- eve~t ,a'r e . in~·ic~ive . _~ £ ' tl1e
.~ :x p e c t a t; ion s o f t he rookie .a s he ~asse s. f r om a n oil ~ s~de r
· t o an i ns i d e r ' 5 po s i tion . T~e ' wa t e r ~ured over t he rookie
b t ,.the experi~n~ed jum pe,r s .might.osu ggest not, onlybapt~ sm ,
<' b u t the 'p rcoccup~tion' of ,s moke jum ping .with t he suppr.e~sion .
· of -fi;~S ' c6~liiig; th~' ho t subj e ct, bringing him · ti~der .con-
~" trol' 'a n d 'c~~n9"in9 h~m. ,. , ~r-~-- ':~, .

~- ,
'. - -- - _ -"-:-:---:--"-'- -; :- .. - ..-; ..._.-
 102

. , . . -.
indes tr~ctible . : The binding .o f , the r?Oki~ Ci t s e l f _-il.
. ', . " , .
'g e ne ri'c a ppe lla t i o n wh i ch - is i nd i cat;.ive o f a "lac k o f

individua iity) 34 and hiS ~e~i~nce other~ -{a extr icat~

. . , . . . . .. - " ,' .upon
. h imre··i~forc..e the gro up 'c~pec tcttion: that an i ndi v i d ua l i s
he l~~~ss and'ni'ust ~elY on the c do p e r a tio n ' c't ' o thers" to' help'
h im . This' ~ymbblism is 'a l s o reflect'ed , i n th~ , ind iv~dual',s

nake d n e s s : (r e fl e c t i ng the i ma ge ry of 'both a n. i n f a n t an' d a

35 "" '. " ".. , , - , , - : .' , , . "
oorpae ) .: a nd t he wa s h i ng down ~~ th .~ oa P . - As Turner s t e t.e s,
c• • ." t he metaphor of d i s s o l u t i o n -t s of t en
. attributed -to neat:'hytes; t he y are allowed t o go
f .llthY and are i den.tified :......i t h the ear th. 3 6

Th e roo kie us uall y is dir ti er t h a n ~he ex pe r ie nc ed , Ilian in '

t hat .h e has been rol ling ' a r ound in s awdus t, , p i t s , wearing 'a
comp lete jumpsuit -Ln t he desert su n, a nd "runn',i ng . for miles
.' ' . . .
~VerY "d?: , ~hil~ ~ ~he , experieri~cd ~ump~r., spcnr s., m9s~ .o e. the
f irst mon th : i n the ai r conditioned pa r a l o f t unle ss a n early
fire seaec n sends hi m .o ut, . t o jump.

The soc dej c on t ex t o f th_e , o utsi ~c wor ld . i n i ts

r e l a ti on s h i p ~- to ' ,~ h e in itiati on a nd to t he daily i nte r -

acetone of ' the ' smok ~ jumping 'g ! o'up ' t h r ougho l,lt the' f ire

season ' ~alva~i'zes th~.~solig~rity o f the , group 'a nd cf~ateG

a"~t~ong ' tension ' t1e t we e ri i ns i d e r s a nd outsiders • . Phot~· .

g raph~ ,f o r home town ' f)e ws p~ pe~S r t e levisio'n coverage of

p r actice .a nd , .f i r e jumps ; and , t he wa tc~ ~uI eye,' o f ?ther ') ,
f o r e s't . pe rs6n ne l who , c~ns-id~'r t he j um~~~~' "hot dogs > .i n
I

,~ .
.
~ w _ . _
,__w_,.,.._
~ ~_" _" __'_._. .J
 ~ddi~H)n ·t o t~e, 'medfa U~~:' ~ f .SUCh, ·deSc r·{Pt.iv,e, ·t,i tl~'6.! as " ': .
-:'t:.he 'gieen " be ~et 6 _ of the .r o x e e t; ser vt e e , "3 7 ~re~ipi t a t e .' : .

eXa9g~:r~te.d :e~p;~ 7tati.~ n :~ , o:~ ; ,t ~e : ~art '~:)f ,p~~iPiier'l:. ~roup~

a;d ..fru5 tra tio~ fo r. ~h~ , j u~pers int;h~~r " ,at·t~mPt1 . t; liv~
: : : " '" -:
up .t o an i mage which , b eca u s e of i ts _ e x tet;nal - d e r ivat ion~ .
\ . .. . . "" ,
"., , ', : ..,., ' .. . ;\
' ..:-' " '." - , ' , . - ,' ,
""

I : , not a p~ r.t " . ~he , s:mOke.J ump 1 n~ e.qu1va le,'\cy st:rou~ t~.r~..
The 's e c o nd' a rea r efl e c ted .Ln t he inftiation , e vent
.: <: " ", . ,-, ' ,\ :. , .: .
a nd e vident throug hQY.t, the , r ooki e season is t ha t _o ~ t h e
, "" " - , .. . .. " .
emotio nal ' c on t e x t . 'rhe ·o ve r c omi ng of, f :ca r t hroug hconsta n,t

r epe t iti o n and bh e -e s.t.eb j Lehme nt; o f refle xive rathe r than
~~fi~ctiv-e action of ,~s p~ramount
ccnde rn during t h e
. ." .
training , ini~i ation a nd p6s~""in i ti:t~o n phas.e s of .,the

fire' season". '.: Repeat:e'ci ex 'its f r o llJ the pl <ine make . up

a:p~ rox iina telY thir~/ to '~ ortY pc;~' cc'nt o f ' a rooki~" s ' ,t r a i n-
Lnq , ' The "eye~ on "the , 'hori'~~'n;~oth ha~d~ o ve r t~e ;
. . " ' . . ' . '

. reservc·;faet. toge t her , -:I>lig h t 'c r o uc h';' a im .ro r t he .t~il."

. .' " , .
ad~O~i d~'n to t he ,r oo k 'i e ever-y t ~me he ' goes" off .t h e j ~~p

re petitiono'f ,a message ,r e d uc e s' amblg ui ty ' ~y

~xp:ess ~ng the ,Il'l e s s a ge. , ~n nume r ous forms , 3
The co ncept be ing ' r e pe a t e d ' is tha t if .a frigh ten i ng s i t ua - :

tion ( j ump i ng , ':l~nding • . t ree climb i ng . fire fi~hti ~g ) ' is

. to b~ ha~died , ~ffic:iently . ' Jea!~~d ~~ fle~ ~c t~o,n s' Sh~~ld .

p~~v i de t.~~ ,ind i v i d ua l with th e. pxoper . method .of c::,~pi ng I

wi t h.- t he s~ tu ati~,n. I n t he' i n l tia~ion eye~,~. ' th~ e xpe,?= i ~'

 . - ' ' ..
jeans and work s horts m~ke .u p. t he base; bu t ' t:he u n Lquene se
of ' smok~umper.' bo.o~s -( the: Danne~ , and Whi t o::' boot comp~lli es'
· make . special· s moke j Wllper . ~el S) , fi re' : shir ts~ j u m p ~.u{t,!l,'
pllrllchute ~ , di,tty b':IlJS, h a r ne s s e s ; pa c king eq u f pmen t;
~arg6 . packs, end s ignal ,'st.realll.e rs, ' ~ll _co~pr ~~e ' ~ ' distinc:'
t 'i ve ~et of accou'tr~ment~ -, ....tii c h ha ve a spec i al ' s i g ni fic a nc e . '
.- ' , '; '. .
· Wi~hin ' the initiation event; , i : s e.. l f·;(..~ r ing t he mor n Inq ' tif "
the . ~ i r s t j ump, a s ~g nificant , event _ oc c u ~ s regarding

· clothing
-
. , ' .The
' "
expe:t"ienced men tack l e the
'. . \
 I"
105 .'
. ' ." "; ", .

t he c uff s of F thei r pen t.e , Tho ' rooki~s .·~ re .to I d t h at t~5'
. pre'~ent!! ~heir C~ffS fro~ ~etti~9 cau ght on Objects ' in th'~
woo~f~ .. which '~ S. why most 1~9gei:s we a~',- -thelr pa nt s th~s way;
,: -T ~·i ~ . p' r ~c til::e £ur~h,er dLsti·ngUi~he.s· . t he j~pers from ot h e rs '
-.: .. .' , ". ' . ". . " '. . ' . .J
~t a. f i. ~e , .(i ,n - a d.di t .i.o n.; to ' t he. _ we.~ 1i n? of "a , d a y - g l ~ orange
. fife ' s hirt' -with , '- ~ dmond .Smoke j umpe r s" stencilled ,on ' ~h e

tsa\<:kl .a~d als~ pxovL de s fo r a rOle !reVCrsa~ in ,that any

j uinper( experienc.e d or, i ne x perienced) i s s'ubject t o having
'. h~~\ pants , stag~e~ ff he ' w~~r~ coriventi~nal j e"an s wi 'th ou t .
\ . . " . " ,. " , ' . ' . . :
t his modif ica tfon . T~e p r,op or ma n i pUl a t i o n 0,£ t oo l s a nd

jumping gear a nd ,t he coded use 9f 's i g na l ' et ree me r s" for

~i'1':ound-t9:'a ir co~unication , are .f ur t he r examples of 'com- "

mun i c a t i ve devdcea which a r e l e a r ne d t h r o ugh r a c a - uo - r e c e "
conun'un icalion , -~-~ s_ s ed on from Y'e':l~to ye'lF' _a nd, have Ii'ttle: j

e xoteric meani ng . . ..... .. ../

. 'T he ' co ntex tua l po s it i o ns of I.m a t he~, fire , a nd the

r orc s t; .with i n t hc group 'ar c 'r Cf~ected in' th~ i ni ti~~ion . .

event an d exist as mul ti-voo.al. s ymbo ls throug hou t daily

i ntera c t i on s , prima~ i iy t hrough o ra l-channeis' o f comm~n~ica-

"
t i on . From the f irstday . he arrives o n the b as e, -·the

rookie i s acutely awar e o f the we athe r , its c ha nges, a nd

i j:.s e ff ect o n . th ~ fores't. Divi nati on , ·in ' the form Of ', Look-

ing - for " eeoues , " ( t he buildi ng thunde r he a d clouds o yer the

mount.at ns w~idh"'portend 'ligh t ning storms, 'actio n, and

m~ney' " is tau~i~t e ar'Iy to t h'e', r~okie ,'arid doni~na~es break-

.. fas t discuss i o ns throughout· t he.summe r . During t he

"; '
 . 1,06 '

i nitiatlon j.~p (when ,a' , r oo~ ic i s '.s~ id to ," P: I? hi.~ Cher,ry ~, ~

~hUS. s u ppor:~i ng t he notion of 'l os s of i nnocence and .cbenqe

in status }, w e ath er- ~part icul ar ly t he 'wi nd - -mu s t ' b e re~d

close i~ t o de ter mi"ne drift, t her ma'i s , ()r g·rq~he '~irid s ..
Kno wled ge ' ,~ f fi re ' be ~~~tor ,:',~se, ' ,o f " ~a~~~al' a~d
. . " ~ , .. ... ."' '.
h aq,dbuilt, fire : breaks , to. .s top the' firc·,.·ba ck f i ~ i n g , t he

a,bil f.ty ' t o ' kn~w when an d ~~en i10~ . .to wor~ , 'and ' th~ , "kn.O~l ­

e d ge 0 '£ t he W~':1S a l s o , r-e ve a -L the c lose re lationship ' o f

j ump e r s t o n a t ur a l .c yc les·. " "Th e contextua l " cont;ibut ion of
, , ' " ," ' . '

the ' ecolo9ica lsp~ere" ,in all of ' its , above f c.rms. establishes

.J
,-
I

r ~

i ndiv idua L In SrnOkeJ=p'~9' ~Of rn" :t~rY t he t he

twen~Y-fO~r ~~ur, . CIOC~ ~nd_' ,t he, ',S~1.it.' i~9 .Of the ,~ork c y c le
i nto I bhr-ee d a ys p.Lu 's all weeke nds aocompl f s he s ,t hi s
\ . ... . .. . . • . ' . ' ,
~~'partHv~ iunC,t r OD,. ' ~:~f~ected . i n . t~:~. , '~n" ~i9h~ . natu.l;'e ' ,Of~·
" t he illi tiatio n'. ,even 7 ~_ : t hi s 'arou~d-t hEl-cloCk, .o r i e nt a t i o n· is ..
!i'n d ica~tivc of the junip~r'-s - los's - -.o't·' cult,itall:yde~i~ed' - ~ - . .' ':<
behav i l rs and e xpectations a n'd . ; a.cqUisiti~n o~ asOdia~lY " :;'
l,~ a,rive~ ' commitmen~- ~o ~ __~~':'_ or~~r, " on~ ..wh~.c li-': i s O~lY mar~ .
ginally) co nce r ned ;'it~. ,c:~iendhcal. cy;les: I _ . .:
;A drain,;tur9i.c~'f' ,'_ app-~QaC:h ·_ eo u co~t~mpo;ilry, o ccu pa - ,

tiona l i n"idationas a' l oc u s .o f co~u[Jica.t.i:'...e ~ ch~nnels ,

t h'':l'n" .'c an reveal i nfonnation 'o~: a varie ty:: of le:~el's~" An

equally 'per v a s i v e communic~t i~e ~tiucture is t he ' oral n~r­

r~ti've which co n t i n ua lly r ev t ve a and .ma i nt a i ns t he' eq u i va-.
, .J , .. ,- . , " '. "
Lene y . str uc t ure of t he smokejumpe r g r oup by e xpressi ng the
fe~rs" 1 joys ; nrid conce rns 'of 'the actua l fire j'umpin ari ' ,J

encapru~ated fo rm. , 'T~~OU9h a 'C~~b,~ nat-ion OfObjects and ~

l earned ec t.Lons , t h e j~per be g i n s to pa rticipate in ,the
commu'n icat i ve pr ocess o~ his ;occupa~ion' ~xpresse'~ in '

~a riousphYl?ica i, ki ne tic , and " l?ral way s . TI}U~ t he ini tia-

ti~~' ~v~: ~~ 'i s ~~t a seriesQof separ~'tions and aggrega tions,
, I I' . ' ' :__
. ': j h ut a vi tal I per fo rma nc e on ly suggested in a b str a.c t terms . ';
, Th'~ jum p s t o ry .acts as a conti'nuou s ' bac kd r o p th roug h which
.' . . · · . . ·1 .
thi s pe rfo rman~e i s given cred i b/i.lit y .,a nd w~t hout .whi c h
the 'i n i t i a t i on e ven t; (or .t he accu~ul a t~ d expe r Lenc e s o f a ll
. .
j Ull\pe ~s c~u ld "no t be ' I mpar t e d , J

I' . . ~ . _ -,.. . _ ~,., • • ,_ . ~ ..... _ _~ .

 " "' . \ .< ': " . : " .,
. , .' Ir;thiS, ,~h.aPter: ~; , _~ra\pe~ , ' a:. hi~r~rc~~ .ot:.:. ,"',:!,"': :,.:
! C\.l s~~~ary- :~ n~~ra~~;l. on ;1n ' t he w~rk: klaC~ . f~~m ' t,he ~ns~~u~ ' _,-' ..'"
~ent~l h~bi ts and norm s., ~~ da i~:y wo; k ~~'~':, 's6ci~~l ' :p-r~bie~ "'
' < " .':' : ~:. -,: ."' .
" -." ~> , ;:. . ;., " . ' ';:. : :" ""'" i·· :.- .: :", ..,," .'. _
,,"'"
~o.lvi~9i' to ~hecet;~llIonial _t~ an s for.m; tio~· ? f " ~ '_ i~d i v i d tia L·. :

tb~ough : the ' ~o~dE;n~~d drama.;':Cif ~'a . ri'te:b'f~~~s:sage 1:':':: ,J ust:;a ~' -
" i~'i':6;rrn~} ;~d. , t~~. ~ri~~~~~ "~f·, : ' ~~i:Yinq · ~1lI~6r~.:: ::Kd~,:~~~~'~ .~~;~ ~Y·' < .·
ar~ '~ s~ed'- . fr~ ~~e worke~ to ~he next to ' p;~vi~~, hi~ ,w~'th -:
'the ':sJd llS he ·. ~~ed~ 't'ci'"do' a' j O~ ; ~ · va~ iety · -'~.~ '_ c~'s iD~~' r y
'r e a c t 'i on s ~~o, Phy~ical .' - ~ ~~ai ana"{de'6i~9ic~i~ '~~~bl~rns
 medi um t\ rough whi c h: occtipa t ia,~al "k~OWl edg e ~;: shared o n '
. :the job. a n'd be'twe un ,gel'l.era tion: ~ of wo r ke r-s · ',i n the same
tr ade. This ' infor~ation' e xc ha nqe is " ~ccornplished thiO:ugh
, , ', ' , , ," (,

.a ..lin~ag,e o f, wci r~, p r.ocess e ~ wi t.h ~ t~e i mage s a ~d : ,S ~b i16

xe rbal i :r.edby wo rk group members . In t he disc ussio n wqic h .... .
" " , '. , ' ', ',: : . ' ' . ,.
" ' ,,)

f? llows , , I , ~r e,sen t e xamples <:I f..,:verba l .iI1teraction from .

vario us , occ~,pational ' grouP5,COnCE!Tl:tr~ ting 'p ri ma r ily on '.
the fire fighti~g work' euieceee ~ f smokcj~PCrs i n the
. . I
.' . Pa c i f i c Northwes t , urban 'fi r e ' f i g,ht e r s ,i n a major 71ort h-
,. ', ,' ~~,!>t,e rn ', c ~ty., d~d· , fire . "tighten-- i n ·a s~al~ecfire de p art-
" '; : . :
--,,~~.-~---.~~~n-t ---=-n ~t ; JOhn" :~'. 't h e ~~pi t-al ' o f ~h~ ' ca fadia'n prO~ince ·'Of
Ne wfoundl';'nd. Neumann ',s mi dd l e - po i n t co ncept ' is aqa Ln
> us~ci to: o r ga n ize , t'h~ n'a~rative'" ~~terial ' i~to b:o~d, '~ ate-:­
gci~ie s of: inte r a c tion 'ran gi ng from t he mU ~ da nt.; t6 t he

~:",,_---
, -, --
.-._..~
 .r: ' , .'L:_"_.__ ,_ .' _ .,,

\ !•.
,~
pe:iodS 'of
•
-
l
In Illy
time "

.
e~~ort to p re se n t ex a mple s

.". -.

::::::i:~: ::S:::'~::P:::::~/t:;: ' :~:::t.:::q::::~~~

,
- t he r o l e o f particularly significant s)'JI'lbols, eere e an d
•,""" _ .
-
'_
• i
that~ illustrate
I
"J . • .. .
. ~. t

\ ", ~~n t., a-. compre hen 5iv~ e, thn.~qra~h i~ Vi.e~ ,Of ,. the oc ~ u:a t.i?,n&
· i n whic h t h e X_wor e ._ d?:~ted .. As in a ny_h uma n ?'r oup "t he
\ i mpa c t of t e l ev ision; ': n~'\<O';p~~rs , rad io _a~d hund'~ ed;' o f .

\ · ott~~r ~xtriina~' 6om~er' n'~ :'~"nd;t~P~~5 ", "

become'
. ,i~ter~ali~~d
.t. , . '~~'bj ects oCc~en.t and discussion , . and fhe fi~htinq cur-
I. • " >'. . ". • . .: : " . ,' . .;, ~ :

.I . ", ture , is no .e xc e p t i o n ." . ~n t he ~ nte r esto f -a.d va nc i ng .my'

.1
.." analyses "cf .oc c u pa t i o na l - ve 'rba'l . expre s sion , · ho'we ve r , ' I have
,
1

.1
. ' ., 1
· chosen to disregard these e xter na lly dorived fo rms _i n f a vQr ·.
" . . - _-.

j'
significan~ 'Jh~n
i' ;" .. ' of'.lIIO r e
. .
occu p atio nal" lIIate ria l.
/.
the oppor- '
,
,I
' . ' .'
". \':Jni ty pre s en ts ·i.ts e lf. 1 hope t o sho,:" 'i n a / u i l . l e n 9 t h ',
.. i . a~~raPhY ' h·ow thcS~' e xter n·al ly d e·r i ved ex~~e $Sive-. fo~~
r ,
function in
. 0 ' ' ' ' .
~he .f i r e · fighting -c u j .eu c e. :;'
I' 0 . '
,

The Ba s ic Meta phor: The Mundane Level ,

, '. .
" Th,e . f irs t "mundane '" l ev el o f ve rba l interaction . in
' . ~h~
. W~;k pl ~ce ~8 ,. the esoteric: nami n,~ ~ f thi ng S:' a nd pe o p f e
, , .. .
acc9 rding to the viewpoin t , of a p li'r t 1cular oc cu pation .
,- . . - .. " , '. , :, . ,-.

. ' .The ' ' fo -l l owing 'r a;nd o m e xa mp '

jes are . ta ke n f rom fo lk fe stival
. .

, .'
 ~r a'ctteming workeras, ~ ' ''who r e ,;' ' whe 'r e a s urba~, fire
fight~rs ' refer, ', t~' 'the~ as-~~Shar~Bh~oter~" : 3 a nd' .b a ll'e t
-. ', ' - ', ;; ", ':,. . , " ,.-" .
.compe ny members re f e r. to t he lights ' on the edgebf, the
., '. " ' , -. ', ', ' ,' , ," ' :"' ," '. : '
stage' fl?~r as ' "shin .breaker~ ; ~ :whe r e a S SmOke j u:.np e r"s ) e f e r
to a , me t al' b'ar used t o c l o s e pa rachute flaps as ~ a ' "ti,t ty ..
/;' ~~~ter ;",4 In e~ch' exam ple t he re is ' a d'ire~~ re~~t~~n~h~p :~
.b~'t~~e:~' " a n i\;em' or individU~;' • f unb tio n 'in the .wo'r k tio~:" ::'; '
. 'a n d: t he name or ' t e r m, t ,h at i s ' designa ted' t~, : de ~~i-i~e ' th~~.~
Th i ~' d ir·.ec t · 'f o r m of . nami~g ma'y '.: have nieanin~- o f ' a mor~
a b s t r a c t na t ur e in , Occ up.1l ti~na l ,c ul t ur e .

when 'a n in di ~i d ual is ,us i ng ele~tri ~ a r c r~ the'r -, t han 9 <lS

wi t h .h i m ' '' l e a d s '' , or l in es of 'c e bl e that "carry the power

f r om th~ welder t o ,t he r od . At t he s'~~e ti~~. ' ma~y PiPl;!-' "
" , . . ' , "" , " .. ,', . '
line (welde r s carry l a r ge r ed or ' b l ue . ra i lroad ha ndker-

c.hiefs in the ir ,ba c k ~~9kets to wi pe ' o ~ r s w e a t " a nd mo ist~re .

on the ,f a c e. and ha rids ' and '¢lebr i s , of f of , the s tai n l e s s

' s teel" w~lds ; AS' d~scribed ,by a n ex pe rienced we Lde r e

Well " the h~m dkerc h i,efs arc us ed. t o wi pe ',off the
pipe, · c o n s t a n t l y dipping i t i n ace tone or some
other , chemical t o keep the, pi pe ve r y c lean . We ll
whe n .t he wel der ge ts d i s turb e d " t he ' hand kerchief
. 'ge t s f u r ther , a nd f ur t her d o wn , you .x now , because
~~i~~:s~~ t d~: ~:db:~~~1~eh~:s~~:~iy, h~~ , i~~t
whe n. h e's rea l ly ma d , i t ' s .han gin · down about
t h ree-:-qua rtoi!rs away down his ank l es . Arid . by , t hat
time h e' s .d o ne drug u p . Drug u p, .now t hat J!I~alls
j ust like it s ays- -it comes off .the p Lpe Ld.ne
_ where the welde r h ad h is own mac hine . :. And he mi g h t
. ha ve as much as 200 feet o f l e a d , weld ing lead
st. re tch e d o uLS . . ' .

L
---~-~ ~.,-_:": .:';";~ . __ . - ---~ -
 r~angied ·~.r · ~~q':'up' we1di'~9 : j e;a ds;~~a9gi~g, ' h a~~~~rchi~f) '"
'~ in ~~Ch.- t~~.~am~' ' ~El~ :', th~~' the ' prev,~ ~us te7~s ' ?e~C~ib' ~da
• ',-t oo 1', S .f~n~.t ion i~ .t h e ~c"i:k_ ~low .-· :: ..X'~i:. at, 'the .:s~me~"t.;ine f
i t " ~~ sa-. 'ref~~s t~. a, "m6re' p~r~~,s~ve :''t'eei~n9 6f>';n:~e~'. : ' o' r .
-. iius ~ra'ti~n'~ : .. What ' 'i S 6igili'f'i~~n:t, - ~b~~t : thi~" ' ci~'~ u~~ ~iona i:
. :-, .. . ," .: . :"" . " :,':, ' ;, :' , ." > .. . . ' ." -: .-, ,'- " ,,\ ., ' , ,':.'. :,': -
- . met a phor i s ,thatCi t '. i llustr ate s 't ha t ' ev e n a t . this JlK)st " , ': '
.: ' ~~'~ i~: ieve L the"~a~~~ia~ ~:' , ~ nd,. pr~ce:ses ~f.:'a t~lId~" ~~e' ': ;.

.· :::do::u:::::::,":c::::e~:::eb::. ::f::p1:d"~:~:n::'n:,:~~t' "

., ". .",',: ' ."' " ,.... :, ·: c- " ', : .
· a ~-:.s ic . hUllIlIn ' co ndd t Lon , ,I n, ? -p ara llel manner .ene t el!ui'
.' ,- ~'iayi n9 ,o ut ',s ho r t " " ~ n 'ur b an : f'i r e . f i g htirig .d e s c rib e·s · a
· ' . ' ," ', ' . ". " ,

h6se, ane t o · ~~~Y.h A , ~ire ,:;' :,Th i s. t cm n ,'a i s cr i ~ ' u~ed "t () . .
de scr'ibe "an y .·si t.u ation; b{.· o~ 'off 'Qf t he 'job; ,-i i\"'wh.l9,h,·,-i·
-, the're · ~ s ,'a' :i~bk 'Of ' ~e~d~~r.~·~o~rc~:~ ': ' :~' not ·'~ ~~l!9h :f~l?d ' ,t~
" go ' aro~nd , ,tob,' f~w ~heet.5" · foi' e...ery~n:ein t h~ :, hOUS--;",· of s ,
.. . '

. , ev~n ~ '~nad~q':lat~ ' set'u~l' p e·rf?; ma nc ·e. , . T~roug~ · .t, h e:ap~~ i~~­
tion,' o t" t hese metaphorical' linkagesof .-.work proce ss 'with
"-. ', • ." " . ' ' 0" . ' - , ", ' ,

9~neraily rec ur r e n t ' -h ~inan s i t ua tions , ', wor ke;rs not O~lY .
'. " , ' . , ' : . " ... ., ., . ....,., . " " ' ,,'

....e·xp~es~~he, impact ' of oCCUP~~i~~Ula~ 'C\il,t,jf~ lim ~ tP:eirpe.~':' ~

· cepti, on of the ~orld . 'but 'a t t he s ame' t i~e ·they 'are 9 00,:,"
sh~ pin9 an d crnpha sidng 't.ha t 'u~i ci'ue pe xce pt Lcn, 6
,( g,
l
. . ·e ){a'rnp l e,·

~if:~le . G~ner~i : " 'q ~ t~~ s uc h nan:es"reflec::£ pe.c~l ~~~_~ ~t:~ ~

ab~ut ,~he pa r sen " lik.~ hi; "physiognomY. . £"_The~,Ha:~k ;..~ -: ' _ or
, "Shor twheels~ l i ' age (·W~inki~s . ~ . ~r - "Th~ Old~~',, ) / .raame..

', f i~tit),ng , CUlt:.~~~ , a~ : ,~idE;r 'tru~~ d-ti~e';~ho<:tid .~1l , of "t~'e '

. :~.~ ~~i:n~' - in .t he ,h o u s e a nd , ' . h~~· · »een aSS~_;,n~d _~o ' Cl~e: - ~~J!lP~'ny
' . -.t;6r',Yi3ars ': was' , r e ~er~e~ 't o q~ite B~mP:_Y ·an~ di~e,e,fl( as :,,: .,
" ':.: __' ~M~ther Kelly. "...' . Alld.:;"a"S:.iilu-~ trated I n', the . foll bwing . ne r -
-~ ' . :.:f.a~i';~,.- 'the r'e a so~~ :, f~i,t~is 'd e s i g n"a H on ' re fr;;~t t he ' -, '
.. ' . ,. ·impor.ta~t · r~·ie ' t.h~t·_ t~ i s indiv~dua~. Pl-~ yed 'in-~;~~Od ~rid '

'. £004 ' · p~~P·~' ~ ~~ibn ;;i l) the " tr~,di t~d'hal. fi r e fi~.h~i~9 ~.~lt ~;l;(1
;,:,'· "' L~o, was . .th~ ' :tr~~k 'dri~~r t,ha t bi6kc ~e in'. The~~
. ' wa s p r o bab ly ' no be tter t r uc k d r iver in t his ', city '
tha t r vve vsee n . . uo wa s a ' Bo ston 'I r i sh man ·and a ".
helluv a '.c o o k . '"He . wa s t he best ,: c oo k , th e son -o f ,:, a~
bi,:tc h . - ·I ·tell ,yo'u , I a lmo s t , g~t diyorc e d .· And ,my
' wi f e a nd t he o t;.he r g uys ', wdv ee too, .she s aid t ha t
1.f I l ov ed hi s ,c oo ld flg s o go d damed Illuch ,' :why d o n 't
· ' I j us t .go and .~a rr'y h i m. S ,: ,. . . ... ; : '.,
In' ·aummaz-y , ', t h'e l1,' ~~on on ' t his ba s Lc .i e ve t of ' ~er~

' :.j b.il"'e~. p ~essi~n,i~ ~n 0~cup;tion--t~.I/ ~~i~9 ~f proc~,sse~,; ....

tOOl~. ~ a nd " indivi~ua~~--we . ca~ '- di~cern 't h'e i mpact ot' the
. c~lt~~a.l' ~.~rc~s : th~:~ .,bO~h ' r efl~ct', a,~ ~ ' are'.sh,a .~ed , by,.u niel.,~~ .

9.r~~p. ,ge ne r a t e d, e :x.pec~a~.ion s. and ~ ~e~s .

.!=~nc~ional, aspect~ ' of ~· ·pr~cess,. t~l. or ,'indi~ldual
2
, I n, , ~o s t , cases ~~
are
 paJ:"ticu la~ , n dokname :or ' phraise to il, l~vel of me,~nirig.' that .
:' i e a c he s ',f a r '~YOnd i,t~ orig~tt~l ~urp05e . ' a s, in.the :J ru·g",,; ,

'. u~: Ia.yin/~~,t ~ho,r~, de' ~ ~g~auons,' ,~s well ,as, th~' ~i~riif~- :'
. :,~·..6arit ' .~ amin(?f a '~u, ~ tu~f~g, ;" fOO~ ~~O~i,(U~~ ,~ 'fi~ti'~~:, w~~ ,

, , ,. " " ', '. ,,': ,,'" .:', "

,> " c~ ~a t:i on ' Cr i.t i q ~e a nd Narrati ve :

< ' Th e': C~~ t-ra l Lev~.l

. , ', , ,~ h~ : ~e,:.~ ll~vei'oi"'~erb. ~ ,l .i ~~,~ ~~C~~~:~" ~n': .-occ~~~~::'

tiona~ "cu l ,!=-ur.E! ' ,~ s' the ,ccnver se e r o naf ' l e ve l . ' 0 It , i s ' h ~ re
tha ~" , 'th'e -'b~~;C bU~ 1(P"~9 b l o;lo;s ,O{ '~?~~pa tio~~ r ' n~r.r a~ ive ·
fir s,~~:' ~ppe'lira,s "t hey ,e me r g,e from no~al: . v lu bal :'O
g i v eO a'~d '
t~Io;'eand a ,r,e pi'Ck~d ~p, and,~~l'ab~rated: "" ·.Th~" f Ol i !->win9 ' ;c~ne:
takes .p t e c e on - a wa'i:-~ April " ~i gh t around s ix O' clock' a s
. 'th' r ee
fi'~/ f~gh~er~ and fIl~sei~' , s~t ar:o~~d ~~Q<atch" de~k
gazln9 "a e ' ~h,e, c:r,oW4s of WO~ke'r~' ,i n ,d~wn~own ta sh ing ~on:

.tl:'U~.::::t::a:::~i::th::~r:~:m.J:~~.L.~ttin~ .'~ < ··

couple 'of cold beers r~9ht ~fter a ' f ire • . •' ' .; ' -" .
1st . FF : , We h a d ·.a ,c h i e f who u se~ , to dO , tha t - ~he 'd
stop and p ick up 'six . ." " ~~ . " ' " .
, I:tt .: · 1 · kn o w somebody .o n th~s ,o ne " t hat got some
' f u zz. ' ,' " ." .: ' .. ,', . ' , " ," . ' ' . : ' ," '-'
r.at . F:P: Chief. H. ,t oOk us over , tot hc :Gas lig h tC,l ub
,· .., t o , i n s pe c t i t. ,Se t u s up . Two . rou n!3s apiece •
.-2n d . FP: Di d t he y hav e fire t herc ,t, h-i\t ,_tiJ1le ? :.'-,
~:t':"a;P~: m:~e'r ~~i:went inspecti~9 : . Th is is d aytf\lle - :
 11S
/
Tha t' s a, n ice -club in c he're,•
.~st . F F : , " So he ' s ay s , " You ' s er ve thes~ _ guys ri gh t
ncwt ' And .he say S', 'Y eah,. ' So .he 's a ys , ', ' Se t e m"up . '
And he "gets an old f olded fi ve doll ar bill . s tu ~ fed
b a ck i n the co rner o f ' h i s wa llet . . . ,
Lt.l ,Ni ne t e e n · twenty -seven. ' .
1 s t. - FF : So I woi-fed ' that moth er f uck er dOWn,and
s et it up there a nd seId , ~ M a n . "fill ··t h a t mothe r
fucke r ag a in . '.' Yeah , you s hou ld a met that o ld
g u y~ _.
Lt . : or
Chief H; . • ' . . ' _.
l a t ,_ FF ,: •• • hew:,,-s s i x ty- fo ur whe n he ' \oIen t ou t.
Lt . : - • ' 0' · . the y made h im go . He had abo ut forty ,
some -ye a r s , forty ' t wo. • • • Remember I t o l d ' you t h e
t h i ng ' when I used a one hour a ccee mask? Us e d t h e
whole f uck i ng thing o ne ti me~? ' .
2nd . FF: ·', Yea h. . ' . , ' , • .

~~~~in~n~:~~. ,;~e.s ~:6:~~ew~~ ;fg~~ ~, ~~ ~~~~~~t . r

u p behin'd me. He was the n e t m n on ti he l i ne
behi nd me ; and I heard t h i s , m e r ruc ker behind •
me _ye l l i ng crdece a nd I 'm saying who t he hel l is .
tha t ? And , then the smoke l i f t e d and here' he is.
I said l et ' s 'ge t t he fuc k cut, of ' he re ~ , 'l'oda y ' s hi s
l a s t fucking da y a nd I wasn 't nb ou t; t o stay i n a ny _
go d da m buildi ng wi ·ththat old g uy like t hat. ' . ' • •
Lt . ': : We we n t i nto the go dd a m /!Iet ro t u n ne l s to
i n s p ect t he m before t hey opened a f\,d we went in ,a t
first and G ,and this old c ock-sucker abo ut wal ked
o ur balls off "j u s t go ing through t he r e.
1st • .FF : . ' , " t e r d fic s hape ~e Wil S . ' • ; . ,
Lt .: ' • • • ·t ha t s ,o . b , wa s strok in, em o f f L d ke a
fuc k ing ni nete e n yea r old kid,
1st . , FF : , Ne ve r ate' s ugar • . Used 'to go t o FI Ol:;i da '
e ver y, year and com e back wi th 120 pounds of h o ney
; • " no ·s hi t . , ' ' . I
Lt . : , And heid f,ucx any t hi n g , t ha t bled . " . •-
1s t . FF : ,AnYt hing that '.d look a t -h i m h e' d f uc k ,
Lt .: I t h i nk he mus t have fucked'~~verythi ng at
J:leadquar t ers . He wa s embara ssing the f ire c hief .
He wa s wa l k i ng around pi nc h i ng asse s all day a nd
st ill ' do i ng his ' fuck ipg j o b '• . And the .r r re chie~ .

! cou ldn't even 'ge t i n o n time.

ist ."FF:·
.
i 'ha-d to ' l~u~h "':lt th~ ~ld fu;k~r : . .· H~:
line d us up i n , b l ues one day . .Sunda y. . . .
Lt . : He mus t a been s ixty whe n he ,wa s stroki ng o u r
asses t hrough t ho s e' f ucking tunnels . ,,' • • , "
1st . , FF: . , . he say's. ' I want the me n 'l ined up f o r
i nspe c t i on .' J; s ays, 'Chief , this i s asi ni ne . '

~ . .,
. •_' -- - ._'" _. _ ,..:.:. _.:...,..........(_. _ _ ~~~.-..:..- __ ~. __ ....:..,. _ .•_' ' c.~ _
 '. . l' , . .'. , ~ ..
Sa ys,. : ' Got t o do i t, got to d o .-i t . . Check the.
uniforms . '. ' 'l: said alright a nd we 're in the l~ne and
we get a ' f uc king r un ove r 'here 'o nthe side o f t he
alley o,:er by the .Atnb~ s s. a d cir , . Everybody' got ',f uc k ed "
up. u nt rcrme got a ll,.lfucked u p . And r sa id, ' 'See . '
We ne ver s t o o d a nother i nspec tion . He says. 'See
wha t ', you me~n. 19 !. ' .
• ' We ,c.an compa,re.t~i'6 first don;ersation w~th
.ano~her i~ which t he to ne 'and sty'le of the.
,'i n t e:r a c tio n is
. ' .
l e s S: posi1!:iv~, .: i.,~ ~ , ~he pa.z::t~cipants .c o mba't ral;he~ ."t, h a n
accommodate each , l:f~her v e r bal l y . The sce ne' is . the . s i ~ t; i n g

toom ' i n' t he fir'e 'neuse ea~ly in the mornin'g: Eve~yon:e' is

: , '" , ' .I'
having their 'first cup of .cc e eee , Usually i n t hist(o n t e xt
.... . , ." ' , , : ' , " .' 0 ' ,
thi n ,gs ~re qu i e t until ev e xybcdy wak~ s up.. " But this ~rn -

ing ,the .tensi~~s t h.a t ' h~ve bU i l t : UP betwee~' f o ur ,o f t he

YOU nger.f~re fighters ·in t he " c~.~ any .fla te uP ; , '1\5 it

usu e Lt y h appens t he initial isJde is a ' mi nor o ne :

. l s L F F : (Gr a bs ' th~'

n cws pa pe 'r ou't froi/. ,u~der a: .
secon d fi r e f ighte r ' 5 no sci} .' .
2nd . FF: " Hey man! I 'm read i ':lg that! '.
l s t . }o
' F : You weren ' t read,ing it. Your gO,?-dam
ey es a r e still .;glued s h u t. .
2nd. ,.F F : Man' you know you 'v e had . a, f uck ing a ttj.-
t ude ' f o r a g o dda med week . Why d on' t you go . get
la~ , o r somethi ng? .
3rd . F F : He 's go t an attitude? Fuck ing O. is
" t he' one wi t h a .f u c k i ng attit ude . '{ou been in the
k i t chen after he 's 'he lped ou t wi t h d i nne r ? '
Looks like a f uc kin g ga rbage d ump . . He j ae t, d on ' t
give a . shit- -particularly ai.nce he .k n t>:ws he ' e gonna
g e t ma de . And -e no c tie r f ucki ng . th ing . .s ve e y time
so meb ody 'go o s e s 0; .he fuc ks around and p lays a nd ' .
l ik e tha t , b u t whe n I do i t ' he wants t o smash my
face in . . . '
2n d ; FF : Since we e r-e vr m t.he e.ub j ec t; o f bitches .
v

I t h ink ."a b e t te r go back to rollin dice to , see

. who "doce t he goddam dilj'he s . beca u~e . eorae people
a ren ' C pu j I Ln their weig hL You alwa:(s see the
same , goddam faces in }here e ve ry t ime'.IO

J
 ,I
. . :. , ~- . ' , - ' .. '.
' of fi C ~ r . b1Jyi ng - b e e r,
an
'.. - - " . ,
to a cc meeerve verbal portrait
.' , .. - ' " ,
,. ~f - t hi s o ne ,' le ge ndaryc h ie"~f 1.Iho',bought" t he b~e~ . ,I n_ t h i s
-tYPj,C~l -.co~~e~sa~ion~ l ·i~~in·> ~~~;:~ verbal c~ntiribution s '~~de :
. b~ ' each' ~ndivi~a'l' b~-il~'o~ 'rat~e'r ': ~h'ah " :~ ttemP t ' to t6~';6r
b e.s{the · ~' t ~~ements orrcene x s in tJ1e'gro~; ~s t hey' d~ i n:
·j Ok.\~q: behavior w~ich . wa~' previousl y .discu,ssed i~ t h e ' cus-.
.: ,"to m ~~a~_t~i . .. Th/i: : onve.~ sa t ion a~but t he ~hi'e f ' pro v ades a
compce Ltie p.i,c ture ' Of " the ma n as each descriptiv.e passage
' .b u i lds o n t he one 'b e f o r e i t . . Th~s is ' in contrast t o -t he

secon.d conversation in , :"h i ~ h . t h ~ fir e fig hters ' voi c e thiodr . ,"

v,::r i o us 'c ompl a i J;lt s in a n in ter,c hange w~ i ch . i ~ ' more oP Po,si,-

, t i o na,l in : tha t. one' c o mplai nt ' i s ,o ppos e d : by" ati.~ther a ~d
" ~~O'h~~:'- until , the ' f r;',Hit~ations o f .,evcrr r o ne '~ n " th~ q.roup -

have been vented.

'The co~vcrsational ' s~ruc,tures refl~c~ ' i n a -'v ~ry
d~rec-t way , the work ', ~ro~esses ' ~pon .... h i~h the::i - ,a ~e based .
I~' 'a ll of t he examples
, '
9iv~en -'a bo y e
' ,
a nd ;ri '~~e" precedin'
,

ve rb al ' duelingillustration , ': each individual h a s a n oppo x-.

t u n itr ~ci contribute eith 'er a~ insult. ,-d e s c r' i p t i ve . o bse r v a -

tio~ alout a , subject, ' or a c~plaint. Yet" 'no on~ ' indi;id-
' ua l' ,c a r r i e s the burden of the' entire verba l ' f low: '" T he

~onversations a r eTj' t di~~~9-ue' so ,much a~ verbal mont',*e':' ::-

, a:group gener a ted statem~nt '~boUt' a subj ect ', O~,S~bj~cts

e e e e up ~findiViiluallY a':itieltla'te~,segme!'ts '. ' And j us t as ':
 tighti ngsi tua tlo n '"i h e i f , th~se indi v·idu ai
" '. ,
.. ' , :' " .' . " , '.
segments compri se a cor rec t.t ve product or ' b a c kgro.urid
"" ,, : ,: ""' "
a9"~i.n~ t which ,the p e r form a nce of any oneind i vi d u·1I.1.:· i ~
. ,- ' . " . . , ..
iud.ga d . l\ p.~ rtic'i.pant in th.~S' ty~ ,o f .i~t~'~~c t i on (either .
". the phy s i c al a c t ivity .o r l.t ~ v erbal co unte rp a;t l ,-.mus t' main:--

~ain .a ' pr o pe r l ev e .l ~_f balance betw e en idi6sy~cratic pe r -

fo rma n'c eand par t icipation in ;theg,roup ac tiv i ty by me Ln -

taini~g ~h'e pr~p~~timiri9 ~ . ·: s~~ i,e ,an d " cr.it.i .C~'l. \s't~nce whi,ch
Ls .ba e Lca Ll y- ,t he same f o r both the v e r bal and p hysical

" . ':
',"
(to .t r y , to do your
.. " . ,

. . "' _ . ' -, '_5 '

' ,,' .
jO,b ,in a ~d.i t ion
," '
:0
,
,

someone. e l s e l~ " on
.
t he f .i re ground or at tempt. to dominate, t he c o nv: rsation .
I .

.
t o t a lly ) 'i s ':·t o ' command i rid i J idu a l a tte nt i o n a :1.d s crutiny
, '. ",'.' .- '.
fo r a s i ngular performance in ,a physical a nd sy mboj i c

-" , e ff~rt ,based-. a'lmos t el{C:l~ si~~lY on :Co:lUn~l coo p~ra;~ iof .~
~. . ' ra t her tha n ' individual p e r f or ma nc e. I am 'not s ugg'esting

. ' ~~,a t opport~·~~tic's ·,f o'r.' ind~vid~a:~. perM fman ce ' 'd O ~ot . eX'l~;'.';::< ' .\

. o~ both the Phys ,:lc a l an d ve r ba l. reve of 'interaction, '

. mer~l y, t ha t basic fire ' figh ti,ng ' be h'avi?r d 'c o n v e r s a t i o nal .

style d i c t ate th~ t a/cooperative , commuha l ? t u re'be mai n'::

t a i ned ' a nd that'individu~ l per formance i s mo r e ""un us u a l

a~~ t he refore more criticJ.!.ly," judge d ' type of , b~havior •
.' p~t' tj:n9 t his in. a ' mor~for~al~erspec tije, H-ymes .

·h a s i ndicated:~hat the re are th r e e a e ve i .e. o f Ln c e r-ec t Lo n

i n most cur. ttir'es : be ha v ior " l " a nyt h i ng an d ,'e ve r y t h i ng ',t ha t·

hap~S" ). co~d~ct. l"beha:~ior·,·uilder .th~ lle~is ~<:S~~i~ l

.1
 bili t y:" l. : a nd, pe~f~=mn~~ce fo' ~hEm onl7 or . more /perso~s

.,as,~ ume s r~ sPOfiS ibi n tY f~< f r esent.a,tion;,) . 11 ~ypical ' 'c o n-

". yer sa-tions an~ ~~U~i~e ' f ·i:: .e iighting att~ckS· · t ~' k e. ·.P l ;lC e
on the l e v e l ' of. c o nduc t , I::!~ cause ' t hey ar e co ll~c t ive ',a ~d

struct~;rcd by-social ~orms. .u nus ua .l " id 'io syncr,s t ic b ehs v":

. . .
io r ", d ue: to. its' u nfque Lndd v Ldue j. n~.tu re: can be e laborated
into" performa~c'e . And '. e x tre~e lY drama tic i ndividua l . par -

' f o rm a nc e ~ ,a r es cue or '. f u'lly-,d e ve l o p e d rescue narra t ive

t old by t he . r es cue e - c-a r a r e o c curr .enc e ) might b~ co~'side~ed
· pe r f o;-man c e fu l l, ~ .t ha t , i s ' a n
• ';,, ~ " a ut he n t i c o r a ~'t hori tati ve performance ,
whe n t he standards i nt ri nsic t o the tratlition
.: ;~: l~ z ;~~,l~e r forma n~,e occ; u r .s .a r~ .-. accePted and _
" . ' , .
As di'scu~sed i n s ome de ta il , l a t e r in th is 'c hap t e r ;' t~e
ra~ity and Ci)~plexity o f t he s e fu ll 'pe~formance expr~ssiv'e
fo r ms makes them ex tre mely important yet diff i cul t to
.: ~n~~;ze\a,spec~s of ~erbal b~haViO,r . ·
;'/ Pe netrating. more de epl y i n to t he s e conve rsational

I "', ,'-, ' , '; . .' . ..

examples , we can. de t e rm i ne the ,-,· p:r i nc ip l e s of , i n t e r p :re t a-
: ," 1:

of ' t~chnique as ' . wc ri tic a l ca non" ) upon which t h e s e ' ex:chan~es

a r e ' b a s ed . Thi s c~~on no t ,onl y · r eve .ii s \<ftaat is behi~d t h'e
, . I \ . , " . • \
ve r ba l exchenqe (wha t>~h e s ta te men ts a re -a bout ) it 'also

illu st:i:a te s a few of t; ~~ c r i t e r i a ~pon whic h .this a fid ' more '
.e l a b o·r a t e 'ver: ba l e xcbe nq e a are, j Ud g e tl. In the conver~a t~on
a bo u t the ! egendary chief we s ee!:" t he fi rs t excha nges '
, .. ~ .:
-,) ..
;./
L:
 . . .
. " " "

that "he ' i s t i ght wi t q 'mOney but qen e rouateo his "men , : a n d
',' '/ .
, "
'

. :
that h e was, on e o f '. t he
: ," '
o l d ,;,t i mers ,'Wh o
.
had a ~u~er pf ,y ea r s '
'on the .,j.obb~ fore 'h e wa 5 for~ed ' ou t; , . .' T~i ~ 'is fo l i~wed
.by .e quart~t , of 'person~l an ecdo tie a ' t 'h aI"~ may' no t ":b e i~e" :'.
I'
~latelY a~~recia ted
,,' " 'c"
by an
-~ "
ou~s·ider."
,
T
•
~se i' nclu~~ th~
.

ch ief's l a st da y on t he , job, ( in w l'ii c~ i t ' 1S belie ved ,t ha'~

. a -r c e . of o ld t~meis 'e i t he r do thems,el~es : i ,n o r j us t -are

i1~l1 uCky 'Em o ug h'"t o ge t . killed ' o n 1;ha t da if) ', ' a nd h i s "phy s i -
. ce r c on d i t ion a t 'a n ad vanced a g e ( ~~gm~llted 'wi t h ' observ.a~ ~
. .' ' . ' . "

ti~ris . a boyt 'h i s .hea l ~h· fOOd d iet 'a nd" se x ua' l wo~ss) .
- ~..:sect·ion e nd S wi th a f~na l ' p e r sone I e ncc e c e e (abo ut; ': ~hc
uniforms) t ha t i l l u s t r a t es a t t he same t i me hi s nueen
. . , ' ,
~ ' faLli,bili ty. ' Be h i nd thi s montage o f Chi e f H ·~, t h'e r e La.e s

a well de f ined po rtr a i t o f a n , i nd i v i d ual who embod i es t he

~ir'tues t ha t lie 'a t the ve 'r y . ~'e a;t: .ot: tradit'i~na l fire

fi ghting . c u r e c r e 'a s i t i s perceived ' by t he m<d .o'r ,ityof

, - "
Levej, of condu c t. be cause no o ne i nd i v i d ua l ass umes

\ -/

-,_. _~' , - - ,._ '_-:, _. ,----- ,

,-
i

.... '... ..

: res;onSi~il~t'Y for ~he po r t rai t ,"or d'e'v~l~PS' h~~··o~s~rvation .

_. , t>ey o nd a Ntchin9 o f ve r ba l f rll.qme nt s a nd im p r essio n s ~o
. .
• the ' flow of c onverea e I cn ,

.. . . .
. that: ha s " -~ Ie'c i-pi t/.l ted th e excnan g e... · The t ak i riq o f , th~ '
. ', 'pa p e r , ' ac~usation' of "'havi ng'~'n ·atti t~de . · ' (wh i ch u s uall y

m~ans' enae'en ' i ndi v i d lldl is. an9q~' or fr~str'ated abo~t' so~e­
. ' t.h·~~.9 ) . the t~ansCer 0: th is acc u s atio n t o: a.ri~t~er :~~.d..(
providi n g as a n e xa mp l e hi s s lo p p i ness " i n t h ~ ~ kitcpen~ s i nce
h~ _ f~,jnd out h e ~/IS 9~in9 't o be prooK,tc~; as·::~~'i1:·.r~:the
. ' . . ." "'; .:' .<0;:.
,f r u s t r a t i on .a t , not be i~9 a I .IOlled t o pll.r ticipa t ,,:"i n :. j oki ng

. .
str uc t ure d I!lO t hod t o oI"9an1 ze clean- up , illu strate s '. that .
i~~e~ . ~~lere .are· a n~~ "-o~ probl~ I n'"t he C~IlY . · .AU .

of 'thes e cC*:lP laints reflec~ ';'hat "i~' pe rceived by.. the ~' :­
'f o u r fi~e' fi g hters as da'ngerous ~rea-k'-down of COOpe[ilti~n
-. -~"
II.
- "

an d cohe s iv ene s s wi thin the fi re hODS:'.'. ' By v o i cing t hes e '

f e a rs op e nl y t o th e rest o f
- '. ... tJlI~ meeee s of the comp a ny ;'
" . -/
,,
t hey .a re " ( ~ 5 - a gro u p ) a t t e mp t i ng to -b r l~g atte nti.on -ec
I .·
J.
t hi s ~l i ppag.e of cama r'ad~"r i e"'and a lio sugge s t reme"tiiai
 :', " ,
' # ' " :

old ,v a l ues of t he ,f i r e fighting tr~diti~'n ' by iiiustra:~ih9"

t hose, va,l ue~ in a,n exem~l~ry _figur e , 't ~e-, gri~ - se;s~~~
seek s t o': re : ' est~biish - t r' a ditional : (and _n e c es s a r y ) ICOh e s'i ve- -

ne ss i n ,'3 ' contempor~ry , sit~a~ion"b;~intili9 o~ ~' i nd ic a'::'

',' " " , ', ': ,'
ti!:ms ' of i ts sl i p pa ge :c'!'!sulti,ng i n e xamp l e s , o f -Lncreas ed
indiv~duati.On , :,-n d seiiish~e's5, ~ I;~: bot~ exa~Ples, th~
par ticipation 'i n the ve rbal , exchange, itself -and -t he un der':'
. ' ,

lying va lues upon whi ch ' the e x c ha ng e are b ased ' a ttemp t , .to
. , - , ,

rhetorical ly "ree ve " t he 9r~up a s , a who l e'l;oWa rd ,a mo re

stab le conunu~itas ~ i3~he for ce ~f ',t h i s _ c f~6rt is 'a';i9 ':"
e ent.ed by - ti he COl lective ,na t ur e ' o f t he e x chanqc . and t h e
I ~ "

ap pe a ,l ' to a ' i::hangi~9 b~~ s ti U 'pe,r';a s ive White , male ' ve i ue

syst.em and t~ adi tion. An<indivi.d.ual at t emp ti ng su ch can

app e a L through art i so L:i:t ed 'verbal p e r f ormance wo ul d ' ha v e

" '~o , CO~and ?n ~~~rem'elY h igh ' stat~' s ~n ":the :9rou p or ' b~ a <

ve r y adept ra c6)1 teur'~

Mov- j ng
,
to t he '
mor e ~xpiicitlY ' c'e n t r al c~ncern s o f
" " - , ' . ", ' .
the occupation ~ur r ev i e w of :'lerbal , express io n i n 't he work

pl ac e t ake s ' us fart~e r :away from t h e , gro up defi ned ' "con""
~uct" ' ~owa.rd - more ' individ~al - "~er f~ rmancC_" form$ " o f verbal
~.KPression . ,' \ t th~ ve~~cen:te~, of met~~POl,itan fi~~
fighti ng e x pressive CUlture we find the fi r e cr itique and
.. I
-Ehe narr ati.'v~ ' session . Bot h of these forms of ' verba l
", ' - ' -- - , " , '" ' - ,

"i nt e r a c tio n ' parai lel ' the : conversations a bove", in ; t heir
. ' ', " .

seria l 'pr e aente t Lon of ve r bal mater ial , b ut 'they di ffer , )

i~ - th,at , the indi.vidua l - n~rraJ;:,or pla~es h ~s responses t o

. J'.
 , ..
The' s c e ne' Ls the , mask 't able in--t he . f i re h o use where
th e c hief,' e a lde , truck a na .e n gi ne compa ny men
~~:a ~i~~\~~;l j ~~:i~o~;~~si~~ ;\:;~ea:~a~~~~~~s - .
s In q .Le. fami ly dwe lling- i n the northeas t section
of ·the cit y . '" .
", ' ,:....>----
,Ala e : Whc1!_ the -truck started . pUlli ng 'the call ings _.
evesY,whe-re --th ey pulled t he ceiling f i r e wa s co ming
o ut . .'. So ·! tol? hiln they ,pro b a bl Y. wo uld n e e d a n,<?t he r
;~,l\~~;~ ~~s~::s~~:sI.~~:,~: ' ~e~~~di~~:~ . stZ~~e~~
to mu s hroo m in a nd out arrd i n , a nd o ut , and , th en .
, it 'blcw,wh ilc we ,we r e talking . , And t hen he as k e d
.:....._'-"" fo r a . t ask f or c e . nrid t hen when the . deputy pul led
. . up he ,a s ke d~ f or a t as k f o rce , ' t oo. .
Layout.man : Yea h, beca u s e wh en we pulled up , ' we
j ust p ulled . up and layed o llt and t h ey were ordec- -.
' . ing everybody o ut of the bui lding. .
lIidc:yeah , i~ was really r o c kin g a nd t h e y were
trying to get everybody ou t . . I
' ,Layo u t man: reah, when W~ pul led up you c oufd
" see tha t ' i t had go tten . t. o t he s eco nd sto r Y 'c e i l i nq
a nd i t was j ust 'g e t ti ng ready t o go ;
Aide : ,Yeah it wen tJ down rea l. 'q ui c k because ,i t wa s
j us t · an o j d f r ame build i ng and it got in between
t he wa ll s and a t t i c eveeyvne ee . I t was I r e a lly well
Lnvo Lv e d , i t j ust was f'!'t; s howin,g'. , When we firs t
got the r e i t was just , show ing ,i n that c rte rc cm ,
And ,6 Engi ne hit a nd i t went r ight down, and we
we r e a ll i nsi de and we t houg h t tha t was i t . But
when t he y s tar ted pulling t he 'c eil i n g you could
se e ,t hat t h ere wa s ' a lo t more , f i re i n ' i t an d -,t h e y
started op e ni ng it up ' good , and it re~lly ' t ook off.
Ba r , ma n: T hat rear was rea l l. y bad - -nothing bu .t
cyclone f e nces a nd doqsto c l.imb o ver to get. ·
• ba c k there a nd then there wa s har dly enough ro o m
to ge t t he ladde r s up because, of ,the damn brus h .
Aid e: Yea h .e nd 't!he n, on c e yo u guys 'g o t u p t he r e
i t ,wasdamn ,s lip pe r y . I ,don ' t th ink anybody . .
reali zed how C9 l d i t wa s , jus t cold -enc uq h to mak e
i t s lick . . I . , ; " '
Layout man : I s a w t his one o ffice r ,go ove r ' t o t he
dep uty to s ee what he wan t e d h i m:to do . , sche
walked ove r to . t h e de p uty and f ell r i gh t o n hi s , ass •
. ' .

.. '-- . __._
__. .' , "
...._.'._..,-,- --
.'
- --
 . .' .
,. The' only -it'hi ng tha~ , wou l d ,ha ve made it be"tter would
ha v e ,bee n : if: h e ' d . reached out ' and grabbed ,t h a t whi te' ··
coa t on his way down,. 14 ., ,:' ." : , .
'i n'th~ tire cri'~i(fue, ,the' c hief "s : a i~~,'.· " lay~ut
, " ,'f :" ',' , ,' . ' '." ,':-. " .' ' ' ,' -;- ' "" :
~nd , th.e b~_r__ r nan from, t~e truc k c~mp'a n y : :c~~~ar,~ t~~lr '
.' v a r i o us pers pe ctiv es ,ab o ut ' t he .f Lr'e while a t t he same time .
.' .'. , , 'I - " ""., ' , ' . ' ,..,' ." . '..' .
t~~y, , p rese ~.T t he i r a~coun ts i n , c~P le:t~ : .n a ~ ra t'i.ve. uni ts ,
not' ,i n fragm e nts or' cO~l.ec tivemon,t age , as seen i n -t he
-: : .,. ,
~r~~~u<e~~~p,l e,~ of, .c o~vers~"t ~,~.n s • . · Bec~us~ ~ach<ind ~vid- '
u al o n t he "f i r e ha~, a spe cific j ob, t o do .nn da p lace to be
"on the 'fir~ , g'r ~~nd ;' uieee responSibi l;tie'~ r",s uit ~n ~'
~ar~ie.ty 0/ d iffe.r~nt cxperi'en?~~ :whi~'h a,r e ~~mpai:e(with
the ,.cr i 't i qu e : ', Th~ ' aid~ (who : a;;t~?l i.'y rela ys , the~hi,ei"s
" 'Qrde r s t o the ~fficer~ in; id / o f th'e fi:ra bu ild ing ) "sap;
~he ' w'ho l o p.i ~ture 'f r om: t~c." '; n 5 i de , i '.e~ . the ~:r,uc'k ' ~u i'i s '.: .'
" " ' , '

t he ceiling and , i t rekind l es afte r the e ngi ne -com pa ny ha d '

hit the'H~c an~" , t he¥ ~h~U9ht. , it· "W~,s · , ·out. " Me'a~Jhi;e/.t~c ·
layo~t inan ~ee s t h e Hrc' strictly f r om. thc o u't s idc' ti~cau se:

.' " , . . '

a nd 'e. v e ryo~ e was "order e 'd out'. And ',f i na l l y ' th e bar man
(i n "'t h e se cond d~,~' t r uck whi~h is a~~'i 9ned to the" :~ea r) .
~ . > ', ' ' , " , " ' . " , •

s aw'<t h e fi r e fr om th e t;"ea r.: o f , the ' fire 'bu i l d i ng ana there-

" i , ': .' , , '
f or e -n e co n .c,,:n
7ra tes his nar ra ti ve on t h a t appco e cb .

. 1\ fir~'~ritiqu.e a llows ea ,:h' .1.rid i v ~ dua l to, te l i ,h'i s

s tory • . rather / "thaI) ' being' a ~oll~~ti~e ' comp o site ba s ed o n

f ragments ,O f"/~nfO~rnation alld,ob~~rva t.Icn :

 fr~e'gOf 'ref~re~~~, are so 9"~~~~d :t~ speci fi c 't.a sks-th at ·

e a c h 'ma n ,:i~ ~eallY Oll1; , awa~e a f 'his: ~~' acti~~s :~ u~~n9

. " . - ' ,, -,... :~ ,"
t.he i ncredib~y fas t , m~vtn 9' " a t t a ck . After, t h e fir~ ilil ' over

he '~'u s t
the~ '~ P're sa~ t his' ' l nd'l v i d ual per~pec tive' ~o the
. . ., . , '. ' !,: ' " '" . . '. '. ' : , .
gro~p ~ ,b u t ' in ,o~d e r to ,ma ke ',s u r e \;hat the inf ormation .L e
c'l~ar; ' h~, mus~, lpl~ce .l\i~, ~ct~on i~ , a ' narra~iv~ : f;~e'work ", -.

wJ~h ' ~n , id~n~'ifia~le" '~9in'nin9 . , :middl~ ,a nd e nd. The ·~ .id~ ,

" " " ' ,. " ..
for , e xampl e , reve rses ,t h e .c rde z- of h i s , narratrve . ta l k ing
, " , " " .

.F ~~t '~bout ~h~ ' r esu~:t ~ ~f , t~e' fi~~ when i ~ i-eki~died o ;:i:'

Ld t. off . th eri late"); bac kin g up .t ? . . . ha t 'it , l~ked ' like .wh e n
they firs t "arrived"of\ i~e ~cen'e . - ' As i.liust:r~ted 'i n 'j u s t
t his ' b ~ i e f 'exarnp le . <l fi re",cr i t ique :.:ec ~eates' i n ' ve ~ba l

for ~ ~ n i ndividual " s ' per f o rw,a n c e and ' o bs e r v a tio n s '~~ a
par ticular f i re . Thi s 'riot on l y provides e v e r yon e ,with an
~pp'~ rt'unity ':to ga in 'a more' ' ~~mprehen S ive .view' ;r t he , e v e nt ;
. ', ': :
'" -' , ' .' '. . .... "

it: also r e i n f o r ce s t he values a nd cr i tica l ' s t anc e of t he

group toward both phy's ical ' and, ver ba l exhibi'tions ' of c om-

pet~~<::c by apPl~in~ pa'ra,ilel ,se ts~o~~tion ,t o both ~

1\ good job o n ' the fi re , 9 r~un d • . f or example ,' could be

e~~~'psed by 'a '

.
.t~o'· ,~ ~a~tfu'l.
or u~beiievabl~ '
ac co unt of tha t.
. ,
p e.rtorme nce , j us t as ' a b ad" pe r f o r manc e 'wou l d bi: , impos s ~~ l e

to .ove x c cee. by t he 'mos ~,' superbl y , narrated ,a~cot'n t. Both

' ~re ' 'j udged, in the .se se ~ay . Until a n ifld i vidual. pay s ' h i s
~~es' "i n actlial f~re' , '9r~Ui1d pe r f o r man c e ot'. techn~qUe ; ' he" ,I
r e coun t his
 ': " '_ . . , -. ,,_,o r}t_ o ~y_'te, ~ ~i.~g ._ s e, ~ .sion •..- b~, : :7r {-
son. "d ~ ff,ers , fr?~ th'r' :,c,ri t ique i n , ·that the acco unts mayor '

cink~_. _ n~~\be '~irB t ~l!r~On ,n~rb~tiVe.~ 'and th~ e~J?,h~~i~" ' is7
upon. relating- in'di vl dually de vel o p e d narrativesto th~ ,
s~orie~ t h at ~'~ eced~: -~hell
.' , ." '
or ,
,
t~~~cs: ~rought u~ , i 'n, " f l~" ~f
',' ', -" , '- .'

~onve~9ation . ' -AlthoUgh lIa~~ ,of " these : 'n a rra t ive :'~CS' ~ lci'~; "
i~6Iude "stories" abou~ :" ~~~i£~~ , fire -'~xperi~~-~ ~;s ,· ~n~' -~'~'9 ht -,
~~aluati'v e '0;1te~i-~ ' ~ sed ' 1:0 j'u~ge ' crit~q:'u~s :'·{ s ~6~ ,.' ~s
" , ' , - - : ,' ,. , ',' " . - ', .
'; ,s_t r i e tl}' . e n.forc ~ d bec.~ u.se _ in ,rna f~ 'c a sc ~ ~ h e: .~ n~iV~_d\l~. l
te l ling t he s tor y is - ,t he only one who h ad o r _h a at d _about _,
t he ".ex peri.e nce ."' ·It i s i Jl -t h t! na r r ative sessi'on th~,t ' a ,.
~sk·i
,
llf'u l .i:-~co~te u~' d~J;l'-spin
' ..
s'iodes'
. '
off Of 't h~ ,tbp i c' ~ t
, '

ha';ld, as see,n, i n ' ~?e ':follow,iny ~xample:

_ The" _s ce;e i s ,th e ....abch eesx : ~tll <It: " ~igti t . _' FOUr
~~~~ -~~~~i;~~ ~~~e t~~:~~9!l;~#~~gt~~e~~;~~z~~.~~
. ~ l~t ; FF : Godd~~ '
2nd; P F : T his mo t herfucker s so co l d her e
~~~n ;;~g ~~a~h:~~~::~~~~) ~agbn ' wouldn ·' t .cver .' I
.. cuss , t ha.~ s on-o f-a-bitc
s tar t . ' I u sed to . h .' ,$ .o me.l ·.·',·
daysthatthin.s wo ul d r u n' re a l good . and o ther .
da ys y ou' d t a ke o ut of t hat h o use a nd t h a t ' thi n g
:~l:~~on~e~:~~~rk::~ ': ~~t , ~~~ :di~u~~ui~rit; t c~~~~ I
2nd . F F: ,w e l l this c h o ke j ump s UP' and lean ju s t
blow out o f , h er e . we h ad ,t hi s ' run o ve r t o Seve n~h
Stree t ' and ' I had t o put ' t hat chok ~ a ll ,t h e way , o ut .
But o n ce t h at t h i.ng ge ts hot , . boy, t ha t _son- of- a ':'
,bit c h wi ll jump ' l ike a f r og _,: ', . ' ..', -, J
. { t h , ' ,FF: . , T ha t p i ece .-wa s t he best J?i e ce the c i ty
. . ever bought- ~ sllla l l , whee l bas e . , ., . , . _ ' /
» e . _F FI_" We we n 7 _.out
of ,here _o~ 'a fir e o ne ni~J'lt .

, " ~- ," ," _ • •" . .me, ~" '''r

 the w.ag on . Tur.r\.e d l~~~ ~n' ~e:lft.h· St reet ,and\ti n
'l'wel(th 'Street the wr onc;J _way, , a ~ l th~ , way back i n
· th~ _ t.u n n e l_to t he ,p th er side . , , ('Laugh te r ), Z o olll ~ '"
all the f ucki ng wa y bac k i n\.that t unnel. , J i m
Fisher said , ,, ' 1_ kept t ellin him don I ,t ' r un i t t he
wrong w a y ;' -He s a i d; 'I ' f i na l l y tolt>'l ,him that
Kenny, i f' yo u e ve r ru n, that the"w rong way agai n ,
:r ' m gonna t a ke t hat fuc k i ng axe " a nd h i t yo u in
t he head with. it.' He said t hat IS the onl y way _ ~
h e ,eve r s t opp ed hi m fr om dc f n .it . I'm qonna t a k e
tha t fu c king ax e _and hi t you right i n , t he head
with i t . ' . ". ' -', . "
5th. FF '~ Yeah , W'e,'d mak e th at . fucking _alley by
t he d ry clea ne rs a cros s t he s tre et fr om yo u all ,
and ma~ he' u s e d t o ' dar t - t hrou gh ' t hat mother fuck ..,.
e _r,at about ~ hund red mi 1.e s .a n "h c ur , - _ .
3rd ; ,FF : 1 wa s ridi ng. on the _back of , th~ p Ulllper
wi th'L . L. an d we g o t a run . . When Ii St r ee t...us ed to
be; one' wa y e a st. I ,: don ' t k now whe re ' we ve r-e goi n g
b u t we -wen t way out . . : anywa y he took u s~ up M
Str ee t t he wr o ng way t he whole wa y . An d the whole
way he' s s i t t i ng ' i n t he pumper y elling, ~ L ook a t
tha t ·c r a 2:y . s on-of-a-bi-teh, that' s "t he c ra z i e st
thi ng I 've 'e v e r s een t ha t 'mot he r t uc k e r do . ' An d
he was e U,ssing like t hat aU t he way u p M S~:ee t' .
5 t h . FF ; " I ' l l 'tel l ya wh at, w, ' t ake s a lo t of '
ab use but that ' s a ha rd wor ker , -boy. And d on' t
~;~; ~.~~ o~~ • were:, up on ' r-tcn t ana ' A~enue , on a s~c6'~d' ·
e j are one ni g h t. Th e wn o l e as s e nd o _f this pl ace .
wa s of f . It _ Looke.dvHke , t he block wa s off . \ie were
up -on the seco nd fl o or.-wh c n it , was allover .' , Red F. ,
. ..me 'a nd -a co6p l, e of, o th e r gu ys, . a nd we wer e puU ing
.' wa lls and ce i 1.i ngs . _. And t he gu y s ,sa i d ho l d up for
a second and l e t' s .ch eck s omet hing. A nd w. was wo r k-
ing ,so furiously a nd was s o exc ited tha t !i.e ju s t
· wa l ked up and 9 rabbed t h e door - to t hi s plaee a rid
· r ipped it of f the h i nges . "lle wa s jus ,t ,so fr ustra t ed
he had t o do sOAle th i ng. • . . "'
5th. F F ~ ,I ' l l t e l l 'you wha t , thats .o.b . ,. . . :
3rd. 'FF; ' He was g oing to pull" t ha t second floor
, d o wn around me and I. jus t : knew that I ' was ' goi ng
to end u p t n -t he basement . .. '
,l _ 5th . FF ; 1 ' 1 ,1 t e l l ya.. if.it h adn't . jae en forh i m
· that time I fell through t ruek -fo ur 'saeri al · .
l a dder up t he re a t:. 14th a n d G, and he .c ana up
there a n d got me , I was . • •• :x: coulda kLs sed t hat ·
ugl y mo t he r fucke r I was so happy. H ~ h , I ain't.!
s h i t tin ,·my ass ha d fell t hroug h that fucki ng ru ng,
ma n, and I ,was bad ,' cau se I was just sO :,fucking "":.• _
trLred; I was still weak an d h u r ti~ . a't t ha t - t i me .
 , ,.,(
J: ,s ai d b oy am I lU~ ; F ire, l e aping bp ou't '~Cth'~t
fourth floor w in do w . ~, ' '," ,- - .'; .
. ~ ~~~ri~~~ lii~~1~e': ~~r~~~~q~~~~~ ,u ~ th'el~ e , - d- i d~':t
y o u? " f" s boo t s ? He came down f rOJll t h e b u n} tl:oom ' and
ha t t he "f u el: was going on .lirid t h e y '. •
pe ,di dn ' t k no w ....
g o t a r un and "hevj u raps Ln ' , ~ ~ s boots a nd ,th~ re's two
~ t.i~ks Ofb~tter,i n ,there . '. , : . _. . l." ,. .'.
. Dnl ike the conv e r sa t i o n!n .wh Ich ever y o n e" cc n e r t - :
butes a por 'tion- of th e mont~g~. 'or ,t h e ~r i tique ~hich ' i~
. , '- . ' .- . '
base d . c n .str ict,t -
e c hnique s sQ.d perspecHves on a giv e n
, -. .
f ire'-. th es t?rrte 'lHnq sessi on is ~ " loose r vE! r bal' f~l1;m as

,.,. , .ustra;t t
d
~.bilitY
In , the n.•..r r<!:t iv e. : 9 .'. .t h. C ttd.rd.··fi.~e
11(

fighter i n t his paSSdge. The r acon ceur sp in!l .h is ·stori s

( ." , , ' . ,,,. ', . ' j
. o~t ~ ~ th e v a ri~ U,s . '~OpiC5 th .:t c...(Come. up i n . t ~. , co nve r s a t io.~ ._
, I n .t h i s exa mp l e l;he t opi c s ra~~e from ptece a o f . e ppar-e t ua .
-that ' a r e cllffi cult t o sta r t ( t h e squ a d wagon ), c c e stor y
. . ~ . ,

abOIJ ~ going ,~he ...'r o no;:wa y in,th~ hose wago n •. to. anot h e-~
aeo ry "a bout, ait '.excit,able . i nd i v idua l , to i). . ,f i na l ·s td r y,.
a prank-. I n ,.each case' t his narrator ' ~ot only ~uppU~s
stories fo"r eec n o .r . t he theme s : t h'a t a r is e , bu't. he' ~l so

•
 ~o .gcnerate . s tories t hat inf~rm and entertai' \ iho s e
Lnvc kve d in the session. In t his c ase the' t hird fire

fi gh t er w~est.~ the na r r a t i on fr? m t he othcr p ar ticipant s

'b y~ tu r n ing a. casual me nt i o n "'a bo U:t the"coldness o f ce ~tain
engines to an i ll u s t r a t i on of t wo d ifferent ine: idents in
which ~ wagon d river ,r an' hi s .r o u t e ~o t~e fi:r;e t he ~r~n9
.j wa y . ' He the n ( fo1.1owi'.l9 the men t i o n of a certai n i nd i v i d-

u al ~ho' was ' responsible Loa: o ne of 'the wrong way. i~cidents) ':
eIllbel l i s he s , this t he me w1th a story ' tha t 'p r o v i de s 'no t , o rrLy
", additip nal' proo f . Of , t his ,i nd i v i d ua l ' s over-:ze alo usness,

i t also to uches upo n "! sub ject ( the fir e f i g h t c I' , w, i · that
t r iggers~ a narrative by onc · .oft h~ otpcr fire tlg~ters '
aboti ~ his debt to W. for' savii ng ~im, from a po t en tiall y

falal .situation , ' Al t ho ug h ~he individullol nar~ator i n a

S~I'ytcl~ing s ituation~ore l~titudein <:hQosing his

tOPiC~' and shaping his , sto~tics . he , still must maintain a .~:..
, c'~;rre ncywiththe 'i n t e I'c s t s o f the group i n oree r to i n flu':'
, , ..
e noe ' t he direct,io n, of the narrative flow and a lso provide ~
enouqb opportunities for the" othe'rs . i n the session to t a ke
pa;t sel ,.tha t thei do n 't l o s e i nte.I'e s t . ·1 Even t he' mo s t
". " " "I
&il lf ul narra t~r ,.c a nno t mai~tain a command o f the seorv- .

. t~}-ling '. ~~.t uatJ,~,n \oli thout f req ue nt verba l and n:on:-~erbal . .' ., .
r e i n f o r c eme n t fo r hi5nar~ation .
Viewed ' i~ their ertti rety; 't h e ' mi dd 'l e poi nt o r . cen-
-' .' " " . . ."
' t r a l ~ onc ~r ~ n a ~r a.t i ve fo~s (conve J:: sa tion, c d t i q1;ie and
na I'r a ti ve ' se ssi on ) r~ fiect ve J::b.~l 'i e s~n ses a nd ,i nte rchang~ S
 130

abo u t . elementS ' wi t.h i n - t he ' occupatio~ or" "a recurre n't con-
c e r n.
~' . , .',
" _ : . . ' ,.
'- .
The y prov.i de - group , members with a~ op~rt uni ty,
-" ".' to
ques tion . ,d i s c u s s, eva~u~t.e · and , ; ehte~t~~~' ea c h o ther us~ng
i a ngu a ge to: ,$I;.fine:~he ~ rimeters ~ f oc cu pa t 'i o,n'a l ' ex pe d '-
: ence ~,16- - ~~~h-in. ~his: fram~work an i!,;di~id\lal 'c a n.. ~egoti~te,
' a~d ~i 7 -ricc'u~~tional, knowied~~ ~it~
"
r e U ne , e ve n adv ertis e
'. . I. . • .'.
a mi nimum of ' ri sl c t;aking while he pa r t ici pa t es. "Ln the co1 - '

le~ tive verbal excha~ge., . 'let.' a t tti.~ same jime '. h~w~ve;r,
cer tain individ ual,:racont.eli rs or : unu s ua l occur-rences wi ll

. ,d XilW atten't~on ·tol thems~lvc sand it is in the s e e~treme~

th~i: t he _emotio~~ ; Ee e Ld.nqs an d ' ideolo g ie s a re "mo s t c learl y

> • '
a Xh i b ited . ~h ile munda ne . l e ve l s o f me t ap ho r ' ~ ucl~ a s
t ermino l ogy a nd ' ni ,:::k na ines ' ~e fl ect ba s i c a lly physi c a l a nd

te~hn~ca~ ' co~cc~ns : eLi ~iques , .. conv~rsat~~ns ~JYtl na rra tive

~es-s..ioris re f~~c t primari l y s oc ia l a nd , Lntie r pe.r s cne L'co n-
ce rne r a n d fina l l y unusua l .perso n al e xpcrieric~and ac ciden t
a ccoun t s r e f l e c.t emotio~tl. l 'a nd Ph i lOsOPhi~al ' concer ns . 17
Al thoug h the re -l-l? o bv ipus i y a sre ae deal or' ov e rlapp i ng
b~ tween the se ex te r nal ly d e r i ved .ca t eg o r i,c s, ~r t i cular ly
~n .ti h e e d ge s of the se .d i v i s i o n s ~he re na.r r a t. L v eIa c s s Lona ,
. ~for . e xamp'le " m'~ y we ll p~ovide J:? / t he ' f ull ~e~~orma nce by
a n 'i nd i vi d ua l of , a n e labo r a t ed p'e rs o mll ex p e r ie ~c e nar r a -

I /ti~e • . I,~\is ge~erall; true , ~h<l~ a s ' ver ba l .. express~~~ •

move s fro~ \~ t~Chnic.a l t.o . t~e i d C:Olo.9 ica l ...SP.h ere,-'i t also

,>provide~. f~rq\ea:~e r;; ind.ivi du al participat.i.~ n ~nd revela~

t i cn. wi~hin ~h~ \ontex t o f wha t i s b eing sa id . At the . ,'

J"
 ,. .
" : "' s~me ~ime_. ' however', t~ ind~v~du.~l e.xp're.sSiO~S must ~on:­
f o rm eve~ mo're stri~tlY to t he pa~ticu lar ' cul tural ' v a l ue
", ' . _", I. . -. -: .:
system. from 'wh ich they . are " derived and .per r o zme d b y _a na e-.
.- " ' ~ "' : , . ' .
_. ra~or be fore ~is : ext.r-emej.y c ritical a ud Le ne e ,

The Unusua l Level: The ' Elaborated Personal

Ex perience Narrative

.. ' . ' . . , . .. '

. deals w-ith" the un us ua l , and t he ext reme i n t he oc c upationa l

. " ' .

height:? f ind'ividu,U' narr~tiv~ ability ' wi t h i "n - the occup~-

. ., .- ".
tio nal setting .
. ,r
A 'p" r tic u l a r historical event 1.0 a ny human: g~~ UP ' is '

'J . -" ' - ' \ ' . '.

. r e t a i n e d i n the co llective me mo r y of, its members based .
,
largely . on the unique or dramatic features of .t he oc cur-
that set "that experience a~rt , from others i n . t h~
past . such-en event; ccccrr ea-Ln St . ,J o h n ' s , Newfound'land
. , ' , ' "

1
in .Dec ember .1 9 4 i when a saboteur set ' f{r€l .e o a crowded
., ' , ,' "

'Kn i g h bS of . Columbus ' h all ' being u's ed a t tha;- time a s an

" " , .',.
All ied barracks an d canteen'. Ove r o~ h und.i:ed peo~l~ ' d ied 1

i n .' the di s~' ster ~nd , iunong t ho;s e mo~t . ,t'n ti~at~ lY ~nV'9 l v~d '

in t he e n c Lre ,affair ~eie t'he fira fi 9'h t e rs of , St. iJO_hn

.;.'_S - ,_ _ ,~ • •••
 I~. an ' a t t e mp.t t,~ ',de te r~~:n7 t hen a't u:cc ~f
, h i s t o ric a l information within a ( i r e ' fighting.- co mmunity, I . '
interview~d three O! the -survi~fnq ' fi~e ' fi'9h ter:s ('a ll
· r,e.ti~~d) ' · abo,~t theii- experience!; , d~r.ir;,g·_ Th~" 6K : . ,0 '£ c.
fi re" and . compared thei r , responses . t o 'o t he r na r ra~ive s in
theil-re pe rtory t o "s e e ho w the ' u~usua l h {S, t'o ~ i, c ~~' : occur-:
re!1~e' ~o~forllled 0 :;' c~ntras t~d to th~ ir ' othei 'v~~~al:
. . . .' ':'/ ., .,
I n dea ling "with o r al historfcal i nformatio n
· g~.nerated, i n a ' d~~dic interview: 'situat'i on , howe~e/ 'w e ' /"
. " ,
.
.
"
/"
.
' , ' . ' .

ha ve to eppr o a c b this ..mater ial i~ .s ome wh e t; different '~ a n-

ne r . · T'his lldequires some additional tli.eore tical background
pri o r to an anal ysis ,o f ·t he narra t i ve s t hemsel,,;es . ' .As. fl>er-

-: sc n e i ex~erience n a rr~ t ive s are pa s s e d betwee n members ci;f

a g r ou p t hey ~ are co nsisten tly vie wed ,a ga i n s t; a . common

'f r aIl)e ~,f :,:efer ~~ce t hat demands 'c o ri'fo r mi,t y to not c:i~ l}"'a
prescriptive n arr a t i ve mod e l ( cornpa r ~b ie : to Degh '5 proto'~
, m~n;, t~ concep t) ,1 8 ' bu t a lso a prescript ive ~~pe d ent i a l
mod el ( pro t o-e x pe ri e nc e o r wh<3; t Ha nk o re fe rs ee ' a s '"a
! c~ltura i experien c e m9d : l ) . 19 In t he ca s e ",of , the fir~ ..
· fig~t er s' narra tives abo~t t he ir',wo r k, t he ' nq r r a ,t o r mus.t
mak e his ' s t or y c o n f o r lll, to" prescr iptio n's o f i n f e r r e d or :
.' , " .
·r e l a t e d. physic a l a.ctivity ~ s well ' 'a s p resc r.fptions or 'tem-
pl"!t.es 'o f nar~a tiv~ ' "fo'rm ' and' method s ' ~ f present~tio~ as

'p r e v iouslY , di s c ussed i n the sect i o n o n mi dd l e poin,t . nar- ;

rativesabove . I n 'th l!; c ase .·ofan ~nusua l · ~r' . ex tra ­
or~.i~arr , evene ,
 )n'~i':;idual n a r r a t o r is ail;w ed', to._ !a~g~ muc h more ,: ,~.lid~l~
.' ' _ . .
-' _' ,, ' '" "
(altho ugh no t freely ) wi t hi n' t he -'c orre s pOnde nc e s be t ween '
"

'. wh'~ t ., expe~~ed' ~~~ Si~.il:~Y in an unUS'~'~ l- .'S ~~~~ti~n a nci-: ;

.,, " , ' -" , " " '. " ' . " I " , _' '- ' .

wha t , i :s acc eplot.able a nd pe l~evahle ' i n · a n i nd i v i du a l :' s

.a',c.c,~u~,t o~otqat s,i'~uation . The '~nVeSti9ator seeki ng

. infor mation , abou t; t he , particula r e v ent .cen lea rn a g r eat

in a narra tor 's ', pr0i:l,der verba ~ , !="epertorY .

h brie f.' example ' from. the 'iepert'~:>rY of ~ 'fi r~

fi ghter' wi l l il l us t r a t e this ' po int . .Ln h i s memoirs,

fighter , wr i t e s t h a t : .
'l'his 'time ' was back i n ' 6 1 . I h adn ' t ceen ue Resc ue
2. very lOng. <~eVer bal cam.e i!1 .a nd we r OI.led. ' a b ou t
f o ur blocks t street to an old te nement bu d Ld-.
,1n 9 already f 1 1 r n vo i vec wi th , f ire at t he r e a r .
; I r a n i n the f TIt: do.0r - and down the hall-_t o t he
la s t r oo m at the back because I gue s sed t h a t' s
wh e r e the - f i re ha d started. I k icked i n the door
a nd - found the room fully nb Laz e and ' two little
kids in' t he ir underw'ea rcrawl ing aro und on t he
floor a mong a bunch of over it;ti:rned pa int cans . ,'. •
'~ n;:~ea~ . :;~o;~~g9~~a~~~, ~,f ' t~~~~e~u~~~~28f th 7m
i-'h~ hc ; t : of th~f.i;e: h~d- :,bio~n • o~tthe • u;p~ ~" gi~'~s'
in t he wi ndo w ' f rame by now a nd the flames were
r o aring 'ou t 'oveJ;',' my h ea d , I k n ew - I 'd nevejr be
a b le to ' p ul l thi s woman u p a nd 'o ve r the : windo....
sill b e cause I'd ha ve etc s te ndtup to do it. ' • • -. :
J;f only anothe r firema n wo ul d .a p pe a r ' a t -t.he f ire '
e s cape a,t tha t " moment . • . • I f ina lly go t -one .
s ho ul de r unde r; the heavies t part o f Mrs ~ : G ra z i ano
a nd he a ve d h e z: up 'a nd ou t cnco . f he ste el gratin9
o f t he fi re e~c!,-pe. ,21' ', :

.....; -- -- ...~_ ..'-'..-----'-- '-'---"-'-

 ..... ,
',

The fi rst narrat1.~~ . reveal s: the'· ~o:>rm~ i .~~lOW ,.6 f ~'. cyp Lca L
rescueaccbunt in an urban ' fire fight i ng situat iO}l arid i t
. ' . .. " ' , ' ' .
. ~ s thetypa, bfaccount'.'tha t ,colild be M ld 'i n a c::itique,
while t he second depi~ts the' ·,extreme ~r .. un~sual' ·s i~u.hi~~ ;

ori~ in whi ch t he ' ~ ar.ra,tor is acco untable f"orthe entr{and

r e sult of ' hds efforts' but his focufl upo n i nte r na'l elements
" , . ' 'I ,
(wha t ' we n t on in -'the unusual' situatio n ' a nd wha t: ' the nar--.
'ra~r cho~se5' ~6 desoribe abo~t wha.t \ . .- en t on ') is tota lly

.s u b j e c e a v e -c- a s it is in the n~rrative excha nge' ,' The un us ua l

or' ex~raO;din~r; account -c u n ' be m~ni~~la t~d to co~form to

wha~~v~r, 'a s pect ,o f , the unu .sua l sit uatio~;mci s t ' c ci.n cerns . t he
n ar r a t or o r ~he aUdi~nce': 22 ., The r e is wi'thi~ it: an e s s en -

tia l s tr~tch or pereonaj emph asis beyond t ha t f o u nd i n

• . ' .f
other exper~ence e ccoone s •. Bystretcli L mean t he sig ni f i:-

can t emph aa fs on aspe~ts of p!~t ' . . i ~te rnal _ d i alogue ,

characte r i z~ ti ori , t one , a c tion or .e ve rce e i c n t h"at seem :to
be featured more in t he s e' stori e s than t he y do in others.
. .
By . comp a r ing . the 's t r e t ch betwe en e x pe r 'ie n t i a l <:tnd na rrativ
7
frames found within the personai experience stories of
i~dividuai ' repe r t o r i e s · as they rela~~ . to'~' ~peci'~ic eve nt,

I wi 'll b e ab le ~~ make some ~reli~inary obser vations c o n -

. ; / "

eerni ng t he na r -racor ' e i mpressions of the e ven t , co mpare

h i,S account wi t h tho.~e give n by other, :",i tne s s e s 'a nd d raw .

some tentati ve e,onc lusions abou t , the con.te xt in ,wh i c h t hey

.
o.c.cu.~,re:d ' .My, p ur.'po s e h. ere. .i S not.
~:is to rica.l:._accoun t,
t~
constr u.et .. a defini.Y.i. v.e ,:.'.. .: : '
a bQut this pa rt icu lar, fi ~e" b ut. to , .: . .
.

i l'lustrate ,h~w orai , h isto~ica l in forma tion can be bette I. , '

. ' '/
..J
 1'35 '

. ' . ' .
l;Inder~tood 'tlh~n i t is "r e i a t e d to a b:i:"oadc_r per.!!lon~·l ·
'repertory and viewed wi,thin the' c~ntin uun\ of -ve r ba l
e x-pressio n' in:t he wor _k,' pj ace that I h:ave be e n deve loping
t o· t h:S poi~t. 23 '

. In th'e dis~n whic.h follows,; I prese nt the

~~'fsonalexperienCl'!' na r r a ti ve s _o f a f i r e f ighter . who

worke d , on t~e Knightg-. ?f COlu~us , f~re i n 1942 to -"i l luS~ .
.t r a t e l t h i s . ~pproach '. I com~~r~ "h~s account to selected
addi t !iona I n~rra t ives taken r"rom his repe rtory in an' ,
attl7~Pt""to determ;.~e consistencies i~ .hi ~ individ~a:l
stretch of , t he l?erSo~al e lements in the acoc Les , In o r~er ,/. .--~ .

t o provide some s t r uc t u r e. fo r t he comparison, - t he eKpe:r i - _,;;--/

cnce , narratives- of -t h i s f ire- 'f i ght e r - ; a n b~ brOke n down / '>"

:i nt o ~he ' fol~Wiri9 structu;"al ~nits' :'

I. ' Descri p tion of 't h e , events p recedi ng
the f i r e _f -
I I. Respo nse to the fire !
III. ' Ngh t in<,(the, fi i e •
IV. Events fo llowing t he fire
V. Comment
On t he ev 'ening of necember - u z , 194.2 , as many New-
. . .
fou nd Ianders listened t o a rad io program o ri gi na t i ng 'f r o m

the Knights of C,olumb us ha ll in su : Joh n's i n which

.-, (
.- ' ' .. '
.
..•, ," . . . h un.d. r-eds.. 0 < ..' I.'
. .1 ed. ,er~. i .c
. .e men : ere bil.le. .t .e.d' SU
..dden Ly some "
' , . , . ": one screamed '" £iJ:;:e ~ and the program went off the air a.s ·the
...
" '. ' ," . crowd tried t o p.us h its wa~ out of the fl aming au d i t o r i um.
/
, Al thou g h t h e ' ma i n fire s tatio n wa s loca t ed ' a.lmos t a d j acen t
, , ' , .
t o t h'e hall" by, t he t i me , the_u nits. ,h <?-d . r eeponded t he ·h e a t )

L: _ ,_ ,. .,.-,---<- _ _ ,_..,..e-_. ~
 .,.:.

'wa.s . so ' .
.Lnc enee that al l the fi re f i g ht e r s co uld do was t ry
t o s ave 't h o s e i~cky en~u-g h , to d..nd a ' window o'ra ·do o r wa y .
. " " " ! , ',"
The · eve~t,ual death tol l we n t o ver ' one 'hundred. ~eo.ple--

ma n! o f 'whom were »evee ,i de n t i fi e d . and w~t:e " buried in , a

ma s s q r llve.

Ff' , Wa ke ' s ( a pseudo nym). ,a c c o un t . o f t he ·.·.f i,r e con-

cen frat~s'on .t h e second ' 'Structura l I eve a '~ f ' t he ' fire
experience story , L a .-, the e leme n ts of :i:es pOnding to th~

". c a li, goi~g t o the fi r e, ',fi r s t ' view of the f i re; t he dis-
po s i tion a nd layin90ut' of t he hose .e n d t hen figh ting the

fir e.: ', Th e r e ar~

som',e Sl. g nif'i,C,a n t, diff,e rence,, th, e , b,'~tween, ,./ , . ,
' "
"
Butts recording, . done in 197 5 for a CSC rad i o broa dc as t , ..
and t h e one I did in J a n ua r y of 19 78 , as seen 'in t he fol l ow-
i ng transcripbi:
W: So 't he n in ninete en and d~~ing t he waT yea rs of '
cour se we ha d a ve ry busy time here. 11. very busy
t i me duri ng t he wa r years. We l l a nu mbe r o f fires .
. ( ::r~o~ ; ;o~n~; ~~t~~e~~w~~~ :c~~~~~~a~ fo~a~;a~~:~
soldier 's barracks we ha d t wo b ur ne d down UP on . .
. Signa l Hi ll and we had t wo bu rn down up i n' th e
field ,there on Newtown Ro a d there Ln. the Chris tia n
Br o t he r' s , f ield t here , t hey' re horne .d e fien s.e bar-
r acks a nd we ha d a , co uple bur n down the re up Ln
Lc s t e r ' s Field . We' had o!lbout six barracks . • ' .
soldier 's ba rrac"ks . t hat wa s dur i ng the war' years .
Th en " o f course, . we had the Kni g ht s o f 'Col umbus
fire t hat started , about 11 : 35/ 3 6 on a h De,camber the
tw el f th, nine t e e n fort y t wo . . '
Mi , Ma y be you co ul dijo i n t o s o me d e t a i l on t ha t ,.
if you wou ld. Wha t we r e you d o ing t hat night a nd
how . " . ' . . ,. : ' . ' , .
14: ' We were just go in g to bed a s a mat t er of fac t ,
ro unq , .just \taking · a , jus t put me rubbe r s . 'What ;
we ~ us ua ll y do is p ut o ur r u bbers b y the s ide of t he
bed .a nd ' pu t yo ur p a nt s do wn, in an d tur n yo ur pa nts
down i n and tur n you r pants do wn a nd h a ul them
b ac k r nd when ' you co me ou t . y ~ u pu ~ your fe et do~n _/
 /
1n your 'r ub be ; s and put up your'
s uspenders o ve r y our
.sho u l de r ,s a nd yo u do it a l l" you know , i n a few
seconds , You' re rea dy to. go, ' We j ust had ' . • ~ p ut
my p an t s into my be d , pu t my rubbe rs b y , t he s ide
'o f the bed', put my pan cs i n t o it a nd a bout sitt ing
o n my b e d rea d y to l ; ft t he c ov e r s r e ad y to get "I n
-wbe n , b a n g. t h e a l arm _we n t .' · Th i s wa s t he 'Kn i g l).t s
o f Co lumbus fire . So I wa s ' driv i ng the truck t ha t
~~9'~;ft ~~~ ::s te:~d t~~a~t~~ :~dc~~~~ i~~~ ~~~ .
re f l ection of t he fire uhen . .Do....n t he·re ' by 't he
when (
Newfou n dla nd . . . l n the nigh t, you .k n o...., i t wa s
down r ight tota l l y black , so we:-:'cDu l d "see the .
r e f l e c t i o n 'Ln t he sky an d a h whe n s he came up ah >

Harve y Road t he r e ,we could , we had avh.ec k of a ' job

t o ' g et by the. he a t from t he fi re , f i r e was c omi ng
ou .t from .t he ' Wi ndOWjf r Om a il parts in t hrou gh .ti he
roof and ' e v erythi ng all o f it ag low . So we ha d ,t o
p ass t he f i re bece u. e the t r uc k s i n t he c e n c e r _
t he y ha d t ak e n the hydr.ant.s o n the we st side of
the .r Lre and -lay o u r hose and we did ·that . We ' l a i d
o u t a couple of lin e s a nd the n of c ou r se when we
. go t t ha t , do ne ,' we started f ighting t he fi r e : By
t ha t time the f i r e, was coming throug h ' al l parts 'o f
-t. he- bu i lding . ' ; . the p e c p 't e -were sc r e aming an d
j umpi ng t hro ugh a l l dif f erent windows. I remembe r
on e man, he . • . on t he wes t side , t he r e o n-Ene
.» ' g r o u nd floo r , 'ne x t to t]-/e CCC Armory the r e no w; ' t he
ma n l e an i ng t hrol,l gh t ho ,wind Pw; t he fire wa s
I~~~~ ~~; ~~e~n=~~r~~~~~~~/w~~~ ~~ .~~~.:~~e I o f
A. t o ld hi m to pu t the branc h pipe o n- me , , po ur the .'
(!" 'lola t er.on me '. a nd X' 11 go a n. and try to hold hJ.m, and
~ I got a hold him, I go t aho Ld o f hi s !>ho u ldcrs, a ·
'. hea vy ma n , I c ou l d n ' t ' get 'him up o ve r t he thing
a nd, t he, ' fire was so ho t t he he lm e t mel t e d o n my
s ho ulde r , my coa t caug ht f i r e ev e n though , t he hose
wa s ' on me , so I drop pe d Tt ,_ MY' mitt s go t fir e e vexy-. "
t h ing, s o , b Ut the he lme t , the l ong t ail of the hel,-
met, wa s s hie l ding my face, r ke p t it do wn Ld.ke th i s
- (di p s ch in t o che s t ) . So I cam e ba ck ari d I , t ook ,t he
branch p i pe and he did t he ~ s am e . t hing and he go t i n
dere a nd . he had to g ive ' i t u p a n d when he drOpped
h im he fel l back into t he t h ings and that was it ,
we n e ver, a h nev er got h im out . ' We cou ldn ' t ge t h im
' o u t - - t he r e wa sn ' t enough help there; if there had
a b een t wo,three , pro ba b l y we ·c o ulo. h av e ha uled h im
out , ' bu t enece wa s .o n l y tw o o f us there and on e
h ad to keep the bran ch p i p e o n .t.he o t her we c ou ldn' t
drop 'the branch pipe because nei the r o f us wo uld
9~ n c a r .c bc . window withou t t he hose .' .W;e I 1 then we

L.
._- -- _.....!,--

1 38
went a round ' t o the b ackth~o . Th e people
gra bbing t hem and h auling t hem away . I t \1a5 a
nigh t cif · horror , really . '. . - - , ..
M: ' ?utd i~ La s ted a ll 'night and went to mor'ning?
W: , Oh yeah, r"1ght up on ; right, u p on the nex t __ mor n-··
l og a round si x o 'clock it, was , t he light s now and it '
wa s ' . ' ', ' . encw-end ah'.it was a lot of .en e ruins
wa s t he only, t hi ng ' t hat the re wa s .t be re then and
an awful lot of bodies t here, a n awful l o t of
bo dies the r e , we got ninety-nine out ,of . t e , of
. t he bodi e s,_ a nd there was f i ve ' or six 'tha t died
af te rwa rds . you know . But t he ne x t morning we were
pick ing out t h e b od i e s a ll day and putting them
over in, t he CCC Ar mor y which i s j ustacro5sl;he '
wa y ' i n de re up .t he r e •• ' • • They were in t he r e
fo r identifica t ion. Yeah , beeh , it was a lot of
work a t t a ch ed to it , "y ou know. We never had Hme
to eat, actually we, ne ve r •• • by t he t i me we
ate , ah we 'h a d something t o eat t hat evening , ,be~ore,;
aro un d six o'cl ock . I never a te no t h i ng unti l on e
o'clock the n e x t day. Never go t a nything to eat,
never h ad' tnme-e-co u j.dn ' t get a nyth i ng ' to eat :
Yeah. , ~
. . . .. . . . .. .\ .
The fo llowing t:.,ranscript was presented o n a r adio
show on Hay 23, 1975 . .JTh is Canadian ncoedce s t tnqvco.rpo r .a-;
tion .broadca.st ~as . ,e n t i t l e d "The St . . John 's -Ho t.o c eus e s
Tii~ S:t.o.~y of th'eTrag'icK . o~ C. ' F i~e I ~ri -'1 9'4 2 , :' produced

by Grace Butt. T~etaPe is r un ,unc u t " ~'x cc p : fo~ ·:.mil'teriai

tha t IlI<IoY ha ve ,p e e n taken ?f~ of .-the 'e nd Of : ,the account • .

The n a r r a t o r is obviously F~ -;'~ke . al though he " is ' not na med:
i wa s ' o n du t~ that 'nigbt at t he ;ah eas t e nd station
an d a h we we re La s t e n Lnq t o the a h be r-n-dence , I
w-as 51 t Ung , on the s ide of ' t he bed just .a f ter .t a k-
ing o f f my 'boots a nd.1 ha d my rubbe r s by the s ide
of the bed , an d t he f i r eman t akes off ..,lhis shoes .o r
h is bo ots or whatever .he .i Wlieari ng a nd he p u ts on
h i s r u bbers an d he 'p u lls hi s pa n ts down o ver hi s
r ub bers a nd then pu l ls up hi s ' pa nts ag ain wit h his
sus pe nd er s o n 50 that whe n the .a larm rings he just
turns , ouJ:..,of · b e d, puts .hi s feet "in to h i s rubbers ,
take s h i s 's us pe nd e r s an d throws t hem u p o ver hi s '
. . ' . :~~~~~e~~ ~h~~~~~ ~~~~~ ' i~e;~ed~~=s~t hi~nlY a

.~.. -
f-

.-pilnts ~ ,go i n g' down' the pole and' ab ~ettin9 into his
position o n th~ apparatus " wha tever he 's driver,
or if he' s on the . back -o f the t r uc k or whatever
posi tiqn he's assigned. 't o ; , That night "'i n ques tion
I was the driver 'of . the east end tr uc k a nd as I
\ said I . was _sitting on the edge of t h e bed listening
to t h e barn '. dance.Ah just-decided t o take o ff my
boots and turni ng ,-my pants down ' over my rubbers
ready to go i f, a ny t h i ng should 'h a p pe n , and- lie
back in bed and listen , to the barn d a nce' and all
o f -a su dden we he a r a scream o f fir e .c ve c. the ..
r adio . - The r e ah, was seven o f us i n t±e room , it
wa s a dormitory I seven .o f us there . And the
s ergeant", he 's de a d now, ' God rest his soul, I
~ ' lo o k ed - at him an d he .jcoked a t me" he was sm ckdn '
and he l a i d ' Ilis pi pe down o n h is cha,irnext to 'his
, b e d ', he didn ' t s ay a ....ord--h e shocke d us. And he
p ut hi s fee t into . hi s r ubber s, pull ed up his pants
and ,got'ready and I , did likewise , -d e o de r 'me n did
l i ke wi s e an d- we were ready when t he bell. so u nded
on ehe apparatus f l o o r . We heard the t ele p h o ne ,
. we knew it wa s ,a message . We went to the appara tus
floo r and , t he gu a rd ¢iaid t he I<ni g hts of Co l umbus
building 'o n Harve y Roa d . So, e veryone ' j umpe d into
the i r p l a c e . I jum pe d i n t o the s e at . I was. /
driving, an d of course, t he gua r d op ened ' t h e doors
'a nd, we were away . And it d i dn 't t a ke us too ,l ,o n g
'., be cause I real ly had my f oo t on t he. a c c e lera t or ' .
pressing it t o the f loor . , I guarantee you tha t a nd
. too, d<lt night there wasn 't much tra ffi c . , An d
whatever- t ha t ' o l d LaF r anc e t ruck co u l d do she 'd i d
it that n ight go i ng u p Mil itary Road ' a nd Harvey
Roa d t hat n ight to g e t t o --t he ' fire , When , we got .uP
t o Gar r i s on Hill de re was no, tro ub l e t o sec t;he
f ire, t h e f ire was , ou t t h r ou gh the bu ild i ng. lind
we' co u ld , see the f lame i n the sky and th e re flection .
' ;~~l~t~am~n~a~,~ e:ew~o~~~ ;~eH~~~eii~~a~~~y~~~e ah \
t hr o'ug h t he roof . The central trucks, they were
a Lr-ce dy laying cu e l i ne-sof hose ' from t he h y d r a nt s

1
on , Harvey Road an d for us t o ge t a bo v e the fire, to
ge t t o the wes t o f t h e' f i r e ' so t hat we , co ul d .Jay ,
out our hose l i ne s . .We h a d to pass i . t , and the he a t
was so ' intense . that t he , Captain' had to ho ld up, h e
was o n ,the, at that time we were dri vinq le f t , and
the Cap-t ain was all. m¥ right a n d he had to hold up '

;~~, ~~:~ ~~dS~i~~~ ~~sh:~~et~~O~~~~k' ~~~~ ~~t~~e_w_e_~

Ha r ve y Road s i de over to ah, a s
~~ / th:m~~~rw~~:~:c~~y;~\~~S;i~;J:l~a~Ot~,~y'iI~~els
fa~ as , it , cou fd go .
~_ .
. .. •.... .•.•' .......,

. . - " . , . . -, _• ..,.. •• • '. -<", • • -' , _ . "~ -'.. _, .::..::...._~,~ ~~~ .~. -'- _ ... _ . - ... = .."
 , I
g et paTh,without knocki ng down Wr i g h t' s gas tank
.1

1 40

wa s o n t h e s J.de walk. But we got past anyway and we

h ad t o l a y ou r h o s e Ldne s from the f 1re to the hyd r a n t
· from aH, from ~ at the f o o t of Pre s ;' • . ah Parade " .
S treet~· t Ha-rv e y Ro a d , ,at .t h ~ junctu.re .Of LeMarchant
Road an , e n, of . course , we la id a dditional <Ld.nes
d own t o Young Stre e t -and down to ' Lo n g ' 5 Hi ll.
And a h · t hen we . started fighti ng ,t h e fi re • Of
c ourse the west e nd s t atipn came at . t he, same time
t hey we re called, so we had the central , t he west
and the eas t e nd s t.e t Iona d ere . At ,that time t he
fire W;;lS o ut, through the west side and .i t was
fear e d that', the' a h CLB Armory would .b e ignited and
t hat in t \1rn wo u l d be ,going .o n fi re "a e well as th e
Kn ights ' o f Co lumbus . So we had to pay SOT{le atten- ·
tion to the CLB Armory and ' spray some water on dat.
Alte r n ate t he hose l ine s and got themwetlj.ed
down , and t h en t u r n b a c k 'to the f i r e . During .t ne,
t im e we were work i n g :' on the wes t side a mari who is
now wi t h the 'f i r e ' d e p a r tm e n t , ' A. C . and .myse lf, we
s a w a ' b o d y i n the wi n do w o n the wes t, side next , a
man l ~ an i n g through 'the wi ndow . ~ n d ah, h e sa id
we 'l l try a nd ,g e t it and t here was t \"o u s ,o n ' t h e
\ hose l i n e" so I t u r n e d myvhe Lmet; ... roUnd so that
':'-':.t lle' lang ' pa rt t hat is u s e d t o shoot water over
yo ur 'back turned in front to s h ield tro heat. : l\ nd
he put the h o s e on me a nd I werit do wn as far as I
co u .rd go we t t e d down as. I was, l a yi n g t he vhos.e on
.' me , . a n d · I cou ld n 't reach 'em, my helme t me l t ed and
dropped down .dn .f r o n t of . my 'face , ' and my coat caught
fire a nd I h a d . to come back . . And when I came back.
I"put ' t h e no e e ro n h i m. I wee him down "w i. t h 'a s
: muc h water a s ,could g o with 'the h o s e end he went
i n and . the man waa sti ll i n t he window and ah , we
wet , I' wet liiJll do wn a s I sa i d , and .he wen t ' i n a nd '
·~~~ ·~~l~~~~m~~~~,!a~~db~i~h~~a~:~' ~~~~, a~:
d ro p p ing down ' intb t h e wi ndow , t he body was ' gone
e:s
· ins i d e the wi nd o w. So we wo r k e d o n t he fire, the n ,
, f r o m then OIl' u ntil , whe r e v e r it: wa s possib le to use
' 4 h o se l ine, but the wa t e r where we put it s eemed
tohe 'so int!:ffe ctive . It didn ' t seem to be ·taking .
any e ffect up on ene flame s a nd r e du ci ng the tempera t u re
:~=me~~n:~:; l~n;m~i~:~n:;na~~. g i;~~g~ si~~~ , i io~~dn ' t
I! t im e , ah becau s e -the fi re wa s ou t. th roug h the .
' wi n d ows , out thro ugh t he e ves, the whole building
s eemed to be on fire . 'And a h abo ve t h e building
s e e med t o be 'a beau tif ul f l a me at times o f d i tferent
co lors of a h t h,ey seemed g reen at t i me s, and yel low
I' and o r a nge a n d diff ~l'ent c olors . Th i s , i n ou r
'op i n i o n , a h We f i 9u~ di t out l ate r t hat ' it was a
 . _"" "'----',~ .--, .-' . .--;...- -.:-.-... _---_ _- - --- ....,..,:....~ .. .

I
-v~_+.- : . . . -'- _""_'_"__: '~_ II

. \ .. 14 1 ..

. t r .' me ndOUS acc';';ulation of

carbon :OOnJ ide '
burns s o methi ng l ike na tural gas . And 't hi s co n -
that 9a~'
ti nued because the r e was n't an y wind a nb t he f ire
c o n t inue d t o bu rn above, t he b uilding . Whe the r t he r e
was an awful accumul atio n in t he bod y o_f t he building
;~~;a~:~ ~~~l;~ Urt i~a;h;e~:~;~ds~:g~~~f,a~~ ~:~~:~ing
a nd go t the ox ygen with a mixture o f , ygen- -ah i t
sta rted to burn- - i t was t his t reme ndo s l ight . Of :
course , i t was said afte rwards , I reaf i t i n th~
e:~~~ :~~~~:\~cb~i~::\~; :::n ~~u: ~~g:~~n~o;qme- .•
fifty ,miles . l \ ,"

,~ But t s tape_ , ~ eveals ,that; FF ~a if ·d~reCtirig

e,

~h.i S norrative at a wide audience - - h is 'f,'9th~ " ,eXPlanati6'n s

ab ? Lt J;>oo,ts ,and ~uipfncnt . _h is l~terar~ ilmagerf. ,~n , the
drama t i c tableaux b e t we e n ,h e a nd Codner, It he ho s e layi ng
de~CriPtions a nd ~he e xplan at o r y ' mate r ial co~C'~~nih.9,:the
esbon monoxi~ c flam:~~ ~ver t he: b ~ rn ~ n g hOrel r efle ct 'a
'7,m c ern t ha .t the popUI~r, radio audience ~~t mi s s t he mean-

>ng ,~f wha t he is de,s:Cd,~i ng . The sC';cond f a p e.~ ~y com~a ri -

sen . r eveals all'll9s t a ,'s t r~ i gl-i. t (middle po in t) \ ..pr ;fcssional
" , ', ' , \ '
" ' .
fire fig ht~r '.s .e xperi~nce stocy t ha t has ,s e f t l e d i ~to a
seda te recou nting · of the .fac.ts in its 'u nc ). a ~ r a t e d flow
from I - IV with minimal ,c ormne n t '" The cormne'n ~\ .given in

sec t io n ~v concern ing t he amoun t of ' work i~~~lved in t he

fire ..a nd : 't h~ fact tha~ t :he,men were~ ~t f~d d +in9" t he

e nt ire s eries o f even ts indicate s t he e xistence o f ve s ef,-

gid 'p e r S:?na l , d~taiis t~at mig ht be '.~,~aborate~ ~ 'i 'n ""?"
performa nc e c ontex t . The s t a t e d pu rpose 'o f tAiS inte,rv i e w
/ '
wa s t o g a in i nformation about t he X. of C. fl,re and FF
I

· L
.....".~' -~-=_.~' -:-C·,~'~·~-,- -,-_.~
 ~~d" 'edu~ational ve'r ~~"ori of ' t~~-- 'a ~<;~un t: fo'~- .~ h~' · ' ~ a~io pio ~: ,: .: '
..: gr~ " ~ould b~ ,m~re ,ap p r o prii:lt e ~!th: ~x:i:.~n~e~:~xPli1~a~~;~~·: · .
of .e eo e e e f e elemen ts, ' whe~~a s I ' had intrc;du~ed : my~e i f, ' a's ' I'· "
a f~re '1;ighte.r · and ' J:l8 t.here:o~e ~'e~~ :, ~~~s,: : ~·ie~c~j: s· . ~~r~
· The, f a c t a (th?Se 'dOOumen~e'd p Loce a vo g cvree nee ,that appea r'

thr~~g~/,~petition to' ha v gca o me consi ate~cy' and th~refor~

some- .:v~lid i t y ) a s c ompexe d t~ t he sub jec tive element.s p~o:"
vided in dicates t he ' ap p arent ' p ur po s e of we k et svnerre t. Lve

St,fe C,?h 10'38, niong p rima r i iy educational lines '?o ime d a t this
more ' p opul a r aud.ie n oe , The addition , of t hese su 'bj ect ive
elements ' ( the Codner episode ' a nd thecolo~':s over ' 't he ~f ire )

.mi g h t otherwise ' not ha ve been ' r elat.ed by ' t he nar r ator

a uCliencc ,e.g., .o t h e r firc;" f i g ht e r s .

A narr.. ti've event oc c u r s j u s t prior 't o ,FF Wake's

· ' a~~.~u~' ;' ,f' :~h~ K.~·' ·~f: C. fire tha t als o . r :veil ls a character":' .
isti c o f his, pe rsonal e x pe ri e n c e narrativ~ reper tory . The .
t.r-an e crupt; re~ds as follows ,
. , ' . ' . .
M: Okay, wE!:!l may be y o u co u~d tell me a bo u t the
-s ituat ion in for ty- t wo . I k now t ha t a t t hat ti me
:i t was ' d u r i ng the war so tha t th,e' bla c ~out was
on, ,r i g h t ? , , I.
W; I could t e l l you ab o u t 't he woman 'l saved
in eh , this ' wn s i n .ni ne t e e n f o r t y- f i v e . I waa
still a sergeant but at tha~ time I wa s t e mpo-
r a r ily i n _ch arge of t he west end -s't a l;.i o n . We ,
~ o t a f i re on Sp¥ ingdale Street. It wa s in the
afternoon, oh i t was a r o u,nd five o 'c lock, I
euppose in the f a ll of th~ year , Nov e mb e r,
':~~" '~~m~~qw~~~ ~~;~u;~dth~fw~~;::~o~h~h~i~~p
s tory--a nd t he r e ' s a fellow o n "the grou nd a nd he
sa id t o me , ' ,t he r o;; ' s a woma n 'ndat, hou s e . ' Soan '
I told t he bo y s .noc t o o p en , the d oor .b e c e u a e ' i f
the y ,o p e n e d the do o r at the g round l e vel with the
f i r e cQmi ng thr o ugh t he t op t he re 'd be no cha nce ',
of ge tti ng in • . I '.to ld' t hem t o .r e e ve the door
c lose d and hoo k up · t he 'ladder , and I ,g ot into t he
r o om. I said , I asked t h e fellow ,wha t room . a nd
h e sa id " ' She wa s i n ' t ha t . r oom , " ( points ) . Cour se ,
we ' p~ t the l a dd e r . up an d I got. ,i n a nd the, very
 144",

<\~~~;~s~h~~~tIW:~!!t~:Sb=~~;O~~~O ;~11b~;~~~bdOwn
:i,nt othe bathtub. So the door was closed,
f\?rtunatelY . ' Ari~ a h I searched arounc Eh e re
alid I knew she wasn 't the r e , so I came ou nie nd
I $,aid , ' S be ' snot there ; ' We ll they said
s he \could ' be in the next room; Anyhow, we hook e d
up , t he ladder to the next" window , Broke the
wi nd o w i n a nd I got in . . It wa s 'f u l l of smoke and
I , co u ld see t he fire ou t in t he ha l lway • . So ,I
wa nt e d to . get over t hroug h t he smo k e. No bre a.th i rig
,a pp a r at us on and I "Wa nt~a to ge t aver a nd c l ose
t hat door so I could cut' of f t he smoke coming in
so r c;:ould search ' tlle room . Sol got over and I
go t .my . foot with my r u bber ' agains t · t he door . and 'I
j ammed t he d 0 61;' to, .w.it h a ban 9 ., ~oA nd I was
~ ~~~~I~~\~~C~~~I~Y {~i~~: ~~~ ~~~1:}a~~ I~h~u~e~~
thi ng'- I ,h i d me fac e af f the 'side of the bed'. I
couldn ' t see he r through .t he s moke s o t h en I kn e w
• s he wa s under the bed so I hauled her ou·t and I .
hauled he r out . , Go t ' e r in my arms .' Got her .over ,
I I co u ldn' t, I tried to h a ul h e r c ve r -e--qo t; he r ove r
, J I hau led her ove r by t he fl oor, go t he r ' by t he
· wi nd o w t ~~n I go t h er 'dp i,n my ha nd s and t hen I sa w'
t ha't all ·her ·c l o t h e s ha d be e n en fire and were all
bur n e d . ue x br e a s t s we re a Lj, burned <lnd t he , woma n ,
was : P J:Cgniln t . ·.s o . a h ,. I . go t her up Ln my a r ros .and
all got he r t. o 't he win do w and I s ho uted o u t ' I had
fi:·
~~: tw~~:~ ; h~Ow;~~ ~ns~~~~~~~~~~nt W::si~ e~'~a~: c •
of the fire departmen t then, God no.... he' s .d e a d . .
And a h they · pu t u p t wo ladders q ui c k l y a n d B. came
· up a nd one l a dde r and P . P'- , anothe r fi reman, ceree up
in th~ o t he r and t he y took nee away r zc m inc, One
t oo k her s h o uld e r s and the o ther took her .l e gs an d
t he y br ought he r down and t h e y took her ·to t he
hospital. . Sh e was all bu rnt. he r e (r uns h a nds over ,
• upper chest ) , poor woman . . She wa s in the hospi tal
a mQn th an d he r baby was born . Ao.d .a h she ,wa s t he r e
t hr e e months before they r eleased h e r , she was so
. badl y burned . Mrs. c . ,.-it .was. a Mrs . C. And i t
was a bout six months. l a t e r t hat . I recei ved a Le t t e r
' one da y a t t he we st e nd 'f i r e 's t a t i o n and this was
f ro m Mrs . C . , a nd s he as ke d me to c o me and eee. h e r,
And I went down t o s ee h er a nd s he wanted t o thank

,
· M=
. . ; . . . . . . '.
.
...
me f or' se v Lnq he r lif e . ,Tha t . was the s tory there • .
(Lau g hs)
. .' . ', . . . '. . . . . .
~
T he re 's noth ing like a p a r t i cul ar , cu stom t haf . .
you go through, or say ini t ,iation for arnewf Lz-e
fig h te r t ha t 's j ust joi ning the r cxcer . r kno w that
 J
we h ad an init iatio n f o r u e. w"'hen I wa s ' a s mo k e -
~ j umper . They tied us up and put us out ' o n ' . t h e
~~:nd:~8~:~~ ~h'i~~:r~i :~l~~~f~t an d ' b anged on
101, ' . We ll no , did n ' t do tha t . Bu t a h we ha d 'a '
hydran t "mounted o n 11. p.l a t f or m, you k n o w, and we
used to cal l ' it the ,' o u t of- t::own hy dr an t ,' , So
ye 'd tell . some -ne w fe l la when ,the y _come .Ln t 6 . a
no t t o forget now ; yer o n the out o f town -hydran t
t odi3:Y'You know , t here a r e no hydrants i n the '
ou t;- o f t own p l a ce. No wa t er sys t em.' but when' .
yo ur going t o make su re tha t y ou take tha t ,h ydra n t
with y e o Yo u kn ow . Thi s hy dr a nt , we had weighed,
a bc u t f our ' h u ndre d, pou nds , you know. -and he ' d go
deJ;;e a nd h et d t r y ' t o take and y e'd 'tell h im to .
fil l i t up wi th wa t er , ycu know , to ke ep it f illed
wit h waterta make s ur e tha t it 's f i l l ed with
wat e ;- 'w he n 'they t a k e it. (l:au gh~)

As s ee n, in t h.i s mor~ typical fi r e '-¥ xpe r i e nc E;_ na e-, .

ret.Ive , Wa ke. mani pula tes t h e nar rative fr ame t o conc entrate

' on - t ha t a sp e c t . of ,t h e ex pez-LentLa-L order, -t h a t mo s t dramati -

C~ l lY il lustra tes 't h e com.bin atidn o f sk Ll. L luck- and

timi ng .t hat go int o ' a r e s cue i n a b ur n ing dwelli ng : ' .

Si~ii a r itie s between t. h Ls- n ar r a t i v e and the 'K . , of C .

ac count t o l d b y h i m include the e st a~ l i Shment of t he - ex ac t

te mp or a l ' 5ett,ing, t he blow...,.up .c o n d i t i on,s and desc ri p t ions

~f the fire s:, and the p oJ,.ished , c o hesi ve

, "
f Low of t his
.
a ooourit. t h at, I n d I ce cee "it has been t old prev i ou ~ ly and has

, , become p oli s he d an a f i xed . The " comp l ex i t i e s of ,mov i n g

recrders , driving , t r uok s , s 1id.i.ng ' poles and even the behav-
. -~ ,
i o r of ,t h e fire itself i n the' r escue .story have be en

passed /~ver to concen e.r a t e o~ -'t h e rescue event · i~self ._ , 11; .'

; is interes-ting to note tha t in mo ~'t: o f the fire , experience

accounts! have c ol ~ e'cted. (~ !l Well a s t h e: Ha mi l ton- account:

. . " " , - .' '.
~ i. ted above ) r , t h e ac:-.ion ,t h a t o cc ur ~ o ut - o f '-awa r en e s s

.-.--- - - -_ ._. - - _. -,-- - - - - -'- ,,""

 .46
' l in s ~~e ~he iorcst' :fir e '~~' , .t h~.',burnin9 -' bUHd i ng l , i ~- cf te 'n ",

~et o f "! f r olll th ,,:, r es t o~ th~ " nar'r ative _ a n'd' 'd~·s cd be d . with .
meti c ul o us ' at t e n t i on .t? deta il, ~ ~at~ern ' ,f o llo wed b~ · wak e .
This , r evea ls thepreS~riPtiVe qua lit1~s O£ -bcith "th e -'e xpet: i - ,
e'nt i ~l .arrd np-nati ve -t e mpl a t e s in -. . fo-~ ~·irig t he n <1~ra tor -( th~

. ..
drama t ic bu ild - 'u p go l n gto t h e "fire , ar id a n un u sua I' per- .

so na li za,"-iol'i of the v i ctim ; This' na rr ati;ve a l s o re veals

. .
wak e t ak,ing .charg e o f t he d y adic ssLt ua t.Lon i n o r der " to
perform ,w h a t i s f or h im ,a muc h more meaningf\l l,.. s tor y , on~

th at t ru ly depicts t h e " work o f fir'e fJ.9 h tir\~ . a n d 'i n Wh i c,t\'

he i s t he ceneee r character. I e e xea for in f ormation On

the K.
I. ,C..
?f '. '
fire' but there ' is li ttle
. ' 9 r~tific Q~io~ ,
. .i n

.relatin~ t hat, . i t ' i s ' pr imari~y jus't

' ' ,
·a·, pop~la r me~ory in

t he mi nds 'o f, mo s t peo p le ' in . S .t , Joh n" s , and ' it h a s been

J;eco; ded elsewhere : whe re a s ' t he othe r ac c o un t , h as ' pe r so'n a l

involvement, .d r a ma an d cilthar si~

. .f o r the narrato r ,
F ire ' fi g hte r , Wakeal.so r e c o unts ~ ver s Lo n of
ano t h er f~moUS 'f 1re , , 'the I mperi.tll , oil fir e ,,' an d th~~. · tell's
an a ne cdote about{ the ' "ou t of t own hydrant , ~ . an in i :t iat io n
. ' ~ "
,
t~'ick . use,d to 'd u p e new fire f ig hte r s by. "t e ll i n g t hem th at

-'--...c.-~~ _ ... ,- ..
 \
\ 14 7
.. -\
. \ " '. ,
there a~e s oee pl a ce s whe r e t~er e i s no plumbing o ut
t oWn so ·th e~ookie has 'to , H g ~ ~e out a w'ay 'to hau l the

ma s si v e d e mo n s t r a t.i on J~~d~a nt (~eighing h u ndreds o f po u nds !

. ..t o the fire and keep 'i t f i-lled ~ith w~t?r. These l a s t ,t wo'
acco~nt s i n d i c a t e - t~e pervasive personal .c a, u t ~() ri.· .and 'c b j ec- "

tivit y Illa ~ n tain ed b y Wake · t h r o u gh ou t t he :.int e r v i ew . The

Impe r i a l oil f i re - is re~ated ',' i n very objec tive ' t e r ms wit h

the , almos t general

. conversational emphasis (u s e o !
. t he
':
'. . '
.
.
. - . " , .
t~ird person "t hr o u g hout ) diffusi~g the pe r son al i mpa c t of

t he n a r i a ti ve t e t he pc Lnt; of -ma~ing it a rep~rto.rial

ob s e r v a t i o n . ' I n a . simi,lar man n er, t he enecd cte i, s told

i n , the th i .r d pe rso n " and even t h o ugh i t is a re s po~se .t o a

"diI'ec t -que a t.I on abo ut pr a nks a nd c harac t e rs, FF l'i'a :kj!', makes ,
. " - :,.;;.,
i t clear i n j:hi s ..s ituation t h a t he will a llow meaning ful ,
persona l fe~ling E a nd Iler spcc ti~es .t o i ntr ude .f n rt> . the
. ; inte rview' only on h ~s "te rnis .

I n , s~mmarY • . the re~~rtory 'o f FF Wake c.a'n ~c , said

t.o ee'n t. a t.Lvej y re v e al an o b j ec t i vi t }' abou t h is f ire fi g ht-
i ng experie~ces t.b a t Le
v brOkfim_ 'ani/t~ice in the int~rvicw :
his o bserva. tions ~~out Supc~intendent
- . -
Codn er a nd his"rescue
stor y '. Th~ Knigh t s :'o f Co l UJl\ bu s "acc?unt's (both the .ButtS·
. .
a nd Mc Ca r l ' vers ions) reflect t h h , ceut.Ion end. o bjectivity
a nd i.~dicat~ that ?olthaugh 'the-- K. eec . ~i re i ~ recogni~ed
by h i m as 'a n impor t ant histo ri,::aleven~ ; ' 'it ha s .l it. t l.e

persorja'l ' meaning 't.o hi m and he , 1lI~y' eve~ rese nt .lor jUs~ be "
t ired of) the la'~k of atten tion giv~n 'o t he r fir t; fi gh ting

J."
 H'
inciden t s and i ndividua ls because of it.
The c ~mbin a tiori of 'c c e'j, hi s t o ~ i ca l ' material,--and .
- - " " . ' ' ,: ' , .:
' . ' . " ', . .
writ t e:n docUm entation is a r i sky business. a t bes t due to

·the . l im i ta ~ i on s , o f . documen.:a~Y r e se a r ch, the s ub j e c tiv i t y

of t he o r a l res ponses, and . t he: l ac k of parallel ism between

t he t wo Jd~dS of in formation. It Ls di f fi cult t o combine

thes~ d i spa r a t e -ty p es o f }.inf~r~ation educe -t ,he 0;a1 record

a p p e a rs too su bjective while t.he: wri h en - ~e cord oftf.'n

. remai ns too o b j ective a n d ' r emo v e d .f z'om t he c ontext of l the

event ; L ve , , t here i s no human context" i n whi ch ' i t:' c a rr be

v iewed .

The 'b a s i c .. "facts" employed i~ t he :n a r r a t i ve's .ha~fr

beco~c fi ::'Pd thr o ugh .t.he co~inaUo n of r 'e t e U l n.9 ,and an

eve r expanding , rel iance u p on ' well,,k n o wn and wi~ e l y' read
p r itl ted 'a nd ' other ' po pu t a r- sc ue c ea . wi th reg ard t o :t hc K.

ala rm,
.
of C. ' fire t he s e include t he f ollowin'g:
-
hose l ay s ,
' .
"f i r e ,s p o t t ed ,

people screami ng-, a nd pili ng up ', bodi e s ,

\ , . ," '
Qu ild ing s being we t t ed down , he at, · t he 1I;meri can p res e nce,

c lean- up, t he i nv e stig a t i o n and (l!Iost I mp c r t ent.Ly } t he con -

~ lus ions, ~b~ut the 'i n' td e n t- t hat, a r e , a ccepted by the com-
mu nity ~ -rn e perso nal 'e l e me nt s "h av e be en linked t o these

fa cts and ( d e pe nding upo n the ecete oce a s seen in the! F F

Wake ma teJ:,ia l) ,a n d t he s ubjective "i mp r e s :::.i OriS at " t he t i me

of the e vent comb ined with materia l a cq u ired at a la t e r

da t e b u t co nside red app l icabl e t o t h e a c c o unt .fe. g . , FF

. ~ - - -- - .
Wa ke I s ca rbon mon o x i de ,t h eories>,' b e c ome f used a nd c Olllprise

---- - ----- _.. _- --- -- j

r-
I

149
,' ' . :

the .combined .a cco un e', pa';ts or all 'o f wh.ich ,e xi s t as '~ .

core i il t he repertory of the ind iv id u~l th~t draws heavily
. 'u p o n th~ acc epted c o mnu,Iriity v~rs'ion ~but s eeks to q ualify

i~ ind,;i~idl.lally·. Xt i s pos sib l e tl).at as t ime goes on

the s e c luste rs of - ob j ec tive fac t and subjective account

b e g i n ·t o dec:ay lrr the di rectio n of the most cen tral or

uni que and .p e r sona.t, feat ure, ' e . 9 ~ , FF ' Wake I s t~b le'aux w ith ,

codnerc These deca ye d e .Lemenc e -t he n . b ecome fragments or

r e dac t .t o ns .o r f ul l ' fledg ed narratives that r~mai n part

the po ten t ial r~pcr.tory u ntil t he y a r c req ui red .a t ""!ItCh

,time t he y a r e ,aga i n expanded u s ~n9 .t. rie se 'c e nt r a l c l u ~ te r s; ,

as ~ n o u t li ne .
The e xpe r'tence a !1d res ulting documc~t ~ti o riof a
di: s as t er may exp a nd the ran ge o t: t he s e clus ters by "pr o -s
. . . ' . .
v i ding- a gr eater vari ~ ty o f kno wn fact'S to which s ub jective"

e leme n ts can he l ~n k e d , b !-1 t t he /eltper.ience , itse lf vm

. ~ - " . :
u e ua t t v co nform t o , the f orm of ,per s o n a l e x perience account
i n a ,gi ven gro up andwill ,reflec t 'a t t he same time t.he
c o ns is tency of, na r r a ti ve ' s t retch fo und in o t he;r p e r son al

e xpe rience ~arra tives in bo t h the individua l a nd g rou p

c e per corv . Thi s d i s as t er itse lf seems to f orc e peopl ; i nt o

' loc~ti ng a"nd hold i ng on t o. th ese i.nd ivid ua l ins i ,9h t s ,

particula rly ~f the y a re u niq u e or ' ~dd , /I dimen sion ~o
somet h i ng- tha t is c on sidered importa n t. ·f!DO~gh i~ the e ce-
'mu ni t y to b e "per i Od i c ally hrO u,9~t u p a nd di scu~ sed;, Th e
K . of C . acco unt has litt le rea l ,f u n c t io n i n the fire

-- ----- -------- - - ---'--- - '---

 -,
~; 1 5 ~

figh ters'. c:o llective r~~t"to~y in S t. ~ohn ) , because. . the y

· C~id -do v ery iitt~e b ut ll:eepother - b~ild in9' 'fr~m ~~rni~9 '
.
· Yet t he a c c o un t s
. A r~
. '
ret a i ned p r Ularily. becau se
. .
i ndiv i dua l
- -
fire men are aske d abou t t he event lind Du st be al;;le t o
. .' . . . . .
p r ov ide ,i nd ivi dua l ins i g h t s . The i nd i v id ual .lIlu s t have his .

. ve rsion. o f t he story . If taken a t f a ce v erc e and viewed

' . ' .
ou ts i de o f • th e r e pe r t ory o f tha t i n divid u a l t here "Io u l d be

no' w.aY to d e t ermi ne co nsis t e nci es or i nconsis t e;;cies ; '0

t he in f orm a t i on , i n its met ho d o f p r e s e rit il ti o n ( t he con-
- -
t.mct u 4 1 s t ra t egy f or ' i ts us c ) o r i t a re liabilit"y ;

An ~ttemPt t;:" gain additiona l in'f orma t io n abo u tb.

I , ", ,
" ."
di s as t e r f rOlll pcrsonal ·expe ri.ence -n a e r e c Lv es of p ro f es -

· s iOn a ?.s l~vol~C!d i n · t h a.t dis~'ster can ~ sa~d to h~ :

te ntati ve l y re vealed tha t ind :i: ~i du~ l , · pe rsonal acco unts

..us t · be viewed in at l east th r e e context s in order to be

i~terpretc'd correcti~ . The ' f i r a t''-i s t he sOCial~h~s.torical

co~t.e·:xt of the event based p r i a a r il y upo n
. ' . .
~r1 tb~n hi.$tori -

ca l i n f~rma tion . , The second is t h e con t e xt o f the i nter-

vi e w wi th . particular e mphasi s upOn the ',nat ur e a n d esO teric

knowledge o f t he aoo.ie l;lce ~ An d t h e t hi rd is .e b e co n text

o f ~ the i nd ividu a l narrator ' s re pe rtory li nd th e rel a t ion sh i p

ot , a given nar r a t l? ri' to ..o ther. pers o n a l e:?cpo ri e n c e ndr r a -
t i ve s of a,n i ndi vidu al an d t ho5e c .o TMlon to t he group a s a

whol e . wi t h ~flllpe c t .t o form, functio n , contc nt a n d _s t y l e .

. ' . ' , .
The iLa t t e r c oncept is roug h ly the s a me 4 5 str e t c h with th e ,

fol l o wi ng qualific a t ion ; r hetorical J t retc h re f e r s to ~

,- - - - - ---- - -- ~~- -"

 r
151

a ' n arrator 's ma nipula tion o ,f 'kriow n "referenHai and ex~ r i ,­

. entia l mOde~s as they rel~ t~ to hi. s i~dividllai r'e pe rtor y

- , .
.,. .
and a s they are cons Le trent.Ly made ' t o conform e o a certain
per'for~;mce s i t u ati o n ' or conte xt ; where a s styl e u~ua lly .
.' .
.r e eecs to a~ more . gene ral manipulation ' of experie nt ia l and

r~fer.en ~.ial ecae.ie and their consis~~nc:y with a , ~articular

c o l l e c tiv e ~ n l:J-e r of preserrt.eefon , ~ p ut i t d.?-othe r vey ,
s tretch i s discover;able primarily within ' an , indi vidual 's
ve r b al " ~epertory, 'Wh ile sty l e ' re t;ers t o a gr o u p .metho~ ·O f
pe r r c r eencc .e n d e val u a t ion ;

.T h i s v iew of the Knig hts of Co l umbus fire of ' 1942

. ~ _ . . -
~n~~ c a te s th at t ~c stretc~f pez-eo nat e xper- j en ce accoun ts
of a disaster 'c o n f or ms to the ge neral shift of emp h a s is '
. ~ - ." .
'fciund i n ? t he r co mparab le narra ti ves with ~ n ' t h e i n d iV:i d ua l

re~er tori~s . o f the narra tors who experienced the, e ve,nt.

Rat.her , t ha n su p plying t he f o I Uor i 'st or oral h i s t orian

';"i th ~ew' t.y~es ,Of d ata ' end ':h~r~ faC~S'" , thi ~ approach

a l l o~ s t h e i n:--e s tiga t o r to bette r u nd e rs ~and th e, context

of the ac.tual event ana an inaiv idual' s ' r eac t Io n t o it on

bot h a hi stor i c a l (d iac hr o nic) and ahis torica l , (sy n chronic)

. l ~v'7 1 by' vit;wing s h i f t s-' i n emphae Ls ag a i ns t a compa rative .

f r amework '- Th e' ma in v a lue of f o lklore to o r a l his t o r y

( f r om' th i s ' pe'rspective) i s contextual , while the llIain

,
In a mo r e contempo rary fire , fig hting setti n g, t his '

L. .
>_. - . ~---_ .-,-,-,~-
 152 .:

to s pe c i f i c: ~recipl tatin g facto: rs like sit uations ~r .

.- . .. . .' .' .
. _..:.. .. lo~ti~~.~ tha t r~~i n~ all . ~n.diV:idua~ '" . a~ · e~.r l ier ..e~~er.~.­
ence , eopfcs th~ t ari;;,ein narra tive .sessl?ns 'tha't t r igge r ·
specific melllOrlu . or ev'e ~ j us t t he "ment~on 'oi a~ i nd .ivi"d-:
ual' s ' n~ . As ·ill u~tra t~d 'i n t he t::n i g ht s ' of co lumbus
'f i ~e mate r ia l, . however, . t he his torica l · f acts ·, ee: a n
·eve~i a.re' ' I tre' ~ ehed' · ·in t he ';·ii~~~ti6n o~ indiVid.ua ·l - 9 r ·,¢ll :-.:·'
.. tu-r~l .view a nd therefore mus t b e i nt c ; pr ete d '1 n te r~·~ ·Of
the ' o6cupatio~al , cU:l t ur e · '~ ontex t ; , " Th e , f l?i l ow'in g narraU-';e
. ' . . 1
session . illustra t e s . the i mpor t a n ce' of u ndc r ~tandin9 . this .
, b roader context eeee ee iriterpr~~a ti6n s ; ot' v erp';'l ~ te r ~ a l ' .
,.:ca'l'l be .made :

The ·sce~e '1st he s i t t i n g : r "oo m la~o a t · nfgnt a nd

the f i r e figh t e r s are watchi ng t he ne ws . It story
abOu t a h ote l f ire i n .New York City comes o n ' a nd
t hey show bod ies o f .e nwnber o f e lderly resida nts
be i ng ta ke n ou t on sheet-draped 5tretchers , As t h e
. news co n t i n ues , the f o ur men in the roam 'e nga q e
in t he fo llowing e xc hange ':
l~-t . FP ; : Shit man , t hos e ~ple l ook p r et ty ·c r i s p . j; '
You s e e tha t one was be nt r .ight up? Probably looked
like a s p l it ho t dog. . . ,
2nd . Ff': : ~ tl.e s you c a.n 't even t e l l they' r e
} . '.~
~~P~~~h~e~q~l~;ew:~~t~v~~h~~~~~ ' ~n~ ~e;~~~e~ne
.wha t 1· though t was one of t hose rubber_. baby dolls
' a l l, b ur nt up a nd th rew ·it o u t t he win dow . But a s I
t h r e w it . out t h e ar-m- s ocket popped ot f and it was
a r e a l k i d·- j us t:. bur n ed ' t o s h i t. · ·
1s t . F P: . That ' s · like -t.he nigh t down o n Twelfth .
St reet. I ' ve neve r seen so . ma ny k ids i n o ne p lace.
Wha t was t hat about five o r s i x ki ds i n that p lace? "
2nd • .FF I, Yeah , tha t was wi t h Enginl'l 2 th at night .
16 t . FF: We 'ma de that turn on Twe lf th St r e e t ha l f
., ~ as lee p a bout th ree o 'clock i n the mor n i ng and . t ha t
s h it mus t have been blowing twe nty- f,ive f eet ou t
i n -t.he s tree t.
3r d • . FF: Wha t floo r was~at ?
1 st. . r r : Second or third f l oor •. I mean . talk a bo u t '
':tak i ng you uPCi But t he n t he y brough t ou t o ne kid
·. ·: - -

, --
L.
__ __ _C__;)
 and t ha t v aa n I t .un u au ak b ut ,t he n they j ust k e pt
,c o mi ng ou f ; ~' , .: . .
zna . FF: . r.o e t; a];nosta l l o f t h em 'd i d n ' t we ?
1 s t , ' FF : We l l they' W\Jtll d c cee o u t wi t h on e kid
• and yo u ' d . t h i nk wel l that was n o rma l. · . But t hen
t.h ey 'c o me"out with . an other a nd anot he r , an d you
didn't t hi nk . it was goi n g . t o , s t o p, ' t hey carne ou t
wi th s o many ' k ids i n this place . .
~th . FF : ., I wen t o ut wi t h 13 Eng in e o ne nig h t -a n d
t hey h ad .s t x pe opl e i n t he f;-on t ro o m o f a .two , " .
s to ry a nd t hey were in c inera t e d righ t t he r e. Th e y
t h r e w a rnol o t o v c ock t a i l i n t he fron t door aroun d .
een -c- c toc x a t ni g h t . I me an we're ,rolling down
t he s treet and the re ',5 snow on the ground a nd 'we ' r e
t hrowi ng ladders a n d t h i s gu y jW11PS o u t of th e
second f l oo r wi ndow , an d he l a n ds rig h t on' his head
~ nd .he " e - a l ready b u rn t to s hit., But . ·i !l t he fron t
r oom there i s noth i: n g bu.t bod i es .eeacke a r .i g ht . o n
top of each other. ,
2 nd . FF: You know t he f u nhy p a r t o f tha t is whe n
y o u f i nd these _~d i e s" h o w many t i mes' do y o u f.i nd
~~~~9~U~~:~ ~;r~~~ ~~~ :~~d~~~y' ~;~ ~~e;:t
fl.l r t he r . · .
a: ny r"
jrd . 'FF : ' YO~o~~' w'; i;d' s tUff': ( Li k; th~t' g ~'f
o n that , matt r ess. He must hav e been slllok.i ng an d
d Led.be Eo r e ' t hat fi re ever go t t o hi m ." aee eu ee h e
was no t h i ng b u t bare bon e s on t h e s prings by t he .
t i me w,e got to him . " . . ..i
1 s t . FF: Th a t r e mi n ds me of' th a t <jUY f r om Tr uck l '
t h at n i g ht . We ha d t hi s p l a ce that wa s c o mpl e t e l y ;
'-- o f f ....hen we .~d up-- ~hit blo win<j o ut into t he
street . We finall y 'maklf i~ up · t he stai rs t o t he.
door of t h i s ' a par t me nt a nd he r e 's tl1.i s guy layi n
" a c r os s t he t hresho ld burnt to s hit . So t h is r uc ker
f r o m Truck ' l bends down a nd looks .e e h i m,f r om one
s ide an d t he n ....alks .ar c u n d and bands ·d own,' a nd ' l o o k s
a t h i m from. t he o the r. T h en h e ·t hr o w s' up his ha n d s
~,:,~rt~~~<j~~a~ , ~n~h ~:~~~ • An
: . par~ o ~, t he b all. '

Taken OUt o,f c oncext., ~his n ar rativ~ r OUrid'in whiC h .

' tir e Ugh't e rs tal k about vari~us f i.r~ · vi c t iRls they have
on te l e v iSion ) .
see n (pre c i p i tated , by t h e ir eppeara n c e"

~i9ht be Vi~w~d aee 9hOUliSh" ;~ i~pi~y o f _their inS~nS1tiV":, \

t t y ·.a n d c a l lousne ss .

.u
 " 1 54
. ," , .' .
emoHo~_al con text of the ~~cu~at io'n , .h owev e.': ', we ca n mo :r~
·.aSi~Y·· ~nder~tand that. ·~tds· 'O bj ectif ~~ation' of -t he~ead is

. " .. -. .
Cl os el"y linked to nar r a t ives a bout t he "u n usual ', an d

s.i9n~,~:i~ant.·. _i.n _ the p ast are accid~nt " -~ tcoun tS" ~hat- r e tai n
w.i t hi rf the c o t i ec e ave mem o ry of t he. group t he' variet y of

mi'stake s' -~nd ,m ish a p s encounte~ed o~ tti"e j o b . The~e rang e

fr OOl ~ino ~ -t~m pora ry i n j u ries 'i i ke cuts and scra pes ;
." ,, '
through mor e 's e ri"o u s and pe m a n e nt mishaps such as .spr a i ned

- - "-'-.:....:...._- ---".__.•..
to backs and Jme e s, . ~o ,~ccou~~ Of.: f ,ataliti. es
A
a~~ ;:~ [i~P':{~.':'_ ~'~ "
i njury: : Lin ked to , other p r ot ec t 'i ve or cm,e~t. media ,w1t!t -

in Oecup ati6.lla l , 'cuj. c ur e .L d.k e una Uth~~i :z;ed 5h6rt 'cut~;

.
' : " . ..' ": , -"
, . -'
p e rsona l . o r "gover nment work" usi-ng co m pan y - ma t erials ,
. ' . ,
s"abotage . pi if~ring and s t e aling . ' acci d ent a c count s ' pro-
vide a me ;a5ur e of p rotection and control td wo~keC" s ' by .

g iV:ing t hem a'n infor~~l1Y d~riV'ed ' ~thod of ' eerr- ;

det;~il:la:~ion ' i.n'"a' tio~entiallY ' host11T ~hd ' e,~~l~it'ive work
envtronroent.c. Man agement ' i s necClssaril y ' vi e wed as t he
. '. . " . . . • '1
en~my from this per epecta.ve 5i~ce many o~ , th ~ , 1II08 t_ r epe t i- .
t iou5, - exploit at~ve .~ and da nger ous tec hn fqu~s' which wor ke:.;~

a re forced t o perform are . imposed by ma na gem e nt which (f r om'

t he.. workers ' ~oint Of V~~Wl al~ays 'sa~' r i fic~;> t hei r he~1~h .

a nd we11-being f or fin ancia l ga in . . Sih~e he too must live

on the . p r o·f i t s . gen~rated b;'t~e wor~ he pe;" ~orms. how~ver , .'
the indi ~ idu"a1 a ttempts to pro t e c t ., e x p re s s ' ' o r 're v e nge

- himsei ~ by K\ai ntai~ingthis cove rt Cu1t.ura i _.net wo"r k , I

concentra te .here on a ccident ac c o unt s b e ca u s e ' they a re '
" th~ mos t d'rilm~tic -7n d o~~rt 'verbalexan::ples of th i s pro t;~c"- .
t ive network , rath~r th'anteved 1ing as p e ct s of Cove ~~ '~o rk
c ulture whi c h a re e xtrelllc 1 y ' sen sit i ve •. . Ariy expos u xe of
. .
- t J;l.e la tte,~ ' to out8 i~ersl s an exPlo{ta tion'_'.~f the c ulture
no ~tter how' we ll , ~nte1ti~ned t he ,investigator . ., '_
Ac c ident narrati ves c,la be di v ided ·i n t o t h e three
( ' " -
.
. ,. " , ,'.' " '

broad ' aeai.dent

.
catego ries mentio ned a bove , b e ginn inq., wi th

observ a tions ,a b out . x e ece e e ne llli n or i nj~ri e s . o n t he : j o~ and

 ;'ov~ n9, 't o ~e1llOre "cent'rai, det~ile d aci:::~untS, ':conc~rnirig
Illbre s~rious 'i n j u r i es a nd 'detaile d ' na rr~ t i.;"~ s ~bout 'c l ose

. C~1~.S ., '~he " fOll0Wi~~ na~r' a t, i.~~s' ' p ~ovide ex~mples--C; f b~th~ .
'T he s ce n e f~r thifi ' nar ra ti ve&xchange 'i s t he :'
sitting r oom where f our f i re"1:i g ht e r s and rnyse l~ .
. are dr i n king c offee l ate 'a t ni ght a f t er just co mi ng .
baek f :r:om a f als e a l a l1U; ,
.' .. ' :
l.st·: FF : ,Whateve r happe ned t o t hat ,g u y wh o got
~~~~ ,~~i~:~e on t he r oo: wohen i t w~ s"s,o .en o wy
2nd. ' FF : You know · t~a t' guy who t ried · \ 0 g r abt,nc
down spout? , - ' , '
arc . FF: NO what · happened was that he was tryi n g -
t::o pull. a Ta r z an a n d he jumped across and g ra bbe d
the downspout a nd h e fell i n the backya rd . ', ,,we had '
a closet and a cock lo ft off and .· . . •
2nd . FF:' He tr'ie d ' to <:p do-In the downspout ' o r 'some »
thin g like that. • • . . '.
3rd . FP: But any~ ay he ended up' i n the backyar d '. , ,'
1 s t . l"P : As old 'as t hese buildings are , 'r ' d never
h a ng o n ' te-a d a lin 'd01o'nsp out. • ' \.
~~~~ ~~h ,:h~ ~~e~ "ve ."?" t hem " " j~st; .bY h:~:~ ~.ng ,
4th, FP: ' Co l o r ne t rap p ed . I ' m gone • . 1 'd on ' t ' even
l ik e these damn· f i re esc a pe s . Ha lf · t he time t he y 're
. o nly held u p wit h .coat ha nqer s . o r som e th i ng--lhe
d a mn bol t s or mor tar re e.eec ou t lo ng a go• . ~" , '~' .
I kno\ll t h is one gu y who really <Jot ac re....ed up ; ' ue
'<Jot his l eg "c u t of f down to th e ba r e kxm e , . " TI •
t r i angula r p i e ce of glass ' out of one of tne s cc r d -
s tyled ' s ky- l i <Jhts. I t h i nk th at he j u s t w en t-eo o ne,
he had bee n on one and ju s t gone to t wo , l gue ss that
wa s it . But anywa y this glass c ut e v eryt h i ng i n .
, h i s leg--all of the , t end o n s and when ' they s ewed
h im up they didn't take cere oe ,t he e endorra and s o
when the y to o k of f t he .c e et his f oot slapped, up
against his l e g : So t he y cut 'h i mope n aga i n end." ,
spliced all of the t e ndons 'and whe n they took t h e
cast' off that tillle ' h i s foo t dropped . : ' So they 4id .
i t a third time and spli c e d al ~ €he t e ndon s in t o
hi s- big to e and s o it,no w has thi s big thing to · .' .
i t , and . he puts alr of t\i.s weight onl h .l.s heel.' ~ut ·
he has spent three a nd a half yean on sic k leave.
P.O.D . ~ Arid· then ,they retired him 01
disabi lity." 2 5

T h e , sce n e ' fo r ·"'th 'i s :. ~~r~~~~ve : .i..~" ·a oi\~":'on-one tnt~~'~

. v iew s i tu.a ti ~ n i n " , wh ich .I was a sking- a fire , figh ter :
 ,foF': : ~ I ,'~as ~~ill , I n the sq ua d whe n this h appened "
but we gd t a run for a , fraternity ' bouse at G .,", . ,
' a n d ma n I came c lose to b uy i ng the fa r m o n this
" o n e . We pu lled up and the nail s ,we r e burn i ng in
th i s place--:'I mean itwas wel l off . ' We went. in ,t he
front, door and t he officer tolA the chi ef ,we were ,
goin g to need h elp bec a u s e , we thou9l1 t ~the r e were a
l ot of people in there . We we n t up t he s econd and
~e~h:~: ~;r~i:~~~~C:~ ' ~:' ~U~e~tw:: ;~~s~:l;~d ~
we~l. ' Wel l 'I g ot I n this room and g o t cu rned aro un d "
. an d I , 'c o u l d n ' t f ind my way. ou t and ' ma n it 'was '
,g e t ti n g s ome lFind a .h ot; in there . So , I t ho u g h t , ' we ll
th i s -L s . it.' . I thou ght of my fam ily .a n d my kids a nd
< "I,' '
I , won dere d wh a t the h e l l I was doing ~here • Bu t I
figu~ e I h a d ,to try ,at l ed's t o nce more so I t o ok
f i v e ' ad sucks 'of pure oxygen out. of .the McCa a
' a n d., mehow made it to t he top of the s t airs Whe r e
;~~ " ~~~ an1:l.ma~s " : the sq uad ,,!,er~ ,c :~,i ~g ~p ,: to
e
' ~,1).l~hOU~h'.bO~h :o,f t h,e s e sto~ies ' m~9ht·'~PPe~/' to be ,

OV~! lY d;~matiC :p r 'g r i,p llic to t he ou tsider . ' th.~~:. represerit,

extreme ly c oeenon , fo I:Jtisf'of accident accou nts in many -o c c up a -
, .. , ' ':1 " ,· , . ' : . ' " ',

tiQ!is-.~re, '- !.~ght~ng.. .-: Th.~ 7f~,st 'a~'~oun~ , de~~HS, .

n o t o n l y the ca~sc 9f t h e inj u.J:'Y (shatte r ed g lass '1"a l ling' ,

f~o,m a ~r~~e;~': s~y-ii9,~·~) .,bU:~ ,th; Sh?d~Y s~rg~ry th~t , tu;n,~

'a -s e':io~J'~~:u t' ~Q,~,qrave, .~n,j ur~~""?-ht~)a :i~:~~time, 'd iSa~i~it; .
B~yond jus"t a c t i n g 'a s '-a ,verbal . warni I:l9 concer n i n g "s~c if.-ic

d~ngers on the jOb~ t h i s s~o;:j, a l so :e~~r~sses "t~~' ~~~s' t~~-'

. ,'-, ' , ': "" ' " " :"" " , , , ' ', ' '. '
.i i on a of ,a grou p , o~ . ~rkers~~o ~re. a t , th~ mercy : Of, the.
p~ysie"ians : and~u~g'~ons ..~ho, are'. hir,e'~' by man,age ment . uc man
. their ·c i i n i 6 s . F ire fi~~ters;. , lik e "million s ~f orli~~
.,' " i" " " , "' , " " .
worker~ . a re ' ~orced to :' ~.eve lop , t h e i r · o wn fo.rms , ~f p r ote c.l

r.:
 158
. . , ..
prac titi on ers of fol k , medici ne) in aft 'a tle~pt" t o pr o tect
.- the~sei.ves n ot -~n~y fr~~ t he danger's o f. the ~ci;k ~iace' ;
but ~ 1So' from ,t he poor me~ i ~ Al. ~reatment. Whic h ' t .he y
r e c e i ve f ro m company .physic ians . Stor ies, such .es t his
one re in,force that informal , protective network .

• _, Th·~ ~econd':narr~ti~, ' is;a mor~. "d e t a"i l e d ; n.e~,,:~n\iSS

a ccount t ha t refleJts the':r esull:.l;lof getting tra pped lind

'i o's~ i~ ~. bur~.i'n 9 b~ildi~9--a ~alrlY 'c ornmon: ex~eri~nc:

a mong-lit f ire fighters. The need to' g ive it one more t ry

~ef~~e 9ivin, ~P, i~PliC'.' f~fth t in. ~.~ 9ffor~~ '.O f' ' O~her~ .
t o atte~pt · a rescue a.nd .t he i f t e J:nal d ia logue "i n this ': "
s tory makes i t an ,e x tr~me ly re~eali~9 'account. Accident
' ". " ,' . , ' .
narrati ve s , pa rt i cu larly t he neex-su s s a ccounts , -i l l us-
" ." . . .
t r a t e i n ' som e d e t a il t he spec ifi c s ' o~ a f ire fi g h t e r ' s
h a;a rds o n - a fire : Thi s persona lizing of _the emotions
. f~lt d urin g "t he experience o f t he c lose ~ a l1 , no t on!y
" " " - , -
' h ~ i g h!:en s, t~e i nt e r e s t .of, t h e audience a nd the utili ty of .
the informa t i on - be i n g ' passed ' along, it a lso reinf o rces tihe

ex~ression of 'a ve~'y h uma n nce~ to articulate !ea r in an

of . its 'v a r i o us _ man ~ fe.st.a t i on s - i n ,the 6ccup at 'ion~1 cu lture •
. I f other nariatives , .lik~ t no se a bout -characters , of fic e r s
and ind1vi~ual ;flre: houses , defin~ .t he ~x tcdor ' ~ u ltural
bO~nda·r"i.~~S .o f . fire.fic;J~ti~9 ' c ~i~~~e' b; distit'l'9~i6hin'9
 and psycholog!calinterna l boundar ie~ o f ' t"~;aJ;" .. ~ · de fil:Ii 'ng.
. ' , ' ,: '.'.' . ". ' ' .' . -1:' $:"'
'the limits of humanendq.r an c e . i n the mo.s t "fu.n 'da m.
:e'nta lly
. ' . ' . ' ,

fri9h~.eni!19Si,tuo3 ~o~Of being inSid~ .e b~r~.i;g b~~14i~g.

The most s erious ac c ident a c c? l!nts 'd eal , wi th. perma-
n enevser-Lcue in jury and ath. , · I t · i ;: ·im~rtant. t~ uri~e~- ,I

s~and how membe rs of a n .occupe iona l group' v e r ba.l l y

c ul ture .
' Th i s s t6 wu s t o l d i n a 9roup s cs siQn with thre e
oth er ' .r-e f ighters ' and niyse lf pre s en t . The narra ~
tor t l d t he s t o r y at my r-eq uc s Cvso t hat I could
t ap c t . .
FF:I a f riend ~f mdnecscme ye a rs b a ck , wh o-we s .
"in j e 4 q ui te b ad ly ~ , We we r e f~gh ting afire _o ver
h ece . i n M. E . a n d ' li e was lay ingou.t • .' And it was an
e a rl y, p re -dawn fire a nd the r e wa s ' 50 muc h smo k e,
they. ' di'dn ' t know whi ch ho use was b urn i ng. And , af t e r
· he hoo ke d ' up, t h e ' ~um p e r he ca me , in a nd t he ' f ire
wa s i n ' t he ba s eme n t . And ' a s the excrv qo e s , or 'a t
least he t old me ', he a s ked where is i t , ' and t he y
t o l d him it was down s tair s; ue
e s e ueed positi o n
on the: li ne in f ront o f the · li'n ljl,ma n. He was going
t o adva nce i t down t h e s e e ps . , Well in t he hea t and
smok e a nd the confusion, \t h e off.icer d idn' t kn ow
that there were two, men i f!. fro nt o f him- -he thought '
t he re wa s o ne " . So, when t he y sa i d a ba ndon t h e b ui l d -
t~;~ ,~~~r~~~~Y f~~~h~~~ h~~ ~:l~:d ' ~~~~~~h~ns~~~s
fi r e. lie ha d t hird ' degrela burns tha t went right up
h i s ni g ht pa nts . ' And a t , t he t im e we had diffelllent
~~~~~n~ec~:;~ ; t ~~~n~~ , e:~ t~:;e~fi i:a~~C:n~i~~: only '
was . -And he went f r om ab out, tw o-hundred pounds
down to about ,o n e - hu nd r e d , f,orty- seven pound s . !fe' s
ba ck up to whe re , he ' was now . They retired him and
he, and maybe o ne othe r, fire- , fighter I can remember
~:~~ ' ~~:a~~tlt~~O i*~e~~\;~ ~~tw~:~~~~~~~:~ ~~~er~

. •'.~~'".~=".~". -'[=~_.
wear'because of so many skin grafts ,a nd the gloves -
 160

~~~~.~~~ u~\~:ss,~:~~i~~y~~g~d =±~r;~t -~~l~i~~;~

I

. f ell do wn the s teps i n a co r ner - . - Th e who l e ' ' t i me

fi r e rolling rig ht o ve r h drn- o-h e ' waif in i t. And he
said h e j ust knew h e wa s go :i. ~g ' t o die . . Th e y fina lly
came i n -a nd g o t hi m a nd , pq Iled ,h i m o u t . Wha t had
happene d i s t he o f f i c er t oo k a c o un t whe f! they got
outs i d e a nd d i scovered that t h e r e was 11 man -mis s i n g .
:~~u~;~ ~:tm~~ :~~s~~f! hi~~u~~ff~~~n~e~i:P~~ ~~~ng
a bout som~thing that happened i n twe n t y or t hi'rty ,. , ..-
~~C~~~~:{~O~ei~a:~1~ti~a~:e~:~e~~:tli~~g~n ~~~ r~~~y ."
other man --t he y pro v ed that. he n ever , p u t h is f a c e
piece on be c au s e the i n s ide of i t was cove r ed wit h -.
s oo t • • • • Righ t .e rt.cr hc wa s "b uJ::ned we had a
te r rib l e fire u p ,o n Georgia Ave n ue and Ri 't t. e rrh o u ae ,
I t, wa s . the d a y af ter Christmas and the fue broke
ou t a round noon a nd . t here were still pe op le i n t h e
stor e . And as we ' were going ' i n we could h e a r
~:~~i~l~~~e~~~~s~~an;u~~p~~iri:n~a=ht · ~~~~:~ t
a bou t this guy wh o ' h ad be en . bu rned - -you could
.
f e e l t h e h e a t ri ght t h rough ,lou r , b o o t s . ,You ' d
be thinking 'a ll kinds of t hi n g s - - yo u r mi nd i s
you r worse enemy," , you knew, The rur t.ner you
get i n the re, the ho tte r ,' it gets ' a nd e v er y t hi ~ _g' .
i n your 'b od y i s ,t e l l i n g yo u to 'g e t , u p a nd r u n 'o u t '
o f there . ·· Ea c h man go ing in t here-- you'r e h u ma n
and i ts no t a nox maI condition . But I was t h i n k~ -,
. i ng abo u t t h is guy th e -wnoae time .a nd wh a t; happened
wa s . t he s tor e wen t 't,o a t h i r d aj a rm • .And . it b r ok e '
o utabClUt 12: 15 i ri t he , a f t ernoon :an d I ...·a s ' r e l i e v e d
o n .t h e . fVe. g r o und ' a r o und six a n d went home ' and
watched mY,s el f on t h e ,n ews . 27 ;

Th i s narra tive pot o n l y,.' ~llu s trate s t he , i n te r n a l .

. . " " . . , ' ,
, t ho u gh t s o f a' tiJ:e fi gh te r a s he ~attl es wi t h i n h~ms~ lf ~he

normal human .f e a r o f fir e', it·· also ( in it·s d,e plction "o f t,he
i n j ure d . fir~ fi ghter' s o Ver- e a g etness 'a nci' the Office r,'s

.ov e r s i gh t ) e ~tends a \ ~~~rd ~ f cau t i o n ~o o ,ther ' f ir'e figh t ers

who .find ·t h e ms e lves in What .Ls for mo st 'wo r k e r s i n th.?-~

o trad~ o~~ ?f;th~' mcst 'd a ng e r o u s si.tti ut i o ns pos sible-'~a

ba5e~eJli fir.~.E~ch ' inch _ c::. raw~ed down a sup;er~ea ted hallwa~
 , 1 61-

pushes a fi re fighter, farther and fa~theraway fro~

rea lity as ' we kn~ it toward a situation where ins tinc~ ,
must give \ilay to conditioning. The :on1ything that allo ws
a person to do tha t more t ha n o nce is knowi ng that - others
" "
who you trust will shaxe your fear . and still .do what has
"" "

to be don'e . And a large ,part 'of that expectation is .based

o n the st:Jari>ng of i n f or ma t i on about othe 'rs who have t.a ken
that: ' I n t e r n a l e x p1? r a tio n to a n e xtreine ' and pa ssed, o n
thei'~ e x pe r ienc e s i ri . na r r a t i ve fo~m ,

. Accident narratives are in a' sense t he ,i n f o rmal

. ' . ' -.
r e ee ex c n ar~ of t he fir~ fight~:.- ~~ t~;e julft. as .tihcy a r e
in -c cbc r da ng e rous occupations . In t h e a b~e nc e , o f , wi de - '

s pr e a d indu~tr~nd g~vernm.o. ot oxp~'iment' to te,t ";quip-

me:nt -,and tee ighes fro pro tecti ve c l o t h ing to the use
of a i r su pp ort s tems, the c ur ren t .generation of fire
fighter s · ha s o nly to l oo k a'n d li s te n to t he i r p c cd ec e~ 5 0 rs

for warn i~gs abou t t h e dan~;~'s they fa ce 'a nd 'wa ys _ to .

protect themselves f c Olll thos~ da~ger:i. .s eo e r e s . au c h as
the o ne ~bove' lurilf"'"#l~d cardiovasculll:~
.and widespread'
" '. , . . - ."
ail- '

m1n~s ~mong reti r~d .fire ft,ghte~5 a t t e s t t.o It he ~nhuman ..

but e f f e cti ve manner .i n which knowledge about these ,dangers
., ' , ' ." " 'i-' '" ,
is won and pa::>sedon to the next' g e'n~ra tio,n c,f ~ikerl;l.
As w~ heve traced the development of , verb'al inter:-
action i n t he Work place f r om te~hnical ' ter~s an d 'n i ck n ame s ,

th~OU9h c~nversatio~s', c~~tiques· .~nd stci~yte'llin9. - sessio;ri's~

and fi n ally t o .o r a l hi stC?r i c a l ' arid accident accou~t8. , we

"
 , .' 162 ".:'
have been' 'e dq~ng ' ~ve'r ci.ose~ ~ nar rll:t1ve: that ' ~ro";ide
g r e a t e; oPPO,r:t.unltie~ · '~ or i ~di';id~ l con t r o l a nd , p e r -

f orma nc e ..i n ene ve rbal ' e xchange . Th ill I ndi v i d ~al cont ~ol
,' . :'r eac~~~ it~ lIIOst el~borate - f?~ ~~ . tJ.'e ~x'tC:nded pe Fsonal

. ex~~~ence na'cr at i VC; Of t en told: as ~ refll.ini sccn~e, <It a

r e t i ;;'eme n t Jli nne r, ca r d ' g ~e o r o t her s o c i a l oc c a si on '
. .' ..,ruir e Old- t'i~rs congr~'gat~ , these l e·ng ht.y : ~ers~nal

ecccunee 'are iniport~n t n ot only £.or t.hei r en te r tai n men t

, I " . ' \

va lue , bu t a l so du e ec the , s ymbo l i sm , e mot iO n an d hi s t o r i -

~al det~i~ whi ch ' the y c o nta i n ; ;~'e 'f~llOwing ac~ount: ,
tak~ri fr~ my smo ke ,j umpe r ' c~llec tion . · ~ s "a n 'e~ ~reme iy ~
. . '.
" ~ l a bor ate , exampl e , bu t i t is us eful . beca us e it i nvi te s ..
,a oa l y s i s on a varie t y of l e vels .
Skinny i s j u~p s t o ry wa s t old ev ery s e aso n t hat I
. wo rked as a sflloke j'~ per ,f r o m 19~5 to 1969 , . I t would
. . '. . / . .
-us ua l ly be d rag- ge4 ou~ o f. ;h i fll late lit n i ght d urJ ng the
l a s t big bee r b~s·t· tha t 'lDarke d t he e nd ofthe ' s~'ason : ' At
. ." ' . " .. '".'
-. t he Se oc c a sio n s abou t ' t we n t y - fi v e t.o .thir t y o f u s wou ld be .
S it~1n9 ':'around the l a rqe ' ta~~"es l n t he b,A"k room o~ t he
Pa stilllC Ta vern in ne d moed , Orl:90 n . We wou l d be s u r rounded
. " ' . ~

b y ernpt.y p itcher~ o f b e e r ,a nd have b e e n 'r e ga l i ng ou r s e lve s

with sto~ie ~ ':'and ~a8 t , s easo n 5, ad ve nture s.
lie s 'a bo u t ' t he I

' . . . ' ~ ventua llY· on e' o f ~he more exp~rienced jl,lmper:8 , woul~ 8ay'
. " . '-ilc;~ethin9 " like, "He y, l et ' sge t : Skinn'y , t~ ' t e ll abo ut h'is
" .. .. . . . .' .. , ,. . ," " ..
. . .. . / P, j ump." :' All wo u l d ~ oin . i n a nd co ax ~ ilQ until he WQu l d

. c::::. st:art th~ sto~Y . Wheo I ~ir.••: hm d It . Skin~~ WOUld:

, . , '.. .... . . '

".
 ne v e-be e n abou~:thirtY_-Hv~ a~d had -~een-'in ' 't ~e', ' occupa-

ti.~ri Si~:~eh:o:::'K:i::_t:~:: ,; recording sit~ation wa\ a

.~eunion· between mYSelf., , Ski~ny, ' Tony p~rCi~~ squ a,d"-
lea?er and train~r at ~edmondla~d., P7M
.~ebUle~ • ..~.. f.~ llow , .
. j um~~r. ' 1 h ad r e t u r n e d eo ,t h i s par\of t he . stat ~ to di,s -
cue s jumping and had explained to a ll of them tha t I was

attem~tin9 .to record as muc h "oral ma~erial as po s a LbLe i"n

the i~terest of com~iling~a" c~llection ~s ~a~~ of a co urse

. 1 w a s then taking at the University of Oregon i n ' f o l k l o r e . .

. . .
They were eager to, par-tIc Lpaee '~ nd as the nigh t wore on
and we drank a fe~ more bee r s , t !li s j ump 's t o r y sese ton.;

began to take on the ac tive g i v e - a nd -ta ke of a normal

",' J. bull se$8ion '1ike the many i~· ·which' we had ·par ti c ipa t~d

over the four ye ar pe r i od: in ~hich I worked , as a jump~r _

, out of Redmond. The :s t or y i s to ld Ln the , foli'owing manner:
. . . v '
i Sk i n ny: Well,anyWay, this beppened in t he f irs t
,~ ~~~ ' ~~- ;Uirfeti~: ' t;~: ;i" ~e~~: ' ~~e;~,ee~~;;~hi~~t '
goC!s wrong. I : mean it. was fantastic. I n this case
s

there was o nl y one thi.ng t hat. didn't. go wr o ng and

tha.t was t h e fire itsu l f . . Tpe fi re wasn't 1:,00'
much • . It was f a i r l y easy to ' control; i t was a ll o n
the ground . It wa s n ' t , too l a r ge . But otherwise , for
th ree da ys why nothin' else went right. We- -l --had
a , jump p ar t ne r who was - -w called h im Lightltllo r.se
Harry ,because ne - wa ev s o wkwa r d and ' he was kinda
s t umb I in ' ove.rih i me e Lf 11 ,t he t i me and he wasn' t
too we )..1 l iked; ' it was one o f , t ho s e .de a l s - - t ha t I,
t alke d abo ut before--I:· l wa y s go t uc k wi th the
g uy tha t ' nobody else ' wan • . ut a.n ay, he was a
rook ie and it was his fi rst f i r e jump got
this , c a l l about n ine in t he mor ni ng . i t wa s ' a f i r e
in ·~ he. G'ifford Pinchot forest. , And it wa s ' t he fir s t
time t ha t the Gi fford.Pincho t had e ve r aske~ f

.~---~-_."U '
 16'
jumpers ,o r " had <;J0 t te n t hem a s far - a s ' t h a t goes , so
it was gan n a be the fir st fi re jump med eion tHat
f o r e s t and it, wa s o ver t he Lewi s River pa rt . ' The y
h a v e a wi ld area there wpere i t ' s s t i l l v irgi n • . we s .t
side ,timbe r- - g r e a t b i g mo n str o u s s t uff. \'/e l1 any-
way . we ha d the No orduy n a n d then we qo;lt ' i n t he Noor-
duyn and _i t wa s ,takin ' . 'a bout t wo - -over two ,ho ur s , to
9 ~ t t o the f i re . _ So we get o v er th e a n Emo r y New,:"
fe lls wa s the spotter a nd the re was , jus t t he t wo of
us i n t he plane a nd an ywa y where the f i r e wa s, there
wa s a --looked like a brus h patc h, whic h i t wa s , ;
wa s n' t too , large, ma y ha v e -bcen .a. .ccup I e of a c r e s a nd
it tur ne d out t he re was cl iffs , or breakove rs , in t h e
r ocks . And as you 're going OU ~ o f the rocks, course
yo u had it .a ll c ove r ed u p , b ut fa irly s teep i n. there
but i t wa s ' the o n ly plac e to j ump . The rest was
s t uff that- r e al b i g' stU ff. So apy way; we we rrt.vo u t,
, ' a n d I--nei t h e r of u s m'a de t he s pot ; wh i c h maybe was
'. fort u nate because of those r ocxs a nd a l'mo s t clif fs,
it wa s j ust rccxe , brus h ' g a in" over the cli ff. But
a nywa y , I hit t his god-awful tree and caught the side
o f' it and the n , sta J:ted to .fal l t hro u9 h it . I hung for
a l i t t l e b i:t ) and I ,was \,IP" p rob ebj.y furtheJ: than what
my j ump r o p e .wc u Ld ' h a ve ree cn e a a t the time because
. we only h a d a -hundred foot j ump ro pes. But anyway, .'
I d i d n ' t h an g the re ve r y ).ong, I · s te r cec s liding
t h r o u g h t he t.ree .:Ind'I sl id for' quite a ,ways and
t h en I . c a me to it s top a nd , t he n i t · b~oke loose ·agai n .
And finall y I wa s grabbi n ' , for limbs and ' t hen got
, a h o l d of a limb a n d the l i mbs wa s c lose enough t o -
g ether that I'd look up 'a n d my chute wa s , couz se ,
bal l ed ' up a nd 'it was sli t herin " down thro ugh the
limb s an d, the n stop . so . t h en I ' d .gl? ' dow n fo r 'a
couple more l im b s a nd try t o get i t to hook on
o ne a nd it wou ldn 't do it . An d.'lrJ.yway, I jus t 'kep t
going d own l i k e that.' It took quite a period of
t i me , me s s ii'l ' around that tree a n dif Lne Ll y it did.
whe n I wa s' a bo u t probab ly sixty or sev e nty -Eee t ; Up
y e t and what . h ad h u n g on me and I let g o of e very-
t h ing , and the n t o me ke . sure t h a t the limb was n' t
i~~~: t~~~~~e~o~,S~~o~h~y I h~~~:~:~ff ~~e~i:~~n~/~:t~ : '~ l
down; I'd no mo r e than gotten my . h e l fl)e t off a nd
t RACK. - Whate ver limb i t wa s on p.:lr ted a nd dow n I
. s ta r t ed~ ' Well ' I can remember on ething- - I gotta
g e t t hi s goddam .he lme t back on , · s o wi t h on e hand
I was t ry in ' to gra b limbs an d wi t h .t he o t he r
~~~ . ~rii~i ~::t o~~/~~~r;e~a:::~i~~eg~:;:: ~ , b:~~ r'
i t d r ove my gla s s e s c lear .down t o my no se ~ But an y'" " .....
way I g ot ',t he t hi ng ' o n a n d f ina lly g o t , mys.e Lf s t.o p p ed
I~

and it wlls "kind 6f. all ' over a q a Ln until finally ' I
cl1me to the l a s t limb a nd it- -r g ue ss tha,t 's what I
caught a h o l d of , . anyway . I was ha ngin ' on the l ast
11~ . , Like I 'm doing ch in-ups and my chute stopped
r
me a wh ile b ut it was stl 11 - -i t was n't h un g o n any";
t hing , I mean i t wa s ki nd 1ayf n ' on the limbs ab ove .
This tree leaned. out over , a, ov er the br us h:' - a ctu-
a l l y '! haCln ' t rnissed: the s pot very fa r . And -it
lea n e d out so that I was hangi ng out o ve r the b rush
a nd even , if I cou ld h ave c raw l e d down t he ' 't r e e : I
couldn ' t have go tten onto t he gro und b ecause of the
way it wa s ' g r owin g out . Li ke - -anyway"I was 'way o u e .
It turned out from the leng t h o f the Li ne of the
c hute I was , still a bout f or ty -- th i r t y - fiv e o r for ty
fee t up '. Anyway ; I h un g t h e :J;'e , . looked d own , a nd
course t here was this brush and rocks' u ndernea th
me and I was ' hopin the brush would break ' my fa l l
b ut • • ~ anyway , . I hu ng- there for q u ite a while
and c o u rse , ,l - - l i ko. I say; this alw,:,-ys , s ounds , s o
stupid , bu t I wa s tryin' to decide , ' t h at when I
dropped, I 'd take illl'the pressure and a ll the
impact on o n e ' l e g . .r o u , know ; so I c ouldn't break
both of them h i t t .i.n ' at ,the same time;' b e c ausej ,
lik~ I say, t h i rty - f i ve , ' for ty feet 's quite a ways
~ drop , ',free..o:fa ll. So I w<ls "tryin' to d e c i de
which l e g ' d b e be st t.o break ; i f I h ad t o break
ono , Well, I didn"t c ome t o any ' c o n c l u s i o n s ,0 \'1
that, 'cause it doe sn 't make a l ot of di ffe rence ,
p l ~ I ' was use d to rO lling to t h e r ight . ' r always
d i d if poss - -w el l , for al l p r a c t i c a l purpose s ,I ' d
a,lw uy s :r oll to t he rig ~t ; I mean , in, o t he r words ,
I 'd tal5-e~-i t ' d be my ri ght l eg. So I ' hung there
un 't i l I c ouldn' t ha n g eh c c c a n y .Lo nq e z , i s wh a t it .
amo un ted- to . And k Lnd a l i k e d oin ' a ' high -dive in
J water, you kno w , you t a ke a ' cou ple , o f ' de ep b re e t.hs
a nd g et 'it ov er wi th . And ·I ' d get mysel f a l 1 p re-
' p a r e d , how I 'd hi t on t his right leg an d go , i nto ' a
-- t r y t o r 011 ~to it s lowly so tha t I ' d take most
of ' t he i mpact on my -r i g h t , l e g ; and I 'd had it <l1 1
p .Lanrie d out • . I l e t qotand I ceme-e-couxse , started
d awn an d jus t a s I got t o the~op e brush, wh y
I fe lt t his little tug in my • Jus,t - -JUST touched
the ground and then I came bae up i n the ai r , ebouk ,
o h , about a fOClt,ma ybe two feet . Well, i t t u rned
' out that this ,b i g tree I'd -hit , and a nothe r
tree which wa s' ,f a i r 1 y good -s~Z$lI S f a r as t hat goes ,
going o u t , from the ba s e of ito I n other word s k i nd
o f ,i n a we d g e s hape. . And the chute had gone ' down and
got i o b etween t he m, Lt, was, the chute was right
act u.1.11 Y ,o n t he rock on the g rou nd where they were
g rowi ng ou t . I t h a p, com.e d own and wedged the r e ~ nd ,

, r

L " ..
--~-_._ ~ ~---_.~--~
 1 66

c ourse ; b r oke m y f a l l. ' Okay, fine , tha t' s ~ -a rld my

pa rtne r " he hun g, he 'd go tten , was f u rthe r away ",
._f r o m t he spo t . He hu nq in j u s t a me d.i um- s i ze t ree .
And meanwhile -h e WilS gett!n ' down. ' ~_ I t ' s k inda h a rd
to wal k a long .~ he re J;>1~ca use of .f-h iS; b ru.s h , p lus ' the
f a c t ' t ha t it" wBs--i f yo u didn '~ wa tch wh ere yo u were
ga i n ' yo u 'd d r op r ight o ut f rom 'Under oneot t hose
bz-e akc ivez-a , So yo u ha d to k ind o f " p i c k you r wa y
I a r o und. And they 'd d ropped t~e car go in , righ t in
t h e stU f f. So we ha d to pick o u r _way i n, get the
I
. - car g o ou t • . Or some o f i t . Well anyway . they d ropped
two f ire-pack s an d , like To ny mentioned be fore, at
that .t i me there wa s wa t e r a nd f oo d , an d t he fi r e
packs were sepe r-a ue ; So anywa y we go t c urir r r c - .
. pa c k s, "a nd mea nwh i l e they ' d h u ng the wa t e r iri ' a b i g
tree. It ' s q ui te a n unde ~s ta teme:nt - - - anyw ay it
wa s o ne '0£ t.h e s e -o-f c~u ldl1 ' t - -you kno ..... , thing s, l oo k'
hug e an d I'd like t o s a y it wa s t hirteen feet i n
d i amete r b u t , I 'd o ub t i f it .we s ' tha ;t big. But it
wa s "a. t e n- - o r e l e ve n f oo t e r . I t , was o ne of th o se,
. ob , I'd s a y , virg i n Doug -f ir . A mon c e e r . And i t .
~~--.-.---'----h u ng --abo u t-.--- oh", fi-f ty- o r--s i x ty - f ee t-i rr'-t h e- a ir on -
. ~_
. ._ -.-. - . -
.
t he l a s t limb , r i g ht out on t he e nd o f i t ,. Yo u could - , , "
n ' t q u i t e- -~ was try i n' t o t hrOW ,a ro c k. Yo u couldn' t
throw ~' size r oc k a nd ,-r each it. I " mean , so,
ho we ,vQr high t h at is . You ccu Id 't h r o w l i t tl e pe bb l e s
a nd 'm a ke , i t , but i t was h ung -r i g h t out o n the e nd of
i t and , I ' l l be t t his 1 .1mb wa s probabl y t hr e e f eet i n
d i a mete r a t the ba s e, yo u kn ow , " it wen t o ut about" ,' .
~~~' .i~n~:~_:~~~ti ~{y f~~t~a ~e~;tcrW~~~ t ~~n;u~~?-a ny-
i didn't mean to if I did ; i t was f ood. Anyway t he
res t ,o f the s tuff c ame do .....n 's o we £i~ a ll}' dec1,ded
t ha t we we r e go n na get to the fire. So ·.~e go t our
f i re- packs an d i t mus t have take n us , t h i r ty minutes
to ge t t o tO e . fi re , ' c l i mbin ' ovecv mose Yoc k s • But
we got this , s tuf f., a nd went over t o t h e fire-- i t was
s t ill fa i r l y damp in t ha t coun try , a nd b e cau se i t' s
he a v y .cover" t he r e ' s ' hardl y a ny brush except in the
o pen spots and under the . tr ees it. wa s ea;t t o wal k
unde r , you ' know. on t he we st side be c au the trees
j u st c u t out t he su n . ,And y ou could h a r l y se e the
s!:ty , yo u , co uld jps t see lit t l e t i n y b its a nd piec e s..
of it . And s o it ' s f airly dam p And the fire· 'r'a~n 't
doin ' too much . .s rus t he r e wa s no ,f i r e i n t he , in .
any of those trees , i t wa s , a 1l o.n the grourid. So -we
de c Ld e d . to t.ake an other . l oo k .e e t his fooo. . So .bllCk
we went a nd we e nded, up i n- :"we.l l we d iq, n't' ha ve .e he '
climbers :that you hav e h e r e. ari d.oa t; Cave J un c t ion,
all we used w~s part o f.ou,r jum~ -ropes an .d the .

__ _._-, ,..:....... .
-- -'---_. .. .. .. ; .
 16'

. rope- and t he spurs and .tihe he lt o~ · t he ba ckboard . .

We used these belts, which : isff' t . exactly made fo r .
c l in lb i n g any size erce , anyway. " So I l oo k e d - a t t h e
tree and kne w be tter - than" I wa sn 't a ve ry ,g o od
c],imber a n yway, _, a n d t his t rel;'. wa s way b e yo nd me,
even if I got up to t he l i mb you 'd h eve to cr",wl
c re a r o ut tha t , . wa y out o n tha t l i mb to get to it
a ny way. Bu t anyway. my partner, he' s t he h e r o ic
type ,' I guess " b ut a nywa y he dec I d e d tha t he was
ge t tin I hun g ry c ause i t wa s g ettin' t o wa r d e v e n i ng.
Me a n Wh ile we 'd eaten, t he n course break fast, and ,
l i k e I say, it was a b o ut n ine 0 ' clock we' d taken
off , s o , and t his was getting .t owa r d a fte rnoon , or
middle o f t h e a fte rnoon. , So he de cided he wa s go ing
t o climb i t. So h e putseD 'e n e s p urs and he gets
t his steel, and he gets up .e b o ut; eigh t or t e n .feet
a n d b.toooy . Hi s spurs c a me out and down h e c ome s . to
th e ground and t his happene-e--eve xy o nce in a While
i t ' s happened " to guys t ha t ar e climbin " t elephone
po l e s or tree s on a te l ep ho ne line ; i t .~s the same
t h ing . ' ' He put , one s pur in t o hi s l eg j ust above h i s
a nkle, just b uried t ha t s tinker in at a n a ng l e,. So
and he' s b l e ",d ill,' " c ours e h e 's bl!'ledi ng like a
stu c k pig , god , the stuff was rol l ing o ut . We ll
anyway, we clubbed him, is what i t amou n t ed to ,
t h a t's first a Ld , , We got 'a handke r c hief ahd star ted
:~~i ~i~~ '~ ~~p~~~e'i tm~~ea~X: j.~:~s~u~n;i~a~~~~~· an d
wr u p pe c i t , aro un d s o it put pre s sur e 'o n it , a nd i t,
fina lly stopped: , Actually I don 't thin k he l o s t
very much blood , bu t · it l ooked .L i.ke i t , c ause it
was real ly , i t was co rnf e ' o ut , it. was sp u r t i ng
c u e s o t.ha t he mu s t have hi t a smal l artery.\~el l
t

fa r as I k now, to t h i s day it's s till ,there . Well,

the wind' s probably biown it off , by n ow, ' So ' he , h e 's
hobb l in ' a little bit , but anyway we hobbled back to
the fire,and meanwhile the re was s uppos ed coec a .
gro un d , crew in there t ha t a f t~rn oori or' th at e vening
that "they we re qonna send in. ' S o t~ey didn ' t show up
l ate r on t h a t evening, so ' we worked on the f ire a
little, and mopp in' i t up , ""nd sp~nt. t h e nig ht there .
And the next morning , why" we got up and we had a
f ew .l i t tle s mokes but we put it , t ime . we go t mos t of
t h e, hot spots, ·we left a few in t he re . but I decided
t ha t since - -i t:.. :'Was quite a h o l e h e .h a d ' in his
l e g you. k now , and we decided wc ·' d better g et o u t of
t h e r e before his l e g stiff en~ u p o r it ha s t ime to
ge t . ful l y i n fec ted and all this sort of ' t h i n g ,
because , we had supposedly, boy I can r c even re memb e r
no w wh at it was s u pposed t o be . Somethi ng like n ine
or e l even miles or s omethin ' t o g et ou~ o f .,t h e r e •

. "
---_.,'._- - .,.". ._--,- .." .'
,
~
 '68
'An d s~·· L~nt'
we u p 'a ri d retrieve~'our qelJ.r···~·nd I .
wa sn't go ing . to climb a ny thin , • he s a id, 50 we fe l l e d
..

t he t reo, -so we put-,one 'smal l p a t c h i n it and abou t

fo ur or five d a r n s and ,t he t r e e came r i g h t 'd own o n
top of us, we ha d to c hop the tre e out to cto t; th e
c h ute -o u t . Those' t we n t y - e i g ht- f oo t ers were heavier
ma t e r i a l an ddi dn ' t poke ho les in quite too ee sy ;
And o f c o urse mi ne wa s wedged there on the racks ,
~~i~~s j~:~ ~~k:W;~~mb~~~ ~e~if~;, U~r~~~~e t~a~:~ __
I
I ha d to wa l kwa y o ut aroun d, come - up f r om' a bov e a nd
c rawl d cwn vt o t h is .t.r e e , a nd - t a kle i t ' o u t . Any way ,
wl7 r e tr ieve d ou r gear , an d we d ec i d e d- - me an whi l e,
no g r ound c rew ye t . It t ur ne d cut, . t hey got tnere ,
by t h e ti me they ,g o t .e n e r e , t hey got there forty
lIIinutes "'after we l eft. And we' d w.aite d · t ha t Lonq
a nd , most o f our tro ub le s~ -t he res t of ou r t roubles
~~~~(~J~~~~~d~~t h~~~eb~:~P~~6~~ , ~~: ~ i~~~~~~~re',
we.just gave up . We). l - a nywa y we went back ti:o the '
fire a nd checked it, a nd t hea-e were a couple of ho t
sP<;Jts _,i n .t h e r e bu t I de c ide d i t ·didn't look very
4a nge ro u8 and I--we just better get ou t of - there .
~~:lf~~ei ' ~~~n~~o:~n~e t~i~~~ ~ , ~~~em~~~ ~~~~~~~~'ast
'. ~~~k~ok~~~ , ~i~::ie;anSju:~ .=: k
t~~~ · ma~e~;~, a~~~rd - ,
' c a u s e i t was s traigh t sou th, whi c h is _dpwnhil l, .
' ~~l':h~~~d s~~ui~i~l t d~W~r:~~~t ~~~e~~~~a~~:~~, o~h:n;
yo u .we n e o ut on, I think ' it's 'q ua r t z Creek , a nd
i~:~si~i~e;h~oL~~~Se~~':~~ ~~:,.~~~~. ~n~~~o;~ · ~~~~-ay' .
we t ook o ff a nd we Loa ded-e-we l eft . al l t he ecors
there, we decided, we ' d go l ig h ~ , we .h.ad a l o ng way
t o go , soe we left the tools a nd just carried o ur"
started wi th our c hutes and s uits a nd wel l. li e ' l e f t
our. fi re- t oo l s , , ndwe, wel l , t ha t ' s about a l l we .
•. ~~:~ e~~:;~l~g~~~ ~~1::~~~r~:r;e~~ · ~-'~~l~o~~ ~~;r:~d
a bouts we met up. wi t h ' t hi s trail . And me anw h i l e ', .I
beve t o s ay on e thing f or old Ha rry , ,he 'wasto ugn
o l d boy , th i s was o ver 'a da y' ol d; meanwhile we hadn ' t
had a ny - -of co ur se , ':l nything t o e a t. So it 's "been .
over twe nty -:f o ur , hou r s, a bo u t , tw e nty -e i g ht hours
w~thout any f oo d . , And t he re ' s l ots of wate r ' cause
i t ' s e a r l y i n- the Yej-iJ;. ,Ttte r e ' s ~a ter ru nnin ' "
:~~r{;~~~e ~om::n~i~~ ,~a,~a~: :~~t~~~~;~~b~~~ ~ -;
- But anyw a y . we took ,of f -.·and h it t hi s t r ail ' and we
must have ,wa lJr, *,;d about -a' mi le, mil e , ? nd a,' ha lf or
 169, r
. .
so/ we ,hit a:·fork . in .t he trail arid i t h ad , ' which
was n 't s upposed to be there and o ne said, Quartz
creex, which wa s wha t we-e-eomesnere und er t wo mi les
9t" sQIDethinglike t ha t; ' pointed off down t he r e , but
, ' u nf o r t una t e l y t he trai l ha dn ' t been mai ntaine d since
be fore . the war , 'in 'the ,thirties so me time, a nd . i t
said this tra~l was no lonqer mai ntained and the .
b l a ze marks we r e ne x t t o ' i mpos s i ble to f ind . Well"
being i n s trange country, wh i c h we d idn ' t know a t
all, especia l ly since the tra,il , wasn't supposed to
> f o r k l i ke ·th is , I didn't wan t t o c ross country
because , you know, like I say you couldn 't s ee out
; j us l; t o get a ny bea rings , I mean Lt was j us t 'all
forest . But the dther one s a i d it was e ig ht mile s
to so - a n a - so -I oo ko ut ,. I 'd have to look :on a map to
" ', remember i t. So me anWhi le , we were ge t ting pretty
hu ngry and . al l t hat so we dec;:ided well, . we'll , j u s t
head for the , l oo ko u t a nd t he r e'l l su re ly be some '.
food e ve n - i f there 's no n -e lookout up t he r e . The y.
mu s t have, some f oo d i n t.h e re ; of co ur s e . . • ' • '. So,
at t his fork-;"'wel l, I'l l go back a ways . It turned '
\. ou t , the map actuall y the trai,l had been .d r a wn in
wrong . I f we'd gon e u phill from t he forest flre ,
why we 'd a ra n, J:nto the right t rail ' and evct"ything
. would ' ne ve been fine. This the g r o und c re w c o ul d
have told , ~ s . But they ha d t he f I r e in ex a ctly ' the
righ l: spot on t he map bu t so me bod y ha d d r awn this
tr <li ~ i n they ' d .gone it . • • i t ,wa s an old map .
I t ' wa s abo ut a 19 40-:--s o mething ma p at that time .
Anyway . " so . .Lf wasn ' '; o ur f a ult- - t hat pa rt ,o f it ;
Bul: any way , we h i t t hi s, .s o 'We dump .c ur. load at
thi s f o rks , at thi s fo r k1 . a nd sta'r t uphi l l , of

a strong guy. Yo u kn ow , in real good s ha pe .and I

wasn 't in very .good shape anyway . , So we were about
equal, then • . • -. We a re g-et t i ng ~ little weak "
cJ,
co ur s e , tow a r d the : l oo kou t, a nd l i ke I say, Harry i s
doi ng" f Lne-, He' s .limpin ' a l i t ,tl"e ' bit, b ut he was

from hunge r . . · By that time, the hunger itself ha~' . ; .

pre t ty we l l l e f t ua ,' I t does after a .day, day a nd .
, a half. As far ·as hunge r pangs; I mean ; we . we r e n ',t
. ' h ung r y a nymo,re . . But ·.you do get weak . But anyway . ; .we
tiook of~ and we must have walke d a, by , t he number ..o f
ho urs and a l l t hat we mus-t h ave wa l ked a bo u t f iVe : o r
six miles wnen- o-ene ":,,e we r e ge t ting up int o t he s now .
The snow 'wa s ' s o l i d , it ....a s easy . You could wal k
riqht across i t , didn't sink i n ,it at a ll. "But it
wa s big hunks of snow and it was kind o f a roug h
time hangin ',' on, to the 'tr ai l, you k no w, a nyway , .
, we finally ca me to -t h is · sign : ' ' Thi s trail" ,no . longe r,
' ma i nt a i ne d . ' , We l l we k ne w we were within two . miles
of t he l o o kou t. Ju s t again by .wa l ki n ' a nd givi n~
 1 70 "

';: ou~~elve5 't hi~k ' we on~y

• '.. ' . I coun t 'ed a mile ':'~l.Od· '
a ,h a lf . I ' me a n t wo rDiles: kn ow I kn o w we figured, .
so i t must ha ve be e n a bo ut thre e ho urs . ' Ii e l l , it ·
looked like' we ~ere near the' top o f ,t he r.idge • .
And the Looko u t'' certain ly mus t b e out on , the point
s omewhe r e up the r e a l though we cou ldn 't see i t . '
The tre es were sma lle r up ' the re , w~ we r e getting'
i nto the a l pine type d eaL So we d e o ided we 'wou ld
t r y t o find t;he l oo ko u t, anyway. , ' Me a nwh ile , I had
o ne oigarette l e f t , a nd he 's a smoker an d had f or-
gotte n ,to bring any . 'Bu t a nyWa y we'd' ta ke , of f to t ry
t o fi nd t he l ookou t. So , we. wandered over these s now-
f ields , e nd got up a l i t t l e h i g he r .ye t , and morc
. :~~~Ok:~~ w:n~o~oU~0~\~~~k;i~9~ori~~ 1~~o~O~~:df:~d.
we wa lked ' c a us e we were walJdn '" we ' 9. zig -zag back
' :~~hI~~~:;, ~~n~;~y w~i~~p:~~:e~~o:~gt~lj~:£ , ;~::
to
zagg ing u p. The .he k L of 'it is ~ s till don ' t 'know
whe r e tha t 'l oo ko u t is • . And it turned o u t .Lf we
. f o und it, ' it wou l d n ' t have done any ~ood: . there
wa s no food i n it and~twasn't;. men ned . , The 'ma i n
-t.re t r o f , the l oo ko u t . c a me up "from the other s i de.
56 ,' ,i f wer d h a ve ,f o und it, i t' wo u l d n ' t ' h a ve done
us a ny go od . But we didn't f i nd it . . s oabe nwe
got together f i na lly by yelling , we d e c i d e d we had
, no choice but to go ba c k . And. it 's ge tting .r e ee
i n t he day ~ a nd e ve r y t h ing and we wante d to g e t '
ba c k be f ore it got dar k beceue e we d idn't ha v e '
f lashl igh ts or n o t hing wi th us '. And we couldn ' t .
find the 'e nd o f t he trail where the y qui t mc Ln cc Ln-
i ng i t , ' c a us e t he snow f i e l d s k Lnda o f i n s no w. -:
. h umps 'a nd a l l t hat , and the landmarks a r e n' t , good .
, ~~d;~j:~~t~~ .•~~~ , ~~th~~=~dihe~~ l~~a:~o~~o~~ . ~
c ut t hat 6 l d t rail ,t ha t we' d ,o rig ina l ly" got o n .
But , l i ke ~ . s a y, it wa s getting Lat.e ,. " Th i s was
before q ay l,ight ·t i me : I t mus t ' h a ve be e n abcu t ,
yo u k no w, 's e v e n ,O' c l o c k. 6 r somet- h ing l i Ke .' ". ' i
tha t , or s ix. We knew we c o u l d make it i n less than
th r e e ho ur s ' c au s e it wa s a downh ill ' run i f: we
c ou~d . o nce fi nd it . .Ue anyw ay, we fi nal ly . ; . . •. oh ,
I c an see how ~ . person lost i n the woods ca n k i nda .
. ' h it t he pa n i o bu t t on " yo u kn ow . , God , we ,"'(e r e i n. !l ;
.. ~~;i~~r~~t-im~~~:sW:~e~h:ii~r~~r f~~~i~:~~yw:n~e~·~l ·
that so they'd c all f o r 'u s aoze , He r e we were o ut
in the middle o f t heir forest. ',and mi s pl aced and
, wou nde d Dlao-:--up i n the· s nowfi e l ds , an d we we ren' t
s ure i t we could ge t , back to wn e r o o ur stuff wa s •
No ,fl a s h lig h t s and no .ecc a .: Ag a i n ,. t Jiis 'd be
sta r ti n ' i n t o the ae c c nd .d a y . Well we , an Y"(.a y,
 '~"-
' - ' ~---'-~------

171
', . I
. ·-'.•found ·it: £lnany . - We s~t · down , a~d I -had ~y_ l ds t r.'
cicga r e t t e • .-1 rem~er tha.t ,1 yo u a nd I , we'd -sit .
down a: nd , hav~ a Ciga r ette or- something i f yql,l90t
·;d~td~~ns;~~Jt;~ , ~~~~=dw~~~:~~~e~~rl~~i~ 'mo~~~~' .we
we f O\.liid -.it • . Then we rea lly 'llIoved out ~ 'cause .we had
to get ;, wan ted to get clown befor e da r k a nd -b a ck qown
to .. ollr_.:s tufL , _ And by that t ime i t ,wa s jus t a bout ,
darJ:t:;And s o , we ha d nothing :els e to d o , c ourse" " ' , •
•"c a u se we ' d l eft our , siee p ing" bags and ,everything -on
;~p~i~:i , . ~~~, '·~~tW~i;~~:e~~~ ~~~U~h~~~:~~ :~ning "'
at day light ,.· why , we go t up en d we had "no choice b ut "
~~~~~ ' ~~~:kp~~~:;eo~6~Yth:~: , h~~~ ~~~i t
that sh e ' d cut the main trail . And like -t sar,it
te::n~~~
wa s easy , . fair l y ea liY ' cro s s - ~o un t ry • cause' the b i g
tree s ke ep thebr~sh' , f r om growi ng be caus e i t c uts :
the ' s unlight 'out . ' So me t hi n g t ha t: up till tha t , t i me .,
I didn ' t reali,ze, t hat brush .re a f t er ,you ge t c lear
and ge t' s u nligh t ,i n ., ' Or o therw i s e , t he original '
he a vy Dougf:i:r f ore st e ve n wi.th rain won't h ave much
under~rush .bec auee i t can ' t, i t do e sn 't: get enough
sunl ~ght t o grow . But , once you 've c l e a r e d it , it
· jus t 'gr ows , like mad . So 'ne xt' morn i ng, . why ; we,
co urse ; ,by this t imewc were both , t Oo weak to ·c aI:r y ,
a ny thing '. - r me e n , we were 'ge t ti ng wobbly a nd ' I .
' dd n ' t 'knp w, ' i t ' s k iJi da "hard t .o, de scribe ,' , 'You ' r e.
;j ~st ' wea k " l ike I say, t he h unger had "lone a nd as , . ,:".
f ar all beiIJg ' h1,1rlgJ<Y, bu t : you , j U£lt do n ' t , ha ve any , '~'
e nergy . So , ' we . piled , all o,ur stuff "'u p ' ,tJ:te re ','a nd .
-t c o x off. ' !ind- a nyway we got down t he rc,'iuid i t .
¥ as Qua t t z ,cieek . ' -Of ' cou r se , H ke I ',s a y ; ',we', " •
· wcrim~ 't , 's u re wh ere we wer e at on "t he map ; After
:;1c;~;ie~O~~t~;~e:u~~~e~~u~:~~f~t/~~"i:n~:ri
and f r om then on ' it wa s six ' mi.Le e out ' f rom there .
/

: We ' f i gu red ,' I fig u.red we went dt least: ,t wen ty- f i ve

, mi l es i n thi~ 'or two an d .a. hal f day s, . with .no ·food .
AnYl'!ay.. wecut:the trail' aI'!d we s ta r t e d down . - ' -
And "it was an o l d t rail . Th e damn thing. wa s , one
,. o f ·t he s e that ; b e tween "ea ch siqe~drain age" ;instead
;0 £ ' grading: it , ' why , or' 9C?ing , muc h .rif. a ' gr,ade, w~y .
it ' went up like '. thi s and 'b a ck dowQ' to ' the c ree\f, , ·

··F
··~ And
tCei~pJ~:r~o:~iCh~~/~',~~~~i~l:b~~~~~z:: ' ~~:l~ry~
. walkin<J ' pretty .q c o d , He was gc.t tinga ·.pr e t ,t y
h~ avy .. limp by th~S i:iJne, and I co u l dn ' t mak e ' ,it 'cup .
'·· I ' p.. have ' ,t o r est;' " I ' d, <Jo a, hpndr ed ste p s·,and , . , ,
then ,r e s t~ .for abou~thirty ' se cond s and then ano ,ther
" h~nd red ,s t e ps. ,' : DOWnh ill , hell. , I ". cou ld go like mad; '
.'. ,j u s t 'a s fast as co uld be . L~e ,was ge t ti n " ,\JOobbl :t .' "
· ~nd" Sl)~~~?'\~~.~ ~ct~all~ _ I , thin~ , .~e, .wa s, a lit~~e : .

: ((,(
t-

behter , s ha p e .t.ha n I ·wa "s. eve n with hi ~' inJury ,

a1 though ' l ike I say he \wa s limp i ng . Anywa y. 'Up and
,'down . J And W~ fina lly made it -a nd we qot to the--
:~~r:~d ~~i~:o~~~~~di~:a:t~r~; i~~~ ~~e~o~hI~
Lewi.s Ri v er , and then the r o a d ends . All i t wa s ,
i t -wa s .a regul a:r car bridge. It i s n ' t ' l i ke p a c k .
or stock o r any t h i ng , i t 's a r e g u l a r , bridge, gain'
rig ht across t here . It 'wa s a t urn- ar o u n d .a nd that
· was . t he e nd of t he tra i l . Well , we got the re a nd
se e (his n o te t he y. had st;uck on the tre e , -righ t
on the t rai l t he re. "P i c ke d up the note a nd . says
where -t tte c rew -c a r r i er was , p a rked and the "k ey s - -
it ha d 'a "little map d rawn , t ha t s ho wed u s ho w
to g e t" t o t he Mo s q uito : Lak e Gua rd Station. so,' and
' i t w4s 'a ,v ery wel l ':drawn ma p , by .th e way" "c e u s e
the re ' were a 'l o t pf reeds afte r yo u ge t d ClWnthe-re
'and one way moun tain roads. " ' But anywa ~; we ge t in
this ,rig ande ,of e o ur se '1 "ru ,wo r r y i n ',' no t o nl y for
him but a lso beca use we :d i dn ' t brinq o ur gear o ut , .
yo u :kilow. I wa s thi nk i ng ' how ' co uld , I get ba ck ' in
tomor row , a nd get -· that stuff o u t , or part.: o f . it
out . Hell , ' I cou ldn ' t ' have got a nyt hi ng ,o u t , ,' t he
sha pe I wa s 'i n . But I . wa s .s c a r e d to death t0l'i90
-/
• ou~ w i~ho ut thee q~ipment.. , We ;l a ny way , we gc in
" t r u s p.i.ckup , or , thlos crew carm e.r. and down the

.1 ·
~~~d~~ew;~ · roi~~nd~~~_,~ ~~ish:~: ~~:~ ~~~~~~' e:~~"
i h t he l ot' . co untFY ' .a nd ~e ~e aro und , t hfs c o r ne r ,
.
:n~n~e~:~s~~i:~;~~r~~o~~mi~~d w:n~,o ~~ ~i~~~ i t', s -,
I pa nic button and - come _t o a s c reech ing - ha lt. . I 'd
lik,e to s ay 1nc:hes, ' b u t actually prOb<lb ly , s ix or .
eight fee t ; apart .wh e n we ca me to a stop . I t _wa sn 't
very ·f a r .· Both ' of us locked whe els, you ' know . ' .
That; dust ju s t ·'r olle d in freintof' us . • • • Anyway,
we got out , a nd "s crhe r c ' ,5 , a bllnc h : o f , fo res t
's e r v i c e ' quys , and t~e forest ,s u pe r v i s o r and ,f i r e.
:' ,s t a f f , " a nd the --distr ict ranger ', a nd t he fi re
.. co n trol l er . , We ' u s e d to ' c a l l t he m- di strict
" ' ns s i 's t a nt s , which i s , t he FCO of , the di s t ric t.
· Adrnini stra t i ye guys . 'r ticre were five o-f the m ; ' .' ~i ght
ha v e been s ix , :but . anyw ay , t ho s e f ive . ' , Th e y, were . '
. bi g s ho ts o f . t he for est an d the, d i str i c 't ,.- the n they
. c ome , ou t a nd t hey . you k no w, how a re we, yo u kn o w,
' -' we ' _r e all right ' k i nd ,o f d ea l ' i\nd ,the y said " we ll,
we we re be q i nn ;ng : to 'l"'0 nder • . The, g r o un d crew -had
got t he re a t a c ertain t i me the ,!ay b efo r e a nd we
were ' kind of wondeti ng when yo u g uys were ge tting
out . ' .. We were ' j u s t , J UST s t arHng , t o won de r- i f
some thi ng h a d _Happ en e d, y o~ know:~: . ~O d , . , two da ys _'
 '1 7 3
<:»: .
aft~r..\t he grouno. crew 90~
t h e r e, 'w~-" d :~i·sappear~d.
And anyway '!Ie told part _of _the st~J'Y t~en and, I mean,
t he part ab out n o f ood . An d th ey ,we r e very proud,
we -go t to the figh ting . An d - - smo k e, "I d o n t t know why
I cause we le ft some hot spot,. . . I me an, you know ,
places you couldn ' t ge t you i , ·han<;l.in . - Bu t we , d i dn ' t
l e a v e any s mok es that we s a w , 'And like 1 . say . t hi s .
was the first f ire we ' 0. don e on the -'forest . ' An d
~~~u~~Yc::;d'~i~:~~ _h~~eg~~y~~~n:i~~ _:.~: ~~jh:;, the'
forth,' and complimented us . _ So a nyway , ' we took
o ff . to thi s Mosquito La ke Gua r d Stat io n. -'lind they .
had a me.59 hal +the re then , and we got .1n, there , .
en , t wel v e - t hi r t y or . one" They'd .,finishedj ea t i ng
but, t hey hadn' t l e f t .y e t , I mean, got t h e crew o ut
o f fhere~ s o actually w~ we ntwha t - - two day s and
fi ve ho ur s or something wi thout any .food , and
walkedabol,lt tw enty.- fi:v c ' mi les and , wel l , ,-a ny wa );',
we s a t down to e at, yo u kn ow, and it was .r ea l l y
funny ; ' c a us e I'd he a r d yo u sho uldn ' t stuf f ,'. '
yo u rse lf . when yo u hav e n ' t eaten f o r a long lime ,' "
_ But OI don ' t th ~nk t~arc 's r e a lly much dange r in ·it. ;.:
be c ause you're n o t pa r t icul arly hungry as soon as
,\ yo u get s omething i n y ou.r s t om<1ch , . it s t r etche s ,
_Hs~~ri~~ ~~~lw~~,s~~~h;o~;~. t~~h~~t~ ~w~e~~m~~~p
and th en, gog , ' I wa s ,a lre a d y fe e l ing stuf fed ; ·· And
ev en ' f r ora ttle n I had ' .a co u p le of e j.Ice s ()f toma toe s
and tha t 's a ll I ' wa n t ~d", And i t t ook a bout , th re e'
days before I wa s .e e r t n ' full ye t , be c a u s e your
s to mach' s'hrinks s'o s ma ll, t h at .: yeu kno w , '-you of e e l ......,
~~~ ~ih~~ ;~~ej_~~:.S~oi~~i~n~:~ki;~~ t~s~o:~~;C~ut
mec nwhi Le, why yo.u .don' t cat mueh , , so ,y o u ac t u a l l y '
ke ep losing a .l ~ttl e more we i qht, even . a litt l e , .. .
longer, becau se you k st can' t e a t , ' Well a nyw a y,
~~~i~rw;~~o~~;:'t~' t~H:~tl;r~in~~o~~: ~~~~O~~:~d : ' ,:~:
t hat, I would wait unt i l t omorrow a nd I 'd show . •
•. ,'. .1,· " t~f~~h~~l~ai~ilW:~lba~~ernh:~~
' . . .',... :eia~~e~tundo~t
:", ~);;' : be e au s e
I dido ' t want to g O--ba ck . without it ; They
'" said,loh, it . was' to o' lat e , 'they 'd already ha d a .
pla ne t o, ~e coming ' do wn f o r ' us l To mmy ' Niqkel .wi t h
the 180 ; ·And . then t h e 'pac k e r wa s the re and he ', ' .
s aid ,' I knpw w6 e r e , t his pl a c e ,i s , whe r e th e f o r ks
.i s ; . a nd we ' ll go' up and ge t i t a nd send ' it t o · you ..
you know.' Well tbere~wasn't much rccoae do t;hen--,
. yo u know. I cou ld see llyse.1f catching i t 'wh~ nI
go t bac k , Wel l , a nywa y" the y then t oo k . us ;from "
there .t o 'j'rout La ke . t~ere:: whe r e ' the. .r a nger ~ ~at.i,~n
 . ,~:
t

174

i s, " An d then from there i t s setting up on t o p

of .ilmost like a p lateau and t h e n i t goes down.
the~e' into the 'Colwnbia River. It must be , a two -
t ho us a n d f oo t dr op, The highwa y winds and a ll t hat.'
An d t his stupid idiot . ,Th ey had qui ttl a few
f .ires in t he re; they "d bro light him out of the RO,
he was some c lerk ' or something ,' good guy ... . • ,
And he was the dr ,i v e r. So this 'guy .,t,3,ke s off and
down the hill he'togoes, a nd he's a Lay In ' ,t h e brakes
on all t he time for t he . curves. ' And tha t "e fine
except he got right ne ar the h o t t om a nd he says" ' I
t h i nk there ' s Some t h i ng wrong . wi t h t hese b r a ke s ,
t hh ' re a lmost to the ,flo o r . ' . Well, l ik~ I say ;
h el was a ' stupid , i d iot, ' c o ur s e . the y were fad in on
-rr dm, WeH, 'J: st'arted to say.' something, a nd , wel 'l,
we were almostdowrl to where i t flattened out, ' .An d
. .' I thought ; we ll " t h e . brake s- wi l:1: last · long enough
. to .ge t on ?-owqwithout sayin" anything , So we made
i t t o . .t. he , -a h , .ne r Le e- ewb e r e .t h e a i r p o r t i s " and
To mmy Nickel ' c ame i .n and he S'aid lnter , he never .
saw such a ,pe--iraq gled , bunch of cn erec ee r e . . ,1 meen ,
'we I t?0 k edli k e it .-was, · real , ter:r:ible, I gu e s s ,
We got on the plane , of course, and i t flew ' back, i t
got. beck arid t he y t .o ok o ld Harry t o the doctor and '
put .. I 'don ' t know, ' just thre e or \.four s t i t.cne s in
i t . And Lufkin was .t ne re and ' I', t o l d h i m we d i d n ' t
b r i ng our stu.ff 'out, ·and I 'said I 'got quite a '~ tory "
t o tel l you , : whicq ,I di d'. But a'1ainlater on Q~ter
h e sa Ld.; • ', wel l, he took one l oo k at us' and
he' wasn 't about' to , chew .an ybOdy o ut : for a ny t hi ng-:-.....'
J: 9u~ss we mu s t have real. iy· looked , te.rrible·, you
k now. ; And, s o a nywa y , t hat i sn~ t quite t he en d
of the s tory yet. Wl!l1 n e e ny, he , Light Horse .
Ha q Y i ' he . sticks, a round' for severi1~.. days , ' ,a nd ,finally ,
he,· we l. l , ,r can't r-emerabe r- whether it was ~ n 'a un t
or something; he's from I n di a n a or ,I l 1 i noi s .- I
thi nk I lli no i s-- s om e pl.ac e. Anyw.ay , Lrr"the mi dd Le
we s t . .And ' h e . came u p to. Lufki n 'and h e said he h a d
a n au n t tha t had ..d Led or . was dyin ' 'o r s ome t h i ng
: ~n d he ' d like to go bac k '.for a few days . ·. And '
; Lu f kin , ' co ur se , f i ne , .t here wa s n ' t ' mu c h-yo u cou ld
.' d o ,ab o u t .t ha t . sci he , took off ;J.nd t ha t was th e
l. a s t we eve r saw of hi m. , He wro t e .a n d gave his
addr e s s t o s end hi s ' c heck., ' And we 'n e v e r saw hi m
aga i n . ' ,And t hat wa s h i s f irs t , and l. a s t fire jum p.
An" 'I ~ 9 ue s s h e jus t had to,,: much , ; He decided to" .

'~i~~/~:t:~~:u;~i~~~~~eh~~97i~~:r~~i:, ;~~:U~~~le
t hing s that h a ppene d t ha t I don ' t , a l ways r e me mber •
. But 1-' m ' not" fme en , the storY , i sn ' t elabora ted at
all, r e all y ;. · ~f . ~ny t~~,ng ~ i t · g ets 'mor e ' s e d a t e as

~-,.
.'

:,
.
' ..
. ' ;.
._.._ _~
.' /
. - '-
,
-
l.. \.
.

,' .

- .- - .1
 time goes on . ... But ' thos e t h i ngs ' h a pp en .j u s t ' the'
. . way--god, i t "d-raake ' a nyone g;i ve uP , jumpihg, when
,1 thi nk • . ' • .<i nte rr up~i on l . But an.yway , we
survived . ~ ' .

. ~s s een in. SklnnY's . na r r a.tive , th~ , .form of t he

jum p story ',follows c los/e l y .t he o rder, ,and Il!ann e r}n which

the : narra t "cr ,ac t ua l l y e xper ienced ·th~ eve~ts he rela re"s:'

Th e tempo r ai ' 'o rd ering o f events . in : th e ' narrative "f o l i OWS

·a ,- pa~er~ of 'a' s ho r ,t 'i nt;r od~CtiOn " \h~: ' f~re : call' to jUIllP ~
the')ump its~ lf . t he .fi r e ·" ~e trieval 'o f j~p gear , an~'
.t he pac k~u~ a~a othe r e xp erie nce s on .t.he "fay b <l;c k t~ the
b ase . " All ~ f th~ · a bove ' a re pre serited.'in a fir st-person .
. .0 . .. . . .. f· . . .
a:c~q~n t - ~h i ch, draws , ~po.n 't he no~ t ive e xpe r den e.LaL ~ack, -'

groun d o f the 'audience , l f e llow j ump e rs ) , to fo llow not

. " . '... '', ' , .
,' , ...... . . . . ' ,

bnly t he ,p.l o t , but t he choice o f t erms. A f ew --of the." ,

.t.e r ms u s ed by Ski nn y a re , outmoded a nd 'req u i re" h i s t'o i- i ~a1 ,
.. ' , " '. ,,, ' ' , ' "

q ual i ficat i o n f or " t he' a uQ ie~ce . " The : Noor d uy n , f o r

example , : is no long~r used: 'a s ~ j ump ~l~~e , th~" ci ill~- /

,.< :. , ,": , ,: ' " , ' , ', " .'
: ~g g. ~ ~~t.p~~n t is differ;'1nt; t hen ,t hat . US~ d .t e>da.y , ,~ ~~ . t he
parachute has als o c ha nged in des i gn and mat erial s .
" . ".. '. ' ,,: .
' . ' '

On' t he b r oade st -iev-e Lthi s ,-(orrn 'e ppr ox f met e s t ha t .s ug-

gegt'~d bY' .pen~.ika~ni:!O i~h~'s ' ~additio~ to .'Gr:anbe r g ' S

'. ~chema o.f, · ~he : mem~ra.te '. '1. e , .'" n ind'i~' i d~al i~ ,c on t e n t, '--b'ut '

for,ma-Ily a~d s t r .uctur,ally · s ~ereotyped ; . ~ ~ ' :.'.Th i s is q ua li-:-

. fi ed ' by pe'nti kai nep when h e st";'tes th at this t ype o f

· iriemq.r~ ~e ' is ch~ractl!~ized ~; '~ . , ' :, ~ ' . ..'; > '. ' ' ~:
: • . : ~refe+enqe for a cer't~in' ,ex:pos'i tion:al , ' inodel
so that conforming . explanations and the,accept~nc;:e.' ,_
ot" · idiosyn:cratic , tradi tion are t .he r esu lt . 29 .
 .......,_.,__ .....,, ".
,
_ ~ _ ca. , ~

176

AS i t re lates to , t he forll\ oftha j uap story, ' th i~

de fini tion under s c o r e s t' h e rela tion ~hip : between SJdnny as ' ,
.- ' , '. " !
an in divi du a l ' j u~p e r t:e l,a ti n g h is p ersona,l ax pe e Lenc e t o '

an 'audience t hat understa ndS' n o t cinlywhat, he .s a ya abo ut '

. . .
wh a t , happened ~o h i m on t. his ' j ump, b u t is a lso sensitive

~o 'th e ~ate::,ial h'~ 'omits hh~ f~~e ,it~e lf' 'i s l~ft !u~ as
i nc~ms'equential}, ' ~~els cornpe l lEl d -1:.0 ,qua li f ! Clr explai n
( hi~ r~asons fOr n o t c'limbing .e he tree and ~eaving ' ~is
'g e a r , ~~~h OfWhJ~h ar e ' consi~ere'd , tranSg r eSS iO ns' o~ , /
jumper ·'i nfo rnal codeel, a~d co lors w'lth hi s , own , sense of .

' i r~ny ( t he .La at; ci9ar~t'te incic:~E!nt·) •.- Although, a li of t he

exper i ence's r el a ted B. ~d .c e m s. u s~d a ~t~ally 'wer e : pr e s e nt
w h~I') ; S ki nny' mad~ this ,p a r t i c Ul a r ',' j ump ( ftindividual in

cOllt(m~ ';) ' 'a fO~1I\

. " , '
his 'Jump sto'ry £011 6 1'15
' , .. " , ',
prescript ive
: .. . ,, "
,which ilil itself a n Outgrowth of t he ' occcpc t :ional mi lie u ,

( ~orma i ' a rid : structural stereOtypifi~~ti~n) .-

. ..
. c6r~espond tc? th e u nstc: ted ',.te m,pl,!,teor ,'model o ~ t he ba ~ic
' " . " " ' , ' ," '

, .~ t,l~,n a l. ·narr~·uve . , , ,~ h tS cor responds to Deg h S I

' p r~v i O u S lY' d ~ s cu s s ed concept of th e prot~-rn'elllor a,tc ; in

that 'j umpe~~ who , h av e e x perien ced thc' " sam~ ki nd ' c f

~itliat~on a~ ';.fhat r~i:ounted by ' Ski n n y', and have thelll-

r{i~lves , ~~iated ' jwri~ , ~ tories, malnt~ in an ~nferred , ~,e~

-e: 'I " , , :," ' " , ' " - . .: " , -' " ,
of the proper form whi ch the s tory ,mus t f ollow" J~ ad d i -

·~~on _t o i~'ClUS~oi-i' C;f , i~'t ern~~ 'n;a t e r i al "t h a t Irla~es' ~h'e

;:J ~~t;"~~ ' th~re \~ a' pr·ot~.;.~to:;'~hei:e
r
177

aprot.ci-experience (the - i.deal ' j ~mp') towhic~ t1'~e

verbal" form must relate . 30 As i~l~strated in the" Knights

of 'co.l wnb us f ire me -car LaI. abcve, .tne, believability o( aqy
personal expe r I enc e 'nar r a t i ve re sts o n t he d~g.ree -~ to
, ., .
wh"ich a . correspondence between these two ' ~templatescan be
s'tretched and s t i ll 'a llo w ' t he form to 'reta!n it'~ ~r~dib'il-

'" ~t~ ; , ,'I f " f or e.xa_~p~e,""~kj.n~i .ha~· :x~ended: '~he d~.s~~~~tion _,

~f his . ~lJ!llP p?,rtn.l1t·s blo o d l os s wit h o ut. ,q u a li f yi n g .i t 'as '
..he d~es _ (nactua~ ~y:,-. ~ d~ ; t '~hi~~ he: ~ os t' .v e r y m~ch b1I?od"). , .

the< lti.c .~. of cor respo nce nce be tween a more . serious wound

ana the "l ong t r ek wh i ch t he ~u nded man _e~erit_ually c om-

'<, .~leted W~~ld -h a;'e . i1\~J: sed the discr~~~~cy between the

n'~ 'i raU,ve a~d , 'e"XEe r ic~t.iai fra mes:' of r efe.rence 'l'Ind com-
. ~ p:romi ~e? :he b~l~ i3Vabi1 i ty' of t he narrative . .
Th~ styl e of th e j lI~P Jtory, r e s t s aim~st · sol~iy
0;" tbi! ' ~arra~or ;'s ability to Illa i ntai n ' a:~ bala~ce ' b~tween
.', ,. ' . .' .: , "-" , ",. .-. ' ' " ,: . ":- v " ' •
. con.flic;.ting , narre e f v e d~Vi ce,s." e ,g'l-' g"b j e c t i ve/s llb j~~ ti ve '.

';'d e·s-c d.P t i,on ~ , i~diV,.i:d~a~/9rOUp. pO,int o f vfew , .ee ,we ll 'as ,

' o t her - oPpo8i'ti~ns" l ike: Fo~ical/ahi,stoiiC~l quai-ifi.ca- .'

ti9n'; ·..t echnic·.il/non.":'t'echn i:~~~ termino l egy ; ih 'a dd i t i OD to

COf.lS~dcratio~.s :'oi' t~::m e ( emotion ' an,d );.he.:pace'of t~~ ".ar:-

, r~ t'iv~ . , Th e' ',c bnt e x t ~f the narr'at~ite P1f'rform.:'nce ,i s ' a

:;'qr~~p" O~ YO~n9";"·c,o l~~qe , age. ~n '·~ho ~r~de" th~IlI S~lves on :

. tl"e:,ir' b ravery , st rength ~nciabtHty,'y~t"ar'e a...a re of the
 17'

trick s of the tra d1 " This 'co n:t e xt ef s c di cta tes that
.. t he narrat'ar of the""jwn p sto~y re ! at e th~' ''experience i n '
a s tyle th~t '.i s no t emh ara s 'si ng ly ' s u bj ec ti ve (too emo -

tional, "Ot" ~~ :SP l ~Y i ng _ t oo ~fh f e a r) ' . y e t at t.hevaame time

'i s '- not c o ld "a:n d obj ect.ively .uneltlotion~l. ,T h i s is

acccmpj.Lshed b y Sk i nny . in l}'isuse of humo r a nd i n t~ rn'a l

d'ialogue i n one 'o f t rie most t ense passages'

" . ' . .
t he nar- in' "

r ative . ' When he is t r ying t o d ec i d e ·which l e g he will

break when h~ f~llS , Skinny . d ebates ~i~ h imself the

m.e ri t s of ,b r e a ki ng ' the, ri9htr ~the.r -t h a n ' t h e left .:ari.d '~ ~

decid~ S t ha t ' he ,cou l dn ' t .ma ke a' ·d e~·i s i~n-~e cause. ;', ~,. ~. • . r-

it d~~ s n' t make a l ot 'of d if f e r e nce . ..' By admitti ng f ea r '

". ._ ', . :":0 - . •' _ c" " ", ,j . .~
<.in what ~.s for mos t j umpe r s a ve r y r~ al, Bi tuatio ~ th a t
.c e n r e-sU!t-:-in s czto us i njury i f a jumper, f all s' t hro ugh
the' tree ~~'n6p~y ) I, ye-t ' a t .t he sa~~ ' tin;e :s ~bVerting i t
'..' ',.,' ',' , , ., .,j .
wi t h a humor o u s so .lLfoquy I • t'he s t yli siic t e n s i ori ~ f th ei
jump story i s , exempl~fied 'i n i ts u ee Of :.oppo;in·q ,nar r~ -
. tive devices .

,,' ' ., " ' . " ," " '- '.. "
work~d on l.lld ' moppin ' -:i t "
t 'he : 'f h e a ·litt le ,·'- :E ~P" ~,· <: ' . ~e
h'ad a ' 'f e~'
1~t:t:l~' , SPl~kes, ~ : and ·th~re;'s i~t.~·:o(:~ater :.
t~~' ;e , it~' ~a:~y' -ln' t~~ ";~~~ ..)t ~l~: '~di~Pl~y:· ' ~ ~:ry~~~.. ~leme'~ te
 . .
or c larify a situation , by. ~orcin9 t he a ud ience to' c han g e
its, r efe re ntiaL f r ame ' a~ the nar ra tor 'ch ange s and man ipu- '
. . .
aaeee the i nf~rmation-~,e presents-_~'- - :.A t o tally sUb ject,ive.
acco unt would appear:. in ' ,i
. , .
t5 internaiiz ing
.' : , ,
or- exp e rie nc·~ .
a s a, d i sregard f o r 'the e c c peeeedve emphaef s "of t~e cccupa-

ti~:m , . whi1e~: 'a totally :ob jective pe~formance , ' i n its

. ex t e r n a li za t i on of ex pe rience wou Id appear' to be
. " ,
a
j Ol\%' na l. i st.i c ~e c o.un t~ng of ev errts with(;mt ' th e necessar y

'pe r s o n a i .e l e.men i s ~':li~h ' ~cv.ea l to ' the a~dience t.he relf.,a'-:;

.
bi.lity o f t he ·i n f or ma t i o n .
~ - -
Th e narrator
, . .
's ab il~ ty _ t o .
draw fro m. both the a u b j e c t.Lve and 'ob j e c~i ve realms 'of

experience, a nd ' r e l a t e t he jump s tory in an oppqsi tio na l '

f~~me' , .fn 'wh i c h the event 'a nd , the ' narra~~r ' s i~p~essi~ns
. o~ th~ ,e veh ~ ';': re ' ba lan~ed' to ~omprise' a~ i~tere~tinqand
logically flowingna~ra'tive are' · ~tie prim'ary stylist,ic

q ua liti~s up~>n which' a good. Jump s f-0:Y ' i s, base~ , a~ d'

, ' M~vinq ' f r om:, st~,ie ,t o "'str~~ tur~' •• the , j ump Story,

c a n b e v iewe-d o n Abrahams ' " followi~q ' t h r e e ' ie~~l s : the

stru cture of t he rnaterials . , d~amati~structure , .and the .;

s truc tu r e of t h e c~~text .31 , Th~ 'ma ( e r i a l S' Of , theri~r~
r~tive ('~the' ph y Sic,a l qU~~'i~; " . : - . and :l)li! ' o r qa n b ed '
" , " ' . ,' " " '
r e l a t i o n s h i p a mo ng the pa rtiCUl ar c ornp c nent.s of ~ each
\ .~~~m,;,j~2 ar~ itr~c~~red' ,t'~ ~ corres~~d Jrios{ Ci~~elY to
t;h~ '~h~On~;~Oqi~ai>o~der~n'~' ~f:', ev~nts " " ,~~ ~he¥. ,tt~ns'~i~~
 - 180
.. .
in t h e supp r e's s i q n of/ a , forest fir<2' with the ql:1i!.liflca-

. tion for '~ 'h etori cal st"retch ' based ' o n the··'obje c tive~
5~bjeCtive; tension in ·'th e ·~ c~unt . In Skinny ' s . ~tory·.W
synt~gmati.c structure3 ~ 'con f o rms , to , t he fOliowin~
int roduction - -summary-~ fire c a ll- - j urnp c c uner - ,,-

jump - '- pariOl.chutE7-,:,tre'e - -hang , u P, in ,' tr~e-~ j urnp , partner,~'~ '

cargo - ~trl~'e c l i mb t o re t rieve c ar g o - - ac c i (lent with
~limb~~sj-fire' ,s u ppr e.s s i on- :':f i r s t · ni9ht--~~Ck' out--
l oo kout ' (n"ev er .'foundl - -:hunger- - Iack of Ci ,g'a; 'ettes -'- (sum -
, , I .' " ,
mary) - :'second night--c 'rew c il r r i e r - - tr uc k ride - -me a l - -

r~turn t o base ('~ onclus bn i : 3 4, On this ' l evel ' t he

mat e ria l s of t h e .nar r.at.Ive . and'the rnat?rtal s of the .'

exp'e:d~nce a re .Ln a lmo st ,to t a l a'g ree men t ' and much ,of wha't "
. ccc uz-s on both the phy sica l an~ 'v'~~ba,i orae: ing of t ech ";'
~iques i s "e e nc t Lon ed by i~forma l c e des a na i~par ted to

't he' r~kie I 1:h ro .u g h i~itiat~~~ and in f? r ma"i ' tra+~i~g .

ThiS: reliance o n informa l ', rather t h a n formal procedure s

fs ' underscored. ' i n t he paradigmatic 'eeec c eur c of an account

" , ', " , " ". " , .". ' , - ' J
t ha t , r~vea,1 s h?w C:0
,mmon ~e ~ s e ( l e t ~ in lJ go of ' the tree to
get , to the grou nd, l e avi ng the pa c k s on ,t he ' t r ,a il .
' con~'e rVing \"h.at~' e nerg y . t~ey had;· ·mu.st .a l ways,. ~~mper fol:ri'la l :

s tric tures . " Accor di ng to the " "bod k; " Skinny d id every-

thirt<i wro~~ :' :bu~' ~e '~id mak~it 'through i n one piec~ and

the £~re· was .put '~~t ~o~· suc~~~~'fuilY , pert~rmed his

-,
r .~ . " ., .... _~ ~,~ ..,...... ,- ,....,.,_ .,.....,..,.,. .... ...................,,
~ c-,.c-,.-=_-,--,~

.. -'
". 181

st~1istic s~retc~ ~tveen. t he .e xperi e ntia l and : re~~rential

.f r aDes of the .jum p story . The re ' is an implici t -du ma : i n
. ~ ',
the occupational e xperience i t s.elf , ho:wever. which becomes

{lIo r e "e x p lic i t as the audie nce t o whom the narra tive i s
. .
a ddr e s s e d i s c()llp~ ised - of exoter'ie membe r,s ' {L e , ", ncn - :

j Ulll~rs or ene ee . w~o are ~t' ~-~ mili;"r wit h 't he oc~upationl .
We r e S k i nny 't o ~el 1 ·thi s :s t o r y to 8~t;:h an audie~ce , w~ :tch
he pr~bablY wo~id 'n~,t ~ 't h e d·r_a.mati~' ",i mpact .ai.th~- j ump
. i t self would 'b e iJr.eate:i:: ; To the .j ump e r , t he d ram~tic
im pact rests . ~lmos t excl.~siVcl.Yupon tm; 'ti a r ra't o r "s ab il i t y
., ~t~ike' a bal~n~e betw~~n oppo~ing n~Iri:o.tlve ' ei.e~nt·~
a nd at the s ame" t ime reveal how the ~ve~~n~- through 't h e.

' foraa l i~cd p r oce.d,ures o f - the' occuea t ~on' pro~e'oo$' £:011

one pOi nt to \.he ~t.~er: · ~ ..e.;~ h~ the acci.~ent. w i th the .'
clillber s and ~e sul t:.i llg i rwbil l ty to r e t r i e ve the carqo .
.. f '. .', ' ... . . ,., .
chute with t h e f o6d i~ i t a f f ects t lte ' r est of ' t he 6to ry .

. The fill j l cons id~ ra t ion of structure co ncej ns

'. ·t he hi9 h1y SU'bj~tiye q~e stion of th'e; s er u c t c re of '-the

c;o~text .~~i.e • • ·~e ~ay in W.~i~h· .the a ctors and . ~udie'nc~s .'
int erre l a t e : . • . • • 35 As .a member 'o f th is occup ation f~~'"
f our Y~,s . ' I pa n
oni y . sugge s t my hypo th E!sis co ? cerni n 9
"' .
of ,t he , j ump stor y ' s s tru.c t ur e . As stat ed
t h i s a spect

earlie~ fSki n nis j ~m~ s to' ~ y wa s u~ual1Y t~ld '~~ l)' once
. ~very. U'~e sea:s~l\ a~
. '. . '" \ .. , .-
-' . . . .. '. ' . : . ' .. .'.
the:

0t.th~ '. ~~;r 6 . 0.f 1h.~ a~d~,e ~~e ~ere , expe~ienced , j,~~rs ' "
en'd -~ f the 'j umpi!,~
,
pe; i.o 'd: ': A l i
' " .'
and thi s j; t~~ y ,wa.s kn~ . as o ne of t~ ~ lo~9 ~ s t ~ nd be st
. ,
•..... .. . .. ..... ;
 1 82

, " , " . , , ' ,

ski~ny, howev~'r ,' saw 't~·i s ·. exper i ence' as'his bhimc e to add

hi stori'c'al depth a nd II presc'rip tive contin u ity to ~uch

.- " ' ,," ,' , ' " ;'
o f what we exp e.r ic rrc ed ,t h r ougho u t th e , . f ire "s eason', ,The

r e l at i o n s hi p b e t ween:. hi s exper Le n ces and'ours was . one of

'mu t ual: satisfa~tior{about ' acc~plishing o~r ' "jobs ,~ith
h umor and con'f idenc 'e 'i n,:·cm r '·abi.l ity to overcome ' t he lJ'an y
" /
,dangers i nhe re'nt, in t he occupat i on . A s seen . in' the
, ."
t ranscr ipt, her i s ne ver i n terru pted, and ~ h e end .o f tne

nar~'t~ve ,".,gg~sts "t h. " ~

~e b.a :s~.c. 's~ructu~,e.· Of,~~. hea~.c~.u:t
J:lasn't , changed ap pr-ec.leb L since ~t ocCU?ed . · , Th i s i nd i - .
cates that t he coneext of tis p a r U cu l iir j u mp s tory i s '

one, of mu t ual respect ~pon ~~~ ~art j:'-f,i~oth the , narra':.~r

and t he . aud ie nce , the ' for mer ,be c a use : h i s e u dtenc e . 'ha~ {j> ~,,.:
proven' th~m$elves ~nd will- ~ppreciat'e t he s.ubtle~Ills "bf
f .,_ . "
hi s tale '. andth~ , la'bt~r be.c,aus~ 0/ t~ei~ re:p~ct . f.pf t he
narrat o r and their opportunity to par t.Lc.i pa t;e i n ' the on -

., " . " , ' .' . '

~he 'nea ~-ri,tuali stic ,reco u nt:'i l'l';J of th i's-' ~tory at a ' c~uc;ia i', .
-, time of t he f i re s e a son ju s t before e veryo ne goes. t hei:tl',..
~' own: ' ~ a~ , ' Sk:i nny ' ~ j ~ st o ry).s H:ml; ~lbd~~d).~ ,\.h~
. ba~i.~ val~e~ 'o f 'm"emb~~S:,?f ' thi S workcoli~ctive :
 , T h e"'f o urth l e vel of investiqat.f.onconcerns .t he
f un c tion of t he j ump star» . ' Thi s leve l can b e use fu lly
'b r o ken .d o wn ,i nt~ th~·; ;Ol iowing' l '~ p~daqogy: ~~t.~rtai~~rit ,
. , ' " ~ . " \
affi rrtation of . belief i and hi s torical . d e pt h ', . the l evel
. of pedagogy r~i ates , ~r~ar i1y - to fhe j ump s t o r y' ,i n , g.~~eial
as i t is' t.ol d -t o the: new j'~Pe;rs " _in~'n ' at~emPt !l~ teac~ '
. ' " " ' - " , . ." .
U. S . F~re.s~ servicc _.p rciced'!rcs a n d -tbe mor~__ importa nt
i n .f;o: mal ~~c h·n i que s) , .. of t h e most _o bvi o u s examples;,
One
of "th i s £unc't ion' i n ' S ki nny ' s acc ount i s ' th~ " s ectibn' abo' ~ t

.'
 ~,

"~)mry th~t much we i ,ht O';>l~"'d~'st~~~es r~"ed

<:» terrain . - The j ump sto ry pr o vides a "c r iti c a l rererene ec
In '" .
0-

....hi ch "t he new j~per '~an reiat~-

.
h~S ' ownI .a dtions':-s
.. ' ,"
o .; , ~ t~
ba s e his- u t judgments not on f OJ;lllal rules:. but: o n -t he

. ' : I .,
.The s econd f un.ct ~6nal .1C V~ 1 <:> ~ the j ump sto r y

cente~~ ,:0its enterta in~~_9 ' qu~ii~Y,~. I As _ i~ any ' s~~ ~,.a ~
s r oup , there are indiv iduals who are mor e adep t at telling

a na-rra tiv.c well - . ,I,n, the , ?c.c upational conees e . th i~

. . .
abil i t.y i s o~te~ _ c oupled with a. kn0.w1<edge Of - , thc ~Cc hniq ue's "
and ' concer ns .6 f t~e oC:cupa:tio~ _co~~lcd with -an ab il i t y t o '
_ ' " • ' ." r:, •
articulate the s e:' preoc c upa t i o ns i n,_.a manner ' t h a t i!:j bo t h ·
:e n9a~i~9 :' a n~ ' eit-h ~r\'u rno;ou~ ' or ' instru~ti~~ . Mari' "~i1us ..
tr~' ~ i'on O/ S~i-~~Y" '~ ' ~ bi~ity ' t.'o ea et.cc entG~ta~~~~9', tc:ch-
' ni~u~
. ; th~" in~i~~nt' i n the nairativ~ ~hen' ~ and: ~ls j~p
' . ' ~ "

~ P!Irtner ,hea d , .ec t he ' l o o kout .f~i ~,~d is one wh f'ch ",!o uld be _____
__ • , ," " " , ,• ,, " , I '" " • --~- ~ , ' -
i~e dia te ly hu~orous' t o , a s mokej umpe~' audiaris:: e ' due to 'its , /. ,:
, ~'aClhe~ence ,~o ,a!: ~r~~~~lin9'b~;L~~k~~~" ~il'; ' ,I ' : '

pr?v ide ~h~, '. j Jmpe :r. ~efu9~"' , foc:d" and filnlal'e 'c ompan~o'nShiP, .
, " !, , " , v ' ri '\ '

h~ .firidS! hi ms elf ' 'i n ercubte . o f cour~e.

 ~~~, =;-c, +:--"'C " ~~'O<:-::: .~ ;
. . ~ ~ '..,
~::...~ '~
',' _ C__ ~':-~ _: _~ _ _ ~"
.'
'''''-7t~,: ; __:
~:.;:,::::;~:~.;:n. th. "Udi.nC; " 'bi1itr_t~~~k' 1 "

", ". ~ Th e - ~hi,:"4 :' ieve.l ~f f~~~ :1 n , th; ~llmp s ! .o r y _co~~_. " l-
cems t he aft:irma t4o n ,of be Li.ef in' o o t h .person a l a"rid, ,~./ .. ' :
. " " . . '. I ' :.
9~neral .o c c upa ti on a l praftic~s . , . Skinny" rel, ~ tes many - /
exa"lliple""S of this f undtio~' : ln :' his ~~~e f i n ' .f:\is ab-H.ll;. to'
surv~ve t~e}ai l,' s~ren9th·,and~~l;,~~bi1i.tY of hi S >~P :"
" ; pa rtne ~', .:m d .;c o nfide nce i ,n . h,is Own j ~d_~:~ t ,",'ith fe9ar'~
. ,,""0 l eaving his gear on t~e tuil . At t):'le .s ame t ~'me, ' this
," / nilrra tfve f o r c e s 't he a ud .Lence to eva luate " t heir ' o'wn con-
: fi~~n.ce {p both t he "f o rma l "and in for al dictates"-o~ . _t he i r, .'
choices'~in ~he : per io~mance o f ~c:c up' tion~ l . techni'que by
' i l lustrat~ng the po s itive res uits 'o , r e l yi n g ' on ind iYidu~ .
,' . , . , ., . .r:
a nd,group-he ld confidence, and expect ation. This r-e In-
for~~ment of ·'be li~'f , is er sc rcr rcceee i n t he' f~u.rth f unc '::'
tion;l conside r ation o"f h'i s t o r i c a l Jepth in which ' t he
. " . ', '

a c cumulated beli efsa'nd 'c o nc omi t a n t pni.c ti~e s · piecedi ng ~ of

I , " •
jU mpers comprise 'a n i ri!ormative pO~,l o f a ~ ter mltives Which
are ca 'rried f r o m jutnp' to: j iJmp t.hz-ouq h the medlU/TI of the
jump l t o r y . W~thO~'~1 t his reservo.i,~ ..?f .a~c,u~ula't ed i nfor ';'

., ma~~o~ / (,~ . g...' , if:e~ch " " n ew"j umper,s h<ld, t o , l~r n th eir
t r a de strictl y b y t he book or·through f o r ma li 2e d' r h les ).
. ' , \ " ~
t~e .O~c c.u patiQ!1--..~OUld be much ~ore\~angerous d Uli! ,' !:O t he
l a c k 'o..f s upp o r-t;.. a ~d· ,pr .,:c9de n1:-';;g iv i ng .s e lf- c:o n fidc n c e in a
si tuati~n . whe re t he ' form~l ·rUle s,do.n t. t .apply a nd t he

J umper m~st re ~y on 'i nf?rm~ lly " ie are e d te.C: hniques.

r:
j
 ....... ..---- -:...
~~ref9re the exper~encel~ j..Jnpe rs. on aU - jumps ' c o~stan~~y"
~ ' .-•.: .. ~ ..~~~i tali~e .a.~ a d d' ~ ,, ~~~~Pooi."of~t.c;.nnatio~b~, pr~~ .
. ~ . '. ~: vid i ng new ' s olut ions to recurrenL.problelll>.
. , /.
.
~
'. . . ..
.
' :' The 'ne x t
--.......... -
two conside~ation~. diffusi~n and fre ":
. _.
'.' ~uency'of~:um~ ' s~a~y .a~e ~di ~ f ~cu~t; ~. dO~UlIIe':t' .du:~~
, '· t h e . l a c k of ,a ny s ~atis t i.c~l i nf""'rm atio n . Ra n dJ e .Hur s t ' S
'~k ~ T~~ ' Slllok.eju~s·.~~e.v·er . ~;n siats of o ne , j~p s tory'

....., afte ·r . .anothe~· ,t ha t ~~.i lOW t~e , ~ame' styl'i sti~ and : ~ tiu.c t~~al
, fG.atur~s, of Ski·n~y.' snarrativa , 37. .. Thi s :~Pled _wit,~ my
own, COll::ction o f ,smoke~pe r f olklo r e ' Wh ! c fi- con s ists o f

over t ....enty-five jump .s t o r i e s collected during , j~sto.',Ie

se~si~n wit h th ; ee e xperienced jumpers , · a t t e s t.s ·' to th'e " . ~,:

pcrV-asive~ess.;~f th£ii I')~rrative f~nnan.d i ndicate s " t Jie ~

:~:::::~loCCd "po" , hi, CXP'~" ive .O~ m
ep .0' ,'.
", . !~~~ri ' is.·o":e ' c~sc of a hist~~ic.uly d9Cl>m~ , '
j~ wh ~ch ~a~ paS5~d ; i ~t.o o r a I, .t ra cil l. i On and J:&. . '. . ',
Te f l e~i:.,ed-.' i n /ly CO l lect ion. ,-~~,~, Fo r-e st Se rv ice p~~li ca -
t ion e nti tled ·Fir e Con t ro l No tes · ' wh i ch wa s pr i n t e d in
1950', .':"n
"
incid~nt i~V01~~nq'(
the '
. . use ~black'
....... panlt;oopers '
as smok ejurnpers '. is rela ted in ·,the fo llowing. ;;-'~nn,e r ;
Trai ning 'of the. , 555 t h Ba t t a lion , ~ f Negropara.:..···.-,.
troop er s i n t i mbe r jumping a nd , f ire f i ghting to
comba t J a pan e s e bl\ l .l n fire s . Nina t y - s even
Negro pa r at r oo pe r s we e jurnpe d on th e Bunker
Hill fir e an d 28 o n the Hea th e r Cr . fi r e, both
o n t he Chelan . Rc lar amoke j umpe r s weJ;'c : us e d
as ove r head . 3 0 ' .

·f
 _to id, 'i n the fo ilow! ~9 ma rine r : . : .
. :2 ': ' I 's ur e 90t . a - kic k ~ut,l of Lu f kin tel l i ng ;' " \ :
~bro~~h~h~~:~cj~~Sthe;;,:~:ns~:;!t;~p:_~5~~ t~~~Y : '.~' :
. Bunke.r .Hi ll f ire . He was d roppi ng t hem: ' T he : . ..
un f o rt'u n ate t hing ,is they ,we r e a b Un"Ch of· , ", . '
~~~t~~~~e~i~~'i~ ' fi~~~~~~/~~~p~~~Yt~:!i~a~~:~ion- .
. i' ·~ ~u~:;~t~um~~~: . ~i~~~t~~:~e~a~o~ '~~~~;U~e~i " .
.1 - ~,: good j ump tJe ar . Th ey 'had the , h a r (l ha t an d he I me e'
o .- . . , ,m d al l t hat garb a ge. Francis tel ls that ' l:.f1e y -.
' dr oppe ~d t hem at 13-5 miles a n noar . T h i s was ,!
wi t hou t O-bags . NoD-bags • • • ! . But enyway , :
ge tti~ b~c k to wha t Francis ' wa s te l l il).g about .
. tM-$_1~5 mile an ho ur j e z a , He" e:as le f t · i n' t he . <,
~~~~~ ~~~ I~S~~~ ' ~i~w~~~%-~ t~in~a~6~n; ~or~;3rt~:~~.
a nd t he' pilot says; ' Ye s ; how "fast do YQl,I:,w,ant
I t o go ? ~ .. And h e says, ' Oh ; ' abo ut a l'Iundred ; " 'And

'> h e says " ' Wil l ninety miles a n hour dO? l . So for
the jumpe rs t hey s Loved it down to n {ne t y miles
an ho~r.?9 " " , :

A].t"ho:ugh .t n t e ria'rra~ive takes the form o f ' a" t h i r d person

.fabuiat~; 4 0 it. revc~Hl ,t,~ e- persona l 'b:ation a nd. deta il tha t

'i~ 'l!o lt\l1lon to.·Ski n~y·s j ump rrr a n d the othe~s in my

co llection : / .Ra t h e r . t h a n b~C~~ ing mo~e a nd more. v a g ue and

:' ' . , . , .
s-edao t I ve in ' f brm, the j ump story and re iated 'f o r ms li ke
.
" . , J
' ': h i s .r e ~o un t i ng ~ f a j~p . Whic.h occ~rntd :went~ - fotir ye a n ;
prio r ,t o my r ecording i t; re veal ' th'q.~trengthof de tail .

foun d i n the j ump story withr.;out the sp~cific s tructu~'al

evoiuti~n foun d in ·the mor e person aliz~d form" · ....s th~S
" typ~ o f n a r r ati ve is di f .fu s e d; it seems t o l ose it s e t.r uc - '
, ,
tural co n t i n uity (a s sumi ng t~at i n i~ s early s t a ge s of.
narra tion it fo l lowed the more f~m i liar ' j Ump :;-tor y p attern) ,
but n o t it s d etail ' 0:" p e dagogi c a l , f unc t ,i o n : "Ha d .th i s be en
 a , 'pe 'rsonal ' ex~eriEmc~ story, ' the templates o f s tr'uctur,:d

ex perdence and narration which shape ~he jump storY';

wou l d ' ha ve made this a h ighly cc neecvatdvo fo rm , o~'~r time.
- ;i nce .it i5._t:.~ld ab ou't . the experiences of ·o t he r ·s . ' ho we v:'!t

the de tail has bee,n rE;tained a nd th~ point of d i s c r e p.a0C;= y

ketweeri .t he ' ~angero.U~ pl ane s peed used f o r bla~k :ju~pers

' a s oppoaedt-co the :-s a f e , mrre c O~ f~ r t a b le . speed used for

whit~ jum.p~r"S h'!:s bee~ . ~.jI:'t aC.~_ive_ .i.? " " oral tradi ti<:n
of . e n e group. As s U~ h nar ratives are d i ffu s e d o ve r a lo ng

p c r,1 9 d 'of', ti~~ , it '-~ ppea r~' as thOu gh: t he fu nc t i o n al

'sty li s t i c ..c ha nge s o ccur tauch mCe slowly t h an ~ o c h a nges.
. " }

. in e e ruce ure . . , Th~s .s u ppo r t s t te hypothesis that as " long

as theT~, is a f unc tional need 7or · ~ . narr<.l: ~ ve 1n t hc ' 9.~O-tiP

(in ·t.h i 's case a n anecdote t o l d .a t t he , expense o ~ bia ck
j ~Jrip'ers ) it will maint.ain ' i f:S ba s i c cl:>nteJt .. l;"'i t,h Some
'd e t a i l ) e v e n though its s t r uc tu re ,may be .....i' l t ered ' or deca y
. .
a s the!. .s yn.t a gm-'Of , t he story ' f ad~ ~ i i e , the" po~n ~ or ba s ~?
pu rl!'0se ~ ta ts i ntact .
, ', ' The three f i na l con's ider'ati 'o.ns , of ag e . · ori.gin,
and process of
. ' , ,
~ransmission
regi rd 'ing
.
I s
'. I
story 'Sk~nny jum~
'- . " ee j aee primarily to t he cha'ng:s tha t , take p lace in ' a f Ully
develoPed persona l ' e~peri~nce . narrativ:e as it i s related
over a l o~g period o f time. The ac tual event .d esc ribed .in

sk:i~nyt~' story t~'o k place i n.' 195~, t~ ir ~een ye ars pr i~r t~

the night on ' whi c h ' t re~6raed 'i t . Yet 'it s leng th , detail

an d tone . ilJ./us trate a ~~~Si tiV:ity: to de tai i ' ~h~ch f ew of

4.
 '18 9

US c o u l d match a fter a' mo n t h' s time., A~ Skinny s .ta ,tes at

~h~. e~dOf" pl~, .~CC~'-· :- ' :. . .

I might ~ ave left some e t u f f ou t. ; ' c a u s e eve r-y -
~~~gI ~~~~~ '~~w:~:e ;;;;~~~~hi~G ~ ,~~t~~~~p~ned
mean , t he , s to rY 'l~i s.n '.t. clabor atep . at all , really.
'i ~ta~~~~~n~hi~~~9~;:p:~rju:~d~~: ::y~~~~d:q,~~ ~n .
make anyone 'give u p j ump i ng whe n I t hi n k . . • . , •
.
(I n terrupti or) Bu t a n ywa y , we : e ur v tved . 41
By ' sedate I _think ' t h at Ski nrt; ',~eans more po 'l 'ished' a rid
'.. . "

conservative (f~we: d e t a i l s ) as t ime 90es.:'o n. b·u.t"" t 'h e

f~ct that t 'his o ne ' e x a mpl e is aL mos t; . fifteen ' pages l ong
~ith a trcmenda'us a mou n t of' d~ t~i~. te nds ' t o unde rmine ,' h is
, '" ' , ' ', r '" _ . ' .
a s s e r tion . Th e a9~ o f t he narrative a nd ~ts pla ce a nd

man~~ r or origin appl'far t o be l 'e s s 'i mp o r t a.n t ,t hil n t he

conservatism of th e occupational pract ice s ' a nd b~i.i efs
' up o n ~hic,h i t i s . bese d , And perh~ps mor~ , impo,r tan t is "

t h e audience 's ~e e <:i t o r e f er t o t hi s o r'a I material i n

order ,t o ,r e l.a te it t o' ~he da ily ,c onc <7 r ns a rid ce c rut e eme n es
of, the job. As 'long a S , t he pa rti cip a n t 'i n ,th i ~ occ upa t i on

fac e s c hoices and s ituations para,l iel to t ho se f a c e d ' b y

Ski.nn.y-; -the ~ j uinp' -story' wil ~contlnue t 'o be.lon in~egral

part of t he emo ke j ump Lnq c u l t u re .
In t he PreCedin,9 ,~haPter I h a ve tr'~ced the various

l evel s o f , ~ccupa t iona l verblli e.x pres~ io~' , frpm " ~~',rgon a nd
me t a ph o r , t o ~o~ver~at ion . ';c r i t i q ue ' a n d narra~ive ex ch a n qe ,

and fina lly .'to :o r a l hist~rical accoun ts , accide nt; stories

, '
and highl y e laborated, personal exper ience nar ratives ;

Ye t "'h a t i s perha ps '· mos t 'i mpo r t <int \ 0 'o ur unde rstanding ,
1:-

. •~•., ' J
. .• ... . 1 l~ ; .
.o·f >}iow the,~e Spoken \aSpec ts of occupati.O~~klife .fit . _. (. ::'
iri,t'd. tt\e,i.:~ res'pective cUI"tures is b/Url~eisL.lnding:'ltIh.. e l' ' ,,\

~a~~: ::~~f~·Out. 'O f· : {h~se_. n i~~lY ~ta.il~r~,d ; ::,~ lm9~t- pr -istine :"
." . exa~Pi~e'/ All , occupationa l cu I tur~Sr .a~dJi re , fi9h~ing
cu~ ~J~.~;s ~rh.a ps ~rie tha.n oth~rs. are . ~Ombarded'b'y noise
'and;~i'stfactions of . tcemen,dOllS' variety and intensity.
A9ai~;.~'~~t:ha-·b:C~'~rop Of ',Ci ty ' s~unds. ,s houts.." c'a~ls comi ng
, in ~~,~(~~~ V~C~l; radios pla~.i4}g,_ 't~leViSio~ b~a:Z::in!l'
ala;~;;' ;9~"ing : off'; etc ., ,'the 'spo k e n,'",o r k . s on e h c v lIla~ageg

::c::~Jt::t:u:t::~::'j:: ::p;:'::t~~o:::~:'::d:~:~:~
ex pre.~~i~~s a nd u.nd e rs t a nd · the-ir aeanLnq , B':l.t as a~
ethn~~aph~r I . am a wa r e of . t he i r plac~ wit hin ' the . c,acopho ny
, .' ~ f \:o O~4:·,;..~~at s urround s us a'll ' ·~n.d 'iit 'my .a t t e mpt ': ~n~lYzc
. thes/~~ki'~usfotms, I ' ha v e Possib~Y :g i ven It h e ~i':ita~en'

impre.si#:~~/' ,that, they .~ c~ua. lly. ~~c~r in : th~::neatl~ .. tai1.0r,~d·.

e>camPl~,~} neve- provided. N.0t!l~n9 . cOll.Id b~ f urther fro m
the tr~'t~'.i- MOS~ of the t ranscribed' m~ te'r' ~al pr~sented
--~~--- here was ,wrcacee from : the : fo d no ise of "a gu n ne d
. .. Y. · ·~~~"-~~ I
e ng in~ .. .: a n
"
..a rgumen t abou
': :' . ' .
pire I s "b a d ' ca ll or , f r om i n

""?" >~: ShO~:t s an~ . , ~~,~ Of .. a ,: Champ i ons h i p, .p in~-~~g"

~a t~h 9'~,~tt9 on ' ri9h t .J"l; x: ' t o my .mi.~ro pho nc . . , We may some -
day dev~ i:o~ a. ' ''u'I~ ~O ' accu~a'telY tFahsc't ibe these .v e r be L
e>cpressi9~'~ -:in ' s~ tu , .9i";,1ng, a~ ' ·acc~ra t.e p'ictur~ 'o f' hoW' .

they fit in~o '\he ac~~al ' a ural'~ backgr~und' , bl,lt :at th"i s

L
 : ' ..

..f',
, "~
:\
-: ":.. '
d

.,
'
[
.
.~
.
.
-r.
 I 193

/;.\,
CH i TE R '} :
, - , ', - .- - , \".
T~_E ' DI5TR,~C T, ;OF. COLUM~~ ~IRE. ' F.I GHTE Rr PROJ~C T

I ' ~ - ~.se e Ben A . Botkin, "WP A'and Folkior ~ Res~'prch:: '

' Bread and Song, ,,, Sou the r n Fo l klore Quarterly 3 (19 3 9 ) ,
pp. 17- 14; '..Ben A. , Botkin , . "Li v i n g t.oz-e-on t h e sew t or k
City ' Wr iter ' 5 p.ro ject, " New'Yo rk Folklore Qua rter ly 2
(1946 ) , pp x 252-2 63; Herbert Hal per t, Federal 'theater
and ! FO l k s on 'g, · So uther n Fo lklore Quarterly 2 "(1 9 38) , ' p p .
81-,85 . For a reva e v of' .a pp h e d anthropology see Dell
Hymes , ' "The - Us e of)nthropolog y : Critica l, Pol i tica l ,
Per s o nal," i n Rei n venti ng Anthropolo gy , ed .' Qell Hymes
(New Yo r k : .Vi n t a ge B oo k s ~ 19 7 4 ), pp , 3-83; a nd also
~~~U~~p~~e~U:~h~~~i~;;~i~~~t~~~'1a;i~r~~~_'~~~~~yS~~~~~le
by !La u r a, Th ompson . The Challenge of Appl ied Anthropo logy ; "
Human orga nization 39 (l9 79) . pp , '1 1 4,:" 120 . , For a n ex cel-
lent exampl e of a pplied a nthropological wo rk se e Ellio t
. L ey ton , Dyi n g Hard : ' Th e Ravag es of I ndustri al Carnage
,(T? ro n t o',: MCCl e i \and a nd scewern , 19 75) . .
I I. 2Roger Bastide , 1\ppl.t e d l\.nt h ropo~, trans .,
Alic e L . Morton (N ew. Yo rk . n a r-pc r a nd Row, 1971), p. 180
' " :, ' 3Robert 'M<;:c~:rl,
"F i'(!ld ' Report-- Bulk rrei'gh t r-e-ccx - '
in'9. Minch 1 1 - 'Mar c h'.:1 3, 1915 , " 's rni ensoo t e n I n s t i'ti.ltion',
Fol kl i f e Progrdrn, Wo r ki n g Americans ' Pro gram, "un p u t nLs fve d
repo r e , p . lL ,
l ' 40CF FP fie ld "l;;;tebook ent.ryrOc cobe r 27, '19 7G,
N ci t ~b o ok I .
'i 5 ' . , ~ ., \
I , . ,personal , c or respondence from Fi r e ..Chi l,;! f Jefferso n
Lt:;w,i~ to.Robe.~t e c c a ei , ~ugu s t 1, 1 9 78, p , 1. 1 \
.] 6personal correspondence' f r o m"Rob e r t ,' ~lcc'ar l 't o \
Fi r~ ' C h i e f Jefferson Lewis, 'J u n e 16 ,
1978 , p . .2 •
•1 . 7Rob e rt McCa r l ; ·~\se lected ' I ndex t o ~he' workl n g
Ame r icans Tapes "'Re c o rded at t he 1976 Festival of Ame r i c a n
, Fo lk l i fe ," Ma r c h , 1 9 77 ~ f o l k l i f e Program Arc hi ve" .
, . . . .
S rdit h s o nianlns ti tu t i on , ' washing t on . D ~ C. .

IIf · 8DCFFP,:a pe Marc 1J.U, 1978. p;: 2B,-J.

1 r .9DC.F FP fi.el l;j' no tebo~k " ~ntry n ec emc e r 7 f 1978,

Nl\"boOk I. .

'/
-_.~- _._. J.
,-

/
I
10 " · "
I .
':- ,.' . ' ,,
. '
;" , ,F e r nand e z , ; "rerSuaSions~.ndPerforma nces, M

pp , 4,5 - 48. . i. , "} .~ .

~.lD<;FFP:' ~ i el~ -{!,atcbo~k entr~- _January , 9., '1 9'7 8 , -'
Notebook I I . .

12DCE:FP field i not.ebcok . entry' Mar c h 9, .i s ia,

No t e bo o k II ~
' 1' '
. 13Cliffo~d oe e r -t s , " ~Th~ck o escril;)tion: ,Towa x;d' an
I n t e r p r e tiv e The o r y of,
Cul tu r e , " in The Interpretation of
Cul t ure s , e d . Clifford 'ce e e ea . (New Yo.rk: BaS1.c Books,
~ p.3 -JO , ,1 " .", ' "
' 1 4Ro be t t McC~rl. , GOod' F i r e , pp , "25 -2 6.
4 . 15 , -' / ' : - : - . - - '-. - ' , _ . . . ' ,: " .1
Sro l e . " 1~n~~~L~~~e ,.~ :~~~rLl;;~· w~~~~rP~~~\vSHa~~~~ a~~ l~eo
, ~nivers;Lt~ press ,,~ il~,,6 3 ) "

I
CflAPT E R Il : , A MODEL
, -OF: OCCUP
,
A TIONAL ' FOLKL I. FE
"

. .'. IThe follp~ing rio tes , refc~ to the :sectio.ns of

the se wor ks that deal p r i mar i ly with the theory .behind a :(
particular ' c o llec t i on or' essay :' Kor so n , Coal Dus t , pp.
3- I G, '"1 7- 28 ; kc r eo n , Min str e l s , PP . ' i -x i v ~r son;
Peilnsyl v<lni a ' Songs a n ~, pp. ' 1 -:l/; ; Hora~ ' Be c k ,
'; ~~~~: i~~: , w~~~e~:i~~~~~e P~o~~~fi~i ~~~: ~~r~~r ~~~~~g
~8)"pp. 5 B-69; Beck, . Folk ·lon~ a, ndthe Se a,
pp . xiii-xv ii, 409-412; Mod y Boatnght , Fol kiore of ·t h e
Oil' I nd us tr y (Dal las :' Southern Methodi s t ,un~ vers Hy ' p res s ,
1 963 ) , PP" v vii i; Wilyland ~D . Ha nd , ,MCalifcirnia Mi ne r ' ,s
Folkl o re : .n bovo and Be l o w Gr o u nd, " pp .. 1 2 7- 13"o , 140..,,' ', '
141 , ' 2 4 -27; a nd Ha nd , " Ge o r ge Kcirson . ~ 'pp , 6!> ~ 6 8.
20a n ' B en-ArnOs~' ~' T~~ard
a Dcf~nition
of F01klo~e
in Can t ex t; n i n 'Tow a rd New' Perspectives in folk lore,
ede , Ric hard Bauman and nn e r.rco Pax;ed es (Aushn: Uni-
ver si.ty of Te xas Pres s, 1 972 ), pp , 5 -6: . .

?Claude ~e~i-St raus~, " The Effectiv,;ness of

Symbols ,M .r n Structur 131 Anthropology, Cl a u de r.e v f .-ser-auss ,
t r a ns . , ' Cl a i r e JaCob3'On a nd 'B.G . Schoepf (New York : .
aee r c Books .. 19P t . pp. lB 6-206 ~ \
~ lb id . --

L ,.
 19 5 ,

SThe ta pe ' cita tio ns given 'here sere r ecorded at '

t he Smithsonian In !'Jt itutio n 's 1976 Fe s tiva l o f American:
, 'f·,Po l kli f e which, was hel d in Washington, D.C., f ro m June , i. e -
Septerober' B of' t ha t year • . Thes e t apes 'Were r eco r ded i,n
the Working ArnjJricans sec tlion of t he j!tiV<ll and the .'
citations ar e given in t he manner i n w ic h they are l ogged
and indexed in t he Folklit;e ProgrM' s , r ch i v e : Smiths oni a n
' I n s ti t ut i o n- - F o l kl i £ e Pro g r arn- - Wo r ki n g ',l\Jlie r i can s::'-' I '977--
50 3 .11 ( R e co r d e r counter number-5 0), ( pa r t i c i pant , s~ak-:-
~~~h:~:~~~~5 0 3~Ug1i~o~i~~.~nca~c~~~;~~~n ~a~~~~~~:~~"e.
. 6Aaron , V'. ' c i c our e l , "Gc.,s t ura l ; i 9n ' i.a~guage' and
t he Stu d y of No n-Verbal Co mmlini c a t io n , " in The Bo dy as a
Med i Uli of Exp r essio n , eds . , Jona t han Ben t hal l , and Ted .
.' P? l hcmus (Ne'W Yo rk : . E . P. Du tton , 1 975 ) , p : 2 0 ~ .
7 ~~ c . Birdwpi s tell , " " B ackgr'~ und 'c on side ra Hon s
to 'the S t udy ,o f t he Body a s.« Med i um' of Expre ssion·, .. in
Benth all 'a nd Polhemus, pp ; 55-5 7 . , ' 't1;\':.'

I , 8 Cl-aucie 'L~vi~Str,a uss"

"The Sc ience o f the concret'~ , "
i n Art and Aesthe tics i n Priln.ltive So c i eties , e d , Car ol . F' . .

~~~~~~~~l~:~hY~~~ :we~d~~ ~~~;~nNo~~~~L~lPC~~~~~i~:~~~~sec

. ( B er k(l l ~ y : , Unive r s .i t y t .. C.aliforma P re5s ; .m bT;Ji'jl.
, . 89 - 10 7.
9 Ke n : Kuster~r , "Knowledge on t he ' Job: ; Wo rkers '
-xno v - now an d Eve ryd ay Sur v ival -Ln t he work p lac e "," unpub-e -',
lisred Ph . D,' d a ssec t.e t ion , wash ing t on .untve e stty , ·St>Lo uis ,
Missouri , 197 6 , p , ' 2 2 1. 'I'h i s i s a n adapt a.t i o n 'of ' the t e rm
used by xuse exer . ;

lOIbid . , 'pp . 28 i - 296 . Kus terer ' s co~cept .of wor k i ng

knowleqge--rs:-complex but b<ls i cally i t isa recognition o f .
~t;~~~i:o~~~gu~~ ~~e~'~~~c;~~m~: :~;~.li~i~~;I ·' ~~~c-
cd eed . . .. " .'
l lCarl B , Kau fman n' ; Man ~ ncorPora'te ', The Individu~l'
a nd His Wo r k in an Orga"ized Soc 1 e t y (Garden 'Cl ty, Ne.... York :
Dou bled aY '"l969 I,P: 133., ., .' ... . ' ..
l '2 T ape ' n umbe r' , SI -F P -WA~S 0 2 . 0 2
( 6 80- 72cf ; JO~ ,pint a r ,
Joe Kilze r; Ja~k Sny d e r a n d Bob Tan zley ; too l and die
makers . . ' .

'1 3 Ta"pe -nunbez- . SIwFP- WA ':So ·i. 22 ( 2 20- 4 OO), Bob . Newel 1
a n d ,AUst in Fif.e , gl a s s wor k e n . .
 , 16Ri~h'; ' rd" ' B aU~a~, ' ''~e~bal '
Art as
Performance ; · '
1Irneri.ca n Anthropologis t 17, ( ~975 1, p ; 302.
( 17 ' ,', .'" ~.-' ' , ." , ', '
. , Georges Pr-Lednenn , . Ind u strial Society , The Ernerg - ,
cnce of t h e Human Prob le~9',of Auto matlOn (New York : ' The
Free 'Pr es s , 1955) ~ "Pt 99. I ' _. ~

" ~8'Gregory Ba t e s on, steps to An ' E c ol og y of Mi. n d , A

' Revo l u tion a r y Ap p ro ac h to Man ' s undcrsta ndlng of HllfI s e l £
(New, York:Chari,d ler , ,1 9 72) , pp . Do -DI. . , ' .'
~ 9Erving ' G6f frnari" " In tera' c tion Ri t i,;a l , Es say s on
Fac c ";'t o-Faqe Bohavi or ( Gar qe Jl c re y , New Yo r k: . Doubl e d a y,
19671, PP.-5 3- S6. , . , , \, ,', .

. .: ' _ 20 I bi d . , PP. 5 ~~'511 ~ ' so se~' ~auri Ho~kO ,

AI
,"Memo r ates andthe St u d y of
Fol 'Be lie f s , " Jou r nal o f th e
' po1k l Qr e Institute I (1964)" , pp , 16 -17. Honko make s a dis-
tlnc t 1.on be ,t wee n cul t u r al ex p erien c e and cul~ur al exp lana-
tc r ytmcde Le t hat , pat alle ls ' the te:r;m,s ,I hnvc borrowed f r om
Gotfma n . ' ' ,' ', ' • '. •

,,2}-baffm1n,- Inte r~ct~on: Ri t~~ l,

,/S 2I bi d . , ; . 55 . ' . -:

2 ~~at~'~~' p '. 13B, ' • "

2 4 '; bid . , p. "1 3 7 .

25 B aum'; n', ,'p. , 295. ' Also see wii Uam 'L a boV ~ ~d
Joshua Wale tz ky , ' Nar r a t i ve An a l ysi s ,: Or al' Vers i ons of
Personal Experience , 1.0 Essays on · t h e verbal a nd Vls u al
Arts , ed . , aun e He l lll. (Seilt t ,le' : " Ame r l ca n Etlino l oglca l
socr~y, 1967 ), pp . 32 - ,42; and .an e xte'nsionand . critic ism
of La bo v's _work. in Meory Loui s e Pra t t ,' To wa r d a ' Spee c h Act ,
" : Theo r¥ of Lite ra ry Discourse ( Ind i a n a 'lln J..v e r s 1.t y sr e s s ,
~ ~~~~~~~~~n~~I~:~~~~l l:~~~;':i"~~~~.' <~~~~~~~~ef~;=l~~~~;:~?~ .,
.: . St'ah1 . -Th e . Pe r,s o nal Narr ative :as F'o lk l'orc ..• · J ourna l of t he
. Folk lore I n s titu t e 14, U 9,71) , pp'. 9-24; and L'.,G. SlIal l " , _
· Tr a d 1.t lo n a l Exp ress'i,.ons in , il. Newf oundlan d Communi t y : . "
Genre Chan g e and Fu nct io~al Variab i l'ity , " Lor e an d La nquaqe
.2 (19;:S )! p p . I S - lB. "
 197

. '2.6M~rtin _ MeiSSn~[" "T~e J,a~gUa9~-' bf.~rk, ·' .,

Handbo o k of Wo r k .Or gani z q.t:1.on a nd soeie cv , • ed...., -Robe r t
Dubin ' ,( Chl c a go ; Rand McNally, 1916 ) . pp • .157-26 9 : . .
-21Me'i s: rle r '" p. - 2 63 .
26 -; ' , :, : : ' .. ',
Dell Hym eS', "Br/il ak:t hrough into ~eI.f ormance . "
' Fol kl o r e :' Pe rformance and communi ca tion , e~ ~ Dan
-in
B'eJ;l~
AIlIos a nd Ken neth 90ldstel. n (The ,Ha9u e : Mout on, · "19751-,
p . 18; and Goffman, In t e rac tio n Ritu al, pp .. 49, ' 51 . T h is ,r.
a nticipation of informa~10n Wh~ch both performer arid .
': 1i s ~en er expeft in a certain form i !i comp a r able to Hymes '
.' no.t lO~ o~ performan ce a n d~f f m(l; n ',s concept of . e x pectation .

29Meiss'n~r ,p.. 2 24 . .
. 30S i e s t-ri ei! Ne ~il.~n , · "Arbe i tser~inimingen_" a"l s ' Er zah ~ - "
. ' u ngha l t , " i n Ar/le i t und Volksl e ben, ede , Gerhard Heilflirth
•.md ,Jngeborg Weber- ~el ~crm a n (Gottingen: Ver l ag cere ,".
Schwrtlln" 1965) " pp. 274"- 27 5. I have adapt~d Neum a n,n' s , te rm
"JUitt l e p unkt . " ' iln d acc e p t: respon sibil ity for',it s mis u s e.
r ilm gratef u l .t c C a ro ly n ' Goul d fo r l're lpi l:\9 me wi t h th e
tran 6 1~ tion . '
; 31T a p e numbe r SI ~FP-IVA-77''- S02 .30~(215- 320},
Jo hn
Nemeth. Arno1d Pl Owman, J o hn p Lo we e n , cemcnt wor ker s .

" "32Mi c ha e l J , ,B~;l , "Ta~ding

Bar at ar o wnt s .
'Oc cupa t iona l " Ro l e as lIrt,i s t i c Perf ormance." Wes t6l r n Folkl o r c _
30 (19 7 6) , pp . 97-90 : ' Bell ' prov: i desan extremei y u6e f u i ·
d is ti n?ti on between th e fo r r! of 'a f o l klor i s tic expr e ssio n
a nd it s p~rfornlance f unction i n hi s d i sc u s s i on o f work
prccee e e s.end ety Lea f n a bla c k , Phi l a de l p hia ba r, f o r "a '
socia l an tp ropol o'gical 'perspe ctive onappropria t.e-
inappropr ia,te pe r Eoreanc e se e Donald F, 'Roy , ."B<.tn ilna T i me:
Job 5ati sfii ct-;i,on' and Informal I nt eraction." Ilu:tfan Org a n iz a-
AmOre
t ion 1 8 (l 96 0 ) ,,· p p .' 158- 1 611 , t radit i ona l epproec n
tofactary wo rk £ r a m) l fo lklor,.i.stic peespece t vc c an be
..~~~~~J~no~r~:r~~~~e~~~~io;;\~h(~;7:) ~o~~ . i~J;~i46~ct~,r;?:'
. ' 3)T~pe "n u mbe r ' SJ: -fP- WA-n..,;03, l:8 '( 2~) , Hate"r";. Fun.
p lasterer, _
. 34Hytn es , p. 55 ~

35Feid~nand T5n n ies , custom;' lin. E s say on SeGJ...a,1

Code s . t r ans . , ,R. F a rr e ll. Bdr en s t el n (Clu. c a go : ' Henr y
. Re gnery , "196 1.) , pp . 29-3 0 .
"36Ta p c. nUlnbe ; S:I "'F'P~WA~77-50';·.O I (l100":'S6S) "Al '. ' .
,Q F ~ s Che r , Ar t ' Zakarskyand BOb. Tanzley ,tool 'and , d i e makers .

'-,-~-=- - .c _ . C _- .. J .
 198

37Ta~ - n~ei: , SI - FP.- WA.,.n - 5 8.10 ( 34'O-460) ; Larry

' ~:;~~=~/;~~f~~~~:~~~~08:q ~:~~e6~5~~X~o~~r~:~i~~erSl '
ab.d 'Ed ' Pr o n i c h , printers . . ' . .
. 38T~Pe numbe~ "SI~FP-W - 7-5'03 . 17 ~ 2~'2) , '~'ernie
Thor.nberg , pipefi tter'.

, : -3 9~aPe ~~er S~-FP-W~-77-:50·2 .14 ( 435) , Arn~d .-

Plowman ; ceme nt worke r : .
f. . " _ ·" 4°'l'ape'.n~~r SI':" FP-~A':"·~7-503 .17 :.•(130 r., ae'r~ e' _
" Tho r nb e r:9 ,", pi~f~tter . " .:
41 ' ....~.: ' - ', . " . . .
't . .Fned,manp ! pp . 37 - 43 .

:::::~:::'::::;: ' . .. .
448e e . }l~ke ' t herry ,' On ' lIig.h g.t:~c·l, th e Educa'tion of
an Ironworker l...~ew Yor Jp _ Quadrang l e , 197 '1); Deom.s sml:tb,
-. ~;~~~~ f~_~)~rt1~~eM;~~~a~~b~~, (~~: ~~k \u~~:~~f;Y o:ri cw
. Mine r ' s Journal (Ne w )!ork : ,-At hene um, 1 97 6 • to ·.a Ju s t ..
I ~a;~:61~:~~;~~ "pe'; ~~n;~~t~~~~~:S°~o~~f~~~a~~e~p~~~~r' of
con bcmpocexy a ut ho r s a r e also of ant. e xes c,"inc luding Studs
' ,~:~b' ~ : ~ i~e:{~~;\a'y~a~~~e~~~ri~~;4~~da~:m::~~~~a of
. . Rou tine w~rk, <,G ~r ~en 6ty, :,Ne w> YQrk: bo u6 Ieday, .' I9 / SJ _"
" .. . . 45hnd~cw ,Lev ison , The worki~9 Cla S S' Ma ')o r iti { Ne w '
YQrk : ' Cowa rd" McC a ~ sh ~nd , Geo gh egan, 19 1:11. pp - . 49- 51 .

" ...

. ",--. ' .~-'---'--'-

' -_._---'-~~-
 , '. .. "
3Xeri.n~th ·~ike, ·L~ngU~ge ' i n' R~iaeiPn t o . ~ Unified
: The or y o f ,t he Str'ucture of Behavi o r (Ann Arbor " J>lic hl.gan:
,Br a n-:-Br umh e i d , 1955), p . . 9,'" .
/ Ibid., p -., I S. .
SLabov ' and wai ietzkY~' pp'; 1 2- 4 4 . -

6ja ck: 'H~as , "Le a r ni ng Re al Fe e 'ling s,',,' So cio logy o f

.. Work a nd oc cu pa tion s 4 (19 71 ), p , 1 55 .
7 .~ ., ' .. . '
. ,p p', 31 - 3,9~ .'~j _;;~t~ ~i~~'M:~~~ ,~;~:u::~~:i~ ~o~u~:~~k~~ii~s, ~
Oc c up a ti'Ona l Ps xc ho lo9Y 24 (1 95 0) , pp ; 125 - 140 .
'Ba; Uet ·t, pp . 3J.-33. i··,
9I bi d., p . 93 .

1 0Dartl~ t't, p , 3 4. ' . "

1 .1 Thi s fiel~ tap~ .r e c o r d e d by F.;;~~t

McCarl'"as part
o f 't he m.s t r r c c of Co l \.Ullbia Fil:e Fig hter' s , Pr oj ec t, a n .
a pplied f o l kli fe pr ojec t su ppo r t ud i~ p a rt by t he D.C: Fire

r:
. Figl lt er's a sso cfataoa v-r.ocaf 36 ,_ and t he ,Nati o nal Endo wme nt
of the Art s , Folk Arts Pl:o g rClm. Tap e s a r c a nonymous Ly
~, ' ~~ Si~~9~Yp~~t:_ ;~d tape ;Log nu mbe r : DCf'F P Tape ste r ch

I ~ Bartlett , . p . '85.
13M~ce , 'p , 126 .

~ ,14 Ibid . , p . 12 9. _
15ib i d., /.1
1 6D~.F~P Tape AP;rH ,';'i', 1 979 , Ta~e s , Side 1, .p, 3 .

. I ] Ne urna nn , ~Arbei t5e.r;inerungen, ",' pp . '2'7 4- 2 75 ; '

1 8DCFFP Ta);le Nov-~inbe'r 9, ~ape' A, ' Sid~, j , pp. 3- 4B .

, 190C FFP, ,f i~ld : ri~tebook .e n t r y No,:,:cmbc r 9, 1978 ,

No t e bb o k I . ' - -

CHA~'TER 'I V. CUSTOM ,I N' T HE wbRi< PLACE

'Y;'~k :
. 1· . ' '.
Ment~r , B~~;~ ~~~~~ ;c~: , r8 ~tern~
' '' . . '
0 fU. tUl:e
f 1 (New

)
-. /
c "

' 00
1
! 3Edmund Leach •• ft,R i t ua.llzatibn i n aan- i n Rel ation to
Qonceptualand soc te -t Developmen t, · i n Reader in Compar a t ive
Re ligion : ' An Anthropologica l·,Approach, eds •• Wl. lham Le s s a
and Evo n "vogt (New York: Harper an d ~ow , 19 72 ) , p . - 337 .
4T~nnies; 'cus.tom. p : IS

5G~f~man, In te~~c ;~on i t u a l , \ PP . 51 -56. , - :_ ,_

:' " GTa pe n umbe r SI-FP':'WA":7 0.3.1"\ (130 ), Bernie .
'_ 'I'hornbe r g, pipe fitter.• . " ,'. \ .
7Royl, -Cnana Ti me , · PP"15 !l- 168 ~ .
. Bpilcher, ";;,r tla nd LO~9 shoremen. P~ ' 6 2-65 , '.98- 10 0 .

90~~FP' ,Ta pe March 21,1979,. "P . 2B ~

l ODCFFP T~pe Mar c h' 25, 1 ~ 79, ' PP ; 6-7~~
llOCFFP T~p"e February 24, 1?' 9, pp . -3 - 4 .
1 20CFFP Ta pe Tape. ~,arch 2 5, 19,79, p . lB.
lJOCFFP T~Pe. ocrccer u • 1978,. p , l.
)
14Robert, .Mcca rl ,' Goo d ' Fire/Ba d Ni g ht : A
'Ske t c h ' o f t he ,Di s t r i c t 0 Co urn loa lore Flog t e r As Se e n
. Th rou h 'rne r r Occ upa t i.cn e 0 - 1. e Was l.n g ~on"O.C . : " J
. . O.C . Flore 1.9 ters , ASSo clat lOn, r.oce L .3 6., 19,ao) ' . PP :, 16-+9.

' 1 5Mc~a ~l f ' Good Fire " pp , 65-67 .

16 I bi d : >p p ; 67~7o .

1 7~:,' -~P.. 70 -'12.

I BOCFFP fie ld notebQok 'ent'ry March 1 4 , 1 \ 79, Note -

book ,I1 ,. .

19 0CFFP ~ i~ld 'noteboqk ~'n try oeceecer 12, inB , Not~-:

b oo k I .

200CFFP Ta pe No ve mber ' 9 .. 197 8 , p . '.2 8 .

I 21 Robe r t Mcca ri,Msmokej~pe'r I n l tia .tion : , Rit~al ized

Communica t ion i n a Mode r n o c c u p a t i o n , M Jour nal of Ameri:ca n
.-Fo l kl o r e · a 9, , (l 97 6f" ' pp . 4 9 :-- 6 7 ~ -.
22Ro bert McCa rl, MSm;kej umper'Fo lklo.re,M five t apes
an d six ty-e ight .pa qe a '0 1 tra ns c r i p t in .t he ' ~a nda ll , V. Mil l s
Memo ria l Ar c hi ve s of, Northwe s t Folklore " .Un ive.rsity o f Ore-
,gO!}, Eug en.e, Oregon (196 9 ) , pp .7-a . •
. -- ' 0 00_
. 0' _-,_ ~~~-,._-,--: -~-_
•
.: . . . .r» . . ,: ' ..... e .
. 0j O
O·
.
'~'>", ', 20~
.: 23 " " ,. .. " , •
.. Ar nold Va n Gen nep, The Ri t e s of Passage, _ ans , ,
M. B. VlzedomaJ;ld G_~ C . Ca f fee (Ch i cago: Unl versl t y o f .
Ch i <;:ago Press , "196 0 ) .. p . 1 8 9 . - - - "

2 4Frank' w'. ' Yo u ng , ;In i tiati~n ~eremonies; A' crcs e -

. Cu,l t ur a l . S t udy o f S tatus Dra matl-Za hon (New 'lork: :Bo b b s -
M~ rril, 19 65 ) , p . _3 ., •

2 5Elli ot Ch'app le a nd '';;;a rle t on c~on, p;inciples' o f

Ant hropology (New York : -' ,Macmi llan; 1942) , p , 466 . '
26 Yo 'un g, p . '26'. / .

' ~? Ibid .
~ 2 -8 ~ ' . . ' " 'I.,',' . ', . ' , "
Ant ho ny -F. C . Wa l' l a c e , Cu l t ure an d Pe r s on a l i ty
(Ne.w York : Ran dom Hou s e , 1 96 ' ) , p p , 31 -32.
29 waHace, p . ' :40 .

J~lbid. , p . 113 . . . .

Ida ho: . 3 1Ra nd le "M. Hurst, Th~ S';l~ojLimper$'(C~ildwc1i:

~~a~ton sxess , ,~ 9 6 6 ) , \p. ~: .,. ; ""
wa l ~a c ~ " p . "40 .

33 I b 1d., pp~- 31-32"

" 3 5 I bid ' ~ . P" '- 3~ 1:'

36~:", ""p.340;
3 7Mcca~1.; "amcke j umpe r FQl kl ora ,6 p , 2.
3BLe a c h " -:"Ri tualization ,.I~~--'--~3JA ~~.

39Mccarl~""""~smOkeJ:::::-F~l.kl~re-; · p"~,';
4 0" , ' ', " . . " " "
. -Hug he s , Men a n d , 'l'he i r 'Work , p." I B;

CHA PTER V: THE ,S POKEN " SHOUTED AN D REMEMBERED WORD '

The Bas i c Metapho r : The ~l u nd a ne ,Le ve l J~

" l Ne uma n n ,: pp.274 -27 5.

2Ta pe n umbe r' S I - FP - WA- 77- 5 0 2. 02 "( 220 ) ; ' Ro'b~ r t Ne~ell , ~ ,
'g la ~ s wo r ke r ; Ta pe number S I-FP-WA " 77~5 0 4.~ 5 "{3 40 l__," Harry : "
:Fur r , ' plasterer . - " ,- " . ..........., .
 ') . . :' , " . . . . "-' . " .
Ta pe number , S! - FP - W/l.- "/7- 50 J . 3 3 (146) . Domi nic '"'\ ." .
DiPao,l~ ;_/CFFP ~ape, n~mber 1 8 , _ ~ 9?8~. P: :' l B0J6!. ," . ..~ .

. '. Ta p e numb er SI-FP-WA-"I .T- SOB. 1 6 (5 5 0). J aff rey \

Bal let, I I Company, g r ou p _s es sion; Rob e r t McCarl ; ' " smoke-
j umpe r Fo l klore ; M.p- -I I. . .;J ..
. ~I:lpe~umbe; SI -F P- 'WA":77 -S03 :17> trans cript p , ,3.
. _ , _' 6Dcn;~ ' f1dd - noteboOk ;t1ry. t r y ';oe c e mbe r : 7 " ,i 9 7; .
No.teb ook '1. . 1 · ·. .
\ ' , J" .. 7DcFFP £ie~'d ' notebo~~ ,ent r y Decemb er 14', ,;;79,
.:,\ot..book/ '..,::<. _ _ ' ' .f
\ . ~C~ FP .T a pe Ja n u a r~ 29 , ~97 9" Tap,e A' ~SJde ' ~. p , " 48.

The . Ba s i c Conv eri sa't i on: Centr al Level

.J'OCFF~Tape A~~'i'l- 2,-3 , '1979, Tap~ A, Side: B "
p ; 4B ~

. l OOCFFp "f i eld n ote b o o k 1c"n t ry _M a r ch 4 , 19 79; No t e - "

?Ook II . · - ' \
. l ~H'ymes, "Break th"r ough, " ~,. ,1 8 .

.' 1 3 " , , " . ,' ,:

, J a me s W. Fernandez , "Pe r s ua s i o ns a nd Perfo r manc es :
"">, of t he, u ec ac in Ev er yb6<ly . , . ~ ' ,. ' , And Ehe Metap ho rs o f .
Ev eryman , ,'" in Myth ; Sy mbo l a nd c u j eure , ee .', ,C l if f o r d
# Geertz (Ne", Yo r k : , W. W. N or to~,p ; , 47 .

l4 0c FFP Tape Februa ry 50 8, 19 79,

p p . ' J ~ 4 . ,- . ,
, T~pe .n , s recu ,

l50c FFP , T~pe N~~em,ber, 8, 19 78 , p. l-2B ~

, l 6 Thi s 'c o nc e p t of , narra ti~e de fi ning t h e perimeter
of oc cupational k nowledge was 'sug ge sted ' to me b y Peter
Seite l in perso na l conver s ation:

~7~ace , p. ~l 2 6.
 The Elaborated 'P e r s o n a l

Experience Na,rra tive,

L " l8 ~inda Deg h , '<the Mem6~ate a nd · t h e Ph:ito-M'e.mor a~e>

V;]o urnal o f .l\merican Fol'klore _8 7 (1 9 7 4J , ',p . 226 .
'- " 19 - , ' - ' ' ' .
La ur i ncnxo , -Memorates a n?-.the S't udy o f Folk '
Be l ie f s , " Jou rn a l o f the Folklo r e Ins.titute 1 (1 964 ). p . 11.
2 0 Ri ~hard H~mi lton w it~ ·C. N. Bar'n,ard '," ; o, o~o Alarms:
'CIe Memoirs 'of New York City ' s' Mo s t Decora ted r-r reme n

24 0 CFFP Ta pe March 5 , 1979, TOl PC ~, Side 1; PI' . 1., 1 B .

' 2 5~~F'~ Tape March '5 , 197 9, Tape A; ' Side 2 , pp. 8-8B ,
2,6 0 ci; p Tape April 2 4, "1 9 79 , T~pe ' A, S i de 1, p. Il L
2 7nCF FP Ta~e Jtme ]1 ,' 197 9; ' Ta pe 11, S ide 'i , p. "m .
asJ uh a perKJ.k~ ~~en ,
- " Beli ef , ~cmo~atc a nd Legc~ .:
Fo lk l .o rcFoI;u m 6 ~1 ~7 3)" ~ ,. 232. . . i
29 1b i d .

30 o e g h , pp .232 ; ' 23 7 .
. . 3 I ROge'r Abr i!h a mS , _" Th e ,complex Re l ations . o r 'S i mp l e
Fo rm s , " ~ 2 (1969), p. 10 9 ; #

. 32ill.'! . .

33Edmund ,Le a c h ; Le vi -St rauss (London:

19 70) ,' p . 46 ~

.3 4Lab~v ' and Wal1e t~ky . pp. 1 2 ;" 4 5~.

J
 1
', '

204
.. . . -,:-. -:
\ 35Abr~h'~ ~s, · c omp l e x :Re l a tio ns , " "pp, '10 9; 11 0 ",;

\ :t::t:T::m::::::::.::~~lOro." P, 9,
'\ ,38u.5.,'F;'~e;t Ser,vic~. D
epartment ofA
;;icuitu";'
" F, l,re Contro l No.toes ; A p er! ,EI.lii ca, 1 .Dev,oted to the TeC hnique ,'
of ro~es t _ F i r e':~ ,C~n t.rO l: . " .1l ~.{ .1 9 5 0 ) , .P. / .. )pamph l~t ) . ~

,\' 3;>lcc"I" "smOkejum

perFOlklore!' pp, 35-36.
 I
J.:
._-_.~~,~ ; '.
 Abr~h~m~, <Rog~r , Rel~tio~s Siin~ie F~rin' s,N .
/ Genre"
"The c ompi e x
2 ( 1 9:6 9) " 10 4:'12 7 .

~in-i ~~~~~~~a~oi~~~~e!~di~~~:~r~e::~a~~';s~~c~~:es
. ,', " '
of
. ', ' '. •

+.
. Fo l k lo r e , ed s , nme r I c o Pa r edes . a n d Richard ee umen • '
, Aus~J.n : · U iver si.\:;~ o f Tex~s,'.:..P res s . 1 9 7 2 . ,
, .- :, .: . -, ';Towa r d s a ocicilog'l.'t.."n Theory "Fo l kl Qr e ; Ftlr-" of
---rorming service s"" in Work i ng Ame r i c an s :' Contem o r a r
~ , ~yJ.~~~~~~ S ~~S~~~g ~~:o~~c . ~o SmJ.t~~o~i~nR~n:~~ t utJ.on ,
Folk Hfe ' S t ud i e s - - be r 3 , ' 19 78 , ' ' . : ~ ' ."

. ~ga~ , 'Mi~haal H. Ri in and Ru'~ nin : ' A Fo r mal Et hnOg ra h

o f . Ur ban Heroi n J.cts ~ New Yor : ', Sem ear r es s, (.

Ar b i e . :
,
Mead~ .he. . .L ong Tun~~'l ':
New Yor : .At he n e wn, 1976 .
A , COil l ' Mine~ ' s ' JO~rnal .
nce n sbe rq , c~nra . ' Jl lndu~try
and comrnun~t~, " ' Am~riCan
, J o urn a l ' o f Soci a og y, 48 (1 94 2 ) , 1 - 12. - - -

BOllI , Oon~ld . "An -xocr e .Ion Cl ini c Ethn og r ap hy ,R social .

Pr oblems 14 (1 96 7) ,. 293 - 30 1. ' --

Ba nc ro ft, carofin~ . " Los't Mine Le g e n d s' 'o f COlorado>'

California Folklore Qua rte rly , .2 (19 43l., 253 ;-264 .
. . ' " .
BartY " . Philli p s . " Th e ' Co wb o y ' s 'L amen t ~ " Bulle t in of ' t h e
' F~'l ~ S On t s oci e ~ y of , the N or t he3 ~ t j 7 (19 34 ), , 1 6 1 8 .

' • , The , ~lainc Woo d Songster .,

_._._.._ c::a~J:",i~9 C : po wc ll .Pr i nt-
-rr-r-r-r--:-: ~ n g .cc mpeny , 19 39 .
I· · · . - •
~~~~ ,Philli p s, F annio ' Eckstorm , a n d,' ~la ry 8mi t h . Sri t .i. , h
. rb .-~ ; ~ ~ ~ d,S ~f rOm Mai n e . New lIaven:Yale Un i v ersity P r ess ,

Bart lett ,F . c; . . ",The Me asurement or Human Skil l, '.. Oc cu pa-

t ional P sy c h9-1ogy, 2 2 (1948 ) , 31 -39 , 83-92 .

Bast ide ; ' Ro g e r . , Applied An t h r ·OPOl 0 9:!. , Trans'lated b y ~lice

.: '. L . : M~ r ton, • .New York : Harpe~ an Row . - 1971. .

Bate s o n, .u r eqcxy . ,S t e p s t Q An Ecology of Mind . • N ew ,York :

Chand ler PUblish~ng Co mpa n y " 19 7 2 .

L
 , ." -veree i Art a s ~~rform.ance ">Am~riCa~ 'An.thropoi.;'-
" ~' 17 (1 975) , 2!l O-'3 11 . -" , ', ' " ' .
Bay~~~ ,: ' s"amu~'i' ~hilliP5' ·Ba r r y : -. iaa'O~1 937 , '~ ' i n' Bui'l e Un

.' ~~w:~d ~~~~h~ngpgI1~a~rph;ll~he~~~i~:~S;~l~f~r:a~~ci~tY ;':

r.. i 960. " ' ." . ' .
~ BeCk,\ Ea rl C . Lore o f t he Lumbercamps .... Menasha,' Wisconsin:
. , G ~o rg.e Ban ta \ Publ~sh lng ' Compa~y . 1 9 4 8 . .
\ BeCk ..\ ilo race. , FO~OJ:_e , ;n~- ~~he
Sea. - M'~dd~etown-,c:nn~~ti-
. .' cut : Wesleyan un r v ers i cv Pre s s ,' 1 9 T3 . :."
: " '\. . - 'T he Folklore ·of Ma~~e . " Ph iladelph i a: . . LiPPinco t.i::
---nls7. . .
I
I . "' Wh e r e the Worker s o f t he We>rl d Un i t e : The
-----;;;merican Occupations, " , in, Our Livi ng Trad i t i Ons : An
I n t r o d u c t i o n to American Fo l k l o r e, e d. Tn.s tram . P .
Co f fJ.n . New York : BaS1C Book s, 19 6 8. ' "
I I
Be c,l<e r) Howa rdS . Outsiders: g tud1cS l.ll t he gacl.ology -of
[j nc v t encc • New York : 'rne -r-xee Pre ss, 1 96 3 .
~eC' k er,,\ Howard S., ' B1ancho:! ~Ge~r ,
Dav id \(iC~man ,
and Robert ;'
We i ,s s , e d s . " I ns ti,tut iollS and the Pe rs o n: ESS<lXS
aresoneed -uc Eve r e tt C . HU~. chl.cago: rl1 d l.llC , / "
" " . , " '. " ,"" "' ""j
B"~ ~ Ker , llIoward g . ", Blan ch e cec r , Everett C. l1ug,hes , .and "A : I
" ;~~~~~~ ' ~~~~a~S ~~l.~:~~~~; ~iU~h~~a;~1;~~~s~\~1~cal ;'
aef i , D';oie 1. NAdjusting aen . to Ma c h i ne s : . Soc i al , "" / "
scientists Explore ,the Wor l d o f the j'ec co r y.; " co mme nta r y ,
3 (194 7), 79-88 . " .
I .

Bel lio~t~h~~~~~ ic:~~~~i~~ =~b~;~:na~fa~ 1~~i:,~ S~~~~~lr~~~d

Ph . D. disse rtation . U'li versity ,of Penn sylvania , " 1 978 •
. ,NTe nd i nq Bat" at Brown' S : occupa t i ona l Rol e as
~ i s tic Perfo r man c e , " We s t e r n. Fo l kl o r e 35 (1 9 76 ), 9 3- 10 7'.
 ."
Bennett., John . "Folk Spe e c h -an d Leg' ends ' o f ' the T rade o f
Housepain ting ; " , S ~t hern Fo lk lo re Quarte r l y '; 33 (1969 ).
313~316 . < , " •

~ensmc~ , J~sepli a nd I~r_l Guver: -', "Cri~e :and ~un-i Shment

. i n the Factor y; The . F'u n c t.Lon o f pevLanc y in Mai nta i n:"
ing ._ th~ Social System, " Socia l Forces , ,4 2., (1 9 6 4 ) . ,9 2 - 11 5.

Be~thall , Jon a t han an d Ted ·'p o~lh~rnus . Th e , Bo d'v as a M~dium

of Exp r e ssion .. New Yo rk: E . P . Dutton , H75 . ·

Be·rger·._pet~.r, ~ed-. ,Il'he Hmnan' Sha pe ~f Work. __ :>:ew- Yor k:

. Ma .;:ml 11 a n , 1 96 4 . . " " , - , " .
Bigus . Od i s . . " The Milkma n a nd h i s c ustomer"," Urba n Life
a n d Culture, I , (1 9 72 ) , 131- 16 5 . . ----

Bird~~~!~~i~~~~~ica~t~~~lC~h~l~d;~~i~:~ : , U~~~:~:J.~~, ~fdY~' .-I,

Pe n n sylva nia P ress , 1970 . . ' ', . . ...

Bi~u~ P~ter M. The Dynami~s'-'of Bti.rea~cracy . r~~icagQ/ ' Un i -

- . -r- vcr,s i t y of Ch ~cago Press ,19 7 0 ~. .
. . '. , The O~4a~ ization of 'Ac a de mi c Work . xew Y~ rk:
~ey .Inte rsc J. e nce, ,1973.

meunex , Robe rt . _ Al ienation and Fr e e dom: Th ~ Fa c t o r y .'

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' .. ..P ress, 1964. " . ,

a t i s hc n , , Be rn a r d ' R. Doctors _and Doctririe~ : "'h'e Ideology ..o f .

. M.e d i c a l Car e in Canada . , -To r o nt o : un a v e r s r t v of .-Toron to
P ress , ' 196 9. ' ,

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m il h n , ·. 1 9 3 ~ .

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~, : ao a t r ig h t , -Mod y . " Aunt cordie ,'s ' Ax and Ot h e r ' .'lo tifs i n Oi l .:
',r' - " in .Eo Lk Travel e r s , -ea . -Mod )' Boat right . _Dallas : - Southe,rn
MethodJ. s t unl.ve r $ ity Pr e s s . Publ i c ati on s o ~ the Tex a s C

l ol klore scc t e e y - xxv , ~ 953r . .

~_ :
Gi b Morga n : - 'M i ~~trel : of t he Oi l Fi cilds . , Au s t ,i n : , ' .--
--oreia s Fo l kl o r e sccre e y . Pi.lb11catl.ons ot the Te xa s .
Folk l ore ' Soc i e t y xx , 1 ~ 4 .5 . '
 . , ' . ', '. . .,
G01ie aJ;;,P:~~O~~~j ~~~~~1i~t ., ''' ~a i~;~ :rJli~~~t'·~ ~~ The -
Me t o s t un~versity Press PUbli cations .ot: t he Texa s
. Fo l kl o r e society ,XXXI " 1962 . " "

Boraw " ,lI e nry. Man i n a' World 'of War ' Bost~h: HO~9hton "
_' Mifflin,' 1 96 4 .

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Folklo r e Qu arter ly , 2 3 ( 1 9671. 2 37 . . - - -

~ '" "Living Lore on ' t~(! ' N eW York ' City \~rite~'I ~,- , : .
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• Sid ewalks of America. Indianappolis: Bobbs -
~r ill .. l;:9S" . : _ .. .
.
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road Folklore. New Yo r ~ : . Crown , 1953. ' " '. ' .
{
D,rau~:Ym~~';" s:~~~ie~~~~~~~ , ~~t(i~II ~n~9~ ~~'0~~le ~If ttl,: I

. __"_.:_'."> ,Wo r k and Workers : ' i\ ' Socio l og i c a i Analy si s. , ' N~i;/'
. Yor k: ' t-e a e e c c , 1 9 75 . ' ,
0' '. ' ', ' " " . " " OJ
. ._.~_ .
"_ "Work : A Tp eoreti Clll Cla rif icatio n, " Socio log ica l
,: ,:" ,,:, oua,~ter lY, " 1) 9 6 ) ) , 3 43-3 .48 ~ , { , ,
, , ~ r i c:Ie n ba ug h , '
Ca rl . T h Co lonia l Craftsman. Ne w , York: New
Yor kUni versi t;y Pr SS, 50 •

." 0.. . ." OCc tip a t i ona t d e o l o g i e s :o f ' Cal l . Gi rls ." Soc i a l
', Pr e>b 1e ms , , 13 (1966), 44'1 -4 5 0 . f • - -

'f~~yan t',~ lifto~ , ea . Th e So~ia l Dim e n s'i o n s of ' \~ork :-- ' Eng l e - ,
I ' : , wo~d, C li f f s : New Je,rse y : .. pr.e n t 1c.e~la~ 1, , 1 9 72 . :

Ne w 't o r k :
C I ·.
.x

• '9. ~Urns.. ",T Om i " e.d ", Indus t ria l ' Man . ' a'"altimore: ~, pengu1n ," . 19.69 ;~·
'. : ' '" ' . . ,-
"

But Ter .. Ri ch a rd . . Doc k "Wai l Qpe r • Ne ~ Y?rk : ' , Put na?" , 1? 33 .

Ca b a n is s , Al an: -" Th e 'Folklor e o f BUS' Travel,', .. ' North ' Caro- I
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~l . · -· " ' ,'
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" ' ,'
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Human Or ga ni za t i o n , 36 (1 9 79 ) . 1l 4-1~O . I
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.. ' .
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--- - ----, . -' ~ '~,,~.-. ~ . _-- _._ ~_._- .

 I
/
i
/
!'
j
war~:~e~~ ~~~gr;~~ ' ~~~ke~O~ityT~:r~~~i4: S~:;C~a~;n;~e
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'/ "
'i,
·
. ', . /, . '
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.- ' . - ! .
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"

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(1970) , 11 5~1 22 . . .

---'--~,- -- - --_ ... _-

 .·AP P RoACHES TO WORK, ~D OCCtIPATIONS

: The p~rpos~ of thi s ' es s~y i s to place the subs tanc e

: . . • " , '.' r
o f the d i s s tJr ta tion i n a brbade I: p erspe ct i ve . T h is r e view
I
narro"",s t o a s P.ec l fic foc us o~ the ,dev elo pn;en t . o f ~deas
. co nc e r ni ng wo r k an d worker s wi t h i n .t he d i s~ i p ], i ne o f f o l k-

l ore itse.l f ~

Pr i or t o desc ri b i ng .t h i s' gen e r a l h i s t o r i c a l back-

9 r0l.!-nd " however , i t wi l l be he l pf ul to de f ine t he dis t inc -

'. . . . . . '. I
. • ' t .j.o n betwee n wor k ~ nd o~cu~ t~on ,~ that a l ate r d e fin it i o n
o f - oc c upa tiona l f o l k li f c "· wil l be mor e clear • . . Work ha s '

been d e fi n e d ve~y . broadly

. . .
as
r
" 'th~t
1.
Whi ; h 01 person
.
dO~S
' .
in .

ordez:: .t o survive ,- .,or -the way i n whi c h a p e r s on earns ';' ;

: livi ng .· l ~~e ,u ~ of s k il ls or tec hniq ues pr a c t.i ce d t~
achie ve s Poci f i ~ .go a l s , worT. i s al.so a soc~al activit.y
·di re~tcd toWar~ tho l e s s e n i ng o f .s ta t us d ispa rit y" and c o n-,.
t emp l a ted fut u re a c t i vi t y a nd gro up o rientao"tion. · 2 I t c a n

~herefore, be 'd ,: fi ne d as t h e' int~r;a.ction be e vecn a n i nd i vid -

ual a nd hi s s oci a l ' o r e e c t mfca
. j. e n viro
. nmen t. which
. result.s
i n the pr~d uction of goods o~ serv ic~s th~oU9h the expen d .t-.

tu re ' of , e f f o r t whi l e {i t ~lSO eSUblish~s ~n i nd i v i dua l '6

posi tio~ wi t.~ln ~ s ocia l orde r .
-",.. ..- /, . ' . , . .- ' .
.Occ upa tio n , by con t r a s t , d ef ~n e s the broader ' s o c i a l
eore wi tho ut spec ifyi ng the pur po s ive: a c ti Vi t y·. o f t he ' wOrk,._

Everett: C ~ HU9~·e s . · the f a t he r of 'c onte~~~'!lrY o~cup~~ional.·

 ......._..- ...:.... .- ..-..--~_.- ...r_-""- -- . '" T
p~ s;'s age ':

[ Th e r e axe I t wo c o nc e p t s of g r e a t a mror eence f or )

t h e s t ud y o f t h e u ni versal work drama . One is the '
concept of role: t he other that. of': socia l sys tem . I
- ~a~:~so~ea~~~dS:~a;h~~\~O~~e~~
plumb teeth .
' ~a~a~:S~:~~~n
Or hecan say ~ be Las
Itwo ,:
l am t h e
. ..' .
per son who does so .and .!IO. In the l at te r case ;\
h e is naming his role. 3 , _ \
.._-..,. \.
Taki ng an e xam[)le from the occupa tion of urban'fi re
fig h'ting, · w~ ' c a n s~e. how th{s " d i s t iiic t i o n' is made . \ J
~'~~hr-ician :~ n a 'f i r e comp any i~ responsib~.e- 'for ,dri~i~9 .th~'.
f~re trucks or " a p p a r a t u s . ." .ue h a s t o 's t udy and take a

competiti ve . e xa mi n a t i o n to qualify for his job. when asked

by an insider wh~t he does ,he mi~htrespond with, "I'ma

. wagon 'dd,ver ov er at 16 Eng ine . 6
H,cJreplies ~ith a s,p~ci­

" .f ~c : descri ption ' o f h is work s tatus or .!POS i t ion within t he

\: wo r k group . , 'Ye t i f anoi.ltsider a~ked'the same 'que~ tion, he

might ' r e s po n d by simp ly stati ng h is role: " I ' m' a f Lr e

fighter i n t h e Dis trict. " - Viewed from t h is ' p e r s p e c t i ve ,

I· wo r k is a n i nt ~rnal ly d e r Lvedipez-cep t Lon of an indi,vidual 's

status withi n t h e p roces s es and r e l a t i o n s h i p s .c n t h e job,

, .
whe r e a s
, ,

'occu pation is an e xter na lly d e r ived .c h e rec ce r Lae -.

'

t i on ~f a 'eOll,c ~tive'~ ro~e . I n t he discussi~n Whi~h' fOll~WS,

the emp hasis wi ll be u po n traci ng soci al scien tifl:c

~ppro~c~e~ to occupationa l g;oup's in an 'a t t e m? t ' to d eter-

mine wa y s i n whi c h an i nv e s t i gato r can d o c umen t t h e

."' ins i d e r ' s def i~i f.ion · and~raracterizatio'n of , ~is wo~~:: ,
 235

Folklorists t ook a n early 'i n t ere s t i n t he work '

Pla.~e. (~s ~ / i Ch . r~ source· 'f o r t he .c r e a tio n ~~,~indI9~nl?u~

. . f olk 's o ng , part ic ul arly i n . the reso urce /dominan t . oocupe -
//"' ," "

t ~ o n s Of'Seafar.l 79 a nd wo:r::k i n, u ie' woods . One 01; , the ,~<

earl i e st c oll e ctors o f occup e t .Lone L" fol k lore was . a young

New. Yo rker who we n t we s t and spent llIost, of h i s I H .e r iding

the dusty ' Southwestern r a nge a~ ' a ·c o wb oy . , N. Howard MJ~ck~1

.- . .. " . .
Tho ,rp wa s a ' g en tle ma n-,c Owb Oy who ,b o t h' lived and perceived

of 'l i f e ~n t h e o pe n range as a male- d omil ; ated ,e nVi rOn!'l~n t

i n' 'Wh i c h t h"e bas ica lly s ol i t ary c~ttle dr iver. l i ve d by an

unwr itten c ode ,o f ro~ant\~ , camaradi:r i c ~.4 "As the I'ifes po i n"t
out , . Tho rp saw this c ode ex em p l i fi ed . Ln t h e songs. lor song

fragments) ~e c olle c t ed . as we ll as t ~se

He epi t omized the, he r o i .c , b r aw li ng , popu Lnz mr t h , of

he ~ r o te hims e l f .
t;.h~ ,
/'
fro~tier, bu t · a t · t he 's a me t.i me reve ai ? d ' t h e ec onomi c ;

vUlne r.:lbil ity and bo r e do m t.h a t . reall y cnar-a c t e r Laod tlic

occ'~~n. , v~ e many' ~f t h e l at. er par' ticiPiJn~ obs erver
occupational fo l k lor i s t s (Dobie and Hor a ce Beck, f o r

e x~rnp le). Tho r P . had little use for the arm':h~t r -ec e d e nif c .

'a nd b latan tly re-~rot~ or.re-f0n:'U la tedhis -materl al to c o n -

fO r mto h i s Ld e a o f w~ at}CowboY , s o n g s ho u~d be like , ~ . e . ,

to b ri ng i i in,to line with h i s co ncept.Lo n of t ,h e ";al.ues o f
t hose who, sang t he m. 5
Al lllOs t as if t o jus tify Th o r p ' s s uspicion al'ld mi s - ·
.' . trus t , o f intell ec t uaL ~la im jump~ng _ a nd academic d'i s $e~:'"
ling " J0h;n Lomax b eg an · to ' c oll ~,c t c owboy songs in the )
~outhwest re gion dJr i ng thi s period . 6 Ora;"'i nq o n a ny
 ·_ ------ - --
._---.-.- - --- - - -

23 6
J
sour ce he coufd f i nd 'to reinf~rce' h i s , conception o f the

co wboy as the e mbod i ment of a natio ria l ethni c c ha ra cter

1 . • .
pu shed . t o i ts most a tt:ractive l y romant i c idea l, Lo max
I .' ., ' . , ' ,. .' .
r e presented- the fi !="st o f t he mode r n oc cu pati o na l fo l k lor-
ists in his ' appli c a tion o f a ' s pec ifi c ,me th o do l ogy t o t he
• . ' . ' " f
s ub j ect._ Hi s po p u l i sm , h oweve r , forced h im , to p resent t~i s
. ' ,' .
ma rgi nal a c a d e mfc material /in popular pub licatio,n s ' tha t

.ap~e~ l~d to a wi.der and t'h ,,:refo~e ' l e s s " a?c~Pt~bl e " : a udi -
e nce . :rhi s ne ed . to p res e n t mate r i al t o 1I. no n-aca d e mic

a u dience in oc c up atdone L f o l k l o r e st ~d i es . c o n ti n u e.s .eo mo ve

i 'ts' practitioners to the edges '~f aca de mi c :",cce'p tabili ty :7

Lomax a p pro ac h e d theoccu~~tion t h ro ugh its songs

in an at t elnp t t o co il~~ t :re pres e n t a t i ve e xpress i on s o f

gro u p c0l!'p ositiOn fo r ' the o omp f Ie t i on Of:a , f o l,ksong canon

in con'r;:'rlllan c e to t he ,c r;mul1u nal'i s t a a c va r e tr ilining h e ha 'd

r e c ei ve d fi~~ KittJ:'~d:e . 8 Thi,s b:,-ckgrOU~d ~lsc.: , cau s ed . h i m,'

t o p r ej'udge t he f unctiQ n a li ty o f th e s e' 'so ng s '(e . g . , ' h i s':.
, - , ,

hy p c the.s Le that the s o ng s we r e us e d to qu Le t; the he r d s , an

asse r tion that Th o r p fla tly denie s ); whiie a t t h e s ame ti me,

suggesting to Loma x comrmina I orig ins and g r o up ge n e r p.t e d

c o mpose.ti;'/l;l wh i ch are ,a Ls o r~futed by Thorp 1 s exp:er~ ences . 9
,A l thOU9h" ~e' ca'n a g~ee with 'the Fife s t ha t Lo':la x ' s work ;.s

' fl a we d by "h i s pre tentio'~sri'e ss , subjectivity , ethn oce n t r i s m

and' fai lur~ to g ive ' c redit to Thorp 'whete it i s 'd ue , it-is is '
,th e fir s t pUb~ i ca ti on of a work devo t e d e x ci us i v e l y to
occupational e xpression ' 'f r o m a folklori s t i c perspect i ve

and, a s such i t ' is , impor ta nt fro~ ~oth a h is toric~l a nd :

I
--,,-----"'-~--....,'-J -.
 __
': _..... . .::... .. ,,;-,.,- - ._- ....

2 3-7 ..

t h eo r e t ical ' ~in't ,o f .v i ew, l O The co ncept. of f o l kso ng- a nd

oth~r : g~n£es of ' 9 cc'~pational . expr~~§ ion ' ( cos t~ma , . custo~.
. .
na rrative . tec hnique , ' e.tc .) oper ati r:a9 as both a refiection' ,
of the ,wo r k environ!Jlent eee a shapi ng f a c t o r , wi th i n it 'i s
one"tha t co nt inues t o influence" ' research in ~he f ield .

Ph ill i p s Ba rr y . a ' cons-emporary of Lomax a n d a

r c g{o nal col lector i n New, En g la~d, seeese ee the i mportance

it was the I ncid e n t s and accidents of wcr x , not t he: ~ork. I

p roces s es the~~elves tha t ge n e r a t e d eeeupat.rena r: comroen~ ,

. .' thr ough so ng , an insight echoed by Ec ks t b rm ' a nd S myth i n

h h e i r d iscussi o n 'Of t he occupati~nal fo .11<80ng as a med i um '

for ' t h e disse mina t ion of news concerni ng tanu au e L ev e n t s , 1 4
In para lle l ,. a r g urnen t s ·Yr a nz Ri ck'aby a nd Earl C. Beck. ' (·the

- f o r mer . a ck now l e dging hi s d ebt t c;! Gray an d Barry) s tressed

 r,

r ..__._. _ .--_._-~--- -' ·_~:,"-,,~·-1~,-·-~ · ... r

· ·~
. • .. \ 238 ' . .'

'~'e' . '~o. include -

need' tunes and lyrics
. .
i~" .a nYI\ '·5t~4Y_ of 'o c c upa -

tiona! , song . _ ~hey s ugges ted .~at thi-CliVl:" .~ O.~ O f la~r

~hat' f~rce~ t.he same group of men int i? se sonal inter~'
~ctions : wi ,t h ' the s e a and the wood s resu l ed.i~ the ~M:z: ing
OfSllC.h. o. c~upational 'songs a s. . "'r:~e FIYinr. Cl~.
ud," ..c an
. lI.~da
1- 0 , " a nd " The ' Cowb oy ' s Lamen t . "IS Thi s' cros's -over oi so ng
" .. \ '.
a nd occupation , reflecting a borrowing a d di ffus ion of

nia1eri8.1 . as i t a dapt s itse lf t o ' a parti~llar , ~egiOn " hil s

a l~ o be e n - c o mmen t e d on _b y Ca~ den . I t is one Of. ,t he
. . \. .
.e a~l~ies t
. ar ti~IUlat~o.. ns of .t. he ~daPtab. il~ y. o f. bbth terms
a nd so ngs as .me mbe r s o f a n occu p a t ional ' r o up migrated west

or pedodical~y w0:t;ked in the weeds or ,o n\ the sea ye t main-

tai ~ed " similar, ,~ ~s tures t~ ward 'w ~rk i~ bi th venues . ~6

I,

1'he i nte r penet r atio n of bo t h reg io'l1 a nd oceupa e.Lon

can also be see,~ in , the work pUbliShed ,!' b y ~. ' Fra~k. ..Dobie
and Mody c . Boatright i ,n Texas . 1 7 ,Dobi e w~,\s a r e f o rmUla t o r

who t oo k' it ',upon h;msef~ t<:,. wr ite; the s6u th~est t:rn ,bor d e r
ex p e r i e nc e in 'a pop~lar na rrati ve form conc~n tra tiri9 on ' t he
l e gends and super'stitions~f' the mUlti-ethn'i\::: bo rde r r egion
. .' 1
with a, s pecial ' focus on theso uthwe'stenl cowboy , " Boat- ,

ri~ht. foll~ing Dobie 's lead a s an :~cademic 1writing fo r , a :

- p O~O"T eudxence , c oncen tra t ed o n the · oil inJ""'" 'i ~ .

~~xa~ : H~, produced"a mode l occupa~ional , fol { ife"' t r e a t ,n:ent :'

o f t hat trade i n Th e ' Folklore 6 f ' the Oi l ,'I nd us t r y whi ~h .

ap p e a r e d , in ,.196 3 . I
I
 239 ~

Boatri ght ' s wo rk is. s.ignifi c,ant d ue .ec h i s ' s e ~ s i ­

t ivity ' to wor k sk.il lsana tech niq ues a s we ll as , the moxe

'. recogni z a b ie e xp r e ss i v e ,f a r ms 8~uch as riarra~ive ' a nd.·' l e9~na .

In the p r eface to this s e mi na l wo rk , he s ta tes t hat . he has
set o u t to

• • • i llustrate som e of t he basic patterns wiaer

which t h e f olk h ave structured t he e xpe r ience
r elatin g to t h e ,l o catio n and the prod uc tio n of
petr oleum. I S . ' :. ,

Rather t ha n concentratin g on exte r nall y d~rived

concepts o f express'ive ge nres~ Bo ~ t r i g h t stresse{' the p r o-,

. cesses of oil discovery and exploration. The "d o o d l e b llg g e r s

.Ill .
divi ning t.echnfques and .-the change~ L"that occu.rred wile n ' the .
r otary drilling rigs we r e r e pla c ed by t.he .c a b l e . t.oo Le d

rigs re sulted i n ' t' he d istin ctions a~d CDnf'entions b e tw e en

drilie rs wh6' prac~icCd the'· c ex t Iex or ' ~at.c~: m~~tfod'. 1 9 Th e

r esu lting h istorica l ethnogra~hy is a. un ique 'd e s c r i p tio n

of work in t h":, oii fie l d a.~d e ve n ' t h Qu<jh', Boatright p t ece s.

a t erminal date ?f 19 40 on h i s study he mak e s t he fo~ low ing

st~tement ~~a t r e f l e c t s· a sensitivi~~tO' ·wo r k c u ltu re

a lmo s t wli q~e i n ' t he li~era ture :

The driller ., i n short . we,n t throug h : a s t age' i

s i mi l a r to ' the one t h at .,the t r llpper. \ he miner e n e .
the c owbo y went thro ugh , o ne i n which a c hie 'f . •
s atisfaction wa s a ,p r ide i n his ma nl ines s. 'He wa s
c ha nged by c ha nges in h i s t r a d e • • , . For.exa lllple
~~p~o;~~i . ~~~l~~~i ~~et~~l~~~~h~fo~h:h:ef~,~l.Y~
it do e s i t is likely t o b reak .and i n a ny eve nt the
we ll will be c ro o ke d . The o l d d r iller e s timate d
the we ight by sou nd, by ,t h e a peed o f the r:o tarY,
and by the beha v i or o f . t he -pj. pe , _ Th e .'~re s en t da y
driller reads the we ight on a dia l .. Dril lers ,a nd
rou g h n e c ks a r e n ow s k i l l e d . techni cians . Th ey t.eke-
,.
I

r
I.

p~ide in the"i r work , . probably <!o~ . much a s the ir .

pred e cessors did , ~ut they A r~ much -les s b umptio us
i n. t heir manifestation of it . Yet the old fo lk
. )mage persis ts and the ne wdri ller,'is h a r dl y known
o~ tside of his i ndus t ry . 20 , .
'- EqU~llY' true for ,' the . sai i~r, logger a~d "f i r e

, fi ght~.r:~ t hi s . ~eveloP1'llental :v i ew of occupationla~~ Ch~nge i s

s' i gnifica:nt'bec~use
it poin~s o ut a key as pect o f occupa-
tio~ai ~~lkl~re ~hat ' h ~S . b~en rec~gn~Ze,d b y 'ot he r s but

ne v~r a rti cula t e d so wel l, i . e. , . t J:la t occupe t.I on e I practices

a nd " express ions are highly edaptdve , . ', His to rical "change may "
al t e r ,wor k proc e s s ~ s. b u t .t h d s does. not des- t r oy ' expreissio~s . -
which .c ha nge t o fit . t he ne w .circums'tances : .21 . 'Ko r so n s t ru g-

gled ~i th thi s qU~st:io.n' i~ ~is attt-ilmp~to di~coverthe

, i mp a c t o f ·mod~r ni z a tion·: and mechen i aat no n .on t r:,a ditiona'!

e xpress Ion (mainly ~cing) . In his ..i~ t.e r wo r k ' he ~ecOgnized

t he stren~th ,Of occu~a.tio·n.,)'-ll.Y shaped and ~tylized com-

mUriication wti'i ch persist~d no mat ter . wha t . the phys ic:a,l

' ~ondi tions miglT~ b~ in ·the min~s ~

. Korson be qan h is ~~va ge pro j ec t s " in ' t h e ,mi'd-

t wen t ies ' afte r be,~n9 "e~~cour~~d ~~'.~ l~cal :'ibr~:ria~, .t o .

. "COl ,l e c t .t he sonI;Js .and stori e s o f t he a ~th ra ci te mi ning
r e g i o n be fore ' they d i sap peare d in t he f a c e of increased

ur~arii~~t:ion .'a~:~ ' ~e~hani~ation'. 2;~:' ~~"' con~inU7_q' , t o., ~,ol~ec.t .

miner's sonqs an d , f olklo r e f r o m t his lregiOn unUf hi s dea t h •

.. pii>dup'ingf~Ur ma'j~r r~~~a~ s'tudies ~' a,l 00f, th.~m 0;"'

. int~res t .to jX:copationa l fOlk.io~.ist; " 23
 • ..;.-"
.
": _ -1. ,. ,.__ . ..
.
.

" T~'t~ V::V:i~:~:i::~:i'~::::::t:~e.:;:e f:::C~.:

..zrit~,".d~e to the I

i so la t i o n o f t he ~ine pa tch , :a selrl-pri lli t ive p lane

o f l i v i ng , h ars h wor king cond i t i ons, i lli t e racy ,
a nd the nee d - fo ra rnus emen t and . .f ol k imaqlna~ion . 2 4

I mp1 ici t i n this -d e fin i t i on i s Redf i e ld' s - f ol k -urban oon- :

' . .. . . .,

..
tin uUll , - a ' de ve l o pmen t a l .vr e w of c ul t ur e wh i ch ,a r r a n g e s
" .. ' '-

. 'cul tu r a l groups o n, II. c o nti nuum f r o m th e s i mpl e s ~ , iso lat ed

homogeneo u s , fo l k ~ocie ty t~ the mo st compl ~x , - h eterog eneou s

urban SOCie~y·. 25 . <:onc e n t r a t i ng on t he s t r .olling ba rds who

composed 'a n d s ang so ngs th r o u ghout the llI in i ~q r e qi on ,.

xorson, '$ s t udy b a s ed o n " t hi s l'IIOd~l , WOUl d h ave b~en' S illl~lY

:- . : . " . ' .'

a compilati o n o f te ~t 9 a nd mi ns t r e l bi og r a ph i e s had h e not

~· llpen.t. s o mU~h time ' ~ the ·U eld , ·be c Ollle f a m"U i ar "'i t~ the
.. -. .
.. t n e' r s themselve s , an d most 'i mpor t a n tl y , 'u nder s t ood a nd ...~·s
~le . to put i nto his to ri~af perspe c tive t h e ac tuat.· wcirking

'. c;:ond~"u~I!'S a nd. 't e c hni q Ue s o f ' t he t r a de . ";'it~u9h ha r dl y a n

obj ~tive repo rte~ , Korson ~ naged t o a r t i cu l a t e his vi ews

. abo u t t he d ang e r s an d i nequities o f lJIin i n 9 li f e by i llu.s-
. trati ng t h e m '~r~U9hr the so ngs and .'o t he r f i el d · ~ata h e ha d

co l l etted a nd r e c o r ded .
A bri e f c o mparison of Ml. nstre ls ·( 1 9 381....t o Co a l Dus t '

on the F1.d dle (194 )) r evea ls an e~olution Korso~1 in

·ap~r_oach -to" 't;h~ , s ub j e c t wh~ch occu~·red in th~ fi~ yea r s .
. ':-'.- -" ,. . , . 26 :.. . .
th~t separ ated the ir publication . In ~, wh i s:h
deals "i th the blt.Ullin o us industry , K~~SO"; pr o v i de s lauch

.' . ' ,
._ _~•.'.__ :..~,_,_
. ~ _ ~ _ L·
r ....:.;...._.. :- -- - ~ . _ -
. --,. _.-_,.. .
.. . .

v. r
grea~er' detail ' about tee~ique~' :and work ~roce~ses ~~ h e
.. d oes "{n his~arli~r ·wor~>.7 . This ~t ~nlY pro, V i~es: ~ IllOr e
. . .
thoro ug h con~eXtual b ack'1,rO Uoo t o tbe mate~i ai . l .t a lso '
brea k s down the gen eric bounda r i e s t'O~d' i n-' the e a r lier '

wo r k , -r e ve a l i n'q th~ - ac t ua l ' pos i t ion"Of t he 's o ngs and nar-

r a tive s i n the mine r s ' -l i v es . . Coal Du s t ' 's e'e k S ~o deal '~~ th
all, as peC,;B of expres sive ~ehav ior i n a lJllost eth no gra phic

ceres , conseq~entlY t he son9~ about c ompany goon s ' and

u ni on mart'; 'rdoms a re suppl emen t e d 'with add! t i onal . Bong s

: , . " .
about ,c o nc e r"Ds f or i ndus t rial a c c i de nt s (I'n d ,.t hei r · ca use s .

S imi l a rly , gene~al·de6Cr i?tiOn s· 'o f mini~9 t e c hni q ues in

. .
Mi nstre ls . a r e c lC pa nd e d ' i n 'c oal Ous t t o in~lude 6pe~ific
. .
a ccounts o f work proc es ses lik e " t e s t i n g th e. mine r oo f t o .
" '-

. " "'. 28
see i f it i s safe t o wor k the f a ce ."

. Korson 's r c coqni 't.ia n o f th e cent ra l i llpOr t an ce o f

I' . . . '. . I' :' . '
un usual o ~ superno rmal o c curr e nc es !'os sc cr c e s of o c c upa -

tiona l folkl~n , h is i nc reasi ng se ns ; ti vi t y t o a n " incius iv~

". "" I J •
ap proa c h towa,r d occu~t i ona l c u ltur e a nd hi s ab il i ty to

presen:t da t a i n 'O!l f o raa t equally acceptab~e· eeec e e eer c

"a nd un ion"lIIembe r , , re'~ al s a gras p of t "he Jllater i a ls ~nd
I me~i<:' of pre8entati?~, t h a 't , has ye t to b e repe1~e~ " ~i'ther
L i n, t h e fi e ld ~,'r te Hte ratu:r;e ." Li ke Thox:p ,. ~ma :X: ,:. 'B arry ,
Ec ks t o r m, Smy t~ loB:~d ,Gr ay " Kor s on wa~ n ot a,n" a ca de mi c An d
this n e e d to. 'a pJ ;al "t o t h e layman res u lted "i n a ty pe o f
" , ' " ') "
pr es ent a tio n t hAt was mor e "po p u j a r " t h~n ~cademi c tre at-

ment li o f "s i milar ma t erial. It" i s f or t his r e ollon that

. ).
4 - - - _. - - - .- <. _ _ . : . . . . _- _
. _. _ •• _. _ - ,~-
 . ' ..
Archi e c ee en refe rs to ~or so n as a Mpopl o r i s t ," y~t"o ne who

consi ~ ~ent~y groun?~d hi s ;~esenta ti~ns , i n a n o v e rwhe l ming ~. .

a moun t of d~ta . 29

In 1941, Wa y l and D. Hand pub lishe d a n a rti c l e on .1

1
·' the, f o l kl o r e in t.he min i ng 'camps in utih i n wHi c h he

acknowledq:e s his d ebt t o , Korso n and h i s admirat ion for

' 30, '. : , . .'
~ors on ' 5 ap p r oach to the .s ~ j e c t . Han.d · S 'l a r t i c l e , .r e fl ec t s
a muc h acade mic appr~ach t o th e' same , subject :in i ts .
7e
JnO.

c ornpa r...a t i ve .noees , survey of ·'occupational expre ssive b e h'av'- ' .

i~rs . a c cor di n q: ' t~ ~s tabl..ished· ' f o l kl o r e gen res, and

ex pli c i t l y antiquarian ,viewpo i nt • . 'I n hi s . in t roduction ,

Hand states tha t '

. .
T h e su rv i va l df a f e w waifs of , folklore iiinon g t he '
h ard roc k s dnez-e of Ut ah has an a nti q ua e .Lan i nte r ";'
e ~t not on ly for t he collector ·o f American p opula r
t ra di t ions but al60 t or t he comp ile r o f local
s o c i a l. or ,economi c h i ~ to ry . ~,l _
In addi~ibn t o its ex pr essed h i s t o r i c a i. a nd r e g i o na l

i mpul 's e , Ha~d ' s ar ti c~e · ai so ' re flccts . ~i~ . p~cliniinarr view
o f mi ni ng, that

;"de~~~~~i:~~~~~i~~ ~:~dr~~~e~o~~~n~~~~~n;~O in
e j.cne , of a : r e source fu l ness of h an d 'and mi nd . ~,2, (.

He l 'is t s typ~s of narr~ ~i~~s that fa l~ i nto. cate gor ,i e ,s . or

t opi ?S app a r e ntl.y , ~ugge s ted : b~ the ma ter i a l ',its e lf , e . g;,
. MLoca t ions o f 'Mi n e s' , · " On~~m Min es, " ' ·~ s t MiilEis ', " and
. ' ,. . ' " . ' I

"Strange Si g hts , - a nd end s t h e ar t i c l e with t he a sser tion

'th~~ , h e coui.d ·fi~~ no fo l ks"ong9 a l thoug h · Ko r s on 's 'wo r k in

,p ennSYlv~nia l ed . h iin ,~,~ beH~~e ~at f~rther fieldwork " in .· '

1-: , ~ I

I, .__,l __ ~_·
. J.

t he wes t migh t l~~ate more sO~9'a. 33

s.:
I n a later artlcl.e (~Songs oj: t he Butte ,Mi n e r s ; n

wh i c.h .a p pea r e d in 1 9 5 0) , H and ~ . po in. t out t hat ,ma ny of

"t h e, songs fo und .I n - the mining r e gi on ' o f -Bu t t e - a r e ' parodies
. , ' . .
' O f: ,e~th;r Am,:,~ican f olk :songB 'o r po_~ula.r :son9~ . .As otrer
irive~t~gators ~ave .c o nq rmed , t he s e p a ro dies were .o f t e n ,
wr itt en and s ung by .. itinerant sa tiris~s a nd music h all
mu s i e l .ans w,ho' t Qureq the .mi ni n g c amps adapting t h e lyrics

to lo~ar co nditio ns an"d situations . 3 4 Thi s wou l d' seem

t ~en ' to SU9~est 1 ha t the' re lationship ' bet~een ,mi n i ng a nd
. occupational -o r 'oc c u pa t i o n ally _related -song h ad evolved

from t he Eng l ish music', ha~l tradition to, the w~ndering

mi ns tre l b~u ds ' of the Pennsylvania an thrac .i.teregion , t~
the po litic a l c"rga n izing songs of , th e b i tumi ~o u s re g i~m s
. , .
' a n d f inally' to t he 'pa ro di'c songs of the wes te rn mines' wh i c h

.were compoS~d a~d s u ng' b y pro~e~sional ' m usic~ans an~ ~UCh

mor~ concern~d wi t h th~ fast li. fe~of the si lver. a nd go ld '
mi nes .e ire n ,the: d r .udgery' a nd e'xploltation of , the eeauern
coal miner'~ ' e :lCpe 'r ience,. 3 5 'BO~h ~and ~nd' ~mrich ' cloc ume n t
~he r ole of paro'die ' s ~:lI1g in the wester~ mini ng camps a n d
a contemporary scholar , ',Pe te r t:!-i'rvae ,z , has done :'exten s i ve
~ . , , " " ' , , !
wo r k ' with New f oundl and mine r s ' whi c h further eluc idates

the i mporta nce ' o f this f orm i n an o c cu pational se t ting .

Narv~:ez poin ts ou t ·t.h~t ' in th'e' con't;mpo~ary occupat;ional :

-sett i n g th e r e compOS l.ti01 of s ongs a nd te x ts pxovddee a

l
di urn th ro ugh whl.ch a r a conteur c an s hape 'a n or1ginal •
.J / f •
- ,
.
--,---~-:-'_--- ._- , _ ...

245

artistic expre s sion. t o fi.t' II n ew us e. I n addi'ti on t o

sugge sti ng the con t i nue d i mporta nce ,o f oc~ up.tio na l fo lk

songs o r parod i e s i n s ome 'con t e mpo r a r y oc c u pa tio nal

group'~, hi s find ings ease i nd ic.at e the 'c on t i n ued need - f or

apprOill?hing e~pressive behavi or withou t ge n eriQ. p r e conce p-

tions . 3 6

I n .hi s s ummary arti c l~ (" Amer ica," Occ:upatiori~1and

. .
Indus trial FOH;1 0re : , .The. Miner," ,whic h ii-,p peared i n ,1 9 6 9 ) ,

"Hand character hesma'ny ,O f t he t re nd s su g gested above a~d

'l a,me'~ ts the . fact .that .the cr'o s s-07cupatio~a i sea~ch for
cogna t e expre s s ive r c r e s . has b e e n l imi t e d t o t he work o f

Ba rry, Doe r f"iin ger a nd H'iln d himse lf ' i n h is res e ar c h on th';

t a boo - ag a i n s t ' whis t ling i 'n t he wo'rk p l ace . 3 7 He a lso gives

c redi t to the pion c e ri n'g wor k's o f - 'H e i lf ~ rth a nd Ko r s on ,
.' 1 ' . ', . _ .
stati n g t ha t his a t te~pt to p lace t h 'e _l\ u t~ e 'Jll a t e r i a l: i n ' a
wider social context wa e . based on the wo rk o f t h e se ,two

r e s earc he rs. In, h i s , co n c j.uaLo n.. lIand r e peats hi s 'lIss ert ion .
that'

, . ' . . any -item- of fo lklo r e born o n·,the j ob- ,- be . i t

i a ~ tory , o r , ane ~ do t e , a s o ng or v e rse s a c olo rf ul c

" . I ~~~~e:~~e~~~la~i~:~ ,~e~~~~l~~e~Yi tom--~us.t be

He s Jps' ~hor:t., how e ver- , o~ aCC l!pting t~e iAlportance of

expressi ve -forms which may find t he i r way - into an ccccpa-
. '. ' - -." '.
tiona l cultu're from mass media. pr i n t e d or r e corded 's ourc es ,

~nd ther~f~~e retains. ~h~' ~eqUir~mt~t' . ,tha·~ in , ~rder to:'b e

c o nsid e r ed , f o l k,l o r e an item mu st b{e pa s sed in a direct,

/~ ace-to-face>oa~ne~ ' lIllIOri 9 rne'mb:r/f':: ~a'- ho moge ne o us' g,ro~p.39

r
2 46

. Ar cl:!i e . Green ' s Oilly a Mi ner ,s p e aks direc~ly to thi~

issue and hi s wor k brings f o l lil o r i s t' s ccncen czata on on

occu~a t.i.onal · fo lklore to i t s present " posit'ion . Green

ma"intai ns thAt f olk s o n gs a.r e r~ ceived a ur al l y by ' i -iste ners .,

and ' s i n g e r s , ecceseee by "t h em and altered i f'. ene p r oce s s

of ~vement ov~r t~iue' to f i t .il. co ntext arid ~. set o f ' exp~'c t'~:"
" t iona generated by the experi~nces ,o f an i n d '.l.v i dual or
~ 9'r ou.p: I t fOll~s'then' that"t h o s e who liv~ . ~nd work in

t h e ' isoIa.ted mini ng re9io~ of Appalaohia and id e n tify

, lQOst s tro ngl;"" wi~ ~he i r occupati~n will dirr e ~t the ir '

. .
i n t e r e s t s to ' songs (wha tever their scurce t :wh i ch speak' t o
.
t h ese conce rns . Theadapta.ti o n, l.ocaliza t ion and r e -

r e c or d i n g o f the s e songs , the refo r e not on l y re fl e cts

occupati'omll a.lld regional c onc erns bu t i nv e s t s these

expres 5 ions'- 'in artif~cts . ( re co rds ) _t hat can be arCha~lOg'i ­
cal ly - typed ( p l ace d -i n 'h i s t o r i c a l discographies ) a nd t r~ccd

to dete,r mine o riqins , social context a nd cc L tur ,l. back -

ground. Green ce u t. Lo ua l .y. but convincingly ' prov e s the

~9cU:pa t~onal and 'r e g'iOna ~ i~portan~e of disa~ter baiiads , .'

la ~e n t f-j' ~a~d b l ues _ pieces ~ th e y are r e Jilr.e s e n t e d b y varia nt

~:~lar r~cordings •. At the same 'tiIDe , however, h e main-

t ai ns a , concern for tr ad i t i onal i t y ' (movem e rr t; o f' at;l . item

o v er time"lii t h concomita nt , :tr a ceable vari a tion l a ·f ol k

. or e nc laved (,.'~folk- like· ) cO!1Ullu n ity , an d a h l s t b r i a n ' s

concern fo r ·-d'i a chr o n i c a n a l Ys i s . 40 ';
 \. " :I>t '~a~n ' t _~n~il 'th~~een sev; nt i es ~at a ny new
· 9rO~d - ~a s: broke n in the s tudy o f occupat1o~al' fo lk'lore.
" "

Muc h of t he i nte r e s t I n andtheori~ i n9 abou t t h i s as~ct

· of f olklore b etween tlt e' r ich per iod of t h e , t h l r ties;

'J f o r t i e s ; and fiftie s ·.~nd t h e _~ur re~t ~ecad~ wa s ' due to the . ..
"
consis tent work o f Wayland Hand and "Ar c h i e creen'; Ila nd
ha s m~inta i ne d _ h i 5 r ne e xe s e . i n o ccu pa t iona l ,folk lor e as a '
. . ," ' . : I .
,?ompl e me nt 'to hi s- scho l a r l y resee r cn and - fi eldwor k i ri t he

a re~ 1o f f~i. k b .eli ef arid cus t om. 41 : ' ~n c lassic scholastic

s ty l~ he has co ntinued ' t o maintain .t he s tand~rds an d '
/ "
i n te res t~ of . the co i lectors of t he "'pa s t- while a t t he s a me
ti~ he h a s' ~~nta;ned' "a - se~sit~vitY and a cu~rencY~~:
n~"" s c hol arsh i p a nd i rino.v ~ ti~~s pri~ril y through hi ~

p ':lblicati on s abO ut occup~ t iona l v~rba l expr e ssion , c us t om

'-';'n d be l i ef. In h is tre atmen t o f the Col klo r e o f mi ne r s
" "
aecve 'a n d be l ow q r o.und , Hand deals wi th~ a ""i de range o f
topics o f c u r r e nt co nc e r n including th e r o l e o f o cc upatio na l
· a c c i de n t ' a c c ounts a nd ' their relat i o nsh i p t o 's u pe r 's t i t i o n
" " "
· ~nd be l ie f , . cuseo rcs , na ming . a nd use o f. tools , c l o t h i ng,

pra~lts , i n it iat~on , jakel' , a nd t h e 1ll1p act.of t he o ccupa -

tio na l culture upon .the wid e r co mmunity . , I n h i s . discussion

of thi s ~ ll~ t ' ~Oint, lIand states,; tha t

• • • the i nv e n t ive e nerg y ot: t he me n h a ll no t been
s~ifled , it h a s f ou nd o u tl ~ts. ,i n ne w d irections. ·
I n k c e pi n q wi th t he conuno n ly accepted the o ries tha t
fo lklo re i s bo rn f rom the v iciss i t ud e 5 and · unhappy (
moments o f li f e q u ite as JIIuch as fro m lifc 's , lighter
IIlOOds" o ne is not surprised to find t h at much -o f
the f olk lora created i n t he mine s of Butte t oday . '.!'_ . . . .
de:al s wi t h the Ordeals of nlining. nlini n9 d ise a s e s , 42
jlnd - tile e e c a e e t e a~ social fra mew.ork o f . lU ni n g , l i f e .
I'--c:
. ~.

· J ust as ' George Itorson .arquad f or the "s tre n9 th a nd vi tality

. ' . ' .
"; -.of f olk l o r e in t he chang ing culture of t he e t ne s in 'the
". .' ~ . . .
easte r n Uni te d States , Wa yl a n d Hand has continued to
· ' ~Xplore pa ralle l c hanges in the wcst up' ~ ' t l;le prese~ ~ 'da y
\ "a nd is ~erefore a ,ke y tranSi~ion¥fi'9 ~re i n 'f o l kl o r e
s tu die s 'of oc cupa t iona l ' g~up s, .. particularly in h is .s tress
on bel fef a,nd c·u~i.om as . cen~ral .toth'e · functi'~nin9 of - ~eJt _
wo~~s _~f interactio~ I n a work situation .
.-! :--'Ar c h ie Gr een " c ~,rrie s~ u s from . an ~pp r eci atio~ a nd
· accepta nce o f Korson 's v i e w ,o f en c laved o c cu pa tional COl\- .

munitie s t hrough Ha nd's ~thr6pol~gi CI11Y _based <f unc t i ona l -

i SIll -a n d e ncyc l~pedic methodology to the pxeaen t; conce rn fo r
. ~

expressive behavior i n . urba n induJiltriali'ZecS se t "tings . In

a sWnnia-; y "~of the develop~nt o f OC~UPltioJal/industri.al
f olk1 o r e "'a s a Sub- f~eld ~n the ~isc iP~ inJ, Green lIolke s the
( f~ ll o~ i nq s t atement in Only II. Mi ne r :

I" • •

~ li t icil . i mpul s e s ::,f , t he f o1 k sOn9 reviYa l -t o ' the ~ropea n

. !: .,;...;; .

t;~ _ _. - . .
_ .:.._ - . -_. __._ - .
 249

influri~ce ~f f olkl ife Acho i an s eeking t o. pO c\UJl(!nt ' wor k

techniques!n b~oad cUl~ural centeftS . · In t he : inte res t of

. . .
organizi ng a nd d i s c u s s i ng t he s e ap proaches. ' t he y c a n be
, broken d own in,t::o the following ~
'. . .
1) i nv estiga t ions o f

'~li ticai fo;ces or moveme nts t;.h at af f~ct o r refie c't

occupa tiona l c ulture; .2) urban studies , .tha t i n.el u de oc c u p a-
( . , ' , .
tional culture i n thei r i~~e stig a Hon s~ 3) studi es of a
· cult.ur al/historic nature .t ha t focus Onwoltk "wi th i n a speci-"
. .
f i c c ul t u r a l .c ompl e x (f olklife) , 4) in;"es tigatiomf of
. :.
specifi c ,expres$ive ge nr es (j o k e s , narra tives, c ue co me and

b e l i e f systems, ,or a l hi s tory , pers.on al ex pe rie nce narea .':'"

t i v es l w i t hi n occ u pation a l s ettirigs : . and 5 ) t ho s e a pproaches
t o occupational CUlture, t h at a t tempt to a p ply 1;.heir £i n d -

· i n 'gs _t o ,' sp ed.fie problems of conflicts wi thin t he co mmuni t y .

'rne ee is ' ~ gre at deal- o f ., o ve r l a pp ing between these
approaches ( e . g . , ' ma ny o f 't he mo r e radiealfo lk.so ~g,

re vi va list s ' a nd racon.teurs l i ke th c Jl"llllilnac s ingers an d

Wo ody Gu t hri e c e r t a i nly intended th ei r ' mat:erial ,to be
( ,. ,-
applied t o ' t h e sac i 'al/po litical pr oble ms of the day), 4 4

· ye t ~e se div i sions ,Wi ll' p rov i-de a ~ s tr'u cture t h r o ugh wh ich .
a hroa dsurveyof the re l e va nt
..... . ,

r ~,s e a rch
,..c an ' --
be viewed .
'
~
..
The poli tical d imensio n of occupation,;ll "f o lk l o r e
..- ,

: h a~ be.en mos t ,dramatica lly exemplifi~d i n , t he pro test , SO)'l9-S

and ;.la me nt s generated in the eariy dc:-ys of Americ a n indus :"
, " ,
tri~l l a bor organ i ,zation . in "both Minstr e : s an d ~

2"--"",-"P"id",dl""e, Korson do c ument e d ' t he importance of 'dis,aster

J
 ~--------""'!J.

ballads a~d pro,te st song s .s ung - by ~ i;, : l i ke Con c arb?n a nd

Ed Fo~ey a,oou t t he Avondale mi ne ,disa s t e r i n"fofi n~ tre l s , and ' ,
'i n the, ia:ter ' bo ok dep i c ting the Coal Creek .r ebe l l i o n a n d
• , ~ " . I, '
the Ludlow massacre i n ' Colorado , as .well as the a c counts
of mar tyrdoms . and ' acdd~ntal inj ~ry and ae e cn . that. 9rad~­

a n y won - incr~as~~ , s a f e t y in the min e s . 4 ~_ :.J ; hn G;:,eenway

provides _the ,f irst b r oad survey · of pro t est ' s ong s in

Ameri~an FO~kSOngS of p~otest. I', ~ree~way,' refu ted ' th e
scholar l. Y .r equ ir eme rit ~ hat' '~ 1l"' f?l k SCm9 !l rnu'st be t racli-
t iona l (i. e . 0 pas s e d o n over a t l~as1;: two gener a t ions ] a ; d
m~st ha~e lo B't their "i de n t i t y 'a s .'1, c o/sCi OU'Sl Y comP.O ~d
46 ' , .' ~~ . ""
pd e ce;" Us il'}9 t he f olk c ompo s e r Aun t Molly J a c kson as a ll.

'e x amp l~ " he ' s uggested that prote st fo l ks on g s a r ose from

t he inte rests , struggles a~d battles of people ,wh o were

trying t o 'o ~ 9 a n h ; , u n io ~ r ' or o~ercome , di ve rs i t y . I H~ al s o :

pointed out tha t mos t so:ng s are authored b y any o ne i nd i vid -
ual but ~ then be come t he "pr:o pe rt y Of' ''.;){ a n d t ha t'- often ' t hey
are pa rodi c: ,i ,n ei t he
7 t une o r ,t e xt , o r ,bo t h . -47 . 'As Green

p~~nts out in on lY , a ,.Mi ne r, 'Gr e e nw-a:-r.'s recePtio~ , at ~he "

hands of the ac ademic fol klore e stabl ishment was ' not " warm . 4 8
Yet thi~ b~eaking of , new 'g r oun d in occup~tional 'f o l ks o n g
stud y ' wa s signif ~d~nt' du e , to i ts , re l i a nce u pon H eld data ' _
rathe r ' than 9i:meric' ·~reconcept.ion
asw~ll a s Gr eenway ~ B .
~. " ' . . ' . . .
(and later Green's) , conviction, that i n 's p i t e o f their wide
" . , ~

ranging ' popu 1.a r appeal , most o f th ese prote s t SOn gs grew
o~t o f l ocal. resp~nses "t o specifi c prO~le'rnf>" or .i n~id~n·ts.

- -- -- - - - ...- .. -- -- - - --- - -- - - _ -- _ -'- -" ~J

 -:
--- - - - - -- - --- , --' .. -;._.;.-";':~-_?,-
- -- - "?..- ..... -_ .". ~:',...._ - -- -... '. -..._ ,._,.,.

oi ~ S l
~. .. ' , .. .
4g
wh i ch were c ommented upon - by a n i nf ivi dual c OJilposer .

Al ~Ouq~ IIlany -of these . ~on9s are ;bou t workin'J conditio~s

and lab o r s t r uggle s, they r epr e s e nt a unique for m .,of ' ;

oocupat i:onal folkl~re t~a t may h a ve ended a round t he time

of'the A FL- C:rO ner q e r i n 1 957 ,wh e n t he lIIon~ ethnically: '

bomOqc n eous Anl erican Fede ration o f Labor me r gea with t he

more he terog e neous "Congress c e . I n dus t rial Or gani z a tions '

un i ons .
DU~i n9 , the fif t ies and sixties labor and p r ot e st ·
songs .mo v ed e ,,":,e n f a rther- aw ay . f rom the 'l oc a l OCCUF?atio~". .
. communi t y, yet t hei r mass audience ' impact th r ough ra dio ,

te l ev i s i o n , and r ecords wa s ~ e l t. perb.epa more, st:.:o ngly

d uri ng t l\ e era of t he civil ' rig h t s a truggles end t hell'nt i-

w<~ r moye ment '. , Fun y "~ocumented .' by R. se r9~:--~~i soff an "a
Ri c hard Reuss; t his e re c:>fprotes t lll":isic. a n d folksong

reviva l in an ur ba n "i ndus t ri al setting {t e r med the

proletarian renasc~"rice by oeJisoff J, "re veal e d: not only t he

Ilaaptabili"ty' o f bot h labor ,pr ot e s t t u nes and ' t ex t. s tl? fit

the str uggles and frus trati ons of "a n e w ge neration , It

" " r·. ". . ~

a a sc; as Denisoff points out, i n dica t e d t hat

, • ", the pro l e tarian ' zenaa c e nce " h a s e x ternal ly

a f f e cted societal r esponse to the c osmo p o li t an
erriploYllentof f olk ma tcrial. " " . ' Yet _ , , i t
m"ay. b e of " grea t e r us e - t o ex am ine t h e social r ole s
"" and mH i eus i n which songs of pe r s uas i on are 51
~ ar;-e~ r athe r , t ha n . ~"hei r O ~ i9 ins and s tYl~ S , • .'
This qu a l ifica tion a f usc" r a t her t han "c:onc e n t r at i o n on

origin i s pa r ticula r ly im por t an t in t he s t udy of con te~po­

rary' oc c up at i o na l g roups in ' whi c h ind ivi~ua ls share not

r

'I
onl y the conce r ns and pr oce s s es o f ,jork . but o ften a '

- ~tefe:renc~ ' " certa,i n f orm s o(~Pula.~, ente~tainm7n~,:

long as t h ese ,p o pul ar expressive . f o rms eeereaa th e msel ves
As . !
to the be l iefs and cultural , expe 9 tatio ns of t he in d ividUa ls
in the Wor k group they mu'st be cons i dered an ~i"po r t a n t
as pect of the o ccupa t ional ' cultur e . Th e refore 'a particul a r
I ' _ • " i
son g or s tyle of music , for exa mpl e a c oun t r ,y ,a nd we s t ern

, ~O?g" abou t an , ali~ated dr ifteiror .~~~rY ;~ o~kers ~ho ' qui: • 'I
th e i r j ob s . es a matter of principle ,f o r t he".'s h abby treat-

se o e th ey havf!l receiv: ed, .ca n be ' u sed as Ii rh etorical dev ice

wi,t hin the -gro u p t b make a seaeeeene a bout,s i milar senti-:-
menta or feeli ng of t hose e mployed _the re. ;.

Mar tin Laba , an d Phil i p Nus b~wn i n t ~ei ri n ves tiga ­

tiona cif u~ba~ f !?l klo r e and part- t~l)\e . transie nt o.c cuplltions
hav e fo und s imi lar a daptati ons of . cx t e r n"a lly , g cne !="a t e d
. ' ,' : _ 1 I
ex pressive forms in the 'repertorieS ,of wai t r e s s es, cab
. - _ ' , - _ -' 52 1
dri ve,:s, . stripp e rs a nd itineranl< ac t or s. Laba at tac ks
th e pa t hological view ,qf the' city SU99€H.ted in Redfield 's

fo U': -ur,ban con t inuUm as u nnecessar ilY . l:iio.~~iryg folk lore

studies to rural, face :"to- f acegroups ; He s ?ggests' that a
, ser-e ccepr-ehene a ve d~f ini t ion of urban f ol klore sho u ld

i nc lude
~ • •' ., : a vie w o'f folklor~ ,t ha t , is cons onant ~ith . t he
urban . co nte x t and ....ith h uma.n e xpe r i e nce i n t ha t
con te x t. Xf th e f ol klorist s ubscribe s to ' soci o -~ '
linguistic "t ene t of t he ' interaction. of , l a n guage a nd
s ocia l lif e. th e n his p r emise f or investi ation will
r e fl e e.t a concer n f o,;r huma n beha.vior . . ' • • The
pe r so nal e x perie nce na r rati ve • • • ,(i s ) t he most
pr eva1ef!t f~lk lor istic f o rlllto be f o und ~JI!Ongst

, '
 253

urban dwellers, [it i .sEtr ve;s as a verbe a enactment

a n d rec a pitulati on ,,?f eve n t s and . i s c J.e a rl y ' 4
~~~~~i~~~t~~~~~~e~~~~~a~h~oh;~~lr~~s~~a;x~~~~~~;;e· . 53
4J .
In an . earlie r . articl e, L a ba l 1 1 ustra tes hoW t hi s · ver b a r .
'e neeeme n e an d , rec api tul a ti~n of even ts · p rovi de s an

opportunity for Y:"o el d e r l y women WhO. r un ,a newss ta nd t o

il:'-ternalize th~ e vents of .~~e , d a ily. soap fl~ra i nto their
. own liv e s an'a those'of t;;he l r custo~er s i n ~ St . J ohn' s,
Newfoun'dl and neiglJ.borhood. ·~ s Lab;'! a'tates I

cue ecee ee comi ng i~ t:,o t he store" a f t er its ee-.

opening a t ,5 : ,30 inevi tably hear repeti tive revie~s
,o f t he d e vel o p ment s in tha t !lay 's episode i n the
of,ten ,i mp a s s i o ned exchanges between t h e t~o ladies
and their .f r i e nds wh o dr op by specifically f o r t nis
discu~sion,54 " "
1'ln~t ' is si~biffca n t (as bo t h' La"bil a nd Denisoff point. out)

iS ,not tM lorigin of t h e inf~rm~tion , (~he the,r :LtIs a .

pro tes t song addressinq a qn.evance or a disc ussion of the
seX 'l i ves 'of fictional 'televis ion- c h "a rac t e rsJ, bU ~ i t s
," : . ' , .
i ~ ,a' s.p,e ci f i~ contex ~ 'i? Y .. l!le~ Of a face -to.-f ace grou p

who ha v e develope d networks o f in t~rac tion and ' conwunica- .,

tion into Whi ch ', these' exterpa i1y 'der i ved "o j eeon c s are
r epea t e dl y pla ced a nd mani pul a ted;55
In a ddi tion .to t he li te ratur 4 on 1 a bor ' pi"o~e s t

songs and c u r re nt approacMs to ',urban fo1 k lo re t hat r el at e i

di r ec t l :( to any , c~:)rls id eration' of cccupatLo nal. f olkl ife .

-ther e is .a ,?onsid e rable body o f dat.a. .l??nc e r ni ng , ,h i~tori cai

and 'c o n t empor a r y "Wor k p r o cesses · and t echn i q ues thAt h a s
: been · g en er a t ed .by fol kl ife'sch o la rs bOt h " i n th e Urii b ;d ' ,

. 'States a nd" E'?X0pe • . ~e . c oncept 'Of~ ~Ol~lif~"(Vo~'kSkilnde~r

·· ·~ -·-- ----- -·-'-----·=-~l~ · '=---~- r
25 •

.. ~) i s 'mor e incl usive : t_h a n folklo r e . Don Yo der i o ne

~f ~he mo~'t prolific f~lkHfe s t::holars in t he u~ite~ s~ates

Folklife s tudi e s • • • anal yzes trad ition al cu ltural

' e l e ment s i n B c ompl ex so c:iety- -whethe r t h ese ele -
ments a re defined a s f olk, e thnic,' ,reigiona l , r ural,
urban , or , sectarian--viewing t he m in t he c ontext of
t hat l arg'e r uni f y ing s oc i e t y . and cu lture o f Whi ch
a ll . sUb groUpS a nd ' tradi tip ns ar~ functio oing ,' pa r ts .
' I t: can f oc us u pon t he individua l , t he . gro up" s i n gle
~~~i~~~!", ~raits o~ comPlex~s" or ~e a U,I,ture as ' a

A~ thO~9h ~. growing n~er r ~rican SC~Olars .·a re b e gi nn ing

to adopt thia,:bro.ider approach .e c f olk c u l ture . _o utside o f ,, ' ,

t!te :· regional ~ater~a~' 'cultur~ s~.udies ~one by'H~'nry, G~aSsie.~ :

• " " ~,s s,ay~ i n ' Y.od,~r,' s arith:IO~Y". an d his ~~n ' wor k ,.''fi t-h" t he<.'...
Pe nnsylvania, Dutch; , and Mich a el Owen J on e s ' b o ok on chair-
.< '. ', " : , • •

mak.ing ,i ~ . ~ppala c h i a . : the r e a~e few' f ull , l e ~gt h.- f olkli,f e

' s t~dies
. ',i n t~b"'iountry ~,57 .Br i. tis
. ..h, scho lars includi
;
ng'

Es ty n Evans ~, Geraint . ~eriki.ns a'ndGe~rge , Ew";l~t" E.~ans ha ve

: . pro d uced mO~~I·,tils.t oiic~~tudies . while their
· (Jerman a nd 'Sca:~dan~Vian c~unte~a;tS.have de~e loped a' mo:r;~
coml?rehe~si~e~regiOna :t". oI! nd' e thnoiq:Y-lcaf rnode~ ,of ~Ol~t~f,e
.: ' ..., ~ , 58 "
sChOla rs ~lp. ;
Pe;;hapsth e rno$t significant as p e ct of t.h e "f o l klife'
" a p proa c h 'i n ' .i t s · im pact. . OJ)"oc c \lpa tic;na i s~~rHes 'i 's the
· im~'o~ta~c~ .that'.is~ p~a;ce~ ~n ~e ·.~C~~ica~ , as weu.· as ~e' -'
· ora~. ~f<Pects " o~ ~ult.urll e:Kpression':5~ . I n thei'~ ,'t y p i c a lly '; '
e,cle~tic manne r .-:foiklb~ists a"pi;lr~aChin9 WQrk ,~ulture fr~m
 255

~pproaChes of. hist o r i c a i 'ar~haeol09'iS't s ;' r~9~6nal e~n09ra~

. 'Ph~rs and c u l t u ral qe o g r apher5 ; a ll o f wh~;" 's ha r e a n
· .
. inte res t i n the re lationship betwe e n cu l t ure a nd m<lte rial
. .
60 . -. .' .. .,
a r ti f ac t produ c t i o n . In a ~alllo1t ica l ly p r o vocati ye " ; .
challen ge to both archaeo l o gis t s and foi k li f e scholars,
.- . .
Henry Glll.6~ie p r o v i d e s a ' usef u i 8 U1OJ1Ul ry o f th e - o.p p ro a c b ,,"s
. ', • ;. ' J ."
i t i s perceiv ed today :
. -. . . ". - ~
· 10 make s e nse 'o f -o u r s i te ve n e e d ed -o nl y a r ti -
fac t s and 'o ne a dditi o nal fact l 1 the s e -t h i ng s wer e
mad e by peopl e . We ne eded no s pecu la t ive i ns i gh ts
o r e tl).no loqlca l ana l ogies; all we did .wa s desc r i be
t h ings IS the re sult of a~- i n t e r p l a y b etween closed
.&

· formal -e c r uc e u re e and ope affec tin9 s tructur e s . .

· Sett ing. the s e s t r uct ur e s ,f min d a ga i n s t h uman . '
, unive rs o.ls--lIlat t ers like l i f e ,a nd : de a t h , ' s tranger
and , fr,iend ; . . • ,we can arri ve a t 'a me an I n g f u l
struc tu r e of 'a ' pa s t c u lture . .
, , w~· '~ ·o.n ' s t o p ,the r e , ' b~t ;';e d o no t h a ve to . Ou r '
conclusions--i;.h e d a ta compres s ed i n to pow e r fu l ,
s t ate lleo t s :"- ,a re avai l a ble for a ,g r e a t v ariety o f
com para t i ve s t u di-es . Th e re are o t.he r s i t es wh i c h
can be built into co mparative lDOde l s . There are
· do c UA'lent s -end ethnol o g i ca l find i ngs wi th wh ich
.• • cotopa ris on c a n be _ d e i n o rder t o i mpro ve o ur
. u nd ers t and i ng of a pa r t i c u l a r people o r to a id , in
the dev e l o p.en t o f ge n e r alizing state me nt's . Our
, ', ~:~~ic~a;~~; :f~l~~~r~~~~~~~~dS~~~yu~~~~~: . 61
'./. -'- A ··(our~h are a of c;x:c:u~atio~: l f~lkiore s t ud i e s .

i ncl~,es those COl lecti~n~ o r s t ud i e s ' o f occupa~ona'~ c ui";"

t U?!-. tIi.a~ are ~48ed on a ·var.iet~· o~ :·~eore t.ical pre ntl s e s ' ,

a~d' ree thOdOlo?les . Th e.s8 ra n ge fro m t~~ ' gene r f c . ~Ollectio.n s

~f dccupa tioilal hUmor a nd son g e'x~mpl1fi~d in ' Coffin an d
FO~kl~re 'f~ the .' worki' ~ ~ Fo lk" of Ame'rica'~ " Wh iC:~
'c o he n ' s '
_.eO'~~"ains '~ wfde ~ariety ~fexpr·e'~~ion , 't o t he ora l 'h is't o rl-
c a l s't:ud l es : 'd o ne ' by~ ~dW~~d IV~s o~ . N ~, r theast~r~ song '~ ~;~s :
;. ;' .:~ .
. . , ~~
', '~ ' .. ., r '

. , ,.
 ..
256

a n d raconteurs whi ch -a'real ~o hea~ily grounded: i n ce c upe-

ti~nAl material ' about the farm a~d the l urnbli!r ~oods •.6 2
Ives la nd his .'s t ude n ts ' comp iled ' a model o ccupa t i o n.'ill stUd; .
.' .' : '

o perat i o ns of .'t he Penobscott

" , -
u s i ng- t hi s or_~l historical. a pproach t o . r e c on s t r uc t the
boom,
,

a i09
.'

b o om syst em
. :

U~lii\d
.
..
- ~

~ d~ive' " " ,fro~ t he Maine WOO~S to : , the .~ilh . 63 Wh~t ~

,i s P8,rticularl¥ , si g nifi ca n t ' in this' ~~rk (" Ar g y l e Boom- ) " •

is . t he care wit~ wh lc::k .the work p roc e as e a . t hems e ~ ve ~ a r e

describ~d( SO tha t all .of the narraH'ves, jokes ;: ~nd' othl;lr :
v erba l e xpressions . o f t he me n wh'o' worke'd ' th~ b oOm. an c.i pr?.;.

vide the ma teri~ l f or ~he .~c count a re pla c e,d i n a log ~al ,

. - , - . .-
The current approach
. "
to occupationalfolk
. . iore was
- .' .

u sher ed i ~ by Br uce R. Nickerson in'~hfs e s s a y en titi ~d ' "Is

. " . ' .

The~e a Folk in t he Fac tory? ;' whiC'h was ' p~blish~d iI)o ru.ne-
t~en seventy.-four based on ' h i s 'd ~ertation . mate~ial. 6 4 '
Nickerso~' ap~;o~ches t h e wo:rk cUl\lireo f ma c hini s t s :, f r o m
.! ' , ' ( ' " '
a theoretica l positi~n ,.bE;twe~\ a vi ew of wo r ke r s .a s . a fO~k .

( "enclav~ d. Red fi eldia n -) ,c o mmun i t y , a nd an aw~reness; of

the varieties of s ymbo l ic i nte rac tion ' (bo t h .verba'l and eon-
" '" ",
verb al) avai l a ble to worke r s in their dail. y interactioris .
' . '"
Althou gh s oniewha t ten ts tive ,. t his Srti~le a ~ ' l ,~a's t p r~:Vid e s
a link betwee n the earl y fol k l or i s t ewbo . l ? oked eccc ccoa -
" . . .
t i ona'l group s for f olklo r e d ue'·.to t heir i s o,l a t i o n and - fo l,k w

, natur'e ," and th~ .mo~ :c urr e nt ' ~ ~ouP. o:f .~olklo.ri.. stS w~o are

mor e c oncerned with the expressive

I
fO
lms of J..nteraction in
; .
, -" "
; ,

r:
t:
i -,--,----'-'--.,.,...--~-~----- -_...

"257

of the ftethnography of Js peaking apPI.:0 a ch ft

' t o e xp c e s a xve
, ' , ' , ", - ". ' , " , ., . .
interaction tha.t origi na t e d with tJ:le work .o f Dell ' Hymes
. . .
and h ea h a d a p r ofound i n f luenc e o n fol k lore theo ry , •

p a r t i c ul a r l y in the wc c x of Ro ger . Abr aham s . Rich ard ' Bauman

a n d Dan Ben~~$ . 65 ,~fi:'
AS ' i t . r e l ates· to the o c c u pa t i CO n al .f i e ld , t he

eth~ography o f' speak :l.tJg app roach ' Places~re :i~p'o r't a nce on

•t he ~'P PrOpria'teri'ess of c ertai n forms ,o f inte r ac tio n o r

expr e s sion i D .t.h e ,wor k place , ac t hes e a r e perfo r med i ri t h e
. p~esen~e o f a th'a r ~rk ers. chan~ri ze;; the
a p pro a ch. a s t he
a c t ions b~tween pa rticipants ' in s peech e ven t s . ":6 6
Hymes

"'~ tudY,.Of t?~ rUleS '.9~verni~9- - th,e ' i ll t e r c-;

I f work
r.
c Ul tur'e is :t he t'~ adit~n~l s' t ore bf 'kn~~~ed~e , ~nd ' beli~f~
p as!i~d f rom ~~e , W? r ke r to t he next th~~titjh "st'ory and
e xam'p I e, t hen tihe ~thn&grapliy ..of s p e a k i ng wi th i n " that

'c u l t u r e f o c us e s on ,t he , f~,rms a n d',:,:ari~ti'~s o f e xpre ssion

thr o u gh., wh i ch that 'k no~l edg e ~s ac ted o u t i n .eve~yday , life ,
One of' t 'he ' f .1r s t f Ol k lor 'i s ts, to 'p rod u c e a bacik

l ength s t u d y b a s ed o n 'contem po r ary a n th r o po log i c a l and

" . ,., , \

f o l kloristic the o ry i S ,Pa trick Mul l en in h i s co l lec t ion ' o f

.,. , ', .\ , ,' " . .
fol k b ibl i e fS ' ,a n"d ' s up e,u'ti tlo ns a mong fisherme n in , t he Te x a s

Gul :f 'C 6~~t · r~~ion: 6 7 ' Mui ~~n ' a ~~Ptiy /~~~i nes the 's c h Ol a rly
.. " ' .' . " , , ' C, , " , ' ."" " '
, r i g o r of e a r li.o r occupat i p,na: , f olklo r i sts like Wa yla nd

Han d I I! <h i s ' c o lle c t i o n ' a n d' a n no t a tion o f text~ · as we ll a s

e~id~~Cin9 a UIOrli!anthro~loglcallY moti~ated cO,nc ,e rn for

 ., \ . 2 58
. ', .
the broader cuI t ure c on text in whi ch t h e belie fs , c ustom s
and le~end~ of Gulf. Coastjisher men arise . M~llen ',s
. I. ·. .
sens i tivit y to work context l e ad s hi m to a n e xpl o ra t.ion ' of '

the . r i ~u:a l!ahxi e ty" re~ a tionship b e~e~,n danger an d ~ypes

o f _~ 9ical actions an d su pers td t.Lous bel~;efS a"rnongs ~ the, ba y
fis he rme n ,a nd t he men .who work the more deneer cu e waters o f
the Gul f . He c'dnc ludes that
' . "

f olk l or e is chiefly an occupational ex pr e s sio n fo r

Gulf fi s he r men a nd a r e giona l exp ression f or b ay
fi s h e rmen . Among sea f ishermen, magi c . folk belie f s
and e ee c crae ee . l eg end s a r e the f olklor e ' gen res ecs t;
c lose ly tied t o an oc c upational identit y . , Th e bay
fi s h e'rme n hav e aveex t r ad i t i on of ,magi c .f ol k l or e ,
bu t th ey hav e a stronge r n<I :rrative .:...t.-radi tion ' than "
Gulf fis herm en . 68 _. . ,
,. . , . ,

Mtll i en' s wor k t ake s us be yond ~rad~tional . ~e-nedc '.c0 h.Pi i :'!--
tion o f t exts ' and s implis tic ' e xamples . of a ris'k/ ritua l
. , ..
hypothesis t o a ,mor e closel y e.xami ried (a lthough no t,
~~-h~ographic ) , re lat~onShip :be t.....een work envyronment ' a nd,

exp reS ~i v~ cUl~ ure . " HiS, con~,~rmatio~ , of , ,M~l~ nows k i' s

. assertion t ha t ,mag ic i s mor e' ' p~e domi n a n t'. "whe the e l ement
,: o f da nger is co nspicuous , " ).s a ls ef ·c t ed ' in 'the mat eria l."
pre viously l<~ted concern ing the t: -of-p ass age i n smoke-

fi~hters as J.~.orma pr .esq r i be d , . cus toma~ ,wa r n i ng s co n-

ce r ning poten~iallY fata~ ' fi'~e s"itua~ions . 69 ,Hulle n"' s .
. " ' , ', " " ' '. ,
. r e s earch ~ ugge~ ts ,t h a t · i n add ition to'..re,:,th ink ~n g ' the . ,
relation~hiP betwee n belie~ ~ custom'and r! t ua"i in the
· r .. . ' , . . '
persona l ex perien ce narratives .a s e xpressive aspects of
· c ul t u re t bat a re equal ly sb aped by occupational c us t om' a nd
b e lie f .
-. Tbis inc reased se nsi t l v i ty t oward : t be r e l a t~'o ns bip

between a s pe c if i c wo.f k context an d th e un ique' forms pf "

.' fo l k ~xpression gen e'r a.t ed an d e xchanged ;" i th i n~ it , . is also
'r e fl e c t ed in the work of other ' yo.mg fo l k lori sts who have
'. . ~ .

· wr'~ ttentb.eir dissertations o n occupationa l f o l k l o r e .

Beve rly St o e ltje ,' s t r e a tment of ,r o deo as a~,.series of int e r":
l ock
. . i ng SY~l i c ,e ve nt s. ; 70 .Cami H .a. coli ip s ~ r e s e ar c h 'wi t h
, ,
t :

mi ll wo r ker s attempting to do cument t he cui tur a l vi ews ' of

.' , ". , :, . 71 " " . ~
both l ab or a nd manaqemene r ,' , Jack , Santino ' s inve stigation
of cu lture '
. h~roes ·'a nd chai:~cter stories ' in
.
work';' ~~Oups; 72
a nd Mi c hael J . ' Bell', ~ . ~de l for" the i n't~rp~et~tion o f work
proce s s as exp r es sive performance ', i ~ a blac k Pbiladel phia
ba r , a~e al I-. r e c e r(t i nv e s t'ig at i oris wh ~ch refl e c t t he more

·
ethnOgr~p~ic'
.
'trend of
.. . ' .
occupati~nal If~~kl~re s t. ud i es "73
"
As'
· ~ta~~d by 'ROger ",Abra h"':l"s f n : h i s ~ssay ' on a 'sOCiolO~i~al
t he o r y o f f .olk l o re i n ser vice occu pations', fo lk l or e ' 1'5 .
the e xpressdve means by Wh t'ch ' a sense of pa rticipa- "
Han i n a .lif e larger ' t han s e H is achie ve d thro ugh
s ha red a ctiviti e s and the commo~ ,,\rall)es and ex peri -
e nc:es that und erlie them ~ 74 " ", :' '
I n o r d er ,t o ' u~der s tand .encse values' ';"nd document ,.t h e exp xe a-.
;i-~~; ~h'ich 'r e fl e c t them, ~Owever. fOlkiOi:is'~s working in
:, ,': :,' ,, ; \ , '
' th e occupa tiona l f i eld will be :requi r ed t o , co nd uct; e tnno:"
" , . . ' . . ' . "

. - grap h ic research .,on a much mor e ..thorough ,eca te. th an

 260

I ' . ' . •
The fi nal : rea o f o c c upa t i o na l studie s tha t . rela~d

directly . t o .t ne p recedinq llja terial , i s 't he con c e p t of

a pp lied , folklore, Le . • , the use of fo lklore research t o

· "impr~ve t he ' hwna~
. CO~d~tion :-" 75. 'Althbu9~
" ' ~,
a continually
' -

debated i s s u e in the : di scipline ,: p r o jec ts r '!'n g i n g from

i nst ructing .mi dwive s '~nd 4o~tors in fo lk medical practices

to presenting e thnl 'c. cu lture at a f olk festiva l have' be en

termed " a pplied ." Yet ", J?ega r dleSs ofho,:" one defi~es the
t erm ; · - t~e i nves~igator ernployi~g tbisapproach must .mako
I
· certain value judgments about his methods , and data that .-l

mig h t (a s Dav id Hufford has s uggested) " e xpo s e the i nu t i lity

oft-he ,' obj ec ti ve' approach : .n ~6 ThrOU9?eiut . t h e en tire

r~search prl?:ess from ' hypothes ~s to fieid~rk and the
rc~rti~g of 'da t" the 'r,,:~e ~rChe r shapes hispe rcepti~ns
abo ut, what Le occur.d~g : a nd .how,· it 'w il~ e . r e ~~ r ;ed .
Trad.itlonaliy t h is ~;'Ob' j ~~tive ", inform~tion wa~ then ,w ~i t~e~
. .
up by th e 'researcher to be , studied by other a ca d emics .
. . .
usin~ .t~f applied apP~o.~Ch, : : this' data wo~l~ aiso bepre,-
sented back .eo .Ehe gr o ?,p be ing. studied In a f,orma t 'tha t is
· i"nte llig ib1Ei a Jd ~seful :t.o them . Ra ~her than ' imposing 'a
. pe r spective , ?; , ,;~re. for ~ s o c i a l I problem or an Ucipa.ted
c-hange on
. .
a.group,.
.
an appiied fol k l or i.s t att~mpt~ to . 'c o i .:..
' . ..' , " ,
aeee data, ' mak.es his ' b i a ses . exp lic it 'a n d , t hen wor k wi th ',the
.: gr6u p , ~~ ' aid ·the m· ~ri '.t,h e i r infOrlne"~ , :j."u d~en,ts , a~~t ' thei i.
 261

The basic philoso phy info~ming bo thrny model o f

oc cupatio nal f o lk. life a nd my app roach t o ap plied e thnography ,.

i s the linkage of all ~dt:.s of expres s i on in the wo r k place.

seen ,t h e mos t ' s ~mple verba l .symbo l , t o .the most; comp lex

techniqu e pe r f ormance . B~ t~een the s e t wo extr emes t he re

~ie s a mi ddle or centra l poin t ag a i ns t whi c h al l be havior

. Le j ud ge d .an d i t i s o ur ab i li ty t o - r e cog nize a nd ' d~cument

the s e , ~~t ~~current s cenes , a n, linr avei ~heir c~ntra.l ~on­
cer n s that wI ll determine . t he sophis tica.t ici n ' o f our " ."

ilnalys~s ofvcc oupaz.i.onaL ~u l t u r e . As an ethnographer I a m '

d r awn to the watch de sk . nar ra t ive se ssions , hose ' r a c ki ng

joki n g .r-e Lat.Lons hdps a nd post-:fire critiques ~ecause o f

their re fl ec tion of ce nt r al cu l tur a l conccr ne , Yet a s an

ap~l ied e t hnographer wcidd ng i n fu ~l vi e w o f my r e s ear ch . '

~pu lation'I ' r-a the r- tha n ' simply do cu men ting these scenes and

i nterpreting th~m f rom . an ernie po I n t, of v.ie w, , I ha ve , to

al s ? f ind some . ~.ay t o present them in a n . unde.rs ~andab l.e - .

framework t o ·t.ho s e who may unconsc.Io us j.y parti~'ipa t~ ,i n
/these .cUlt~ral event~·.cm '~, d a ily 'ba s i s . ' ~ " " .

The appl ied~ e thnogra pher i s ' t he , c reato r of a bridge

languag tl , t;hat r eflec t s ~e : i ns i d e v~ew whi~'e i~ , also'
ref.leets the " cri t i cal ' center upon whi ch . actu al .~rfor mimce
....i thin ,t he "....ork eollec~ive 'i s e va l ua ted . '; Acting in this
 262 r
conflicts sh'o uld be reso lved.
"
Ch~9'e is. ine vitable a nd- it
fs o ur j ob t o doc ument a nd pr ese nt ou r conc eption of ~ . -
. - . ' -.

particular cult ural r eality b a s e d on ou r r e sear ch sothat

t.hc ae ex periencing the change can make s ome inf~~~d "d17ci~
sions _cQncern~n9'~ ; t s direction and -i mpac t : e n th~ir iive~ .

/ '

It
I

i
l'I
<[

j~~~
 -, ~:
..: .

. ~--:. :
,. .',-.
( .: 'f
.'
:> .'

!
;.~FERENCE~ ';:' f
I
. APPROACHES , TO "'~y AND OCCUPAT IQ NS i
AP PENDI X A ,
.- .". .- : "."

":,'~

h
I1
 264

l Le e Bra ude', Wo r k a nd Workers: A So ciol o C}lca l

Ana lysis (New York : Praeger , 1975) . p , 12. f
2 ' -." " . . ' . .
. . Lee Br a ude ,nWork : 'A, The o r eti cal Cl a ssification , "
sQcio logical Qua rte rly 4 (l963l , p - 3 47 •

........ " 3Ev ere'tt C . . Hugh e s , "Mi s t a k e s at\;oork, M Canadian

. : J o ur na l of Eco nomics and Political Sc ience 17 ( 1~ 325 .
4N• ' Howa r d ' ("J a t:k " ) .Th o r p , Songs of the Cowboy, ed.
Aus tin and Alta Fife (New York: C larks on ~. po t t e r , 1966),
pp . ' 3,..5.

~ Ibid ., 'p p . 5-6'~' Also s e e J. Frank. Dobi e, "Ballads

and Son9s~tl)e F rontier -Polk," in Texas and So uthwestern
Lore , ed , J.' Fr a nk Dobie , Publications oftfie Texas Folk -
lore Socie ty, VI (Austin : -, Te xa s ,Folk So ng Socie ty , 1927h
pp . 121- 184; J. Frank Do bie , l " s tory t e ll e~ s I h ~ve Known,"
. ~~n~i:~dr:1i:~ ~~,;niltb~~iA:~ · ~~~ih;;nB~:~;~,~~t' ~ri'i~ud~
versi ty Pres s , 01 9 6 1) , ' pp . y2 9 ; Hor ace Beck', Fo lklore ,a nd
~~i ' ~~~i ~~~~~~g7~f.:;:.~.:..~}--(xmnccticut ; Th e Maune HJ.storJ.-

6 J o h n ,'Lomax a nd Allen Lomax , . Cowboy 'Song s . ind other' '.

Frontier Ba:Hads (Ne w York : Macmillan , 19 48 , re vJ.s e d ed:\.- .
tion , orJ.gJ.nal publi s hed in 1910 ); also .a e e Austin .a nd
~~~~oi~~; ' (~~:b~~r:~d 6i:~k~~~S~~gP~tt~r~Ol~69?~n;;~e'i _X, ~
for . cr J.tici sm o f t h e Lo ma x book ; fo r-. a contemporary study
see Glen Ohrlin" Tile .He l l Bound Trai n : ' A Cowboy SOngbook
('Urbana : ·Un i ve r s.J.t y of 1 1 i J. no J. ~ . P re s s , 1 9 7 3 ) 0 . .
: 7ArchiE: ,Greerj , ,''' Ge o r g e Kors on and Indu'strial Folk-
lore.''' Key stone 'Fo l k lo r e ,Quar t er lY 1 6 (1971 ) , p p. 5 3-6 5 ;
also see Wayland 0, Ha nd, .wGe o r ge Korson 'a n d th e Study of
Arneric ~n Mining Lore," Keystone Folklore , Qu a r t e r l y 1 6
(1971 ) ', p p. 65-67; and Hand 's summary eaaay , "Ame ric an
-. o ccupationa l and I nd us t r i al Folklore : The Mi ne r, · 'i n
Kontak te , und nreneem. ' P r ob l e me der-. .volks- - , Kultur"'"-, ' und.
soz ialforschunq ,Fe s t s c h r I f t fU r Gerhard Ha~lfurth ( ed. Ha ns
Fo ltJ.n (Gotbngen: ' ve rla g Otto Scwartz, 1 9 6 9 ) . pp , 4 53 .. 454 .
's . .' , 0 " • , • ,, 0 . ' .

I Hand, "Ame r ica n Occup a tio nal a nd , Industrial Fo l k-

l o r E!, v p ,. ' 4$3 ; ,' also s e e Elle n J . ' S~eke!t, "Tylor 's Theory
of Surviva ls and National Romanticism : Th e i r Influe nce on
Early Amer ican Fo lks ong Co l,lectors , " SOuthe rn Fo lklore
Qua r t erly ~2 (l9~B), .es , 226,...227 .

?Thorp', ~" . PP . ·ll ,· I B,

1 0Fife , C~boy and We s t e r n So n gs , ' pp. vi ii,...x.
 265

. · 1lSt ek e r t , p - 233 ; Hand ; "Ame rican occup~ tiona l '

. an d "I nd us t ria l Lore, ,~I . pp . ,45 4-' 455 ; a lso see D.K . , Wilg u s,
-. Anglo-Ame ric an . Folks on g Sc holars hie Sint:e 1998 (New
---: Br uns WJ.c k . New Jerse y: Rutgers unJ.ve r s l t y Press, 1959.),
. p p. '7 5- 8 0 , 158 , 1 6 3-16 6; Samue l P . "Ba ya r d ,. "P hi llips .
·Arn
~~r~~~ N;~~;;: ~~ ' ;d~ nM:~i~:;;d _ ~:a~e (~h~~:d~fp~~~~ety
e n c an Foikiore Society, 1960 · ~Reprintl),
unpaginated
int r o'd uction .

11wa Yl a nd D. Ha nd, Charles .Cutts"l\obert wilder _,

and Bel l y Wil der , "songs of the eu ece Mi ne r s ; " wes tern .
Folkl ore 9 (1950 ), p , 9, .Duncan Emr ich , "Songs o~

G'.' .
we s t e rn Min ers," Cal ifornia Fo lklore QU<lrt er l y 1 (l 94 2 ) ,. .
pp . -. 21 3- 21 4 ; Ric har4 Dwye r , RJ.cha rd Ll.ngenfelte r and David
Coh e n , .e d s, , The · So ng s ' o f t he Gold Rush (Berkeley: " Un i -,.,
Aversity .of CalHornuPres s, 196~), ·PP . ) -4 . . _' " ,: '.

British ~~~;~i~;o~a:r~eF{~~;eH~~~~;or~~i:n~n~~~~s~~~th" - .: ..
Press , 1929), pp . _xx J.-x xx ,1 .i; Fann~e Ec kst;o rm and Mary .' j
Smi t h, Mi nstr-e lsy of Ma i n e :" Folks ong s a nd Ballads of the "
Wo ods a nd ,t he Coast (B08 1::.0 n: Houg hton MJ.fflin and Company , . '
1927) , pp . 8 , ,~ 5_ 37, 141 14 2 , .234: Phillips .aar ry , The ' .
Ma i ne Woods SonlJ"ster (Ca mbr i d ge : .s ov e tt ,P ri nt i ng - COnlpany, :'
1 93 9 ) , pp . J.Bl ; l'ranz.. Ri c ka by , Ballads an d Song s of the
ShantrBoy (Ca mbd dge : -n a r va cd Uru verslty Pr es s , 1926 ),
. .pp , ,VJ.J.J.- X, xxx ix ; Earl C . Beck , Lore of the LUmbe r c a mps _.

· i~:~f~h=~ , w~:~~~:~~ :wii~~~~~:~i~ i~~;~S~~~~ii~~P:~~ ~ . :<

:.,_ :
e dito r, Songs of t he Sailor and Lumberman (New York : , ~ '
, ~:~i~~:~. " l~:~ ,i i) !R~~~l'i~x~,~ ;5. h~,n.tYmc:,n . "d · Sh ao t.Yb. o Ys, ..f.~rst "'.- '.' ,:'-, '-•.
" ." 1 40a r r y, Maine Woods Songster, , PP :- i ~-iiii ECk~:or~ ' -. -
an d ,s my.~h , PR,. '37 8- 380 , , . '. .. .. ~) . , " , ' ... '
l SRickaby,. vii i -xi v, xi x-xxr Earl C. Beck, pp , 196- , . :
1 9 7, 24 :1. -2 42; Phillips Barry~ - The Co;.boy 's Lament,- ;
Bulle t i n of the Fo l k s ong Socie t y of the Nor th a a s ~ 7 (1 9 34) •
pp . 1 6~1 8 ; Fannle Eckstorm, ~Canada I-O, Ii Bu.Ll.e't.j.n o f the
Folks o ng Society o f the ' No r t he a s t ' 6 (1933) , PP: l O- l3 ; ",a nd
Han d , - "American, Occupa tdona I and Indu st.(.ia l Lore ," , pp. 45 4-
~5 5 . '
. _. :1 6No_r ma n Ca zden i iIR~g i~-na1, and ' Oc~upationa'l '~o:denta-
, t :j.o ns of Amer ican ,Tr a d i t i o na l So ngs," -J o ur na l of America n
Folklor e 72 (19 59 ) . pp . 311- 327 1 Ea r l c , Be c k ; " ~ , pp.
2 41 -242 ; a nd Edwa rd rvee , · ~ Lumber ca mp SiIJ9 i n9 an d t he TWo
· ~~~dition~ ,· Can adian Fol k Music Journa l 5 (l 1 77 ) , ,pp. ',2.1 -
 . . . 17tkJbie . ,"Ballad~ and :Songs:," PP ~'·121-12 4;~bie ~
· St or y t e l l e rs , ," pp . "3- 29 ; Mody, C • . Boatright , . Folklore of
'" the Oil I nd us t r y (oallas : ' Southern 'Methodist UnJ.veruty
Press , 19631 . Also see his Gib Morgan: Mins trel of' the
Oil Fields · (Austin: Texas Foiklore society, 19 45) , and
~ the Derrick Floor · (Garden City, New York: .
DoUbi ~aay. 1910 j •

',1 BBoatri gh t , Folklore o f the oil Lndustry . p. v ,

19 I bi d., pp.- ' 35- 40', 129-1 35 .

20 I b i d •• p . 130.
Above .G~~~:~~;a~~l~fO~~~=' F~i=t;~~r~~:r~~i~i ', ~ ,~~~~~r.~e:
~~~~;~l~:~~,ieD~~,~~o(Ba~~j:~~~.ckT~~n~~~n;o~o~k~~sO~~~~: .
1960); PP . V-Vl,1 . . For ,a contemporary ' example of . research
in stylizEj'dforms of commwlication "ge ne r a t e d i n occupa-. . ': ~
tional settings see Mart in Meissn'e r , "The Language of Work ,"'
in Robert Dubin , ed , , ,Ha ndbook of ·Work, Organi za tion and
Society ..lChicago: . Rand ,McNa,lIy , 119 76) , p p . 205-279.
' 22 Kor sd n , B1ackRock ;p . ' v. t
23Archie Green; Only A Miner : Studies ·tn: Recorded
Coal Mining Songs (Ur b ana: ;Um .ve r s lty ot ,llhnol.s Press,
~~~~~; ' ::'9u:-~iil:~~i:~s~T~~, ~~:~~ib~~~~~ieo~O~:~~q: pp ,
Korson t o . American : Intellectual Life," unpub l i s hed Ph :D .'
dissl7:r;ta tion, , U~ive;rsity of Pennaykvan La , .1975 . 7,1

2~George K~rson ; Minst rels of the Mine Patch

(Ha tboro, Pennsylvariia : , Folklore, Associates, :1964 .
., [Re pr i n t - -o r i gi na lly pub .Lf ahed in 19360 , p , " ?-,' . I
in MQrt~n' H "
25Rob ert Redfield, "The Yah' society'':''
, ~~~::; ~? ~r~::1t~i~~~i~n~~~hi~Hi ~.vo1ume I I , {~ew . ,York:
26~eorge Korson, Coal Dust on the Fiddle (Ha tbor o ,
Pennsyfyani~ : Folklcire ASSciC1.~tes, 1965 [Reprint oriqinally
published 1 943) J ,pp . : 20-25, 137-138.
, ' ..27'Geo; g'e K~rs6ri: pe~~S;lvania SO~'9S and 'Le e nd s ,
(Philadelphia : · Uni ve r.sity of Pennsy 1vanHl pres~, 1949) ,
pp. 1 5- 16 . '. . ,- ' .

\ '~~Korson " Mih~tre1~,

"pp , ' 2'0";25, ,,1 83- 200 : ,Coa l 'Du~t;
,PP • • 23 -:{9.' . 1~ 1- 133~. .
 29 ' " , . .
Green, 'Only A Mine r, 'p . 1 4 .
~ 30 . , ' .
. , Ha y l a nd ,.D. Hand, -Folklore f rom Utah 's .s t i ve c
Mining .CaJllP S , " Journal o f American Folklore · 54 ' U 9H ) ,
p. 133 ~ , .

3l I b i d. , p : ' ~32 ~

3~ Ibid .
3~Ibid~ , . pp . 1 35 r 1~7; 140 : 14'1.," 1 59.

34Han d e t ai ." >"sb~9S'r" p'.: ~; ~ri ch , "Songs,": pp . '

213.,.214; DwyeJ:',"""'LIiigengfelter and cohen~ - Songs, - p p. 3':4 .
35E~rCh; "s~ng~ ,~. pp . · 2i.0"; ~1'S ;··KOrSQn , ·· Mi nstre l~S .
pp. 270-275 I ,Korson , Coal Oust , . .pp . 23-30 , Hand, ' "songs , " .
P~ •.; 9.- 1 5; 6 - . .-,
- -
' .- ,,' . , / : '.
Peter Narvaez • .-The Folk ,Parodist, " Canadian Folk
Musi c J ournalS (1917) ~ , pp •. '32- 37 •
. ';BOrry, "The ~OWhOY ' a Le meot, · PP,16 :";' , ' ':i,
~~~~~o~~~w:C~~~f:c~i~~: ~~ : ;~~:~ . Doerflin.9'er, pp. ,:,i - x ii i,i

;pp. 4,54_ : ::~n~/ "Occ upa tiona l and l~d'ustri,a l Fo lklor e , "
 .r
. , 4~R.: ser9'e,.:.i~·nisdff. "The l.~reeai:~an Re.nas~ence : . .
The Folklpre :'of ' the Ideological Folk .. n Jour nal o f ...American '
Fol,k lore'82, (1969). ,pp~ ,5B -5g ; - " . " '
· '• . '45~~rs~n. ~inst~e~s, PP. 178 ·":' lB 3 • . ~2 4~6 7 ; coa l
pp . 225 -24 0 .~ ' .- _. .- ' ' ----:-;-

46John Greenway; Amer:cari Folksongs ' Of ~prote~t'

(~~W. 'Y"J
,_~k: ,,' A"S',' - B~rnes ' , m ,3) " pp . 5-6 . . ~
' . Gree~way. pp . 7-9 ~

, . ,4 oeeen , ' o n l y a" Miner, 241-212.

49 , ' .' .' ' : , _, , . ' r
5 0G~e.enw,~Y ' · pp~: a-s raeeen, pp; 443_-45~ . · .' , .
. u.s.: ~epartrnen t of LaboJ<-, A Brie f History o f t he
American Labor - Move ment ( Wa sh ing t on, D.C. ; . : VOl.ted States
'.. S;ove rnme,nt ~rintingO~fic::e ,' .r svc , Bulletin IOO?) . pp . '.45-68 .
" ';il a.. serge .' ·Oen"~SOff . · ·Prole·tarian aenascence , ~
p . 66 ; Richard -Reuss, ~'I'he Roots of Amer1can Left-Wing
:.. I n t e r E¥> t. .,1n Folksong,.· Labor ' Hi s t o ry ' 1 2 , (l !pJ I , pp • .259-
· 279 , 1Uc h~ :r::d Reuss . ~Ame r l:can Folksongs , a nd 'Le f t - wi ng
· Politics: .. 19 35,..19 5 6 , · J o ur na l of the Folklore _Institute
" '- 1
1 2 : ' (l ' ~ 5 ) , . pp , - ~9 -:- 1.1 L . Also aee R. _serg:e benIsoH, Great
. : Day Comi nq '(Urbana ;' tJn'i ve rs ity , of -I llinois ."Pres's " 19fIT7 ','
'. _ 5~Hai~1~:' :L a:b~,, ' ; "~rban ' ~~ik.1ore/' -~"Beh~~i~r~l
, :~ . Approach.." · We s t ern Fo lk1orel8 (1.9 79,) " pp ,' 1 58- 1 6 9 , Philip
• Nusbaum; , "S,Qme Methods pf -Accompl1~hing Talk Among Opera -
'. ~ ..~;:~, ~~a~ , :r,J~~en~~~~e;~~~~~,e ~~i i:d;i~~i ~P~~~~h;:.~ ~i P·'
Nusbaum, ,' ·S~ryte 11.ing , S ty ~e ,.Amon g New York City 'I'axi ' .'
· Dri ~~r~ ~ ~ .. ,:,:~p.ublished paper , ' 1 9 77 . "
.. :.-. ' .:~ 3.e:ab~; -·p : 16l ~ .

. . . .... S~Mar~~ n t.ab~' ; '-~~6P\llar 'c ui t ur e , Fo lk.l o re. :nd' ,th~

; ' Ac t i ve JWs.d i e nc e , ' ," unpublis he d pa pe r;:, 19 77 , pp. 4-5.
55D~ni~,Off ', :,'prol.e,ta'riain:,;Re~a'sce~ci"e', ~ p ~- 66 ,·"Laba.,>

s hl
,5 c::~:~':r::~~~:::i'i:f~ ' St~~i~~: i~ ~~~ri~~~' ,~'C~Ol:~~~
"in 1\medclln Folklife, -e d . ,; oon .Ypder ' ( A~S. ti ,:,- : ,
, U':I1- " "

yeJ:'s,:L, . o f ' Tex~~ hess , '?- 9} ~.J ', . p.:9< ; ,' ,,' , ' .:>.,,' <: . . ..". ,
<.j
7He n ry Glass:L8, Pattern in th~ Ha t e d a l Folk . /
. ' "'. Cul ture of e Eastern United St:ates ( Pbl,l ade i ph:La ; Un1'"
·: :-: ~~~:i~Y. in:' ' ~ ~di~ _ ~ ~~ i~i~~,sA''-Struct:~~':~n~~a~I:1:i~f ·:,~~~~ , .
.: ~~
, i '<".'
-: . ¥! \~

'.':" : ' - X-- :~ ' ' - ','" '.'c.',,·, ': ~:i ' : ' ')
 269

H'istori't::: Artifacts . O<;noXville : . Uni ~rsity of Tennessee :'

Press , 19751; :MIchael - OWe n~ones, Tho Handmade Object a nd
~ (Ber k eley : Uni ve rsity Of Cau;fornia - h e s s .
19 7 5). Also see Fred Kniffen .. "Fo l k HOusing : Key to
Di ffus i on, " Annals of the Assocls'tion of American
' ~:~ila~~:~: , ~!~;9;~.~~i~·S~~;;~77i ~~i~~~ai · I~~=~~~a,nd
Settlement , · Annals o f the As so c i a t i on of American -
Geograph ers 53 . (1963)., pp' , 4 9 4 ~Soii. . ' .
. ?" 58E: '~' Ev~ns, . Iril>hoFolk ways:' (Lo n do n: Routledge
"and Regan Paul . 1957)'; J ; Ge,ral nt Jenkins, The Eng lish , F arm
j. ~~~it~:~~~~~n:~r~~~tr~a~;~~S~~s(i.o~:~~~: tu~~~~~~t
a nd Kegan P<!: ul, 196 5). George, Ewart Eva",s~ ' Where Be<l.rds .
- Wa g All ( Lo M on; -Fab e r an d ,Fab e r , 1 ~ 7 0 h A i so see.
Alexander Fenton,"Matetial" Culture a s an Aid , t ,o Lo c a l'
History , Studies i n Scotland," Jou r nal of ' the Folklore
I~ I nstitute 2 ' (1965 )'. pp ~ 326 "- ,339; sJ, g urd En xo ll'\ ' Europea n
:~~~li: 'i n Our Time, " Ethnologia Europaea '1 ~ 1 967 ) ,. '

59Ge~rqe Ewa~~ ' ~vans, P~ l'B ~ '

. . ' 60 Hen r y ' Gla~ ~ ie ; tI Arc ha e o l o gy ' ~~d F~i~lore : .common
· ,An)t i e t i e s , .c c eeeon Values, " , in Hi s to r i c a l · lIr ChaeO!09 ,. a nd the
~:sI~~~~no~~~~=:r~~~:~;r~s Th: So~;~~df~~r~~:~~ri~~cIal .
d \
:~~h~~t ~~gy , ~':"15), pp- . ' 2~-36 •. .-~ l'S.O see Glass,ie ,. Pattern,

fiiG l aSsic , . "~~~.ieolci9Y ' " ' P ' 32 ~ " . •

" 162Tristram Coffin a pd H~ri:igCohen , . ~~lklore fro m
t he Workin g Fo lk o f Amer ica , (Ga r d e n City , New York:
, DoUbl ed a y ,. ,19 7 3)-; ' Edwa r d ,.D ., rves , La r r y Gorman: ' Th e Man
Who MAde the So n qs ' (BI OO/Ili n g t on : ' . indl.an.a unl.versl.tY ,Pres s,

( Ur b ana , ,Il linOi S :, univer~ ~t~ ,:Of Ilh.~Ol.p Press,'

~§641-! ,Ed,wa r d D. rve e ,' Joe Scott : " . The · Woodsm anSonqrnaker
19 79);., .
.
;

fi3E~~ard ' ~~. .I~'B ' "·Ar gyle .BoOm :~ Nort~~ast ' Fo l k l o r e
( 1~ 7fi)~ ~pecial' .~~ <-~ •. : r, ' . .,:,' ,: ',
. ~ Bruce Nickerson. "IB'l'he.z:e.a :Folk i n t he ,Fac t o r y ? "
,J e u r n,at of ~~lcan .Fo 1 k 1~ re B 7. (l9 7~l, ' , ~ P .. 13 3~(~39. ~ .'
· . , fi5De 11 HY~S f "The' ,EthnograPhy o ( ~peaki~.g , ""i n
' An t h r o pol o gy and Human Behavior, .-eds·., 't . ·Gladwin and "
.:-. w.1111aiD1itur tevant ·,( W'a s bl.o g &ln , D'. C .:, . The ' Anthropolo9ic...1:

j "':":".:',:.;
· .s o cie tY , of :Washington .: 1962) , p p . ' 1 3- 5 3 . , Also see Dell
Hymef!~" ,~ The Con tributiWis of . Folklore "t o Sdciolinguistic ',

. c;' • .Rese~.rch . , pp-, ,4 2- 51 , Ric ha rd Ba~s. "DiffareiHal

f
 .,I
.-._------- !
270

Id~ty an d the, s o d al n e ee of FOlklore ; - . pp . , 31:"'42 ; a'nd

Roge r D . ' Abrahams, "Personal' Powe r a nd Soci a l Restr a i nt . d n
~~s~~~ ~~~=~~~no~oi~i~;~~e~~l~p~;I~; ~ P:;:d~: ' ~~tt~~C~:~d
Ba uman (Au st 1n: . On .tv o r s L tiy 'o f .,Te xa s ..P res s. 1 9 72 ).
. 66Hy-~es , "Contr,ibut i ons. " p • 4'3 .

6 71'a trick J;l. ' Mu'lle n , I Heard the Old FJ,s he rmeg , Say :
i-~~~;oP~e~; , t~; ,~j~aS GUlf Coast (Aushn: umver.s i ~Y ~ f .

68Mui len , ·p .: .1 49 .

.' ~9'~rO~i91aw' M<ili~owski, .Magic. Scie n c e and Reli~i.pn/ .\- I,

an d o the r 'Es s a y s (Garde n Ci ty , New, Yo r k : Doubled ay , ,194 .
[Rep rin t o f The wre e P ress ; 194 8 ] 1, p , 1 40 : . :
'70Be ve rl Y J " Stoe ttje , " Rode o' a s Sy mb olic Perform-
an ce,". un p ubl i s he d ·Ph . D. . d Ls se r t.a t Lon , Uni ve r s i ty, o f Te x as
at Austi n , . 1979 . ' . .
7lCamill a: : colli~s', "~entY-F.ou r' ~· a ec ae n . . '. .'
occu pa t '1 o n a l Fe:tl klore i n a Hoos i er}' Mi ll,- unp ub l i shed ,.l~h.D .
di SSe ~\tatiO n ' ,~ n ~i~na u.n:i.ve r s ~ Ey , 197..8 ~ .) -. .
" 7 2J a c k sant~o, "T h e Ou tlaw Emotions : ' Worker ' s
' ,, ~: .
\.
Narr a t ives , f r o m Thre e ' c.o ntemPCl r~ ry oc o upat.Lorrs , - . UOlJ.b-
. ~i~~~~d i~~~,' s~;s;:~~a~~~~in~~f~~~:;:~t~;i~~~~:Y~~~~~~pa_
ti ona l 'N ~rrati ve, ';. in Work i ng Americans : ' Con t cmpo r a r r . "
. ApprQac h~s ' t o Occu pa tio na ! Folkil.fe ', ed . ,' Robe rt II. Byl ng ton , . 1
(Wash 1n gton , D .C . : Smithso nl an I ns t i t u tio n. Folk l ife ' ' ..
S t ud i e s NUmb,et 3, . 197 11); p p . 57 - 71.
. .. 73toii chae i ·;." Bell , · R'~ no ing, Ra b bits a ~d 'Ta lk i ng ' ;,

~~~~~ii:~~~r:0 :o~~~;~,:~~~~n~nu~tv~, ~ ~f~/i~c~~~~~;~vania:,

1 9 75 • . Al s o s ee Mic h a e l J . Bel l .. ' 6Te nd i ng Bar 'a t Br pwn' s:
occupa t iona l .Ro le , a s Ar t isti c 'Perf ot~anc e , " . We s tern Folklo te
35. (197 6) , pp . ·9 3- 1 0 7. .

• I .. . 74~g~1'. ~~a'h ams. ''' To~,a r~s a SOci~lo~icai. Th'e~ry

of F,!lklore : Performi .ng S e rv i ce ~, " i n Wo r k ing Amer i cans ; .
pp . 26- 2 7 . . .

' . 7Swiiiiarn N ica"J,a~sen , "~Th'e M~ PPin9 o r. Fol k ,Cul t u r e '

a:sApp li ed Folklore," Fo lklore Forum, Bi ~li o gr a phi c and '
Spec;~ a"~ .Serie s 0 ,.(19 71) , pp. 2~ - 2 } . ', ' ~

76i:>a vid HUffo rd '" '; s~me ' APpr()a~hes ' t o ' th~' 'A PPJ i"Cation~
of Folklore. S t u d i es , Folklore ' Fo r um, Bibliogr aphi c and
M

Speci a,lSeries 8 (1 97 11, .pp . 6 7 ~ .

L:,' , I