The Statesman's Year-Book - Statistical and Historical Annual of The States of The World For The Year 1960 PDF

TllE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
I9 60
NINETY·SEVENTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION
THE
s'rATESMAN'S
"iEAR-BOOK
STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL ANNUAL OF
'j'HE STATES OF THE WORLD
FOR THE YEAR
19 60
EDITED BY
S. H. STEINBERG, PH.D.
FELLOW or TBB ROT AL IIISTORICAL 80CIETT
NINETY·SEVENTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION.

REVISED AFTER OFFICIAL RETURNS
LONDON
MACMILLAN & CO I.TD
SEW YORK • ST MARTIN'S PRESS
1960
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ISBN 978-0-230-27089-3 (eBook)

DOl 10.1057/9780230270893
DOI
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PREFACE
IN thc present, the 97th, issue ofTIIE STATESMAN'S YEAR·BoOK informa·
tion has again been brought up to the latest available eate. Major or minor
improvements will, it ie hoped, be found in virtu80Ily evory scction.
Officiala, gov"rnmentdep8ortments and members ofthe diplomatic services
of almoKt evcry (ouJltry, 80S weIl aB numeroua international organizations 80nd
individual frienc.s of tbo YEAB.BoOK all over thc world. havo once moro
helped the editc,r in rus task. To aII of them he wishes to exprcss his
sincerest thanks for their generous co.operation.
S.R.S.
TIIE STATESM1.N'S YEA.U·BoOK OJ'li'ICE,
MAcHILr,l,N & Co., LTD.,
ST Mm1'IN'S STREET,
LONDON, W.C,:!.
13 April 1960.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
On 1 .Tan. 1960 foll owing an agreement between the standards labora·

tories o f Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and
t.hc U.S.A. , an internat.ional yard and an international p ound (avoirdupois)
came illto existence. ] y ard = 9] '44 centime!.l·es; 1 ]b. = 453'59237
gralllmcs. The new scientific standards have 110 stahl tory force in Great
Britain .
LENOTH DRY MEASURE

Centimetrc 0·394 inch Litre 0'91 quart
Metre . 1'094 yards Hectolitre 2·75 bushels
Kilometre 0·621 mile
WEIOHT - .. A vomDUPOIS
Gramme 15·42 grains
LIQUID MBASURB Kilogrammc. 2·205 pounds
Quintal ( ,~
Litre . 1·76 pints 100 kg)
Hectolitre . . 22 gallons 220·46 pounds
Metric ton ( ,.0 { 0·984 long ton
1,000 kg) 1·102 short tons
S URFACE MEASURE WEIOHT-1'ROY
Square metre 10'76 sq. feet Gramme 15·43 grains
Hectare . . 2·47 acres '1 {32'15 ounces
Square kilometre. 0·386 sq. ruile KI ogramme . 2.68 pounds
BRITISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
LENOTH WEIOHT
I foot. . 0·305 metre 1 ounce (=
1 yard . . 0·914 metre 437·2 grains) 28'350 grammes
I mile (= llb. (= 7,000
1,760yds.) 1·609 kilometres grains) 453·6 grammes
1 cwt. ( = 11 2
Ib.) . 50·802 kilo·
grammes
llongton(=
2,240Ib.) 1 0' 16 metric tons
hhortton(=
SURFACE MEASURE
2,000 Ib.) 0·907 metric ton
I sq. foot 9 ·290 sq. decimetres LIQUID MEASURR
I 8q. yard . 0·836 sq. metre 1 pint 0'568litre
I a cre . . 0·405 hectare 1 gallon 4'546 litres
I sq. mile . 2·589 sq. kilometres I quarter 2·909 hectolitres
CONTENTS
ADDENDA xiv
COMPARATlVE STATISTICAL TABLES-
PAGE PAGE
WHEAT xv POTATOES. xxi
RTE xvi SUGAB xxii
BAllLEY xvii COTTON xxiii
OATS . xviii PETROLEUM xxiv
MAlZE. xix LIll'lIi INsUR"'N~E xxvi
RIeE . xx
PART I
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
THE UNITED NATIONS-
MEMBERSHIP .
GENERAL ASSEIlBI,y
SECURITY Cou:rCIL • . 2
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNClL 3
TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL • 4
INTERNATIONAL COURT Olr JUSTICE 5
RIGH COJI[MISSIONER FOR HElruGEES 7
SECRETARllT • 8
BUDGET. . 8
AGENCIES IN RELATIONS HIP WITH THE U.N.- 9
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY II
INTERNATIONlL LABOUR ORGANISATION (I.L.O.) 12
FOOD AND AORICULTURE ORGANIZATION (F.A.O.) • 13
EDUCATIONAI,. SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAI, OBGANI7.ATION 13
WORLD REAI,TH ORGANIZATION • 14
INTERNATIONlL MONE"l'ABY F U N D . . 15
INTERNATIONU- BANK FOR RECONSTBUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT }9
INTERNATION.u. FINANCE CORPORATION . ~O
INTBRNATION.~L CIVIL AVIATlON ORGANIZATION 20
UNIVERSAL FOSTAL UNION. • • • 21
INTERNATION.U. 1'lu.ECOJI[MUNICATION UNION. 21
WOBLD MET1:OROLOOlCAL ORGANIZATlON •. 21
INTERGOVEB!rMENTAL MABITIME CONSULTATIVE OBGANIZATION 22
OTHER INTER;~ATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS-
WOBLD CoU~'CIL OF ÜBURCHES • • • 23
INTERNATlON.u. CO·OPERATION ADMINISTRATION 26
G.A.T.T. 27
O.E.E.C.. ••• . 2(1
NORm ATLA)~TIC TBEATY OBOANlZATION 31
WESTERN EUROPEAN UNION. 33
COUNCIL Oi' :8:UROPJC • 34
EUROPEAN COlll:MUNITIES • • 36
EUROPEAN Fl~EE TRADE ASSOCIATION 38
CoLOMBO PLI.N. • • 39
Soum·EAST .~SIA DEFENCE 'fREUT 41
CENTBAL 1'In:ATY ORGANlZATION . 42
OBGANIZATlOli Olr AMERICAN STATES 43
ABAB LEAOUll 45
viii CONTENTS
PART II
THE nlUTISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
H.M. TH1<J QUEEN
PAGE
49
I ASIA (cont.)- PAGE
PAKISTAN. 199
THE BRITISH COMMON-
WEALTH OF NATIONS 51 Prov',lces-
Federal Capital 205
1'nE UNITED KmGDOM 53 West l'akislaa 205
Er.st r alu~ta.n 208
GRllAT BRITA.IN 53
CJJ:Y'LON 209
NORTHERN lRELAND . 120
FlI:DERA'rION Olr M"'I•.\ Y A 217
I SLE Oll MAN 130
ADEN 224
CIlANNEI. ISLANDB 131 BOHN&O 228
GIBRAI.TAR 135 NOR'rH BORNEO 228
BRUNEI 231
MALTA 13ll SA.RAWAE: 232
Asa CYl'RUS 234
Ho NO KONO 240
INDIA 140
M.u.DIVE ISLANIlS 244
S/ates 166 SINGAPORE 245
Andhra Pradesh . 167
As~am 169 AFRlCA-
Bibar 171 UNION OF SOU1'H AFRlCA 249
Eombay 173 CAPE OF GOOD HOFE 265
JamIßu and Kashmir 175 NA'rAL . 267
Kerala. 177 TRANSV.UL • 269
Madhya Pradcsh 179 ORANGE FREE STATE 272
Madrns 181 SOU'l'H-WES'r AFBlCA 274
Mysore 183 FEDERATlON 01" RHODESIA
Ori~a 185 A...... D NYASALAND 278
Punjab 187 SOUTBERN RHODESIA 285
Hajasthan . 189 NOBTHERN RHODESIA 289
LI ttar Pradesh 190 NYASALAND • 291
West Bengal 192 GHANA 294
TerritoriC8 BRITIS!! SOUTlI Annc.!. 300
Andnman & Nicohar Is. 194 BASUTOLAND 301
Delhi 195 BECHUANALAND 303
Rimachal Prndesb 196 SWAZILAND • 306
Laccadive Is. 196 BBITISH EAST AFIilCA
Manipur 197 HIGH CO?tDlISSION • 309
Pondichorry 197 KENYA 314
Tripura 198 TANGANYIKA 319
Protcclorate UGANDA 324
Sikkim 198 ZANZIBAR 328
CONTENTS ix
'&GI'l PAQ.
AFRICA (cont .)- AMERWA (cont. )-
MAURITIUS 332 BERMUDA . 443
SEYCHELLES 335 BRITISH GUUNA 446
SOMALILANJI 337 BBITISH HONDC"1lAS 450
BRITISH WES'!' A~RWA 339
FALKLAND I SLA.NDs 453
NIGERIA 340
CAMEBOOJ:S 347
GAMBIA 348 OCEANlA-
SIERRA LEONE 351 AUS'!'I!.ALlA 454
ST HEI..ENA 356 AUSTBALlAN CAPITM.
TBBl.1lTORY 482
AMBBICA-
NEW SOUTH W AI.ES 483
CANADA 358 VICTOI!.IA 493
Provincu 385 QUEENSLAND • 500
NEWTOUNDLAND 386 SOUTH AUSTBAI.IA • 506
PRiNCE EDWARD ISLAND 391 WESTERN AUSTRALlA 513
NOVA SCOTU 393 TASMANlA 520
NEW BRUNSWIQX 397
NOI!.THEBN 'fEruUTOIlY 524
QUEßEC 399
P.-I.PUA AN)) NEW GUINJU 528
ONT..ffiIO 402
MANITOBA 406 NEW ZEALAND 1i33
SASiUTCHEWAN 408 WESTZBN SAMOA 555
ALBBBTA 411 NAUEU 557
BRITISH COI UMBU 414 FIJI. 559
YUKON 417
WESTERN P ACIFIC Hran
NOI!.'.rHWEST TEI!.I!.ITORIES 418
ComussloN 564
GILBEI!.T A~]) Er.I.ICE
THE WES'!' IN DIES 420
I SLANDs 1165
BARBADOS 423
SOLOllO~ Isr,ANDs 567
J AMAICA 425
NEW HEBRIDES CONDO·
Tl!.llaDAD 430
LEEWARD AND " ' IND-
lUNIUM 568
wAlm ISLANDs 434 TONGA ISLAN DS 570
BARAMAS 441 PITC.A.IBN ISLAN D 571
X CONTENTS
PART UI
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

rAGE P~GB
UNITED STATES 575 UNITED STATES (cont.)-

States- States-
ALABAMA 640 NEW JERSEY 720
ALASKA 643 Nxw MEXICO 723
ARIZONA 647 NEW YOBK • 726
ABKANSAS 649 NORTH CAROLINA 730
CALlFORNlA 651 NORTH DAKOTA 733
COLOBADO 655 Omo 735
CONNECTlCUT 658 OKLAHOMA 738
DELAWARE 661 OBEOON 741
DISTRICT OF COr.UMRIA 663 PENNSYLVANLA 744
FLORIDA 665 RHoDE ISLAND 747
GEOBOIA 667 SOUTH CAROLINA 749
HAWAII 670 Soum DAKOTA 752
IDAHO . 673 TENNESSEF. 754
ILLINOIS 676 TExAs. 757
INDIANA 67!l UTAH 760
IOWA 681 VERMONT 763
KANSAS 684 VmOlNLA 765
KENTUCKY 687 W ASlllNOTON • 768
LOUISlANA 689 WEST VmOINIA 771
lIIAINE . 692 WISCONSIN 773
MARYLAND 69'! WYOMINO 776
MASSACHUSETTS ß!)7
MICillOAN 700 OutlyinU Territories--
MINNESOTA 703
PUERTO RICO 779
MISSISSrPPl 706 Vmom ISLANDS 782
MISSOURI 708 GUAM • 784
MONTANA 711 SAMOA. 786
NEBBASKA 713
NEvADA 716 Trust Territory . 788
NEW HAMPSBlRII: 718 Pacific Islands . 789
PART IV
OTHER COUNTRIES
A}I'GHÄNISTAN
PAGR
793
I ANDORRA.
rAGII
803
ALBA.1o{IA • 799 ARGENTINA 804
CONTENTS xi
PAGB PAOE
AUSTRIA. 816 FRENCH COMMUNITY (cont.)-
BELGIUM . 822 Comoro Archipelago . 1013
CONGO 833 St Pierre and Miquelon 1014
RUANDI·URUNllI 837 Antarctic Territories 1015
Wallis and Futuna 10](;
BHUTAN 839
BOLIVIA 840 MEMBER STATES-
BRAZIL 847 Central African Re·
public 1016
BULGARIA 859
Congo 1016
BURMA 867 1017
Ivory Coast
CAMBODIA 874 Dahomey. 1018
CHILE 878 Gabon 1019
CHINA 888 Upper VoJt.a 1020
TAIWAN 898 Madagascar 1021
Mauritania. 1025
COLOMBIA 901
Niger 1025
COSTA RICA 910 1026
Senegal
CUBA 916 Sudan 1027
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 923 Chad. 1028
DENMARK 932 Former Trusteeship Terri.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 945 tories-
Togoland . 1029
ECUADOR 951
Cameroon . 1030
EL SALVADOR 958
J<~THIOPIA 963 Condmninium--
FINLAND. 969 New Hebrides 1032
FRENCH COMMUNITY 978 GERMANY 1032
FRENCH REPUJ:LW 979 FEDERAL REPUBLIC. 1032
ALGERIA • 1000 DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC 1063
GREECE 1068
Oversetl8 Departl'/l.€nt3-
GUATEMALA 1077
Martinique. 1004
GUINEA 1083
Guadeloup<' 1005
Reunion 1007 HAITI 1085
Gnio.na 1008 HONDURAS 1090
Overseas Territories- HUNGARY 1095
French Polynesia 1009 ICELAND. 1104
New Caledonia 1010 INDONESIA lllO
French SO['Ialiland 1012 IRAN 1118
::ru CONTENTS
PAOIt nOR
IRAQ 1129 POLAND 1327
IRISH REPUBLIC 1137 PORTUGAL 1336
ISRAEL 1152 OVERSEAS TmmITORIE3 1347
ITALY 1161 RIDU,)lIA. 1:154
JAPAN 1176 SAK MARIKO 1361
JORDAN 1187
SAUDI ARABIA 1362
KOI{'EA 1190
SOMAUA 1367
LAOS 1196
SPAIN 1368
LEBANON 1199
COI.ONIltS 1381
LIBERIA J205
SUDAN 1382
LIBYA J210
LIECHTENSTEIN 1215 SWEDEN 1389
LUXEMBOURG. 1217 SWITZERLAND J405
MEXICO 1221 THAILAND 1417
:lroNACO 1231 1425
TIBET
MONGOLIA 1232
TUNISIA 1428
MOROCCO. 1235
MUSCAT AND OMAN 1241 TURKEY 1432
NEPAL 1243 U.S.S.R. 1445
NETHERLANDS 1246 RUSSll 1474
OYEItSlUS PARTS 1259 UKJlA.I .~b . 1484
NICARAGUA 1266 l\YELORIJSSIA 1487
NORWAY. 1272 AzmmAIJAN 1489
DKPEN OENCIES 1283 GEORGIA 1492
PANAMA 1287 ARMENIA . H95
PANAMA CANAL ZONE 1293
MOI.~)AVH. 141)7
PARAGUAY 1295 ESTONIA . 1498
PERSIAN GULF STATES. 1302 LATVIA 1500
KUWAIT. 1302
BAHRAIN 1304
LITHUL\1I1A 1502
QATAll 1306 CE);TRAL ASIA 1504
Tm;cIAL ST~TgS 1307 ICaZ!lkhstan 1505
PEIW 1308 Tnrkrllenistan 1508
PHILIPPINES 1319 Uzbckistan 1510
CONTF;NTS XIII
P~GK I'MIR
U.S.S.R. (conl.)- URUGUAY 15:l;";
Tadzhikislan 1;'13 VATICAN CITY STATE 154:!
Kirghizin 151ii VENEZUELA 1547
lJNITED ARABCtE PUBLIC J51 i VIETNAM. 15M;

EOYP1'lAN RllGlUN 151!) YEME~ 1564
SYRIAN I~llnlOH 1530 l:uGO~LA VIA 1565
INDEX 157[,
MAPS
SINGAPORE AND FEDERATION 01' MALAYA
WOR LD RE~'UGEE YEAR
ADDENDA
PA.GB
209. CEYLON. The elections held on 19 March 1960 returned the following
House of Representatives: 50 United National Party (leader,
Dudley Senanayake), 46 Sri Lanka Freedom Party, 15 Tamil
Federal Party, 10 People's United Front (leader, Philip Guna.
wardena), 10 Equality Party (leader, Dr N. M. Perera), 4 Ceylon
Democratic Party (leader, W. Dahanayake), 3 Communist Party
(leader, Pieter Keuneman), 13 others.
A minority cabinet of the United National Party was sworn in on
23 March. Prime Minister, Externa.l Affairs and Defence: D.
Senanayake.
217. MALAYA. The Yang di·Pertuan Agong, Tuanku Sir Abdul Rahruan
ibni Al·marhum Tuanku Muhammad, Yang di·Pertuan Besar of
Negri SembiIan, died on 1 April 1960. On 5 April, his eldest son,
'l'unku Laksamana Munawir, was proclaimed ruler of Negri
Sembilan.
804. AROENTINA. At the elections held during the last week of March
1960 the Intransigent (Government) Radicals polled 1·78m. votes,
the People's Radicals 2·06m., the Conservatives 842,000, the
Christian Democrats 345,000, the 2 Socialist groups 640,000, the
Progressive Democrats 240,000; 2·09m. voting papers were de·
clared blank or invalid.
1163. ITALY. The Cabinet Tambroni resigned on 11 April 19{)0.
xiv
WHEAT
Area (1.000 bectar...) Production (1.000 metrio tons)
.A_age .Arnaqe .A.,..ag. .Awrage
Count.rl... 1934-38 1948-51t 1956 1957 1958 J93l--J8 1948~2 1966 1957 1958
Algeri& 1,600 1,597 2.004 1,921 1,780 952 996 1.536 1,359 1.129
Argentina 6,783 4,487 5.392 4,394 5,242 6,634 6,175 7,100 5.810 6.720
Austmlia 5,253 4,620 3.186 3,581 4,128 4.200 6,161 3,659 2,655 6,794
Bulg&ria' 1,363 1,416 1,375 1,439 1.439 1,700 1,760 1,717 2,395 2,328
Canada 10,134 10,513 9,219 8,546 8,457 7,170 13,472 15,596 10,492 IO,ll7
Chile . 800 791 766 807 874 861 942 988 1.214 1,178
....n.. ! __ "._!_1_.~..J\ 1 ,.., ...,. ... ,,,
va..a.u..ac. \.£U.Q.lJ...U.Q.uu/- ""J.,"''''-- ",u,,t..)~ Zi,UVG 27,570 20,730 22,763 £Y 15,915 24,&vv 23,650
Czechoslov&k.i& 882 785 722 742 738 1,613 1,493 1,641 1,525 1,346
Egypt 588 605 660 636 599 1,18i 1.113 1,547 1,467 1,412
France 6,224 4,264 2,745 4,668 4.615 8,143 7,791 5,683 lI,082 9,601
Morocco 1,283 1,220 1,455 1,432 1,681 631 738 1,055 745 1,238
Germany (West) . 1,136 1,013 1,153 1,221 1,303 2,505 2,656 3,487 3,843 3,693
Greece 841 878 1,062 1,089 1,112 756 894 1,245 1.720 1,787
Hungary 1,589 1,385 1,389 1,247 1,188 2,220 1,909 1,845 1,959 1,487
~ Indi& 10,802 9,290 12,367 13,689 11,857 7,411 6,087 8,760 9,463 7,865
Iran 1,552 • 2,080 1 2,900 1,869 • 1,860 1 2,700 2,800 2,700
Iraq. 661 936 1,314 1,456 1,532 478 448 776 1,ll8 754
Italy. 6,ll6 • 4,705 4,877 4,911 4,838 7,551 • 7,170 8,684 8,478 9,815
Japan 684 743 667 615 595 1,288 1,375 1,375 1,330 1,261
Pakistan 3.766 • 4,218 4,559 4,743 4,609 3,183 • 3,682 3,392 3.664 3,601
Poland 1,343 1,464 1,464 1,441 1,474 1,966 1,833 2,121 2.319 2,322
Portug&l 502 689 756 814 836 477 499 558 797 815
Rumania 2,537 2,728 2,894 2,968 2.973 2.600 2,778 2,436 3,701 2,914
Spain ' 4,591 7 4,156 4,413 4,392 4,379 4,392 7 3,622 4,207 4,911 4,550
Tunisia 750 917 1,188 1,295 1,283 386 452 477 498 544
Turkey 6 3,303 4,770 7,458 7,275 7,569 3,510 4,771 6,510 8,419 8,671
Union of S. Africa 2 827" 952 1,121 1,319 1,167 427" 658 830 788 657
U.K .. 754 881 928 855 894 1,743 2,397 2,891 2,726 2,755
U.S.A. 22,431 27,766 20,147 17,727 21.612 19,476 31,066 27,332 25,873 39,782
U.S.S.R.· . 40,986 42,633. 62,000 69,100 66,600 38,143 35,767 8 67,400 58,100 76,600
YugoaIavi& ' 2,167 1 1,819 1,624 1,974 1,994 2,467 1 2,171 1,603 3,103 2,453
World tot&l (excl.
U.S.S.R.) • 127,900 133,200 137,300 137,600 140,600 129,400 140,100 168,700 163,200 180,000
'Unomclalligureo. • On farms and estates only. • Including al80 all otber coontrl... not listed above. • 2·year average. • Include.opelt •
• 1988-at. ' ItU-56. • '·year average. • 1857-38. ,. 1931-37 • 11 Inalad.......tlmate ror .pelt. .. ltSG.
p<
RYE ~.
MeR (1 ,000 !:eet,.:-",) Production (1 /~IOO metric tons)
A.vuQ:{7t! .."..t't-ragt At'tragt At'eragf
Countrlr.$i 193/-38 19J5-52 19,56 1957 1955 19J4-38 1948-52 1956 195~ }gS S
Argentina 434 717 !,~~O 893 1,064 25,1 526 880 6:;0 817
Austria 367 230 2 14 2lO 206 539 :>43 4:S4 400 3n7
Belgium 178 85 68 66 69 424 222 196 190 ~OO j
Bulgaria 263 2:::6 J43 133 112 267 2,10 133 130 102 ~
Canada 297 5.55 2~1 223 211 180 4fj3 218 217 ~O:{ rn
Czechoslovakia 078 638 51:; 519 4~)S 1,56S 1,1IO 1,050 94S H37 ~
~
Denma.rk 147 104 109 lIB 123 26:! 365 29 1 313 306 >-!
Finland 212 1 133 E:g 85 76 34.0 1 201 1:!4 115 III M
m
France 663 4G6 371 3!H 347 'l6ll 573 471 481 430 E::
Germ:my (East) 1,209 1,2f>2 1,1I0 1,O()8 1,094 2,0711 2,516 2,29fl 2,~31 ~,3ti8 !>-
Z
Germany (West) 1,666 1,3i5 ],483 1,<i65 l A:.!3 3,081 3,lH:! 3, 73G 3,SW 3.7:!~~l
':.J.
Hungary 631 591 441 421 376 6!l7 '/31 494 487 37 1
t ~
Italy . 102 ' 97 73 71 GS 1::18 123 105 U~ 10::; ~
N'etherlandg 218 176 171 157 145 496 455 492 458 4~7 :>
Poland 5,352 5,063 4,964 5,06ll 5,213 6,85-1 6,374 6,558 7,.137 7,329 ~
Portugal 141 264 251 255 ~53 106 162 17J 203 :208 ~
1,10 0
Rumania 179 l S4 172 155 WG I G:! 136 152 1:2'1 0
Spain 593 ' 622 607 570 554 65! 3 4S:! 511 496 5 15 :.;
~ 1#\ 11;:, !)2
Sweden -.'> J28 123 409 258 267 ~30 J70
Turkey 353 49:1 6," )
,,~ 6;,5 6(j;; 338 500 56ft 700 800 ;C
V.S.A. 1,343 686 657 677 717 1,028 524 537 (;92 818 "";:;
V.S.S.R. :!5,870 23,544 :. 18,4.89 18,lCO 5 17,700 25,500
Yugoslavia 2M ~69 !?52 256 ~48 208 248 205 280 :>1l
World totd (elCcl. --------
V.S.S.R.) . l6,OOO 14,750 !4, J50 1:.1.800 1-1.000 21 ,000 19,900 20,100 20,950 20,D50
1 Unofficial flguru. ' 1936-39. • lnl-3~. • 3~year aTer9ge • I \Vintcr rye.
BARLEY
Area (1,000 hectares) Production (1,000 metric tou..)
Af'erag~ A,·erag. A'i.ltrav~ Average
Countries 1934--38 1048-OZ 1956 1957 1958 1934-38 1U8-52 1906 1957 1968
Algeria 1,243 1,166 1,384 1,276 1,201 704 808 1,023 616 780
Argentina 536 540 1,012 833 897 503 656 1,364 1,010 1,050
Austrnlia 232 455 847 858 931 219 531 1,118 691 1,349
Bulgaria 281 236 259 253 259 365 332 343 478 442
Canada 1,677 2,870 3,395 3,805 3,864 1,764 4,282 5,858 4,703 5,329
AP.Q (U7f\ ,~~o 1 lOO. 1 AA/! 1 Ano 1 "~'l 1 10(\ 0
Czechc~!a~t!l!:!~ 653 60U _vv v.v vvv .. , ... vv ..l,V".lr.V ","Jtvu ..l,vv.w ",,"""0 C.
Denmark 370 495 648 691 721 1,103 1,709 2,402 2,560 2,486 a::
Ethiopin. 600 600 510 500
1<'rance 2,283
742 1,643
954 1,782 1,074 1,534 6,413 3,626 3,892 ~
Germr.ny (East) 322 259
321 337 593 834 897 931 to>
~
Germany (West) . 809 851 872
584 878 1,699 1,397 2,310 2,504 2,414 .....
<:
Hungary 459 407 482
454 538 608 654 645 962 735 ~
India 2,(l(l9 3,4183,128
3,531 3,055 2,258 2,381 2,815 2,872 2,274 00
~
Iran 638 • 1,000 757 793 • 7671 1,000" 980 1 950" >-
Iraq. 743 1,171 93J
1,240 1,157 575 722 1,066 1,305 953 >-:l
......
Japan 764 978 982
\128 910 1,758 2,020 2,340 2,160 2,076 UJ.
Korea, South 790 624
815 775 594 837 720 714 j
867 • 862 • 0
Mexico 15:1 246 237
222 238 81 160 197 174 179 to>
Morocco 1,716 1,8641,856
1,561 1,812" 1,148 1,362 1,6:14 652 1,272" t"
Peru. 125 169 181170 182" 118 208 159 166 180 ' >-:l
Poland 1,040 777 836
777 742 1,632 1,061 1,131 1,227 1,210 ~
Rumania 831l 300 303
506 • 292 596 389 291 417 305 t"
t':l
Spain 1,895 ' 1,51l7 1,575 1,532 1,513 2,394 ' 1,909 1,551 1,881 1,778 Ci'J
Syria. 275 3GO 636 813 769 290 321 462 721 228
Tunisia 451 589 728 S08 718 1 167 218 156 185 282"
Turkey 1,775 1,972 2,612 2,630 2,700 1,931 2,270 2,900 3,650 3,600
U.K .. 374 818 941 1,062 1,115 782 2,060 2,845 3,004 3,221
U.S.A. 3,879 4,095 5,237 6,065 6,039 4,495 5,843 8,205 9,518 10,346
U.S.S.R. 10,690 8,407 8 11,872 9,200 9,600 10,250 ~
Yugoslavia 424 1 321 353 408 390 408 323 344 604 470 ~:
World total (excl. - - - - - - - - - - - -
U.S.S.R.) . 36,400 43,500 50,600 51,100 51,300 41,800 52,500 70,000 69,100 75,100
1 Unofficial figures. ' 1931-37. • 1937-89. • Average 1930, 1934 and 1936.
, 2-yea.r :lvern~. • 4-ycur n~er8ge . ' 193I-SG. 8 a-yea.r average.
OATS M
Area (1,000 bectareo) Production (1,000 metric toIll) S;
A"trat;t A •.,.agt A.t1'agt .dCtT(JIJe
Oountrle. 1934-38 1948-62 1956 1967 1968 1934-38 1948-52 1956 1957 1958
Argentina 794 634 956 876 7!l6 748 743 1,140 995 850
AU8tr&lia 635 842 1,034 1,197 1,538 308 560 642 510 1,308
AU8tria 289 203 187 184 178 438 275 374 340 333
Belgium 245 173 158 148 142 655 483 484 454 443
Ca.nada 5,437 4,623 4,738 4,458 4,467 5,018 6,328 8,088 5,870 6,183 &ii;I;I
China (Mainland) 2 1,302 • 2,010 2,050 2,030 2,030 1,104 • 1,490 1,610 1,690 4,980 tll
Czeoho81ovakia 748 609 539 536 507 1,212 961 1,034 899 871
Denmark 382 291 255 236 203 1,024 922 852 786 648 ~
>-3
Finland 435 464 414 442 718 659 698 798 i;I;I
417 • 654 • !ZI
France 3,278 2,355 2,277 1,608 1,487 4,572 3,393 4,604 2,579 2,637
Germany (Ea.st) . 545 448 455 427 1,188 1,112 999 1,143 ~
Germany (West.) . 1,405 1,121 951 905 827 2,843 2,500 2,452 2,228 2,149 Z
oo~
Hungary 219 177 118 172 173 270 213 176 267 192
Irish Republic 235 276 212 186 185 574 617 545 437 443 ~
i;I;I
Italy. 431 • 469 423 420 414 566 • 495 506 582 569
Netherlands 138 142 153 159 137 351 419 483 505 446 ~ I
Poland 1,952 1,710 1,595 1,738 1,709 2,830 2,240 2,259 2,541 2,669 b:j
Portugal 230 294 295 309 303 96 124 97 128 143 0
0
Rumania 675 506 8 340 352 311 528 367 305 392 250 J"I
Spain 776 • 623 617 586 579 670 • 510 452 535 519 ~
Sweden 664 494 535 515 532 1,257 804 1,133 847 894 co
Turkey 229 307 372 384 389 224 326 382 475 480 0
'"
U.K .. 089 1,254 1,042 954 901 2,019 2,866 2,538 2,191 2,184
U.S.A. 14,148 15,266 13,640 14,021 12,883 13,973 18,970 16,883 18,883 20,547
U.S.S.R. 19,970 16,726 ' 15,063 14,000 14,700 20,030
World total (exc!.
U.S.S.R.) . 38,100 37,100 35,100 34,500 33,100 45,100 49,100 50,500 47,800 53,200
• Inolndea miIM grain. ' Unomol ..llIfnmJ. • 1911-11. • 1931-S~. • 1938-19•
• '·y.. &r Average. ' l-y~&I' average. • "-year average.
MAIZE
Are.. (1,000 hectares) Produotion (1,000 metrlo tons)
.d._ago .d..ffllj/_ '&'.lI1'ag_ .d.OIIf'ag_
Oountrlee 11J31-38 1948-1i2 1966 1967 1968 1931-38 1948-1iZ 1956 1967 1958
Argentina . 4,362 1,696 1,958 2,448 2,361 7,892 2,509 2,698 4,806 4,932
Brazil 4,092 4,786 6,095 5,790 6,081 3 5,677 5,916 7,763 7,370 7,737 3
Bulgaria 811 737 791 759 697 913 782 1,056 1,492 872
China (Mainland) 3 6,041 • 9,500 9,600 9,600 9,600 8,504' 13,340 13,850 23,480 30,980
Colombia. 55-1 687 802 515 a 705 3 496 735 741 720 3 800 3 c:l
.. "'flO .. "n.o .. n_~ 0
F!'!:ne~ 3~2 32'i 653 "AA U~~
"',,-. ".V(.IV
AA", J.,VIi)
...."" .l.,'"'' J.,""M .... ~
Ghana 142 143 170 252 168 169 169 183 "'d
Greece 256 243 228 216 207 246 225 238 265 224 b>-
:xl
Hungary 1,156 1,166 1,162 1,346 1,304 2,306 2,068 2,034 3,233 2,833 b>-
..,
India 2,970 3,349 3,722 3,974 4,174 2,210 I 2,165 3,057 3,085 3,038
Indonesia. 2,048 • 2,020 7 2,232 2,087 2,737 1,978 • 1,536 • 1,965 1,860 2,618 <
tzj
Italy. 1,458 ' 1,253 1,254 1,251 1,218 2,960 • 2,306 3,410 3,496 2,674
00
Mexico 2,976 4,101 5,460 5,392 6,348 1,665 3,090 4,382 4,500 5,154
Morocco 435 518 473" 453 3 478 3 216 302 262 3 20P 279 3 ..,~
Pakistan 321}l 393 434 433 461 364 1 384 456 449 473 >-<
00
Peru 280 257 234 235 235 3 452 276 265 271 290 3 ..,....
Philippines 695 969 1,787 1,716 1,381 427 696 895 856 852 c:l
Portugal 410 489 487 483 479 293 393 449 427 425
Rumania 3,879 • 3,089 3,571 3,722 3,645 4,032 • 2,369 3,932 6,338 3,657
Southern Rhodesia 2 139 141 138 326 318
150 167 343
..,~b>-
b:j
Spain 435 • 334 369 376 389 709 • 520 714 771 916 t""
Turkey 448 598 721 709 690 587 747 858 750 900 t:l
00
Union of S. Africa • 2,357 2,811 3,259 3,382 3,573 1,995 2,453 3,926 3,343 3,599
United Arab Republic. 684 781 753 829 1,409 1,667 1,513 1,768
U.S.A. 37,831 33,496 30,608 29,386 29,674 53,066 81,971 87,768 86,931 96,546
U.S.S.R. 4,348 4,259 7 9,300 5,800 8,100 4,648 5,733 7 12,500 7,000 16,700
Venezuela. 263 310 474 283 297 361 355 350 340 358
Yugoslavia 2,655 2,294 2,570 2,590 2,390 4,691 3,078 3,370 5,660 3,950
World total (exel.
U.S.8.R.) 84,900 86,400 90.800 89,400 91,700 110,300 138,600 158.0()0 173.700 188,600 e1.
M
1 1936-58. • On t..nns and .. tatet only. • Unofficlalllgure3. • 1931-36. I 1931-37.
• 1948. ' 3-year averaae. • liSe-SIl. I Jav .. and Madnra only.
RICE (Paddy) M
M
Ar .. (1,000 hectares) Production (1,000 roetrlo toWl)
Aflt,age A1)t1a9~ AfJ~ralJe Averagt
Ooon~rI .. 1934-38 1948-52 1956 1957 1958 1934--38 1918-52 1956 1957 1958
Brazil 956 1,927 2,525 2,543 2,5H, 1,365 3,025 4,151 3,988 3,829
Burma 4,931 3,758 4,048 3,868 ::I,fl9S 6,971 548 6,464 5,231 6,590
Cambodia. . 781 1,127 " 1,250 1,260 1,217 767 1,372 '0 1,530 1,410 1,153 .-i
Ceylon 344 439 ' 426 4tH 5{)2 340 572 7 .561 658 763 o:r:
China (Mainland) 1 20,000 26,500 33,300 32,100 33,000 50 .476 ' 5G,OOO H:! ,400 86,600 117,OOO :'1
India. 23,741 • 30,092 32,099 32,151 33,018 32,~nfi t! 33,383 43,104 37,926 45,297 u;
Indonesia. ..;
3,843" 5,876 • 6,702 G,798 6,916 G,OS] " fl,44! ll,403 I J,448 11.784 :.
Iran. 219 • 220 ' 280 250' 223 ' 423 ti 424 ' 440 480 ' 454' .-i
:<l
Iraq. 152 174 70 91 89 205 203 III 154 137 00
~
Italy. 141) • 14.9 138 12G 134 77G 3 723 G63 637 705 ;;
Japan 3,169 2,99G 3,225 3,232 3..242 11,501 1l,Ofll 13,623 14,328 14,991 7.
Korea, South 1,007 1,049 1,108 2,726 s 2,9~4 1 2,506 3,086 3,254 ",,-
1,216 • 1,050 '
Ma.da.gascar 500 G15 730 741 800 613 820 955 l,llS 1,100 .0<
Malaya 297 343 aGO 365 357 513 635 786 799 714 ~
Mexico 96 115 117 121 173 235 240 252 >
Pakistan 7,562 • 9,003 9,087 9,262 9,103 Jl ,159' 12,399 13,741 12,895 12,027 ~
Philippines 1,990 2,318 2,768 2,972 2,971 2,179 2,i67 3,a46 3,203 3,685 0
'"
Sierra Leone 140 273 273 283 lS7 2fiO 10 no 228 236 0
317 • t>q
Spain 58 66 68 C,5 27::! 384 388 375
Taiwan 666 2 762 784 783 778 1,682 2,226 2.287 2,356
1,642 • ;;;
Thaila.nd 3,370 5,211 5,762 4,443 .5,267 4,357 6,845 8,297 5,665 7.123 ::.
0
United Arab Republic. 260 292 308 218 ()S4 1,579 1,711 1,083
U.S.A. . . . 387 752 635 542 573 956 1,925 2,243 1,947 2,013
World total (!lICI.
U.S.S.R.) . 85,800 102,400 ll6,600 114,600 117,000 151,200 163,900 215,800 2ll,OOO 253,700
• Unofficlalllgures. • 1931-37. • ~·year average. ' 1936-38. • InO, 1034 and IC36 .
, 193~. ' 1967-U; data not comparable with earlier flgureo. • 1936-3 • . • a-year average. u (-year !lvcr9,g'~.
11 Je.T8 and Madura on1y,
POTATOES
Area (1,000 beeta"",) Production (1,000 metrlo tons)
Ac~agt A.tragt A.tragl A.tragt
Countries 1931-J8 1948-52 1956 1967 1958 1934-J8 1!J48-6Z 1956 1957 1958
Argentina !l5 191 203 183 189 663 1,232 1,311 1,374 1,398
Austria 207 175 181 180 178 2,845 2,270 3,229 4,034 3,542
Belgium 158 90 86 82 81 3,169 2,127 2,034 2,043 1,956
Cauada. 217 175 130 130 130 1.915 2.147 UH6 2.039 I.R()R ,....
China Cllainland) 1 310 • 2,450 3,300 3,300 3,300 3,201 ' 12,390 21,690 21,740 24;000 CS
I(
Czechoslovakia 715 622 630 629 607 (1,635 7,255 9,635 8,756 6,589
France 1,524 l,1N 1,059 (189 974 17,158 13,734 18,160 15,114 13,647 ~
Germany (E. and W .) 1,975 1,068 1,932 ~
1,943 1,842 33,280 37,427 40,578 41,031 34,353 tI-
Hungary 291 254 220 241 240 2,133 1,715 2,055 2,707 2,600 ~
India. 1821,.1 237 284 318 256 1,833 1 •• 1,647 1,725 2,013
Irish Republic 135 138 115 107 106 2,583 2,()O2 2,(Hfl 2,356 1,761 ~
Italy. 392 387 386 384 2,716 3 2,732 3,414 3,157 3,6M 00
402 • ~
Japan 151 209 208 209 205 1,622 2,451 2,74!l 3,372 3,395 tl-
Netherlands I 14·4 186 134 132 ~
131 2,825 4,Gi9 3,216 3,741 3,606 ....
00
Peru. 285 • 217 224 219 217 820 ' 1,240 1,013 1,046 1,034
Poland 2,756 2,575 2,713 2,763 2,758 38,014 2(),727 38,052 35,104 34,800 ~
c
Humnnin 2251.4 214 • 256 265 271 2,007 1 ,1 1,679 9 2,675 3,058 2,777
Spain . 358 364 372 373 5,010 ' 3,348 4,307 3,954 4,300
~
441 •
Sweden 132 132 122 119 114 1,847 1,814 2,012 1,498 1,393 ~
Switzerland 57 55 52 56 1,020 1,221 1,195 1,590 1:1:1
U.K .. 206 497 374 32!l 5,011 9,.154 7,665 5,790 I:"
333 5,653 l<J
U.S.A. 1,291 662 561 560 594 10,024 10,676 11,055 10,865 12,053 00.
U.S.S.R. 8,600 8,397 ' 9,196 9,778 9,525 73,900 88,600 '0 96,0]5 87,813 86,527
Yugoslavia. 261 228 268 285 277 1,631 1,486 2,190 3,310 2,620
World Total (exe!.
U.S.S.R.) . . 13,600 14,900 15,400 15,400 15,200 159,300 167,400 199,400 193,600 184,700
1 Unoffici ..l tIgur... • Uevieed to includs area and marketing of early pot..toes. • Average 1931-31.
, Average 1935-39 • • 1929. • A...r&lfs 1931-35. ' a·yenr averll¥p . • 1930-3?
• 4-year a T'crage. 10 1950.
~.
XXII THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1960
CENTRIFUGAL RAW SUGAR

(in 1,000 metric tons; year beginning September)
Average Average
Countries 1934-38 1948-52 1956 1957 1958
Argentina 1 •• 405 588 728 657 1,014
Australia '. 11 756 913 1,227 1,314 1,435
Brazil!" 673 1,520 2,248 2,663 3,223
Brit. West Indiee 2 422 684 839 772 846
Canada 66 125 122 125 167
Cuba 2,838 5,786 5,673 5,784 5,966
Czechoslovakia' 650 719 644 861 932
Dominican Rep.' 440 542 806 808 835 '
France 971 1,085 1,372 1,535 1,563
Fiji '.11 127 • 123 137 199 201
Germany 1,286 1,528 1,609 2,385 2,789
x...tern . 733 704 476 834 913
Western . ~63 824 1,133 1,551 1,876
Hawaii 10 889 • 913 984 691 921'
India 1 1,090 8 1,303 2,246 2,184 ' 2,044'
Indonesia 1. '. ,. 913 286 786 828 770'
Italy • 400 ,. 600 952 821 1,136'
Mauritius', • 278 443 573 562 526
Mexico 11 315 715 1,079 1,190 1,325 '
Pakistan u, 13 30'·· 54 lI8 172 185'
Peru'. 10 • 384 487 677 681 7344
Philippines 960 • 830 1,037 1,252 1,317
Poland 954 871 845 1,154 1,192
Puerto Rico 884 • 1,157 898 847 975
Spain • 327 11 316 417 355 467 •
Sweden 300 284 284 321 263
Taiwan . . . 1,030 622 861 914 903
Union oCS. Africa IS • 409 555 770 871 1,023
U.K. 487 626 761 611 799'
U.S.A. 1,806 • 1,922 2,293 2,468 2,523
U.S.S.R.' 2,300 2,728 4,733 4,882 5,218
World Total (excl.---
U.S.S.R.) . 23,000 29,350 36,570 39,535 43,475
I OaIendar year. I Tel quel. I O&mpa1gn year June-May .
• Unomolal figures. • 1938-39. • 1936-39.
, Bxclod... gor oonsomed as 8ucb, approximately Sm. metrio tons annually .
• !t3G-38. • O&mpalgo year July....June. ,. B.tatea only.
U Bxcludea plloocUlo prodoctlon 01 approximately 120.000 metrio tons annually .
.. Ibclod.. gm consomed ... ouch, aboot 860,000 metrio tons annually.
lJ Bxcludflll palm ougar production estimated at 116.000 metric tons annually•
.. 1931-35. .. O&mpaign year May-April •
.. OaIendar year beginning tbe lollowing January.
" 9( net titre.
.. 19S6-S~. It .. -year average.
COMPARATIVE STATISTICAL TABLES xxiii
RAW COTTON (Commercial Crop)

(Americar. in 1,000 rmming bales; others in 1,000 equivalent
478 lb. net bales)
Average Average Average Average Year

Countries 1935-39 l!l45-49 1950-54 1955-59 1958-59
America
U.S.A. 13,150 12,104 14,155 12,550 11,500
Mexico 334 577 1,237 2,100 2,350
Brazil . 1,956 1,352 1,674 1,440 1,400
Peru 384 308 401 500 500
Argentina 289 427 570 565 425
Other countries 126 145 282 660 825
A8ia
China. 2,100 1,939 4,480 7,000 8,700
India .
Pakistan :} 4,850{
2,304
1,024
3,062
1,328
4,170
1,360
4,200
1,250
U.S.S.R. 3,430 2,328 3,900 6,740 6,800
Turkey 249 268 630 730 825
Iran 171 85 150 300 325
Korea . 180 89 80 60 35
Other countrie~ 220 120 428 710 715
Europe
Greece .1 52 125 275 285
Italy
14{ 10 27 45 35
Spain .
Other countrie! :J 18
50
57
107
180
115
175
120
Africa
Egypt. 1,900 1,456 1,740 1,740 2,060
Sudan. 248 246 374 460 575
Belgian Congo 172 195 222 245 250
Uganda 281 227 300 310 335
Tanganyika . 50 38 44 125 145
Nigeria 36 48 100 160 155
Nya.saland 12 8 10 6 8
Other countriell 142 260 392 480 525
Ocwnia
Australia 10 2 2 4 7
Total 30,437 25,680 35,877 43,030 44,525
Briluh CoUon Orowing A18ocialion: Annual Rtporl. Manch ••ter, 1906 !I.
NN YOf'Il CoUon Ezc~ang. Fler Bool:. lUSO ft.
Bombav CoU ... Annu..1
XXlV THE STATESMAN'S YP;.AR-BOOK, 1060
CRUDE PETROLEUM
(in 1,000 metric tOilS)
Regions and
countries U)50 Hl;"";" Ir157 1958 1%9 '
No,·th A. merica
Canada :5,738 17,426 ~5,OOO 2~,280 24,800
U.S.A. ~71,081 a:l4.,n:ll 35~,700 330,000 346,500
Mexico lO,2!)6 12,r;99 12,600 la,300 13,500
Carribp.an
Cuba ·1 4!) 50 50 30
Trinidad 3,015 3,.56-1 ·i,DOO 5,350 5,750
Colombia 4,784 lJ.j68 6,47D 6,600 7,581
Venezuela 7S,:?40 ll:?,:)7~j 1<15,315 138,600 146,573
South America
Brazil . H ~GO 1,400 :!,475 3,150
Ecuador :H7 405 M)O 406 380
Peru :!,O51 2,:)00 :),780 2,515 2,350
Bolivia 80 :)51 568 450 430
Chile S" :}:)2 540 730 870
Argentina 3.4!l2 4,4f,!) 4.4S0 5,100 6,350
Middlc Ea.~t
Tur]",)' 17 20:! 2llS 3:!S 330
Iraq 6,457 33,20!) 21,(HO 35,500 41,750
Iran 32,259 16,025 35,530 40,600 45,570
Saudi Arabia :!li,l79 47,536 48,870 50,130 53,960
J\:uwait 17,2!1l 54,7u6 57,280 70,200 69,530
Kuwait and Saudi
Arabia neutral
zones 1,362 3,370 4,300 6,190
Bahrain 1,510 1,499 1,500 2,040 2,250
Qatar . I,(l~l2 5,438 6,610 8.200 7,990
Egypt . 3,;{49 I,SOO 3,150 3,350 3,600
Israel. 60 100 130
F,lr E~t
India. . :!52 :~:10 430 440 420
Pakistan J66 276 3D!) 280 315
Burma. 71 199 380 520 500
Indonc·sia 5,414 11,7!)0 lfi,36Q 16,000 17,000
I~riti~h Horn eo :
Brunei 4,12Z}
Sllrlnmk 53
5,30S 5,730 5,310 5,500
Neth. Ne,,' Guinea ~5H 474 330 250 260
Japan. ~t)5 :ILl 320 350 380
1 l'nj" i::tj j;nnl.
COMPARATIVE STATISTICAL TABLES xxv
CRUDE PETROLEUM (contd.)

(in 1,000 metric tons)
Hcgions a,nu
countries 19.~O HI55 1957 1958 1950"
Europe
Austria. 1 1,699 3,666 3,190 2,840 2,500
'Western GcrnllllY 1,119 ::1,147 3,960 4,430 5,120
Nct,herlands . 705 1,024 1,520 1,620 1,800
U.K. 4(1 54 80 81 80
France 151 878 1,410 1,390 1,622
Italy 8 205 1,330 1,534 1,600
Yugoslavia. 1I0 257 396 462 592
Africa
Morocco . I 102 76 75 100
Algeria .1 42 { 59 31 442 1,295
Gabon. 173 505 753
Angol:1 150 LlO 100
Nigcrin. 260 600
Soviet Bloc
U.S.S.R. :17,300 70,800 98,300 113,500 129,300
Rumania 5AOO 10,57!) 1l,500 II ,ISO 1l,437
Hungnry 530 1,600 670 830 1,050
Poland 178 ISO 190 190 180
Albania 132 ~20 490 403 47H
Bulgaria 150 280 220 200
Czechoslovakia .10~ 140 140 100 llO
China. \)66 1,450 • 1,600 • 2,200'
- - - - - - _._ - - --- - - - - - - -----
EstimalciJ W orTJ Pro-
duction'
Total . 525,000 770,JOO 883,000 910,000 976,900
Of whi ch Soviet
nIoc 45,750 84,230 113,000 128,330 145,000
1 Until 1954 incltl3ive, the whol!} Austrian p:-oducUon was nt thC'! disposal of the U.S.S.R.;
reparation dcH\'cri~ from 1055 to 1001 will ue l·!?m. tons yearly, tllcl'ca.!tcr, untill~65, lm.
tQ!)S yeBrly .
• Without .hale .,il (estimat.ed by Western expert. at 90D.nOO in 1967 nnd 730,000 in
19~5). In 11)59, shah oil and oil from coa.l amounted to an addltionll.ll·65m. tons.
t ProvisiQtlnl edtimate.
, Estimat~ differ widely, i.e., becu.usc ot conversioll difficultios ol barrels to me trio tonR.
Thus, for instnnce, fo]" cnld~ vetrolcum of specific ~a\itYI at 60° F., of 0·78 (corresponding to
American I'ct.rolcllm Institute gravity rating of 4:')'91), there are 8-08 buls to a metric ton.
At the "ther end of the scale, for crudo petrolellm of specific gravity 0-98 (A-PI rating, 12,89),
there Rca only G·4Z bbls to n metric ton. MiJ.dle East crude petroleum lws no KYI!rage COD-
t'crsion n1.tc of appro:!imat.eJ y 7·6 bbls to a metric ion.
LIFE INSURANCE
(in millions of currency value)
Countrlel Ourrency 1938 1946 1955 1966 1957 1953 US$1953'
Argentina 1 Pesos 440 1,500 6,800 7,500 8,700 10,000 143 ~
Australia £ Australian 443 833 2,279 2,540 2,850 3,180 7,091 :5.
Austria Schilling 4,808 5,490 6,276 7,124 274
Belgium Francs 10,048 39,171 127,358 140,293 154,764 164,758 3,306
Brazil . CruzeiroB 2,484 11,187 79,169 107,166 141,377 178,686 -'
Canada S Canadian 6,457 11,095 26,624 30,518 34,820 38,627 40,070
Costa Rioa Colones 6 31 250 269 298 337 60 ;J
Cuba Pesos 65 180 337 359 418 422 414 l'i
Denmark Kroner 2,527 4,935 8,376 8,833 9,294 9,750 1,412 00
Finland' Markka 11,536 34,280 200,757 240,402 272,009 344,498 1,075
France. . Francs 60,985 213,671 2,256,000 2,500,000 3,143,000 3,850,000 7,848 ..,~
Germany (West)'. Deutschemarks 32,422 37,359 44,436 49,925 ll,949 t'l
00
Hawaii Dollars 154 396 1,447 1,620 1,826 2,070 2,070
India . Rupees 2,609 6,510 1l,230 I J ,500 12,750 14,000 2,929 ~
Israel . 1£ 118 141 171 210 ll7 Z
oo~
Italy Lire 21,260 99,100 1,190,706 1,361,725 1,535,051 1,690,000 2,708
Japan I Yen 16,706 86,210 2,129,803 2,703,213 3,445,989 4,297,644 1l,938 ><
l'i
Mexico Pesos 1,182 6,600 7,984 9,421 10,969 878 I>-
Netherlands . Guilders 2,897 5,758 11,476 12,797 14,154 15,512 4,109 l:!lI
New Zealand £ New Zealand 136 266 662 732 812 902 2,495 tl:l
1,831 3,359 5,677 6,082 6,794 7,310 1,022 0
Norway Kroner 0
Peru l • Soles 98 258 1,728 1,945 2,235 2,700 llO ~1>1
Philippines . Pesos 158 201 995 1,186 1,399 1,610 799
4,108 4,410 4,733 164 ......
Portugal Escudos 888 2,137 3,650 c
0>
Puerto Rico . Dollars 34 97 289 359 412 450 450 0
Spain . Pesetas 2,000 8,486 15,800 18,375 20,404 22,300 531
Sweden Kronor 5,252 8,164 20,932 23,596 25,977 29,500 5,700
Switzerland . Francs 4,226 6,706 11,940 12,941 13,945 14,940 3,468
Turkey . Liras 16 64 250
United Kingdom I . £ Sterling 3,300 4,607 8,771 9,326 10,095 11,100 31,101
United States U.S.S 102,653 170,066 372,332 412,630 458,359 493,561 493,561
Uruguay Pesos 29 58 165 182 210 235 68
t Insurance In force In the domestlo oomp8Jlles of the country. Including their foreign baein... ; other fIguree represent Insurance In forae on
tbe IIns of reoId.nu 01 the oountry Inbotb domBBtlo and fore~ ~mp~...
THE UNITED NATIONS
The United Nations is an association of states which have pledged them·
selves. through signing the Charter, to maintain international peace and
security and to co.operate in establishing political, economic and social
conditions under which this task can be securely achieved. Nothing con·
tained in the Charter authorizes the organization to intervene in matters
which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.
The United Nations Charter originated from proposals agreed upon at
discus~ions held at Dumbarton Oaks (Washington, D .C.) between the
U.S.S.R., U.S. and U.K. from 21 Aug. to 28 Sept., and between U.S., U.K.
a.nd China from 29 Sept. to 7 Oct. 1944. These proposals were laid before
the United Nations Conference on International Organization, held at San
Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945, and (after amendments had been
made to the original proposals) the Charter of the United Nations was signed
on 26 June 1945 by the delegates of 50 countries; Poland signed on 15 Oct.
Ratification of all the signatures had been received by 31 Dec. 1945. (The
complete text of the Charter is to be found in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR. BOOK,
1946, pp. xxi-xxxii.)
The United Nations formally came into existence on 24 Oct. 1945, with
the deposit of the requisite number of ratifications of the signatures of the
Charter with the U.S. Department of State. The official languages of the
United Nations are Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish; the
working languages are English, French and (in the General Assembly)
Spanish.
The headquarters of the United Nations is in New York City, U.S.A.
Membership. Membership in the United Nations is open to ull other
peace· loving states whose admission will be effected by the General Assembly
upon recommendation of the Security Council.
The table on pp. 9-11 shows the member states of the United NatioDB
and their participation in the Related Agencies, and those non· member
states which have been admitted to certain Related Agencies.
The Organs of the United Nations. The principal organs of the United
Nations are : 1. The General Assembly. 2. The Security Council. 3. The
Economic and Social Council. 4. The Trusteeship Council. 5. The Inter·
national Court of Justice. 6. The Secreta.riat.
1. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY consists of all the members of the United
Nations. Each member is entitled to be represented at its meetings by 5
delegates and 5 alternate delegates, but has only 1 vote. The General
Assembly meets regularly once a year, commencing on the third Tuesday
in Sept.; special sessions may be convoked by the Secretary.General if
requested by the Security Council, by a majority of the members of the
United Nations, or by 1 member concurred with by the majority of the
members.
The Genersl Assembly elects its President for each session. The first
regular session was held in London from 10 Jan. to 14 Feb. and in New
York from 23 Oct. to 15 Dec. 1946; the fourteenth session began in New
York on 15 Sept. 1959. Special sessions on Palestine were held 28 April
to 15 May 1947, and 16 April to 14 May 1948. Emergency sessions were
B 1
2 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
held (·n the Middle East 1-10 No ... 11)56, on Hung:1ry 4-10 Nov. H)56 and
on Lei)anon 8-21 Aug. 1951;.
The work of the General Assembly is divided between 7 Main Committee_.
on ea·}h of which e,ery member has the right to be represented by I
delegate: 1. Political and S~curity (including the regulation of armaments).
IT. Economic and Financial. Ill. Social. HlIDl:1nit~rian and Culturul. IV.
Tru8tl.eship (including non.self.governing territories). V. Auministratin,
and Budgetary. VI. Legal. VII. Special Political Commit.tee.
In addition there is a General Committee charged with the t:1sk of co-
ordinating the proceedings of the As~cmbly and its Committees; and a
Crcdelltiul~ Committee which verifies the credentials of the delegato8. The
Gener.ll Committee consists of 21 members. comprising the President of the
General Assembly, its 13 Vice· Presidents and the Chairmen of the 7 Main
Committees. The Cred,mti:1ls Committee consists of U members, ~leeTed :1t
the beginning of each session of the General Assembly. The Assembly has
2 dtanding committees-an Advisory Committee on Aclruini.qtrative and
Budgetary Questions, and a Committee on Contributions. The General
Assembly establishes subsidiary :1nd ad hoc bodies when necessary to deal
with specific matters. These include the Interim Committee of the General
Assembly, the International Law Commission, Committe~ on Arrangements
for a Charter Review Conference. Commission for the Unifica.tion and
Hehalilitation of Korea. Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Advisory
Council for Somaliland, Peace Observation Commission. CollectivQ Measures
Committee (reports to both Assembly and Security Council). Additional
Measures Committee, Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the
Near East, High Commissioner's Office for Refugees, Special Committce on
Information from non-self.governing territories, Scientific C01llmittee Oil
the Etfects of Atomic Radiation.
The General Asscmbly may discuss any matters within the scope of the
Chart<r, anrl, with the exception of .. ny situation or dispute on the agenda
of the Security Counoil, may make recommendations on any such que~tions
or matters. For decisions on important questions a t,vo-thirds majoIity is
required, on other questions a simple majority of members present and
voting. In addition, the Assembly at its fifth session, in 1950, d~cided that
if the Security Council, because of lack of unanimity of the permament
mem b<~rs. fails to exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of
international peace and security in any case where there appears to be a
threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression, the CcnE'ral
Assembly sholl consider the matter immediatRly with a view to making
appropriate recomm,-,ndations to members for collective measures, including
in the case of a breach of the peace or act of aggression the use of armed
force whon necessary, to maintain or restore international pellce and security.
Th,~ General Assembly receives and considers reports from tho other
organs oftbe United Nations, including the Security Council. Tho Secretary-
Gener!.l makes an annual report to it on the work of the Organization.
2. THE SECURITY COUNCIL consists of 11 members, each of which has 1

representative and 1 vote. There are 5 permanent members (China, France,
U.S.S.R .• U.K., U.S.A.) and 6 non-permanent members elected for ll. 2-year
term by a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly. Retiring members
are not eligible for immediate re-election. Any member of the United
NatioDs not a member of the Security Council will be invited to partici-
pate ~Iithout vote in the discussion of questions specially affocting its
interests.
UNITED NATIONS 3
The Security Council bears the primary responsibility for the mainten·
ance of peace and security. It is ll.L~o responsible for the functions of the
U.N. in trust territories classed as' strategic areas.' Dccisions on procedural
questions are made by an affirmath·e vote of 7 members. Ou all other
matters the affirmative vote of j membcl"I must include the concurring votes
of nil permanent members (in practice, ho\vev('r. an abstention by a perma·
nent member is not considered a veto), subject to the provision that wllCn
the Sccurity Council is considering methods for the peaceful settlement of a
dispute, parties to the dispute abstain from voting.
For the maintenunce of internationa l pell.ce al!d security the Security
Council can, in accordance with special agreements to be concluded, call on
armed force~, assistance and facilities of the member states. It is assisted
by a Military Staff Committee consisting of the Chiefs of Staff of tho perma·
nent members of the Security Council or their representatives.
Under the Security Council there ll.lso functions a Disll.rmament Com.
mission to prepare proposals on disarmament and atomic prohibition,
establishcd by the General Assembly on 10 Jan. 1952 and enlarged finally
to include all 82 member states. This supersedes the Atomic Energy Com·
mission and the Commission for Conventional Armaments.
The Presidency of the Security Council is held for 1 month in rotation
by the member states in the English alphabetical order of their names.
The Security Council functions continuously. Ita members are perma.
nently represented at the seat of the organization, but it may meet at any
place that wiU best facilitate its work.
The Council has 2 standing cOlDmittees, of Experts and on the Admi8Sion
of new members. In addition. from time to time, it establishes ad hoc
committees and commissions such as the Sub·committee on Laos and the
Truce Supervision Organization ill Palestine. It has also appointed a
Representative for India and Pakistan.
Ptrmanent Mem,ber3. China, France, U.S.S.R .• U.K., U.S.A.
Non·Permanent Members . Argentina, Italy, Tunisia (1 Jan. 1\>59-31
Dec. 1960); Ceylon, Ecuador (1 J an. 1960-31 Dec. W61); Poland (1 Jan.-
:11 Dec. 1960); Turkey (I J a n.-31 Dec. 1961).
3. THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL is responsible under the General

•.\ssembly for carrying out the function s of the United Nations with regard
to international economic, social, cultural, educational, health and related
matters. By Jan. 1960,13 specialized inter·governmental agencies working
in these fields had been brought into relationship with the United Nations.
The Economic and Social Council may also make arrangements for con·
sultation with international non.governmental organizations and, after
consultation with the member concerned, with national organizations; by
Jan. 1960, 122 non.governmental organizations had been granted con·
sultative status and a further 180 were on the register .
The Economic and Social Council consists of representatives of 18 Member
States elected by a two· thirds majority of the General Assembly. Six are
elected each year for !l 3.year t~rm. Retiring members are eligible for
immediate re·eleation . Each member is represented hv 1 delegate and has
1 vote. Decisions are made by 1\ majority of the members present and
voting.
The Council holds a t least 2 sessions a year. and special segsions may
be held if requircd. The President L~ elccted for 1 year and is eligible for
immedilLte re·election.
Tl.e Economic and Social Council has the following commissions :

(1) Transport and Communic~tions Commission ;
(2) Statistical Commission; with subcommission onStatistical Sampling.
(3) Commission on Human Rights; with subcommissions on Freedom
of Inf.)rmation and of the Prcss, and on Prevention of Discriminations and
Proteetion of Minorities;
(4) Social Commission ;
(5) Commission on the Status of Women ;
(6) Commission on Narcotic Drugs;
(7) Population Commission ;
(8) International C ommodity Tradc Commission ;
(9)-(12) Four regional E conomic Commissions for Europe, A sia and the
Far E :tst, Latin America, Africa.
The E conomic and Social Council has the following standing committees :
The l~conomic Committee, Social Committee, Co·ordination Committee,
Technical Assistance Committee, Administrative Review Group of the
Technical Assistance Committee, Council Committee on Non-GovernmentaJ
Organizat ions, Interim Committee on Programme of Conferences, Executive
Committee of the UN High Commissioner for Refngees' Programme, and the
Committee to Review Candidates for Election to the Permanent Central
Opium Board.
The Children's Fund (UNICEF), established by the General Assembly
on 11 Dec. 1946, also functions under the supervision of the Economic and
Social Council. It assists child health, nutrition and welfare programmes
in IO~· countries and territories. Its work is financed through voluntary
contrfbutions from governments and donations from the public.
Ot l cr special bodies are the Permanent Central Opium Board, the
Supcnisory Body (both of which are concerned with narcotic drugs), the
Intcrim Co·ordinating Committee for International Commodity Arrange.
ments which keeps informed of and facilitates inter.governmental consulta-
tion 01' action with respect of commodity problems, and the Administrative
Committee on Co·ordination to ensure (1) the most effective implementa-
tion 0:[ the agreements entered into between the United Nations and the
specialized agencies and (2) co-ordination of activities.
M{!mbership. Chile, China, Costa Rica, France, Netherlands, Sudan
(until 31 Dec. 1961) ; Afghanistan, Bulgaria, New Zealand, Spain, U.S.A.,
Venez'lela (until 31 Dec. 1962); Brazil, Denmark, Japan, Poland, U.S.S.R.,
U.K . (until 31 Dec. 1963).
4. THE TRUSTEESHIP CO UN(''IL. The Charter provides for an inter-
national trusteeship system to safeguard the interests of the inhabitants of
territories which are not yet fully self.governing and which may be placed
thereunder by individual trusteeship agreements. These are ca,lIed trust
territories. The following categories may be placed under trusteeship:
territories held under mandate; territories which have been detached from
enemy States as a result of the Second World War; and territories volun-
tarily placed under the system by States responsible for their administration.
Th.~ Trusteeship Council consists of members administering trust terri-
tories: Australia (New Guinea; and Nauru, administered on behalf of
Australia, New Zealand and U.K.), Belgium (Ruanda.Urundi), New Zealand
(Wesf;(m Sa,moa), U.K . (Tanganyika and Cameroons), U.S.A. (Pacific
Island:; formerly under Japanese mandate); the permanent members of
the Security Council that are not administering trust territories : China,
UNITED NATIONS 5
France, U.S.S.R.; and as many other members elected for 3-year terms
by the General Assembly, to ensure that the total membership of the
Trusteeship Council is equally divided between those members of the
United Nations which administer trust territories and those which do not.
Additional members: Burma, Paraguay, United Arab Republic (until 31
Dec. 1961); Bolivia, India (until 31 Dec. 1962). Retiring members are
eligible for immediate re-election. Decisions of the Council are made by a
majority of the members present and voting, each member having 1 vote.
The Council holds 2 regular sessions each year, and special sessions may
be held, if required_ The President is elected for 1 year and is not eligible
for immediate re-election.
The responsibility for exercising the functions of the United Nations
relating to trusteeship in trust territories not classed as • strategic areas' are
vested in the General Assembly, for' strategic areas' in the Security Council.
The Trusteeship Council assists the General Assembly in carrying out these
functions, which include the consideration of reports by the administering
authority, the acceptance and examination of petitions, and the provision
for periodic visits to trust territories. By special arrangement with the
Security Council, the Trusteeship Council also carries out these functions
in relation to 'strategic areas' under trusteeship, subject to the relevant
trusteeship agreements and without prejudice to security considerations.
Annual reports on • strategic areas' are made to the Security Council.
In addition to the International Trusteeship System, the Charter contains
a Declaration in which those members of the United Nations which admini-
ster or may in the future administer non-self-governing territories (whether
placed under trusteeship or not) recognize the principle that the interests of
the inhabitants of these territories are paramount.
Togoland under British Trusteeship was united with Ghana on 6 March
1957; Cameroons and Togoland under French trusteeship and Somalia
under Italian trusteeship attained independence in 1960. Plebiscites to
decide the future of British Cameroons will be held in 1960 or 1961.
The Trusteeship Council has established a Standing Committee on
Administrative Unions and ad lwc committees which include the Committee
on Rural Economic Development of the Trust Territories.
Mnrray, J. N., The U.N. TMUleeship S/lst<m. Univ. of Illinois Press, 1957
5. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE was created by an inter-

national treaty, the Statute of the Court, which forms an integral part of
the United Nations Charter. It was drawn up at the San Francisco Con-
ference (25 April to 26 June 1945) and is based on the Statute of the Per-
manent Court of International Justice, which in its greater part remains
unchanged. All members of the United Nr.tions are ipso facto parties to
the Statute of the Court.
The Court is composed of a body of independent judges, elected regardless
of their nationality from among persons of high moral character, who possess
the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to
the highest judicial offices, or are jurisconsults of recognized competence in
international law (Statute of the Court, Art. 2). There are 15 judges, no 2
of whom may be nationals of the same state (Art. 3). They are elected by
the Security Council and the General Assembly of the United Nations,
sitting independently. Candidates are chosen from a list of persoos nomi-
nated by the national groups in the Permaneot Court of Arbitration estab-
lished by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. In the CRse of members
of the United Nations not represented in the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
candidates are nominated by national groups appointed for the purpose by

their Governments (Art. 4). 'rhe judges are elected for a 9-year term and
are eligible for immediate re-election. At the first election the terms of
office 3f one·third of the number was fixed by lot at 3, 6 and 9 years
respedvely (Art. 18).
Th,~ membel'll of the Court may not exercise any political or administra-
tive flmction or engage in any other occupation or profession (Art. 16).
No momber may participate in the decision of any case in which he has
previously taken part as agent" counsel or advocate for ona of the parties,
or as f . member of a national or international court, or of a commission of
enquiry, or in any other capacity (Art. 17). When engaged on business
of the Court, they enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities (Art. 19).
Th,~ Court elects its own President and Vice-Presidents for 3 years (Art.
21) and remains permanently in session, cxcept for judicial vacations (Art.
23). The full court of 15 judges normaUy sits, but a quorum of 9 judges is
sufficient to constitute the Court (Art. 25). It may form chambers of 3 or
more judges for dealing with particular categories of cases (Art. 26), and
forms ;mnually a chamber of 5 judges to hear and determine, at the request
of the parties, cases by sUDlmary procedure (Art. 29).
Competence and Jurisdiction. Only states may be parties in cases before
the Court, which is open to the states parties to its Statute. The conditions
under which the Court will be open to other states, are laid down by the
Security Council (Art. 35). The Court exercises its jurisdiction in all cases
which tho parties refer to it and in all matters provided for in the Charter,
or in treaties and con vcntions in force. Disputes concerning the jurisdiction
of the Court are settled by the Court's own decision (Art. 36). Whenever a
treaty or convention in force provides for reference of a matter to a tribunal
to hav'~ been instituted by the League of Nations, or to the Permanent Court
of Intornational Justice, it shall, as between the part.ies to the Statute, be
referred to the International C"urt of Justice (Art. 37).
Th,) Court may apply in its decision: (a) interna.tional conventions; (b)
international custom; (c) the general principles oflaw recognized by civilized
nation:l; and (d) as subsidiary means for the determination of the rules oflaw,
judicial decisions and the teachings of bighly qualified publicists of t.ho
VariOU.l nations.
If the parties agree, the Court may decide a case ex aequo et bono (Art. 38).
The c<;urt may also givo an advisory opinion on any legal question to the
Generd Assembly or the Security Council, or to other organs of the United
NatioI;.s or specialized agencies which are authorized by the General Assembly
to req:lest advisory opinionH on legal quest,ions arising within the scope of
their act,ivities (Charter Art. 96).
Pmcedure. The official languages of the Comt arc French and Englisb .
At tbe request of any party the Court will authorize the use of a language
other t han French or English by this pa,rty (Art. 39). When a case is
brough before the Court, the Registrar communicates it to all concerned
and aUlo notifies the members of the United Nations, through the Secretary-
Gener6.J. and any other States entitled to appear before the Court (Art. 40).
Tbe huarings are public unless the Court decides otherwise or the parties
demand that the public be not admitted (Art. 46). All questions are decided
by a n'lljority of the judges present. If the '\"otes are equal, the President
has a casting vote (Art. 55). The judgment is final and without appeal (Art.
60). bl t a revision may be applied for on the ground of a new decLqive factor.
No sO':h application may be made after 10 years from the date of the
UNITED NATIONS 7
judgment (Art. 61) . Unless otherwise decided by the Court, each party
bears its own costs (Art. 64).
Judg~. Tho judges of the Court, elected by the Security Council and
the General Assembly, are as foll ows: (1) To serve until 5 Feh. 1964:
Roberto Cordova (Mexico), Ricardo J. Alfaro (Panama), Professor Jules
Basdcvant (France), Professor Hersch I,auterpacht (U.K.), Lucio Moreno
Quintana (Argentina), Sir Zafrullah Khan (Pakist.an). (2) To serve until
5 Feb. 1961 : Hon. Green H. Huckworth (U.S.A.) , Enrique C. Armand Ugon
(Uruguay), Feodor I. Kozhevnikov (U.S.S.It.), Dr H. Klaestad (Norway).
(3) To serve until 5 Feb. 1967 : H.E. Dr Abdel Hamid Badawi (United
Arab Republic), V. K. Wellington Koo (China), Sir Percy Spender (Australia),
Dr Bohdan Winiarski (Polnnd), Dr J ean Spiropoulos (Greece).
• Nalianal' Judge3. If there is DO judg'3 on the bench of the nationality
of tho parties to the dispute, each party has th e right to choose a judge.
Such judges shall take part in the deci~ion on terms of complete equality
with their colleagues (Art. 31).
Scnt of the Court. The Court has its seat at The Hugue, but lUay sit
and exercise its functi ons elsewhere whenever it considers thiq desirable
(Art. 22).
Expenses. The expenses of the Court are borne by the United Nations
(Art. 33).
YtIl,·Ro oJ: Of Ihe /T,lffnali<maj Courl Of Ju..tic<. l'be Hague. 19~O n.
Lissitzsn, O. J ., Th. inttrnatio1llIJ Court of Justice. New York, 1951
6. THE OFFICE OF TIlE U.N. HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR REFUGEES

(UNHCR) was established by the General Assembly of the United Nations
on 14 Dec. 1950, with effect from 1 Jan. 1951. The Mandato of the Office,
due to expire at the end of 1958, was renewed by the General Assembly
in 1957 to 31 Dec. 1!163.
Functions. The Offica's main functions are to provide international
protection for refugees and to promote activities designed to solve the
problems of refugees on a permanent basis. either through re·establishment
in new national communities or through voluntary repatriation.
A Convention relating to the status of refugees. adopted in July 1951 is
now in force. and has been signed or rntified by 22 Governments. The
minimum rights for refugees under tbe mandate of the High Commissioner
include access t o courts, the right to work, to education, to public relief and
to freedom of religion. A procedure for the issue of travel documents to
refugees is also provided.
The High Commissioner's programmes arc designed to solve resid ual
prohlems of former refugee waves, and to solve as rapidl.V as possible any
new refugee problems tbat may arise. Under tbese programme~, some
440,000 refugees hl~ve found permanent solutions to their problems by means
of voluntary repatria tion, emigration and local integration ; between the
autumn of 1054 and the au tumn of H)(j8 tbe c<tmp population was redu ced
by 45,000 persons. During tblJ,t period, the overall number of UNHCR
rcfugee" had increased by nearly 300,000 pcr.50ns, the vast mlJ,jority being
newly arrived refugees, including the 200,000 Hungarians on wbose behalf
UN HCR co·ordinated melJ,surcs for emergency aid, financial contributions
and re.establishment, baving been ebarged to do so hy the General
Assembly.
A -I-year permanent solutions programme implemented by UNHCR

came to an end on 31 Dec. 1958. It brought about the firm re-est,a blish·
ment of some 27,000 refugees. A further 20,000 received benefits which
may eventually lead to the solution of their problems, whereas some 10,000
refuge!:s were in receipt of supplementary aid. From 1 Jan. 1959 onwards,
this 4-year programme has been replaced by a series of flexible I-year
programmes; international assistance to refugees will continue, but the
empha3is will shift from certain problems to others as solutions come within
sight.
UNHCR programmes are financed through voluntary contributions
from ~:overnmental and non-governmental sources. The High Commis·
sioner':l programme is directed by a 25-member committee which has execu-
tive all well as advisory functions. The 1959 programme gives special
empha,is to camp clearance; will see the beginning of a programme to help
some 30,000 handicapped and aged refugees living outside camps in Europe;
will help to re-establish newly arriving groups of refugees and jointly with
the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (lCEM), will
continne the resettlement of some 8.000 refugees of European origin still on
the mainland of China. 1959 will also see the beginning ofthe World Refugee
Year hllowing the adoption by the General Assembly in Nov. 1958. of a
proposal originating with the U.K.
Th,) Office was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1954.
He<ulquartera. Palais des Nations. Geneva, Switzerland.
Hil,h Commissioner. Dr Auguste R. Lindt (Switzerland); Deputy.
JalllCS l\lorgan Read (U.S.A.).
Proudloot, M. J ., European Refllfl'" 1939-52. London, 19~7
7. THE SECRETARIAT is composed of the Secretary.General, who is the

chief administrative officer of the organization, and an international staff
appointed by him under regulations established by the General Assembly.
The first Secretary-General was Trygve Lie (Norway), 1946-53.
Thll Secretary· General acts as chief administrative officer in all meetings
of the General Assembly. the Security Council. the Economic and Social
Council and the Trusteeship Council.
Secretary-General. Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden). appointed 7 April
1953 for 5 years; reappOinted in 1957 for a further 5 years.
Under Secretaries. Ralph J. Bunche (U.S.A.); C. V. Narasimhan
(India); Philippe de Seynes (France), Economic and Social Affairs; Dragoslav
Protic (Yugoslavia). Trusteeship and Non.Sell-Governing Tel'ritories; David
Owen (U.K.). Chairman of tlte Technl:cal Assistance Board; Paul G. Hoffman
(U.S.A.), Mana(Jing Director, U.N. Special Fund.
Offices of the Secretary. General. Andrew W. Cordier (U.S.A.), Execu-
tive Assistant; Constantin A. Stavropoulos (Greece). Legal Counsel;
WillialO A. B. Hamilton (U.K.), Director of Personnel; Bruce R. Turner
(New :~ealand). Controller; Alfred Katzin (Union of South Africa), Public
Information; Victor Hoo (China), Conference Services; David B. Vaughan
(U.S.A .). General Services; Maurice Pate (U.S.A.), Executive Directar,
UNICE~.
Th,! Budget of the United Nations. The financial year coincides

with the calendar year; accountancy is in U8$. The figures for 1959
represl,nt appropriations, those for 1960 are budget estimates.
UNITED NATIONS 9
1959 1960
Sessions of ~neral .-\.ssembly, Councils, etc.. 2,477,000 899,100
Special Missions 4,12·1,000 3,689,400
The Secretariat 39,263,300 41,314,300
Special Offices . . . 1,448,000 1,497,400
Oommon Services and Equipment 8,10-1,420 8,3U8,SOO
Technical Programmes • 2,005,000 2,005,000
Special Expenses . . 2,699,500 3,349,500
International Oourt of J ust!ee 680,500 710,000
Less income 5,319,~80 5,319,300
Totnl . 65.482.240 56.543.900
Membership and scale of contributions to the United Nations budget
for 1960:
Afghanistan 0·06 Greece. 0-23 Pakistan. 0·40
Albania 0-04 Guatemola 0-08 Panama. 0·04
Argentina 1·11 Gu!n e ~. 1)-04 Paraguay 0·04
Australia 1·79 H~iti 0·04 Pem . 0·11
Austria . 0·43 Honduras 0-04 Philippines 0·43
Belgium. 1·31) Hungary 0 ..12 Poland . 1·37
Bolivia . 0-04 Iceland. 0-04 Portugal 0·20
Brazil 1·02 India 2..16 Runmnia 0·34
Bulgaria 0·16 Indonesia 0·47 Saudi Arabia 0·06
Burma O·O ·~ Iran 0-21 S.pa.in 0·93
Byeloms.ia 0-47 Iraq. 0-09 Sudan . 0·06
Oambodia 0·04 Irish Republic 0·16 Sweden. 1·39
Canada . 3·11 Israel 0-14 Thailund 0·16
Ceylon . 0-10 Italy 2-25 Tunisia. 0-05
Chile 0-27 Japan 2·19' Turkey . 0-~9
China . 5·01 .Tordall 0-04 Ukrain e . HO
Oolombia 0-31 Laos 0-04 Uuion of S. Africa. 0·56
Costa Rioa 0-04 Lebanon 0'05 U.S.S.N. . 13·62
OubB • 0-2& LiberiA. 0-04 United Arab Re-
Czechoslovakia 0·87 Libya . 0-04 public 0·32
Denmark . . 0-60 Lunmbourg 0·06 U.K. . 7·75
Dominican Republic 0·0" Malaya. 0-17 U.S.A • . S2·H
Ecuador 0·06 Menco. 0'71 Urub'llay. 0-12
El Salvador 0·05 Nepal _ 0·04 Venezuela 0'50
Ethiopia 0·06 Netherlnud. ].Ill Yemen 0·04
Finland 0-36 New Zealand 0-42 Yuguslavia 0·35
France . 6-40 Nicaragua 0-04
Ghana . 0-07 Norway 0·49 Total .100·00
States which are not members of the United Nations but which partido
pate in certain of its activities (Internntional Court of Justice, control of
narcotic drugs, etc.) are asked to contribute towards the cost of such
activities.
AGENCIES IN RELATIONSHIP WITH THE U.N.
..j
rj 0 0
0
U
w 0 ~ Cl
0
. . .0
~
I:l --i Z Z ..; ~
::i c..i 0
u
..j z
'"..
P<
-<i j c..i "'1 D Eo<
2l
•. •.. '•"
I:: ~
.. .. .... ....
....; ~ ....; ....;
.....
....;
.....
. ....
D A< f«
Alght\nist.an
Albania.
... .... . .... .... ... .. •. .... .... ....
... ..... ...
Argentina
Australia
.. .. •.. ...... . •.. •,... ... •• •
••.
Austria.
•.. •. ..
.... ...
Belgium.
Bolivia.
Brazil .... .... .. .. .. ....• ..... ....,. ....... .....
Bulgaria'
Burma.
Byclomssia
.... .... .. ..
. .. .. .. .... .. .. .... . .
See footnote at end of Table on p. 11.
oo
-< o oI:l o
f"i
..,j
o <io 'fJ
r>1
Z
<i
o....
~
Z
.::l
Z ~
~
;:5
:.j cl 8
~
..; ~
P
P ~ ::; ~
~
,...; ,...; P
.. '" .. ~
.. ..
,...;
C>illlboda
Ca.nada .
..... ..... ....
... ...
..
...
..... ...... ....'" ...... ....... .... ....... ....... ..
>10
(Jeylon . ...
..
...
.... .... .... ....
..... .. .
Cb.ile <I<
... ... ... ...
eMna .
..... ...... ... • .... ... ....
Colomuh ... >10 ...
...
Costa Rica
Onua. .
.... ...... ..
... ... ... ...
. ...
.. .. .. ... .
...
........ '" ...... ...... .....
>10
Czecllosl:>vak..ia
.... .....
• ...•.
... ...
Donmar),
... ... ... ... . ...
....'" '...." ........
Domlnie,n Rep.
.. • .. .. .. ...•
>10
Ecuador
....
... ...
.... ...... ..... ..... ....
...
El Salvador >10
*...
.... ... ... .... ...
Ethiopia >10 >10 >10
.. • •...
Finland . ... ...
Fr:lnce ...
Oerman Feu .
..... ........ ... ..... .... ... .... ... • .....
..'..." ...... .........
...
Rep. , >I<
. ..... .... ..... ..

...... '"
Ohana .
...
Greece
Ouatemda
.... ...'"
>10
'." '" .. .... ....
>10
..
>10 >10
Guinea
.. ...... . ... .
. ... ......... ........
Haiti >I< >10
Holy SC!~
.. .... ...
>I<
... ..
....... .......
...
Hoodurus
Hungary
... ... ..
>10
.... ... .. ... .

'"
... .. ..
.. ...... ........ ....
•...
>I< >10
1e<>land
...
Inui ..
.. .. .. >10
....... .... >10 >10

... ..
.... ...... ....... ..
Indonesi'l
...'" ..
>10
.... ....'" ...... ...... ........

Ir1.D >10 >10 ...
Iraq >10
..... ... .... .....

....... ........ ....... ...'"
Irisb Re ,.
hmel .
Haly
•... ..'" .. ... .... ..... .... ....... ...
..... .... '.." ... .... ......
Japan ... >10 ...
...
Jordan
.. ... ........ ...• •... .....'" .
.. ..... ''"" .......
Korea, Rep. 01 >10
Lao"
Lebanon .... ..... ... .... . '" •
. ...... ........
.. '.." .... ....'" '''""" .......
Liberia ...
....'" •....
...
Liuya
Luxembourg
>10
....... ......
>10
Malaya
),feueo ... ... ... ...
'" . ... '." ..
'" ... .. .... ...... • . .
Monace
. ... ... ..• • .. .. .. '..." '.." •
Morocco ...
Nepal
Netberlands . ..... ...... .... . ......
>I<
>10
...... ...
'"
.. . ...'" •..
...... ..... .. ...'." ......'"
N e\v Zealand .
N icaragua
Norway.
.... ..... .... ... ...
>10
..
..
...
... ..
.. .. .. ...
>10
Pakist.aD ... ...
.. ...'" '..." '..'"" ...... ... ....... .....
...
Panama. .
••.. •.....
.... ...... ... ...
...... ..... ........
Paro.gua:' >I<
Peru
.. .. .. .. ..
......
Ph;lippioes
.. ... ...
>10
....'" ....
P oland. • ...'" >10
'"
Portugal
Ilumania ... ... .. >10
>10
Snn Marino
.. . ...
* ... ....
Somalia •
*
* .* * .
...... ........
Saudi Arabia .
"pain .
•• •* *• •* .. .. •..
• * * .. .. . ... '"
SUIlan . • •
Sweden . • • •
Sa footnotes a t end ot Table on p. 11.
UNITED NATIONS 11
..j
0
u 0 "
:;; ·:;;
.0
~ 0 0 (f:
..j ~ ~
0 0
.j 1'4
z Z Z tQ p; :;j ~,..;
..j ~ 0 <l ;:;.
:;; f1.... ~
.. .. • .. "" '" .... •.. ..• • . ..
,..; r:. ;:;.
....
,..; ,..; ~ ~
Swit·l.trJand
.•.. ..•.. ... •• • • • •.... •... ..•... .. .

Thailand
Twtisio. •.. ....• • •
~l\lf kev .
Uk raiue . .. • •
Uo ion 01 S.
MriCl\ ... • . • • • .... .. •.. •..
.... ..
U.S.S.R. •
United ,\r,t,
Rep. . .. .. • . .. .... • ... .... •.. • .... •
•• •.... ..•.. ••.. ••.. .... ..•.. •• .. •.. •.... . •..
U.K .
U.S.A.
Uruguay
Venezuela .. .... •.. ..• .. .. .... . .... .. .... ..
Vietnam
Yemen .
Yugoslada .. . ..... . • ..• .. •.... .... ••. .. ..
Total .
- -------------------- - - - - -
70 80 77 81' 74 68 68 87 ' l OO ' 96' 102 ' 58 37
1 UNESCO also has 6 associate memhers: Sierra Leone, Brit i. h Borneo, West Indies
Feoeration, Soma.lia, Kuwait and Nigeria.
• WHO also ha. 3 associate mem be", : Ferleration of Rbodesia nnd Nyasaland, Nigeria,
Sierra Leone.
a U.P.U. members Also include Algeria; Belgian Congo ; French Overseas territories;
Netherlands .!..ntiUes a.nd Surinam ; l'ortugnesc ]>rovioces of 'Vest Airica, Ea.'it Mrica, Asia
GDd Oceanisj Spanish ()olouies: U.K. Oversc..sTerritories; U.8.A. Territories.
• Ne therlands membership iucludcs Sl1rinam, Netherlands Antilles and New OuiDea:
Uniou 01 South Africn membersbip includes Sout.lowest Africa. I .T.U. members al~o include
DeJgiaD Oongo and R URnda·Urund i ; Freuch O V'erscn~ T~rrjtories; Portuguese Overseas
Provinces; Federation of Rhodesia And N'YIl..::oaJ:':md; Spanish Possessions; U.K. colonies,
protectorates, oversclU> territories and territories under mandate or t ntstceship: U.S. terri-
tories. I .'1'.U. also has 5 associate members: Briti. b East A!riCII; Britisb West Africa;
Malaya-British Dorneo Group; Trust Terriwry of Somuliland under It-aHan adwinidtrution ;
ant! Bermuda-Britisb Oaribbean Group.
• W MO members also include Belgian Congo; Bermuda; British Caribbean Territories;
British East .African Territories aud Indian Ocean Islands; Dritish Malaya-Borneo T erritories;
British 'Vest African Territories; Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasa]and; Cameroon Re-
public ; l'reuch Equatoria.l Africa ; French Oceanic Colonies; French SomaliIa-nd ; }'rcnch
Togoland ; French West Africa; Hong Kong; M"d agasc.~r; Ncthcrlanus Antilles; Nether-
landd New Guinea ; New Caledonia; Port.uguese East Africa; Portuguese 'Vest Africa;
Spanish Guinea 'ferri tories ; Surinam.
I. International Atomic Energy Agency (I.A.E.A.)

Origin. An International Atomic Energy Agency came into existence
on 29 July 1%7. Its statute had been approved on 26 Oct. W5G, at an
international conference held at U.N. Headquarters, New York, and came
into force s.fter ratification b y at least 18 signatory states, including a t least
3 of the following : Canada, France, the U.S.S.R., the U.K. and the U.S.A.
An agreement concerning t he relationship with the Un ited Nations was
approved by the General Assembly on 14 Nov. 1957.
Funclioll£. (1) To accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic
cnergy to peace, health and prosperity t hroughout the world , and (2) to
ensure that assistance provided by it or at its request or under its supervision
or control is not used in such a way as to further any military purpose.
Organization. The Statute provides for an annual General Conference, a
Board of Governors of 23 members and a staff headed by a Director·GeneraL
He,/(I'luarteTs . Kartncrring 11-1 3, Vienna. I, Austria.
Directcw·General. W. Sterling Cole (U.S.A.).
2. Int·!rnationai Labour Organisation (I.L.O.)

Ori:/in. The I.L.O., established in 1919 as an autonomous institution
associated with the League of Nations, is a tripartite organization, in which
govern.:nents, employers and workers are directly represented. It seeks
through international action to improve labour conditions, raise living
standards, and promote economic and social stability. In 1946 the I.L.O.
was recognized by the United Nations as the specialized agency responsible
for inkrnational action in the above fields.
Fuacti0n8. One of the I.L.O.'s principal functions is the formulation of
international standards in the form of International Labour Conventions
and R'lcommendations. Member countries are required to submit Con·
ventions to their competent national authorities with a view to ratification.
If a country ratifies a Convention it agrees to bring its laws into line with its
terms 'lnd to report annually how these regulations are being applied.
Over 1.900 ratifications of 114 Conventions had been deposited by the end
of 195!1. Machinery is available to ascertain whether Conventions thus
ratified are effectively applied.
Recommendations do not require ratification, but member states are
obliged to consider them with a view to giving effect to their provisions by
legislation or other action. Member states also undertake to report regularly
on their position in regard to Recommendations and unratified Conventions.
Organization. The I.L.O. consists of the International Labour Confer.
ence, which meets yearly, the Governing Body, and the International
Labour Office.
The Conference is composed of national delegations comprising 2 govern·
ment rE.presentatives and 1 delegate each from the most representative worker
and employer organizations within each country, together with their advisers.
The 40·member Governing Body is composed of the representatives of
20 gov'lrnments, 10 worker members and 10 employer members who are
elected every 3 years by their respective representatives to the Conference.
Ten governments hold permanent seats on the Governing Body because of
their industrial importance, namely, Canada, China, France, Germany
(Feder~.l Republic), India, Italy, Japan, U.S.S.R., U.K., and U.S.A. The
remaining 10 government seats were, in 1959, held by Belgium, Brazil, Chile,
CzechoHlovakia, Iraq, Mexico, Pakistan, Peru, the Philippines and Sweden.
The Office undertakes research on labour, social and economic questions,
acts as an advisory service to governments and prepares documents on the
items of the agenda of the various conferences and meetings.
Activitie4. In addition to its extensive resea.rch a.nd a.dvisory a.ctivities,
the I.L.O. extends technical assistance to governments under its regular
budget a.nd under the U.N. Expanded Technical Assistance PrograDlme in
the fiel1s of manpower find vocational tra.ining, co-operat.ion and bandi·
crafts, social Recllrity. industrial safety and hygiene, productivity, et.c.
I.L.O.'f work in technical assistance also includes the provision of informa.
tion to governments and organiza.tions on request, advisory missions and a
fellowship programme.
Fiel:l offices are maintained at Bangalore (India) for Asia, at Lima
(peru) for South AmeriCll, at Mexico City (Mexico) for Central America and
the Calibbean, at Istanbul (Turkey) for the Middle East and at Lagos
(Nigeril') for Africa south of the Sahara.
Headquarter8. 154, rue de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland.
Dir"ctor·General. David A. Morae (U.S.A.).
UNITED NATIONS 13
Chairman of tlte Governing Body. Ernst Michanek (Sweden).
Director, London OjJke (38 Pa.rliament St., S.W.I). Sir Guildhaume
Myrddin·Evans, K.C.M.G., C.B.
There are also branch offices in Bonn, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Moscow, New
Delhi, Ottawa, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Rome, Tokyo and Washington.
Publicalioru. Regulnr periodicals in English, French and Spanish include the InlerMli01l4/
Labour Rttlieto( monthly); lmlustry ami Labour (twice monthly); Ugi,/ali•• Series (bimonth·
ly) ; OccupalWnal SafelY and Health (quarterly); Official BullI!lin (irregular); the Year Book
of Labour Stalisl~ (trilingual); and I .L.O. News, published monthly in English, French and
Spanish, hl·monthly in German, and at Irregular intervals in ArabiC, Dutch, Hindu, Japanese,
Swedish and Urdu.
'1'''' InkmatWnal Labour Code, 1951 (2 vol., Geneva, 1952) contains a systematic arrangement
of conventions and recommendations.
3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (F.A.O. )
Origin. The United Nations Conference on Food and Agriculture in
May 1943, at Hot Springs, Virginia, set up an Interim Commission in
Washington in July 1943 to plan the Organization, which came into being on
16 Oct. 1945.
Function.!. F .A.O. continually reviews the food and agricultural con-
ditions in the world and supplies member governments with facts and
figures, appraisals and forecasts, relating to nutrition and to production,
trade and consumption of the products of agriculture, fisheries and forestry.
F.A.O. recommends and, where appropriate, promotes national and inter-
national action which it considers necessary to attain: (1) the improvement
of production, processing, marketing and distribution of the products of
agriculture, forestry and fisheries; (2) higher levels of nutrition and standard
of living; (3) the improvement of education and administration in its
fields of activity ; (4) the conservation of natural resources; (5) the im·
provement of systems of land tenure and provision of credit for agriculture.
F.A.O. also operates part of the U.N. Expanded Technical Assistance
Programme under which technicians are sent, on request, to underdeveloped
countries to aid in programmes of national development. F.A.O.'s opera·
tions are financed by contributions from its member countries (budget for
1958-59, SI7m.; 1960-61, SIS·9m.) and by a share (approximately SS·om.
in 1960) of the U.N. Expanded Programme for Technical Assistance.
Organization. F.A.O. is operated by a Conference (composed of 1
representative from each member nation), a Council (consisting of 25 member
nations elected by the Conference) and the Director-General and his staff.
National F .A.O. Committees have been set up by 58 member governments
to serve as primary points of contact between F.A.O. and governmental a.nd
non.governmental agencies.
Headquarter8. Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome, Italy.
Director-General. B. R. Sen (India).
F.A.O. publications include : 'I'he Work Of F.A .O. Annual, 1947 f1.-A<li1rili .. of F .A.O.
under the Technil:aI A ..istana Program. Annual, 19~2 fr.-The Suue 0/ Food and Agriculture.
Annual, 1948 f1 .-Y ... rbook 0/ Food and Apricultu .. Slati.'ics. 1947 ff.- Yta.book of Fi,httV.
"uu!.slics, 1947 fr.-Y""rbool; Of For.., ProdVClJ "taliJlics 1948 1I.-Yatel!, P. L .,
Aim. Rome, 1955. -JIillions still go hungry. Rome, 1957
,,0 Bold"n
4 . United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO)
Origin. A Conference for the establishment of an Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization of the United Nations was convened by the
Government of the U.K. in association with the Government of France, and
met in London, 1-16 Nov. 1945. UNESCO came into being on 4 Nov.
1946, when the instruments of a.cceptance of 20 signa.tories of its constitu·

tion ha.d been deposited with the Government of the U.K.
Fur:ctio1l8. Tho purpose of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and
security by promoting colla.boration among the nations through education,
science and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the
rulo of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are
affirmed for the peoples of the world, withou t distinction of race, sex,
langua~:e or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations.
Activities. Tho education programme has three main objectives: the
extensi'JD of education; the improvement of education; and education for
living ill a world community.
To train teachers specialized in the techniques offundamental education,
UNESCO is helping to establish regional and national training centres. A
c~ntre for Latin America was opened in Mexico in 1951, one for the Arab
States ';vas set up in Egypt in 1953. UNESCO seeks to promote the pro·
gressivE' application of the right to free and compulsory education for all
and to :mprove the quality of education everywhere.
In be natural sciences, UNESCO seeks to promote international scientific
co.opention by initiating meetings between scientists and aiding the work
of international scientific organizations. It encourages scientific research
designe:l to improv~ the living conditions of mankind. Science co.operation
offices have been set up in Montevideo, Cairo, New Delhi and Jakarta.
In its mass communication work, UNESCO endeavours by disseminating
informa.tion, carrying out research and providing advice, to increase the
scope and quality of press, film and radio services throughout the world.
Organization. The organs of UNESCO are a General Conference (COOl'
posed of representatives frolD each member state), an Executive Board
(consisting of 24 government representatives elected by the General Con·
ference:' and a Secretariat. The 10th general conference was held at Paris
in Nov.-Dec. 1958.
National commissions act as liaison groups between UNESCO and the
educatbnal, scientific and cultural life of their own countries.
Headquarters. Unesco House, 9 Place de Fontenoy, Paris (7~m.).
Dil""ctor·General. Dr Vittorino Veronese (Italy).
Ptrio,/icab. MUJeum (quarterly, English and Frencb); Intnnaliooal Social Sci",,,
Bulltlin ,quarterly, English and French); Impact of Scie1lu on Sotiety (quarterly. English
and French); UntSCO Coum, (monthly, English, French and Spanish); FundaflU>n!al and
Adull E,lucalion BulIelin (quarterly, English, French anll Spanish); COP1lri9hl Bullelin
(twice'yelfly, English and French); OntSCO Chtooiclt(monthly, English. French and Spanish);
antSCO l'ulltlin fo, Librari.. (monthly, English, French "nd Spanish); CUrTmI Sociology
(twlce'ye~rly, English and French).
5. Wodd Health Organization (WHO)

Ori9in. An International Health Confcrence, convened by the United
Nation;. Economic and Social Council, met in New York from 19 June to
22 July 1946, and drew up a constitution for the World HeoJth Organiza.
tion. '.Chis constitution camo into force on 7 April 1948.
Fur..cti01l8. The Constitution of WHO defines health as • a state of
complete physical, mental, and social well.being and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity.' It sets down as the objective of WHO' the attain-
ment b:r all peoples of the highest possible level of health.'
Some of the functions of WHO toward the achievement of this aim arc:
(1) to act as the directing and co·ordinating authority on international
health work; (2) to establish and maintain collaboration with the United
Nation;, specialized agencies, governments, professional and other groups in
UNITED NATIONS 15
the health field ; (3) to stimult.te and advance work to eradi<,ate epidemic,
endemic and other diseases; (4) to promote the prevention of accidental
injuries; (5) to promote the improvement of nut-rition, housing, sanitation,
recreation, economic or working conditions, and other aspects of endronmen -
tal hygiene; (6) to promote maternal and child health and welfare; (7) to
promote research in the field of hedth; (8) to promote improved standard~
of teaching and training; (9) to foster activities in the field of mental
health; (10) to study and report, on administrative and social techniques in
the healt.h field; (11) to standardize international nomenclatures of diseases,
causes of death and public health practices as well as diagnostic procedure ;
and (12) to promote international standards with respect to food, biological,
pharmaccutical and similar products_
Organization. WHO consists of a World Health Assembly, represent.ing
all member states, an Executive Board, consisting of 18 technically qualified
persons designated by 18 member states elected by the World Health
Assembly, and a Secretariat. Regional organizations have been established
for Africa, the Americas, South-East Asia, Europe, the eastern Mediter-
ranean and the western Pacific. The Pan American Health Organizatinn
serves as the regional organization for the Americas.
lieadquarters. Palais des Nations, Geneva. Regional Offices. Brazza-
villc, Washington, New Delhi, Copenhagen, Alexandria, Manila.
Diredor-General. Dr Marcolino Gomes Candau (Brazil).
Publitalioou : _
Official Ruoro.., 1947 If. (English, French and Spanish)
Cllronic/e ojll" World Health O,ganizalion (monthly from 1947 ; Chinese, English , Frenc.b
Russian nnd Spanish)
Bu/ktin oj/Iu World H.al/h Organilali"" (qoal'terly, from 1947; monthly, from 1952)
inkrnali0n4/ Dig," 01 H.aUh Ltgi.slalifm « Ioartedy. from 1948; English nnd French)
WHO Technical ~orl 8(1;"', 1950 If- (English and Frencb)
dnnuol Epidemiological a"d Vital SlaIislia (from 1939; irregular ; English and French)
Epidnlliological and Vital Stalistics Rqort (monthly, (rom June 1947; Eoglish and It'renc h
W uklV Epidemiolcogicn/ Record (from 1946; English and French)
WHO Monograph S~.,1951 If.
6. International Monetary Fund (FUND)
The International Monetary Fund was estaLlished on 27 Dec. 1945 IlS a
result of the United Nations Monetary and Pinancial Conference held at
Bretton Woods, N.H., in July 1944. The total subscription in gold and
national currencies for the 68 nations now members of the ~'und on 30
~ov. 1959 was S13,800m., when tho Fund held $~,900m. in the form of
gold and SIO,200m. in the form of national currencies.
Mem her Quota Vot...
(. - original memher) 'GS$1m. o, ."1)· Number ~~
AlgMnl,U>n 10·0 0-07 350 0 ·~ 3
Argentina 150·0 1-09 1,750 1·14
Australia ~OO·O 3·19 3,260 2-11
A.ustria . "i f)-O 0·65 I,OuO 0 ·65
BelgiuJD • 3~7· 5 2·46 3,625 2·35
Bolivia· 12·5 0·09 375 0' 24
Dcu7.ilo _ 150-0 1·09 1,7W 1·14
Borma . 15 -0 0-11 400 0·26
Canada· ;')':'0·0 4·01 5,760 3-73
Caylon . 45·0 0·33 700 1)·45
Chile·. . 75-0 0-55 1,000 0'65
Obina (Taiwan) • 550-0 l·lll 5,750 3·13
Colombia· . 7:>'0 0-55 1,000 0'65
Costa Rica· _ 5-0 0-04 300 0·19
Oubn* • 50·0 0·36 7W 0·49
Denmark _. 130-0 0- 95 1,550 1·01
Domiuican Republic· 10 -0 0·07 Sr.O O':!3
16 INTERNATIONAL ORGA.NIZATIONS
ldember Quota Vote.

(. - original member) US$lm. % Number %
B<,uador" 15·0 0·11 400 0'26
El Salvador' . 11·25 0·08 362 0·24
Ethiopia' 7·8 0·06 328 0·21
Finland . 57·0 0·42 820 0·53
FJance • 787·5 5·75 8,125 5·28
o.,rmany, Federal Republio 78N 0·75 8,125 5·28
Ghana . 35'0 0·26 600 0'39
Gleece ". 40·0 0·29 650 0·42
Guatemala- 15·0 0 ·11 400 0·26
HnUI 11-25 0·08 362 0·24
Hnndurae· 8·25 0·06 332 0·22
Io,land' 1-5 0·01 265 0'17
In:lia' . 600·0 4-38 6,260 4·06
Indonesia 165·0 1-20 1,900 H3
In", " 35·0 0·26 600 0·39
In"!" 8·0 0·06 330 0·21
Irsb Republic 45'0 0'33 700 0'45
Is..ael 20·0 0·18 500 0·32
It<dy 270·0 1·97 2,950 H2
.Japan 600·0 3·65 5,2~0 3·41
.Jordan • 3·0 0·02 280 0-18
KI)re& 12'5 0·09 375 0·24
LEbanon "5 0·03 296 0·19
Libya 7·0 0·06 320 0·21
Lt.:z:embourg • . 10·0 0·07 350 0 ·23
ld,\Iaya . 27'5 0·20 525 0·34
MHDCO • 90·0 0'66 1.160 0' 76
ld.)cooco 52·5 0·38 775 0·50
N.,tberiand.· • 412·5 3·01 4,375 '·84
Nicaragua 11·25 0·08 362 0·24
NHrway· 100·0 0·73 1,250 0·81
P •.kistaD 100·0 0·73 1,260 0·81
Pe_nlUlla . 0'5 0-04 265 0·17
P.raguay • 7'6 0-05 326 0·21
Peru • 27·v 0·20 625 0·34
Philippines' . 60·0 0· 36 750 0 -49
Saudi Arabia. 1" '0 0·07 360 0·23
Spain 100·0 0·73 1,250 0·81
Sedan 10'0 0·11 400 0'26
S.-eden . 150-0 1·09 1,750 J.l4
Tl,ailand 45·0 0· 33 700 0·46
Tuni sia . 12-0 0·09 370 0·24
Ttllkey . . . 86·0 0 -63 1,110 0·72
Ulllon of Soutb Alrica • 150·0 1-09 1,760 1<14
U"ited Arab Republic 66·6 0·49 916 0 ·59
U.K. ' . 1,950'0 14'23 19,760 12·82
U.S.A. ". 4,125'0 30·11 41,500 26·95
UlUguay" 15·0 0·11 400 0·26
V.,n...nela 15-0 0-11 (00 0·26
Vietnam 14·5 0-11 395 0·26
Yug08la via " 66-0 0·48 910 0-5 9
Total 13,701·3 100·00 154,011 100·00
Pu",poses. To promote international monetary co.operation and er·

change stability, and to assist in the removal of exchange restrictions. The
Fund sneks to facilitate expansion of world trade as a means of promoting
high le"els of employment and income, and of developing the productive
resourC<lS of its members.
Activities. The Fund has collaborated with member governments in
establishing a pattern of exchange rates fixed in ratio to gold and the US S.
Change:1 by more than 10% in these rates must be approved by the Fund's
Boa.rd .)f Executive Directors. The Fund works towards the removal of
restrictions on current exchange transactions, and is consulted by its
membel:8 on ma.jor cha.nges in their foreign.exchange practices. Members
UNITED NATIONS 17
may exchange limited amounts of their own currencies for other
currencies held by the Fund, for purposes approved by its Directors.
Organization. The Fund's activities are supervised by a Board of
Governors on which each member government is represented. The Gover-
nors IlSsemble once a year to review the Fund's work; admit new members;
approve revision of quotas; make arrangements to co-operate with other
international organizations; determine the distribution of the net income
of the Fund; hold biennial elections to the Board of Executive Directors,
and discuss any other business appropriately brought before them.
The Executive Directors are responsible for the general operations of
the Fund. Five of them are appointed by nations having the 5 largest
quotas. The others, on a board of not less than 12 and currently 18,
are elected by member countries not represented by appointed Directors.
Voting power in these elections is governed by the amount of each nation's
subscription quota. Each appointed Director has voting power propor-
tionate to the quota of the government he represents. Ejected Directors
cast the number of votes which counted toward their election.
The Managing Director is selected by the Executive Directors; he pre-
sides as chairman at their meetings, but may not vote except in case of a tie_
His term is for 5 years, but may be terminated at the discretion of the
Directors. He is responsible for the ordinary business of the Fund, under
general control of the Directors, and supervises a staff of 428.
Co-ordination with the United Nations. The Fund, while an independent
international organization, has been brought into relationship with the
United Nations by an agreement signed on 16 April 1948.
Headquarters. 19th & If St., N.W., Washington 25, D .e.
Managing Director. Per Jacobsson (Sweden).
Publication.!. Articlt. oJ Agrtemnll.-By-Law. and Rule. and Regulalion.!.-Summa"
P,OC«ding. oJ Annual M ..ting oJ 1114 Board oJ aooernoTl.-Annual Rtporl oJ 1114 EZ<CUIi••
Di,«Ior••-Financial St4Umenl (quarterly).-ScMdu/< oJ Par Value. (.e< pp. 23-4).-Inur-
national Financial SlaIislies (monthly).-lntemational Financial NetD. Suroey (weekly).-
BalanceoJ Paynunts Yearbook. W.shlngton, 1949 ft.-I .M.F. Staff Paptr. (three time. a year).
Washington, from Feb. 1960.-Annual Rtport on Ezchang< nes/riClions. Washington, 1960 ft .
SCHEDULE OF' PAR V.u.UES. The Fund Agreement requires that 'the par value of the
currency of each member shall be expresseci in terms of gold as a common denominator or
in terms of the US$ of the weight and fineuess in etrect on 1 July 1944'.
The following table records t he p~r values as of 14 Aug. 1959; for the values prior to
the devaluation 01 the £ sterilng 01 18 Sept. 1949 and the subsequent devaluation of otber
currenCies, Je< TilE STd'ESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK. 1949, pp. 17-19.
Par values have not yet been agreed with the Fund by the following countries: AIghl<ni-
stan, Ohina, Greece, Indonesia, Italy, Korea, Libya, Malaya, Peru, Thailand, Tunisia, Uru-
guay, Vietnam. Oanada notified the Fuud on 30 Sept. 1950, of its intention to permit
the Oanadian doUar to fluctu"te for a te mporary period.
CURRENCIES OF METROPOLITAN AREAS

Grammes 01 Currenoy nnit. Ourrency U.S. cents
fine gold per per troy oz. units per per currency
Country Currency currency ani t 01 fine gold US$ nnit
Argentina r .so
• 0·0493706 630·000 18·000 5'566 66
Austra.lia Pound 1·99062 15·625 0·446429 224·000
Austria Schilling 0·034 179 6 910·000 26·000 a-84616
Belgium Franc 0·017773 4 1,760·000 60·000 2'000
Bolivia' BoUviano 0·00467722 6,660'000 190·000 0'626316
Brazil . Oruzeiro 0·0480363 647-500 18·500 6'40541
Burma Kyal 0·186621 166·667 4·7619 21'000
Ceylon. Rupee 0·186621 166·667 4·761 9 21'000
Chile' . Peso 0·00807883 3,850'000 110·000 0'909091
Colombia Peso 0·465733 68·2493 1·949 98 51'2826
Ooota RIca Col6n 0·158267 196·626 6·615 17-8094
• See notes under these countries.
Grammes of Currency units Currency U.fl. cents
fin.. gold per per troy o~. units per per currency
Ccllntry Currency currency unit 01 line gold US$ unit
Cutoa . Peso 0·888 e7l 35·000 1·000 100·000
Denma.·t .. . KroDe 0·128660 241-760 6·90714 14'4778
DomlnJ':an Repub. Peso 0·888671 35,000 1·000 100·000
Bcuado:' . Sucr. 0 ·059244 7 525·000 1~ ' 000 6·66667
BI Salvlldor . Colon 0·366468 870600 2·500 40·000
Etbioplll Dollar 0·357690 86·956 6 2·48447 40·260
Finland Markka 0'002777 1 1l,200·000 320-000 0·312 ~
France Franc 0·0018 17,279'7 493·706 0·2026:>
Germany (West) Mark 0·211 688 147·000 4·200 23·8096
Gbana . Pound 2-48828 12·500 0· 357 143 280·000
Goatomda Quetzal 0·888671 35·000 1·000 JOO·OOO
Haiti . Gourde 0·177734 175·000 6·000 20·000
Hondor-lS Lempira 0·444 33~ 70·000 2·000 50·000
Iceland Kron$ 0·023 3861 1,330'000 38·000 2·63J LS
India Ropee 0·J86621 166·667 4·76190 21·000
Iran Rial 0·011 731 6 2,661' 250 13·750 1·32013
Iraq. . Dinar 2-48828 12·600 0·367143 2~0·000
Irish Republic Pound 2·48828 12·500 0·357143 280·000
Israel Pound 0'49370d 63'000 1·800 66'5666
Japan . Yen 0'0024686l 12·600 360·000 0·27777$
Jordan Dinar 2·48828 12·600 0·357143 280·000
Lebanoll Pound 2·488 2S 12'500 0 '357143 280·000
Libya. . Pound 0'406 ~12 76·7018 2-191 48 45·631 8
Loxcmbourg Frano 0·0177734 1,750'000 60·000 2·000
Yexico Peso 0·011 093 7 4SHOO 12·500 8·000
Morocco . Derham 0 ·175 Cl 177-117 5'06049 19· 760 9
Netberl,.nd • . Guilder 0·233861 133·000 3·800 26·3J68
Nicaragua OOrdoba 0·126963 246.000 7·000 14·2867
Norway Krone 0·124414 250·000 7·142 B6 14·000
Palrista" Ropee 0·186621 IM·667 4·7619 21 '000
PaD1\ma &lbo1> 0'S88611 35·000 1·000 100·000
P..-aguay ' . . Guaranl 0·014 811 2 2.100·000 60·000 1·66667
Philippine Repub . . Peso 0·444 335 70·000 2·000 60·000
SaudiA ....bia Rial 0·197482 157-500 4·500 22-2222
Spain Peset" 0 ·014 811 2 2.100,000 60·000 1-666 67
SlIdan . Pound 2·55187 12·1885 0·348212 287-156
Sweden Krona 0·171'S3 18J.062 5·17321 19·330 ,
Turkey . Lira 0·317382 98·000 2·S00 35·714 S
Union 0" S. Africa Pound 2·48S 28 12·600 0·357143 280·000
UnIted Arab Rep.:
Egypt Pound 2' 55187 12-1885 0·3,18242 287-156
Syria Pounll 0 '4Q5512 76·701 S 2-19148 45'631 3
U.K. Pound 2'488 28 12-600 0·357143 280·000
U.S.A .. DoUar 0·888671 35·000 1·000 100·000
Venezue:a Boliv"r 0·265 2,5 117'2~0 3-360 29·8507
YogosJa"ia Dinar 0·002962 24 10,600·(11)0 300·000 0·33333
1 See notes under these countries.
CURRENCIES OF NON·METROPOLITAN AREAS
Currency and Currency
Memter and ....Iation to Grammes 01 onits per Currency U.8. ceuts
non-metropolitan metropolitan tine gold per troy oz. of units per per currency
ar ~AS unit currency unit fine gold US$ uuit
BELGIUM
Belgian Gongo Franc Parity witb Belgian Iranc.
F'RM'C.ft
AJgeril\ \
Fr. Antilles ,. Franc Parity with Frencb franc.
Fr. Gllla,a
African mem..
bers ·,f
the 1 CFA Franc 0·0036 8.639·86 246·853 0 ' 40~ 099
J
Commllrjty . (=2·(11)
Reunion French !renCil
St Piene and
Miquclon
Polynesia } OFP Franc 0·0099 3,141 ' 77 89·7647 H1402
N. Ollled.mla (=5-50
N . HebrU"" Frencb francs
Fr. Somolilond DjibooU Franc 0·004 14607 7.603,73 ~14·3~2 0·166436
UNITED NATIONS 19
Currency and Currency
Member and relation to Grammes 01 units per Currency D.S. cents
non. metropolitan metropolit4ln ftoe gold per troy en. 01 unita per per currency
areas unit currency unit 60e gold US. noit
NETHERLANDS
Netberlands } GuUder(=2·015 0·411 230 66·00, 9 1-S8H~ ~3·026 4
.!DtiUes, Surl· Netherlands
nom guilders)
U.K.
Gambia. NiSl'ria. Sierra Leone (West African £). Federation of Rbodesia and NYQ.,aland
(Rhodesia and ~yasaland £), Cyprus (Oyprus £). GilJraltar (Gibraltar £). Malta (Maltese £).
BahamllS (Bahamas £), Bermuda (Bermuda £). Jamaica (Jamaican £), Falkland Is. (Falk·
lood £) are at parity with U.K. £ sterling.
Som.IUand
Aden
Keny.
1 Enst African
SWlling
0·124414 260·000 7-142 86 14·000
Ugand. (20 per £
Tanganyika sterling)
Za.nzibar
Ba.rb.dos } British West 0' 5183n 60'000 1·71429 ~S ' 333
Trinld&d Indian $
British GuiuM (4·80 per £
Leew.rd Is. sterling)
Wlndw.rd Is.
British Br. Honduras $ 0'62207Q 50·000 1-428 &1 70·000
Hondur... (4·00 per £
sterling)
MaurlUus Rupee(l3i per 0·186621 166·667 ( ,761 ~o 21·000
}
SeycbeUes £ sterling)
Fiji ~' iji £ (HI per 2·241 69 13·875 0 · 3~6 429 252·252
£ sterling)
Tonga Tongnn £ 1-93062 15·625 0·446429 224·000
(1,25 per £
sterUng)
Hong Kong nong Kong 0·155517 200·000 5·714 29 11·600
(16 per £
.tcrling)
British North } Malayan $ 0 ' 2~O 299 107·143 3·06123 32 ' 66~ 7
Borneo (8'571 428 57
Brunei per £ sterling,
Samwak or 23. 4<1. per
Singapore Malayan $)
7. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
Conceived at tbe Bretton Woods Conference, July 19!4, the Bank began
operations in June 1946. Its purpose is to provide and facilitate international
investment for increasing production, raising living standards and
helping to bring a bout a better' balance in world trade.
In Sept. 1959 the Bank's authorized capital was increased from
SIO,OOOm. to SZI,OOOm. and by 31 Dec. 1959 member governments had
subscribed a total of $18,400m. Of this, about Sl,900m. was paid in and
could be drawn on for lending; the remaining $16,50000. could be called if
necessary to meet the Bank's obligations and serves as a backing for its sales
of securities. The Bank functions by making loans out of its own funds, or
out of funds raised by the sale of its bonds and other borrowings.
At 31 Dec. 1959 the Bank had made 219 loan8 totalling U.871m. in
51 of its 68 member countries or their overseas territories, for projects Buch
as reconstruction, electric power, tra.llsportation, industry, agriculture,
communications and general development. In addition to loans, the Bank
furnishes technical assistance in various ways.
The Bank established in 1956 a.n Economic Development Institute in
Washington, D.C., where senior officials of the member countries participate
in courses on the formulation of economic policies and the planning and
sdUlinistration of development programmes.
Since it began operations, the Bank's net earnings have amounted to

approximately $3IOm., which have been allocated to a Supplemental
Reserve against losses on loans and guarantees. This, together with a
SpeciHl Reserve, brought total reserves at 31 Dec. 1959 to about $461m.
H..adquarters. ISIS H St., Washington, D.C.
P,esident. Eugene R. Black (U.S.A.).
Pub. ~ieations. Proueding. of Annual Meeting.. 1946 a.-Annual R<porn. 1947 ft.-
Reporu on SP«ial MiI.rions 10 Brili.rh Guiana, C'1Ilon. Cuba,Iraq, MaJalla, <le. 1960 ft.-TIu
World ,1a"k, Policies and Operations. 1957.-Loans at W.,.t. 1955 fI.
S. International Finance Corporation (IFC)
TIIC Corporation, established in July 1956, is closely affiliated with the
World Bank, with capital of $95m. subscribed by 58 member governments.
Its purpose is to further economic development in its less developed member
countries by investing-without government guarantee-in productive
private enterprises ill association with private investors who can provide
comp€tent management, in cases where sufficient private capital is not
availa'Jle on reasonable terms. Essentially IFC is an investing rather than
a lending institution. At 31 Jan. 1960 the Corporation had entered into 27
commi.tments totalling S21m. to invest in private enterprises in 12 countries.
Gross income from investments for the fiscal year ended 30 June 1959
was $:1,153,000, and after deduction of operating expenses of $1,413,000,
net ineome for the year was $1,740,000.
He.ulquarters. 1818 H St.. , N.W . Washington, D.C.
Pr. ,sideni. Robert L. Garner (U.S A.).
PubFcutions. Proceed.ings of A nnual Afeel in[Js. 1956 fT.-Annual R eports. 1956 11.-
I nterllQli(mal F inance C orporation, Policies and Operations 1959.
9. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Origin. The Convention providing for the establishment of the Inter.
na.tion.\l Civil Avia.tion Organization was drawn up by the International Civil
Aviation Conference held in Chicago from 1 Nov. to 7 Dec. 1944. A Pro.
visiona.1 International Civil Aviation Organization (PICAO) operated from
6 June 1945 until the formal establishment of ICAO on 4 April 1947.
Th" Convention on International Civil Aviation superseded the provisions
of the Paris Convention of 1919, which established the International Com·
rnissioll for Air Navigation (ICAN), and the Pan American Convention on
Air Navigation drawn up at Havana in 1928.
FUOlcti01I8. It assists international civil aviation by encouraging use of
safety measures, uniform regulations for operation, simpler procedures at
bordem, etc.; and promotes use of new technical methods and equipment.
Org.1.nization. The principal organs of ICAO are an Assembly, consisting
of all members of the Organization, and a Council, which is comprised of 21
states t lected by the Assembly, for 3 years, and meets in virtually continuous
session . In electing these states, the Assembly must give adequate repre·
sentati.m to: (1) those member states of major importance in air transport;
(2) those member states not otherwise included which make the largest
contribution to the provision of facilities for international civil air naviga.
tion; (3) those member states not otherwise included whose election will
ensure that all major geographical areas of the world are represented. The
main subsidiary bodies are: the Air Navigation Commission, composed of
12 members elected by the Council; Air Transport Committee, composed
of 12 s ~ates appointed by the Council from among its members; and the
Legal Committee, on which all members of ICAO may be represented.
UNITED NATIONS 21
Headquarter8. International Aviation Building, 1080 University St.,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Secretary. General. Ronald Macdonnell (Canada).
Publication.J. PICAO Journal.-ICAO Monthly Bulletin.-ICAO regional manuals.
10. Universal Postal Union (UPU)
Origin. The UPU was established on 1 July 1875, when the Univerdal
Postal Convention adopted by the Postal Congress of Berne on 9 Oct. 1874
came into force. The UPU was known at first as the General Postal Union,
its name being changed at the Congress of Paris in 1878.
Functions. The aim of the UPU is to assure the organization and per-
fection of the various postal services and to promote, in this field, the
development of international collaboration. To this end, the members of
UPU are united in a single postal territory for the reciprocal exchange of
correspondence.
Organization. The UPU is composed of a Universal Postal Congress,
which usually meets every 5 years, a permanent Executive and Liaison
Committee, which consists of 19 members elected on a geographical basis by
each Congress, and an International Bureau, which functions as the per-
manent sccretariat.
Since I JUly 1948 the Union hM been governed by the revised Con-
vention adopted by the twelfth Congress in Paris on 5 JUly 1947.
Headquarters. Case Berne 15, Berne, Switzerland.
Director. Dr Fritz Hess (Switzerland).
Publication,. Univ ....sal Postal Convenlioll: Pari .• , 5 July, 1948. (Cmd. i435.).-Th.
Postal Union (monthly, Arable, Chlnese, English. Fre.och, Spaui~b, Russian).
lX. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

Origin. The International Telegraph Union, founded in Paris in 1865,
and the International Rltdiotelegraph Union, founded in Berlin in 1906,
were merged by the Madrid Con;-ention of 1932 to form the International
Telecommunication Union. ITV camo into being on 1 Jan. 1934. The
ITU has been governed since 1 Jan. 1949 by the revised International
Telecommunication Convention adopted on 2 Oct. 1947.
Functiona. The ITU (1) allocates radio frequencies and registers radio-
frequency assigtlments; (2) seeks to establish the lowest rates possible,
consistent with efficient service and taking into account the necessity for
keeping the independent financial administration of telecommunication on
a sound basis; (3) promotes the adoption of measures for ensuring the safety
of life through telecommunication; and (4) makes studies and recommenda-
tions and collects and publishes information for the benefit of its members.
Organization. The ITU consistR of the Plenipotentiary Conference,
administrative conferences, the Administrative Council, the General
Secretariat, the International Frequency Registration Board, and 3 inter-
national consultative committees (radio, telephone, telegraph).
Headquarter8. Palais Wilson, Geneva, Switzerland.
Secretary-General. Gerald Gross (U.S.A.).
Publication. International Con.enti"" on Telec&mm'mication.J, 1947. (Cmd. 8124.
R.M.S.O., 1950.
12. World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

Origin. A Conference of Directors of the International Meteorological
Organization (set up in 1878), meeting in Washington in 1947, adopted a
Conv(,ntion creating the World Meteorological Organization. The WMO

Convt'ntion became effective on 23 March 1950, and WMO was formally
esta.blished on 19 March 1951, when the first session of its Congress was
convene in Paris. An agreement to bring WMO into relationship with the
Unite:! Nations was approvcd by this Congress and came into force on 21
Dec. I!l51 ,vith its approval by the General Assembly of the United Nations.
Ftmctions. (1) To promote internat.ional co.operation in the field of
meteorology and the quick exchange of weather data; (2) to cstablillh
world· ,vide networks of meteorological stations and facilitate the publication
and standardization of tbeir observations; (3) to further the application of
meteorology to human activities; and (4) to encourage research and training
in tbe field of meteorology.
Oraanization. WMO consists of a World Meteorological Congress, an
Executive Committee, regional meteorological associations a nd technical
comm lssions set up by the Congress, and a permanent secretariat. The
organization is headed by a President and 2 Vice· Presidents.
Headquarters. Campagne Rigot, Avenue de la Pail>, Geneva, Switzer·
land.
Se;. ,retary.General. David A. Davies (V.K .).
Pubii<:alion. lV MO Bulletin
13. Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)

Origin. A V.N. Maritime Conference met during Feb.-March 1!l4S.
Eighteen nations signed a Maritime Convent,ion which took effcct when
ratified by 21 stlltes, of which 7 eac.h h ave no less than 1DJ. gross tons of ship.
ping. Early in 1958,21 co untries had ratificd the convention, including S
with t be rcquired amount of shipping (Argentina, Canada, France, Greece,
Japan, Nethcrlands, U.K., V.S.A.).
F-u'lCtions. To provide machinery for co.operation among govcrnments
in the field of governmental regulations and practices relating to techni~al
matters including those coor,crning safety of life R·t sea.; to encourage the
removal of discriminatory action and of unncccs$ary restrictions by go\"crn·
ment~ ; to consider matters concerning unfllir rcstrictive practices by ship·
ping concerns; to consider any matter concenling shipping thnt might be
referred to it by any orgRn or specialized agency of the United Na tions; to
provid.) for exchange of information among govemmentll on matters under
consideration by the organization.
Or9anization. Il\lCO has an Assembly of alllllember states which meets
every !~ years, a Council (governing body of tho Agency betwcen Asscmbly
sellSionl) composed of 16 membel's (Argentina, Australia, Bclgium, Canada,
Franc'!, Federal Republic of Cermany, Greeco, India, Italy, Japan, Ncther·
lands, Norway, Sweden, U.S.S.R., United Kingdom and the United States,
and a I,eeretariat headed by a Secretary. General.
A Maritime Safety Committee has also been established consisting o f
14 member states.
Hec-4quarters. Chancery House, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.2.
Sec,·etary.General. Ove Nielsen (Denmark).
PubUcatiQn. I MCO, "'hat it is, what it does. 19;'9
An INTERNATIONAL TRADE ORCANIZATION is in process of formation.

See under GATT (p. 27).
WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES 23
Books of Reference
Yearbook of"" Unikd Nalions. New York, 19171!. AnDoal
United Natiom R""~. Monthly
Jlunlhiy Btdklin of Slalisli"
Gmet"al .t! ..emblJl: Official Records; Resolutions
R."..ts of th. Sure/ary·General of the Uni~ Nalions on th. Work of the Organitalion. 1946 n.
10 Engllsh and French
Documenl.$ of t.he United NaliOfU Coo/ertftct on lntemational Organization, San Francisco,
1945. 16 vols
Charier of the United Nalions and Statute of the lnurnationat Court of Justice. (Omd. 7015.)
Text in EngUsh, French, CWnese, Russian and Spanish
Repertory Of PraClice of U.N.'s Org.,... 6 voh!. New York, 1955
Official /leco,d~ 0/ the Securitv Council, tk Economic and Social Council, Trustulhip Council
and the iJiJarma1nent Comm-LJsitm
Demographic Yearbook, 1948J!. New York, 1949 fT.
E_Vf1Uln's United Naliom. 6th ed. New York, 1959
[J.N. Yearbook On Human RiglllJ. New York, 194811. A..nnual
Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. (Crud.8130.) R.M.S.O., 19~1
Stalis/ical Yearbook. Ncw York, 19471I.
YearbOOK of International 7'rade Statistics. New York, 195011.
Worl.l Cconomic Survey. New York, 1947!l.
Economic Su,vey oJ Asia and Ihe Fa, East. New York, 1946 fI.
Economic Sun:ey oJ Lalin .tl1nerica. New York, 19-18 tr.
Economic SUN)ev of Europe. New York, 1948 1'1.
Economic Survey of Africa since 1950. New York, 1960
Fakber, H., TI~ Relaliomhip .t!,nong Ihe Princ1pal Organs Of Ihe V.N. London, 195
Brngi~re, P.·F .. Les PouroiTS d.l'J,ssemblte Gtntrale <Us N.U. Paris, 1950
Itoourich, L. M., J..'he United :.va ti (m .~ . Ncnv Yo rk, 1£159
Kel,en, E., The Law uf IIIe United Nalion.!. Loudon, 1950.-Recenl Trend. in IIIe Lall! 0
Ihe V.N. London, 1901
Lie, Trygve, Inlhe Cause of Peace. London, 1954
Nicbolas, H. G., The United Nations as a political institution. Oxford Uni" Press , 19;)1,)
Peaslee, A. J. (ed.)., Constitutions Of Nalion.. 3 vols. Concord, N.H., 1950
Ross, A •• Constiluti(m Of tht United NalionJ. CopelJbagclI. 1~5Q
Schwebel, S. M., The Serretarll-General oJ the U.N. /lis political pOfl)ers and p'(lcl1~Ct.
B'a.rvarll Univ. !.lres8. 1952
"jncr, J., Th~ CWIt)m.J Uni01J lJJu~. New York, 19l>O
WaIter., F. P., A Hi'/(Jry oJ Ihe Lea,,!.. Of Nalion... 2 .-01•. London, 1952
Witth>luer, K., Die BeviJlke",ruj de, E,de: Ve,lritung una Dynamik. Gotba, 1958
Wood bridge, G., UNRR.t!. 3.0Is. New York, 1950
Her Mojesty'. Stationery Office. Seclicmal List 23 (currently re.-iscd) and International
O.ganizlUions Publicalion.! contain a lull liot of publicationa on U.N. and Specialized
-4-..ncieo, iS$ued by H .M.S .O.
London Informalion Cent". 14-15 Stratlord rJace, 11'.1. Direclor: John Reeuruan.
WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES

The World Council of Churches was formally constituted on 23 Aug.
1948, at Amsterdam, by an assembly representing 147 churches from 44
countries. The second assembl.v was held at Evanston, Ill., in Aug. 1954,
when delegates attended from 163 member churches.
The principal trends leading up to the World Council of Churches lllay be
summarized as follows:
(i) Co.operation in overseas missionary It'ork of Protestant churches.
The World Conference on Christian Missions, held at Edinburgh in 1910, was
followed in 1021 by the establishment of the International Missionary
Council. This Council held con ferences at Jerusalem in 1928, at Tambaram
(Madras) in H)3S-39, at Willingen (Germany) in 1952 and in Gh.'lna ill
195;-58.
(u) The Faith and Order movement, which studies the differences of belief
and practice sep:trating Christian churches, was founded under the initiative
of Charle~ Brent, Bishop of t.he Protestant Episcopal Church of the U.S.A.
in thf' Philippines. This movement held world conferences at Lausanno

in 1927, Edinburgh in 1937 and Lund in 1952.
(iii) The Life and Work movement, which promoted common Christian
study and action with regard to the social, political and economic probleIIl.8
of the time, was founded largely under the leadership of Nathan S6derblom,
Archbishop of Up ps ala. World conferences were held at Stockholm in 1925
and a>; Oxford in 1937.
A provisional committee to prepare the setting up of a World Council
was appointed at Utrecht, on 13 May 1938, under the chairmanship of
WilJiam Temple, then Archbishop of York.
Organization. The Amsterdam Assembly appointed a Central Com-
mittet, consisting of 90 members with power to appoint its own Executive,
and 6 presidents. The Evanston Assembly in 1954 appointed a. new Central
Committee and 6 new presidents. A budget of $441,000 was adopted to
provide for the new divisional structure and for the Ecumenical Institute,
the D~partment of Information and the Commission of the Churches on
International Affairs, together with small allocations to the East Aaia
Secretuiat and the Joint Committee of the World Council and the Inter-
national Missionary Council.
The Departments of the Council are grouped under 3 divisions, each
under a Divisional Committee with an Associate General Secretary:
(1) Studies (Dr Robert S. Bilheimer): Faith and Order (Dr Keith R.
Bridst'Jn), Church and Society (Dc Paul Abrecht), Evangelism, Missionary
Studie3 (also the Department of Studies of the International Missionary
Conncil) (The Rev. V. E. W. Hayward).
(2) Ecumenical Action (The Rev. Francis H. House, O.B.E.): Ecumeni-
cal In,;titute and Graduate School (Dr H. If. Wolf), Youth (The Rev. R.
French), Co-operation of Men and Women (Mile Madeleine Barot), Work for
the Laity (The Rev. H. R. Weber).
(3) Inter-Church Aid and Service to Refugeu (Dr Leslie E. Cooke).
In addition there is a Department of Information (The Rev. John
Garretb), a Department of Finance and Administration (Frank Northam) and
the NEW York Office (475 Riverside Drive, New York City 27), which are
all in direct relationship with the General Secretariat. The Commission of
the Churches on International Affairs (Dr O. Frederick Nolde), the Secre-
tariat for East Asia (U Kyaw Than) and the Department of Missionary
Studien are all bodies jointly sponsored by the World Council and the
InternlLtional Missionary Council. The British Council of Churches (IO
Eaton Gate, London, S.W.l) has accepted responsibility for the work
formerly done by the London office.
Th!) Assembly has no legislative power or authority over the partici-
pating churches, so that all its acts are of an advisory character, depending
upon their acceptance by the member churches for implementation.
ThE' officers of the World Council of Churches are as follows:
PImsIDIUM. President8: The Very Rev. Dr John Baillie, C.H. (Church of
ScotlllJJ.d, U.K.); Bishop S. U. Barbieri (Methodist, Brazil); Bishop F. K. O.
Dibelius (Evangelical, Germany); Archbishop Iakovos (Greek Orthodox
Archdi,)cese of N. and S. America); Metropolitan Juhanon (Mar Thoma
Syrian Church, India); Bishop Ifenry Knox Sherrill (Anglican, U.S.A.).
CE~·TRAL COMMITTEE. Chairman: Dr Franklin Clark Fry (Lutheran
Church in the U.S.A.). Vice-Chairman: Dr Ernest A. Payne (Baptist
Union of Great Britain and Ireland).
WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES 25
GENERAL SECRETABY. Dr W. A. Visser 't Rooft.
Headquarters.' 17 route de Malagnou, Geneva, Switzerland.
MEMBER CHuncHEs. The following is a list of the 170 Member Churches
(April 1960):
..irgentina. Sinodo Evangelico Alemen .
..iustralaJia. Metbodist Churcb 01 Australasia.
~u$lralia . Church or England in .A.u1:;tralia and 'l'e.smania; Congregational Union or
Australia; }t'ederal Oonfereoce ot Churcht:!s ot Christ in Australia; Presbyteriau Cburch ot
Australia .
..iUS/Ma. Evaugeliscbe Kircbe A.B. iu Oesterroich (EVangelical Church 01 the .I.\lgsburg
a.Ild Helvetlc Conie.sion).
Belgium. Eglise Cbretienne Missionnaire Beige; Union des tglises :evaDg~lIques Pro-
testantes de Bclgique.
Brazil- Igreja Metodista do Br ...il; Federa~ao Sioodal (FederatioD 01 Lutheran Synods)_
Bunna. Burro,. Baptist Convention.
Cameroons. P res h\·terian Ohurch.
Canada. Anglican' Cburcb 01 Canada; Churcbes 01 Christ (Disclples); Preobyterian
Ohurcb in Canada; United Cburcb of Canada; Yearly MeetUlg 01 the SOCiety of Friends.
Cemrai ..ifrica. Church of the [Anglican) Province of Central Africa.
Cevion. Methodist Churcb in Ceylon.
China. China Baptist Couucil; Chunl<' Hua Chi-Tu Clllao-Hul (CLurch 01 Christ in
China); Chllng HM Sheng KUDg Hui (Anglican Chllrcb in China); Nortll Cblna Kung LI Hul
(Oongregational Church).
Cypru.. Chllrcb of Cyprus.
C..cho.zo~akia. ~eglrobrat.ka Cirkev Evangelicktl (Evangelical Chllrch of Czecb
Brethren); Evangelickt. {)irkev A. V. na Slovensm (EvangelicAl Churcb In SlovaldA, Augsburg
Oontes.lon); Re!. rnrkev nil. Slovenslru (Reformed Churcb in Slovakia); Sle•• b Cirkov
Evangelicka A.V. (Evan~e lical Church 01 Augshnrg Contession iD Silesia).
Denmo.rk. Baptist Cnion of Dew.uark; Den Evangeli.klutherske Folkekirke ! De.nmark.
Ba8t Africa. }>resb.vterin.n Church.
Egypt. Coptic Ortllodox Churcb; Patriarchate 01 Alexandria.
Ethiopia. E thi0piflQ Chlll'cb.
Finland. Snomen Evankelis-Lutherilainen Kirko (l!vangelicaJ Lutheran Church of
~'inland).
Franc.. Eglise de la Coniession d'Augsbourg d' Ais8C<! et de Lorraine; ~;!l'lise tvang~liqne
Luthericnne de Pra.nce; .Bglise Heforml-e dOAlsace et de Lorraine; Eglise R~fonn~e de Fra.nce.
Ghana. PresbyteriR.c Church or Ghana.
Germanv. AltkatLolische Kircho in DeutschJand; R?~ngejjgche DrUder~UDjt4t; Evan·
gelische Kirchc in Delltscbland: Vereini~lmg det Deutschen Mennonitengemeinden.
Greece. Ohurcb of Oreece; Greek EvaD~eliclll Church.
HoUaM. AlgemeM Doorsgezinde Societeit (Gener"l Mennonite SocieLy); EvangeUsch
Lutterse Kerk; NcJerJand. HerToCD<de Kert; Oud-Katbalieke Kerk (Old Catholic Church);
Rp-monstrltntse Rroed erschll.p (Antlin.inn Chnrch); Unie '·:10 Bapti~tell; Bond van Vrije
Evangeli.sebe Gemccnten in Ncderland (Union of Free Evangelkal COngTp.gations).
Hungarv. A M'narol'!!zagi Eva~(Jilrus Egyba. (Lutheran Church of Hungary);
A Magyarorsztlgi Rcforroatus EgyMz (R.foCD<ed Church of Hungary); Baptist Church.
Iceland. Rvnngeliml Luthemn Church 01 Iceland.
IMia. Cburcb of India, Pakistan. Burma Bud Ceylan; Cburch of South India; Fenera-
tiou of Evangelica.l Lutheran Churches ill India; Mar Thorns. Syrian Chureb of Malahar;
Orthodox Syrian Church of Malabar; United Church of Northern India and Pakistan.
Indtmtsia. Gercdjo. KfiHmantan Evaol!tcHs (Cburch of KalimantaYl): Gredja Ke.risten di
Soelaw.si Tengah (Toradja Churcb); Gredja Kri.ten Djawiwetan (East Java Cburcb);
Gr.dja Masebi lndjilli di Minabassa (Church or Minaba;sA); Gredja MaseW Iudjilli di Timoer
(protestant Cburch of Timor); Hoeria Kristen Batak Protestant (Batak Churcb. Sumatra);
Oeredjn Geredj" Keristcn di Dj.",. Tengab (Ohri stian OIlUrches in Central Java); Geredj"
Protestant Maluku (Churcb of the Molnecas); Protestantse Kerk in lndonesie; Gereformeerde
Kerke n in Indonesie.
Iran. Synod of the Rvangeli.al Chnrcbes of North Iran.
Italy. Ohiesa Evangelica Metodista d'Italia; Clllesa Evangelic" Valdes •.
Japan. Nippon Kirisuto Kyodan (Church of Christ); N!pon Sei Ko Kw.1 (anglican
Oburch In Japan).
Jordan. Greek Orthodox Palriarcbate 01 Jerusalem.
Korea. Korean Methodist Churcb; Presbyterian Churcb 01 Korea.
ubanon. S" S "RI A.
Mexico. Iglesia Metodista de Mexico.
Ne", Zealand. AsRociated Churches or G'hrist In New Zealand; Baptist Union 01 New
Zealand; Churcb of the Province 01 New Zealaud (Cburch 01 England); Congregational Union
01 New Zealand; Methodist Church 01 New Zealand; Presbyterian Church of Ne .. Zealand.
~Vo'1Dav. N orske Kirke.
26 INTERNATIO!'lAL ORGANIZATIONS
Phi~iP1'in< I slands. United Churcb of Christ in the Philipplncs.

Po/und. Evangelical Ohurch ot the Augsburg Confession; Poli<h National Catbolio
Oburch .
RUMania. Huogarian Lutheran Church in Rumania; EvangeJicaJ Cburcb, Augsburg
Confes.~ion; Transylvanian Reformed ChUf('h.
Sou.:h Africa. nantu Pre<byterian Cbnrcll of South A1ricn; Church of the Province 01
South .\trica; Oun1:Tegational Union of Sonth ~ frica; Metbodi.t CIlllrcb 01 Soutb Abica;
Ned. C; Jreformeerde Kerk van de E: allp Provinsi~: Ned. Herv. of Oereformeerde Kerk van
Sllid AfrikR (in 'l'rnDS""a\); Nederdllits Hcrvonnde Kerk <>n A.frika; Presbyterian Cburch 01
SOllth hfrica.
Spa in. Iglcsi8 E ...an~elica Espanola.
Su:e,len. Svenska K~kAJl; Sveu<ka MissioDSforimndet (Swedish MI ...ion Covenant).
Srcil<erland. Cbriotkatbolir.che Kircbe der Seh"ei. (Old Catholic Church); FM~ration
de:; F.gl ises rrotestantes de la Silisse.
Svria. Greek Ortbodox Patrinrcbato of Antioch; Ev.n~lic81 SynOd of Syria and
LebBDo1; Union of Armenian Evangelicnl Cbl1rche~ in the Near East.
Taitran. Tai·oan KI·tok 1'iu· lo KBIl·hoe (PresbyterlBn Church In Taiwan).
Tha aand. Ohoreh 01 Christ in Thailand.
Tur."e'V. Oecumenical Patrinrchllte of CotlstantinGpJe.
U.E . and Eire. Baptist Union of Oreat Britain and Ireland ; Chorebes 01 Christ in
Great llrilain and Ireland; Cburcb of England ; CI,uwb of Ireland; Chnrch of Seotland;
Ohurch in Walea ; Congregational Union of England and Wales; Congreg"tional UniOIl 01
&otl ..n.'; EI'i.'lCopal Cburcb In Scotland; Methodist Church; Methodist Churcb In Ireland;
Mora~h.n Choreb In Great Britain ..nd IreI8n,l; J're;;uyteri.n Cburcb of England; Presby.
terlan Churcb in Ireland; Prcsl:>ytecinn Chmeh of \ral",,; United ~'ree Church of Scotland.
V .S.A . African MetbodlstEpiscopnl Clmrch; African Metholli.t. Episcopal Zlon Church;
AmericuD Baptist Convention; American Evangelical Lutherflfl Church; American Lutheran
Cburch ; Augn.tane. Evangelical I.utheran Cboreh; Cbristian Methodist Epil'COpal Churcb;
Churcb of tbe Bretbren; Evangelical Lutberan Oburch; Evangelical United Bretbren
Cburcb : Holy Apostolic Catbolic Church of the East; IIungarian Relonned Cboreb in
AmericL; International Convention of Christian Churches; Methodist Chur~h, Moravian
Ohurch .n America; Natloual BaptistCouvention of America ; National Bapti.tConvention
of U.8.A., Inc. ; Polish National Catholic Church of America; Presbyterian Cburch in tbe
U.S.; I rotcstant Episcopal Cburcb; Reformed Church in America; The Religious Society
of 'PriCl' dsi Fi"c Years Mee ting: of Friellds, General Oonference of the SOCiety of Friends;
Romanbn Ortbodox Epi;;copate in America; Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Churcb In
North America; Seventh Day Baptist Genera.l ConIercDcc; Syrian Antiochan Orthodox
Chw'ch (Arcbdiocese of New York and Nortb America) ; United Church of Christ; United
Evangelical Lutheran Church ; United Lu theran Church in America; United Presbyterian
Ctmrcb in the U.S.A.
We." Africa. Churcb of the Province of West Africa (Anglican).
Ire.., lndiu. Anglican Cburch of the West Indie.; P resbyterian Church of Jamaica.
Y u-g'J.~/av ia. Reformed Chritltian Cburch of YUstosla~i1\ .
Chwch .. 1l.O/ cla.rifled nationally. R.,ti E~. Lu th. Ueu Kiriku (Estonian Hvangelical
Lutheran Church); Lietu<os Ev. Reformatu llaznycia (Lithuanian Reformed CllUrcll);
Salvation Army .
Books of Reference
OiJicial iltI'Mt.: The Fi1J1 AsmnMy (London, 1948); Tilt Steond ..4 ...mMV (London, 19~~)
TI" Fi,. ,1 Siz Years, ]918- 54. Geneva, 1954
Official "eporlS ol/he Faith alld O,der COII/eren,,, at Lau.•anne 1927, Edinburgh 1937, Llmd,
1952
Official "'porlS of lilt Life and Work Confermr.es al Slbckholm 1925 and Oxford ]937
Minutes of tht Central Commill... Gene..a. 1949 to date
Handbot.k oJ Ihe World CoufI.Cil 01 Churches. Geneva, 19:;8
OrulJl>, ~{, G. t and HingJe, E. J . (~d.), lVQrld Chri.ttian Harldbook . Std cd. London. 1957
House,lt., .. nd NeiU, S. C., A llistorv ol /I" Ecumenic,,1 Alo.:ernenl, 15/7-1948. >;.P.C.K .• l~54
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION
ADMINISTRATION (I.C.A.)
Th{, v.S. InterDa.tional Co-operation Administration administers
the
foreign economic a.nd technical assistance programmes of the United States
Govern ment. The Le.A. is the successor to the Foreign Operations Ad-
ministr ation (F.O.A.), thc Mutual Security Agency (M.S_A.) and the
EconoJoic Co·operation Administration (E.C.A.). The latter was created
3 April194S to administer the European Recovery Programme (E.R.P.), or
the' M lrshal Plan', named after the then tT.S. Secretary of State, the late
INTEHNATIONAL CO-OPERATION ADMINISTRATION 27
George C. MarshalI, who inspired it in an addr('s.~ at Harvard University on
5 June 1947. The I.e.A. is a semi-autonomous unit within the Department
of :State.
The LC.A. continueg many activities of the earlier agencies ItS well as
the so-called' Point Four' programme of technical as.~istance to under-
developed areas formerly admini~tered by the Department of Statt'.
Congress, in passing the Nfutu3.1 Security Act of 1951 (Public Law 165, 82nd
Congress, approved 10 Oct. 19£)1), s:tid the purpose was' to maintain the
security and to promote the foreign policy of the United States by authori,,·
ing military, economic and technical assistance to friendly countries to
strengthen the mutua.lsecurity a.nd individual and collective defences of the
fr(:e world, to de\'elop their resources in the interest of their security and
independence and t.he nationa.l interest of the Unitcd States and to facilitate
the effectivo part.icipation of these countries in the United Nations system
for collective se(,urity.'
In the sect.ion dealing with Europe, the Mutual Security Act was
2.mcnded in 1955 to state that' The Congress welcomes the recent progress
in Europcan co-operution and reaffirms its belief in the necessity of further
efforts t.c)\mrd poJitieal federation, military integration, and economic
unification as a means of building strength, establishing security, and
preserving pence b the North Atlant.ic area. In order to provide further
encourage.ment to such (.fforts, the Congress believes it essential that this
Act should be so administered as to support concrete measure" to promote
greater political federation , military integration, and economic unification
in Europe.'
To carry out t.he provisions of t.he Mutual Security Act of 1\)59 for tho
fiscal year ending 30 .June 1960, Congress appropriated S3,226m. in new
funds and authorized the re-appropriation of unexpended and unobligated
balances carried over from previous appropriations. The areas and purposed
for which these funds were made a\'ailable were as follows (in Slm.):
Military Assistftnce . 1.300 Technical Co-operation
Defence Support 6ge U.s. BilalRral 150
Df>ve!opment Loan ".Fund [,;')11 Multilateral . 31
SpC!cial Assistance . 245 Other programmes . IOU
Contingency Fuud . } 5['
The LC.A. is he" ded hy James \V. RiddJebergcr who, as Director, has
responsibility for tho economic and technical assistance. Thc administra-
tion of the military assistaDce programme rests with the Depa.T tment of
Defense and is the responsibility of the Assistant Secretary of Defense
for International Security Affairs, John N. Irwin n. The Under Secretary
of Sta.te, C. Douglas Dillon, is responsible for co,ordination of the Mutual
Security Programme which includes all economic, technical and military
l!ssistance programmes of the U .S.A.
From the :Second World War t.hrough fiscal year 1959 the U.S.A. has
made available approximat.ely $66,OOOm. in loans and grants to 60 countries
as a contribution towards the economic development and milit.ary security
of the free world.
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND

TRADE (G.A.T.T.)
Origin. In 1946 the Economic and Social Council of the United NatioDs
established a Preparatory Committee to draw up a draft of an international
trade chart.er. This charter-known as the Havana Charter-was completed
in 19,\8, but was laid a.side when it became evident that it would not be
ratified by the U.S.A. The member countries of the Preparatory Com-
mitte" in 1947 concluded a General Agrcement on Tariffs and Trade. The
Agreement entered into force on 1 Jan. 1948, there being 23 contracting
partie3. The number of contracting parties hl1s now (1960) reached 37
(plus 3 countries participating under special arrangements); they are re-
sponsible for about 80% of world trade.
F~nction8. The GATT may be described as a multilateral contract,
which lay8 down a common code of conduct in international trade, provides
machinery for reducing and stabilizing tariffs and the opportunity for
regular consultation on trade prohlems. The key provision of GATT is
a gualD.ntee of most-favoured-nation treatment. Preferences which existed
before the Agreement came into force were allowed to continue, but, with
very Iimit,ed exceptions, existing preferences may not be increased nor
may n ~w preferences be created. The reduction of tariff barriers is provided
for through multilateral tariff negotiations. The resulting tariff schedules
are' b.mnd,' i.~ . , cannot normally be increased; they are appended to the
Agreement and form an integral part of it. The use of quantitative restric-
tions (.n imports is forbidden in principle, but tbis rule has been qualified
by certain exceptions, notably ball1nce-of-payments difficulties.
Flexibility bas been the key-note in the application of GATT rules.
Excep;ions to the basic provisions are embodied in the Agreement itself.
In addition, individual members may be temporarily allowed to digress
from the common rules after these waivers have been defined and safeguards
instituted, such as prior consultation. Thus a system has been evolved of
internr,.tional consultation /lnd the settlement of grievances, and a body of
decisions, recommendations and waivers has come into existence.
Th" regular sessions of the Contracting Parties have become the recog-
nized lorum for the discussion of many aspects of commercial policy. In
1954-55 the member governments undertook a comprehensive review of the
Agreement. They reaffirmed the basic objectives of the Agreement, includ-
ing th(, principle of non-discrimination in trade; they decided to prolong
the firm validity of the tariffs bound under the Agreement; they drew up
new aDd more flexible rules for meeting the problems of countries in early
stages ·)f development; and they drew up the constitution for a permanent
organuation to administer the GATT. This will be known as the Organiza-
tion fol' Trade Co-operation, and it will come into existence when it has been
accept"d by countries accounting for a high proportion of world trade.
In 1958, a programme of action was worked out on the basis of the
report Trend8 in International Trade. Three Committees were established:
to examine the possibility of arranging for a further round of tariff negoti-
ations ; to tackle special problems of trade in agricultural products, such as
protective measures; to examine particular difficulties which face less de-
velope6 countries in expanding their trade.
In 1959-60, following the increasing convertability of many currencies,
considerable advance was made in dismantling import restrictions, in
particu lar those of a discriminatory type. The treaties of new economic
groupir:gs-EFTA and the proposed free trade area of southern Latin
Americ1-are being examined; and a world tariff conference is to be con-
vened 8,t Geneva in Sept. 1960.
Fin,mce. The governments parties to GATT contribute to the annual
budget in accordance with a scale of contributions which is assessed on their
share 0;' world trade.
ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION 29
Headquarter8. Villa le Bocage, Palais des Nations, Geneva, Switzerland.
Publications. Basic lrutruments and Selected Docu'rMnt.~. 3 vol:; and 8 snpplemente.
1952-68.-lnurnalionaJ Trade, 1952 fI. Annually, from 1953.-Trcndl in Inlernati()1'lal
Trade (1908)
ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC

CO-OPERATION (OoEoEoC.)
On 5 June 1947 the U.S. Secretary of State, Marshall, made a speech at
Harvard University, in which he outlined the seriousness of the shortage of
dollars for the economic situation of Europe, and suggested American assist-
ance in its economic recovery, on the understanding that the European
countries reached Borne agreement about their requirements and the part
they themselves would take in giving proper effect to the act of the V.S.
Thereupon the U.K. and France invited all the European countries (with
the exception of Spain) which desired to partieipate in a programme on the
lines suggested in Mr Marshall's speech. The invitation, issued on 4 July,
was accepted by Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Iceland, Irish Republic,
Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzer·
land and Turkey.
The 16 nations and the Anglo·American and French occupation zones
of Germany signed a convention for European economic co· operation in
Paris on 16 April 1948. Since 31 Oct. 1949 Germany has been represented
in O.E.E.C. by the Government of the Fedcralltepublic. On 2 Jnne 1950
Canada and the V.S. accepted the invit"tion to associate themselves with
the work of the Organization relating to the study of economic problems of
common interest to and affecting the immediate future of the countries of
Western Europe and North America. Spain became thc eight.eenth full
member in July 1959. Yugoslavia has member status for agriculture and
food; she also participates in the work of the O.E.E.C. European Produc·
tivity Agency, and bas tbe right to send observers to other meetings.
Chairman of the Council (1950-60). U.K.
Cha,irman of the Executive Committee. Belgium.
Secretary-General. Rene Sergent (France).
Headquarter8. Chiiteau de la Muette, 2 rue Andro Pascal, Paris XVI.
The functions of the O.E.E.C. when it waS set up in 1947 were essentially
twofold: on the one hand to develop economic co· operation between
member countries, and on the other to assist the U.S. Government in
carrying out its programme of aid to Europe. The second of these functions
came to an end in June 1952 with the completion of the' MarshaU Plan.'
In 1948 the main emphasis was on the increase of production, in 1949 on
internal financial stability, in 1950 on European co-operation in the liberaliza·
tion of trade and payment8, in 1951 on dealing with the raw material short·
ages, and in 1952 on the serious balance·of·payments positions ofl.'rance and
the U.K. and the continuing deficits of most European countries with the
dollar area. The dollar position of most member countries improved con-
siderably in 1903, and the Organization has since been able to pnt into
effect further measures in the freeing of Europe's trade and payments, to
increase productivity, and to initiate joint efforts in the peaceful nse of
nuclear energy.
The main activities of O.E.E.C. may be summarized as follows:
European Monelary Agreement. On 27 Dec. 1958 member countrie3

repres.mt.ing more than 50% of the quota holders of the European Pay.
ments Union (E.P.U.), including the United Kingdom, France and Germany,
notified the Secretary General of tbeir wish to terminate the Union and
bring .i nto force the European Monetary Agreement. This had been pre·
pared in 1955 for an eventual return to convertibility of currencies by
memb<lr countries. It provides for the establishment of a European Fund
of $600m. to be usec! to facilitate the settlement of monthly balanct'-8 between
the central banks of member countries (on a 100% gold basis) and for the
grantillg of short· term credits to member countries applying for t hem .
Such <redits were granted during 1959 to Ureece, Spain and Turkey.
FOI' the European Payments Union, 1950-58, see THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR.BoOK, 1958, p . 32.
Tmde. Since 1949 member countries have endeavoured progressively to
elimin:Lte quantitative restrictions on imports from one another. At tho
end of 1959 the overall level of liberalization stood at 90%. Escape clauses
are prc·vided in the Code of Liberalization to cover cases where countries are
forced to re.impose restrictions owing to balance·of.payments reasons .
During 1959 a Code of Liberalization of Capital Movements was adopted.
ECGnornic Policy. A top·level committee of government experts was
set up during 1959 to keep the trends of the European economy under
constant review and to advise where necessary on remedial measures.
Technical GommiUeu. Since the creation of the Organization, a number
of tech:lical committees has studied the problems of, and made recommenda·
tions to the Council on, economic aspects in the fields of agriculture, industry,
energy, transport. manpower and the Overseas Territories. In Jan. 1955
the Council decided to take over the work of the European Conference on the
Organi:lation of AgTicultural Markets (the' Green Pool'), and to this end
set up 0. Ministerial Committee for Agriculture and Food, togethl.'r with a
CommHtee of Deputies. In 1956 an Energy Advisory Commission and an
Energy Committee were set up.
Nu<1ear Energy. In Feh. 1958 the European Nuclear Energy Agency
came into being within the framework of O.E.E.C. Its t.asks are to further
the dC" eJopment of production and uses of nuclear energy for peaceful
purposes in Western Europe. A start has been made on the joint con·
strnctic'n ofvariolts nuclear plants; in addition, the agency studies questions
of trad(, in nuclear materials and equipment, security control and legislat.ion .
Manpo'wer . The principal activity in the field of manpower is directed
to redt'.cing the obstacles which make it difficult for workers to obtain
employment in countries other than their own.
Productivity. In May 1953 the Council set up the European Produc·
tivity Agency within the framework of t,he O.E.E.C. The Advisory Board,
composed ofleading personalities from industry. agriculture, commerce and
the trade unions. guides the E.P.A. in its overall planning.
The aim of the E.P.A. is to co·ordinate productivity activities in member
countritls. It acts as a focal point for European studies of productivity
questions, by making available to the productivity organizations in each
member country the information they require. It organizes study missions,
training courses, conferences, seminars and exhibitions; publishers technical
reports, pamphlets and bulletins; undertakes or sponsors research, and acts
as r, link between Europe and the U.S. on product,j'l'ity questions.
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION 31
Scientific and Technical Personnel. During 1!l58 a special of'fica was set
up within the O.E.E.C. to consider means of overcoming the European
shortage of scientists and technic ian., and a number of training courses and
s"lminars have since taken place.
C.....ntion for Europ.an Economic Co.operation. 16 April. 194'. (emu. 7358)
Econcmic Co·operalion Ayrtemntt between the ac)t'n-nT'Mnl4 of the United Ki~dcnn and lhe
United SIIJkJ, 6 JulV. 1948. (Cm<l.7469)
European .~[on e tary .4.gTeemf'el. H.!\1.S.0., 1~55
.Jnnuul R<pOT' of ,/", O.E.R.C. 1~~9 a.
R<porlJ pr.pared by.h< O.E.E.C. (or .he Council of Europe. 19:;1 fr.
Code of Liberalization of 1'rad(: and bwi':iiUle Transactions. 1£10·,:\
('ude o/liberalization 0/ Capital .l/ove1llflZtJ. 105V
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

(NATO)
On 2!l April I(J-!S th() Canadian Sccretary of State for Extcrnal Affairs
broached the idea of a 'security league' of the free nations, in extension of
the Brussels Treaty of 17 March 1948. The United. States Senate, on
It .June, recommended ' the association of the United States with such
regiona\ltnd other collective arrangements as are based on continuous self·
help and thutua\ aid, and as affect its national security.' Detailed proposals
wcre subsequently worked out between the Brussels Treaty powers, the
U.S.A. and Canada.
On 4 April 1949 tho foreign min.isters of Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
France, Iceland, 1taly, Luxembonrg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the
U.K. and the U.S.A . met in Wash ington and signed a pact, the mam clauses
of which read as follows:
ARTICLE 1. The parties undertake. n, set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, to
settle any international disputes in which tilf'Y may be involved by poaaceful means in such a
mallD('.r that international TH:I;\Ce fLOc) security A.nd justice are Hot endangered. and to reirain
in their internationAl relations (rom the threat or use of force in any manlier ioconsistCDt v.itu
the purposes of th e 1]nited N8t.iou~
A.RTI(!LE 2. The rartie~ will contribute towA.r~ t he fUTther developfDp.nt of peaceful a.n d
riendly internatioDJ\l relations by streo.gthenin.q their free institutions. by bringing about a
better understanding of tile principles upon ~'hich tbese institutions are founded, and by
promoting conditions of stability And weU·being. They will seek to eliminate ('outtict in their
in~rnationul economic policies o.nd will encour~ economic collaborR.tion between any or all
01 tbem .
.a.nTICLE 3. Iu order more ci1ectiveJy to llchiel"9 the objectives 01 this treaty, the partica,
Reparat.ely and jointly, by m81lQS of continuous and effectivo self·belp and mutual aid, " 'ill
maintain and develop tbeir individual alld cnllective capacity to resist ~rm.d attack.
ARTICLE 4. The parties will consult togetber wheu8ver, in the opinioll of any or tbem. th.,
territoriallntp..gri ty. political indepenrience, or SE!cluity of any of the parties is threatened.
ARTlCLK o. The parties ~gr(·e I.hat an arme<l at tack Against one or more of them in Buro!,"
or North Americn shall be cOllsinered an attack against them aU and consequently they agree
that, if such an armerl attI\Ck ""curs. eacb of them. III ererei.e of the right of individual or
callec ti~e self·defenca recognized hy article 61 of tbe ChartA!r of tbe 1:nitA!d Nation •• will
",,~i8t the party or partie. 80 attacked by tl\king forthwith, individually and in COllcert with
the other partieA. such action ns it ueems neceSSfll'Y, including tbe use of "rrued force. to re~tore
IWci maintain the securit.l' of the Nortb Atlantic arell. Any such armed attaok .. nd ail
mon3urea tAken as a result thereof shaH immeniat.. ly be reporlRd to t.he Security CouDcil.
S ucb measures shall be termioetcu wheo t,hp. l=!("f"'uril .. CounciJ b98 taken tho measure.;
" oces8llry to relltor8 and maintain international peace and 8ecurity.
ARTICLF. 6. For tbo purpose 01 .Article & an armed n.t.ta.ck on one or morc of the parties is
doomed to include an nnned attack (i) on the territory of any of the parties in Europe or Nortb
Aroerjca., OD tbo Algerian Departments of Ji'Tnnc~. on the territory 01 'l'urlcey or on the iAJsnds
under the jurisdiction 01 any 01 tIle parties in the North AtlantiC area north DC tb. Tropic of
Cancer; (ii) on the forcos, vessels or Qirrrnft ot any of the partiM, when in Or over thp.sp.!
territories or any other area in Europe In which occupation forces or any of the pa.rties were
.tatianed on the datAl when tbo treaty enu.re<l into force or the Mediterranean Sea or tbe
North A.tlantic o.rea north of the Tropic of Can cor.'
I This Article wo.s modified •• a result ot tuo accessiou uC Greece and Turkey to tbe treaty.
ARTICLlt 8. Each party declares that none of the international engagements now in force
betweeu it and any other of the parties or any tbird state is in conJlict with the provisions of
this trebty, and undertakes not to enter Into any international engagement In conJlict with
this t...,.ty.
ART;:CLE 10. The parties may, by unanimoDS agreement, invite any other European state
In a position to further the principles of this treaty and to contribute to the security of the
North Atlantlc area to accede to this treaty. Any state so invited may become a p arty to tbe
treaty by depositing its instrumeut of accession wit" the government of tbe United States of
Americe.. The government of tbe United States 01 America willlnlorm eacb of the parties of
the depusit of eacb such instrument 01 accession.
ARTlCLE 12. After tbe treaty has been in locce for 10 years, or at any time thereafter, tbe
parties "haU, if any of them 80 requests, consult together for the purpose of reviewing the
treaty, having regard for tbe factors then a1lecting pea"" nnd security in the Nortb Atlantic
area, in :Indlng the development of universal as well as regional arrangements under tb.
Oharter of tbe United Nations for the m"intenanoo of illternationnJ peace and security .
ARTlCLE 13. After tbe treaty has been in lore<' for ~O y."r., nny party may 00866 to b••
party Olle year after Its notice of denunciation b•• beeD given to tbe government of tbe
United !;tates of America, which wiU inlorm the governments 01 the other parties 01 tbe deposit
01 each :)otlce of denuociation.
Thll treaty came into force on 24 Aug. 1949. See map in THE STATES-
MAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1950. Greece and Turkey were admitted as parties to
the trE>aty in 1951 (effective Feb. 1952), the German Federal Republic in
Oct. HIM (effective 9 May 1955).
As reorganized by the Council at its session in Lisbon in Feb .. 1952, the
structure of NATO is as follows:
Th., Council, the prinCipal body of the organization, • charged with the
respon.libility of considering all matters concerning the implementation of
the pnvisions of the Treaty,' incorporates the Council and the Defence
Committee originally envisaged. The Council is a Council of Governments,
on wh:,ch NATO nations are normally represented by their Minister for
Foreign Affairs and/or the Minister of Defence, or by other compet.ent
Minist;(,rs, especially those responsible for financial and economic affairs.
The Council normally meets at the ministerial level two or three times a
year.
Ea(:h member government appoints a Permanent Representative to
represent it on the Council when its ministerial representatives are not
present.. Each Permanent Representati¥e represents his government as a
whole. He also heads a national delegation comprising the advisers and
experuI necessary to assist him in all phases of the Council's work.
Th(. Council is empowered to set up on a permanent or temporary basis
commi';tees to assist it in arriving at necessary governmental agreements.
Hell,dquarters. Porte Dauphine, Paris XVI.
Suretary.General. Paul·Henri Spank, who succeeded Lord Ismay on
16 May 1957. The Secretary-General takes the chair at all Council meet-
ings, el:cept at the opening and closing of Ministerial sessions when he gives
way to the Council President. The office of President is held aunually by
the Foreign Minister of one of the Treaty countries.
The Military Committee is composed of the Chiefs of Staff or their
representatives. (Iceland, having no military establishment, may be
represented by a civilian.) It meets at Chiefs of Staff level two or three
times a year as required, but remains in permanent session in Washington
at the l~vel of military representatives. It provides general policy guidance
of a military nature to the Council. The Standing Group, the executive
agent er the Military Committee which functions continuously in Washing-
ton, is composed of one representative each of the U.K., France and the
U.S.A.
WESTERN EUROPEA...-' UNION 33
In Dec. 1950 the Council approved the establishment of an integrated
force for the defence of Western Europe under a Supreme Headquarters
Allied Powers, Europe (SHAPE). General Eisenhower was the first Supreme
Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR); he was succeeded by Generals
Ridgway (1 June 1952), Alfred ill. Gruenther (11 July 1953) and Lauris
Norstad (20 Nov. ]950); Field·Marshal Lord Montgomery was his Deputy
froln 1950 to 1958 and was succeeded on 21 Sept. 1958 by Gen. Sir Richard
Gale, G.C.B., K .B.E., D.S.O., 1\1.C.
The European Command covers the land area from the North Cape to
North Africa and from the Atlantic to the eastern border of Turkey, but
excludes the U.K., Portugal and Algeria.
The Atlantic Command extends from the North Pole to the Tropic of
Cancer and from the coastal waters of North America to those of Europe
and Africa, but excludes the Channel and the British Isles.
The Channel Command covers the English Channel and the southern
North Sea.
Admiral Jerauhl Wright (U.S.N.) wos appointed Supreme Allied Corn·
mander Atlantic (SACLANT) on 17 Feb. 1954; SACLANT is an operational
rather than an administrative commander, and, unlike SACEUR, has no
forces permanently attached to his command. The Channel Command has
2 Commanders·in-Chief : the Allied C.-in-C. Channel, Admiral of the Fleet
Sir Manley Power (U.K.) and the Allied Maritime Air C.-in·C., Air Marshal
Sir Edward Chilton (U.K.).
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization: the NATO Handbook. Paris, 1959
Spaak, P.·H., WhY.J.Yato1 ilarmondsworth,1959
WESTERN EUROPEAN UNION

On 17 March 1948 a 50· year treaty' for collaboration in economic, social
and cultural matters and for collective self-defence' was signed in Brussels
by the Foreign Ministers of the U.K., France, the Netherlands, Belgium and
Luxembourg. (See TilE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1954, pp. 32 f.)
On 20 Dec. 1950 the Western Union defence organization was merged
with the North Atlantio Treaty command.
After the rejection by France of the European Defence Community on
30 Aug. 1954 a conference was held in London from 28 Sept. to 3 Oct. 1954,
attended by Belgium, Canada, France, Federal Germany, Italy, the Nether-
lands, Luxembourg, the U.K. nnd the U.S.A., at which it was decided to
invite the Federal Republio of Germany and Italy to accede to the Brussels
Treaty, to end the occupation of Western Germany and to invite the
latter to accede to the North Atlantic Treaty; the Federal Republic
agreed that it would voluntarily limit its arms production, and provision
was made for the setting up of an agency to control the armaments of the 7
Brussels Treaty powers; the U.K. undertook not to withdraw from the
Continent her 4 divisions and the Tacticl1l Air Force assigned to the Supreme
Allied Commander against the wishes of a majority, i.e., 4, of the Brussels
Treaty powers, except in the event of an acute overseas emergency.
At a. Conference of Ministers held in Pl1ris from 20 to 23 Oct. 1954 the
documents putting these decisions into effect were agreed.
The Union was formally inaugurated on 6 May 1955.
The Council of W.E.U. consists of the Foreign Ministers of the 7 powers
o
or th"ir representatives. An Agency for the Control 01 Armaments and a

Stand::ng Armaments Committee have been set up in Paris. There arc alBo
various Social and Cultural Organizations, functioning under and respon~ible
to th( Council.
Se~retary.Gencral. Louis Goffin.
H,!adquarters. 9 Grosvenor Place, London, S.W.1.
DOcll1nmls .d.greed on by lilt Con/eren,ee 01 ,Ministers lield in Paris, 20- 23 Oct. 195.1. (Clr:d.
n04.) n.M.S.O.,lQ(;4
COUNCIL OF EUROPE
The Consultative Council of the Brussels Treaty Organization agreed, in
Jan. 1949, to establish a Council of Europe, consisting of a Committee of
Minil'lers and a Consultative Assembly. This was set up on 5 May 1949 by
the Foreign Ministers of Belgium, Denmark, France, the Irish Republic,
Itl1.ly, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the U.K. On
9 Aug. 1949 Turkey and Greece joined the Council; on 7 March 1950,
Icelar.d; on 13 May 1950, the Saar; on 13 July 1950, the Federal Republic
of Ge~many, the last two as associate members. The Federal Republic of
Germmy was admitted as a full member on 2 May 1951; Austria, on 16
April 1956. The membership of Saarland lapsed on the country's incorpora.
tion in Germany (1 Jan. 1957).
The Statute of the Council of Europe (Cmd 7686, Misc. No. 7, 1949)
con8i~t8 of a preamble and 42 articles .
.cl i'iI 01 Council . AHTICLIll. (a) TlI e aim 01 tue Council 01 Europe is to acbie,e a great.. r
ullity hetween its mcrober~ (or tbe pllrpose of sa.fcgunrding a.nd reaJi1.ing tLe ideals BtJd
pl"incipl~ which Rre their common be1'it:l~E': n.ud fncilithliog t·heir economic and sodal progress.
(b) Thi:i aim sball lJe pursu~ll thl'ougll tile organs of the Council by discussion of question..~ of
commun concern and by ngrecments and common action in econom1e., socia.l, cultural, scielltidc.
legal, B,od a.dministrative mnttcN auJ in the maintenauce and further realization of buman
rights H.od fundamentn.J (rtP-dums. (c) l'articipation iu the Council of Europe shall Dot B..I.'fect
the colaboration of its IDembers iD the work of the United Nat.ions and of ot-ber interna.tiona.l
organh,ations or uniOllS to tt'hicl.l tiley tt.re partie3. (d) Matter; relating to national defence do
Dot lal within the scove 01 tbe Council of }o)urore.
Jf~"b",ship. ARTICLE 3. Every member 01 Ilia Council of Europe must accept the
principles of the ruie of law and of the eujoymcnt by a.U persons ~itbin its jUIisdiction of
humau rigbts no~ lund.mental lreedorns, aooi coUnborate sincerely and effectively in tbe
realizBI,ion ol the a.itn or the Council. AnTICl...F. 4. Any EUIop~an state, which is deemed to
be able and ..·illin, to lullll the provisious 01 article a, may be invited to become a memoe,
01 Lhe Council of Europe by the Committee of Minl,tcn;. ARl1CI£ 5. In speci.l cireum-
stuDCCE, Q European country, which is deemed t.o be n.ble And ",Wing to fulfil the prov isioDS of
article 3, may be invited by the Cowmittee (If l!inh;tprs to become Rll A..o,.~ocin.tc Member of
Lt,. Council 01 Europe. An Assoc:ute Memller shalt be entitled to be represen ted iu the
Cons.uJ ';.ative Assemldy only.
;'lelOoers mkY withdraw (Article i) or be su>peod.,i (Articles 8, 9) from the Council.
General. ARTJCLl<: 10. Thu organ.s oC t.hf! COLJnf'ii of Europe are: (0 the Comntittcc o!
Minish'rs: (ii) the COllSluitot.it"e Assemols. Dot.h tbr.se organs sLaB Le served by the SeerE:-
ta:jllt of the Council ot Europe.
A R~ ':1CLl-~ 11. The seat of t.he Council of Europe is ut Stru...<.;bourg.
Mt·:JCLE 12. The official languages 01 the Council 01 Europe are English Bnrl French.
COYllmiUee 014Vi/li.1IeTs. ARTWLt·; 13. The Commit·tE':e or Milli!o)ters id the organ whicl;
ar,ti-l on belllllf of tL~ CullllCil of Europe. AllTIC'l.E 14. nnch mp.mher shall he entitled to ODe
r~r,re...<.entE\tive OD the ()olI11Ditte~ of Mi.ui~tcrs R.nd each representative shall be entitled to
cue vo :c. Represent.atives on the COlOIlLittcc sJJaH be tbe llwi~tp.rs (or Forei~n .A1Iairs.
AIl."TCLE 20. Ca) ResolutioD~ of the n)!'tllllittee of 11inisters rebt.iug to the following
imr'ortlnt matters-namely: (i) aims of COllncil: (in rl..>ports of activities: (Ui) pobli<,.' lty ;
(iv) U'lt~eti~ plncE': or ASdCtDuly; (v) orgf\Uilnt.ion; Bnd (vi) any other question which the
C(lrtJ!Juttee ruay, by R resohltion po.s.-::ed 11l1dt!T (rI) below, decide l:ihould be Eubject to a unani·
DllIU9 ,'ote on areoan::. of it~ importance, requi:-e t!~e unR.llirr.ous vote of the representati"ee.
~tjng £1 ~(lte, nnd of u. tnnjorit.y of the rept~:'!c!ltatit"c;.; entitlcd to 5it 011 tLe COIllwittee.
COUNCIL OF EUROPE 35
(b) Questions arising under the rule. of proClldure or uoner the finBncial and administrativQ
regulntioll8 may be decided by a simple majority vote ot tbe represeutatives entitled to .it
Oll the CeJmwittee.
(c) Resolutions ot the Committee under Attiole. 4 and 5 require a two· thirds majority of
nil the representatives entitled to sit on ti,e Committee.
(d) All otber resolutions ot tbo Committee, Includi",? tLe ndoption ot tbe budget, ot rule.
of procedure BDd of til1ancial aDd ndmini8tro.tivc regulnti(lu!;, r~commendations fur the emeJld-
ment (.If a.rticle~ of this Statute, ref1llire n. t\'~'o-tbird5 ltJajority of the representatives casting a
\"of,e a.nd of 8 majority of t.be re pre.~elltnti" es entitled to F>it on the Committee.
Tk C01lsulwtit't' Assnnbly. ARTKU';' 22. TLe Consultatil"c AssemlJly i9 the deliberative
(,r~Rn of the Council or l!uropp-. It shall dp-bllte mutters within itt. competence under this
~tat.ute aud present. its couclu~iollS in the form ol l'e~ommendRtionR, W the Committee ol
Ministers.
AH'rICLK 23. Ca) The Cunsultal.lve A~scmhly mny di~CllS$ anli moke recommendations
UP('IQ £\ny lDatter ~·it.bilJ tbe aim A.Dd SC<.Ipe of the Couucil of Europe as defined in Chapter 1-
1 t Flhall also discuss a,l1d mny make rccomm~lld:).tions upon ony matter refelTt'd to It by the
Couwlitt.ee of Minis~" with ~ l'e'lUf!st for it.-; opiniolJ. (tIJ) 'l'Le AtI.-;emlJly shall draw up its
agenda in accordsnce with th~ provisions of J,amgrnpb Ca) abm'c. In so doing, It SbilJ1
nave regarJ to the work of other European ioter'govelnnlental organizatioDs to which Rome
Cl' all tbe lIIembers 01 tbe Council are pfitties. (c) Tbe Pr""ideot ot tbe Assembly shall decid,·,
in case of doubt, wbetber Ilns question mised in the course ot tbe SeMion is within tbe agclIda
ot tbe A"SCmblv.
AJrncl.E 25. (a) The Consllltat.i<e A".crnbly .ball consist ot representatives of e",,1t
member r.!ccted by its rarliarneut or o..J.!poi.ntec.l iu sucll manner o.s t.hat Parliament shlill
decide, sl:bject, however, to Ule rigbt at cach rneoJber Governmcnt to make any addition"l
llppointments nece.s.~ary wlien the Parliament is Hot In ~-eS8ion and has not laid down the
procedure to be loll owed in tbat, c..e. Eneh representative must Le a national of the
member whom he represents. but shall flOt at the srnne time be a member of t.he Committee
of Ministers. (b) No representative shall be deprh'ed of hi:; l>osition as such during f\ session
ot the AS8emliJ.,· without the ~7€emont of the Assembly. (c) Each representative may "ovo
a substitute who may, in the ah!;cnce of tbe representative, sit, fi:peo.k', and vote in his place.
Tile provisions oC pa"~Bph (a) above apply to tbe appoiutment ot sub"titutes.
ARTICLK 26. hlembe~ slllLII be cu~itlecl to the number of representatives given below:
Austria. G. De41'inm 7, D~lImnrk !". Fraooo 18. German F edera.l Hepublic lR. Greece 7. Iceland
3. Irish 'Republic 4, HBly 18, Lll~erubourg 3, t-ietherlD.mls 7, Norway 6, SIlBr 3, Sweden f1.
Turkey 10, United E:ingdorn lB.
ARTICLK 32. 'l11e COflsu1t·nti\'c As.~crubly shall meet in ordinary sei5ion ooce a yenr, th~
date and duration of whkh shall be rlet.ermined by Ule Assembly so as to avoid as far ap;
ros.~ib:e overlapping witll parliamentl".ry RC5Sions of members and with sessiotUt of the Ocnerw.J
.'\.ssembly of the eDit-eo Nations. In no cil'cumstauces shall tbe duratioD of an ordillary
session exceed one mont.h unJe~ both the asscwuly and the Committee of Ministers concur.
AUTlCLF. 31. The U()n~ultnti~e A!o;Sp.mlJ!y Dlay he con'f'cncO: in extraordioory ses..<;ions upon
the initiative either of the Committ~(> of Miw!;ters or of the President of the Asscmblv after
ngreemcllt between them, su(',h agreement· a.lso to d~termiDe the date and place of the sessions.
Secretarial. AnT'('Lt~ 36. (Il) TIlo Secretarint shall consist of a. Secretary-Geueral, ..
Deputy Secretary.General Bud El1('1t other staU ns may oe required. Cb) Tile Sccretary·
General aud Deputy Sccrctary-Genernl FhAll be appointed by tho Consnltatit'e .r\§;cmbJy 00
the recommenuation of the Cotnntittee of Min\!;;ters. (r) Tho remaining staff of the Secretariat
shall be appointed by the Secreto.ry-Gcueral. ill nccordance with the administrative re~ulatioD.8.
(fi) No member of the Secrt':tariat shall bold R.ny srlll\ried office from any go\~ernment or be a
member of the CODi'n)tati,;,c A:iSembly or of any D:ltionalleSislature or engage in any occupatioLl
incompatible with bis duties.
The Statute cam(l into fome on 3 Aug. lD·HI. On 22 May 1951 amcnd.
ments relative to Articles 23. 25. 27. 34 and 38 came into effect; they are
incorporated ill the above tcxts.
In May 1951 tha Committee of Ministers adopted some texts of a statuto
ory character with a vic'v to their ultilLlnte inclusion in the re\'ised Statute.
Pll.rt IT. (I) of thl.lSfl texts. concerning the Specialized Authorities. reads a8
follows:
Ca) Tho Council of Rl1roj,e may take the iltitb.tive in in!;tit.uting negotiat.ioDS bctv.'een
members with a view to the creation of r';u:'ope;;n t~pecinlized .<\ut·borities, each with
its own l"mapctence io the ,~co1)omic, ~ocbl, cultur:li, legal, administrative or other
related liclo.
Ch) Eacb member sha.ll rcmn.in tree to ao:ltMe or Dot to adhere to eaeh such Eurcpean
Specialized Autuurit.v.
The first meeting of the COn5ultn,til'c As,lembly took place Itt Strasbourg
hlm 10 Aug. to 8 Sept. ID49. The Assembly operates through 12 general
comraittees with provision for ad hoe special committees; a Standing Com.

mittt,e preserves its existence between sessions. In addition, a Joint Com.
mitt<,e was set up in 1950 to facilitate the relations between the two organs
of the Council of Europe and to co.ordinate their activities. This is com·
posed of 8 representatives of the Committee of Ministers and 8 representatives
of the Consultative Assembly, including its President, who is also chairman
of the committee.
S!cretary.General. Lodovico Benvenuti.
Deputy Secretary. General. Dunstan Curtis.
&cretariat General. Place Lenotre, Strasbourg.
Lind."y, K., Towards a European Parliament. Strasbourg, 1958
Robert.soD, A. H., The Council 0/ Europe. LondoD, 1957.-EuTopean Institutions. LondoD,
19:;,)
EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
SJ.X countries of western Europe-Belgium, France, Federal Germany,
Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands-have established three corn·
munities with the object of the progressive economic integration of their
counl,ries and as a means towards their greater p olitical unity. Each COlli.
munity has a s eparate structure but the three share two major institutions :
The European Parliament. Composed of 142 parliamentarians from the
six countries. This has to be consulted each year on the budgets of the
three Communities and on a wide range of other matters. It meets several
timef a year at the ~Iaison de l'Europe, Strasbourg.
President. Hans Furler (Germany).
Addres8. 19 Rue Beaumont, Luxembourg .
.I1nnUQire-Manuel de Z'.I1ssembUe Parlementai,. Europ~en'M. Annual, from 1959
T~eCourt of Justice. Composed of 7 judges whose task is to adjudicate
disputes arising out of the application of the three treaties.
President. A. M. Donner (Neth.).
Aidres8. Villa Vauban. Luxembourg.
Receui.! de la Jurisprudence de la eou,. From 1~04
EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMUNITY

The ECSC came into being on 10 Aug. 1952 following the ratification of
a treaty signed in Paris on 18 April 1951. The original suggestion for it
was Llade in the Schuman Plan on !) May 1950; this proposed the pooling
of Fr:tnco·German coal and steel production in a Community open to other
western European countries as a first step towards a United States of
Europe. (See Dlap in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR·BoOK, 1958.)
The principal institution of the Community is the High Authority, a
9·meIDber independent executive which has its own source of finance (a
levy on coal and steel producers) and certain supranational powers. It is
advislld by a Consultative Committee consisting of 51 representatives of
producers, trade unionists, merchants and consumers. Certain major
decisions can only be taken after consultation with, or after the approval
of, a Oouncil of ~[inisters composed of one representative of each of the 6
governments.
The major initial task of the Community was the creation of a common
market for the goods under its jurisdiction. For coal, iron ore and scrap
EUROPEAN COMMUNll'IES 37
this was established on 10 Feb. 1953, for steel on 1 May 1953 and for special
steels on 1 Aug. 1954. Customs duties, quantitative restrictions, double
pricing, discriminatory freight rates and cunency restrictions on trade in
these goods between members were abolished. Harmonized external tariffs
for stecl were introduced on 10 Feb. 1958, when tho 5·year transition period
ended. By that time Italian steel was able to compete without protection
in the Common Market. The Belgian coal industry-suffering from the
effects of a general fall in the demand for coal-however, required drastic
action. A plan for its teUlporary isolation from the Common Market, and
a 30% reduction in its productive capacity by the end of 1!l63 was agreed
with the High Authority during 1959. To meet the social effects of the
coal crisis a minor revision of the Treat,y was effected in March 1960 to
prolong and extend re·adaptation aid. While coal production in 1959 fell
to 234·9m. tons, stoel production rose to a new record level of 63·1m.
On 21 Dec. 1954 an agreement of association was signed between the
Community and the U.K. A ministerial Council of Association was created.
The main achievement of the association so far is an agreement which
provided for a 50% reduction in British steel duties in 1958 to coincide with
the harmonization of the Community's external steel tariff. A consultative
agreement was also signed ,~ith Switzerland on 7 May 1956.
President oJ the High Authority. Piero Malvestiti (It.).
Address. 2, Place de Jl:Ietz, Luxembourg.
G'eneral Report oflhe H':gh Authority (annual, from 1 9b3).-BuUetin StatiBtique (bimonthly,
from 1952).-InvestmPnI Report (annual, from 1956).-Financial Report (annual, from 1956).
-Journal Offic.:et de la CJ:;CA (J 902-5S).-Joumal OjJiciel des Communautes Europ~ennes
(froDl 1~58).-Bulletin fr01ll the European Community (from 1958)
Diebold, 'V., The 8chuman Plan; a study in Economic Co·operation, 1950-59. New York,
1959
EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY (EURATOM)

Euratom came into being on 1 Jan. 1%8 following the ratification of a
treaty signed in Rome on 25 March 1957. Its task is to promote a common
effort between its 6 members in the development of nuclear energy for
peaceful purposes.
The execution of the treaty rests with the 5·member independent
Commission, which is advi~ed by a Scientific and Technical Committee (20
members) and an Economic and Social Committee (101 members). Major
decisions are taken by the Council of Ninist crs, which consists of one member
from each country.
Euratom introduced a common market for nuclear products on 1 Jan.
195!l; the common external tariff on imported reactors and parts was
temporarily suspended. The Commission undertook a comprehensive
survey of nuclear research in the community as a first step towards its
co·ordination, and also launched its own research programme with the aid
of a 5·year $2l5m. fund. The first part of the Community research centre
was established at Ispra (It.), negotiations also proceeded for the transfer
to Euratom of research centres at Pet ten (Neth.) and Karlsrllhe (Germ.).
Basic health standards for protection against ionizing radiation were laid
down; a security and supervision system for nuclear materials put into
effect; draft proposals for third·party liability against nuclear risks drawn
up a,nd provisions made for regular and equitable supplies of raw materials.
Agreements have been signed with the United States (8 Nov. 1958)
providing for joint power and research programmes; with Canada (G Oct.
195!l) for work on the natural uraninm, heavy water moderated reactor;
B·nd with the United Kingdom (4 Feb. 1959) providing a framework for
co-operation. Euratom is also a major partner in the OEEC Dragon
projec1, for an advanced gas-cooled reactor being built at Winfrith Heath
(Dorset), and has a share in the OEEC Halden reactor.
Prl',sident of the Commission. Etienne Hirsch (Fr.).
Adiress. 51-3, Rue Belliard, Brussels.
Gen<ral Report on the Activities oJ the Community (annual, from 1958).-Iieport on the
position oJ nuclear industries in the Community (Brussels, June 1958)
EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY

Th,~EEC, which came into being on 1 Jan. 1958 following the ratification
of a treaty signed in Rome on 25 March 1957, has the task of integrating
the economies of the 6 member conntries. During the transition period of
12-15 years a customs union will be gradually introduced, and measures
taken to free the movement of workers, capital and services within the
Community. The Treaty also provides for the adoption of common
policies on agriculture and transport; the harmonization of commercial
policies; the establishment of a social fund for the retraining of workers;
and aIL investment bank to stimulate the development of backward regions
in the Community. For an initial period of 5 years a special association
is in f~rce for the overseas countries and territories of the member states.
This Fovides for a reduction in trade barriers between them and the Com-
munit:~ countries, and a development fund, jointly financed, to make non-
repay!cble loans for economic and social development.
The execution of the treaty rests with a 9-member Commission, which is
advised by an Economic and Social Committee (101 members). Consultative
bodie~ on transport and monetary policy are also provided. Major decisioll3
are taken by the Council of Ministers.
On 1 Jan. 1959 the first step towards the customs union was taken by a
10% reduction of tariffs on trade between members, accompanied by a
globalization and a 20% increase in quotas: quotas equivalent to at least
3% of national output were established for previously small or nil quotas.
The investment bank began its operations and on 18 March 1959
announced four loans totalling S24m. By 30 Sept. 195f) the development
fund had made non-repayable loans of $19·4m. for development projects
in the overseas countries of the Community.
The quota increases adopted on 1 Jan. 1960 have been extended to all
GATT members, and member states are free to extend the next 10% tariff
reduc1oion (due on 1 July 1960) to all non-members.
President of the Commission. Walter Hallstein (Germany).
Ac~dress. 23, Avenue de la Joyeuse Entree, Brussels.
Gen.eral Report on th.e actit'ities of the Community (annual, from 1958).-Pirst J.lIemorl7ndum
.. . concerning . . . a European Economic Association (BrusBels, 26 Feb. 1959).-Second
Jlemor.mdum (Brussels, Sept. 19:;0).-Notes Statistiques Rapides (monthly, from 1959).-
Grapld'rues et Notes Rapides sur la conJ"onr.ture de la Communaute (monthly, from 1951J)
:EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION

Tl.e EFTA, consisting of Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden,
Switz,~rland and the United Kingdom (the' Outer Seven '), was negotiated
during 1959 following the failure at the end of 1958 of attempts to create
a European Free Trade Area linking the European Economic Community
with l,he other members of the OEEC. Signed on 20 Nov. 1959 at Stock-
holm, the Association proposes the gradual elimination of quantitati\"e
COLOMBO PLAN 39
restrictions, customs duties and charges with eqnivalent effect, on industrial
products traded between its members.
The timetable for the progressive elimination of tariffs follows closely
that of the EEC; the first reduction of20% is to take place on 1 July 1960;
successive cuts will be of 10% each. By 1 Jan. 19';0 all import duties and
quantitative restrictions will have been removed.
Agricultural products are not included in the general provisions for freer
trade, but separate agreements may be negotiated between members to
increase trade in these products. Agreements on theso lines have been
concluded between the United Kingdom and Denmark and the United
Kingdom and Norway.
The execution of the Convention is the responsibility of a ministerial
Council, acting in most cases by a unanimous vote.
At the signature of the Convention the member states declared that they
regarded it as 'a step towards an agreement between all member countries
of the OEEC', and that they were ready to initiate negotiations with the
EEC as soon as the latter was prepared to do so. At a series of meetings
in Paris on 12-14 Jan. 1960 attended by members of the OEEC, the United
States and Canada, agreement was reached on the procedure to be followed
in further talks.
Stockholm Draft Plan for a European Free Trade Association (In:;n).-Text of Conventioll
ana other documents approved at Stockholm on 20 Nov. J959.-EFTA . The Stockholm
Convention and heer world trade (ln5n)
COLOMBO PLAN
After several meetings during 1950 in Colombo, Sydney and Loudon
tLe Commonweaith Consultative Committee on South and South· East Asia
published, on 28 Nov. 1950, the' Colombo Plan for Co· operative Economio
Development in South and South· East Asia.' The plan came into force on
1 July 1951 and was intended to prQvide the framework for tho develop·
ment programmes of the Asian member countries until 30 Jrule 19.57.
Extensions were agreed upon in 1955 (until HJ61) and 1959 (until 19()ti).
Each country is free to revise its programme as it wishes, and has in fact
frequently done so.
Member countries of the Consultative Committee are: Australia,
Canada, CeyJoo, India, Malaya, New Zealand, Pakistan and the U.K.,
together with British Borneo IInd Siugnpore (original members); Vietnam,
Cambodia and Laos became full members in 1950; Burma and Nepal in
1952; Indonesia in 1953; Japan, the Philippines and Thailand in 1954.
Singapore (formerly an associate member) was accepted as a full member in
1959. The U.S.A. is associated with the committee and attends meetings
as a full member. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop·
Illent and the Economic Commission for Asia and Far East (E.C.A.F.E.)
maintain close liaison with the committee.
Expenditure on development in the public sector (£lm. at a constant
rate of e~challge) :
In~:\-56 1956-:;7 1957-58 InSil-59 1959-60
Country or 1953 1 or In56 1 or 1957 1 or 19:;8 • or InS9 '
Burma . 23·9 27·8 30·0 30·5 33·1)
Cambodi!l ;·0 i·i 11·G 13·7 16·G
Coylon . 32·3 37·1 37·3 49·1) 41)'-1
Ino.in . 4~~·B 8·19·r, 647·2 7n'1 821·4
Indonesia 40·0 108·3 72·6 142·2 llN
All the figures o( the !lbove table are tentative and subject to revisIon.
1.a.ctual. • Estimates.
195~- ~ 6 1956-~7 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60

Country or 1955' or 1956' or1957' or 1958' or 1959'
Laos 3·5 7·2 7 ·8 9·5 11·6
Nepal • . • 0·7 1·6 7'4
Federatl>n of Malaya 15·6 55·0 61-3 60·5' 74·0
PakistaD • 54·2 120' 5 109·1 111·9 112·2
Phlllppilles 14·9 140'2 132-9 131·6 135·0
North B )meo . 4·3 1'9 2·5 2·8 2·4
Sarawak. 5·1 2·7 2·7 2.6 ' 3·0
Thailanc . 26·7 25·0 25·8 29·2 52·2
SingapoJe 9·8 14-9 13·8 14·4' 13·2
Vietnam 1201 18·1 33·3 29·2 36·7
T~tal 749·9 1,416'0 1,187'9 1,420'8 1,478' ;
All the figures of tbe above table are tentative and subject to revision.
I Actual. I Estimates.
AUfltralia had by 30 June 1959 spent £A30·7m.: Canada. has provided

$231·7m. since 1951: India has pledged a total of Rs 132·7m. of aid to
Nepal: New Zealand has made available £NZ9·3m. since 1951; U.S.A.
economic assistance through various agencies totals about $5,660m. The
Intern:ttional Bank has granted loans totalling $935m. to Colombo Plan
countries.
Technirol Co.operation. The scheme for technical co.operation is
administered by eo council representing the participating governments: it
has a hureau at Colombo. Australia, Canada, Ceylon, lnctia, New Zealand,
Pakishn and the U.K. provided technical assistance valued at £14m. up
to 30 ~rune 1959.
In 1958-59 training was arranged for 1,717 persons (8,603 frolll the be·
ginnin;~ of the scheme).
TrE.ining facilities have been provided by the U.K. f~ 2,644 trainees; by
Austra.lia, for 2,659; by Ca.nada, for 1,097, and by New Zealand, for 668.
In the Plan area itself Inctia has accepted 1,007 trainees, Pakistan 94, Ceylon
53, Ma.laya 28 and Indonesia 13.
Up to the end of June 1959, 1,194 experts (inclucting 358 British) from
abroac. have gone to tho Plnn area, working in the field of mecticine and
health. and in engineering, food and agriculture, transport and communica·
tions, education, industry and trade.
Equipment for training and applied research ha,s been supplied at a
total cost of m ore than £2·9m. up to 30 June 1959.
In(lia, Pakist.an, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya and Singapore have themselves
begun to exchange experts and to offer training facilit,ies to institutes or on
development projects to countries about to embark on similar projects.
U.K. Contribution. Up to 30 June 1959 assistance made since 1951
t.otall€d almost £150m., of which about £IOlm. has been disbursed in grants,
loans, crectits and technical assistance. In 1958-59 provision of capital
and tochnical assistance was greatly enlarged. first. by the extension to
Inctia and Pakistan of substantial capital aid for their development plans
and s(,condly. by the increase of technical assistance available up to 1963
from ,<:7m. to £9m. There has been at the same time sustained United
Kingdom private investment in the area.
The ctisbursements of £lOlm. include the U.K .'s contribution of £4·8m.
for te(,hnical assistance but do not include £37·3m. loaned from the U.K.'s
18% f,teriing subscription to the International Bank. mainly to Inctia and
Pakistan.
Ur.der the scheme for Commonwealth assistance loans announced at the
Commonwealth Trade and Economic Conference at Montreal in Sept. 1958,
SOUTH-EAST ASIA COLLECTIVE DEFENCE TREATY 41
credits for a total of about £65m. have been granted or promised to India,
Pakistan, Ceylon and Malaya. The International Bank is making available
through the U.K.'s 18% subscription, up to £lOm. a year for the period
1958-60 for projects in Commonwealth countries of the sterling area apart
from sums already committed. A Commonwealth Development Finance
Company was set up in 1953 and the U.K. also considers approaches by Com-
monwealth cOllntries to the London finance market in support of worth-
while projects. During 1957-59 India used ber sterling balances largely to
provide external exchange for her second 5-year plan; the U.K. met the
resultant demand 011 its current resources.
Ph. Col<lmbo Pia... (Cmd. 8080.) H.M.S.O., 1950; repr. 1952.-Annual Rtporl. H.M.S.O.,
1952 to date.-Ptchnical Cooptration Schtmlt Report. H .M.S.O., 1954 to date
Colombo Pla.n Bureau, Colombo: The SelJe'nth Year -PrO{ITes.~ of thp- Colombo Plan~ 1958.--
Phe Colombo Plan, Questimu and Ans"'ers. 1958.-Change in Asia: The Co/mnbo Plan. 1959
SOUTH-EAST ASIA COLLECTIVE DEFENCE

TREATY
On 8 Sept. Hl54 Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the
Philippines, Thailand, the U.K. and the U.S.A. 8~ed at Manila a pact of
• continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid,' which established a
collective defence system in South-East Asia.
The following articles define the scope of the pact:
ARTICLE 4. (1) Each party recognize. that 1Igf,'l'ession by means of ..rmed ..tt..ck in the
treaty &rea against any of the parties or "gainst .. nv State or territory which the p&rties by
uno.nimous agreement may hereaft.er desIgnate would endanger its own peace and sllfety, and
agrees that it will in that event act to meet the common danger in acr..ordance with its con·
stitutional processes. Measures takeu under this paragraph shall be immediately reported to
the Security Conncil of the United Nations.
(2) U in the opinion ot any of the parties the inviolabWty or the integrity 01 the territory
or the sovereignty or politica.l indepeudence of any pa.rty in the treaty area. or ot a.ny other
Sta.te or territory to which the provisiOns of paragr&ph (1) of this article fro m time to time
apply is threatened in "ny w ..y other than by armed attack or is affected or threatened by any
fact or situation which might endanger the peace of the area, the parties shaU consult immedi-
ately in orrJer to agree ou the measures which should be te.ken for the commo n defence.
(3) It i. understood th..t no ..ction on the territory of any State designated by unanimous
..groement under paragraph (1) of t his article or on any territory so designated shall be taken
except. at the invita.tion or witb the consent of the government concerned.
ARTICLF. 5. The pllrties hereby est..blisb B council on which each of them shall be repre-
eented to consider mattm'S concerning the implementation of this treaty. The council sball
provide for consultation with regard to military and llDy other plannilJg ns the situation
obtaining in the treaty areB may !rom time to time require.
ARTICLE 6. This treaty does not e.tIect and sh ..ll not be interpreted as atrccting in .. ny
way the rights ana obligat,ions of IlDY of the parties nnder the Charter of the Un ited Nations
or the responsibility of tho United Na.tions for the mnintenance of international peace and
security. Each party declares that none of ttle interna.tional engagements now in force
between it and any other of the p&rties or llDy third pmy is in conJlict with tLe provisions of
thi3 treaty and undertakes not to enter into any international engagement in conflict with this
treaty.
ARTICLE 7. Any other State in a position to fw·ther the objectives of this treaty and to
contribute to tue 8eCuIity of the area may by 1lll8uimous ..greement 01 the pmies be invited
to aceede to this t.reaty. AIly State 8 0 invited may become a party to the treats' by depositin~
i t.'S ill~ trument, of accession with the Government of the Republic of t ile IJllilippines which
shall inform each of the parties of t hedeposit of each such instrument of ncrcssion.
ARTICI." 8. All u.'Ied in tbis t reat y, the treaLy area is the gener,,1 area orSouth· East Asia
including a'~ the entire territories of the Al!ian parties "nd the general flrl!a at the South-
West Pacific not including the Pacific area north of 2] 0 30' N. tat. The parties may by
nnanimous agreement amend th is article to include within the treaty area the territory of
any State aCQcding to this treat.y or otherwise to change the treaty area.
ARl'lCI.E 10. TIlis treaty sbnll remain in force imlcfinitely, but Bny party may cea.se to
be a party one year a.fter its notice of denunciation hRs been gi'len to the Government of the
Republic of the Philippines which shall inform the Governments of the other parties of the
deposit of each notice of denuuciation.
To the treaty text was added the following' understanding of the United
States of America' :
The United States of Americl\ in .xecuting the present treaty does BO with the under-
standill€ ' that its recognition of the effect of aggression and armed attack and its agreement
with reierence thereto In article 4, plU"!lgl"aph (1), apply only to CommunIst aggression,
but affirm. that in tbe event of other aggression or armed attack it will consult under tbe
provisio:>s of article 4 (2).
A protocol to the treaty states:
The ;>arties to the South-East Asia collective defence treaty unanimonsly designate for
the purr oses of article 4 of the treaty the States of Cambodia and Laos and the free territory
under tbe jurisdiction of the State of Vietnam.
The :>arties further "'l'!'e" that the above-mentioned States and territory shall be eligible
in resp""t of the economic measures contemplated by article 3. This protocol shall enter
into force simnltaneously with tbe coming into force of the treaty.
Tho 8 ntltions also issued a declaration of principles involved, calling it
the Pacific Charter. The text of the Pacifio Charter is:
The ,lelegates d""iring to establish a firm basis for common action to maintain peace and
!SeCurity in South·East Asia and the South· West Pacific; convinced t.hat common action to
tbis end in order to he worthy and effective must be inspired by the highest principles of
justice and liberty do bereby proclaim:
Fms'r, in accordance with the provisions of tbe United Nations Charter tbey uphold the
prinoipi<, of equal rights and self-determination 01 peoples, and they will earnestly strive by
every p",.celnl means to promote selt-government and to secure the independence of aU
oountrieJ whose peoples desire it aud a.re ab1e to undertake its responsibilities.
SEOOND. they are e:\ch prepared to continue taking effective practical measures to ensure
oonditiolS tavoura.ble to the orderly achievement of the foregoing purposes in accordance with
their COJlstitutional procei>ses.
THIRD, they wiJl continue to eo-operate in the economic, social and cnltural fields in order
to prom,)te higher living standards, economic progress and social weO-being in this region.
FOUIITI/, as declared in the South-East A8i8 collective deeence treaty, they are determined
to prevent or counter by appropriate means any attempt in the treaty area to subvert their
lreedom or to destroy their "overeiguty or territorial integrity.
Tho military and ciYiI organizations established under tho treaty have
their p,)rmnnont headquarters at Bangkok, where the Council representatives
also hold their meeting~.
SOUlh-E,u' .4,ia Collec/i•• D,jenu Treaty. (Cmd.265) H.M.S.O., 1~57
CENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION

A pact of mutual defence was signed in Baghdad by Turkey and Iraq
on 24 Feb. 1955. It was joined by the United Kingdom (4 April), Pakistan
(23 Se:Jt.) and Iran (3 Nov.). The U.S.A. became a full member of the
economic and counter-subversion committees in April 1956 and of the
military committee in March 1957, and is represented at the council meetings
by observers. On 28 July 1958 the U.S.A. agreed 'promptly to enter into
agreerr.ents designed to give effer.t to co-operation' with the Pact countries.
Bilateral defence agreements between the U.S.A. and Turkey, Iran and
Pakistan were signed in Ankara on 5 March 1959.
Ira1 ceased to participate in tho activities of the Pact countries after the
revoludon in July 1958 and formally withdrew from the Pact on 24 March
1959.
He.ldquarters was transferred from Baghdad to Ankara in Oct. 1958,
and thc Iraqi Secretary-General, Awni Khalidy, was replaced by M. O. A.
Baig (Pakistan). On 21 Ang. 1959 the name of the organization was
changed from Baghdad Pact to Central Tretlty Organization (' Cento ').
Thll main clauses of the Pact can be summarized as follows:
1. ConsI.tent with Art. 51 of the U.N. Charter, the contracting parties will co-operate for
their se(urity and defence. Such measure.i as they agree to give effect to this co-opera.tion
may for:n the subject of special agreements with each other.
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES 43
3. Thp. contracting parties undertake to refrain from any interference in each other's
internal affairs. They wiIJ set.tle aoy dispute between themselves in a peaceful way in
accorda.nce wi th U.N • Charter.
4. The contracting parties declare that the dispositions of the Pact arc not in contradiction
with nny of toe international ohligations contracted uy either of them with any third st.a.te.
They nndertake not to enter into any internationnl obligations incompatible with the Pact.
1>. The pact is open for occe3sion to any member sLate of the Arab League or any other
State actively concerned witb the security and peace of this region, nnd which is recognized
by Turkey and Iraq.
7. Tbis Pact retU'l.in5 in force for a period of:> yennz,renewable for other 5-year perioda.
Any party may v,ithdraw by notifying tbe other parties 6 months before the e~lration of
any of the above-mentioned periods.
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES

On 14 April 1890 representatives of the American republics, meeting in
Washington at the First International Conference of American States,
established an • International Union of tbe American Republics' and, as ita
oentral office, a • Commercial Bureau of American Republics,' which later
became t.he Pan American Union. This international organization's object
was to foster mutua.l understanding and co-operation among the nations
of the Western Hemisphere. Since that time, successive Inter-American
conferences havc greatly broadened the scope of work of the Organization.
This led to the adoption on 30 April 1948 by the Ninth International
Conference of American States, at Bogota., Colombia, of the Charter of the
Organization of American States. This co·ordinated the work of all the
former independent official entities in the inter-American system and defined
their mutual r(,lationships. The Organization of Am('rican St,ates serves the
cause of the Unitcd Nations as a regional agency devoted to the pacific
settlement of disputes in the 'Vestern Hemisphere and to the promotion of
inter· American under~tallding .
MEMBERSIIlP. The 21 American republics are members of the Organiza.
tion, on a basis of absolute equality. Each country has one vote in the
C,)uncil of the Organization. The list of membor countries is as follows:
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicara.gua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, U.S.A., Uruguay, Venezuela. Two
years have to elapse for ratification of a wit.hdrawal of membership.
OROA.~S. The O.A.S. accomplishes its purposes by means of :
(a) The Inter-American Conference, meeting generally every 5 years, at
which the member governments decide matters pertaining to their relation·
ships and to the general action and policy of the Organization. The latest,
tent.h, meeting took place in Caracas, Venezuela, in 1954.
(b) The Meeting of ConsuUation of M jnisters of Foreign Affairs, held to
consider problems of an urgent nature and of common interest to the
American republics and to adopt decisions in matters covered in the Inter-
American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance; it is as~isted by an Advisory
Defence Committee, composed of the highest military authorities in
the member countries and meeting whenover it is considered advisable
to study questions of collective self.defence.
(c) The Council of the Organization, with headquarters in Washington,
composed of onc representative of each member nation especially appointed
by the respective government, wit.h t.he rank of ambassador. The Council
supervises the progress of the Organization, acting either direct.ly or
through the following technical organs : Inter-American Economic and
Social Coul/cil, with permanent headquarters at the Pan American Union
in Washington; Inter-American Council of Jurists; Inter-American Cultural

Council.
(d) The Pan American Union, the oentral and permanent organ of the
Organi2.ation, with headquarters in Washington.
The Chartsr of the OAS designated the Pan American Union as the central organ and gen-
eral Becretariat of the Organization. Six Bubstantive departments deal with: economic and
social afhirs; legal affairs; cultural affairs; technical co-operation; statistics, and public
informa.tion. The directors of the first three of these departments are, n officio, ex:ecuti~e
eecretarifs of the ool'l'eSponding organs of the Council, i.t., the IDter~American Economic
and 80ci:1I Council, the Inter-American Council of Jurists and the Inter-American Cultural
Council. Anxilia.ry services are provided through the offices of: counci1 and conference
eecretruiE.t services; financial services, and publications services. The Pan American
Union i. also the permanent secretariat of the Inter-American Conferenc,"" the Meetinge
of Consultation of Foreign Ministers and the Specialized Conferences. It acts as adviser
to the Council and its ocgnns in the preparation of these conferences, offers technical
aasistanc', and necessary personnel, acts al custodian of documents and archives of the COD-
ferences, 8.8 well as depository of instrnment8 of ratification of inter-American agreementa,
and .ubujta reportll to the Connclland to the inter-AmericlW conferences on work accompli&hed
by the nriOU8 org8Illl. In addition to these duties to the member governments and their
offioial a.1~encies, the Pan American Union renders a wide variety of lervices through its in-
formation and technical offices to the citizens of the American republics, and in general senel
aB a clearing-hoUlo for information on all the member countries.
(e) The Specialized Conferences, meeting to deal with speoial technioal
matterll or to develop speoifio aspects of inter-American oo-operation.
(,f) The Specialized Organizatio1l8, intergovernmental organizations
establiEhed by multilateral agreements to discharge specifio funotions in
their respeotive fields of action, such as women's affairs, agriculture, child
welfare. Indian affairs, geography and history. and health.
Swetary-General. Jose A. Mora (Uruguay).
Assistam Secretary-General. William Sandors (U.S.A.).
Del-artmental Directors. Economic and Social Affairs. Ceoilio Morales
(Argemina); Legal Affairs. Charles G. Fenwick (U.S.A.); Cultural Affairs.
Juan :M:arin (Chile); Public Information. George Coleman (U.S.A., acting);
Statisti';8. Tulo H. Montenegro (Brazil); Technical Co-operation. Joso
Gon<;all'es de Souza (Brazil).
Offi,:e Directors. Council and Conference Secretariat Services. Robert A.
Conrads (U.S.A.); Financial Services. John B. Rothrock (U.S.A.); Publica-
tion Services. John A. McAdams (U.S.A.).
ThE Secretary-General and the Assistant Seoretary-General are eleoted
by thE Council of the Organization for IO-year terms. The Seoretary-
General appoints the Department Direotors as well as the lesser personnel
of the Union. The Counoil approves the annual budget for the Organiza.-
tion, whioh is financed by quotas oontributed by the member governments.
General Secretariat. Pan American Union, Washington 6, D.C., V.S.A.
Books of Reference
Publications of the Pan American Union include:
Clumer 'ilk Organitalion oJ "'mmean SIaU.. 1051
The I..u'-Arnn'iean SII""". 1947
.dmffl=,. TlhL,trated monthly, from 1948
Annals (f lh~ Organitatian of American States. Quarterly, from .Tan. 1948
Organization of Amt'1'1Can Staus, a Handbook. Rev. ed. 1960
Organization 0/ American SliJ1.es. Directory, 1960
Tk Org«nizatim oJ .1rnn'ican StaU. and Ik Unic.d :Vati""". 3rd od. 19;5
R'Porl o .• lk Tmlh [nUr-American Conft:rmu, Caracas 1954. 1955
lnUr-Am....iean R,vi.,. of BibliolJf'aphll. Quarterly, from 195J
BibliolJf'''phll of S.z..:td Slat~'lical SOllrus of Ik .Anurican Ncuio",. 1947
.d ........ca. Juridical Y ...rbook. 1948 ff.
Publications on Latin America (for publications OD the individual states and the U.B.A.. , .et!
the bibliographical notes appended to each country) :
THE ARAB LEAGUE 46
ReI1....,~, EEpnUJuur.. and Public Dt6U of IN LaJi.. Amviam R."ubiiu. DIYiBion ot Plnanclal
Information, n.s. Department of Commerce. Annual
Fortni ghtly Ret'iew 0/ B1Minell and EClJ1Wfnic Conditions in S outIJ and Central .AmeriC4. Pub-
lished by the Bank: 01 London and South America. London, from 1936
Bouradar;.. of the Lalin .dmvi<an iILp,tbliu: An AnnolaUd List of Docummt" 1493-11143.
Department of State Office ot tbe Geograpber. Washington, 1944
Who', Who in LaJin .JmeriCIJJ. 6 TOIs. Stauford University Press, 1935-51
Yoc.aIionol Traini"9 t" Lata" Amn-U'.a. Geneva, Int. Labour Otllce, 1951
Lal:in America.: an introduction w tile basic books in English. Hispanic & Luso-Brazilian
Councils, London. J 960
AJTaradoOaraicoa., T., La Tra.,undtmda tkl41 & unimus lnurammcana.". OnayaquJl,1949.
Burgin, M. (ad.), Handbook of Lalin Amvi<an Stud",.. Cambridge, Mass., 1936 11.
O&rlooo, F. A. , Gtogra7lhV of lAIin America. New York, 1903
Clagett, H . L., AdminiJlration of JlU4iu in LaJin America. New York, 1952
Ovllier, J ., The IndiaJu of the Americ.... New York, 1947
Davies, H . (ed.), The South Ameriwn Handbook. London, 1924 to date
Brnebolm, I., CIJtIJO Prodrution in Sou'" .4.m.nu.. GOteborg, 1948
Fibgibbon, RWl3eU H. (ed.), The Constilltlion, of the .dmerica.t as of Jan. J, J9~8 . Cbicago,
1948
Gordon, W. 0., The Ewnomy of lAIi .. A"..,.i"". New York, 1951
Hanson. E. P. (editor), N~ World Outde 1o the Latin·.tI.rn4f'tcan lUpubliC3. 3 vols.,3Id ed.
N$w York, 1950
Barns, S. E., Economit ProbLmu of Latin America. New York. 1944
Herring, Hnbert, Good N ftqhhollrl: A'9""';IIIl, Branl, Chil< and S..,tnletn o~ Countri ...
10tb ed. New Haven, Oonn., 1948.-A Hi story of Latin America. New York, 1966
Hilton, R. (00.), H~pa,nic Amerna,., Report. Stanford, Cal., monthly
Hugblett.. IJoyd J . (ad.), Indu.trialitaJion 01 LaJin Ameriw. New York, 1947
Humphreys, R. A.• Latin American History: a guide l(t the literfllure in English. London,
19'5.-Tile Ero/ulion of Modern Latin America. Oxford,1946
Ireland, G., Boundariel, P06H3nOnl and Conflict, in Central and SoUlh America and tM
Caribb"",. Cambridge (Mass.), 1941
Jam.., P. R.,lAIin Amvica. 2nd ed. New York, 19.0
Jorrin, MigueJ, Ooonnmenu 0/ Latin America. New York, 1953
MacDonald, A. P.,lAIin Ameritm. Po/it;" "nd Govem~. New York, 1949
Mann, H .• 8 0tllh America. London, 1957
Pierson, W. 'V., Rnd GiI, F. G., Gocemments 01 Latin America. New York, Toronto, London,
1956
Rouma, G., L' Ambique LaJi~. Brussels, 1948
8cbu"" W. L., 7'hj, Ntw World: The Civilization of lAIin A",..,.ica. J..ondon,1nS6
Steward, J . H. (ed.), Handboo~ of the South A~n India... 6 vols. Wasbington,
194~60
Stuart, G. H., Lati.. A"..,.ica and the Uniltd StaJe.. 5tb cd. New York, 1955
Thomas, A. B.~ Latin America : A Hislory. New York, 1~.l6
TomHnsoD, E., Look soulhward, Uncle. New York. 19a9
Whitaker, A. P., D~lopment 0/ American Regionalism ; tile Organitalion of American StaUJ.
New York, 1951
Worcester, D. E ., and Schaeffer, ,V. G., The Growth and Cullure 01 Latin .dmerica. O.rlord
Univ. Press, 1956
Wytbe. G., Indust,., in Latin Af'7It'1"ica. 2nd ed. New York, 1949
THE ARAB LEAGUE

Origin. The formation of the League of Arab States in 1945 was largely
inspired by the Arab awakening of tbe 19th century, This movement
sought to re· create and reintegrate the Arab community which, though for
400 years a part of the Ottoman Empire, had preserved its identity as a
separate national group held together by memories of a common past, a
common religion and a common language, as well as by the consciousness of
being in part at least descended from a common racial stock, The leaders of
the Arab movement in the 19th century and of the Arab revolt against
Turkey in the First World War sought to achieve these aims through secession
from the Ottoman Empire into a united and independent Arab state com·
prising all the Arab countries in Asia. However, the 1919 peace settlement
divided the Arab world in Asia (with the exception of Saudi Arabia and the
Yemen I into British and French spheres of influence and established in them
a numher of separate states and administrations (Syria, Lebanon, Iraq,
Jordan and Palestine) under temporary mandat-ory control.
By 1941, however, all these countries. with the exception of Palestine.
had suhstantially achieved their independence. An Arab conference there.
fore met in Alexandria in the aut.umn of 1944 ; in it, representatives of the
governments of Egypt, Iraq, Syria., u-ba non, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and
Yemen and a representative of the Arabs of Palestine took part.
Th e Alexandria Conference formulated what has come to be known a.!I
the' AI"xa ndria Protocol; which delineated the outlines of tho Arab League.
It was found that neither a unita ry state nor a federati on could he achieved,
but only a league of sovereign states banded together for joint action in
all lDutters of (;ommon concern . On the b'l~is of the Alexandria Protocol
a C ovenant was drawn up, esta blishing such a league, a nd this was signed
in Cair" on 22 March 1945 by the representatives of Egypt, Ira q, Sa udi
Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan a nd Yemen. Libya joined the League in
1'o-larch 1953 ; the Sudan in Jan. )956; Tunisia and Morocco n Oct. 1958.
An annex to the Covenant provides for the (o.operation \vith Arab
countri ~s outside the League, in the Arabian Peninsula a nd North Africa.
Org.mization. The machinery of the League consists of a Council, "
numbel' of Special Committees and a Permanent Secretariat. On the
Council each state has one vote. The Council may meet in a ny of the Arah
capitali:. Its functions include mediation in any dispute which threatens the
peace loet\vecD any of the League Rtates or a League state and a country
outside the League, The Council has a Political Committee consisting of
the Foreign Ministers of the Arab states.
The Permanent Secretariat of the League, under a Secretary. General
(with the status of ambassador), has its seat in Cairo.
Secretary-General. Abdul Khaliq Hassouna, a former Egyptian Minister
for Foreign Affairs (elected 14 Sept. 19(2).
Boo){s of Reference
A.ntoniu" 0.. The Arab .Awakening. London, 1938
Atiyah, 3., Th • .Arabs. Hnrmondswortb, 1955
Cragll, K ., Tloe Call of the NinaM. New York, 1~ 5 6
Glubb, Sir John, Britain and the Arabs. Londoo,1 959
Hitt i, P . K., History of the .drabs. 2 vols. London. 1939.-The Arabs : A Slwrt Histo'lI,
Londo>, 1943
R oil ing\\ orth, C., Tlte .Arabs and the West. London, 19:>2
Kirk, O. E., A Sltort 11,.to'lI of the lfiddJe East. London. 1948
Lewfs, n., The Arabs in Hi.'torV. London, 1950
Matthew;, R . D.,ftnd Akrawi, M., Education in ~ rab Countric.J. 'VashiDgtOD,1949
Nuseibet , H. Z., 1'loe ideM of .A,ab Nationalism. Cornell Urtiv. P ress, 1 9~6
THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH
AND EMPIRE
THE British Commonwealth of Nations consists of the United Kingdom,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Ceylon,
Ghana; the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland; the Colonies and
Protectorates; and the Territories under Trusteeship.
REIGNING QUEEN
Elizabeth 11 Alexandra Mary, born 21 April 1926 daughter of King
George VI and Queen Elizabeth; married on 20 Nov. 1947 Lieut. Philip
Mountbatten (formerly Prince Philip of Greece), created Duke of Edinburgh,
Earl of Merioneth and Baron Greenwich on the same day and created Prince
Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, 22 Feb. 1957; succeeded to the crown on the
dea.th of her father, on 6 Feb. 1952. Offspring: Charles Philip Arthur
George, Prince of Wales, born 14 Nov. 1948 (Heir Apparent); Princess
Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise, born 15 Aug. 1950; Prince AndrelO Albert
Christian Edward, born 19 Feb. 1960.
The Queen M other
Queen Elizabeth, born 4 Aug. HJOO, daughter of the 14th Earl of Strath-
more and Kingborne; married the Duke of York, afterwards King George
VI, on 26 April 1923.
Sister of the Queen
Princess Margarct Rose, born 21 Aug. 1930; married Antony Arm-
strong-Jones 011 6 May 1960.
Living Uncles of the Queen
1. Prince Edward Albert, created Duke of Windsor 12 Dec. 1936, born
23 June 1894; married Mrs Wallis Warfield on 3 June 1937. Reigned as
Edward VIII from 20 Jan. 1936 to 10 Dec. 1936 (324 days).
n. Prince Henry William, born 31 March 1900; created Duke of
Gloucester, Earl of Ulster and Baron Culloden, on 31 March 1D28; marriod
Lady Alice Montagu-Douglas-Scott (born 25 Dec. 1901), 6 Nov. 1935.
Offspring: William Henry Andrew Frederick, born 18 Dec. 1941; Richard
Alexander Waiter George, born 2G Aug. 1944.
Widow and Children of the [aft Dut. of Kent
Duchess 01 Kent. Princess MnriM of Greece (born 30 Nov. 190a); married on 29 Nov.
1934 to the late Duke 01 Kent. third brother 01 King George VI (born 20 Dec. 1902; died
25 Ang. 19(2). Otlspring: (1) Edward George Nicholas Patrick. Duke 01 Kent, born 9 Oct.
193~; (2) Ale:xandra Helcn Elizabeth OIga Christabel, born 2~ Dec. 1936; (3) Michael George
Oharle. Frank.liu, born 4 July 1942.
Living .dunl of the Quem
Princess Victoria Alexandra Mice Mary, Princess Roysl, born 25 April 1897; married
on 28 Feb. 1922 Viscount Lascelles (afterwards 6th Earl 01 Harewood), K.G., D.S.O., who
died 24 May 1947. Offspring: Georg. Henry Hubert, 7th Earl 01 Barewood, born 7 Feb.
1923; Gerald D"vid Lascelles, born 22 Aug. 1924.
The Queen's legal title rests on the statute of 12 and. 13 Will. Ill, c. 3,
by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland was
settled on tho Princess Sophia of Hanover and the' heirs of her body being
Protestants.' By proclamation of 17 July 1917 the royal fa mily became
known as the House and Family of Windsor. On 8 Feb. 1960, the Queen
issued a declaration varying her confirmatory declaration of 9 April 1952
to the effect that while the Queen and her children should continue to
49
50 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
be knov'n as the House of \Vindsor, her descendants, other than des·

cendanh: entitled to the style of Royal Highness and the title of Prince
or Primess, and female descendants who marry and their descendants
should hear the name of Mountbatten·Windsor. Under the Abdication
Act of 1936, the issue, if any, of King Edward VIII, or the descendants
of that issue, have no right, title or interest in or to the succession to
the Throne, and the Royal Marriages Act, 1772, ceased to apply to King
Edward VIII after his abdication. The titles of Queen Elizabeth II
are: In the United Kingdom and the Colonies: 'Elizabeth the Second,
by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland and of her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head
of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith '. In Canada, Australia
and Ne,~ Zealand : 'Elizabeth the Second, bv the Grace of God of the
United Kingdom, [name of country] and her other R ealms and Territories
Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.' In South
Africa, Ceylon and Ghana: • Elizabeth the Second, Queen of [name of
country] and of her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Common·
wealth.' In India, Pakistan and the Federation of Malaya: 'Head of the
Commonwealth.'
By biters patent of 30 Nov. HH7 the titles of Royal Highness and
Prince or Princess are restri cted t o the Sovereign's children, the children
of the Sovereign's sone and the eldest Ihing son of the eldest son of the
Prince 0' Wales.
Prov ision is made for the support of the royal household by the settle·
Illent of the Civil List soon after the commencement of each reign. (For
!dstorical details, see TilE STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK, 1908, p. 5, and 1935,
p. 4.) ,~ccording to the Civil List Act of 1 Aug. 1952, the Civil List of
the Queen, after the usual surrender of heredita ry revenues, was fixed
at. £475,000. of whi ch £60,000 is appwpriaten to the privy purse of the
Queen, fl85,000 for salaries of the royal household, £121.800 for household
expenscf, £13,200 for alms and bounty and £95,000 as supplementary pro.
vision. The Act a lso provides for £40,000 It year to the Duke of Edinburgh.
The :::ivil List Acts of 1910, 1937 and 1952 provid" for an annuity of
£70,000 to Queen Elizabeth (the Queen Mother); £35,000 to thEl D1lke of
Gloucester; £6,000 to the Princess Royal; £J5,000 (on marriage) to the
Princess Margaret.
Sovereigns of Great Britain, from the Restoration (with dat,es of acces·
sion ):
liouu of Steu-art Hou se oJ Hanover (contd.)
Charles fl 2() !\I a v 16(;0George III . 25 Oet . 1760
Jamcs H G Feb. 168;:; Georgc IV . 20 Jan. 1820
William IV 26 June 18:~O
House of Sleu-ar/.Orange Victoria 20 June 1837
William and Marv 13 Feb. 16S0
\\,iIli?1n III . 28 Dec. IG94 House of Saxe·Coburg and Go/ha
Edward VII 22 ,Tan. HJOl
J1 ouse of Sleu'art
Anne 19 March 1702 H OUSt of IV ind-sor
Ccorge V 6 May 1910
House of Hanover Edward VIIr 20 J an. 1936
George lAug.lil4 Gcorge VI . 11 Dec. 1\0136
George H . 11 June 1727 Elizabeth II 6 Feb. 1952
THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE 51
THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH

Up to JUly 1925 the affairs of all tho British Empire, apart from the
United Kingdom and India, wero dealt with by the Colonial Office. In
that month a ne'v secretaryship of state, for Dominion Affairs, took over
from the Colonial Office business connected with the self· governing Do·
minions, the self.go ... erning colony of Southern Rhodesia and the South
African High Commission territories (Basutoland, the Bechuanaland Pro-
tect,o rate and Swaziland), and business relating to the Imperial Con-
ference.
The Imperial Confcrence of 1\/26 defined Great Britain and the Domin·
iOIlS, as they were th en called, as 'autonomous communities within the
British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another
in any a.spect of their domestic or foreign affairs, though united by a common
allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British
Commonwealth of Nations.'
On 11 Dec. 1931 the Statut.e of Westminster, which by legal enactment
recognized the status of the Dominions, defined at the Imperial Conferenl)e
of 1926, became law. Each of tl1(, Dominions had significd approval of the
provisions of the Statute.
In July Hl47 the designations of Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs
and the Dominions Ollkc were altered to 'Secretary of State for Common-
wealth Relations' and' Commonwealth Relations Office.' As from 15 Aug.
1947 the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations assumed re~pon·
sibility for rela tions between tho United Kingdom and India and Pakistan,
and, as from 4 Feb. 1948, between the United Kingdom and Ceylon, as
from 6 March H/57, between the Unit.ed Kingdom and Ghana (formerly the
Gold Const), and, as from 31 Aug. 1957, between tho United Kingdom and
the Federation of Malaya. On 1 Oct. 1960 Nigeria will become an in-
dependent member of the Commonwe?ith.
On 31 March 1949 Newfoundland became a Canadian Province and its
independent relations with the United Kingdom throl!gh the Commonwealth
Relations Office ceased aceord.ingly.
On 18 April Wt9, when the Republic of Ireland Act,. H)48. came into
force, Southern Irebnd ceased t o be a member of tho Commonwealth.
However, t.he Unit,ed Kingdom and the Irish Republic do not regard one
another as foreign countries. The conduct of relatiolls with tht' Irish
nepublic continues to be a responsibility of the Secretary of State for
Commonwealt.h Relations.
India bccame a republic Oil 26 ,Jan . 1950, and P"kistan on 23 March
1956. They remain, however, members of the Commonwealth and accept
the Queen as t.he symbol of the frel) nssocia(,ion ()f its indcpcndtlnt member
nations and as snch t.he Head ofthe Commonwealth.
Th e Fedemtion of Rhodesia and Ny:>.saland (comprising the self.govern.
ing Colony ()fSnnt,hern R.hodesia and the Protect,orat.es of Norl,h<>rn Rhodesia
and Nyasalaml ) was established on 3 Sept. 1953. Legislative and executive
responsibility il divided bet.ween the Federal and Territorial Governments.
In the Federal f:~ld the Federal,ion enjoys a wide measure of self-govern-
mellt, but, the Cnited ],\illgdo/U ret.a.jns certain respoJlsibilitjes, notably in
relation to Fedeml legislation 1~lIlellding i,he constitution, dealing with
electoral matters or c1ifft"rent,iating ag~illst Africans. The Unit,e d Kingdom
also remains nitimat('\y responsible for the Federation's int.ernational
rebtions.
The Commonwealth Relations Office is the Department of State concerned

with tl.e conduct of relations with the governments of states which are
membe::s of the Co=onwealth (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union
of Soub Africa, India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Ghana, the Federation of Malaya)
and of ,;he Irish Republic. It has certain direct responsibilities in the case
of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, the South African High
Commh;sion Territories and the Maldives.
COI.ONIES. Territories dependent on the United Kingdom comprise
colonies (properly so·called), protectorates, protected states and trust terri-
tories. Her Majesty's Government exercises its responsibilities through the
Colonia': Office. A colony is a territory belonging by settlement, conquest
or anm,xation to the British Crown. A protectorate is a territory not
formall:r annexed but in which, by treaty, grant and other lawful means
the Crown has power and jurisdiction. A proctorate state is a territory
under a ruler which enjoys Her Majesty's protection, over whose foreign
affairs she exercises control, but in respect of whose internal affairs she does
not exercise jurisdiction. A trust territory is administered by the United
Kingdon Government under the trusteeship system of the United Nations.
United Kingdom dependencies administered through the Colonial Office
comprise, in East Africa : Kenya (colony and protectorate), Tanganyika
(trusteelhip), Uganda, Somaliland (protectorates), Zanzibar including
Pemba (protected state); in West Africa: Cameroons (under U.K. trustee-
ship), Federation of Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Gambia (colonies and protec-
torates). Togoland (under U.K. trusteeship); in the Far East: Brunei
(protected state), Hong Kong, North Borneo, Sarawak (colonies), Singapore
(internally self-governing state); in the Indian Ocean : Aden (colony and
protectorate), Mauritius and dependencies, Seychelles (colonies); in the
Mediterranean: Cyprus, Gibraltar (colonies), Malta (self-governing colony);
in the Atlantic Ocean: Falkland Islands, St Helena (colony with depen-
dencies Ascension and Tristan de Cunha); British Caribbean: Bahamas,
Barbado>s, Bermuda, British Guiana, British Honduras, Jamaica with
dependEncies Cayman Islands aud Turks and Caicos Islands, Trinidad and
Tobago, Leeward Islands, Windward Islands (colonies); West Pacmc:
Fiji, Pitcairn (colonies), Tonga (protected state), Western Pacmc High
Commission Territories (British Solomon Islands protectorate, Gilbert and
Ellice Idands colony, New Hebrides Anglo-French Condominium).
Whie constitutional responsibility to Parliament for the good govern-
ment of the colonial territories rests with the Secretary of State for the
ColonieE, the actual administration i~ carried out by the variolls colonial
governments.
Books of Reference
The CamJ,ridf/e History of tile British Empire. 8 vols_ Cambridge Univ. Press, 1929 d.
R~ of Comm011wealth Auriculture: Production and Trade. R.M.S.O_. 1952
Eeonomu SUf'fJev of the Colonial Temtories. 7 vols. H .M.S_O., 19~2 It_
Col.".ialllesearch, 1958-59. R .M.S.O., 1960
Quarterly Dig..t of Colonial Struis/i... R.M_S.O.
Colonial 2'ffl"itories. 1958-59. (Cmd. 78"'_) H .M.S.O., 195~
Brady, A.' Derrwcraw in tM Dominio'll$. 2nd ed. Toronto, 1962
I
Burns, Si! Alsn, In lJefence oj Coloni... London, 1~57

Gr.ans, ::., Colonial Monetary Conditions. KM.S.O., 1953
R"lley, L>rd. An African 8urvey. Rev. ed. Oxford. 1957.-Native Administration In th.
British t.frican Territories. 6 vols. H.M.S.O., 1951 If.
Rarvey, H. J ., Consultruion and co-operation in tlo< Commonwealth. London, 1962
Jc1fries, Sir C., The Colonial Ol/ice. London, 1966
Jennings, W. 1., and Young, C. ~L, Constitutional La"" of the CommontDealth. Oxford UniT.
Press, J952
GREAT BRITAIN 53
Keeton,G.W. (ed.), The Br1ti.Ih Com""",,,,ta/th : iu law. and <onmtUlWn.!. 9 vols. London.
195111.
Kuczynskl, R. R., Demographic Surwy 0/ the Briti.h Colonial Empire. 3 vole. J.ondon,
New York, Toronto, 1948-63
Maosergh, N. (ed.), Docummu and Spttthe. on British Commonweallh Affairs, 1931-.5t.
Oxford Univ. Press, 1~53 .-Survcy 0/ British Commonwealth Affairs, 1931-52. 2 vole.
R. Inst. of Int. Afiairs, 1952-58
M"aae6eld, G. B ., A Shorl BislOrv 0/ Agriwllure in lhe Brit;'l, Colonies. London, 1950
Maxwell, W. H . and L. F., A Legal Bibliography 0/ the Briti.h Commonwealth 0/ N alion,.
2nd ed. London, 1956
Meek, C. K., Land Law and CWlom. in the Colonies. 2nd ed. London, 1950
Wade, E. O. S., and Phillips, G. G., Con.<lit.tlional JAW : an outlint o/Ihe law and pra<li« 0'
the romtilmion, including unlral and Iotal government and the tonstitUlionai relaliom 0/ lhe
British CommonWtallh and Empire. 5th ed. London, 1955
Walker, E. A., The British Empire : /1$ StruClurt and Spirit. 2nd ed. London, 1954
Wbeare, K. 0 ., The SIGIuIt 0/ We$/minster and Dominion .~lalU$. 5th ed. Orford, 1953
Wight, M., The D~ 0/ the Legislative Council, 1606-1945. London, 1946.-Brili,h
Co/qnia/ CtmsliJulJofu, /947. London, 1951
Wiseman, V. H ., The Cabinel in Ihe Commonwealth. London, 1958
GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
IMPERIAL AND CENTRAL
The supreme legislativo power of the British Empire is vested in Parlia·

ment, which in its present form, as divided into two Houses of Legislature,
the Lords and the Commons, date.! from the middle of the 14th century.
Parliament is summoned by the writ of the sovereign issued out of
Chancery, by advice of the Privy Council, at least 20 days previous to ita
assembling. Every session must end with a prorogation, and all Bills which
have not been passed during the session then lapse. A dissolution may
occur by the will of the sovereign, or, as is most usual, during the recess, by
proclamation, or finally by lapse of time, the statutory limit of the duration
of any Parliament being 5 years.
Under the Parliament Acta, 1911 (1 and 2 Geo. V, ch. 13) and 1949
(12, 13 and 14 Geo. VI, ch. 103), all Money Bills (so certified by the Speaker
of the House of Commons), if not passed by the House of Lords without
amendment, may become law without their concurrence on the royal assent
being signified. Public Bills, other than Money Bills or a Bill extending
the marimum duration of Parliament, if passed by the House of Commons
in 2 successive sessions, whether of the same Parliament or not, and rejected
each time, or not passed, by the House of Lords, may become law without
their concurrence on the royal assent being signified, providt;d that 1 year
has elapsed between the second reading in the first session of the House of
Commons and the third reading in the second session. All Bills coming
under this Act must reach the House of Lords at least 1 month before the
end of the session.
The House of Lords consists of (1) hcreditary peers sitting by virtue of
creation or descent; (2) life peers being-la) Irish representative peers (2)
by election; (b) Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (9) under the Appellate Juris·
diction Act, 1876, as amended; (c) life pecrs and peeresses under the Life
Peerages Act, 1955; (3) peers electcd for the duration of a parliament
(Scottish representative peers (16)); (4) archbishops (2) and bishops (24)
so long as they hold their see~. The full House consist.~ of about l:S70 and
the average attendance is about HO.
The House of Commons consists of members representing county and
borough constituencies. No one under 21 years of age can be a member of

Parliament. Clergymen of the Church of England, ministers of the Church
of ScoLand and Roman Catholio clergymen are disqualified from sitting as
members; government contractors and sheriffs are also among those
disqualified. No English or Scottish peer can be elected to the House of
Commons, but non.representative Irish peers are eligible. Under the
Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act, 1918, women are also eligible.
In Aug. 1911 provision was first ma.de for the payment of a salary of
£400 pEr annum to members, other than those already in receipt of salaries
as officllrs of the House, as Ministers or as officers of Her Majesty's house·
hold. As from 1 May 1946 the sa.laries of members were increased to
£1,000 per a.nnum. This provision does not e:.:tend to the Hnuse of Lords.
The Representation of the People Act, 1948, abolished the business
premisEs and University franchiscs, and the only persons entitled to vote at
Parliamentary elections are those registered as residents or as service voters.
No pemon may vote for more than one constituency at a general election.
Person! ma.y apply on certain grounds to vote by post or by proxy. Ahsent
voters 'riBhing to vote by post must give an address in tho United King.
dom to which their ballot pa.per is to be sent.
The law relating to the registration of electors has been consoliaated in
the Representation of the People Act, 1949. All persons \vho arc of full age
and nOI, subject to any legal incapacity to vote and who are either British
subjectlJ or citizens of the Irish Republic are entitled to be included in the
register of electors for the constituency containing the address at which
they wllre residing on the qualifying date for the register and are entitled
to vote at elections held during the perioa for which the register remains
in forco. Under the Electoral Registel'l! Act, 1949, the regist"r is to be
publish 3d on 15 March each year.
Members of the Armed Forces, Crown servants employed abroad, and
the whes of members of the Armed Forces or of such Crown servants if
residing abroad to be with their husbands, are entitled, if otherwise qualified,
to be r"gistered as 'service voters' provided they make a 'ijervice d()cl~ra·
tion.' To he effective for a. pa.rticular register, the declara,tion must be
made 0:1 or before the qualifying date for that register.
For local government elections there is also an occupier's qualification,
but the rlames of persons having this qualification are marked in the register t<>
show that the entry does not entitle them to vote at Parliamentary elections.
The Act of 1948 effected a redistribution of the constituencie~ in the
United Kingdom. The number of constituencies in Great Britain must be
not substantially greater or less than 613, in Scot.land not less than 71, in
Wales IIOt less than 35 and in Northern Ireland 12. Every constituency
returns a single member.
The House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Acts, 1944 and 1940,
provided for the setting up of Boundnry Commissions for England, Wales,
Scotland and Northern Ireland. The Commissions are required to make
genera.l reports at intervals of not less than 3 and not moro than 7 years
and to wbmit reports from time to time with respect to the Ilrea comprised
in any pa.rticular constituency or constituencies whero some change appears
necessary. Any changes giving effect to reports of the Commissions are to be
made by Orders in Council laid before Parliament for approval by resolution
of each House. The electorate of the constituencies of the United Kingdom in
the register used at the elections of 8 Oct. 1959 numbered 35,111,432, of
whom 29,058,370 were in England, l,791,7:i4 in Wales, 3,387,909 in Scotland
and 873,399 in Northern Treland.
GREAT BRITAIN 55
The following is a table of the duration of Parliaments called since tho
accession of King Edward VII.
Duration (yeant,
Reign When met Wben dissolved months, day;: )
E<lward VU. • • 13 Fp.~ . 1906 10 Jan. 1910 3 11 24
Rdward VII and George V I~ Feb. 1910 28 Nov. IMO o 9 IS
George V 31 Jan. 1911 2~ Nov. 1918 7 9 25
4 Feb. 1919 26 Oct. 1922 3 8 22
20 Nov. 1922 16 Nov. 1923 o 11 27
8 Jan. 192-1 9 Oct. 1924 091
2 Dec. 1924 )0 Mn 1929 , 5
2~ June 1929 2-1 AU!;. 1931 2 1 2~
3 Nov. 1931 2~ Ocl. 193f> 3 11 22
Ge~e V, Edward VIIi and
George VI
George VI
. 26 :SOl'. 193~
26 July 1940
I Mar. 1~5/)
16 June 1946
3 Feb. 19~0
~ Oct. 19~1
,
9
1
6
8
7
20
9
,
G";'rge VI and 'EliUlbeth II 31 OcL. 1951 6 May 1956 3 6 ~
Elizabeth II 9 Jl1ne 195!) IS Sept. 1959 4
20 Oet.. 195~
The executive government is vested nominally in the Crown, but

practically in a committee of Ministers, called the Cabinet, which is depen·
dent on the support. of a majority in the House of Commons.
The head of the Ministry is the Prime Minister, a position first constitu·
tionally recognized, and special precedence accorded to the holder, in 1905.
His colleagues in the Ministry are appoint-ed on his recommendation, and he
dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown.
Heads of the Administrations since 1908 (C. = Conservative, L. =
Liberal, Lab. = Labour, Nat, = National):
H. H. Asquit.b (L.) 8 April 1908 J . R. MacDonald (Xat.) 2S Aug. 1931
H. H. A.aqnitb (Cool .) . 25 May 191f> 8. Baldwin (Nat.) 7 June 19:.\,",
D. Lloyd GeOl-ge (Coal.) 7 Dec. 1916 N. Cbamberlain (Nat.) 28 May 1937
A. Bonar Law (C.) 23 Oct. 1922 W. S. Cburchill (Nat.) • 10 May 19{O
s. Baldwio (C.) . 22 May 1923 C. R. Atllee (Lab.) 26 July 1~4 .
J. R. llacDoroaJd (Lab.) 22 Jan. 1924 W. S. Churchill (0.) • 26 Oct. 195[
S. Baldwio (0. ) . . 4 Nov. 1924 Sir Antbony Eden (0.). 6 Aprilltl;)5
J . R . MacDonald (Lab.) 5 June J 929 H . Macmillao (0.) 17 J"n. 1967
In April 1960 the Government consisted of the following member3 :
(a) MEMBERS 011 TBE CABINET

1. Prime Minister and First Lord oJ the Treasury. Right Hon . Harolrl
Macmillan, M.P., born 1894. (Salary £10,000 per annum.)
2. 8ecretary oJ State Jor the Home Department. Right Hon. R. A. Butler,
C.H., M.P. , born 1902. (£5,000.)
3. Lord Chancellor. Right Hon. Viscount Kilmuir. G.C.V.O., born 1900.
(£12.000.)
4. Secretary oJ State for Foreign Affairl/. Right Hon. Selwyn Lloyj,
C.B.E., T.D., Q.C., M.P., born 1900. (£5,000.)
5. Chancellor oJ the E:&chClJuer. Right Hon. D. Heathcoat Amory, M.P.,
born 1899. (£6,000.)
6. Lord President of the Council and Secretary of State for Commonwealth
Relations. Right Hon. The Earl of Home, born 1903. (£5,000.)
7. Secretary of State Jor Scotland. Right Hon. John Maclay, C.M.C.,
M.P., born 1905. (£5,000.)
8. Lord Privy Seal and Ministel' for Science. Right Hon. Viscount
Hailsham, Q.C., born 1907. (£5,000.)
9. Minister oJ Aviation. Right Hon. Duncan Sandys, I1LP., born 1908.
(£5,000.)
66 THE BRI'l'ISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
10. Secretary of State for the Colonie8. Right Hon. lain Macleod, M.P.,
born 1913. (£5,000.)
11. Uinister of Defence. Right Hon. Harold Watkinson, lI1.P., born
1910. (.£5,000.)
12. llfinister of Housing and Local Government and Minister for Welsh
Affairs. Right Hon. Henry Brooke, M.P., born 1903. (£5,000.)
13. .ilfinister of Education. Right Hon. Sir David Eccles, K.C.V.O.,
M.P., born 1904. (£5,000.)
14. Paymaster.General. Right Hon. Lord Mills, K.B.E., born 1890.
(£5,000.)
15. President of the Board of Trade. Right Hon. Reginald Maudling,
M.P., bern 1917. (£5,000.)
16...ilfinister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Right Hon. John Hare,
O.B.E., M.P., bom 1911. (£5,000.)
17. Minister of Labour. Right Hon. Edward Heath, M.B.E., M.P.,
born 1916. (£5,000.)
18. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Dr Right Hon. Charles Hill,
M.P., be·rn 1904. (£5,000.)
19. ;'finister of Transport. Right Hon. Ernest Marpies,lII.P., born 1907.
(£5,000.;
(b) MINISTERS NOT IN THE CABINET
20 . .ii'irst L01'd of the Admiralty. Right Hon. Lord Carrington,
KC.M.G., M.C., born 1919. (£5,000.)
21. Uecretary oJ State for War. Right Hon. Christopher Soames, C.B.E.,
M.P., bem 1920. (£5,000.)
22. 8ecretary of State/or Air. Right Hon. George Ward, M.P., born 1907.
(£5,000 . •
23 ...I!inister of Pensions and National Imurance. Right Hon. John
Boyd·C"rpenter, M.P., born 1908. (£5,000.)
24 ..Minister of Health. Right Hon. Derek Walker·Smith, T.D., Q.C.,
M.P., bc,rn 1910. (£5,000.)
25. Minister of Power. Right Hon. Richard Wood, lIi.P., born 1929.
(£5,000. 1
26 ..l1inister 0/ Works. Right Hon. Lord John Hope, lILP., born 1912.
(£5,000.1
27. Postmaster· General. Right Hon. Reginald Bevins, M.P., born 1908.
(£5,000.1
28. Minister without Portfolio. Right Hon. The Earl of Dundee, born
1902. (£3,7.50.)
29 . .Minister of State/or Foreign Affairs. Right HOD. D. Ormsby·Gore,
.M.P., born 1918. (£3,750.)
30. .111inister of State for Colonial Affair". Right Hon. The Earl of Perth,
born 191)7. (£3,750.)
31. .J1inister of State fOT Welsh Affairs. Right Hon. Lord Brecon, born
1905. (£3,750.)
32. Minister of State for Foreign Affair8. Right Hon. John Profumo,
O.B.E., M.P., born 1915. (£3,750.)
33. Minister of State, Board of Trade. F. J. Erroll, M.P., born 1914.
(£3,750.)
34 .. Minister of State, Commonwealth Relations Office. C. J. M. Aiport,
T.D., M.P., born 1912. (£3,750.)
35. },/inister of State, 8coUish Office. The Lord Craigton, C.B.E., born
1904. 1£3,7.50.)
GREAT BRITAIN 57
(c) LAW OFFICERS
36. Attorney·General. Right Hon. Sir Reginald Manningham-Buller,
Bt, Q.C., M.P .•born 1905. (£10,000.)
37. Lord Advocate. Right Hon. William Grant, Q.C., M.P., born 1909.
(£5,000.)
38. Solicitor-General. Sir Jocelyn Simon, Q.C., M.P., born 1911.
(£7,000.)
39. Solicitor- General f or Scotland. David Colville Anderwn, Q.C.,
born 1916. (£3,750.)
Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons. Right Hon. H. T. N.
Gaitskell, C.B.E., M.P., born 1906. (£3,000.)
Leader of the Opposition in the House of LOI·ds. Right Ron. Viscount
Alexander of Hillsborough, C.R., born 1885.
The constitution of the House of Commons at the dissolution of Parlia-
ment on 18 Sept. 1959 was as follows: Conservative, 318; Liberal-Con-
servative, 18; Liberal,6; Labour, 278; Independent, 1; Speaker (Con-
servative), 1; Chairmen (2 Conservative), 2; vacant, 6 (3 Conservative,
3 Labour); Total 630.
The constitution of the House of Commons after the general election
held on 8 Oct. 1959 was as follows : Conservative,346; Liberal-Conserva-
tive, 19; Labour, 258; Liberal, 6; Independent, 1 ; total, 630. The
numbers of votes cast were, Conservatives, etc., 13,750,965; Labour,
12,216,166; Liberals, 1,640,761; Welsh Nationalists, 78,571; Sinn Fein,
63,415; Communists,30,897; Scottish Nationalists, 21.738; Others, 61,225.
In subsequent by-elections the Conservatives gained 1 seat from Labour.
BaUey. S. D. (ed.). The British Parly System. Hansard SocIety. 1~52
"le
Butler, D. E. and Rose, R., The British GeneTal Election of 1959. London, 1~60
Oo.mpion, Lord, An InI,odutlion 10 Procedure of the House oJ Corn"..m Srd ed. London,
19~8.-(Ed . ) Brit;"h G01Iernment since 1918. London, 1900
Carter, B. E .• The Offiu Of Prime Min;"ur. London. 1956
Olarke, J. J., OUlli,..s Of Cen/,aJ Go,..,.,._. 11th ed. London, 1950
Ford, P. and G., A Guide to PaTiia_aT!! Papers. Newed. O%ford Uui ... Press, 19~6
nbert, SIr 0 ., Pariiamenl. its h;"tory, cOfl.• titution ,.nd practice. Srd ed. London, 1950
Jennings. Sir I .• CalJi~ Government. 2nd cd. Oambridge Uni ... Press, 1950.-Tile British
Comli/utiml. Srd ed. Cambridge Uuiv. PresB, 1~60
Jonee, J . M., British NaliolUliity Law. Rev. cd. London. 1955
Keith, A.. B., The British CalJinet System. 2nd cd. London, 1952
MacKenzie. R. T ., British Polilical Parlies: The Distribution of Po",.,. London, 1965
May. T. E., T,eati .. on the Law, P,i1Jilege." P,octeding. and Usage of Parila_. 16th ed_
3 vols. LondQIl,1957
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
England and Wales. In each county the Crown is represented by the
Lord Lieutenant. There is also a sheriff, who represents the ancient
executive of the Crown, an under-sheriff, a clerk of the peace, who is n ormally
also clerk of the county council, coroners, who are appointed and paid
by the county councils, and other officers. The licensing of persons to sell
intoxicating liquors and the administration of the criminal law-except
that which deals with graver offences-are in the hands of the magistrates
For the purposes of local government, England and Walcs are divided
primarily into 62 administrative counties, including tho County of London,
and 83 county boroughs. The counties are administered by a p opuhU'ly
elected council. called a county council, which co-opts a prescribed number
of aldermen, either from their own body or from out~ide it. Aldermen are
elected for ti years. ha If of them retiring every third year. A councillor is
elected for 3 years. The jurisdiction of the county counoils covers the
administration of higher and elementar.veducation, planning, health services,
the can, of the aged, infirm and physically handicapped persons, maintenance
of main roads and bridges, work in relation to agriculture (diseases of ani-
mals, destructive insects and pests, fertilizers and feeding-stuffs, small-
holding, and allotments) and the prevention of pollution of rivers. The
control of tho county police is vested in a Standing Joint Committee com-
prised of equal numbers of magistrates and of members of the county
council. The Metropolitan Police, however, are under the control of the
Home ~ecretl\ry.
Seccndly, the administrative counties, except the County of London, arc
8ub-div.ded into county districts, which are' non-county boroughs; 'urban
district~I' or' rural districts.' Generally speaking, an urban district comprises
a town or small area more or less densely populated, and a rural district
takes in several country parishes. County district councils administer the
Public Health and Highway Acts, and exercise powers under the Housing
Acts. 'Jrban authorities may also tako over the maintenance and repair
of main roads from county councils, provide water supplies, allotments,
baths and wash-houses, libraries and museums, and parks and open spaces;
besides exercising delegated powers under the Town and Country Planning
Acts. l:tural district councils may also make arrangements for water
supply, and exercise any 'urban powers' conferred on them by the Minister
of Health .
In London the main central authority is the County Council, created by
the Local Government Act of 1888. It has powers in regard to public
health, planning, housing, bridges and ferries, street improvements, parks,
main dninage, fire brigades, sanitary control, education and numerous other
matters Tho City Corporation has powers respecting sanitation, police,
bridges, justice, etc., in the City of London. London comprises the ancient
city, wi1.h an area of 1 sq. mile, and an area of 117 sq. miles beyond the city,
which is divided into 28 metropolitan boroughs, each with a mayor, aldermen
and COIl.lcillors. The councils have powers in regard to public health, higb-
ways, mting, housing, etc., but they are not municipal boroughs in the
strict SMse. The County Council has certain powers of control over them.
In all incorporated towns local business is administered by a municipal
corporat.ion. There are two kinds of IDlmicipal boroughs, county boroughs
and not.-county boroughs. Most of the county boroughs and a number
of the n,m-county boroughs have a separate court of quarter sessions. The
county boroughs are outside the jurisdiction of the county councils. A
municipl1 corporation consists of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses, and
acts though a popularly-elected council. As in the cOlmty councils, the
councillors serve for 3 years, ono-third retiring annually; the aldermen are
elected hy the council and serve for 6 years, half of them retiring every third
year. The mayor, who serves for 1 year, is also elected by the council. A
town cOllncil as an urban authority is invested with all the normal powers of
an urban district council.
The .Local Government Act, 1948, makes provision for the payment of
allowances to members of local authorities towards travelling and subsist-
ence expenses, and towards loss of earnings, or similar expenses, incurred
in their duties as members. Tbere is a. wide extension of local authorities'
powers to provide entertainments, and expenditure on 8uch entertainments
is allowod up to the product of a 6d. rate. Local authorities may also
arrange for the publication within their arens of information on questions
rolating to local government; this power includes the giving of lectures,
holding of discussions and the preparation and displaying of pictures,
oinematograph films and exhibitions.
GREAT BRITAIN 59
The total number of local government electors on the registcrs in 1958
was 30,914,568 in England and Wales. Women are eligible for all local
government offices. Local government electors include all persons who !tre
qualified to vote at parliamcnt:try elections.
Scotland. A Local Government Act was pass~d for Scotland in 1889
a.nd followed in its main outlines t,he English Act of the prcvio\Js year. The
powers of loeal administration in counties formerly exerci~ed by the Corn·
misBioners of Supply, the Justices and Road Trustees were either wholly or in
part transferred to county councils. which took o... er their duties and respon·
eibilitics in 1800. By the L.)o,,1 Government (Scotland) Act, 1804, a local
government board for Scotland WD.S constituted, consisting of the Se~retary
for Scotland as President, the SoJjc;itor·General for Scotland, the Under-
Secretary for Scotland and three othP'f members nominated by the Crown.
The later Act provided that a parish coullcil should be esh~blished in every
parish to take the place of the parochi8.J boards. Their principal function
was tho administration of the poor laws, and in addition they exercised
powers similar to those of the parish council. in England. There were 869
civil parishes in 1921. The powers and duties of the Local Government
Board wer~ by the Scottish Board of Health Act, 1919, transferred to the
Scottish Board of Health, constituted as in that Act provided. The Re-
organization of Offices (Scotland) Act, 1928, established the Department of
the Secretary of Scotland, including the Department of Health for Scotland,
which t.ook the place of the Scottish Board of Health. Municipal bodies
exist in the towns of Scotland, as in those of England. Eaeh burgh has a
town council consisting of a provost or lord provost, bailies and councillors.
The provost, is the head of the Scottish municipality and holds office for 3
years. Bailies are selected by t.he councillors from among their own
number; they act as magistrates and sit as such in police cOllrts. There
are in Scotlalld three principal kinds of burghs, numbering altogether 196:
(1) royal burghs, i.e., burghs created by a charter of the Crown; (2) parlia-
mentary burghs, which possess statutory constitutions almost identical with
thoso of the royal burghR; (3) police burghs, constituted under 1\ general
Police Act. Burghs are classified according to functions o.s counties or
cities (4), other largo burghs (20) and smaIJ burghs (172). All burghs of
whatever class havo town councils and their administration is regulated
by the Burgh Police (Scotland), Town Councils (Scotland) nnd Local
Government (Scotland) Acts or corresponding local Acts. The Local
Government (Scotland) Act, 1920, abolished parish councils and transferred
poor law and certain other fun ctions to county councils and large burghs
(those with a population of 20,000 or more). The Act established elected
district councils for the landward parts of counties. These councils havo
certain local powers, such as the ac quisition of ground for publie recreation,
and can requisition for expenditure to a limited extent. The National
Assistance Act, 1948, repealed tho Poor Law. Financial aid to those
in need, now a. national charge, is provided by the National Assistance
Board. County C010lCils anel large burghs have now a duty to provide
resident.ial accommodation for the aged and others in need of care and atten-
tion, temporary accommodation for persons whose need arises in unforsee-
able circumstances and welfare scrvices for the blind and other substantially
handicapped persons.
The Local Government (Scotland) Act, 1947, consolidated with
amendments the enactments rebting to authorities for the purpose of local
government in Scotland.
The total number of local government electors in Scotland was 3,408,319

in 1959 and 3,402,252 in 1958.
Ohesw, 11. N~ CmJral ..nd /AcaJ Govffnm6fll. London, 1950
Claree, J. J., TM Local Government of tM Uniled K"I{/dqm. 14th ed. London, 1948
Gibbon, Sir J., e.nd Bell, R. W., History of lilt LfJndun Counlt/ Council, 1889-1939
Hasluck,&. L., LocaJ Go.t17ltMnl in E1UJland. 2nd ed. London. 1 ~48
Llpme.n, v . A.., Local Go.t17lmenl .4,ea., 1834-1945. Oxford, 1949
Robson, W. A.., Tht Dt1JeloptMnl of Local G""t17l11~·. Rev. ed. London,lP48
AREA AND POPULAnON
Area (in sq. miles) and population at the census t aken 8 April 1951
(preliminary figures; for the 1931 census, see T HE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BoOK,
1951, p. 57):
Divisions Area Males Females Total
Engle.nd • • • 50,327· 3 19,7li4,275 21,393,663 41,147,938
Wales (lnll. Monmonthehlre) 8,015·8 1,269,912 l,327,074 2,696,986
Scotle.nd • 30,.105·0' 2,434,749 2,661,220 5,096,96g
Isle of Man . 211·0' 25,149 29,464 55,213
Ohe.nnel IIIIe.nd. 75-1 49,083 ~3,39t 102,770
Total 23,534,061 25,464,816 48,998,876
1 Area at the 1931 censllS.
Popnlation at the 4 previous decennial censuses:
Dln.lollS 1901 1911 1921 1931
England 30,609,234 33,649,671 35,230,225 87,359,0'6
Wale• . 2,018,609 2,420,921 2,666,474 2,158,374
Scotle.nd 4,472,103 4,760,904 4,882,497 4,842,980
Isle of Man 54,752 52,016 60,284 49,308
Che.nnoJ L,Ie.nds 9r',618 96,899 90,230 93,206
Army, Navy e.nd Merchant
Seamen abroad . 367,736 145,729 256,811 434,63~
Total. • 37,518,062 41,126,040 43,176,521 '4,937,«4

In HI51 in Wales and Monmouthshire 41,155 persons 3 years of age and
upwards were able to speak Welsh only, and 673,531 able to spea.k Welsh
and English. In Scotland in 1951,2,178 persons 3 years of age and upwards
could spea.k Gaelic only, and 93,269 could speak Gaelic and English.
At tbe census of 1951, in England and Wales, there were 13,117,868 private
families (population, 41,840,000), occupying 12,079,712 dwellings, including
9,769,52 1} dwellings in urban areas and 2,310,186 dwellings in rural areas.
The age distribution in 1951 (census) of the population of England and
Wales and Scotland was as follows (in 1,000) :
Age-group England and Wales Scotland Great l1r-jtain
Hnd .. r 5 . 3,718 423 4,141
5 ••nd under 10 . 3,162 456 3,618
10 1. . 2,812 426 3,238
15 20 . 2,705 439 3,144
20 25 . 2,927 422 3.349
2. 3. . 6,358 738 7;096
35 45 • 6,688 608 7,296
45 55 . 6,997 547 6,5«
65 65 . 4,566 430 4,996
66 70 . 1,829 149 1,978
70 75 . 1,428 106 l,5S4
76 " 85 . 1,370 87 1,457
~5 cnd upwards • 1~8 12 210
Total 43,768 4,841 48,601
At 30 June 1959 the estimated age distribution of the population of
England and Wales was: between 0 and 14, 5,319,000 males, 5,069,000
females; 15 and over, 16,566,000 males, 18,432,000 females; aged 70 and
over were 1,275,000 males, 2,156,000 females.
GREAT BRITAIN 61
Estimated total home population of Great Britain at 30 June:
England and Wales 1 Scotland I Total 01 Great Britain
1955 44,441,000 5,133,300 49.614,300
1956 44,667,000 5,144,600 4U.811,6(1)
1957 44,U07,OOO 6,150,000 50,U:;7,OOO
1958 45,109,000 0,169,000 1>0.278,000
1959 45,38G,OGO 5,191.7UO 60,577,700
1 The home population 01 Elli'Ie.nd and Wale... is the population 01 all types, actnally In
the country. t Excluding mercllant seamen overseas.
England and "Vales

The census population of England and Wales 1801 to 1951:
Date 01 Pop. per Date 01 Pop. por
enomeration Population sq. roil" enumeration PopuJat!on sq. mile
1801 8,8P2,fiM 152 1881 25,974.43~ 445
1811 10,16(,256 174 1891 29,002,525 (97
1821 12,000.236 206 1901 32,527 ,843 558
1831 15,896,797 238 1911 36,070,492 618
1841 15,914,148 273 1921 37,8il6,699 649
1801 17,927,609 307 1931 39,V52,3n 685
1861 20,066,224 S·H, 1951 43,757,888 750
lSil 22,712,266 S89
Area (land and inland water) and population of the administrative counties
and county boroughs in 1921, 1931 and 1951 (for areas of administrative
counties, etc., 1931, eee THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1950, p. 51):
Oensus population
Area in
It.atutc .Admin\"~r~
acres, 19:;1, ti1)f'
including COUnlit3, tncludi.114 county ~-ou11liu
county borou.}h4 tmJv
boroughs 19n 1931 1951 19~1
ENGLAND
Bedlordlbire 302 , 94~ 206,(82 220,~25 311,937 311,937
Berbhire (~3,R40 394.,821 311,463 403,141 288,94~
Buckinghamshire • 479,411 236.171 271,586 3~6.~91 388,291
Cambrid~hire 315,168 129,602 140,')04 16~,887 166,887
Inle of Ely' 239,9~O 73,817 77,6"8 89,049 89,049
Obeehire 1, ' 64~.4~4 1,020,257 1,087,665 1,268,507 82(,7~O
OornwaU . 868,1t)7 320,705 317,968 346,442 345,4(2
Oumberland I 973,146 273,173 263,151 285,338 217,5(0
Deruyshire 1,' 643,572 7H,83' 7~7,3H 828,437 885,170
Devon.abire' 1,871,S77 709,614 732,968 797,n8 61(,213
Dnrsetshl re 1 822,843 224,731 239,35~ 291,323 2~l.323
Durbam a e49,427 1,479,033 1,488,175 1,463,888 903,15~
ElBex' fl77,760 1,~70,257 1,755,4~9 2,044,964 1,601,329
GloQOfIstersbire I,' 804,932 7G6,~7( 788,000 939.433 429,159
Hampshire 1,',. 961,en 913,681 1,014,316 1,197,170 640,(37
We 01 WigM 94,143 94,666 88,454 96,625 96,625
lIerelord.hire . 538,924 113,189 111,767 127,159 127,15g
Herttordshire I . 404,623 S33,lP5 401,208 609,775 809,775
HonUngdonshire 233.985 54,741 ~6,~O6 69,302 69,302
Kent 97:).900 1,141,666 1,219,273 1,584,324 1,536,529
Lancashire 1, I • 1,201,888 4,932,951 5,039,455 5,117,853 2,047,573
Leicestershire I 532,380 494,469 541,861 631,077 S45,39~
Uncolnshire--
The parts 01 Holland 1. I 2G7.849 85,870 92,330 101,555
101,555
'.!'he pe.rts of Keeta~en 1,. 46 3,490 107 ,6~4 110,060 130,717
130,717
The parts 01 Lindsey' 973.030 408,6984. ~~,199 473 ,5 50
309,592
London. 74,850 4,4~4,523 4,597,003 3,347,9~2 3,347,982
Mlddl ..,e~1 148,691 1,253,002 1,638,7~S 2,269,315 2,269,315
1 The bOllndaJ:168 at tbe administrative county bave change,j sine.., the dote 01 the 1921
ceIlBUS. In every case the oereage relate. to the 1951 censu. and the 1921-31 population.
Mhown relate to the area. as constituted at the date of the 1931 cArums.
• Ohange 01 boundary since tb. 1931 census.
3 A.dministrative county 01 Southampton.
Area in Gen.QU8 population

statute .Admini"tra·
acres, 1 951. tit~
including Council',', inrluding CQunlV counti~.f
county boroW/hs only
lJorongus 1~21 1931 19~1 1~51
ESOL'!.ND-continued
Norfolk' . 1,314,240 504t2~3 504,940 ~48,062 ;\75,721
oN ort.lta.m ~ )ton.qhiro ~S5,14S 302,404 ~09.4.74 359,690 255,208
Soke 01 Peterborough 53,464 ~G,\)59 51,83V 63,7 91 63,791
~ ortbum-)"rland 1,291.n~ 746096 756,78:1 7~8,424 440,lSC
::'\ ottinghamshlre 540,015 6ll :149 7] 2,731 841,211 535,166
Oxfonlsll: re I 479,li3 189,615 20fJ,(i21 27.>,~0 8 177 ,124
ilutJan..-J:'i:lire 97,273 18,376 17,101 20,537 20,510
Shropshire' S6I,~OO 243,062 2H,156 289,802 289,802
Bomerset..::hire t, S 1,032,321) 46[',1;91 475,142 551,4~3 472,11i9
Staffordshire 1, 1 738,013 1,:10:1,511 ] t431,3~9 l,6~I,034 855,1~7
Suffolk, E:",t 557!354 ::!91,073 2n4,9i7 321,909 217,142
Suffolk, \{ est 401,940 108 ,985 106,1:;7 120,652 120,652
Surrey 461 ,~33 Y30,08G 1,180,878 l,R02,483 1,352,613
Sussex, E~t I 530,663 ~32,1 8 7 546,864 61 8,51 6 S3S .B87
SlLqSex, " 'est' . 401 ,MO 195.810 ~22,995 11 8, ~ 23 318,823
Wanric]"~hireJ.1 628,994 l,394,HI 1,535,00, 1,861 .670 490;47()
WestmorlRnd 504,917 65,746 65,408 67,38 3 67,381
Wiltshire I,' 860,611 291,8S~ 303,373 386 ~ 9 2 386,692
\V orcestcl"shire 1 447,679 397,910 420,1156 522:84 6 400,617
Yorkshire, Et\St Riding . 750,115 460,~80 4R2,936 510,904 211,798
Yorkshire, North Riding- . 1,361.522 456,4:16 469,375 62!).481 378,209
Yorkshire, West H.iding t,' 1,77~t353 3,181,202 3,352,555 3,586,274 1,589,118
York, City of' 6,409 84,039 S4,Sla 105,371 10,~,311
To ,"I 32,209,476 35,681,019 37,794,003 41,159,19.

WALES
Anglesey . 176.694 51,74-1 49,029 50,660 M,6dO
Brecklloc.1~~hirc 469,281 61,222 57,175 56,008 56,508
Caernarvcnshire 364,108 1 <)~ l~J 120,829 124,140 124,140
Cardigansb.ire . 443,189 ~O:881 55,184 53,278 53,nS
Cl\rmarthtmshire 588,472 175,073 179,100 172,1)34 172,034
D,mbighshire 1 • 427,977 157 ~634 157,M8 170,720 170,728
Flint:!hire 163,707 106,617 112,889 145,297 143,297
Glamorgal-;hire' 523,244 1,252,4R1 l ,22f',177 1,202 ,ti81 736,819
Merionethshire . 422 ,3i2 45,OS7 43,201 41,465 41,465
Monmoutllsbire 346, 781 " ,O,79i 434,958 425,116 319,568
Montgom( :rysbire 51 9,110 51,263 ·18,473 4:;,990 45,990
Pembroke~bire . 393,003 Ul,978 87 ,~06 90,906 90,90S
Hadnorshre 301,165 23,517 ~1,323 19,993 19,993
Total Wales \13 cOllntie.) ~,130,103 2,205,680 2,158,~; 4 2,5~ g ,6 ~'3
----
TotRl-Engl9nd and
\Vale~! . 3i~339,579 3'j',886.6~ft 59,952,377 43,7[17,88 8
1 Tbe boundaries of the administ.rative county Lave (',hanged f;ince the date of the 1921
1".enstlS. In every case tbe acreage relates to the 1£151 censu~ and the 1921-31 populations
shown in the taLle relate to the area constituted at the date of the 1931 rell.d\.l8.
% Ohar,ge of houodarT· since the 1931 ('~nsllS.
J Administrative court of Southampton.
The area and popUlation of the county boroughs (C,B.) and more im-
portant oihcr boroughs arc given in the following table:
Area in Estimated
statute Census population popuJation 1
acres, 1951 1V31' 19:;1 June, 1959
ExGLA....~D
HarnsJcy (0. H.) . . 7,817 71,522 75,630 75,400
Barrow-in··PnrnesB (C.B.) 11,002 66,202 67,476 64,470
Bath, City 01 (C. B.) 6,277 68,815 79,294 80,800
Bedford 4,972 40,554 53,075 60,1 ~iJ
1 I :orue popuJation. 2 Population rela.ting to acreu.ge fit the 1 ~31 census.
GREAT BRITAIN 63
Area in Estimated
statute Census population population t
acres, 1951 1931' 1951 June 1959
RNOJ,AND-continued
Hirkenbead (C. B.) . 8,586 147,803 142,501 143,400
Dirmingham, City 01 (C.B.) 51,147 1,002,003 1,112,605 1,091,500
mackburn (C. B.) • 8,088 122,697 111,218 10;;,900
Blackpool <C.B.) 8,473 101,553 147,194 143,600
Bolton (C. H .) If).280 177,250 167,167 160.700
BoaUe (C.R.) 3,057 76,770 74,977 82,070
Dournemouth (C.B.) 1l,44S 116,803 114,845 144,700
Bradford, City of (C.D.) 25.526 298,041 292,403 28~,100
Brighton (C. B.) . ] 2,503 147,427 1;;6,406 161),000
Bristol, City 01 (C.R) 20,~50 Sn.012 442,~94 436,600
Hurnley (C. D.) . ·1.686 98,258 8·1,9H1 31,080
Burton-upon-Trent (C.H.) '1,:'?19 4(',486 49,167 49,:180
Bury (C.B.) . 7433 56,182 58,838 68,230
Carot.ridge, Cil.) of . 10;060 66,n9 81,&00 93,HI)
Canterbury, Cil., of (C. B.) 4,690 21,446 27,795 RO,OOO
Carlisle, City 01 (C.R.) 6,On 51,304 67,798 69,8110
Ohatham . 4,371 42,999 44.424 61,820
Cheltenham. . 4,726 49,418 62,850 69,4~0
Cb ester. City of (C. R.) 4,140 4U40 4~,237 59.700
Chesterfield. 8,·1,2 64,160 68,558 87,530
Colchester. . . 11,:133 48,701 57,449 63,980
Co~entrJ, City of (C. D.) 19,137 167,1)83 2.58,245 2.~5. 700
Crev.:e 2,184 46,OG9 52.423 61,200
Croydon (C. D.) 233,032 249,000
])agenham . .6:fi5-t
'26"""
89,362
2·n',870
114,588 114,200
lJarlington (C.D.) 6,469 72,086 84.886 83,300
Derby (C.H.) 8,116 142,403 141,267 1:n,500
I)ewslmry (C.Il.) • 6.7:W 54,302 53,487 63,390
Donca~tcr . 8,371 63,316 82,054 84,610
nu<ll.y (C. B.) 4,064 t>r~,{)83 62,526 64,200
Bnling 9,133 117,707 187,323 182,700
Eastbourne rc.H.) 10,957 67,4:30 ~7,8n 57,800
East Ham (C. B.) . 3,:124 142,394 120,836 109,900
E~etor, Cily of (C.Il.) 9,035 66,029 75,[)13 17,400
Gateshead (O.B.) . 4,470 122,447 115,039 109,100
GilliTlghnm . . 8,3:>1 61,G:;1 G8,099 71,5~O
Gloucesrer, City of (O.B.) fi.272 52.!l37 67,280 68,300
flreat Yarmouth (C.H.). 3,5~.8 56,771 51,105 51.300
Grimsby (C. D.) 5.468 92.4:;8 94,557 97,110
HAlifax (C. I' .) 14,080 !)S.1l5 93,404 ~4.!)S(J
Harrow . 12,G5!) 96,6tJ6 219,4G3 213,700
Hastings (0. R) 7.:-;23 t:5,207 65,522 63,900
Hornchur(',h. IH.76S ~9 ,:l89 If14,128 122,600
Hove. . :l.9G3 5·I,9U3 69.5:\:) 69,930
Huddersfiold (C. B.) 11,147 11:1.47. 12~,(l26 120,500
Word . l'i,425 J 31,061 lS4,706 1~S,600
IP,'Wich (C.D.) 8,746 87':)02 10·1,785 114,600
Keij!hlev :\!)Q~ 40,441 56.9-14 05,160
Kifu,'!;u:n-uvon-IIull, City 01 (C.H.) 14,091 313,544 299,105 301,800
J,un caster . . 1,873 43,383 :,l,r,Sl 49,090
Leede, Cit.• of (C.D.) 38,293 4S2,809 bOa,~~;n 513,300
Letce,!er, City of (C.B.) HU)'-:7 209,169 285,181 2i5AOO
I.cyton . . "r'(H 12.~,:n3 I05.tnS 97,830
Lincoln, City of (G.B.) i<128 66,243 69,401 73~300
Liverpool, City of (C. H.) 27 .~~~ 85.).688 788.659 if,7,500
Lnt-on. . S,I I,~ 68,520 JJO.3~1 l:W.GOO
Maidstone. . . 5.~76 42,280 54,0:15 5",680
llanch""ter, City o[ (O.D.) 27,205 76(;,378 7~:~,~~2 672.300
~Iall<f;.hl. . . i,C10~ 46/,77 .,1,.,<>2 ~2.G-HJ
Middlesb rough (C.R.) . 14- ,,-.,
2~ri :7;4
7,131 13~,2H 103,800
Newca.-itlc·upoo·'Tyne, elLy of (C. B.) 11,O~I-i. 2B3,156 271,100
Northampton (C.R.) . 6.~ul 9~,341 11)4,4:;2 1110.:300
Norwich, City of (C.B.). ".HI 126.236 1Zl,236 118,400
Nottin~h.rn, City of (C.B.) 113.172 ~68,ROl E06,t);Ji) 31:>,:,00
Oldham (C.R) . 5,340 140,~14 121,266 l1'.S00
('xlotd, City of (C. B.) ~.416 8(),5~H\ 98,684 104,000
1 liume pnpu!f\tiOll. t Popular;on reiat:llg tu tllp. :J.r.reage nt the 1931 censm.
Area in Estimated
statute Census population popwation '
acres, 1951 1931' 19a1 June 1959
BNGLAND-(onlinued
Plymoulib, Oity of (O.B.) 13,136 208,182 208,012 216,300
Poole. . • . 15,640 6V,196 82,958 89,400
Portsmcutb, City of (O.B.) 9,222 252,421 233,645 220,300
Preston (O.B.) 6,684 Il9,001 119,250 114,200
&ailing (O.B.) 9,106 97,149 114,196 118,200
Roobdale (C.B.) 9,556 90,263 88,429 84,690
Romior<l . 9,342 37,840 87,991 114,800
Rotherbam (C. B.) 9,255 69,691 82,341 84,560
St Hele.", (C. B.) • 7,950 106,789 110,260 110,700
Saliord <C.B.) • • 6,202 223,43d 178,194 162,000
Sbeffield, City 01 (O.B.). 39,586 oIl,7;7 612,850 499,400
Slougb . . 6,202 33,612 66,439 75,450
Smethwck (O.B.). 2,496 84,354 76,407 71,730
Soutbampton (C.B.) 9,192 176,007 178,343 200,OO'!
Soutbenl-on·Sea (C.B.) 10,284 120,115 161,806 158,800
Soutbport (C.B.) . 9,662 78,926 84,039 81,370
Sooth Shields (O.B.) 4,874 Il3,455 106,598 108,700
Stookpoct (O.B.) • 7,977 126,490 141,650 141,aOO
8tooktoll~on-Tees . . . 5,465 67,722 74,155 78,420
8toke-o,,·Trent, City of (O.B.) 21,209 276,639 275,115 270,800
8onder1wd (C. B.) 8,570 186,824 181,524 18G.600
Swindon • 6,060 62,401 68,953 82,660
Tottenb" m • . 3,OH 1J)7,667 126,929 116.100
Tynemoltb (O.B.) • 4,679 64,922 66,564 69,300
Waketle:d, Oity 01 (O.B.) 6,799 59,122 60,371 69,860
Wall....:. (O.B.) . 6,913 97,626 101,369 103,200
W&I8aII,:O.B.) 8,780 103,059 114,536 115,100
Walthat"Btow 4,342 132,913 121,136 113,000
Warrington (O.B.) 4,413 79,317 SO,IP4 79,230
Watford • . . 0,296 68,533 73,012 73,780
Weet Bromwicb (O.B.). 7,180 81,303 87,981 93,5DO
Weet H,,,,, (O.B.) 4,689 294,278 170,993 164,300
West HI.rtlepool (O.B.) 4,176 68,13:; 72,662 75,401)
Wigan ('J.B.) 6,083 85,367 84,560 81,150
Wllleeden . • • 4,365 18ij,025 179,697 173,800
Wolverbampton (O.B.) • 9,126 133,212 162,672 146,100
Worcest,., City of (O.B.) 5,394 50,546 69,.03 64,000
York, City of (O.B.) 6,409 84,813 106,371 104,900
WALES
Oardif!, 'Jity of (O.B.) 16,085 223,589 243,632 254,200
Mertbyr Tydfil (O.B.) 17,760 71,10g 61,142 69,300
Newport. (Monmootb) (O.B.) . 7,383 89,203 106,547 104,300
Rbondd" . 23,886 141,346 111,389 106,000
Swansea (0.11.) 21,600 164,797 160,988 164,200
, Home population, , Population relating to tbe acreage at the 1931 census.
Tho following table shows the distribution of the urban and rllral
population of England and Wales in 1921, 1931 and 1951:
Population Percentage
England and Wale, l7 ,ban dillridl' Rural dill";d,' Urban' Rural'
1921 37,8~6,699 30,035,417 7,851,282 79·3 20·7
1931 39,952,371 31,951,918 8,000,469 80·0 20·0
1951 43,757,888 36,335,721 8,422,167 80·8 19·'
1. As existing at each census.
Tb!, municipal and parliamentary City of London, coinciding with the

registrl<tion City of London, has an area of 677 acres. The registration
Countj of London (the London for purposes of the census, the registration
of births, deaths and marriages, and for poor law purposes), coinciding
with the administrative county, has an area of 74,850 acres, and nearly
GREAT BRITAIN 65
coincides with the collective area of the London parliamentary boroughs.
The population of registrat,ion London, of the' Outer Ring,' and of' Greater
London' (the area covered by the City and Met.ropolitan police) at the dat.es
of the censu~, was:
1921' 1931' 1~51' 1959'
Rel(istration London 4.484.523 4.397.003 3t347.N~2 3.204.000
'Onter Ring' 3.003.B69 3,818,670 6,000,041 0,000,80'1
• Greater London' 1 7,488,382 5.215,673 8,348,023 8,204,800
1 Area 461,824 acres (1951). 2 Census population. : Estimated home populatiou.
Cnuu. 0/ E7UJland and lral .... 1931. H.M,S.a .• 1950

c....u. of E7UJ1and ami Wales. It/51 . H .M.S.a .•1956
Scotland
Area 29,796 sq. miles. including ita islands. 186 in number, but excluding
inland watcr 609 sq. miles,
Population (including military in the barracks and seamen on board
vessels in the harbours) at the dates of the 80veral censlIses:
Date of Pop. per Date 01 Pop. pe~
enumeration Popnlation gq . mile ennmerat.ion Population sq. mile
1811 1,80:;,864 60 1881 3.735.573 125
1821 2,091.521 70 1891 4,025,647 135
1831 2.364.386 79 1901 4.472,103 1:;0
1841 2,620,184 8S 1911 4.760.9U4 160
1851 2.888,742 97 1921 4,882,491 164
1861 3,062,294 100 1931 4 ,~ 42.980 163
1871 3.360.018 113 1951 5.096,115 171
The number of married persons in 1951 was 2,247,855 (l,ll2,007 males

and 1,135,848 females), and widowed, 346,lll (96,391 males and !l49,721
female~).
There are 33 eivil counties, as follows:
Area in
statute Census popUlation }~stirn8ted
acres 1921 1931 1951 population'
(1931) total total Mal Dec. 1958
1. Aberdeen (inel. Aberdeen) 1,261,fI21 30l ,O l~ 300.436308,OOS 325,900
2. Angus (incl. Dundee) 559,037 271.052 2.0.190274.876 271,300
3, Argyll 1.9U9,472 76,862 63,050 63.361 t.6,400
4. Ayr, 724,523 2P9.273 28~.217 521,231 338,400
5. Banft 403.003 67.298 64,907 60.148 49,000
6. Ilerwick 292.535 28.246 26.612 25,086 23.500
1. Dute 139,658 33.771 J 18.823 19.283 ]5,000
8. Caithness • 438.833 2rl,285 26,656 22.710 25,400
9. C1ackmannan 34,927 32,[.42 31.~48 31.632 40,600
10. Dumfries , 6B5.302 7:;.370 81.220 85.660 89.400
11. Dunl>/U"tOn . . 157,433 150,861 146,723 164.26U 177,400
12. Enst Lothian (Haddington) 170,971 41,481 47.338 62.258 51.800
13. Pile . . 22 2,844 292.925 276,368 306.778 322,200
14. Inverness . 2,695,094 82,45~ 82,108 84,930 82,POO
] 5. Kincardine 244,482 4l , 77~ 39,865 47.403 26,900'
16. Kinross . ;;2,410 7.963 7,454 7.418 7,200
1i. Kirkcudbright . [,75,832 3i,155 30,168 30.725 30,400
I S. Lanark (inel. Ol....""ow) :;62,821 1.639.442 1,587.663 1.614.363 1 .628,000
19. Midlothian (Edinbur"h) 234,325 !>06.:i77 :'26,296 665.735 57S.1OO
20. Moray (Elgin) . 304.9~1 41,~58 40.805 48.218 49.200
21. Nairn 104,252 8.790 8.294 8.719 8.300
1 Including summer visitors. I Home population.
, Excluding the portion of Auerdeen Burgh in Kinr.....dins County.
D
Area In
statute Censua population Estimated
acres 1921 1931 1951 population'
(1931) lotal kltal kltal Dee. 1958
". Orkney 240,841 24,111 22.071 21,265 19,500
23. Peebles 222,240 16,332 15,051 16,232 14,200
24. Per;b 1,695,802 126,603 120,193 128,029 121,000
26. Rerirew. . 163,332 298,904 281,991 324,660 335,200
26. R0i8 and Cromarty 1,917,248 10,818 62,199 60,608 69,800
21. ROl:burgb . 426,028 ",989 '5,686 46,651 H,800
28. Sell;rk . . 110,793 22,601 22,111 21,129 21,000
29. Sbe;land (Zetland) 302,319 25,620 21,'21 19,362 18,400
30. Stirling . 288,842 161,119 166,441 181,621 192,800
31. Sut:lerland . . 1,291,914 11,802 16,101 13,610 13,100
33. We!lt Lothian (LInJltbgow) 16,861 83,962 81,431 88,511 93,000
SS. Wi,town . 311,984 30,183 29,331 31,620 30,100
Total Scotland .19,010,466 4,882,491 4,842,980 6,096,415 5,169,000
• Home population.
Th'3 birthplaces of the 1951 population were: Scotland, 4,695,829;

England, 222,162; Wales, 9,632; Northern Ireland, 43,354; Eire,
45,126; Commonwealth, 28,810; foreign countries, 49,446 (including 28,950
aliens).
Th'3 'urban' population of Scotland in 1951 is defined as the population
ofloealities containing over 1,000 persons, and are burghs, special scavenging
distric cs or special lighting districts. On this basis the' urban' population
was 4,226,812 or 82·9% of the total, and the 'rural' population 869,157 or
17·1 %, Population of the principal burghs:
Estimated Estimated
Census popnJatlon population Cen.qUS population popnJation
Burghs 1931 1951 Dec. 1968 Burghs 1931 1961 Dec. 1968
Glasgow . 1,088,411 1,019,000 1,08~,100 Kirkcaldy . 43,814 51.ROO 52,lOO
Edinburgb . 438,998 461,400 467,000 Olydebank . 46,963 44,638 bO,100
Aberdeen 161,259 186,200 186,400 Dunfermlin. U,9W 44,719 46,200
Dandee 175,583 179,200 180,200 Kilmarnock 38,099 42,123 46,100
Paisley 86,441 96,500 96,200 Ayr . 36,784 42,311 44,000
Greenocl: 18,948 17,800 18,000 Hamilton 34,801 40,114 41300
Motben-ell . 64,108 11,400 12,200 Pertb. 31,863 010,487 41,000
eoatbrlcge . 43,056 41,541 52,900 Falkirk S6,56~ 37,636 37,300
In 1951 the estimated age distribution of the popUlation in Scotland

was: between 0 and 14+, 639,300 males, 618,600 females; 15 and over,
1,805,300 males, 2,050,700 females.
FOI' main occupations, according to the ceosus of 1931, see TIIE STATES-
MAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1943, p. 19,
Isle of Man and Channel Islands

Area
in statute Census population
Islands acres, 1961 1921 1931 1951
I&Ie 01 !clan 141,263 60,284 49,308 56,2~3
Jersey .. . 28,717 49,101 50,462 61,310
Gaornse~·. Herm and Jethou 16,068 38,315 40,643}
Alderner, . . 1,962 1,598 1,521 '5,496
!lark, Bncbon and Lihou 1,386 616 519
T)teJ 189,396 150,614 142,51S 168,059
GREAT BRITAIN 67
VITAL SU.TlSTlOS for calendar years:
England and Wales Divorces,
Estimated home annulmentA
population Total live Illegitimate anddi ...
at 30 June' births live births Deaths Marriages 8olutioQl
1953 44,109,000 684,372 32,603 503,529 344,998 30,326
1954 44,2i4,000 673,651 31,809 501,896 341,731 28,027
1966 44,441,000 667,811 31,145 518,864 357,918 26,816
1956 ",667,000 700,335 33,534 521,331 352,944 26,265
1957 44,907,000 723,381 34,562 51-1,871) 346,903 23,785
1958 46,109,000 740,715 3~,17<l 5~6,843 339,913 22,651
1959 45,386,000 750,170 ' 52 7,574 I
, Estimated home population include. a.lien military persoooel within England and Wales
and excludes seamen abroad. I Provisional.
In 1958 the proportion of ma.le to female births was 1,059 male to 1,000
fema.le, and the live birth rate was 16·4 and the death rate 1l·7 per 1,000 of
the population; infant mortality rate, 22·6 per 1,000 related live births.
Scotland Divorces,
Estimated total annulmentll
popUlation Illegitimate and di.·
at 30 June' Total birth. births Deaths Marriage. solutions
1955 v,133)301.) 92,[,39 3,991 61,645 43,199 2,078
1956 6,144,600 95,313 4,069 61,792 43,963 1,891
1957 5.150,000 ~7,977 4,017 61,14 3 42,66 1 1,747
1958 5,169,Ol10 99,480 4.072 62,065 41,186 1,791
1959 5,191,700 99,251 4,134 G3,061 40,448 1,704
1 Includes merchant navy at bome and lorces stationed in Scotland.
In 1959 the proportion of male to female births was 1,062 male to 1,000
female; the live birth rate was 19·1 and the death rate 12·1 per 1,000 of the
population.
Emigration and Immigration
In the years 1815-52 the total number of emigrants from the U.K. W88
3,463,592. Up to 1852 the emigration returns made no distinction between
British subjects and foreigners. From 1853 to 1938 inclusive, the number
of emigrant passengers of British origin, to places out of Europe, was
16,710,072. The passenger traffic by sea to and from non.ElIropean
countries in recent years was as follows:
Outward Inward
Common· Common·
w.alth wtalth
citizen.! Alien.J 2'01d1 citizen" Ali"", 2'otal
1956 292,670 86,968 379,638 228,696 89,066 318,262
1957 301.640 77,278 378 ,918 206,[);)8 81.332 287,S90
1958 250.~76 75,1 50 32G.126 209,696 79,SUR 289,504
1959 217,H·! 69,042 310,456 214,832 74,0·16 288,878
The numbers of immigrants and emigran ts of Commonwealth nationality
into or from the U.K., travelling direct by sea from ports outside Europe
and Mediterranean Sea, were as follows:
Immigrants EmigrnDt~
Males Females Children Males Female. Childre"
over 15 orer 15 under 15 Total over 15 oveT'1.5 under 15 T otal
1956 23,208 27,116 13,780 64 ,1Q.! 44,950 52,754 32,062 129,796
1957 18,598 23,496 13,898 ,,5,992 "O.Or.G 61,G78 41,818 153,06 2
19;)8 21,2·16 ~5J586 14., 38·1 60:96G 3:3,31)(; 43,G90 29,160 105,056
1959 67,210 95,674
There is substantial net emigration from (or via) the continent of Europe
and from the Irish Republic, as well as by air, but there are no particulars
available of emigrants travelling by these routes.
The destinations of Commonwealth citizens leaving the U.K. to take up

permhnent residence in non· European countries in 1959 were mainly Canada,
11,83(; (15,958 in 1958); Australia, 38,774 (37,406 in 1958); New Zealand,
8,798 (10,778 in 1958); Union of South Africa, 4,416 (5,314 in 1958); Federa·
tion of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 5,500; United States, 8,274 (9,664 in 1958);
Britisa West Indies and Bermuda, 4,300 (4,0!J2 in 1958).
Of a total of 1,330,932 aliens (not including arrivals from the Irish Repub.
lie and foreign servicemen) who arrived in the U.K. in 1958,964,361 were
busintlss visitors and tourists for periods of less than 6 months, 2,!J86 were
visitors for more than 6 months, 96,083 in transit to other countries,
151,2!l0 returning residents, 15,055 diplomats and persons on government
missie.ns, 42,443 (including wives and dependent children) holding Ministry
of Labour permits, 19,748 seamen under contract to join ships in British
water!, and 38,966 admitted for e. long term stay. The figures do not
incluce persons arriving in the U.K. from the Irish Republic, nor foreign
servicemen arriving for service in this country.
Pa.ssenger movement (including pleasure cruises) totalled: 1959,
outwa.rd, 6,356,000 (2,616,000 by air); inward, 6,428,000 (2,655,000 by air);
1958, outward, 5,883,000 (2,304,000 by air); inward, 5~31,000 (2,342,000 by
air).
RELIGION
The Church of England is the centre of the Anglican Communion, which
is one of the great divisions of Christendom, and the expansion of which
parallels the expansion of Great Britain into the British Commonwealth.
The autonomy of the Dominions within a kind of family fellowship corre·
sponds to the autonomy of the great Anglican Churches in Australia;
Canac~a; China; India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon; Ireland; Japan;
New Zealand; Scotland; South Africa; the United States; Wales; West
Africa., and the West Indies. The present evolution of the Colonies towards
Dominion status in groups parallels somewhat similar tendencies in the
dioceses (e.g., in East Africa) holding mission from the See of Canterbury.
There is, however, no earthly head of the Anglican Communion corresponding
to the. Queen in the Commonwealth. The Archbishop of Canterbury pre·
sides .)ver the decennial Lambeth Conference only as primu8 inter pares.
England and Wales. The Estahlished Church of England, which

bapti2.es some two· thirds of the children born in England (i.e., excluding
Wales but including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands), is Protestant
EpiscopaL Civil disabilities on account of religion do not attach to any
class (If British subjects. Under the Welsh Church Acts, 1914 and 1919, the
Church in Wales and l\1onruouthshire was disestablished as from 31 March
1920, and Wales was formed into a separate Province. Property belonging
to the Church in Wales, and a sum of £lm. provided by Parliament, were
assigned to a temporary body not exceeding 3 persons, called the Welsh
Commissioners, for distribution to a body representing the Church (called
the Representative Body), and to certain other authorities, including the
University of Wales.
The Queen is, under God, the supreme governor of the Church of England,
with 'the right, regulated by statute, to nominate to the vacant arch.
bishol'rics and bishoprics. The Queen, and the First Lord of the Treasury in
her no.me, also appoint to such dea.neries, prebendaries and canonries as are
in the gift of the Crown, while a large number of livings and also Bome
canonries are in the gift of the Lord Chancellor.
GREAT BRITAIN 69
There are 2 archbishops (at the head of the 2 Provinces of Canterbury
and York) and 41 bishops and about 77 suffragan and assistant bishops in
England. Each archbishop has also his own particular diocese, wherein he
exercises episcopal, as in his Province he exercises metropolitan, jurisdiction.
In the Church are 29 deans (including Westminster, Windsor and Truro), 105
archdeacons and 15 provosts of parish church cathedrals. There is an
Assembly, called' the Church Assembly: in England, consisting of a House
of Bishops, a House of Clergy and a House of Laity. which has power.
under the Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act. 1919, to frame
legislation regarding Church matters. The first two Houses consist of the
members of the Convocations of Canterbury and York, each of which consists
of the diocesan hishops (forming an Upper House), and the archdeacons.
deans and provosts, and a certain number of proctors elected as the repre-
sentatives of the inferior clergy. together with. in the case of Canterbury
Convocation, representatives of the Unh'ersities of Oxford. Cambridge and
London (forming the Lower House). The House of Laity is elected by the
lay members of the Diocesan Conferences. Parochial affairs are managed
by annual parochial church meetings and parochial churoh councils. Every
measure passed by the Church Assembly must be submitted to the Ecclesias-
tical Committee. consisting of 15 members of the House of Lords nomina.ted
by the Lord Chancellor a.nd 10 mem bers of the House of Commons nominated
by the Speaker. This committee reports on each measure to Parlia-
ment. and the measure receives the Royal Assent and becomes law if each
House of Parliament resolves that the measure be presented to the Queen.
At 31 Dec. 1958 there were 14,G42 ecclesiastical parishes, inclusive of the
Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. but excluding Wales. These parishes
do not, in many cases, coincide with civil parishes. Owing to the shortage
of clergymen, although each parish has its church, not every one nowadays
can have its own incumbent or minister; so that in the least populated areas
onc or more parishes may be served by a clergymen, who must be in priest's
orders. and in these cases he holds the parishes in plurality. At 31 Dec.
1958, of the total of 11 ,533 parochial livings there were 1,027 vacant; 9,605
rectors, vicars or perpetual curates holding single or permanently united
parishes; and 901 other incumbents holding parishes or benefices in plurality
-a total of 10,506 incumbents. In addition there were 2,524 assistant
curates working in the parishes.
Private pcrsons possess the right of presentation to over 2,000 benefices;
the patronage of the others belongs mainly to the Queen, the bishops and
cathedrals, the Lord Chancellor, and the universities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge. In 1958 there were 12,397 benefices. In addition to the 13,030
parochial incumbents and assistant curates. there were about 1,200 non-
parochial clergymen serving in the Armed Services, universities, colleges,
schools, prisons. hospitals and homes, having a total of 2,241 churches or
chapels and other places of worship in use. The services in Borne of these
chapels are undertaken by the parochial clergy where the institution does
not employ a separate chaplain.
The income of the Church of England was estimated in 1958 at £33·6m.,
made up as to £16·5m. for Cathedrals and parochial church councils, £12·5m.
administered by the Church Commissioners, the Church of England Pensions
Board and the Central Board of Finance, and the remainder by the 43
diocesan boards of finance and many central and diocesan church societies.
The membership of the Church at 31 Dec. 1956 was estimated to be
26,771,000 baptized members, ofwhoUl 9,691,000 were confirmed.
In addition to the Provinces of Canterbury and York, the Church of
England includes various dioceses holding mission from the see of Canter-
bury, and the Anglican chaplaincies in North and Central Europe form an
area 0 f administration under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of London. The
Church of England itself is part of the world·wide Anglican Co=union
which includes the Church of Ireland, the Episcopal Church in Scotland, the
Churc:l in Wales, the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U.S.A. and a
number of other self· governing Churches in the Commonwealth, China,
Japan, Central Africa, etc.
Of the 40,623 churches and chapels registered for the solemnization of
marris,ges at 30 June 1957, 16,789 belonged to the Established Church and
the Church in Wales and 23,834 to other religious denominations. Of the
346,903 marriages celebrated in 1957,49'6% were in the Established Church
and the Church in Wales, 22'4% in churches or chapels of other denomina-
tions f,nd 28% were civil marriages in a Registrar's Office.
The Unitarians have about 340 places of worship, the Catholic Apostolic
Church over 80, the New Jerusalem Church about 75_ The Salvation Army.
8, religious body with 8, quasi-military organization. carries on both spiritual
and social work at home and abroad. and had. in the U.K .• 1959. 5,295
officen and 200 cadets, 1,201 corps, 32,719 local officers, 305 social centres,
39 eventide homes, 14 maternity homes, 2 maternity hospitals, 61 shelters
for mEn and women, and 9 industrial and approved schools.
ThB following is a summary of statistics of certain churches in England
and Wale8, Channel Islands and Isle of Man:
Ministef9 Local Sunday
Full in and lay ~~~~r school
n.~nomination members charge preachef9 teachef9 echol",,,
Method'"t. . 1,081,000 6,129 87,000 132,400 1,091,000
lndeper.dent Methodist 8,600 307 3,000 11,900
W..leYI,D Reform Union 6,800 25 280 2,400 10,500
OODg\'e@ational UnJon . 218,000 1,908 3,118 81,501) 231,680
Baptist. . . 327,000 2,079 4,316 43,691 310,700
Pr..byterian . . 70,940 36U 7,400 64,000
Oalnni,tic Methodist
Obnr"h of Wales 201,000 816 12,630 87,800
Moranon . . . 2,900 41 2 600 4,000
Lady EWltingdoo's Oon·
nexio~ .. 1,700 27 46 300 2,700
Ohurcllls 0' OhrIst , 14,000 2,000 1.700 17,000
Society of Friends. 21,400 2,000 l~,OOO
AngliCSl (in England) 2,294,000 171,000 1,956,000
Roman Catholics in England and Wales were estimated at 3,401,300 in

1959. There were 4 archbishops and 14 bishops, 7,104 clergy and 2,867
churcl.es and chapels.
There are about 400,000 Jews in the U,K. with about 240 synagogues.
Scotland. The Church of Scotland (established in 1560 at the Reforma-

tion alld re·established in 1688 as part of the Revolution Settlement) is
Presbyterian, the ministers all being of equal rank. There is in each parish
a kirk session, consisting of the minister and of several laymen called elders.
There are presbyteries (formed by groups of parishes), meeting frequently
throughout the year. and these are again grouped in synods, which meet
half-yoarly and can be appealed to against the decisions of the presbyteries.
The supreme court is the General Assembly, which now consists of 1,458
membllrs, half clerical and half lay, chosen by the different presbyteries. It
meets annually in May (under the presidency of a Moderator appoint.ed by
the As,lembly, the Sovereign being represented by a Lord High Commissioner,
appoulted by the Queen on the nomination of the Government of the day),
GREAT BRITAIN 71
and sits usually for 8 days. Any matters not decided during this period
may be left to a Commission which sits at stated intervals until the meeting
of the next General Assembly.
On 2 Oct. 1929 the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of
Scotland were reunited under the name of The Church of Scotland, and the
two bodies met in General Assembly in Edinburgh as one. The united
Church had, in Scotland, on 31 Dec. 1958, 2,257 congregations, 1,315,466
members, besides adherents; 2,842 Sunday schools, with 41,193 teachers
and 307,218 scholars in attendance. The Church courts are the General
Assembly, 12 synods, 66 presbyteries in Scotland, 1 in England and 3 on
the Continent, in addition to foreign mission presbyteries. Inr-ome in
1958 was £2,462,860. The Church has divinity faculties in the 4 Scottish
universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and St Andrews, with 37
professors and lecturers. The Churcb's Foreign Jlilission agents (including
nationals) number approximately 15,000, income exceeds £Im.
The Episcopal Church in Scotland is in full communion with the Church
of England and is a Province of the Anglican Church. As at 31 Dec. 1958
it had 7 bishoprics, 373 churches and missions, 323 clergy and 107,300 mem-
bers, of whom 55,957 were communicants.
There are in Scotland some small outstanding Presbyterian bodies and
also Baptists, Congregationalists, Methodists and Unitarians.
The Roman Catholic Church had in Scotland (1959) 2 archbishops and
6 bishops, 1,186 clergy, about 450 churches, chapels and stations, and
780,000 adherents.
The proportion of marriages in Scotland according to the rites of the
various Churches in 1958 was: Church of Scotland, 56·1%; Roman Catholic,
16·8%; Episcopal, 2·1 %; United Free, 0 '9%; others, 5·9%; civil, 18·2%.
Ady, O. Mo, Th< Eng/uh Church and HOfJI il Work<. London, 1940
Beck, A. B. (e~.). Th< Engli..h Catholics, 1850-1950. London, 19~0
Davies, H ., The English Fr~ Churches. Londo~ 1952
May1leld, Go, The Church Of England: its ~mbers and its bU8i~S8. Ouord Univ. Press, 1958
14oorman, J R. H o, ~ Hi .• tory of the Cf.urc" of Eng/and. London, 1953
0
Wand, J . W. 0 ., The Anglican Communion : a Su",cv. Oxford,1948
EDUCATION
University Education
In England there are 16 degree-giving universities, Birmingham, Bristol,
Cambridge, Durham, Exeter, Hull, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool, London,
Manchester, Nottingham, Oxford, Reading, Sheffield and Southampton.
In addition, there is the University College of North Staffordshire, at Keele,
which has the power to grant its own degree. It is planned to open a new
university college (Sussex University College) at Brighton in 1962, with
faculties of arts and science; teaching will start in 1961.
In Wale" there is one university, the University of Wales, with colleges
at Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff and Swansea.
All these universities and the university college are independent, self-
governing institutions although they receive substantial aid from the state
through the University Grants Committee. This is a committee appointed
by the Treasury on which sit representatives of the universities. The
Mi.nistry of Education and local education authorities have no responsibility
for universities.
All universities charge fees but financial help is available to students
from several sources. The universities themselves provide scholarships of
various kinds, the Ministry of Eduoation offers a number of scholarships

every year and all local education authorities have a system of awards to
help suitable students to attend university. Most of the undergraduate
awards made by the Ministry and by local education authorities are offered
on the results of the General Certificate of Education. The Ministry also
offers supplementary awards to holders of certain scholarships provided
by universities. The amount of aid given generally depends upon the
parents' means. Over three· quarters of the students at the English and
Welsh universities are in receipt of Bome form of financial assistance.
In addition the Ministry provides annually a small number of scholar.
ships for mature students, i.e., for persons who did not attend university at
the normal age but who, later in life, find the opportunity and have the
talent to benefit from a university course. Awards known as state student·
ships are offered on a competitive basis by the Ministry from amongst
candid.1.tes considered by the universities to be qualified for post.graduate
studies in arts subjects; similar awards, tenable at universities or technical
college:3, are offered by the Department of Scientifio and Industrial Research
to students studying science, mathematics and technology at the post.
graduate level.
In Scotland there are 4 universities, Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and
St Andrews. The Camegie Trust, founded in 1901 with a capital of £2m.,
has an annual income of £100,000, of which half is devoted to the equipment
and expansion of the Scottish universities and half to assisting students.
Th!> following table gives the approximate number of professors,lecturers,
etc., and students for 1959-60 (the dates of foundation in brackets):
Universities Teachers Students Universitlos Teachel'll Students
England- England (contd.)-
Oldor,} • 850 8,807 Bristol (1909) . 448 3,227
Oambridge 777 8,938 Reading (1926) . 230 1,555
Durha.m (1832) 564 5,322 Nottingham (1948) . 291 2,456
London (1836) 2,000 • 25,661 • Southampton (1952) 201 1,050
Manchester (1880) . 1,106 6,791' Hull (1964) . 139 1,578
Birmingham (1900). 533 4,094 Eretor (1955). IS I 1,302
Liverpool (1903) 630 4,103 Leicester (l957) 137 1,207
Leeds (1904) . 681 4,655
Sbetllald (1906) 456 2,818 Tota}, fo, England 9,174 84,064
Univ.l'llity Oollege of North StafIordsbire, founded in 1950, had (1958-59) 91 lecturers
684 students.
• Recognized teachers.
• Internal. External (home and overseas), 24,479 in 1958~9.
• Including 1,570 In Technology.
Universities Teachers Students U ni versi tiel! Teache.. Student.

Scotland- W'*s-
St An<irews (1411) . 432 2,529 Aberystwytb (1872) 166 1,.180
Glasgow (1451) 642 6,668 Oardill (1883) . 207 2,010
Aberdeen (1494) 422 2,131 B:wgor (1884) 152 1,191
Edinburgh (1582) 694 6,499 Swansea (1920) 101 1,359
TolaJ fo, Scotland 2,190 17,827 Total fo, Wale. 626 6,040
At most of the university and university colleges women students are

admitted on equal terms with men. Number of women students (included
above): England, 19,953; Wales, 1,744; Scotland, 4,894. There are,
howevor, several colleges exclusively for female students (figures for 1959-
60 included above): London, 1,535 (1958-59) students; Cambridge, 808;
Oxford., 1,222.
GREAT BRITAIN 73
NATIONAL SYSTEM 01' EDUOATION
England and Walu
County councils and county borough councils are responsible for provid.
ing education and are therefore the 'local education authorities.' They
build schools and colleges, pay teachers and provide materials, equipment,
etc., meeting the cost out of local taxes and grants from the central govern-
ment.
There are two kinds of school within the public system: the county
school, which is provided and maintained entirely by the local authority
and the voluntary school, where a voluntary organization also carries
responsibility. Both county and voluntary schools are described as
'maintained schools.' Every maintained primary school has a body of
managers and every such secondary school a body of governors. There are
three kinds of voluntary school, controlled, aided and 'special agreement.'
At a controlled school two· thirds of the managers (or governors) are nomi.
nated by the local education authority and the remainder by the voluntary
interest. The expenses of maintenance are borne by the local education
authority, which also appoints the teachers. At an aided school the volun·
tary body appoints two· thirds of the managers, who maintain the exterior of
the buildings. Half the approved expenditure is reimbursed by the central
authority, and the local authority pays for the maintenance of the interior
of the buildings, pays the teachers and meets the costs of generally running
the school. Local authorities may, by special agreement, undertake to pay
between half and three· quarters of the cost of a n ew voluntary secondary
school. In such schools two· thirds of the governors are appointed by the
voluntary body. Maintenance is usually apportioned b etween the authority
and the voluntary body as in an aided school.
Full·time schooling is available free for all children in publicly maintained
primary and secondary (including voluntary) schools.
Primary Education. This continues until about the age of 11 and pri.
mary schools consist of infant schools for children aged 5-7 and junior
schools for those aged 7-11. Children under 5, whose attendance is not
compulsory, are accommodated either in nursery schools or in nursery
clILAAC8 attached to infant schools.
Secondary Education. Secondary provision is normally in grammar or
modern schools, with the addition in some areas of technical schools. Each
local authority has its own arrangements for deciding what kind of school
will best suit each child. A grammar s chool provides a mainly academic
course for pupils remaining at school until 16 years of age or more. A
secondary technical school provides a course normally until the age of 16, and
the secondary modern school provides a general and practical education up
to the minimum school.leaving age of 15 and increasingly for some children
beyond it. There are also schools (' comprehensive' schools) organized to
cater for two of these groups or for all three.
In Jan. 1959 there were 7,093,734 pupils, aged between 2 and 19, on the
registers of primary and secondary schools, made up as follows: schools
maintained by local education authorities, 6,977,812; schools receiving grants
from the Ministry of Education, 115,922. The estimated number of pupils in
maintained primary and secondary schools in 1960 WflS 6,988,000 and for
1961 will be 7,035,000.
Special School.s. Each local authority has a duty to provide educational
treatment for handicapped children. Ten categories of such handicapped
children are defined in regulations: deaf, partia.lly deaf, blind, partly

sighted, physically handicapped educationally sub-normal, epileptic, mal-
adjusted, those suffering from speech defects not due to deafness and the
delicate. Special educational treatment is provided either in an ordinary
school or, in serious cases, at a special approved school. For children at
special flchools attendance is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16 years.
In JOan. 1959 there were 810 special schools for mentally or physically
handicapped children, with 64,241 pupils (37,687 boys and 26,554 girls).
Ancillary Services. Local education authorities must make available
free medical inspection and treatment and provide a school dental service
for children attending maintained schools in their area. Many authorities
provide child-guidance clinics, and speech therapy is an important part of
school health provision.
Every local education authority is required to make milk and meals
available to pupils attending maintained schools. At present one-third of
a pint of milk is provided daily free of charge. Milk is also made available
free of charge to pupils at independent schools. Most maintained schools
now have facilities for school dinners, for which a small charge is made, but
a pupil may receive a dinner free, or at a cheaper rate according to the
parent'" ability to pay. In primary and secondary schools (including
Nursery and Special Schools) maintained by local education authorities,
the percentage of pupils taking dinners in autumn, 1959, amounted to
49'7%, and pupils taking milk, 83'7%. For 1960-61 the estimated cost of
milk will be £12m. and of 8chool meals, £47 05m.
Children below the age of 8 with 2 miles or more to travel to school must
be provided with free transport by the local education authority, while older
children with 3 miles to travel get similar provision.
Other Schoola. (a) Direct-grant Grammar Schoola. These schools re-
ceive grant direct from the Ministry of Education and are independent of
local education authorities. They charge fees, but must offer 25% of their
places each year, free of charge, to pupils who have previously attended
grant-aided primary schools for at least 2 years. These free places are
offered through the agency of the local county authority, which pays the
fees. School governors must also reserve another 25% of places for disposal
to pupils who need not have attended a grant-aided primary school. Tuition
fees for the remaining places are payable by parents, but relief may be
c1u.imed in certain circumstances. There are at present 178 direct-grant
schools.
(b) Independent Schoola. Outside the state system of educatitm there
were in England and Wales some 4,250 independent schools in Jan., 1959,
ranging from large 'public' schools to small local ones catering for a handful
of children. Fees are charged by all these schools, which receive no grant
from public funds. All independent schools are open to inspection by H.M.
Inspectors, and about one-quarter are recognized as efficient by the Ministry.
The term 'public schools' refers to those establishments whose headmasters
are mem beJ;8 of the Headmasters' Conference. Qualifications under which &
school may be represented at the Headmasters' Conference include the
meas1ll'U of independence enjoyed by the governing body and the amount
of advanced courses undertaken. Some of these schools are for boarders
only, but the majority include non-resident 'day-boys'.
The earliest of the schools were founded by, and attached to, the medieval
churches. Many were founded as 'grammar' (claasical) schools in the 16th
GREAT BRITAIN 71S
century, receiving charters from the reigning sovereign. Reformed mainly
in the middle of the 19th century, these schools now provide the highest
form of English pre.university education. Among the most well·known
independent schools are Eton College, founded in 1440 by Henry VI, with
1,175 boys; Winchester College, 1394, founded by William of Wykeham,
Bishop of Winchester, 520 boys; Harrow School, founded in 1560 as a
grammar school by John Lyon, a yeoman, 636 boys; Charterhouse, 1611,
655 boys. Among the earliest foundations are King's School, Canterbury,
founded 600; King's School, Rochester, 604; St Peter's, York, 627.
Furtller Education. Education for those who have left school is under·
taken by local education authorities, by voluntary organizations and by
extra·mural departments of the universitics. Vocational courses are
connected with the indhidual's employment, and are provided in technical
and commercial colleges, art colleges and schools and in evening institutes,
and can be entered at any age from 15 onwards. Technical colleges are
organized in 5 broad groups: (a) local colleges providing, mainly, part·
time courses-many of these colleges are an integral part of apprenticeship
scbemes; (b) area colleges, providing also some advanced courses of 2-4
years for students starting at 18 or 19 and leading to national certificates
and diplomas; (c) regional colleges, which are few in number and much
larger than area and local colleges, and do a substantial amount of advanced
work, particularly in full· time and 'sandwioh' courses. A sandwich course
usually lasts for 3-5 ye3.fll, and consists of alternate periods of about 6
mont.hs each of college eduoation and factory training; (d) colleges of
advanced technology, 8 of which have recently been created, where
there is no lower grade work at all ; (e) national colleges, of which 7 have
been establi~hed to provide advanced courses for the work of particular
industries and which are managed by independent bodies with grants direct
from the Ministry.
Education at institutions of further education is not free, but fees are
generally low. State scholarships are tenable at technical colleges, and
state technical scholarships are offered to candidates with suitable industrial
experience. In the educational year 1958'-59 there were 556 major estab·
lishments (other than art), 181 art establishments and 38 agricultural insti·
tutes. In addition there were about 8,300 evening institutes. The number
of students attending during 1958-59 was, full· time, 114,065 (including
8,516 sandwich students) and part· time, 2,276,068, of which 1,000,950
attended evening institutes.
Ths number of students released by their employers during working
hours in 1958-59 was 438,369, including manufacturing industries, 214,200;
building and contracting, 46,031; mining, 33,012.
Award.f to Studentll.-In 1959, 1,880 State Scholarships (awarded on
results at the examination for the General Certificate of Education) were
taken up at universities; the total Dumber of such awards current in 1958
was 6,453. The number of State Scholarships (supplemental, •. e., those
awarded to the holders of university and college open scholarships and ex·
hibitions) taken up was 1,524.
In addition 228 Technical State Scholarships were taken up at universities
and other educational establishments, and 31 State Scholarships for mature
students were taken up at universities.
Awards were also made by local education authorities, and, in 1959.
16,107 of tbe awards were taken up at universities, making a total of 47,365
current at universities in that year. 47,365 awards were also taken up a.~
other furthcr educational establishments, making the total of such awards

current 27,160.
Teachers. Apart from university graduates, most teachers in primary
and seC(lndary schools qualify by studying at a training college. There
were, in 1959, 154 training colleges in England and Wales. The general
courses at present last for 2 y ears, but this is to be increased to 3 from 1960.
At the present time university graduates may become qualified teachers
without further special training, but, as a rule, graduates intending to teach
pursue a I-year post-graduate course of professional training.
On 31 March 1959 there were 287,253 full-time teachers (121,565 men
and 165,688 women) employed by local education authorities. In the
academic year 1958-59 the numbers in training were 22,840 women and
8,938 men.
Finance. Total expenditure on education in England and Wales from
public flUlds (excluding university education) is estimated at £740m. for
1960-61, as comparcd with £690m. for 1959-60.
Scotland
Elementary Education. In 1958-59 there were 2,904 schools with
primary departments and the number on the registers was 603,530.
As at. 5 Oct. 1959, 18,306 recognized certificated teachers were employed
in schools with primary departments.
Independent schools providing elementary and/or secondary education
numbered 160 in 1958-59. The number of scholars on the registers was
22,096.
There were 20 residential special schools, and 94 day special schools;
special <:lasses were attached to 43 ordinary schools. The total number
of handicapped children under instruction was 10,209, of which 7,248 were
mentally handicapped, 1,574 were physically handicapped, 423 were blind
or partially blind and 804 were deaf or partially deaf, and lOO were other-
wise handicapped. There were 78 nursery schools, and nursery classes
attached to 36 ordinary schools, the total enrolment being 4,681. At 31
March 1959 there were 20 approved schools with a total enrolment of
1,431.
Secondary Education. Secondary schools numbercd 776 (563 3-year,
213 5-year) in 1958-59, and the number of scholars on the registers taking
secondary courses was 248,876. The number of teachers in secondary
departments at 5 Oct. 1959 was 14,621. In 1958-59 there were 4,425
students training to be certificated teachers, including 812 graduates, in
7 colleges of education.
Furtlur Education. Centres for furtber education numbered 1,069 in
1958-59 with a total attendance of 230,399 students. The number of
students attending central institutions was 6,945 (full-time) and 22,600
(part-tilDe), including those in attendance at central institutions within the
administ.rative sphere of the Department of Agriculture for Scotland.
Fi1W7ICt. The total ordinary expenditure of education authorities during
1958-59 was £69,410,180 (subject to correction OD audit), and the expenditure
(or 1959·-60 was e8timated at £74,810,440.
GREAT BRITAIN 77
THE BRITISH COUNCIL
The British Council was esta.blished in Nov. 1934. a.nd incorporated by
Royal Cha.rter in 1940. Its principal purposes are the promotion of a. wider
knowledge of the U.K. and the English language abroad and the develop.
ment of closer cultural relations between the U.K. and other countries.
The council derives its funds from votes of the Foreign Office. Common·
wealth Relations Office. Colonial Office and Colonial Development and Wel-
fare Fund. For the year ended 31 March 1960 grants totalled £5.308.150.
The principal officers of the council are as follows: President. Gen. Sir
Ronald Adam. Bt. G.C.B .• D.S.O .• O.B.E. Vice·Pre.sident . Sir Reginald
Leeper. G.B.E .• K.C.M.G. Chairman. Lord Bridges. P.C.• G.C.V.O .•
M.C. Vice-Chairmen. The Countess of Albemarle. D.B.E.; M. Edelman.
M.P.; Sir Charles Mott-Radclyffe. M.P. Director-General. Sir Paul Sinker.
K.C.M.G .• C.B.
Under the charter the powers of the council are vested in the Executive
Committee of not more than 30 members, of whom 9 are nominated by
the following: The Lord President of the Council. the Secretaries of State
or Foreign Affa.irs, the Home Department, Commonwe.alth Relations,
Scotland and the Colonies, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the President
of the Board of Trade and the Minister of Education. There are the
following advi.~ory committees and panels (the names of chairmen holding
office as at March 1960 in brackets) : Brit.ish Books Overseas (Sir Charles
Snow). Drama (Sir Bronson Albery). English Studies (Professor Geoffrey
Bullough), Fine Arts (Sir Philip Hendy), Law (Lord Evershed). Music (Earl
of Harewood), Science (Sir Patrick Linstead) (with panels on Agriculture,
Veterinary Science, General Science and Engineering and Medicine), Uni-
versities (Sir James Mountford). There are also advisory panels for Scot·
land (Lady Tweedsmuir. M.P.) and Wales (Lady Megan Lloyd George. l\f.P.).
The Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs is responsible to Parliament
for the council's work in or relating to foreign countries and the Secretaries
of State for the Colonies and Commonwealth Relations are responsible to
Parliament for its work in the Commonwealth.
In March 1960 there were representatives of the council in most of the
Commonwealth countries and in the following foreign countries: Argentina.
Austria. Belgium. Brazil. Burma, Chile, Colombia. Denmark, Ethiopia.
Finland, France. German Federal Republic, Greece, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq,
I srael, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Nepal, Mexico, Netherlands.
Norway, Persian Gulf, Peru. Poland, Portugal. Somalia. Spain, Sudan.
Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Republic, Uruguay,
Venezuela, Vietnam and Yugoslavia. In many of these countries, except
in Latin America, the British Council maintains British Institutes or simila.r
centres. In Latin America the Council is co.operating with and assisting
Anglophil societies which maintain institutes.
The Council's activities overseas include the encouragement of English
language teaching and British studies ill schools, universities and other
institutions, particularly by the training of teachers of English; and the
fostering of a knowledg6 of British lif6 and thought through books and
periodicalB, films, lectures. exhibitions, concerts and theatrical performances
and by the supply of supporting information. In l!l5S-59 courses in Eng-
lish language. literature and British institutions were provided in 22 countries
for 56,068 fee· paying adults at the Council's centres or by organizations
with which it is associated. The Council conducted examinations for various
British examining bodies, academic and professional, and 101 lecture tours
and advisory visits by British experts were arranged.
In the U.K., where the Council has 21 centres and 4 student residences,
it arranged study programmes for 5,135 visitors, including holders of United
Nations and Colombo Plan Fellowships, members of short courses and
individual experts, most of these visits being financed from overseas sources.
Services to colonial and other students from overseas included meeting
7,487 on arrival, finding accommodation for 3,525, apart from those in the
residences, social and cultural activities for 9,749 and vacation and shorter
courses !Lnd tours for 14,119. The Council a warded 286 scholarships for post-
graduato study in Britain and 184 bursaries for short periods of training.
Through the Council 20 foreign countries and international bodies offered
82 scholarships to British students.
The council publishes the following periodicals: Bri/i," MtdiC41 Bullttin. Brit;''' MlOdiC41
Book Li,/, Briti"h Book N ew, and Engli,,/i Langunge Ttaching. Brochures are published lor
the CQUDcd in the following series : Writers and Their Work, Studll Bookku"
HtaJit]',arttr.: 65 Davies St., London, W.!.
JUSTICE
England and Wales
The legal system of England and Wales has at the head of the superior
courts, a,s the ultimate court of appeal, the House of Lords, which hears each
year a number of appeals in civil matters, including a certain number from
Scotland and Northern Ireland, and very occasionally an appeal in a criminal
case. In order that civil cases may go from the Court of Appeal to the
House d Lords, it is necessary to obtain the leave of either the Court of
Appeal or the House itself, and before an appeal can be brought from a
decision of the Court of Criminal Appeal a certificate of the Attorney-
General is indispensable, certifying that the decision involves a point of
law of' exceptional public importance' and that it is desirable in the public
interest that a further appeal should be brought. Since the institution
of the G)urt of Criminal Appeal in 1907,5 murder appeals have reached the
Lords, the last in 1954. As a judicial body the House of Lords consists
of the Lord Chancellor, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, commonly called
Law Lords, and such other members of the House as have held high judicial
office. The final court of appeal for certain of the Dominions is the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council, constituted on nearly parallel lines with the
House of Lords.
Civil Law. On the civil side there is below the House of Lords the
Supreme Court of Judicature, divided into two parts, the Court of Appeal
(with the Lord Chancellor as nominal head and the Lords Justices of
Appeal) and the High Court of Justice. The High Court has 3 divisions:
(1) the Chancery Division, concerned with the construction of wilIs and
settlements, trusts, mortgages, etc.; (2) the Queen's Bench Division, whose
primary function is the administration of the common law, and (3) the
Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division, comprising courts deriving from
the old civil law. The Queen's Bench Division, in addition to original
jurisdiction, has certain appellate powers. Thus 2 or more judges, forming
a divisional court, deal with cases stated for their opinion by lay justices
or stipendiary or metropolitan magistrates and the Revenue Judge, nomin-
ally a divi~ional court, with casos stated by the Inland Revenue Commis-
sioners. Queen's Bench judges, in addition to their main work in London,
deal on circuit with a large amount of civil business, including the trial of
certain eategories of divorce causes, at the larger assize towns.
GREAT BRITAIN 79
Criminal Law. Below the House of Lords on the criminal side is the
Court of Criminal Appeal, corresponding to the Court of Appeal on the civil
side, and hearing appeals from Queen's Bench judges exercising criminal
jurisdiction at Assizes and from the Central Criminal Court. It is drawn from
the Lord Chief Justice and 8 Queen's Bench judges appointed by him for the
purpose, with the consent of the Lord Chancellor, the court consisting of an
uneven number of such judges, normally 3. In greater Loudon the Central
Criminal Court, more commonly known as the Old Bailey, is, in effect, a sub·
stitute for both Assizes and Quarter Sessions. In it sit, in addition t.o Queen's
Bench judges (for whom are reserved the more serious cases, and, in particular,
those crimes involving capital punishment), the Recorder of London and the
Common Serjeant. All the judges, including the Lord Chancellor, Lord
Chief Justioe, Lords of Appeal in Ordinary and Lord Justices of Appeal, are
appointed by the Queen, but the Lord Chancellor, who is a Minister of the
Crown and presides over the House of Lords, goes out with the Ministry.
The Recorder of London and the Common Serjeant are appointed by the-
City of London, subject to approval by the Crown.
Inferior Courts. These superior courts form only a relatively small part of
the judicial system so far a8 number of proceedings is concerned. On the
civil side more than half a million cases yearly are in normal times brought
before courts just over 100 years old, divided into some 50 circuits covering
the whole country &nd IIOmewhat misle&dingly called county courts. These
are presided over by leg&lly qualified judges charged with duties in such
responsible and difficult matters as rent restriction, workmen's compensa-
tion, the adoption of children, etc. They have a general jurisdiction, subject
to certain rights of transfer to the High Court given to defendants, to
determine all actions founded on contract or tort involving sums of no~
more than £400, but certain matters, such as, e.g., libel and slander, are
entirely reserved for the High Court. Each court has one or more registrars,
who may hear any proceedings involving not more than £30 and, given
certain conditions, any other cases. From county courts an appeal lies
to the Court of Appeal. Finally, there survive a few ancient local courts
with civil jurisdiction, and, although the primary function of the justice of
the peace is criminal, a not inconsiderable volume of civil work now falla
on justices. Part of this work is done in separate courts for domestic pro-
ceedings, which determine matrimonial disputes, those relating to bastardy
and guardianship of infants, etc. One of the presiding justices in such
cases must be a woman.
On the criminal side the position as to the inferior courts is more com-
plicated. At the base are the lay justices, who, outside the large towns,
try the great hulk of minor offenders, or, according to fairly recent statistics,
98'9% of persons found guilty of offences of all kinds. Exorcising summary
jurisdiction in petty sessions, justices have power to pass sentences of im-
prisonment up to, in general, 6 months, and to impose fines up to, in general,
£50. One of their most important functions is to examine prisoners charged
with graver offences and to commit them for trial at Assizes or Quarter
Sessions. The justices also deal with traffic offences and breaches of such
etatutes as those dealing with food and drugs, hours of work, etc. Certain
persons are ex-o~io justices, but the vast majority are placed upon the
Commission of the Peace by the Lord Chancellor, who is assisted by advisory
committees over which the Lords Lieutenants in the counties preside.
Women are now eligible to act as justices, and the number on the Commission
of the Peace is estimated to be about 4,000. In certain larger provincial
80 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPmE
towns and in London the corresponding work is done by legally qualified

and remunerated persons called respectively stipendiary and metropolitan
magistrtl.tes, who sit alone. Above the petty sessional courts are courts of
Quarter Sessions, having a. more extensive original jurisdiction and power
also to hear appeals from petty sessions. These consist in general of lay
justices; some boroughs, however, have separate Quarter Sessions with a
legally qualified and remunerated chairman called a Recorder. Furthcr,
since 1938, legally qualified and remunerated chairmen and deputy ohair-
men may be appointed by the Crown on the recommendation of the Lord
ChanceUor, in which case the court has more extensive jurisdiction than it
would otherwise have. A court of Quarter Sessions may also elect as
chairman or deputy chairman a person who has been the holder of certain
judicial offices, and where such a person has been appointed chairman the
court also has extended jurisdiction. From Quarter Sessions appea..ls lie
to the Assiz.e courts presided over by Queen's Bench judges and thence to
the Court of Criminal Appeal and the House of Lords (8ee above). There
remains as a last resort an invocation of the Royal Prerogative exercised on
the advi.ce of the Home Secretary after consultation with the judges con-
cerned. By this means a very small number of death sentences are each
year commuted for terms of imprisonment or detention.
All criminal trials, except those which come before courts of summary
jurisdiction or the House of Lords, are tried by a judge and jury consisting
normally of 12 members, reduced by the Administration of Justice
(Emergency Provisions) Act of 1939 to not more than 7, save in murder or
treason or in any case where the court, by reason of the gravity of the issues,
rlirecte that the full number be empanelled. The same Act prohibits juries
in all civil oases, whether in the High Court or inferior courts, unless the
court is of opinion that the question ought to be tried with a jury and 80
orders; in such case the general limitation to 7 applies.
Aid is provided for persons who are unable through lack of means to
pay for legal assistance in civil or criminal proceedings. Under the provi.
sions of the Legal Aid and Advice Act, 1949, a person of poor or moderate
means may be provided with the services of solicitor and counsel in civil
proceedings in the Supreme Court and the Chancery Court of the County
Palatine, of Lancaster, either without charge or, if his means allow, on
payment of a contribution. Legal aid was extended to County Courts a.a
from 1 .Jan. 1956. In the year ended 31 March 1956 over 25,000 persona
l'cceived aid, 19,000 of whom required it in matrimonial proceedings.
Under the Poor Persons Defcnco Act, 1933, any person committed for trial
for an indictable offence whose means appoar insufficient to enable him
to obtain legal assistance in the ordinary way may, on being granted a
'defence certificate,' have free legal aid and have counsel and solicitor
assigned. to him for his defence. In charges of murder a defence certificate
must in such circumstances be granted. Persons charged before the
justices may similarly be granted a 'legal aid certificate,' entitling them to
the services of a solicitor.
The authorized strength of the police force in England and Wales in
Dec. 1959 was 75,933 men and 2,777 women. The strength was 70,027
men aDd 2,338 women. In addition, thero were 192 whole-time auxiliaries
of the First Police Reserve and 50,724 special constables (including 957
women). Total police net expenditure (estimated) in England and Wales
for 1958-59 wa.a £95,533,902 (£88,666,063 for 1957-58).
JaekBon,R. M., 'I'M MlJehinny of lw/ic. ill England. London, 19~8

GREAT BRITAIN 81
Scotland
The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland
and has jurisdiction in nil cases of crime committed in any part of Scotland.
unless expressly excluded by statute. It consists of the Lord Justice·Gen·
eral. the Lord Justice·Clerk and 13 other judges. who are the same judges as
of the Court of Session. the Scottish supreme civil court. The Court. which
is presided over by the Lord Justice.General. whom failing. the Lord Justice·
Clerk. exercises an appellate jurisdiction as well as one of first instance. and
sits as business requires in Edinburgh as a Court of Appeal (the minimum
quorum being 3 judges) and also there and on circuit at various towns
throughout the country for tbe trial of criminal cases. The decisions of the
Court in either case are not subject to review by the House of Lords. One
judge sitting with a jury of 15 persons can. and usually does. try cases, but 2
or more (with a jury) may do so in important or complex cases. It has a
privative jurisdiction over cases of treason. murder. rape, deforcement of
messengers. and breach of duty by magistrates. It also. in practice. is the
only court which tries cases of incest, sodomy and other serious or aggra vated
crimes against person or property and generally those cases in which a
sentence greater than imprisonment for 2 years may be imposed either under
statute or common law. Moreover. the Court has inherent power to try
and to punish all acts which are plainly criminal though pr~viously unknown
and not dealt with by any statute.
The appellate jurisdiction of the High Court of Justiciary extends to all
cases tried on indictment, whl'ther in the High Court or the Sheriff Court.
and persons so convicted may appeal to the Court on any ground involving
a question of law alone. or apply for leave to appeal, on any question of fact
or of mixed law and fact. or on any other sufficient ground. and also against
sentence unless it is one fixed by law. It is also a court of review from courts
of summary criminal jurisdiction, and on the final determination of any
summary prosocution either party may appeal to tbe Court by way of
stated C3se on questions of law, procedure. etc .• but not on questions of fact.
A further or complementary form of process of review which can be resorted
to by convicted persons in these courts i8 by Bill of Suspension (and Libera·
tion). but it is of strictly limited application. A prosecutor in these courts
may also bring under review a decision in law, prior to final judgment of the
case. by way of Bill of Advocation, but this pro~ess is infrequently resorted
to. The Court also hears appeals under tho Courts·Martial (Appeals) Act,
1951.
The Sheriff Court has an inherent universal criminal jurisdiction (as well
as an extensive civil onc) limited in general to crimes and offences com·
mitted within a sheriffdom. (i.e .• a county or a. combination of counties),
which has. however. been curtailed by statute or practice under which the
High Court of Justiciary has exclusive jurisdiction in relation to the crimes
above. mentioned. This Court is presided overy by a Sheriff· Principal or a
Sheriff.Substitute, and when trying cases on indictment sits with a jury of
15 persons. His power of awarding punishment involving imprisonment is
restricted to 2 years in the maximum, but he may under certain statutory
powers remit the prisoner to the High Court for sentence. The Sheriff also
exercises 110 wide summary criminal jurisdiction and when doing 80 sits
without a jury; and he has concurrent jurisdiction with every other oourt
within his sheriffdom in regard to all offences competent for trial in 8ummary
courts. The great majority of offences which come before the courts are of
a minor nature and, as such. are disposed of in the Sheriff Courts. In cases
indicted for trial in the High Court of Justiciary the Pleading, or First Diet,
is always held in the Sheriff Court and, in these cases, the Sheriff may dispose
of any objection of a preliminary nature, whether to the citation or relevancy
or othE,rwise, or may refrain from doing 80. In either case the Sheriff's
decision can be reviewed by the High Court at the Second, or Trial, Diet.
Burgh Magistrates (Police Courts) and Justice of the Peace Courts have
jurisdiction in petty cases occurring within the burgh, or county, and in
minor offences under various statutes.
The Court of Session, presided over by the Lord President (the Lord
Justice· General in criminal cases), and divided into an Inner House com·
prising 2 divisions of 4 judges each, and an Outer House comprising 7 single
judges, exercises the highest civil jUlisdiction in Scotland, with the House of
Lords n8 a court of appeal.
The police forces in Scotland at the end of 1959 had an authorized estab.
lishment of 8,959 (including 283 women); the strength was 8,307 men
and 271 women. Whole-time' additional' policemen numbered 116, and
there ,,'ere 7,697 part-time special constables. The estimated expenditure
on police, borne by the Government, was £5,193,606 for 1958-59 (general
administration, £5,158,700; Road Fund grant, £34,906).
CIVIL JUDI<JIAL STATISTIOS
ENGLAND AND W ALE9 1956 1951 1958
A pptllaU Cau".
Judicial Gommittee of the Privy Oonncll 28 52 44
House of Lord. 55 33 52
Oonrt of A.ppeal . . . . • . 062 745 668
High 00LU1 of Justice (appeals IUld special cases
from inferior courts) 578 359 315
Total • 1,103 1,169 1,079

Court.1 0/ Firsl I,.,,,,na
HIgh Conrt of Justice :
OhanCf:ry Division 8,786 8,958 9,954
Qneen's Bench Division . . . 86,461 80,312 88,959
Probate, Divorce IUld Admiralty Division 29,066 28,485 26,877
Oounty courte . 904,476 1,081,451 1,335,774
Other collrte . ~O,682 23,672 26,148
Total. . 1,049,476 1222,818 1,487,712
Grand total . 1,060,~79 1,224,041 1,488,791
SCOTLAND
House of Lord. (A.ppeals from Oourt of Session) 15 9 23
Ooart 01 Session-General Department 6,724 5,876 6,82'
8herilI's Ordinary Oourt . 23,532 24,719 30,030
Bherllt's Small Debt Oourt . 91,812 100,847 134,895
Justice 0.: Peace Small Debt Oourt 2,816 2,936 5,552
CRIMINAL STATISTICS
ENGLAND AND WALES 1956 1951 1958
IndicllJb~, of!tnaJ-
Procee<iingo taken. . • . 123,951 140,193 167,120
Fonnd guilty at Magistrates Oonrts. . 98,179 110,222 121,468
Found guUty at Aai.... or Quart« Sesaloll.l 17,695 20,693 25,"6
Non-indi"<Jb/e of!tnaJ-
Procee,lings taken. • . . 704,541 770,766 886,280
Found guUty at Magistrates Oonrte. 668,156 733,270 846,542
JUfN!nik.! (Included aOOTe)"""
Indictable offences (found guilty) • 18,816 45,107 61,1'i5
Non In,lictable oftences (found guilty). 28,909 33,081 38,785
Fonnd guilty at Magistrates Oourts: total 67,165 77,416 89,430
Found guilty at Assi,.e. or Quarter Sessions 669 712 1,130
1 Young persons under 17 years of age.
GREAT BRITAIN 83
CRIMINAL STATISTIC'S (coned.)
SOOTLAND 1936 1057 1958
Crimel-
Proceedings taken. 24,,156 24,185 25,938
Disposed of summarily 22.906 22,633 23,913
J/i3ullaneotu ()ffences-
Proceedings taken . 114,851 119,534 129,132
Juwniltll-
Orimes--<:harges proved without finding 0/ guilt 3,886 3,766 3,653
Found guilty 6,021 .,195 4,8,j0
I Young persons under 17 yenrs of age.
Daily averag" population in prisons and borstals in England and Wales

in 1958 was 25,108 (convicted, 22,840; unconvicted, persons on remand or
awaiting trial, 1.4 !4, and 854 civil prisoners); in Scotland, 1959, 2,866
(convicted, 2,589; untried, 277); 1958, 2,672 (convicted, 2,423; untried,
249).
NATIONAL INSURANCE
The National Insurance Act, 1946, came into operation on 5 July 1948,
and the existing schemes of health, pensions and Wlemployment insurance
were repealed from that date.
This Act applies in geneml to all persons in Great Britain wbo are over
school.leaving age, and divides contributors into three classes, e.g.: (a)
employed persons who work under contract or are paid apprentices; (h) self·
employed persons; (c) non.employed or insured persons who are not in
one of the other two classes.
The weekly contributions for employed persons are: Mon (employee,
98. lId., employer, 8s. 3d.); women (employee, 8s., employer, 68. 9d.);
boys (under age 18) (employee, 5s. 5d., ('mployer, 4s. lid.); girL! (under age
18) (employee, 4s. 8d., employer, 48. ).
The above are the normal rate8, but in the case of adult workers, where
the wlLges are at the rate of £3 a week or less, the employer must pay :Is. 6d.
of the employee's contribution (man) in addition to his own, making the
employer's total lIs. 9d. or, in the case of a woman, 2s. 10d., malting tbe total
98. 7d. This doos not apply where the employee gets board and lodging in
addition to wages.
The above rates include the contributions for Industrial Injuries Insur·
ance (see p. 85). These aro 8d. from m('n, 5d. from women, 4d. from boys,
3d. from girls and respectively 9d., 6d., 5d., 3d., from the employer.
The weekly contributions for self.employed persons are: Men, 128.
women, 10s. ; boys (under age 18), 68. 9d.; girls (under age 18), 5s. lId.
The weekly contributions for non· employed persons are: Men, 9s. 7d.;
women, 78. 7d.; boys (under nge 18), 5s. 5d.; girls (under age 18), 4s. 6d.
In every case the above contributions include the contribution for the
National Health Service (medical, hospital, dental, nursing, etc., treatment).
The amount of these cont.ributions is, Employed men, 28. 4d.; other men,
2s. 2d.; employed wom en, 1s. IOd.; other women, 18. 8d. ; employed boys
and girls, la. 4d.; otber boys and girls, Is. 2d.
Contributions for a man are payable up to the age of 65. If, at that
age. he retires frum work. he pays no more contributions. If he continues
working, contributions are payable to the age of 70. Comparable ages for
women are 60 and 65.
Benefits. Tbe benefits are: (l) Unemployment benefit; (2) Sickness
benefit; (3) Maternity benefit; (4) Widow's benefit; (5) Guardian's
allowance; (6) Child's special allowance; (7) Retirement pension; (8) Death
grant.
Employed persons qualify for all the benefits; self· employed qualify for
all exc:ept unemployment; non.employed qualify for all except unemploy-
ment, sickness and maternity allowance.
Qualification for any benefit depends upon the fulfilment of the appropri.
ate co:atribution and other conditions laid down in the Act and Regulations.
Sicknes8 and Unemployment Benefit. The normal rate is 508. a week,
plus 31)S. a week for an adult dependant, plus 15$. for the first child below
the family. allowance age limit and 7s. for each subsequent child in addition
to any family allowance due.
MaJernity Benefit. For a confinement a woman may receive a maternity
grant of £12 108. and, where 2 or more children are born at the confinement, a
further grant of £12 10s. for each additional child who is alive 12 hours after
its birth. In addition, home confinement grant of £5 is payable where the
confin'~mcnt takcs place in the woman's home or otherwise at her own
experu>e. If the woman has been gainfully employed or self·employed, and
has bt:en paying full national insurance contributions, she may receive a
maternity allowance of 50s. a week normally payable for 18 weeks com·
mencing 11 weeks before the expected week of confinement, provided she
does no work during this period. Maternity allowance may be increased in
certain circumstances in respect of dependants in the same way as sickness
and unemployment benefits.
Widow's Benefit. On her husband's death a widow normally qualifies for
13 weeks for an allowance of 70s. a week for herself plus 20s. a week if
she ha.s a child of qualifying age and 12s. for each othcr such child. At
the end of the 13 weeks she receives a widowed mother's allowance of 708.
for herself and child so long as the child is of qualifying age and 128. for
each other such child. She may also receive her allowance at the personal
rate of 50s. a week if she has living with her a child who, although not a
quali~'ing child, is under 18. If she is over 50 (40 if the husband died before
4 Feb .. 1957) when this allowance ceases and 3 years have elapsed since
marria.ge, she qualifics for a widow's pension of 50s. a week. A widow left
without any children under the age limit will receive a widow's pension of
508. a week after her widow's allowance ceases if she is 50 or over and has
been married not less than 3 years when she loses her husband. A working
widowed mother's allowance or widow's pension is reduced for earnings
above 1008. or 70s. a week respectively, but the reduction cannot exceed 50s.
Child's Spe.cial AUowance. A woman whose marriage has been dissolved
or annulled may, on the death of her former husband, be paid an allowance
for an~7 children of that marriage who are below the family allowances age
limit, nubject to a minimum of 5s. a week for each child and a maximum of
208. 0. week for the first child and 128. for each subsequent child in addition
to any family allowances due.
GU~Tdian'8 Allowance. A person who has in his family a child below the
family-allowances age limits may be entitled to a guardian's allowance of
27$. 6(1. a week if both the parents of the child are dead and at least one of
them was insured under the National Insurance Acts. In certain circum-
stancea where the child is illegitimate, or the parents were divorced, or one
parent is missing. the allowance may be paid on the death of one parent
only.
GREAT BRITAIN 85
Retirement Pe1l8ion. In order to receive a retirement pension, 508. a
week for a man or woman on his or her own insurance and 308. a week for a.
woman through her husband's insurance, men between 65 and 70 and women
between 60 and 65 must have retired from regular employment. An in·
crease of 308. a week may be payable for a dependent wife if she does not
earn more than 40s. a week. In addition, 15s. a week may be payable for
the first child of the family under the age limits, and 78., in addition to any
family allowances, for each subsequent child. In certain circumstances an
increase of 30s. a week may be payable for a woman having care of the
pensioner's children. If, after being awarded a retirement pension, a man
under 70 or a woman under 65 earns more than 70s. in a calendar week,
the pension for the next pension week, including any increase for a wife
or child, will be reduced by 6ri. for every shilling earned between 70s.
and 90s. and by 18. for every shilliug earned over 90s. If retirement
is postponed after minimum pension age increments of pension at the
rate of Is. a week can be earned for every 12 contributions which are
paid for weeks of employment or Relf.employment between the ages of
65 and 70 for a man (60 and 65 for a woman). These increments are
added to the pension when a person eventually retires or reaches the age
of 70 (65 for a woman), whichever is the earlier. At age 70 (65) the pension
for which a person has qualified way be paid in full whether a person
continues in work or not and irrespective of the amount of earnings.
Under the National Insurance Act, 1959, a system of graduated contri·
butions and pensions related to earnings is to be introduced into the National
Insurance scheme, from April 1961. Those contributing will be employed
persons earning over £9 weekly.
Death Grant. The normal amount of the p:lyment is: :For an adult, £25 ;
for a. child aged 6 but under 18, £18 158.; for a child aged 3 but under 6, £12
108.; for a child under 3, £7 10s. For the death of a person who was within
10 yea.rs of pensionable age on 5 July 1948 (i.e., a man over 55 and a woman
over 50 on t.bat date) only half the standard amount is payable. No grant is
payable for the death of a person who was over pensionable age on 5 July
1948.
Unemployment benefit i~ paid through the Employment Exchanges.
Rctirement. pensions, guardian's allowance, child's special allowance and
widows' henefits are paid through the Post Officcs by order books, as are
maternity allowances. Othcr payments are made usun.lIy through local
Pensions and National Insurance Offices by a. postal draft.
NATIONAL INSURANCE (INDUSTRIAL INJURIES) ACT, I946

The Industrial Injuries Act, which also came into operation on 5 July
1948, provides a system of insurance against' personal injury by I\ccident
arising out of and in the course of employment' and against certain prescribed
diseases and injuries due to the nature of the employmont. It takes the
place uf the Workmen's Compensation Acts and covers broadly the persons
who are in8ured as employed persons under the Na,t.ional Insurance Act.
The cost of the contribution is included in the employed person's National
Ineura.nce stamp, but there are no contribution conditions for the payment
of benefit. Three types of benefit are provided:
(1) Injury benefit, payable during incapacity for work for a maximum of
26 weeks from the date of the accident or the development of the prescribed
disease. The rate of this benefit is 85s. a week, with increases of 3Qs. for
1 adult dependant and 158. for the first child under the age limits and
78. for each subsequent child in addition to any family allowances due.
If the insured person is under 18 years of alte and is not entitled to a
dependant's increase, benefit will be payable at a reduced rate-63s. 9cl. for
a person between 17 and 18 and 428. Od. for a person under 17.
(2) Disablement benefit. This is payable where some loss of faculty
persists beyond any initial period of injury benefit. The loss of faculty will
be assessed at a percentage by comparison with a person of the same age and
sex whose condition is normal. If the assessment is 20% , or more, benefit
will be apension varying according t o the assessment, from 178. a week to 85s.
a w eek. If the assessment is under 20% , benefit will normally be a gratuity
of an amount not exceeding £280. Increases of benefit may be payable
where a disablement causes special hardship or unemployability, where the
pensioner is in need of constant attendance, or where the pensioner is in
hospit!l.l for treatment for his injury. In the case of an unemployable
pensioner, or a pensioner receiving hospital treatment, an increase of 308.
for an adult dependant and 158. for the first child uncl er the age limits and
7s. fOI" each subsequent child in addition to any family allowance due,
will b3 payable. Pensions for persons under 18 arc reduced similarly to
injury benefit.
(3) Dwth benefit. On the death of a person as the result of an industrial
accident or a prescribed disease, certain dependants may qualify for benefit.
Benefit for a widow is a pension normally of 70s. weekly for the first 13
weeks and thereafter 568., depending on such factors as age, entitlement to
a child's allowance and incapacity of self· support. If the conditions for
pension at the higher rate are not satisfied the widow may receive a pension
of 203. a week. Allowances are payable to the widow, or other person,
caring for children of the deceased. For widows, these allowances are
usually at the rate of 208. a week for the eldest or only child and 128. for
each other child : for other persons, the rate is 15s. and 78. respectively.
Benefit for widowers, parents and certain other relatives, or for a woman
having care of the child of the deceased, take the form of pensions, allowances
or gratuities according to the relationship to, and degree of maintenance by,
the de~eased.
WAR PENSIONS
Th,~ number of beneficiaries in receipt of war (1914-18) pensions or
allowances in payment as at 30 Sept. 1959 was approximately 475,000
(507,000 at 30 Sept. 1958). The number of beneficiaries in receipt of war
(1939-45) pensions or allowances in payment as at 30 Sept. 1959 was
approximately 1,101,000 (1,138,000 at 30 Sept. 1958). The estimated
expenditure for 1959-60 is £99,830,250 and for 1960-61 is £96,479,250.
The expenditure is exclusive of administrative expenses, as these are now
chargei to a s eparate Vote due to the merging of the Ministry of Pensions
with the Ministry of National Insurance.
NATIONAL INSURANCE FUNDS

At 1 April 1958 the combined balances of the National Insurance Fund
and National Insurance (Reservc) Fund amounted to £I,521,3!H,644. In-
come 1.0 the National Insurance Fund during the period 1 April 1958 to
31 March 1959, consisting of contributions from insured persons and
employers, payments from the Exchequer and interest on investments, etc.,
was £909,912,342. Payments of benefit in respect of unemployment were
GREAT BRITAIN 87
£49,428,036; sickness, £133,462,844; maternity, £19,700,000; widows,
£57,500,000; retirement pensions, £617,396,889; guardians' allowances,
£450,000, and death grants, £5,042,198. The balance at 31 March 1959 was
£1,505,735,149.
At 30 Sept. 1959 retirement and contributory old age pensiolls were paid
to about 1,795,000 men and about 3,630,000 women. Just over 20,000
widows' allowances, about 510,000 other widows' benefits and about 7,500
guardians' allowances, orphans' pensions and children's allowances were in
payment at the same date.
Industria.! Injuries Fund. At 1 April 1958 there was a balance of
£173,320,333. Income dnring the period 1 April 1958 to 31 March 1959,
consisting of contributions from insured persons and employers, payments
from the Exchequer and interest on investments, etc., amolUlted to
£82,749,275. Benefits paid for injury totalled £17,389,555 ; for disablement,
£24,339,615; for deaths, £2,850,000. Administration and other payments
cost £6,679,761. There was a balance at 31 March 1959 of £204,810,677.
FAMILY ALLOWANCES
Family allowances are cash payments, for the benefit of the family as a
whole. to families with more than one child. The allowance is at weekly
rate of 88. for the second child and 108. for each younger child. The children
must be under the age limit. These are 15 for children who leave school
at that age, 16 for certain handicapped children. and 18 for those who
remain at school or are apprentices.
NATIONAL ASSISTANCE BOARD

National A8si8tanu. Under the National Assistance Act. 1948. the
National Assistance Board is responsible for the grant of financial assistance
to any persons in Grea~ Britain aged 16 yean or over who are not in full time
remlUlerative work and who are without resources. or whose resources (in.
eluding national illsurance benefits) need to be supplemented in order to
meet their requirements. The general etandards by reference to which
assistance is granted are determined by statutory regulations approved by
Parliament. Penons who are diesatisfied with the amount of assistance
granted to them may appeal to one of the local Appeal Tribunals established
under tho Act.
During the financial year ended 31 March 1959 net payments on national
assista.nce amounted to £118,438.000.
Non.cmt.lribuWry Ptmion.!. The Old Age Pensions Act. 1936. pro.. ides
for the payment of non-contributory old age pensions. at the expense of the
Exchequer. to persons aged 70 or over (40 or over if they are blind) who
eatisfy certain conditions of nationality. residence and means and who are
not receiving retirement pensions or widows' benefit under the National
Insurance Act, 1946. The rates of pension range from 288. 4d. to 48. 4d.
a week according to means. with a maximum of 188. 4d. for married women.
Claims are decided by the National Assistance Board, subject to a. right of
appeal to the local Appea\ Tribunal established under the National Assistance
Act, 1948.
During the financial year ended 31 March 1959 the net expenditure on
non-contributory old age pensions was £13,317,000.
Newman, T. S., Dive.' 0/ British Soci41lntUrlJflu. London. 1941 (and supplements, to date)
WELFARE
ACC<)lIIMODATION AND WELFARE UNDERPART III OJj' THE NATIONAL
ASSISTANCE ACT, 1948
Tho number of persons in residential and temporary accommodation

provid,~d by local authorities was !la follows:
Residential Tempornry
Englani and Wales accommodation accommodation Total
(:, Jan.) Adult, Children Adulll Child,en Adult. Children
19~7 76,741 38 1,649 2,820 78,390
, 2,868,
'----v---'
1968 79,877 1,714 ~.Oa2 84:6~3
1959 82,017 2,026 S,B5! 87,897
Scotland (SO June)
19~1 6,~96 ~6 76 6,642 82
19~8 6,874 35 61 6,909 62
'-----v---' '------v---' '---v---'
1959 6,987 135 7,122
England and Wales. Expenditure and income relating to accommoda·

tion and welfare services undertaken (in £ sterling) :
Expendltnre 1 Speclfio Income Balance of expendI-
Year &Ilded (includIng Government Olkr Ip.tijl. ture not met out 01
31 Marcb loan cbarges) granb income specific lucome
1957 26,394.000 642,000 8,206,000 17,647,000
19~8 28,802,000 725,000 8,849,000 19,228,000
19~9 30,791,000 623,000 10,256,000 19,912,000
1 By local autborlti ...
Scotland. Tho total local authority expenditure for 1958-59 in respect

of residential accommodation and welfare services under the National
Assistance Act, 1948, was £3,293,000 (ordinary expenditure, £3,061,000, and
capital expenditure, £232,000) and the income received, including contribu-
tions from other local authorities, was £1,240,000.
FINANCE
Re"enue and exponditure for years ending 31 March, in £ 8terling:
Estimated In tbe Actual ~celpt. into More (+) or less, -)
ReM11U Bud".et.' tbe Excbequer tban estimates
)966 4,110,150,000 4,898,143,000 + 182,993,000
1957 6,197,600,000 5,U7,813,OOu - 39,887,000
1968 5,228,850,000 5,342,585,000 + 63,735,000
1959 6,439,500,000 6,479,709,000 + 40,209,000
1960 5,326,000,000 5,630,529,000 +305,529,000
Tbe Budget estimate of ordin&ry ~..enue tor 1960-61 I. t5,958m.
• On buis 01 existing taxation.
Budget and Actual payments

supplementary out 01 tbe More, + ) or less (- )
E.pmd.itu,. estimates Exchequer than eetlma.tee
1956 4,656,433,000 4,498,041,000 -180,392,000
1957 ~,886,924,OOO 4,868,031,000 + 2,107,000
1958 4,972,635,000 ',919,582,000 - 63,053,000
1959 5,268,606,000 5,102,513,000 - 66,093,000
1960 5,325,440,000 5,243,912,000 - 81,534,000
Tb. Budget estimate of ordinary expenditure lor 1960-6110 £5,58Gm.
GREAT BRITAIN 89
The imperial revenue in detail for 1958-59 (inclusive of £2,729,266 duties
collected for and due to the Isle of Man, and of the proceeds of duties the
value of which is assigned under various Acts to local purposes), and the
expenditure, are given below, as are also the Exchequer receipts for 1958-59
and the Budget estimate for 1960-61 :
Exchequer Budget
Net receipl<! receipts estimate
Sources of revenue 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61
i. Custom,;. Imporw: £ £ £1,000 £1,000
Spirits ~8,386,490
Reer 14,;;64,614
Wine 18,321,230
Tea . . . 375,1 33
Cocoa, chocolate, etc. 1,151,415
Coffee 361,061
Sugar 7,S73,553
Dried lruit 212,565
Tobacco and snull 737,133.244
Beet and veal . 3,1;;6,962
Oil . 337,684,575
Matches and lighters 4,461,734
Silk and artificial silk 5,311,655
Key industry goods . 3,488,866
ImportB Duty Act, 1932 65,041,930
I mports Duty Act, 1958 27,568,054
Ottawa duties . 5,136,902
Miscellaneous 1,299,156
1,261,529,629 1,3i3,S05 1,423,300
ii . Excise:
Spirits 107,309,798
Beer 238,722,997
BritJsh wine lI,152,697
Oil. 8,719,710
Sugar, m~l_, etc.: 4,179,630
Porch ...<;e tax . 498,013,826
Liquor licencea 4,876,328
Monopoly values . 721,325
Matches aDd lighteN 8,113,S81
Entertainments 11,859,888
Betting • 33,659,189
Television 9,162,613
MisceUaneous . 1,156,199
929,678,081 908,585 956,700
ill. Motor vebicle duties . 106,S55,593 108,409 115,000
i v. Estate, etc., duties
Estate duty • 186,673,415
Legacy duty . 203,952
Soooession duty 174,584
Corporation duty 152,374
187,204,325 226,1)00 240,000
T. Stamps :
Land and property (exolud·
Ing stocks and shares) . 14,094,146
Stocke, shares, etc. S3,097,P09
Oompaniee capital duty . 5,007,249
Cheques, bills 01 exchange,
etc. 5,148,255
Receipta . 2,276.5~2
Shipping . 3,137,87Q
Insurancea and miecel-
laneous 3,497,006
66,258,996 97,300 110,000
Tt. Income tax 2,318,192,391 2,242,602 2,486,000
TU, Surtax . . . . 166,988,623 181,300 190,000
nil. Profits and excess profits
taxes and excess profit
levy . . . 214,611,420 261,800 25.,000
ix. Other inland revenue 632,037 MO
Total produce ot taxes 5,310,361,096 6,400,361 6,773,000
Bxchequer Budge ~
Ne~ receipts receipts estimate
1968- 69 1969- 60 1960- 61
S ) ur0e8 of revenue £ £ £1,000 £1,000
}
x. P,,;tal senice . 161,967,210
xl. Telegraph service 17,761,561 8,430 ' 4,000 '
xii. Telephone senice . . 187,711,089
.oil. Broadcast receiving licences 33,345,043 SG,100 3~ ,OOO
xi,.. ReoJeipte from loaDS, eto. 27,166.792 33,923 32,000
Tt. MUoceIIaneous . 104,607,500 151,715 110,000
T otal DOn·tax revenue 535,55~ ,1 95 230, 168 185,000
Total revenue . 5,845,910,290 6,630,529 5,968,000
1 Net receipt.
The national expenditure chargeable against Revenue falls under two

categor:ies : I, the Consolidated Fund Charges, mainly bestowed on the
National Debt ; and lI, the Supply Services, including the Defence and
Civil Services. The following are the branches of expendit ure and the
issues out of the Exchequer (in £1,000) :
Yeer ewled Year ended Year ended
Branches 0' expenditure 31 Ma.roh 1968 31 March 1969 SI March 1960
CoasolJ dated Fund :
N..tlonal debt ...nicer.-
In t.erest, management and axpeDAe8 6G2,968 662,677 • 614,736 •
Sinking funds . . . . 37,510,573 S8,U4 38,7 24
Paymente to Northern Irish
Exchequer . . . 71 ,631 76,498 80,202
Ol her consolidated fund services 10,239 8,2::2 8,461
Total eonw lidated 'nod ..rvleee 782,378 785,631 742,1 23
Supply :
A.rnry 387,900 442,250 438,200
N a V:1 353,000 373,700 364,,600
AIr I'orce 474,000 467,750 487,100
M.tnitrtry 01 A. ":iatio~ (Def~nce) : 200,650 180,950 181,300
MJohtry of Defence . . 14,150 14,300 16,500
Ohll votes . ' 6, 49,8;( 2,849,332 3,026,089
OuBtom., Exe\~, roi""d Revenu. o.nd
----
Peot Office . 393,720
Total SUI'ply servioeo 4 ,4i 3,294 4,316,982 • 4,501,789
Total e>.-peoditure chargeable agalU8'
!"e1'eDUO 5,2M,6 72 6, 1 02 , ~ 13 6,N3,91 2
• E xcluding, £206,096,000 i n 1958-59 and £2,13,560,000 in 19S9-60. met from receipts
under various Acts. .
• Exclndi ng 1958-69 " od 9159-60, £l2m .; deducted on Qccooot of American Rod GiJrman
Aid recei;:>ts for Delence Votes.
The Exchcquer issues shown above were supplied t o all departments to

meet al; their requirements, whether original or supplementary.
In a.ddition t o the ordinary expenditure given above, there were in
1959-6C issues (in £101.), under the Coal Industry A cts, 1946-60, amounting
t o 557 ; under Finance Acts, 1956 and 1959, Nationalized Industries, etc.,
424, and under the Sugar A ct, 1956, 59. Issues to the Exchange Equaliza.
tion Account amounted t o 100. The money raised by National Savings
CertificB,tes in 1959-60 was £242m. ; while the principal of National Savings
Certific8,tes paid off amoUllted to £175·1m. The balance in the Exchequer
on 31 March 1959 was £3,094,767.
GREAT BRITAIN 91
The following were the principal items of the original estimates for
supply (civil) services for the years 1959--60 and 1960-61 (in £1,000):
1959-60 1960-61
Central government and finance 18,626 18,568
Commonwealt h and foreign. . 104,027 103,154
Home Department, law and justice . ~ 3 ,728 103,211
Education and broadcasting . 219,296 212,389
Health, housing a nd loca l government 1,185,913 1,335,033
Trade, labour and s upply . . 82,107 92,804
Oommon services (works, stationery, etc.) 85,126 89,941
Agriculture and food . . . . 311,761 325,168
Transport, power and indnstri.tl research . . . 238,776 237,824
Pensions , Nationa l Insurance and National As."-istance 584,374 631,199
Gross National Product. In 1958 (1957 in brackets) gross national

domestic product amounted (in £lm.) to 19,845 (19,078); including con·
sumers' expenditure, 14,869 (14,136), public aut.horities current expenditure
on goods and services, 3,734 (3,596), gross fixed capital formation at home,
3,520 (3,419), exports of goods a,lId services, 4,379 (4,548), less imports of
goods and senices 4,104 (4,433). The gross national product (gross domc~tic
product and net income from abroad) amounted to 20,1l4 (19,309), including
gross trading profits of companies and public corporations, 3,421 (3,573).
Net income from abroad, 269 (231).
Personal income (before tax) amounted in 1958 to £18,963m. (£17,962m.
in 1957). Consumers' expenditure (food, drink and tobacco, housing, etc.)
amounted to £14,869m. in 1958 and £14,136m. in 1957.
TAXATION
The net receipts from the principal branches of taxation, Great Britain
and Northern Ireland (res,;rved taxes), were as follows for years ending
31 March (in £1,000):
Deaths Income
Custom. Excise duties Stamps taxI Sur·tu:
19:>4-55 1,100,484 772,227 188,077 75,165 1,874,154 134,323
1 95iHj6 1,150,113 860,866 175,834 69,507 1,945,593 138,069
1966-57 1,201,085 909,802 167,955 63,388 2,1 32,460 157,309
1967-08 1,~ll,767 943,()55 171,9n 63,~~1 ~.2~:!.756 109,325
1958-69 1,261,53G 929,678 187,204 66,~59 2,31 7,808 165,989
1 The income tax deduct.ed from excess profits tax post-war refunds is excluded.
Income Tax. The gross amount of income brought under the review of
the Inland Revenue Department in the year ended 5 April 1939 in Great
Britain and Northern Ireland, was £4,158,482; in 1958--59 it was estimated
to be approximately £20,286m. The incolIle on which tax was chargeable
in 1938-39, after allowing for exemptions and reliefs, was £1,482,564,496,
and the estimated amount for 1958-5H was £7,632m. The estimated number
of incomes in Great Britain and Northern Ireland above the exemption
limit in 1938-39 was 9·8m. and WI13 20·9m. in 1958-59. The estimated
number chargeable was 18m. for 1958-59.
The tax is ma.inly on the income of individuals, but it extends also to
income accruing to and retained by corporate bodiee, e.g., the undistributed
profits of companies. It is imposed, for each year of assessment ending
5 April, at a standard rate supplemented in the case of individuals by the
surtax (see below) . The rates and principal allowances for recent years
have been as follows :
Standard rate. 1953-5598. in the £, 1955-59 Ss. 6d., 1959-60, 78. 9d.
Earr.\td income allowance. 1952-57 two-ninths of the first £2,025 of

earned income (max. £450); 1957-60 two-ninths of the first £4,005 of earned
income (max. £890) and one-ninth of the next £5,940 (max. £660). For
19.55-60 the two-ninths allowance was given on investment income also
\vhere the total income did not exceed £300. Known as small income relief
this reli'3f gives an effective exemption of £155 for 1952-55 and £180 for
1955-60.
Per80nal allowance (married) . 1952-55 £210, 1955-60 £240. A married
woman :received a separate single personal allowance on her earned income.
Personal allowance (8i1l91e). 1952-55 £120, 1955-60 £140.
Each child. 1952-55 £85; 1955-57 £100; 1957-60 £100 for a child not
over 11, £125 for a child between 11 and 16, and a £150 for a child aged 16
and ove!~ continuing further education.
Redtcced rates on taxable income.
1953-55, £100 at 28. 6d., £150 at 5s., £150 at 73.
1955-59, £60 at 28. 3d., £150 at 48. 9d., £150 at 68. 9d.
1959-60, £60 at Is. 9d., £150 at 4s. 3d., £150 at 6s. 3d.
For 1948-60 separate reduced rate relief was allowed on a married
woman'l! earned income.
The Exchequer receipt of income tax was £335,901,000 in 1938-39 and
£2,321,773,000 in 1958-59.
Surtax. Surtax is payable by individuals with incomes exceeding
£2,000 per year. The rates are on a graduated scale, those for 1952-59
rising from 28. in the £ on the layer of income £2,000-£2,500 to lOs. in the £
on the h.yer of income exceeding £15,000.
For 1956-57 and Rubsequent years the amount by which certain personal
allowances exceed the single allowance (£140) is allowed as a deduction
from total income in computing the chargeable income assessed to surtax.
The number of persons asses~ed for surtax for 1937-38 was 107,116, with
a total assessed income of £567·8m. and for 1957-58 the number of persons
assessed up to 30 June 1959 was 319,275, with a total assessed income
of £I,31lHm. Exchequer receipt from surtax in 1958-59 was £166·6m.
Profits Tax. This tax applies, with certain exceptions, to trades or
busine~s carried on by bodies corporate or by unincorporated societies or
other bodies. The profits chargeable are computed on income-tax principles,
subject to certain modifications. As from 1 Jan. 1952 the rates of profits
tax wer,): nationalized undertakings, industrial and provident societies,
busioessp.s carried on by persons not resident in the U.K., 2,%; other bodies
and societies, profits distributed, 22i%, profits undistributed, 2i%. The
rate of profits tax on profits distributed was increased to 27,% as from
1 Nov. 1955 and to 30% as from 1 April 1956; the rate of 2i% on undis-
tributed profits, nationalized undertakings, etc., was increased to 3% as
from 1 April 1956. From 1 April 1958 the different rates of profits tax were
replaced by a single flat rate of 10% applicable to all cases, but the basis of
charge for industrial and provident societies and building societies was
altered.
No t"x is payable where the profits do not exceed £2,000. Where the
profits eltceed £2,000 but do not exceed £12,000, an abatement is allowed.
The estimated total chargeable profit (after deducting abatements) for
GREA.T BRITAIN 93
traders' accowlting period.~ ending in 1957-58 was £3,040m. The corre·
sponding tax chargeable was £332m.
The net receipts were £193,771,518 in 1956- 57, £253,417,419 in 1957-58
alld £271,674,431 in 1958-59.
Excess Profits Tax. Tills tax was imposed as from 1 April 1939 and
was repealed as from 1 Jan. 1947.
The tax WrLS charged on the amount by wlllch the profits of trades and
busincsses arising in the chargeable period exceeded the standard profits
(normally based on the profits of the years 1935, 1936 and 1937, with
varir)Us options as to the years which the business could select).
The rat,es of tax were as follows: Accounting pcriod (or portion thereof)
falling between I April 1939 and 31 March 1940,60% ; 1 April 1940 and
31 Dec. 1945, 100%: 1 Jan. 1946 and 31 Dec. 1946,60%.
In 1958-59 the net receipt was £2,100,906.
Excess Profits Levy. The levy was imposed as from 1 Jan. 1952 and was
repealed as frolli 1 Jan. 1954. It was charged on the amount by which the
current profits exceeded the standard profits (normally tbe average of the
profits of any two of the years 1947. 1948 and 1949). The levy applied
only to companies and other bodies such as nationalized concerns and was
charged at the rate of 30% on the excess profits, subject to an over.riding
maximum of 15% of the total profits.
In 1958-59 the net receipt was £83G,083.
NATIONAL DEBT
Borrowing by the State on the security of taxes was practised in Norman
times, but the National Debt really dates from the time of William Ill.
The acknowledged debt in 1689 was about £664,000, on which the annual
charge for interest and management was £40,000. At various subsequent
dates the amounts (in £lm.) were as follows (including the Irish debt
throughout) :
Debt 1 Annual cbargG' Annuities only
1727 Accession of Ooorge II . . 52 2·4 0·2
1766 BegillIling of Seven Years' War. 76 .8 O~
1763 Eud ",. 133 5·0 0'6
1715 Jleginning of American War 127 4·7 0·6
1784 End 243 9'0 1'4
1 Th(!se amounts do not include tLe capital value of termiuaul e anuwties.
• Including annuities.
Annual Total
Gross dont 1 cllarge' interest 3
1793 Beginning of ~'rellch Wars . 9'7
131~ End " " to. • 32-6
1817 Consolidation of Engiish and Irish
Exchequers. . . 31·6
IB~4 Be!,illIling of Crimea.n War. 802 27·4
18~7 End .... 837 28'6
1899 Beginning of Boer War 635 23·2
1903 End """ . 798 27·0
1914 Beginning of Pirst W"rid War . 708 24·6
1939 Beginning of Second World War. 8.301 230·0
19~5 -56 27,234 674·3 633
1966-67 21,089 747·6 699
1957-[,8 27.314 71)0·5 657
195B-69 27,-1::'8 7uO·8 G46
I Including terminable annuities .
• IncludinlZ interest. mana~ement and new sinking ltlDd .
• Interest included in National Debt services.
The following statement shows the total amount of the gross liabilities
and the assets of the State on 31 March 1959:
Liabilities : tlm.
Funded debt. . . . . . . 5,748' 3
Estimated capital liability of terminable annuities 9·4
Unfunded debt 23,700'4
27,458·\
Dedact bonds tende~d for death daties 81-8
27,376·3
Other capital liabilities . 222·3
Total gross liabilities 27,598'6
Assete:
Shares 1 and other asset.. . . . . • 7,l1~·O
Exchequer balances at the Banks 01 England and Ireland 3·0
1 Sllez Canal, market value, £14,730,772 ; Cable and Wireless, Ltd, nominal value,
£30m.: BrItish Petroleum OIl 00., at cost, £5,001,000.
On 31 March 1959 the net national debt amounted to £27,376,297,334,

inc1udini~ National Savings Certificates, £2,017,534,213; 3% Savings
Bonds, 1955-65, £712,545,870; 3% Savings Bonds, 1965-75, £1,073,010,669 ;
3% Terminable Annuities, £811,958,301; 3% Savings Bonds, 1960-70,
£I,024,5()6,440: Treasury Bills, £4,898,140,000; Premium Savings Bonds,
£216,130,651.
On 31 M arch 1 690 the t ot al n etnational debt amounted to £27,735,375,000
(provisional) . The net internal debt was £25,692,353,000.
Included among the assets on 31 March 1959 are Transport Acts, 1957
and 1959, £212m.; Issues to Local Loans Fund, £2,800m.; under Bretton
Woods Agreement Act, £557m.; under Coal Industry Nationalization Act,
£834m.; Bank of England, payment in lieu of dividend, £58m.
Adv!Lnces to Allied Governments (Second World War), outstanding at
31 March 1959, amounted to: France, £25,736,826; Poland, £52,833,336;
U.S.S.R., £17,789,537; Turkey, £1,814,865 : Czechoslovakia, £19,747,398;
China, £12,237,395; total, £130,159,357. Advances to Germany in respect
of post.war economic assistance, outstanding at 31 March 1959, £105m.
NIJIi01llJllncome and EzpendiJurt, 1946-51. H.M.B.O.• 1952
LOCAL TAXATION
The amount of rates collected by local authorities in 1959-60 in England
and Wales is estimated to have been £640m. (£553m. in 1958-59); in Scot-
land £74·3m. (£70·5m. in 1958-59). In 1958-59 t.he Exchequer grants under
the Loce.! Government Act, 1948, amounted to £93,791,000 and the moneys
receivable by local authorities as recoupment for the loss of rates resulting
from the de.rating provisions of Part V of the 1948 Act amounted to
£25,463,000.
Under the provisions of the Local Government Act, 1958, from 1 April
1959 County and County Borough Councils received a new general grant
in replacement of specific grants paid before that date for particular services,
including education, health, child care, fire services, etc. These general
grants amounted to £402m. in 1959-60 and will amount to £429m. in
1960-61. In addition to these grants, local authorities receive other large
Government grants, e.g., from the Home Office for police expenses, from the
Ministry of Housing and Local Government for housing, and from the Mini.
stry of Transport for highways.
GREAT BRITAIN 95
Under the Local Government Act, 1958, industry has been re-rated from
25% to 50% of its assessed net annual value as from) April 1959_ Based on
1956-57 figures, this will increase the rates paid by industry to localauthori-
ties from that date by about £30m_ per year, £10m. of which will be retained
by the local authorities and the balance passed on to the Exchequer to offset
the loss in tax revenue caused by re-rating.
In Scotland, Exchequer Grants under the Local Government (Financial
Provisions) (Scotland) Act, 1954, as amended by the Valuation and Rating
(Scotland) Act, 1956, amounted in 1959-60 to £15,728,000 (provisional),
general grant under the Local Government (Scotland) Act, 1958, amounted
to £51,285,000 (provisional) and pay ments under Part V of the Local
Government Act, 1948, amounted to £2,262,000 (provisional)_
The rateable value on which rates were leviable in England and Wales was in 1958-59
£610,240,000, and in 1959-60, £687,618,000, and in Scotland, £59,387,000 in 1958-59, and
£63,111,000 in 1959-60_
In EllI1land and Wales tbe average amount of the rates collected per £ of rateable value
was 6•. 8td. in 1913-14; and was estimated to be 18•• lld. for 1958-59 and 18•. 71d. (or
1959-60. In Scotland the estimated average amount per £ of rateable value of the rotes,
inclusive of water rates, in 1968-59 was 23$. 9<1. and 23•• 7d. in 1959-60.
Tile rateable value of the County of London was £96,026,678 in 1958-69. The Det debt
of tile County of London on 31 March 1959 amounted to £294,525,098, including £236,998,032
for housing; tbe net debt per bead of populatioD for 1958-09 was £91 6$. (£85 6s. in 1957-5~).
Tbe expenditure for 1958-59 was £133,909,967. Of tills £42,139,899 was met from rates.
Education services o( tile L.O.O. for 1958-69 cost £.i9,369,8S7.
DEFENCE
All problems of defence are considered by the Defence Committee
presided over by the Prime Minister and consisting of Ministers of the
Government, amongst whom are the Ministers of Defence, of Supply and of
Labour, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the First Lord of the Admiralty,
and the Secretaries of State for War and Air. This committee is advised
by the chiefs-of-staff of the three services sitting in committee. The
Minister of Defence is responsible to Parliament for carrying out the decisions
of the Defence Committee.
ARMY
Army estimates, gross expenditure and appropria tion in aid, 1958-59,
£431,400,100; 1959-60, £431,350,100; 1960-61, £470,050,100.
The control of the British Army is vested in the Army Council, which
consists of 3 civilian and 5 military members. The Secretary of State for
War is the President of the Army Council, and the Parliamentary Under-
Secretary of State for War is the Vice-President.
The Military Members of the Army Council are the Chief of the Imperial
General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the Quarter-Master-
General to the Forces, the Vice-Chief of the Imperial General Staff, the
Deputy·Chief of the Imperial General Staff, and the Master General of the
Ordnance. The Chief of the Imperial General Staff deals, through the
Vice-Chief, with military operations and intelligence, and, through the
Deputy-Chief, with the policy for organization, equipment, weapons,
training and the Territorial Army. The Adjutant-General is responsible
for the manning, organization and well-being of the Army. This involves
man-power planning, recruiting, personnel administration, release and
recall or reserves, discipline and the administration of military law, medical
services, education, leave, welfare and other personal services. The
Quarter-Master-General is responsible for the feeding and quartering

of the Army; all military movement, including the R.A.F.; the issue
and repair of equipment and vehicles; the supply of ammuuition; the
provision of stores; upkeep and operation of military ports, railways
and inhnd water transport; supply and delivery of petroleum products;
provision and operation of transport; works services (including building,
repair Ilnd upkeep of buildings, making and repair of roads); barrack
services; canteen services; mail; military labour and civil labour in over-
seas theatres; salvage; fire service; veterinary and remount service;
certain services for the R.A .F. in an overseas theatre. The corps under the
Quarter-Master·General include: Royal Engineers (transportation, move-
ment control, engineers stores, postal and works services), Royal Army
Service Corps, Royal Army Ordnance Corps, Army Catering Corps, Royal
Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, Royal Pioneer Corps, Royal Army
Veterinary Corps.
The third civilian member is the Permament Under-Secretary of State for
War, who is the accounting officer for Army Votes and is responsible for the
interior economy of the War Office, control of expenditure, parliamentary
estimat~, accounts and audit, civilian staff, pay and chaplaincy services,
contracts, claims, lands and public relations.
In J 939 the responsibility for the production of ordnance stores, e.g.,
arms, ammunition, vehicles, clothing and general stores, was transferred
from the Ma.~ter General of the Ordnance t.o t.he Ministry of Supply. The
responsibility for deciding on types and numbers of stores is, however, still
retained by the War Office.
The Army is organized into commands and districts as follows: Scottish
(H.Q. Edinburgh), Northern (York), Southern (Salisbury), Eastern
(Houns;ow) and Western (Chester) Commands; London (London) and
N. Ireland (Lisburn) District.s. There are three chief commands overseas:
Middle East Land Forces, Far East Land Forces and Northern Army Group.
The National Army consists of an Active (or Regular) Army and a
ReserVe> Army, which includes the Territorial Army and the Army Emer-
gency neserve.
The Active Army is composed of: (a) Regulars, men and women who
enlist voluntarily, and (b) National Service men, who are called up for
compulllory military service.
Men who enlist voluntarily do so for 22 years with the exception of the
Brigadt, of Guards, into which a man may enlist for 3 years, and some
specialists who may also enlist for 3 years if they have certain civilian
qualific:ltions on enlistment. A man who enlists for 22 years has the right
to tram:fer to the reserve at the end of 6 or 9 years from the date of attesta-
tion, or to terminato his service after 12 years or any succeeding period of
3 years from that date.
Women may enlist for 3 years with extensions of 1 or 2 years at a time
up to a. maximum of 12 years or for 22 years with the option to terminate
their service every 3 years. Di~charge is immediately granted on marriage
if this in desired.
Nat:;onal Servicemen serve for 2 years with the Colours and part-time
for a further 3! years in the Territorial Army or the Army Emergency
Resern,.
The Territorial Army is made up of: (a) men who may have voluntarily
engag&~ for an initia.l period of 2, 3 or 4 years (and who subsequently
re·enga,;e for further periods of I, 2, 3 or 4 years), and (b) National Service
men who have completed their 2 years service with the Active Army and
GREAT BRITAIN 97
have passed on to do 3! years compulsory reserve service, during which
they are normally required to undergo training for a maximum of 20 days,
including one continuous period of 15 days ill annual camp but this is
suspended at present.
Many of the volunteers are experienced men and become leaders and
instructors of the force. National Service men doing their 3i years part.
time service can also volunteer, and many do BO; such volunteers, if they
have held non.commissioned rank during their service with the Regular
Army, normally retain it, and may go on to reach higher rank.
The Army Emergency Reserve, consisting mainly of technical or special.
ized units, came into being again in 1950 and is designed to complete units
and formations to strength in technical and trade personnel on mobili·
zation. It is maintained by the voluntary enlistment of civilians for
periods of 2, 3 or 4 years (which may be extended by periods of I, 2, 3
or 4 years), aJl(i by National Service men directed to it instead of to the
T.A. for their part. time service. This reserve is composed of three
categorie.~: A.E.R. I, with liability for service at homo and overseas in a
peace.time emergency short of war; A.E.R. n, with liability to be called
up on threat of war; and A.E.R. lII, which consists entirely of \'olunteers
who are qualified electronic technicians. This category has identical liability
as Category n. The A.E.R. generally do 15 days annual trainiIlg super·
vised by Itegulars; they receive bounties of varying amounts, together
with army pl1y a.nd allowances during training. National Se-nice men
serving with the A.E.R. o.re also allo,ved to become volunteers.
Queen Alexandra's Hoyal Army Nursing Corps consists of Regular,
Army Emergency Resel'\'c, and Territorial Army officers and other ranks
with their Reserves. Officers commissioned from civil life are required to be
State Registered Nurses. Other ranks ure trained in ml1ny trades suitable
for women in the Medical Services at home alld overseas, these include:
Trained nurse (Army), nursing orderly, physiotherapist, radiographer,
operating. theatre teehllician, laboratory technicil1n, dental hygienist.
When an other rank becomes a State Registered Nurse she is eligible
for a commission in the Corps.
The Women's Royal Army Corps (late Auxiliary Territorial Service)
consists of: (a) Regulars; (b) Territorials; (c) Army Emergency Reservists.
The \V.R.A.C. employmellts include signals, motor transport, clerical,
catering and postal duties, etc.
The Territorial Army on mobilization will provide with the Active
Army, a field orca wherever required, anti·aircraft units l1nd a fightillg
force of all arm \0 protect the U.K . against raids and sabotage, and will
help maintain the liIe of the nation in the fnee of atomic or thermo·nuclear
attack.
The Home Guard which had been 11 voluntary force essenti(llly for
purely local def,'nce was disbanded on 31 Juno 19;;;.
195~-G IJ 10nO-G1
Distribntion 01 the Active Army G:hrr Gtlt",
(excluding Territorial Army) Gffic"" rat,ks Total Gj}iten rallk, Total
Gnn-ioo,,,, iu Europe (incl. U.1:.)
Troops raised in the v.K.-
(n) MaJe 19,~00 215.000 234,800 10,100 200,000 ~lG,100
(b) Female. GOO 4,400 5,300 800 4,700 5,500
Colonial troops ~OO 2,UOO 2,~OO 2')0 2,000 2,200
Commonwealth troops in tue
U.K. 000 200 JOO 500 200 700
---- - - - ------
Total garrisons in Europe 21,400 221,600 243,000 20,600 206.DOO 227,500
1i:
98 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPffiE
1969-60 1960-61
DistrlbuUon of the Active Army Oth.. Other
(excluding Territorial Army) Officers ranks Total OfficcTl ranks Total
Garrisons outside Europe:
Troops raised in the U.K.-
(a) Male . 6,200 6i,500 63,700 0,500 39,000 44,600
(b) F'lmale . . . . 300 500 800 400 600 1,000
Gurkha.. Colonial and Oommon·
wealth troops 200 27,300 27,500 200 28,800 29,000
Total garrisons outside Europe 6,700
------
85,300 92,000 6,100
------
68,400 74,500
On terminal leave . . 6,000 5,000
Additional numbers-to cover
teulporary ercees over the
nwnbers estimated above 1,000 9,000 10,000 1,000 9,000 10,000
~'otal
--- ---
351,000
------
317,000
Books 0/ Reference
Army Eetlmates. H .M.S.O., London. Annual
0' /'"
Forte.cue, J. W., BiswT1J of the British Army, 14 vols. London, 1899-1930
Sheppard, E , W., ShOf'I History British Army. 4th ed. London, 1950
NAVY
The Royal Navy is a permanent establishment, governed by the
Board of Admiralty, The First Lord of the Admiralty is the Minister
responsible for the Navy, the other 8 members of the Board comprising
the Fist Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff: the Second Sea Lord and Chief
of Naval Personnel: the Third Sea Lord and Controller: the Fourth Sea
Lord and Vice·Controller; the Vice·Chief of Naval Staff: the Deputy Chief
of Naval Staff and Fifth Sea Lord; the Civil Lord : the Permanent Secretary,
(The Board of Admiralty was reduced from 10 to 9 members in Oct. 1959,
the Ministerial posts previously held by the Parliamentary and Financial
Secretary and of the Civil Lord being merged under one junior minister,
the Civil Lord.) All these are known as 'Commissioners for executing the
office of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom'. The office was first
put into commission by Charles I when the Lord High Admiral, the Duke
of Buckingham, was assassinated at Portsmouth in Aug. 1628. James,
Duke of York, afterwards J ames 11, was the last Lord High Admiral to
command at sea in 1672. The last holder of the office was WiIliam, Duke
ofClarence, afterwards William IV, since whose time it has been in abeyance
but Letters Patent are still vested in the Crown,
The following is a summary of the more important units:
Completed by the end of
Category 1952 19113 1954 19,55 ]956 1957 1958 ]959
Aircraft carriers 11 12 16 14 11 12 7 S
BattleshJps S 5 5 5 5 1 1 1
Cruisers 24 24 23 21 19 19 12 11
Destroyeru 92 82 82 73 65 61 55 52
Frigates 161 188 183 186 162 142 104 100
Submarint!B 53 51 59 58 56 65 49 63
'l'he1'3 are also an experimental guided·missile ship, 3 fast minelayers,

14 sea'go)ing depot, repair and maintenance ships, an ice patrol ship, 1 net·
layer, 2(; ocean minesweepers, 17 landing vessels, 12 fast patrol boats, 18
seaward patrol craft, 7 surveying vessels, 103 coastal minesweepers, 74
inshore minesweepers, 21 trawlers, 9 coastal and controlled minelayers, 50
boom defence vessels, 200 auxiliaries and 200 MFVs (general.purpose craft),
GREAT BRITAIN 99
In the following table the principal warships are grouped in claues, in
descending order of modernity.
Standa.rd Armour Tor-
displ ace.. 2'ur- pedo Shaft
Com- ment Belt rel.J tu bea horse- Speed
pleted Name 'rOllS In. In. Principal armament 21-in. power Knots
A ircrajt Carrier8
1959 Hermes 23,000 Light A.A. 78,000 28
1955 Ark Royal 43,340 I:? 4·5-in. 152,000 31'6
1951 Eagle 43,060 164·5-in. 1&2,000 31'5
1941 1 Victorious 30,000 123-in. 110,000 31
1964 BulWark'}
Albioll 22,000 Light A.A. 78,000 28
lU54
1953 Centaur
1948 Magnificent 11 15,730 Light A.A. 42,000 25
, Rebuilt Oct. 1950-.ran. 1958.
• Returned from Royal Oanadian Navy H .rune 1~57.
a Commando carrier.
Battleship
1946 Vanguard • 44,500 16? 12? 8 15-in.; 165·25-in. 130,000 29·5
Vanguard will be <lyail o.ble for dispo.,:al by scrapping after mid-I D60.
Crui8er8
1960 LiOn} 9,550 4 2 4 6 -i n.; 6 3-iu. 75,500 31·.
1959 Tiger
1945 Superb 1 • 9,000} 4 9 5-in.; 10 4-in. 72,500 31'6
1944 Swiftsure
1942 Bermuda
1942 Jama.ica l
1 8,800
1942 Gambia - 8,000 4i 9 6-in.; 8 4·in. 6 72,500 31-5

l~·tO Mauritius'
]940 Kenya.
1939 Belfast 11,550 2i 12 6-in.; 8 Hn. 6 80,000 32
1937 Birmingham l} . 9,100 4 2 96~in.; 8-4 in. G 75,000 3~
]937 Sheffield
1 A.pproved [or disposal by scrapping in 1960.
The cruisers Ceylon and .l\'"r:w!oundland were sold to Peru in Dec. ano Nov. 1959
respectively.
The destroyers of the Royal Navy are of the following classes: 'D'
class, 8: 'Weapon' class, 4: later 'Battle' class, 8: 'Battle' class, 13: 'C'
class, 18: '0' class,!. Displacements range from 1,710 to 2,610 tons.
Destroyers which have been fully converted into fast anti-submarine
frigates comprise 4 'R' class, 1 'T' class, 8' U' class, 5 'V' cll1Ss, 4 '\V' class
and 1 'Z' class, while destroyers which have undergone limited conversion
into fast frigates comprise 1 '0' class, 2 'P' class and 7 'T' class.
Frigates are of the following classes: 'Leopard' class, 4; 'Salisbury'
class, 4; 'Whitby' cla.ss, 10; 'Blackwood' class, 12: 'Z' class, 1; '\V' class,
3: 'V' class, 5: 'U' class, 8: '1" class, 8: 'R' class, 4: 'P' class, 2; '0'
class, 1: 'Brecon' class, 2: 'Albrighton' clas.q, I: • Blankney' class, I:
'Atherstone' class, I: 'Black Swan' class, 6; 'Bay' class, 5; 'Loch' class,
14: 'River' class, I: 'Castle' class, 7. Displacements range from 1,000
to 2,200 tons.
Submarines are of 5 classes: 'Porpoise' class, 5; 'E' class, 2: 'A' class,
15: ''1'' class, 20; 'S' class, 9. Surface displacements range from 814 to
1,700 tons. There are also three X-craft (midget submarines).
The nuclear.powered submarine Dreadnought was laid down on 12 June

1959.
Ships under construction at the end of the financial year 1959-60 in-
cluded 2 cruisers of 9,550 tons, the Blake and Lion (ex.Defence), 4 guided.
missile destroyers, 17 frigates, 12 submarines, 1 coastal minesweeper, 1
inshore minesweeper, I fast patrol boat and I boom defence vessel. Con·
structional work is still suspended on an aircraft carrier of 15,700 tons, the
Leviathan.
The aircraft carrier Bulwark was converted into a commando carrier in
1959.
The aircraft carrier Triumph is being converted into a heavy repair ship.
Th€ Navy estimates for 1952-53, totalled £357·25m.; 1953-54, £329·5m.;
1954-55. £353m. ; 1955-56. £340·5m.; l!)56-57. £348·84m.; 1957-58,
£31601.; 1958- 59, £339·4m.; 1959-60, £370·7m; 1960-61, £397 ·5m.
For 1953-54 the total naval personnel provided for was 151.000; 1954-55,
139,000; 1955-56, 133,000; 1956-57, 128,000; 1957-58, 121,500 ; 1958-59,
112,000; 1959-60,106,000; 1960-61,102,000 officers and ratings.
B1nckman, R. V. n. (cd.), Jan.·.• FighliTll} Ship' . 62nd cd . London. 1959·GO
Blacluaan, n. V. R, The 1f'000Id', W(mhip... London, June 1~59
Lewis, ~ .. , Tilt .Na-rv Q Britailt. London, 1948
ROYAL Am FORCE
In May 1912 the Royal Flying Corps first came into cxistence with
militnry and naval wings, of which the latter became the independent Royal
Naval Air Service in July 1914. On 2 Jan. 1918 an Air Ministry was formed,
and in April 1918 the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service
were amalgamated, under the Air Ministry, as the Royal Air Force. In
1937 the units based on aircraft·carriers and naval ShOl'C stations again
passed to the operational and administrative control of the Admiralty, ns the
Fleet Air Arm.
ThE! Royal Air Force is administered by the Air Council, of which the
Secretll.ry of State for Air is president. It consists of 6 permanent and
2 additional members. The Air Members include the Chief of the Air Staff,
the Air Member for Personnel, the Air Member for Supply and Organization.
The Chief of the Air Staff is the principal adviser of the Secretary of State
and is responsible for policy and p\a.nning, and fighting efficiency. The
Air Member for Personnel is responsible for manpower. conditions of service
a.nd wolfaro. Tho Air Member for Supply and Organization is responsible
for the provision of all technical supplies. barrack stores, food supplies and
works Hervices, technical training and for technicalscrvices, viz., engineering,
armament and the tcchnical aspects of signals. The organization side
includ(:8 movements, planning of aircraft requirements, aircraft and mechani·
cal tra'lsport establishments.
Tho major dcpartments of the Air Ministry are each under a. mcmber of
the Ail' Council.
Tho Royal Air Force is organil:cd into commands as follows:
HO'.7te Command8. Bomber, Fighter. Coastal, Transport. Flying Train·
ing, Technical Training, Maintenance, and Signals Command. The Air
Training Corps and the R.A.F. Sections of the Combined Cadet Force are
under the control of Flying Training Command.
Ov(:rseas Command8. The Middle East Air Force (H.Q. Cyprus); the
Far Es.st Air Force (H.Q. Changi); Royal Air Force, Germany (2nd Tactical
Air Force).
GREAT BRITAIN 101
An R.A.F. Flying CoUege was established in Jan. 1950 to take over
certain functions of the Empire Flying School, the Empire Air Navigation
School and tha Empire Air Armament Scbool, and a. R.A.F. Technical Col·
lege was est.ablished in Oct. 1949 to take over certain functions of the
Empire Radio School, the Empire Air Armament Scbool and former
Engineering School.
The effective strength on 1 April 1959 was 173,200, compared with
184,900 in July 1958. The estimated strength on I April 1960 was 164,300.
There are 5 main branches for officers: General duties (Flying and
Executive), Technical, Secretarial (including Accounts), Equipment and the
RA.I<'. Regiment.. Otber branches include: Provost, Catering, Marine,
Physical Fitness, Airfield Construction, Education, Legal, Chaplains, Medical
and Dental.
Pilots, navigators and ail' electronics officers can now enter the R.A.F.
and he granted a permanent commission on the General List with the
assurance of a career to the age of 55, with the option of retiring at the age
of 38, or after) 6 years' service if they entered after 22nd birthday. Per-
manent commissions are also granted to cadets graduating from the R.A.F.
College, Cranwell, the R.A.F. Technical College, Henlow, to cadets accepted
for training for the Dental Branch and to suitable university graduates.
Professionally qualified candidates may obtain permanent commissions in
ground branches.
Commissions, which also qualify for pensions, may be awarded to those
entrants who initially are either unable to qualify for the General List or
unwilling to commit themselves to a full General List career. These
commissions, which will be on the Supplementary List, will guarantee a
pensionable career to the age of 38, or after completion of 16 years' service
if entry is after the 22nd birthday. There may be opportunities for further
service to the age of 55 but with limited career prospect.s. There are
limited numbers of short service commissions available in all branches. In
the Education Branch medium service commissions of 10 years are available.
Under the Army and Air Force (Women's Service) Act, 1948, the com-
missioning and enlistment of women in the Royal Air Force for non-
combatant service, under substantially the same conditions as for men,
and with a collective title of Women's Royal Air Force commenced on I
Feb. 1949.
Current equipment of Bomber Command is made up of a growing number
of Avro Vulcans and Handley Page Victors, with large numbers of Vickers
Valiants and English Electric Canberras. The l\Ik_ 2 versions of the Vulcan
and Victor will carry 'stand·off' powered long-range missiles. Deployment
of the' Thor' intermediate range ballistic missile will be completed in 1960
and progress is being made with' Blue Streak'. Valiants are also to replace
Canberras in the 2nd Tactical Air Force. :Fighter Command is equipped
entirely with Hawker Hunter day.fighters and Gloster Javelin all-weather
fighters, to which the supersonic English Electric Lightning will be added
in 1960. Transport Command's force of Comet jets and Hastings and
Beverley piston.engined transports is being supplemented by turboprop
Britannias. Coa.s tal Command's maritime reconnaissance squadrons are
equipped entirely with Shackletons.
The net total of Air Estimates for 1960-61 is £527m.
The ROJIal Air Force, 1939-45. Vol. I, rr, rrI. H.M.S.O., 1963-54
Jtme'. All the World', Aircraft. London. Annual, from 1909
Macmilla.n, N., Th< Royal Air ForO'. .j, vols. London. 1942-60
Thetlord, 0., Aircraft of /.he Royal Air Force, 1918-1958. London, 1968
PRODUCTION
AGRICULTURE
General distribution of the surface, in acres (1959):

Totallautl Rough Permanent
Divisions surface grazing land pasture Amble land
England . . 32,035,000 3,330,000 9,184,000 12,696,000
Wales and Monmouth 5,099,000 1,701,000 1,763,000 845,000
Scotland . 19,069,000 12,481,000 1,010,000 5,349,000
Isle of Mm . H1,OOO 45,000 15,000 62,000
Distribution of the cultivated area in Great Britain (in acres):

England and Wales Scotland
1958 1959 1958 1959
Corn crops 1 • 6,181,528 6,007,919 1,060,086 1,037,317
Green crops' 2,492,710 2,370,000 499,268 487,890
Hops . . 21,152 20,353
Small fruit' . 38,890 39,143 10,496 11,056
Orchards • 243,333 240,807 1,043 956
Bare fallow . 245,862 360,210 9,328 10,208
Olover a".d rotation grasses' 4,2i3 ,985 4,509,406 1,566,003 1,802,749
Permane:1t pasture 11,016,607 10,946,288 1,230,383 1,010,129
Totol 24,514,067 24,494,126 4,376,607 4, 360,305
1 Includes wheat, barley, oats, mi"ed oorn and rye, for tbreshing.
• Gre,m crops in England and Wales Include beans, peas, potatoes, turnips and swedes,
mangolch;, sagar beet, cabbage (for fodder, etc.), vetcbes or tares, and aJI other crops. For
Scotland, beans, peas, potatoes, turnips and swedes, mangolds, sugar beet, cabbage (for fodder,
etc.), rap '~ , vetches~ etc., mashlum, kale and all other crops.
• The figures for small fruit in all cases include small fruit in orchards.
, Including lucerne.
The number of workers employed in agriculture in Great Britain was, in

June. 1958, 679.000 (563,000 males, 116,000 females). and in June. 1959,
671.400 (554,800 males. 116,600 females).
In 1959. in the U.K .• land Imder the plough amounted to 17·8m. acres
(crops nnd fallow, 10·9m. acres; temporary grassland (including lucerne)
6·9m. acres). Permanent grassland amountf.>d to 13·1m. acres.
LivE·stock in the U.K. as at June in each year (in 1,000) :
19~5 1906 1957 1958 19:;9
Oattle . 10,668 10,907 10,881 10,956 11,317
Sbeep . 22,949 23,694 24,796 26.105 27.667
Pi~ 6,843 6,474 5,974 6,485 5,981
lIorscs.
Pcultry
274'
86,857
233'
92,464
208'
94,868
189 '
99,724
-'
107.032
, Great Britain oniy. I Number not collected in 195~.
Principal crops in the U.K. as at June in each year:

Fodder Man· Sugar
Wheat Barley Oats Beans! Peas t Potatoes orops' gold' beet
Acreage (1,000 acres)
1955 1.948 2,296 2,681 88 21 874 669 183 424
1956 ~,293 2,323 2.564 107 19 921 528 176 426
1957 2,113 2,622 2,348 87 14 811 512 154 430
1958 2.208 :!,755 2.217 90 15 821 498 1-18 ·139
1950 1,02S 3,U73 2,033 79 10 817 48-1 132 43.
I Fodder crops. • Turnips and swedes for stoct·feeding,
GREAT BRITAIN 103
Fodder Man- Sugar
Wheat Barley Oats Bea ns I Peas ' Potatoes crops J gold' beet
Total produce (1,000 tons)
1955 2,699 2,936 2,709 83 18 6,278 8,223 3,800 4,556
1956 2,845 2,800 2,4S6 93 11 7,633 9,049 4,298 :;,16~
1P57 2,683 2,957 2,145 77 10 5,P.91 R,61tJ 3,559 4,539
19~8 2,711 3,170 2,138 7:! 5,55G 8,689 3,578 5 ,742
1959 2,786 4,008 2,187 67 6,850 7,208 2,664 :),328
, Fodder crops. ~ Turutps anu swedes for stock-feeding.
For the quantities of cereals nnd livestock imported see under COM-
MERCE.
FISHERI ES
Quantity a.nd value of wot fish of British taking landed in Great Britain
(excluding salmon and sea-trout) :
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
TIlrU Tonl Ton. TIlrU Trnu
England and Wales _ 645,471 640,604 571,608 664,803 547,16~
Scotland 307,258 287,057 293,810 202,44S 303,~25
G.B_(excludingsbell-fisb) 952,729 927,661 865,418 857,2:;1 850,387

£ £ £ £ £
England and We.les • 3~,316,998 34,587,301 34,611.874 36,197,903 35,859,819
Scotland _ 11,197,490 ll,890,424 12,867,593 13,879,543 14,502,071
G.B_ (excluding shell-fish). 44,6H,488 46,477,725 47,479,467 60,077,-146 50,3RI,890
Value of shell-fish 1,498,727 1,633,674 1,661,709 1,735,606 1,866,031
FUEL AND POWER

F1tel. The number of National Coal Board mines producing coal on
1 J an. 1959 was 758 and there were also over 500 mines worked privately
under licence from the Board, each employing less than 30 men under-
ground, There is no recent estimate of workable coal reserves but expert
opinion is that they amount to 100,OOOm. tons. Statistics of the coalmining
industry for recent years are as follows:
1956 1957 1958 1959
Se.lenble output of coal:
Total deep-mined (1,000 tons) . 209,925 210,059 201,4i5 195,270
Opencast (1,000 to!l8) _ _ _ . 12,081 13,569 14,347 10,833
Average weekly number of wage-earners on
colliery books :
All workers . 703,000 710,000 699,000 665,000
Face workers . 286,000 285,000 274,000' 259,000'
Ooal exports :
Total (1,000 tons) . ., 8,642 7,027 4,223 3,479
Bunkers: foroign trade (1,000 tona) 1,488 1,201 840 633
, New definitions of face development work introduced il11958 reduced by approximately
7,000 the number of men classiiied as face worke .. _
Total stocks of coal on 26 Dec. 1959 amounted to 50,896,000 tons

(14,745,000 tons distributed, 36,151,000 tons undistributed). Profits made
by the N_C.B. for the first half-year of 1959 amounted to £18,617,026
(collieri,~, £15,173,241, opencast, £3,146,000). Interest payable to the

lIfinist1"T of Power, £17,559,000.
Procluction of coke amounted in 1959 to 26,972,000 tons; 1958,
29,521,000 tons.
In 1959 imports of coal, coke and briquette amounted to 161,690 tons
(816,64~ tons in 1958).
In t.he year 1959 inland consumption (1,000 tons) of eoal at home is
estimatAld to have been 190,457, some of the principal uses being: Railways,
10,200; gas works, 22,510; coke ovens (coal earbonized), 25,784; iron works,
manufacture of pig.iron and steel, 4,032; collieries (engine fuel), 5,562;
electricity generating stations, 46,041; domestic (house coal), 27,108;
general manufacturing, 27,480.
Petroleum. Production in 1959 (monthly average in 1,000 tons; 1958
in brackets) : Crude process and shale oil, 3,261'3 (2,744'4); refinery fuel,
252·6 (~:08'6); aviation and motor spirits, 627·6 (562'6); kerosine, 147·7
(107'7); diesel oil, 603'4 (523'7); fuel oil, 1,30H (1,047'7); lubricating oils,
12 (62-6); bitumen, 80·1 (71'6).
Gas. On 1 May 1949 the British gas industry passed into public owner·
ship and was vested in 12 Area Boards (10 for England, 1 for Scotland, 1
for Wales), the Chairmen, with an independent Chairman and Deputy
Chairm'1n, forming the Gas Council. Gas manufactured (Im. therms),
1958-5~' (for 1957-58 in brackets): Coal gas, 1,848 (1,967); water gas,
396 (388); other gases, including oil gas, 66 (42). Total gas available,
2,839. By.products made in 1958-59 includes (1,000 tons): Coal tar (crude),
1,739; oil gas tar, 93; crude benzole (1,000 gallons), 25,266; refined
benzole •. 11,385. In 1958-59 coal used for gas production was 25,17.9,000
tons; q'Jantity of oil used, 667,000 tons. Total cost of gas and gas products
in 1958-59 was £216,305,382 (in 1957-58, £223,217,765). Gas sales fol'
1958-5~' amounted to £225,599,114 (£222,760,994 in 1957-58). Total
number of consumers, 1958-59, was 12,923,978, of whom 12,177,593 were
domestic; 1957-58, 12,922,197. Total number employed in 1958-59 was
132,576.
Elec..:rieity. The electricity industry was invested in the British Elec·
tricity Authority on 1 April 1948. The Electricity Act, 1957, provided for
the dissolution of the Central Electricity Authority at the end of 1957 and
the trallSfer of its functions to two new bodies, tbe Central Electricity
Generating Board to be responsible for tbe power stations and the Grid
system ;\.Ud the Electricity Council with duties relating to the industry as a
\vhole. Some additional duties and powers were !riven to the 12 Area
Electricity Boards who are responsible for distribution and sales to con·
sumers.
The power stations and inter,coWlecting networks of ma.in transmission
lines (the Grid) are owned and operated by tbe Generating Board who
supply olectricity to the Area Boards, but do not sell direct to consumers,
except for railway traction or where specifically authorized by the Minister
of Pow!.r.
The system is divided into 5 regions for administration and general
control purposes; 4 of these regions are subdivided into 2 or 3 gene·
rating divisions whose areas correspond in general to those of the Area.
Boards. The Boards plan and carry out the distribution and sale of electri·
city to 'Jonsumers. They are separate statutory corporations whose memo
bers arE. appointed by the Minister and each Board is reqniredto pay its
GREAT BRITAIN 105
way, taking one year with another. Covering the areas are 12 consultative
councils representing consumer and general public interests, whose members
are appointed by the Minister of Power.
Co·ordination between the Electricity Boards in England and Wales is
secured through the Elcctricity Council in which the generating and dis·
tributing sides of the industry are both represonted.
The number of power stations owned by the Generating Board in England
and Wales on 31 March 1959 was 238 on 208 sites, with a total installed
capacity of 25,409,1l9 kw. and a total maximum output capacity with all
plant in service of 23·4m. kw. Total number of consumers on 31 March
1959 was 15,183,000 and on 31 March 1958, 14,867,000.
Electricity generated in England and Wales amounted to 91,753m. units
in 19.58-59, of which 86,233m. units were sent out. Revenue from sales of
electricity in 1958-59 was £505·8m. (£464·1m. in 1957-58). The working
surplus in 1958-59 was £27·3m. Coal used for electricity generation in
1958-59 amounted to 41,555,000 tons (43,667,000 tons in 1957-58). Total
fuel used in 1957-58 amounted to 45·6m. tons and in 1958-59 to 45·9m. tons.
In 1957 the Government announced a programme of 5,000-6,000 megawatts
of nuclear power by 1966. At the beginning of 1960, 4 nuclear power
stations were under construction for the Generating Board, sites for 2 more
had been approved and a 7th site was awaiting the consent of the Minister
of Power.
The number of persons employed by the Generating Board, the Electricity
Council and the Area Boards at the end of March 195D was 187,065.
METALS
The Iron and Steel Board. The Iron and Steel Board were established
pursuant to the Iron and Steel Act, 1953. The Iron and Steel Board are
appointed by the Minister of Power and are responsible for exercising a.
general supervision over the iron and steel industry with a view to promoting
the efficient, economic and adequate supply under competitive conditions
of iron and steel products. The Board are particularly concerned with
securing the provision and use of adequate and efficient production facilities
and may, subject to certain powers of the Minister, determine the maximum
prices to be charged in the United Kingdom for iron and steel products by
producers. In both cases the Iron and Steel Board are bound to consult
with such iron and steel producers and such representative organizntions as
they may consider appropriate.
The Iron and Steel Holding and ReaUzation Agency. The Act of 1953
a.l~oesta.blished the Iron and Steel Holding and Realization Agency with
the duty of returning to private ownership the iron (lnd steel undertakings
which came into public ownership by virtue of the Iron and Steel Act, 1949
(repcnlAd by the Act of 1953). At the end of Sept. 1958 it was estima,ted
that in terms of employment, of steel production and of sales of products
the companies which had ceased to be subsidiaries of the Agency accounted
for about five·sixths of the Agency's inheritance.
Iron and Steel (excluding iron clUtings). The United Kingdom is the
fourth largest steel producer in the world. At the end of 1959 there were
308,660 persons employed in the industry. Capital expenditure in that
year is estimated to have been £99m. (£105m. in 1958).
Outputs in recent years are Q.8 follows :

Home con-
811mptioD of
fiolshed steel
(i~ot
Iron ore Pig iron Crod~ steel eqnivalent)
1957 16 ,90~ 14,283 21,699 18,622
1958 ' 14,612 12,975 1 9, ~6 6 17,979
19a9 14,870 12,a82 20,186 17,856 '
, 63 week year. I ProvisIonal.
In 1959 imports of iron ore amounted to 13,315,220 tons valued at

£69,548,187 (for 1958, 12,898,693 tons valued at £72,896,805). Exports of
finished steel products were 3,107,947 tons in 1959 and were valned at
£191,502,441 (for 1958, 2,775,563 tons valued at £187,511,258),
Inn Castings. Production of iron castings was 3,498,000 tons in 1959,
3,469,000 tons in 1958 and 3,715,000 tons in 1957. At the end of 1959 the
number of persons employed in the production of iron castings was about
127,109.
Production of non-ferrous metals in 1959 (monthly averages in 1,000
tons): Refined copper, 16·1 (16·1 in 1958); refined lead, 7-41 (6'71 in 1958);
tin mE,tal, 2·3 (2'75 in 1958); virgin aluminium, 2·2 in 1958 (2'45 in 1957);
zinc, (',08 (6·22 in 1958).
INDUSTBUL PaoDUCTIoN
StI,tistics of a cross-section of industrial production are as follows :
1957 19a8 1969
Sulpbwic acid (1 ,000 tons) . 2,336 2,'242 2,427
Plastic materials (8ales)(I,000 tons) . . . 390 416
Civil engineering and contracting plant (value
£1,000) . . . . 4436 9
AgricuJl;l1ral machinery (value £1,000) 130:600 143
Commecclalmotor vehicles (no. 1,0 00) 288 307 370
Cotton yarn (lm. lb.) 913 868 758
Wool tops (Im. lb.) . . . 325 297 348
Woollen and worsted yo.rn (lm. lb.) . . 638 494 545
Man-mlUle fibres (rayon, nylon, etc.) (lm. lb.) 485 422 614
Hardw" od aDd plywood (1,000 ell. It) 21,912 19,620 18.4~18
Newsprint (1,000 tons) 6:>3 614 689
Engineering. In 1959 the number of pa.ssenger cars produced amounted

to 1,189,968 (1,031,733 in 1958); for export, 610,608 (521,976 in 1958),
Value of deliveries ill 1959, £825·6m. (£696m. in 1958)_
In 1959 the average monthly number of industrial and agricultural
tractors (wheeled) produced was 13,451 (9,833 for export), valued at
£8,604,000; in 1958, lI,761 (7,967 for export) valued at £7,025,000.
Production of railway rolling stock and aircraft for 1959 (1958 in brackets)
was: Coaching vehicles, 2,328 (2,567) ; wagons, 16,071 (36,293); aircraft,
piston engine, 179 (144), turbine engine, 281 (336). Internal combU8tion
enginEoS, deliveries of complete engines, monthly average (no.) for 1958
GREAT BRITAIN 107
29,200 valued at £4,067,000 (value of exports, £1,643,000), in 1957,31,900
valued at £1,805,000.
Electrical Goods. Radio sets and radiograms (1,000), monthly average
for 1959 (1958 in brackets), 153, home·sales, 146, valued at £1,569,000 (151,
home·sales, £1,397,000); t elevision sets, 236'5, home-sales, 229'5, £7,781,000
(165'4, home-sales, £5,869,000).
Textile lilanufactures. Woven cloth, cotton (1111. yd.), 1959, 1,335; 1958,
1,404; woven cloth and worsted fabrics (lm. sq. yd.), deliveries in 1959,
364'9; 1958,34(J.
Construction. Total value of constructional work by all agencies in
1959 was (£lm.), 2,395 (2,177 in 1958), including new housing, 568. Number
of industrial buildings completed in 1958 was 1,979; from Jan. to June 1959,
790.
Cnu,u of Production. Firud Reports for 1948. 11 vols. H.M.S.D., 1951-52

Clapham, SirJ. H.,.An Economic History o/Modern Britain. 3 vols. Cambridge Univ. Press.
1930-38
Smith, Wi.ltred, An EC()1Iomic Gtog,aphy of (heal Britain. London, 1949
Stamp, L. D., Th" LarwJ of Britain: 113 U.. arwJ Mu ....e. 2nd ed. London, 1950
8/alUtica1 Summary of tM Min",'; IrwJustry, 1942-48. R.M.S.D., 1951
Traversin, n ..L'..!gricullu,.~ m Grande-B,.etagt/,t. 2 vols. Paris, 1949
Worswick. G. D. N., and Ady, P. H. (ed.l, TM British Economv, 1945-50. Oxford Univ.
Press, 19:J2
LABOUR AND EMPLOYMENT

The distribution of total man-power in Great Britain W'La at Dec. 1959
(in 1,000): Total working population, U,272 (16,181 males, 8,091 females).
Total employed in armed forces and women's services, 536. Total engaged
in civil employment, 23,300 (15,341 males, 7,959 females), including agricul-
ture and fishing, 949; mining and quarrying, 797; manufacturing industries,
9,382; national and local government service, 1,301; t.ransport., 1,645;
building and civil engineering, 1,477; distributive trades, 3,045; com-
merce, finance, professional and personal services, entertainments, etc.,
4,329.
Number of registered and unregistered trade unions at the end of 1957
was 653, with a total membership of 9,752,430 (7,875,870 males, 1,876,560
females); including metal manufacturing and engineering trades, 1,926,360;
general labour organizations, 2,104,130; coalmining, 863,110; 1'11ilways,
537,120; building and contracting, 483,720; other transport, 467,320.
The number of registered uuions was 400 in 1957 with a membership of
8,593,447. Funds of registered unions amounted at eud of 1957 to
£80,796,000.
At 31 Dec. Hl58 there were 186 unions affiliated to the Trades Union
Congress with 1,017 delegates and a total membership of 8,176,252 (in-
cluding 1,336,::!65 women). The membership included: Transport (other
than railways), 1,347,584; engineering, founding and vehicle building,
1,517,113; mining and quarrying, 716,927; building, woodworking, 542,222;
railways, 508,200. Affiliation fees amounted to £306,496.
The following table is a statistical summary relating to trade disputes for
recent years:
Nnmber ot No. ot workers Aggregate duration

dispute. in.olved in working da.ys
1958 1959 1958 1959 1958 1959
1,000'. 1,000'. 1,000'0 1,000'.
Mining ,wd quarrying . 1,904 1,297 248 191 450 370
Engineerilll! and .hipbuild·
illl! • . 172 189 38 IS7 410 562
Yetal manutacture B5 44 10 31 34 71
Textiles 18 14 6 11 55
Clothi",' 11 11 4 1 10
Wood ""d cork . . 12 13 2 1 10 5
Bnildi",: and contracting 178 170 27 :?l 161 118
Transport, etc.. . 83 SS 100 31) ~,J1 6 ~G
Food, ddnk and tobacco 10 13 6 4 18 9
Totll (including those

not specified) . 2,629 2,073 524 644 3,463 5,250
Th,~average monthly numbers (in 1,000) ofregistered unemployed were,
1958,457'4 (males, 321'4, females, 136); 1959,475'2 (males, 343,8, females,
131'4), Wholly unemployed (including casuals), 444,5 (322'6 males, 121'9
females) in 1959, 410·1 in 1958.
COMMERCE
Value of the imports and exports of merchandise (excluding bullion and
specie and foreign merchandise transhipped under bond) of the U.K. for
5 recent years and 1938 (in £ sterling) :
Export. ot
Erports ot foreign and
Tota) Import. British produco colonial produce 'l'otal exports
1938 919,508,933 470,755,320 61,524,646 632,279,968
1955 3,880,896,169 2,905,469,229 118,912,669 3,024,381,389
1956 3,886,119,576 3,171,534,737 146,448,026 3,317,982,763
1967 4,070,810,906 3,324,412,107 133,513,779 3,457,925,886
1958 • 3,745,762,222 3,171,773,124 141,078,347 3,312,851,971
1959 ' 3,990,099,006 3,325,699,780 130,304,781 3,456,004-,561
1 ProvisionaJ.
The value of goods imported is generally taken to be that at the port
and time of entry, including all incidental expenses (cost, insurance and
freight) up to the landing on the quay. For goods consigned for sale, the
market value in this country is required and recorded in the returns. For
exports, the value at the port of shipment (including the charges of delivering
the goods on board) is taken. Imports are entered as from the country
whenco the goods were consigned to the U.K., which may, or may not, be
the country whence the goods were last shipped. Exports are credited to
the country of ultimate destination as declared by the exporters.
For details of imports and exports for 1958 and 1959, 8ee pp. 111-13.
Trade according to countries for 1958 and 1959 (in £1,000):
Value of
merchand ise Exports of merchandise consigned
consigned from to countries in first column
countries in flrst Foreign and
column British produce colonial produce
Countries 1958 1959' 1958 1959' 1958 1959 '.
Foreign Countries:
Europe and Colonies- "'">:
Soviet Union 59,466 63,036 23,656 27,455 28,298 7,403
Finland . 67,949 77,630 31,797 37,687 632 776
Sweden . 134,796 128,292 104,157 111,984 2,796 3,507
Norway . 55,670 63,961 61>,616 58,659 1,467 1,525
Icela:ld. . . . 1,741 1,747 3,207 3,022 55 f>()
Dennlark and Faroe Islands 115,479 134,849 76,728 87,700 1,750 1,639
1 Provisional figures.
GREAT BRITAIN 109
Value of
merchandise Export.s of merchandise consigned
countries in first Foreign and
Countries 1958 1959 1 1958 1959 1 1958 1959 1
Europe and Colonies (cont.)-
Poland 26,892 32,690 1l,004 16,274 671 298
Germany, \Ves~rn' : 135,892 144,405 122,529 137,797 17,464 20,820
Eastern 3 3,407 4,595 2,878 3,517 357 662
Netherlands 159,171 160,280 97,930 113,394 7,484 7,515
Netherlands Antilles 23,414 25,448 15,977 9,404 88 799
Surinam . . . 7 6 99·1 1,314 15 21
Netherlands New Glunea. 35 359 229 255 5 2
Belgium . 60,164 57,539 59,315 61,060 3,243 3,521
Belgian Congo 3,396 5,105 8,491 8,344 90 124
Lu.'tembourg 351 507 476 448 25 21
France 100,296 103,822 71,264 76,914 9,261 8,959
AJgeria. . . . 11,355 10,909 3,951 2,370 51 66
It'rench Equatorial Africa 999 1,007 1,399 1,005 10 6
}'rench \Ve~t Africa' 3,123 4,317 255
French Soma-lilanu. 8 16 241 331 3 1
Madaga,c:lf . . 724 807 752 682 11 7
French West India Islands .> 60 253 203 6 3
Switzerland 35,947 39509 33,475 49,842 3,147 3,753
Portugal. 14,338 14;792 21,141 20,:155 1,367 896
Azores. 140 145 770 457 61
Madeira 291 ::.'75 740 844 23 21
Angola . . 335 661 4,479 3,632 7 11
Portugnese East lVrica 2,387 2,451 5,159 5,181 23 28
Possessiow; in India SOO 153 1,384 1,279 U 9
Spain . . 36,576 36,139 24,075 20,275 79S 904
Canary Islands 12,839 14, 88~ 3,20i, 3,371 46 86
Spanish North Africa 1 148 194 40 12
Italy 76,812 93,13!! 65,977 72,500 4,400 4,78C
Austria e, l4;) 9,11 2 15,546 16,133 1,195 1,13:1
Hungary. 3,182 3,192 2,957 3,962 274 272
Czechoslovakia. 6,S71 9,069 4,234 6,1 56 478 1,917
Yugoslavia. 13,06; 13,698 10,741 11 ,154 336 267
Greece 8,097 8,656 18,996 16,905 254 247
Bulgaria . 1,1 85 1,581 317 1,9tH 198 331;
Rumania.. 2.(J58 2,149 1,007 1,5~O 553 851
Turkey 6,95:! 14,251 10,225 15,739 218 338
Africa-
Sudan 13,~ 72 18,6:n 14,718 12,670 40 33
Egypt .' . 2,028 4,438 12,819 13,786 131 108
Ethiopia (including Eritrca) 925 I ,a.!;:) 2,442 2,66'1 13 24
Liby:L 1,010 435 7,340 8,:106 120 103
Liberia. 1,783 2,3HO 8,988 3,067 71 83
Morocco 10,43.") 10,692 5,580 4,505 195 81
Tunis ia 4 ,762 4,252 2,192 2,37[1 57 103
Asia-
Israel 12,814 15,315 13,495 15,182 822 1,31;
Syria 1,421 1,762 7,913 6,6 36 44 57
Lebanon 2,232 2,387 10,028 9,500 228 245
Jordan 21 69 6,582 5,757 42 36
Saudi Arabia 7,453 [',370 7,980 6,844 65 112
Iraq 50,529 52,803 31,109 31,759 165 153
Iran 50,225 57,220 38,557 38,204 305 285
Afgtuinistan 3,502 2,498 431 481 14 14
Burma 6,926 7,968 1l,489 14,520 47 96
Thailand. 3,666 1,996 11,796 12,478 70 100
Indonesia. 10,918 5,600 7,499 11,000 42 56
China 18,540 19,715 26,640 24,374 527 419
I Federal Republic, and the American, British nnd French Sectors of Berlin.
a Soviet Zone, and Soviet Sector of TIe rIin .
• E:s:cluding Togoland for 1958.
no THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH A........n EMPIRE
Value of
merchandise Exports of merchandise consigned
Countries 1958 1959' 1958 1959' 1958 1959'
Asia (COI,t.)-
Japan S5,275 43,166 19,340 32,217 836 1,009
Korea. 264 322' 2,654 3,266 • 16 10'
PhiliPldnes 2,648 3,424 6,216 7,782 62 56
A17U1'ita---
U.S.A. 350,152 370,762 271,650 360,075 18,844 21,137
Puerto Rico 539 428 1,666 2,226 12 12
Ha'waii. 313 403 559 895 2 4
Cuba 17,787 10,183 8,960 15,224 112 94
Ha.iti . . . 174 47 679 900 13 9
Dominican Republic. n,S07 7,451 1,872 1,579 21 7
Mexice· . 5,826 7,074 12,236 13,557 89 145
Guatemala. . . 392 634 2,2il 2,004 16 15
Honduras (not British) 322 361 564 663 S 3
El Salvador 326 808 1,782 1,221 8 8
Nicaragua 1,008 1,148 1,733 824 10 2
Costa lUca 399 495 1,688 1,831 16 20
Colombia. . 5,269 11,685 6,100 5,999 46 81
Panama 53 463 4,632 3,316 42 48
Venez'L.cla 6[;,866 75,814 56,322 34,010 245 303
Ecuador 587 325 2,314 2,105 14 19
Peru 1l,~32 14,398 7,800 6,199 66 47
Chile 21,134 26,253 6,174 6,444 189 126
Brazil 26,705 37,254 19,149 13,090 376 524
Urugu~ ~y 8,391 6,024 2,816 3,366 61 94
Bolivi3. 13,259 16,632 1,172 878 16 14
Argentina 104,350 105,510 32,448 40,218 434 187
Paraguay. . 1,408 1,761 748 865 7 9
Deep sl~a fisheries . 2,381
Whale fisheries (foreign) 1,760
Total (including those not
speCified above) 2,093,674 2,243,907 1,620,234 1,809,343 112,533 101,817
Commonl,ea1,h Countries:
In Europe-
Gibraltar. . 266 313 3,958 3,645 202 175
Malta and Gozo 1,020 991 10,842 10,823 373 280
Cyprus 7,439 7,307 12,935 12,927 861 722
In .AJricQ-
West Mrica:
Gambia 1,167 667 1,633 1,450 24 24
Sierra Leone. 6,374 6,343 10,;70 9,236 409 393
Ghana. . 23,171 21,206 34,317 41,738 501 831
Nige , ~ia and Cameroons 79,807 87,354 65,898 72,379 1,947 2,304
St. Relan" anel ABcension 40 54 203 209 30 43
South .tiriea:
S.W. Africa. . 9,131 8,032 2,354 1,337 2 10
Union of South Africa 90,2-14 89,195 18:;,051 148,887 1,782 1,88-1
Federation of Rhodesia
and Nyasaland. . 67,812 90,330 52,167 49,358 188 264
Bech uaualand Prot. . } 1,163 1,446 182 474 2
Swaz iland and Basutoland
East Africa:
Tanganyika Territory 9,973 11,457 10,093 9.419 47 33
Zanzibar and Pemba 177 228 1,114 791 6 10
Ken~ra Colony . 12,712 14.361 27.179 29,344 171 213
Ugar.da Protectorate 6,647 5;8n 6,296 4,973 37 24
, Not including North Korea.
GREAT BRITAIN 111
Value of
merchandise Exports of merchandise consigned
consigneu from to countries in first column
colwnn British produce colonial produu
Countries 1958 1959' 1938 1959' 1958 1959 1
In AfriclJ (cont.)-
SomaJnand Protectorate 59 89 924 828 5 8
Mauritius and Dependencie.s 15,537 13,343 6,835 6,H]7 66 108
Seychelles 80 96 220 268 4
In Asia-
Aden and Dependencies 7,113 7,524 7,652 7,734 66 86
Bahrain . 10,397 12,304 7,225 7,378 39 67
Kuwait 131,284 125,957 19,797 18,220 718 99
India 139,402 142,625 160,305 171,272 1,035 1,299
Pakistan. 19.757 2,,778 29,946 34,307 267 329
Singapore . . 20,159 21,058 35,687 31,214 637 521
Federation of Malaya 40,326 35,619 34,787 30,606 571 596
Ceylon 46,399 40,047 28,014 31,724 118 178
North Borneo 3,427 2,644 2,597 4,098 88 125
Sarawak . 6,017 11,361 1,360 1,190 38 54
IIong Kong 27,069 33,,26 30,507 65,145 312 446
In Oc:c(mia-
Australia. 198,771 222,887 235,205 223,567 1,9a6 1,712
Papua and New Guinea 3,943 3,787 710 780 3
New Zealand . . . 160,467 183,091 127,918 96,915 919 586
9
Nauru and Western Samoa 1,706 2,642 405 367 1

Fiji Islands . . . 5,063 4,808 4,317 3,411 23 27
Other Pacific Islands (Brit.) 2,168 2,lO7 852 702 36 26
In America-
Canada 308,562 312,327 188,044 207,377 5,446 5,996
Bermuda. 106 189 10,484 5,548 161 119
Ba.hamas . 145 133 7,981 13,771 119 154
Jamaica 20,'121 19,289 22,969 21,856 281 309
Leeward Islands 2,289 2,090 I 2,190 2,169 ' 20 16'
·Windward Ishwds 5,695 7,160 2,744 3,065 24 23
Barbados . 4,472 4,331 4,923 5,187 84 73
Trinidad. 25,632 34,795 24,520 27,471 424 4 23
British Honduras 1,065 1,823 1,384 1,490 31 31
British Guiana. . 9,985 7,679 9,916 9,470 143 170
Falkland Islands 2,571 2,269 805 600 75 31
---------------- ---
Total, Commonwea.lth Coun~
tries (including those not
specified above) . 1,544,163 1,642,347 1,443,469 1,409,345 20,394 20,935
---------------- ---
Irish Republic . 107,925 103,845 108,070 107,011
8,151 7,562
---------------- ---
Grand total 3,745,762 3,990,099 3,lfl,774 3,325,700 141,078 130,305
• Excluding British Virgin Islands.
Imports snd exports for 1958 snd 1959 (Grest Britain snd Northern
Ireland) :
Import values c.i.f. Total imports Domestic exports
Export value f.o.b. 19,,8 1959 19.58 1959
A. Food, bevf!1'llfjes and tobacco- £ £ £ £
Live animals for food. . 33,887,416 30,041,478 S,770,6Gl 7,31:>,484
Meat and meat preparations. 313,564,946 316,634,526 5,638,379 4,799,193
Dairy products, e"ags and honey 130,916,4,3 190,094,863 7,786,761 6,781,263
Fish and fish preparations . 48,341,188 52,751,837 5,792,863 6,041,709
Cereals a.nd cereal preparations 226,636,089 230,651 ,745 13,237,414 17,427,379
Fruits and vegetables . 247,710,579 235,159,124 7,n1,654 8,174,605
::mport values c.i.f. Total Imports Domestic exports

:&xport value f.o.b. 1958 1959 1958 1959
A. Food,beverages andlobacco(cont.) £ £ £ £
Sugar a"d sugar preparations 100,680,552 86,215,672 31,514,428 28,442,019
Coffee, cocoa, tea, spices 194,361,730 176,433,144 13,921,403 13,226,817
Feeding stufi for animals . 49,558,273 65,962,622 1,06~,36 1s 1,482,442
MlseeU,,,,eous food preparatious 14,200,987 16,403,812 6,435,140 6,644,118
Beveragas . . . . . 33,931,494 37,090,637 64,595,101 70,982,907
Tobacco and tobacco manufactures 86,867,966 84,694,465 21,648,901 18,747,394
Total of Class A . • 1,490,663,673 1,522,133,925 188,318,068 190,065,330
H. Basic malerials-
Hides, skins and fur skins undressed 38,966,464 48,665,139 2,563,825 3,364,441
Oil-seed!;, nuts and kernels . . 49,821,031 58,928,103 31,198 43,765
Rubber, including synthetic and re·
claim,.d . 7(),196,402 63,851,647 1,566,594 3,039,00S
Wood and cork 140,499,768 142,450,803 886,346 1,086.624
Pulp anti waste paper . 91,632,669 99,958,092 1,468,647 1,202,869
Silk. . . . . 805,419 1,236,8M 2,175 2,650
Wool nnd other animal hair. 145,279,801 168,462,093 65,251,127 69,649,012
Cotton . . . . 71,598,565 68,105,949 1,673,449 1,489,518
Miscella:leous t extile fibres and
waste . . . . . 29,222,642 34 ,816,187 9,923,096 12,812,625
Crude fE rtilizers, and minerals, ex-
cluding fuels . . . 34,271,417 33,234,630 11,453,795 11,805,871
Metalliferous ores, metal scrnp . 137,683,608 122,834,288 4,958,139 14,619,690
Miscella:lcous an imal and vegetable
crude materials , inedible 32,468,832 34,401,618 2,571,802 2,476,223
Oils, fata, greases. 45,295,024 63,780,114 6,423,697 8,459,909
Total of Class B. 899,341,702 930,725,517 108,773,890 130,052,265
C. Mineral fuels and lubrka nl$-

Coal, co:,. and brique~tes . . 7,018,9~8 1,376,05·1 31,369,033 23,914,196
Petroleum and pe~roleum products . 431,794,889 466,853,087 99,443,410 95,438,512
Total of Class C . 438,873,817 468,229,141 130,812,443 119,352,708
D. Manufactured goods-
Obemicals. . . 120,01 3,400 13 8,36 6,~1l 261,028,368 293,099,465
Leather and dressed furs 20,042,142 26,863,856 19,837,807 24,988,296
Rubber . . " 2,603,112 4,155,918 36,783,764 39,671,733
Wood ar,d cork (excluding furnitw'e) 44,876,908 50,231,270 3,090,602 2,955,979
Paper, paperboard . . . 71,060,993 73,655,866 37,900,288 37,636,279
Woollen and worsted yarns, woven
fabric; . . . . 10,817,339 9,284,772 79,889,027 82,927,994
Cotton yarns and woven fabrics 32,163,229 44,017,603 71 ,111,865 63,1 88,17<1
SynthetiCfibre yarns, wovenfabrtes 12,638,231 9,994,121 27,882,738 27,093,289
MisceUa"eous tertile . . . 29,428,159 34,503,198 75,290,272 75,0~7,r)9 5
Miscellaueous DOD-met.:'l..Uic mineral 12,056,763 14,086,437 63,102,231 64,599,023
Silver, platinum and j ewellery 9,321,250 10,739,314 13,839,022 14,045,363
Irou and steel . . 45,7H,799 40,142,351 187,511,258 191,502,441
Non·fenous base metals 174,423,367 205,405,730 93,279,754 112,919,522
Manwa( tures of D!etals 18,246,702 18,723,117 150,860,492 145 ,99l, 73·1
Macbinery otber tban electric 136,589,630 163,2;2,817 565,8~2,672 625,590,017
Electric machinery, apparatus 29,372,666 40,212,515 221,707,96·1 231,633,622
Railway vehicles . . 1,290,187 1,117,560 46,337,853 33,976,763
Road vehicles aDd aircraft . 21,982,575 34,399,453 449,809,635 488,137,574
Ships "'.d boats. . . . 22,158,984 13,729,387 63,H2,451 48,271,610
Sanitary, heating and lighting fix·
tures; buildings, prefabricated . 5,421,099 6,551,990 25,752,982 23,827,828
Clotbi nf, footwear . . . 29,733,882 41,337,036 44,149,122 45,767,435
Seientiti·, instruments; watches and
clock.. . 18,417,183 23,789,779 35,670,993 39,597,161
Miseellaleous 33,488,108 49,160,286 90,902,198 95,597,888
Total of Class D . 901,891,008 1,053,720,687 2,665,513,358 2,808,576,291
GREAT BRITAIN 113
Import values c.Lf. Domest.ic ox-ports Total i mport:5
Export value Lo.c. 1955 19&9 1958 1959
E. Miscellancou::;- ); £, £, £,
Postal packages . 6,\)07,003 G,f)37,484 71,3 '12,0~6 71,516,SG-t.
Live aniruals not for fool.1 7,9~';:',019 S,6;J2,252 6,U53,7G!) 6,136,32:3
Total of Class E . 14,982,022 15,2Sa,736 7S,2UCI,8Q') 77,653,186

Total (all clasoc,) 3,745,7G2,222 3,tH)O,09D,006 3,171,773,62'1 3,32G,691J,7SI)
COMMUNICATIONS
SmpPING
The total gross tonns.ge of merchant vessels (500 gross tons and over)
on the British Commonwealth register (excluding foreign.owned vessels on
bn.reboat charter or requisition) was, on 31 Dec. 1959,22,777,000 gross tons
(non-tankers, 15,786.000 gross tons; tankers, 6,991,000 gross tons).
At 31 Dec. 1956 the efl'ective strength of the British Merchant Navy
(excluding Asiatic sea,mcn signed on in Asif.l) was 152.12:2.
In 1958 the lotal tonnf.lgc (1,000 gross ton~) of vessels of 100 gros~ tons
and OVCI' laid down was 1,:273 (1,501 in 19;;7); under construction, 2,0.54
(2,149 in 1(57), and completod, I,Hl (1,442 in 1(57). Undergoing repair
and conversion ill U.K. port~, 2,000 (2,279 ill J(57).
Vessels laic! np for reasons other ll!an rep,tir (Lloyd's List) 1 Jan. 1959:
Briti8h, ISI vessels of 888,074 gr()s~ tons; forci[{ll, 71) vessels of 473,385 gross
t.ons; I ?lLtrch 1958: British, 127 vessel~ of 610,745 gross tons (including
30 tankers of 2.'>4,172 gross tons); foreign. 55 vcssels of 356.910 gro~s
tons. To,nkers included o,bove numbered, British 38 vc""els, 316,727 gross
tong; foreign, 5 vessels. 41,297 gross tons.
The total net tonno,ge of entrances at ports of the U.K. with cargoes
during 1959 was 84,779,479 (including 43,309,742 tons, Commonwealth);
total cleo,ra,nces were 53,952,505 net tons (including 33,124,373 tons,
Commonwealth). Of the foreign tonnage, 41,469,737 tOilS entered; Nor·
way had 9,239,844; Liberia, 4,G82,152; Netherlands, 3,745,604; U.S.A.,
3,251,739; Swed<!n, 3,145,844; France, 2,406,102; D enmark. 2,351,990;
PanUDlo" 1,448,630.
In 1959 total elltrance~ of v{'ssels with pf.lssengers only, 7,560,000 tons:
cleara,nces, 8,13G,OOO tons. Entrances for bunkers only, in 1959, 180,COO
tons; clearances, 21,312,000 tons.
The total net tonnage of Commonwealth und foreign vessesl employed
in the coasting trade that. arrived at ports in the U.K. with cargo in 1959
was 39,411,278 tOllS (3S,S03,GB9 tons in 1958); departures amounted to
38,124,777 (38,015,752 tons ia 1(58).
Ree•• H., Brill'sh Porta arul Shippinq. London. H~8
'fhorntol1, R . n., British ShiPPUuj. 2nd e(l. Cambridge Uni\~. Pl'eS3, 19')!)
CANALS
In 19,;9 there were (Lpproximatcly 2.500 miles of navigable canaLs and
locked river navigations in Great Britain, of which some 1,410 miles. in
commercial use, belong to the British Tra,nsport Commission .
Statistics of canal traffic on watcrwo,ys coming under the British
Transport Commission, for the year 1959 1 :
N.E. N.W. S.E. S.v.;. Scottish Total
Tonnage originati ng (in 1)000) 3,9:?O 1,225 2.101 ~,~(l~ 4~ 8,980
Net ton·miles (ill 1,000) 92,5~4 11,167 21,\HO 3., .. 8;) 761 163,777
1 Provh;iollnl.
114 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTlI AND EMPIRE
Manchester, one of the leading ports in the U.K., was opened to maritime
traffic in 1894 by the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, which is
35! mil~s in length. Between Eastham and Ince Oil Berth the waterway
has been excavated to a depth of 30 ft; from Ince Oil Berth to Manchester
to 28 ft . The general excavated bottom width of the canal at the depth of
28 ft is 120 ft, except at the Weaver Outfall, where it is 180 ft, and at
Runcorn Railway Bridge, where it is 175 ft. The maximum width of the
locks is 65 ft, with the exception of the entrance lock, which is 80 ft wide.
The canal is in direct communication with all the principal railway systems
and barge canals of the kingdom. The total issued capital of the company
at 31 Dec. 1959 was £23,449,330. The net receipts of the canal in 1959,
including the Bridgwater department and the railways, amounted to
£1,197,244 (£1,126,809 in 1958).
Edwards, L. A., Inland Walerway.
19~O
0' areal Britain and Northern Ireland. 2nd ed. London,
Owen, Sir D. ;T., The Ports of the UniJed Kingdom. Rev. ed. London, 1949
RAILWAYS, TRAMWAYS, HIGHWAYS AND AVIATIO!<
Under the provisions of the Transport Act, 1947, the 4 main· line railways,
tl'gether with their associated line~, docks, steamships and hotels, the
London Passenger Transport Board, and the major canal undertakings,
passed ,m 1 Jan. 1948 into the ownership of the British Transport Com-
mission, as the instrument of the State.
The Commission's gross receipts from its principal carrying activities for
the year 1958 amonnted to £674,3Il,967, made up as follows: British
Railways, £471,605,277, including road collection and delivery services;
British Road Services, £49,473,617; Road Passenger Services of Provincial
and Sccttish Bus Groups, £60,730,412; London Transport, £74,935,465;
ships, £16,638,603, and inland waterway carrying operations, £928,593.
The gross receipts from other principal activities were £52,538,890. The
Commis;lion's consolidated revenue account, after allowing for capital re-
demption and special items, showed a deficit of £88,915,734 at 31 Dec.
1958.
Under the Transport (Railway Finances) Act, 1957, the Commission are
authorized, for stipulated periods, to borrow sums to meet the deficits on
British Railways; to meet the interest charges on such borrowings; and
the intel'est on British Railways' borrowings for capital purposes: the whole
is to be placed in a suspense account, for repayment when modernization
begins to pay dividends. The repayments must be made as directed by the
Minister of Transport, beginning not later than within 7 years of the
borrowillgs.
Railways. The system, undcr the llame of British Railways, is organized
in6 regions. There are: The London Midland Region, corresponding to
the Byst'~m of the former L.M.S.R. company in England and Wales, with
headquarters at Euston station. The Western Region, corresponding to the
system of the former G.W.R. company, with headquarters at Paddington
station. The Southern Region, corresponding to the system of the former
S.lt. company, with headquarters at Waterloo station. The Eastern Region,
correspoading to the sonthern area of the former L.N.E.R. company (roughly
from Doncaster to London), with headquarters at Liverpool Street station.
The N m'/h Eastern Region, corresponding to the north eastern area of the
former I..N.E.R. company (from Doncaster to Berwick), with headquarters
GREAT BRITAIN 115
in York. The Scotti8h Region, corresponding to the Scottish systems of
the former L.n.S.R. and L.N.E.R. companies, with headquarters in
Glasgow.
While responsibility for major policy (including finance) and general
direction rests with the Commission, undue centralization is avoided by
the delegation, through Area Boards, to regional offices of responsibility for
matters of local importance.
In 1958 the total freight traffic on British Railways amounted to 243m.
tons, including merchandise and livestock, 37m. tons; minerals, 53m.
tons; coal, coke, etc., 153m. t,ODS. Pa~senger journeys originating amounted
to I,O!)Om. Rolling stock at the end of 1!)58 included 17,381 locomotives,
42,003 passenger· carrying vehicles, 14,926 luggage and parcel vans, etc., and
1,005,526 freight vehicles. At the cnd of the year, 18,848 route miles were
open to traffic.
The London Transport Executive, in Dec. 1958, had 227 rou te miles of
railway open for traftic. Number of vehicles owned (HJ58): Railways,
4,037 (including 2.467 electric motor vehicles); buses and coaches, 7,363 ;
trolley. buses, 1,536. Total number of miles run in passenger service (1958)
was 530·8m. miles. The number of passenger journeys originating in 1!)58
was: Railways, 692m.; buses and coaches, 2,006·5m.; trolley·buses,
477·1m. Average takings per passenger journey (1958) were: Railways,
8·48d.; road services, 4·7d.
Road Transport. Motor vehicles for which licences were current under
the Vehicles (Excise) Act, 1949, numbered, at 30 Nov. 1959,8,520,000, in-
cluding 4,878,000 cars, 1,715,000 cycles and pedestrian-controlled vehicles,
85,000 hackneys (excluding tramcars), 1,::!89,OOO goods vehicles. New
vehicle registrations in 195!) numbered 1,253,002 (!)81,569 in 1958).
Highway.,. The public highways in Great Britain at 31 March 1959
had" total length of 192,256 miles (Enghnd :md Wales, 164,318 miles,
Scotland, 27,938 miles), of which 8,327 were tru nk roads, 19,7~5 miles were
Cl~.ss I and 17,603 miles were Class n.
Civil Aria/ion. The British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) was

set up \luder t.lw British Overseas Airways Act, 1939. The Civil Aviation
Act. I D4G, sct up 2 additional public corporations: British European
Airways (BEA) to "over the British Isles and Europe, and Brit,ish South
American Airwl\ys (BSAA) to operate to SOllth America and the Caribbean.
leaving the North Atlantic and Eastern Hemisphere routes to BOAC. In
1949 BSAA was merged into BOAC.
The provisional operating and traffic statistics of the U.K. airways
corporations and the private companies operating scheduled s ervices under
associate agreements with the corporations for the calendar year 1959 are
as follows: Aircraft miles fl own, 91,692,000 (86,951,000 in 1958); revenue
passengers carried, 4,703,000 (3,985,000 in 1958); freight carried, 194,364
short tons (139,04!) in 19(8); mail carried, 11,570 short tons (11,695 in
1958).
'rraffic between the U.K. airports and places abroad in 1959 included
206,000 (1!)I,800 in 1958) commercial transport aircraft movements,
4,838,OO() (4,247,000 in 1958) passengers and 224,000 (167,900 in 1958) short
tons of freight.
The t otal l1umber of civil aircraft registered in the U.K . at 31 Dec.
195!) was 2,234, of which 1,349 had current certificates of airworthines8.
POSTS, TELEGRAPHS AND TELIIPHONES

NUlOber of post offices at 31 March 1959 was 24,959: number of letter
boxes other than at post offices, about 75,000: staff employed, 349,352.
1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59
(lm.) (lm.) (lm.) (lm.)
Oorrespo.ldence (iDCI. registered items)
posted . . 9,700 9,700 9,600 9,700
Parcels bandied . . , • . 238 249 2~7 243
Telograpl traffic (iucludiug Telex calls) 45 42 43 44
Weight (lb.) of air-mail traffic (all services) dispatched abroad : Letters,

printed papcrs, etc., 1959, 10,957,000: 1958, 10,045,000: parcels, 1959,
3,203,000; 1958,2·7m.
In 1!J58--59 the tot-A.l value of money orders, including C.O.D. trade
charge orders, was £290,118,000; postal ordern, £364,953,000.
The total number of telegraph offices (including railway and cable
companies' oftices, etc., which transact telegraph busines&) is about
13,400.
On 31 March 11)59 the London Telecommunications Region had 298
exchanges, 13,217 call offices and 2,354,079 telephone stations. In the
provinces there were 5,711 exchanges, 60,081 call offices and 5,178,382
telephone stations. For private wires the accrued revenue in 1958-59
amount.ed to £10,007,593.
The number of sound broadcast receiving licences issued during the
year ended 31 March 1959 was 5,517,000 and the corresponding .figure for
combined sOlmd and television broadcast receiving licences was 9,298,000.
The approximate surpluses of income over expenditure (after charging
interest on capital) are as follows for years ended 31 March (in £ sterling) :
1954 7,356,000 19~6 2,286,000 1958 2,;)73,0(10
195~ 5,156,000 1957 -3,087,000 1959 8,705,000
MONEY AND BANKING

Sterling. The monetary unit of Great Britain is the pound sterling.
A gold standard was adopted in 1816, the sovereign or twenty-shilling piece
weighir,g 7·98805 gT:lmmes 0'916; fine. Currency notes for £1 and 108.
were first issued by the Treasury in 1914, replacing the circulation of
sovereigns. The note issue was taken over by the Bank of England
in 1928.
Following the post-war fluctuations in the value of the pound, Great
Britain returned to the Gold Standard in 1925 with the pound fixed at the
pre-wal' parity of USM·8666. But the world financial crisis of 1931 forced
the country off the Gold Standard again, and in the following year the
Exchalige Equalizo,tion Account was set up for the purpose of checking
undue lluctuations in the vo,lue of the pound. On 31 Dec. 1958 its holdin~
of gold and convertible currencies amounted to £1,096m. With the relative
stabilit:v of the pound which followed, a • Sterling Bloc' emerged consisting
of mosl, Empire countries and those others who voluntarily pegged their
currencies to the pound.
ThE' Bloc was superseded at the outbreak of the Second World War by
GREAT BRITAIN 117
the' Sterling Area.' The pound was then fixed at $4·03 and remained at
that rate until Sept. 1949. when it was revalued to $2·80.
The Sterling Area. since renamed the' Scheduled Territories: now com·
prises the Commonwealth countries (except Canada) and the Irish Republic.
British Trust Territories. Britisb ?rotectorates and Protected States. Burma,
Iraq. Iceland, Jordan and Libya.
Coinage. The sovereign (£1) weigh~ 123·27447 grains, or 7·08805
grammes, 0·916, (or eleven· twelfths) fine, and consequently it contains
113'00J 59 grains or 7·32238 grammes of fine gold. The shilling (203. = £1)
weighs 87·27 grains, or 5·6552 grammes, and down to 1920 was 0·925 (or
thirty.seven.fortieths) fine, thus containing 80·727 grains, or 5·231 grammes,
of fine silver, but under the Coinage Act, 1920. the fineness was reduced to
0'500 (one· half). Tho Coinage Act, 1046, however, provides for the replace.
ment of silver coinage by coins of cupro.nickel of the same weight. An
exception was made in regard to Maundy coins, which, by the Act, reverted
to a fineness of 0·925. Bronze coins consist of a mixture of copper, tin and
zinc. The penny (12d. = 18.) weighs 145·83 grains, or 9·45 grammes.
Threepenny pieces of nickel·brass were issued for the first time in 1937
(standard weight of each coin is 105 grains. or 6·084 grammes); they are
legal tender up to 28. The standard of value is gold. According to the
Coinage Act. 1870, silver is legal tender up to 408. (and according to the
Coinage Act, 1946, cupro.nickel to the same amount); bronze (pennies.
halfpennies and farthings) up to 12d.
Value of money (in £ sterling) issued in the U.K. by the Royal Mint:
Cupro· CUl'ro·
nJckel Bronze \ nickel Dronze\
1954 8.173.2.P 697,901 1957 ] 2,877,348 392,546
195.5 ll,8R6,.o3S 6B9,891 1968 7.483,257 379,640
1956 16,175,2]6 (83,4SU ] v:;~ 7,US~.107 '159,83 1)
1 Including nick.l·br.... threepenny pieces.
During the year ended 31 Dec. 1959 the Royal Mint produced 709,650,207
coins. U.K. coins, excluding gold, numbered 242,716,472 and had a fare
value of £6.387,179. These included 9,028,844 half·crowns, 14,080,319
florins, 20,455,766 shillings, 93,089,441 sixpences, 26,833,600 threepenny
pieces and 79,224,000 halfpennies, It is estimated that the numbers of
different denominations in circulation in the U,K, on 31 Dec. 1959 was as
follows (lm. pieces): Half.crowns, 387; florins, 413; shillings, 874; sixpences,
1.312; threepences (silver), 72; threepences (nickel·brass), 680; pennies,
1,508; halfpennies, 994; farthings, 193.
Bank·notes. The Bank of England issues notes in denominations of 10$"
£1 and £5, for the amount of the Fiduciary Note Issue and the value of the
gold held in the Issue Department of the Bank (only a small amount has
been so held since 1939). Under the provisions of the Currency and Bank
Notes Act, 1954, which came into force on 22 Feb. 1954. the amount of the
Fiduciary Note bsue is £1.575m .• but this figure may be altered by direction
of H .M, Treasury and after representations made by the Bank of England.
All Bank of J:<~ngland notes are legal tender in England and Wales. and
notes of denominations less than £5 are legal tender in Scotland and Northern
Ireland. The banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland have certain note·
issuing powers. The average (4 weeks ended 30 Jan. 1960) circulations of
.uoh notes were £1l9m. (Scotland) and £9m. (Northern Ireland); these
note, are not legal tender in any part of the U.K.
The total amount of notes issued for the week ending 30 Dec. 1959 was
£2,300,~:60,540,of which £2,237,001,084 were in the hands of other banks
and the public and £63,359,456 in the Banking Department of the Bank of
England.
Banking. The Bank of England, Threadneedle Street, London, is the

Government's banker and the' banker's bank.' It has the sole right of note
issue in England and Wales, manages the National Debt and administers
the EXllhange Control Regulations; it does not accept new commercial
businesE. The bank operates under royal charters of 1694 and 1946.
'I'he capital stock has, since 1 March 1946, been held by the Treasury.
The holders of Bank stock were given £58,212,000 3% Treasury stock in
exchange.
The statutory return is published weekly. End·December figures for
the past 5 years are as follows (in £lm.) :
Notes and coin
Notes i n in Danking Public deposits
circuiatioD Departmen~ (governmen~) OtLer deposita
1956 1,R90 13 1:; 317
1956 1,997 30 12 279
1957 2,128 25 10 281
19~8 2.1 35 66 12 292
1959 2,2 37 G3 11 323
The proportion of reserves to deposit liabilities at 30 Dec. 1959 was

19'2%.
The fiduciary note issue was £2,300m. at 30 Dec. 1959. All the profits
of the note issue are passed on to the Exchequer.
Official (Exchange Equalization Account) of gold and convertible cur·
rencies ~.t 31 Dec. 1959 amounted to £997m.
Banl: clearings (excluding provincial clearings) for 1959, £199,183m.;
1958, £IS0,914m.
The following statistics relate to the 11 London clearing banks for the
year ent'ing 31 Dec. 1959 (monthly averages in £Im.) : Deposits, etc., 6,935
(6,636 in 1958); cash in hand and at the Bank of England, 565 (543 in 1958);
money!.t call and notice, 489 (434 in 1958); Treasury bills discounted,
1,089 (1,167 in 1958); other bills discounted, 135 (llO in 1958); investments,
1,836 (2,149 in 1958); advances 2,522 (1,923 in 1958).
In 1959 the eleven clearing banks had a total of net profits of £19,986,006;
dividends amounted to £12,241,229; allocations to published reserves to
£5·2m.; declared allocations to contingencies to £1 ·5m.
Tru.sl,ee Savings Banks. Trustee Savings Banks originated in 1810.

They arll still conducted by voluntary trustees who may receive no pay.
ment fo;/ their services. There are no shareholders or proprietors. The
banks al'C supervised by the National Debt Commissioners and regularly
inspected on behalf of a statutory committee. There are 83 Trustee Savings
Banks iD the U.K. and the Channel Islands with 1,335 offices. The number
of depositors and stockholden in these banks on 20 Nov. 1959 was 11,099,687,
and the amounts due to them were: In the General or Ordinary Depart.
ments, £858,639,006 cash, and £166,182,517 (face value) stock; in the
Special Investment Departments, £380,475,213; due to depositors and
stockholders, £1,405,296,736; combined surplus funds, £21,192.757; total
funds, £1,426,489,493.
GREAT BRITAIN 119
Post Office Saving3 Bank. Statistics for 1957 and 1[J58:
1 D50
Total El!gumd Nol1her1l
1957 and Wales Scotland Ireland 1 Total
Accounts open at 31 Dec.'. 22,292,144 20,952,968 1,054,487 325,396 22,332,851
Amounts- £1,000 £1,000 £1,000 £1,000 £1,000
Received. . 456,313 431,228 16,256 4,G56 452,140
Interest credited 40,714 37,1328 1,588 63G 39,851
P aid . . . 508,417 498,263 19,043 5,671 522,077
Due to depositors at 31 Dec.' 1,676,555 l,r,5 3,881 65,462 26,226 1,645,569
Average amO\mt due to each
deposi torin .ctiveacc'nts £752 •. Id. £741 •. Id. £6119s. Id. £80 7s. lld. £7311s.6d.
, Excluding accounts with balances of les" than £1 whicb have been inactive lor ~ ye..... or
more. The avernge bl\iunce of these acconnts is 2$. 711 .
1 Including scconnts opened prior to 192310 territory wblch is now the Irish Repnblic.
S The amount uuo to d,'positors on 1 Jan. 1960 w"' approximately £1,681,003,000.
TIle receipts a.ud payments incJnup. purchases and sales ot Government Stock {or investors
on the Post Omce Regi ster, hut the amount.hown as due to depositorsi. exchlslve 01 tbe .tocks
held. The latter amouuted to £766,711,000 at tbe end of 1957, and £808,639,000 at the end
of 1958.
Book8 of Reference
Clapham, SII' J. H., The Bank 0/ Ef&gland: 0 Ht.wrV. 2 vols. Oambridge UniT. Press, 1944
O:aig, J ., The Mint. Cambrldge,1953
Home, H. 0., Historv 0/ Sacin~J Ban}o. J ondoD ,1947
Books of Reference Concerning Great Britain

Tb. annual and otber publications of the various Public Departments, and the ReportAl,
etc., 01 Royal Commissions IillU P~rliamentary Committees. (These may be obtained from
H.M. Stationerv Office.)
Central Statistical Oflice. "!Jm,,al Abstrac, oJ Stati.tia. H.M.S.O.-MonthIV Dige31 ./
SWis"c... H.M.S.O.
Central Office of In.forrnatlon. Britain: an Official handbook. H.B.M.O., 1958
Cole, G. D. H., The POI'·lVar Cvndition 0/ Britain. London, 1956
Demangeon., A., The British I,Ie•• 3rd ed. London,l~52
lrendAll, M. G. (ed.), The SUU,.ce. and Batu.. o/the SlaJi.sti" o/the Unikd Kif&gdom. Vol.l.
London, 195~
Ozlord History 0/ En"lalld. 14 vol.. Oxford Univ. Press, 1936 ft.
Stamp, L. D., and RoueI', S. H., The British Isl .. : a geographic and economic JU","II. .th ed.
London, 1954
Woodward, Sir E. L., a"" Butler, U., Docu11'Ie7UJ on British Por. PolicV, /9/9-J9. London,
1947 fI.
SCOTLAND
Scottish Home Dept. /Jigest Of Scoltish Statistics. H.M.S.O. (bl·annoal).-Scotti,h Admi"i·
'Ira/ion: n handbook. Rev. ed. H.M.S.O., 1~50
Cairncross, A. K . (cd.), The Scotli-,h EeoT/omll. Cgmbridge, 195.
Darling, F. F. (cd. I. lVest Righl4nd SUMJey. Oxford,1955
Mackenzie, Agn., Mure, Hi.slorv Of Scotland. 6 volo. London, 1938 f1.
Mellde, H. W. (.d.), Scotland: a descriplion ul Scotland and ScoUish life. London,19H
National Book League. Sr,otland: a select bibliography. London, 19:;0
O&kley, C. A.. (e.l.), .scoUi.t h indu.rtf'1/. RJinbur~bt 1053
Rait, Sir R., 4nJ Pryde, G. S., Seolland. 2nd ed. London, 1964
WALES
Waln .",cI MonmouJh.lhi,e: report • •. lur ,'', year ended 30 Jun. 1956. (Omd. 9881.)
II.M.8.0 .. 1~56
The Council/or Wall, and Alonmouthshiro: Ihird memorandum. (ClOd. ~3.) li.M.S.O .• 19~7
DVje.'o/ Wekh Statistiu. H.M.B.O. (o.nnual)
F,~.er, M., Wales. London, 1952
WUiiams D.,4 Hisw'1/ 0/ Modem W ..[u . London, 19.0
NORTHERN IRELAND
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Under the Government of
Ireland Act, 1920, 8.8 amended by the Irish Free State (Consequential Pro·
visions) Act, 1922, a separate parliament and executive government were
established for Northern Ireland, which comprises the counties of Antrim,
Armagh" Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and TYl'one, and the boroughs
of Belfast and Londonderry. The Parliament consists of a Senate of
2 ex·.fficio and 24 elected persons and a House of Commons of 52 elected
member.!. The Parliament has power to legislate for its own area, ex·
cept in regard to (1) matters of Imperial concern (the Crown, making
of peace or war, military, naval and air forces, treaties, titles of honour,
treason, naturalization, domicile, external trade, submarine cables, wire.
less telegraphy, aerial navigation, lighthouses, etc., coinage, etc., trade
marks, "tc.), and (2) certain matters' reserved' to the U.K. Parliament
(postal eervice, post office and trustee savings banks, design8 for stamps).
The exec:utive power is vested in the Governor on behalf of H.M. the Queen:
he holds office for 6 years and is advised by ministers responsiblo to Parlia·
ment. Senators, who are elected bv members of the House of Commons on
a proportional representation basis, hold office for a fixed term of years:
the Hou~e of Commons continues for 5 years, unless sooner dissolved. The
qualifications for memhership of the Parliament are similar to those for
memberHhip of th e U.K. Housc of Commons. In 1928 the franchise was
conferred upon women upon the same terms as it had hitherto been enjoyed
by men:; and in 1929 the system of proportional representation (under
which the Parliaments which met in 1921 and in 1925 had been elected)
was aboliehed, and parliamentary representation, except for the con·
stituency of the Queen's University of Belfast, was based upon single·
member constituencies.
Northern Ireland returns 12 members to the U.K . House of Commons.
Two Acts of the U.K. Parliament, passed in 1928 and 1932, modified,
in certain details, restrictions placed on the powers of the Northern Irish
ParliamElnt by the Act of 1920. The legislative and administrative powers
relating to Ra.ilways, Fisheries and the Contagious Diseases of Animals
(originally intended for a Council of Ireland) were, under the Ireland (Con.
firmation of Agreement) Act, 1925, transferred to the Parliament and
Governnlent of Northern Ireland as from 1 April 1926.
The U.K. Government's Land Purchase Scheme has been completed,
the Land Purchase Commission for Northern Ireland being wound up on
1 April 1937, and the general subject.matter of the Acts relating to land
purchase, has ceased to be • reserved' by the Act of 1920. Further Acts
passed hy the U.K. Parliament in 1945, 1947 and 1955 extended the
jurisdiction of the Northern Ireland Parliament in various respects. The
Act of 1945 related to criminal law and procedure. The 1947 Act conferred
power to deal with schClmes extending athwart the land frontier and with
transpor; sen'ices, healt.h services and publicly. owned property. By the
1955 Act the local Parliament was empowered to deal with the administration
and distribution of estates of dece8.8ed persons, and with the appointment,
jurisdiction, etc., of coroners. All these Acts removed minor constitutional
difficultit18 which had tended to hinder the full and free exorcise by the
Parliament of Northern Ireland of its genera.llegislative power.
The Northern Ireland Parliament met for the first time in June 1921.
At the 'lleetion on 20 March 1958 there were returned 37 Unioniste, 7
NORTHERN IRELAND 121
Nationalist~, 4 Northern Ireland Labour, 1 Republican Labour, 1 Indepen-
dent Labour, 1 Independent Nationalist, I Independent.
Members of the Senate (except those in receipt of salaries as members of
the Government or as officers of the Senate) receive payment at the rate of
£2 5s. per diem in respect of expenses for attendance at meetings of the
Senate, Select Committees of the Senate, and Joint Committees of the
Senate and House of Commons. Members of the House of Commons
(including members of t.he Government) receive £300 per annum in respect
of expenses. Senators and members (except those in receipt of salaries as
members of the Government or as officers of either House) also receive a
salary of £400 per annum.
Govmwr. The Lord Wakehurst, K.C.M.G. Assumed office 3 Dec.
1952; reappointed 1958. Salary, £4,000 per year.
The Ministry, all the members of which belong to the Ulster Unionist
Party, was, in April 1959, composed as follows:
Prime Minister. Right Hon. the Viscount Brookeborough, C.B.E., M.C.
Mini8ter 0/ Finance. Capt. the Right Hon. 'ference Marne O'Neill.
Minister of Home Affairs. Right Hon. A. B. D. Faulkner.
Minister of Labour ana NaticmalInsurance. Right Hon. Ivan Neill.
Minister of Education. Right Hon. W. M. May.
Minister of Agriculture. Rev. the Right Hon. Robert Moore.
Minister of Commerce. Lieut.·Col. the Right Hon. The Lord Glentoran,
H.M.L.
Minister of Health and Local Government. Right Hon. J . L. O.Andrews.
JJlinister in the Senate. Senator Lieut.·Col. the Right Hon. A. R. G.
Gordon, C.RE., D.S.O .
.dUorney·General. Right Hon. W. B. Maginess, Q.C.
The Prime Minister receives a salary of £4,000 per annum, the other
Ministers £2,600 each; in addition, they receive expenses allowances.
The usual channel of communication between the Government of
Northern Ireland and the U.K. Govcrnment is the Home Officc.
Agent of the Government of Northern Ireland in Great Britain. Sir
Robert Gransden, C.B.E. (13 Regent St., S.W.I).
LoCAL GOVERNMENT. In 1944 the Ministry of Health and Local Govern.
ment took over from the Ministry of Home Affairs functions in connexion
with public health, housing and local government services. It also super.
vises the housing and planning activities of local authorities.
The 2 county borough councils and 6 county councils are responsible for
the construction and maintenance of roads (other than trunk roads) and
other public works, and the collection of rates, and are the education, health
and welfare authorities within their respective areas.
The 6 counties includo 31 rural districts, in each of which is a rural
district council, which is the sanitary authority for the district, and ia
also responsible for such matters as housing, burial grounds, etc. There
are aleo under municipal government 9 boroughs and 25 urban districts as
well as one town which is not an \ll'ban district.
AREA AND POPULATION. The land area (revised by the Ordnance
Survey Department) and populat.ion at the census of 8 April 1951, were as
follows:
122 THE BRITISH COMMONWEA.LTH AND EMPIRE
OounU.. and oonnty Area in

boronghs sq. miles Males Females To~al
Antrim 1,098'4 112,191 118,958 231.149
Armagh 488'7 58,426 57,828 114,254
IIel1aIt (J.B. 24·0 ~09,613 234,058 H3,671
Down. 95}-6 117,77~ 123,409 241,181
Permam.gh. • 656'6 ~7,742 20,302 53,044
Londonc.erry Co .. 800'8 63,239 62,209 105.448
Londonc.arry C.B. 3'4 23,305 26,787 50.092
Tyrone 1,218'0 67,631 64,G61 132,082
N orlhern Ireland ~,24l-5 667,819 703,102 1,370,921
VI'IAL STATISTICS for calendar years:

Marriages Births Deaths Ma.lTiages Birth. Death.
1951 9.513 28.965 15.407 1957 9,391 30,108 15.187
195(: 9,369 29,489 14,858 1958 9,257 30,301 15,132
Numbers of divorces, separation and nullity of marriages in 1955, 154;

1956, 113; 1957, 107; 1958, Ill.
Estimated population in 1959 was 1,407,700 (provisional).
RELIGION. The religious professions at the census of 1951 were:
Roman Catholics, 471,460; Presbyterians, 410,215; Church of Ireland,
353,24(; (including 15,844 Church of England and 31 Episcopal Church of
ScotlaI,d); Methodists, 66,639; others or not stated, 69,302. The Society
of Frieuds had 1,199 members in 1957.
EDUCATION. The following are the statistics for 1958-59:
Unl'versity. The Queen's University of Belfast (founded in 1849 as a
college of the Queen's University of Ireland, and reconstituted a separate
univen:ity in 1908) had 50 professors, 2111ecturers, readers and tutors, etc.,
and 3,~l02 students. Magee University College, Londonderry (1865-1908
a recognized college of the Royal University of Ireland, 1909-1950 asso-
ciated 'With the University of Dublin, since 1951 a recognized college of the
Queen':, University of Belfast) had 5 professors, 17 lecturers and 208
studen1,s.
Sw.m4ary Education. Eighty-one grammar schools with 35,577 pupils
and 1,702 full-time teachers; 73 secondary intermediate schools with
35,968 pupils and 1,451 full. time teachers; 33 technical intermediate schuols
with 5, M9 pupils.
Primmy Education. 1,558 primary schools with 201,101 pupils and
6,314 teachers; 20 nursery schools with 630 pupils and 23 teachers.
Further Education. 174 centres with 3,402 full-time and 27,721 part-
time students and 670 full· time and 989 part. time teachers.
Special Educational Treatment. Nineteen special schools, including
hospital special schools, with 1,434 pupils and 107 teachers.
Teacher8. There were 10,357 full· time teachers (3,994 men and 6,363
women) in grant. aided schools, both county and voluntary. The minimum
teacheI.training course is of 3 years' duration, and there were 1,537 students
(558 men and 979 women) in training, of whom 447 (164 men and 283
women) completed training.
EZl'e7iditure. Total expenditure on education from public funds
(excluding university education) is estimated at £14,358,200 for 1959~0.
Substalltial grants are made to all types of recognized voluntary schools.
The Ministry of Education pays the whole salary of the teachers in both
county and voluntary primary and intermediate and in special schools.
HEALTH SERVICES. The Health Services Act (Northern Ireland),

1948, provides for a comprehensive health service similar to that in Great
Britain.
The services provided are administered by the Northern Ireland General
Health Services Board, the Northern Ireland Hospitals Authority and
County and County Borough Health Authorities. The expenses of the
Health ServiceR Board and the Hospitals Authority are recouped in full by
the Ministry and those of Health Authorities are grant·aided. The General
Health Services Board is responsible for the general medical, dental, phar.
maceutical and supplementary eye services, and the great majority of
doctors, dentists, pharmaceutical chemists and opticians participate in the
arrangements made by the Board. The main function of the Hospitals
Authority is to provide an adequate hospital and specialist service for
Northern Ireland.
The County aud County Borongh Health Authorities are responsible for
personal health services; their functions include maternity and child welfare,
domiciliary midwifery, home nursing, health visiting, vaccination, health
education and school health services. A grant of 65% is payable by the
Ministry in respect of approved expenditure on the school health service,
while a grant of 50% is payable in respect of approved expenditure on the
other services mentioned. County and County Borough Health Authorities
are also the food and drug authorities.
Functions in regard to environmental health or sanitary services remain
to a large extent with the councils of borough. urban and rural districts,
though the sanitary officers concerned are employed direotly by the Health
Committees to whom the councils, in recognition of the services rendered
on their behalf, recoup part of the sanitary officers' salaries. Expenditure
on these services is not grant-aided by the Government.
The mental health services are administered by tbe Northern Ireland
Hospitals Authority as part of thfl comprehensive hospital and specialist
services. The Authority's functions include the provision of care and treat-
ment in hospitals (tnd institutions for both the ment(tlly ill and those suffering
from arrest~d or incomplet.e develoPlllent of mind (known a~ •persons re·
qniring special care '), as well as domiciliary ment.al health services, including
the supervision, training and instruction of persons requiring special care.
Welfare Services are administered by the County and County Borough
Welfare Authorities, whose functions relate to the welfare of aged, infirm
and handicapped persons, etc.
Housing. Under the code of the Housing Acts, the local authorities are
mainly responsible for providing housing accommodation for workers, and
this work is generously subsidized by the GovE>rnment ano the authorities.
The Northern Ireland Housing Trust acts in conjunction \\Tith the local
housing authorit.ies. Subsidy houses have also been erected by a few
housing associations.
Subsidies are payahle to private persons erecting houses for letting, and
to private person~ wishing to build for their own occupation or for sale.
Subsidie~ are available to farmers for the erection of new houses and for
the improvement and modernization of existing farmhouses, including those
of their farm workers.
Grants are availablc to owners of property towards the cost of
improl'ements carried out to houses erected before 1940. and the con·
version of houses or buildings into flats.
In 1I.ddition. industrialists can provide housing accommodation for their
workcrs with the aid of govemment grants.
Water Supply and Sewerage. Government grants can be given t,o assist
local authorities in this work, and up to 31 March 1959 grants amounting
to £13.145.000 have been offered towards schemes estimated to cost
£28·5m. Ten Waterworks Joint Boards, comprising 5 borough counciJ8,
10 urban councils, 22 rural councils. and a Sewerage Disposal Joint Board
have been formed.
SOCIAL WELFARE. The social-security schemes in Northern Ireland

differ from those in Great Britain only in minor details, the rates of con-
tributions. benefits and allowances being identical. Reciprocal arrange-
ments link the schemes, and close liaison is maintained through the National
Insurance Joint Authority and the Industrial Injuries Joint Authority
(consisting in each case of the Minister of Pensions and National Insurance
in Great Britain and the Minister of Labour and National Insurance for
NorthE,rn Ireland), which co-ordinate the schemes and make such financial
adjustments as may be necessary. There are also comprehensive reciprocal
arrangements with the Isle of Man.
Reciprocal arrangements have been made with the Irish Republic in
respect, of those parts of the insurance schemes in the two countries which
are on a comparable basis. Under the arrangements. insurance for sickne88
benefit and maternity benefit is maintained where an insured person moves
from one country to the other, and persons who live on one side and work
on the other side of the border between the U.K. and the Republic are
insured for those benefits in the country of residence, the necessary financial
adjustments being made between tbe scbemes.
Agreements have been made with Australia.• Belgium. Cyprus. France.
Israel. Italy. Luxembourg, Malta. t.he Netherlands. New Zealand. Norway.
Sweden, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, for reciprocity in respect of most
categories of benefits. with Guernsey in respect of family allowances, and
with Denmark in re.qpect of industrial injuries.
National Insurance. The National Insurance Act (Northern Ireland).
1946, ma.kes substa.ntia.lIy similar provision to the corresponding act in
force ill Great Britain. The whole adult population, whether employed or
not, is insured against the main contingencies of life. For details of the
contributions payable by insured persons and the benefits to which they
may become entitlcd Bee GREAT BRITAIN. Persons liable to pay na.tional
insurance contributions must also pay health service contributions under
the Health Service Contributions Act (Nortbern Ireland), 1957.
ThE' total number of insured persons is about 557,000. During the year
ended .31 March 1959 the average number of persons in receipt of sickness
benefit was 30.000 and in receipt of unemployment benefit was 30,000.
Widow's benefits were in payment to more than 12,000 women and retire-
ment pensions to about 106,000 persons. Receipts of the Northern I~land
National Insurance Fund in the year ended 31 March 1959 were £25,280.000.
and pboyments £25.808.000. The combined balance of the National In-
Buranc" and Reserve Funds at 31 March 1959 amounted to £34,978,000.
IndUBlrial Injuries Insurance. The National Insurance (Industrial
Injuries) Act (Northern Ireland). 1946, provides insurance against 'personal
injury by accident arising out of and in the course of employment' and
against industrial diseases. About 481,000 persons nre covered by the
Rcheme, and the contributions they pay and the benefit,s to which they may
be entitled are the same as in Great Britain. Accidents in respect of which
claims to benefit are made occur nt the rate of about 200 a week.
Receipts of the Northern Ireland Industrhl Injuries Fund in the year
endod 31 March 1959 were £1,670,000, and payments £842,000.
Disablement benefit, which normally takes the form of a pension related
to the degree of loss of faculty, is payable only in respect of accidents which
occurred on or after 5 July 1948.
Family AUowancea. An allowance of 8s. per week is payable for t,he
second child and 10,•. a week for each subsequent child in a family. The
number of families in receipt of allowances is about 112,000, and the east
of the scheme in the year ended 31 March 1959 was as follows: Allowances,
£,5,883,000, administration, £127,000.
National Assistance. The National Assistance Scheme provides for the
grant of assistance to persons who are without resources, or sufficient
resources, to meet their requirements. Benefit under the National Insurance
Scheme may be supplemented under the National Assistance Scheme.
Number of applications current at 31 March 1959,52,300; cost in 1958-50,
£4,745,000.
Non.contributory Pension". Old Age Pensions (non.contributory) are
granted to individuals who are not eligible for retirement pensions provided
thev have reached the age of 70 (40 in the case of blind persons), and comply
with certain conditions as regards means, British nationality and n>.sidence
iu the U.K. The number of n on· contributory pe1L~ions in payment at 31
March 195!) was approximately 15,700.
JUSTICE. Under the Government of Ireland Act, 1920, a Supreme
Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland was established, consisting of the
Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland and the High Court of Justice in
Northern Ireland. An appeal lies direct, in certain conditions, from the
former to the House of Lords. A Court of Criminal Appeal was established
in 1930.
County or Civil Bill Courts deal with civil disputes generally, where the
sum at issue does not exceed £300. These County Court'" have aL~o a
criminal jurisdiction, and act as appellate courts from the decisions of
Resident Magistrates.
By the Summary Jurisdiction and Criminal Justice Act (Northern
Ireland), 1935, the judicial functions of the Justices of the Peace were
veated in permanent judicial officers known as Resident Magistrates. The
administrative functions of the Justicl'-s of the Peace are preserved to them,
and they are permitted to hear and dc[errrUne cases of drunkenness, vagrancy
and kindred offences, but only whcn sitting out of Petty Sessions.
Police. The police force consists of the Royal Ulster Constabulary,
with a statutory maximum strength of 3,000, and the Ulster Special
Constabulary, a part· time force.
FINANCE. The bulk of the taxation of Northern Ireland is imposed
and collected by the U.K. Government, which, after certain deductions,
remits the balance to the Northern Ireland Exchequer. The allocation of
the latter, termed the Residuary Share of Reserved Taxes, is determined by
the Joint Exchequer Board, a statutory body consisting of one representative
of the U.K. Treasury, one of the Northern Ireland Mini3try of Finance and
a chairman appointed by Her Majesty. Thedcductions made by the U.K.

Treasw-y represent a contribution towards Imperial liabilities and expendi.
ture, and the net cost to the U.K. Exchequer of Northern Ireland serviees
• reserv,~d' to the U.K. Parlia.ment.
The Northern Irela.nd Parliament has limited powers of taxation, the
powers excluded rela.ting to customs duties, excise duties on articles manu·
factureoi and produced, excess profits tax, income tax, including 8urtaX, or
any tal: on profits or a general tax on capital, or a.ny ta.x substantially the
same ill cha.racter as any of these duties or taxes. The Government of
Northern Ireland also raises money from time to time for capital purposes by
means ·)f Stocks and Savings Certificates.
The Public Income and Expenditure of the Northern Ireland Exchequer
for the past 5 years were as follows (in £ sterling) :
1955-56 1956-57 1957-68 1958-59 1959-60 '
Public lr,come • 67,023,027 74,822,263 81,516,212 86,320,025 87,920,000
Expendlt.ore . 66,994,979 74,784,082 81,480,604 86,277,688 87,869,670
Oontribu'~ion • 16,000,000 14,000,000 9,500,000 9,000,000' 3,000,000
, Net, after deduction of estimated cost of 'Reserved' Services and contribution to
Imperial Services. An adjustment is made when the true Residuary Share of Reserved
Taxes has been finally ascertained.
• Prorialonal. ' Estimates.
The public debt at 31 March 1959 consisted of £34,223,463 Ulster

Savings Certificates and £19,932,508 borrowed from H.M. Treasury.
Loans to local authorities and others for public. utility services are made
from the Government Loans Fund, the amount of principal outstanding at
31 March 1959 being £75,8]3,901. Loans are financed by issues of Loans
Stock supplemented as necessary by other borrowings. Loans Stocks out·
standing at 31 March 1958 were £7m. Northern Ireland 3% Loans Stock,
1956-61, £8m. Northern Ireland 31% Loans Stoek, 1969-71, and £7m.
Northern Ireland 3i% Loa.ns Stock, 1968-70.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Estimated gross output in 1957-58 (pro.
visional figures, in 1,000):
Quan· Value Quan. Value
tity t tity t
525 39,674 Oat.. (ton) . 17 510
Cattle'} 560 3,540 Hay and stnw (ton) 9
~~;p . (beads) 66
1,2 il 21 .679 Wheat and barley (ton) 7 201
Poultry 5.157 2,131 Fruit (ton) . . 27 1,063
Eggs (120) JO,250 21,210 Veget..bles (ton) • 31 684
Wool (lb> 2,962 622 Sundry it ems . . 2,167
Milk (gal;s) . 143,000 19,124 Stat.. subsIdies and
Potato.. (ton) 455 8,218 grants' 8,027
Graos seed (ton)
Flax (ton)
13 621
119 Total.
------
129,656
, Including stores !rom Irish RepubUc mttened in Northern Ireland .
• Other than those included in the value of the commodity.
Acr.}age of crops (provisional figures for 1959) :

1958 1959 1958 1959
Oats . 218,420 191,970 Other crops 4,980 5,380
Barley 16,010 26,160 Flax 1,000 40
Dredge corn 4,500 4,320 Fruit 10,290 9,990
Wheat . 3,930 2,690 Rotation and per·
Rye. beans and pea. 750 640 manent grass 1,748,210 1,704,800
Potatoes 98,980 95,270
Turnips .
Cabbage ,nd kale
. 7,100
4,070
5,510
3,230 Total
--------
• 2,118,240 2,050,000
Livestock, 1959 (provisional figures): Cattle, 968,980; sheep, I,Oill,OI0;
pigs, 843,350; poultry, 11,002,140.
Mining. The output of minerals (in 1,000 tons) during 1958 was:
Basalt and igneous rock, 1,266; chalk, 778; clay, 211; coal, 3; diatomite,
6; fire clay, 21; flint, 6; granite, 36; grit and conglomerate, 637; limestone,
586; salt, 6; sand and gravel, OSO.
The number of persons employed in mines and quarrics was 2,429.
Manufacture8. The two principal industries are linen and shipbuilding.
The value of linen goods and yarn exported from the U.K. during the year
ended 30 June 1959 was £15·5m. The great.er part of U.K. exports of linen
goods originated in Northern Ireland, and in addition the Northern Ireland
linen industry exported £2·5m. worth of other textile goods. The textile
and clothing indnstries give employment to about 84,000 people.
About 53,000 people are employed in engineering, shipbuilding and
aircraft industries. The output capacity of the Belfast shipyards exceeds
200,000 tons per year. Aircraft manufacture has rapidly become one of the
largest industries, employing up to 7,000 workers. Textile machinery is a
very important product of the engineering industry; tabulating machines,
radio and gramophone equipment and electronics are also manufactured.
The Government offers special encouragement towards the establish·
ment of new manufacturing firms in Northern Ireland and the expansion of
existing industry, including the offer of substantial grants towards capital
investment and the provision of government. built factories at a low rent
or on repayment terms. By mid·1959 the establishment of 138 new firms
and over 90 schemes of expansion by existing firms since 1045 had been
assisted, giving employment to 37,000 additional workers.
Electricity. The generation of electricity is co.ordinated by the Northern
Ireland Joint Electricity Committee which purchases the output of the
• designated' power stations for re·sale to the owners of those stations, viz.,
the Belfast Corporation and Electricity Board for Northern Ireland (the
distributors for Belfast and District and the rest of the Province with the
exception of the City of Londonderry, which generates independently).
Total sales in the year ended 31 March 1959 amounted to 1,1l6m. units, and
there was a total of 333,063 consumers.
The installed capacity of the Board's Ballylumfol'd Power Station is
124,500 kw. and that of the Belfast Municipal Power Station East 174,750
kw. The Belfast Municipal Power Station West has two 30,OOO.kw. Bets
(commissioned in 1954-55), and three 60,000·kw. sets (commissioned in
1958-50), bringing the station's capacity to 240,000 kw. The installed
capacity of the Londonderry Municipal Power Station is 18,000 kw.
COMMERCE. Northern Ireland has a substantial export trade with

countries overseas, especially in linen goods, for which the main oversee.
market is the U.S.A.
Imports and exports (in £lm. sterling) for calendar years:
1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 ] 966 1957 105S
Imports 258 241 259 283 295 301 318 328
Export.. 217 214 238 269 2G7 274 298 294
In 1958, 76·2% of the total imports (by value) came from Great Britain
or from foreign countries via Great Britain; 7'5% from the Irish Republic
and the balance direct from other countries. Of the exports 92'6% (by value)
went to Great Britain or to foreign countries via Great Britain; 4·8% to the
Irish Republic, ami the balance direct to other countries.
Principal imports in 1958 (including imports from Great Britain) were
valued at: Cotton goods, including goods for further processing, £ 19m. ;
machinery, £3Im. ; coal, £18m.; tobacco, manufactured and unmanu·
factured, £20m.; animal feeding. stuffs, £12m.; apparel, £13m.; motor
vehicl es, £15m.
Principal exports in 1958 (including exports to Great Britain) were
valued at: Linen and rayon goods, £29111. ; machinery, £25m.; cotton
goods including re-exports after finishing. £17m.; livestock, £2301.; eggs,
£17m.; bacon, £15m.; milk, condensed, dried, etc., £7m.; potatoes, £4m.
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. Under the Roads Act (Northern Ire-

land), 1948, the Government set up a trunk roads system and took on full
responsibility for the improvement and maintenance of the main traffic
routes of Northern Ireland, and on 1 April 1949, 350 miles of such roads
were transferred to the Ministry of Commerce from the local authorities.
In 191;9 the total mileage of roads was 13,736, for administrative purposes
graded as follows: Trunk, 348 miles; class I. 961 miles; class lI, 1,757
miles; class Ill, 2,867 miles; unclassified, 7,803 miles.
The Councils of County Boroughs, Boroughs and Urban Districts are the
road {.uthorities for all roads (other than trunk roads) in their respective
areas. The cost of upkeep of snch roads is chargeahle to the County Borough.
Borough or Urban District, as the case may be. For roads (other thl\n trunk
roads) situated in rural areas the County Councils are the road authorities.
The cost of upkeep of these I·oads is chargeable to all the rurnl districts in
thll county if the road is graded as class I, n or lII, but the cost of upkeep
of an unclassified road is chargeable only to the rural district or di.trictd
in which the road is situated.
A Road Fund to which are credited motor vehicle duties and drivers'
licence fees, and out of which are paid grants to local authorities for the
maint'mance, improvement and reconstruction of public roads (other than
trunk roads). is administered by the Ministry of Commerce. The net in-
CODl e of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1958, after deducting collec-
tion and other charges, was £2,077,677, and grants amounting to £1,896,047
were paid to local authorities.
Road and Rail Transport. Until 30 Sept. 1958, public.transport services
were provided almost wholly by three main undertakings, namely (J) the
Ulster Transport Authority operat.ing passenger and freight services by road
throughout the Province and passenger and freight services by rail over
the lines formerly owned by the Belfast and County Down Railway Company
and b:r the London Midland and Scottish Railway Northern Counties Com·
mittee; (2) the Great Northern Railway Board operating passenger and
freight services by rail, and (3) the Belfast Corporation operating passenger
services by omnibus and trolley-bus in Belfast. The Great Northern Rail-
way Eoard and several smaJl railway companies operated rail and road ser·
vices between Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. Road freight
services in the cities of Belfast and Londonderry were provided by 'local
carriels' as well as by the Ulster Transport Authority. At I Oct. 1958 the
undert.aking of the Great Northern Railway Board in Northern Ireland was
transferred to the Ulster Transport Authority under the Transport Act
(Northern Ireland), 1958.
During the year ended 30 Sept. 1958 the Ulster Transport Authority
carried 218,327 tons of freight by rail and 1,310,692 tons by road; 10
head of livestock by rail, 932,814 head by road; and 6,897,090 passengers
by rail and 84,594,940 by road. The Authority's gross receipts for the
year from road and rail services, including hotels and catering, were
£7,452,510, and their net surplus was £147,479. The Authority operate
!lS2 road passenger vehicles and 1,440 road freight vehicles.
During the year ended 30 Sept. 1958 the Great Northern Railway Board
carried 799,946 tons of freight, 58,218 head of livestock and 7,784,820
passengers. Their gross railway receipts for the year were £2,474,526 and
net railway losses £659,285. These figures include traffic in the Irish
Republic as well as in Northern Ireland.
During the year ended 31 M.arch 1959 tho Belfast Corporation Transport
Department issucd 184,075,708 passenger tickets. Gross receipts for the
year were £2,902,703; llet profit, £60,202. The Corporation operate 215
trolley-buses and 351 omnibuses.
The great bulk of road transport in the Province is private. While the
carriage of merchandise for hire or reward is restricted under the provisions
of the Transport Act (Northern Ireland), 1948, the owner of a motor goods
vehicle is not subject to any restriction in the carriage of his own goods,
except in tho interest of public safety.
The number of motor vehicles licensed at 30 Sept. 1958 was 189,784,
including: Private cars, 102,497; motor cycles, 26,248; goods vehicles,
29,822; agricultural engines, 25,937.
Shipping. Regular passenger and freight services arc provided between
Belfast and Heysham and betwecn Lame and Stranraer by British Railways;
between Belfast and Liverpool, by the Belfast Steamship Company, Ltd;
and betweon BelfaBt and Glasgow, Londonderry and Glasgow, and Belfast
and Ardrossan by Messrs Burns and IJ8.ird Lines, Ltd. Regular freight
services also ply between variolls ports in Northern Ireland and Great
Britain. Vehicle ferry and container services ply between Larne and
Preston and Belfast and Preston; a summer ferry service bctween Larne
and Stranraer is operated by Briti~h Railways.
Aviation. B.E.A. maintain regular passenger and supplementary
eervices between Belfast (Nutt's Corner) and lJOndon, Liverpool, Manchester,
Birmingham, Glasgow and the Isle of Man, with connexions to the principal
towns in Great Britain and to the continent. There is also a summer service
between Belfast and Jersey.
The B.K.S. Air Transport, Ltd, opcrate passenger and supplementary
freight services between Belfast (N utt's Corner) and Newcastle, Edinburgh,
Leeds and Bradford. Cambrian Airways maintain passenger and supple-
mentary freight services betweell Belfast. and Bristol and Cardiff. Sih-or
City Airways provide a summer service between Belfast and Blackpool.
Books of Reference
OZ.Iet Y.,.r Ronk, 1957-59. BeUast, H .M.S.O., 19~9
C........ 0/ PopIlla/ion 0/ NOI'Ihern Ir<land, 1951. Counlv R'porh and Cer.era1 Rep .." Balhst,
H .M.S.O., 1953-54
Rqorlo1l Ill. Cens ... 0/ Production 0/ Northern Ireland, 1950. nAllast, ll.M.S.O .• 1958
BlaJce. .T. W., Northern Jrelltntl in rhe Stwnd World War. Bell""t, H.M.S.O., 1956
Oe.mblin, G., 'I'ht '1'",,,,, in UutD. Belfsst, 19,2
Falls, GyrU, Tht Birlli o/l7Islet. London, J~:\6
BiU, D. A .• The LaM 0/ UutD. Rep..' Of Ihe LaM Ulilisa/w.. 8~tr. Vol. I. Belfast,
1948
Isles K. S., aod Outhbert, N., ,J.1I Economic SUrI'(!! of Norfiletfllrelawi. Bclfast, R .lLS.O.,
1957.
F
Mansergh. Nieholas. TM O~ 01 Northem lrtl4n4. London. 1936

Mogey. J. M .• Rural Lile in NortMm ireland. London. 1947
Pr_.
Qaetett. Sir A. S•• TM CMUlitulion 01 Northem [,./and. 3 pta. Belfast. 1928-47
Wllson. '.C. (00.). UIoIM under Bunw Rul.. Oxford UniT. 1955
ISLE OF MAN
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Isle of Man is admini·
stered in accordance with its own laws by the Court of Tynwald. consisting
of the Governor, appointed by the Crown; the Legislative Council. composed
of the Lord Bishop of Sodor and 1\1an, 2 Deemsters, the Attorney·General.
2 memhers appointed by the Governor, and 4 members elected by the House
of Key!., totalll members, including the Governor; and the House of Keys,
a r epresentative assembly of 24 members cbosen on adult suffrage with
6·months residence for 5 years by the 6 • sheadings' or local sub·divisions,
and thE 4 municip'l.lities. Women have the franchise as well as men. The
island is not bound by Acts of the Imperial Parliament unless specially
mentioned in tbem.
Flat! : red, with 3 steel· coloured legs armoured and spurrcd (knees and
spurs, yellow) in the ccut.re.
The elections to the House of Key!>, Nov. 1956, resulted in the return of
19 Independents and 5 L abour. Number of voters 1958-59.40.288.
An E xecutive Council to act with the Governor on all matters of govern.
mont W ;J,8 set up on 15 Oct. 1946. It consists at present of 1) members of the
House of Keys and 2 of the Legislative Council.
Lie.,/.·Governor. Sir Ronald Garvey, K .C.M:.G., ICC.V.O., M.B.E. (term
of offiCE began 8 Sept. 1959).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area., 227 sq. miles; population,
65,253 (census, 1951). The principal towns are Douglas (population, J951,
20,361), Ramsey (4,621), Peel (2,612), Castletown (1,755). Vital statistics,
1958: Births, 662; deaths, 735. The number of Manx.speaking people ha.s
fallen from 4,657 in 1901 to 355 in 1951, all of whom are bilingual.
EDUCATION. In Jan. 1959 there were 31 primary schools (35
departments), 28 being county schools. The enrolled pupils numbered
4,125. The net expenditure on education from revenue and rates for 1957-
58 amounted to £526,082; in addition, capital grants of £1,303 were made
for school buildings. There are 6 secondary sohools, 4 provided by the
Education Authority (2,772 registered pupils), 1 direct grant sohool for
girls (118 registered pupils), 1 independent publio sohool for boys (351
registerod pupils). I school of technology. art and orafts (20 full. and 137
part· time pupils), 3 independent schools (168 pupils), 1 domestic science col·
lege (26 full· and 182 part· time pupils) and 1 evening institute (732 pupils) .
POLICE. The police force numbered 102 a.ll ranks in 1959.
FINANCE. Revenue is derived from customs duties and partly from
income tax. In 1958-59 the total revenue amounted to £3,720,502;
expendHure to £3,919,049.
AGRICULTURE. The principal agricultural produce of the island
consists of oa.ts, whea.t, ba.rley, turnips and potatoes, and grasses. The
total artla under orops in 1959 was 76,705 acres and of rough grazings.
CHANNEL ISLANDS 131
44,773 acres. The total area under corn crops was 13,008 acres, including
10,844 under oats, 386 under wheat and 1,051 under barley or bere. There
were also 3,390 acres under turnips and swedes, 1,441 under potatoes, 7,735
under hay and 31,836 under grass, following rotational cropping. Livestock
in 1959: 688 horses, 28,482 cattle, 100,292 sheep and 7,217 pigs.
COMMUNICATIONS. The registered shipping (1956) comprised 51
vessels of 10,933 net tons. The railways have a length of 70 miles, and
there are 410 miles of roads. Several road races for motor cycles and bi-
cycles take place annually. Number of vehicles (31 March 1959): 7,492
cars and trncks, 594 taxis and buses, 2,390 motor cycles and scooters, 1,080
tractors.
Fraser. M., 111 PraiJe 01 Manz/and. London, 1948
Klnvig, R. IT., History ollk, Isle 0/ '}/.rn. Oxford, 1946
ldais, S. D. P .• lilt 0/ JEan. London, 19"4
Stenning, E . H., Portrait o/t!ll! Isle 0/ Man. London, 1958
CHANNEL ISLANDS
THE Channel Islands are situated off the north-west coast of France and
are the only portions of the' Duchy of Normandy' now belonging to the
Crown of England, to which they have been attached since the Conquest.
They consist of Jersey (28,717 acres), Guernsey (15,654 acres) and the
following dependoncies of Guernsey-Alderney (1,962), Brcchou (74), Great
Sark (1,035), Little Sark (239), Herm (320), Jethou (44) and Lihou (38), a
total of 48,083 acres. or 75 sq. miles.
The climate is mild. Total rainfall (1958), Jersey, 38·4 in. ; Guernsey.
36·86 in. Temperature registered (1958) : highest, Jersey, 76°; Guernsey,
74°; lowest, Jersey, 25°; Guernsey, 28°.
C01l.8lilution. The Lieut.-Governors and C.s-in-C. of Jersey and
Guernsey are the personal representatives of the Sovereign, the Commanders
of the Armed Forces of the Crown and the channels of communication
between H.M. Government in the U.K. and the insular governments.
They are appointed by the Crown and entitled to sit and to speak in the
Assemblies of the States (the insular legislatures) but not to vote. They
have a power of veto on certain forms of legislation. The Secretaries to
the Lieut.-Governors are their staff officers.
The Bailiffs are appointed by the Crown and are Presidents both of the
Assembly of the States and of the Royal Courts of Jersey and Guernsey.
They have in the States a right of dissent and a casting vote,
Language. The official language is French in Jersey, and English in
Guernsey. The language commonly used is English and, in remote parts,
Norman patois.
Church. Jersey and Guernsoy each constitutes a deanery within the
diocese of Winchester. The rectories (12 in Jersey; 10 in Guernsey) are in
the gift of the Crown. The Church of Rome and various Nonconformist
Churches are represented.
JWllice. Justice is administered by the Royal Courts of Jersey and
Guernsey, each of which consists of the bailiff and 12 jurats, the latter being
elected by an electoral college. There is a final appeal in certain cases to
Her Majesty-in-Council. A stipendiary magistrate in each, Jersey and
Guernsey, deals with minor civil and criminal cases.
C01nmunication8. Passenger and cargo steamer services between (4)

Jersey and Guernsey, and (b) between Jersey and Guernsey and England,
and (c) between Guernsey, Jersey and St Malo are maintained by British
RailwaJs; (d) between Guernsey, Alderney and Sark, by the Commodore
ShippiIlg Co. Cargo steamer servioes between Jersey and Guernsey and
between Jersey, Guernsey and London are mo,intained by the British
Channel Islands Steamship Co., Ltd; fortnightly cargo service between
Liverpool and Jersey by Cuno,rd Steamship Co.
Scheduled air services are maintained by British European Airways
throughout the year between Jersey, Guernsey and London, Jersey and
Southampton, Jersey and Guernsey, with additional summer services.
J ersey Airlines maintain services throughout the year between Guernsey /
Jersey :md London, Bournemout h, Exeter, Paris, DiIlard, Nantes, Alderney
and BLbao, between Guernsey /Alderney and Southampton and between
AldernEY and Gatwick. Cambrian Airways, Ltd, maintains services
througrout the year from J ersey/Guernsey t o Manchester, Cardiff, Bristol
and Lh'erpool. During the su mmer months additional s ervices, scheduled
and charter, are in operation .
Omnibus services operate in all parts of Jersey and Guernsey.
Post,al and overseas telephone and telegraph services are maintained by
the General Post Office. The local telephone services are maintained by
the insular authorities. There were, in 19.59, ll,092 telephones in Jersey
and 9,199 in Guernsey.
Thel'e are no broadcasting stations in the islands.
Trcule. Total trade (in £ sterling) of the Channel Islands with the
U.K. (I:oard of Trade returns):
1938 }gM 1957 1958 1959
Impo~ to U.K. 4,670,688 16,496,889 18,130,019 17,558,215 Nowregnrded
Exports from U .K. . 6,09 3,144 23,900,635 26,131,964 27,120,917 as internal
Re·e:rporl.s from U.K. 1,002,742 2,793,084 2,761,687 2,841,511 trade
Books of Reference
Hooke, T.~, ChanlltZl./alltU. London, 195~
Guerin, B. O. de, Tht Norman /s/." . Oxford,1949
Mair, T ltf Chann,ZI,lantU. London, 1953
JERSEY
Constitution. The government of the islo.nd is conducted by committees
appointtld by the States. The States consist of 12 senators (elected for 9
years, 4 retiring every third year), 12 constables (triennial) and 28 deputies
(trienni~.l), all elected on universal suffrage by the people.
The Dean of Jersey, the Attorney.General and the Solicitor· General
are appe'inted by the Crown and are entitled to sit and to speak in the States,
but not to vote. Permo.nent laws, but not triennial regulations, passed by
the States require the sanction of the Queen·in·Council.
LieUi~.·Governor and C.·in·C. of J ersey. Genero.l Sir George W. E J.
Erskine, G.c.n., K.B.E., D.C.O. (appointed 15 Nov. 1958).
SecrEtary to the Lieut.-Governor. Brig. R. 1\I, H. Lewis, C.B.E., M.C.
Bail,!! of Jer8ey. Sir Alexander M. Coutanche, Kt.

CHANNEL ISLANDS 133
Population (1954). 55.288. In the year ended 30 June 1959 there were
950 births and 775 deaths. The principal town is St Helier on the south
ooast.
Education (1959). There Ilre 2 public schools. namely. Victoria College
for boys (506 pupils) and the Jersey College for girls (442 pupils); 3.914
pupils attend the States primary schools, 1.501 the States secondary schools
and 1.836 attend private schools. The States Publio Instruction Committee
provide facilities for technical instruction. domestic science and evening
classes.
Finana (year ending 31 Jan. 1959). Revenue. £4.235.222; expenditure.
£3.952.356; public debt. £3,232.196. The standard rate of income tax is
48. in the pound. No super· tax or death duties are levied. Parochial
rates of moderate amount are payable by owners and occupiers.
Commerce (1958). Principal imports: Building material, 31,816 tons;
builders' timber. 338.745 cu. ft; fuel, 80.528 tons; foodstuffs, 29,987 gross
tons. Principal exports: Potatoes. 36,215 tons; tomatoes. 15,775 tons;
oattle, 648 head.
Shipping. Number of commercial ships entering St Helier (1958),1,933;
leaving, 1.899. All vessels arriving in Jersey from outside Jer3ey waters
report at St Helier or Gorey on first arrival. There is a harbour of minor
mportance at St Aubin. Ships registered in Jersey (excluding fishing boats).
1958: Steam. 3; sail. 2; motor. 7; yachts. 100; dumb ba.rge. 1.
Aviation. The Jersey airport is situated at St Peter. It covers approxi.
mately 144 acres. Number of aircraft (1958) in. 16.131; out, 16,123.
possengers. 241.157 arrivals. 246.075 departures.
Balleine, o. R., BiO(}Taphical Dictionary 0/ Jeruy. London, 1948.-..4. Hi:cturV of IM [Iland
of h""II. London. 1950.-1·he BaiHwick of h,.sev. London. 1951
GUERNSEY
COn.3titution. The government of the island is conducted by oommittecs
appointed by the States.
The States of Deliberation. the parliament of Guernsey, is composed of
the following members: The Bailiff. who is President ex officio; 12 Con·
seillers; H.M. Procurcur and H .M. Comptroller (Law Officers of the Crown).
who have a voice but no vote; 33 People's Deputies elected by popular
franchise; 10 Douzaine Representatives elected by their Parochial
Douzaines.
The States of Election, an electoral college, elects the Jurats and Con·
seillers. It is composed of the following members: The Bailiff (President ex
o.fficio); the 12 Jurat.~ or 'Jurcs.Justiciers'; the 12 Conseillers; the 10
Rectors; R.lI'!. Procllreur and R.1\1. Comptroller; the 33 People's Deputies;
34 Douzaine R.epresentatives.
Since J:w. HJ49 all legisIa.tive pc)wers and funotions (with minor excep·
tions) formerly exercised by the Royal Court have been vested in the States
of Deliberation. Projets de Loi (Bills) require the sanction of the Queen·
in·Council.
Lieut.·Governor and C.·in·C. of Guernsey and i~9 Dependencies. Vice·
Admiral Sir (WilIiam) Geoffrey (Arthur) Robson, K .B.E.. C.B., D.S.O .•
D.S.C.
Secretary to the Lieut.·Governor. Maj .. Gen . R. F. Colwill, C.B.E.
BaiUff of Guernsey and President 0/ the State.!. Sir Ambroso J. Sherwill,

K.B.E.,. M.C.
Population. The population at 31 Dec. 1958 was 43.450. Births during
1958 were 721; deaths, 513. The chief town is St Peter Port.
Educati01l. There are 2 public schools in the island: Elizabeth
College, founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1563, for boys. and the Ladies'
College, for girls. The States grammar schools provide for education up
to scho(.l certificate standard, and there are n\lmerOUS modern secondary and
primary schools. The total number of school children is about 6,500, of
whom some 400 attend private schools. Facilities are also available for the
study oJ art, domestic science and many other subjects of a technical nature.
Fin.lnce (year ending 31 Dec. 1958). Revenue, £2,311.943; expenditure,
£2,237,770; States' funded debt, £5,439,321; note issue, £542,764. The
standard rate of income tax is 43. in the pound. States and parochial rates
are very moderate. No supertax or death,duties are levied.
Oomme,.ce (1958). Principal imports: Fuel, 209,505 tons; foodstuffs,
18,237 tons; building materials. 28,727 tous, Principal exports: Tomatoes,
49,006 tons net; grapes, 210 tons; flowers. 3,641 tons; stone, 69.490 tons.
Shippi1UJ. The principal harbour is that of St Peter Port, and there is
a harbour at St Sampson's (used mainly for commercial shipping). In 1958
the number of ship tons net entering and leaving Guernsey was 1.247,303.
Sea passengers: Arrivals, 80,267; departures, 79,989. Ships registered in
Guernsey at 31 Dec. 1958 numbered 45 (steam, 7; sail. 2; yachts. 36).
Aviation. The airport in Guernsey, situated at La Villiaze, has a landing
area of a.pproxiruatl'ly 124 aores, In 1958, 77,637 passengers arrived and
80.875 departed by air.
Aldc:rney. Population (mid.1958), 1.350. Chief town. St Anne's. with

airport. The constitution of the island (reformed 1949) provides for its
own po!,ularly elected President and States (9 members), and its own Court.
Pre.!ident 0/ the States. Cdr S. P. Herivel, C.B.E .• D.S.C.
Clerk of the State.! and Ccmrt. P. W. Radice. M.A .• 1.C.S. (Retd).
Sarlt:. Population (1958). 456. The constitution is a mixture of feudal

and popular government with its Chief Pleas (parliament). consisting of
40 tenants and 12 popularly elected deputies. presided over by the Sene·
8ohal. The head of the island is the Seigneur (at present La Dame) . Motor
oars are not allowed on the roads.
La Dame de Sercq. 11rs R. W, Hatha.way, O.B.E.
Sene"chal. 'V.
Baker. M.B.E.
Carter.t •. ~. R. de, ThI Slorv 0/ SarI<. London, 1958
Clark., L., Sark DiJCo.ereiJ. London, 1956
London, 1946
' 'II.
Durand, ll., Ou...... PreunJ and PaJl. Guernsey, 1933.-0_""1/ u"dd German RIO;,
Goldlng,O. H. A., A ShOTI Hislory 0/ and Guide 10 Alderney. Newed. Guernsey. 1~5S
L. Huray. O. P., ThI Railirrick 0/011""'''11. London. 196~
Seaton W"od, A. and M.• llla"d. in DOIng". London. 1955
GIBRALTAR 135
GIBRALTAR
THE Rock of Gibraltar was settled by Moors in 711; they named it after
their chief Djebel Tarik, 'the Mountain of Tarik.' In 1462 it was taken by
the Spaniards, from Granada. It was captured by Admiral Sir George
Rooke on 24 July 1704, and ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht,
1713. It is a Crown colony, situated in 36° 7' N. lat. and 5° 21' W. long.,
commanding the entrance to the Mediterranean. The average rainfall a\
Gibraltar is 35 in. The rainy season is from Sept. to May.
Governor and C.·in·C. Gen. Sir Charles Frederick Keightley, G.C.B.,
G.B.:K, D.S.O.
Colonial Secretary. Julian Darrell Bates, C.M.G., C.V.O.
The Governor, who is also Commander.in.Chief, is assisted by an
Executive Council of 8 members, 4 official and 4 unofficial selected by the
Governor, and by a Legislative Council which was inaugurated by the Duke
of Edinburgh on 23 Nov. 1950. The latter is composed of 12 members,
3 official, 7 elected and 2 appointed by the Governor, and a Speaker.
Area, Z! sq. miles. Total population, including port and harbour
(census, 3 July 1951), 23,232 (10,777 males; 12,455 females); estimated
population, end of 1058, 25,637. The population are mostly of Italian,
Portuguese and Spanish descent. Total births (1958), 600; marriages,
422; deaths, 219. Religion of civil population mostly Roman Catholio;
1 Anglican and 1 Roman Catholic cathedral and 2 Anglican and 4 Roman
Catholic churches; annw,1 subsidy to each communion, £500.
Education is provided for children between ages 5 and 15 years. There
were, in 1958, 18 primary, 7 secondary and 1 technical government school.
Total number of schoolchildren was 4,683, including those in private schools.
The judicial system is based on the English system. There is a Supreme
Court., presided over by the Chief Justice, and a magistrates' court. In
1958, 1,631 cases were dealt with in the latter court.
Revenue and expenditure, and imports and exports (in £ sterling):
1954 1955 1~56 1967 1958 1~59
Revenue 1,058,216 1,054,345 1,242,450 1,266,284 1,463,236 1,459,800
E'penditure • 1,046,709 1,001,115 1,231,068' 1,261,264 1,402,853 1,606,490
Imports 6,493,686 6,667,787 8,393,017 9,U66,6G7 9,925,482
Exports 1 729,380 607,679 494,373 518,981 832,292
1 Exclusive of petroleum and petroleum products.
, Includes £30,000 transferred to an Improvement and Development Fund.
Local industry is mainly confined to the production of commodities for

local consumption, chiefly manufactured tobacco, roasted coffee, ice,
mineral waters and sweets. A small amount of canned fish and fruit is
exported.
The trade of the port is chiefly transit trade and the Bupply of fuel to
ships.
'rhe insured labour force on 31 Dec. 1958 oonsisted of 4,518 male and
1,2(;3 female British workers resident in Gibraltar, and 7,847 male and
3,549 female alien workers most of whom are Spaniards living in Spain.
Nearly one· half of these workers are employed by the service departments,
the colonial government and the city council.
A considerable proportion of the workers are organized in one or other
of the 14 registered trade unions, of which the Gibraltar Conferation of

Labour has the largest membership; 8 others are local branches of parent
associations in the U.K .
GibI'alta.r is a naval and air base of great strategic importance. There
is a deep Admiralty harbour of 440 acres. Vessels called in 1958,8,625; net
tonnage, 9,741,250. An automatic telephone system oxits in the town,
and the:re is world-wide communication via the cable and/or wireless circuits
of CabIn and Wireless, Ltd. Air-mails arrive by B.E.A. daily. A direct
air·mail service between Gibraltar and Tangier is shared by Gibraltar
Airway;., Ltd and Royal Air Maroc. Surface mails arrive direct and
through Fra.nce and Spain.
Tho legal currenoy is tha.t of Great Britain. Since the outbreak of the
First World War in 1914 there are also currency notes issued by the local
government. The amount in circulation at end of 1958 was £1,272,447.
There a::e 3 banks, including a branch of Barclays Bank D.C.O.
Govt)mment savings bank, with 14,150 depositors, had £1,020,715
deposits at the end of 1958.
Books of Reference
.~nnllal Repor' 011 Gibraltar. 1951. London. 19:.8
Oibrall4. DiredON; and Ould. Dock. Gibraltar, 1962
How.... B . W.• Th. S/ONJ 01 Gibraltar. London. 1946
KenyoD. !.1aj.-Gen. E.n.• revised by Sansom. Lieut.·OoI. II. A ••OibrallOr under J[oor. Span"'rd
and Brflon. London. 1939
MALTA
MALTA was held in turn by Phoonicians, Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans,
and wall conquered by Arabs in 870. From 1090 it was joined to Sicily
until 1530, when it was handed over to the Knights of St John, who ruled
until dispersed by Napoleon in 1798. 'l'he Malt,cse rose in rebellion against
the French and the island was subsequently blockaded by the British, aided
by the Maltese, from 1798 to 1800, and with the free will of the Maltese was
finally 8.nnexed to the British Crown by the Treaty of Paris in 1814. It is
one of 1,he most important ports of ca.ll in the world, and is the base for
repair alld refitment of the British and Allied Fleets in the Mediterranean.
On li 7 April 1942, in recognition of the steadfastness and fortitude of
the people of Malta during the Second World War, King George VI awarded
the Geo!ge Cross to the island.
CONSTITUTION. After the \var Malta was granted full self-govern.
ment (subject to the rescrvation of certain powers to the Governor) under a
Constitution introduced by Letters Patent dated 5 Sept. 1947. On the
resignation of the Mintoff government on 26 April 1958 and the disturb-
ances that followed on this, a state of emergency was declared on 30 April
and the direct administration of the islo.nd was assumed by t he Governor.
A series of talks were held in London during Nov.-Dec. 1958 between the
U.K. Government and Maltese political leaders, in an attcmpt to find a
common basis for the restoration of constitutional government, but wit.hout
success. The emergency was brought to an end by the revocation on 15
April 1959 of the 1947 Constitution and its replacement by an interim Con-
stitution.
This Constitution, established by the Malta (Constitution) Order in Coun.
ciI, 1959, and the Malta Royal Instructions, 1959, provides for an Executive
MALTA 137
Council composed of 3 ex-officio members (Chief Secretary, Legal Secretary,
Financial Secretary), a t least 3 ot.her nominated official members, and such
other unofficial members as the Governor may care to nominate. All
legislative and administrative powers are vested in the Governor acting,
except in certain specified cases, in consultation with the Executive Council.
English and Maltese are the official languages.
Governor andC.-in-C. Admiral Sir Guy Grantham, G.C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O.
Chief Secretary. Archibald Campbell.
Commissioner-Geneml in London. Col. V. G. Vella, C.i\I.G., C.V.O.,
O.B.E., E.D. (Malta House, 24 Hayrnarket, S.W.I).
V.S.A. Representative. Russell L. Riley (Consul-General).
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of Malta is 94·9 sq. miles;
Gozo, 25·9 sq. miles; Comino, 1·075 sq. miles; total area, 121·8 sq. miles.
Population, census 30 Nov. 1957, 319,620, including merchant seamen;
estimate, 31 Dec. 1958, 323,667. Chief town and port, Valletta: popula-
tion, 18,202 (1957); estimate (31 Dec. 1958), 18,403. Vital statistics, 1958:
Births, 8,608; deaths, 2,657; marriages, 2,079. Net emigration, 1946-58,
69,697.
EDUCATION. In 1959 there were 113 primary schools with 54,570
pupils, 4 grammar schools for girls with 1,558 students, 2 lyceums with 1,512
boys, 10 technical schools with 1,445 students and the Royal University with
217 full-time students. There are 93 private schools with 7,418 boys and
7,843 girls, of which 10 (with 2,139 boys and 544 girls) are subsidized by the
Government.
About 20-5% of the adult population were illiterate in 1959; adult educa-
tion classes, instituted in 1946, had an attendance of 1,300 in 1959.
Newspapers. There are 2 English and 2 Maltese daily newspapers.
Cinemas (1958). There were 66 cinemas with a seating capacity of
43,931.
WELFARE. The National Insurance Act, 1956, which came into
force on 7 May 1956, provides cash benefits for marriage, sickness, unemploy-
ment, widowhood, orphanhood, old age and industrial injury. An agree-
ment, signed on 26 Oct. 1956, established reciprocity in matters of social
insurance between Malta and the U.K.
The total number of persons in receipt of benefits on 31 July 1959 was
1,163, viz. 643 in receipt of sickness benefit, 285 unemployment benefit, III
injury benefit, 40 disablement benefit and 84 death benefit. Social assia-
tance and medical assistance are governed by the National Assiatance Act,
1956, which came into force on 6 June 1956.
The number of households in receipt of social assistance and of medical
assistance on 24 July 1959 was 4,305 and 1,471 respectively, and the number
of old-age pensioners under tho Old Age Pensions Act, 1948, was 15,479.
JUSTICE. The number of persons convicted in 1958 of crimes under
the Criminal Code was 660; those convicted for contraventions agains~
various laws and regulations numbered 15,136. 195 were committed to
prison, 12 male juveniles were committed to the approved school, 12,012
were awarded fines, 645 released as first offenders and 1,38·" were admonished
!l.nd reprimanded.
Police. In 1958 police numbered 45 officers and 1,074 other ranks and
S women police constables.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) for financial years
ending 31 March:
1955-56 1956-57 J957-58 1958-59 1959-60'
Revenu" . 7,861,137 9,187,133 9,280,085 9,633,983 JO,680,369
Expend,ture' . JO,116,032 12,195,427 13,886,175 13,469,632 17,306,45i'
, Including recoverable loans (£199,648 in 1956-57; £216,106 In 1057-58; £368,222 in
1958-:'9;. • Estimates.
• Including £6,581,725 capital expenditure recoverable from Colonial Development and
Welfare Funds, Colonial Service Votes, War Damage Funds and a local loan.
Sa~ings bank, 31 March 1959, had 48,385 depositors, and deposits,

£15,02B,093.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The chief products are wheat, barley,
potatolls, onions, beans, cumin.sced, vegetables, tomatoes, forages, grapes
a.nd other fruits. Total value of agricultural produce during the agricultural
year 1\)57-58 was £5·4m. Area cultivated, 42,318 acres. Livestock in
Sept. 1958: Horses, 1,980; mules, 1,819; donkeys, 2,776; cattle, 9,798;
sheep, 15,OIl; goats,36,914; pigs, 16,362.
}'isherie8. The fishing industry occupied 367 motor fishing· boats and
167 ro~ing craft, engaging about 850 persons in 1958. The catch was 1,059
tons, v,~lued at £204,115.
IndU8try. The chief manufactured produce are lace, filigree, beer,
cigarettes, wine, tomato· paste, buttons, pipes and smokers' accessories, foot.
wear, gloves, bags, candles, nails and screws, mirrors, crown corks, edible
oil, furniture, hosiery, ladies' handbags, matches, nylon stockings,
macaroni and other flour paste, canned fruit, cotton shectings and towels,
Malta ,"eave, shirts and pyjamas, plastic paint, bituminous emulsion.
Electricity. All towns and ~llages in Malta and most villages in Gozo
are pro~ded with electric current. The generating plant in Malta has a
capacity of 15,000 kw. at 50 cycles, and 47,629,960 kwh. were generated
(iuring the year ending 31 March 1959. In Gozo the capacity is 637 kw.
and 1,199,067 kwh. were generated during the same period. Gozo has been
connect.ed with the electrical system in MaHa through submarine cables.
Labour. The male working population as at 31 Dec. 1958 was distri-
buted ns follows: Agriculture and fishing, 8,650; service departments,
including H.M. Forces, 22,480; private industry, 40,650; government,
17,050. Approximately 14,930 women were in gainful employment. The
number of registered unemployed as at 31 JUly 1959 was 2,714.
Trade UnioM. There were 50 trade unions registered as at 30 June 1959,
with a total membership of 26,786.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports including bullion and specie (in
£ sterling) :
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Importa 20,407,405 21,187,1H ~6,4~9,426 27,105,223 28,820,474
Esporta 2,879,389 2,610,703 3,S37,155 3,345,318 3,595.272
In 1958 the principal items of imports were: Textiles (£2,313,333), metals
and manufactures thercof (£3,360,204), wheat (60,681 tons, £1,540,:173), oils,
inedible (£2,299,117). Of exports: Gloves (40,004 doz. pairs, £94,604);
MALTA 139
potatoes (9,454 metric tons, £353,080); hides and skins (£20,516); buttons
(56,558 gross, £4,832); scrap metals (£205,161); beer (773,778 litres,
£61,037); smoking requisites (£11,400); onions (1,594 metric tons, £28,194);
fresh and preserved fruit (£71,156); flowers and seeds (£28,556); tallow
(67 tons, £5,265),
In 1958, 43% of the imports came fl'om U.K., 7% from other Common·
wealth countries, 12% from Italy; of the exports, 46% went to ships,
aircraft and bunkers stores, 28% to U.K., 13% to other Commonwealth
countries.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Vessels entered, 1958, 2,059 of

2,831,639 tons, including 467 British of 1,347,001 tons. In 1958, 60 vessels
of 9,656 gross tons (5,324 net tons) were registered in Malta.
In March 1959 the bulk of the naval dockyard was transferred to a
British firm for conversion into a commercial yard. "While naval repair
facilities will be maintained, the dockyard will henceforward cater to an
increasing extent for merchant ship repairs.
Roads. Every town and ,illage is scned by motor omnibuses. There
is a ferry service running between Malta and Gozo on which cars can be
transported. Motor vehicles rcgistered at 1 Jan. 1959 totalled J 2,452
passenger cars, 920 hire cars, 3,799 commercial ,ehicies, 611 buses, 3,198
motor cycles and 197 miscellaneous ,ehicles.
Post. There is a government system of telephones with exchanges at
Malta and Gozo. On 30 June 1959 there were 8,484 exchange lines with
13,094 stations.
Aviation. The principal air companies are Malta Airlines, British
European Airways, Hunting Clan Air Transport, Ltd, Airwork, Ltd, Sky.
ways, Ltd. Direct scheduled services are operated between Malta and
U.K., Italy, Libya, Cyprns and Tunisia. A modern air terminal at Luqa
Airport, the main aerodrome, was completed on I April 1958.
During the calendar year 1958 there were 24,176 landings and take-offs;
145,559 passengers and 1,020 metric tons of freight were handled at Luqa.
MONEY. Government of Malta currency notes issued under the

Currency Notes Ordinance, 1949, and British coins are the sole legal tender.
The amount of local currency notes in circulation on 31 March 1959 was
£20,317,000. Bank of England notes ceased to be legal tender as from
20 Sept. 1949. Barclays Bank D.e.O. maintains 21 branches. The
Government Savings Bank has 12 branches.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFOIDTATION. The Central Office of Statistics (1 Windmill Street, Valletta)
was set up in 1947. It publishes Statistical Abstracts ~r the Maltese Idands and special
publications on foreign trade, shipping, education, Qviation nnd ta.'fntion j the Population
and HOlMing Censu.! 1957 (lU59) and the Census Of A.gricuJture 19·;7 (195n).
Interim Report [for 1956-57] (Col. 329) and Report [for 1957-58] (Col. 332) of the Economic
CommisRion. H.M.S.O .• I957; Observations of the Maltese Government... , Malta, 1957
p"" Malta Year Dook. Malt.a, from 1952
Lalerla, A. V., The StoTII Of Man in Malta. Malta, 1935.-Brilish Malla. 2 vols. Malta,
1938-47
Lnke, Sir Harry, Malta. 2nd ed. London, 1950
SehuBter, Sir George, Financial and Economic Slruclure 0/1"" Mall ... IIland.. H.M.S.O.,
1950
Smith, Harrison. Brilain in Malla. 2 vols. Progress Pr..., Malta, 1954
INDIA
BHARAT
ON 26 Jan. 1950 India became a sovereign democratic republic. India's

relations with the British Commonwealth of Nations were defined at the
London conference of Prime Ministers on 27 April 1949. Unanimous agree·
ment was reached to the effect that the Republic of India remains a full
member of the Commonwealth and accepts the Queen as 'the symbol of
the free association of its independent member nations and, as such, the
head of the Commonwealth'. This agreement was ratified by the Con·
8tituen~ Assembly of India on 17 May 1949.
CONSTITUTION. The constitution, which was passed by the Con·

stituen~ Assembly on 26 Nov. 1949, came into force on 26 Jan. 1950. It
has since been amended s even times.
India is a Union of States and comprises 14 States and 6 Union terri·
tories. Each State is administered by a Governor appointed by the Presi·
dent for a term of 5 years while e ach Union territory is administered
by the President through an Administrator appointed by him. There
is pro'Tision for tho establishment, formation and admission of new
States.
Any person who was domiciled in India when the constitution came into
force is a citizen of India if he or either of his parents was born in India or
if he hns been ordinarily resident in India for not less than 5 years immedi.
ately preceding the commencement of the constitution. There are special
provisions for acquisition of citizenship of India by: (i) persons who have
migrated to India from Pakistan; (ii) persons who migrated to Pakistan but
have subsequently returned to India on permanent permits, and (ill) Indians
overse8,S. These provisioll8 have been supplemented by the Citizenship
Act, H155. The right to vote is granted to every person who is a citizen
of Indi!l, and who is not less than 21 years of age on a fixed date and is not
otherw,ise disqualified under the constitution or any law of the appropriate
Legislature.
Two chapters deal with fundamental rights and the allied subject of
'Directive Principles of State Policy.' 'Untouchability' is abolished, and
its prat:tice in any form is made punishable. The fundamental rights can
be enCe,roed through the ordinary courts of law and through the Supreme
Court of the Union. The directive principles cannot be enforced through
the covrts of law; they are nevertheless fundamental in the governance of
the country.
The head of the Union is an elected President in whom all executive
power is vested, to be exercised by him on the advice of ministers responsible to
Parliatllent. He is elected by an electoral college consisting of all the elected
members of Parliament and of the various state legislative assemblies. He
holds office for 5 years and is eligible for re·election. He oan be removed from
office by impeachment for violation of the constitution. Thero is also
a Vice· President who is ex.officio chairman of the Upper House of Parlia·
ment.
The Parliament for the Union c onsists of the President and of two
Housos known as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the
People (Lok Sabha). The Council of States, or the Upper House, consists
of not lOore than 250 members (220 elected members in 1959). The election
INDIA 141
to this house is indirect; the representatives of each state are elected by
the elected members of the Legislative Assembly of that State. The Council
of States is a permanent body not liable to dissolution, but one· third of the
members retire every second year. The House of the People, or the Lower
House, consists of not more than 500 members, directly elect.ed on the basis
of adult suffrage from territorial constituencies in the States, and not more
than 20 members to represent the Union territories, chosen in such manner
as Parliament may by law provide.
The House of the People unless sooner dissolved will continue for a
period of 5 years from tbe date appointed for its first meeting.
For every State there is a legislature which consists of the Governor, and
(a) 2 Houses in the States of Andhm Pradesh, Bihar, Bombay, Jammu and
Kashmir, Madras, Madhya Pradesh, Mysore, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal, and (b) 1 House in tbe other States. Every Legislative
Assembly of every State, unless sooner dissolved, shall continue for 5 years
from the date appointed for its first meeting. Every State Legislative
Council is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution.
The various subjects oflcgislation arc enumerated in the tbree legislative
lists in the seventh schedule to the constitution. List I, tbe Union List,
consists of 97 subjects including defence, foreign affairs, communications,
currency and coinage, banking and customs with respect to which the Union
Parliament has exclusive power to make laws; the state legislature has
exclusive power to make laws with respect to the 66 subjects in list H, the
State List-these include police and public order, agriculture and irrigation,
education, public health and local government; the powers to make laws
with respect t.o the 47 subjects (iucluding economic and social planning,
legal queRtions and Iltbour and price control) in list III (Concurrent List)
are beld by both Union and State governments, though the former prevails.
But Parliament may legislate witb respect to any subject in the State List
under certltin circumstances when the subject assumes national importance
or during emergencies.
Other provisions deal with the Itdministrative relations between the
Union and the states, inter-state tmde and commerce, distribution of
revenues between the states and the Union, official language, etc.
Parliament. Parliament and t,he state legislatures are organized accord-

ing to the following schedule:
Parliament
ROllse of the Council of State Legis!nture.
People States Legislative Legislatit't
(Lok Soblta) (Rajya Soblta) Assemblies COtlncib
StflttJ:
Andbra Pradesh 43 18 301 90
Aiisam 12 7 105
Dihar h3 22 318 96
Bomlmy 66 21 396 108
Kern!a 18 9 126
Mndhya Pradesh 36 16 28S 90
Abdras 41 11 205 63
MVliore 26 12 208 63
Oris:::a 20 10 140
PUlIjah ~~ J[ 154 51
Rajnst,lmTI . 22 10 116
Uttar Pradesh 86 34 430 108
West Benga! . 36 16 252 75
Jammn and Kashmir 6 4 np 36
1 E s:cllldes 2.3 ::;e:1.t~ for P a kifitan-occnpiec1 are<lS of the State which :1.rc in nb ey:mce.
Parliament
H attSe 0/ the Council 0/ State Legislatures
People States Legislatit.e Legislative
(Lak 8ab"a) (Rajya Sabha) A ..emIIlies Council.,
Union ~'terri.tM1el: (20)'
Delhi . . 6 3
Hiuu.,hal Pradeoh 4 2
Manipur • 2 1
Tripura " 2 1
Andaman and Nlcobar Is-
l&u,ls. . .
LaCC&dlve, Miuicoy and
Amindiv. Islands . .
Nortb El\St Frontier Agency
Naga HiUs-Tuensang Area.
• To be chosen according to special Act 01 Parliament.
COlDposition of the House of the People, 1 Ma.rch 1959: Congress, 366:

Independents, 44: Communists, 27: Praja Socialists, 20: Jansangh, 4;
other parties, 37; 2 nominated by the President to represent Anglo-
Indians. In Dec. 1959 a Swatranta Party was formed with 10 members in
the Hc·use of the People. Total number of votes cast in the general elections
of March 1957 was 121·5m. (105·9m. in the 1951-52 elections).
National flag : deep saffron, white, dark green (horizontal): with Asoka',
wheel in navy blue in the centre of the white band.
Na.!ionaZ anthem : Jana-gana-mana (words by Rabindranath Tagore).
Indian JndepetU1enu Act, 1941. (Ch.30.) London, 1947
The Can.litution 0/ India. Delhi,1949
aggarw<Ja, R. N., Nalianal Jlavcment ana Can.' tittdianal Development in India. Delhi,
1956--Shorter Constitution a/India. Delhi,1958
Alexandrowicz, O. H., Constitutional development oJ India. London, 19~7
Dasu, D. D., Commentary on tlte Cons/iJutia71 a/India. 3rd cd. 2 vols. Oalcutta,1956
GladbiU, A., Tlte lUpublic a/India : iu La... and Con.titution. London, 1951
Josbl, G. N., Tlte Constitution Of India. Srd ed. London, 1954
Menon, ·v. P., Transfer Of Power in India. Bombay,1P57
)'(orri~·Jones. \V. H.~ Parliament in. India. London, 19:>7
Mukberjea, A. K, Parliamentary Procedure in India. Oxford Univ. Press, 1958
Language. The official language of the Union is Hindi in the Devana-

gari script. English continues to be used for all official purposes, but on
10 JUly 1955 the Ministry of Education published a programme for its
progreflsive replacement by Hindi within 15 years. The following 14
languages are included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution: Assamese,
Bengali, Gujarati, Hiodi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya,
Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Teluga, Urdu. The 1951 census listed 845
languages or dialects (including 63 non-Indian), Hindi or Urdu being
spoken by about 45% of the population,
FaUon. E;, W·., A Neu> English-Ilindullanf Dictionart/. Lahore, 1941
Grierson. Sir G. A .•Ungui stic SUfflt'!l o/India. 11 vol. (in 19 po.rts). Delhi. 1903-28
Mebta, H. N. and D. D., Modern Gujo,ali-Enljlish Dictionary. 2 vols. Daroda,1925
Mitra, S. 0 ., Stud"'U',Oenljali-English Dictionart/. 2nd ed. Oalcutta, 1923
Platts, J. T., Dictionary 0/ Urdu, /lindi and English. 4tb ed. London, 1911
Scholber~, H, 0., Concile Grammar o/Ihe Ilindi Langul1l}e. Srd ed. London. 1955
University oC Madras, TamU Lexicon. 7 vols. Madras, 1924-39
Vyas, V. G., and Patel, S. G., Standard Engluh-Gu;arllli Dictiana,u. 2 vot.. Bombay, 1923
GOVERNMENT
President 01 the Republic, Dr Rajendra Prasad (sworn in, 26 Jan_ 1950;
re-clect.cd for a third term of 5 years 00 10 May 1957; sworn in. 13 May
1957),
INDIA 143
Vice-President. Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (elected for a term of
5 years on 12 May 1952; sworn in, 13 May 1952; re·elected unopposed,
24 April 1957).
There is a Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President of the
Republic in the exercise of his functions. A Minister who for any period of
Ii consecutive months is not a member of either House of Parliament ceases
to be a Minister at the expiration of that period.
The salary of each lI1inister is Rs. 27,000 per annum, and that of each
Deputy Minister is Rs. 2],000 per annnm. Each Minister is entitled to the
free use of a furnished residence throughout his term of office. At the head
of each Ministry is one of tho Secretaries of the Government of India.
Following is the composition of the Council of Ministers and the port-
folios held by the Ministers as on 31 Dec. 1959:
Prime Minister, External Affair8, Atomic Energy. Jawaharlal Nehru.
Defence. V. K. Krishna Menon.
Home Affairs. Govind Ballabh Pant.
Finance. Morarji Desai.
Railways. Jagjivan Ram.
Labour and Employment and Planning. Gulzarilal Nanda.
Commerce and Industry. Lal Bahadur Shastri.
Steel, Mines and Fuel. Sardar Swaran Singh.
Work!, Housing and Supply. K. C. Reddy.
Food and Agric1tltuTe. S. K. Pati!o
Transport and Com1nunications. P. Subbarayan.
Ir·rigation and Power. Hafiz Mohammed Ibrahim.
Law. A. K. Sen.
There are also 14 Ministers of State, who arc not in the Cabinet, and 12
Deputy Ministers.
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES
Country Indian representative Foreign representatives
Afghanistan S. N Haksar Gen. Mohammed Omer
Kha.n
Albania' Khllb Chand Ulvi Lulo
Argentina P. A. Menon Vincent Fatone
Australia 1 Samerendranath Sen W. R. Crocker
Austria' A. S. LalI Dr Arno Halusa
Belgium. :M. A. Rauf Dr Frans Goffard
Brazil M. K. Kripalani Jose Cochrane de Alencar
Bulgaria Nawab AJi Yavar Jung Lyubcn Popev l
Burma. Lalji Mehrotra Than Aung
Cambodia V.M. M. Nair Var Kamel
Canada 1 C. S. Ventakachar Chester A. Ronning
Ceylon •
1 Y. D. Gundevia Sir Richard Aluwihare,
K.C.M.G., C.B.E.
Chile Rangiah Subra Mani :M. S. Fernandez
China G. Parthasarathy Pan Tzu·li
Cuba l Mohammed Ali Currim Chagla J. Govantes y Aguirre
Czechoslovakia B. K. Acharya Dr Ladislav Simovi~
Denmark Kewal Singh Arnc Bogh Andersen
1 High Oommissioner. 1 Minister-Envoy. No figure - Ambassador.
Coulltry Indian representative Foreign representatives

Ethiopi!1. Naranjan Singh Gill Ras Halle Selassie Imru
Finland 2 Kewal Singh Dr Sigurd von Numers
France Nedyam Raghavan Count Stanislas Ostrorog
Germany B. I? H. B. Tyabji Wilhelm Melchers
Ghana 1 • Balraj Krishna Kapur
Greece Nawab Ali Yavar Jung Nicolas Hadji VassiIiou
Hungary K. P. S. Menon AJadar Tamas
Indonesia Jagan Nath Khosla R. H. Abdul Kadir
Iran T. N. Ka.ul Moshfegy Kazemi
Iraq I. S. Chopra Kassim Hassan
Irish RflpubJio Mrs V. L. Pandit
Italy Khub Chand Dr G. G. Del Giardino
Japan C. P. N. Singh Shiroshu Nasu
Jordan. 1. S. Chopra
Laos The Rajah of Khetri Phagna Bouasy
Lebanon R.K.Nehru Halim Sa'id Abu Izeddin
Libya I R. K. Nehru
Luxembourg I M. A. Rauf
Malaya 1 S. K. Banerji S.ChelvasinghamMacintyre
Mexico Mohammed Ali Currim Chagla L. F. MacGregor a
Mongolia G. Partha.~arathy Mangalyn Dugersuren
Morocco R. Goburdhan Dr Ahmed Ben Aboud
Nepil Harishwar Dayal Lieut.-Gen. Daman Sham-
sher Jang Bahadur Rini
Netherhnds R aj Krishna Tandon H. A. Helb
New Zei-land 1 Samerendranath Sen R . L. G. Challis'
Norwa.y H.H. Maharao Madan9inhji Hans Olav
of Kutch
Pakistan 1 Rajeshwar Dayal A. K. Brohi
Philippines S. N. JlIaitra Manuel Alzate
Poland. K. P. S. Menon Dr Julius Katz·Suchy
Portugal'
Ruman:,a B. K. Acharya Nicolae Cioroiu
Saudi Arabia Mustafa Kamal Kidwai Yusuf Al·Fozan
Spain nIrs V. L. Pandit Count de Ataza
Sudan R. G. Rajwade Rahmatalla Abdulla
Sweden. Kewal Singh Mme Alva Myrdal
Switzerland M. K. Vellodi Dr C. A. Rezzonico
Thailand A. M. Sabay Sakich Nimmanhominda.
Tibet P . N. Kaul (Consul·Gen.)
Tunisia. R. Gohurdhan
Turkey. J. K. Atal Ka.dri Rizan
United Arab
Republic R. K. Nehru A. H . Elfoky
U.S.S.B,. K. P. S. Menon I. A. Benediktov
U.K.l Mrs V. L. Pandit Malcolm MacDonald
United Nations C. S. Jha'
U.S.A. Mohammed Ali Currim Chagla ElIsworth Bunker
Vatican. M. K. Vellodi Mgr J. R. Knox 0
Venezuda I M. K. Kripalani
¥ugosl!\ via. Nawab Ali Yavar Jung Dusan K veder
• IUgh Collllllissioner. • Minister·Envoy. • Charg6 d' A.ffaires.
• l'ermanent Delegate. • Internuncio. No figure - Ambassador.
INDIA 145
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. There were in 1956, 12 municipal corporations,
1,453 municipal committees and boards and 383 small town committees.
The municipal bodies have the care and lighting of the roads, water supply,
drainage, sanitation, medical relief, vaccination and education, particularly
primary education; they impose taxes, enact bye-laws, make improve-
ments and spend money, with the sanction of the State government. All
municipal committees and boards are elected on the principle of adult
franchise. For rural tracts there were, in 19.56, 309 district and other local
boards. These are also elected on the principle of adult suffrage. Their
principal function is to provide for primary and secondary education, to
construct and maintain roads, other than highways, and to manage public
health in rural areas. Since 1947, 123,670 village panchayats have been
set up. They now cover more than half the total number of villages in the
country. Elected by the entire adult popUlation of the village, they are
responsible for civic amenities, medical welfare, sanitation and the manage-
ment of common grazing grounds.
Statistieal .Ab$tTa(:t of India. Annual. Delhl
Organisation oJth~ Uo'cernmcnt Of India. Institut.e of Publi8 Administr::lti on. Bombay, 19G5
Cllanda, A., Indian Admini:stralion. London,1!J5S
Ray, N. 0., The Civil SeN)ice in India. Calcutt:l.,1958
Sitaramagya, Dr P., History of tlte Indian NatiolWl Congress. 2 vol.. Bombay, 1946-47
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the Indian Union is

1,259,765 sq. miles, and its population (excluding Jammu and Kashmir)
356,879,394 (sex ra.tio: 947 females per 1,000 males) according to the 1951
census. 111,637 Anglo.Indians are included in this figure. Estimated
population, mid·1958, 397·Bm., including 8·86m. displaced persons, of whom
4·1m. are from East Pakistan and 4·7m. from West Pakistan.
Vital statistics based on registrations, 1956 (provisional): Birth rate,
27·4 pe.r 1,000 population (1955, 27); death rate, 1l·4 (1l'7); infant
mortality, 108 per 1,000 live births (124). Bnt many births and deaths go
unregistered. C",lculations from census data give an average birth rate of
39·9 per 1,000 popUlation and r.n average death rate of 27·4 for the decade
1941-50, as against average registered rates of 28 and 20 respectively. An
unofficial study using different methods puts the 1951 birth rate at 43·2
per 1,000 population and the death rate at 31 as p.gainst registered rates
of 24·9 and 14·4.
Marriages and divorces are not registered. The minimum ago for a civil
marriage is 18 for women and 21 for men; for a. sacramental marriage, 14
for girls and 18 far youths.
The leading details of census of 1 March 1941 and of 1 March 1951 are:
Land ~.rea in Popnbt ioJl
Name of State ~q. miles 1911 1951
States
Andhl'[l. Pradesh . 105,677 27,425.474 31,260,133
AS:'Hl.m 8,),062 7,G~3,037 9,043,707
Bihar. 67,071 it5.171.879 38,783,778
Bombay BO,MS 40,G34,S09 48,265,221
JR.mmn and Ka5bmir S:>.861 10"1 ('16
ReTaIn. . 15,006 11;031;541 13,549,118
Matlhya Pratlesh . 171,250 23.990,608 26,071.637
MarlrHs fiO,128 2R,132 1 083 29,974,938
Mvsore 74,861 16,254,6ti8 19,401,193
Orissa 60,250 13,767,988 14,645,946
Puniab 47,062 16,101,189 16,134,890
Raiastllan . 132,148 13.863,859 15,970,774
Ut, tar Pradesh 113,422 56,531,848 63,215,742
\:rest Dengal 33,927 23,231,819 26,302,386
Land area in Population

Name of State sq. miles 1941 1951
Union T~Trilnrie3
Andaman and Nicobar Island. 3,215 33,768 30,971
Delhi. . . 573 917,939 1,744,072"
Himachal Pradesh . . . . 10,922 1,051,711 1,109,466
Laccadive, Minicoy and Amiudivi Islands 11 10,355 21,035
Mnnipttr 8,629 512,069 677,635
'l'ripura 4,022 613,010 639,029
Grand total . 1,259,7G~ 314,804,664' 356,879,394 '
1 Inchdes Sikkim (137.725 persons in 1951 ceosns) and excludes Jammu and Kashmir
(estimated population of 4,410,000 Oil 1 March 19~1) and the greater part of the Tribal Areas
ot Assam (a.tlmated popula tion, 660,000) where the 1951 census was not taken.
The French settlement of Chandernagore was incorporated in India on

9 June 1952; those of Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanaon were trans·
ferred de facio on 1 Nov. 1954 and formally ceded by treaty on 28 May 1956.
The total area is 196 sq. miles, and the population 317,163.
Fon,igners in India numbered 70,326 on 31 Dec. 1951. Of these, 23,792
were Chinese and 10,715 were Tibetans.
Indians settled in other parts of the British Commonwealth (latest.
availab:le figures) : Ceylon, 829,616; Malaya, 740,436; Mauritius, 375,918;
Kenya, 127,000 ; Uganda, 50,000: Zanzibar and Pemba, 15,812; Tangan.
yika, 6;~,000; Jamaica, 26,000; Trinidad and Tobago, 267,000; British
Guiana, 210,000; Fiji, 169,403; Canada, 3,750; Australia, 2,500; New
Zealand:, 1,800; Hong Kong, 2,500; Aden, 15,817; British Hondura,s,
2,000; British North Borneo, 2,000; South Afrioa, 365,500; St Lucia,
3,000; St Vincent, 2,000; Grenada, 6,000; Rhodesia and Nyasaland,
14,200; Sarawak, 2,000; Singapore, 98,267. In 1954 the number ofIndians
residenl, in Commonwealth countries was estimated at 3,254,651; in foreign
countri.!s at 489,478; total, 3,744,129. In addition, it is estimated that
there am 700,000 Indians in Burma.
At the 1951 census there were 71 towns with a population of over
100,000. Population of t,he largest towns :
Agra. 375,665 Gwalior 241.~77 Meerut . 233.183
Ahmedat,ad 788,333 Howrah 433,630 Moradabad 161,854
AlIgarb . 141,618 Hyderabad 1,08~,722 Mvsore . 244,32:{
AlIahaba:l 3 3 2,29~ Indore . 310,8~9 NQgpur. 449,099
Anlritsar . 3 2 ~,747 Jabalpur 2f>6.998 Patna . 283,479
Banara, • 35~,777 Jaipur. . 291,130 Poona . 480,982
Bangalor~ 778,977 J amshedpur . 218,162 Rampur 134,27i
BareiUy . 208.083 Jodbpur 180,717 Saharanpur 148,43:>
Baroda . 211.407 Jullundur 168,816 Salem . 202.336
Bbatpara. 134,916 Kanpur . 70~,383 Sholapur 266,O~0
Bbavnaglf 137.951 Kolar Gold Fields 1~9.084 Surst . 223,182
Bombay . 2.839.270 Kolhapur 136,836 Tirucbirapalli 218.921
Calcutta . 2,548,677 Kozhikode 158,724 ToUyganj 149.817
Colmbat" re 197,71'>1'> Lucknow 496,861 Trivandrum 186,931
Dehra Dun . . 144.216 Ludhiana • 1~3 , 795 Vijayavada 161,198
Delhi (oM and new) • 1,191,104 Madras • 1,416.056 Warangal 133,130
Gaya 133.700 Madurai 361,781
Books ({ Reference
Ct'1UUI 0.' India, 1951: Final population table". 1952. Population lone", natural rlgio",
and dilli.ion.. 1952.-Rtli!fion. 1953. (All published by Government of India.)
Annual I:tport 1>71 the lV.,.king of Indian J!igralil>7l. Government of India, from 1956
RtpCTl Of lhe Commuritmer for Scheduled CIUI.. and Scheduled Trib... Government of India.
Annual
Publu H .!aJlh. Reporl o/lhe Public Hta.llh Commi.!$jl>7l with the Government 0/ India . Annna!
Chandrasekltar, S., In/ani J!ortality in India, 1901-~5. London, 19:;9
INDIA 147
Coale, A. J., and Hoover, E. M., Populalion grou'th and economic det'ciopment in low income
countries. Princeton, 1958
Davis, K., The Population of India aM Pakistan. Prineoton, 1951
Gyan Cband, Some Aspects Of the Population Problem in IMia. Patna, 1956
Hutton, J. H., Caste in India. 2nd od. Bombay. 1951
Kondapi, C., Indians 0,'ersea3, 1838-1949. London, 1952
Mohinder Sin"b, The Depressed Classes: Their Economic and Social Condition. Bombay,
1947
~anavatl, Sir M. B., and Vakil C. N. t Group Prejuilict! in India: a lympo3ium. DomtJay,
1951
RELIGION. The principal religions in 1951 (census) were: Hindus,

303,186,986; Sikhs, 6,219,134; Jains, 1,618,406; Duddhists, 180,767; Zoro·
astrians, 111,791; Moslems, 35,400,117; Christians, 8,157,765; Jews,
26,781.
On 27 Sept. 1947 the Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presby.
tcrian and Dutch Reformed Churches of South India joined in one' Church
of South India,' with the metropolitan see of Madras. There were about 255
mem bers of the Sooicty of Friends in 1957. Foreign missionaries in 1959
numbered 4,802.
Sundklor, B., Churc1. of South India. London, 1954
EDUCATION. Literacy. In 1951 the literacy percentage in the

country (excluding age·group, 0-5) was 16'6, of which the figure for men
\vas 24·9 and for women 7'9, for urban population 34·6 and for rural 12·1.
Educational Organization. In the states the goneral control over educa·
tion rests ultimately with the state Minister of Education: he is responsible
to the lE'gislature, of which he himself is an elected member, Certain forms
of technical education are under the technical departments concerned and
come within the purview of the Minister in charge of those departments.
In the union territories education is under the direct control of the central
government. The authority of the Government is in part delegated to
lmiversities, boards of secondary and/or intermediate education, local
bodies (district boards, municipal boards, cantonment boards, etc.), and
some philanthropio and religious societies and organizations.
The central Ministry of Education co· ordinates facilities and standards
with the aid of All India Councils for Primary, Secondary and Technical
Education and the University Grants Commission. It has more direct
responsibility for basic education, and education and scholarships for
scheduled castes and tribes. It administers education in the union terri·
tories and also controls 4 universities (Aligarh, Banaras, Delhi and Visva·
Bharati), 18 public schools, including the Lawrence schools at Sanawar and
Lovedale, and institutions of national importance such as the Delhi Poly.
technic, Central Institute of Education (Delhi) and the Indian Institute of
Technology (Kharagpur).
Sy&tem 0/ Education. (a) School Education. The school system in
India can be divided into four stages: nursery or pre.primary, primary.
middle and high. The latter two combined together constitute the second.
ary stage. There are as yet not many nursery schools in India, but efforts
are being made to provide education for children below the minimum age.
The education at the primary stage is imparted either at independent
primary (or junior basic) schools or primary classes attached to middle or
high schools. The period of instruction in this stage varies from 4 to 6 years
and the medium of instruction is the mother tongue of the child or the
regional language. Some states have provision for compulsory primary edu-
cation. In 1955-56 there were 47,813 basic schools with 5,060,807 pupils.
The period for the middle stage varies from 2 to 4 years and instruction
is given :in middle classes of high schools or middle schools, the latter having,
generall:;, primary classes attached to them. At this stage English is
taught as an optional subject.
The high-school stage extends from 2 to 4 y ears. Education is given
in higher classes of high schools, which have middle or primary (or both)
departments attached. English is taught as a compulsory subject. The
medium of instruction, which was previously English, is heing gradually
replaced by the regional language.
There a.re, in addition, schools for professional subjects such as teachers'
t raining,. engineering, technology, medicine, agriculture, etc., and special
schools for adults, physically and mentally handicapped, juvenile offenders,
etc. In Oct. 1957, 14,992 pel'2ons were receiving vocational and technical
training
(b) Higher Education. Higher education is given in arts, science or
professi(.nal colleges, universities and aI/-India educational or research
instituti ons. The medium of instruction is English. although in a few
universities arrangements have been made to teach some subjects in Hindi.
Uni versities (with year of foundat.ion) on 31 Dec. 1959 (T = Teaching,
A = A!Iiliat.ing, R = Residential, U = Unitary):
Calcut ta (1 857). T & A Anna malai (1 929). T, U & R Roorkee (1949). T , U & n.
Bom b"y (185 7). T & ..!. Ke rnln (1937). T & A GujBrat (19~0). A
Mad ras (1 ~5 7). T & A U tkal (194:1). A Karnatak (1950). T & A
Allahabad (lR87). T, U & R Baugor (1946). T & A Visva Bharati, Salltiniketan
Banaras ( 1!1l6). T & R Plln jal) (1947). T &. A (1951). T, U & R
Mysore (191 6). A Rajpurona (1947). A Bibar (1952). A
P atnll (191 7). T & A G.uh~t i (1 948). T & A Sri Veukatesvara (1954). T &
Os n:w nia (] 91g). T & R roon" (1 948). T & A R
Aliga rb (1920). T &. R J amwu and K ashmir (1948). Bardar V allabbbhnl Vidya-
Lncknow (1 920 ). T &. n. A peatb (1955). T & R
Delhi f1 9 ~: 2 ) . T. U & R Mad hya B harat (1948). A Kumksbatra ( 1956). T & R
N agpllr (l H2:l). T & A S.N .D.T. Wowen·s . Bombay J abalpur (1956). A
Andhr a (l tl 26) . T &. A (1 949). A Gorakhpur (1957). A
Agra (1 92 i). A Baroda (194U). T & R Vikram, Uiialn (1957). A
In Nov. 1953, the University Grants Committee was set up and was made
a statut,ory body in 1956. It haa 9 members. Its duties include adVising
the central and state governments on the allocation of grants, on the estab-
Iis hm en'~ of new universities, and on the expansion of existing ones. During
the Second v·year plan the U.G.C. has decided to give priority to the im-
provemnnt of laboratories and librarics and of the quality of tea.ching in the
universities. During 1956-57 grants totalling Hs3,38,69,861 were paid by
the U.G.C. to universities.
Approximately 5,585 Indian st.udents were studying abroad in 26
countrks on 1 Jan. 1957.
Devdopment Programmes. A plan for post.war development of educa-
tion in India was prepared by the Central Advisory Board of Education
early in 1944. It presents a dbmprehensive scheme from pre-primary to the
university stage of education. The plan has been generally accepted by the
Government of India. An expert Committee recommended, inter alia, that
universal compulsory basic education should be introduced within a period
of 16 YHars by two I).year and one 6-year plan. The rccommendations of
this Committee were generally accepted by the Central Advisory Board.
INDIA 149
Technical Education. The All· India Council for Technical Education
was set up by the Government of India in 1945 to advise it on matters
relating to the co· ordination and development of technical education above
the high·schoollevel. This body carried out a study of existing institutions
aud drew up schemes for their improvemeut and for the establishment of
new institutions. The total cost of schemes approved by March 1958 was
about Rs 29·18 crores, of which the central government was to provide
Rs 18'56 crores. The Council has approved the introduction of post·
graduate courses in 33 subjects at 20 institutions. The number of institu·
tions awarding degrees in engineering and t echnology in 1957 was 74 (in
1947, 38), and those awarding diplomas in engineering and technology
numbered 129 (in 1947, 53); the former were able to admit about 10,000,
the latter about 16,000, students by 1957. For the training of high.grade
engineers and technologists the establishment of 4 central higher tech·
nological institutions was proposed. Of these, the Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur, started functioning during W51, having 1,369
students in 1957, and the Western Higher Institute of Technology was
opened at Bom bay in 1958; the other two are planned for M:tdras and Kan pur.
Educationctl Statistics for the year ending 31 March 1956:
No. of No. 0/
Type of recognized io:;titutioll iu stituti oDS students on roll.4
Universities. . 32 49,4<6
Research institutions . . . . 34 l,g60
Boards of secondn.rv and intermediate eJucatiou 11
Arts and sc ience co·lleges . . 712 52:':.530
Professiona.! and special educatiol\ colleges. 4t18 107,213
Seoondary schools. . 32,5 68 8,526,[,09
Primary and pre-prtmary school~ . . 278,765 22,9 65 ,G62
Vocation.l and speoial education schools . 54,061 1,750. 343
Total recognized institutions 366,641 33,g23.5n
E:ependituu (on Recognized Institutions) IG5;;- 56 (R. crore.)
From governrucut funds 117·20
From local boards fuods 16·35
From fees . 37·90
li'rom other sources . 18·20
Tot.l 18G·66
Books of R ef erence
PuLlications issued by the Ministry 0/ EducatioD, Government of India, Delhi:
Report of tlie Unit'e"ity Education Commission (Dec. 1948-.!ug. 1949). Dellil,194&
Report 0/ the Committee on the Ways and A/eans of Pinancing Educational Devllopmml in
'"d ia. PnOl.,hlet Xo. 64. IG:;O
'l'!tc Education f..,!uarle1·tv
Ka l)ir, If., Education in New tndia. London ,1056
Newspapers. On 3l Dec. 1958 the number ofnewspapers and periodicals

published in the states was: Bombay, 1,467; West Bengal, 1,012; Uttar
Pradesh, 777; Madras, 677; Punjab, 52(l; Bihar, 184; Mysore, 343;
K erala, 296; Andhra Pradesh, 362; Orissa, 124; Rajasthan, 199; Madhya
Pradesh, 213; Assam, 41; Delhi, 698, and other territories, 4(l. Total,
6,918, of which 1,392 were in English and 1,263 in Hindi.
Second Report of the Rl!f)islrar of N ewspapers lor India. New Delhi, 1958
Barns, Margarl ta, The Indian Pres3: .::1 llistorg of tlt e GrOff'lh 01 Public Opinion in India.
LODdon, 1940
Cinemas in 1956 numbered 3,500 with seating c:tpacity of o,"er :?m. and
an annual attendance of nearly 600ru .
JUSTICE. All courts form a single hierarchy, with the Supreme Court
at the head, which constitutes the highest court of appeal. Immediately
below il; are the high courts and subordinate courts in each state. Every
court in this chain, subject to the usual pecuniary and local limits, ad·
ministe)~ the whole law of the country, whether made by Parliament or by
the state legislatures.
The Supreme Court of India is the highest court in respect of constitu.
tional matters. The states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bibar, Bombay,
Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh. Madras. Mysore, Orissa.
Punjab. Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have each a High
Court. There are .Judicial Commissioners in the Union Territories of
Ilimaehal Pradesh. and Manipur. Tripura. For Delhi and Himachal Pradesh
the High Court of Punjab. for Manipur and Tripura the High Court of Assam.
for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands the High Court of West Bengal. and
for the Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands the High Court of Kerala
are the highest judicial authorities. Below the High Courts, for criminal
cases. there are Courts of Sessions and below these. courts of magistrates
(first. s(,cond and third class). Th(l inferior dvil courts are determined by
special .!tcts or regulations in each state. The most extensive system con·
sists of l;he sessions judge acting as a 'district judge,' subordinate judges and.
below them, • munsifs.' Thero are also numerous special courts to try sma.1l
causes. Side by sido with the civil courts there are revenue courts, presided
over by officers charged with the duty of settling and collecting the land
revenue.
Poli,~. Sanctioned strength ofpoJice in 1957: Andhra.,42,999: Assam.
13.658: Bihar. 29,616: Bombay. 84,405: Jammu and Kashmir. 4.233:
Kerala.12,372 : Madhya Pradesh, 39,426: Madras, 32,112: Orissa. 13,101:
Mysore, 23,872: Punjab, 32,963: Rajasthan, 28,081 : Uttar Pradesh.
61,481 : We,st Bengal. 48,542: Himachal Pradesh. 2,088; Delhi. 10,346;
Manipur.931: Tripura.l.840: Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 687: Pondi·
cherry, 786; total,483.539.
R ..dziDo,,;cz, L. (ed.). Th. ;lledern Pmtm SV3tem o/India. London, 1944
R ..nkIn, Eiir G., Background to Indian I D. U!. London, 1946
Bark ..r, P . 0., CilJil LaU!s o/India and Pakistan. 2 \'ols. Calcutta,1953. Criminal La.., 0/
India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. 2 'l'ols. Calcutta, 1956
FINANCE. Revenue a.nd expenditure (on revenue account) of the

central government 1 for years ending 31 March, in lakhs of rupees:
Revenue Expenditure Revenue Expenditure
19;;5 4,56,1 3 4,22,62 1958 ; ,25,80 6,83,75
19.-;6 • 6,0·1.32 4,63,R7 1959 • 7,28,20 7,88,15
19';7 V,S9,96 5,00,56 19GO ' 7,80,86 8,39,18
, Under the Canstitution (part XII and 7th Schedule), the power to raise funds has been
divided ootween the central government and the states. By and large, the sources of revenue
are mutu;.lIy ~.xciusi\'e. Certain taxes are levied by the Union for the sake 01 unlformity
and distributed to the states. The Fillllllce Commission (Art. 280 of the Constitution)
advises the President on the distribution 01 the taxes wbich are distributable between the
centre and tbe states. and on the principles on which grants should be made out of Union
revenues r..o the states. The main sources of central revenue are: customs duties; those excise
dutIes levied by the central government: corpomtion, income nnd wealth taxes; estate and
soooessioll duties on non·agricultural assets Md property. Ilod revenues from the milways
and Post!. and Telegraphs. The main heads of revenue in the states are: taxes and duties
levied by the state governments (including lan'} reyenues nnd agricultural income tax);
civil administmtlon and civil works; state undertakings; taxes shared with the cenne; and
gnante re<eived from the centre.
, Bud~t (u passed by Pa.rli ..ment). ' Revised. • Estimates.
INDIA 151
Budget estimates of the important items of revenue and expenditure
charged to revenue of the central government for 1959-60, in lakhs of rupees :
Revenue Expenditure
Du.toms . . 1,32.77 Direct demands on revenue 1,01,66
Union exci.e duties 3,25,08 Det-t services . 57,88
Corporation tax . . . 58,75 Oivil administration 2,22.73
Tue. on income, other than Durrency and mint 9,8 3
corporation tax 1,66 ,25 Civil works, etc. . 19,35
Taxes on wealth . 13,00 Defence services (net) 2,24,68
Currency and mint 55,60 Grants·in·ald States 49,02
OiviJ administration. . 35 ,80 Miscellaneous 1,00,62
R..uways( net contribution) . 5,98 Extraordinary Items 35,26
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure (on revenue
account) of the states,! in lakhs of rupees:
Revenuo Expenditure
1957-58 1.?58-59 1959-60 1957-58 1958-59 1959 ..60
(accoun ts) (revised) (budget) (accounts) (revised) (budget)
Andhra Pradesh 61,28 66,91 69.90 54,06 63,48 70,27
Assam 28,56 RO,74 33,09 27,&6 28,81 29,68
Bihar 48,71 61,11 70,74 5R,67 62,03 65,21
Bombay: . . 1,26,52 1,29,90 1,34,53 1,14A5 1,20,46 1,35,51
Jammu and Kashmir 8,57 10,60 12,25 7,04 8,85 10,06
Kcrnla 27,47 34,48 37,29 28,88 3·1,77 38,07
Madhya Pradesh 50,25 56.44 56,49 48,43 52,94 55,56
Madras 62,00 68,88 72,4.6 58,59 66,23 71,07
Mysore 43,33 49,28 53,30 38 ,29 46,88 62,91
Orissa 21 ,48 26,39 29,81 22,92 25. 59 29,75
Punjab 42,17 48,26 50,51 34,64 44;44 50,83
Rajasthan nO,11 34,46 38,42 30,74 35,04 38 ,29
Uttar Pr(l.dc~h U6,4-1 l,Ol,2 U ],09,:18 ~0 .92 J,OJ,29 1,11,14
West Bengal 67, 30 80,63 77,97 69,20 iO,82 81,60
Total • 7,05,62 7,88,77 8,33,88 6,77,Si') 7,70,78 8,29,89
1 Figures are a.s given by Reserve Bank of India. Certn.in auju5tments have been made
to ensure uniformity of presentation . Revenue figures for 1959-60 are belore tal: ehnnses
except in the case of Ra jasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Debt. On 31 Mar ch 1959 the interest· bearing obligations of the Govern·

ment of India were estimated to amount to Rs 49,64 crores, of which total
obligations in India were Rs 45,93 crores; external public debt included
U.K. Rs 30·8 crores, U.S,A. Rs 2,46'6 crores, U.S.S.R. Rs 40·9 crores and
'Western Germany Rs 35·7 crores.
Combined Finance and RetJenue 4ecOUnl, of tM Central and Provincial GOfItrnment. in India.
Annual
Bbars.va, R. N. 7'heory and Working of Union FiMnce in India. London, 1~:;6
WAr., B. R., Indian Federall'inance. London, 1956
Poduval, n. N., Finanu Of the Government of India .inu 1935. Delhi 1951
DEFENCE, The Supreme Command of the armed forces vests in the

President of the Indian Republic. Policy is decided at ctifferent levels by
a number of committees, inclucting the Defen ce Committee of the Cabinet
preBided over by the Prime MiniBter and the Defence Minister's Committee,
Administrative and operational control rests in the respective Service Head·
quarters, under the control of the Ministry of Defence.
The Ministry of Defence is the central agency for formulating defence
policy and for co.ordinating the work of the threo Services, Among the
organizations directly administered by the Ministry are the Defence Pro·
duction Board, colleges for inter·service staff training, the National Cadet
Corps and the Directorate General of the Arm ed Forces Medical Services.
The Defence Production Board, set up in 1955, has under it the Research
and Development Organization (headed by the Scientific Adviser to the
Ministe:~) and the Production and Inspection Organization (Controller
General of Defence Production). The former body was formed in 1958 by
the am:tlgamation of the Defence Science Organization and the Technical
Developm ent Establishments of the three Services. The latter controls the
ordnanee factories, which have been enlarged and modernized in an effort
to makE> the country self-sufficient in vital supplies.
The National Defence College, New Delhi, was established in 1960 on
the pal;tern of the Imperial Defence College (U.K.): the I-year course
is for officers of the rank of brigadier or equivalent and for senior civil
servantl. The Defence Services Staff College, \Vellington, trains officers
of the three Services for higher command for staff appointments. The
Natiolld Defence Academy, Khadakvasla, gives a 3-year basic training
course 1;0 officer cadets of the three Services prior to advanced training at
the respective Service establishments.
The Nationa l Cadet Corps consists of boys and girls from schools and
colleges. The Corps has a Senior Division (1,760 officers and 72,710 cadets
in 1959), a Junior Division (2,635 officers and 89,690 cadets) and a Girls'
Division (580 officers and 25,010 cadets). There is also an Auxiliary Cadet
Corps with a st rength of about 838,300.
The Defence budget estimates for 1959-60 totalled Rs 276 crores,
divided as follo ws: Army, 151; Navy, 18; Air Force, 58; non-effective.
16; capital outlay, 33. In 1958--59, the estimates totalled Ra 305 crorns.
ARII':Y. The Army Headquarters functioning directly under the Chief
of the Army Staff is divided into the following main branches: General
Staff :Branch ; Adjutant-General's Branch; Quartermaster-General's
Branch; Master-G eneral of Ordnance Branch; Engineer-in-Chief's Branch;
Military Secretary's Branch.
The Army is organized into 3 commands-eastern, western and southern
-each divided into areas, which in turn are subdivided into sub-areas.
R ee!mitment of permanent commissioned officers is through the Indian
Military Academy, Dehra Dun. It conducts courses for ex-National
DefenCE. Academy, National Cadet Corps and direct-entry cadets, for serving
personnel and for technical graduates. The Territorial Army came into
being in Sep t. ID-HI, its role being to: (I) relieve the regular Army of static
duties and, ifrequired, support civil power; (2) provide coastal defence and
anti·a.jr ~raft units, and (3) if and when called upon, provide units for the
reg ular Army. The Territorial Army is composed of practically all arms
of the Services, v iz., artillery, engineers (including railways and ports),
signals (including P. and T.), infantry, medical and electrical and mechanical
enginee.-s, c omprising provincial units recruited from rural areas and urban
units from large towns.
The National Volunteer Force, now designated as the Lok Sahayak
Sena, in. which 0. total of 500,000 men, over a period of 5 years, will be given
elementary military training without any liability for military service, was
inaugurated on 1 May 1955. The aim of the Lok Sahayak Sena is not to
ra.ise a force for the country's defence but to get people interested in national
.ervicelnd inculcate in them a sense of discipline and self-reliance.
NAVY. Since 26 Jan. 1950 the Royal Indian Navy, which traced its
hist ory in an unbroken line from the foundation in 1613 of the East India
Company's Marine, has been known as' Indian Navy,' and the ships referred
to as' I.N.S.' instead of' H.M.I.S.'
INDIA 153
Principal ships of the Indian Navy:
Standard
displace- Armour Sbalt
Com- meat Belts TUl'rets Principal hOl"se- Speed
pleted Name Tons in. in . armament power Knots
Cruisers
1040 Mysore (e"-Ni,,eri,,) 3,700 3-4 1 9 G-in.; 84-in. 72,500 31·,'j
1933 Delhi (ex-Achilles) 7,030 2-4 46-iu.; S 4-in. 72,000 32
In Jan_ 1957 the unfinished aircraft-carrier Hercuie,'l was acquired from

the Government of the U_K_; large-scale reconstruction and modernization
is being carried out in Belfast. She will be renamed Vikrant_
The extensive refit and modernization of the cruiser Mysore (ex-H_M_S_
Nigeria), purchased from Great Britain, was completed in 1957, and the
ship was formally handed over to the Indian Navy at Birkenhead and re-
named Mysore on 29 Aug_
The fleet also includes 3 destroyers (Rajput [ex-Rotherham], Rana [ex-
Raider], Ranjit [ex-Redoubt]), 2 new first-rate anti-submarine frigates, 3
new second-rate anti-submarine frigates, 3 new anti-aircraft frigates (all 8
completed in Great Britain, 1958-60),6 frigates (including 3 'Hunt' class
rated by India as destroyers), 6 fleet minesweepers, 4 new coastal mine-
sweepers acquired from Great Britain in 1956,2 new inshore minesweepers
acquirecl. from Great Britain in 1955, 3 motor minesweepers, 4 motor
launches, a tank landing ship and 2 tank landing craft, an ocean tug, 3
surveying vesseLq (frigates), a fleet replenishment ship and 2 oilers_
At LN.S. Veruluruthi, the naval base at Cochin, tho Fleet Requirement
Unit of the Naval Aviation Wing, LN.A_S_ Garuda is being developed_
At present this unit consists of a squadron of 10 amphibious Sealand aircraft
and Borne Firefly aircraft which work with the ships and training schools of
the Navy_ Sea Hawk fighters and Alize anti-submarine aircraft are due
for delivery in 1960_
Naval personnel compriHes 800 officers and 8,000 ratings_
AIR FORCE_ The Indian Air Force Act was passed in 1932, and the first
flight was formed in 1933_ The designation of 'Royal', conferred by the
King on 12 March 1945 was dropped in 1950_
The Air H_Q._ consists of 3 main branche., viz _, Air Staff, Administration
and Maintenance, each under the charge of a Principal Staff Officer_ Out-
side the headquarters, LA_F_ units are organized into 3 commands-Opera-
tional, Training and Maintenance---each in turn controlling wings, stations
and other sub-formations_
Operntional aircraft include French-huilt Mystl're and Ouragan and
British-designed Gnat and Hunter fighters, Canberra bombers and C-Il9,
Viscount, C-47 and Devon transports_ Training aircraft include Hunters,
Vampires, Canberras, Prcntices, Tex<1ns and Indian-built Hindustan HT-2s.
The Air Force schools and colleges now provide training to all categories
of Air Forco personneL The LA_F. 'rechnical College at Bangalore will, in
due course, disl'cllse with the necessity of sending technical officers abroad
for training_ An examining unit for periodical assessment of the aircrew
operational and comlmlllication units has been establiRhed_
There are also a land-air warfare school and a school for aviation
medicine_
The Advanced Flying School at Begumpet and the Elementary Flying
School at Jodhpur, which, after Independence, were reorganized into No. 1
and No_ 2 Air Force Colleges respectively, have recently undergone further
changes. The institution at Jodbpur is now known as the Air Force Flying
Collegfl, for training aircrew of all categories. The centre at Begumpet has
becomJ the Air Force Station, Hyderabad, for advanced training, with jet
and tr;lnsport training wings. The Initial Training Wing at Coimbatore is
now known as the Air Force Administrative College for training officers of
ground duties' branch.
Regular personnel in the A.I.F. total approximately 26,400; there are
some MO operational aircraft. The Auxiliary Air Force had 5 squadron5
in 195B.
Jackson, D., India'. 4rmV. London. 1942
Singb. It.• Organization and adminiJtration of the Indian Army. 2nd cd. AmbaJa, 1957
Valdy .., K . R., TiI. Na.aJ J)'f~' of India. Bombay, 19"'9
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The chief industry of India has always
been agriculture. In undivided India the population supported by agri.
culture, including forestry and raising livestock, and excluding non·
workiIig dependants, was, according to the census of 1931, about HOm.
out of a total population of 353m. The census in 1941 did not specify the
agricultural population, but the 1951 census showed that out of a total
rural population of 295m., 249m. were engaged in agriculture and, of these,
about!9m. (or about 20%) were returned as cultivating labourers and their
dependants. The 1950-51 Agricultural Labour Enquiry revealed that about
30'4% of rural families were agricultural la bourers, half of them being without
land. The total agricultural working force is expected te have increased
by 19n. by 1961, and by a further 23m. by 1971.
Tho Indian Council for Agricultural Research, established in 1929 and
at.tach,~d to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, co-ordinates agricultural
research and education in the Union. The more important central research
institutes are the Indian Agricultural R esearch Institute (New Delhi),
the Indian Vetcrinary Research Institute (Izatnagar), the National Dairy
Research Institute (Karnal), the Central Rice Institute (Cattack), the
Indian Forest Research Institute.and College (Dehra Dun) and the Central
Marine-Fisheries Research Station (Mandapam). Besides, there are 9 Central
CommJdity Committees which carry on research and development on some
important commodities, viz., cotton, wheat, lac, jute, sugar cane, tobacco,
oilseeds, coconuts and arecanuts. There is a directorate of economics and
statistics under the l\1inistry of Food and Agriculture; it is responsible for
puiJlicntions on area and yield statistics, livestock statistics, forests, food
distribution and prices; it a)so publishes a monthly journal, Agricultural
Situuti-Jn il~ India.
Land Tenure. There are three main systems of land tenure: ryotwari
tenure,. where the individual holders, usually peasant proprietors, are
respon~ible for the payment ofland revenues; zamindari tenure, where one
or moxe persons own large estates and are responsible for payment (in this
system there may be a. number of intermediary holders); and mahalwari
tenure, where village communities jointly hold an estate and are jointly
and severally responsible for payment.
Agl'arian reform, initiated in the First Five·Year Plan, being undertaken
by the state governments includes: (1) The abolition of intermediaries under
zaminaari tenure. Formerly the zamindari system prevailed in about 43%
of the country, but by 1958 it had been abolished, usually in favour of
ryotwari tenure, in all except about 5%. The total amount payable in
compensation had been estimated at Rs 625 crores, payable in cash in some
states and in transferable bonds in others; up to 31 Dec. 1957 about Rs 99
INDIA 155
crores had been paid. (2) Tenancy legislation designed to scale down rents
to H of the value of the produce, to give permanent rights to tenants
(subject to the landlord's right to resume a minimum holding for his per·
sonal cultivation), and to enable tenants to acquire ownership of their
holdings (subject to the landlord's right of resumption for personal cultiva-
tion) on payment of compensation over a number of years. (3) Fixation
of ceilings on existing holdings and on future acquisition, following a census
of land holdings. Ceilings vary widely in different states according to local
conditions; e.g., on existing holdings, 221 acres in Jammu and Kashmir,
50 acres in the plains of Assam, 18-270 acres in the Telangana area of Andhra
Pradesh and the Hyderabad area of Mysore and 25 acres in West Bengal.
(4) The consolidation of holdings in community project areas (14·8m. acres
had been consolidated by 31 Dec. 1957, mainly in the Punjab and Madhya
Pradesh) and the prevention of fragmentation of holdings by reform
of inheritance laws. (5) Promotion of farming by co-operative village
management; at 31 Dec. 1958 there were 2,020 co-operative farming
societies.
Further changes in the traditional forms of land tenure are being made
by the Bhoodan movement, which began in 1951 and which seeks voluntary
donation of i- of owner's land for distribution among the landless; 4·4m.
acres had been donated by June 1958. This has now widened into the
Gramdam movement, whose object is the donation of entire villages so that
the land may belong to the village community as a whole.
Agricultural Production. The total cropped area in 1956-57 was 366·6m.
acres. The following table shows the total acreage (in 1,000) under the
chief crops and the production in t ons (in 1,000) :
1949-:;0 1957-~8 1958-59
Crops Area sown Yidd .Area sown Yield Area sown Yield
Rice 75,414 23,170 79,447 24,835 81,690 29,721
Wbeat. 24,1l4 6,290 29,300 7,741 30,966 9,694
Total cereals. 19fi,4-~7 46,01 8 212,717 52,810 219,633 61,295
S ugar cane 1 • 3,624 4,938 5,1)80 6,871 4,836 7,158
Sesamum 5,(1;::'5 431 5,171 354 5,332 493
Groundnut 2 • t),832 3,3i9 14,876 4 ,436 14,481 4,816
Rape and
mustard 4,781 793 5,979 923 6,288 1,069
Linseed 3,759 411 3,129 249 3,708 430
Castor seed 1,458 128 1,1 84 89 1,193 111
Cotton' 12,1 13 2,628 19,996 4,739 19,825 4,105
Jute' , 1,1 63 3,089 1,742 4,052 1,821 5,178
Tea' 727,000
CoJfee', 43,100 42,970
Rubber'
Tobacco E60 ~64 926 252 571
I In t.erms ot raw sugar or gur. • Nut.<; in shell.
, Cot ton in 1,000 balesoi 392 lb. ; jute in 1,000 bales of 400 lb.
• In 1,000 IIJ. t coffee in metric tons «(rom 1957-fi8 ).
Production of refined sugar was 1·586m. tons in 1954-55. a record

which permitted the Government to stop purchases from abroad (sugar
import, 1953-54, 763,000 tons). Production in 1956-57, 1·55m. tons (ex-
ports, 200,000 t~ns); in 1957-58, 1·978m. tons (41,000 tons).
Liveslock, census 1956: Cattle,159m.; buffaloes,44·9m.; sheep, 39·2m.;
goats,55·4m.; horses, 1·5m.; poultry, 94·7m. Tota.! livestock amounted
to 307m. in 1956, as against 292m. (including 155m. cattle, 39m. sheep,
47m. goats, 1·5m. horses and 73·5m. poultry) in 1951.
Total
geographI- Net area 11> 10 ......
cal area e.ccording Cult lrated Uncultivated ~
Q.
=p~ >""'! er>
according to vill""te N 01 Olher uncul-
1"'o (lo T\t>_f,.. .. N~!!~~ FlII>!2"
to S'.1!'veyo!'· 1J !":! i!'1M~ !!ttM!'ff 'I1'!!d. () p ....
General t~h·ich ~ actually Current or cultiva· excl. cttrrtnt Net are:l
State of India turns exist 80wn fallow lion' fallOUJ> Forests irrigated e.Q.e'
ADdhra 40,721 40,583 16,072 2,531) 7,728 4,889 8,325 4,847
ABSaIll ' 54,440 35,764 • 5,118 476 14,077 3,638 12,042 1,533 •
.... -
~· ~o
Dihar 41,936 44,790 19,805 4,301 5,601 3,192 9,504 4,196 '"
~ :il
e.S· ta
l":J
llombav . 7l , 19~ 71,025 43,160 1,290 7,424 6,685 10,755 2,260 Q.~(JQ
Madhya Pradesb 83,414 82,791 31 ,016 1,332 6,116 10,463 32,486 1,936 b:j
Madras SS,618 38,485 16,577 2,:138 6,474 4,933 6,034 6,325
~ 6; It
Orissa 38,060 38,401 13,854 2,269 6,274 6,466 8,799 1,904 &.~g: i!l
Punjab . 23,684 23,918 12,746 1,305 7,298 1,776 789 5,741 C"fo~. G ~
UttarPradesb 72,591 72,M3 41,572 439 11,002 7,813 8,643 12.332
.,-0 .. rn
West Beog.,1 19,701 11,901 3,503 1,629 1,709 2,504
.. ::o=-
19,846 • F; ~q =
lIyderabad . . 52,56~ 61 ,045 29,463 4,437 5,213 4,564 4,943 2,027 (")
Jammu and Kashmir' 54,951 5,924 1,849 251 1,739 70S 1,·100 714 I"'" o
~
~(t\dh)"a
Bhnrat • 29776 28,29·1 12,031 226 5,015 6,870 3,542 562 <> ~
....5'
Mvsore . 21:S30 19,875 8,267 1,150 2,399 4,798 2,255 1,128 e ~ ::::
P.E.P.S.U. 6,435 6,371 4,6i5 461 455 733 47 2,388 "'0- o
Q..~o
Rajastban 83,345 83,160 27,060 5,106 16,207 21 ,754 3,360 2,914
SallI"8.Shtra . 13,693 12,317 8,1H 274 2,273 1,406
, 407 ~~8 ~J.:I;I
Travancore-Cochln 5,848 5,658 2,821 44 554 368 1,847 888 O'e:",
Ajmer 1,026 1,549 • 366 211 482 111 101 HI ~ $.'I' (") ;..
nbopal 4 ,3 97 4,406 • 1,802 26 332 841 1,360 27 co .. ~ t"'
1,018 1,012 204 1 250 221 331 9 fir g-. '"'l
~f:;'f 367 366 230 11 79 46 98 ",
~ <">
Himaohal Pradesb 6,990 2,313 679 40 157 1,020 400 95
'c" .. =
11-
Kuteh 10,894 10,864 1,209 8,021 1,082 127 99 r:>. .. g
..... ~ "1 Z
Mnnipur 5,522 346 218 -' 91 37 t;j
TJipura. . 2,574 2,634' 479 24 66 469 1,574 3· S·S-
Vindhya Prndesh 15,120 14,848 4,602 967 2,293 2,358 3,277 202 o;:l .... (JQ J.:I;I
And.man. " nd Nicobar ::::
I3lands • 2,058 82 12 16 15 37 g'~8" ::g
::s t .. ;0
Total 806,270 719,210 315,767 29,810 120,078 97,989 123,774 64,262 " 0lS" J.:I;I
I Includos permanent pasture land and land left fallow between 1 tuld 6 years. ;:i
, l'i~res for Assam are 1953-54 and are provisional. e'
, All figures, except those in first column, exclude Pakistan occupied area.
<l
• Difference between figures of area according to S.G.I. and village papers due to dillerent methods of surveying.
c.s:-<>
• Included under ' Fores~~.' ~g
• Excludes Nortb ElI8t Frontier .Agenoy. Q. ...
, Included under ' Not AvaUable for OuItivation.'
INDIA ]57
Opium. By international agreement the poppy is cultivated under
licence, and all raw opium is sold to the central government. Opium,
other than for wholly medical use, is available only to registered addicts, of
which there were about 395,000 in 1957. Production, 1956- 57:
Licensed Raw opium
AIea (acre3) cultivators (lb.)
Uttar Pradesh 19,345 42,412 3D,OSO
Madhya Prade.h 22,437 34,764 42B,7ba
Rajasthan . . ]7,579 25 , O~n 327,220
.Tammu and Kashmir 72 952 458
Total . 59,4_33 103,215 1,069,Sln
Forutry, The lands under the control of the state forest departments
are classified as • reserved forests' (forests intended to be permanently
maintained for the supply of timber, etc., or for the protection of water
Bupply, etc,), • protected forests' and' unclassed' forest land, The following
table shows the extent of these areas (in square miles) in 1954-55 in India :
Reserved Protected
State fore.to forests Unclas.ified Total
Andtlra 9,700 2,057 1,916 13,67 3
As~am . 6,373 110 12.~61 19,444
Bihsr 1.492 11,497 Fl98 13 ,88 7
Bombav . 14.044 1,290 5,5!!9 20,863
Madhyii Pradesh 26,]84 10,453 25,!I67 62,604
Madras 8,63:; 1,:lOl 9,934
OriSRD. • 12,222 12,023 24 ,24;:'
Punjab . 181 4,582 25S 5,021
UHar Pradesb 9,940 1,2.J-5 3,745 14 , 9 ~0
West Bengal. 2,669 J.·1 2,484 !l,16i
Hyderahad . 8,6n 2,1~;:; 1,316 12.204
Jammn and Ka..<dlmir I 10,171 754 133 JI,O;; R
Mysore. 4,?8S 619 195 0,202
r.E.p.S.U. 87 87 1:~4 293
RR.iasthaD 1.469 1,211 13,::G;. 13.3Gii
Satira~ht,ra (;65 4:~2 ~97
TraT"ancore-Coch i n 2.976 .6 3,052
Totnl Part '0' State. 9,664 6 , 65 :~ 7,2{;4 23,071
Andaman a.od Nicobar Islands 1,4~S !J55 447 2,[,00
Total. 138 ,Q!jG 62,nOI 80,236 2,,0.896

1 Inclusi ve of rn.Jd~tnn held area,
The revenue for the state forests in H154-55 was Rs 2,712'09 lakhB.
During the First Five·year Plan over 20m. acres of forest land under
private ownership or management was brought under state control; and
on an area of over 75,000 acres the vegetation cover was restored byafforest.a.
tion or planting. while over 3,000 miles of forest roads were constructed
or repaired. According to 1954-55 statistics. the present arl.'a of stn.tc forests
is 271,667 sq. miles.
Irrigation. The area of 56·2m . acres (1955-56) under irrigation exceeds
that of a.ny other count.ry. The length of canals is about 00.000 miles and
the total capital outlay on irrigation works was Rs 340 crores aurin!; the
first Fi\'e·Year Plan. An additional Rs 209 crores has been allocated to
irrigation projects as part of the second Five-Year Plan, Additional
irrigation amounting to about 6·3m. acres was available by 1956 for major
and medium irrigation works taken up during the first }<'ive-Y Cltr Plan; on
full development these works will irrigate about 22m. acres.
Induatriu. The most importan t indigenous industry. after agriculture.
is the weaving of cotton cloths. Other important indigenous industries are
silk rearing and weaving, shawl nnd carpet weaving, wood·carving and
metal· working. One of the most important industries connected with

agriculture is the tea industry, the average number of persons employed
daily being 993,594 (1954). The area under tea in 1954-55 was about
785,000 acres, distributed as follows: Assam, 383,000; West Bengal,
193,000; Bihar, 4,000; Uttar Pradesh, 6,000; Punjab, 9,000; Madras,
82,000; Coorg, 1,000 ; Tripura, 10,000; Travancore·Cochin, 83,000; My.
sore, 12,000, and Himachal Pradesh,2,000. The production in 1957 was
72Gm. lb., exports 460m . lb. and area under cultivation 805,000 acres.
Annual production of wool in India is estimated at Sam. lb. In 1948
India '3xported 34·3m. lb.; in 1955, 33·7m. lb.
Under the Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951, the
Govemment of India have set up a Central Advisory Council to advise it on
matters concerning the development and regulation of specified industries
which, in the publio interest, the Union Government has taken under its
control. The Council consists of representatives of industry, labour,
consumers and other interests, including primary producers.
In 1955 the number of factories in 28 major industries registered under
the Ff,ctory Act, 1948, was 7,424; persons employed numbered 1,784,000:
value 'Jf production was about Rs 14,ll crores.
The following statistics of factories, etc., subject to the Factories Act
1948 (employing 20 or more persons and using power), are taken from the
Oensw, of Manufactures,1956 : Value
added by
No. of No. of Wages, etc. manufacture
Olass of industry tactories workers (Rs ero"",) (Rs erores)
Wheat ;)our 80 7,401 91 2,85
RIce miUing 1,782 67,23; 2,92 6,11
Sngar, . . . 169 123,303 11,89 27,96
VegetaNe oil processIng 1,220 68,350 4,46 10 ,43
Tannin!: 167 10,862 94 1,54
Cement 27 24,847 3,61 10,70
Glass . 113 25,036 2,18 2,98
Cerami(s. , . 76 20,821 2,49 3,70
Plywood and teachests . 68 7,370 65 1,76
Paper and paperboard . 62 29,744 4,34 11,29
Matcbe!! . 45 16,551 1,9R 3,63
Ootton I;extiles . 662 774,550 1,16,45 1,71,59
Wool\er, textiles . 62 15,222 2,00 3,20
Jute t.,:tiles ] 12 270,348 30,87 38,44
Ohemicals, . . • 364 57,477 0,68 29,45
Alumin ium, copper and brass 253 24,146 3,67 9,01
Iron an,j steel 143 86,203 20,3~ 55,13
Bicycle" , , • • . 69 8,532 1,37 3,18
General and electrical engineering. 2,064 189,161 26,23 46,26
With regard to cotton spinning and weaving, the number of spindles in
all India. on I Aug. 1957 WIl.8 12.906.622, and of looms, 206,126. The
production of yam in 1957 was 1,780m. lb. and of cloth, 5,317m. yd. In
1958 the jute industry had a. total of 72,365 100mB. Production, 1957, was
1.096,:158 tons (exports 848,000 tons).
Ek:ctricity and Power statistics for 1956:
Number 01 autbori1.ed Installed capacity 01
T y pe 01 power undertakings owning generators as at 31 Kwb . generated in
plan~ generating stations Dec. 1956 (1,000 kw,) 1966 (Im.)
Steam . 56 1,696 5,184
Oil 366 228 233
IIydro 29 1,061 4,295
Total. (51 1 2,886 9,662
1 In addItion to tbese there are 325 autborized undertalrlngs whicb purcbase enorgy in
bulk !O!' distribution to ultimate consumers.
INDIA 159
Companiu. On 31 March 1959 there were 27,479 joint.stock com-
panies incorporated in India and in operation. with paid-up capital of
Rs 1,516'6 crores. of which 1.095 companies were incorporated in the year
1958-59.
The number of public companies at work is estimated at 7,760 with a
total paid-up capital of Rs 784·2 crores. while that of private companies
is 19,719 with an aggregate paid-up capital of Rs 732·4 crores.
During 1.9.58-59. 16 government companies (i.e., companies in which
Government share in capital is 51 % or more) were formed with total author-
ized capital of Rs ()S crores. Total number of government companies. 31
~1areh 1959, was 103 (including 5 subsidiaries).
In the 3 y ears ending 31 March 1959, 2,904 companies with a total
authorized capital of Rs 598 crores were formed under the Companies Act.
1956. Of these, 206 companies (Rs 166) were public, the remainder private
companies. Government companies formed numbered 46 (Rs 227)_
During 1958-59, 572 companies incorporated elsewhere were reported
to have a place of business in India; of these 398 were of U.K. and 59 of
U.S.A. origin.
Co-operative Societies. On 30 June 1958 there were in the Indian Union,
257,824 co-operative societies of all types with a membership of about
24·43m., n,nd working capital of nearly Rs 697 crores. There were 21 state
co-operative banks; these advanced loans of Rs 219 crores. The central
co-operative banks (including banking unions) numbered 418, with a.
membership of 292,000; total advances were Rs 159·86 crores, and working
capital Rs 147 crores. The number of agricultural primary credit societies
(which constituto the base of the co-operative credit structure of the
country) was 166,543, with a membership of9,116,846 (1957) and a working
capital of Rs 133·75 crores. Non-agricultural primary credit societies
numbered 10,430, "vith a membership of 3,674,000 and a working capital of
Rs 102'53 crores. There were 15 central land mortgage banks and 347
primary land mortgage banks. the majority of which were in Andhra
Pradesh, Madras and Mysore.
The position in the states, 30 June 1958, was as follows:
Membership Total work-
No. of 01 primary fng capital
State societies societies (Rs crores)
_\ndhra Prndesh . 20,317 2,576,418 80,90
.l..,so,m 5,046 416.006 10,1~
Bih.r. 24,228 1,139,649 1~,30
Bombay 31,916 3,811,092 2,11,77
.Tnmmll and Kashmir 2,151 236,170 2,98
Kerah 4,452 1,007,285 12,40
)fadhy. Pradesh . 18,788 818,478 34,93
)Ia<lms 14,8\1 2,843,681 89.15
~ysore 12.935 1,859,391 59.28
Oris:5a 9,9·18 867,761 14,11
Puniab 25,313 1,361,816 45,44
Ra.iasthan . 9,747 432,762 10,84
TJttar Pradesh 66,151 2,476,365 62,27
West Bengal 19,029 1,384.636 39,25
Delhi. 1,647 122,418 4,82
Other territories. 1,345 109,26$ 2,86
Total. 257,824 21,463.193 6.96,45
Under the Second Five.Year Plan prOVISIOn is made of about Rs 50

crores for the expansion of the co-operative movement: the re-organization
of the entire credit structure entailing state partnership at aJl levels of co-
operative organization and disbursement of larger credit by linking it more
elfecth-ely with production and marketing of crops is envisaged. A National
Co-operative Development and Warehousing Board was set up in 1956 and
a Central Warehousing Corporation in 1957. Tentatively, all-India targets
for membership of primary agricultural societies have been fixed at 15m.
in the Second Plan, and it is hoped to increase short-term loans to Rs 150
crores by 1960-61 as against Rs 50 crores in 1954-55.
Jfi neral Production (1958) in short tons: Coal, 46·1m. ; iron ore, 6m.;
ma nga nese ore, 1·2m. ; copper, 9,150; lead, 4,356; mica (crude), 31 ,802;
ilmenif.e,346,080; limestone, 1O·3m.; salt.,4·2m. ; gypsum (1957), 921,969
long tons; gold, 170,090 fine oz.; silver, 3,387 kg; petroleum (crude) (1957),
421 ,76'3 long tons. Total value of mineral production. 1958. Ra
131,00,00,000 (1957, Rs 127,30.00,000).
In 1956-57. 1·63m. tons of pig-iron and 7,600 tons of aluminium were
produced. Cement production in 1957 was 5·5m. tons (1956.li·4m.). Steel
production in 1957 was 1·3 5m. tons. In 1955-56 refined petroleum
amoun ted to 3·2m. tons. The average number of persons employed daily
in the mines in 1956 was 590,776, of whom 3J 7,980 were employed in coal.
30,632 in mica , 89,907 in manganese and 17,787 in goldmines.
In 1958 a systematic geological mapping of an area of about 3,500 sq.
miles was completed by the Geological Survey in parts of Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar, Bombay. Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West
Benga:.. Detailed mapping on a large scale was undertaken in some im-
portant mineral areas of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Mysore and Rajasthan.
Programme. Of Indu.'lrial De.,/opmenl. 1956-61. Government of I ndia. Delhi,1956
Pla.nnin.g Commission. The Second Fire Year Plan: a draft outline. Delhi, 1956.-The Ntw
India : Progress throu(}h DemucraclI. New York, 19[)8
Council of SclenWic and [ndustrial Research. TM W,all" of India: a diclionarv of Indian
raw material! and ind'!Utf"ial product.,. New Delhi, 1948-. In progress
Das, N .l Industrial Enterpris~ in 17ulia.. 2nd ed. Bombay, 1956
Dube, F. . N., The Economir, Geo[lra.phy of tI", Indian RepubliC. AlIahabad,1954
Interna1.ionaJ Labour Office. Recent Det'elopmentl in Certain ~.'r;pect8 of Indian Economv.
2 vol, . N ew D lehi, 1955
Indian .'Abour Garelle. Monthly. Delhi
'&gricu/lural Slalutic. of India. Annual. Delhi
CO·O'p.,."ive Movemenl ill India, Statistical Slalemenls Relating /0. Annllal. Reserve Bank of
India, Bombay
Anstey, V .• TM Economic D",e!opmenl of India. 4th ed. London, 1952
App1ebl'1 Paul H., Re·ezamfnation Of India 1 s Administrative System, with .~ptciaJ re!eTtfl.Ce to
admit4stration. of Government's i-ndustrial and commercial enterprises. Delhi,1956
Best, J. W., Foresl IAfe in India. London, 1935
Drown, J. 0 •• India' s llfin eral Wealth. 3rd ed. Ox::ford Univ. Press, 1955
Da..,Naba~opal. Tndustrial Entl'rprisein India. Bombny.1956
Gbose, H. C., I ndustrial Oma nization. 2nd ed. Oxford Univ. Press, 1959
Gbosb, D .• Pres$Ure of PopUlation ana Economic E.iJiciellcv in India. New York, 1948
Ghosb. :~. 0., E conomic Re.''i'Jurcel 0/ Irulia and Paki.~·tan.. Oalcutta, 19G6
H art, B. C., .New India's Rit1ers. CaJcutta and London, 1956
Hough, E. M., Co ~ operali!'e .J/o'r'cment in lnd£a. 4th ed. Oxford Univ. Press, 19[)9
Knigbt, Sir Henry, Food .&dminislraliun in India. /939-47. Stanford Univ. Press, 1954
Kulkan,\. K. R ., '&qricdlural Marketi1l{J In India. 2nd ed. Bombay, 1956
Mukerjee, R. (ed .), Economic Problems of Modern India_ 2 vola. London, 1939-4.1.-Th.
lndia" Working Cla.s. Bombay, 1945
Rac, R .• S UN'eys o f Indian Industries. 2 vols. Oxford Univ. Press, 1957-58
Rastogl. T. N .•Indian Indu..trial Labour. Bombay, 1949
Ray, S. K., Planni1l{J i n India and Abroad. Calcutta, 1956
Sbann .... T . R., Lacation of ',uiwtriel in India. 2nd ed. Bombay, 1948
Sov8J1.l, N. V .•The Int.rnaJ.ional Position of India', Ra", Material.. New DelhJ, 1948
8t.,bblnll, E. P., The Forests of India. 3 vola. London, 1922-26
Tborner, Daniel, Agricultural Pro.,~cl in India. Delhi,1956
Ve.k:Il,O. N., and Bmhmananda, P . R., Plan1li1l{J for an Erpandi1l{J EC01Wmll. Bombay, 1966
INDIA 161
COMMERCE. The sea· and air· borne external trade of India (Oil both
private and government account s) was as follows, in rupees :
Imports E :q>orts and Re·export.
M erchandist 1'refl:m,re JJerdlandiu TreasuTt!
1954-1\5 6,33,19,31,665 12,30,19.651 6,88,23.28,439 ll,4S,85.n8
195:;-56 6.75,68,73,110 13,90.76,428 6,03.36,21,208 3.07,88,855
1956(Apr.-Dec.)' 0,90,25,11,545 16.33.61,400 4,35,27,33,14:; 3,53.65.442
1957 ' 10,68,25,00,930 49,51,22,539 6,56,51,84,610 3,06,7R,955
1 958 8,64 ,17,9 :> ,110 48,02,0(\,102 5 ,78 ,95 ,68,455 6,91,02,4:)3
1 As from 1 J an. 1957 tbe trade statistic, are heiog computed on tbe calendar-year ba, is
and no longer on tbe fiscal-year basi' (1 April-31 March) and Include .ea-, air- and land-
borne tmde; lalld trade witl! Nepal, Tibe t, Sikkiru aud Bbutan, bowever, is excluded.
Figures of [ndio.'s foreign tra.de with overseas cOWltries passing in tran ~it througb the
foreigu possessions OD the Inuian coagt arc induded. Import figures exclude certain special
consignments of food grains and stores a"'aiting adjustmeut.
The land- borne external trade 1 of India was as fo11o\\'s, in rupees:

Exports and Exports and
I mports Re-expurt.s Imports Re-export~
1953-54 22,n,.10,387 7,46,20,853 1955-56 29,34,68,999 6,19,90,nO
1954-55 23,38,71,410 5,73,41,349 Apr.-Dec.1956 14,61,53,658 4,49,86,984
I Excludes Intlia's trade with Nepal , Tibet, Sikkim and Bhutan, and "'ith tho foreign
possessions in India.
The distribution of commerce by countries was as follows in 1958 (in

1,000 rupees):
Imports E :rpurts I mpor ts Exports
Couutries from to Countries hom to
Aden (ine!. Pl"otcc- K e ny a , rgauda 3.11d
torate) 7.:),42 6,85,87 T:mganyika . 16,15,53 5,1)8,43
Austr;~lja I j,Xl ,GG 21,3i,::;ij Mauritius all,] Soy-
.! ustria . 2,1 :1,G7 20,,11) chell es 6G,Gg ],~ O , G7
Bolgiwn. 16,r.;S,~1 4,6B,67 Netherlands 9,SI,88 6,7:3,:iS
BurDla. 45,5;~,79 7,4 8,0 ·1 Paki:;tan 6,~8,22 7,01, SG
C:·wn.da . 34,65 ,7~ 1'1,5;:,~)~) Persian Gulf S t:~t es . 11,18,56 7,78,70
Cevlon 4,29,70 19,78,:ji Saudi Ar:.lbia . ID,67.1e; 3,~U , 5'1
Chvinn G,23,20 3,42,10 Singapore a,::O,4U 9,5lJ,:-;I)
Czechoslovakia. 6A 8,96 3,93,35 Spain . . ['0,72 54,31
Prance 16,06,17 7,05,9'} Sweden, Norway a.ud
Germa.ny, Vlastern £1;.1,£15,40 H,OP,S·! Deomark 15,67,O:1 4,7(1,67
TIllogary G2,O ·! 60,6U u.s.s.n. 21,71,12 23,3J ,O0
Indones ia. 3,~}1), i.j 2,86.1:-; United Arab n"pub -
lra.n 33,00,71 j,84.0:3 lie G,:?·l,:i3 10,1 4.4 0
Italy 25,il{i,fl5 ;:',.10,64 U.K. 1,6.~,.')3 ,'13 1, 6G,24,~4
J'V·m 39,66,U 25,76,67 U.S.A. 1,61,.1 6,13 0:3,[,!j,6:)
The value (in 1,000 rupees) of the leading articles of merchandise (Indian
produce only in the case of e~ports) was as follows in 1958:
Imports Value Exports Value
Wbeat and spelt 1,02.64,;;3 Edible nnt. 17,0 3,5~
Hice . 44,02.4S Coffee 7,OS,4()
Ecllble nuts 11,06.89 Tea 13ti,;j·J, ·1;{
Oopra. 10,4.j.47 Spices . ~,~ :; .~!
Wool . V,v6,;)u '1'00aoco (e.lI) • It,,-::~,I~
Haw cotton. . :iO,60,:H; (;oat skillS (llndre~scd) 6,~v,0.
Lamp oil and white spirit . 2],65,05 Wool . ~,]7.57
Gas :111d dicsel oil 25.~~,:1 Row cotton . 15.19,9<:
LulJricatiu!! oils 8 .... 1.10 Mi ca (u"cut) . 0,3·1,49
8ynthct.ic fih res 1] ,0 3Nl Iron ore . . ~,99.' 1
Iron and steel (ingots, pbtes, Mn.ngancse orc . . . IG,5S,H:
gird er!', wire, etc.). .)4,48,~9 Natura.l gums,resin3, balsam and
Railway rails and a.ccessories :J0,06Jl7 laC3 . 7,1~,Z;
Copper and ('I l1oys . 1~.5~, 6~ Castor oil 3,0£),')';
El1~iGc$ (eId. n-ircraft) I ,3( ,8 ... Leather . 18,:20,37
G
Imports Value Exports Value

Ste.'\JD. genera,t ing boilers. . 8,48,08 Cotton fabrics . 46,46,15
Machine tools and metal working Jute fabrics • 58,86,75
machinery. . . 26,46,74 Bags and sack . 42,23,92
Exca.vat.ing and mining ma- Carpets . . . . 5,88,30
chinery . 19,58,10 Cotton mill waste ..nd shoddy 6,99,30
Textile mnchinery . 13,88,50 Cotton yarn and thread 6,17,30
Electric generators . 2:;,59,40 Coal 5,33,29
E lectric ""hIe . . . . 7,~3,81
Railway locomotives and trncks. 9,54,96
The trade between India and U.K. (British Board of Trade returns) is
8·S follows (in £ sterling) :
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 168,956,461 141,352,774 157,426,615 139,401,664 ].\2,626,322
Bx.ports t ~om U.K. . 130,164,559 167,864,392 175,644,906 160,305,091 171,272,21';
Lts·export s from U.K. 1,207,262 1,906,500 1,157,849 1,035,426 1,299,412
Books 0/ Reference
Annual S!:alement of tlu Foreign TrcuU Of India. 2 <01.. Calcutta
Jlonthly Irtatistics of tlu Foreign TrcuU of India. Calcutta
Review 0/ tlu 7'rade 0/ India. Annual. Delhi
Indian T,cuU Journal. Weekly. Calcutta
India's Trade Agreemmt. IOW. Other Coumries. Government of India. New Delhi, 1956
COl\l(MUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1957, the net registered tonnage

of vessels which entered with cargoes in the interportal trade was 9,719,627;
cleared, 10,217,830.
The following table shows the number and t.onnage (net registered
tonnage) of vessels engaged in the foreign trade which entered and cleared
at ports in India:
N ati')Dnlity ot 1955-M April to Dec. 1956 19t.i 7
vessels No. 'l'onnag~ No. Tonnage No. Tonnage
Entered:
Indian 1,890 1 0, 11,751 1,2C5 792.366 1,805 1,198,883
British 1,216 5,551,929 1,010 4,018,183 1,352 5,248,548
Foreign 1,941 6,209,246 1,3~6 4,815,207 2,31.) 8,274,627
Total 5,047 12,772,926 3,541 9.&86,766 5,473 14,72 1,958
Cleared :
Indian 1,939 978,086 1,178 80~,276 1,;69 1,123,606
Briti,h 1,2 16 6,440.213 1,046 4,173,426 1,303 5,149,847
Foreigu 1,991 6,0';8,044 1,367 4.964,642 2,365 8,058,693
Total 5,146 12,476,343 3,591 9,940,343 6,427 14,332,046
At 3() Nov. 1959, 157 ships totalling 740,673 GRT were on the Indian
Register; at 30 Nov. 1958,85 ships of 257.945 GRT were engaged in coastal
trade, and 56 ships of 371,763 GRT in overseas trade.
RailtXlY8. The Indian railway system is government-owned and (under
the control of the Railway Board) is divided into 8 zones: Cen tral (head.
quarters at Bombay); Eastern (Calcutta); Northern (Delhi); North Eastern
(Gorakhp ur); North East Frontier (Pandu); Southern (Madras); South
Eastern (Calcutta), and Westent (Bombay).
The total route mileage, 31 March 1957, was 34,744, of which 16,168 was
standard gauge (5 ft 6 in.), 15,387 metre gauge (3 ft n
in.) and 3,189 narrow
gauge (2 ft 6 in. and 2 ft). 453 route miles of narrow gauge was privately
owned. 254 route miles was electrified at 31 :!\larch 1958.
INDIA 163
Passengers carried in 1957-58 were 1,43Hm. (1956-57, 1,382·5m.);
freight tOlUlage, 133·4m. (125·4m.). Railway staff, 31 March 1957, numbered
1,054,408.
Gross tr:lffic Working e"-
receipts (ns pellses (Rs Net revennes
Railway budgets croTes) crores) (Rs crores)
Jfl5 7-58 379·78 2()4,18 57·78
1958-59 1 39HS 331 ·35 63·03
H;;O-60 • 422·03 283·71 75·60
1 Revis ed e3timatc. • Budget.
Totallllloclltion to the railways under the Second Five·Year Plan was

Rs 11,21'5 crores, of which Rs 2,11 crores remained for spending in 1960-61.
Indian amI Ceylon are connected by rail and steamer ferry combined,
the steamers plying between Dhanushkodi Point on Rameswaram Island and
Talaimannar in Ceylon.
Roads. There were in India on 31 March 1958, excluding urban roads.
about 133,000 miles of surfaced and 224,000 miles of unsurfaced roads main-
tained at public expense. Roads are divided into 5 main administrative
classes, namely, national and state highways, and district, village and urban
roads. The national highways (13,900 miles) connect capitals of states.
major ports and foreign highways, and constitute the main arteries of com-
munication in the country. The state highways are the main trunk roads
of the states, while the principal district roads connect subsidiary areas of
production and markets with distribution centres, and form the main link
between headquarters of neigh bouring districts.
There were (31 March 1957) about 458,000 motor vehicles in India,
comprising 192,000 private cars, 10,000 jeeps, 4'1,000 motor cycles, 3,000
auto.rickshaws, 16,000 taxis, 45,000 other public service vehicles, 125,000
goods vehicles and 23.000 miscellaneous vehicles.
Post. On 31 March 1958 there were 45,577 permanent and 19,416
experimental post offices, 149,514 letter-boxes and 9,963 telegraph offices
open for paid traffic. The department at the end of the year was maintain-
ing 150,112 miles of line. including cables, and 2.320.196 miles of wire,
including cable conductor~.
The telephone system is in the hnnds of the Indian Posts and Telegraphs
Department. On 31 March 1959 there were 6,714 telephone exchanges
(including private and private branch exchanges) and 378,500 telephones.
One licensed telephone company owned 15 exchanges with 3,200 telephones.
Wireless receiver licences on 31 March 1959 numbered 1,782,723.
Aviation. The air transport industry in India was nationalized in 1953
with the form ation of two Air Corporations: Air India International for
operating long.distance in ternational air services, and Indian Airlines
Corporation for operating air services within [lJ(lia and to adjacent countries •
... iz., Burma, Ce~'lon, Nep:i.l. Pltkistan and Afgh:i.nista.n. Air India Inter.
nn.tional maintl1in~ l1 daily service to Europe and the U.K .• with halts at
Damascas, Beirut or Cairo; other scheduled night.s are macle to East Africn.
(Nairobi via Karachi and Aden). Indonesi:t and AustraliR. (Sydney, via.
Singapore. Djakal't,u. :lUtl Darwin). the Far E"st (Tokyo. via Bangkok nnd
Hong Kong) and the U.S.S.R. (Moscow, via Tu.shkent). Super Constellation
aircraft are in use on these services. In 1\)00 non·stop flights Bombay-
London (5 tim es It week) began, with Boeing 707s. Viscount, Skymaster,
Heron and Dakota aircraft are flowll by Indi:t Airlines Corporation.
In 1958 Indian aircraft flew 39·6m. km on scheduled services, carrying

696,175 passengers and 42·4m. kg of cargo and mail. On non·scheduled
servic"s 8m. km were flown, 99,549 passengers and 38·3m. kg of freight were
carried.
Th9 Civil Aviation Department maintains and operates 85 aerodromes
and 7 ;~ aeronautical communication stations. Aircrew and ground stall'
are trdned in the Civil Aviation Training Centre at Allahabad.
There are at present 16 subsidized fiying clubs in India. The Govern·
ment Gliding Centres at Allahabad, Bangalore and Poona are administered
by thE' Civil Aviation Department, and the Delhi Gliding Club receives a.
subsidy from the Government. The Technical Centre, under the Research
and D,)velopment Directorate of the Civil Aviation Department, is entrusted
with projects for the development of civil aviation in India.
Snvatsava, s. K., Tramp ..' Deuelopmenl in India. 2nd ed. GhaziaIJad.1956
MONEY AND BANKING. Currency. The monetary unit is the

Indian rupee, the sterling equivalent of which is Is. 6d. In 1955 the Govern-
ment of India. decided to adopt the decimal system of coinage. Under the
Indian Coinage (Amendment) Act, 1955, which became effective 1 April
1957, l;he rupee is divided into 100 na.ye paise (instead of 16 anna.s, 64 pice
or 192 pies), the decimal coins being 1, 2, 5, 10,25,50 and 100 naye paise.
So far only 1,2,5 and 10 naye paise have been issued.1 Old anna-pie coins
are being withdrawn and demonetized in stages.
Tb<, paper currency consists of (1) reserve bank·notes in denominations of
Rs 2, ,3, 10 and 100, and (since April 1954) 1,000,5.000 and 10.000; and
(2) Government of India currency notes of denominations of Re 1 (issued
in 1917-18). Rs 2l, 6. 10, 20. 50 and 100. Bank and Government notes
bearinl~ the king's effigy and other earlier issues have ceased to be legal
tender. 29 Oct. 1957, except at the issue department of the Reserve Bank and
certaiu branches of the State Bank of India. the State Bank of Hyderabad
and the Bank of Mysore. A special issue of Government of India. Re 1
notes was introduced in July 1940 to supplement the circulation of rupee
coins and continues in circulation. These notes are deemed to be included
in the expression •rupee coin' for purposes of the Reserve Bank of India
Act, 1!)34.
Rupee coins have not been minted since 1955-56. Reserve bank·notes
and Government of India. currency notes are legal tender at any place in
India. According to the published accounts of the Reserve Bank of India.
the total value of India notes in circulation on 29 Aug. 1959 was Rs 16,50.21
lakhs, )'nd that of foreign securities held in the issue department Rs 1,63.01
lakhs.
Value of pure nickel, cupro.nickel and bronze money minted at the
Aliporn, Hyderabad and Bombay l\1ints (year ended 31 March): 1953.
Rs 38,74,0671; 1954. R·s 54,80,500; l()55. Rs 2,63,35,519; 1956, Rs
2,60,O~,515; 1957, Ra 3,89,34.356} (including Rs 2,52,00,750 of naye pai6e);
1958, Hs 3,57,74249 (all naye paise) .
100,000 rupees are called 1 Jakh and are written thus: Rs 1.00,000;
100 lal:hs are called 1 crore and are written thus: Rs 1,00.00,000. A lakh
of rupnes at the exchange rate of Re 1 = Is . 6d. is equivalent to £7.500.
1 While the old i. t and 1 rupee coins have exact equivalent. (25, 60 and 100 naye paise).
old coiw'. of 2 annas and below have none. In t.ransaotions involving cash payments they are
converted at the rate of 1 pica 2 naye paise, i a.nn~ ~ 3 naye paii)e, 1 nnna = 6 naye pai ::jet
la
2 aunas :" 12 naye p:l.ise, 3anna5 :a 19 naye paiso. In other types of transactions, the equiva-
lent is c..iculuteu exactly.
INDIA 165
Banks. On 31 March 1950 there were 94 scheduled banks in India and
3,715 offices and branchos of these banks.
An Act to constitute a Reserve
. Bank for India, to regulate the issue of
bank· notes and the keeping of reserves with a view to securing mouetary
etability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of
the country to it.s advantage, was passed on 6 March 1934, and has been
modified from time to time. The bank started functioning on 1 April 1935.
In terms of Sections 20 and 21 of the Act, the Bank has the right and obliga-
t,ion to transact the banking business of the Government ofIndia and accord·
ingly undertakes to accept money on account of that Government, to make
payments on its behalf and also to carry out its exchange, remittance and
other banking operatiolls in India, including the acceptance and maintenanco
of all its {'ash balances (except those required for the use of the Governments
at places where the Reserve Bank has no branches or agencies) free of interest.
The Bank performs similar functions ou behalf of State Governments by
virtue of agreements entered into with them. It also manages the rupee
public debt of the Governments. Since 1 July 1955 the State Bank of
India, which was constituted under the State B8.nk of India Act, 1955, by
transferring t.o it the undertaking of the Imperial Bank of India, functions
as agent of the Reserve Bank in the same way as the Imperial Bank did.
The State Bank of India continues to undertake commercial banking func-
tions, providing erodit to industry, trade and commerce.
Under the provisions of the Roserve Bank of India (Transfer to Publio
Ownership) Act, 1943, the Reserve Bank became a State·owned institution
with effect from I Jan. 1949. Its net profits for the year ended 30 June 1959
amounted to Rs. 40 crores.
Balance of tue post office savings banks at the end of 1958-50 amounted
to Rs 2,26·(l2 crores.
Reu,ve Bank ollnd;,,: Repo,lon Currency and Finanu.-T,end. and P'O!Ireu 01 Banki"" in
India.-Reporl on IIIe Working of Ihe Reserve Bank of India. Annual. Bombay
Jain, L. C., Monelary ProblerrM of India. London, 1953
Laud. G. M. , CO-opl?Tative Banking in India. Bomi..ay, 1956
Mnranjlln, S. K., Motkrn Ba1l,killl) ill India. :Bombay, 19~2
Pa.nandikar, S. G., Ba.nking in India. Bombay, 1951
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Metric weights and measures were

introduced in government service, in major industries and in selected areas
on 1 Oct. 1958. It is anticipated that a complete change throughout the
country to metric weights and measures will be accomplished by 1067.
According to the Standards of Wcight Act, 1939, weights and meallurea
are as follows: 1 tola = 180 grains troy = 11·66 grammes; 1 chi/tae
(5 tolaa) = 900 grains troy = 58' 32 grammes; I ,~eer (16 chittaks) = 2~ lb.
troy (or Z·057 lb. avoirdup()is) = 933· 10 grammes; 1 maund (40 seers) =
100 lb. troy (or 82 lb. 4 oz. 9 dr. avoirdupois) = 37·32 kg.
The stanrhtrd pound (7,000 standard grains), ounce, cwt and ton are also
standard weights sido by side with the above.
The gaz is equivalent to 1 yd.
Calendar. The dates of the Saka era (named a fter the north Indian
dynast.y of the first century A.D.) are being \l3ed alongside Gregorian date.s in
iS8nes of the Gazelle of India. news broadcasts by All-India Radio and govern-
ment-issued calendars, from ~2 :March 1957. a date which corresponds with
the first. day of t·he year 1879 in the Saka era.
Books oC Reference
Spe.~al worl;s relating to Stale8 are shown 'Under their ,eparate headings.
Ouilk /() Currtnl Official StalisliC3. 3 vols. Delhi, 1943, 1945, 1949
TI~ Imlterial Gauue... 01 Iruiw. 2nd ed. 26 vols. London, completed In 1909
India .. BpMmeriJ and Almanac. 1958. Government 01 lndi:t.. Delhi,1957
Iruiw : a r.f..."'c, a,mUllI, 1959. Delhi, Govt. print., 1959
The HindlUllln rro, Book. Calcutta. 1958
Tlv.lruiian Year Book. Annnal. Bombay, from 1952
Cambrillg. History of India. 6 vols. Cambridge, 1922-47. Supp., 1953
Th. Tim•• of Iruiw Directory arui Yro,book. Bombay and London. Annual
Binani, ':>. D., and Rao. T . V. Ram:>.. Iruiia at a Glance. Rev. ed. Bombay, 1954
Chatterjee, S. B., Indilln ClillU!lo!cgll. Calcutta, 1956.--{ed.), National Atlas of India .
Debra Dun, 1957
Desai, A. R., The Social Background of Iruiia .. Nationalism. Bombay, 1954
Dunbar, Sir G., A Hi.lMlI of Iruiill. 4th ed. 2 'rol8. London, 1949
Gridlths, P . J ., The British Impaclo .. India. London, 1952
Knndra, J . 0 ., Indian F'or~n PoliCV, 1917-[;4. B<>mbay, 1955
Lotbian. Sir A. O. Xoo.), NuTtay'.' Haruibook fo, Tra.tU." in Iruiill, Pakislan, Bu,ma a'rui
Ceylo... 17th 00. LondoD,1955
Kajumdor, R. 0 ., Raychandhuri, H. 0 ., and Do.tta, K.,.d.n .d.dvanud History 01 Iruiia. 2nd
ed. l.ondon, 1950
Mitra, E:. N., The Indian .d.nnual Rc'}isler. Calcntta, from 1953
Philips, O. H., lruiio. London, 1949
Rangncl:...., D. K., P.-Iy arui Capital D••elop'ntnl in Iruiw. R. IWlt. of Int. !.Jfairs, 1958
Roberte. P. E., HUlOrifAl Geographv 01 Iruiia. 2 vols. Oxlord, 1916-20
Smith, 1'. E., Oxlord Histo,y 01 India. ard ed . Oxford, 1958
Spate, O. H. K .. India an4 P"ki.stan : a 9....,.al ,egional ge"'Jraphy. London, 19~4
SntwD, S. 0., Guide 10 IheIruiw UJJic, Library Uounded in 1801]. H.M.S.O., 19~2
STATES AND TERRITORIES

Under the provisions of the States Reorganization Act, tho Bihar and
West Bengal (Transfer of Territories) Act, and the Constitution (Seventh
Amendment) Act, which came into force on 1 Nov. 1956, India is now
dividec; into 14 States end 6 centrally. administered territories:
Stalu Capital Statea Capital
Andhrh Pradesh Hyderabad Madras Madras
Assam Shillong Mysore BaugaJore
Bihar Patna Orissa Cuttack
Bombay Bombay Punjab Chandigarh
Jammtl and Rajasthan Jaipur
Kashmir Srinagar Uttar Pradesh Lllcknow
Kerala Trivalldrum West Bengal Calcutta
Madhy~ Pradesh Bhopal
T e.mw.rie3
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Laccadivo
and Anrindivi Islands, Manipur, Tripura.
State Reorganization. Dllring 1948 and 1949 rapid progress was made
in the attachment of states to provinces and in the amalgamation of states
into unions under powers conferred by the Independenco Act, 1947, which
released the rulera of princely states from their obligation.> to the Crown.
The Ccnstitution, which came into force on 26 Jan. 1950, provided for 9
Part A States (Assam, Bombay, Madhya Pl'adesh, Madras, Oriasa, Punjab,
Uttar 'Pradesh and West Bengal) which corresponded to the previous
INDIA-ANDHRA PRADESH 167
governor's provinces; 7 Part B States (Hyderabad, Madhya Bharat,
Mysore, Patalia-E. Punjab (PEPSU), Rajasthan, Saurashtra and Travan-
core-Cochin) which corresponded to Indian states or unions of states; 10
Part C States (Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilnspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh,
Kutch, Manipur, Tripura and Vindhya Pradesh) which corresponded to the
chief commissioner's provinces; and 1 Part D Territory (Andaman and
~icobar Islands). Part A States (under governors) and Part B States (under
rajpramukhs) had provincial autonomy with a ministry and elected assembly.
Part C States (under chief commissioners) were the direct responsibility of
the union government, although Kutch, Manipur and Tripura had legislatures
with limited powers. Andhra was formed as a Part A State on its separation
from Madras in 1953. Bilaspur was merged with Himachal Pradesh in 1954.
The main features of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, were the
abolition of the constitutional distinction hetween Part A, Part B and Part
C States and of the institution of rajpramuchs, and the establishment of
two categories for the units of the Indian union to be called States and
Territories. The following were the main territorial changes: the Telugu
districts of Hyderabad were merged with Andhra; Mysore absorbed the
whole Kannada .speaking area (including Coorg, the greater part of 4 districts
of Bombay, 3 districts of Hyderabad and 1 district of Madras); Bhopal,
Vindhya Pradesh and Madhya Bharat were merged with Madhya Pradesh,
which ceded 8 Marathi.speaking districts to Bombay; t.he new state of
Kerala, comprising the majority of Malayalam-speaking peoples, was formed
from Travancore-Cochin with a small area from Madras; Patalia-E.
Punjab was included in Ptmjab, Kutch and Saurashtra in Bombay and
Ajmer in Rajasthan ; Hyderabad ceased to exist.
R~port 0/ tht lIlatPS RefJ'qa.m·zation (J(JmmissifJn. Government of Iodia. Dplhi,19ri6
M.non. V. P .• T'" Slorv of I'" Intt!l'alion of"" Indian [Princely] SI~J. London. 195&.
ANDHRA PRADESH
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION. Andhra was constituted
a separate state on 1 Oct. 1953. on its partition from Madras, and consisted
of the undisputed Telugu.speaking area of that state. To this region was
added. on 1 Nov. 1956, the Telengana area of Hyderabad State, comprising
the districts of Hydcrabad, Medak, Nizamabad, Karimnagar, Warangal,
Khammam, Nalgonda and Mahbubnagar, parts of the Adilabad district and
some taluks of the Raichur. Gulbarga and Bidar districts, and some revenue
oircles of the Nanded district.
Andhra Pradesh has a bioameral legislature. The Legislative Council
consists of90 members. The Legislative Assembly has 301 members. The
state of the parties in the Legislative Assembly, 1 March 1958, was: Con-
gress,213; People's Democratic Front, 22 ; Communist,12; Praja Socialist,
11; Praja, 3; Scheduled Castes Fedcratioll, 1; Socialists, 1; Independents,
37.
For administrative purposes there are 19 districts in the State. The
capital is Hydera.bad.
Governor. Ehimsen Sachar (appointed 11 Juue 1957).
Chief Minuter. D. Sanjiviah.
AREA AND POPULATION. The state has an area. (prO\risionai) of

106,041 sq. miles and a population (1951) of31·26m. The principallanguage
is Telugu. Cities with over 100,000 population (1951 censlls) are: Hydera.
bad, 1,085,722; Vijayavada, 161,198; Warangal, ]33,130; Guntur,
125,255; Visakhapatnam, 108,042; Rajahmundy, 105,276.
EDUCATION. In ]951 a.bout 13% of the population were literate
(19,6% males, 6'5% females) . In the area now forming Andhra Pradesh
there were, in 1955-56, 33,790 recognizcd educational institutions with a
total of 3,064,924 pupils (2,11],259 boys and 953,665 girls). Primary schools
numbel'ed 27,853 with 2,328,445 pupils; secondary schools, 963 with 456,6]0
students.
There were 47 arts and science colleges and 22 professional and technical
collegef: with total attendance of 47,414. Osmania University, Hyderabad
fOllnde,1 in 1918), is residential and teaching; Andhra University, Waltair
(]926) ,\nd Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati (1954), are affiliating and
teaching.
JUSTICE. The High Court of Judico.ture at Hydero.bad has a Chief
Justice and 14 puisne judges.
FlliANCE. The revised budget estimates for 1958-59 showed total
receipt<: of Rs 68,23·141akhs, of which contributions from the central govern.
ment anounted to 13,33·781akhs. Other receipts included : land revenue
(net), 10.50'89 lakhs; taxes on income other than corporation tax, 6,17'63
lakhs; excise, 6,84'051akhs; forests, 2,50'77 lakhs; stamps, 2,78'92 lakha.
Total Expenditure on revenue account was Rs 64,79'60 la.khs, of which
education took 11.69'66 lakhs; medical and publio health, 5,00'50 lakhs;
agriculture, 3,08'89 lakbs; police, 5,16'99 lakhs, and general administration,
4,95·67Iakhs. Budget estimates for 1959-60: total receipts, 7l,29'27Iakhs;
total el:penditure on revenue account, 71,66'30 lakhs.
TotlLl outlay on the Second Five-Year Flan is estimated at Rs 175'74
crores. Expenditure, 195~59, is about 90'47 crores.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture_ In Andhra Pradesh there are 23·4m.
acres 01' cultivable land, of which 18·4m. acres are under production. Pro·
ductioD of principal crops, 1957-58: Rice, 3·5m. tons; jowar and bajra,
1·6m. t'Jns; sugar cane (gur), 401,000 tons; groundnuts, 995,000 tons, and
tobacce., 109,000 tons (43% of India total). During the Second Five·Year
Plan it is hoped to bring about 487,000 acres under irrigation through major
or mecLum schemes; in 1956-57, 8,000 acres were irrigated and in 1957-58
about ::9,000 acres. Forests occupy about 20% of the total area of the
state.
Minerals. There are deposits of manganese, mica and coal; other
minerals include barytes, asbestos and chromite. The principal mica belt is
in Nell('re district, which o.lso has deposits of uranium. Production of mica
is at th'l rate of about 2,500 tons a year. Coal production is centred in the
Telang!llla area.
Ind1tstry. In 1956 there were about 167,000 persons working in factories
subject to the Factories Act, 1948. Factories employing 10 or more persons
and ushg power numbered 1,578 in the former Andhra State in 1\)54; they
employ. ~d an average of 64,738 workers. In Hyderabad State (1952) there
were a total of 1,061 factories employing about 70,700 workers.
In 1959 Andhra Pradesh had 12 textile-mills,12 sugar-mills and 2 paper·
mills. Other industries include cement, tanning and glass. There is an oil
INDIA-ASSAM 169
refinery at Visakhapatnam, where India's only major shipbuilding yards
are situated.
Cottage industry includes the manufacture of carpets, wooden and lacquer
toys, brocades, bidriware, filigree and lace,wol'k. Tbe woodcn toys of
Nirmal in Hyderabad are particularly well known.
Irrigation and Power. The Tungabhadra dam was inaugurated in 1953;
it will irrigate about 830,000 acres in Andhra Pradesh and Mysore. The
Machkund hydro-electric project is being financed under the Second Five-
Year Plan jointly with the Government of Orissa; a dam has becn con-
structed on the Machkund River, which forms the boundarv bctwecn the
two states, and generating units with a capacity of 51,000 have a,lready been
installed. The Nagarj unasagar irrigation and hydro-electric scheme for the
construction of dams on the Krishna River was started in 1955.
COMMUNICA nONS. Shipping_ The port ofVisakhapatnam handled
521 ships of 3,624,000 GRT during 1957-58 (imports, 1,146,000 tons; ex-
ports, 1,347,000 tons). There are minor ports at Kakinada and Masuli-
patam, and 6 smaller ports.
Rail. In 1957 the route mileage of railway in the State was 2,902, of
which 1,633 miles were broad gauge, 1,244 miles metre gauge and 25 miles
narrow gauge.
Roads. There were 14,4G6 miles of roads, including state highways and
district roads.
Raman Rao. Economic Development 0/ Andl<ra Pradesh. Bombay, J ~5S
ASSAM
GOVERNMENT. Assam first became a British Protectorate at the close
of the first Burmese War in 1826. In 1832 Cachar was annexed : in 1835
the Jaintia Hills were included in the East India Company's dominions, and
in 1839 Upper Assam was annexed to Bengal. In 1874 Assam was detached
from Bengal and made a separate chief commissioncrship. On the partition
of Bengal in 1905, it was united to the Eastern Districts of Bengal under
a Lieut.-Governor. From 1912 the chief commissionership of Assam was
revived, and in 1921 a governorship was created_ On the partition of
India almost the whole of the predominantly Muslim district of Sylhet was
merged with East Bengal (Pakistan)_ Dewangiri in North K amrup was
ceded to Bhutan in 1951. The States Reorganization Act, 1956, effected
no territorial changes in the case of Assam.
Naga Hill3 Tuensang Area. The Naga Hills Tuensang Area was con-
stituted a Centrally Administered Area under tho Ministry of External Aft'airs
with effect from 1 Dec. 1957. It has an area of 6,236 sq. miles and a popula-
tion of about 370,000. It includes the Naga Hills district of Assam and the
Tuensang Frontier Division formerly under the North East Frontier Agency.
The new area is administered by the President through the Governor of
Assam . The headquarters of the Commissioner is at Kohima. The leaders
of the Na,g a tribes have been seeking independence, and (,hero has been
unrest in the area.
North East Front'ier Agency. The N.E .F.A. is administcred by the
Governor of Assam, act,ing as the agent of the President, through an
Adviser whose status corresponds to that of a Commissioner. It includes

the KelQang, Tirap, Subansiri, Siang and Lohit Frontier Divisions, and
has an area of 31,438 sq. miles.
CONSTITUTION. Assam has a unicameral legislature of 105 members.

The state of the parties in the Legislative Assembly, 31 Dec. 1958, was:
CongresE;, 71; Praja Socialist, 8; Communist,4 ; Independents,22. There
are 15 le·cal boards, 14 municipalities and 10 town committees.
The Constitution of India (6th Schedule) makes special provision for the
administ.r ation of the Hill Districts of Assam.
Govemor. Gen. S. ]\of. Srinagesh.
Chief M inister. Bimala Prasad Chaliha.
AREA, POPULATION AND RELIGION. The plains districts, the

hill distlicts and the transferred areas, exclusive of the N.E.F.A. and Naga
Hills Tu·~nsang Area, cover an area of 47,089 sq. lniles, with a population
of 8,830,732 in 1951. Principal towns with population (1951) are: Shillong
(the capital), 53,756; Gauhati, 43,615; Dibrugarh, 37,991; Silchar, 34,059;
Nowgong, 28,257. 65·2% of the population are Hindus, 22'1% Moham·
medans, 6'5% Christians and a further 5'8% profess tribal religions.
EDUCATION. The 1951 census showed 18'07% of the population to

be literal;e (males, 19·67%; females, 6'48%).
The University of Gauhati (established 1948) is both affiliating and
teaching. In 1958 it had 28 attached and affiliated colleges; students
enrolled (1957-58) numbered 16,841.
Primary education was made compulsory in some selected areas in 1949.
Compuls.)ry education was in force in 14 towns and 4,407 villages in 1958;
the number of pupils under compulsion was 321,540 (including 125,392
girls). The number of primary schools in 1957-58 was 14,186 (including
1,284 baaic primary schools) with 893.619 pupils.
TherE' were, in 1957-58,461 high and higher secondary schools for boys
and 63 lor girls, with total enrolment of 178,188 ; 1,689 middle schools
(including 75 basic middle schools) had 164,987 pupils.
Technical Education. Tbe Prince of Wales Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Jorhat, admits 180 students for diploma courses in civil,
mechanit:al and electrical engineering. Advanced technical training is pro-
vided at the Technical Training Inst itutes of Kohima and Jorhat. Other
technical schools are at Tezpur and Silchar. The Assam Civil Engineering
Institute. Gauhati, in 1957-58 enrolled 287 students for courses in civil,
mechankal and electrical engineering. The Engineering College, opened at
Gauhati i.n 1956, had 264 students. The Assam Medical College, Dibrugarh
(1947) and the Veterinary College, Gauhati, had 533 and 243 students re-
spectivel:r. An agricultural college was established at Jorhat in 1948 and
enrolled 103 students in 1957-58.
JUSTICE. The scat of the High Court is Gauhati. It has a Chief

FINANCE . The revised budget estimates for 1958-59 showed total

receiptsJf Rs 31,62'58 lakhs, of which contributions from the central
governmont amounted to Rs 8,62·93Iakhs. Other receipts included: Taxes
INDLA-nIHAR 171
on income other than corporation tax, Rs 4,34,20 lakhs; union and state
cxcise duties, Rs 3,96'161akhs; sales tax, Rs 2,11'311akhs; land revenue
(net), Rs 2,45·96 lakhs. Total expenditure on revenue account amounted
to Rs 29,70'471akhs (education, Rs 5,03'021a,khs; police, Rs 2,65'55Iakhs;
medical and public health, Rs 1,91 '78 lakhs). Budget estimate~ for 1959-60:
receipts, Rs 33,95'02 !&khs; cxpenditure on revenue account, Rs 30,54'01
lakhs.
PRODUCTION. The cultivation and manufacture of tea is the prin.
cipal industry in Assam. Agriculture employs Marly 89% of the popula.
tion. Sericulture and hand· loom weaving, both silk and cotton, are the
most important home industries. There are some coalfields, hut output is
not large (545,812 tons in 19G8). In 1954 there were 1,021 tea estates.
The area of tea pluckcd in 1955-56 was 385,920 acres; the total output was
332,824,621 lb. of black and 2,699,680 lb. of green tea; in 1953-54 the daily
average number of persons employed was 303,2-14. The production of jute
has increased from 717,000 bales (of 400 lb.) in 1949-50 to 1,094,000 bales in
1957-58. There are 6,368 sq. miles of reserved forests and 11,185 sq. miles
of unclassed forests under the administration of the Forest Department.
160 saw·mills supplied over 9m. cu. ft of timber to the value of Rs 1,181akhs
in 1957-58; 15 plywood mills produced some 2m. tea chests. Assam con·
tains important oilfields. Production at the Digboi oil refinery amounted
to 114·5m. gallons in 1958 (1948, 67·Sm. gallons), all from local sources.
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. On 31 March 1958 there were 7,134
miles of road in Assam of which 729 miles were national highway. Of this
total, 1,178 miles were surfaced, 180 metal1ed, 3,882 gravelled and 1,892
earth. There were also 1,057 miles of bridle paths.
Rail. The open mileage of railways in 1957 was 1,455 miles, of v.. hich
I,On miles was running track and the reat sidings.
B<U"tla, H . C., llem·}io.!a . 2nd ed. Jorbat, 1~41
PUrer·Haimendort, 0 , VOll, The J\'aked Nag(Js (.d.s3um- Burma }'rontier). London, 1939
Gait, gir E., History (If .d.S$~m. 2nd cd. Calcuttl\,1926
Kingdon \Vn.rd, F., ,ls.:iam Adt:er.turt. London, 1941
Re!d, Sir ltobert, Jli~·torv 0/ 'he PrOnlitr .J.reas borderinr; on Assam. Shillo:lg, 1~42
BIHAR
GOVERNMENT. The state contains the 2 ethnic areas of Bihar and
Chota Nagpur. For the purposes of administration it is divided into 4
divisions covering 17 districts.
CONSTITUTION. Eihar ha .• It bicamerallcgislatufe. T he Legislative
Council consists of 96 members. The Legislative Assembly consists of 318
elected members. The state of the parties in the Legislative Assembly on
1 March 1958, was: Congress, :lOS; Praja Socialist, 32; Jharkhand, 32;
Chota Nagpur Santhal Purganas J:.nata, 23; Communist, 7; Iudependents,
15.
Go~'ernor. Dr Z"l;:i1' Hllss3in (assu med office, 6 Jull' 1\)57).
Chief Minister'. Dr Sri Krishna Sinha. "
AREA, POPULATION AND RELIGION. On 1 Nov. W56, as a result
of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, certain areas from the Purnea
district s-nd the Purulia subdivision of the Manbhum district were trans-
ferred to the state of West Bengal. The figures for the area and population
of the state are 67,164 sq. miles and 38,779,562. The 5 principal towns
a.re Patna (the capital), Gaya, Bhagalpur, Jamshedpur and Ranchi. The
hot.weat:1er scat of the Government is at Ranchi. Hindus form the great
majority of the population.
EDUCATION. At the census of 1951 the proportion of literates WIIS
12-15%. There Ilre two universities, na mely, Patna University (initially
founded 1(.117, and reconstituted 1!)52) and Bihar Uni-,.ersity (founded 1!)52);
Patna Uuiversity is a teaching and residential university for the area of the
Patna Municipal Corporation; Bihar University, an affiliating and teaching
universit-y for the rest of the state. Number of students, at 31 March 1956,
was 2,45~: (including 171 women).
Besides 4 research institutes for post.graduate language studies, there
were, in 1955-56,54 colleges for general education (including 5 for women
with 40,026 pupils (including 2,318 women), 25 colleges for professional
educatioI' (including I for women) with 7,406 pupils (including 211 women),
3 collegef; for special education with 132 scholars (including 2 women), 963
high and post. basic schools (including 45 for girls) with 277,726 pupils
(including 19,292 girls), 3,321 middle and senior basic schools (including 166
for girls) with 420,604 pupils (including 47,101 girls), 29,54!) primary and
junior baiic schools (including 2,731 for girls) with 1,601,210 pupils (includ-
ing 233,9-14 girls), 4 nursery schools with 191 pupils (including 73 girls), 175
schools for professional education (including 27 for girls) with 15,314 pupils
(including 1,252 girls), 5,292 schools for special education (including 279 for
girls), wil;h 204,448 scholars (including 14,099 girls) and 973 unrecognized
institutions of different categories (including 68 for girls) with 57,978
scholars (including 4,156 girls)_
JUSTICE. There is a High Court (constituted in 1916) at Patna
with a Chief Justice and 15 puisne judges_ On the criminal side there
a.re sessic.ns judges, stipendiary and honorary magistrates. For the ad-
ministration of civil justice there are district judges, subordinate judges
and muneiffs (courts of first instance). The police force is under an inspector-
general; there is I policeman to 1,330 of the population.
FINANCE. The revised budget estimates for 1058-59 show total
revenue receipts of Rs 62,05-54 lakhs, of which taxes on income other than
corporation tax produced 7,63-53; land revenue (net), 11,45-28; excise,
10,17'93; stamps, 2,20-96; forests, 1,17'97. Chief heads of expenditure
\vere: ed'Jcation, 9,45-31; public health and medicine, 4,97-21; civil works,
2,32-44; debt sen'ices (net), 6,01)'72; police, 4,83-82; general administra-
tion, 4,3(;-92. Total expenditure on revenue account amounted to Ra
62,96-56Iakhs_ Budget estimates, 1959-60: revenue receipts, Rs 71,86-67
lakhs; e~:penditure, Rs 66,33-47 lakhs.
Outla;r on the Second Five-Year Plan is estimated at Rs 180 crores, in-
cluding t :lat for Kosi irrigation scheme and the Damodar Valley project.
Expenditure, 1956-59, was about Rs 83 crores. Central assist.ance, HI5G-59,
amounted to about Ra 43'4 crores.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In Bihar the total area cropped during
1954-55 uas 24,648,178 acres, which included 4,842,6!JO acres cropped more
than once. Area and production of principal crops, 1957-58 : Rice,
12,215,00') acres (2,198,000 tons); maize, 1,590,000 acres (344,000 tons);
INDIA-BOMBAY 173
wheat, 1,188,000 acres (243,000 tons); pulses, 4,020,000 acres (621,000 tons);
sugar cane, 376,000 acres (318,000 tons, gur); oilseeds (mainly rape and
mustard, and linseed), 352,000 acres (36,000 tons); jute, 477,000 acres
(778,000 ba les of 400 lb.).
Mining. The principal coal area of Bihar lies in the Manbhum and
Hazaribagh districts. The total output was 21,814,376 tons in 1958. The
districts of Hazaribagh, Monghyr and Gaya form the most important sonrce
of mica in the world; output in 1955,378,814 tons. Iron ore is mainly raised
in the district of Singhbhum; output in 1955, 1,349,650 tons. Bauxite,
1955, 32,279 tons; manganese, 1955, 33,255 tons; kyanite, 1955,39,856
tons. The average daily number of workers employed in coal, mica and
iron·ore mines was 208,413 in 1954. The Tata Iron and Steel Co.,
Jamshedpnr, employed over 30,000 workers.
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. The total mileage including P.W.D.,

national highways, district board and municipal roads, in 1955-56 was
8,718, and of unmetalled roads 27,948.
Shipping. The length of waterways open for navigation is 400 miles.
Rail. The North Eastern and Eastern railways traverse the province.
HoultOD, Sir J., Bihar, t"4 lleart 0/ India . Calcutta, 1949
BOMBAY
GOVERNMENT. The Governor, who is appointed by the President, is
the head of the administration; he is aided bv a Council of Ministers. with
the Chief Minister as its head. The Council of Ministers is collectively
responsible to the Legislatnre of the state.
CONSTITUTION. The Bombay Legislature consists of two Houses.
The Legislative Council has 108 members. The Legislative Assembly con·
sists of 397 memhers, of whom one is nominated by the Governor to represent
the Anglo·lndian community. The state of parties in the Assembly, 1
March 1959, was: Congress, 235; Praja Socialist, 34; Peasants' and Workers'
Party, 26 ; Communist, 19; Republican, 16; Jan Sangh, 4 ; Hindu.
mahasabhi , 1; Samyukta Maharasht ravadi Congress Jana Parishad, 5; Red
Flag, 8 ; Mazdur and Kisan, 4 ; Mahagujarat Janata Parishad, 26; In.
dependents, 17.
Governor. Sri Prakasa.
Chief Minister. Yeshwantrao Balwantrao Chavan.
Under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the new Bombay State has
been formed by merging the states of Kutch and Sanrashtra and the Marathi·
speaking areas of Hyderabad (commonly known as Marathwada) and
Madhya Pradesh (also called Vidarbha) in the old state of Bombay, after the
transfer from that state of the Kannada.speaking areas of the Belgaum,
Bijapur, Kanara and Dharwar districts which have been added to the state
of J\Iysore, and the Abu Road taluka of Banaskantha district, which has
gOlle to the state of R a jasthan.
The separat ion of Bombay State into a l\!arathi.speaking state and a
Gujarati.speaking state is under discussion (1960) by the central and state
governments.
AREA AND POPULATION. The state is the largest in respect of

size in the Union; 190,641 sq. miles. It has a population of 48·3m., of
whom at·out 26m. are Marathi.speaking and about Wm. Gujurati.speakiug
people. The principal cities (19;31 census) are Bombay City (the capital)
(2,996,267), Ahmedabad (788,333), Poona (480,982), Nagpur (449,099),
Sholapur (277,087), Surat (223,182), Baroda (211,407), Bharnagar (137,951)
and Kolhapur (136,835). In 1956 the registered birth rate was 31·7 and
the regist.ered death rate 14·2 per 1,000 population.
EDUCATION. The Bombay University, founded in 1857, is mainly an
affiliating university. Under the university, in addition to the departments
of econc·mics, sociology, civics and politics, chemical technology and
statistics, are 15 arts and science colleges and 18 professional and special
colleges and 9 research institutions. In 1958 the number of students in the
arts and science colleges was 29,790, and in the professional and special
colleges, 14,598. Nagpur University (1923) is also mainly affiliating. In
addition to the departments there were 14 arts and science colleges (9,148
students> and 13 professional colleges (3,605 students). The Poona Univer·
sity, founded in 1949, is both teaching (Poona area) and affiliating (Maha.
rashtra area); in 1958 it had 18 arts and science colleges with 16,347
students, 15 professional colleges with 5,033 students and 3 research in·
stitution:!. The Gujarat University (1950) had (1958) 24 arts and science
colleges with 17,705 students, 16 professional colleges with 8,815 students
and 5 reaearch institutions. Baroda University (1949) had 5,881 students.
The Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth (1955) is a rural university with 3,784
students in 4 colleges. The S.N.D.T. Women's University had 6 colleges
with 2,3:.4 students.
The '\otal number of recognized institutions in 1958 was 69,651 with
6,822,8Hi students. Secondary schools numbered 2,368, with 872,404 pupils,
and primary schools 46,960, with 5,362,666 pupils.
JUSTICE. The High Court has 17 judges. The seat of the High Court
is Bombay but it has benches at Nagpur and Rajket. On 31 Dec. 1956
there were 34 sessions judges (and 54 additional ones) engaged wholly or
partly in criminal jurisdiction, 3 assistant sessions judges, 42 district
magistrates (and 42 additional), I chief presidency magistrate (and I addi·
tional), ;:5 presidency magistrates, 502 judicial magistrates, 648 executive
magistrates, 44 honorary magistrates and 3 special judicial magistrates.
There wore also 802 village panchayats established under the Bombay Act,
1933 and 1,532 village panchayats (Saurashtra District Panchayat Act,
1956).
FINANCE. The revised budget estimates for 1958-59 show total
revenue ,)f Rs 132,01'961akhs (of which sales tax brought Rs 30,73'141akhs;
taxes on income other than corporation t a x, Rs 12,10'86; union excise
duties, Rs 15,01 '36, and land revenue (net), Rs 13,37 '83). Total expenditure
on reverue account amounted to Rs 131,58'38 lakhs; chief heads of ex·
penditure (Rs lakhs): education, 24,83'93; police, 13,25; public health
and medicine, 9,78' 24; general administration, 8,73'09. In 1959-60
revenue receipts are estimated at Rs 136,73'74 lakhs and expenditure on
revenrre account at Rs 137,71'98.
After reorganization of the state, the total outlay on the Second Five.
Year Pla.n was estimated at Rs 350·22 crores. During the 3 year's 195G-57
to 1958-.59 expenditure was about Rs 175 crores (i .e., half ofthe total outlay),
of which central government assistance amounted to Rs 74·2 crores.
INDIA-JAMMU AND KASHMIR 175
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1951, 61·5% of the population of
Bombay State were dependent upon agriculture, 46·6% of that of San·
rashtra and 42'1% of that of Kutch. Area and production of principal
~rops, 1957-58: Cotton, 10,988,000 acres (2,130,000 bales of 392 lb.); rice,
4,124,000 acres (1,3n,OOO tons); jowar and bajra, 25,502,000 acres
(4,283,000 tons); groundnuts, 5,7l3,000 acres (1,265,000 tons).
Industry. The textile industry is dominant in production. Of the 562
cotton textile factories (employing 20 or more workers and using power) in
India in 1956, 251 employing a total of 474,209 workers were in Bombay
State; the number oflooms, 1 Jan. 1959, was 137,973 (of which 63,640 were
in Greater Bombay). The number of factories of all kinds in Bombay State
was 10,813 during 1957, and the average number of workers in all industries
was 970,!)11, including 105,421 women. Other industries, besides textiles,
include chemicals, engineering, food and transport.
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. In 1957-58 Bombay had 19,685 miles
{)f metalled roads and 16,685 miles of unmetalled roads.
Rail. The total length of railway open in Bombay State is about 6,400
route miles.
Shipping. There are two major ports in the state, Bombay and Kandla;
the latter is being developed by the central government.
Annual StaUstical Abstract (from 1951)
Stalistical .tllas of Bombay Slale. 4th ad. Bombay, 1950
Guide to Current OfficiaJ Statistic.J. Bombay, 1955
Handbook oJ Statistics of lh~ Reorganised Bombay Stale. Bombay 1957
PatH, P . C •• Regional SUr1)ey DJ Economic Resources. Kolhapur. 1950
llushbrook \VilIams, L. F., The Black /Jills: Ruteh in Hi.story and Legend. London, 1958
SUTE LmltAUY. Central Library, Town Hall, Bombay. Secretary: G. C. Jhala.
JAMMU AND KASHMIR 1

The state of Jammn and Kashmir, which had earlier been under Hindu
rulers and Moslem sultans, became part of the Mogul Empire under Akbar
from 1586. Mter a period of Afghan rule from 1756, it was annexed to the
Sikh kingdom of the Punjab in 1819. In 1820 Ranjit Singh made over the
territory of Jammu to Gulab Singh. After the decisive battle of Sobraon
in 1846 Kashmir also was made over to Gulab Singh under the Treaty of
Amritsar. British supremacy was recognized.
GOVERNMENT. The Maharaja acceded to the Dominion ofIndia on 27
Oct. 1947; and, in view of large-scale attacks by tribesmen from outside the
state, the Indian Army took over its defence. Tho dispute between India
and Pakistan about the state was first brought before the Unitcd Nations in
1948.
In 1950 the Maharaja Sir Hari Singh, who had ruled from 1925, left the
state, and his son Yuvraj Karan Singh took over as Regent in his place.
On 17 Oct. 1952 hereditary rule in the state came to an end and the regent
was sworn in as Sadr·i.Riyasat. He was re-elected for another 5-year term
in 1957.
1 Although the state i~ included in the Indian Constitution, the dispute 'between Indi,a
a nd Pakistan regarding this territory is still under t.he consideration of the United Nations.
eetween one-third and one-half of Kashmir is occupied by Pakista.n (see p . HI9).
The permanent Constitution of the state adopted by the Constituent

Assembly came into force in part on 17 Nov. 1956 and fully on 26 Jan. 1957.
Prime Minister. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed.
AREA AND POPULATION. The bulk of the population. except in
Jammu. are Moslems. The ruling family was Hindu. The area is 84.471 sq.
miles; the population. according to the 1941 census. is 4.021.616. Geographi.
cally the state may be divided into: (1) the Tibetan and semi· Tibetan tracts,
which Clontain the districts of Ladakh and Gilgit; (2) the Jhelum valley,
within which is situated the lovely and world·famous • Happy Valley' of
Kashmir. and (3) the submontane and semi·mountainous tract which
include:1 Jammu, the winter capital of the state.
EDIUCATION. Education is free throughout the state from primary
to unh'crsity stage. There are 2.100 educational institutions, and the
estimated expenditure for the year 1957-58 was about Rs 1221akhs. Special
attenti<,n is being given to the spread of education amongst women. There
are 2 cclleges, 27 high schools, 47 middle schools and central schools and 362
primaI;' schools for girls. For boy students. there are 2.265 primary schools,
109 high schools. 281 middle and central schools. There are 8 colleges for
boys and 2 training colleges (both for men and women) besides 3 full training
schools and 2 attached training classes in Poonch and Kargil. A university
was cshblished in Srinagar in 1948. The Second Five·Year Plan for Edu.
cation is estimated to cost Rs 13·2 crores during 1956-61.
FINANCE. The receipts for 1959-60 are estimated at Rs12,99·39Iakhs
and expenditure charged to revenue at Rs 10.80·24 lakhs.
AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY. Under the land· reform measures
(accordlng to which land in excess of 221 acres held by a single person is to
bo tranlferred to the actual tiller) 229,371 acres of land have 80 far been
transfeIred in ownership right to 193,141 tillers with 703.604 dependants.
MeasurCls have been adopted to procure paddy on a monopoly basis. 21,720
acres of cultivable waste lands have so far been allotted to landless peasants.
Besides agriculture, the chief industry is sericulture. which dates back
to the 16th century. Forests cover about one.eighth of the area of the
state. forming an important source of revenue. besides providing employ.
ment tc a large section of the population.
The Drug Research Laboratory in Jammu is the premier pharmaceutical
laboratory in India .
The Government has started a network of emporia to provide an outlet
for the trade of the state. Business done by the emporia during 1956-57
was over Rs 32 lakhs. During the same period goods worth about Ra 8
lakhs were produced in the various production centres.
The First Five·Year Plan for Jammu and Kashmir (1951/52-55/56) was
implelU"nted to the extent of 87%. The Second li'ive·Year Plan for the
state has been allocated a. sum of Rs 33·9 crores.
COMMUNICATIONS. Kashmir is linked with the railway system of
India b:v the newly constructed motorable Jammu-Pathankot road. The
Banihal cart road. which is 200 miles long, connects Srinagar. the summer
capital, with Jammu. tho winter capital. The opening of the Banihal
TUllnelin Dec. 1956 has shortened the distance between the two towns and
made it possible to maintain road communication with the Kashmir Valley
INDIA-KERALA 177
during the winter months. The state owns over 500 trucks for the move-
ment of goods, and 2 standard workshops have been set up in Srinagar and
Jammu to maiutain this fleet. New roads have been laid out connecting
the far.flung areas with the main road.
Birdwood, Lord, Two Nations and Kashmir. London, 1956
Brecher, M.. StTUl}yle for Kashmir. New York, 1953
Korbel, J . t Danger in Kashm ir. Princeton Univ. Pre8s., 1954
Sinha, S., Kashmir : ..:I Handbook for V·j;·itors. 3rd ed. AIlababad,1941
KERALA
The new state of Kerala, created under the States Reorganization Act,
1956, consists of the previous state of Travancore-Cochin, except for 4 taluka
of the Trivandrum district and a part of the Shencottah taluk of Quilon dia·
trict. It took over the Malabar district (apart from the Laccadive and
Minicoy Islands) and the Kasaragod taluk of South Kanara (apart from the
Amindivi Islands) from Madras State.
Following a civil disobedience campaign launched in June 1959, the
Communist ministry was dismissed by the President of the Union, who
placed I{erala temporarily under presidential rule (31 July 1959).
At the elections held on 1 Feb. 1960 the following groups were returned
to the Assembly: United Front, 94 (Congress, 63; Praja Socialist, 20;
Moslem League, 11); Communists, 26; Communist·sponsored independents,
3; others, 3. One member to represent the Anglo·Indian community is
nominated by the Governor.
Governor. Dr B. Ramakrishna Ruo.
Chief .Minister. Pattom Thanu Pillai.
The Government is a coalition of the Congress and Praja Socialist parties.
AREA AND POPULATION. Kerala, the home of the Malayalam.
speaking people, is bounded on the north by the Karnataka State of Mysore,
on the south and east by the Tamil State of Madras and in the west by the
Arabian Sea. The state capital is 'frivandrum.
The physical features of the land fall into three well· marked divisions:
(1) the hilly tracts undulating from the Western Ghat..q in the east and marked
by long spurs, extensive ravines and dense forests; (2) the cultivated plains
intersected by numerous rivers and streams; and (3) the coastal belt with.
dense coconut plantations, rice fields and picturesque backwaters.
The state has an area of a bout 15,000 sq. miles and a population of about
15rn., the density of population is nearly 1,000 per sq. mile. Of the total
population 13·2% is urban and 86·8% rum!. 53'7% of the people belong
to the agricultural classes. Population of principal cities (1951 census):
'frivalldulD, 18i;,931; Kozhikode, 158,724; Allepey, 116,287; Mattancheri,
73,908; Trichul', 69,515; Palghat, 69,504; Quilon, 66,126; Ernakulam,
()2,285.
EDUCA TION. Kerala stands forelllost among the Indill.n States in
literacy and educational advancement. The literacy according to the 1951
census of the area now forming the state was 40'88% of t.he tot.al population,
the percentage for llIales being 50·37 and that for femal es, 31'65.
There were, in 1955-56, 9,849 recognized educational establishments in
the area now forming Kerala: 7,05(1 primary schools with 1,830,979 pupils;
787 secondary schools (excluding Malabar) with 571,200 pupils; 40 arts and
science collegcs and 13 professional and technical colleges with total enrol·
ment of 36,829. Kerala University (established 1937) at Trivandrum, is
affiliating and teaching.
FINANCE. The budget for 1959-60 shows a revenue of Rs 38,46'77

lakhs and an expenditure of Rs 39,24'54 lakhs. Anticipated expenditure
on education was Rs 13,01'66.
PRODUCTION. Agl'icultw·e. The chicf agricultural products of the

state are rice, tapioca, coconut, arecanut, oilseeds, pepper, sugar cane,
rubber, tea, coffee, cardamom, etc. About 95% of Indian rubber is pro·
duced ill Kerala. The chief art.icles of export among agricultural crops are
cashew kernels, rubber, pepper, tea, cardalllom and other spices. Area
under principal crops are approximately as follows (in 1,000 acres): Coco·
nut,I,007; rice, 1,912; tapioca,620; pepper,214; cardamom, 69; ginger,
26; cashew, 100; arecanut, 144; lemon grass, 39·8; coffee, 41; tea, 99;
rubber, 160.
Fishing is a flourishing industry; the annual catch is about 250,000
tons.
Forestry. About a third of the area is compriscd of forests, including
teak, sandalwood, ebony and black. wood and varieties of soft wood.
Mining. Next to Bihar, Kerala possesses the widest variety of economic
mineral resources among the Indian States. The beaeh sands of Kerala
contain monazite, ilmenitc, rutile, zircon, sillimanite, etc. There are exten·
sive white·clay deposits and abundant resources of mica, graphite, lime·
stone, quartz sand, lignite and other minerals of commercial importance.
Ind~stries. The availability of natural resources and the existence of
numerous rivers and waterways providing easy access to factories have
contributed in no small measure to the industrial development of the state.
Most of the major industrial concerns in the state are either owned or spon·
sored by the Government. The Government owns 7 industrial concerns and
has subltantial shares in more than 40 concerns. Among the privately
owned f:tctories are the numerous cashew and coil' factories. Other impor.
tant facl;ory industries are rubber, tea, tiles, oil, textiles, ceramics, fertilizers
and chemicals, sugar, cement, rayon, glass, matches, pencils, monazite,
ilmenite, titanium oxide, rare earths, aluminium, electrical goods, paper,
shark· liver oil, etc.
Among the cottage industries, coir.spinning and handloom.wea't"ing are
the most important ones, forming the means of livelihood of a large section of
the peo'Jle. Other industries are the village oil industry, ivory carving,
furnitur'3.ma.king, bell metal, brass and copper ware, leather goods, screw·
pines, mat.making, rattan work, hee-keeping, pottery, etc. These have
been organized on a co· operative basis.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Port Cochin, administered by the

central government, is one of India's 6 •major' ports. During 1957-58,
1,039 slips of 5,199,000 GRT entered the port (imports, 1,404,000 tons;
exports, 396,000 tons).
Roac~s . In 1957 there were 10,537 miles of road in the state.
'Gopalan,~, K., Kerala: pa..t and present. London, 1959
INDIA-lIIADHYA PRADESH 179
MADHYA PRADESH
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION. Under the provISIons of
the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the new State of Madhya Pradesh was
formed on 1 Nov. 1956. It consists of the 17 Hindi districts of the previous
state of that name, the former state of l\Iadhya Bharat (except the Sunel
enclave of Mandsaur district), the former states of Bhopal and Vindhya
Pradesh and the Sironj subdivision ofKotah district, which was an enclave of
Rajasthan in Madhya Pradesh.
For information on the former states, see THE STATESUAN'S YEAR.BoOR,
1958, pp. 180-84.
Madhya Pradesh has a bicameral legislature. The Legislative Council
consists of90 members. The Legislative Assembly has 288 elected members;
of these, 1 March 1958, 232 belonged to the Congress Party, 12 to Praja
Socialist Party, 10 to Jan Sangh, 7 to Hindu Mahasabha, 5 to Ram Rajya
Parishad, 2 to Communist Party and 20 were Independent.
For administrative purposes the state has been split into 7 divisions with
a Commissioner at the head of each; the headquarters of these are located
at Bhopal, Bilaspur, Indore, Jabalpur, Raipur and Rewa. There are 43
districts, each under a Collector, 190 tehsils and 150 municipalities.
The seat of government is at Bhopal.
Governor. H. V. Pataskar.
Chief Minister. Dr Kailas Nuth Katju.
AREA AND POPULATION. l\1adhya Pradcsh is the second largest
Indian state in size with an area of 171,200 sq . miles. In respect of popula.
tion it ranks fifth . PopUlation (1951), 26,071,657 (males, 13·22m . and
females, 12·79m.). In 1951 members of scheduled castes numbered
3,490,761 and of scheduled tribes, 3,865,354. Rural population was
22,958,836 and urban population, 3,141,164. Density of population was
152 per sq. mile.
Citiea with over 100,000 population (1951 census) are: Indorc, 310,859;
Jabalpur, 256,998; Gwalior, 241,577; Ujj ain, 129,817, and Bhopal, 102,333.
LANGUAGE. The number of persons speaking each of the more pre·
valent langua~es (1951 census) were: Hindi, 19,065,972; Urdu, 365,969;
Marathi, 582,821; Raj ast llltni,896,644; Ciujrati, 114,000; Sindhi,128.041.
RELIGION. At the 1951 census Hindus numbered 24,653,276; Sikhs,
39,877; Muslims, 1,040,345, and Christians, 81,005.
EDUCATION. The 1951 census showed 9'83% of the population to be
literate (16'22% of males, 3·22% of' females). Education is free for chil-
dren from 6 to 14 years of age in the 17 districts of Mahakoshal; it i~ corn·
pulsory and, unt.i1 the 10th class, free in Vindhya Pl'adesh; in Bhopal and
Madhya Prade~h it is free up to 8th class. In 1956-57 there were 21,040
primary schools, 1,311 secondary schools, 346 high schools, 58 colleges of
arts and science, and 20 professional colleges. There are 4 universities in
Madhya Pradesh; tha University of SagaI' (established 1946), which is
affiliating and teaching. Jabalpur University (1957). affiliating; Vikram
University (\957) at "Cjjain, affiliating; and Indire Kala Sangect Visll\ra
Vidyalaya at KhairagarL.
JUSTICE. The High Court of Judicature at Jabalpur has a Chief
,}llstice and 11 puisne judges.
FINANCE. In the revised budget estimates for 1958-59 the total gross
revenue was estimated at Rs 58,77 lakhs (including taxes on income other
than corporation tax, 5,12 lakhs; land revenue (net), 8,38 lakhs; forests,
6,94 lakhs; union and state excise duties, 9,50 lakhs and sales tax 3,99
lakhs). The total expenditure on revenue account was estimated at Rs
55,27 lakhs (education, 10,63 lakhs; general administration, 3,50 lakhs;
polic(" 5,44lakhs and medicine and public health, 3,83 lakhs. The budget
estimates for 1959-60 show a total revenue of Rs 59,37 1akhs and a total
expenditure on revenue account of Rs 58,44 lakhs.
O'ltlay under the Second Five·Year Plan for the reconstituted State has
been fixed at Rs 190'S9 crores. The expenditure on the State Plan in the 3
years 1956-59 is estimated at Rs 76·16 crores. Central assistance, 1956-57
and 1957-58, totalled Rs 31'76 crores.
PJRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture is the mainstay of the

state's economy, 7S% of the total population being dependent upon it. The
Malwll. region abounds in rich black cotton soil, the low.lying areas of
Gwalor, Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand and the Chhatisgarh plains have
a lighter sandy soil, whilst the Narmada valley is formed of deep rich
alluvial deposits. Area and production of principal crops, 1957-5S: Rice,
9,664,000 acres (2,093,000 tons); jawar, 4,260,000 acres (1,168,000 tons);
whea';, 6,618,000 acres (1,087,000 tons); pulses, 7,798,000 acres (1,102,000
tons) groundnuts, S14,OOO acres (199,000 tons) and cotton, 1,982,000 acres
(464,000 bales of 392 lb.).
The target of additional food produce under the Second Five·Year Plan
was fixed at 1,461,000 tons for the reorganized state. Achievement, 1956-57,
was !il,000 tons and an anticipated 169,000 tons in 1957-58. Against a
total target of 1,085,000 aores of irrigation potential for sohemes included
in th" Second Five·Year Plan, the potential created in 1956-57 was 11,000
acres and the area actually irrigated in the same year was 7.000 acres. Under
minor irrigation schemes, against a target of 775,000 acres of additional
irrigation, achievement in 1958-57 was 25,000 acres and an anticipated
155,0)0 acres in 1957-58.
F,)re8try. Nearly 30% of the state's area is covered by forests. The
forests are chiefly of saj, babul, salai, dhavra, tendu, mahua, bamboo, teak,
sal, anjan and harra. They are the chief source in India of best· quality
teak.
Mining. The state has extensive mineral deposits, and prospecting is
proce3ding for about 20 minerals. Coal, iron ore and manganese are
found. in the Chhatisgarh Division, bauxite has been located in Amarkantak,
Balaghat, Seoni and elsewhere, whilst in the Sidhi, Rewa, Pauna, Chhatar·
pur and Tikamgarh Districts of former Vindhya Pradesh. coal, ochre, silli·
mani1,e, corundum and diamonds are being exploited. In 1956 there were
67 coalmines, 277 manganese, 97 limestone. 9 china clay. 6 bauxite. 12
steatite, 2 felspar and 3 diamond (producinl:; 95% of India's diamonds).
OUtP'lt of coal in 1958 was 5,390,510 tons. Total value of mineral produc.
tion in 1951 was about Rs 8'4 crores.
lr.dustry. Industries include cotton textiles (19 mills, with 13,139
loom, and 525,639 spindles), newsprint (India's only plant. with a capacity
of 30,)00 tons, being located at Nepanagar), sugar refining, pottery, carpets.
art·sLk, rayon, jute, glass and engineering goods. The country's largest
cement works is at Kymore, near Katni. The Bhilai steel plant near Durg
INDIA-MADRAS 181
is one of the 3 being built by the central government under the Second Five·
Year Plan.
Cottage Industries. The state is known for its traditional village and
home crafts sueh as Chandcri Sarce, toys, pot,tery. lac work, woodwork and
metal utensils. The ancillary industries of dyeing, calico printing and
bleaching are centred in areas of texti le production.
COMMUNICATIONS. Total mileage of roads in 1956 was 15,217,
ofwhieh 8,966 miles were metalled. Transport has been partly nationalized.
MADRAS
GOVERNMENT. The first trading establishment made by the British
in the Madras State was at Peddapali (now Nizampatam) in 1611 and
then at Masulipatam. In 1639 the English were permit,ted to make a.
settlement at the place which is now Madras, and Fort St George was
founded. By 1801 the whole of the country from the Northern Circars to
Cape Comorin (with the exception of certain French and Dani~h settlements)
had been brought under British rule.
Under the provisions of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the
Malabar district (excluding the islands of Laccadivc and Mini coy) and the
Kasaragod taluk of South Kanara were transferred to the new state of
Kerala; the South Kanara district (excluding Kasaragod taluk and t he
Amindivi Islands) and the KolJegal taluk of the Coimbatore district were
transferred to tbe new state of Mysore; and the Laccadive. Amindivi and
Minicoy Islands were constituted a separate centrally. administered Terri.
tory. Four taluks of the Trivandrum district and the Shcncottah taluk of
Quilon district were transferred from the old state of Tra vancore-Cochin to
the new Madras State.
CONSTITUTION. The Govornor is aided by a Council of 8 Ministers.
The legislature consists of an upper house (Legislative Council) and a lower
house (Legislative Assembly). The former consists of 63 members. The
Assembly consists of 205 members. The state of parties in the Assembly.
1 March 1958, was: CongrellS. 151; Communist, 4; Praja Scoialist. 2;
Independents, 47. Th~re are 13 district.s, each under a district collector.
Under the head of local administrat.ion there are 11 district boards, 59
municipal councils, tho Corporation of Madras, and 3 township committees
(Courtallam, l\Iettur, Bhavanisagar).
GOt'.mor. Bishnuram Mehdi.
Chief Minister. K. Kamaraj.
AREA, POPULATION AND RELIGION. Area, 50,172 sq. miles.
Population of the area now forming Madras State (1051). 29·97m. Tamil
is the prineipallanguage and has been adopted as the state language with
effect from 14 Jan. 1958. The principal towns are: Madras (the capital),
1,416,056 inhabitants; Madurai. 361.781; Tiruchirapalli. 218.921. and
Salem, 202.335. Hindus formed 86'8%. Moslems 9'1 % and Christians 4%
of the population in 19;")1 .
Vital statistics for the former Madras State for 1955: Births registered,
1,180,372 (31·24 por 1,000 estimated population); deaths reg istered,
532.504 (14·09); infantile deaths regist ered, 121,900 (103·27 p~r 1.000 live
births).
182 'l'HE BRITISH COllIMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
EDUCATION (1956-57). There are 2 universities, the Madras Univer-

sity a'ld the Annamalai University. The first of these, founded in 1857, is
an afflliating university, and has also been discharging teaching functions.
It has also a coliege of technology under its management. The Annamalai
Univcrsity, founded in 1929, is of the residential and unitary type having
8 faclllties. Excluding the departments directly managed by the uni-
versiti.es, there are 41 arts colleges for men and 15 for women. There are 32
professional and technical colleges, 29 for men and 3 for women. The
numb~r of all students of college standard is 47,335 men and 8.150 women.
There are 890 secondary schools for boys and 188 for girls, with a total en·
rolment of 396,645 boys and 145,403 girls. The number of elementary
schools is 20,954, and their enrolment. 1.596,620 boys Itnd 900,162 girls.
1,927 basic schools arc attended by 159,518 boys and 193,337 girls; 33
nurselY schools by 1.136 boys and 1,044 girls. Public funds contribute
72'1 % of the total expenditure on education.
JUSTICE. There is a High Court with a Chief Justice and 10 judges.
There were in 1956 in alil,541 criminal courts, and 580,240 criminal cases
were instituted. The police force in 1956 numbered 31,918, under an
Inspector-General, while there was a force of 3,134 for Madraa city. The
total number of civil suits instituted in the courts, including village and
panchayat courts, was 138,299 in 1956.
F1NANCE. The revenue of Madras State in 1958-59 was Rs 09,49
lakhs. The chief contributions (in lakhs) were: Land revenue, Rs 4.81;
Union excise duties, Rs 5.81; taxes on income other than corporat.ion tax.
Rs 6.25; sales tax, Rs 15,27; stamps. Rs 3.59; forests, Its 1,25; civil
admir.jstration, Rs 10.37; receipts under motor vehicles acts, Rs 4.78; civil
works, Rs 76. El.-penditure in 1958-59 was Rs 66,84 lakhs, consisting of:
General administration. Rs 5.00; administration of justice and jails, Rs 2.24;
police, Rs 5,22; education, Rs 12.33; medical. and public health. Rs 5.22;
civil works, Rs 4,97; agriculturc. Rs 2.56; community projects, etc., Rs 2,98.
Estimated receipts, 1959-60. total Rs 73.08 lakhs, and expenditure on
revenue account, Rs 71,69Iakhs.
PItODUCTION. Agriculture engages 62'8% of the population.
Area :Lnd production of principo-i crops, 1957-58: Rice, 5·6ru. acres (3·1m.
tons); other foodgrains, 6·Om. acres (1·6m. tons); groundnuts, 1,795,000
acres (860,000 tons); other oilseeds, 390,000 acres (51,000 tons); sugar
cane, 121,000 acres (340,000 tons, gur) and cotton, 1,165,000 acres (392,000
bales of 392 lb.). The area irrigated by Government in 1956-57 was
5,261,834 acres.
Ind1tstry . There were, in 1956, 103 cotton·mills with 8,000 looms. The
total ]lumber of factories working in 1956 was 4,898. The Madras Govern-
ment in 1957-58 treated at the government quinine factories 530,652 lb.
of cinlhona bark.
F(,re.stry. The output of timber by the forest department was 38,580
tons b 1956-57.
Electricity. The total installed generating capacity of all electricity
Buppl:, undertakings in the state (all government·owned) amounted to
321,500 kw. by thc end of Oct. 1958. The total electric energy generated
in 19~6-5i, was 1,135·2m. units.
INDIA-MYSORE 183
COMMUNICATIONS. At the end of 1957-58 Madras had 16.400 miles
of metalled roads and 9.645 miles of unmetalled roads. as well as 131 miles
of navigable canals. There ,vere 2.484 miles of railway. in addition to 136
miles of district board lines in 1955. Madras is the chief port.
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. 'rh. Department of Statistics (Fort St George. Madras) was
established in 1918 and reorganized in 195 3. f)iTectoT: D. S. Rajabushauam. M.A. Main
pubUcatiollS : Annual Statistical Abstr/Ut; f)ecennial Statistical Atla.; Season and Crop
Rtporl; Quinq"ennial W CJJ)es Cens"s; Quarterly Abstract of Slatistics.
MYSORE
The new state of Mysore. constituted under the States Reorganization
Act. 1956. brings together the Kannada.speaking people previously distri·
buted in 5 st.ates, and consists of the territories of the old states of Mysore
and Coorg. the Bijapur, Kanara and Dharwar districts and the major
portion of the BeJgaum district in Bombay, the major portions of the
Gulbarga, Raichur and Bidar districts in Hyderabad, and South Kanara
district (apart from the Kasaragod taluk and the Kollegal taluk of the
Coimbatore district) in Madras.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Mysore has a bicameral
legislature. The Legislative Council has 63 members. The Legislative
Assembly consists of 208 elected members. The state of the parties in the
Assembly, 1 March 1958. was: Congress. 147; Praja Socialist. 18; Scheduled
Castes Federation. 2; Peasants' and Workers'. 2; Communist. 1; Indepen·
dents. 37.
For administrative purposes the state has been divided into 4 divisions:
Bangalore. Mysore, Belgaum and Gulbarga. There are 19 Districts, of which
Coorg is now onc. The capital is Bangalore.
Governor. H .H. Jaya Chamaraja Wadiyar, G.C.B., G.C.S.I. (Maharaja
of l\iysore; born 1919. succeeded 8 Sept. 1940).
Chief .Mini8ter. B. D. ,Jatti.
AREA AND POPULATION. The provisional area of the new state
is 74.861 sq. miles. and its population (1951 census), 19.401,193. Estimated
population (1955). 31·32m. Kanuada is the language of administration and
is spoken by about 60% of the people. Other languages include Teluga
15%). Hindustani (7%) and Tamil (7%) .
The population of Bangalore (1951) was 778.997; of Mysore, 244,323;
of Kolar Gold Fields. 159.084, and of Devangere. 56.018.
EDUCATION. In the area now forming Mysore State the proportion
ofliterates to the total popUlation, according to the 1951 census. was 19'29%
(males, 29'08%; females. 9'16% ). In 1955-56. the area had 26.016 recog·
nized educational institutions. These included 20.101 primary schools
attended by 920,328 boys and 528,665 girls; 486 high and higher secondary
schools (130,238 boys and 40.627 girls); 694 middle schools (11-1.752 bOy8 and
36.667 girls); 42 arts and science colleges for general education (27.368
pupils) and 28 professioual and technical colleges (8.186 pupils). Thero
were also 1,195 basic schools (middle and primary) and 7 special colleges for
adult education. The University of Mysore (founded 191G) at Mysore and
Kartanak University (1950) at Darwar are teaching and affiliating. the
former having ·15 and the latter 17 affiliated colkges. The Indian Institute
184 TIlE DRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
of ScioClce, Bangaloro is unaffiliated; it conducts diploma courses in engineer-

ing, metallurgy and technology_
JUSTICE_ The seat of the High Court of Mysore is at Bangalore. It

has a Chief Justice and S puisne judges.
FINANCE. The revised estimates for 1955-59 show a t otal revenue

Rs 66,2S'77 lakhs (civil administration, 20,SHlO; contributions from the
central government, 6,09'59; taxes on income other than corporation tax,
4,69,3:1; land revenue, 4,40'00; excise duties (Union and State), 6,55'43;
forests, 4,49'77). Expenditure on revenue account, 1958-59, was Rs
63,SS'(;9 lakhs (education, 10,32,16; civil works, 5,22,86; police, 3,12'43;
medicd and public health, 4,22'SO; agriculture and rural development,
3,13'9'!; community projects, etc., 1,74'70). Estimated receipts, 1959-60,
Rs 71,'37'39Iakhs; expenditure on revenue account, Rs 7I,IS·99Iakhs.
TOl;al outlay on the Second Five-Year Plan for Mysore after reorganiza-
tion is estimated at Rs 1,45,13 crores. Expenditure, 1956-57 to 1958-59,
was about Rs 55 crores, of which central assistance amounted to about Rs
35·6 CJ·ores.
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. Agriculture forms the main occupa-

tion of more than three-quarters of the population. Physically, the original
MySOl"ll divides itself into two regions-the' maidan' or plain country, com-
prising roughly the districts of Bangalore, Tumkur, Chitaldrug, Kolar,
Bellar:r, l\fandya and Mysore, and the 'malnad' or hill country, comprising
the di"tricts of Chickmagalur, Hassan and Shimoga. Rainfall is heavy in
the' malnad' tracts, and in this area there is dense forest. The greater part
of tbe 'maidan' country is cultivated. Coorg district is essentially agri-
cultuml. Total f orest area in tbe state is about 6m. acres, producing
sandalwood, bamboo and other timbers. In 1957-5S, 16,760,000 acres were
under foodgrains (production, 3,37S,OOO tons, of which onc-third was rice);
other 'Jrops included groundnuts (635,000 tons) and other oiiseeds, cotton
(512,000 bales of 392 lb.), chillies (23,000 tons), tobacco, sugar cane, bananas,
oranges, tea, coffee (26,S93 tons in 1955: 60% of India total) and rubber.
In the first 2 years of the Second Five-Year Plan about 117,000 acres
were brought under irrigation.
Industry. The state abounds in valuable natural resources and basic
raw materials necessary for the development of modern industry. The
Mysor.. Iron and Steel Works are situat.ed at Bhadravarti, whilst at Bangalore
are national undertakings for the manufacture of aircraft, machine tools.
light engineering and electronics goods. Other industries include cement,
chemicals, sugar, paper, porcelain and soap. In addition, much of the
world'l! sandalwood is processed in Mysore. the oil being one of the most
valuable productions of th e state. The K olar Gold Fields are India's only
source of gold; production was 170,000 oz. in 1955.
COMMUNICA TIONS. There were in former Mysore, 711 miles of rail-

way (including 102 miles of narrow· gauge line). The state had 10,796 miles
ofroad, of which 5,377 miles were gravel and 4,952 miles were metaJled. In
Coorg there were 353 miles of roads, comprising SO miles tltrred, 237 miles
metan.~d and 36 miles gravelled. Dangalore is developing into an important
airport,: there is an airline service to Hyderabad, Poona and Bombay.
INDlA---ORISSA 185
ORIS SA
GOVERNMENT. Orisaa, ceded to the Mahrattas by Alivardi Khan in
1751, was conquered by the British in 1803. In 1804 a board of 2 com-
missioners was appointed to administer the province, but in the following
year it was designated the district of Cuttack and was placed in charge of a
collector, judge and magistrate. In 1823 it was split up into 3 regulation
districts of Cuttack, Balasore and Puri, and the non-regulation tributary
states which were administered by their own chiefs under the regis of the
British Government. Angul, ono of these tributary states, was annexed
in 1847, and with the KbondUlaL'I, ceded in 1835 by the tributary chief of the
Boudh state, constituted a separate non-regulation district. Sambalpur
was transferred from the Central Provinces to Orissa in 1905. These districts
formed an outlying tract of the Bengal Presidency till 1912, when they were
transferred to Bibar, constituting one of its dividioIls under a commissioner.
Orissa was constituted 1\ separate province on 1 April 1936, some portions
of the Central Provinces and Madras being transferred to the old Orissa
division.
Consequent on the lapse of Paramountcy, the Eastern States Residency
ceased to function on 19 Aug. 1947. In pursuance of an agreement entered
into with the Dominion Government on H, Dec. 1947, the rulers of 25 Orissa
states surrendered all jurisdiction and authority to the Government of
India on 1 Jan. 1948, on which dnte the Provincial Government took over
the administration of these areas on behalf of the Government of India..
The administration of 2 states, viz., Saraikella and Kharswan, was trans-
ferred to the Government of Bibnr in May 1948. By an agreement with
the Dominion Government, Mayurbhanj State was finally merged with the
province on 1 Jan. 1949. By the States Merger (Governors' Provinces)
Order, 1949, the states were ct'mpletely merged with the state of Orissn on
19 Aug. 1949.
CONSTITUTION. Orissa is administered by the Governor with a Coun-
cil of l'v1inisters and 0. unicameral legislature consisting of 140 members,
designated as Orissa Legislative Assembly.
The state consists of 13 districts, Cuttack, BalMore, Puri, Sambalpur,
Ganjam, Koraput, Mayurbhanj, Dhenkanal, Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Bol-
angir, Kalahandi and Boudh-Phulbani, For administrath-e purposes, they
fall into 13 administrative districts with the inclusion of the dis tricts of
Narsinghpur, Nayagarh, Angul and Khondmals with the districts ofCuttack,
Puri, Dhenkanal and Boudh respec til-ely.
Governor. Yeshawant Naravan Sukthankar.
Chief Mini8ter. Dr Harerus"hna Mahtah.
AREA, POPULATION AND RELIGION_ The area ofthe state (after
the final merger of states) according to the census of 1051 is 60,136 sq. miles,
with a total population of 14,645,946. No territorial changes were effected
in Orissa under the States Reorganization Act, 1956. The figt:res of the
classification of the popUlation by community in 1951 were: Hindus (in-
cluding scheduled castes and scheduled tribes), 14,318,411; Moslems,
176,338; Christians, 141,934; Buddhists, 969; Sikhs, 4,163; Jains, 1,248.
Cuttack is the only city (population, 102,505 in 1951); the new capital i~ at
Bhubaneswar, 18 miles from Cuttack.
EDUCATION. The schools and colleges, formerly affiliated to the
Patna and the Andhra Universities, are now affiliated to the Utkal University,
which <ame into being on 27 Nov. 1943. There are 16 arts and science
colleges, 1 medical college, 1 Ayurvedic college, I law college, 2 training
colleges, 1 agricultural college, 1 engineering college, 1 college of veterinary
science .md animal husbandry, and 3 oriental colleges. Of these, 10 arts and
science ,)ollegcs, the medical, Ayurvcdic, training, agriculture, veterinary and
oriental colleges are mannged by Government. The law and engineering
colleges are managed by the university. The remaining colleges are privately
managed. The number of students in the colleges (including 1 for women)
in 1955--56 was 6,858 (including 412 women).
The total number of recognized schools, in 1955-56, was 18,256 (which
included 2,940 special schooLy). The schools for general education included
946 secondary schools with 8·1m. pupils and 14,370 primary schools with
H·lm.pupils. There were 3·2m. students in the technical and vocational
schools. In 1955-56 thcre were 1,616 schools for social education. The
special Ilchools for the students from scheduled tribes numbered 1,074 with
a total <,f 43,870 students in 1955-56.
JUSTICE. The High Court of Judicature at Cuttaek has a Chief Justice
and 12 puisne judges.
FIN ANCE. In the revised budget for 1958-59 the total gros.q revenue
is estimated at Rs 27,17'81 lakhs. The principal heads of revenue are:
Contrib'ltions from central government, 3,68'49 lakhs; excise, 3,74'99 lakhs;
taxes OIl inoome, 2,86'68Iakhs; land revenne, 2,39'73Iakhs; forest, 2,59,15
lakhs. The principal heads of expenditure are: General administration,
2,75'23Iakhs; education, 3,32,61 lakhs; police, 1,73'42Iakhs; civil works,
2,92'05 :.akhs; health and medical, 1,56'61Iakhs; agriculture, 1,08'51 lakhs.
Total e:[penditure is estimated at 26,37'85 lakhs. Budget estimates for
1959-60 show a revenne of Rs 30,64'69 lakhs and an expenditure of Rs
30,58'3£1lakhs.
Total outlay under the Second Five·Year Plan has been fixed at Ra 99·97
crore.~ (including that for major irrigation and power projects). Total ex-
penditme, 1956-59 was about 51 ·53 crores; central assistance, 1956-57 and
1957--58, amOlmted to Rs 26·6 crores.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The cultivation of rice is the principal
occupation of nearly 80% of the population. The area under paddy, 1957-
58, was 9,476,000 acres and production amounted to 1,755,000 tons. A
small qlantity of jute is produced, and tobacco and sugar cane are also
grown. Turmeric is cultivated in the uplands of the districts of Ganjam,
Boudh·Phulbani and Koraput, and is exported.
Fisheries. In the coastal areas fish abound and there is a large fish
export trade to Calcutta, particularly from the Chilka lake.
Min·.':ng. There are iron and manganese ore deposits in the state. A
mining (:orporation was established in 1956 and operations bcgan the follow.
year.
Industry. There are a modern textile.mill, a few weaving-mills, a cement
factory, 2 refractory planM, 2 paper-mills, a. cold-storagt> plant, a few glass
fs.ctorieE, a sugar factory, 2 ferro·manganese plan ts, an aluminium pl/,nt, the
first tube·mill in India, a number of rice.mills, a few oil· and flour·mills and
a few soap factories. A steel plant with capacity of 720,000 tons per allllum
is being built by the central government at Rourkela. There are cottage
and small-scale industries in the state, e.g., handloom weaving and the manu·
INDIA-PUNJAB (INDIA) 187
facture of baskct.~, wooden articles, hats and nets; silver filigree works of
Orissa are specially well known.
The Hirakud Dam Project on the river l\lahanadi (started 19(9) will,
when completed, irrigate 1·8m. acres and deliver 232,000 kw. of power. The
dam (the largest ea.rth dam in the world) was completed in 1957. Hydro.
electric power totalling 85,000 kw. is now serving Cuttack, Puri and Dhen·
kanal districts.
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. The total mileage of the roads (1956)
was 6,4:!9, me taIled 3,732 and unmetalled 2,697.
Rail. The open mileage of railway in 1956 was 873 miles.
Shippina. Paradip was declared a 'minor' port in 1958 and is being
developed.
PUNJAB (INDIA)
GOVERNMENT. The Punjab once denoted the land of the five
rivers, m ., Jhelum, Chena-b, Ravi, Beas and SutIej. British power in the
Punjab hegan with the dissipation by the successors of Ranjit Singh of the
power consolidated hy him. In 1849 the country was annexed, and placed
under a board of administration. In 1853 it was placed under a chief corn·
mi8llioner, and by 1859 the Punjab and the D<>lhi territory constituted the
charge of a Lieut.·Governor. The North· West Frontier area was separated
in 1901, and the Delhi province in 1911. The Punjab was constituted an
autonomous pronnce on 1 April 1937. In 1947 the province was partitioned
betweon India and Pakistan into East and Wcst Punjab respectively, under
the Indian Independence Act, 1947. The boundaries of the two provinces
80 constituted were determined under the Radcliffe Award. The name
of East Punjab was changed to Punjab (India) UDder the Constitution
of India. On 1 Nov. 19,,6 the erstwhile states of Punjab and Patiala and
East Punja,b Statcs Union (PEPSU) were integrated to form the present
state of Punjab.
Punjab (India) is administered by a Governor, aided by a Council of
!llinisters. It has 2 houses of legislature, the Legislative Assembly and the
Legislative Council. There are 175 municipalities, :! notified area corn·
mittees and 12 district boards. The capita l i~ Cbandigarh. formally in·
augurated on 7 Oct. 1953. Both Hindi and Punjabi are recognized as the
official languages of the staLe.
Governor. N. V. Ga,lgil.
Chief .Minister. Sardar Prata.p Singh Kairon .
AREA AND POPULATION . The area oft,he now sl·a t.c is 47,456 sq.
miles. with a ('("usus (1951) pOJlula t.ion of 16.13J.890, of which 62·3% are
Hindus, 35% Sikhs und I·S% Muslims. Schedu!ud custes constitute 19%
of the popUlation.
EDUCA TION. The Punjab (India) University was established on 1 Oct.
19-17 as an examining, teaching and a ffiliating body. Twcr.ty.one teaching
departments have been estublished under the direct control of the universit.Y
at H oshiarpur, Ll;dhbna , Jullundur city , Amritsar, Delhi und New Ddhi.
The university also udmiuisters the L:tw and Commerce Colleges at Jul·
h ndur city, Pnnj ab University Camp College, New Delhi and Punjab
C:livl'rsity College, Hoshiarpur. IIcadquarters is at Chandigarh.
In HIM-57 the total enrolment of college students was 49,931; secondary

schools had 853,109 pupils, and elementary schools, 923,832. The total
expendLnre on education in 1956-57 was Rs 11,241akhs, ofwbich sum Rs 5,55
lakhs wore provided by Government, Rs 3,22 lakhs by fees and the balance
from other sources.
JUSTICE. The Punjab High Court exercises jurisdiction over the state
of Punj'lb and the territory of Delhi. It is located in Cbandigarh and ha.s
a circuit bench at Delhi. It consists of a Chief Justice, 10 puisne judges and 2
additiOl:al judges; 2 of these judges sit at Delhi throughout the year. There
are 16 district a.nd sessions judges, including 1 for Delhi. In 1957 t.he number
of crimbal cases brought to trial in the Punjab " 'as 193,225 and the number
of civil "uits instituted was 36,435.
FINANCE. Revised estimates for 1958-59 show total receipts of Rs
50,341akhs (land revenue, Rs 4,48 lakhs; excise, Rs 5,94 lakhs; taxes on
income other than corporation t ax, Rs 3,21 lakhs, and other taxes and
duties, Rs 8,60 lakhs. Expenditure, Rs 46,51 lakhs. Chief items: Educa·
tion, Rs 10,18 lakhs; police, Rs 4,48 lakhs ; medical and public health, Rs
3,07 lakhs; civil works, etc., Rs 8,45 lakhs; general administration, Rs
3,031akhs. Budget estimates, 1959-60 : receipts Rs 52,88 lakhs; expendi.
ture on revenue account, Rs 53,20 lakhs.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. About 66% of the popUlation depends on
agriculture. Agricultural prosperity is mainly due to irrigation. The canal·
irrigated area served by Punjab canals rose from 3·9m. acres in 1947-48 to
6·9m. acres in 1957-58. Production, 1956-57: Wheat, 2·1m. tons from
5·1m. aeres; maize, 651,000 tons (Im. acres) ; rice, 277,000 (733,000 acres);
pulses, :2m. tons (6·9m. acres); sugar cane, 539,000 tons (487,000 acres);
cotton, 300,000 bales (392 lb.) (1 ·4m. acres).
Forestry. On 31 March 1957 there were 3,460,112 acres of forests under
the Purjab Forests Department. The total receipts of the department in
1956-57 amounted to Rs 69·95 lakhs and expenditure to Rs 70·38 lakhs.
Soil conservation has been undertaken in all forest divisions, more parti·
oularly Hoshiarpur and Ambala, the Siwaliks Hills and the catchment area
of the I:hakra Dam. A plantation covering 2,902 acres is being developed
in Mattowara (Ludhiana district). An irrigated plantation of about 13,000
acres, the Saraswati Fuel Plantation, is being raised in Karnal district, and
extensive afforestation undertaken in the Kangra district and Pepsu circle.
Efforts /.re being made to raise the forest area in the plains from 2% to 20%.
In 1956--57,92,638 maunds of resin were collected, and the output of timber
was 3,906,350 cu. ft.
Indt·8try. On 30 Sept. 19G8 the number of registered factories in the
Punjab (India) was 3,136.
COMMUNICATIONS. Rail. The Punjab possesses an extensive
system O)f railway communications, served mostly by the Northern Railway
and pady by the Central Railway.
Rmu/s. The total length of metalled and unmetalled roads in 1957 was
4,741 alld 6,589 miles respectively, out of whieh 4,372 and 1,898 miles re·
spectively were maintained by the Punjab Public Works Department and
the rem tinder by the district boa·rds.
Shipping. The Punjab (India) has 153 miles of navigable canals.
INDIA-RAJASTHAN 189
Darling, M. L., T/U PUlljab Peasant in Prosperily alld Debt. 4th od. London, 1949
Hutchinson, J., and Vogel, J. Ph., Historv of the Punjab lIiU States. Lahore, 1 93~
~'re.oskis,H. K ., The Land of the Fiv. River.. London, 1928.-7'''. Punjab of To·day .
London,1931. Vo!. U. Lahore, 1933
RAJASTHAN
As a result of the implementation of the States Reorganization Act, 1956,
the erstwhile state of Ajmer, Abu Taluka of Bombay State and the Sunel
Tappa enclave of the former state of Madhya Bharat were transferred to the
state of Rajasthan, whE>rcas the Sironj Bub·division of Rajasthan was
transferred to the state of Madhya Pmdesh on 1 Nov. 1956. Thus the
reorganized state of Rajasthan, whioh lies roughly behveen 23° 3' and
30° 12' N. lat. and between 69° 30' and 78° 17' E. long., comprises an area
of 132,227 sq. miles, with a population (1951 ceusus) of 15·97m. For
administrative purposes there are 26 districts. The capital of the state is
Jaipur (population, 291,130).
There is a unioamerallegislature, the Legislative Assembly having 176
elected members. The state of the parties in the Assembly, 1 March 1958,
was: Congress, 119; Ram Rajya Parishad, 17; Preja Socialist, 6; J an
Sangh, 6; Independents, 32.
Governor. Gurmukh Nihal Singh.
Chief Minister. Mohanlal Sukha,dia.
EDUCATION. The proportion of literates to the total population was
8'95% according to the 1951 census, lower than that of any other state. In
1955-56 less than 25% of children of primary school age were receiving
education.
The state has a university with 54 colleges for general education and 32
for special and professional education. There are 65 higher secondary
schools, 238 high schools, !)61 middle schools and 8,642 primary schools
besides 2,23::! schools for special, professional and basic education.
In June 1956 the State Government sanctioned the opening of Janta
College for the training of village leaders for community development.
JUSTICE. The seat of the High Court is at Jodhpur. There is a Chief
HEALTH. In 1958 there were 253 hospit.als and 209 dispensaries with,
together 6,923 beds. R,tjasthan has 979 doctors, 1,235 nu.rses and mid·
wives, and 1,698 compounders. There is a medical college at J aipur.
FINANCE. Total revenue for 1!)58-59 is estimated at Us 3;3,18 lakhs,

including land revenue, Rs G,60; excise, Its 6,38; taxes on income other than
corporation tax, Rs :3,20, and sales tax, Rs :3,15. Estimated expenditure is
Rs 35,76 lakhs, including educat.ion, Rs, 7,00; medicine and public health,
Rs 3,35; public works, gs 2,16, and police, Rs 4,07. Estimated budget
receipts, 195\1-60, Rs 3U,27 lakhs, and expenditure on rcventw account,
Rs 39,14Iakhs.
PRODUCTION. Ag;-icullwre. Production of principa l crops (J ,000
tons), 19.)7-58 : Jowar, 313; bajra.,790; maize,552 ; wheat, S2!; barley,
491 ; pulses (all kinds), 900; sugar cane (gur), 71; rape and mustard, 101;
cotton, 215,000 bales (of 392 lb.).
1rlining. The state is rich in minerals. There is a mica belt of about

1,500 sq. miles; production, 1957, 147,037 crude cwt. Gypsum (851,021
tons in 1958: 94% of India total), limestone and salt are also produced.
Tot~l value of mineral production ill 1957 was Rs 296 lakhs.
Second Five·Year Plan. Provision has been made in the Second Five-
Year Flan for the establishment of large-scale industries. Three cement
factoril,s, 1 rayon and nylon factory, 2 railway workshops, 2 co-operative
sugar-mills and 2 textile-mills are to be started_ In all, Rs 564·25 lakhs
have bE,en assigned to the industries out of the total provision ofRs 10,527'26
lakhs f.)[ the Second Five-Year Plan. The major portion of this amount
has bem allotted to irrigation and power.
Land Reform. The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of
Jagirs Act, 1952, has been enforced since Juno 1954, and by the end of
March 1958, of 183,351 jagirs in Rajasthan,9,234 jagirs, ha\"ing a revenue of
Rs 284 lakhs, had been resumed.
UTTAR PRADESH
GOVERNMENT. With effect from 24 Jan. 1950 the name of the
United Provinces was changed to Uttar Pradesh.
In 1.833 the then Bengal Presidency was di\"ided into two parts, one of
which became the Presidency of Agra. In 1836 the Agra area was styled
the North-West Province and placed under a Lieut.-Governor. The two
provinces of Agra and Oudh were placed, in 1877, under one administrator,
styled Lieut.-Governor of the North- \V est Province and Chief Commissioner
of OUdl_ In 1902 the name was changed to' United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh,' under a Lieut.-Governor, and the Lieut.-Governorship was altered
to a Governorship in 1921. In 1935 the name was shortened to • United
Provinees. '
CONSTITUTION. Utt~r Pradesh has had, since 1 April 1937, an auto-
nomOUB system of government. The Legisl~tive Council consists of 108
members. of whom 24 are elected by the members of the Legislative Assem-
bly; 24 by local authorities; 6 by graduates of at least 3 years' standing;
6 by telchers of at least 3 years' standing of not lower in standard than that
of a seeondary school and 12 are nominated by the Governor.
The Legislative Assembly consists of 430 elected mem bers, plus 1 member
nomina.ted by the Governor from among the Anglo-Indian community.
The st,a,te of the parties in the Assembly, 1 March 1958, was: Congress, 284;
Praja ~ocialist, 44; Jan Sangh, 17; Communist, 7; Independents, 71.
There are 10 administrative Divisions, 6 of which are under 3 Commis-
sioners who have 2 Divisions each under them; I is under a Commissioner
who is !llso the Principal of the Officers' Training School, and the remaining
3 are e;tch under a Collector-in-Charge of Divisions. There are 51 districts,
the aVE,rage size of which is 2,213 sq. miles and the average population just
over 1m. The number of municipalities is 120 and that of district boards
50. The official language is Hindi.
GOt'ernor. V. V. Giri.
Chi4 Mini3ler. Dr Sampurnanand.
AREA, POPULATION AND RELIGION. The area of tIle st~te as
now ccnstituted after the merger of Rampur, Banaras and Tehri-Garhwal
INDIA--UTTAR PRADESH 191
states is 113,409 sq. miles. No territorial changes were effected in Uttar
Pradesh under the States Reorganization Act. 1956. Population (1951).
63,215,742. The population is rural to the extent of 86'4%. Kanpur
(705,383 in 1951) is now the largest city; the second largest is Lucknow
(496,861), the capital of the state. Otber big cities in order of population
are Agra (375,665), Banaras (355,777), Allahabad (332,295), Meerut (233,183),
Hareilly (208,083), Moradabad (161,854), Saharanpur (148,435), Dehra. Dun
{144,216), Aligarh (141,618), Rampur (134,277), Gorakhpur (132.436),
Jhansi (127,365), Mathura (105,773), Sbahjahanpur (104,835).
Hindus form 85% of the population and the Moslems 14·28%.
EDUCATION. Uttar Pradesh has G universities: Allahabad Univer·
sity (founded 1887) with 4 attached colleges and 8, 160 students in 1956-57;
Agra University (1927) with 60 affiliated colleges and 37,315 students; the
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (1916) with 21 attached colleges and
10,210 students; Lucknow University (1921) with 13 attached colleges and
1O,811 students; Aligarh University (1920) with 2 attached colleges and
4,370 students; and Roorkee University (1948) with 673 students.
For secondary education there were, in 1955-56, 5,1l4 institutions, with
1,071,154 scholars, and for primary education 31,808 schools, with 2,737,827
scholars.
Compulsory education was in force in 95 municipalities and 1,687 villages;
389,537 boys and 67,645 girls were under compulsion.
JUSTICE. There is 1 High Court in the state with a Chief Justice,
and 23 pui"ne judges at Allahabad; including a bench at Lucknow.
There aro 33 sessions dh-isions in the state.
The police force, consisting of 57,289 officers and men and 45,713 village
chaukidars, is administered by an inspector-general with 9 deputy inspoctors-
general, 1 assistant inspector-general of railway police, 2 assistants to the
inspector-general and 74 (permanent and temporary) superintendents. There
is a polioe traimng college at Moradabad and a C.LD. under the charge
of a deputy inspector-general.
FINANCE. The revenue of the Uttar Pradesh, in 1958-59, was
estimated at Rs 1,10,32 lakhs and expenditure at Rs 1.10,68 lakhs. The
maiu contributions to revenue were : 18,51 lakhs from land revenue. 17,53
lakhs froUl union and state excise, 5,15 lakhs from forests, 16,65 lakhs from
civil administration and 13,07 lakhs from taxes on income other than
corporation tax. Expenditure L-lCluded: Education, 15,75 Iakhs; medicine
and public health, 5,89lakhs; police, 0,00 lakhs, and general administration,
6,99lakhs.
Budget es timates, 10;'0-60 : receipts, Rs J ,19,61 lakhs; expenditure on
reven ue account, Rs 1,21,47 lakhs.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture absorbs 74% of the popula-
tion. Total cropped area, 195-1-55, was 41·Bm. acres; 12·33tn. acres were
irrigated. The productive canals and tube wells gave a net r evenue of
17'4% on the total capital outlay. Production (1956-57): Rice, 2·2m. tons
from 9·5m. acres; wheat, 3·1m. tons (9·9m. acres); pulses (all kinds), 3·2ll1.
tons (lO·Om. acres); sugar cane (gur), 3·5m. tons (3 m. acres); oilse:;ds (all
Hnds), 9·310. t ons (5·8m. acres).
Industry. The 1956 Census of Manufacturing Industries showed th~t
sugar and cotton processing were among the more important industries of
) 92 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
the slate. In that year there were 96 sugar factories employing 68,779
person~ and 29 cotton.mills with 54,644 employees. In 1954 there were
581 tIade unions, with a membership of 231,398.
Electricity. The Ganga Canal hydro.electric grid had, in 1954, an
instaUed capacity of 50,070 kw. The total mileage of transmission lines
was 5,518. The number of transformers was 3,096.
COMMUNICATIONS. There were, up to 31 March 1956,40,153 miles
of roads of all kinds, of which 11,672 miles were metalIed.
Crooke . W., Religitm and Folklore 01 Northern India. Ed. R. E . Entboven. London, 1926
Martin Leake, H. The BaJe$ ul ,4gricultural Practice and Economi c", in the United ProtJinu"
t
Indiu. Oambtidge, 1921
WEST BENGAL
Fe.r the history of Bengal under British rule, from 1633 to 1947, see
THE gTATESMAN'S YEAR. BOOK, 1952, p. 183.
Under the terms of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the Province of
Benghl ceased to exist. The Moslem majority districts of East Bengal,
consisting of the Chittagong and Dacca Divisions and portions of the
Presidency and Rajshahi Divisions, became part of Pakist an, under the name
of EaJlt Pakistan (aee p. 208).
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION. The state of West Bengal
came into existence 118 a result of the Indian Independence Act, 1947. The
territory of Cooch·Behar State wall merged with West Bengal on 1 Jan.
1950, and the former French possession of Chandernagore became part of
the state on 2 Oct. 1954. Under the St·ates Reorganization Act, 1956,
certain portions of Bihar State (an area of 3,157 sq. miles with a population
of 1,446,385) were transferred to West Bengal.
There is a bicameral legislature. The Legislative Assembly consists of
252 (including 2 nominated by the Governor from among the Anglo.Indian
comrr.unity), and the Legislative Council of 75 members. The Cabinet
consi! ts of the Chief Minister and 13 other Ministers; there are also 2
MiniS';ers of State and 14 Deputy Ministers.
For administrative purposes there are 2 divisions (Burdwall and Presi-
dency), under which there are 15 districts, excluding Ca.lcutta. For the
purpcses oflocal self.government there are 13 district boards, 3 local boards
and about 1,865 smallel' units called union boards, which are being con·
verte(l into panehayats. There is no district board in Cooch·Behar district.
There are 80 municipalities, 5 of which are under supersession. The Cal·
cutta Corporation was reconstituted in 1952 with a mayor, a commissioner
and other officials.
Ocvernor. Miss Padmaja Naidu.
Chief Minister. Dr B. C. Roy.
AREA AND POPULATION. The total area of West Bengal is now
34,9·1;) sq. miles, and its population (1951 census) 26,301,992, of whom
nearly 20% are Muslims. The density of population is about 800 per sq.
mile. The capital is Calcutta, the largest city of India. The population
of Grnater Calcutta is approaching 5m.
EDUCATION. In 1955-56 recognized educational institutions num·
bered 31,068, with 3,218,020 pupils. There were 23,081 primary schools,
INDIA-WEST BENGAL 193
with 2·1m. pupils and 69,174 teachers (34,6% trained); 3,160 secondary
school~, with 694,000 pupils and 28,011 teachers (26'4% trained); 95 colleges
for general education, with 87,374 pupils; and 30 professional and technical
colleges (of which 10 were medical and 5 engineering), with 8,703 pupils.
The University of Calcutta (founded 1857) is affiliating and teaching, the
Visva Bharati University, Santiniketan (originally estahlished by Tagore),
re.~idential and teaching. The Institute of Technology at Kharagpur (Hl51)
had 1,369 students in 1957.
JUSTICE. The High Court of Judicature at Calcutta has a Chief
Justice and 20 puisne judges. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands come
under its jurisdiction. There were 334,351 criminal cases brought to trial
in 1951, and 162,004 civil suits were instituted. The strength of the West
Bengal police was, in 1953, 31,484 under an inspector.general. The Calcutta
police is a separate force under a commissioner of police who is directly
under Government; its strength is 13,H2.
FINANCE. The revised budget estimates for 1958-59 showed total
revenue receipts of Rs 81,58'06 lakhs. Chief heads of revenue were: Taxes
on income other than corporation tax, 8,37·62Iakhs; state and union excise
duties, ll,30'52Iakhs; sales tax, 13,70'02 Iakhs; contributions and adjust-
ments between central and state government, 5,16'23 lakhs. Chief heads
of expenditure were: Education, 12,74'01 lakhs; police, 7,87'00 lakhs;
agriculture and fisheries, 4,70'76 lakhs; medical and public health, 7,18'80
lakhs. Total expenditure on revenue account, 80,77'06 lakhs. Budget
estimates, 1959-60: revenue receipts, 79,04,49 lakhs; expenditure on
revenue account, 82,67' 10 lakhs.
Outlay under the Second Five-Year Plan has been fixed at Rs 157·67
crores. Total expenditure, 1956-59, amounts to about 83·66 crores. Cen-
tral assistance for 1956-57 and 1957-58 was 28'35 crores.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Area and production of principal crops,

1957-58: Rice, 10,771,000 acres (4,185,000 tons); pulses, 1,483,000 acres
(262,000 tons), and jute, 759,000 acres (1,830,000 bales of 400 lb.: 45% of
India total).
Industry. In 1956 factorie.~ employing 20 persons and using power
included 101 jute-mills (total, all India, H2) employing a total of 253,475
persons, 48 cotton·ruillg (43,035 persons) and 547 factories for general and
electrical engineerinl( (61,652 persons). The coalmining industry in Bengal
had, in 1949,233 mines, employing 89,576 operatives, with an output of
8,803,313 tons.
There is a large automobile factory at Uttarpara, and there are aluminium
rolling-mills at Belur and Asansol. At Durgapur a steel plant of major
importance is being built. Important major irrigation and power schemes
at present under construction are the Damodar Valley scheme (and Boko,ro
extension), with the State of Bihar; the l{o,nsabati project; and the
Mayurakshi River project. The Canada Dam on the l\layurakshi was
opened on I Nov. 1955.
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. In March 1958 the length of metaJled

roads was 2,462 miles, and of unmetalled roads 2,652 miles, exclusive of
village roads.
Shipping. West Bengal possesses 484 miles of navigable canals.
H
Ra::l. The length of railways within the state is 1,807 miles.

Chattcrj ae, S. P., Brogal in Maps. Bombay, 1950
CENTRALLY ·ADIIIINISTERED TERRITORIES

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. The Andaman and Ni coba r
Island, are administered by the President of the Republic of India acting
throug] a Chief Commissioner and an Advisory Council of 5 members. The
seat of administration is at Port BlaiT, which is connected with Calcutta
and Madras by a mail steamer which calls approximately once every 3 or
4 weekl. There is an Assistant Commissioner at Car Nicobar.
Rerised budget estimates for 1958-59 show total revenue receipts of
Rs 1,5'7'24 lakhs, and total expenditure on revenue account of Rs 2,68'63
lakhs.
Clti'if Commissioner. M. V. Rajwade.
The Andaman Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal, 120 miles from Cape
Negrai!, in Burma, 780 from Calcutta and 740 from Madras. Five large
islands close by grouped t ogether are called the Great Andamans, and t o the
south i:j the island of Little Andaman. There are some 204 islets, the two
princip~1 groups being the Ritchie Archipelago and the Labyrinth Islands.
The total area is about 2,500 sq. miles. The Great Andaman group is about
219 miles long and, at the widest, 32 miles broad. The group, densely
wooded, contains many valuable trees, both hardwood and soft wood. The
best known of the hard woods is the padauk or Andaman red wood; gurjan
is in gIeat demand for the manufacture of plywood. Large quantities of
80ft woe·d are supplied to match factories.
The islands possess a number of harbours and safe anchorages, nota bly
Port B.air in the south, Port Cornwallis in the north, and Elphinstone and
Mayabhndar in the middle.
The original inhabitants live in the forests by hunting and fishing; they
are of n small Negrito typo and their civilization is about that of the Stone
Age. Their numbers are not kno\vn as they avoid aU contact with civiliza·
tion. ~rhe total population of the Andaman Islands (excluding the
aborigines) was in 1951, 18,939 (12,723 males and 6,216 females). Under
a centrE.! government scheme started in 1953, some 10,000 displaced persons,
mostly from East Pakistan, had been settled in the Islands by 1959. In
1954-55, 34,676 tons of timber· products and 30,850 bags of match splints
were sh ipped to the mainland and foreign countries; revenues from the sale
of timber and timber products amounted to approximately Rs. 66,38,442.
Coconu:" coffee and rubber are cultivated. The islands are slowly locing
made sdf·sufficient in paddy and rice, and now grow approximately half
their annual requirements. No proper survey of the mineral resources hlls
yet bee~1 undertaken but an initial survey in certain parts of these islands
was un,lertaken in 1953. On 1 Jan . 1955 there were 8,058 head of cattle
and],7I5 goats. There arc aloout 122 miles of mctalled road in and around
Port Bbir.
From 1858 to March 1942 tho islands were used by the Government of
India aB a penal settlement for life and long· term convicts, but the penal
settlement was abolished on re·occupation in Oct. 1945.
Jap£,nese forces occupied the Andaman Islands on 23 March H)42 ,
Civil administration of the islands was resumed on 8 Oct. 1945.
INDIA-DELHI 195
The Nicobar Islands are situated to the south of the Andamans, 75
miles from Little Andaman. The British formally took possession in 1860.
There are 19 islands, 7 uninhabited; total area, 635 sq. miles. The islands
are usually divided into 3 groups (southern, central and northern), the chief
islands in each being respectively, Great Nicobar, Camotra with Nancowrie
and Car Nicobar. There is a fine land·locked harbour between the isla nds
of Camotra and Nancowrie, known as Nancowrie Harbour.
The population nUUlbered, in 1951, 12,009 (6,321 males and 5,688
females). Tlla coconut is the main item of trade, and a major item in
their diet.
The Nicobar Islands were occupied by the Japanese in July 1942; and
Car Nicobar was developed as a big supply base. The Allies reoccupied
the islands on !l Oct. 1945. The Japanese built some roads in Car Ni cobar
and small jetties at Malacca in Car Nicobar, and in the harbour at, Nan·
cowrie.
Minsory of Inlormaoion and Broadca30ing. The Andaman and Nicoba, Islands. Delhi, 19~1
DELHI. Dellli has an area of 574 sq. miles, and its population is
1,744,072 (census of 1951). With effect from 1 Nov. 1956 Delhi became a
Union Territory. An Advisory Council assists the Minister for Home
Affair~ in ma tters relating to the administra tion of the territory.
The first elections to the municipal council, held on 20 March 1958,
gave Congress 3 1 seats, the right.wing Jan Sangh 25, Independents 14,
Communists 8, Socialists I, Hindu Mahasabha 1.
Education. The University of Delhi was founded in H!22. There are
10 arts colleges affiliated. There is also the AIl·India Lady Hardinge
The total number of colleges and schools in 1957 wa~ 86S, out of which 303
were for girls. The total enrolment on 31 March 1957, was 281,818, includ·
ing 109,423 students studying in girls' institutiollS. There are 7 local bodies
mainly responsible for primary education in the areas under their jUrisdic·
tion.
Finance. The revenue of the territory in 1958-59 was Rs 8,89'58 lakhs
and the expenditure Rs 9,68'78 lakbs.
Industry. Delhi, in its long career as the capital of the Hindu Empires
and Moslem Kingdoms of bygone days, attracted the best skilled workers,
!IIl.mples of whose superb craftsmanship may be seen in Indian and foreign
museums and in the monumental architectural remains of old Delhi, cover·
ing an area of over 50 sq. miles. Of the old industries a few are still
flourishing. Among them are ivory carving and miniature painting, gold
and silver embroidery, papicr machO work, gold and silver jewellery and
household utensil.i.
The modern city of Delhi and NeIV Delhi is not only the largest commer·
cial centre in northern India, but is also an important industrial centre.
The number of registered concerns covered by the Inwan Factories Act,
1948, stood, in 1956-57, at 725, affording employment to about 90,000
operatives. After the partition of the country in 1947 a large number of
industrial concerns came to be established in Delhi. The development of
cottage industries after the partition was also considerable; there are 8,000
small·scale industrial and cottage establishments employing 60,000 workers.
There were, in 1957, 1,567 co.operative societies, with a m embership of
100,000 and a working capital of Rs 37'4m.
AI1''itulture. The total area under plough in the province during 1967
is estimated at about 243,732 acres. During 1954-55, net area sown was
230,000 acres. Chief crops were gram, millets, wheat, barley and sugar
cane; .~,OOO acres were under fruits and vegetables. The total expenditure
on the Agriculture Department during the year 1957-58 was Rs 12·89Iakhs.
Cor.lmunicatians. In 1957 there were registered 9,961 private cars,
5,072 :notor cycles, 1,362 taxis, 898 buses and 2,798 lorries. The city
transport service had 450 buses operating on 30 routes.
Chief Commis,ioner. A. D. Pundit.
Sharp, Sir H., Dtlht: /11 Sk>NJ olld Butldi"9$. 2nd ed. London. 1929
HIMACHAL PRADESH. Himachal Pradesh lies between 30° 30'

and 33° 10' N. lat. and 75° 55' and 79° 50' E. long. It is bounded on the
north by the Jammu and Kashmir State, on the Bouth by Tehri·Garhwal
and D·~hra Dun Districts of Uttar Pradesh and the Ambala. District of
Punjal.; on the west by Ambala, Hoshiarpur and Kangra. On the east the
boundl.ries are undefined. The capital is Simla.
Lieut.·Governcr. Raja Bajraog Bahadur Singh Bhadri.
Ana and Population. The Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh
administsred by the central government comprises 30 former Hill States.
It has ,~ total area of 10,904 sq. miles, a population of 1,109,466. The states
were Haghal, Baghat, Baisan, Bashahr, Bahajji, Bija, Chamba, Darkoti,
Dhami, Jubbal, Keonthal, Kumarsain, Kunihar, Kuthar, Mahlog, Maodi,
Mangal, Sangri, Sirmur, Suket and Tharoach. The tributaries are Delath,
Dhandi, Ghund, Khaneti, Koti, Madhan, Ratesh, Rawingarh and Theog.
The SUIte came into being on 15 April 1948. The small enclaves of Kotgarh
and the sub-tehsil Kotkhai of Simla district were transferred to the state
on 26 .fan. 1950. The state of Bilaspur wa.q merged in Himachal Pradesh
in 1951. Himachal Pradesh is divided into 5 administrative districts:
Mahasn, Sirmur, Mandi, Chamba and Bilaspur. The territorial council has
43 menbers of whom 2 are nominated.
Finance. Revised estimates, 1958-59, show total revenue of Rs 2,73'81
lakhs and expenditure on revenue account of Rs 4,64·24Iakhs.
Production. The main agricultural wealth of the Pradesh consists in
potatoes and frnits such as apples, peaches, apricots, nuts, pomegranates.
Salt is another important item; while forests yield timber, firewood and
charcoal. Handicrafts, w.hich include Pasbrnioa shawls, wool of quality,
resin, herbs, musk and skins, are a third source of income.
Seed potato is the chief cash crop.
Forutry. Himachal Pradesh forests supply the largest quantities of
conifeNUB timber in northern India. They are the main source of revenue
of the l'radesh. The forests also ensure the safety of the catchment areas
of the .Jumna, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi and Chenab rivers.
LAfCADIVE, MINICOY AND AMINDIVI ISLANDS. The terri-

tory consists of a group of 14 islands (10 inhabited), about 200 miles off the
west of the Malabar coast of Madras. It was constituted a Union Territory
in 1956. The total area of the islands is 6,890 acres, of which about 5,500
INDIA-PONDICHERRY 197
acres constitute coconut plantations. The northern portion is called the
Amindivis. The remaining islands are called the Laccadives (including
Minicoy Islands). An Advisory Council of 5 members assists in the ad-
ministration of the islands; it is constituted annually. Population (1952)
21,195, nearly all Moslems. The language is Malayalam, but the language in
Minicoy, which is considerably to the south of tho other islands, is Mah!.
There were, 1955-56, 9 primary schools with 1,609 pupils. The staple
products are coconut-husk fibre (coir) and coconuts. Headquarters of
administration, Kozhikode.
Administrator. C. K. Balakrishna Nail'.
MANIPUR. Formerly a state under the political control of the Govern-

ment of India, Manipur, on 15 Aug. 1947, entered into interim arrangements
with the Indian Union and the political agency WitS abolished. The ad-
ministration was taken over by the Government of India on 15 Oct. 1949
under a merger agreement, and it is now centrally administered by the
Government of India through a Chief Commissioner. Manipur elects
members to the Indian Parliament. In addition, a Territorial Council,
consisting of 30 elected and 2 nominated members, exercising autonomy in
important local subjects has been constituted from 15 Aug. 1957. Capital,
Imphal (population, 132,000).
Chief Commissioner. .T. M. Raina, LA.S.
Chairman, T .C. Manipur. Sibo Larho.
Area and Population. Manipur has an area of 8,628 sq. miles and a
population (1951) of 577,635. The valley, which is about 700 sq. miles, is
2,600 ft above sea-level. The bills rise in places to nearly 10,000 ft, but are
mostly about 5,000-6,000 ft. The average annual rainfall is 65 in. The hill
areas covering nearly 8,000 sq. miles are inhabited by various hill tribes
who constitute about one· third of the total population of the state. There
are about 40 tribes and sub-tribes falling into the two main groups of Nagas
and Kukis. A large number of dialects are spoken, while Hindi is gradually
becoming prevalent.
Finance. Revised estimates for 1958-59 show revenues of Rs 26,66,000
and expenditure of Rs 2,95,61,500. Budget estimates, 1959-60 : revenue,
Rs 29,58,000; expenditure on revenue account, Rs 2,80,05,300.
Production. Rice is the principal crop. Handloom weaving is a popular
industry. Many development schemes are in progress under the second
5-year plan under whi ch Rs 625 lakhs will be spent on development work
PONDICHERRY. Formerly the chief French settlement in India, was

founded by thu French in 1674, taken by the Dutch in 1693, and restored
to the French in 169t1. The English took it in 1761, restored it in 1765,
re·took it in 1778, restored it a second time in 1785, re·took it a third time
in 17!l3 ,\nd finally restored it to the French in HH4. Administration was
transferred to India on 1 Nov. 195·1. A Treaty of Cession (together with
Karikal, Mah':; and Yanaon) was signcd on 28 May 1956 and awaits ratifica-
tion. The total area is 196 sq . miles and the population 317,163. The
results of the elections, held 11-14 Aug. 19 .~9, for the State Legislative
Assembly, were: Congress, 21; P eople's Front,13; Independents,4; Praja
Socialist, 1. The future and representation of Pondicherry remain to be
determined by the central government. French continues to be the official
language. The Chief Commissioner has the powers of the former French
('ommi~sioner, but is under the direct control of the Union Government.
Chief Commissioner. La! Ram Saran Singh.
TRIPURA. Under the Constitution vf India the state of Tripura

becamOl a centrally administered area. the date of the merger being 15 Oc~.
1949. With effect from I Nov. 1956 Tripura became a Union Territory.
GOternment. The territory is administered by a Chief Commissioner. It
consists of only I district, divided into 10 administrative Bub·divisions,
namely, Sadar, Khowai, Kailasahar, Dharmanagar, Sonamura, Udaipur,
Beloui:L, Kamalpur, Subroom and Amarpur.
Th" Territorial Council was inaugurated on 15 Aug. 1957; it cO[lsists of
32 members, of whom 30 are elected and 2 nominated.
Chief Commissioner. Shri N. M. Patnaik, T.A .S.
ArEa and Population. Tripura is one of the oldest Hindu states in India.
It is bounded on the north by the Sylhet and Cacha-r districts, on the west
by Sylhet, Tipperah and Noakhali Districts, on the Bouth by the Chittagong
and Nc,akhali districts and on the east by Lushai and Chittagong Hill tracts.
The nl.1jor portion of the state is hilly and full of jungles. It has an area
of 4,ll6 sq. miles and a population of 639,029 (1951). The capital is
Agartala.
FiTlance. Revised estimates 1958-59 show revenue of Rs 37,73,000 and
expenditure on revenue account of Rs 3,29,23.000. Budget estimates 1959-
60: re,renue Rs 35,91.000; expenditure on revenue account, Rs 3,73,12,000.
Justice. The judicial commissioner's court is the highest court in the
territory, a.nd there is 1 district aud sessions judge's court for the district.
In evel'Y sub-division (excepting that of Amarpur) there exists 1 munsif's
court.
Prodlu:tion. The agricultural wealth of the territory consists of paddy,
jute, cotton, tea and fruits, while its forests yield timber, firewood and
charcoal. Paddy is the main source of revenue.
PROTECTORATE
SIRKIM. Until the transfer of power in India in Aug. 1947, Sikkim
was under British paramountcy. Under a treaty, signed in Gangtok on
5 Dec. 1950, Sikkim continues to be a protectorate of the Government of
India, which has special responsibility ill respect of her defence, external
relations and communications. The ruler is His Highness Maharaja Sir
Tashi Namgyal, K.C.S.L, K.C.LE., born 1893, succeeded 1914. Heir
appare~1t is Lieut.-Col. Maharaj Kumar Palden Thondup Namgyal, O.B.E.,
born l!l23.
The Maharaja is assisted in the administration by a Dewan and a
Council of which more than two·thirds of the members are elected, and a
High Court of Judicature.
ThE Government of India has a diplomatic representative at Gangtok;
he represents the Government of India in Bhutan as well as in Sikkim.
India.n Representative. Apa B. Pant.
Dcwan of Sikkim. Baleshwar Prasad, LA.S.
PAKISTAN 199
Area, 2,818 sq. miles. Census population, in 1951, 137,158. The in-
habitants are Bhutias, Lepchas and NepaEs. The capital is Gangtok.
The state religion is Buddhism.
The revenue is Rs Gm. per year. Sikkim produces rice, corn and millet,
cardamom, oranges and apples. Fruit gardens are maintained by the
Government. There are extensive forests. A distillery at Rangpo pro·
duces for export.
Sikkim has 96 government, 52 government· aided and 11 privately
managed schools, besides a basic training college. Four hospitals, 20 dis·
pensaries, a maternity ward, chest clinic and 2 blocks for T.B. patients are
in use. Medical care and hospitalization is free.
The Government of India maintain 3 strategic roads in Sikkim, including
the two main trade. routes to Tibet. There are 90 miles of motorable roads,
150 miles of jeepable roads, 200 miles of bridle and 300 miles of village roads.
A l'opeway of 12~ miles links Gangtok to the foot of the Nathula Pass.
Gorer, G., Himalayal1 Village: an account of the Upchas of Sikkim. London 1938
Lord Ronaldshay, J,a.nds of til. TllIlnder~olt. London, 19n
White. J .0., Sikkim and Bhutan. Lo"d.)n, 1909
PAKISTAN
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Pakistan, on 23 March 1956,
was proclaimed an Islamic republic, after the Constituent Assembly had
adopted the draft constitution on 29 Feb. The Republic of Pakists.n
continues her full membership of the Commonwealt.h of Nations, accepting
the Queen as the symbol of the free association of its independent member
nations and, as such, the Head of the Commonwe~Jth.
Pakistan was constituted as a Dominion on 14 Aug. H)47, under the
provisions of the Inrlinn Indepondence Act, 1947, which received the royal
Il.8scnt on 18 July 1947. The Domillion consisted of tbe following former
territories of British India: nalucbistan, East Bengal (including almost
the whole of Sylhet, a former district of Assam), North· West Frontier, West
Punjab a nd Sind; and those Sta.es which had acceded to Pakistan.
On 23 Sept. 1955 Pakistan joined tbe Bttghdatl Pact concluded by the
U.K., Iraq and Turkey.
In Nov. 1954 the Government of Pakistan dccided to integrate tbe
existing Provinces and Princely States in \Voot Pakistan into a single ad·
ministrativo unit, and to make t.he country a federation of two units-West
Pakistan and East Pa kistan. The new provinoe of West Pakistan came
into being on 14 Oct. 1955.
Between one-third and one-half of Kashmir is occupied by Pakistan.
This area is known as Azad (Free) Kashmir, and is the northern and western
portion of the country. There is a President (Sardal' Mohammed Ibrahim
Khan; appointed 13 April 1957) and a nominated council of ministers.
The seat of government is Mllzaffarauad.
National flag: dark green wit,h a white vertical bar at the mast, the
green portion bearing a white crescent in tbe centre and a 5-pointed white
heraldic st.ar. The white port.ion is one· quarter of the size of the rectangular
flag .
Governors· General of Pakistan. Quaid.I.Azam Mohammed Ali Jinnah
(14 Aug. 1947-11 Sept. 19·!8); Khawaja Nazimuddin (1.4 Sept. 1948-
17 Oct. 1951; took o\'cr the premiership after the assassination of Liaqu3t
Ali Khv.n); Ghulam Mohammad (17 Oct. 1951-6 Aug. 1955); Maj.·Gen.
Iskander Mirza (acting from 7 Aug. 1955. elected Provisional President on
5 March 1956).
On 7 Oct. 1958 President Iskander Mirza declared martial law in Pakistan.
dismiss(,d the central and provincial Governments. abolished all political
parties ,\nd abrogated the constitution. Gen. Mohammed Ayub Khan. the
Army OJmmander·in ·Chief, was appointed as chief martial law administrator.
Pre8ident of the Republic. Gen. Mohammed Ayub Khan assumed office
on 28 Oot. 1958. after Maj .. Gen. Iskander Mirza had handed all powers to
him. His authority was confirmed by a ballot in Feb. 1960 when he received
75.283 votes out of a total of 78.720 'basic democfA,cies' entitled to vote.
The Presidential Cabinet was, in Feb. 1960, composed as follows:
Cabinet S ecretariat, Defence and Kashmir Affairs. Field Marshal
Mohammed Ayub Khan.
R elubilitation and TVorks, Food, Agriculture and Irrigation. Lieut.·Gen.
Mohammed Azam Khan. Foreign Affairs and Commonwealth Relations.
Manzur Qadir. Health, Labour and Social Welfare. Lieut.·Gen. W. A.
Burki. Law. Mohammed Ibrahim. Interior. Lieut.·Gen. K. M. Shaikh.
Finance. M. Shoaib. Industries and Power. Abul Kasim Khan. Rail·
ways and Communications. F . M. Khan. Education. Habibur Rahmau,
Information and Broadcasting, Reconstruction, Village Aid, Ba6ic Democracies,
Tourim.. and Minoritie8. Zulifiqar Bhutto. Commerce. Muhammad
Hafizur Rahman.
DIPLOMA TIC REPRESENT A TIVES

Country Pakistan representative Foreign representat.ive
Afghanistan Abdur Rahman Khan Dr Abdul Zahir
Australia 1 J. G. Kharas A. R. Cutler. V.C.
Austria M. S. A. Baig Dr Fritz Hartlm:1yr
Belgium Iqbal Athar G. Daufresne de la Chevalerie
Brazil. Mohammed Abdullah Khan Idefonso Falcao
Burma Kamruddin Ahmad U On Sein
Cambodia Hamid Nawaz Khan
Canada 1 S. M. Burke H. O. Moran
Geylon I Hamid Hussain Sir Richard Aluvihare
Chile Mohammed Abdullah Khan
China . Dr A. M. Malik Ting Kuo·yu
Cuba 2 • Aziz Ahmad
Czechoslovaki a I Agha Hilaly K. HradeckS'
Denmark Arshad Hussain Mogens Juhl
Ethiopia 2 Siddig Ali Khan
Finland • Arshad Hussain Brnno Kivikoski
France Maj .. Gen. N. A. M. Raza B. A. E. Dufournier
Germany Mian Ziauddin Dr H. Triitzschler von
Falkenstein
Ghana 1 Mahmoud Ahmad
Greece. S. M. Hasan G. M. Issigonis
Hungary 2
India. l A. K. Brohi Raj eswar Dayal
Indonesia Sultanuddin Ahmad Tjokro Ali Sumarto
1 Hlgb Commissioner. • Envoy. No figure - Amb ....ador.
PAKISTAN 201
Country Pakistan representative Foreign representative
Iran Akhtar Husain Ahroed Ghadirui Navai
Iraq Mohammed Aslam Khan Dr Manlio Castronuovo
Khattak
Italy Mohammed Ali Katsushiro Narita
Japan S. M. Siddiq Abd al.Qader Gailani
Jordan 2 Nasim Hussain
Laos • Hamid Nawaz Khan Prince Khampan
Lebanon Nasim HUBsain Halim Shubeia
Libya '.
Luxembourg •
Malaya 1 Maj .·Gen. Nawabzada Mu·
hammad Sher Ali Khan
Mexico Aziz Ahm ad
Morocco' Enver Murad 3
Netherlands . Begum Liaqat Ali Khan Dr. H. H. Dingemans
New Zealand 1
Norway a Arshad Hussain Ivar Lunde
Philippines Pir AIi Muhammed Rashdi Manuel A. Alzato
Poland a
Portugal Lieut.·Gen. Mohammad Dr Alvaro Brilhante Labo.
Yusuf rinho
Saudi Arabia Ali Akbar Khan Sheik Mohammad Al Hamad
AI·Shuhalli
Spain J. A. Rahim Marquis de OreIlana La Vieja
Sudan. Siddiq All Khan Dr Osman Om er EI·Hadari
Sweden Arshad Hussain Gosta Brunnstrom
Switzerland M. S. A. Baig Max Koenig
Thailand Hamid Nawaz Khan Lu ang Bhadravadi
Tunisia" S. K. Dehlavi
Turkey S. M. Hasan !.Iuzaffer Goksenin
U.S.S.R. Agha Hilaly I. F. Shpedko
United Arab
R epublic Khwaja Shahabuddin Abdul Hamid Ibrahim Seoud
U.K. 1 . Lieut.·Gen. Mohammad Sir Alexander Symon,
Yousuf K.C.M.O., O.B.E.
U.S.A .. Aziz Ahmed WiIliam M. Rountree
Vatican 2 Mohammed Mir Khan Mgr Emanuele Clarizio
Yemen •
Yugoslavia 2. M. S. A. Baig Gustav Vlahov
1 High Oommissioner. • Envoy. 3 Charge d'Affaires
No figure = Ambassador.
AREA, POPULATION, RELIGION. The t otal area of Pakistan is
364,737 sq. miles; population 75,842,165 (census, Feb. 1951). Estimated
population, 1957, 81m.
Ax••
Provinces (sq. mile.) Tota! Males Female.
Bast Pakistan 64,601 42,062,610 22,039,000 20,024,000
We.t Paki.tan.!.",,.rIV: 310.236 33.779,625 18.170,000 16,609.000
Punj_b and B_hawail.me 79,716 20,651,110 ll,OoS,OOO 9,693.000
N.W. F.P. . . 39.269 5,899,906 3,113,000 2,787,000
Sind and Khairpur " 66,447 4,928,067 2,709,000 2,219,000
BalachistAn (including State.) 134,002 1,174.036 644,000 630,000
Federal capital area, Karuchi 812 1,126,417 646,000 480,000
Pakiotao • 36'1,737
-------
76,SU,136
--------
40,209,000 36,633,000
Tht, population of the principal cities (census of 1951) is:

OhlttagoDg. 294,000 Hydcrahad 241,801 Lyallpur. 179,144 Quetts • 84,Z43
Daoea . 411,000 KRrBChl 1,009.000 Multnn . 190.122 Rawalpindi 237.2H
Gujronw,la 121l,8GO Labore 849,476 Pesh.war. 151,776 Slnlkot 167,643
85·!I% of the population are Moslems, 7·2% Scheduled Caste Hindus,

5'7% Caste Hindus, 0·7% Christians and 0·5 %others.
Davis, R., ''PM PQ1:ulation of India and Pakistan. Princcton, l!l51
EDllCATION. Prior to the phrtition of India and Pakistan, over 80%

of the population of 400m . of the sub·continent wa~ illiterate. In the case
of Pakistan the percentage of illiteracy was e'l"en bigher. Wit.h a view to
improving the position, both tbe central and provincial governments are
plannifig to make literacy compulsory at the primary stage. According to
tbe cel'SUS of Feb. 1951, of a tota.l population of 75,842,135 in Pakistan,
13,958,')!:) persons, or 18'9%, were lit')rate. Next to the fcderal capital area
of Kamchi with a percentage of 31'3, East Pakistan showed the greatest
nnmber of literates with 7,108,(100, or 16'9%, of the province'd total popu·
lation. The greatest illiteracy is found in the North·West Frontier tribal
areas ([18'7%) and t.be Baluchistan States (97,8%,).
The numberR amI types of educational institutions in Pakistan are as
follows (1956): Universities, 6; general oolleges, 158; professional colleges,
31; pc.lytechnic collegeR, 2; colleges of ciomestic scicnce, 2; teachers'
training institutions, 10; commercial colleges, 5; primary schools, 44,089;
sccond8.ry schools, 5,495; tecbnical high schools, ll.
CinfOma.s, in 1957, numbered 320 with a scating capacity of 150.000.
Newspa.per.• numbered 1,282 in 1959; of these 784 were publiab eci in Urdu,
171 in Bengal; and 223 in English.
JUSTICE. The Central Judiciary consists of the Suprcme Court of
Pakistan, wbicb is a court of record and has three· fold jurisdiction, namely,
original, appellate and advisory. There are 2 High Courts, in Lahore for
West P~ki8tan (with a bench in Karachi) and in Dacca for East Pakistan.
District and sessions courts are the courts of first instance in each district;
they ha~e also some appellate jurisdiction. The subdivisions bave courts of
subdiviBional magistrates.
Jurildiction of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council coased on
30 April 1950.
DEFENCE. A mutual def€'nce assistance agreement between Pakistan
and the U.S.A. was signed in Karachi on 19 May 1954.
Army. Tbe Pakistan Army is manned entirely by volunteer,.. It
consists of armoured corps, artillery, engineers, signals, infantry, army
service corps, electrical and mechanical engineers, army ordnance corps,
army medical corps and remount, veterinary and farms corps. General
Headquarters is at Rawalpindi. The entire officers cadre receives its pre·
commiS!lion training in the Military Academy at Kakul.
Navd. In 1956 the improved' Dido' class cruiser Diadem, the' Battle'
class deatroyers Cadiz and Gabbard, and the' Cr' class destroyers Creole and
Crispin were sold to Pakistan. The cruiser and tbe 2 last· named destroyers
were modemized in Great Britain with funds made available by the U.S.A.
under the Mutual Defence Assistance Programme. All 5 ships were handed
over to Pakistan after refitting by 1958. The destroyer Charity was
purchasad by the D.S.A. and handed over to Pakistan on 16 Doc. 1958
PAKISTAN 203
under the mutual assistance programme; being renamed Shah Jehan. The
Pakistan Navy also comprises 2 fagt anti·subma,rin" frigates (ex.destroyers)
(Tippu Sultan (ex-Onslow), transferred from the Royal Navy in 1949 and
TIl'}hril (ex-Onslaught), transferred in 19tH) and the destroyer Taimur (ex-
Ohivalrous), lent by Great Britain in 1953, 4 frigates (Jhelum, Sind, Shamsher
and Zulfiguar), 3 Beet minesweepers, 2 trawlers, 5 coastal minesweepers
acquired from the U.S.A. in 1955-59, 1 motor minesweeper, 4 senward
defence motor Inunches and n sea-going tug. The principal naval bases
are Karachi and Chittagong. Naval personnel comprises 660 officers and
13,600 ratings.
Ai,· Force. The Pakistan Air Force came into ldng on 14 Aug. ID47.
Tho operational squadrons have been e'luippetl with F·8G Sabm fighters and
Bristol Frcighter transports. Flying tmining schools are equipped with
Hnrvards and '1'-33 jet trainers. There is a flying college at RisfLlpur; a
large number of P.A.F. personnel is iLlso hdnl! trained in the U.K., Australia
Rnd the U.S.A. Total strength about l.S,OOO all r:lnks.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure for years ending 31 }Iarch, from
19;;8/59 ending 30 June (in crores of Rs):
1954-55 J950-56 19.6·57' 191i7-eS' 1958-50 1909-60 '
Revenu'9 . 117 127 131 137 1~7-58 158,,15
Expenditure. 117 J27 HO 137 J D7 110 IGH5
1 Hstimates.
The following table shows the princil'n.1 items of revenue and expenditure
for 1957-58 (budget estimates. in crur(>s of Rs) :
ne\'cn!le l<~xpcnditurft
Omltoms . 14,12 DIrect demanos on revenne 3,15
Excise dllties 23,93 Defence 85.8a
Income tax . 26,38 Ailminh;tratinn . 33,81
Snle. ta" 1 5.03 Soel.l affairs and ,,·elfare ~,36
Railways . 10,84 Oion works ~.19
Post.. aud telegraphs 2,78 Debt service 14,79
Defence 5,62
PRODUCTION_ Agriculture. Of the surveyed area of 118w. acres,

oultivated land accounts for 61m. acres, of which 13m. acres consist of fallow
land, so that the net area sown is 48m. acres.
Production. 1957-58 (in 1,000 tons): Rice. 8,128; wheat, 3,6:30; IDl1ize,
454; barley. 152; gmm, 711: gur. 12,258; mpe and must.ard. 3213; cotton
(1.000 bitles), 1,1398 (from 3.643.000 acres); jute (1,000 bales), !l58 (from
1,230,000 acres); tea (Im. lb.). 5t (from 75,000 ncres).
Forests. There are 9,861 sq. miles of reserved and protected forests. of
which 4,447 sg. miles are locn.ted in East Pakistan, 1,872 in West Punjab,
1,805 in Baltichistan. 1,161 in oind and 592 in the North-West Frontier
Province. East Pakistan forest prollucts consist of timber, bfLmboos, resin.
gum, fibre and honey.
Mining. The quantity (in 1,000 tons) of the chief minerals produced in
1957 was as follows; Chromite, 4; coal, 5W; gypsum, 62; limestone, 1,000;
petroleum, 300.
Indtlstry . An oil refinery with an annual capacity of 2ru. tons is being
built near Karachi.
Power. The hydro-electric station at Rasul (Punjab) has an installed
capacity of 22,000 kw.; the Malakand stlltion (N.W.F.P.) has 10,000 kw.;
204 THE BR.ITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
Dargai,20,OOO kw. Further power·stations planned: Karnafuli (160,000

kw.), Warsak (160,000 kw.), Chichokimalian (12,000 kw.), Shadiwal
(12,000 kw.), Mangla (45,000 kw.). Gas pipe.lines from Sui 00 Karachi
(350 miles) and from Sui to Multan (217 miles) supply natural gas 00 industry.
Al!, M. (od.), .d. Handbook of Pakistan Economy. Lahore, 19~7
Andrus, J. R. and Mobammed, A. F., The Economy of Paki8tan. Oxford Univ. Press, Ig~8
.4.Juari'I, :rrad. DireQory of PIlkWa.. and Who'. Ifho. Karacbl,1960
A.rnold, F " B., Ovn~ Economu 8uTt'ev: Pakistan, MaV 1954. H.M.S.O., 1955
CON.[MERCE. The value of the chief articles imported into and

exported from Pakistan for the calendar year 1957 was (in Rs Im):
Impol'ts( pri'l"ate account) ExporlB (private account)
Machiner)' 318 Raw jute 782
Oil. . . 98 Raw cotton . 340
Iron a.nd ~:teel . 224 Raw wool 103
Vehicles. . . . 114 Tea . . . 23
Q,')tton ya m and manufactures 21 Raw hides and skins 40
Electrical goods 66 Fish 23
Fruit a.nd vegetables 14
The ';otal value of sea· borne imports (private and government accounts)
during tile calendar year 1957 was Rs 2,096m., and exports Rs 1,603m.
Total trade with the U.K., in £ sterling (British Board of Trade returns):
1955 19G6 1957 1968 1959
ImporlB to U.K. 27,684.762 22,776,451 26,633,010 19,757,268 25,778,249
BxportB from U.K. 36,615,626 32,592.852 34,378,752 28,945,696 34,307,050
Re'e:<port, from U.K. 171,873 217,259 185,993 266,748 328,901
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. The Pakistan Railways comprise

two separate systems, the North·Western Railway in West Pakistan and the
Eastern Bengal Railwa.y in East Pakistan. The North·Western Railway
has a rOllte mileage of 5,344 (broad gauge, 4,567 miles; metre gauge, 319
miles, and narrow gauge, 458 miles). There are 769 stations. The equip.
ment inoludes 849 locomotives, 2,636 carriages and 25.105 wagons. The
Eastern Bengal Railway has route mileage of 1,703 (broad gauge, 544 miles;
metre glmge. 1.139 miles, and narrow gauge, 20 miles). There are 409
stations. Equipment: 431 locomotives. 1.530 carriages. 17,774 wagons.
Shipping. There are 3 ports in Pakistan: Karachi, Chittagong and
Chalna.. During the year 1958-59, Karachi handled 3,085,000 tons; Chitta.
gong. 2,('18,000 tons, and Chalna. 830,168 tons.
Roads. In March 1958 Pakistan had about 70,000 miles of roads. of
which 2H,847 were of superior type. The number of motor vehicles on
31 Dec. 1954 totalled 60.943 (excluding those of the armed forces), including
7.323 motor cycles, 31.901 private cars, 1,537 taxis, 6,232 buses, 1l.922
trucks.
Post. Telephones, on 31 Dec. H158. numbered 63,905, all owned by
the Gov(,rnment. The number of post and telegraph offices was 10,165.
Civil Aviation. Karaehi is on the main B.O.A.C., K.L.M .• P.A.A. and
Air France airline and flying. boat services between the U.K. and India,
Singapore and Sydney.
Two Pakistani airlines are operating: Pakistan International Airlines
(founded 1953; the majority of shares is held by the Government), and
Pakistan Aviation, Ltd., which provides common technical repair facilities
for the other airlines and for the Royal Pakistan Air Force.
PAKISTAN-WEST PAKISTAN 205
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The monetary unit is the Pakistani
rupee, the sterling equivalent of which, since 30 July 1955, is Is.6d. (parity
with the Indian rupee). The notes are of Rs lOO, 10, 5, 2 and Re 1
denominations and the coins nickel of Rs 1, 1. 1; copper-nickel of annas
2, I, ~, and bronze of 1 pice (! anna). The coins are minted at the govern·
ment mint at Lnhore a,nd the notes nrc printed at the Security Printing Press
in Karachi .
Notes in circulation in 1956 amounted to Rs 283·54 crore; coins in
circulation to Rs 17 ·49 crore.
A state bank came into operation on 1 July 1948, with an authorized
capital of Rs 3 crOTes. Deposits !Lt 25 Dec. 1953 amounted to Rs 412·5m.
An Agricultural Ba,nk opcnfld in .Tuly 1957, with a capital of Rs 30m.
of which the Government provided Rs 20m.
The post office snvings bank, as nt 31 March 1956, had 1,167,321
depositors with Rs 38,69'28 lakhs tu their credit.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The principal units in all the scales of
weights are the maund, seer and toln, and the standl1rd weights for each of
these arc 82·27 lb., 2·057 lb. and 180 grains troy respectively.
The tola has the same weight as the rupee, viz., 180 grains troy; the
standard or railway seer is equal to 2·057 lb., while the standard or railway
maund of 40 seers is equivalent to 82 lb. t oz. (troy).
Books of Reference
Callard, K., Pakistan. London, 1957
Jennillgs. Sir l"or, Constit,aioMI Probleml in Pakistan. Cambridge Uni". press, 196.
PitonwaUB, M. B .• An Introduction '0 Pakistan: il8 R~,Jouru, and Potmliali'itl. Karncbi
194~.-(ed . ). Bulldin of ,he Karadli Geographical Sodetu. 1949 If.
Qureshi, I. H., Paki.<lan, and {,/amic Dtmocracy. Lahore, 19;0
Spate, O. H . K., {ndia and Pak""an: a oeneral rt9ional geography. Lo~don, 1954
8ymonds. R., 1'he Making vf Paki.dan. London, 1949
PROVINCES
FEDERAL CAPITAL
On 23 July 1948 the city of Karachi, with 566 sq. miles of its surrounding
a.rea and the islands of Manora., Bhi t, Baba., Bunkor and Shamspir (Sands pit),
were taken over by the Pakistan central government. The administration
is vested in an Administrator appointed by the central government. The
area is 812 sq. miles; the population (1957) 1·5m. In 1956-57 there were
366 primary schools (2,663 teachers, 86,042 pupils) and 763 secondary
schools (1,900 teachers, 44,243 pupils).
In 1959 it was decided to shift the federal capital from Karachi to an
area on the Potwar plateau near Rawalpindi. It will be called 'Islamabad'.
The President and the Ministries have their temporary headquarters in
Rawalpindi.
WEST PAKISTAN
West Pakistan comprises the former provinces of the Punjab, the North.
West Frontier, Sind and Bahlchistan, the states of Bahawalpur and
Khairpur. the BalilChistan States Union, the frontier states and the tribal
areas of Bahlchistan and the north· west. These were merged into a single
unit on 14 Oct. 1955.
Area and Population. The area of West Pakistan, including Karachi.

is 309,4:!4 sq. miles, with a census population (1951) of 32,65:~,OOO (17,524,000
wales ; 15,129,000 females), and a density of 105 per sq. miles. Estimated
population, July 1!l58, 37,396,000.
The capital is Lahore.
Governor. Akhtar Husaill .
The province i~ divided into 10 Commissioners' Divisions, flS follows:
Area Population Population
Divi~ions (in sq. miles) (in 1,000) per sq. mile
Pe,ibawar. . 27,53G 5,088 184
Dera [smail Khan 21,261 2,OR5 98
na\valpiodi 11,855 3,879 327
Lahore 9,119 6,340 586
Multan _ 1G,761 G,953 415
Bahawdpur 32,443 3,205 U8
Kh"lrpnr _ 20,449 2,586 126
Hydera , ad 35,998 2,343 65
Quetta 36,027 585 14
Kalat 98,970 589 6
The divisions of Lahore, Rawalpindi and Multan are subdivided into 4

districts e:wh; Bahflwalpur, Hyderabad and Khairpur into 5 districts each;
Kfllltt into 4districts and 2 agencies; Peshawar and Dom Ism ail Khan into
4 districts and 3 n,gencies each; Quetta into 1 district and 3 agencies.
Reli("ion. 97·1% of the population are Moslems, 1'3 % Christians, 1·1 %
Schedul'ld·cnate Hindus and 0-5% Caste Hindus,
Education. In 1959 there were 16,558 primary schools in West Pakistan,
with 1,341.541 boys and girls; 1,857 middle schools with 860.743 pupils;
853 high schools with 428,309 student.s; 107 colleges had 50,942 students.
In 1051 literacy ranged from 11'2% (Charsadda ) to 47'2% (Quetta).
The official language is English; the main languages spoken in the
provinc€ are Sindhi, Punjabi, Push to and Baluchi.
Ther·) were, in 1958,62 daily and 279 bi.weekly and weekly newspapers.
Finance. The budget for 1959-60 envisaged revenue amounting to
Its 724 -~m. and expenditure amounting to Rs 672·5m. The main items of
expenditure are irrigation (Rs 272·lm.), health (Rs 37·4m.). electricity
(Rs 200·5m.) and education and social welfare (Rs 12m.); capital expendi.
ture Rs .373·9m.
Agriculture. The entire area in the north and west is covered by great
mountaia ranges. The rost of the province consists of a fertile plain
watered by five big rivers and their tributaries. Agriculture is the occupa·
tion of a vast majority of the population, and is dependent almost entirely
on the irrigation system based on these rivers. The main crops are wheat,
ootton, harley, sugar cane, millet, rice, maize and fodder crops, while the
Quetta f.nd Kalat divisions (formerly Baluchistan) are known for their
fruits and dates.
Agricultural statistics (1957-58), in 1,000 acres and 1,000 tons:
Produce Acreage Production Produce Acreage Production
Rice 2,727 889 Barley 5iZ 161
Wheat 11,708 3,63i Gram 3,159 693
Bajra 1,876 281 Sugar cane (ra~ Buga;) 980 1,O8 ~
Jowar 921 1-"
, 0 Rape and mustard 1,373 228
Maize l t Oi7 445 Cotton 3,59~ 1,~66 '
1 1,000 bales of 392 lb. each.
PAKISTAN-WEST PAKIS'fAN 207
Livestock (1955 census). 8.665,154 cattle, 5.680,288 buffaloes. 5,773.366
sheep, 4.458,493 goats. 520,668 camels, 432.24:l horses. 6·8m. poultry.
Forestry. Forests cover about 5·14m. acres (3% of the land surface).
Alining. Coal is mined at Sharigh and Harnai on the Sind-Pishin
railway and in the Bolan pass, also in Sor Range in the Quetta.Pishin district.
Chromite is extracted in the Zhob district near Hindubagh. Limestone is
quarried in small quantities. Gypsum is mined in the Sibi district near
Spintangi railway station. Natural gas has been found at Sui. Iron ore
is being worked in Kalabagh .
Irrigation. The former province of Sind is beyond the influence of
the south· west and north·east monsoons. and in consequence its rainfall is
below 10 in. In normal years nine· tenths of the area cultivated depends
on irrigation by canals. The irrigated area was over 23m. acres in 1958.
The Lloyd Barrage and Canal Construction Scheme, which consists of /l.
barmge across thc river Indus at Sukkur and 7 canals-4 on the left and 3 on
the right bank-is designed to provide an assured supply of water to an area
of about 1·83m. acres in territory which has hitberto received an indifferent
supply from inundation canals. It also brings under irrigation a further area
of 3·62m. acres in Sind, the Khairpur stato and the Nasimbad tahsil in
Baluchistan, which was previously without facilities for irrigation. The
project thus provides for an annual cultivation of 5·45m. ncres on final
devclopment, which is expected to he reached in 1962-63. The cultivated
area was 3·87m. acres in 1951.
Another barrage across the Indus, 4~ miles north of Kotri, called the
Ghulam Muhammad Barrage, was completed ill 195G. The fourth and last
of the main canals taking off the Ghlllam Muhammad Barrage was opened
in Sept. 1958. The irrigable area to be served by this scheme will be about
2,750,000 acres in the Lower Sind area.. In 1958-59 irrigation facilities
were extended to about 360,000 acres.
Work on the Taunsa barrage on the Indus, 80 miles downstream of
Kalabagh, started in 1953 and waa completed in Hl58. It will eventually
irrigate 1·4m. acres in the Muzaffargah and Deta Ghazi Khan districts.
The Gudu barrage, 10 miles from Kashmorc, is to serve 2·6m. acres of
the rice.growing tracts north of Sukkur; work on it began in 1957.
The former province of the Punjab set up in 1949 the Thai Development
Authority to colonize the Thai desert between the Indus and Jhelum rivers.
The project envisages the irrigation of some 2m. acres and the establishment
of a balanced economy of agriculture, trade and industry.
Other projects are in varying stages of preparation on the Kurram and
Kabul rivers, the Upper Jhelum and the Upper and Lower Chenah canals.
Industry. Industry employs about 10% of the population. Woollen
and other cottage industries, especially cotton weaving (with 17,000 workers),
have made great strides. Annual production of cloth is 20m. sq. yd.
Industries recently started include sodium silicate, chocolate, tanning, and
paint and varnish factories. The cottage industry produces for export
lacquered and embroidered art·ic\es and glazed pottery. Large quantities
of raw hides and skins. wheat and rice nre also exported. The population
engaged in the fishing industry is about 39,000.
The cotton industry of West Pakistan had in 1956 an installed capacity
of 1,656,968 spindles and 24.6\0 loorus. Eight woollen·mills had an aggre.
gate of 22.760 woollen and 21,832 worsted spindles.
In 1956 West Pakistan had 1,800 registered factories. In March 1956
there w,)re employed 153,601 unskilled, 223,414 skilled and semi-skilled,

39,847 f,dministrative and 18,492 highly trained technical workers.
Co-oJ,erative Societies. At the end of 1957 there were 20,90i co-operative
societies with a total membership of 973,372 and a working capital of Rs
446·9m. The 11,865 agricultural credit societies formed tbe most important
group (435,320 members, Rs 46·5m.).
Electric Power. The total generating capacity in 1956 was 127,000 kw.
A hydn-eleotrio power-station at Malakand supplies the districts of
Mardan, Peshawar, Kohat and Hazara. A major hydro-electric project i8
under construction at Warsak in the Khyber Agency on the Kabul river.
This sta';ion will ultimately generate 180,000 kw. of hydro-electrio power.
Roads. There are approximately 42,000 miles of roads, of which 8,600
were, in 1958, metalled. In 1958 motor vehicles numbered about 30,000.
RailwaY8. See p. 204.
Post. In 1956 there were 4,790 post offices, 600 telegraph offices and
36,372 tlllephones.
w." Paki ,tan Year Book. Public Relations Dept., Lahore, from 1956
Oaroe, Sir 0101, The Patilans. London, 1958
GUb_OD. G. W., and HaddffmJ Gbano Khan, Engli.I>-Balochi Colloquial Dictio1Ul'll. 2 voll.
Hertlor,i, 192~
EAST PAKISTAN
East Pakistan comprises the eastern territories of the partitioned
province of Bengal and the former Assam district of Sylhet, with the excep-
tion of certain thanas of the Karimganj sub-division. East Pakistan is
administratively divided into 3 divisions and 17 districts: (1) Dacoa Division
-the dj,!tricts of Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur and Bakarganj; (2) Chitta-
gong Di;ision-the districts of Chittagong, Tipperah, Noakhali, Chittagong
Hill Tracts and Sylhet; (3) Rajshahi Division-the districts of Rajshahi,
Dinajpur, Rangpur, Bogra, Pabna, Kushtia, Jessore and Khulna.
Governor. Zakir Husain.
Area and Population. The capital of the province is Dacca (population,
600,000 in 1958) and its ports a.re Chittagong and Chalna. The area i8
54,501 sq. miles; population (1951 census), 42·06m., of which 32·2m. were
Moslems, 9·2m. Hindus and 106,507 Christians. The principal language i8
Bengali.
Education. The compulsory primary education 8cheme has been re-
placed 1:y model primary education, and the Govemment has dissolved the
District School Boards and taken over the admini&tration of the schools.
In 1957, 5,138 model primary schools were functioning. There are 2
universities, one at Dacca and the other at Rajshahi, 95 colleges, 1,990
high 8chools and 66 technical schools.
Healih. The province has 6,668 beds in various hospitals, including
a mental and 2 tuberculosis hospitals. There were in 1959, 3 medical
colleges and 5 nursing training centres.
Agri.:ulture. East Pakistan is primarily an agricultural area; agriculture
employs about 82% of her population. 64% of the total area of the pro-
vince is under cultivation. The area which can be classified as oultivable
CEYLON 209
waste is about 1·5m. acres. Amongst food crops, rice is the most important;
the total estimated annual production of rice is about 7m. tons and con-
sumption about 8m. tons. East Pakistan in 1958-59 produced 88,700 tons
of pulses, 38,000 tons of grams, 25,100 tons of wbeat, 14,000 tons of barley,
2,060 tons of oilseeds, 46,270 tons of chillies, 3·9m. tons of sugar cane,
23,880 tons of tea, 39,732 tons of tobacco, 21,630 bales of sun-hemp. East
Pakistan produces about 76% of tbe world production of raw jute; the
area under jute in 1957 was over 1·6m. acres and tbe production 5·4m. bales.
Fore.sts. The total area under forests is 8,000 sq. miles, of which 4,600
sq. miles are Reserved Forests. Tbe annual output of timber is nearly
15m. cu. ft. Among minor forest products, East Pakistan produced 76·5m.
stems of bamboos, 415,000 canes, 6,500 maunds of honey in 1058-59.
Fi8hery. Being bounded on the south by the Bay of Bengal and having
numeruus rivers, streams, khals and bils, East Pakistan is pre·eminently &
fish· producing area aud possesses great possibilities for the manufacture of
various oils and fish products. Tbe estimated annual produotion of fresh
fish is over 33·2m. maunds and that of sea fish is about 70,000 tons. About
20,000 tons of fish used to be exported annually to India.
Industry. Tbe industries of the province are yet to be developed,
although it is rich in raw materials. Out of tbe existing industries, its 22
textile-mills, 7 sugar factories, 18 match factories, 7 glass works, 178 hosiery
factories, a pll.per.mill, 14 jllte-mills, 28 aluminium works and a cement
factory are tbe most prominent. Tbere is also a newsprint factory, a
fertilizer factory, a shipyard and a dockyard.
East Pakistan, the home of famous Dacca muslins is essentially a land
of cottage industries, such as tbe band loom, concb sbell, brass and bell-
metal industries, mat making and bamboo and cane works.
Shipping. East Pakistan possesses important natural resources in her
navigable channels wbich render valuable services in carrying produce by
cbeap water routes. There are 3 principal waterways, tbe Ganges, Brabma-
pntra alld Magbna. These are freely used by inland steam vessels, which
serve areas where railways cannot be economically constructed.
Roads. The province is probably the most backward in the whole Iodo-
Pakistan sub· continent in the matter of road communications. Since
partition tbe Government have taken up the construction of nearly 2,000
miles of road. Furtber construction development will provide for a further
6,000 miles of trunk, district and feeder roads.
Ahmad, Nafis, An Economic Geography of East Pakistan. OrlON Uuiv. Press, 19~8
CEYLON
SRI LANKA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Ceylon, the ancient Tapro-
bane (Tambaparni. the island of 'dusky leaves'), is an island in the Indian
Ocean, lying between 50 55' and 90 50' N. lat., and 79 0 42' and 81 0 53' E.
long. Its area is 25,332 sq. miles. The average annual rainfall varies from
40 in. in the nortb-west to over 200 in. south-east and some parts of the
interior. Annual average for Colombo is 91 in. and for Kandy 87 in.
According to the Mabawamsa chronicle, an Indian prince from the valley
of the Ganges, named Vijaya, arrived in the 6th century B.O. and became
tho firut king of the Sinhalese. The monarchical form of government con-
tinued until the beginning of the 19th century when the British subjugated
the Ka,ndyan Kingdom in the central highlands.
In 1505 the Portuguese formed settlements on the west and south.
which were taken from them about the middle of the next century by the
Dutch. In 1796 the British Government annexed the foreign settlements
to the presidency of Madras: in 1802 the maritime provinces of Ceylon
were separated from India and formed into a Crown colony. Passing
through various stages of increasing self.government. Ceylon reached fully
responaible status within the British Commonwealth when the Ceylon
Independence Act, 1947, came into force on 4 Feb. 1948.
Th... Proposals for conferring on Ceylon fully responsible Status within
the British Commonwealth of Nations' (Cmd 7257), which form the basis
of the Independence Act, include agreements on defence, external affairs and
public officers. The defence agreement provided that the U.K. and Ceylon
would give to each other such military assistance as it may be in their
mutuaj interest to provide. The U.K. may base such naval and air forces
and maintain such land forces in Ceylon as may be required for these
purposes, and as may be mutually agreed.
An agreement signed on 7 June 1957 providcs that the United King.
dom elltablishments will be completely withdrawn from Ceylon within 3
years though some facilities will remain up to 5 years, The Ceylon
Govemment will pay a sum of Rs 22m. spread over 5 years for the fixed
assets which are to be taken over and in final settlement of certain claims
arising out of the occupation or disposal of the bases.
Tht> agreement on external affairs declares the l'cadiness of Ceylon to
adopt and follow the resolutions of past imperial conferences; provides
that in external affairs generally the two governments will conform to
the principles and practice observed by other members of the Common·
wealth; provides that Ceylon will enjoy reciprocal rights and benefits en·
joyed by the U.K., and bear the obligations and responsibilities carried by
the U. K., which arise out of any valid int.ernational instrument which
applies to Ceylon.
The, public officers agreement protects the positions of specified classes
of pers·)ns holding offices in the public service of Ceylon.
Governor·General. Sir Oliver GoonetiUeke, O.C.M.G., K.C.V.O., K .B.E.

(sworn in 17 July 1(54).
Th(, elections held in April 1956 had the following results: 51 Mahajana
Eskath Peremuna. (People'S United Front), 14 Lanka Sama Samaja Party,
10 TalOil Federal Party, 8 United National Party, 3 Ceylon Communist
Party, 6 independents, 3 other Tamil groups. There are also 6 nominated
membl'rs.
The following is the composition of the Cabinet in Feb. 1960:
Prim,e Minister, Ministe'!' of Defence, External Affairs, Education, Agricul.
ture ani Lands. W. Dahanayake.
JU8i~ice. Senator V. S. Jayawickrema..
IndtLStries and Fisheries. J. D. Weera.sekera.
Finance. M. M. Mustapha.
Loc.tl Government, Housing and Internal Security, Senator Layard
Jayasuldera.
Hor~e Affail's and Health. Stanley de Zoysa.
CEYLON 211
Commerce and Trade. Sir Razeek Fareed.
Nationalized Service8, Shipping and Labour. Senator C. Wijesinghe.
Posts, Broadcasting and Information, Cultural Affairs and Social Service8.
~I. S. Kariapper.
Transport and Power and Works. R. E. Jayatilleke.
For purposes of general administration, the island is divided into' 20
districts, each presided over by a government agent, with assistants a.nd
subordinate headman. Thcre are 7 municipalities, with 36 urban councils
and 41 town councils.
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTA nVES

Country Ceylon representative :I!'oreign representative
Afghanistan 2 Maj.-Gen. Anton Muttu· Dc Abdul Zahir
kumaru
Australia. B. F. Perera, C.J\l.G ., J. C. G. Kevin
O.13.E.
•.\.ustria 2 . Dr A. Halusa
Belgium 2 J. H. O. Pl1ulusz Andrc Selliez
Burma 2 W. D. Gunaratne, O.B.E. Dr Htin Aung
Canada Sir Velupillai N. Cavell
Coomaraswamv
China l W. Gopallawa, J\i.B.E. Chang Tsan.ming
Cuba l It. S. S. Gunewardene
Czechoslovakia 2 Dc G. P. !,Inlalasekcra, Dr L. Simovic
O.B.E.
Denmark 2 A. B. Anderscn
Finland 2. Dr S. von Numers
France P. R. Gunasekera Andre Guibant
Germany 1 S. P. Wickremasinghc Dr T. M. Auer
Ghana A.1. H. A. Wahab
Hadjiar
Greece 1 Sir Arthur R.anasinghc, N. H. Va.'3Siliou
C.M.G., C.B.E.
India Sir Richard Aluvihare, Y. D. Gundevi3,
K.C.M.G., C.B.E.
Indonesia 2 ?rI. M. j\laharoof H. }'adyl
Israel" Dr Daniel Lewin
Italy 2 Sir Arthur TIanasinghe,
C.M.G., C.RE.
Japan 1 Sir Susanta Dc Fon3cka Y. Kat-sullo
:\Ialaya D. C. R. Gunawardanc S. Chelvasingham Mclntyre
Xepal 1 Sir Richard Aluvihare,
K .C.M.G., C.B.E.
~etherlauds 2 J. H. O. Paulusz W. D. Philipsc
~ew Zealand 13. F. Perera, C.M.O.,
O.B.E.
Pakistan. Maj.-Gen. Allton Muttu· M. H. Hussain
kumaru
Philippines 2 Sir Susanta De Fonseka M. A. Alzate
Poland 1 _ Dr G. P. Malalasekera, Dr J. Katz.Suchy
O.B.E.
I Ambassador. , Minister. No figure _ High Colllllli""ioner.
Country Ceylon representative Foreign representative

Portugal' Dr J. M. de Campos Alves
Rumania' Dr G. P. Malalasekera, Nicolae Cioroiu
O.B.E.
Singapore D. C. R. Goonewardena
Spain I Count de Arta7.a
Sweden 2 • Mme Alva Mvrdal
Switze':land 2 P. R. Gunasekera J. Cuttat -
Thailand 2 W. D. Gunaratne, O.B.E. Chuai Mekhachmrun
Turkey 1 • Kadri Rizan
United Arab
Republic' A. B. Perera A. Fouad Naguib
U.K. G. de Soyza, C.M.G., A. F. Morley, C.M.G., C.B.E.
O.B.E.
U.S.S.n.' . Dr G. P. Malalasekera, V. G. Yakovlev
O.B.E.
U.S.A.L . R. S. S. Gunawardene Bernard A. Guller
Y ugoslavia 2 A. B. Perera Dusan K veder
1 Ambassador. 2 Minister. No figure = High Commissioner.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area (in sq. miles) and estimated

population in 1957:
Pr<>vinces Area Popula.tion Provinces Area Popul~t!on
Western 1A32 2.405.921 North-Central . 4,008 274,338
Central . !L~90 1.52:1.350 Uva 3.277 630.340
SOllthcnl 2.146 1,294,702 Sabarago.m.uwa 1,893 1,005,512
Northern 3.429 6;3n.DGO
Ba.~teru 3.~{1) 414 .055 Total 25,332 9,172,042
NOt"th-West.ern 3,016 09:30874
Population (census 1953) according to race and nationality: 5,616,705

Singhalese, 8St,703 Ceylon Tamils, 463,963 Ceylon Moors, 45,916 Burghers
and Eurasians, 25,464 Malays, 974,098 Indian Tamils, 47,462 Indian Moors,
6,508 Europeans, 803 Veddas, 32,239 others. Non-nationals of Ceylon
totalle.l 1,019,578.
Vittl statistics, 1957: Births, 334,135; marriages, 49,795; deaths,
92,75\1,
Th" urban population is 15'3% of the total population. The principal
towns and their population (exclusive of the non-resident military and
shippir'g). according to the census of 1953, are: Colombo, 426,127; Jaffna.
77,181 ; Kandy, 57,200; Galle, 55,848; Negombo, 38,628; Kurunegala.
17,fi05; Nuwara Eliya, 14,405.
Th(, offici:.t.llanguage is Sinhalese.
RELIGION. Buddhism was introduced from India in the 3rd century

B.C.,a .1d is the religion of the majority of the inhabitants. There were
(1953) 5,209,439 Buddhists, 1,610,561 Hindus, 724,461 Christians, 541,506
Moslems and 11,928 others.
EDUCATION. In the seventh year after the introduction of free educa-

tion fr'lm the kindergarten to the university stage an Amendment Act was
passed by Parliament in 1951 embodying a comprehensive scheme. Accord·
ing to this Act, primary education, for the age-group 5-11 years, is 80
uniforlu type of education imparted through the medium of the mother
CEYLON 213
tongue. English is taught as a second language from Standard n. Second·
ary education is orgauized in 3 types of schools-junior secondary, age-group
11-14; senior secondary, age group 14-16; collegiate, age-group 16-18.
In the junior secondary schools from .Jan. 1956 and in the senior second·
ary schools from Jan. 1957, arts subject8 are taught in Sinhalese or Tamil;
science and mathematics in English, Sinhalese or Tamil at the discretion of
the school authorities.
Provincial distribution of government and assisted schools as on 31
~lay 1958:
Province Schools l'upn. l'rovloce Bchools Pupil.
Western 1.528 571,361 North-Central 3,\8 69,262
Centra.!. 1.301 277.225 U<. 504 89,241
Southern ~02 296,37U Sabaragamuwa Sn4 20·1.405
Northern 684 161,778
Eastern 402 80.569 'rotal 7,415 1,962,243
North- Western 852 222,032
The tota.! expenditure by the Government during the financial year

1957-58 was Rs 206·3m.
The University of Ceylon was established on 1 July 1942 by the incor.
poration oBhe Ceylon Medical College (founded 1870) and the Ceylon Univer.
sity College (founded 1921). In 1957 the university had faculties of oriental
studies, arts, science, medicine, law, engineering and agriculture, and
veterinary science, with a total of 2,718 students.
In 19.'>9 the Vidyalankara and Vidyodaya Universities were established;
both have faculties of arts and oriental studies.
The Ceylon Technical College provides a series of full-time and part·
time courses in science, engineering, commerce, arts, and arts and crafts.
The training of teachers is carried on in 12 government and 9 assisted
training colleges. The number of teachers in training in 1958 was 4,051.
Newspapers (1958). There were 8 daily newspapers with a total circula·
tion of 302,000 and 6 Sunday papers with a toto,l circulation of 407,000.
94,650.
JUSTICE. Roman-Dutch law modified by local enactments is ad·

ministered in the Maritime Provinces, while Kandyan laws and customs, now
partly codified, are administered in the Kandyan Provinces. The Tamils
of the Jaffna district are governed by the Thesavalamai, a code of laws
rebting to persons and property. The Moslems are governed by their
religious law, modified by local enactments, in matters such as inheritance,
marriage and divorce.
District courts and Courts of Requests administer justice on the civil
side. The Supreme Court exercises only an appdlate jurisdiction in civil
matters, excepting in divuree cases instituted under the Indian and Colonial
Divorce Jurisdiction Act, 1926. On the criminal side magistrates' courts,
district courts and the Supreme Court exercise an original jurisdiction.
The Supreme Court <~lso exercises an appellate jurisdiction in cases decided
by magi8trate~' courts and district courts. A Court of Criminal Appeal
exercises an appellttte jurisdiction in cases tried by the Supreme Court in
its original criminal jurisdiction. Rural courts exercise a crinllnal and civil
jurisdiction in rurall1reas ill respect of petty crimes o,nd civil disputes.
The strength of the police service on 31 Dec. 1958 was 9,064.
214 THE BRITISH COMMOlo.'WEALTH AND EMPIRE
SOCIAL WELFARE. The activities of the Department of Social

ServicHs fall into two main divisions and these, together with the more
important sub-divisions grouped under them, are as follows:
1. Social Assistance Services. Public assistance (monthly allowances);
casual relief; financial assistance to tuberculosis patients and their de-
pendants; relief of widespread distress due to failure of crops, floods, storme,
etc., including relief to individnal cases of distress among fishermen due to
acts of God such as fire, storms and accidents; rehabilitation and resettle-
ment (of flood victims; state homes for the aged; grants-in-aid to voluntary
agenci,)s and local authorities for the running of charitable and welfare
institutioI1~, homes for children, homes for the aged, and creches; services
for orthopaedically handicapped persons; services for the deaf and blind;
vagrarcy, including house of detention and homes for vagrants.
2. Workmen's Compensation. The payment of compensation to work-
men rn eet.ing with accidents in the course of their work is provided for under
the W orkmen's Compensation Ordinance No. 19 of 1934. It wa.~ brought
into operation in 1935, and has been administered by the Director of Social
Servicl)s since 1948.
FINANCE. Budgets, in Rs, for financial years ending 30 Sept.:

Revenue Expenditnre Revenue Expenditure
1954-15 1.11)8.586.665 '73.3~6_622 1~57-58 1,279,962,518 1.433,831,723
1955-16 I 2~7 246 372 1,103.354.931 1958-59 ' 1,330, 70R, 766 1,330,70~,766
1956-f 7 1:260;458;689 1,136,305,090 1959- 60 ' 1,342,500,000 1,736,400,000
1 Estima.te.
Th,) princip,,1 sources of revenue in 1957-58 were (in Rs lm.): Customs,

617; 'port, harbour, wharf, warehouse and other dues, 24-6; excise and
salt, 9.~·4; income tax, stamps, etc., 289·6; post and telecommunicatioI1S,
35·5.
Th·) principal items of expenditure in 1957-58 (in Rs Im.): Finance,
414'9; transport and works, 18!); education, 207'4; agriculture and food,
158-9; health, 121 -1; justice, 12·3; defence and external "ffairs, 95·3; home
affairs, 49·9; posts, broadcasting and information, 59'2; land~ and land
development,38; local government and cultural affairs, 39; labour, housing
and sooia l services, 36-2; industries and fisheries, 4·4.
'flu gross public debt on 30 Sept. 1958 was $13,475,601, Roubles
1,321,ti73, £14,408,775 and Rs 1,006,847,700. The value of sinking funds
for th·) redemption of sterling and rupee loans was £6,219,069 and Ra
200,635,542.
DEFENCE. Army. The Ceylon Army Act came into force on 10 Oot.
1949. The Army consists of the Regular Force, the Regular Reserve, the
Volumeer Force and the Volunteer Reserve. Service is entirely voluntary;
there is no conscription.
Th~ U.K. naval base at Trincomalee and the air base at Katunayake
were taken over by the Ceylon Govenlment on 15 Oct. and 1 Nov. 1957
respectively.
Navy. The Royal Ceylon Navy was constituted on 9 Dec. 1950. It
comprises 2 frigates, 2 ocean minesweepers, a seaward defence boat, 6 small
patrol boats and 2 sea-going tugs. R.M.Cy.S. Gemunu and H.N.Cy.S.
RangaUa are commissioned as shore establishments. Personnel in 1959
numbE,red 154 officers and 1,650 ratings. Officers and men are sent to the
CEYLON 215
U.K. for their training. There is also the Royal Ceylon Naval Volunteer
Force.
Air Force. The Ceylon Air Force was cst,ablished by the Air Force Act
of 10 Oct. ID49 . The Air Force is responsible for the provision of air patrols
to combat illicit, immigration, medium range air/sea rescue operations, army
co·operation duties and air survey work. Aircraft currently in service
include ,Jet Provost (armed), Chipmunk and Dalliol trainers, Heron and
Dove light transports, and Pioneer aircraft. and Dragonfly helicopters for
intcrnal security operations.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The area of the island is approximately

16,212,400 acres, of which about 3·7m. acres are under cultivation, and
about 456,000 acres pasture land. The acreage under the main crops in
ID58 were as follows: Paddy, 1,382,184; tea, 572,000 (production.
413,154.814 lb.); coconuL~. 1,071.000; rubber. 6(;4.,836 (production,I00,IOG
tons) .
Livestock in )D58: 1,417,025 cattle. 723.103 bufTaloes, 73,931 swine,
433,273 goats and 51,712 sheep.
There are 10 government dairies and cattle farms.
Fisheries. The Government i3 implementing a comprehensive pro-
gramme for the development of fisheries in inland as well as deep-sea waters.
jllin;ng. Graphite is the chief mineral mined and exported from Ceylon.
There were 12 mines working at the end of 1958. The total quantity of
graphite exported during the year was 5,637 tons. No mica was mined or
exported during the year. The Ceylon Mineral Sands Corporation is setting
up a plant at Pulmoddai on the N.E. coast for exploiting the beach deposit
of ilmenite found nearby. The Department of Mineralogy is running a
small plant for the recovery of monazite from beach concentrates gathered on
the S.W. coast. There are several hundred gem pits from which sapphires,
rubies, aquamarine, moonstone, topaz, chrysoberyl (cat's eye), zircons,
spinels, tourmalines and other gems are obtained. There are also deposits
of kaolin, iron-ore and glass-sands. The miocene limestones of the north are
the basis of Ceylon's cement industry.
Manufacture of salt is a government monopoly.
Trade Unions. The registration and control of trade unions are
regulated by the Trade Unions Ordinance (Ch. 116 of the Legislative Enact.
ments), and the Trade Unions (Amendment) Act, No. 15 of 1948. At the
end of 19.17 there werB 526 unions; 51:! employees' unions had a lllember·
ship of 521.654; and 11 employers' unions had 612 members.
COMMERCE. The values of total imports and exports (both including
bullion, specie and postal articles ; exports, including re-exports and ship's
stores) for calendar years are given in the following table (in Rs 1,000):
Imports Exports Imports Export.,
1953 1.6 10.188 1.~68.0 37 1956 1,033.365 I,nl,Iir.S
19(;4 1.397.272 1.80~.207 1957 1.805.947 1.r.SI.503
1955 1,461,175 1,939,816 1958 1,716,6'16 1,710,5~9
Principal exports (domestic), in iD.58 (in Rs 1,000): Cocoa, 10,818;

cilUlamon (quills), 18,687; copra,29,346; coconut oil, 61,806; plumbago,
3,820; coconuts, desiccated, 72,310; areca nuts, ,103; rubber, 258,109;
tea, 1,130,96D.
Principal imports in 19;;8 (in Ra 1,000): Rice, 237,837; t,extiles, 180,740;
liquid fuel and gas oil, 117,918; wheat flour, 67,021; fish and fish prepara·
tions, H2,323; sugar, 72,598; fertilizers, 46,560; milk products, 55,261;
coal, 1~~,2 3 1.
In [958 the principal sources of imports were (in Rs 1,000) the U.K.
(416,406), India (220,278), Japan (155,871), China (151,798), Burma
(101,192), U.S.A. (76,578), Iran (72,038), Australia (56,782); the principal
countries of destination, the U.K. (565,165), U.S.A. (134,993), Australia
(111,041), Union of South Africa (85,870), China (77,665), Canada (77,275),
Federal Germany (71,931).
Of the 407,632,820 lb. of black tea exported in 1958, the following
countries received the largest a mounts: the U.K., 164,464,304 lb.; Australia,
41,618,351 lb. ; U.S.A., 37,584,613 lb. ; Iraq, 25,852,504 lb.; Union of South
Africa, 24,849,075 lb. ; Canada, 17,366,422 lb.; Iran, 15,100,724 lb.; New
Zealand, 15,045,491 lb.; Netherlands, 6,544,652 lb. ; Egypt, 5,091,344 lb.
Trade with the U.K., according to British Board of Trade returns (in
£ sterli ag) :
1938 1956 19~7 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 12,398,930 39,172,732 40.785,109 46,398.567 40,046,741
Bxports from U. K. • 3,494,~16 25,918,109 25,709,734 28,014,345 31,724,299
Re·exports from U.K. 67,160 100,761 108,~00 118,165 178,366
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1958, 4,736 ocean· going mer·

chant yessels of 11,733,944 net tons entered and 4,650 vessels of 11,661,507
net tons cleared the ports of Ceylon.
RailwaY3 and Roads. Thore are 898 miles of railway open, 811 miles
being (; ft 6 in. gauge, and 87 miles 2 ft 6 in.
Number of motor vehicles. 31 Dec. 1958, 112,216, including 68,123
private cars and cabs, 20,179 lorries, 5,861 buses, 1,369 tractors, 13,772
motor eycIes.
Post. On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 1,777 offices of various classes open
for pos~al business; 1,696 money.order offices; 82 receiving offices; 70,754
miles c.f telegraph wire overhead and 84,305 miles underground; 32,235
telephcnes.
ThE' Overseas Telecommunication Service operates submarine cables,
and ah:o direct wireless circuits, with the U.K., Burma, Japan, Shanghai,
Austraia, Singapore, U.S.S.R. (via U.K.), Lebanon, Canada and British
East Africa.
Aviation. Air Ceylon-K.L.M. operates an international service betwesn
Colomho and Amsterdam. Air Ceylon also operates internal scrvices, and
regions.! servioes between Colombo and Madras, and Colombo and Singapore.
Foreign airlines which call in Ceylon are: Air India (Bombay-Colombo);
B.O.A.C. (London-Colombo-Sydney); Qanta& Empire Airways, Ltd (same
route as B.O.A.C.); T.W.A. (New York-Europe-Colombo).
MONEY AND BANKING. The Monetary Law Act No. 58 of 1949
provid(lS that the standard monetary unit is the Ceylon rupee having a par
value equal to 2·88 grains of fine gold.
ThE' Central Bank of Ceylon was established in 1950 as the authority
responflible for the administration and regu.Iation of the monetary and
banking system of the Dominion. The Central Bank is the sole authority
for the issue of currency in Ceylon, and all currency notes and coins issued
by the Central Bank are legal tender in Ceylon for the payment of any
a.moun;. Currency notes are issued in the denominations of Re 1, Rs Z,
MALAYA 217
6, 10, 50 and 100. The following coins are legal tender: (1) nickel brass,
50, 25, 10 and 2 cents; (2) cupro.nickel and nickel brass, 5 cents; (3)
copper and bronze, 1 cent, and copper, ! cent. The note circulation stood at
I{s 525·8m. on 31 Aug. 1958, and the circulation of subsidiary notes and
coins was Rs 7·1 m. on the same day. The official rate between Ceylon and
the U.K. is Is. 6d. per rupee.
Foreign exchange assets at 30 Sept. 1959 stood at Rs 761·4m.
The leading banks in Ceylon are: The Bank of Ceylon (state.aided),
The Mercantile Bank of India, the State Bank of India, National Overseas
& Grindlays Bank, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the
Chartered Bank, the Eastern Bank, the Hatton Bank, the Indian Bank, the
Habib Bank, and the Indian Overseas Bank.
The Ceylon Savings Bank had 143,161 depositors, and deposits amount·
ing to Ra 70,Oi6,059 in 1958. The post office savings bank on 31 Dec.
1958 had 2,807,956 depositors, and the balance to their credit was Ra
96,164,065. The loans granted by the Ceylon State Mortgage Bank for the
year ended 30 Sept. 1957 amounted to Rs 12,605,132.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The Imperial weights and measures
of the U.K. are established as the standard weights and measures of Ceylon.
Local and customary weights and measures are still used in various parts
of the country.
Books of Reference
'I'M Ceylon Year Book
C"'.~« Publications/Tom 187 J
Ceylon: Report of the Cornmi<~sion on Constitutional Re/orm. Cmd. 13677. London, 1945;
2nd ed., 1951.-Cl"ylon: Slatement oJ Poliry on Constitutional Reform. emu. 6690. London,
1945; reprint, 1952
Report DJ the L'lnd Commi:-;sion. Colombo, 1958
O~".'itas Economic SUTt)t'y: CeyIon, Sept. 19/;4. H.M.S.D., 1955
Collins, Sir 0., PuMic Admini~~tration in Ct!1Jlon. London, 1951
Oook. E. K., A Geography Of Ceylon. London,] 939
Farmer, B. H., i-'ioaeer Peasant Colonizutiun in Ceylon. R. Inst. of Intern . .A.iIaiN;, IIJ,)"]
Fergl.lsou's C~lon Direr.tory. Annual (from 1858)
Huluga.lIe, H. A ..1., Cl'1Jion. 4th ed. Oxford, 194~1
Jenni.n.6'S, Sir 1., Th~ Economy of Ceylon. 2nd ed. O.U.P., 1952.-Thto Constitution 0/ Cevion
LonduIJ, 1950
KotelaWHola, Sir .John, An A.."ian Prim~ Minister's Story. London, 1956
MilLq, L. A.' I Crylo'fl. !'.linneapoLls, 1950
Ratnasudya, M. D., and Wijeratne, P. n. P., Shorl" SinhaJese-E1lVliJh DiClionarv. Colombo.
1949
FEDERATION OF MALAYA
PERSEKUTUAN TANAH MELAYU
O.l< 31 Aug. 1957 the Federation of Malaya became the eleventh sovereign
member· state of the Commonwealth of Nations.
The Federation of Malaya comprises the 11 States of Jobore, Pahang,
Negri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, Trengganu,
Pcnang and Malacca. For earlier history of the States aml Settlements see
THE STAn;SMAN'S YEAR·BoOK, 1957, pp. 241 f.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitution is

based on the agreements reached at the London conferellce of Jan.-Feb.
1956, between H.M. Government in the United Kingdom, the Rulers of the
Malay States and the Alliance Party (which at the first federal elections on
218 THE BRITISII COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
27 Ju,y 1955 obtained 51 of the 52 elected members), and subsequently

worke.j out by the Constitutional Commission appoint.ed after that con·
ferenc·3.
The constitution provides for one of the 9 Rulers of the Malay States to
be elected from among themselves to be the Yang di·Pertuan Agong
(Supreme Head of the Federation). He will hold office for a period of 5
years. The Rulers also elect from among themselves a Deputy Supreme
Head elf State, also for a period of 5 years.
Supreme Head oJ State (Yang di·Pertuan Agong). H.M. Tuanku Abdul
Rahm'1n, D.M.N., S.l\LN., Ruler of Negri Sembilan (elected 31 Aug. 1957).
Denuty Head of State. H.Il. Sir Hisamllddin Abm Shah, D.M.N., Ruler
of SdLngor (elected 31 Aug. 1957).
Tha constitution provides for a Parliament consisting of the Yang di·
Pcrtua,n Agong and two l\Iajlis (Houses of Parliament) to be known as the
Dewan Negara (Senate) and Dcwan Ra'ayat (Rouse of Representatives).
The li:e of the Senate is 6 years, and the maximum life of the House of
Repre,;entatives is 5 years, subject to its dissolution at any time by the
Yang di·Pertuan Agong on the advice of his Ministers. The Senate will
eonsis(' of 38 members and the House of Representatives will have 100
memb.)rs, but there is provision for the first House of Representatives to
consis(. of 104 members as a transitional arrangement.
Tb.) first elections to the House of Representatives, held on 19 Aug.
1959, :~eturned 70 members of the Alliance Party, 13 of the Pan.Malayan
IslamiJ Party, 8 of the Socialist Front, 4 of the People's Progressive Party,
3 IndEpendents and 1 member each of the Malayan Party and the Party
Negara.
Sultan of Pahang. H.H. Sultan Sir Abu Bakar Ri'ayatu'd.din AI·
mu'ad:mm Sbab ibni Al·marhum AI·mu'tasim Bi'llah Sultan Abdullah,
D.M.N., G.C.M.G., acceded 23 June 1!l32.
Sultan of Selangor. H.H. Sultan Sir Hisamuddin Abm Shah ibni Al·
ruarhum Sultan Alaiddin Sulaiman Shah, D.M.N., K.C.M.G., acceded 4 April
1!J3S.
RaJa of Perli8. H.R. Syed Sir Putra ibni Al·marhum Syed Hassan
Jamalullail, D.M.N., K.C.M.O., acceded 4 Dec. 1945.
Sultan of Kelaulan.. H.H. Tengku Sir Ibrahim ibni Al·marhum Sultan
Mohamed IV, D.M.N ,D.K., S.P.M.K .• S.J.M.K., D.K. (Johore), K.C.M.O.,
acceded 21 June 1944, crowned Oct. 1944.
Sultan of Trengganu. H.H. Sultan Sir Ismail Nasiruddin Shah ibni
AI·maJ'hum Sultan Zainal Abidin, D.M.N., K.C.M.O., acceded Hi Dec. 1!l45.
Sultan of Perak. H.H. Paduka Sri Sultan Sir Yussuf Izzuddin Shah ibni
Al·mal'hum Sultan Abdul Jalil Radziallah Hu.'an.hu, D.M.N., K.C.II1.0 .•
O.H.E., acceded 31 March 1948.
SulJan of Kedah. H.H. Sultan Abdul Halim Maudzam Shah ibni
Al·marhum Sultan Badlishah, D.M.N., K.O.M., acceded 14 July 1958.
Sultan of Johore. n.H. Sir Ismail ibni AI·marhum Sultan Ibrahim,
D.K., :;.M.N., S.P.M.J., S.P.M.K., K.B.E., C.M.G., acceded 8 May 1959;
crowned 10 Feb. 1960.
Regent of Negri Sembilan. H.H. Tunku Munawir ibni Tuanku Abdul
Rahmall, S.M.N., appointed 31 Aug. 1957.
Goternor of Malacca. H.E. Dato Haji Abdul Malek, appointed 31 Aug.
1959.
Goternor oJ Penang. H.E. Raja 'fUll Uda bin Raja Muhammad, S.l\I.N.,
K.H.E, C.l\LG., appointed 31 Aug. 1957; re.appointed 31 Aug. 1959.
MALAYA 219
The cabinet was in Feb. 1960 composed as follows:
Prime jl!finister. Y.T.M. Tunku Abdul Rahman Putrn Al Haj.
Deputy P,i'me Minister and Minister of Defence. Tun Abdul Razak hin
Dato' Hussein, S.l\I.:N.
External Affairs. Dr I smail bin D.tto' Abdul Rahman, P.M.N.
Commerce I£nd Industry. Enche l\Johalllarl Khir Johari.
Health. V. T. Sambant,han, P .i\I.N.
Interior and Justice. Dato Su1eiman bin Dato' Abdul Rahman, P .:\-LN.
Agriculture. Inche Abdul Aziz bin Ishalt.
1forks, Posts and Telecommunications. Enehe Sardon bin Haji J'uhir.
Labour and Social Welfare. Dat,o Ong Yoke Lin, P.J\1.N.
Finance. Tan Siew Sin.
, Na,tural Resources. Inche llahaman bin Samsudin.
Bdllcation. Enehe Abdlll Rahman bin Haji Talib.
DIPLOMA TIC REPRESENT ATIVES

Country Malayan representative Foreign representativc
Australia Dato Gunn Lay Teik, T. K. Critehlcy
P.M.N.
:Belgium 2 G. Jenebelly 3
Burma z. U Mya Sein 3
Canada . Arthur It. l'vIenzies
Ceylon Dato S. Chelvasingham D. C. Gunawardena
l\1clntyre, P.M.N.
Denmark Z G. Seidenfaden
France '. Tcngku Ismail bin Tengku Franc;ois Bl'iere
Yahaya, P.M.N.
Germany 1 Dr Georg Vogel
India Dato S. Chelvasinghnlll S. 1(. Benerji
l\1elntyre, P .M.N.
Indonesia 1 Senu bin Abdul Rahman Dr Mohommed Razif
Japan 1 • Dr Lee Tiang Keng Kaoru Hayashi
Netherlands 2 • M. J. Rosenberg Polak 3
New Zealand Gunn Lay Teik, P.M.N. C. M. Te. Arawaka Bennett,
D.S.O.
Pakistan Kamaruddin bin Mohammed Maj .. Gen. Alhaj Nawabzada.
Ariff (Acting) Muhammed Sher AIi Khan
Sweden 2 T. E .1'. Goransson
Thailand: Syed Shell bin Syed AbduUah Suphon Chuenchum
Shahabudin
U.A.R.2 , Mohammed Rashed Danish
U.K. Tunlm Yaacob ibni Almar. Sir Geoffrey Tory, K .C.l\I.G.
hum Sultan Abdul Hamid
Halim Shah, P.M.N.
U.S.A.1 Dato Nik Ahmed Kamil, Homer M. Byington, Jr.
D.K., S.P.M.K., P.M.N.,
P .Y.G.P.
Vietnam 2 Tran.Kim.Phuong
• Amboss:ldor. ' Minister. • Charge dlAfiaires.
Ko figure = High Cornmi.sioner.
AREA AND POPULATION. Tho total area of the Federation is about

50,690 sq. miles. The Federal capital is Kuala J,umpur.
Area Population Area. Population

St"tes (sq. miles) 1967 census States (sq. miles) 1967 oeWlUl
Perak. 7.980 1,221.390 Periis 310 90,866
Seiangor 3,167 1,012,891 Kelant.an : 5,i-l6 505,58:;
Negri SenbUan 2,650 SG4, 331 Trcnggaou 5,050 278,166
Pahang 13,873 31~.949 Penang 400 672,1 32
Jobore 7,321 927,565
}!alacea 633 291,246 Federation . 60,690 6,278,763
K.dah 3,660 701,643
POFulation by races (1957 census): 3,126,706 Malaysians, 2,332,936

Chines(:, 695,985 Indians, 10,922 Pakistani, 1l~,214 others.
VINL STATISTICS (1958). Births, 281,594; deaths, 71,602.
RELIGION. In 1948 there were 86,144 Roman Catholic and 47,461
Protestant Christians in Malaya.
ED~UCATION (1958) . The numbers of schools (fully assisted, partially
assistccc and independent) of all types, of teachers and pupils of both sexes
were as follows :
Engli sh M:>.lay Chinese Indian Total
Schools i·H) 2, 315 1,'129 S09 5,358
Teachers . 8,484 16,100 12,G 75 1,!l97 39,256
Pupils 248,898 400, 727 384,0,,7 38,599 1,132,281
Pos;'primary vocational training is given in 3 junior t echnical trade

schools (408 pupils), 5 rural trade scbools (703 pupils), 2 technical institutes
(312 pupils), 15 commercial schools (6,137 pupils) and 13 domestic science
schools (2,450 pupils).
p os·,;.secondary professional education is given at the Technical College,
Kuala Lumpur (l\-ith 18 lecturers and 300 students), at the College of
Agriculture, Serdang (141 students) and at the Faculty of Engineering,
Univen:ity of Malaya, Kuala LUlllpur (100 students).
Prinary teachers are trained at the Sultan Idris Training College in Perak
(419 students), the Malay Women's Training College in Malacca (214
students); the Kota Bharu teachers' college (318 students), day training
centres (2,679 students), normal classes (1,114 students), Chinese teachers
trainin€: classes (659 students); Tamil teachers' training classes (297 students)
and Malay teachers' training classes (1,286 students).
SeC(lndary teachers are trained in the colleges at Penang (281 students),
Brinsford Lodge (266 students), Kirkby, Lancs. (299 students) and at the
language institute (172 students).
Scholarships of various types are available for studies at universities in
Commonwealth universities and at the University of Malaya.
HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE . In 1958 Government main·
t ained {;9 general and district hospitals with 12,722 beds; 5 institutions with
3,423 b ~ds for the treatment of Hansen's disease and 2 mental institutions
with 4,:!00 beds. Treatment of the rural population is carried through 161
static, no mobile road and 31 river· boat dispensaries and 468 child health
centres. The Government also maintains the Institute for Medical Research.
JUSTICE. The Courts Ordinance, 1948, constituted a Supreme Court,
consistbg of a High Court and Court of Appeal and presided over by the
Chief Justice. The same Ordinance established session courts, magistrates'
courts !,nd Penghulu'l! courts, There are also juvenile courts for offenders
under the age of 17,
MALAYA 221
There are 19 penal institutions, including 2 Borstal esta.blishments and
1 open prison camp. There were 7,642 admissions in 1958, of whom 4,687
were sentenced to penal imprisonment and 2,955 committed on remand or
awaiting trial. 237 persons were admitted to prison under the emergency
regulations. Daily average prison population 1958 was 2,649.
FINANCE. The budget of the Federation, in $1 ,000, was as follows :

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959' 1900'
Revenue 797,252 802,970 801,125 76~,465 759,800 874,000
Expenditure 712,434 739,959 786,578 848,038 891,400 888,000
1 Revised estimates.
In 1958 the main items of revenue (in $1,0(0) were import duties,
282,045: export duties, 136,557: inland revenue, 131,176. The main
items of expenditure (in SI,OOO) were grants to States, 63,042: emergency,
105,343: defence and security, 106,283: education, 135,177; health and
social services, 71 ,592.
Capital expenditure on development works amouut.ed to S140m. in 1958.
The State government reveuue in 1958 was S1l6·6m.; expeuditure was
SI62·8m.
The public debt of the Federati,)D at the end of 1958 was $773,901,082,
excluding amounts due on treasury LJiUs and treasury deposits.
DEFENCE. Army. The Regular Army consists of 3 brigade head-
quarters, an armoured car regiment, 8 infantry battalions, an army signal
squadron, 3 brigade signal squadrons, 2 engineer squadrons, 1 artillery
battery, 3 transport companies, 2 workshops, 1 provost company, lord-
nance depot, 3 supply depots.
Navy. The Royal Malayan Navy consists of 4 inshore minesweepers,
6 motor launches and a repair craft, all acquired from Great Britain.
Air Force. The Royal Malayan Air Force consists of 1 squadron
equipped with Twin.Pioneer and Pioneer general-purpose transport aircraft.
Its pilots are trained on Chipmunk aircraft.
Volunteer Force. The Army volunteer force consists of a Territorial
Army composed of 15 infantry battalions on half strength, 3 signal squadrons,
3 transport companies, 2 workshop sections and a provost unit. The Naval
volunteers consist of 2 divisions, composed of shore establisuments only.
The Air Force volunteers consist of one squadron which uses the aircraft
of the regular forces for training purposes.
POLICE. The strength of the police force on 1 Aug. 195() was 477
officers, 979 inspectors (including 33 women), 71 lieutenants, 22 temporary
inspectors, 19,467 other ranks (including 56 women), 288 extra police
constables, 6,297 special consta bles, 613 auxiliary police, 137 aboriginal
guards and 2,440 volunteer reserve.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Total area uoder agricultural crops.

1958, 5·5m. acres.
ltice: Production in 1958 (and 1959): 495,450 (-138,000) tons from
901,000 (874,000) acres.
Rubber: Total production in 1957 (and l()58): 635,933 (661,610) tons
from 3·501. acres.
Palms : Production in 1957 (and 1958) : 58,507 (59,671) tons of palm
oil; 14,781 (18,273) tons of kernels; 130,278 (108,123) tons of commercial

copra; 96,508 (78,552) tons of coconut oil.
Tea: Production of made tea in 1957,5,246,000 lb.; 1958,4.878.000 lb.
Livestock (1958): Oxen, 291,000; buffaloes,255,OOO; goats, 269,000;
sheep, 23,000; swine, 398,000; horses, 600.
Forestry (1958). Reserved forests, 13,000 sq. miles; forest reserves,
3,000 sq. miles. Production of round timber, 57·6m. solid cu. ft whieh
produced 503,100 tons of 50 cu. ft of sa,m timber.
Fislleries. Landings in 1957, 111,000 tons; 1955, ]09,547 tons. Num-
ber of vessels (1958): 7,399 motor, 17,749 sailing.
Mining. Production (in 1,000 tons): Tin-concentrates: ]958, 38·5;
1957, 5!l. Coal: 1958, 66'5; 1957, 153. Iron ore: 1958,2,795·3; 1957,
2,972. Bauxite: 1958,262'4; .1957,326. Ilmenite (exports): 1958,74'8;
1957,9::. Gold : 1958,22,484; 1957, ll ,OOO troy oz.
Eleciricity. In 1958, 893·2m. kwh. were generated; the mining in-
dustry is the main consumer.
Trade Unions. There were, 31 Dec. 1958, 265 registered trade unions
with 21~!,OOO members.
COMMERCE_ The vnlue of imports in 1958 was $l ,658m. ; exports

and re-I'xports totalled SI,885m.
Rubber gross exports in 1957 (nnd 1955) totalled 655,139 (690,172) tons,
valued at $1,304,122,521 ($1,197,200,000).
TotE.! trade (in £ sterling) of tbe Federation of Mala.,va with the U.K .
(British Board of Trade returns) :
1955 1966 1957 ID58 19. 9
Imports to U.K.. 41,584,311> " ,949,059 44,000,99;; 40,326,494 35,618.683
Exports from U.K... 35,418,6l>1 39,1811.995 38,101,246 34,787~254 30,605,610
Ue-upomlfrom U .K. 572,506 655,173 646,291 571.226 595,670
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. The Public Works Department main ·

tains 6,770 miles of pu blic road, of which 4,919 miles is metalled surface,
grouted or sealed with bitumen, 176 metalled surface waterbound, 672 hard
surface water bound, 628 earth surface, 353 hard surface bitumen-sealed and
22 conc::ete surface.
In 1958, 138.546 motor vehicles were registered, including 74,539 private
cars, 2..~~36 buses, 24,555 lorries and \'ans, 26,892 motor cycles.
Railways. The Malayan Railway main line runs from Singapore to Prai,
opposito Penang Island. From hcre, a branch line to Padang Besar on the
Thai border connects Malaya. with the State Ra.ilways of Thailand. Other
branch lines connect the main line with Port Dickson, Port Swettenham,
Teluk Anson and Port Weld. The east-coast line, branching from the main
line at (lemas, extends to Tumpat in the north of Kelantan; a short branch
line frolD Pasir Mas to Sungei Golok makes eonncxion with Thailand. The
route mileage is l,02~ and the annual budget is about S70m.
Shi1-ping. The major ports of the Federation are Penang, Malacca,
Port Swcttenham, Tumpat, Dungun, Port Dickson and Teluk Anson. The
following table illustrates the volume of shipping (vessels of over 75 NRT
only) hlndled at these ports, exclusive of coasting trade ; tonnage in
I,OOONRT.
MALAYA 223
With cargo In ballast
Arrlmls De}'artuTe" Arrit'ais [JeparlUrtS
Ton· Ton· Ton· Ton-
No. nage No. nago No. nage No. nage
P~uallg 1957 2.105 5,9;Jj 1.780 5.913 2D!'l 1.002 G21 1.055
1953 2.258 6.567 2.'H9 6.800 410 1.440 611 1,177
Port Swettenhn.m 1957 1,302 4.890 1.219 4.504
1958 1,;;30 r),739 1.437 5,H~8
Total 1957 3.691 11.2,,;' 3.2B7 11.272 561 1.964 806 1.296
1958 4.095 12.S0 I 3.685 12.709 533 1.818 838 1,52~
Arrivals of vessels engaged in coasting t.rade totallod 733,301 NRT in

1958 and 773,472 NRT in 19.'57.
The total quantity of cargo hanrlled by Federation ports during 1958
was 5,664,000 tons (HJ57, 6,43fJ,000 tons).
Post. The Federation of Mal:tya and the State of Singapore are
combined for postal purpose~ into the Malayan Postal Union administered
by the Postma.ster·General, M!ll~.y'l. As at 31 Dec. 1958, 205 post offices
and 278 postal agencies were operating. The cash turnover for the year,
excluding savings bank, amounted to $70fJ,!.l1l,639.
There were 67.082 telephones in US" in the Federation on 30 June 1959.
These were connected to 260 telepholle exchanges, 21::! of which were
automatic. In 1958, 172,403 wireless licences were issued.
Aviation. There are 12 aerodromes used by scheduled nil' services and
54 other landing grounds. Two airlines provide internal services, Malayan
Airways, Ltd and Federation Air Service (operated by Malayan Airways).
B.O.A.C.. Qantas, K .L.M., 8.A .8., Cathay Pacific Airways and Garuda
Indonesian Airways operate through KUl1la Lumpur, and Tbai Airways
Co. Ltd .. call at Penang. Malayan Airways Ltd, also operate services from
Penang to Medan and Bangkok via Kuala Lumpur. In 1958 the number
of passengers who arrived and depart ed was 133,884, cargo handled 3,628
metric tons; mail handled 467 metric tons.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The standard currency of the Federa-

tion is the Malayan dollar, divided into 100 cents and cqualling 2s. 4d.
sterling. Note circulation at 31 Dec. 1958, $945,838,482. Nincteen banks
were operating in HI.58, inclnding t.he Chartered Bank of India, Australia.
and Chinn; the Mercantile Bank of India; the Hongkong and Shanghai
Banking Corporation.
The post office savings bank held a total amount of SI24,9G6,3iO, due to
629,236 depositors at 31 Dec. 1958.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These are the same a3 those used in
Singapore.
Books of Reference
STATISTJCAL INFOnMATlON. Department of Statistics, Fedp.rat,ion ot Mn\aya, Kuala
LumpuT, wa.'J set up In 1046, taking oYer (rom tL.e Department ot Sto.tbtics. Stra.its Settle·
mcnts Q.lld rederated MnJay State~. Slnl?a.pore. Chip' Statistician: C. n. HarvJc. Main
p\lb1ico.tifJ1l~: Monthly Suui.o;tical l1uUerin u/ theFederation of Malaya; Rubber Statistic.,
lIandhook (Annual); T,ade Slali.'lics (Quarterly).
Th. Federalion of Malaya Annual Repo,t, 1957. KI1~ln Lumpur. 105S
Repo,t of Ihe Federuti01l of Malava C01LS1ilutional Commission. (Colonial No. 330.) H.M.S.O.,
195i
Th. Reonomic Development oj Malaya. Report by the lntemationnl Rnnk. Singapore, 1955
AJJen. D. }4'., Report cm tile Major POTIS Of Malaya. Kuala LumlJUr, 1951
1I.rtiett, V., Reporl from Malava. London. 1954
Bnrkill, ::. R .,DictioMry of the BCOMmic Produas of M oJaya Peninsula,. 2 vols. London, 1935
Obeesm8D, E. E ., CuIlioalion 0/ Cocoo in Malaya . SarauJak and North Borneo. H.M.S.O., 1948
Chelliah ~ V. A ., and Mdeish, A., M alajla and S j1l1JapOrl ; Survey Directory of Churches and
Mi$si( -n3. London, 1948
Ginsburg, N., and Roberts, C. F. (ed.), Alalaya. Uol". of Washington Press, 1958
Jones, S. W., Public Administration in MoJaya. Oxford TJlliv. Press, 1953
Purcell, 'I., '1'h. Chin ... in Malaya. Oxford, 1948.-'1'h. Chinese in S.E. A.ia. London, 1950
Smith, 1'. E ., Population Growth in Malaya. Oxford Univ. Press, 1952
Tan Cheng Lock, .J.lfalallan Problems. Singapore, 1947
Wilkinsc D, R. J., Malay-English Dictionary. 2 vols. Newed. London, 1956
Winsted " Sfr R., Malaya anti it. History. 3rd ed. London, 1953.-An English-Malav
Dir.lioaaT'V. Brd ed. Singapore, 1949 .-The Malays: a cultural history. London, ]950
ADEN
COLONY. Aden is a volcanic peninsula on the Arabian coast, about
100 mEes east of Bab·al·Mandeb. It forms an important bunkering station
on the highway to the East. The Colony includes Little Aden, a pcninsula.
very similar to Aden itself, and the settlement and town of Sheikh Othman
on the mainland, with the Yillages of Imad and Hiswa. The island of
Perimllso forms part of the Colony.
Constitution and Government. Under the provisions of the Aden Colony
Order, 1936, Aden became the Colony of Aden on 1 April 1937. The Colony
is admmistered by a governor, who is also C.-in·C., aided by an Executive
Council which consists of the chief secretary, attorney-general, financial
secretary and such other persons as the Governor may from time to time
appoint. A Legislative Council was established in ,Tan. 1947. As recon-
stituted under the Aden Colony (Amendment) Order 1955, the Legislative
Council consists of the Governor as President, 4 ex-officio members, not
more 1,han 5 nominated official members, not more than 5 nominated
unoffic::al members and 4 elected members (3 representing electoral districts
and 1 re presenting the Aden Municipal Council). The first elections took
place ill Dec. 1955.
Ne,v constitutional proposals, published on 11 Nov. 1957 to become
effecthe in 1959, provide for a Legislative Council of 12 elected, 5 ex-officio
and 6 nominated members, with an impartia l Speaker appointed by the
Governor. The Executive Council will consist of 5 ex-officio members and
5 mem ')ers elected by the Legislative Council; the latter will be in charge of
departments, under the presidency of the Governor. The Governor shall
have r!lgerve executive legislative powers; English and Arabic shall be the
official languages in the Legislative Council, with English prevailing in the
case of a dispute in interpretation.
ThE, ejections held on 4 Jan. 1959 returned 9 Arabs, 2 Somalis and 1
Indian, all elected individually without party ties.
Governor and C.-in-C. Sir William Luce, K.C.M.G., K.B.E. (appointed
July HI56).
Chi>lj S€{;retary. K. W. Simmonds, C.M.G. (appointed 23 Jan. 1957).
Area and Population. The area of the Colony is 75 sq. miles; of Perim,
5 sq. miles. According to the census held in Feb. 1955 the total population
of the Colony is 138,441: Arabs, 55,791; Yemenis, 48,088; Indians,
15,817: Somalis, 10,611; Europeans, 4,484; Jews, 831; others, 2,819.
The principal towns are: Crater (55,000), Sheikh Othman (29,000), Tawahi
(20,000) and Maalla (20,000).
ADEN 225
VITAL STATISTICS for calendar years:
Li ve birth. Still birth. Marriages Divorces Deaths
19,6 4,524 154 1,011 79. 2.089
1957 4,819 127 874 543 2.023
1958 5,481 196 1,836
Education. Education in Aden is under the administrative control of

a Director who also advises on education in the Eastern and Western Aden
Protectorates. The educational policy of the Colony is in the hands of a
Member.in.Charge, who is responsible to the Governor in Council.
In the Colony the Government maintains 9 boys' and 7 girls' primary
schools, 4 intermediate schools for boys, the Girls' College, which provides
intermediate and secondary education for girls, Aden College and Technical
Institute and the secondary school for boys, and 2 teachers' training centres
(1 for men, 1 for women). There are in addition for boys 13 aided primary
8chools, 6 of which have intermediate sections and 2 aided secondary
schools; for girls, there are 9 aided primary schools, 6 of which have inter.
mediate sections and kindergartens, and 2 secondary 8chools. There are
also 5 recognized private schools and a number of unrecognized schools and
kindergartens. In all schools there are 7,680 pupils in primary schools (in.
cluding 2,607 girls), 3,763 pupils in intermediate schools (including 715
girls) and 1,314 pupils (including 231 girls) in the secondary schools. In
1959, 127 students (including 38 women) were studying in the U.K. Classes
for adult females are conducted at the Besse Centre for Women. Commercial
classes are held at the Technical Institute and also at a privately. run com·
mercial institute.
Cinemas. There were, in 1!l59, 9cinemas with a seating capacity of7,500.
Health. There are 62 physicians and 708 hospital beds, excluding the·
Armed Services.
Finance. Budgets, in £ sterling, for fiscal years ending 31 March :
19~;-5G 1956-.7 19,7-.8 1958-.9 1959-60'
Revenue. . 3,049.448 3,911,632 3,891,591 4,868,542 3.710,875
Bxpenditure 1 • 2,692,.3d 3,799,103 3,957,280 4,356,661 3,833,779
1 Includes transfer from surplus balances to a development fund (£200,000 in 1955-56,
£600,000 in 1956-57, £200,000 in 1957-58, £200,000 in 1958- 59).
I Esti mates.
The main government revenue is from income tax and customs and
excise duties. In 1958-59, £1,080,563 of revenue was derived from income
tax and £1,170,236 from customs and excise. The main heads of expendi.
ture were: Education, £356,855; electricity, £690,059; health, £398,018;
police, £361,023; public works, £790,529; contribution to development
fund, £200,000.
ProdUGtion. The main product of Aden is salt made from sea· water by
solar evaporation. There is a mill for cnlshing oil·seeds, mainly cottonseed
from the Aden Protectorate, and there are small factories for tiles and
a.luminium pots and pans and for bottling soft drinks. An oil refinery was
completed in 1954.
Commerce. The trade of Aden is mainly transhipment and t'ntrepot, the
port serving as centre of distribution to and from neighbouring territories;
because of its favourable geographical position it is an important oil bunker·
ing port. Transit trade is mainly in cotton piece· goods, grains, coffee,
226 THE BRITISH 00MMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
hides and skins, and cheap consumer goods. There is a flourishing trade
in luxury goods sold to visitors from ships.
Imports 1958: By sea, land and air, £71,771,622; bullion and specie,
£824,4::4; total imports, £72,596,096 (1957, £73,133,441). Re·exports and
expor~. 1958: By sea, land and air, including ships' stores and bunker fuel,
£63,49~',937; bullion and specie, £1,641,432; total exports, £65,139,369 (1957,
£66, m:,432).
Totd trade (in £ sterling) between Aden (Colony and Protectorate) and
the V.K. (British Board of Trade returns):
1938 1956 1967 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 61,351 6.838.368 13,469,887 7,113,143 7,523,601
Exports from U.K. . 476,918 1,796,420 8,034,762 . 7,651,600 7,733,749
Re-exports from U. K • • 15,466 217,108 91,260 66,435 86,363
Shipping. In 1958, 5,974 merohant vessels of 26,289,017 tons (net)

entered the Port of Aden, of which 2,535 were British; in the same year
1,656 country (local) craft of 127,111 tons entered.
Roads. Registered motor vehicles in 1958 numbered 8,214, including
192 tal:iS and 92 buses.
Post. There are 5 post offices in the Colony, 2 in the Eastern Pro-
tectorate and one at Kamaran, and 21 postal agencies in the Eastern
Protect.o rate. An automatic telephone system serves the whole Colony
through a central exchange at Maalla and subsidiary exchanges at Little
Aden a.nd Sheikh Othma.n. In 1959 there were 4,227 telephones in use.
An overseas radio· telephone service provides communioation with the V.K.,
India, East Africa, Djibouti, Khartoum, most European countries, the
V .S.A. and Canada.
There is no internal telegraph system conducted by the Government.
Extern.~1 cablc telegraphic communication is provided by Cable and Wireless,
Ltd, wiich also operate wireless· telegraph services to Mukalla and Seiyun
in the Eastern Protectorate and to the islands of Kamaran and Perim.
There were 1,151 radio receiving licences issued in 1957.
Avi.:tIion. The main airfield at Khormaksar is operated jointly by the
RAJ!' and the Civil Aviation Department. There are 19 aerodromes and
landing strips within the Protectorate, of which 10 are in regular use by
Aden Airways Ltd on their domestic services network.
Nine airlines operate regular international trunk route services to and
through Aden: Aden Airways, Air-India International, Alitalia, B.O.A.C"
East African Airways Corporation, Ethiopian Air Lines, Middle East Air-
lines, Saudi Arabian Airlines and Sudan Airways. These services connect
the Colony direct with Africa, Asia, Europe, the Mediterranean and Middle
East cc·untries and the Persian Gulf.
Currency. The currency in circulation is the East African Shilling (see
p.313).
BaTo.king. The following banking facilities are in the Colony: The
Nation:.1 Overseas and Grindlays Bank, Ltd, the Eastern Bank, Ltd, the
British Bank of the Middle East, Cowa.~jee Dinshaw & Brothers, the Bank
of rndi.t, Ltd, the Chartered Bank, Ltd, the Habib Bank, Ltd, the Arab
Bank, Ltd. There is also a savings bank operated by the Post Office.
PROTECTORATE. The Aden Protectorate (area about 112,000 sq.
miles) lies to the east, west and north of the Colony of Aden and consists of
the ten-itories and dependencies of Arab chiefs, most of whom are in treaty
ADEN 227
relations with H.M. Government. It is bounded on the east by the Qara
country, which is part of the dominions of the Sultan of Muscat and Oman,
and on the north and west by the Great Desert and the Kingdom of Yemen,
whose southern boundary was temporarily fixed by Article III of the Treaty
of Sana' (Feb. 1!J34). by which H.M. Government and the Yemen Govern-
ment agreed to maintain the stmus quo frontier as it was on the date of the
signing of the treaty. The coastline of the Aden Protectorate, which is
about 750 miles long, starts in the west from Husn Murad, opposite the
island of Perim. and it runs eastward to Ras Dharbat 'Ali, where it meets
the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman. The population (of which no census
has ever been taken) is estimated to be about 060,000.
The Aden Protectorate is divided into tho Western Aden Protectorate
and the Eastern Aden Protectorate. The former consists of 8 sultanates, 2
amirat.es alld 7 sh,dkhdoms 01" tribal confederations. The administrative
and economic development of these states varies greatly; in some of them
the chiefs still have no proper control over their subjects. The predominant
occupation of the people is agriculture; successful cotton·growing schemes
have been instituted in Abyan and Lahej.
On 11 I?eb. 19.~9 the amirates of Beihan and Dbala, the sultanates of
Audhali, Fadhli and Lower Yafai, and the Upper Aulaqi shaikhdom formed
tbe Federation of the Arab Amirates of the South. The Sultan of Labej
joined the F ederation in Oct. 1950.
Tbe Eastern Aden Protectomte comprises the Hadhramaut (consisting
of the Qu'a.iti State of Shihr and Mukalla and the Kathiri State of
Seiyun), the Mahri Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra, the Wahidi Sultanates
of Bir 'Ali and Balhaf. His Highness Sultan Awadh Bin Sal eh Bin Ghalib
Al Quaiti, Sultan of Shihr and Mukalla, is thc premier chief of the
Eastern Aden Protectorate, and the Hadhmmaut is the most important
and best orga.nized of these areas. By treaties of 1938 and 1939 re-
spectivelya Resident Adviser WM appointed to th e Qu'aiti State of Shihr
and Mukalla and the Kathiri State of Sciyun. Mukalla, on the coa.st,
is the scat of government of the Qu'aiti State fl,nd Seiyun is the capital
of the Kathiri State. The Hadhramaut is hounded on the east by the
Mahri Sultanate and on the west by the Wahidi Sultana.tes. The Mahri
Sultanate of Q.ishn and Soqotra is the most easterly area. in the Aden
Protectorate. The Sultan resides on the island of Soqotra (area 1,400 sq.
miles), whicb lies 150 miles from Cape Guardafui. The population, said to
number about 12,000, is mostly pastoral inland, fishing on the coast.
Religion formerly Christian, but Moslem since the end of the 17th century.
Chief products, dates and various gums; sheep, cattle (hump.les8) and goats
are pleQtiful; butter is exported. The Sultan entered into advisory treaty
relat.ions with H .l\I. Government in 1954. Principal village, Tamarida.
The ~tandard of education varies greatly, the Qu'aiti State being the
most advanced. It has a post-primary s0IlOol at Gheil ba Wa.zir. There
are intermedi;\te schools at Lahej in the Abdali Sta.te, at Zinjibar in
the Fadhli Stat.e, at Jaar in the Lower Yafai State and at !\Iudia in the
Audhali State. There are about· 400 boys &t these schools. Below this
level there are about 80 primary schools with a total of some 5,000 pupils.
There are also many sma.1I Komnic schools and a number of private schools
on a strictly religious basis. There are also 16 girls' schools with nea.rly
1,000 pupils, mostly in the Eastern Protectorate. Thirty·four students are
on scholarships a.broad- 24 ill Egypt, 5 in the Sudan and 5 in the U.K.
Heeurrent expenditnre on education is nearly £80,000, of which £21,907 iil
contributed by H.M. GOV~l'nlllent.
The Aden Protectorate, which is not directly administered, is under the

control of the Governor and C.-in-C., Aden. Government expenditure in
1959-!iO was estimated at £3,467,646, including £1,478,161 for Federation.
Revenue and expenditure of State administrations which have adopted
regula: accounting methods were as follows in 1958-59 (estimates, in £):
Wostern Aden Protectorate: Lower Yafai, (R.) 76,567, (E.) 82,465;
Dathina (R.), 15,710, (E.) 16,765; Lower Aulaqi, (R.) 18,412, (E.) 22,846;
Amiri, (R.) 21,725, (E.) 25,278; Upper Aulaqi Shaikhdom, (R.) 18,877, (E.)
20,071; Audhali, (R.) 43,419, (E.) 41,583; Lahej, (R.) 199,760, (E.) 196,047;
Fadhli, (R.) 138,305, (E.) 122,431; Beihan, (R.) 31,680, (E.) 39,777; Shu'eibi,
(R.) 8,357, (E.) 8,691.
Erultern Aden Protectorate: Quaiti, (R.) 545,630, (E.) 535,967; Kathiri,
(R.) 7(1,635, (E.) 67,878; Wahidi (Balhaf), (R.) 46,813, (E.) 46,247; Wahidi
(Bir Ai), (R.) 3,394, (E.) 3,147.
Th,~ Kuria Muria islands form part of the Colony of Aden and are at
present controlled on behalf of the Governor by the Resident in the Persian
Gulf. The islands are situated in the Kuria Muria Bay off the south coast
of Om3.n at 55° 55' E. long. They were given to the British Government
by the Sultan of Muscat in 1854. They are 5 in number: Haskiyah (1 sq.
mile), :3uda (5 sq. miles, rising to 1,300 ft), Hallaniyah (22 sq. miles, rising to
1,600 ft; about 70 inhabitants in 1(47). Gharzaut, JibJiyah (from west
to eas1,).
Th'l island of Kamaran in the Red Sea, about 200 miles north of Perim,
was taken by the British from the Turks in 1915, and is, since 1 Feb. 1949.
administered by the Goveruor of Aden through a Civil Administrator. It
has an area of 22 sq. miles and a population of about 2,200. A quarantine
station for pilgrims travelling to Mecca from the East was maintained on
the island until 1952. Commissioner. Lieut.-Col. R. G. W. E. Alban,
O.B.E.
Books of Reference
.t"nual R.p." ... Aden. 1955-:;6. H .M.S.O., 1958
The Ab)"n Schem., 1951. (Col.283.) H.M.S.O., 1952
BelhaveQ, Lord, Th. Unn>en Road. London, 1955
Hieklnb,)tbam. Sir Tom, Aden. London. 1959
Ingrams, D .• A S",tIe!I o/the Social and Economic Condition 0/ thl Aden P,otectorat.. Aden
1949
Ingrams, W. H., Arabia and Ih. Isles. London, 1942
Mealen, D. van der, Aden 10 the Hadramaut. London. 1947
Stark, F .• The Southtm Gatt8 o/Arabia. London, 1936. Seen in the Hadh,ama1ll_ London
1940
BORNEO (BRITISH)
North Borneo occupies the northern part of the island of Borneo. The
interior is mountainous, Mount Kinabalu being 13,455 ft high.
Th!, territory was a British protected state administered by the British
North :Borneo Company under royal charter granted in 1881. The sovereign
rights I.nd assets of the Company were transferred to the Crown with effect
from lli July 1946. On that date, the island of Labuan became pllrt of the
new Colony of North Borneo and the first Colonial Government assumed the
administration of the territory.
Lahuan is an island, 35 sq. miles in area, lying 6 miles off the north·
west c(,ast of Borneo. It has a fine port, Victoria Harbour, safe and easy of
BORNEO (BRITISH) 229
acces8. It was ceded to Great Britain by the Sultan of Brunei in 1846; for
its administrative history BU THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BoOK, 1947, p. 189.
The government is administered by a Governor aided by an Executive
Council of 4 ex-officio, 1 official and 5 nominated members, and a Legislative
Council of 4 ex-officio, 3 official and 12 nominated members.
Governor and C.-in·C. Sir William Goode, K.C.lII.G.
Chief Secretary. R. N. Turner, C.M.G.
FroID Jan. l('42 to June 1945 North Borneo was in the occupation of
the Japanese. The country suffered heavily; the principal towns and
villages were destroyed. Much repair work has o.lready been done.
Area, about 29,388 sq. mile~, with a coastline of about 900 miles.
Population (1951 census), 334,141, of whom 243,009 were natives, 74,374
Chinese and 1,213 Europeans and Eurasians. Estimated population on 3i
Dec. 1958 was 416,435. The native population comprises Dusuns (mainly
agricultural), Bajaus and Bruneis (agriculture and fishing), Muruts (hill
tribes), Suluks (mostly sea-faring) and seventl smaller tribes.
The ptincipal towns are situated on or near the coast. They include
Jesselton (the capital; estimated population, ll,704), Beaufort (1,576),
Kudat (l,895), Sandakan (14,499), Lahad Datu and Tawau (4,282) on the
mainland, and Victoria (2,526) on the island of Labuan.
EDUCATION. The educational system of the Colony provides for 6
years of primary education in Malay, Chinese, English and, to a small extent,
in Kadazan, the language of the largest incligenous community. Secondary
education is provided in English and Chinese.
There are 88 government and 224 grant-aided primary schools, and 4
government and 20 grant·aided secondary schools. 18 of the grant-aided
schools are maintained by local authorities, which, in 1958. raised $153,895
towards their maintenance. Government also maintains a trade school and
a teachers' training college, and conducts adult evening classes in science
and languages.
In 1958 the enrolment in primary schools was Malay, 12,158; Chinese,
13,903; English, 11,515. There were 2,257 pupils in English secondary
schools and 762 in Chinese secondary schools.
The expenditure from Colony funds on education was $2,092,326 in 1958.
Newspapers. There are 1 English and 3 Chinese daily newspapers.
HEALTH. There are 2 general hospitals (422 beds); 5 cottage hospitals

(367 beds); and 12 dispensaries (204 beds). There are also 18 dispensaries
situated in outlying districts staffed by Senior Dressers under the supervision
of District Medical Officers. In 1958 out-patients numbered 256,017 and
in-patients 15,543.
There is a mental hospital at Sandakan with 100 beds.
There are health centres in Sandakan and Jesselton, where maternity
and child welfare clinics are held. Subsidiary rural health clinics in the
Jesselton and Sandakan clistricts are regularly visited by the health centre
staff and serve the up.country villages. Native midwives are being trained
at each of the main and cottage hospitals.
Expencliture on medical services from Colony funds in 1958 amounted to
$3,414,287.
JUSTICE. The courts functioning throughout the Colony for the
administration of civil and crimillallaw are the Supreme Court of Sarawak,
North Borneo and Brunei, comprising the Court of Appeal and the High
Court, a.nd magistrate's courts of the first, second and third class. The
SuprelOe Court has anlimited jurisdiction, whilst the powers of magistrates
are lintited according to class.
Th"re are also 32 native courts with jurisdiction ill cases concerning
Islami-l law and local native customs. Appeal from these courts lies to
administrative officers, with a final appeal to the Governor.
In 1958,2,517 convictions were obtained in 2,677 cases taken to court.
Strength of police force on 31 Dec. 1958 was 21 officers and 1,014 men .
Strength of prison service was 64 men and 3 wOlllen .
FINANCE. Budgets for calendar year&, in Malayan $ ;

Ordinar,I Bu.d9t1 1956 1957 1968 1959'
Revenue 33,739,428 35,462,770 37.583.797 45,662,550
Expenditure 32,498,979 35.259,30 7 36,659,851 43,1iO,012
Dntlop:nerol Budgtl'
Revenue 13,956,163 19,785,179 25,364,144 14,852,02 1
Expelldlture 13,406,116 17,595,862 25,361,848 13,710,967
, Revised Estimates.
, In'~udescootrlbutioD8 to Developmeot Budget: 1956, $6·6m. ; 1967, $6m. ; 1953,$5·5Dl.;
1 059, $(i-Sw.
, Excludes expenditure from loan funds: 1956, $2,472,524; 1957, $6,:)30,588.
COMMERCE. Most of the trade is carried through Singapore and Hong

Kong. The main imports are rice, provisions, textiles and apparel, tobo.coo,
sugar, vehicles, meta ls, building m aterial, machinery and oil. Statistics for
calend.u years, in Straits $;
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Im)lor18 74,336,416 87,686,867 117,448.914 121.618,711 128,490,413
EX)lona ' 77,232,516 104,762,215 120,876,270 120,870,241 131).441,075
• 10 aU probability tbe true figures for exports are coosiderably greater, as tbe valo..
giyeo 10' timber, tobacco, manila hemp and some otber commodities are nominal and 8ubjec\
'" adjustment wheo the sale price is known_
Th.) main imports were (in $lm.);

1940 1964 U06 1966 195 7 1968
Rice 1-5 3-9 6'4 8'3 8-0 10·0
Provisions 1-0 9-3 13-0 19-3 15-3 16-5
Textiles &Dd apparel. . 1'2 6-0 6-9 8'3 6·1 0'3
Tobacco, cigaDlBnd cigarettes 0-4 4-6 4·2 4-3 8·9 9·8
Sugar
Vehicles
2'7
2-8
2-5
H
'N-6 3'8
H
3'3
4-2
Thu main exports were (in $lm.):

194'l 1954 1965 1956 1967 1958
R.uht.er 14-50 24-0 46-9 40-3 37·0 32·8
Timber 2-20 IN 21-6 '$" 31-5 36·4
Out.ch 0-65 2-8 2·0 H 1·4 1·6
Homp 0-55 1-8 2-2 H 3·4 2·6
Dried and salt nsb 0-65 0·$ 0-4 o-e 0-5 0·6
Tol>acco _ 0-45 3-6 3-' 3-4 2-9 3-6
Firewoo:l . _ . 0 ·40 0-$ 0·6 0-3 0·3 0-2
Copra (bciuding re-expor18) 0 -30 15-8 14-2 23-3 24 -0 a')·o
Total trade (in £ sterling) between North Borneo (including Labuan)

and the U.K . (British Board o f Tra.de returns) :
19~b 1956 19~7 1958 1959
Importo into U.K. 2,670,3n 3,2S2,391 3,198,197 3,426.7u9 ~,643t53J
IilxportB from U.K •. 2,695,768 3,162,310 2t683,OS~ 2,596.93.; 4,O98.~86
a.·expor18 !rom U.K. 76,578 71.327 81.1)97 87.637 1~ ·1.610
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Merchant shipping (men·of.war and

government vessels excluded) amounting to 6,826,949 gross tons, used the
ports in 1958, and cargo totalling 1,254,676 tons was handled. Passengers
embarked in 1958,48,853, and disembarked, 59,164.
Railway. A railway, 116 miles, nllls from Jesselton on Gaya Bay to
Melalap in the interior, with a branch (20 miles) from Beaufort to WestOD
on Brunei Bay.
Roads. There were 29.3 miles of metalled rO:l,ds and 427 miles of eartb.-
gravel roads in 1958.
Post. There were 2,413 telephone.3 011 31 Dec. 19,>8.
Aviation. Malayan Airways operate seven times a week between Singa-
pore and North Borneo; Cathay Pacifio Airways, once weekly between
Hong Kong, Manila and Labuan; Qantas Empire Airways, fortnigbtly
between Australia, Labuan and Singapore; Garuda Indonesian Airways,
weekly between Djakarta, Labuan and Manila. Malayan Airways also run
an internal air service between the ma.in towns of the Colony. The airfields
are situated at Labuan, Jesselton, Sandakan, Kanau, Tawau, Kudat,
Keningau and Lahad Datu. Air traffic in 1958: 75,038 pa~sengers, 1,154'~
metric tons of freight, 182·9 metric tons of mail.
BANKING. There are branches of The Chartered Bank at JesseltoD,
Sandakan, Labuan, Tenom, Kudat and Lahad Datu. The Hongkong and
Shanghai Banking Corporation has branches at Jesselton, Sandakan,
Labuan and Tawau.
STATLSTICAL INFoRMATION. The Information Officer. Jes.""lton.
Annual Rqor/ on No,th Born"" for 19~8 . R.M.S.O ••1959
Brunei. A state on the north· west coast of Borneo, lying between

" 2' and 5° 3' N. lat. and 11'° 4' and ll5° 22' E.long. It is bounded on aU
sides by Sarawak territory, an intrusion of which splits the state into two
separate parts. Area, about 2,226 sq. miles, with a coastline of about
100 miles. Estimated population at the end of 1958 was 80,277. The
()&pital is Brunei (population 16,000), on Brunei River 9 miles from its
mouth, 759 nautical miles distant from Singapore. Climate is of tropical
marine type, hot and moist, with cool nights.
In 1847 the Sultan of Brunei entered into a treaty with Great Britain for
the furtherance of commercial relations and the suppression of piracy, and
in 1888, by a further treaty, the state was placed under the protection of
Great Britain. The present (:!8th) Sultan is His Highness Sir Omar Ali
Saifuddin Wasa'dul Khairi Waddin, K.C.3I.G., who succeeded his late
brother, Sir Ahmed Tajudin, on 6 June 1950.
Constitution. On 29 Sept. 1959 the Sultan promulgated a constitution.
Under it there is a Privy Council, an Executive Council and a Legislative
Council. The Executive and Legislative Councils replace the State Council.
The post of British Resident (to whom the administration of the country
was entrusted by treaty in 1906) is abolished. His place is taken by a
Mentri Besar (Chief Minister) appointed by the Sultan to whom he is
responsible for the exercise of executive authority in the State.
Th" Executive Council is presided over by the Sultan and consists of 7

ex.officio members, the High Commissioner and 7 unofficial members. The
Legisla,tive Council is presided over by the Mentri Besar and has an unofficial
majority. It comprises 8 ex· officio members, 6 official members appointed
by the Sultan and 3 members nominated by the Sultan. To these there
will be added 16 members to be elected by district councils.
The official languages are Malay and English. The official religion is Islam.
British High Commissioner. D. C. White, C.M.G., O.B.E.
Merttri Besar. Pehin Dato Perdana Mentri Dato Peduka Haji Ibrahim
bin Md. Jahfar, D.K., S.P.B.M., O.B.E., P.O.A.S.
Edllcation 1959: Free vernacular education in the Malay language is
provided by the state in 52 schools (8,550 pupils). In addition there were
8 Chinese vernacular schools (3,859 pupils), 7 private English schools (2,476
pupils), 3 government English schools (1,259 pupils), a trade school and a
smalll'rivate school.
The police force consists of 558 officers and men.
Brnnei depends primarily on its oil industry, which employs three·
quarte::-s of the entire working population. Other important products are
rubber. padi, jclutonl!', firewood and sago. Native industries include boat.
buildin g cloth .weaving and the manufacture of brass and silver ware.
Most er the interior is under forest, containing large potential supplies of
serviceable timber.
The Seria oilfield, discovered in 1929, yielded, in 1958, 38·5m. bbls.
The oilfield extends offshore, and many wells have been drilled from jettie.
extending out to sea. Part of the oil produced from the field is refined as
Luton~:, where a large refinery, destroyed during the War, has been rebuiltt
BUIlget 1958: Revenue, $130,616,817; expenditure, $33,511,395.
Trade 1959: Imports, $62,965,731; exports, $310,004,846.
Imports to U.K., 1955, £2,089; 1956, £533; 1957, £1l,265; 1958,
£55,161; 1959, £25,544. Exports from U.K., 1955, £447,533; 1956,
£763,W4; 1957, £406,014; 1958, £638,785; 19.59, £470,972.
At the and of 1\)58 the state had 268 miles of road. The main road
connects Brunei Town with Kuala Belait and Seria, 57 miles. The road
mileago in the Brunei area is 64 bitumen and 103 earth; in the Seria and
Kuala Belait area, 54 bitumen and 37 earth. Number of motor vehicles
(1958),3,407, including 1,465 passenger cars.
ThHe were 6 post offices and 500 telephones in 1959.
Th(.re is a central wireless station at Brunei in direct communication
with S.ngapore. Sarawak and North Borneo. There are also 3 subsidiary
wirele~'l stations at Belait, Seria and Temburong for internal traffic. The
Straits Steamship Company, the North Borneo Trading Company aDd
launch'18 regularly maintain communication with Labuan, distant about 35
miles fJ'om Brunei.
ThE' currency is the Malayan dollar, with a par value of 2s. 4d.
Annual j1tport on Brunti [(IT 1957. HM
. .S.O., 1957
Sarawak. Arec" about 47,000 sq. miles, coastline 450 ruiles, many
rivers rlavigable. The government of part of the present territory was
obtaim:d on 24 Sept. 1841 by Sir James Brooke from the Sultan of Brunei.
Variou:l accessions were made between 1861 aDd 1905. In 1888 Sarawak
was placed under British protection. On 16 Dec. 1941 Sarawak was
occupiE:d by the Japanese. After the liberation the Rajah took over his
adminiltration from the British military authorities on 15 April 1946 and
ceded llarawak to the British Crown on 1 July 1946.
On 24 Sept. 1941 the Rajah began to rule through a constitution.
Since 1855 two bodies, known as the Supreme Council and the Council Negri,
had been in existence. By the constitution of 1941 they were given, by
the Rajah, powers roughly corresponding to those of a colonial executive
council and legislative council respectively. The Council Negri, on 17 May
1946, authorized the Act of Cession to the British Crown by 19 to 16 votes.
A new constitution was granted by H.M. the Queen in Aug. 1956. The
Council Negri consists of 24 elected mcmbers, 14 e:r;·o.fficio members, 4
nominated members, and 2 standing members appointed for life prior to the
Cession. The Supreme Council consists of 10 members including 5 elected
by the elected members of the Council Negri.
District and Divisional Advisory Councils on a representative basis have
been established, and urban and rural councils exercise jurisdiction in the
whole country.
Governor and C.·in·C. Sir Alexander Waddell, K .C.M.G., D.S.C.
Chief Secretary. F. D. Jakeway, C.M.G., O.B.E.
Estimated population at 30 June 1958 was 654,656, inclnding 200,llO
Sea Dayaks, 200,692 Chinese, 160,369 Malays and Melanaus, 51,011 Land
Dayaks, 31,320 ot,her indigenous and 15,354 other non-indigenous (including
2,372 Europeans).
The chief towns are the capital, Kuching, about 18 miles inland, on
the Sarawak River, Sibu, 80 miles up the Rejang River, which is navigable
by large steamers, and Miri, the headquarters of the Sarawak Oilfields, Ltd.
There are Church of England, Roman Catholic, American Methodist,
Seventh Day Adventist and Borneo Evangelical missions with schools.
The revenue is derived from export and customs duties, royalty on
oil, land revenue, timber royalty, trade licences, income tax, excise
revenue, exemption tax payablo by Malays, and from Dayak and Kayan
revenue.
Revised estimated revenue, 1958, $59,725,812; actual revenue, 1957,
$52,163,906. Revised estimated expenditure, 1958, $50,121,031; actual
expenditure, 1957, $50,587,351.
The country produces rnbber (exports, 1957, 41,005 net tons,
873,301,798; 1958, 38,542·5 tons, $60,430,509), timber (exports, 1958,
194,954 tons, 819,568,452), sago, oil, rice, pepper (exports, 1957, 13,750 tons;
1958,9,726 tons, $15,143,620), gold, bauxite (1957, 92,840 tons, $1,488,388)
and jungle produce. There are also known coal deposits.
Exports of crude and refined oil, largely produced in Brunei, in 1957,
was 5,476,759 long tons ($376,932,495); 1958, 5,079,918 long tons,
8347,498,004. The trade is mostly with Singapore. In 1958, 3,487 vessels
of 8,079,481 tons used Sarawak ports.
Imports, 1957, $463,429,459; 1958, $433,786,897. Exports, 1957,
$499,534,619; 1958, 8463,736,226.
Total trade with the United Kingdom (British Board of Trade returns,
in £ sterling):
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U,K. 8,065,648 9 ,~54,1l0 5,919,73S G,OI7,45l 11 ,631,487
Exports fro m U.K •. 1,982,527 1,;;65,582 1,284,696 1.360,246 l , l S~ , iI2
Re·export.. from U.K. 54,544 51.888 36,972 38,350 51,145
There is a const,abulary wit,h an establishment of 1,457 officers and men

of all races. There are no raihvays. In 1957 there were 557 miles of roads,
consisting of 123 miles of bitumen surfaced, 97 miles of gravel surfaced and
337 miles of earth roads. There are 39 post offices and 19 wireless· telegraph
stations. A telephone system with 53 stations (2,682 telephones) covers the

country. There is communication by wireless with Singapore.
The post office savings bank had 7,952 depositors at the end of 1957;
the amount to their credit was $3,770,245.
There are 1 English and 8 Chinese daily, 1 Malay thrice· weekly lInd 1
English, 1 Malay and 1 Iban (Sea Dayak) monthly newspapers.
The currency is the Malaya and British Borneo dollar ($1 = 28. 4d.) .
Books of Reference
Anrwnl Rl'PQTt on Sarawak for /9J8. Government Printer, Kuchiog, 1950
Rtporlon ,114 1947 P<>pulaJion Cen ..." olSarawak and Brunei. Kuching, 1950
Handbook olSaralDak. Kuchlng. 1949
D....I<>pmtnl Plan oISaraw"k. 1955-60. Kuching. 1954
Baring·Gculd and Bampfylde, <I Hi3lorv 01 Sarawak under 1114 two lehilt Rajah4. London,
190~
DicksOD, M. 0., Sarawak and its Peoplt. Newed. Kuching. 19:}7
Freeman. J. D., lban '&~ricullurt. H.M.S.O., 19:'5
Geddes. W. R., Th4 Land Dayak3 01 Sarawak. H.M.S.O .• 1954
IIarri:.;wn, T., lVorld Witltil1.: a Born~o story. London, 1059
Hickllng, R. H., Saraleak ana il4 Govtrnment . Kllcbing. 1954
MacDonald, M., Borneo People. London, 1956
Morris. H. B., Rtporl on 11 Mdanau .~o prod"ci~ communily in SaratJ)ak. !I.M.B.O .• 1953
Roe, F. W., Th4 NaJura/ R"ouru, 01 Sarllwak. Kuching, 1963
~ATlOIUL LmRARY. Tb. Sarawak Museum Relerence Library. Kuching.
CYPRUS
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Cyprus is 40 miles from the
coast of Turkey and 60 from the coast of Syria. At a very early date import.
a.nt Greek and Phoonician colonies were established in Cyprus and later it
formed part of the Persian and Roman Empires. Its government frequently
changed hands until 1571, when the Turks conquered the island from the
Venetiaus, and retained possession of it until its ceesion to England for
administa-ative purposes under a convention concluded with the Sultan at
COllstan·tinople, 4 June 1878. On the outbreak of hostilities with Turkey
on 5 Ncv. 1914 the island was annexed. On 1 May 1925 the island was
given the status of a. Crown Colony by letters patent, and the High Com·
missioner became Governor.
On 13 Nov. 1931. following disturbances arising out of the movement
for union with Greece (Enosi8), the Legislative Council, first constituted in
1882, cMsed to exist, and power to make laws was granted to the Governor.
Municip;ll corporations exist in 16 towns and villages. Since April 1943
member:! of the councils are elected by all male residents 21 years old or
over. Since 1 Dec. 1931 the appointment of the mukhtars (headmen) of
villages has been vested in the Go,ernor. On 1 Nov. 1947 a consultat.ive
assembly drawn from representative elements of the island was convened to
frame proposals for constitutional reforms, including the re·establishment of
a central legislature. In May 1948 a new constitution was proposed by
lUlL Government for consideration by the Assembly. Thes() proposals
proved abortive owing to the resignation from the Assembly of the Greek
Cypriot members at the instigation first of the Church and later of the
Communists.
For the history of Cyprus from Hl55 to 1958 see THE STATES~IA~'S
YEAR.B,)oK, 1958, pp. 237-238, and Hl50, p. 236.
On 19 Feb. 1959, following discussions in Zurich between the Greek and
Turkish Foreign Ministers, an agreement was signed in London by the
CYPRUS 235
Prime Ministers of Great Britain, Greeco and Turkey, and declared accept-
able by the representatives of the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot
peoples. This agreement recognises that Cyprus shall become a republic,
making its own laws through an elected house of representatives. The
executive power will be in the hands of a president and vice· president
supported by a council of ministers. By treaties to be signed between
the R.epublic of Cyprus, Great Britain, Greece and Turkey both Enosis and
partition will be precluded; and Britain will retain sovereignty over the
areas containing her military bases in tho Island.
On 14 Dec. 1959 Archbishop Makarios was proclaimed President of the
Republic, having received 144,501 votes in the presidential election (against
';1,753 cast for John Clerides, the Communist.sponsored candidate of the
Left.). Dr Fazil Kutchuk was elected Vice·Prcsident unopposed.
Thc provisional government, appointed on 5 April 1959, is composed of
the Governor and the Executive Conncil. This consi.>ts of Archbishop
:.\lakarios (G.) who is also responsible for foreign affairs, Dr Fazil Kutchuk
(T.) and the following Ministers : Agriculture and Natural Resources. Fazil
PlumeI' (T.). Deputy JJfinister. Andreas Azinas (G.). Commerce and
Industry. Paschalis Paschalidcs (G.). Defence. Osman Orek (T.).
P·inance. Dr R.iginos Theocharis (G.). Deputy.Minister. Mehmet Nazim
(T .). Health. Dr Niazi Maniera (T.). Interior. Tassos Papadopoulo.,
(G.). Justice . Glafkos Olerides (G.). Labour and SocialI1I$urance. Poly.
carpos Georkadjis (G.).
Governor and C.·in·C.. Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot, G.O.M.G., K .O.V.O.,
O.B.E. (sworn in 3 Dec. 1957).
Deputy Governor. Sir George Evclyn Sinclai.·, C.i\LG., O.B.K (appointed
30 Sept. 1955).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 3,572 sq. miles; about 140 miles
is greatest length from east to west, and about 60 miles is greatest breadth
from north to south. Average rainfall, 19·8 in.; most of the rain falls be.
tween Oct. and March.
PopUlation by religions at different censuses :
Religion 1921 1931 1~461 1~5GI. •
Greek Orthodox 244,887 276,573 361,199 416,986
Moslems 61,n~ 64,238 80,548 92,64:!
Others " 4.489 7,14$ 8,367 19, 2 ~1
Total 310,705 347,959 450.114 628.879

I E<oIuding military and camps. I Registration.
Estimated population, Dec. 1958,549,000; inhabitants per sq. mile, 154.

Vital statistics, 1954 : Births, 13,893; deaths, 3,674. Certain village
authorities failod to keep proper records of births and deaths since the
last quarter of 1955. On the basis of the last 3 years' trends the following
c.timates h3,\"e been arri\"ed a t for the year 195i: Births, 14,000; deaths,
3,400.
Principal towns: Nicosia (the capital), population 81,700; Limassol,
:;U,;:;OO; F a magusta, 2u,800; IJarnaca, 17,900; Paphos, 7,200, and Kyrenia,
3,ioo. Thcre are () administ.rati\"c wstri<;ts named a fter these towns.
EDUCA TION. There is a separate educational RystelD for each religion.

Elementary schools a re under the control of the Government, assisted by
all advisory Board of Education for each religious community. In 1957-58
there were 501 Greek (63,534 pupils), 221 Turkish (15,257 pupils) and 5
Maronite schools (342 pupils); also 4 Armenian, 4 Latin and 9 other schools
under independent management.
Thel'e are 54, secondary schools (21,356 pupils), of which II receive a
grant from the Government, 9 are public-aided a.nd 2 are completely under
government control. There is a government teachers' tra.ining college, 2
agricult·. lral schools, a boys' reform school, a preparatory technical school,
2 technical secondary schools and technical institute. There is also a
juvenile welfare service which includes a probation service.
The total government-controlled expenditure on education in 1958 was
£2,120,585, of which £1,643,885 was from colonial revenue.
Greek, Turkish and English are the official languages. English is
spreadiLg rapidly.
New.'papers. There are 2 English, 2 Turkish and 6 Greek daily news-
papers.
SOCIAL SERVICES. A social insurance scheme was introduced on
7 Jan. :,957, embracing most workers other than those engaged in small-
scale agl'iculture. The scheme provides unemployment and sickness benefits,
old age" widows and orphans pensions, maternity, death and marriage
grants. A Factories Law on the lines of the U.K. :Factories Acts came into
force on 2 April 1957.
JUSnCE. The colony is divided into 6 judicial districts, viz., Nicosia,
Kyrenia, Famagusta, Larnaca, Limassol and Paphos. The following courts
are operating: (1) a Supreme Court with appellate jurisdiction, both civil
and criminal, over the decisions of all other courts, and original jurisdiction
as a colonial court of Admiralty under the Imperial Act of 1890 and in
matrimonial causes, with powers in such causes similar to those of the High
Court in England; (2) 6 assize courts, having unlimited criminal jurisdiction;
(3) 6 district courts, having unlimited civil jurisdiction, and summary
jurisdiction in criminal cases. A Special Court was set up at the end of
1955 to deal with cases arising out of the state of emergency. There are also
2 TurkiJlh Family Courts, for Moslems only, which administer the Moslem
Sheri or religious law, and an appeal lies from their decisions to the Supreme
Court.
In 1958 the number of persons dealt with in the ordinary summary
courts fClr various criminal offences was 38,402 (of whom 396 were juveniles).
The Special Court dealt summarily with 1,005 persons (of whom 397 were
juvenile:,). Fifty-five persons were tried by the ordinary assizes.
Police. As a result of the emergency the establishment of the police
force was greatly increased so that at the end of 1958 it stood at 333 officers
and 4,7ti4 other ranks.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure for 4 calendar years were 11,8
follows (in £ sterling) :
Ordinary ID;);") 1956 1957 1958 19G9 :I
Revenu ~ 11,595,356 15,084,511 22,371,61:) 21,825,517 23,328,653

Expend [tllre . 10,994,948 14,642,426 21,041,348 23,034,597 23,719,296
Devel?pment
Revenu, 1 , 239,435 284,002 117,431 480,000 2,177,500
Expend itw'e' 939,109 2,852,516 3,628,119 2,450,000 2,452, 365
1 Exchding appropriations from the Ordinary budget amounting to £6·55m. up to the
end of 1957 .
• Exd: Iding expenditure met from the proceeds of loans. S Estimates..
CYPRUS 237
The Cyprus share of the Turltish debt charges, amounting to £92,800'
per year, is not included in the above as it is met from an annual grant
from Imperial funds to the same amount.
Main divisions of ordinary revenue in 1958 (in £1,000): Import duties,
5,228; excise, 2,163; income tax, 4,452; licences, etc., 974; fees and
charges, 906; rents, royalties and interest, 851; post office, 252.
Main divisions of ordinary expenditure in 1958 (in £1,000): Salaries and
allowances, 6,523; charges, 2,716; pensions and gratuities, 640; public
works, 350; public debt charges, 688; commodity subsidies, 574; sub·
ventions, etc., 304. Non·recurrent: long.term loans, 24; public works,
91. Emergency expenditure, 10,543.
The general revenue balance at 31 Dec. 1958 was £675,248. The out·
standing public debt on the same date was £1l,722,078 and accumulated
sinking funds on acconnt of the funded debt totalled £2,4!)9,395. The out-
standing amount of loans made by the colony as at 31 Dec. 1958 was
£17,071,885, of which £500,000 was for loan made to H.M. Government in
the U.K.; £7,083,926 to the Electricity Authority of Cyprus, £1,899,915 to
the Cyprus Inland Telecommunications Authority and £0,088,044 for loans
to local authorities, etc., in Cyprus.
Since 1928 Cyprus contributes £10,000 annually to Imperial defence_
PRODUCTION_ Agriculture. Chief agricultural products in 1958:
Wheat, 3,008,!)12 bu.; barley, 3,597,472 bu.; oats, 137,700 bu.; vetches,
159,618 bu.; broad beans, 2,397 tons; cow peas, 324 tons; haricot beans,
2,304 tons; olives, 6,220 tons; carobs, 40,312 tons; potatoes, 51,237 tons;
cotton (unginned), 662 tons; onions, 2,943 tons; grapes, 68,750 tons;
wines, 3,250,!)SO gallons; commandaria, lS0,lOS gallons; spirits, 400,372
gallons; oranges, 1,115,590 cases; lemons, 327,560 cases; grapefruit,
188,046 cases; tobacco, 421 tOllS.
Of the island's 2·3m. acres, approximately Im. are farmed, out of which
570,000 acres are cropped annually. There are two main potato crops.
Livestock in 1958: Cattle (including draught oxen), 31,342; horses and
mules, 7,854; donkeys, 40,781; sheep, 394,115; goats 132,411; pigs,
35,034.
Fore.stry. The Forest Department has done much for the preservation
and development of the forests existing at the time of the British occupation,
and for the re-afforestation of denuded districts. The total area of forest
is 670 sq. miles; forest all-weather earth roads, 484 miles; forest telephone,
total route, 415 miles. The saw-milling industry has expanded, to work
timber recovered from burnt areas of the forests .
Mining. The principal minerals exported during 1958 (and 19(9) were
(in long tons): Iron pyrites, 819,835 (651,289); cupreous concentrates,
115,125 (123,518); copper cement, 4,068 (3,692); cupreous pyrites, 228,821
(306,206); asbcstos, 13,115 (14,404); gypsum, 29,808 (53,960); umber,
3,884 (4,501); chrome ore, 11,840 (12,176).
Industry. Light manufacturing industries include the following:
Macaroni; canned fruit and vegetables; jams and marmalades; turkish
delight, sugared almonds, caramels and other confectionery; carob gum;
grape juice; animal fodder; beer, aerated and other soft drinks; cigarettes;
cotton yarn; cotton and rayon cloth; shirts and underwear; hosiery;
footwear; quilts; lace and embroidery; furniture; leather handbags and
travel goods; olive and olive kernel oils, cotton-seed oil; perfumery, soap;
polishes; essential oils; bricks and roofing tiles; pottery and earthenware ;
cement tiles (' mosaic'); gypsum, ploater and ploater-board ; oabestos
sheets; na ils ; lithographed crown corks; baskets; metal containers;
motor bodies a nd carts; buttons; artificial teeth; ice, and brooms_
Some of these are scarcely more than minor cottage industries, but most of
them operate in factory conditions. A cement factory , several flour -
mills an1 2 plants for tyre retreading were established during 1955-57.
As from 1 Jan. 1956, a Department of Commerce and Industry woa
formed to take over various functions previously performed by other
sections of the (j{jyernment and to expand the services of the Government to
t.he business community.
Tra.le Unions. Cyprus has trade-union legislation on the lines of the
En!;lish trade-union Acts. Registration is compulsory. At the end of 1958
the trade unions were distributed as follows: Pancyprian Federation of
Labou r :' old' trade unions), 31,728 members in 38 unions; Cyprus Workers
Confederation (' new' trade unions), 12,852 members in 190 unions; Civil
Service, 6,256, in 8 unions; Cyprus F ederation of Independent Trade
Unions, 2,036 memb(lrs, in 12 unions; Cyprus Turkish Trade Unions Federa-
tion, 1,1 37 members, in 8 union~; others, 2,538 mem bers, in 28 unions;
total, 56,542 members, in 284 IUlions.
The' old' trade uni ons are affiliated to the World Federation of Trade
Unions, the 'new' trade unions are affiliated to the Int~ rn ational Confedera-
tion of Free Trade Unions.
COMMERCE, The commerce a.nd the shipping, exclusivll of cooating

trade, f(lr 5 calendar years were (in £ sterling) :
1955 1956 195i IU58 1959
Mercband ise :
lmporu: 30,417,931 39,()91,7H 45,1 39,477 36,647,000 41,156,000
Export., 18,;38,193 22,363,330 18,900,404 17,5Ul,871 18,953,(01)
Bullion:
Impol'tt: 2,~56 ~ ,6~ 9 32,705 40,347
Export.. . 968 la~
Sbipping (mtered Tons Tons TOilS Tons Tons
and oleared ~,460,~21 6,~54.fj4:? 5 , 5 4 0.4~6 3,557,i82
Chic!' civil imports, 1958 (in £1,000 sterling) :

Milk, evar·o.-ated "nd coudeused 439 neer. . 463
Sugar. 592 Motor spirit . S·U
Cigarettes . . . . ri04 A viati on fuel . . 788
Wood, slu.ped or simply worked 847 Die"el and other tuel oils 556
Cottou fnbrics 586 :Pertili zers. . . . 1,0240
Woollen t,l.Irlcs 480 Metal and metal m,nulactures 1 ,30~
G..soil . . . 783 Motor vehicles . 1,44-1
}Ieat and meat preparations 622 Wireless equipment 499
Chief domestic exports, 1958 (in £1,000 sterling):

Grapes 181 Wine (except command.ria) 939
Grapefru/f, . 152 Tobacco 215
Lemons 320 Asbestos . 790
Oran"es . .. 1,501 Copper cement . 461
lUlisins (including sultanas) . 2·18 Cupreous concentrates 3,01 8
Potatoes (:ncludin'l seed potatoes) 697 Cupreou, pyrites 1.4 92
Carobs: "hole and kibbled 817 Iron pyrites. 3,071
Seed. 209
In 1958 U_K, supplied 38'3% of the imports, other pa.rts of the

Commonwealth, 8'6%; of the exports, 31 ' 8% went to U_K ., 28'5% t o
CYPRUS 239
Germany. S';'i% to Netherlands. (hi% to U.S.A .• 0'2% to France. 4·9% to
Italy.
Total trade between Cyprus and U.K .• in £ sterling (British Board of
"Trade returns) :
1935 1906 HI57 1958 1959
Import., to U.K. 794.941 7, 3fW,7g4 7,060,U46 7,438,777 7.307,348
Exports from l~.K. 658,212 16.47,:,330 17.65'1.7711 1~,934,822 1~,926,731
lte-export; from U.K. <151,~-l3 457,937 8GI,lj7 7SI.713
COMMUNICATIONS. Road"s. The primary system of arterial or

main roads totals 974 miles. of whieh St9 miles have an asphalt-treated
surface. The secondary system of feed.er or village roads totals 2,900 miles.
The main roads are well mc.int.ained Gild are usable in all weathers. Most of
the secondary roads arc stone surfa('ed and can be used by Illotor vehicles.
Shipping. Regular passenger ,,(,rYices are supplied by the Adriatica
Line (Ttaliltn), Hellenic Mediterranean and Nomikos Lines (Greek) and Zim
Line (Israeli). Ships of the Prince Line (Britnin) and some other cargo
liners carry 12 passeng"rs. Cargo is carried mainly by the vcssels of the
British Eastern Mediterranean Cunference Lines which call at least once
weekly; uther regular en lis are made by Norwegian, Swedish. German.
Danish and Yugoslav lines.
Post. Length of physical telephone lines, 21,081 miles; length of
superimposed phantom and carrier telephone circuit, 2,733 miles; length
of superimposed phantom telegraph circuit, 522 miles; number of telephones.
16,700; number of wireless sets (1957), 79.492.
A viation. The following air companies operate scheduled services to
and frum Cyprus: Cyprus Airways, R.E.A. (in conjunction with Cyprus
Airways), Skyways, Ltd, Olympic AirwRYs. Turkish Airlines, Middle East
Airlines. Air Liban. They provide frequent direct connexions with Adana,
Ankara, Athens, Bahrain, Beirut, Istanbul. Kuwait. London, Malta. Milan,
Munich, Paris, Rhodes, Rome, Tel Aviv.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The Cyprus £ is equivalent to the £
sterling; it is divided into 1,000 mils. Notes of the following denominations
are in circulation: £5, £1, 500 mils, 250 mils. Coins in circulation: Cupro.
nickel: lOO, 50, 25 mils; bronze: 5 and 3 mils.
Notes in circulation at 31 Dec. 1958, £9,17S,000; coins. £407,000.
The banks which carry on business in Cyprus are: Ottoman Bank,
Barclays Bank D.C.O .• Chartered Bank, National Bank of Greece and
Athens. Bank of Cyprus. Popular Bank of Limassol. Turkish Bank of
~icosia, Turkiye Ish Bank. Agricultural Bank of Cyprus. Co-operative
Central Bank of Cyprus.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Cyprus weights and measures follow
the standard weights and measures of Great Britain. The metric system
may also be lawfully used. In iuternal trade tho following special Cyprus
weights and measures are in use: I pic = i yd; I oka = 2·8 lb.; 1 kilo = 8
Imperial gallons. The Cyprus donurn is approximately i acre.
U.B.A. Consul-General. Taylor G. Belchcl'.
Books of Reference
.tinnual Rtpnrt on Cyprtu, 19,~8. n.M.S.O., 1959
Constitutional Proposals JOT Cyprus. Report • • . by Lord Radcl((fe, 12 1''''''-01'. 1956. Cll1d. 42.
The Statute Law. of Cypru.. London, 1950

Hill, Sir Heorge F., ~ Ilistory of Cyprus. 4 vols. Cambridge, 1940- 52
Kbeshisb'.an, K. K., Romantic Cyprus. Nicosia, 1951
Luke, SIr Ha.rry, Cyprm. London, 19~7
McDonahl, J., investigations and Developments in Cyprus Agriculture, 1938-4R. Nicosia, 19·19
MangoiaD, L. and H. A. (ed.), Th. Island oJ Cvpru•• .An Illustrated Guide and Handbook .
~icosia, 19,17
Newman, Philip, .A Short History of Cyprus. London, 1940
Percival, D. A., CYPTUl, Cmsus of Population and ~culture, 1946. Loudon (Crown Agents).
1949
Raeburn, 0., Water Supply in Cyprus. 2nd ed. Nicosia, 1945
Weir, W. W., Education in Cypru.. Nicosia, 1952
Wideson, R. O. E ., Cyprus in Picture. London. 1953-Portrait of Cyprus. London, 1956
HONG KONG
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Crown Colony of Hong
Kong was ceded by China to Great Britain in Jan. 1841; the cession was
confirm3d by the treaty of Nanking in Aug. 1842, and the charter bears
date 5 April 1843. since when Hong Kong bas been under British admini.
stration. with the exception of the period from 25 Dec. 1941 to 30 Aug.
1945. when it was occupied by the Japanese.
The administration is in the hands of a Governor. aided by an Executive
CounciL composed of the Commander, British Forces, the Colonial Secretary,
the Attorney.Gcneral, the Secretary for ChineRe Affairs. the Financial
Secretary (who are members ex officio) and such other members. both official
and un.>fficial. as may be appointed. In 1958 there were 6 official and
6 unofficial members, 3 of whom were Chinese and 1 Portuguese. There
is also s. Legislative Council, presided over by the Governor. and consisting
of not more than 9 official members (including the same 5 ex.officio members
listed ahove) and Dot more than 8 unofficial members. In 1959 there were
9 official and 8 unofficial members, 5 of whom were Chinese and 1 Indian.
G01JernO'f aM O.·in·O. Sir Robert Black. K.C.M.G., O.B.E. (sworn in,
23 Jan. 1958).
Oommander British FO'fcu. Lieut.·Gen. Sir Edric Montague Bastyan,
K.B.E .. C.B.
Oolonial Secretary. Claude Bramall Burgess, C.M.G .• O.B.E.
AREA AND POPULATION. Victoria, the colonial capital, situated

on Hon:~ Kong island, is 20 miles east of the mouth of the Pearl River and
91 mile!. south·east of Canton. The area of the island is 32 sq. miles. It is
separatE,d from the mainland by a fine natural harbour. On the opposite
side is the peninsula of Kowloon (3l sq. miles), which. with Stonecutters
Island (! sq. mile), was added to the colony by the Convention of Peking.
1860. Bya further convention, sigued at Peking on 9 June 189S, 355 sq.
miles, consisting of all the immediately adjacent mainland and numerous
islands:n the vicinity. were leased to Great Britain by China for 99 years.
This aroa is known as the New Territories. Total area of colony, 391 sq.
miles, hut this includes large areas of steep :1nd unproductive hillside.
Subst:1otial reclamations have been made on both sides of the harbour, and
the city of Victoria is built largely on reclaimed land. The New Territories
now indude several flourishing market towns and a rapidly developing
HONG KONG 241
industrial town. Tsuen Wan. with large textile, enamel and rubber factories,
iron works, etc. The climate of Hong Kong is sub.tropical, the winter
being cool and dry and the summer hot and humid. The average rainfall
is 84'76 in., May to Sept. being the wettest months.
No official census has been taken since 1931. when the population was
840,318 excluding Service personnel. Since 1937. when Japan invaded
China, the population has fluctuated greatly. In 1941 it was estimated at
I·6m .• but by the end of the Japanese occupation had fallen to 600,000.
Early in 1947 it was again 1·6m., and during 1950, at the height of the
exodus of refugees from China fleeing from communism, it is thought to have
risen to 2,360,000. At the end of 1958 the official estimate was 2,806,000.
Of these the overwhelming number is Chinese; the non·Chinese population
is about 22,900, of whom 15,000 are from Great Britain and the Common·
wealth.
EDUCATION. Education is not compulsory. but all schools have to

be registered with the Education Department and, unless specially exempted,
are inspected and required to comply with regulations as to staff, buildings,
numbers of pupils and health.
By the end of the academic year 1958-59, government schools had an
attendance of 58,164 pupils (including 23,339 girls); grant schools, 18,284
(including 11.689 girls); subsidized schools, 106,357 (including 50,400 girls);
private schools, 253,OD7 (including 101,442 girls). In all, there were 1,474
schools and 17,878 teachers. N orthcote Teachers' Training College had 356
students (including 198 women) and Grantham Teachers' Training College,
327 (including 226 women).
In 1959 the University of Hong Kong had 1,059 undergraduates (789 men,
270 women), 151 fuli·time and 49 part·time teachers.
Cinemas. In 1959 there were 65 cinemas with a scating capacity of
68,415; of these 16 (19,878 seats) normally show English, American and
European films.
Newspapers. In 1959 there were 3 English.language and 25 Chinese
daily newspapers.
Broadcasting. There is a government broadcasting station, Radio Hong
Kong. with daily transmissions in English and 4 Chinese dialects. At the
end of 1958 there were 71,631 licence holders. Rediffusion (H.K.) Ltd
operates a commercial broadcasting service in English and Chinese to which,
at the end of 1958. there were 52.696 subscribers. Rediffusion also operates
a television service. The Hong Kong Commercial Broadcasting Co. Ltd
commenced operations in Aug. 1959, in English and 2 Chinese dialects.
JUSTICE. There is a supreme court, having original, summary.

criminal. probate, divorce, admiralty and prize jurisdiction, and a court of
appeal. There are also 4 district courts and 3 magistracies, each containing
several courts. The district courts, apart from hearing civil cases where the
claim does not amount to more than HK$5,000, also have jurisdiction over
certain criminal matters. A tenancy tribunal hears cases covering disputcs
between landlord and tenant, etc.
The police force numbered, in 1959,6,894, composed of 77 officers, 575
inspectorate, .5,415 Cantonese, 513 Shantung, 143 Pakigtanis, J6 Portuguese
and a women's section of 3 sub.inspectors and 152 rank and file.
242 'fHE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
FIN ANCE. The public revenue and expenditure for the financial year
ending :\1 March were as follows (in HKS) :
19~6-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 •
Revenue 509.682, !>1 1 ~84, ,185, 188 (,29,336.662 GOO,G32,500
BxpenditJre 46!),5·1·J,29S 5i)2,6.9,217 589.958,3(;7 693,0'13,2] 0
1 Estimates.
The revenue is derived chiefly from rates, licences, duties on liquor,

tobacco and hydrocarbon oils, and a tax on earnings and profits.
The outstanding public debt ad at 31 March 1959 consisted of $360,000
3!% Dollar Loan (1934), $3,301,000 3!% Dollar Loan (1940) and
$46,666,000 3!% Rehabilitation Loan (1947-48). The Dollar Loans are
redeemllble by equal annual drawings over a period of 25 years. Tho Re·
habilitation Loan is redeemable between 1973 and 1978 by a sinking fund
at a ratl) of not less than 1% per annum; this Fund stood at $16,217,879 on
31 March 1959. Loans from the Colonial Development and Welfare
Fund total 5669.600; and from the U.K. Government for Kai Tak airport
development., 541 ,047,251.
INDUSTRY. The growing importance of industry to Hong Kong's
oconom.v is shown by the fact that, in 1948, products wholly or prinCipally
of Hong Kong origin represented a bout 15% of total exports, while by 1959
they had climbed to nearly 70%. Originally the princip:ll industry was
shipbuilding and repairing, which grew up with the development of the port.
Light ifldu.tries began to appear at the turn of the century, but it was not
until th e First World War, and the stimulus of imperial preference following
the Ottawa agreements of 1932 that these had any noticeable impact on the
economy. The early years of the Second World War encouraged further
expansi.)n, and by 1940 there were some 800 factories in operation. The
change of regimes in China brought scores of thousands of refugees into the
Colony, some with capital to invest, many with industrial skills and an
cagerne:~~ for harn work. The Korean War and the suhsequent impediments
to trad(: with China accelerated the surge of industrial expansion and by
June 1£1)9 there were 4,894 registered factories and work.shops employing
192,843 people.
The largest group is the cotton textile induatry, which covers most
process(:s from spinning to finished garments, but a wide range of light
industries is represented. Heavy industry includes shipbuilding and
repair yards and iron foundries and mills rolling steel bars and rounds.
Agricull;ure, fishing and some lUining arc the main primary industries.
COMMERCE. Hong Kong's magnificent sheltered deep.water harbour
is well nituaten in relation to the exchange of goods with South China and
W BerV{ as a commercial centre for the Far East. The Colony's prosperity
was originally founded on tbe entrepot trade in goods passing int.o and out
of Chinot; in 1938 trade with China still accounted for 41 % of total trade.
The un~ettled state of China in the early post-war years and the impediments
which have since been put in the way of trade with that country have
wrought 1\ great change. [n addition to relying more on industry as a source
of its livelihood, the composition and direlJtion of the Colony's trade has
also undergone a transformation. Merchants have turned increasingly to
other sources and markets, and all countries in the Far East have begun to
use Hong Kong as an intermediary for the purchase of goods from all over
the world and for the sale of their own products. By 1958 Cbina's share
in the Colony's trade had fallen to a little over 20%.
HONG KONG 243
Hong Kong maintains a policy of free enterprise and free trade. Duties
are levied only on tobacco, hydrocarbon oils, alcoholic liquors, proprietary
medicines, table waters and methyl alcohol, whether imported into or
manufactured in the Colony for local consumption. It is a member of
the sterling area, but has a free exchange market except for transactions
which might damage the sterling area. Foreign merchants may remit
profits or repatriate capital. Import and export controls are kept to the
minimum, consistent with strategic requirements and the protection of
sterling. Merchants and manufacturers from abroad arc encouraged to
establish themselves in the Colony without discrimination.
The total value of imports' in 1950 was HKS4,949m.; in 1958
HK$4,504m.; of ex ports, HK$3,278m. in 1950, and HKS2,980m. in 1058.
The adverse balttnce on visible trade is offset by a favourable balancc
on invisible itellls-rem itt.an ces from overseas Chinese, exchange, shipping
and insurance transactions, an inflow of capital from oLher territories in the
Far East and a flourishing tourist industry.
In 1958 imports from the British Commonwealth countries (HK SI .059m.)
amounted to 23·1% of total imports (17,2% in 1938). Exports to British
Commonwealth countries (HKSI.183m.) were 306% of all exports from
Hong Kong (16'3 % in W3S) .
The trade of Hong Kong and the U.K. (British Board of Trade returns
in £ sterling) is given as follows:
1933 19,,6 Itl57 1058 HI,)~
Imports into U.K. 1 OU2 300 20.141),2110 ~3 .5~I. G<G ~7,0 68 .867 :~~,il2~,1~i
Export. to Hong Kong :~:9Z4:G.t7 32.~~:J .~(i!) ~G,lGS.·17(i 00,:)07,060 0'), 14;J.()/~
Re-exports to Hong 1\ oog . 55.8i8 31,,":>< 31 ~,!)~8 312.481 Hn,40G
COMMUNICATIONS. Rnad and Railways. In 1(158 the colony had

400 miles of roads, wstributed as follows: Hong Kong Island, I lIO; Kowloon
and New Kowloon districts, 120; New Territories, 171.
There is an electric tramway of 19 miles, and a cahle tram way connecting
the Peak distriet with the lower le\'cl. in Victorin. A railway, ~2 miles in
length, owneo by the Government, runs between Kowloon and the Chinese
frontier. It forms a direct overland communication with Canton, Hankow
and Shanghai, Lut since Oct. H14[) nil through passenger traffic has 11eetl
suspend ed .
Shipping. The total vess~ls entering an.l clearing the colony f\tld
engaged in foreign tca,le during the ),c"r ending :ll March l!15() amountcn
to 50,361 vesse ls of :1~l ,!lI~,·17'3 net tons, of which !I,lO-l, were ocean-going
vessels of 28,~00.1 ~6 net tons. Launches and junks engaging in luca l trade
totalled (j!i,74 I \'esseb of 3,104.:WS net tons. 5,S81) vessels (ll,()OG,59f) net
tons) were Britisb regist ered .
Post. There were 22 post offices in 1950; po~tal revenue (l958-;,[)),
totalled 536,240,OO·i ; expenditure, 820,172,257. Telephone routes of the
Hong K vllg Telephone Cv., Ltd, in July lOGO comprised 235,077 wire Illiles
(106,853 circu it miles), carried in 82-1, miles of cable and 3,092 miles of wire
distribution. Telephones numbered 8S.746. Cable and Wireless, Ltd, cou-
troIs the external communications by submarine cable aud wireless, and
also provides for marine, meteorological and aeronautical cOllmunic·ations.
Aviation. Hong Kong airport, Rai Tak, is situated on the north shore
of Kowloon Bay. The new runwrlY opened in Sept. 1958 and the adjacen t
lI1r1rinG base are suitable for all types of aircraft.. British, Canadian.
Australian, American, Frenoh, Swiss. Burmese. Chinese (Nationalist).

Japanese. Philippine, Indian, Korean. Vietnamese, Laotian, Cambodian and
Thai airlines connect the colony by frequent scheduled services to all par~
of the world. In 1958-59 9.858 aircraft arrived and departed on inter-
nations.l flights, carrying 262,204 passengers. 971 metric tons of mail and
3.602 metric tons of freight.
MONEY. The principal banking institutions in the colony are the
Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, whose head office is at Hong
Kong, The Chartered Bank. and the Mercantile Bank Ltd. Including these
3. theru are 81 licensed banks, many of them Chinese. of which 35 are fully
authorized to deal in foreign exchange.
The currency of the colony consists largely of notes of a denomination of
$5 or higher, issued by the 3 banks mentioned above. Their combined
note issue was, in June 1959, $789.270,050. The Hong Kong Government
issues la notes and 5O.cent. 10·cent and 5-cent coins. The exchange value
of the Hong Kong dollar is maintained by an exchange fund. established in
1935; it works in co.operation with the note· issuing banks and maintains
a sterling cover for the note issue. The par value of the Hong Kong dollar
is Is. 3,l. (see p. 22).
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The Tael (leung) = It oz. avoirdupois ;
the Picul (taarn) = 1331 lb. (often taken as il,; of a ton); the Catty (kan) =
It lb. avoirdupois; the Chek (Chinese foot) = Ht in. (but varying from 111
to I4t in. according to the custom of various trades. the commonest
equivalent being 14·14 in.); the Tsuen (Chinese inch) = to of a Chek. the
Cheung = 10 Chek ; the Lei (Chinese mile) = 707-744 yd.
Bes::des the above weights and measures of China, those of Great Britain
are in ~:eneral use.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL lNl'ORtdATlON. Tbe Statistical Office of the Commerce and Industry Depart-
ment . • responsible {or the preparation and coUation of Government statistics. Tbese
statisties are pubUsbed mainly in Supplement No. 4 to tbe weekly Hong Kong Government
Gazette ; Bupplement No. 4 is also available in a coUected annual edition.
A1Inual!!."or! 011 H OTI/} KOTl/}. 1958. H.M.B.O., 1959
Collins, Sir Cbarles, Public Admini.!trati01l in HOTI/} KOTl/}. R. Inst. 01 Intern. AJfairs, London,
1952
Davis, S. G., HOTII} KOTl/} in it.! Geographical SeUing. Hong Kong, 1949
Endacotl., G. B., Historv Of HOTI/} KOTII}. Oxford Univ. Press, 1958
Ingrams, H., HOTII} KOTIIj. H.M.B.O., 1952
Tregear, T. R., Land Use in Honq K OTl/}. nong Kong Univ. Press, 1958 .- H onq Konq
Gazeuegr. Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1958
Full details of all Government publications are obtainable from the Government Prin ter,
Nortb Peint, Hong Kong.
An e>tensive bibliography is contained in the 1954 edition 01 the Annual Report.
MALDIVE ISLANDS
THE Maldive Islands, 400 miles south· west of Ceylon, are a group of
13 coral atolls. richly oultivated with coconut palms. and yielding millet.
fruit and edible nuts. Area. ll5 sq. miles. Population (census. Oct. 1956).
81.950 (40.942 males. 34.676 females. 6.332 children. sex not stated). The
capital is Male (8,000 inhabitants). The people are Moslems; they are grea~
navigators and traders.
SINGAPORE 245
The islands have been under British protection since 1887 and enjoy
complete independence in their internal affairs. A new agreement, leaving
only defence and foreign relations a British responsibility, was signed on
14 Feb. 1960. The ruler if H.H. Sultan Al Amir Mohamed Farid Didi.
Prime lI-linister: Ibrahim Nasir.
The British airfield on Gan island in the Addu atoll, originally built
during the Second World War as an RAF air staging post, is being re·
established. The Maldivian Government, on 1 Feb. 1960, gave the island
to the British Government for 30 years.
Bell, H . O. P •• History, Archaeology and Epigraphy oJ the Maldive Islands. Oeylon Gov. Press
Oolombo, 10·10
SINGAPORE
SINGAPORE became an independent state within the Commonwealth on
3 June 1959. For the early history of the settlement (1819) and colony
(1867) see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK, 1959, pp. 246 f.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. An agreement signed in
London on 11 April]!)57 provided for the constitution of a State of Singapore
with full internal self.government and the creation of a Singapore citizenship.
The State of Singapore Bill, an enabling Act to give effect to the agree·
ment, received the royal assent on ] Aug. 1958. The constitution came
into force on 3 June 190!).
The Queen's representative is a Malayan Yang di·Pertuan Negara or
Head of State. The Council of Ministers is presided ovcr by the Prime
Minister. The elected Legislative Assembly consists of 151 members from
single. member constituencies and is presided over by a Speaker of their
own selection. The High Commissioner remains responsible for defence
and external affairs other than cultural and commeroial matters.
The right to vote in Legislative Assembly elections is confined to
citizens, as defined in the Citizenship Bill passed in 1957. Citizenship is
automatic by birth. It may also be acquired on registration by citizens of
the United Kingdom and colonies. those born in the Federation of Malaya,
British Borneo t erritories, and citizens of other states in the Commonwealth
which recognize Singapore citizenship, after 2 years' residence: and hy
others after 8 years' residence. By Aug. 1959,335,409 persons had registerod.
The total electorate is 587,800. There is no disqualification on grounds of
sex, literacy or property. There is a common roll without communal
electorates.
Head of State (Yang di·Perluan Negam). Inche Yusof bin Ashak
(sworn in 1 Dec. 195!)).
The electi on held on 30 May 1959 resulted in a Legislative Assembly
composed of 43 People's Action Party, 4 People's Alliance, 3 Unitcu l\fa\ays
National Organization, 1 Independent.
Prime Minister. Lee Kuan Yew. Deputy Prime .~linister. Dr Toh
Chin Chye.
National Development. Ong Eng Guan. Health. Ahmad bin Ibrahim.
Finance. Dr Goh Kong Swee. Labour and Law. K. M. Byrne. Cultural
Affairs. S. Rajaratnom. Home Affairs. Ong Pang Boon. Eduwtion.
Yong Nyuk Lin.
Commissioner jCfr Singapore and Commi8sioner-General jor South-East

A8ia. The Earl of Selkirk, P.C., G.C.M.G., O.B.E., A.F.C. He co-ordinates
British policy, including defence, in South-East Asia and represents the
U.K. Oll the Council of the South-East Asia Treaty Organization.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. The City of Singapore is situated at thc southern
tip of the Island of Singapore, and covers an area of 3i·5 sq. miles. Its
income is derived mainly from rates. City status was granted by Royal
Chartel on 22 Sept. 1951. Under the Local Government Ordinance of 1957,
local government in the City area is carried out by a City Council of 32
elected councillors, electing a Mayor from among their own members. The
first elections, held in Dec. 1957, returned the Pcople's Action Party as the
largest party with 13 out of 32 seats, subsequcntly increased by a by-election
to 14..
LOC11 government in the rural areas will be carried out by 3 Di~trict
Councils, each consisting of 12 elected members, 3 nominated members and
an official Chairman. These will supersede the Rural Board. Five years'
residen',jal qualification without citizenship qualification admits to the
electord register for local government elections.
AREA AND POPULATION_ The state of Singapore consists of

Singapore Island itself, with some adjacent islets.
Singapore Island is situated off the southern extremity of the Malay
peninsda, to which it is joined by a causeway carrying a road and railway.
The straits between the island and the mainland are about three-quarters
ofa mile wide. The island is some 26 miles in length and 14 miles in breadth,
and about 224·5 sq. miles in area, including the adjacent islets.
The climate is characterized by uniform temperature, high humidity
and copious rainfall. The average maximum temperature is 87° F. and the
averagt. minimum temperature 75° F. There are no well-marked dry and
wet seasons. The average annual rainfall is 95 in.
Estimated population by race, June 1959: 1,190,100 Chinese, 217,300
Malays::ans, 134,600 Indians and Pakistanis, 13,900 Europeans, 12,000
Eurasie,ns and 13,700 others; total 1,581,600.
EDUCATION. Statistics for 195D:

Classification Schools Bnrol.men~
Govemm ent and aided English schooLi 281 1;)~,5;):!
Private Bnglish schools . til ',644
Government Malay schools 711 J5,819
Government Chinese schools 13 6,576
Aided Cb,incse schooLi 235 128,274
Pri vata Ohinese scbools . 48 5,811
Government Indian scfiools ., 143
Aided India.n school:1 . . . • • . . 15 1,312
Government and aided technical and trade scbools [or boys 2 1,702
Total (all schoolS) 730 320,833
The University of Malaya, founded in 1949, incorporated the two former

college, of higher education in Singapore, Raffles College and King Edward
VII Co'lege of Medicine. The university contains faculties of arts, science,
medicine (including dentistry and pharmacy), engineering and law. It
numbered 1,472 full·time students in 1959. The Nanyang University,
establi,hed in 1956, has 3 faculties (arts, science, commerce) with 1,305
students in 195D. The Singapore Polytechnic had 1,800 students in 193D-60.
SINGAPORE 247
Cinemas. Singapore had, in 1959, 69 cinemas with a seating capacity
of 46,134.
JUSTICE. The law in force is contained in local ordinances and in

8uch of the English common law and such Imperial Acts and Orders of the
Queen in Council as are applicable. The penal and criminal procedure
codes closely follow the respective Indian codes.
There is a Supreme Court which is a court of record and consists of
(a) the High Court, which exercises original criminal and civil jurisdiction
and appellate criminal and civil jurisdict.ion in appeals from subordinate
courts; (b) the Court of Appeal and (c) the Court of Criminal Appeal, which
exercise appellate civil and criminal jurisdiction respectively in appeals from
the High Court. The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and ;;
or more puisne judges. An appeal lies frolll the Supreme Court to the Privy
Council.
FINANCE. Public revenue and expenditure for calendar years, in

Malayan dollars ($1'00 = 2s. 4d.):
1957 1958 1960 •
Heyenue. 241,531 ,06;; 211,361,594 269,000,000
Expenditure :}38,4l:1,4;'H 266,924,623 275,000,000
J Estimates.
Public debt on 31 Dec. 1958 amounted to Sl15m. (i.e., Straits Settle·

ments 3% loan, 1962-72, $:lOm,; Straits Settlements 3% war loan, 1952-59,
$25m.; Straits Settlements 3% war loan, 1953-60, $IOm.; Singapore 3%
rehabilitation loan, 1962-70, S50m.).
COMMERCE. The imports during 1958 amounted to S3,100,554,IH,

the exports to 82.481 , 194,505; these figures are exclusive of the trade with
the Federation of Malaya.
In the following table (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling) the
imports include produce from Borneo, Sarawak and other eastern places,
transhipped at Singapore, which is thus entered as the placo of export:
1955 19:)6 1957 19,,8 1959
Imports into U. K •• 37,589,894 34,354,836 26,346,292 20,15~,(l19 ~1,O58,2();1
Export<>. of British produc<> 38,061,266 41,605,124 39,477,815 3:;,686,950 3J,213,6Gl
Exports 01 foreign ..nd
colonial produce • 496,664 469,817 6~5 , ~OS 63G,G90 521,486
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The total net tonnage of vessels

which entered into and cleared from Singapore during 1958 was 12,540,927.
Roads. Singapore in W 58 had 495 miles of road, of which 286 miles
were maintained by the Public Works Department and 209 miles by the
City Council.
Railway. A 16·mile main line runs through Singapore, connecting with
the Federation of Malaya and as far as Bangkok. Branch lines scrvc the
Harbour Board area,
Post. On 31 Dec. 1958, :H post. offices and 21 postal agencies were i ll
operation. Telephones uumbered 50,182 on 31 Dec. 1968.
BASKING AND CURRENCY. There were 31 banks (including a post

office 8"vings bank) in 1959.
The Board of Commissioners of Currency, Malaya. and British Borneo,
which 1vas set up on 1 Jan. 1952, is the issuing authority for currency notes
and coins for the Federation of Malwya, Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo
and Brunei, where its currency is exclusively legal tender.
The monetary unit is the dollar of 100 cents. Notes of SI and upwards
are of 1!.nIimited legal tender, and of below SI the limit of legal tender is $2.
The dellominations of notes are 1 cent, 5, 10, 20 and 50 cents, SI, 5, 10, 50,
lOO, 1,000 and 10,000. Nickel, cupro.nickel and copper- bronze coins
represe:lting fractional parts of the dollar are legal tender up to $2.
All silver coins of whatever denomination ceased to be legal tender
from 31 Dec. 1952; the amount of such coins in nominal circulation on
31 Dec . 1957 was $21,875,760.
The circulation of currency on 31 Dec. 1958 was : Notes, $948,530,912;
coin, S45,203,211. Pre.occupation notes ceased to be legal tender with
effect from 31 Aug. 1948; the balance of the old issues nominally in
circulat.ion was $378,734 on 31 Dec. 1957.
The amount on deposit, including interest, in the Singapore post office
savings bank was $46,341,098 as at 31 Dec. 1958; number of depositors,
189,6H'.
WE.IGHTS AND MEASURES. The standard measures arc the Im·
perial yard; the I mperial pound ; the Imperial gallon.
Am,mg the Asian commercial and trading classes, Chinese steel.ya.rds
(called 'liteng' and' daching ') of various sizes are generally employed for
weighir,g purposes. Other local measures are:
Weight and capacity Length
Chupak . I quart 2 jengkals 1 hasta
Gantaog 1 gall ~ bastlls 1 ela
TaW! . . li oz. 2 elas . 1 depa (1 latbom or 6 It)
Kati (16 tahils)
Picul (100 kati.)
1*lb.
133i lb.
4 sq. depa•
400 sq. jembas
. 1 sq. Jemba (114 sq. It)
1 sq. orlong (11 acr.s)
Koyan (40 piculs) 5,33 •• lb. 1 chhum IH in.
1 ehhek 10 ehhums (ut in.)
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. Tbe Department 01 Statistics (p.O. Box 3010, Singapore),
estabUsh"d 1 Jan. 1922, coUeeta Singapore statistics nnd co·ordinates those with Bimilar
lnlormat,on prepared In the Federation of Malaya. Ita publications are theretore m.ainJy
pan·MaI.,yan with separate details lor tbe two territories; they include Malayan SkUi,liu
.f Ertern.l Trade (monthly). S ingapore ExterTUI.1 Trade SkUi$li~. (annual) and Momhly Divtst.
Chief Statistician: E. J. I'billips.
Annual /leport, 1955. H.M.S.O .• 1956
/Uport Of the Singapore Con.stitutional Conference. (Cmnd 147.) H.M.S.O., 1957
Law Of the Colony Of Singapore. 7 1'01•. , 1955 (and annual supplemeut.9)
Burdon, r. W., The Fishing Industry of Singapore. Singapore, 1955
Oouplanc'.• R., RafJieJ of Singapore. London. 1946
Del Tulo, M. V., A Report on the 1947 Census of Populalion. London, 1949
Goh KeL g Swee, Urban ["comes and [Jousing : a report on the .ocial '''MI<1/ of Singapore,
1953-1954. Singapore. 1956.
Makepea.,e. M., Brooke, ·G. E .• and Braddcll, R. St J ., One Hundred Yea" of Singap0rl.
2 vols. Singapore, 1921
Onraet, 11.• Singapore : J. Poliry Background. London, 1947
Smith, T. E ., Populalion Grotcth in Singapore. London, 1951
Tham All Kow. J. Preliminary Sludy of Iht Physical, Chemical and Biological Charact",isliu
of Si",'apore Slrai,.. H.M.S.O., 1953
See a'so the bibliography under MALAYA.
NATIONAL LmRARY. Raflles Library, Stamlord Rd, Singapore. Librarian: L . M.
Harrod.
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 249
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA

U~'1E VAN SUID.AII'B.IX.A
THE Union of South Africa is constituted under the South Africa Aot,
1909 (9 Edw. 7, Ch. 9), passed by the Parliament of the U.K. on 20 Sept.
1909. Under the terms of that Act the self.governing colonies of the Cape
of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony were
united on 31 May 1910 in a legislative union under one govenlment under
the name of the Union of South Africa, these colonies becoming original
provinces of the Union under the names of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal,
the Transvaal and the Orange Free State respectively. There is a Governor·
General, and an Executive Council in charge of the departments of state.
The following is a list of the Governors·General:
Viscount Gladstone 1910-14 Sir Patrick Duncan . 1937-43
Earl Bru<ton . . . . 1914-20 N. J . de Wet (Acting) 1943-46
H.R.H. l'rince Arthur of Connaught 1~20-24 O. B. van Zyl . 1946-50
Barl of ..Hhlonc 1924-31 Dr E. G. Jansen 1951-59
Barl of Clarendon 1931-37 O. R. Swart 19;;9-
Legislative power is vested in a Parliament consisting of the Queen, a

Senate and a House of Assembly. The Governor·General has power to
Bummon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament, either both Houses simul-
taneously or the House of Assembly alone. There must be a session of
Parliament every year.
The Senate, as reconstituted in 1955, consists of 90 members, 19 being
nominated by the Governor·General·in·Council (4 for each Province. 1 for
the Coloured voters in the Cape Province, 2 for South· West Africa) and 67
being elected (27 in Transvaal, 22 in the Cape, 8 in Natal, 8 in the Orange
Free State, 2 in South· West Africa). Each senator must be a person of
European descent who has acquired Union nationality, at least 30 yea.rs of
age, qualified as a voter in one of the provinces and resident for 5 years
within the Union; an elected senator must be a r egistered owner of property
of the value of £500 over any mortgage. Both the nominated and the
elected senators hold their seats for 5 years, subject, however, to a prior
dissolution of the Senate.
The House of Assembly (as laid down by the Delimitation Commission
of l!l57) consists of 160 members chosen in elcctoral divisions in numbers as
follows: The Cape of Good Hope, 52; Natal, 16 ; Transvaal, 68; Orange
Free State, 14; South· West Africa, 6; 4 representatives elected und~r
the 8eparate Representation of Voters Act. 1951, to reprE'sent the electoral
divisions for the Coloured voters in the Cape Province.
The seats of 4 senators and 3 members of the House of Assembly re·
presenting the Bantu have been abolished, but t.he present incumbents
retained them until the end of their i).year period (I!l60).
Act No. 30 of 1958 extended the franchise to alJ White persons over the
age of 18. Act No. 2:{ of 194!l amended the South·West Africa Con-
stitut.ion Act of 1925 to provide for the representation of the territory
in the Parliament of the Union. Each electoral division or circle returns
1 member, who must be a person of European or White descent who has
acquired Union nationalit.v, qualified as a registered voter and resident 5
years within the Union. A House of Assembly continues 5 yeS).fS from the
date of its first meeting unless sooner dissolved.
250 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIItE
In 1951 the Natives Representative Council was abolished and the

Bantu i,uthorities Act enacted to provide in its place a system of Bantu
tribal, n ,gional and territorial authorities with administrative, executive and
judicial functions.
The House of Assembly, not the Senate, must originate money bills, but
may not. pass a bill for taxation or appropriation unless it has been recom-
mended by the Governor-General during the session. Restrictions are
placed on tbe amendment of money bills by the Senate_ Provision is made
respecting disagreements between the Houses, the royal assent to bills and
the disa:ilowance of laws assented to by the Governor-General.
Eacl. member of each House must make oath or affirmation of allegi-
ance. A member of one House cannot be elected to the other, but a minister
of state may sit and speak, but not vote, in the House of which he is not a
member. To hold an office of profit under the Crown (with certain excep-
tions) is a disqualification for membership of either House, as are also in-
solvcncy, crime and insanity. Pretoria is the seat of government of the
Union, (,nd Cape Town is the seat of legislature.
In 1!)51 t.he National and Afrikaner Parties concluded a merger, which
resultcd in the disappearance of the latter_ The state of the parties in the
House of Assembly at the end of 1959 was as follows: National Party. 103;
United Party, 53; 4, members representing Coloureds in the Cape Province.
In the Senate, for which elections were held on 25 Nov. 1955, the National
Party has 77 members and the United Party 8 (apart from the 4 native
and one Coloured representatives).
The Prime Minister receives an annual salary of £5,000; the other
member.! of the Cabinet £4,000.
The Executive Council (National Party) was, in April 1959, composed as
follows:
Gove:-nor-General. The Right Hon. C. R. Swart (appointed 6 Dec. 1959,
on the death of Dr Jansen).
Prin.e Minister. Dr H. F. Verwoerd.
Mim:ster of Justice. F. C. Erasmus.
Min,:ster of Land.q, Forests and Public Works. P. O. Sauer.
lrfin::8ter of External Affairs. E. H. Louw.
Jfin::s/er of Finance. Dr T. E. Donges .
.:l1in::ster of Defence. J. J. Fouche .
.Min::ster of Transport. B. J. Schoeman.
2lfin::ster of the Interior. J. F. Naude. (Deputy. P. W. BotlUl..)
Min.;ster of Economic Affairs. Dr N. Diedericka.
$Iin:'ster of Education, Social Welfare and Pensions. J. J. Serfontein.
(Deputy. B. J. Vorster.)
.~l£n""ster of Labour and Mines. J. de Klerk. (Deputy. M. Viljocn.)
~vlim:ster of Bantu Administration and Development. M. D. C. de Wet
Ne!. (Deputy. F. E. Mentz.)
JlI' in ': ster of Agriculture, Technical Services and Water Affairs. P. l\I. K.
10 Roux.
1I1in:ster of Banlu Education. W. A. Maree.
Min::ster of Posts and Telegraphs and Health. Dr J. A. M. Hertzog.
Min';ster of Agricultural Economics and Marketing. D. C. H. Uys.
T he 4 Deputy Ministers have Cabinet rank.
In ehch province there is an Administrator appointed by the Governor.
General·in·Council for 5 years, and a provincial council elected for 5 years,
each council having an executive committee of 4 (either members or not of
the council), the Administrator presiding at its meetings. Members of the
provincial council are elected on the same system as members of Parliament.
The number of members in each provincial council is as follows: Cape of
Good Hope, 54 (including :l members elected by persons appearing on the
Cape Native Voters' Roll); Natal, 25; Transvaal, 68; Orange Free State,
25. The provincial committees and councils have authority to deal with
local matters, of which provincial finance, education (primary and secondary,
other then higher education and technical education), hospitals, roads and
bridges, townships, horse and other racing, betting, and game and fish pre-
servation are the most important. In 1953 the administration and control
of native education was tra.nsferred from the provincial councils to the
Native Affairs Department, thus becoming the responsibility of the central
government. Other matters may be delegated to these councils. All
ordinances passed by a provincial council are subject to the veto of the
Governor-General-in-Council.
There is a provincial revenue fund in each province.
Tho railways, ports and harbours are managed by a Railways and
Harbours Board, under the chairmanship of a minister of state. The
revenues therefrom are paid into a special fund . All other money received
by the Union are paid into a consolidated revenue fund, on which the
interest on debts of the colonies forms a first charge. To the Union has
been transferred the public property, real and personal, of the colonies.
The English and Afrikaans languages are both official.
7'h. South Africa Ael, 1909
The Selborne M~m01'anduT1l on the UniQIf. oJ S. Africa . LondoD,1925
Kilpin, R ., Parliamentary Procedure in Soulh A/rica. 2nd eu. Cape 'l'OWD, Hl-t9
Yay, H. J' t Tht South Ajrkan CorutiluUon. Cape Town and London, 1949
Country Union representative Foreign representativo
Argentina" Maj.-Gen. W. H. E. Poole, Dario R. Quiroga
C.B., C.B.E., D S
. .O.
Australia 1 A . A. M. Hamilton
Austria . D. B. Sole' W. Goertz
Belgium. J. D . Pohl P. Vanderstichelen
Brazil" . T. E. Eustace A. do Canoargo Neve,
British East Africa . H . H . Woodward •
Canada 1 J . R . ,Jordaan J . J.
. Hurley, O.B.E.
Chile G. C. Nel C. Riccio
China Samuel S. Wang
Finland. B. J. Jun' ie! H. R. l\Iartola
France . S. F . dn 'roit G. Balay
Germany" J. K . Uys Dr H. U. Granow
Greece Z X.•r. .T. Jl' OS(C G. B. Kapsambelis
Israel Izhak Bady
Italy Marcheso F. Silj di S.
Andrea d'Ussita.
Netherlands ]) .. F. E. Ge!dcnhll Y3 J. van den Berg
Portugal! Dr A. H . H. l\Ierts~h Gen. A. do A. Abranches
I>;nto
1 High Commissioner. • Millister. ) Charge d ·A tIa.jre~. • Commissioner
The rank is a~n u as:;::.d o r unless stated o t herwi ~e.
Country Union representative Foreign representatives

Rhodesb. and Nyasa.
land 1 R. Kirsten J. G. W. Baggott M.B.E.
Spain I . R. H. Coaton M. de Aldasoro y
Villamazares
Sweden a J. E . Bruce A. Aminotf
Switzerland • J. K. Christie F. Kappeler
United Arab Repub- Saleh A. Mahmoud
lic I
U.K. 1 Dr A. J. R. van Rhijn Sir John Maud, a.C.B.,
C.B.E.
U.S.A. W. C. du Plessis Philip Crowe
1 Higb Co mmjs~ione r. I Minister.
The rank is amba.ssndor unless stated otherwise.
There are Consuls-General in Belgian Congo, Mo<;ambique, New York;

Hon. Consuls in Norway, Denmark, Brazil, Uruguay; Trade Commissioners
in the Omtral and West African Territories, and in Singapore.
Cons Ills-General represent China, Czechoslovakia, Norway, Panama,
U.S.S.R.; Consuls, Austria, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Dominican
Republi'J, El Salvador, Japan, Liberia, Mexico, Peru, Yugoslavia; Consular
Agent, Colombia.
AREA AND POPULATION
The total area of the Union is 472,359 1 sq. miles, divided between the
provincEs as follows: Cape of Good Hope, 278,465; Natal, 33,578; Trans-
vaal, 110,450; Orange Free State, 49,866.
On 25 Dec. 1947 the Union formally took possession of Prince Edward
Island and, on 30 Dec., of Marion Island, about 1,200 miles south-east of
Cape Town.
1 ExelJdes Walvis Bay (374 sq. miles), which is an intregal part of the Cape Province
but is adn,inistcred under Act No. 24 of 1922 by South-West Airiea.
The census taken in 1904 ill each of the our colonies was the first
simultaneous census taken in South Africa. In 1911 the first Union census
was takE:n.
Ail race. White Non·White
Non-
Total Whit, Wltite Male. Femmes Mal.. FemnJe.
1904 G,174,827 l,1l7,234 4,O57,5~3 635,317 481,917 2,046,370 2,011,223
1911 5,972,7,7 1,276,319 4,696,438 ~86,206 591,113 2,383,879 2,312,569
1921 6,927,403 1,:>21,543 5,406,060 783,006 738,337 2,7fJ3,lS8 2,Rli2,872
1936 9,587,863 2,003,334 7,584,529 1.017,~57 985,777 3,818,211 3,766,318
1946 J 1,415,92. 2,372,044 9,043,881 1,194,201 1.177,843 4,610,862 4,433,019
19.1 J 2.671,452 2,64],689 10,029,763 1,322,754 1,318,935 5,109,331 4,920,432
Tbe 1926, 1931 and 1941 population censuse~ were of Whites only,
Of the non-\';'hite population in 1951, 8,560,083 were Native, 366,664

Asiatic and 1,103,016 Coloured.
Estinated population, as at 30 June 1959 : White, 3,067,000; Native,
9,751,00 1) ; Coloured,I,406,OOO; Asian,450,OOO; total,14,673,000.
The increase, 1946-51, in the total population in the Union was 10·7%;
in the White population, 11 '4%,
Whites 1953 J954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1
lmmigran',s 16,2~7 16,416 16,199 14,917 14,61, 14,673
Emigrant, 10,220 11,336 12,516 12,87~ 10,943 8,807
1 Preliminary.
White Asiatics tlnd Coloured.
Birlh. Deaths Marriage! Birth. DeaJh. M arriluju
1955 70,322 23,013 27,972 71.709 24,G75 14.714
1956 70,469 24,981 25,632 71,672 25,129 12,089
1957 73,3'll 25.:!44 26,022 76,410 25,358 12,473
1958 t 77,'163 26,003 27,001 78,073 26,677 10,210 '
1 I'reliminary. , Coloureds only.
Unifying Act No. 17 of 1923, which came into effect as from 1 Jan.
1924, abolished compulsory registration of native vital events in rural areas,
but made registration compulsory in all urban areas throughout the Union.
Compulsory registration in rural areas was re· introduced from 1 July 1952,
but is still incomplete.
Principal towns (including suburbs) in the Union classified according to
the number of White inhabitants (census, 1951):
Town Province Wbite Non-Wblte Total
Jobannesburg TmDsvaal 359,477 624,530 884,Q07
Cape Town Cave 247,442 330,206 677,648
Durban. Natal . 151,111 328,863 479,974
Pretoria 'l'rans-vaal 151,100 134,279 285,379
Port Elizabeth Cape 78,670 110,317 188,987
Germi.ton Transvaal 71,572 96,567 168,13~
Bloemfontein . Orange Free State . 49,Oi4 60,295 109,369
East London . C,IPC 43,94G 47,318 91,264
Benoni . Transvaal 36,738 72,743 109,481
Pietermhl'itzburg ~"t,,1 . 32,139 42,364 74,493
Springs . Transvaal 31,558 87,824 119,382
Brakpan 'Transvaal 29,703 55,399 85,102
Roodepoort- Maraisb tg Tra.l~vaal 29.443 48,88G 78,329
Krugersdorp Transvaal 26,901 48,837 75,738
Boksburg Transvaal 2·1,625 39,691 64,316
Kimberley Uape 20,486 41,953 62,439
Books of Reference
Brower, J. P., Die Barn"e van Suid·Afrika. Johannesburg, 1958.
Duggan·Cronin, A., The B~"",e" Tribes Of South .t1frico., Kimberley, 1942.
HaarboO', T . J ., The Stranger at the Gale. London, 1938
Helimann, E., and Abrahams, L" Handbook oJ Race Relations in South ~lTica. LondoD, 1949
Millin, Sarah G., The People of South .!frica. London, 1951
Mockford, J .. Hut are South .JJrican$. London, 1943
Patterson, Sbeila, Colour and Cultare in Soul" Africo.. London, 1953.
Ritter, E. A., Shaka Zulu. London, 195:;.
Saron, G., and Hotz, L., The Jew. in South Africa. London, 1955
Scbapem, 1., Tile Ba"lu·speaking Tribes of Soutll Africa. Cape Town, 1953
RELIGION
The results of the census as regards religious denominations are as
follows: Whites (1951): Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 1,107,482 ;
Gereformeerde Kerk, 112,233; Nederduits Hervormde Kerk, 182,988;
Anglicans, 416,472; PreHbyterians, 100,739; Congregationalists, 13,915;
Methodists, 219,021; Lutherans, 26,262; Roman Catholics, 141,330;
Baptists, 26,717; Christian Scientists, 6,612; Apostolic Faith Mission
Church, 50,765; Greek Church, 7,347; Salvation Army, 3,675; Full
Gospel Church, 14,821; other Christians, 73,212; Jews, 108,497; others,
29,601. Non-Whites (1946): Dutch Churches, 559,285; Anglicans,
741,219 Presbyterians, 168,308; Independents (Congregationalists),
212,705 Methodists, 1,099,663; Lutherans, 442,480; Roman Catholics,
434,658 Native Separatists Churches, 761,341; other Christians, 566,620;
Hindus, 180,962; Buddhists and Confucians, 2,384; Mohammedans,
110.223; no religion. 3.571.353; others and unspecified, 194.458; total,

9,045,61i9.
TheJ:e werc 172 membera of the Society of Fricnds in 1957.
Perrinder, 0 ., African Traditional Religl<ln. London, 19 ~H
EDUCATION
IIig,~erEducation. There are 9 universities in the Union: (I) The
Univer.:ity of Cape To\vn. (2) The University of Natal, Durban and
Pietermaritzbnrg. (3) The University of the Orange Free State a t Bloem·
fontein . (4) Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education.
Potchefstroom. (5) The University of Pretoria. (6) Rhodes University,
GrahalTtstown, C.P. (7) The University ofStellenbosch. (8) The Univcrsity
of the Wit.watersr:md, Joha.nnesburg. (9) The University of South Africa.
with it•. seat in Pretoria, which conducts a Division of External St.udies by
means of correspondence courses and vacation courses; it is also an examin·
ing body.
The University College of Fort Hare, Fort Hare, C.P., caters for non-
white s',udents and is affiliated to the Rhodes University.
Statistics for the academic ycar 1957:
Lectu t'ers Students
, Tnh'ersi ty Founded Prole£sora Full 1i1ll~ Part tim~ PUU Unit Pa.rt time
Cape TO\,JU • • 1918 M 272 30S 3,774 552
Natal (D,,,bnn) (1949) 1909 46 I S~ 138 2,215 601
Orange hee Stote (IlIoero·
loo tein) . I SM 31 50 29 1,6:il
PotcheMroom (1951) 1S69 36 G! )(1 1,330 44
Pretoria ,I nO) . . 1910 14)0 " 18 83 [;.703 15;
Rbodes ' «(;rahamstown)
(J951) 1940 2~ 68 G() S97 24
Stellenbo;;cb 1316 74 l R2 3:!3 3,178 167
Wi"."tclsrand (Johannes·
burg). . 1921 57 20~ 1('8 4,349 114
S. Africa (Pretoria) 18i3 Hi ·IG 12 S,638 I
Fort r:t;ar8 6 2G G 398
I A11 external.
Technie-al ami vowti(nwleducation. The Union Govemwflnt is responsible

for a.1I voca.tionn./ education, except agricultural school•• which fall under
the jurisdictiun of the provincial education dcpartments. The Department
of Edu~ation, Arts and Science administers technical colleges under Act
No. 30 of 1936; schools of industries under the Children's Act, No. 31 of
1927; and technical, housecraft and commercial high schools under the
Vocaticnal And Spccial Schoola Act, 1'\0. 29 of 1928. This Department is
also responsihle for the education and training of blind, deaf, epileptic and
deviate childrcn, who are sent to schools of indust.ries or reformatory schools.
In J957, 11 technical colleges had 9,128 full-tim~ and 49,965 part-time
studenis; 17 schools for the blind, the deaf and epileptics had an average
of 2,1 5;. students.
State and State-aided Education, other than Higher Education. Subject
to final control by the provincial administ.ration, the central direction of
public education is exercised by the provincial education departments,
except for Bantu education which is controlled and administered by the
Department of Bantu Education.
Stal;istics of primary, secondary and special schools, and training
college., :
NnmLer of schools Number of scholars ~l1ruber of
Non - 1fon- teachers Expenditure
While Whit. IVhilt Whit. (all races) for all race54 1
1955 2.676 7,619 574.1:16 1,34~ . 254 57,063 23,872,000'
1956 2,664 7,526 5g-l,1l5 1,454,453 60,080
] ~i)i 2,562 7,461 610,558 1,457,577 61,245 42,009,090
1 Excluding capital expenditure and lon.n chnrges.
I \Vhites only; expenditure for llon-whilieS not available.
Private Schools. To a certain ext.ent the activities of private schools

are controlled by government regulations. Their pupils generally sit for
the sto.te schools' exo.minations. These schools mo.ke provision for
kindergarten, elementary o.nd preparatory, gcncm.1 primary, secondary and
commercial education.
Statistics of private schools:
Numher of schools ~llmlJer of scholars Number of teacher3
J.Vun- }lCln- Non·
W/tilt While Total White White Total White Whit. Total
1955 261 49 310 43.823 7,311 51,134 2,316 130 2,146
1956 1 237 44 281 4:1,223 6,729 4$'1 ,$'152 2,314 122 2,4 36
IDJ7 23t1 273 512 44,421 22,Q58 67,379 2,499 437 2,036
1 Exclnding schools for Ban tu children.
In 1955 t.here were 475 cinemas with a seo.ting capo.city of 265,000,
E. G., The Bilingual School . . . in South Africa. Johannesburg, 1943
~lri.lherbe,
Pe!Js, E. 0., 3UO r t!ar$ of J::durutfon in. S{JlIth A/rica. Cape Town. 1954
Van der Merwe, H. J. J. M., An Introduction to AfTikaans. Cape Town, 19.) 1
SOCIAL WELFARE
Social Security. The social security measures administered by the
Department of Social Welfare include maintenance grants and family
allowances in tcrms of the Children's Act No. 31 of 1937.
Social Rehabilitation. Social rehabilitation measures as applied by the
Social Welfare Department include wOl'k colonies; settlements for the unfit
and aged: Bubsidization of workshops and hostels for the blind; gmnts to
societies caring for inebriates, epileptics and the deaf; the subsidization of
socio.l centres; o.dults probation services,
Voluntary O"ganizations and Social WelJare. The Department sub·
~idizes trained social welfare personnel employed by approved provincial
o.nd national welfare organizations under a new scheme which co. me into
effect on 1 April 1955,
Child Welj(tre. In the field of child welfare, the Department is coneerned
with the protection of infants; adoptions; suosiJization of creches and
boys' and girls' clubs; the care of children declared by the Children's Courts
to be children in need of care; the supervision of ju,enile offenders dealt
with by juvenile court.s; juvenile probo.tion services, Thirteen places of
safety and detention are under the control of the Department, and 2 are
administered by voluntary agencies with 100'},o subsidy from tho De·
po.rtment. The Depo.rtment assists voluntary agencies financially in the
running of institutions registered under the Children's Act, These latter
institutions totalled 193 in 1056.
Housing. The Department provides subsidies for the erection and
maintenance of workers' hostels and homes for the aged.
Poor RelieJ. The Department distributes poor relief in the Union, This
o(;rvice is rendered by the Department's own welfare officers in ccrtain
centres, while in other areas, with the exception of the Cape Town Board of
Aid, magistrates act as the Department's agents.
General. Other Departmental activities include welfare services to
merchant seamen and fishermen; survey work and rescarch projects in the
field of social welfare.
Old Age Pe1l$ions. Provision for the payment of old age pensions is made
under Act No. 22 of 1928, as amended.
The Act as amended applies to Whites, Coloureds, Indians and Bantu
of 65 years of age and over in the case of males, and 60 years of age
and ov'~r in the case of females, domiciled and resident in the Union, with
means [lot exceeding certain prescribed amounts. The maximum amounts
of pension payable are £114 per annum to a White person (plus a temporary
bonus of £18), £46 108. per annum to a Coloured (plus a temporary bonus
of £4 11)8.), £40108. per annum to an Indian (plus a temporary bonus of
£4 108.), £18 158. per annum to a Bantu (plus a temporary bonus of
£1 108.1.
For the month of June 1959, 87,037 White persons received £959,510;
44,514 Coloureds, £169,551; 6,466 Asiatics, £23,006; 209,579 Bantu,
£461,4,,2.
The administration of the Act is undertaken by the Commissioner of
Pensiolls in the case of White, Coloured and Indian applicants, and by the
Secretary of Bantu Administration and Development in the case of natives.
JUSTICE
The common law of the Union is the Roman-Dutch law-that is, the
uncodiJied law of Holland as it was at the date of the cession of the Cape in
1806. The law of England as such is not recognized as authoritative, though
by statute the principles of English law relating to evidence and to mer-
cantile matters, e.g., companies, patents, trademarks, insolvency and the
like, htve been introduced. In shipping and insurance, English law is
followed in the Cape Province, and it has also largely influenced civil and
crimin"l procedure throughout the Union. In all other matters, family
relations, property, succession, contract, etc., Roman-Dutch law rules,
English decisions heing valued only so far as they agree therewith. The
common law governing the prerogatives of the CroWD is 'with certain
divergmcies' the same as in England, but has been varied by statute.
ThE' Supreme Court consists of an appellate division with a chief justice
and 10 judges of appeal. In each province of the Union there is a pro-
vincial division of the Supreme Court possessing both original and appellate
jurisdietion; while in the Cape there are, in addition to the provincial
divisioll, 2 local divisions, with original and appellate jurisdiction, and in
the Tmnsvaal one, exercising the same original jurisdiction within limited
areas 8S the provincial divisions, but with no appellate jurisdiction. The
judges hold office till they attain the age of 70 years. No judge can be
removE,d from office except by resolution of Parliament. The circuit system
is fully developed. Three Union native appeal courts and 3 native divorce
courts were established in 1927, 1929 and 1948. All of these courts have
jurisdi<:tion, to some extent concurrent with and in certain respects exclusive
of that of the Supreme Court in cases in which natives are parties.
Each province is further divided into districts with a magistrate's court
having a prescribed civil and criminal jurisdiction. From this court there is
an appeal to the provincial and the Cape local divisions of the Supreme
Court, and thence to the appellate division. A distinctive feature of the
criminal system is that magistrates' convictions carrying sentences above a
prescribed limit are subject to automatic review by a judge.
Courts of Bantu affairs commissioners have been constituted in defined
arens to hear all civil cases and matters between Bantu and Bantu only.
An appeal lies to the Rtntu appeal court, whose decision is final, unless the
court consents to an appeal to the appellate dh'ision of the Supreme Court
on a point stated by the court itself. Criminal jurisdiction corresponding to
tbe criminal jurisdiction of magistrates' courts may be conferred upon Bantu
Rffairs commissioners. while a limited civil and criminal jurisdiction may
be conferred upon the Bantu chief or headman over his own tribe.
Persons of all races convicted, all courts, 1956: Males, 1,238,191;
females, 255,839; 1957: males, 1,1l6,040; females, 227,585.
Arndt, E . H. D., Norval, A. J., and Louw,.r. D., Economic and Legal Dictionarv, wilh .!ppt1ldiz
0/ Uga/ Latjn Ter"... Pretoria, 1933
FrankllD, N. N., Native, and the Administration 0/ JU8tice. Johannesburg, 1937
Lewin, J., Studies in .!/rican Native Law. Cape Town, 1~47
Lewls, A. D., Water Law in l1Ie Union 0/ Soulll A/rica. Cape Town, 1933
S;mons, H. J., Crime and Racial Conflicl in A/rica. London, 1 V37
FINANCE
Prior to 1913-14 the expenditure of the 4 provinces was entirely mct
from grants by the Union Government,. Since then various Financial
Relations Acts have been passed defining the conditions upon which
eu bsidies shall be granted to the provinces, assigning and transferring to
them certain revenues and limiting thcir powers of taxation. Act No. 38
of 1945 provides that a subsidy equal to 50% of the net, normal or recurrent
expenditure of a province in each year i8 payable.
Revenue and expenditure of the Union (cxcluding Railways and Harbours
Administration) in £1,000 stcrling:
1954-55 1055- 56 1956-57 1957- 58 1058- 50 1959-60
Revenue 271,077 282,963 ~89, 782 286,5110 295,611 3'12,506
Expenditure 1 216,453 209,;'56 :62,.87 271,498 20i,~04 310,043
1 Excluding subsidies to Provincial AdmJnistrat.ioos.
The following figures show details of the ordinary revenue and expendi-
ture of the Union Government for years ending 31 March (in £1,000):
Revenue 1955-56' 1956-57 1957-58 ' Expenditure 1955- 56' 1056-57 1957-58'
Customs 30,829 31,100 ;:)3,070 Governor-General
I<;xcise 37,166 ::18 1 205 39,49:> nnd PnrlilWlent 511 578 685
I'ost<, telegraphs External affairs l,1l4 976 1,r)~4
and telephones 20,523 2G,G20 2n,~ 7 5 Defence 22,000 25,251 26,3J 2
Mining 1.261 1,411 1,38ll Public debt 17,118 19,800 20,700
1DeOIDe tax . 128,679 13n,170 129,-100 Pensions 30,894 30,827 30,281
LIcences 1,811 1,7GO l,Fl20 Provillcial admiul:
Stamp duties and strAtion 1 24 26 28
fees 5,212 0,500 5, 300 EUllcation I 6,473 7,303 8,200
Death duties 1.516 1,501 1,500 Agriculture 22,334 22,895 22,512
Native taxes 67 ,0 70 Ministry of the
}'orest revenue • 1,500 1,;JOO 1,500 Interior . 978 1,198 1,165
ltents of govern- l)osLs. telegraphs
ment property 821\ 800 850 and telephoncs. 20,880 23,612 25,260
Interest 8,800 ~,400 10,400 Public works 7,113 7,464 7,859
Fines and for· Social welfare 3,205 2,791 2,775
1eitures . 1,436 1,500 1,[,00 Public llOalth 9,412 10,037 10,546
Departmental re: Police 12,620 13,88i 14,483
ceipts 11,364 12,140 12,073 ~a.tive affairs 14,715' 13,678 13,75-1
J ExcJuding subsidies.
I Excluding subsidies ond aIJocations to Provincial Administrations.
I Including Bantu Education Account.
• Amended. ' Preliminary .
K
Puhlic debt on 31 March 1959, £1,150,624,000, of which £985,527,000 was

permanent debt. Internal debt, £1,048,842,000.
DEFENCE
ThE, defence system is prescribed in the South Mrica Defence Act No. 13
of 19U, as amended. Every citizen between the ages of 17 and 65 is liable
to render in time of war personal service; those betwecn the ages of 17 and
25 are liable to undergo a course of peace training with the Active Citizen
Force {lver a period of 4 years. The Act provides, however, that not more
than 50% of the total number liable to peace training shall actually undergo
that tmining unless Parliament makes financial provision for the training of
a greater number. It is also provided that every citizen liable to peace
trainin,~ who, in his 25th year, has never been entered for peace training
shall, e .~cept under certain special circumstances, be enrolled as a member of
a Rifle Commando and shall undergo such training for a period of 4 years.
The lia·tJility of non· whites to service may he determined by Parliament.
A Defence Secretariat and a Military Headquarters administer the Per·
manent, Force, the Active Citizen Force, the Rifle Commandos and the
school 'Jadet organization. The Chief of the General Staff bears the title of
Comms.ndant·General of the Union Defence Forces.
The Union is divided into 10 teLTitorial Commands: Cape, Natal,
Northern, Witwa.tersrand, Western Transvaal, Central, Eastern Province
and Border, North-West Cape, Outeniekwa and South-West Africa. There
is also 'l Coastal Command.
The Citizen Force as reorgauized in Dec. 1959 consists of 49 regiments,
of which 22 are Afrikaans.speaking and 14 English-spcaking. The Citizen
Force i3 lightly armed and highly mobile, strategically posted throughout
the Union and is designed mainly for internal sccurity.
The South African Air Force consists of Combatant, Training and
Maintenance Units. Equipment iucludes Sabre fighters and Shackleton
maritime patrol bombers.
The South Mrican Navy and the South African Corps of Marines aTe
admini~:tered by the Chief of Naval Staff, who holds the rank of Rear-
Admiral. The Navy includes 2 destroyers (Jan van Riebeeck, ex·H.M.S.
WUSfX, and Simon van der Std, ex-H.M.S. Whelp), 1 fast anti·submarine
frigate (Vrystaat, ex·H.M.S. Wrangler), 2 frigates, 2 ocean minesweepers,
7 coashl minesweepers, 2 surveying vessels (ex-frigates), 2 boom defence
vessels and 10 seaward defence boats. The 10 coastal minesweepers and
5 seawhrd defence boats were pUl'chMed from Great Britain in 1954-59.
Three new anti-submarine frigates of the' Whit by , class, one of which will
be named President /I.ruger, are being built in Great Britain during 1958-
64 under the expansion programme. Naval personnel establishment is
2,000 o1ficers and ratings.
The facilities of the base at Simonstown are available for use by the
Royal Navy in peace and by the Royal Navy and ships serving with the
Royal Navy and by navies or allies of the United Kingdom in any war in
which the United Kingdom is involved.
PRODUCTION
Agriculture. The number of farms owned by whites in 1956 was 108,883,
with an area of 102·7m. morgen (217,732,480 acres; 1 morgen = 2·1165
acres). The production of principal crops by whiter on occupied farms, for
years from 1 Sept. to 31 Aug., was as follows (in 1,000 lb.):
Wheat Barley Oats MeaHes Potatoes Kaffir corn
1955-56 1,753,800 34,512 89,123 7,273,400 79:;,000 ~78,542
19;)6-57 1,708,881 31,124 9~,305 8,460,000 765,480 5Ji,,·ItlO
19!j7-58 1,617,SS') 28,925 8'1,276 S,461,~Oil 571,S·1;J 5::;1,200
Btcntu, in 1956-57, produced 633,784,GOO lb. of mealies on farll1s occupied

by white", and 332,981,000 lb. in ruml reserves.
The production by whites of other products: Tobacco, 1957-58, 55·8m.
lb.; sugar cane (milled), 8,594,018 tons (959,872 tons of sugar); maize,
37,379,000 bags (of 200 lb.). All tea plants have now been ploughed up.
Production of canned fruits and vegetables, 1957, was 2~1ll1. lb. Citrus
fruit exports, 1937, totalled 541m. lb. (£13,371,731); omnges comprise
about 90%, the rest being gmpefl'llit and lemon.
In 1956 the livestock in the Union was as follows: 11,799,683 cattle (of
which o·86m. belonged to White farmers); 37,461,518 sheep (33·41m.
Whites); 5,210,389 goats (1·8m. Whites); 606,908 pigs (all owned by
Whites); (1950) 1,478,643 horses, mules and donkeys; 9,999,034 fowls
(all owned by Whitcs).
Wool sold in 1957 amounted to 304m. lb. valued at £72·5m.; in 1958,
283m. lb. valued at £51·9m. In 1957-58 the production of creamery butter
was 84,515,000 lb.; of factory cheese, 25,784,000 lb.
Cotton.growing is now undertaken by many farmers, the plant being
found a better drought resistant than either tobacco or maize. Yield in
1954,48,962 bales lint; 1955, 37,6.59,549 lb. lint; 1956,32,476,700 lb. lint.
Irrigation. Technical and financial assistance is given by the State under
the Union Irrigation Law of 1912, which was designed to encourage irriga-
tion. The government expenditure on irrigation in 1958-59 was £2,895,000.
Viticulture. South African wines, sherries and brandy, coming almost
exclusively from the Cape, are marketed by the Co· operative Winegrowers'
Association. Their annual export is about 2·8m. bulk gallons of wine and
450,000 bulk gallons of brandy. In 1957 the U.K. took 1,344,767 gallons
(£560,480); the Scandinavian countries, 370,693 gallons (£175,713); Canada,
350,139 gallons (£281,240).
Forestry. On 31 :llIarch 1955 the state·owned forest reserve area. com-
prised 3,959,948 acres.
Fishing. The catch of off·shore whaling in 1957 (and 1958) was 1,596
(1,616) whales; it yielded 5,162 (6,375) long tons of whale oil, 3,254 (3,631)
long tons of sperm oil and 3,009 (5,700) short tons of whale meat.
Manufactures. The industrial census in the Union for 1953-54 gives
the value added by process of manufacture, etc., as £580,497,000, and
the value of the gross production of the industries covered as £1,229,793,000.
The total number of factories which made returns was 16,917. Value of
land and buildings, £252,960,000; machinery, plant and tools, £351,505,000,
and cost of fuel, light and power, £34,660,000. Average number of males
employed, 757,887 (White, 220,478) and of females, 97,40S (White, 4G,(60).
Wages paid, £250,914,000. The net value of the output of the principal
groups of industries was (in £1,000): Food, 56,8'70; metals, 50,948: clothing
and footwear, 42,966; construction, 43,666; chcmica.ls, 34,446; transport
equipment, 36,229; non-metallic minerals, 27,256; basic metal industries,
33,443; printing, 18,086; machinery, 20,268; textiles, 16,475; electrical
machinery, 16,105; furniture, 12,703.
~nsus of distribution of wholesale, retail and service establishments:

Service
Wholesale Retail establishments
19/G-47 1952 1946-17 1952 1946-47 1952
Establishment. (00.) . . 4,156 5,142 32,216 38,166 9,035 10,194
Workh'g Proplietors (no.) . 2,109 2,117 34,741 35,922 9,141 9,108
(I) White . 1,808 1,154 25,473 26,538 8,407 8,214
(ii) r>·on· White . 301 363 9,268 9,384 734 802
Paid Employees (no.) 73,515 101,123 154,326 185,118 91,181 105,517
(t) White . . 34,606 45,739 69,440 80,911 28,9a 31,186
(ii) r>on-Whlte . . 38,909 55,384 84,886 104,207 62,267 74,735
Salari~1 &; Wages (£1,000) . 23,559 41,173 31,816 49,200 15,615 23,280
Stocks (£1,000) ;
OpeI.ing 52,662 149,589 64,106 128,944 2,002 2,870
C!oslng . . 90,164 161,358 91,622 137,865 2,774 3,097
TolAl Sales (£1,000) . 466,299 821,054 439,939 697,560 74,732 1 104,259 1
Tot.all:rpenses (£1,000) 48,200 96,634 GO,157 109,383 33,931 53,342
Net Pr'lfit (£1,000) . 45,951 43,036 46,482 50,330 13,001 16,261
1 Represents total trading revenue and not oo1y sales .
.Mining. The table hereunder gives the total value of the principal
minenls produced in the Union to 31 Dec. 1958. The value of gold is
calculated at £4·24773 per fine oz. up to 1919, when the gold premium came
into effect, as from 24 July, and from 1925 onwards when the gold premium
ceased to operate. The whole of the gold production of 1933-39 was sold
at a I,remium; the premium for 1939 amounted to £58,324,870. Copper,
tin, antimony, scheelite and sih'er are valued on the estimated pure metal
contained by shipments acccrding to the average current priccs in London.
The value of other base minerals is calculated on 8.\'erage local prices.
'ne value (£ sterling) of the principal minerals sold from 1909 to 1958 a
was :
Cape of Orange
Classlleation Good Hope Natal Transvaal Fr.e Stste U nion
Gold 1 41 ,282 96,717 3,724,484,068 49,750,155 4,404,617,4 15
DiamoIld~ 508,203,093
Coal 2,062,094 96,847,810 110,987,317 24,254,1 31 334 ,991,253
Copper 69,366,610 389 37,748,088 135,107,536
Tin 13,983 14,44 1,637 16,418,411
Asbest e·. 15,182,051 20,286 34,293,522 5.i,962,065
Mangft.[,ese 31,817,718 549 174,436 43,482,8~6
Platinum 31,891,117 63,254,941
Chrome 3,384 18,834,167 28,I10,8~7
1 Including premium.
I Figure. by provillces not available lor 1956, 1951 and 1958.
Total value of the mineral production of the Union (in £ sterling) :

1954 1956 1956 1957 1958 •
Asbestos 5,796,452 7,001 ,028 7,677,1&4 9,083,582 9,020,804
Coal 16,122,251 17,337,704 18,851 ,352 20,440,825 23,623,000
Copper 9,971,170 13,514,055 11,801,748 8,466,154 8,615,000
Corundllm 36,1'4 20,596 36,429 26,183 14,870
Diamonds 12,613.651 12,351,494 13,479,341 14,459,745 15,553,620
Gold 1 • 164,675,231 182,745,334 198,499,603 212,584,897 219,160,693
Iron pyrites 667,945 1,099,125 1,140,660 1,298,662 1,911,000
Lead ore 10,126 41,219 63,552 81,644
Lime and lime·
stone . 2,915,541 3,647,906 3,560,976 3,612,944 2,932,671
Magnes te . 49,884 47,013 139,623 67,115 83,451
Ma.DJanese ore 3,095,415 3,287,138 4,323,924 4,280,621 3,727,346
Osmlridium . 177,345 125,616 131,607 128,424
Platinull 6,701,104 7,098,[>93 8,123,980 8,616,922
Silver 403,379 4iJ .996 S27,033 581,593 568,000
Soda 11,945 19,728 7,916
Talc 19,149 4,058 10,114 6,821 7,220
1 At value realized. I Preliminary.
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 '
Tia 942,068 926,678 1,076,247 617,443 968,000
Iron Ore . 1,175,695 1,410,353 1,4'7,483 1,540,605 1,911,000
Chrome ore 1,983,814 2,191,404 2,896,369 3,507,739 2,919,000
Wca 38,190 27,843 20,018 18,108 9,722
Grapbite • • 6,600 4,756 6,176 15,186 17,263
Prescribed minerals • 29,959,589 38,671,695 57,800,000 5 3 ,207, ~63
Total, Incl. Items

no~ named 250,688,097 288,421,288 312,313,399 347,295,213 356,067,857
Mineral production in Hl58 : Gold, 17,656,447 fine oz. ; silver, 1,795,384

fine o z. ; iron ore, 2,438,713 tons; copper, 54,615 tons; manganese ore,
1)34,103 tons ; chromo orc, 696,061 tons ; coal, 40,879,261 tons; asbestos,
175,644 tons ; diamonds, 2,702,250 carats ; beryl, 464 short tons; tantalum,
38,000 lb.
At the end of 1958, 24 uranium mines were admitted to the uranium
production programme; 14 of them are in production.
As at 31 March 1959 persons ~ngaged in mining and quarrying totalled
590,389 (including 62,848 Whites) ; of these 368,164 (including 40,227
Whites) were engaged in goldmining.
Electricity. The total capacity of the power plants controlled by the
Electricity Supply Commission of the Union was, at the end of 1957,
~ ,894,OOO kw. Power generated in 1957 was 14,638,811,739 kwh.; power
sold, 12,763,051,473 kwh.
TM Mi_al nt8ouru, 01 the Union oJ Soulh Africa. with a IUmmarv oltM mineral r..ource. of
South·Wtll Africa. Complied la the Office of tbe Geological Survey, Dep8J'tment of Mines,
Union of Soutb Africa. Pretoria, 1940
Do Klemet, C. W., A History oJ South Africa, Social and Economic. London, 1941
Du Tolt, A., TM G",/ogy 01 South Africa. 2nd ed. London, 1939
Franklln, N. N., Eco""",i" in .~oulh Africa. Cape Town, 1948
Horst, SWella T. van der, Naliv< Labour in South Alrica. Oxford, 1942
Jeppe, O. W. D.• Gold Jlining in Somh Africa. London, 1949
P ... tel, A. W., Tht Mineral Rtlour" . 01 Africa. PbUadeJpbla, 1943
COMMERCE
Up to 31 Dec. 1954, the statistical territory' Union of South Africa' in
trade statistics comprehended the trade of the political territory of the
Union of South Africa and the High Commission Territorios of Basutoland,
Swaziland and Bechuanaland Protectorate. As from 1 J an.1955 it includes,
in addition, the territory of South-West Africa.
The total value of the imports and exports of the Union of South Africa,
exclusive of specie and gold bullion, was as follows (in £ sterling) :
Yearly
aTerago Imports Exports Imports E xports
1930-39 71,485,464 29,086,287 1956 481.015,753 331 ,676,191
1940-49 184,951,378 81 ,685,953 1957 494 ,927,471 370,068,436
1950-54 41 3,020,228 230,961 ,992 1958 556,645,473 390,491,261
The principal article8 of import and export (in £ sterling) were :

Imports H 57 1958 I Exports 1957 1958 I
Animals and anim al H idcs aud skins 12,723,O:::W 11,22·1,799
protlucts 4 .73 1 ,22~ 3,795,661 Wool . . 66,125,366 42,508,594
Colfee 3,045,715 2,972,405 Bark extrac t . 5,096,831 4,481,9,10
Tea . . 6, 4 2 ~ , 150 7,169,75 1 Maize . 19,340,010 17,865,998
Cotton piece·goods . 21,539,500 17,360,945 Citrus . 13,142,857 10,988,944
\I' oollen piece·goods . 5,088,891 4,187,340 Textiles. 7,470,726 6,667,263
A~ ri cu l tu ra l machi n- MaChinery 10,291,191 8,871,416
ery 3,389,478 2,850,1j3S Copper 7,518,601 7 , 26 ~,685
1 Preli mi nary.
262 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPffiE
roports ]957 1958 1 E xports ]957 1958 1

Motor eLl'S ann parts 54,442,807 45,14~,309 Asbestos 10,95~,895 10,419,232
Diamonds, rough 11,175,754 ] 2)~20,435 Coal 1,440,185 ],663,392
Fuel oils, 5,715.942 7,074, ~30 Diamonds. uncut ~ ·! ,6R5, 7 8 7 20,572,157
Paraffin, 5,29::,~S9 5"P·l,492 Diamond::;, cut 10,1 :HI,932 10,110,481
Ll1bricating oil 5,339,090 ·1,290,282 Oils, paint,s, etc. . 0,:;\70,663 7,395,159
Motor sI'irit , 1 1,(,2';,461
- 15,168,088 L eather aud rubber_ 8,475,900 5,278,159
Drugs acd fertilizers. 22,211,535 22,764.,317 Gold and sil .. r
Rubber _ 7,891,920 5,501 ,~!G7 plate _ 14,489 13,478
Woon "ld manuiac- Atomic energy nUl·
tu res 16,626,50 i 1.:l,5G9,70.j terinl. 4!\!)SS,632 53,207,2Gll
Paper ,napping _ 2,898,302 3,213,059 Wi ne and bmnuy ::,.101,332 2,598,089
Jewell er: i and fanc),
goods . 8,259,498 8,074,4-19
1 Preliminary.
In 1957 the exports of chrome ore totalled 705,5aS tOM; asbestos

163.311: tons; mangane8e, 570,299 short tons; coal, 708,590 tons.
The distribution of imports (including government stort's) into and ex-
ports Ulouth African produce) from the Union was as follows (in £lm.):
Impom Exports
Country 1955 1956 1957 1958 1 1955 19,56 1957 1958 1
U_K. - . .
Rest of Oommonwealth
]66·8 156-5 179-2 187-5 102-1
68-0 68·5 115·4 Gi·g
12S·1 nO·l 10C 'S
82-8 80·0 71·4
75·3
Belgium 9·8 10·0 12-2 ~-r. lC-8 21-6 18·3 13-2
France 6·3 8-7 10·2 10·1 1'.>7 15·8 15 ·1 10·5
Genuan~ 29·2 3 1·9 4,1-4 58·S 15 ·7 18-2 20·S 13-9
Italy 7'0 10-2 10·7 H·6 15·3 16·8 17· 3 14·8
Japan . 10-2 11-9 17·6 14-1 5 ..1 8-4 ~·O -j·O
Netherlands 10-7 10-0 11·0 11·4 9·4 9-6 IH 7-g
U .S. A. 100·4 09·2 107·6 97·!! 26·0 34-3 20·3 ::?5·3
1 Preliminary.
Tra:le with the U.K. (in £ sterling; British Board of Trade returns):
1938 1956 1~57 1958 1959
Imports into U. K. 14,629,726 nO,915.2!l3 90,2-j4,602 89,1 !);j,((j(j
!J~,G!l5,R·1fi
Exports to Union 39,493,503 H4,265.203 17~,4~ 3,400 I S5,ro05 ,OI7 148,886,98·1
Re-exports 635,076 1, 381,596 ) ,7v6,986 1,781,633 1, 884 ,205
COMMUNICA nONS
Railways. With the formation of the Union in 1910, the state-owned
lines in the 4 provinces were Il,ml1lgaml1ted into one centrally controlled state
undertaking-the South African Railways and Harbours Administration-
which il.lso took over the control of the harbours.
Go~ernment-owned lines opl'rat.ed by the administration at 31 March
1958 t(,talled 13,435 miles, distributed as follows: Cape, 5,282; Transvaal,
3,482; Orange Free State, 1,662; Natal, 1,546; South-West Africa, 1,463;
of which 12,648 miles were 3 ft 6 in. gauge and 793 miles 2 ft gauge. 43
miles of private raihvays are also operated by the administration. Passen-
ger journeys, 1057-58, 266·8m.; goods and mineral traffic, 77m. tons.
Roads. The railway administration operated road motor services over
a route mileage of 28,055 at 31 March W5S; during that year 10,105,022
passengers were conveyed and 2,419,323 tons of goods were carried.
There were at 31 March 1958, 4,292 miles of national roads, of whioh
4,221 miles were bituminous-surfaced. In addition, there were over 90,000
miles of provincial roads; of these, 3,200 miles are covered with bitumen
and nearly 7,700 miles are of crushed stone, the remaining 80,000 miles
being earth roads.
:lIIotor vehicles in operation in 1958 included 758,65i passenger cars,

197,062 trucks, 9,382 buses a nd 60,752 motor cycles.
Shipping. The 4 main ports are Durban, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth a.nd
East London. During the year 1958, a total of 13,003 commercial vessels,
whaling boats and fishing boats of 61,635,068 net tons entered. This total
comprised 6,279 ocean·going vessels, 1,612 coastal vessels and 5,085 trawlers
and whalers.
Aviation. South African Airways, which are government· owned under
the Railways and Harbours Administration, operate a service between
the Union and the U.K. in conjunction with B.O.A.C. There are also
regula r s ervices between the principal towns, connecting all important
centres of South and South· West Afriea and the Rhodesias.
Other services to Europe are maintained by K.L.M. (Amsterdam),
SABENA (Brussels), S.A.S. (Stockholm), UAT French Airlines (Paris) and
DETA (LoureIH,o Marques). Pan American Airways operate a frequent
service to the U.S.A. Qantas Airways operates a fortnightly service from
Australia t,ia M.auritius and the Cocos Islands. El Al Israel airline operates
a weekly service between Israel and the Union.
The following are the principal airlines: (a) South African Airways:
(Trunk) Johannesburg-Livingstone-Entebbe-Khartoum-Cairo-Rome-
Frankfurt-London ; (Regional) Bulawayo, Louren'to Marques and interna.l
network. During 1958,308,745 passengers were carried by South Afriea.n
Airways while 260,827,970 passenger miles were flown. 4,076,940 freight-
ton miles a nd 3,061,597 mail·ton miles were flown during the same period.
(b) Pan African Airways, Ltd, operate a Il on.scheduled a.ir service to Europe.
(c) Trek Airwa.ys (Pty), Ltd, operate a non-scheduled air service to Europe.
(d) Commercial Air Services (Pty), Ltd, operate feeder services between the
Rand and the Orange Free State Goldfields (Welkom). (e) South-West
Air-Transport operate scheduled eervices radiating from Windhoek, con-
necting the larger towns in South-West Africa.
The main airports are at Johannesburg, Cape Town and Durban.
The total capital expenditure on railways, harbours, steamships, airways
and aerodromes a t 31 March 1958 amounted to £494, 71;'5,863. During the
year the total revenue (all services) W;1S £164,175,603, to which the railways
contributed £146,796,959. Total expenditure (all services) amounted to
£1 53,374, 121 (£141,813,677 net on railways).
Post. On 31 March 1958 there were ill the Union (excluding South-
West Africa) 3,422 post and telegraph offices. The cash revenue of the
Department of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones, 19i)7-58, was £30,651,810;
expenditure, £24,928.208. The revenue included £3.522,535 from t.he tele-
graph service and £17,082.798 from the telephone service.
There were in 1!158, 775,274 telephone stations and 12,296 public call
offices, excludi ng the telephones and exchanges owned by the Durban
Corpomtion, for which the correspc,nding figures were 79,040 and 601. On
1 Feb. }!)32 the telephone systema of Great Britain and tbo Union of South
Afri ca were linked together by meaD~ of t,ho ' Beam' radio system of Cable
and Wireless, Ltd. In addition, the following radio-telephone services
were introduced in 1946-54.: Via Great Britain to Atlantic liners, Austria,
Barbados, Belgium, Canada, Ccylon, Cze.choslovakia, Cuba, Denmark,
Egypt, Eire, Finland, France, Germany, Gibraltar, India, Israel, Italy,
Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Spain, Sweden,
Swit,zerland; direct to Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Belgian Congo, the
U.S.A., Australia, Argentina; via Lourcn'to Ma.rques to Portugal.
MONEY AND BANKING

Act No. 31 of 1922 provided for the issue of a Union coinage with
denomillations identical with those of British coins, which remained in
ciroulation as legal tender until 15 Jan. 1933, when they were withdrawn.
On 1 July 1941 the South Mrican Mint replaced the Pretoria branch of the
Royal :Mint, which had struck South African coins from 1923.
The :3chedule to Act No. 31 of 1922 was amended by Act No. 57 of 1946,
permitting the coining of crowns (58. pieces). Union of South Africa. silver
ooins of .)8., 28. 6d., 28., 18., 6d., 3d., and bronze coins of Id., id., id., are being
coined and are in circulation. Gold sovereigns and half-sovereigns were in
circulatbn until 21 Dec. 1932, on which date the Union suspended gold
payment;s. From 18 March 1952 pound and half-pound gold coins have
been minted as • proof' pieces.
Statistics of the South Mrican Reserve Bank 1 are as follows (in £) :
: ~i"blllties SI March 1959 Assets 31 March 1959
Capitsl • 1,000,000 Goid Coin "nd Bullion 68,338,000
Reserve Fund . 3,647,103 BiUs discounted:
Notes in circulation 115,9'14,000 Domestic . 24,520,000
Deposits: Foreign . . 31,034,000
Goverwacnt 23,122,000 Loans and advances . . 7,733,000
Banke!'!, 43,799,000 Go.-ernment and other securities 49,401,000
Other 2,031,000
I In I'ec. 1920, under the South African Currency and Banking Act, 1920, a Central
Reserve I lank was estsbllshed at Pretoria. It commenced operations In June 1921, and
began to 'ssue notes In April 1922. Liablllty for the outstanding notes of tbe commercial
banks wafl transferred to it on 30 June 1924, and amounted to £150,666 on 20 Oct. 1950.
l'he bank has branches'in Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban, Port Elizabetb, East London,
Bloemtonl,eln and Pietermaritzburg.
Ratio) of gold reserves to liabilities to the publio was 46'9% on 31 March
1959.
The number of depositors in the post office savings bank in the Union at
the end of March 1959 was 2,426,000, and the amount standing to their
credit £~'6,332,OOO.
Barclays Bank D.C.O. maintains 232 branches and agen cies in Cape
PrOVinCIl, 95 in Natal, 81 in the Orange Free State and 217 in Transvaa.l.
Arndt, E. H. D., The South African Mi1ll3. Pretoria, 1939

The Weights and Measures Act, 1922, which came into effect on
1 April 1923, established standard weights and measures throughout the
Union and embodied the principle of optional use of the metrio system,
8ubject 1;0 certain provisions. The Act was amended in 1933 and 1940.
Regtlations (completely revised in 1943) prescribe the manner and fre-
quency of assizing of trade weighing and measuring instruments, as wen as
oontrolling the sale of goods and fixing standard quantities for commodities
in gener1l use.
Books of Reference
STATISnCAL I~'FORMATION. The Bureau (formerly Office) of Census Statistics (Schoeman
St., Pretol'ia), established on 1 Aprii 1917. as a division of the Department of t he Interior,
i. based mainly on the Consolidated Census Act, No. 76, of 1957, and the Consolidated
Statistics ~ct, No. 73, of 1957. Main publications :
OjficiaJ Year Book of the Uni"" of South Africa and of BllIlttoland, Bechuanaland Prokctorak
and ~:",atiland. From 1918 (preceded by the SIIUi.,ical Year Book,19/3-17). Latest
issue, No. 29, 1956-57 (1958)
SIat;.tic, of Production: IndlUtrlal. Annual, from 1915/16 (but suspended from 1929/30
to 19:11/32 and from 1938 to 1942)
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE 265
Slalulics 01 Production: A9ricullural. Annual, from 1917/18 (but suspended from 1929 /30
to 1931/32 and from 1939 to 1946)
J£onlhly BuUe/in of Statisl/CI (from 1922)
PopulaJion Census, 1951. (Various special reports in conne of publication)
The Customs nnd Excise Office, Pretoria, publishes J£onlhly .dbatract 01 Trade Statistic.
(from 1946) and Trade and Shippingolthe Union 01 South Alrica. Quarterly nnd annually.
Date, H. M., South Alrica without prejudice. London, 1956
Bosman, D. D., Twttlalige Woordeboek. 2 vols. Cape Town, 1946-49
Brown, A. Oordon (ed.), South and Easl Alrican Yeor Book and Guide. Annual. London
Hobne,r, J. H., SOUlh Alrica. Rev. ed. by J . P. Cope. London, 19b2
McLaren, J ., A Concise English-Kaffir Di<lionaMJ. London, 1923
Pettman, 0 ., South Africa. Pia" Na1T/i!', Pasl and Pre.enl. Queenst{)wo, 1932
Ploeger, J ., and Smith, A. H ., Pictorial AIlaI 01 the Biliary 01 the Union 01 South AfriclJ.
Pretoria, 1950
Siegfried, A., Alrican Journey. London, 1950
Walker, E. A., ili,tory 01 Southern Alrica. London, 1957
Wellington, J. H., Soulhern Africa, a geoqraphical guide. 2 vols. Cambridge Unlv. Press,
1955.
PROVINCE OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE

K.UPPROVINSIE
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The colony of the Cape of

Good Hope was originally founded by the Dutch in the year 1662. Britain
took possession of it in 1795 but evacuated it in 1803. A British force
again took possession in 1806, and it was formally ceded to Great Britain
by the Convention of London, 13 Aug. 1814. Letters patent issued in 1860
declared that in the colony there should be a Parliament which should con-
sist of the Governor, a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. On 31
May 1910 the colony was merged in the Union of South Africa, thereafter
forming an original rrovince of the Union.
At the provincia council election on 18 Aug. 1954 the following parties
were returned: Nationalists, 30; United Party, 24.
Cape Town is the seat of the provincial administration.
Administralor. Dr J. H. O. du Plessis.
The province is divided into 108 magisterial districts, and the province
proper, including Bechuanaland, but exclusive of the Transkeian territories
(with the exception of the districts of Mount Currie and Matatiele. where
there are also divisional council divisions), into 95 divisional council divisions.
This figure includes the 2 divisions in the Transkei, viz., Mount Currie and
Matatiele, and also Umzimkulu Road Board. Each division has a council
of at lea8t 6 members (14 in the Cape Division) elected quinquennially by
the owners or (lccupiers of immovable property. The duties devolving upon
divisional councils include the construction and maintenance of roads and
bridges, local rating. vehicle taxation (except motor vehicles) and preserva.
tion of public health.
There are 155 municipalities, each governed by a mayor and councillors.
Municipal elections are held triennially. There are also 85 village manage·
ment boards and 1(; local boards.
AREA AND POPULATION. The following table gives the population

of the Cape of Good Hope 1 (area 278,465 sq. miles) at the last 7 censuses:
All races White Non-White

T ol.u A/ales Females Alal" FemaJes Males Femak.
1921 2,781,5·12 1,347,791 1,433,751 329,367 321,268 1,018,424 1,112,483
1926 357,583 348,504
1931 377,579 370,899
1936 S,527,865 1,663,169 1,864,796 396,058 394,993 1,267,011 1,469,803
1~41 412,601 412,280
1946 4,051,424 1,924,334 2,127,090 433,849 436,300 1,490,485 1,690,790
1951 4,4.26,726 2,110,674 2,316,052 463,917 471,163 1,646,757 1,344,834
, Excluding Walvis Bay (374 sq_ miles).
Of the lion· White population in 1951, 17,818 were Asiatics, 2,492,021

were Bantu and 981,802 were of mixed and other races. The great majority
are eng:aged in agricultural or domestic employments.
Chi~f towns: The census figures for the White population in 1951 are:
Cape Town, 247,442; Port Elizaheth, 78,670; East London, 43,946;
Kimberley, 20,486; Uitenhage, 14,272; Paarl, 12,196; Worcester, 9,202;
Queen~town, 8,759; Grahamstown, 8,680; George, 8,342; Oudtshoorn,
8,317; Stellenbosch, 8,252; King William's Town, 6,397.
VIT.1L STATISTICS for calendar years:
Wbile Asians and Coloured
IJirth3 Deaths Marriagtl BirthJ Death, j,/a"iagt8
'i956 20,049 9,246 7.889 66,688 19,937 8,J81
'19 57 22,174 8,855 7,969 58,648 19,462 8,413
:.958 ' 23,712 ~,1 3 0 8,302 59,938 21,006 9,004
I Preliminary.
RELIGION. Whiles (1951 ) : Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 469,482;

Gerefol'meerde Kerk, 29,561; Nederduits Hervormde Kcrk, 22,779; Angli.
can Church, 160,962; Presbyterians, 29,666; Congregationalists, 6,985;
Methoc.ists, 67,849; Lutherans, 10,244; Roman Catholics, 47,113; Baptists,
13,333 ; other Christians, 34,588; Jews, 30,849; others, 7,977. Non-
Whites (1946) : Dutch Churches, 300,258; Anglicans, 361,661; Presby-
terians, 105,075; Methowsts, 546,273; Lutherans, 76,519; Roman
Catholics, 108,053; Congregationalists, 160,277 ; other Christians, 103,714;
Native Separa.tist Churches, 152,560; Buddhists and Confucians, 483;
Hindus, 3,756; Moslems, 46,258; no religon, 1,165,396 1 ; others and
unspecified, 52,770; total,3,183,053.
I Indicates for Wbites 'No Religion' (so returned), and tor non·Whites covers Banto
reUgions and non·Chrlstian Hottentote and Ilushmen.
EDUCATION. Local school administration is conducted by school

boards and school committees, the unit of administration being the school
wstrict. Each school wstrict is under the control of a school board, a
portion of the members being elected by the ratepayers and a portion
nominated partly by the provincial administration and partly by the local
authorities. Education is compulsory for White children and under certain
conwtions for Coloured children.
In Dec. 1957 there were 1,167 schools for White scholars, and in addition
7 institutions for the training of teachers. There were 190,291 White pupils,
mostly under school boards, and a total of8,642 teachers. In 1956 there were
3,739 s<,hools for non-White scholars, of which 30 were industrial schools and
26 training institutions for teachers. Altogether, there were 14,634 teacbers
in non·White schools and a total of 569,394 pupils, mostly under churches
and miHsionary bodies.
NATAL 267
FINANCE. Since the coming into effect of the Union there is one
financial statement for the 4 provinces together, particulars of which are
given above under the Union. Since the passing of the Financial Relations
Act, 1913, the provincial revenue consists of certain revenues assigned to
the province (not included in the Union summary referred to above) and
an amount voted by Parliament by way of subsidy. The following figures
show the provincial revenue and expenditure (in £1,000) for financial years
ending 31 March:
] 9:i4-55 l!l55-t.6 19[;6-57 1957-58 1958-59'
Revenue:
Provincial collcction~ . l:l.360 14,nS 1f'.202 18,O~4 21,S~2
Union government subsidies-
Ordinary. 13,IRO 14,R70 s 16,550 s 16,9:;0 18,:;48
Special 100 ].>0 150 750 795
Grants-
National Rond Board for interest
and redemption !:!i 26 :35 25
Other 465 S,Oll 3,449 3,340 3,167
Total revenue '27,7f.2 32,2;3 R~,376 31),159 42,780
Total ordinary erpenditW'e 25,870 3S,HiO 37,391 38,892 43,1l6

1 Preliminary.
I Including special subsidies in terms of section 6(4) of Act No. 38 of ID45.
Ordinary expenditure, 1958-59 (in £1,000): General administration,

1,344; education, 21,272; hospitals and public health, .11,763; roads, bridges
and local works, 5,018; miscellaneous services (public libraries, museums,
agricultural societies, fish and game preservation, etc.), 708; interest and
redemption charges on loans raised for schools, hospitals, bridges and other
buildings, 1,854; national roads, 4,537. Capital expenditure, 4,180.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Viticulture in the Union is almost ex-
clusively confined to the Cape Province, but practically all other forms of
agricultural and pastoral activity are pursued.
Livestock (excluding the number in towns and villages) at 31 Aug.
1056: 4,OM,I44 cattle, ::!4,504,741 sheep, 3,565,778 goats and 183,370
pigs (Whites only).
Industry. The province has brick, tile and pottery works, saw-mills,
engineering works, foundries, grain-mills, distilleries and wineries, clothing
factories, furniture, boot and shoe factories, etc.
Mining. For mineral production, see p. ::!60.
Books of Reference
Official Guide. Oape Town, 1953
DIl Toit, P. S., 01ldCTUJYS in Kaapland, 1652-1939. Pretoria, 1940
KilpiD, R., The Parliament. (4 the Cape. London. 193[1
Mo.rais, J. S., The Cape Coloured People, 1652-]937. London, 1939
PROVINCE OF NATAL
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Natal was annexed to Cape
Colony in 1844, placed under separate government in 1845, and under
charter of 15 July 1856 erected into a separate colony. By this charter
partially representative institutions were established, and, under a Natal
Act of 1893, assented to by Order in Council, 26 June 1893, the colony
obtained. responsible government. The province of Zululand was annexed

to Natal on 30 Dec. 1897. The districts of Vryheid, Utrecht and part of
Wakerstroom, formerly belonging to the Transvaal, were annexed in Jan.
1903. On 31 May 1910 the colony was merged in the Union of South
Africa, becoming an original province of the Union.
The lIeat of provincial government in Natal is Pietermaritzburg.
At the provincial council elections on 16 June 1954 there were returned:
United Party, 21; Nationalists, 4.
Administrator. A. E . Trollip.
AREA AND POPULATION. The province (including Zululand,

10,362 S'}. miles) has an area of 33,578 sq. miles, with a seaboard of abou~
360 miles. The climate is sub.tropica.l on the coast and somewhat colder
inland. It is well suited to White persons. The province is divided into
45 magi~;terial districts.
The J'eturns of the total population at the last 7 censuses were :
All races White Non-White
Total Male. Female. Male. FemaZ.. MaleJ FnMl..
1921 1,429,398 707,600 721,798 70,506 66,381 637,094 666,417
1926 81,170 77,746
1931 90,263 87,196
1936 :.,946,468 944,220 1,002,248 9 ~,167 95,392 849,063 906,866
1941 108,283 109,866
1946 !!,202,392 1,078,510 1,128,882 117,425 119,272 9M,080 1,009,600
19~1 ::,415,318 1,182,931 1,232,387 136,300 137,940 1,046,631 1,094,447
VIT,U STATISTICS for calendar years:

Whites asians and Coloured
Bi.th. Death. Jla"iages BiTths Death. JoI a"iag"
1956 6,868 3,007 2,449 12.134 3,430 2,773
1957 7,069 3,039 2,491 12,11<1 3,591 2,974
19.8 • 7,330 3,243 2,639 12,038 3,369 3,053
• Preliminary.
RELIGION. Whites (1951) : Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 46,052;

Gereformeerde Kerk, 4,432; Nederduits Hervormde Kerk, 6,582; Anglican
Church, 93,938; Presbyterians, 21,424; Congregationalists, 4,1l8; Metho·
dists, 37,639; Lutherans, 6,626; Roman Catholics, 25,313; other Christians,
18,323; Jews, 5,441; others, 4,352. N on- Whites (1946): Dutch Churches,
13,999; Anglicans, 102,712; Presbyterians, 20,816; Methodists, 136,787;
Lutheraus,80,879; Roman Catholics, 145,783; Congregationalists,21,693;
other Christians, 111,899; Native Separatist Churches, 177,980; Buddhists
and Confucians, 313 ; Hindus, 164,900 ; Moslems, 35,259; no religion,
895,948 :'; others unspecified, and 56,727; total 1,965,695.
• Indicates (or Whites •No Religion' (so returned), and (or non-Whites covers BaDtu
religions and non-Christian Hottentots and BusbInen.
EDUCATION. With the exception of higher, technical and vocational

educatioIl which is under the control of the Union Government, education
comes WIder the provincial administration. In 1957 there were, for White
children, 223 schools giving primary and secondary education, which were
supported either entirely or partially by govemment funds. In addition
there w"re 2 training schools for teachers. For Coloured and Asiatic
children, there were 328 schools, state and state-aided. The enrolment of
White pupils in government and inspected schools was 59,812 in Dec. 1957.
TRANSVAAL 269
The number of Coloured and Asiatic children receiving instruction in
Dec. 1957 amounted to 96,568.
FINANCE. The following figures show the provincial revenue and

expenditure (in £1,000) for 5 years, ending 31 March:
19H-55 1955- 56 1956-57 1957-58 1958 - 59'
Revenue:
Provincial colJcctions . 5.~S7 6,548 7,200 7,525 S,GS4
Union government subsidies--
Ordinary . 5,732 6,105 • 6,700 • 7,332 7,7·10
Special 1Or) 22 100
Gran ts 1,163 1,355 1, 360 1, 365 1,616
Total revenue 1::?, ~8:: 14,030 15, 360 17.685 17,798
Total ordinary erpenditure 11,183 14,688 15,996 16,S15 18,469
J PreliminA.ry.
• Including special subsidies in terms of section 6C4) of Act No. 38 01 1945.
Ordinary expenditure, l(J58-59 (in £1,000) : General administration,

660; education, 6,033; medical and health services, 5,757; roads, bridges,
works, 2,258; miscellaneous, 546; interest and redemption, 943. The
capital expenditure was 1,990.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. On the coast and in Zululand there are

vast plantations of sugar cane. The area in April 1957 was 400,756 acres.
In 1958, 8·6m. tons of cane w~re produced, yielding 959,872 t ons of sugar.
Cereals of all kinds (especially maize), fruits, vegetables, the Acacia moli8.
sima (the bark of which is mu ch used for tanning purposes) and other crops
are produced.
Fishery. Offshore whaling yielded 1,596 whales in 1957; production of
whale oil was 86,586 barreh; of whale meat meal, 3,557 short tons.
Mining. The province is rich in mineral ,vealth, particularly coal. For
figures of mineral production, see p. 260.
Books of Reference
Cullingvorsb's 2-1atal Almanac. Annnal. Durban
Doke, C. M., and Vilaka7.i , D. W., Zulu-F.n~lish Dictionary. JohanneslJurg, 1948
Fair, T. J. D., Natal R"f}ional S urvey. 3 vols. O~rord Uuiv. Press, 1955
nattersley, A. F., Portrait of a Colony. London, 19·10.-Tk British Sett/emmt of Natal.
Oambridge, 1950
Krige, E. J., Social System of 'he Zulus. London, 1936
Tatlow, A. H., Natal Prot'inc!: Descriptive Guide Q."d Official Ilandbook. Durban and
London. Annual
PROVINCE OF THE TRANSVAAL

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Transvaal was one of
the territories colonized by the Boers who left the Cape Colony during the
Great Trek in 1831 and following years. In 1852, by the Sand River
Treaty, Great Britain recognized the independence of the Transvaal, which,
in 1853, took the name of the South African Republic. In 1877 the Republio
was annexed by Great Britain, but the Boers were not reconciled to the 1088
of their independence, and war broke out towards the end of 1880. In 1881
peace was made and self·government, subject to British suzerainty and

certain stipulated restrictions, was restored to the Boers. The London
Conven,;ion of 1884 removed the suzerainty a nd a number of these restric.
tions bt.t reserved to Great Britain the right of approval of the Transvaal's
foreign relations, excepting with regard to the Orange Free State. In 1886
gold wa" discovered on the Witwatersrand, and this discovery, together with
the greE,t influx of foreigners which it occasioned, gave rise to many grave
problen·.s. Eventually, in 1899, war broke out between Great Britain and
the Transvaal. Peace was concluded on 31 May 1902, the Transvaal and
the Orange Free State both losing their independencc. The Transvaal was
governed as a crown colony until 12 J an. 1907, when responsible government
came into force. On 31 l\lay 191O the Transvaal ceased to exist as a
separato colony, becoming one of the four provinces of the Union.
The seat of provincial government is at Pretoria, which is also the
administrative capital of the Union of South Africa.
At t.!Je provincial council elcction on 18 Aug. 1954 there were returned:
Nationalists, 45 ; United Party, 23.
Adn..·inistrator. F. H . Odendaal.
AREA AND POPULATION. The a rea of the province is 110,450 sq.

miles, divided into 50 districts. The following table shows the population
at each of the last 7 censuses:
All races White Non·White
Total Alales Fmw/'" Males Femalel Mal .. Femaltl
1921 2,037,636 1,159,430 928,206 285,185 2~9,788 874,24. 668,418
1926 313,773 294,849
1931 357,504 338,616
19M 3,3-11,470 1,846,576 1,494,894 424,4;0 396,286 1,422,106 l ,098,608
1941 487,72 7 462,108
1946 4,283.038 2,374,323 1,90 8 ,7I~ 641,053 622,068 1,833.270 1,386,647
19.1 4,812,838 2,619,31 4 2,193,524 606,900 697,812 2,012,414 1,596,712
Acc(,rding to the figures of the census, the largest towns had in 1951 a
White j)opulation as follows: Johannesburg, 359,477; others, 524,530;
Pretori3., 151,100; others, 134,279; Germiston, 71 ,572; others, 96,567;
Springs, 31,558; others,87,824; Benoni,36,738 ; others, 72,743.
VITA.L STATISTICS for calendar years:
White Asian. and Coloured
Births Death. Jlarriag~$ Birth. Death. JJarriage.
1'}55 35,4 71 10,699 10,699 5.507 1,828 1,072
n,,6 34 .864 10,945 13.100 5.474 1,882 939
H 57 36,877 11,201 13.376 5,140 1,9·14 891
DoS ' 38,'10 11,346 13,826 5,:)31 1,9;6 962
1 Preliminary.
REUGION . White., (1951): Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 431,346:

Gereformeerde Kerk, 64,821; Nederduits Hervormde Kerk, 144,390:
Anglican Church, 150,025; Presbyterians, 46,385; Congregationaliats,
2,659; Methodists, 103,082; Lutherans, 8,747: Roman Catholics, 65,038;
Greek Orthodox, 5,523; Baptist-s, 8,273; Christian Scientists, 3.064:
Salvatic·n Army, 1,683; Apostolic Faith Mission Church, 34,080: Full
Gospel Church, 9,467: other Christians, 41,278: Jews, 68,962: others,
16,069. Non- Whites (1946): Dutch Churches, 136,458: Anglicans, 225,454:
Presbyterians,31,738: Methodists. 274,608: Lutherans. 275.001: Roman
Catholi(;s, 130,799; Congregationalists, 26,406; other Christians, 293,176;
TRANSVAAL 271
Native Separatist Churches, 364,895; Buddhists and Confucians, 1,588;
Hindus, 12,303; Moslems, 28,578; no religon, 1,347,040 1 ; others and
unspecified, 71,873; t otal, 3,219,927.
• Indicates for \Vhil.es • No Religion' (gO returned), nnd for non-Whites covers Bantu
religions and non·Christian l(ottcntots and Dushroen.
EDUCATION . All education except that of a university and of a

vocational type is under the provincial authority. The province has been
divided for the purposes of local control and management into 20 school
districts. Instruction in government schools, both primary and secondary,
is free.
In Dec. 1958 there \vere 845 primary and secondary schools and training
colleges for White scholars with a total enrolment of 298,399; 107 state
and state· aided school3 for Coloured a nd Indian children, with 36,699
pupils.
The mcdium of instruction is the home language (English or Afrikaans)
of the pupil. The teaehing of the other language begins at the earliest
stage at which it is appropriate on educational grounds. Both languages
are taught as examination subjects to every pupil above the fifth standard.

expenditure (in £1,000) for 5 years ending 31 March:
19:>4- 55 1955-56 1956- 57 1957-58 1958-59 1
Revenue :
Provineia) col1ections • 19,436 17,965 21,249 20,0·15 22,381
Union government subsidies:
Ordinary . 17,093 17,910' 19,746 ' 20.825 19. 750
Grants :
Native education 1,326- 1,518
Ordinary revenue (aU items) 36,529 37,201 42,513 40,870 43,743
Total expenditure . 38,115 38,132 40,373 42,785 45,733
• Preliminary.
• Including special subsidies in terms of section 6(4) of Act No. 38 of 1945.
Ordinary expenditure, 1958-59 (in £1,000): General administration,

2,536; education, 14,173; hospitals and health services, 13,895; roads,
bridges and local works, 7,801; miscellaneous, 5,194 ; interest and redemp-
tion, 2,133. The capital expenditure was 5,800.
The provincial revenue is mainly derived from licences, auction sales
tax, personal and income tax, companies' tax, racing and entertainment
taxation.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The province IS ID the main a stock-

raising country, though there are considerable areas well adapted for
agriculture, including the growing of tropical crops.
The livestock (excluding the number in towns and villages) numbered,
at 31 Aug. 1956, 3,523,067 ca ttle; 3,347,667 sheep; 703,106 goats, and
242,107 pigs (Whites only).
Industry. The province has iron and brass foundries and engineering
works, grain-mills, breweries, brick, tile and pottery works, tobacco, soap
and candle factories, coach a nd wagon works, clothing factories, etc.
Mining. For mineral production, tee p. 260. The output of gold for
1956 "as 12,708,806 oz., valued at £170,456,852; 1957, 13,262,000 oz.
(£165,535,000); 1958, 13,334,000 oz. (£165,512,000).
Books of Reference
Transvaal OJJicial Guide. Cape Town, 1955
Bot, A. K ., .4 Century of Education in the Transvaal. Pretoria, 1936
Graumarn, Sir H ., Rand Riches and South 4[rioo. Cape Town, 1935
EUovson, E., Johannesburg, the fabulous city. Cape Town, 1956
Symonde, F. A., The Johannesburg Story. London, 1953
PROVINCE OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE

ORANJE· VRYSTAAT
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Orange River was
first crossed by Europeans about the middle of the 18th century. Between
1810 and 1820, settloments were made in the southern parts of the Orange
Free SI;ate, and the Great Trek greatly augmented the number of settlers
during and after 1836. In 1848 Sir Harry Smith proclaimed the whole
territolY between the Orange and Vaal Rivers as a British possession and
establi!lhed what was called the Orange River sovereignty. However, in
1854, hy the Convention of Bloemfontein, British sovereignty was with·
drawn and the independence of the country was recognized.
DW'ing the first 5 years of its existence the Orange }'ree State was much
harasSEd by incessant raids by, and fighting \vith, the Basutos. These were
at length conquered, but, owing to the intervention of the British Govern-
ment,the treaty of Aliwal North incorporated only a part of the territory of
the BWlUtos in the Orange Free State.
On account of the treaty between the Orange Free State and the South
AfricaI, Republic, the former state took a prominent part in the South
AfricaI, War (1899-1902), and was annexed on 28 May 1900, as the Orange
River Colony. After peace was declared crown colony government was
establiBhed and continued until 1907, when responsible government was
introduced. On 31 March 1910 the Orange River Colony was merged in the
Union of South Africa as the province of the Orange Free State.
ThE' seat of provincial government is at Bloernfontein. There are 65
municipali ties.
At the provincial council election on 18 Aug. 1954 there were returned
25 Nationalists.
Administrator. J. W. J. C. Duplessis (appointed 7 Dec. 1959; salary,
£3,250).
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the province is 49,866 sq.

miles; it is divided into 43 districts. The census population has varied as
follows:
All races White Non·White
Total Males Ftmal .. Mal" Ftmalel Mal .. Ftm4JtJ
1921 628,827 321,373 307,454 97,948 90,900 223,425 216,554
1926 104,392 98,593
1931 104,738 100,637
1936 772,060 381,903 390,157 101,872 99,106 280,031 291,051
1941 100,14. 98,392
1946 879,071 (32,896 446,175 101,874 100,203 331,022 345,972
1951 1,016,570 519,166 497,404 115,637 112,015 403,529 385,389
ORANGE FREE STATE 273
The capital, Bioemfontein, had, in 1951, 109,369 inhabitants, of whom
49,074 were White.
Wbite A~iaDs and Coloured
Births Deaths Afarriages Births Deaths MaTriagel
19[)6 7.111 2,7Gj 2,189 547 422 196
1957 7,191 2,1-19 2,186 448 361 195
1958 1 7,511 2,284 2,~34 566 346 232
1 Preliminary.
RELIGION. Whites (1951): Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 160,602;

Gereformeerde Kerk, 13,419; Nederduits Hervormde Kerk, 9,237; Angli.
can Church, ll,547; Presbyterians, 3,261; Congregationalists, 153;
Methodists, 10,451; Lutherans, 645; Roman Catholics, 3,866; Greek
Orthodox, 262; Baptists, 999; Apostolic Faith Mission Church, 3,924;
other Christians, 4,898; Jews, 3,244; others, 1,204. Non. Whites (1946):
Dutch Churches, 108,570; Anglicans, 51,392; Presbyterians, 10,679;
Methodists, 141,995; Lutherans, 10,081; Roman Catholics, 50,023; Con·
grcgationalists, 4,329; other Christians, 57,831; Native Separatist Churches,
65,906; Hindus, 3; Moslems, 128; no religion, 162,969 I; others and
unspecified, 13,088; total 676,994.
1 Inuicates for Whites 'No Religion' (so returned), and for non·Wllites covers B"ntu
religions and non·Christian Eottentots and Busbmen
EDUCATION. Higher and vocationa education is under the control
of the Union Education Department, while primary and secondary educa.
tion and the training of primary teachers are controlled and financed by the
provincial administration. The amount spent during the year ended
31 Dec. 1958 on White education ,vas £3,922,040. The province is divided
into 25 school board districts, for each of which there is a school board
elected by the school committees in the district. In Dec. 1958 there were
314 White primary and secondary schools and training colleges, with a
total enrolment of 59,444 pupils. Tho number of teachers in Whito schools
totalled 3,048. Schools for Coloureds and Asiatics numbered 36 with 142
teachers and 3,890 pupils. Education is free in all public schools up to
the university matriculation standard, but certain schools are allowed to
charge fees and to expend the proceeds for the advantage of the schools.
Attendance is compulsory for Whites between the ages of 7 and 16, but
exemption may be granted in special cases. Unless parents object, the two
official languages-English and Afrikaans-are taught to all pupils, the
home language of the pupil being the chief medium of instruction, and the
second language being introduced gradually during the primary school
course.
expenditure (in £1,000) for financial years ending 31 March:
1954-65 1955-56 1956- 57 1957-58 1958-59 1
Rcw'enue:
Provincial collections . 3,253 3,187 3,e86 3,825 3,870
Union government subsidies. 3,G40 3.890 • 4, 200 I 4,57" 5,143
Special 10 676 697 848 809
Total revenue 6,n03 7,753 8,633 10,000 1U,02Z
Total e:<penditure 6,606 7.474 7,925 11,490 13,696
1 Prellminary.
• Including special subsidies in terms of section 6(4) of Act Nc. 38 of 1946.
Ordinary expenditure, 1958-59 (in £1,000): General administration, 525;

education, 4,548; hospitals and public health, 1,767; roads, bridges and
local wcrks, 2,683; miscellaneous, 2,020 (including interest and redemption).
The caf,ital expenditure was 2,154.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The province consists of undulating

plains, ILffording excellent grazing and wide tracts for agricultural purposes.
The rainfall is moderate. The country was mainly devoted to stock.
farming, but now a rapidly increasing quantity of grain is being raised,
especially in the eastern districts.
Mining. For mineral statistics, ~ee p . 263. The production of the
goldfields in the province has increased tremendously sinoe 1951, when the
output was 18,545 oz. valued at £230,186. The output in 1958 was
4,323,8(10 oz. valued at £53,644,100.
Orange F,'ee State Official Guide. Cape Town, 1956
SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
SUIDWEs·AFRIKA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The country was annexed
by Germany in 1884, but was .surrendered to the Forces of the Union of
South Africa on 9 July 1915 at Khorab. The administration was vested in
the Government of the Union of South Mrica by mandate of the League of
Nations dated 17 Dec. 1920. In 1921 the Governor·General delegated
certain of his functions to the Administrator of the Territory, who was first
assisted by an Advisory Council and later, when a limited measure of
self-govornment was conferred on the inhabitants in 1925, by an Executive
Committee and the Legislative Assembly.
The South-West Mrica Affairs Amendment Act, 1949, abolished the
Advisory Council as well as the provision for the nomination of a oertain
number of members of the Legislative Assembly. All 18 members of the
Assembly are now elected by the registered voters of the Territory. The
election!! held on 16 Nov. 1955 returned 16 Nationalists and 2 United Party
members.
The Territory is represented in the Union House of Assembly by 6
membera elected by the registered voters of the Territory, and in the Senate
by 4 Senators, of which number 2 are elected by the members of the
Legislative Assembly and the representatives of the Territory in the Union
House of Assembly, and 2 nominated by the Governor-General. One of the
nominated Senators is selected mainly on the ground of his acquaintance
with thtl conditions of the coloured races of South-West Mrica.
The Ileat of the administration is Windhoek. The country is divided into
21 districts controlled by magistrates.
Adminiatrator. D. T. du P. Viljoen.
AREA AND POPULATION. The total area of the country, including
the Cap:ivi Zipfel, is 317,887 sq. miles; that of Walvis Bay, administered
by South-West Mrica, 374 sq. miles.
The 'Jountry is bounded on the north by Portuguese West Africa (Angola)
and Northern Rhodesia, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south and
SOUTH-WEST AFRICA 275
southern portion of the eastern boundary by the Cape Province of the
Union, and on the remainder of the eastern boundary by the Bechuanaland
Protectorate and Northern Rhodesia. On the western coast, a strip of
approximately 60 miles in width and extending from the Orange River in the
south to the Kunene River in the north, which river is also the northern bor-
der of what is known as the Kaokoveld, consists of barren desert, and this
is al~o the case in that portion of the Great Kalahari depre~siou which is
incluued in the country on its eastern bouuuary. The eastern portion is,
however, not barren, being good grazing ground.
The Kunene River and the Okavango, which form portions of the north-
ern border of the country, the Zambesi, which forms the eastern boundary of
the Caprivi-Zil'fel, the Kwando or l\1ashi, which fiows through tho Caprivi-
Zipfel from the north between the Okavango and tho Zarnbesi, and the
Orange River in the south. are tho only permanently running streams.
But there is a system of great, sandy, dry river-beds throughout the country,
in which water can generally be obtained by sinking shallow wells; these
are the Kuiseb, Swakop, Omarllru and Ugab on the west; the Fish River in
the south; the Nossob, the Auob and the Elephant Rivers in the south-east,
and a series of what are known as Omuramba in the north-east, with numer-
ous smaller stream-beds. In the Grootfontein area, which geologists describe
as a • karst' region, there are large supplies of underground water, but except
for a few springs, mostly hot, thero is no surface water throughout the
country.
O';ing to the difficulty of satisfactorily controlling that part of the
Caprivi-Zipfel, east of the line rnnning due south from Beacon 22, situated
west of the K wando (or Mashi) Hiver, which flows through the Caprivi-Zipfcl
from the north, as from Aug. 193D it was decided to make over the control
of this area to the Union Departmcnt of Nativo Affairs.
The White population (1951 census) amountcd to 49,612, the Native
and ColourE:d population \\;thin the police area to 153,642 and outside
the police area to 264,440; there were also 19 Malays and 3 Asiatics; total
41S,104.
Windhoek, the capital, with its surrounding district contains a population
of 11,363 Whites and IS,354 Coloured and Natives (1951 census). E sti-
mated population, H158: 17,000 \Vh:tes, 16,000 non-Whites.
The principal Native races are the Ovambos, Reraros, Bergdamaras or
Klipkaffirs, Namas (Rottentots) and Bushmen.
The Ovamhos are a Bantu race and are both agriculturists and owners
of stock. They st.ill posscss tribal organization to its full extent.
The Rereros are a pastoral people who formerly owned enormous herds
of cattle. The Germans oppressed them, their tribal organization completely
disappeared and they were scattered throughout the country on farms and
in the different towns, \vhere they farmed the ordinary source of labour.
Under the Union administration, reserves have been set apart for them and
they have considerably increased in numbers and in animal wealth.
The Bergdamaras are, it is believed, alao of Bantu origin, though some
authorities hold that they belong rather to the Naroa race, whose language
they now speak. They are an inferior tribe, and were altemately the slaves
of the Rereros and the Namas in pre-European days, according as the
former or the latter were in the ascendant.
The Namas COll~iRt of 2 distinct sections : one, whose remnant~ are found
in the central portions of the country, being of pure native extraction, is
thought to have migrated from the region of the Central African lakes in
prehistoric times; the other is composed of tribes whose members are
276 THE BRITISH COMMONVvEALTH AND EMPIRE
descended from persons born in the Cape a couple of centuries ago with an
admix'~ure of European and Nama blood. These tribe.." after conflict with
their I:uropean neighbours, sought refuge across the Orange River.
Th,} Bushmen are the oldest inhabitants of South· West Africa, and are
found in considerable numbers in its eastern portion from lat. 22° to the
northern boundary.
In the centre of the country just south of the Windhoek district is the
Rehoboth Gebiet, occupied by a race known as the Bastards, whose origin
is much the same as the second class of Namas mentioned above, except
that the admixture of European blood is much greater and their ordinary
language is Afrikaans. These people have a measure of self.government
under a council of which the local magistrate is chairman. They number
about 3,000.
EDUCATION (1958) . White. There are 64 govcrnment schools wit.h
12,740 pupils. Of the children in government schools 5,878 are accommo·
dated in 60 hostels which are conducted by the Administration in conjunc.
tion with the governmcnt schools. The general policy has hitherto been
to brillg the country children into these hostels and 80 obviate the neoes·
sity for single. teacher country 8chools.
No:",· White. The education of the non·Whites is mainly under the
supervision of various missions. There are 10 government Native schools,
4 government Coloured schools and 119 government.aided mission schools
for Coloured and Native children, with 13,437 pupils. One Coloured school
has secondary classes with 53 pupils; 2 Native schools have secondary classes
with 6:> pupils. There are 2 training schools for Native teachers, 1 govern.
ment and the other subsidized by the Government, with 71 student teachers
in training.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) were :
1955- 56 1956-57 I 1957-58 I 19 5~ - 5 9 t
R evcnUH 11,997.914 12,756,000 16,159, ~ 3 7 12,208,500
Expenditure 10,669,864 12,788,980 21,148,540 14,729,110
• Revised e stimates. , E stimates.
For the purposes of customs and excise revenue the territory is included
in the South African Customs Union.
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. South· West Africa is essentially a stock·
raising country, the scarcity of water and poor rainfall rendering agriculture,
except in the northern and north·eastern portions, almost impossible.
Generally speaking the southern half of the territory is suited for the raising
of small stock, while the central and northern portions are better fit.ted for
cattle. The stock census, 1958, was as follows: 2,248,838 head of cattle,
4,094,279 head of small stock, 33,214 horses, 37,770 donkeys, 3,111 mules
and 19,867 pigs. Considerable attention is being paid to the improvement
of cattle and the production of butter. The quantity of butter manufactured
in 195H was 8,611,565 lb., of which 6,149,380 lb. were exported. Cheese
manufactured at factories was 350,823 lb., of which 77,647 lb. were exported.
ThE> production of karakul pelts is of increasing importance. The
number of pelts exported during 1058 was 2,708,644, valued at £5,168,996;
1957, !!,633,169, valued at £5,606,456.
Ni'ling. Mineral exports/sales amounted to £23,981,000 in 1958. Dill.·
monds, which constitute the principal production, are recovered from alluvial
SOUTH-WEST AFRICA 277
sources on a 300·mile stretch along the coastline from the Orange River
northward. Exports in 1958. 771.238 carats. valued at £13.706.541; in
1957. !l34.801 carats valued at £16.861.328.
Lead-coppcr-zinc containing silver. germanium and cadmium. lead-zinc.
lead-vanadium and tin-wolfram ores are mined in the north. Beryl.
lithium ores. tin. tantalite and semi· precious stones are recovered mainly
from pegmatite deposits in the eastern central and southern portion. while
manganese is worked in the western section of the Territory. Kyanite and
copper are mined in the central section. and salt is recovered from pans in
the coast.
Exports (1958): Beryl. 290 short tons (£29.227); copper ore. 926 short
tons( £21,221); copper-lead-zinc concentrates. 245,664 short tons
(£8.136.621); lithium ores. 6.372 short tons (£57.454); lead-vanadium
concentrates. 4.007 short tons (£145,625); manganese. 101.982 tons
(£1.218,064); tantalite, 16.006 lb. (£6,694); tin concentrates. 304 tons
(£93.200); tin-wolfram concentrates. 141 tons (£32,500); salt, 75.477
tons (£188,081); semi.precious stones: amethyst, 15 tons (£2,640); tour·
maline, 553 grammes (£150); rose qnartz, 1·25 tons (£220).
COMMERCE. The statistics concerning the external trade of South·

West Africa are included in those of the Union of South Africa.
The bulk of the direct imports into the country is landed at Walvis
Bay. which is now administered as a portion of South· West Africa. and the
Government proposes to develop this port as the main harbour.
Total trade between South· West Africa and the U.K .• in £ sterling
19~5 1966 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 8,319,651 8,613,434 9,338,298 9,130,658 8,032,328
Exports from U. K. 938.436 935,n3 1,139,532 2,354,238 1,337,235
Re-exports from U. K. 6,393 3,426 13,Oil 2,048 9,850
COMMUNICA TIONS. Railways and Roads. The railway line from

Walvis Bay to Nakop extends southwards and connects with the main
system of the South African Railways at De Aar.
The total length of the line inside South· West Africa is 1,133 miles of
3 ft 6 in. gauge, and 353 miles of 2 ft gauge. The Railway Administration
also operates well· developed road motor services, totalling 4,259 route miles
as at 31 March 1959. These services have played an important part in the
opening up of vast undeveloped areas. The service between the railhead
at Grootfontein via Tsumeb and Angola border has established an important
link between South·West Africa and Portuguese West Africa. and that
between Gobabis station and Buitepos, on the farm Sandfontein, has linked
South·West Africa with Bechuanaland Protectorate. On 24 Oct. 1959 a
weekly road service was inaugurated linking South·West Africa with Cape
Town.
Post. At 31 Dec. 1958 there were 154 post offices and 1,407 private bag
services distributed by rail or road transport.
On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 7.727 circuit miles of trunk lines, 16,926
miles of carrier circuits, 11.420 miles of telegraph circuits and 9,707 miles of
farm telephone lines; 133 telegraph offices, 94 telephone exchanges. 289
public call offices and 12,685 rented telephones. There are 15 point·to·point
radio stations in operation.
As at 31 March 1959, 19.123 wireless licences were issued.
A post office savings bank was established in 1916. The number of
accounts open at 31 March 1959 was 43,032, with a credit of £1,915,011.

Saving:! certificates of a value of £50 are also issued. The balance due to
holders as at 31 Mareh 1959 amounted to £248,500.
Barclays Bnnk D.C.O. has 17 branches and 9 agencies.
Books of Reference
The Territory of South West Africa. (In Official Year Book of th. Union of South Africa.)
Admin(sl;ration of South·West Africa: Th. dative Trib" of SOUlh·West ,1frica. Windboek,
1928
Department of Mines: Quarl..ly Information Circulars: Industrial Mir>erals
Ble-cc:k, n. F., Comparalit't Vocaouia'riel of Bushman Languages. Cambridge, 1929
\Vipplin{:cr, O.~ The .~lMag!'! a/water in sand. \YindLoek, 1059
FEDERATION OF RHODESIA AND

NYASALAND
THE Ft,deration of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and NyasllJand
was bwught into being on 1 Aug. 1953, when the Queen signed the Order in
Council proclaiming the Federal State. (See map in THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR.HoOK, 1955.)
HIS.TORY. The possibility of a form of closer political association at
least between the two Rhodesias seems to have been mooted first about 1910.
The proposal to amalgamate the Rhodesias was first officially made by Dr
Jameson in 1916 on behalf of the British South Africa Company, but it
was opposed by the settlers of Southern Rhodesia, who feared that amal.
gamation would defer responsible government.
In response to a request from the Rhodesias, the Bledisloe Commission
was ap:)ointed in 1938; it reported against immediate amalgamation, but
suggest ad the creation of a body to co·ordinate common services between the
three krritories. The war made it impossible to implement this suggestion
till 1945, when the consultati,e Central African Council was established,
which succeeded in extending or creating a number of common services. A
series of conferences to examine the possibilities of closer co· operation took
place in 1951, 1952 and 1953. The final proposals were endorsed by a
referendum in Southern Rhodesia in April 1953 by a two-thirds majority,
and later approved by the U.K. Parliament and the Legislative Councils
of Nortnern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Federation consists of
the self· governing territory of Southern Rhodesia and the Protectorates of
Northem Rhodesia and Nyasaland, all of which retain the constitutional
status &s before federation.
The constitution vests the responsibility for economic and financial
affairs, defence, external affairs, transport and communications, immigrat.ion,
educati·)D (other than African primary and secondary education), medical
services and a number of other functions in the Federal Government.
The Territorial Governments deal with all matters affecting the dny.to ..
day life of the African people, local government, industrial relntions, mining
and ronds other than inter· territorial main roads.
The Queen is represented in the Fed~ration by the Governor-General and
in the t~rritories by the governors of the territories.
The Federal Assembly consists of [i0 members, of whom 12 are Africans
and 3 aro Europeans specially elected to represent African interests.
FEDERATION OF RHODESIA AND NYASALAND 279
Southern Rhodesia is represented by 29, Northern Rhodesia by 19, Nyasa-
land by 11 members. State of parties after the elections of 12 Nov. 1958 :
United Federal Party, 46; Dominion Pa rty, 8; independent, 1; specially
elected Africans in Northern Rhodesia, 2 (the specially electRd Africans in
Nyasaland are U.F.P. supporters).
The federal capital is at Salisbury in Southern Rhodesia.
Governor·General. The Rt. Hon. the Earl of Dalhousie, G.B.E., M.C.
The Federal cabinet, reconstituted on S Dec. 1958, is as follows :
Prime ~M'inister and J'ri£nistcr for External Affairs. Sir Roy Welensky,
K .C.M.G.
lo1inister of Power and Home Alfairs. Sir lI1alcolm P. Barrow, C.B.E.
llfinister of Finance. Donald Macintyre, C.B.E.
Jlfinister of Economic Affairs, Public Services and Defence . J. M.
Caldicott, C.M.G.
,Minister of Law and Leader of the Hou.~e. J . M_Grcenfield, C.M.G., Q.C.
,Minister of Commerce and Industry and of Posts. Frank Stephen Owen.
,Minister of Transport. W. H. Eastwood, C.B.E.
Minister of Health and of Education. B. D. Goldberg.
lIfinister of Agriculture. J. C. Graylin.
Minister of Works. G. W. R. L'Ange, C.B.E. (not in the Cabinet).
The Prime Minister (provided with residence) has a salary of £4,000 plus
£1,000 tax·free allowance; other Ministers receive £3,250 plus £500 tax-free
a,)lowance.
High Commissioner in London. Sir Gilbert McCall Rennie, G.B.E.,
K.C.M.G., M.C. (Rhodesia House, 420 Strand, W.C.2).
High Commissioner for the U.K. M. R . Metcalf, C.M.G., O .B .E.
High Commissioner in the Union of South Africa. J. W. M. Fitt, O.B.E.
High CommiMioner for the Union of South Africa. H. L. T. Taswell.
Minister in Washington. H . W. Jeffrcys.
Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal and the U.S.A.
are represented by Consuls· General.
AREA AND POPULATION. The Federation extends from 22 0 30' to
80 15' S. lat. On the south it is bordered by the Union of South Africa,
on the west by the Beehuanaland Protectorate and Portuguese West Africa,
on the north-west and north by the Belgian Congo, on the north by Tangan-
yika and on the east by Portuguese E ast Africa.
Most of the two Rhodesias is a t an altitude of between 3,000 and 5,000 ft
above sea· level; some mountains on the eastern border of Southern Rhodesia
rise above 8,000 ft. In the large river valleys, the Zambezi, Sabi, Kafue and
Luangwa, the level falls to below 2,000 ft..
In Nyasaland the le\'el of the IiUoral of Lake Nyasa and in parts of the
Shire River Va Uev is 1,500 ft above sea-level. Elsewhere the altitude varies
between 2,500 and ;,000 ft, with the crest of the Mlanje Mount.ain massif
rising to 10,000 ft. Lake Nyasa itself, the greatest depth of which is
2,300 ft, is a southward extension of the Great Rift Valley.
Though the entire federal area lies within the tropics, most of it is at au
altitude which gives climatic conditions favouring p<::rmanent European
settlement.
The main rainfall throughout the a rea is concentrated into a season
extending from about Nov. to March. Average rainfall (el(cept for certain
80mewh;lt arid low-lying regions and some high·altitude areas of very

heavy rninfall) is in the vicinity of 26-30 in. a year.
Area and estimated population in Dec. 1958 :
Alian
Area and
T"rrltorles (sq. mJles) European African mi.ud Total
Soutbern Rbodesia 1~O,333 211,000 2,590,000 14,900 2,820,000
N ortbern Rbodesia 290,323 72,000 2,250,000 8,400 2,330,000
Nyasaland 46,066 I 8,600 2,720,000 11,500 2,740,000
Federation . 486,;22 291,600 7,560,000 34,800 7,886,400
I Including 9,380 sq. mJles of water.
The :Il:uropean birth rate was 28 per 1,000, death rate 6 per 1,000 in 1958.
EDUCATION. The Federal Government is responsible for all education
other than that of Mricans, that is for European, Asian and Coloured
children. Education at government schools is free, but a fee is charged for
children boarded at sllhool hostels. Total government expenditure on
educaticn for the year ending 30 June 1960 is estimated at £6,998,001 ;
estimatEd revenue from educational services is £669,000.
The following table shows details of the enrolment figures (73,621) and
the nun:.ber of schools (311) during 1958 :
Enrolment No. of school.
Type of scbool S.R. N .R. Ny. S.R. N .R. Ny.
European govt. primary 28,951 10,475 817 120 44 4
European private primary 3,999 1,863 251 28 9 3
European govt. secondary 11 ,947 3,301 139 23 9 1
Enropean private secondary 2,292 183 H 8 2 0
Non·European govt. primary 3,279 1,711 2,286 16 15 18
Non·European govt. secondary 603 0 0 2 0 0
Non-European private primary
and seomdary 1,359 Iln 0 6
Tol..l. 5:.1,430 17,684 3,507 203 80 28
HEALTH. The Federal Ministry of Health has taken over the terri·
torial hE,alth services with the exception of the Silicosis Bureau in Northern
Rhodesia.
As at 1 J an . 1959 Government maintained the following hospitals (with
number of beds): European, 32 general (1,444), 13 maternity (229), 4
mental (171), 1 nervous disorders (23) and a h ome for retarded children
(80); Asian and Ooloured, 17 general (225) ; A/rican, 50 general (6,673),
5 menta'! (847), 7 leprosy (1,698), 2 maternity (206), 3 tuberculosis (377),
92 clinics (4,256), 209 health centres, clinics and units (1,042), and 92 dis·
pensaries.
The staff includes 223 medical officers, 12 dental surgeons, 1,072 nurses
and midwives, and 73 pharmacists.
Industrial and mining companies, missionary societies, voluntary organi-
zations, Native Authorities and private practitioners supplement these
services.
Fight against malaria, bilharzia, smallpox and other endemic diseases
is being undertaken, with the help of the government research laboratory
in Salis·)ury.
JUSTICE. The Federal Supreme Court, which was established on I July
1955, hu both original and appellate jurisdiction. It has exclusive original
jurisdicf.ion in the following matters : (i) in any dispute between the Federa-
tion and a Territory or between Territories if and in so far as that dispute
involves any question (whether of law or fact) on which the existence or
extent of a legal right depends; (ii) to hear and determine-(a) any question
whether by reason of circumstances prescribed by a law of the Federal
Legislature or this Constitution a vacancy exists in the Federal Assembly;
or (b) a petition complaining of an undue return or an undue election of a
member of the Federal Assembly by reason of want of qualification or by
reason of disqualification, corrupt or illegal practice or irregularity or by
reason of any other cause whatsoever; (iii) in any matter in which a writ
or order of mandamus or prohibition or any injunction or interdict is sought
against an officer or authority of the Federation. The Federal Supreme
Court also has original jurisdiction to the exclusion of any court in the
Federation in deciding questions as to the interpretation of the Constitution
referred to it by a lower court.
The Federal Supreme Court has jurisdiction to hear appeals in civil and
criminal matters from the High Court of a Territory, and also on any
question 8.8 to the interpretation of any provision of the Federal Constitution
or of the Constitution of a. Territory.
The Federal Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice of the Federation,
2 permamentJudges of Appeal and the 3 Chief Justices of Southern Rhodesia,
Northern Rhodesia. II.nd Nyasaland.
No Federal law is in force conferring the right of appeal to the Queen-in-
Council from a determination of the Federal Supreme Court, but the Queen-
in-Council retains the inherent right to grant special leave so to appeal.
FINANCE. The financial year ends 30 June.

1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 \
Revenlle 50,049,000 55,017,000 51,523,686 53,137,000
Expenditure:
from revenue 53,859,885 56,180,451 50,080,592 54,085,000
from loan funds 27,731,600 26,779,729 20,028,591 18,215,000
1 Estimates.
Of the 1959-60 revenue, £19·7m. is expected to come from income tax

and £14·5m. from customs and excise.
DEFENCE. Army. The recognized Corps are Engineers; Signa.ls;

Infantry; Medical Corps; Army Services Corps; Pa.y Corps; Cha.pla.in's
Department.
There are 4 regular African Battalions: the 1st and 2nd Battalions, The
King's African Rifles (Central Africa Rifles); the 1st Battalion, The Northern
Rhodesia Regiment; the 1st Battalion, The Rhodesian African Rifles.
These African battalions are officered by Europeans, but warrant officers and
n.c.o.s are found from both European and African ranks. All 4 battalions
have completed tours of duty against the Communist terrorists in Malaya.
The Territorial Force comprises Engineers and Signals units as well as
3 infantry battalions and supply and transport platoons. The infantry
battalions of the Royal Rhodesia Regiment, together with their supporting
Transport and Supply platoons, are stationed in Salisbury, Bulawayo and
Northern Rhodesia. Europeans, Coloureds and Asiatics between the ages
of 18 and 22 are liable for continuous military training for 4~ months, after
which they continue part-time training with one of the Territorial Battalions
for a further 3 years. Coloureds and Asiatics serve in the Supply and
Transport Company.
Air Force. The Royal Rhodesian Air Force (regular) has 2 squadrons
of CaLberra light bombers, a squadron of Vampire fighter-bombers, a
squadron ofT.52 (armed) P rovost and a transport support squadron equipped
with Dakota a nd Pembroke aircraft. Provost and Vampire aircraft are also
used fcr training. Air headquarters is at New Sarum, Salisbury Airport, as
a re also 2 transport and training squadrons; the 3 fighter and bomber
squadrons are based at ThornhiIl, Gwel0. Total strength is about 500 men
and 70 aircraft.
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. European agriculture in Southern and
Northern Rhodesia only is the administrative responsibility of the Federal
Goverrment. Agriculture in Nyaaaland is still in the charge of the Terri-
torial Government. There is ample scope for agricultural development in
both Northern and Southern Rhodesia, and the territories are well adapted
for European settlement.
Th(· total area of crops under European cultivation during the 1957-58
season was 851,940 acres in Southern Rhodesia (349,270 maize, 191,700
flue -cured Virginia tobaccQ) and 180,050 acres in Northern Rhodesia (118,060
maize, 12,860 flue-cured tobacco). The acreage of Nyasaland is unknown.
ThE' most important single food crop is maize, staple diet of a large
proporl;ion of Africans and widely used for animal feed. Tobacco is the
most important cash crop of the Federation, the largest production being in
Southern Rhodesia. Tea is the next most important cash crop, Nyasaland
being the principal producer. European production figures of the principal
crops in 1957-58 were: Maize (including Nyasaland African production),
4,380,000 bags of 200 lb. (£8,918,000); flue-cured tobacco, 153,814,000 lb.
(£23,322,000); total tobacco crop (including fire-cured, sun and air-cured
Burley and Turkish), £24,4<11,000; tea, 18,130,000 lb. (£2,565,000).
Liv'JStock. Southern Rhodesia is the most important meat producer,
with a cattle population of about 3·58m., of which 60% are African owned.
Northern Rhodesia has 1·08m. head and Nyasaland ncarly 350,000. Large
areas of the Federation are still unsuited to cattle-raising beca use of the
presente of tsetse fly.
Po per. Since 1955 construction of the Kariba hydro-electric under-
taking has been proceeding. The first sta.ge comprising the dam, one power
station with all installed capacity of 600 Mw. and 900 miles of 330 kv.
transmission lines is expected to be complete in 1963 at a cost of some
£79m_ A second power station with an installed capacity of possibly 900
Mw. will then be constructed. Transmission of energy from K ariba to the
copper mines in Northern Rhodesia began in Jan. 1960, and interconllexion
with thermal stations at Salisbury, Umniati, Bulawayo and Lusaka will
follow ')etween 1960 and 1962.
The Kariba Dam, which is now complete, is creating a lake 175 miles
long arId up to 20 miles wide. 2,000 sq. miles of the cOlmtry are being
inunda';ed, and the total capacity of Lake Kariba will be 13010_ acre-ft from
which lLll annual energy output of 8,500m. kwh. is estimated .
Inv'3stigations are continuing in connexion with further hydro-electric
development on the Kafue River. In Nyasaland a project r eport is being
preparEd on a small (approxim ately ~O lIIw.) initial hydro -electric station on
the Nkula falls of the Shire River.
COMMERCE. The leading commodities exported from the Federation
are tobacco, tea, hides, meat, wood, asbestos, chrome ore, gold, copper, zinc,
radios, lead, cobalt, textiles, ciga rettes, ferrochrome and maize.
1956 1957 1~o8
Import.s 1 5~,2G 5, S4 2 177,4!l3,S29 1 57,6 34,414
Exports 17 S,8~ ~ ,526 l SZ,4.Jl,154 131,403,1 85
Tot.al imports of merchandise in 1958 from t.he U.K. amounted to
£59,721,037; from the Union of South Africa, £49,392,446 ; from the U.S.A.,
£7,710,550. Domestic exports t.o thc U.K. were £65,026,337; to the U.S.A.,
£9,832,111, and t·o the Union of South Africa, £10,818,430.
Principal articles of merchandise imported in 1958: Motor cars,
(£6,947,528); cotton piece.goods, 35,996,653 sq. yd (£3,940,907); mining
machinery (£4,055,741); outer garments (£3,082,235); electrical machinery
(£3,475,527); motor t·ru oks and vans (£1,932,571); motor spirits
(£3,340,824); fertilizers (£2,552,422); agricultural machinery (£2,208,566);
locomotives and spares (.£3,Oi:!~ ;, \)40); silk and rayon piece.goods
(£2,780,639); electric cable and wire (£3,127,083); motor vehiclc chassis
(£1 ,952,855); aeroplanes and part.~ (£571,075).
Principal articles of the Federation's produce exported in 1958 : Copper
(blister and processed), £07,064,1>27; unmanufactured tobacco, £27,834,346;
raw asbestos, £7,396,!H7 ; tea, '£2,90;),374; chrome ore, £3,025,743; apparel,
£1,455,862; zinc, bar and ingot, £1,673,095; lead, bar and ingot, £776, 138.
gold, bullion and concentrates, £6,779,607; cobalt metal, £1,43I,2·i4.
Total trade between the Federation and the United Kingdom (in £
sterling; British Board of Trade returns):
1 ~i)6 1957 1953 19,,9
Imports to U.K. 107,891,470 82.888.484 67,811 ,807 nO,nto,242
'Exports from U.K. 53,490,91 1 60,2 ~ i ,96 i 52,1 67,2r,:i 4!l~ :)5 i ,7 1 6
Re·exports Irom (J .K. 205,088 ~ 1) $ ,7 41 188,1:;;; ~(j3,6!l4
COMMUNICATIONS. The Minister of Tran8port is responsible for

the Federa l Government's relations with the two railway system" (the
Rhodesia Railways a nd the Nyasaland Railways) and wit,h the Central
African Airways Corporation. He controls :Fedcral (i .e., major tnmk) roads
and the Directorate of Civil Aviation.
Railways. The two Rhodesias are served by the Rhodesia Railways,
which conncllt with the South African R ailways a t Mafeking. The total
mileage was 2,740 in 1958. Another line, 400 miles long, links the Midlands
of Southern Rhodesia with LOl1 ren((o Marques in Portuguese East Africa.
In 1958 Hhodesia Railways carried 3,802,629 passengers and 10,725,044 tons
of freight..
Nyasaland is served by the Nyasaland Rail way system (the Trans·
Zambesi Railway Co. Ltd, the Centra l African Railway Co. Ltd, a.nd the
Nyasaland Railways Ltd) which connect Beira with Nyasaland. The total
length of the system is nearly 500 miles.
RoadJ. ?Ia in roads connect all the main centres of the Federation with
one another and with adjacent territorics, a.nd secondary roads serve rural
areas. The total mileage of roads is over 63,500 (36,855 in Southern
Rhode3ia, 19.850 in Northern Rhodesia and 5,970 in Nyasaland), of which
Rome 11,000 miles are designa.ted as main or principal roads (4,600 in
Southern Rhodesia, excluding roads in towns, 4,150 in Northern Rhodesia
and 2,334 in Nyasaland). The Federal Government has assumed respon.
sibility for 1,3i2 miles in Southeru Rhodesia, 1,932 miles in Northern
Rhode~ia and 1,072 miles ill Nyasaland. Major bridgcs, m any of them t.he
gift of the Beit Trustees, span the larger rivers on main roads, noteworthy
being the Beit Bridge oyer the Limpopo, the Otto Beit Bridge at Chirundu
over the Zambezi and the Birchenough Bridge ovcr thc Sabi River.
Number of motor vehicles excluding military (Dec. 1958) in Southern

Rhodesi:~ : Private cars, 70,800; commercial vehicles (excluding farm
tractors), 22,580; motor cycles, 3,890. In Northern Rhodesia: Private
cars,27,932; commercial vehicles (excluding farm tractors), 11,090; motor
cycles, 1,840. In Nyasaland: Private cars, 5,010; commercial vehicles,
4,160; motor cycles, 1,160.
Avia~ion. Central African Airways Corporation operate a system of air
services within the Federation and to centres such as Nairobi, Beira,
Loureny:l Marques, Durban, Johannesburg, as wel! as to London.
Ther'3 are international airports at Salisbury and Livingstone.
Post. The 3 former territorial post offices havo been amalgamated.
There are 216 post offices and 272 post office agencies in the Federation.
Al! normal postal and telegraphic services are available, including a direct
radio cable and telephone service to the U.K. There were 9) ,279 telephones
on 30 J ane 1959; of these, 67,284 were in Southern Rhodesia, 19,133 in
Northern Rhodesia and 4,862 in Nyasaland.
Broadcasting. The Federal Broadcasting Corporation, based on Salis·
bury, serves European listeners throughout the Federation. The service
is modelled on the B.B.C. Home Service. The Corporation, from its studios
in Lusaka and Blantyre provides radio services for the Africans of the whole
Federation in the main vernaculars. It was estimated that 90% of battery.
operatee. sets sold in the Federation in 1956 were bought by Africans.
Commercial broadcasting was introduced on 6 April 1959. A television
service started in mid·I960.
MONEY AND BANKING. The Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland,
which is the Central Bank for the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland,
is respousible for the issue and management of the currency in circulation.
Notes ald coin issued by the Central Africa Currency Board, which was
absorbed by the Bank on I April 1956, are, however, still legal tender.
The balance sheet published by the Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on
31 March 1959, showed the following liabilities and assets: Capital, £Im.;
general reserve fund, £853,206; notes and coin in circulation, £22,831,532;
Federal Government deposits, £7,329,121; bankers' deposits, £7,454,477;
other dEposits, £303,393; other liabilities, £1,265,206; gold and foreign
assets, ~;39,468,474; internal bills purchased and discounted, £15,000;
investm(mts (local), £772,345; other assets, £781,116.
The :1 territorial post office savings banks were amalgamated on 1 Sept.
1954. At 30 June 1959 the balance due to depositors amounted to
£23,552,000.
Books of Reference
GENEnAL INl'OIWATlON. Federal Information Depo.rtment (p.O. Box 8140, Causeway,
Salisbury. S. RhodesIa). Dirtcto" W. V. Brelslord.
Federation Of Rhodelia and Nyasaland, Order in Council. H.M.S.O., 1953
The /<'ede.'aJ Scheme (Cm d 8754); Report bV the Conference on Federation (Cmd 8753)
H .M.S.C1., 1953
The Africm Native Market in the Federation of Rhoiksia and Nyalaland. H.M.S.O., 1954
Colson, E .. and Gluckman, S. (ed.), Se1Jen Tribes of Britilh Cenlral Africa. London, 1952
Gale, W. D.• Heritage of Rhode.. London, 1950
Bailey, Lord, Nalivt Administration in tJ~ British African Terriloritl. 11: Central Africa.
H .M.S.O., 1951
Ahson,P. 7'he Birth of a Dilemma: The Conquest and Settlement of Rltodesia. Oxford Univ.
Press. lJ58
Woodruff, H. W., Overseal Economic Survey: Federation of Rhod..ia and NYalaland, Mav
19SJ. S:.M.S.O., 1955
SOUTHERN RHODESIA
Southern Rhodesia lies between the northern border of the Transvaal
and the Zambezi River and is bordered on the east by Portuguese East
Africa and on the west by the Bechuanaland Protectorate.
GOVERNMENT. Prior to Oct. 1923 Southern Rhodesia, like Northern
Rhodesia, was under the administration of the British South Africa Corn·
pany. In Oct. 1922 Southern Rhodesia voted in favour of r esponsible
government. On 12 Sept. 1923 the country was formally annexed to His
Majesty's Dominions, and on I Oct. 1923 government was established
under a governor, assisted by an executive council, and a legislature.
The latter consists of a single elected legislative assembly, but may pass
a law constituting a legislative council in addition, but up to the present
this power has not been exercised. The constitution also limits the
powers of the Legislative Council respecting appropriation and taxation
bills. There must be a session at least once a ye:1r, and the duration of the
legislature is 5 years, unless sooner dissolved. The legislature may amend,
by a two· thirds vote of the total mombership, the Let.ters Patent setting up
the constitution, with certain exceptions (relating to rcservation of bills
by the Governor, native administration, Crown letters patent and governor's
salary). The Legislative Assembly numbers 30 mcmbers, each of whom,
other than Ministers, receives a yearly salary of £750 and certain allowances.
A person who seeks t o be registered as a voter must be an :1dult citizen
of Rhodesia and Nyas:1land, who h:1s been resident in the Federation for
2 years or more and who possesses any of 5 educational and means qualifica.
tions.
Tho Legisl:1tive Assembly, elected 5 June 1958, consists of 17 United
Federal Party and 13 Dominion Party.
GOl'emor. The Hon. Sir Humphrey Vicary GiGbR, K.C.lILG., O.B.E.
The cabinet was, in F eb. 1959, composed as follows:
Prime Minister and Natit'e Affairs. Sir Edgar Whitehead, K.C.M.C.,
O.B.E.
Labour, Social Welfare and Housing. A. E. Abmhamson.
Local Government and Native Education. R. M. Cleveland, O.B.E.
'l'reasury and Mines. C. J. Hatty .
.Tustice and Intemal Affairs. Reginald Knight, Q.C.
Roads, irrigation and Lands. A. R. W. Stumbles.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area is 150,333 sq. miles. The

growth of the population is gi ven in the following table:
A~iatie Native Total
European (census) and total population
(M~y) Males Femal.. Total Coloured (estimated) (estimated)
1911 15,580 8,026 23.606 2,912 745,000 n2,OOO
1931 27,280 22,630 49,910 4,102 1,076,000 1,130,000
J~ · IJ 36,61. 32,3 39 68,954 6,521 1,404,000 J,479,OOO
1951 71,307 6.1,289 J 35,596 JO,28~ 2,000,000 2,146,000
191)6 91,OZO 8.,280 1i6,300 13,206 2,280,000 2,470,000
Estimated population, 30 June 1959: Europeans, 215,000; Asian~ and

Coloured, 15,200; Africans,2,630,OOO; total,2,860,OOO.
European population of the chief to\VIlS (including suburbs). estimated
31 Dec. 1958: Salisbury (the capital), 82,000; Bulawayo,4H,OOO; Umtali,
8,000; Gwelo, 6,700; Gatooma, 2,200; Que Que, 2,000; Fort Victoria,
1,700.
Vital statistics
(Eurorcan) 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Births 3,929 4,28~ 4,367 4,223 4,255 4,557 5,145 5,494
MaITiages. 1,297 1,405 1,-107 1,69. 1,712 1,901 2,017 2,145
Deaths . 957 904 976 1,084 1,060 1,169 1,155 1,:?85
Immigrants 15,960 12,466 9,994 9,172 12,683 17,051 16,380 12,101
NATIVE AFFAIRS. Under the Land Apportionment Act of 1941 as

amended, the Colony is divided into European and Native areas, in which
the inte rests of the respective races are predominant. Of tho Colony's total
acreage (97,184,000), 47,987,000 acres constitutes the 'European area'
(including the towns); 21,020,000 acres are set aside as Native Reserves
(entirely for African occupation); 8,052,000 acres form the Native Purchase
Area in which only Africans may purchase or lease land; 12,878,000 acres
have been set aside as the Special Native Area exclusively for occupation
by Afric:ans; 3,190,000 acres constitute the 'Forest area' in which natives
may re:!ide under certain conditions; 4m. acres have been proclaimed
nationa.~ parks for the benefit of all races; 57,000 acres are Undetermined
Area. The bulk of the native population live in the areas set aside for their
exclusiv e occupation.
Native affairs are administered by a Division, headed by the Secretary
for Nakve Affairs and Chief Native Commissioner. The Colony is divided
into 49 districts each under a Native Commissioner; these districts are
grouped into 6 Provinces, each of which is under a provincial Native Com-
missioner. Native lands and townships, native agriculture and lands, and
native economics and marketing are administered by separate Under
Secretaries of the Department of Native Affairs.
The Native Land Husbandry Act, promulgated in 1952, seeks to establish
sound hmd usage in all native Reserves and Special Native Areas, and to
stabiliu, the rural agricultural population on individun,l holdings on an eco·
nomic basis. By 1960 the plan will have been applied to 21m. acres, and
by 196~ to a further 9m. acres. The remaining 3m. acres consist mainly
of Special Native Area assigned during 1958. The control of natives in
towns il provided for in the Native (Urban Areas) Accommodation and
Registration Act, 1946.
Native Councils. The Native Councils Act, 1957, repeals the old act.
Councils are intended to foster a sense of community and citizenship;
promoto initiative and a sense of responsibility; promote the development
and economic progress of the area with the participation of the inhabitants.
These bodies may be authorised to provide services, facilities and amenities
for the persons in the area; to establish and maintain any undertaking for
the benofit ofthe inhabitants ofthe area; to make grants for purposes which
are of h~nefit to the inhabitants of the area.
Councils may be constituted in Native Areas, but cannot be established
in area, under the jurisdiction of local authorities. Councils h,we powers
to impose rates on male or female adults in the area; in regard to stock or
buildings; on the value of any land; on any grazing right.
The Native Commissioner is President of every Council established in
his district. He controls the elections and method of voting.
Every council meets at intervals of not more than 4 months unless some
other period is specified. There are 58 established Native Councils.
RELIGION. The largest religious groups are t.he Anglicans wit.h 58,168
members (43% of the European population) and the Dutch R eformed
Church with 18,283 members (13'5% ), according to the 1951 ccnsus. The
Society of Friends had 30 members in 1957.
EDUCATION. Native education is controlled by Government a nd comes
undN' the Minister f or I\(ltive Bducation. Expenditure is now over £2·8m.
per anllum; capital expenditure, in addition to revenue fund s, amotmt.s to
£123,0()0. There a re :!,6S3 schools with 467,567 pupils and 12,2()() teachers
(1959). Both mission and government training centres provide for
primary teachers' courses. Secondary schools provide a standard of educa-
tion up to Cambridge Certificate, while ot·her post -primary schools include
such subjccts as building, carpentry, agriculture and home craft. In addi-
tion 3 special schools cater for the blind, the deaf and dumb. SO% of
pupils of school-going age arc now able to atLend schools.
JUSTICE. There is a high court (composed of a chief justice and 5
judges) with criminal and civil jurisdiction. The Chief Justice and 3 other
judges are stationed at Salisbury, and 2 judges are stationed at Bulawayo.
Sittings are also held at three other principal towns three times a year.
There are 11 principal courts of magistrates, also courts presided over by
detached assistant magistrates and several periodical courts. Natives are
subject mainly to the same laws as Europeans, though there are special
restrictions relating to arms, ammunition and liquor, and there are laws
particularly applicable to natives, such as those dealing with marriage,
taxation and registration and passes.
The Native Law and Courts Act, 1957, has established native courts
with jurisdiction in civil matters which can be decided by native customary
law.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure, in £ sterling, for 5 years (year
ended 30 June):
1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59' 1959-60'
Revenue . . 14,313,734 17,285,547 19,722,826 19,637,704 19,517,000
Ordinary expenditUIe :
From revenue fuods 14,061,187 16,577,938 19,231,931 19,361,656 19,968,791
From loan fund. 4,858,060 6,679,922 5,188,28 7 5,606,231 6,257,500
Total expenditUIe 18,914,247 23,257,860 2·1,420,218 24,967,887 22,226,291
• Unaudit.ed. • Estimates.
Receipts from Southern Rhodesia's share (14%) of basic tax on income

or profits during the year ending 30 June 1959 were £4,S07,180; territorial
surcharge on income tax, £3,507,889 ; customs duty on motor spirit,
£2,079,455; stamp duties a nd fees, £764,248; business licences, £488,071 ;
native tax, £1,304,618; mining revenuc, £559,756 (from royalties and mining
fees); interest on loans, deposits, etc., £2,005,743; vehicle tax, £926,935;
death duty, £357,964; tra.nsfer duty, £601,038.
Principal items of e:-.:penditure from revenuo funds ,vere as follows :
£2,96S,260 for service of loans ; £2,619,685 for police; £491,641 for irriga-
tioll; £305,292 for mines; £1,040,970 for housing, public works and en·
gineering; £2, IS3,465 for native affairs (including agriculture); £2,262,6S0
for roads and bridges; £913,000 for a contribution to loan account;
£1,569,272 for pensions; £2,441,250 for native education; £201,731 for
local government.
The net alllotmt of the public debt outstanding was, at 30 June 1959,
£60,079,305.
PRODUCTION. When responsible government was granted to the

colony the British South Africa Company relinquished all rights and interests
in the land in Southern Rhodesia, except in the estates which it was already
develo}ing and working on 10 July 1923, but was recognized by the Crown
as the owncr of the mineral rights throughout both Southern and Northern
Rhode:lia. In 1933 the mineral rights in Southern Rhodesia were purchased
by the Government for £2m.
The Natural Resources Board, set up in Hl41, is regarded as the trustee
of the natural resources of the Colony. The resources are clearly defined as
the soil, water and minera.ls, the animals, bird and fish life and the t.rees,
grasse~ and other vegetable products of the soil. In the European farming
areas l;he Board is assisted in its work by Intensive Conservation Area
Comm::ttees (92 in 1958 covering the whole area of European agriculture),
while in native areas they work through the Native Affairs Department.
Nine a.gricultura.l committees had been formed by 1957 in certain nath'e
purcha.se areas; they operate on lines similar to those of the committees in
the European areas.
Agl·uulture. Total production of native· grown grains was as follows in
1958: Maize, 2,846,984 bags of 200 lb.; Kaffir corn, 482,266 bags; lUunga,
887,169 bags; beans, 120,803 bags; groundnuts, 758,036 bags; rice,
23,879 bags; wheat, 14,977 bags; rapoko, 917,413 bags; cotton, 60,958 lb.;
tobacco, 47,628 lb. The total value of crop sales in 1957-58 was £3,150,180.
Native·owned livestock (1958): Cattle, 2,073,592; sheep, 144,179; pigs,
56,498; goats,402,833. Cattle sold numbered 153,334, and head 78,808
were s::aughtered for own consumption.
Mining. The total value of all minerals produccd in 1958 was
£25,331,732.
Short Tons Value (.£) Short Tons Value (£)
Asbe~to; 1:!7,1l 5 8,593,i26 J.. imestone ],057,272 201,77;'
JleryUium 302 33,822 Tin 610 386,121
Chrome GJS,8·15 3,976,~3S 'l'ungsten 95 22,593
Coal 3,891,220 3,32i,860 Gold . 554,383 oz. 6,950,302
Copper 8,430 1,003,692
Industries. Manufacturing industries are becoming increasingly im·

portant and have been stimulated by the abrogation of the Customs Con-
vention with the Union in 1955 and the substitution of a trade agreement.
The glOss output of manufacturing industries in 1957-58 was £105,096,000,
(1956-57, £87,234,000). The net output in 1957-58 was £43,166,000 (1956-
57, £31>,814,000).
LaiJour. At the census in May 1956 the total of Europeans employed
ill industry in Southern Rhodesia was over 68,000 (1958, 82,500). Africans
in cmployment increased from 610,000 in 1956 to 617,000 in 1958. The
most striking increases in employment in the inter-censal period have been
in commerce, manufacturing industry and as a result, transport. The bulk
of the increase in building and construction occurred in 1955-56 and an even
more rapid expansion is going on. The largest employer of African labour
at the time of the 1956 census was agriculture with 248,000 followed by
lUanufacturing with 80,000 and mining with 60,000.
Workers' conditions of service are protected through an industrial con-
ciliation act. Workmen's compensation insurance in terms of the ·Work·
men's Compensation Act is compulsory throughout the Colony, and every
employer who employs workmen whose earnings do not exceed £125 a
FEDED.ATION OF RHODESIA A..'JD NYASALAND 289
month must cover his workmen by insurance. Labour di~Jlutes are dealt
with through Industrial Councils or Labour Boards.
BANKING. Barclays Bank D.C.O. maintains 28 branches and 44-

agencies in Southern Rhodesia.
Books of Reference
SUTISTICAL INFORMATION. The Central African Statistical Office, P.O. Box 8063,
Causeway, S. Rhodesia, originated in 1927 ... the Southern Rhodesian Government Statistical
Bureau. Teu years later its name was changed to Department of Statistics, and in 1948 it
.....amed Its present title when It took Over responsibility for certain Northern Rhodesian and
S yasaland statL,tics.
The Stalute La,. of Southern Rhotk.ria. 5 vo13. Salisbury, 1939
Official Fear Book of the Southern Rhodesian Oovemmmt. Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia.
1924,1930, 1D32, J952
Kane, N. S., The IVor/d', View: the .tor; Of Southem Rhodesia. London. 1955
Leys, C., European PoliUcs 'in Southern Rhodesia. Oxforu Uuh·, Pre3 ~ , 19r..~
REFERESCE LIBRARY. The Uulawayo National Library, Fort St./Sth Av., Bu!awayo_
Librarian: D. Niven, D.n.E.
NORTHERN RHODESIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. By an Order in Council
dated 4 May 1911 the t.wo provinces of North-eastern and North-western
Rhodesia were amalgamated under the title of Northern Rhodesia, the
amalgamation taking effect as from 17 Aug. 1!l11.
By '!In Order in Council dated 20 Feb. 1!l24 the office of Governor was
created, an executive council const.ituted and provision made for the
institution of a legislative council. This latter council has, since 1!l45, an
unofficial majority. On I April 1!l24 the British South Africa Company
was relieved of the administration of the territory by the Crown.
Proposals for constitutional changes were presented by the N orthem
Rhodesian Government to the Legislative Council in March 1958 and
accepted, with some modification, by the British Government in Dec. 1!l58.
The Legislative Council was, in 195!l, composed of the Speaker and S
official and 22 clected members; 2 seats must be filled by Europeans and
:: by Africans.
The Executive Council is presided over by the Governor and consists of
10 ministers of whom 4 are official and 6 unofficial, the latter including 2
Africans. By an agreement made between the unofficial members and the
Secretary of State for the Colonies in June 1948, and reaffirmed in Apri~
1949, the view of the unofficial memhers in Executive CO\Ulcil carries tho
same weight as the views of unofficial members of the Legislative Council.
Governor. Sir Evelyn Dennison Hone, K.C.M.G., C.V.O., O.R.E.
Chief Secreatry. M. O. Wray, C.M.G., O.B.E.
Commi88ioner ill London. J. H. Wallace, C.M.O. (57 Haymarket, S.W.I).

The territory is divided into 8 provinces, including the Barotseland
Protectorate. Their names, headquarters, area (in sq. miles) and estimated
popUlation are as follows:
L
Province HeadqUArten Area Population

W~sterD Ndola 11,430 57:!,OOO
Lt:apllla Fort Rosebery 19,522 235,700
N(lrthern KasfWla 51,018 392,000
Central Brokeo lIiU 43,300 187,1100
EA ..:.tem Fort Jameson 30,870 3~6,\)OO
Soothern , L!viDg>;tone 38,2~0 2G ~,lIOO
N('rth·Western. . Solwe7.i 48,780 16t1,nOO
BarotselaDd Protectorate Mongu Lealul 44,920 208.200
The seat of government is at Lusaka, on the railway about 30 miles north

of the Kafue River, having been moved from Livingstone, tbe old capital, OD
28 May 1935. The other important centres are Ndola. Luanshya, Mufulira,
Kitwe,Bancroft, Kalulushi and Chingola. on the copper belt; Broken Rill,
the oldest mining to\vnship; Fort Jameson. a tobacco farming area.
The establishment of the Northern Rhodesia Police Force in 1958 was
813 EUIopeaos and 4.130 Africans.
AREA AND POPULATION. Northern Rhodesia has an area of

288.130 sq. miles. and consists for the most part of high plateau country
covered with thin forest. Some of the country is suitable for farming. and
contaim areas carrying good arable and grazing land. The census popula.
tion of Europeans. Asiatics and Coloureds on 8 May 1956 and thtl estimated
African population as in June 1958 were as follows: Europeans, 72,000;
Asiatics. over 6,000; Coloureds, 2,000; Africans. 2,220,000. European
vital statistics, 1958; Births, 2,244; marriages, 591; deaths, 294; infantile
mortality, 48.
In 1!l!'i8, 3.732 European and 267 Asiatic immigrants to the Federation
declared their destination as Northern Rhodesia..
AFRICAN EDUCATION (1958). Of approximately 500,000 African

children of school age 243,fl26 were in aided or maintained primary schools,
and 1,880 in secondary schools. There are also 15 teacher. training schools,
21 tradeg schools and 1.5 schools providing domestic science courses for girls.
Burs~ries are awarded for studen ts to attend higher courses outside the
territory. and 32 such bursaries were ourrent in 1958.
Recurrent expenditure on education during the fiscal year 1958-59 Was
£1,865,120.
FIN ANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) for fiscal years
ending i:O June:
19G4-G6 195G-M 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 ' 1959-60 1
Revenue 14,535,259 17,194.224 19.298,986 19,117,853 15,100,772 15,837,855
ExpenJieure 13,57ti,184 16,654,221 18,504,205 16, 7~6,063 15,000,266 16,170,809
1 Estimates.
The publio debt as at 30 June 1958 Was £30,323,994; of this the l!'ederal
Government was responsible for servioing and repaying £21,33(),619.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Principal agricultural products are

maize (production in 1957-58, by Europeans 543,768 bags. by Africans
55,806 b;tgs of 200 lb.; annual local consumption about I m. bags); tobacco,
Kaffir corn, miUet. cassava and groundnuts. The most important timber is
Rhodesian' redwood' (Baikiaea plurifuga).
Live8tock, 1958: Cattle, 1·07m.; sheep and goats, 145,000; pigs, 53,000.
FEDERATION OF RHODESIA AND NYASAI,AND 291
Mining. The total value of minerals produced during 1958 was
£77,262,866; the most important items being:
Mineral W<.lght Value (£) Mineral Weigbt Value (£)
Gold • ~,673 oz. 4·1.777 Copper (eleet·f a·
Silver 1 . 556,523 0 "[. 17~.1 93 l.vtic) 2,1'1,526 tons 46,6l>9,On
Cobalt (metal) . 20.%0 ewt 1,S7i,12<l Lead I . 13.(1,13 tons 9-19,406
CobBlt(other)·. 121,IGScII't 1,('68,801) Zinc I • 30,2i1u tons 1 ,~94,~~ 1
Copper (blister) . 134,3U9 tons 23,34U,380 LiIu""tonc ·tO~,C)l j t,O llS 353.~5~
Maugao\!se 1 44,595 tODS 575,244
1 Subject to adjustment.
At the Broken Hill mine the cadmium production plant has been com·
pleted. and cadmium in the form of thill cods or ' pencils' of grade 99·98%
metallic cadmium is being prod uced.
Systematic prospecting by the copper mining companies continues in the
copper· belt area. large areas to the north·west and south· west of the copper
belt and an area on the Laupula River. Prospecting activities by individual
prospectors a re carried out on a small sca le only, since a ll hut about 5% of
the Territory is beld by companies under grants of exclusive prospecting
rights.
Power. There are hydro-electrio power.stations at Muhmgushi and
Lunsemf"·a. which serve the Broken Hill mine and township, and at the
Victoria Falls, which serves Livingstone. Progress is being made on the
Kariba hydro-electric project on the Zambezi River.
Labour. There are II European, I Indian and 15 African trade nnioD8.
One of the latter. the Mineworkers Union, has over 25.000 members.
BANKING. Barolays Bank D.C.O. has 15 branches and 7 agencies;
the Standard Bank of South Africa, Ltd, 12 branches and 9 agencies;
National Overseas & Grindlays and Netherlands Bank of South Africa Ltd.
2 bran ches each; tbe Federal post oftlce savings bank, 61 branches.
The Land and Agricultural Bank of Northern Rbodesia. founded in 1953,
and the Northern Rhodesia Industrial Loans Board (financed by the Govern·
ment) assist agriculture and industry by providing loans.
Books of Reference
OK..W,RAL INl'ORHATlON. Tbe Cblel Inlormation Officer, P.O. Box R.W. 20, Lusaka.
LaUl' of Northem Rhodesia. 8 vols. Govt. Printer. Lu<.. k... 1955
N orthern Rhn.u.•iu OD'cia/ RaMi,onk [with full bi1diographyl. Lusaka,195 3
liorthern Rhodesia Pocket Book Guide. Lusnka, 1~5 g
Northern Rhode.ia : R.-pnr' /958. H.M.S.O., 19;'9
Ten ·year D~elop_ Plan f or NortMm Rhodesia. Lusaka, 1949
Davidson. J . W., The Northern Rhode.•i.n Ltgi;!ativ, Council. London, 19·18
Richud., Andrey I., Land, Labour and Diet in Nor/Mm Rhodelia : .An Economic Study 0/
IM Bmwa 2~ib. . Oxford, 1939
Trapnell. O. G .• and others, Vtgetali<>n-s<la Alap of NortMm Rlwdesia. Lusnka, 1949
Wlison. Godlrey, An Ea .•ay t>1I the Economics 0/ DetribaUzation in Norlhtrn Rhodesia. Oxford,
19~1
NYASALAND PROTECTORATE
The Nyasaland (until 1907 British Central Africa) Protectorate, con·
stituted on 15 May 1891 , lies along the southern and western shores of
J..a,ke Nyas8 (the third largest Ia.ke in Africa, sbout 360 miles in length and
from 10 to 50 miles wide). and extends towards the Zambezi. It is admini-
stered under the Colonial Office by the Governor, who is assisted by an
executive and a legislative council. Both consist of official and unofficial

nomim,ted membel'l!, the Governor having the right to veto (Order in
Council of 4 Sept, 1907). The laws consist of local ordinances duly enacted,
with sr:ch British Acts as are of general application.
Governor. Sir Robert Perceval Armitage, K .e .M.G., M.RE.
Chi.if Secretary. G. S, Jones, e.M.G., M.RE.
AREA AND POPULATION. Land area, 36,8;0 sq. miles, divided into
3 provinces, each in charge of a Provincial Commissioner, and 18 districts,
each administered by a District Commissioner. Census population, 1956.
was 6.'700 Europeans. 8,510 Asiatics, 1,200 Coloureds and about 3,25m.
Mricans. The chief settlements are Blantyre-Limbe (declared a muni·
cipality in Oct. 1959) in the Shire Highlands, with about 2,500 Europeans;
Zomba (the seat of government), Cholo, Lilongwe and l\Uanje; on Lake
Nyasa are Salima, Fort Johnston, Kota.Kota, Nkata Bay, Likoma and
Karon~:a.
REUGION. The Roman Catholic Church claims 435,000 adherents;

the Cht.reh of Scotland , 400,000. Moslems are estimated to number between
500,00(' and Im.
EDUCATION. The Federal l\<1inistr.V of Education is responsible for

the primary and secondary education of non·Mricans in Nyasaland.
There are government primary schools for Europeans at Blantyre-Limbe,
Cholo, Lilongwe and Zomba; government. built hostels are attached to the
Blantyre and Lilongwe schools, while a small private hostel accommodates a
number of pupils who attend Cholo school. Grant·aided schools operate at
Limbe IInd Mzuzu. Three government primary schools in Blantyre-Limbe
have day facilities for Asians, and a fourth has day and boarding facilities
for Cok.ured children. Nineteen Government primary schools in other parts
of the (~ountry offer appropriate facilities for Asian and Coloured children.
A secondary school for Europeans in Blantyre, with boarding facilitics
for boys and girls, offers education up to Form IV (1959). There is no
seconds,ry school for Asian and Coloured children in Nyasaland, but qualified
childrcn receive secondary education in other territories, p!1rticularly
Southem Rhodesia. A secondary school to meet the need of Asians and
Coloureds is scheduled to open in Jan. 1961.
African Education. The Education Departmont controls directly 2
secondary schools, I teacher· training college, 1 artisan training centre and 11
primary schools. The rest of the educational system is managed by
voluntary agencies. These are principally the Christian Missions, but 144
primary schools are managed by native authorities, local communities,
estates, commercial enterprises and the Moslem community. Both central
and 100111 government assist many of the voluntary agency schools by means
of grants.in.aid as well as inspection by government officers. The total
actual expenditure by the Government on African education in the financial
year 191)7-58 was £909,131; in addition,local authorities provided expendi.
ture of .£36,220. Voluntary organizations spent £266,633 on education.
Of the 2,887 junior primary schools functioning during 1957-68, () were
govemnent schools with a. t<ltal enrolment of 1,695 and 121 were loca.l-
authorit;y schools with a. total enrolment of 17,041 pupils; teach~rs at both
types or school totalled 352; 649 were aided junior primary schools with
2,4.17 teachers and It. total enrolment of 107,143, and 2,108 unaided junior
primary schools with 2,8fil teachers and an enrolment of 124,446.
There were 210 seni or primary schools, of which 2 w ere government
schools with 255 pupils and 23 were local-authority schools with 2,473
pupils; teachers at both types of school totalled 66; 166 were aided volun-
tary agency schools with 407 teachers and 15,586 pupils and 19 were unaided
voluntary agency schools with 33 teachers and 1,054 pupils.
There were \0 aided and 3 unaided junior secondary schools. Enrolment
at the aided school:i was 616 and at the unaided school 152. The staff of
the aided schools comprised 2() teachers, while at the unassisted schools
there were 14 te'tchers. There were 5 full secondary schools, of which 2
were government schools with 15 teachers and a total roll of 167. The other
2 wore financed by the Government, except for their fees revenue, and
managed by Boards of Governors on which the Government was represented.
They had 14 teachers and a total enrolment of 234.
Two aided junior trade schools had nn onrolment of 201; the artisan
training centre had 9 teacher3 and 130 pupils.
One government teacher· training centre, 10 aided and 2 unaided centres
had a total enrolment of 94.6.
JUSTICE. Justice is ndministered in the High Court, which hlls juris.
diction in civil and criminal mnttp,:,s and also as 0. Court of Admiralty. Sub·
ordinate courts are held by magistr:ttes in the various districts. Appeals
from decisions of the High Court are heard by the Federal Supreme Court.
FINANCE. The financial year runs from 1 July to 30 June.
195 5-56 1 ~ 5 6-57 ]957-~8 1958-:; 9 1959-60 1
Revenue ~ccoun'
Revenue . 5,173,OJ6 6,270,58.:l 5,450,RI9 5,36 3,277 5,452,711
Expenditure • 6,026,459 6,003,744 ~,311,455 {),560,2i3 6,139,964
DevewpmenJ Accoum
1..08.0 expenditure. 406,568 9-14,303
Expellditure from De-
velopment fund' 2,713,870 2,:; 83,200 2,966,-147
1 Estimates. • Includes some development expenditnre up to end 01 1966-5i.
• Devalopment Fund, which includes loan fWlds, ,va. eotabUsbed as from 1957-58.
i\Iain revenue items in 1959-60 are: Taxos and licences, £3,6IG,310

(including £2,046,000 from .Federal income tnx); interest, £173,860; forestry,
£51,200; rents, £125,900; reimbursements from and services rendered to
Federal Government, £766,09 9.
Main expenditure items 1959-60 are : Contribution to Development
Fund, £200,000; natural resources, £783,806; African education, £755,447;
police, £607,839; public dcbt, £651,174; public works, £874,465; pensions,
£250,350; provincial and w8trict admini,tratioll, £386,484.
Public debt, 30 June l!}G(), £5·47m., of which £3·47m. is the responsibility
of the Federal Government.
PRODUCTION. With the exception~ of sugar and wheaten flour, the
country is normally self-supporting in alt agricultural products, and groat
etJorts have been made to stimulate the production of food and eeonomio
crops for export.
Electric light and power plants have been installed at Zomba, Blantyre-
Limbe and Lilongwe.
Tobacco forms a large proportion of the total exports. Tea cultivation
is centred round 1I1lanje and Cholo; acreage in 1956 was 26,186 acres.
Lil'estock in 1957: Cattle, 327,629; goats,360,808; sheep, 57,719;

pig" S9,125.
COMMUNICATIONS. There is a Marine Transport Department on
Lake Nynsa, operated by Nyasaland Railways, Ltd. Lake transport
registered in Nyasaland consists of 2 motor vessels, 4 steamers and about
60 dhe.ws and lighters.
BANKING. At D1antyre, Zomba and other centres there are branches
of the Standard Bank of South Africa and at B1antyre-Limbe and Lilongwe
there m c branches of Barclays Bank D.C.O.
Books of Reference
GlIliXRAL lNFOIUlATlON. Federal Information Office, P .O. Box 80, Zomi>a.
Statistiell Handbook Of Nyasaland. Central African Statistical Ollice. 1952
NvaaaJand Development PrOtJramm~. Zomba, 1948
Censu.o 8epo,", 1911, 1921 and 1945
Annual Report. 1958. H.M.S.O.• 1959
Debenham, ~'., NyaaaJand. H .M.S.O., 1956
Mair, L. P., Nali •• Administration in C.ntral NlIasaland. H.M.S.O., 1952
Sandecs,m, G. M., A Dictionary of the Yao LangUfV)e. Zomha
Scott, L 0 ., Dictionary Of the Nyanja LangUfV)" Ed. A. Hetberwick. London, J n9
Wright, F. 0 ., African Consume" in Nyaaalantl and Tanganyika. H.M.S.O., 195;
GHANA
THII S';ate of Ghana came into existence on 6 March 1957 when the former
Colony of the Gold Coast and the Trusteeship Territory of Togoland attained
Dominion status. The name of the country recalls a powerful monarchy
which from the 4th to the 13th century A.D. ruled the region of the middle
Niger.
Th" Ghana Independence Act received the Royal assent on 7 Feb. 1957.
The General Assembly of the United Nations in Dec. 1956 approved the
termination of British administration in Togoland and the union of Togoland
with the Gold Coast on the latter's attainment of independence.
On 23 Nov. 1958 the Prime Ministers of Ghana and Guinea. declared
their agreement to constitute the two countries as the nucleus of a union
of We,t African states.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of Ghana
provid.~s for a Parliament, consisting of H.M. the Queen and the National
Assembly. The National Assembly consists of 104 members elected by
direct dection and representing 7 municipal and 97 rural electoral districts.
Furhter districts, up to a total of 130, may be created.
Th(, executive power i~ vested in the Governor·General representing the
Queen, and a cabinet of at least 8 members collectively responsible to
Parliament.
ThE. results of the general election held in July 1956 were as follow8:
Convention People's Party, 71; Northern People's Party, 15; National
Liberal;ion Movement, 12; Togoland Congress, 2; Moslem Association
Party, 1; Wassaw Youth Organization, 1; Independents, 2. In Oct. 1!.l5 7
the opposition parties combined in the United Party. Status of parties in
J·an. l!.l60: Convention People's Party, 85; Unit.ed Party, 17; independent,!.
Governor-General and C.·in·C. The Right Hon. the Earl of Listowel,
G.C.M.G. (appointed 24 June, 1957).
GHANA 295
Prime .Minister, Minister of Dejence. Dr Kwame Nkrulllah.
Fina,nce. K. A. Gbedcrnah. Economic Affairs. Kojo Botsio. Health
and Social Welfare. ImOrtl EgaIJ.. Local Government. A. E. A. Ofori·Atta.
Interior. A. E. Inkulllsah. Forei,}n A/J,,·i·rs. Ako Adjei. Transport and
Cmnmunicat,:ons. Kroho Edusei. l!.'duwtion and information. Kofi
Baako. Works and llousing. E. K. Bensah. Pood and Agriculture.
R. Y. Asare. Tmde. P. K. K. Q,uaidoo. "lIinisters oj State: J. H.
Allassani (Guinea Affairs), N. A. Welbee!:, C. T. Nylander.
RECloNAL ORfJANIZA1·ION. Ghana iB uivided into 6 regions: Eftstern,
Western, Ashll.nti, Nortilern, Volta and Brong.Ahafo. The sixth Region,
Brong·Ahafo, was created by an Act of Parliament on 4 April 1959.
Each R£lgion, except the Ashanti Region, has a President chosen annually
by the House of Chiefs. The Asantehene is the permanent President of the
Ashanti Region House of Chiefs. The House of Chiefs advises the Govern·
ment on any matter referred to it by a Minister or the National Assembly,
a.nd gives its opinion on the customary law in the area of its authority.
Regional Assemblies \\'ore dissolved by the Constitution (Amendment)
Act, 1959.
Country Ghana representative Foreign representative
Australia 1 Stewart Jamieson
Canada ' . Bruce M. WiIIiams
Ceylon 1 . A. I. H. Wahab
Ethiopia 2 M. A. Ribeiro Goy tom Petros
France 2 • J. E. Jantuah L. de Guiringaud
Germany 2 Theodore Asare Karl Stein
Guinea 4 ,T. H . AIIassani Abdoulaye DiaIlo
India 1 Na.na Kwabena. Keaa II Khub Chand
Israel Z Bediako Poku E. Avriel
Italy Z Dr Di San Michele
Japan W. Baidoc·Ansah Noboyuki Okuma
Lebanon 3 Emir Farid Shahab
Liberia 2 . Kwa.bena Kessie WiImot A. David
Netherlands 2 Louis Noe
Pakistan 1 Mahmud Ahmad
Sudan 2 • Carl S. Dev
Tunisia 2. Dr J. E. Bo~small
U.S.S.R.2 J. B. EIliot Mikhail D. Sytenko
United Arab
Republic 2 J. B. Erzuah Nabih libdel Hamid
U.K.' Eclward Okyero Asafu.Adjaye A. W. Snelling, C.M.C.
U.S.A.2 W. :M. Q. Halm Wilson C. Flake
Yugoslavia S. W. Kumah Aleksander Bozovic 5
1 IIigh C<>mmi:;sioncr. , Ambassa<ior. ' Minister.
• HC3ident Minister. • Chars~ d'J.ffaircs.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of Ghana is 92,100 sq. miles;

population (census, 1948), 4,118,450, including 6,770 non.Africans. Esti·
mated population, mid.1959, 4,911,000. The capital is Acera (population,
1948, 135,926).
The country is administratively divided into the following regions (see
M~p in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1(58):
296 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIltE

Regions (sq. miles) 1948 Capital 1948
E.stern Region 8,750 890.370 Koloridoa 17,816
WcstRrD Region 13,150 862,988 Cape Coast 23.346
Ashnnt!. 9.700 581,342 Kumasi 78.483
Nortberl Region 37.600 1,036,603 Tamale 16,164
Volt> HogioD 8.000 501,048 Ho 5,852
Brong·Aba(o 14,900 246,092 Sunyan! 4,570
Other chief towns (population, census, 1948): Sekondi· Takoradi, 44,557 ;
Obuasi,15,876; Winneba, 15,171; Keta,11,380; Swedru (Agona), 10,913;
Aboso, 10,009.
EDUCATION. In 1958-59 there were the University College of
Ghana. the Kumasi College of Technology, 30 teacher· training colleges (4
go>crnment, 26 assisted, 63 secondary schools (39 government and approved,
24 pri,'ate), 46 technical and trade schools (8 government, 38 private).
Of the 1,287 middle schooL~, 1.030 were approved and 257 private. Of
the 3,(J34 primary schools, 3,402 were approved and 232 private.
Enrolment (1958-59) was 401 men and 23 women in the University
Colleg€., 479 men and 57 women in the Kumasi College of'l'echno!ogy, 2,851
men and 1,204 women in the teacher.training colleges, 8,430 boys and 1,993
girls in government, approved and autonomous secondary schools, 2,394
boys and 379 girls in privat~ secondary schools, 507 pupils in government
trade flchools, 584 men and 102 women full·time and 1,557 men and 75
women part· time in the government teohnical institut.es. There were
309,29'7 boys and 161,723 girls in the primary schools and 104,329 boys and
35,472 girls in the middle 5chools.
Expenditure on education (both recurrent and development) by the
Ministly of Education in 1957-58 was £6·7m. recurrent and £2·2m. develop.
ment.
JUSTICE. !The Judicial Service Commission was abolished by t.he
Constit.ution Amendment Act, 1959. Two justices of appeal together with
the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as chairman constitute the Ghana.
Court (lf Appeal. Appeals from the Supreme Court lie to the Ghana Court
of Appeal, and from the Ghana Court of Appeal to the Judicial Committee
of the Privy Council.
POI.ICE. The establishment of the force was (1959) 128 police officers,
1 pay· and quartermaster, 1 director of music, 238 inspectors and sub·
inspectors and 6.376 other ranks, distributed over 188 stations.
Convictions (1958), 36.313 persons, excluding 39,715 persons convicted
summarily for motor. traffic offences.
WELFARE. Acera and Eastern Regions. There are 10 government
hospitals, 1 mission hospital, 4 hospitals run by other organizations and 4
health centres. Seven clinics are run by missions and 7 dispensaries and
dressin~ stations by loc0.1 authorities.
Vol'.a Region. There are 3 government hospitals at Keta, Ho and Hohoe

and 2 mission hospitals at Adidome and Worawora. There are 3 govern·
lUent t .e alth centres, 1 dispensary and 2 mission dressing stations. The
Roman Catholic Mission has a child welfare elinic at Dzodzc. Thirty
dispensaries and dressing stations are run by local authorities.
Wedem Region. There are 9 government hospitals, 1 mission hospital
at Asankragwa and 6 mines hospitals. There is a hospital at Samreboi rUIl
by the African Timber and Plywood Co., Ltd. The government maintains
GHANA 297
3 health centres and 5 dispensaries and dressing stations; there are 4 mission
clinics; 20 dispensaries and dressing stations are run by loea.! authorities.
AsMnti. There are 2 govemment hospitals, 3 mission hospitals, 2
mining hospitals, I other hospital, 2 government hea.\th centres and a govern.
ment dispensary. Thirty.nine dispensaries and dressing stations are run
by local authorit.ies.
Brong.Ahafo. There is a government hospital, 1) mission hospitals, 2
government health centres and 6 dispellsaried a nd dressing stations run by
local authorities.
NortMrn Region. There M'e 6 government hospitals and 5 mission
ho~pitals, 5 government health centrcs, 3 government dispensaries and an
infant welfare clinic. Four clinics are rUII by missions and 46 dispensaries
and dressing stations by local auLiJOl'ities.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (excluding Ghana Railway and
Takol'adi Harbour accounts), ill £lm. sterling (for years ending 30 June) :
19",-56 ' 1956-57 1957-58 1958-69 195'-60
lle.-enue 64·1 ~2 ' 5 48·0 5:)'8 G3'4
E"penditure 62·2 43·S 47·2 49'7 62·9
1 Cove", the period April 195;;-Juuc 1956. • Estimates.
Up to March 1957 nil receipts on cocoa duty were paid Into the Com;olidated Fund, and
6ubstqucnt pa)'Ulents into the Develollmcnt Punds were made out of the Consolidated Fund.
As (rom M:lrch ) ~;;7. only the lixst £60 on coco~ duty pcr ton go into the Cou..olidated Fuud,
and all duty collected aoove that level is paid directly Into the Development Fund.
The main items of revenue envisaged for 1959-60 werc: Indirect taxa.
tion, £3Z·4m.; direct taxation, £7·4m. ; receipts and earnings, £V·8m.;
interest and loan repayments, £2·2m.; special rcceipts, £2·7m.
For 1958-59 expenditurc was classified as follows: ltevenue.producing
services, £3·9m.; agriculture, industry and trade, £6·3rn.; social services,
£U·Sm. ; law 3.nd order, £5·7m.; fiscal scrvices, £O-6m.; administrative and
general services, £21·4m.
P.ublic Debt. On 30 June 1959 the total public debt was £20m., of which
the external debt was £3·2rn. and the internal debt £16·8m. Total sinking
fund stood at £3·2m.
DEFENCE. Two new inshore minesweepers, ilIalham and Oltringltam,
were acquired from Great Britain in 1959.
PRODUCTION. Agricult1tre. Cocoa is by far the most important crop
and covers ahout 4·5m. acres. There has been a good improvement in
cocoa yields as a result of the Capsid spraying work and with the large
expansion of t.he Capsid control spraying scheme cocoa production is ex·
pccted to riae. Coffee, improved types of oil palm and coconut are being
planted on an increased scale and production from the~e crops is increasing.
A start has been made in the pl anting of Clonal rubbcr in south.west Ght1na.
Of the main foodstuffs in Bouth and central Ghana, maize, rice, cassava,
plantain, groundnuts, yam and cocoyam predominate. Tobacco is proving
an attractive and very important cash crop in food crop producing a reas.
In northern Ghana the chief food crops are groundnuts, rice, ma ize,
guinea com, millet and yams, with tobacco as an important cash crop.
Land planning in northern Ghana has been extended to cover 1,240 sq.
miles, and sOllle 3,000 farmer$ have adopted mixcd farming methods using
bullocks and ploughs.
The Division of Agriculture maintains 40 agricultural stations, 20 of

which deal mainly with cocoa.
For'!8try. The total area of closed forest is 31,760 sq. miles, of which
5,851 8'1. miles are reserved. The area of savannah (not closed) forests is
60,283 sq. miles, of which 2,496 sq. miles are reserved. Exports (1958) of
logs, 2,',028,200 Cll. ft ; of sawn timber, 7,819,500 Cll. ft, and of plywood
and veneers, 159,674 eu. ft.
Animal lIeaUh. Livestock, 1959: Cattle, 480,000; sheep, 500,000;
goats, i'OO,OOO; hor$es, 6,500; pigs, 49,000; poultry 2·6m. The Central
Veterina.ry Laboratory ia located at Pong.Tamale under the Veterinary
Resean,h Officer. The efficient control of rinderpest and bovine pleuro-
pneum(,nia, the two main killing diseases of cattle, has made it possible to
quadru;)le the cattle in the past 20 years. The control of imported livestock
is effected by 8 quarantine stations along the frontier.
Fisherie8. The Fisheries Division is now a branch of the Di-vision of
Agricul ture within the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. The headquarters
of the ])ivision are in Accra (Osu).
On ,;he coast the principal funct-ion of the Division is the mechanization
of the whole fishery industry. The number of motor fishing vessels opera·
ting by the end of 1959 was 165.
Min ing. In 1958 Ghana produced 852,834 fine oz. of gold.
COMMERCE. Total trade, in £ sterling, for calendar years :
1955 1906 19. 7 1958
Imports . 87,867,936 83,919,719 96,684,9H 84,602,442
Exports . 95,661,391 86,599,313 1"11,601,753 104,557,310
The principal markets for exports in 1958 were the U.K. (36·2%), U.S.A.
(19·2%\ Western Germany (16'1%), Netherlands (9'7%).
Principal e:<ports (in £) 1955 1956 1957 1958
Cocoa 65,558,937 51,062,516 5C>,Sn,407 02,318,017
Gold 9,048,535 7,488,781 9,793,511 10,601,676
Mangau... e . 5,192,232 7,043,796 8,990,049 8,635,859
Timber, I )g5, etc. 8,126,019 9,514,300 10,221,334 11 ,287,617
Diamond:; . 5,r,29,624 7,920,446 8,979,359 8,661,512
Palm kene1s . 338,922 525.537 276,275 335,174
Bauxite . 204,000 331,200 451,910 495,803
In 1958 impol-ts of non· durable consumers' goods amounted to 44'9%

of total imports; the most illlPortant commodities were textiles, food, drink
and tobacco. Imports of durable producers' goods amounted to 24'5% of
the tota.l; important commodities were cement, roofing materials, com·
mercial vehicles and industrial machinery. Fuels and lubricants, mainly
petrolerlm produets, amounted to 6·6% of tota.l imports.
Agricultural exports in 1958 were as follows : Cocoa and cocoa products,
199,501 tons; palm kernel, 7,948 tons ; copra, 3,083 tOilS; lime juice,
230,273 gallons; bananas, 33,519 cwt; rubber, 433 tons; coffee, 471 tons ;
kola nu';s, 6,226 tons ; flue and air cured tobacco, 738,000 11>. (estimated
production, 1959, over 1·5m. lb.).
Total trade (in £ sterling) between Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast and
Togoland ) and the U.K. (British Board of Trade returns):
1965 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 28,928,576 16,921,889 19,581,604 23170,898 21,206,226
Bxports from U.K. . 39,138,364 38,824,773 37,917,811 34,317,018 41,738,550
Re·exporl .. from U. Ko 373,742 403,645 496,UU 500,655 830,537
GHANA 299
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. The total railway mile:lge open to
traffic on 3l Dec., 1958 was 591, inclading a link of 51 miles between the
Central Province line at Achiasi and the Accra-Kumasi line at K otoku
opened in Feb. 1956; the track mileage was 767. The main line runs from
Takoradi to Kumasi, thence to Accm (355 miles); with branches: Takoradi
Junction-Sekondi (3 miles), Tarkwa-Prestea (19 miles), Abos~Adjah Bippo
(2t miles), Hunni Valley-Kade (99 miles, Central lino), Dunkwa-Awaso
(46 miles), Achimota-Tema (16 miles) and Achiasi-Kotoku (50! milos). The
main lino and branches arc 3 ft 6 in. gauge. During 1958, 5,189,427 pas·
sengers and 1,8·16,195 tons of freight were carried.
Roads. The total mileage of trunk and secondary motorable road is
8,000 miles, of which approximately 1,360 miles are bitumen surfaced.
There are also some 5,000 miles of local roads of unspecified standard.
The number of vehicles with valid licences at 3l Dec. 1958 was 36,696.
The principal categories were: Cars, 15,546 (includi.ng 2,123 to-xis); goods
ohicles, 13,205; motor cycles, 2,123; special.1}ul'oose vehicles, 2,317.
Post. There were (31 March 1959) 2,227 miles of telegraph land wire,
19,426 miles of telephone trunks, 139 post offices and 521 postal agencies.
There were 301 telephone exchanges and 462 call offices with 19,647 tele·
phones in use and 26,261 miles of underground and overhead land wire in
the exchange areas. The t elepbone trunk system connects up all the main
towns. There R.re internal wireless stations at Accra, Kumasi, Bawku,
Lawra, K et.e.Krachi, Tamale, Yelldi, Kpandu and Tumu.
Shipping. The chief port is Takol'adi; there are smaller' surf' ports at
Accm, Winneba, Cape Coast and Keta. A new harbour is under construction
a t Toma, 17 miles east of Accrn.. During 1958, 2,078 vessels totalling
6,076,798 NRT arrived at Ghana ports and unloaded 1,396,613 tons of cargo.
In the same year 2,079 vessels of 6,077,313 NRT left Ghana ports, having
loaded 1,6IG,919 tons. More than three·fifths of them used Takoradi.
Total revenue from harbour and port services for the year ended 30 June
1958 was £1,299,537; total expenditure, including interest and sinking
fund, was £1,039,554.
Aviation. There are 4 aerodromes in Ghana, situated at Accra,
Takoradi, KUllJasi and Tamale. Accrn airport is an international airport
and is the terminus for the B.O.A.C. trunk route and Hunting Clan/Airwork
Safari Tourist services from the U.K. Other airlines using Accra are Pan
American 'World Airways, uperating between New York and Johannesburg;
Air France and Union Aeromaritime, operating from French West Africa;
Air Liban, operating between Beirut and AceTa; Nigerian Airways, operating
between Nigeria and other West African t erritories; Iberia on its service
Madrid-Bata.
Ghana Airways, operating domestic, regional and international services,
was incorporated ill Accra 011 4 July 1958. Of its nominal capital of
£400,000 the Government of Ghana has subscribed £240,000 and B.O.A .C.
associated companies £160,000. Aircraft chartered from B.O.A.C. are em·
ployed on the international services.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The currency ill circulation is the

Ghana pound. issued by the Bank of Ghana and in circulation ~i ll ce 14 July
1958. F or the time being the West African currency issued by the West
African Currency Board in London on behalf of the 4 British West African
territories is also legal tender. It consists of notes of lOOs., 20s. and 10s.;
yellow metal alloy coins of 28., Is. and 6d.; nickel coins of 3d., Id., td. and
-!od. The Ghana nnd 'Vest Africnn currencies nre interchangeable with
sterling at par.
The estimated currency outstanding a.t 30 June 1958 was £26m., con·
sisting (If £18·2m. in notes and £7·8m. in coins.
At 3t Ma.rch 1959 the post offices savings bank had 571,905 depositors
with £5m. to their credit.
The Bank of Ghana was est.ablished in Feb. 1957 as the centrlLl b3.nk of
the country. The Ghana Commercial Bank, also established in Feb. 1957,
is the furmcr Bank of the Gold Coast. It is a purely commercial institution
and has branches in Accra, Kumu,gj and Takoradi. There arc 2 more corn·
mercial banks operating throughout the country, Barclays Bnnk D.C.O. (53
branches and agencies) and the Bank of West Africa Co. (26 branches).
Books of Reference
TIu! PToprsed COllstilution o/Ghana. (Cmnd 71.) n.M .S.O., 1057
Econnmic Survey, 1957. Accra, 1958
Digesl 0/ ;lIatistics. Accra. Qua.rterly (from Ma.y 105S)
Directory 0/ Ghana. London, 1959
The Voila Rit'er Project. 3 l'ols. HJJ.S.O., 1956
Boatcng. E. A.., A Geographv of Ghana. Cambridge Univ. Press, 19:)9
Bourret, 1'. M., 1'he Gold Coast, 1919-61. 2nd cd. Oxford Univ. Press, 1952
Goody, J . R., The Social Organisation 0/ the LoWilli. H.M.S.O., 1956
-Lystod. F. A., Tilt Ashanti. Rtlt~ers Uuiv. Press, lDGS
Nkrumah, K., Ghana, London, 1957
Rat.tray, ft. S., A.hunti. London, 1924.-Ashanti La", and Constitution. LondoD, 192V.-
2'Iu! T"b" 0/ the Ashanti Hinterland. Oxford, In~
Ward, W. E. F., ..i Hislorv of Ghana. LondoD, 1959
'Western, 0" Obesela, or Enl}lislt-E1cc lJictionary. 2nd cd. Rerlin, 1922
BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA

TUE 3 Territories in southern Africa which are not part of the Union,
Basutoland, the Bechuanaland Protectorate and Swaziland, are adminis·
tered, under general direction and control from the Commonwealth Relations
Office iD London, by a High Commissioner appointed by the Queen. The
High Commissioner also holds the office of High Commissioner for the U.K.
in the Union of South Africa. He is the sole legislative authority for these
Territor';es, and is in lUuch the same position as a Colonial Governor, but
responsible to the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations. The
day.to.day go\'erument of the Territories under the High Commissioner is
conduculd by 3 Resident Commissioners. The Territories are gonerally
r eferred to as the High Commission Territories in South Africa.
An appeal court for the Territories was established in Maseru on 1 :May
1955.
All a Territories are members of the South African customs union
Nystom, by agreement dated 29 Juno 1910.
Total trade (in £ sterling) of the 3 Territories with the U.K. (British
Board of Trade returns):
1938 1906 1957 1958 19;;9
Impom to U.K. l.R62 1,255.684 1,011,313 1,160,28;; 1,.\45,G4-\
Expom flom U.K •. 47,361 131,236 115,630 182,272 473,8t1Z
Re'cxpol'h from U.K. 96 306 412 303 2,200
BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 301
High Cwnmissioner. Sir John Maud, G.C.B., C.B.E.
Deputy High Commissioner. T. V. Scrivenor, C.M.G.
IIaUe.v, Lord, NaJ.iv~ .J.dminis/ration in the ~!rir:an Terr-ilorie&. Part V: Baluloland,
B«huaTUlland, Swaziland. IT.M.S.D., 1953
SymoD t Sir Alexander, lleporl on t/le liiqh Commission Terrilorie3. (Cmd.0580.) IT.M.S.O.
19,,5
BASUTOLAND
AREA AND POPULATION. Basutoland is bounded on the west by
the Orange Free State, on the north by the Orange Free State and Natal, on
the east by Natal and East Griqualand, and on the south by the Cape
Province. The altitude varies from 5,000 to 11,000 ft. The climate is
dry and rigorous, with extremes of heat and cold both seasonal and diurnal.
The temperature varies from a maximum of 93" F. to a minimum of 11 0 F.
The rainfall is capricious, the average being about 30 in. per annum.
The area is 11,716 sq. miles. Basutoland is a purely native territory,
and the few European residents are government officials, traders, mission·
a.ries o.nd artiso.ns. The census to.ken on 8 April showed a total population
of 641,674 persons (271,851 males, 369,823 females), composed of 638,857
Africans, 1,926 Europeans, 247 Asiatics and G44 of mixed race.
GOVERNMENT. Basutoland first received the protection of Britain
in 1868 at the request of Moshesh, the first paramount chief. In 1871 the
territory was o.nnexed to the Cape Colony, but in 1884 it was restored to
the direct control of the British Government through the High Com-
missioner for South Africa. The country is now governed by a Resident
Commissioner under the direction of the High Commissioner for Basutoland,
the Bechuanaland Protectorate and Swaziland. For administrative pur-
poses the country is divided into 9 districts under District Commissioners
as follows: Maseru, Qacha's Nek, Mokhotlong, Leribe, Butha Buthe,
Teyateyaneng, Mafeteng, Mohales Hock, Quthing. Each of the districts is
sub·divided into wards, most of which are presided over by heredit.ary chiefs
allied to the Moshesh family, who are responsible to the paramount chief in
all ml1tters rell1ting to native .law and custom. The Paramount Chief is
Constantine Bereng Seeiso, the son ofMa'Bereng (second wife of the late Para-
mount Chief Seeiso Griffith), for whom Ma'Ntsebo (the late Paramount
Chief's principal wife) acted as regent until Feb. 1960.
CONSTITUTION. On 21 Sept. 1959 the Queen-in-Council approved
ct new constitution for the territory. This sets up a National Council of
80 members, with power to legislate for all persons in Basutoland on all
matters except those reserved for the High Commissioner, such as defence,
external affo.irs, internal security and the public service. The Executive
Council is advisory to the High Commissioner and the Paramount Chief;
it consists of 4 ex-officio officials (with the Resident Commissioner as chair-
man) and 4 unofficial members (1 nominated by the Paramount Chief, 3
chosen by the National Council).
The National Council consists of 40 members elected by district councils,
22 chiefs ex officio, 14 nominated by the Paramount Chief and 4 senior officials.
The College of Chiefs settles the recognition and succession of Chiefs and
adjudicates cases of inefficiency, criminality and absenteeism among them.
District councils were established in each district in 1944.
EDUCATION. African education is largely in the hands of the three
main missions (Paris Evangelical, Roman Catholio and English Church),
under the direction of the Education Department. The total expenditure

on all A:'rican schools in 1958 was £245,972. There are 1,062 schools and
inRtitutions in the territory, most of which are under mission control.
The total enrolment ill primary schools was 119,312. In secondary schools
the enro :ment is 1,326; in teacher· training schools, 514; in technical train-
ing schools, 174; and 913 girls are attending housecraft or spinning and
weaving schools. Post.secondary education is provided by the Pius XII
Catholic College at Roma with, in 1958, 109 students. All primary educa-
tion is free; bursaries are provided at all stages for secondary, teacher
training and University work. Basutoland used to send students to the
University of Fort Hare, where 3 Basuto were studying in 1958.
POL:!CE. The police force on 31 Dec. 1958 numbered 12 oakers and

419 other ranks.
HEA L TH. The government medical staff of the territory consists of

19 medical officers, I medical officer of health and I assistant medical officer.
There is also a superintendent at the leper settlement. There are 4 govern·
ment hO!lpitals staffed by European nursing sisters with subordinate African
staff and 5 hospitals staffed by trained African nurses with 8U bordinate staff.
There is !l.ccommodation for 485 patients in government hospitals. The llew
200-bed Queen Elizabeth 11 hospital in Maseru was completed in 1957.
There ale 4 misRion hospitals subsidize<l by the Government with together
289 bed". Health centres and mountain dispensaries provide outpatient
medical facilities and maternity services to people living in remote areas.
During l958, 12,210 patients were admitted to government hospitals and
6,073 to mission hospitals. The leper settlement 4 miles out of Maseru had
266 patinnts at the end of 1958.
The :Jrincipal diseases are venereal diseases, chronio rheumatism, mal·
nutritioL, infections of the respiratory tract and dyspepsia. The heaviest
toll of lives in children is due to tuberculosis, malnutrition, diphtheria,
whooping cough and gastro-enteritis. The incidence of nutritional and
deficiency diseases is comparatively high and is allied to maize being the
8taple food. Typhus, plague and smallpox occur only rarely.
FINANCE. Revenue is derived mainly from native tal: and customs

and exci"" duties. Other major sources of revenue are posts and telegraphs,
income tax. wool and mohair export duty. Under the native tax law every
adult mde pays 34s. bMic plus a graded tax for higher employees and large
cattle-owners. and if he has more than one wife he pays 258. per annum for
each addit.ional wife up to a maximum of 90s. tax in all. Ba.~llto tax receipts
for 19:;7·-58 amonnted to £32:;,483. Income-tax is levied on the lines of the
Union of South Africa. The revenue from customs during 1957-58
amounted to £708,007. The financial year is from 1 April to 31 March.
Rurlget I (in £) 19~5-S6 In56- 57 1957-58 1968-fi9' 19.. 9-60'
Revenue • 1.460.871 1,389,828 1,770.164 1,637,,00 1.76Z.6~0
Expenditure. 1.62;.431 1.451.021 1,787,026 1,821,03:; 1,966,i33
I lllcludlng ColOnial Development and Wellare Fund grants. • Estimates.
PROOUCTION. The chief crops Me wheat, maize and sorghum;

barley. cats. heans, peas and other vegetables are al~o grown.
Soil ('onservation and the improvement of crops and pasture are matters
of vital importance. A total area of 1,006,817 acres has been protected
against soil erosion by means of terracing, training banks and grass strips.
Efforts arc being made to secure the general introduction of rotational
grazing in the mountain area.
Livestock (1958): Cattle, 3G::?897; horses, 81,115; donkeys, 49,098;
sheep,I,Z:ll,GG9; goats,505,Oti2; lllules,3,7fi::!.
The possibilitics of industrial dcvelopment a·re being investigated.
Diamond prospecting is continuing tUld results are promising.
COMMERCE. Total values ofi mports and exports (in £ sterling) :

1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1%8
Imports 2,;>91,126 2,612,007 3,2(J2,337 2,9 36,509 3,012,954 2,947,274
Exports 2,384,725 l,D30.486 1,796,302 1,943.616 2,038, 216 1,343,157
Principal imports are blankets, ploughs, clothing, tin ware and other
native requirements, and principal exports in 1958 were wool (6,289,004 lb.,
£608,1(0), moh"ir (991,D99 lb., £223,117), whe"t and wheat meal (54,161
bags, £:37,743), heans and peas (51,510 hags, £139,749).
COMMUNICA TIONS, A railway built by the South African Railways,

16 miles, connects Maseru with the Bloemfontein-Natal line at Marseilles
station. There are 560 miles of gravel.surfaced main roads along the
western border of Basutoland, with outlets to the border ports of exit,
Regular motur services of the South African Railways operate between
Za8tron (O.F.S.) /tnd Qllthing, Zltstron (O.F.S.) and lI10halc's Hoek, and
between Fouricsburg (O.F.8.) and Butha Buthe. In addition to the main
roads there are 341 miles of by.roads leading to trading stations and missions.
Communications into the moullt/tinou9 interior are by means of bridlepaths
suitable only for riding and pack animals, but a mountain road of 74 miles
is under construction, and some part.s are accessible by air transport, which
is being used increasingly. There are a numbcr of airstrips for light aircraft.
There \vere 1,000 telephones on 1 Jan. 1958.
CURRENCY. Tbe eurrencv iA the ,ame :<8 in the Union of South Africa,
Barclays Bank D.e.O. has a branch at 1\lasel'u.
ResidentCommissioncr, A. G. T. Chaplin, C.M.G. (appointed Sept. 1(56).
Books of Reference
Annual Report, 1%8. H.M.f'.O., 1~:;9
.An EClI/nf}ical SU'ft'ey nf Ba.wloland. London, H)~8
Ba.tutnlalld: dQricultural Surre,II 1!.J.I9- 50. Maseru, 1952
Geological Ilrrnrt 011 Basut(jland. Maseru, 1947
Ashton, H., TM Rasuto. O.U.P., 1~:i2
D!lt.ton, Maj. E. A. T., The llasufo of Basutolol1d. Lonrlon, 1924
Sheddick, V., Land Tfmure in Hasutnlalld. H.M.R.O., 1954
Tj'lden, G .• The /{ise of th e [Jasulo. Cape Town, 1950
Webb, R. S., Gazellcer jor Basutoland. Pand, lQ50
BECHUANALAND PROTECTORATE
AREA AND POPULATION. The Bechuanaland Protectora.te com·
priRes the territury lying between the Molopo River on the south and the
Zaru bezi on the north, and extending frrom tho Transvaal Province and
Southern Rhodesia on the east to South. West Africa on the west. The
climate is on the whole sub· tropical And the atmosphere throughout the year
304 THE BRITISH COMr.lONWEALTH AND E11PlRE
is very dry. Area about 275,000 sq. miles; population, according to the
census 'If 1956: Europeans, 3,173; Asians, 248; Coloured, 676; Africans,
(19'16) ~:92,755. The most important tribes are the Bamangwato (130,000),.
whose capital is Serowe (population, 15,!)35), 32 miles west of the railway line
at Palapye; the Bakgatla (21,000); the Bakwena (57,000), under Chief Kgari
Sechele O.B.E.; the Bangwaketse (55,000), under Chief Bathoeii, C.B.E.,
the eldest son of the late Chief Seepapitso; the Batawana (45,000). under
Regent Mrs E. P. Morellli. M.B.E., assisted by a council. during the minority
of the heir to the late Chief l\Iorerui; the Bamalete (7,300). under Chief
Mokgosi; the Batlokwa, (1,700). under Chief Kgosi Gaborone; and the
Barolorg (7,900). under Chief Kebalepile Montshiwa.
GOVERNMENT. In 1885 the territory was declared to be within the
British sphere; in 18S!) it was included in the sphere of the British South
Africa Company. but was never administered by the company: in 1890 a
Resident Commissioner was appointed, and in 18!)5, on the annexation of
the Crown Colony of British Bechuanaland to the Cape of Good Hope, new
arrangements were made for the administration of the protectorate, and
special agreements were made in view of the extension of the railway north·
wards from l\1afeking. Each of the chiefs rules his own people much as
formerlf, under the protection and authority of the Queen, who is repre.
sented :)y a Resident Commissioner, acting under the High Commissioner.
The hea,dquarters of the administration is in Mafeking, in the Cape Province,
where there is a reserve for imperial purposes.
The territory is divided for administrative purposes into 11 districts.
each under a district commissioner. There is a tax of £2 on every male·
native in the territory, and under the native treasuries scheme, 50% of the
tax collected in each native reserve is transferred to the native treasury of
the tribe concerned, which manages expenditure upon such items as educa·
tion, tribal stock improvement and native courts. Non·natives are subject
to income tax. A graded tax on natives accrues to the native treasuries in
tribal areas.
EDUCATION. There were 9 Europeans, 5 coloured alld 169 African

schools in 1958. Two of the European schools are maintained, the others
are assisted by the Government. Estimated expenditure 011 education in
1958 was : From governments ources, £82.228; tribal sources, £103.613:
Colonial Development and Welfare Fund, £75,567; Missions, £20,000.
Under j,he Director of Education, the schools are controlled in most of the
reservef, by school committees with missionary and African representation.
These include a government college for the training of teachers (34 men and
40 worr,en in 1958), 2 secondary boarding schools, 3 junior secondary day
schools, 1 homecraft training centre (26 students in 1958). Enrolment
(1958) i.l primary African schools was 29,924; in primary European schools,
398; ir primary Coloured schools, 270; secondary schools were attended
by 385 Africans.
POI.ICE. The police force consists of 58 European officers and other
ranks, a,nd 359 African warrant officers and other ranks.
WELFARE. There are 5 government hospitals. 35 government health
oentres or dispensaries, 7 mission hospitals and 1 missionary maternity
centre. During 1958, 14,741 patients were treated in hospital. There are
11 government doctors in the territory, in addition to the Director of Medical
Services, 1 medicltl officer of heaJt.h, 6 mission doctors a nd 1 doctor who is

duing private work amongst the Afric'~lJs.
FINANCE . Revenve and expcndit.urc (in £ tilcrling) for financial
yea.rs ending 31 "'fi:rdl :
H.eVenlle Expenditure ReV~DlIe Ex.penditure
1964-55 1,054,671 1 ,078 , 73~ 1957-58 1,886,972 2,086,192
1~~~-66 1,153.691 1.277,770 19~8-69' 1,694,093 1.69'1,093
1956-57 1,5M ,525 1,647,890 1959-60 ' 1,24] ,459 1,891,459
1 Estimates.
Chief items of revenue, 1957-58 : Taxes and duties, £324,476; govern·

ment property, £172,078; posts and telegraphs, £Il9,438; customs and
excise, £229,848; Colonia l Development and 'Welfare }'und, £439,5:39;
grant.in.aid fwm U.K., £480,000. Chief items of expenditure, W57-58 :
Resident t'ommissioner and government hcadquart.ers, £80,8Hl; district
administration, £70,204; education, £74,107; medical, £131,512; police,
£164,313; public works, £420, \08; veterinary, £228,029; Colonial Develop .
ment and Welfare Fund schemcs, £452,475; contributions to nath'a
treu.suries, £41,5 \0; Il griculture, £34,175. Excess of assets over liabilities
on 31 March 1958, £21, 679.
Public debt, on 31 March 1959, amountcd to £729,055 .
PRODUCTION. Cattle· rearing and dairying are tho chicf industries,
but the country is more a pastoral than an agricultural one, crops depending
entirely upon the rainfall. The Colonial Development Corporation abattoir
at Lobatsi, opened in Oct. 1954, is of great importance to the country's
economy. III 1958 the estimated lIumber of cattle was 1,314.233: shecp
and goats, 389,472. Livestock, carcases, hides and skins to the value of
ovcr 1:1 ·8m. were exported in 1958, mainly to the Union of South Africa and
the Federation of Rhodcsia and Nyasaland.
Production of gold, in 1958, was 215 fine oz.: manganese ore, ::;,893 short.
tOilS; asbestos, 1,734 short tons.
COMMERCE (1958). Imports amounted to £3,503,647; exports to
£2,599,088. Chief items of import: General merchandise (£1,765,412),
textiles (£733,71 4), vehicles (£433,048), maize (£94,734). Chief items of
export: Carcases (£J,4 73,(88), cattle (£167,079), beans and pulscs (£109,200),
;;orghum (£66,200), asbestos (£139,9Il), butter and but.terfat (£78,956).
When the Union of South Africa was established, an agreement was made
with the Union Government on 29 June 1910 uuder whieh the previously
existing cHst.orns union was coutinned. Duty on all dutiable articles im.
port.ed into the protectora te is collected by tho Union customs dopartment
and paid into the Union treasury, a lump sum reprcsenting a certain propor.
tion of the am;ual customs revenue of tho Union being paid over to the
protectorato.
COMMUNICATIONS. The telegraph from the Ca pe of Good Hope to
Rhodesia and the railway extending northwards from the Cape of Good
Hope traverse the protectorate. Wireless communication has been estab·
Iished between headquarters at Mafeking and various district offices and
poiice stations. There are 14 post offices and 27 agencies: estimated receipts,
in 1958-59, £1 28,050; estimated expenditure, £65,113 . There were 400 tele.
phones on I Jan. 1959.
There are about 1,000 miles of main road; gravel surfacing has beeD
used on some stretches.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The currency is South African. The

Standard Bank of South Africa. Ltd. and Barclays Bank D.C.O. have
branche:1 in Francistown and Lo batsi and several agencies.
Resutent Commissioner. R. P . Fawcus, O.B.E.
Books of Reference
BethuanahmI Pro~elora1t: Report, 1968. H .M.S.O .• 1969
Econ,,",ic Dev.lopmml iA the WuteM Kalahari, 1952. R.M.S.O., 1953
DebenbsUl, F., Kalahari SamI. London. 1~53
Schapera, I.. TI~ Bantu-8pcaking Tribe> 0/ South Africa. London, 1937.-A Handbook of
TIWaTIIJ Law amI Custom. London. J 938.-Migrant Labour ana T"ibal Life. Oxford,1948
SUlery, A, TIuJ Bechuanalana Protectorate. Oxford Univ. Press, 1952.-Stchele. Oxford,
1964
SWAZILAND
AREA AND POPULATION. Swaziland is bounded on the north,
west and south by the Transvaal Province, and on the east by Portuguese
territory and Zululand. The area is 6,704'6 sq. miles.
The ten'itory is divided geograpbically into three longitudinl\l regions
of roughly equal breadth. running from north to south, and known locally
as the high, middle and low or bush veld. The mountainous region on tbe
west rises to an altitude of over 5,000 ft. The middle veld is about 2,000 ft
lower, .. bile the low veld, bounded on the east by the Lubombo Mountains,
has an average height of not more than 1,000 ft. The whole territory is now
virtually free from malaria, which was formerly commoo in the low veld in
summer The bigh veld and the middle veld are remarkably well watered.
Innumemble small streams unite with the large rivers. which traverse the
country from west to east. Except for these the low veld is not very well
watered The climate is good exct"pt for a few months in summer. when
the heat is somewhat excessive in low lying parts. The high veld portions.
however, Reldom experience heat. a spell of hot weather being almost in-
variauly followed by cooling mists.
Popdatinn (census 1956): 237,041, namely, 5,919 Europeans, 229,744
Africans, 1,378 Coloured.
European births (1958). 133; deaths, 33.
GOVERNMENT. The Swazis are akin to the Zulu and other tribes of
the south-eastern littoral. Up to about 1820 they occupied the country
just north of the Pongola River, but a hostile chief in their vicinity forced
them farther north, and, under their chief, Sobhuza, they then occupied
the territory now known as Swaziland. This chief, who died in 1836,
was suc'leeded bv Mswati n. The further order of successinn has been:
Ludvonga, Mbandzeni and Bbunu, whose son, Sobhuza U (Hon. C.B.E.,
1950), ~!as instHlleu as Paramont Chief in 1921, after a long minority,
during which bis grandmother, Labotsibeni, acted as regent.
The Olany concessions granted by Mbandzeni necessitated some form of
European control, notwithstanding the fact that the independence of the
Swazis had been guaranteed in the conventions of 1881 and 1884, entered
into between the British Government and the Government of the South
African Republic. In 1890, soon after the death of Mbandzeni. a provisional
government was established representative of the Swazis. the British and
the South African Republic Governments. In 1894, under convention
between the two European governments, the South African RepUblic was
given p(lwers of protection and administration, without incorporation, and
Swaziland continued to be governed under this form of control until the
outbreak of the Boer War in 1899.
In 1902, after the conclusion of hostilities, a special oommissioner took
charge, and under an {·rder-in -council in 1903 the Governor of the Transvaal
administered the territory, through the Special Commissioner, until the
year }!)07, when under an order-in-council (1906) the High Commissioner
assumed control and established t.he preseut form of administration.
Pre,-iou8 to this, steps had been taken for tbe settlement of the concessions
question by the definition of the boundaries of the land ooncessions and
their partition between the concessionaires and the natives. The boundaries
of the mineral conces8ions were also defined and all monopoly concessions
were expropriated. Title to property is, therefore, now clear.
An elected advisory council, representative of the Europeans, was
established in 1921 to advise the administration on purely European affairs.
It was reconstituted and formally ree"gnized in Dec. 1949.
The Swazis are represented by the Swazi National Council which meets
annually with Government.
The seat of the administration is at Mbabane; altitude, 3,800 ft;
European population, about 1,100.
EDUCA TION. During 1958 there were 9 schools for Europeans, all of
which were either maintained by government or received grants-in-aid. All
these schools provide primary education and 3 provide also secondary
education. The total enrolment was 1.222. There were 5 schools for
Eurafrican children, all of which received government assistance; 3 of them
boarding establishments; the enrolment was 523. There were 2:13 African
schooL~ falling under the direct superintendence of the missions, 3 national
schools financed from the Swazi Nntional Fund, 19 government-controlled
schools and 37 small tribal schools; 10 African schools offer secondary
education. The African trades school at Mbabane provides courses of
training in carpentry, building and motor mechanics. There are also 2
Lower Primary Training Centres a nd a Housecraft Training Centre. The
total enrolment at all African schools was 29,210.
JUSTICE. A High Court, coming on circuit quarterly and having
full jurisdiction, and subordinate COllrts presided over by District Office1'8
are in exi st~nce. During 1958 there were 6.50\ convictions on 6,9:15 charges
in subordinate COllrts and 16 convictions in the High Court.
On 15 April 1955 a Court of Appelll with the Chief Justice as President
and 2 Judges of Appeal came int<. exiHtenC'.e. This court deals with appeals
from the High Court, nnd a further appeal may lie to the Judicial Committee
of H .M. Privy Council.
Until 1951 the Para.mount Chief and other Swazi Chiefs exercised
jurisdiction according to Swazi law and custom in all civil disputes, in which
Africans only were concerned; an appeal lying to the High Court of Swazi-
land, whose decisions were final. In 1!l50 better provision was made> for the
recognition, constit.ution and jurisdiction of Swazi Courts, which were also
accorded jurisdiction in criminal cases wh(,re the parties concerned were
Africans, except in cases punishable with death or life imprisonment. cases
connected with marriage, other t.han marriAges according to SW,t,zi law
and custom and. other tha n with approval of the Judicial Commissioner,
ca.~es relat,ing to witchcraft. Criminal cases are reviewable by Uistriet
Comm;"."ioner~. There are 14 eourt.Q, (If first instanC'e. 2 Swazi court.~ of
appea.l and a Higher Swazi Court of Appeal. In 1958 these courts COIl-
308 THE BRITISH C01l1MONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
victed 5,293 persons on criminal charges and dealt with 351 civil cases. The
channel of appeal lies from Swazi Court of first instance to Swazi Court of
Appea __, thence to Higher Swazi Court of Appeal and thence to the High
Court 1)[ Swaziland.
Thll police force in 1958 had an authorized strength of 11 senior and 26
su bordinate officers and 266 other ranks.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) for financial years

ending 31 March:
1953-~4 1954-~5 1955-56 1956-57 1957-~8 1958-59 1959-60 1
RevenUE' 1,006,761 955,640 975,180 1,207,540 1,260,033 1,325,575 1.149,074
Expenditure 854,428 916,965 981,206 1.052,374 1,211,66~ 1,413,686 1,613,300
1 Estimates.
Chief items of revenue, 1958-59: Native tax, £69,090; customs and

excise, £175,611; posts and telegraphs, £68,608; licences, £45,271; income
tax, £(,63,883; mineral tax, £41,286. Chief items of expenditure 1958-59:
District administration, £41,696; police, £92,113; public works, £205,287;
medical, £135,684; education, £210,117; land utilization, £164,468; pen.
sions and gratuities, £48,928; posts and telegraphs, £68,979.
Thll public debt amounted to £1,003,058 at 31 March 1959.
In 1950 a Native Administration Treasury was established. The Native
Administration estimates are subject to the approval of the High Com·
missioner. The principal revenue ia derived from dog. tax, native court
fines, hostel fees, an education levy and a one·third share of native tax.
The bulk of expenditure is on personal emoluments, including salaries of
the Paramount Chief and Queen Mother, the several Court Presidents and
the teaching staff of the Swazi National Schools. Revenue for the financial
year 1!J59-60 was estimated at £81,000 and expenditure at £80,570.
PRODUCTION. The agricultUl'al and grazing rights of natives are safe·

guarded and delimited. The agricultural products are cotton, tobacco,
maize (the staple product), sugar, bananas, timber, pineapples, rice, tomatoes,
groundnuts, beans, citrus and sweet potatoes. It is sometimes necessary to
import maize from the Union of South Africa.
Livestock (1958): Cattle,491,679; goats,165,354; sheep, 32,127; pigs,
12,245
Th" territory produces a large tonnage of asbestos from the Havelock
Mine, Emlembe, and small quantities oftin, entirely from alluvial and eluvial
sourcefl. There is a deposit of barytes with large proved resources on the
Londol;i River in Swaziland, near Steynsdorp in the Transvaal; production,
1956, t,16 short tons; 1957,350-5 short tons; 1058,435 short tons.
There are proved deposits of semi·antbracitic coal in the low veld, and
hrematite in the north·west mountain region. Numerous prospects of talc,
fluorspar, calcite, cassiterite, gold, asbestos, monazite, kaolin, euxenite, coal,
corundum, galena and vermiculite require detailed investigation.
Geological work and investigation of mineral occurences has been
organi;:ed by the geological survey department since 1944.
l\fincral development in general is hampered by the lack of cheap trans·
port fa.cilities. Total mineral production was valued in 1955, £2,335,909;
1956, £2,428,968; 1957, £2,462,816; 1958, £2,150,127.
Gold is subject to a tax of 10% on profits; base metals to a royalty of
2;% O[} output; in addition to any rentals now payable.
BRITISII EAST AI<'RICA 309
EXPORTS. By agreement (dated 29 June 1(10) with the Union of
South Africa, Swaziland is united in a customs union with the Union of
Sot1th Africa and receives a pro rata share of the customs dues collected.
Total exports in 1958 amounted to £3,891,513. The chief items were:
Asbestos, 25,260 short tons (£2,130,952); slaughter stock, ]],896 head
(£333,088); bides and skins, 37,763 pieces (£160,207); butter, 512,500 lb.
(£74,620); tobacco, !l06,760 lb. (£81,543); tuug oil, 20 tons (£I ,600); seed
cotton, 2,635 tons (£178,027); rice (paddy), 4,900 tons (£225,000); ground.
nuts, 70 tons (£3,150); tin, 17 short tons (£11,250); fruit" 'l,OOO short tons
(£93,000); pineapples, 1,081 short tons (£85,000); patulitc, 20,000 short
tons (£454,257).
COMMUNICATIONS. There is daily (execpt Sundays) communication

by railway motor· buses between Bremersdorp, Mbabane and Breyten;
Bremersdorp, Mankaiana and Pi(>t Retiof; Piet Retief and Hlatikulu; 5
days weekly between Brcmersdorp and Stcgi; 3 days weekly between
Bremersdorp and Gollel; Go11el ami riet Reticf; Gollel and lngwavuma;
twice weekly between Bremersdorp and Hlatikulu, and Bremersdorp and
Balegaue. There are 205 miles of trunk road, 476 miles of main road and
443 miles of branch roads. There are telegraph and telephone offices at
Mbabane, Pigg's Peak, Bremersdorp, Ezulwini, Hlatikulu, Dwaleni,
Mahamba, Stegi, Nsoko, Emlembe, Gocdgegun, Hlnti and Gollel. There
were 1,600 telephones on 1 Jan. 1959.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The currency in circnlation in Swazi·

land is that of the Union of Sout.h Africa, at par with sterling. Barclays
Bank D.C.O. and the Standard Bank of South Africa Ltd maintain
branches at Mbahane and Bremersdorp; agencies are operated in 8 other
places. Bank rat.es are those in force t,hroughout South Africa and are
prescribed by the main South African offices of the 2 bo,nks.
Resident Commissioner. B. A. Marwick, C.M.G., C.B.E.
Books of Reference
Annual Report, 19·57. H,M.fl.O.,lD58
Kuper, H" .410 African ArittQcracy. London, 1947.-The Uniform of Colour. Johannesburg,
1948.-Th~ S ..azi: .d" Ethnographical Surrey. London, 1~52
Yarwick, B. A., Tile SU'a:i: .:111 r:thnograpltic Acco""t of the Native. of th~ Suoaziland
ProtectortUe. Cambrid~"" 1940
BRITISH EAST AFRICA

EAST AFRICA HIGH COMMISSION
THE East Africa High Commission, which consists of tho Governors of
Keuya, 'fanganyika and Uganda, came into bcing on 1 Jan. 1948, to provide
for the administration of services common to tho three territories, neither
political fedeflttion nor fusion of the existing governments being involved.
The High Commission is assisted by the East Africa Central Legislative
Assembly of 33 members (plus the Spea.ker); 7 are from the staff of the
High Commission, 41 are nominated (2 by each of the territorial Governors)
310 'THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
IInd 20 are unofficial (6 from each of the territories and 2 Arabs). The Central
Legislative Assembly is empowered to legislate for specific common services,
including railways, income tax, customs and exciso, posts and telecom-
muniCl.tions, civil aviation and research services.
Tho Govemments of tne three territories are mainly responsible for all
basic public services, such as administration, police, health, education, agri.
culture, animal health, forestry, labour and public works.
Other services under the High Commission's control are the East African
Industrial Council, the East African office in London, the East African
StatisLcal Department, the East African Department of Economic Co·
ordinat.ion, the East African Trypanosomiasis Research Organization, the
Lake Victoria Fisheries Service, the East African Meteorological Depart-
ment, the East African Agriculture and Forestry Research Organization.
the E,~t African Veterinary Research Organization, the East African
Fisheries Research Organization, Desert Locust Survey, the East African
Institute for Medical Research, the East African Virus Research Institute,
the East African Institute of Malaria and Vector· borne Diseases, the East
Africar. Leprosy Research Centre, the East African Marine Fisheries Re.
search Organization, the East African Industrial Research Organization,
the Ea3t African Literature Bureau, the Royal East African Navy.
Ad1ninistrator. Edgeworth Beresford David, C.M.G.
FINANCE. Revcnue in respect of the non·self·contained services,
1957-53, £4,829,350; 1958-59, £4,530,983.
In 1958-59 the main items of estimated expenditure were: Customs
and E);cise Department (£907,818), Income Tax Department (£763.062) ,
Civil Aviation (£518,798). Desert Locust Survey (£484,843) and Meteoro·
logical Department (£301,232).
DEFENCE. The East Africa Defence Committee consists of the
Governors of Kenya. Tanganyika and Uganda, the British Resident in
Zanzibar, the C.·in·C. South Atlantic and South America station 0'1' the
Commcdore, Arabian Seas and Persian Gulf. the G.O.C. East Africa Com-
mand, a nd t.he Air Deputy to the Commander, Brit.ish Forces. Arabian
Peninsula. The secretariat is provided by the office of the Administrator,
East A frica High Commission.
Army. The War Office handed over administrative control of the land
forces to the Governors of the territories in 1957. and in consequence an
East African Land Forces Organization was established. The Organiza-
tion consists of the 3 Ministers responsible for defence. and has a Perma-
nent Stcrotary responsible for the day. to-day administration of the land
forces. Tbe Headquarters of the Organization are in Nairobi.
The East African forces consist of 6 battalions in the King's African
Rifles. Four al'e stationed in Kenya, 1 in Uganda and 1 in Tanganyika.
Navy. The Royal East African Navy, with 0. complement of 8 officers,
8 Chief Petty Officers and 200 ratings, is administered by the High Com-
mission a nd is responsible to the Commodore, Arabian Seas and Persian
Gulf, for operational duties. The new inshore minesweeper Bassingham
was acquired from Great Britain in 1959.
COMMERCE. The 3 independent East African territorics-Kenya
Colony and Protectorate, Tanganyika Territory, and Uganda Protectorat&
-form a single trade unit and there is, apart from licensing control iD
BRITISH EAST AFRICA 311
respect of certain commodities, virtual freedom of trade bet ween them.
Power to legislate fi~cally is vested in t he territoriaJ governments and the
revenue is a llocated between them by means of a system of transfer f orms.
The customs and excise revenue is collected by the East African Customs
a nd E xcise, a Higb ComlU is.~ien Service, established on 1 J an. 1 949.
VOLUME OF TRADE Kenya '1'altgallJ ika lJgantia Total East Africa
(in £1,1)00) 19J 7 1958 1957 19,;8 19S7 1958 1957 1958
.tlt'et imporl &:
(:r,mmel'cial . 64,861 5G , ~69 3!) . 6S!~ :D.G16 27,Ill2 25,186 ] 27,585 112,1.(1
Gove rnment . 7,];17 4 ,499 3 ,5~2 :!,!:l':"3 1 ,~ 16 ],812 12,546 9,264
Gold 4 1 11 5 16 6
Total 72,003 60 ,869 3!l,2 7J 33,56$ 23,869 27,002 140,14 7 1 21,4 40
Dome.'; lic eX1JOTts:
B .~..-ports cxcludillg
gold . 2G,2il 2 9 ,20~ 38,753 41 ,025 45,855 45,405 110,878 110,632
Gold n 91 678 70~ 2 4 77 1 807
Re·exports 4,88 7 e,9:!4 1,6].1 2,098 975 980 7,477 7,002
Total 3I ,!:!·i S 33,224 41,O'1!j 4S,828 46,8.3 46,389 11 9,126 ] 23 ,441
Kenya Taupnyika Uganda Total East Africa

P RINCIPAL I){PORTS Quan- Value, Quan.~ l'aluc, Qua-u - Value, Q-u an.. Yal-ue,
1958 lily £1,000 lily £1,000 I'ily £1,000 lUll £ 1,000
P.ice noti ntile h usk (JOO lb.) 117,288 341 23,849 67 132,177 ~ 78 273,6 14 785
Sugar beet. and cane-refin ed
(100 lb.) . . .'182,425 1,209 ~:;2 ,4 1 ;' 438 80S 3 715,648 1,701
Motor spiri t (1,000 imp.
ga llous. . . . 35,900 1,608 2',201 1,232 2(1 ,021 9U9 8,,122 3,748
Dluminat ing kerosene and
lamp oil (1,000 imp
gallons) . . . 11,3 il 4 ~8 8,404 3~; 6 ,( 1)3 2;8 25,7 . 9 1,162
Gas. diesel, and other (ue )
oils (1,000 imp. gallons) . 133 ,892 4, I S4 ;'O,2S2 1,856 12,937 573 197,111 6,613
Lubricating o ils (1,000 imp.
gallons) . , 3,328 6;) j l ,6t,S 389 U.>3 221 ;;,936 1,267
Mineral f uel- other . . I ,SOS 26i; 287 1,918
Medicinal and vha.rlllnccu -
tical products . . 902 ~ 99 492 1,894
Perfumery, cosfll cti ~ , Roaps ,
cleans ing w at-eri r. ls, etc. a2S 322 306 1,156
Fertilir.ers maut liactured
(100 lb.) . . '172,1\31 640 111 , IS; 140 1:1" ,.108 1 ~4 71 9,106 964
Chemi cals- ot her 1 . . 2,311 '10 7;,,7 3,977
Rubber t yres
, for motor vc·
hicles (numb ••') . . 101),.106 in,; 4G,1 i 5 ; ,10 43, 13G 4M 190 ,037 1,768
Ootton fn.\)rice (piece·goods)
(1.000 S'I. rd) . ZS ,Sl 7 2,1l2 46,231 ~ , 1\9 ; 1",548 1,236 90,596 6, 245
Fabri cs of !ivnthetic fibres
incl. ar tificia l silk goods
'.1 ,<)00 s~. yd) . 3~ ,9 5 :1 :?,4!";6 l e, H O 1 .')~S 3:~, O 'lG 2,339 M,109 5.~02
J ute bags and s3<.'ks for
p:lcki ng lle w and u!lcd
(1 .000 no.) . . 5.406 4:'; ,~ 6,340 r)~ l :~,l 31=> 281 14.074 1,300
Blankets (1,000 nuru!,er) . 2,414 81;; 9U~ ~ .iJ I ,I)~ <) 3:;2 '! ,.16:J 1,480
CemeLt b).(~1 \1cting d inkm'
(100,000 I),.) . 480 1; 6 1 ,4 B.) [,SO ZOG 104 2,211 860
Joists , girders, :uigle3.
ba.n: , etc.
~ h a.rte5~ s ect i ()ns ,
(100 lb.) . . ,3S;,'Il l 8:!8 137,11 5 ~3S 1 ~O.7~6 2i'i 65 3,260 1,393
Corrugated iron shee ts (lOO
It'.) . . . .1;)3 ,623 5 f )-! 128,839 3 ~~1 ~~ 4 .3S2 7~ 9 4t)tl,84~ 1,703
RdiJ W3.V rai J ~ nn d ~rack CO II ~
5truc.tioll m"'erial(10(l ![J.) 4JO,862 1,006 I i)~ 7~ 9 3,,9 4,1.0 ) 0 ['i' .t,8~ 1 1 , 3 7~
Steel tube. and fitti ngs (100 '
lb .) . 128,68;; ;0,1 110,773 4 3:! 49.9&1 2 10 :!8t',tl -·, 1,146
1 ll c. i5etl figurD~ for 19':;7 : 2,20:!- ·SOO- 7;{S- iJ,74 1
Kenya Tangnnyika Uganda Total East Ab:ica

PRII'ClPAL lID'OIn'S Quan- Val-ue, Quan- Vu1u~, Quan- Value, Quan- Valuc,
1958 lily £1,000 lily £1,000 lily £1,000 tity £1,000
Manufactured goods-
other:· . . . . 9,447 5,124 4,086 18,61i9
Il ower ge aerating machinery
excep1 electric . . 787 :;39 509 1,6~1i
Tractors other t,hall steam
compI.!tc including agri~
cultur;1 (no.) • . . 363 3~3 !!G3 I S:) 1·19 1~-! 77a 641
Conveying, boisting, e:tca~
vat.ing-, road construction
and mining machinery
(100 11>.) . • • 1 i.S71 406 GO,SG4 656 :~·1,:J2" :>16 )03,060 ] I G6i
All other types of machin-

ery alld parts other than
electric J • • • 3,741 l,S58 1,580 7)79
Electric generators, uit,cr-
nator~, motors and C011-
vertor3, transformers, etc.
(100 Ih.) . . . 8,832 283 S,397 2~ 3 ]2.,[,·1:2 320 29,771 826
All other electric machinery,
apparatus, applinnces and
p3.rts I. • • • • 1,531 7G8 781 3.078
Passengi!r road motor ve-
hicles complct.e (no.) . ~.477 2,963 l,S23 9n 2,411 l,05n n,711 5,015
Buses. kucks, lorries (no.) . 1,939 1,237 1,662 1,233 953 600, 4,554 S,070
Oba.<;sis \dth engine mount-ed
(commercial)(no.). . 1,3(19 1,386 n3 863 589 600 2,811 2,850
Haad motor vehicles-
bodiet:, frames ft.ad parts. ~\67 ,jGl 489 2,018
Dicycles (not mot(Jrized)
(no.). . . . 8, 598 90 39,.106 411 28,639 280 76,703 780
Machinery and transport
equipment-other 4- 838 539 466 1,847
Clothing 895 763 S16 2,470
Total (ir ell1ding articles not
specified) 60,869 33,568 27,002 121,440
PRIKCU'AL EXPORTS 1958
Oashew nuts (centals) 39,102 109 701,::56 1,087 740,458 1,19~
Collee not roasted (I,uOO
centai3) . 560 10,405 498 7,576 1,763 20,827 2,820 38,8u9
Tea (1,0)0 centa!.) 182 3,217 52 632 60 979 2~5 4,828
Animal .'eeding stuffs (1,000
centals) . . . 341 253 803 643 1,503 1,10·\ 2,647 1,999
llldes, ::!kins and fur skillS,
undrclsed (centals). . 95,849 1,018 108,391 1,200 62,418 765 266,658 2,9S3
Oil see(s, oil nuts and oil
kerne: s (1,000 centals) . 239 512 1.406 2,R14 264 539 1,909 3,S6~
Cotton, raw (1,000 cental.) 49 515 718 7 ,24~ 1,i;;JQ 18,141 2,318 25,905
Sisal fit-re and tow (1,000
cental.) . . . 944 2,229 4,438 10,349 n 0,391 12,GOO
Lead me a.nd concentrates
(cental,) . . . ~99,1l9 895 2,240 4 301,359 899
Animal aud vegetable oil3
and f"ts . . . 61 365 213 CiO
Sodium carbonate (1,000
centa1.) . . . 2,330 1,~05 2,330 ),205
Wattlel,arkextract(celltals) 425,204 1,024 5,719 13 430,923 J,037
Diamonjs (ca.rats) . 515,453 4,41;; &1[;,453 4,H5
Copper and alloys, un-
wrouFht (cent.a\s). . 74,548 386 245,655 2,065 3~O,203 2,452
Total (including articles not
Epc Jified) 2D,300 41,730 45,409 116,439
1 Re\·ised figUl'ef; for 19;) 7 11,008-.5,044-4,242-20,291
2 Revlsed tigures for 1~57 4,431-1,807-1,456-7,691
3 Hcvised figures fer 1957 2,347-1,089-887-4,322
, Revised figw'cs for 1957 1,545-618-566-2,733
COMMUNICATIONS. The Et1st African Railways and Harbours
Administration is a service of the East Africa High Commission. In law.
control is exercised by the Commissioner for Transport, who is ad"ised by
the Tmnsport Advisory Council; the executive managcment is vested in the
General l\lanager. The railways compriso 3,398 route miles of single met·re
gauge track .
.Main lines: Mombasa-Kasese, 1,080 miles; Dar es Salaam-Kigoma,
780 miles; Tanga-Moshi, 219 miles. Principal branch lines: Nakuru-
Kisumu, 131 miles; Nuirobi-Nanyuki, 145 miles; Tororo-Soroti, lOO miles;
Voi-Kahe, 94 miles; Ta bora-Mwanza, 236 miles. Minor branch lir.es:
Gilgil-Thomson's .Fa lls, 48 miles; Rongaj-~olai, 27 miles; Leseru-Kitale,
41 miles; Mbulamut i-Namasagali, 19 miles; Kisumu-Butere, 43 miles;
Port Bell-Kampala, 6 miles; Arusha-Moshi, 54 miles; Kaliuwa-Mpanda,
131 miles; Konzlt-Magadi, 91 miles (not owned). Southern Province rail·
way (Tanganyika): Mt.wara-Nachingwea-Masasi, 154 miles.
In 1958, 5,4i9,OOO tons of goods and 5,221,000 passengers were cmTied
by the railway services.
The principal hltrbours aro: Kenya : Mombasa (Kilindini). Tanganyika;
Tanga, Dar cs S'1laam, Lindi a·nd Mtwara. Kilindilli has 9 deep. water
berths, bulk oil jett.y and lighterage quays. Two more berths are being
built. There are 3 deep· water berths at Dar es Salaam and 2 at Mtwara.
St.camE'!r services are operat.ed on lakes Victoria, Kioga, Albert and
Tanganyika, and on the river Nile. In 1958 the Administration carried
365,000 tons and 702,000 passenger.> over 6,300 route miles on the lakes.
Road services operate in Uganda over a total of 378 miles, including
between lVIasindi Port, on Lake Kioga. and Butiaba, on Lake Albert (75
miles). Between the Northern Rhodesian horder and Nairobi, through the
Southern Highlands and Central and Northern Provinces of Tanganyika,
road services are worked over 2,207 route miles. In Kenya, between the
Tanganyika border and Nairobi, 100 routo miles aro worked.
Revenue, 1958, fl'om railways, inland waterways and road services,
£18,930,000; from harbours, £4,509,000. Expenditure (excluding contri·
bution to renewals fund), 1958, on railways, £13,977,000; on harbours,
£3,421,000.
Posts and Telecommunications. The East African Posts and Telecom·
munications Administration operates as a High Commission self·contained
sorvice with its own capital account. Capital assets (1958), £12 -8m.
The total revenue earned during 1958 was £5·6m. Working expenditure,
1958, £5-3m.; capital expenditure, 1958, £1·3m. At the end of 1958 there
wero 549 post offices and postal agencies and 261 telephone exchanges.
Cable and Wireless, Ltd, operate t.he overseas telegraph and telephone
services; cables frol11 Mombasa and Dar es Salaam connect at Zanzibar with
the world cable network, a.nd I,here is a radio· telephone service providing
telephone communication with most countries in the world and 0.1:30 with
certain ships at sea.
CURRENCY. The eUl'reney of the High Commission Territories as well

as that of Zanzibar, Aden and British Somali land is controlled by the East
Africa Currency Board (4 MilIbank, London, S.W.I), which maiutains a
stable rate of st.erling exchange. The standard coin is the East African
shilling of 100 cents (20 shillings = 1 East African £), introduced as from
1 Jan. 1922. The su bsidiary coinage consists of 50 (cupro.nickel), 10, 5
314 THE BRl'l'lSH COMMONWEALTH AND E:lIl'IRE
and 1 (~nts (bronze). The paper currency consists of notes of 1, 5, 10, 20,
100, 2(00, 1,000 and 10,000 shillings; but Aden and Somaliland have no
I ,000'lnd 1O,000.shilling notes.
Books of Reference
SUT:STICAL INFORMATION. The East African Sr.af.!"tieai Department is respons ible lor
tbe eoUoetion, analysis and publication 01 economic st,atistics concerning tbe East Africa
Righ COlDmisoion territories. 1'he depart,ment was set up originaiJy as tbe Sta tistical Section
01 the Ceniereuce 01 tbe East African Go.erno... ln 1943 and has now headquarters Ilt NairObi,
Kenya (olony (p.O. Box 30462), and offices at Dar cs Slllaam, Tanganyika Territory, aud
Bntebbe" Uganda Protec'orate. liircClbr: C. J . Martin. M.B.E. The Department publishes
the East African Quartcr1v ECQ1wmic and Statistical BuUetin and annual statist·'eal abstracto
for Kenra, Tanganyika and Uganda.
The Erut Africa High Commi&'ion, t be East African Railways and Harbours, and the
East Hrican Posts and Telecommunications Admi:listration publish annual report&
Ba.u Africa Rq,al Commi.<sivn, Rep"'t 1953-55. (Cmd 9475.) H.M.S.O., 1955. Despalcllt.
lrom 11", Governor.. (Omd 0801.) H .M.S.O., 1956. Ctmlmtnta'1l on the D-.patch... Omd
9804 .) H.M.S.O" 1956
Econ"m;" SUC'lJCY (1ft p. 60], vol. n, 1954
Economy of East .:Ifri,a : a study 01 trend.. East African ltailways and Hnrbours, 1953
Couplaod, It., East Africa and ill Invaders: Prom the Earliest Times 10 tilt Death "f Seyyid
Said ill 1856. London, 1938. The EzploitatiO'll 0/ East Africa, 1856-9Q. The Sla .. Trado
and Ih" Scramble. London, 1939
Debcnbam, F .•The Water Resources 01 East Alrica. R .M.S.O., 1949
HaiJeYt :Lord. Native .Administration in the B,.uuh A!l'itan Terrilorie3 . I : East Africa.
H .M.S,O., 1961
Bale, R. (cd.), Tilt Yearbook and Guido to EllSt Alrica
Bill, M.F" Permanent Wav: The Story 01 the Ker.ya alw Uganda Railway. E . A.. RaUw..ys
and H ..boors, 1950
MacmUl£l1, M., Introducing Easl Alrica. London, 1962
MathesOIl, J. K., and Bovill, E. W. (cd.), Ea.st AITican Agriculture. London ..nd New York,
1950
Weigt, K, Europ6.er in O.tafrika: KlimalJedingungen und Wirtsclul/l,tgrundlag.,. (with
EngUsll summary]. Cologne University, Geog. Inst., 195~
KENYA COLONY AND PROTECTORATE

HI5.TORY. The Kenya Colony and Protectorate extend, on the Indian
Ocean, from the Umba River to Dick's Head, and inland as far 68
Lake Victoria and Uganda. The protectorate consists of the mainland
dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar, viz., a coastal strip of territory 10
miles wide, to the northern bra.nch of the Tana River ; also Mau, Kipini and
the Isla,nd of Lo.mu, and 0.11 adjacent islands between the rivers Umbo. and
Tana. These territories were, in 1895, placed under British administration
by the Sultan, who is being paid an annuity of £16,000. The colony and
protectorate, formerly known as the East Africa Protectorate, were, on
I April 1905, transferred from the Foreign Office to the Colonial Office, and
in Nov. 1906 the protectorate was placed under the control of a Governor
and C.· in-C. and (except the Sultan of Zanzibar's dominions) was annexed
to the Crown 88 from 23 July W20 under the name of ' The Colony of
Kenya', thus becoming a Crown Colony. The territ,ories on the coast
became the Kenya Protectorate. In 1908 foreign consular jurisdiction in
the Z:1nzibar strip of coast was transferred t o the British Crown.
A treaty was signed (15 July 1924) with Italy under which Great Britsin
ceded t) Italy the Juba River and a strip from 50 to 100 miles wide on the
British side ofthe river. Cession took place on 29 June 1925. The northern
boundary is defined by an agreement with Ethiopia in 1947, which supersedes
the ori@inal agreement of 1908.
GOVERNMENT. Tho Colouy and Protectorate is administered by
the Governor and Commander-in-Chief, who is advised by a Coullcil of
Ministers_ There is provision for 16 ministerial posts, of WhOUl not moro
I·han 8 and not less than 6 shall be public officers; of the 8 uuofficial posts
4 are at present reserved fi)r Europeans, 2 for Asians aud 2 for Africans.
There is also provision for not lliore than 6 Assistant Ministers who ru ay be
appointcd by the Governor_
The Legislative Council consists of a Speaker, appointed by the Governor;
ex-officio members, who are for the time being Ministers or temporary Mini-
sters, but not otherwise members of the Legislative Council; 36 constituency
elected members. of whom 14 arc European, H arc African, 6 are Asians (of
whom 2 are MoslemR) and 2 lire Arabs; specially elected members, at present
12, elected by the legislative members sitting as an electoral college, of whom
4 are European, 4 are Mrican, 2 aro non-Moslem Asian, 1 is a Moslem Asian
and 1 is au Arab; and nominated members, at present 33, nominated by
the Governor_
In addition, a Council of State, designcd to protect any community
against harmful discriminatory legislation, has been established and may
consist of a chairman with not more than 16 and not less than 10 members,
At present a chairman and 10 members havo been appointed_
The Council of Ministers consists of the Chief Socretary, 12 departmental
Ministers (Legal Affairs, E'inance and Development; Mrican Affairs; Agri-
culture, Animal Husbandry and Water Resources; Internal Security and
Defence; Local Government, Health and Town Planning; Education,
Labour and Lands; Forest Development, Game and Fisheries; Commerce
and Industry; "Vorks; Tourism and Common Services; Housing) and a
European and an Asian Minister without Portfolios_
Governor and G.-in-G_ Sir Patrick Renison, K _C.l\LG _ (sworn in 23 Oct.
1959).
GMef Secretary_ W. F _ Coutts, C_M_G.. l\LRE.
The constituencies for Europeans, A~ian Non-Moslems, Asian Moslems,
Africans and Arabs are separate (i.e" communal fraDchise)_ Legislation is
by Ordinances made by the Governor with the advice and consent of the
Legislative CounciL
There are 6 provinces, which are as follows : Coast (headquarters Mom-
basa), Central (headquarters Nyeri), Rift Valley (headquarters Nakunl),
Nyanza (headquarters Kisumu), Northern (headquarters Isiolo) and
Southern (headquarters Ngong), Thcre is also 1 extra-provincial district
Nairobi.
AREA AND POPULATION_ The total area of Kenya is 224,960 sq_
miles, of which 219,790 sq. miles is land area; estimated population (mid-
1959) was over 6,450,000, of whom 6-17m_ were AfriCl1ns_ The 1948 census
showed a total non-African population of 154,846, of whom 97,687 wcre
Asians, 29,060 Europeans, ~4,174 Ambs. The total non-African population
in mid-year 1959 has been estimated a.t 279,300; Europeans, 66,400; Indians,
Pakistani and Goane'lc, 169,900; Arabs,37,100; other non -natives, 5,900_
On the co:\st tho Arabs and Swahilis predominate; fnrther inland are races
speaking Bantu languages, and non-Bantu hibes such as the Luo, the Nandi
and Kipsigis, the MMai, the Somali and the Gallas,
Mombasa harbour is situated on the eastern side of an island of the same
name, and is the terminus of the railway_ Kilindini harbour on the south-
western side of the island is the finest land-locked and sheltered harbour on
316 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH Al'm EMPIRE
the eas.; coast of Africa and is accessible to vessels of deep draught. The
principal river in the north is the Tana, which !lows into the Indian Ocean.
Nail'obi, the capital, was given a Royal charter on 30 March 1950; it
had, as at 1 July 1959, an estimated population of 288,500, including 23,500
EuropMns and 92,000 Asians.
RELIGION. The indigenou!l Mrico.n background is pagan, bui
Christia.nity is making an important contribution to the life of the whole
territor.v, not only through the educational and medical services of Christian
mission3, but by the growth of churches under African leadership, and by its
impact on t.he thought and policy of the country. The Roman Catholio
Church (about 300,000 adherents) has been developed by ma.inly BritiBh,
Italian and French mission societies; the Protestant Churches (about
600,000 adherents) were started mainly by British and American mission
societiel and are now linked together by the Chriatian Council of Kenya.
The SOl)iety of Frier-ds had 63,142 adherents in 1959.
The Arabs on the coast Pore Moslems, and Islam has spread among
some of the Mrican coastal tribes. The Asians are Hindus and Moslems,
with the exception of the Goans, who are Roman Catholics.
EDUCATION (1958). European. 46 primary schools (18 government,
16 aidei, 12 unaided) with together 8,497 pupils, 14 secondary schools (5
government, 1 aided, 8 unaided) with togetber 2.949 pupils. Asian. 120
primary schools (27 governmcnt, 86 aided, 7 unaided) with together 39,365
pupils, 34 secondary schools (16 government, 10 aided, 8 unaided) with
together 8,023 pupils, 3 government teacher· training centres with together
269 students. African. 3,879 primary schools (8 government, 3,107
aided, ~' 64 unaided) with together 530,335 pupils, 636 intermediate schools
(12 gov'e rnment, 597 aided, 27 unaided) with together 71,075 pupils, 28
secondary schools (IO government, 12 aided, 6 unaided) with togethcr 3,922
pupils, ·12 teacher· training centres (6 government, 33 aided, 3 unaided) with
together 3,545 students. Arab and other8. 10 primary schools (8 govern.
ment, 2 aided) with together 2,486 pupils, 2 government secondary schools
with 248 pupils.
Technical Education. There are 5 government technical and trade
schools for Africans (with 1,114 pupils), while 2 of the government Asian
secondary schools offer secondary technical courses leading to the School
Certificate. There is a technical institute for Ara.bs and other Moslems in
Momba,;;a. In 1956 the Royal Technical College opened in Nairobi; the
college is inter·racial and offers courses in arts, science and technological
eubjectl: at a poet·School Certificate level.
In J'une 1958, 601 teachers were employed in European schools, 1,762
in Asian schools, 14,346 in African schools and 109 in Arab schools.
Expenditure on education in 1957-58 totaIJed£5,277,135, gross, £4,504,3D4
not; £772,741 were appropriations in aid.
Cinwlas. In 1958 there were 29 cinemas (6 in Nairobi) with a. scating
capacit:; of 16,705.
JUSTICE. The courts of justice comprise the Supreme Court, estab·
lished ill 1958, with full jurisdiction both civil and criminal o\'er all persons
a.nd all matt.ers in the Colony including Admiralty jurisdiction arising on
the high seas and elsewherc, and Subordinate Courts constituted under the
provisicns of the COllrts Ordinance. The Supreme Court has its head·
quarters at Nairobi and consists of the Chief Justice and 10 Puisne Judges.
The Court sits continuollsly at N airobi, Mombasa and Kisumu throughout
t ile year; criminal sessions are held at least every 3 months at Eldoret,
Xakuru and Nyeri and ct such other places as circumstances require.
The Subordinato Courts aro presided over by Magistrates and are
established throughout all provinces. In the exercise of their criminal
jurisdiction they sit throughout the year.
There are also Moslem Subordinate Courts established in areas where the
local population is predominantly Mohammedan; they exercise limited civil
and criminal jurisdiction.
African courts are regulated by the African Courts Ordinance, 1951. In
civil matters these courts administer native customary law; they have also
restricted criminal jurisdiction.
FINANCE. Net revenUE> and net expenditure (in £1,000 sterling) for
fiscal years I July- 30 June :
19,j5- 5'; 19;;6-~7 190 7-58 19;8-59 ' 1959-60 I
~e \· enue . 43,:;89 02.793 33,429 32,815 32,3'-1

Expe.nditure 38,3H 3'1 ,682 33,290 33,0;7 32,S20
1 Estimates.
'l'hose flgures have beo!! arrived at after d ..ducting appropriations-in-aid (consi;ti"fl'

lllai uly of departmental re.cnuc) [row t hegross rt.enue awl expeuditure tables _
In addition, development receipt.s amounted to £5,241 ,000 in 1956- ;')7

£6,782,000 in 1957-58 ; £6,287,000 in 1958-59 ; £10,513,000 in 1959-60
development expendi ture to £8,182,000 in 1956-57; £7,864,000 in 1957-58
:W,138,OOO in 1958-59 (estimate); £9,576,000 in 1939-60 (estimate).
Of the colony revenue in 1958- 59, customs and excise accounted for
£J.2-7m_; income tax, £10 -9m.; other licences, duties and taxes, £5·4m.
Of the 1958- 59 development receipts, £445,000 came from the Colonial
Development and Welfare vote, £727,000 from a special grant by H.M.
Government towards the development of African agriculture (Swynnerton
Plan) and £4-8m. from loan funds raised during the fiscal year. Funded
public debt at 30 June 1958: £43,305,600 (colony, £36,609,509; railway,
£6,696,0(1).
In 1959- 60 Kenya contributed £1,528,313 to the non-self-contained
services of the East Africa High Commission.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. As agriculture i~ possible from sea-level

to altitudes of over 9,000 ft, climatic conditions are extremely varied, and
tropical, sub-tropical and temperate crops are grown. The main producing
area.s are in the Highlands, Central Province and Nyanza Province, where
coffee, maize, wheat, wattle, sisal, tea and pyrethrum are crops of major
importance. At lower altitudes, where conditions are tropical, maize, sisal,
~ ugar, coconuts, cashew nuts, castor seed and co~ton are crops of principal
importance. The livestock industry is important, and considerable quan·
tities of butter, bacon, ham and hides and skins are exported.
Groundnuts, simsim, potatoes, beans, essential oils and other miscel.
laneous crops are grown according to elevation and rainfall both for export
and bome consumption.
Quantities and values of the main agricultural exports for the year
1958 were as follows: Coffee, 24,436 tons (£10,353,000); cotton lint, 2,201
tons (£515,000); maize, 98,394 tons (£1,889,000); pyrethrum flowers, 1,800
tons (£.)25,000); pyrethrum extract, 172 tons (£1,289,000); sisal, 42,147

tons (£::,228,000); tea, 8,136 tons (£3,217,000); wattle-bark extract, 18,982
tons (£1,024,000); butter, 3,200 tons (£946,000); hides and skins, 4,279 tons
(£1,018000)_
Forl'$try_ The total area of gazetted forest reserves in the colony
amounts to 6,671 sq_miles, of which the greater part is situated in the higher
altitud<8. The crown forest (land) reserve is 5,269 sq. miles, crown forest
(mangr<>ve) reserve is 209 sq. miles, and native forest reserve 1,193 sq. miles.
The high-altitude forests are mostly situated on Mount Kenya, the
Aberdares, Mount Elgon, Tindcret, Londiani, Mau, Elgeyo and Cherangani
rangesl.t altitudes of between 5,500 and 9,500 ft above sea-level. These
forests may be roughly diyided into coniferous forests and broad-leafed or
hardwood forests. The upper parts of these high-altitude forests are
mainly bamboo, which occurs mostly between altitudes of 8,000 and 10,000
ft and occupies some 12% of the total arca of the high-altitude forests_
The whole of the gazetted land forests serve the role of protective forests,
for most of them are situated on the main water-catchment areas of Kenya.
Water therefore is the main product to be harvested from Kenya forests,
while timber, though essential, is by comparison of secondary importance,
and is :larvested only from a comparatively small area of the total. The
forests therefore are very carefully preserved for their beneficial effects on
soil and water conservation and for the clima tic benefit of the colony
gen eraly.
The colony had in 1959 a thriving as~et of 245 sq. miles of plantations
spread over the more accessible areas. Of this area about 157 sq_ miles
consist. of exotic softwoods, 11 sq. miles of exotic hardwoods, 21 sq . miles
of indigenous softwoods, 11 sq. miles of indigenous hardwoods and 32 sq.
miles cf fuelwood. The output from exotic softwood plantations was
23,789 cons (of 50 Hoppus cu. ft) in 1958.
1v[i~ing. The mineral resources are not yet fully explored. Production
for 195:, was as follows : Soda ash, 111,038 long tons (£1,275,826); cement
(excluding imported clinker), 213,092 long tons (£1,895,542); copper, 1,988
long to.1S (£3S3,6S4~; salt, IS,721 long tons (£146,810); refined gold, 7,7.53
troy 07.. (£97,269); limestone products, 15,805 long tons (£99,530); diato·
mite, 3,4 75 long tons (£60,044); carbon dioxide gas, 673 long tons (£48,649);
graphite, 660 long tons (£32,987) _ Other minerals produced in 1958 had a
total vnlue of £69,258; they included refined silver, gypsum, kaolin, ver-
miculit'l, meerschaum, asbestos, pu mice, mullite, beryl, columbite, f elspar,
magnesite, mica and quartz.
COMMERCE. Since 1949, Kenya has been united in a customs union
with U"anda and Tanganyika (see p. 310). The chief countries of destina-
tion in 1958 were: U.K.,29% ; West Germany, 21·2%; U.S.A., 10·9%;
Japan,5 % ; chief countries of origin: U.K.,37·1 % ; Japan,9 % ; Iran,
7'3 % ; West Germ any, 6'3% .
Tot:Ll trade between Kenya and the U.K., in £ sterling (British Board of
Trade leturns):
1955 1956 1957 1~58 1%9
Import8 ~ o U.K. 13,21>4.662 11,757,004 13,r.~1.3~.) 12.ill.6~7 14,3Al,476
Ex-port. 'rom U.K . . 38,116.100 35,962,655 31, 32G.3 ~5 27,17~. 3 86 29,34R,830
Re-oxpOlts from U.K. 163,654 1411,506 li6,173 171.1 91 212,573
COMMUNICA nONS. Roads. There are approximately 25,000 miles

ofpubl.c roads, of which about 453 miles are bitumen-surfaced. The main
roads (3,780 miles, excluding Northern Province), where not bitumellized,
are gravel.surfaced and are, for the most part, all weather, except during
excessive rains. Secondary roads (5,490 miles) are mostly gravel.surfaced,
but, are more subject to closure to heavy traffic in wet weather. To the
bitumen roads another 280 miles are being added under a government
e~tension plan, 1959 -G3.
For railways see p. 313.
Tel~communications. A short· wave wireless station at Nairobi, owned
by Cable and Wireless, Ltd, provides overseas communication se.rvices, as
well ns relay services between Great Britain and the Far East. Telephones
(1 July 195tl), 34,410.
Broadcasting. The K enya Broadcasting Servico operateR 4 transmitters,
providing progra mmes in English, Swahili, Hindustani, Arabic and other
Asian and African languages.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. For notes and coins see p. 313.

Banks operating in the Colony: the National Overseas and Grindlays
Bank, Ltd; the Standard Bank of South Africa, Ltd; Barclavs Bank D.C.O.;
Nederlandsche Handel Mij; Bank of India, Ltd; Bank Baroda, Ltd; of
Habib Bank (Overseas), Ltd; Ottoman Bank.
Books of Reference
Annual Rtport on Kenva. 1958. H.M.S.O., 19;,9
2'lte Ecollomy 0/ Ea,t iJ./rica: A Study 0/ Trends. E ..!. Railw,ys and Harbours, Nairobi,
1~55
Standard Engli.h-.~w"hili Diaionarll. Rd. Inter·territorial Language Committee 01 East
Africa. 2 vols. London, 1939
AJtriuchBm, Lord, R entIa'" Oppu,.,unity. London, 1955
As kwitb, T. G., Thl' S:nry vI /{ enYfl's Proure.~s. F..A. Litp.raturc Bureau, reV. ed., ] 9CtR
Hill, M. F" Permanent ll'a.1f. the :slory of the ntnya and l/uanda Railuuy. E.'!'. R<lilways
and Ha rbolU'", Nairobi, 19.)0
Hn.tley. E., and Perham, ~t.. Ua~ and Politio in Kenya. Rev. eo. London. 1956
Leakey, L.S. B •• Ma. MUll and th. Kikullu. London,IU52. Defeating Muu },Iau. London
1954
Mayer. Philip. Two .~I"(li,,;1I A.pplied Anthropologv;n Kenya. n.M.S.O., 1951
Mitchel1, ~ir P ., A/f'ir.an Aftf'rthoUt}hU. London.ltl54.
Parker, Mary (eo.). [J{JW Kenya i,~ GOt'f'rned . B.A. Litern.tl1re 'RUl'efl11, rev. ed., 1958
Peri!\tiany. J . G., 'J'ht Sorinl In.~titution3 of tI~ Kipsi9is. London, 1939
Soll.\·, G., Kenya lIist.,ry in O;fllinp.. E.A. Literature Hurcf1n, HI53
Troup, L. 0., Jnqui'1l illJo the General Economy of /<'arminrl in the H;yhtaniU. Nairobi, 1953
Waaner, 0., Tlu BI11du ()f .Vorlh Ka'N:r(Jndo (Kl'n.I/"l. 2 ~'o ls. London, 1949-:;8
Walmsley, R. W., Nairobi: the geography Q/ a neU! cily. Nairo!>i,1051
CENTtuL LmRARY. Tbe iUo1!illan Memorial Library, Nairobi.
TANGANYIKA
GOVERNMENT. German East Africa. was conquered in the First
World War and subsequently divided between the British and Belgians.
The latter received the tElrritories of Ruanda and Urundi and the British
the r<3mninder, except for the Kionga triangle which went to Portugal. The
country is now admini~tercd under United Nations trusteeship, the former
League of Nations mandate having been terminated and replaced in 1946.
For the terms (If the trusteeship agreement set Cmd Paper i081 (1!.)4i).
Tanganyika is administered by a Governor, assisted by an Executhe
Council and a Council of Ministers. The Executive Council is made up of
the ministers, who are ex.officio Ulembel"~, and 5 other persons not holding
public office appointed by the Governor under the Tanganyika Royal

Instrudions,1959. The Council ofl\1inisters comprises 3 ex.officio members
and ne t more than 9 nominated members.
Th" Legislative Council, constituted in 1926, consists of a Speaker, such
ex-officio members as Her Majesty may from time to time direct; such
nomin:Lted members being of a number that, if added to the number of
ex-offICio members, would not exceed 34; 30 elected members (10 Africans,
10 Asians and 10 Europeans), and not more than 3 representative membcrs.
Aner the elections scheduled for Sept. 1960 the Legislature will have an
electec. majority, and the Government will be formed with a majority of
Ministers from the elected members of the House.
GO/1ernor. Sir Richard Turnbull, K.C.M.G. (appointed Jan. 1958).
CMeJ SecrelanJ. J. Fletcher-Cooke, C.M.G.
AF:EA AND POPULATION. The territory extends from the Umbo.
River on the north to the Rovuma River on the south, the coastline being
about 450 miles long, and includes the adjacent islands (except Zanzibar
and Pumba). The northern boundary runs north-west to Lake Victoria at
the in·;ersection of the first parallel of southern latitude with the eastern
shore. The boundary on the west follows the Kagera. River (the eastern
frontiE·r of Ruanda), thence the eastern boundary of Urundi to Lake Tangan-
yika.. The western boundary then follows the middle of Lake Tanganyika
to its wuthern end at the Kalambo River 50 miles south of Kasanga, whence
it goe8 south-east to thc northern end of Lake Nyasa. It follows its eastern
shore .1nd rather less than half-way down the lake turns east and joins the
Rovurna River, whose course if follows to the sea. The total area is 361,800
sq. miles, which includes 20,650 sq. miles of water. Dar e3 Salaam is the
capital and chief port; population 128,732, including 4,478 Europeans and
93,363 Africans (census 19(7).
The country is divided into 9 provinces: Central (area, 35,200 sq. miles;
population, 886,962; capital, Dodoma); Eastern (area, 41,450 sq. miles;
population, 1,084,570; capital, Dar es Salaam); Lake (t~tal area, 37,000
sq. miles; land area, 27,600 sq. miles; population, 1,731,794; capital,
Mwama); West Lake (total area, 15,350 sq. miles; land area, 11,150 sq.
miles; population, 514,431; capital, Bukoba); Northern (area, 33,100 sq.
miles; population, 772,434; capita.I, Arusha); Southern (area, 55,600 sq.
miles; population,I,Ol4,265; capital Mtwara); Southern Highlands (total
area, ,15,400 sq. miles; land area, 44,800 sq. miles; population, 1,030,269;
capital, Mbeya); Tanga (area, 14,000 sq. miles; population, 688,290;
capital, Tanga); Western (total area, 83,900 sq. miles; land area, 78,250 sq.
milcs; population, 1,062,598; capital, Tabora).
Other towns are Moshi, situated on the Tango. railway in the farm
country around Mount Kilimanjaro; Kigoma, the principal port on Lake
Tanganyika whence lake services connect with the Belgian Congo, Ruanda-
Urundi and Northern Rhodesia; Iringa, in the Southern Highlands;
Morogoro (Eastern), and Lindi (Southern Province).
In 1957 (census) the European population was 20,598; Indians, Paki-
stani, Goans, 76,536; Arabs and Africans, 8,665,336. According to German
law every native born after 1905 was free, but serfdom continued under
German rule. Legislation for the abolition of slavery was enacted in 1922.
The African population of Tanganyika is made up of members of more
than )00 tribes, each with a distinctive dialect and varying customs. Most
of the tribes are of Bantu origin, although t.here are considerable Hamitie
and Nilo-Hamitic intrusions. SwahiIi, the language of Zanzibar, is gener-
ally spoken and understood throughout Tanganyika, particularly along the
t.rade routes which originally st.emmed from Zanzibar.
EDUCATION. African Education. Schools for Africans are main-

tained by the Government, and also by the native authorities and voluntary
agencies, these being subsidized by a grants-in-aid system paid by central
government_ In 1958 there were 2,660 primary schooL~, mainly co·educa-
tional, with an enrolment of 245,:li6 boys and 121,414 girls_ Of these 729
were maintained by the Go\-ernment and native authorities a nd 1,93\ by
voluntary agencies. There were 246 middle schools for boys and 47 for
girls. The Government or na tive authorities managed 105 of the boys' and
10 of the girls' schools. The enrolmcllts wero 30,310 boys and 6,301 girls.
There were 12 secondary schools run by the Government and 16 by voluntary
agencies. The enrolments were 3,193 boys and 306 girls. Seven teacher-
training centres were maintained by the Government and 24 by voluntary
agencies. The number of students in training were 1,280 men and 504
women.
Facilities for higher education are provided by the University College of
Makerere at Kampala and at the Royal Technical College of East Africa at
Nairobi, where in 1958 there were 216 and 25 students respectively from
Tanganyika_ VO('(ltional training is given at Ifunda and Moshi Trade
Schools, the Tengeru Natural Resources School and on various departmental
courses.
European Education_ Educational facilities for Europeans are adminis-
tered by the Education Department in accordance with the policy determined
by the European Education Authority and financed from the European
Education Fund, which derives its revenue from education tax paid by
Europeans, fees in government European schools and a cont.ribution from
the Government_
Eight primary schools are maintained by the Government; 2 of them,
at Arusha and Mbeya, being boarding schools. Assistance is given to 15
privately maintained schools. There are also 9 unassisted private schools.
The total enrolment of primary pupils in 1958 was 2,356. A correspondence
course is conducted for children who cannot attend a schooL A private
secondary co-educational boarding school at Iringa receives financial
assistance (460 pupils). 146 pupils from Tanganyika attend secondary
schools in Kenya.
Indian EducaJion. As in the case of European education, there is a
separa.te Authority for Indian Education with its own fund . There ure
government primary and secondary schools in Dar es Salaam, Tanga,
Dodoma, Lindi and Moshi, but most of the educational facilities for Indians
are provided by non-government schools receiving grants in respect of staff,
buildings and equipment ; in 1958 there were 119 of these assisted schools,
wit.h 16,217 pupils in primary schools or classes and 6,992 in secondary
c1asscs.
Otlter non-native Education. Therc are 3 mission schools providing for
Goans and other non-natives and receiving grants, and 1 school run by the
Goan community, with 1,319 pupils in 1958. There is also a. mission school
for half-castes.
Non-racinl Education. The Technical Institute in Dar es Salaam is
planned to provide technical and commercial training for both sexes of all
M
races, e,pecially for the higher posts connected with trades in the engineering
and building industries.
Pinclnce. Estimated expenditure on education in 1958-59: African,
£1,997,~'44 recurrent, £609,388 capital; European, £440,917 recurrent,
£180,230 capital; Indian, £552,856 recurrent, £317,459 capital; other non-
native tincluding Goan), £26,793 recurrent, £10,000 capital; vocational
training, £220,247 recurrent, £252,907 capital; total (including administra-
tion), £:1,558,986 recurrent, £1,369,984 capital.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure, including development
revenue and expendit ure, for financial years ended 30 June were (in £1,000
sterling) :
1954- 55 195:;- 56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 I 1956-60 I
Revenue 22,426 22,406 22,774 2,i ,288 25,807 24,014
Expeuditm'e 19,807 22,{)75 23,129 24,1<18 26,996 25,281
I Estimates.
The chief estimated items of revenue for 1959-60 were (in £1,000) :
Customll and excise, £8,925; licences, taxes, etc., £6,908; revenue from
government property, £1,381 ; fees of court or office, £1,356. The chief
items 0:' expenwture were (in £1,000): Public works, £2,513; mewcal,
£1,943 ; education, £2,633; East Africa High Commission, £1,007; pro-
vincial administration, £1,173; pensions and gratuities, £970; agriculture,
£774 ; police, £1,709.
Loans were received from the Imperial Government in the years
1920-21 to 1925-26, amowlting t o £3,135,446, for capital improve-
ments and developments. £1,288,983 were expended upon railway
works; other works, £770,955. The loan for railway and other works
is being repaid by equated annuitbs of £100,053, from 31 March
1947 to 31 March 1964. The balance of £1,075,fi08, representing the
loan to meet deficits on current account and repair of war damage was
paid in 1939. Other loans: 4% Guaranteed loon, 1952-72, £500,000,
of which £77,443 was allocated to railway works; Barclays Overseas De-
velopmmt Corporation Loan, June 1948, £250,000, raised for purchasing
250,000 £1-shares in Tanganyika Packers, Ltd (repayment of principal up
to 30 J'une 1959, £40,000); 3!% Inscribed Stock 1970-73, £1,750,000
raised in 1951 and £2,280,000 raised in 1952; 41% Inscribed Stock 1967-72,
£4,410,000, raised in 1953; 4% Lint and Seed Marketing Board 20-year
loan £hu. raised locally in 1954; 5i% Inscribed Stock 1978/82 £4m. raised
in 1957 ; 5!% Registered Stock 1975/79, £1 ·5m. raised locally in 1957; in
1959, T!.nganyika Registered Stock 1966/67 and 1980/83, £lm., and William-
son Diamond Ltd Loan of £1,317,000 were raised. At 30 June 1959,
£483,001) from 5% Development Bonds was raised.
PRC>DUCnON. Agriculture and Forestry. Tanganyika has three
natural :~egions-the coast lowlands, the high plateau and the high mountain
slopes around Mount Kilimanjaro and other northern peaks and round
Rungwe and the Livingstones in the south. In these regions there are high
rainfall areas as also in the foothills of the Ulugurus and Usambaras
eharnc«,rized by the presence of tropi('.al rain-forest. The total area of this
type is a bout 4,000 sq. miles and is insignificant in comparison to the 135,000
sq. miks of savannah forest (miombo woodland). By the end of 1958,
42,059 fq. miles had been set aside as forest reserves. The forests contain
tome gco()d merchanta.ble timbers in varying quantity, among which cam-
phor, podo, mvule and certain African mahoganies are the most important.
ID addition, valuable hard woods occur as single trees or in groups widely
scattered throughout the savannah forests, the chief being muninga and
Mrican black wood. Mangroves are valuable as a source of tanning bark
aDd also of poles which are carried by Arab dhows to the Persian Gulf.
The total production of mill·sawn timber for 1958 was 45,700 cu. tons
(each of 50 cu. ft), of which 22,837 cu. tons were exported.
Agriculture is the chief occupation. The Illost important commodity
exported is sisal, which constitutes iD value approximately one· quarter of the
principal expor~. Tanganyika is the world's leading producer of sisal.
In 1958 Tanganyika produced 196,567 tons-nearly one·half of the world's
supply. Other agricultural exports (in erder of their value as exported in
1958) are coffee, cotton, oil seeds, nuts and kernels, hides and skins, cashew
nuts, meat and meat preparations, groundnuts, feeding stuffs, tea, beans
and pulses. For further details see pp. 311-12.
Livestock, 1958: 7,415,000 cattle, 2,80;'),000 sheep, 4,124,000 goats,
17,500 pigs, 125,000 donkeys and 240 horses.
Mineral8. The value of mineral production in 1958 was £6·74m. Prin-
cipal export.s were (in £1,000) : Diamonds, 4,415; gold, 705; lead con·
centrate" 1,022; sheet mica, 51; salt, 243.
TRADE. There is a uniform customs tnriff in Tanganyika, Kenya and

Uganda, the three countries being united in a customs union since 1927.
In 1958 the main countries of origin were (in £1,000) : the U.K., 11,012;
India, 2,015; West Germany, 1,746; Netherlands, 1,082; South Africa,
1,066; the main countries of destination: the U.K., 14,148; West Ger-
many, 4,465 ; V.S.A., 3,228; India, 1,584; Canada, 416. For details of
imports and exports see pp. 311-12.
Total trade \vith the V.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1955 1956 19~7 19~8 1959
Iwporo. to U.K. 9,398,063 10,351,718 9,921,578 9,973,087 1l,456,773
Exports from U.K. 15,968 , ~87 13,337,523 l1,2 2~,4 8 7 10.093,427 9,418,733
Re·exports trom U.K. 52,346 47,049 33,788 46,957 33,376
COMMUNICATIONS. Road8. There are 8,700 miles of main roads

11,000 miles of other roads of varying standard maintained from publio
funds and over 8,000 miles of roads and tracks maintained by native
authorities.
The programme of road construction and improvement aims at linking
the road system of the Lake and Western Provinces with that of the re-
mainder of the country, improving the Great North Road from Arusha
to Dodoma and l\lbeya in the south, and the link between Dodoma and
Morogoro. constructing two new roads from the southern border to the
northern one in the far west and another near the coast in the east, and
providing high-class roads between the por~ of Tanga, Dar cs Salaam and
Mombasa, between Lindi and Mtwara and the exporting areas in the
interior.
Railways, Post and Teteco1fL1lmnications. See p_ 313. There were 13,000
telephones in use at 31 Dec. 1958.
Aviation. There are in all 52 aerodromes and landing strips maintained
or licensed by Government; of these, one is of International Class C standard
and 18 are suitable for Dakotas. The East African Airways Corporation
provid·} regular and frequent services to all the more important towns
within the territory lInd the neighbouring countries of Kenya, Uganda and
Zanzibar, together with a regular service to the U.K., India and Pakistan,
the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and South Africa. Other services
are operated by Central African Airways and Sabena; charter services are
operated by 2 companies. In 1958, 11,400 aircraft, 182,261 passengers,
1·9m. kg of freight and 404,000 kg of mail were handled.
Nadonal Overseas & Grindlays Bank, the Standard Bank of South
Africa, Barclays Bank D.C.O., the Nederlandsche Handel Mij, the Bank of
Barodc., the Ottoman Bank and the Bank of India, Ltd, have branches in
t.he country.
Books of Reference
R'POr1o:1 ,''' .ddmin..,,.,.,ion 01 Tanganl/.k4. 19.'i8. R .M.S.O., 1959
Handbook 01 Tanganyika. Government Printer, Dar es Salaam, 1968
AIl<u 01 Tanganyika . STd ed . Da, eo Salaam, 1966
Tangan~ika NOk8 and 1/ecor<14. Tanganyika SOCiety, Dar cs Salaam. (Twice yearly, from
193G)
Oommene and Industry in 'J'anganyika. Government Printer, Dar cs Salaam, 1957
Public Finance i .. Tanganyika, an analysis. Government l'rinter, Dar cs Salaam, 1959
Report 0'.1, the Cen.'Ws of the JVon-.dJrican P opulation, 20/21 P eb. 1957. Government Print.er,
j)ar e~ Salaam, 19:)8
Malcolm , D. W., Sukumaland: a .,udy 01 land UJ.in TanqanyiklJ. Oxford UniT. Press 1953
THE UGANDA PROTECTORATE

AREA AND POPULATION. The territories now comprised within
this Pl'otectorate came uuder British influence in 1890, and a portion of
them \~as for a time administered by the Imperial British East Africa
Company. In 1894 a British protectorate was declared over the kingdom
of Buganda and some of the adjoining territories. The present limits are
approximately as follows: On the nortb, the Sudan boundary; on the
east, a line drawn from Mount Zulia on the Sudan boundary along the
Turkana escarpment over the top of Mount Elgon, and along the west
bonndf,ry of the Colony of Kenya to the eastern shores of Lake Victoria;
on the south by the Tanganyika Territory; and on the west by the eastern
bounds.ry of the Belgian Congo. Within these boundaries lie part of the
Victoria Nyanza, part of I~'1ktl Edward, the whole of Lake George, half of
Lake Albert, the whole of Lake Kioga, the whole of Lake Salisbury, and
the COl\rse of the Nile from its exit from 'Lake Victoria. to Nimule, where
the Sudan commences. Total area 93,981 sq. miles, including 13,680 sq.
miles of swamp and water,
For administrative purposes Uganda is divided into 4 provinces: (I)
the Eastern Province, comprising the districts of Bugisu, Bukedi, Busoga,
Mbale Township, and Te.so; (2) the Western Province, comprising the
di.tric.s of Bunyoro, 'foro, Ankole and Kigezi; (3) Buganda Province,
with islands in Lake Victoria, comprising the districts of Mengo, Masaka
and Mnbende; and (4) the Northern Province, ,~omprising the districts of
Karamoja, Lango, Acholi and West Nile.
ThE' popUlation of Uganda is 4,958,520 (census of Aug. 1948), COlllposed
8.5 follows: African,4,917,555; Indin.ns, 33,767; Goans, },448; Arabs,
1,475; Europeans, 3,448. Estimated total population, mid.1958, was
5,678,900, including 9,000 Europeans, 56,600 Indians and Goons, and
2,000 Arabs. Among the Africans 850,000 are Baganda, the tribe from
which the Protectorate takes its name, and which was the most powerful
and civilized at the time when the first explorers visited the country. About
3m. Africans speak Bantu languages; there are a few Congo pygmies living
near the Semliki River; the rest of the Africans belong to the Hamitic,
Nilotic and Sudanese groups.
GOVERNMENT. The principal British representative is the Governor.

The Uganda Order in Council. 1920, established an Executive Council and
a Legislative Council. Changes in the structure of both Councils were
a.pproved by th<l Secretary of State in July 1955. The Executive Council
now consists of the Governor and 12 members (11 of whom are l\linisters).
The Legislative Council consists of 62 members. made up of 17 official and
15 back bench members on the Government side, and 30 representative
members; 34 members are Africans.
An independent pubIiu service commission to deal with appointments
and promotions in the civil service was eet up in Sept. 1955.
The headquarters of the administration is at Entebbe; the commercial
centre is Kanlpala.
Governor and C.·in·C. Sir Frederick Crawford, K.C.l\I.G., O.B.E.
Chief Secretary. G. B. Cartland, C.M.G.
The province of Buganda is recognized as a native kingdom under a.
• Kabaka,' with the title of • His Highness.' The districts of Bunyoro,
Ankole and Toro also have hereditary rulers. In all four kingdoms the
ruler has Ministers and a Lukiko or assembly on which sit chiefs and elected
members. These Lukikos carry ou t their functions subject to advice and
supervision by the Protectorate Government. as laid down by for mal
agreements. The remainder of the Protectora te is algo under an indirect
administration, and. in each district, councils on which the people are
represented arc taking an increasing a,mount of responsibility for the
management of local affairs.
EDUCATION. Until 1925 educational work was entirely in the hands

of missionary societies. which still receive grants. In that year an Education
Department was set up which now control.~ African, Asian and European
education. African education is still largely in the hands of religious
.-oluntary agencies; the administration of Asiau schools is ahared between
the Government and the local cOlllm unities ; European children of secondary
school age attend schools in Kenya or elsewhere. The Government aims at
the development of common schools open to all races and denominations.
The first common senior secondary school opened in Feb. 1960 in Kampala.
The total expenditure on education in 1958-59 was £4,295,52'J; in addi·
tion, £306,277 was spent on capital works.
At 31 Dec. 1958 there were gran t·aided primary schools: 2,llS African
with 317,8\)9 pupils (including \);l,9(l0 girls), 102 Asian with 14,823 pupils
(including 7.062 girls) and 1;) European with I,OS3 pupils (including 553
girls); unaided primary schools: 3,051 African with 134,576 pupils (includ.
ing 37,846 girls). 7 Asian with 372 pupils (including 173 girls). Secondary
education was provided in 173 grant·aidcd African schools with 17,454 pupils
(including 2,885 girls) and 38 grant·aided Asian schools with 4,8D7 pupils
(including 232 girls); and ill 77 unaided African schools with 6.855 pupils
(including 232 girls). There were also 36 Africa.1l teachers' training colleges,
with 4,064 students (including 1,410 women) and 1 Asian college with 83
students (including 56 women).
326 THE BRITISH CO~lMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
There was one technical institute with 470 students (including 21 women),
12 junior secondary technical schools with l,2G6 pupils and 81 rural trade
schools ;tnd home craft centres with 2,777 pupils (including G87 girls).
The University College of East Africa at Makerere (Kampala) was
estahlished in J939 as an independent seli~ governing institution catering for
all the East African territories; since 1953 the College has heen in special
relation.;hip with London University. In 1959 there were 889 students
(including 270 from Ugnnda) attending the College. In addition, 360
Uganda students wcre in receipt of scholarships or bursaries from various
sources ; ~nd were attending cour_es of higher education overseas.
JUSfICE. The High Court, presided over by the Chief Justice and 4
puisne jldges, exercises original and appellate jurisdiction, civil and criminal,
throughout the Protectorate, and district courts presided over by magi-
strates "xerciae limited civil and criminal jurisdiction in each district. The
Court of Appeal for Eastern Africa, inaugurated on I Jan. 1951, operates
for Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, Zanzihar, Aden, Somaliland and the
SeycheLes; it hears appeals from the High Court. Native courts of varying
limited jurisdiction deal with cases, both civil and criminal, involving
African" only, but certain classes of cases are reserved to the Protectorate
courts. Such native courts are supervised, in Buganda, by a judicial
adviser, and elsewhere by the administrative staff, the High Court having
appella1e powers in such cases in Buganda and exercising appellate and
revisional jurisdiction over such courts elsewhere.
There is an armed police force for the whole of the Protectorate com-
prising 4,282 officers and men under a Commissioner of Police. In addition,
the Bu~:anda Government, the Native Governments and the African Local
Governments also maintain their own police forces.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure (exclusive of loan disburse-

ments) for fiscal years (l July-30 June) were (in £ sterling):
19~5-56 1956-57 1957-58 1955-59 1959-60 '
Revenue. 18,927,421 19,O·IG,812 18,788,4 78 19,8 71,598 19,836,567
Expenditure 17,460,048 18,260,921 19,227,431 20,383,2<U 20,503,303
Capital budget
Revenue. 3,570,465 4,112,558 3,652,514 3,447,535 2,421,058
Expenditure 6,436,557 6,969,137 6,290,394 0,520,000 5,578,709
1 Estimate.
In 1958-59 African poll tax amonnted to £423,698 and income tax to

£3·4m. Public debt June 1959, £13,933,000.
In 1958-59 Uganda contrihuted £840,612 to the non-self-contained
servkee of the East Africa High Commission.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Cotton and coffee are the principal

exports, the former being grown entirely and the latter very largely by
Africa.n peasants. 2,014,020 acres were planted to cotton in the 1958-59
season, yielding 400,100 bales (of 400 lb.). The 1957-58 coffee crop
amoun1.ed to 77,000 tons, mostly robusta, making Uganda the largest
coffee F'roducer in the Commonwealth. Other cash crops produced in 1958
were tl,a (8·3m. lb.); tobacco (4,729,650 lb. of cured leaf), and maize,
groundnuts, castor seed, sisal, oil-seeds and sugar; hides and skins are an
import!LDt export. Over 400,000 cattle were consumed in 1958.
Fishery. The fishing industry is of growing importance to Uganda.
In 1958 production was 52,000 tons with a value of £2·1m., and of this total
about 90% was consumed within the country, the remainder being ex·
ported to the Belgian Congo and the East African Territories.
Forestrlj. Exploitable forest.s consist almost entirely of hardwoods.
Internal consumption is rising rapidly, and most of the timber avail/l,hle
for export is absorbed by the other East African territories, from which in
return the bulk of the Protectorate's softwood imports are obtained. In
1958 some 33,000 tons of sawn timber were produced.
Minerals. With the opening of the Kilembe mine in IfJ56, copper has
become Uganda'S most valuable mineral export. In 1958 the principal
minerals exported were copper (lO,fJ67 tOllS, £2,065,335), wolfram (17 tons,
£6,350), tin (60 tons, £23,274), gold (346 troy oz., £4,322) and lead (100 tons,
£3,500).
Power. Industrial expansion is based ou hydro.electric power provided
by the Owen Falls scheme, of which the first 7 of the 10 15000·kw. turbo.
alternator sets are in commission; another 2 are being installed. The
eventual capacity of the plant will be 150,000 kw. A supply line to Nairobi
was opened in Jan. 1958, supplying Kenya with 7·5m. units a month.
COMMERCE. Since 1927 Uganda has been united in a customs

union with Kenya and Tanganyika (see p. 312). The principal countries of
origin in 1!J58 were U.K. (40 % ), Japan (17 % ) and Western Germany (6 % );
the principal COWl tries of destination were U.S.A. (1\) % ), U.K. (17 % ), India
(15 % ) and Wcstern Germany (13 %) .
Total trade between Uganda and U.K., in £ sterling (British Board of
Trade retul'Jls) :
105~ 1956 1957 1058 1959
Imports to U.K. 5,060,989 7,284,856 6,763,700 6,647,261 5,800,822
Exports from U.K . . 10,136,171 8,104,033 7,P4,161 6,295,944 4,07 3,219
Re-exports from U.K. 11 t 730 16,638 26.408 37,289 24,129
COMMUNICATIONS. Lake, marine, road and railway services are

operated by the East African Railways and Harbours Administ.ration (,u
p. 315). With the recent opening of the Western Uganda. Railway
extension, a connexion has now been established from Mombasa to Kasese,
near the Belgian Congo border.
There are 2,898 miles of all.weathcr roads maintained by the Publio
Works Department and 503 miles of two·lane bitumenized highways, and
some 8,300 miles of other roads, maintained by African local government.
For posts 8ee p. 313. There were 13,000 telephones in use at 1 Jan. 1959.
Aviation. Entebbe has a first· class int€rnational airport and is used by
B.O.A.C., Contral African Airways, Sabena, Alitalia and East African Air·
ways on their scheduled routes, as well as Airwork and Hunting Clan flights.
In addition, it is a staging point on many charter flights. Entebbe airport
was used by 82,000 passengers in 1958. There are also 15 other airfields.

The National Bank of India, Ltd, has 9 branches; the Standard Bank of
South Africa has 7 branches and Barclays Bank D.C.O. has 19 branches in
the Protectorate. Other banks operating in the Protectorate are the Ba.nk
of India, the Bank of Baroda and the Netherlands Trading Society.
328 THE BP.ITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
Books of Reference
A ........I Repc"Ofl Uganda,1956. H .M.S.O., 1967
Uganda j 'rouetorau: Buganda. (Cmd 9320.) H .M.S.O., 1954
Kendall, :a:., TOtOn Planning in Uganda. London, 1955
Kltcbing, A. L., and Blaelrledge, G. R ., A [,uganda-English and Engli.h- Luganda Dieti",,",,).
Kampala, 1925
8OOm', Commercial Direc/IJ.y and Handbo." of Uganda, 1956-57. Kampala, 1956
Tho.mas, :3:. B., and &Ott, n., Uganda. London. 193G
Thomas, H . B., and Spencer, A. K . A History Of Uganda Land and Surveys and Of Ih. Uganda
Land and Survey D'1'artment. Entebbe. 1938
Totblll, J . D. (ed.), Agriculture in Uganda. Oxford. 1940
Trowcll, n., and Wachsmann. K . P., Tribal Crafts i1l Uganda . Oxford Univ. Press, 1953
ZANZIBAR
HISTORY. At the end of the 17th century the inhabitants of Zanzibar
drove out the Portuguese with the assistance of the Arabs of Oman. There·
after an Arab governor from Oman was sent to Zanzibar, but the govern·
ment of the interior remained in the hands of a local ruler, latterly known
liS the )Iwinyi Mkuu. In 1828 Seyyid Said bin Sultan, ruler of Oman,
established his capital at Zanzibar, and thereafter the whole of that island
and the island of Pemba together with a large strip of the East African
mainland coast came under his effective rule. Seyyid Said died in 1856.
}'ive yeus later his former African possessions were, under an arbitration
award lOade by Lord Canning (then Governor·General of India), declared
to be independent of Oman. In 1887 the Sultan of Zanzibar handed over
the administration of his possessions to the north of Vanga on the African
continent to the British East Africa Association. The administration of
these territories eventually passed to the British Government and are now
known as the Kenya Protectorate. Zanzibar still receives the sum of
£10,000 a year from the Kenya Government for the rights which the latter
exercise3 in this coastal strip. In 1888 a similar concession was gra.nted to
the German East Africa Association of the Sultan's mainland territories
between the river Umba and Cape Delgado. In 1890 the German Govern ·
ment bc-ught these territories outright for 4m. marks. In 1892 the admini·
stration of the Benadir Ports (which had in 1889 been conceded to the
British East Africa Association) \vas, with the consent of the Sultan,
transferred to the Italhtn Government in consideration of a quarterly pay.
ment of Rs. 40,000. The Sultan renounced in 1886 in favour of Portugal
all claims to the coast to the south of Cape Delgado.
In 1890 the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. were placed under British
protection by the Sultan, Seyyid All bin Said. The Protectorate was
formally proclaimed in that year, and a regular form of government was set
up in H:91.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Sultan, Seyyid Sir
Khalifa bin Harub, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E. (born 1879), succeeded on the
abdication of his brother.in.law, Ali bin Hamoud bin MahoDlt-.d. 9 Dec. 1911.
Heir.apparent: Seyyid Sir Abdulla bin Khalifa, K .B.E., C .M.G.
The Government is administered by the British Resident, who exercises
his func~ions under the Zanzibar Orders.in·Council, 1924 and 1925. Legisla.
tion coDsists of decrees of His Highness the Sultan, which are binding on a.ll
persons when countersigned by the British Resident under the Order-in·
Council.
Iu 1956 a Privy Council was established and the Executive Council and
Legislative Council wero enlarged. The Privy Council is presided over by
His Highness the Sultan. The Executive Council with 4 ex·officio, 3 official
and 5 reproscntntive members, and the Legislative Council with 4 ex.officio,
9 official and 12 representative members aro presided over by the British
Residcnt.
The first general elcctions, held 22-24 July 1957, for 6 of tho 12 repre·
sentative senis, returned 3 Afro·Shirazi, 2 Shirazi and 1 member supported
by the Moslem Association. From 1960, 8 members are elected and 4
appointed by the Sultan on the advice of the British Resident from a panel
of persons who have been supported by 100 voters.
British Resident. Sir George Mooring, C.M.G.
Chief Secretary. P. A. P. Rob ~ rtson. C.M.G. (appointed 21 Jnn. 19(8).
AREA AND POPULATION. The island of Zanzibar is situated in

6' S. lat., and is separated from the mainland by a channel 22! miles across
at its narrowest part. It is the largest coralline island on the African coast,
being 50 miles long by 24 broad, and having an area of 640 sq. miles. To
the north·east, 9.t a distanca of somo 25 milcs, lies the islnnd of Pemba in
5° S. lat., 42 miles long by 14 broad, having an ar~a of 380 sq. miles. The
average annual rainfnll is about 60 in. in Zanzibar and nearly 80 in. in
Pemba.
The popUlation of Zanzibar and Pemba, at the 1958 census, was 2!l9,lll
(Zanzibnr, 165,253; Pemba, 133,8(8). The African population is composed
of the indigenous WatulUbatu, Wahadimu and Wapemba, and other Mricane
comprising at least 50 mainland tribes. The racial composition of the popu.
lation was as follows in 1958: Indigenous inhabitants, Arabs and mainland
Africans, 275,804; Asians other than Arabs, 18,334; Europeans, 507;
others, 4,466. Zanzibnr town had a populntion of 57,923.
RELIGION. Most of the natives are Moslems (Sunnis of the Shafi

eohool); the Sultan and a fe\v Arab families from Oman are of the lbadhi
sect. There are 3 Christian Missions: the Universities Mission to Central
Africa (Church of England). the Mission of the Holy Ghost (Roman Catholic)
and the Friends' InullstrialMission (QuakcI's; 80 members in 19(7).
EDUCATION. Primary education is free. There lire government

schools for Arabs and Africans (boys and girls) and Indian (boys); 3 govern·
ment secondary schools for all mces (2 for boys, 1 for girls); schools which
are grant·aided by the Government, including mission and community
schools; and a few private schools. There are 2 boarding schools for girls,
2 teachers' training colleges (I for mell [boarding], I for women), a Moslem
Academy and a trade school. The total number of children attending
government aad gmnt.aided schools on 30 June 1957 was 17,443 (including
10,029 boys and ;-!,!J39 girls in government primary schools, and 354 boys
and 173 girls in government secondary schools). 46 boys attend the
Mombasn instituto of Moslem education for technical training.
JUSTICE. In the cases in which persons subject to the Zanzibar Order·

in·Council, 1924, are parties, justice is administered by Her Britannic
:'IIajesty's High Court anel thc courts subordinate thereto. All other cnsee
are dealt with by H.H. the Sultan's court for Zanzibar and the courts sub·
ordinate thereto. Subordinate courts lire presided over by resident magi .
strates, administrative offiecrs, Kathis and Mudirs. There are nlso juvenile
oourts t:omprising male and female members selected from panels. Appeaia
lie to Her Majesty's Court of Appeal for Eastern Africa and thence to the
Privv Council.
The capitulations at one timo enjoyed by certain foreign states in Zanzibar
were renounced by exchange of notes between 190i and 1908.
FIl\'ANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) for calendar yeurs:

1955 1956 19:;7 1958 1~5~'
Revenue from customs 1 1.710,960 1,673,552 1,715, 395 1,54:;,722 1,763,650
Total rel enue • 3,005,800 2,742,804 2,~6 3, :;8 ·1 2,382,408 2,567,963
Expendil,ure' 2,536,265 2,69J,136 2,9~1,339 2,530,527 2,796,557
1 Gross: includes duties on imports and 010\"0 export duty.
, Excludes lonns, in clud es development revenue.
S Includes development expenditnre.
• Estimaws.
Bes.. des customs, the chief sources of revenue in 1958 were: Intcrest on
investments, £114,218; licences and internal revenue, £274,238; fees, etc.,
£257,5f6.
The chief heads of expenditure in 1958 were: Agriculture, £121,914;
education, £334,165; health, £278,668; pensions, £211,822; police,
£146,OC5; port and marine, £129,055; provincial administration, £109,826;
public ';vorks, £492,804.
In 1958-59 Zanzibar contributed £37,523 to the non·self·contained
servicefl of the East Africa High Commission.
PRODUCTION. The clove industry is the most mportant in the

Proteotorate, the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba yielding the greater part
of the world's supply. It is estimated that there are in both islands about
80,000 acres under cloves and a bout 4m. trees, the average annual output
of the hst 35 seasons being over 23m. lb. The exports in 1958 were 204,033
centals of 100 lb., equivalent to 9,102 long tons, against an average over
the period 1954-58 of 10,808 t ons. In addition, 91 tons of clove oil were
exported in 1958. The large plantations are owned chiefly by Arabs and
Indiam, but many Africans possess small holdings.
The coconut industry ranks next in economic importance. It is esti·
mated l;hat there are about 5·5m. bearing trees in both islands, but as these
are not systematically planted the acreage is very difficult to assess. In
1958, 66,667 cwt of coconut oil, 57,840 cwt of oil cake and 9,989 tons of
copra were exported. The production of coir fibre has increased from 138
tons in 1952 to 2,425 tons in 1958. The production of locally grown food·
stuffs Ieceived an impetus during the war, particularly as regards rice
cultivation, and this has been maintained. Oranges, pineapples, mangoes,
paw·paws and other tropical fruits are grown, and there is a small export
trade i.I oranges to the mainland. Small quantities of chillies are also
grown for export. A trade in lime oil and juice is being developed. The
export of marine shellR, heche·de·mer, seaweed and fish provides additional
income
The manufactures a.re clove and clove stem oil, coir fibre and rope, soap,
oooonu1. and simsim oil, jewellery, ivory and ebony ornaments, copper and
bra.ssw6.re, chests, mats, etc. There are no mincs in the Protectorate.
COMMERCE. Total imports and exports (including bullion and

specie; in £ sterling) and shipping entered (gross tons):
DRITISH EAST AFRICA 331
1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Imports . 5,n9,861 5,877,45' 6,702,661 6,387,059 6,529,109 5,3.16,755
Exports . 7,967,388 6,429,287 6,781,695 6,162,468 5,938,782 5,203,100
Shipping 2,826,292 3,085,916 ',156,7~5 2,825,977 2,878,570 3,436,132
The principal articles of import and export in 1958 were: Imports:

rice and grain, £626,247; cotton piecc.goods, £151,342; motor spirit and
petroleum, £145,092; sugar, £293,511; whoat flour, £248,219; tobacco,
cigars and cigarettes, £151,033; ivory, £253.289. Exports : oloves,
£2,656,795; ivory, £197,180; coconut oil, £.'340,403; coconuts, £.127,695;
copra, £610,138.
The trade between Zanzibar (and Pemba) and the U.K. (British Board
of Trade returns) for calendar years is given as follows (in £ sterling):
1938 19,6 19~7 1958 1959
Imports into U.K. 43,160 151,641 192,282 177,500 228,4~2
Exports from U.K •. 109,681 l,727,6 i 4 1,269,245 1,113,711 791 ,] 74
Re-exports frow U. K. 1,919 ' ,357 7,071 6,494 10,500
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The vessels of many British and

foreign steamship companies visit the port. The Zanzibar Government
8teamers operate services to Pemba and Dar ea Salaam, and occasional tripe
to Mombasa.
Ocean·going shipping dealt with in 1%8: 1,673,249 tons net (369
vessels); coastwise, 190,443 tons (483 vessels); dhows, 121. ,010 tons entered
and 108,551 tons (3,435 vessels) cleared. Excellent water supplied at 3·6
tons per minute is available for shipping.
Road3. ThE're are in Zanzibar 279 miles. of tarmac roads and 68 miles of
all . weather unsealed roads; in Pemba thero are 81 miles of tarmac roads
and 181 miles of dry· weather earth roads.
Post. The Government maintains a telephone system in the town of
Zanzibar, which is connected with the district and agrioultural stations in
the country. A telephone service in tho island of Pemba connects the 3
main townships, i .e., Wete, Chakc Chake and Mkoani. There are 7 post
offices and 1,206 telephones in the two islands. The government savings
bank at the end of 1958 had 30,852 depositors, with £686,448 on deposit.
There is cable communication with Europe either via Aden or via Durban.
Aviation. There is an all· weather landing.ground in Zanzibar and a
smaller all· weather landing. ground in Pemba.
CURRENCY. Since 1 Jan. 1936 the East African Currency Board

shilling (see p. 313) has been the unit of currency in Zanzibar.
Notes of the Zanzibar Currency Board may be redeemed for East African
ourrencyon presentat.ion to the Accountant General.
An importan t local unit of weight is the frasln (or frasila) = 35 lb. av.
Books of Reference
Annual Report on Zanzibar, 1955-56. H.M.S.O., 1957
.4 Guide lu Zannbar. Zanzibar, 1952
<Joupland, Sir R., Tile Exploitalion Of East Africa, 1856-90. J.ondon, 1939
llollingsworth, L. IV., Zanzibar under Ihe Poreign Office, 1890 - 1913. London, 1953
Ingrams, W. H., Zaneibar: 1/$ HiJlOTJ/ and /1$ People. London, 1931
Ommanney, F. D., I sle of ClO1Jes. LOlldon , 1955
Tidhury, G. E ., The Clove Tree. London, 1949
WUliams, R. 0., The Useful and Omamenli.,l Plants in Zantibar and Pmwa. Zan.ibar and
London, 1949
MAURITIUS
Mauritius was known to Arab navigators probably not later than the
lOth cEntury. It was probably visited by Malays in the 15th century,
and was discovered by the Portuguese between 1507 and 1512, but the
Dutch \Vere the first settlers (1598). In 1710 they abandoned the island
and it ues occupied by the French under the name of Isle de France (1715).
The British occupied the island in 1810, and it was formally ceded to Grea,t
Britain by the Treaty of Paris, 1814.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The government is vested
in a Go,ernor with an Executive and a Legislative Council. The Mauritius
(Consti1ution) Order in Council, 1958, provides for a Legislative Council
consisti tlg of the Speaker (appointed by the Governor from outside the
Council), 3 ex-officio members (the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney·General
and th" Financial Secretary), 40 elected members and such nominated
membeJ's, not exceeding 12 as the Governor may appoint.
The Executive Council consists of 12 Ministers, namely the 3 ex-officio
membeJ's above-mentioned and 9 members appointed from the elected or
nominated members of the Legislative Council, by the Governor acting in
his disc ,etion. :Ministers are responsible to the Governor in the Executive
Council, and to the Legislative Council, for all matters affecting the depart.
ments with which they are associated.
A court of criminal appeal was set up on 1 Jan. 1955.
English and French are the official languages.
Govl rnor and G.-in·G. Sir Colville Deverell, K.C.M.G., C.V.O., O.B.E.
Colonial Secretary. Robert Newton, C.M_G.
AREA AND POPULATION. The island, situated 20° S. lat., 57!O E.
long., ifl of volcanio origin. The climate is free from extremes of weather,
except for tropical cyclones at times. A d evastating cyclone occurred on
27/28 F eb. 1960. Yearly rainfall varies from 30 in. on the north-west coast
to 200 in. in the uplands.
Mauritius has an area of about 720 sq. miles. According to the census
ofl952, the population of the island was 501,415 and that of the dependencies
was 15,~85. The estimated resident population of Mauritius at the end of
1958 W,t8 613,888 (310,521 males; 303,367 females); population of Port
Louis, the capital, with its suburbs, 104,016.
Vital statistics, 1958: Births, 24,600 (40'8 per 1,000); marriages, 3,169
(10'5 pt,r 1,000); deaths, 7,112 (11·8 per 1,000).
RELIGION. In 1952 there were 165,086 Roman Catholics, 5,467
Protestants (Church of England and Church of Scotland). State aid is
granted to the Churches, amounting in 1958-59 to Rs 644,800. The lndo·
Mauritians are mostly Hindus.
EDUCATION. Primary education is free but not compulsory, though
under the Education Ordinance of 1957 compulsion may be introduced a8
circumstances permit. At the end of Oct. 1958 there were 107 government
and 76 state-aided schools. Average attendance at government schools,
44,620 (54,849 on roll); at state-aided schools, 37,373 (45,702 on roll).
There were, in Oct. 1958,237 unaided primary schools, with a roll of 11,330.
For secondary education there were, in Oct. 1958.2 government boys'
schools and 1 government girls' school with 1,262 pupils, and 8 aided and 54
unaided secondary schools for boys and girls, with a roll of 14,175.
MAURITIUS 333
There is a government post·seconda.ry agricultural collegc and It t€'achel's'
train ing college.
The actual current expenditure by Government on education during the
financial year 1958-59 amoun t.ed to Rs 18,337,382, excluding capital ex·
penditure 011 new buildings and other development works which cost Rs
3,544,272.
N ewspapers. There are 4 bilingual French-English daily papers with
a combined circulation of 34,000 and 3 Chinese daily papers with a circula·
tion of 1,000 each.
FINANCE. Revenue a nd expenditure (in Ra) for years ending 30 June :
19M-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1
Revenue.
Brpenrliture
Special revenue 2 ~ 116,65.j
-' -'
_.
143,016,922 1 ~4,64 1, 2 99 1 3 3,;12 ,~ 94 1 ~ !l,ln9,77 ·1 134,77;,72()
D2,714.557 109,5U4,972 132,521,530 13'.?,52.:J,; 6t 136,~ 6r..030 •
- , -'
Special expenditure . 23,990,549 -' -' -'
• Estimates. 1 Included in revenue and e:tpendlture .
• Excludes capital receipts and development e~penditure.
Principal sources of revenue, 1958-59: Direct taxes, R s 49,310,756; in.

direct taxes, Rs 63,324,799; receipts from public utilities, Rs 7,216,251;
receipts from public services, Rs 4,672,755. Estimated capital expenditurc,
1959-60, Rs 57,548,144.
The debt of the Colony 011 30 JUlle 1959 was Rs 97,488,581; municipal
debt of Port Louis on 31 Dec. 1958 was Rs 6,449,449.
DEFENCE. At 30 Sept. 1959 tbe Mauritius Naval Volunteer Force
had 83 officers and ratings. Tbe Mauritius police is equipped with arms;
its strength at 26 Sept. 1959 was 1,175 officers and men (establishment:
1,226).
PRODUCTION. The prosperity of Mauritius depends on sugar, which,
with its by. products, accounted for 98'8% of the exports in 1958. The area
planted with sugar cane is about 197,400 acres. Sugar crop in 1958
amounted to 525,842 metric tons. The cane is milled in 25 factories.
Secondary crops are tea (about 3,600 acres, yielding 873 metric tons in
1958), tobacco (1,000 acres, yielding 498 metric tons in 1958) and aloe fibre
(about 2,700 acres, yielding, 1,576 metric tons in 1958).
Forests cover 188,400 acres; timber production, 1958, totalled about
545,000 eu. ft ; sala of government forest produce amounted to Rs 1,400,000.
LABOUR. There were, on 31 Dec. 1958, 64 registered trade unions,
including 9 employers' unions, with a total paid.up membership of 2J ,92!J.
COMMERCE. Total trade, in rupees, for calendar years:
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Iwports I 214,359,355 250,472,2'17 228,149,482 263,8 17,Sg8 29n,21S,253
Exports' 260,110,507 244,894,562 291,150,148 ~Z3 , 180,225 281,079,231
I Excluding bullion and specie.
I Excluding value of usgar qnotn cert.iHcnt.cs, which ~'as est i mated in 19fi4 at. TI s 6,85.: ;,li4;
in 1955 at Rs 6,872,333; in ]~:;6 at Rs 6,928,000; in ]957 at Rs 7,101,610; in 1~;;8 at Its
7,221,t 2G.
Sugar exports in 1954,502,404,145 kg, value Rs 252,0':;3,583; ill 195(;,

475,358,459 kg, value Rs 237,333,343 ; in 1956, 539,978,399 kg, value Rs
282,379,233; 1957,585,603,234 kg, value Rs 307,701,937; J 9 58,522,752,220
kg, value Rs 269,894,312.
Total trade between Mauritius and the U.K., in £ sterling (British

Board of Trade returns) :
1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Importst·, U.K. 3,631,223 20,530,094 22,697,419 15,5 37,424 13,342,782
Exports from U.K. • 726,199 4.992.617 6,053,709 6,834,628 6,976,550
Re'exports from U.K. 8,660 38,251 45,041 56,896 107,663
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The registered shipping, I Jan. 1959,

consisted of I auxiliary.motor vessel (99NRT), I steam vessel (468 NRT)
and 2 motor vessels (1,583 NRT).
In 1')58, 381 vessels (169 of which were British) with a registered net
tonnage of 1,456,!l05 entered and 383 vessels (170 of which were British)
with a registered net tonnage of 1,471,891 cleared the colony.
Ro(u':s. There are in the colony about (a) 508 miles of main roads;
(b) 22!l miles of branch roads, and (c) 43 miles of streets in villages and
extra ur')an arcas. 404 miles of main and branch roads have been asphalted.
At 1 SeFt. 1959 there were 6,904 private cars, 1,096 cars for public hire, 425
buses and (JIO motor cycles, with 462 government. owned vehicles. Corn·
mercial road vehicles comprised 2,289 lorries and vans and 185 haulage
tractors.
Railways. There are 82 miles of railway of 4 ft 8i in. gauge. Gross
earnings, Rs 4,955,9!l7; working expenditure, Rs 5,!.l91,224 for 1957-58.
Post. In 1958 there were 211 miles of telegraph lines and 1l,040 miles
of telephone lines; number of telephones, 8,161. There is a direct cable
communication wit.h Durban, Seychelles and Rodrigues. from which places
connexion with all parts of the world is available. A radio.tclegraph
service c perates with Reunion, Madagascar. Rodrigues, Seychelles, Zanzibar
and pla, :es in Africa. A radio· telephone service operates with Reunion.
l\Iadaga~car, Rodrigues and Nairobi, and through Nairobi with Europe and
other parts of the world.
Avia:ion. There are 2 weekly scheduled services (Air France) between
Manritills and Europe via East Africa. A fortnightly service is provided by
each Qaltas Empire Airways and South African Airways between Sydney-
Johannesburg via Melhourne, Perth, Cocos Islands and Mauritius. The
airport at Plaisance in the south· east of the island is run by the civil aviation
departm ent of t.he Government. Incoming and outgoing passengers num-
bered ll,776 in 1958.
MOriEY AND BANKING. The Mauritius rupee, equivalent to Is. 6d.
sterling, is divided into 100 cents. The currency consists of: (i) The
Government note issue of Rs 1,000, 25, 10 and 5; (ii) the cupro-nickel
rupee, h llf.rupee, quarter·rupee and 10 cents; (iii) bronze coins of 5 cents,
2 cents and 1 cent. The note circulation, as at 30 June 1959. was Rs
61,235,0)0.
Banking facilities are provided by the post office savings bank. the
Mauritius AgricultUTal Bank. the Mauritius Commercial Bank. Ltd (estab-
lished lil38), Barclays Bank D.C.O .• and the Mercantile Bank of India..
On 30 June 1959 the post office savings bank held deposits a.mounting to
Rs 30,7~8.!)53, belonging to 76.210 depositors.
DEPENDENCIES
RodJ"igues (under a magistrate and civil commissioner) is about 35()
miles eaflt of Mauritius, 18 miles long, 7 broad. Area, 40 sq. miles. Popula-
SEYCHELLES 335
tion (census 1952). 13.333; estimated population on 31 Den. 1958. 17.018
(8,397 males; 8.621 females). Imports. 1958. Rs 3.857,514; 1957, Ra
4.2!)5.I,H. Exports. 1958. Rs 1.709.575; 1957. Rs 1.405.717. There are
2 government and 4 aided primary schools.
Lesser Dependencies: Diego Gareia. Six Islands, Peros Banhos. Solomon
Islands. Agalega. St Brandon group. Trois Freres. The nearest, St Brandon,
is 230 miles from Mauritius. and the most remote, Chagos Archipelago
(Diego Garcia). about 1.200 miles. Total population of the lesser depen.
dencies. census 1952. 1.752 (966 males, 786 females). Coconut oil export.
(to Mauritius) from the lesser dependencies in 1957, 8·2 metric tons; 1958,
1·1 metric tons. Other exports are coconuts, copra, guano and salted fish.
Diego Garcia (the most important of the Oil Islands group). in 7° S.
1st•• 72° E. long .• is 12i miles long. 61 miles wide, with 619 inhabitants.
(census 1952), a large proportion being labourers from Mauritius.
Books of Reference
STATI~TlCAL INFORMATION. The Central Statistical Olllc. (TIose-Hill. Mauritius) wa.
founded In July 104:;. Dir«tor. M. V. M.IIercbenroder. B.Sc .• F .I.S. Its main publication
i. the Year Book of Stati,tics (from 1946).
..I.nnual Rrports on Mauritius, 1955, 1956. H.M.S.O .• 1957
}'inal Report on the Cell:nJ,8 Enumeration . .. on 29 June 1952. 1953
Calling at MaurUiu3. Travel anrll'ourist Bureau, Mauritius, 1953
Bi~li09ra'Phv of Mauritius, 1:;02-1954. Port Louis, Govt. Printer, andLondon, Crown Agents,
1956.
Ardill, R. H .• ..I. School Gtography of Mauritius. P ort Louis. 1957
BarnweU, P. J., and Tou_int, A.• A Short Bi.<tory of Mauriliu •• London, 1949
Bertucbi, A. J., The Island of Rodrigues. Lond on, 1923
UoienvUle, N. d" LOlle Maurice et sa civilisation. Paris and Port Louis, 1949
Wheeler, J. F. G., and OlDIDA.Uney, F. D., Report on the Mauritius-Seychelltl l'ilhtrit, Su.nt'f
194&-49. H.M.S.O., 1953
LIBRARY. Tbe Mauritius Institute Library, Port Louis.
SEYCHELLES
Constitution and Government. The islands were first colonized by the
French in the middle of the 18th century. the object being to establish
plantations of spices to compete with the lucrative Dutch monopoly. They
were captured by the English in 1794 and incorporated as a dependency of
Mauritius in 1810. In 1888 the office of administrator was created, with
an Executive Conncil and a Legislative Council. In 1897 the Administrator
was given full powers as Governor. and in Nov. 1903 he was raised
to the rank of Governor. The Legislative Council oonsists of the
Governor as President. 6 official members, 5 elected and 2 nominated
unofficial members; and the Executive Council of the Governor a8 President,
4 a.officio members and 4 unofficial members. The capital is Victoria on
Mahe. whioh has a good harbour (population, 10,000).
Governor and C.-in-O. Sir J ohn Thorp, C.M.G., M.B.E.
Oolonial Secretary. I. Woodroffe.
Area and Population. Seychelles and its Dependencies consist of 92
islands and islets with a. total ('stimated area of 1561sq. miles. The principal
island is Mahe (55; sq. miles). smaller islands of the group being Pra.slin.
Silhonette, La Digue. CurieuB6 and Felicite. Among dependent islands are
the Amirantes, Alphonse Island, Bijoutier Island, St Fran<;ois, St Pierre, the

Cosmoledo Group, Astove Island, Assumpt.ion Island, the Aldabra Islands,
ProvidBnce Island, Coetivy, Farquhar Islands and Flat Island.
The population, 30 June 1959, was estimated to be 43,149. The number
ofbirtbs in 1958 was 1,553; deaths,450; marriages, 226; divorces (1957), 9.
EdlAcation. There were in 1959, 2 government primary schools, 25 grant·
in·aid schools (17 Roman Catholic, 6 Anglican, I Seventh Day Adventist, 1
private), 4 Roman Catholic unaided primary schools and 6 private schools.
In addition, there were 2 government secondary modern schools, a grant·in-
aid Roman Catholic girls' secondary modern school, a government secondary
grammu school for boys and an aided Roman Catholic secondary grammar
school for girls. Total number of children attcnding school as at Oct. 1959
was 6,400.
A tBachers' training college was opened in Sept. 1959.
JU8l'ice. In 1958, 2,811 cases were brought before the courts (criminal
side). The police force num bered 117 all ranks, plus 50 in reserve.
Finance, in rupees, for calendar years:
1966 1966 1957 1968' 1959'
Revenue . 3,194,137 4,505,023 4,'196,826 4,220,000 4,624,000
Ih::pendi":uro 3,866.948 4,986.467 4, 362,951 4,268,290 6,800,000
1 Estimr.tcs.
In 1958 the first grant·in·aid, of Rs 1,120,000, was made to the Colony.
Chief items of revenue, 1958 : Customs and harbours, Rs 2,001,029;
direct taxes, Rs 1,361,622; fees of courts, Rs 247,005; post office,
Rs 107,567; government property, Rs 546,555; interest, Rs 179,243.
Chinf items of expenditure, 1958 : Medical, Rs 751,357; agriculture,
Rs 338,128; education, Rs 587,869; police and excise, Rs 331,652.
Colonial Development and Welfare expenditure, April 1956-March 1959,
£·162,8CO.
Proiuction. Chief products, coconuts (over 28,500 acres under cultiva-
tion) and cinnamon, patchouli oil and vanilla beans. Food-crop production
is bein,; encouraged. On some islands turtles are collected and gua.no
deposit3 are worked. Fishing is actively pursued, both for local supply and
export of salted fish to East Africa and Ceylon. Re-afforest·ation is pro-
gressing; 2,000 acres have been planted.
LivBstock (1950): Cattle,2,1l2; pigs,2,325; goats, 1,200; poult.ry,
40,000.
Commerce. Total trade, in rupees, for calendar years:
19~3 1964 19~~ 1966 1957 1958
1mports . 8,351,008 8,086,860 8.862,676 7,484,676 1.646,516 9,495,612
E:tports . 8,167,617 9,081,869 6,140,274 6,641 ,032 6,932,880 8,165,878
Prir:cipal imports (1958) : Rice, 4,489 tons, Rs 2,462,217; sugar, 1,103

tons, 1:s 577,770; cotton piece-goods, 812,684 yd, Rs 729,141; maize,
230 tOES, Rs 97,331; flour, 909 tons, Rs 482,918; motor cars and cycles,
29, Rs 179,528 ; motor spirit, 384,828 litres, Rs 192,716; cigarettes,
5,962,4!)0, Rs 98,317; wines, 34,373 litres, Rs 87,392; beer, 250,880 litres,
Rs 321,831.
Prill.cipal exports (1958) : Copra, 5,599 tons, Rs 5,447,063; guano, 16,805
tons, R'3 699,403 ; cinnamon leaf oil, 82 tons; vanilla, 6,000 kg, Rs 423,025;
cinnam·)D bark, 1,063 tons.
Imports (1958) from U.K., Rs 2,622,665; India., Ra 974,982; Mauritius,
SOMALILAND 337
Rs 484,625; Kenya" Rs 362,374; Australia, Rs 505,872; South Africa,
Rs 238,992.
Exports (l958) to India, Rs 5,453,214; U.K., Rs 758,655; Mauritius,
Hs ~04,262; Kenya, Rs 37,288.
Total trade with U.K. (British Board of'l'rade returns, in £ sterling) :
1933 1954 1956 1967 1958 1959
Imports to U.K.. a,MO 45,203 55,480 89,802 80,494 9C,210
Export.'llrom U.K. . 34,238 25U37 201,9~9 135,065 220,245 267,907
Re·exports Irom U.K. 78~ 3.973 2,634 2,597 2,408 4,387
Communications. Shipping (1958) entered, 233,027 tons; cleared,
237,027 tons, mainly British, exclusive of coasters trading between MaM and
the dependencies. Steamers normally call every 2 weeks from Bombay on
tbeir way to Mombasa, and vice versa. There is fairly regular communica·
tion between the islands.
There is a good system of tarmac (25 miles) and earth roads in Mahe;
extensive road.making is being undertaken. There is direct telegraphic
communication with Mauritius, Zanzibar, Aden and Colombo. Telephones
numbered 182 in 1959.
Banking. Barclays Bank D.C.O. has a branch in Mahe.
Books of Reference
Report on/he SeytheUes, 1957~~8. Government Printer, Seychelles, 1939
Bradiey, J. T., lliJ/Qr1J 01 Seychelles. 2 vols. SeycbeUes, 1949
Bradsbaw, L. A., KnofJ) You, Own 00u1ll"l/. London, 1964
Cooke, F. C., ReWTt on Coconut Industry. Government Printer, Seychelles, 1958
Hnrd, H. R., R eport on Taxation in the Colony. Government Printer, Seychelles, 1959
Rowo, J. W. F., Report on the economy 01 Seychelles and its luture deve/opment. Government
Printer, Seycbelles, 1959
Surridge, Sir Re>:, .ddvice on Financial .ddministration and Fiscal Policy. Seychelles Govt.,
1958
SOMALILAND PROTECTORATE
THE history of British administration in Somaliland dates from 1884 when
troops were sent from Aden to Zeilah to safeguard British interests after the
Egyptians had withdrawn their control over Zeilah and Berbera. A series
of agreements was negotiated with the Somali tribes from Zeilah eastwards,
placing most of them under British protection and guaranteeing their inde-
pendence. On 20 July 1887 the Powers were notified that a British Protec·
torate had been established 011 the Somali coast from the Ras Jibuti to Bender
Zaida. Its boundaries were later defined by treaties with France, Italy and
Ethiopia.
From 1901 to 1921 the peace of the Protectorate was upset by the
activities of Mohamed bin Abdulla Hassan, a fanatical Somali mullah, who
preached' holy war' against the British. He raised large forces of ruthless
dervishes who operated from various bases in the eastern and south·eastern
areas of the Protectorate and from Somali territory under Italian and
Ethiopian control. Several military expeditions met with no lasting succeS8.
In 1910 the U.K. Government decided that transport and communication
difficulties made control of the interior impossible. Tribes friendly to the
British were given arms aud ammunition and left to feud for themselves
while British forces and administrators were concentrated in the coastal
towns of Berbera, Bulhar and Zeilah. But chaos ensued in the interior. A
military headquarters was re·established in Burao only in 1914, but der,ish
raids continued until, in 1920, a combined attack wit.h nir and land forces
was la1lnched against them and their leader tied into territ,ory administered
by EthiophL, where he died in Feb. 1921.
The Protectorate remained peaceful until on 4 Aug. 1940 it was invaded

by powerful Italian forces based on Etbiopia. The mcagre British defence
forces and the civil administration were withdrawn to Aden by 18 Aug. 1940.
In March 1941 British forces returned and set up a military administration
which ColOtinued until 1948 when civil government was resumed.
In ~:ov. 1954 an agreemcnt was concluded between Great Britain and
Ethiopia whereby Ethiopian sovereignty was again recognized over the
Reserved Areas and the H aud, to the south of the Protectorate, recognized
by earlier treaties as Ethiopian territory but used by British protected
Somalis as grazin~ grounds. These areas were administered by the British
from the reoccnpation of the country in 1941 to Feb. 1955. Under the
1954 ag::eement, British'protected Somalis retain their grazing rights in the
areas and there is provision for astaff of liaison officers to look to their needs.
GOVERNMENT. In March 1960, cabinet government was introduced
(7 miniftetS, 4 of whom are Somalis); the Legislative Council now consists
of 33 elected unofficial and 3 official members. At the elections on 17 Feb.
1960 the National League obtained 20 seats, the United Party 12, the
National United Front 1.
The protectorate is divided into 6 districts, which bear the names of the
6 principal towns : Berbera (population in hot season about 15,000; in
cold sea,son about 30,000), Hargeisa (30,000-40,000), Burao (10,000),
Borama (4,000), Erigavo (3,000) and Las Anod (2,000). The lleat of govern·
ment is at Hargeisa, the chief port is Berbera.
Governor and G .•in·G. Sir Douglas Hall, K .C.M.G.
GM~f Secretary to the Government. P. Carrel, O.1\'1.G., O.B.E.
ARI~A AND POPULATION. Somaliland Proteotorate ocoupies the
north-e!l8t horn of the African continent along the south of the Gulf of Aden.
It is bounded on the east and !IOuth·east by the Italian Somalia. trusteeship
territory, on the south and south·west by Ethiopia, and on the west by
French Somaliland. The territory oovers an area of approximately 68,000
sq. miles, and lies between 8 0 and HO 27' N. lat. and 42 0 35' and 490 E.
long. r.~he interior of the protectorate is characterized by an elevated
plateau rising towards the north to an altitude of from 2,000 to 7,000 ft, and
descending in scarps and broken hills to the coastal plain, which varies in
width from 10 to 60 miles. Vegetation consists largely of coarse grass and
stunted thorn and acacia trees, which furnish good grazing for camels, sheep
and goats.
Climatic conditions on the coast are governed by the south· west mODSoon
(Kharif;·, which blows from May to Sept., and the north·east monsoon, which
lasts from Nov. to March. Much of the interior is generally cool and healthy
owing to its elevation.
The nomadic population is estimated at 600,000, and consists entirely of
Somali f;ribes who are Sunni Moslems of the Shafi'i sect.
EDUCATION. On I Jan. 1960 the following schools were operating:
I secondary school (1l2 pupils), 1 teacher training centre (55 pupils), 12
intermediate boys' schools (1,039 pupils), 32 elementary Somali boys' schools
(2,020 pupils), I elementary European (59 pupils), I elementary Indian (15
pupils), i elementary Somali girls' schools (233 pupils), I intermediate Somali
girls' school (86 pupils), 140 assisted Koranic schools (2,850 pupils).
There is no written Somali language.
DEI'ENCE AND POLICE. There is a garrison of SomaIiland Scouts,
and a locally enlisted police force of 939 under 24 British and Somali offioers.
BRITISH WEST AFRICA 339
FINANCE. In 1958-59 revenue amounted to £1,165,247 and expendi-
ture to £1,636,982. The main items of revenue were customs and excise
(£925,876) and licences, taxes, etc. (£75,727); the main items of expenditure
were public works (£434,662), police (£182,138), health (£143,481), local
government (£97,577), educat,ion (£116,221), external relations (£84,068).
PRODUCTION. The life and wealth of the people is centred round their
8tock (camels, sheep and goats). Agriculture is confined to small areas with
8ufficient rainfall. Millct is grown in the western part,s. Frankincense and
myrrh are found in the cast. The coastline abounds in fish. Game includes
lion, kudu, ostrich and all types of gazelle.
The Amerada Oil Company which began drillings for oil in 1957 have
been unsuccessful and given up their operations. The Standard Vacuum
Oil Company comlllenced drilling operations in Dec. 1958 in another area,
and the British Petroleum Company began experimental drilling in the
Berbera area in WGO. Other minerals include gypsum, beryl, mica, colum-
bite and cassiterite.
COMMERCE. Imports, (1!l58) £4,017,261, (1957) £4,044,392; exports,
(1958) £1,729,321, (1957) £1,355,418. The chief exports are livestock, hides
and skins.
Total trade between Somali land and the U.K. (British Board of Trade
returns, in £ sterling) :
1938 1966 1967 1968 1959
Imports to U. K. 29,026 63,633 89,572 59,453 88,833
lUportslrom U.K. 62,111 602,666 880,6:H 923, ~4 0 827,958
Re·exporta from O. K. 2,626 3,895 5,482 8,<116
COMMUNICATIONS. An air service with Aden connects the Protec-

torate with the main trunk air routes. There is considerable tratlic,
principally by dhow, between the Protectorate and Aden and Saudi
Arabia. There are neither railways nor waterways, but about 2,500 miles of
road can be used by wheelcd traffic in the dry season between the principal
towns. There are telephone exchanges at Hargeisa, Bnt/io and Berbera;
telephones numbered 420 in Dec. 1958.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The East African shilling is sole legal
tender (see p. 313). The National Overseas and Grindlays Bank has
branches in Hargejsa and Berbera.
Books of Reference
Annual ~rt, 1956-57. n.M.S.O., 1968
Rant, J. A., A General Survey 0/ tl~ Somaliland ProUCU!ra/e. Crown Agents, 1951
Jardine, D. J., The Mad M·,llah 0/ Somali/and. London, 1923
LanranC<!, M., A Tr.. /Of POV'-Tty : Somali Pr.... and Verst. Hargeisa, 1954
Lewis, I. M., PeQ-pk. 0/ th. Horn 0/ A/rica. Intern. Airic!I.D Inst., 1~54
A complete bibliography publisbed by the Protectorate Government may b. obtained Irom
the Crown Agents lor the Coloni.. , 4 MiUIJ"nk, London, S. W.1.
BRITISH WEST AFRICA

A WEST African Council came into being in 1945. It was in 1951 replaced
by the West African Inter·territorial Conference (renamed' Council' in 1953),
which, ill turn, was superseded on 1 April 1959 by a new West African
Research Office, with seat (since 1960) in Lagos. This Office co· ordinates
and administers scientific research conducted jointly by the governments

of Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Gambia.
Th" Office maintains institutes and units specializing in various human,
animal and plant diseases, such as tuberculosis, pests affecting cacao, the
cultivation of maize, rice and oil palms, and the design and protection of
buildings.
Books of Reference
Bauer, 1'. T., We81 African Trade. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1954
Church, R. J. H., Wesl Africa. London,ID57
Clark, F. LeG., and others, 1'he New Wesl Africa. London, 1953
Fage, J. D., An ["Iroduclion 10 lhe Hislorv of Wesl Africa. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1955
Green, I.. G., White Man's Grave: the ttOTV vf tlte West African cou..st. London, 1954
Howard. C. (ed.), Wesl African Explorers. Oxford Univ. Press, 1952
Parrind,r, G., Well African Psvchologll. London, 1951
Pedler, I'. J., Economic Geographv of Wesl Africa. London, 1955
WIge, C. G., A Hislorv of EdltClllion in British Wesl Africa. London 1956
FEDERATION OF NIGERIA
Th" territory no\v known as the Federation of Nigeria (formerly the
British Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria) is situated on the Gulf of Guinea.
on the west coast of Africa. The territorial divisions of Nigeria are the
Northern Region, the Eastern Region, the Western Region, the Southern
Cameroons and the Federal Capital of Lagos. The territory of the Camer.
oons is included a8 an integral part of Nigeria, in accordance with a Trustee·
ship AI~eement dated 14 Dec. 1946. The northern portion is administered
as part of the Northern Region, while the southern portion is administered
&8 a se parate region. All figures given in the following sections relate to
Nigeril., including the Cameroons, unless otherwise stated.
HISTORY. This territory comprises a number of areas formerly under
eeparal;e administrations. Lagos, ceded in Aug. 1861 by a native king,
was pllced under the Governor of Sierra Leone in 1866. In 1874 it was
detach,~d, together with the Gold Coast Colony, and formed part of the latter
until Jan. 1886, when a separate' colony and protectorate of Lagos' was
constituted. Meanwhile the National African Company had established
British interests in the Niger valley, and in July 1886 the company ob·
tained a charter under the name of the Hoyal Niger Company. This
company surrendered its charter to the Crown in 1899, and on 1 Jan.
1900 the greater part of its territories was formed into the new protectorate
of Northern Nigeria. Along the coast tho Oil Rivers protectorate had been
declared in June 1885. This Wl18 enlarged and renamed the Niger Coast
protectorate in 1893; and on 1 Jan. 1000, on its I1bsorbing the remainder
of the territories of the Royal Niger Company, it became the protectorate
of Southern Nigeria. In Feb. 1906 Lagos and Southern Nigeria were
united into the 'colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria,' and 0'1
I Jl1n. 1914 the latter was amalgamated with the protectorate of Northern
Nigeric, to form the' colony and protectorate of Nigeria,' under a Governor.
On 1 ('ct. 1954 Nigeria bf\camo a federation under a Governor·General.
CO.~STITUTION. The basic instrument of Government is the
Nigerif. (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954, which came into operation
on 1 Oct. 1954. This Order provided for a Council of Ministers, comprising
the Gcvernor·General as President and 10 Ministers (3 from el1ch Region
13RITISH "VEST AFRICA 341
and J from the Southern Cameroons) and 3 ex-o.!ficio members, namely the
Chief Secretary, the Attorney-General and the Financial Secretary of the
Federation_
Following the Constitutional Conference held in London in May-June
1957, the principal Order-m-Council was amended to provide for the crea-
tion of the offiee of Prime i\finist.er of the Federation and for the former
Chief Secretary, Attorney-General and Financial Secretary to cease to be
ex-officio members of the Federal Council of lIlinisters. The Federal Council
of Ministers then consisted of not less than 10 members other than thc Prime
Minister. Until Federal independence the Governor-General or his Deputy
(the former Chief Secretary) preside at meetings of the Council of Ministers.
Following the agreement reached. at a conference in Oct. 1958 the Federal
House of Representatives consists of the Speaker and 312 elected members.
The Southern Cameroons is not represented in the Federal Parliament.
An Upper House or Senate has been formed with equal representation
from each Region.
The federal elections of Dec. 1959 gave 150 seats to the Northern People's
Congress, 8!) to the National CowlCil, (j2 to the Action Group and II to other
parties and independents.
Internal self-government has been granted to the Eastern, Western and
~orthern Regions, and the Premier of each region presides over meetings of
the Executive Councih. The Governor is required to act on the advice of his
Minist.ers and to give his assent, to all bilh passed in the Legislative House of
the Regions except in three specific cases: a bill appea.ring to be inconsistent
with treaty obligations of the U,K.; a bill whereby the Roya.1 Prerogati\'e or
the tights of property of Her M[,jest.y's subjects not residing in Nigeria (Or
the trade and communications of any pilrt of lIer lIIajesty's dominions may
be prejudiced; a bill which in the opinion of the Governor might have the
effect of impeding or prejudicing the performancc by the Federal Govern·
ment of its functions or of endangoring the continuance of federal govern-
ment in Nigeria.
Each Region has its own Executive Council. In the Northern, 'Vestern
and Eastern Regions there are two· chamber systems of government, con-
sisting in each case of a House of Chiefs and a House of Assembly. The
members of the Western House of Assembly are elected, except for 3
special members appointed by the Governor, In the Northern Region the
members of the House of Assembly are all elected except for 5 spccial
members who are appoint.ed by the Governor of the Region. On 15 May
1958 the Ministerial form of Government came into force in the Southern
Cameroons. The Executive Council is presided over by the Commissioner
of the Cameroons and includes the Premier, 6 Cameroon ministers and 3
ex-officio officials. The elect.ed representatives number 2(j and a House of
Chiefs of 20 members will be set up.
Elections to the Federal House of Representatives are completely
separate from the elections to the Regional and Southem Cameroons Houses
of Assembly.
The executive autbority of the Federation extends to all matters with
respect to which the Federal Legislature has power to make laws. Under
the 1954 C.onstitution certain subjects became exclusively a matter for the
Federal Legislature. They include external affairs, aviation, banks, census,
customs, defence, maritime shipping, mines and minerals, posts and
telegraphs, trunk roads and railways. In addition, there is a concurrent
list of subjects which may be dealt with by the Regional Legislatures as
well as by the Federal Legish.ture, The subject of police was removed by
the Conference from the exclUBive to the concurrent list and it was recom-
mended that the Regions should have power to own or participate in
commercial banks, though the Federal Government would retain its exclusive
respon~:ibility for central banking matters and exclusive powers of legislation
concenling the supervision of banks and banking. All other subjects
becam(' a matter for the Regions.
At the request of the federal government the Queen has granted inde-
pendence to the Federation as from 1 Oct. 1960.
Governor·General and High Commissioner of the Cameroons. Sir James
Robert50n, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E. (sworn in, June 1955).
Governor, Northern Region. Sir Gawain Westray Bell, K.C.M.G., C.RE.
(sworn in, 2 Dec. 1957).
Governor. Eastern Rl!IJion. Sir Robert Stapledon d'Stapledon, K.C.M.G.,
C.B.E. (1956).
Governor, Western Region. Sir John Rankine, K .C.M.G., K.C.V.O.
(lfl54).
Cor.lmissioner of the Cameroons. J. O. Fields.
Pri'ne Minister of the Federation . Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa,
K.B.E., M.H.R. His cabinet, appointed on 20 Dec. 1959, is a coalition of
10 ministers of the Northern People's Congress and 7 of the National
Council. President of the Senate. Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe.
Premier, Northern Region. Alhaji Sir Ahmadu Bello, K.B.E., lItH.A.,
Sardauna of Sokoto.
Premier, Eastern Region. Dr M. 1. Okpara. lItH.A.
Premier, Western Region. Chief Samuel AkUltola, M.H.A .
Premier, Southern Cameroons. J . M. }'oncha.
Fetieral Commissioner in London. Alhaji Abdulrualiki (Nigeria House,

9 NortlUmberland Avenue, \V.C.2).
U.S.A. Representatives. Consul-general in Lagos; consul in KadWla.
LOOAL GOVERNMENT. Local government is the main responsibility of a
large number of Native Administrations. Throughout the country, in
recent years, the influence of British local government institutions has been
increasingly marked. The Northern Region Native Authority Law, 1954,
incorporates as many of the provisions dealing with the functions of native
author:lties as can be conveniently grouped together in a single Law. The
Law d,~als, inter alia, with the establishment and appointment of native
author::ties and lays down their powers and duties. The expansion and
modenlization of the system of local·government cOWlcils in the Eastern
And W'3stern Regions continue.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area approximately 373,250 sq. miles,
including the Cameroons under British trusteeship; population (1952-53
census:, 31,171.000. Northern Region: 281,782 sq. miles, 16,840,000
population. Eastern Region: 29,484 sq. miles, 7,218,000 popUlation.
Western Region: 45,376 sq. miles, 6,088,000 population. Southern
Cameroon8: 16,581 sq. miles, 753,000 population. Lagos: 27 sq. miles,
354,000 popUlation. Estimated total population of Nigeria in 1959 was
approximately 35·3m.
Th!> populations of the largest towns in 1952-53 were as follows: 1badan,
459.000 (1959: 500,000); Lagos, 272,000 (1959: 350,000); Ogbomosho,
140,000; Kano, 130,000; Oshogbo, 123,000; Ife, 111,000; 11\'0, 100.000;
Abeokuta, 84,000; Onitsha, 77,000; Ilesha, 72,000; Oyo, 72,000; Port
Harcourt,72,000; Enugu,63,000; Aba,58,000; Yerwa-i\Iaiduguri,57,000;
Benin,54,000; Zaria,54,000; Katsina, 53,000_
Topography and Climate. A belt of mangrove swamp forest 10-60 mile!
in width lies along the entire coast.Iine. North of this there is a zone of
tropical rain forest and oil-palm bush some 50-100 miles wide. Farther
inland the country rises and the vegetation changes to open woodland and
savannah_ In the extreme north the country is almost desert. There are
few mountains except along the eastern boundary, where the highest peak is
the 13,350-ft Cameroon Mountain. The Niger, Benue and Cross are the
main rivers.
The climate varies with the types of country, but Nigeria lies wholly
within the tropics. and temperatures are high. Temperatures of over 100°
are common in the north; coast temperatnres are seldom over 90°, but
the humidity at the coast is much higher than in the north. Most of
the rain falls between April and Sept. in the north and between March
and Nov. in the south; rainfall varies from under 25 in. a. year to 150 in.
An area. at the foot of the Ca.meroon Mountain has a freak rainfall of over
350 in. During the dry-season the • harmattan' wind, laden with fine
particles of dust, blows from the north-east.
RELIGION. The 1952-53 census figures (in 1,000) were:

Regions Southern
Total .•Vorthern Ea.!tnn We3tcrn Lagos Camcroons
Kigeria 19.52 1953 1952 19~2 1953
ObIistians 6,821 658 3,612 2,201 146 304
Moslems 13,;U4 11,661 23 1,971 112 27
Others . 10.540 4,616 3,580 1,913 9 422
Total 31,155 16,835 7,215 6,085 ~67 i63
The main Christian missionary societies represent the Roman Catholic,

Anglican, Scottish, Methodist and Baptist Churches. In addition, there are
several inter-denominational Protestant societies, such as the Sudan Interior
Mission, the Sudan United Mission and the Qua Ihoe Mission.
EDUCATION. On 1 Oct. 1954 education became the responsibility of
the Regional Governments, the Federal Government retaining responsibility
for education in Lagos and for those institutions of higher learning which
have Nigerian significance, such as the University College at Ibadan, the
Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, King's College and the Man
0' War Bay Training Centre. Free education for all primary schoolchildren
within the 6-12-year age group was implemented in Western Nigeria in
Jan. 1955 and in Lagos and Eastern Nigeria in Jan. 1957; financial diffi-
culties led the Eastern Regional government to re-introduce fees in 1958.
In 1958 there were more than 2·5m. out of about 5m. children of primary
school age at schooL The demand for secondary education continues
to exceed the number of places available, particularly in the Eastern and
Western Regions and in Lagos. Eighty-four secondary schools are recog-
nized for entry for the West African School Certificate and this examination
and all external examinations of the Universities of London and Cambridge
have been taken over by the West African Examination Council.
Teacher-training institutions totalled 311 in 1958. The third branch of
the College of Arts, Science and Technology at Enugu began its first course
in Sept. 1955. The headquarters of the College, at Zaria in Northern
Nigeria, was officially opened in 1957, though courses have been running
since Hl52. Sub· professional technicians' and tradesmen's courses are left
to the technical institutes and trade centres to be developed by the various
governments.
University College, Ibadan, was founded in 1947, and is an autonomous
Univenity College in special relationship with the University of London.
Its graduates are prepared for degrees of the University of London in Arts,
ScienCE, Medicine and Agriculture. In 1959-60 there were over 1,000
students in residence. A 500·bed teaching hospital, associated with the
College. was opened in 1957.
OiM'IlWS (1958). There were 38 cinemas, with a seating capacity of
20,000.
NetJSpapeTs. There are 16 daily and 15 weekly and hi· weekly papers;
the hlg:'J.est circulation of a daily i.~ 100,000 and of a weekly, 125,000. They
include English language and vernacular papers.
JUSTICE. The judicial system was reconstituted in 1954. There

is a Federal Supreme Court which has limited original jursidiction and is
primari ly a court of appeal. High Courts exist in each of the three Regions,
and a combined one for Lagos and the Southern Cameroons. The Western
Region has its own magistrates' courts, and these courts are also being re·
organized elsewhere. In addition, there are native courts with extellsive
jurisdiction, particularly in the Northern Region . Customary courts havo
also benn established in the Western Region.
FIl\'ANCE. Central government revenue, expenditure and public debt.
in £1,0(1Q sterling for fiscal years ending 31 March:
190'"-65 19~5-~6 1956-57 1957-58' 1968-59' 1959-60
Revenue 62,481 69,829 70,666 68,004 77,31 5 83,923
Erpendil.ure 60,668 ~5,386 62,924 64,163 ' 75,414' 80,021
Public d.,b, 24,249 19,982 17,O~0 17,O~O 17,050 36,221
, Re"ised estimat<,s,
'Inc' udes £24,346,610 appropriations for Regional Governments in 1957- 58 and
£28,296,1;00 in 1958-59.
, Approved estimates.
• Est. mates.
Regional revenues and expenditure (in £1,000 sterling), including share

of appr:>priations, for the fiscal year ending 31 March 1960 are estimated at:
Soutbern
Eastern Northern Western CamerOOD;\
Reveuue 14,011 15,870 18,479 1.990
Erpendil.nre 12,940 15,548 15,500 1,592
PRODUCTION. The main industries are agricultural. Groundnuts,

cotton, hides and skins, columbite and tin come mainly or wholly from
the no[';h, palm produce, cocoa, timber and rubber from the south, bananaa
from the Cameroon8.
There are important tin· and coal mining industries at Jos and Enugu
respectively, In 1958 tin production amounted to 8,412 tons; columbite,
806 tons; gold, 788 fine OZ; tantalite ore, 24 tons; 925,000 tons of coal
were produced and used mainly within the country. Timber and hides and
skins are other major export commodities. Industrial products include
soap, ci.~arettes, beer, margarine, groundnut oil, meat and cake, concentrated
fruit ju::ees, soft drinks, canned food, metal containers, plywood, textiles and
ceramic products. A cement factory, a factory for rubber·soled shoes and ..
cotton-weaving mill are in production.
In 1958 there were 2,941 co-operative societies with 157,103 members.
Live8tock. Estimates of the cattle stock vary from 4m. to Srn. About
Im. head of cattle and 6m. sheep and goats are slaughtered annually.
COMMERCE. The principal ports 8rt' Lagos, Sapele, Port Harcourt,

C..l..bar and Tiko. There is a great deal of internal commerce in local food-
.tuffs and imported goods moving by rail, lorry and pack animals overland,
and by launches, rafts and canoes along an extensive and complex network
of inland waterways. Kano is still, as it has been for centuries, the focus of
caravan routes linking a territory which stretches from the Sudan on the east
to Senegal in the west, with branches northwards across the Sahara_
Imports, exports, re-exports and overseas shipping are shown below:
Merchandise 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Total import. (in £1,000) 108,2~0 114,069 135,768 152,769 151,618 167,074
Domestic exports (in £1,000) 120,889 145,934 129,418 132,169 123,197 132,906
Re-exports (in £1,000). 3,343 3,301 3,296 2,436 3,391 2,778
Foreign BhiPl,ing :
Ves•• ls entered (number) . 1,267 1,418 1,5~O 1,553 1,759 2,159
Net registered tonnage
(1,000) . . . 2,983 2.983 3,172 3,282 3,656 4,804
Cargo handled (1,000 tons) 3,251 3,625 4,341 4,646 4,261 4,950
1957 1~58
Principal Imports Valut (£1,000) Quantitl! Value (£1,000) Quantity
Ootton piece-goods (1,000 sq . yd) 14,46~ 156,20 7 16 ,296 172,4~G
Fish (1,000 lb.) 8,476 88.647 7,400 7a,7l9
Salt (1,000 lb.) . J ,632 206,640 1,7~7 232,624
Beer (1,000 gaUoICl) 3,158 6,160 3,319 6,270
Machinery. . 31,176 39,3SU
Motor vehicle. (number) 9,170 12,369 11 ,207 15,08\,
Bicycles (number) 1,193 106,038 1,390 114,753
Bags and sack' (1,000). 1,903 18,628 2,192 23,22~)
Petroleum oils' (1,000 gallons) 5,930 100,526 6,208 114,127
1 Loca l consump tion only.
Principal Exports
(in 1,000 toICl) 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Cocoa 11;; 105 98 88 117 135 88
Palm-oil . 167 201 208 18~ 185 166 171
Palm· kernels 374 403 484 433 461 406 441
Groundnuts 280 327 428 398 448 302 613
Benniseed. 13 12 15 U 22 19 12
Bananas 73 90 81 67 68 79 86
Rubber 18 21 n 27 39 40 42
Hide. and skino . 9 9 ~ 10 7 8 7
'£in ore 11 12 10 11 13 13 7·6
Coal. 1 5 26 79 62 101 98
Trade b y tnnin Import. (In £1.000) Exports (in £1.000)

countries 1956 1957 1958 19.56 1907 1958
U.K.. 68,342 65,u88 72,721 86,343 77,746 75,227
India and Pakistan 7,169 6,034 6,007 54 227
Other OoUllllonwealth CQuntrles 5,771 5,[lll 6,16& 1,496 1,827 l,2G9
U.S.A. 6,390 8,112 9,736 12,684 7,606 8,077
Japan . . . 20,220 17,601 19,434 7 25 1,029
N etherlatlds and p o ssession~ 7,341 9,311 10,~ S 9 13,357 12,478 18,357
Germany U,004 12,565 13,371 6,784 5,961 11,103
It"ly. 4,845 3,127 3.952 6,127 6,417 8,430
Norway 4,518 6,230 6,012 705 340 500
Total trade between U.K. and Nigeria (including the Cameroonll),

According to British Board of Trade returns iin £ sterling) :
1938 1956 1957 19,8 1959
Import" to U.K. . . 6,256,621 90,870,915 85,230,644 .9,81)6,966 87,354.258
Export" from U.K. . 4,246.371 62.072,804 58.188,995 65,898,052 72,378,633
Re·expurts from U.K. . 268,824 1,140,451 1,407,314 1,947,346 2,304,009
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. There are 1,770 route miles of line
on 3 ft; 6 in. gauge. The north·wcstern main line runs from Lagos to Kano
(700 miles) through Abookuta, Ibadan, Ilorin, Jebba, Minna, Kaduna and
Zario.. From Kano the line continues for a further 143 miles in a north·
easterly direction to its terminus o.t Nguru, while a bro.nch line from Zaria via
Gllsau to Kaura Namoda serves north·western Nigeria; this line is, in
addition, linked with Sokoto hy a scheduled raihnl.y road service from Gusau.
The eastern line runs from Port Harcourt deep. water quay on the Bonny
River through the thickly populated oil.palm a·rea to Enugu, where it serves
the co :1ieries; it then crosses the Benue River and joins the north·western
line at Kaduna (569 miles). A branch line of63 miles from Kafanchan serves
the tin·mines at JOB. An extension from Kuru (near Jos) to Maidugw'i
(400 miles), to serve the potentio.lly rich area of Bornu, is under construction.
In 1958-59, 7,015,000 passengers travelled an average distance of 53
miles, 3,097,000 tons of goods were carried an o.vero.ge distance of 446 miles.
Rouls. There are 37,844 miles of maintained roads, of which 4,035 miles
are talTed.
At 1 Jan. 1959, 43,294 motor vchicles were registered on CIll'Cent licence.
Of thEse 16,548 were commercial vehicles, 22,613 private cars and 4,033
motor cycles. Bus services, by private owners, opero.te in the larger towns
and b(.tween the ma in towns in Eastern and Western Nigeria, but the bulk
of pas,enger and goods traffice by road is carried in lorries (mammy wagons).
Po,t. The Posts o.nd Telcgraphs Department provides postal facilities
at over 1.lll offices and agencies. Telegraph, money order and savings
bank l:ervices are provided at 175 of these. Most letter mail is carried by
air at normal postage rates. External telegraph services are owned and
operated by Cable and Wireless, Ltd, at Lagos, from which telegraphic
commlwication is mainto.ined with all parts of the world. There is a Nigerio.n
broad(3sting service at Lagos and regional broadcasts at the three regional
capito.ls. A television service was inaugurated in Western Nigeria in Oct.
1959. There were 29,352 telephones in use ill 1959.
Avi.ation. There is an extensive system of internal and international
air rot,tes, serving Europe, South and West Africa. Regular services are
operat;.,d by Nigerian Airways (WAAC), B.O.A.C., Air France, K.L.M.,
8aben•• , 8wissair, Pan American and other lines. Aircraft arrivals from out·
side Nigeria in 1958 totalled 3,975, carrying 335 tons of freight. During
the year ended 31 March 1959, 68,257 passengers and 1,527 tons of mail and
freight were carried on internal services.
CURRENCY. Currency used to be controlled by the West African
Currency Board. The denominations are: Notes, £5, £1 and lOs.; alloy
coins,!s., Is. and Od.; nickel coins, 3d.; bronze coins, Id., id. and ,'od.
Since 1 July 1959 a Nigerio.n currency has been in circulation beside that
of the West African Currency Boa.rd.. The denominations are £5, £1, 10s.
and 56. notes and 26., 18., Od., 3d., Id. and id. coins.
At 30 June 1959 currency in circulation amounted to £51,877,000; at
16 Oct. 1959 Nigerian currency in circulation amounted to £32,432,663.
In 1958 the post office savings bank had 259,429 depositors holding
£4,028.852.
The Central Bank of Nigeria, t he Bank of West Africa, Ltd, lIarclays
Bank D.C.O., the National Bank of Nigeria, the Afri can Continontal Bank,
the Merchants' Bank, Lt.d, the Bli tish and French Bank, Ltd, and t·he
Co·operative Bank are t.hc principal banks operating in Nigeria.
Books of Reference
Anntul! R epo rt on Ni9",ia, 1955. R .M.S.D .• 1 9 ~ 8
N igeriu1I Consttt utiMI Report. (Orud. sn;:4.) H .M.S.O .• 1 ~~3.-l/eport bV t1~ llesumed
Con/erfflu. <ClllO. ~059 . ) R.KS.D .• 1954
Report by the Niljerian Constitut.i01,," Conference, May-June , 1957. H.M.S.D., 1957.-.• •
[(e,,,mlld Conference, 19';8. H.M.S.D., 1 ~i> S
TM Ewnomic P rngramme 0/ lJevelc'pme1lt for the Pedemtion of Nigeria, 1956- 60. [AnDual)
Pros".. Report, 1957 jJ.
Economic Sun:ey Of Nigeria, 1959. Federal Go~erl1U\ent Pri nt-er, Lagos, 1959
Nigeria Ann1l<ll Trade Report, 1956. LRgos, lU57
Niljef'ia Dit}ell of Stat ist ics. J.,a~o~. 1951 If. (quarterly)
Nigeria 811ndbnok. Crow-a .J..gent.<;):. 1!J56
Nu,eria Handbook Of C017I1MrCe and bldustries. 1957. Dept. of Commerce and Indu'tries.
Lagos, 19 ~7
Popuial1·on CerMUS Of lIf~ .:Y orlheTll ll~g io n of Nigeria, 1952. Lngos, 1954
PopuJatioo CellS'" 0/ th. Ea.'Le", Region of Nigeria. 1953. Lagos, 19~5
RfPO'r1 cm the ,S ample Ct?1lSU,~ of ..1gricultu.,e. 1950-51. Lagos. 1952
Report 0/ Cmsus Of Layos, 19JO. Lagos. 19,,2
Ahraham, It. C., d JJia·i01/ary o/th , 7';0 Language. London, 1940
Akpan, N. U., Epitaph to IndiTed R1tle. LondoD, 1 9~6
Banzery, G. P., .d li'l.U$a-Enqlish Dictionary aml Eng/isfl-llau stJ Vocabular y. London, 193.
Dochanan, K. H.• and rugb, .1. C., Land and PeOl)le in Nigeria. Univ. of London l're3s, 1955
Burns. A. C., B i.storjl 0/ N igeria. Rev. ed . London, 19,,6
Dictionary ult/~ YOTuba La1lg11«ge. Newed. :2 vols. L agos , 1918
Elias, T . 0., Nigerian, Land Law and Custom. London. 1951
G..uetti, R., and otbe .... Nigeriall COWl> Farmer.. Oxford Un iv. Press, 1956
Grove , A. T., Land and Popul!ltion in Kalsina Province. Ku<.luna, 1957
HalTis, J . P., Local G()1)ernm ent in Southern N igeN·a. Oambridge Univ. Pre3S, 19:i 7
Kirk-Grecne, A. H. M., Adamatca past and present . O:dord Uu i\". P ress, 19{}8
Perbam, Marger, (ed.), TM N aJive ECl)1lomics of N igeria. LQudon, 1 9 ~6. - Mining , Corn.
merce and Finance in Nigeria. London, 1946
Quinn·Youog, C. T., and HerdmaJl. T., Geography 0/ Nigeria. London, 19.6
Sbaw, T., and Colvile, G., Nigerian Livestock Mi4Sion. (Colonial 268.) R .M.S.D ., 1951
CAMEROONS
(TRUSTEESHIP TERRITORY)
The Cameroons, lying between British Nigeria and French Equatorial
Africa, marches with the eastern boundary of Nigeria north-eastwards from
the coast to Lake Chad. It was captured from the Germans in Feb. 1916,
and was divided between the British and French under a declaration signed
at London 10 July 1919. The British port.ion is a strip stretching the
whole length, save for one short break, of the Nigerian boundary. Are&
34,081 sq. miles and populat.ion estimated at 1,430,000 (1953). B"ntu
Negroes live near the coast, Sudan Negroes inland. The country is admini.
stered under a trusteeship agreement which has supcrseded the mandate
conferred on 20 July 1922. The northern part is attached to the provinces
of Borou. Benue and Adamawa in the Northern Region of Nigeria, and
the southern part is administered separately as the Southern Cameroona
under the Federal Government of Nigeria.
A plebiscite held on 7 Nov. 1959 in the northern part of the territory
decided in favour of postponing It decision on the territory's future (70,401
votes) against the continued association with Northern Nigeria (42,797 votes).
The elections held in Southern Cameroons gave the Kamerun National

Demo'Jratie Party, which favours union with French Cameroons, 14 out of
26 seats; J. N. Foneha formed the government.
Tbe Southern Cameroons is to have a plebiscite before March 1961 to
decide whether that territory will join an independent Nigeria or an in·
dependent Cameroon state (the French Cameroons having become inde·
pendent on 1 Jan. 1960). Meanwhile the Southern Cameroons will continue
to be administered by the United Kingdom under United Nations trustee·
ship and will not be represent.ed in the federal parliament of Nigeria.
There were, in 1958,411 schools including 394 primary and 3 secondary
school!, 12 teachers' training institutions and 2 vocational training schools
financ'Jd by the Federal Government, the Local Authorities and the Volun·
tary Agencies; 51,880 pupils and students were on the rolls.
Under the revised Constitution, the Southern Cameroons assumed
responsibility for the preparation of its own budget as from 1 Oct. 1954.
Revenue for 1959-60 (including grants from the U.K. and the Federal
Government) is estimated at £1,99!),035 and expenditure at £1,89:?,010.
Th~ soil in the coast region is fertile, and this area is heavily forested .
Near ';he coast are a number of plantations, most of them run by tbe
Cameroons Development Corporation.
Twde through Cameroons ports (in £ sterling) :
Yelchandise 1953 1904 1955 1956 1957 10;;8
Import, . 1.6li,BOO 1,666,100 2,09~,293 2,010,6~2 2,370,3BO 2,961,563
Export, . 5,571,900 4,909,200 4,026,000 4,n7,037 5,351,053 6,923,248
Quantity Value (£1,000)
Chielexports 1956 1957 1958 1956 1957 1958
Cocoa (lODI!' tons) 6,460 4,502 4,300 976 996 1,344
Palm·kErnels (long t01,') . 1.514 1,379 1,707 69 62 78
Banana" (fresb) (long tons) 68.GOl 77,836 84,394 2,403 2,799 3,195
Rubber (long tons) . 1,644 1,~05 2,180 236 31 3 417
Chief imports: Cott(ln textiles, cement, fertilizers, iron and steel manu·
factur"s, machinery and motor vehicles.
Shipping, 1958. Victoria, entered 260 vessels of 627,!)79 tons; cleared
263 nssels of 625,444 tons. Tiko, entered 494 vessels of 540,355 tons;
c1earec. 484 vessels of 524,362 tons.
Th" currency is identical with that used in Nigeria. Barclays Bank
D.C.O. maintains G branches in the Cameroons.
RtpOTI,m the Admini.tTCUion o/Ih. Cam<TOons JOT tht vea, 1958. n.M.S.O.,1959
GAMBIA
Galubia was discovered by the early Portuguese navigators, but they
made no settlement. During the 17th century various companies of
ruerchwts obtained trading charters and established a settlement on the
river, which, from 1807. was controlled from Sierra Leone; in 1843 it was
made !m independent Crown Colony; in 1866 it formed part of the West
Mrican Settlements, but in Dec. 1888 it again became a separate Crown
Colony.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area of Colony (comprising Bathurst

and SOlOe adjoining land), 29'4 sq. miles; population (1958 estimate), 31,490.
In the Protectorate (area, 3,948 sq. miles) the settled population (1957
estima1;e) was 237,084, not including strange farmers.
The rainy season lasts from June to Oct. The tota l rainfall at
Bathurst was 64·12 in. in 1958.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. It is administered under a

Governor with an Executive Council and a Lf)gi~lativo Council.
Governor. Sir Edward Windley, K.C.M.G. (assumed office in June 1958;
salary £3,600 and £1,300 allowances).
Colonial Secretary. K. O. S. Smith, C.M.G.
Commissioner for Sierra Leone and Gambia in the U.K. Dr R. E.

Caulker (29 Weymouth St., W.I).
A new Constitution comes into force in Oct. 1960, after general elections
have been held.
From Oct. 1960, the Executive Council of the Gambia consists of 4
ex· officio members and 6 Ministers. The Governor presides at its meetings.
The Legislative Council consists of the Speaker, 4 ex· officio members,
up to 3 nominated members, and 27 elected members. The Governor
presides only on formal occasions.
In Bathurst, the capital, a town council was established in 1946. An·
other self.governing body, the Kombo St Mary Rural Authority, came into
being on 1 Jan. 1047.
EDUCATION. In Bathurst there are 10 government primary schools

with an enrolment of 3,400 pupils; 8 of these were formerly mission schools,
which were taken over by government in 1945; they rctain their denomi·
national identity and are managed by committees representing the Anglican,
Methodhlt, Roman Catholic and Moslem communities. There are also 2
mission prepamtory schools with 245 pupils. In the rural area of the
Colony there are 3 primary schools with 933 pupils. In the Protectorate
there are 26 local authority and 12 mission primary schools: enrolment
2,200 pupils.
There are 2 mission secondary schools and one independent high school,
all in Bathurst, which are recognized for the West African School Certificate,
with 388 beys and 235 girls. A post· primary modern school was opened in
Bathurst ill Jan. 1958 with 540 pupils, and there is a post.primary school
at Georgetown in the Protectorate with 98 pupils.
Both men and women teachers are trained at Yundum College, 15 miles
from Bathurst; in 1959 there were 54 students. There are 44 Gambians
overseas with government scholarships and 64 private students. Govern·
ment expenditure on education in 1959 was £159,209.
FINANCE AND TRADE. Revenue, expenditure, imports and exports

for calendar years were as follow8 (in £ sterling) :
1954 1955 1956 1957 1908 1959'
Revenue. J .420.356 1,464.25~ 1.405.00·) 2.128,107 1.895,C06 1.55;;,O~9
Expenditure 1.168,309 1,:321,U6 1,f,4r.,~CO 1,817,930 1.9 61,539 1,75·J,30n
Imports' i::,~9a.256 3,709.752 3,7Z9,5(ll 4.762,384 3.910,361
Rxportsl a,046,021 2,633.830 :?,55~,830 4,213,2 4S .1.553,386
1 Including specie. • ll;:;tlwatcs.
On 31 Dec. 1958 the assets exceeded the external liabilities by £94:2,S33

(excluding public debt, £238,760, and sinking fund, £M,64 1). •
PrincipAl items of revenue in 1958: Customs, £1,148,(13,,; taxes,
£288,253: fees, £133,276: port and harbour, £51,633: interest, £50,131.

Main items of expenditure in 1958: Personal emoluments ordinary,
£601,2 1)0: departmental services, £855,366; pensions and gratuities,
£104,973; transfer to development fund, £400,000.
Chief imports, 1958: Apparel, £206,645; cotton piece-goods, £357,019;
cotton, other, £13,775; flour, wheaten, £69,259; kola nuts, £147,513;
machillery, £271,057; medicines and drugs, £78,395; metal manufactures,
£218,31)1; motor vehicles, £103,019; oils, non-edible, £151,817; rice,
£324,467; soap, £53,033; sugar, £139,938; tobacco, £196,259; artificial
silk piEce.goods, £295,253; confectionery, £73,338.
Chief exports, 1958: Groundnuts, 62,931 tons, £3,722,524; palm
kernelE, 1,474 tons, £75,868; beeswax, 3 tons, £903; hides and skins
(cattle, untanned), 38 tons, £3,736.
Trade between Gambia and U.K. (British Board of Trade rettJrns, in
£ sterling) :
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Impo<ts to U.K. 1,831,283 397,514 1,814,092 1,167,266 667,303
Exports from U. K. . 1,952,604 l,UI,lS2 2,009,224 1,632,794 1,449,500
Re-expo,-e8 !rOIn U.K. 29,146 20.922 44,430 23.648 ~4,474
Almost all commercial activity centres upon the marketing of groundnuts,

which is the only export crop of financial significance. In 1957,49,291 tons
of groundnuts, valued at £3,721,780, were exported and in 1958,62,931 tons,
valued at £3,722.524. Other exports are palnl·kernals, groundnut oil,
oil·cak" and untanned hides and skins.
Mining. In 1953 deposits of ilmenite were discovered on old storm
heache:! along the Atlantic coast. Prospecting rights are held by a sub.
sidiary of a U.K. firm, and mining operations commenced in 1956. The
first shipments of the processed ore were exported to the U.K. in 1957.
Exports amounted to 29,000 tons in 1958, but operations will cease in 1959.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Of the 205 veseels (492,641 net

tons) entered and cleared in the foreign trade in 1958, 102 of 381,510 net
tons were British. There are 2 deep-water wharves in Bathurst. Internal
eommunication is maintained by steamers and launches.
Road!. There are 534 miles of earth roads in the Protectorate, most of
them closed or restricted in the wet season; and 39·5 miles of bituminouB
surfaced roads in the Colony. Number of licensed motor vehicles (1958):
378 passenger cars, 661 commercial vehicles and 520 motor cycles.
POSI. There are severaJ post offices and agencies; postal facilities are
also aff,)rded to all river towns by means of a travelling po~t office on the
government river mail·steamers. Bathurst is connected with St Vincent
(Cape de Verde) and with Sierra Leone by cable. Bathurst is in wireless
communication with London and with Mansakonko, Georgetown, Kuntaur
and Ba!;se in the Protectorate. Atrans·Gambia telephone system (591 sub-
scribers in 1959) provides direct commwlications with Dakar and Ziguinchor.
Avidion. In 1958,870 aircraft landed and took off; most of them were
British. Arrivals: 1.238 passengers and 18,229 kg of goods and mail; de.
partureB: 1,204 pa.ssengers a.nd 4,223 kg of goods and mail.
MONEY AND BANKING. West African currency notes in circulation

31 Dec. 1957 amounted to £5,013,778. In 1957 the government savings
bank had 9,445 depositors holding £291,031. There ie ODe bank in the
Colony, the Bank of British West Africa, Ltd.
Books of Reference
Annual RtpfJrt on Gambia, 1956-57. H.M.S.O., 1959
Gambia (Cun .•titutitm) Order in Council, 1954 (No. 1145). n.M.S.O., 1954
Gray, J. M., od Ili .•tory of the Gambia. London, 1940
Haswell, M. R., Economic$ 0/ ,.jgriculture in a Savannah Villflge . H.M.S.O.,1953
Soutborn, Lady. Tnt Gambia. LondoD. 1952
SIERRA LEONE
The Colony of Sierra Leone originated in the sale and cession, in 1787,
by native chiefs to English settlers, of a piece of land intended as a home
for natives of Africa who were waifs in London, and later it was used as
a settlement for Africans rescued from slave·ships. The present combined
Colony and Protectorate are bounded on the north·west, north and north·
east by the Republic of Guinea, on the south·east by Liberia and on the
south·west by the Atlantic Ocean. The Colony, including those portions
administered as Protectorate, lies along the coast, extending from the boun.
dary of the Republic of Guinea to the north of the mouth of the Great
Scarcies River to the boundary of Liberia at the mouth of the Mano River,
a distance of about 212 miles. Inland it extends to a distance varying from
i to 20 miles and includes the Yelibuya and other islands towards the north,
as well as Sherbro and several smaller islands to the south, but the Isles de
Los were ceded to France in 1904. The Colony proper consists of a peninsula.
about 25 miles long and 10 miles wide, of which Cape Sierra Leone is the
north·westernmost point.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Under the constitution
of 14 Aug. 1958 the House of Representatives consists of 51 elected and 2
nominated members; of the elected members 14 are from the Colony, 24
from tho Protectorate and I from the Bo urban area. The other 12 are
Paramount Chiefs selected from each of the 12 district councils.
The strength of the parties in the House is: Sierra Leone People's Party,
36; Sierra Leone United Progressive Party, 6; People's National Party, 5;
independents, 3.
The Executive Council consists of the Governor, who ie President of the
Council, the Premier and Il unofficial members (all members of the Sierra
Leone People's Party) of whom 10 hold portfolios.
With the introduction of the new Constitution, a new post of Deputy
Governor has been created to supersede the post of Chief Secretary. The
duties of the Deputy Governor are to assist the Governor with particular
reference to the subjects reserved under Section 16 of the Sierra Leone (Con.
stitution) Order in Council 1958, namely, external affairs, defence, appoint.
ments and disciplinary control of officers in the Public Service, internal
security and police.
Governor, C.·in·C. (tnd Vice· Admiral. Sir Maurice Dorman, K.C.M.O.
(appointed 1 Sept. 1956).
Deputy Governor. A. F. F. P. Newns, C.M.O.
Premier, Internal Affairs and Development. Sir Milton Margai, M.B.E.
Commissioner jor Sierra Leone and Gambia in the U.K. Dr R. E.

Caulker (29 Weymouth St., W.I).
Si ~rra Leone R epresentative in the U.S.A. Dr W. H . Fitzjohn (1029

Dubo3t Circle Building, Washington 6, D.C.).
AHEA AND POPULATION. Thearea of the Colony and Protectorate

is 27,925 sq. miles. Those portions which are administered strictly as
colon? (viz., the Sierra Leone Peninsula, Tasso Island, Banana Islands, the
township of Bonthe on Sherbro Island and York Island) cover approximately
256 s~. miles. The whole territory is administratively divided into the
Northern, South-Western and South·Eastern Provinces. Population (esti.
mated 1956), 2·5m. Europeans numbered about 1,000; Asiatics, about
2,000. The capital is Freetown, with 100,000 inhabitants.
E))UCATION (1958). There were 522 primary schools, 2 of them

being managed by Government, 495 being assisted from public funds and
managed by local authorities or missionary bodies; 25 were unassisted.
Total enrolment was 69,276. The salaries of teachers in assisted schools
were paid in full by Government. Fees paid by pupils largely balanced
the expenditure on equipment. In many cases school buildings are the
propeJ"ty of churches, but building grants varying from 50% to 100% have
been m,tde to district councils and to voluntary agencies from central·
government funds.
Tbere were 26 secondary schools with 5,904 pupils; 14 of theso are in
the provinces.
The Government Technical Institnte at Freetown and Kenema had 265
full· time and 267 part-time day students and 605 evening-class students.
The Girls' Vocational School, an assisted school at Bo, had 68 pupils.
Te!l.cher training was carried out at Fourah Bay College, Government
Training Colleges at Njo.la and lI1agburaka, the United Christian Council's
Training College at Bunumbu, the Roman Catholic College for men at Bo
and for women at Kenema_ The total number of teachers in training was
604. The training of teachers is financed entirely by the central govern-
ment.
FOllrah Bay College, founded by the Church Missionary Society in 1827
and afaliated to the University of Durham, provides degree courses in theo-
logy, Bcience, arts and economics in addition to the training courses for
teachers. The number of students enrolled during the year (apart from
teacher trainees) was 286.
To~al expenditure on education in 1958 was £2,165,528 derived from all
sourcel, of which about £300,000 was contributed from the U.K.
HEALTH. In the Colony there are 7 government hospitals (460 beds,

including 0. maternity hospital, e. sanatorium near Freetown and a hospital
at Bonthe. A mental hospital at Kissy has accommodation for 112 patients)
and 2 homes for the chronic sick have accommodation for 106 patients. In
the Provinces there are 13 government hospitals (496 beds), 6 mission hos-
pitals and 2 hospitals associated with mining companies_ Four govern-
ment. 2mission and 1 mining hospitals train nurses and midwives. There
are 4E government and native administration dispensaries and health
centreH and 24 endemic diseases control unit treatment centres.
JUSTICE. The Supreme Court has jurisdiction in civil and criminal

matters. Subordinate courts are held by magistrates in the various dis-
tricts. Native court.s apply native law and custom under a criminal and
civil jurisdiction. Appeals from the decisions of the Supreme Court are
heard by the WeaL African Co\U·t of Appeal. Appeals from the decisions of
l!Iagi~trtttes courts are heard by the Supreme Court. Appeal lies from the
We~t African Court of Appeal to the Privy Council.
POLICE. The police force at 1 Aug. 1959 had an authorized strength

of 62 superior police officers (European and Africa.n), 76 junior police officers
und 1,781 n.c.o.s and other ranks. In 1958,7,928 persons were convicted
in the Suprellle and magistrates' courts.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The main agricultural products are

palm.kernels, palm.oil, piassava, rice, cocoa, coffee, groundnuts, ginger, kola·
nuts and cassava.
Livestock (rough estimate): Cattle, 150,000; goats, 25,000; sheep,
20,000; pigs, 5,000.
Fisldng. Inshore fishing by African fishermen is extensive but ill,
sufficient to meet the demand in Freetown and the Protectorate. The
operation of commercial trawlers in recent years has contributed significantly
to the local supply of fish.
Industry. Nine pioneer oil·mills for the expressing of palm.oil arc
operated by the Sierra Leone Produce Marketing Board. Government also
operutes 4 rice·mills, and there are a number of privately owned mills.
Furniture making is being done by a branch of the Government Department
of Forestry. Individual and self·owned furniture workshops produce their
own quota of fnrniture mainly for local use. Village industries include
tishing, fish curing and smoking, wea>ing and hand methods of expressing
palm.oil and cracking palm kernels.
Mining. Tho chief minerals mined are iron ore, diamonds and chrome
ore. Small quantities of gold are also found. Production in 1\)58 was as
follows: Iron ort'. 1,421,563 tons; diamonds, 1.490.0,)7 carat8; chromitc,
11,211 tons.
Labour. Over half the population arc engaged in agriculture, and over
79,000 workers ere in wage· earning employment. Analysed by employer,
workers in wage.earning employment were distributed as follows at the
end of 1958: Government, 23,834.: Native Administrat,ions, 2,347; Servic(l
Departments (civilian employees of War Department and Admiralty),
781: larger private and commercial undertakings, 17,367. Analysed by
industry or service. these workers wero distributed as follows: Building and
construction, 7.556; mining, 6,596; transport (road, rail and air), 6,964;
commerce,5,568; maritime and waterfront, 2,048; otherprineipal industries
and services (including public administration, health and agriculture),
9,931; and miileellaneous services (including domestic service), 34.000.
The Labour Department has its headquarters in Freetown. offices in
Bo and Kenerna and 6 employment exchanges. Wages and conditions of
employment are regulated by 4 Joint Industrial Councils and 4 Wages
Boards which together cover the majority of wage· earners in t.he territory.
There are 18 registered trade unions in Sierra Leone. The number of persons
registered in Freetown for employment at tile end of Hli'i8 wa~ 2,5-1,1, ex·
cluding maritime labourers and dock workers who are rcgistered in the Port
Labour (Maritime and Harbour) Pools.
N
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) for calendar

years:
1954' 1955 1956 1957 1958-59 3 1959-60'
Rcvenut! . 7,621,299 7.545,796 9.585,738 9,710,885 ] Z.637,4~5 10,431),680
Ex:peDditure I 6,863,115 7,397,336 9,846,2;8 9,350,585 13,982,268 11,815,050
1 Excluding railway revenue and erpenditure.
S Excluding revenue pain to development mod, and railway revenue Ilod expenditure.
• ES';imates for 1 Jan. 1955-30 March 1969.
• ESj.imates for financial year 1 April-31 March.
Ordinary revenue in 1958-59 was: Customs, £7,575,600; fees, payment for
eer.. ices, ete., £541,425; post and telegraphs, £263,140; port and marine,
£205,610; taxes, £2,910,000; licences, etc., £152,930; reimbursements,
royaltbs and interest, £54,500. Extraordinary revenue, £1,132,486. Extra.
ordinal'Y expenditure in 1958-59 was £2,183,355. Net public debt, 31 Dec.
1958, J:6,680,152.
COMMERCE. Total trade (in £ sterling) for calendar years:

1953 1954 ]955 1956 1957 1958
Imports 11.096,423 13,376.250 11.114,967 23,093,100 28.24~ , :;2 1 23,903,129
Ex:ports 11,977,113 11,381,673 10,222,067 13,184,606 18, 386,113 19,613,058
In 1958 the principal imports were: Rice, 435,674 cwt, £1,027,346;

Bour,176,132 cwt, £447,585, sugar, 188,861 cwt, £.';40,010; fish, 36,942
cwt, £:254.936; milk and cream, 29,935 cwt, £245.630; fruits. £188,072;
mE-a t. 16.769 cwt, £166.903, beer. ale. stout and porter, 1,935.347 gaiions,
£1 .002.038; cigarettes, 562,682 lb., £340,061, tobacco, unmanufactured,
15,956 cwt, £339.552, still wine, 553.917 gallons, £231,638; furnace and
fuel oil, 35,372,971 gallons, £1.097,426; motor spirit, 5,197,388 gallons,
£312.2[)4, lamp oil, 3,136,402 gallons, £155,927; coal. coke and briquettes,
30,493 tons, £163,993, lubricat,ing oil (liquid), 400,884 j!allons. £102.874;
medicinal ami pharmaceutical products, £310,822; soap, 49.923 cwt, £213,310;
paints, 12,540 cwt, £124,738; cotton thread and fa brics, £1.458,550; fabrics
of synt hetic fibres, £1,227,473; joists, girders, bars, etc., 3,399 tons,
£212,578; corrugated iron Rheets, 4,066 tons, £373,114; cement, 58,420
toilS, 1513,621; rubber manufactures, £272.987; paper and paper board,
£159,Q.12; motor vchicles and parts, £1,287,474, electrical machinery,
£751,677; clothing and footwear, £1,076.377; household utensils, 35,440
cwt·, £::18,453; diesel oil, 19,933,822 gallons, £820,545.
Prbcipal exports in 1958 were; Palm·kernels. 54,609 tons, £2,448,256;
coffee :raw), 66,952 cwt, £895,Ofi5; cocoa, 56,560 cwt" £872,290, piassava,
98,885 cwt, £237,478, kola-nuts, 20,702 cwt, £135.277; iron ore, 1,421.563
tOllS, £.l,490.460; diamonds, 1,490,037 carats, £7,183,787; chrome ore, 1l,211
tons, £114,847.
Of the imports, 50'35% came from U.K ., 2·24% from India, 4·18%
from Italy, 8'04% from Japan , 2'42% from Hong I(onl!, 4'04% from
Netherlands West. Indies ; 3·29% from Federa l Germany, 4·25% from the
NetheJ'lands, 2·26% from U.S.A. Of the exports 62·17% went to U.K.,
7'33% to Federal Germany, 9'49% to Netherlands and 3'89% to U.S.A.
Total trade bctween Sierra Leone and U.K. (British Board of Trade
returm:, in £ sterling):
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U .K. 7,623,793 6,797.112 7.376. ~29 6.374.230 6,343,149
Ex:port.. from U.K . . 9,451,375 11,475,656 11,610684 10,570.287 9,23;;.873
Re·ex:ports from U .K . 196,131 297.497 417,178 408.654 393,410
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. A government railway, a single line
of 2 ft 6 in. gauge, is open from ]<'reetO\vn to Pendembu, near the Liberian
frontier, a length of 22i~ miles. From Bauya Junction, 64! miles from
Freetown, a branch line runs to lIlakeni, a distance of 83 miles. Total
line open, 1958, was 3!1 miles, including sidings. Total receipts, 1956,
railway, £664,648 ; port, £385,284; totr'! ordinary working expendit.ure ,
railway, £1,010,563; port, £281,145.
Hoads. Motor vehicles licensed during 1956 totalled 2,!li9 passenger
cars, 1,8:13 buses and tru cks and 166 motor cycles.
There are 1,5!?4 miles of main trunk roads, maintained by the Public
Works Department" 1,084 miles of secondary roads maintained by the
District Councils and 141 miles of fond maL'1t,ained by mining companies.
Post. The Posts and Telecommunications Department maintains a
trunk·line network of 940 miles of telephone and telegraph routes connecting
Freetown with the Colony and Protectorate. Freetown is served by a modern
automatic t.elephone exchange, and trunk telephone facilities exist between
Freetown, Bo, Makeni and other principa l towns by land·line and radio·
telephone; number of telephones (1959), 3,670. Telegraphic facilities are
provided at 58 offices, by means of land· line and wireless. There are 129
post offices and postal agencies. A wired broadcasting system operates
in Frcetown, and at the end of 1958 there were 4,295 subscribers. The
Department also operates and maintains tbis service. Tbe number of pri.
vate wireless·lieence holders is 2,751.
Aviation. The internationa l airport for Sierra Leone is at Lungi near
l~rectown. Wcst African Airways (~jgeria) Ltd a nd Ghana Airways cach
provide a week ly ret urn ser vice between Accra and Dakar. Airwork/
Hunting·Clan operate a weekly return service betweon thc U.K. and Accra.
Air France call twice weekly on the ronte Conakry-lIIonrovia.
MONEY AND BANKING. The West African Currency Board, Lon.

don, which was established in 1913, is responsible for providing the currency
in the territory. It issucs notes of lOs" £1 and £5, and yellow metal coins
of 2s., k and 6d., nickcl coins of 3d., Id. and id. and bronze coins of Id.
and !d. The currency is interchangeable with sterling at par. At 31 Dec.
11)58 West African Currency Board nou,s in circulation were estimated at
£9,232,512 and coin at £~,678.586.
At the end of 1958 there were 68,469 depositors in the 40 branches
of the post office savings bank, with £1,616,569 (inclusive of interest) to their
credit,
The Bank of Brit,ish West Africa and Barcla,ys Bank D .C.O. have t heir
headquarters a t Freetown; the former has 6 and the latter 10 branches and
agencies,
THE PROTECTORATE. On 31 Aug. 1896 a proclamation was issued

declaring a protectorate over the hinte rland of Sierra Leone. Tbe area of
the Protectorate is approximately 27,669 sq, miles, and the population is
estimated to be about 2,130.000. It is bounded on the north and the east
by Guinea, and on tbe soutb·east by Liberia.
Th e Protectorate is administered by Government through the ministries
except for the re~tJrved subjects.
The Protectorate is divided into 146 Chiefdoms, each under the control of
a Paramount Chief and Council of Elders known M the Tribal Authority,
356 TIlE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
who art> responsible for the maintenance of law and order and for the admini .
8tration of justice in all disputes between natives (except for serious crimes).
143 of these Chiefdoms ha ve been organized into local government units,
empow'~red to raise a nd disburse funda for the development of the Chiefdom
concerr.ed. I n each Ildministrative district there is a fully elective District
Council, comprised of represent.atives of each Chiefdom and with a presi·
dent ebcted by the membera frolll their number . District Councils have
now developed into local government units with funds at their disposal for
the development of their districts.
In each administrative district there is a magistrate's conrt, presided
over b? a police magistrat~, with District Commissioners retaining their
magisu;rial powers, which they normally use only on matters of routine or
in urge:lt cases. These courts are subordinate to the Supreme Court, which
proceec.s on regular circuit in the Protectorate. Police duties in the Pro·
tectora';e are carried out by the Sierra Leone Police ; in addition, each chief·
dom mlintains a small force of chiefdom m essengers who are employed by
native administrations for the maintenanco of law and order within the
chiefdo m.
The Protectorate is primarily agricultural, rice being the staple food
crop. The most import.ant agricultural exports are palm· kernels and pa lm.
oil, piansllva, cocoa and ginger. Coffee, groundnuts and bennisced arc also
export€ .d in small quantities. The chief mineral export.~ are iron ore and
diamonds, important deposits of which arc mined. Chrome Ilnd smnll
quantities of alluvial gold and platinum arc also exported.
Books of Reference
Ammal Heport ~n Sierra Leone, 1951. rr . ~·r. s. O ., 1956
.&n Outlbe of W Ten·vear Plan for the lJevelQpme1l1 of Sierra Le1me. FrcetoWD, 1 "!'46
~tla$ of :;ierra U:O'M. Ed . Surve.v and Lands Dept. Il'reetown, 1953
Sierra L~olle Studies. Ed . J . D. lla rgreaves. PrectowD, J 953 tt.
Le\vis, R., Sierra Leone. ll .M.S.O ., 1954
Little, K. L., Tile Mende of Sierra L.one. London, 1'51
Lu ke, H . C ., A Bibliography of SierrlJ Leone. Oxford, 192~
Utting, I', A . r.,
. Tltt Story Of Sierra Leone. London , 1~ :lt
ST HELENA
ST HEI.E NA, of volcanic origin, is 1,200 miles from the west coast of Africa.
Area, 47 sq. miles, with a cultivable area of 8,600 acres. It is administ.ered
by the Governor, who is assisted by an Executive Council consisting of
not mere than .. official and 3 unofficial members, and by an Advisory
Council of not more than 10 members most of whom Ilre unofficial.
Population (1958), 4,802. Births (living), 1958, 12!l ; deaths, 36;
marria€ :es, 35; divorces, O. There are 5 Episcopa l and 4 Baptist chapels.
Education: 11 primary and 1 secondary schools controlled by the
Government, with 1,262 pupils in 1958.
Police force, 14; cases dealt with by police magistrate, 33 in 1958.
The port of the island is Jamestown.
GOVI!rnoT and C.·in·C. Robert Edmund Alford, C.M.G.(sworn in, 26 Feb.
1958).
" . GOlil!r1l1nent Secretary. G. A. Lewis, M.B .E.
ST HELENA 357
Finance a.nd Trade, for calendar years, in £ sterling:
1~54 In5" 19:\6 19~i 1965 1959'
Revetme) 180,856 ]62,598 lSS,022 187.79] lU ·J,D4G :~34,9 70
Hrpenditure 1 173.377 170.2~8 l i 3.745 192,60\1 210,210 ~3'1.24D
Exports s 46,~1& 5tl,177 64,147 6!),825 80,798
Imports' 214,8;;2 206,551 206,792 201,086 231,136
1 Including imperial grants (1953, £20,700; H)54, £80,000; 1055, £74,300; lO~G,£;)S,900;
]!);J7,£62,!JOO; 1955,£SG,G50). 2 IIlcludinggo~erumentstol'es. 3 Estimates.
The revenue from customs was, in 1953, £2G,75S; 1954, .£25,G94; 1955,
£22,574; 1956, £26,374; 1957, £19,190; 1958, £24,676.
The colony's liabilities at 31 Dec. HJ58 exceeded the assets by £G,447.
The principal exports are flax fibre, tow, rope and twine; they totalled
1,478,5 tons in 1953; 820 tons in WG4; 915 tons in 195:3; 1,008 tons in 1956;
S52 tOllS in 19G7; 915·5 tons in 1958,
Total trade between Ascension and St Helena and tha U.K. (British
Board of Tr.ule returns, in £ sterling) :
InS 1055 1956 1957 1!158 1~5:1
J mports to 1] .K. 7,2';:; 60,392 44,163 54,856 :19,582 53,76
};xports from U.K . 44,455 164.137 181,603 194,~1l ~O:l,501 309,01)
He-exports froIH U. K. 5.7~13 ?:o,53r> 22,892 17,571 2G,5~8 4:!,.'H
Savings. hank Jep,,,iL, on 31 Dec. 1958, £115,G:l8, belonging to SO!)

dcpo"itol'J .
Fruit trees, Norfulk pines, (Jucal.l'ptuR and cedars flourish in St Helena.,
C.. ttle do "ell, but. there i~ no ontside market for the meat. The flax
(phormi"m ten",;) industry is established at 7 private mills. The area of
land under flax was estirur.ted at 3,500 acres in 1950. A lr.ce.m .. king
indnstry Wi\S started in 1907. The number of vessels that calied in 1958
was 40; total tonnage entered and cleared waR 27.5,880. There arc 65 miles
of "lI·weat.her motor roads.
Th e Cable and Wireless cable connects St Helena with C"pe Town and
with St Vincent. There is a telephone servica with 80 miles of wire find
J~:l teleph o llc~.
Ascension is a small island of volcanic origin, of 34 sq. miles, in the

South Atlantic, 700 milcs north· west of St Helena. In Nov. 1922 the ad·
ministration W<1S t.ransferred from the Admiralty to the Colonial Office
and annexed to the colony of St Helena. There are 10 acres under cultiva·
tioll providing vegetables and frnit. Population, 31 Dec. 194G, was 292;
H149,162; 1950,176; 1955,196; 1956,416; 1957,434; 1958,3:)6.
The island is the resort of sea turtles, which come to lay their eggs in
the sand annually between January and May. Rabbits, wild goats and
partridges are more or less llumerOllS on the island, which is, besides, the
breeding ground of the sooty tern or' widel1wake,' these birds coming in vast
numbers to lay their eggs every eighth month.
Cable and Wireless, Ltd own and operate a cable station, connecting
the ishtnd with St Helcna, Sierra Leone, St Vincent, Rio de Janeiro and
Buenos Aires.
Resident 1Uagistrate. A. R. Harrisoll.
Tristan da Cunha, a small group of islands in the Atlantic, half.way

hetween the Cape and Soutb America, in 37 0 6' S.lat., 12 0 l' W. long. Be'ldos
Tristan cla, Cunha and Gough Island, there ara Inaccc"ibie "Bd l'iiguting,\lo
Island s, the former 2 and the latter 1 mile long. and a number of rocks.
As frcm 12 J an. 1938 the 4 islands have become dependencies of St Helena.
Tristan consists of an extinct volcano rising to a height of 6,760 ft, with a
circumference a t its base of 21 miles. The habitable area is a small plateau
on th" north-west side of about 12 sq. miles, 100 ft above sea-level. Only
about 30 acres is under cultivation, three-quarters of it for potatoes. Thoro
are apple and peach trecs; bullocks, sheep and geese are reared, and fish
are pl.mtiful. The island is extremely lonel.\', but the community is growin ~.
In lSHO it numbered 109, in 1958,257. The original inhabit,wts were ship.
wrecked sailors and soldiers who remained behind when the garrison frolD
St Hebna. was withdrawn in 1817.
At the end of April 1942 Tristan da Cunha was commissioned as H .M.S.
AtlaUi'ic Isle, and became an important meteorological and mwo station.
In .Ta.::\. 1949 a South African company commenced cr:1wfishiug oper~tions.
An A :lminist.rator was appointed at t.he end of l!J48 ami a body of basic
law b::ought into operation. The Island Council, which was set up in 1932,
consists of 6 nominated and 15 elected members under the chai rm anship of
the Administrator, with the SoC'iety for the Propaga.tion of the Gospel in
:Foreign Parts' missionary a nd the company managcr as ex-officio members.
Woruen's affairs are discussed by the Island Women's Council, which pre.
scnts them for consideration tu the general council.
Administrator. P. A. Day.
Books of Reference
.innua.' Report, 1956- 57. H .M.S.O .• 1959
Blakes';on, O., l .•u of SI BelelUt. London. 195.
Booy t :) . M., Rock of Exile: a narrative of Tri'Jtun da Cunha. London, 19G 1
Holdga.te, M., AI ounlai'll.:f i n the .sea. London, 1958
Munch P . A., Socio!ogV 01 Tri ..an da Cunha. Oslo, 19·t 5
CANADA
THE t.erritories which now constitute Canada eamo under British p ower
at various times by settlement, conquest or cession. Nova Scotia was
temporarily occupied in 1628 by settlement at Port Royal. was ceded
back to France in 1632, and was finally ceded by France in 1713, by the
Treaty of Utrecht; the Hudson's Bay Company's charter, conferring
rights over all the territory draining into Hudson Bay. was granted in 1670 ;
Canada, with all its dependencies, including New Brunswick and Prince
Edwa rd Island, was forma lly ceded to Great Britain by France in 1763;
Vancouver Island was acknowledged to be British by the Oregon Boundary
Tren.ty of 18<16, and British Columbia was established as a separate colony
in 18:)8. As originally constituted, Canada was composed of the provinces
of Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick. They were united under the provisions of an Act of the
Impe :ia l Parliament known as • The British North America Act, 1867,'
whici came into operation on 1 July 1867 by royal proclamation. The
Act Frovides that the constitution of Canada shall be • similar in principle
to th a.t of the United Kingdom'; that the executive authority shall be
vested in the Sovereign, and carried on in his name by a Governor·G(neral
CANADA 359
and Privy Council; and that the Itlgislative po'Wer shall be exercised by
a Parliament of two Houses, called the • Senate' and the • Houso of
Commons.' The present position of C,m:tda in the British Commonwealth
of Nations was defined at the Imperial Conioren"u of 1926 (see p. 51).
On 30 June 1931 the Housl' of Commons apuroved the enactment of
tho Statute of We3tminster cmancipating tho Provillce~ as well n·s t h. e
Dominion from the operation of the Colonial JAWS Validity Act, and thus
romoving what legal limitations exitlted liS regards Canad,,'s legislat.ive
autonomy . The statl!te recci veil the myn,l assont 011 12 DeG. )\)31.
Provision was made in the Britllih North America. Act for the admission
of British Columbia, Prince EdlVord Islllnd, the Northwest. Territories and
Newfounillar,d into the Union. In 1869 Rup(,rt's La.nd, or the Northwest
Territuries, wa.s purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company; th ~ provinca
of "Manitoba was erected from this territory, and admitted into the con·
federation on 15 July 1870. On 20 .July 1871 the province of British
Columhi,~ wn.s admitted, and Prince Edward Island on 1 Julv 1873. The
provinces of Alberta and Saskatchnw:m were formed from the pwvis.iona l
di.~tricts of AIl..(.rta, Athabaska, A~8illiboh and Saskatchewa.n, and admitt,ed
on 1 Sept. 1905. Newfound!and formally joined Canada. as its tenth
province on 31 March 194!l.
In Feb. 1931 Norway f.) cmally recognized the Canadian title t o tho
Svcrdrup group of Arctic islands. Canada thus holds sovereignty in the
whole Arctic sector north of the Canadian mainland.
The following is a list of Govcrnors·Geneml of Canada:
Viscount Monck ISr.i - l S6', Duke r,( DClr)u:-shire 1916-1021
Lord Li'3gar 1 ~ G9 - 1 S 72 Vi:o;count th' w,: ot Vimv 1~)!H - H'2G
Earl of Dnlteriu lS72-1 8 ;~ Vi.:tcouu t- \\;illingrlon . 1 9~6 -ln1
Marq ue:;s o ( LOI"!Jc 1 ~7~ -1 ~83 .E arl or lleti~b()rol1gh I nI - 1nl">
or Lunsdowflc
Ma.rqu ~::;~ 1833-1883 Lord TwceusOIll:r 1931">-1940
Lorfl Stalllev of Prc~tOD 18~S-1893 Earl of At.hlot:.. . 19 ·IO-I~ ·16
Earl of !"b~~dep':l 1 8~' 3-} 89B Fielrl ·Mar:-.hnl Viscount, Alex-
Barl of Mlnto . 1898-1"')4 ander Q( Tucis 1946- 1952
Bar) Grey . 1~)o4-1!11l Viuccuf. Mas~e y 19:,2-
H.R.JI. t!I(: Duke of COllu:lugh t 1!'1l-1~l 6
The mcmbers of the Senate arc nominated for lif" by summons of the
GoverIlor·Gcneral under the Great Seal uf Canada. As a result of NewfowHI.
land's admission the Senata now consists of 102 scnators, namely, 24 from
Ontario, 24 from Quebec, 10 from Nova. SGotia, 10 from New Brunswick, 4
from Prince Edw,u-d Island. 6 from Mauitoba, 6 from Bl"itish Columbia, 6
from Alberta, 6 from Saskatchewa.n and (; from Nmrfollndlll ltd. Each
Stmator must be at least 30 years of age, a horn or Ilatt!ritlizeu Brit.ish subject,
aD<1 mu~L reside in, and be possessed ofpropcrty, real or personal, to the value
of S4,000 within the province for which he is appointed. The House of
Commons is eJected by the people, for (; yc-ars, uuless 800ner dissolvcd.
The British North America Act, 1867, provided that the province of Quebec
shall have, in the Canadian Parliament, a fixed representation of 65 seats
and all other provinces shall bo ropresonte(l proportionntely according to
their population, these figureR to he readjust.ed after each decennial census.
The twenty.fourth Parliament, elected cn 31 March 1959, comprised 265
members. with tile represent.ation as follow9 : 85 for Ontario, 75 for Quobec,
12 Jor Nova Seotia, 10 for New Brunswick, 14 for Manit.oba, 22 for
Briti~h Columbia, 4 for Prinee Edward Island, 17 for Saskatchewan. 17 for
Alberta., 1 for the Yukon Territorv, 1 for Northwest Territories and 7 for
Newfoundla.nd. Voting is by b;!Iot. Women hase the vote and are
eligible.
State of parties in the S~nate (Nov. 1959): Liberals, 73; Progreasi,"e

Conservatives, 19; smaller parties, 3; vacant, 7; total, 102.
State of the parties in the House of Commons (Nov. 1959): Progressive
Conservatives, 208; Liberals, 49; Co.operative Commonwealth Federation
{Canadian Socialist Party), 8; total 265.
GOl'ernor·General. The Right Hon. Vincent Massey, P.C., C.H. (sworn in
28 Feb. 1952; salary, £10,000 per annum).
Th" office and appointment of the Governor·General are regulated by
letters patent, signed by tho King on 8 Sept. 1947, which came into force
on 1 Oct. 1947. He is assisted in his functions, under the provisions of the
Act of 1867, by a Privy Council composed of Cabinet Ministers.
Th" following is the list of the Progressive Conservative Cabinet as in
Nov. 1959, in order of precedence, which in Canada attaches generally rather
to the person than to the office:
Prime Minister. Rt. Hon. John George Diefenbaker.
Sec'etary of State for External Affairs. Howard Charles Green .
.Minister of Finance and Receiver General. Donald Methuen Floming.
Minister of Veteran$ Affairs. Alfred JohlJ30n Brooks.
Minister 0/ Transport. George H. Hees.
Solicitor General. Leon Balcer.
Minister of National Defence. George Randolph Pearkcs, V.C.
Minister of 1'rade and Comm.erce. Gordon Minto Churchill, D.S.O.
Minister of Justice. Edmund Davie Fulton.
Minister of National Ret·enue. George Clyde Nowlan.
Minister 0/ Agriculture. Douglas Scott Harkness.
Millister 0/ Citizenship and Information. Ellcn Louks Fah·clough.
Minister of Fisheries. J. Angus MacLean, D.S.C.
Minister of Labour. Michael Starr.
POI:tmaster General. William lIIcLeall Hamilton .
•~fi,~ister without Portfolio. William J. Browne.
Minister of Mines and Technical Surveys. Paul Comtois .
.Minister of NationallIealth and Welfare. Jay Waldo l\follteith.
Minister of Northern Affairs and National Resources. Alvin Gcorgc
Hamill;oD.
]vIinister of Defence Prod1lction. Raymond O'Hurley.
"'linister of Public Wor/,·s. David Walker.
ASl'ociate .Minister of Nat io nal Defence . Pierre Scvigny.
Th., sessional DJlowance of a member of Parliament is 88,000. The

remuMration of a Cabinet Minister in S15,OOO (and of the Prime Minister
S25,OCO) a year in addition to the sessional indemnity. A Cabinet Minister
is aldo entitled to a motor·car allowance of 52,000. The Leader of the
Opposition in the House of Commons receives an annual allowance of
$15,000 in addition to the sessional indemnity. The Speakers of the Senate
and the House of Commons receive, in addition to their sessional indemnity
of S8,(IOO, a salary and motor· car allowance of SlO,OOO,and are also entitled
to an allowance of $3,000 in lieu of residence. Members recei ve 82,000 per
annUD:. as an expense allowance, payable at the end of each calendar year.
The allowance is not Bubject to income tax except in the case of Ministers
CANADA 361
of the Crown and the Leader of the Opposition, and of members of the
Sonate. An Act to provide retiring allowances, on a coutributory basis, to
persons who have served as members of the House of Commons of Canada
was given the Royal Assent on 4 July 1952.
Th~ Canadian ParliaTMntary Guide. .!nntJa,1. OttawA
Report of the ROljal Commission. on jJfllIliniCln-rrot'incial Rdaliolls, ('aliadll 1867 · 1YJ9.
3 vt)J~ . Ott.a.WA., lU40
Clokic, II. MeD., Canadian GM.'crnllumt aud Politics. 2nd ed. New York, 1~-l5
(Ale, T., 1'1111 Cauadian Bure(W~rlLcv, Durha.m, N.C., 194~
IhwsoD, R. lH., [h'mor:racic Oot'eI'nmlfnl in Canada. Hev. cd. 'l'orouto, HIG7
Da.wson. n. M. (ed .). ''J'he Govermlle1l! (t/ Canada. 2nd cd. Toronto, 1~'5 'i
Eggie:;t.on, W" t:oad to Nationhood: 4. Chronicle of /J()mir,ion-PrOl.:inda-i Rc!alionJ. Torollto,
1~46.-Canada at ,rork. Llontr~al. H153
Gccin·Laj oie, P ., Constitutional A17U.'1ld"lent in r'anada . 'Toronto, If1~O
Kenncdy, W.l'. M., S~atu.tes, Treaties and nocumcn.ls O/tllf Canadian ('"Ollstiluticlll, 171::-1929.
Toronto, 1930.-Tht' Constituti()/~ of Canada. OJ:ford,193b
Lamontagne. M., Le Pedhalisme canadicn. Quebec. 10;1·1
Lower, A. I~. M. (and ottle l's), EI)(;lci:~fJ Canadian Ji'ederalism. Ouke t:'niv. Pr~ss, DtlrJJ:J.Ul,
N. C., 1~"8
McHp.I1I)', D. E., 1'hf! Third Force in Canada [Le., Co·opt'ralil'e Common'fu1llth Pt'd€ralion].
Herk':ley. Cal.. 19{,Q
}.tallory, ,J . H.., Social CredU and the Federal J'ower in Canada. 'l'oronto, }9lH
)lartin. C. B., 1'0undatiU1l3 of Canadian .1.Yalionhood. Toronto. 1!l,55
Olmstcd. H. A., Decisions of tile Judiciall)m:.mittee of lite PrivV C(luncill(eiatinl} to lhe nrili,Ii
.Vorth America. A Cl, 1867, and the Ca:tadiall Con.(litution, 1S67-1954, Otta. wa, Queens'
l:'liuter, 1!,54
Qn~in, Redmond, ~lanual Of DepartTnl!Tl.I" and AgenC'ieslJ! the Got'trnmfll1 of Canada. Toronto,
1056
8ar~vdl •.T. T., The O.DiCt' oJ Lin.aenan~·Oo'l'Crnor. Toronto, Hi,ljj
8ki!ling', 1I. <J., Canadian /:eprrsenlation .-1brClaa. 'l'oronr,o A.D.d London, J!J45
Yar('(l(:~ p , P., The Distribution of Lraislalive Power in Canada. T0root(l,195·1
DIPLOMA nc REPRESENTA TlVES

Country Canu dian reprcsen ta ti "Cl Foreign represcntative
Arg~ntina . R . P . Bower (\Ire lIiarcelo A ubonc-
Quiroga
Australia' . T. W. L. :I[acDermot
Austria J. S. MacDonald nr Kurt Waldheirn
Belgiulll R. D. Pierce Jacqlles de Thiel'
Brazil J. A. Chapdebine Edmundo Machado, Jr
Burma A. n. Mcnzic8 U on Sein
Ccylon' Nik Ca"cll Sir Volupillai Coomara·
swamy
Chile Paul 1'1'emblay Ma1'io Rodriguoz
China Liu Chieb
Colombia J can "Iorill Brig. Luis Ernesto Ordofiez
Cuba Allan C. Anderson Luis A. Daralt.
Czcchoslovakia ' . A. J. Andrcw 3 Pavel Paulik"
Denmark. J. 13. C. Watkins John Knox
Dominican 'Rep .. W. n. McCullough 3 D1' Arturo Calvent.i
Finbnd' O. W. Dier 3 Art~lIri Lehtinell
Franco Pierre Dupuy, C.M.G. Ji'rancis L<tc(1ste
Gcrmany Escott M. Reid DI' Herbert Sicgfried
Ghana' n. M. \Villiams
Greece K \). l'IIcGrcer Je,Jm D. K alorgis
Haiti Allan C. Anderson H~ou ll"<tni l1i-Lcmoine 3
I lli~!J C<.'lllmissi0r: er. I Mini ster. a O}--.arg~ dfA.ffaircs ad 1"'llerim.

No figure = A:1tL:l.::~ndor,
3G2 THE BIUTISH COMMONWEALTH A!-1D EMPIRE
Ce,untry Canadian representative Foreign representative

Icelan<l2 R. A. MacKay Thor Thors
India' Chester A. Ronning C. S. Venkatachar
IndonEsia T. F. Newton Dr Lambertus N. Pillar
Iran 2 • G. B. Summers, Q.C. ?Yla.h moud Esfandiarv
Irish Lcpublit: Alfred Rive Dr Thomas J. Kiernan
Ismel Mis~ . B. M. Meagher
Italv Leon lIIayrand Carlo de Fel'rariis Salzltllo
Jap;;n W. F. Dull ToI'll Hagiwara
Lebanou Paul·Andre Beaulieu Robert Klat
Luxern bourg' S. D. Pierce Georges Heisbourg
MalaYh ' Arthur Menzies
Mexicc W. A. Il'win Hafael de la Calina
N.A.T.O.'. Jules LegeI'
NctheI lands Charles· Pierre Hebert D. J. von Balluseck
New Z~aland' Geol'ge R . C. Heasman, Foss Shanahan
O.H.E.
Norway Dr R. A. lIIackay Frithjof Jacobsen
Pakist:m' H. O. Moran, O.B.E. Samuel Martin Burke
Peru Dr }Iichael Simon Jose V. Lnrrabure
Polanc 3 G. H . Southam Mieczysbw Sieradzki
Portugal Dr Philippe Panneton Dr Ruy Barbosa de
Medi na 3
Spain Je .... n DI'llchesi Juan de la Barcenas
Sweden A. Kingsley Graharu, Q.C. OBeM' K. Thorsing
Switzedand E. Turcotte Dr Victor Nef
Tunisi" Mongi Siim
Turkc" E. B. Rogers Cclal Akbay 3
Union' of South
Afri" .... ' . James J. Hurley, O.B.E. Robert Kirsten
U.S.S.R . . D. M. Johnson A. A. Arontlll'siltll
Unite': Arab A. C. Smith Abdel Hltlllid Ibrahim
Republic Seoud
U.K.l Georgc A. Drew, Q.C. Sir Sa ville Gt1rner, K.C.l\!.G.
Unitec. Nations C. S. A. Ritchie
U.S.A. A. D. P. Heency R. B. Yv"igglesworth
UrugulY . C. B. Birkett' Ernesto 13enavides 3
Vencz1tcln.. Louis.Eugime Couillard Manuel R. Egafilt
Yugos .... via Robcrt A. D. Ford ~,1iIOl'ad Milatovic
1 High Commissiout:!r. 2 Minister. • Charge d' AfInircs ad inlfrim .
• Permanent Representative. No figure = Ambassador.
AREA AND POPULATION

Th,) following is the population of the area now included in Cltnada:
Population Popul,tion Population
1806-07 (est.) 433,000 1Sn 4,833,239 J C:ll 10,376,786 1
1861 3,229,633 1001 5,:nl,315 19·11 II ,506,655 \
1871 ~,6S~),2~7 1011 7.21)6.64:1 10:' 1 14,009.429
1881 4,324,810 1021 8,787,94~ 1~56 16,080.791
1'113 following are the areas of the provinces, etc. (in sq. miles), with the
population ut recell t censuses:
CANADA 363
Fresh Total land Popul>- Popula- Populo-
water alld fresh lion. tion, tioo,
Pro~ince Land area area water area 1941 1951 1966
~ewronndlalld l '1!!,O4'> 13,140 156,181> 361,416 41~,074
Priuce ,g dwai'd lsluLd 2.184 2_184 95,047 98.42~ 99,28b
Nova 8cotia ~O. , IO :~ 1 :O~ ;~ 21 ...t~ ;') fii7,962 6,12.584 6~.j. 717
New Brunswick 27.~ :~ r; ;1 ~I 28,3 a:J, .J, ~7,·1Ul :;}f),697 61>4.616
Quebec. 5~3_ ~ GO 71.1)<)" [,94,860 3,33L882 4.()!);).G81 4,6:!S .3i8
Olltnrio . 344.CJ92 68.4,1: ) 412,582 3,78,,0&5 4,(;97,542 5,404,933
Manitoba 211,771> 39,226 251,0(1) 729,74-1 776,5·11 860,0·)0
British Columbia 359 .2i!'l 6,976 366,255 817,861 1,165,210 1,398,464
Alberc" . !! · ~~, 8I)O 6,4tt5 255,28!) 796,169 9 3~,60 1 1,120,116
Saskatchet\'an . 220,1~2 31,513 2()1.700 895,992 831,728 8S0,666
Yukon 20.,34G 1,7S0 20;,0;6 4,914 ~,096 12,190
Northwest Territories 1 , 2;}3,4:~8 51,465 1,304,903 12,023 16,004 19_3 13
---- - -- -- - - - --
Tutai 3,560,2:;8 2nI,1> 71 3,861,809 11,506,6;;:; 114,009,429 16,OSO,7n
I Bxduding population of Newfoundland : ~89,(j88 in 193~, and 321,819 in 1945.
Ofthfl total population in 1951, 11,949,518 were Canadian born, 933,049

other British born and 1,126,862 foreign born, 282,010 of the latter being
D_S.A. born_ The populat.ion born outside Canada in the provinces was in the
following mtio (% ) : Newfoundland, 1·06; Prince Edward Island, 2·61; Nova
Seotia, 4-4(\; New Brun!;wick, 3·85; Quebec, 5·64; Ontario, \8'49; Manitoha,
21·68; Saskatchewan, 21·14; Alberta, 25'5; ilritish Columbia, 29-11.
In 1951, figures for tl:fl population, according to origin, were:

British Swedish . 97,780
English 3,630,~ ·14 Rus:o;ian. . 91,279
Scottish 1,5 4;.47 1) C7.ecll Jlod !Shnak 63,959
Irbih . l,43g,43 35 nl1n~arkl.n 6(),460
Othcr. 92,236 F'innish . 43,745
Danish . 42.671
Tot.al, British 6,709,68;; Belgian. ~5:148
Chihese . 32,528
French 4,319,16i Austrian 32,231
German 619,99. Rumanian n,601
Ukrainian 395,043 Icelandic 23,307
Netherlands 264,267 Japanese 21,663
Polish . ~19,84~ Y\lgo~ ;av 21,.104
Hebrew . 181,670 Newo 18,020
Indian and Eskimo 165,607 Greek 13,966
Itt\1inn 1 ~2,245
X orwegian IH'.ZGG G r:wd total . 14,009,129
Population. of cities (proper) and census metropolitan nrea, 1956

c~mi\Us:
City ~J (: t,ropolitan City Metropolitan

proper area proper aren
'M()!:f.n~a l 1,109,-I 3 ~ ],620,753 TJondoll 101,693 154,453
Toron to 667.706 1,?5S,02R UalifH 93,301 164,200
V31lCOUVer 365,841 66:1,01i Regina 89,755
Winuipeg 2[)5,093 ·109,121 Verdun ':~.?fl2
Hr..milton 239.6~;) 327 ,~ 3 1 Saskntoon ';2,868
EdmonLOll 226,QO~ 2~l.OO4 Kitchener f)~,iJijZ 79,886
Ot.tawa . ~22 . 12 9 345,460 Sherbrookc 58,668 63,866
Oal/?ary 181;780 200,449 St John's 5i ,07S 77,991
Queuec 170,703 30 9,95~ Victoria 5·:.58·1 125.447
Wind:;.or 121,9SI ) I S5,86; Saint .Tohu 52,491. 86,015
The total' urban' popUlation of Canada in 19M was JO,7l4,855, against

8,817,637 in )951 (according to the definition used in 1956).
Whi:e the registration of births, marriages and deaths is under pro-

vincial (ontrol, the statistics for the 10 provinces :Lnd the territories are now
'by arrangement compiled on a uniform system by the Dominion Bureau of
Statisti(s. The following table gives th e results for 1958:
Li¥ing births :\:I :\rriages Deaths

Per 1,000 Per 1,000 Per 1,000
Provi&ce J,umber population ...Vumhtr p opulation Number populalioll
Ne wfoun(Jand 14,815 33·8 3,04. 7·0 3,122 7·1
Prince Ec ward Island 2,581 25·8 G19 6·2 949 9·5
Nova Scojia 18,893 26·6 5.135 7·2 6,120 8·6
New Brullswick 16,414 28·4 4;172 7·2 4,523 7·3
Quebec 141,396 29·0 36,229 7·4 35,774 7· 3
Ontario ]!)2,637 26·3 45,394 7·9 18,677 8' 4
Manitoba 21,697 24·9 6,430 7·4 7,145 8·2
S.skatch,wan 23,843 26·9 6,46·1 7·3 6,483 7·3
Alberta 36,843 30·7 10,186 K·5 8,237 6'9
British Col~bia : 39,576 25-6 12,002 7·8 13,741 S'9
Yukon 473 36·4 109 8·4 92 7· 1
Northwes t Territories 9<15 47· 3 148 7·4 333 16· 7
Totol. 470,118 27·6 I ;;O,52n 7·7 135,201 7 '~
Immigrant arrivals in Canada during 6 cnlendnr years:
Origin 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1!l5S

English Bld Wel ' h 29,171 27,675 20,27. 33,41 8 ;4,978 1,\700
lrisb 7,562 6, 438 ?,665 6,96' 14,~36 3,~91
Scottish 10,344 10,4PO 6,210 10 , 93~ ~3,51'1 6,626
Totu. Bl"iti.5b 17,077 44,503 30,1~O 51,319 112,828 26,622
U.S.A . 9,379 10,110 10 , ~92 9,777 11,008 10,816
(krman . . 25,015 29,845 lS,OS 2 26,457 2ft.fiG! 14 ,449
Norwegian and Swedi.3h 1,374 1,299 980 1,229 2.100 753
Frencb al\d Belgians . 4,567 4,141 3,213 5,233 8,257 3.539
Italiao:; 24,293 24,5U5 20,2-17 29,806 29,443 28,564
Jews . . 3,583 1,334 I,O~4 ],632 5,4';2 2,290
Russinns 9.no Finl~mder~ 1,717 1,052 8n 1,328 ;),204 1,.15·1
Other n:lti()D~Jit jes 41 ,863 3i ,258 24,9~5 38,076 80,288 36,334
Total. 168,868 1 54,~27 109,946 164 .857 ~S2, 1G4 12.1,851
Books of Reference
Drunet, :H., Lfl presence anglaisc et Ics Oanadien s.. I:tudc.') sur l'histoire cl la pense~ des deux
Canada.. Montreal, 1958
Coats, R. H., and MacLean, M. C., The .d.merican-born in Ca:Ulda : A. Stati.'J(irallnlerpre((Jlion.
Yale and O:dord, 1943
Corbett, :) . C., Canada's l mmi(}tation Policy; a critique. Toronto, 1~:J7
(iMin, L.! le type ~conomi'lue et social des Canadians. 2ud en. Montrer..l, 1945
Hanseu , \1. L., and Brebner, J. B., 'l'he JJingUnf) of the Canadian and American Peoplu .
Vol. 1. Yale and OXford , 1~40
Jenness. n., The People ()It''u~ Tutilight (Eskimo Life). ToroI..tto, 1928. -'1'he Indian3 of Cando.
3rd ed. Ottawa, 1955
KOS8, J. , Land o} Choi::e; the lIungarian.f in Canada . TOl'on to,1g57
Leecbma':ll, Donglas, Native Tribes Of Canada . TOT(,r.to, 1:156
Massey, V. t On lJeing Canadian. London,1!)·18
Robi osou , B. H., and .T3cksoo, G. K, lJibUnqraph!l Of j)opu lation and Immigration , trilh
special reference iD Can~. liamiltoll, Ontario, 1 ~49
Taylor fa., Canada: A Slu.dy of Cool Conlilltl1Ual ElIvirollMenls arul lheir Effect on British nnJ
F'n1 ch Sell/emeTIc. Lo ndon, 194,
Wade, M •The French Canadians, 17CO-J91S. Toron to, H,.:'5
CANADA 365
RELIGION
Member~hip of the leading denominations in 1051 :
,\ l~glicall
Roman United CtmreL of }->reshy-
Province Cathulic Church Calluda terian Baptist
~ ewfountilanci . 121,5 ·14 85,5il lU9,090 I,D14 249
Prillce Edward Island 44.S0:! ~5,96!l 6,119 13,38. 5,319
~oV"a Scotia 217,078 141,152 117,602 4.2,4j2 94,103
New Bnmswick 260,742 71,879 59,84 j 13,B23 90,681
Quebec 3,563,951 129,219 166,761 bO,HO 12,950
Ontario . 1,142,140 1,320,366 936,002 439,Oi2 212,467
llanitoba. 156,283 ~24,554 120,690 34,686 13,483
Saskatchewan 199,424. 247,345 9.,476 33,290 1.,606
Alberta . 186.312 276,551 122,980 :;~',OO4 34,720
British Columbia 1£18.016 341 ,914 315,469 97,Ibl 39,44.
Yukon 1,845 1,660 3,420 713 440
Northwest Territories 6,450 1,091 7,264 379 122
Total Canada 6,')69,496 2,867,2n 2,060,720 781,747 519.585
Other denominations: Lutherans, 444,023; .Jews, 204,836; Greek

Catholics, 190,831; Greek Orthodox, 172,271; Mennonites, 125,938;
others, and religion not stated, 571,811. The Society of Friends had 696
members in 1957.
Clark, S. D .. Ch1lrch and Sect ill Canada, Oxford. ]D49
\'1{aI5h, H. ll., The Christian U/wrch in C(L ..uzdrL, Toronto,] 056
EDUCATION
By the British North America Act each provincial government is re-
sponsible for its education system. '''-hile each system differs from the
others in particulr,rs, the general plan is the same for all except Quebec,
where there are two systems, the Roman Catholic, which id of the French
tradition, and the Protestant, wbich is of the English tradition of the
other 9 provinces. Separate elementary schools for minority groups,
mainly Roman Catholic, operating witbin the provincial system are fonnd in
Alberta, Saskatchewan and Ontario. Secondary education in these pro-
vinces is non-sectarian. Though administration of the schools in New-
foundland has a denominational basis, they are not exclusive and a number
ace non·denominational. In general, education is free to the eud of the
secondary level. Nominnl fees are charged for secondary education in some
provinces. In Quebec fces may be charged for elementary education as
well_ The principal sources of revenue are provincial governmcnt grants
and direct. taxation for school purposes. The total expenditure on educa-
tion in 1\)58 was S8Sllm_ Except in Quebec the number of private schools
is small; their enrolment was less than 3% of the total in elementary and
secondary grades.
In 1958 about 94,400 full·time regular students enrolled in 35 degree-
granting institutions, other than purely theological institutions, and 304
affiliated or independent colleges. Some 36,000 carolled in arts and science,
14-,550 in engineering, 4,850 in commcrce and business administration,
4,384 in medicine, 2,738 in law and the remainder in more that 20 other
courses. Another 75,000 or more students were enrolled in part· time
courses.
The following statistics give information, for 1957-58, about the puhlicly-
~ontrol.edschools, exclusive of universities, in all provinces and including

indepelldent primary schools in Quebec:
Expe ndi·
P rovinces Schools Tea.chers Pupils tu re 1
Kewfoundland 1,198 3,5~7 113,243 9,819
Prince Edward Island ,155 8·19 21,927 1,914
Nova Scotia 1,497 5.756 164,:355 21,342
New Brunswjck 1,49'1 ·1,9S1 133,515 18,G05
Que bec 9,!31'1 42,758 1,008,.172 146,739 '
Ontario 7,504 40,403 1,17·1,642 250,561
Manitoba 1,756 6,64;; 16·1,0,16 30,481
8askatchcwnn 3,144 S,OSf) 187,739 42,762
Alberta 1,318 $1,702 247,21!) 57,768
British ( olumbi •• 1,152 9,~fJ3 280,181 63,841
Total. 28,732 132,649 3,.195,239 648,882
1 By tnd througb school boards and provincial governments Cor 1958; in $1,000 Canadian.
, Quebec independent schools not included.
The aboriginal Indian population numbered 155,874 in 1951, and oC

these about 110,000 live on the Indian Reserves. The federal government
providt s a special school system for the Indian youth, of whom 33,220 were
enrolle<l in its schools in 1957-58,
Cinlmas (1959) . There were 1,622 cincmas with a seating capacity of
852,16[·.
Net'spapers (l!l59). There were 111 daily newspapers ,of which 91 are
in Eng ish (1nd 13 in French.
Uoya1 C)mrni:;gioD on National Dc\""elopment in the Art!;, Letters and Sciences. Report,
1949- :'1 .. ; Studies: a selection of essays. 1951 (botu in English aDd French editions)
Kat;-,. J o;eph l Canadian Education Today. Tor-')nto,19;)6
Kidd, J. R., Adllit Education in the Canadian University. Toronto, 1956
Pbiliips, C. E., Th4 Development of Education in Canada. Toronto, 1%7
Swift, \V. H., Trends in Canadian Education. Toronto, 1 !)~8
JUSTICE
There is a Supreme Court in Ottawa, having appellate, civil and criminal
jurisdi( tion in and throughout Canada, There is an Exchequer Court, which
is also!, Court of Admiralty. There is a Superior Court in each province and
~ounty courts, with limited jurisdiction, in most of the provinces, all the
judges in these courts being appointed by the Governor·General. Police
magistrates and justices of the peace are appointed by the provincial
governments. Police force, sce p, 371 .
For the year ended 31 Dec. 1956 total convictions for indictable offences
wel'e 45,913; total convictions for all offences amounted to 2,401,730.
These ligures are for convictions of adults only. The number of juvenile
delinquents who were convicted of major and minor offences was 8,985.
Th~ Canadian illmanac and Legal and Court Directory. Annua.l. Toronto
Anger, "' , H., Summary of Canudian Cummercial Law. 17th ed. Torouto, 195~
Kidmau, J., The Canadian Prison . Toronto, 1947
~lcIll1er,.T. D., The Evolution (I) the Judidal Process. Toronto,1957
]'lc Whin'ley, E., Canadian Jurisprudence : civilla10 and comm on laU'. Toronto , 1958
O'Connol', A.. R. M"..!n ..!tra1v"s ojand a Guide to the.NCfIJ Criminal Cork. Toron(;Q, 1955
SOCIAL WELFARE
Family allowances are provided by the federal government to the
parcntf of all children under 16 years of age at the following rates: Children
under 10 years of age, $6; aged 10 to 15, $8. Provincio.J governments provide
allowallces on behalf of needy mothers and their dependent children,
CANADA 367
Old.age security is paid by the federal government to all citizens of
Canada 70 yenrs of age or over. The monthly rate of the pension is $55.
The federal and provincial governments co.operato in providing assistance
to persons in need who are aged 6;;-GO, and to those aged IS and over who
are disabled or blind.
Legislation setting up a national hospital insurance and diagnostic
services plan whereby the federal government will share wit.h the provinces
the cost of standard ward hospital care and diagnostic services was passed
in 1957. ~\greemcnts to bring the plan into operation hnve been signed
,vith most provinces. Prepaid hospital and medical care has been provided
for some years through provincial schemes in British Columbia and Sas·
katchewan and somewhat more limited plans have been in effect in Alberta
and Newfoundland.
Other wcl fare programmes to Illeet loca.l needs are operated by the pro·
vinces and municipalit.ies.
Social Insl1mnce. Tbe Canadirm Unemployment Insurance Act came
int.o operation on 1 July 1941. At, first no person who received more than
$2,000 per year was covered, but by an amendment to the Unemployment
Insurance Act, which came into effect on 1 Sept. 1943, all employees paid
on a contractual basis of an hourly, daily, weekly or piece rate (including a
mileage rate) are now included in insurable employment reg:udless of the
amount of their ()arnings, together with aU other employees who receive
$4,800 or legg per year under weekly, monthly or yearly rates.
From 1 July H)41 to 31 March 195!! employers and employees paid
82,132,825,162 into the fund and the federal government added $426,569,232.
The expellditul'e fo!' benefit payments amounted to 82,322.038,183.
CaiO;:3idv. H . M.• Public llcalth and Welfare Ret1r'lan ization . . • in the Canadian PTorinctl.
Toronto. 1945
Clark. R. M.• Econmm:c Sewn::!! jor the ~q(?d -in tli(' United States and Canad,z. 2 voL,;, Dept.
of N:1t.ionni Health ::tnd WcH:lrc. Ottawa,] D3!-1
Clark, S. D., The Sur;iat DCt'eiopment 0/ Canada. Toronto, 1942
Mercer, 'V. :-'1., Canadian HandhoC'k of Pension and IVdJu re lllan.~. 'I'oronto, 1~56.
FINANCE
The following relates to the Consolidated Fund, i .e. , general revenue
and expenditure (years ended 31 March) (in Canadian 5) :
1956- 57 1957- 08 lU58-59 ln59-60 1960- 61
Revenue. . 5.10f).!)~(),SgO 5,04 8,7S~ .279 4,i;d.• 7~2)C89 5. 31)1 ono,noo 5,892,000.(100
BIpeauicurc . 4,S40,035,~D8 5,087 ,111,011 5,364,(J3~,0~~ 5,106,800,000 5,880,OUO,OOO
Consolidated Fund revenue, 1958-59 (in Canadian $):

Customs. 48fi,50B,5S1 Income t~x, personal . 1, 333 ,499,314
Excise . . 316.74-1,260 Income tax, corporations 1,020,650,161
Return on invest m ent~ 221,::03,583 Succe:::;sion uutiE::5. . 72,535,140
Post Office 157,540,804 Sales and other excise duties 1,126,14U,834
Detailed estimates of the expenditure for the year ended 31 March

1061 (in Canadian S):
Agriculture 113,531,797 Civil Service Commission 3,853,967
A.tomic Ener~ 41,653,2!J5 Defence Production-
Auditl)c-GeDem)'s Otllce . 910,860 Department . 17,551.031
Boarrl of Brondcaet Gover· C1(lWfl Companie4 5,507,322
nors .' . 298,420 J:),tern.1 AClain!. . 80.940,610
Canadian Rro~dcasting Cor· Finance . 1,442,908,6H
poration. • . 71,739,400 Fishcri e~ .. 19,939,G90
Chlel ~Iectoral Officer. . 115,4~5 Governor~G cnf'! ral and Lieu t ...
Oitizenship & Immigration. 59,76,1,500 Governors 430,484
368 THE" BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
InsuranCI! . 691,612 Privy Council . . . 7,520,1.21

Ju~ti ce PllblicA..rcbivc.sand Nat.ioulll
J)epart;l1elll 8,506,348 Library . . . S 0 2,~32
Peniler.tiarin . 17,876,553 Public Priuting and StatiOIJ-
Labour- ery . 3,330,836
Deparl:nmt H,955,698 Public Works 19J,SV7,i19
Unem"loymenllllsurcrL't . S8,173,500 Ron,1 Canadian MouDted
I.egisJat.i<.n . . . 7,972,010 . Police . 53,70~, () 11
~liue. and Technical SUI- Secretary of State 4,824,i31
veya-- Trade nod Oonunerce 70,652,506
Department.. 43,028,402 Transport.-
Domim-on Coal Board lr.,324,350 Departmenl 218,381,424
National Defence . 1,593,n2,~66 Air Transporl lJoard 466,8,1
NIlUonal Film Bo....d . 4,647,468 Board of Transport C01/l·
National Gallerv. 1,079,145 mis.~i oner., . . 23,189,512
Health alld Weif....e . 1,439,240,729 Canadian Man'limf Com·
National Research Council 33,025,681 mission . . 6,~4I,33S
National Revenue . 71 ,7D2,046 National Ilarbours Board. 2,633,099
Northern AffaiN aod Vt!te ran~ A.ffairs . 290,678,450
Natit>nal Resources 77,O;')O,63n
Post Olli.,e 172,04.7 ,~47 Total expenditure . 6,330,IGS,9~,j
On :n March 1960 the net debt was estimated at $12,081,900,000.

FOT<!ign Debu. The amount of Greek debt to Canada outstanding is
$6,525,000; the original Rumanian debt has been funded and with interest
aggregat~s $24,329,262.
Buck, A. E., FilUlnci7t!l Cana4ian Government. Chicago. 19~9

Canadian Fiscal Facts " prindpal slalistiC3 oJ Calwtlian pubUc Jilwnce. Ca.uadiun Tax
Found.:.tion, '.foronto, 1957; snppl.,1958
Fos, 1'l. .J., :Markelil1g in. Canada . Homcwood, Il l.~ 1955
Perry, J. H., TaxaJion in Can'Ula. Rev. cd. ToroHto, 1954.-Taxes, Tariffs a:ld Subs idi'-s ,
Toront.>, 1955
DEFENCE
All :nattcrs relating to defence are the respon8ibility of the Minister of
Nationa l Defence. Under his direction the Chiefs of Staff for the Navy,
the Army and the Air Force are responsible for the control and administra·
tion of their respective Services. The Chairman of the Defence Research
Board b responsible to the Minister for defence research and development
and relRted matters.
NAVY. The Royal Canadian Navy, established in 1910, is administered

by Na ..,,1 Headquart.ers in Ottawa through 3 principal commands at Halifax,
N.S., ar.d Esquimalt, B.C., for the Regular Force, and at Hamilton, Ont.,
for the :~.C.N. (Reserve).
The Naval Board consists of the Chief of the Naval Staff; Vice-Chief of
Naval Staff; Chief of Naval Personnel ; Chief of Naval Technical Services;
Naval Comptroller; Assistant Chief of Naval Staff (Plans); Assistant Chief
of Naval Staff (Air and Warfare): Secretary to the Naval Board.
On :10 April 1959 the R.C.N. had 56 ships in commission, excluding
auxiliar.es, and 25 in reserve or refit, excluding 3 on loan to other govern-
ment departments. There were over 134 aircraft in operational and
reserve strength. Among ships in commission were I light /leet carrier,
22 destroyer escorts, 14 frigates, 1 coastal escort, 10 minesweepers, 1 fleet
repair ship and 3 patrol craft. Five new destroyer escorts were commissioned
in 1959 md one more was under construction.
CANADA 369
Prillcipal ships of the Roy:tl Canadi:ln Navy:
St-a l',ua:-•.l
di~I))a(:c · A l'!n (~ llr Shaft
<';I)1.l.I- mcnt lIelt 'j 'v.rrf!tJ Prirldpal Torpedo horse· ~pt'cd
pleted N :"'1ll2 'rOD:) ill. 111 . I1.rmallleat tuhes pow~r Knot~
Aircraft Carrier
19,7 Donavellture 16,000 8 3-in. 42.000 2·1}
The cruisers Ontario (ex.Minotullt') and Quebec (ex. Uganda) were de·
c1ared surplus to naval requirements at the end of 1958 and are being sold
to the shipbreakers in 1939-60.
There are also 11 destroyers (DDE), 14 fast anti·submarine frigates or
destroyer escorts (DDE) (6 sister ships are under construction), 18 frigates
(FFE), 6 coastal escorts (formerly classed as occan and fleet minesweepers)
(FSE), 3 weathcr ships (e,x.frigates), a ncw mine.and.loop layer, a loop
layer (u.frigate). a controlled minelayer, 3 seaward defence patrol craft,
5 gate vessels, 10 coastal minesweepers, 1 au xiliary coastal minesweeper, 2
escort maintenance ships of 8,850 tons and 61 other vessels. Six Ilew
destroyer escorts are under construction.
The first Canadian aircraft carrier, H .M.C.S. Bonaventure (ex·H.l\1.S.
Powerful) was complcted on 17 Jan. 1!)57 at Belfast and replaced the air·
craft ()arrier .'lagnificent, ,,,hicb on 14 June 195i wau returned to the Royal
Navy' from which she hud been on loan siuee 19J6.
In 1953 the Royal Canadian Navy reorga.nized her fleet categories and
adopted a hull number assignment list basically similar to that used in the
U.S. Navy. Every vessel in tt'.e Navy List has been gi"en a distinctive
serial number prefaced by initials denoting the category to which she
belongs, as follows: RRSM, light fleet aircraft carrier; DDE, destroyer;
FFE, frigate ; FSE, coastal escort; ALC, loop layer; ARE, escort main·
tenance ship; MCB, coastal minesweeper; NPC, controlled minelayer;
Y}lG, gate vessel; PCS, seaward defence patrol craft; ATA , ocean tug .
All Canadian destroyer>! hn.ve betlll or are being re· armed and equipped
with tho latest. anti·submarine g ;:,a/' and reclassified as ·/leet. escorts (DDEs).
Six more destroyer escorts (DDEs) displacing 2.000 tons are under con·
struction in Canadian shipyards. Ships of the Royal Canadian Navy fly
the white ensign and wear red maple leaves on the after funnel.
University Naval Training Divisions f'lxist in 25 universities, and provide
naval trn.inillg for university students; these are a component of the R .C.N.
(Reserve) Active List. The Itoyal Canadian Sea Cade.t Corps, sponsored by
the Navy League of Canada, provides cadet training under the supervision
of the RC.N.
In fulfilment of Canada's XATO commitments, the R .e.N. has 30 warships
roady for tho defence of coastal waters in the Canada-U.S. region and for
the NATO mwa.l forces nnder the control of the Supreme Allied Commander ,
Atlantic (SACLANT) .
In 1957-58, 10 coastal escorts (former fleet minesweepers) of the' Bangor'
class and 4 coa.stal minesweepers of the 'Bay' class were transferred to the
Turkish Navy under Mutual Aid.
The arctic patrol vessel (helicopter carrier and icebreaker) Labrador and
3 weather·ships (ex. frigates) were transferred to the Department of Trans·
port in I 95S-50.
The R.C.N. is made up of members of the Regular Forces of the R.C.N.
and members of the Active List of the R.C.N. (Reserve). On 30 April 1959
there wero 20,421 officers and men in the Regular Force and 3,216 in the
Reserv'l Force.
The Navy estimates for J!J56-57 amounted to $326,684,000, for 1957-
58 to $262,570,000 and for 1958-59 to $2J4m.
ARMY. The Canadian Army is administered by Army Headquarters at

Ottawa through 5 command headquarters which direct 8 areas as follows:
Eastern Command, Halifax, N.S. (New Brunswick Area, Fredericton, N.B.;
Newforndland Area, St. John's, Nfld.), Quebec Command, Montreal,
P.Q. (Eastern Quebec AreiL, Quebec, P.Q.), Central Command, Oakville,
Onto C3:astern Ontario Area, Kingston, Ont. ; Western Ontario Area,
Londor, Ont.), Prairie Command, Winnipeg, Man. (Saskatchewan Area,
Regina. Sask.), Western Command, Edmonton, Alberta (British Columbia
Area, "Vancouver, B.C.).
On 30 April 1959 the Canadian Army (Regular) had 380 units active in
Canada and abroad. The Regular Army consists of 4 infantry brigade
groups md a number of static units and installations for command, training,
admini"tration and supply. One of the infantry brigade groups is
stationod in Europe as part of the NATO Forces and is under command of
the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe (SACEUR).
At the same date there were 420 units in the Canadian Army (Militia) and
29 units in the Supplementa.ry Reserve. These Reserve units, along with
the Regular Reserve, the Canadian Officers' Training Corps, the Cadet
Service, of Canada and the Reserve Militia, consist of officers and men
enrolled for other than continuing fuil·time service.
The Army is responsible for the maintenance of the Northwest Highway
System and for the operation of the Northwest Territories and Yukon
Radio liystem. It also provides postal services, dental services and medical
8upplie:l for the armed forces.
The Army provides personnal for the United Nations Emergency Force
in the Middle East and for truce teams in Palestine and Kashmir in com-
pliance with United -Nations commitments. Personnel are also provided
for the Canadian delegation to the international supervisory commissions
in Vietnam and Cambodia.
On 30 April 1959 the strength of the Canadian Army (Regular) was
47,968md t.he Canadian Army (Militia) was 40,914 .
.AIR FORCE. The Royal Canadian Air Forre is administered by Air

Force Headquarters at Ottawa through the following mn.jor formations:
Air Defence Command, St Hubert, P .Q. ; 5th Air Division, Vancouver, B.C.;
1st Air Division, Metz, France; Air Transport Command, Trenton, Ont.;
Air Materiel Command, Rockeliffe, Ont.; Maritime Air Command, Halifax,
N.S.; Training Command, Winnipeg, Man.
On 30 April 1959 the R.C.A.F. had 40 squadrons in service, 29 regular
and 111Uxiliary. Twelve squadrons were stationed in Europe under NATO,
and th,~ balance were in Canada, where there were 9 CF· 100 alI·weather
interceptor squadrons for air defence; 3 maritime patrol squadrons equipped
with Argus and Neptune aircraft; 4 transport squadrons equipped with
C· 1I9 ILlld North Star aircraft; 1 reconnaissance squadron; 11 auxiliary
squadrons.
The R.C.A.F.'s part in Canada's direct NATO contributions consists of
the provision of 8 squadrons of Sabre jet day fighters and 4 squadrons
CANADA 371
of CF-IOO all-weather fighters serving in France and Germany under

the command of SACEUR. It also trains airmen for other NATO
nations.
The strength of the R.C.A.F. (Regular) was 51,494 and of the R.C.A.F.
(Auxiliary) was 4,033 on 30 Aprill!l59.
DEFENCE RESEARCH BOARD. The Defence Research Board is· to make

a,ailable for the defence of Canada the scientific resources of tills country
and to co-ordinate Canadian scientific efforts of its defence capabilities
with developments in allied countries. The Board consists of a full-time
Chairman and Viee-Chairman, 6 ex-officio members and 6 other members
who a.re appointed on a term basis from industry and the universities. The
ex-o.fficio membus are the 3 Chiefs of Staff, the Deputy Minister of National
Defence. the President of the National Research Council and a representa-
tive from the Department of Defence Production.
MUTUAL AID . Canada's lIIutual Aid Programme, since its inception in

April 1950, has provided military a.ssistance to her NATO allies to an
estimated total value of SI,275m. The principal elements in the Pro-
gramme are the transfers of equipment from Service stocks and from
cnrrcnt production, and the t.raining in Canada of aircrew from other
NATO countries; also included arc Canada 's contributions to NATO
common infrastructure programmes and for the budgets of the NATO
military headquarters and the NATO International Staff Seeretariat.
ROYAL CANADIAN MOUNTED POLICE. The Royal Canadian Mounted

Poliee is a civil force maintained by the federal government. It. was organized
in 1873, and then known as the North West Mounted Police, to provide
police protection in the unsettled portions of the north-west. In 1904 the
title 'Royal' was given to the force . In 1!l20 the Dominion Police was
amalgamated with it and the name was changed to the Royal Canadian
Mounted Police. The headquart.ers was moved from Regina to Ottawa, and
the force may now be called upon to perform duties in any portion of
Canada. In 1928 the Royal Canadian Mounted Police absorbed the Sas-
katchewan Provincial Police. and in 1933 the Provincial Police Forces of
Alberta. Manit.oba, ]l;cw Brunswick. Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island.
During 1932 the Force also assumed the administration of the Preventive
Service Branch of the Departme.nt. of National Revenue. In Aug. 1950
the Royal Canadian Mounted PGiicc ahsorbed the Newfoundland Ranger·s
and selected members of the Newfoundland Constabulary whose duties are
out.side the City of St John 's. The British Columbia Provincial Police
were also absorbed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
The term of engagement in the Roya.\ Canadian Mounted Police is 5
years. Recruits are trained at Regina, Sask., and Ottawa, Ont.; training
period is 6 months.
The uniform strengt.h at 31 March 1!l5!l was 5,383. The Force has
197 horses, 1,52(; motor vehicle~, 27 police service dogs and 265 sleigh
dogs.
The Force has a l\Iarine Division with headquart.ers at Ottawa, Ont.
This consists of 249 officers and men and has 70 ships and boats. most of
which are stationed on the east coast. Air Division, with headquarters
at Ottawa, has 16 aircraft and a strength of 45 uniformed members and
special conotables.
Canada's Army in Korea. Dept. of NAtional Defence. Ot.tawa. 1956

l>ornbns )h, C.B., l'hc C anudian Army lS55-195 S; regimental hi~tories. CormYallville,
N.Y., L~J\l
Feasby, W. It. (ed.), OIPcial Uistory 0/ the Canadian Medical Service.• , 1939-45. Dept.. or
!'latiol al Defence, Ottawn, 1~53-5ti
Goodspe"d. D. J ., A Hislory 0/ lite li_/mce Research Board 0/ Canada. Defence Re,""rc!,
Board. Ottawa, lU58
Kcnuedy, J. de N. t History of the Department of Munitions and Supply in the Second World
lVar. a voLs. I ~i\O
nObert~, L., There Shall Be Wings; a IttstOT!I of the Royal Canrulian .tilr Force. Toronto, HI;);)
Schull, J. t The Far Distant Ships: an op/dal account of Canadian nat'al operations in eht
Second World War. 1950
Stacey, c. P . •Six Years 0/ War: OjJicia/Hislory of Ihe CaMdian Army. 2 vols. 19:;:;-56
St.anlcy, 3. 11' . G., Canada's SoldieTs, 1604-1954 i the military history 0/ an uumililory peoplt.
Toronto, 195·1
Tucker, O. N., 'l'he ..:Yaval Service 0/ Canada: its o.oicial history. 2 vols. Ottawa, 19l)j
PRODUCTION
Agriculture. Though the manufacturing industries now predominate.
Canada is largely agricultural. and among her natural resources arable lands
stand unrivalled. It is estimated t.hat about 46% of the total land area is
forcstec ; according to the census of 1956,271.756 sq. miles (less than 8%
of the total land area) is classed as occupied agricultural land. Grain
growin~:, dairy farming, fruit farming, rnnching and fur farming are all
carried on successfully. The following table shows the estimated agri.
cultural production for 1958. valued in 81.000 Canadian :
~"icid crops. 1,400,0[,5 Eggs 166.077 Fr11its 4 3.262
Fann animal:; 1.774.881 PouLtry meat 15 5,757 Maple products S .O~·~
Milk proc uction . 56D,75:J Poultry 90,0;;1 Honey 4,6:-i:!
Butter, creamery. 1Sl,766 Tobacco 8~,60~ Wool. ~,()~()
Number of occupied farms, according to the census of 1956, was

575,015.
lrri[lation. Large.scale irrigation in Canada began with the passing of
the NOI·th West Irrigation Act. 1894. With the transfer of the natural
resources in 1931. the administration of water rights. excepting international
streams, became a provincial responsibility. The Prairie Farm Rehabilita·
tion AC1;, 1935. marked the beginning of a new phase whereby the Dominion
Govemment was to undertake construction of large irrigation works, to
provide assistance for individual projects, as well as to conduct surveys and
prepare plans.
Irrigation projects are in operation in Alberta with an irrigable area of
about Im. acres. when completed; the St Mary and Milk l~ivers Projec~
alone w::ll irrigate about 510,000 !lcres. A total of 210.000 acres of land are
irrigated in British Columbia, of which about two· thirds is made up of
individul projectH and the rest is served by the larger irrigation projects.
The land developed for irrigation in British Columbia is used mainly for the
growing of small fruits and vegetables and for dairying. A Conservation
and De'lClopment Branch was established 1 April 1949, in Saskatchewan,
where ry the end of 1956, 114,010 acres of topographic surveys and 148
miles of strip topographic surveys were completed on irrigation projects.
Fie/,/ Crops. In 1!l58, 60,213,000 acres were under field crops. those
most widely cultivated being wheat. oats, hay and clover. barley and rye.
The foll)wing are the revised estimates of Nov. 1958 for acreage and yield
of grain crops for the year 1958:
CANADA 373
"'neat Oats Barley
:Provinces .A crel 1,000 bu. .Acre., 1,000 bu. ..tern 1,000 bu.
Pr. Bd . Island B,300 92 97,000 4,559 800 30
Nova Scotia 700 20 42,000 1,974 1,500 ;j,)
New llrun::;;\\;ck 2,400 64 122.000 [1,368 4,ROO 15~

Quebec 12,700 2t15 1,307,000 -15,745 23,000 727
Ontario 595,000 24,259 1,799,000 f'9,305 91.000 4,095
Manitoha 2,3!)8,OOO 55.000 1,711,000 60,000 1, 58·1,000 44,000
Saskatchewan IS,I~2,OOO 192,000 .~,064 ,OOO 83,000 .\9.19.000 87,000
Al berta 4,704,000 96,000 2,809,000 97,000 R.'-16,OOO 107,0,-,0
Britis h Colu mbia. 41,000 1,000 88,200 4,000 r,S,400 1,700
T0tal Canada 20,899,100 :;68,. 3(1 11,039,200 ·100,951 V,G48,OOO 2401,76·1
The November estimates of crops f or1958 were: Wheat" 368,730,000 bu.;

oats, '100,951,000 bu.; barley, 244,7(14,000 bu.; rye, 8,002,000 Im.; flax-
seed, 23,166,000 bu.; tnme hay, 18,0:]9,000 tons ; potnt oes, 39,430,000 cwt.
The t otal value of field crops for ID57 was estimated at $1,348,766,000.
The acreage and yield of fie ld crops, by provinces, wero in Hlil7:
Rye Fl:l.:tseeu M ixeu grains
Provinces .4crt'J 1,000 bll. Acre.t 1,000/111 . .AcreJ 1,000 bu.
Pr . lld . Island 50,000 2"tr,O
Not"& Scotia. 10.400 464
New DrUDswick: 5,200 228
Queuec . 9,000 217 181,000 6,480
Ontario. 92,000 2,355 1l,OOO llJ6 760,000 42, 256
Manitoba 71,000 1,200 fJ!J2,OOO ij, 100 111,000 0,400
S..,katchewIW . :J17,600 2,500 1,.1 96,000 11.300 75,000 1,800
Al bert.a . . 99, 700 1,700 556,000 6,500 225,000 1,400
Bri tish Columbia 1,100 30 9,7(10 1 10 4.200 170
Total Conad" 521,400 8,002 2,66·1,700 23 ,1 06 1,421,800 64,6·18
Other gr:tin$1 Potatoc:-; Hoots '

Provinces A ern 1,000/111. .dt:us /.000 cu~t. d(UI 1,000/0"S
1'1'. IslAnd
E~. 'IR.l00 7,G:iO '~'lt ; OO 81
Nova ScuLia . 10,300 1,339 3,100 ;Od
New Dru!H;wick 4,';'00 l l-\i '16.00U ~,0{)O 2,500 30
QUl!bec 'LU,IOO 9 7;j 90,GOI) 9,377 ~,400 O~
Ontario. ;,86 ,~00 3 1, 76 ~ f,6.500 7.:160 1;',000 17U
Manitoba . 96.500 J,.162 15,600 1,200
Saskatchewan. 3,000 41 15.400 7iO
AIlJerta . . 3,600 n 18,700 1,:,80
l1ritish Coluruul3 5,000 128 1.1,500 1,8~S
Total Cannun 739,400 04 ,5118 :lll ,OOO :l9,·130 34,800 401

1 Including pulseR. t ]~:::clu~ if'e of 83,0 12 a.ere:;; and ],02,1,'iO;) t \)!lSoC sugar bee t.
Soy bean!' Tame bay Foducr corn

l'rovillces Acres 1,000 b" . dues 1,000 tons Ac,.(s 1,000 tons
Prince ]~uw a rd Island 212,000 40:-':
Nova ~coLia . 31 J, OUO 6 S~
N8W Bru nswick 37S.0QO GSU
Quehec. 3,4G4.000 ;,,716 G7,f"iOO t;58
Ont,ario ~vG,OOO C,G7(1 !J ,lS5,UOO 5,542 285,000 3,O61
ManitobB . i.OOI) 70 776,000 1,000 23 , ~00 111)
Sac!ka.tchewan 788,000 770 2.10U 4
Alb ert~ • 1,996.00U 2,!iOO
British Columbia 367,000 n 'l 2,300 34
Tots I Canada 263,000 G,6·-I!} 11,47 7,000 18,029 380,800 3,767
Liveslock. In pa rts of Saskatchewnn and Alberta stockrnising is still

carried 01\ as n primary ind\;stry, but the livestock production of th e
Dominion at large is mainly a 8ubeidbry o f mixed farming. The following

table saows the numbers of livest ock (in 1,000) by provinces in 1958:
Milch Other
Fr)vinces ilorsf's co';\-'"s cat tle Sheep Bwine Poultry
Pr. Ed . Island 12·5 42·4 ·10·1 33 ;:1 1 772
Nova Scotia 15·0 71·3 48' 5 80 37 2,038
Now Bnmswick 16·6 80'5 41'S 67 59 1,186
Qnebec . 147·0 I,OH2'0 431 ·0 320 1,060 12,008
Out~tio . 116· 0 1,015'0 1,235'0 3S~ 1,850 33,355
Man itob3. 65·0 218'0 390'0 78 455 8,016
Sa.:;katcliewan . 148'0 254·0 1,016'0 175 S9U 9,!'JG5
Alberta. 135'0 275'0 1,.123'0 4 70 1,710 10,943
Bri ti sb Columbia. 2-1·0 91·0 209·0 90 52 4,711
Total lU57 . 730·1 S,I·li· O 5,1 i6'0 1,66 1 4,8;} 7 77,168
Total 1958 . 675·0 3,129'2 4,83·1'4 1,696 6,16-1 82,6 24
Xel production of farm eggs ill 1957,446,476,000 doz. ($1 59,603,000);

in ID5il, HD,8 19,000 doz. ($1 66,077,000).
Wool production, 1958,6,345,000 lb. ; 195D, 6·8m. lb .
Du·:ryinl}. The dairying industry i.i carried on must extensively in
Ontarh and Quebec, although there are dairy factories in all of the pro-
vinces. The total number of creameries in Canada in 1957 was 966; of
cheese factories, 272; of combined butter and cheese factories, 84; of
condenseries, 29; and the tutul \'a lue of a ll products of dairy fa ctories,
$55(),~" 7,707. Production, 1958: Creamery butter, 3::l6,085,000 lb.;
factory cheese, 100,895,000 lb.; milk, 18,057,1 36,000 lb.
Fruit F arming. The value of fruit production by provinces in 1958
was (i:l 81,000) : Ontario, 20,754 ; British Columbia, 1 3,~88; Quebec,
6,212; Nova Scotia, 1,564; New Brunswick, 1,026; Newfound land, 115;
Prince Edward Island, 303. Total apple production in Canada in 1958 was
17,006,000 bu.
To/'acco. Th e production in 1958 of tobacco, whi ch is practically confined
to On':ario, Quebec and British Columbia, was estimated at 1 97,302,000 lb.
from 134,126 acres.
Forestry. The t otal area of land covered by forests (exclusive of New·
foundl"nd) is estimated a t 1,621,().!5 sq. miles (46% of the land area ). Of
this 8('0,000 sq. miles are productive and accessible. About 642,000 eq.
milcs of productive forest are considered t o be economically accessible.
Lumber production, 1956,7,739,603,000 ft; 1957,7,09[1,758,000 n.
Tlw value of primary fores t production in I Di\ 7 was $823,054,498 ;
gross value of lumber production (including all saw·mill products) in 1937
was $555,688,383. Gross value of product s in the pulp and paper industry
was $1,4 11,934,4·62 in 1957 ($1,453,441,726 in 1956); newsprint production
amounted t o 6,361,651 tons with a value of $72D,009,OSI in 1957.
F isheries. In the calendar year 1957 the capital invested in vessels,
gear, (,tc., was $1 30,859,500 . The tot al value of the produce of the
fisheries was $188,017,700. The principal kinds of fish marketed were (in
$1,0001: Salmon (PacifLc), 44,903; lobsters, 21,145; cod,3:l,579; herring
(Pacifi,,), 6,3D2; herring (Atlantic), 6,541; haddock, 10,034; whitefish,
5,967; pickerel, 5,917; halibut, 7,5GO; sardines, 5,667. The number of
person!! employed was 93,251, including fishermen and those employed in
cannill;~ and curing establishments; n um ber of factories and canneries in
operation, 525 .
NOTE: All figures include Newfoundland.
CANADA 375
Mini1UJ. Novo. Scotia, British Columbia. Quebec, N. and W. Onta.rio,
Alberta and Yukon Territory are the chief mining di~tricts. The total
value of tbe mineral produced in W5S wa~ 82,122,153,.HO. The principal
metals and minerals produced in I (J.)S were as follows:
Mctailk:; Qn~ntity Vain" (S)
Gold (fine oz.) .,4,~:J.l,~~~ lGI,06;jA~n
Silver (fin8 o~~.) -.)1,,)11, .) , S
Other pre~~io:13 rr.ct;ds :!~0,2~;)
°1"~';~:;'~~~
'),/\JI, . -t"
:-iickel (lh.) . 2iS, (JS:?,7!1:' 1 ~16, 7 ~ :;,!)~iG
C,)yper (lb.). Gtl8,n::W,03·! 178.07i,GBS
Zinc Oh.) ~~7.;7;~.~4? 93,100.107
Lead (lh.) Jl l,:)4U ,v!),1 42,O~;j,0(if)
Uranium (lb.) 28 , :?:j 'i,:-:;:.l:3 2DO,22S,3i,t)
Antiwon!', Gismut,ll. cr.!llJlium , cobalt, cakiulll, ruagtJesim.ll,
indiuTll, iron ure! and iHgOt.:?, 5clenilllll. telluriulIl, molybdeTlit.p',
tHan..iu!11 (If''8, /;llng~('(!!I concent rates, Lit! Qud pitdl Llcndc, etc. 1-10,869,719
Total mct.ollies 1,142,140,007

:;Oll-Dlct"allk"
Fuels
Coal (tons) . 11,H1.695 78.:31 7,621
Nntural ~as (lm. Cll. [t.) 33 7,n96.000 2S,487,600
Orude petroleum (bIJL~) . 166,476,268 401,027,21&
Total inels 507,732,43G

Other non-mctallir:s
A-;bef.lto:;. flu olsp:\r. ruilgnc~jtic dolomite awl l )ruC' it~, mica,
litllia, pyrit.es. sUlphur 111,2nl,4 .S6
Gypsum (t01~~) 4,01:!)J64 S,~\I):'>.f)::7
Salt (tous) . l, Sr,\SGG 1 ;i, ·1 S:~.8GO
Other uou-ll1etallks ~3,14~~60~
'Total other UOl\-lllct8.l1ic~ 15S,131,VS2

Clay products a.nd other Bt.nlctunti mat.!rbi:;
Clay products (brick, til e, sewer pipe, e t~.) .12,611.809
Cement (tons) 6,063,D77 (15,869,547
Lime (tons) . . . . 1,612,761 20 ..1:JU,311
Stone, ::;ar,d and gravf:!l (t011~) 188,460,762 15~J.22S,258
Tot":t! ol::ty product.~, etc. 314 ,1 40,015
Value (in Canadian 5) of mineral prodllctiLln by provinces:

Pr0vinces 1 !~5 i 1 a;;R Provinces 1937 1958
N ~\\1o nlldJand . R!::.j)S2,26:i 68,752,OSG Alberta . 410,211. 7~3 ~~~,790, 1~2
Nova. Scot,in 68")58,743 G4,002,G97 British Co luJJ1bia 178,931,1211 1;)7,143,008
New Brua.<.;wiC'li ~3,120,6Sn 17,053,8~JS Yukon . 14,111, in S 11,77~, 818
Quehec 4rJG.0!)·5.7!)7 ~70,S04,2{j ·l N.W. 'j'etTitory • 21,400,610 !!'!,7£1I,016
Ontario 74t\.82·t.322 7~9.168,4 H
Manitoba 63.46·1\~S5
Sask,.t.diPwan . 17~.'lGl.037 'J~?~~n,:~4
t~, f _O,.J :J .j
...1 Totcl. . !!,190,32:!,iJ92 :3,122,1[)~,440
With the dis(;overy of major oilfields in Alberta, the prouuction of

petrolenm uas become a major Canadian industry. In ID5l a 1,150-mile
crude· oil pi reline wus completed from the oilfields in the Eumonton areD.
to Superior, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Great Lakes. It ,vaR extended, in
1953, to S<Lrnia, Ollt., all addition"l 643 miles. It is the IOllgest pipelille in
the world. Most of tIlC oil is processed at tac Sarnia oil refineries. Another,
the Trans Mountain, pipeluw, 718 miles long, from Edmonton across the
Rockies to Vancouver, B.C., was completed on 15 Oct. 1953. At the end of
ID57 Cn,nada.'s oil pipeline system hud 6,873 milos of line in operation. Net
oil deli ....eries in 1957 were 200,857,0]2 bbls. The Tmns·Canada natural gas
376 THE BRITISH COMMOl'.'WEALTH AND EMPIRE
line is;he longest in the world. It brings natural gas from the Alberta-
SaBkatchewan border across the prairies, through northern Ontario to
Toronto, then eastward to Montreal. Production of natural ga.~ in Canada
mnounled to 337,996m. cu. ft in 1958. (See map in THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR-HoOK, 1952.)
Manufacturer8. Statistics for 1957, in leading groups of industries:
~HiJJg
Empjoy('~ Co:;t, of value of
lFal]p.s ru:lte.rit:.ls iar.tory
Group oi indu.".tries _Yumber ,H,OOQ) ($1.1)<10, ($1,000)
Ponds ~nd bc\'crnges . . 1 ~2 , 1 -';j" :;!lO,fl2.) 2,70-1,177 4 , 1-;1:~),il
Tobacco Ind tobacco prooucts ~1,!IO .~, :; :-;,:j :! :-~ 1{)O,1l0 2-19, 734:
Hubl;cr r rodllcts 2:!. I i.'" ~:;.)t:O
1 *:;,~:17 326,091
Leather Ilt'Odnct5' :;], 0:JlJ 77 .768 1 ..... ,;).10 ::!38,780
Textile;; t'S, ~.12 ~f)) jj7 U 412,,1~{j.; 747,H67
Knitting· mills ;-,;.1,:.'17 ~ :J ,7::U 172,162
O!othing ~i:~ti ~ I S .!J.j~, ~~I ~ .HJ(; j .Jfl,62~
\Vood pr.,dncts ] ,;)35,171
l;~ri:~~~
136.S ~~~ ; ;6 ~, Gfill
Paper pndll.cts . . . , . ~1 ·1.~ 3;; 40:3 ~~ ~o 1 ~SG3,Tl !.I
.PrinLug. publisiling aod al~if.\l iIldu~trit's ~ -f. ,).j~, ~74,4:)5 ~ .1 .j; O~4 1~1,20U
lrou and steel products 1 Hf',:,!");) 1.;jB (i,~::l !!,rn2,1.1-S
Tl- an~pOl' :Hlt iou equipment ~ ·j1,6 : ;9 ~2i :.~~{
.).),( o fjS
1 , ~ S~ ,2·-t3 :1,2G9,203
NOTI-ierru'.ls metal prorlncts. '-d ," .:;1 1'<H~. 146 1,6S3,3S:!
Eledrica ~ppa.ratn" and c;upplies. 81,-132 ~~({! 17 4:8S ,~.j3 1,0,8,21:\
Xon-metl ~ l1lc mineral product;; 40,12n 1 -~·~) .: :1:-; :!O:).fJ.s~ DO:?,IC'J
l'roducts of pctro:eulll and caal 17,7·)7 :-:'.-::.fjSS ~1l:3 , S:~!) ] .4.n l,~J2 ()
Chemical, and allied prodllct~ :j!''jOd : ~ :"!'.! .Ol?l '-I O;~',7·1f) 1,~~3 .41 ~
)t;scellaneous industries :~ J ,9 1'.! l O ~, 8 :3 1 J.lS,GGO .,,)5,lH,)
Total (all iwlG::tri12s) 1,::;:)O,I)Gl 4,Sl~I,G2S 11,tlOO,i'~l3 ~:?, I S::;,i):~ 1
Pur Trade. In 1957-58 (year ended 30 ,TIme), 6,440,319 pelts

valued '1t S26,335,109, were to.ken. lIlink furs Ice:! in total .alue. followed
by muskrat, beaver, squirrel, white fox, otter, eTmillt', silv(,r fox (including
platinum), marten and fisher. Fur allct.ions are held on a large scale at
Montreal, Winnipeg, Regina, Edmont.on o.nd Vo.ncl)uver. The more im-
portant animals raised on fur farms are fos, mink, racoon, marten, nutria,
fitch, chinchilla and fisher. The value of animnlH and pelts sold from the
farms during the year 1957 was Sl5,4:24.3:52. There were in 1957, 2,.;4S
fur farms, of which 103 reported fox anll 1,752 mink.
Wat~r Power. Cann.da is richly endowed with water power resources;
on 31 Vec. 1958 the avn.ilable horse-power at ordinary 6 months' flow was
66,203,(;00; turbine installation amounted to 22,:379,626 h.p. The Central
Electric Station industry, which generates 95% of the total electrical out-
put, had a gross production of power valned a t $638,7l4,000 in 1957.
In 1957 there were 3,991,025 dome8tic n.nd farm customers in Canada, and
during that period the amount of electricity consumed dOlllestic~J1y was
15,785,101,000 kwh., or 3,955 kwh. per cllstomer.
Canaaian Jfines llandb(lok. Annnal. Toronto, from 1~31
Currie, A. '\"., Economic Geography of Canada. Toronto,] g4;).---Ca.nadian Economic Develop.
'n~nt. Toronto,1951
F'owlcp., V. 0., Canl.Uiian Agrindtnral P(llicy. T<:r0nto, 1046
Gib~OIl,.T. D. (cd.), Canada's Econf)my in a CJl(wljir"j rrurlI.J. 'Toronto,1948
HUl'.£on, E. J., Dynamic Decade. Toronto,1958
Innis, H. A., The PUT Trade in Can~drz. R',n-. e:1. TtJl"o;lI·u univ. Pl"e~~, l'J;)G. - ·1"hc!' Cod
Fij/terie's. Re~ . et!. Torouto,1954
Langford, G. B., Out of tile Enrth: the mineral iridin',!! in Canada. Toronto, 1(154
I . . eBonrdais, D. :\1., }Jeta18 and jien.: t/tf~ 8tOr;1I f)f f)rmadim-i, minin!l. Toronto,19.,)7
Mnin, O.IV.~ The Ca.na,dian Nickfl fndlutry. Toronto,lg55
McCocicr, O. ~f.. Con.sf?rvution in Canala. Toror.to, 1952
Scott , Antholl.r • .vat'.l~al Rt!sourcl!s: the t!cvJt?lni("s Qf conservation. Toronto, 1955
CANADA 377
Stranl;e, n. G. L., .f Short nistory of Prairie Agriculture. \ ViJmi peg, 1954
Tang he. n., Gto9faphie Ec()ncmique du Uanad(J, Montreal, 1 ~44
Valk. H. M. H. A. van der, The Economic: Future of Canada. Toronto,1954
LABOUR
In 19,,8 the Canadian labour force was distributed as follo\\'s (in 1,0(0):
)Iannfacturing, 1,469; service, 1,~59 ; t.rade,915; agriculture,712; con-
struction, 433; transportation, storage and cOlnmunicfttion, 432; finallC'0,
insurance and rea! estate, Zll: milling and quarrying, 109; forestry, 86;
public utilities, 78; total, 5,722.
Over one-third of Can;1da's non-agricultural paid workers belong to
trade unions, which had 1,454,000 members on 1 Jan. 1958. About 79%
of these workers, organized in 5,018 local branches, belong to unions which
are affiliated with the Canadian Labour Congresa. This Congress was formed
in 1956 by the merger of the 'l'n·,dcs and Labour Congress of Canada and
the Canadian Congress of Labour.
Another cent!'"l organizat,ion, with members mainly in the Province of
Quebec, is the Canadian ?,nu Catholic Confederation of Labour. Its affili·
ates, numbering some 7% of org[l.I\ized labour ill Canada, are organized in
449 local branches.
It is gen erally established hy legisl ation, both fed em I and provincial,
that a trade union t o whieh the majori ty of employees in a unit suitahle
for collective bargaining hel ong, is given certain rights antI duties. An
empl oyer is required to meet un d ncgoti"te with such ,t trade union to
deter:nine wage-rates and other working conditions of bis employees. The
employer, the trade union and the employees affected a re bOllud by the
resul t.ing agreement,. If an impasse is reached in negotiation, conciliation
services provided by the appropriate government are available. Generally,
work stoppages may not take place until an established conciliation pro-
cedure has been carric,l out a nd are prohibited whilo an '"greement i3 in
effect. Nearly half the workers affect,ed by collective agreements are in the
manufacturing industry.
Freedom of association is n civil right in Canada, and under common
law workers are at liberty to join unions and participate in their activities.
This right has also becn guaranteed by statutes which make it an offence
to interfere with freedom of association.
Certain specific minimum standards in regard to working conditions
are set by law, for the most part by provincial labour legislation. ;rIini-
mum wages, maximum hours of work or an overtime mte of pay after
a specified number of hours, minimum weekly rest periods and annual
vacations with pay aro established for the majority of workers.
Workmen injured in the course of employment or rlisnbled by industrial
disease are required t o receive compens.. tion under workmen's compensa-
tion laws which apply to mo~t employees except agri eultural workers.
Benefits durin g the period of disability for work are set by law at a propor-
tion (now 75%) of the workmu,Il's average eamings, subject to a maximum
established in each province. Denefits (which also include monthly allow-
ances to dependants in the case of th fl death of a workman caus{ld by an
accident or disease arising out of his employment) are paid out of an acci-
dent fund administered by a governm ent board in eaeh province. The
fund is mada up of contributions fr('ill employers acponling to an annual
assessment rat.e, vnrying from a f~w cen ts to several dolJars per $100 of
payroll according to the hazr~rd~ er t,he industry.
378 TIlE BRITISH COMMONWEALTII AND EMPIRE
Orys!er,\. 0., llandbook on Canadian EahouT La-w. Toronto,1957

JamiesolL, S., Indu strial J(~tati()ns in Canada. Toronto, 1!)57
Logan, H. A., State Intervention and As.'iistance in Coitf?clil'e Bargaining, l!N.1-5.J. Toronto,
1956
COMMERCE
The customs tariff of Canada id protect.ive, but there is a preferential
tariff ill favour of the U.K. and of the Dominions, and of a number of the
Crown Colonies. At the Imperial Economic Conference of 1932, held in
Ottawa, the U.K. developed further the policy of preferential tariffs to the
Dominions, and on the part of the latter there was a genera l lowering of
the exi;ting tariffs agninst certain lines of U.K. manufactures. Canada is
one of the 23 signatories of the Geneva agreement on tariffs and trade, of
1947; and, in addition, has nnmerous reciprocal tariff arrangements with
both Commonwealth and foreign countries.
Imports for home consumption and domestic expOl'ts (in Canadian S)
for cakndar years (merchandise only):
Imports E:rportg Imports E:rpol'ts
1954 4,Oi)3,196,338 3,S81,2i l,854 1957 5.620,410,000 4,339,094,000
1955 4.712.370.035 4,2 S1 .7l-!4,2fJ3 1958 5,HU,351,OOO 4.825,439,000
1958 5,ilO,449,OOO 4,789,538,000 1959 5.654,21!J,OvO 5,OCO,904,OOO
Exports (domestic) by principal countries (in $1,000 Canadian):

C)llOtry 1958 1959 Country l~;)S 1959
Adea 3 S Colombia. . 13,865 17 ,69t
Australi . . 52,755 54,19{ Cuba 17,095 15,25:;
Ba.tw.m a~ . 2,622 3,220 Czecho5lovakia . 1,365 4,9.5-1
Barbado,' . 4,198 4,1~7 Denmark 5,000 5,596
Bermud8 . 3,:)46 4,47G Dominican Republic 5,368 5,165
British :East ,AJrka 541 850 Egypt 1,207 1,958
British G uiana 4,066 4,4·1~ France 45,173 43,566
British I:onduTo.s 232 :!9L (k,rmaIlY (West) 201,863 12!1,588
CeyloI1 :i,508 4 ,94~ Greece 4,657 3,978
Fiji 8]« 7e7 Indonesin. . 1,695 1,785
Gb~na. 1,283 3,809 Irisb Republic 8,719 8.202
Hong h(·m; 6,054 11,330 I~rael 4,641 4.682
India 79,110 53,776 Italy :.Hl,915 :l2,23o
Ja.maica. 1.),741 18,7n JapaIl 104,926 139,857
Lee'W~rrl and Wind· Mexico S l, 5C4 27,766
ward I.:;lRtl(ls 4,274 4,452 N etherland" 74, 0"4 54,166
Malaya Dud Singapore 3,233 3,269 Norwav 55,935 C2,437
Malta 1,510 2,153 Panama 5,3n3 4,OH
New Zea :nnd 15,103 13,40~ Pem ll.O01 11,697
Nigeria 337 977 Pbilippine I.lands 14,088 14 , 9~1
Pakistan 15.334 17,36 1 Pol.a nd 645 15,655
Rhode,:i :: and Nyasa- Portug<1..1 2,2~O 3,074
hUld . . 3,~15 ~,!)10 I'ortllguese Africa 1,678 2,339
Trinidad and Tobago. 11,509 1~,705 8paia 6,716 6,180
U.K. 77.),8U6 7SS,nlS Sudan ] 86 368
Union of S. AJl'ica l:IO, O:\j r)1,:~77 Swctien 11,008 15,049
SWlC7;crtaIld 29.499 25,9M
Total ()ommoll- Svria and Lebanon 3,O1l9 4,496
wealth countries 1,O;)S,Or,i 1,063,632 V.S.S.R. 1 R,868 12,74-0
U.iU . · 2,S~8, 640 3,108,176
H3waii 2,310 3,616
A..rgen1:.in ·1. G,50G 'i,OR9 Puerto Uir:o 12,57{) 10,543
AuS:ttria 7,536 S,3·!6 nruglla~' 9.\9 1,683
Belgium 69,702 06,21'! v'euczuc!a 43,655 46,008
Belgiu. n Congo 2,9:il 2,706
Brazil 21,Hi9 14,26:'. Totnl fore-ign
Chile 4,6()2 6,2.C'J countrie5 · 3,766,772 3,997,272
Ohina 7,S()9 1.1'21
Taiw:1a ] ,1Gi 1,70 6 Grand totsl · 4 ,S25,.139 5,060,901
CANADA 379
Leading imports into Canada in 2 calendar years (in Slm. Canadian):
Comr.Jcrlity 1~5 3 HI[,iI Commodity 1~5S ] 955}
Petroleum, cTude 27~'fJ 277·5 Rooks and printed matter 88·6 !JtI·g
Petroleum product.s l~ S ·j reS'l UotIee and chicory tH'2 5D·6
Electrical1\ppnrstu?, 2·10·1 ~69·4 8:-igar aud products 76·3 74·6
Automobile pnrt'3 2<0·5 2SS·G \\rool products 6·H) 66'~)
Farm implements 1 ~8'3 ::73·3 Pipe~. tuUpg ann fittings 88'4 1}5·3
Fruits IM' O 1.59·6 Mining lDuchi:'H"ry 68·3 Hi·g
Coal S8·0 8,1,·5 Cot t(,n produds 104·9 IH·3
Aircraft nnd. l'R.rts ~4 'S 76·; Itubber and pro;!uct:.s : 6:;· 3 93·1
Rolling·mill {,rc,dueL-; 1 -1 7' 5 1 :i 7·3 l-'upcr 6 5·7 GS ' ?'
Engines 8.uJ boli'!rs ):j 4'~ 1 ;~ 5·0 V~(>: ti-,.1 'lc :-i 61·6 6 U·9
Cottc>n prorin c bi 104 ' 9 114·3 Synthi.-'tic fibre . 5!l'4 70·S
Antollioi.Ji1~5 105- 2 ~ :!!J.:1 Alm.niniulll and products 64'S 6<)_·v')
Principal exports (Canadian pl'()duee) for 2 calendiir years (in $Im.

Canadian):
Commnoity l~!) .~ 1 !)5!! Conunorlity 1~58 ] fJ59
Newsprint V~Pet' G~O<! 7::;::;·fi L\::tro}{;uDl., crude 73'0 74·5
Wheat '146·1 1418 Pmniurn ore 276-5 31l·n
Planks and boards 292'0 32:2-U 8~eds 75·8 BD-:;
\Voud pulp ~S5',J 311·;) Cattle Q7'2 5"·0
AlmnilJiurn and products 223'6 2!l:'·4 1'er'ti/iwrs 46'5 43·8
Nickel 212'6 226·9 MachiIler~'. except farm 46'9 48'5
Q-rain."\, other th~Lnwhe:J.t 10S'6 86·2 llulp\'i'ood 3-\·7 :29·;
Copper aTI.l product...:.; . 1 41· 8 1(;6·1 l1reciul1s metals (except
Fish and products 15'2'·1 IH·:' gold) 39'6 33·S
Flour of wheat. 69 " 1 G,!·n Engiu e s ~nd boUers 3·1 ' 6 40·8
Asbe~t o~ and l'J'cdu ('.t~ 9I-5 111·1 Aircraft and parts IM'l 2·1·~
Fann implePlt'nt~ 97 ' 6 114 " Alcohol: c; beverages 7-1 ·5 S ~'7
Zinc and p;"oducts 5 5·.5 5G·~ J ,earl ~nd products 2 6·} ~5·;)
Iron ore 10'i' 7 157'S Plastics ~1·3 25·7
The following figures (in £ sterling) are from the British BOl1rd of Trade
returns 1:
1938 1956 1~57 1958 1~59
Imports to U.K. 7~,70H,393 347,507,856 32U,101,O:!7 308,5G:?,0 7() 31:?,~:'!6,5;,j'
E::tports from U.K . . 22,!J29.7G5 177,7£8,509 195,~0l,860 lS8,043,~87 2l':.,B7;,~~~
Re·c.rport,s from LT. K. 1,1)38,4:51 4,,tj/j/j,-!,·U 4,4,"lS,7()! 5,:146,:.!(j S .... ,Df)<.I,f.J~
1 Front 1 .ipril l'J!!), iucluding ·Newf(\uJ; .- !:and and Labrador.
Books of Reference
l?oyal Comllli. .~s i( ln 1J1l Cllnc!I.I/l.'s Er.ort omic Pru.~prrt.;:. Repnrl. Ottawa . 19;') 7 tl o progress)
CncKfield., TIrown &; Go ., CtH~(ula.' j Ec.onomic Future: di:'J] ~13 n/ 127 submi$.'iions to tbe Royal
Commi,(sion on Canada's l::conomic Prosped.~ . Toront o, 1957
Ashley, C. A., CurjJor,UirJU. Finance ifl Ca.nada. ~wl cd. Toronto,19.:l6
Easterbmok. 'V. T., ClT.n..'ldia.n B conom-icHistory. trnront·0 ,1956
Satl.rian, A.. B .. ltl le Canfldiau Economy in tlw Creat Deprt!s.<:ion. Toront o, 19;) 0
'l'uomp~on,.J. ',V., J.'lie Ccmadian Jla.rkel,i;; a drscriyU·l..'e a.nil statistical Slln;ey. Toronto,195S
COMMUNICA nONS
Shipping. The regi"tered shipping on 31 Dec. 19;')8, including vessels
for inland navigation, totnUcd 18,7!17 witb a net tonnage of 1.754.382. The
sea-going nnn coasting vessels thl1t entered Canndian ports durin~ the year
ending 31 Dec. 19::57 were as follows: Foreign service, vessels, 3.5.352;
66,149,5;.2 tons. Coasting serviee, vessels, 104,079; 76.535,160 t.ons. Total,
vessels, 139,431; 142,684,712 tons.
(',anada has It system of canal, ri\-er and lake wn-igation over 2,000 miles
in length, and ,essels drawing up to 14 ft from thclake ports may reach the
Atlantic without breaking bulk. Expenditures on canals, marine serYices
and oth"r water transport facilities reached $443,841,16S at 31 March 1957;
and the ...alue of fixed assets ndministel'ed bv the National Harbours Board
was $280,410,915 nt 31 Dec. 1957. Of the" expenditure $242,104,349 was
on capihl account and $48,522,642 on major improvements and alterations.
The heMey expenditures in recent years have been due to the construction of
the We);a,nd Ship Canal, on which $158,912,699 bad been spent to 31 March
1957. ~rhe canal Wl:S opened on 20 April 1931. Vessels 850 ft long, 25 ft
draft, a::e allowed tbrough. In 1958, 27,451 vessels, of 31,657,418 tons,
pa8sed through the Canadian canals, carrying 35,096,587 tons of freight,
chiefly grain, petroleum products, iron oro and coal.
See lOap of the St Lr<wrence Sea,,-ny in TIrE STATESMAN'S YEAR-RoOJ;:,
19;37.
Railways. The total single track milenge of steam railways in Canada on
31 Dec. 1957 was 4-3,890. The total mileage, including second track, yan!
and sidulgs, was 50,097.
The lines built or acquired by the Canadian Government are now con-
solidated in one systcm known as the Canadi<1n N"ational Railways, covering
about one-half of the single-track mileage, including two transconti-
nental Lnes with termini in Canada at Saint John, Halifax, Vancouver
and Prince Rupert, and with termini at Portland, }bine, U.S.A., and Chicago.
The :nileage in private ownership is mainly that of the Canadian Pacifio
Railway, 16,G7i in 1957. The main line of this road from Vancouver, B.C.,
to Saint John, New Brunswick, is 3,367 miles.
Stati3tic~ of the Canadian steam railways fur ]9,37: Passengers, 23m.;
freight r"venue, $1,080,053,400; gross receipts, $l,~63,147,930; net receipts,
$113,09!!,802.
Urban transit systems (including electric railway, subway, motor bus,
motor c·)ach or trolley coach operations) in 1958: Route-miles one way,
3,055; revenue passengers carried, 1,07\),712,025; vehicle-miles run,
1£)9,480,333; gross passenger revenue, $133,732,764; operating expenses,
$129,62E,050. Total assets, $445,930,475; long.term deht, 3221,357,256.
Roads. The total highway mileage in Canada was 423,939 in 1957. Of
this total, 231,044 miles were surfaced and 192,895 miles improved and other
earth TO ,ds. Expenditure (1957) on roads, bridges, ferries, etc., reached
a total )f $701,972,824. Provincial governments supplied S54:!,60G,788
towards this sum, with the remainder contributed by federal, municipal and
other sources. :Federal expenditurcs wero chiefly devoted towards the
upkeep (,[national-park roadwaya and nationally owned bridges and ferries,
although in the building of the • Mackenzie Highway' from Grimshaw,
Alberta, to Hay River, N.W:r., the federal government paid about 68% of
the total cost. In general, however, highways are pro,incially controlled
and mai:1tained, and the responsihility of assisting municipalities and town-
sbips falls directly on the provinoos.
The I1I11ska Highway (s<e THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1945, p. (67) is
part of the Canadian highway system.
Reginterod motor ,ehiclefl totalled 4,G80,294 in 1958; they included
3,572,()6.3 passenger cars and taxis, I,040,DI2 commcrcial vehicles and
33,873 moior cycles.
Post. On 31 Jllarch 1!l58 there wero 11,7ti8 post offices; money
orders Hold, $84G,647,43D. Net revenue, SI77,492,78il; expenditure,
$1 77,89::,684 . There were also 5,476 rural mail delivery routes, on which
CANADA 381
were erected 600.000 box,·s. ~lail ~ubsidies noc! stertUlsnip subventions iur
tl,,) fiscal year ended 31 Marcu 1958 l1tnounted to $5,109,48(>' This repre·
SPlits the payment.s by the CaDl1dian Maritime Commission for coastal flod
inland·water shipping servie'eR, inclllrling the conveyance of mail on cert.ain
routes.
There were 47,495 miles of telegraph lines in Cano.d,.. in 1958,
and 464,661 miles of wire (exclusive of 3,136,397 miles of multiple
channels), with 5.~\JG offices. There were 18.161,444 miles of telophono
wire Itnd 5.I22,5Hl \;tllephoncs on 31 Dec. 1958 (29·64 per 100 popula.
tion).
Wireless Communications. There were :W7 standard broadcast band
stations operating in Canadl1 in April 1959, of which 2G were Cans.dian
Broadcnst.ing Corpomtion stations and 181 were privately owned stations.
In ad<tition, there wern 42 short·wave st.l1tionR, 36 of which were CBC r..nd
() privatp-Iy owned. together with 5 CIlC and Zi privately owned frequcncy.
modulation station~. In April 19.~9 there were GI t.elevision stations,
1:1 owned by the CBG and 48 privately owned. Radio and televiHion liceoce
fees were abolished in 1953.
Wireless' beam' stationR arC' operat.ed at Montr0111 fur direct communica·
tions with Great llrit"in and Austl'alil1, aDd a station at Louisburg, N.S .,
provided a 10ng.dist.l1nce service to ships.
Aviation. The Division of tho Controller of Civil Ayiation is under
tl,e jurisuiction of t.he Director of Air Serviees Branch of tho Department
of 'fmnsport, and is r~8pousible fnr the ndministmtion of the air regula.
tions; tlw loc.'1.tion, e'luipment and maintenance of lI.irwl1ys l1nd airpurts;
aeronl1utic.\1 engill"ering; the licensing of municipal and pl'ivate aerodromes,
and thc slIpervision of flying clubs. The branch is rlivided into 3 divisions,
namely, Civil Aviation, Telecommunication and Meteorological. Onc new
'lirport c:)t1trol tower was commissioned ia 1958 l1t Frobisher, N.\V.T.
r.'mdings l1nd take·off controlled by the Departmcnt of Transport's :l7
towers totl1lled ~,838,066 in 19;)8. The nu III bel' of radio stations ill 1958
was ab<JUt 5.5,000.
Canadian air carriers tl';)nsportcd 4 •.;;;4.03.) revcnue passengers in 1058.
There wCt!) cMrhJ. by air 1SG.:;u7,700 lb. of revenu~ and non·revenue freight
and 33,fi:l2.221 lb. of mail.
Establi~he(l by Act of 1'11riiament in April ID37, the Trans·Caul1da Air
Lines sY8tcm, Canada'~ nationl1! air service. now ~]Jans tho continent from
Newfoundlan<l to Vancouver Island. On 1 Mu .. lD.j.i Tram·Canada Air
Lines (At.lantic). I.t.cl, as.umed re8pollRibility for the op:Jrat.ion previously
provided by the Canadian Government Trans·Atlantic Air Service. In
I ()58, :2.785,523 revenue pl1ssengers \Ver<) flown on all services routes. A
total of lO,::ISG.OOO mail·ton miles were flown and 185.516.000 revenue· ton
miles, including air express , goods and excess baggage. During 1!l58
Trans·Canada Air Lines fl ew 1,625,689,000 passenger· miles, carrying
2,78':;,523 passengers. Service was 11lso provided t.o the Caribbean in Dec.
1948, and a Pacific Service was inaugurated in 1949. At 31 Dec. 1958
scheduled services of Tmns·Canada, Air Lines ex tended over 31,1)44 miles.
IIO(7~ . w. S .. The PMtrU)t SlampJ and POJlul BiJtOfV 0/ Canada. 2 vols. KRlamazvo, Micb.
J('4~-46
CaNadian Ports and Sltippif/q Dil'cClvl'Y. int:lllrling tllC St L:..w:reJlce 8caw:lY system :1.n ~1 t,b ~
United St<1te5 ports on th e Great Lakes. 1Gtll eel. Gardenvale, Quebec, 1D[)D
Chevricr, L., The SI Da/crena $«fll'{l.ll. London. 1~['~
Coy ne, R. E. D., 11fl.t RuiltcQV LUID 0/ Canuda. Toronto, 1947
Cnrrie, 11... W., Economics of Canad1:a,n Tran.spnrlation. Toronto, 1954.-Tht' Grand Trunk
Rail1f:ffY of Canada. Toronto. 1957
Gla'l:cbrcok, G. P. de T •• A History 0/ Transportation in Canada. London, 1938
TbomSOlt, L . R., Tht Canadian Raillcuy Problem. Toronto, 1fl38
MONEY AND BANKING

The British North America Act confers the jurisdiction over currency
and ba~king to the Dominion Government.
Currency. The denominations of money in the currency of Canada arc
dollars :Lnd cents. The cent is one·hundredth part of a dollar. Subsidiary
coins of the denominations of I, 5, 10, 25 and 50 cents and SI are in
use. The monetary standard is gold of 900 millesimal fineness (23·22
gra.ins :>f pure gold equal to I gold dollv.r). The Currency Act provides
for go\.i coins in the denominations of $2'50, $5, S10 r,nd $20, which
are leg'tl tender. The British and U.S. gold coins are also legal tender,
but only at the par rate of exchange. The legal equivalent of the British
soverei,;n is $4·861.
The Bank of Canada has the sole right to issue paper money for circula.tion
in Canada. Restrictions introduced by the 1944 revisions of the Bank Act
cancell'ld the right of chartered banks to issue or re-issue notes after I Jan.
1945 " and in Jan. 1950 the chartered banks'liabilit.y for such of their notes
issued for circulation in Canada as then remained outstanding was trans·
ferred ',00 the Bank of Canada in return for payment of a. like sum to the
Bank cf Canada.. The value of the U.S. dollar in Canadian funds, which
at the beginning of 1959 was 96·6D cents, fluctuated throughout, the re-
mainder of the year, closing at 95·12 cents.
The Bank of Canada issues notes, which are legal tender, in denomina-
tions of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $25, $50, $100, $500 and SI,OOO. They
may be issued in any amount, so long as the bank mRintains a reserve in
gold con or bullion of at least 25% of its note and deposit liability. Under
the ter:ns of the Bank of Canada Act, the bank is required to sell gold in
bars of 400 oz. to any parsoIl tendering legal tender. This obligation is at
the pre,ent time suspended by Ord er-in-Council. The exportation of gold
from Canada is prohibited except by licence issued by the Minister of
FinancIl to the Bank of Canada or It chartered hank.
The Ottawa Mint was established in 1908 as It branch of the Royal Mint,
in pursuance of the Ottawa ~!int Act, 1901. In Dec. 1931 control of the
Mint WiS passed over to the Canadian Government, and since thRt time has
operated as the Royal Canadian Mint. The Mint issues silver, nickel,
bronze and steel coins for circulation in Canada. No gold coins have heen
struck ,lince 1919. In ID35, on the occasion of His Majesty's Silver Jubilee,
the Royal Canadian Mint issued the first CanadiRn silver dollars. Corn-
memomtive dollars were also issued in Hl39 on the occasion of tho visit
of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to Canada, and in 1949, when
Newfotndhnd became the tenth Province of Canada. The dollar bearing
the de:\ign of the canoe manned by an Indian and a Voyageur has
been i~sued in the years 1936-38, 1945-48, and 1950-i>1. Gold refining
is one (.f the principal activities of the l\lint.
In 1958, 3,958,459 fine oz. of gold were received for treatment, and
4,088,7')6 fine oz. of bullion were issued. Coin issued: Bronze, $:378,274;
silver, :18,044,753; nickel, $379,916.
Banking. Commercia.l banks in Canada are known as chartered banks
and are incorporated under the terms of the Bank Act, which imposes strict
CANADA 383
conditions as to cnpital, notes in circulation, returns to the Dominion
Government, types of lending operat.ions and other matters. In 1958 there
were in operation 9 chartered banks incorporated under the provisions of
the Bank Act, with 4,677 br:!nches and sub.agencies in Canada und 157
branches, exclusive of 4 su b-agenC'ieg. in other countries. The Bnnk Act is
subject to reyision by Parliament every 10 years, the last revision having
taken place in 1954. Bank charters expire every 10 years and are renewed
at each decennial revision of the Bank Aet. The chartered banks make
detailed monthly and yearly returns to the lIiinister of Finance and are
subject to periodic inspection by the Inspector-General of Banks, an official
appointed by the Government.
The following are some particular,~ of the 9 chartered banks at 31
Dec. 1958: Capital paid up, $22;";,609,000; reserve f]md, $'-;80,542,000;
Canadian currency deposits, SI2,6!JO,217,000; foreign currency deposits,
$2,076,521,000; liabilities to the public, £15,034.123,000; total assets,
$15,840,274,000. Cheques caBhed at the clearing-house centres of Canada
fc)r 1958 amounted to $228,173,162,000.
Government post office savings banks have been in operation since 1868.
The post office savings banks had on 31 March 1959 deposits amounting
t.o $34,155,617.
The deposits in the Quebec savings banks, incorporated under a special
Dominion Act, amounted to S:27ll,iWG,478 on 31 March 1959.
The Bank of Canada Act, passed on 3 July 1934, provided for the estab-
lishment of a central bank for the Dominion. This bank commenced
operations on 11 March 1935 with a paid-up capital of $5m. By r(3ason of
certain changes introduced into the composition of stockholders of the
bank (for which see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1944, pp. 322-23),
the Minister of Finance on behalf of the Dominion of Canada is the sole
registered owner of the capital stock of the bank. The chartered banks are
required to maintain, in the form of deposits with and notes of the Bank
of Canada, a reserve of not less than 5% of their deposit liabilities in Canada..
The Bank of Canada is required to maintain a reserve in gold coin or buUion
not less than 25% of its note and deposit liabilities. All gold held in Canada.
by the chartered banks was transferred to the Ba,nk of Canada along with
the gold held by the Government as reserve against Dominion notes out-
Btanding at the time of t.he commencement of operations of the Bank of
Canada. The liability of the Dominion notes outstanding at the commence-
ment of business of the Bank of Canada was assumed by the bank. The
following are some of the particuhrs of t.he Bank of Canada as at 31 Dec.
1958: Note.s in eirculation, $1,908m.; chartered bank deposits, S662·7m.;
total liabilities, S2,044·4m.; investments, $2,713·2m.
In Aug. 1944 the Industrial Development Bank, a subsidiary of the
Bank of Canada, was set up for the purpose of providing credit, in the
post· war period to small industrial establishments. The monthly state-
ment of assets and liabilities of the Industrial Bank, as at 30 Sept. 1958,
showed outstanding loans and investmeuts of $89,278,R30. The authorized,
issued and paid-up capital at this date amounted to S25m.
Baxter, I. Ii'. G., The Law of Bankinf} and ale Canadian Bank Ad. Toronto, 1956
Jl\lllie~on,A. B., Chartn-ed Banking in CanUAia. Hev. ed. Toronto, 1950
Neu[eld. E. P., IJltnk Of CaMda Operalions.19J,j-54. Toronto. 195·)
Patt.erson, E. L. S., Canadian Banking. Itev. ed. Toronto, 1941
Shepherd, S. A., P(lrrign Exchange in Canada. Toronto, UI53
Stokes, M. L., Th~ Bank Of Canada: CeJural Banking fn Canada. Toronto,lD39
384 THE BRITISH COMMONWEAJ,TH AND EMI'IRE

ThE' el gal weights and measures are the Imperial yard, pound avoirdupois,
ga.llon 'tnd bushel; but the hundredweight is declared to be 100 lb. and the
ton 2,000 lb. avou·dupois, as in the U.S.A.
Books of Reference
STAT:STICAJ. INf')RlfATlO.N. The Domjnion Bureau of St,atisticS'o, Ottawa, has bOOD the
official c:mtral statistical orgaoi7.atioD for Cnnada since 1918. To.day the Bucean. under
the Depr,rtmeJit ot Trade and Commerce, 8~rves as the statistical agency for Federal Oovern·
ment De;,>artments; co-ordinates the statisti<'s of the Provincial Governments along national
lines; o.:lC..1 is lobe channel througb wb!t:'h all Cauaciian statistical data Brc transferred to
in ternational organi~ation~. Dominion Stati."ician : Waiter E. Dutlett.
Publications of ~be Domioion Bureau of Statistics are classified ... Reports, Memoranda
and Ref<,rence Papers. Tbe latter two cl"""es are designed to include material tbat bas a
limited circulaUon only and i. not intended lor general distribution. Memoranda are fairly
r~.gul.r i. their appearance, but Reference Papers deal with special subjects. A complete
list 01 the.... publications is contained in Current Pub/irAtiom 0/ Ihe Dominion Burt.u 0/
Slati.ttic.1 (latest issue, 1958). Official publica~ions include:
Tht C(lnada Yea, Book. Annual. from 1906
Callad,., Official Handbook. AunuaJ. Irom 1930
Alla., 0/ Canada. Dept. of Mines ""d Technical Surveys. Geograpbic!>! Brancb.
Ot :"" a. 1958
Canad '.n Slati$liro/ /fe&>iew. Monthly. with weekly supplements, trom 1948
Canad iana; a li.tl 0/ publicaliolls 0/ Canadian intcresl. Ottawa. Montbly, with annual
cumtllatlon. 1951 tI.
Ninth Cen"".o/ C.nada, 1951. Ottawa, 1953
NON· OFFICIAL PUDLICATIONS

Cambridre BiJtnTV 0 Jth~ Dri!i3h Em.pire. r (Jl. V I. Canada and Newfoundland. Cambridge,
1930
C'l1uuli." Who'. Who . 6th eol. Toronto, 1954
Anb'll8. F.i. F., Canada Rnd "It
National RI'!erenu Bonk on C(JlltUlia.n Business P~$(I'1laliti(8. 11th ed. Mont-real, 19{)6
Pa, E<Ult. 1910-.).1. Toronto. 1953
Brady, A ., DtmocracJI in the Domi.'lu.m:s : a comparative st-uliv in i n.sh"l1Itions. Toronto, 1947
Brebner, J. n., North A,lla-n tic Triangle : The /llterpldY oj Canada, thr (,;'niled Ssaul and Ureal
BriMiI :. New Haven and Toronto, 1945
Brow1l, G . \V., Canadian DemOCTfJcy tn AcUon. Toronto, 19 ['2 .-Canada in the Jfaking.
'roront 0, t 9(,3
Bruch<'s, Joan. L'Bi"laire du Canada. 2 vols. Montrea l, 1937.-Ca7luda, ,ealilis d'lIier el
d 'auj()1~,d' "ui. Montreal, 1954.-1.e Ca-nada. Paris, 1~ :;2
Brunet. M.) and others, l1istoi,e du Canada par les te.r.t.es. MontreaJ, 1!)52
lIurpee. L . 1.,• The IJi3C""try 0/ Canada. Toronto, 1941 .-The Search I"' I", Western Sea.
2 vol.. Toronto, 1935
Cnrel..", J. M. S., Canada, A ,qIPMJ . / ChaJl~ngt . Cambridlte. 195r.
Qreighton, Donald G., Dominion 0/ the NMt": <I Hi.t/()ry./ Canad". Bo,ton, 19H .-- The
Empi'" o/Ihe SI IAWf"enu. Toronto. J 9,6
Encyclop!dia OatUldiana. 10 vols. Ottnwa, 1!t5i- 58
Rn~l ..nd, It., 1'/.. Co/onirali,m 0/ Irmem CmUldll. Loudou, 1936.- (.'ontC17lpo,.'Y Ca,l4d4.
Toronto. 1948
~·Irestou., O. J ., Residential R<al E.taJe in Canada, Toronto, 19,1
Fortin, J .· A., Biog'.phu.• canndien ...·/'anrai..... 16th ed. Mont.real, 19~2
GameBn, F. X., RUtoire du Canada. 8tb ed. Montre"I,1944-45
GlazeIJro" k, G. 1'. de T ., .tI. Hi.tq,y 0/ Canadi.n EzletTUJJ ReI4lion,. Toronto, 1960
Graham. G. S., Canada. London. 1960
Hutchis(lo, n., Canada, toml)N'ow's {liant. Toronto. 195i
James, n ..W., W.,·time Ewnomic C<>-opnalion: a lfudV 0/ ,tlalion. betuten Canada .rut ,/u
fln iud Sttau.. Toronto. J 949
Keenleyside, H. L., C.nada and lhe United States. Rev. cd. New York, 1952
Leacock, ",l"ph.n, Canada: rh< F()Und/llion. 0/ il. FuJure. Montreal, 1944
Le Bour,laia, D. M., Canada'. CenluNj. Rev. ed. Toronto, 1956.-Nalion O/Ihe No,th;
CllnacU' .inu Con/t~alio n. Toronto. 19a3
LetebYTe. F. J ., Le Canada, I" A~·9.ogMphiqut, },j.kirigue, biog'aphiqut, lillt.ai,,;
IUpp~nt:ltl dll La,ou .., ronadiera complet. Montreal. 1964
Lower, A .• R. M., Canada , Nalion arut Nti4hbou,. Toronto, 19~2. -CoIDraV '" N.'io": a
hi.""" 0/ Canada. 3rd elt. Toronto. 19S7.-Thi, JroSl FamDfU 81'fam. Toronto, 1964
Uclnni8, E., Canada: .tI. Pnlilical and Social Hi$lo,V. Now York, 1941
CANADA 385
Hacldnt.osb, W. A., nnd Joerg, W. L. G. (od.), Canadian F,ortJI.., 0/ S"Iltm#ftl. 8 TOIa.
Toronto, 1935
Nlcbollo, M. B~ TM Swrv 0/ 'M C"nadian P,.". Toronto, 1948
Peat, Lout.... C"nada: A NnD World PiJfMr. Toronto, 1946
PotTin, D., L SalrtJ·L4u,""" u, 11... 2nd ed. Quebec, 1946
PuUuun, D. P ., Canadian Regi.,... A Geography 0/ Canada. 2nd od. Toronto, 1964
Roberte, L., Canada, tM Golden Hlng.. Toronto, 1962
RobiDllon, J. L., and J ., G"",raphv of Canada. Toronto, J961
Roea, M. M., Ou, .~""se o/ldentil.v: a book 0/ Canadian ...av.. Toronto, 1954
Sand ..ell, H. n., L4 Nation <anad""n.. Monaco, 1954
Staglrfe<I, A., Lt Canada, pulll" .... irtJtmatlona/e. Srd od. Parts, 1944 (Engl. od., Londoa,
19(9)
St.etlUl8l'on, Vibjalmnr. TM Friendlv Aral. : TM Swrv ./ FiN Yea" In Polo, Reglonl. N_
od. New York . 1943
Taylor, K. W., and r,orry, J. A., Cana&>, tM Nor'" Atlantl. Communil.V and NATO. Toronto,
J952
Wt~:r' w. S. (od.), TM Dlmonary 0/

Timlin, M. F., Do.. Canada Nud Mort Ptopl., Toronto, 1951
Canadian Blog,aphv. 2nd od. 2 TOIlo. Toronta,
NAnONAL LmnARY. Tbe N ..tioDILI Libr..ry 01 Oanad.., Ottt.wa, Ontario. Libra""",

Dr W. KAye Lamh.
CANADIAN PROVINCES
THB 10 provinces have each a separate parliament and administration,
with a Lieut.·Governor appointed by the Governor·General in Counoil
at the head of the executive. They have full powers to regulate their own
local affairs and dispose of their revenues, provided only they do not interfere
with the action and policy of the central administration. Among the BUb-
jects a9Bigned exclusively to the provinciallegislatllreB are: the amendmen~
of the provincial constitution, except as regards the office of the Lieut..
Governor; property and civil rights; direct taxation for revenue purpoSe8;
borrowing; management and sale of crown lands; provincial hospitals,
reformatories, etc.; shop, saloon, tavern, auctioneer and other licences for
local or provincial purposes; local works and undertakings, except lines
of ships, railways, oanals, telegraphs, etc., extending beyond the province
or connecting with other provinces, and excepting also such works &8 the
Dominion Parliament declares are for the general good; marriages; admini·
.tration of justice within the province; education. Quebec has 2 chambers
and other provinces 1 chamber. The Northwest Territories and the Yukon
Territory are governed by commissioners &9Bisted by councils.
MUNICIPAl. GOVEBNMlI:NT. Under the terms of the British North America
Act the pro\;nces are given full powers over local government. All local
government institution8 are, therefore, supervised by the provinces, and are
incorporat.od and function under provincial acts.
The acts under whiCh municipalities operate vary from province to
province. A municipal corporation is usually administered by an elected
council headed by & mayor or reeve, whose powers to administer affairs and
to raise funds by taxation and other methods are set forth in provincial
laws, as is the scope of its obligations to, and on behalf of, the citizens.
Similarly, the types of municipa.l corporations, their officia.l designations and
the requirements for their incorporation vary between provinces. The
following table sets out the classifications as of 5 March 1959 for Quebec,
1 Jan. 1959 for Alberta and British Columbia and 31 Dec. 1958 for the other
provinces:
o
Tot&! Metro-
local politan
VII- mun ici· munici- Coun-
Pro"linea CltI.. Town. lages Rural' palltie3 pality tiP,8 Tot..1
,
Newloundland 2 40' 32 ' 74 74
Pr. Bd. [sland 1 7 16' 24 24
Nova Srotia 40 24 66 -' 66
New Bnlll8wict .
Quebec
6
54
20
160
1
S36
16
1.119
42'
1.669
-'
74'
42
1.743
Ontario 29 16S 154 697' 9aS I" S8" 917
Manitoba. 6 S6 37 11211 190 190
8uk"tcl,,,wa.o 10 104 371 296 IS 781 781
Alberta
British 'Jolumbl ..
\)
32
86
S
166
60"
r»Olt
30
SOl
125
-" 301
125
10tal 151 653 1.163 2.243 4.210 112 4,323
, D·,.ignated by dUlereut names in tb. dillerent pronnceB.
, O,.ig llllted Ily the province as. town. (SS). rural district. (4) and local improvement
u istrict!. (3); all operate under the same oct.
• hi provinCial reporr.s these are classed as 'community councils' .
• TIle Village Sen"ice Act. 19~ 1. proviol!i' for iJlcorporation ot villages.
, N.) va Sooti .. has 18 counti... 12 or whicb ~aeb compri.e 1 municip"lity and 6 are oii vided
ioto 2 n nnicipalities each, makin~ t.he total of 24 municipalities. Counties, a.s such, do no~
represent local units or self·govenlmeot.
• D·,.,. not include 64 local Improvement districts.
1 N~w Rrun~wtck has 16 counties which are Incorporat,ed municipa1itictl and bavE! fiiree'
powers ,)r local aell·government comprising the rural areas; they are tuus cJossed here as
' ro Tal.'
8 A;) IncorporAted muwcipality, r.ach count-y i3 comprified of the 'Mllnges and rul"a)
munlcip.).Jities gitunted therein, which provide tile nec4::ssary fuoda (or the ttt!rvice~ talliD(
within t be scope ot county acttoinhltrntlon.
• Ircludee 24 lmprol"ement dis.tric ts .
.. The t.!unlcipalit.y or Metmpolitan Toronto. which proTide3 certain overall ..niceo and
capital f'Mncing for the Cit·y or T orou", and the 4 to'VIlS. 3 vill"l:e3 and ~ townships of "'hieb
the metmpoliuon municipality is compri~d. n\ere is a D1etropolit.an school board. The
CODstitu'mt, municipalities retAin resPOhAihility ror thu local as opposed to area services and
levy ane coU~('t the taxes, inclurliug the metropolibn re<~uirements.
11 An incorporated municipality, each county is compri3ed ot the town~. viHagea nnd
township' situnted therein, wbich provide the necessary runds lor tb~ •• r~ices r"lIing within
th ••cope or county administration. Geographically, therc aro 43 counties. but 5 are united
with other acijnccnt. colJnt, i~ for pUTpMeA of IlchninistratiolJ.
It [ncludes 3 nnit.. 01 .eU-jlOVernmAOt offici&!ly 1m",,'II .. 'Suburbl\O Municipaliti .. .'
Doea not. include local governmeut ditltrict8.
It EheJut.ies ] 2 improvement diAtricts.
" [Dcluues 12 county municipalities. but excludes 50 improvement diRtricts knd 2 special
a.ret\~.
l' 11: Albe.rta 'Counties' are hein~ tonned under a plan tor the AdminlAtrAt.ion of municipal
a1'!airo. Ixal scbools ..nd municipal hospital. by one elected council. Th...o are here claooed
with th~ nua) Dlunic,ipAlities.
Jt Incllldes 2 loc.}l dkstricts. This is n. De~' classification to cover municipalities tJ&at are
below tl"e 500 minimnm population of village• .
Book.! Jf Reference
BrittA.in, H . Lot LocaJ O,",~'nenJ i71 CalaaOO . Toronto, 19:11
Orawford. K. Go, Canadian Jluniripnl OtnJrrnmml. Toronto, 1954
1956
"etCh
Plunkett" T. J ., Municipal O'9anilalion in CaMoo. 14ontreal, 1955
Ro_at, , ~ . C. t Your L()t;aj OOfiemmmt; a Qf IM municipcd ,,#um in Canada. Toronto,
NEWFOUNDLAND
Newfoundland was dis('.overed by John Cabot 24 June 1497, and was 800n
frequented by the Portuguese, Spanish and French for its fisheries. It was
formaLy occupied in Aug. 1583 by Sir Humphrey Gilbert on behalf of the
English Crown. Guy, Calvert and others made unsuccessful attempts to
colonize the island, but in the 17th century English colonists established
NEWFOUNDLAND 387
themselves there. Although British sovereignty was recognized in 1713
by the Treaty of Utrecht, disputes over fishing rights with the French, who
also had a station on the island, were not finally settled till 1904.
By the Anglo·French Convention of 1904, France renounced her exclusive
fishing rights on a specified section of the coast, retained under the Treaty of
Utrecht, but retained tho right to fish in territorial waters from Cape St John
northwards and southwards to Cape ltay for all sorts of fish, inciuding bait
and crustl,cea.
The Hague Court in 1910 granted the right of Great Britain to make
nshing regulations without the consent of the U.S.A., subject to any limita·
tions imposed by treaty. It also confirmed Great Britain's contention that
the whole extent of a bay from headland to headland is comprised within
territorial waters.
The coastline is extremely irregular. Bays, fiords and inlets are numer·
ous and there are many good harbours with deep water close to shore.
The coast is rugged with bold rocky cliffs from 200 to 400 ft high; in the
Bay of Islands some of the islands rise 500 ft, witb the adjacent shore 1,000 ft
above tide level. The interior is a plateau of moderate elevation and the
ohief relief features trend north·east and south·west. Long ltango, the most
notable of these, begins at Cape Ray and extends north·east for 200 miles;
the highest peak reaching 2,673 ft. Approximately one· third of the aroa is
covered by wr.ter. Grand Lake, the largest body of water, has aD aroa of
about 200 sq. miles. The principal rivers flow towards tho north·east. On
the borders of the lakes and water· courses good land is generally found,
particularly in the valleys of the Terra Nova River, the Gandor River, the
Exploits River and the Humber River. whinL are also heILvily timbt'red.
In Jan. 1941 sites on Newfoundland were leased to the U.S.A. for naval
or military bases (Cmd 7294; Treaty Series No. I, 1948): these were tr,ms·
ferred from the military air transport. service to the U.S. Defence Department
on 20 Sept. 1950.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Until 1832 Newfoundland
was ruled by the Governor under instructions from the Colonial Office. In
that year a Legislature was brought into e:tistence, but the Governor and
his Executive Council were not responsible to it. Under the constitution of
1855 wLich lasted until its suspension in l!l34, the government was admini·
stered by the Governor appointed by tLe Crown with an Executive Council
responsihle to the House of Assembly of 27 elected members and a Legis.
la.tive Council of 24 members nominated for life by the Governor in Council.
Women were enfranchised in 1925. At the Imperial Conference of 1917,
Newfoundland was constituted as a Dominion.
In 1933 the financial situation had become so critical that the Govern·
ment of Newfoundland asked the Government of tho U.K. to appoint a
Royal Commission to investigate conditions. On the strengtb of their
recommendn.tions, the parliamentary form of government was suspended and
110vernmellt by Commission was in!iugurated on 16 }<'eb. 1934.
A National Convention, elected in 1946, made, in 1948. recommendations
to H.M. Government in Great Britain as to the possible forms of future
government to be submitted to the people at a na.tional referendum. Two
referenda were held. In the first referendum (June 1948) the three forma
of government submitted to the people were: commission of got"ernment
for 5 years, confederation with Canada and respon8ihle government as it
existed in 1933. No one form of government received a clear majority of
the vote~ polled, and commission of government, receiving the fewcst votes,
388 THE BRITISH COMMOl\'WEALTH AND· EMPIRE
was elilllinated. In the second referendum (July 1948) confederation with

Canada received 78,408 and responsible government 71,464 votes.
In t:le Canadian Senate on 18 Feb. 1949 Royal assent WIlS given to the
terms oJ union of Newfoundland with Canada, and on 23 March 1949, in the
House (If Lords, London, Royal assent was given to an amendment to the
British North America Act made necessary by the inclusion of Newfound·
land as the tenth Province of Canada.
Under the terms of union of Newfoundland with Cl1nada, which was
signed ,~t Ottawa on 11 Dec. 1948, tbe constitution of the Legislature of
Newfoundland as it existed immediately prior to 16 Feb. 1934 shall, subject
to the terms of tbe British North America Acts, 1867 to 1946, continue as
tbe constitution of the Legislature of the Province of Newfoundland until
altered under the authority of tbe said Acts.
The Constitution of the Legislature of Newfoundland in so far as it relates
to the Legislative Council shall not continue, but the Legislature of the
Province of Newfoundland may at any time re·establish tbe Legislative
Council or establish a new Legislative Council. The frl1nchise shall be
extended to female Britisb subjects who have attained the full age of 21
years and are otherwise qualified a8 electors.
A I:edistribution Act WI1S p!lSsed in 1955, constituting 35 electoral
districu. and 36 members of the Legislature who receive $5,000 per annum.
A g,meral election was held on 20 Aug. 1959. State of parties (Jan.
1960): Liberals, 31; Progressive.Conservatives, 3; United Newfoundland
Party, !~.
The Province is represent.ed by 6 members in the Senate and by 7
membel"S in the House of Commons of Canada.
Lield.·Governor. Carnpbell Macpherson, O.B.K (appointed 16 Dec. 1957).
The Executive Council was, in Jan. 1960, composed as follows:
Premier and Minister of Economic Development. J. R. Smallwood.
Attorney.General. L. R. Curtis, Q.C.
Mini8ter of Mines and Resources. W. J. Keough.
Mi"ister of Labour. C. H. Ballam.
Mini8ter of Public Welfare. B. J. Abbott.
Mini8ter of Finance. E. S. Spencer.
Min.ister of Public Works. J. R. Chalker.
J/inMter 0/ Highways. F. W. Rowe.
Minister without Portfolio. P. J. Lewis, Q.C.
Jlini8ter of Provincial Affairs and Solicitor. General. M. P. Murro.y, Q.C.
Minister oJ Fisheries. J. T. Cheeseman.
Minister of Municipal Affair8 and Supply. B. J. Abbott.
Min.ister of Health. Dr J. M. McGrath.
lIfinister of Education. Dr G. A. Frecker.
Agmt.General in London. H. Watson Jo.mer.

ARJ~A AND POPULATION. Area, 156,185 sq. miles. C~D~t1S popu.
ation, 1956, was 415,074; estimated population, June 1959,449,000.
Tbe capital of Newfoundland is the City of St John's, 77,991 inbabitants
(census of 1956); other important towns are City of Corner Brook (23,225),
Wabam (7,873), Grand Falls (6,064), Gander (4.929), Windsor (4,500),
Bonavi:lto. (4,078), Goose (4,007), Carbonear (3,995), "Botwood (3,894),
Stepbenville (3,762) Bishop's Fa.lls (3,393).
Vitd statistics, see p. 364.
NEWFOUNDLAND 389
RELIGION. Of the total population of Newfoundland in 1951,
109,090 belonged to the Anglican Church of Canada, 121,544 were Roman
Catholics, 85,671 United Church of Canada, 1,914 Presbyterians, 28,017
Salvation Army, 11,327 Pentecostal Mission and 4,043 other denominations.
EDUCATION. The number of schools in 1958-59 was 1,300. The
enrolment was 118,000; teachers numbered 3,900. The Memorial Univer-
sity, offering courses in arts, science and education, had an enrolment of
1,160 in 1959-60. Total expenditure for education by the Government in
1958-59 was $11,965,000.
In 1957 there were 65 cinemlls with a seating capacity of 18,50S.
FINANCE. Budget in Canadian SI,OOO for fiscal years ended 31 March:
IDii5-5G 1956- 07 19&7-58 ID;;8-5~ 1959-60
Hevenue. 39,340 44,6()O 49.207 75!2~9 71,58;
Exponditure 39,3.8 44,000 5J,510 63,~8R 67,545
Public debt as at 31 March IU59, $56,500,000; sinking fund, $6,661,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The estimated value of agricultural
product.s, including livestock, in 1958, was $12m. Forests of spruce and
fir exist on Crown Lands, and 1,637 saw-mills were in operation in 1958,
with an estimated output of 35m. bd ft.
Fisheries. The principal fish are cod, haddock, lobster, salmon, redfish,
plaice, greysole and herring. In 1959 some 5,500 men were employed by
the industry, and there were about 18,000 fishermen. The value of all
fishery products was $29m. Twenty freezing plants and 70 salt-fish plants
were in operation while 20 packing licences were issued for lobster and 86
for salmon. The production of frozen groundfish was estimated to be 59m.
lb., while t.he total pack of lobster was 175 cases of 36 lb. and of salmon
2,981 cases of 48 lb. The catch of whales was estimated at 1,700 in 1959.
The seal fishery in 1959 was prosecuted by 3 motor vessels with 150 men.
The number of pelts landed was 26,629, ,,'ith a net value of $65,138. Lands-
men accounted for an additional 10,400 pelts.
Forutry. The value of forest production in 1958 was S75m.; including
485,418 tons of newsprint and 35,474 tons of sulphite pulp.
Mining. The mineral resources are vast. Large beds of iron ore, with
an ore reserve of 3,500m. tons at Bell Island and some 2,000m. tons at
Ruth, Knob and Wabush Lakes, Labrador, are being developed. The
value of mineral produetion in 1958 was $6S,752,058. Lead, zinc and
copper production was 80,66S1ong tons, valued at $23,192,415. Iron ore
production was 5,586,458 tOilS valued at $37,833,688, and fluorspar products
were valued at 31,483,368.
IndUlltry. Two newsprint-sulphite pulp-mills are in operation. The
mill at Corner Brook, thll largest integrated mill in the world. has a daily
production of 1,000 tons of newsprint and 180 tons of sulphite pulp, and
the mill at Grand Falls a daily production capacity of 900 tons of newsprint
and 80 tons of sulphite pulp.
Ekctricity. There are 28 hydro-eleotrio power plants within the Provinoe
with 368,735·h.p. turbine installation.
Trade Unions. There are 123 unions representing 15,145 members of
the American Federation of Labor, the Congress of Industrial Organisations
and the Canadian Labour Congress; 4,015 members of the Canadian Labour
Congres3, and 26,474 members of local independent unions.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. On 31 Dec. 1958 ships registered

in NewroundJand consisted of 61 sailing vessels of gro~s tonnage 4,406;
16 steam vessels of 14,279 gross tODS and 757 motor vessels of 54,069
gross tons.
RailwaY3. In 1959 there were 935 miles of railway, of which the
Canadian National Railway operated 705, the Quebec North Shore and
Labrador Railway 206 and the Grand Falls Central Railway 26.
Post . 'l'here were 641 post offices open in 1959, and the number of
telegraph and telephone offices was G67. Telephone wire maintained WIU!
8.000 miles; there were 50,000 telephones.
Avidion. Trans·Canada, B.O.A.C. and 10 other airlines (2 of them for
local tr;tffic only) operate from Gander airport, and some civilian flights
are maGe to and from Goose airport.
BANKING. On 31 March 1959 the Newfoundland Savings Bank held

$28,307,693 standing to the credit of 35,187 depositors.
Labrador, the most northerly district of the Province of Newfoundlan<l,
forms the most easterly part of tbe North American continent, and extends
from Blanc Sablon at the north· east entrance of the Straits of Belle Isle to
Cape Chidley at the eastern entrance of Hudson's Strait. In March 1927
the Pri,y Council decided the boundary botween Cauada and Newfound·
land in Labrador. The area now under the juriHdiction of Newfoundland
is appre.ximately 110,000 sq. miles. The population (1956 census) is 10.750.
Little is known about the geology of the country. The prevailing
formati,)n on the coast is granite, gneiss or mica slate; above which. in
some pI lces, are beds of old sandstone and a stratum of secondary limestone.
The sec)ndary rocks disappear towards the interior. At the headwaters of
the Hamilton River an investigr1tion iR being carried out on all area geologi.
cally of the same age as part of the Luke Superior iron ore where the geological
formations are structurally similar to those of Lake Superior.
During 1950 the Labrador Mining and Exploration Company, holder of a
eonceSSlOD from the Government of Newfoundland. proved the existence
of 400Ir .. tons of high.grade iron ore. The productive zone in 90 miles long.
and tho width of the trough. in which the concession is situated. varies
from 10 to 60 miles. The railway from Seven Islands. a port on the north
ahore 0:: the Gulf of St Lawrence, to the site of the iron·ore deposits, near
the headwaters of the Hamilton River, a distance of360 miles, was completed
in 1954.. The shipping port at Seven Islands is now in operation.
Between Hamilton River and the southern boundary of Labrador there
exists the largest stand of virgin timber on the North American conti·
nent. Estimates show some '50m. cords of merchantable timber. with an
approximate value of $52·5m. on the Btump. Labrador is noted for its
fisherieu. Cod fishery employed in 1956, 1,000 men and 33 vessels. Labrador
also pOflsesses valuable salmon. herring, trout and seal fisheries.
The Moravian Missions have maintained, over the past 150 years,
mission stations in northern Labrador, at Nain, Mokkovik, Hebron and
Hopedsle; the International Grenfell Association operates hospitals at
Mary's Harbour, Cartwright and North West River. as well as a boarding
PRINCE EDW ARD ISLAND 391
achool at North West River. In the months that the coast ill ioe.free. from
June to November. the Provincial Government maintains a coastal service.
the steamer making a trip every 3 weeks from St John's to Nain. In
addition. a motor vessel is maintained by the Government on the coast
north of Hamilton Inlet to service the interests of fishermen.
The Government of Canada has established an airport at Goose Bay
located at the bottom of Hamilton Inlet.
The Hamilton River is probably the largest undeveloped power river
left in North America. It has a length of 660 miles and drains an area
of 30.000 sq. miles. The two most important power sites on it are at Grand
Falls and at Muskrat Falls. Theoretical continuous horso.power is '·36m.
Books of Reference
erA""" 0/ NNJoundJand and LabraMr, ckunnial. St John'.
Co"upondmu '''peeling the NCICfoundland Fi,heri... United SlatCl, No. 1 1906). 1.ondon,
1906
F,mch FilM"". 011 the Great Bank of NeWfoundland and oJ! leeland. j.'ortivn OJiu Reporll,
JiiuellaneouI St.'Titl, li{J. 402, 1899. London
D1ackbum, R. H. (cd.), Encvclopatdia of Canada: Ne",/oundland ruppltmmt. Toronto, 19'»
.Brnet, E., Lt Labrador d k Nou'Ceau-Qulbt!c. Paris, 1949
Oochrane, J. A., and ParsonB, A. W., The Storv of Nttcfoundland. Rev. od. Toronto, ID'»
I,oture, R. do~ llllloirt lU la urantk plche de Terrt-l/euvt. Paril:l,1949
14cKa1, R. A. (cd.), Studi", on II~ lIislo,V and Economv of N".fournUand. Oxford,1946
Parker, J., Ntwfonndland, 10th province of Canada. London,lD50
Tanner, V., Outlin.. of Geog,apilv. Life and CUd.flU Of NewfournUarul-Lab,ador. 2 vols.
Helsinkl,1944, and Toronto, 1947
Taylor, T. G., NNfoundland: A Sludy of Seltl"n",.t. Toront<>, 1948
PRINCE EDW ARD ISLAND

This island was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1497; it was first
settled by the French, but was taken from them in 1758. It was annexed
to Nova Scotia in 1763. and constituted a separate colony in 1769,
C.ONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Prince Edward Island
entered the Confederation on 1 July 1873. The provincial government is
administered by a Lieut.-Governor and a 1-egislative Assembly of 30
members, who are elected for 5 years. half by real property holders and the
remainder by universal male and female suffrage. Women can also be
elected to the assembly. State of parties after the elections of 1 Sept. 1969 :
Progressive Conservatives, 22; Liberals. 8.
Lieut.·Governor. F. Waiter Hyndman (sworn 31 March 1958).
The members of the Progressive Conservative Executive Council are as
follows (Feb. 1960):
Premier, President of the Executive. Council and llfinister of Agriculture.
Waiter R. Shaw.
Attorney and Advocate Geneml. R. Reginald Bell. Q.C.
PuNic Works and Highw(!ys. J. Philip Matheson.
Education. Dr L. George Dewar.
Industry and N(!tural Resources and Fisheries. Leo F. Rossiter.
Health. Dr Hubert B. McNeill.
Provincial Treasurer. Melvin J. McQuaid.
Provincial Secretary. J. David Stewart,
Welfare and Labour. Henry W. Wedge.
Agent-General in London. H. Watson Jamer.

LoeAL GOVERt.1It:ENT. The Village Service Act, 1954, provides for the
incorporation of villages. AIl cities and towns have been incorporated
under Special Acts. The Town Act, 1951, supplements the several acts of
incorporation of all towns, except the town of Summerside.
AREA AND POPULATION. The province, which is the smallest in
Ca.nad", lies in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and is separated from the mainland
of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by Northumberland Strait. The area.
of the island is 2,184 sq. miles. Total population (census, 1 JWle 1951),
98,429; estimate, 1 June 1955, 108,000. Population of the principal cities
(1951): Charlottetown (capital), 16,446 (1958, by inclusion of a village, over
20,000,; Summerside, 7,115.
Vital statistics, see p. 364.
RELIGION. The population of the province at the cen8UB of 1951 was
divided among the different creeds as follows: Roman Catholic, 44,802 ;
United Church, 25,969; Presbyterian, 13,383; Anglican, 6,119; Baptist,
5,319; other, 2,837.
EDUCATION. There were (1958) 449 schoolll, 840 teachers, 21,544
pupils; exclusive of 2 Roman Catholic convent schoolll at Charlottetown and
Summ.~rside, with 1,122 pupils. There are 2 colleges, Prince of Wales
Colleg(, maintained by the Government, and St DWlstan's University, a
Roman Catholic institution, both in Charlottetown. Total expenditure OD
education, exclusive of Roman Catholic institutions, in the year ending 31
March 1958, $2,900,478.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in Canadian S) for 6 financial
years tnding 31 March:
1054-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957- 58 1958- 50 1959-60 1
Reveul1f: • 9,069,432 9,062,669 11,538,423 11,711,975 15,173,886 18,186,061
E~endj tare, 7,104,454 8,439,146 13,420,518 14,247,731 16,028,870 19,437,554
1 Estimates.
T01al sinking fWlds on 31 March 1959 amoWlted to $5,239,219; total

liabilities of the province to S25,526,608.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The farm land occupied is about 1·2m.

acres (,ut of a total of 1,260,800 acres. Field crops in 1957 covered about
'09,00) acres, and were valued at $21,347,000. The land in natural forest
covers 610 sq. miles, and in pasture 317,440 acres. For particula.rs of
agricultural production and livestock, see under CANADA.
Fil'hene8. The fisheries of the province in 1958 had a landed valne of
$3,753.000, The bulk of t,he value is d~rived from lobster (about 67% in
1958) ; but a fo.st expanding dragger fishery is developing a growing
indust,.-y in the production of frozen fillets and of meal and oil by·products.
The famous' Malpeque' oyster abounds in Malpeque Bay where upwards
of 20,(00 acres are under scientific cultivation,
Jru.!U8try. Including fisheries canning plants, 261 industrial establish·
ments produced a gross value of production of $16m. in 1956; in addition,
pulpwood and sawn wood were worth SI·2m., and small fruits $525,000.
The tourist indUBtry has been estimated at S3m. per year.
NOVA SCOTIA 393
COMMERCE. The trade of Prince Edward Island is chiefly with the
other provinces of Canada, and with the southern U.S.A. and South America,
where seed potatoes are Dhipped to. The gross value of all products in
1958 was estimated at $53,367,712.
COMMUNICATIONS. The province has 286 miles of railway-part

of the Canadian National Railway system. Two railway and automobile
ferry steamers of great power connect the lines of the Canadian National
Railway on Prince Edward Island with those on the mainland, making
leveral trips daily throughout the year. Two other smaller ferries operate
at the eastern end of the province.
There is a three·times.a.day air schedule for passengers, mails and
express, both ways, between the province and the mainland, connecting
with the airways of the continent. In 1958 there were 1,600 miles of
telephone lines and 16,319 telephones.
Book of Reference
KaoKionon, F ., Th. Goremmrnt Of P,ince EdlM,d Inand. ToroDto, 1951
NOVA SCOTIA
The first permanent settlement was made by the };'rench early in the
17th century, and the province was called Acadia until finally ceded to the
British by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Under the British North

America Act of 1867 the legislature of Nova Scotia may exclusively make
laws in relation to local matters, including direct taxation within the
province, education and the administration of justice. The legislature of
Nova Scotia consists of a Lieut .. Governor, appointed and paid by the
federal government, and holding office for 5 years, and a House of Assembly
of 43 members, chosen by popular vote every 5 years. The province is
represented in the Canadian Senate by 10 members, and in the House of
Commons by 12.
The franchise and eligibility to the legislature are granted to every person,
male or female, if of age (21 years), a British or Canadian subject, and a
resident for I year in the province and 2 months before the date of the wri~
of election in the county or electoral district of which the polling district
forms part, and if not by law otherwise disqualified.
State of parties in Feb. 1960: 24 Progressive Conservatives, 18 Liberals
and I Co.operative Commonwealth Federation.
Lieut.·Governor. Maj.-Gen. Edward Chester Plow (assumed office 1 Jan.
1958).
The members of the Ministry are as follows:
Premier, Provincial Treasurer and jJfinister of Education. Robert L.
Stanfield, Q.C.
Provincial Secretary and Minister of Highway~. George lsaac Smith, Q.C.
Attorney.General and Minister of Public Health. Richard A1phonsus
Donahoe, Q.C.
Minister of Public Warks and Minister of Labou,.. St8phen Thomas Pyke.
Minister of Agriculture and Marketing and Minister of Lands and Forests.

Edward Douglas Haliburton.
Minj.,ter 0/ Mines and Miniater 0/ Trade and Industry. Edward Alex.
&nder Manson.
Minister of Public Welfare. Malcolm Stewart Leonard, Q.C.
Minister of Municipal Affairs. Neil Lay ton Fergusson.
Agent·General in London. H. Watson Jamer.

LOC,lL GOVERNMENT. The main divisions of the provinoe for govern·
mental purposes are the 2 cities, the 40 towos and the 24 municipalitiee,
each gcverned by a council and a mayor or warden. The cities have
indepen:ient charters and the various towns take their powers from and are
limited hy The Towns' Incorporation Act as revised in 1954, and the varioua
municipalities take their powers from and are limited by The I\[unicipal
Act as revised in 1955. The majority of municipalities comprise one
county, but 6 counties are divided into 2 municipalities each. In no case do
the bou:ldaries of any municipality overlap county lines. The 18 counties
as such hal"6 no administrative functions.
Any city (of which there are 2) or incorporated town (of which there are
40) that. lies within the boundaries of a municipality is excluded from any
jurisdict,ion by the municipal council and has its own gOl"ernment.

miles, of which 20,401 sq. miles are land a rea, 1,024 sq. miles fresh-water
a rea, and 417 sq. miles salt-water area (the Bras d'Or lakes). The population
(census 1956) was 694.,717; estimate, 1 June 1959,716,000.
Population of the principal cities and towns (1956); Halifax, 93,301;
Sydney, 32,162; Glace Bay, 24,416; Dartmouth 21,O!l3; Truro, 12,250;
New Glasgow, 9,998; Amhcrst, 10,301; Sydney Mines, 8,731; Yarmouth,
8,095.
Vital statistics, sce p. 364.
EDUCATION. Public education in Nova. Scotia is free, cvmpulsory

and undenominational through elementary and high school. Attendance
is complllsory to the age of 14 in rural areas and 16 in urban areas. There
are a.lso the Schools for the Blind a.nd for the Deaf, which serve the Atlantic
Provinc'3s; the Nova Scotia School for Boys; the Maritime Home for Girls,
and the Nova Scotia Training School for mentally deficient children. The
Nova S<lotia Agricultural College and the Nova Scotia Normal College are
Ot)ntrally located at Truro. The Nova Scotia Technical College at Halifax
grants degrees in civil, chemical, electrical, mecha.nical and mining engineer.
ing. The Department of Education operates through its Vocational
Education Division vocational evening schools, coalmining schools, a land
survey institute, a marine engineering school, a navigation school, a corre-
spondence study service, a. service for the vocational rehabilitation of the
physically handicapped, and classes for unemployed persons.
The Adult Education Division of the Department of Education, in co-
operation with the local authorities, organizes and supports evening classes
in elem(,ntary and secondary education and non·vocational subjects. The
Provincial Department of Labour conducts apprenticeship classes, Short
.courses for fishermen and farmers are conducted by the Departments of
Trade and Industry, and Agriculture, respectively.
NOVA SCOTlA. 395
Total expenditure on public education for the year 1957-58 Wall
$27,696,922, of which 55% was borne by the provincial government.
~,5:S3 classrooms operated in 1,657 school sections, with li.913 teachers and
164,255 pupils, of whom 33,732 were in junior high school and 15,390 were
in 81mior high 8chool grades. The province has 14 universities and colleges.
JUSTICE. Justice in Nova Scotia is ndminstered in the Supreme Court,

the county courts, the probate courts, the Divorce Court, the magistrates'
courts, the municipal and just.ice courts. The Court of Appeal consists of
a panel of judges of the Supreme Cou rt. There are also bodies, sometimes
referred to as courts, for the revision of assessment rolls, voters' lists and
like purposes. There aro also juvenile courts in certain counties of the
province.
For the year ended 31 March 1959, about 6,000 persons were committed
to provincial jails for offences against dominion and provincial statutes.
FINANCE. The revenue iij raised from federal subsidies granted under
the British North America Act .~nd under a Canada-Nova Scotia agreement
in lieu of certain income and special taxes surrendered for a period of 5
years to the Government of Canada, roy!>lly on coal and tninemls, special
fees on incorporated companies, pa.rtnerships, automobiles and other stlltU'
tory fees, a tax on gasoline, theatres. lands a.nd forests and telephones.
The latest agreement, signed in 1!l57 for a 5.year period, provides that
the Federa.l Government will pay to the rrovince, in addition to the
statutory subsidy of 32,056,838,10% (13% from 1 April 1958) of personal
income taxes, !)% of the taxable profits of corporations and 50% of succes-
sion duties as well as an equalization grant and stabilization payments.
Nova Scotia also receives $7·5ro. annually from the special adjustment grants
which the Federal Government pays to the Atlantic Provinces from I April
HI.58. These additional federal payments are estimated at $35·5m. for the
fiscal year ended 31 March 1960, and at $39·7m. for fis cal 1960-61.
An Hospital Tax on retail sales, effective from 1 Jan. 1959, is expected
to yield $9m. in 1959-60.
Revenue, expenditure and debt (in Canadian $) for fiscal years ending
31 March:
1955-56 1950-67 J 957-68 1958-59 1959-60 •
Revenue ~6,260.789 ~9. 81 7.231 (i6t757.7~)(i 78 .092.7 86 82,Snl,597
Expenditure 1 r.I),606,773 58.:)24.~64 6"""73.641 6S.8~9.683 76,2U9,169
Public debt nO,636,OOO 229.4S:,.(jOO 2 ·IG,G~O,OOO 267,699,000
I Not including sinking-fund instnlments. • Estimates.
Sinking.fund investments t otalled $44,214,518 (31 March 1959) .

.Revenue producing assets: Advances to Nova Scotia Power Commission,
$42,224,276; other revenue producing assets, including balance at credit of
province with federal government, $20,531,087; totalling 362,755,363.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Dairying, poultry T!1I81Dg and fruit

growing are the most important branches of agriculture. Gross cash in·
come, including income in kind to persons on farms, for 11)58 was estimated at
over S58m.
Cash income from the sale of dairy products, inoluding income in kind,
was estimated at S15m. in 1958. Milk production approximated 41 fim . lb.
In the poultry indust.ry over 3rn. chicks were hatched in approved
396 THE BRITISII COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
hatcheries during 1958. The marketing of dressed poultry in a graded basis

was nehrly 6m. lb.
The 1958 apple crop was about 2,250,000 bushels.
Interest in the use of ground limestone as a soil conditioncr is increasing;
over 42,000 tons were used in 1957 compared with 14,{)()() tons in 1939.
Thc 124 co.operative organizations, with over 25,000 members, had, in
1958, te,tal aasets in excess of $6·5m. and a sales volumo in excess of'18m.
FOT,',8lry. The estimated forest area of Nova Scotia is over 15,900 sq.
miles, of which about 25% is owned by the Province. The principal treee
are spnlCe, balsam, fir, hemlock, pine, birch, oak, maple, poplar, larch and
ash. I:eech, once an important hardwood species, has almost disappeared.
Forest :oroduction is valued at about $25m. annually; the current annual
value of all forest products is about $75m.
Fi8}'.erie8. The fisheries of the province in 1958 had a landed value of
'24,841,000, including cod fishery, $3,711,000, and lobster fishery,
'7,301,;)00. In 1957 there were 4,037 employees in the fish processing
industr;r and the gross value of production was $43,401,900.
Mining. Principal minerals are (1959): Coal, 4,391,832 short tons;
coke, 412,929 short tons; gypsum, crude, 5,028,561 short tons, calcined,
8,250 S.!lOrt tons; salt, 101,013 short tons; barytes, 207,386 short tons;
dolomite, 14,215 short tons; limestone, 53,919 short tons; anhydrite,19,620
tons. The known coalfields embrace 1,000 sq. miles.
Industry. The number of manufacturing establishment.s was (in 1958)
1,400; the number of employees was 29,000; wages and salaries,
$90,792,000; gross value of products, about $400m.
Trade Unions. As a result of the merger of the Trades and Labour
Congre!:s of Canada and the Canadian Congress of Labour in April 1956,
the majority of the union members in Nova Scotia are members of local
unions affiliated with the new Canadian Labour Congress. The most
import•.nt independent organizations are the 10,000 members of District 26
of the United Mine Workers of America, the Railroad Brotherhoods of
Engineors, Firemen and Enginemen, which have international affiliation but
which lLre not connected with the new A.F.L.-C.I.O. in the U.S.A. or the
CanadilLn Labour Congress in Canada.. In 1958 there were 335 local unions
in Novn Scotia with 305 reporting u. membership of 42,477.
cmfMUNICATIONS. The country is covered with a network of rail·

wa.ys,I,420 miles in extent. There were, in 1959, 15,221 miles of highways;
1,717 trunk (1,565 paved), 13,501 county (l,249 paved) highways. The
figures ,ue exclusive of highways within cities and towns. Subsidized boats
ply rou[ld the shores, making regular calls at all the important ports.
Books of Reference
P,outd•• ", and !l',aflMMl'qn, o"M N()fJa Se.,iIl H'llorie/JJ Socielv and NOfHJ SeOM In,titut,
0/ Scv-,,,.
BouriDot. Sir J., BuUder, 01 N()fJa Seol'a
Haliburtun. T. 0., Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotill.-Hi$/orv DJ Nova Sw/ia
Longstre:li, T. M., !I'M Sunri.!. Province Of Canada. Lonrion, 1935
0'
Pattersoll, George, Studiu in Nova SCMan H.s/o",. Halifax, 1940
Philpot,!1. S., !I'M P,atrinct! NOfIa Sco/iIl: RelOUre.. and D",elopmmt. Ottawa, 1930
Saunders, J. A., Stud",. in IM EconomV ollM M arilifM P,otJinct!.. London. 1939
Wwd, L. R., Nova Scolill: 'I'M Land of CO·O'ptralion. New York, 1942
NEW BRUNSWICK 397
NEW BRUNSWICK
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Touched by Jacques Cartier
in 1534, New Brunswiok was first explored by Samuel de Champlain in 1604.
It was ceded by the French in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and became a
permanent British possession in 1759. It was separated from Nova Scotia
and became a province in 1784.
The government is vested in a Lieut.·Governor and a legislative
assembly of 52 members elected for 5 years. Any male or female British
subject of full age is entitled to vote after 6 months' residence. After the
election held on 18 ,Tune 1956, the assembly is composed of 37 Progressive
Conservatives and 15 Liberals. The Pro,"ince has 10 members in the
Senate and 10 in the House of Commons of Canada .
Lieut.·Governor. J. Leonard O'Brien (appointed 6 June 1958.)
The members of the Ministry are as follows (Dec. 1959):
Premier and lYIini.ster of Municipal Affair8. Hugh John Fleruruing.
Attorney.General. R . G. L. Fairwea t,hcr, Q.C.
ProvinciaI8ecretary·Treaaurer. D. D. Patterson.
Minister of Agriculture. C. B. Sherwood.
Minister of Health and Social Services. Dr J. F . McInerney.
Minister of Puhlic Work.~. J .. Stewart Brooks.
Minister of [,ands and Mines. N. B. Buchanan, M.C.
Minister of Education. Claude D. Taylor.
Minister of Labour. Arthur E . Skaling.
Minister of Industry and Development . J . Roger Pichette, D.F .M.
President of the E:tecutive Council. J oseph W. Bourgeois.
Minister witlwut Portfolio and Chairman of the New Brunswick Electric
PQwer Commission. E dgar Fournier.
Agent.General in London. H . Watson .Tamer (60 Trafalgar Sq., W C . .2).

LOCAL GOVERNJIlENT. For the purposes of certain acts there is a
distinction which defines a MuniCipality as 'city, town, incorporated village
and municipality' or county unit, and a Municipal Corporation as 'a county,
oity, town, parish, incorporated village. school district and the inhabitant.
of a defined area within the Province, incorporated for the purpose of pro.
viding water, fire protection, light, power, streets, sidewalks. or other like
utilities within such area.' These latter municipal corporations are in.
corporated under Special Acts and constitute a Commission governed by a
board of commissioners. Citics may be erected by Special Acts, as may also
villages and towns if they have not the statutory requirements of the Village
Incorporation Act, 1920, or the Town Incorporation Act, 1896.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the province is 27.985 sq.

miles, of which 27.473 sq. miles are land area. The population (census. 1956)
was 554,616 (estimate, 1 July lD59, 590,000); rural population, 300,326.
Census population of the cities (H)56): Saint John, 52,491; Moncton, 36,003;
Fredericton (capital), 18,303; Lancaster, 12,371; Edmundston, 11,997.
EDUCATION. Publio education is free and non·sectarian. There are

6 universities. The University of New Brunswick, at Fredericton (founded
in 1785), is supported by the province and had 1,382 students in June 1958;
Mount Allison University at Sackville had 1,094 students; St Joseph's
Univer"ity at Moncton and St Joseph's, 285 students; St Thomas College
at Cha;;ham, 109 students; Universite dy Sacre-Coeur at Bathurst, llO
students; St Louis University at Edmundston, lG7 students_ There were,
as at 31) June 1958, 133,695 pupils and 4,910 teachers in the 1,494 public
schools. Large new regional schools are absorbing numbers of small
country schools.
FINANCE. The ordinary budget (in Canadian 3) La shown as follows

(financial ycars cnded 31 March):
1956-66 190t- 57 1967-68 1965-69 1959-00 1
ReTenue 66.708,396 57,u:J6.726 62,551.668 76 . 9~O. S0 4 7-1.888.691
Hxpenuiture 66.541,068 57.879.736 62,331,905 70,746,720 74.842,8 36
1 Estimate.
Bonded debt (exclusive of Treasury bills), 31 March 1959, $230,080,607.

Provincial sinking funds, 31 March 1959, $59,677,577.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The total area under field crops in 1957

was 674,300 acres; ('stimate, 1958, 66·1,800 acres. These figures are
exclush'e of the acreage for blueberries, strawberries and orchards. For
particulars of agricultural production and livestock, 8ee under CANADA.
FOrf.slry. The Crown Lands held by the province include 7·4m. acres
out of total area of ISm. acres. Over I5·3m. acres are covered with
productivo forest, of which the Crown owns about one· half. In 1957 value
of fares \ production was SI75m., equal to more than 60% of the total pro-
duction of all primary industries.
Fis},eries. The New Brunswick fisheries produce an annual market value
of 822m. to S25m . and employ over 12,000 persons.
Mining. A considerable variety of minerals is known to exist in the
provine'3, such as iron, copper, antimony, le:1d, zinc, tungsten, manganese,
uituminous coal. ~ypSuUl, hi! shale, B:1lt, glauberite and diatomite. L:1rge
reserves of lead and zinc have been proven in the Bathurst district. Bruns-
wick Milling and Smelting and Nigadoo Mines have considerable underground
development, and a 1.500 ton-per-day mill has been erected at Heath Steele
Mines. Ore reserves for the area are estimated at 128m. tons. Manganese
and other deposits are being developed at Woodstock and Bathurst, with
the eventual production of met:1llic iron and ferromanganese. Quantities
of good limestone exist. in the southern part of the province and are quarried
for lime, the pulp industry and as a fertilizing agent. Various granites are
quarriecl and manufactured at St Stephen and Hampstead. Natural gas and
oil are produced near Moncton. Total mineral production for 1958 was
$17,600.754, including cO:1I, 801,536 tons (S6, 746,424). In 1952 the Canada.
Cement Co., Ltd commenced operation of a cement plant near Haveloek.
Kings County, with an initial capacity of 800,000 bbls per year; their pro-
duction in 1957 was 953,017 bbls.
Indl, stry. In 1957 there were 981 industrial establishments, employ-
ing 20,{185 persons; salaries and wages, S60,485,307; cost of materials,
SI74,74I,863; gross value of products, $311,795,500. Pulp and paper is
QVEBEC 399
the most important industry, followed by saw-mills, fish curing and packing,
butter and cheese, and miscellaneous foods_
Electricity_ Hydro-electric and thermal power plants are being de-
veloped in conjunction with Nova Scotia_
COMMUNICATIONS. The province had in 1958, 13,110 miles of high-
way, including 10,325 miles of gravel roads. 1,398 miles of bituminized gravel
roads and 1,387 miles of paved roads. Motor vehicles numbered 121,809.
There are about 1,800 miles of railway now in operation. In May 1959
there were 118,670 telephones in operation.
Books of Reference
Hrunsu:'ic:k: a Handbook 0/ Pacls and Pi(Jlt rf!-~" Fredericton, 1059
~Ye 1J)
Thomas. L. 0., Tht Proliinct of Ne1D BrutJ,swick, Canada. Ottawa. 1930
QUEBEC
Quebec was formerly known as New France or Canada from 1535 to 1763;
a.s the province of Quebec from 1763 to 1790; as Lower Canada from 1791 to
1846; as Canada East from 1846 to 1867, and when, by the union of the four
original provinces, the Confederation of the Dominion of Canada was formed,
it again became known as the province of Quebec.
The Quebec Act, passed by the British Parliament in 1774, guaranteed
to the people of the newly conquered French territory in North America
security in their religion and language, their customs and tenures, under
their own civillaw8.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The provincial government

is modelled on that of the Dominion organization and is in the hands of ,.
Lient.-Governor and a responsible miniRtry, assisted by a Legislative Council
of 24 members, appointed for life by the Lieut.-Governor, and a Legislative
Assembly of 93 members elected for 5 years. Members of both Houses
receive $6,000 per session, plus $2,000 for travelling and office expenses.
Women were enfranchised in 1940. Last election, 20 June 1956: Union
Nationale, 72; Liberals, 20; Independent, 1.
Lieut.-Governor. Hon. Onesime Gagnon, P.C., Q.C. (appointed 14 Feb.
1958).
The members of the Ministry as at 1 .Feb. 1960, are as follows:
Premier and JI[inistcl' oj Labo;lr. J. Antonio Barrette, M.L.A.
Minister oj Finance. Lieut.-Col. John S. Bourque, M.L.A.
Minister oj Lands and Forests. Jean J. Bertrand, M.L.A.
Minister of Hydraulic Resources. Daniel Johnsoll, l\1.L.A.
Minister of Health. Dr Arthur Leclerc, M.L.A.
Minister of Social Welfare and Youth. J.·Paul Sauve, Q.C., ]lI.L.A.
Minister of Municipal Affairs. Paul Dozois, M.L.A.
Minister of Colonization. J. D. Begin, M.L.A.
Minister of Roads. Antonio Talbot, Q.C., M.L.A.
Minister of Public Works. Romeo Lorrain, M.L.A.
Minister of Mines. W. M. Cottingham. M.L.A.
Minister of Game and Fisheries. Camille E. Pouliot, M.D., M.L.A.
Minister of Trade and Commerce. Paul Beauliell, C.A., D.S.C., M.L.A.
'400 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
Min.:ster 0/ Agriculture. Laurent Barre, M.L.A.

Provincial Secretary. Yves Prevost, Q.C., M.L.A.
Attorney·General and Minister 0/ TraMportation and CommunicatioM.
Antoine Rivard, O.C., M.L.A.
Solicitor·General. F. L. Miquelon, M.L.A.
M,nl8ter8 without Portfolio. Antonio Elie, M.L.A. ; Wilfrid Labbe,
M.L.A.; Gerard Thibault, M.L.A.; Maurice Bellemare, M.L.A.
LOOAL GOVERNMENT. The Lieut.-Govemor-in-Council may erect the
territory of a village municipality into a town municipality, if it contain.
at least 2,000 souls; and the territory of a village or town municipality, if
it contains at least 6,000 souls, into a city municipality. Any territory,
in order to be erected into a village municipality, must contain at least 40
inha.bitei houses within a. spa.ce of 60 superficial a.rpents, and the taxable
immovalle property in such territory must have a value of a.t least $50,000.
The county council is composed of the mayors in office of all the local
municip:~lities in the county which are subject to the provisions of the
Municipl~1 Code, 1916.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area. of Quebec (as amended by the

!Abrador Boundary Award) is 594,860 sq. miles (523.860 sq. miles land
area &nCi 71,000 sq. miles water). Of this extent, 351,780 sq. miles repre-
sent the Territory ofUngava, annexed in 1912 WIder the Quebec Boundariea
Extensi<'n Act. The population (census, 1956) was 4,628,378; of these,
3,240,838 were urban and 1,387,540 rural.
Of tl,e 1951 census population (4,055,681) 79,088 were British born and
3,826,75;~ Canadian born. According to religious beliefs, in 1951, 3,563,951
were Roman Catholics, 166.761 Anglicans, 129.219 United Church, 82,701
Jews. Population of the principal cities (1956 ('en~us): Montreal, 1,109,430
(metropolitan area, 1,620,758); Quobec (capital), 170,703 (metropolitan
area. 3011.959); Verdun, 78.262; Sherbrooke, 58,668; Three Rivers, 50,483;
Hull, 49.243.
EDUCATION (1956-57). Superior Education. The province haa 6
universities: 3 Protestant universities, McGill (Montreal) founded in 1821,
Bishop's (Lcnnoxville) founded in 1845, and the Sir George William's College
(Montrel,l) granted a university charter in 1848; with together 1,843
professors and 22,422 students. Three Catholic universities : La.val
(Quebec) founded in 1852, Montreal UniverSity opened in 1876 as a bra.nch
of Lava] and erected independently in 1920, and Sherbrooke University
founded in 1954; with together 3,807 professors and 34.067 students.
Besides university schools (included with the universities figures) there wcre
23 Cathc.lic and 3 Protestant theological colleges with 890 students.
SW:>1ldary Education. Secondary education, for Catholics, is given in
67 classi.:al colleges and 6 colleges of modem secondary education to 22,392
male stu1ents. The classical colleges for girls appear in the primary section
at the el:clusion of colleges having pupils for the B.A. degree only. There
were 1,31)5 students of this course in 17 colleges for girls. Both Catholio and
Protestant high sohools are completely included with the primary education.
Primary Education. There were 9,084 Catholio schools, with 37,728
teachers and 856,054 pupils and 376 Protestant schools, with 4,249 teachers
and 106,B03 pupils.
QUEBEC 401
Training of teachers for primary IIchools ill given in 108 Catholic normal
schools to 7,817 students and in one Protestant school to 332 students.
FINANCE. Ordinary revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $) for

fiscal years ending 31 March :
1963-54 1964-66 1956-66 1966-67 1957-68 1968-69
Revenue . 297,817,229 336,076,466 407.812,776 4(1 ,416,8S9 503,611,680 546,869,706
Bxpendil.ure. 261,360,348 298,«1,689 330,910,4)3 566,"6,487 416,983,477 453,OU,819
The total funded debt at 31 March 1959 was $454,383,782, and the nei
funded debt was $318,105,440.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1958 the total area under cultiva.

tion in the province was 7.784,300 acres (including pastures) and the value
of the crops on farms $160,765,000. The principal varieties cultivated were :
Yield Vlllueln Yield Value lA
Crops in 1,000 $1,000 Crops In 1.000 $1,000
Tame b"y' 5.716 tons 91,456 Fodder corn 558 to ... 3,028
Oata . 46.745 ba.b. 37,968 Field roota 63 to... 1,575
Potatoes . 9,377 cwt. 15,941 Barley 727 busb. 800
Mixed gral ... 6,480 bush. 6,869 Duckwbeat 896 bush. 1,076
• Including clover and allaU...
The gro88 value of agricultural production in 1958 amounted to

$4iO.261.000. Cash income from the sale of farm products totalled $414m.,
the principal items being: Livestock, $132,820,000; dairy products.
$166,702,000; poultry and eggs, $47,302,000; fruits and vegetables,
$20,415,000.
The number of fur farms in the province in 1957 was 357. The total
value of pelts produced for the season 1957-58 was estimated at $738,805
FQ1'utry. There are about 270,505 sq. miles of forests. made up &8
follows: Private forests, 26,415 sq. miles; wood lots under location tickets,
3,000 sq. miles; forests leasod, 82,503 sq. miles; township forest reserves,
3,178 sq. miles, and timber lands not leased, 151,842 sq. miles. Quebec
leads the Canadian provinces in pulpwood production, having over half
of the Canadian estimated total. In 1957, 4,605,853 tons of pulp and
3,972,081 tous of paper were produced; gross value of products of pulp and
paper industry, $598,972,434.
Fi4hery. The principal fish are cod, herring. mackerel, lobster and
salmon. Total catch of sea fish, 1958, W&s 113,461,000 lb., valued a~
$3,566,986.
Mining. The value of the mineral production was $395,565,000 in 1958
and 8443,809,000 in 1957. Production of metallic minerals (gold, copper,
zinc, silver, chrome, molybdenum and others), valued at $200,431,000 in
1958; gold, 1,061,363 fine oz., valued at $36,065,000.
Working of the rich iron ore fields of New Quebec has been going on
actively since 1954. This development, which called for an initia.l expendi.
ture of $250m., is the largest in Canada's mining history. The develop.
ment of the rich tita.nium ore deposit in the Lake Allard area. was begun in
1950. Non.metallic minerals produced include: Asbestos (S85m. in 1958;
100% of Canadian production), industrial lime, dolomite and brucite,
quartz and pyrite. Among the building materials produced in 1958 were:
Cement, 328,609,000; sand and gravel, 324,885,000; building limestone,

322,618,000; clay products, $10,672,000.
Indmlry. In 1957 there were 12,250 industrial establishments in the
provin~e; employees,449,383; sl1laries and wages, $1,477,828,336; cost
of materials, $3,570,908.800; gross value of production, $6,679,595,056.
Among the leading industries are pulp and paper, non·ferrous metal smelting
and rdning, chemical products, cotton yarn and cloth, men's and women's
clothing, railway rolling stock, shipbuilding, brass and copper products,
electrieal apparatus and supplies, butter and cheese, slaughtering and meat
packing, cigars and cigarettes, machinery, boots and shoes.
Ele~tricily. Water power is one of the most important natural resources
of the province of Quebec. Its turbine installation represents about
44% of the aggregate of Canada. On 1 Jan. 1959 the turbine installa·
tion amounted to 9,858,000 h.p. The Quebec Hydro·Electric Commission
has completed the hydro.electric power scheme on the Bersimis River which
is capable of producing 1·2m. h.p. Consumption, 1958, was 37,095,418,000
kwh.
COMMUNICATIONS (1957). Quebec had 5,094 miles of railway,
including 164 miles of tramway. Excluding cities, there were 44,ll7
miles of roads in the province, of which 32,786 were impro,"E'd. There were
1,277,{;27 telephones and 2,435 post offices, as well as 778 telegraph offices.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFonMATlON. The Quebec Bureau or Statistics (Department 01 Trade and
Oomruene. Parliament Buildings, Quebec) Wt>.8 establi.. bcd ill 1912. Di,~dc' : J . O. McOee.
Its mOBI. important publicstion i. tbe Q".~.e Stat~.tica l rea, Rnok (annually . inee 1914).
O~ber ""nual publicatiollB include a Di,,,lorv 0/ M anu/actu,.. and 1\ M uni( iP<Jl Guide.
Balldoin, L., lA D,oit cioil ok la p,o";ne. d. Qulb.e. Montreal, 1953

Davies. B., Quebtc. London, 19~2
Valard.,.". J.·C. (ed.), r:ua; .• IU' I. Qul~.e ctmUmpo,ain. Quebec, 1963
McG.., .J. 0 •• Hi,toi,. Poliliqu. de Qu/~"e·..t. Quebec, 19t8
Minville. E., Not,. Milieu ( Er.unomic Stud;'.). Montreal,1943
Rumilly. R., Hi,toi,. de la pruoinu de QuH>ee. 29 vol.. Montreal,19ID-
Wade, F. M., Th. FretleJ. Canadian , 1760-1945. Toronto,1966
ONTARIO
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. From 1791 to 1867 Ontario
was called Upper Canada. The provincial government is administered by a
Lieut.· Governor, a cabinet and one chamber consisting of 98 members
elected by a general franchise for a period of 5 years. Women have the
vote and can be elected to the chamber.
Th(, provincial legislature was, in Feb. 1960, composed as follow. :
Progre!lsive Conserva tives, 71; Liberals, 21; Liberal Labour, 1; Co·
operative Commonwealth Federation, 5; total,98.
Lie~t . ·Goverrwr. Lieut.·CoI. John Keiller Mnckay, D.S.O. (appointed
Dec. IH57).
ThE, members of the Executive Council in F eb. 1960 were as follows (all
Progre!lsive Conservatives):
P,ione Minister and PrMident of the Council. Leslie M. Frost, Q.C.
Minister of Labour. Charles Daley.
Minister of Agriculture. William A. Goodfellow.
ONTARIO 403
Minister of Public Welfare. Louis P. Cecile. Q.C.
Secretary and Registrar. Dr Mackinnon Phillips.
Minister without Portfolio. Dr William J . Dunlop.
Mini8ter of Municipal Affair8. WilliaID K. Warrcnder, Q.C.
Treasurer. James Noble AlIan.
Mini8ter of Planning and Development. Willil1m M. NickJe, Q.C.
Attorney.Gen~ral. A. Kelso Roberts. Q.C.
Minister of Travel and Publicity. Bryan L. Cathcart.
Minister of Public Work8. Thomas Ray Connell.
.Minister of Health. De M. B. Dymond.
lVlinisler of Lands and Forests. Joseph Wilfrid Spooner.
Minister of Highways. Fred M. Cass, Q.C.
Minister of Transport. John Yarelllko. Q.C.
Minister of Energy ReslJurces. Robeet William Macaulay. Q.C •
.lJfinister of Mines. Jamcs Anthony M::doney. Q.C.
Minister of Reform institutions. George Calvin Ward rope.
Minister of Education. John Parrnenter Robarts. Q.C.
Minister without Portfolio. John Henry Haines Root.
Agent·General in London . J. S. P. Armstrong (Ontario House, 13

Charles II St., S.W.I).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Local government ill Ontario is divided into two
branches, the more important branch pertaining to IDunicipal instit.utioDB
and the other to education. The present system of municiptd institutions
was established on I Jan. 1850; its scope has been considerably enlarged
&8 to functional operation.
For general municipal and local government purposes, Ontario is diyjded
into counties (or union of countics). cities, towns, villagcs and townships.
The cities function independently of the county units, aR also do 8 toWDS
which many years ago were Heparated from the counties for municipal
purposes. Every town, village and township whicb lics within the confinell
of a county. functions for certain specific purposes tbrough the county as a
unit. but for all other purposes each of them functions as a separate unit.
The municipalitie~ have control Over all local affairs and undertakings,
including the construction and upkeep of roads and streets, other than main
traffic arteries. provision of utility services. provision and administration of
police forces, fire departments, sanitation services and social welfare seryjces.
The annual expenditurcs for municipal purposes are provided in part by
grants received from t.he Province of Ontario, but tbe bulk of the money
required is provided by direct taxation imposed upon real property and in
a limited way upon what is known as business assessment·. Tbe council of
each municipality also impose and collect from the taxpayers such moneys
as the local educational authority it.elf may require for the purposes of
educat.ion.
Each unit of municipal government is governed by a council elected by
popular vow. A city council is composed of a mayor and aldermen; ..
town council of a mayor, reeve (or reeves) and councillors; a village and ..
tOWDship council of a reeve (or reeves) and councillors. The basic unit for
a municipal council is the township; it is composed of 5 members. in-
cluding the reeve and the deputy reeve, if any. The councils in cities,
towns and villages vary in number of members, but none of them exceeds 25.
The county council is composed of the reeve and deputy reeve (if any)
of each town, village and township within the county boundaries. The
404 BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
only e>:eeptions from that rule are the cities and the 8 separated towns
referred to above. The principal functions of a county council are related
to construction and maintenance of such traffic arteries 8.8 have been in·
cluded in the county road system, the provision of court houses and gaols,
homes for the aged and child welfare institutions. Some counties also
exercis" a certain me8.8ure of jurisdiction for purposes of secondary education.
Funds required for county purposes are apportioned among the towns,
villages and townships which form the county, the apportionmen~ being
based on an equalization of the capital value 8.8seesment of real property in
each such local municipality. A city, situated within the confines of a
county, shares the cost of constructing and maintaining court houses, gaols
and homes for the aged and child welfare institutions.
No municipality in Ontario may incur debts to be met in future years
withou1. the sanction of the tribunal created by the Provincial Legislature
and known as the Ontario Municipal Board. Debenture obligations in·
curred hy municipalities for utility undertakings (water· works and electric
light afid power systems) are discharged ordinarily out of revenues derived
from tie sale of utility services and do not fall upon the ratepayer.
With respect to education, municipal COlllCils have no jurisdiction,
except as to the provision of moneys. Responsibility for provision of school
premis€s and for their operation and maintenance and for the supply of
teachcl'3 is in the hands of the local education authority, which is an elected
body. In cities and towns education falls under the control of one local
authorit.y. The smaller urban communities and the tOWDRhips UBually
have sllpara.te authorities for elementary and secondary education. ID
many t)wnships there are several local boards for elementary education, the
tOWDshp being divided into school section areas.
Tht) conduct of municipal institutions comes under the guidance of the
Provindal Department of Municipal Affairs. The principal functions of the
department are of an advisory nature, but it does exercise a limited measure
of control with respect to matters relating to mlmicipal audits and other
speciiic situations. Education comes under the guidance and control of
the provincial Department of Education, which deal, with the training of
teachen and formulation of the curriculum.
There are considerable areas in the northernmost parts of Ontario where
as yct there is little or no settlement of population. In such areas no
municipal organization exists, and control for all purposes over such areas
remain!: in the hands of the provincial government.
AREA AND POPULATION. The total area is 412,582 sq. miles
(344.0(U sq. miles land area and 68,490 sq. miles water). The province
extend<. 1,000 miles from east to west and 1,050 miles from south to north.
About 82% of this area lies south of the isotherm of 60° F. mean July
temperl~ture, which is generally considered as the northern limit for the
economic production of cereals.
The province is bordered by Quebec on the east and Manitoba on the
west. The southern boundary has a. fresh· water shoreline of 2,362 miles
on the Great Lakes while its northern limit,s have a salt· water shoreline of
680 miles.
The population of the province (estimate, 1 June 1959) was 5,952,000.
Asseesei 1958 population of the principal cities: Toronto (provincial
capital), 645,992 (city), 1,412,207 (city and metropolitan area); Hamilton,
248,946 (city), 348,755 (city a.nd metropolitan area); Ottawa (federal
capital), 233,946 (city), 284,784 (city and metropolitan area. in the province
ONTARIO 406
of Ontario only); Windsor. 119,319 (city), 187.939 (city and metropolitan
area); London, 99,1l5 (city), 158,773 (city and metropolitan area).
EDUCATION. There is a complete provincial system of elementary and
secondary schools. In Sept. 1958 there were 7,542 publicly controlled
day schools, with about 1.250.000 pupils enrolled. and 42.647 full· time
teachers engaged. The University of Toronto, founded in 1827 as King's
College, had a staff of over 1,400, and an enrolment of 14,000 students (Ja.n.
1960). Other universities are Queen's at Kingston, Western Ontario a.t
London, UcMas ter at Hamilton, Assumption at Windsor, Ottawa and
Carleton at Ottawa. Waterloo at Waterloo and Sudbury at Sudbury. All
of them receive provincial grants. The Ontario Agricultural College and
the Veterinary College are both located in Guelph. The total ordinary
expenditure of the Provincial Department of Education for the fiscal
year ended 31 March 1959 was $176,519,991, excluding expenditure for the
Agricultural College and other agricultural schools amounting to $6,813,816.
FINANCE. The net ordinary revenue and expenditure and the net
capital debt (in Canadian $) for years ending 31 March were as follows:
1955-66 1956-67 1957-68 1958-59 1959-60'
Revenue 427,969,363 479,783,191 591,849,092 642,~i4,233 637,803,000
Expenditure 425,464,481 477,9;8,640 590,983,062 642,070,163 637,5H,OOO
Oaplta. debt 705,306,146 768,277,70' 818,606,441 900,532,098
• Estimate8.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture (1956). There were 19,879.646 acres of
occupied farm area, and of this area 12.672.167 acres were improved land,
with 8,219,407 acres under field crops. The cash income from the sale of
farm products in ]954 amounted to $726,397,000. in 1955 to $766,237,000;
]956. $790,496,000; 1957. $79],477,000; 1958. $873,287,000.
Forestry. The total area of productive forested land in 1958 was 168.961
sq. miles. The accessible area (129,235 sq. miles) comprised 54.720 sq. miles
of softwood, 22,523 sq. miles hardwood and 5],992 sq. miles mixed wood.
The merchantable timber stand is approximately 83,663m. cu. ft. Esti.
mated value of forestry production in 1955 was $144m.; 1956. $153m.;
1957, $]55m.
Mining. The mineral production in 1957 included gold. 2,578.206
fine oz. (S86.498,811); nickel. 354,792,843 lb. ($243.518.138); copper.
343,406,269 lb. ($98.488,877) ; uranium 7.970,598 lb. ($82,940,763). The
total va.lue of the mineral production in 1957 was $748,824,322.
Preliminary figures for 1958: gold, 2·6im. fine oz.; nickel, 262·6m. lb.;
copper, 281·47m. lb. ; uranium, 21·4m. lb. Total estimated value. $799m.
Indu8try. In 1958 Ontario had about 13.200 manufacturing establish·
ments employing 605,000 persons. Total salaries and wages paid,
ahout S2,390m.; estimated selling value of factory shipments, SI0,686m.
Elt.ctricity. The Hydro.electric Power Commission of Ontario recorded
for the year ended 31 Dec. 1958 a. dependa.ble peak capacity of 5,166,200
kw. and a. total energy gonerated of 25,643m. kwh.
COMMUNICATIONS (1958). There were 85,093 miles of roads. of
which 75.245 were surfaced. There were 10.467 miles of first main·track
railway operated by 4 major railway companies. There were 2,084.395
telephones in use.
Motor licences numbered 1,868,922, oC which 1,492,039 were passenger

cars.
Books of Reference
STATBTleAL lNPORloIATION. Tbe Ontario Department ot Beonowi"" WM C3t&blisbcd i n
Jan. 195.1. /JirecltJr Of Economic Sta/4/ic.r Branch: O. M. Scbnick. Tbe Ewnomic Survey of
Ontario is publisbed anDually. SpI'ci"J Regional EconomiC 8tudies: 1'ht Ororgion Bay
Ret)ion Economic SUNley. 1955; The NarlMa<11'ffl Ontario Ret)ion Economic Survey. 19~~;
The Lak,head·NortilwesU?m Ontario Ret}ion Economic Survey. 1969
Submi...i·",.. of Omario 10 Royal Commiu ions-on Canad<l', Economic Prospects. 1 P56;
on Entr!lY. 1958; on Price Spreads Of Food Product<. 1958
Ohapma[., L. J., and Putnam, D. P., PI.y$iography Of Southern Ontario. Toronto, 1950
MANITOBA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Manitoba was known as the
Red R jver Settlement before ita entry into the Dominion in 1870. The
provindal government is ndministered by &. Lieut.·Governor and a legisl:!.tive
a.ssem bly of 57 mem bers elected for 5 years. Women ba ve been enfranchised.
The Redistribution Act, 1955, created 57 singlll.member constitucncies and
abolish"d the transfcrablo votc. The Electoral Divisions Act, 1957, created
36 rural electoral divisions, and 21 urban electoral divisioM. The province
is represented by 6 members ill the Senate and 14 in the House of Commons
of Cam,da. The Crown lands and othcr natural resources of the province
were transferred from tbe Dominion Government to the province as from
15 July 1930.
Lieut.-Governor. John Stew&.rt McDiarmid (sworn in 1 Aug. 1963).
State of parties in Legislative A~sembly (elected 16 June 1958) in
Dec. 1{159: Progressive Conservatives, 35; Liberal Progressives, 11; Co-
operathe Commonwealth Federation, 10; Social Credit, 1.
The mtlmoors of the Progre&live Conservative Ministry arc as follo,~s
(Jan. l!l60) :
Pre:nier and President of the Executit·e Oouncil, Dominion-Provincial
RelatiO'<I.S, Acting Provincial Treasurer. Duff' Roblin.
Minister of AgricuUure. G. Rutton.
Mit,ister of Public Works and Highways. Errick F, Willis.
Minister of Industry and Oommerr.e. E. Gurney Evans.
111ir,.ister of 1I1ines and Natural Resource-s. C. R, Witney,
Mir.i,ster of Education. Stewart E. MeLean.
Minister of HeaUh and Public Welfare. Dc Gcorge Johnson.
Attorney·General. Sterling R. Lyon.
Mi'1<.ister 0/ Labour, Acting JJfinister of lIJunicipal Af/airs. John Thomp-
80n.
Prol.incial Secretary and Minis/er of Public Utilities. John B. Carroll.
Agent.General in London. R. Murray Armstrong (83 Cannon St., E .CA) .

Lo06.L GOVERNMENT. The Municipal Act, R.S.M. 1954, e. 173, applies
to all bcorporated rural municipalities, villages, towns and cities, except
oities with special cbarters (Winnipeg, St Boniface, and in Borne respects
Brandon, St James, Portage la Pra.irie a.nd East Kildonan).
Runl municipalities are incorporated under the Municipal Boundaries Act.
A locality containing over 600 inhabitants and a taxable assessment of
over $~;OO,OOO may be incorporated as a village corporation. No village
MANITOBA 407
80 incorporated shall occupy an area of more than 640 acres, unless ita
pupulat.ion exceeds 2,000.
A lucality containing over 1,500 inhabitants may be incorporated as a
town corporation. No town incorporated after the passing of the Municipal
Act, the population of which does not exceed 2,000, shall o~cupy an area of
more than 640 acres. If the population exceeds 2,000, the limits may bo
increased in the proportion ofl60 acres for every additional 1,000 inhabitants.
Public parks are excluded in calculating are ...
A town containing over 10,000 inhabitanta may be erected into a city.
Upon petition from 50% of the householders in a locality which is not
included within the limits of a municipality, it may bo incorporated as a
municipal district. Localities which do not qualify under the provisions of
the Municipal Act, Municipal Boundaries Act or Local Government Districts
Act, or if they desire special power or privileges, may be incorporated by
special act of the legislature.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the province is 251,000

sq. miles (211,775 sq. miles land and 39,255 sq. miles water). In 1912
it.s boundaries were extended to the shores of Hudson Bay.
The popula tion (census 1956) was 850,040, of which the rural population
was 339,457; e~timated population, 191;9,885,000. Population of the prin.
oipal cities (1951;): Winnipeg (capital), 255,093 (metropolitan area, 409,121);
St Boniface, 28.851; Brandon,24,796; Portage la Prairie, 10,525.
EDUCA TION. Education is locally controlled, as in all the provinces,

and is supported by local taxation and government grants. The University
of Manitoba, founded in 1877 in Winnipeg, had (in 1957-58) 5,200 regular
students in nil courses. There were (1958) 6,645 teachers and 169,482 pupils
in 6,074 public school rooms. There are 150 8chools having one room for
high schuul work, 54 two-room high schools, 38 junior high schools, 48
oollegiate departments and 69 collegiate institutes.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (current accvunt) for fiscal

years, ending 31 March (in Cana.dian $):
1~~4-~~ 19~~-66 19~6-67 19~7-~8 1~~8-~9' 19~9-60'
Beyenue • 68,824. ~ 0861,1 n, 781 67,475,392 80,1 ~~.61 5 85,356,800 89,919,190
B.lpenditure . 68,318,629' 60,640,788 66,803,461 80,11 9,247 8 1,61;;,12 ~ 84,601,442
l Includilll! expenditure in connexion wit.h the 1950 flood of ~7 ,000.
t Revi:ied estimates. • Estimates.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The 80uthern part of Manitoba is rich

agricultural land, while the northern three-fifths of the province form part of
the Canadian shield, an area underlain by pre-Cambrian rocks which is rich
in mineral deposits. For particulars of agricultural production and number
of livestock, see under CANADA.
FaTulry. About 45% of the I'md area is wooded, of which 30,500 sq.
miles is productive forest land. Value of forest production in 1958 was
estimated at $21·5m.
Fur Trade . Value of fur pelts taken during 1958 from the wild was
valued at $1,677,263; from ranch-bred animals, S3·68m.
Fisheries. From 26,789 sq. miles of rivers and lakes covering Mani·
t oba 31,1)70,900 lb. of edible fish were caught in 1957-58; merket value,
408 THE BRITISH COMMONWEA.LTH A.ND EMPIRE
$5.92;;,245. Pickerel. whitefish. Baugers. pike and tullibee are the principal
variet ies caught.
M :;ning. Total value of minerals. 1958. $56·1m. Principal minerals
mined are copper. gold. zinc and silver. Selenium. tellurium and cad-
mium are recovered as by.products from base-metal operations. Import-
ant m.w nickel-copper deposits are being developed in the Lake Mystery-
Moak areas. New deposits of zinc have been discovered in the Flin Flon
area. Potential reserves of chromium and lithium also occur. The most
important non-metallic minerals are cement. sand and gravel, and building
etone. Oil production in 1958 total1od 5-9m. bbls valued at S14-5m.
Industry. The manufacturing industry produces a wide range of con·
sumer and industrial products. The rapid growth following the war has
brought production up to $673.875.000 during 1958. The industry employs
41,75C persons, paying $139.850.000 in salaries and wages. The largest
single industry is slaughtering and meat packing. follo\ved by iron and steel.
petrohum products, transportation equipment and clothing.
In 1958 Canadian and American tourists contributed about $33-5m. to
the Plovincial economy.
El.,ctricity. Water power generated in 1958 was 3.213,271,000 kwh.
COoMMUNICATIONS. In the year 1958 the province had 4,978 miles

of railway. not including industrial track. yards and sidings. There were
851.0(0 miles of telephone wire and 241.400 telephone stations. excluding
3.200 in municipal and privately o\vned systems.
Books of Reference
BTA,nSTIOAL INI'ORMATlON. lnqnlriee may be addressed to the Deputy MlnIster, Depan-
ment 01 Industry and Commerce, Room 346, Legialatlve BolIdlDg, Winnipeg_
Tbe Department or Induatry and Commerce pubUahes : JlanUobo T,tJIk Di,«JMy. JlaniUJ60
eilie, IIfI4i T _ (IodusUial Developmeo& Series). SrrwlI Btui~., JllJ1lagemtnl AU
BuUe.:in. Manuf<l(luri1lj} in M anilOba. P,o.pecls for Development in Jfaniloba. Th.
KevSlolle: Agriculture. Er01lomic Sun:ev of Norlhern Manitoba. Indu.'I'lI afld eomrMtce
MtmI~ly Bulletin. SUNlev Reporl: InduslrioJ and Ec01lOTnic POlelUiol 0/ (Jreour Winnipev.
Tbe De:)artment of Agrlcolture pul>llshes, FfUII GbIna JI....ilobll. Ann"'" R.,.", OR er"""
IAC<Ii"QcJ;, etc. SIOTfI 0/ Manitoba', Agricull"re.
Ninth C..."', ., Canada: Manitobll. Ottaw.., 1961
SASKATCHEWAN
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The province receives ita
name from the Saskatchewan River (Kis-is-ska.tche-wan is Indian expression
for' fast Bowing '), which Bows across its southern part. It comprises the old
districts of A88iniboia East, A88iniboia West (part). Saskatcbewan (part)
&lid the eastern portion of Athabaska.. Saskatchewan was part of tht'l North·
west Territories. before it was made a province by the Saskatchewan ACi,
passed by the Canadian parliament. which came into force on 1 Sept. 1905.
The provincial government is vested in a Lieut.-Governor and a legis.
lative assembly. elected for 5 years. Women were given the franchise in
1916, -~nd are also eligible for election to the legislature. State of parties
after l,he general election of 20 June 1956: Co-opera.tive Commonwealth
Fedemtion (Socialist Party), 36; Liberals, 14; Social Credit Party, 3.
SASKATCHEWAN 409
Lieul.·Governor. Frank Lindsay Bastedo (appointed 3 Feb. 1958).
The Ministry, in March 1960, was composed as follows:
Premier, President of the Council and Minister of Co· operation and Co.
operative Development. Thomas C. Douglas.
Provincial Treasurer. Clarence M. Fines.
Minister of Mineral Resource8. J. H . Brockelbank.
Minister of Highways and Transportation. John T. Douglas.
Minister of Ed'ucation. Woodrow S. Lloyd.
A8Si8tant to the Premier. J. H. Sturdy.
Minister of Municipal Affairs. L. F. MoIntosh.
Minister of Labour and Minister of Telephones. Chas. C. Williams.
Minister of Agriculture. I. C. Nollet.
Mini8ter of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation. T. J . Bentley.
Minister of Natural Resources. A. G. Kuziak.
Attorney.General, Provincial Secretary. R. A. Walker, Q.C.
Minister of Travel and Information, and Power Corporation. R. Brown.
Minister of Public Health. J. Waiter Erb.
Minister of Public Wor"". C. G. Willis.
Age1lt·General in London. Graham Spry (28 Chester St., S.W.I).

LOCAL GOVERNMENT. The organization of a City requires a minimum
population of 5,000 persons; that of a Town, 500; that of a Village, 100
persons. No requirements as to population exist for the Rural MWlicipaIity
and the Local Improvement District. Cities, Towns, Villages and Rural
Municipalities are governed by elected councils which consist of a mayor
and 6-20 aldermen in a City, a mayor and 6 councillors in a Town, an over·
seer and 2 other members in a Village, a reeve and a cOWlciIlor for each
division (usually 6) in a Rural Mnnicipality.
AREA AND POPULATION. The province stretches along the

Canada-V.S.A. boundary for 393 miles east of the BOth meridian, and
extends north for 761 miles. Its northern width is 276 miles. The area
of the province is 251,700 sq. miles (220,182 sq. miles land area and 31,518
sq. miles water). The population (census, 1956) was 880,665; estimate,
1959, 896,000. Population of principal cities (estimate 1959): Regina,
100,800 (capital); Saskatoon, 81,671; Moose Jaw, 31,800; Prince Albert,
22,000; Swift Current, 10,612; North Battleford, 10,000; Yorkton, 8,500;
Estevan, 8,700; Weyburn,8,500; Lloydminster, 5,400.
EDUCATION (1958-59). The University of Saskatchewan at Saskatoon,

established 3 April 1907, had 333 instructors and 3,815 students. The
University's junior college in Regina had 32 instructors and 327 students.
There were 5,227 school districts operating under the School Act, and 16
under the Secondary Education Act, with an enrolment of 151,667 pupils
of elementary school grade and 43,042 pupils of high school grade. In
addition, there were 34 new Canadian pupils, 147 deaf and 541 auxiliary
pupils (physically or mentally handicapped), all receiving special tuition.
Of the school districts, 32 are Roman Catholic Separate and 9 are Protestant
Separate. For the training of teachers there are 2 teachers' colleges, a.t
Saskatoon (399 students) and Moose Jaw (241 students).
FINANCE. Budget and net debt. (yean ending 31 March) in Cana·

dian $.1,000:
1955-56 1956-5, 1957-08 1958-59 1959-60'
I1udgeta :y revenue . 97,426 123,730 132,830 130,359 133,325
Budgeta'Y elCpenditure 95,257 105,680 119,663 132,173 133,245
Net debt I 67,722 38,976 24,931 20,S66 15,OOU
I Net debt consists or bonded debt and Treasury bills iess sinking funds, cash ond im'est-
1(I:lns nnd advances to revenue-producing enterprises, other loans and advances.
m eD t~,
• Estimates.
PR'ODUCTION. Agriculture. Saskatchewan produces more than

half the wheat grown in Canada. Wheat production in 1958 was 192m.
bush elF. from 13,182,000 acres; oats, 83m. bushels from 3,064,000 acres;
barley, 87m. bushels from 3,939,000 acres; rye, 2·5m. bushels from 248,000
acres; fia-x, 1l·3m. bushels from 1,496,000 acres. Cash income from the
sale of farm products in 1958 was $.'>95m.
A large irrigation project is designed ultimately to provide for an area
of 500,)00 acres.
For ~8Iry. Furs to the value of $2,136,144 and forest products valued at
$7,693,874 were produced in 1957-58.
Fis/!eriea. The total value of the catch of the commercial fisheries during
1957-5:~ was $2,010,084 (lI,064,591 lb.).
Mining. Mineral production was valued at $172,968,740 in the year

ended ~1 March 1958. Production included 248,635 lb. cadmium ($325,129),
62,426,548 lb. copper (SI3,112,538), 78,642 oz. gold (82,054,185), 1,171,542
oz. silver ($1,021,169), 93,652,897 lb. zinc (88,237,753), 34,961 lb. selenium
and tellurium ($337,696), 39,96l,739 bbls crude oil (885,997,224),12,943,099
m.s.c.f. natural gas (81,195,942), 2,194,394 tons coal ($4,322,956), 44,140
tons salt ($1,080,547),160,304 tons sodium sulphate ($2,556,367), sand and
gra\-el ($6,733,614), clay and cllty products ($3,877,004), uranium
($44,858,545), pyrite ($191,368).
Ina'J,8try. In 1958 Saskatchewan had about 875 industrial establish.
ments, employing 13,300 persons; gross value of products in 1958, $318m.;
salaries and wages paid, $49m.
COMMUNICATIONS. There were, in 1958, 8,721 miles of main rail·

way tuck in operation. There aro 8,155 miles of provincial highways,
147,896 miles of municipal roads, 3,638 miles oflocal roads, 1,756 miles of
rural rc·ads and 1,903 miles of federal government roads.
In 1958 there were 210,237 telephones connected to the Government
Telephones System and 7,400 subscribers to private systems.
In 1959 there were 1,310 post offices operating. Thirteen sound broad·
casting and 6 television stations were in operation in 1958.
Books of Reference
Tourist and other publications, de~criptive of the Government's programme, are obtainable
from the Department of Travel a.mi Information, Legitdative Annes, Regina.
Archer alld Verby, 7'he Slorv oJ a Provinct. Toront-o, 195~.
Lipact. S. M.• ..igrarian Socialism: the Co·uperaJi.. Commonwealth FM4raJion in Sa.t/raJc/aNa ...
Los AI gel.s, 19~O
Morton, . ~. R. (ed. C. KiDg), Saskatcl''lcan, the Yoking of a Vni.er.<ity. Toronto, 1959
''''right, ,f. T. C., Srukatr.helcan, tht hi.3turll u/ a provinct. Toronto, 1~66
ALBERTA 411
ALBERTA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution of Alberta
is contained in the British North America Act of 1867, and amending Acts;
also in the Alberta Act of 1905, passed by the Parliament of the Dominion
of Canada, creating the province. In the British North America Act,
provision was made for the admission of the new provinces from time to
time, including the then Northwest Territories. of which the present province
of Alberta formed a large portion. Alberta and Saskatchewan were created
into provinces in 1905, and all the prol"isionB of the British North America
Aot, except those with respect to school lands and the publio domain, were
made to apply to Alberta as they apply to the older provinces of Canada.
On 1 Oct. 1930 the natural resources were transferrcd from the Dominion
to provincill.l government control. The province is repre8ented by 6
members in the 8eoMe and 17 in the House of Commons of Canada.
The executive is vested nominally in the Lieut.-Governor, who is
appointed by the federal government. but actually in the Executive Council
or the Cabinet of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the Assembly
in the name of the Queen.
Members of the Legislative Assembly are elected by the direct vote of
the people. Women suffrage has been established in the province.
There are 65 members in the legislature (elected 18 June 1959): 61
Social Credit, ) independent Social Credit, 1 Liberal, 1 Progressive Con-
servative, 1 Independent.
Lieu!.-Governor. His Honour Dr J. J. Bowlen (appointed 1 Feb. (950).
The member8 of the Ministry (all Social Credit Party) are as follows:
Premier, Minister of Minea and ltfinera18, AUorney.General.E. C.
Manning.
Mini.ster of Public Health. Dr J. D. Ross.
Minister of Municipal Affairs. A. J. Hooke.
Minister of Railwa!/s and Highways. G. E. Taylor.
Minister of Education. A. O. Aalborg.
Minis!er of AgriClllture. L. C. Halmrast.
Mini.!er of Lands and Fores!s. N. A. WilImore .
.Minis!er of P'ublic Welfare. R. A. ,Torgensen.
Provincial Treasurer. E. W. Hinman.
Minis!er without Portfolio. F . Col borne.
Minister of Indus!ry and Development, Provincial Secretary. RusseIl
Patrick.
.Minister of Labour and T elephones. RaYlllond Reierson.
Agent-General in London. R. A. Mcl\Iuilen (37 Hill St., W.l).

LOCAL GOVERNMENT. The local government units are City, Town,
Village. County and Municipal District.
Thero are 10 cities in Alberta, namely : Edmonton, Calgary, Lelhbridge,
Wetaskiuin. Red Deer, Medicine Hat, Drumheller, Cam rose, Lloydminster
and Grande Prairie. These cities operate under a uniform cily charter.
The governing body consists of a mayor and a council of from 6 to 12
members. A new city can be incorporated by proclamation of the Lieut.-
Governor-in-Council. A population of 6,000 is required, but no area is
specified in the statutes.
H2 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
Thllre is no limit of area for a Town specified in the Town and Village
Ac~. The population requirements are 700 inhabitants, and the area ai
incorporation is that of the original village and may include adjoining land
on which there is at least 1 occupied dwelling or place of business for every
5 acre:,.
A Village must contain 50 separate and occ\1pied dwellings, but there is
no limit of area specified. The Town and Village Act requires each dwelling
to hav,) been occupied continuously for a period of at least 1 month.
A County area is an area incorporated through an order of the Lieut.·
Govemor·in·Council under the provisions of the County Act.
A Municipal District is an area which has been incorporated under the
Municipal District Act. Areas not incorporated as Counties or Municipal
Districts are termed Improvement Districts and Special Areas. There are
no res';rictions as to the number of residents of a County or Municipal
Distriot nor is the area. specified in the statutes.
miles, :!48,800 sq. miles being land area. and 6,485 sq. miles water area. The
population (census, 1956) was 1,123,116; 1959 estimate, 1,243,000. The
rural population (1956) numbered 487,292, and the urban 635,824. There
were (1951 census) 21,210 Indians, or 2·26% of the total population. Popu.
lation ,)fthe principal cities (1959): Edmonton,260,733; Calgary, 218,418;
Lethbridge,32,780; Medicine Hat, 21,740; Red Deer, 17,593.
Vital statistics, sce p . 364 .
EDUCATION. Schools of all grades are included under the term of
publio school. The same boards of trustees control the schools from the
kinderl~arten to entrance to the university. All schools are supported by
taxes levied on property collected by the municipal authorities, supple.
mentel\ by government grants. In 1958 there were 1,318 schools and
8chool sy~tems in operation with 247,219 pupils. The University of Alberta,
organi.:ed in 1907, had, in 1958-59, 9,190 students.
JUSTICE. Judicial power of the province is vested in the Supreme
Court, consisting of 2 divisions, the appellate and trial divisions. The
judges are appointed by the Dominion Government, and hold office for life
unless impeached by Parliament. There are also minor courts of civil and
crimin'LI jurisdiction. The district courts have full jurisdiotion over all
matters up to $1,000. Magistrates have jurisdiction over claims for debts
up to SIOO. Juvenile courts havo power to try boys under 16 and girls
under 18 years of age.
'rho system of procedure in civil and criminal cases conforms as nearly
aB poseible to the English system.
FINANCE. The revenue (in Canadian S) of the province is derived from
federal subsidies, school lands and provincial sources. The fiscal year
ends 31 March.
OrdinlrY budget 19~5-56 19~6 -67 195;-68 1958-69 1 1959-60 1
Reveom . 241,008.1Q6 261,668,943 267,432,603 254,60;,365 2~2,562,330
Expendi ture 132,028,521 141,693,6U7 173,325,452 194,391,91~ 218,964,824
1 Estimates, income accounts.
Th(, net funded debt of the province on 31 March 1958 amounted to

$30,177,171, and the unfunded debt to 52.043,421; total public debt,
$32,22),591. Assets at that date were $190,358,504.
ALBERTA 413
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Alberta is pre·eminently an agricultural
province. The surveyed area of the province comprises about 85m. acres,
of which approximately 70m. acres may be classed as lands capable of
agricultural development. Up to the present, however, less than one· third
of this area has been brought under cultivation.
For particulars of agricultural production and livestock, 3te under
CANADA. Value o f agricultural produ ction in 1958 totalled $664,762,000.
Grain elevators (1958) had a capacity of 144,032,050 bushels, including
grain housed in temporary annexes.
Forutry. Alberta has 8,619 sq. miles of forest reserves.
Fisherie&, The lakes of the province abound in whitefish, pickerel, pike
a.nd trout, but the industry is not develop~d. Value of fish marketed, 1958,
$1,402,982.
Mining . A coal survey of Alberta by the Geological Survey of Canada
places the coal area at 16,588 sq. miles containing 48,000m. tons, of which
20,000m. tons are mineable. The output ill 1958 was 2,519,939 tons,
valued at $12,778,Ill. Natural gas is found abundantly in numerous
localities. In 1958, 245,500m. cu. ft with a well·head valuation of
$18,412,500, were produced. High.grade gasoline is profitably extracted
from the gas in Turner Valley, Leduc and Jumping Pound. 113,277,847
bbls of crude oil were produced in 1958 froUl 8,550 wells. Alberta produced
68'5% of Canada's production. Bonnie Glen produced 4,225,487 bbls, the
Redwater field 13,074,440 bbls, the Leduc-Woodbend field 14,910,237
bbls, the Pembina field 33,093,712 bbls, the Fenn-Big Valley field 5,571,322
bbls, the Sturgeon Lake South field 2,893,305 bbls, Joarcam field 3,476,187
bbls and the Jo(fre field 5,367,841 bbls. Immense deposits of bituminous
sand containing on an average 15-18% bitumen are situated in the 1\1c.
Murray district in northern Alberta. Value of total mineral production
in 1958, $338,790,192.
Industry. Manufacturing in the province: Oil refining, lllea t packing,
flour and feed milling, iron and steel products, dairy and poultry products,
lumber, pulp and paper, nickel refining, cement, industrial chemicals and
plastics, cbemical fertilizers, sugar, lime and gypsum products, brewing and
distilling, clay products, vegeta ble canneries.
Statistics of manufactures for 1957: Number of industrial establish·
ments, 1,893; number of employees, 39,089; salaries and wages,
$137,077 ,438; cost of materials, $461,134,040; value of products,
$784,480,512 (1958 estimate, $808,650,000).
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1958 there were 87,430 miles of roads and

highways, including 38,537 miles gravelled and 2,758 miles hard·surfaced.
Number of motor vehicles, 434,354.
Length of railway lines. in 1958. was 5,782 miles. Alberta's modern
telephone system is owned and operated by the provincial government,
except in the town of Banff and city of Edmonton. In 1957 the total
mileage of wire in all the telephone systems in the province was I,Il7,780.
There were 327,212 telephones ill service at 31 Dec. 1958.
Books of Reference
STATl8TIOAL INFORMATION. Tbe Alberta Bureau 01 StatistIcs (Dept. 01 Industry and
Development, Edmonton), whicb was establisbed in 1934, collects, e<>mpiles and distributes
Information relative to Alberta. Pr..,incial Slalisliciall : D. I. IstvaoJJy. Among ita pubii-

cationa are: Alberta I ndustry and R esources. 1959. Alberta Trade I n dex. 1959
Hornet, J .• N ext-yea, Country : a 8tudy of rural . ocial organl,at;"n ill Alberta. Toronto. 19&1
Hard .•• W. G .• Alberta Golde1l J 'u bilee <inthol""y. Toronto. 1955
Hornn. J . W., 'West, nor'lDe.fl': A HistOfV (If Alberta. EdmontoD,1945
Yacphe:son. C. B., Democracy in AlbeTta . Toronto, 1953
Mann. W. E., Sect, Cull and Church i1l Alberta. Toronto, 195&
BRITISH COLUMBIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. British Columbia (then
known as New Caledonia) orillinally formed part of the HudBon's Bay
Comps.ny's concession. In 1849 Vancouver Island and in 1858 British
Columbia were constituted Crown colonies ann in 1866 the two colonies were
united. On 20 July 1871 British Columbia entered the Canadian Confedera-
tion. It is represented by 6 members in the Senate and 22 members in the
House of Commons of Ca nada.
The provincial government is administered by a Lieut.-Governor and a
Legisle.tive Assembly of 52 members. Tho Lieut.-Governor is appomted
for a i) . year term. Th~ assombly is elected for 5 years, every male or
female Canadian citizen HI years old and over, having resided 6 months in
the province, duly rcgist.ered, being entitled to vote. Tbe party standinga
in the Legislative Assembly. as of J a n. 1960, were: Social Credit, 38;
Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, 10 ; Liberal. 3; Labour, I.
Lieut.-Goveroor. Group Capt. Frank Mackenzie R088, C.M.G., M.C.
Thll members of the Socia l Credit Ministry were, in J an. 1960, 8S follow8 :
Prtmier. Pruident Df the Exuutit'e CDuncil and Mini.,ter of Finance.
W. A. C. Bennett.
P ro-vincial Secretary, M inister of .Municipal Affairs and Social Welfare.
W. D. Black.
Attorney-General and Minister of Industrial Development, Trade and
Commerce. R. W. Bonner, Q.C.
Miaister Df Lands and Forests. R. G. Williston.
M i:ti"ter Df Agriculture. N. P. Sten.ey.
Mi,~i3ter of Minea. W. K. Kiernan.
Min ister of Highway8. P. A. Gaglardi .
lIf·i nister of L abour and Commercial Transport. L. Wicks.
Minillur 0/ Education. L. R. Peterson.
Minister of Health Services and Hospital Insnrance. E. C. F. Martin.
Mini.']ter of Public Works. W. N. Chant.
Minister 0/ Recreation and Conservatio-n.. E. C. Westwood.
Agent-General in London. Maj.-Gen. B. H. Ho/fmeister, C.B., C.B.E.,

D.S.O. (British Columbia Honse, 1 R egent St., S.W.I).
LoCAL GOVERNMENT. Vancouver City was incorporated by statute and

operates under the provisions of the Van couver Charter of 1953, and
amendments. This is the only incorporated area in Brit·ish Columbia not
operathg under the provisions of the Municipal Act. Under this Act
municipalitiea are divided into the following classes : (a) A l ocal district
where the populat.ion does not exceed 500, govcrned by a council consisting
BRITISH COLUMBIA 415
of a chairman and 2 trustees; (b) a village where the population exceeds 500
but does not exceed 2,500, governed by a council consiijting of a chairman
and 4 commissioners; (c) a town where the population exceeds 2,500 but
does not exceed 5,000, governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 4
aldermen; (d) a city where the population exceeds 5,000, governed by a
council consisting of a mayor and 6 or 8 aldermen depending on population;
(e) a district where the area exceeds 2,000 acres and the average density is
less than 2 persons per acre, governed by a council consisting of a reeve
and 6 or 8 councillors depending on population. The councils of a city or
district municipality may petition for supplementary Letters Patent to
establish the number of members as 4, G, 8 or 10 exclusive of the mayor
or reeve.
AREA AND POPULATION. British Columbia, Canada's Pacifio
Coast Province, has an area of 366,255 sq. miles, of which 359,279 sq. miles
are land and 6,976 sq. miles are water (but exclusive of territorial seas). It
lies between 49° and 60° N. lat. Vancouver Island has an area of about
12,408 sq. miles.
The census of 1956 placed the population at J ,3D8,4G4. Estimated pOpll-
lation, 1 June 1959, 1,570,000.
Some of the principal cities and towns and their 1956 census populations
are: Victoria (tho capitfll), 54,;'84; Vancouver. 365,844; New Westminster,
31,665: North Vancouver, 19,451; Penticton, 11,894; Trail,l1,395.
Vital statistics, see p. 36J.
EDUCA TION. A complete system of free and non-sectarian education
was established in 1872. Attendance is compulsory from the age of 7 to
15. During the school year Hl57-58 there were 277,070 pupils enrolled in
1,145 public schools instructed by 10,171 teachers. In addition, there are a
number of private institutious modelled on the English public-school
system. Higher education is provided by the University of British Columbia
at Vancouver with an enrolment (in 195()-60) of 10,600 undergraduates and
its affiliated college in Victoria with an enrolment of 835. A College of
Education at the university provides additional normal school training.
In addition, there are 4 theological colleges affiliated to the University, a
vocational institute, evening continuation classes and a variety of corre-
spondence courses.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure, current account in Canadian $:
1956 -66 1956-67 1967-58 1958-59' 1959-60'
Revenue. 227.263,374 270,7S~. 792 2S~.42 8 ,800 267,4 77.RG9 2~7.775,423
Bxp~diture' 213,630,187 nS,9il,2S6 :; 1l,366,22R 248,041,448 300,401,39·1
1 Hdtimate.
1 Cl\pital ~ .fpenditl1re out of income is included in expenditllres a~ follows: 1956-67,
$77,916,1:l\ ($1 um. for debt redemption) ; 1957-5~, $83.744.603 ($21,104,422 for d.bt redemp-
tion): 19.'H-;9 (e.tima.r,el. $68.1.~7.500 ($12m. lor debt redemption); 1959-60 (estimate),
S69,4.n,OOO (SI2.~50,OOO for debt redemption).
PRODUCTION_ The four primary industries of British Columbia

yielded the following returns in 1958 (and estimates for 1959): Forestry,
$542,787,427 ($672m.); mining, 5146,840,000 ($ J54m.); agriculture,
S119,238,I)00 ($120m.); fisheries, $98,224,000 (S66·om.). The gross value
of manufacturing production was estimated at $1,7815,298,750 ($I,925m.).
British Columbia's labour income for 1958 was $I,742m. and for 19159
was SI,850m. (preliminary estimate).
4:16 THE BR.ITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIR.E
The external trade through British Columbia customs porta had in 1958
a value of $811,162,272 for exports aDd a value of $420,078,858 for import..
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. The pro\~nce is crossed from eas~

to west· by two transcontinental railways, the Canadian Pacific Hailway and
the Canadian National Railway, both with terminals at Vancouver. The
C.N.R also has a terminal at Prince Hupert. Aprovincially owned railway,
the Pa·)ifie Great Eastern, operates a line running north and sout.h from
Vancouver to Da,wson Creek and Fort St John. During 1958, 10,167,784
tons of railway freight originated and ll,484,l82 tons terminat.ed in British
ColumL·ia. As of 31 Dec. 1958 there were 4,749 miles of main-line track
in the province.
Road". As of 31 March 1958 there were exclusive of urban streeta,
23,165 miles of highway in the province.
Shil'ping. Coastal and lake steamship services are provided by the
Canadian Pacific Steamship Co., the Canadian National Railway, the Black
Ball Ferries, Ltd and the W a~hington State Ferries. Two ferries owned by
the Pr(,vinee went into service in 1960. The Province has a great many
deep, i.:e-free harbours, fully equipped for all purposes of modern ocean
transport. Total tonnage loaded for foreign countries in British Colombia
ports in 1958 were 9,906,817 tons, while 1,784,858 tons of cargo from foreign
countri'ls were unloaded.
Avil:tion. Air transportation connecting Vancouver and Victoria with
other parts of Canada is provided by Trans-Canada Airlines. There are a
number of provincial routes. International scheduled direct air routes of
the Canadian Pacific Airlines originate in Vancouver and connect with
Europe,. Mexico, South America, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.
Okanagan Helicopters Co., Ltd provides services throughout British
Columbia and Canada. on a charter basis.
BANKING. Bankdebits: 1954,$ll,956,325,ooo; 1955,812,812.854,107;

1956, $15,231,473,000; 1957, $16,621,306,000; 1958, $16,244,464,000.
Books of Reference
ST.<TIlITIOAL lNI"orulA.T10N. TheRureau of Economics and Stati.tlco (Departmont of
Industria: Development. Trade and Commeroe~ Parliament Buildings, Victoria. B.O.), which
was estabjshed in 1937, collects,compiiesand distributes information relative to the Province.
Direclor: M. H. A. Glover. Publications include the Jlrmthly Bulletin of Bwdness Actit'ity,
Summary of Bu.' ;.u." .dctiwl/. T.ade Index. Facts and Statistic<, R'9iona/ Indusln·al Index,
.Manual of Resources and Development (1959).
Oarrot.h6I'I, W. A_, T/U Brilith ColumbiG Fit1ufV8. Toronto, 1941
Ohapman. J. D., and Turner, D. B. (ed.), British Columbia Aaa.. of Resowcu. Dept. of Landa
and Fo:-ests, Victoria, B.O., 19~6
PIWestry l'andIJook for Brililh ColumbiG. B.O. Unlversity Forestry OInb, Vanoouver, 1961
Goodcbild, F. H., Brilish ColumbiIJ, ill historl/, ptopk Gnd indu"lrl/. London, 1961
Bolm.... Marjorie, 0 ., Publi<lJtiuru uf"" GowmmmHf Brili,h ColumbiIJ, 1871-1947. Victoria,
B.O., 1\'60
Howay, I'. W., Sage, W. N., and Angus, II. P., Brililh Columbia tmd "" Untud SI4U,.
Toronto, 1942
Bntobisoll, B., T/U F,4Ur. Toronto, 1960
Lyons, O. P., Mik_, OR " " MilJhlr FrtJlft'. Toronto and Vancouver, 1960
Ormsby, 111. A., Brilish Columbia: a History. Toronto, 1968
Bickard, ·.r. A., H _ Backgrou...u 0/ Brililh Columbia. Vanoouver, 1948
WM', Wt.·o in Brililh ColumbiIJ. Victoria, B.O., 1958
YUKON TERRITORY 417
YUKON TERRITORY
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Yukon Territory was
constituted a separate territory in June 1898. It is governed by a Com·
mi88ioner (appointed) and a Legislative Council of 5 members who are ell'cted
for a 3·year term of office. The seat of government is at Whitehorse.
Commissioner. F. H. Collins.
The Northcl'n Administration Branch (Director, B. G. Sivertz), Depart.
ment of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa, is responsible
for business arising from thc general administra tion of the Territory under
the Yukon Act a nd Ordinances passed by the Territorial Coullcil, the
disposal of lands wlder the Territorial Lands Act, the administration of
the Yukon Placer and Quartz Mining Acts and the collection of revenue
thereunder.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the Territory is 207,076 sq.

miles (205,346 sq. miles land and 1,730 sq. miles water). The population
reached its peak in 1901 with 27,2HI. The census population in 1951 was
9,096 (including 7,533 Whites, 1,533 Indians and 30 Eskimos). Principal
centres: Whitehorso (capital), 2,570; Dawson, 851; Mayo, 249. Population
in 1956 was 12,1\)0; of these, 83% were white, 16% Indian and less than
1% Eskimo.
Vital statistics, see p. 36-1.
EDUCATION. The Territory had (1958-50) 16 schools with 8~

teachers and 1,877 pupils; 3 federal schools for Indian children had 446
pupils. The amount spent on education was $567,6;2 in 1958.
FINANCE. The territorial revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $)

for fiscal years ended 31 March was:
195~56 195~7 1967-68 1958-59 1959- 60 '
Revenoe. 2,627,190 2,11$,602 3,073,045 2,128,539 2,742,481
Bxpenditure 2,246,790 2,566,373 3,071,632 2,638,6'10 2, 74 ~,48 1
1 Estimates.
PRODUCTION. Mining. Mining is the principal occupation of the

people. Silver, lead, zinc and gold are the chief minerals. In 1958 the
output of gold was 69,210 fine oz. ($2,351,756); silver, 5,860,449 fine oz.
($5,091,015); lead, 21.,589,447 lb. ($2,446,084). Total value of mineral
production in 1958 was $11,772,818, including cadmium and zinc.
A rich deposit of tungsten was reported (1959) from the Mackenzie
Mountains, 150 miles north of Watson Lake.
During 1958-59 oil and gas exploration permits were issued over a total
acreage of 4,947,035.
Forestry. The principal forest trees arc white and black spruce, balsam,
poplar and birch. In 1958-59, 2,653,260 ft bd measure of lumber, l,09i,2!J8
linear ft of round timber and 1,232 cord~ of fuel wood wero cut.
Game and FUT8. The country abounds with big game, such as moose,
caribou, mountain sheep and bear. The fur yield for the year ended 31
July 1958 totalled 110,512 pelts, valued at $118,607. Beaver, muskrat
and squirrel constituted the greatest portion of the catch.
p
CO:\fMUNICATIONS. Shippi1llJ. The Yukon River. 1,979 miles long,

of which l,777 are navigable (570 within Yukon Territory), offers com-
munichtion from the end of the railway at Whitehorse to Dawson, but com-
mercial water transportation is no longer available, except for a summer
freight service from Dawson down-river and up tbe Porcupine River to
Old Cnw.
ROluiJ. The Alaska Highway and its side roads connect the Yukon's
main cities with Alaska and the provinccs and with adjacent mining centres.
Road plans include 400 miles of highway connecting the present road system
near Dawson with the Eagle Plain Oil Reservation.
Railways. The llO-mile White Pass and Yukon Railway connects
Whitehorse with year-round ocean shipping at Skagway, Alaska .
POI-t. There were 19 post offices in 1958 ; revenue, 1958-59, $132,433.
A. vwtion. Commercial airlines provide passenger a nd express services
every weekday between Vancouver and Whitehorse, o.nd Edmonton a.nd
Whitehorse. These services, which extend j;o Fairbanks, Alaska, connect
with transcontinental airlines at Edmonton and Vancouver. A service is
also maintained twice weekly from Whitehorse to Mo.yo and Dawson.
Books of Reference
Publications of the Department 01 Northern Attain and National Resources, OttaV>'3
TM Yukon Ad. Chapter a3, Stalut~,J 0/ Canada, 1 ~ 5 3 . a..<; nmended
Agrir.dlure and Fore"t", 0/ Yukf)n T~rrilO1' y
'}'he Yukon, iL~ Riches ant.: Romance
THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Northwest Territories
compri3e all that portion of Canada lying north of the 60th parallel of N.
lat. except those portions within the Yukon Territory o.nd the Provinces
of Quebec and Newfoundland; it also includes the islands in Hudson Bay,
James Bay and Ungava Bay, except those within the Provinces of Manitoba,
Ontario and Quebec.
The. Northwest Territories Act, 1952, as amended, provides for the
government of the Territories by a Commissioner under instructions from
time tc· time given by the Governor in Council or the Minister of Northern
Affairs and National Resources. The Council is composed of 9 members;
5 of the members are appointed and 4 elected in the Mackenzie District.
The seat of government is at Ottawa, but one meeting a year must be held
in the Territories.
Commi8sioner. R. Gordon Robertson.
Del'uty Oommi",,;oner. W. G. Brown.
Legislative powers are exercised by the Commissioner·in -Council OD
slIch matters as direct taxation within the Territories in order to raise
revenue, maintenance of municipal institutions, administration of justice,
licence!!, solemnization of marriages, education, public health, property and
ciyil rights. and generally all matters of local na ture.
The administration is carried OD by the Territorial Division of the
Northern Administration Branch, Department of Northern Affairs and
Nation \1 Resources, Ottawa. District offices o.re a.t F ort Smith and Ottawa,
and ret:iona l offices at Inuvik, Churchill, Manitoba and Frobisher Bay.
TIlE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES 419
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police are designated as District Registrars
of Vital Statistics and issue family allowances for the Eskimo people.
AREA AND POPULATION. The total area of the Territories is
1,304,903 sq. miles. For administrative purposes the Territories are
divided into 3 districts, namely, Mackenzie (527,490 sq. miles), Keewatin
(228,160 sq. miles) and Franklin (549,253 sq. miles). The population at
the census of 1951 was 16,004, including 5,344 Whites, 3,803 Indians and
6,857 Eskimos. Population in 1956 was 19,313.
EDUCA TION. F orty·six schools are operated by the Department
o! Northern Affairs nnd National Resources and a number of others by
various missionary organizations with financial II.Ssistance from the federal
government. The Department also provides educationa.I facilities at Bome
hospitak The only organized school districts are at Yellow knife, with a
public and high school, a separate school and a combined high school and
vocational training school. New schools and hostels were opened in 1958
at Fort Smith, Yellow knife and Fort McPherson. :Free correspondence
courses are available to any child whose parents request this service, and
to adults who desire to enrol. Vocational training courses are provided for
selected st udents. In 1958-59 there were 158 teachers and 3,929 pupils.
HEALTH AND WELFARE. During 1958 there were in operation 10
mission hospitals, 2 company hospitals, 1 community hospital, I federal
hospital and 12 nursing stations and health centres. Physicians, nurses, a
dentist, a radiologist and an X·ray technician accompanied the Eastern
Arctic gov6rnment supply ship for the purpose of treating anyone requiring
professiona l service at the points of ('all; they also visited many settlements
to conduct physical examinations and X·rr.ys and administer preventive
inoculations.
PRODUCTION. Mining, fishing and trapping are the principal
industries.
Mining. Mineral production for the year 1958 was valued at $24.791,516,
of which gold accounted for $11,392,475, silver for $63,723, pitchblende for
$9,628,000.
Yellowknife continues to be the centre of goldmining activity. In
1959 a new gold mine came into production 45 miles south·east of Yellow·
knife, and a promising discovery was made 150 miles north·east of Yellow-
knife.
The hydro-electric power development on the Snare River, a federal
government project 94 miles north·west of Yellowknife, assists in the de·
velopment of the mining industry. Crude oil, discovered in 1920, is pro·
duced and refined at Norman Wells on the Mackenzie River; production,
1958,471,000 bbls.
Permits for oil and gas exploration over 43m. acres were issued during
1958-59 and in addition priority applications for oil and gas exploration
permits are being held for over 98m. acres of land in the Arctic Islands.
Furs. Fur produced during the year ended 30 June 19:;8 was valued
at $735,000 from 257,183 pelts, largely muskrats. Much the most valuable
species, however, is the white fox, worth $-JAI,609 in 1957-58.
Fisheries. A commercial fishery operating on Great Slave Lake caught
5,763,000 lb. in summer I9iiS and winter 1958-59, principally whitefish and
lake trout.
Game. Nea.rly 6,000 reindeer are maintained in the Mackenzie Delta

region in 2 herds. One is managed by Eskimos under government Buper.
vision, the other is operated by the governmeut and serves in training young
native~ ' in proper herding practices. A herd of some 12,000 buffalo is pro·
tected in Wood Buffalo National Park.
CO)IMUNICA TIONS. Shipping. A direct inland water transportation
route for about 1,700 miles is provided by the Mackenzie River and its
tributaries, the Athabaska and Slave Rivers. Subsidiary routes on I,ake
Athab!,ska, Great Slave and Great Bear River and Lake total more than
800 miles.
ROl'.dS. The Mackenzie Highway connects Grimshaw, Alta., with Hay
River on Great Slave Lake (381 miles); it jg being extended to Yellow knife
on tho north arm of the lake.
Railways. A line from either Waterways or Grilllshaw, Alberta, to
Great mave Lake is being planned.
POlt. There were 37 post offices in 1958. The 1958-50 revenue was
$86,94'3. Radio communication between most settlements and trading
posts ia the Territories and outside points is maintained through govern.
ment and private radio stations.
Aviation. Scheduled mail, passenger and express services are operated
by air throughout the year to most of the settlements in the Mackenzie
District. The airport at Frobisher Ba.y was opened to civilian use in Sept.
1957 and 4 international airlines are using it on their polar routes (PAA
daily, rWA and SAS weekly, CPA twice weekly). Both scheduled and
charter flights service the eastern Arctic.
Books of Reference
Publications of the Department of Northern A1taira and National Resources, Ottawa
,iIotU.
Admir..i.r/,ati"" 0/ tM N o,lhw..1 T ..
Indu.sl,ie, Of 11.. Norlhwt81 T.".ilori ..
(with bibliography)
TransjJortation and Communication8 in the N orthtoest T,"itorie,
1'lo,a, Fauna and GtolOlJY Of tM Norlhwtll TtmlOf'ie,
Peopl.. 0/11.. N 0,/h1ll..1 Terri'ori ..
Th~ N orth",est Territo,ies
TM C:Ulnging Eskimo
Thil i. IM A,Clic
Daw80D, O. A., T,.. NINI Norlh- Well. Toronto, 1947
lfacKsy.. D., T,.. Honourabl< Companv. Toronto, 1904.8
Wilson, 0 ., Norlh 0/65°. Toronto, 1964
THE WEST INDIES

THE West Indies W.'IS formally established as a federation on 3 Jan. 1958
when be first Governor·General was sworn in.
The Federation comprises: Antigua; Barhados; Dominica; Grenada;
Jamaica; Montserrat; St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla; St Lnci'~; St Vincent;
TrinidB.d and Tobago. The seat of Government is Trinidad.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Constitution which
came into force in Jan. 1958 provides for a Federal Legislature consisting
of Her Majesty, the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Senate comprises ]9 members who are nominated by the Governor·
General after consultation with the Governors of unit territories. There are
2 Senators for each of the territories save Montserrat, which h88 one Senator.
THE WEST INDIES 421
The members of the House of Representatives are elected on adult
franchise by the unit territories in the follo"'ing proportions:
Antigua. M() nt.serr3t. . . I'
Barbados 5 St .l\.iu.s-Nevis-AnguHla .
Dominica 2 B-t Lnci ll
Oreuad .. 2 St Vinceo t . .
,Tamaica 17 Trin'dad and Tobago 1')
1 Pl us an n.lt.eru ate llieD"ibcr.
The Federa l Executive consists of the Governor·Geneml a.nd a Council

of State consisting of a Prime Minister elected b y t.he House of ltepresen ta.
tives and 10 other ministers appointed by the Governor·Geneml on the
advice of the Prime Minister, of whom at least 3 must bo members of the
Senate and the rcmainder must. be members of the House of Representatives.
The Governor·General normally presides a t meetings of tbe Council of
State, (md is in general bound to oxercise his func Lions in accordance with
the advice of his Coun cil. He may, in accordance with the advke of t.he
Prime l\Iini~ te r, assign to any Minist.cr responsibility for dealing with any
business on behalf of the federa l governmcnt, but is not obliged to do so iD
respect of defen co, t.he audit of federal accounts or the appointment., dis·
missal or disciplina ry control of offieers in the fed eral public service.
The Public Service COUlmi~sion consists of a chairman and between 2 and
4 members, appointed by the Governor·Gcneral in his discretion.
The first elections took pl ace on 25 March W 58: 23 Federal Labour
Party, 21 Democra.tic Labour Part.y, 1 Ihrbauos Na tional Party.
Governor·General. The Rt. Hon. Lord Hailes, G.B .E. (sworn iD 3 Jan.
1958).
Federal Prime M inister. Sir Grantley Adams, C.M.G., Q.C.
Finance. H.obert L. Bradshaw. Trade and Industr!l. Ca rl D. G. La
Corbinif're. Nai'ura.[ Resource., and Agriclllture. Frank B. Ricketts. Corn·
munications and Works. W. Andre\v Rose. Dlbour and Social AJJair8.
Phyllis B. Shaml Allfrey. Without portfolio. AlIan G. H. Byfif'ld; Jamp.!
W. Liburd; JamE'.8 L. Charles (Senator8); V. B. Vaughan, N. H . Richard.~.
Federal Secretary. John Mordecai, C.M.G.
The Federation is represented in the U.K. and Canada by a Commissioner,
and in Venezuela by a Vice·Consul.
AREA AND POPULATION. The Federation covers an area of

approximately 8,028·8 sq. miles. The estimated total population at the end
of 1958 was 3,152,500. Various racial groups are represented, including
those of African, East Indian, Chinese, Syrian, European and mixed descent.
EDUCATION. The University College of the West Indies, situated at

1I-Iona, Jamaica, is affiliated to the London University. It received a Royal
Charter in 1949 a nd has faculties of Medicine, Arts, Natural Sciences and a
Department of Education; the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture is
to become the faculty of Agriculture in 1960-61. Registered student~
1957-58 numbered 566 and staff mcmbers totnlled 127.
JUSTICE. The Federal Supreme Court established in 1957 has elt·

clusive original jurisdiction and an appellate jurisdiction. It replaces the
West Indian Court of Appeal in its eivil appellate jurisdiction and can hear
and determine civil appeals from British Guiana and British Virgin Islands
by agreement. Its powers also extend to criminal appeals from the Federa·
tion, British Guiana and British Virgin Islands. The Court, which travels
betwet,n the territories, consists of a Chief Justice and 5 justices.
During 1958 the Court dealt with 46 civil and 3 criminal appeals (ex.
eluding pending appeals) and heard 2 suits under its powers of original
jurisdi Jtion. It also deal t v.ith over 50 interlocutory applications arising
out of appeals pending from the Federation, British Guiana and British
Virgin Islands.
FINANCE. For the first 5 years the Federal Government receives

its main source of revenue from a levy on the unit territories which must
not exceed $BWI9,120,OOO in any year. From 1959 the Federal Govern-
ment has been administering grants from Her Majesty's Government made
under the Colonial Development and Welfare Acts.
Re ..enue and expenditure for calendar years in $BWI including Colonial
Dcvel<'pment and \Velfare grants:
1958 1959 1 1960 1
Revenue . 10,163.3D2 11,846,966 15,060,337
E:<penditure 9,lOO,OD2 1] ,285,564 16,612,142
1 Estimates.
DEFENCE. The West India Regiment, which was inaugurated 1 Jan.

1959, replacing the Jamaica Regiment, consists of 28 officers and 578 other
ranks ::>lus auxiliary services.
COMMUNICATIONS. The Federal Government operates an inter·

island shipping service with 2 chartered motor vessels (gross tonnage 939
and 4!l8).
CURRENCY. The Board of Commissioners of Currency, British Carib·

bean Territories (Eastern Group) has the sole right to issue currency notes
and coin in the territories of Barbados, British Guiana, the Leeward Islands
(Antigua, St Kitts·Nevis and Montserrat), Trinidad and Tobago, and the
Windward Isl ands (Grenada, St Vincent, St Lucia, Dominica) under an
agreement made between these territories. The Legislation in so far as it
relates to currency notes was brought into effect on I Aug. 1951, and in so
far as it relates to coin on 1 Oct. 1955. The monetary unit of the Eastern
Caribbean is the B.W.I. dollar, which is equivalent to 48. 2d sterling. Coins
in use are British Caribbean silver and bronze.
Books of Reference
8TA1'TSTICAL INFORMaTION. Tbe Federal Stntisticnl Office (Federal House, Port of Spain)
produce,;:. monthly. qnarterly a nd annual traop stati2>tics, annual fiDlmcinl statistics, monthly
agricultural statistics ann an annual statistical dige,t. Tbe Ministry of '!'rade and Industry
puhlishf'S a monUily bulletin giving information on agricultural and. industrial production,
inc ludil ~g s tn.tiSt.iC5 whcn aV3.i1nbte. Federal Slatistidan: M. Millilien.
Rryortly 1.1" Con!uen« on Briti3h Caribbean Federation "'Id in Londun in Feb. 1956. (Omd.
97:J:J)
DtVflop.11.nI.t and Welfare i" tht West Indif?3. 1957. (Co!lmi:l! No. 337)
Rtpnrt (f IJt~ C{Jn/(.'rellce OU .\lOfJ€m~nt of Persons wilhi" a British Cu.ribbean Federation, 1955.
(Coi1!lial No. 3]5)
Tlu~Firm fnr a British Caribf}/!an Fl'rl..eratinn: Repo~U of the Fi.fcal, Cit'il Sert:ire and Judicial
Commi.fsinru!'f.f. (CmrJ. 9618, 91;1 n, 9(20)
Report 'of th~ /3rili.h Caribb,an Pednal C"p.!nt Cemmi.<sioJ!, 19:;6. (Colonial :\0. 328)
Report (1 tht CIw.gutJram,a" Joint Commi.~s;''ln, 1958. (Colonial No. 33S)
The W .., Indin (Fed"'ation) {)rlkr·in·Council. H.M.S.O. 19ii7
Report 'f the Trades and Tariff' Commission. (W.!. 1/58). Port of Spain, ID~8
THE WEST INDIES 423
The West /nllin and Caribbean Fear Bonk. London, annual
Federation oftht We.st Inditl. ~pecial issue of Social and Economic Studiu VI, 2 (University
CollO!!'e. J amaicn. 1957)
Aspinall, Sir Algernon. The PocJ;", Ouitk 10 ,he W.srlndies. 10tb cd. London. 1954
Burn, W. L. t The British Wesllndie.f. Loudon,lU5)
Burns, Sir A..Jan, HWorv of the British lVt.tt Indies. London , 1954
Govcia, E ., Study on 'he Hi.'tl9riogrnphy of the BriCi3h West Indies. Pan American Inst. ot
Geograph y . Mexico. 1966
Parry, .r. H ., anol Sherlock. 1'. M., A .%0'/ BiJlnrv oJ 'he II'tJ,lndies. London, 1956
Poole. B . L.,The Caribh"" .. CommiSJio... Columbin. S.C., 1901
Proudfoot, M., Brit'lin and 1I~ linited StateJ i1l 'he Caribbean. LODuon, H.I!l4
BARBADOS
Ba.rbados lies to the east of the Windward Islands. It was occupied by
the English iD 1627 and has Dln'er changed hands. The hot and rainy
season lasts from Juno to Dec., and the average rainfall is 61 in. a year.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. There are an executivo

council, executive committee, legislative council of 15 members (appointed
by the Queen), the HOUAe of Assembly of24 members, elected quinquennially.
In 1951 adult 8uft'rage was introduced. At the election held on 7 Dec.
1956 there wero returned to tho House of Assembly 15 Labour Party, 4
Democra/,ic Labour, 3 Progressive Conservatives and 2 Independent La bour.
The Cabinet system of government was ina.ugurated on 1 Feb. 1954.
Governor. Sir John Stow, K.C.M.O. (appointed Oct. 1959).
Chief Secretary. G. T. Barton, O.B .E.
Premier. H . G. H. Cummins, C.B.E.
AREA AND POPULATION. ArOB, 166 sq. miles; population (census
of 1946), 192.841. Estimated population, 31 Dec. 1958, 236,812. Births
(1958),7,115; deaths,2,298. Bridgetown is tho principal city; population,
18,850 (1958).
EDUCATION. In 1958·1";9 there were 116 government prima ry schools
&Dd 4 government secondary modern school., ,~ith together 39,428 registered
pupils (20,0[7 boys, 19.231 girls); 10 grant·aid{\d secondary schools (3 first·
grado and 7 sCI'ond·grade, with 2,483 boys and 1,353 girls). Codrington
College, a theological college affiliated to Durham University, had 32
students. Erdiston College, a t.eachers' training college, provides a 2-year
residential course for about 100 student,s, including 33 from the Windward
and Leeward Islands. Government expenditure on edncation in 1958-59
was $3,254,841.
11' c1V8papera (1958). Thero are G nowspapef!l (combined daily circulation,
9,900); 4 weekly (combined circulation, 23,000), 1 tri-weekly and I daily.
Cinemas (1958). There arc 10 cinemas with a soating capacity of 7,670.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court and by
magistrates' courtR. All have both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Thcro
i3 a Chief .Justice and 2 puisne judges of tho Supremo Court and 8
magistrates.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Of the total area of 106,240 acres,
about 68,5(;3 are under arable cultivation; tho staple produce is sugar. In
195!l, ~W,960 acres were under Bugar cane, which produced 184,153 tons of
Bugar (including the equivalent of 4,092,406 wine gallons of fancy mO!B88es,
290 gallons equalling 1 ton of sugar). Exports in 1958 were 130,223 tons of
sugar and 3,726,244 wine gallons of fancy molasses. There are 26 sugar
and molasses plants and 3 rum distilleries in production. Rum exported in
1958 was 835,646 proof wine gallons.
Fi~heriu. About 30 sailing boats and 417 powered boats and 1,250
men and 500 women are employed during the flying. fish season. The
majori;y of these boats are laid up from July to October. The annual catch
is about 7m.lb. of approximately SI·5m. value.
FINANCE AND TRADE. Accounts in £ sterling.

1956- 66 19()6- 61 1957-69 1908··69' 1 g59-60'
Hevenue 3.600,322 3.984,331 4,309.351 4,373,858 4,522,577
C11Jitoms' 1,323.341 1,448.312 1.895.151
Expendi tore 2,~43.536 3.318,441 4.014,789 4.27·i,161 4,40'8',926
Public debt 1,022.027 1,594,943 2,Ol1,~1O 2.4~8.g02
Importe '. ' 11.509.284 12,766,824 14,228,747 15,300,2nl
Bxporte'. • 8,093,086 7,642,603 10,208,041 8,3·19,705
1 OaJendar years.
• Bx.)luding bullion and specIe, and the exports include bunker coal and ships' .tores.
• Eet.imBtes.
Th!> principal imports (l!l58) were: Rice, £510,164; flour, £364,188;

animal feeding stuffs, £485,935; meat, £8!l0,025; fish, £259,229; milk
(preserved), £389,559; alcoholic beverages, £329,047; copra, £251,687;
lumber, £412,224; motor-spirit, £237,861; medicines and drugs, £245,517.
fertilizers, £271,738; cotton piece.goods, £358,262; art silk piece·goods,
£300,61:1; cement, £261,803 ; metal manufactures, £529,524; machinery,
£1,098,778; road motor vehicles and parts, £896,528; apparel, £276,241;
footwMr, £242,528; paper and paper manufactures, £348,708.
ThE' principal exports (1958) were: Sugar, £5,526,681; molasses,
£1,010,851; rum, £468,552; margarine, £95,571; lard, £27,976; oil (edible),
£23,08<:; soap, £34,!l25; confectionery, £50,108; bnilding lime, £24,321.
ThE imports in 1958 from U.K. totalled £5,942,204; from Canada,
£1,892,229; other parts of the Commonwealth, £4,620,838, and from U .S.A.,
£1,754,229. Exports to U.K., £5,172,609; to Canada, £1,246,096; to
U.S.A., £343,003,
Total trade with the U.K. in £ sterling (British Board of Trade return8):
1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 688,089 4,824,909 8,346,696 4,472,230 4.330,898
Exports from U.K. . 739,772 4,192,458 4,88S,gOl 4,923,020 0,187,419
Re·exports from U.K. 23,336 70,381 84,436 83,926 72,632
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Registered shipping, 1958: 7 sailing

ves8els (net tonnage, 645), 18 steam and motor vessels (net tonnage, 3,008).
The total tonnage of shipping entered during 1958 was 1,933,361 (1,056
vessels:,.
Road&. There are 675 miles of roads open to traffic, of which 578 miles
are all· weather roads Motor vehicles registered in Dec. 1958, totalled 5,928
passenger cars, 2,616 other vehicles, 171 buses and 725 motor cycles.
PO&t. There are 36,700 miles of telephone lino in the island belonging
to one private company. The telephone system has been recon8tructed
with a new central automatic exchange in the city and 6 branch exchanges.
THE WEST INDIES 425
There were, in June 1959,8,440 telephones. External telegraph communica·
tion is provided by both cable and wireless. There is also a wire broad-
casting (rediffusion) service for Bridgetown and the suburbs. Radio t~le·
phone communication has been established with other West Indian islands,
Canada and the U.K.
Aviation. There is an international airport at Seawell, Christ Church.
Barbados is served by B.O.A.C., British West. Indian Airways, Ltd .• Trans·
Canada Airline.~, Air France, Linea Aeropostal Venezolana, St Vincent
Government Air Service and Pan American World Airways. In 1\)58,
29,439 passengers arrived and 29,800 departed by air.
MONEY AND BANI{lNG. English gold, silver and bronze coins are
legal tender, and $5, $20 and $100 notes of Barclays Bank, Royal Bank
and Canadian Bank, and SI, $2, $5, $20 and $100 government currency
Dotes aro in circulation. Government currency notes of British Guiana
and Trinidad are also in circulation. On I Aug. 1951 a unified currency of
the British Caribbean Territories, Eastern Group, in SI, $2, $5, SW, $20
and $100 denominations came into circulation. Four banks operate in
Barbados: Barclays Bank D.C.O., the Royal Bank of Canada, the
Canadian Bank of COlTImcree and the Bank of Nova Scotia. The govern-
ment savings bank on 31 Dec. 1958 had 4;;.197 depositors. with £3,975.466 to
their credit.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATIO~. The Barbardos Statistical Service (Garrison, St Mlchae)
produces selected monthl y statistics and annual abstracts.
Biennial R'porl, 1956-.5 7. H.M.S.D., 1969
B.....l.y. C. G., Fiscal 8u",'1I 0/ Barbado.. Brido:etown, 1952
Startey, O. P., TM Ewrwmi< G.ograph~ 01 Barbado.. New York, 1939
LIBRARY. The Ba rbados Pub lic Library, Bridgetown. Librar-ian : Chalmer St Hill, B.A.
JAMAICA
Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and remained in the
possession of the Spaniards until it was taken by the English in 1655, and
their possession was confirmed by the Treaty of Madrid, 1670.
There is a great diversity of climate, the temperature ranging from
75--90° F. on the sea-coast to 45--70° in the mountains, with a dry atmo-
sphere.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT_ The constitution, granted

in 1944 and amended in 1953, 1957 and 1959, provides for a Privy Council,
a Cabinet, a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives, elected on
the basis of universal suffrage.
The Governor has reserved powers only in the case of Bills which appear
to him to prejudice the Royal Prerogative, or to be inconsistent with any
international agreement to which Her Majesty's Government is committed,
or t,o be inconsistent with the constitution itself. Her Majesty retains the
power to disallow any law which adversely affects the interest.s of stock·
holders in such Jamaica Government stock as, at the request of the Govern-
ment of Jamaica, is treated as trustee stock in the United Kingdom.
In dvil service matters the Governor is required to act on the recom-

mendation of the Judicial Service, Public Service and Police Service Com-
mission9, save in cases of appeal in disciplinary matters, when he acts on
the advice of the Privy Council.
The Privy Council consistB of the Chief Secretary, the Officer Com-
manding the Troop;!, the Attorney-General, the Financial Secretary and
2 unofficial members nominated bv the Governor.
The Cabinet consists of 12 Ministers, of whom 10 are members of the
House )· f l~epresentatives and 2 are unofficial members of the Legislative
Council. The Premier normally presides at its meetings.
The Legislative Council consists of 20 or 21 members, 2 or 3 of whom
are appointed on the advice of the Premier and are available as Ministers
without. Portfolio, while the others are appointed by the Governor to re-
present the parties in the House.
The elections to the House of Representatives, held on 29 July 1959,
returned 29 members of the People's National Party and 16 members of
the Jamaica Labour Party.
Gap~in-General and Govcrnor.in.Chief. Sir Kenneth William B1ack-
burne, K.C.M.G., O.B.E. (assumed office Dec. 1957).
Premier. Norman Manley, Q.C.
AREA AND POPULATION. The Turks and Caicos Islands and the
Cayman Islands are dependencies of Jamaica. Area of Jamaica is 4.411 sq.
miles; Turks and Caicos Islands, ete., 202 sq. miles. The population of
Jamaic .. at the end of H)58 was 1,651.493, distributed on the basis of the
14 parishes of the island as follows: Kingston, 171 ,000 ; St Andrew, 189,100;
St Thonas, 78,400; Portland, 72,70tl; St Mary, 100,900; St Ann, 122,400;
Trelawny, 62,700; St James, 84,800; Hanover, 63,100; W6IItmoreland,
115,800; Si Elizabeth, 131,000; Manchester, 115,800; Si Catherine, 167,600;
Clarendon, 165,200.
The population of Jamaica at the 1943 census was 1,237,063, of which
there were 598,267 males and 638,796 females. According to that census
there were at that time 965,960 blacks; 216,348 coloured; 13,809 whites;
21 ,393 East Indians; 6,879 Chinese.
Vital statistics (1958): Births, 62,0;7 (38·08 per 1,000); deaths, 14,320
(8'78 p"r 1,000); marrial;cs, 8.124 (4'98); infant deaths, 3,81'5 (62-3 per
1,000 Ibe births); still births, 850.
RELIGION. There is no established Church . The numbers of eom-
municant members in 1955 were ItS follows: Church of England, 255,000;
Bnptistll, 252,000; Met.hodists, 84,000; Roman Catholic, 100,000; Pres-
hyt.eri:UlS, 62,000; Mora'\'ian~, 40,000; Disciples, 5,000; CocgrcgationaJ.
4,000; Church of God, 68,000 ; Society of Friends, 8UU; Salvation Army,
46 corp:!; Seventh Day Adventists, 43.000; African Methodist Episcopal,
4,000. These denominations (excluding th" Roman Catholics Ilnd the
Se,enth Day Adventists). together with the Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A., form
the J aIT aica Christian Council.
The Jewish community numbers about 1,400 (including children).
EDUCATION. In l!l58 there were 707 public elementary schools, with
246,865 children enrolled. There are 3 rural secondary schools for boys and
1 for giJ·ls. There is a technical school for boys and girls and a s chool of
agricultIre for boys. There are 3 training colleges for women, I for men
and 1 mixed, with 556 students. There are 36 secondary and high schools,
THE WEST INDIES 427
some endowed, in receipt of grants.in.aid from the Government, with 13,200
pupils on roll; D approved schools which also operate children's homes, and
21 places of safety. A College of Arts, Science and Technology provides for
higher technical education.
Cinemas (1957) . Thero were 45 cinemas with a seating ca.pacity of
38,447.
JUSTICE. There is a Supremc Court, consisting of the Court of Appeal
and the High Court of Justice; the resident magistrates' courts; the traffic
court; the petty sessions courts; and the coroners' courts. In 1958 the
Supreme Court disposed of 450 criminal and 50D civil cases; the other
courts of SO,SOD criminal and 39,73,1 civ il cases.
POLICE . The Constabulary Force in 1959 stood o.t 40 officers, 2,031
sub·officers and men, 6i womon police, 1,221 district constables and 971
special constables.
FINANCE. Revenue and cll:pcndituro for fiscal years ending 31 Mo.rob
(in £ sterling) :
196~-~6 19;;6-67 1907-58 1 %8-59 1059-60 •
Revenue . 17,01)6,2·1r, 19,328,700 20,597,:<00 22,402,4 i4 SO,nll,226 3'1.570,971
Expenditure. J 6,RG6,44;; 1~,~ 30,910 20.368,820 21,818,581 20 ,2::;5,.116 37,192,8·11
I Estimates.
Total revenue from customs and excise in J()58-GD, £14,199,4·!O, and

from other internal Rources excluding royalti f'~, hnd sal es, loan repayments,
Developlllent and WeJf>ue grant3, etc., .£l4,230,36K, including £11,470,580
from direct tlLxation. Public debt at 3 1 i\Jarch 19;;!J, £:!3,3ii,U70.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Acres under cultivation and care,
] D57, 1,282,000; sugar cane, 147,000; coffee, 17,700; bananas, 105,000;
coeOlt, 12,500; corn, 14,000; pasture, 020,000: rico, 12,(100 ; citrus, 62,000;
coconuts, 120,000. Sugar production, 1958,333,000 tons; rum production,
11)58, 4,0!)3,OOO proof gallQn~. Livestock, 1951: Cattle, 248,500; pig..
150,600; sheep, 17,250; horses, mulos and asses, 89,900,
Mining. The bauxite exports are the largest in the world, and the
deposits are worked by a Canadian and 2 American companies. The
Canadian company processes bauxite into alumina. Two new companills
are now mgaged in prospecting for bauxite, Gypsum is also mined; pro·
duction for 1\);iS was 600,000 t ons. Cement is manufactured locally, the
output being 176,000 tOllS in 1958,
Industry. By the end of 1958, 51 industrics had been established under
Industrial Incentives Laws. These IlIws give approved industries certain
concessions, such as duty.free importation of plant and equipment, and
il!COme·tax holidays.
Early in 1959 the Government completed negotiations with Esso
Sta!ldard Oil (S.A.) who will build an oil refinery, to be completed by 1961.
This oil refinery will have a capncity of 26,000 bbls of oil per day.
COMMERCE. Value of imports Ilnd domostic oxporta for co.lendar
years (~, £ sterling) :
1954 1955 195G 1%7 1958 •
IlDport. 37.335,20R 4;;,672.752 5~ ,202,86 1 66,710.847 61,115:).860
DOnlt.'ltic EUportd 2U,042,~173 3'.?7:J.6"J54 n~,~ff)1.3H 4U, 534 .646 46,5:?8.;HO
! P(o. i~i onal.
Prir.cipal imports in 1958: Flour and meal of wheat and spelt, £2,745,382;
cotton piece.goods and fents, £1,192,660; vehicles and transport equipment,
£5,034,174; fish and fish preparations, £1,916,443; fabrics of synthetic
fibres, :t:4,305,375 ; rice, £1,622,658; machinery not electric, £6,088,636;
machimry, electrical, £2,924,892; fuel oils, £3,602,758; lumber, £1,351,709.
Prir.cipal exports of domestic produce: Sugar, 267,461 tons (£9,952,195);
banana !, 5,824,237 count bunch (£5,187,616) ; alumina, 373,108 tons
(£9,131 ,816); bauxite, 4,799,037 tons (£12,597,482) ; rum, 1,596,503 liquid
gallons (£1,328,052); coffee (raw), 2,405,354 lb. (£383,586); cocoa beans,
760,375 lb. (£109,731); pimento, 5,147,514 lb. (£1,123,825); fruit juices,
1,2;6,6'7 3 gallons (£833,229 ).
In 1958 U.K. supplied 38'6% of the imports; U.S.A., 21 %, and
Canada, 10'6%; of the domestic exports 35'5% went to U.K., 31'8% to
Canada and 20·6% to U.S.A.
Imports from U.K. in 1958 totalled £24,956,711, while domestic exports
amounted to £16,537,095.
Total trade with U.K. , in £ sterling (British Board of Trade returns):
1938 19:;6 1967 19:;8 1969
IlDporta I.() U. K. 4.615.680 26,173,316 25.29ii .71 8 20,7 " 1 .3ii~ 19,289.265
Ib:portalrom U.K. . 2,007,221 20,301,255 22,657 ,3!!3 22,968 . ~3:! !!l ,~r)5, 7~:':
Re-expOI' ''' from U.K. 41,628 232.3SV 2(;6,~al 231 ,1 78 ... Ofl,9<> ...
COIllMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Registered shipping of Kingston,

1958 : 14 sailin~ vessels of 985 net tons, :1 steam of 4,383 net tons and
8 motor of 1,077 net tous. In 1957, 1,206 vessels arrived in .Jamaican
ports, ,vith a net tonnage of 3,326,941; 455 (net tonnage. 1, 169,532) were
British.
Raiiwaya. Jamaica had, in 1958,249 miles of railway open of 4, ft 81 in.
gauge; receipts in year ended 31 March 1959, £779,389; expell868,
.£1, 181,:.87.
Posl . In 1959 thcre were 2,303 miles of telegraph. including railway
teJegraI·h, lines and 31.600 miles of telephone tines (military lines not in·
cluded). Total receipts of the postal service, 1958-59, £758,311; ex·
penditure, £1 ,078,060. There were 310 post offices a.ud 223 postal agencies
in 1958 . There were 30,250 telephones on 31 Dec. 1958.
Roa.18. The island has 2.644 miles of main roads, which are maintained
from tho general revenue of the Colony, and 4,438 miles of paro('hial roads,
of which 2,137 miles are suitable for tight motor traffic, and 2,301 milef! are
car or Ioridle roads, including 54 miles of footpaths. The latter clasa6s of
roads a.re maintained by the Parochial Boards from funds derived from the
IDeal ral:.es.,
MONEY AND BANKING. The following are legal tender in Jamaica:

British coins, Jamaica. Government currency notes and currency notes
issued by the Board of Commissioners of Currency, British Caribbean
Territories (Eastern Group). Nickel coinage is being withdrawn from cir.
culation , Accounts are kept in sterling. Since 1958 commercial bank-
notes iS3ue ceased to be legal tender; the Government and the banks by
mutual agreement undertook to redeem any such notes for Jamaica Govern·
ment notes on presentation. Bank of England notes no longer have legal
status ill Jamaica.
Bardays Bank D.C.O. maintains 27 branches and agencies.
THE WEST INDIES 429
On 31 Duc. 1957 depositors in the government savings bank had a
balance at credit amounting to £.i,324,272.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL L'IFORMATJON. The Central Illll... U 01 Stati8tiCII (03 Hanover St, ~\(In)
WJ,S set. up io l045 - tbe nucleus being the Census Office, which undertook the operations of
tbe 1943 Ceusus of Jamaica. and its Dependencies. Director: W. D. B urrowes, B.A. Pub-
licatiollS of the Bureau include the Annual Trade Report and tlle Quartt:r1v Digest of Statistics,
Annual Report, 1957. Go~ernmelit Priuter, Kingston, 1 !J5!)
Guilk 10 Jamaica. bsued by JlWlaica Tourist A.."\I$OCiation.. Kingston, from ID 3i
.i\Taeional Plan/or Jamaica., 1957-G7. GuvPfn ment Printer, Kingston, 1957
Handbook 0/ Jamaica. Government. Printer, Kingston, fro m ] 886
Abraba..ms, P. t Jamaica: an idar.cJ mQ3aic. EI.M.~.O .• 1~67
Rob.n.., G. W., Tlu Population of Jamaica. Onmbridge Unlv. Preao ,1967
L mRAF.IES : Institute of Jamaicf\ Libraries, K..in~ton. Librarian: Miss M. A. Rrebner,
F.L.A. Jamaica Library St!n;ce, Killgston. Lio'l'ariall: Ml'll J. HobinsoD, M.H.B., F.L.A.
Cayman Islands, a dependency of Jamaica, consist of Grand Cayman,

Little CaymaD and Cayman Brac. Situated in the Caribbean Sea, about
200 miles N.W. of Jamaica, the islands were discovered by Columbus on
10 May 1503.
Constitution and Government. The Governor of Jamaica is also Govern.
or of the Cayman I slands.
The LegiRlative Assembly consists of the Administrator, not less than
2 nor more than 3 official members, not less than 2 nor more than 3 nomi·
nated members and 12 elected members.
The Executive Council consists of 2 official members appointed from
among the official melllbers of the Legislative Assembly, I nominated
member appointed from among the nominated members of the Assembly
and 2 elected members elected by the nominated and elected melllbers of
the Assembly from among the elected members of the Assembly. Laws
passed by the legislature of Jamaica with specific reference to the Cayman
Islands apply to the Islands.
Administrator. J. Rose, l\I.B.E., D.l!'.C.
Area and Population. Area 93 sq. miles. Census population of 1943,
6,670; estimate, 1958, 9,374.
Grand Cayman (population 7,646). 22 miles long, 4-S miles broad;
capital : Georgetown (population 1,700). Little Cayman, 10 miles long,
:! miles broad. Cayrnall Brac, 12 miles long and It miles wide. Total
population of the lesser islands. 1,72S. Vital statistics (1958): Births, 207;
marriages, 52; deaths, 66. Principal occupations are seafaring, turtle
fishing, shark fishing, rope· making. There are 11 government primary
schools with 846 pupils, 2 private elementary and 2 private secondary
schools.
Revenue, 1958-5D, £173,921; expenditure, £173,158. Public debt at
31 March 1958, £869; reserve fund. £45,581. Exports, 1958, totalled
£36,526; principal items were live green turtle, rope, turtle and shark skin.
Imports (1958). £530,000; principally fOlldstufis. textiles and building
materials.
Motor vessels ply regularly between the Cayman Islands, Janll~ica and
Talllpa, :Florida. Shipping registered at Goorgetown, 27 vessels of 9,872
gross tons (1958).
British "Vest India.n Airways opera.te regular air services between
Kingston (Jamaica). Grand Cayman and Miami (Florida). Lineas Aereas
Costarricenses operates regular services between Costa Rica, Panama, Grand

Caymall and Miami. Cay man Brac Airways provide regular services be-
tween Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac.
Bardays Bank D.C.O. hl1S a branch at Georgetown.
Bien"ial R~, 1957-58. H.M.8.0 .. 1959
Turks and Caicos Islands, a dependency of Jamaica, are geographic-

ally a portion of the Bahamas, of which they form the two south-eastern
grOUpM. There are upwards of 30 small cays; area 166 sq. miles_ Only
8 aro ir,hahit.ed; the largest, Grand Caicos, is 25 miles long by 12 broad.
The seat of government is at Grand Turk, 7 miles long by 1t broad; about
1,800 inhabitants. Population (1958 estimate), 7,000, of whom 80 were
white. Births (1958), 232; marriages, 96; deaths, 21.
Con.:titution and Government. The Governor of Jamaica is also the
Governor of t.he Turks and Caicos Islands. The Legislative Assembly
consists of the Administrator, not less than 2 nor more than 3 official
members, not less than 2 nor more than 3 nominated members and 9
elect.ed members. The Executive Council consists of 2 official members
appointed from among the official members of the Legislative Assemhly, 1
nomina';ed member appointed from among the nominated members of the
Assembly and 2 elected members elected by the nominated and elected
members of the Assembly from among the elected members of the Assembly_
Laws p.lssed by the legisll1ture of Jamaica with specific reference to the
Turks and Caicos Islands apply to the Islands.
Adrr"inistrator. G. C. Guy, IVLB.E.
Education is free in the government schools between tht'l agos of 7 and
14. Tbere are 13 government schools; average number on rolls in 1958,
1,239 ;'I.verage attendance, 930.
R.ev,mue in 1958-59 (estimated), £54,126; expenditure, £80,146_
Trac:e (1958): Total imports, £162,324; total exports, £53,33L Princi-
pal imports were food, drink and tobacco, £105,492. Principal exports:
Salt, H:,156 tons (£28,022); conchs, 2,417,350 (£8,451); sisal, 65 tons
(£6,825); crawfish, 100,400 (£8,835). The most important industry is salt
raking. Imports from U.K., 1952, £19,784; 1953, £23,901; 1954, £26,569;
1955, £) 1,384; 1956, £8,890; 1957, £5,776; 1958, £5,572.
Registered shipping (1958),130 vessels of2,258 tons. The total shipping
entered in 1957 was 56,902 tons.
There are a c able station and It 6,OOO-ft airstrip at Grand Turk_
The current coins are British and Jamaican, in silver and copper.
Jamllicl .n Treasury not~s are in circulation. Savings bank deposits (1958),
£69,421; depositors, 2,000.
B;"'11iai II'porl. 195 7-58. H ..M.S.O., 1959
The l\1orant Cays and Pedro Cays Guano Islands) are also attached
to J 8m8.ica.
TRINIDAD
Trin :dad, which lies immediately north of the mouth of t.he Orinoco, 8nd
includes Tobago administrati.-ely, was discovered by Columbus in 14t1S and
oolonizc1 by the Spaniards in the 16th century. About the period of the
Revolution a large number of French families settled in the island. In 1797,
THE WEST INDIES 431
Great B"itain being at war with Spain, Trinidad was occupied by the British
and ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802.
Under the published F .S. Base~ Agreemcnt concluded between the
GO\'crnments of the U.K. and the U.S.A. on 27 Ma,"ch J9,U, and the COD·
comitant Trinidad-U.S. Bases Lease of 22 April 19-11, defence bases have
been 1~8scd to the U.S. Government for a period of 9\1 years. (emd. 7804;
H.~LS.O ., 1950.)
The climate is tropical, with a. monthly a.verage rainfall of 2'3-3'6 in .
from Jan. to May and 8'2-12'4 in. from June to Dec.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution of 1956,

as amended in 1959, provides for an uni.camerallegislature with all elected
majority. An elccted Speakcr presides over the Council. In addition, the
constitution provides for the appointment of a Public Service Commission,
a Judicial and Legal Service Commission and a Police Service Commission.
The Cabinet is the chief instrument of policy, and with certain exceptions,
the Governor is required to consu lt with it in the exercise of his powers,
and to act in accordanee with its advice. The Cabinet consists of the
Premier, 8 other elected Ministers and 2 ex-oJfu:io members (Chief Secretary
and Attorney.General) who have no vot.e. The Governor may, however,
summon a special meeting of the Cabinet whenever he thinks fit and may
attend and preside at such a meeting. The appoin tment of the Premier
may be revoked by the Governor if in his discretion it appears that the
Premier ceases to command majority support of the elected members.
Other Ministers are appointed and dismissed on the recommendation of the
Prcmier.
The Legislative Council consists of 2 t:k;.o.Qicio members (Chief Secreta ry
and Attorney.General), 5 nominated mombers and 24 elected mcmbers,
including the Speaker (if elected from the Council).
The elections held un 2·1 Sept. 1956 gave the People's National Move.
ment I:l seat.~. the People's Democratic Movemcnt 5, Home Rule Party 2,
Labour Party 2, and independent 2 .
Governo1"andC.·in-C. Sir Solomon Hochoy, K .C.M.G., O.B.E. (appointed
NtH".195t1). .
Chi.?j Secretary. Wc:-ner J . Boos.
Pre'mier and Mi nister oj Finance. Dr Eric Williams.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area: Trinidad, 1,864 sq. miles;

Tobago, 116. Population (census 1940) : 557.970 (279,651 males and
278.319 females) (Trinidad, 530,276; Tobago, 27,161; afloat, 533). Esti·
mated population, mid·19.i9 : Trinidad, 783,058; Tobago,33,99-!. Capit,al,
Port of Spain, 99.335; ot.her important towns, San Fernando (38,870) and
Arima (17,483). The white population is chiefly composed of English,
French, Spanish and Portuguese. The majority arc natives of the West
lndies, of African descent, the balance being made up of East Indians and
a small number of Ch inese. English is spoken generally throughout the
(,,,Iony.
Vita l st,a tistics, 1938 : Births, ~9,;'i:!1; deaths, 7,387; marriages, 5,878.
RELIGION. According to the census in 1946 there were 135,312

Anglicans (under the Bishop of Trinidad and Tobago), 192,500 Roman
C~.th()lics (under the Archhishop of Port of Sp:\in), 20,074 Presbyterians,
1-1,048 Methodists, 12,182 Baptists, 126,:H5 Hindus, 32,615 Moslems.
EDUCATION. At the close of 1958 there were 414 primary schools (67
governnent, 347 assisted), 8 intermediate schools (2 government, 6 assisted),
155 private (non.assisted) primary schools and 19 secondary schools (2
governuent, 17 assisted). There were 159,728 pupils on roll in the primary
and int'lrmediate schools and 10,298 in the secondary schools (government
and assisted). The private primary and secondary schools had 8,541 pupils
on roll.
Thel·e are also 3 training colleges. Technical and commercial education
is provided by the Board of Industrial Training, a statutory body in receipt
of government grants. A Government Technical College at San J!'ernando
was opened in 1954 and a government Polytechnic Institute in Sept. 1959.
Neuspapers. There are 2 daily newspapers with a combined circulation
of ahou; 142,000.
Cinemas (1958). 67 cinemas have a seating capacity of 50,000, includ·
ing accc mmodation for 600 cars in 2 drive·in cinemas.
JUSTICE. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and 8 puisne

judges. In criminal cases a judge of the Supreme Court sits with a jury
of 12 in cases of treason and murder, and with 9 jurors in other cases.
Appeals may be made to the full court, consisting of 2 or 3 judges. The
Court 0; ' Criminal Appeal consists of 3 judges. Appeals from the Supreme
Court may be made to t he Federal Supreme Court and to the Privy Council.
There al ,e 5 Supreme Courts and 16 magistrates' courts.
At t;le end of 1958 the police force consisted of 39 officers, 68 inspectors
and 1,8,,7 other ranks.
FINANCE AND COMMERCE. Statistics for 5 calendar years (in

$BWll,OOO) :
1966 19~e 1957 1958 1959
Revenue 81,944 88,468 101,610' 129,298 169.968
Expenditure 79,347 86,203 9·1 169' 12i,942 167,640
Pnblic deht. . 73,099 72,913 72:865 • 72,8·15
Custom. 6J1d ucise, 26,067 26,785 20,5H 3'7,969 42,114
Import. 294,666 310,810 356,10r, 412,493
Exports 286,294 322,049 380,023 393,539
TranshipDlents ' . . 6,912 8,400 12,957 12,606
Ships' stOI'es and bunker. 33,818 43,104 66,6 32 58,141
• Re·exports. , E stimates.
The principal items of revenue during 1958 were : Licences, etc.,

$7,040,350; tax on incomes, $56m.; forests, lands and petroleum,
$16,474,500.
Ohlel' imports, 19~8 $BWlI,OOO Chief Imports, 1968 $BWIl,OOO
Food. . . 62,851 Machinery and transport
Beverages and tobacco . 6,610 equipment, , 73,2,19
Mineral tu )Is, lubricant., etc.. 126, 924 Manul.ctured goods, 83,597
Ohemicals 20,937
The principal domestio exports during 1958 were: Sugar, $30,354,929;

rum, 81.727,219; cocoa beans, $15,047,829; asphalt products, 81,859,986;
petroleum products (including crude petroleum), $308,105,822,
The Ilhief countries of origin of imports were: U.K. (32 '7%), Venezuela
(19·2 % ), the U.S.A. (13·9% ) and Canada (6, 1 %). Domestic exports were
shipped chiefly to the U.K. (26%), U.S.A. (20,1 % ), British West Indies
(6'8 % ),~etherlands (5·6%), Spain (3'5%).
THE WEST INDIES 433
Trade of Trinidad and Tobago with the U.K. (British Board of Trade
Returns, in £ sterling) :
1949 1956 1967 1968 1959
Imports to IJ.K. 11.032,019 28.367,840 32,747,153 25,6 32,1811 34.79i.817
ELporte from U.K. . 10,422.41J0 19,306,314 2-i,3n7,341 2'1,51 ~1,~36 27,471,198
Re-exports from U.K. 110,167 471,9::7 35U,822 42~,984 422,G74
PRODUCTION. Ofthe total area of 1,267,236 acres (Trinidad, 1,192,844

acres, and Tobago, 74,392 acres), about half has been alienated. Acres under
cultivation and care include (1958): Forest, 694,792; sugar, 48,955; cocoa,
47,227; coconuts, 29,575; citruR,7,R()4; tonea beans, 1,735. Sugar pro-
duction in 1938 amounted to 187,512 tons. The Uolony is still largely de-
pendent on imported food supplies, especially flour, dairy products, meat,
rice and fish. Areas are being irrigated for rice, and soil and forest con·
servation is practised.
Oil production is one of Trinidad's leading industries and an important
source of revenue. Commercial production began in 1909, and for many
years output has been stable at about 3m. metric tons annually. Trinidad
also possesses 3 refineries, with total capacity of some 5m. tons annually;
80me crude oil is imported from Venezuela and refined in Trinidad. Besides
oil, Trinidad's natural resources include the famons 'Pitch Lake,' an import-
ant source of asphalt; production, 1958, 133,042 tons.
In Dec. ]()5S thero were 68 workers' and 11 employers' unions with a.
total membership of 50,4HS.
COMMUNICATIONS. There are 1.413 miles of main and 1,080 miles of
local roa.ds. Government ra.ilway: 109 miles of 4 ft S! in. gauge; 119 miles
of telegraph. Cable: Communication by cable with the U.K., Europe,
North America and oth('r parts of tho w(,rld is maintained by the Cable and
Wireless (West Indies), Ltd. Number of post offices (1951), 134; number
of telephones (1958), 30,33l.
Four wireless stations are maintained by the Trinidad Government and 3
by airline companies. A meteorological station is maintained at Piareo
airport. The following airlines operate scheduled passages, ' air-mail and
freight services through the Colony: British West Indian Airways, Ltd,
Trans-Canada Airlines, Pan American Airways, K.L.M. (Royal Dutch Air-
lines), LinBIL Aeropostal Venezolana, Aerovias Brasil, AerolinlMl Argentinas,
St Vincent Government Air Service, Air France, B.O.A.U. and VlIJ'ig.
Motor vehicles, at the end of 1958, numbE>red 42,221, includinl!; 22,707
private cars, 5,746 hiring cars, 327 buses, 8,487 goods vehicles, 1,623 tractors
and trailers, 1,376 motor cycles.
Shipping. In 1958, 5,559 vessels arrived with a total tonnage cargo or
of 16,459,000; two-thirds of these were Briti~h, followed by Norwegian,
U.S.A., Panamanian and Greek ships.
MONEY AND CREDIT. Banks operating: Barclays Bank D.C.O.;
Royal Bank of Canada; Canadian Bank of Commerce; Bank of Nova
Scotia; Trinidad Co-opprative Bank, Ltd; Gordon Grant & Uo., Ltd.
~otes and coins are those issued by the British Caribbean Currency Board
(Eastern Group); see p. 425. Currency circulation at the end of 1958,
$38,882,508. British currency is legal tender_ Government savings bank~
are established in 57 offices, with a head office in Port of Spain, the amount
of deposits at tbe end of 1958 bt'ing $4,408,000 and the total number of
depositors 80,349.
The British West Indian dollar equals 4s. 2d. sterling; £1 = SBWI4·80.
Tot'ago is situated about 21 miles north-east of Trinidad, and has an area

of 116 Hq _ miles; population, 1958,36,900_ Main town is Scarborough_
Principal goods shipped from Tobago to Trinidad are copra, cocoa,
livestock and poultry, fresh vegetables, coconut oil and coconut fi bre_
Books of Reference
STATJSTlCAL INFOa.L\TIo:<: The Central Statistical Office, Govel'nment 01 Trinidad and
Tobago,:, Edward St., Port. of SpH.in. [Hrtclo~ .. J . Harp-wood. Publh..:a:ions iuclllde Annual
StlUilticaf Di!1e.~t t QII.artff"!1 Economic RfJiMt, An.n ual Overseas Trade RepOf'l, Population and
VitaJ ~lati.<;tU.1 Ann ual RepM".
Annual /leper/, 1956. n.M.S.O., 1~;9
Develop menl Plan j'" 7'()hiJ.go. Il .M.S.O .• 1957
Economil : Sun ey of Trinidad and T obago, 1953-58, Governm ent Printer, rort of Spain, J 959
Fiv, Yetl1' IJevelupment Programme) lV·j('i-)iUj2. Governllleut I'rimer, l'ort of ::ipalD, lU~8
Trinida4 and Tob'JlJo YM' Bouk. Port 01 Spain. Annual (from 18M)
Braithwe,ite, L., Social Stratification ,n Trinidad. Social & Economic Stndie." 2 (Jamaica,
19.3).
Oraig, n., TM L<gi.tl4ti•• Council of Trinidad and TQ~1I40. London, 1952
a ....kovitA, M. J. and F_ S., Trinidml Vi~.. New York, 1947
OXST<AL LmnARY. The Central Library of Triuidad and Tobago, Queen'. Park East,
Port 01 ~pain. Libra,ian: S. W. Hockey, a.ll.E., F.L.A.
LEEWARD AND WINDWARD ISLANDS

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Ministerial government
was introduced in the 7 territories of the Leeward and Windward Islands
in 1956. A new const itution for the 7 federated territories of the Leewa rd
and Windward Islands was introduced 1 J an. 1960. The two posts of
Governor were abolished. The Administrators of the territories are now
appointed by H.M. the Queen.
Each Legislative Council is presided over by a Speaker elected from
among the members of the Council or from outside. After elections have
been h'3ld in each territory, the number of members in the Council will
he 10 elected, 2 nominated and 1 official (the Crown Law Officer). There
are cerl·,ain· exceptions for Montserrat and Dominica.
Each Executive Council is comprised of 5 unofficial members, including
the Chief l\linister and 3 other Ministers and 1 official member (the Law
Officer). The Chief Minister is appointed by the Administrator from the
elected members of the Legislative Council. The other Ministers are
appointed by the Administrator after consultation with the Chief Minister.
. The Governors were formerly responsible for the Public Service Com-
mission: this responsibility has now devolved upon the Administrator
acting after consultation with his loca.l advisory P ublic Service Commission.
There is a single Judicial and Legal Service Commission comprising
the Chief Justice of the Windward and Leeward Islands (chairman), a
Federa: justice, a judge or ex-judge of a superior court of any part of H.i\I,'s
Domimons, the chairmen of 2 of the Advisory Public Service Commissions.
A s::ngle Police Service Commission serves the territories. There are 2
separate police forces in the Leewards: Olle for St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla
and the other for Montserrat and Antigua.
Report 0) the Leeward at,d Windward Islands Conslilutional Conference, 1959. (Omnd 804)
Leeward Islands. The group, which lies to the north of the Windward
group,lnd south-east of Puerto Rico, consists o f the 4 territoriea of Antigua
(with Barbuda and Redonda), St Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, Montserrat
and the Virgin Islands.
THE WEST !NDlES 435
Area Estimated population
Leeward Islands Capital (.q. miles) (31 Dec. 196 8)
Antigua St Johll8 103 } 56,777
Bart>uda and nedonda 63
E't Kitta B::l.RSeterre
Nevis.
Anguilla
MODtserrat .
Cbarlestown
1)lymuutb
.0
S3}
50
32 i
5S.!)79
H,46;)
Virgin Islands Hond Town 67 7,600
Total. 422i 137,.121
Tho principII 1 religious bodies lire Anglican, Roman Catholic, Methodist

..nd Mornvian .
In 1958 there wcre 113 primary schools, with avera::!e attendance 24,017;
government expenditure On edu!'ation Il.mounted to £291,701.
There wem, in 1958, 6 cinemas with a seating capacity of 2,821.
}'inancial and commercial statistics (in £ sterling) :
1954 1955 19.6 1957 1953
Revenue. 2,255,212 2,289,426 ~,5.0,214 2,745,879 3,381,544
Rxpenditllre 2,225,867 2,252,767 3,094,SOl 2,961,821 3,426.439
Public debt 248,89G 274,781 238,863 3!\,700 404.006
Imrorta . 3,988,334 3,773,34' 4,6 6R,~ 7S 4,9l1,789 2.603.518
Bxports . 2,5.4,143 3,llZ,H. 3,618,407 3,627,746 3,188,416
Total shipping entered and cleared in 1958, 759,401 tons, exclusive of

8t Kitts-Nevis-A nguilla.
Total trade with the U.K . (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
194. 1'56 1957 1953 1959'
Impol't8 to U.K. l,~3R ,8~8 ~ . 9n2 , 761 ll,7'O.521 2 , 2 8~ .S~3 2/190.45 1
B~o"" from U. K . . 366,039 1,71\2,729 1,831,1)17 2.1~O.280 2,169,079
Re·e~orts from U.K. 66. 13,327 1I.n. 20,504 15,881
1 Exduding nritish Virg in Islands.
The chief products are augar and molasaes (Antigua and 8t Kitts), cotton
(Antigua, Mont80rrat, 8t Kitts-Nevis), limes and fruits, vl'getables, cotton
seed (Montserrat). 811lt (Anguilla and 8t Kitts) and livestock, fish, v.,ge.
tables, fruit and charcoal (Virgin Islands).
LNwara Islands: an Econ01YU'(. SUrt'eJ/. Bardays Dank,
' London. 19:'8
Antigua. Area, 108 sq. milcs; the islands of Barbuda (62 sq. miles)
and Redondll. (1 sq. mile) are dependencies; cstiruatecl population at cnd of
1958, 56,777. Chiof towD, St Johns, 12,500. In 1'J58 the birth rate per
1,000 was 32; the deat.h rate 9'7; there were 241 marriages.
Administrator. I. O. Turbon.
Chief Minis/er. V. C. Rird.
There are 32 government elementary schools, 4 denominational and 6
private schools; and 4 grant-aided, 2 denominational and I undenoruina-
tional secondarv schools.
Revenue (1958) , $8,788,351 (including colonial development and wel-
fare); expenditure, $8,446,009. The esti nmted budget for 1960 balances
at $9,619,903. Public debt (1958), $02,413. Imports (1958), $12,882,144;
exports (1958), $5,198,576. Cbief products are su/(al' (19,348 tons from
12,358 acres in 1958) and cotton (1,230,773 lb. from 5,110 acres in 1958).
In govemment 6a"ings bank, 7,1 86 depositors on 31 Dec. 1958, $856.491
deposits. Bnrclays Bank D.C.O. and the Royo,l Bnnk of Canada ha\'e
branchE's at St Johns. The AI1tig1!n C().ol)('rativ(' Dunk was opened on 2
.Jan . Hlo6.
Telophone lines, 600 miles; 700 telephones. The island is hilly. There
are numerous sheltered ha,rbours, but they are too shallow for steamships.
Air·mail services connect the Colony with Barbados, Trinidad, the Wind.
ward Iulsnds, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Passenger steamers from Canada
and thll U.S.A. call at ports.
In Nov. 1940 sites near Parham were leased to the U.S.A. as military
and naval bases; the Army Base has now been partially reactivated &.8 a
U.S. Naval Experimental Facility.
Biennial Report, 1955-56. H .M.S.O., 1958
LIBUJ.RY. PublfcLibmry. St John's. Librarian: Mrs J. KJng.
St C:hristophcr (St Kitts), Nevis and Anguilla. Area, 150 sq. miles.
Popula;ion, 1958, 58,579. Chief town of St Kitts, Basseterre; population,
37,606; of Nevis, Charlestown, 16,133 and Anguilla, 4,840.
Adr.lini8trator. Lieut.·Col. The H on. H. A. C. Howard.
Chioif 1I1inister. C. A. P. Southwell.
Education (1958). There were 33 government, 1 denominational and 5
private elementary schools, with an average attendance of 10,100; and 4
government and 1 private unaided secondary schools. Government ex·
pendikre on education in 1958 was $585,764.
Cin,!mas (1958). Two cinemas had a seating capacity of 950.
Fin~nce and Trade. In 1959 estimated revenue was $6,988,218 (1960:
36,904,588); expenditure, $7,144,733 ((1960: $6,904,609); public debt (at 31
Dec. 1958), $87,538; imports, 1958, $11,358,149; exports, $9,428,093. Chief
export~ (1958) were sugar (39,578 tons; $7,836,031), cotton (779,841 lb.;
$823,603), molasses (1,266,259 gallons; $185,411), salt (18,637 bbls of 300
lb.; $69,351).
The savings bank at 31 Dec. 1958 had 5,916 depositora, 31,071,456 de·
posits. There is a branch of Barclays Bank D.C.O. and one of the Royal Bank
of Cans,da at Basseterre, and an agency of Barclays Bank at Charlestown.
There were 325 telephones on 1 Jt1n. 1959.
Biennial Report, 1955-56. H .M.S.O., 1968
LIDRi,RY. Publlo Library, nasseterre. Librarian: Miss E . Byron.
Sombrero is a small island in the Leeward Islands group, attached to

the Colony ofSt Kitts-Nevis. Phosphate of lime exists in limited quantities.
There i3 a Board of Trade lighthouse.
Montserrat. Area, 32·5 sq. miles. Population, 1958, 14,465. Chief
t own, Plymouth, 2,500 inhabitants.
The Legislative Council consists of 7 elected members, 1 nominated
membec and 2 official members (the Law Officer and Financial Secretary).
The Esecutive Council is composed of 4 unofficial members (including the
Chief Minister and 2 other Ministers) and 2 official members (Law Officer and
Financial Secretary). Both Councils are presided over by the Administrator.
Adr.~ini8trator. D. A. Wiles, O.B.E.
Chi!'! Minister. W. H. Bramble.
There are 2 magistrates' courts, at Plymouth and Cudjoe head. Strength
of the police force (1958), 2 officers and 31 other ranks.
There are 12 government elementary, 1 government secondary/senior,
1 gran1..aided denominational elementary, 1 unaided denominational ele·
mentary schools and I denominational preparat.ory private school for
children between the ages of 5 a,nd 12.
THE WEST INDIES 437
In 1959 the budget estimates balanced at $2,050,418; imports (1958),
$1,516,896; exports, $393,672. Chief exports were cotton lint (271,270 lb.),
cotton seed cake (185,920 lb.), lime juice (17,060 gallons), tomatoes (2,486
lb.), carrots (:36,247 lb.), vegetables (23,142 lb.).
Registered shipping (1958), 1 steam vessel (100 tons) and 1 sailing boat
(8 tons). In 1958, 256 British and 62 foreign vessels arrived.
Biennial Report, 1957-58. H.M.S.O., 1950
IllBRARY. Pul>lic Libru.ry, Plymouth. Lib'f f.lrian: Mrs H. R. Carty.
The British Virgin Islands form the eastern extremity of the Greater
Antilles and, exclusive of small rocks and reefs, number 36, of which 11 are
inhabited. The largest are Tortola (estimated population 6,500), Virgin
Gorda, Anegada and Jost Van Dykes. Area about 59 sq. miles; popula-
tion (1959), 7,600. Road Town, on the south·east of Tortola, the capit.a.l
and only town, is a port of entry; population, 1,500.
The Briti"h Virgin Islands have not joined the 'Nest Indics Federation.
An Administrator administers the islands under the Governor of the Leeward
Islands and is assisted by an Executive Council, which includes 3 unofficial
members of the legislature. The Legislative Council, constituted in 1954,
consists of 2 official members, 2 nominitted unofficial members and 6 elected
members. The Administrator presides but has no original vote.
Administrator. G. P. Allsebrook.
Education is denominational. There are 1 government, elementary, 12
denominational elementary, 3 community, 1 private and I government
secondary schools.
The chief products are livestock (including poultry), fish, fruit (md
vegeta.bles. The export trade is carried on almost entirely with the Virgin
Islands of the U.S.A. and the French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe
(cattle).
In 1959 revenue was £229,690; expenditure, £229,309; imports,
£245,540; exports, £50,772; exports to the U.K. amounted to £3H,536;
rc.exports, £629.
The savings bank had 800 depositors and £52,800 deposits.
Biennial Report, 1957 and 1958. H.M.s.a.,lu59
LmRARY. llublic Library, Roar! Town. Librarian: Miss Y. McKet.lley.
WINDWARD ISLANDS. The gr(lup consists of Grenada, St Vincent,

the Grenadines (half under St Vincent, half under Grenada), 8t Lucia and
Dominica, and form the eastern barrier to the Caribbean Sea. between
M.artinique and Trinidad.
Total trade with the U.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 3,525,940 4,212.719 4,950,43~ 5,e95,034 7,609,786
Exports from U. K. 2,064,252 2,353,207 2,609,832 2,743,506 3,(165,430
ne·exportsfrom U.K. 19.106 '0,564 21,659 23,607 ~3.184
Windward bland,;;: an Economic Survey. Barclays Bank, London, 1958
Grenada. Administrator. J. M. Lloyd.

Chief M·inister. Herbert Blaize.
Area, 133 sq. miles; population, estimated 1958, 91,700. St George's,
the capital, has 5,775 inhabitants (1946 census). Vital statistics (1958):
Births, 4,253; deaths, 974; marriages, 388.
There were (1957) 11 government and 43 government· aided elementary
8choolf" with 19,487 pupils and average attendance 15.304. and 6 secondary
8choolf: (2 boys. 3 girls, 1 co-educational).
In 1960 the estimated revenue was $7,227,503 (including $1,568.000 grant
from d6velopment and welfare); 19;;9 tlStimates, 56.928,533 ($788.052); the
1060 e;,penditure, $7,327.503 (induding $241.372 development and welfare):
1958 ,~stimate8, $6.075,068 ($4·H,S95). Public debt 1957, $7,798.612:
accum'llated and reserve funds, $1,071,847.
Th., principal crops grown are cocoa (16,522 acres) and Ilutmegs (5,876
acres). Othcr crops grown are coconuts (3,085 acres), citrus (664 acres),
bananas (13.000 acres), in addition to small scattered cultivation of cotton.
cloves, vanilla and coffee.
Total value of imports 1!J5S. $10,933.570; el>ports. $8.346.700. Chief
export~ 1958: Cocoa (28,187 cwt), 52.297,068; nutmcgs (1 3,018 cwt).
$3,204.505: mace (1,806 cwt), $635.269; bananas (940,512 stems).
$1,906.000: cotton (raw) (1.101 cwt), 864,115.
Value of imports 1958 : From the U.K., $3,966.030; the U.S.A .•
31.530.890 ; Canada, $1,238,650. Value of exports 1958: To the U.K.,
$5.081,610; the U.S.A., $941,540 : Canada, $314,160.
Tolal shipping for 1957 was 479 steamships of 496,456 tons. of which
319 were British with 271,291 tons.
In 1957, 10.387 depositors in the government savings bank had a balance
(31 DE.e.) of $1,297,735. There a re 3 banks in Grenada, Barclays Bank
D.C.O .• Royal Bank of Canada and Grenada Co.operative Bank.
Thll telephone system. owned by the Grenada Government, is operated
and m'l.intailled by Cable and Wireless (West Illdies). Ltd. The system is
compll.tely automatic and in 1!}.59 served i,33!) subscribers.
Calllc and Wireless, Ltd, operate 2 cables to St Lucia an,l Trinidad.
Through radio-telephone they arc in communication with all principal
island~ ofthe Federation and to British Guiana, British Houdura8, the U.K.,
Europe, U.S.A. and Canada.
Intcrnational Aeradio, Ltd, control by radio all pIano movements within
this area. and keep in contact with St George's, Pearls Air Port on official
airways business.
Windward Islands Broadcasting Service is the government-owned and
operat3d broadcasting station.
Th',re are 478 miles of roads, of which 220 have bituminized surraces.
Th.) largest of the Grenttdines a.ttached to Grenada is Carriacou; area,
6,913 ncres: population, Hl49. 7,ll3.
Biennia; Rep'IT!. 19.55 and 1956. H.M.S.O., 195$
LIDB.lHY. Puhlic Library, St Georg'c·s.
St Vincent. Administrator. A. F. GHcs, C.lII.G .• M.B.E.

Glt,'ef Minister. Eo T. Joshua..
Awa. 150·3 sq. miles; population. ELt the end of 19{iS. 81,782. Capital,
Kingslown, population, S,17!. Vital statistics (1958): Births. 3,930;
deaths, 1,223; marriages, 284.
Education. Hl58: 50 primary schools; pupils on roU, 19,559, average
attend'\nce, H,537; government grant, $579,700. There is also a secondary
school for boys (231 pupils) and onc for girls (239 pupils); government
grant. including subsidy to 2 private seconda,ry schools and cost of evening
classes. $93,475.
Strength of police force, 1958, 150 (including 3 officers). There were
54 convictions in thc Supreme Court in 1958.
Re·:enue, 1958, $6,013,648 (51 .701 ,215 from colonial development and
THE WEST INDIES 439
welfare funds); expenditure, 85,736,334 (81,781,985 on colonial develop-
ment and welfare schemes); the 1959 estimates balanced at $5,984,450
(81,364,450 from grant-in-aid; $1,445,940 on development and welfare)_
The 1960 estimates balanced at $4,831,130 ($ 1,237,000 from grant-in-aid;
$21,088 on development and welfare)_ Public debt at end of 1958. $669,017_
Import.~, 1958, 810,693,760; exports, $5,7611,520_ Value of imports from the
U_K_, 83,877 ,200, of exports to the U.K., $3,290,250 (plus bullion and specie)_
The estimated alienated area is a bout 48,886 of the total acreage of
85,120. 36,234 acres are under forest, 36,097 under mixed cropping, 8,490
are arable, 4,299 under coconut. Land ownership: Crown, 37,268 acres;
planters, 17,844 acres; peasants, 25,078 acres; settlement.s, 4,938 acres.
Bananas, arrowroot, copra, sugar, cotton, sweet potatoes, nutmegs and
mace, peanuts, food-crops and slUall quantit.ies of cocoa are produced.
The Sea Island cotton grown is the best in the world_ St Vincent is also
famed for the excellence of its arrowroot starch.
Exports, 1958:
SEWI SEWI
:3ea Island cotton (lint) 220,221 lb. 277,';92 nananas . 1,·101,683 stems 2,386,27 1)
ArTOWToot starch . 8.22'f,351 lb. 1,588,129 Swe.et potatoes 5,933,9;.2 lb. 260,0 ·17
Copra . ,,414,162 lb. 456,083 Sugar 1.2':'0 tOllS 246,003
There are 106 miles of oiled highway amilable fol' all traffic and 320
milcs of gravel roads.
Besides the postal servicc, there is a telephono system with 1,200 miles of
line and 426 subscribers, and a radio-telephone service to Union Island
and Bequia of the Grenadines. There is a hydro-electric plant with an
installcd capacity of 825 kw_ and actmLi 570 kw. at Colonaire, 18 miles from
Kingstown, thl' capital; it supplies electricity from Georgetown to Kings-
town and on to Layou and the interlying villages_
Shipping (1958): (a) 512 Inter-colonial sailing and lUotOI' vessels of
20,963 tons entered, whilst 505 of 20,849 tons were cleared. (b) 339 steam-
ships of 377,965 registered tons entered the territory; of these 161 of 147,391
tons were British. (c) 332 steamships of 375,888 registered tons were
clea.red, 154 of ).12,153 tons being British.
The St Vincent Government. Air Service operating 5 times per week con-
neets St Vincent with Barbados and Dominica, with flag-stops when neces-
sary at St Lucia and Mart.inique and southbound with Grenada and Trinidad.
~i.n airfield w:ih a 4,SO()-ft strip runway near I<ingstown was opened in
mid-IOGO_
There are 6 re~ istcred trade unions : Federated Industrial and Agri-
cultural Workers Union, t.IlC United 'Workers' Union, t.he National Workers'
union, the St Vincent Teachers' Association, the Civil Service Association
and the Secondary School Teachers' Association.
There is a branch of Barcbys Bank D.C.O. and onc of the Royal Bank
of Canada at Kingstown.
Biennial R'Porl, 1954-.55. H.M.S_O., 1957
Lrmuny. St Vincent Public l..!brary, Kin&<JtowD. Librarian: Miss '1'. 1'1. Cox:.
St Lucia. Administrator_ The Earl of Oxford and Asqllith.

Chief fflinisier . G. F. Charles.
Area, 238 sq. miles; population (1D5 8). 92.08D. The capital i., Cas tries
(population, 25,(00)- Vital statistics (1958): Births, 3,\)52; deaths. 1,269.
Education (31 Dec. 1957): 51 primary schools (44 Roman Catholic, 3
Anglican, 3 Methodist, I government), wilh 17,482pupils on roll; government
expenditure, 1958, $527,017. Primary education is free and compul80ry by

law, but the lcgislation is not enforced. There are 2 Roman Catholio
second.lry schools (800 pupils) in receipt of government grants, totalling
$64,29·1 in 1958.
Justice. The island is divided into 3 judicial districts, and there arc
9 magistrates' courts. Appeals lie with the Supreme Court and thence to
the Cout of Appeal, but certain appellate jurisdiction has been conferred
to the Federal Supreme Court.
In :.958 the Supreme Court dealt with 8 civil and 48 criminal cases.
PoVce establishment in 1959 wa.~ 4 officcrs, 3 inspectors and 233 others.
Finance. Revenue in 1958 (including colonial development and welfare
schemes and parliamentary grant.in.aid) was $5,375,391 (estimates, 1959,
$6,lll,S94); expenditure, $5,492,097 (estimates, 1959,56,111,894). The
1960 estimates balanced at $5,660,589. Public debt, 31 Dec. i 958, $408,252.
Pro-iuction and Trade. Bananas, sugar, cocoa, copra, coconuts, lime oil,
lime juice, honey, fruits and vegetables are t he chief products.
Valle of imports (1958), $9,034,106; of exports, $4,583,334 including
sugar, $1,122,482; coconut products, $770,328; cocoa, $253,761, and
bananas, $1,906,075. Main items of imports, 1958, were cotton piece·goods,
wheat flour and rice.
Shi;~ping. Registered fleet: 8 motor vessels (573 gross tons) and 17
sailing vessels (688 gross tons). In 1958, 1,185 vessels of 1,010,365 gross
tons entered St Lucia ports; of these, 66 of 125,021 gross ton8 were Britisb,
18 of 143,727 gross tons Italian and 35 of 141,440 gross tons French.
There are 850 miles of telephone line, of which 170 miles are trunk lines
and 680 branch lines ; number of telephones, 566. The island has 392
miles o~' main and secondary roads.
Savings bank (end of 1957), 3,572 depositors, $465,453 deposits.
Curt'eney : British gold, British silver and copper coius and British
C&ribbE,a n currency notes in $1, $2, $5, $10, $20 and SI00 denominations.
Bardays Bank D.C.O. has a branch and 2 agencies.
Birnnial Report. 1955-56. H .M.S.O. , 1968
LlBru.RY. The Central Library, Castrlea. Lib,arian: Vacant.
Dominica. Admini8tralor. Lieut.-Col. Alec Lovelace, C.M.O., M.C.

CM.! Minister. F . A. Baron.
Area, 305 sq. miles. Chief town, Roseau (population, 15,000); estimated
population, 1958, 66,645. Dominica contains a Carib settlement with a
population of about 400, nearly all of whom are of mixed Negro blood.
The Legislative Council has 11 elected members, 2 nominated members
and 1 (.fficial member (Law Officer). The Speaker is elected from among
the members or from outside. Thc Executive Council is presided over
by the Administrator and consists of 5 unofficial members (including Chief
Ministe:: and 3 other Ministers) and 1 official member (Law Officer). The
Chief Minister is appointed by the Administrator from the elected members
of the Legislative Council. The other :Ministers are appointed by the
Adminhtrator on the Chief Minister's advice.
Justice. There are 3 magistrates' courts. They dealt with 735 civil and
3,551 cJiminal cases in 1958. The police force consists of 3 officers and 144
other ranks.
BAHAMAS 441
Re~enue, 1958, $~,840,647 (including $1,097,866 from development and
welfare fund): expenditure, $5,064,374 (including $1,381,648 from develop.
ment and welfare fund): public debt, $81,600. Estimated budget 1959
balanced at $5,507,499 (including $1,471,626 from development and welfare
fund).
Trade (1958). Imports, $8,732,000 c.i.f.: exports, $6,749,000 (to U.K.,
$5,537,000: Canada, $140,000: U.S.A., $342,000). Chief products: Fruit
juice, bananas, essential oils, cocoa, coconuts, copra, vanilla, fruit and fruit
preparations, and rum . Exports of cop m, 2,206,000 lb. ($295,000); cocoa,
333,000 lb. (·S205,000): bananas, 1,638,000 stems ($3,718,000).
Savings bank (1958), 2,027 depositors, with $455,072 deposits. There
are branches of Barclays Bank D.C.O., Royal Bank of Canada, and Dominica
Co. operative Bank in Roseau, and a branch of Barclays at Portsmouth.
Telephone lines, 691 miles; number of te lephones, 472.
BiennIal Repurt, 1955-56. lLM.S.O .• 19;'8
LlliRARY. Pnblic Library, Roseau. Librarian : Mrs R. ni vic!"2,
BAHAMAS
AREA AND POPULATION. Tho Bahamas consists of some 20 in·
habited ann many uninhabited islands and rock.q off the S.E. coast of Florida.
They are the surface protuberances of two oceanic banks, the Little Bahama.
Bank and the Great Bahama Bank. Of tho group, about 700 areas might
be classified as islands or cays; the rest only as rocks. Land area, 4,404 sq.
miles. Average annual rainfa1160'99 in. Month with heaviest average rain·
fall, May, 12·71 in. Average winter temperature, 74° F. Average summer
temperature, 80· F. Highest recorded temperature 94° }'. LOW68t
recorded temperature 48° F.
Principal islands with census population in 1953: New Providence
(46,125, containing capital, Nassau), Abaco (3,407), Harbour Island (840),
Grand Bahama (4,095), Cat Island (3,201), Long Island (3,755), Mayaguana
(615), Eleuthera (6,070). Exuma (2,919), San Salvador or Watling's Island
(694), Acklin's Island (1,273), Crooked Island (836), Great Inagua (999),
Andros Island (7,136), Bimini (718), Spanish Wells (665), Ragged Island
(417). •
Total estimated population, 1958, 136,229 (about 85% coloured). Vital
statistics (1958) : Births, 3,Oi8 (22·5 per J,OOO); deaths, 1,09.'; (8 per
1,000).
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Governor is assisted
by an Executive Council of 8, a Legislative Council of 9 and a Represen tativ6
Assembly of 29 members, electors requiring to h!l.ve a. sma.ll property
qualification. Women have not the vote.
Governor and C.·in.C. Sir Oswald Ravnor Artbur. K.C.M.O., C.Y.O.
Colonial Secretary. K. M. Walmsley, O.M.G., O.B.E.
EDUCATION. Primary education is compulsory from ages 6 to l4.
In 1958 in government schools the number of pupils was 16,8:!4 (in board
schools, 16,146, and in grant.in.aid schools, 6i8); government expenditure,
£377,084. Private and denominational schools had 6,:l<!4 pupils. Six
442 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTll AND EMPIRE
private secondary schools connected with religious bodies had 1,060 pupils,
and a government secondary school had 286 pupils.
There were, in 1958, 6 cinemas with a seating capacity of 3,211.
There are 2 daily newspapers in Nassau.
JU5,TICE. In 1958, 9,512 cases (traffic, 3,983; criminal, 2,250; civil,

3,279) were dealt with summarily, and 489 (criminal, 105; civil, 384) in the
Supreme Court. The authorized strength of the police force in 1958 was
32 offic,~rs and 365 other ranks.
FiNANCE (1958). Revenue, £5,198,975 (1957, £4,938,958); expendi-

ture, £5,434,533 (1957, £4,314,864); public debt (31 Dec. 1958), £1,131,600.
The touist industry is th(l chief source of income.
PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. The principal exports in 1958

were sa .t and crawfish; the export of tomatoes declined considerably during
this ye'~r. The sponge beds were re·opened in 1956 and a fair quantity
was exported. Production of salt amounted to 2,96Im. bu. in l[l58.
Imports and exports (excluding specie) for 6 calendar years (in £) :
Imports Exports Imports Exporta
1963 8.812.664 1,390.284 1956 12 . 71 2.0(~ (,87.203
J964 9.404.183 966.902 1967 15.2{,9.494 782. 790
1966 10,869,9~6 757.263 1968 16,475,20·1 1,707,135
Imports (1958) from the U.K. were valued at £3,615.319; from the
U.S.A., £8,614,395; from Canada, £I,O()I,665. Principal imports were
machiOtlry (£746,530), apparel (£612,672) and fresh meat (£611,648).
Princip:,1 exports were: Lumber, £21,588; crawfish, £154,943; salt,
£156,021; tomatoes (raw), £29,279. Exports to the U.K. were £105,553;
t.he U.S.A., £1,511,451; Canada, £39,932.
Trade with the U.K., in £ sterling (Briti8h Board of Trade returns):
1955 196. 1951 1958 1969
Imports 1.0 U.K. 327,795 179,323 12,1.753 145.004 133,051
Bxports from U.K. . 2,254,720 7,861,989 G,218';.05 1,981,175 13,i71,148
1le-expor ~. from U .K . 66,618 61,68~ 1~1.346 119,425 154,197
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1958, 6,709 vC8sels of 4,354,261

tons entered and cleared; of these, 2,108 vesse ls of 1,200,072 tons were
British.
Roads. There are more than 200 miles of good paved roa.ds in Nassau,
and gocd roads on Elouthera and Grand Bahama. There ere no railroads
in the Bahamas.
Power. Electricity for lighting and power is available in New Provi·
uence. Total units generated during 1958,51".85,980. Total number of
OODsnm3rs, 11,537. Other islands have small privately owned generating
plants.
TeleXlTIITllunications. In the island of New Providence an automatio
telephone system of the latest type is in operation, together with an extensive
.ystem of underground oables. The total number of telephones in use a.t
31 Dec. 1958 was 8,685. Nine radio·t.elcphone links to the U.S.A. provide
service ·,0 any part of tho world. All the important islands are connected
BERMUDA 443
with Nassau by means of radio· telegraphy, and in several cases radio-

telephony is also available. Connexion through Nassau to the U.K., the
U.S.A., Canada and Centml America can be provided. Radio·teletype
service to Bermuda and to Florida connecting into the U.S.A. network and
ship.shore radio·telophone services are also available. The Bahl'ID8.8
broadcasting station operates on 1,540 kilocycles.
Aviation. Nassau international airport is located on the island of Ne\v
Providence, about 8 miles from the capital. B.O.A.C. operate between
Nassau and New York, Kingston and Bermuda. Pan American World
Airways operate a thrico.daily service between Miami, Florida and Nassau,
and a daily service between Nassau and New York. Mackey Airlines
operate 1\ daily service between Fort La.uderdalo, Florida, Palm Boach,
Florida and Nassau. 'frlms-Canada Airlines operates a weekly fiighi
Nassau-Toronto and Nassau-Kingston. Cubana operates a twice-weekly
service Nassau-Havanl\. Bahamas Airways provide a schedule service
within the hlands and SkywaYR, Ltd, provide a charter service to the Out
Islands and Florida. In addition, there are many private and military
flightR to the colony. During l038, 143,041 passengers and 886,135 kg of
freight were set, down at Nassau .
MONEY AND BANKING. The Royal Bank of Canada, the Bank of

Nova Scoti>t, Rarcbys Bank D.C.O. and The Canadian Bank of Commerce
have branche8 in Nassau. Briti~h silver and' copper' coins arc legal tender.
Silver coins of the U.K. ceased, with effect. from 1 Nov. 1936, to be legal
tender in the colony for payments exceeding 408. Local currency notes of
£5, £1, 10s., 4s. sterling are in circulation, but American and Canadian
cUITency is gellerally accepted. B>tnk of England notcs are not accepted,
except at the banks from travellerR from the U.K. and then only to a maxi-
mum of £.5. PORt oAic:e "<wings Lank, :;0 June ]()58. depositors, 32,971;
balance due, £677,289.
Boo1(s of Reference
Annual R'port, 1956--57. Il.M.S.O., 1953
PI~gs. A. D., A Short of the LJahl1ma,f. Nassau, 1951
[{i~IMY
n.,
I~icbl\rdso~ J. Review of Bahamian Economic CUlulit1·vn$ !Jail POlt-tear J'robkm$. Na.ssan,
1~44
LIDRARY. Na!lS~u Puolic Lillrary.
BERMUDA
BERMUDA is a colony, with semi·representative government, consisting of &
group of some 300 small islands (abuut. 20 inhabited), 570 miles east-
south-east of Cape Hatteras, N.C., anu 1177 ruiles from New York, noted
for ita climate and scenery; a favouriro wint~r resort for Americans.
The Spaniards visited the islands in 1.515, but, according to a 17th-
century French cartographer, they were diRcovcred in 1503 by .Iuan Ber-
mudez, after whom they were nalTl~d. No settlement was made, and they
wero uninh:.bited until a p:.rty of colonists uuder Sir George Somers W&II
wrecked there in 1609. A compllny was formed for the' Plantation of the
Somers' IBland.~,' as they were called at first, and in 1684 the Crown took
over the government.
Th", area is 20'51l SQ. miles. of which 2·3 ~q. miles were leased in 1941
f,)r 99 yoars to the n.s. Go,"ernment for naval and air bases. The civil
popuJat.ion (i .e., excluding British and American military. naval and air
force p<lrsonnel) at 31 Dec. 1958 was estimated at 43,480.
In 1958 the birth rate was 24·4 per 1,000 (19·9 white. 26·7 coloured) and
the dev.th rate 8·3 per 1,000 (9·6 white. 7·6 coloured); there were 453
marriafes. Chief town. Hamilton; population. about 3.000.
Govi!rnor. Maj·Gen. Sir JuIian Gascoigne. K.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O.
Colonial Secreta,y. J. W. Sykes, C.V.O. (appointed 6 Doe. 1956);
tz.oifici, member of the Executive Council and Legislative Council.
The Gc vernor is assist.ed by an Executive Council of 8 members (3
tX offici? 5 non·officials) appointed by the Crown. a Legislative Council of
11 members (3 ex officio. 8 non· officials), also appointed by the Crown. and
an elec ced House of Assembly of 36 members; 7.245 electors. Women
received the vote in 1944.
Police force. 1958, 163.
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 13,

and goyernment assistance is given by the payment of grants, and, where
neCCS8a!~, of school fees. ~'ree elementary edur,ation was introduced on
1 May J 949. In 1958, 43 aided schools, with 8,608 pupils, received govern-
ment grants. Total amount spent by the Government on education in
1958 WhS £M'8,203 . There are also 23 private schools.
Ci1lEmas (19GO). There are 5 cinemas with a seating c:~pacity of 2,398
in 3 of ,hese; the othfC 2 providing 900 outdoor seats in summer and 598
indoor ~'oats iu winter.
FIN AN CE. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) for calendar years:
19~5 1956 1957 In:;s 1959 (est.) 1960'
Revenoe . 3.036,320 3,107,618 3.[)2·1,OtJl 3 ,S61,2~G 3"121,853 3,90S,307
Brpendit'lrc . 3,082,1.05' 3,029,124' 3, 321,731' 3,835,J:!1' 3,406,6U<1 (I 3,S91,378
1 Esti'lln.tes.
, Inclldes £54,600 Cor re·afforestation; £50,000 loan to Crown Lo.nds Corporation;
£24,000 ror rat anrt mosquito control.
, Inclldes £436,625 for trade development, £417,633 for education, £315,774 for pnbU.
works, £2)1,226 for the Board of Trade, £lS0,013 for agriculture. £166,160 for police, £as,768
tor paul;'; transport, £167,239 for public health (pIu. £133,000 gro.nt to King Edward VII
Hemorialll""pital), nnd £117,664 for postals.rvic•.
, Incllnes C4H,148 for trade development, £400,711 for education, £264,839 for pobU.
works, £J~8,92:' for police. £275,1)88 Cor Boarrt of Trade, £IGJ,S~1 for public health (pius
£13~, ('00 grallt to King Edward VII Memorial Hospital), £176,2·10 for agriculture, £155,860
tor public trnn.pnrt, £1 01 ,815 for postalse"ice, £101,476 for colonial treMury.
, lnd"des £j93.907 for trade developlOent, £48·j, 38 G [or euucation, £458,497 for public
works, £:<16,967 (or police, £~24.388 for thc Board of Trade, £174,S14 for agrtc\llture,
£180,572 for public transport, £156,540 for puIJlic health, £1<19,108 for postal service Bnd
£11 3,652 cor the colOnial treasury.
• Iuclldes £495,061 for education, £488,662 for trade development, £393,429 for public
works, £225,547 for police, £19;,891 for Board of Trade, £182,089 for agriculture, £173,600
for public transport, £152,473 for postal Rcrvices, £122,392 for the colollin.1 treasury. £231,84,)
for public health (Plus £132,000 grant to King Edward VII Memorial Hospital).
Chief sources of revenue in 1958: Customs, £2,548.643; postal,

£217,2[U; public transportation, £200,700; licence duties (motor vehicles),
£182,05'>; stamp taxes. £192,671. Chief items of expenditure, 1958 (ex-
cluding items mentioned above, in note 5); Hospital. £152.000; special
fuod appropriations, £325,000.
Public debt in 1958. including local loans. £228.800,
BERMUDA 445
PRODUCTION. The chief products are pharmaceutics, concentrated
essences, plants, bananas, citrus fruit, lilies, potatoes and other kitchen.
garden vegetables. 830 acres are under cultivation.
Trade Union.f . Legislation providing for trade unions was enacted in
Oct. 1946, and there are 3 trade unioDs (Union of Teachers, 127 members;
Industrial Union, 583 members; Teachers' Association, 54 members).
COMMERCE. Imports and exports (in £ sterling) for 6 calendar years:

1953 1954 1965 1966 1957 1958
Imports • 1l ,~7 1,42812,458,111 13,408,496 13,1~~,8n 1;,821,555 17,146,958
Bxports 2,390,080 3,251,923 3,446,568 4,66~,924 6,860,995 7,673,191
, ExcJuding government storM from imports.
Impurts in 1!J58 (excluding government stores) from the U.K.,

£3,7!)O,128; Canada, £I,~34,165; British West lndies, £233,025; the U.S.A.,
£8,534,908; Australia, £233,!J53; Netherlands West Indies, £686,212.
Total trade between Bermuda and the U.K ., in £ sterling (British
1955 19 ~6 1957 1968 1959
Imports to U.K. 127,43' 164,133 143,928 106,270 189,t74
Ih:pocte from U.K. . 2,620,017 3,726,401 9,M",653 10,483,571 5,548,169
Be·exports /Tom U.K. 70,240 95,311 110,88 3 161,461 119,074
Food supplies are mostly from the U.S.A., Canada, Australia, the U.K.
and New Zealand. The principal imports in 1958 were: Food, £3,316,821;
clothing, £2,20",000; alcoholic beverages, £771,370; fuel, £2,362,1 38;
building material, £1,2 26,712.
COMMUNICA TIONS. Aviation. B.O.A.C., Pan American Airways,

Eagle Airways and Eastern Airlines maintain regular services bet.ween Ber.
muda and the U.S.A. B.O.A.C. a lso have regular flights through Bermuda
serving London, the Caribbean and Caracas. Eagle Airways also operate
between Bermuda and Nassau (Ba hamas). Trans·Canada Airlines call at
Bermuda on their services between Canada, Barbados, Antigua and Trini-
d ad; they also operate services between Bermuda, Toronto and/or Montreal.
Iberia calls at Bermuda between Madrid, Lisbon, the Azores, Havana and
Mexico City and also operates to Caracas and Puerto Rico. Linea Aeropostal
Venezolana calls a t Bermuda between Cara('as, Lisbon, Madrid and Rome.
Guest Airways call at Bermuda en route Mexico, Miami, the Azores, Lisbon,
Madrid and Paris. Cubana calls at Bermuda en route Mexico, Havana,
Azores, Madrid. Aircra ft entered and cleared in 1958, 4,060, carrying
322,29i passengers.
Shipping. The registered shipping consisted (1958) of I steam vessel
of 7,013 tons net, 23 sa,iling vessels of 2,006 tOilS net and 40 motor vessels of
27,590 tons net. In 1958 the total tonnage of vessels entered a nd cleared
was 2, 160,947 tons, of which 1,173,927 were British.
RailwaY8 and Roads. During April 1948 the railway service was dis.
continued and a government.operated bus service introduced.
Between 1908 and Aug. 1946 the use of motor vehicles, with the exception
of ambulances, fire engines and other essential services, was prohibited.
With the passing of the Motor Car Act in 1946, the use of motor vehicles.
subject to certain limitations on size and horse· power, became lawful. On
31 De(:. 1958.5.128 private cars, 512 taxis, 900 commercial vehicles. 8.060
auto·c;rcles, 68 buses and 536 miscellaneous motor vehicles were registered.
Po;rt. There is a privat.e telephone company, with about 42,000 miles
of win" serving about 10,700 subscribers. Uables connect the islands with
Halifa:t, Nova Scotia, and through Turks Island with Jamaica and Ba.r·
hados. There were (1958) 12 post offices. Post office revenue was £217,291,
and expenditure, £150,i58.
MONEY. There are 2 b anks, the Bank of Bermuda, Ltd, and the Bank
of N. T. Butterfield and Son, Ltd. Post ollice savings bank deposits on 31
Dec. I'l5S were £799.192 to the credit of9,Oll depositors.
The curren cy, weights and meas ures are British, except that U.S. instcad
of imperial fluid measures are used. There were £5, £1, 10s. and 58. Ber.
muda government notes to the value of £1,299,396 in circulat.ion on 31 Dec.
1958.
Books of Reference
Biennial Report. 1957-59. n.M.S.O .• 1959
B<1'fIl1uU' lli$l<)"faJ Qua,te,ly. J 944 tt.
Strode. 11., TIo, 8IMv of Btrrnuda. Newed. Nc'v York, 1946
Tweetiy, Y.•f. . RI'f'm,lIda H olidaJl. Rev. eel. New York. 19a1
Wilkill"'oO. H .• T/~ Adl1<"7llurer. 0/ B"""uda. Oxford Uuiv. Pr.... 1955.-Bennuda in the
Old J::mp',.. O~ford Univ. Press. IMO
ZulU. W. E. S .• Bl'rmuda JOUNI"I. New York. 1958
NATIOIUL LmRARY. Tbe Bermuda Library. Hamilton. Librarian: MI.. A.. ll. GoeIInR.
M.B.E.
BRITISH GUIANA
TlIls territory, including the counties of Demerara, Essequiho and Berbice,
na.med from the 3 rivers, was first partially settled by the Dutch West
Indian Company about 1620. The Dutch retained their hold Wltil 1796,
when i~ was captured by the English. It was finally ceded to Great Britain
in 1814. The colony is situated on the north·east coast of South America.
I)n the Atlantic Ocean. with Surinam on the east, Venezuela on the west and
'Brazil on the south and west.
Goternor. Sir Ralph Grey, K.C.M.G., KC.V.O., O.B .E.
Chief Secretary. Hon. D. M. Hedges.
CO:\JSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A new Constitution,
approved in 1956, provides for a Legislative Council, consisting of a Speaker
and 28 members, 3 of them ex officio, not more than 11 nominated and not
less th,tD 14 elected.
Elections under this constitution took place in Aug. 1957. The People's
Progre;).~ive Party led by Dr Cheddi Jagan won 9 of the 14 elected seats.
The u'gislative Council has 6 nominated members; the Excoutive Council,
presidE,d over by the Governor, eompriscs 5 members of the P .P.P. and the
3 e;r:.oj)kio membem.
Th" previous Constitution was suspended on 9 Oct. 1953, and the
Ministurs of the P.P.P. weTe removed from office.
Th" British Guiana (Constitutional) (Temporary Provisions) Order in
Council. 1953, which came into force on I Jan. 1954, established an interim
government (later fixed for a maximum term of 4 years).
Th" Commission, appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies.
BRITISH OUIANA 447
reported on 2 Nov. 1954 (Cmd. 9274). It declared the suspension of the
Constitution justified and concluded that the setback to orderly constitu·
tional progress was due not to defects in the constitution but because leaders
of the P.P.P. had proved themselves to be relentless and unscrupulous in
their determination to pervert the authority of Government.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area. 83.000 sq. miles. Estimated
populat.ion (end of 1958). 539.940; of these. 258.040 were East Indian~.
Births (1957). 22.336 (44·5 per 1.000 population); deaths. 5.852 (11·4 per
1.000). The capital. Georgetown. had. in 19li7. a population of 120.000.
In Nov. 1940 a site on the bank of the Demeram River. about 25 miles
from the sea. was leased to the U.S .A. as It military base. A U .S. naval base
at Makouria. about 40 miles up the Essequibo River. was also established.
These bases are not now being used by the V.S. Government. AtkinRon
Field. on the Demerara River. is now being operated by the British Guiana
Government 8.8 a civil airport.
EDUCATION (1958). 3168chools (including 90 in remote and sparsoly

popula.ted districts and 6 infant or nursery schools) received govern ment
grants. They had Ill.746 pupils and 2.682 teachers. Secondary education
is provided for both hoys and girls in 39 schools. 2 of which are government·
owned and 9 grant.aided.
Cinemas (1959). There were 41 cinemas with seating capacity of 38,000.
JUSTICE. The law. both civil and criminal, is based on the common
and statute law of England. save that. with certain exceptions. the English
law of personal property applies to both movable and immovable property,
and the principles of the Roman-Dutch law have heen retained in respect
of the registration. conveyance and mortgaging of land. There is absolute
equality of males !lnd females before the law as regards divorce, property,
succession and all other matters. Appeals lie to the full court of the
Supreme Court and to the West Indian Court of Appeal, and from these
courts to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. A Court of Criminal
Appeal was instituted on 1 Jan. 1952, but 'as from 20 Nov. 1959 its func-
tions have been taken over by the Federal Supreme Court of the West
Indies.
FINANCE. Re.-enue and expenditure for calendar years (in British
Guiana dollars):
193;) 19;)6 1957 1~j8 19;)9 1
ne,enue . 42,.H)G,.t6-;' 41 ,~ 66.2 fl ~ 4fJ , i5~ .8 41 48.97 4,4fJ i 4. i ,8 92';,·17
l~xpeJlditure 40,008,938 40,2·t7,07·1 4;) ,072,9';; 46,363,285 4a, S9:?,;vt7
These figures fttro excl!1sive ot special receipts lrom t.he Colonial Development Fund, IT.S.A
,raut nnd the related expenditure.
1 E3Limntes.
Chief it.em9 of revenuo (19.38): Customs and exci,e, S22.:>6f1.007;

liecnccs. $S8:?,400; internal revenue, $I7,055,!iOO. Expenditure: General
n<lmini.trat.ion. 313,301.404: law and order. M.83:?,9;,.j.; (It·ht cbarl!e~,
g·1.0il.),.-;50; medical, 8·-•• 660,5:17; education. S6,OI8,:;:l6; other "ocial
~(:rvi('t's, S 1,8\;'>,305; public work8, $·1,46.),907; po~t and telecommunica.
tions. $2,062.074; pellRions. $1,854.402; transport services, $1,805,878.
PRODUCTION. British Ouiana clln be dividod roughly into 3 regions:

(1) A low coastal region varying in width up to about 30 miles and
const,ibting the agricultural area; (2) an intermediate area about 100 miles
wide, d slightly higher undulating land containing the chief mineral and
forest resources of the country; and (3) a hinterland of several mountain
ranges and extensive savannahs. Approximately 87% of the land area of
the colony is forested, and ahout 60,000 sq. miles of this is still available for
timber exploitation. Only about 20% of the forest area is at present
regardE,d as being reasonably accessible for timber extraction on an eco·
nomical basis, however. Large areas of unimproved land in the coastal
region, which vary in width up to about 50 mile~ from the sea, are still
available for agricultural and cattle-grazing projects.
Agriculture. Acreage under cultivation (1958): Sugar cane, 86,300
(sugar output, 306,361 long tons); rice, 155,100 (output, 100,500 tons of
milled rice); coconuts, 32,000; coffee, 5,000; cocoa, 1,100; ground provisions,
23,000; citrus and other fruit, 9,000; corn,2,OOO. Livestock estimate (1955):
Cattle, 172,380; pigs, 36,899; sheep, 36,534; goats, 12,064; poultry,
564,800; horses,3,274; mules,130; donkeys,7,967. With the exception of
sugar, data exclude all crops and livestock under the direct operation of the
sugar estates.
There are two wet seasons, one from the middle of April to the middle
of August, the other from the middle of November to the end of January_
In 1952 the British Government approved a free grant of $919,481 for
the Boerasirie extension project, the estimated total cost of which is
£1,585,859_ The project provides water control of the coastland between
the EStlequibo and Demerara rivers, !tnd of riverain land between the sea
and mouth of the Bonasika River, a tributary of the Essequibo, and of the
KamuIli, a tributary of the Demerara. It will substantially improve the
drainage and irrigation over an area of 75,000 acres, much of which had been
only p(,rtly cultivated, and it will bring into beneficial use 40,000 acres now
wholly undeveloped. Completion of the project increases the area of land
suitable for rice cultivation from 9,000 to 32,000 acres.
Miaing_ Placer gold mining commenced in 1884, and was followed by
diamond mining in 1887. From 1884 to 1952 the output of gold was
3,264,498 bullion oz., while in 1958, 17,500 bullion oz. were produced, of
which 10,777 oz. were exported. From 1901 to 1952 the aggregate production
of diamonds was 2,602,742 metric carats, while in 1958, 33,090 metric
carats were produced and 31,093 carats were exported. There are large
deposits of bauxite; 1,364,286 long tons were produced in 1958, of which
1,182,166 long tons were exported. Three tons of columbite-tantalite
concentrates were produced and shipped to U.S.A. in 1955. Full-scale
production of manganese began in 1959.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports (in British Guiana dollars) for

ealend!,r years:
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Import 79,969,568 94,517,619 99,877,043 118,469,312 116,386,400
Export 85,403,813 90,533,252 94,692,256 108,085,688 96,376,700
1 Including bullion ..nd specie.
Chi3f imports (1958): Machinery, $28,522,676; diesel gas and other

fuel oLs, 112,799 tons, $4,591,117; motor spirit, 19,413 tons, $1,618,724;
keroselle, 13,141 tons, $939,834; flour, 57,124,392 lb., $4,292,754; tobacco
in leaf, 98,272 lb_, $923,673; cotton fabrics, 7,593,453 sq. yd, $3,045,936;
BRITISH GUIA..>fA 449
footwear, 74,623 doz. pairs, $2,245,001; dairy products, $4,500,634; beer.
alo and stout, 155,351 gallons, $434,477.
Chief domestic exports (1958): Sugar, 300,318 tons, $54,727,482; rum
2,454,576 proof gallons, $3,451,556; rice, 17,652 tons, $4,778,922; timber,
1,538,478 cu. ft, $3,439,:~80; gold, 10,777 ozs., $644,466; diamonds, 31,093
carat, $1,393,755; bauxite, 1,364,286 tons, $20,562,188.
Imports (exclusive of transhipments) from U.K. (1958), 46%; from
U.S.A., 16%; from Canada, 7%. Exports (exclusive of transhipments), to
Canada, 32%; to U.K., 48%; to U.S.A., 6% .
Total trade ootween British Guiana and U.K. (British Board of Tmde
returns, in £ sterling) :
19,5 1956 1951 1958 1959
Imports 1.0 U. K. &.()12,645 7,'84.970 1l.?98,2S4 9,894.898 7 ,G79,3'12
Exports from U.K. ~';·!5,630 8,623, 397 9,531,992 9,916.438 9,469,938
COMMUNICA nONS. Shipping. In 1958, 2,152 vessels of 1,716,000

NRT entered and 2,075 of 1,717,000 NRT cleared.
There are 217 nautical miles of river navigat.ion.
British Guiana is in direct sea· communication with the U.K., France,
the Netherlands, Canada, the U.S.A., tho West Indies and Netherlands a.nd
French Guianas.
Georgetown harbour, about! mile wide and 2! miles long. has a minimum
depth of 24 ft. New Amsterdam harbour is situated at the mouth of the
Berbice River; there are wharves for coastal vessels only. Bauxite is
loaded on ocean.going freighters at Mackenzie, 67 miles up the Demerara
Hiv er, and at Everton on the Berbice River, about 10 miles from the mouth
of the waterway. The Essequibo River has several timber.loading berths
ranging from 20 to 40 ft. Springlands on the Corentyne River is the point
of entry and departure of passengers travelling by launch services to and
from Dutch Guiana. It is also a shipping point for rice a nd other produce
from the Corentyne to Georgetown.
RoaM. There are 318 miles of driving or motor road, 244 miles of foreat
road from Bartica at the junction of the Essequibo and Mazanmi rivers to
the Potaro gold mining district (including branches to the Upper Potaro
River at Kangaruma on the route to Kaieteur, to Issano on the Mazaruni
River above the long range of falls and rapids and to the Lower Potaro Bin)r
at a point beneath the large fall of Turoatumari) and 400 milcs of trails
(including a government cattle trail of 182 miles. from TakaDla on the
Berbice River to Annai on the Rupununi savannah). Motor vehicles, as of
31 Dec. 1958, totalled 16,238, including 8,199 passenger cars, 2,819 lorries and
vans, 101 buses, 2,596 tractors and 2,394 motor cycles.
Railways. There are 2 government-owned railways : the East Coast
Railway, 61 miles of single.line standard gauge, linking Gcorgetowll and
New Amsterdam; and the West Coast Railway, 33 miles of 3 ft 6 in . gauge,
linking Georget.own and Parika at, the mouth of the Essequibo River.
The Demerara Bauxite Co. operates a standard.gauge railway of 80 miles
frolll Mackenzie on the Demerara River to Georgetown.
Post. On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 135 post offices and agencies (includ.
ing travelling post offices and agencies), of which 42 are telegraph offices and
8 radio stations. Number of telephones, 5,178.
Telecommunications. The inland public telephone, telegraph and radio
services are maintained and operated by the Post and Telecommunications
Q
Department. There are main telephone exchanges in Georgetown. New

Amsterdam and Mackenzie. with 195 sub.exchanges, call offices and private
branch exchanges. There are 9,264 conductor miles of telephone lines
(which includes 2.335 miles contained in 26,436 miles of aerial cable), 120
miles of railway telephone lines and 415 miles of telegraph lines. The
number of telephone instruments in use at 31 Dec. 1958 was 5,178. Cable
and Wireless, Ltd. operate and maintain overseas radio· telephone service
and radio communications with ships at sea.
The British Guillnll United Broltdcasting Co .• Ltd, operates 2 statio[)s
on a co:nmercial basis.
Aviation. British Guiana Airways, Ltd, acquired by the Government
ill 1955. operates scheduled services within the colony.
Oth'lr services in operation: Pan American World Airways, Inc., to
and from North. Central and South America twice n. week; Air France, to
and frolD Guadeloupe, Paramaribo and Cayenne twice n. week; British West
lndian .~irways, Ltd, to and from Trinidad 4 times a week. providing direct
conncxion with New York and London; K.L.M., to and from Curayao and
Parllmaribo twice weeklv; Cruzeiro do Sui. to and from Manaos and Boa
Vist.a once a week. •
MONEY. Accounts are kept in dollars and cents (SI = 4". 2d.) . In
drculation are British Caribbean coinage in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 21;.
50 centi. A coin of ; cent denomination is also to be issued . There are
governIlent currency notes of $1. $2. $5, SIO, $20 and $100. The face
value of the latter in circulation at 1 Sept. 1957 WM $15.901.239.
Bardays Bank )).0.0. maintains branches in Bcrbice, Demerara and
Essequibo.
Books of Reference
Am;.u.,i J.rporf, 19S~. H.M.S.O., 1959
Gnleroi I.l/ormat&onroilh 'e{lard 10 lhe Oold, Diamond a114j Foresl Indrulrie" 0 1 Orilis/, Quia/w .
(agued t..y tbe Government
GeologicaJ Sun;,y Of BritIsh Guiana. Bulletins No.,. 1-30
Th. Suga- indu.<lry of Brili,h Ouiana. (Col. No. 24'.) H./d.S.O .• 194~
H.ot-h, V., Hatwbf)uk 0/ Natu.ral Re.fourctJ oJ Briti.~h Guiana. GeorgetowD,1946
Smitb. RT., Th. Negro Family ill BritiJh Guiana. London. 1956
SWR.D, M. , Brili3" Guiana. H.M.S.O., 19:J7
BRITISH HONDURAS
BIUTISIi. HONDV'RAS is a Crown colon v on the Caribbcan Sca, south of
Yucatan, and 600 miles WCRt from ,Tum;{ica. Its early settlement was prob.
ably elf.3cted by British woodcutters about 1638; from that date to 1798, in
spito of armed oppcsition from the Spaniards, settlers held tbeir own and
prosper'3d. In 1780 the Home Government appointed a superintendent,
and in :l862 the scttlement wus declared a colony, subordinate to Jamaica.
It Lecame an independent colony in 1884. .
cor;:STITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution promul-

gated in March 1954 provides for 1\ LegislatiY6 Assembly of 9 elected, 3
numinal:ed and 3 official members and a nominated Speaker. Elections are
held triennially. On 21 March 1957 the P eople's United Party obtained
all 9 elected seats.
BRITISH HONDURAS 451
The Executive Council consists of 7 members drawn from the Legisla tive
Assembly.
Governor and G.·in·G. Sir Colin Hardwick Thornley, K.C.M.G., C.V.O.
(appointed Aug. 1955; salary 512,000, duty allowance S3,OOO).
Colonial Secrelary. T. D .Vickers, C.M.G.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 8,867 sq. miles. The climate is
tropical, with an average rainfall for the past 4 years of 81·96 in. The wet
season lasts from the middle of May to the middle of February.
Population, census 1946, 59,220 (28,722 males and 30,498 females).
Estimated population in 1958,88,1 56. Voters on the roll numbered 22,706
in 1957. In 1956 the birth rate per 1,000 was 45·24 and the dcath rate 9·97;
infantile mortality 69 per 1,000 births; there were 411 marriages and 13
divorces. Chieftown, Belize; population, census 1946,21,886 (9,673 males
and 12,2 13 fem ales).
The police force contained (1958) 5 officers, 5 inspectors and 291 n.e.o.s
and constables.
EDUCATION. In 1958,2 government and 108 aided primary schools
had 17,471 pupils; 32 non·aided primary schools, 1,560 pupils; 9 non·aided
secon dary schools, 1,23!l pupils; a government technical high school, 146
pUpil8. All aided schools, except 2 government schools and the technical
high school, are under the management of Christian bodies.
Ginemas (1958). Th ere were 7 cincmas with scating capacity of 4,273.
Newspapers (1958). There wcre 3 daily newspapcrs with a combined
<.irculation of 4,200.
FINANCE. Rcvenue and expenditure (in $BH) for calendar years:
1%1 lU6 "~ 1%8 1959 l 1960 l
'1t<'venue . 1,3~".7~1 6,726,n36 8.691,319 9.187,829 6,035,740 6,188.300
Rlpenditure . ~,694,732 6,702,208 8,0('2,687 9,267,786 7,285,740 7,192,800
1 J.."!stimat-es.
The revenue includes a special grant for Northern Road $175,000 in 1950.
Co.ionin l Development and Welfnre I1:rnots amount.ed to Sl,2~7 , 35~ In 195,1, $1,170,56(; in
1~.;,5, $1,1 39,437 in 1956, $1,9;S,li9 in H\57, S2.25f»,'i12 in 1958, $2,579,361 in 1959.
Debt, 31 Dec. 1958, $4,177,868; sinking fund, $692,879,

PRODUCTION . Some 8,150 sq. miles, 92% of the total land area, are
under forests which include mahogany, cedar, Santa. Maria, pine and rose-
wood, and many secondary hard woods of known or probable market value,
M weU as woods suitable for pulp production. Exports of forest produce in
1958 amounted to $BH3,973,896 (51,2% of the total exports).
The main agricultural export is citms fmit, chiefly grapefruit and
oranges, whole, canned, juice and concentrates. The total acreage under
citrus for export exceeds 4,000, Exports of agricultural produce in 1958
a mounted to $BH3,403,623 (43 '8% of the total exports).
Food and game fish are plentiful, and domestic consumption is heavy.
The main items exported in 1958 were lobsters (Spiny) whole and tails,
:366,528 lb, valued at $BH225,258, and fresh and dried fish , 115,585 lb.
vI<lued at $BHI8,297. Conchs, shrimps and tortoislHhell accounted for
tbo balance of the marine produce exported. Turtles-Hawksbill, Logger-
bead and Green-are plentiful but as yet are not exported.
LABOUR. There are an estimated 400 full· time and 200 part.time
oommercial fishermen , almost all self· employed. Chiele (base for chewing
gum) <ollection gives employment to around 1,000 men from July to Jan.
(the le.tex flows only during wet weather). Employment in the timber
industdes is also largely seasonal; peak employment in timber extraction,
saw·mills and associated operations is around 5,000-6,000 men. Many
labour~rs are also planters, working their plantations during seasonal lay.
offs, and it is almost impossible to estimate agricultural employment.
Sl\mpl:~g results suggest that about 4,000 men and women are hired season·
ally fot agricultural work.
In 1958 there were 5 trade unions registered with a nominal membership
of 1,451.
COMMERCE. In 1958 total import~ amounted to $18,516,241 (U.S.A.,

42'9%; U.K., 32'7%; Trinidad, 5'8%; Netherlands, 4'8%; Canada,
2%); total exports, $9,087,875, including $1,319,813 re.exports (U.K.,
48'3%; U.S.A., 13·8%; Jamaica, 13'5%; Mexico, 10'3%; Canada, 1'3%).
Th" principal domestic exports were, in 1958: Timber, $3,324,861,
including mahogany logs, 45,804 cu. ft ($152,071); mahogany lumber,
6,568,~:66 bd ft ($1,900,211); pine lumber, 5,324,159 bd ft ($930,11 0);
chic1e, $638,187; grapefruit, oranges and products, $1,895,404.
TOI;al trade between British Honduras and the U.K. (British Board of
l'mde returns in £ sterling) ;
1956 19:>6 1~67 1958 1~59
import. to U.K. 81[',435 969,OG9 1,241,336 1,065,040 1,822,72 5
Exports from U.K. . I,OtiO,35S 1,060,304 1,082,793 1,384,165 1,490,~ 32
ne-exports from U.K. 25,813 24,224 20,551 31,201 31,162
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Tonnage entered, 1958, 313,4<16

net tollS. Registered shipping, 1!l58, 37 sailing vessels, 24!l net tons, and
3!l motor vessels, 656 net tons.
Po.;t. Telephone lines (456 miles) connect Belize with Corozal and
Consejo on the coast, Orango Walk on New River, San Antonio on the Rio
Hondc and other stations in the north, El Cayo and Benque Viejo in the
west, ~:tann Creek and Punta Gorda and other points in the south. Number
of tele)hones (1958), 924.
Av;ation. In 1958,10,423 passengers, 38,4~7 lb. of mail and 1,078,394
Ih. of freight arrived and departed on international flights.
MONEY AND BANKING. There are (31 Dec. 1958) a paper currency
of $1,968,005 in government notes and a subsidiary silver coinage of
$147,502 in circulation, and also a snbsidiary mixed metal coinage of 1.,
5-, 25· and 50· cent pieces whose issues amount to 8156,258. $BH4 = £1
sterling.
The Royal Bank of Canada took over the business of the local bank in
1912. There are 6 government savings banks; depositors, 10,577; deposits,
82,036,163 on 31 Dec. 1958.
Ba::clays Bank D.C.O. havo branches in Belize, Stann Creek and Corozal.
Books of Reference
Annual Report, 1957. R.M.S.O., 1959
Report ,/Ilte Selt/emeTlt Commission on Brilish Guiana and Brilish Honduras. (Cmd. 7533.
R .M.B.O., 1948
A.ndcrson, A. H., Brie/Sketch 0/ the British HondurOl. 7th ed. Belize, 1958
Burdon, Sir J. A., Archives 0/ Brili$h HoMural. 3 vols. London, 1934-41
FALKLAND ISLANDS AND DEPENDENCIES 453
FALKLAND ISLANDS AND DEPENDENCIES

AREA AND POPULATION. Crown colony situated in South Atlantic,
300 miles east of Magellan Straits. East, Falkland, 2,580 sq. miles; West
Falkland, 2,038 sq. miles, including in each case the adjacent small islands;
total, 4,618 sq. miles; besides South Georgia, 1,600 sq. miles. Among
other dependencies are the South Shetlands (1,800 sq. miles), the South
Orkneys (240 sq, miles), South Sa.ndwich (130 sq. miles) and Graham La.nd.
The dependencies include all islands and territories between 200 and 50° W.
long., south of 500 S.lat., and between 50 0 and 800 W. long., south of 58" S.
lat. Population: Falklands Islands, census 28 March 1953, 2,230 (1 ,246
males and 984 females); estimate, 1959, 2,191; exclusive of the Whaling
Settlement in South Georgia (population in 1959, 1,271, including 8 women
and 9 children; the population fluctuates with the whaling season and in
winter declines to less than half). Chief town, Stanley, 1,135 inhabitants.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Governor is assisted by

an Execut.ive Council and a Legislative Council. The latter consists of 11
members, namely, 3 ex-o.fficio members (Cobnial Secretary, Senior Medical
Officer, Colonial Treasurer); 2 official and 6 non-official members (2 nomi-
nated by the Governor, and 4 elected).
Governor and C.-in-C. Sir Edwin Arrowsmith, K.C_M.G. (appointed
21 Jan. 1957).
Colonial Secretary. Aubrey Gm'don Denton-Thompson, O.B.E., M.C.
(appointed 5 Feb. 19.55).
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory. In 1959 there were 2 govern-
ment schools in Stanley, with 162 pupils; in the country districts, 3 full-day
settlement schools together with 9 travelling teachers and 170 pupils were
maint.ained by tbe Government.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) for fiscal years
ended 31 March up to 1955, and 30 June from 1956:
1954-55 1955-56 1 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60
Total revenue. ~42. 132 337,644 251,6019 326,797 3"4,372 296,808
Total e",-penditure 271,"',00 447,292 315,91:> 334,462 298 ,~O3 296,808
• 1 Apr. 1~:;5 - 30 June 1956. 1 Estimates.
Chief sources of colonial revenue (1959-60): Customs, £42,010; internal

revenue, £61,654; posts and telegraphs, £35,841). On 30 June 1958 the
assets exceeded the liabilities by £49,757. There is no public debt.
FARMING. Chief industry, sheep-farming; about 2,875,520 acres
pasturage. Sheep numbered 620,642 in 1959. Wool export-s, 1959,
£904,415.
COMMERCE . Import.s and exports (in £ sterling) for calendar years:
1954 195:> 1~56 1957 1958 1959
Imports 48·1,545 554,000 505,564 549.932 490,792 415.610
Exports 518,861 609,000 957 ,641 1,2~4,41:> 824,112 941,012
Chief exports, 1958: Wool, 4,551,347 lb. (£785,282), 19;39,4,542,238 lb.

(£904,415); whale and seal oil, 127,350 bbls (£1,373,600); other whale
products, 1,179 tons (£879,835).
ChiEf imports, 1959: Colony: Manufactureu goods, £82,665; food, drink

and tcbacco, £129,131; Dependencies (1958): fuels and lubricants,
£I,004,B90; oils and fats, £372,800; manufactured goods, £399,919;
machin'lry and transport equipment, £230,793; food, drink and tobacco,
£257,395.
Total trade with U.K. (British BOllrd of Trade returns, in £ sterling) :
1~55 1956 19::i7 1958 1939
Imports 1<> U.K. 2,523,71i 3,219,228 3,364,690 2,570,966 2,268,648
Erports lrom U.K •. 1,12),~9) 980,039 ),7~4,9)5 805,020 699,596
R.·erpor~8 from U.K. 42,005 60,124 55,077 74,6)5 30,62:;
COl\lMUNICATIONS. There is normally a month to 6 weeks' mail

service provided by a local steamer between Stanley and Montevideo.
Interin;.ular mail service is carried on by a steamboat and aircraft. There
is a telephone exchange at Stanley, and a telephone line from Stanley to
Darwin and other settlements. All farm settlements are connected by
radio telephone. There were 411 telephones on 31 Dec. 1959. There is
wireless communication with U.K., Punta Arenas, Montevideo, Buenos
Aires and South Georgia.
VeSf.els entered in 1958,24, net tonnage, 29,621; in 1959,21, net tonnage,
17,129.
BANKING. On 30 JUlle 1959 tho government savings bank held a

balance of £1,071.109 belonging to 1,884 depositors. There are no banking
facilitiel except those offered by this bank.
MOilJEY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These are the same as in

Great Britain.
Books of Reference
Annual Report. 1956-57. R.M.R.O., 1958
British IJland.y in lite Southern lle'tnisphere, 1945-51. (Cmft. 8230)
Christic, ~. W. B., The ~fltarclic Problnn: a historical and politi,;al study. Lond'..m , 1951
Davies, \,., Tk Grasslund. oJ th. Falkland Islands. London. )939
EUia. J. H .• Falkland Islands. Stonley. Falkland Islands. I n3
McWbun. F ., Tk Falkland Islands To.day. Stirlillg,19(;2
RymiJI, J ., S outltern Lights (G,aham Land). London, 1938
TrendaJl, A. F., (Jtology oJ ScmLh G.07gia. !I.M.S.O.• 1953
TilE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA

ON 1 Jan. 1901 the colonies of Ne,v South Wales, Victoria, Queensland,
South ..~llstralia, Western Australia and Tasmania were fedemted under
the naDle of the' Commonwealth of Australia,' the designation of' colonies'
being at the same time changed into that of' states '-except in the case of
Northel'n Territory, which was transferred from South Australia to the
Commonwealth as a 'territory' on 1 Jan. 1911.
In 1911 the Commonwealth acquired from the State of New South Wales
the Car,berra site for the Australian capital, with an area of 911 sq. miles.
Building operations were begun in 1923 and Parliament was opened at
C:mberj't:\ on 9 May 1927 by H.R.H. the Duke of York (afterwards King
AUSTRALIA 455
George VI). A further area of 28 sq. miles at Jer\'is Bay was acquired in
1915.
Territories under the administration of the Commonwealth, but not
included in it, comprise Papua (l Sept. 1906), Norfolk Island, the trustee-
ship territories of New Guinea and Nanru, the territory of Ashmore and
Cartier Islands, and the Australian Antarctic Territory (24 Aug. 1936),
comprising all the islands and territory other than Adelie Land, situated
south of 60° S. lat. and between 160° and 45° E. long.
The British Government transferred sovereignty in the Heard Island
and McDonald Islands to the Australian Government on 26 Dec. 1947.
Co cos (Keeling) Islands on 23 Nov. HI55 and Chri~tmas Islanr! on 1 Oct.
1958 wore also transferred to Australian jurisdiction.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. Legislative power in the Commonwealth iB
vested ill a Federal Parliament, consisting of the Queen, represented by a
Governor-General, a Senate and a House of Representatives. Under the
terms of the constitution there must be a session of parliament at least once
a. year .
• The Senate comprises GO senators (10 for each State voting as one elec·
torate) chosen for 6 years. In general, the Senate is renewed to the extent of
one-half every 3 years, but in case of prolonged disagreement with the HouHe
of Representatives, it, together with the House of Representatives, may be
dissolved, and an entirely new Senate elected. The House of Representatives
consists, as nearly as may be, oftwicc as many members as there are senators,
the numbers chosen in the several States being in proportion to population as
shown by the latest statistics, but not less than 5 for any original State. The
numerical sizc of the House was determined at 121 members in 1948, anr!
increased to 122 in 1954 (excluding the non· voting members for Northeru
Territory and the Australian Capital Territory). The Northern Territory,
by virtue of an Act passed in J G22, elects a member who is not entitled
to vote, except on a motion for the disallowance of any ordinance of the
territory or on any amendment of any such motion, but may tako part in
any debate in the House. In 1948 representation of the Australian Capital
Territory was provided for under similar conditions. The House of Repre.
sentatiYes continues for 3 years f["Om the date of its first meeting, unless
sooner dissol \'ed. Every sona tor or mem bcr of the House of Representati yeti
must be a British subject, be of full age, possess electoral qultlification and
have resided for 3 years within Australi a. The franchise for both chambers
is the same and is based on universal adult (ruale and female) suffrage.
Compulsory voting was introduced in 1925. If a member elected to the
Federal Parliament holds a scat in a State parliament, he must relinquish it
before elltering the Fedeml Parliament.
Formally, executive power in the Commonwealth is vested in the
Governor.Geneml, who is advised by an Executive Council. This is presided
over by the Goyernor.General, and its members hold office at his pleasure.
All Ministers of State nre ex.officio members of the Executivo Council.
Meetings are formal and official in character, and a record of proceedings is
kept by the secretary or clerk. At Executive Council meetings the decisions
of the Cabinet aro (where necessary) given legal form, appointments made,
resignations accepted, proclamations issued, and rcgul a t.ion~ n.nd the Iille
enacted. .
The policy of a ministry is, in practice, determined by the Ministers of

State meeting without the Governor-General under the chairmanship of the
Prime lI1inister. This group, known as the Cabinet, does not form part of
the legal mechanism of government; its meetings are private and delibera·
tive; the actual ministers of the day are alone present; no records of the
meetings are made public, and the decisions taken hllve, in themselves, no
legal eff~ct.
In Jan_ 1956 the composition of the Ministry was assimilated to the
system prevailing in the U_K. It now consists of a Cabinet including a
limited number of Ministers, and a group of Ministers not in the Cabinet
who can be invited to attend Cabinet meetings whenever matters affecting
their departments are being considered. '
The legislative powers of the Federal Parliament embrace commerce,
shipping, etc.; finance, banking, currency, etc_; defence; external affairs;
postal, telegraph and like services; census and statistics: weights and
measures; copyright: railways; conciliation and arbitration in industrial
dispute! extending beyond the limits of anyone State; social services (an
amendment to the constitution in 1946 specifying, in addition to the existing
provision for invalid and old-age pen8ions, the provision of maternity
allowan,)es, widows' pensions, child endowment, unemployment, pharma-
ceutical. sickness and hospital benefits, medical and dental services, etc.).
The Sellate may not originate or amend money bills; and disagreement
with the House of Representatives may result in dissolution or, in the last
resort, 2, joint sitting of the two Houses. No religion may be established.
The Fe(~eral Parliament is a government of limited and enumerated powers,
the sevE,ral State parliaments retaining the residuary power of government
over their respective territories. If a State law is inconsistent with a
Commoilwealth law, the latter prevails.
The constitution also provides for the admission or creation of new
States. Proposed laws for the alteration of the constitution must be sub-
mitted to the electors, and they can be enacted only if. approved by a
majorit~' of the States and by a majority of all the electors voting.
The 23rd Parliament was .elected on 22 Nov. 1958.
-. Hou,le of Repre8entative.s: Liberal Party, 58: Country Party, 19 (Gov-
ernmen 1; Coalition); Australian Labour Party, 47 (Opposition); total, 124
(including the non-voting members for Territories: A.C.T., 1 Labour;
N.T., I Labour).
Senate: Liberal Party, 25; Country Party, 7 (Government Coalition);
Aust,ralian Labour Party, 26 (Opposition): Australian Democratic Labour
Party, 2.
Governor-General. The Right Hon. Viscount Dunrossil, P.C., G.C.M.G.,
M.C., Q.C. (sworn in 2 Feb. 1960).
The following is a list of Governors-General of the Commonwealth:

Earl of H)pctoun 1901-02 Sir I.aac Isaacs . 1931-36
Lord Tewlyson , 1902-04 Lord Gowri. , . 193G-44
Lord Norl,hoot• . 190~8 Lord liuntingficld (Act.ing) 1938
Earl of D'ldley. . 1908-11 Sir Winston Dugan (Acting) 1944-45
Lord Ohelmsford (Act.ing) 1909-10 li.R.H. the Dllk. of Gloucester 1945-47
Lord Den Dan . 1911-14 Sir W. J. Dugan (ActIng) • 19,17
Viscount -S- ovar . 1914-20 Sir Wllliam McKell. . 1947-53
Lord FOri ter . 1920-25 Sir .John Northcott (Acting) 1951
Lord St.or ehaveu 1925-30 Sir Willlatn Slim 1953-60
Lord Somers (Acting) . 1930-31 Lord Duurossil , 1960-
AUSTRALIA 457
The Liberal-Country Party Ministry (reconstituted 10 Dec. 1958)
is as follows (the State from which each member comes is added in
brackets) :
Ministers in the Cabinet:
Prime Jfinisler. The Right Hon. Robert Gordon Menzies, C.H., Q.C.,
M.P. (V.).
Treasurer. The Right Hon. Harold Edw(trd Halt, M.P. (V.).
Deputy Prime lllinislcr and Minister for Trade. The Right Hon. John
McEwen, M.P. (Country Party, V.).
Minister for External Affairs and Minister in charge of the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Re.search Organization . The Right Hon. Richard
Gardincr Casey, C.H., D.S.O., M.C., M.P. (V.).
Minister for Defence. The Hon. Athol Gordon Townley, M.P. (Tas.).
Vice-President of the Executive Council, LecLder of the Senate and Minister
for National Development. Senator the Hon. William Henry Spooner, M.M.
(N.S.W.).
Jliinister for Civil Aviation. Senator the Hon. Shane Dunne Paltridge
(W.A .).
Minister for Territories. The Hon. Paul Meernaa Caed\'1alla Hasluck,
M.P. (W.A.).
Mini8ter for Labour and National Service. The Hon. William McMahon,
M.P. (N.S.W.).
Postmaster-General. The Hon. Charles William Davidson, O.B.E., ;111.P.
(Country Party, Q.).
Minister for Immigration. The Hon. A. R. Downer, M.P. (N.S.W.).
Attorney-General. 'I'he Hon. Sir Garfield Barwick, Q.C., M.P. (N.S.W.).
Ministers not in tho Cabinet:
Mini8ter for Repatriation. Senator the Hon. Sir Waiter Jackson Cooper,
M.B.E. (Country Party, Q.).
Minister for Ilealth. The Hon. Donald Alastair Cameron, O.B.E.,
M.P. (Q.) .
.Minister for the Army. The Hon. John Oscar Cramer. M.P. (N.S.W.).
Minister for Air. The Hon. Fredcrick Meares Osborne, D.S.C., l\I.P.
(N.S.W.).
Minister for Social Services. The Hon. Hugh Stevenson Roberton, l\1.P.
(Country Party, N.S.W.).
Minister for Customs and Excise. Senator the Hon. Norman Henry
Denham Henty (,fas.).
Minister for Primary Industry. The Hon. C. F. Aderman, M.P. (Country
Party, Q.).
Minister for Supply. The Hon. A. S. Hulme,M.P. (Q.).
Jfinister for th e Interior and Minister for Works. The Hon. G. Frceth,
M.P.(W.A.).
Jlinister for tI,e Navy. Senator the Hon. J. G. Gorton (V.).
Minister for Shipping and Tmnsport. The Hon. Hubert Opperman (V.).
Ph. Act, of th. Parliament of tI.. Commonwealth of Australia passed from 1901 to 1950 ana in
forc< on 1 Jan. 1961: to which i, prefixed the CommomoeaUh Of .dustralia Constitution Act.
6 vols. C,nberra,1036. With annual supplement, 1~51 to date
Pa'liarM7~af'1/ Handbook and Reco,d 0 Eleclions fo, the Comrrwnwealth of A ust.alia. Canberra,
1915 to date
The Fede1'al Guide: a handbook of the o'ganization and /Unclio"s 01 CcmamonlJ!ealth government
dl!pa,IT7>n1ls. Prime M/nuter', Deparlme7lJ. Canberra, 1924 to date
Crisp, L. F., The Pa,liamnIlaf'1/ GOffmment of the Commonwealth of Australia. 2nd ed.
Londor, 19~5. The AlUlralian Ftderal Labou, i'artv, 1901--IH. London, 1955
MlIler, J. D. B., Au3l,al/an (lopernmenJ and Politic,,: an lru,oductory survey. London,
19~4
Nlcholas, H. S., The Australian Constitution. 2nd ed. Sydney, 1952
Parker, "El. S., Public Service RecruitmenJ in Au,t,alia. Melbourne, 1942
Paton, G, W. (cd.), The Ccmam"."..ealth of Australia: its LaUls and Con&litution. London,
1952
Sawer, G" Aust,alian Federal Politics and Law 1901-1929. Melbourne, 1956.-Australian
GovernueTU To·daV. 6th ed. Melbourne, 1958
WyneB, W. A., LegislaJivt, Executive and Judicial POUlers in Aust,alia, 2nd ed. Sydney,
1956
STATE GOVERNMENT. In each of the 6 States (New South Wales, Vic·

toria, Qlleensland, South Australia, \Vestern Australia, Tasmania) there is a
State government whose constitution, powers and laws continue, subject to
changes embodied in the constitution of the Commonwealth and subsequent
alterations and agreements, a8 they were before federation. The system
of govemment is the same as that described above for the Commonwealth-
i.e., the sovereign, her representative (in this case a governor), an upper and
lower house of parliament (except in Queensland, where the upper house was
abolish(,d in 1922), a cabinet led by the premier and an executive council.
Amongt,t the more important functions of the State governments are those
relating to education, health, hospitals and charities, law, order and public
safety, business undertakings such as railways and tramways, and publio
utilities such as water supply and sewerage. In the domains of education,
hospitals, justice, the police, penal establishments, and railway and tramwlty
operatic In, State government activity predominates. Care of the public
health f,nd recreative facilities are shared with local government authorities
and the Commonwealth government, social services other than those referred
to above are now primarily the concern of the Commonwealth government,
and the operation of public utilities is shared with local and semi-govern.
mental authorities. Other activities of State governments pertain to lands
Hnd surveys, agriculture, forestry and public works, including roads (the
latter shared with local and semi.governmental authorities) .
Deakln, ) •. , The Federal Story. Melbourne, 1944
LOC.\L GOVERNMENT. The system of municipal government is broauly

the 8ame throughout the Commonwealth, although local government legisla.
tion is a State matter.
Each State is sub-divided into areas known variously as municipalities,
cities, boroughs, towns, shires, district councils or road districts, and
numbering in all 912. Within these areas the management of road, street
anu bridge construction, health, sanitary and garbage services, water supply
and sewerage, and electric light and gas undertakings, hospitals, fire brigadeR,
tramways and omnibus services and harbours is, in varying degree, the
duty of Illected aldermen and councillors. The scope of their duties, however,
differs considerably, for in all States the State government, either directly
or through semi.governmental authorities, also carries out these types of
services. In some instances, e.g., in New South Wales, a number of local
governnent authorities combine to conduct a public undertaking such "~
the 811p:~ly of water or electricity.
AUSTRALIA ,159
British Commonwealth and Australian
Country foreign represento.tivcs represento.tives
Austria 3 Dr J. Mallz'
Belgium' W. Stevens SirEdwillMcCarthy,C.B.E .
Brazil' A. B. de Almeiua D. Mo.ckinnon, C.B.E.
Burma' U Than Hb 4 A. H. Loomes
Cambodia' Poc Thieun F. H. Stuart
Canada' T. W. L. MacDermot Maj .• Gen. Sir Waiter
Cawthorn, C.B., C.I.E ..
C.B.E.
Ceylon 1 B. F. Perera, C.M.G., J. C. G. Kevin
O.B.E.
China' . Dc Chen Chih·mai
Denmark' F. H. Hergel, O.B.E.·
Finland' T. 1. Kala 4
France' R. Sivan Dr. E. R. Wo.lkcr, C.B.E .
Germanv' Dc Hans Miihlenfelu Sir Alan Watt, C.B.E.
Ghana " Stewart Jo.mieson
Greece! G. K. A. Christodulo
India' . ~alllerendranath Sen W. R. Crocker, C.B.E.
Indonesia' Dr A. Y. Helmi P. Shaw
Irish Repu blic' 8. Kennan' N. St C. Deschamps'
Israel' . M. Yuval B. C. Ballard
Italy' . Eugenio Prato H. A. McClure Smith,
C.V.O.
Japan '. K. Narita L. R. MeIntyre, C.B.E.
Laos 3 • W. D. Forsyth, O.B.E.
Malaya' Gunn Lay Teik, O.B.E. T. K. Critchley
Malta' . Capt. G. F. L. Stivala,
O.B.E.
Netherlands' A. H . Lovink Sir Ed. McCarthy, C.B.E.
New Zealand' F. J. Jones Vice· Admiral Sir John
Collins, K.B.E., C.B.
Pakistan' .1. G. Kharas A. R. Cutler, V.C., C.B.E.
Philippines' Dr J. F. Imperial A. T. Stirling, C.B .E.
Singapore, Brunei,
Sarawak, North
Borneo 6 D. McNieol
Sweden 3 C. A. V. R. 13crgenstrahlc
Thailand' Nai Vadhana Isarabhakdi J. K. Wo.ller, O.B.E.
U. S.S . R.~ I. F. Kurdyukov T. W. Cutts 4
Union of S. Africa' A. M. Hamilton O. L. Davis
United Arab Re·
public 3
U.K.' Lieut.·Gen. Sir WilIiam The Rt. Hon. Sir Eric
Oliver, K .C.B., O.B.E. Harrison, K .C.V.O.
United Na tions' .Ja\lJ es Plimsoll, C.B.E.
U.S.A .' Williaru J . Sebald Howard Beale, Q.C.
Uruguay 3 W. Rios'
Vietnam' W. D. Forsyth, O.B.E.
1 H igh Commissioner. I Ambassador. • Minister.
, Cbarg6 d'Affaires. 6 Commissioner.
AREA AND POPULATION

Estimated population 1 on 31 March 1959:
Per
States and Territories Al'ea 100 sq.
(capitals in brackets) (sq. miles) Males F emales Total m iles
New South Wales (Sydney) 309,433 1,876,176 1,869,025 3,745,201 1,210
Victoria (Melbourne) 87,884 1,408,274 1,388,685 2,796,959 3,183
Queensland (Brisbane) 667,000 730,608 698,048 1,428,656 214
Soutb Au,tralia (Adelaide) 380,070 462,996 451,767 914,763 241
Western .~ustralia (perth). 975,920 366,345 348,224 714,569 73
Tasmania (Hobart) . 26,215 178,590 165,400 343,990 1,312
Northern Territory (Darwin) 523,620 10,95'1 8,793 19,747 ·1
Australia)l Capital Territory
(CanbeTa) 939 23,872 20,908 H,780 4,769
Tota . 2,971,081 5,057,815 4,950,850 10,008,665 337
1 Exc· uding full blood aboriginals. Those in employment camps, etc., numbered 23,869
at the 1947 census. The nomadic habits of the tribes in the wild state render close computa-
tion diflicllt. Half-caste Australian aboriginals numbered 27,179 in 1947 and 31,359 in 1954.
For iates subsequent to the census of 30 June 1954 the estimated popu-
lation in each State represents the population ascertained at the census,
plus nal;ural increase an d recorded net ntigration into the State since the
census. As complete records of interstate migration are not available, the
estimat"d State populations are approximate and subject to revision.
The number of occupied dwellings in Australia (at 1954 census) was
2.380,3e·3, distributed as follows : New South Wales, 912,877; Victoria,
660,690; Queensland, 339,328; South Australia, 215,301 ; Western
Australia, 162,823; Tasmania., 78,789; Northern Territory. 3,427;
Australian Capital Territory. 7.118_ There were also 112.594 unoccupied
dwellin~:s_ New houses completed numbered, 75,536 in 1955-56; 65.540
in 19:)6--57; 71,179 in 1957-58, and 78,682 in 1958-59.
VITAL STATISTICS for 1958:
I nfantile
St.a.tes and Territories :Marriages Di<lorccs 1 Births Deaths Migration' mortality
New South 'Vales 2:3,55 4 3,240 80,045 32,350 17,494 21·29
Victoria. 20,649 1,717 61,269 23,625 32,640 19·23
Queenslard 10,2,5 767 33,872 11,455 974 19·40
South AU!:tralia 6,505 497 20,0-17 7,743 9,485 22·40
Western l,,-ustralia 5,038 5H 16,731 r1,554 2,192 21·52
Tasmania :},475 165 8,568 2,708 -181 19·49
Northern rerritory . 201 16 697 106 16 31-56
dust. Cap. Terr. 324 37 1,275 182 2,746 18·04
Tot.o l 74,001 6,983 222,504 83,723 65,366 20'49
1 Includes nullities of marriage and judicia] separatiOns.
Recorded net interstate and ovcrsea. ' Rate per 1,000 live births.
The birth rate in 1958 was 22'6; rate of marriages, 7'51; rate of
mortality, 8·5 per 1,000 of mean population.
Overseas arrivals during 1958 numbered 230,264 and departures 164,898.
Of thes" 109,857 were long-term and permanent arrivals and 44,978 were
long-ter:n and permanent departures.
Bureau of Census and Statistics, DtmoflTaphy_ Canberra, 1911-68
Australiar. Institute of PoJitical Science, Australia and the Migrant. Sydney, 1963.-The
Au.trallan Political Partv Svstem. Sydney, 1954.- ltalians and Oermaru in Australia.
Melboul1le, 1954
Berndt, R. M., and C. H., Th_ First Australians. Sydney, 19,2
Borrie, W. D., Population Trend8 and Policies. Sydney, 1948 .-lmmigralion: ~tlJtralia
Problem! and Prospects. Sydney and London, 1949
Elkin, A. P., The Australian Aborigines. 3rd ed. Sydney, 1954
Fitzpatrick, B., The Australian Peopl_, 1788-1945. Melbol1rne, 1947
r. odewyckx, A., P~opl~ for Australia: a study in popUlation problem.s. Melbourne, 1956
AUSTRALIA 461
RELIGION
Under the constitution the Commonwealth cannot make any law to
establish any religion, to impose any religious observance or to prohibit the
free exercise of any religion, nor can it require a religious test as qualification
for office or public trust under the Commonwealth. The figures in the
table refer to those religions with the largest numbers of adherents at the
time of the census of 1954. The census question on religion was not obliga-
tory, however, and no reply was made in respect of 855,819 persons. In
1957 the Society of Friends had 808 members.
State. and Church of Roman hletho- Presby. Other Non
'rerritories England Catbolic' dist terian Clui.tian Christian Total
N.S.W. 1,466,571 844,453 275,188 302,984 J 96,612 21,287 3,107,095
Victoria. 832,473 663,654 252,802 327,422 194,681 26,299 2,197,331
Queensland 454,095 316,96Z 146,456 151,586 114,586 2,409 1,186,094
8. Australia 223,319 125,770 193,234 30,778 129,439 1,432 703,972
Vl. Au ~ tr a lia 268,135 143,489 68,489 37,669 52,021 2,929 572,722
Tasmania. 147,407 53,042 38,236 15,601 25,195 256 279,743
North. Terr. 5,271 4,279 1,721 1,200 1, 325 117 n913
Aust. Cap . Terr. 11,579 9,337 1,807 3,006 1,884 88 27,701
Total. 3,408,850 2,060,986 977,933 870,242 715,743 54,817 8,088,571
The foregoing figures exclude indefinite, 18,456; no religion, 23,684; no reply, 855,819.
, Includes Catbolics «0 described).
EDUCATION
The Second World War, with the necessity for the technical training of
civilian and service personnel, first brought the Commonwealth to any
extent into the field of education. Post-war developments were the
Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme, the constitution of the
Commonwealth Office of Education (an advisory and research body main·
taining liaison with other countries and t he State systems) and the
establishment at Canberra of the Australian National University. During
1958-59 the Commonwealth Government spent £A27m. on education and
research.
Primary and secondary education is undertaken by the State, some·
times termed' publie', schools and the so-called' private' schools, the bulk
of which, though privately managed, cater for all classes of the community.
They include the church schools, the most numerous being those of the
Roman Catholics. The following is a summary for 1957 of State and private
school education:
Net State
Net o~llendi-
e~l'enditure on
Scholars ture on education,
States (nve rage weekly State SCience,
and Schools Teachers enrolment) schools art
Territories State Prit'ate State Private State Private (£A1,000) (£.A.l,OOO)'
N.S.W.' 2,639 788 17,486 6,542 532,RI3 172,720 36,983 44,380
Victoria. 2,073 US2 12,728 4,047 355,220 141,886 ~5,705 t 23,225
Queensland 1,559 296 7,637 2.235 214,301 ' 63,510 10,706' lZ.297
S. Australia . 653 161 5,109 1,264 J.11,415 29,924 8,573 9,873
W. Australia. 499 291 3,796 1,1 34 105,726 33,650 81,34]1 ~,593
Tasma.nia. 278 52 2,279 454 58,.1 63 11,049 4,464 ' 5,346
North. Terr. 10 89 11 2,359' u80 261'
- - - - ---
Total 7,711 2.122 49,124 15,690 1,410,297 453,219 94,826 115,7H
, 1956-57. ' Include. Australian CapItal Territory.
a Census enrolrnrnt 1 All;;. • Average daily en.rolmeJlt.
This table excludes. in general. technical education. but expenditure on

this is included in the last column. together with expenditure on universities.
agricultural education. public libraries, museums, etc. Commonwealth
government and private school expenditure is not included.
The Australian National University at Canberra was constituted under
the A1ll!tralian National University Act 1946. Under this Act, the univer-
sity may establish research schools, and is required to provide facilities for
post.grHduate research. The research schools established are the John
Curtin School of Medical Research, the Research School of Physical
Science I. the Research School of Social Sciences and the Research School
of Pacific Studies. Each department of the research schools accepts a small
number of graduate research students, the general minimum entran('.a require-
ment being a Master's degree or its equivalent in a university of senior stand-
ing. I~. 1958 the academic staff numbered 153, and 95 research students
were being trained.
For the other universities see the various States.
Technical education is provided for in more thlln a hundred State schools
and coEeges.
Oinfmas (1958). There were 1,822 cinemas with a seating capacity of
1.263.41;8.
Neuspapers (1959). There were 14 metropolitan daily newspapers in
Australia with a combined circulation of 3m. Of these, 3 papers published
in Melbourne accounted for 1·2m. and 4 published in Sydney for 1·3m.
Australia, Council lor Educational Research. Reoi"" oJ Education in Australia, 1948-54
Melbourne. 195G.
Baker. S. J .• The Au.,tralian Langualje. Sydney. 1945
Butts, R. F. (ed.), .i3Sumptionl Underlying Australian Education. Melbourne, 1956
Mitchen. A. G .• The Pronunciation DJ English in Australia. Sydney. 1946
Radford, W. C., Tht Non·Got'ern'11lfflt Schools of Australia: a descripti.fI~ and statistical account.
Melbourne. 1953
SOCIAL WELFARE
The Commonwealth Social Services Act 1947-58 provides for the pay-
ment 0 ·' age pensions to men 65 years of age and over, and to women 60
years of age and over, who have lived in Australia or an Australian territory
for at least 20 years. and of invalid pensions to persons 16 years of age
and over. who have lived at least 5 years in Australia and have there become
totally incapacitated for work or permanently blind. The maximum rate of
pension is £A227 I Os. a year, but this is reduced when a person receives income
exceedhlg £A182 a year from other sources or holds property (not count-
ing hie .uome and personal possessions) valued at more than £A200. Blind
persons are not su bject to this means test. During 1958-59 expenditure on
age and invalid pensions was £AI29,571,447 and expenditure on funeral
henefits in respect of pensioners' deaths was £A345,600.
A rr.aternity allowance is paid without means test in respect of every
viable c.hild born (alive or dead) in Australia. The rates are £A15 where
there are no other children under 16 years; £A16 where there are one or two
other c::Uldren under 16; £A17 10s. where there are three or more other
children under 16; in addition, £A5 is paid for each additional ehild born
at a birth. Expenditure during 1958-59 on maternity allowances was
£A3.5911.102.
ChiU endowment is paid for children under 16 years at the rate of 5s.
per week for first or only child and 10s. per week for other children. Ex·
penditure during 1958-59 was £A67.539.615.
AUSTRALIA 463
A payment of £A4 128. 6d. per week is made to widows maintaining
(·hildren under 16 years of age (plus 108. per week for each child after the
first in her custody), and of £A3 158. per wcek to widows 50 years and over
not maintaining childrcn. A special allowance of £A3 158. per week, for
not more than 26 weeks (in cases of pregnancy, until the birth of the child)
following the death of the husband, is also provided for widows under 50
years in necessitous circumstances but not maintaining children. An
allowance of £A3 158. per week is made to a woman whose husband has
been imprisoned for more than 6 months if she is over 50 years of age or
maintaining a child or children under 16 years of age. The cost of widows'
pensions in 1958-59 was £AI0,777,127.
Unemployment and sickness benefits are paid to persons between the
ages of 16 and 65 (males) and 16 and 60 (females) who have suffered a loss
of income through unemployment or sickness and are not in receipt of an
agc, invalid, widow's, service pension or T.B. allowance. Claimants must
ha\'e resided in Australia for the 12 mont.hs preceding the claim, or they
must satisfy the Director·General of Social Serviccs that they intend to
reside permanently in Australia. The number of claims granted and
amounts paid during 1955-59 were : Unemployment, 145,016, £A5,959,475;
sickne.~s, 5S,6S0, £A2,196,527; special, 13,701, £A496,30S (including special
benefit payments to migrants in reception and training centres).
Under the National Health Act 1953-5S, the Commonwealth Govem-
ment pays 128. per day for a pensioner or a dependant of a pensioner and
Ss. per day for all patients in public and approved private hospitals. A
further 48. per day is payable to a patient who contributes to a registered
hospital benefit organization for a fund benefit of between 68. and 158. lid.
per day, and at the rate of 12.s. per day if a peraon contributea for 16s. or
Illore per day. The cost of these services in 1955-59 was £AI4,S02,290.
Since Sept_ 1950 certain life-saving and disease-preventing drugs have
been provided free of charge. The cost of these bcnefits in 1955-59 was
£AI8,455,424.
The pensioners' medical service (begun 21 Feb. 1951) provides free
medical service and pharmaceutical benefits to eligible pensioners and their
dependants. Expenditure was £A6,323,S30 in 1958-59.
The medical benefit scheme has operated since July 1953. Under it thE!
Commonwealth Government subsidizes the payment of medical expenses of
members of registered organizations. Expenditure was £A 7,779,451 in
1955-59.
The Tuberculosis Act 1948 provides for diagnosis, treatment, after-care
and allowances to sufferers and their dependants. The Commonwealth
Government meets approved additional maintenance cost and provides aU
capital money required. Cost of this service in 1958-50 was £AI,062,609
for allowances, £A4,786,602 for maintena nce payments to the states and
£Al,41l,S64 for capital expenditure.
Service pensions are paid to (a) aged ex-members of the forces, (bi
elt-members of the forces who are permanently unemployable and their de·
pendants, (c) ex-members of the forces suffering from tuberculosis and t.hcir
dependants. The numbers of pensioners (dependants stated in brackets) in
each class at ao June 1959 were : (a) 16,973; (b) 1l,S!)S (11 ,956); (c) 1,433
(2,112).
COMMONWEALTH SOCIAL SERVICES: Amounts (in £AI,OOO) paid in

1958-59:
Unem-
ployment,
sickness
Age and Child Maternity and
Stal,. or invalid endow- \Vidov.'s' allow- speci al War Service
'l.'erritory pensions ment pensions ances benefits pensions pensions
N.S.W, 63,654 24,293 4,276 1,266 3,484 16,813' 2,234'
Victoria 31,645 18,369 2,545 1,020 1,920 15,201 1,387
Quecnsbnd 19,569 10,339 1,800 646 1,589 7,216 995
S. Austr,llia 11,575 6,308 947 328 682 4,846' 584'
W. Australia 8,622 5,198 800 267 837 3,947 776
TA.smauia. . 4,218 2,502 371 139 222 2,229 2H
Northern Terr.. 54 201 7 11 3
Aust. Chp. Ten. 162 318 23 20 15
Abroad 72 12 9 2 605
'Total . 129,571 67,540 10,777 3,599 8,652 50,857 6,220
, [ncludes Al1Strallan Capital Territory. ' Includes Northern Territory.
Number of pensions etc., in force at 30 June 1959:
Unem-
ployment,
sickness
Age and Child Maternity and
State Or invalid endow.. Widows' allow- special War Service
Terr.tory pensions ment pensions ances benefits pensions pensions
N.S.W. 243,!l87 543,246 19,628 80,289 16.359 213,105 1 14,992'
Victoria 149,284 396,476 12,141 63,428 8,701 184,975 10,692
Queensland 00,482 207,998 8,077 34,266 6,266 88,143 7,344
S. Australia 63,784 136,13 9 'i,343 20,541 2,134 67,H7' 4,184 '
W. Australia 40,u70 106,752 3,833 16,594 3,716 56,008 5,009
Tasmauil. 18,504 50,8 38 1,663 8,608 1,031 27,621 2,151
N ortberr l Terr. . 268 3,255 31 682 9
Auot. Ca). Terr .. 763 6,576 90 1,276 49
Abroad 236 95 5,048
Totd. . 597,6~2 '1,451,516 ' 49,706 225,779' 38 ,265 642,047' 44,372
1 Includes Australian Capital Territory. ' Includes Northern Territory.
• AgE 513,789, invalid 83,853. , Endowed children, 3,171,823.
• Nunber of allowances granted during 12 months ended 30 June 1959,
• InCludes 509,698, Second World War.
Books of Reference
Hasluck, P. M, C" Nat.ive Welfare in Australia. Perth, 1953
Tew, M., Work and Welfare in Australia: Studies in Social Economics. Melbourne, 1951
Select Bil,liographv on Social Welfare in Australia. Dept. 01 Social Services. Canberra, 1953
JUSTICE
The judicial power of the Commonwealth is vested in the High Court of
Australia (the federal supreme Court) in the federal Courts created by
Parliament (the Federal Court of Bankruptcy and the Commonwealth
Industrial Court) and in the State Courts vested by Parliament with federal
jurisdic tion.
High Court. The High Court consists of a Chief Justice and 6 other
Justice >, appointed by the Governor·General in Council. The Constitution
confers on the High Court original jurisdiction, inter alia, in all matters
arising under treaties or affecting consuls or other foreign representatives,
and bel;ween the States of the Commonwealth, or a State and the Common-
wealth. Parliament may make hws conferring original jurisdiction on the
High C)urt in matters arising under the Constitution or under a ny laws made
by Parliament.
The High Court may hear and determine appeals from its own Justices
exercising original jurisdiction, from any other federal Court, from a Court
exercis:.ng federal jurisdiction, and from the Supreme Courts of the States.
AUSTRALIA 465
There is a limited right of appeal from the High Court to the Privy Council,
and in certain important types of constitutional disputes the leave of the
High Court so to appeal is necessary.
Federal Courts. There are two other federal courts which have been
treated to exercise special juristliction. They are the Commonwealth
Industrial Court (see below) and the Federal Court of Bankruptcy. The
Federal Court of Bankruptcy consists of a Judge appointed by the Governor-
General in Council. The State Supreme Courts have been vested with
federal jurisdiction in bankruptcy.
State Courts . The general federal jurisdiction of the State Courts
extends, subject to certain restrictions and exceptions, to all matters in
which the High Court. has juristlict.ion. In matters of lIon·federal jurisdic-
tion appeal is still possible, as a matter of law, from the State Courts direct
to the Privy COIUlCil.
Industrial Courts. The chief industrial tribunals of the Commonwealth
are the Industrial Court, constituted by judges, and the Conciliation and
Arbitration Commission, constituted by judges and commissioners. The
Commonwealth Industrial Court deals with questions of law, the judicial
interpretation of awards, imposition of penalties, etc. The Commission's
functions include settling industrial disputes, making awards, determining
the standard hours of work, the basic wage, etc.
Daalman, J ., Outline of Law in Australia. 2nd ed. Sydney, 1955
Barry, Patoll "nd Sawer, The Criminal La·1O in Austra/v... London, 1048
Dawes, E . N., Australian PTQprietarv and Prit'ate Coml>anies: law and management. Sydney,
19:>:;
Portns, J . H ., 'l'he Dcvel.(jpmenl Dj A.1tstralian, Trade Union. Law. Melbourne, 1958
Sugerman, B., and others (ed.), ..i.l$traiian Digest, 18t5-19.13, Of the rep01ted decision. of tile
Au.•traiian court3 and of Australian appeals to tll" Privy Ccnlltcil with lable 01 cas... Sydney,
1934, aod annllal supplements
Yorston, RE., A1l3tralian Mercantile Law 9th cd. Sydney, 1957
FINANCE
CO~IMONWEALTH. In 1929, lmder a financial agreement between the
Commonwealth and States, approved by a referendum, the Commonwealth
took over all State debts existing on 30 June 1927 and agreed to pay
£A7,584,912 a year for 58 years towards the interest charges thereon, and
to make substantial contributions towards a sinking fund to extinguish
existing debts in 58 years and future debts in 53 years. The Common-
wealth Government arranges all borrowing for both Commonwealth and
States through a loan council consisting of representatives of Commonwealth
and State governments. Since 1942 the Commonwealth Government alone
has levied taxes on incomes. In return for vacating this field of taxation,
the States are reimbursed by a grant from the Commonwealth out of revenue
received. All figures in the following table are £AI,OOO.
Commonwealt h f., udget 19 ~5 -56 1956- 57 1957- 58 1958-59
Rev'enue :
Customs 87,508 68,59 , i l ,-i17 71,671
Excise 168 .~r. 4 217,440 23],334 236,264
Sales ta, 110,001 125,752 137,777 143,617
Land tax . 1 11
Estate duty 10,120 12, 71~ 13,774 13;309
Income ta.3:es 573.0S8 G20 , ~9S 650,.110 608,660
Pay-roll tal: 45,543 48,C75 48,552 49,619
Entertainmcllts tax -1
Gilt duty. . . . 1.820 1,940 2,205 2,000
Postmaster·General's Dept. . 79,341 90,074 96,776 103,.167
.Nole. :M inus s g
i n ( ._ ) indicates cz.ccss of refund s .
ComlqoDwealtlt bmlget 1955-56 19,6-~7 19,7-~g 1'58-59

Revenue (<<mId.):
Broadcl.Sting and television
services 3,897 ',301 6,876 8,618
All oth.r' . 57,877 121,04' 64,330 58,835
Total revenue 'I 1,138,358 1,311,836 1,323,771 1,296,050
Expenditure:
From revenne:l 1,138,358 1,311,835 1,323,771 1,296,0,0
From 11ans 3 43,995 41,068 45,164 88,182
Tota~ e~enditurc J ,18~,353 1,355,903 1,368,935 1,384,232
Including:
Defcnc·3 services : '
From revenue. . . 191,408 189,690 186,295 153,066
War at d Repatriation (19 J 4-
18.1939-45) service,,'
From loan..C\ . 7,622 8,019 8,703 5,700
FroDl revenue. 154,766 142,463 163,130 163,470
Subsidies. . . 17,393 15,014 a,660 17,29,1
Age and invalid pensions 101,626 109,210 121,577 129,5;2
Maternity allowances. 3,410 3,482 3,560 3,699
Child endowment 60,~81 57,037 58,734 67,540
\Vfdow:i' pensions . . 7,723 8,862 9,832 10,777
Unemployment and sh.:koess
benefite . 2,563 4,000 7,331 8,652
Hospitll benefits 9,563 9,813 10,823 14,802
FUDernl benefits. 319 341 325 346
Oommonwealth rebaLiliLa-
tic n Hervice . 5% 6G8 608 670
Pbann lCeutical benefits 10.380 9,924 12,911 18,455
Tuberculosis benefits . 5,697 6,:116 5.766 5,S4!)
Postmhster·Generai"s Dept. ' 114,597 121,918 131,763 136,833
Broadcasting and television' 6,407 9,398 8,917 9,7 79
Debt r, ~demption reserve
Loan I:onsolidation and in-
vestment reserve 61,613 194,793 10t,378 27,9-17
Payments to States:
Fro[} revenne . 220,642 244,077 270,667 286,591
l<'roDlloan' 33,200 32,160 33,160 35,810
1 Includes unrequlred balances of Trust Accounts 1954-55,£6,237 ,000 ; 19~5-~6, £1,981,000;
1956-57, £69,772,000 ; 1957-68,£3,991,000; 1968-69, £5,721,000.
• Excludes interest payable on States' debte (recoverable from States).
• Net expenditure on war, works, etc.; excludes paytnents 01 Australian currency proceed~
01 International Bank doUar loans to national debt sinking fund, of proceeds of Swi. ,s loan.
to Swiss loan trust account, and of proceeds of Canadian loan to Canadian loan trust account.
• Tnc'udes capital works and services.
, Tnc'udes capital works and services and debt charges.
• Ad"ances to States for housing,
The est.imated receipts, excluding loan, for 1959-60 amount to £AI,392m.
and th" expenditure for purposes other than defence services £Al,236m.
The est.imated defence and war and repatriation expenditure is £A328m.
and, in addition, £A37m. will be chargeable to loan fund.
The following table shows the public debt of the Commonwealth and the
States at 30 June 1959:
Matnriog in Ourrency Commollwea}~b State. Total
London £1,000 Stg 6'1,040 2G7,S61) 331,905
New York . £1,000' 73,794 30,003 103,797
Australia £1,000 Auat. 1,496, 3;;~ 2,093,;;>2 3,690,106
Switzerland. £1,000' 12,251 12,251
Canada £1,000' 2,842 2,8·12
T,·tal £1,000' 1,649,280 2,391,621 4,040,901
I Pa}able in dollars which have been converted on tbe basis of $4'866~ to £1.
• Oonverted to Australian currency at the rate of 1,000 Swiss franc. to £ Al1)2 1.•. lad.
• TOtl} 'face' or 'book' value. No adjustment has been made for the diff~rences in
currency ID2utioned above.
AUSTRALIA 467
The nominal annual interest payable (taking no account of exchange)
was £147,801,000, an average rate per cent of £3 138. 2d. The nominal
amount of interest payable in London amounted to £12,186,000 (excluding
sllspended interest on war debt due to British Government), in New York
to £4,580,000, in Switzerland to £475,000 and in Canada to £1l4,OOO.
The average rate of interest on internal debt at 30 June, 1930, 1940,
and 1959 was 5'27%, 3·62% and 3·64% respectively.
Debt per head of population at 30 June 1959 was £401 128. 7d., while the
annual interest charge, exclusive of exchange and suspended interest of
£3,919,774 on war debt duo to British Government, amounted to £14 138. IOd.
per head.
STATES. The following tables present a summary of the revenue and
expenditure of the States during 1958-59, showing, under general headings,
the main sources of income and items of expenditure (in £AI,OOO):
Business Coromon-
Sliu.tes revenne noder- we.alth Lands and
(Preliminary) Taxation takings payments I other Total
New South Wales 37,446 93,307 79,012 31,12;; 240,890
Victoria . 30,504 38,551 66,709 25,486 151,250
Queensland 11,161 35,129 34,893 17,821 99,007
South Australia 10,217 20,535 25,072 12,206 68,031)
\Vestem AlLitmlia 5.184 18,1)40 27,748 9,096 60,068
Tasmania 3,870 11,950 6,0:n 21,851
Total 98,38:i 205,562 235,384 lOI,7Gj 641.090

I Includes special grants and payments under t,be Tax Reimbursement.tl Act.
From revenue
Adminislra- From loan
Publ ic Business lion, 'Works - Netex--
States expenditure debl under- and social penditure
(Preliminary) charges takillgs 3ervice3 Total on work!i
New South \\Pales 30,553 86,027 124,265 240,845 64,496
Victoria 30,707 37,074 86,015 lfi3,796 44,449
Queensland 14,006 36,59-1 49,598 100,19S 21,024
South Austmlia 16,075 14,061 38,421 69,05. 24,169
We.-;tern Australla 10,74 3 20,297 30,713 61,753 16,760
Tasmania 6,94!! 872 14,945 22,759 12,975
Total 109,026 193,423 343,957 64S,40d 173,863
The aggregate revenue and expenditure (excluding loan) of Com-

monwealth and States combined during 1958-59 was respectively
£AI ,G86.920,OOO and £AI,694,232,OOO. Aggregate net loall expenditure on
works was £A222,67G,OOO.
r':nance (2 parts), Bureau of Census and Sta.l,istics. Canberra, 1907-195"/ 57
:..Valw'I.IlJ income and EXj>endilUre. DcpartDlellt of the Trea.<jury. Canherra, 1946 to date
Oampbell, \V. J ., Alulralian State Public Finance. Sydney. 1954
Cvpland, D.lt, The .!u3traUan. Economy. 6thed. Sydney,l!H_7 . -lnflalioll a~lExpan3ion:
Essays in the Australian Economy. M~lbollrnc, 1951.-The ConJfid of Expansion and
Stabilily; document. Teiatinq 10 du.'ITalian economic policy 1945-52, Melbourne 19~7
ibtcbford B. U., Puhlic Expenddure in Aw;trlllia. Du ke Univ. Press, 1959
1'ew, J. H . D.• Wealth and I-nc(Jme: all- at"'/YJis 0/ (he economic and financial systems Of
A1utralia and Gual Rrila:in . 2nd ed. Melbourne, 1955
DEFENCE
Army. The military forces of Australia are administered by a Military
B'lard, consisting of the Minister for the Army (President), the Chief of
th" General Staff (Chairman), Adjutant.-General, Quartermaster-General,
Mastel-General of the Ordnance, Deputy Chief of the General Staff, Citizen

Military Force Member, and the Secretary of the Department of the Army_
The military forces consist of the Australian Regular Army and the Citizen
MilitalY Forces together with the Australian Cadet Corps_
In peace the Regular Army comprises a field force, a nucleus of home
defence units, and a command training and administrative organization
design'ld to facilitate mobilization on the outbreak of war. The field force
i8 available for employment overseas to honour Australia's obligation to the
Unitec. Nations, to fulfil other treaty obligations or to carry out a British
Comm)nwealth defence task.
All youths of 18 years of age who are ordinarily resident in Australia are
liable for National Service, but only 12,000 are called up each year for train-
ing. This consists of 11 weeks full-time military training in the first year,
in special training units, followed by 3 years additional service in the Citizen
MilitalY Forces.
'rhll Australian Cadet Force is composed of students of educational
establilhments.
Th,) Commonwealth of AustmJia is divided into Commands, generally
corresponding with the boundaries of the States. They are Northern,
Eastern, Southern, Central, Western, Tasmania and Northern Territory
CoroID1nds, with headquarters at Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide,
Perth, Hobart and Darwin. Papua and New Guinea are the responsibility
of Northern Command.
On 30.June 1959 the strength of the Regular Army was 21,973 all ranks,
of whe,m 1,218 were serving abroad. The strength of the Citizen Military
Forces was 49,248, including 14,813 volunteers and 34,435 National Service-
men.
Navy. The overall control of the Royal Australian Navy is vested in
the Na.val Board, which consists of the :Minister for the Navy with 4 Naval
Memb"rs (First Naval Member and Chief of Naval Staff; Second Naval
Membor and Chief of Naval Personnel; Third Naval Member and Chief of
Naval Construction; Fourth Naval Member; and the Secretary, Depart-
Illent <,f the Navy). Headquarters of the Naval Board was, in 1959, trans-
ferred from Melbourne to Canberra. The operation and administration of
the Fl'3et is carried out by the Flag Officer Commanding H.M. Australian
Fleet.
Principal ships of the Royal Australian Navy:
Stan-
dard
dis- Armour Tor-
place- TUT- pedo Shaf<
COlD- ment Belt ret. Principal tubes bor.e- Speed
plot.ed Namo Tous In. In. armament 21 in. power Knots
Light Aircraft Carriers
1955 !!elbourne (ex-
Majestic). . 16,000 25 40· mm. A.A. 4~.000 24t
19·19 Eydney (ex-Terrible) 15,700 30 40-mm. A.A. 42,000 241
Cruiser
1936 Hobart. 7,105 6 6 ·in.; 84-in. 72,000 32,
A.A.
ExtellBively refitted in 1956, and placed in reserve.
'rh'lre are also 7 destroyers (3 'Daring,' :2 'Battle,' 2 'Tribal' class), 4

fast anti-submarine frigates converted from' Q' class destroyers, 13 frigates,
AUSTRALIA 469
() ocean minesweepers, 1 depo~ ship, 4 seaward defence motor launcheR, 5
boom defence vessels. 5 search and rescue launches, 16 general purpose
vessels, 4 fl eet tugs, I tieet auxiliary and 41 servicing craft. A new anti·
submarine frigat(), the Yarra, was launched at Williamstown Naval Dock·
yard on 30 Sept. 1958. and a sister ship, Parramatta, was launchcd at
Cockatoo Island Dockyard on 31 Jan. 1959.
Main units held in reserve (included above) consist of 1 aircraft carrier,
I cruiser, 1 destroyer, 1 fast anti·submarine frigate, 11' River' dass frigates
and 3 ocean minesweepers.
Naval dockYl1rds exist at Garden Island, Sydney, and Williamstown,
Victoria. Naval shipbuilding is carried out at Williamstown, at Cockatoo
Dock and Engineering Company, Sydney, or by private contract. The
main repair base and store depots are at Sydney.
The main training establishments are H.M.A.S. C'erbervs (Flinders Naval
Depot) in Victoria, H.M.A.S. Walson and H.M.A.S. Nirimba at Sydney,
H.M.A.S. Albatross (Naval Air Station) at Nowra, N.S.W., and H.M.A.S.
Gre8well (Royal Australian Naval College) at Jervis Bay, N.S.W. Reserve
training is conducted in naval establishments in all capital cities.
The Fleet Air Arm was established in 1948 as an integral part of the
Navy. Its operational squadrons, ashore and afloat, are equipped with Sea
Venom all·weather jet·fighters and Gannet turbo·prop anti·submarine
aircraft, and there is a squadron of Sycamore helicopters for' plane guard',
rescue and other duties, in addition to training units.
The serving strength at 30 June 1959 totalled 10,699 officers and
ratings.
The navy estimates for 1959- 60 totalled £A42,612,000.
Air Force. The Royal Australian Air Force is administered by the Air
Board which consists of the Chief of the Air Staff, the Air Member for
Technical Services, the Air Member for Supply and Equipment, the Air
Member for Personnel, the Citizen Air Force Member and the Secretary,
Department of Air. The entire operational organization is controlled by
Operational Command, with H .Q. at Sydney. Support Command has its
H.Q. in Melbourne.
Flying establishment comprises 16 squadrons, of which 3 are equipped
with Canberra bombers, 3 with Sabre fighters, 3 with Hercules, Dakota and
Convair transports, and 2 with Lincoln and Neptune lllaritime patrol.
bombers. Five Citizen Air Force squadrons are equipped with Vampires
and Meteors. As part of Australia's contribution to SEATO, 2 of the
fighter squadrons and onc bomber squadron, with their support units, are
based at Butterworth, Malaya.
At 1 Sept. 1959 the strength of the R.A.A.F. was as follows:
Permanent Air Force, 15,570; Active Citizen Air Force, 591; Active Re·
serve, 270, and General Reserve, 12,890.
,j,utrcUia in the War of 1939- 1945, cd. Gavin Lon~. 22 vols. Canberra, 1952 tI.
Bean. O. l<L W. (ed.), OjJicial History Of .<Iustralia in the War Of 1914-18. 12 vols. Sydney
1921 - 4R
McGuire. F. M., The Royal duslralian ]'favy. Melbourne, 1948
PRODUCTION
At 31 Dec. 1958, 684,908,000 acres, representing 36% of the total
area of Australia, were either unoecupied or occupied by the Crown; only
8'3% had been actually alienated (158,465,000 acres); 1·6% (30,Oll,OOO

acres) was in process of alienation, and 54'1% (1,028,108,000 acres) was
held under the various fonus of leases and licences.
Area and yield of the principal crops in 1957-58:
Total acreage Total yield Yield per acre
Crops (1,000 acres) (l,OOO bushels) (bushels)
Wheat (Ilrain) 8,848 97,566 11·0
Oats (grain) . 2,959 31,426 10·6
Barley (m'ain) 2,121 30,466 14·4
Maize (grain) . 18·1 5,630 30·6
(1,000 tons) (tons)
Hay .. 2,237 2,969 1·33
Potatoe, (oruinary) 118 575 4·88
Sugar cane (for crushing) 1176 9,249 24·62
Vincyar(l~ 131 550 1 4·42'
(1,000 gallons)
Wine .. 5S' S3,854
Orchard:; and fruit gardens 276
1 Dried grapes, 90,554 tons; table grapes, 18,143 tOIlS; wine grapes, 183,291 ton •.
t Pe)' productive acre. t Area under grapes for wine.
The following summary shows some of the more important items or

classes of production, classified by States:
Australia
(including
Produc ;ion, 1057-58 N.S.W. Vic. Q'ld S ..A.. W.A. Tas. Territories)
Area o[ crops (1,000
acres) 5,001 4,051 2,600 ~ ,907 ~)615 2~2 21,471
Production ot wheat
(1,000 bu.) 10,W3 32,134 G,6;J7 14,914 33,100 153 97,566
- - - - - - - - ---- - - - - - - - - - -
Number"fsheep (1 ,000) 65,410 27,090 22,274 Iv,237 1G,724 3,298 149,315
l>roduction of shorn
wool (1,000 lb.) . 1)17,053 259.9n 197,080 168,19,1 140,125 26,110 ] ,319,941
Nllmber"fcattie(l,OOO) 3,736 2,750 7,187 597 997 371 16,892
Production of factory
butter (tons) . . 29,939 86,236 32.~Sl 7,032 6,807 10,623 172,918
Production of factory
cheese (tons) . 5,041 17,271 S,119 11,167 l,H9 3·19 43,096
Number of pigs (1,000) 397 279
---------
,In 108 ]51
-------
63 1,423
Production of all meat
(toIlS,hone·inweight) 3n,u36 374,Q18 315,727 102,883 79,978 36,801 1,310,634
Productionolminerals 1
(value £.A.1,000) 66,091 P,888 lR,810 9,320 15,376 7,031 128,867
Total pr,mary produc·
tion ("alue £A1,000) 344,019 268,771 19~.341 101,217 92,262 40,131 1,045,354
Factory production
(value £A1,000) 757,862 566,476 US,9US 13 3,285 75,312 51,830 1,72S,7n'
1 1057. • Excluding Nortbern Territory and .A..C.T.
ThE mineral output was valued as follows (in £Al.000) :

Mineral 1957 1958 Mineral 1957 1955
Copper 13,974 14,7e5 Zinc. 3,655 3,364
Gold 16,048 16,2·17 Black coal 52,279 51,414
Iron Ore 4,205 4,447 Bro~vn coal 5,228 5,769
Lead 28,810 22,512
RuWe 8,577 4,510 Total (value of mining
TnDgstell ~,167 637 and quarrying) 166,705 155,946
AUSTRALIA 471
Gold production (fine oz.) in 1955, 1,049,039; 1956, 1,029,821; 1957,
1,083,941; 1958, 1,100,404.
Black coal (1,000 tons) mined in 1955, 19,275; 1956, 19,274; 1().';7,
19,919; 1958,20,424.
Statistics of the manufacturing industries in Australia in 1957-58:
Number of establishments, 53,988; workers employed, 1,073,807; salaries
and wages paid, £A929,200,000; value of plant and machinery, land and
buildings, £Al,873,037,OOO; value of materials and fuel and power used,
£A2,545,159,000; value of production, £Al,728,723,000: value of output,
£A4,273,882,000.
Estimated net value (in £Al,OOO) of the products of Australia:
Products 1953-.4 1954-66 19!j5-il6 1956-67 1957-68
Agricnlture 268,460 243,919 279,45; 254,861 244,530
Pastoral. 491,il6 461,464 446,780 597,681 447,247
Dairy, poultry, bees 173,164 166,983 187,179 171,867 156,975
Trapping, forestry, fisberies 54,635 57,735 64,990 68,618 67,735
Mining 104,875 I18,087 132,508 139.977 128,867
Manufacturing 1,231,113 1,365,.09 l,500,il4 1,622,120 1,728,723
T OTH . ~,323,S63 2,413,697 2,611,626 2,8{Jo,124 2,774,077
Book8 of Reference
Prirruzry Industri .., Z Parts (Rural, Non-rural). Bureau of Census and Statistics. OanberrA,
19.0-51 to 1957-58
Seconda"'J Indu.mies. Bureau of Census Ilnd Statistics. Canberra, 1936-37 to 1957-58
The Importance of Wool in ~u$tralia'" Naliornzllncome. Bureau ot Agricultural Economic!,
Canberra, 1952
Quarterly Review 01 .:19Ticullural Economics. Bureau o( Agricultural Economics. Cauberra,
1948 to date
..Wa. of Australian Resources. Departmentot National Development. Canberra, 1953 to date
Bulletin. Bureau 01 Agricultural Economics. Canberra, 1946 to date
Rtport on tM Australian Sugar Industry. Sugar Inquiry Committee. Canberra, 1962
Rural Australia: a GraphiClll Summary. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Sydney, 1952
01
TAe Structure and Capacity Australian Manufacturinglnduslri... Department of National
Dev.lopmentr-Divislon 0 Industrial Development. Melbourne, 1952
Developments in .dustralian Manufacturing IndUlltry. Department of Trade. Melbourne,
1956 to d.te
Survey of Manufacturirv; Industrv in .dUlltralia. Department of Trade. Melhourne, 1956 to
date
Tht Australian MinerallndUlltry. Department ot National Developmentr-Bure.u ot Mineral
Resources, Geology and Geophysics. MelLourne, 1048 to date
Economic Survey. Treasury. Canberra, 1950 to date
Andrews, J ., Australia's nnources and Their Utilization. 6th ed. Sydney, 1057
Austin, IL B., The Merino: past, present and probable. 4th cd. Syduey, 1950
Australasian Institute ot Mining anu Metallurgy. Proccedi1l{)s: new series. Melbonrne,
1912 to date
Barrett, O. L., aold ill Australia. Melloourlle. 1951
Beattle, W. A., A Survey Of tM Beef-catUe Industry of Australia. Melbourne, 1956
CaUagban, A. It., and MlIhngton, A. J., The Wheat Ind'lStry in Australia. Sydney, 1950
navid, T. W. E., Geology of Ihe Commonwealth of Australia. Ed. by W. n. llrowue. 3 vols.
London, 1950
Elford, H. S., and McKeown, M. R., Coal·mini1l{) in Justralia. Melbourno, 1947
Holmes, J. McD., Soil Erolion in .tiustralia and New Zealand. Sydney, 1940
James, \V., Wine in Australia. 2nd ed. Melbourne, 1955
La Nauze, J. A., Political Economy in Australia. Mebourne, 1949
Mun., H., 1'h' Australian Wool Industry. Sydney, 1950
Rou!thley, T. 0., Fish and Fisheries of AUlltralia. 2nd ed. Sydney, 1951
Shaon, E. O. G., An Economic ilistory of Australia. Melbourne.1U48
Sbannon, 1., Rural Industries in tile Australian Economy. Melbourne, 1955
:;haw, A. G. L., Ectmomic DI!'!'elopment Of Australia. 3rd ed. Melbourne, 1955. -Tlie Story
Of dustralia. London, 1955
Wadham, S.M., and Wood, G. L., Land Utilization in Australia. Rev. ed. Melbourne,
1950
Wood 9 G. L. (ed.)t Australia: 11$ ]It-sources and Dcre{opment. New York, 1947
Zicgler, O. L .. Snowy Saga . Sydney,lD56
472 THE BRITISH COMMO:r-'WEALTH AND EMPIRE
LABOUR
The trade unions in Australia. are very diverse in character. and range
from the small independent association to the large inter-etate organization.
which. in its turn. may be a branch of a British or international union.
As at 31 Dec. 1958 there were 370 separate unions with a total of 1.811.218
members.
In 1927 a central organization. now called the Australian Council of Trade
Unions, came into being. It consists of affiliated unions and affiliated
Metrop:>litan and/or State Labour Councils and Provincial Councils. It has
authority to deal with industrial matters of an inter·state character affecting
the trade union movement generally. It also submits to the Common·
wealth Government the names of persons suitable for selection as the
Australian workers' delegate to the arinual International Labour Confer·
ence.
The estimated number of civilian wage and salary earners in employment
in Ausj.ralia at 31 Dec. 1958 Wl\B 3.093.000 (2.255.000 males and 838,000
females) .
Bureau of Census aud Statistics, La~oltr Report. Canberra , 191 3- 1958
Fitzpatri,k, Drian, Short Histor.~ of the Australian Labour .Movement. 2nd ed. Melbomne,
1944. The British Empire in Australia: An J::conomic History, 1834-1939. 2nd ed.
MelboHrnc, 1949
Foenandl~rt O. de R. t Industrial RegulatioTt in Au~ttralia . Mel bourne" 1947. Studies ill
Austra!ian Labour Law and Relations . Melbourne, 1952 .-BeUer Emplol/fM1tt Relations a-n d
Other DS8ays in LabM<r. Sydney, 19M
Miller, J. D. B., Au.stralian Trade Unionism. Sydney, 1952
Walker, K. F., Indu.strialllelations in Australia. Harvard Ulliv. Press, 1956
COMMERCE
Thnughout Australia there are uniform customs duties. and trade
between the States is free. For 1958-59 the gross revenue collected from
customJ duties amounted to £A 77.014.896, and from excise to £A237.7z.!.340.
The tot.al net revenue from customs and excise for 1958-59. after allowing
for dra'lVbacks and repayments. was £A308,914,498.
Value of the total imports and exports for fiscal years ending 30 June,
in £Al.000 (f.o.b.):
Imports E:<parts (excluding ships' and aIrcraft stores)
Australian
product Re·exports Total
1954-55 843,742 766,883 8,281 774,164
1955-56 821,088 768,090 13,774 781,864
1956-57 718,991 979,244 13,662 992,906
1957-58 791.940 803,153 14,793 817,946
1958-59 796,599 794,831 16,63~ 811,'163
Customs tariffs provide for preferences to goods produced in and shipped

from the U.K. and Australia, and for reciprocal tariff agreements with other
countrbs. A trade agreement signed at the Imperial Economic Conference
at Otthwa, Canada. on 20 Aug. 1932. provides for increased preference
between the U.K . and the Commonwealth of Australia. Other reciprocal
tariff agreements in force are those with Canada (1931). New Zealand (1933).
South Africa (1935). Czechoslovakia (1936). Belgium-Luxembourg (1936).
France (1936), Switzerland (1938). Brazil (1939), Greece (1940). Israel (1951),
Iceland (1952), Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1955). Japan (1957).
I"edera"ion of Malaya (1958)
Principal commodities imported and exported in 1968-59:
AUSTRALIA 473
Value Value
(tAI,OOO Quantity (tAI,OOO Quantity
Imports f.o.b .) (1,000) Exports f.o.b.) (1,000)
Tea. . . . . 15,OS5 62,423 lb. nutter 24,956 173,189 lb.
Tobacco and preparations Oheese 4,467 32,282 lb.
thereof .. 14,510 39,526 lb. Eggs (in shell) 899 5,032 doz.
Trimmings a.nd ornaments. 3,731 Meats. . 9'7,203
Piece-goods: Milk and cream 10,238 137,768 lb.
Oanvas and duck (cotton) 726 6,088 sq. yd Fruits, dried 12,748 173,222 lb.
Cotton and linen . 39,070 Frui ta, tresh 9,412 8,771 bu.
Silk and rayon . 7,617 Fruits preserved in
'Voollen or contailling liquid 12,950 196,02;; lb.
wool. . . 1,305 Wheat ;.3,:;81 1,463 tons
Sewing silks, cottons, etc. 2,301 2,248 lb. Flour 13,332 8,944 ct!.
Oarpets and carpeting 4,732 3,:;69 sq. YlI J aIDS and jellies 542 7,749 lb.
Linolemus and other floor Hides and skins 23,r"72
coverings . 2,448 Wool. . 31)2,2,13 ] ,31<1,353 lb.
Bags and sacks. 8,20'1 Tallow, inediblo 4,131 1,OZ2 cwt
Yarns: artificial silk, cot- Coal . . 2.676 645 ton.
ton, wool. etc. 9,092 21,355 lb. Ores and concen-
Electrical macbinery . 3o,fJi3 trates 16,918 12,614 cwt
'rools of trade 3,564. Leather. 3,718
Timber, dressed 997 Timber, wldrcssed !;,385
'l'imber, undressed 10.5134 Soap . f>20
Glass and glassware 6,471 Sugar (cane) 32,163 803 ton.
Paper, printlDg. 17,139 Tobacco, cigarettcR,
Stationery, books, etc. 12,082 etc. 461
Drugs, chemicals, ~tc. 34,250 Pearl shell 612 25 cwt
j;"'ilms for cinematographs 2,113 \Vine 1.152 1,747 galls
Surgical and dental instru- Barley 16,898 068 ton.
ments 2,709 Biscuits 276 3,043 lb.
FertHizers 5,605 28,831 cwt Rice (cleaned) 2,182 704 cwt
Fi!\b preserved in tins 3.062 16,796 lb. Vcgetahles pre-
Motive-power machinery served in liquid 153 l,3941b.
(excluding electric) . Z·J,757 Lead, pig . 12,~(jl 2,877 cwt
Motor vehicJes, part.s, ek .. 66.579 Zinc a,nd spelter 4,080 933 c~t
Plated ware and cutlery . 1,835
Hessians a.nd jut.e pif';ce-
goods . 2,866 68,160 sq. yd
Petroleum nod shale oHs:
Cl'ude . 68.3 U 2,493,980 g.lI;
Kerosene .5,35:1 97,676 "
Lubricating (mineral) . 6,2-14 46,698 "
Petrol, including aviation
spirit . 13,743 234,360 "
Residual and solar 816 16,3G5 "
Other 1,875 18,999 "
Total trade (£AI,OOO f.o.b.) with the more important countries (imports
according to country of origin and exports according to country of consign.
ment):
Imports Imports Exports Exports
From or to (1957-58) (1958-59) (1957-58) (1958-59)
BeJgium-Lu xembourg 6,543 6,731 28,111 23,671
Canada 23,046 23,173 14,133 16,460
Oeylon. . . 8,772 10,457 6,939 5,899
Ohina (Mainland) . 3,114 3,574 9,768 13,567
Egypt. 93 29 427 947
France. .. 10,333 11,724 69,841 46,662
Germany (Federal Republic) 41,616 42,954 33,128 28,905
India . 23,416 21,005 11,689 10,080
Indonesia 28,089 31,475 4,051 2,137
Italy 10,768 9,720 46,344 32,244
Japan . . 23,815 29,949 102,717 102,311
Malaya. Federation of 10,708 11,482 12,266 13,167
Netberlands . 11,073 12,978 5,622 3,468
~""ew Zealand 12,764 12,479 65,455 49,645
Norway 4,594 3,469 433 478
Sweden ll,700 12,229 4,014 2,677
Switzerland 10,176 10,383 1,974 1,403
Imports Imports Exports Export.s

From or to (19f>7-,8) (1958-59) (1957-68) (1958-59)
Unloo of Sout.h AIrica 6,29·1 5,290 6,186 6,761
U.S.S.R. 53f> 42~ 34 102
U.K. 325,007 007.428 221,421 256,935
U.S.A •• 104,464 108,503 45,417 60,731
Share of the States in foreign commerce, 1958-59 (£Al,OOO f.o.b.):

Stn;es, etc. Imports Exports States, etc. Imports Exports
New Sot:th Wales 352,712 221,372 Tasmania 13,394 21,974
Victoria. 291,297 219,651 Northern Territory 1,059 361
Queensl1",d 47,737 169,997 Aust. Cap. Terr. 68
South A'lStralia 45,34.0 90,916
'\Vestern Australia 44,986 87,292 Total 796,599 811,463
In tU. table tbe value of goods sent from oDe state to aootber for transbipment abroad
bas been referred to tbe State from which the good. were fioaUy dispatcbed.
Tol·al trade between U.K. and Australia according to the British Board
of Trade returns (in £ sterling) :
1938 19:;7 1958 1959'
Imports to U.K. . 71.841,683 247.980,037 198,770,907 222,887,677
Exports from U.K. 38,164,90:; 234,764,064 235,204,948 223,666,657
Re·exports from U.K. 719,243 1,999,572 1,996,218 1,712,362
1 Including Christmn.s Islrmd.
Book$ of Reference
Ovtr,ea$ Trade. Bureau of Census and Statistics. Canberra, 1906 to date
Nicholson, D. F., .Australia', Trade Relation,. M.elbourne. 195~
COMMUNICATIONS
Shipping. Number and net tonnage of the registered vessels, at 31 Dec.:
Sailing Steam and motor Total
No. Net tons No. Net ton. No. .Vd tons
1956 796 17.836 770 312,403 I,M6 330,239
1957 809 17.381 785 323,495 J ,594 340,876
1958 825 17,787 796 338,222 1,621 356,009
Excluding barges, dredgers, etc., not sell-propelled, wh~ch, at 31 Dec. 1958, numbered 80,
oet toWJage, 16,993 .
En:;rances and clearances of vessels (with cargo and in ballast) engaged

in ovel'sea trade:
Entrances Clearances
.No. ~Vet ton, JYo. Net tonl
1955-56 ~,426 11,227,611 2,457 II,006,1~5
1956-5 i 2.628 11,814/,39 2,662 11,844,717
1957-58 2,6f>6 12,383,847 2,598 12,131,393
Th" following summary shows shipping activity by States, 1957-58:

Particulars N.S.\V. Vie. Q'ld S.A. W . .<\.. Tas. N.T. Austra.
Entranc~g of oversea vessels:
Numler . . . 863 469 375 229 636 57 27 2,656
Net t(,noage (1,000 toos) 3,860 2,553 1,200 890 3,634 210 37 12,384
Oversea c.~rgo:
D ISC
' b'••rged r'ooo
tons wt.
meas. 4,56:;
1 251
4,810
1,032
430
199
481
282
3,087
120
303
30
43 13,719
2,914
Sb' rld
Ipp.
:: wt.:
"meas.
1:806
380
1,093
541
1,200 1,518
112 124
1,610
183
128
149
11 7,366
1,489
Iuterst...·;e cargo:
wt.. 3,887
ShiPP'ld { mea.c;. 255
1.371
36;;
669
66
4,370
100
1,774
82
541
289
2 12,614
1,157
AUSTRALIA 475
Railways. Government railways for the year ended 30 June 1958 :
Traffic Goods &
Route· t rain-miles Pa..<;scllg~ l'. livestoek Gross WorkiDg
miles run, journeys , carried, recei pts , expenses,
SY6tcm open 1,000 1,00U 1,000 tOllS tAl ,000 £AI,OOO
SIMe:
:-iew South W"lo. 6,103 35,020 258,651 18,5022 74,433 72,534
Victoria 4,401' 18,353 167,662 8,892 35,954 38,174
Queensland 6,456 19,032 33,665 7,766 34,636 36,894
Sou th Austral i" 2,533 7,081 17,564 4,146 13,160 15,953 3
\Vestern Au:;traiin. 4,117 7,327 14,106 3,589 12,788 16,091 '
Tasmo.nia 665 1,568 2,444 1,096 2,569 3,21 8 '
Commonwealth :
Tra ils -Australian 1,108 1,281 161 :J9i) 2,874 2,270
Cent ral Austra lia 822 512 16 S:l4 2,304 1,076
North Austra lia 317 107 2 59 139 215
Aust. Cap. '1'err. 10 59 29 60
'"
Tot, l. 26,427 90,291 49J,330 4 3,~;) O 178,886 186,475
1 Includes 241 miles iu N.S.W.
:: I ncluues an e:;Limatc for livestock carried.
3 Iucludes provision of reserves for depreciation.
The State ra ilway gauges are: New South Wales, 4 ft 8i in.; Vict,oria,
6 ft 3 in. (34 miles, 2 ft 6 in.); Queensland, 3 ft 6 in. (69 miles, 4 ft 8! in.,
and 30 miles, 2 ft); South Australia, 5 ft 3 in. for 1,65\ miles, the rest,
3 ft 6 in.; West Australia, 3 ft 6 in., and Tasmania, 3 ft 6 in. Of the
Commonwealth lines, the gauge of the Trans-Australian and Australian
Capital Territory is 4 ft 8* in., and that of the Central Australia. and North
A ustralia is 3 ft 6 in. (Central Australia line contains 217 miles of 4 ft 8~ in.).
The Railway Standardization Agreement Act of 1946 authorized the con-
version t o a standard gauge of 4 ft 8t in. of the railway systems of Victoria
and South Australia, the provision for the completion of the north to south
railway and the conversion of existing systems to a standard 4 ft 8t in.
gauge railway. The terminus of the North Australia railway is at Birdum
(317 miles from D arwin), while the Central Australia railway extends as
far n orth as Alice Springs (3 ft 6 in. gauge from Marree to Alice Springs).
Roads_ The length of all roads in Australia used for general traffic as
at 30 June 1957 was about 518,000 miles, of which 36% was natural surface
only, 30% was formed only, 26';{' was macadam and similar composition,
whilst the bala nce was hituminous, concrete, wood or stone composition.
At 30 June 1959, ~,66J,70:! motor vehicles, including 1,786,038 motor
cars, 111,174 motor cycles and 767,490 commercial vehicles, were registered
in Australia. The revenue derived from registrat.ion fees and motor tax
fe)\" t.he year 1957- 58 was £A30,698,95I, drivers' and riders' licences,
£.'1.2,367,684, and miscellaneous, £A5,467,505. At 30 June 1959 registrations
were equivalent to 265 vehicles per 1,000 of population. New vehicles
registered in 1958- 59 numbered 170,181 cars, 74,390 commercial vehicles
and 9,992 motor cycles.
Po.sta and Telegraphs. Business, year ended 30 June 1958: Numbe. of
post and receiving offices, 8,179_ Earnings: Postal, £A34,Ol4,ooo; tele-
graph, £A6,249,OOO; telephone, £1\.:"\6,505,000; total revenue, £A96,768,ooO.
Working expenses: Postal, £A35,940,OOO; telegraph, £A6,560,OOO; tele -
phone, £A49,413,000; t otal, £A91,913,000.
At 31 Dec. 1958, 7,32G telephone exchanges, with 1,361,92·1 lines and
I, D98, 70,! instruments connected, wero in operntion.
476 THE BRITISH COMMONW'EALTll AND EMPIRE
WU'eless broadcasting stations are in operation in all the State.oapitals

and in other regional areas throughout the various States of the Common·
wealth., At 30 June 1959, 2,263,712 wireless broadcast listeners' licences
had been issued. As from 1 Jan. 1952, the Broadcasting Act made pro·
vision for discontinuance of issuing separate licences for receivers in excess of
one. Itevenue from fees amounted to £A5,691,065 during 1958-59. The
National Broadcasting Service controlled by the Australian Broadcasting
Commission now operates 56 medium·wave and 8 short·wave broadcasting
stations in Australia, and 1 medium·wave and 1 short·wave station in Papua.
In add:ltion, 108 other medium·wave commercial broadcasting stations were
licensed at 30 June 1959. Two beam stations have been erected, one for
direct "ommunication with London, and the other for direct commuuication
with North America. Three more short·wave broadcasting stations are
operatod by the Australian Broadcasting Commission for oversea services
only, and 4 experimental frequency modulation stations have been estab·
lished.
Tel'Jvision services are conducted in Sydney and Melbourne by the Nat·
ionallelevision Service (2 stations) and the Commercial Television Service
(4 stations). At 30 June 1959, 577,502 viewers licences had been issued.
Rcyenue from fees amounted to £A2,775,115 during 1958-59.
Aviation. Civil fiying in the Commonwealth and Territories is subject
to legiElative control by the Commonwealth Government. The administra·
tion of the Air Navigation Act and Regulations is a function of the Civil
Aviatic-n Department under the Minister of Civil Aviation. The permanent
head of the department is the Director-General of Civil Aviation.
Hours flown by regular internal air services in Australia during 1958-59
numbered 230,622. The total mileage flown was 40,508,600. Paying
passengers carried numbered 2,239,598; weight of goods carried was 62,863
short t,)ns, and gross weight of mails was 2,748 short tons,
Australian oversea services operated 74,704 route miles at 30 June
1959. During 1958-59 hours flown numbered 68,811; miles flown,
16,446,500; paying passengers, 176,120; freight, 3,533 short tons; mail,
1,755 ailOrt tons.
Expenditure by the Commonwealth Government on civil aviation for
the year 1958-59 was £A21,744,OOO (including £A10,438,OOO on new works,
but exc:luding £A4,450,OOO paid for conveyance of mail).
At 30 June 1959 there were 304 licensed land aerodromes and 168
government land aerodromes in Australia, excluding Papua and New Guinea.
AustraUhn Institute of PoHtlcal Science, .dust,alia's 2'ransporl Crisi8. Sydney, 1956
Bureau cl Census and Statistic., 2',ansport and Communication. Oanberra, 1906-1957/58
MONEY AND BANKING

The banking system in Australia comprises:
(a) The Commonwealth Bank of Australia. This is the central bank
which in addition to its central banking business (including the note issue
department) provides special banking facilities through the rural credits,
mortgage bank and industrial finance departments.
(b) The Commonwealth Trading Bank of Australia.
(c) Seven private trading banks: the Australian and New Zealand Bank
Ltd, The Bank of Adelaide, the Bank of New South Wales, The Commercial
Bank of Australia Ltd, The Commercial Banking Company of Sydney Ltd,
The Er.glish, Scottish and Australian Bank Ltd and The National Bank of
Australasia Ltd .
AUSTRALIA 477
(d) Other banks : (i) 3 State Government Banks-The Rural Bank of
New South Wales, the State Bank of South Australia and the Rural and
Industries Bank of Western Australia; (ii) one joint stock bank-The
Brisbane Permanent Building and Banking Co. Ltd, which has specialized
business in one district only; (iii) branches of 3 oversea banks-the Bank
of New Zealand, the Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris and the Bank
of China, which are mainly concerned with financing trade, etc. , between
Australia and oversea countries.
(e) Savings Banks.
Money in circulation comprises legal tender notes issued by the Note
hsue Department of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia and silver and
bronze coinage issued by the Commonwealth Treasury.
The Commonwealth Bank commenced savings. bank business on 15 July
1912, and genera.! banking business on 20 Jan. 1913. In 1920 the control
of the Australian note issue was transferred from the Commonwealth
Treasurer to the Bank. In 1924 the management of the Bank was placed
under a Board of Directors. In 1929, with the onset of the depression,
the Commonwealth Bank started to develop as a central reserve bank.
In 1928 the Commonwealth Savings Bank was established as a separate
institution and the savings-bank business of the Commonwealth Bank
was transferred to that institution. On 21 Aug. 1945 the Commonwealth
Bank was reconstituted under the control of a Governor with an Ad-
visory Council in accordance with the provisions of the Commonwealth
Bank Act, 1945. Under this Act it is the duty of the Commonwealth
Bank to pursue a monetary and banking policy directed to the greatest
advantage of the people of Australia and of exercising its powers in
such a manner a s, in the opinion of the Bank, wiII best contribute to:
(a) the stability of the currency of Australia; (b) the maintena.nce of full
employment in Australia, and (c) the economic prosperity and welfare of
the people of Australia. The Commonwealth Bank has been given ex-
tensive powers, both under this Act and the Banking Act, 1945, to perform
its functions as a central bank. By the Commonwealth Bank Act, 1951,
the Advisory Council was replaced by a Board of 10 members which has
power to determine the policy of the Commonwealth Bank and the Com-
monwealth Savings Bank. The Governor and Deputy Governor of the
Bank are members of this Board.
Under the Commonwealth Bank Act, 1953, the Commonwealth Trading
Bank was esta blished and took over the business of the General Banking
Division of the Commonwealth Bank. The policy of thc Commonwealth
Trading Bank is determined by the Commonwealth Bank Board .
At 30 June 1959 the capital of the Commonwealth Bank totalled
£AI7,571,OOO and reserve funds £A31,637,OOO. The capital was distributed
as follows: ('..entral banking business, £A4m.; ruml credits department,
£A2,714,OOO; mortgage bank department, £A5,428,OOO, and industrial
finance department, £A5,429,OOO. Reserve funds held were : Central
banking business, £A20,872,OOO; note issue department, £A4,755,OOO; rural
credits department" £Al.330,OOO; mortgage bank department, £A846,OOO,
and industrial finance department, £A3,834,000. Profits for the year ended
30 June 1959 (including all branches) amounted to £AI5,997,OOO. At t.he
same date the capital of the Commonwe.alt,h Trading Bank was £A5,429,OOO
and reserve fund £A3,296,OOO. Profits for the year amounted to
£A 766,000. Reserve fund of the Commonwealth Savings Bank amounted
to £AIO,326,OOO and profits for the year ended 30 June 1959 to £ASI6,OOO.
'fhe average deposits of the trading banks with the Commonwealth
Bank f.)r the month of June 1959 were £A250,549,OOO in special accounts
and £AI7,794,OOO in other accounts.
The average deposits of the Commonwea lth Trading Bank for the same
month amounted to £A233,422,000, of which £AI60,195,OOO were non-
interest;.bearing deposits.
At 30 June 1959 the 15 banks operating in Australia provided full
bankin.~ facilities at 3,671 branches and 1,475 agencies in all parts of Aus·
tralia.
Inc:.uding deposits with the Commonwealth Trading Bank, the average
deposits in Australia with all cheque. paying banks for June 1959 amounteo
to £Al,680,832,OOO, while the average of advances made by the banks
amoun~d to £Al,003,530,OOO. The average of total assets in Australia for
the same period was £Al,789,635,000.
At 30 June 1959, 9 savings banks were operating in Australia. These
are the Commonwealth Savings Bank with branches throughout Australia;
3 private savings banks (the Bank of N.S.W. Savings Bank, Ltd, the
Austra::ia and New Zealand Savings Bank, Ltd) with branches in all States
and Torritories except South Aust ralia and Tasmania, and the C.B.C.
Sa ving" Bank, Ltd with branches in all States (except South Australia and
Tasma:lia) and in the Australian Capital Territory ; the State Savings
Banks in Victoria and South Australia ; the Rural and Industries Bank of
Western Australia, and 2 Trustee Savings Banks in Tasmania. At 30 Jlme
1959 these savings banks provided savings bank facilities at 2,601 branches
and 8,088 agencies throughout Australia and held deposits amounting to
£Al ,391,332,OOO. Sales of savings certificates were discontinued after
31 Jan . 1949. Savings certificates outstanding at 30 June 1959 amounted
to £AIO,637,OOO.
In 1957 there were 24 companies registered under the Life Insurance
Act, HI45-53, transacting life insurance business in Australia; in addition
there were 2 state government institutions. Receipts, 1957, £AI72,035,OOO ;
expenditure, £A88,687,OOO; liabilities, £Al,043,301,OOO (including Lif"
Assurance and Annuity Funds, £A980,829,OOO, at various balance dates).
Thf' following table is a summary of ba nking and assurance business (in
£Al,OOO) in the several States of the Commomvealth :
Australi a
( incl.
Terri-
Particulars X .S.W. Vie . Q'id S.! . W.A. Tas. tories)
All cheq',e'paying banks : 1
Deposits bearing intere, t. l i'~,!)0 4 14 7,293 59,035 45,862 25,160 ~ ,9 94 468,993
DepOSits Dot bearing
interest . 479,669 371,136 167,300 8 7 , 1 0~ 64,929 28,615 1, 211,839
A.dvar.ces . . 440,562 2.;7,629 1-13,6 1U 63,271 70,575 22,414 ],003,530
Snvings bank deposits' 488,273 458,4 54 166 ,653 157,1 52 71,499 42,462 1,391,332
Life asst.rance: •
New policiesissllcd (nl.lue)
Ordi nary . 1 ~ 6 , 347 145, 542 61,H9 '11,62·1 25,73Z 15,580 4.45,470
Ind',stri.l. . 13,488 9,357 ·1,1 03 3,370 1,960 853 33,4;;9
Pollcics "xisti ng (value)
Ordinary . 836,772 749,252 ~ i7,47 9 238,418 158,632 88,715 2,533,3~6
Indusl.rial . 121,488 98,744 39,717 31,788 21,267 8,025 322,516
1 W"ekly averages for JUDe 1959. ' At 30 Juno 1959.
! 1 9~' 7, at va rious balance dat es : Number of polieiC's: (new) ordinary, 317,735; industrial,
209,733 ; (existing) ordinary, 3,44.,),641; i ndustriul, 3,615,271 .
Auatralian notes, issued by the note·issue department of the Common·

wealth Bank, are legal tender throughout Australia. The total value of
notes in circulation on 24 June 1959 was £A395,049,OOO, of which
AUSTRALIA 479
£A3l8,392,ooO were held by the public. Notes have been issued in de·
nominations of lOs., £1, £5, £10, £20, £50, £100 and £1,000. Notes of
denominations higher than £10 have not, however, been issued to the public
since 1945.
Coins in circulation in Australia are Australian silver and bronze token
coins issued by the Commonwealth Treasury. The silver coins have been
issued in denominations of 58., 28., Is., 6d. and 3d., and bronze coins in
denominations of Id. and !d. Coins to the value of £A I ,383,000 were issued
during the ye9.r ended 30 June 1959, bringing the total issued to date to
£A40,592,000, after deduction of £A14,174,Ooo for coin withdrawn.
There are 2 mints in Australia, at Melbourne (opened in 1872) and Perth
(1899). They accept gold for refining and issue gold bullion for use in the
commercial arts and for export. Australian silver and bronze coins have
been minted at the Melbourne mint since 1916 and at the Perth mint in
1920 and since 1940 on behalf of the Commonwealth Treasury.
Commonwealth Bank or Australia. Stalistic-<u Bul/elin. Sydney, 1937 to date
Arndt, H. W., The AWlralia.. Tradi7IIJ Banks. Melbourne. 195;
GibUn. L. F ., The Growth 0/ a Cmual Bank, /924-45 . Melbol1rne, 19S1
GUl'ord. J . L. K., and Wood, J. V.• d.ISlralian Banki7llJ. 2nd cd. Drisbao",1965
Norfolk Island. 29° S. lat., 167° 57' 5" E. long., r.rca 13! sq. miles,
population, 30 June 1958, 1,033. The island was formerly part of the colony
of New South Wales and then of Van Diemen's Land. It has been a distinct
settlement since 1856, under the jurisdiction of the state of New South
Wales; and fi.nally by the passage of the Norfolk Island Act 1913, it was
accepted as a Territory of the Commonwealth Government. The island,
which is vcry picturesque and possesses a delightful climate, coupled with a
fertile soil, is especially suitable for the cultivation of citrus fruits, bananas,
vegetables and beans for seed. In 1957-58 the imports (mostly from the
Commonwealth) were valued at £A237,059, and the exports at £A175,951
(including whale products, £AI13,598) . A modern whaling station went into
operation in 1956. A programme of forestry development is being carried
out.
Administrat01'. R. S. Leydin, O.B.E.
Australian Antarctic Territory. An IUlperial Order in Council of
7 Feb. 1933 placed under Australian authority' all the islands and terri.
tories other than Adelie Land which are situated south of 60° S. lat. and
lying between 160° E . long. and 45° E. long.' The Order came into force
with a proclamation issued by the Governor·General on 24 Aug. 1936.
The boundaries of Adelie Land were definitely fixed by a decree of 1 April
1938 a8 the islands and territories south of 60° S.lat. lying between 136° and
142° E. long. The laws of the Australian Capital Territory were declare{\
to be in force, as far liS applicable, in the Territory in 1954. In Feb. 1954
}Iawson in MacRobertson Land and in Jan. 1957 Davis in the Vestfold Hills
area, some 400 miles east of Mawson, were set up as meteorological and
research stations. In Feb. 1959 the Australian Government accepted
custody of Wilkes station, esta blished by the U.S.A .
Territory of Heard and McDonald Islands. These ilIlands, about
2,500 miles south·,vest of Fremantle, wer~ transferred from U.K. to Aus·
tralian control as from 26 Dec. 1947. Heard Island ill about 27 miles
long and 13 miles wide. The McDonald Islands are 26 miles to the west of
Heard. The laws of the Australian Capital Territory were declared .to be in
force in the Territory by the Heard and McDonald Islands Act, 1953.
Territory of Co cos (Keeling) Islands. The CoC08 (Keeling) Islands,

2 separate atolls comprising some 27 small coral islands with a total area
of about fi sq. miles. are situated in the Indian Oeean in 120 5' S. lat. and
960 53' E. long. They lie some 1,720 miles north of Perth and 2,290 miles
almost. due west of Darwin whilst Colombo is 1,400 miles to the north· west
of the group.
The islands were discovered in 1609 by Capt. William Keeling of the
East India Company. The islands were uninhabited until 1826, when the
first settlement was established on the main atoll by an Englishman,
Alexander Hare, who left the islands about 1831. In the meantime a
secone. settlement was formed on the main atoll by John Clunies Ross, a
ScottiHh seaman and adventurer, who landed with several boat-loads of
Malay seamen. In 1857 the islands were aunexed to the Crown; in 1878
respoDsibility for their supervision was transferred from the Colonial Office
to the Government of Ceylon, and in 1882 to the Government of the Straits
Settlement. By indenture in 1886 Queen Victoria granted the land com·
prised in the islands to John Clunies Ross in perpetuity. The head of
the family had semi-official status as resident magistrate and representative
of the Government. In 1903 the islands were incorporated in the Settlement
of Singapore and in 1942-46 temporarily placed under the Governor of
CeyloIl. In 1946 a. Resident Administrator, responsible to the Governor of
Singapore, was appointed.
On 23 Nov. 1955 the Cocos Islands were placed under the authority of
the Cnmmonwealth of Australia under the Cocoa Islands Act, 1955. The
Cocos :Keeling) Islands Act, 1955, of the Commonwealth of Australia declared
the islands to be accepted by the Commonwealth as a Territory under the
authol'ity of the Commonwealth, to be known as the Territory of Cocos
(Keelhg) Islands.
The main islands of the Territory are West Island (the largest, about
6 miles from north to south), on which is the aerodrome and most of the
European community; Home Island, the headquarters of the Clunies Ross
EstatE; Direction Island, on which is situated the cable and wireless station
and t:le Department of Civil Aviation's marine base; and Horsburgh.
North Keeling Island, which forms part of the Territory, lies about 15 miles
to the north of the group and has no inhabitants. Main settlements are on
West Island, Home Island and Direction Island.
The population of the Territory at 30 June 1959 was estimated to be
about 650, including 141 Europeans and 40 indentured Asians. The Cocos
Islanders reside on Home Island.
The group of atolls is low.lying, flat and thickly covered by coconut
palms, and surrounds a lagoon which has 0. harbour in the northern part,
but which is extremely difficult for navigation.
The climate is equable and pleasant, being usually under the influence
of the south·east trade winds for about three-quarters of the year. How-
ever, the winds vary at times, and meteorological reports from the Territory
are pa.rticularly valuable to those engaged in forecasting for the eastern
Indian Ocean. The temperature varies between 700 and 89 0 F., the rainfall
is moderate and there are occasional violent storms.
Responsibility for the administration of the Territory rests with the
Minister for Territories. An Official Representative was appointed on
23 Nov. 1955 to take charge of the local administration. The laws of the
Colon~1 of Singapore which were in force in the islands immediately before
the tratlsfer have, with certain exceptions, been continued in force. They
may be amended or repealed by Ordinances of the Governor-General.
AUSTRALIA 481
An airport is established on West Island under the control of the Depart-
ment of Civil Aviation. This is a re-fueling point for aircraft of the oversea
air-services between Australia and South Africa operated, at fortnightly in-
tervals, by Qantas Empire Airways and South African Airways.
Christmas Island is in the Indian Ocean, lat. 100 30' S., long. 105 0 40'
E. It lies 223 miles S., 8° E. of Java Head, and 259 miles N., 79° E. from
the Cocos Island. It is of irregular shape, about 11 miles long (at the
longe.~t point), and about 4! miles wide (at the narrowest point). Area
about 64 sq. miles. The climate is healthy. The island was formally
annexed on 6 June 1888, placed under the administration of the Governor
of the Straits Settlements in l889, and incorporated with the Settlement of
Singapore in 1900. Sovereignty was transferred to the Commonwealth of
Australia on 1 Oct. 1958. The population on 17 June 1957 was 2,61!l,
including 1,939 Chinese and 501 Malaysians. The chief employer is the
Christmas Island Phosphate Company, Ltd, registered in London, which
work the large natural deposits of phosphate of lime to which the island
owes its importance. In 1923 a wireless station was installed, and the
island is in direct communication with Singapore. There is a school and
a hospital on the island. Number of telephones, 1 Jan. 1959, was 50.
Books of Reference
STaTISTICAL INFORMATION. The Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (West
Illock, Canberra, A.O.T.) was established in 1906. All the activities of the Bureau arc covered
by the Census and Statistics Act. which confers authority to collect information and contai ns
secrecy provisions to ensure that individual particulars obtained are not divulged. Under t~e
provision. of the Stati5tics (Arrangements with States) Act which becsme law on 12 May
1956, the statistical serv ices of all of the Sta.tes have been integrated wi th ttae CommoDwealth
Bm'cau. An outline Qf the development of statistics in Australia is published in the O.bicial
Year Book, No. 43, 1957. Commonwealth Statistician: S. R. Carver, O.B.E.
The principal publicatiOns 0/ the Bureau are:
Official Year Book of the Commonloealth of Australia. 1907 to date
Pocket Compendium of Australian Statistics. 1913 to date
Quarterly Summary of AU$/ralian Statistics. Dec. 1917 to date
Monthly Review Of Business Statistics. Oct. 1937 to date
Special P ublications:
Census-Detailed TahlfS and Statistician's Report. 1911-5·t
1881-90 to 195 3-55
Au.rtralian Life Table...
Australian Balanct oJ Payments. 1928-29 to 1951-5:2
Annual printed builetins are listed under specified subjects.
OTHER OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS

Ado. of Au.rtralian Resources [50 maps with commentary]. Dept. 01 National Development.
Melbonrne, 1955 fI.
CliI'Mtological Atlas of Australia. Bureau of Meteorology. Melbourne, 1940
A,utralian books: select lis! of works aboUl or published in Australia. (Corumonwealtb
National Library. Canberra, 1934 to date
Annual catalogue of Australian publications. Canberra, 1936 to date
Watson, J. F. (ed.), His!orical Record. of Australia. Sydney, 1914-25
NON. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS

Asht.on, H. T., nod Maher, J. V" .Australian Foreca3ting and Climute. Melbou rne,
195 1
Alls/ralia Handbook. Australian National Publicity Association. 12th ed. Melbourne,
1956
Australian Quarterly: a Quarterly Rel:iew of Aus/ralian Affair•• Sydney, 1929 to date
Oll.iger, G. (ed.l, The Australian Way of Life. London, 1~53
Ohisholm, A. H. (ed.). Australian Encyclopaedia. Sydney, 1958
CI.rk. C. M. H. (ed.), Select Docum,nts in Aus/ralian Ilistory, 1788- 1900. 2 vols. Sydney,
1950- 55
R
Eggles1.on, F. W.,I/eftec/ions on .4u.stralian Foreign Policy. Melbourne,1957

Fergus)n, J. A., Bibliographv 0/ .4u.stralia, 1784-1850. 4 vols. Sydney, 1941- 55; vol. 5
(1851-1900) in preparation.
Green~ 'ood, G. (00.), .4uJlralia, a political and aocial hiatory. Melbourne Md London, 1955,
-(ed.), Au.stralia in World .4ffai" 1950-55. Melbourne, 1957
lliU, E., The Territorv . Sydney, 1955
HorsfaU, J. 0., AuJlralia. London, 1955
Laseron, O. P., The Face 0/ Australia. Sydney, 1954
Scott, Ernest, A Short History 0/ .4u.stralia. 8th ed. Melbourne, 1960
Serle, :r., Dictionary 0/ Australian Biography. 2 vols. Sydney, 1949
Taylor, T. G., Australia: A Study 0/ Warm Environmenl3 and their Effect on British Settlement.
Lontlon, 1955
Who'. Who in Au.tralia. Melbourne, 1906 to date
Ziegler, O. L. (ed.), Thi. is .4ustralia. Sydney, 1957
NATIONAL LmRARY. The National Library, Canberra, A.C.T. Librarian: H. TJ. White,
M.A.
AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY

GOVERNMENT. The area which is now the Australian Capital
Territory was first visited by white men in 1820 and settlement commenced
in 18~~4. Until its selection as the seat of government it was a quiet pastoral
and 8,g ricultural community with a few large holdings and a sprinkling of
smaller settlers.
The constitution of tho Commonwealth provided (Sec. 125) that the seat
of government should be selected by parliament and that it should be
withb. New South Wales but at least 100 miles from Sydney. After pro-
longed discussion, the Canberra site was adopted by the Seat of Government
Act, 1908. The present site, together with an area for a port at Jervis Bay,
was B'arrendered by the State and accepted by the Commonwealth in 1909, and
by subsequential proclamation the Territory became vested in the Common-
wealth from 1 Jan 1911. In 1911 an international competition was held for
the ci.ty plan. The plan chosen was that of W. Burley Griffin, of Chicago.
Cons!.ruction was delayed by the First World War, and it was not until 1927
that, with the transfer of parliament and certain departments, Canberra
became in fact the seat of government. Major departments, with the
exception of the war departments and the post office, now have their
head(luarters in Canberra. The first phase of the transfer of the central
staffs of the defence departments from Melbourne to Canberra was carried
out during 1959. With the establishment in 1958 of the National Capital
Development Commission the growth of Canberra is being accelerated.
The general administration of the Territory is in the hands of the Minister
for the Interior, but certain specific services are undertaken by the Depart-
ment of Health, the Department of Works and the Attorney-General. The
Minister is advised on matters of local concern by an advisory council,
consi"ting of 4 official and 8 elected members.
The Australian Capital Territory Representation Act, 1948, provided
for the representation of residents of the Territory by one elected member
in th'3 House of Representatives. He is not entitled to vote, except 011 a
proposed law relating solely to the Territory or on a motion seeking to dis-
allow a Territory ordinance or regulation, but in other ways he enjoys the
right:! and privileges of a Member of Parliament.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the Australian Capital

Territory is 911 sq. miles, of which 170 sq. miles in the Cotter River Catch-
ment area are reserved from occupation for water-supply purposes. The area
NEW SOUTH WALES 483
vesteu in the Commonwealth at Jervis Bay is 28 sq. miles of land and water.
Population at 6 censuses, with distribution by sex:
Males Females Total Males Females Total
1911 992 7Z2 1,714 Ins 6,286 5,276 11.562
1921 l,G6i ].005 2,5i2 1947 9.002 7,~13 16,905
1933 4,805 4,142 g,9H 1959 23,J.i7 ~O,826 43,9i3
EDUCATION. State education in the Australian Capital Territory is

provided by the New South Wales Euucation Department, the cost being
refunded annually to that State by the Commonwealth. There are 18 pu blic
schools in the Australian Capital Territory including 2 in the Jervis Bay
Territory. Secondary education is provided at 3 high schools with ac·
commodation for ,tbout 2,200 pupils. The Canberra Technical College
provides training for apprentices, journeymen desirous of improving their
trade qualifications and for others who desire to t.ake commercial and special
courses. There are also 9 private schools, ;) of which provide secondary
education.
The Australian National University is situated in Canberra (see p. 462).
There is also a university college at pre~ellt af\iliated to the Univcrsit.y
(lf Melbourne.
FINANCE. Tho revenue of the Territory is derived in part from rent

and rates, public utilities, transport and housing and various other fees and
services, and partly from parliamentary appropriation.
Local revenue and expenditure (in £A) for years ended 30 June:
Expenditure
Revenue Capital works Other services Total
1957 1,603,557 4,956,558 3,0(;2,2.1-1 8,018,802
19!\R I, 71l,1~9 8,394,190 il,%9,260 11.753.450
1959 1,9,17,133 11,W8,I53 3,971,169 1;J,OGU,3:l2
PRODUCTION. The Territory is predominantly pastoral. Live·

stock, 31 March 1959: 690 horses, 9,408 cattle, 271,892 sheep, 175 pigs.
A considerable amount of re·afforestation has been undertaken, the total
area. of plantations at 30 June 1958 being 10,413 acres. There is no secon·
dary industry of any importa.nce.
Books of Reference
Your Guide to Canbl!rra [~rl. Dept. of the In~erior] . Canberra, 1~5S
Your Capital (ed. Commonwealth Office of Education]. Sydney, 1951
Report/Tom the Senate Select Committee Appointed to inquire into the Developmertl of Canberra.
Canberra, 19:>5
Gale, J., Canberra: History and Legends Relating 10 tlie Federal Capilol TerritM!I. Que.c·
beyan, N.S.W., 1~27
King, H . W. H., Land Classificatirtn and Utilization in the A.C.T. Canberra,194C
White H. I,.( cd.), Canherra, a Natiun', Capitol. Sydney, 1954
NEW SOUTH WALES

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. New South Wales became a
British possession in 1770; the first settlement was established at Port
Jacksoll in 1788; a partia.lly elective Legisia.tive Council WitS established in
1843, and responsible government in 185(l. New South Wales federated
with the other Australitl.n states to form the Commonwealth of Australia ill
1901. The legislative power is vested in a Parliament of two Houses, the
Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly.
The Legislative Council consists of 60 members. At triennial elections

15 menbers are elected for a term of 12 years at joint sittings of both
Houses of Parliament. The President has an annual salary of £A2,300; tho
Chairman of Committees, £A1,500; the Leader of the Opposition, £A1,l00;
members who are not Ministers receive an allowance of £A500 per annum
plus 3~uineas a day attendance allowance if they live outside the metro·
politan area.
The Legislative Assembly has 94 members elected for a period of 3 years.
Voting is compulsory. British subjects above 21 years of age, having resided
6 montlls in the Commonwealth, 3 months in the State and 1 month in any
one electoral district, are eligible for enrolment as electors. Women were
enfranc hized in 1902.
The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly receives a salary of £A3,250,
the Leader of the Opposition, £A3,350, the Chairman of Committees, the
Deputy Leader of the Opposition and the Leader of the Country Party,
£A2,75 1) each, and Government and Opposition Whips, £A2,700 each. The
Leader of the Opposition also receives all expense allowance of £A500; the
Speaker, £A250; the Leader of the Country Party, £A200; and the Chair·
man of Committees and the 2 Whips, £A100 each. Members who are not
Ministers receive an annual salary of £A2,350. All members receive an
annual electoral allowance ranging from £A650 to £A950 according to the
location of their constituencies.
The Legislative Assembly, elected on 21 March 1959, consisted in J an.
1960 of' the following parties : Labour, 50; Liberal, 29; Country Party, 14;
Indepeudent, 1.
The executive is in the hands of a Governor, appointed by the Imperial
Government, and an Executive Council consisting of members of the Cabinet.
Ministers receive the following annual salaries: Premier, £A4,850; Deputy
P remier, £A4,100; Vice·President of the Executive Council and 13 other
Ministers, £A3,600 each. Ministers also receive an expense allowance
(Premi1lr, £Al,500, and other Ministers, £A500 each) and the Vice· President
of the l!:xecutive Council receives a further special allowance of £A400. In
additiotl, Ministers who are members of the Legislative Assembly receive an
electoral allowance ranging from £A650 to £A950 according to the location
of their constituency.
Governor. Lieut.·Gen. Sir Eric Winslow Woodward, K.C.Yl. G., C.B.,
C.RE., D.S.O. (sworn in 1 Aug. 1957).
The Cabinet, in Jan. 1960, was constituted as follows:
Premier and lvIinister for Education. R. J. Heffron, M.L.A.
Deputy Premier and Treasurer. J. B. Rellshaw, M.L.A.
Attorney.General, Minister of Justice and Vice· President of the Executive
Council. R. R. Downing, M.L.C.
Chi.;f Secretary and Minister for Tourist Activities. C. A. K elly, J\LL.A.
llfinister for Local Government and Minister for Highways. P. D. Hills,
M.L.A.
,"'fini8ter for Health. W. F. Sheahan, Q.C., M.L.A .
.Minister for Child Welfare and Minister for Social Welfare. F. H.
Hawkins, M.L.A.
Minister for Transport. A. G. Enticknap, M.L.A.
:Minister for Housing and Minister for Co·operative Societies. A. Landa,
M.L.A.
llfinister for Conservation. E. Wetherell, M.L.A.
NEW SOUTH WALES 485
}.finister jor Agriculture. R. B. Nott, M.L.A.
Ninister jor Labour and Industry. J. J. Maloney, M.L.C.
11'Iinister for Mines. J. B. Simpson, M.L.A.
Ninister jor Lands. J. M. A. McMahon, M.L.A.
J1i inister for Public Works. P. N. Ryan, !lLL.A.
Assistant Minister. N. J. Manuix, M.L.A.
- - _ ._- -_..
Agent·General in London . Francis P. Buckley (56-.~7 Strand, W.C.2).
Commissioner in Nw' rork. A. Denning (Ruile 1301, ()80 Fifth Avenue).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. A ,ystem of local goverlllnent extends over most
of the State, including the whole of the Eastern and Central land divisions
and more than two·thirds of the sparsely.populated Western division.
There are U3 municipalities, and 134 corp0rate bodies called shires. A
number of the municipalities and shires have cO lllhined to form 52 county
councils, which administer electricity or water Slipply undertakings or render
other services of common benefit.
AREA AND POPULATION, New South Wales is situated almost

entirely between tbe 29th and 36th parallels of S. lat. and l41st and 154
meridians of E. long., and comprises 309,433 sq . miles, inclusive of Lord
Howe Island (5 sq. miles), but exclusive of the Austmlian Capital Territory
(911 sq. miles at Canberra and 28 sq. miles at Jervis Bay).
Census population (excluding aboriginals):
Average
i-'opnlation anuual increase
per sq. % since
Male. Females P erson5 mile previ ous cellSUS
1881 410,211 339.614 749,825 2·42 '·07
1891 609,666 517,471 1,127,137 3-6S 4·16
1901 710,264 645,091 1,355,355 4'S7 1·86
1911 857,698 789,036 1,646,734 5·32 1·97
1921 I,Oil,SOI 1,028,870 2,100,371 6·79 2·46
1933 1,~18,471 1,282.376 2,600,847 8·41 1·76
1947 1,492,211 1,492,627 2,984,838 9·65 0·99
1954 1,720,860 1,702,669 3,423,529 11-06 1-98
At 30 June Ifl5() the estimated popUlation was 3,756,375 (1,881,302

males, 1,875,073 females).
At 30 June 1959 the population of the metropolis of Sydney was 2,054,800
and that of the Newcastle urban area, 199,080. The chief country muni·
cipalities, with their populations, were as follows: Greater Wollongong,
118,090; Greater Cessnock, 38,420; Broken Hill, 33,420; Maitland,
28,040; Blue Mountains, 23,870; Penrith, 23,670; Wagga Wagga, 21,250;
Goulburn, 21,010; Orange, 19,250; Lism ore, 19,230; Albury, 18,550;
Tamworth, 18,400; Bathurst, 17,060; Grafton, 15,400; Lithgow, 14,750;
Campbelltown, 14,000; Dubbo, 13,370; Windsor, 11,370; Taree, 10,220;
Armidale, 9,460; Sh,'llharbour,8,750; Queaubcyan, 8,500; Cooma, 8,560;
Parkes, 8,460; Casino, 8,360; In verell, 8,090; Kemp~ey, 8,050; Forbes,
6,780; lIIuswcllbrook,6,270; Cowra.6,190.
VITAL STATISTICS for calendar years :
Deat1ls Infa n tile
(excluding mort.ality per
Live births Marriages Divorces stlll·lJirths) 1,000 Iivo birt!!.
1956 75,714 ~7,~1~ 3,125 34,064 23·5
1957 79,456 ... 8.161 2,975 33,317 22 "
1~;;S 8U,0·10 2S,3;j·~ 3.~n 7 ;;:?,~50 21'0
Thn annual rates per 1,000 of the population in 1958 were: Births,
21·67; deaths, 8·76; marriages, 7·73.
Re"orded movement of population in calendar years:
Total arri vals Total dcp~rtures
Interstate Ot'ersea Total Interstate Ot'er.fea Total
195r. 635,f.IG 135,677 671,193 540,730 109,6~2 6~O,4:?!!
1957 5-14,278 141,279 685.5t}7 546,41\8 IJ 3.0~ 5 659,54 3
1958 556,521 13;;,3~6 691,017 560,48 1 11 3,U42 67·1,42:';
RE.LIGION. There is no established church in New South Wales, and

freedom of worship is accorded to all.
Th,) following table shows the statistics of the religious denominations
in New SOllth Wales at the census, and of ministers of religion registered
for the celebration of marriages, in 1954:
Denomi nation Ministers Adberents Denomination Ministers Adheren~'
Church A Englan,l 695 1,466,571 Greek Orthodox . 22 ~9,133
Roman Oatholic 1,140 844,453 ' Church of Uhrist . 42 l0,567
Presbytt!rian 347 302.9,,4 Seventb Day Ad·
Methodi st 3·14· 275,18 8 venti<:it 137 10,476
Baptist 1.12 40,283 Jews 16 19,583
Oongregational 94 21,280 Others 119 3n.U3'
Lutheran 114 17,033
8alvation Army 110 12,825 Total :':,2]0 3.423,5~9
1 Indude. 554,816 'Oatholic, undefined.'

s Inducic~ R,436 • n<.' relillioD' and 301,203 • religioIl not stated' (this i:) not n compulsory
question in the ceusus schedule).
EDUCATION. The State maintains a system of national education. and

attendance at school is compulsory from 6 to 15 ycars of age. In all State
school:l education is free. Private schools are subject to State inspection.
There were at the end of 1958. 2.660 State schools. including 333 second·
ary schools and a correspondence school. At State schools during the year
1958, l,he average weekly enrolment of children was 554.223 and the average
daily attendance was 5o:l.643; teachers numbered 18.266. and there wero
4.070 students in training. On 1 Aug. 1958 the effective enrolment was
561.446 children. including 60.171 pupils receiving kindergarten instruction
at governme.nt schools.
On 1 Aug. 1958 there were 783 private schools with 5.300 full· time
teachers and an effective enrolment of 182.283 pupils, of which 668 were
Roman Catholic schools, having 3.879 teachers and 155.743 scholars.
Church of England schools numbered 41 with 671 teachers and 12.265
schola:s; other denominational schools 38, teachers 466, pupils 8.796;
undenJminational schools 36. teachers 290 and scholars 5.479.
The University of Sydney, founded in 1850, in 1958 had 8,996 students
(including 2.398 women) with 1.005 professors, lecturers and demonstrators.
There are 5 denominational colleges, and an undenominational college for
women, affiliated to the university. The principal government training
college, for teachers is situated in the university grounds.
The University of New England at Armidale. previously affiliated with
the University of Sydney, was incorporated on 1 Feb. 1954, and in 1958 had
1.567 fltudents (including 441 women) and a teaching and rescarch staff of 143.
The New South Wales University of Technology. renamed in 1958 the
University of New South Wales. was established by the State Government
in 194~. Enrolments in 1958 numbered 6,014 (including 257 women). with
a teaching and research staff of 821. Post·school technical education is
NEW SOUTH WALES 487
provided at state technical colleges, principally in the evening. Students
cnrolled in 1957 totalled 76,473.
State expenditure on education in 1958-59 was £A45,054,662.
JUSTICE. In New South Wales legal processes may be grouped within
the Lower or Magistrates Courts, or the Higher Courts presided over by
judges. There is also an appellate jurisdiction. Prisoners charged with
capital crimes must be tried before the Supreme Court.
Children's Courts have been established with the object of removing
children as far as possible from the atmosphere of a public court. There are
also a number of tribunals exercising special jurisdiction, e.g., the Industrial
Commission and the Workers' Compensation Commission .
In 1958 there were 609,598 convictions (mainly for drunkenness, minor
traffic offences, etc.) before magistrates at Courts of P etty Sessions and
Children's Courts and 2,274 distinct persons were convicted at the Higher
Courts during the calendar year 1958. On 30 June 1958 there were 3,126
('onvicted prisoners in gaol.
SOCIAL WELFARE. The Commonwealth Government makes pro-
vision for social benefits, such as age and invalid pensions, widows' pensions,
child endowment, health benefits, maternity allowances, and unemployment
and sickness benefits.
The number of age and invalid pensions current in New South Wales on
30 June 1959 was : Age, 212,315 (males, 67,212; females, 145,103); invalid,
32,435 (males, 17,087; fema,les, 15,348). The annual liability at 30 J u' ne
1959 was £A46,542,028 for age pensions and £A 7,426,536 for invalid pensions.
Commonwealth widows' pensions current in Ne w South Wales at 30 June
19:j9 numbered 19,618, and t.he annual liability was £A4,375,332.
The number of claims in force under the child endowment system at
30 June 1959 was 549,822 and endowed children in family units numbered
1,155,786 at that date. Endowment was also paid for 5,930 children in
institutions. The annual liability as at 30 June 1959 was £A23.056,930.
During the year 1958-59, 81,565 maternity allowances amounting to
£Al ,285,755 were paid in New South Wales.
Unemployment, sickness and special benefits commenced on I July 1945.
During the year 1958-59 claims totalling £A3,499,373 were paid in New South
Wales. At 30 June 1959 unemployment beucfit was being paid to 12,096
persons, a.nd sickness and special benefits to 4,316 persons.
To relieve distress caused by unemployment and other causes, social
welfare bureaux are conducted in various districts under the supervision of
welfare officers, who are assisted by medical officers and nurses. Social
aid, such as food, clothing, medical and dental treatment, is provided for
necessitous persons.
LABOUR. Two systems of industrial arbitration and conciliation for
the adjustment of industrial relations between employers and employees are
in operation-the State system, which operates within the territorial limits
of the State, and the Commonwealth system, which applies to industrial
disputes extending to other parts of the Commonwealth.
The industrial tribunals are authorized to fix minimum rates of wages
and other conditions of employment, and their awards may be enforced
by law. Industrial agreements between employers and organizations of
employees, when registered, may be enforced in the same manner as awards.
The principal State tribunal is the Industrial Commission, constituted
by judges. Subsidiary tribunals are Conciliation Committees for various

industries. each having an equal number representing employers and
employees and a Conciliation Commissioner as chairman.
The chief industrial tribunals of the Commonwealth are the Industrial
Court. constituted by judges, and the Conciliation and Arbitration
Commission, constituted by judges and commissioners. The Court is a
separate judicial body which deals with questions of law, the judicial inter·
pretation of awards, imposition of penalties. etc. The Commission's functions
include settling industrial disputes. determining the standard hours of work,
the basic wage. etc.
The rates of wages prescribed by awards and agreements consist of a
basic wage (which applies to an unskilled worker) and margins added for
skill. dc. The margins are assessed separately for each industry and vary
widely. In Sept. 1959 the predominant basic wage for adult males in New
South Wales was 2838. per week in Commonwealth awards and 2738. per
week in State awards. The minimum wage payable to females is 75% of
the m'tle rate.
A !ltandard working week of 40 hours is prescribed for employees in most
industries. Overtime is permitted under prescribed conditions.
Registration of trade unions is effected under the New South Wales
Trade Union Act, 1881-1936. which follows substantially the Trade Union
Acts e,f 1871 and 1876 of England. Registration confers a quasi.corporate
existellce with power to hold property. to sue and be sued. etc., and the
various classes of employees covered by the union are required to be
prescribed by the constitution of the union. For the purpose of bringing
an industry under the review of the State industrial tribunals. or participat.
ing in proceedings relating to disputes before Commonwealth tribunals.
employees and employers must be registered as industrial unions. under
State or Commonwealth industrial legislation respectively.
FINANCE. State revenue and expenditure (in £Al,OOO) for financial

years ending 30 June:
Service 1956-57 1957-58 1958- 59 1959- 60 '
R~'mue
Governmental 127,993 140,358 147,583 157,249
l3usiness undertakings 95,836 91,153 92,186 93,358
Total. 223,829 231,511 239,769 250,607
W (Irlting Ezpenditu,.t
Governmental . 10G,296 114,602 122,194 130,180
:ausiness undertakings 91,775 88,653 87.116 87,318
De~1 CharVes 25,609 28,209 30,-117 33,051
Total. 223,700 231,46·1 239,727 250,5·19
1 Estimates.
Gc,vemment revenue in 1958-59 included (in £Al,OOO) receipts from the

Commonwealth of 85,525; namely. towards interest on State debt. 2.917;
uniform tax reimbursements. 76.083; hospitals. etc., benefits. 4.726; other
purposes. 1.799. State taxes. in £AI.OOO (excluding motor taxation, 15.628.
whioh is paid direct to special road and traffio funds), totalled 38,378,
inoluding probate duty. 12,043; stamp duty. 12,559; land tax, 6,205; racing.
betting etc., taxes, 3,705, and liquor licences, 3,692. Revenue of busines8
undertakings (in £A1.000) comprised railways. 75,931; trams and omnibuses.
13,260, and Sydney Harbour authority. 2,995. Provision for debt redemp.
NEW SOUTH WALES 489
tion included in debt charges was 4,574, 4,782, 5,163 and 5,352 in t he
respective years.
In terms of the financial agreement between Commonwealth and states,
the Commonwealth haa assumed responsibility for debts of the Australian
States, nnd contributes to,vards the i.nterest thereon and sinking funds estab-
lished for redemption of the debts. Loans for the States are raised by the
Commonwealth in accordance with decisions of the Australian Loan Council.
The public debt of New South Wales on 30 June 1959 consisted of the
following : Repayable in Australia, £A 707,504,000 ; in London, £111 ,653,000 ;
in New York, £13,210,000 (converted at $4-8665 to f). Interest payments
in 1958-59 amounted to £A32,631,OOO, of which £A6,210,000 was in respect
of the external debt. The Commonwealth contributed £A2,917,000 towards
the interest. Contributions to the sinking fund for New South Wales debt,
£A8,411,000, included £Al,894,000 contributed by the Commonwealth, and
the cost of securities redeemed in the year was £A8,135,000. Since the
institution of the sinking fund in 1928 contributions have totalled
£AIl5,95-i ,000 (£A25,779,000 by Commonwealth), and redemptions at cost
£A 1I5,602,000.
PRODUCTlON _ Land SeUlement. The total area of land alienated or

in process of alienation from the Crown on 30 June 1958 was 65,754,834
acres, exclusive of the Australian Capital Territory; 95,190,021 acres (in-
cluding 67,857,973 acres in the Western Division) were held under perpetual
lease from the Crown; 20,300,946 acres under other Crown leasehold tenures,
and the total a·rea of land neither alienated nor leased (including roads,
reserves for public purposes, etc.) was ] 5,791,319 acres.
AgricultUl·e. The area under cultivation in New South Wales dluing 3
years and the principal crops produced were as follows :
Year ended 31 Marcb 1957 1958 19(;9
Acres under cultiva·
tion 3,626,470 4,91;',6i6 6,005,7&9
Value (farm) 01 a ll
crops (£A) 53,812,000 50,989,000
r. ." ··'
Principal crops Acreage Produce AcuQqe Produce Acreage Prodltct
{GrlLil\ (bash.) 1,742,334 28,490,OO() 2,2(;7,398 10,603,000 3,178,013 66,441,000
Wheat Hay (long
tens) . 32,891 39,529 209, 1 9~ 143,161 102,173 157,887
Maize Grain (bush.) 53,225 1,945,392 57,51 3 2,236,752 62,249 2,859,714
44 ,135 780,789 68,855 685,257 105,839 2,921,922
Barley Hay (long
tens) . 203 227 1,096 833 1,173 1,802
Grain (bush.) 420,501 6,274,197 715,489 3,944,Oi9 1,130,296 27,638,451
Oats Hay (long
ton..) . 46,079 62,445 10.).799 78,313 11 7,298 171,722
Pots toes (long tens) H,969 54,469 17,326 66,689 17,482 84,450
Lucerne (hay) (long
tens) 142,696 224,580 164,60-1 223,435 230,9]2 397,421
Tobacco (cwt) 1,031 7,186 1,193 11,029 l.54. 10,335
Rice (bosh.) 52,786 4,262,000 46,530 5,656,000 47,05-1 6,619,000
In 1958-59, 13,368 acres of sugar cane were cut for crushing, the yield
being 471,798 long tons, The total area under grapes wu,sI7,252 (including
1,066 not bearing) acres; the production of table grapes was 5,007 long tons;
of wine (1957-58), 4,150,416 gallons; of sultanas, raisins and currants,
228,600 cwt.
In 1958-59 there ware 30,259 acres under citrus fruit, principally
orangcs; the production from 23,595 acres was 3,283,945 bushels. The
area of other orchards was 35,822 acres, and the production from 26,451 acres
was 3,989,706 bushels. In addition, there were 25.197 acres of banana
plantations. the yield from 20,786 acres being 3.917,640 bushels, and there
werc 1,!)03 acres of passion· fruit, pineapples, berries. etc.
At i:I March 1959 the State had 67.936.000 sheep and lambs, 3.663.000
cattle. m4.445 horses and 348,730 pigs. The production of wool in 1958-59
was 68,~ ,184.000 lb. (greasy). In the year ended 30 June 1959 production
of buttolr was 87,646.000 lb.; cheese, 11,299,000 lb., and bacon and ham,
25,896,000 lb.
For.!$try. The estimated forest area of Crown and private lands is
22,682,000 acres. The total area of State forests amounts to 6,348.705 acres,
and 1,416.528 acres have been set apart as timber reserves. The revenUE>
from r(.yaltie3. licences. etc .• amounted in the year ended June 1958 to
£A2.49H,OI8. There were 1.018 saw. mills in the year ended 30 June 1958.
the employecs numbered 9.515. the value of plant and machinery was
£A4.15H,153. and land and buildings £A4.026,577. The estimated value of
production from forestry in 1957-58 was £AI5.341,OOO.
Mir.,ing. The value of output in 1958 of the mining and quarrying
industr;es of New South Wales was £A 71,560,335 and total employment was
25,220 persons. The two principal classes of mining were coalmining.
which ('mployed 15,375 persons and produced 15.850,948 long tons of coal
valued at £A39,924,194. and silver-lead-zinc mining, wbich employed
6.234 persons and produced minerals valued at £AI9.093,042. The follow-
ing table shows the mine production of metals (i .e.• gross contents of metullio
minerals produced) in calendar years:
1955 195G 1937 1~5 8
AntimonJ (long ton) 850 879 1 ,20~ 1,355
C"dmiun:, (long ton) , 795 862 924 812
Cobalt (1'>Dg tou) 61 59 68 70
Copper (long ton) 3,492 4, ~89 4,382 4,023
Gold (fin-! 0',) , 30,061 28,821 31,043 18,709
Lend (lor,g tou) 234,SJ4 238.319 266.928 246,896
Silver (O" e oz,) 8,823,211 9,289,583 9,969, 102 8,992,293
Sulphur (long ton) 186,680 187,087 207,604 197.736
Tin (loll8 ton) , . 270 269 211 239
'1'itaniwro(long ton 'J.'iO, 37,130 69,877 ~6,674 ()5,524
Tu.ngstor (l b. WO,) . 16,930 9.882 3,388 2,504
Zinc (Ion. ton) 211,478 229,126 241,509 211,667
IndlUllry. Establishments employing 4 or more hands, or using power
other t:'lan manual, supply annual returns of factory operations. Develop-
ment since 1928-29 is shown in the following table :
Establish· Persons Salaries Engines Value (in tAI,OOO)
ments employed and wages Installed Jlaterials
(No,) (No.) (tAl,OOO) (1,000 h.p ,) and Juel Production
1928-29 8,465 180,756 3S,545 1.028 111,671 73.627
1938-39 9,464 228,781 44,606 1.792 128,153 90.266
1948-49 16,087 378,380 146,536 2.649 35R.525 251,199
1956-57 21,838 436.369 378.332 4,932 1,019.838 706,799
1957-58 22,270 445,802 396,692 5,172 1,090,380 757,862
Almost one-third of the work force in New South Wales is employed

in factories.
Large iron and steel works. with subsidiary factories, are in operation in
proximity to the coalfields, at Newcastle and Port Kembla. The products
include iron and steel of various grades. pipes, boilers, steel wire and wire
netting. copper wire. copper and brass cables and spun cast iron pipes.
NEW SOUTH WALES 491
Statistics of the main classes of industry in 1957-58 were:
Vahle of
Establisu· Persons Salaries Engines produc-
1llClit~ employed and w:tges installed tion
Cbsl">iticatioll (No.) (Ko.) (£AI,OOO) (1,000 h.p.) (£AI,OOO)
Industrial metal:", machines. et c. 8,52B 200,[)83 ] 9tJ,129 1,226 S·H,M·I
Te.,ti les and textile good, . 47~ 22,178 ]6,705 72 30,31S
Clothill~ . 3,36;1 43,731 27,346 32 44,00-1
Pood, drink, tob::tcco 2,7flS 38,7.n 32,1 39 275 77,'260
',,"oodwork and fllfuitltrC' 3,4) ;JS 28,763 2R,63D 223 41,8ii
P:l.pcr, printing 1,01, 28,158 2G,011 III 49,441
All other . 3,034 74,648 71,723 3,233 173,40 0
Total. 2!!,2i'O 4.t5,Sr)2 30G,602 :5,172 7:J7,SGJ
Some of the principal articles manufactured in 1957-58 were:

Quan· Value Quae· Value
Article tity (£AI,OOO) Article tity (iAI.OtlO}
Ileer aDd stout (1,000 galls) 94,100 ] 0 .60 ~ Jllectrie light nnd power
Footwear (1,000 prs) 7,651 13.37!I (Ita. kwb.) . , 7,590 43.074-
Butter (1,000 lb.) 67,063 1l,S3~ 0 .. (1,000 therms) . . 11[;,372 9,781
Oloth : cotton, wool, rayon, Ja ms and preserved fruit
synthetic (1,000 oq. yd). 35 ,676 18,232 and ve"etablos (1,000 lb.) 06,914 8,162
Flour (1.000 sbort t ons 01 Pig-iron (1,000 long tons) ~,Q30
2,00011).) ~!)7 1:).807 Tyres (new) (1,000) 1,002 lS,5J.1
The est,imaterl gross valllo of recorded production from the primary and
manufacturing industries in 1957-58 was as follows (in £Al,OOO): Pastoral,
191,361; dairying and farmyard, 82,085; flgricultllre, 62,091; forests,
fisheries find trapping, 21 ,15~; mining (including the output of quarries),
83.455; total primary, 440,1'101; manllfact1ll'ing, 757,802; t otal recorded ,
1,198,006.
COMMERCE. The external commerce of New South Wales, exclusive

of interstate trade, is included in the statement of the commerce of the
Commonwealth. The oversea commerce of the State is given in £Al,OOO
£'0. b. for years ending 30 June:
Import. E.port.s Imports Rrporta
I ~5S - 54 2sn,537 263,17;') IS:;r,- 57 314,3R3 292,,!R:J
1954-50 016,096 220.657 ] 957 - fl,q 352,6;;:$ 2.10.1)3~
1~G5-5G S3G, a76 225,650 1 D:iS - [,V 35~, 74 ·t 221,!i-1G
In 1958-59 bullion and specie accounted for £A2,1l4,OOO of the imports

and £A3,418,000 of the exports; £All,240,593 of the exported merchandise
was non· Australian produce.
The chief exports arc wool, wheat, rice, flour, dairy produce, fruit,s,
meats, hides and skins, coal, iron and steel, machinery, drugs and chemicals.
Of the total value of trade of New South Wales in 1958-59, an amount
of £AI33,100,400 was imported from the United Kingdom and £A41 ,633,500
exported thereto.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shippin(J. The vessels engaged in the inter-

state and overse:\ trade which entered tho ports of New South '\-Vales in
1957-58 numbered 3,313, net t.onn:tge 12,030,741; the clearances were 3,283
vessel~, 11,907,560 tons. Of the tot,al net t onnage entered, 28·9% was
owned in Australia, 34·8% in the U.K., 6'4% elsewhere in the British
Commonwealth. Sydney Harbour is the principal port of Australia. The
number of vessels, coastal, interstate and ovcrse<1, which entered in 1958-511
was 4,347; net tonnage, 10,531,226.
Rairways. On 30 June 1959, 6,103 miles of government railway were

open. The earnings in 1958-59 were £A 75,930, 792; the working expenses,
£A71,102,250; the number of passengers carried, 254,055,033. Victorian
Government railways (241 miles) which extend over the border into New
South Wales are not included in the foregoing figures. There are also
6 private railways having a total mileage of 85 miles (mainly in mining
district3). The principal omnibus services in Sydney and Newcastle and
the tramways in Sydney are the property of the Government.
Roads. There are 125,040 miles of roads and streets in New South Wales,
including 604 miles concreted, 4,684 miles tar or bituminous macadam, 7,234
miles ,"aterbound macadam, 39,550 miles gravelled, 27,281 miles formed
only, 15,414 miles cleared only, 30,273 miles natural surface. The bridge
across Bydney Harbour is the largest arch bridge in the world.
The number of registered motor vehicles on 30 June 1959 was 1,001,300,
including 589,692 cars, 286,616 lorries and vans, 32,515 motor cycles, 17,622
tractor:; and 70,716 trailers.
Avi,1tion. Regular air transport services terminating in New South
Waleslnd operated by Australian·owned airlines carried an aggregat.e of
1,428,U6 paying passengers in 1957-58, viz., 152,453 on oversea services,
961,23(, on interstate services and 314,507 on intrastate services. Aircraft
fiew 33.684,000 miles on these services.
BASKING. There were 12 trading banks operating in Kew South
Wales !It 30 June 1959, including the Commonwealth Trading Bank and
Rural Bank (Government banks), 2 foreign banks and 1 New Zealand bank.
The t.r.uJ.ing bank business is transacted chiefly by the Commonwealth
Tradinl( Bank and 7 private banks, of which 5 have their head offices in
Australia and 2 in London. At 30 June 1959 the 12 banks operated 1,385
branch,~s and 305 agencies in New South Wales.
The weekly average amount of deposits held in New South Wales by the
12 banks was £A658,173,000 in June 1959, consisting of £.'\178,503,000
bearing interest and £A479,670,000 not bearing interest. Bank advan ces,
overdn,fts, bills discounted, etc., amounted to £A440,563,OOO. A statement
of other assets and liabilities of the banks in New South Wales is of little
significmce, as banking business is conducted Oil an Australia·wide basis.
Savings bank deposits at the end of June 1959 amounted to
£A488,Z73,OOO, representing £A130 per head ofpopulat.ion.
LOld Howe Island, 31 0 33' 4" S., 159 0 4' 26" E., a dependency of New
South Wales, situated about 436 miles north·east of Sydney; area, 3,220
acres, (f which only about 300 acres are arable; population (30 June 1959),
248 .
ThE island, which was discovered in 1788, is of volcanic origin. Mount
Gower, the highest point, rcaches a height of 2,840 ft.
A I o; ard at Sydney a nd a n ele cted Island Committee manage the a ffairs
of thesland and supervise the Kentia palm.seed industry .
Books of Reference
STAT."STICAL INI<'ORMATlON. The N.S.\V. Government Statistician's Office wa.s establit5hed
in 1886, :md ill 1957 was integrated with the Commonwealth Dureau of Census and ~tatistics.
Deputy Commonwealth Statistician: K. Davison. Its principal publications are:
O.Dicia,: Year-Book of Nt1IJ SQuth Waits (1886/87-1900/01 under the title Weallh and Pro~T'"
of 11".8. W.): latest fuil issue, 1~57; separate sections, 1958
VICTORIA 493
NeVJ South lfaleJ Statistical Register. Published annually since 18:;8 lat<>st lull issue,
1954-55; separate S('ctiOllS, 1955-66
New South Wales Pocket. YeClr-8(lok. Published since 1913; latest issue. 1959
NeVJ Soulh Wale.• Statistical BuUelin (quarterly). Published since 1905 (except 1943-48)
Monthly Summary 0/ Bu.'fine3S Statistics. Published since May 1931
Populatiun Reviews [evaluating the 1954 census.]. 4 parts
Handbook of Local Stali.,/irs
N'-UJ South Wale", ..d. ilandbook olln/ommlion Jor Tourists. Migrants. Traders. Investors and
OthCTI. Government llrinting Office. Sydney, 1947
Bco.n, C., On the Wool Track. New York, 19·17
COu...~QS, A., Garden of Neu! South Wales, Sydner. 1948
Daviaon, F. D., and Nicbollq, Bot Blue Coast Caramn. Sydney, 1935
Denning, W., Road to Canberra. Sydney, 19·17
Holmes, M., .dj, ,dtlus of Population and Production for Xew South Wales. Sydney, 1931
The Ge{N}ra.phicaJ Basis o/Governmmt : Specially Applied 10 New South )Vdles. Sydney, 1944
Hurley, J. F., Sydney: a cameru Iludy. Sydney, 19-18
Hurley, P. J., Red Cedar, the Story of the North Coast. Sydney. 1948
Mitchell, E., Australia'l Alps. Sydney, 1942
Taylor, J. M., Geo'}Taphy of New Soutll Wales. Sydney, 1927
STA1'E LmRARY. The Public Library of N.S.\V., MaC''l.uarie St., Sydney. Principal
Librarian: G. D. fiieh3rd:;;on, "hLA.
VICTORIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Victoria, formerly It. portion
of New South 'Vales, was, in 1851, proclaimed a separate colony, with 0.
partially elective Legislative Council. In 1855 responsible government was
conferred, the legislative power being vested in a parliament of t,\'o Houses,
the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. At present the
Council consists of 34 members who are elected for 6 years, but one-half
retire every third year. The Assembly consists of 66 members, and every
Assembly continues for 3 years from the date of its first meeting unless
sooner dissolved by the Governor. Neither members nor electors of the
Council or the Assembly are required to have 0. property qualification.
Members and electors of both Houses must be adult natural born or natural-
ized British subjects. Women are fully enfranchised. Ministers of religion
and judges may not he members of either House. Single voting (one elector
one vote) and compulsory preferential voting apply to Council and Assembly
elections. Enrolment of Council and Assembly electors is compulsory. The
Council may not initiate or amend money bills, but may suggest amendments
in such bills other than amendments which would increase any charge or
burden on the people. Any Minister, with the consent of the House of
which he is not a member, may sit and speak in that House to explain a bill
relating to the department administered by him, but may not vote in that
House. A bill shall not become law unless passed by both Houses, except
that, in the event of a continued disagreement between the two Houses as
to a bill passed by the Assembly, other than certain constitutional bills, the
Governor having dissolved the Assembly may subsequently dissolve the
Council, and if the disagreement still continues he may convene a joint
sitting of the members of the Council and the Assembly; if at such joint
sitting the bill ill disput.e is passed by an absolute majority of all members it
shall become law.
Reimbursement of expenses for members of both Houses has been since
l() April 1959, £A2,OOO per annum. Additional allowances are payable to
members of both Houses, rising from £A550 (metropolitan constituencies) to
£A950 (outer country); plus a living-away-from-home allowance of 3
guineas for each day of attendance for eaeh member (not being a responsible
Minister).
Members holding the following offices receive, in addition to the above

amounts, the salaries and allowances specified: The President of the Council,
£AJ,OO') salary and £A275 expense allowance; the Speaker of the Assembly,
£AI ,10') salary and £A275 expense allowance; the Chairman of Committees
of the Council, £A400 salary; the Chairman of Committees of the Assembly,
£A500 salary; the Leader of the Opposition in the Assembly, £Al,500
salary and £A600 expense allowance; the Deputy Leader of the Opposition
in the Assembly, £A500 salary and £AJ25 expense allowance; the Leader
of any recognized party (other than the Opposition) consisting of at least
10 members in the Assembly, of which party no member is a responsible
;\1iniskr, £A600 salary and £A175 expense allowance; a member of either
House who is the Parliamentary Secretary of the Cabinet, £A500 salary and
a travelling allowance; the Government Whip in the Assembly, £A225
salary; the Whip of any recognized P arty which consists of at least 10 mem-
bers in the Assembly, of which Party no member is a responsible Minister,
£A150 salary. All members have free passes over the Victorian Railways;
country members are also entitled to certain allowances for air travel.
Th;, Legislative Assembly, elected on 31 May 1958, is composed as fol·
lows: Liberal·Country Party, 38; Labour Party, 18; Country Party, 10;
total, {'6.
Goternor. Gen. Sir Reginald Alexander Dallas Brooks, K.C.B.,
K.C.M .G., K.C.V.O., D.S.O. (aasumed office 18 Oct. 1949).
In the exercise of the executive power the Governor is advised by a
Cabinet of responsible Ministers. The Constitution Act Amendment Act
provid,~ that the number of responsible Ministers shall not at anyone
time el:Ceed 14, of whom 4 may sit in the Legislative Council. No responsible
Minister may hold office for more than 3 months unless he is or becomes a
member of the Council or the Assembly.
In addition to salaries and allowances payable to them as members of
the {X·uncil or the Assembly, responsible Ministers receive the following
amounts : The Premier, £A3.000 salary and £At,500 expense allowance
and, if he represents an electorate outside the metropolitan area and main·
tains nn additional place of residence within the latter, an allowance of
£A500; the Deputy Premier, £A2,250 salary and £A700 expense allowance;
12 oth'3r responsible Ministers £Al,500 salary and £A600 expense allowance.
E ach re.~ponsible Minister receives, when travelling on business of the State,
a travelling allowance. Members of Committees receive attendance fees
and certain travelling expenses when on Committee duties.
Th,} Liberal·Country Party Ministry (appointed 7 June 1955) is as
follow~; :
PrMnier, Treasurer and Minister for COMervation. H. E. Bolte, M.P.
Chief Secretary and Attorney.General. A. G. Rylah, M.P.
Minister of Transport and a Via· President of the Board of Land olLd
Work.!. Sir Arthur Warner, M.L.C.
Minister of Agriculture and a Vice· President of the Board of Land and
Work.!. G. L. Chandler, C.M.G., M.L.C.
Minister of Education. J. S. Bloomfield, M.P.
Commissioner of Public Works and a Vice-President of the Board of Land
and Works. Sir Thomas Maltby, M.P.
Minister of HeaUh. K P. Cameron, M.L.C.
Minister of Water Supply and Minister of Mines. W. J. Miblls, ~LP.
Minister of Forests and Min ister of Slate Development. A. J. Fraser,
)LC., :\f.P.
VICTORIA 495
Minister of Labour and Industry and Minister of Electrical Undertakings.
G. O. Reid, M.P.
_Uinister for Local Government. M. V. Porter, l\:I .P.
Min~ter of Housing and Minister of Immigration. H. R. Petty, M.P.
Commissioner of Crown Lands and Survey, Minister of Soldier Settle·
ment and President of the Board of Land and Works. K . H . Turnbull,
M.P.
Jl1inister without Portfolio. L. H. S. Thompson, M.L.C.
Agent·General in Great Britain. Col. Sir William Leggatt, D.S.O .• M.C.

{Victoria House, Melbourne Place, \V.C.2).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. With the exception of YaUourn Works area
(S,652 acres) and the unincorporated areas of French Island (41 ,600 acres),
Lady Julia Percy Island (650 acres), the Bass Strait Islands (970 acres) and
Tower Hill (1,460 acres), the State is divided into 205 municipal districts
called cities, towns, boroughs and shires. The basis of the constitution of
cities, towns and boroughs is statutory requirements in respect of area, the
number of inhabitant householders and net annual value of rateable pro·
perty; and of shires, not limited in area by statute, rateable property
capable of yielding, upon a rate not exceeding I s. in the £ on the net annual
value thereof, a sum of at least £A3,OOO. In 1959 there were 45 cities, 5
towns, 17 boroughs and 138 shires.
AREA AND POPULATION. The State has an area of 87,884 sq. miles.
It is divided into 37 counties, varying iD area from 920 to 1',933 sq. milcs.
The population (exclusive of full· blood aboriginals) at the latest con-
secn tive censuses was:
00 pre,ious ceoslla
Do te of census Population Numerical Incr~t
euumera tion Mak. FerYUllcs Total increaJt 0/
,0
3 April 1881 451 ,623 409,943 861,666 131,368 17·99
6 April 1891 598,222 .41,866 1,1-10,088 218,522 32-33
31 March 1901 603,720 597,350 1,201,070 60,982 6·35
2 AprH 1911 6M,591 659,960 1,31S,Ml 114,481 9-63
4 April 1921 7M,724 776,650 1,531,280 215,729 16·40
30 June 1933 903,244 917,017 1,820,261 28B,981 18·87
31) June 1947 1,01 3,867 1,040,834 2,054,701 234,440 12·88
SI) June 1951 1,231,099 1,221,242 2,452,341 397,640 19·35
Estimated popuJation at 30 June 1950 was 2,814,523 (1,416,750 males,

1,397,773 females). The average density is 32·02 persons per sq. mile.
The estimated population of Melbourne metropolitan area (capital city)
on 30 June 1!159 was 1,777,700, or 63% of the popuJation of the State,
The populat,ion of Geeloug and suburbs was 88,160; Ballarat and suburbs,
53,680; Bendigo and suburbs, 41,140. Other cities, towns and boroughs:
Warrnambool, 14,330; Moe, 13,730; Shepparton, 12,820; Wangaratta,
12,640; Mildura, 12,320; Hamilton,9,51O; Colac,9,120; Horsham, 8,950;
Ararat, 7,910; Sale, 7,460; Maryborough, 7,410; Benalla,7,3OO; Caatle-
maine,7,140; Echuca, 6,220; Swan HilI, 6,070; Stawell,5,91O; Port.laurl,
5,800; Yallourn Works area, 5,000; Wonthaggi,4,580.
Immigration Emigration
Births Marriages Divol"ces Deaths (Overseas) \0,.rse08)
1956 5S,393 20, 137 1,205 23,886 81,022 24,543
1'5 7 60.46·1 21).23~ 1. 34rt 24,131 62,613 22,201
!!Jij/:i 61: 26!1 20,64H 1,698 2 ;1 ,6 2~ 6 :t,:~3 ; 27,695
The Lnnual rates per 1,000 of the population in 1958 were: Marriages,
7·54; births, 22'36; deaths, 8'62; infantile deaths, 19·23 per 1,000 births.
RELIGION. There is no State Church in Victoria, and no State assist·

ance has been given to religion since 1875. At the date of the 1954 census,
the follml'ing were the enumerated numbers of each of the principal religions:
Catbolic, Roman,l 181,211; Catholic,l 383,443; Church of England,
832,473; Methodist, 252,802; Presbyterian, 326,422; Protestant (un.
defined), 37,71i3; other Christian, 156,928. Hebrew, 24,016; other non·
Christia,"s, 2,283; indefinite, 4,818; no religion, 6,637; unspecified,243,555.
1 So described on individual census t'cbedules.
EDUCA nON. Educational establishments in Victoria arc of four kinds,

viz., the ~niversity, established under a special Act and opened in 1855, Staw
schools (primary and secondary), technical schools or colleges, and regiswred
schools.
Affiliated with the university are 5 residentbl colleges: Trinity,Ormond,
Queen's and Newlllan in connexion with tbe Church of Englilnd, Presby.
terian, Methodist and Roman Catholic Churches respectively, and the
UniversLy Women's College, which is not a Church foundation. In 1959,
9,685 st'ldents were taking courses for degrees and diplomas, and 594
students were taking single subjects.
Prim;try education of children of the ages of 6 to 14 years inclusive is free,
secular and compulsory. The compulsory provisions of the Education Act
are rigidly enforced. At 31 Dec. 1957 there were 1,908 State primary
schools with 11,391 teachers, a total enrolment of 312,468 scholars, and an
average :tttendancc of 244,113 or 78% of the numbers on the roll. There
were also 222 State secondary schools, comprising 26 central schools and
classes, ;:5 higher elementary schools, 18 girls' schools, 44 junior technical
schools and 109 high schools. At these schools (excluding junior technical)
there were 4,847 tenchers, 68,250 scholars and an average attendance of
57,940, Of about 85% of the totnl on the roll. There was also a correspond.
ence sch·)ol with a total enrolment of 2,099. In addition, there were 50
senior te'lhnical schools, attached to which were 44 junior technical schools
with a staff of 3,767 teachers and 83,204 students. The total cost to the
State of public instruction, including grants to the University of Melbourne,
was £A3:l,949,452 in 1956-57 (exclusive of interest on loans).
Schools Not Receiving Government Aid. There were, in 1958, 533
registered schools, excluding commercial colleges, with 4,140 wachers and
149,117 pupils enrolled. Of these schools, 424 were connected with the
Roman Catholic community; some are under the control of the Church of
England, the Presbyterian, Methoclist and other Churches, whilst a few are
managed by private persons or companies.
SOCIAL SERVICES. Victoria was the first State of the Common·
wealth te, make a statutory provision for the payment of Age Pensions. The
Act providing for the payment of such pensions came into operation on 18
Jan. 1901, and continued until 1 July 1909, when the Federal Invalid and
Old Age Pension Act came into force. The Social Services Consolidation
Act, whi'lh came into operation on 1st July 1947, repealed the various legisla.
tive ena<ltments relating to age (previously old.age) and invalid pensions,
maternity allowances, child endowment, and unemployment and sickness
benefits and, while following in general the Acts repealed, considerably
VICTORIA 497
liberalized many of their provisions; it has since been amended. On 30
June 1959 there were 128,152 age and 21,132 invalid pensioners in Victoria,
and the amoUllt paid in pensions, including payments to wives of invalid
pensioners, during 1958-59 was £A3I,645,000.
The number of war pensions (members of the forces and their depend.
ants) payable in Victoria on 30 June 1959 was 184,975, and the number of
service pensions was 10,692. The amount paid in war and service pensions
by the Commonwealth Government during 1958-59 was £A16,588,733.
During the year ended 30 June 1959 maternity allowance was granted
to ()3,428 mothers in the state, the total amount paid in allowances during
the year being £Al,020,OOO.
Under the Commonwealth Unemployment and Sickness Benefit Act,
1944, there were 39,090 claims granted, and the amount paid in benefits
totalled £Al,859,720 in the year ended 30 June 1959.
The number of widows' pensions in force in Victoria at 30 June 1959 was
12,141, and the total amount paid in allowances during that year was
£A2,546,000.
The number of child endowmenta in force in Victoria at 30 June 1959
was 396,476, representing 851,489 endowable children. In addition, endow·
ment wns being paid in respect of 5,041 children who were being maintained
in approved institutions. The total amount paid in endowment in Victoria
during the year ended 30 June 1959 was £AI8,369,OOO.
STATE HOUSING. The Housing Acts, as amended in 1954, provide
for the appointment of a Housing Commission of 3 full· time members as the
housing o,uthority of the State. The Housing Commission was established
in March 1938, and its o,ctivities are now spread throughout the whole
State . Since its inception to 30 June 1959, 190 lo~alities, including 125
in the country, have been developed by the commission and 39,759 dwel·
ling units provided thereon. In addition, 1,650 houses were under con·
struction. About 47% of the units built in 1955-50 were located in country
towns, particularly where decentralized industries have been established.
In its normal house programme the commission has expended £Alll,329,500
up to 30 June 1959. Collections from rents for the year 1955-59 amounted
to £A5,624,354.
JUSTICE. There is a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and 12 puisne
judges. There are courts of general and petty sessions, county courts,
courts of mines, court of licensing and children's courts.
Criminal statistics for 1958: 270,017 cases (50,197 arrest cases and
219,820 summonses cases); summarily convicted, 251,065; committed for
trial,4,227.
There are 11 gaols in Victoria. At the end of 1058 there were confined
in these prisons, 1,466 males and 30 females.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure (in £A) of the state in the
years shown (ended 30 June) were:
Revenue Expenditw'c Revenue Expenditure
1954- 55 122.836,929 121.500,206 19~7- 58 153,391.287 1:;6.603,93-l
1955-:iij 129.665.1I~2 l:l2.UlO,5n 1958-59 162.071.268 16 :5 .010..109
1956-57 142,162,M2 146,174,008 1959·~O' 176,893,000 178,O!)3,OOO
1 Estimates.
The principal items of state revenue during 1957-58 were: Taxation

(including Commonweo,lth tax reimbursement), £AS4,107,7GI; railways,
498 THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND "~MPIRE
£A35,792,450; other Commonwealth payment, £A9,593,928, and water

supply (including interest), .£A3,922,138. The principal heads of expendi-
ture were : Interest and public debt charges, £A23,412,925; railways,
£A37,4.39,231 (excluding interest but including pensions), education (ex-
cluding interest but including pensions), .£A29,363,644; health, hospitals
and chlLrities (including pensions), £A25,201,174.
The amount raised by taxation (exclusive of taxes collected by Common-
wealth but inclusive of Commonwealth reimbursements under the uniform
taxation scheme), as shown in the above paragraph, was approximately
£A31 per head of popUlation.
The public debt of Victoria on 30 June 1958 was £A51R,212,671. An
amounl; of £A638,386,314 has been expended from loan funds. Of this
amount.£A 149, I 02, 78-1 was spent on rail ways; .£A 105,684,342 on waterworks;
.£A41,570,934 on laud settlement; .£A54,230,884 on soldier settlement;
£A21,231,209 on country roads; £A50,689,227 on electricity supply;
.£AI3,H7,158 on unemployment relief; £A52,768.447 on university, schools
Ilnd colleges; £A16,147,141 on forestry ; £A40,021,S14 on hospitals;
£AIO,715,648 on housing; £AI2,039,447 on Gas and Fuel Corporation;
£A23,015,667 in aid of revenue.
PRODUCTION. Land Settlement. Of the total area of Victoria
33,352,0)92 acres at the end of 1957 were either alienated or in process of
alienation. Of the remainder 123,592 acres are at present suitable for
agricul:;ure; 5,373,279 acres for pastoral purposes; 59,671 acres are held
under perpetual lease; 31,305 acres are held under other leases; state
forests, timber, water and other reserves, 6,980,856 acres; auriferous land,
445,56(; acres; roads, 1,667,649 acres; all other lands, 8,2l0,S50 acres.
Rural holdings in 1958-59 numbered 69,770.
AgricuUure. The following table shows the areas under the principal
crops and the produce of each for 5 scasons (in 1,000 units) :
Total
culti-
vatjon Wheat Oats Barley Potatoes Hay
Season ocrts acres bus"e" acre" bu.hell acre, bushel, acres I~. acre' l(mJ
19M-56 6,527 2,141 41,083 871 14,858 309 6,877 37 163 879 1,526
1956-57 5,512 1,565 35.282 613 9.655 345 7,549 40 227 782 1,4 23
1957-68 1i.696 1,835 32,134 622 9,528 352 5,447 50 251 871 1,41 3
1958- 59 6,919 1,810 42,697 971 23,339 363 8,581 49 1,282 2,299
In :~ 957-5S there were 44,767 acres of vines, yielding 2,582,492 gallons of

wine and 60,896 tons of raisins and currants. Green forage .covered 85,09;}
acres, and vegetable llrea and orchards occupied 106,054 llcres.
At March 1959 there were in the state 91,452 horses, 2,651,022 head
of cattle, 26,925,365 sheep and 253,125 pigs. The wool produced in the
season 1957-58 amounted to 296m. lb., valued at £A76m. The quantity of
butter produced in 1957-58 was 194,590,000 lb.
At the cnd of 1958 the area of state forests, timber, water and other
reserVE'S was 6,981,000 acres.
Tho gross value of Victorian production (primary and secondary) in
Hl57-t:S was £A9I6·4m.
Mi·rling. The recorded production of certain metals and minerals raised
in Vicl·oria for the year 1958 was: Gold, 41 ,476 fine oz., value £A648,063;
coal, black, 108,359 tons, value £A5I8,373; coal, brown, 11,643,629 tons,
yallle !:A5,76S,496.
VICTORIA 499
Manufactures. The total number of factories, works, etc., in 1957-58,

was 16,426. The great majority used electric power; the aggregate horse·
power used was 2,992,000; the number of employees was 357,143, and the
lands, buildings, machinery and plant were valued at £A591,OS6,000. The
value of materials used was £A700,759,OOO, and of articles produced or work
done, £Al,377,697,OOO. The wages paid amounted to £A3IO,540,OOO.
Trade Unio1t8. There were 162 trade unions with a total membership
of 443,040 operating in Victoria in 1957.
Electrical Energy. The State Electricity Commission of Victoria, the
largest electricity authority in Australia, produces 99% of the electricity
generated in the State; its supply network serves over two· thirds of the
populated area of Victoria, serving 97% of the population and some New
South Wales municipalities and irrigation settlements bordering the river
MUlTay. The total installed capacity of the Commission's system at 30 June
1958 was 1,211,009 k\v., of which 1,186,459 were interconnected. Power
generated in 1957-58 totall ed 5,1l3m. kwh. Steam stations at Yallourn,
Melbourne (3), Geelong (2), Ballarat (2), Mildura and Redcliffs had an
installed capacity of 928,700 kw., the most important being Yalloum, the
installed capacity of which (381,000 kw. in 1958) is being increased to over
600,000 kw. in 1962. In 1963, 142,000 kw. will be available for general
supply from the Morwell Power and Fuel Project. The installed capacity at
30 June 1958 of hydro.electric stations was 261,515 kw., including Victoria's
share in the Hume Power Station (shared with New South Wales). A new
hydro plant of 96,000 kw. will be completed at Kiewa in the Australian Alps
in J 963. The Commission owns and operates 3 power.stations (total
capacity 18,530 kw.) at Sheppartoll, Warrnambool and Hamilton.
COMMERCE. The commerce of Victoria, exclusive of inter· state trade,
is included in the statement of the commerce of the Commonwealth of
Australia.
The total value of the oversea imports and exports of Victoria, including
bullion and specie but excluding inter·state trade, was as follows (in £A):
Imports Exports Imports Exports
1903-54 237,682,873 203,581,075 1956-57 264.946,377 ~55, 752,007
1954-55 297,494,283 216,571,772 1957-58 277,8Ia,OOO 220,725.0(10
1955- 56 299,348,793 209,555,264 1958-[;9 286,060,000 221,020,000
The chief exports are wool, wheat, barley, flour, oats, butter, fruits,
meats, hides and skins, milk and cream, cheese.
COMMUNICATIONS , Railways. All the railways are the property of

the state and are under the management of 3 commissioners appointed by
the Government, State railway statistics for years ending 30 June:
1954 1955 1906 19,,7 19ii8
MUeage open for traffic . . 4,490 4,458 4,453 4,412 '1,401
Total capital expenditure (£1,000). 83,765 91,029 ~7,r.20 102,876 110,060
Gross receipts (£1.000) . • 37,777 3~,977 37,18~ 37,498 36,066
Expenditure ..nd interest (£1,000). 36,172 37,266 38,268 39,357 ~8,352
The figures shown above include particulars relating to certain electric tramwa.y a.nd road
motor services under the control of the ltailway CommJs..ioners.
Aviation. Particulars relating to the airline companies registered in

Victoria during the year ended 30 June 1959 were as follows: Registered
aircraft, 94; hours flown, 163,000; mileage, 31,016,000; passengers carried.
l,i:27,OOO.
MONEY AND BANKING. A branch of the Royal Mint was opened

at Melbourne on 12 June 1872. Up to 31 Dec. 1958, 50,Hl9,1l9 oz. of
gold, valued at £A185,766,831, was received at the mint, and gold coin and
bullion i~;sued to the value of £A185, 765,122. The minting ofsilver coin was
commen.:ed in Jan. 1916, and bronze coin in 1919, and the total issues to
the Com~nonwealth Treasury to the end of 1958 were: Silver, £A42, 792, 700,
and bronze, £Al,35I,452. The issues of coin in 1958 were: Gold, nil;
silver, £Al,857,OOO; bronze, £A41,720.
On 30 June 1959 there were 2,565,000 operative accounts (excluding
school b9.nk accounts) in savings banks in Victoria. The total credit due
to depositors amounted to £A458,454,000, mfLde up of State Savings Bank,
£A281,206,000; Commonwealth Savings Bank, £AI22,577,OOO; private
savings banks, £A54,581,OOO.
The weekly average of deposits and advances of trading banks operating
in Victoria during June quarter 1959 were as follows: Deposits, not bearing
interest, £A381m.; deposits, bearing interest, £AI46m.; total deposits,
£A527m; loans, advances and bills discounted, £A255m.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. The Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (8
Eliza.beth ;::;treet, Melbourne. 0.1.Deputy Commonwealth Statistician and Government Statist:
V. H. Arn)ld, F.r.A.) publishe3:
Official Year·Book Of VicloTia. (Annually since 1873)
Pocket Year-Book Of Victoria. (Annually since 1956)
Victoria. Statistical Regis"'r. (Annually from 1854 to 1916)
Quarterl~ Abstract of Stajistics. (Feb. 1947-March 1958)
Victoria: Th~ Pirsl Century. Official History of Victoria.. Melbourne, 1934
Leeper, G. "\V. (ed.), Introducing Victoria. Melbourne, 1955
Mclntyre, A. J., and J. J., Country T01cns of Victoria: a Social Survey. Melbourne, 1944
Pratt, A., Tht Cenl~nary History 0/ Victoria. M~lbollrne~ 1934
QUEENSLAND
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Queensland, formerly a
portion of New South Wales, was formed into a separate colony in 1859,
and responsible government was conferred. The power of making laws and
imposing taxes is vested in a Parliament of one House-the Legislative
Assembly, which comprises 75 members, returned from 4 electoral zones-
78 members from 3 zones, as from 1960-(each with a different quota for
the election of members) for 3 years, elected for single-member constituencies
at comIulsory ballot. Members are entitled to £A2,501 lOs, per annum,
with allowances for travelling, postage and telephone of from £A147 to
£A372 f'Jr metropolitan and near-metropolitan electorates and from £A31O
to £Au4.) for country electorates.
At the general election of 3 Aug. 1957 there were 791,719 persons
registered as qualified to vote under the' Elections Acts Amendment Act
of 1932.' This provides for male and female adult franchise, qualified by
3 months' continuous residence in the State, 6 months' residence in the
Commonwealth and 1 month in the electoral district.
The Legislative Assembly elected on 3 Aug. 1957 is composed of the
followin 5 parties: Country Party, 24; Liberal Party, 18; Australian Labour
Party, 20; Queensland Labour Party, 11; Independent 2; total, 75.
Gove'nor of Queensland. Col. Sir Henry Abel Smith, K.C.V.O., D.S.O.
appointed Nov. 1957).
QUEENSLAND 501
The Executive Council of Ministers, appointed 12 Aug. 1957, consists of
the following members :
Premier, Chief Secretary and Vice· President of the Executive Council.
George Francis Reuben Nicklin (Country Party).
Jlinister for Labour and Industry. Kenneth James Morris (Liberal).
Minister for Education. Jack Charles Allan Pizzey (Country).
MinisterforJusticeandAttorne!J.General. Alan Whiteside Munro (Liberal).
Treasurer and Minister for Housing. Thomas Alfred Hiley (Liberal) .
.!l1inister for Development, :Mines, and .Main Roads. Ernest Eva n'l
(Conntry).
Min'ister for Public Landsand Irrigation. AdolfGlIstavc Muller (Country).
M'inister for Ilealth and Home Affairs. Henry Winston Noble (Liberal).
Minister for A!Jriculture and Stock. Otto Ottosen Madsen (Country) .
Minister for Public IV orks and Local Government. Jaml's Alfred Heading,
C.M.G (Country).
jIinister for Transport. Gordon William Wesley Chalk (Liberal).
Each Minister has a salary of £A3,701 1Os. ; the Premier receives £A4,151
10s., and as Vice·President of the Executive Council £A300 in addition.
Agent.General in Landon. D. J. Muir, C.M.G. (409 Strand, \V.C.2).

LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Provision is made for local government by the
subdivision of the State into areas denominated respectively cities, towns
and shires. These are under the managemcnt of aldermen and councillors,
who are elected by the Parliamentary electors and are charged with the
control of all matters of a parochial nature. such as fJanita ry and health
services. domestic water supplies, and roads and bridges within their
allotted areas. Shires for the most part consist of purel.v rura I districts.
The number and area of these subdivisions, together with the receipts and
expenditure (including receipts and expenditure from loans) for the YC:l.f
ended 30 June 1957, were:
Area in sq. Receipts, Expenditure, Rateahle
No. miles £A £,1. values, £.1.
City of Dlisbane 1 385 10,246,022 9.5n.764 6~,389,676
Other cities 11 320 4,734,346 4,468,417 26,237,769
'rowns . 10 172 1,033,960 1,971,807 10,1 32,509
Shires 112 665,023 13,129,149 13,415,635 121,274,4n
Total 134 665,900 30,043,477
- --- -----
29,447,623 221,034,451
These figures do not include t.he rm:enue receipts and expenditures of business nuder·
takings. The receipts of local governmental business unuertakings were £AlS,167,H6, and
their expenditures £,1.18,4,66,047.
AREA AND POPULATION. Queensland comprises the whole north·

eastern portion of the Australian continent, including the adja(;ent islands
in the Pacific Ocean and in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Estimated a rea 667,000
sq. miles, with a seaboard of 3,236 miles. In 1824 a branch penal settle·
ment was made at Moreton Bay; in 1842 free settlers were admitted.
The increase in the population since 1900 has been as follows:
Population at 31 Dec. Increase dnring 10 ycars
"''llts Pem.ales Total .Numer-kol ~~
1900 274,684 219,163 493,847 101,731 2;,9
1910 325,513 273,503 599,016 IOS,le9 21, 3
1920 3 96 , ~~5 3~4.069 7:;0,624 151,608 25·3
1930 481,5:;9 435,177 916,736 166,112 ~2'1
1940 536,712 494,7010 1.031,452 114,716 J2'0
19:;0 620,329 585,089 1,205,418 173,966 16 ' ~
1958 72:l,H8 695,670 1,424 ,8 1:'
The estimated aboriginal and part·aboriginal popnlation at 30 June

1958 was 37,103: Torres Strait Islanders, 6,084.
Of the total population of 1,318,259 recorded at the census of 30 June
1954, 1,160,595 persons (exclusive of aboriginals) were born in Australia:
4,612 in New Zealand: 532 in other places in Oceania: 92,951 in the British
Isles; 50,774 in other parts of Europe: 4,963 in Asia: 1,057 in Africa;
2,263 in America: 512 in Polynesia and at sea.
IIIe~itiUlate
Total births births Marriages Divorces Death.
195f. 32.4(\' 1,833 9.~al 708 12.186
1957 33.763 1.954 10.271 6;;9 ll.fl79
1953 33 ,872 1,993 10,255 767 11,45;;
Brishane, the capital, with an area of 385 sq. miles, had on 30 June
1958 a population of 555,000. The populations of the chief towns at the
same date were: Toowoomba, 46,600: Townsville, 43,800; Rockhampton,
43.400: Ipswich,42,3OO: South Coast, 23,700: Cairns, 23,400: Bundaberg,
22,200: Maryborough,18,900: Redcliffe,16,730: Mackay, 15,100: Gympie,
10,500: Warwick,9,850: Mount Isa, 8,600: Ayr, 7,700; G1adstone, 7,320.
RELIGION. There is no Statc Church. Previous to 1861 valuable
grants of land had been made to the principal religious denominations, which
they still retain. Membership in ]954: Church of England, 454,095:
Roman Catholic, 125,777 ; Catholic (not further defined), 191,185: Methodist,
146,456 : Presbyterian, 151,586: Lutheran, 28,612; Baptist, 20,113: Con·
gregatio aal, 9,086; other Christians, 56,775: Jews, 1,340; all others
(including not stated and no religion), 133,234.
EDVCATION. Primary secular education is free and compulsory.
The puhlic expenditure on education, science and art for 1957-58 was
£AI4,80.'l,722. At the end of 1958 there were 1,519 State primary schools
(including 32 provisional schools, 25 rural schools, 20 special schools and
1 corresJlondence school), with 6,920 teachers (including sewing mistresses),
aud net enrolment of 207,021 scholars. Secondary education was provided
during 1958 by 39 State high schools and 38 high' top' departments attached
to State primary schools, with 1,022 teachers, the net enrolment being 17,431
scholars, and by 8 subsidized grammar schools (4 for boys; 3 for girls, 1
mixed), with 127 teachers and a net enrolment of 2,691 students. There
were, in addition, 286 private schools, with 2,202 teachers and a net enrol·
ment of 62,990 children. The Government grants annually a number of
8cholarshi ps (16,439 in 1959) tenable for 2 years, to secondary schools. There
were 13 technical schools with 25,292 students and 7,383 correspondence
students. The Queensland University (established in 19] I) in Brisbane
had, at t he end of 1958, 32 professors and 539 lecturers and demonstrators,
with 6,718 students.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by a Supreme Court, a district
court, magistrates' courts (civil jurisdiction) and courts of petty sessions
(criminal jurisdiction). The Supreme Court comprises a Chief Justice, a
senior puisne judge and ]0 puisne judges; the district court, 3 district
court jUtlges. Stipendiary magistrates preside over the lower courts, except
in the smaller centres, where justices of the peace officiate.
The mtal number of persons convicted of serious offences by the superior
courts h 1957-58 was 883; the summary convictions at petty sessions
QUEENSLAND 503
numbered 60,592 (including cases of bail cstreated). There were, at 30 June
1!J58, 6 gaols, and 3 prison farms conducted on the honour system, with 816
male and 27 female prisoners. The total police force, including women
police and native trackers, was 2,G40 in 1958.
SOCIAL WELFARE. Public hospitals are maintained by State and
Commonwealth Government endowment, supplemented by fees from patiellts
not in public wards; benevolent asylums, institutions for the blind, deaf and
dumb, and refuges and homes are also maintained or assisted by the State.
Age, invalid, widows' and war pensions, maternity allowances ami child
endowment are paid by the Commonwealth. Age pensioners in the State
at 30 June 1958 numbered 72,804: invalid pensioners, 14,230; war pen·
sioners, 85,738 (including dependants). Maternity u1l0IVance was paid to
34,000 mothers during 1957-58.
There were 7,781 widows' pensions current at 30 June H158, and at the
~aDle date child endowment was being paid to 204,503 families in respect of
4GG,84G children.
FINANCE. Net revenue and expenditure of the Consolidated Revenue
Fund of Queensland during 5 years ending 30 June (in £A):
H155-56 1 :.1:)6- 57 1~57-58 19,>8-59 In59-GO 1
Reveoue 7f>.6G8,679 85,1;,8.1 (10 87,9:15,575 9n,007, 198' 101,864,68',
Exper:diture 77.392,117 8o, H~,S7(1 89,469,883 91,\lS6,459 100,6,,8,:16J
1 Ji:stimate.
J Including £A5,211,5!J5 transIerred from tr\l :-5 t and speeinl fllncls to oJrl:iet aL'cmHuJa~e d
ucticits .
A su bstan tial part of the State finances is handled through trust funds,
and in 1957-58 total net receipts by consolidated revenue and trnst funds
was £AI47,458,000 and net expenditure £AI46,456,000. Tbese figures do
not, include receipts and expenditure from loans.
The gross income from or expenditure on account of departments under
the control of the Commonwealth is not included.
The gross public debt of the State amounted, on 30 June 195U,
to £A303,470,010. The debt was domiciled as follows: Australia,
£A253,658,895; Great Britain, £A44,618,069; U.S.A., £.<\5,193,0.55.
The annual interest, charge on the public debt at 30 June 1959 was
£A 11, 752,0!J9.
PRODUCTION. Land Settlement. Of the total area of the State,
25,289,056 acres haye been alienated; in process of alienation, under
deferred payment system, are 2,477,882 acres, leaving 39!),1l3,062 acres still
the property of the Crmm, or 93'5% of the total area. The receipts from
the sale of land up to tho end of 1958 amounted to £A16,007,!J25,
In the western portion of the State water is comparatively easily found
by sinking artesian hores. At 30 June 1958, 2,565 such bores had been
drilled, of which 1,682 were flowing.
Ag'ricu/ture, A large proportion of the area is leased for pastoral pur·
poses, amounting to 245,2!JO,400 acres in 1958, besides 92,216,652 acres in
grazing selections and 17,02G,880 acres under occupation licence. Per·
petual leases amounted to 6,906,389 acres. Livestock on farms and
stations at 3i March 1959 numbered 23!J,475 horses, 6,884,207 cattle,
22,1.t7,f);53 sheep and 3!J9,875 pigs. The total area under crop during
l\)5S-59 \vas 2,831,8U4 acres. 154,1133 acres \vere irrigated in 1958-59, the
principlLl crops so watered being sugar cane, vegetables, fodder crops, fruit
and toiacco. The wool production, expressed as greasy, was, in 1957-58,
204,375,000 lb., valued at £A53,836,OOO.
Acres Yield'
Crop 1957-58 1958-59 1957-58 1958-59
Sugar caH8, cruslied 364,985 356,210 8,945,617 tous 9,740,795 tons
Wheat. 460,639 704,005 6,657,168 bushels 16,096,722 bushels
Maize. 122,245 113,402 3,160,626 3,653,856
Sorgbum 166,979 210,371 3,885.567 6,365,880
Barley. 172,644 248,~17 2,955,996 8,103,474
Oats • 19,144 39,133 256,011 .. 831,990 "
Potatoes 14 ,402 11,617 ri6,473 tons 47,010 tous
Pumpkin! 23,896 21,919 ~6t774 " 58,698 "
Tomato",,' 5,454 5,951 661,556 hushels 887,890 bushels
Peanuts 34,739 59,~79 41,049,998 lb. 69,628,895 lb.
Cotton. 10,364 10,493 3,389,802 " 4,004,230 ,.
Tobacco 7,493 7,916 5,618,177 .. 6,729,2G9 "
Arrowroo t 257 23,1 2,017 t ons 2,SDS tons
Apples' 6,101 6,801 691,676 bushels 649,065 bushels
Grapes 1 2,518 2,717 5,595,651 Ih. 7,506,538 lb .
Citrus I '1,178 4,213 619,000 bushels 597,962 bushels
Bananas I 3.903 4,276 442,566 515,235
Pineapples • 8,232 9,667 3,938,1 95 5,098,880
Green {o(der. 7),1,048 638,667
Hay (nU,inds) 68,203 76,314 120,793 ton. 166,87·1 t OllS
1 Bearing area only. , Tons = long tons of 2,2,10 lb.
Total value of all crops, 1956-57, £A81,014,OOO; 1957-58, £A85,765,000

For''.$try. A considerable area consists of natural forest, eucalyptus,
pine ar,d cedar being the timbers mostly in evidence, although a large
quantity of more ornamental woods are utilized by cabinet makers. The
amount of native timber sawn in 1957-58 was (in 1,000 sup. ft): Soft-
woods, 68,619; hardwoods, brushwoods and scrubwoods, 174,566; total
value, ::AI4,326,041. The plywood industry is important; 131,205,000
sq. ft of plywood were produced, the value being set down at £A4,730,245.
In addidon, 128,732,000 sq. ft of veneer, valued at £A897,332, was produced
from cl,binet woods of the north. Forest and timber reservations total
8,127,2:14 acres (1958); areas for national parks, 837,394 acres.
Mining. There are many coalmines in the State, the produce of which
amounted to 2,580,373 long tons in 1958, valued at £A7,123,469. Goldfields
were di:;covered in 1858. In 1958,71,511 oz. of gold were produced, valued
at £Al, 117,535; 5,262,013 oz. of silver, valued at £A2,083,980; copper,
46,931 long tons, valued at £AI2,589,344; lead, 60,027 long tOilS, valued at
£A5,52~;,580; zinc, 17,484 long tons, valued at £AI,436,921; uranium, 251
long tOilS, valued at £A2,566,818; total value of all minerals, £A35,706,667.
Industry. A large proportion of the secondary industries of the State
are wo::ks for processing primary products, the most important being
sugar-n,ills, butter factories, saw·mills and meat works. There are 31
cane· crushing mills, 2 sugar refineries, 38 meat works (including bacon
factories) producing largely for export, and many saw· mills of various
sizes. Other industries include railway workshops, rubber· mills and t.he
production of various items of food and clothing, chiefly for local use. In
1957-5!i there were 5,452 factories, employing 82,913 males and 16,967
females, and making goods worth £A391,662,893. The value of pro·
duction (value added in manufacture) was £AI37,781,836. In addition,
there were 60 electricity stations and 16 gasworks.
The gross value of Queensland primary production (in £Al,OOO) during
QUEENSLAND 505
1957-58 amounted to 253,867, which included agriculture, 85,765; dairying,
:!!J,492; pastoral, 97,102; poultry and bee-keeping, 2,715; mining, 26,463;
forestry, 10,335; fisheries, 1,752; wild animals, 243. Manufacturing, includ·
ing production of ligbt, heat and power, was £A143,958,OOO (net value).
Electricity. The State Electricity Commission was established in 1938.
It is authorized to co-ordinate and supervise the electricity industry
throughout Queensland. Since 1 July 1948 the Commission is under a
single Commissioner for Electricity Supply. At 30 June 1958, 38 generat-
ing stations were operated by local authorities, 16 by regional boards, 3 by
the Southern Electric Authority of Queensland, 1 by the Co-ordinator-
General of Public Works and 2 by private concerns. Electricity generated
in the year ended 30 June 1958 was 2,133m. kwh.; estimate for 1958- 59,
2,301m. kwh.
LABOUR. The Industrial Court (establisbed in 1917) consists of a
Supreme Court judge and 3 other members, and is legally competent to
determine all industrial matters in relation to employers and employees
and in relation to the organizations representing them. The court operates
under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Acts. It controls most
of the employment in the State. The Commonwealth court is superior
within its jurisdiction, but in Queensland its awards are much more limited
in their application than in most other States.
Under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Acts, 1932 to 1955,
unions both of employees and employers must be registered. Tbere were
77 employees' and 24 employers' unions at 31 Dec. 1958; the former com-
prising 291,018, Ilnd the latter 29,123 members.
COMMERCE. The overseas commerce of Queensland is included in
the statement of the commerce of the Commonwealth of Australia.
Total value of the direct oversea imports and exports of Queensland (in
£A f.o.b. port of shipment for both imports and exports) :
1953- 64 65,631,350 165.104.677 1956- 57 48,884,O R6 190, 383,601
1964-66 68.883,161 164,483,466 19{)7-[!8 40,497,820 156,492,920
1955-66 61,737,9il 152,144,726 195 8--09 47,717,OUO 169.9[;1,000
In 1957-58 interstate exports tot,dlcd £A96,088,625 and imports

£AI96,483,079. The chief exports overseas arc wool, meat (preserved or
frozen), sugar, minerals and butter.
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. Practically all the railways are
owned by the State Government, and their mileage, 6,456 miles at 30 June
1958, is the greatest of any of the State systems. In 1957-58, 33,691,039
passengers and 7,826,864 tOllS of goods and livestock were carried.
Roads. At 30 June 1958 the Main Roads Department was responsible
for 20,900 miles of main roads, of which 14,369 miles had been constructed.
Including roads built by local governments and other authorities, there were
61,435 miles of constructed roads, of which 26,478 miles were surbced with
concrete, bitumen or macadam.
At 30 June 1959 motor vehicles regL~tered in Queensland totalled
383,779, comprising 221,778 cars, 102,696 vallS, 1,368 buses, 38,268 trucks,
411 ambulances and 19,3G8 motor cycles.
Aviation. In Sept. 1959 Trans-Australia Airlines, operated by the
Australian National Airlines Commission, and Ansctt-Australian National
506 THE nRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
Airways, operated by Ansett Airways Pty Ltd, provided services between

Queensland country towns, Brisbane and the southern capitals, connecting
a.t Sydney with New Zealand, Great Britain, America and South Africa,.
Qantas Bmpire Airways, Ltd, operated between New Guinea and Sydney,
landing E,t Brisbane and other Queensland coastal cities and connecting with
their overseas services. Another company operated between Brisbane and
Queensland country towns, and anot.her between Mt Isa and Alice Springs;
other companies operated bet.ween Brisbane and Sydney or Melbourne, and
between south· western Queensland towns and Sydney. Subsidiary com·
panies p::ovided planes for taxi and charter work, and t.he Flying Doctor
Service cperatcd throughout western Queensland.
BANKING AND CREDIT. There were 9 cheque· paying banks opera·
ting in Queensland at 30 June 1958, includi:1g the Commonwealth Trading
Bank of Australia, the 7 larger Australian trading banks and a Queensland
bank with head office in Brisbane. The Commonwealth Trading Bank had
79 branches and 23 agencies; the private banks had 476 branches and
271 agencies in the State; Queensland deposits of all banks, including the
Commonwealth Trading Bank of Australia, amounted to £A214,093,000;
and loan:;, advances and bills discounted in Queensland were £A145,804,000.
At 30 Jrnc 1958 savings bank business was conducted in Queensland by 4
hanks, the Commonwealth Savings Bank with 95 branches and 1,202
agencies, and 3 private banks with 222 branches and 156 agencies. De·
positors' balances amounted to £AI53·2m. in 1,014,008 accounts.
Thursday Island (long. 142°, lat. lIO), with an area of 800 acres, is the
smallest of the Prince of Wales group of Islands. It is situated in TOITCS
Strait, ahout 30 miles to the north· west of Cape York, on the northernmost
point of the Queensland coast, and is some 1,430 miles by sea from Brisbane.
Thursda:r Island is the headquarters of the pearl-shell, trochus·shell and
other fisleries of the Torres Strait, and is in regular and frequent communica-
tion by steamer with the other Australian States. The picturesque Albany
Passage is passed through on the way from Cooktown to Thursday Island.
Tho population is a mixed one and numbered 1,570 at 30 June 1958.
Books of Reference
ST.l.TlSllCAL INFOR"ATION. The Statistic~l Office (GeOl'go St., Brisbane) was .et up in
1859. Deputy Commonu'eallh Statistician: S. E. Solomon. A Queensland Official Year Book
was i!;.c;;ued in 1901, the annual ABC of Qlleenslan,l Stalistics from 1923 to 1036. Present
publicatiol's include Queensland Year Book. Annual, from 1937 (omitting 1942,1943,1944).
-Queensland Pocket Year Book. Annual, from 1950.-Statislics of Queemland. Anllual,
from 1859.
Barrett, 0 .. The Sunlit Land. .l/.tboume, 1947
Bemeys, C. A., Qu<en.land Politics dUTing Sixty Years (1859-1919). Brisbane, 1919.-0ur
S ..enth .'olitic.1 Decade. Brisuane, 1932
Cilento, R., and Lack. 0., Triumph in the .Tropics. Brisbane, 1950
Lack, C., (l,ueensla1ld, Daughter o/the Sun. Brisbane, 1950
STATE LmRARY. The Public Library of Queenslan<l, Willinm St., Brisbane. Stal.
Librarian: J. L. Stapleton.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. South Australia was formed
into a British province by letters patent of Feb. 1836, and a partially elective
Legislative Council was established in 1851. The present constitution bears
SOUTH AUSTRALIA 507
date 24 Oct. 1856. It vests the legisbtive power in an elected Parliament,
consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. The former
is composed of 20 members. Every 3 years half the members retire, and
their places arc supplied by ne\v members elected from each of the 5 districtd
into which the State is divided for this purpose. The qualifications of an
elector arc, to be a resident of the State, natural born or naturalized British
subject and 21 years of age, and (for the Legislative Council) certain war
Rcrvice and property qualifications. By the Constitution Amendment Act,
18()4, the franchise was extended to women, who voted for the first time at
the general election of 25 April 18()6. The qualifications for election as a.
member of the Housa of Assembly are the same as for an elector, but !1 can-
didate for the Legislative Council must have attained tbe age of 30 and be
a resident in the State for 3 years. Judges and ministers of religion arc
ineligible for election to the Legislative Council.
The House of Assemblv consists of 39 members elected for 3 ye,lrS,
repreEenting single electorates. The election of members of hoth House"
takes place by preferential secret ballot. Voting for the House of Assembly
is compulsory.
The House of Assembly consists of the following members: Liberal-
Country Party, 20; Labour Party, li; Independents,:.! . Tho Legilllati\"e
Council consists of 16 Liberal-Country and 4 Labour lUember~.
Each member of Parliament, receives £.'12,150 per annum (£A2.200 if iiO
miles from Adelaide, £A2,225 if 200 miles), a free pass over government
railways and superannuation rights. Registercd voters (Dec. 1957) num·
bered 4i9,188 for the House of Assembly and 176,527 for the Legislative
Council.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown and an
Executive CouDcil, consisting of the Governor and the Ministers of the
Crown. The Governor has the power t.o dissolve the House of Assembly but
not the Legislative Council unless that Chamber has t\vice consecutively with
an elcction intervening defeated tho same or substantially the same Bill
passcd in the House of Assembly by an ahsolute majority.
Governor of South Australia. Air Vice-:tIlarshal Sir Robert George,
K.C.M.G., K.B .E., K.C.V .O., C.B., M.C. (Bworn in on 23 Feb. 1953).
The departmcnts of the Puhlic Service are controlled by the following
Ministers:
Premier, Treasurer and Minister for Immigration. Sir Thomas Playford,
G.C.M.G., M.P.
Chief Secretary, lIlinister of Hwlth and of i11ines. Sir Lyell McEwin,
K.B.E., M.L.C.
Attorney-General, Minister of Industry and Employment. C. D. Rowe,
M.L.C.
Minister of Lands, of Reprttriation and of Irrigation. Sir Cecil Hincks,
~I.P.
Jfinister of Works and of Marine. G. G. Pearsoll, M.P.
JIinist er of Agriculturc and of Forcsts. D. N. Brookman, I\LP.
Minister of Education. Baden Pattinson. M.P.
Minister of Local Government, of Roads, and of Railways. N. L. Jude,
M.L.C.
The provision for the payment of Ministers is £A28,750. They are
jointly and individually responsible to the legislature for all their official
acts, as in the U.K.
Agent-General in London. A. H. Greenham, C.M.G. (50 Strand, W.C.2).
LOCA.L GOVERNMENT. The closely settled part of the State (mainly

near thE' sea-coast and the river Murroy) is incorporated into local gov-
ernment areas, and sub·divided into district councils (rural areas only),
municipal corporations (mainly metropolitan, but including larger country
towns) and cities (more densely populated areas with a qualification of
15,000 residents in tbe metropolitan area, and 10,000 in the country).
The mai n functions of councils are the construction and maintenance of
roads and bridges, and the administration of the Health and Building Acts.
The number and area of the subdivisions, together with expenditure and
rateable values (in £Al,OOO) for the year ended 30 June 1958, were:
Road. Healtb
Area and and All Assessed
No. (sq. miles) bridges recr~ation otber values
City of Adelaide 1 G 325 277 437 4,742
Metropolitan cities aud
corporat ions 20 156 1,701 567 813 30,747
COllntry corporation. 21 65 448 170 521 7,077
District Council. 101 56,770 3,145 208 1,058 17,266
Total . 143 56,997 5,619 1,222 2,829 59,832
The improved capital value of all property in local government areas is
approximately 20 times the above assessed values.
AREA AND POPULATION. The total area of South Australia is

380,070 sq. miles. The settled part is divided into counties and hundreds.
There are 49 counties proclaimed, covering 56,008,960 acres, of which 48·5m.
acres a~ , occupied. Outside this area there are extensive pastoral districts,
covering 187,235,840 acres, l06m. of which are under pastoral leases.
Census popUlation (exclusive of aboriginals):
Do.te On previous census
of CtlO5ll5 Population Nunterical Increase
6IlUIDI!ro.tion Mal.. FerMi.. Total increase %
U91 161,920 153,292 315,212 39,868 14·5
HOl 180,485 177,861 358,346 43,1 34 13·7
HIl 207,308 201,200 408,558 60,212 14·0
1121 248,267 246,893 490,160 86,602 21 ·2
11 33 290,962 289,987 580,949 80,789 17·3
1147 320,031 326,042 646,073 60,124 11·2
H64 403,903 393,191 797,094 151,021 23·4
Population, 30 June 1959, 920,835; population of the city of Adelaide

and suburbs, 562,500.
The !lumber of full-blooded aboriginals in the State has been estimated at
2,700, ha'\f·castes at 2,500. More than one·third are nomadic.
VITA'~ STATISTICS for calendar years:
Birtbs Marriages Divorces Dcatbs
1956 18,964 6,277 567 7,593
1957 19,536 6,581 529 7,576
1958 20,047 6,505 483 7,743
The infant mortality rate of 24·27 in 1947 was the lowest ever recorded
in the w·)r1d to that date; the 1958 rate was 22·39 per 1,000 live births.
RELIGION. The aggregate number of churches and chapels in the

Stat.c is l'pproximatcly 2,000. No state aid is given for religious purposes.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA :>09
At the census of J 954 the religious distribution of the popUlation was
as follows: Cburch of England, 223,319; Methodist, 193.234; Roman
Catholic and Catholic (so described), 125,770; Lutheran,42,056; Presby·
terian, 30,778; otber Cbristians, 87,383; non·Christian, 1,432; indefinite,
1,817; no religion, 1,785; no reply, 89,520; total,797,094.
EDUCATION. Education is secular and is compulsory to the age of 14.

Primary, secondary and technical education at government schools is free .
Religious instruction is given by ministers of religion for one lesson a week.
In 1958 there were 687 government schools, comprising 567 primary, 41
high, 52 other super·primary and 27 part. time technical schools. There
were 156,878 full· time and 19,840 part.time pupils. There are a School of
Mines and Industries; an agricultural college; a training college for
teachers; and a university, incorporated in 1874, which is substantially
subsidized by the Government. Most of the 163 private schools and
colleges are associated "ith religious denominations (32,425 pupils). There
are also I 03 free kindergartens.
JUSTICE. There is a Supreme Court, a court of vice.admiralty and

over 100 local courts and police magistrates' courts. Circuit courts are
held at several places. Bankruptcy jurisdiction is administered by the
State Court of Insolvency at Adelaide which is invested with jurisdiction by
the Federal Bankruptcy Act. During 1958 there were 278 sequestrations
and schemes under the Bankruptcy Act; 459 convictions for felonies and
misdemeanours in the higher courts and 32,621 in the magistrates' courts.
The total number of persons in gaols on 30 June 1958 was 526.
SOCIAL WELFARE. Age, Invalidity, War, etc., Pensions are paid by

the Commonwealth Government. The number of pensioners in Soulh
Australia at 30 June 1958 was: War and service, 6D,852; age, 45,507;
invalid, 5,862. There are schemes for maternity allowances, childhood
endowment, widows, unemployment and sickness and hospital and
pharmaceutical benefits. The total annual liability in ID57-G8 was
£A28,128,OOO.
LABOUR. Two systems of industrial arbitration and conciliation for

the adjustment of industrial relations between employers and employees
are in operation-the State system, which operates when industrial disputes
are confined to the territorial limits of the State, and the Commonwealth
system, which applies when disputes involve other parts of the COllllllon·
wealth as well as South Australia.
The industrial tribunals are authorized to fix minimum rates of wages
and other conditions of employment, and their awards may be enforced by
law. Industrial agreements between employers and organizations of em·
ployees, when registered, may be enforced in the same manner as awards.
The Industrial Code, 1920-58, provides that the Board of Industry
shall, after public inquiry as to the increase or decrease in the average cost
of living, declare the 'living wage' to bt! paid to adult male employees and
to adult female employees. The Board ha.s power also to fix different rates
to be paid in different defined area.s. The Board of Industry shall hold an
inquiry whenever a substantial change in the cost of living or any other
circumstance has, in the opinion of the Board, rendered it just and expedient
to review the question of the 'living wage,' but a new determination cannot
be mad'3 until the expiration of at least 6 months from the date of its previous
determination.
The Board of Industry consists of 5 members, the President being the
President or Deputy of the State Industrial Court, 1 member nominl1ted by
the South Austmlian Employers' Federation, 1 by the Chamber of Manu·
f,wture :s as representatives of employers and 2 nominated by the United
Trades and Labour Council of South Australia as representatives of cm·
ployees.
The first declaration of the • Jiving wage' (' a sum sufficient for the
normal and reasonable needs of the average employee ') by the Board of
Industry was on 15 JUly 1921, when the wage was fixed at £3 198. 6d. The
present living wage (last adjusted in June 1959) is £13 118. per week.
Provision is also made in the Industrial Code for the setting up of In.
dustrial Boards, which, subject to an appeal to the President of the Court,
determine the margins for skill in an industry. These Boards consist of
2 to 4 representatives of employers, 2 to 4 of employees and a chairman
nominated by the members or otherwise determined by the President.
The Industrial Code was amended in 1950 to provide that the Governor
may by proclamation (if the Minister of Industry is satisfied that the pro.
clamation is desirable in order to avoid unjustifiable differences between
the commonwealth basic wage and the Stl1te living wage and the President
of the Court recommends it), fix the living wage. The living wl1ges in 19.'56,
1957, 1958 I1nd 1959 were fixed by proclamation.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in £Al,OOO) for years ended

30 JU113:
1~54 1965 1~56 1957 1958 1~59 1960 •
Revenue . 52.376 51,884 69.402 65.761 70,642 72.680 70,G32
Expendi ow-. 60,566 54,118 60.832 6;;.810 71.042 73,707 ~0.323
1 Estimates.
The public debt of the State amounted, on 30 June 1959, to

£A317,702,098, representing £A345 per head of the population.
PRODUCTION. Of the total arca of South Australia (243,244,800

acres), 15-9m. acres were alienated or in process of alienat,ion under systems
of defelTtld payments, 86-6m. acres were unoccupied,140-7m. acres were held
under lease; 9m. acres were under CUltivation, on 31 Dec. 1958.
Soii' Con8,-rvation. Under the direction of special officers in the Depart.
ment of Agriculture, determined efforts are made to deal with the problems
of erosion and soil conservation. Included in the programme are the plant.
ing of perennial rye and grasses to check sand drifts; contour· furrowing and
contour banking; contour planting with vines and fruit trees and several
water·,liversion schemes.
Im-galion. In 1957-58,62,794 acres were under irrigated culture. being
used aH follows: Vineyards, 25,443; orchards, 19,578; vegetables, 11,673;
green f)dder, 3,542, and other crops, 2,558 acres. These figures are exclusive
of 18.059 acres of irrigated pasture land. Most of these areas are along the
river Murra),.
Aglicu/ture. Value of production (in £Al,OOO), 1957-58: Crops,
45,044; pastoral. 55,514; dairying, 13,192; fisheries a_nd game, poultry,
forestry, etc., 9,427. Total gross value, 123,177; local value (i .e., leB8
market,ing costs), 113.521; net value (i.e .• less materials used), 91,896.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA 511
Chiel 1957-58 1958-59
crops Acrel QU47ttitieJ ACTtJ Quantilit'
Wbea t 1,331,302 14,913.988 lou. 1,407,413 32,032,232 bu.
Rarley 1,211,762 17,551,699 .. 1.332,473 37,664,492 n
Oats . 427,366 3,422,52; .. 481,076 . )1 ~992, 1 55 H
IJay . 290,926 304,094 tOIl~ 419,566 671,527 tons

26,399,633 ga!l. I 23,360,494 galls 1
Vines. 57,439{ 56,749{ 357,116 cwt t
322,600 cwt'
I 01 wine. , 01 dried vine trulU.
Fruit culture is extensively carried on, and annually about 350,000 cwL
of dried fruit, 4m. cases of fresh fruit and 23m. gallons of wine are produced.
Other products, in addition to all kinds of root crops and vegetables, are
flax, eucalyptus oil, olive oil, gums and chicory. Livestock, March 1959 :
33,300 horses, 576,100 cattle, 15,634,300 sheep and 98,400 pi~s. In 1958-
59, 187·4m. lb. of wool and 83m. gallons of milk were produced .
.Mining. The value of minerals produced in l!l58 was £A22,672.767
(preliminary). The principal minerals produced are iron, uranium, pyrite,
gypsum, salt, opals, tslc, clays, limestone, dolomite and su b· bituminous coal.
Factories. Dissection of 1957-58 statistics according to the main
classes of industry is given in the following table:
Salnries Value of
Establish- Pensons and wages Value 01 prodllc-
ments employed paid output tion 1
Classification (No.) (No.) (£.<1.1,000) (£Al,OOO) (£AI,OOO)
Industrial metals, machines , etc. 1,81 3 50,235 45,216 162,639 68.601
T.xWes and textile goods 51 2,590 2,04.6 7,935 3,618
Clotbing. 376 6,094 3,061 8,1 33 4,584
I"ood, drink, tobacco 699 1l,050 8,874 (i5,131 15.588
Saw-milIiD~, joinery, etc. . ~53 4,900 4,070 17,145 6,529
Paper, printing . . 1:;1 4,01 5 3,384 12,707 6,624
Chemicals, explosives, paints 85 3,230 3,038 23,087 8,650
All (actorics . 4,168 92,472 79,844 332,098 133,285
1 I .e., value added to materials by treatment.
Machinery, land, buildings, etc., were valued at £AI40,363,342 in 1958.

Practically all forms of secondary industry are to be found, tbe most im·
portant being smelting, metals and machinery, motor-body building, ship.
building, saw· milling, chemical fertilizers, wool-scouring and flour.milling.
The remarkable increase in secondary industries in the State is indicated
by the increase offactory workers from 43,371 in 1939 to 92,472 in 1958.
COMMERCE. The commerce of South Australia, exclusive of inter·

state trade, is comprised in the statement of the commerce of Australia
given under the heading of the Commonwealth.
Ovel'sea imports and exports direct from South Australian ports, in
£AI,OOO (year ending 30 June) :
1953-54 1954- 66 1956-56 1956- 57 1957-58 1958- 59
frnp,")rts 51.472 64,804 62,752 45,406 47,103 45.341
Exports 110,249 95,079 97,666 122,924 99,882 ~O,93 3
Principal export.s in 1955-59 were: Wool,145·2m. lb. (£A31 ·5m.); wheat.,

14,542,000 bu. (£AIO,167,OOO): lead, £A12,437,000; flour, £Al,687,000 ;
barley, 17,793,000 bu. (£AlO,256,000); oats, 2,119,000 bu. (£A642,000);
meats, £A3,825,000; wine, £Al,072,OOO; concentrates and ores, £A5,214,000;
fruit (fresh and dried), £A3,190,OOO; skins and hides, £A2,512,OOO.
Princ:pal imports in 1958-59 were (in £Al,OOO) : Machines and machin-

ery, 10,437; textile piece-goods, 2,818; bags, sacks, etc., 2,026; motor
vehicles and parts, 5,140; petrol, 1,444; other oils, 1,707; iron and steel,
1,991; timber, 2,071.
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. There were (1958) 3,891 miles of

railway, including the South Australian portion of the Transcontinental
Ra.ilway from Port Pirie in South Australia to Kalgoorlie in Western Aus-
tralia, which, in connexion with various State lines, completes a through rail
connexioll between Brisbane on the north-east coast and Fremantle on the
west coa"t. It also includes the South Australian portion of the Common-
wealth Railway from Port Augusta to the Northern Territory. In the year
ending 30 June 1959 the State-controlled sections carried 16,804,864 pas.
sengers and 4,226,934 tons of freight.
Road/:. There are 55,000 miles of roads in use for general traffic in the
more sct';led areas, but 22,300 have been surveyed only and with little or
no imprc.vement; 12,400 have been formed but with little or no metal;
16,800 hf.ve been metalled, and 3,500 have been improved with bituminous
drcssings or are of bituminous concrete, etc. Costs of construction and
maintenance are shared by the St~_te and federal governments and by the
councils of the local areas. Motor vehicles registered at 30 June 1959
include 179,627 cars, 66,329 commercial vehicles and 17,078 cycles.
Shipl-ing. There are several good harbours, of which Port Adelaide is
the principal one.
In U57-58, 1,684 vessels of 6,568,769 tons entered South Austra.lian
ports dirllct from inter-state or overseas.
Post. Postal, telephone and telegraph facilities are afforded at 900
offices. Telephones connected totalled 181.766 on 30 June 1959; there
were 15;virelcss broadcasting stations; 247,468 wireless listeners' licences
have been issued.
Aviation. For the year ended 30 June 1958 there were 336,386 pas-
sengers 1266,815 interstate, 69,571 intrastate) and 10,109 short tons of
ft'eight (8,961 interstate, 1,148 intrastate) carried on a total of 73,354
flights fic·wn. On 30 June 1958 there were 16 government and 14 licensed
aerodroDles, and 19 scheduled airline services in South Australia.
BANJf<ING AND CREDIT. There were 9 trading banks at 30 June

1959, inC luding the Commonwealth and State Government Banks. In June
quarter, 1959, their average deposits were £AI36,299,491 and average
advances £A62,46I,893.
The :~ savings banks on 30 June 1959 had deposits amounting to
£A157,1 51,848, or over £A170 per head of population (a record for Australia).
Books of Reference
STATlS'IICAL INFoRMATION. The Statistical Office is in Da (Josta Building, 68 Grenfell St.,
Adelaide (J.P.O. Box 1433J). Depuly Cornrrwmoealth Statistician: D. L. J. Aitchison.
AlLhough th.e fir3t printed statistical publication was the Statistics of Soulh Australia, 1854
with the title altered to Statistical Register in 1859, there is a written volume for each year
back to 1838. Thes e contain simple records of trade, demography, production, etc., and
were prepared only for the use of the Oolonial Office; one copy was retained in tbe State.
The puhlications of tbe Department include the Annual Pocket YearBook and the Annual
Statistical ,?egisler, a printed Quarterlv Summary of SlalilliCl, a duplicated quarterly bulletin
of building constructions, duplicated monthly bulletins of trade and general statistics and
WESTERN AUSTRALIA 513
&pproxim&tely 15 specl&1 duplicated buU.tins issued each ye... as pMtlcnlars of vruious
sections of statistics become available.
Cenl~narv History of South J.u.strali4. Royal GeographiCl>I Society of Australasia. Adelaide,
1936
Fenner, 0., South Aus!l'alia: ..d Geo(Jraphical StudV. Melbourne, 1931
F1nJQ)"son, n. H., TM Rea Centre: Man ana Beast in th. HearlojAustralia. 2nd ed. Sydney
193D
Madigao, C. T., Central .<1 us/ralia. London, 1936
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. In 1791 Vancouver, in the
Discovery, took formal possession of t.he cOWltry about King George Sound.
In 1826 the Govemment of New South Wales sent 20 convicts and a
detachment of soldiers to King George Sound and formed a settlement
then called Fredericl{s Town. In 1827 Captain (afterwards Sir) James
Stirling surveyed the coast from King George Sound to the Swan River, and
in May 1829 Captain (afterwards Sir) Charles Fremantle took possession of
the territory. In June 1829 Captain Stirling founded the Swan River
Settlement, now the Commonwealth State of Western AustraJia, and the
towns of Perth and Fremantle, and was appointed Lieut.·Governor.
Large grants of land were made to the early settlers, and agricultural and
pastoral occupations were pursued by a small population with varying
success, Wltil, in 1850, the colony was in a languishing condition, and the
inhabitants' petition that it might be made a penal settlement was acceded
to. Between 1850 and 1868, when transportation ceased, 9,718 convicts
were sent out. The imperial convict establishment was transferred to the
Colonial Government on 31 March 1886.
In 1870 partially representative government was instituted, and in 1890
the administration was vested in the Governor, a Legislative Council and
a Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Council was, in the first instance,
nominated by the Governor, but it was provided that in the event of the
population of the colony reaching 60,000, it should be elective. In 1893
this limit of population being reached, as set forth in a proclamation dated
18 July of that year, the Colonial Parliament passed an Act (57 Vict. No. 14)
amending the constitution.
By the Constitution Acts Amendment Act, 1899, further amended by
the Constitution Acts Amendment Act, 1911, it is provided that the Legis.
lative Council shall consist of 30 members representing 10 electoral provinces
and holding their seats for 6 years. Members must be 30 years of age,
resident in the State for 2 years, and either be natural· born British subjects
or naturalized for 5 years and resident in the State for 5 years. Every
elector must have resided in the State for 6 months, and must possess within
the province freehold estate of the clear value of £A50, or be a householder
occupying a d welling·house of the clear annual value of £A 17, or holder of a
lease of the value of £A17 per annum, or the holder of a lease or licence from
the Crown of the annual rental of £AIO, or have his name on the electoral list
of a Municipality or Roads Board in respect of property in the province of
the annual rateable value of £A 17. The Legislative Assembly consists of 50
members, each representing 1 electorate, and elected for 3 years. Members
must be 21 years of age, be either natural·born subjects of the Crown and
have resided in Western Australia for 12 months, or naturalized for 5 years
and have resided therein for 2 years. Electors must be 21 years of age,
natural· born or naturalized subjects of the Crown, and must have resided in
the State for 6 months, and must be resident in the district for at least
3 months when making their claims. Members of and electors for both
Houses may be of either sex. Enrolment for the Legislative Assembly is
compulsory. No person can be registered as a. voter in more than one
Legislll;~ive Assembly district or more than once in each Legislative Council
province for which he holds a sufficient qualification. Members of the legis.
lature a.re paid a salary of £A2,100 a year to which periodical adjustments are
made (£A2,180 at 31 Dec. 1(59), with an additional annual allowance of
£A50 la country members, and expense reimbursement allowances to all
members, ranging from £A450 to £A700. Members are entit.led to free
'.ravel .)n 1\11 government ra ilways. Management and control of the un·
alienated lands of the Crown in Western Australia is vested in the legislature
of the State.
The Legislative Assembly, elected on 21 March 1959, is composed as
follows : Labour Party, 23; Liberal and Country League, 18 ; Country
Party, 3; Independent 1. .
Gov.)rnar. Lieut.·Gen. Sir Charles Gairdner, K.C.M.O., K .C.V.O.,
KB.E .. C.B. (sworn in 6 Nov. 1951).
L iwt.-Governar. Sir John Dwyer, K .C.M.G.
The Liberal-Country Party Cabinet was, on 2 April H)59. conRtituted a..q
follows :
Pre:nier, Treasurer and ]'Unister jor Tourists. David Brand, M.L.A.
Deputy Premier, 111inister jor Education and Electr·icity and Attorney.
General. Arthur Frederick Watts, C.M.G., M.L.A.
M ir"ister for I nd'ustrial Development, Railways and the North. West.
Charles Waiter Michael Court, O.B.E., M.L.A.
Mir.:ister jor Agriculture. Crawford David Nalder, M.L.A.
M ir..ister far Works and Water Supplies. Gerald Percy Wild, M.B.E.,
M.L.A.
Mir.:ister jor .Mines and Iiousing. Arthur Frederick Griffith, M.L.C.
lIIir..ister far Lands, Fo,'csts and Immigration. William Stewart llovell,
l\I.L.A.
lIIir..ister jor Transport, Police, Labour and Native Welfare. Charles
Collier Perkins, M.L.A.
Chi~f Secretary and Minister for Health and Fisher·ies. Ross Hutchinson,
D.F.C., M.L.A.
Mir..ister for Local Government, Town Planning and Child Welfare.
Leslie lu·thur Logan, M.L.C.
Age:1t·General in London. E. K. Hoar (Savoy House, Strand, W.C.2).

LOC~L GOVERNMENT. Two main Acts providing for the conduct of local
government are the Municipa l Corporations Act and the Road Districts Act.
On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 21 municipalities and 126 road districts. Both
authori~ies have similar functions, such as the construction and mamtenance
of roadn and paths, street lighting, the provision of parks and gardens, and
certain health, traffic and other services of a parochial nature. Under the
provisions of the Municipal Corporations Act any municipality which has a
population of at least 20,000 and a net revenue of not less than £A20,000 can
be constituted a city. As at 1 July 1959 there were 5 cities in Western
Australia: Perth (a Lord Mayoralty), Fremantle, Subiaco, Nedlands and
South Perth, the latter two having been granted city status on that date.
All are situated in the metropolitan area.
WESTERN AUSTl,ALIA 515
AREA AND POPULATION. Western Australia includes all that
portion of the continent situated to the westward of 1290 E. long., together
with the adjacent islands. The total estimated area. of the State is 975,920
sq. miles. It is divided into 147 local government areas.
The enumerated popUlation at each census from 1901 was as follows:
Males FelDa les Total Males Females Total
1901 112,875 7l ,2 ~9 184.12·' 1933 na.937 204.915 438,852
1911 161.56(; 120,54~ 282,114 1947 258.076 244,404 602,480
1nl 177.278 150,454 332,732 1954 330,368 309,413 639,771
Population, 30 June 1959, 719,164 (368,477 males; 350,687 females).

The estimated full· blood aboriginal population in the State on 30 June
1959 was Il,OOO.
Of the census popula.tion in 1954, 490,106 were returned as born in
Australia. The number of married persons was 285,ll3 (144,037 males and
14 J ,076 fem ales); widowers, 7,455; widows, 22,874; divorced, 2,930 males and
~,690 females; unma.rried, liO,912 males and 138,084 females. The con·
jugl1.l condition of the remaining 926 persons was not stated. The number
of males under 21 was 126,605, and of females 121,393.
Perth, the capital, covers an area of 192 sq. miles (with its suburbs) and
had a. population of 389,000 at 30 June 1959. This, however, includes
t.he chief port of the State, the City of Fremantle, the population of which
was 21,700. Principal t.owns out-side the metropolitan area, with popula.
t.ioll as at 30 June 1959: Bunbury. 12,234; KalgoorJie.l0,000; Geraldton,
H,830: Collie, 9,500; Albany,9,672; Nortllam,8,128; Boulder,6,264; Nar·
rogin, 4,433.
VITAL STATISTICS for cn.lendar years :
Ex ·nuptial
D1rlhs birtbs MarriugCi Di'f)rcp.s Dea.t!l~
1956 16,916 796 5.080 ~44 5,~72
1957 16.92·1 79" 4.~!l7 541 5.297
1958 16,731 85·; 5,tl35 536 5,554
RELIGION. There is no State Church, and freedom of worship is

aecorded to all. At the census, 30 June WM, the principal denominatioo8
w"re: Church of Engln.nd, 268,135; Roman Catholic, 88,Oll; Catholic (not
further defined), 55,478; Met.hodist, 68,48!l; Presbyterin.n, 37,659; Chur('h
of Christ, 7,801; Greek Orthodox, 7,213; Baptist, 7,236 ; Congregatiooal,
6,844; Luthern.n, 3,871; Salvation Army, 3, 73~; Seveuth Day Adventists,
2,932; other Christian, 12,392 ; Hebrew, 2,555; all other, including not
stated and no religion, 67,423.
EDUCA TION. Education is free throughout from the kindergn.rten to
the university, and ample provision is made for secondary education,
technical schools, scholarships, etc.
Primary education is compulsory. Government schools in 1958
Ilumbered 503 with 109,354 pupils; private schools, 300 with 34,763 pupils.
During the financial year ended 30 June 1958 the total Bllm spent on
education was £A8,8ii7,213 from consolidated revenue, including financial
assistance of £A614,958 to the University of Western Australia.
Education of the natives is the responsihility of the State Governmeut
Education Department. In the main, natives are educn.ted in state schools
alongside whit.e children.
JUSTICE. In Western Australia justice is administered by a Supreme
Court, consisting of a Chief Justice and 4 puisne judges, and magistrates'
courts ,~xercl8mg both civil and criminal jurisdiction. The lower courts
are pre:lided over by justices of the peace, except in the more important
centres, where the court is constituted by a stipendiary magistrate. There
are spedal magistrates' courts for juvenile offenders.
J"dlclal statistIcs 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Appreberslons or summonses'. 60,640 67.739 62.753 59,205 4n,945
SUIllJll"'1 convictions'. 48,00' 65,118 59,883 56,297 47,037
OonvlctIons in superior courts' 216 260 241 200 255
I In tbe case ot concurrent offences eacb offence is Included.
• Included convictions for traffic offences: 27,560 in In,4; 45,6591n In5"; 39,384 in 1956;
36,6,91n 1967; 26,247 in rn,8. In addition, small fiDes were imposed for minor trnfficoffenccs
as folloWl·: 1956,32,130; 1957,31,405; 1958,36,999. • Distinct persons convicted.
The total number of admissions to prison for penal imprisonment in the
year ended 30 June 1958 was 2,847. Inmates at 30 June 1958 numbered
518 males and 9 females.
Alli,he above figures are exclusive of aboriginal crime.
SOCIAL WELFARE. There are 3 government institutions for the
aged and infirm, at Nedlands, Guildford and Canning Bridge. with 874
inmates on 30 June 1959. Thirty-eight government hospitals (including 4
native hospitals) and 5 mental hospitals are maintained by public funds,
whilst :,7 other hospitals are assisted therefrom. In addition, numerous
private hospitals are situated in Perth and other centres of population.
The Department of Native Welfare is administered in accordance with
the Naiive Welfare Act, 1905-54, for the welfare of the native inhabitants
of Western Australia. Its jurisdiction extends throughout the State, which
is divid'ld into suitable administrative districts, each staffed by field officers
who regularly patrol their district and keep in personal contact with the
native people, as well as assisting them in a variety of welfare requirements.
The following institutions are maintained solely for the natives: (1) Alvan
House, Mount Lawley, which accommodates native girls receiving secondary
cducati,m at high schools in Perth; (2) McDonald House, West Perth, which
Mcommodates native boys receiving secondary education at high schools in
Perth; (3) Bennett House, East Perth, a transit home accommodating
natives visiting Perth for specialist medical treatment as out-patients and
other vrelfare purposes; (4) Riverdale Native Hostel, Nullagine, which
caters f)r children of pre-school and school age and cares for adult indigent
and destitute in the area.
Throughout the State, rationing centres are provided to assist natives
who aft) distressed, unemployed or indigent. There are, in addition, 29
native I.lissions under the control of religious organizations; all are financially
assisted by the Department.
The Public Health Department maintains a leprosarium at Derby and
4 northern native hospitals. Natives in other parts of the State receive
attenticn at ordinary public hospitals.
Eight Protestant, 9 Roman Catholic and 3 undcnominationalorphanages,
industrial and farm schools are supported partly by private subscriptions
and partly out of public money. They care for wards of the Child Welfare
Departmcnt and private admissions. There is also a child-welfal'e reception
home fer children committed to the care of the State and afterwards boarded
out witl foster-parents or placed in institutions. On 30 June 1959, 2,779
adults "nd 4,360 children were in receipt of monetary assistance, payment
being Iret from State revenue.
Age, Invalid, Widows' and War Pensions are paid by the Commonwealth
Government. The number of pensioners in \Vestern Australia at 30 June
1959 was: Age, 34,629; invalid, 5,941; widows, 3,833, and war pensioners
and dependants, 61,018.
LABOUR. Working conditions covering most industries in the State
are governed by decisions of the Court of Arbitration of Western Australia
deriving its jurisdiction and authority from the Industrial Arbitration Act,
1912-52. The Court is also authorized to declare an annual basic wage and
to make quarterly adjustments. From 26 Oct. 1959 the State basic wage for
the metropolitan area is £A14 Is. 6d. per week for males and £A9 3s. for
females. The Court consists of 3 members: the President, who must be
a person qualified for appointment as a Judge of the Supreme Court, and 2
other members representing respectively the employers and employees.
A further appointment under the Act of a Conciliation Commissioner pro·
vides another authority for decision (subject to appeal) in matters as
remitted or delegated by the Court.
Under the Act associations of employees and of employers may be
registered and the Act confers upon these associations the exclusive privilege
of approaching the Court in connexion with industrial disputes. There were
109 employees' and 13 employers' bodies registered at 30 June 1959; the
former comprising 89,436 and the latter 1,411 members.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure (in £A) of Western Australia
in 6 years, ended 30 June, are given as follows:
Revenue E:tpenditure Revenue EJCpenditure
1955 46,719,846 46,203.889 1958 57,053,977 58,177,307
1956 49,612,406 ~l,HS,237 1959 60,068,237 61,752,970
1951 54,330,934 56,243,302 1960 1 63,274,000 64,789,500
1 Estimates.
Main items of revenue in 1958-59: Railways and tramways

(£AI4,435,914), taxation (£A21,358,715), lands, timber and mining
(£Al,391,548), business and undertakings other than railways and trams
(£A3,604,120), from Commonwealth Funds (£All,573,432). Western
Australia had a net loan liability of £A232,032,142 on 30 June 1959, the
charge for the year being £AIO,876,613.
PRODUCTION. Land Settlement. Up to 30 June 1959, of the entire
area of the State (624,588,800 acres) 26,810,081 acres had been alienated;
on that date 12,()07, 720 acres were in process of alienation; the area alienatod
and in process of alienation thus amounting to 39,717,801 acres. There
were in force leases comprising an area of 227,600,085 acres, of which
217,655,338 acres were pastoral, 4,031,140 acres were timber, 58,837 acres
mining leases (exclusive of 2,626 acres on private property), 34, III acres
Miners' Homestead leases and 5,820,659 reserves and specialleasGS.
Agriculture.
1957- 08 1968-69
Crop A(".t P,odudiDn ~crel Produdion.
Wheat (bu.) 2,957,206 33,100,000 3,291,~58 67,650,000
Oate (bu.) . 1,153,492 13,793,026 1,329,742 ~~,685,050
Barley (bu.) 307.404 1 3,556,041' 321,493 5,410,217
lIay (tons) SS8,983 386.993 33:),613 455,160
Potatoes (toIlS) 8,322 1 49,229 ' 7,213 47,103
Tobacco (cwt) 1,266 1,030,588 1,444 1,198,Z75
A.pplt$ (bu.) 12,892 1,359,458 13,459 1,550,3-11
Pears (bu.) 991 08,672 999 169,444
Oranges (bu.) . . . 4,016 439,939 4,064 336.836
Ourrants and raisins (tons, dried) 4,485 2,247 1 4,270 1,149
1 R evised.
Irrigation has been established by the Government along the south-

western coastal plain. Reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of 25,254m.
galls pnvide water for three main irrigation districts of a total area of
almost 74,000 acres. Dairying and stock-raising activities account for
about 95% of the water used throughout the irrigation region, vegetable
growing (including potatoes) for about 4% and fruit cultivation for the re-
maining 1%.
The livestock on 31 March 1959 consisted of 41, 286 horses, 999,832
cattle, 16,215,244 sheep and 115,446 pigs.
The wool clip in W58 was 154,661,000 lb.; the exports for 1955-59
(expressed as greasy wool), 154-,868,425 lb.
Forestry. The area of State forests and timber reserves on 30 June
1958 W8.8 6,938,349 acres; the number of super feet of sawn timber was
(1957-5g) 201,664,000, principally Jarrah and Karri hard woods.
Mining. Gold was first obtained in Western Australia in 1885. The
sensational gold-finds at Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie in 1892 and 1893 gave an
mpetus to Western Australian goldmining, which, in a short time, placed
this State at the head of all the Australian states as regards gold output. The
aggrega::e output to the cnd of Dec. 1958 was 59,912,903 fine oz., valued at
£A418,590,584. At 31 Dec. 1958 there were in force 1,131 goldmining
leases, representing an area of 20,777 acres; men employed in the mines,
5,352, yiz., 2,512 above and 2,840 underground; output of gold, 1958,
874,825 fine oz., value £AI4,297,681.
The total value of mining and quarrying to the State in ID57
was £A22,191,062; in 1958, £A21,776,547. Principal minerals in 1955,
other than gold were: Coal, 870,882 tons, value £A2,280,649; silver, 200,767
fine oz., value £A79,651; asbestos, 13,265 tons, value £AI,343,376; lead
and silver lead ore, 2,493 tons, value £AI39,899; manganese ore, 47,584
tons, value £A678,1l7 ; pyritic ore, 49,389 tons, value £A351,847.
Indtl.IJtry. There were, for the year ended 30 June 1958, a tota l of 3,9·11
industrill establishments in the State, employing either machinery or at
least 4 workers. The average number of persons employed by them over
the yeaI' was 48,462. The gross output of these establishments for the ycar
was computed at £A196,262,633, while the net production, i.e., the value
added ill the course of manufacture, was £A75,312,250.
The estimated gross value of Western Australian primary production
during ,~957-58 was as follows: Agricultural, £A43,646,459; pastoral and
trapping, £A47,146,667; mining and quarrying, £A22,19I,062; dairy,
poultry and bee·farming, £All,750,073; forestry and fisheries, £A8,787,852.
COMMERCE. The external commerce of Western Australia, excltlsinl

of interstate trade, is comprised in the statement of the commerce of
Australia given under the heading of the Commonwealth.
The total value of the imports and exports, including interstate trade,
in fi years (30 June) is as follows (in £A):
1954--05 195:;"56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-[,9
Imports 141,702,541 1a5 , 4~7,665 1a4,5~1.480 143,439,404 146,224,752
Exports • '6,094,094 115,611,798 155,522,857 U6,476,669 126,732,331
1 Including ships' store£'..
Prin Jipal exports for 1958-59: Wheat (£AI6, 774,858), flour (£A3,18!J.714),
wool (£A29,341,989), timber (£A4,204,404), hides and skins (£AI,743,!J14),
beef (£1.2,179,750), petroleum refinery products (£A21,598,58S), fresh fruit
(£Al,818,102), gold bullion (£A2,058,944), crayfish tails (£A2,G77,408), wool
tops (£A2,287,487), asbestos (£A980,727).
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. There were on the Western Aus-
tralian register on 31 Dec. 1958, 168 steamers of 15,602 net tons, and 212
sailing vessels of 3,575 net tons.
Roads. At 30 June 1958 there were 89,615 miles of prepared and formed
roads in 'Western Australia, including 7,137 miles of bituminous surface,
lG,158 gravel water bound, 2,000 other constructed surfaces and 39,320
formed but not metaIIed or otherwise prepared. In addition, there are
approximately 2;:;,000 miles unprepared except for clearing which are used
for general traffic.
Railways. }'or the year ended 30 June 1959 the State had 4,117 miles
of State government railway; 277 miles of prh'ately owned line and 454
miles of Commonwealth line, the latter being the western portion of the
Trans·AustraIian line (Kalgoorlie-Port Pirie), which links the State railway
system to those of the other states of the Commonwealth.
Post. Postal, telephone and telegraph facilities are afforded at 971
offices. Telephones connected totalled 1l9,329 in 1959. There are 2a
wireless broadcasting stations and 169,272 wireless listeners' licences have
been issued.
Aviation. Two inter·state airlines, one of which is owned and operated
by the Commonwealth Government, connect Perth with the other State
capitals by a daily service. A route t.o Darwin (N.T.) is flown by another
airline which also maintains regular communications with inInnd centres
and southern ports. Perth airport is used by the Sydney-London aud
Sydney~J ohanneshurg services.
MONEY AND BANIHNG. A branch of the Royel Mint was opened at

Perth in 1899. To 31 Dec. 1958, production of coins waS: Gold (mint.
ing discontinued in Sept. 1931), £A 106,751 ,535 ; silver, £A65,800; bronze,
£Al,373,347; and of bullion: Gold, £A98,248,061; silver, £AI,638,672.
There are 9 cheque.paying banks in Western Australia including the
Commonwealth Trading Bank and the Rural and Industries Bank of West·
ern Australia. In June quarter, 1959, the average of customers' balanee8
was £A93,012,OOO and average advances £A70,716,OOO.
Five savings banks had, at 30 June 1959, £A71,499,13·! due to 527,079
depositors.
Books of Reference
S'fATISTICAL I~"'"FORl{ATION. The State Government Statistician's Office was established
in 18~)7 and now functions as the 'Vc!3tern Australian Office of the Commonwealth nurcau
of Oensus and Statistics (189 St Geor"e's Tee, Perth). Deputy ,Commonwealth Statistician
and Government Statistician: R. J. Little. Its principal pUblications are: Statistical
Regi,iter (annual), Off/cial Year Bool.;. Pocka Year Book. Quarterly Statistical .1b,tract.
Battye. J. S., W"tern .1ustralia: .1 History. London, 1924
Oolcbatch, IT. (ed.), Western .1ustrolia 1829-1029. Perth, 1929
Crowley, F. K ., Tile Records o/lVeslern Australia. Perth, 1953.-A:ltstralia'3 Westl'T11 Third.
London, 1960
Gentilli, J., Atlas of Western Australian Aqr;cultUTt. Perth. 1941
Kimberly, \V. B., History of West AU8tral£a. Ballarat,1897
St,ephenson, G. and Hepburn, J . A., Plan/oT the .1.1htropol'itan Region: Perth and Fremantle.
Perth, 1955
STATE LIBRARY. The State IAbrary of \Vcstern AU3tralia, Perth. Slatt Librarian:
F. A. ShafT, B.A.
TASMANIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Abel Janzoon To.sman dis·
oovered Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) on 24 Nov. 1642. The island
became a British settlement in IS03 as a dependency of New South Wales ;
in IS25 its connexion with New South Wales was terminated; in IS51 a
partially elective Legislative Council was established, and in IS56 responsible
government came into operation. On I Jan. 1901 Tasmania was federated
with the, other Australian states into the Commonwealth of Australia.
Parliament consists of a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly.
The Council has 19 members, elected by the owners or occupiers of any
property or their spouses. Certain professional men, officiating ministers of
religion and all members of H.M. forces are also electors. Members sit for
6 years, 3 retire annually over 5 years and 4 every sixth year. There is no
power to dissolve the Council. Casual vacancies are filled by by-elections.
The HOllse of Assembly has 35 members, elected for 5 years by adults with
6 months' residence in the State. Members of both Hou8e8 are paid a
salary of £AI,3S2, plus an electorate allowance, according to the division
represented. The amounts vary from £A250 (Buckingham) to £A550
(MeandH) in the Council and from £A500 (Denison) to £ASOO (Wilmot) in the
Assembly a year. Women received the right to vote in 1903. Proportional
representation was adopted in 1907, the method being t,he single transfera ble
vote in 6·member constituencies. Casual vacancies in the House of
Assembly are determined by a recount of the vacating member's ballot
papers.
At t ~e election on 2 May 1959 for the House of Assembly 17 Labour,
16 Liberal and 2 independent members were returned.
Governor. The Rt Hon. The Lord Rowallan, K .T., K.B.E ., M .C.
The Labour Cabinet is composed as follows :
Premier, Treasurer a nd Minister /01' 1I'Iines. E . E . Reece.
Depltty Premier and Attorney·General. R . F. Fagan.
Min ister /01' Agriculture. J . J. Dwyer, V.C.
Chief Secretary. J. F. Gaha.
Min;;ster for Education. W. A. Neilson.
Mi'll;isler for Land8 and Works. D. A. Cashion.
Minister for Housing. J. L. Madden.
Min:ister for Transport. J . B. Connolly.
Min:ister for Forests. A. C. Atkins.
A Minister must h ave a seat in one of the two Houses; all except one
of the present Ministers are in the House of Assembly.
In addition to the salary and electorate allowance paid to Ministers a8
members of the Houlie of Assembly, the following allowances are payable:
Premier, in conjunction with a ministerial office, £Al,750 plus entertainment
allowan.)e £A350 ; Deputy Premier, in conjunction with a ministerial
office, £Al,100; ministerial offices of Treasurer, Lands and Works, Agricul.
ture and Chief Secretary, £AI,OOO; 3 additional ministerial offices, £A500.
Ager,,t·General in Lorukn. A. J. White.
Offi,c-.:al Secretary. R . J . Garrad, O.B.E. (457 Strand, W.C.2).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. For the purposes of local government, the State
is dividod into 49 municipal areas comprising the City of Hobart, the City
of LaUDceston and 47 rural municipalities. The cities and municipalities
TASMANIA 521
are managed by elected aldermen and councillors respectively with
reference to parochial matters such as 8Il.nitation and health services,
domestic water supplies and roads and bridges within each particular area.
The chief source of revenue is rates levied on owners of property.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area (including islands) 26,215 sq. miles

or about 16,778,000 acres, of which 15,571,500 acres form the area of
Tasmania proper. The population at 6 consecutive censuses was :
Increase % Increase 0/0
Population per anDum Population per annum
1901 172,475 1·64 1933 227,599 0·51
1911 191,211 1·04 1947 257,078 0-8S
1921 213,780 H2 19:;4 308,7:;2 2-87
The estimated population on 30 June 1959 was 342,315 (178,178 males,

164,137 females).
The census population on 30 June 1954 consisted of 157,129 males and
151,623 females. Of the total population, 4'40% were natives of the British
Isles, 3'3% natives of other European countries and 91-86% natives of
Australia and New Zealand. The pure aboriginal is extinct.
Births Marriages Divorces Deatbs Narural increase
1956 8,104 2,601 197 2,513 6,691
1957 8,435 2,507 ISO 2.670 5,765
1955 S,56S 2,4;5 165 2,70S 5,S60
Estimated population of the capital, Hobart and suburbs (30 June 1959),
109,200; of Launceston and suburbs, 57,120.
RELIGION. There is no State Church. At the census of 1954 the

following numbers of adherents of the principal religions were recorded:
147,407 Churcb of Christ _ 2,261
~~~ ~a~~~~rd 53,042 Otber religions 12,466
Methodist 38,236 Not stated' 29,009
Presbyterian }5,607
Baptist _ 6,293 Total 308,7:;2
Congregational 4,425
• Includes Catbolics (so described).
, Includes 796 wbose religion was indefinite and 616 who stated' no religion',
EDUCA TION. Education is controlled by the State and is free, secular

and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. At 1 Aug. 1957 there were
276 State schools with an aggregate enrolment of 59,048 pupils, including
14,384 at secondary level. At the end of 1957 there were 55 private schools
with a total enrolment of ll,333 in all grades.
The University of Tasmania, established 1890, had 120 teachers and
1,059 students taking courses for degrees in 1957. University expenditure
in 1957 (exclusive of capital expenditure) was £A695,179.
JUSTICE. The Supreme Court of Tasmania, with civil, criminal,

ecclesiastical, admiralty and matrimonial jurisdiction, was established by
Royal Charter on 13 Oct. 1923. It is a superior court of record, with both
original and appellate jurisdiction, and consists of a Chief Justice and 3
puisne judges. There are also inferior civil courts with limited jurisdiction,
licensinE: courts. mining courts. courta of petty sessions and coroner's

courts.
During the year 1958, 17,216 persons were summarily convicted and 600
persons were committed for tria.I. The total police force on 30 June 1958
was 526, There was one gaol. with 198 inmates at the end of June 1958.
SOCIAL WELFARE. Old Age, Invalidity, War and Widows' Pensions
are paid by the Commonwealth Government. The number of pensioners in
Tasmania on 30 June 1958 was: Age, 15,114; invalid, 2,883; war, 27,238;
widows, 1,581. The total liability of the State for maternity allowances,
child endowment, unemployment and sickness and hospital and pharmaceuti.
cal benefits WI\S £A8,364,183 in 1957-58.
LABOUR. The Commonwealth Industrial Court (judicial pO\vers) and
Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission (arbitral powers)
have jurisdiction over those unions with inter·state membership. The
basic wage (applicable to the unskilled worker) is subject to annual review
by the Commission.
The majority of employees in the State operate under State Wages Boards
establist,ed for the various trade.! by resolution of Parliament or proclamation
of the Governor. Each Board consists of a Chairman appointed by the
Governor with equal representation of employers and employees. The
Boards have authority over minimum rates for wages or piece work, number
of working hours for which the wage is payable, conditions of apprenticeship,
annual leave and adjustment of wage and piece.work rates in accordance
with variations in the cost of living. There is no State basic wage fixed by a
State A'1thority, and Wages Boards follow to a large extent the rates (If
the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration.
FINANCE. The revenue is derived chiefly from taxation (motor, land,
death duties and lottery taxation), and from grants and reimbursements
from the Commonwealth. Customs, excise and income tax are in the hands
of the Commonwealth. which makes a special grant to Tasmania and con-
.tributes a fixed amount per annum towards interest on the State's public
debt.
Bud!:ets, in £A, for financial years ending 30 June:
1964-65 195~56 1956-57 1957-68 1958-59 1959-60'
Revenue . 15,095,270 18,010,624 18,958,S)) 20,801,897 21,851,053 24,105,85'
Erpenditcro. 15,307,005 17,895,912 19.771,641 21,613,765 22,769,189 24,704,457
1 Estimatc8.
The ';)ublic debt amounted to £AI53,824.754 at 30 June 1959.

In Ui58-59 taxation receipts amounted to £A Il ,139,465, of which income
tax pro'vided £A7,269,714; lotteries. £A215,870; land tax. £A510,851;
death duties. £A683,044; motor vehicles. £Al,049,463.
PRODUCTION. The total area of Tasmania is 16,778.000 acres.
The t:stimated gross value of recorded production from primary industries
in 1957--58 was as follows (in £Al,OOO): Agriculture, 15,891; pastoral,
11,826; dairying, 8,974: poultry and bees, 1,933: forestry, 5,234; fisheries
and traJ'ping, 633: mining. 10,791; total gross value. 55,282.
Agrimdturt. The area occupied by the 11,374 holdings in 1958-59
totalled 6,573,000 acres, of which 357,012 acres were devoted to crops. The
followinl~ table shows the area and production of the principal crops:
TAS~fANIA 523
19~&-67 1957-58 1958-69
Grop ..:lcrtl Production .dert.! Production Acre" Production
Wh.nt (bush .) 3,900 88,666 5.884 153.493 6.433 163.660
Oat8(bUllb.) 11l.669 262.666 20, 711 481,895 22.199 480,816
Peas (Blue) (busb.) 8.:!15 186,976 7.223 141,600 2,476 47.828
Pea., (Grey ..ud ether)
(bu.h.) . 4.] ~ 1 80,!? 72 6.626 145.675 6,029 126;423
Turnips (tons) J';.943 105,326 18.427 119.704 21,322 145,801
Potatoes (tons) . . 19,125 89,700 21,696 101,500 16.1 86
Hay (tons) . . . 123,150 238,38l 110,164 204,77~ 153,822 n02.075
Apples(Bearing)(bush.) 16,690 3,401.300 16,8 12 6,636.000 16,435 4,983,000
Hop. (ll_aring) lb.) . 1,405 ~.147,44S 1,410 2,869,600 1,430 3,384,470
Livestock at 31 March 1959: Sheep, 3,536,000; dairy cattle, 203,000;

beef cattle, 171,000; pigs, 69,000, and horses, 11,700.
Wool produced during 1958-59 wae 32,605,000 lb., valued at £A6,844,OOO.
Butter production was 11,001 tons; cheese, 381 tons.
The net value of rural production during 1957-58 was £A27,929,OOO.
Forestry. Indigenous forests cover a considcrable part of the State,
and the saw.milling industry is very important. Production of sawn timber
in 1957-58 was 131m. sup. ft, valued at £A4,90I,Ooo.
Mining. Chief mineral products for the calendar year 1958: Zior,
29,023 tons; copper, 10,855 tons; lead, 12,902 tons; tin, 883 tons; ('on I,
276,268 tons; gold. 20,976 fine oz.; silver, 1,348.456 fine oz.
Mantlfactures_ The most important manufactures for export are refined
metals, newsprint and ot.ber paper manufactures, woollen goods. fruit
pulp and jam, confectionery allll Aawn timber. The electrolytic.zinc works
nt Risdon nea.r Hobart treats largt' quantities of local and imported ore,
and produces zinc, sulphuric acid, superphosphate, sulpbate of ammonia.
cadmium and other by-products. Tbo carbide works at Nortb·West Bay
is able to supply the needs of all Australia. In 1957-58 the number of in·
dustrial establishments was 1,655; number of employecs, 28,084; value
nf output, £A1I3,826,OOO; salaries and wages paid, £A25,321 ,OOO, exellld-
ing amounts drawn by worlting proprietors; cost of materials used,
£A.,)O,291,Ooo: value of production, £A5I,830.000; value of plant and
machinery, £A46,860,OOO.
COMMERCE. Commerce by sea and air (in £A) for years ending
30 June :
1953-64 1~5 ·1-55 1955-56 195&-57 I~S7-5S 1958 -59
Import.! 67 !~50 .174 69,6ft2,O!)7 72,829,450 76,7 85,7 ]0 79.112,231 83,6)4,971
B1»orta 65,267,014 68,G9i,003 80,000,308 85.885,460 H6, 255,845 87,970, 36;;
In 1958-59 imports by sea and air from other Australian States totalled
£A70,427,576; from the U.K., £A4,342.732: from other Commonwealth
countries, £A3,466,826; from foreign cOllntries, £A5.377,837. Exports to
other Australian States amounted to £A66,OO4,489; to the U.K.,
£AIO,044,783; to other Commonwealth countries, £A3,599.595, and to
forei!,rn countries, £A8,321.496.
Principal imports, 1968-69, in £AI,OOO : Food and drink. 12.76G;
tobacco, cigarettes etc., 4,383; clothing and textiles, 9,177; motor cars,
9,629; other metals, metal manufactures and machinery, 19.284. Principal
exports: Fresh fruit, 5,726; refined copper and zinc, 12,484; potatoes,
1,189; greasy \'"001, 6,053; woollen manufactures, 7,448; timber, 3,422.
COM MUNICA TIONS. Roads. The road mileage is about 13,000, con·
sisting of a cla.ssified road system of 2,188 miles maintained by the State
Department of Public Works, and the remainder which is ma.intained by the
local aUl;horities. Motor vehicles registered at 30 June 1959 comprised
60,105 Cf.rs and 28,549 commercial vehicles and motor cycles. Government.
controlled bus services carried 314,000 passengers in 1957-58.
Ship1,ing. The registered shipping in 1958 consisted of lIS motor (in.
cluding auxiliary) vessels of 9,622 tons, 43 sailing vessels of 718 tons, 23
steamers of 2,623 tons and 3 dredges of 690 tons.
For railways, posts and telegraphs, 8ee COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALLI. .
A vial ion. Regular daily passenger and freight air services connect the
south, n·)rth and north· west of the State with the mainland of Australia.
StatisticlI of regular air transport services for the year 1958-59 are as follows:
Miles flown , 4,936,000; passengers carried, 266,810; freight carried,
23,092 short tons; mail carried, 419 short tons.
In H158-59 goods valued at £A9,859,000 were imported by air into
Tasmania while exports by air were valued at £A8,792,000.
BANKING. Trading bank activity in Tasmania is divided between I)
private hanks and the CommoD\vealth Bank of Australia. For the month
of June 1959 average trading bank deposits were £A37,609,OOO and average
advanceH, £A22,414,000. There are 3 savings banks operating in Tasmania,
the Commonwealth Savings Bank and 2 trustee savings banks. At 30
June 191.9 total savings bank deposits were £A42,462,OOO or £A124 Os. IOd.
per head of population.
Maccluarie Island. About 1,000 miles south·east of Hobart, is about
21 miles long and 2 miles wide. It has been a dependency of Tasmania
since thE' 19th century. It is uninhabited except for a meteorological and
research base maintained by the Australian Government since Feb. 1948.
Books of Reference
STATIScrICAL INP'ORMATION. The Statistical Office (T. & G. BuDding, CoUins St., Hobart)
.... as /o.md"d in 1877. Government SWli31ician: H . O.Roustein. Main publications: SWlitliu
~I Tasmania. Annual (from 1822).-Poe.l:eI Yea< Book 01 Ta.smania. Annunl (from IP21).-
Monthly Remel. 01 Burine.. Slalisliu (trom July 1945)
Economic Resources 0/ Talmania. Hobart, 1945
Barrett, C, /sIt of Mounlai.... London, 1944
Cerut&y, L., Handbook fo< Tasmania. Hobart, 1949
Giblin, R. W., T~ Ea<ly HislOf'!! of Tasmania. 2 vols. London, 1939
Walcb's 7'J.smanian odlmanae. Hobart and London. Annual
STAn LmRARY. Tbe State Library of Tasmania, Hob .... t. Lib<arian : ll. W. Wray,
F.L.A.
TIlE NORTHERN TERRITORY OF AUSTRALIA

GOVERNMENT. The Northern Territory, after forming part of New
South Wales, was annexed on 6 July 1863 to South Australia and in 1901
entered the Commonwealth as a corporate part of South Australia. The
Commonwealth Constitution Act of 1900 made provision for the surrender
to the Commonwealth of any territory by any state, and under this pro-
vision 11.:1 agreement was entered into on 7 Dec. 1907 for the transfer of
the Non,hern Territory to the Commonwealth, and it formally passed under
the control of the Commonwealth Government on 1 Jan. 1911.
AUSTRALIAN TERRITORIES 525
On 1 Feb. 1927 the Northern Territory W8.8 divided for administrative
purposes into two Territories, North Australia and Central Australia, the
dividing line between the two Territories being the 20th parallel of
S. lat. Each Territory W8.8 under a Government Resident, with head·
quarters at Darwin and Alice Springs respectively. This division was
effected under the authority of the Northern Australia Act, 1926, whioh
also provided for the appointment of a North Australia Commission, the
powers of which extended to matters relating to the development of North
Australia, and also to the administration of Crown lands throughout North
Australia and Central Australia. The Northern Australia Act, 1926, was
repealed as from 12 June 1931 by the Northern Territory (Administration)
Act, 1931. The North Australia Commission was abolished, and the whole
of the Northern Territory was a.gain placed under the control of an Admini.
strator. The Administrator governs the Territory on hehalf of the Common.
wealth; his residence is at Darwin.
The Legislative Council for the Northern Territory. consisting of the
Administrator as President, 7 official and 6 elected mcmbers, met for the
first time on 16 Feb. 1948. All legislation which is passed by the Council is
presented to the Administrator for assent. However, ordinances, (a) dealing
with the granting or disposal of Crown lands, (b) whereby any lease or grant
of land or money or any donation or gratuity is made to the Administrator,
(c) relating to aboriginals or aboriginal labour, or (d) containing provisions
from which the assent of the Governor·General has previously been withheld
or which the Governor·General has disallowed, must be reserved by the
Administrator for the assent of the Governor·General. Ordinances assented
to by the Administrator may be disallowed by the Governor·General within
6 months of the assent. The Northern Territory elects a member to the
HOllse of Representatives who may take part in debates, bllt may not vote.
Administrator. J . C. Archer, O.B.E.
AREA AND POPULATION. The Northern Territory is bounded by
the 26th parallel of S. Ia.t. and 1290 and 1380 E. long. Its total
area is 523,620 sq. miles (335,116,800 acres). On 30 June 1958 the area
alienated under freehold tenure was 376,562 acres; 139,469,293 acres
were held under leasehold and 34,92!.1,561 acres under licences, etc.;
47,985,27] acres were reserved for a borigines, public requirements, etc.; and
112,356,113 acres were unoccupied and tmreserved. Land rents and rates
collected for the year amounted to £A27S,000. The coastline is about 1,040
miles in length, the principal port being Port Darwin. The greater part of
the interior consists of a tableland rising gradually from the coast to a height
of ahout 1,700 ft. On this tableland there are large areas of excellent
pasturage. The southern part of the Territory is generally sandy with a
IImall rainfall, but some water ma.y be obtained by means of 8ub·artesia.n
bores. The climate is tropical, but varies considerably over the whole
Territory. In the eoa.stal region, there are two main climatic divisions-
the wet season, Nov. to April, and the dry season, May to Oct. Nearly
the whole of the rainfall occurs in the summer months. Farther south
the climate is of a continental type, showing a great variation between the
hottest and coldest months.
The population, ex.cluding full· blooded aborigines, has varied as follows:
Europeans 'rotlll EuropealJS Totlll
1881 (census) 667 3,451 1933 (census) 3,306 4,850
1901 (census) 782 4,8il 19-i7 (census) 9,116 10.868
1911 (census) 1,418 3,310 1954 (census) 14,028 16,469
1921 (census) 2,459 3,867 1958 (estimate) 1',579
The number of full-blooded aborigines was 16,165 as at 30 June 1957_

FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure for the Northern Territory
(in £A) for years ended 30 June cover the transactions of the Common-
wealth Consolidated Revenue Fund relating to the Northern Territory and
the Nor~h Australian Railway.
In pre rlous issues 01 thl. volnme the transactions 01 the Central AustMlia Railway and tbe
Post Office in Northern 'ferritory were 4lso included. Tbese transactions Me DOW omit·ted
becaase tbey relate to Commonwealtb Business Undertakiu,,"S which extend beyond tbe
l\ ol·tbern Territory.
Revenue Expenditure Revenue Expenditure
195:1-54 115,234 4.566,307 1956-57 1,037,298 7,072,886
195·~55 712,407 5,075.809 1957-58 1.297.646 8,270,047
1951,-56 822,142 6,533,294 1958-59 1,430,OI)~ 9,091,849
The chief sources of revenue for 1958-59 were: Electricity supply,
£A448,536; rents and rates, £A341,894, and railways, £A202,573. The chief
item of expenditure (excluding interest, loans, etc.) were: Administrative
nnel social expenditure, £A4,876,495; capital works (excluding businesss
Ilnderta.ill1gs), £A3,677,782, and railway administmtioll, £AI68,764.
PRODUCTION. Pa"'oral. The beef cattle industry is the largest
industry in the Northern Territory and, despite drought~, the co,ttle popu-
lation has been maintained at about Im. head. In 1958 there were about
2,800 miles of stock routes watered by 175 bores. The Government pr0-
vides veterinary services to pastoro,lists. A veterinary reseo,rch institute is
being established at Alice Springs.
Livestock (30 June 1959): 1,138,156 cattle, 39,131 horses, 22,141 sheep,
9,126 gc.ats, 3,191 swine, 307 donkeys, 200 mules, 36 camels.
Agr'-culture. Iu 1952 tbe Govemment established n.n experimental farm
at Katterine to test out the economies of a dry farming system, on a com-
mercial scale, in wbich peanuts, and grain sorghum would be grown in
rotation with pastures for cattle fattening. The Government is also trying
out experiments with drought-resisting gra.sses, fodder crops, co,ttle fatten-
ing on ~rains, crop residues, natural and improved pastures, and phosphate
supplelllents.
In 1952 the Government also established rice experimental stations at
Humpt;. Doo, about 40 miles from Darwin, on a site represelltative of the
sub-coalltal plains which occur on the northern and western coasts and
extend:nlo,nd along the major rivers, and at Sixty Mile (60 miles soutb of
Darwin on the Stuart Highway), representative of the Marrakai land system.
which comprises the' bull-dust' soils occurring along the middle courses of
the Adelaide, Margaret, McKinley and Mary rivers.
Under an agreement with the Commonwealth Government a company.
Territory Rice. Ltd, with Australian and American capital wiII try to
develop 500.000 a·cre3 for rice growing in the sub-coastal plains east of the
Stuart IIighway towards and beyond the Adelaide River.
In 1')56 an experimental farm was established at Berrimah near D~.rwin to
conduct investigations into fruit and vegetables, fodder crops and pastures-
both in dry land and irrigated conditions_ Peanuts are produced commer-
cially ill the Katherine and Daly River areas. :Fruit and vegetables are
produced near Darwin.
Fish ing. A pearl shell fishing industry is carried on. There is also a
small trade in fresh fish, some of which is transported by air to southern
cities.
Mining. The Territory is rich in mineral resources. The main activity
is gold and copper mining centred at Tennant Creek, while tungsten fields
arc !1.t Hatches Creek and Wauchope. Uranium deposits are worked at
Rum Jungle and on the South Alligator River. The production of the
principal minerals during the fiscal year 1957- 58 was as follows : Gold,
73,095 fine oz.; copper concentrate, 35,073 tOilS; tungsten concentrate,
44 tons; mica (t.rimmed), 32,095 lb.; manganese ore, 2,252 tons. Total
value of 1957-58 mineral production (excluding uranium) was £A4,030,492.
COMMERCE. The two main items are cattle a nd minerals. Value
(in £A 1,000 f.o.b.) :
19{)4-t.5 J 95iJ- u6 1956- 57 19 ~ i-5S
Cattle 2,034 3,020 2.592 3.Q3'
Minerals I 1,75::; 3,303 4,140 4,2;$
I J!!x:cludiog uranium.
COMMUNICA TIONS. Regular shipping services connect Darwin with

Westent Australia and with the eastern States. There is a railway line
from Darwin to Birdum, 316 miles south of Darwin, and from Adelaide
to Alice Springs, about 192 miles north of tho southern boundary of the
Territory.
Darwin is the 6rst port of arrival in Australia for virtually all aircraft
from Europe and Asia. Besides regular oversea services calling at Darwin,
there are regular inland services connecting Darwin with all the State
capitals and many inland towns. The two sealcd highways built during
the Second World War, Darwin-Alice Springs, 954 miles (Stuart Highway)
and Tennant Creek-Mount Isa (Queensland), 403 miles (Barkly Highway),
are the two principal arteries of the Northern Tcrritory, and other roads
are being maintained and constructed as feeders.
Territory of Ashrnore and Car tier Islands. By United Kingdom
OrdE'r in Council of 23 July 1931, Ashmore Islands (known as Middle, East
and West Islands) and Cartier Island, situated in the Indian Ocean, some
200 miles off the north-west coast of Australia, were placcd under the
authority of the Commonwealt.h.
Under the Ashmore and Cartier Islands Acceptance Act, 1933, the islands
wcre accepted by the Commonwealth under the name of the Territory of
Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and the effective date was proclaimed by the
Governor·General to be 10 May 1934. It was the intention that the Terri-
tory should be administered by the State of Western Australia, but owing to
administrative difficulties the Territory was annexed to and deemed to form
part. of the Northern Territory of Australia (by amendment to the Act in
1938) and all the laws of the Northcrn Territory, as far as they are applicable.
apply to the Territory of Ashruore and eartier Jsland~. The island~ are
uninha bited.
Books of Reference
J nlll",1 /leporls
Abbott, C. L. A., 4!lslraUa's Frontier Province. Sydney, 1950
Aust.ralian lnstitn ta of Political Science, Northern Au~traJia : 21ask jor it nation. Sydney, 19~"
Bray, J. E., Northern, Territory in JJrie/. A.Hce Springs. l~faG
l'inJaysoD, H . H., 1'he Red Cenlre. 2nd e<l. Sydney, 10:'2
Oroo1O, A., I Saw a Slrange Land. Sydney, 19~0
Harney, W., Life .dmong lhe .Jboriginu London,1951.
Hill, K, The TerrilOTV. Sydney, 1951
Kyle·LiWe, S., Whispering Wind: advenlures in Arnham /,and . London, 1957
M:ldignn, C. T., Central .4u3Iralia. 2nd od. Melbourne, 19-1-\
Moorehead, A. 0., Rum Jungle. London , ]954
Mountford. C. P., lJrown Men and R,d Sand. MelboDl'De, 1949

Pike, G., Darwin, .Vortltem Territory. Darwin, 1956
SimpsoD. 0., Adam in Ochre. Sydney, 1951
Wise, F. J. S., P,oblemJ of tile Detvdopment of the Nortllern Territory. Canberra,] 956
TERRITORIES OF THE AUSTRALIAN COMMONWEALTH

(PAPUA AND NEW GUINEA)
FOLLOWING the outbreak of the Pacific War civil administration in Papua
and Ne'lV Guinea was suspended on 11 Feb. 1942, and military control
commenced. The Territory of New Guinea came under Japanese occupa-
tion in 1942, but the greater part had already been recaptured by Australian
and Am.~d forces when the Japanese surrendered in Aug. 1945.
Pursllant to the provisions of the l'apua-New Guinea Provisional
Administration Act, 1945, a single Provisional Administration Service was
formed, and the transfer from military to civil control in Papua and the
portion of the Territory of New Guinea south of the Markham River was
effected on 30 Oct. 1945. Jurisdiction of the Supreme Courts of Papua
and Ne" Guinea was then vested in the Supreme Court of the Territory of
Papua-New Guinea. Civil control was gradually extended to other areas
until tb,! whole of the Territory of New Guinea came under control of the
Provisional Administration of Papua-New Guinea on 24 June 1946.
The Papua and New Guinea A(:t, 1949, which came into force on 1 July
1949, approved the placing of the Territory of New Guinea under the
Interna1.ional Trusteeship system and provides for an administrative union,
one Ad~linistrator, one Supreme Court and one public service.
Administrator of Papua and New Guinea. Brig. D. M. Cleland, C.B.E.
Pro~ision is made for an Executive Council of not less than 9 officers of
the Territory who shall be appointed by the Governor-General.
The Legislative Council was ina.ugurated on 26 Nov. 1951. It consists
of 29 members, namely: The Administrator; 16 officers of the Territory
(official members); 3 non-official members, elected by electors of the
Territory; 3 non-official members representing the interests of the Christian
missionH in the Territory; 3 non-official native members, and 3 other
non-offinial members.
Subject to the Act, provision may be made by Ordinance for the establish-
ment of advisory councils for native matters; and native local government
councils. The Act also makes provision for the continuance of the existing
laws of ~he Territory of Papua and the Territory of New Guinea.
A P'\pua and New Guinea Division of the Royal Australian Navy was
established in July 1951.
Tra«,e between Papua and New Guinea and the U.K. (British Board of
Trade r'lturns; in £ sterling) :
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U. K. 2,391,960 1,925,194 4,0'16,969 3,942,786 3,787,236
Exports from U. K. . 944,724 617,534 691,710 709,597 779,918
Re-expor:.s from U. K. 7,168 12,850 4,318 2,679 8,654
1. PAPUA
Papua comprises the south-eastern part of the island of New Guinea,
togethe: with the Trobriand, Woodlark, D'Entrecasteaux and Louisiade
groups of islands, and lies between 50 and 12 0 S. lat., and 141 0 and 155 0 E.
long. Area 90,600 sq. miles, of which 87,806 are on the mainland of New
Guinea and 2,794 on the islands above mentioned. On 30 June 1958 the
non.indigenous population was estimated at 8,555, the native population
at 478,595.
To prevent that portion of the island of New Guinea not claimed by
Holland from passing into the hands of a f oreign power, the Government
of Queensland annexed it in 1883. This step was not sanctioned by the
Imperial Government, but on 6 Nov. 1884 a British Protectorate was
proclaimed over the southern portion of the eastern half of New Guinea,
and in 1887 Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria undertook to defray
the cost of administration, and the territory was annexed to the Crown the
following year. The Federal Government t ook over the control in 1901;
the political transfer was completed by the Papua Act of the Federal
Parliament in Nov. 1905, and on I Sept. 1906 a proclamation was issued by
the Governor·General of Australia declaring that British New Guinea was
to be known henceforth as the Territory of Papun..
About 50,000 nn.tives arc attending administration and mission schools.
At 30 June 1957, 305,809 acres of land had been leased, of which 260,124
acres were for agricultural purposes, the principal cultures being coconuts
and rubber. A preferential tariff is granted by the Commonwealth on
certain produce from Papua. Freehold alienation is prohibited, but leases
may be obtained at low rentals for long terms. Indigenous sago is plentiful
in the western portion of the Territory, and there are considerable numbers
of native· owned coconut trees. Timber production is cxpanding and fishing
is carried on. A fisheri es research vessel is operating in the area.
For administrative purposes the Territory is divided into 6 division.
(Southern Highhtnds, Western, Gulf, Central, Northern, Milne Bay), each
in charge of a District Commissioner, assisted by a District Officer, Assistant
District Officers and patrol officers. There is a supreme court at Port
Moresby, but it holds sittings wherever and whenever necessary.
By Sept. 1958, 10 native local government councils had been established
in which 59,300 people are represented by 281 councillors.
Year. Total Tonnage
ended revenue Expenditure Imports • Exports' eutered and
30 June (£A) (£Al (£Al (£A) cleared
1966 4,983.649 4,833,193 S,975,Sa4 3.364.635 671,262
1951 6,648,104 5,585,8H 8,661,252 2,166,322 511,168
1958 6,406,674 6,401,155 8,786,758 2,776,052 61 7,708
• Imports Bnd erports are now recorded on f.o.b. basis. Previous annual figures hare
been adjusted accordingly.
Local revenue is mainly from customs duties.

Gold is the only mineral exported, but it is no longer important. Copper,
manganese, platinum and silver have been exported in the past. There
are 10 proclaimed mineral fields, 9 of which are also goldfields. Gold is or
has been obtained in the Louisiade Islands, on the mainland, and on Wood·
lark Island. Large sums of money are being spent by oil companies in an
intensive search for oil but no commercial deposits have yet been discovered.
The trade is principally with Queensland and New South Wales. The
chief imports are foodstuffs, chemicals, manufactured goods, machinery and
transport equipment; exports, 19.57-58, copra (13,233 tons, £A847,472),
rubber (4,259 tons, £A1,114,716), shell (£A43,281).
There are regu lar shipping services between Sydney, Port Moresby and
Samami, and small coastal vessels mu between the various territory ports.
An air service t o and from Australia operates almost daily and there is an
iuternd air· transport network. With the continual extension of roads, the
importance of land transport is increasing.
There are wireless telegraph stations at Port Moresby, Samarai and Daru.
A short·wave station and a local broadcasting service are operated by the
Australian Broadcasting Commission from Port Moresby.
There are branches of the Commonwealth Bank, the Bank of New
South Wales and the Australia a,nd New Zealand Bank at Port Moresby.
The currency and its legal tender are the same as in the Commonwealth of
Australia. The coinage of the Territory of New Guinea is accepted a8
legal tender throughout the Territory of Papua and New Guinea.
H. NEW GUINEA
The Territory of New Guinea has an area of 93,000 sq. miles, extending
from the Equator as far as 8° S. lat., and from 141 0 E. long. as far as 160 0 E.
long. An Australian force occupied these possessions in 1914. Under a
mandate from the League of Nations on 9 May 1921 the Australian Govern-
ment Established its civil administration in the territory. The Common-
wealth Government has now placed the Territory of New Guinea under the
trusteeship system established under the Charter of the United Nations.
The trusteeship agreement for the territory, under which the Government
of Aru,tralia is the sole administering authority, was approved by the
General Assembly of the Unitcd Nations on 13 Dec. H146. The laws of
the Commonwealth, subject to local modifications as necessary, may be
appliec,.
By Sept. 1958, 15 native local government councils had been establisheu
in whkh 91,130 people are represented by 379 councillors.
ThE' seat of administration used to be at Rabaul, New Britain. It is at
present. at Port Moresby (headquarters of the administration of the Territory
of Pap'"~ and New Guinea).
Estimated non·indigenous population at 30 June 1958 was 15,073, and
the indigenous population was 1,326,195.
A bout 119,000 natives are attending administration and mission schools.
ThE. total area of non·native plantations and farms in the Territory at
31 March 1957 ,vas 510,487 acres, of which 230,450 acres were under crops.
The greater part of this area was planted with coconuts (212,374 acres).
Cocoa, coffee, rice and peanuts are also grown. Tropical fruits grow
abunda,ntIy. The staple food of the natives is sweet potatoes, yams, taro,
sago alld bananas. There are extensive g1'3.sslands, and a beef·cattle
industry is being developed.
Tirr.ber production is important for both local consumption and export.
During the year 1957-58 approximately 44m. sup. ft of logs were harvested
for conversion to sawn timber, production of plywood or for export. Ply-
wood III produced at a modem factory; the approximate total production
in 1957-58 was 28m. sq. ft. Fishing is carried on.
The land is rich in mineral wealth but, on account of the high cost of
mining,. only gold, silver and platinum are worked. The total value of
minera', produotion in 1958-59, at £725,254, was the lowest for several
years.
Native labour is used to work the plantations, and the natives are
recruited either from the adjacent villages or from other parts of the Terri·
tory.
Inter·island trade is carricd on by smaU motor vessels and schooners.
There are regular shipping services from Australia to Rabaul, Lae. Madang,
We\vnk, Alexishafen, Kavieng, Lorcngau and Lombrum. Air services are
maintained from Australia six times 1\ week, while internal air service3
connect many places in the Territory. Road trandport is increasing in
importance as all ·weather roads are developed.
Revenue and trade (in £A) for years ended 30 June:
1954-55 1955-56 1956- 57 1957-58
CU5toms 1.428.46~ l,GOI,82/) 1,702,884 1,894.125
Forestry H3,Si" 203.145 191,018 213,558
Alining receipt5 . . 74,468 6:1,:114 67 ,023 24,549
Total reVelll1. 6,404,654 7,313,&9~ 8,150,696 9,114,847
Chief Imports
Food 2,748,03/) 2,;;11,797 2,824,0·19 2,n41,556
:Heverage~ . .. 21a,025 254,328 277,201 275,611
Tobao.co nUll preparatioo, 390,604 ;\81,700 ·105,934 417,352
Mineral !uels, lubrican~'. etc.. . 536,475 1>38,.84 676,746 694,741
Machinery and transport equipmellt. 1,825,9·10 1,963,539 1,999,210 2,169,9;;·1
Chemicals . . ;;84,850 $36,020 869,241 790,976
Manufactured goods 2,034,660 2,38i.,i12 2 , 38~,87t) 2,552,544
Total iml'0rt.3· 9,577,088 10,280,029 10.918,931 11,452,012
Chief exports:
Copra 5,144,352 4,795,987 4,706,142 3,673,687
Coconut oil 1,215,662 1,326,806 1,315,776 1,472,997
Coconut rueal 81,(\23 131,461 12:;.411 176,506
COCO(l bea~s 512,204 3;;2,105 454,463 814,633
Coffee heaus 72,575 !)1,69S 17!1,510 222,794
Timi><'r 893,;124 1,051,593 1,17 ~ ,OO ·1 1,265,261
Sbell 218.956 303,215 221),917 68,51>8
Gold . . . 1,3~9,t73 1,064,279 1,225,4017 851,506
'l'otal expor&,; • 10,060,64 1 9,885,623 10,312,492 9,628,0·18
1 Including t-ho~e not listed aho\'c.
Main commodities exported in Hl57-58 were: Copra, 58,598 tons ;

coconut oil, 14,802 tons; copra oil cake and meal, 8,705 tons; gold, 49,8VJ
fitle oz.; timber (logs), 1,015,412 snp. ft; timber (sawn), 3,0l!,850 sup. ft;
plywood, 26,492,054 sq. ft; veneer, 825,810 sq. ft.
Net tonnage of Ilhipping entered and cleared in W57-58 was 717,6<17
tons ; total inward tonnage of cargo was 130,363; outward 148,485 tons.
I. New Guinea Mainland. This region, the northern section of south·
east New Guinea, lies between 20 35' and 80 S. lat. and 141 0 and 1480 Eo
long. The area, including l\1anam, Karkar. I,ong, Bagabag, Schoutell,
Kairiru (D'Urville) and some smaller i$lands, is 70,20U sq. miles. The
c~timated and enumerated native population at 30 June W58 was 1,1I7,7M.
It wa-s declared a German Protectorate under the name of Kaiser· Wilhelms·
Land in 1884, and was under the control of the New Guinea Company from
1885 to 1899. The coastline is very little broken, and there are few good
harbours. There are high ranges running paraUel with the coastal plain,
which is from 20 to 100 miles wide aud broken with steep spurs ill some
places extending to the actual coastline. The ranges in the int<lrior have
net been completely explored, but Borne of their summits are known to
attain 15,000 ft. The principal rivers are the Sepik. which is navigable for
over 250 miles, the Ramu and the Markham. The climate is hot and the
rainfall large. There were 25 missionary societies at work in 1957 ; some
of these missions have plantations, sllw·milld, etc.
The chief towns are: In the l\torobe District (non. indigenous population,
3,124), Wau and Lac; in the Madang District (non. indigenous population,
(52), Madang; and in the Sepik District (non .indigenous population, 460),
Wewak. (Census population figures at 30 Juno 1954.)
2. Bismarck Archipelago. In Nov. 1884 a German Protectorate was

declared over the New Britain Archipelago and several adjacent groups of
islands, and in May 1885 they were renamed the Bismarck Archipelago.
The archipelago is divided into 3 districts: New Britain, area 14,100 sq.
miles (main islands, New Britain and Duke of York group); New Ireland,
area 3,BOO sq. miles (mnin islands, New Ireland and Lavongai); Manus, area
800 sq, miles (mnin islands, Admiralty group, including Manus). Other
islands are Mussav Islands, Gardner Islands, Nuguria, Nissan Island, the
Witu Islands, Umboi Islands, Hermit Islands, Ninigo Group, Kaniet and
Sae Ishnds. There are upwards of 100 small islands with a total area of
1,115 sq. miles. The enumerated and estimnted native popuhtion of the
Archip"\ngo nt 30 June 1958 was 156,677.
New Britain. the largest island of this group. is a long island of crescent
shape lying east and west. It has a mean breadth of 50 miles and a length
of 300 miles. The enumerated and estimated native population (including
adjacent small islands) was 102,192 at 30 June 1958. A mountain chain
traverses the entire length of the island, nnd in the centre consists of several
irregular ranges. There are several active volcanoes. The highest known
peak is the Father, about 7,500 ft high, which is an active volcano. The
island has very fine harbours. The chief export products are copra and
cocoa. Non-indigenous population at 30 June 1954 was 3,856_
New Ireland, the second in size and importance, is situated north of New
Britain, from which it is separated by St George's Channel. The chief town
is Knvieng, at the north-west extremity of the island_ The only other town
is Narr.atanai on the south-east coast. The island has a long range of
mounthins running through it. It is of older formation than New Britain,
and does not show any signs of recent volcanic activity. The principal
harbour is Nusa bay on the north coast on which Kavieng, the seat of the local
admini'ltration, is situated. The enumerated native population at 30 June
1958 was 37,733, including adjacent islands; non-indigenous population at
30 Jun'l 1954 was 713. The soil is fertile and the climate similar to that of
New Bdtain. The chief industry is coconut growing. There are numerous
plnntations around the coast near Kavieng. Smaller islands of the group
include Tabar, Lihir. Tango., Feni, Nissan (Green Islnnd), Nuguria, Mussau
and Ernirau Groups.
ThE: Admiralty Islands are the most important of the small groups.
The chief island is Manus. The chief town is Lorengau on the north-east
coast. The enumerated native population of the group nt 30 June 1958
was 16,752; non-indigenous population at 30 June 1954 was 840. Coconuts
are the chief cultivated crop. and marine shell is taken for commercial
purpos"s.
3. ~;olomon Islands. The portion of the Solomon Islands within the

area of the Territory of New Guinea consists of Bougninville, Buka and
adjaced islands, including Kilinailau (Carteret Island), Taku (Mortlock) and
Nukumanu (Tasman) Islands. Bougainville has an area of 4,100 sq. miles,
and an enumerated native population in 1958 of 51,764, including Buka,
which has an area of 190 sq. miles; non-indigenous populntion at 30 June
1954 W:lS 320. Smaller islands in this group hnve a. total area of 30 sq. miles.
The islnnds arc very mountainous. Of the several volcanic cones, Bagana.
(in the Crown Prince range) and Balbi nre the only active volcanoes. The
NEW ZEALAND 533
principal harbours are Kieta, situated on the east coast of Bougainville, and
Raua and Tinputz on the north·east coast of Bougainville. There is a good
harbour on the west side of Buka. named Carola Hafen. The natives grow
bananas, coconuts, taro, sweet potatoes and cocoa.
Books of Reference
Report to the Gent!1'ai .Jsumbly Of tht United Nations cm the Administralinn of the Tert'ilorv of
New Guinea. 1946/47 to dat(>
Pa-pua and New Guinea Official Re3earch PubUcationJ. Port Moresby, 1951 if.
Belshaw, C. S., The Great Villa{1e: lh~ economic and sodal welfare of Hanuabada. an urban
community in Papua. London. 1957
Elkin, A. P., Social .1ntr.roPQlogy in Melanesia. Melbourne, J ~53
Fry, T. P., Law and A.dministration in New Guinea. Sydney, 1950
Hogbin, H. 1., 2'run.,/ormation Seen" Th< Changing Culture 0/ a New Guinea V"illage.
London, 1951
Lallln, J ., Return to Glory. Sydney, 1956
Leggo, J. D., Au.1tralian Colonial Policy. Sydney, 1956
T..ett, L., Th< Papuan Achievement. 2nd ed. Melbourne, 19H.-Papua: Ir.. People and iu
Promise. Melbourne, J 944
Rob8on, R. W. (ed. ),Flrtndbook of Papua and New Guinea. 2nd od. Sydney, 1958
Wilke" J. (cd.), New Guinea and .1:!-Stralia. An~tr'J. Inst. ofi'olitical Science, 1959
NEW ZEALAND
THE first European to discover New Zealand was Tasman ill 1642.
The coast was explored by Capt. Cook in 1769; in subsequent years it
became a resort for whalers and traders, chiefly from Australia. By the
Treaty of Waitangi, in 1840, between Governor William Hobson and the
representatives of the Maori race, the Maori chiefs ceded the sovereignty
to the British CroWD and the islands became a British colony.
The Maoris are a branch of the Polynesian race, having emigrated from
the easteI'll Pacific prior to the 14th century. Between 1845 and 1848, and
again between 1860 and 1870, a large proportion of them were in revolt
against British rule, but peace was permanently established in 1871.

Definition was given the status of New Zealand by the (Imperial)
Statute of Westminster of Dec. 1931, which had received the antecedent
approval of the New Zealand Parliament in July 1931. The Governor·
General's assent was given to the Statute of Westminster Adoption Bill on
25 Nov. 1947.
The powers, duties and responsibilities of the Governor·General and
the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government
are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May
1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. In the
execution of the powers vested in him the Governor·General must be guided
by the advice of the Executive Council; but. if in any case he sees sufficient
cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council. he may act in the exercise
of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council,
reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for
his so doing.
The following is a list of Governors.General, the title prior to June 1917
being Governor:
534 THE DRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
EBrl of lAverpool 1917-20 Sir Cyri! New.n. J94146

Viscount, JelUcoo • 1920-24 Lord Freyberg, V.C. 1946-~2
Sir Chn.r les Fergusson, Dt I n 1-3U
· Lord N orei. . H52-67
Lord Dkdisloe • 1 ~30-35 Viscount Cobham 1~;;7-
Viscount OaJway 1935-41
Parliament or the 'Gencral Assembly' now consists of the House of
Reprceentatives, the former Legislative COllncil having been abolished since
1 Jan. 1951.
The statute law on elections and the life of Parliament is contained in the
Electol'al Act, Hl56.
Tht, HOllse of Representatives consists of 80 membcrs, including 4
Manris" elected by the people for 3 years. Thcy are paid £1,400 per annum,
plus an expense allowance varying from £275 to £705 per annum according to
the type of electorate represented. Every man or woman registered as an
elector is eligihle as a member of the HOll~'" of Representatives. For Euro-
pean rI, presentation every adult person (of either sex), other than aliens, if
resident 1 year in New Zealand and 3 months in an electoral district, is
required to be registercd as an elector for such electoral district. No per-IOn
may he registered on more than 1 elcctoral roll. Every adult Maori who has
resided in any of the 4 Maori electoral districts for not less than 3 months is
r.ntitled to be registered as an elector of that district. A half·caste Maori is
entitled to register eit,her for a European or a. Maori electoml district.
Women's suffrage was instituted in 18!J3; women became eligible as members
uf the !Iouse of Reprcsentativea in I!JHl. The House in 195!J included 3
women members.
The right of Maori members of Parlill.ment and of :Maori petitioners to
u~e thdr language is safeguarded by standing orders of the House under
the discretionary power of Mr Speaker. Speeches from the Throne and
bills or clauses of bills specially affecting the Maori aro also offiCially trans·
lated a'; Mr Speaker's direction.
House of Representatives electcd 30 Nov. 1957: Labour, 41; National
Party, 39; total SO.
The Executive ConnciI was composed as follows in Feb. 1!J5!J:
Gov,?rnor·General and C.-in·C. Viscount Cobham (assumed office 5 Sept.
J 957; ealary £6,500, and £5,000 for the salaries and expenses of his establisb.
ment (I,xclusivc of the Official Secretary), plus travelling expenses for him·
self, hi; family and his staff).
Prime Minister, :Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Maor; Affairs.
W. Nasb, C.H., P.C.
Deputy Prime Minister, ,Minister of Agriculture, JIini$tcr of Lands. C. F.
Skinner, M.C .
.Mir,.i8ter of Finance. A. H. Nordmcyer.
Attorney·General, Minister of J ustict, Minister of IIealth. H. G. R.
Mason, Q.C.
Mir.ister of Labour, Minister of Mine." Minister of Immigration. F.
Hackett.
Minister of Marine, Minister of Housing. W. A. Fox.
Mir.istcT of Work8. H. Watt.
Jf in ister of Fore8ts, Associate to ,Minister of M aor; Affairs. E. T.
Tirikatene.
Minister of Defcnce. P. G. Connolly, D.S.C., V.R.D.
],fir,isler of Railways, Postmaster· General and Minister of Telegrn:ph,.
M.MoolJan.
Mir.ister of Industrie8 and Commerce. P. N. Holloway.
NEW ZEALAND 535
Mini3ter 0/ Education. P. O.S. Skoglund.
Jfini8ter 0/ Social Security, M ini.sler /or the IVel/are of Women and Children .
Mi~s M. B. Howard.
Minister of Transport, Minister ()f Island Territoriu. J. Matbison.
Minister of C1t8toms. R. Boord.
:lI1in ister 0/ Internal Affairs, lI1inister 0/ Ci'vil Def ence. W. T. Andertoll .
The Prime Minister (provided with residence) hlUl a salary of £4,250
plus a tu.free expense allowance of £1,500 per annum; Ministers with
portfolio, £2,800 plus a t ax· free expense allowance of £450 (Minister of
External Affairs £615) per annum; Ministers without portfolio, £2,200 pillS
a tax· free expense allowance of £350 per annum; Parliamentary Under·
Secretaries, £1 ,700 pillS an expense allowance of £400 per annum (no
Parliamentary Under· Secretaries have been appointed since Nov. 1954). In
addition, Ministers and Parliamentary Under· Secretaries not provided with
residence at the seat of Government receive £300 per annum house allowance.
An allowance of £4 48. per day whilst travelling within New Zealand on
public service is payable t·o Ministers.
The Speaker of the House of Representatives receives £2,400 pillS an
expense allowance of £600 per annum, and residential quarters in Parlia·
ment House, and the Leader of the Opposition £2,200 plus expense allow.
ances totalling £705 per aWlUm.
Beaglebole, J. O. (cd.), NtuJ Zealand and tM Statute 01 WUlmin.ller. Wellington, 1944
Ourrie, A. E. , NtuJ ZMland and IM StatuU of WeslmilUler, 1931. Wellington, 1944
Dollimore, IT. N., The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliamenl Ro"... Wellington 1955
We~b, L. 0 ., 0011ernmetUin NtuJ Zealand. Wellington, 1940
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
I<'or purposes of local government New Zealand is divided into counties,
boroughs and town districts. Some counties are subdivided into ridings.
There are also numerous other local authorities create<l for specific functions,
such as electric· power districts, river (i.e., river protection) districts, gas
districts, rabbit (i .e., rabbit extermination) districts, etc.
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENT A TIVES
British (',ommonwoalth and
Country New Zealand representative foreign representative 6
Austmlia ! Fredcrick Jones Vice·Adm. Sir John Col-
lins, K.B.E., C.B.
Austria l Johann Man~', ~
Belgium 3 A. Nihotte
Burma 3 U Than Hla 5
Canada! Foss Shanahan G. R. Heasman, o.n.E. 5
Ceylon 1 . B. 1<'. Perera, C.M.G.,
O.B.E.5
Czechoslo-
vakia 3 B. Matonoha 4
Denmark 3 T. Wegener-Clausen 4
Finland 8 Toivo Kala 4, 5
France 2 Dr C. E . Beeby, a .M.G. Jean Baudier S
German I<'ed.
Republic s Dr Herbcrt Noehring
Greece 3 . G. Christodulo S
I High Commissioner 2 A mbns.~or . ' Envor .
• Charge d'Affaires. • Resident in Aust.,li. . .
British Commonwealth and

Country New Zealand representative foreign representative
India 1 . R . L. G. Challis (Act ing) Sanarendranath Sen •
Indonelia • Dr A. Y. Helmi Ii
Israel' Moshe Yuval Ii
Italy S Dr Giuseppe Capece
Japan :! J. S. Reid Shiro I shiguro
Malaya 1 C. M. Te A. Bennett, D.S.O. Gunn Lay Teik, O.B.E.
Netherlands S • Baron Bentinck van
Schoonheten
PakistLn 1 J. G. Kharas 5
Philippines • Dr J. F. Imperial s
Sweden' F. H. Arnfast
Thailand 2 C. Craw Vadhana Isarabhakdi 5
U.S.S.R.' N . 1. E vdokeyev •
U.K.l 'l'he Hon. F. E. Cumming-
Bruce, C.M.G.
U.S.A. " Francis H . Russell
1 Hgh Commissioner. • Ambassador. • Envoy .
• Charge d' AJIaires. i Resident in Australia.
There are in \Vellington consuls.general of Argentina, China, Switzer·

land and Yugoslavia ; consuls of Brazil, Chile (Auckland), Dominican Re-
public (Auckland), Norway, Panama (Auckland), Philippines, P ortugal,
Turkey (Auckland).
AREA AND POPULATION
There are two principal islands, the North and South Islands, besides
Stewart Island, Chatham Islands, and small outlying islands. In addition
there al7e the Island Territories (au pp. 552 If.), and the trusteeship territory
of Western Samoa (8ee pp. 555 If.).
NeH Zealand (i.e., North, South, and Stewart Islands) extends over
1,100 miles from north to south. Area, excluding Island Territories, 103,736
sq. mi1,~s; North Island, 44,281 sq. miles; South Island, 58,093 sq. miles;
Stewart Island, 670 sq. miles; Chatham Islands, 372 sq. miles; minor
islands, 320 sq. miles. Acreage 66,390,700 acres, exclusive of Cook, Niue
and Tokelau islands (123,436 acres) and Western Samoa (1,133 sq. miles).
TIle ama of Maori lands is estimated at 4m. acres.
The population of New Zealand proper at the census of 17 April 1956
was 2,174,062, inclusive of 137,151 Maoris. The foregoing population
figures do not include Island Territories (8ee pp. 552 If.).
Cenms population, exclusive of Maoris and Island Territories:
Average increase
Mal... Females Total %, per annum
1891 331,744 292,711 624,455 2·:;'
1901 404,799 365,505 770,304 2·1
1911 630,433 475,152 1,005,585 2·1
1921 621,138 593,541 1,214,677 1·9
1926 686,384 658,085 1,344,469 2·1
1936 756,226 735,258 1,491,484 1·1
1945 782,634 820,952 1,603,586 0·8
1961 914,646 909,150 1,823,796 2·3
1966 1,023,122 1,013,789 2,036,911 2·2
Tb. c.nsu. of New Zealand is quinquennial, but the census falling in 1931 was abandoned
as an act of national economy, and owing to war conditions the census due in 1941 was not
taken until 25 Sept. 1945.
NEW ZEALAND 537
The areas and estimated populations of provincial districts at 1 April
1959 were as follows:
Population (er. Maori Total
Provincial district Sq. miles clndlng Maoris) population population
Auckland. 25,420 838,855 111,7:;4 950,609
Hawke's Bay 4,260 97,600 11,200 108,800
Taranakl . 3,750 91,900 6,800 98,700
WeUington 10,870 434,500 17,400 451,900
Marlborough 4,220 27,100 700 27,800
Nelson 10,870 72,500 900 73,.100
Westland . 4,880 18,500 200 18,700
Canterbury 13,940 327,731 2,189 329,920
Otago:
OtBgo portion. 14,070 193,900 600 174,500
Soutbland portion 11,460 90,900 900 91,800
Total 103,740 2,173,.186 152,643 2,326,129
At 1 April 1959, 864,147 lived in the rural districts; 1,457,520 in cities

and horoughs, The balance of 4,462 consisted of persons on board ships.
These figures are inclusive of Maoris.
Maori population of New Zealand: 1896, 42,113; 1901, 45,549; 1936.
82.326; 1945. 98,744; 1951, 115,676; 1956. 137,151; 1959 (estimate).
152,643.
Estimated population of the main urban areas at 1 April 1959: Auck·
land. 413.100; Hamilton, 45,200; Gisborne. 24,100; Napier. 29.600;
Hastings. 30.100; New Plymouth, 30.400; Wanganui.33,600; Palmerston
North. 40.800; Hutt. 93.000; Wellington (excluding Hutt). 143,200;
Nelson, 23,800; Christchurch, 210,000; Timaru, 25,800; Duncdin, 102,500;
InvercargiIl,37,800,
VITAL STATISTICS (excluding Maoris) for calendar years:

Divorces
Total live Ex·nuptial Maniages (decrees
births blrtbs Deatbs (Incl. Maoris) absolute)
1956 49,869 2,264 17,953 17,795 1,472
1956 60,430 2,310 18,403 17,531 1,449
1957 51,852 2,549 19,411 17,614 1,400
1958 53,774 2,689 10,014 18,305 1,751
Birth rate, 1958, 25·16 per 1,000; death rate, 8·9 per 1,000; marriage
rate (including Maoris), 8·01 per 1,000; infant mortality, 19·4 per 1,000
live births (exclusive of Maoris), Maori live births in 1958 numhered 6,861
(birth rate, 46·24 per 1,000); deaths, 1,287 (death rate, 8·67 per 1,000).
EXTERNAL MIGRATION (exclusive of crews and through passengers) for
years ended 31 March:
Arrivals Departures Arrivals Departures
1954 61,845 46,404 1957 76,055 64,563
19G.5 61,610 54,580 1958 79,666 64,2~S
1956 66,472 58,380 1959 83,648 73,656
RELIGION
No direct state aid is given to any form of religion. For the Church of
England the country is divided into 7 dioceses, with a separate bishoprio
(Aotearoa) for the Mo.oris. The Bishop of Wellington is Primate and
Archbishop of New Zealand; he has an assistant bishop for Wellington
diocese. The Roman Catholic Church is under an Archbishop residing at

Wellington, and 3 bishop$.
Number of
eiergy Num ber 0 f adherents
Religious denomJnat.ion (Jan. 1956) 1931 (mill' 1956 censlIs
Oburcb (·f England . 614 72~,626 780,999
Preibyterian. . . . . . 460 4-16,333 483,884
Homan Ontuolic (Including 'Catbolic' undefined) 622 264,565 310,723
Metbodif,t 338 156,077 161,823
Rhptipt . 122 31,518 33,910
Br.turee .7 21,398 22,444
Ratena. . . 166 17,414 19,570
Protesta It (undefined) 14,432 47,999
Ralvatioll Anny 161 13,607 14,122
Church (·f Obrist . . 42 11,937 10,852
J.atter Day Sainte (Mormon) 34 10,008 13,133
Oongreg" tionali.t . 30 (;,824 7,448
Seventh Day Ad ventist 39 6,169 7,219
Ringato . . . 46 ',970 5,0~2
Ohrlstiat (undefined) 4,853 7,662
Ohristian Scientist . 4,~86 3,99~
Jehovah"s \Vitnes~es 1,756 3,844
Freethiul<er 3,774 1,661
IIebrew . 4 3,661 3,823
Lutheran 8 3,309 4,012
Other bodie.· 210 26,162 27,378
Unspeclf od 10,451 16,252
Object to state . 1037,697 173,569
No religl,n (80 returned) 11,475 12,651
Tntn,l 2,832 1,939,472 2,174,062
1 Inclw1ing thp, Society or Friends \vith 593 members in 1951 and 721 in 1956.
EDUCATION
The University of New Zealand consists of 4 constituent institutions,
namely, the University of Otago (at Dunedin); the University of Canter-
bury (at Christchurch); the University of Auckland, and the Victoria Uni-
versity of Wellington; number of students (1958), 12,085. There are 2
agricultural colleges established in connexion with the University, namely,
the C9-nterbury Agricultural College (at Lincoln) and the Massey Agricul.
tural College (at Palmerston North), which had, in 1958, a total of 1,510
students (including those on short courses). There were 6 teachers' training
college, with 4,162 students in Dec, 1958.
At the end of 1958 there were 96 secondary or combined schools, with
2,420 (€,xcluding part-time) teachers and 54,154 pupils. There were also III
district high schools with 468 teachers and 8,720 scholars in the secondary
divisior,. Technical schools numbered 34, with 968 teachers and 18,984
pupils. In addition, there were 41,348 part-time pupils attending technical
classes, 469 full-time and 1,503 part-time pupils receiving tuition from the
correspJndence school, and 3,580 receiving part-time instruction from the
technic,tl correspondence school. There were 104 registered private
seconda,ry schools with 783 teachers and 16,984 pupils.
At the end of 1958 there were 1,998 public primary schools (including
intermEdiate schools and departments), with 364,181 pupils; average
attendance, 323,648; the number of teachers was 11,301. Education is
compullory between the ages of 7 and 15. There is a correspondence
school ;'or children in remote areas and those otherwise unable to attend
school, with 1,135 primary pupils. There were also, at the end of 1958,
328 re€istered primary private schools, with 1,316 teachers and 51,063
pupils.
ChiHren aged 3 and 4 years may enrol at free kindergartens maint.ained
NEW ZEALAND 539
by Free Kindergarten Associations, which are in part subsidized by the
Government. At the end of Hl58 there were 13,928 children on the rolls
of 192 free kindergartens.
There are 9 occupation centres for intellectually handicapped children;
(j cerebral palsy schools; 41 hospital classes, 2 special schools and (j4 special
classes for backward children, 53 speech clinics, 7 health camp schools, (j
classes fur partially sighted, 7 remedial clinics, 4 convalescent school~; 2
schools for the deaf (at Christchurch and Auckland) and 1 private school for
deaf childrcn (at Feildi.ng); a school fur the blind (at Auckland); a special
Bchof)1 for mentally backward boys (at Otekaike, Otago) and a similar
school for girls (at Richmond, Nelson) and (j psychological clinic~ .
Total expenditt:re out ef govel'llment funds ill 1958- 5ll upon education
was £35,928,(;313.
Organizational Control . The universities and agricultural colleges arc
autonomous bodies each conducting its own affairs, subject to a certain
co·ordinating jurisdiction of the University of New Zealand which is the
degree.granting authority. Each secondary or combined school is con·
trolled by its own board of governors and each technical school by its own
board of llHUlagers. Each public primary school is under the control of the
education board for its district: there are 10 education districts. The
Department of Education exercises certain defined functions in connexion
with the general supervision of the education provided in public primary
and post. primary schools and, in particular, disburses the government grants
payable to controlling authorities for the running of those schools. Educa·
tion in state schools is free for children under 19 years of age. Private
schools are under the control of the bodies which conduct them.
111aori Education. Maori children lllay attend the public schools find the
majority of them do so, but there arc also public Maori schools provided for
their education under the direct control of the Department of Education.
At the end of 1958 there were 1(;7 Maori schools with 13,135 pupils including
I,Oll2 European children . The language of instruction in the Maori schools
is English, but Maori arts and crafts, song legend and history are taught.
These schools arc to be gradually replaced by public primary schools under
Education Board control, as the local demand for the special facilities
provided by Maori schools lessens.
Cinemas. There were in 195f" 578 cinemas with a seating capacity of
204,425.
New8pape.,.". There were in 1958, 42 daily ne\vspapcrs (10 morning
aIllI 32 evening) with acorn bined circulation of 859,000. Eight of these
newspapers (2 each in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and ])unedin)
hac! a circulation of 650,000.
nt'eby, C. E., Intermediate Schoo[$ in Nelc ?r.aland. Wellington, 1938
Cam~bcll, A. E., Higher Educatiun and its Future. Wellinl(toD,1943
M("Qu~e.n, H. C., VlIClJtiona l Ouidana in Ne1C ZeaJand. \V eIHngton, ]{).1O
:.lurdoch, J. n., The /figl. S,IIo01, of N~IJ! Zeala"d. WelllngtoD,1943
Par1.-yn, G. \V. (ed .), The Administration o[ Education in New Zeaiarnl. \VelUngt.on, 19;)4
Wild, L. J., The Develop/MILt Of .dgricuUural Educatiun in New Zealan.d. Welliogton, 1~"S
JUSTICE
The judiciary consists of the Chief Justice, 3 judges of the Court of
A ppeal and 11 Supreme Court judges.
A Maori may give evidence in any court in the Maori language and
requcst the services of a licensed interpreter.
540 THE BHITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
At the end of 1958 the gaols and Borstal institutions contained 1,695
prisoners, 1,636 undergoing sentence and 53 on remand and awaiting trial.
The Crimes Amendment Act, 1941, abolished the death penalty (except
for tref,son) and flogging, but capital punishment was restored in 1950.
Police. The police in New Zealand are a national body maintained
wholly by the general government. The total strength at 31 March 1959
was 2,437 (including 48 women), the proportion of police to population
being I to 1,048. The total cost of police services for the year 1958-59
was £3,030,997, equivalent to £1 6s. Id. per head of popUlation.
SOCIAL SERVICES
Ne~~ Zealand is dinded into hospital districts, with elective boards
for the administration of the public hospitals and charitable relief. From
1957-5.3 government has become responsible for 0.11 public hospital finance.
Expenditure by hospital boards on public hospitals and kindred institutions
during the year ended 31 March 1958 wa.s £18,810,000 for maintenance and
£5,445,')00 for capital expenditure, excluding loan works. Payments of
medical, maternity, hospital, etc., benefits from the Social Security Fund
for 1953-59 were £18,655,375.
A Social Security Act was passed in 1938 and became operative as from
1 April 1939. The principal objects were: (1) to substitute for the system
ofnon.·~ontributory civil pension~.g., old·age, widows', and other pensions
- & system of monetary benefits, on a contributory basis; (2) the inaugura.
tion of,~ system of medical and hospital benefits, and of other related benefits.
MONETARY BENEFITS available and the rates as at 1 Oct. 1958 are as
follows: In most caoos the rates of benefit quoted are subject to certain de-
ductioDS on account of income or accumulated property (in excess of certain
limits).
Superannuation Benefil$. Available as from 1 April 1940 at the rate of
£10 per annum during 1940-41, and increased by £2 10s. per annum until
1 Oct. 1951, when it had reached £3'7 10s. per annUID. From that date it
was raired to £75, increasing by £5 per annum as from 1 April of each suc-
ceeding year until it reached £1l0 in 1958. The rate was increased to £156
in 1959 and to £208 in 1960. Subject to certain residential qualifications,
every I,erson over the age of 65 is eligible for superannuation irrespective
of income or property.
Age Benefil$. The qualifying age is 60 years, and the basic rate is
£208 p'Jr annum. If the applicant's wife is under 60 years of age, and
thus ca~not qualify for a benefit, the husband's benefit may be increased by
an amount not exceeding £208 per annum. The rate for an unmarried
person is £234 a year. From 1 Aug. 1955 a.n age benefit may be granted
to unmarried women between 55 and 60 years of age who are unable to
engage in regular employment.
Widows' Benefits. A widow may receive a benefit of up to £234 a year,
but onn who has never had a child cannot qualify unless she is at least
50 years of ago. There is no age restriction for a widow with a dependent
child or children. A beneficiary with one dependent child may receive, in
addition to the basic bcnefit, a mother's allowance of up to £143 a year,
while 8. beneficiary with 2 dependent children may receive a mother's
allowance of up to £169 a year. For a widow with 3 dependent children the
rate of mothers' allowance is £195; with 4 children £221; with 5 children
£247; ;md with 6 or more children £273 a year. In addition, the family
NEW ZEALAND 541
benefit (referredto under a subsequent heading) is payable in rcspect of each
child under 16 years of age.
Orphans' Benefit8. Orphaned children under the age of 16 years, both
of wbose parents are dead, are each entitled to a benefit ranging up to a
maximum of £117 per annum.
Family Benefits. As from 1 Oct. 1958 a fa mily benefit of 158. per week
is payable in respect of each child under 16 years of age, irrespective of the
circumstances or income of the parents or children.
Invalid,,' Benejita. Subject to certain restrictions, persons over 16
years of age wbo are blind or permanently incapacitated for work are eligible
for invalids' benefits. For unmarried invalids ovcr 16 and under 20 years of
age the rate is £195 a year, for married men £208, increased by £208 a year
for a dependent wife, and for unmarried persons, 20 years or over, £234 a
year.
Miners' Benefits. The basic rate of miners' benefits, which are availa.ble
for miners suffering from occupational diseases, is £208 per annum, increased
by £208 per annum for a dependent wife. The maximum for an unmarried
person is £234 a year. There is also a provision for a benefit of £201 10s.
per annum for a widow whose busband died while in receipt of a miner's
benefit.
Sicknes8 Benefits. The rates are the same as for unemployment.
Unemployment Benefits. Every person except a seasonal worker, who
has been unemployed for a longer period than 7 days, and whose unem·
ployment is not of his or her own choosing, is eligible for an unemployment
benefit. For persons (without dependants) over 16 and under 20 years of
age the rate is£35s. per week, for unmarried persons 20 years and over, £4108.
per week and for all other persons £4 per week, with an addition of £4 per
week for a dependent wife.
Emergency Benefits. These are granted to persons who from age,
physical or mental disability, domestic circumstances, etc., are unable to
earn a livelihood and are ineligible for any other monetary benefit. The
rate is fixed as nearly as possible to that of the type of benefit for which the
applicant most closely qualifies.
Supplementary AS8istance. Special financial assistance is grunted when
applicants have special commitments which cannot be DIet out of current
income, have insufficient othcr means and have no possibility to help them·
selves.
Domestic Concession. Female beneficiaries are allowed to earn an extra
£78 per year, without affecting their benefits, from domestic employment in
a private home.
Reciprocity with Other Countries. There are reciprocal arrangements be·
tween New Zealand and Australia in respect of age, invalids', widows',
family, unemployment and sickness benefits, and between New Zealand
and Great Britain and between New Zealand and Northern Ircland in respect
of family, age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and
unemployment benefits.
Medical, Hospital and other Related Benefits are also provided from the
Social Security Fund. These consist mainly of the payment of certain
prescribed fees for medical attention by private practitioners, free treatment
in public hospitals and in mental hospitals, certain prescribed fees for
542 THE BRITISH COMMO:t-'WEALTH AND EMPIRE
treatm.,nt in private hospitals. maternity benefits (including ante·natal and

post.nf.tal treatment and services of doctors and nurses at confinementa).
pharmaceutical benefits (medicines. drugs. etc.. prescribed by medical
practitioners). etc. There are also benefits in connexion with dental services.
X·ray :iiagnosis, massage, home·nursing, artificial aids, etc.
Fiuzncial Contributi01l8. The principal revenue of the Social Security
Fund c.erives from a charge on virtually all salaries, wages and other income
(including the income of companies), the rate being Is. 6d. in the pound.
Total receipts of the Social Security Fund for the year endod 31
lI1arch 1959 amounted to £105,400,056, made up as follows: Charge on
salarie1: and wages and other income, £80.614,665; receipts from the Con·
solidat,)d Fund, £24·6m.; other receipts, £185,391.
War Pe1I8ion8 (including economic pensions). Provision is made for the
payme;lt of pensions and allowances, on certain conditions, to members, or
dependants of disabled, deceased or missing members, of the New Zealand
Forces who served in the South African War, the two World Wars, the
Korearc War, to members of the New Zealand Mercantile Marine during
the Se~ond World War, or in connexion with any emergency whether
nrising out of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand in the Charter
of the United Nations or otherwise. Members of the Emergency Reserve
Corps lIre A.Jso provided for. Such pensions are not a charge on the Social
Security Fund. but are paid from the Consolidated Fund. Principal rates
are: " .ar pensions (mercantile marine and emergency reserve corps pension8
on sim:lar lines) are payable to widows at a rate of from £3 7s. 6d. to £4 a
week according to deceased members' rank, together wit.h a mother's
allowance of £2 15s. a week, increased by 1Os. a week for the second ann
each additional child up to the sixth. The rate for total disablement i~
£4 lOs. plus up to £4 a week for a dependent wife if the husband is unable
to maintain her. These rates may be increased by an amount not exceeding
£2 lOs. per week if the pensioner is suffering from total blindness, two or
more 1:erious disabilities or one extremely severe disability. Economic
pensions in addition may be paid, the maximum rates being £4 to a member
(if unmarried, £4 10s.) and £4 10s. to a widow. War veterans' allowances
are £2C.8 a year plus an equal amount to a wife, subject to income qualifica.
tions (£234 if unmarried).
In 'Jertain cases. when there is a· dependent child, a child's allowance of
l5s. for each child is payable in addition as an alternative to the family
benefit.
Soc;:a1 Secu.rity Benefits and War Pensions (as at 31 March 1959):
Number in Annual Total payments
Benefits lorce value 19 ~8 -~9
SOCIAL !;~CURITY:
.1J<mcl1ry- £NZ £NZ
SupenLlllluntlon 84.383 9.282.130 8,940,702
Age 118.502 26,321,664 26,104.992
Wido\\'s . 12.833 3.735,943 3.642,351
Orpbnns . 264 39,283 38.195
FDJllily 333,413 31,077,425 25.995.315
Invalids. 8,032 2.041 .413 1,942.490
Miners 386 117.977 119.205
Unemployment 341 111.723
Sickness. 4,190 1.436.913
Em'~~ncy . . 3.039 849,461
Supplementary Assistance 5.117 256.812
Total 570.:;00
- --- 69,438,209
NEW ZEALAND 543
Number in Annual Total payments
Benefit<; force value 1958-59
EOClAL SECURITY (contd.):
Medical--
Medical 3,969,646
Hospital. 5,774,519
M ,lterni t v . 1,542,493
Pbarmact-mtical 5,112,343
Supplemeutnry 2,256,374
Total ]8,655,37G
----
WAR PENSIONS, ETC . : £NZ £NZ
[i'i~t World War 15,383 3,352,263 3,332,239
Second World Wnr 24,423 2,752,277 2,721,444
South African \Var . 21 5,568 5,40"
'Var veteraml' a.llowance:; . 12,157 4,706,424 4,508,772
Mercantile Marine 28 4,064 4,006
Emergency nescrve Oorps . 9 2,2.')4 2,267
K Force . 199 16,622 17,519
----- ------
Total 52,220 10,839,472 10,591,652
Sundry Pensions and Annuities 5U8 82,13ii 83,694
Grand total 623,318 98,768,930
NATIONAL INCOME
Some of the more important national income aggregates for the Inst. 5
years are given in the following tables (in £NZlm .) :
Government Net Net
and local national national
authority income at income at Gros!I!
March Private trading factor market nR.tional
year income income cost prices product
1954-55 854 30 802 870 933
1955-56 897 32 844 917 986
1956-57 945 31 886 957 1,029
1957-58 993 34 930 1,008 1,084
1958-59 1 1,035 3G 962 1,053 1,137
1 Pt'ovl~ional.
The source of private income for the last 4 years endcd 31 March was
as follows (in £NZlm.) :
1955-56 1 %6-57 1957-58 1958-59 1
Salnry and wages payments . 468 495 534 562

Pay nod allowances, Armed Forces 12 1:! 13 12
Social security benefits nnd pensions 6,1 66 70 80
.Rental value, owner-occupied. houses 22 21 25 27
Other persollal income:
Professional . . . 23 2·1 25 25
Commerce, trade, or blt"incss 53 58 62 62
Farming . . 128 144 142 123
Interest, rent, etc. 20 21 21 22
Other (net) . . . . 13 14 15 15
Company income before distributioll 9·1 98 103 112
1 Provisional.
FINANCE
The following tables of revenue and expenditure relate to the Consoli-
dated Fund, which covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the
general government--i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special
undert;~kings, advances, etc. Taxation revenue excludes social security

taxes. All figures in £NZ.
Yea.r Total
ended Customs Income Otber (inolud.iDi
31 Mar>b and ezcise Sales· tax tax taxes Interest' otbers)
1966 36,632.873 23,443,498 90,697,965 16,539,718 9,146,603 191,433,300
1961 30,691.212 22,280.915 98,111,734 16,104,809 11,604.044 206,216,330
1958 39,002,111 24,221,810 77,787,105 17,913,418 12.392,094 193,680,423
1909 60,356,403 25,700,149 10n,400,880 19,317,212 13,185,010 240,376,950
1960 • 55,000,000 26,000,000 179,000,000' 19,900,000 14,970,000 317,370,000'
, Tb" totals shown lor Interest cover interest on tbe Loans Redemption Aocount and on
other pablic moneys, together witb interest on railway capital liability, post and telegraph
oapitalliablllty and on the capital liability ot certain other mnds and accoant.&.
tEat imatea.
, Social security charges and ordinary income tax combined. In earlier years the social
security charge did not form part of tbe Consolidated Fund receipts.
COLsolidated Fund expenditure was as follows (in £NZ):

Ye.r Totlll
eodec Debt (includi~
31 Mar,b services Pensions l Education Healtb' PoUce others)
1956 34,033.146 8.444,521 21,456,108 16,501,629 2,032,584 193.282,129
1951 35,408,609 8,927,609 31,826,068 19,242.232 2,630,089 202,900,630
1908 34,070,219 9,805,065 34,257,051 22.499,072 2,885,153 193,735,560
1959 37,421,002 10,9A2,093 36,145,183 23,359,8·17 3,030,997 239,900,017
1960 • 39,763,000 11,800,000 38,630,000 26,500,000 3,360,000 316,330,000
, Exclusive ot Socilll Security benellts,
• Estimates.
Total expenditure includes amounts transferred to the Social Security

Fund.
Tayation receipts in 1958-59 for all purposes (i.e., including Social
Security taxation, £80,614,665, and National Roads Fund taxation,
£19,79H,322) amounted to £305,243,131, giving an average of £132 158. 8d.
per head of mean population. The estimate for 1959-60 is £280·4m.
(including Social Security charge), the total being exclusive of taxation
receipt! of the National Roads Fund (£14,896,000 in 1958-59).
Th" gross public debt at 31 March 1959 was £816,552,000, exclusive of
£26,191,000 in respect of which interest has been suspended by agreement
with the U.K, Government from 1931. Of the total debt, £152,592,000
represents the amount outstanding on account of war and defence expendi.
ture. The majority of the remainder of the debt represents reproductive
expenditure or investments. The gross annual interest charge on the public
debt at, 31 March 1959 was £27,277,000.
DEFENCE
Th(, control and co· ordination of defence activities is obtained through
the Defence Council, the appointment of a Minister of Defence in charge of
the thIee Services, and through a series of inter· Service Committees. The
Defence Council consists of the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defence and
other Hinisters concerned with national security. The chiefs of the Naval,
General and Air Staffs, and the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary
for Elternal Affairs attend meetings of the Council in a consultative
capacity. The Council keeps defence policy and organization constantly
under review, including questions of co·operation on defence with other
countr!.es of the British Commonwealth and military questions arising as
a result of New Zealand membership of the United Nations. The Chiefs
NEW ZEALAND 545
of Staff Committee, comprising the Chiefs of the Naval, General and Air
Staffs, is responsible for advising the Government on defence policy and
strategic questions.
Under the Minister of Defence, control and administration is effected
by: (a) the Navy Department; (b) the Army Department; (c) the Air
Department. Command, training and administration of each service is
exercised through a service board, the chairman of which in each case is
the Minister of Defence.
Navy. The Royal New Zealand Navy is administered by the New Zea·
land Naval Board. This board consists of: (a) The Miuister of Defence
(as Chairman of the Board); (b) First Naval Member (the Chief of Naval
Staff); (c) Second Naval Member (for Personnel and Material); (d) Third
Naval Member (for Supply, Transport and Works); (e) The Navy Secretary.
The R.N.Z.N. ships iu commission consist of Royalist (an extensively
modernized improved' Dido' class cruiser), 3 'Loch' class frigates, 1 survey.
ing vessel with 2 surveying motor launches, 1 Antarctic support vessel, 1
research ship, 2 fishery protection motor launches and 9 other seaward
defence motor launches. In reserve the R.N.Z.N. has 1 cruiser, 3 'Loch'
class frigates, 4 ocean minesweepers and 1 minesweeping trawler. In addi.
tion there are numerous miscellaneous yard craft to support the Beet. Two
'Whitby' class anti·submarine frigates, Otago and Taranaki, have been
launched in the U.K. and are expected to join the Beet in 1960 and 1961
respectively.
Personnel, on 31 March 1959, totalled 3.007 officers and ratings.
Army. The Army Board consists of the Minister of Defence as chair.
man, 4 Military
: Members (Chief and Vice·Chief of the General Staff, Adju.
tant·General, Quartermaster.General), the Army Secretary and a Terri·
torial Officer (associate member).
The New Zealand Army consists of the Regular Force, the Territorial
Force, the Army Reserve and the Cadet Corps. The Regular Force corn·
prises a small static component and an operational formation organized as
a Brigade Group. The Brigade Group has one battalion stat,ioned in
Malaya as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve. The Territorial
Force which is manned by volunteers is organized on a Divisional basis.
Militarily, the country is divided into 3 districts-Northern, Central and
Southern-each under the command of a senior officer of the regular force.
The higher grouping within the Army is Army Troops, District Troops and
the New Zealand Division.
Regular personnel, on 31 March 1959, totalled 4,230 all ranks; territorial
personnel totalled 2,663 volunteers and 43,550 reservists.
Air Force. The Royal New Zealand Air Force is controlled by an Air
Board under the chairmanship of the Minister of Defence and administered
by the Air Department. The Chief of the Air Staff is an Air Vice·Marshal
and the Force consists of the Regular Air Force, the Air Force Reserve, the
Air Training Corps and the Women's Royal New Zealand Air Force. Organi.
zation, administration and equipment are similar to that of the Royal Air
Force.
Types in service include Canberra bombers, Vampire fighters, Dakota,
Devon, Hastings and Bristol Freighter transports, Harvard trainers and
Sunderland flying boats.
The effective strength on 31 March 1959 was 4,565 all ranks.
T
PRODUCTION
Ag'icu/ture. Two·thirds of the surface of New Zealand is suitable for
agriculture and grazing. The total area under cultivation in 1958 was
20,058,318 acres (including 17,782,171 acres in sown grasses and 173,378 in
fallowl. The area of Crown lands (other than reserves) leased under
various tenures at 31 Jan. 1958 was 18,344,593 acres.
Thalargest freehold estates are held in the South Island. The extent of
occupied holdings of or over 1 acre as at 31 Jan. 1957 (exclusive of holdings
wi thin borough boundaries) was as follows:
Si... of boldings Number Acres Sizes of boldings Number Acres
1 d , under 10 11,765 60,871 1,000 & under 6,000 6,745 11,125,3,5
10 60 10,306 265,188 5,000 " n 10,000 631 3,592,587
60 100 11,932 882,805 10,000 " " 20,000 261 3,704,44 3
100 200 17,949 2,521,234 20,000 " " bO,OOO 141 4,326,151
200 320 10,289 2,579,161 50,000 acres and over 64 4,989,284
320 640 11,184 6,061,457
640 " " 1,000 4,357 3,452,809 Total 84,604 42,551,36(;
Tha acreage and produce for each of the principal crops are given as
folloWII (area and yield for threshing only, not including that grown for chaff,
hay, siJage, etc.):
Wheat Oats Barley
.&verage .d.verage 4verag,
Crop 1,000 per 1,000 per 1,000 peT
ye"" .Acrt! bu,h<l, acre Acrt3 bushel, acrt Acrt' bu,h<1I acre
1964 113,813 4,783 42·03 20,529 945 46·05 68,479 3,336 48 ·71
1955 103,989 4,113 39·56 31,164 1,602 61·41 41,674 1,99~ 47·80
195G 68,479 2,658 38·82 42,168 1,947 46·18 49,195 2,032 (l·30
1957 65,743 2,950 44·88 66,496 2,R88 51·12 59,776 2,855 47·7"
1958 83,936 3,727 44'40 29,981 1,460 48 ·70 65,881 3,5G2 53'~2
Private air companies are carrying out such aerial work as top-dressing,
spraying and crop.dusting, seed.sowing, rabbit poisoning, aerial photo-
graph:' and surveying, and dropping supplies to deer cullers and dropping
fencin, ~ materials in remote areas. The main aerial activity was top.
dressing, statistics for tbe 12 months ended March 1959 being: Hours
flown, 55,142; fertilizer dist,ributed, 403,206 tons; area treated, 3,515,128
acres.
Li'restock in 1958: 123,261 horses, 5,885,584 cattle, 46,025,930 sheep
and 6:n,812 pigs. Tbe total number of dairy cows in milk as at 31 Jan.
1958 was 1,966,547, and the total butter·fat production in 1958-59 was
554m. lb. (1957-58, 556m. lb.). Butter exported, 12 montbs ended June
1959, was 3,455,768 cwt; cheese exported, 1,635,674 cwt.
Production of wool for the 12 months ended 30 June 1959,
MOm. lb. (greasy basis). Exports of all wool, 1958-59 (June year), was
515,5E2,OOO lb.
Beloh"." H. and others, .J.'lricultural Organieation in N"", ZM/and. Melbourne, 1938
Buchauan, R. 0., The Pa..tOTal Indu,tTie, of NCUJ Zealantkr,. London, 193,
Hamilton, W. M., The Dairy Industry in New Zealand. Wellington, 1944
Holmes, J. M., 80il Ero.ion in .J.ustralia alld Nt1II Zealand. Sydney and London,
1946
Manu!ac!uTe8. Statistics of the principal manufactories (excluding
mines and quarries):
Salaries and Cost of Value of Added
Y"ar ended Persons wages paid materials outpuo Tslue
3l Marcb engaged £~Z £NZ £NZ £NZ
1956 158,148 107,870,738 384,878,179 686,04 i ,289 201,169,110
1957 156.651 110,868,088 394,894,095 601.900,034 207,005,939
1958 162,985 119,989,253 417,718,274 645,108,872 227,190,5~~
NEW ZEALAND 54i
The following is n statement of the value of the products (including
repairs) of the principal industries for the year 1957-58 (in £NZI,OOO):
Value 01 Value of
Manufactorie~.workd. et.c. products Maollfo.ctorioo, works, etc. products
Meat freezing and preserving 108,188 Ba..ie metal industric. 3.299
Ho.m o,od bacon curing 6,907 Machinery. 22,4.10
Butter and cbeese . 83,374 Metal products . 9,878
Otber milk products. 10,128 Elec!rical machinery . .
\I' ool·scourlng . . . . 11,093 Printing aud publishing (new&· 7,403
Saw-milling (excl. logging) plan- papers). . 13,ln9
ing, etc. . . 25,841 Job ..nd geneml printing .
Llme-crusblng and cement 6,446 Agricultural and dairy mnchin· 9,027
Oroln-milIing . 4,681 ery . . . 5,739
Biscuit . . 3.463 Motor·body building . 2,205
Confectionery. . '. 5,265 M<)tor and cycle repairs. 2g,252
Fruit and vegetable preservong 7,4 17 Mot.or vebicle assembly . 2~,97;;
Brewing and m..It\ng 8,830 RI! bher ware . . . 8,874
Tobacco aod cigarettes 6,730 Fnrnit.l1re and cahinet·mukiug 8,763
Paint and varnisb . 5,398 li'ootwenr mnuufacture . 8,047
Chemical fertilizers . 10,108 Woollen·mills . :;,366
Joinery and wood products 8, ~ 8 2 Hosiery and knitted goods 8,1;13
Paper bags and cartons 6,S13 Clothing manufacture :n,454
Sbeet·metal working. 1 0 ,276
Mining. New Zealand's production of minerals in 1958 included 24,981
fine oz. of gold, 2,339 fine oz. of silver, 3 tons of tllDgsten ore, 5,657 tons of
diatomite earth, 1,:WO tons of magnesite, 1,801 tons of bentonite. Among the
larger tonnages were 7,790 tons of valuahle non-hrickmaking clays, 1,801
tons of iron ore, 25,053 tons of silicn sand , 3,052 tons of dolomite, 23,082 tons
of pumice, 98, 121 tons of serpentine, 1,046,837 tons of limestone for agri-
culture, 1,083,373 tons of limestone, mnrl, etc. for cement, nnd 2,720,034 tons
of coal. Evaporated Rnlt produ ction was 20,300 tons. Crude petroleum
production was 192,000 gallons. Mineral production for the year was
valued at £NZI8,367,649.
Bkctricity . The general policy of the Government in regard to electric
power is to supply power in bulk, lea,-i ng the reticulation and retail supply
in the hnnds of loca l authorities. Originally these consisted of cities,
boroughs, etc., hut, to facilitate the extension of electric supply into country
arcas, Electric Power Boards were created, and these now embrace many
urhan arcas. Some Power Boards operate small generating stations.
Practically all stations rely on water-power, but there are 2 important
steam-powered smtions, one coal-fired with a enpacity of 180,000 kw. and
the other geothermal-operated with a present co.paeity of 69,000 kw. which
is ultimately to be raised to 250,000-280,000 kw.
Principal statistics for 3 years ended 31ll-larch are:
19~6 19;;7 1958
Number of .. tahli.,hments ~9 101 101
Total motive power (b.h.p.) 1,339,398 1,712,9·17 1,706,698
Generators (capacity) :
D.C. (kw.) 150
A.C. (kw.) 9~0,OIl 1,205, 190 1,201,03:;
(k.va.) l ,(lRI,~9i 1,375.111 1,369,902
Total. (kw.) ~40, 161 1,205,190 1,201,035
Totals (kva.) . . 1,081,097 1,375.111 1,369,902
GDits geDerated (1,000 kwh .) . 4,734,169 4,95],602 5,613,252
Revenue (£NZ) 27,788,797 29,006,736 32,645,351
Expenditllre:
OpemtiDjl (£NZ) . 14 ,;77,142 15,293.8;;1 17,2.3,b59
llanagemcnt, etc. (£ !'Z) 2,3.>0.950 2,[,23.346 2,7S7 , ~22
Capital cbarges (£NZ) 8,339,643 9,286,677 10,170,617
Capital outlay:
Daring yen r (CNZ) 1 ~,976.Rll 22,137,420 26.279,842
To date (£NZ) . 180,9:'0.392 ~03.087. 8 12 229,S67,654
548 THE BltITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
Tratle Unions. In 1958 there were 405 industrial unions of workers

with a l otal
. of 324.406 members.
The primary object of an industrial union is to protect or promote the
related interests (wages, hours and conditions of employment) of either
employers or workers in a specified industry or related industries in New
Zealand or in a specified locality. Other powers are: (a) To enter into
industrial agreements relating to conditions of employment and where
necessa)'y to refer industrial disputes to councils of conciliation. Where
conciliation fails the dispute may be referred to the Court of Arbitration.
(b) To a.ffiliate with or be a member of any industrial association in
the industry. (c) To take or empower legal and other lawful proceedings.
(d) To invest union funds.
The method of government, and the objects of a union, are provided
for in tile rules which are recorded by the Registrar of Industrial Unions
when the union is registered. Such rules may be amended by the union
from time to time but no amendment is effective until it is recorded by the
Registmr.
Hare, A. E. 0 ., Work" Councils in New Zealand. Wellington, 1943.-RepoTt on Indu$trial
Relatitr.l$ in New Zealand. Wellington, 1947
COMMERCE
Totlcl trade (in £NZ) for calendar years:
Total imports 1 Exports of domestic Export of other
(O.D.V.)' produce produce 1 Total exports
1954 213,155,037 242,372,878 2,093, 328 244,466,206
1955 250,660,996 257,149,855 2,138,869 259,288.724
1956 234,778.732 275,099,210 2.383,620 277.482.830
1957 261,738,147 274,305,187 2.263,821 276,569,008
19G8 3 252,070,641 247,984,217 2,188,588 250,172,805
Excluding specie. , Current domestic value in country of export.
• Provisional figures.
The principal imports in the calendar year 1958 were as follows:

Value (£NZ)
Articles ol import Quantity (O.D.V.)
Fruit.. (canned, fresh, dried) 134,679,000 lb. 3,278,000
Wheat . 9,990,000 bushels 5,847,000
Sugar (raw) 2,193,000 cwt 3,284,000
Tea . . . . . 16,425,000 lb. 2,405,000
Alcoholic beverages (including wines) 1,?46,OOO gallon.. 1,880,000
Tobacco. . 7,480,000 lb. 2,128,000
Appa.rel and footwear 3,274,000
Floor COl erings . . . 4,757,000 sq. yd 4,656,000
Cotton and linen piece-goods . . 10,419,000
Silk, artilicial and synthetic fibre piece-goods 5,019,000
Waollen J ieee-goods . 6,354.000 sq. yd 3,004,000
Bogs, sac ks and wool packs l,v39,OOO do •• 1,335,000
Yarns 7,580,000 lb. 3,895,000
Motor-sp :rits . 241.594,000 gallons ll,5~8,OOO
Mineral llbricating 011 . 8,510.000 .. 1,530,000
Orode pe,roleum, tuel oil, etc. 165,787,000 .. 5,549,000
I ron and steel : Bar, bolt and rod 1,813,000 cwt 3,731,000
Plate and sheet. . 2,:115.000 " 8,906,000
Tubes, pipes and fittings 688,000 .. 2,424,000
Wire. 1,234.000 .. 3,284,000
Aluminium, including aUoys 104,000 .. 1,790,000
Oopper, ,Jj k inds . 167,000 .. 2,596,000
Electrical machinery . 17.364,000
Tractors: Agricultural 6,000 no. 2,449,000
Industrial 924,000
Engines ltnd parts 3,335,000
Other m,.ehinery 28,933,000
NEW ZEALAND 549
Value (£NZ)
Articles 01 import Quantity (O.D.V.)
Railway and tramway plant 2,892,000
Arti1lcers' tools • . . • . . 1,207,000
Other metal maDulactures (excluding machinery) 9,4~Z,000
Raw rubber and rubber goods (Including tyres) 3,595,000
Pnper (printing and other) . 6,G65,000
Manures. . . . . 2.255.000
Obemical elements and compound. . 5,Z73,000
Motor veWcl.. : Trucks, lorries, buses, etc. 8,000 llO. 4,029,000
Motor cars. . . 3U,000 " 10,453,000
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products 3,776,000
Timber sawn and poles :1,;,057,000 sup. It I,GI6,000
The principal exports of New Zealand produce in the calendar year 1958
were a8 follows (in £NZ):
Butter (3,508,000 cwt) 38,850,000 Milk (dried and conden.sed)
Oheese (1,788,000 cwt) 12,402,000 (l,OGO,OOO ewt) . 3,806,000
Edible tallow (226,000 cwt) 785,000 Apples (68,993,000 lb.) . . 2,159,000
Fish . 1,257,000 Peas, unprepared (320,000 cen·
Meats, froren: tal.). . 828,000
Beef (2,108,000 cwt) 23,741,000 n ides and skins 8,294,000
Veal (202,000 cwt) • 2,3"6,000 Wool (456m. lb.) . 80,037,000
Mutton (1,038,000 cwt) 3,659,000 Seeds (grass and clover) (148,000
Lamb (4,3(;5,000 cwt) 38,670,000 cwt). . • . . 1,518,000
Pork (83,000 cwt) • 853,000 Canoed vegetables (6,620,000
Other (319,000 cwt) 4,241,000 lb.). . . • 315,000
Meats (canned (68,000 cwt) 1,258,000 Tallow, Inedible (39,000 tons) 2,629,000
Sausage casings (7,359,000 lb.) 4,4S~,000 Casein (401,000 clllt) 3,110,000
Exports of certain trade products :
Frozen meat
Wool (lb.) (cwt) Butter( cwt) Cheese (cwt)
19~~ 417,303,000 7,(,64,000 3,019,000 1,701,000
19~6 427.882,000 8.283,000 3,349,000 1,778,000
1957 431,529,000 7,769,000 2,901,000 l,nO,OOo
1958 406,928,000 8,IU8,000 3,508,000 1,789,000
The following table shows the trade with different countries (in £NZ) :
Imports 1 !rom Exports to
Countries 1956 1957 1958 1956 1957 1958
Australia 33,305,458 44,420,973 43,641,233 8,430,717 10,109,959 10,266,097
Bahrain Island 3,19] ,431 1,452, 333 940,291 2,546 6,734 10,340
Belgium. 2,109,445 2,011,656 1,927,552 5,726,016 6,257,250 4,501,704
Briti,h Borneo 35,389 51,629 75,666 3,974 3,0~5 2,693
Canada. 6,257,507 6,612,226 6,003,763 4,02[1,872 4,434,424 4,066,967
Ceylon 2,221,629 2,577,19·1 2,188,681 110,176 74,080 177,036
Czec.hoslovakia 345,965 435,512 445,9n2 1,775,771 972,666 987,774
Fiji 1,403,220 1,436,786 938,238 1,323,350 1,052,945 1,039,9]7
France 1,945,386 1,768,672 1,840,040 16,761,132 21,745,700 14,67 9,704
German Fed. Rep. 6,591,009 7.771,072 7,570,062 10,403,379 12,138,735 7,027,607
India 3,458,155 4,665,451 5,943,066 1,531 ,703 1,612,579 736,202
Pakistan 88,474 60.504 72,115 13,869 7U,317 55,977
Indonesia 6,311,456 5,711,365 3,041,534 16,464 1,183 50,940
Iran 1,583,;91 1,346,856 1,347,183 2
Italy 1,485,494 1,600,0.)6 1,1i00,680 6,657,812 6,211.i12 6,230,525
Japan 2,237,041 2,240,918 2,825,156 2,679,304 7, 801,975 5,513,926
Malay~ & Singapore 3,178,939 2,199,411 2,995,473 544,754 23&,395 676,095
Netherlands . 2,ORr:,!~66 2,469,838 3,(170,720 4,617,445 4,076,903 2,982,440
Poland 39,669 6,528 14,943 2,209,695 2,988,984 2,527,526
Sweden. 1,8~4,951 2,616,230 1,948,881 708,206 520,229 700,996
Union of S. Ai~ica 1,010,545 1,206,~68 1,175,698 372,039 283,117 676,743
U.K. · 126,144,053135,061,787 132,964,404178,755,997161,727,770139,105,325
U.S.S.R. · 32,652 44,25 7 61,945 2,0·18,688 2,680,69·1 687,816
U.S.A. · 17,803,575 20,4-15,173 ]7,200,312 19,507,995 21,699,099 36,448,948
Tolals (including all
others) .234,778,732262,598,146 252,670,6·11277,482,830276,070,623 250,172,805
, The basis of valuation is tbe current domestic value in tbo country of .xport.
Acc)rding to the nritish Board of Trade returns, the total trade between
the U~K. and New Zealand was as follows (in £ sterling):
1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U. K. 46,865,368 196,986,747 183,073,665 160,467,210 183.090 , 91~
Exports crom U.K. 19,205,003 127,194,613 139,862,7US 127,918,038 96,914,699
Ikexpolts (rom U.K. 291,647 614,620 692,125 919,186 586,09G
COMMUNICATIONS
ShijJping.At the cnd of 1958 the registered vessels were 36 sailing
vessels of 1,487 tons (net), SO steamers of 56,596 tons, 415 motor vessels of
81,064 tons; total, 531 vessels of 139,147 tons (net).
Shipping inwards and outwards (excluding coastwise shipping):
Ves.:;els invmrds Vcssel~ outwards
British Fore1'qn Ifr1·ti8h }'ureign
)[0 . Tons No. Tons No. Tons No. Tons
1955 668 2,850,943 156 675,625 645 2.7S2,['4.tj 155 667,928
1956 MS 2,752,484 132 612,068 651 2.760.627 134 602,094
1957 6SB 2,878,354 213 1,061,58G 677 2,865,931 21S 1,073,1127>
19;;8 673 2,902,219 ~57 1,151,049 6GD ~,S ·18,663 252 1,125,62~
Railways. On 31 March 1\l50 there were 3,.l.:)0 miles of government

railways open for traffic. Operating earnings from government railways,
1\)58-59, £29,822,501; operating expenses, £30,504,853. The capital cost
of construction of aU government lines, open and unopen, to 31 March 1959,
was £134,241,846. In 1958-59 the tonDltge of goods (including livestock)
carried was 10,367,478, and the passengers numbered 25,437,083. In
additicn, the railways road motor-services carried 20,032,253 passengers.
Tho total revenue (including road motor and other subsidiary services)
amounted to £34,372,864, and total expenditure £35,]37,305.
Roads. Tot.al mileage of formed roads in New Zealand at 31 March
l!l58 was 56,274, inclusive of 6,228 miles of formed roads and streets which
were n"t paved or surfaced. In addition there wcre 15,834 miles of unformcd
legal roads and 4,849 miles of bridle-tracks. There were also 8,922 bridges
of OV6l' 25 ft in length with a total length of 788,147 ft. Main highways,
princiI,ally outside borough boundaries, totalled 12,800 miles at 31 March
1958; of this total 5,323 miles were classified as state highways, these
being the principal arterial traffic routes.
T01al expenditure on roads, streets and bridges by the General Govern-
ment and local authorities combined for the financial year 1957-58 amounted
to £31446,132.
At 31 March 1959 motor vehicles licensed numbered 808,10\), of which
486,02) were cars; 2,442 public taxis; 3,098 omnibuses and contract
vehicl(s; 50,235 light commercial trucks and 67,466 heavy trucks. In-
cluded in the remaining number were 26,824 motor cycles, 52,852 vehicles
exempt from paying fees and 16,862 government vehicles_ Licensed road
goods-,ervices for the year ended 31 March 1958 recorded a total vehicle
mileage of 229m. Total revenue amounted to £36,054,000. The road
passenger services vehicle miles amounted to 70,588,303, and passengers
carriec. totalled 149,786,871. Total passenger revenue amounted to
£8,990,027.
POll. Receipts of the post and telegraph department for year ended
31 March 1950 were £23,370,206; working expenses, £l!l,227,589, excluding
intere.t on capital liability, £2,436,094. The officials numbered 24,452
NEW ZEAI,AND 551
(excluding 1,269 country postmasters, etc., \vho are not classed as officers
of t.he department) on 31 March 1959.
The telegraph and telephone systems a re governmental. Number of
telephone subscribers, 641,342 (31 March 19(9). The telegraph and telc.
phone receipts for the year 1958- 59 were £14,212,244. Number of radio
receiving licences at 31 March 1959 was 567,161.
A departmental committee has been set up by the Minister of Broad·
casting to advise him on the development of television overseas and on the
problems involved in the establishment of a television service in New Zealand.
Oivil Aviation. Domestic scheduled passenger senices are operated hy
the New Zealand National Aimays Corporation and 2 minor companies.
A private company also operates an inter· island freight service under con-
tract to the New Zealand Railways Department. International Services
are operated t.o and from New Zealand, by a local company, Tasman
Empire Airways, Ltd. and by 3 overseas companies. Non·scheduled
services are run by the main companies and also by a number of smaU
operators and acro clll bs.
Domestic scheduled services during the 12 months ended March 1959:
Passengers carried, 558.000; mail, 279 ton.miles; freight, 4",000 tons.
International services: Passengers carried. 78,000; mail,446 tons; freight,
72 [ t ons.
MONEY AND BANKING
New Zealand has its own distinctive silver and bronze coinage. the
denolllinations being similar to those in use in the U.K. Up t·o 31 Dec.
1958 Ne\v Zealand coins of a total face value of £8,73S,606 have been
minted by the Hoyal Mint ill London. Withdrawals of silver coinage to
31 Dec. 1958 totalled £1,674.257.
The constituents of the New Zealand banking system are a Reserve Bank.
and 5 trading banks. and of the latter, 2-the Bank of New Zealand and
the National Bank of New Zealand-are New Zealand institutions. the
other 3 being primarily Australian concerns. Prior to the operation of the
Bo.nk of Now Zealand Act. 1945. the Government held approximately one·
third of the aggregate paid.up capital of the Bank of New Zealand, and
the Act. which came into force on 1 Nov. 1945. completed the process. the
bank being. now state· owned. As originally constituted the Reserve Bank
had private shareholders, but these were repaid under the Reserve Bank
Amendment Act. 1936, and the bank was in effect nationalized. By the
Reserve Bank Amendment Act of 1939, governmental control was extended.
the Act directing the bank to give effect to any representations made to it
by the Minister of Finance. The Reserve Bank Amendment Act. 1950.
provides instead that the Bank sha.ll give effect to any resolution of the
House of Representatives in relation to the Bank's functions or business.
Bank·notes of the Reserve Bank. which has the sole right to issue bank.notes.
are legal tender.
At the end of March 1959 the amount on deposit at trading banks was
£277,530,227, while advances were £177.055,701. exclusive of holdings of
Government an(1 other securities amounting to £23.514.618. The value of
bank· notes in circulation was £64,088.867.
There are the post office savings bank and 5 trusteo savings banks. The
post office savings bank had at 31 March 1959, 1,023 branches; number of
accounts. 1.778.426; amount deposited during year, £141,836,930 ; with·
drawn, £143.614.817; total amount to credit of depositors at end of year,
£263.913.106. At 31 March 195!l, £58,492,867 was on deposit in trustee
savinl!8 banks to the credit of 424,175 depositors. In addition, amount to

credit of depositors in national savings accounts as at 31 March 1959
totalkd £61,102,213. Deposits to credit of scholars in 8choolsavings banks
at 31 March 1959 amounted to £1,120,862.
Minor Islands. The minor islands (total area, 320 sq. miles) included
withir. the geographical boundaries of New Zealand are the following :
Kermldec Islands, Three Kings Islands, Auckland Islands, Camphell Island,
Antip·xles Islands, Bounty Islands, Snares Islands, Solander Island. With
the e~ception of Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group (population, 8) and
Camp bell Island (population, 14) none of these islands was inhabited at
April 1958.
Tte Kermadec Islands, which were annexed to New Zealand in 1887,
have 110 separate administration and all New Zealand laws apply to them.
Situal.i on, 29° 10' to 31° 30' S. lat., 177° 45' to 179° W. long., 600 miles
N.N.I:. of New Zealand. Area 13 sq. miles. The largest of the group is
Raoul or Sunday Island, 20 miles in circuit, while Macaulay Island is 3
miles in circuit.
A meteorological station and an aeradio station have been established on
RaouJ Island, and the population including the official staff was 8 at April
1958.
Island Territories. Island territories coming within the jurisdiction
of New Zealand consist of the Cook Islands, Niue Island, the Tokelau Islands
and t ile trust territory of Western Samoa.
The Cook Islands, which lie between 8° and 23° S. lat., and 156° and
167° W. long., were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888, and on II
June 1901 were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand. The islands
within the territory fall roughly into two groups-the scattered islands
towards the north (Northern group) and the islands towards the south
knowa as the Lower group. The Tokelau Islands were proclaimed part
of New Zealand as from 1 Jan. 1949.
The names of the islands with their populations estimated at 31 Dec.
1958 are as follows:
L01ver Group-- Population Northern Group- Population
Rarotonga 7,576 Nassau. _ 84
Mangaia 2,123 Palmerston (A.varnu) 8S
Atiu . 1,391 Penrbyn (Toogareva) 666
Aitutaki . 2,731 Manibiki (Humpbrey) 718
Mauke (Parry I. 87 2 Rakahanga (Reirson) 365
Mitiaro . . 297 Pukapuka (Danger) 690
Manuae and Te au-o-tu 53 Suwarrow (Ancborage) Nil
Takutea Nil
Total 17,654
Total area of the Cook Islands, excluding Niue, is about 89 sq. miles.
Rarol;onga is 20 miles in circumference; Atiu, 20 miles; Aitutaki, 14l miles.
During the year 1958 registered births numbered 830 and deaths 170;
deaths of infants under 1 year of age, 51.
T 'le Minister of Island Territories, a. member of the Executive Council
of New Zealand, is charged with the administration.
T.le Cook Islands Amendment Act 1957, which came into force in 1958-
59, pl'Ovides for: (a) the establishment of a Legislative Assembly, consisting
of 15 members elected by universalsulfrage (1 by the European community),
7 me,nbers elected by the island c»uncils,2 members appointed by the Resi·
NEW ZEALAND 553
dent Commissioner and 2 ex·officio members (Secretary to the Government
and Treasurer); (b) the setting up of an Executive Committee with not
more than 8 elected and official repres~ntatives to advise the Resident Com.
missioner; (c) the development of the authority of Island Councils to the
point where they become the principal organs of local government; and
(d) the creation of village committees with limited police and judicial
authority.
Laws governing the whole of the Cook Islands are made by Act of the
Parliament of New Zealand or by Orders in Council and regulations issued
thereunder. Ordinances applicable to the whole of the Cook Islands may
be made by the Legislative Assembly of the Cook Islands, while other
ordinances, restricted in their application to the islands where they are
made, may be made by local island councils. Both classes of ordinances
require the assent of the Resident Commissioner, or they may be reserved
for the signification of the Governor·General's pleasure. The Resident
Commissioner in Rarotonga and the Resident Agents in the outer islands
are the Presidents of the respective island councils, which consist in each case
partly of ex·offi.eio members (officials and the Arikis or leading chiefs) and
partly of elected members. General elections are held in every third year,
and all Cook Island Maoris being British subjects of or over the age of 18
years are entitled to vote.
Ruident Commissioner. G. Nevill.
All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment in their
villages, the hospital and the tuberculosis sanatorium. Cook Island Maori
patients in the hospital and the sanatorium and all schoolchildren receive
free dental treatment. Twenty·two elementary and secondary government
schools are established in the various islands. There are also 8 Roman
Catholic missionary schools and a Seventh Day Adventist mission school.
Secondary education is provided for by 1 government and 2 mission schools
on Rarotonga. The instruction given in government schools is similar to
that of the New Zealand state schools, but with a special syllabus suited
to the requirements of the people. Regular instruction is given in the
Maori language in all classes, while during the first 2 years all instruction is
in the vernacular, English being taught only as a subject. Numbers of
pupils on the rolls (31 March 1959): Government schools, 4,116; Roman
Catholic,389; Seventh Day Adventist, 45.
Revenue is derived chiefly from customs duties which follow the New
Zealand customs tariff, income tax and stamp sales, and for the financial
year 1958-59 amounted to £432,261 (excluding grants from New Zealand of
£365,425, mainly for medical and educational purposes); expenditure,
£836,232. The trade for 1958 was: Imports, £886,031; exports, £405,258.
Chief exports were: Citrus fruits (£112,927), tomatoes (£53,676), copra
(£48,486), mother·of.pearl shell (£49,580), manufactured goods (£96,089)
and pineapples (£1,886). Wireless stations are maintained at (tll the
permanently inhabited islands; passenger and mail air services are main.
tained by a fortnightly service to Aitutaki Island.
Buck, P. H., MrueriaJ Culture of tM Cook Illand. (Memoir& ot Board ot Maori Ethnological
ReIW.a.rch. Vol. 2). New Plymouth, 1927.- Viking. of tM Sunr;". New York. 1938.-1'h.
Coming of IM Maor;. Wellington, 1950
Niue Island is one of the Cook Islands, but has been under separate
administration since 1903. There is a Resident Commissioner and an
Island Council, and legislative measures apply as in the case of the Cook
Islands. Distance from Auckland, New Zealand, 1.343 miles; from Raro-
tonga,580 miles. Area, 100 sq. miles; circumference, 40 miles; height
above sea-level, 220 ft. Population at 31 March 1959 was 4,719 (estimated).
During 1958 births registered numbered 209 and deaths 46. Revonue,
1958-5!l, £139,747 (excluding grants from New Zealand, £150,000); expendi-
ture, £297,831. Exports, 1958, £56,785, of which copra accounted for
£36,760. Imports, 1958, £152,107. There were 9 government schools with
1,213 pupils in 1958. There is a wireless station at Aloll, the port of the
island.
Resident Commissioner. D. W. R. Heatley.
Tollelau Islands. Situated some 300 miles to the north of Western Samoa
between 8° and 10° S.lat., and between 171 ° and 173° W. long., are the three
atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunono and Fakaofo of the Tokelau (Union) group.
Formerly part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, the group was
transferred to the jurisdiction of New Zealand on II Feb. 1926, the admini-
stration being carried out by the High Commissioner of Western Samoa.
By legislation enacted in 1948, the Tokelau Islands were declared part of
New Znaland as from I Jan. 1949. The area of the group is 4 sq. miles;
the population at 25 Sept. 1958 was 1,721.
ROl's Dependency. By Imperial Order in Council, dated 30 July 1923,
tho tero:itories between 160° E. long. and 150° W. long., and south of 60° S.
lat. were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government.
The region was named the Ross Dependency. From time to time laws for
the Dnpendency have been made by regulations promUlgated by the
Governor-General of New Zealand.
The mainland arca is estimated at 160,000 sq. miles; but, being com-
pletely ice-covered, is normally uninhabited. In Jan. 1957 a New
Zealand expedition under Sir Edmund Hillary established a base in the
Dependency. The purpose of the expedition was two-fold: to take part in
the crossing of the Continent from the Weddell Sea to Scott Base by the
Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, and to participate in the
Antarctic programme of the International Geophysical Year. In Jan. 1958
Sir Ed:!Ilund Hillary and 4 other New Zealanders reached the South Pole
after a(lvancing 1,200 miles overland in 3 months. Survey parties explored
and mhpped a large part of the Dependency in 1957-50. On 15 April 1958
the Government set up the Ross Dependency Research Committee to
co·ordinate and supervise New Zealand activity beyond the conclusion of
the Int.ernational Geophysical Year.
As yet, no economic wealth has been won from the mainland, but the
territorial waters with their large number of whales are regularly visited by
factory whaling ships. Wha.ling operations within the Ross Dependency
require a licence (annual fee, £200); in addition, the Government receives
a royalty of 28. 6d. per barrel (40 ga.llons) of whale oil.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INJI"ORMATlOl!. The statistical ol!ice for New Zealand Is the Depa.rtruent of
Statistic. (Wellington. 0.1). GOfIernment Statistician: J. V. T. Baker, M.A., M.Com.,
F.R.A.N.Z., D.P.A.
The beginning of a statistiCfll servico may be seen in the early •Blue boot,' prepa.red
annuall) from 1840 onwa.rda under the direction of the ColonJal Secretary, and designed
primaril, for the information of the ColonJal Office in England. In 1848 New Zealand was
divided into two provinceo. the province 01 Now Munster being particularly active in tb.
It..Ustical field. Most of the later 10 provinces carried out some lorm 01 statistical activity,
although there was a g<lncral lack 01 uniformity. A permanent atatlatical authority wa.
WESTERN SAMOA 555
creatOO in 18SS. It Wa9 otiginally l\SOOCiatcd witb tbe Rcgistmr·GeDeral of ll(rtbs, Deaths
and Marriages. out \vitb the passo.ge {If yea.rs the 8S..'WCiation of tbe stath;tical branch n"ith
tbe registration htf\n~h became only nOmiDtll. By tlle Census and Statistics Act, 1910. the
title of Government St.ntiRtician Wa9 gi~en t" tbe head of the . tati.l.ieal branch, and In 19n
tbe 'Census and St.atistics Office' repln.ccd the (om'ler 'c.]overnmeQt Rte.t.istician's Offi~ :
~'rom 18~S to I nl tile atatistioAI office wo. under tLe politieal ';ootrol ,,1 tbe Minister of
Intftroal AfTt\irs; iD 19:11 it ('. ame under the Miui:ster of Indust.ries arid Cornn::erce and from
1 April 1936 it W l\.S nooordc<i full dcp:lrtmeIttal stat us under tho Mini!iter in d,arge of Census
and St.o.tL,tics. The 8tn t istice Act, 195[', repealed tbe former legislation uuder wblch t-he
Department open,ted a.nd now proTides tbt; 1(~-,.w aUve antbority for ~H f\epar\mentn' activitie.
8S from 1 Jan. 19r,G , chs rlf:,r ing at the snme t·jme the title to ·TIle Del.a.rtnl(~ nt of StatiMtic!t.'
The oldeo t. plll/EmlLions c;oDsi ~ t. of (a) census r {'sults from IH~ S on ward ~ and (b) annual
."Iumes of statiotic; (first published 1858 but cOl"ering yea ... back to 1853). Main curr.ut
puulicntiong :
New Zealand Of,i cial f ear· Book. Annual. from 1893
LocoJ Authorilits lIandbook of ..Vew Zealand. AlIuu a l,lro::n 19::'6 j pre<:cJ ed by the lJ iclllli ul
J{ltnicipallJandboo", 1903-24
SWillical ReportJ of NtllI Zealand. Annual
Mlm1hJv Ab,lracl.f oJ SIalislicl. }'row H~;4
Pocktt Di?tsl of NelJJ Ztaidlld SWtistic.. Annual, In'-31, In8-17 19~5 If
PlJrUam~nla'v Reports 0IOoummnlt Deparmu·nt.t . Annual
Pacific /llanliJ r ta,boflk. Sydoey,] 9~G
Ilicliona,v oJ J.'ew Zealtln-d- BiOi)TOphy . 2 vols. \\' eBingtOn, 1940
NN Z~n.UJnd. Board oC Trade, Ol""crseas Economic Surveys. n .M.S.a., 1956
Best, Elsfion, T/~ "lIaori. :} ~olR. \Veilillgton. 192·1
Buck, Sir Peter n ..'i'},! Comin.g o/lhe Jlaori. \Velliogloll ! 1951)
Dulc~ , T . L.o 1'ht Treaty "~I Jraitanyi. Ne w 1'1.vmollt h, 1936
Oonditfe, J . D., and Alrey, W. T . G. , _~ SIIort IJi.toTV of New Zeala",/. 8th ed. Cbri.tchllrch
196 7
Dolli rc ore, E. S. (eo.). Nrtr Z".rand (;uide. nunedi n, 1952
DutJ', Oli~er. IrelC Z(I1Jalld Now . Lonlion, 1956
II ..II, D. O. W., PortTllit of ,,"ew Z ea/mlll . W,.uington, 19:;5
llardwick, J . M. n., 0PP'Jrlu.ttity in N et" Z ealund. Loncon.1955
Harris, \V..1., I)uide (Cl N e:c 2t"'lland lle/ erenct Book.'). l;.Z. Li brary .d.ssoci ~~ti o D, 1950
Lip800, L., The Politics of Equalilv : New Z~a1aud's -Advcnllt;t,f in lJnnocracy, Chicago,
1948
Miller, Fl.G., New Zeatlw4. London, 1~l 5 0
)Iilnc, n.. S., Bu.reaucracy in ;:r ew Zeala nd. L01:a(m, If}5 i
Morrell, \\'. P . . a nd H all, D . O. IV., d JIis~O '!I Of ,vel. Zealand Life. Chrisl<:hurch and
London, I9b7
Nub, WaIter, New Zea:and .. A IVo,-king DUMcracy. London, 1944
Neale, E .1'., (;lli4? to New Zealand O.Oicial Statistics, 3rd cd. Auckland, H)Z,;;'
Pn.nton, II. S., New ZtakJ1ld. London, 1051
i'oIaschek, 'R . J . (cd .), Local GOt'ernmenl i n Ne1JJ Zeilland. \ Vc llingt.on , 19bG.- -Got:ernment
.;-1dmini~ll'atiQ n in. j\'cw Z ealand . \Velli ngton,1 9{)8
Reed, A. H., Th, S torv 0/ /I',w Zealat/d. Wellington, 1946
neeves, W. 1'., Tht J.Q1Ig Whiu Cloud : .!Q-/~.rQa . J.ondon, 1950
RobsOD, J. L . (ed .), p"ew Zealand: the he-,It/opmF.lIt cl its Laws and Cun,uitutr:on . London,
1954
Scholefield, G. H., 11'1w', WhQ ill ,yew Zealand. Wellington, 1951.-Notahle Ntw Zeaiu"d
State"nen . \V clllugtun, 19-& 7
~incl :1 ir, K., A lJililory 0/ New Zea/a:ld. IIarrn()nGsworth, ]9;~ 9
SoJjak. P. L., New Zealand, PClcijic Pionu r. New York, 1947
Sutherland, 1. L. G., and others, Tht JJaori Peoplt To·day. Wellington, 1940.-N9<11irnu
hui. Welli~t.on, 1949
Wc;;tstrate, C., POTtmil of a M o.u", M ixed Dco nomy. Wellington, 1%9
\\'ood, F. L. \V., This New Zealand, London, 19r,S.- The JVcw Zealand People at War.
Wellington,I958
TERRITORY OF WESTERN SAMOA

Area and Population. The Territory of Western Samoa lies between \a,t.
13° and 15° S. and long. 171 ° and 173° W. It comprises tho two large islands
of Savai'i and Upolu. the small islands of Manono and Apolima, and several
islets lying off the coasts. The total land area is ahout 1,130 sq. miles, of
which 700 sq. miles arc in Savai'i and about 430 sq. miles in Upolu. The
556 THE BR.ITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
island3 are formed mainly of volcanic rocks, the coasts being surmounted for
the greater part by coral reefs. Rugged mountain-ranges form the core of
both main islands and rise to 3,608 ft in Upolu and 6.094 ft in Savai'i. The
large area laid waste by lava· Bows in Savai'i is a primary cause of that island
supporting only between a quarter and a third of the population of the Terri-
tory despite its greater size than Upolu.
The population as at 31 Dec. 1958 totalled 102,860 of whom 96,974 were
of Samoan status and 5,886 of European status.
Ocnstitution and Government. Germany administered Westem Samoa

until ~~9 Aug. 1914, when the Territory was occupied by New Zealand Military
Forcel. On 7 May 1919 the Supreme Council ofthe Allied Powers conferred
on th" British Crown on behalf of the New Zealand Govemment It mandate
for the administration of Western Samoa. By the Samoa Act, 1921, New
Zealand made provision for a civil administration, providing for a Legislative
Coundl partly composed of unofficial members. The Fono of Faipule, an
advisory body composed of heads of families who represented traditional
Territorial constituencies, was established in 1905 and was continued under
New ::ealand administration. In 1947 the Legislative Assembly (the mem-
bership of which was redefined and enlarged in H)57) and the Council of
State were established, and in 1949 a separate Samoan Public Service was
creaud. In 1952 provision was made for an Executive Council, the powers
of which were increased in 1956 and 1957.
The Samoan Amendment Act of 1959 provided a form of Cabinet Govem-
ment for Westem Samoa. Control of the internal administration of Western
Samo.\ rests with a Cabinet responsible to the Legislative Assembly and
presid.ed over by a Prime Minister.
The Cabinet of Ministcl'S is collectively responsible to the Legislative
Assembly and advises the Council of State in the exercise of its functions.
It is 'lharged with the general direction and control of the govemment of
Westt,m Samoa. The Council of State appoints as Prime Minister a member
of thE - Legislative Assembly who commands the confidence of its majority.
The Council of State consists of the High Commissioner and the Samoans
for the time being holding the office as Fautua. At present there are 2
Fautua wllO are represent.atives of the two royal lines ofTupua and Malietoa.
The Council of State is the head of the executive government; its role is
simila.r to that of the Governor-General in New Zealand.
TIle Executive Council consists of the members of the Council of State
and the ministers of the Cabinet.
The High Commissioner is appointed by the Governor·General of New
Zeala:Jd, and in the exercise of his powers is subject to the New Zealand
Minister of Island Territories.
The Legislative Assembly is composed of 41 elected Samoan members, 5
elected European members and not more than 3 official members. For
those persons possessing European status suffrage is universal. but in the 41
Samoan constituencies (in accordance with the present wishes of the Samoan
people) only persons whose names appear on the Register of Matai may
register as electors or be nominated for election. Two ordinary sessions of
the Legislative Assembly are held each year. The first session, at which the
budget is presented. is held in March, and the second in August, when most
tegisl,~tion is enacted.
The laws of the Territory are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament
()r by Ordinances passed by the Legislative Assembly of Samoa. The scope
of the legislative power of the Assembly was specifically widened under the
NAURU ISLAND 557
1947 amendment to include the power of over.riding New Zealand legisla.
tion, except in regard to certain reserved subjects.
The 1959 Act has the full support of the Legislative Assembly of West.ern
Samoa and the approval of the Trusteeship Council of the United Nations.
High Commi8aioner. G. R. Powles, C.M.G. (assumed office I March
1(49); appointed High Commissioner to India in March 1960.
Finance. Revenue for the calendar year 1958 totalled £NZI,305,OOO
and expenditure £NZI,037,OOO.
Commerce. In 1958 imports were valued at £NZ2,220,976 and exp'Jrts
at £NZ2,947,628. Principal exports were copra (£NZ618,659), cocoa
(£NZl,236.741) and bananas (£NZl,007,189).
Total trade between Western Samoa and the U.K., in £ sterling (British
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K . . . 903,107 1,226.087 1,201,855 989,857 ),701.236
E:<p<>rts from U.K. . . 362,081 263,033 217,!}H 244,773 286,99.
Re·exports from U.K. 1,206 496 465 666 404
Roads. The Territory has 241 miles of main roads, 98 miles of secondary
roads and 3S miles of plantation roads fit for light traffic. In 1956 there
were 296 cn.rs, 125 taxis, 84 buses and 349 lorries.
Shipping and Aviation. There is regular fortnightly shipping com·
munication from New Zealand and Fiji. Western Samoa is also on the route
of the fortnightly New Zealand-Tahiti regional air service. There is a
wirelcs~ station at Apia.
Money and Banking. New Zealand currency in the form of Samoan

Treasury notes issued under the authority of the New Zealand Government
is in general use. In 1959 the Bank of Western Samoa was established.
Books of Reference
Annual Report on Ih. Traik, Com71Uf'ct and Shippiru;. Wellington, N.Z.
Reports Of the Governmmt of N~7D Zealand on tilt Trust Territorv. WellingtoD, N.Z.
Gratt.an, F. J. H., ~n Introduction 10 Samoan Custom. Apia, 1948
Keeslng, F. M., Jlod.m Samoa. London, 1934
Ma.sterman, S., The Origins ()/lnternalional Rit'alry in Samoa. 1845-84. London, 1934
NAURU ISLAND
The island is situated 0° 32' S. lat. and 1660 55' E. long. Area, 5,263
acres. It is an oval· shaped upheaval coral island of approximately 12 miles
in circumference, surrounded by a reef which is exposed at low tide. There
is no anchorage adjacent to the island. On the seaward side the reef dips
abruptly into the deep waters of the Pacific. On the landward side of the
reef there is a sandy beach interspersed with coral pinnacles. From the
sandy beach the ground rises gradually, forming a fertile section ranging in
width from 150 to 300 yd and completely encircling the island. On the
inner side of the fertile section there is a coral cliff which rises to a height of
from 40 to 100 ft. Above the cliff there is an extensive plateau bearing
phOsphate of a high grade, the mining rights of which are vested in the
British Phosphate Commissioners subject to the rights of the native land·
owners. It is chiefly on the fertile section of land between the sandy beach
and tte plateau that the natives have established thcDlSl'lves. With the
exception of a smaD fringe round a shaDow lagoon, about I mile inland, the
platea1l, which contains the phosphate deposits, has few food-bearing trees
and is not utilized for the purposes of native settlements.
Th,~ island was discovered by Capt. Feam in 1798, annexed by Ger-
many in Oct. 1888, and surrendered to the Australian forccs in 1914. It
was administered under a mandate, dated 17 Dec. 1920, conferred on the
British Empire and approved by the League of Nations until 1 Nov. 1947,
when ':he United Nations General ABB6mbly approved a trusteeship agree-
ment hringing Nauru within the United Nations trusteeship system with
the G'lvemments of Australia, New Zealand and U.K. as joint admini-
stering: authority.
Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand agreed in July 1919 that
Austra,lia should appoint the first Administrator for a term of 5 years, and
thereafter the Administrator was to be appointed as the three governments
Ahould decide. By arrangement Australia has continued to appoint the
Admir.istrator, who has all the powers of government, administrative,
legisla~ive and judicial. The expenses of administration are met out of
local revenue and the proceeds of phosphate sales.
Administrator. J . P. White.
Nauru was occupied by the Japanese from 26 Aug. 1942 to 13 Sept.
1945. Civil administration was re·esta blished on I Nov. 1945. By the
end oJ 1950 the phosphate industry had reached its pre-war production
level.
At 30 JUlle 1958 the population totalled 4,308, comprising 363 Europeans,
654 Chinese, 2,158 Na urual1s and 1,133 other Pacific Islanders.
VLal statistics, 1957-58 : Births, 119 ; deaths, 33.
EDUCATION. Attenda nce at school, hoth for European and native
childr'lD, i8 compulsory wltil children reach the age of 15 years. A s ystem
of tec:lIIical training for native boys under apprcnticeships with either the
British Phosphate Commissioners or the Administration is in operation.
FINANCE, Revenue and expenditure (in £A) for financial years ending
30 JWle:
Revenue Expenditure Revenue Erpendlture
1)52-53 163,408 1;9,423 1955-56 261,164 257,274
la53-54 237.174 226.996 1956- 57 218.916 302,349
1954-55 303,674 276,;83 1957-58 352,656 357,3ns
Tte interests in th e phosphate deposits were purchased in 1919 from

the Pacific Phosphate Company by the Governments of the U.K ., the Corn ·
monwealth of Australia and New Zealand, at a cost of £.1·5m., and 1\
Board. of Commissioners was appointed to ma nagc and control the working
(If the deposits. In addition to an annual contribution to the administration
from the proceeds of the sales of phosphate, a royalty of 18. 6d. per ton is
being paid by the British Phosphate Commissioners for every ton of phos-
phate shipped. of which 8d. per ton is paid to the Nauruan landowners; 3d.
per tc·n is paid to the Administrator to be used solely for the benefit of the
Naurllan people; 2d. per ton is paid to the Administrator in trust and
invest~d for the benefit of the landowner or his assigns, to whom the intercst
wiu be paid after the principal has been invested for a period of 15 years;
and 54. per ton is paid to the Administrator in trust for the Nauruan com-
munit,y and invested until the year 2000.
FIJI 559
COMMERCE. The export trade consists almost entirely of phosphate
shipped mainly to Australia and New Zealand. Phosphate exported:
1955-56,1,467,794 tons; 1956-57,1,278,176 tons ; 1957-58,1,167,180 tons.
The imports consist almost entirely of food supplies, building con·
struction materials and machinery for the British Phosphate Commissioners,
for use in connexion with their works. Value of imports: 1957-58,
£A971,029; 1956-57, £Al,170,218; 1955-56, £A877,264. Exports, 1957-
58, £A2,421,898; 1956-57, £A2,236,808; 1955-56, £A2,568,640.
Imports from U.K., 1959, £79,726 ; 1958, £159,848; 1957, £91,754 ;
1956, £180,691; 1955, £55,244; exports to U.K., 1959, £945,458; 1958,
£716,693; 1957, £1,035,212; 1956, £858,816; 1955, £656,569; re-exports,
1959, nil; 1958, £15; 1957, £69; 1956, £11; 1955, £230 (British Board of
Trade returns).
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Practically the whole of the ship-

ping coming to the island consists of steamers owned by or under charter
to the British Phosphate Commissioners. Numbers of vessels entered and
cleared in 1957-58, i45 of 1,016,955 gross tOilS ; 1956-57, 158 of 1,008,991
gross tons.
A viation. There is an airstrip on the island, but no regular services are
in operation.
Telecommunication. Direct daily schedules are maintained with Sydney
(N.S.W.), Suva and Nandi (Fiji), Tara.wa, Ocean Island and Port Moresby,
and with merchant shipping-both long- and short-wave transmission. A
free radio medical service is maintained for shipping. A radio·telephone
circuit is maintained Mondays to Fridays with Sydney. A separate tele-
radio service exists between Nauru and Ocean Island for the convenience of
the British Phosphate Commissioners.
Books of Reference
Report to Ihe General .iJssemb1V ojthe United Nations cm the A.dmitli.flralio1l. of lhe Terrilorv
of Nauru. 1949 t.<> date
Text of Trusteeship ;Igreemn1.l. (ewd. 7290; Treaty Series No. 89, 1947)
Ellis, A. F ., Ocean I sland ana Na.uru. Sydney, I9 30 .-Adventuring ill Coral Seas. SydlJcy,
1936 . -Jfid-l'acijic Outposts. Auckland,1946
FIJI
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The :Fiji Islands were
discovered by Tasooan in 1643 and visited by Capt. Cook in li74. The
sovereignty was ceded to Great Britain on 10 Oct. 1874.
Governor and C.·in·C. Sir Kenneth Phipsoll Maddocks, K.C.;\1.G.
(appointed 10 Oct. 1958).
Colonial Secretary, Fiji . r!\trick Donald MQ,Cdonald, C.M.G. (appointed
17 Sept. 1957).
The Constitution is regulawd by letters patent of 2 April 1937. The
Executive Council consists of the Governor, the Colonial Secretary, the
Attorney-General, the Financial Secretary and 6 unofficial members nomi·
nated by the Governor.
The Legislative Council consists of the Governor, the Speaker and 16
official members, 5 European members (3 elected and 2 nominated), 5 Fijian
members (selected by the Governor from a panel submitted by the Great

Council of Chiefs) and 5 Indian members (3 elected and 2 nominated).
The Fijians have always retained a large measure of self.government.
This Wl>S increased under the terms of the Fijian Affairs Ordinance 1944,
which (>ame into operation on 1 Jan. 1945. The Colony is divided into
adminiE:trative units called tikina, each controlled by a Fijian whose rank
or ability, or both, commands the co-operation and respect of the people.
This oflicer is called a Buli. A Tikina Council, at which the Buli presides,
meets monthly. A number of tikina with common ancestry are grouped
together to form a YlJ8ana (province), which is administered by a Roko Tui.
The Roko Tui is assisted by a Provincial Council, which must meet once a
year and may meet more often. There are 14 Ya8ana and 76 tikina.
Unc.er the Fijian Affairs Ordinance power is given to Tikina Councils
to mak,~ orders and to Provincial Councils to make by.laws concerning the
welfare and good government of the Fijians within their respective spheres.
Such orders or by-laws have the force of law when sanctioned by the
Secretary for Fijian Affairs. The Fijian Affairs Board may submit to the
Governor such recommendations and proposals as it may deem to be for the
benefit of the Fijian people. The Board supersedes the Native Regulation
Board created in 1876, and may make regulations affecting Fijians as a
whole. Such regulations may provide for penalties up to a fine of £50 or a
term of imprisonment not exceeding 1 year, or both, and may also make
provision for extra-mural punishment. These regulations require the sanc·
tion of the Legislative Council. Two grades of Fijian courts deal with
offenceu against the regulations, by-laws and orders. The lower, or Tikina
Court, consists of 1 Fijian magistrate, and the higher, or Provincial Court,
consistll of either 3 Fijian magistrates or 2 Fijian magistrates and a district
officer. Each province has its own Treasury, and the Provincial Counoil
imposeu its own rates, which vary from £3 to £6 per annum for every
male adult. Fijian males maintaining 5 or more children pay a lower
rate or receive total exemption until the children become tax ·payers. Other
direct ·;axation is limited to school rates, which, in some provinces, are
collected separately from the provincial rate. Four Senior Administrative
Officer! are responsible for general supervision over a number of provinces.
The Ccuncil of Chiefs, established in 1876, continues to meet bi·annually
under 1.he chairmanship of the Secretary for Fijian Affairs. It consists of
Roko8, 1 or 2 representatives, according to population, from each province
selected by the Provincial Council, 1 Fijian magistrate, 1 :Fijian school-
teacher and 1 Fijian medical practitioner nominated by the Secretary for
Fijian Affairs, and not more than 6 chiefs appointed by the Governor. The
Counci: of Chiefs advises the Government generally on Fijian affairs.
AREA AND POPULATION. Fiji comprises a group of about 322
islands (about 106 inhabited) lying between 150 and 22 0 S. lat. and 177 0 w.
and 1780 E. long. The largest is Viti Levu, area 4,010 sq. miles; next is
Vanua Levu, area 2,137 sq. miles. The island of Rotuma (18 sq. miles),
about :(20 30' S. lat., 178 0 E. long., was added to the colony in 1881. Total
area, 7,036 sq. miles.
ThE' estimated population at 31 Dec. 1958 was 374.284. It included:
8,987 Europeans, (4,946 males, 4,041 females): 8,273 Part.Europeans (4,238
males, 4.035 females); 157,808 Fijians (80,llO males, 77,698 females):
184,090 Indians (95.575 males, 88,515 females): 4,708 Rotumans (2,375
males, 2,333 females): 4.445 Chinese (2,780 males, 1,765 females): 5,797
other Pacific islanders (3,043 males, 2,754 females).
FIJI 561
Suva, the capital, is on the south coast of Viti Lent; the European
population (census of Oct. 1956),3,394. Total population of Suva, 37,371.
Suva was proclaimed a city on 2 Oct. 1953.
Vital Part· Poly.
Statlstlcs Euro· }Juro- Rotu- nesians,
1958 penus peans Fijians Indians mans etc. Chinese Others Total
Birtbs 198 278 5,{j87 8,196 159 217 171 4 14,810
Marria.ges 53 58 1,144 1.489 20 51 23 1 2,839
Deaths H ·13 1,103 1,204 37 45 18 2.584
RELIGION. The 1956 census showed: Methodists, 138,147; Roman

Catholics, 27,542; Church of England, 5,130; Seventh Day Adventists,
4,013; Presbyterians, 982; other Christians, 2,347; Hindus, 137,232;
Moslems, 25,394; Sikhs,l,803; Confucians,41O; others, 352. The Metho-
dist Church comprises European ministers, 10; Fijian ministers, 156;
Indian ministers, 3; lay missionaries, 14; European mission teachers, 15;
Fijian and Rotuman members, 38,000; Indian members, 773; eateehists,
542; lay preachers, 15,676. The Church of England (Diocese of Polynesia)
has a bishop and 12 priests, 9 churches and 10 meeting places, 6 schools, 1
hospital, 31 teachers, and 7 lay preachers. The Catholic Mission has a
bishop and 43 European, 6 Fijian, 1 Rotuman, 4 Chinese and 2 Indian
priests, 13 European and 1 Indian teaching brothers, 75 churches and
chapels, 2 training institutions, 206 catechists and teachers. The Seventh
Day Adventists have 41 churches, 28 ordained ministers and 32 school-
teachers.
EDUCATION. In 1958 there were 557 sohools, of which 38 were con-

trolled by the Government. The total enrolment was 73,275, of whom
34,664 were Fijians, 34,219 Indians, 3,750 Europeans and 642 Chinese.
Registered teachers numbered 1,832, of whom 1,677 were in government
service. Total government expenditure in 1958 was £F940,992. Education
is not compulsory.
13,885.
FINANCE. The financial year corresponds with the calendar year.

All figures are in £ Fijian; £100 sterling = £Flll.
1955 1956 1967 1958 1959 '
Revenne. 6,229.745 6.114,861 5,738,974 6,619,456 6,828,764
Expend iture 5,832,426 6,367,125 6,609,909 G,763,8u:! 6,712,177
1 Estimates.
The principul sources of revenue in 1958 were: Customs, £2,914,993;

port dues, £76,480; taxes and licences, £1,809,960; court fees, etc.,
£1,090,403; post office, £240,120; rents, £96,448; interest, £58,050. The
public debt on 31 Dec. 1958 was £4,604,OlJ3.
DEFENCE AND POLICE. The Fiji Military Forces Ordinance, 1949,

provides for the maintenance of a small regular force. with territorial units
and trained reserves.
There is a. police force oonsisting of Fijians and Indians, with European,
Indian and Fijian officers. St.rength of police force in 1958, 503.
PRODUCTION A!lricult1tre. In 1958 there were under cultivation by

Europea!l, Fijian and Indian settlers: Bananas, 5,000 acres; coconuts,
168,000 acres; sugar cane, 137,700 acres; rice, 31,200 acres; pineapples,
230 acr'lS; cocoa, 1,800 acres. In 1957 there were 16,000 horses, 113,000
cattle, ~~4,000 goats and 21,000 pigs.
FOT(stry. The total forest area amounts to approximately 3,500 sq. miles,
producbg both hard woods and softwoods. There were 32 mills with an
estimatoJd production of 7·4m. super ft in 1957.
Indt~8try. There are 5 s ugar-mills, over 200 rice-mills, 2 butter factories,
2 oil·mills, 1 biscuit factory, 14 butcheries, a soap factory, 2 cigarette
factorie:;, a brewery, a clothing factory, a furniture factory, a concrete
products factory and an electro.plating factory.
Tmde Unions. There were 40 trade unions registered at the end of 1958.
COMMERCE. The exports in 1958 included 184,982 tons of sugar

(£F7,75'l,990), 21,770 tons of coconut oil (£F2,249,1l4), 22,498 tons of
manganese (£F402,417) and 81,120 oz. ofllnrefined gold (£FI,140,348).
Total trade (ill £F) in calendar years:
19~4 1 9~~ 1956 1~57 1958
Imports 11,642,801 J4,373,95J J6,430,673 15,216,006 17,602,727
Exports 11,239,98~ 11,761,006 11,264,481 14,983,486 14,551 ,9.';7
Imports in 1958 (in £F) from the U.K . were 5,966,634 ; Australi a,
4,665,032; New Zealand, 1,229,036; India, 753,904; Canada, 426,00G;
Hong Kong, 444,925; Indonesia, 1,408,937; U.S.A., 788,935.
Exports in 1958 (in £F) to the U .K. were 6,281,134; New Zealand,
1,871,149; Canada, 2,39G,630; Wcstern Samoa, 454,677; Tonga, 236,214;
U.S.A., 306,399; Japan, 172,353.
Total trade bctween Fiji and the U.K . (British Board of Trade returns,
ill £ steIling) :
1955 1956 19~7 1958 19 ~9
Imports t) U.K. 4,IS7.375 3,258,639 6,088,685 5,063,34~ 4,807,758
Exports {]'om U.K . . 3.642,133 3,753,071 3,519,091 4,346,591 3,411,052
Re-export. from U.K. 34,251 38,130 63,275 23,391 27,478
COI\IMUNICA TIONS. Roads. There is a principal highway rOllnd

Viti Levu, the distance from Suva to Lautoka via Ra, Tltvua and Ba (King's
Road) being 166 miles and via Navua and Sigatoka (Queen's Road) being
153 mil<:s. Branch roads run 32 miles along the Sigatoka Vallcy, 20 miles
to Nadadvatultnd Navai, 5t miles to Vatukoula Goldfields, 30 miles to Serea
and 7 miles to Vunidaw8..
On Vanua Levu highways are ill the neighbourhood of Labasa (Nasea)
and Na8avuSavu (Valeci), there being a highway approximately 25 miles
each side east and west of Labasa, and a highway to Buca Bay, 45 miles
east of NaSavuSavll. Coastal roads connect villages a.nd plantations on
parts of the islands of Taveuni and Ovalau.
Rail·,oay. There is a private small.gauge railway of 380 miles from
Tavua to Sigatoka belonging to the Colonial Sugar Refining Company.
Shipping, On 31 Dec. 1958, 106 vessels were registered with the Fiji
Marine :Board.
FIJI 563
Aviation. Fiji has one of the main airports on the Trans-Pacific airline
services, at Nadi. Trans-Pacific services using Nadi are Qantas Empire
Airways operating five services weekly between North America and Aus·
t.ralia; Pan American W(\rld Airways, operating 4 Bights a week between
North America and Australia; Canadian Pacific Airlines operating a weekly
service between Vancouver, New Zealand and Australia; Tasman Empire
Airline operating a thrice-weekly service between Auckland and Nadi.
Tll.Sffian Empire Airways also operate a fortnightly (in winter weekly)
service between Suva, Apia (W. Samoa), Aitutaki (Cook Is.) and Tahiti.
Fiji Airways operate daily services between Suva and Nadi, Labasa, Savu.
savu (6 times weekly) and Taveuni (4 times weekly).
Post. Over lOO radio· telephone and telegraph stations operate through
the post office network. There is a direct cable communication with
Canada, Australia and New Zeal and, direct wireless communication with
Australia, Tonga and New Zealand, and a radio· telephone service with
Australia, New Zealand, America and U.K. There were 5,797 telephones
in 1959.
BANKING AND MONEY. The government savings bank had, at the

end of 1958, deposits amounting to £l!'1,527,13() due t.o 67,425 accounts.
The headquarters are at the General Post Office, Suva, and there are 31
branches throughout the Colony.
The Bank of New South Wales has 4 branches and 6 agencies, and the
Bank of New Zealand has 5 branches and 3 agencies and the Australia
and New Zealand Bank has 2 branches in the Colony; the Fiji headquarters
of the 3 banks are in Suva. These 3 banks have opened savings bank
facilities at all their Fiji branches.
The currency in circulation consists of Fiji Government notes and Fiji
coins containing 18·181818 oz. fine silver in each £100 face value. The
currency notes in circulation on 31 Dcc. 1958 amounted to £F3,665,173
and the Fiji coins to £F281,704. The securities forming the investment por·
tion of the Note Security Fund were £F3,456,843 in the investment portion
a.nd £F371,9i8 in the Joint Colonial Fund at 31 Dec. 1958.
The Fiji pound is linked to sterling by law at the fixed mte of £Fl11 =
£100 sterling.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are the same as in the U.K.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. A Government Statist·ical Office was set lip in 1950 (Govern-
ment Buildingi\, Suva) . G'OVetntneTlt Sluti.t/ician : R. \V. ParkinSOD.
A.nnual Repo,r. 195 7. H .M.S.O .•1959
T,tvu Report. Annual (f rom 1897 [co'l'oring lSS3- SG]). f.uva
Journal 0/ Cht Fiji Lt<JiJ/ali~ Council. Annual (irolll 1914 [under dltIerent title, from
1885]). Suva
Fiji InJor1fUJtion. Quarterly. Suva
Capell, A .•NelD Fij iAn Ditlionarv. Sydney, 1941
Derrick, !t. A., IJis!o,y 0/ Piji. Vol. 1. Suva, l'~6.-T"t Fiji 1.lands: a geQljraph ica
Iulndbook . Snva, 1951
Eawn, W . 1. • E ., A Sho,! History 0/ Rotuma. Suv., 1952
Luke, Sir H., Britain and the South Seas. Londou, 194;.-From a South Sea Dia,v. London.
1946
Roth, O. K., The Fijian Way 0/ TA/e. Melbourne, 1954
Shephard, C. I .•The Sugar Industry 0/ "Hi. (Colonial No. 188.) H .M.S.O., 1945
564 THE BRITISH COM~10NWEALTH AND EMPIRE
WESTERN PACIFIC HIGH COMMISSION

THE offi"e of High Commissioner in, over and for the Western Pacific
Islands was created by the Western Pacific Order in Council 1877. The
seat of the High Commission is at Honiara in the British Solomon Islands
Protectorate.
High Commissioner for the Western Pacific. Sir John Gutch, K.C.l\LG.,
O.B.E.
The j'lrisdiction of the High Commissioner extends over all islands in the
Western Pacific not being within the limits of the territories administered
by Her Majesty's Governments in the Commonwealth of Australia and in
New Zealand or the Governor of Fiji, and not being within the jurisdiction of
any otheJ· civilized power. The Pacific Order in Council, 1893, extended the
High Conmissioner's jurisdiction to foreigners and (in most cases) to natives
residing in British settlements or protectorates within the limits of the
Order. :Jnder the provisions of tbe New Hebrides Order in Council, 1922,
the jurisdction of the High Commissioner extends also to the New Hebrides,
the Banks Islands and Torres Islands. The expenses of the High Com-
mission are met from the funds of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony and
the Briti"h Solomon Islands Protectorate, but a contribution is paid from
imperial funds for work in connexion with the New Hebrides.
The principal groups under the High Commissioner are: (1) The Gilbert
and Ellice Islands Colony; (2) The British Solomon Islands Protectorate,
and (3) The New Hebrides.
Justice. The Chief Justice of Fiji, o,nd every other judge for the time
being of the Supreme ' Court of Fiji, is by virtue of his office a judicial
commissioner. Deputy commissioners are appointed by the High Com-
missionel.
The High Commissioner's court consists of the High Commissioner, the
judicial (ommissioners and the deputy commissioners, and in it is vested
all Her Majesty's civil and criminal jurisdiction exercisable in the Western
Pacific Islands.
The court of a judicial commissioner has powers similar to those of the
superior ,~ourts of England, and the deputy commissioners have civil juris-
diction ix. common law, equity and bankruptcy, with a limited jurisdiction
in proba~e, and have a criminal jurisdiction in respect of offences not
plmishable with 7 years' penal servitude or upwards.
In ad,lition to the other means of preserving order the High Commissioner
has certa.ln special powers for the deportation of persons whose proceedings
endanger the peace of the islands.
Trade. Trade of British Pacific Islands with U.K. (British Board of Trade
returns, in £ sterling) : .
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Import. to U.K. ] ,798,552 2,263,307 2,663,021 2,068,D33 ~,106,680
Bxports frem U.K. . 504,998 554,762 782,247 851,859 702,288
Re·exportM from U.K., 1,855 1,522 24,753 36,218 26,~23
Books of Reference
PaCifiC lsla,d. Year Book. Sydney, 1956
Pariftc 1.la·.dI Trade. Direc/oT1/. Auckland, 1950
South Pacific Commission. .Jl~Ttemnll of 6 Feb., 1911, and Erlmlim of 1 Nov., 1951.
H.M.S.O" 1952
WESTERN PACIFIC HIGH COMMISSION 565
Introducing the British Padfl< 'sland., . H .M.S.O., 1952
Am01l4 Thou Present. TM official . tory of the Pacific l'landl War. H.M.S.O .• 1946
Belshaw, C. S., Island Administration in th. South West Pacific. London. 1950
Luke. Sir Harry, Britain and the South Se4I. London, 1945.-From a South S.a Diory.
London, 1946
Oliver, D. L., The Pacific lslandl . Harvard Univ. Press, 1951
Rob.on, R. W. (ed.), The Pacific lslandl Handbook. 7th cd. Sydney, 1955
Wood, O. L., The Pacific Basin : .<l Human and Economic Geography. Oxford, 1942
GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS COLONY

The Gilbert and Ellico Islands were proclaimed a protectorate in 1892
and annexed (at the request of the native governments) as the Gilbert and
Ellice Islands Colony on 10 Nov. 1915 (effective on 12 Jan. 1916). The
Colony comprises 4 groups of atolls together with the adjacent Ocean Island.
Government. In each island of the Gilbert and Ellioe groups (except
Niulakita) and in 3 islands in the Phoonix group there is a native government
under an appointed native magistrate whose court administers a code of
native lalvs. The Colony is administered by the High Commissioner through
a Resident Commissioner.
Resident Commissioner. Michael Louis Hernacchi, C.M.G., O.B.E.
(appointed May 1952).
Total population (ccnsus 1947) 36,000, including 304 Europeans, 142
Chinese, 29,923 Micronesians and 5,066 Polynesians. Estimated total, Dec.
1958,43,842. In 1958 there were 1,474 births and 731 deaths.
Oeean Island is situated at 0° 52' S. lat., 169° 35' E . long. and is approxi·
mately 2 sq. miles in area. Population (Dec. 1958) 2,381, including 170
Europeans and 76 Chinese. This island was annexed and included in the
Colony (at that time a protectorate) by a proclamation of 28 Nov. 1900.
The Gilbert Islands between 4° N. and 30 S. lat. and 172° and 177 0 E .
long. comprise Little Makin, Butaritari, Marakei, Abaiang, Tarawa (head.
quarters of the colony and Gilbert and Ellice Islands district), Maiana,
Abemama. Kuria, Aranuka, Nonouti, Tabiteuea, Beru, Nikunau, Onotoa,
Tamana and Arorae. Population (Dec. 1958) 32,832, including 181 Euro·
peans and 4 Asians; area approximately 100 sq. miles. The Gilbertese are
classed as Micronesians.
The Ellice Islands between 5 0 30' and HO S. lat. and 176° and 1800 E.
long. comprise Nanumea, Nanumanga, Niutao, Nui, Vaitupu, Nukufetau,
Funafuti, Nukulaelae and Niulakita. Population (Dec. 1958) 4,938. Area
approximately 9! sq. miles. The Ellice Islanders are a Polynesian race;
their language is also known as Ellice.
The Phoenix Islands between 3° and 5° S. lat . and 1700 and 175° W.
long. comprise the islands of Canton (headquarters of the Phoonix and Line
Islands district), Enderbury, Birnie, McKean, Phoonix, Hull, Sydney and
Gardner. Population (Dec. 1958) 1,201 , including 110 Europeans and part.
Europeans resident on Canton. Area approximately 11 sq. miles.
The Phrenix Islands were included in the Colony by an order in council
of 18 March 1937. In March 1938 the V .S.A. claimed sovereignty over
Canton and Enderbury. In an exchange of notes on 6 April 1939 the U.K.

and U.S. Governments agreed, without prejudice to their respective claims,
to exerc;.se joint control over the 2 islands for a period of 50 years. Cantoll
is used as an international airport on the trails, Pacific route between Fiji and
Honolub, and both countries enjoy equal facilities.
The southern Phcenix Islands of Hull, Sydney and Gardner were
colonized by Gilbertese betwcen W38 and 1940. Phcenix, llimie and
McKean Islands are uninha bited, being too small for permanent settlement.
The Line Islands between 4° 40' and 2° N. lat. and 160° 20' and 157'
W. long. co.mprise Fanning, Washingt on and Christ,mas Islands. Fanning
Island : population (Dec. 19(8) 435. including 3·1 Europeans and 1 Asian;
area approximately 12 sq. miles. Washington Island: population (Dec.
1958) 305; area approximately 3 sq. miles. Christmas Island: population
(Dec. 1958) 374, including 1 European; area approximately 222 sq. milos.
Fanning and Washington Islands were annexed in 1889 and a repeating
station 'or the Pacific cable was established on the former. They were
included in the Colony in 1916. Both islands are worked as copra plantll.tions
by Fanning Island Plantations, Ltd, using Gilbertese labour. Christmas
Island \vas discovered by Capt. Cook in 1777, annexed by Great Britain in
1888 "nd. included in the Colony in 1919. It is the largest atoll in the Pacific.
The islllnd is partially planted with coconut trees and worked as a copra
plantati(;n by the Government.
Starhuck Island, 5° 35' S. Jnt., 155° 52' W. long.; area 1 sq. mile, un-
inhabitecl. MaIden Island, 4° S. lat., 155° W. long.; area 35 sq. miles,
containillg deposita of guano of doubtful value, uninhabited. Flint
Island, llo 26' S. lat., 151 0 48' W. long., and Caroline Island, 10° S. lat.,
150· 14' W. long., were, in 1951, leased to Mr T. A. Bambridge of Tahiti.
Vostock Island, 10° 06' S. lat., 152° 23' W. long., uninhabited.
Clinutte. The rainfall varies considerably. In normal years the annual
rainfall ranges from 40 in. in the vicinity of the equator to about 100 in. in
the North Gilbert Islands and 120 in. in the Ellice Islands. The Southern
and Central Gilbart Islands and Ocean Island are subject to periodic droughts.
The tem:Jerature varies between 80° and 90° F. by day and drops to a mini-
mum of 70· at night.
Educcuion. The Government maintains a boys' secondary boarding
school, tile King George V School at Tarawa, with 120 boys; a secondary
school fer girls was opened at Tarawa in 1959. In 1958 the Government
was also maintaining 18 primary schools with a total of 800 pupils.
At Oc!ean Island the British Phosphate Commissioners also had in 1958
under apprenticeship some 29 Gilbert and Ellice Islanders training in
various building or mechanical trades or as clerks or storemen. Under a
Colonial Development and Welfare grant students have continued to be
sent to l'iji and New Zealand during 1957 and 1958 for advanced primary
education and vocational training.
TherE, are 237 village schools throughout the Gilbert, Ellice and Phcenix
groups r m by the London Missionary Society, the Mission of the Sacred
Heart a:ld the Seventh Day Adventists. Estimated grants. in-aid to
Mission Bchools amowlted to £3,000 for the year 1958.
Wel/au. Government maintains free educational, medioal and other
lervices. There are no towns, and the people are almost without exception
landed proprietors, thus eliminating child vagrancy and housing problems.
Destitution is almost unknown.
Police. The Colony has a constabulary of 76 under a Superintendlont
of Police. Detachments are stationed at colony and district headquarters.
Finance . Estimated revenue for the calendar year 1958 amounted t o
£A504,401; principal items: cllstoms duties, £AI64,598; direct taxatiol1,
£AI;{,OOO; revenue from phosphate royalties, £A260,386. Expenditure in
11)58 amounted to £A476,577. Currency is Australian.
Agriculture. The land is hasically coral reefs upon which coral sand
has built up, and then been enriched by humus from rotting vegetation
and Botsam which has drifted ashore. The principal tree is the coconut,
which grows prolifically on all the islands except some ofthe Phcenix Islands.
Other food· bearing trees are the pandanus palm and the breadfruit. As the
amount of soil is negligible, the only vegetable which grows in any quantity
is a coarse calbdium (alocasilt) with the local name' babai,' which is cultivated
most laboriously in deep pits. There is also a little taro cultivated in the
Ellice group. Pigs and fowls are kcpt throughout the Colony, and there is
an abundance of fish.
Copra produetion is mainly in the hands of the individual native, who
collects the coconut products from the trees on his own land.
Trade. The principal imports are rice, flonr, cotton piece.goods, tobacco
and manufactured articles such as bicycles. The value of imports for 1958
amounted to £A 188,780. Exports are almost exclusively phosphate and
copra. The British Phosphate Commissioners exported 323,550 tons in
\1)58. Copra exports amounted to 7,540 tons in 11)58, valued at £A535,01)1.
ColoniaJ Biannual R'port on the Gilbert and ElIice Islnnd,. 1954-55. H.M.S.O., 1956
Exchange 0/ Note! belueen n.ll. G01'ernment in lhe United Kingdom and the Uniltd SlaUJ
OOttNlmenl regarding the AdministrlUion of lhe Islands 0/ Canton a~ld Endcrbu'JI. (Cmd.
5.989.) London. 1U39
OrimbJe. Sir Arthuf, od Pattern oJ Islands. London, 1953 .-Relurn to the Islands. LondoD, 19&7
Kenncdy, D. G., Handbook 0/ the Languag" 0/ tlte ElIice Islands. SUV., 194:;
BRITISH SOLOMON ISLANDS PROTECTORATE

British Solomon Islands Protectorate is comprised ill the approximate
area enclosed by 50 to 12 0 30' S. lat. and 155 0 30' to 169 0 45' E.long. The
Solomon Islands were first discovered in 1568 by Alvaro de Mendaiia, on e.
voyage of discovery from Peru. The group includes the islands of Guadal·
canal, Malaita, San Cristobal, New Georgia, Ysabel, Choiseul, Shortland,
Mono (or Treasury), Vella Lavella, Ranongga, Gizo. Rend ova, Russell,
Florida, Rennell and numerous small islands, including the Lord Howe
Group or Ongtong Java, the Santa Cruz Islands. Tikopia, and Mitre Islands,
and the Duff and Reef Groups. The four first·named were placed under
British protection in 1893; t.he other islands were added to the protectorate
in 1898 and 1899. The land area of the protectorato is estimated at 11,500
sq. miles; the larger islands are mountainous and forest· clad. The largest
island is Guadalcanal (estimated 2,500 sq. miles), and the most populous is
Malaita (estimated 46,000 inhabitants). The annual rainfall at Honiara is
about 90 in.; elsewhere the total may be as mueh a.~ 300 in. Malaria is
prevalent. The estimated population in 1958 was: Europeans, 700;

Indiam:, Chinese and Fijians, 650; Solomon Islanders, 113,000.
Education is mainly in the hands of the 5 missions, but there are also 6
government primary sohools (4 in Malaita, 1 each at Santa Anna and
Honian) and a government boarding school for boys. A teaoher and
vocational.training oentre at Kukum, near Honiara, was opened in 19.58.
Estimated revenue for the oalendar year 1959, £Al,529,236 (including
grant-in-aid from U.K., £A434,081, and oolonial development and welfare
funds, ;t:A369,400); estimated expenditure, £Al,529,236.
Coc'Jnuts, sweet potatoes, pineapples, bananas and some cocoa are grown.
Copra is the only oash crop of importance. Experimental plantings of rice
are being made. The main imports are rioe, biscuits, meat, flour, sugar, tea,
milk, k.~rosene, fuel oils, tobacco, soap and cotton piece-goods. Exports go
almost entirely to U.K. and Australia. Exports comprise copra (20,437
tons in 1958), timber, trochus shell, green snail shell and kauri gum. In
1958 total imports amounted to £Al,646,1l5; total exports and re-exports
to £Al,B25,828.
The medium of exchange is Australian currency. The estimated amount
of oUIT.moy in circulation at 31 Dec. 1958 was £A665,000. The post of
Resident Commissioner lapsed when the headquarters of the Western
Pacific High Commission were moved from Fiji to Honiara on Guadalcanal
in Jan. 1953, and the Protectorate is now administered by the High Com-
missioner.
Annual R~.rl. 1955-56. H_M,S.O .• 1957
Graver, J. 0., Geology, Mineral Deposits, and Prospecls of Mining Developmenl in IM B.S.I.P.
Londoll, 1955
Graver, J'. C. (and others), Tlu3 Sowmon Islands Geowgical Exploration and Research 1953-
1956. H.M.S.O., 1957
MacQuarrie, H., Vouta and the Solaman Islands. London ,1945
NEW HEBRIDES CONDOMINIUM

NOUVELLES HEBRIDES
The New Hebrides group lies roughly 500 miles west of Fiji and 250
miles n'Jrth-east of New Caledonia. Estimated area 5,700 sq. miles. The
group is administered for some purposes jointly, for others unilaterally,
as prov':ded for by Anglo-French Convention of 27 Feb. 1906, ratified 20 Oct.
1906, a~.1d a protocol signed at London on 6 Aug. 1914 and ratified on 18
Maroh 1922. The interests of British, Frenoh and natives, respeotively, are
proteotfld; the oonditions of land-holding in the islands fixed, and the
regnlation of the recruitment of native labour provided for. Within the
islands Great Britain and France are represented by High Commissioners.
who delegate their powers to Resident Commissioners stationed in the group.
British Rll8ident CommisMoner. J. S. Rennie, C.M.G., O.B.E.
French Resident Commissioner. B. M. Favreau.
The larger islands of the group are: Espiritu Santo, Malekula, Epi,
Penteccat, Aoba, Maewo, Paama, Ambrym, Efate or Sandwich, Erromanga,
Tanna IInd Aneityum. There are 3 aotive voloanoes, on Tanna, Amhrym
and Lo}levi, respectively. Earth tremors are of common occurrence. Rain·
fall at Vila averages 80 in. per annum. On 28 Dec. 1959 a cyclone almost
wiped out the town of Vila on Efate and destroyed the crops on the
island.
Population. Total population in 1958 was 55,7J3, of whom 51,242 were
natives, 659 British subjects and British protected, and 3,812 French
citizens and rMsortissants, including 1,900 Vietnamese. Malaria is the most
serious disease; tuberculosis is common amongst the natives; yaws is
successfully fought with penicillin.
Education. The Condominium pays a subsidy to the national administra·
tions for education. The British subsidize a small multi·racial school and
make grants to mission primary schools. The French have 3 primary
schools and provide assistance to the French mission schools.
Finance. Condominium revenue, 1958, £538,489; expenditure, £542,453;
British service revenue, 1958-59, £AI6,792; expenditure, £A123,333;
French service revenue, 1958, 563,930,000 N.H. francs; expenditure,
475,430,000 N.H. franes. Ajoint development plan financed by the British
Colonial Development and Welfare Funds and the French FIDES has been
drawn up.
Justice. There are English and French cow·ts and a joint court.
Production. The chief product for export is smoke· dried copra, which is
grown on European and native plantations. Native production comprises
about two· thirds of the whole. Minor exports, including cocoa, coffee and
frozen fish, are increasing. Prospecting for minerals is in progress, and the
exploitation of manganese deposits is contemplated.
Sugar cane and aU tropical fruits grow weU. Kauri pine is found on
Aneityum. There are sevcral British and French trading companies in tbe
group. Settlers and real estate companies have acquired interests in land,
the ownership of which is frequently disputed, and which in consequence
remains undeveloped pending adjudication by the Joint Court.
Comme·rce. In 1958 imports totalled £1,463,580, of which £763,500 came
from Australia, £302,300 from U.K. and £181,610 from France. Principal
imports were hardware, machinery and rice. Exports in 1958 totalled
£2,218,552, of which £1,665,380 went to France. Principal export was
copra, £1,534,187 (33,548 metric tons). Imports of arms, ammunition,
wines and spirits is prohibited except under permit.
Communications. There is frequent communication by air with New
Caledonia and Australia and a regular three.weekly shipping service from
and to Australia via New Caledonia. In 1958, 99 vessels of 216,487 net
tons entered and left the ports. Of these 20 were British, 46 French and
25 Japanese.
Banl.-ing. There are branches of the Bank of Indo·China at ViI a and
Santo and savings bank agencies of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia
at Villi., San to, Tanna and Aobn..
Annual Reporl, 19~5-S6 . H.M.S.O., 1958

Aubert de la Rile, E .•us NtnJfJl!JJ.. Hebrides. Montreal. 1945
New Hebri(k. Paper" Oz/ord Uni_.fulI EXl'eriilicm. Oxford,1951
Guiart, J ., Espiritu Santa. P"ris,1958
5iO THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EMPIRE
TONGA
FRIENDLY ISLANDS
TONOA cr the Friendly Islands, an independent Polynesian kingdom since
1845, continued up to 1899 to be a neutral region in accordance with
the Dechration of Berlin, 6 April 1886. By the Anglo.German Agreement
of 14 N(·v. 1899, subsequently accepted by the U.S.A., the Tonga Islands
were lef.; under the Protectorate of Great Britain. A protectorate wa.~
proclaimed on 18 May 1900, and a British Agent and Consul appointed.
British ~,nd foreign nationals charged with an offence against thc laws of
Tonga (the enforcement of which is a responsibility of the Minister of Police),
excluding crimes punishable by death or by imprisonment exceeding 2 yea.ys,
are 8ubj<,ct to the jurisdiction of the Tongan courts to which they are also
subject i'l all civil matters.
A new treaty of friendship betwecn the United Kingdom and Tonga was
signed in Nuku'alofa on 26 Aug. 1958 and ratified on 25 May 1959. Tonga
continue" to be a state under British protection, but has increased local
autonomy and, while external relations generally remain the responsibility
of the {fnited Kingdom, certain aspects wiII now be conducted by the
Governrrent of Tonga. The U.K. responsibilities are vested in the U.K.
Chief CO<llmissioncr for Tonga who also holds the position of Governor of
Fiji and acts through the British Commissioner and Consul (resident in
Tonga).
Queer... Her Majesty Queen Salote Tupou, G.C.V.O., G.B.E., born 13
March WOO, succeeded on the dcath of her father, King George Tupou II,
on 5 April 1918, and was crowned on II Oct. 1918.
Premier. H.R.H. Prince Tungi, K.B.E., Heir Apparent.
The I·resent constitution is almost identical with that granted in 1875 by
King George Tupou 1. There is a Privy Council, Cabinet, Legislative
Assembl~r and Judiciary. The legislative assembly, which meets annually,
is composed of 7 nobles elected by their peers, 7 elected representatives of
the people and the Ministers of the Crown (numbering 7), or 22 members
including the Speaker. The elections are held triennially.
The 1:ingdom consists of some 150 islands and islets with a total area of
270 sq. miles (including inland waters), and lies between 15° and 23° 30' S.
lat. and 137 0 and 177 0 W. long., its western boundary being the eastern
boundaI;' of Fiji. The islands are split up into the following groups reading
from nort.h to south: Vava'u, Ha'apai, Kotu, Nomuka, Otu Tolu and
TongRtapu. The 3 main groups, both from historical and administrative
significaLce, are Tongatapu in the south, Ha'apai in the centre and Va\,a'u
in the north. The Tongatapu group was discovered by Tasman in 1643.
The iHlands to the east, being mostly of limestone formation, are low lying
and with but a few exceptions seldom exceed 100 ft above sea· level. The
islands t ·) the west are of a volcanic nature, approximately 11, average
between 350 and 3,380 ft in height. After a violent volcanic eruption in
Sept. 19,~6 on the island of Niuafo'ou (Tin Can Island to philatelists, so
named b3cause of the method that was used of collecting and delivering
mail) the. 1,300 inhabitants were evacuated, most of them to Tongatapu
and 'Eu8.
The climate is mild and healthy, malaria being unknown. The tempera.
ture from May to Nov. rarely ex('.eeds 84° F. in the shade, with a minimum
temperature of 52° F. Census population at 26 Sept. 1956, 56,838, in·
PITCAlRN ISLAND 571
eluding 55,156 Tongans and 277 Europeans, of whom almost half inhabit
Tongatapu. Estimated population at the end of 1958 was 59,612. The
capital is Nuku'alofa on Tongatapu.
The Tongans are Christian, 28,177 being adherents of the Wesleyan
Church, 9,942 of the Free Church of Tonga, 8,364 Roman Catholics, 5,625
of the Church of Tonga, 2,925 Latter Day Saints, 847 Seventh Day Advent ·
ists, 529 Church of England, 429 lUlknown.
The Tongaus enjoy free education, free medical attendance and deutal
treatment. In Hl58 there wero 73 goverumcnt and 75 denominational
primary schools, with a total of 12,865 pupils. There are 2 government and
5 mission collcges (as well as 7 other mission schools) at which secoudary
education is provided for both boys a.nd girls, with a total roll of 3,148.
The reVCllllO for tho vear 1958-·59 amounted to f651,9D5, and tht>
expendit,ure to £804,009. .
Tc.llgan produce consists almost entirely of corra and bananas. Imports
in l!).5S were valuod at T£I,Hi8,66G; ('x ports, T£J,2IO,5!lO, including copm,
'1'£1,031,265, line! bananas, Tf85,978. The Union SteaJllship Co. of New
Zealand maintains a monthly servico New Zenland-Fiji-Tongn, and cargo
steamers visit th!l group from time to tim\) for shipments of eopra. Shipping
cnt<:lredat Nuku'alofa in 1958 was 145,180 tons; cieared,lOI,tJ36 tons; and
at Vava'u, 10,047 and 'i0,OV4 tons rcspectively.
Since 1906 British and Australian coin has been legal tender. In 1935
the exchange standard system was (tdopt<:ld, based on Australian currency.
There is a government note issue of £5, £1, 10s. and 48. In 1957 the decimal
coinago system was approved; coins to the valuc of a tenth . a hundredth
and a thousand th of a pound will be minted in Lontlon. The weights IInd
measures are the s:tme as in Great Britain. There 111'0 no tmding banks.
The kingdom has its own issue of post'tge st.amp3. Tclephoncs numbered
GO:! in 1959.
II .B .M.'s Commissioner and Consul. A. C. Reid.
IJimnial Report. 1956 and 1957. H.M.S.O., 195~
Haw, K. H., Roy," Vi.tit tp TO'19u: 'l'onga GQt¥rnment 0.llkiaJ Record. London, l~:' ·'
Gi1furd, E. \V., 1'ongan Sodetv. IIooolulu, 1929
Lu.k •• Sir Uarry, Quun Salou and her Kingdom. LODdon,1951
M'aequ!1rrie, H ., Fr~lldJy Queen. London, 195:5
NeiH. J. S., 2'e7' Year! ill Ton(Ja. London, 1955
Wood, A. H., of Historv and Geographv 0/ Tonga. Nuku'alofa, 1932
PITCAIRN ISLAND
l'itcairn Island (2 sq. miles) is situated in the Pacific Ocean, nearly
equidistant from New Zealand and America (25 0 4' S.lat., 1300 6' \V. Ion!!.).
It was discovered by Cart<:lret in 1767, but remained uninhabited until 1790,
when it was occupied by the mutineers of H.M.S. Bounty, with 80me women
from Tahiti. Nothing was known of their existence until the island was
visited in 1808. In 1856 the population having hecome too large for tho
island's resources, the inhabitants (192 in number) were, at their own request,
removed to Norfolk Isla.nd: but 40 of them 800n returned. The popula·
tion (June 1959) numbers 14;') persolls. It is a British colony by settle·
ment, and was brought within the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner
for the Wf'stern Pacific in 1898.
Under the Pitcairn Order in Council 1952 (45V) the Government is
administered by the Governor of Fiji through a council consisting of a
chief magistrate, 2 assessors, a secretary and a chairman of the internal

commHtee. The chief magistrate is elected triennially, the others annually
by the people. Fruit, vegetables and curios are sold to passing ships;
flour, sugar and other foodstuffs are imported.
ThE' uninhabited islands of Henderson (12 sq. miles), Ducie (21 sq. miles)
and Oeno (2 sq. miles) were annexed in 1902, and a.re included in the Pitcairn
group.
Chi,if Magistrate. John Christian.
Neill. J. S., and Cool<, D., Pilcairn bland. GtTl4raJ ;Jdmlnutrall.. and Jf<dica/ R'Porll.
R .M.S.O .. 1938
575
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

GOVERNMENT
THE Declaration of Independence of the 13 states of which the American
Union then consisted was adopted by Congress on 4 July 1776. On
30 Nov. 1782 Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the U.S.A.,
and on 3 Sept. 1783 the treaty of peace was concluded.
CONSTITUTION. The form of government of the U.S.A. is based on
the constitution of 17 Sept. 1787, to which ten amendments (called collec-
tively 'the Bill of Rights ') were added 15 Dec. 1791; two in 1795 and 1804;
a 13th amendment, 6 Dec. 1865, abolishing slavery; a 14th in 1868, includ-
ing the important' due process' clause; a 15th, 3 Feb. 1870, establishing
equal voting rights for white and coloured; a 16th, 3 Feb_ 1913, authorizing
the income tax; a 17th, 8 April 1913, providing for popular election of
senators; an 18th, 16 Jan. 1919, prohibiting alcoholic liquors; a 19th,
18 Allg. 1920, establishing woman suffrage; a 20th, 23 Jan. 1933, advancing
the date of tho President's and Vice· President's inauguration and abolishing
the 'lame-duck' sessions of Congress; a 21st, 5 Dec. 1933, repealing the
18th (liquor prohibition) amendment; a 22nd, 26 Feb. 1951, limiting a
President's tenure of office to 2 terms, or to 2 terms plus 2 years in the case
of a Vice-President who has succeeded to the office on the death, resignation
or incapacity of a President.
The 5th article of the constitution provides that Congress may, on a
two· thirds vote of both houses, propose amendments to the constitution,
or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of all the states, call
a convention for proposing amendments, \vhich in either case shall be valid
as part of the constitution when ratified by the legislatures of three·fourths
of the several states, or by conventions in three· fourths thereof, whichever
mode of ratification may be proposed by Congress.
By the constitution the government of the nation is composed of thr<le
co· ordinate branches, the executive, the legislative and the judicial.
The National Government has authority in matters of general taxation,
treaties and other dealings with foreign Powers, foreign and inter-state
commerce, bankruptcy, postal service, coinage, weights and measures,
patents and copyright, the armed forces (including, to a certain extent, the
militia), and crimes against the U.S.A.; it has sole legislative authority over
the District of Columbia and the possessions of the U.S.
National flag: 7 red and 6 white alternating stripes, horizontal; with a
blue canton, extending down to the lower edge of the 4th red stripe from the
top, and displaying 50 white 5-pointed stars, one for each state. The star3
have one point directed vertically upward, and they are arranged in 6 rows
of 5 each, alternating with ii rows of 4 each. On the admission of additional
states, star~ are added, effective on 4 July following the date of admission.
Congress, by law of 22 Dec. 1942, has codified 'existing rules and customs'
pertaining to the display of the flag, for civilians. All practices tending to
lower its prestige arc deprecated, but no penalties are attached.
National anthem: The Star-spangled Banner, 'Oh say, can you see by
the dawn's early light' (words by F. S. Key, 1814; tunc by J. S. Smith;
formally adopted by Congress 3 March 1931).
National mollo: • In God we trust'; formally adopted by Congress
30 July 1956.
576 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PRESIDENCY. The exeeutive power is vested in a president, who holds

office for 4 years, and IS elected, together with a vice-president chosen for the
same term, by electors from each state, equal to the whole number of senators
and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress.
The President must be a natural· born citizen, resident in the country for 14
years, and at least 35 years old.
The presidential election is held every fourth (leap) year on the Tuesday
after tbe first Monday in November. Technically, this is an election of
presidential electors, not of a president directly; the electors thus chosen
meet and give their votes (for the candidate to whom they are pledged, in
some states by law, hut in most states by custom and prudent politics) at
their rellpective state capitals on the first Monday after the second Wednes-
day in December next following their election; and the votes of the electors
of all the states are opened and counted in the presence of both Houses of
Congress on the sixth day of January. The total electorate vote is one for
each senator and representative. With the addition of Alaska and Hawaii
in 1959, the number of senators is 100, permanently, but under the terms
of the Ena bling Acts the number of representatives is 437 only until the
next reapportionment of the House following the 1960 census. For the
election of 1960, the majority necessary for election will be 269.
If the succe.'lSful candidate for President dies before taking office, the
Vice-President·elect becomes President; if no candidate has a majority
or if thE' successful candidate fails to qualify, then, by the twentieth amend·
ment, t:le Vice-President acts as President until a president qualifies. The
duties of the Presidency, in absence of the President and Vice-President by
reason of death, resignation, removal, inability or failure to qualify, devolve
upon the Speaker of the Houso under legislation enacted 18 July 1947.
And in case of absence of a Speaker for like reason, the presidential duties
devolve upon the President pro tem. of the Senate and successively upon
those members of the Cabinet in order of precedence, who have the con-
stitutional qualifications for President.
The presidential term, by the 20th amendment to the constitution, begins
at noon on 20 Jan. of the inaugural year. This amendment also instals the
newly elected Congress in office on 3 Jan. instead of-as formerly-in the fol.
lowing December. The President's salary is SlOO,OOO per year, plus $50,000
for tra,'elling expenses and official entertainment. The Vice-President's
salary, uince 1 March 1955. is 135,000, plus 110,000 allowance for travel.
The President is C.-in·C, of the Army, Navy and Air Force, and of the
militia o;vhen in the service of the Union. The Vice-President is ex.officio
President of the Senate, and in the case of' the removal of the President, or
of his d.~ath, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of
his offic'},' he becomes the President for the remainder of the term. In case
of the death or resignation of the Vice· President, the President pro tem.
continu'18 as presiding officer of the Senate and the office of Vice-Presidcnt
remains vacant.
Pre.sident of the United State.s. Dwight David Eisenhower, of New York
State, corn in Deni80n, Texas, 14 Oct. 1890; graduated from West Point
Military Academy, 1915; in Regular Army thereafter, becoming in Feb.
1943 a full general, and on 31 Dec. 1943 Supreme Commander Allied Forces
in the European theatre, receiving the surrender of the German generals at
Rheims, 7 May 1945; Chief of Staff, 1945-48; General of the Army, 1946;
president of Columbia University, 1948-50; Supreme Allied Commander
Europe, of the N.A.T.O. forces, 1950-52; resigned from the Army, June 1952.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMEN'f 577
Elected 4 Nov. 1952, inaugurated 20 Jan. 1!l53; re·elected 6 Nov. 1956,
inaugurated 21 Jan. 1957.
In Nov. Hl56 t.hose of voting ago in the U.S.A. lIumbered about 102·im.
At t!le Presidential election 011 6 Nov. 1956 tota,! vote cast, including men
and women in the armed services, was 62,118,03(\ of which Dwight D.
Eisenh(nvcr (R.) recei ..ed 3.5,582,236 (57 '3%) (457 electoral college votes),
whilo the Demncra.tic candidate, AdJa.i E. Stovenson, received 26,028,887
(41'9%) (7:l electoral votes); T. Coleman Andrews, a • States rigbts' candi-
date, on the ba,llot in 18 sta,tes pl)lled 167,826; other minor parties, 339,987.
Stevonson carried the states of Alabama (but lest 1 of the 11 votes), Arkansas,
Georgia, Mi~sissippi, Missouri, North Carolina and South Carolina.
PRESIJ.)ENTS 011' THE U.S.A.
Name From state Term of service Born Died
George Washingt.on Virginia 1789-97 1732 1799
John Adams Massachusetts 1797-1801 1735 1826
Thomas Jcfferson . Virginia 1.'301-09 1743 1826
James Madison Virginia 1809-17 1751 1836
James Monroc Virginia 1817-25 1759 1831
John Quincy Adams Massachuseth! 1825-29 1767 1848
Andrew Jackson Tennessee 1829-37 1767 1845
Martin Van Burcn. New York. 1837-41 1782 1862
William H. Harrison Ohio · Mar.- Apr. 1841 1773 1841
John Tyler . Virginia, 1841-45 1790 1862
James K. Polk Tennessee 1845-49 1795 1849
Zachary Taylor Louisiana. 1849-July 1850 1784 1850
Millard Fillmoro New York. 1850- 53 1800 1874
Franklin Pierce New Hampshire 1853-57 1804 1869
James Buchanan Pennsylvania 1857-61 1791 1868
Abraham Lincoln Illinois 1861-Apr.1865 1809 1865
Andrew Johnson Tennessee. 1865-69 1808 1876
Ulysses S. Grant Illinois 1869-77 1822 1885
Rutherford B. Ha,yes Ohio 1877-81 1822 1893
James A. Garfield . Ohio · Mar.-Sept. 1881 1831 1881
Chester A. Arthur. New York. 1881-85 1830 1886
Grover Cleveland . N(l\v York. 1885-89 1837 1908
Belljamin Harrison Indiana, 1889-93 1833 1901
Grovcr Clevcland . New York . 1893-\)7 1837 1908
William McKinlev Ohio · 1897-Sept.1901 1843 1901
Theodore Roosovelt New York. 1901-09 1858 1919
William H. Taft Ohio . 1909-13 1857 1930
Woodrow Wilson . New Jersey 1913-21 1856 1924
Warren Gamaliel Harding Ohio · 1921-Aug. 1923 1865 1923
Calvin Coolidge l\Iassachusetts 1923-29 1872 1933
Herbert C. Hoover California. . 1929-33 1874
Fro.nklin D. Roosevelt New York. 1933-Apr.1945 1882 1945
Harry S. Truman . Missouri 1945-53 1884
Dwight D. Eisenhower New York. 1953-61 1890
VICE· PRESIDENTS or THE U.S.A.
Name
John Adams
Thomas Jeff"erson •
. From state
• Massachusetts
Virginia
Term of service Born
1789-97
1797-1801
1735
1743
Died
1826
1826
u
Name From state Term of serv ice Born Died

Aaron Burr . New York . 1801-05 1756 1836
George Clinton New York. 1805-12 1 1739 1812
Elbridge Gerry Massachusetts 1813-14 1 1744 1814
Daniel D. Tompkins New York. 1817-25 1774 1825
John C. Calhoun South Carolina 1825-32 1 1782 1850
Martin Van Buren. New York. 1833-37 1782 1862
Richard M. John80n Kentucky 1837-41 1780 1850
John T:v1er Virginia · l\far.-Apr.184J1 li90 1862
George M. Dallas • Pennsylvania 1845-49 1792 1864
MiIlard FiUmore New York . 1849-50 1 1800 1874
WilliaIr R . King • Alabama. .Mar.-Apr.1853 1 1786 1853
John C. Breckinridge Kentucky 1857-61 1821 1875
Hannib!\.l Hamlin . Mo.ine 1861-65 1809 1891
Andrew Johnson Tennessee . · l\1ar.-A pr. 1865 11808 1875
Schuyler Colfax Indi o.na 1869-73 1823 1885
Henry Wilson . Massacb usetts 1873-i5 1 1812 1875
WiIlian: A. Wheeler New York . 1877-81 1819 1887
Chester A. Arthur New York . .Mar.-8ept.188J1 1830 1886
ThomM A. Hendricks Indiana .Ma... -Nov. 185 J1 1819 1885
Levi P. Mort·on Ne\v York. 1889-93 1824 1920
Adlai E. Stevenson Illinois 1893-97 1835 1914
Ga.rret A. Hoba.rt . New ,Jersey 1897-99 1 1844 1899
Theodore Roosevelt New York. . Mar.-Sept .190Jl 1858 1919
Charles W. Fairbanks Indiana 1905-09 1855 1920
James 8. Sherman. New York. 1909-121 1855 1912
Thomae R . Marshall Indiana 1913-21 1854 1925
Calvin Coolidge Massachusetts · 1921-Aug.1923 1 1872 1933
Charles G. Dawes • Illinois 1925-29 1865 1951
Charles Curtis Kansas 1929-33 1860 1935
John N. Gamer Texas 1933-41 1869
Henry .\. Wall ace Iowa 1941-45 1888
Harry 8. Truman . Missouri 1
.1945-12Ap.1945 1884
Alben W. Barkley Kentucky 1949-53 1877 1956
Richard. M. Nixon California. 1953-61 1913
, l osition
' vacant thereafter unW commencement or the next presidential term.
Cabinet. The administrative business of the nation has been traditionally

vested in several executive departments, the heads of which, unofficially
and ex .JjJi.cio, formed the President's Cabinet. Beginning with the Inter-
state Cnmmerce Commission in 1887, however, an increasing amount of
executive business has boon entrusted to some 60 so·called independent
agencief" such as the Veterans Administration, Atomic Energy Commission,
Housinf: and Home Finance Agency, Tariff Commission, etc.
Und er the National Security Act of 1947 a new Executive Department
of the Air Force was established, to operate, together with the Departments
of the Army and the Navy, under the general direction of a Secretary of
Defence. The Secretary of Defence as head of the National Military
Eatabliehment is a member of the Cabinet in lieu of the Secretaries of the
Army, Air Force and Navy. His precedence is that formerly accorded the
Secretary of War. All heads of departments and of the 60 or more admini-
strative agencies are appointed hy the President, but must be confirmed by
the Senate.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 579
The Cabinet now consists of the following:
1. Secretary of Stale (createci 1789). Christian A. Herter, of Massachu.
setts; member, State legi~lature, 1931-43; member, Congress, 19+3-53:
Governor of Massachusetts, 1953-57; Under Secretary of State, 1957-59;
appointed 21 April 19.59; born 1895.
2. Secretary of the Treasury (1789). Robort B. Anderson, of Texas;
lawyer and businessman; Secretary of the Navy, 1953-54; Deputy Secre·
tary of Defence, 1954-55; appointed 9 JUly 1957; born 1910.
3. Secretary of Defense (1947). Thomas S. Gates, of Penns:vlvania; in.
vestment banker: Under Secretary of the Navy, 1953-57; Secretary of the
Navy, 1957-59; Deputy Secretary of Defense, May-Dec. 1959: appointed
1 Dec. 1959; born 190(;.
4. Attorney·General (Department of Justice, 1870). ''''ilIiam P. Rogel'll,
of New York; lawyer; appointed 23 Oct. 1957; born 1913.
5. Postmaster·General (1792). Arthur E. Summerfield, of Michigan;
business man, hrgest dealer in Cbevrolet motor cars in the V.S.; appointed
21 Jan. 1953; born 1899.
6. Secretary of the Interior (1849). Fred A. Seaton. of NcbraAka; pub.
lisher, former Senator anci administrative assistant to President Eisenhower;
appointed 8 June 1956; born 1909.
7. S,-crelary of Agriculture (1889). Ezra Taft Benson, of Utah; execu·
tive director of thEl National Council of FarmerM' Co.operatives; member of
tbe governing body of tbe Mormon Church; appointed 21 Jan. 1953; born
1899.
8. S~relary of Commerce (1903). Frcdcrick Henry Mueller, of Michigan;
manufacturer; assistant Secretary of Commerce, 1955-59; appointed 6
Aug. 1959; born 1893.
9. Secretary of Labor (1913). James Paul Mitchell, of New Jersey;
professional perRonnel rn~nager in private companies and, since 1940, in
various labour relations posts in the Army; Assistant Secretary of the Army
in charge of manpower when appointed 12 Oct. 1953; born 1902.
10. S~T~tary of lIealth, Education and Welfare (1953). Arthur S. Flem·
Oling, of Ohio; university president and federal government executive;
appointed 1 Aug. 1958: born 1905.
Each of the above Cabinet officers receives an annual salary of $25,000
(beginning July 1956) and holds office during the pleasure of the President;
the Postmaster-General alone must be re· appointed and confirmed at the
beginning of It president's second or later term, the others merely continuing
in office.
CONGRESS. The lcgi~lative power is vested by the Constitution in a

Congress, consisting of 0. Seno.to and House of Representatives.
Electorate. By amendments ofthe constitution, disqualification of voters
on the ground of race, colour or sex is forbidden. Accordingly the electorate
consists theoretieally of all citizens of both sexes over 21 years of age (in
Georgia and Kentucky, over 18 years; in Alaska over 19 years, and in
Hawaii over 20 years), but the franchise is not universal. There are re·
quirements of residence varying in the several states as to length from 3
months to 2 years; differing requirements as to registration: in some states
the payment of taxes (called' poll. taxes ') is necessary to qualify for the
580 UNITED STATES OF A~lERICA
suffrage. In 20 states the ability to read (usually an extract from the

constit:ltion) is required-in Alaska tbe ability to read English ; in Hawaii,
Englisl:. or Hawaii:m; in Louisiana, English or one's native tong ne. In
Alabama the voter must take an •anti·Communist oath' and fill out a
questionnaire t,o the satisfaction of the registrn.rs. In some southern states
voters are required t.o give a reasonable explanation of what they read.
The National Association for Advancement of Coloured People (unofficial)
estimat.es the number of Negroes regiRtcred in Hl52 at 1,267,500 for tho J~
states of Ala., Ark., Fla., Ga., La., Miss., N.C., Ok la., S.C., Tex., Tenn. anG
Va,l Their estimate for 1948 was 750,000. In most states convicts are
exc\ud"d from the fran chise, in Borne states duellists and fraudulent voters.
Legislation designcd to discourage the rise of third parties haa been
adopte.l in a few states. In Florida new parties are effectivcly barred by a
law tha.t no party may prepcnt a list of candidates on the official ballot unless
it polled 5% of the votes at the preceding election. In Illinois 0. new part.v
must present a petition signed by at least 25,000 voters, including at least
200 in I)ach of 50 of the 102 connties.
Some form of Austra.lian ballot (first a.dopted by Kentucky in 1888) is
now used in all states; in Georgia it is mandatory in the general election but
not in the politically more important primary election. In Delaware and
South ':::arolina the various political parties furnish their own ballot· papers
to the 'lOter as he or sbe enters the polling. booth. In Georgia the use of the
Australian ballot is left to the option of each cowlty. Seventeen states use
diffcrent bn.\lots for federal, state and local elections.
Senate. Tbe Senate consists of 2 members from each state, chosen by
popular vote for 6 years, one-third retiring or seeking re-election every 2
years. Senators must be not leas than 30 years of age; must have been
citizen:1 of the U.S.A. for 9 years, and be residents in the states for which
they me chosen. The Senate hlls complete freedom to initiate legislation,
except revenue bills (which must originate in the House of Representatives);
it may, however, amend or reiect any legislation originating in the lower
house. The Senate is a.leo cnt.rusted with the powor of giving or withholding
its 'advice and consent' to the ratification of all treaties initiated by the
PresidBnt with foreign Powers, a two-thirds majority of senators present
being required for approval. (However, it has no control over' international
executive agreemellt,~' made by the President with forcign governments;
such 'agreements,' reprcsenting nn important but very recent development,
cover n wide range and are actually more numerous than formal treaties.)
It also has the power of confirming or rejecting major appointments to office
made hy the President, but it has no direct control over the appointment by
the PI'lsident of' personal representatives' or' personal envoys' on miS8ion~
abroad. Members of the Senate constitute a High Court of Impeachment-,
with power, by a two· thirds vote, to remove from office and disqualify any
civil officer of the U.S.A. impeached by the House of Representatives, which
has thl~ 80le power of impeachment.
Thl) Senate, since the Reorganization Act of 1946, has ]5 Standing
Committees (formerly 33) to which all billq are referred for study, revision
or rejection. The lower house has 19 such committees (formerly 48). In
hoth Houses each Standing Committee has a chairman and a majority
represonting the majority part.y of the whole House. For further details see
below under House of Representatives.
I Tn 1958 the number registered In these states (e,eluding Okla.) was estim,t.ed at
l,~0 3 ,O(IO.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 581
liouse of Represen/alives. The lower house consists of 4.37 1 membcl'8
elected every second year. Thc number of each state's reprcsentativ('s is
dct.crmined by the decennial census, in tht> absence of specific Congressional
lcgislation affecting the basis. The states, as the result of the 1950 census,
h!l ve the following representat.ives :
Alabnrua 9 Indiana 11 Ncb""ka . 4 Soutb Carolina 6
Alaska ' 1 Iow" . M Nevad" . 1 Soutb Dakota 2
Arizona ~ Ka08&S 6 New Hampsbire 2 Teunc:;aco 9
..\rke.nstl.q 6 Kentucky S New Jen3ey I·' 'l'exas . 22
Californi .. 30 Lol1 i~iana 8 New ~! e :tko 2 Utah . 2
Colorado 4 Muine . n New York 43 Vermont 1
COllOectieut 6 Maryland . 7 Nor t h Carolina 12 Virginia. 10
D'!laware 1 Mas.<achuset ts 11 Nortla Dakota. \V Mbington 7
Floridll. 8 Michigan IS Obio 2l \\' est Virginia G
Georgia 10 MiD.1Jesot.a \f Oklahoma G Wisconsin 10
Hawaii' 1 Mi""i".ippi 6 Oreg{.n . 4 Wyoming 1
Idaho . Mhisouri 11 Pennsyil·onla 30
lIlir.ois 25 Montana Rbode I. land
I Increased from 431i by tbo Abska anJ rr"waii Enabli ug Acts until the nCJ:t reappor-
tivnment. • From 19;J!).
The average constituency contains between 300,000 and 400,000 popu-

lation (of which ahout two· thirds are of voting age), but there are 32
districts (7% of the total) with 250.000 or less and 33 with populations
exceeding 450,000. By almost invariable custom the representative lives
in the district from which he is elected.
Representatives must be not less than 25 years of age, citizens of the
U.S.A. for 7 years, and residents in the states from which they are chosen.
The House also adD1it.~ a 'r esident commissioner' from Puerto Rico, who
has the right to speak on any subject and to make motions, but not to vote;
he iB elected in the same manner as the representatives. Each of the two
Houses of Congress is sole' judge of the elections, returns and qualifications
of its own members'; and cach of the Houses may, with the concurrence
of two· thirds, expel a member. The period usually termed 'a Congress'
in legislative language continues for 2 years, terminating at noon on 3 Jan.
Effective 2 March i!)55, the salary of a senator or representative, also
that of a resident commissioner in Congress, is $22,500 per annum, with
no tax-flee expense alIowance and allowances for travelling expense.~ and
for clerical hire as formerly. The salary of the Spea.ker of the House of
Repre.~e ntatives is $35,000 per annum , with a taxable expense allowance
of$IO,OOO.
No senator or representative can, during the time for which he is elected,
bo appointed to any civil office under authority of the D.S.A. which shall
have been created or the emoluments of which shall have heen increased
during such time; and no person holding any office under the D.S.A. can
be a member of either House during his continuance in office. No religious
test may be required ns a qualification to any office or public tmst under the
U.S.A. or in any state.
The 86th Congress (1959-61), elected 4 Nov. 1958 and with the 1959
addition of Alaska and Hawaii, is constituted as follows: Senate, 35 Re-
publicans, 65 Democrats; House of Representatives (Feb. 1960), 152 Re-
publicans, 279 Democrats ; 6 vacancies. Thc House of Repre8entatives
had 16 women members and the Senate I; the Lower House had 4 Negro
members. About 60% of the Sena.te and 52% of the House are lawyers
(in the British HOllse of Commons, l!)60, la.wyers number 101 out of 630,
or 16% ).
A new development, arousing comment, is the practice of Congressional
commHtees and sub-committecs of holding secret sessions from which press

and public arc excluded. In I !)58 about 34% of all Congressional committee
meetings were closed; in 1954, 41 %_
IN))IANS. By a n Act passed on 2 June 1924 full citizcnship was
grantell to all Indians born in the U.S.A., though those remaining in tribal
units 'ver.., still under special federal jurisdiction. Those remaining in
triballlnits constitute from one-half to three· fou rths of the India n popula-
tion. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 gave the triba l Indians, at
their own option, substantial opportunities of self-government and of self-
oontrolled corporate enterpriscs empowered to borro,v money, buy land,
machinery and equipment; these corporations are controlled by democratic-
ally elected tribal councils; by 1945 roughly a third of the Indians had taken
advantage of this Act. Recently a trend towards relea-sing Indians from
federal supervision has resulted in legislation terminating supervision over
specifk tribes. Indian lands (1958) amounted to 57,023,000 acres, ofwhieh
about 74% WIlS tribally owned and 23% in trust allotments, with the
remainder owned by the Government. Indian lands a re held free of
taxes. Indian population under jurisdiction of the Indian Bureau is about
342,000 (1950); nearly one-half are in the three states of Oklahoma, Arizona
and Nl>w Mexico.
STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Th" Union comprises 13 original states, 7 states which were admitted
without having been previously organized as territories, and 30 states which
had been territeries-50 states in all. Each sta te has its own constitution
(which the U.S.A. gua.1"antees shall be republican in form), deriving its
authority, not from Congress, but from the people of the state. Admission
of statCls into the Union has been granted by special Acts of Congress, either
(I) in the form of 'enabling Acts' providing for the drafting a.nd ratification
of a shte constitution by the people, in which case the territory becomes
a state as soon as the conditions are fulfilled, or (2) accepting a constitution
already framed, and at once granting admission.
Ea<:h state is provided with a legislature oft\vo Houses (except NebrllSka,
which since 1937 has had a. single-chamber legislature), a governor and
other executive officials, and a judicial system. Both Houses of the legisla-
ture ale elective, but the senators (having larger electoral districts usually
covering 2 or 3 counties compared with the single county or, in some states,
the to ..vn, which sends one representative to the Lower House) are less
numerous than the reprcsentn.th'es, while in 34 states their terms are 4 years
and in a few the Senate is only partially renewed at each election. Members
of bob Houses are paid at the same rate, which varies from S200 per
bienninm (New Hampshire) to $15,000 per alUlUal session (New York) or
from t5 to S30 per day during session, plus mileage, ete. l In 1955, 304
womeD-a record number-were ser..ing in thc state legislatures, 20 in state
senatell and 284 in the lower houses. Only 5 states had no women
legisla.t.ors, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia and Oklahoma. In most
states sessions are biennial, the Governor having power to summon an
extraordinary session, but not to dissolve or adjourn. The duties of the
two H'lUses are similar, but in many states money bills must be introduced
first ill the Lower House. The Senate sits as a court for the trial of
official! impeached by the other House, and often has power to confirm or
reject appointments made by the Governor.
I Tl.. rate of p"y of members of t·be AI""kIL legi.l"tnre has yet to be determined by I"w.
STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT 583
State legislatures are competent to deal with all matters not roserved for
the federal government hy the federal constitution nor specifically pro-
hibited by the federal or state constitutions. Among their powers are the
determination of the qualifications for the right of suffrage, and the control
of all elections to publie office, including elections of members of Congress
and electors of President and Vice-President; the criminal law, bot,h in
its enactment and in its execution, with unimportant exceptions, and the
administration of prisons; the civil law, including all matters pertaining
to the possession and transfer of, and succession to, property; marriage
and divorce, and all other civil relations; the chart,ering and control of
all manufacturing, trading, transportation and other corporations, subject
only to the right of Congress to regulate commerce passing from one state
to another; hLbour; education; charities; licensing; fisheries within state
waters, and game law8 (apart from the hunting of migratory birds, which is
a federal concern under treaties with Canada and Mexico). Taxes on income
were left to the states until 1013, when the 16th amendn~cnt was adopted
authorizing the imposition of federal taxo8 on income without regard to
apportionment.
The Governor is chosen by direct vote of the people over the whole state.
His term of office varies in the several states from 2 to 4 years, and his
salary from $9,000 (};orth Dakota) to $50,000 (New York). His duty is
to see to the faithful administration of the law, and he has command of the
nlllitary forces of the state. He may recommend measures, but does not
present bills to the legislature. In some states he presents estimates. In
IIll but one of the states (North Carolina) the Governor has a veto upon
legislation, which may, however, be overridden by the two Houses, in some
states by a simple majority, in others by 11 three-fifths or two-thirds majority.
In some states the Governor, on his death or resignation, is succeeded by a
Lieut.-Governor who was elected at the same tillle and has been presiding
over the stl1le Senate. In several states the Speaker of the Lower House
succeeds the Governor.
The chief officials by whom the administration of state affairs is carried
on (socretaries, treasurers, members of boarda of commissioners, etc.) are
usually chosen by the people at the general state elections for terms similar
to those for which governors hold office. State employecs, Oct. 1958, num-
bered 1,460,000, earning $465m. monthly; schools accounted for 467,000
employee~ (31 %).
LOCAL GOVERNMllN·l'
The chief unit of local government is the county, of which there are
3,051 with definite functions; in addition, Rhode Island bas 5 •counties'
which have no functions; Alaska does not have 'counties' as such. The
counties maintain public order through the sheriff and his deputies, who
may, in a crisis, be drawn temporarily from willing citizens; in many states
the counties maintain the smaller local highways; other functions arc the
granting of licences and the apportionment and collections of taxes. In
a few states they 0,150 manage the 8chools.
The unit of local government in New England is the rural township,
governed directly by the voters, who assemble annually or oftener if neces-
sary, and legislate in local affairs, levy taxes, make appropriations and
appoint and instruct the local officials (selectmcn, clerk, school-committee,
etc.). Townships are grouped to form counties. Where cities exist, the
township government is superseded by the city government. On 1 Jan.
1958, 1,633 cities and 17 counties had' city managers' or' council· managers '
with large executive po\vers.
Including the 3,051 counties, thero were (1957, but including tho states
of Alru!ka and Hawaii) 17,215 municipalities,17,198 townships, 50,454 school
districts and 14,424 special districts; total, including V.S. Government and
50 state governments, 102,393 units.
The District of Columbia, ceded by the State of Maryland for the
purposelJ of government in 179J, is the scat of the V.S. Government. It
includes the city of Washington, and embrll.ccs a land area of 61 sq. miles.
The Dis';rict has no municipal legislative body, and its citizens have no right
to vote E,jther in national or municipal concerns, Congress having sole plenary
legislati'?e authority. By an Act of Congress of 1878, its municipal govern·
ment is administered by 3 commissioners, appointed by the President;
currently and for some years there has been considerable agitation for some
degree (of' home rule' which would at the same time relieve Congress of
much lo~al detail.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Virgin Islands
each have a local legislature, whose acts may be modified or annulled
by Congress, though in practice t.his has seldom been done. The President
appoint" the Governor and federal judges in Guam and the Virgin Islands.
Puerto :Rico since its attainment of commonwealth status on 25 July 1952,
enjoys practically complete self·government, including the election of its
governor and other officials. The conduct of foreign relations, however,
is still 8 federal function and federal bureaus and agencies still operate in
the iAlaud.
GenE,ralsupervision of territorial administration is exercised by the Office
of Terri';ories in the Department of Interior.
The C0111!itution oJ the United Stat .. oJ America. Analv.ri. and interpretation. Ed. Edwnrd
S. Corwin. Washington, Gov. Printing Office. 1953
Amos, ~ir M., Leclutll on the Am"ican Con.ttitution. Londen, 1938
Anderso(J. WiUJam, Stale and Local Government. New York. 1~;)1
BAtes, F. G., Slate ao.m'm~'t. 3rd cd. by Field, Sikes and Stoner. New York, 1949
Beard, CbBrles, A., American Government and PolitiC3. lOth ed. New York, 1~49
Binkley, W. E., American Political Parti... 2nd ed. New York, 1945.-l'residtnt and
COW}"'" Newed. New York, 19·17
Rinkler, '11. E., "nd Moos, M. 0., A Grammar oJ American Politic" The NaliO'Tlal, State and
Local Government.f. 2nd ed., revised nnd enlarged. Ne~' York, 1952
Corwin, 1:. S., The President: Offir.e and Powe... History and AnalVd. oJ Practice and
Opinior.. 3rd ed. New York, 1948
Coyle, D. C., T'~ United Stut .. political system and !tow it works. New York, 1951; London,
HanRarJ Society, 1957
De Gra7-ja, A ., Public and Ilqvhlic,' political repre.sentati(ln in America. N('.w York, 1951
Fenno, R. F., The Pr..idenl's Cabi1let •.. Witson to Eisenhower. H.rvard Univ. Pre.,s, 1959
~'eTl(tll'on J . H., and McRenry, D. E., Etement. oJ A.,...ican G""ern"'~nt. 3rd cd. New
York, ]958
Rayn.s, Ceo. H., Th, Senate OJtM 1JniledStatea: 118 lli.lOryand Practiu. 2 vola. Boston,193S
Johnson, Claudius 0., American Gov,rnment. 2nd eel. New York, 1956
Kelly, A. H .. and Harbison, W. A., The American Co7t3titution, il.t origin and develop1Mnl.
Rev. ed. New York, 1965
0'
Merriam, C. E., and Gosnell ,H. F., The American Partv System: An {ntroduction to Ih.
Study Political Pa,ties in the United StuJ... 4th ed. Ncw York, 1949
Mill•• F. G., and Long, C. D., The Statistical Agencies of the Federal Government. New York,
1949
Mund, V. A., Govern1Mnl a1ld Bu.siM". 2nu .d. New York, 1956
Odegard, P. H., American POlitics, a study in political dynamics. 2nd ed. New York, 1941
Ogg, F. A., and Ray, P. 0., Introduction to Ameriran Government. 10th cd. New York, 1961
Patterson, O. p" Pre,idential Got'ernmenl in the Vnittd States: The Unwritten Constitution.
Chapel Hill, N.C., 1941
Riddick, .~. M., Tit. U.S. Congress: organitation and procedure. Manassas, VG., 1949
8cammon. H. M. (ed.), America Vol... Handbouk oJ contempora'1l election s/alislics. New
York,1958
AREA AND POPULATION 585
'Ihorpe. F. N. (comp.), The Federal and Stale Constitutions, Colonial Charlers and other OrganiC!
Laws of the Statu, Territories and Colonies n01D or heret%re formiTU} the United Slates 0/
.!merica. 7 vols. Washington, 1909
,,\Villiams, I. G., TM Rise of the Vice-Presidimcy . Washington, D.G., 1956
Zirrk, H ., GOfJernment Of Cilie:J il& lhe Uni-led Stales. Rev. ed . New York 1948 . ~Gorernmnz'
and Porities in. the United Stala. 3rd ed. New York ,Blbl
AREA AND POPULATION

PROGRESS A.ND PRESENT CONDITION
Population of the continental V.S,A. at each census from 1790.

RC3idents of Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, the Philippine Islands, Guam,
American Samoa, Virgin Islands of the U.S.A. and Panama Canal Zone,
and persons in the military and naval service stationed abroad are not
included in the figures of this table. The residents of Indian reservations
arc not included prior to 1890.
Decennial
Other increase,
White Negroes races Total %
1790 3,172,OOG' 7:;7,208 3,929,214
1800 4,306,446 1,002,037 5,308,483 35·1
1810 5,862,073 1,377,8(18 7,239,881 36·4
1820 7,8(16,797 1,771,6,6 9,638,453 33·1
1830 10,037,378 2,328,642 12,866,020 33·5
1840 14, I ~5 , S05 2,873,648 17 069 4:;3 32·7
1850 19,553,068 3,638,808 23:191:876 35·9
1860 26,[122,537 4,441,830 78.954' 31,443,321 3:;·6
• Made up of Anglo-Scottish, 89 ·1%; German, 5·6%; Dutch 2·5%,; Irish,1 ·9%;

FrenCh. O·6~,~.
3 :H,!HW Chinese and 44,On Indians. •
Decennial
Other increase
Wllite Negroes mces 1 Total ~~
1870 ' 33,589,377 ',880,009 8S,985 38,558,371 22·6
18 '70 s J 4,,1.37,292 .5,JY2,172 88,985 39,818,449 26·6
1880 43,402,!)iO 6,580,793 I i2,020 50,155,783 26·0
1890 55,101,258 7,488,676 3:>7,780 62,947,714 25·5
1900 66,80~,196 8,833,994 351,385 75.~94, ,57!j 2U·7
1910 81,731,957 9,827,763 412,546 91,972,266 21 ·0
1920 94,820,915 lU,463,131 426,574 105,710,620 14.9 .,
InO 1l0,286,HO I 1l,891,143 597,163 122,775,046 16 .1 a
1940 1 I S,214,8,0 12,865,518 ' 588,887 131,669,275 7·2
1950 134,942,028 1,,0·12,286 713,047 1:;0,697,361 14'5
1870: 63,199 Chinese, 55 Japa,nese an,j 25,731 Indians; 1880, 10:;,465 Chinese, 148
JaplUlese ond 66,407 Indians; 1890,107,488 Cllinese, 2,039 Japanese a.nd 243,263 Indians;
1900, 89,863 Chinese, 24,326 JaplUlese and 237,196 Indians; 1910, 71,531 Chinese, 72,157
Japanese, 265,683 Indians and 3,175 other races; lIJ20, 61,639 Chinese, 111,0l0 Japanese,
244,437 Indians and 9,488 other races; 1930, 332,397 InrliRns, 74,954 Chinese, 138,834
Japanese and 50,978 other races; 1~40, 333,969 Indians, 77,504 Ohine~e. 126,947 Japtl.Dese
and 50,467 other races; 1900,343,410 IndiallS, 141,768 Japanese, 117,629 Chinese, 110,240
otller races.
I Enumeration in 1870 incomplete. Pigures in italics represent estima.teu corrected
population.
I Between the 1910 census (15 April 1910) and the 1920 census (1 Jan. 1920), the period
covered waS 116! months (less than" full decade). .adjusting for this, tbe exact rate of
inc!'ease for the decade wag 15·40/0' Similarl," correcting for the 123 months between the
1£1'20 and HI30 ('.ensllses, the true fate of jncrea~ e was 15'7%.
I Figures for 1930 have been revised to include Merlcans (1,422,533), who wcre clossiJied
with' Otller Races' in the 1930 census report..
I Less than 1% o[ tne Ne","oe. were foreign born. Seventeen sout.hern states (including
D.O.) in 1950 had 10,225,407 Negroes (68% of the total Negro population); in 1940, 9,904,61~
~egroes (77%); in 1920, 8,912,231: 85 ' 2%); in 1900, 7,922,969( 89'7%).
Total population in 1950 at 150,697,361 comprised 74,833,239 males and

75,864,122 females (the first census to show women outnumbering men);
96,467,686, or 64%, were urban, 23,048,350 were rural farm and 31,181,326
rural non·farm. Native·bom Whites were 124,780,860 (61,952,802 males);
foreign· born Whites, 10,161,168 (5,176,390 males); Negroes had 7,298,722
males, and other races, 405,325 males.
Estimated population, including armed forces overseas, on 1 July 1950,
151,68::,000; 1955, 165,270,000; 1956, 168,176,000; 1957, 171,198,000.
1958, 174,054,000; 1959, 177,103,000 (including Alaska).
Th!. following table includes population statistics, the year in which
eaoh 0:' the original 13 states ratified the constitution, and the year when
each of the other states was admitted into the Union. Postal abbreviations
for the names of the states are shown in brackets. Continental U.S.A. is
the pa:rt lying on the continent of North America south of the Canadian
bonnd"ry. (For census population by states and regions in 1930 and 1940
lee THll STA.TESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK, 1944, pp. 495 and 496.)
('~nsus Census Pop . per
GEographic divisions Laod area population. population SQ . mile,
and states sq. miles, 1950 1 April 1950 in 1940 1950
Continental United Stal" . 2,974,726 150,697, 301 131,669,275 50·7
NeuJ En"lana • 63,159 9,31-1,453 8,431,290 141·5
Maloe (1820) . . . 31,040 913,714 841,226 29·4
New Hampshire (1788) (N. B .) 9,011 533,242 491,624 69·1
Vermc,nt (1191) . (VI.) 9,218 317,141 359,231 40·1
Massa"busetts (1188) (Ma ... ) 7,861 4,690,514 4,316.121 696·2
Rbod, Island (1190) (R.I.) 1,058 791,896 113,346 148·5
Cooneotlcut (1188) (Conn.) 4,899 2,001,280 1,109,242 409·1
M iddl•• ltla7llic 100,511 30,163,533 27,539,481 300·1
New York (1188) (N . Y.) 47,944 14,830,192 13,479.142 309·3
New Jersey (1181) (N.J .) 1,522 4,835,329 4,160,165 642·8
PeD.Illlvlva.nJa (1787) (Pa.) 46,045 10,498,012 9,900,180 233·1
Eall North Cenl,al 244,861 30,399,368 26,626,342 124-1
Ohio (1803) 41,000 1,946,627 6,907,612 193·8
IndiaM (1816) (lnd.) 36,20. 3,934,224 3,421,796 108·1
Illinoi ! (1818) • (/11.) 55,93. 8,712,176 1,891,2n 155·8
Micbi;:an (1831) • (Mich.) 61,022 6,311,706 .,256,106 111·7
Wisco lSin (1848) • (Wi •• ) 64,105 3,434,675 3,131,581 62·8
WISI No.th Cmlral . 510,614 14,061,394 13,516,990 27·5
Mlnne.ota (1858) (Minn.) 80,009 2,982,483 2,192,300 31·3
Iowa (1846). 56,045 2,621,013 2,538,268 46·8
Missouri (1821) . (Mo.) 69,226 .,9M.053 3,784,664 57-1
North Dakota (1889) (N.D .) 70,051 619,636 641,935 8,8
Sootb Dakota (1889) (S.D.) 16,636 652,140 642,961 8·5
Nebra!ka (1861) (Neb,.) 16,663 1,325.510 1,315,834 11·3
Kansas (1861) (Han •• ) 82,108 1 .9 0;,2~9 1,801,028 23·2
----
SouP> Atlantic 268,040 21,182,336 11,823,151 79·0
Del"ware (1181) (Del.) 1,918 318,085 266,505 160·8
Maryland (1188) . (Ma.) 9,881 2,343,001 1,821.244 231·1
Di.t.ofColumbia(1191) (D. C.) 61 802,118 663,091 13,150'5
Virginia (1188) (Vu.) 39,893 3,318,680 2,671,713 83·2
West "irginia (1863)(W. Va.) 24,080 2,005,552 1,901,914 83-3
Nortb Carolina (1789) (N. C.) 49,091 4,061,929 3,511,623 82 ·7
Soutb Oarolina (1188) (S.C.) 30,305 2,1l1,021 1,899,804 69·9
Georgia (1188) (Ga.) 58,483 3,444,.18 3,123,723 58·9
Florid 1 (1845) (Fla.) 64,262 2,111,30. 1,897,414 61-1
AREA AND POPULATION 587
Census Census Pop . per
Geographic division!! Land area: populatioD. population sq . mile,
nod states sq. mile:', 1!J50 1 April 1950 in 1940 1950
East South Central , 179,flS7 1l,47i,131 10,778,225 63 ·8
Kelltucl,y (1792) • (Ky .) 39,864 2,944,806 2,845,627 73·r,

Telln"", •• (l7~o) • (l'en".) 41 ,797 3,291,718 2,915,841 78·8
Alubam" (1 819) (Ala.) 1>1,078 ::,061,743 2,83t,961 5~·9
1lis.<;issippi (1817) (J/iss.) 47,243 2,178,914 2,I83,7U6 46 ·1
West South Central 430,381 14,537,v72 13,064,525 3.1-3
Arkansas (1336) 62,67u
-----
1,909,ull
(Ark.) 1 ,9~9,387 36·3
LOllisiana (1812) . (La.) 45,162 2,683,516 2.363,380 5H
Oklahoma (1907) . (Okla.) 69,031 2,233,351 2,336,4H 3204
Texas (1845) (Tex.) 263,u13 7,711,194 6,4J.1,824 29 ·3
- - - -
JJoullta;n SV7,296 5,074,998 4,150,003 f.I . ~
Montana (1889) (MolU.) 145,878 G91,024 t.59,456 4·1

Idaho (1890) 82,769 5S8,637 524,873 7·1
Wyoming (1890) (IVy • • ) 97,506 290,529 250,742 3·0
Colorado (1876) (C%.) 103,922 1,325,089 1,123,296 12·8
New Mexico (1912) (N. Mex.) 121,:>11 681,187 531,818 5·6
Ari1,olU1 (lH12) (A r ;z.) 113,&75 749,587 499,261 6·6
Utah (I~V6) 82,316 688,862 ~50. 3 1!) 8·4
Nevada (1864) ·(N",.) 109,789 160,083 110,247 1-5
- -- -
Pacific 31~,341 14,486,527 9,733,262 45·3
---- - -
'IV aebington (1889) (Wa., h.) 66,786 2,378,963 1,736,191 35·6
Oregon (18:;9) . (Ore?) 9G,:1l5 l,f,21 ,341 I ,OR9,684 15·8
California (1 8:;0) . (Calif·) 156,740 lO,5 8 6,~23 6,907,337 67 '5
---- - -- - -
Non -C{lntigllous Terrilorv, 19{)O . 582,372 I 3,535,873 • 2,597,479 3 5·2
---- ----- -
Alaska (1867) . 571,065 128,643 72,:;24 0·2
Hawaii O'er.} (1898) 6.407 49;1,794 42~ , 7;(J 78·0
Pllerto Rico (1898) 3,423 2,210,703 1,!:I 69,255 645-8
Virgin I.lands (1917) 132 26,665 24 ,8S9 202·0
American Samoa (1900) 76 18,937 12,903 249·2
Quam (1898) . . 203 59,498 22,2!)O 293·1
Pano.wa Ca"al Zone 1903) 362 &2.822 ;1 ,827 145·9
Soldiers, etc., abroad 481,545 118,933
Grand Total 3,557,098 • 154,233,234 • 134,266,754 • 43 ·2
I Excluding the Philippines (114,830 sq. miles) which ~ecame independent 004 Ju ly 1946.
Including Midway Islaods (2 sq. miles), Wake Island (3 sq. miles), Canton nnd Eoderbllry
Islands (7 sq. miles), Swan Islauds (1 sq. mUe), Corn Islands (4 sq. mUes) and Trust Territory
of t.he Pacific I-'ands (approxim"tely 687 sq. miles). Johnston nnd Saod hlnuds less thaD
1 sq. mile. Canton and Enderbury as-o owned joiotly by the U.S.A . and Orent Britain.
Corn Islands are leased from Ni~aragua, Population tigures for Corn Islaods are from censusea
of Nicaragua.
• Including population 0/ Midway Islands (416), Wake Island (349), Canton 8011 Rnderbury
Islands (272), Johuston aod Saud Islands (46), Swan I,;lands (36), Corn Islauds (1,304) and
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (54,843).
• Includinl'! Midway Ieland.(437), Oant<>o and Enderbnry Islands (44), Jobnston and Saod
Islands (69), Baker. TIowlaud and Jarvis Islands (10), .. nd Corn Islands (1 ,(,23). Population
0/ Trust Territory 0/ Pacific Islands, 1940, 131.25~ acc()rdillg to Japanese census. Excluding
Philippine Island., estimated population 16,356,000, densi!-y 142·4 per sq. mil••
The 1950 census showed 10,161,168 foreign-born Whites. The 10 coun -

tries contributing the largest numbers who were foreign-born were Italy,
1,427, 145; Germany, 984,331: R ussia (U.S.S.R .), 894,844: Poland,861,184:
Canada (non-French), 756,153: England and Wales, 584,615; I rish Re-
public, 504.961 ; Mexico,450.562; Austria, 408,785: Sweden, 324,944,
Increase or decrease of native White. and foreign- born White, population
from 1860 to 1950, by decades :
Native WhIte Foreign-born 'White

p., cent. IntTta..'l:e or Per cent
Total Increo.$t Total
increa$~ decretu«-) change
1860 22,82~,784 6,513,251 31-8 4,096,153 1,866,218 82'~
1870 28,095,665 5,26~,881 23-1 6,493,112 1,3~6 ,959 34-1
1880 3G,~43,291 8,741,626 31-1 6,659,679 1,065,967 19··1
1890 45,979,391 9,018,732' 24·5 9,121,867 2,562,188 39-1
1900 M,595,379 10,615,988 23-1 IO,213,BI7 1,091,950 12·0
1910 68,386,412 11,791,033 20·8 13,345,545 3,131,728 30·7
1920 81,108,161 1!!,i21,749 18·6 13,712,754 367,209 2·8
1930 96,30S,335 la,195,174 18·7 13,983,405 270,651 2·0
1940 106,795.732 10,492,397 10·9 11,419,138 -2,6n4.267 -18·3
1950 12",780,860 17,985,128 16·8 10,161,168 -1 ,267,970 -11 ·0
, Excllsive 01 population specially eoumerated in 1890 in Indian Territory and on
Indian rCferVo.tions.
In H'57 the median age of the population was 29·S years, i.e., one-half the
population was younger, and one· half older than 29·8; the median age for
women 'Vas 30·6 years and for Olen, 28·9 years. (1950 was the first year in
which tLe median age for women, 30'5, exceeded that of men, 29·9.) Those
65 years or older in 1957 were 14·7m. or 1 in 12 of the population.
PRINCIPAL CITIES
No. ot cities' Combined population'
OItJ .. with 1910 1940 1950 1910 1910 1950
250,000 o. more 19 37 41 15,161,680 30,195.339 34,832.95$
100,000-2.;0.00Q 31 65 65 4,840,458 7,792,650 9,478.662
6O,OOO-IOf),ooO 69 107 126 4,178,915 7.343.917 8,930,623
26,000-60,000 119 213 252 4,023. 3n 7.417,093 8,607,721
16,000 or <Jlore 228 412 184 28,504,450 n,748,999 62,06Q,161
• Exclusive of Uonolulu (Hawaii) and San Juan (Pnerto Rico).
The popUlation of leading cities (with ovcr 100,000 inhabitants) at the
census of 1950 (or later) and the land area (1 950) wero as follows:
I 'opula. Land area PopuJa- Land area
Lion, iD acl'&', tio~ in acres.
1 Apdl, 1 April, I April 1 April
OiLies 1950 1950 Cities 1950 1950
New York, N.Y.1 7,795,471 201,664 Indianapolis. lad.' 461.654 35,328
Borough. : Kan.... City, Mo. 456,622 n,~84
BroolJyn . 2,602,433 48,704 Newark, N.J . • 438,776 15,1Q.!
Manbattan 1,794,069 14 ,272 Dallas, Te>.:as . 434,462 71,680
Queens 1,762.682 72,320 Denver, Colo. . 416,786 42,762
Brow: 1,424,367 27,776 San Antoaio, Tex. 408,442 44,480
IUchnond . 212,020 :;'8,S92 Oakluad, CuUl. 384,575 33,920
Chicago, Ill. . 3,620,962 132,800 Columbu., Ohio 376,901 25,216
Loa Angel."" Calif.' 2,243,901 288,676 l'ortland, Oregon 373,628 41,024
Pblladelpl,ia, Pa. 2,071,606 81,408 Louisville, Ky . 369,129 25,536
Detroit, Mjcb . 1,84P,668 89.344 Roobester, N.Y. 332.488 23,040
Baltimore . Md • 949,708 50,368 Atlanta, Ga. . 331,314 23,616
Cleveland, Ohio 914,808 48,000 Birmingbam, Ala. 326,031 41,792
St Loui8,lI1o•. 866,796 39,040 St Paul, Minn. . Sll,349 t3,408
WasbiDgton, D.O. 802,178 39,296 Toledo,Obio . 303.616 24,512
Boston, Maaa. . . 801,444 30,692 Jersey City, N.J . 299,017 8,320
San Francisco, Ca1i!. . 776,367 28,M4 Fort Wortb, Texas 278,778 59,968
Plttaburgh, Pa. 676,806 34,688 Akron, Ohio 274,605 34,368
MilwaukeE', Wis. 637,392 32,000 Miami, Fla.· . 259,036 21,888
New Orlesna, La. • 602,647 127,616 Omaha, Nebr. . 2M,1l7 2G.048
Houstoo. Tel[ •. 696,163 102,400 Long Beach, Calil. 250,767 22,208
Bulfalo, N. Y . . 680,132 25,216 Providence, R.I. 24~.674 11,456
Minneapo1is, Minn. 621,718 34,432 Dayton, Obio. . 243,872 16,000
OIncinnatl, Obio 603,998 48,064 Oklahoma City, Okla. 243,504 a2,~12
Ban Diego, OaP 494,201 63,616 Ricbmond, Va. 230,310 2~,7H
Memphis, Tenn.· 488,550 66,688 Svracuse, N.Y.1 214,202 16,IU
8eattle, Wasb •. 467,691 45,312 Norfolk. VI>.. 218,513 18,048
• 1956. • 1967. • 1955. • 1956.
VITAL STATISTICS 589
PopnIA.- L:\nd a.rea Popnla- I ,and RIea
tiIJu, in acrc...o;;, tion, in acres,
1 April 1 April I April I April
Oitie. 1950 1~;O Cities 1950 1~50
Jacksonville, F!a. !!04/,17 Ifl,n28 Kansas City. Kalls. ]29,553 11,968
\Vorcester, Mnss. 203,486 2:.J,680 Phoenix, A..riz.' 128,84 1 lO.~44
Tul,., Okb. 1~2.;4U 17.0'~ Ev.,.,viUe, Ind. J~rl.636 11.fi20
Salt Lakt! City, Utab 182,121 34 ..~~'6 Trenton, N.J. . 12 ~ ,(l09 4,608
Yonkcrs, N.Y.~ 17 ~ .]45] 1,008 Scranton, Pa. . I2;i,a36 li).936
Des Moines, Iowa 177,965 3::'tl:~6 Kno3:ville, Tenn. 124, 769 ]6,256
Hartford. CorlH. 177,397 11 ,] 36 '.iampn., Flo.. lZ4,6 KI 1!!,160
Grand HBpius, Mich . 176,510 14,9,'6 Cumdeo, N ..T. . 1~-1- . !)5~ :',504
Nashville, Tenn. 174,307 14/}XIJ F:T'3ll0, Cal.' 122,944
Mobile, Ala. · 173,849 16.2[,6 Camhridge, Mass. 12tJ,7'!Q 3,968
Oary, Ind. 1 ]G~~, ~8 4 26,f124 Savannah, Un. . 119.638 9,344
Youngstown. Ohio ](H~,3 30 20,9U2 Canton, Ohio . 116,912 9.024
\Vichita, Kan9. 168,279 ]6 ..HS Glendale, Cal.c . 114.460
New Haven, Oon.n. 164,443 11,4:.6 Berkeley, CaI. . 113,805 6,080
Flint, Mich. 163,143 H.7 52 Elizahct.h, N.J. 1I2,S17 7,488
Springfield, Mass. 162,399 20,~R8 Fall Rh'er, Mass. }]],963 :1,696
Spokane, ,vast.. 161 t 721 26.5r.0 !)eOl'ia, Ill. 111,8!)6 8,256
Shreveport, La.' 160.80G 15,360 Wilmington, Del. IJO,356 6.272
Drid~port. C"nn. 158, 709 9,344 R""di"", Pa. 109.320 b,632
San .Jose, Cal. G 158,('1)0 New nedforrl. Mass. . ]09,1 ))9 12,224
8acramento, CaUl.' 15i,lH2 1f).~]6 Hammond,lnd.c 108.305
Daton Rouge, La.' 150,879 H•• 329 Corpus Christi, Ter. . 108.287 13.760
Fort Way ne. Ind ' 144,R79 12,032 Allentown, Pa.. 106,706 10,1 i6
'.facoma, "~Rsh. 143.673 30,6:;6 Moutgomery, Ala. 10R,:;25 16,704
l'.terson, N.J.. 139,336 5,184 Rocklord, Ill.' . 105.438
Albany, N.Y. . 134.995 12,160 Pasndenn, Cal.. 104.577 13.632
Charlotte, N .O. 134,042 1(1,2'10 nnlutb, Minn. . 104,511 39,812
Austin, Texll8 . 132,459 20,514 Wat"rbury, Conn. 104,411 17,664
Sout... llend, Ind .' Ul.170 12.928 l'omerrille, M..... I02.Ral 2,624
Chattanooga, TenD. 131,041 17,920 Little Rock, Ark. 102.213 13,440
}<~rie. Pa.. 130,803 12,032 l~tica, N .Y. IOl,!l3J 10,112
El Paso, Texas 130,485 16,384 Niagara Falls, N.T.·. 101,022
, 1956. ' 1952. ' 1%3. ' 1951. ' 1955. , 1958.
VITAL STATISTICS
Vital statistics are based on records of births, deaths, frotal deaths,
marria.ges and divorces filed with registration officials of states and cities.
Annual coUect,ion of copies of mortalit.y records from a national death-
registration area was inaugurated in 1900. A national birth-registration
area was established in 1915. These areas, which at their inception com-
prised 10 states and the District of Columbia, expanded gradually until
1933, when both the birth- and death-registration areas covered tbe entire
cont.inental D.S. Marriage and divorce statistics are compiled from reports
furnished by state and local officials. Data on annulments aro included in
the divorce statistics. The marriage·regist.ration area wa.~ established in
1957 with 30 state", Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
The divorce.registration aroa was established in 1958 with 14 states, Alaska,
Hawaii and the Virgin Islands. In July 1959 the marriage-registration
area included 33 states, and the divorce· registration area included 18
states.
Lh~e births
adjusted Deaths
for under- ~aternal under
registration Death.' Marriages t Divorces • deaths' 1 year·
1900 343,217 709,000 55,751
1910 2.7.0,000 696,856 948,166 83,045
1920 2.950,000 1,118.070 1,274,476 170,505 12,058 129,531
]930 ~,61S.000 ],3~7 ,240 1,126.856 195,961 14,S36 142.413
1940 2,559 ,000 1.417.2e~ 1,5Sl5,879 264,001) R,876 110,984
1 I,., Co " See notes on p. 690.
Llvo hirLhs
arljusted Dea Lhs
for under- Materoal under
remstratioD DeaLhs' Marriages' Divorces' deaths' 1 )'p.ar'
1950 3,832,000 1,452,454 1,667,231 38~.144 2,960 103.825
1955 4,104,UUO 1,528,017 1,531,000 377,000 1,901 106,903
1956 4 . 21~.n()o· 1,564,478 1,6~5,000 382,000 1,702 108,183
1957 4,~08,OOO' 1.633.1~8 1,618,000 3~1 ,000 I,H6 112,094
1958 ' 4,250,000 1,647,000 1,4-15,000 380,000 1,490 113,100
Registered live births were : 1920, 1,~08,8H; 1930, 2,203,958; 1940, 2,360,399; 1960,
3,554,149; 1950,4,047,296; 1956,4,163,090'; 1957,4,204,784'; 1958, 4,~0-1,OOO'.
I Excluding fret... 1deaths and deaths among the armed forces ovenleas 1940-68.
I Includes est.imates for 1900-20 and 1965-58; includes estimates and marriage licences
lor some "tat.,., lor all years.
I loclw1es reported annulments. ESLimated fOT ,,11 years except 1930 .
• Dea"bs from deliveries nnd complicatiollS 01 pregoaoe,v. childbirth and tbe puerperium.
Deaths for 1~49-68 were cla... i6ed acccrding to the 8llrth Revision 01 the International Liste
of Discas". and Co.uses of Deatb ..-bile tbose (or 193948 wc,.. olassiJieu /ICCOrding to the FiUb
Revision.
• Excluding freta! deaths. • Based on a 60% sample. ' Provisional.
The crude birth rate, based on totallive·birth estimates per 1,000 total
population, fell from 29'5 in 1915 to 18'4 in 1933; it rose to a peak of 26·6
in 1947 and has since levelled oB' at about 25 (provisional 1958, 24'5).
Estimated number of illegitimate live births in 1957 was 201,700 (70,800
white; 130,900 non.white); 47·4 per 1,000 registered live births (20 white;
207 non.white).
Deal.he, excluding fretal deaths (per 1,000 population) declined from 17·2
in 1900 to 10·9 in 1935, remaining stationary around 10·8 through 1945
when at 10·6 a fresh decline began; 1946, 10; 1950, 9·6; 1954, 9·2; 1955,
9·3; 191.6, (J.4; 1957,9'6; 1958 (estimate), 9·5.
Leading causes of death, 1958 (estimated), per 100,000 population and
percenu.ge of total: Diseases of heart, 365·7 (38'5%); malignant neoplasms,
145·6 (J.)'3 % ); vascularlesions affecting the nervous system, 1I1'4 (1l'7%);
accidents, 53·7 (5,6%); certain diseases of early infancy, 39·6 (4,2%). Sui·
cides in 1958 were 10·7 per 100,000 population (11'2 in 1945); homicides,
4-1(5'7 ).
The marriage rates per 1,000 population for selected years are: 1920,
12; 1932,7'9; 1946,16'4: 1951,10'4; 1955,9'3; 1956,9'5; 1957,8'9; 1958
(proviSional), 8·3 .
The divorce rates per 1,000 population for selected years are: 1920, 1·6;
1946,4':J; 1951,2'5; 1955 and 1956, 2'3; 1957, 2·2; 1958 (estimate), 2·2.
Matt,rnal mortality rates (deaths of mothers from maternal causes per
10,000 l:.ve births) were in 1915,60'8, rising to a peak of 91·6 in 1918, and
dec1inin;~ to 67'3 in 1930; 56·8 in 1936; 20'7 in 1945; 1946,15'7; 1949,9;
1950,8':!; 1951,7'5; 1952,6'8; 1953,6'1; 1954,5'2; 1955,4'7; 1956,4'1;
1957,4' 1; 1958 (estimate), 3·5. The 1957 rate for white women was 2·8
and for lion· white women 1l·8. By state, the average maternal rate for
1956 ano:! 1957 was highest for Mississippi (1l'9); lowest for Massachusetts
(1'5).1
Infant morta.1ity rates (per 1,000 live births) began in 1915 at 99·9, fell
to 85·8 in 1920,71'7 in 1925; 64·6 in 1930; 38'3 in 1945,29'2 in 1950,26'4
in 1955,26 in 1956,26'3 in 1957; 1958 (estimate), 26·9. In 1957 the rate
for whites was 23·3; for non.whites, 43·7.
I Onl, tbose states lor which tbere was an annual average of more tban 10 death' .....
Included io 'bis comparison.
IMMIGRATION 591
IMMIGRATION
For the year ended 30 June 1959, a total of 1,285,631 aliens were ad·
mitted (1,101,029 in 1957-58); of these, 260,686 immigrants ent.ered for
permanent residence (253,265 in 1957-58) and 1,024,941) non.immigrant
aliens were admitted for temporary periods (847,864 in 19{>7-58). Of the
immigrants, 07,657 were admitted under the quotas and 163,029 as non·
quota immigrants. The latter group included 66,386 natives of the in·
dependent countries of the Western Hemisphere and 36,402 spouses and
children of U.S. citizens; also included were 25,424 Hungarians who had
been in the U.S. for 2 or more years under parole and whose status had
been adjusted to that of permanent resident under the Act of 25 July 1958.
Further non.quota admissions, numbering 24,834, were granted unrler the
Act of II Sept. 1957 to orphans, skilled aliens and various gronps of ref1lgees.
The total number of alien immigrants admitted from 1820 up to 30 June
1959 was 41,575,563; this inclurles 9,231,297 from U.K. and Ireland,
6,696,842 from Germany, 4,949,006 from Italy, 4,268,462 from Austria,-.
Hungary, 3,344,298 from U.S.S.R., 3,508,730 from Canada and 1,076,168-
from Asia.
During the year ended 30 June 1959, 7,988 aliens were deported and
56,610 others were requirecl to depart.
Immigrant aliens admitted to U.S. for residence, by country or region
of birth or last residence, years ended 30 June:
Oountry or re~ion 01 birth Immigrants admitted
or last residenco 1930 1940 1950 19.,8 19511
AU countries 241,700 70,756 249.187 2r;3,265 260.686
Europe. 141,438 00,464 199,115 138,311 158,023
Scandinavia 6.919 1,266 6,539 6,101 6.013
FraDce 3,713 2.676 4,430 4,100 4,487
Gormany 26,569 21,620 128,692 32.145 31,422
Greece 2.291 811 1,179 3,079 4,507
Ireland 17,971 749 6.842 10.B8R 7,371
Italy . 22.321 6,302 12.4'4 24,479 16.251
Netherlands 2,738 2,097 3,080 3.711 4,005
U.K. 36,489 6,248 12,76, 27,~13 20.~54
U.S.S.R. 1,133 40 6 l,8U9 2,471
North America 84,807 16,707 37,004 80,788 64,740
Canada 65,254 10.806 21,885 aO,050 2'1,082
Mexico 12,703 2,313 6,744 '26,712 23.061
West Indies &,225 2,67, 6,206 16,762 12.218
Central America 1,618 639 2,169 6,073 6,808
South America 3,301 1,115 3,284 11,039 0,792
Asia 4,536 1,913 3,779 19,867 2·1.312
A.frica . . . • 671 202 84g 2,040 2t6~1
Au.trolla t.nd New Zealand 1,026 207 460 937 870
Regulation of immigration, naturalization and citizenship is controlled

by the Immigration and Nationality Act, 1952, This Act revised or con·
solidated numerous statutes, including the Internal Security Act J!).~O,
Under the Act for the first time citizenship acquired through naturalization
may be revoked upon proof that the naturalized person, within 5 years of
his naturalization, became a memher of, or affiliated with, a subversive
organization, if such membership or affiliation would have precluded his
naturalization originally.
In accordance with the Immigration and Nationality Act, 2,948,694
592 lTNITED STATES OF AMERICA
aliens roported their addresses in Jan. 1959; there were 572,468 of British
or Canadian nfttionality. 503,958 Mexican, 269,167 German and 267,354
Italian.
In the year ended 30 June 1958,119,866 persons were naturalized; these
included 20,486 from Germany, 12,428 from the U.K. and colonies and 10,211
from Canada.
Divine, Ft. A., American Immigration Policy, 19U-52. Yale Unl". Press, 1957
HutchitlJ!Jn, B. P., [mmigrams and their Children, 1850-1950. New York, 1956 .
Okum, D .• Trends in birth rat.. in tlte U.8. since 1870. Johns Hopkins Un!v. Press, 1958
Thompson, J. W., Population and iU Distribution. 7th cd. New York, 1952
RELIGION
For details of the 1936 Census of Religious Bodies. see THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR· HOOK, 1948, p. 493.
The Yearbook of American Churches for 1960 (issued Sept. 1959), published
by the Xational Council ofthe Churches of Christ in the V.S.A., New York.
N.Y., l'resentB a table of church membership reflecting the latest figures
available from official statisticians of church bodies. The large majority of
the reports are for the calendar year 1958, or a fiscal year ending in
1958. The reports indicate that there were 109,557,741 members in 251
religious bodies of continental V.S., in 309,449 local churches. There were
235,272 clergymen having local congregations. The figure for membership
represented a gain of 5,368,063 persons over the reports in the previous
Yearbook. The principal religious bodies (numerically or historically) or
groups of religious bodies are shown below:
Local Total
Denominations churches memborsblp
Summary :
Protestant bodies . 282.008 61.504.669
ll'lwan Catholic Church 21,617 39,[;09,508
J,wi.b Congregations' 4,079 5.(;00.500
Bastern Churches' . . . . . . 1.363 2,545.318
Od C1atholic, Polish Notional Catholic and Armeninn 331 488.246
B'lddhists . 01 10,000
1958 totals 309,44~ 109,::;57,741
Protestant bodie. :
A·iventist t)Odit~8 3,498 33S 603
A,.semblies of God 8.088 505.552
B lptist bodies . . 90,487 20,493.381
B :ethreu. German BapUst 1,412 . 249,175
Brethren, Hiver . ..... 180 7,670
Chri .•t,an Churches (Disciples of Christ), Inter·
national Convent,on . 25.445 3,943.599
Ohurch 01 Christ, Scientist •. 2.113 268.916
C'lurcb of God In Christ 3,800 380.428
C;1Urch of the Nazarene 4.309 291.036
0lUrches 01 Ch,ist 17,600 2,000,000
Ohurch.. 01 Ood . 8,465 409.-158
Olurches 01 tbe Living God 343 27,350
Uaurches of tbe New Jerusalem . 62 5.762
O)ngregational Cbrlstlan Churche.· 5.341 1,381,124
, Includes Orthodox, Conservative and Relormed bodies.
• Includes 18 01 the Eastern Ortbodo:r churches.
• For 1936. as reported in Federal Census of Religious Bodies. Figures not Included In
the total. above. Tbe Churoh 0/ Cbrlst, Scientist, bas a regulation lort.lddlng tbe publi..tlon
ol.tatlal.les 01 memhershlp. It reported about 3.100 local churches In 1966.
• A nerger
. of Congregational Churchea and the Geneml Convention of the Chrlstlllll
Church In 1931. Thh body and the Evangelical Reformed Church &re In process of forming
the Uni';ed Church of Christ, but until a constitution for the new body Is approved, the
separate organizations continue to function.
EDUCATION 593
Local Total
Denomioations chnrches memberobip
Protcst,ant bodies (conld.):
Rmn,;:elical aod Iu,!ormed Chllrch' 2,731 806,365
EvnrJgclko.l ll' (ee Churcb of Ameri ca 368 31.192
E~ flh~eHcal United Brethren Church' 4. R53 749.188
E\""angelil'ltio A ~sociatiol1S . SOl 42.~60
·Fri~nds. Religioue Society o! l,U16 120,766
f..r8l..tcr .Day Saints . 4.085 1.546.751
Lutheran bodies 16.596 7.791.248
Me-nnonite bodies 1,571 156.2~0
:r.tetllodis' bodies 58,831 12,213.097
lforavioo bodies . . 188 66,443
Pent.e<:ost,al AssemuIJ.. 4,515 391,099
Presbyteriau bodies . 14,6 ~6 4,126.533
Proteot,ant EpiBCOpaJ Cburcb 6,909 3,042.286
Reformed bodies 1,4,3 469.869
Salvat.lon Army . 1,273 250.583
SpirituaU.", ' 455 175,] 58
Dnlwian Churches . 373 108,396
United Brethren bodies • 335 20.218
U ni versalJst Churcb of America 334 68.949
• llcpresflutd merger o[ Evangelical Synod of North America nnd Reformed Ohurcb In
the UDlted St,ates In 1934. Sce Dote 1 (Congr"ll"tionl\i Ohri.UILIl Cburches).
• n~p.-nt. mel'ller 01 Ev.n~lIcnl Oburch and tbe Oimrcb of tbe United Brethren In 1946 •
• 01 t.hIa group. Church 01 Jesus Chri.t 01 Le.tter-day &lnts (p&rent body) ApOrte4
3,l t9 church.. and 1,394.729 members In 1958.
• The cl"",",Ocation embraces all denominations calling themselves Spiritualists.
Books of Reference
Yearbook Qf A""",ican Churches. Annual, from 1932. New York
Blansbard, P., Amnican Freedom and Catholic Power. BOIItcn, 1949
CJark ~ l:. T"'t !J'Ile 8 1'1'U.Ul S~CU ill. Atner1rll. Rev . ed. New York, 1949
Jobnoon, A.. W., and Ywt, Jo'. H ., SeparalVm of Clau,ch and suu. in W Vnikd 81aU••
Minneapoiis and Lond'Jn, 194e
Mead. F. 8 .. HIJnJ.iJooc oJ Dnwmi MJioM in W V .S . New York, 19~8
Moehlman, O. H ., T/j, Il' all of 8'1',J ""ion bd"'.... Church alul 8141.. Boston, 1951
Roemer, T., Tt.. CalhoJlit Chu.ch in Ch< Uniltd IilaUs. Ne'" York, 1950
Sperry, W. L., Religion in A merica. London, J 94.5
Stokes. A. P., Cllu,," and 8 lau in the V .S. New York, 1950
St<eet, W. W., The Slorv Of ReliVi"" in America. 2nd od. New York 1950
EDUCATION
Under the system of government in the U.S.A., education is com-
mitted in the main to the several states. Each of the 50 states has 8.
system of free public schools established by law, comprising elementary
schools, junior high schools and high schools, with courses covering 12 years;
in addition, all but 8 states have kindergartens and some states have 2-year
junior colleges and 4-year teacher colleges as part of the free public school
system. Each state haa delegated control of public elementary and second·
ary education largely to local school dist.ricts (numbering 48,600), each with
a board of education (usually 3 to 7 members) elected locally and serving
mostly without pay. But their school policies must accord with state laws
and t he regulations of the state Department of Education. Almost every
state hll.S compulsory school attendance laws; in 35 sta tes children are
requircd to attend school until the age of lG years; in 6 states until 17 and
in 4 states until 18.
The Census Bureau estimates that in Oct. 1952 only 2·78m. or 2'5% of
the 110m. persons who were 14 years of age or older were unable to read and
write; in 1930 the total was 4m. (4·9% ), In 1940 a new category was
established-the' funct.ionally illiterate,' meaning those 25 years of age or
over wh, had completed fewer than 5 years of elementary schooling; this
percenta.ge was 9 in March 1957 (for the non-white population alone it
was 26·\1%); it was 2'7% for the 25-29-year-old group. In lI1a rch 1957,
59'7% of the 25-29-year-old group had completed 12 or more years of
school, f.nd 10'3% were college graduates; for all persons over 25 years the
figures lIere 40'8% and 7'0% respectively.
In the autumn of 1958,3,226,038 students (2,092,218 men and 1,133,820
women) were enrolled in 1,892 colleges and universities; 772,292 were first-
time students. Total enrolment represents a number equal to 36 per 100
persons between the ages of 18 and 21.
Publie school revenue is supplied largely from county and other local
sonrces, 55·9% in 1955-56. State sources accounted for 39·5% and
federal flources for 4·6% . However, the tendency is for the counties and
local units to contribute less and for the state and federal sources to con-
tribute more. In 1955-56 the amount, including interest, expended on
public elementary and secondary schools was $8,567,861 ,000, representing
an ann1lal cost per pupil of $302. In addition, $2,387,187,000 or $86
per pupil was expended for capital outlay. Estimated expenditures for
private elementary and secondary schools in 1955-56 were $1,626,848,000.
In 1955--56 the 1,850 universities, colleges, teachers' colleges and professional
schools expended $2,766,367,000, of which $1,575,314,000 was spent by
institutions under public control. This does not include auxiliary enter-
prises alld activities, other non·educational expenditures and capital outlay.
Federal funds for the education of veterans amounted to $15,579,000.
excluding payments of living expenses and student, supplies; students (not
veteranu) contributed in fees $722,215,000.
Vochtional education below college grade, including the training of
teachers to conduct such education, has been federally. aided since 1918.
During the school year 1957-58 enrolments in these vocational classes
were : Agriculture, 775,892; distributive occupations, 282,558; home
economics, 1,559,822; trade and industry, 983,644. Federal support funds
were S3S,733,174.
Summary of statistics of schools (public and private), teachers and pupils
in 1955-·56 (compiled by the U.S. Office of Education):
Number
of Teachers Enrolment
Schools by level schools Tow Male Female Total Male Female
ElementsJy schools :
Publio 104,427 722,890 92,140 630,760 24,290,00012,492,000 11,799,000
Private· 12,372 93,620 4,400 89,220 8,886,000 1,963,000 1,924,000
Secondary school. ~
Public ' 26,046 410,203 202,030 208,173 6,873,000 3,416.000 3,457,000
Private' 3,887 60,730 21,300 29,430 823,000 864,000 459,000
Higher education:
Publio 650 113,101 89,987 23.114 1,687,000'1,094,000' 693.000'
Private 1,200 115,087 92,230 22,857 1,809,000' 871,000' 438,000'
8ubcollegiate' de-
partment. of in-
.Ututioos of
higber Education : '
PubUc 6,061 1,742 3,319 68,666 29,829 28,837
Private 2,366 1,089 1,277 43,193 23,359 19,833
Public aDd priva~
residential ""bool.
for e:tceptional
cblldren '. ' «4 7,100 1,350 6,760 80,100 48,400 31,730
, Estimated. • D ..ta for 1953-64.
• Blind, deaf, mentaUy dellcient and deUnqueot.
EDUCATION 595
Number
of Teachers Enrolment
Schools by level echools Total Male Female Total Mal. Femal.
N uraing schools, not
part., of colleges . 921 5,200' 9O,fii6 800' 89,176'
Federal schools for
ludians 236 1,710 570 ' 1,140 ' 36,685 18,G58 18,027
Total . 510,183 1,527,068 50G.838 1,015,030 39,2i7,219 20,321,0-14 18,851,873
• E3timated.
School enrolment, Oct. 1958, embraced 63·8% of the 3,845,000 who were
5 years old, 97'3% of the 3,747,000 aged 6, 99'5% of the 23,749,000 aged
7 to 13 years, 89·2% of the 10,592,000 aged 14 to 17 , 37·6% of the 4,158,000
aged IS and 1\1; 13 '4% of the 9,777,000 aged 20 to 24 years.
The U.S. Office of Education estimates the total enrolment in 1959-60
of all thc country's educational institutions (public and private) at 46,480,000
(44,540,000 in HISS-59) ; this was 26·2% of the total population of the
cont.inental U.S.A. as of 1 Sept. 1959:
Kinderga.rten /.!trough grade 8.' Public schools, 27,890,000 (26,780,000
in 1958-59); private and parochinl schools, 5,400,000 (5,060,000), other
small groups of schools, 170,000 (170,000); total elementary schools,
33,460,000 (32,010,000).
Grades 9 to 12.' Public schools, 8,100,000 (7,840,000) ; private and
parochial, 1,050,000 (1 ,010,000) ; other sma U groups of schools, 90,000
(90,000); total secondary schools, 9,240,000 (8,940,000).
Higher education.' Universities, coUeges, junior coUeges and normal
schools, 3,780,000 (3,590,000).
The Office estimates thnt the teachers needed for elementary and
secondary school students will be 1,563,000, but the total available will b"
1,368,000, indicating a need in 1959-60 for 195,000 additional teachers.
In a large part of the U.S.A. Negro children share the same schools with
the white children. But. some states with large Negro populations have
maintained sep:trate elementary and secondary schools for Negro pupils.
On 17 May 1954 the Supreme Court of the U.S.A. ruled tbat segregation in
the public schools in unconstitutional, concluding in ouo of the cases 'that
in the field of public education the doctrine of "separatc but equal" hlloS no
place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequa l.' On 31 May
1955 the Supreme Court issued final decrees which gave states and local
communities wide latitude in respect to time and method in implementing
the decision. A number of cities have proceeded to desegrega te their
schools without delay.
In 1957-f,8 the teachers' average salary, by states, ranged from $2,696
per ann um in Mississipi to $6,100 in New York; the average for the count.ry
was $4,720, which was about 11 % more than the average salary of all persons
working for salaries or wages. Only one state paid a n average salary of less
than $3,000; 3 states paid an average of more than $[',500.
Forty-five of the 48 (195g) states require at least a bac helor's degree and 3
states and the District of Columbia require 5 years of coUege work to secure a
certificate to teach in secondary schools; 43 states require a.t least graduation
from a normal school or 2 years of coUege work for elementary sohool
teachers and 29 states and the District of Columbia require a bachelor's
degree. All states have some legislation affecting teacher welfare; all states
make provision for teacher retirement; a majority have minimum salary
schedules and 19 have sick·leave benefits.
In :!6 statos, the District of Columbia, Hawaii and Puerto Rico t.he
teachers in all public.supportcd schools are required to take an oath of
allegiar. cc or otherwise satisfy the authorities thnt they are loyal.
PuUic education is secular, most state constitutions forbidding the
approp'iation of puhlic moneys for the support of church· controlled schools.
Howev'Jr, ijome states have required daily Bible·reading in the schools
withoUl; denominational comment. On 9 March 1948 the Supreme Court
held thlt the holding of religious education classes in public school buildings
during school hours i,l unconstitutional.
Abcut one·eighth of the elementary and secondary school children attend
non·pu blic (private) schools ; about 90% of these schools are affiliated with
religious denominations, the Roman Catholics having nearly 80% of the non·
public 3chools. Such schools are supported by church funds, by endow.
ments, and bv tuition fees. In 195.5-56 the Roman Catholics maintained
9,615 elementary schools with 3,571,264 pupils, 2,311 secondary schools with
704,57t, pupils, 256 colleges with 332,662 students and 3 [2 seminaries with
33,!H 9 seminarists studying for the priesthood.
NCt:.~pape rs. On 30 Sept. 1957 tho U.S.A. had ],755 English language
daiJy n ~ wspapors with a circulation of 57,805,000. There were, in 1949, 76
• chains' of newspapers with 375 daily newspapers, which controlled 53·8%
of the total daily circulation; 14 newspaper owners control 25% of the
total c:rcuJation, while fewer than 50 owners sbare nearly half the tot..1
Sunday circulation. In only 117 cities was there any competition bet\veen
2 or more daily papers; in 10 states no city had competing daily papers.
About one· third of the radio stations are controlled by newspapers. There
were, ill 1957,3 nation· wide Press services, 3 radio networks and 4,276 author·
ized radio and television stations, of which 4,015 were on the air.
CinemM. Cinemas increased from 17,003 (1940) to 20,239 in 1950: total,
1958, was 13,500 (excluding 5,000 • drive·in cinemas '), of which 9,000 had
seating capacit,y for over 400 persons.
Biennial SUt1'ev 01 Education in the ['nited Statrs. Published by the Office of Education,
WR.hl ,gl:on 25, D.e. (from 1916 /18)
A",.,.ica" Univerritie8 and CollTY ... 6th erl. American Council of Education. Washington,
1952
Ayer's Directory 0/ NeU!spapers and Periodicals. Annual, from 1880. PhiladelphIa .
.A Free cnd Rr.sponsible Pre'3: Report un Nau CfJT1'lmuniCalion ('ollfflng NeWJpaperJ, Radio,
M otion Pir~ure., Magatin .. and Books. Commi.sion on Freedom of tbe Press. University
of IJhkago, 1947
Bailey, ~~. A., 1'M Jlan in tile Slr"l: Tile Impacl 0/ .dm<'t'ican Public Opinion on Forti,!"
Policy New York, 1943
Bird. G. L., 1'he Pre.. ami Society. Rev. ed. New York, lUol
CulJberlEY. Elwood 1'., Public Education iTt lh~ United States: j Study and Jnt~'prttation 0/
A11tni :an Educational Ili.~tnry . He\". cd. l:Jo;,tOG, 1~34
DougJa"~!;, R. R., &mfrican Public Educati(m. :Vew York, 1948
Edwardf. N., TM School i n the Amer"'ican SOcial Order. DostOD,lU47
HutriJinll, It. M., Th~ /Ugher Lenr'YU"ny in Amfficrl. Yale Univ. Press, 1036.-Some Obuna·
lion. on American Education. Cambridge Univ. Press, 19~6
Mott., F . L ., AmeMt"an Jo'urnalism: A Hi.(tory oJ NI:1Upapfrs in the United States tltfOlfl)h
250 Ilea", IIJ90 101950. nev. cd . ~ie\v York", 1950
JUSTICE
Legal controversies may be decided in two systems of courts: the
federal courts, with jurisdiction confined to certain matters enumerated ill
Article III of the Constitution, and the state courts, with jurisdiction in all
other proceedings. The federal courts have jurisdiction exclusive of the
state CJurts in criminal prosecutions for the violation of federal statutes, in
civil Cf,ses involving the government, in bankruptcy cnses and in admiralty
JUSTICE 597
proccedings, and have jurisuiction concurrent with the state courts over
suits between parties from different states, and certain suit·s involving
questions of federal Jaw.
The highcst (;ourt is the Supreme Court of the United States which
reviews cases from the lower federal courts and certain cases originating in
state courts involving questions of federal law. This court, consisting of 9
justices who receive salaries of $35,000 a year (the Chief Justice, $35,500),
meets from Oct.ober until June every ycar and disposes of about 1,700 cases,
deciding over 245 on their merits and declining to review tho remainder. A
few suits, usually brought by st::.te govemmcnts, originate in the Supreme
Court. but issues of fuet are mostly referred to a master.
The United States courts of appeals number 11 (in 10 circuits composed of
3 or more states and 1 circuit for the Distrid of Columbia); the 68 circuit
judges receive sal:tries of $25,500 "ycar. Any party to a suit in a lower
federal court usually has a right of appeal to olle of these courts which
decide about 3,750 cases a year.
The t.rial courts arc; the Unitcd States district courts, of which there
arc 86 in thc 50 states, 1 in the District of Columbia and 1 each in the
territories of Pnerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Canal Zone and Guam. Each
state has at least 1 United States district court, and :1 states have 4 apiece.
Each district court has from 1 to 18 judgeships, depending upon the amount
of its business. There are 245 United States district judges ($22,500 a
year), who handle about 62,000 civil cases and 30,000 criminal cases every
vear.
• The judges of all these courts aro appointed by tho President with the
?pproval of the Senate; to assure t heir independence, they hold office during
good behaviour and cannot have their salaries reduced . This does not
apply to the territorial judges, who hold their offices for a term of years.
The judges may retire with full pay at the age of 70 years if they have served
a period of 10 years, or at 65 if they have 15 years of service, but they are
subject to call for su ch judicial duties as they are willing t.o undertake.
Only 9 United St.ates judges up to 1958 have bcen involved in impeachment
proceedings, of whom 3 di~trict judges and 1 commerCl' judge were convicted
and removed frotU office.
Of the 28.721l criminal cases in the federal courts in the year ending
30 June I1l59, about 2,300 involved alleged infractions of the immigration
laws; 3,900, the transport of stolen motor vehicles; 9,1.50. fraud and other
thefts; 4,200, liquor laws, and 1,460, narcotics laws. Federal prisoners in
the year ending 30 June 1958 averaged 24,834, of whom 21,678 were in
federal institutions.
Persons convicted offederal crimes arc either fined, released on pro bation
under the supervision of the probation officers of the federal cOllrts, confined
in prison for a period of 6 months and then put on probation (known as
split sentencing) or confined in one of 6 federal penitentiaries, 6 prison camps,
4 reformatories. 7 correctional institutions, 4 institutions for juvenile and
youth offender~. or 1 hospital.
The state courts have jurisdiction ov!)r all civil and criminal cases arising
under state laws, uut decisions of the state courts of last resort as to the
validity of treatie~ or of laws of the United States, or on other questioDs
arising under the Constitution, ar<l subj ect. to review by the Supreme Court
of the United States. The highest court in each state is usually called the
Supreme Court or Court of Appeals with a Chief Justice and Associate
Justices, usually elected but sometimes appointed by the Go\'ernor with the
advice and consent of the State Senate or other advioory body; they usually
hold 0 :nee for e. term of years, but in some instances for life or during good
behaviour. Their soJaries range from $4,200 to 540,000 a year. The lowest
tribun lIs are usually thoso of J ustices of the Peace; many towns and cities
have VlunicipnJ and police courts, with power to commit for trial in criminal
matteJ1! and to determine misdemeanours for violation of the municipal
ordinances; they frequently try civil cases involving limited amounts.
TIB Federal Bureau of Investigation estimates the number of major
crimes in the United States and its possessions a3 follows:
Cri me index Crime index
cl;:u;sification 1957 1~58 classification 1967 1968
Murder 8,027 8,182 Burglary. . 603,707 679,787
Forcibk rape 12,886 14 ,[,01 Larceny over $50 ;)54,972 391,550
Robber', . . 66,813 75,347 Motor car tbeft . 265,178 270,965
Ag;n-av( ,ted assaul t 110,672 113,630
Tot.! 1,422,285 1,563,922
In H)59 there were 49 persons executed under civil authority. Of this

numbEr 41 were for murder, 8 for rape. The total includes 16 white persons
and 3it Negroes. On 1 Jan. 1960, 164 prisonem werc Ml'aiting execution
(inclucing 36 for over 2 years; 8 for over 3 years).
Th'l total number of civilian executions carried out in 42 states and the
District of Columbia from 1930 to 1959 was 3,616, including 1,637 white
persom (20 women), 1,938 Negroes (11 women) and 41 persons of other races.
Federal' Political' Crirne3. Since 1949 there have been e. number of
prosecltions for what may be loosely described as 'political' offences, or
crimes directed towards the overthrow by violence of the federal govern-
ment. The totals for the past 2 fiscal years for these and other similar
cases Dre as follows:
Fiscal year 1957-58 Fiscal year 1958-59
Pro,ftc!<litmS Disposition 01 delendants' P,.osecuJi"", Disposition 01 delendanl$'
Delent!· Cou· lm· Dolend- Coo· Iw-
No. anla Total vieted' prlsoned No. ants Total victed' prisoned
Contempt. 36 48 48 37 15 67 75 48 34 21
E.piuna~.. 3 6 6 4 4 7
Sedition 24 1 1
Tota.lJ, • 39 53 78 42 20 57 76 55 3,1 21
• Net confuied to cases arisi~ In the same fiscal year .
• Those convicted but Dot imprisoned were given IiH18pended sentences, or placed on
probation, or fined.
Th" category of' contempt' cases includes both the contempt of a com-
mittee of Congress and contempt of a court. Sedition includes defendants
prosecuted for the violation of laws relating to su bversions.
In the yeam since 1940 there have been a number of statutory enactments
of a civil nature which in some measure control possible subversive activity.
The A:'.ien Registration Act of 1940 requires the registration of all aliens.
The L"bor Management Relations Aet of 1947 (Taft-Hartley Act) requires
lion-communist affidavits from union officials who represent workers in
negotilLtions under the provisions of the Act. The Subversive Activities
Control A('t of 1950 established a commission and provides a procedure
under which an organization after a full and complete hearing, which is
subjec1. to judicial review, must be registered under t.he provisions of that
Act. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (McCarran-Walter
Act) among other things excludes from the country aliens who are members
of certain groups listed as subversive or totalitarian. Finally, the Com-
munis1 Party has been outlawed by the Communist Control Act of 1954.
HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE 599
,Mi,.
Oallender, O. N .. .d.1nerito:n COr/,rts; organil4tion and proudure. New York, 1921
CummiDgs, Homer, aod McF::u-Jand, Oarl, Federal J ust'ice. New York, 1937
Frank. J ., Courts on Trial; m!ilh and realt"ty in American justice. rricceton, 1949
Bart and Weebsler. The Pederal Cou", and tlw Pederal System. Drooklyn. N.Y .• 1953
HW'!!t. WiUard. TII, Growlh 0/ A",,"ca1l Law. New York. 1'50
L&mont, Corliss, Freedom / ,1 a.'i Preedom Does: Oit-il LU)I!rlies Today , New York, 1956
ld,a yers L. t The American Ll'gal System . New York, 1955
Pound. Roocoe. OrganitaliMl 0/ Couru. Boston, MM"., 1940
Smith, B., Poliu System." in the lJ.}:;. nev. cd. New York. 1949
Vanderbilt. A. T ., Afinimum Sla.ndard:: 01 J udicial A dmin~ trati(llI" Nf\w York, 1949
Warren, Cbnrles. TIle Supreme Court in United Slates Hi..tory. 2 vols. Rev. ed. Boston,
Mass., 1937
HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE
Admission to the medical profession is controlled by examining boards in
the various states, directly representing the profession; minimum time now
required to complete a medical education is 8 yel\rs beyond high school. A
medicl\1 education for certification as a specialist may take 12 years or more.
In 1957 the estimated number of physicians (priVl\te practitioners, sala.ried
and retired) was 226,{\25 (I to 756 inhabitants). The distribution is uneven:
New York state, 1957, had a.bout 1 physician for every 514 inha bitants,
Mississippi, 1 for 1,364 inhabitants. In 1958 the 81 medical and basic
science schools in the U.S.A. and 1 medical school in Puerto Rico together
graduated 6,861 physicians. New medical pr<)grammes are being developed
in 3 additional schools. Most mcdical schools limit women students, who
average 6% oft.he total.
Number of hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association, in
1958, was 6,786 with 1,572,036 beds a.nd 23,697,157 a.dmissions during the
year; average daily census was 1,322,938. Chief categorit",s of non -federal
hospitals are 5,290 short-term general hospitals with 609,732 beds; psy-
chiatric, 475 with 646,270 beds; tuberculosis, 261 with 57,077 beds; and
other long.term general and special hospits.)s (orthopredic, chronic diseases,
etc.), 321 with 78,383 beds. Of the total, 439 hospitals "'ith 180,574 beds
are operated by the federal government; 1,191 with 150,074 beds by state
and local governments; 3,203 with 423,598 beds by nOIl.profit organizations
(including church groups); 896 with 36,060 beds are proprietary. Distribu-
tion of short-terlll general facilities among states ranges from 5 to 3 hospital
beds per 1,000 population; the national average is 4_ It was estimated
that in 1958, 864,000 additional hospital beds and 252,000 beds in skilled
nursing homes were needed to bring State levels up to current standards.
Dentists in 1958 numbered 98,540. New York state had 1 to 1,174
population a.nd South Carolina., 1 to 4,908; na.tional average, 1 to 1,766.
In 1958 the 47 dental schools graduated 3,083 dentists. In 1958 schools of
nursing numbered 1,145 with 30,410 graduates that year; in 1958 there
were an estimated 460,000 active registered professional nurses available for
duty (I to 374 inhabitants), ranging in 1950 from 1 per 240 in Massachusetts
to 1 p er 1,024 in Arkansas.
Social legislation fell largely within the province of the various states
until the adoption of the Social Security Act of 14 Aug. 1935. This 8S
amended providcs for a federal system of old.age, survivors a.nd disability
insurance; federal-state unemployment insurance; and federal grants to
states for public assistance (old.age assistance, aid to dependent children,
aid to the blind, and aid to the permanently and totally disabled) and for
maternal and child-health and child-welfare services. The Social Security
Administration (of the Department of Health, Education a.nd Welfare) has
federal responsibility for all programmes except unemployment insurance,
which is the responsibility of the Department of Labor.
Major amendments in 1958 raised old.age, survivors and disability in-

surance benefits ILbout 7%, beginning in 1959; made benefits like those
paid to dependants of old.age.insurance payable to dependants of disability.
insuran':6 beneficiaries; increased from $4,200 to S4,800 the maximum
anllual earnings cOllsidered for taxing and benefit.computation purposes;
and raihcd the tax rate to 2!% each for employees and employers and to
31% fo.r the self.employed. These rates were scheduled to riso again in
1960 and every 3 years thereafter, until they reach 4!% for employees and
employ.:rs and 61% for self.employed persons in 1969.
At the end of 1958 about 55·6m. persons were in employment covered
by the old-age, survivors and disability insurance programme, and an
additional1m. were covered jointly by that programme and railroad retire-
ment. Monthly benefits paid during the year ending 30 June 1959 totalled
S9,239m., including $339m . paid to disabled workers aged 50-64. Lump-
sum death payments totalled S150m. The average benefit in June 1959
for a r€tired worker (not counting any benefits going to his dependents)
was $72·19; for an aged widow or widower, $80'32.
The 1958 amendments also contained provisions that had the effect of
increasing federal grants to the states for public assistance and authorized
larger federal amounts for maternal and child· health and child·welfare
services Total expenditures (federal, state and local) for assistance in
fiscal Y.l8.r 1958-59 were about S3,600m. ; payments to the states for the
maternd and child· health and child. welfare services, S43·8m.
In June 1958, 2,420,000 persons were receiving old.age assistance, and
the average payment for the month was $64·76; 777,700 fa.milies with
2,247,OW needy dependent children were receiving average payments of
$106·93 per family; 109,400 needy blind persons ,vere receiving $69'04, on
the ave:~age. Average payments of $63·37 were going to 339,200 persons
under the programme of aid to the permanently and totally disabled .
All ';he states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and the Virgin
Islands have unemployment insurance schemes; in the fiscal year 1958-59
almost '3m. workers received S2,845m. in benefits; the average beneficiary
received. S30·33 weekly for 15·4 weeks. These workers included unemployed
federal nivilian workers, to whom the states, as agents of the federal govern.
ment, paid benefits. Under the unemployment insurance scheme for rail·
road w(.rkers, 4O·7m. workers received benefits in June 1959. From June
1958 to July 1959, unemployed workers exhausting their rights to benefits
under the regular state programmes drew additional benefits totalling
S600m. in 36 states under temporary unemployment compensation pro·
gra.mmEs.
Burns, E. M., Social Secu,ilv and Public Policy. New York, 1956. Tht .dmerican Social
Sewril!' SV,1tm. B""ton. 1949; supplement, 19()1
Friedlo.nd>r. W. A., InI,oduClion 10 Sodal Welfare. New York, 1955
Gagliardo, D .• American Socialln.'lUto.nce. Rev. ed . New York, 1!)5~
SruilJie, W. G., Public lltaUh Adminillralion ;1. tht U.8. 3rd cd. New York, 1947
FINANCE
FEDER.o\L
Sinc·~10 June 1921 a National Annual Budget System and an inde·
pendent Audit of Government Accounts have been insta.lled.
The following table gives net' budget' receipts and expenditures of the
Federal Government and receipts a.nd expenditures of trust and related
accounh. The' budget' accounts comprise the general and special accounts
and the checking accounts of government corporations; combined ' Bud·
FINANCE 601
get' receipts include money received by the Treasury from income, excise
and other taxes, customs, and from misceilaneou8 sources such as coilections
on certain loans (including foreign loans), rents, fines, fees and sales; 'bud-
get' expenditures cover disbursements of government departments and
agencies for various activities, including national security programmes,
foreign loans and grants, veterans' benefits, aids to agriculture, interest on
public debt, programmes for labour and welfltrc, commerce and housing,
natural resources, etc.; postal service expenditures are included in the
budget on a Het basis. Trust fund and debt transactions of the Government
are excl uded from 'budget' transactions.
In general, 'trust' accounts relnte to moneys received by the Govern-
ment, which by la w are not availnhle for general governmental purposes,
but must be held in trust for later payment to individuals or to state and
local governments only for the purposes specified in the law. Included
with expenditures from 'trust' accounts are net expenditures from special
deposit accounts; and, when the Treasurer of the U.S. servcs as fiscal
agent, expenditures for redemption (less receipts from sale) of securities of
government corporations a nd enterprises, in the market, net.
Budget funds
Year (net) (Urn.) Trust funds ($Im.)
ending Surplus <+) .&ccumula·
30 June Receipll !'zpenditure$ or deficit (-) Receipt. E:rpettdilures tioll(+)
1945 44,476 98,416 -~3,941 7,086 -458 +7,544
1950 36,495 39.617 3,122 6,669 6,964 - 20;;
1955 eO,390 64,570 4,180 9.536 8,546 + 9£10
1956 68,165 60,540 + 1,626 11,685 9,436 +2,249
195i' 71,029 69,43 3 + l,b96 14,369 12,961 +1,408
1958 6n.117 71.936 - 2,819 16.329 16.069 + 260
1950 68 .158 80.600 -12,541 17,067 lS,5 35 -1,468
lOGO' 70,000 78 t a05 + 95 20,435 20,27:) + 157
1 Deginning!n 1957 cert.ain receIpts from c.t cise taxes on motor fUt!ls, tyres, Ilud vehicles
go into u tru ~ t fund from which FcdE"rn.l·aid higbwny e~enditurcs a rp- wade. Previously, (\11
receipt:; aud e:tppnditrues of tills nature "'ore included. iu tile budget totals.
• Current estimates.
Actual sources of revenue and branches of expenditure for year ended

30 June 1959 (in ($lm.) were:
ReceIpt',1958-59
13 udge/fund. : TTu.Iljunrls:
Individ11al income taxes 40,730 Old·age aod survIvor. insurance 8,182
Corporntion income tares 18,O!12 Disahility Insurance . . 938
Excise t8:C:f!~ • 10.76 3 Federal employ .... • retiremellt . 1,740
Employment tues . 8,855 Railroad retiremen t aCl:ount 760
ll.tate nnd gilt ta:.:es . 1,353 H I~b wily tnlst fund . 2,185
Customs . . 948 Tinemp loyment trust fnod 1,997
Miscell~neous receipts 3,053 Veterans'life insurance fu nds 607
Other . 568
Subtotal. 83,704
Total. 17,067
Deduct--
Tran..fer to leder"l old·age and
survivors in~ur(\ncc trust fund 7,1;;8
Tran..fer to lederal dIsability
insurance tru st fund . 8·17
Transfer to highway truKt lund 2,1 i1
Transfer to ra.ilroad retirement
trust fuod . 5~7
Refunds of receipts 4,934
Total 6S,HiS
Expenditures, 1958-,9
Budget /undI: Trust fund.:
Legis ati,.e and tbe Judiciary • 168 Old·age ond .urvivors Insurance {\,45 3
Exccutive Offire of tbe President: Disability in..urance. . 371
Oil ce of 0\"1"11 and Defeuse Mobi- Federal employ.es' retirement 792
lisation • 4fiRailroad retiremeot account 777
Other . . . • . 10 Higbway trust fund. . 2,709
Fund.; appropriated to tbe Presi· Unemployment trust fund . 3,054
dent : Veterans'life insurance . . 642
Mutual security programme: F.N.M.A.. secondary marketopera'
llilitary Msiotance 2,335 tiOM (net) 13S
l :conomic assistance 1,501 Other 599
Other. . 253
InJerendcnt office.: Total 18,:;35
.Atcmic Energy Commission 2,546
)"ei eral Aviation Agency. . 441
Nal.iona.l Aeronautics and Space
Administ ration . 145
Veterans Administration . 5,233
Other . . . . 9:;9
Genel al Services Administration:
Sw:kpiling of strategic mate-
rj a) ~ • 73
Cot.structloo and otber . . 286
Housing and Home Finance
Lgency :
l"ee.eral Nattona,l Mortgage Asf';o·
ciation 838
Otl·er . . . 311
Deprutmeo t of Agriculture:
Conmodity Credit Corporntion 4,485
Ott.er. . . 2.628
Deprutmeot 01 Commerce 302
Dep"Itment of Delense:
MiltRry Functions . 41,217
Civ n }I'unctions . . . 807
Department ofHealth, Education,
aod Wellare:
Pul,lic ... istaoce grants . 1,966
Otler. . . 1,127
Depaltment of tbe Interior 761
Department of J \l£tlce 250
Depllltment or Lahor:
Uo"mploywent benefits and ser·
VIOO8 • 907
OUer . . . 109
Post Office Department 773
Dep,,, tment oC State 268
Treas'"y Department:
Intf!TCst 7,GO'
Otber . . 2,248
District ot Columbia 31
Total 80,G99
Thn table below gives the estimates (which appeared in the Budget
Document, Jan. 1959, and as revised Sept. 1959) for the year ending 30 June
]960, lend actual results for the fiscal year 1959 (in $lm.).
1960 1960
1959 (estimated (estimated
(actual) Jan. 1959) Sept. 1959)
Budget receipts (ne!):
Individual income taxes. 36,716 40,700 41,000
Corporation income taxes 17,309 21,448 22,500
Exci s. ~ taxes . 8,506 8,945 9,100
All ot1er recei pts 5,628 6,007 6,400
'Iotal 68,158 77,100 79,000
FINANCE 603
1960 1960
1959 (e;timatcd (e;timated
(nctual) Jau.I(I:;9) Sept.1959)
Budget expenditures:
~lajor natiomJ..i security. . 46,411 4(;,805 45,713
International affairs and ilnance ~ .7 50 2,129 2,051
Oommerce and honsing. . . 3,423 2,243 2,925
Agriculture and agri cultural resources 6,562 5,9~6 6,052
~'W atural resources . J ,670 1,710 1,792
Labour aud welfare . . ·1,432 4,129 4,.107
VeternHS' services and benefits . 5,175 5.08~ 5,133
Iuterest . . . 7,686 8,096 9,079
General government. . I,GuO 1,7n5 1,678
Allowance (or contingencies 101) 7fi
Total. 80 ,6~9 77,0 30 78,90;
Budget surplu, (+) or deti c i t (-) -12,5<11 +70 + !l5
Of the estimated 1960 budget (revised Sept. 1959) 58% is assigned to

major national Hecurity; 3% to international affairs and finance; 12% to
interest on the national debt and ot her interest payments; 8% t o agricu lture;
6% to veterans' services e.nd benefits; 6% to labour and welfare; leaving
$6,470m. or 8% to fill the rem(Cining activities.
Consolidated budget, trust fund and other government financial trnns-
actions indicate t.he flow of cash between the public (Cnd the Federal Govorn-
ment as a whole (SI billion).
Federal Government rece ipts from and payments to the public (year
ending 30 June):
1959 1960
19,,6 1957 10;'8 (curr('nt 1959 (current
De.;:;criptifJIl (u"",al) (net-Hal) (aewal) ('.stirnatc) (actual) estimat.e)
P-udgct r(~ceipts . 6;,·1 71·0 (iH·1 67·0 60·2 70·0
'1'rnst. fund receipts 1l·7 14·4 i6·3 ]7·4 17·1 21)'4
Less-
Intrago~ernwent!\.l trft.Dsactiona . 2-7 3·2 :/'5 4·0 3'7 4·2
Seigniorage on silver. (I) (') 0·1 /),1 (') (ll
Total receipts from the public . 77·1 82-1 81'9 80'4 8] ·5 95·2
Bud!!,et expenditure.. 66·5 6"'4 71'9 79'2 80·7 78'9
T111~t fuud cxpendi wres . . 9·4 ]:5·0 16·1 13'1 18·:) 20·3
GoverlllD('nt-spon.~or('d enterpri~e
expendi t.urcs (net) 0·3 (I) -0,6 0·8 1-2 0·7
Les9-
[ntragovernme-nta.l t·l'!lnSactioDS . 2·7 3·2 3·5 4'0 3·7 4·2
Accrurd iotcrest Rnd oLlJer n on -
c,,'; ~ expenditures (net) 0·9 -0,8 0·5 0'2 2·2 0·6
Tot,,] payments to t~e puolic . 72'6 80'0 Sa'3 94·1 94'5 9(;,0
Excess of receipts over payments

(+) or of payments over re·
ceipts (-) +4' 5 +::' ·1 - 1-5 -13'7 -13·0 +0'2
1 Los" th~n $50m.
From 30 June 1945 to 30 June H)58 the V.S . extended to foreign

countries net foreign grants and credits-allowing for collections on principal
and reverse grants and returns on grants-totalling $64,593m. Net grants
represented $53,212m . and net credits $Il,380m. of this total. If sub-
scriptions to the lntemational Monetary Fund, the Bank for Reconstruction
a.nd Development, and the Interna tional Finance Corporation, amounting
to $3,420m., be fidded, tb", net t otal is $68,013m.
Net foreign grants and credits utilized in fiscal year 1958 (with those of
fiscal Hl57 in parentheses), were (in Slm.): Military supplies, services and
contributions to the multilateral construction programme for supporting
facilitiell of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 2,517 (2,400); other
grants, 1,513 (1,716); credits. 612 (-208).
The gross public debt and guaranteed obligations on 30 June 1959
was (in SIm.) 284,817, made up as follows: Debt bearing no interest,
2,396 (including 1,979 held by International Monetary Fund); matured
debt on which interest has ceased, 476, and interl'.l!t-bearing debt., 281,833
plus III of obligations of go~emmental corporations and credit agencies
guaranteed by the U.S. Government as to principal and interest.
National direct debt excluding guaranteed obligations (in $1,(00), and
per capita debt (in S) on 30 ,June of the years shown:
Gross debt Pa capita I Gro:')s debt p" capita'
1919' 25,482.034 242·56 19., 274,314.223 1.6.10·16
1920 24,29U.321 228·S3 IV5G ~72,7:,o,814 1,62]' 84
1930 I IG,18a,311l IS1·61 IP57 27(1,627,172 1,579'91
1940 42,967,531 32,..·23 1958 2.6,343.218 1,587'60
1950 257,357,352 1,696'68 1959 284,705,907 1,607'35
I On 31 Aug. 1919 gro.. debt reached its First Wl)rl,1 War (1914-18) peak of
$26,596,7)2,000, which was the highest ever reacbed up to 19:t 4; ou 31 Dec. 1930 it bad
declined to ,16,026m., the IOv.-C5t it has been Rince the First ',,"orld ' Var. On 30 Yov. 1941,
jlL'it precf,ding I'earl Harbour, debt s tood o.t $55,039,820,000. ThA higbt~t Second ·World
War debt Wll3 $279,213,5:;H,OOO on 20 ~'.b. 1'46.
I Per wpita tigurelo, beglllniugo wit.h 1940, bave been revised; they are based on the
Ocll~ U ~ Eurcfiu's estimates of the total population of continental U.S., including armed
forces ov( rseas.
The permanent statutory debt limit was raised 011 30 June 1959 from
$283,OO.)m. to S285,OOOm.; a temporary limit of $295,000m, was in effect
until 30 ,Tune 1960.
STATE AND LOCAL FINANCE
Rcv,mue of the 48 states and all local governments (about 102,300) from
their OFtl sources amounwd to $44,397m. in fiscal year 1958; in addition
they re~eived S4.865m. in revenue from fiscal aid, shared revenues and
reimbursements from the federal government, bringing total revenue from
all sourtleS to S4!l.262m. Of the revenue from state and local sources, taxes
provided $30,380m., of which property taxes (mainly imposed by local
governments) yielded $14,047m. or 46% of all tax revenue; and sales
taxes, tooth general sales taxes and selective excises, provided S!l,829m.
(32%).
Stat, ~ tax revenue totalled $14,919m. in fiscal year 1958. Largest sources
of state tax revenue are general sales taxes (imposed during 1958 by 33
states), motor fuel sales taxes (48 states), motor vehicle and operators'
licences 48 states), corpora.tion income (34 states), individual income (31
states), tobacco products (43 sta.tes) and alcoholio beverage sales taxes (48
states).
Gentlral revenue of local units from own sources in fiscal year 1958
totalled S19,345m. In addition they received $8,232m. from state and
federal aids. Property taxes provided 49·1% of total general revenue.
Total expenditures of state and local governments were S53,712m. in
1958, of which approximately 58% was for current operation. Education
took SI5,919m. in current and capital expenditure; highways, $8,567m.;
welfare (chiefly public assistance), S3,729m., and health and hospitals,
$3,552m. Capital outlays (construction, equipment and land purchases)
totalled $J3,986m.
Gross debt of state and local governments totalled S58,187m. or $336
NATIONAL DEFENCE 605
per cap,:ta a.t Ihe close of their 1058 fiscal y<'ar. Cities had about S20,400m .,
states SI5.394tn., the remainder, about 822.40010., representing special dis.
tricts, counties, school districts and township8. Tot:tl cash and investment
assets of st>1te nnd local government,s wp,ro $-l0,4491U., about 37% being ill
cash a nd the rcmainder in in vestments, maildv federal securities.
In Oct. 1\)58 there WMO 5,171.000 state and local civil cmp loyces (full·
time equivalent); the payroll for tbe fiscal year W,:;S amounted to $20,786m.
American Economic A.s:3oci:ltioJl! Readings in fiscal polk!J. IIomcwood , Ill., 1£155
Burkbead • •T. , Cm'erllmenl budgeting. New York, 1 ~56
lJou~)a~. 1'. H., Br.flnmnll in t"~ National GOW.>rItment. Chicn.go.1952
Kimmcll, L. n. Frderal1iudyct untlJi,leal pnlicy.I7S,?- 1958. Washington and London, 1~:;9
Murplly, H. C., The National Debt iu War aflJ Transition. ~e'.'.. York, ID~O
l'oole, K. E., Fi,~cull'"liri( ... and tilt Amerit"ln Economy, New Yor k, 1~51
SmitLfes A., 'Ph,.lJudgetaTlI Proces3 in t},e V.S . New York, 19;:);,
NATIONAL DEFENCE
'ne President is C.·in·C. of the Army, Navy I<lHI Air Force.
The !':ational i:)ecurity Act of 1047 provides for t he unification of the
Army, Navy a!lu Air Forces under a single Sccret;ary of D"fcnse with
cabinet rank. Tho President iM also advised by a National Security Council
and the Office of Civil and Defellse Mobilization.
The mRjor components of the Department of Defense are the Office
of the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who provide
immediate staff assistance and ad vice to the Seeretary; t he departments
of the Army, Navy and Air :Force, each separately organized under (\,
civilian head (not of cabinet rank); and the unified and specified commands.
ARMY
Secretary of the Army. Wilher 1\1. Brucker (appointcd July 1955).
The Secretary of the Army is the head of the Department of the Army.
Subjel't to the direction, Authority and con trol of the President as C.·in·C.
and of the Secretary of Defense. the Secretary of the Army is responsible
for, and has the authority to conduct. all affairs of the l\rmy Establishment.
The Secretary of the Army is assisted by the Under Secretary of the
Army, 3 Assistant, Secretaries of the Army (Financial Management, Logistics,
and Manpower Personnel and Reserve Forces). a Director of Research and
Development, the General Counsel, Chief of Legislative Liaison, Chief of
Public Information and the Army Staff headed by the Chief of Staff, U.S.
Army.
The Chief of St,aff is the principal military adviser of the Secretary of the
Army and performs his dul,ies under the direction of the Secretary of the
Army, except as otherwise prescribed by law. by the President or by the
Secretary of Defense. He has supervision of all members and organizations
of the Army. The Vice Cl->ief of Staff assists ,md advises the Chief of Staff
and acts for him in his absence.
The lhmy St,aff furnishes professional n.ssistance to the Secretary of the
Army. The Army General Staff is the principal element of the Army Staff,
and includes the offices of the Chief of Staff. the 3 Deputy Chiefs of Staff
(~lilitary OperMions, Personnel and Logistics), the Chief of Research and
Development, tho Comptroller of the Army, the 2 Assistant Chiefs of Staff
(Intelligence and Reserve Components) and the General StllJf Committees
on National Guard and Army Reserve P olicy (reRident members only).
Other elements of the Army Staff are the offices of The Judge Advocate
General, The Inspector General, Chief of Information, Chief National Guard

Bureau . Chief Army Reserve 8.nd ROTC Affairs, Chief of Military History,
The Adjutant Gener8.1, The Provost Marshal General, Chief of Finance and
Chief of Chaplains. The offices of the heads of the technical staffs and
service< comprise the remainder of the Army Staff, and include the offices
of Chief of Engineers, Chief of Ordnance, The Surgeon Generd.l, The Quarter.
master General, Chief of Transportation, Chief Signal Officer and Chief
Chemic;tl Officer.
The Army includes the Regular Army, the Army National Guard of the
U.S., the Army National Guard while in the service of the U.S., and the
Army lteserve; and all persons appointed or enlisted in, or conscripted
into, the Army without component.
Department of the Army strength, including 1,816 cadets, was 861,964,
as of 30 June 1959, when the Army comprised, in major combat units, 15
divisions and 13 brigades, infantry battle groups and regiments.
The Continental Army Command has responsibility for all installllotions
of the 6 Continental U.S. Armies and the Military District of Washington.
The headquarters of the Continental U.S. Armies are: First Army, Governors
Island, N.Y.; Second Army, Fort George G. Meade, Md.; Third Army, Fort
McPherson, Georgia; Fourth Army, Fort Sam Houston, Texas; Fifth
Army, Chicago, Ill.; Sixth Army, Presidio of San Francisco, Cal.; l\lllitary
District of Washington, Washington, D.C.
The Commanding General, U.S. Continental Army Command, with
headqu;trters at Fort Mooroe, Virginia, reports directly to the Chief of Staff.
The field organization of the Army consists of the field army, the corps
and the division. A typical field army may consist of a headquarters a.nd
headqu:trters company; 3 corps; artillery (280·mm. gun and Redstont
guided.nissile battalions); combat supporting forccs of armour, anti.air·
craft ar;iJlery, aviation, engineer, infantry, sign8.l8.nd sccurity elements, and
supporting service foreca. A typic8.l corps may consist of a headquarters
8.nd he[.dquarters company; one armoured division; 3 infantry divisions;
corps artillery (105.mm howitzer, 155·mm howitzer, 8·in. howitzer, Hone.st
John rc.cket and Lacrosse guided. missile battalions, all capable of a.tomic
a.nd high.explosive (HE) fire and Corporal guided.missile battalion capable
of atomic delivery), and an observation battalion; combat supporting
foreca and supporting service forces.
The 3 type divisions are: infantry, airborne and armoured. The in·
fantry dvision, with 13,700 men, is organized with a headquarters and head-
qU8.rter:J company; 5 battle groups; 1 armoured cavalry battalion; division
artillery (105·mm howitzer, 8·in. howitzer, Honest John, and 155·mm hO\vit·
zer batt9ries); one 90·mm gun tank battalion; division trains, and supporting
troops. Other weapons and equipment include armoured personnel carriers,
76·mm gun tanks, light and heavy mortars, rifles, machine·guns, recoilless
rifles, radar, and anti·tank missiles. The airborne division, numbering
11,500 men, has a command and combat battalion; 5 airborne combat
groups; division artillery (5 105·mm howitzer batteries and one Honest John
batteryl; an airborne support group; an engineer battalion; a signal
battalion and other supporting troops. The annoured division, with some
14,600 men, has a headquarters and headquarters company; 3 combat
commands; an armoured cavalry squadron; 4 armoured infantry battalions;
4000·mm gun tank battalions; division trains; division artillery (105.mm
howitzer, 155·mm howitzer, 8·in. howitzer, and Hone.st John batteries, all
self-propelled), and supporting troops.
The semi·automatic Garand riBe, the Browning automatic rille, the
ARMY 607
carbine, and the M-3 submachine-gun, all U_S_ calibre -30, will be replaced
by a new rifle, the M-14 which will fire the 7-62-mm NATO cartridge
either automatically or semi-automatically_ Issue to U.S. Army troops,
replacing the Garand first issued in 1936, is expected to begin in 1960. The
U.S. Army in 1957 adopted a new light-weight, general-purpose machine.
gun, the M-60, which weighs 23 lb. with bipod and can fire 600 7·62·mm
rounds per minute.
The approved calibres of artillery are: light, lOo-mm howitzer; medium,
l55-mm howitzer; heavy, 155-mm gun and 8-in. howitzer; very heavy,
2S0-mm gun. The 4·2-in. mortar complements the SI-mm mortar and
Bupplements the light howitzer. The 106-mm recoilless rifle is now a medium
anti-tank weapon, replacing the 75-mm recoilless rifle. For airborne use,
the Army has a self-propelled 90-mm gun for anti-tank use. The air-defence
artillery weapons are of 40-,75-, !lOo and 120-mm gun type and (see below)
missiles.
The Army has two categories of missiles-surface-to-surface (artillery)
and surface-to-air (air defence artillery). Surface-to-surface missiles are:
a guided, close-support anti-tank missile, under test; Little John, free-flight,
medium-range, self-propelled on towed launcher, under test; Lacrosse,
guided, close-support, operational; Honest John, free flight, equivalent to
long-range artillery, atomic or HE warhead, highly mobile, operational;
Sergeant, guided, atomic or HE warhead, under development; Corporal,
guided, range about 75 miles, atomic or HE warhead, operational; Red.stone,
guided, range about 200 miles, atomic warhead, operational, and Pershing,
smaller than Redstone, guided, under development. Surfac~-to-air missiles,
used for air defence, are: Nike-Ajax, guided, air defence, field or fixed
installation, opemtional; Nike-Hercule-s, guided, air defence, field or fixed
installation, operational; and Hawk, homing type, low-altitude air defence,
under test.
Under legislation approved 28 June 1947, enlistments are authorized at
the option of the person enlisting, for periods of 3, 4, 5 or 6 years.
Under the Universal Military Training and Service Act as amended, all
male citizens and all male aliens admitted for permanent residence are
required to register at age IS. Men between 18~ and 26 may be drafted by
any of the Armed Forces for a period of 24 months active service_ Men
eligible for the draft may enlist for a period of2 years to discharge their active
service obligations. All men su bject to such draft incur a service obligation
of either 6 or S years, dependent upon circumstances, and must serve in the
reserve any part of the period not served on active duty.
Women volunteers were first organized in 1942 as the Women's Army
Auxiliary Corps, which on I Sept. 1943 became the Women's Army Corps,
und was made a permanent component of the Army in June 1945.
The Army National Guard is a civilian force, recruited and housed by
the several States, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. The members
are equipped and paid by the federal government. Training is supervised
by the federal government, with advisers from the active Army; training
facilities are provided jointly by tbe U.S.A. and each State. In its role as
a reserve component of the Army, the Guard is subject to the order of the
President in the event of national emergency. As a State force it may be
called into federal service by the President against invasion or rebellion or
to enforce federal law; and may be called into State service by the Governor
or other authority to aid in local emergencies. As part of the Ready
Reserve of the Army, National Guards units may be ordered into active
federal service immediately in the event of national emergency. In peace·
time, Army National Guard units man air-defence missile positions in cer-
tain critical areas throughout the country.
The Armv Almanac. Dept of tbe Army, Washington
Dupuy, 11. E. and T. N., Military Heritage 0/ Amnica. New York, 1956
FormRD, So, R'est Point. New York, 1950
ROTCM 145-20, Department of the Army ROTO Mnnual, .American AliUtary Bistorv, 1607-
1953. Wasbington, 19:;6
NA.VY
Sec.'etary of the Navy. William B. Franke (appointed 1 June 1959).

Thu oJfairs of the Navy Department aro directed by the Secretary of the
Navy, who has as his principal advisers the Under Secretary of the Navy,
3 Assistant Secretaries of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Operations, the Vice-
Chief d Naval Operations, 6 Deputy Chiefs of Naval Opemtions, the Chiefs
of the '7 Bureaus, the Judge-Advocate-General of the Navy, the Comptroller,
and the Commandant, United States Marine Corps.
Th,) principIII divisions of the Department are ns follows: Executive
Office of the Secretary, Office of Chief of Naval Operations, Bureau of
Yards and Docks, Bureau of Naval Personnel, Bureau of Ordnance, Bureau
of Shil'S, Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery,
Burea1l of Aeronautics, Judge Advocate General, and Headquarters, United
States Marine Corps.
Th'lre are 14 Naval Districts and 2 River Naval Commands (Potomnc
and Severn).
Th.) U.S_ Navy has 11 shipyards, 28 stations, 11 training centres, 82 air
stations, 2 amphibious bases and 2 submarine bases. Under an agreement
dated 2 Sept_ 1940 the British Government granted leases for naval and air
bases ia Newfoundland, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Jamaica, St Lucia, Trinidad,
Antigt.a and Bl'itish Guiana; but these are not all now active_
Naval appropriations in recent years have been as follows: 1956,
$9,648m.; 1957, SI0,47Sm.; 1958, SI0,696m.; 1959,811,9.58111. (includes
supplemental); 1960, $ll,460m. (requested figure). Al1 these figures have
heen officially revised by the U.s. Department of Defense.
Th.} total personnel on duty on 30 June 1959 was 630,000 officers and
enlisted men, exclusive of the Marine Corps (175,000). Naval aviation is an
integrul part of the Fleet.
Th,} following is a classified statement ofU.S. vessels existing on 31 Dec.:
Types 1951 1952 1953 1954 19:;5 1956 1957 1958 19:;0
Fleet al.'craft carriers 36 36 3. 35 36 37 37 37 38
l~scort Hircraft carriers 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 41)
Battleships I:; 15 IS 15 15 15 15 15 10
Large c:llisers 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hoavy .""lsers 25 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 20
Light cruisers. 42 43 44 44 43 43 43 43 31
Frjgatetj. :; 6 6 6 G
Destroyel'll . . 848 348 352 3::.4 365 367 367 377 SG4
Destroyer minelayers 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 IU
Destroyer escorts 263 269 250 264 266 267 267 272 273
Destroyer escort trans-
port•. ~2 92 92 92 92 92 92 92 ~o
Submarines 194 200 202 200 206 204 204 200 106
The following table shows the principal ships of the U.S. Navy, including
all ships expected to be completed up to 1 April 1960 (in the armament
column, guns of less than 3-in. calibre are not given):
NAVY 609
Standard
di~plac6- Armour Sl:.u.ft
COlll- ment. Belt (;unl horse- Speed
pleted Name Tons In. In. PrincivaJ armament power Knots
Attack and Support Aircraft Carrier$

1959 Independence
60,000 3b
1957 Ranger. 60.000
1956 Saratoga . 60,OUO }8 6·in. (lOO aircraft) . 260,000 { i~
1955 Fo~tal . • 69,900 33
1947 Coral t::ea } }
{ F, D. Roosevelt 61,000 { 10aircraft)
5·io.; 22 3·io. (137} 212 000
, 33
1945
Midway.
1942-60 24' Essex' ~30,t,00 3 { 8 to 12 6·io.; 28 3.iO.} 150000 33
Class l33,lOO (95 to 107 aircralt) ,
The' Essex' class comprise:3 the Essex, York town, Intrepid, Hornet, Frankliu, LexingtoD,
Bunker Hill, Wasp, Ticonderoga, Hancock, Raudolpb, Bennington, Bon Homme Richard,
Shaogrl.La, Tarawa, Antietam, Boxer, Kearsarge, Lake Oilamplaio, Leyte, Philippioe Sea,
.Princeton, Valley Forge, Ori:;kany. (Eight are rated as attack aircraft carricc5', 10 as support
aircraft c..'\rriers, 4 as auxiliary aircraft transports and 2 as amphibions a3sa.ult ships.)
r
Light Fleet Carriera
1946 Weight
1941 } 14,500 Light A.A. (48 aircraft) 120,000 33
Saipao
Cabot
atano .
1943 Cowpeos . } 11,000 Lignt A.A. (45 aircraft) 100,000 33
Monteray
San Jacinto
(All arc now rated u,; auxiliary aircraft tran~ports.)
e
Escort and Ferry Can'iera
f9 Commeoce.} 5..in.; Light A.A. (34}
19164-46 meot Bay 11,373 aIrcraft) . . 16,000 19
Class' .
1943-44 11 An7.io Class' fl 5·io.; Light A.A. (30} 11,200 19·5
1,800 I.H.l'.
} aircraft). .
1942-43 9,800 2 5·io.; Light A.A. (30} 8,600 18
4 Dogue Class' l aircraft). .
1 All now cla.ssed as Aircraft Ferrys (since 1909).
11 One now classed asAmphibious Assault Ship. 16 classed as Aircraft I"crrys (~iuce 1959).
3 Now all classed as Airc!"aft Ferrys (since 19;;9).
(26 escort. carriers were scrappeu in 1959.)
Battleships
1944 eliSSOllri. }
'Visconsin 4:' 000 1:1 18 J9 16:io.; 20 5·in.; 30} 212,000 33
1943 {IOwa. ' l 3·on. . .
e
New Jersey
{South Dakota }
1942 Iodiana . 35 00t) 18 IS 16·io.; 206·io. } 130000 28
Mas.·~ac busetts ' (South Dakota 16 5·iu .) ,
Alabama.
1942 Washingtoo. } :15 000 16 18 9 16·in.; 20 5-iu. 121,000 28
1911 North Carolina '
(The old bat.tleship3 CalIfornia, Colorado, JfaT!JZalld, Penne.fsce and "'est Vi rginia were
,crapped in 195~.)
Large Cruisers
J9H { Alaska } 27,500 6-9 121 9 12·iu.; 12 5·io. 150,000 33
Guam
(The uncompleted large cruiser (battle cruiser) Hawaii wa,q scmpped io 1959.)
X
Standard
dIsplace- Armour Sbaft
Com- ment Bell Ou.ru borse· Speed
pleted Name Tons 10. 10. PrincIpal armament power Knota
Heavy Cruisers
1949 fNewport
lSalem.
NeWS} 17,000 8 3-5 9 8-10.; 12 5-10. ; 24 S·Io. 130,000 sa
1948 Des Moines
fRocbester }
1946 'l0regon City 13,700 6 3-5 98·10.; 126·10.; 20 S·Io. 120,000 as
Albany .
1943-46/ 12 BaltimOre}
1943
l Class
{Bostoo.
Canberra.
}
13 600
'
13600
'
6
6
3-5
3-5 e
98-10.; 12 6·in.; 203-in. 120,000
twio 'Terrier" }
6-8 in. ; 10·5 in.; 12-3 in. 120,000
S3
33
Tbe ' :Baltimore' clas. comprises the Baltimore, Pittsburgb, Toledo, Bremerton, Chicago
Colombu", Fall River, Helena, Los Angeles, Macon, St Paul and Quiocy.
Th. Bo.•1on and Canberra were recta.... Uled 89 Guided MiMlIe Heavy CruJaers in 1955.
(The "Id heavy croisers Chester, AUfIU'ta, lhuistJille, Portland, New Orleans, San FranciJC<I,
Minneap',lis, Tuscaloosa and Wichila were scrapped in 1959.)
Light Cruisers
i
1953 Nortbampton I . 14,700 6 4 6-in. ; 8 S-Io. 120,000 3S
1953 Norfolk' . . 5,600 83-in. 80.000 32
1949
1948 ~~~~ 14,700 3-6 4 It 6·in.; 24 3 -10. 120,000 32
1946 Hontlogdon 10000 5 3-5 12 6·in. ; 12 o-in. 100.000 32'~
1945 Fargo. '
1942-46 13ClevelandCI"".10,OOO 5 3-6 It 6-10. ; 12 ~in. 100,000 3S
1944-46 6 Galvestoo Class 10,000 5 3-5 Twio 'Talos' or·'Terrier'; 100,000 33
66';0. ; 10 ~in .; 123-10.
Tbe 'Cleveland' cl"". comprises tbe Vincennes, Bllon, Miami, Atlanta, Almterdam,
Portsmoutb, Astoria, P""adeoll, Dulntb, Vicksburg, Wilkes-Barre, Day ton, Manchester. Tbe
Galvesto", Little Rock, Oklahoma City, Providence, Sprlngfleld and Topeta bave been con-
verted Inl<> gulded-mi""lI. cruiser•.
I O~ina1Jy classed as beavy cruiser; redesigned as a tactical COmmAnd ship.
, DesIgned "" special .... tl-submarin. cruiser; re-rated lIS a destroy.r leader 10 1951 and
as frigate 10 1955.
(The .arge light cruisers Birminrlham, Cleveland, Columlms, Denver, Houston, Mobile,
MonlpeliiT aod Santa Fe, a ll of tile' Cleveland' class, were scrapped in 1959.)
.
~
'Fliot
Juneau .
1943-46 Spokane . } 6,000 31 a 6·10.; 14 3·10. 7~,OOO 36
Tucson .
. Fresno .
(The anti-a ircraft cruisers Oakland, Reno, San Diego and San Juan of tbe • J uoeau'
class, and tbe old la rge Iigbt cruisers H onolmu and Savannah of tile' BrookJyn' class were
scrapped in 195D.)
Som~ ships of all major classifications have had 3·in. armament added.
This addition is not applicable to all ships in anyone class.
In addition to the above named ships there are 6 frigates (destroyer
leaders). 364 destroyers, IO destroyer minelayers, 273 destroyer escorts,
196 submarines, 90 destroyer escort transports, 23 escorts, 324 minelayers
and minesweepers, 88 patrol vessels, 466 amph ibious craft, 745 fleet
auxiliaries, 1,574 service craft and 74 dry docks. The U.S. Fleet con-
sists of ,~ total of 4,300 naval vessels, 864 of which are active.
Two outstandingly important warships were complet.ed in U.S. in 1959.
namely, the Independence, the largest aircraft carrier ever built by any
country, which was commissioned on 3 April, and the nuclear· powered radar-
picket submarine Triton, the largest submarine in the world, which was
commiS!;ioned on 10 Nov. The giant nuclear-powered fleet ballistic missile
submarine Gwrge Washington, the large nuclear-powered guided. missile
AIR FORCE 611
submarine Halibut, and the first guided. missile frigate Dewey were also
completed at the end of the year.
The new construction programme includes 3 aircraft carriers (the nuclear-
powered Enterprise of 75,700 tons and the Constellation and Kitty Hawk of
60,000 tons), 2 amphibious assault ships (helicopter.carriers) of 15,000
tons, the cruiser Long Beach of 14,000 tons (nuclear powered, with guided
missiles), launched on 14 July 1959, the nuclear.powered guided.missile
frigate Bainbridge laid down on 15 May 1959, 23 guided.missile frigates
(destroyer leaders), a nuclear· powered destroyer,I8 guided.missile destroyers,
2 destroyer escorts, 29 nuclear.powered submarines and many small craft
and auxiliaries.
Of the 29 new nuclear· powered submarines, 11 will carry 'Polaris' fleet
balli~tic missiles, 17 will be attack submarines and one will be a submarine
hunter·killer.
The heavy cruisers Boston and Canberra of 13,600 tons, the light cruisers
Galve.~!on, Little Rock, Oklahoma City, Providence, Springfield and Topeka
of 10,670 tons, and the destroyer Gyatt have been converted into guided-
missile ships. The heavy cruisers Albany, Chicago and Columbu8 are being
converted iuto guided. missile ships.
The U.S. Coast Guard operates under the Treasury Department in time
of peace and as a part of the Navy in time of war. Its peace· time duties
embrace generally law enforcement upon the sea and navigable waters of
U.S., the maintenance of navigational aids and the saving of life and
property. Its military personnel at the end of 1959 comprised 30.578
officers and mono An Academy is maint(1ined for the education of cadeta
for careers as commissioned officers.
Blackman, R. V. B. (ed. ), Ja,.e'I Fighli1U} Ship.. 62nd ed. London,1959-60
Blackman, :Et. V. B ., The W(Jrld's Warships. LOUU011, June 19;,)!)
KDox, D. W., A Ht-lOry 0/ the U"i~d StakS Navv. Rev. ed. New York, 1948
Turnbull. A. D., History 0/ U.S. l'ia,'al .dlJiation. New Haven, 1949
Am FORCE
Secretary of the Air Force. Dudley C. Sharp (appointed 11 Dec. 1959).
The Department of the Air Force was activated ,vithin the Department
of Defense on 18 Sept. 1947, coequal with the Army and the Navy under the
terms of the National Security Act of 1947. It is headed by a Secretary of
tbe Air Force, assisted by an Under Secretary and 3 Assistant Secretaries.
The U.S. Air Force, under the administration of the Department of the
Air Force, is commanded by a Chief of Staff, who is a member of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff. He is assisted by a Vice Chief of Staff, Assistant Vice Chief
of Staff and 6 Deputy Chiefs of Staff.
The U.S.A .F. consists of the Regular Air Force, the Air Force Reserve
and the Air National Guard of the U.S.A. For operational purposes the
service is organized into 17 major commands. The Air Defenso Command
is responsible for the air defence of the U.S.A. It is in turn reRponsible to
the North American Air Defense Command (NOBAD), a joint agency which
has available U.S. and Canadian Air Force, and U.S. Army and Navy air
defence units for air defence of North America. The Strategic Air Com-
mand, equipped with long·range bomhers based both in the U.S.A. and
overseas, and with intercontinental guided missiles, is maintained primarily
for strategic air operations anywhere on the globe. The Tactical Air
Command operates fighters, fighter.bomberA, tactical bombers, photo.recon-
naissance and weather reconnaissance planes, transports and troop·carriers.
The other functional commands, all supporting organizations, are the
Air Materiel Command, the Continental Air Command, the Air Research
and Dwrelopment Command, tbe Air Training Command, the Air University,
the Military Air Transport Service, the Air Force Academy, the Air Force
FinancE' Ccnter, the U.S.A.F. Security Service and the Hoadquarters Com·
mand. The oversea commands are the Pacific Air Forces, the U.S. Air
Forces .. n Europe, the Alaskan Air Command and the Caribbean Air Corn·
mand. These oversea commands are operationally responsible to joint
theatre commands normally headed by an officer of a service with primary
interest.
Of the fight.er types in service, the 1".100 Super Sabre, 1"-101 Voodoo,
F-102 Delta Da.gger, 1"-104 St,a rfighter, 1"-105 Thunderchief anu 1"-106
Delta Dart can all fly faster than sound in level flight and carry missile
armamflnt, inoluding nuclear weapon.. Main strategic bombers are the
B-52 Stratofortress heavy bomber and B-47 Stratojet medium bomber,
with the B-58 Hustler supersonic bomber beginning to enter service.
Tactical bombers include the B-57 and B·66 Destroyer. Latest transport
types are the KC-135 Stratotanker jet tanker-transport and the turboprop-
powered C-130 Hercules and C-133 Cargomaster. Guided missiles in
U.S.A.F. service include the Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile. Jupiter
and Thor intermediate· range ballistic rockets. the Snark intercontinental
cruise hombardment missile. the Matador and Mace tactical missiles. and
the Bomarc pilotless interceptor.
On 30 June 1959 the Air Force was composed of 105 wings. manned by
840,435 military personnel. including 127,284 commissioned officers, 4.318
warran'} officers and 704.543 airmen. There were also 2.676 aviation cadets
in training. and 1.614 cadets a t the Air Force Academy. In addition, the
Air Force employed a t otal of 364,094 civilians worldwide, including 313,466
by direct hire, and 50,628 by contract. Total aircraft strength exceeds
20,000.
The total budget appropriated for the Air Force in fiscal year ended
30 J un 3 1959 amounted to over $18,712m., including $785m. for military
constrlJ ction.
Tilt Jirmy Air Forces in World War If. 7 vol.. Uoiv. of Chic,,€o Pre..,. 1948 tI.
Goldberr, A., Ji Ilis/ory of the U.S. Air Force, 1907-57. New York. 1957
PRODUCTION
In )950 the total labour force numbered 60,053,968 persons (52,789,499
in 194(;); this includes unemployed as well as the employed and also the
armed rorces living in. the continental U.S. The following table shows the
general divisions of industry in which civilians were employed:
Industry %of
(Census, 1950) Male Female Total tot.1
Employed (1,000 persons): . 40,510 15,715 56,225 12·2
Agriculture, forestry and fisheries 6,407 590 6,996 1·;
Minin.. 906 23 929 6·1
Constr:Jction . 3,342 98 3,441 25 · ~.
Manu11cturing 10,930 3,641 14,571 7·8
TransJ·ortatioD, communicat.ion and
other public utilities 3,688 681 4,369 18·8
"""}
Whole!.le and retail trade 6,999 3,551
Finan<'e, insurance and real estate 1,135 780 1,915
Business and repair services 1,230 183
.
1,41 ~
Person al services . . . 1,159 2,329 3,488 21,,1
Entertainment and recreation services 412 141 553
Profes:;ional and related services 1,955 2,717 4,671
Public administ rat,ion 1,8:;7 6:>2 2,489
lndu. try oot reported 512 329 841 I·;
AGRICULTURE 613
In mid-Oct. 1959 the Burcau of the Census estimated the total labour
force (including armed forces) at 72,629,000; of the civilian labour force
(70,103,000), 3,272,000 persons (4-7% ) were unemployed; 6·1 m. were work-
ing in agriculture and 6O·7m. in non-agricultural industries. The Bureau of
Labor Statistics estimated that 16m. persons were employed in manufac-
turing, II·5m. in wholesale and retail trade and 8·3m. in civilian government
service.
AORlCULTURE
Since ita bcginning in the U.S.A ., agriculture has been charactorized by

rapid expansion, abundant production and improvident use of soil and water
resourccs in many areas. A successful conservation programme, highly
co-ordinated and on a national scal&-to restore the native fertility of
damaged land, prevent erosion of both crop land and grazing land, and
adjust land uses to the production capabilities of soils-has been in operation
since early in the 19308. More than a third of the farmers and ranchers
now use soil- and water-conservation methods. Increases in per-acre
yields are permitting changes in land use required to prevent further land
damage.
There has been a remarka ble increase in total farm output due to a
higher degree of mechanization; greater use of lime and fertilizer, cover
crops and other conservation practices; improved varieties such as hybrid
maize and grain sorghums; a better balanced feeding of livestock, and more
effective control of insects and disea£e. Since 1910 farm output has in-
creased by more than 80% ; in 1958 it was about 55% above the 1939 level.
Some of the gains have been obtained by dccreasing the soil-fertility reserve,
but good soil management is beginning to balance wasteful production
methods.
Farms are divided into two broad groups, commercial farms and other
farms_ Commercial farms (i .e_, those operated to provide the major source
of income) include : (I) Large-scale, highly mechanized farms, which use
considerable hired labour and with farm sales per farm (1954 census) of
$25,000 or more, make up 3% of all farms ; (2) commercial family farms,
approximately 57% of all farms, ranging from Sl ,2oo to $25,000 in value
of producta reported; and (3) small-scale farms (10% of all farms) with
reported farm sales of $250 to $1,199 and with operator working off the farm
less than 100 days, and with income from farm sales greater than that from
other sources. All told, 14% of the commercial farms had farm sales of
less than SI,200 in 1949.
Other farms (30% of thc total) include part-time farms with farm saltls
from $250 to $1,199 and with the operator working 100 or more days off
the farm or with income of the farm family from non-farm sourccs exceed.
ing sales from the farm, residential farms having less than $250 sales of
farm producta, and abnormal farms, such as cotperimental farms.
Figures for Oot.-Nov. 1954 census of agriculture (with the 1050 figurcs
in parent.heses) are: Number of farms, 4,782,416 (5,382,162): area of land
in farms, 1,158,191,511 acres (1,158,565,852): crop land harvested in 1954,
332,870,479 acres (344,398,550 acres in 1949): average farm, 242·2 acres
(215·3 acres).
Farms operated by owners, 1954, were 3,612,888 (3,914,506): by part
owners, 868,180 (824,923) ; by all tenanta, 1,149,239 (1,444,129); by share-
croppers, 267,662 (346,765); proportion of farms operated by tenants,
24%, which is the lowest since 1880 (26'8% in 1950); farms with white
operators, 4,301,420 (4,801,243); with non-white operators, 481,601
(580,9W).
Regarding equipment the 1954 census shows: Farms with telephones,
2,332,3{'9 (2,057,556 in 1950); with electricity, 4,448,611 (4,213,599);
2,212,8~12 farms had 2,702,811 motor trucks (I,840,391 farms had 2,206,670);
2,876,5.2 farms had 4,692,341 tractors (2,525,206 farms had 3,609,281);
1,796,8{.3 farms had tractors and no horses and mules.
By 1954 the number of farms had declined in 5 years by 599,746 (11'1 %)
to 4,782,416, but farm acreage did not change much, and the average size of
farm rone by 13% from 215·3 to 242·2 acres.
In 1954,484,291 farms had a size of under 10 acres; 1,212,831, of 10-49
acres; ~64,063, of 50-99 acres; 1,416,807, of 100-259 acres; 482,246, of
260--499 acres; 191,697, of 500-999 acres; 130,481, of 1,000 acres and
over.
Farm population as a percentage of total population has continued to
decline. In April 1958 the 20,827,000 farm residents comprised 12% of
the total population, as against 16'6% in 1950. In 1910,35% of the total
were fal'm residents.
Hired farm workers in 1958 averaged about 1·96m .• and farm family
workers, including operators. averaged about 5·57m. (yearly average of the
number;1 working on farms each month).
The proportion of farm residents employed in non-agricultural industries
has incleased from 3 out of every 10 in 1950 to 3 out of every 8 in 1958.
More women than men. among farm residents, now do non·farm work;
more than half of the employed women were working in non·agricultural
industri~s in 1958.
Cash receipts from farm marketings and government payments (in Slm.):
Livestock and Government
Crops livestock products payments Total
1932 1,996 2,7/;2 4,748
194/; 9,655 12,008 742 22,405
19/;0 12,410 16,102 283 28,795
1956 14,2/;2 16,312 /;53 31,117
19/;7 12,461 17,363 1,016 30,840
19/;8 14,2/;9 19,301 1,089 34,649
Realized gross farm income (including government payments). in Slm .•

was 38.:!91 in 1958. compared with 34.389 in 1957. net income of farm
operatol's. 13.139 (11.018). Farm.mortgage debt. on I Jan. 1959, was esti·
mated at $1l.254m .• highest on record; increase in 1958 was about 7%.
V .S. agricultural exports. fiscal year. totalled : 1952-53, $2,819m.;
1953-54, S2,936m.; 1954-55. S3.144m. ; 1955-56, S3,496m.; 1956-57,
$4.72811.; 1957-58, S4,002m ; 1958-59 (estimate), S3,745m.
Total area of farm land under irrigation in 1954 was 29,552,155 acres
(320.23£· farms); in 1949 the comparable figures were 25,787,455 acres and
305,061 farms.
FedHal income taxes paid by farm operators was S15m. in 1941. SI,365m.
in 1948. $I,415m. in 1954, $1.090m. in 1955 and $1,075m. in 1956. Total
taxes levied on farm real estate in 1956 (payable largely in 1957) was $977m .•
an inCl'€aBe of 5·3% from the $928m. of 1954. Total increase over 1950.
about 3:!%.
Acc(.rding to celUlus returns and estimates of the Agricultural Re·
search Service. the acreage and specified values of farms has heen as
follows ,:area in 1,000 acres; value in $1,000):
AGRICULTURE 615
Orop land available V~lu., land, bldgs, Value of product.
Farm area· tor crops' macbinery, livestock In preceding year'
1910 878,798 431,000 41,089,000 (unavailable)
1930 986.771 480.000 57,815.000' 9,609,924
1940 1,060.852 467,000 41,829.000' 6.681,581
194" 1.141.615 464,000 69.186.000' 16.230,627
1960 1,loR.666 478.000 99.366,000' 22,051,129
1954 1,158.192 465.000 122,352,000' 24.644.477'
1 Acreages are for the preceding year except for 1954.
, Also includes an)' crop land used only for p3.iture. Plougbable pasture not in rotation
with cr<ip" i. not included as land available for crops.
, Vain. of all farm products sold in the preceding year except for 1954 .
• Estimates of ~gricultural Research Service.
The areas and production of the principal crops for 2 years and the
average for 10 years, 1947-56, were:
Avemge, 1947-06 195 7 1908 1
Bush. Bu.,/i . Bush.
1,000 1,000 per 1,000 1,000 per 1,0001,000 per
Orops acres bus". acre acre, b1J.'Jh. acre acres bu.h. acre
Corn (all). · 81,256 3,144.304 3S'8 72,616 3,422,331 47·1 73,470 3,799,844 51·7
Wheat (all) .63·673 1,116,216 17·7 43,806 950,662 21·7 63,577 1,462,218 27·3
Oats · 37,752 1,293,976 34·3 34,647 1,300,954 37'0 31,826 1,422,164 44·7
Rye 1,737 22 SI;U 12·8 1,672 27,243 16·3 1,784 32,480 18·2
Barley • 11,110 302:7';0 27 ·2 14,988 437,170 29·2 14,876 470,449 31'6
Soybeans for
bearu! . .14,657 296,29'1 20·3 20,826 483,715 23·2 23,752 571,413 24·2
Flaxseed . • 4,621 41,170 9·0 4,899 25,919 5·3 3,803 39,543 10·3
Rice t 1,911 46,975 2,465 1,340 42,935 3,204 1 ,421 47,011; 3,309
Potatoes' 1,493 228,615 153·6 1,383 239.539 173· 3 1,467 265,729 18H
Sweet potatoes ' 362 19.772 54·7 281 17,467 62·2 266 17,434 65 ·5
1 PrelimiDary figures.
I Production of rice. potatoeS and sweet potatoe9\ n 1.000 cwt ; yield per acre for rice iD
lb., potatoes and sweet potatoes in cwt. Potatoes, average is for 194 9-~6.
Wheat . The chief wheat-growing states (1958) were (estimated yield in

1,000 bushels) : Kansas, 291,525: North Dakota, 146,941: Oklahoma,
115,440: Nebraska, 113,450: Montana, 100,709: Texas, 73,040; Washing.
ton, 71,791: Colorado,70,236; South Dakota, 55,722: Illinois, 54,180; Ohio.
46,345: Idaho, 42,492; Michigan, 41,800; Indiana, 40,992; Missouri,
40,488.
Gotton. Production is moving west of the Mississippi River. In 1958
the 4 states of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California furnished 60%
of the crop. Production, 1958, by state (in 1,000 bales, 500 lb. gross) was:
Texas,4,308; California, 1,604; Mississippi, 961: Arkansas,925; Arizona,
734: Alabama, 439; Tennessee,419: Georgia,352: Oklahoma, 313; New
Mexico,301: South Carolina, 299; Louisiana,297: Missouri,275; Nortb.
Carolina., 256; other states, 29.
Cotton acreage and production (excluding 'linters') were :
Acres 1.000 bales Acres 1.000 baleo
hflI'Vcsted (500 lb. gross) barvested (600 lb. groso)
1925-29 1 42,600,000 15,268 1957 13,561,000 10.964
1940 23,861.000 12,566 1958 1l,8-19,OOO 11,512
1947-56 21,853,000 14,136
1 Period ol maximum acreage.
Tobacco. In 1958 estimated output was 1,736,204,000 lb. from 1,077,600

acres compared with the lO-year a.verage, 1947-56, of 2,134,443,000 lb. from
1,633,840 acres. Yield per acrtl has risen from an average of 1,315 lb. in
1947-M to 1,611 lb. in 1958. Output (1,000 lb.) of the 6 chief tobacco.
growing states (90% of the crop) was in 1958: North Carolina, 755,455;
Kenturky,326,348; Virginia,137,678; South Carolina, 13],100; Tennessee,
121,554,; Georgia, 91,018.
LiV'18/ock. Number of farm animals (in 1,000) on farms on 1 Jan. :
1930 1940 1950 1968 1969
Bon:es 13,742 10,444 6,648 } I,BM 3,079
Mul,,, 5,382 4,034 2,233
Cattle or aU' kin~ 61,003 68,309 77,963 93,360 96,851
Mllcb cows 23,032 24,940 23,868 22,233 21 .606
Sb..,p and lambs 61,666 62,107 29,82«1 31,337 32,644
Swine 66,706 61,166 68,937 60,~80 67,201
Tota.l value of livestock, excluding poultry (in Slm,) on farms in the

U.S.A. on 1 Jan. was: 1930, 6,06/; 1933 (Iow point of the agricultural
depression), 2,733; average, 1948-57,13,071; 1958,13,576; 1959,17,062.
In 1958 the production of shorn wool was 240·8m. lb. from 29·6m. sheep
(averap"e in 1947-56, 23l-5m.lb. from 27·9m. sheep); ofpuUed wool, 30·4m.
lb. (l9~~7-56, 39·8m. lb.).
Barger, J1., aod Landsberg, H. H., Americ4n AgricuUur~, 1899-1939. New York, 1942
J ..n..... O. B. (ed.), Readings on .dgricult"r~ Polity. Philadelphia, 1949
Mlgbell, Ronald L., .dmtrican AgricuUure, ie. Slrudu,.. and Pl«u in tlu ECQnOmv. New York
1966
Shepberd, G. S., .dgricuUural Pric~ and IncomL Polity. ard ed. Am.... Iowa, 19~2
Wbltaker, J. R., Amtrican RtlouruI: thei, managn>um 4nd cOfUtn>alion. New York,
1961
Wilco", W. W., EC(JII()f1/iCl 0/ Ammc4n AgricuUure. New York, 1951
FORESTS AND FORESTRY

In 1953 the U.S. forest lands, including coastal Alaska, capable of pro-
ducing timber for commercial use, covered 488,609,000 acres (about one·
fourth "f the land area), classified as follows : Saw·timber stands, 182,708,000
acres; pole timber stands, 169,483,000 acrcs; seedling and sapling stands,
94,784,000 acres; non-stocked and other areas, 41,634,000 acres. OWDer-
ship of commercial forest land is distributed as follows: Federal government,
103,124,000 acres; state, county and municipal, 27,216,000 acres; privately
oWDed, 358,269,000 acres, including 165,217,000 acres on farms. Of the
live saw·timber stand (2,056,847,ooom. bd ft) Douglas fir constitutes 26%;
Western yellow (ponderosa) pine, 11%; Southern yellow pine, 8%; other
softwoods, 35%; hardwoods, 20%, In 1952 timber cut amounted to
10,756,773w. cu, ft compared to net annual growth of about 14,243,ooom.
cu. ft. In live saw·timber stands, timber cut amounted to 48,839,829m.
bd ft against an annual growth of 47,397,OOOm. bd ft. The net area of the
148 national forests and other areas in U.S.A. and Puerto Rico administered
by the U.S. Forest Service, including commercial and non· commercial forest
land, was on 30 June 1959, 185,805,378 acres.
FiN takes a heavy annual toll in the fore&ts; total area burned over in
1957 was 3,409,038 acres, of which 62% was unprotected land; 94%
(652,571,000 acres) of total forest area is now under organized fire-protec.
tion service, In 1957, 1,170,990 acrcs of land were planted in trees (1956,
915,248).
PtJr..ts find 1I'oIional Proputll. Bd. Forest Survey (Dept. of Agriculture). Washioiton,
194:!
AlIeD, S. W., An [nlrodud''''' '" AfMrican PtJrulr/l. 2nd ed. New York 1950
OIa,,"oD. M. and Held, B., TIu Ped~aJ Lands: wi, use and f114n4gn>um. Baltimore and
LoDdNl, 1958
MINING 617
MINING
Production statistics of metallic minerals in continental U.S .• including
Alaska and Hawaii (long tons, 2.240 lb.; short tons. 2.000 lb.):
19;;7 1958
Value Value
Metallic minerals Quantity ($1,000) Quantity ($1,000)
Ball.~ite (dried equiv.).long tons. 1,416,172 12,868 1,310,685 1l.898
Co~per (rocoverabie content), short tons 1,086,859 654,289 979,329 615,121
Go d (recoverable content), troy oz. . 1,793.591 62,776 1,739,249 60,874
Iron ore (usable),1 1,000 long tons, ~oss 104,157 865,703 66,525 672,736
Lead (recoverable content), short tons. 338,216 96,130 267,311 62,066
Molybdenum (content of concentrate).
1,000 lb. . . . . . 51,143 61,605 42,328 60.371
Silver (recoverabie content), 1,000 troy
oz. 38,165 34,541 34,111 30,872
Zinc (recov'erable content), ~hort tons 031,735 123,253 412,005 84,113
Other metals 219,253 208.444
Total metals 2,137,000' 1,597,000
1 Excluding by·product iron einter. ' ncvised figure.
The two world wars and record levels of industrial production have
hastened the dcpletion of once abundant supplies of metal and U.S. is
increasingly an importer. U.S. is wholly or almost wholly dependent upon
imports for industrial diamonds. quartz. tin. chromite. nickel. strategic-
grade mica and long. fibre asbestos; it imports the bulk of its tantalum,
platinum. manganese. mercury. cadmium. tungsten, cobalt and flake
graphite. and substantial quantities of antimony. bauxite. arsenic. lead.
fluorspar. zinc. gypsum, bismuth and copper.
Metallic products in 1958 had a total value of $1,597m. ($2.137m. in
1(57); fuels. $1I,588m. ($12.709m.); other non-metallic products. S3.341m.
($3,267m.); total, $16,526m. ($18,113m.).
The precious metals are mined in Idaho. Utah. Arizona. Montana,
Colorado, Nevada. Wa8hington, South Dakota. California and Alaska (in
order of combined output of gold and silver). U.S. output of gold (troy
oz.), 1930-39, 31,453,370; 1940-49, 24,171,646; 1950-58, 17,214,310;
total 1792-1958, 299,302,047. Output of silver (troy oz.), 1930-39.
466,412.499; 1940-49, 434,656,631; 1950-58, 342.861.521; total 1792-
1958. 4,367.739,555.
Statistics of important non· metallic minerals in continental U.S., includ-
ing Alaska and Hawaii, are:
19;;7 1958
Value Valu<
Non-metallic minerals Quamitg ($1,000) Quantity ($1,000)
Boron minerals, short tons . 641,124 1 38,041 1 528,209 38,310
Cement, 1,000 bbls of 376 lb. 299,189 961,499 311,263 1,038,672
Ciays, 1,000 short tons . 45,620 1 155,805 1 43,750 143,481
GypSlllll, 1,000 short tons . 9,195 29,871 9,600 32,495
Lime, 1,000 .hort tons . . 10,266 135,143 9.203 118,026
Phosphate rock,' 1,000 long tons . 13,976 87,689 14,879 93,693
Potassium saits,' 1,000 short tons (K.O
equivalent). . . . . 2,266 8·l,612 2.147 75,000
Salt (common), 1,000 short tons . 23,844 148.8871 21,911 1-11,486
Sand and gravel. 1,000 short tons 632,256 ' 599,751' 683,684 651,635
Stone, 1.000 short tons 532,791 1 814,373 1 535,340 826,209
Sulphur (Fra.ch-proccss), 1,000 lo~g ton; 5,035 122,915 4,641 109,272
Other non-metallic minerals 88,414 72,715
Total non·metallic minerals' 3,267.000 3,341.000
, Revised figure. • Marketable production.
, A.djusted to eliminate duplicating value 01 clays and stone.
1951 1958
Vallt. Value
Fuels Quantity ($1,000) Quantity ($1,000)
eoal : B ti uminous ...nd lignite, 1,000
sho.,; tons . . . . . 492,704 2,504,406 410,466 1,996,281
PennsJ lvaoia anthracite,' 1,000 short
tons . . • . 25,3RS 221,754 21,111 181,898
GM: Na';Dral gas,' Im. cu. it . . 10,680,258 1,201,759 11,030,298 1,317,492
Natur" 1 gasoline and cycle products,
1,00(1 gallons . 5,734,307 415,791 5,596,458 393,139
L .P. gases, 1,000 gaUons . . . 6,655,283 263,665 6,783,000 296,571
PetroleuIl (crude), 1,000 bbls of 42
galloos . 2,616,901 8,079,259 2,448,866' 7,379,011 '
Other mi oeral fuels 16,366 17,548
Tc tal miner ...1 fuels 12,109,000 11,588,000
1 Includes a small quantity of anthracite mined in states other than Pennsylvania.
• Vallle at wells.
• PreI iminary figure.
J/~ Yearbook 01 tM United SIaU.. Bure...u of Mines. Washington. Annnal from 1932-
33 ; continuing the Mi_Gl ResOUTUI series (1866-1931); from 1U2 in 3 vola (MelalI and
Mi_ol.; Fuels ; Area R~II)
Recbel, 1'.( ed.), ABC .o/lron and Steel. 6th 00. Cleveland 1950
MANUFACTURES
The following table presents general statistica of manufactures in the
U.S. as reported at various censuses from 1909 through 1954 a,nd from the
Annual Survey of Manufactures thereafter. The figures for 1939, but not
for earlier years, ha,ve been revised to exclude data for establishments
classified as non.manufa,cturing in 1954. The figures for 1909-33 were
previously revised by the deduction of data for industries excluded from
manufacturing during that period.
The statistics for 1947 and 1954 relate toa.ll establishments employing
1 or more persons any time during the year; for 1950-53 and 1955-57, on a
representative sample of manufa,cturing establishments of 1 or more em·
ployees; for 1929 through 1939, those reporting products valued at 15,000
or more; and for 1909 and 1919, those reporting products valued at $500 or
more. These differences in the minimum size of establishments included in
the oonsus affect only very slightly the year·to·year comparability of the
figures.
The Annual Surveys of Manufactures carry forward the key measures of
manufa.cturing activity which are covered in detail by the Census of Ma,nu·
factureB. The estimates for 1952-53 are based on reports for approximately
45,000 plants out of a total of more than 260,000 operating manufacturing
establishments; those for 1955-57 on about 50,000 out of about 300,000.
Included are all large plants and representative sample of the much more
numerous small plants. The large plants in the surveys account for approxi.
mately two·thirds of the total employment in operating manufacturing
establisnments in the U.S.
Production and
Number of Production and related worker Value added
establish· related workers wages, total by manufacture'
ments (average lor year) ($1,000) ($1,000)
UO~ 264.810 6,261.736 3,205,213 8.160.015
191£ 270,231 8,464,916 9,664,009 23.841,624
192$ 206,663 8,369,705 10,884,919 30,691, 436
193: 139,326 5,781.611 4.940,146 14.007.640
1~3 9 113,802 7,808,206 8,997,515 24,487,304
1941 240,881 11,916,188 30,242.343 74,425,825
194£ 11 ,016,301 30,203,971 75,366,527
, Vahe 01 products I..s cost of materials, supplies, luel. electricity and contract work.
MANUFACTURES 619
Production and
Number of Production and related worker Value added
establisb- related workers wages, total by manufacture'
menta (average for year) ($1,000) ($1,000)
1950 260,000 11,778,803 34,600,075 89,749,765
1951 262,000 12,608,91 ,1 40,654,832 102,085,814
1$62 281,000 12,618,161 43,421,326 108,477,364
1963 286,000 13,600,934 48,979,102 121,659,136
1964 286,817 12,373,030 44,695,457 116,912,626
1956 283,041 12,981,051 49,739,112 131,598,397
196& 13,134,683 52,060,921 139,682,968
1957 12,841,7:;0 :;2,582,526 144,518,305
, Value of products less cost of materials, supplies, fuel, elcctricity .nd contract work.
For comparison of broad types of manufacturing, the industries covered

by the Census of Manufactures have been divided into 20 general groups:
Production Production Value
and related and related added
workers workers' by manu-
Ceosua (average wages, total factll""
Industry group year for year) ($1,000) ($1,000)
1,099,478 2,672,190 9,024,912
1. Food and kindred products f947
1954 1,138,239 3,769,071 13,400,218
19(;7 1,333,770 4,244,956 16,021,535
103,289 175,318 641,366
2. Tobacco manufactures f947
1954 87,073 219,736 988,001
1957 80,55, 240,1 8. 1,233,184
1,147,194 2,449,312 ~,340,876
3. Textile mill products f947
1954 947,502 2,626,564 4,748,686
1957 893,348 2,631,527 6,180,623
972,89, 2,016,220 4,443,313
f947
4. Apparel and related products. 1954 1,069.867 2,521,135 6,141,371
1957 1,123,029 2,867,336 6,968,807
596,118 1,179,981 2,497,192
5. Lnmher and wood prodllcts (excl. {~~~~ 681,920 1,604,859 3,188,409
furniture). • • • . 1957 679,099 1,723,341 3,295,567
282,780 653,915 1,371,908
6. Furniture and tirturea . f947
1954 286,649 892,891 1,9&6,410
1957 310,587 1,048,610 2,466,640
388,901 1,010,972 2,874,968
f947
1. Pulp, paper and products 1954 435,727 1,666,720 4,680,944
1957 458,078 2,010,215 6,642,384
43~,135 1,318,285 4,269,416
8. Printing and pubUsblng f941
1954 499,666 2,115,344 6,264,56~
1957 633,678 2,469,147 7,723,217
466,458 1,842,262 6,365,201
9. Cbemieals ..nd allied products f941
1954 501,272 2,005,627 9,443,629
1957 608,410 2,337,090 12,085,764
169,610 556,365 2,016,307
10 . Petroleum and coal products . f941
1954 135,8H 659,243 2,208,739
1957 135,094 771,048 3,008,806
f1947 214,633 614,762 1,302,863
11 . Rubber product. . 1954 196,238 776,499 1,901,702
l1957 205,342 953,723 2,380,204
348,629 a6,Ua 1,532,803
12. Leatber and leatber products . f947
19M 833,694 1,637,417
321,161
1957 322,788 938,535 1,869,630
405,765 994,884 2,306,480
13. Stone, 01"1 and gl"'6 producb _ f947
1954 412,031 1,496,029 3,821,669
1957 437,099 1,802,722 4,810,104
f941 1,010,055 2,976,507 6,166,434
14. Primary metal Industries 1954 966,478 4,lO4,712 9,146,784
1967 1,053,293 6,439,962 13,063,386
822,614 2,188,681 4,921,416
15. Fabricated metal products f947
1954 821,172 3,174,186 7,696,275
f947
195, 880,066 3,802,896 9,320,23r.
1,244,135 3,U2,711 7,812,465
16. Macbinery (except electrical) . • 1954 1,171,323 4,979,972 12,338,923
1957 1,265,706 6,060,832 15,449,481
, Value of products less cost of material!, supplies, fuel, electricity and contract wort.
Production Production Value
and reiated and related added
workent workers' by manu-
Censu. (average W"'lea, total factnre I
Industry group year for year) ($1,000) ($1,000)
1947 639,147 1,847,401 3,894,116
17. Elcc trical machinery { 1054 722,443 :,645,688 7,403,134
1957 7~4,504 8,292,470 9,398,165
1947 987,142 2,989,816 6,869,196
18. TrIl1L'portation equipment { 1954 1,327,078 6,003,250 13,92~,983
1957 1,401,332 7,174.871 18,486,135
19H 181,939 461,785 1,080,336
19. Instruments and related products. { 1954 195.597 759,459 2,128,706
1957 211,968 946,647 2,725,616
1947 298,579 920,508 2,090,168
20. MiB<,.llaneous manufactures . { 19~4 556.746 1,861,813 4,473,O~0
1957 513,914 1,826,413 4,637,704
1 va: ue of products less coat of materials, supplies, fuel, electricity aud contract work_
OU';put of the iron and steel industries (in net tons of 2,000 lb.), accord-
ing to figures supplied by the American Iron and Steel Institute, was:
Whole-
Output, Output, sale
Fur- pig-iron steel ingots 1 price
naces (including and steel Output of steel by method used Index
In blast ferro- for Optn of iron
51 Dec. ..noys) castings hearth B.um..r El.ctric' and steel'
N0_ Net tons Net tons Net tons Net ton. N et tons
1929' 16& 47,727,661 63,205,490 64,165,235 7,977,210 1,065,603
1932' 44 9,835,227 15,322,901 13,336,210 1,715,925 270,044
1939 195 35,677,097 62,798,714 48,409,800 3,358,916 1,029,067 64 ·2
1944' 218 62,866,198 89,641,600 80,363,953 6,039,923 4,237,699 65·1
1950 234 66,400,311 96,836,075 86,262,509 4,634,668 6,039,008 113-1
1955 247 79,263,865 117,036,085 105,369,417 3,319,517 8,357,151 140·6
1957 171 80,79M,285 112,714,996 101,657,176 2,475,138 8,582,082 166'2
1958 189 58,808,2~4 85,204,885 75,879,394 1,395,985 7,979,506 168·8
J Tbe sum of these 3 items should equal the total in the preceding column; any difference
appearing i. due to the very small production of crucible steel, omitted prior to 1950.
, 'B,)om' year. ' Low pOint of the depression. ' Peak year of war production.
, Indudes crucible production betllnning 1~50 and lJ3sic oxygen process bcgiuning 1955_
, 19·11-49 = 100; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
OU';put of pig-iron and ferro-alloys made in LJast furnaces in 1958 was
63'5% of capacity (capacity, net 91,OOO,IlO tons), that of ingot steel and
steel for castings, 60·6% of capacity estimated at 140,742,570 net tOllS.
Lef,ding producers of pig-iron in 1958 were: Pcnnsylvania, 14,903,018
net tOllS; Ohio,9,662,386; Indiana, 7,773,794; Illinois,4,200,136; New
York,3,332,386.
Consumption of ore, 1958, was 100,450,255 net tons, of which hlast-
furnac~s took 71,400,82\ tons, steel producing furnaces 7,653,947 tons and
sinterbg plants 21,395,947 tons.
'rh.. iron and steel industry in 1958 employed 4Il,565 wage-earners
(compnred with 544,325 in 19ii31, who worked an average of 35·2 hours per
week (,t6·6 in peak year 1944) and earned an avera.ge of 318·1 cents per hour
(compfLred with the average of 117·2 cents during 1942 to 1(45); total wages
were S2,406m. and total salaries for Ill,886 employees was S964m.
Largest unit in the iron and steel industry (also largest in the world) is
the U.S. Steel Corporation, with an annual capacity, I Jan. 1959, of
31,093,700 net tons of pig-iron and ferro-alloys (33·9% of the country's
capacicy, 94,634,850 net tons) and 41,916,000 net tons of ingot steel and
steel for castings (28,4% of the country's capacity, 147,633,670 net tons).
Apparent per capita U.S. consumption of steel, 1957, was 1,244 lb_
(1,250 lb_ in 1950); that of West Germany, 896 lb.; Sweden, 927 lb.; U.K.,
8281b.
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY 621
In 1958 electric power output for sale reached 724,013m. kwh., of
which industries produced for their own use 79,253m. kwh. (preliminary
figures); of the total produced, 21'7% was hydro·electric, 53'4% coal,
6'3% oil and 18'6% gas.
Adams, W. (cd.), Tht Structure of .d.mt1'ican Industry. Xew York, 1950
Alderfer, H. B., bud Michl, H. E., Economics of .J..1tleriCa'il Induslry. 2nd ed. New York.
19bO
Alien, E. I.I., Economics oJ American .:.\1anufaduTing. New York, 1952
Glover, J. G. (ed.), The Development 0/ ..d.trl£'rican IndustritJ. 4th ed. New York, 1959
TENNESSEE VALLEY A Ul'HORIl'Y

Established by Act of Congress, 1933, the TV A is a multiple. purpose
federal agency which carries out its duties in an area embracing some
41,000 sq. miles, in 125 counties (aggregate population, about 3·2m.) in
the 7 Tennessee River Valley states: Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi,
Alabama, North Carolina, Georgia and Virginia. In addition, 75 counties
outside the Valley are now served by TVA power distributors. Its 3 direc-
tors are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate; head-
quarters are in Knoxville, Tenn. There were 14,768 employees at 1 July 1959.
Under the Act its chief duties are flood control; the maintenance of
navigation; generation, transmission and sale of electric power; and the
development and production of fertilizers and munitions. TV A's 20th
dam was completed in 1953; there are now 32 major dams and reservoirs
controlling the flow of the river. A navigable channel 650 miles long,
connecting with the American system of inland waterways, in the calendar
year 195!J carried more than 2,100m. ton·miles of traffic in automobiles,
iron and steel products, wheat and maize, coal, petroleum and general
merchandise.
Growing out of this has been the production and distribution of electrio
power, which has multiplied from 1,500m. kwh. in 1933 to 60,969m. in
fiRcal 1959, when generating capacity reached 11m. kw. Rates are kept
low to encourage consumption; the official figures are: average cost to
residential consumers served by distributors of TV A power is 1'03 cents
per kwh., compared with the national average of about 2'5 cents. Net
revenue from operations, in 1958-59, $50,82!J,938, equal to a return of
3'2% on the average power investment.
A fourth activity is experimentation in the development and manufacture
of mineral fertilizers accompanied by programmes designed to encourage
proper fertilizer use in all parts of the country. The Fertilizer-Munitions
Development Centre at Muscle Shoals, Alu.barua, serves munitions research.
The TV A works closely with other federal agencies, and with state and local
authorities in combating soil erosion, improving forest resources, the con-
version of farms, in whole or in part, from row· crops, such ItS maize, to live-
stock. and to the development of local industries based on nlttural resources,
woodland or mineral. In the depression yo;'1', 1933, the average per
capita income in the Valley region was $168 compltred with the national
average of $375; in 1958 the region's per capita income hl,d multiplied
over 7 times to SI,2!:Hl while the national average had increased 5! times
to $2,057.
Tntal fixed assets, before depreciation, 30 June 1959, in the multiple-
purpose water· control and power system was $2,215m., of which $158m.
was devoted to navigation, $184m. to flood control and about SI,873ru.
to the development of power. At 30 June 1959 TVA had paid
$250,131,519 of power revenue to the U.S. Treasury, including $65,072,500
in redemption of bonds issued in 1938-39. It had also paid $41,520,420
of non· power proceeds. In July 1959 Congress amended the TVA Act to
authorize TVA to issue up to $750m. of power revenue bonds to finance
additions of generating capacity. The amendment also required TVA to
repay S,I,OOOm. of the Treasury investment of $1,198,980,801 in the power
system within 54 yea.rs and to pay a return on the unpaid balance equal
to the average interest rate on marketable public obligations. Total
appropdations for TVA to 30 June 1959 were $1,961,291,581-
Annual Report of th' TVA. Knoxville, 1934 to date
Case, H. L., Personnel Policy in a Public Agency: th' TV A Experience. New York, 1955
Olapp, G. n., 2'ht TV A; an Approach 10 the Devclopmm./ of a Region. Dni\,. of Chicago
P ress, 1955
Lilienthal, D. E., TV od; Democracy on Ihe Ma,ch. 20th Anniversary ed. New York and
London, 1953
Tennesse, Valley Authority. Faas About TV.1 Operations. Knoxville, Tennessee, 1959.-
TV A: the First Twenty Yea,s (ed. R. O. Maxtin), Univ. of Tennessee Press, 1956.
COMMERCE
Tbe subjoined table gives the total value of the imports and exports of
merchandise in 6 calendar years (in $1,000):
Exports General Exports General
Tolal a.s. mds,. Imports Total a .s . mds•• imports
1945 !',805,62S 9,584,684 4,169,138 1957 20,850,000 18,~ ,lO,OOO 12,615,000
1960 1(',275,043 10,142,423 8,862,161 1958 17,892,700 20,728,000 12,792,500
1956 1/,,646,696 16,418,633 11,384,436 1959 17,566,200 17,383,000 15,212,300
For a description of how Imports and exporta are valued by the U.S. Customs, see Esp/ona-
lion of Stlflislic. of Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the an"", lJl4lt., Bureau of the Census,
U.S. Depa.ttment of Commerce, Washington, D.O., 1946.
Tbe 'most favoured nation' treatment in commerce between Great Britain and U.S.
was agrend to for 4 ye..,.. by the treaty of 1816, was extended for 10 years by the treaty of
]818, an,l indeJlnitely( subject to 12 months' notice )by that of 1827.
Imports and exports of gold and silver bullion and specie in 7 calendar
years (in $1,000):
Gold Sliver
Balance Bal4nu
Esportl lmpo,u + or - ESPO,I, ImporU + or -
1932 809,628 363,316 +446,213 ]3,8~0 19,650 - 6,800
1940 4,996 4,749,467 -4,744,472 3,674 68,434 -64,760
1944 959,228 113,836 +845,392 126,916 23,373 + 103,~42
1966 7,267 104,692 - 97,336 8,331 72,932 -64,601
1956 26,662 132,667 -106,106 7,049 129,068 -122,019
1967 168,332 272,641 -104,309 11.163 168,354 -147,191
19:;8 31,022 2~O,585 -259,663 3,719 132,046 - 128,327
For b.storlcal figures on the exporta and imports of gold and oilver, It, THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR·BoUK, 1965, p. 610.
The domestio exports of U.S. produce, including military, and the

imports for consumption by economic classes for 3 calendar years were:
Exports (U.S. mercbandise) Imports for consumption
1956 1957 1958 ' 1956 1957 1958 1
Merchandise $lm. $lm. $lm. $lw. $1m. $lm.
Crude m' t.erial. 2,516 3,110 2,137 3,087 3,211 2,785
Crude fo"d.tuffs . 1,332 1,332 1,280 2,036 2,020 1,9-12
Manufactured !oodstuffs 1.264 1,163 1,102 1,167 1,272 1,517
Semi-ma.nufactures . 2,776 3,242 2,275 3,006 2,920 2,660
Finished manufactures 11,054 11,823 10,900 3,221 3,627 3,UI0
Total 18,940 20,671 17,694 12,616 12,~51 12,781'
1 Preliminary figure$.
, Exc .udes $33m. of tbe value reported by economic classes owing to change in tabula ting
procedur". during the year.
COMMERCE 623
Chief exports of U.S. merchandise, excluding, for security reasons,
Special Categories Type I and 11, for the calendar year 1958 :
Commodity $lm_ Commodity $lm _
Chemical and related products 1,342'1 Machinery und vehicles (coned.) :
Ohemica1 ~pecialitie8 1>17-3 Automobiles, parts aDd acces-
Industria.) chemicals 211-5 sories . . . 1,082-8
MediMnals _ _ _ • 277-7 Motor trucks, commercia 1 293-9
PijlIDents, paints and varnishes. 100-2 Passenger cars and chass is 258-3
Foodstuffs and tobacco! Metals and manufactures 1,530-1
Dairy products _ 10H Iron and steel-mill products 563·3
Fruit. and preparations 205-8 Met&l manufact.ures, general 480-3
Grains and preparations 1,297-8 Non-metallic minerals. 1,291 -1
Co&r8e gra.in.q . 464-8 Coal aud products . 533'9
Wheat. including flour UR5-1 Petroleum and products 461'8
Tobacco and manufactures 439-6 Lubricating oils _ 174-2
Machinery and ..ehicles . 6,2609 Gas oil and fuel oil 117'5
Agricultural, except tractors In-l Textile fibres and manuIacture. 1,280-6
Electrical apparatus. . 794·2 Raw cotton (e:<ciudiog lintera) 655-9
Radio a nd television a pparatus 14n-3 Textile m a nu(a ctn res 599·8
Industrial maebinery 2.261-!) Synthetic fibres and manu- 234-1
CoD'ttruction and mining 694-9 factures
Pow~r genemtiIlJl machinery . 226·5 Wood and paper 449-8
Jdetaiworlong machine tool. Paper and manufactures 219-8
and machinery 338·9 Other chief exports :
Civilian aircraft 217-0 Rubber and manufactures 278·3
Offi"" "ppliance8 133-4 Synthetic rubber _ _ 117-3
Tract,ol"S, parts and acces .. Oilseedi; and expressed oils 258-1
sories 310-7 Books and other printed m atter . 110-8
Chief imports for consumption for t.he calendar year 1958:

CommodIty $lm. Commodity $lm.
Chemicals and products 282-1 Metals and manufactures
Industrial chemicals 87-0 Non#ferrous ores & metals (conld.)
Pertilizers and materials . 97-2 Tin 104-2
Foodstuffs t beverages, tobacco: Zinc. . . 88-9
Cocoa . • 173-0 Non-metallic minerals . 2,165'0
\Vhisky and other distilled spirits 179-8 Dia.monds . . IS0'5
Fish, lllcluding shellfish . 279-2 Petroleum and products 1,636-8
Colle. . 1,17 2-:; Crude petroleum . 943 -3
Fruits and preparations . 133-5 Residual fuel oils . . 459-2
Grains , fodders and feeds . 91 -8 Textile fibres and manufactures . 901-6
Meat products. 337 -4 Cotton (clotb and manuIactures) 150-3
Cane sugar • 522-4 Jute burlap. _ _ _ . 76-0
Tobacco. raw. • 107-6 Wool manufactures, Including
Machinerv and vehicles 1,152-2 semis . . 175·5
Automohiles and parta 054·3 Wool. unmanuIactured _ • 164-7
Industrial macWllery 182-7 Syntbetic fibres and manuIac-
Electrical apparatus. 166-6 tures 56-0
Metals and manufactures . 1,811-0 Wood and paper l,431-S
Iron and steel-mill products 230-7 Newsprint . 615·2
Ferro-alloys, ores. metals 177-5 Paper-base stock 310-2
NOD ' ferrous ores and meto,ls 1.023-0 Saw-mill products 263-8
Alnminium (incl. bauxite) 222·3 Other cbief im ports :
Copper 249-1 Rubber. crude . . 248-5
Lead _ 133-6 Vegetable oils, inedible, and
Nickel_ 124-8 oUseeds 133·1
The customs duties collected on merchandise imported for consumption

amounted (in Slm.) in 1952, S574'7; in 19!i3, S597'7; in 1954, $556-9;
in 1955, $669-6; in 1956, $739·2; in 1957, $776-9; in 1958. $838·1.
Total trade between the continental United States and the United
Kingdom for 6 years (British Board of Trade returns) in £1,000 sterling:
1938 1955 11l1>& 1957 11168 19:;9
Import.. from U_S_ to U_K. 117,980 419,907 407.831 481,547 390,152 370,7G2
Exports to U _S_ from U.K. 20,484 182,903 242,9711 243,538 271,650 3611,075
Re-exports from U _K.. to U _S_ 8,214 15,S45 15,888 13,810 18,844 21,137
Imports and exports by continents and selected countries for calendar

years: General imports Exports, incl. re-exports 1
Country 1957 1958 1957 1958
Grand di'risions: $lm. $lm. $lm. $lm.
North A.merica . 4,473'5 4,428·1 6,117'8 5,499'4
South .\.merica . 2,574'3 2,311'1 2,624',1 2,213'0
Europe 3,146'7 3,356'3 5,787'6 4,579'8
Asia . 1,984'5 1,997'2 3,375 '2 2,637 '8
Austrs:·ia and Oceania 216·3 2U9·2 279'5 243·2
Africa 586'9 660'9 683' 3 615·4
Tctal' 12,982'3 12,829'7 20,850'3 ' 17,857'0 •
North an j South America:
Costa !liea 2705 36·0 48·2 41·8
Cuba 481·9 528·0 618·0 545·9
Domin:can Republlo 63-1 72·1 74·1 75'9
El Sahador 65·6 48·5 50·1 44·6
Guatemala 73·7 66·1 81·2 78 ·9
Haiti 18·3 22·9 24 ·3 25·(}
Honduras 26·1 27·8 41·9 35·7
Me.:tico 430·1 457·7 903'7 885·5
Nicaraj~lla. 22·3 21-1 39-1 37'5-
Panama 24'3 20 84·5 83-9
Argentina. 129·3 132·7 284·4 249·0
Bolivia 16·0 8'9 34 '4 29·(}
Brazil 690·7 565·8 484·4 529'7
Chile 195·8 155'7 194·9 H8·9
Coioml)ia 383'7 332'~ 241·8 184·9
Ecuador 58·0 56·2 50·7 46·8
Parag.;ay 6·6 7·5 11·2 10'2
Peru 138·0 124·0 198·7 166·8
Uruguay 17-9 8'7 48·7 21·6
Venezr.ela 900·0 892·3 1,053'1 808·5
~O American Republics I 3,764'4 3,589'2 4,636' 6 4,184'4
Canadh 2,906'9 2,687'3 4,0·10'7 3,535'2
N ether lands Antilles 273 '4 316·8 8·H 74'6
'Vest Indies, Federation of 56'9 102·4 70·3 70'3
Europe:
Austria-. . . . 37·1 41·0 68·2 57·3
Be!jliulD and Luxembourg' . 270·4 269·9 419' 7 320·5
Denmak' . 73·7 84·6 87·7 78'5
Finlan·i 40·0 36·0 34·0 33·5
France'.. 256 ·0 302·4 689·3 427·2
Germany (West)' 606·6 635·6 956·7 733·6
Greece' . 35·1 37·2 86 ·1 72·6
Irish feepublic' 8'7 16·4 21'7 31'0
Italy' . 246·0 275 ·1 664·3 487'2
Netherlands' 168'4 180·8 555·9 442'0
Norway' . 83·3 74·8 85·5 69·3
Portugal' . 22·3 22·3 48·3 30'9
Soviet Union 16·5 17·6 3·5 3·4
Spain . 58 ·3 55'4 203'7 214·7
Swedell' . 118·7 125 '4 231 ·8 195·1
Switzerland' 173'2 157·1 238·8 163'5
Turke'" . 92·4 56·1 139·0 127·0
U.K." . 765·7 8d8'2 1,100'9 837'7
Yugos:av i a . 35·4 29·5 144'0 115 ,2
D.E.E.O. countries' 2,943'8 3,167'0 5,3lf"4 4,090'1
Western Europe'.· 3,077'5 3,287'9 6,746'1 5,439'7
1 Da.ta for continents and individual countries exclude exports of commoditic~ classed
for security reasons as 'special category', except in the case of Canada. They are included
Ca) in th, U.S. total, (b) the total to the 20 American republics and (c) the total to Western
Europe. SpeCial category exports totalled $1,982·4m. in 1957 and S2,060·4m. in 1958.
I Inc:udes . specia.l category' eXlJorts. i .t., the totals are as indicated in footnote l.
a Inc!udp'8 O.R.E.C. countries and Finlanrl. Spain and YIlg'o:')lavia.
• Tb" D.E.E.O. total includes the countries Indicated in the table and Iceland.
COMMERCE 625
Genernl Imports 'E xports , in cl. re -expo rt.~l
1!Ja7 19,8 19.>7 1!J,j!j
Country $lm. $lm. $lm. $lm.
Far EAst and Middle Ea!"t :
AU9tratia 146·0 9~i'7 212·6 ISV'9
Ceylon . . . 32'4 27,] 13·3 21·g
Cambodia and Vietnu.m 22·6 ' 14·2 73.9 11 69·1
Hong Kong 34·0 51·8 78·" 71·8
India . . . 21O·D 191'8 439<~ 312·6
Yalaya and Singapore. 191'5 12i·5 43·1 35'4
New Zealand 65·1 J 10'7 53·8 43·3
Pakistan 39·6 26~9 115·4 112·0
China' 0·1 0·1

Indonci-lia . 200·3 171·7 1102 61·2
Iran. 32·9 42·1 82'7 105·9
Iraq. 29·1 30·1 40·1 32·1
Israel 20·1 18'2 97-1 10<\'5
Japan 600'5 670·8 1,234'0 833'6
Korea, Republic of 3·9 2·4 277·G 216·1
Kuwait 112·2 167 '1 38'8 42·6
Lebanon . 4·5 3·8 40'2 36·1
Philippines 262·J 274·0 369'3 291·4
Saudi Arabia 41·" i2 -2 68'9 58-6
Taiwan (li'ormo~a) s·g 10'8 106·4 1019
Thailand 85'7 57·2 68-2 523
Alrica:
Algeria 1-~ 0-8 27-5 27·7
Angola . 40·6 37-2 15-0 11 -7
Belgian Congo 103-7 95·0 68-5 39-1
British East Africa • 4tH) 47-S 9·3 9.2
French West Africu. 33·1 40-1 31_0 26-8
Ghana 44·7 63·3 10- 1 10- 5
Liberia 38·3 33-1 59-6 &3'4
Nigeria . . • 25·n 2~·5 11·8 23-0
Rhodesia and Nyasaland 52-4 R2·:; 20·1 11'7
Union 01 Soutb Africa' 100·8 99·a 284-8 248-6
United Arab Repuulic 17-0 17-8 40'1 51-9
1 Sec Dote on previous page.
2 Includes also La05.
3 G..eneral imports from China, (including Manchuria) fiud North Koren, ri~idJy controlled
b.v tile U.S. Tremmry t wen":, ] !J!i7, $9£1,000; 1958, $112,000; export.s, includiog re-exports
\,;ore, 10i)7, $9,000; 1953, i[),OOO .
• British Somaliland, Seychelles, Mauritius, Uganda, Keuya, Tanganyi ka an d Zauzibar.
6 Includes nl80 South-\Vest Africa and British High Commission territ o rj e~ of Bechuanu-
bud, Basutoland and Swaziland.
Tariffs. The American tariff system hlls ceased to be an importlmt

revenue.raising device. In 1789-91 customs duties (plus the t onnago tax)
furnished 99'5% of the government revenue; in 1859, just preceding the Civil
War,92-6%; in 1939 (excluding the tonnage tax), 6'1 % ; in 1952, 1953
and HJ54, 0·9%; 1955 and 1956, 1% ; 1957,1'1%; 1958,1 %.
During the 5-year period 1954-58 I1nnual imports for consumption
averaged Sll ,956m. (as compared with $9,536m. during 1949-53 and
$2,440m. during 1936--40). Of these imports, 49% (S5,863m.) entered duty
free and 51 % (S6,093m.) paid duties averaging S716m. or 11-8 % of dutiable
imports and 6% of total imports for consumption. During this period,
imports increased each year after 1\.134.
Exports of V.S. merchandise, including a id and relief shipments, during
the sllme period, 1954-58, averaged $17,54Irn. compared with SI3,532m. in
1949-53 and $:3,167m. in 1936-40.
Per Cflpita exports fell from S41'77 in 1929 (the' boom year' when
AmericlLll invest.ors lent hea \-ily abroad) to a low of :512-42 in the depression
year of 1932, rising to 523-44 in 1939, and to $103·68 in 1947 (including
civilian supplies donated abroad); thereafter they stood at: 1052, $94'07;
1953, 3')6,27; 1954, $90'57; 1055, $91-61; 1956, 3110·61; 1957, $120'48
(an all.time high); 1958, $99'86 (all years including economic and military
aid shipments). Per capita imports were as follows: 1929, 335·14; 1932,
310'44; 1939, $17'08; 1947, 838'51; 1952, 867-19; 1953, 866'3; 1954,
361'92; 1955, $67'36; 1956, $73,09; 1957, $74,14; 1958, $71-87.
The average rate of duty actually collected on U.S. dutiable imports has
declined markedly since the early 1930s, as a result both of reductions in
U.S. import duties by trade agreements and of the great advanee in prices.
In the depression years of 1930-33 the average rate under the Hawley-Smoot
Law w/,s 52·8%. The rate on dutiable goods declined to 37'3% in 1939,
then to an average of 28·2% in the 5 years, 1943-47, then to 14·3% in 1948
(the first year the maj ority of the Geneva concessions were in effect). Rates
since hLve been : 12·6% in 1951, 12'8% in 1952,12'3% in 1953,12'2% in
1954. 1:J.6% in 1955. 11'8% in 1956,11-2% in 1957, 11'3% in 1958. In
1949 th'3 average rate of duty on total U.S. imports-both dutiable and free
-was 1;'8%: in 1951, 5·6% ; in 19.')2,5'3%; in 1953,5'5%; in 1954,
5'4%;n 1955 and 1956, 5·9% ; in 1957,6% ; in 1958,6'6% .
Brown, J" W. A., 'I'M Uni~d Slat" and IM Re,otorQlion of World T,ade. W88hiogton, 1950
Davis, M., Guitk lo AfMrican Bu,vineSJ Diredn'f'ie., . Wa..ihington., 1948
Mikcsell, [to F ., U.S . Economic Polic1/ and Intt'NlAJliono.l Rtlulicms. New York, 19:i2
NA TIONAL INCOME
The Office of Business Economics of the Department of Commerce
prepare:; detailed estimates on the national income and product of the
United States. The National Income. 1954 edition, contains detailed
nationn! income and product estimates covering the period 1929-45. A
revisedlnd expanded set of estimates is presented in V.S. Income and Output
for the period 1949-57. The latest tentative calculations for the current
year are carried in the Commerce Department's Survey of Current Business.
and in the Federal Reserve Bulletin. In 1958 all figures, back to 1946, were
re-checked and some revised. These latest revised figures 1 in SI,OOOm. for
various years are as follows:
1929' 1933' 1954 1956 1956 1957 1958
I. Gross ].1ational Product. • 104'4 66·0 363·1 397·6 419·2 442·5 441·7
(a) GoverDIDent purcbases of
goods and services . 8·5 8·0 75·3 75·6 79·0 86·2 92·6
(b) G r088 private Investment 16·2 1·4 48,9 63·8 64·4 66,6 5·1-9
(c) ~et expor ts of goods and
services . . . 0·8 0·2 1·0 J·1 2·9 4,9 1 ·2
(d) Fersonal consumption ex-
penditures . . . 79·0 46·4 238·0 256·9 269·9 284·8 293·0
1. Gross National Product,
m:nus adjustments not
ac ~ruing to individuals,
su ob as business taxes, de·
pr3ciation, etc., equals the:
2. Nati onal Income . 87·8 40'2 301·8 330·2 350·6 366·6 366·2
which, after adjustment.
and deductiollS such a.s
business savings and contri·
butions to social insuraor,e
lu ,d. which are withheld
tr<,m individuals, equa ls:
1. Pen,nal income . 85·8 47,2 289·8 310·2 332·9 350·6 359·0
wllereof
4. Pen"oal taxes, etc., t~ke 2·6 1·5 32'9 36·7 40·0 42.7 42·6
lel.ving
1 DetllUs do not always add up to the totals given because of rounding the fil:llres.
• Peal: year of the inter-war period. I Low point of the depression.
NATIONAL INCOME 627
1929' 1933' 1954 1955 19~G 1967 1968
I. Gross National Product (contd.)
6. Disposable personal income 83·1 45·7 256·9 274·4 292 ·9 307-9 316·5
divided into
(t') Persona] consumption ex-
penditures see (d) above 79·0 46·4 238·0 256·9 269·9 284·8 2n3·0
f) Net personal savings 4'2 -0·6 18·9 17'0 23·0 23·0 23·5
n. National Income 87·8 40'2 301·8 330·2 350·8 36G·5 366·2
composed of
Compt'l1Salion of employees 51·1 29·5 207'6 223·9 242·5 256·8 256·8
(g) Salaries and wages. 50·4 29·0 196·3 210·9 22].6 238·5 239·~
(h) Supplementaries. 0·7 0'0 11·3 12·9 14·9 no 17·4
Net income of propritlorl . N·8 5·6 40·4 42·1 43·7 449 46·6
(i) Agricultnral. . . 6·0 2·4 12· 7 11·8 11-6 l1·R 14·2
(j) Busines3 and professional 8·8 3'2 27·8 30·4 32·1 32·7 32·4
Personal income.! from rent.! . 5·4 2'0 10 ·9 10·7 10·9 11-5 11·8
Personal incomes from interest. 6-4 5·0 9·1 10·4 11·7 13·3 14·2
Business profits be/oTt ta:us, etc. 10-1 -2·0 3.1-7 43·1 42·0 41·7 36·7
Ta." liabilities . . 1'4 0·5 17·2 21·8 21·2 21-1 18·1
Inventory adjustments 0·5 -2·1 -0,3 -1·7 -~'7 -1-6 -0·4
(k) Dividends " 5·8 2·1 9·8 11·2 12-1 12 '0 12·4
(I) Undistributed profits 2·4 -2'4 7·0 11·8 11·3 9·7 6·5
J Peak year ot the inter-war period. a Low point of the depression.
In I,OOOm. of constant 1954 dollars the gross national product for the
above years was: 1929,181'8; 1933,126·6; 1954,363'1; 1955,392'7;
1956,400'9; 1957.408,3; 1958,399.
The gr0ss national product for 1959 is estimated at $479,500m. and the
national income at $398,500m.
Income Size Distribution. Distributions of families and family income

by income·size brackets are prepared by the Office of Business Economics
(Department of Commerce) and published annually in the July issue of
Survey of Current Business.
}'amily personal Number of families and unattached .A.ggre~ate family personal
income (before individuals (Im.) income (Sl,OOOm.)
t
income ta.:t'os) 1947 1953 1955 19,,6 1957 1947 1953 1955 1956 1957
Under $2,0(10
$2,OOO-$2,9~9
$3,000-$3,999
$4,000-$4,999
$5,000-$5,999 }
. 11·1 g'5
} . 17-1 13-4
9·2 13·3
t 8·2 7·8
5·9 5·6
7·3 7·1
7·3 6·3
6·3 6·2
7·5
5'3
6·7
7·0
6·4
1
13·2
51·2 40·8
44·6 6',8
9·9
"
9·3
20·8
8·7
]4·0
14·9 25·0
33·0 32·5
34·6 34·0
8·4
13·'
23·5
31·5
36'0
$6,000-$7,499 6·9 7·0 7·3 46'3 47·0 49·0
$6,000-$7.999 3·8 7·8 26·0 63·5
$7,500 -$9,999 5·2 6·0 6·6 44·7 61·9 66·9
$8,000-$9,999 1·5 3·4 13·3 29·8
$10,000-$1.1,999 1·2 2'0 3·1 37 4·2 14·3 31·6 36·9 45·0 50·5
$15.000- $19,999 }
520,000-$24,999 0·8 1.5
{ 09
O·~
I·) }
0·4
2·4 22·1
{ 15·1
8'4 9'4
IB6} 63·4
$25,000- $49.999 O'D 0·5 40·8 15.1 16·9
$50.000 and over 0·1 0·1 10·2 11·:;
- - --- ----
Total • 44·7 50·5 62·1 52'8 53'6 184·6 272·2 294·2 314'7 :m'8
COST 01' LIVING

The Department of Labour, 1953, presented a new and expanded index
of consumer prices as felt by city wage·earner and clerical· worker families
in 46 large, medium and small cities. Averages for 1947-49 = 100. The
index for' housing' has 6 sub.groups, including rent; in the table below
the indices for several sub-groups are omitted.
628 UNITED STA'fES OF AMERICA
A. vera: ,e (or All Housing Truos- Medical

year tlr month items ~'ood Apparel Total' RtnI port care
1929 (Doltn) n -a 65-6 GO-3 117-4
1933 ~Lo-_\-) b~-S 41 -6 4~ - 9 83 -6
1950 une' 101-8 100-5 ~6 ' 5 104 -9 108-7 109-9 105-4
19~5_ II4-5 1l0-9 103-; 120-0 ISO-S 12R-4 12S-0
1956_ llll-2 11l -7 105-6 12H 132- 7 ItS-1 131-6
1951 _ 120-2 II5 -4 106-9 125-6 135-' 136-0 I S8-0
1965 _ 1!!3·l) 120-3 107-0 127 ·7 13j-1 HO-5 144--1
19:;9 _
March 12H 111-1 107-0 128-7 I SH 144-9 149 -2
Juno _ 1 ~)4·5 Jl 8-9 10;-3 12S-9 139-0 H 5-9 150-6
Sep~_ 125-2 IIS-7 109-0 129-1 140-0 146-1 152-2
Dec _ _ 125-5 Il 7-S 109-2 130·4 HO-S 14S-1 153-2
, lududes reuts, fue"', elootriclty and ga., refrigeration, furnishing; and • bousebold
operation'; beginning 1955 it inclu,leo purcbasee price of homes.
I Start of the Korean War, 25 June.
LABOUR
The American trade unions comprise nearly 190 national and inter.
nations-I unions and 50 state and territorial organizations. In 1958 total
membership was approximately 18 -lm-, including 1,050,000 Canadian
worker:1 affiliated with American unions and about 130,000 outside conti.
nental U.S.A.The American l<'ederation of Labor (founded 1881 and taking
its nalI,e in 1886) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merged into
one organization, named the AFL-CIO, in Dec. 1955, representing 15m.
worker:1 (excluding 3 expelled unions) late in 1958.
l!'our Railroad Brotherhoods (2 members of the AFL-CIO and 2 un·
affiliat€<:i) covering operating staffs emhracing engine·drivers, firemen, con·
ductor~: and trainmen, had over 350,000 ill 1958. Unaffiliated or inde·
pendent unions, inter·state in scope, including those organizing coalminers
and gcvernment workers, had an estimated total membership of ahout
3-2m. (including 3 unions expelled from the AFL-CIO).
Sta'~utes regulating, restricting or prohibiting closed shop or other types
of union security agreements are ill effect in 23 states, of whom 19 ban a ll
types (of union security agreements (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida,
Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Mississippi, NebraSka, Nevada, North
Carolina, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Tcxas,
Utah B,nd Virginia); a 20th state, Louisiana, has such an act applicable
only to agricultural labourers and workers engaged in processing certain
agricultural products. Nine states have acts to prevent industrial dis.
putes between puhlic utilities and their employees by means of compulsory
arbitration or seizure; however, a number of these laws have becn declared
unconstitutional in so far as industries in inter.state commerce are concemed.
La.ws to restrict or regulate picketing or other strike activities have been
enacted in about half the states. About one· third of the statcs also
prohibit certain types of strikes, such as • sit dO\vn.' jurisdictional or sym-
pathy :,trikes_ A bout two·thirds of the states have' criminal syndicalism'
laws ir._some form or other_l
Mircimum.wage laws governing private employers have been enacted
(largely since 1934) in 33 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico.
, 'rh·, Idabo A.et (1925) may be taken ... representative_ Tbe primary offence. puni.bable
as a fOie'DY. is the advocacy, by t\·ord of mouth or in writing, of the 'doc t·:~ nt'! of crimina)
Byndical.sm,' which i. defined I\.i • the doctrine wbich wilfully and maliciou.ly advocates
crime, tubotage. viol em~e or unlawful metbods ot terrorism as a meaDS of ar.complishing
Industria l or political reform.' The Act defines 'sabotage' : 'Sahotage for the purpose 01
tJli. chapter I. deflned to mean damage, injury or destl1lction 01 real or p ....onal property ;
work done in an improper manner; trunpering with Or disabUDR machioery; improper use
01 matClialB; loitering a t ,,-ork: slack work : slowiJlJ( down work or production; lICamped
work; . ,ute 01 property; tbe publication of trade secrets.'
COMMUNICATIONS 629
The laws of 14 states and Puerto Rico cover all workers; in the other states
they cover only women or women and minors. The federal minimum
wage rate is $1 per hour since 1 March 1956.
A total of 3.694 strikes and lockouts occurred in 1958, involving 2·1m.
workers and 23·9m. idle man·days; the numbe,· of idle man·days was
0·22% of the year's total working time.
There are 3 federal agencies which provide formal machinery for the
adjustment oflabour disputes: (I) The :l!'ederal Mediation and Conciliation
Service (now an independent agency, formerly the Conciliation Service
of the Department of Labor), which handles disputes which • threaten
to cause a substantial interruption of commerce.' Its aim is to prevent
and minimize work stoppages. (2) The National Mediation Board (1934)
provides much the same facilities for the railroad and air-transport indus-
tries. (3) The National Railroad Adjustment Board (1934) acts as a board
of final appeal for grievances arising over the interpretation of existing
railroad-labour collective agreements; its decisions are binding upon both
sides and enforceable by the courts.
For the Taft-Hartley • Labour-Management Relations Act' (1947), 8ee
THE STA.TESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1955, p. 617.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Dept. of Labof. Di,ectn,y of NtUional and TnlemallMlal
Labo, Uninn.. in tJu U.S. 19~9.-Brief Ili .•t<>ry Of lhe American Labor Movement. 19~7.
A Guide to Labor-ManagemenlRelations in Ihe U.S. 1958.-SltU6' Right-to- Work' La.o••
1959
Oommons. J. R. (ed.), eillMy 0/ Lakor in the United Slate.. 'vols. New York, 1918-36
Dulles, Fo.ter Rbem, Lakor in America: A Bidory. New York, 1949
Durand, J. D., The Lako. Fo.u in Ih. U.S •• /8YO- I960. New York, 1948
Ferrarottl. F., TI Dilemma dei .indicati americani. Milan, 1954
Gregory, C. 0., Labo1' and CM Law, Rev. ed. New York, 19·19
Hardman, J. B. S., and Neufeld, M. S. (cd.), 7'he House of Labor; Internal OpertUlnn. Of
.dmerican linion•• New York. 1951
IIopkins. W. S., Laknr in the American Economy. New York, 1948
Mlllis, H. A., an~ Drown. E . C., From Ih. Wagner Act /0 Taft- llartlev. Chicago, 1950
Peterson, P., Amwican TAbor Unionl. Hel'. ed. New York, 1952
Randle, O. W"' Cnllectivt Bargaining: prinriplcs and practice,. Boston, 19[)1
RostAs, L .• Comparatit't Prod'uctitldV 1'n Briti,h and .Amerir.an Indu.,t'lI. O.U.P., 1948
Taft, P., The Struclure and Government of Lako. Uniom. Harvard Unlv. Press, 1954
COMMVNICA TIONS
SHIPPING
On 30 June 1959 the V.S_ merchant marine included 3,021 sea-going
vessels of 1,000 gross tons or over, with aggregate dead-weight tonnage of
33,345,000. This included 409 tankers of 7,271.000 dead-weight tons.
On 30 June 1959 V.S. merchant ocean-going vessels were employed as
follows: Active, 937 of 12,415,000 dead-weight tons, of which 527 of
5,834,000 tons were in foreign trade, 6 of 101,000 in foreign to foreign, 375
of 5,912,000 tons in domestic trade and 29 of 569,000 tons in other V_So
agency operations. Inactive vessels totalled 2,084 of 20,930,000 dead-
weight tons, of which 120 of 1,779,000 tons were temporarily inactive, and
1,964 of 19.351,000 tons were in the Maritime Administration's reserve
fleet. Of the total vessels in the U.S. fleet, 2,007 of 19,730,000 dead-weight
tons were owned by the Government and 1,014 of 13,615,000 tons were
privately owned, U.S. exports and imports carried on dry cargo and tanker
vessels in the year 1958 totalled 290m. short tons, of which 40m. short tons
were carried in U.S. flag vessels.
Maritime Administration, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Employmenl Report. Washington.
QW\rterly
Durenu of Census, U.S. Dept. ot Commerce. Urdted State, Foreign Trade. 'Vashington.
Montbly
ROADS
As of 1 Jan. 1958 the total U.S. highway mileage, including rural and
urban re,ads, amounted to 3,453,118 miles, of which 2,371,426 miles were
surfaced roads. The total mileage cited includes 3,063,923 miles of rural
roads, 6<16,416 miles of rural roads under control of the states, 389,195 miles
of urban roads, 2,328,987 miles of local roads and 98,520 miles of federal
park ani forest roads. Expenditures for construction and maintenance
amounkd to S7,702m. in 1957 compared with S3,716m. in 1950.
By the end of 1957, toll roads, financed by private capital through
bond iss'les and administered by State Toll Authorities totalled 3,262 miles
(includixg some under construction) compared with 344 miles in 1940.
No further major toll·road programmes are contemplated at present.
Motor vehicles registered on 1 Jan. 1959 were (U.S. Bureau of Publio
Roads) 68,299,408 including 56,870,684 automobiles, 270,163 buses and
11,158,5·31 trucks.
Road haulage of goods by motor lomes and trucks in 1958 used 10,056,567
vehicles (250,048 in 1916). The industry (1958) employed 7·4m. workers,
or lout of every 10 employed in the U.S.A. Motor carriers of passengers
and property earned, in the calendar year 1957, S6,758·6m. compared with
the railways' SI0,919·!)m.
Inter-city truckers (private and for hire) averaged 260,856m. revenue
net ton-miles in 1958. Of the 270,163 buses in service in 1958, 179,995
were school buses, 23,500 were in inter-city service, 57,700 were classed as
local and inter-urban including trolley buses in city transit service. Inter.
city bus(.s ran a total of 1,170m. bus-miles and earned a total of $541 ,250,000
in 1958.
There were 37,000 deaths in road accidents in 1958 (Great Britain 5,970).
Barger, H., The Tramporlallon Indu.lri.., 1889-1946. New York, 1951
Dew-iog, C. L., and Owen, W., Nalional Tramportunon Policy. Washington, 1949
Landon, C. E., Tranlportalilm: principles, practices, problnns. New York, 1951
Van Metre, T. W., Pramportalion in the U.S. 2nd ed. Brooklyn, 1950
Westmeyer, R. E. t Economics 0/ Transportation. New York:, 1952
RAILWAYS
Railway history in the U.S.A. commences in 1828, but the first railway
to convey both freight and passengers in regular service (between Baltimore
and Ellicott's Mills, Md_, 13 miles) dates from 24 May 1830. Mileage rose to
52,922 njles in 1870; to 167,191 miles in 1890, and to a peak of266,381 miles
in 1916, falling thereafter to 261,871 in 1925; 246,739 in 1940 and 221,826
in 1958 (these include some duplication under trackage rights and some
mileage operated in Canada by U.S. companies). The ordinary gauge is
4 ft 8t ill. (about 99·6% of total mileage). The U.S.A. has about 29% of
of the world's railway mileage.
The following table, based on the figures of the Interstate Commerce
Commisoion, shows some railway statistics for 5 calendar years:
1940 1950 1955 1957 1958
l4ileage owned (first main tracks) • 233,670 223,779 220,670 219,067 218,399
Revenue freight originated (lm. short
tons. . . . . 1,069 1,421 1,456 1,449 1,247
!freight tol-mileage (lm. ton-miles) 371>,369 511,550 626,892 S21,DU7 554,1>34
Pa.ssengen carried (1,000) 456,088 488,019 433,308 412,6~6 381,624
P .....nger-miles (lm.) . 23,816 31,790 28,526 25,914 23,295
Operating revenues ($lm.) 4,355 9,857 10,230 10,H25 9,686
Operating expeWMlS ($lm.) • . 3,132 7,135 1,724 8,322 7,631
Net railway operating income ($lm.) . 691 1,055 1,14' 935 773
Not Incom·, after bed charges ($lm.). 243 8 •• 959 765 683
COMMUNICATIONS 631
Equipment in service in Dec. 1958 was as follows~ Locomotives (Class I
railways), including electrio and other, 29,513; freight. train ca.rs, excluding
oabo08e cars, 1,724,228; passenger. train cars, exclusive of Pullman cars
28,915. Average number of employees on Class I railways during 1958 was
840,580.
Lewls, R. G., BaMbDo" 01 Amlritan Railroa.1$. New York, 1951
Nelson, J. C., Railroad transportation and public policy. Washington and London, 1959
POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS
International cable and radio telegraph services, providing connexions
with all parts of the world, are operated by 9 companies; in addition the
international radio telephone circuits, as \vell as circuits through the first
transatlantic telephone cable completed in 1956, are operated by the
American Telephone and Telegraph Company. There were 23·3m. trans·
oceanic telegraph messages and 2·4m. transoceanic telephone calls handled
in 1958. The international cable and radio telegraph services had on 31
Dec. 1958 a gross communications plant investment of SI54·4m. and 11,182
employees.
The telegraphs of the U.S.A. are largely in the hands of the Western
Union Telegraph Company, which (excluding its ocean cable system) on
31 Dec. 1958 had 10,480 offices, a gross communications plant investment
of $364·5m., 33,620 employees and handled 131 ·9m. telegraph meBBages in
1958.
The telephones of the U.S.A. are largely in the hands of the American
Telephone and Telegraph Company and its chief telephone subsidiaries,
which together form the Bell Telephone System. There are, however, more
than 4,000 other telephone systems not a part of the Bell Telephone System
but which connect with it.
The following table shows the number of telephones in use by all the
telephone systems in the U.S.A., including the Bell Telephone System,
and the chief operating statistics of the Bell Telephone System (including the
international telephono facilities) as of 31 Dec. of each year :
1945 1960 1961 1958
AUlystem8:
Total t.elepbon"" . . 27,867,000 43,004,000 63,621,000 66,630,000
Telephones (interconnecting)' 27,852,000 42,995,000 63,618,000 66,629,000
Btll Telephont Systtm
Number 01 central offices 7,374 8,410 10,339 10,578
Telepbones . . .. 22,445,500 35,343,400 52,252,000 54,684,000
Average daily telepbone conversa·
tions . 90,548,000 140,78~ ,OOO 188,276,000 196.688,000
Ih:cbaoge . . 86,877,000 134,870,000 180,084,000 188.160,000
ToU and long distance 4.671 ,000 5,912,OUO 8,192,000 8,528,000
Total plant ($I,Ooo) 5,702,057 10,101,522 19,116,977 20,646.355
Bmployeeo, number 387,300 523,251 640,868 592,130
, BeU·owned and Bell-connecting (OlVlled by otber companies).
Postal business for the years ended 30 .J une included the following items :
1956 1957 1968 1 9~ 9
Number 01 post offices, end of year 31,515 37,012 36,308 35 .750
Postal revenue ($I,ooo) 2,419,354 2,496,614 2,6~O,233 3,035,251
Poetal expenditure {'I ,000) . 2.88~,3(J5 3.044.438 3,440,810 3,640.368
Postals3vmgs deposits ($1,000)' . 1,766,470 1,(62,268 1,\113,608 1,0-11,792
, Postal savings started in 1911; peak was $3,392·8m. in 1947.
AVIATION
In civil aviation there were, on 1 Jan. 1959, 836,196 certified pilots
(354,365 active) and 98,893 civil aircraft (69,718 active).
Airports on 1 Jan. 1959: General, 2,932; limited, 2,611; restricted,

475; total,6,018.
Data of the Federal Aviation Agency indicate that in 1958 the U.S.
certified air carriers flew 778,925,000 revenue miles, with 48,130,000 revenue
passengers; revenue passenger· miles in scheduled domestic operations,
25,343,387,000. American.flag air carriers in scheduled international and
overseas air transport operations flew 166,504,000 revenue miles (4,594,000
revenull pa8sengers) and 5,992,256,000 revenue passenger.miles in the same
period.
BANKING
On )0 June 1959 there were 13,988 domestic banks doing a genera)
deposit business with the public and having aggregate deposits of S242,096m.
Of the!:e, 4,599 with deposits of Slll.065m., were national banks operat.
ing under charters granted by the Federal Government; the remaining
banks, including trust companies and savings banks, were organized
under ',he laws of the various states. Of the total number, 6,280 were
members of the Federal Reserve System, namely all the 4,559 national
banks and 1,721 state banks admitted to membership.
The Federal Reserve System, established under the Act of 1913, com·
prises;he hoard of 7 governors of the :Federal Reserve System, the 12
regional Federal Reserve Banks with their 24 branches, 6,357 member
banks, the Federal Open Market Committee and the Federal Advisory
Council. The Board of Governors, appointed by the President with the
consent. of the Senate, determines monetary, credit and operating policies.
Each governor holds office for 14 years, one governor's term expiring every
2 years. No two may come from the same Federal Reserve District. The
Board lIupervises the Reserve Banks and the issue and retirement of Federal
Reserv'3 notes; it appoints 3 of the 9 directors of each Reserve Bank; it
passes cm the admission of state and territorial banks to the System and has
power '~o remove the officers of member banks for continned unsafe or un·
sound banking practices; and it has power to control the (lxpansion of
bank holding companies and to require divestment of thcir non· banking
interest.s. The Board, with 5 representatives of the Reserve Banks, con·
stitute!, the Federal Open Market Committee, which directs the purchase
and sale of Government obligations made by the Reserve Banks to in·
fluence the general credit conditions of the country. The Board also
influen,)es credit conditions tbrough powers to set member· bank reserve
requirements, to approve discount rates at Federal Reserve Banks and to
fix margin requirements on stock·market credit.
The 12 Reserve Banks (one for each district) implement Federal Reserve
policieE, chiefly through their dealings with member banks, whicb, although
outnumbered by non·member banks. hold about 85% of the country's total
commercial banking resources. The Reserve Banks hold bank reserves,
advance funds to member banks, provide currency for circulation, act as
fiscal agent for the Government, and afford nation· wide cheque. clearing
and fund transfer arrangements. They may issue notes, fully secured;
discount paper for member banks; increase or reduce the country's supply
of reserve funds by buying or selling Government securities and other
obligations at the direction of the Open Market Committee. Their capitnl
stock hi owned by the member banks, but it carries no voting rights.
EVE'ry member bank is required to subscribe to stock in the Reserve
Bank (If its district in an amount equal to 6% of its paid.up capital and
surplu~. Only one·half of the pnr \"aluc of the ~tock is paid, the other half
CURRENCY 633
remaining subject to call by the Board of Governors. The reserve balances
which member ba.nks must carry with Reserve Banks are based on the
volume of their net demand and time deposits. The Board of Governors
has the power to alter these requirements within limits.
The Fedcral Advisory Council consists of 12 members (one from eaoh
district); it meets in Washington four times a year (or oftener) to advise
the Board of Governors on general business and financial conditions.
Banks whioh partioipate in the federal deposit insurance fund have their
deposits insured against loss up to $10,000 for each depositor. The fund is
administered by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation established in
1933; it obtains resources through annual assessments on participating banks.
All members of the Federal Reserve System are required to insure their
deposits through the Corporation, and non-member banks may apply and
qualify for insurance. On 10 June 1959, 13,086 commercial banks with
deposits of $206,149,274,000 were members of the insurance fund. This
insurance scheme also covered 251 mutual savings banks with deposits of
$28,041,341,000. There were 651 uninsured banks comprising 384 com-
mercial banks and trust companies with deposits of $1,444,490,000 and 267
mutual savings banks with deposits of S6.461,294,OOO. Bank suspensions,
1958, numbered 8 with deposit~ of $6.287,000; this excludes institutions,
if any, which got into difficulties but were saved from closing by the inter-
vention of other banks, with or without loans from the Corporation.
There are also banks which operate solely in the field of agricultural
credits under the Farm Credit Administration, and Federal Home Loan
Banks t.o make advances to financial associa.tions and institutions upon the
security of home mortgages.
U.S. lloal'd of Governors 01 the Federal Reserve System. The Federo1 Res,",c System:
1'urpuses and Functions. Srd ed. 1954.-£edero1 Reserve Bulletin. Monthly
U .S. Congress. Joint Economic Committee. Employment, growth and p,ice levels (Hearings,
86th Con!{ress, 1st Session, 25-28 May 195~). 1959.-Moneta1'!/ policy and the manOj/e-
menl 0/ the public debt: their , ole in achieving prlce stability and high·level employmtJll (82nd
Congress, S. Doc. 123). 1959
Bach, O. L., Federal Resnve Policy·A/aki"". New York, 1950
Boebmler, E. W. (ed.), Financio1 Institutions. Rev. ed. Chicago, 1956
Chandler, L. V., EC(lnomics o/,JWney and bankin{l. 3rd cd. New York, 1959
Saye... , R. S., American Banking S".etm. Oxford, 1954
Studensld, P ., Financial HislO1'!/ of the U.S. Now York ,1952
CURRENCY
Prior to the banking crisis that occurred early in 1933, the monetary
system had been on the gold standard for more than 50 years. An Act.
of 14 March 1900 required the Secretary of the Treasury to maintain at a
parity with gold all forms of money issued by the U.S.A. For a description
of these, see THE STATESMAN's YEAR-BOOK, 1934, p. 491.
The old gold dollar had a par value of 49·32d., or $4·8666 to the £
sterling; it contained 25·8 grains (or 1·6718 gramme) of gold 0·900 fine.
Under existing statutes the Government is still under obligation to maintain
parity between gold and all forms of currency. By the Act of 12 May
1933 the President of the U.S.A. was given authority to reduce the gold
content. of the dolle.r by not more than 50% and by the Gold Reserve Ac'
of 30 Jan. 1934 the minimum reduction which he could make wall fixed
at 40%; on 31 Jan 1934 he fixed its value at 59'06%. or 15/. grains of
gold 0·900 fine. This was equal to a price for gold of S35 a fine oz. (old
price. $20·67183). The President's power to alter the gold content of the
dollar to 50% of its value, which was extended by Congress in 1937, 1939
And 1941, was not again extended in 1943.
At the time of the banking crisis in March 1933 gold payments by banks
and tM Tre88ury were suspended by tbe Government, and in April the
Secretary of the Tre88ury placed an embargo on gold exports. Steps were
taken te. withdraw from ciroulation all gold coin and gold certificates.
The Silver Purchase Act of 1934 declared it to be the policy of the U.S.A.
to increase the amount of silver in its monetary stocks witb the aim of
having .'l.nd maintaining one-fourth of their monetary value in silver and
three-f()lUths in gold, and the Treasury W88 directed to purchase silver at
home 01 abroad to achieve this end.
Currency in the U.S.A. for many years has comprised several varieties.
Prior to May 1933 the legal tender qualities of these clssses varied, but in
that month all types of currency were made equally legal tender.
Only four of the seven kinds of notes outstanding are important, (1)
Federal Reserve notes in denominations of S5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500,
'5
$1,000, $50,00 and $10,000; (2) silver certificates in denominations of $1,
and 810; (3) U.S. notes, in denominations of 82 and S5, and (4) gold
certificates in denominations of $100,000; these are issued only to Federal
Reserve Banks and do not appear in circulation. The following issues are
in prOCE18S of retirement : (1) Federal Reserve Bank notes; (2) National
Bank nutes; (3) Treasury notes of 1890.
FedE.ral Reserve notes are redeemable in lawful money (but not in gold)
on dem !l.nd at any Federal Reserve Bank or the U.S. Treasury. They
are obli,~tions of the U.S.A. and a first lien on the assets of the Federal
Reserve Banks through which they are issued. Each of the 12 banks issues
them against the security of an eqnal volume of collateral. In addition,
each iss',ung bank must set aside a reserve in gold certificates, equal to not
less than 25% of its notes in actual circulation.
Gold coins (of the old weight and fineness) were $20, $10, $5 and $21
pieces called double roglu, roglu, hallroglu and quarter·eaglu. The old
eagle weighed 258 grains or 16·7181 grammes 0·900 fine, and therefore
contained 232·2 grains or 15·0463 grammes of fine gold. Except for colleo-
tor's ho:.dings, these are no longer legally in circulation . The stock of gold
bullion held by the Treasury on 30 June 1959 was 564,151,546 fine oz.,
valued 'It $19,745,304,111. of which 356,668,993 fine oz. (unchanged for
several years) were stored at Fort Knox; stock of silver bullion W88
1,741,aS9,336 fine oz. Estimated stock of domestic coin was $2,511 ,921 ,400,
of which $488,046,100 were standard silver dollars and the remainder silver
and oth ~r subsidiary C(,in.
The silver dollar weighs 412·5 grains or 26·7296 grammes 0·900 fine, and
contaim<371·25 grains or 24-0566 grammes of fine silver. Subsidiary sil-
ver coins contain 347·228 grains of fine silver per dollar. These are the
half-dollar, quarter-dollar and dime (one-tenth). Minor coine currently
issued are the cupro-nickel 5-cent piece and the bronze I-cent piece.
On 18 Sept_ 1949 the British Government fixed the official pound-
dollar 8(,lling rate at $2'79l and buying rate at $2-801. Since 17 Dec. 1951
the British Government has allowed the dollar price of the pound to fluctuate
between $2·78 and $2·82. Average (in New York) for 1952, $2-7926;
1954, $~'8087; 1956, $2·7957; 1957, $2,7932 ; 1958, $2-8098; 1959, $2·8088.

British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Win-
ohester bushel and wine ga.lIon are used instead of the new or imperial
etandards : Wine Gallon = 0·83268 Imperia.l gallon; Bushel = 0·9690
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES 635
Imperial bushel. Instead of the British cwt of 112 lb .• one of 100 lb. is
used; the short or net ton contains 2.000 lb. ; the long or gross ton. 2.240 lb.

OF THE UNITED STATES IN GREAT BRITAIN (Grosvenor Square, W.1)
Amba.ssador. John Hay Whitney. C.B.E. (accredited 28 Feb. 1957).
Minister. Walworth Barbour.
Minister·CounselloT (Economic AffaiTs). W. T. M. Beale.
Counaellors. Brewster H. Morris (Political); Donald W. Smith (Con.
sular); Charles H. Mace (Administration); WiIliam C. Clark (P·ublic Affairs).
First Secretaries. WiIliam C. Burdett: Ralph N. Clough; Edward N.
Cooper: Thomas T . Carter; John W . Evans; Francis J . Galbraith; Joseph A.
Greenwald; Fred L . Hadsel; Albert E. Irving; George R. Jacobs; Robert
Klaber: Daniel F. MargoIies; Grant V. McClanahan; E. L. McGinnis:
Robert B. Parke; J. Harold ShulIaw; John T. Sinclair: Carleton B. Swift,
Jr; William C. Trueheart; Robert O. Waring: WilIiam O. Webb: Hugh
W . Wollf; Sam L. Yates. Jr.
Naval Attache and Naval Attache for Air. Rear·Admiral Robert W.
Cavenagh.
Air Attache. Col. Grover C. Brown.
Agricultural Attache. Robert N. Anderson. Financial Attache. Robert
W. Bean. Legal Attache. Charles W . Bates. Commercial Attache. Emil
A. Kekich. Cultural Attache. S. Everett Gleason. Labour Attache. John
F. Corroll. Scientific Attache. Dr Thomas H. Osgood.
There are cODBular representatives in Belfast, Birmingham. Cardiff,
Edinburgh. Glasgow. Liverpool. London. Manchester. Southampton.
011' GREAT BRITAIN IN THE U.S.A.

Ambassador. Sir Harold Caccia, G.C.M.G .• K C . .V.O. (appointed 2 Nov,
1956).
M inisters. Viscount Hood. C.M.G.: Lord Cromer, M.B.E. (Economic);
1. P . Garra.n. C.M.G. (Commercial); G. M. Wilson (Financial): H. W.
Jelfreys (Rhodesia and Nyasaland Affairs); L. C. Glas8, C.M.G. (Information).
Counsellors. D. A. Greenhill, C.M.G., O.B.E.: W. Barker, C.M.G.,
O.B.E.; A. J. de la Mare. C.M.G.: P. Scott.Rankine: R. B. N . Whetmore.
M.B .E . (Rhodesia and Nyasaland Affairs); P . L.Carter; J. A. Briance,
C.M.G.; N . Jordan·Moss (Financial); M. Gale. M.B.E.: K. H . Huggins and
W. E . Taylor. C.B.E. (Commercial); C. P . Scott, O.B.E. (Consul·General);
A. M. Morgan. C.M.G. (Labour) .
First Secretaries. D. A. Logan; W. Morris ; C. D . Wiggin, D.F.C.,
A.F.C.; J. A. McC. JUdsOIl; H. S. H. Stanley: H. C. M. Stone: J. B.
Denson: D . L . Benest: M. S. Weir; Miss G. G. Brown; C. W . McMahon
(Financial); P. J . E . Male, M.C., C . H. EboralI, Miss P. M. Hutchinson,
F. A. de Moleyns(Commercial): Hon. R.J. McMorran Wilson; S. E. D. Barlf,
O.B.E.; R. W. Morris: R. A. G. Clark (Administration); J. L . B. Garcia
(Labour).
Naval Attache. Vice·Adm. Sir Geolfrey Thistleton.Smith, G.B.E ., C.B.
Military Attaclte. Maj.·Gen. J. N. Carter, C.B .• C.B.E.
Air Attaclte. Air Vice·Ma.rshal W. C. Sheen, C.B., D.S.O., O.B .E.
Attache for Scientific Questions. E. S. Hiscocks.
Petroleum Attache. W. C. C. Rose, C.B.E.

Shipping Attache. R. D. Poland. Oivil A ir Attache. E. I. R. McGregor.
Telt.communicati01l8 Attache. Col. A. H. Read, C.B., O .B.E ., T.D.
Attache (Atomic Energy). Dr J. Gaunt.
AUache/or Oolonial Affairs. D. Williams. Attache/or Nigerian Affairs.
R. Barrett.
Ag:-iculture and Food Attache. L. W. Crawford, C.B.E.
Th,~re are Consular representatives at all the important centres, including
Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Denver, Detroit, Honolulu,
Houston. Kansas City, Los Angeles, New Orleans, New York, Philadel·
phia,Portland (Oregon), St Louis, San Francisco, Seattle, Washington, D.e.
Bool(s of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATION
WIUln the federal goveroment of the U.S.A., reaponslbiUties for the coUection, compila·
tion, an>lY8io and publication of statistics are decent...lized among a number of agenCies,
"'Ith spEcified responsibilities for gene ...l·purpose statistics in particular areas. In addition,
most ageocies of the Government coUect statistical data as a by·product of their admini·
st...tive or ope...tlng responsibiUties io specifio field.. Uesponsibility for co·ordinatiog the
deceotre.tized statistical activities rests io the Oillce of Statistical Standard.. Bureau of the
Bud~et, Waahington 26, D.O., ns a part 01 the Executive Office 01 the President. This
Office reviews all proposed coUections 01 statistical data to avoid duplication or ovarlQPpiog;
promotes the use 01 improved statistical techolques; develops .taod...d de6oJtions and cia86i·
ficatioos eo that the data coUected by different agenCies are comparable; .....es as Uaisen
hetween federal agencies aod ioternational orgaDizations "nd as aD io1ormation centre 00
government statistical programmes. The DivisioD does not itseU collect or publish 8tatistice.
The major general·purpose statistical agencies aDd their principal areas 01 responsibility
are:
(1) lIureau 01 tbe Ceosua in the Departmeot 01 Commerce (Dr Robert W. Burg.... Direc-
tor). Deceooial ceosusea 01 population and housiog aod quinquenoJal censuses 01 agriculture,
manufactures and bosinesa; curren~ statistics on populatloo and the labour lorce. manu-
lacturillll activity and commodity production, retaU and wholesale trade and services, lorei&'n
t ...de, and state and local government finances and operatioDS.
(2) Bureau 01 Labor Statistics iu the Department 01 Labor (Ewan Olague, Commiasioner).
Ourrent statistics on employmeot. earnJ0g8, man-hours. labour turnover, Industrial accideots,
work sto>ppagea, wage retea; collective bargaining agreements ; constructioo ; industrial
productivity; wholesale prices, retaU prioes and urban consumers' price indexes; income
and eXJ>lodltures of urban families.
(3) Bureau of Agricultural Economics ID the Department of Agriculture (Oris V. Wells,
ChIef). Statistics 00 crop and livestock production and inveotories ; crop forecasts ; food
processbur and food consumptil)o; farm population, labour and wages; larm managemeot;
fann o,.-nersblp values, traosfers, taxation and finaoce; prices farmers pay and receive;
farm income.
(4) National Office of Vital Statistics 10 the Public Health Service. Fede...1 Security
Agency fHaJbert L. Duon, ewef). Current statlstics on births, deaths, marrlalles and divorce.
(6) Bureau 01 Mines In the Department 01 the Interior (James Boyd, Director). Statiatics
00 prod'lction, consumptloo and stocks 01 metals aod minera1s, and on injuries In mineral
Industri,,,..
Other ageocies io which statistics are an important by-product 01 regulatory or other
administ . .. tive /unctions include: Social Security Administ retion in the Fede ...1 Security
Ageocy ; Bureau 01 Intemai Revenuo in the Treasury Dep"rtment ; Fede...1 Power Corn·
mission; Federal Trade Commissioo ; Interstate Commerce Commlsoion, and the Securihc.
and Exchange Comml8sioo.
Amo.ag the more Important statistical pubUcatlons of a fairly geoeral nature are :
8tati"ia/ AbJlr4tl 0(1he Uniltd 811JUs. published by the Bureau 01 tbe Census, Department
cl Coonaerce. A..ooua. Importaot summary statistics on the industrial, social, political
and ecollomic orgaoizatloo of tbe U.S.A~ with a representative aeJection /rom most of the
importa,t statistical publications. 8uruy oJ Currenl Bwint.., published by tbe Office
of Business Rconotnics, Department of Commerce. Monthly. Ioterpretative text and che.rta
revie"'log buoinesa trends, etc. ; official estimatea 01 nat ional income. Ec01lom;C [ndicalou .
prepared by the CouncU 01 ECODOmlC Advisers and published by tbe Congresslooal Joint
Oommlt::ee OD the Economic Repor~ Monthly. Tables and charts presenting current data
00 the total output 01 the economy ; prices ; employment !lnd wages ; production and
bosloess activity; pwehssiog power; money, banking a:ld fede ...1 tlnance. MMlthlV LalJor
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 637
Reriewt publiebed by the Burean of Lahor Statistics, Deportment of Labor. Ped,.,al Re3eNJI
Bullrlin, puoliHhed by the Hoard of Govem"," of the Fcder~1 Reserve System . Monthly.
Cnrrent data on mouey Rnd U8U king and sel~ted other economic series. Jf'edertil Heserve
indexes of indu:;triaJ production, etc.; illternational financia l statistics. Trauu'1l BtliUtin,
put,lIsbed by tbe Office of the Secretury, Department of the Treasury. Monthly. Current
co\"orage of federal fiscal st:Ltil$ti~; iutp.fuationaJ capitol movements. MinfTaiJ Yearbook,
flnlJlisbed by the Bureau of Mines, OepartmeJJt {.If tuo Interior. Aoounl. .dyricultural
Stati.ti"" publls bed by tbe Department of Agriculture. Annual. C,op. alld M a,ket.,
pnlJlisbed by the Bureau of Agricultural Ecouomlcs in tbe Department of Agriculture.
Monthly. ()rop report and market s~tistic.. ji'o,eiVn Agriculture, puhlished by the Office
of Foreign AlII"icultural Relations, Department 0.1 Agriculture. Monthly. Foreign agri.
cultural production, foreign government policies relatwg to agriculture, and iu~matlonal
trade In &l!rlcultural productl!. flital SIaIi8tiu olth. Unikd Stau., published by tbe Public
Health SeJ"Tico, Federal Security Agency. Annual. Natality and mortality data tabulated
by place of occurrence, with supplemental tables .Ior Hawaii, Puerto nlco and tbe Virgin
Islands; and tabulated by ph",e of residence.
An annotated bibliography of about lOO perlodic,,1 statistical pUblications Is Included in
SlaliJtical S~ce$ O/IM United State., Govt'mmeni, n pamph!et issued by tbe DivisioQ 01
Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Bud;lett d~sc ribiDg the genera) oC'flaDization of the
statistical system of tbe U .S.A. and tho principal types of economic statistics.
11. OTHER OFFICIAL PUDLICATIONS

Ili8to,ical Stali8tic. ol/h, Unit.d Stale., 1i89-1945. Wasblngton, 1949
Uniud Stou. G"".rnmtnt Manual. Washington. Annual
The official publications of the U.S.A. are issued by the U.8. OOYeroment Printing Office
and are di.tributed by tbe Superintendent of Documents, who issued in 1940 n cumulati"e
Calalog 01 the Pvblic Documtnt. 01 the ••• Con",... and 01 .1U the lJtpartmtnts 01 tI,t Govern-
ment 01 tht Uniled SIaI... This Calalog Is kept np to date by United S/altS G"".....1M1It
Publication8, MonthlV CaIaIog, and supplemented by P,i« Lists. Each Price List is devoted
to a 8Jtecial ~ubjeet or type of material, t.g., ..imerican ili.,tfJry or Census. Aooe M. Boyd,
United Stalll Oo~m~lIt Publica/rmu (New York. 3rd e<1., rev., 1949) furnishes an excellent
descriptive list of tlle important PUbUC3tion~. together with histories of each department.
agency and commission.
T,eati .. and otMr Inlernatiollal Ac.. 01 the L"niled State, 01 America. (Edited by Hunter
Miller.) Washint'!ton, 19 ~9-48. This T,eaIV Series conduded with ~oJ. 8. vol •. 1-~ covering
the period 1776-1863. In 1946 It WM combined witb an Executivt Ag,umeo,1 S.,i" and i.
nt)'W published as Treatie, and Other IntenUJJional Act.f. 1950 to date.
Writing, on ,dmer1'can Hi&tory. Washington, Qlmual from 1902
Ill. NON-OFFlCIAL PUBLICA'rlONS

!. llandbooks
Adams, J. T. (ed.), Atla. 01 Americall ni.<tnry. New York, 1943.-(Ed.), Dictiona'lI 0/
.,dmerit',an Ilutorv. 2nd ed. 6 vols. New York, 1942
DicliOM'lI 01 American Bi"",aphv, cd. A. Jobn""n and D. Malone. 22 ~ols . New York,
192 !) - 6~
CUff"" Biography. New York, Anuu,,1 lrom 1940; monthly supplements
Als\>erg, H. O. (ed.), TI.t American Guid.. !\ew York, 1965
Lord, C. L., and E. U., Ili./u,if-ul Alia. "f I/.e V .S. llov. e~. ".w
Handlin, 0., and others, lIarrord Guid.IQ Arneri« m [H.'W'lI . CIlmhrldge, MM•. , 1954
York, 1963
l!ut::ridge, D. n., American lli.tory mu} Ci ..ilizf1t;on: a liJl 01 fluid .. and bibliog,apMtI.
'n 0'
2nd ed. W... hinllton (Library of CongreM), 1~51
Nevins, A., Sel", Jlibliograpllll O/Ihe lIi .•I.ry Iht U.S. London, 194'
11"",.... 11'110 A"."i<a. Chicago, 1899-1900 to data (latest. issne, 1958-(9); Montbly
Supplement. 1940 to date.
n. General History
Adnm., J. T., The Epi. 01 AmericlI . ~nd ed. Ne'.• York and LondoD, 1942.-(E<I.), Album
01 American Bistory. 4 vols. New York, !914-48 .-Tht American. ~~w York, 1944
A~Qr. H., The United StaIn: the Presidents, (he Part-i n and thp CrJn.fUlulitm . London, 1950
AndreWII. C. M.. 1·1t. Colonilll Period o/.Jmtrican Ili8wry. 4 vols. New naven "lid London,
19,:1-38
B!lJ"ck, Jr. O. T ., o.nd make, N. M., Sine. 1900: a 8i.eo'1/ 0lth. Unit<d StaJC8. 3rd ed,
l\"ew York. 19!j9
Beard, Charles A., and Mary n., Th. Ru. 01 Am.rican Civilization . 4 vols in 3. Rev. ed .
New York and London. 1933-42
neJlot, H. H .• Amnican n;,eory and .American Historian,. LonlloD,1951
Oarm"", H. J., and Syrett, 11. C., A Bwry ollh. American 'P'""Ple. 2 ,ols. New lork ,
1952
Channing, E ., A Bi4/MV of the UniUd Suue.. 6 vols. New York, 1921-30

Clark, T . D., Fro1Uier America: the stOTjJ of lhe westward m()l;ement. New York, 191>9
Commager, H. S. (ed.). Docummu of A""';can HUWT)/. 6t.b ed. New York, 1968
Farrand , M., The ReCMtU 0/ the Federal CtmfInUion of 1787. Rev. ed. New Haven, 1931
Faulkner, H. U., American Political and SocUJJ His/MV. New York, 1931
Hicks, J . D.,The American Nlllion, a hiItory of the Untkd Suuel fr()11l1865 . 3rd ed. Boston,
1965
Link, A. S., Am.rican epoth; a hiltOTjJ Of the Untkd SIDle. since the 1890.. New York, 1956
Morison, S. E., witb H. S. Commager, The (howt" of tl~ .dmerican Rqublic. 2 vols. 4tb ed.
New York and London, 1950
Nerlna, .01.., witb H. S. Commager, A""';ca: The StoTjJ of a Free Peopk. Oxford, 1942
Parkes, :El. B .• 7'he Untkd S/4Ie' Of A""';ca, a History. New York, 1953
Sevelle, M., .4 SIwrI BislOTjJ DJ American CioiIuatWn. New York, 1961
Scblesilll:er. A. M~ The Ru. of Modern .4m.rica, 1865-1951. 4tb ed. New York 1$61
Scblealll{:er, A. M., and Fox, D. R. (ed.), HistoTjJ 0/ Am.rican Li/.. 13 TOIa. New York,
1921 ~~ 4
Thlstletl,waite. F., The OrtDl E:Z1"riment. an 11Uroduclitm 10 the hislory Of the American
people. Cambridge, 1955
C. Minorities
Brown. Ir. J . (ed.). One America : the histoTjJ, conlribUlion. and prelent problem. of our racial
and nc/ional minoriti... Srd ed. New York, 1952
Dale, E. E.• The India", of the Soulh· .....,. Unlv. of Oklaboma Press, 1949
Du Bois, W. E. B., Black Folk, Then and Now: An E"ay in lhe Hidorv and. Sociologv of th.
Negro Race. New York, 1939
Frazier. E. F., The Ntrpo In the Uniled SIDle.. Rev. ed. New York, 1961
HoJge, i·'. \V. (cd.), Handbook 0/ Amuican Indians. 2 vols. Smitbsonilln Institnte, 1959
McWUUelll8, Oarey. B.othtv. Under th. Skin: A Sludll 0/ the Po..,i... of Racial Mlnorill.. in
ConIlnental Unittd S/4Ie, and the Po......o.... Rev. ed. New York, 1951
Myrdal, G., An American Dilemma : The Negro Probkm and Modern Democracy. 2 vols.
9tb ed. New York, 1944
Rose, A. and O~ Am.rica Diflided: Minority Group Rtlali.... In the Unittd Still... Now
York,1948
Sklnre, M., The J ew.: locial paturns of an American grlmp. Glencoe, Ill., 1958
Whitney, W. D .•Who art the Amtrican.' Srd ed. London, 1942
Wlselcr, Olark, India ... of the United. S/4Ies. New York. 1946
D . Economic Hlstory
The Economic HutoTjJ of the United State.. 9 vols. New York, 1946 If.
Alldersoll, W. H., Tazalion and the American Econom y. New York, 19n
Blnlng, 1<. 0., The Ri .. of A""';can Economic Life. 3rd cd. New York, 1955
Fainsod, M.. and Gordon, L .•Government and lhe .imerican Economy. 3td ed. New York,
1959
Faullrne,', H. U., American Economic History. 7th ed. New York, 1954
HaU. F. P .•Oovernmenl and Busine... 3rd ed. New York, 1949
Jones, P . d' A., An EcoR()11lic His/MV of the United Stale. since 1783. London, 1956
Klrkland, B.O•• A Historv of Am.rican Economic Lif.. Srd ed. New York. 1951
Lewls, C., The U.s. and Foreign In""dment Probk1l11. Washington, 1948
Mund, V. A., GlYOernmenl and Bunn.... 2nd ed. New York, 191>6
Sbannon , F. A., Am.rica', ECtmomic (howth. 3rd ed. New York, 1951
Wrigbt, 'J . W., Econennic HislOTjJ of the U .S. 2nd ed. New York. 1949
E. Foreil;n Relationa
A""';can Foreign Policy LibraTjJ, ed. Sumner WeUs (Harvard Unlv. Press): E. A. Spelser,
The D.S. and the NM' East (rev, ed. 1950) : C. Brlnton, The U.S. and Britain (rev. ed. 1948):
J . K. Fairbank, The U.8. and China (rev. ed. 1958); V. M. Dean, The U.S. and Ru...ia(1948):
D. PerldClS. The U.8 . and the Caribbean (1948); A. P. Wbitaker. Th. U.S . and 8en"" America
(1948) ; D. O.McKay, The U.S. and France (1951); E. O. Reiscbauer, The U.8. and Japan
(rev. ed .. 1951) : W. N. Brown, The U.S. and India and Pakislan (1953) ; H . S. Hugbes,
The U.S and ltalll (1953): H. F . eliDe. The D.S . and Mezico(1953); L. V. Thomas and R.
N. Frye. The U.s. and Turkey and Ir4n(1951) ; F. D. Scott, The U.S. and Scandinavia (1950);
A. p. Wt,ltaker. The U.S. and .Argentina (1964); R. L. Woif!, The Balka7ll ln OUT Time (1966)
The United SIDle, In World Af!ai". 1931 If. Council on Foreign Relations. New York,
trom 1932. Annual.
AlIen, H . 0 ., OreDl Britain and the United SIIll.., 1783-1952. London, 1954
Bailey, T. A., A DiplomDlic 8i.tOTjJ of the A"~ican People. 6th cd. New York. 1958
Bartlett, R. J . (ed.), The Record Of A""';can Diplomacy: DQcumenl...nil. Reading. In the
Hi8l0r;l 0/ American Foreign Relalio.... Srd ed. New York, 1954
Bemi.. S. F., The A""';can Secretari .. Of S/4Ie and their Diplomacy. 10 vols. New York,
1927-\·9.-The Diplomacy O/Ihe .im.rican Rtt1OlUlion. New York and London, 1935.-
The /AI/in· American Policy of Ihe D nited Slates: An Historical Interpretation. New York,
STATES AND TERRITORIES 639
1943.-Guide to the Diplomatic History of the U.S., 1775-1921. New od. Washington,
1951.-Short history of American foreign pol-icy and diplorruu;y. New York, 1959.-Th.
Unit.>d Stales as a World Power: a diplomaiic hi,lory. Rev. ed. New York, 1955
Dulles, F. R., 4mericu's Ri.. 10 Wortd Power, 1898-1954. New York, 1955
Heindel, R. H., The .... merican impact on Gunl Britain, ]898-1914: A Study of the United
Stat .. in World History. Philadelphja nnd London, 1940
L l1tane, J. H., and Wainhouse, D. W., A History of ~merican Foreign Policy, 1776-1940.
2nd ed. rev. New York, 1941
McCamy, J. L.t The Administration of .dmcriran Foreign .l&JJairs. New York, 1950
Markel, L. (ed.), Public OpiILion and ForeigIL Policy. New York, 1~49
Perkins, Dexter, Tlte AJonroe Doctrine. 3 vols. 18:!3.. ~G, Cambridge, Mass., 1927; 1826-61,
Baltimore, 193~; 1867-1~07, Baltimore. 1~37
Pratt, J. W., A Hi,lory of United Slat.>s Poreign l'olify. New York, 1~55
Stuart, Grabam H., American Diplomatic and Consular Practice. 2nd ed. New York,
19~2.-The Department (If Slale .. organization, procedure and personnel. New York, 194 . -
Lalin America amllhe United Stales. 5th cd. New York, 1955
Wilcox, F . C., and KaJijarvi, 1'. V" Recent American Foreign Policy; basic documtntl, 1941-
61. New York, 1952
Williams, W. A. (ed.), The Shaping of 4merican Diplumacy: readings and documents in
~mtrican foreign relations, 1760- 1955. Chicago, lS66.-.American- R'l.usian Relationl,
1781-1947. New York, 19,2
F. National Character
Bowers, D. F., Forrign Influ~nces in American LiJe. PriocetoD, N.J., 1944
Brogao, D. W., U.S.A.: An Ollllint of the Counl'V, It.• People and bUlilulion8. 2nd ed.
Oxford, 1947.-An Introduction to American PoUtics. London, 1954
Coan, O. \V" .tlmerica in Fiction, an annotated liJt oJ novels. 4th ed. Sta.niord Univ. PleBS,
1906
Commager, IT. S.• The American Mind. Yale Univ. Press, 1950
Curt!, M. E., The Growth Of American ThuW}ht. 2nd ed. New York, 1951
Degler O. N., Out of vur pa~t: the forces that shapro modern America. New York, 1959
Gabriel, R. H., The Course of American Democratic Thought. 2nd ed. New York, 1958
Lemer. M., America as a C-,viUtation; Life and Thoughl in the United Slam Today, New
York,1957
Riesman, D., with R. Denny and N. Glazer, The Lonely Growd: A Sludy Of the Changing
Al1urican Character. New York, 19!1O
Rossiter, C. L., Con"""ati.rm in America, New York, 1955
Wish, H .. Society and ThoW}iII in America. 2 vols. New York, 1950-62.-Conttmporarv
America. Rev. ed. New York, 1955
NATIONAL LIBRAny. Tbe Library of COngr.... Washington 26, D.O. Librarian:

Lawrence Quincy Mumford, A.,B., M.A., B.S.
STATES AND TERRITORIES

For information a.9 to State Local Government, see under UNITED STATES,
p. 582 and p, 6114.
Against the name.9 of the Governors and the Secretarie& of State, (D.) 8tandl
for Democrat and (R .) for Republican.
Figures for the revenues and expenditures of the various states are
those of the Federal Bureau of the Census, which takes the original state
figures and arranges them on a common pattern so that those of one state
can be compared with those of any other. The Council of State Govern·
ments now uses the Bureau's figures exclusively.
OfficiaJ pubBca.tloDa of tho 'f"arioue states and insular poeeessiona arc listed iD the JI onthly
Check.Lislof Stale Publication., issued by the Libno.ry 01 Congress since 1910. Their charac~r
and C'.ontente are discussed in J. K. Wilcox's Maml(J! 071 th~ U.e oJ l:jtaU PubliC4tio7l1 (1940).
01 !\'Tent importance bibliographically are tile puhlications of tbe Historical Records Survey
and the American Imprints Inventory, which record local archives. "mcial publicationa and
state Imprints. Tb ... pubUcations supplement those of state hi,torical societies which usually
publish journals and monograph. on state and local bistory. An outl!tanding 80Urce 01
statistical data is the materia1laaned b)' the various .tate planning boards and commi!eioD>l,
to which should be ad~c.j the Financial SlallSlics 01 Slale and Local C.vernrnmt. Issued by
the U .S. Rur•• u of the Census.
'rh< Book of th< Stalu. Biennial. Chicago. Council 01 State Governments. 19~3 11.
Itegionalism
Odum, 3 . \V., American Regiunalism, a cultural-historical approach 10 nali01taJ 1'ntegral1'on .
New ~ [ ork, 1938
Jenseo. M. (ed .). Rt'}ionaiism In America. Uoiv. 01 Wisconsin Press. 19:n
Visber. G. S .•Clim(ltic Atlas o/the V.S.A. Harvard Univ. 1'ress. 1954
A. . New England
Black, J . D .• 1'''' Rural Economy 0/ ,Vew Ellgland. I1arvard Uni\". 1' ress, 1960
Bacris, B. E., Tile Economic, 0/ New England. Harvard Univ. Press, 1952
Webster, C. M., Town Muting COUnlry. New York. 1945
n. The :;"uth
Oash. W. J., The Mind o/Ih< South. New York, 1941
HOOTer. O. B.. Economic R...urccs and Polici.. "f Ih< South. New York 1951
Key, V. 0 ., Soutkrn PoliliCl in SlIUe alld Nation. New York. 1949
Odum, H. W., Southern Rtgiqn. 01 tI~ (j.S. Univ. 01 N. CaroliDa Prcss. 19M
Stephen;on. W. H., and Coulter, E. M. (ed.), A lJUIO<V 01 th< South. 10 vols. Louisiana
State Univ. Press. 194711.
Vancc, R. B., aDd Dan.ilevsky, N., .d.ll These People; the nation', human re#Ourre! in the
Soulh Univ. of N. Carolina Press. 1945
O. The -\fIddle West
A.thertol, L. B., Alain SITut on Ih< Middl, BOTder. Indiana Univ. Press. 1964
Lyod, r... S., and B . M., JliddleuJtDn : a 'I"dy i n conlemporary American cultUTt. New York
and London, 19a9.-Middlttou>n in Tran sition : a 'Iudl/ in cuUural conjiieu. New York
and London, 1n37
Nye. R. n.. Jlidweuern Pr"'lTt$$'ve Polilics, 1870-1950. Michigan State College Press,
1951
D. The West
nancrolt, H. 11., Hi'lOTI/ o/Ihe 1I'0rtl,west Coa.l. 2 vols. San Francisco, 1884
Brlf?l!8. El. E .• Fronti,,. 01 the Nor/hu;est. New York, 1~40
Fergus.<;'lD, E., OUT Sout/ucesl. New York anf! London. 1910
Freeman, O. V/., and Martin, H. H ., Th~ PacifiC North,u.,t: an ot:etall appruialion. 2nd ed .
19~4
Fuller, G. W., lJistory 01 th. Patiflc Northwes!. 2nd ed . New York, 1938
G~J, 1I. B., .Americtl" N~D /t'rO'l'lIUr, lhe JJountain lVest. New York, 1950
Rafen, I•. R. n., and Ri.ter, C. 0 ., Western Amenc... •• • beyond tll<! AliSJi.rippi. 2nd ed.
New York. l~SO
Joh ..... n. D. 0 ., and Gates, C. M., Empire of Ihe Columbia: a hislorv of Ihe PacifiC Norlh·
Weu. New York, 19S7
Nellberl:er. R. L .• Ou, Promised Land. New York, 1938
l'arriBh, P. H., Be/oTt the Covered Wagon. Portland, Oreg .• 1931
Qulett. O. 0., T/~ Bum tI~ Wesl, an tpic of railJ and cilies. New York and London, 1934
&Ott, E . W., Bi,tary ~I tI,t Ort'}on Country. 6 vols. Cambridge, Mass .• 1921
West, R. n.. Rocky Aloun",'" Citi... New York, 1»49
WiDthe,.. O. 0., TI.. Great N.mhwesl : a history. 2nd ed., rev. New York. 19:;0
Young, E .• W..I Of the Rocki... London. 1949
ALABAMA
GOVERNMENT. Alabama, settled in 1699 as part of the French
Province of Louisiana, and ceded to the British in 1763, was organized as
a Territory. 1817. and admitted into the Union on 14 Dec. 1819. The present
consti';ution dates from 1901; it has had 115 amendments. The legislature
consis';s of a Senate of 35 members and a House of Representatives (If 106
members, all elected for 4 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are
elected for 4 years. The state is di\'ided into 67 counties. The state is
repre&mted in Congress by 2 senators and 9 representatives. Alabama re·
quires voters to pay a poll tax for 2 years. Applicants for registration
ALABAMA 641
must take an 'anti·communist oath' and fill out a questionnaire to the
satisfaction of the registrars. In 18 of the 67 counties Negroes constitute
50% or more of the population. Voters in the 1956 presidential eleetion
numbered 496,012 (29'6% of the potential electorate of 1,675,000) ; Steven.
lion polled 279,982 votes, Eisenhower, 194,883. Montgomery is the capital.
Governor. John M. Patterson (D.), 1959-63 ($25,000).
Lieut.·Governor. Albcrt Boutwell (D.)
Secretary of State. Bettye Frink (D.) (38.000).
AREA AND POPULA nON. Area, 61,609 sq. miles, including 531 sq.
miles of inland water. Census population. 1 April 1950, 3,061,743, an
increase of 8·1% over that of 1940. Births, 1958. 81,960 (25·7 per 1.000
population); deaths, 29,3 15 (9,2); infant deaths, 2,887 (35·2 per 1.000 live
births); marriages, 24,506 (7'7); divorCE'S. 12,431. Estimated population.
I JUly 1959, 3,224,890.
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex. 19(0) was:
Per .q.
White Negro Indio.n Asiatic TotAl mile
1910 1,~28,832 90S,282 909 70 2,138,093 41 ·7
1930 1,700.844 944,834 46S 105 2,646,248 ~1 · 8
1940 1,840,097 983,290 464 no 2,832,981 55·5
1950 2,079,691 979,617 928 669 3,061,743 69·9
Male. 1,032,714 468,661 All othe:a 1,366 I,S02,640
Female 1,046,877 611,056 1,170 1,559,103
Of the total population in 1950, 1,340,937 (43,8%) were urban (30,2%

in 1940) ; those 21 years old or older numbered 1.748,551. Native whites
were 2,065,778; foreign born whites, 13,813.
The large cities (census, 1950) were: Birmingham, 326,037; Mobile
(1956).173,849 ; Montgomery (capital), 106,525; Gadsden.55,725.
RELIGION. Cbief religious bodies (1936) are: Negro Baptists (with

375,084), Southern Baptists (212,855), Methodist Episcopal (155,416),
Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, Disciples of Christ. Total membership. all
denominations, 1,138,472.
EDUCA nON. In 1957-58 the 2.501 public elementary and high schools
required 26,17!Heachers t o teach 758,214 pupils enrolled in grades 1-12. The
9 state.supported colleges had 57,646 students and 1,996 faculty members.
During the regular session only, Alabama College, Alabama Polytechnic
Institute and the University of Alabama enrolled 18,789 resident students;
the 4 state colleges, at Florence, Jacksonville, Livingston and Troy, 6,553
resident students; the 2 Negro colleges, at Normal and Montgomery, 3,188
resident students. The 6 trade schools, operating on a 12-month basis,
enrolled 3,610 students.
WELFARE. In 20 counties the state controls the sale of a.lcoholic

beverage, while 47 countiee remain 'bone dry'. Unemployment Insurance
(adopted in 1935) covered 509,000 employees in 1958. 110,300 beneficiaries
in 1959 received an average of 822'59 per week. In Dec. 1958 t·here were
102,230 recipients of old-age pensions, receiving an average of $43'75 per
month; 22,867 families with 90,588 eligible recipients, 827,85 per case;
12,847 permanently and totally disabled, $32-57; 1,655 blind, $34,71.
In 1957 there were 128 hospitals (22,661 beds) registered by the American
y
Hospitn.J Association. In 1959 hospitals for mental diseaaes had an average

of 9,084, patients.
The prison population on 31 Dec. 1959 waa 5,468 (165 per lOO,OOO
population.
In 1959 there were 2 executions; from 1930 to 1959 there were 130 exe·
cutions (electrocution) including 24 whites and 77 Negroes for murder and
2 white, and 20 Negroes for rape.
Statutes require separate mental hospitals, poor· houses and penal in·
stitutio::lS for whites and Negroes, but the transportation system is now
integrat;ed. Marriage between white and coloured persons is prohibited.
FINANCE. The general revenue for the fiscal year ending 30 Sept.
1958 WIIS 3376,459,000 (8233,028,000 from taxation and 8104,787,000 from
federal aid); general expenditure was $383,590,000, of which education
took $135,164,000; highways, 896,815,000, and public welfare, $66,966,000.
The su.te operates the State Liquor Monopoly (net income, year ending
30 Sept . 1958, $8,639,000) and also the docks and shipping terminals.
The net long.term debt on 30 Sept. 1958 amounted to $129,065,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Alabama is largely an agricultural

state; '~he number of farms in 1954 waa 176,956, covering 20,810,492 acres,
of which 7,480,170 acres were crop land; average farm had 117·6 acres and
was valued at $6·208. In 1954,73% of the farms were less than 100 acres;
90% lens than 220 acres. Proportion of farms operated by tenants in 1954
was 34·2% (in 1950,41'4%). Non·white operators had 46,202 farms (26%
of the total). In 1954, 16% of farms had telephones, 88% electricity. 34%
motor trucks, 30% tractors, 43% automobiles.
Sinc,e the enactment of a Soil Conservation Act in 1939,54 soil·conserva-
tion diutricts have been established embracing the entire land area of the
state. Area of national forest lands on 31 Dec. 1959, 631,269 acres.
Cash income, 1959, from crops, 8227·2m. ; livestock, $275·5m. Chief
crops are cotton (720,000 bales in 1959); maize (62·58m. bu.); peanuts
(160·8m. lb.); oats (4·2m. bu.). On 1 Jan. 1960 the livestock comprised
118,000 horses and mules, 368,000 milch cows, 1,907,000 all cattle, 67,000
sheep and 1,097,000 swine. In 1959, 154,221,000 broilers produced a gross
income of $76,848,000.
Ind·'.t8try. In 1957 the 39,000 manufacturing establishments employed
248,OOC- production workers, earning S975m.; output value of manufactur-
ing was $4,118m. compared with $3,089m. in 1954. Pig-iron, 1958,
amount;ed to 3,415,000 short tons. Its steel industry. with a capacity. 1
Jan. U'57, of 5,001,020 net tons of ingots, ranks eighth. Other products
(1958): Coal, 1l·2m. short tons; coke, 4·3m. tons; Portland cement,
J2·3m. bbls. 'rhe mineral output in 1958 was valued at $187,747,000.
Lumber cuts, 1956, was valued at S261m.
COMMUNICATIONS. The chief port is Mobile, with a large ocean·

going trade; the port can accommodate 25 ocean·going vessels. The 9-ft
chaunel of the Tennessee River traverses North Alabama for 200 miles; the
Warrior-Tombigbee Waterway (476 miles) connects the Birmingham in-
dustrial area with Mobile and also with the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway;
the Ch"ttahoochee River 9-ft channel extends from the Gulf to Columbia
(AlabalDa). In 1956 the railways had a length of 5,316 miles. In 1958 the
state h!Ld 68 airports (33 general). The state system of paved roads com·
ALASKA 643
pl'ised 13,626 miles in 1956; total highways, including county, 70,597
miles.
Books of Reference
Alabama Official and Statistical RegiJt.... Montgomery. Quadrennial
Alabama Almanac and Book of Fac .. (1955-56). Birmingbam, 1966
Federal Writers' Project. Alabama: A Gui~ to the Deep South. New York, 1949
Farmer, IT., The Legislati .. Proc... in Alabama. Unlv. 01 Alabama, 1949
Martin, R. C., The Growth 0/ Stak ~dminiJtration in Alabama. University, Ala., 1942
Moore, A. B., History of .IIlabama. University, Ala., 1934
ALASKA
GOVERNMENT. Discovered in 1741 by Vitus Bering, its first settle·
ment, on Kodiak Island, was in 1784. The area now known as Alaska was
previously Russian America with its capital (1806) at Sitka. Alaska wall
purchased by the United States from Russia under the treaty of 30 March
1867 for $7·2m., at less than 2 cents an acre. Tt was not organized until
1884, when it became a 'district' governed by the code of the state of Oregon.
By Act of Congress approved 24 Aug. 1912 Alaska became an incorporated
Territory; its first legislature in 1913 granted votes to women, 7 years in
advance of the Constitutional Amendment. The capital since 1906 has been
at Juneau.
Alaska officially became the 49th state of the Union on 3 Jan. 1959;
the first territory to be admitted since the entry of New Mexico and Arizolla
in 1912. It has the largest area of any state, being more than twice the
size of Texas. The State Enabling Act was signed by President Eisenhower
on 7 July 1958. There followed a referendum on 26 Aug. and elections on
25 Nov. 1958.
An important provision of the Enabling Act is that the state has the
right to select 103,550,000 acres of vacant and unappropriated public lands
in order to establish ' a tax basis'; it can open these lands to prospectors
for minerals, and the state is to derive the principal advantage in all gains
resulting from the discovery of minerals. In addition, certain federally
administered lands at present reserved for conservation of fisheries and
wild life are to be transferred to the state. Special provision is made for
federal control of land for defence in areas of high strategic importance.
The Enabling Act affirmed that the constitution of Alaska, approved by
the legislators and adopted by public vote, 24 April 1956, was in conformity
with tho Constitution of the U.S. The state legislature consists of a Senate
of 20 members and a. House of Representa.tives of 40 members. The state
sends 2 senators and 1 representative to Congress. The franchise may be
exercised by all persons over 19 years of age.
Governor. WilIiam A. Egan (D.), 1959-63 ($25,000).
Secretary of State. Hugh J. Wade (D.) ($18,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. The gross area (land and water) is
1,518,717 sq. km or 586,400 sq. miles; the land area is 571,065 sq. miles, of
which 99·86% was in federal ownership in 1957. Alaska has 2 national
forests: the Tongass of 16·08m. acres and the Chugach of 4·81m, acres;
total area withdrawn from public entry is 114,315,819 acres. There is Qno
National Park (Mount McKinley, 1,939,493 acres) and 3 National Monu·
monts, Katmai (2,268,480 acres), Glacier Bay and Sitka, aggregating
4,966,124 acres. Census population:
1880 33.426 1910 64,356 1940 72,624
1900 63,~93 1930 69.278 1960 128,643
The civil population was stationary between 1900 and 1940. Much
of the sbrp rise shown in the 1950 census (an increase of 77'4%) reflects the
increase in military activity; military population, 1950, was 20,407. Den·
sity, 1950, was 0·2 per sq. mile. Estimated population, 1 July 1958,
191,000, of whom 35,000 were military.
The white population in 1950 numbered 92,808 (60,390 males and
32,418 females), of whom 6,476 were foreign· born ; native stock numbered
33,863 (17,548 males and 16,315 females), of whom 14,089 were Indians,
15,882 were Eskimos and 3,892 were Aleuts.
In HI57 there were 7,845 births (37·2 per 1,000 population); 1,244 deaths
(5·9); 1.686 marriages (8), and 552 divorces.
The largest town is Anchorage, which had (census of 1960) a population
of ll,25~ and an estimated populllltion, 1954 (including annexed suburbs),
of 29,000; other towns are Juneau, seat of the Government, 5,956; Fair·
banks, 6,771 (10,050 in 1956, estimated); Ketchikan, 5,305; Seward, 2,114;
Sitka, 1,985; Nome, 1,876; Petersburg, 1,619. There are altogether 31
incorporated towns with an assessed valuation, 1958, of S331m.
REUGION. In Alaska are many religious missions representing the
RUBsian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist
and oth"r denominations. The Society of Friends had 1,727 members in 1957.
EDUCATION. During 1957-58 there were 72 rural schools (3,773
pupils), 28 incorporated district schools (22,928), 8 military. base schools
6,588) ao.d 22 •Johnson·O' Malley schools' (627); all are under the Education
Department. The Bureau of Indian Affairs maintained 80 elementary
day schools (5,114 pupils) and 2 boarding and vocational schools (1,036
pupils); this agency also handles the medical and general care of the native
populat:;on. The University of Alaska (founded in 1922) had (1957) 75
teach erE and 646 students plus about 550 draftees on the military bases and
689 under the adult training plan.
Cinemas numbered 28 in 1955, with seating capacity of 14,000; there
were 18 broadcasting stations in 1957.
WE LF ARE. Old Age Assistance was established under the Federal
Social E:ecurity Act, and 1,505 persons received an average of $61'08 per
month in Dec. 1958; 1,181 families with 3,066 dependent children received
all avera,ge of $100·84 monthly per family; 94 blind persons received an
average of $67'79 per month.
In 1957 there were 22 hospitals, with 1,848 beds, recognized by the
Americhn Hospital Association. Tuberculosis rate in 1958 was 10·05 new
cases p(,r 1,000 non.white population and 0·34 new cases per 1,000 among
the whites; the death rate from tuberculosis was 0'4 per 1,000 nOD·white
persons and 0·05 per 1,000 whites.
Alaska is the only state where women, by legislative Act, are guaranteed
equal ply for equal work.
JUSTICE. The state court system has a Supreme Court (3 members)
and a Superior Court (8 members) appointed by the Governor.
FIN ANCE. Alaskans are subject to all the tax laws ofU.S. In addition,
there is a territorial income tax on individuals and corporations (equal to
14% of the federal income tax for individuals and 18% of the federal
income tax for corporations). General revenue for the year ended 30 June
ALASKA 645
1958 was $40,742,000 ($23,263,000 from taxation, $14,946,000 from federal
aid). General expenditure was $40,044,000 (including $21,104,000 for
education, $2,559,000 for highways and $3,847,000 for public welfare).
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. In some parts of the state the climate

during the brief spring and summer of 90-140 days is not unsuitable for
agricultural operations, thanks to the long hours of sunlight, but Alaska is
a food. importing area. There are an estima.ted 65,000 sq. miles of tillable
land and 35,000 sq. miles of grazing land (of the latter 800,000 acres are
leased and 200,000 acres were being actively grazed in 1954). In 1958 there
were 500 active farms with a total acreage of 21,515; the average farm was
of approximately 33 acres, compared with 80 acres in 1950. There were
24 farms raising fur.bearing animals in 1950. Total value of land and
bnildings in 1950 was $6,543,970. In 1958 there were 326 horses, 2,236
cattle (1950), 886 hogs and 10,787 sheep; tractors (1950) numhered 321.
Farm production in 1958 was valued at $4,675,989; dairy products account
for approximately 48%; potatoes, 20%; poultry, 12% livestock, 12%,
and vegetables, 8%.
There are 49,000 reindeer in western Alaska, of which 7,000 are located
on Nunivak Island and administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; the
balance of 42,000 are owned by individual Eskimo herders.
The government.owned fur·seal herd of the Pribilof Islands, admini-
stered by the Departmcnt of the Interior, comprises about 85% of the fur
seals of the world. Production for 1958 amounted to 78,919 sealskins with
a value of S3·5m.; other furs taken in Alaska amounted to approximately
$1,211,000. Under the terms of the 1958 Enabling Act, the state receives
from the federal government 70% of the proceeds derived from the sale of
fur-seal skins and sea-otter skins.
Foruery. In south-eastern and south-central Alaska timber fringes
the shore of the mainland and all the isla·nds extending inland to a depth of
5 miles. The estimated stand is about 84,760m. bd ft (set aside in the 2
national forests), of which 73% is Western hemlock, 21% spruce and 6%
Western red and Alaska cedar. A total of 175,736,000 bd ft was cut from
Alaska's 2 national forests in 1958. The value of timber products (1958)
amounted to S29·2m. Alaska now has 2 large pulp-mills, each with a
capacity of 480 tons daily; that at Ke;,tchikan began production in 1954
and a Japanese.owned mill in 1959.
Fi8heries. The chief resource industry of Alaska is fishing, with the
value of production for 1958 totalling $83,743,000, an increase of 5% over
1957. Salmon production, however, has declined over a period of years
with the value in 1958 only $66,126,983 (1957, $68,157,426).
Mining. Alaska's mining industry is operating at a low level. Produc-
tion (1958): Gold,186,435 troy oz. valued at 86,525,000 (1940,755,970 troy
oz.); silver, 23,507 troyoz.; sand and gravel, 4,255,000 short tons (value
$3,871,000); mercury, 3,380 flasks (of 76 lb.); bituminous coal, 759,000
short tons (value, 86,931,000). Total value of mineral production, 1958,
321,450,000. Natural gas was discovered in 1949 south of Point Barrow
and oil, in 1951, at Umiat. Oil explorations and drilling by 11 major oil
companies was under way in 1956. In 1957 oil was discovered on a com-
mercialscale at the Swanson River unit on the Kenai peninsular, and a well
drilled there wna yielding about 500 bbls a day in 1958. Shipment to Cali-
fornia began in 1957. Before this discovery only 6·5m. acres of the state
had bee:} leased or had applications pending; by 1959 some 40m. acres
had been le08ed. AlO8ka receives 90% of all proceeds, collected from oil,
gas and coalle08es; total receipts, fiscal year 1958--59, was $3,116,776.
COMMERCE. Alaska's trade is mainly with the continental U.8., but

no recent figures are available. In 1957, imports from all countries totalled
$3,837,6.35, and exports (excluding certain commodity exports under
security regulations), $9,588,067.
Imports from U.K., 1956, £14,479; 1957, £17,905; 1958, £41,509; 1959,
£14,341; exports to U.K., 1956, £1,876; 1957, £12; 1958, £2,407; 1959,
nil (Britlsh Hoa.rd of Trade returns).
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Regular shipping services to and

from the U.S. are fumished by 2 steamship lines and several barge lines
operating out of Seattle and other Pacific coast ports. Two Canadian
compani.es also furnish a regular service from Vancouver, B.C.
RaillL·ays. There is a railway of III miles from Skagway to the town
of Whitehorse (in the Canadian Yukon region). The government.owned
Alaska Railroad rHns from Seward to Fairbanks, a distance of 471 miles
(573 miles, including branches). In 1956 it carried 113,069 revenue
passengllTs and 1,473,268 tons of revenue freight, much of it military
requirements.
Rocu'.s. Alaska's highway and road system, 1959, totalled 5,356 miles,
of which 2,195 miles were primary roads (50% paved) connecting the major
cities; necondary roads totalled 3,161 miles. Registered motor vehicles,
1958, 61i,756.
The Alaska Highway extends 1,523 miles from Dawson Creek, British
ColumKa, to Fairbanks, Alaska. It was built by the U.8. Army in 1942,
at a co~t of $138m. The greater portion of it, because it lies in Canada,
is now maintained by the Canadian Government.
Post. There were (1958) 222 post offices. The AlO8kan towns are
connected by telephone with the U.S. and by telegraph and radio with
the U.8. and Canada; since 1901 these facilities have been furnished by
the Signal Corps of the U.S. Army; telephones, 1958, 33,227, including
8,176 privately operated.
Aviation. In 1958 the state had 297 airports, of which 159 were general
and 138 limited. Passengers by air to and from Alaska (1958) numbered
174,933.
BANKING. Alaska had, on 31 Dec. 1959, 6 nationa.l banks and 12

territorial banks with combined capital of $4,397,500 net, undivided profits
of $2,315,935.
Books of Reference
STATIf.TICAL INFomuTION. Division 01 Tourist and Economic Development, P.O. Box
2391, Jw(ea.u.
Mid-CtnI',lrl' .Ala.Jka. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, WAShington, D.O., 1952
Goonno,'" Annual Repo,t. 1883-84 to date
IPederal Write..s' Project. Guilk to Ala.rka: La.t A~can F,onti.,.. New York, 1939
A,ctic Bil1iog,aph/l. S vols. Arctic Institute of North America, Washington, D.O., 1953
Bart., F., Ala.Jka. Stuttgart, 1950
Brooks, A.lfred G., Blating Ala.Jko·, Tra'lI. Unlv. 01 Alaska, 1963
ARIZONA 647
Groenlog, B., Th4 SI4U ,ol JflaJka. New York, 1954
Hart. R. G., M.Kal/', Guilk 10 Jflaska. New York 1959
Herron. B. A., AlaJka. Land 01 To-morrow. New York. 1947
Hnlley. Clarenee 0., AlaIka. 1741-1953. Portland. Oregon, 1953
Jacobin, L ••Guilk 10 Alalia. Srd ad. Los A.ogeIee, 1953
Snndborg, G., OpPDm.n/tfl i" AlaIka. New York, 1945
Tomptins, S. R., Al...ka. Unl,.. of Oklaboma, 1945
TKRRITORIALLlBRARY. Alaska Historical Library &nd Museum, P .O. &>: 2051, Juneau.
Librarian: Bdw&rd L. Keltbabn.
ARIZONA
GOVERNMENT. Arizona W8.8 settled in 1732, organized as a Territory
in 1863 and became a state on 14 Feb. 1912. The state constitution (1912,
with now 36 amendments) placed the government under direot control of
the people through the Initiative, Referendum and the Recall. The state
Senate consists of 28 members and the House of Representatives of 80, all
elected for 2 years, Arizona sends to Congress 2 representatives (each
elected from a separate district) and 2 senators. Indians are entitled to
vote. In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 176,990 votes;
Stevenson, 112,880.
The state capital is Phoenix (population in 1953, 128,841). TUCBon had
a population of 48,774. The state is divided into 14 counties.
Governor. Paul Fannin (R.), 1959-60 (SI8,500).
Secrelary 0/ Stale. Wesley Bolin (D.) ($9,600).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 113,909 sq. miles, including 334
sq. miles of water. Of the total area (72,691,200 acres) 32,321,000 were
owned by the federal government in 1955, including 19,145,119 acres held
by tbe Office of Indian Affairs. Census population on I April 1950 was
749,587, an increase of 50'1% over 1940. Estimated population, 1 Dec.
1958, 1.144,000. Births, 1958, 32,766 (28·6 per 1,000 population); deaths,
9,030 (7'9) ; infant deaths. 1,099 (33,5 per 1,000 live births); marriages,
9,805 (8'6); divorces, 5,910.
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex, 1950):
Per sq.
White Negro Indian Chinese Japanese Total mile
1910 171 ,468 2,009 29,201 1,305 371 204.354 H
1930 378,551 10,149 43,726 1,110 879 435,673 3,8
1940 426,792 14,993 :'5,076 1,449 632 499,261 4,4
1950 654,511 2:',974 65,761 1,951 7S0 749,681 6 ,6
Male 330,216 13,430 All otb:n 35,413 319,059

Female 324,29:' 12,aH 3~,689 370,628
Of the total population in 1950, non· whites had 48,843 males and 46,233
females; 416,000 (55'5%) were urban (33'3% in 1940); 442,004 were 21
years of age or older. Native whites were 608,917; foreign.born whites
45,594.
RELIGION. The leading roligious bodies are Roman Catholics and
Mormans (Latter Day Saints); others include Methodists, Presbyterians,
Baptists and Episcopalians. No recent statistics of membership are avail·
able.
EDUCATION. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 8
and 16 years, and instruction is free for pupils from 6 to 21 years of age.
The enrolled pupils in 1958-59 in the 496 district elementary schools were
220,318. with 7,721 classroom teachers, 89 public high schools had 58,454
pupils {.nd 2,591 teachers. The tota.! expenditure (excluding capital ex-
penditures) for public schools (1958-59) was 887·6m. Teachers' salaries
(elementary) averaged 84,877 and (secondary) $4,411. The state maintains
2 universitics, at Tucson and Tempe, an agricultural school at Tucson, a
college with university rating at Flagstaff and 2 junior colleges at Thatcher
and Phoenix.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance (maximum $70 a month) is given,

with feeleral aid, to needy citizens 65 years of age or older who have resided
in the state at least 5 years within the 9 years immediately preceding applica-
tion. ]n Dec. 1958, 14,078 old persons were receiving an average of $55'31
per pemon : 6,255 families with 18,845 children, 8102'48 per family: 812
blind, M IH2: there is no special provision for the totally disabled. In
1949 th-3 state granted to Indians the right to certain socialsecurlty benefits
under the federal act.
In 1 ~57 there were 68 hospitals listed by the American Hospital Associa·
tion; c~pacity 7,633 beds. Patients in mental hospitals on 30 June 1957
numbered 1,595.
In 1929 Arizona adopted a law permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insane and feeble-minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958, 10
men and 20 women had been sterilized.
SegIcgation of races has been mandatory in the elementary schools and
permissible ill high schools, but the legislature in 1951 abolished it. Marriage
is forbi(lden between white and coloured persons.
A 'right-to-work' amendment to the constitution, adopted 5 Nov. 1946,
makes illegal any concessions to trade-union demands for a 'closed shop.'
The Arizona state prison on 31 Dec. 1958 held 1,348 men and 44 women
(125 per 100,000 population); from 1930 to 1959 there were 34 executions
(lethal gas) all for murder, 24 white men, 1 white woman and 9 Negroes.
FINANCE. General re,enues, year ending 30 June 1959, were

$161,1('1,189 (taxation, $87,350,306 and federal aid, 847,572,482) : general
expend tures, $155,413,768 (education, $51,98],024; highways, $56,317,947,
and public welfare, $28,837,157).
Bonded and contingent debt 30 June 1959 was $13,449,275.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Arizona, despite its dry climate, is well

suited for agriculture along the water· courses and where irrigation is
practis(,d on a large scale from great reservoirs constructed by the U.S. as
well as by the state government and private interests. Irrigated area, 1956,
1,150,01)0 acres in 6,809 farms. The wide pasture lands are favourable for
the rearing of cattle and sheep, but numbers are either stationary or de-
clining compared with 1920.
In 1954 Arizona contained 9,321 farms and ranches with 1,094,000
acres of crop land, out of a total farm and pastoral area of 41,750,000
acres (57'5% of the land area); value of farm lands and buildings,
$599,6(i6,OOO. Farming is highly commercialized (6,126 commercial
farms, 1954) and mechanized, and concentrated largely on cotton (2,206
ootton farms) picked by machines and by Indians, Mexicans and migratory
workerl! from Oklahoma, Texae and other states. The average farm
(1954) was 4,479'1 acres, valued at $81,866.
ARKANSAS 649
Area under cotton (1958), 386,000 acres, from which 734,000 bales of
short staple and Egyptian cotton were harvested.
Cash income, 1958, from crops, $319·5m.; from livestock, SlOl·5m. Most
important cereals are grain 80rghums and barley; other crops include
oranges, grapefruit and lettuce. On 1 Jan. 1959 there were 57,000 horses
and mules, 971,000 all cattle, 53,000 milch cows, 451,000 sheep and 35.000
swine. The wool clip in 1958 amounted to 3,131,000 lb. from 431,000
sheep; mohair production was 172,000 lb. from 57,000 goats. The national
forests in the state had an area (1957) of 11,390,669 acres.
In 1958 there were 48 soil· conservation clistricts embracing 45,428,694
acres, all in farm land and grazing lands.
Mining. The mining industries of the state are important, but less so
than agriculture and manufacturing. The production of gold in 1958 was
142,979 fine oz.; silver, 4,684,580 fine oz.; copper, 485,839 short tons (50%
of U.S. total); lead, 11,890 short tons; zinc, 28,532 short tons. The t otal
value of minerals mined in 1958 was $314,520,000.
IndU8try. In 1954 (federal ceneus), 820 manufacturing establishments
had 26,050 production workers, earning $109,827,000; value added by
manufacture, $191,387,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 there were 2,295 miles of steam rail·
ways. Airports, 1958, numbered 106, of which 48 were general. The state
maintains 32,373 miles of road, of which 27,500 miles were surfaced in 1957.
Dooks of Reference
Federa.l Writers' Project. Af·izlina: A GuicU to CM Youngest State. New York, 19:'4
Parish, T. E., Bistorv 0/ j.,.izona. 8 vol~. P hoenix, Ariz., 10)5-18
Lockwood, F. 0., Pioneer DUllS in Antona: from Ihe Spanish Occupation 10 Slouhood. New
York and London, 1932
Van Petten, D. 11.•• 2'he eonltilulion and Go.ernrnenl oJ Aritona. 2nd ed. Tempe, 1956
Wyllys, R. K., Arizona : Ik llislOTV oJ a Frontier Slale. Phoenix,1951
STATE LmRARY. Department of Library and Archives. State House, Phoenix. Director:
Mrs Alice B. Good.
ARKANSAS
GOVERNMENT. Arkansas was settled in 1686, made a Territory in
1819 and admitted into the Union on 15 June 1836. The name is Inclian,
and means' the people down stream.' The General Assembly consists of a
Senate of 35 members, electod for 4 years, partially renewed every 2 years,
and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. The
sessions are biennial and usually limited to 60 days. The Governor and
Lieut.·Governor are elected for 2 years. The state is clivided into 75
oounties; the capital is Little Rock. The state is represented in Con·
gress by 2 senators and 6 representatives. Arkansas is one of 6 southern
states which require payment of a poll tax as a form of registration for voting.
In 9 of the 75 counties Negroes constitute 50% or more of the population.
In the 1956 preSidential election Stevenson polled 213,277 votes (8 electoral
votes); Eisenhower,186,287; total was 39'5% of the potential electorate.
Governor. Orval E. Faubu8 (D.) 1959-61 (SI0,OOO).
Lieut.·Governor. Natban Gordon (D.) ($2,500).
Secretary of State. C. G. Hall (D.) ($5,000).
ARE:A AND POPULATION. Area. 53.104 sq. miles (429 sq. miles
being inland water). Census population on 1 April 1950 was 1.909.511. a
decrease of 2% from that of 1940. Estimated population. 1 July 1959. was
1.744.000. Births. 1958. were 41.498 (23·5 per 1.000 population); deaths.
17.109 (9,7); infant deaths. 1.047 (25·2 per 1,000 live births); marriages.
15.574 (8·8); divorces. 3.946.
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex. 1950) was:
Per sq.
Wbite Negro Indian Asiatic Totel mile
1910 1,131,026 442,891 460 72 1,674,449 30·0
1930 1,316,3U 478,463 40S 296 1,854,482 35·2
1940 1,466,084 482,518 278 447 1,949,387 37·0
1950 1,481,507 426,639 533 832 1,909,611 36·3
Male .
Female
743,614
737,893
207,146
219,493
All otbe~ 691
774 951,634
957,971
Of the total population in 1950, 623,243 persons (32'8%) were urban

(22,2% in 1940); 1.112,872 were 21 years of age or older. Native whites
were 1,4,72,218; foreign.horn whites. 9,289.
Little Rock (capital) had a population of 102,213 in 1950; Fort Smith,
59,959 (1957); Hot Springs, 29,307; Pine Bluff, 39,795 (1956).
REJ.lGION. The most numerous religious hodies in the state are
Baptist (Negro Baptists with 150.664 members in 1936). Southern Baptists
(78.825), Methodist (114,924). Roman Catholic and Disciples of Chmt.
Total m.embership. all denominations, 570,219.
EDUCATION. The state provides separate schools for white and
Negro children; however, 4 schools (at Van Buren, Hoxie. Charleston and
Fayetteville) have voluntarily integrated. The elementary and secondary
schools, 1958-59. had 14,673 teachers and an average of 373.227 pupils
(grades 1 to 12). of whom 97,596 were Negro. Teachers' salaries, 1958-59.
averaged $3.159. Expenditure on public schools in 1958-59 was $80.506.785.
Higher education is provided at the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville.
7 state colleges and 11 private or church colleges. Total enrolment in
institutions of higher education. 1 Oct. 1959. was 23,565. Expenditure on
the University of Arkansas. 1958-58. was SIO·9m., and on other institutions
for higl:er and special education, S5·5m.
WELFARE. In June 1959, 56.345 persons were drawing Old Age
Assistance at an average amount of 348·59 per month; 7,940 families
(30,276 dependents), $59·74 per family; 2.048 blind persons, $53·61; 7,102
totally ;~nd permanently disabled, $36·58.
There were 85 hospitals (with 14.968 beds) listed by the American Hos·
pital Association in 1957. Hospitals for mental diseases had. in 1955, 5.017
patientll.
State prisons on 31 Dec. 1958 had 1,849 inmates (106 per 100,000 popu-
lation). In 1959 there were 6 executions; from 1930 to 1959 there were 109
executions (electrocution) including 23 whites, 67 Negroes and 1 Indian for
murder and 1 white and 17 Negroes for rape.
Segregation of Negroes is enforced by statutes covering educational
institutions (but, specifically, not separate schools for deaf and blind pupils);
transportation. including sleeping·cars. buses and streets cars; race tracks;
tuberculosis hospitals; separate polling places in elections. Marriage is
forbidd·~n between white and coloured persons.
CALIFORNIA 651
FINANCE. The state's general revenue for the fiscal year ending 30
June 1958 was $223,246,000, of which taxation fUnUshed $141,184,000
and federal grants, $67,390,000. Expenditures were $222,322,000, of which
education took $71,325,000; highways, $56,232,000, and publie welfare,
$39,68],000.
Net long· term debt on 30 June 1958 was $99,854,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Arkansas is an agricultural state. In
1954,145,075 farms had a total area of 17,944,000 acres; average farm was
of 123·4 acres valued (land and buildings) at $8,491. Tenant·farmers were
48,763 (33,6%). Land erosion is serious. Some 12,216,000 acree (36%
of the total) are considered to have lost one·fourth of their top soil, and
require drastic curative treatment; 3,286,000 acres (10%) require preventive
treatment. Since the passage of a Soil Conservation Act in 1937,74 soil·
conservation districts have been established (1956) covering 33,712,000
acres, of which 18,948,000 acres were in 182,000 farms.
Cash income, 1958, from crops, $342·7m., and livestock, S205m. In the
north the chief crops are maize (14,688,000 bu. in 1958), soybeans (49·6m.
bu.), oats, potatoes, sweet potatoes, hay and forage crops. For 1958 the
cotton yield was 925,000 bales from hn. acres. Strawberries, picked by
migratory workers, are an important cash crop. Livestock on 1 Jan. 1959
comprised 88,000 horses and mules, 1,493,000 all cattle, 326,000 milch cows,
64,000 sheep and 406,000 swine.
Mining. Arkansas produces 95% of the country's supply of bauxite
for aluminium; production, 1958, 1,258,000 long tons dried bauxite equiva·
lent. The state has a large coal area; 473,489 short tons were mined in
1958-59 compared with an annual average of 1,473,000 in 1946-50. In 1958
crude petroleum amounted to 28·7m. bbls; natural gas liquids, 92m. gallons
and natural gas, 54,299m. cu. ft. Total mineral output in 1958 was valued
at SI31,603,281.
Ind'U8try. Of the industries, the cutting and working of timber is one
of the most important. The census of manufacture, 1956, showed 2,682
manufacturing establishments employing 75,845 production.workers,
earning $203,197,000; value added by manufacture, $639,336,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 there were in the state 4,009 miles of
steam railway. Two commercial airlines serve the state; there were, in
1958, 78 airports (42 general and 36 limited). State· maintained highwa.ys
(1956) total 9,477 miles; county highways, 62,220 miles.
Boo\(s of Reference
Arkansa, 8an4book. Arkansas History Commission. Little Rock. Biennial
Federal Write",' Project. Arkansas : A Guitk to the Stale. Ne .. York, 1941
Fletcher, J . G., Arkansas. Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1947
Sb ..nnon, K. (ed.), Arkansas .dtmanac. Little Rock, 1954
CALIFORNIA
GOVERNMENT. California, first settled in 1769, was from its dis·
covery down to 1846 politically associated with Mexico. On 7 July 1846
the American flag was hoisted at Montcrey, and a proclamation was issued
declaring California to be a. portion of the U.S. ,and on 2 Feb. 1848, by the
treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, the territory was formally ceded by Mexico
to the U.S., and was admitted to the Union 9 Sept. 1850.
The present constitution dates from 1879; it has had 372 amendments
-the hrgest number of any state.
The Senate is composed of 40memhers elected for 4 years-half being
elected each 2 years-and the Assembly, of 80 members, elected for 2 years.
Sessions are held annually. The Governor and Lieut.·Governor are elected
for 4 y"ars.
California is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 30 representatives.
In ';he 1956 presidential elections Eisenhower polled 3,027,668 votes,
Stevenson 2,420,135, others 6,640.
Thl state is divided into 58 counties. The capital is Sacramento.
Governor. Edmund Brown (D.), 1959-63 ($40,000).
Li6'ott.·Govemor. Glenn M. Anderson (D.) (320,000).
Sectetary of State. Frank M. Jordan (R.) ($19,500).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 158,693 sq. miles (1,953 sq. ruiles
being inland water). In 1958 the federal gO'l'ernment owned 46% of the
state (,b6·2m. acres out of land area of 100,313,600 acres); public lands,
unappIOpriated on 30 June 1958, totalled 16,305,673 acres, practically all
either mountains or deserts.
Census population, 1 April 1950, 10,586,223, an increase of 3,678,836
or 53'3'}'0 over 1940, leading all states in numbers gained and in peroentage
increaa". Estimated population, 1 July 1959, 14,639,000. Births in 1958,
346,64(; (24'2 per 1,000 population); marriages, 96,330 (6'7); deaths,
123,44~: (8·6); infant deaths, 8,420 (24'3 per 1,000 live births); divorces
(1956), 42,471.
Popllation in 4 census years (with distribution by sex, 1950) waft:
Total (inc!. Per sq.
White Negro Japanese Chinese aU others) mile
1910 2,259,672 21,645 41,356 36,248 2,377.049 16·3
1930 6,408,260 81,048 97,466 37,361 5,677,251 36·2
1940 6,696,763 124,306 93,717 39.556 6,907,387 H'l
19M) 9,916,173 "62,172 84,956 68,324 10,686,223 66·2
Male. 4,939,566 229,208 46,633 36,051 5,295,629
Female 4,976,607 232,964 39,323 22,273 5,290,594
Of ';he 1950 population 8,539,420 persons (80'7%) were urban (71% in
1940). The largest county, Los Angeles, had 4,151,687. Those 21 years
old or ·)lder numbered 7,213,565. Native whites were 8,929,840; foreign-
born wilites, 985,333.
In 1958, 571,000 acres were under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of
Indian Affairs ; 501,000 acres were allotted to tribes.
The largest cities with census popula tion, 1950 (or later speciai U.S.
census as indicated), are:
Los Ang"Jes '56 2,243,001 Richmond 09,545 Compton '55 63,670
San Frallci:o;c() 775,357 Torrance '59 96,993 Ilomons '58 62,138
San Die~o '57 494,201 Burbank '57 . 90,966 InglelVood '57 • 61,001
Oakland 384,575 San Bernardino '56. 83,145 Santa Barbara '67 66,67&
TAng Belch 260,767 .A.naheim 'oS . 7S,397 Hayward '57 64,789
San Josl '58 158,600 Riverside '67 . 76,673 Bakersfield ' 58 54,093
Saarame:lto '55 167,182 Stockton '54 . 75,157 Albambra '63 53,668
Fresno 'j.i . 122,944 Santa Monica '53 75,132 South Gate '62 61,293
G1endale '57 114,460 Alameda '54 . 70.642 Fullerton ' 58 60,653
Berkelev 113,805 Santa Ana '56 69;345
Pasadeii:~ 104,577 San Mateo ' 5 7 65,999
RELIGION, The Roman Catholic Church, with 2,483,4Il adherents

in 1954, is much stronger than any other single church; next are the Jewish
CALIFORNIA 653
congregations with an estimated 431,472 members, Methodists (1l3,241,
1936 figure), Presbyterians and Baptists.
EDUCATION. Full·time attendance at school is compulsory for chil·
dren from 8 to 16 years of age for a minimum of 170 days per annum, and
part. time attendance is required from 16 to 18 years. In 1958-69 the
average da.i.Jy attendance was : Kindergartens and elementary schools,
2,242,921 pupils ; high schools, 707,779; junior colleges,128,984. Teachers,
30 Oct. 1958, numbered 145,039.
The University of California (1868) has colleges for resident instruction
and research at Berkeley, Los Angeles, San Francisco and {) other centres;
in 1957-58 there were at all centres l1,7iO officers of instruction and 77,046
resident students. Stanford University, near Palo Alto, was founded in
1885 by Mr and Mrs !.eland St&nford in memory of their son and opened in
1891 ; in 1957-68 it had 792 professors and teaohers and 7,717 students.
The University of Southern California at Los Angeles (Methodist) had 1,042
instructors and 17,031 full-time students in 1967-58. The California
Institute of Technology at Pasadena (215 instructors, 1,077 students) is
devoted to technological training.
The provision in the Education Code authorizing separate schools for
children of Indian, Chinese, Japanese or Mongolian parentage, was repealed
in 1947.
WELFARE. On 30 June 1955 the state had 876 institutions for the care
of children, 220 for the aged, 10 state mental hospitals (35,878 patients),
3 state hospitals for the mentally deficient and wards for such cases at 2 of
the mental hospit.als (8,259).
For various Civil Rights statutes see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK,
1955, p. 639.
San Francisco leads all American cities in racial equality. In the public
schools whites were teaching Negroes, Negro teachers were teaching whites
and Asiatic teachers were teaching both. Big department stores employ
Negroes and Asiatics to manage whole departments with white employees;
leading hotels use no discrimination. There are Acts ,vhich declare illegal
and void all marriages of white persons with Negroes, mulattoes, Mongoliana
and members of the Malay race, but on 1 Oct. 1948 the State Supreme
Court held that an Act forbidding Negro-white marriages was unconstitu-
tional.
In 1909 California passed a law permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insano and feeble-minded persons ; up to 1 Jan. 1958, 10,132
men and 9,866 women had been thus sterilized.
Old Age Assistance (up to S85 per month) has becn established for those
65 years or older who have been citizeDB and residents of the state for 15
years, and have real-property assets not exceeding $3,500 or personal
property not exceeding $1,200. In Dec. 1958,265,280 aged persons wcre
receiving an average of $84·84 per month; 14,098 needy blind persons were
receiving an average of $104·32 per month, and 68,455 families with 242,693
needy children were receiving $162·43 per month per family; 36,312 needy
persons were receiving general assistance ($56·26 per month).
In 1957 there were 421 hospitals listed by the American Hospital
Association; capacity, 123,599 beds.
State prisons, 31 Dec. 1958, had 19,202 inmates (137 per 100,000 popu-
lation); it leads all states except New York in the number of women
prisoners,730. In 1959,6 persons were executed for murder; from 1930 to
1959 there were 262 executions (Iet.hal gas); 254 were for murder.
FINANCE. For the year ending 30 June 1958 general revenues were
$2,434,710,000 (taxation, $1,673,873,000 and federal aid, $547,306,000);
general expenditures were $2,606,131,000 (8987,709,000 for education,
$540,31>0,000 for highways and $356,120,000 for public welfare).
The net long·term state debt was 8648,223,000 on 30 June 1958.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Extending 700 miles from north to
south, lend intersected by several ranges of mountains, California has almost
every variety of climate, from the very wet to the very dry, and from the
temper:tte to the semi· tropical. Of the total surface area (100,313,600
acres), !'ecent estimates show 10·4m. acres to be seriously eroded, 46·3m. acres
moderately affected and 43·7m. with little or no "rosion. Since the' Soil
Consef\'ation Act' was passed in 1938, 146 (by June 1958) soil· conservation
districtJ had been established embracing 57,325,000 acres.
In 1954 there were 123,007 farms, comprising 37·8m. acres; tho average
farm W.1S of 307·1 acres with a value of $59,144. The state leads in large.
scale commercial farming, with 2,020 very large farms furnishing 28% of
total farm and orchard production and employing the bulk of the 277,000
migrate,ry workers for seasonal operations. Farms with telephones, 1954,
95,000 (77'2% of all farms); electricity, 119,000 (96'4%); 77,000 farms
had 14!l,OOO tractors. Cash income, 1958, from crops, Sl,740·8m.; from
livestock, $I,088·7m.
The cereal crops include winter wheat, barley, and rough rice, 11,730,000
100·lb. bags in 1958. Principal tree crops include wine, table and raisin
grapes (1958 estimate, 2,660,000 tons); peaches, apricots, plums, prunes,
pears, a.pples and cherries. Citrus fruit crops (1957) were: Oranges, 25·!Jm.
boxes; lemons, 14·7m. boxes; grapefruit, 2·3m. boxes. Field crops include
cotton (1·6m. bales in 1958).
On 1 Jan. 1959 the farm animals were: 70,000 horses and mules,
945,000 milch cows, 3,978,000 all cattle, 1,893,000 sheep and 416,000 swine.
The wool clip in 1957 was 17,560,000 lb. from 2,834,000 sheep.
For'llitry. Total forest area in 1953 was 42·5m. acres, of which 17·3m.
acres was commercial forest. California ranks second to Oregon in lumber
production, mainly softwoods; total annual cut is about 4,OOOm. bd ft.
National forest area in 1958 was 20111. acres.
Fi8hery. California is the leading fishing state. The catch in 1957 was
620·7m. lb., valued at S50·9m.
Milling. The discovery of gold in 1848 led to the' gold rush of '49' and
subsequent mining on a large scale. In 1958 the estimated gold output
was 18[;,385 fine oz.; silver, 188,260 fine oz.; gypsum, 1,423,000 short tons;
mercury, 22,365 flasks (of 76lb )-59% of U.S. total; tungsten (1956), 256,362
short toms; lead, chromite, zino, copper and iron ore are also produced.
Califontia is one of three most important petroleum. producing states of the
Union ITexas and Louisiana being the other two); in 1958 the output was
314·4m. bbls, of which 29m. bbls came from off·shore fields. Natural gas
consumed in the state amounted, 1958, to 1,078,855m. cu. ft, of which
465,582m. cu. ft was produced in the state. Output of natural gas liquids,
1958, VIas 1,170,OOOm. gallons. The estimated value of all the minerals
producnd in 1958 was SI,502·7m., third highest of the U.S. states.
lnihslry. The federal cen8us,1954, showed 24,631 manufacturing estab.
lishmerlts employing 1,026,350 wage·eamers earning $4,638,135,000; value
added by ma.nufacture $8,670,358,000, compared with 81,122,545,000 in
COLORADO 600
1939. The petroleum products industry ranks second to Texas; output,
1958, included 178m. bbls of petrol. Food processing was, in 1950. the
leading industry. with 99.133 production workers; value added by manu·
facture $980,559,000. The steel industry ranks ninth with a capacity,
I Jan. 1957, of 3.279,700 net tons of ingots and steel for castings. Aircraft
and missile engineering are important.
COMMUNICATIONS . The chief ports are San Francisco and Los
Angeles.
Total mileage of railways, 31 Dec. l()57, was 7,513 miles. In 1957 Cali·
fornia had 27,936 miles of municipal roads and 110,823 miles of rural roads
(70,351 miles surfaced). In 1958 it had 5,920,000 registered motor cars
and Im. trucks (total registered motor vehicles, 1958. 7,013,000), leading
all states in both items. Airports, 1958. numbered, 395. including 200
general and 195 limited.
Books of Reference
Wrilers' Program. 8an Franci.co. 2nd ed. Ne", York, 1947.-Lo. Angel". 2nd od .
New York. 1961
Bolleos, J . 0., and Scott, S., Local Government in California. Derkeley, Cal., 1952
Caughey, J. W., California. Rev. ed. New York, 1953
Cleland, R. G., From Wilderne.. to Empire. New York, 1944.-Califomia in Our TifTU.
New York, 1947
Cowan, R. E., ..t BibliogTaphv Of the l1istory of California, J520-J9JO. S Tol.. San Francisco,
1943
Crouch, W. W., and others. SIIJ~ and Lo(al Govemml!'lll in California. Los Angeles, 19~2
Hawgood, J. A., California aJ a Factor in World [[i.lory. Nottingham, 1949
Hlnds, N. E., Evolution of '''e California LondJCape. San Francisco, 196~
Hoover, M. B., and Renscb, H. E., Historic SPOIS i11 California. Rev. ed. 8tanlord, Co.1.
1948
Hunt, R. D., California'. SIIJlP!y Hall 0/ Fame. Stockton, 1950
Robinson, W. W., Land in Cali/omia. Berkeley, Cal., 1945
Roney, D., The California Citizen. Houston. 1955
Zierer, O. M. (cd.), California and the 8<>ulhwest. New York, 1956
STATE LmRARY. The California State Library, Library-Courts Bldg, Sacrawento 9.
Statt Librarian: Carma R. Zimmenne.n.
COLORADO
GOVERNMENT. Colorado was first settled in 1858. made a Territory
in 1861 and admitted into the Union on 1 Aug. 1876: the constitution
adopted at that time is still in effect with some 62 amendments. The
General Assembly consists of a Senate of 35 members elected for 4 years.
one· half retiring every 2 years, and of a House of Representatives of 66
members elected for 2 years. Sessions are annual. beginning 1961. The
Governor, Lieut.·Governor, Attorney·General and Secretary of State are
elected for 4 years. Qualified as electors are all citizens, male and female
(e:tcept criminals and insane). 21 years of age, who have resided in the state
for 12 months immediately preceding the election, The state is divided into
63 counties. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 4 representatives,
The capital is Denver,
In the 1956 president.ial election Eisenhower po lied 394,479 votes,
Stevenson 263,997, others 4,598.
Governor. Step hen L, R,McNichols (D.). 1959-63 ($20,000).
Lieut.·Governor, Robert L, Knous (D.), (34.800),
Steretary of State, George J. Baker (D.) ($9.000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 104,247 sq. miles (325 sq. mile.
being irJand water). Federal lands, 1957, 24,016,000 acres (36'1% of the
land ar"a).
Cemus population, 1 April 1950, was 1,325,089, an increase of 201,793
or 18% since 1940. Births, 1958, were 43,240 (25'3 per 1,000 population) ;
deaths, 14,848 (8 '7); infant deaths, 1,282 (30'6 per 1,000 live births);
marriages, 14,688 (8·6); divorces (1957), 5,100. Estimated population, 1
July 1959, 1,775.625,
Pop'llation in 4 census years (with distributiun by sex, 1950) was:
Per 8q.
White Negro Indlo.n Asiatic Total mile
1910 783,4U 11,463 1,482 2,674 799,024 N
InO 1,018,793 11,828 1,396 3,775 1,085,791 10·0
1940 1,106,602 12,176 1,360 3,268 1,123,296 10·8
1960 1,2U6,653 20,177 1,667 5.870 1,526,089 12-7
Male. 650,256 10.205 887 3,291 665.149

Female 646,397 9.972 680 2,.79 65U,940
Of the total population in 1950, 831,318 (62,7%) were urban (52,6% in

1940); 1,237,666 were native whites and 58,987 were foreign.bom whites.
Those 21 years of age or older were 844,790. Denver, the capital, had an
estimated population, 1957, of 535,000; the metropolitan area (Adams,
Arapah,)e, Denver and Jefferson counties) had 563,832 (1950 census).
Other cities with 1957 estimated population: Pueblo, 97,000; Colorado
Springs. 85,000; Aurora, 41,500; Boulder, 37,650; Ellglewood, 34,300;
Greeley, 29,000; Fort Collins, 28,000; Grand Junction, 21,500; Arvada,
16,500; Long1llont, 15,000.
REI.IGION. In 1957 the Roman Catholic Church had 270,213 mem-
bers; t ~e 12 leading Protestant Churches (out of 100 in the state) totalled
300,000 members; the Jewish comm1Ulity had 30,000 members. Buddhism
is amon g other religions represented.
EDUCATION. In 1959-60 the 541 public school districts had 370,000
pupils Imd 17,000 teachers and administrators. Teachers' salaries (1959-
60) averaged $4,969. College enrolments, 1959-60, were: U.S. Air F orce
Academy, at Colorado Springs, 1,508 students; University of Colorado, at
Boulder, 10,484; University of Colorado (Denver extension and Department
of Medicine), 6,728; Colorado State University, at Fort Collins, 5,977;
Colorado School of Mines, at Golden, 1,080; Colorado State College (Greeley),
4,002; Colorado College (Colorado Springs), 1,282; Adams State College
(Alamola), 1,166; Western State College (Gunnison), 1,103; Regis College
(Den ve~' ), 981.
WELFARE. A constitutional amendment, adopted 1956, provides for

minimum old age pensions of $100 per month, which may be raised on a cost-
of.livinl~ basis (S105 for Oct. 1958); for a S5m. stabilization fund and for a
SIOm. medical and health fund for pensioners and, after these requirements
are mee, for the transfer of any excess funds to the General Fund of the
state. Old·age assistance is available to citizens 60 years of age and
residen; for stated periods, with assets not exceeding $1,000 (excluding
home ownership). In Aug. 1959, 53,401 persons were drawing an average
of $83'38 per month.
Under the medical fund, 18,200 pensioners received hospitalization
tiuring Feb. 1958-Feb. 1959. Approved hospitals, 1958, numbered 96 with
COLORADO 657
16,791 beds. In 1958, 6 hospitals for mental dieeasee had 6,103 patients
(356'7 per 100,000 population).
State prisons on 30 June 1959 had 2,038 inmares (114·8 per 100,000
population). In 1959 there was no execution; from 1930 to 1958 executions
(by lethal gas) numbered 41, including 35 whites, 5 Negroes and 1 other;
all were for murder.
Colorado has a Civil Rights Act (1935) forbidding places of publio
accommodation to discriminate against any persons on the grounds of
race, religion, colour or nationality. No religious test may be applied to
teachers or students in the public schools, 'nor shall any distinction or
classification of pupils be made on account of race or colour.' In 1957 the
General Assembly prohibited discriminntion in employment of persons in
privare industry and ill 1959 adopted the Fair Housing Act to discourage
discrimination in housing. An 1897 Act declaring void aJl marriages
between white persons and Negroes or mulattoes, was amended in 1957 to
permit such marriages.
FINANCE. The state's general revenue for the year ending 30 June
1959 was $297,206,649, of which taxation and other revenue furnished
$200,965,106 and federal grants $96,241,643. General expenditures were
$301 ·7m., of which operations took $6,681,408; education, $65,577,155,
and highways, $90,626,241.
The state has no genera.! debt. The net long. term debt (in revenue
bonds) on 30 June 1959 was $64,572,711.
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. Farms in 1954 numbered 40,749, with
a total area of 38,385,234 acres (57'9% of the land area); 5,219,689 acrea
were harvested crop land; value of land and buildings, $1,230,158,000;
average farm, 942 acres valued at $36,454 ; commercial farms numbered
31,578. Cash income, 1958, from crops, $228·9m.; from livestock,
S337·6m. Important farm industry (4,800 farms) is tho growing of sugar
beet on some 142,200 acres (1958) ; in 1954, 23,354 farms had 2,202,921
acres under irrigation.
Of the total surface area (66,718,080 acres), 23'5% W8$ found seriously
eroded and only 14'9% with no erosion in 1939; mountains, etc., oovered
19'4% of the rest. In Oct. 1959 there wore 96 soil-conservation districts
with an acreage of 49,457,848 (74% of the total).
Production of principal crops in 1959: Maize, 25,194,000 bu. ; wheat,
54,825,000 bu. ; barley, 13,558,000 bu.; potatoes, 1,157·5m.lb.; sugar beet,
2,470,000 tons; oats, rye, dry beans, sorghums and broomcorn are grown,
8S well as fruit.
On 1 Jan. 1959 the number of farm animals was: 67,000 horses and
mules, 147,000 milch cows, 2,159,000 all cattle, 1,829,000 sheep, 221,000
Iwine. The wool clip in 1959 yielded 12,693,000 lb. of wool from 1,554,000
8eeces. National forests (1959) cover 13,728,564 acres .
.Mining. Colorado has a variety of mineral resources. Estimates (1953)
of recoverable coal are 49,710m. tons, ranking the state as seventh among
tbe U.S. Coal product,ion, 1959, 2,987,000 tons. The world's largest
molybdenum mine is at Climax; output since 1914 has been about 72% of
t,he country's cnmulative total. Output, 1958, was 22m. lb. (1959, about
45m.). In 1958 the gold output was 79,539 (1959, 61,500) oz.; silver,
2,056,000 (1959. Hm.) oz.; copper; lead, 18,305 (1959,16,800) short tons,
and zinc, 37,132 (1959, 35,200) tons; petroleum, 48·3m . (1959, 46·3m.)
bbls; natural gas, lJ2,400m. CII . ft.. Oil shale reserves are estimated at
1,259,OOOm. bbls. Uranium ore production, 1958, was 939,706 (1959,

1,039,000) tons, valued at 322·4m. (1959, $22·54m.). Total mineral output
in 1958 was valued at $307·6m. (1959, $310·4m.).
Ind~,8lry. The 2,369 manufacturers (1959) had 79,800 employees, who
earned 3350m.; value added by manufacture was $750m. The steel
industry, 1 Jan. 1958, had a capacity of 1·8m. net tons of ingots and steel
for castings.
In 1958, electric power production was 4,524m. kwh. (steam 76'7%;
hydro.e:.ectric, 21·8%; internal combustion, 1'5%). By type of ownership
production was divided between private enterprises, 73·8%, and public owner-
ship, 262%.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1958 there were in the state 3,823 miles of
main·tr;~ck steam railway. There were (1958) 81 airports, including 42
for publio use. The state maintained, 1959, 8,461 miles of highway, of
which 1},940 miles are hard·surfaced and 1,179 miles gravel-surfaced.
Countie;j maintain 62,594 miles of road; city streets total 4,626 miles.
Total Nad mileage, 75,681. Colorado, with its national forests, ranked
third (1 !J57) in the number of big-game kills, second in the number of visiting
fishermon and ninth in the number of hunters. It has 55 mountain peaks
over 14,000 ft high, 27 of which rank among the 50 highest in the U.S.
Books of Reference
Colorado Yea,·Book. 24th ed .• 1956-58. State Planning Commission. Denver. 19~8
Federal Writers' Project. Colo,adlJ: A Guitk to the Highest Stau. New York. 1941
Frlt•• P . 3 .•Colo,adlJ: The Centennial Stau. New York. 1941
Hafell. L. R. R.. The Colorado Story. Dellver. 1953
STATl! LIBRARY. Colorado State Library. State Capitol, Dellver. SWI< Librarian:
H. Grant Vest.
CONNECTICUT
GOVERNMENT. Connecticut was first settled in 1635 and has been an
organiz,ld commonwealth since 1637. In 1639 a written constitution was
adopted which, it is claimed, was the first in the history of the world formed
under the concept of a social compact. This constitution was confirmed
by a charter from Charles II in 1662, and replaced in 1818 by a state con·
stitutio:l, framed that year by a constitutional convention, and remained in
force until 1 Jan. 1955. A constitutional amendment was passed 22 June
1953, incorporating the 47 amendments in the constitution of the state with-
out other amendment, effective 1 Jan. 1955. Counecticut was one of the
original 13 states of the Union.
The General Assembly consists of !I Senate of 36 members and a House
of Representatives of 279 members. Members of each House are elected for
the term of 2 years; salary, S1,100 and mileage. Legislative sessions are
biennia l. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. All
citizens (with necessary exceptions and the usual residential requirements)
have the right of suffrage provided that they can read the constitution in
English. The state capital is Hartford.
In ';he 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 711,837 votes,
SteveDllon 405,079.
Gov.lrnor. Abraham A. Ribicoff (D.), 1959-63 (815,000).
Liet'.t.-Governor. John N. Dempsey (D.) ($5,000).
Secretary 01 State. Mrs Ells. T. Grasso (D.) ($,8000).
CONNECTICUT 659
The state is represented in the Federal Congress by 2 senators and 6
representatives (one elected by the voters of the entire state). The 8
counties are subdivided into townships. within which are cities and
boroughs.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area. 5,009 sq. miles (IlO sq. miles being
inland water). Census population. 1 April 1950, was 2,007.280. an increase
of 298,038 or 17,4% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1959.
2,465.000. Births (1958) were 55,333 (22·8 per 1.000 population); deaths.
23.137 (9,4); infant deaths, 1,331 (23,5 per 1.000 live births); marriages.
16.977 (7) ; divorces. 2,468.
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
White Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1910 1,098,897 16,174 153 533 1,114,756 231-3
1930 1,576,700 29,354 163 681 1,606.903 828 ·0
1940 1,676,407 32,992 201 642 1,109,242 348·9
1950 1,952,329 63,472 3~3 1,146 2,001,280 409·7
Male, 961,112 26,431 198 756 988,491
Female 991,217 27,041 135 390 1,018,183
In 1950 native whites numbered 1.654,470; foreign. born whites.

297,859. Of tbe t otal population 1,558.642 persons (77,6%) were urban
(67'8% in 1940). The number of occupied dwelling units was 614,075 (of
3,2 persons). Those 21 years old or older numbered 1,452.000 in 1954.
The chief cities and towns, with census population in 1950, are:
Hartford , 117,391 West Hartford 44,402 West Haven 32,010
New Ha ven, 164,443 Meriden , 44,088 New London 80,651
llridgeport . 158,109 Greenwich . 40,835 Fairfield 30,489
Waterbury . 104,477 Norwich 37,633 Dnnbury, 30,337
Stamford, 74,293 Bristol , 3v,9111 East Hartford 29.933
New Bl'itain . 73,726 Manchester , 34,116 Hamden 29,715
Norwalk 49,460 Stratford . 33,428 Mlddletown 29,711
Torrington (popula.tion. 27.820) is the only American community which

is permitted to • farm out' to a priva.te individual the collection of ita
taxes.
RELIGION. The leading religious denominations in the state are the
Roman Catholic (1, 119.430 members in 1959). Jewish Con!(regations (89.526).
Congregationalist (134,699) and Protestant Episcopal (123.745). Total. all
denominations, 1,527,400.
EDUCATION. Elementary instruction is freo for all children between
the ages of 4 and 16 years. and compulsory for all children between the
ages of 7 and 16 years. In 1958-59 the 744 public elementary schools had
10,662 teachers with 274,907 enrolled pupils; the 69 junior high schools had
1,899 teachers and 63,339 pupils; the III public high schools, 4,679 teachers
and 102,586 pupils. Expenditure of the state Board of Education for the
year ending 30 June 1958 was $39,808,130; local expenditure, $ 145.702,187,
In elementary schools, 1957-58, classroom teachers averaged $4.977 per
year; in secondary schools. $5,361. The University of Connecticut at
Stoers. founded 1881. had 950 professors a.nd 11.313 studenta in 1959~0.
Yale University. Now Haven. founded in 1701, had 2.066 professors and
7,795 students. Wesleyan University, Middletown. founded 1831. had
148 professors and 885 students. Trinity College. Hartford. founded 1823,
had III profe880rs and 1,366 students, and Connecticut College for Women,
New London, founded 1915, had 129 professors and 1,066 students.
WE:!.FARE. Including private and ecclesiastical institutions there

were on 30 June 1959, 44 benevolent establishments (exclusive of alms·
houses); inmates in state hospitals numbered 12,500. Disbursements for
charitie!~ hospitals and corrections during year ending 30 June 1959
amounted to $78,232,412, excluding Old Age Assistance amounting to
819,747.749. In June 1959, 14,857 old people were receiving $110·17
monthly; 7,287 families, 8156'52 per family; 303 blind, $112'31; 2,138
totally disabled, $134'95.
Hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association, 1959, numbered
70 with 22,431 beds. On 30 June 1959 hospitals for mental diseases had
10,673 patients.
In l')59 there were 2 executions; since 1930 there have been 20 execu·
tions (1',7 by electrocution, 3 by hanging) including 17 whites and 3 Negroes,
al for murder. State prisons, 31 Dec. 1958, had 1,565 inmates (68 per
100,000 population).
Connecticut is one of the two states which forbid the import or sale of
contracoptives.
The Civil Rights Act makes it a punishable offence to discriminate
against any person or persons' on account of alienage, colour or race' and
to hold up to ridicule any persons' on account of creed, religion, colour,
denomination, nationality or race.' Places of public resort are forbidden to
discriminate, as are also-in another statute-the inSl1rance companies,
which ~ ,re forbidden to charge higher premiums to persons • wholly or
partially of African descent.' Schools must be open to all • without dis·
crimination on account of race or colour.'
FIN -\NCE. For the year ending 30 June 1959 general revenues were
$3!J8,633,OOO (taxation, $202,524,201, and federal aid, $54,031,968); general
expenditures were $480,075,335 (education, $97,480,805; highways,
$127,743,823, and public welfare, $54,478,975).
The net long. term debt on 30 June 1959 was $574,263,000, of which
$429,881,000 is self· liquidating.
In 1939 Connecticut established a state employees retirement scheme;
on 30 June 1959, 2,787 persons were receiving retirement pay averaging
$1,273 per year.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1954 the state had 12,754 farms with

a total Lrea of 1,138,000 acres (36'3% of the total land area); average farm
was of ;,9·2 acres, valued (1958) at $27,176. Of the 12,754 farms, 9,164
were commercial and 3,590 (an unusual proportion) were residential. Cash
income, 1958, from crops, $55·5m., and from livestock, $111·2m. In 1958
the output of tobacco was 11,470,000 lb. (1959 estimate, 13,030,000 lb.).
Live3tock (I Jan. 1959): 4,026 horses and mules. 106,362 milch cows,
155,000 all cattle, 9,798 sheep, 17,900 swine. Wool clip in 1958 yielded
54,000 lb. from 8,000 sheep.
In 1958 there were 8 soil· conservation districts embracing 3,135,000
acres, 0;' which 1,138,000 acres were farm land.
Mining. The state has some mineral resources: sheet mica, sand, gravel
clays and stone; total production in 1958 was valued at $13,128,000.
DELAWARE 661
Industry. The census of manufactures of 1958 showed 4,515 manufactur-
ing establishments employing 382,178 production workers, who earned
S2,079m.; value added by manufacture was S3,494m.
COMMUNICATIONS. On 1 Sept. 1959 there were 767 miles of rail.

way track, 45 bus companies, 133 taxi companies in operation. In 1959
there were 58 airports (including 17 commercial, 3 state and 5 municipal)
o.nd 12 seaplane bases (2 commercial); there are 14 heliports. The state
(1959) maintains 3,254 miles of highway, all surfaced. Motor vehicles
registered 30 June 1969 numbered 1,014,412.
There are 6 FM broadcasting stations and 33 AM stations in operation;
there are 6 television stations.
Books of Reference
The Register and Nanual 0/ Connecticut. Secretary of State. Hartford. Annual
Federal Writers' Project. Connecticut: .A Guide 10 Its Road3, Lore and People. Boston,
1938
Orofut, F. S. M., Guide 10 the HisJory and llistorit S2'les 0/ Connecticut. 2 vols. New Ha,.en
and London t 193i
Lees, W. S., Yankees of Connecticut. New York, 1957
Shepard, Odell, Connecticut Past and Preunt. New York and LondoD, 1939
STATE LIBRARY. Oonnecticut State Library, Oapitol Avenne, Hartford, 15. 8tat.
Librarian: Robert O. Sale.
DELAWARE
GOVERNMENT. Delaware, first settled in 1638, is one of the original
13 states of the Union, and the first one to ratify the Federal Constitution.
During the Civil War, although a state where slavery was legal, it remained
in the Union. The present constitution (the fourth) dates from 1897, and
has had 21 amendments; it was not ratified by the electorate but promul-
gated by the Constitutional Convention. The General Assembly consists
of a Senate of 17 members elected for 4 years and a House of Representatives
of 35 membera elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are
elected for 4 years. Delaware is divided into 3 counties.
The state capital is Dover.
With neceBSary exceptions, all adult citizens, registered aB voters, who
have resided in the state 1 year, and complied with local residential re-
quirements. have the right to vote; those who have attained the age of 21
since 1900 must be able to read English and to write their names.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 98,057 votes,
Stevenson 79,421.
Delaware is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 1 representative,
elected by the voters of the whole state.
Governor. J. Caleb Boggs (R.), 1957-61 (317,500).
Lieut.-Governor. David P. Buckson (R.) ($3,000). ..
Secretary of State. George J. Schulz (R.) (appointed by the Governor).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 2,399 sq. miles (437 sq. miles being
inland water). Census population, 1 April 1950, was 318,085, an increase
of 61,580 or 19'4% since 1940. Births in 1958, 1l,754 (25·9 per 1,000 popu.
lation); deaths, 4,229 (9·3); infant deaths, 326 (27'7 per 1,000 live births);
marriages, 2,311 (5,1); divorces,573. Estimated population, 1 July 1959,
470,000.
Population in 4 census years (with distribntion by sex, 1950) was :

Per sq.
White Negro Indl.... Asiatic Total mUe
1910 171,102 31,181 5 34 202,322 103·0
1930 205,718 32,602 6 66 238,380 120'6
1940 230,628 35,816 14 81 266,606 IM·1
1950 273,878 43,598 99 318,086 160·8
Male. 135,030 21,952 72 157.344
Female 138,848 21,646 27 160,741
Of the total population in 1950, 199,122 (62,6%) were urban (52,2% in

1940); dwelling units, 97,002. Those 21 years old or older numbered
210,919. Native whites were 260,034; foreign-born whites, 13,844.
The 1950 census figures show Wilmington with population of 110,356;
Newark, 6,731; Dover, 6,223; New Castle, 5,396; Milford,5,179.
RELIGION. No recent statistics concerning church affiliation are
availab]e.
EDUCATION. The state has free public schools and compulsory school
attendance. Separate schools for white and coloured children are in course
of integration. In Sept. 1958 the elementary and secondary public schools
had 73,555 enrolled pupils and 3,609 full· time teachers. Appropriations
for elementary and high schools, for 1956, $20,960,000. Average salary
of cla~.room teachers, 1957-58, was: Elementary, $5,186; secondary,
$5,749. The state supports the University of Delaware (IS34), Newark,
with 226 professors and 5,767 students, and State College, Dover, for coloured
studentl, with 35 professors and 291 students.
Statutory segregation of Negroes, prior to the Supreme Court decision,
was confined to the educational system below the college level, hospitals for
tubercular patients, penal institutions, and homes for orphans and the aged.
Marriage between white and Negro is prohibited.
WELFARE. In 1923 Delaware passed an Act permitting, under legal
eafegua:rds, the sterilization of insane and feeble· minded persons; up to
1 Jan. 1958,451 men and 428 womcn had thus been sterilized.
Old Age Assistance (maximum now $75 per month) was established in
1931 fol' citizens 65 years of age or older who have been residents of the state
for 1 year and who have no relatives able to care for them without undue
sacrifice. On 30 Juno 1959, 1,412 persons were drawing an average of
$50·53 per month. Provisions are also made for the care of 1,649 families
with 6,~:17 dependent children ($87·21 per family), for 337 totally disabled
($68'89 monthly) and 234 blind people ($70·91).
In 1957 there were 17 hospitals (5,038 beds) listed by the American
Hospital Association. In June 1958 patients in mental hospitals numbered
1,861.
St &.1t~ prisons, 31 Dec. 1958, had 226 inmates (51 per 100,000 population).
FINANCE. For the year ending 30 June 1958 general revenue was
$82,484,000, of which taxes furnished $53,679,000 and federal grants
$10,769,000. General expenditure was $116,423,000 (education, S53·8m. ;
highways, $30,559,000; public welfare, $7,160,000).
On ,:0 June 1958 the net long.term debt wa.~ $181,163,000.
PRODUCTION. .Agriculture. Delaware is mainly an industrial state,
but 67'~:% of the land area is in farms (851,291 acres), which in 1954 num-
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 663
bered 6,297; average farm was of 129·3 acres and valued (land and build.
ings) at $18,692. Commercial farms numbered 5,005. There are 3 8oil·
conservation districts, farmer· managed, embracing 1,265,920 acres, of
which 923,357 acree are in 9,296 farms. Cuh income, 1958, from crops
and livestock (chiefly poultry), $1I6·9m. The chief cereals are maize and
wheat.
Mining. The mineral resources of Delaware are not extensive, con·
sisting chiefly of clay products, stone, sand and gravel. Value of mineral
production in 1958 was $1,142,000.
Indwstry. The 558 manufacturers (1954) employed (1957) 31,060 pro·
duction workers, earning $127·1Dl.; value added by manufacture was
S497·7m.
COMMUNI CA TIONS. In 1957 the state had 258 miles of steam railway.
In 1958 Delaware had 20 airports, of which 10 were public. The state
in 1958 maintained 4,120 miles of surfaced highways including 1,316 miles of
dirt roads.
Books of Reference
lNFORMATlON. Publio Archives Commi.sSiou, Hall of Records. Dover. Slat, Archivist :
Leon de Valinger. Jr.
SI4l. Manual. contai1li119 Official List of Offic..... Commi'li .... and Coulllv OjJic..... Secretary
of State. Dover. Annual
Dolan, P., 'I'M GOlJffflmml and adminislration of Delaware. New York, 19~6
Federal Writers' Project. Delaware: .t1 Guide to "" First Stal4. Rev. ed. New York,
1955
Liberma.n, ay, and Rosbrow. J. M., TM D~lalDar~ Citiz~. 'VilmingtoD,1952
Reed, H . C., and others, Dd"",,,.. : .t1 History of the Firsl Skll4. S vols. New York, 19(1
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
GOVERNMENT. The District of Columbia, organized in 1790, is the
seat of the Government of the U.S., for which the land was ceded by the
state of Maryland to the U.S. as a site for the national capital. It was
established under Acts of Congress in 1790 and 1791. Congress first met
in it in 1800 and federal authority over it became vested in 180l.
Local government, from 1 July 1878, has been that of a municipal
corporation administered by 0. board of 3 commissioners, of whom 2 are
appointed from civil life by the President, and confirmed by the Senate,
for a term of 3 years each. The other commissioner is detailed by the
President from the Engineer Corps of the Army. Congress alone enacts
legislation and appropriates money for the municipal expenses. A proposal
to grant local self.government was discussed by Congress ill 1950 and 1951,
and legislation to that end was passed by the Senate in 1955 and 1958 but
failed to pass the House.
Secretary to the Board of Commissioner8. G. M. 'fhornett.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the District of Columbia is
69·245 sq. miles, 8 sq. miles being inland water. The federal government
in 1956 owned 12,000 acres (29,7% of the land area).
Census population, 1 April 1950, was 802,178, an increase-largely due
to the War-of 21% over that of 1940. Of the 1950 population, 377,879
were males, 424,299 females; 478,368 were native whites and 39,497
foreign. born whites. 583,539 were 21 years old or older. The entire
district is urban; though 28 farIIlB covering 1,265 acres were there in 1950,
they hw. disappeared in 1954. Estimated population, 1 Jan. 1960, waa
870,000 (418,000 white, and 452,000 coloured); metropclitan area, 2,1l3,OOO.
Vital s-;atistics of residents only: Births, 1957, were 19,585 (22'8 per 1,000
popu14;ioll); resident deaths, 8,743 (10,2); infant deaths, 678 (34·6 per 1,000
live births); marriages,8,043; divorces, 1,977.
POI,ulation in 4 census years (with distribution by sex, 1950) was:
Chinese
and Per sq.
White Negro Indian Japanese Total mile
1910 236,128 94,446 68 427 331,069 6,517·8
1930 353,981 132,068 40 780 486,869 7,981-6
1940 474,326 187,266 190 1,309 663,091 10,870'3
1950 517,865 280,803 330 2,178 802,178 18,160-6
~
Male. 242,737 132,909 182 All 2,272 377,918
Female 275,128 147,894 148 others 1,238 424,260
In 1950, 46·6% of the population (212,960 men and 160,501 women)

were g;Linfully employed. The largest section was in government serviee
(federa l and local), numbering 150,777 men and women, or 40'4% of the
total employed.
RELIGION. Churches in Washington, D.e., 1958, numbered 517,
including 449 Protestant churches (both white and Negro denominations);
41 Ronan Catholic churches (25% of total membership), 17 Jewish syna·
gogues (5%), 7 Eastern Orthodox churches and 2 Islamic congregations.
EDUCATION. In Oct. 1957, 167 public elementary, junior and senior
high, and special schools had 110,041 (31,626 white and 78,415 coloured)
pupils; teachers numbered 4,049. Segregation was abolished in 1954.
Higher education is given in Georgetown University, founded in 1795
by the Jesuit Order, with (1957) 1,256 faculty and 5,713 students; George
Washir_gton University, non-sectarian, founded in 1821, 1,497 faculty and
9,711 students; Howard University, founded in 1867 under the auspices
of the federal government for both white and coloured students (now mainly
coloured), 599 faculty and 3,901 students; Catholic University of America,
founded in 1884, with 580 fa.culty and 3,795 students; American University
(Methoiist) with 437 faculty and 6,456 students; District of Columbia
Teachers' College with 133 faculty and 1,073 students.
WELFARE. In Oct. 1959 Old Age Assistance was being paid to 3,176
persom, receiving an average of $64·12 per month; aid to 230 blind persons
($69-39), and aid to 3,955 families (3147-37 per family per month) for de.
pendent children. On 31 Dec. 1959,44,438 persons were receiving benefits
(includJlg disability payments) under Old Age and Survivors' insurance;
total rr,onthly payments averaged $2·7m.
In J 95 i there were 26 hospitals listed by the American Hospital Associa·
tion wi th 1 5,131 beds. Mental hospitals averaged 7,438 patients in 1956.
In 1958 there was no execution; from 1930 to 1958 there were 40
executions (electrocution) including 3 whites for murder and 35 Negroes for
murder and 2 for rape. On 31 Dec. 1958 the District's prisons had 2,064
inmate:! (257 per 100,000 popUlation).
FINANCE. The District's revenues are derived from a tax on real and
persond property, sales taxes, taxes on corporations and companies,licenceIJ
for con lucting various businel!ses and from federal payments.
FLORIDA 665
Annual appropriations for the District of Columbia stood, in the fiee&!
years 1960 and 1959, as followe :
1960: General fund, $198,915,678; highway, $26,604,000; water,
$10,321,000; motor vehicle parking fund, $460,000; sewage fund,
$5,605,000. Total, $241,705,678.
1969: General fund, $185,802,741; highway, $20,104,400; water,
$7,773,000 ; motor vehicle parking fund, $422,000; sewerage works fund ,
$4,452,000. Total, $218,554,14l.
The District of Columbia has no bonded debt not covered by its accumu·
lated sinking fund.
INDUSTRY. The District has few industries, with products mainly
for local consumption. In 1956 m anufacturing establishments had 22,235
employees, earning $106,927,000 ; value added by manufacture,
$181,893,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. Within the District are 115 miles of electric
street railway track and 258 miles of bus routes. The District had, 1958.
2 airports operated by the Government and lighted; across the Potomac
River in Arlington, Va., is National Airport, the chief commercial airport.
Books of Reference
0'
Reports 11.. COmmiJtiOfUTI of Ill< DislriCl Of Columbia. Annual. Washington
Federal Writers' Project. WalhingWn, D.C.: A Gui,u 10 the Nalion', Capital. New York,
19(2
National Capit"l Park and Planning Commission. Monographl on Wa.hinglon , PrtUlll and
Future. Washiogtoo, D.e.. 1950
Oaemmerer, H. P .,A Manual on Ihe Origin and D_lopmenl Of Wa.hinglon. Wasblngton,
1939
Kiptinger, W. M., WasiltnglOn if We Thai. 6tb ed. New York, 1942
Scbmeckebicr. L. F .,TJ.. DUlriel 0/ Columbia : ill G<JW'1"nmtnl and Administration Wash·
ingtoo, 1~ 28
FLORIDA
GOVERNMENT. The first recorded discovery of Florida was on 27
March 1513, by Juan Ponce de Leon, a Spanish soldier and adventurer, who,
landing on Easter Sunday (Pascua Florida or Feast of Flowers), called the
country Florida. The first permanent settlement in the entire U.S. was
made at St Augustine, 8 Sept. 1565. It was claimed by Spain until 1763.
then ceded to England; back to Spain in 1783, and to the U.S. in 182l.
Florida became a Territory in 1821 and was admitted into the Union on
3 March 1845. The present constitution dates from 1887; it has had 102
amendments. The state legislature consists of a Senate of 38 members,
elected for ·1 years, and House of Representatives with 95 members elected
for 2 years. Sessions are held biennially, and are limited to 60 days. The
Governor is elected for 4 years. Two senators and 8 representatives are
elected to Congress.
Stevenson 480,371.
'rhe state capital is Tallahassee. The state is divided into 67 counties.
Governor. Leroy Collins (D.), 1957-61 ($22,500).
Secretary of State. R . A. Gray (D.) ($17,500).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area., 58,560 sq. miles, including
4,298 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, was
2,771,305, an increase of 46'1% since 1940. Estimated population, I July

1959, 4,600,300. Births in 1958 were 107,837 (23·6 per 1,000 population);
deaths, 45,157 (9'5); infant deaths, 3,421 (31'7 per 1,000 live births);
marria,~es, 35,243 (7·9); divorces, 17,853.
POI,ulation in 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex in 1950)
was:
Per .q.
WhIte Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1910 4.3,634 308,669 74 242 762,619 13·7
1930 1,036,390 431,828 687 406 1,468,211 27-1
1940 1,381,986 614,198 690 640 1,897,4.14. 36·0
1950 2,166,051 603,101 l,Oll 1,142 2,771,306 51·1
Male. 1,072,495 203,137 547 738 1,366,917

Female 1,093,656 309,964 464 404 1,404,388
Of the popUlation in 1950,1,813,890 (65'5%) were urban (55'1% in 1940);

1,823,017 were 21 years of age or older; 2,043,320 were native whites.
The largest cities in the state are: Miami, 261,000 (1957); Jacksonville,
228,000 (1957); Tampa, 240,000 (1957); St Petersburg, 145,000 (1957);
Orland,), 52,367 (1950); Miami Beach, 50,981 (1955); Pensacola, 50,954
(1956); West Palm Beach, 51,015 (1955); Hialeah, 43,135 (1955); Fort
Lauderdale, 62,906 (1955); Tallahassee, 38,100 (1955); Panama City,
32,097 (1957); Lakeland, 30,851 (1950); Daytona Beach, 30,187 (1950).
RELIGION. In 1957, 56% of the population were members of a
church. Baptists led with 388,487 adherents, followed by Roman Catholics
(280,000), Methodists (195,755), Presbyterians (84,723) and Episcopalians
(80,936). Jews numbered 122,500.
EDUCATION. Attendance at school is compulsory between the ages
of 7 aILd 16. All public schools are required to have readings from the
Bible without sectarian comment once every school day. Separate schools
are provided for white and Negro children.
In 1958 the public elementary and high schools had 35,774 teachers
with 969,222 enrolled pupils. Negro schools, included in the total, had
7,518 teachers and 200,444 pupils in 1958. State expenditure on public
schools (1958), $167,325,295. The state maintains 24 institutions of higher
education, with 5,000 teachers and 40,076 residential students. Chief are
the University of Florida at Gainesville (founded 1905) with (1956) 10,809
students and 743 instructors, the Florida State University (founded
at Tallahassee in 1905), with 6,982 students and 405 instructors, and a
university for Negroes at Tallahassee, with 2,693 students and 240 in·
structors. Expenditures on the 3 state institutions of higher education,
1955-513, $21,170,416.
Marriage between whites and Negroes is prohibited.
WELFARE. Florida in 1935 established a system of Old Age Assistance
maxim'lm now $50 per month) for those citizens who are infirm or 65 years
of age and have lived in the state 5 years. In Dec. 1958, 70,133 persoll8
were drawing an average of $52·99 per month. Aid to the blind averaged
$58'01 each to 2,551 persons; aid to dependent children averaged $59·39
to 26,7:!7 families (national average $106'6 per family); 7,095 totally and
permaLently disabled received an average of $57'71 per month.
Ho~pitals listed by the American Hospital Association, 1957, num·
bered 155 with 14,525 beds. State mental hospitals had 8,129 patients in
1956.
GEORGIA 667
In 1959 there were 10 executiona; from 1930 to 1959 there were 158
executions (electrocution), including 50 whites and 73 Negroes for murder,
34 Negroes for rape and 1 white for kidnapping. Stat~ prisons, 31 Dec.
1959, had 6,802 inmates (139 per 100,000 population).
FINANCE. For the year ending 30 June 1958 the state had a general
revenue of $57tl,101,OOO, of which taxation furnished $436,479,000, and
federal aid, 3102,712,000. There is no state income tax on individuals or
companies. Ceneral expenditure was $606,856,000, of which education
took $227,058,000; welfare, $72,441,000, and highways, $154,847,000.
Net long-term debt, 30 June 1958, amounted to $188,144,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1956, 62,600 farms had a total

acrea.ge of 25,396,820; average farm was of 315·7 acres valued (land and
buildings) at $33,148. Negroes operated 6,085 farms. Cash income, 1958,
from crops, $492·lm., and from livestock, SI70·Sm. Production of grape-
fruit, 36m. boxes in 1957, and oranges, 102m. boxes. Other crops are
tobacco (21,375,000 lb. in 1958), sugar cane (1,468,000 short tons in 1957);
maize, oats and peanuts. On 1 Jan. 1959 the state had 32,000 horses and
mules, 9,000 sheep, 434,000 swine, 234,000 milch cows and 2,Oll,OOO all
cattle. The national forests area in June 1958 was 1,358,000 acres. In
1958 there were 58 soil·conservation districts embracing 29,287,000 acres,
of which 16,571,000 acres were farm land.
Fisheriu. Florida has extensive fisheries for oysters, shad, red snappers,
mullet, turtles and sponges, of which Florida has almost a monopoly.
Mining. Chief mineral is phosphate rock, of which marketable produc-
tion in 1958 was 10·85m. long tons, leading all states and about 33% of
world total. Total value of mineral production, 1958, SI·42m.
Industry. In 1958,6,219 manufacturers employed 175,000 production
workers, earning $703m.; value added by manufacture, $1,47Im. The
metal-working, lumber, chemical, wood pulp and food-processing industries
are important.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1958 there were 4,902 miles of railway.

The state (1960) maintained 14.634 miles of highways; counties, 37,189
miles. In 1958 Florida had 140 airports, including 93 general.
Books of Reference
Report. }t'lorida Secretary of St.at.e. Tallllhas!'>ee. Biennial
Federal \Vriters' Project. Florida:.A Guide 10 Key West. Rev. ~d. New York, 1950
Cabell, J. D., and Hanna, A. J. t Tile 8t. JOh7U. New York and Toronto. 194:i
Doyle, \V. K., and others, Tile government and administration of J.'lorida. New York, 1954
Hanna, K. 1'., Florida, Land of Change. 2nd ed. LTniv. of N. Carolina, Chapel HiU, 1948
MorriR, Allen. T/t~ Florida HandhooA.:. TaJ1alul~see, 1957-~8. Bielwiui
STATE LIBRARY. Supreme Couet lIuilding, T"Uahassee. Librarian: Dr Dorothy Dodd.
GEORGIA
GOVERNMENT. The colony Qf Georgia (so named from Ceorge Il)
was founded in 1733 and was one of the original 13 states. A new constitu-
tion, increasing the influence of the rural counties, was adopted on 7 Aug.
1945; there have been 18 a.mendments adopted. The General Assembly
consists of a Senate of 54 members (maximum 54) and a House of Repre.

sentatives of 205 members, both elected for 2 years. The Governor and
Lieut.·Governor are elected for 4 years. Legislative sessions are annual,
beginning the 2nd Monday in Jan. and lasting for 40 days.
Georgia is divided into 159 counties. The state capital is Atlanta.
Georg ia is the first state to extend the franchise to all citizens above the
age of 18 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10
representatives.
~gistered voters, 1956, numbered 1,310,586. At the 1956 presidential
electicn Stevenson polled 441 ,094 votes (66'5%, his largest percentage),
Eisenhower 216,652. In 1954 those 21 years old or older numbered 1,987,000.
GO?€rnor. S. Ernest Vandiver (D.), 1959-63 (312,000).
Li"ut.-GoverMY. Garland Byrd (D.), 195~3 ($2,000).
Beu'etary o/Btau. Ben W. Fortson, Jr (D.) ($7,500).
AHEA AND POPULATION. Area, 58,876 sq. miles, of which 4,600 sq.
miles are inland water. Estimated population, 1 July 1959, was 3,984,000.
Births, 1958, were 101,037 (26,5 per 1,000 popUlation); deaths, 33,293
(8,7); infant deaths, 3,016 (29'9 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 45,863
(12); .iivorces, 8,1l2.
Per sq.
WhIte Negro Indian Asiatic Totel mile
191(· 1,431,802 1,176,981 95 237 2,609,121 44 ·4
193(' 1,831,021 1,071,12~ 43 311 2,908,606 49·1
194(' 2,038,218 1,084,921 106 412 3,123.723 ~3'4
195(' 2,380,511 1,062,762 333 3,444,518 58·9
Male . 1,182,71 7 605,180 All otbe:" 770 1,688,667
Female 1,197,860 667,582 469 1,756,911
Of the 1957 population, 1,890,000 (47'4% ) were urban (34'4% in 1940).

NatiVE whites in 1950 numbered 2,363,847; foreign. born whit.es, 16,730.
Th'3 largest cities are: Atlanta (capital), with population, 1950 (and
estimate 1959), of331,314 (517,000) ; Savannah, 119,638 (142,200); Colum.
bus, 7!1,6Il (130,600); Augusta, 71,508 (9!l,100); Ma.con, 70,252 (81,700);
Alban:" 31,155 (42,900); Rome, 29,615 (34,300); Athens, 28,180 (35,100);
La Grange, 25,025 (28,900).
RELIGION. Baptists predominate, having more than half of the
religio1ls membership of the state. Negro Baptists had 622,000 adherents
in 19M, and Southern Baptists 844,000 in 1959. White Methodists ha.d
285,38.) and Negro Methodists (3 groups) 280,000 in 1954. Total member·
ship, oIl denominations (1954), 2,787,700. Under a Local Option Act, the
sale of alcoholio beverages (not including malt beverages and light wines) is
prohibited in more than half the counties.
EDUCATION . Since 1916 education has been compulsory. There are
separa,;e schools for whites and Negroes, and tuition is free for pupils between
the a.g,IS of 6 a.nd 18 yea.ts. In 1958-59 the 1,317 public elementary a.nd
623 se,:ondary schools had 981,223 pupils and 32,836 teachers. Tea.chers'
salarieB, 1958-59, ranged between $2,100 and $4,000; average was 33,729.
Coloufold students in elementary schools numbered 237,276 in 1958-59;
coloUft,d high schools had 74,539 students. Total expenditure for common
BchoolE" 1958-59, $187·4m.
Th" publicly supported university system of Georgia comprises 16
GEORGIA 669
institutions for white students and 3 for Negroes. The University of
Georgia (Athens) WlI8 founded in 1785 and was the first chartered State
University in the U.S. Other institutions of higher learning include
Emory University (Atlanta), which became co.educational, 1953, and
Mercer University (Macon), for white students, and Atlanta University,
Clark University, Morehouse College and Morris·Brown College, all in
Atlanta, with advanced training for Negroes. The Wesleyan College near
Macon is the oldest chartered women's college in the U.S. Total enrol·
ment, 1958-69, was 34,384 in state·aided institutions of higher education,
and 14,355 in unaided institutions (22 senior white, 16 junior white, 10
senior coloured colleges) .
Separation of white and Negro pupils, with teachers of their own race,
applies to all institutions. The Governor is empowered to convert any
public school into a private school.
WELFARE. In Dec. 1959, 97,768 persona were receiving Old Age
Assistance to an average amount of $47'25 per month; 15,480 families
were receiving as aid to 44,373 dependent children an average of $88
per family; aid to the blind went to 3,539 persons (averaging $52·39
monthly); aid to 20,373 totally and permanently disabled persons was
$5l ·84 monthly.
Hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association in 1957 numbered
143 with 27,761 beds.
Urban crime rates, 1957, were: Murder and non.negligent manslaughter,
13·9 per 100,000 (national average 5·1); aggravated assault, 137 (90'2);
robbery, 44·5 (64'3). In 1959 there were 4 executions, all Negroes f or mur·
der; fro m 1930 to 1959 there were 352 executions (electrocution), including
61 whites and 227 N egroes for murder, 3 whites and 56 Negroes for r ape
and 5 N egroes for armed robbery. State prisons, 31 Dec. 1958, had 6,824
inmates (182 per 100,000 population).
In 1937 Georgia passed an Act permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insane and feeble·minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958, 1,205
men and 1,553 women had been thus sterilized.
Negroes are segregat ed, by statute, in railways (including sleeping cars
with bedding, which must be kept separate), pool rooms, hospitals and penal
institutions. Negro clergymen may not marry white couples. Marriage
between white and coloured persons is forbidden.
FINANCE. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958, general revenue
was $<165,514,000 ($317,437,000 from taxes and $112,942,000 in fedeml aid);
general expenditure was $474,761 ,000 (education, $181,163,000; public
welfare, $81,378,000; highways, S1l2,083,OOO).
On 1 July 1958 nllt long.term debt was $273,309,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1954, 165,524 farms had an area of
24,023,000 acres; average farm was of 145·1 acres valued (land and
buildings) at $8,710. 23·6% of the farms were operated by Negroes.
Tenants farmed 35·2%. There were (1958) 27 soil·conservation districts,
embracing 37,429,000 acres, includiug 24,019,000 acres of farm lands.
Georgia is the largest producer of Sea. I sland cotton. For 1958, the cotton
output was 355,000 bales. Other crops, 1958, included peaches and pecans;
peanuts, 612,850,000 lb.; maize, 86,752,000 bu.; sweet potatoes, 528,000
cwt; tobacco, 91,598,000 lb. (vltlued at SM·5m.). Cash income, 1958, from
crops, $270·6m., and from livestock, $363m.
The national forests a rea in Hl:i8 was 666,187 acres.
On 1 Jan. 1959 the farm animals were 99,000 horses and mules, 313,000
milch IlOWS, 1,515,000 all cattle, 48,000 sheep, 1,780,000 swine.
M lning. The state has modest mineral resources but furnished 76% of
the country's output of kaolin or china clay in 1957 (1,658,694 short tons)
and W.:l8 the second largest supplier of fuller's earth (78,199 short tons).
Iron·ore production in 1958 was 346,000 short tons. Mineral products,
1958, had a value of $85,547,000.
Inti:1Utry. In 1958 the 7,435 manufacturing establishments employed
339,000 production workers, earning $1,106,435,325: the value added by
manuf'Lcture was S2,200m.
CO.MMUNICA TIONS. The principal port is SavaDDah; there are
5,933 miles of steam railways in 1958: airports numbered 94, of \vhich 45
were g'3neraI. The stat·e roads system covers 15,207 miles, of which 13,668
miles B.re paved. Motor vehicles registered in 1958 numbered 1,422,576,
Books of Reference
Official llegWer. Dept. of Archives and History. Atlanta. Irregular
Writer', Program. Georgia: A Guidt to [" Towns and Counlry.uu. Athens. Georgia,
1946.--Ed, P. W . MiUer, Atlanta, Capital oltM Sout". New York, 1949
Coulter, Fl. M~ A Short BiJlOTV 0/ Georgia. Rev. ed. Chapel Hill. N.O., 1947
008nell, C. B., and Anderson, C. D., The government and aamini.ftTatWn 0/ Georgia. New York,
1966
Range, '"., A Century 0/ Georgia Agriculture. Univ. of Georgia, Athens,19M
Saye, A. B., A ClI1IStilUlional BiOlOry 0/ Georgia, 1732-1945. Univ. of Georgia. Athens, 1948
STATE LmRARY. Judicial Building, Capital Sq., Atlanta. Stale WNrian: Miss Ver"
Jamesor.
HAWAII
Tho Hawaiian Islands lie In the North Pacific Ocean, between 18° 65'
and 20' 15' N. lat. and 164° 60' and 160° 30' W. long. There are more than
20 islands in the group, of which 7 are inhabited, and they lie about 2,091
nautict.] miles south-west of San Francisco.
GOVERNMENT. The Hawaiian Islands, formerly known as the Sand-
wich Ielands, were discoverod by Capt. James Cook in Aug. 1778. The islands
formed during the greater part of the 19th century an Independent kingdom,
but in :t893 the reigning ~ueen, Liliuokalani (died 11 Nov. 1917), was deposed
and a provisional government formed: in 18!l4 a Republic was proclaimed,
and in accordance with the request of the people of Hawaii expressed through
the Legislature of the Republic, and a resolution of the U.S. Congress of 6
July 1898 (signed 7 July by President McKinley), the islands were on 12 Aug.
1898 formally aDDexed to the U.S. This was due to the energetic efforts of
American capital (mainly from New England) invested in the Hawaiian
sugar industry, which was threatened with exclusion from the American
market. in the early I 890s. On 14 June 1900 the islands were constituted
as the rerritory of Hawaii.
Efforts to persuade Congress to grant statehood to Hawaii (made 23
times fince 1903) were finally successful, 11 and 12 March 1959, when an
Enabling Act was passed; on 21 June, the people of Hawaii accepted state-
hood, 8.nd on 28 July elections were held for state offices and for federal and
state representatives. The constitution, ratified by the Hawaiian voters in
Nov. 1950, took effect on 21 Aug. 1959.
HAWAU 671
The Legislature consists of a Senate of 25 members elected for 4 years,
and a House of Representatives of 51 members elected for 2 years. In the
1959 elections 14 Republicans and 11 Democrats were elected to the Senate
and 33 Democrats and 18 Republicans to the House. The constitution
provides for annual meetings of the legislature with 60-day general sessions
in odd-numbered years and 30-day budget sessions in even-numbered years.
The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The registered
voters, 1959, numbered 174,335.
Governor. William F. Quinn (R.), 195~3 (S25,000).
Lieut.-Governor_ James K. Kealoha (R.), 1959-63 (SI9,000).
AREA AND POPULA TION_ The land and inland water area of
the state is 6,423 sq. miles, with census population on I April 1950 of
499,794, an increase of 76,464 or 18· 1 % since 1940; density was 78 per sq.
mile. Estimated civilian populat.ion, 1 July 1959, was 597,910.
The 1959 population estimates by cowlty: Hawaii. 59,996 (68,350 in
1950); Honolulu, 466,402 (353,020); Kauai, 27,972 (29,905), and Maui,
43,275 (45.519). Figures for racial groups. 1950. are: 184,611 Japanese.
114.793 Caucasians. 86,091 Hawaiians and part-Hawaiians. 61,071 Filipinos,
32,376 Chinese, 20,852 others. Of the total, approximately 85% were
citizens of the U.S. The principal islands of the group are Hawaii. 4.030
sq. miles (population, 1959, 59,996); Maui. 728 (35,364); Oahu, 589
(466,402); Kauai, 551 (27.725); Molokai, 259 (5,644); Lanai, 141 (2.267);
Niihau, 72 (247); Kahoolawe. 45 (0). The capital. Honolulu. on the
island ofOahu. had a population in 1950 of 248,034 (estimate. 1959, 321,583),
and Hilo, on the island of Hawaii. 27,198 (25,078). Housing units. census
of 1950, were 120.808. Gainfully employed, Aug. 19,}9. 229.260.
Inter-marriage between the races is popular. Of the 9,454 persons
married in the year ending 31 Dec. 1958.37·6% married a wife or husband of
a different race. Resident birtbs. 1958. were 16,726 (29 per 1.000 civilian
population); deaths, 3,096 (5,4); infantile deaths, 385 (23 per 1.000 live
birtbs); marriages, 4,727; divorces, 1,228.
RELIGION. The residents of Hawaii are mainly Christians. Tbere
are 615 churches in the State, 65 of which are Roman Catholic. There is
an American Protestant Episcopal bishop and 2 Roman Catholic bishops at
Honolulu. Several of the Protestant churches conduct services in the
Japanese. Korean and Filipino languages. Roman Catholics number about
200,000. Mormons about 16.000. Congregationalists about 12.000_ There
are several Buddhist Rects.
EDUCATION_ Education is free, and compulsory for children between
the ages of 6 and 16. The language in the schools is Englisb. In 1958-59
there were 208 public schools (enrolment, 135,088 with 5,581 teachers) and
95 private schools (28.699 pupils) ranging from kindergartens through the
12th grade_ The expenditure for public instruction in 1958-59 was
540,819.117. The University of Hawaii, founded in 1907. had 7,505
students and a teaching and research faculty of 663 in 1958-59_
WELFARE. During 1958-59 the Public Welfare Department spent
$6,854,381 (excluding administrative costs); the federal government met
48% of this fund. In 1958 there were 32 non-military hospitals (3.534
beds) listed by the Department of Health. In 1958-59. Old Age Assistance
went on an average to 1,506 cases receiving an average of $50'65 per month;

2,817 (.hildren and their families (including general assistance families) re-
ceived $117,65: 90 blind persons received a monthly average of $59'5:
aid to 1,833 permanently and totally disabled cases (including some general
assistance), $58'5 monthly; 605 foster care cases, $49'5 per month; 336
other Tieedy adults, 359'55.
FINANCE. Revenue is derived mainly from taxation of sales and gr088
receiptl, real and personal property, gross and personal income, and inheri-
tance taxes, licences, public land sales and leases. For the year ending 30
June 1!)59 the federal internal revenue collections were $175,166,000; terri-
torial general fund receipts amounted to $101,087,350, and other fund re-
ceipts, $93,380,430. Territorial general fund expenditures were $83,664,550,
and other funds, $80,421,826; the bonded debt amounted to $116,957,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Farming is highly commercialized, aim-
ing at export to the American market, and highly mechanized. In 1960
there ~;ere 5,750 farms with an acreage of 2,432,069: total value of land
and buildings was $195,277,000. Of the total farm area, 1,980,618 acres,
or 81 '1: .. were under managers, 240,113 acres were farmed by their owners
and 316,188 acres by tenants. The average farm was of 423 acres valued
at $33,961.
Sugar and pineapples are the staple industries, while coffee, molasses,
hides, :)ananas and fresh flowers are also exported. For the calendar year
1958 slgar cane was planted on 221,700 acres, producing 764,953 short
tons of sugar. Production is mainly by 27 companies (which jointly own
a large refinery in California) and some 2,000 independent planters. Cane
is allowed to grow from 18 to 22 months. The pineapple pack for the crop
year ending 31 May 1958 was 27,270,000 cases of canned fruit and juicea.
Coffee crop for the year ended 30 June 1958 was 14,497,000 lb. In 1958
animal products had a total value of $31,354,000. But sugar and pineapple
marketings, at $229m., were about 85% of the total agricultural income.
The fcrest reserves aggregate 1·2m. acres; stato lands, 1,415,684 acres.
Land held by the federal government aggregated about 317,012 acres in
1958.
Ha'nii's mainland dollar earnings, 1958, were $857m. with a favourable
baJancn of 335m.
Miaing. Total value of mineral production, 1957, amounted to $5·93m.,
ofwhkh stone accounted for $4·63m. Pumice (volcanic cinder) is produced
by the major sugar companies and is used for road constnlction.
Indu$try. In 1954 (census of manufactures), 520 establishments em-
ployed an average of 19,524 workers who earned $50·8m.; value added by
manuf!Icture amounted to $140·3m.
TRI\DE. U.K. exports to Hawaii (British Board of Trade returns) in
1956, £192,073; 1957, £249,456: 1958, £559,496: 1959, £895,436; imports,
1956, £149,692: 1957, £4,593; 1958, £312,944; 1959, £403,058: re.exports,
1956, £712; 1957, £1,779; 1958, £1,560; 1959, £3,618.
COMMUNICATIONS . Shipping. Several lines of steamers connect
the islands with the mainland of U.S., Cana.da, Australia, the Philippines,
China B,nd Japan. In 1958-59. 1,243 overseas vessels entered (with 3,677,501
tons) and cleared (with 2,421,804 tons) the port of Honolulu. A tug and
IDAHO 673
barge navigation oompany provides communIcation between the different
ielanda.
Roads. In Deo. 1958 there were 171,854 passenger motor cars, and a
total of 3,112 miles of highways (including 1,161 miles of federally assisted
highways and federal highways in national parks).
Po&l. Post officee number 85. There are (Aug. 1959) 185,185 tele·
phones on the islands of Oahu, Maui, Hawaii, Kauai and Molokai; a radio·
telephone system conneots the principal islands with ve88e1s at sea, U.S.
and other parts of the world. A trans·Pacific telephone cable began operating
in Oct. 1957; it permits 34 two· way communications simultaneously with
the U.S. mainland •
.dviaticm. Six scheduled and 2 non·scheduled airlines connect Hawaii
with U.S., British Columbia, the Antipodes and the Orient. In 1958
passengers numbered 456,206, and there were approximately 695,865
individual tripe between the islands of the archipelago. Two scheduled and
1 irregular air carriers operate between the islands. There are 11 commercial
airports.
Books of Reference
Annual Report.!. Governor ot Hawaii; Secretary ot the Department ot Interior. Wasb·
Ington, D.O. 1900 to date
Government in Hawaii. Tax Foundation of Hawaii. Honolulu, 1960
AU About Hawaii: Thrum', Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Honolulu, 1875 to date
CU""" Hawaiiana (quarterly bibliography). Hawaii Library Association, Honolulu
LilI 01 Publicalion.J. Beroloe Pauabl Bishop Moaeum, Honolulu. Honolulu, 1919 to dnte
Allen, G. E ., BatlXlij", War Y«Jrs. 2 vols. Univ. of Hawaii Press.1960-6~
Bryan, E. H ., AmmC4n PolY'UJia and IM Hawaiian Chain. Honolulu, 1935
Buck, P ., .1Ir~' and craft., Of lIawaii. Honolulu, 1957
Oatton, M. :ltl. L., Social se,,'ce in Hawaii. Palo Alto, 1959
Ooulter, J . W~ A Oruefleer ollh. Territo'1l 01 Hawaii. Honolulu, 1936
Day, A. Grove, Hauai; and it.! P«JpIe. New York, 1965
Hormann, n., Communitv Foru, in Hawaii, Reoding, I",m tk SodDJ Pro«". Honolulu,
1906
Jobaneasen, B., TM Hawaiian Wor M_. Boston, 1956
Jndd, H. P., IntroduCCion to IM Hawaiian La"'l"tJge. Honolulu, 194~
Kamins, Robert M., Hawaii', Rtfiised Tax Svslem. Honolulu, 1967
KuykendeJl, Ralpb S., TM Hawaiian Ki"'ldom, 1778-1874. 2 vols. Honolulu, 1938-53
Kuykendall, R. S. and Day, A. G., Hateaii, a History. New York. 1948
Latham, E. (ed.), S/akhaod lor Hawaii and AIIJ,jIra. New York, 1963
Llnd, A. W ~ An IlIand Communit,: EcologiC4J Sucu.1ian in Hawaii. London, 1938.-
Hawaii', JlJpan<,t: An Experimtftl in D~. Prineeton, 19t7.-Hawaii', P ..ple,
Honolulu, 1956
Mann, A. F., Governmtftl in Hawaii. Honolulu, 1953
Marphy, T., AmblJ,j,adors in LtrmJ. Honolulu, 1954
Phllipp, Perry, Di..nif/ed Agricultur< ~f Hawaii. Honolulu, 1953
Patui, M. K. and Elbert, S. H ., Hawaiian-E"'lZilh Dictionary. IIonolulu, 1957
Smith, Bradford, Yank • ., in Paradi.. , Ih. N"" England [mpaCC on Hawaii. Pbila.delpbla,
1966
IDAHO
GOVERNMENT. Idaho was first permanently settled in 1860,
although thero was a mission for Indians in 1836 and a Mormon settlement
in 1855, It was organized as a Territory in 1863 and admitted into the
Union as a state on 3 July 1890. The constitution then adopted is still in
force; it has had 62 amendments. The Legislature oonsists of a Senate of
44 members and a House of Representatives of 59 members, aU the legis.
lators being elected for 2 years. Sessions are held biennially in odd. number
z
years and last for 60 days. The Governor, Lieut.·Governor and Secretary
of State are elected for 4 years. Voters are citizens, both male and female,
over the age of 21 years, who have resided in the state over 6 months. The
state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 2 representatives.
In tile 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 166,979 .otes,
Stevenson 105,868.
The ~tate is divided into 44 counties. The capital is Boise.
Govemor. Robert E. Smylie (R.), 1959-63 ($12,500).
Lieuf.·Governor. William E. Drevlow (D.), 1959-63 ($1,200).
Semtary of State. Arnold WiUiams (D.), 19!'i9-63 ($8,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 83,557 sq. miles, of which 788 sq.
miles ar·, inland water. In 1958 the federal government owned 35,514,184
acres (6f·6% of the state area). Census population, 1 April1950, 588,637, an
increase of 12·1% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1959,664,000.
Births, 1958, 16,732 (24'1 per 1,000 population); deaths, 5,092 (7'3);
infant deaths, 384 (23'3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 9,522 (14,4);
divorces, 2,372.
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex, 1950) was:
Per sq.
WhIte Negro Indian A.siatic Total mile
J 910 319,221 661 3,488 2,234 325,594 3-9
1930 438,840 668 3,638 1,886 445,032 5·4
1940 519,292 595 3,537 1,449 624,873 6·3
1950 681,395 1,050 3,800 2,392 688,637 H
MaJe.
Female
299,323
282,072
573
477
All otbC~S 3,341
2,851
303,237
280,400
Of be total 1950 population, 252,549 (42,9%) were urban (33'7% in

1940). Native whites were 561,988; foreign. born whites, 19,407. Those
21 years of age or older were 349,032.
The largest cities are Boise (capital) with population (1957) 34,383
(Greater Boise, estimated, 74,800); Pocatello (1957), 27,140; Idaho Falls
(1959), !~8,600; Twin Falls (1959), 22,300; Nampa (1959), 18,700.
RELIGION. The leading religious denomination is the Mormon
Church, with 154,792 adherents in 1958; Roman Catholics had 36,092;
Methodi3ts, 31,861; Lutherans, 15,333; Presbyterians, 10,631, and Epi.
scopalia~s, 10,540. Total, all denominations, 297,175.
EDUCATION. In 1957-58 the 460 public elementary schools had

113,776 pupils and 3,019 classroom teachers; 61 jlUlior high and 127 high
schools had 40,335 pupils and 2,236 classroom teachers. Average salary,
1958-59, of elementary classroom teachers, $3,858; high schools, 34,472.
Total e;cpenditure on education (1957-58) was 341 ,094,913. The State
University of Idaho, fOlUlded at Moscow in 1889, had 271 professors and
4,008 students in 1956-57.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance is granted needy persons 65 years of
age, or older, who satisfy certain residential qualifications and are without
resources. In June 1959, 7,599 persons were drawing an average of $64
per month; 1,937 families with 5,246 children were drawing an average of
S148·3; 173 blind persons, $68,9; 999 persons permanently and totally
disabled $69·58.
IDAHO 675
In 1957,51 hospitals (3,923 beds) were listed by the American Hospital
Association.
In 1925 Idaho passed an act permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insane and feeble·minded persons; up to I Jan. 1958,8 men
and 25 women had been thus sterilized.
The death penalty is legal for murder, but has been used sparingly.
Since 1926 only 3 men (white) have been executed (2 in 1951 and I in 1957).
The state prison, 3 Sept. 1959, had 477 inmates (465 men and 12 women).
$88,190,000 (taxation, $53,278,000 and federal aid, $24,079,000) and general
Net long-term debt, 30 June, 1958, amounted to $5,545,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. A great part of the state is naturally

arid, but extensive irrigation works have been carried out, bringing, 1954
census, 2,324,120 acres on 28,204 farms under irrigat.ion. The irrigation
dams impound 5·7m. acre-ft of water; largest of these is American Falls
Dam with a capacity of 1·7m. acre-ft. In 1954 there were 38,735 farms
with a total area of 14,165,000 acres (25% of the land area); average farm
had 365·7 acres with land and buildings valued at 831,685. Commercial
farms numbered 31,224. There were in 1959,51 soil-conservation districts,
managed by local farmers and ranchers, embracing 40,365,468 acres, of
which 18,428,219 acres are private agricultural land in 36,132 farms and
rallches_
Cash income, 1959, from crops $319m. and livestock, SI90-8m. The
most important crop is wheat; in 1958 the production amounted to
42,492,000 bu_, of which winter wheat was nearly one-half. Other crop.~
are alfalfa, sugar beet (1,902,000 short tons), potatoes (43'8m. cwt.), oats,
barley, field peas, apples and prunes. The number of horses and mules on
) .Jan. 1959 was 49,000; sheep, 1,174,000; milch cows, 243,000; all cattle,
1,414,000; swine, 119,000.
On 30 June 1958 there were 20,274,324 acres in national forests plus
49,770 acres under land utilization projects. In 1959 there were 5 state
forests with 437,000 acres. The forest industry is second only to agriculture;
the value of products is about S150m. per annum. One.quarter of the
state's area is commercial forest land (13,372,000 acres : 72% federal, 6%
state, 22% private).
MiniTlfl. The state has numerous minerals deposits, of which lead,
zinc. silver and phosphate rock are tho most important. Others are an-
timony. cobalt, columbium. tantalum, copper, gold (1958, 15,896 troy oz.),
iron, mercury, nickel, rare-earth metals and tungsten. Valuo of total
mineral output in 1958 was S64·5m. (lowest for 10 years).
Industry. In Dec. 1958 there "ere 147,518 workers in iudustries covered
by the Idaho Employment Security Act; they earned $430,568,483 in 1958_
COMMUNICATIONS. The state had (1958) 4,1l5 miles of railways.

There were. 1958, 152 airports, of which 31 were generaL Water transporta-
tion is provided from the Pacific to Lewistown. by way of the Columbia and
Snake Rivers. a distance of 480 miles. The state maintained. in 1958,4.756
miles of roads; the Highway districts, 9,683 miles. and the counties. 17,976
miles.
Books of Reference
Biennial Rqort. Secretary of Stata. Boise
Federal Writers' Project. Ilia"'" A Guide in W01'd and Piclv,.. 2nd ed. Oxford UOO ...
Press. Ne .. York, 1950
Beal. M. D., A History 0/ Sou/h·ro.stem Idaho: An Inlimau Na"atiN 0/ Ptau/ul ContpU8'
by Empire Buudtr.. Caldwell, 1942
Br09nan, O. J., History 0/ the StaIt o/Idaho. 3rd ed. New York, 1948
ILLINOIS
GOVERNMENT. Illinois was first discovered by Joliet and Marquette,
two French explorers, in 1673, and settled in 1720. In 1763 the country
was ceded by the French to the British. In 1783 Great Britain recognized
the tit.~e of the U.S. to Illinois, which was organized as a Territory in
1809 and admitted into the Union on 3 Dec. 1818. The present constitu-
tion dal;es from 1870; it has had 5 conventions and 8 amendments. The
Legisla~ure consists of a Senate of 58 members elected for 4 years (about
ha.1f of whom retire every 2 years), and a House of Representatives of
177 m«,mbers elected for 2 years. Sessions are biennial. The Governor,
Lieut.-Governor, Secretary of State and Auditor are elected for 4 years;
the State Treasurer, elected for 4 years, may not succeed himself. Electors
are citi~ens 21 years of age, having the usual residential qualifications.
The state is divided into districts, in each of which 1 senator and 3
representatives are chosen; for the election of the latter each elector has 3
votes, of which he may cast 1 for each of 3 candidates or It for each of 2, or
all 3 fo:~ I candidate. The state has 102 counties; Springfield is the capital.
Illinois is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 25 representatives.
In ~he 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 2,623,327 votes,
Steven30n 1,775,682, a Socialist candidate 8,342.
Governor. William G. Stratton (R.), 1957~1 ($25,000).
Lie'lt.·GoverTUN. J. W. Chapman (R.) ($12,500).
Sect·etary 0/ State. Charles F. Carpentier (R.) (Sl6,OOO).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 56,400 sq. miles, of which 465

sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 8,712,176,
an inCI'Cas6 of 10'3% since 1940. Estimated population, I July 1959,
10,205,000. Births in 1958 were 234,712 (23·7 per 1,000 population) ; deaths,
101,7211 (l0·3); infant deaths, 4,211 (25 per 1,000 live births); marriages,
82,860 (8-4).
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex, 1950) was:
Per sq.
1910 5,526,962 109,049 188 2,392 5,638,591 100·6
1930 7,295,267 328,972 469 6,946 7,630,654 136·4
1940 7,504,202 387,446 624 4,969 7,897,241 141·2
1950 8,046,058 645,980 1,443 15,853 8,712,176 155·8
Male . 3,994,948 311 ,760 957 9,484 4,319,251
Female 4,051,110 334,220 486 6,369 4,392,925
Of ,he total population in 1950, 6,759,271 persons (77,6%) were urban

(73,6% in 1940); native whites were 7,262,781; foreign· born whites,
783,27~'; 5,958,601 were 21 years of age or older.
ILLINOIS 677
Leading cities, with population (1950 census or later special census), are:
Ohicago 3,620,96~ Oak Park 61,326 • Quincy 4,2,408 •
Peorls 111,856 Joliet 60,529 a Da.nrille • 41,~29 •
Rockiord 105,438 ' Aurora 56,766 • Ohampaign 39,563
East St Louis 82,295 Berwyu . 52,576 • Moline . 37,397
Springfield (cap.) 81,628 Skokie 52,147 • Blooullngton 36,127 •
Evanston 74,g5g' Rock Island 48,710 • Elmhurst :>4,604, '
Cicero 67.989' Elgin 47,565 • Granite City 34,189 •
Decatllr 66,269 Wankegan 46,69B' Belleville. 32,721
1 1952. ' 1954. ' 1955. • 1956. I 1957. ' 1958.
RELIGION. The churches are, in order of strength: Roman Catholic
(1958),2,723,987; Methodist (1956), 464,587; Jewish Congregations (1955)
365,026; Presbyterian (1956), 189,489; Disciples of Christ (1956), 161,216;
Baptist General State Convention (1956), 150,000; Lutheran (1958),
105,611; American Baptist (1956), 107,521. The Illinois Church Council
comprised 13 Protestant denominations with 1,362,989 members in 1956.
EDUCATION. Education is free and compulsory for children between
7 and 16 years of age. For the year ending 30 June 1958 there were 1,770
school districts, of which 1,145 were elementary (grades kindergarten
through 8), 276 were secondary (grades 9 through 12) and 340 were unit
districts (grades kindergarten through 12). Elementary districts had
1,249,806 pupils and 43,967 teachers; secondary districts had 404,505
pupils and 19,022 teachers. Four state teachers' colleges (normal schools)
had 1,066 teachers and 14,725 students. Teachers' salaries, 1958, averaged
$4,918. Total expenditure on public schools, 1958, from the Education
Fund, $528,102,147. The principal colleges, with teachers and students
for 1958, are:
Pounded Colleges, etc. Location Teachers Students
1829 minois College (Presbyterian) JacksonviIIe 32 449
1837 KnoJ: College (Non-sect.).. Galcsburg 73 750
1846 MacMurray Collp.ge (Methodist) . J"cksonville 46 569
1847 Rockford College (Non-sect.) , . Rocklord 46 323
1850 Illinois Wesleyan University (Methodist) Rloomington 98 1,173
1851 Nortbwe,tem University (Methodist) . Evanston 1,930 15,047
1853 Monmouth College (Presbyt.erian) Monmollth 51 655
1860 Augustana College (Ev. Lllth.) . Rock Island 97 I,U6
1861 North Central CoUege (l>v. Assn.) Naperville 52 844
1867 University of Illinois (State) . Urbana 5,880 22,431
1870 Loyol. University (Roman Cath.) Chicago 996 7,8~9
1874 Southern Illinois University (State) Carbondale 650 7,644
189~ University of Chic!!llio (Non-sect.) Chicago 830 7,804
1897 Bradley University (Non-sect.) Peoria 216 3,730
1898 De Paul University (Roman CaUl.) Chicago 320 6,559
1901 Jame. Milliken University (Presb.) Decator 80 979
WELFARE. A system of Old Age Assistance (maximum, since 1946,
$600 per year) has been established for those citizens 65 or more years of
age who have lived in the state 1 year preceding application. In June
1950,78,150 were drawing Old Age Assistance ($67'17 per month); 141,525
were drawing Aid to Dependent Children ($37'44 per month); 3,175 blind
persons ($77'23), and 18,425 disabled ($69'09).
In 1958 hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association numbered
325, with 102,677 beds. In 1058, 22 hospitals for mental diseases had an
average of 41,853 patients.
In 1058 there was 1 execution; since 1930 there have been 87 execu-
tions (electrocution), including 57 white men, 1 white woman and 20 Negroes,
all for murder. In June 1959, 5 state penal institutions had an average
daily population of 9,996.
A Civil Rights Act (1941) bans all forms of discrimination by places of
public accommodation, including inns, restaurants, retail stOf08, rail roads

aeroplhnes, buses, etc., against persons on aocount of' class. creed, religion
sect, ~.enomination or nationality'; another section similarly mentions
• race <.r colour,' Public authorities and contractors on public works are
forbidden to refuse employment on account of' race or colour,' but there is
no law forbidding all employers to discriminate.
$975,013,000 (taxation, $735,090,000, and federal aid, $180,880,000) and
general expenditures were $1,139,490,000 (education, $240,695,000; high.
ways, $475,897,000, and public welfare, $139,490,000).
Total net long.term debt, 1 July 1958, was $667.009.000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Illinois is largely agricultural. In 1954.
175.54:} farms had an area of 30.398.517 acres with a crop land of 20.549.929
acres; average farm was 173·2 acres valued (land and buildings) at $40.883
($17.9:13 in 1945). Commercial farms numbered 147,786 and residential
farms. 15.316. Only 426 farms had 1,000 acres or more. 147,860 farms had
289,98.} tractors; 88,140 farms had 90.736 grain combines. Tenant·farmers
operat~d 35·2% of the farms.
CaE:h income, 1958, from crops, $782,649,000; from livestock and live·
stock products, $1,301,130,000. lIlinois is a large producer of high.yielding
hybrid maize. Output, 1958. was 598,920,000 bu. and yield per acre, 63 bu.
Other crops were, in 1958, wheat, 54.180,000 bu.; oats, 137,005,000 bu.;
potatoes, hay, barley, rye and buckwheat are also grown. Output of soy.
beans, 140,364,000 bu. in 1958, was 24'4% of the country's entire output.
On 1 ,Tan. 1959 there were 49,000 horses and mules. 783,000 milch cows,
4.061,000 all cattle. 767,000 sheep and 7,106,000 swine. The wool clip in
1958 was 4,745.000 lb. from 621,000 sheep. National forest area, 1957
211,018 acres. The first soil. conservation district was formed in 1938, em·
bracin.~ only 2.500 farmers and 319,000 acres; in 1958 there were 98 districts
covering 32,541,000 acres.
Mining. The chief mineral product of Illinois is coal, the productive
coalfields with 179 mines having an output, 1958, of 43.777,130 tons
(67,860,000 tons in 1947). Mineral production in 1958 included lead, 1.600
short tons; petroleum. 80·78m. bbls; natural gasoline and liquefied petro.
leum gases, 986,200 bbls; abrasive stones (tripoli); fluorspar. 152,087 short
tons (47,6% of total U.S. production). Total value of mineral products,
1958 was $603,793,000.
lnllustry. In 1954 (census) 17,714 manufacturing establishments em·
ployed 1,183,381 production workers, earning $5,155,044,000; value added
by mnnufacture was $9,641,592,000 compared with $2,187,240,000 in 1939
census. Largest industry was machinery (excluding electrical). The steel
industry ranks fourth in the country with a capacity, 1 Jan. 1957, of
11,148,200 net tons of ingots and steel for castings.
COMMUNICATIONS. There were, 1956, 11,337 miles of steam rail·
way and 157 miles of electric railway. Airports, 1959, numbered 657,
of which 535 were for private use only; of commercial airports available to
the public, 52 were publicly owned and 70 were privately owned.
Books of Reference
BI!J4 B,ok 0/ tM Stale o/IUinoi.. Edited by Secretary of State. Sprlngfield. Biennial
Federal Writers' Project. //linoi.: A Dtlcriptive and Historical Guide. Rev. ed. C4icago,
1947
Al\'ord, O. W. (ed.), Cen/ninial His/ory 0/ lIlino"'. 6 vols. SprlngfieJd, 1920
INDIANA 679
Angle, Paul M., and Beyer, R. L., A Handbook o/IUinou HiSIO'1l (published by the IlUnol.
State Historical Society). Sprlng1leld, 1943
Garvey, N. F., (J~m..u and .<1dminisl,ation o/IUinoi.,. New York, 1959
Mather, 1. F., Th< Maki1l9 0/IUi1l0i4. Rev. cd. Chicago, 1942
Pease, 1'. 0., Slory 0/ /uinvis. Cbicago, 1949
Pierce, B. L., A lliJlorv 0/ Chi~o. New York, 1937
STATB LIBRARY. Tbe Illinois State Library, Centennial BuUding, Spriogfield. Stat.
Lib,arian: Charleo F. Carpeotier, Secretary of State.
INDIANA
GOVERNMENT. Indiana, first settled in 1732-33, Wall made a Terri·
tory in 1800 and admitted into the Union on 11 Dec. 1816. The present
constitution (the second) dates from 1851; it has had (as of 1958) 18 amend·
ments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members elected
for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2
years. Sessions are held bienniaUy. The Governor and Lieut. ·Governor
are elected for 4 years, The state is divided into 92 counties and 1,009
townships, The state capital is Indianapolis, The stat.l is represented
in Congress by 2 senators and 11 representatives.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 1,182,811 vows,
Stevenson 783,908, other candidates 7,888.
Governor, Harold W, Handley (R.), 1957-61 ($15,000 plus $12,500
expenses).
IMut.·Govef'1W1', Crawford W. Parker (R.) ($11,500 plus salary as
State senator).
Sec1'etary oJ State, John R. Walsh (D.) ($11,500).
AREA AND POPULATION, Area, 36,291 sq. miles, of which 86 sq.
miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, Wall 3,934,224, an
increase of 506,428 or 14'8% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July
1959,4,638,000. In 1958 births were 112,486 (24'5 per 1,000 population);
deaths, 44,145 (9'9); infant deaths, 2,720 (24 per 1,000 live births);
marriages, 41,226 (8'9); divorces (1956), 11,976.
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) Wall:
Per sq.
White Negro Indian Asiatic Total roUe
1910 2,639.961 60,320 279 316 2,700,876 74 ·9
1930 3,12S,17S 111,9S2 2SS 4SS S,23g,603 89-4-
1940 3,30~,!23 121,916 223 334 3,427,796 94·7
19W 8,768,512 174,1 68 438 1,106 3,934,224 108-7
'dale _ 1,871,599 85,856 320 741 1,958,616
Femlllo 1,836,913 88,312 118 365 1,975,708
Of the total in 1950, 2,357,196 (60,9%) were urban (55'7% in 1940);

2,556,467 were 21 years of age or older. Native whites were 3,657,882;
foreign . born whites, 100,630.
The largest cities are Indianapolis (capital), 461,654 (1957); Gary,
168,884 (1956); Fort Wayne, 144,879 (1956); South Bend, 131,770(1957);
Evansville,128,636 (1950); Hammond,108,305 (1957); Terre Haute, 72,892
(1958); Muncie, 65,314 (1957); East Chicago, 54,263 (1950) ; Anderson,
50,143 (1956) ; Richmond, 43,473 (1959); Lafayette, 39,870 (1956);
Kokomo, 44,101 (1956) ; Elkhart, 38,652 (1957).
RELIGION. Religious denominations, in 1957, included: Methodist
bodies (358,540), Roman Catholic (466,705), Disciples of Christ (194,941),
Baptist bodies (122,578), Evangelical United Brethren (84,292), Presbyterian

churche:1 (95,048), Society of Friends (23,759). Total, all denominations,
1,715,289.
EDUCATION. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 16 years of
age. In Sept. 1957 public elementary schools had 17,273 teachers and
569,039 pupils; public secondary schools had 14,898 teachers and 363,013
pupils. Teachers' salaries, 1957, averaged $4,370. Total expcnditure for
public s~hools, 1955-56, $245m.
The principal institutions for higher education, 1958-59, were:
Professors
and Studenta
Begun Institution Control instructors (full·tlme)
1824 Indiana University, Bloomington State 2,489 22,303
1831 n. Pau.. University, Greencastle Methodist 184 2,160
1842 University of Notre Dame . R.e. 493 6,200
1860 lIutJer Univenity, Indianapolis 210 2,500
1814 Purdue University, Lalayette . State 2,020 18,189
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance (maximum $70 per month plus

medical expenses) is available for those American citizens 65 years of age
or oldel who have resided in the state for 5 years during the preceding 9
years. In June 1959, 32,611 persons were drawing an average of $55·81
per month; 24,975 dependent children from 9,343 families were receiving
$99'47 per family per month; 647 crippled children were receiving care
througb hospitals, olinics and foster homes; 1,820 blind persons were
receiving an average of $66'38; and 13,008 cases (37,548 persons) were
getting general relief or township relief averaging $31'65 per case. On
1 July 1958, 12 state mental hospitals had 17,696 patients. Hospitals listed
by the A.merican Hospital Association (1957) numbered 138 (31,285 beds).
In 1907 Indiana passed an Act permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insane and feeble·minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958, 1,157
men ano1l,197 women had been sterilized.
From 1952 through 1959 there were no executions; from 1930 to 1959
there were 40 executions (electrocution), namely 30 whites and 10 Negroes
for murder. State prisons, 31 Dec. 1958, had 5,296 inmates (116 per
100,000 population).
The Civil Rights Act of 1885 forbids places of public accommodation to
bar any persons on grounds not applicable to all citizens alike; no citizen
may be disqualified for jury service' on a.ccount of race or colour,' but in
the Na1.ional Guard Negroes were organized in separate battalions or regi.
ments until 1955. An Act of 1947 makes it an offence to spread religious or
racial hatred.
FINANCE. In the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958 general revenues
wcro $1.06,757,000 ($371,396,000 from taxes and $60,955,000 from federal
aid). General expenditures were $498,236,000 ($208,423,000 for education,
S 131,053,000 for highways and $29,694,000 for public welfare).
On :lO June 1958 net long.term debt amounted to $346,276,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. India.na is largely agricultural, about
83% of its total area being in farms. In 1954,153,593 farms had 19,232,744
a.cres (e.verage, 125 acres; valued, land and buildings, 825,261). Tenant·
farmers (28,255) operated 18'3% of the farms. Cash income, 1958, from
crops, $341·5m.; from livestock and products, $748·1m. The national
forestslrea in 1957 was 120,339 acres.
IOWA 681
The chieC crops are maize (227,389,000 bu. in 1958), winter wheat
(40,992,000 bu.), oats (46,002,000 bu.), soybeans (58,432,000 bu.), tobacco
(11,550,000 lb.), popcorn (80m. lb.), rye, barley, lespedeza seed, olover
seed, apples, strawberries, tomatoes and water-melons. The livestock on
1 Jan. 1959 consisted oC 33,000 horses and mules, 2,207,000 all cattle, 531,000
milch cows, 455,000 sheep, 4,848,000 swine. In 1958 the wool clip yielded
3.580.000 lb. of wool from 489.000 sheep.
In 1959 there were 80 soil-conservation districts, embracing 19,378,908
acres (126,834 operating units).
Mining. The state has 6,500 sq. miles of coalfields and ranks seventh
among coal-producing states; it provides 80% oC all building limestone used
in U.S., and produces more fa.ce veneer than all the other states combined.
It ranks about fifth in the structural clay products industry. In 1958 the
output of coal was estimated at 15m. short tons; petroleum (1958),
11,864,000 bbls. There were in 1954.8 oil refineries with a daily capacity
of 425,900 bbls. The total mineral output was valued at SI97·7m. in 1958.
Industry. The steel industry is the third largest in the country with a
capacity, 1 Jan. 1957, of 16,369,500 net tons of ingots and steel for castings.
The 6,380 manufacturing establishments (1954) employed 582,945 produc-
tion workers, earning 82,505,558,000; value added by manufacture was
84.641,592,000. Electrio power output, 1957, was 31,993m. kwh.; 108m.
kwh. came from water power.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1958 there were 6.682 miles of main steam
railway. Airports. 1958. numbered 203. of which 34 were publicly-owned
and operated, 74 privately-owned and commercial, 87 personal, 1 seaplane
and 3 military. There were, ill 1958, 10.717 miles of state roads, 76,371
miles oC county roads and 11,537 miles of urban roads and streets. Motor
vehicles registered, 1958, 2.093,057.
Books of Reference
I'M IndiD1I4 Ytar Book. Indlllnapoli.. Published annually
Stati.tticaJ Report. State Board of Accounts. Indianapolis. Annual
Indiana State Obamber of Commerce. Here ,. Four Indiana Gooernment. 7tb ed. India-
napolie. 19.~5
Writer9' Program. IndiDna,.of GuUk 10 the Hoosier SIaU. New York. 1945
Bowman. Heath. Hoo$;". lndianapolis Ilnd New York. 1941
E .......y. Logan • .4 HiIIory o/India1UJ. 2 vols. Fort Wayne. 1924
Martin, J. B.• Indiana, an inurpreJation. New York. 1947
Sikes. P. S.• IndiDna SIaU and Local ~mt1ll. Bloomington.1946
STATE LIBRARY. Indiana State Library. 140 North Senate Avenue. Indianapolis ,.
Director: Barold F. Brigham.
IOWA
GOVERNMENT. Iowa, first settled in 1788, was made a Territory in
1838 and admitted into the Union on 28 Dec. 1846. The constitution of
1857 still erists; it has had 19 amendments. The General Assembly com-
prises a Senate oC 50 and a House of Representatives of 108 members,
meeting biennially Cor an unlimited session. Senators are elected Cor 4
years, half retiring every second year; representatives for 2 years. The
Governor and Lieut.·Governor are elected for 2 years. The state is repre·
sented in Congress by 2 senators and 8 representatives. Iowa is divided
into 99 counties; the capital is Des Moines.

Stevellson 501,858.
Governor. H. C. Loveless (D.), 1959-61 ($20,000 including 34,000
experues).
LiE:ut.·Governor. Edward J. lIIcManus (D.) ($4,000 per session).
Secretary 0/ State. Melvin D. Synhorst (R.) ($10,000).
AHEA AND POPULATION. Area, 56,290 sq. miles, including 245 sq.
miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 2,621,073, an
increane of 3'3% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1959, was
2.809,000. Births, 1958, were 62,173 (22'7 per 1,000 population); deaths,
27,718 (10'1); infant deaths, 1,417 (22·8 per 1,000 live births); marriages,
23,958 (8'8); divorces, 4,241.
Po:?u1ation in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
187C 1,188,207 5,762 43 3 1,194,020 21-5
193(' 2,452,677 17,380 660 222 2,470,939 44·1
194(' 2,620,691 16,694 733 150 2,638,268 45·8
195(' 2,699,546 19,692 1,084 2,621,073 46·8
Male. 1,299,114 10,100 All ot;ers 1,069 1,310,283
Female 1,300,432 9,592 760 1,310,790
At the census of 1950, 1,250,938 persons (47'7%) were urban (42% in

1940); 1,695,155 were 21 years of age or older. Native whites numbered
2,514,!l64; foreign. born whites, 84,582.
Ths largest cities in the state, with their census population in 1950,
are Des Moines (capital), 177,965; Sioux City, 83,991; Davenport, 74,549;
Cedar Rapids, 72,296; Waterloo, 65,198; Dubuque, 49,671; Council
Bluffs, 45,429; Ottumwa, 33,631; Burlington, 30,613; Clinton, 30,379;
Mason City, 27,980; Iowa City, 27,212; Fort Dodge, 25,115.
RELIGION. Chief religious bodies in 1936 were: Roman Catholic
(294,8:13 members), Methodist Episcopal (204,047), Lutheran (61,682),
Disciples of Christ (60,973). Total, all denominations, 1,086,989. In
1951 tne Society of Friends had 8,261 members.
EDUCATION. School attendance is compulsory for 24 consecutive
weeks annually during school age (7-16). In 1957-58, of the 749,708
persons between the ages of 5 and 21 years, 573,152 (76,5%) were attending
public schools. 2,554 rural school districts had 50,942 pupils, and 749
high sc:hool districts had 384,495 elementary and 137,715 pupils. Teachers
numb(,red 26,626 with average salary of 33,395 (elementary) and 34,494
(secondary). Total expenditure on public schools in 1957-58 was
$223,096,267. Leading institutions for higher education (1958-59) were:
Professors
and
Founded Institution Control Instrnctors Studenta
1847 University 01 Iowa at Iowa City State 1,695 10,789
1847 Grinnell College at Grinnell . Congregational 88 1,016
1853 Comell College at Mount V.mon Methodist 70 687
1868 Iowa State University, Ames . . . State 666 9,262
1876 Iow .. State Teachers College at Cedar Fa Us St..te 113 S,426
1881 Drake University at Des Mowes Disciples 242 7,015
1881 Coo College at Cedar Rapids • Presbyterian 76 84S
1894 Morningside CoUege at Sioux City Methodist 54 1,018
IOWA 683
WELFARE. Iowa has a Civil Righta Act (1939) which makes it to mis·
demeanour for places of public accomodation to deprive any person of 'full
and equal enjoyment' of the facilities it offers the public.
Old Age Assistance (maximum $25 a month) was established in 1934
for citizcns 65 years of age or older, who have been residenta of the state
for () out of the last 9 years preceding application, with maximum in·
come of $300 pcr annum; in July 1959, 35,385 persons were drawing an
average of $67-96 per month; medical care averaged $5-69 per person.
8,626 families (with 23,780 children) were receiving 8128'7 per family;
1,442 blind, $83-52. The state makes no special provision for those totally
disabled beyond the 'gencral assistance' which averaged $38-92 (Dec. 1958).
In 1959 the state had 123 hospitals (20,563 beds) listed by the American
Hospital Association. On 1 July 1959 hospitals for mental diseases had
5,301 patienta.
In 1911 Iowa passcd an Act permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insane and feeble·minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1959, 443
man and 1,326 women had thus been sterilized.
There have been no executions since Aug. 1952; total (by hanging) since
1930 was 16, all whites, and all for murder. State prisons, 31 Dec. 1958,
had 2,209 inmates (78 per 100,000 population).
$368,341,000 (taxation, $237,098,000 and federal aid, $85,529,000).
General expenditures were 8380,479,000 (education, $91,288,000; highways,
S 1::;2,939,000, and public welfare, $48,547,000) _
On 30 June 1958 the net long-term debt was $29,476,000_
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Iowa is the wealthiest of the agricultural
states, partly because nearly the whole area (95-5%) is arable and included
in farms. It has escaped large. scale commercial farming; only 254 farms
exceeded 1,000 acres. The average farm (in 1954) was 176·5 acres valued
at S36,077; 70,487 farms were between 100 and 180 acres, and only
17,105 farms (8%) were under 30 acres. It owes much of its prosperity to
the discovery and perfecting of' hybrid corn' or maize, which in 1948 gave
an average yield for the state of 60-5 bu. to the acre, compared with the
national average of 42·8 bu. ; similady the new' Clinton' oat gave Iowa a
yield of 45 bu. per acre compared with the national average of 37'1. Tenant·
farmers operated (1954) 38'4% of the farms and 41 % of the farm area.
In 1958 (census) 186.923 farms had 34,631,364 acres of farm land, includ·
ing 22,355,466 acres of crop land; in 1954 (census) 178,248 farms were
commercial farms. of which 10,347 sold produce valued at $25,000 or more;
8;% of all farms had telephones. 97% electricity and 170,000 farms had
312.090 tractors. The national foresta area in 1958 was 4,749 acres.
In 1958 there were 100 soil· conservation districta covering 34,699,606
acres, all in farm lands in 190,263 farms. About 9% of the total area hae
suffered severe erosion.
Cash income (1958) was $2,619-4m. (second only to California); from
livestock, $2,080-5m., and from crops, S479-5m_, with government pay.
menta totalling $59-4m. It leads, usually, in maize, 658,703,152 bu _ in
1958, and in oats, 215,251,670 bu_; other crops were wheat, barley, rye,
soy beans, potatoes, buckwheat and popcorn. The state leads in the value
of ita livestock ($1,026.152.000 in 1959) in the production of meat animals
(11 '3% of the national total in 1956) and in the output of dressed meat
(11 -5% of the total). But livestock totals are declining. notably horBC&
and mtles. miloh oows (now 26% under their 1934 peak) and breeding
flock. c,f sheep; cattle for beef are increasing. On 1 Jan. 1959 totals
included horses and mules. 71.000; swine. 12.533.000 (leading all states);
milch cows. 1.035.000; all cattle. 6.536.000. and sheep. 1,613,000. The
wool clip (1959) yielded 10,674.000 lb. of wool from 1.331,000 sheep.
Mining. The coalfields covering 20.000 sq. miles, produced 1.144,285
flhort tons in 1958. The value of mineral products, 1958, was $85,356,000.
Indt',8try. The census of 3.327 manufacturers in 1954 showed 161,707
wage·eamers. earnings $641,184,000; value added by manufactures was
$1,219.144,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. The state. 1958, had 8,328 miles of steam rail·
way, 199·5 miles of electric railway, 346 miles of diesel power units, switch-
ing and terminal companies; and 9,715 miles of state-maintained roads.
AirporUl (1959) numbered 187, including 78 mWlicipal and 109 private and
{)ommercial; 77 were lighted.
Books of Reference
Official R.-gister. Secretary ot State. nes Molnes. Biennial
Federa.l V,' riters' Project. Iowa : 4 Guide to CM Hawkeye Stale. New York, 1949
Petersen, W. J .,loU>a Hislory Reference Guide. Iowa City, 1952
Roes, R. :Jd., 'I'he gOfJlrnment and administration of Iowa. New York, 1957
Shambaul~Jo. B. F., PM Constitution. Of Iowa. Iowa City, 1934
Iow~ :3TATR LAW LmRARY, Des Moine. 19. Librarian: Geraldlne Dnllham.
KANSAS
GOVERNMENT. Kansas, first settled in 1727, was made a Territory
{along ,"'ith part of Colorado) in 1854, and was admitted into the Union with
its preSEnt area on 29 Jan. 1861. That year saw the adoption of the present
-constitution; it has had 45 amendments. The Legislature includes a.
Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Represen-
tatives of 125 members, elected for 2 years. Sessions are annual. with
a 30-da:v budget session in the even·numbered years. The Governor and
Lieut·Govemor are elected for 2 years. The right to vote is (with the usual
exceptic.ns) possessed by all citizens. The state is divided into 105 counties;
the capi.tal is Topeka. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senat.ors
and 6 rf,presentatives.
'Stevens.m 296,317.
The state was the first (of 21 states) to establish in 1933 a Legislative
Council of 10 senators and 15 representatives to sit continuously between
sessions for the study of legislative problems.
Govel'1Wf'. George Docking (D.), 1959-61 ($15,000).
Lieut.-Governor. Joseph W. Henkle, Sr (D.) ($2,400 plus per diem and
travel a.Uowanees).
Surl'tary of Stau. Paul R. Shanahan (R.) ($7,500).
ARI~A AND POPULATION. Area. 82.276 sq. miles, including 168 sq.
miles 0/ inland wa.ter. Census population, 1 April 1950. 1,905,299. an
increase of 5'8% since 1940; estimated population, 1 March 1959, 2,115,441.
Provisicna.l vital statistics, 1958: Births, 49.936 (23·6 per 1.000 population);
KANSAS 685
deaths, 20,220 (9·6) ; infant deaths, 1,173 (23·5 per 1,000 live births);
marriages, 15,481 (7'3); divorces, 4,809.
Population in 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex, 1950) was:
Per eq.
White Negro Indian Aslatlo Total mile
1870 346,377 17,108 914 364,399 4 ·6
1930 1,811,997 66,344 2,454 204 1,880,999 22·t
1940 1,734,496 M,138 1,165 229 1,801,028 21-9
1950 1,828,961 73,158 2,381 431 1,906,299 23·2
Male . 915,369 S6,324 1,344 296 953,534
Female 913,692 36,834 1,037 135 951 ,76~
Of the total population in 1950, 1,790,384 were native whites; 38,577

foreign-born whites; 993,220 were urban (52'1%, compared with 41'9%
in 1940). Dwelling units were 626,087. Those 21 years of age or older
numbered 1,242,569.
The census of 1950 gave Wichita a population of 168,279; Kansas City,
129,553; Topeka (capital), 78,791; Hutchinson,33,575; Salina,26,176;
Lawrence, 23,351; Leavenworth, 20,579; Pittsburg, 19,341; Manhattan,
19,056.
RELIGION. The most numerous religious bodies are Roman Catholic,

with 157,292 adherents in 1936, Methodists (140,792), and Disciples of
Christ (65,740). Total membership, all denominations, was 691,438.
EDUCATION . In 1957-58, the 2,692 operating public elementary and

secondary sohool districts had 19,266 teachers and 420,853 enrolled pupils.
Teachers' salaries averaged $3,898 (elementary), $4,274 (secondary).
Total operational costs were $133,202,320; total value of school property,
$466,251,706.
Leading institutions for higher instruction, 1958-59:
Founded Institution Control Faculty Studeote
1858 Baker University, Baldwin City l{etbodist 40 . 84
1863 State University, Manhattan . State (71 6,675
1863 Mount SI. Seholastica, Ateruson . Catholic (2 431
1865 University of Kan.%S, Lawrence State 884 9,300
1865 Ottawa University. . . . Baptist 34 492
1865 Kansas State Teachers' CoUege, Emporia State 178 2,804
1868 SI. Benedict's College. Ateruso~ . Catholic 66 639
1885 Kansas Wesleyan University, Salina Methodist 30 3~1
1898 Friends University, Wichita . Friends 49 700
1901 Fort Hays State C{)lIege, Hays . State 144 2,499
1903 Kansas State CoUege of Pitts~urg . State 200 2,868
1926 Wichita Municipal University, Wichita City 316 5,800
1944 University of Washbllrn, Topeta City 87 l,6i5
WELFARE. In April 1959, 30,765 persons were receiving Old Age

Assistance to an average amount of $75'48 per mqnth; 5,936 families
(23,268 children) were receiving monthly, $134·61 ; 681 blind, $74'37;
4,596 totally disabled. $75·67. In 1958 the state had 153 hospitals (17,467
beds) listed by the American Hospital Association. In 1958 hospitals for
mental diseases had an average daily resident popUlation of 4,21 5.
The state's penal and reformatory system in Oct. 1959 held 2,147 men
and boys and 56 women. The death penalty (by hanging) for murder was
abolished in 1930 and restored in 1934; total executions since then have
been 10 (7 whites and 3 Negroes).
An Act passed in 1913 permits, under legal safeguards, the sterilization
of insa.lle and feeble·minded persons; cumulative totals of persons thus

sterilize:l down to 1 Jan. 1958 were 1,763 males and 1,262 females.
For the variou8 Civil Rights Acta forbidding racial or political dis·
crimina·~ion, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR·BoOK, 1955, p. 666.
$257,841,000, of which taxation furnished $168,322,000 and federal aid
$57,594.000. General expenditures were $295,173,000 ($72,241,000 for
edut'ation, $101,037,000 for highways and $35,451,000 for public welfare).
Total net long. term debt, 30 June 1058, amounted to $195,933,000.
PRODUCTION. Agru,"'Ulture. Kansas is pro·eminently agricultural,

but sometimes suffers from lack oC rainfall in the west. In 1954, 120,167
farms h!l.d an area. of 50,023,538 acres; average farm was 416 acres, value
of lands and buildings, $34,711 . Wheat farming is highly mechanized, with
90% of the crop harvested by 68,906 combines; it is also highly com·
mercialized, with many companies owning from 40,000 to 70,000 acres;
8,712 CB.nD.8 had 1,000 acres or more in 1954. At the other extreme are
"mall CB.rms (18,072 under 30 acres in 1954) on marginal lands. In June
1958 thure were 105 soil· conservation districts embracing 52,549,000 acres on
121 fa.r-ns and ranches. Cash income, 1958, from crops was $619·Om . ;
from livestock and products, $563·7m.; from government payments,
$35m.
The national forests area in 1958 was 106,585 acres.
Kansas is a great wheat·producing state. Its output in 1958 was
291,252,000 bu. Other crops in 1958 (in bushels) were maize, 73,122,000;
grain snrghums, 128,964,000; soybeans, 9·26m.; oats, 13·42m.; barley,
18·01m.; rye, potatoes and flax. The state has an extensive livestock
industr:T, comprising, on 1 Jan. 1959, 60,000 horses and mules, 441,000
milch C.)WS, 4,476,000 all cattle, 88.1,000 sheep and 1,067,000 swine. Wool
clip (1958),4,908,000 lb. from 686,000 sheep.
Mining. Kansas has coalfields covering 15,000 sq. miles, which pro·
duced 11958) 830,329 short tons. Yield of petroleum was 119,942,094
bbls; Jlatural gas, 535,937m. cu. ft; natural gas Iiquidd, 225,176,238
gallons; lead, 1,299 short tous; zinc, 4,421 short tons. Total value of
mineral products, $514,234,445.
Ind1t,'ltry. Manufacturing establishments (2,139 in 1954) had in 1957,
130,000 employees, earning $612m.; value added by manufacture wns
SI,209m. The slaughtering industry, manufacture of transportation equip·
ment and petroleum refining are important.
COMMUNICATIONS. There were 8,584 miles of steam railway in

1958 ar.d 25 miles of electric ra.ilway. Thero were 171 airports in Dcc.
1958, of which 88 were general and 83 were limited. The stato maintains
9,847 miles of highway (May 1958).
Books of Reference
DireclON/ Of Slate Officer•• BlHlrd. and CommiSlio1ler' and InWelling Facti cDncerning Kansa•.
Topckn. Biennial
Federal ,/riters' Project. Kal/$Ils : .4 Guilk IQ lit. SunfloUler Stale. New York. 1949
Howes. C. 0 .•Thi. PZau Called Kansa.. Univ. 01 Oklahoma. Norman. 1952
Zomow, W. F., Kansa.: a hillory Of the JayhaUlk Stale. Norman. Okl .... 1957
STATE LmRARY. Kansas State Library. Topeka. Slate Librarian: Louise McNeal.
KENTUCKY 687
KENTUCKY
GOVERNMENT. Kentucky. first settled in 1765. was originally part
of Virginia.; it was admitted into the Union on 1 June 1792. and its first
legislature met on 4 June. The constitution dates from 1891; there had
been 3 preceding it. The 1891 constitution was promulgated by convention
and provides that amendments be submitted to the electorate for ratifi·
cation. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 38 members elected
for 4 years. one·half retiring every 2 years, and a. House of Representatives
of 100 members elected for 2 years. Sessions are biennial. The Governor
and Lieut.·Governor are elected for 4 years. All citizens are (with neces·
sary exceptions) qualified as electors; the voting age was in 1955 reduced
from 21 to 18 years. There is no official state register of voters main·
tained. hence the size of the electorate is unknown; thero were 1,053,805
voters in the presidential election of 1956; Eisenhower polled 572,192
votes, Stevenson 476,453. The state is divided into 120 counties; the
capital is Frankfort (census population. 1950. 11.916; estimate, 1956.
22,600). The state is represented in Congress by 2 senat·ors and 8 repre·
scntatives.
Governor. Bert T. Coombs (D.), 1959-63 ($18,000).
Lieut.·Governor. Wilson W. Wyatt (D.) ($12,000).
Secretary of State. Henry H. Carter (D.) (312,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 40,395 sq. miles, of which 531
sq. miles are water. Census population. 1950. 2,944.806, an increase of
3'5% since 1940. Births in 1958, 74,056 (24·4' per 1,000 popUlation);
deaths, 29,394 (9'7); infant deaths, 2,170 (29'3 per 1,000 live births); mar·
riages,26,204 (8'5). Estimated population, 1 July 1959,3,125,000.
1 1957 : 25, 1.
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex, 1(50) was:

Per sq.
1910 2,027,951 261,656 234 64 2,289,90. 67·0
1930 2,388,4~2 226,040 22 76 2,614,689 65·2
1940 2,631,425 214,031 44 127 2,845,627 70·9
1950 2,742,090 201,921 234 661 2,944,806 73·~
Male. 1,375,090 99,360 191 346 1,474,987

Female 1,367,000 102,561 43 215 1,469,819
Of the total population in 1950, 1,084,070 (36'8%) were urban (29,8%

in 1(40). Native whites numbered 2,726,022; foreign.born whites, 16.068.
Those 21 years old or older number 1,742,978.
The principal cities, with census population in 1950, are: Louisville,
369.129 (metropolitan area. 576,900); Covington. 64.452; Lexington,
55,534 (metropolitan area,100,746); Owensboro.33,651; Paducah, 32,8~8;
Ashland, 31,131. and Newport, 31,044.
RELIGION, The chiefreligious denominations in 1954 were: Southern
Baptists. with 575.000 members. Roman Catholic (250,000). Methodists
(210,000) and Disciples of Christ (130.000). National Baptist (120,000).
Total, all denominations, about 1,485,000.
EDUCATION. Attendance at school between the ages of 7 and 15
years (inclusive) is compulsory, the minimum term being 9 months. In
688 UNITED STATES OP AMERICA
1958-59 the elementary and high schools had 23,678 teachers (including
eupervisors, principals and other instrnctional staff) and 633,164 pupils en-
rolled. Expenditure on eJemen~ and high school education in 1958-59
approximately $100·5m.; teach81'8 salariee av~ $3,340.
Thll state has 2 universitiee, 19 senior collegee and 12 junior collegee,
with a total of 37,121 students. Of theee universitiee and collegEll, 6 al'&
etate-s11pported, and the remainder al'& 8Upported privately, or by munici·
palities.. The largeet of the institutions of higher Jearning are (1957):
University of Kentucky, with 8,592 atudenl8, 675 teaohere: University of
LouisviJIe, 6,071 students, 822 teachers: Western State College, 2,152
studen'ie, 112 teachers; Eastern State College, 2,500 students, 110 teachers:
Murray State College, 2,237 students, 109 teachers. Two of the several
privatE Iy endowed colleges of standing a.re Bcrea College. in Berea. and
Centre College at Danville.
WIiLF ARE. Old.age assistance (maximum $64 a month) is provided

for those 65 years of age or older. who, during 7 yea1'8. have been reeidents
of the state for 3 yea.rs, including the one year preceding application. In
July 1959. 57.147 persons (21% of those aged 65 or over) were receiving
an ave.rage of $43·22 per month. Aid was given to 20.840 families ($72'49
month'~y per family) with 56.396 ohildreu, and to 3.156 needy blind persons
($44 p',r month) and to 8.047 permanently and totally diaabled persons of
18 yea:'S or older ($44 per month).
In 1957 the state had 133 general hospitale (9.658 beds), 8 hospitals
for melltal diseases (7.086 beds), 10 tuberculosis hospitals (1.346 beds) and
2 ohronic disease hospitals (223 beds). In 1954 8tate hospitals for mental
disordE'rs (7.663 maximum beds) averaged 7.679 resident patients.
ThHre are a maximum and a medium security institution (penal) for men,
and a l e: formatory for women. Delinquent youth arc placed in custody of
the Department of Welfare, which maintains 2 institutions. 1 forestry camp
(male) and 1 diagnostic reception centre in collaboration with the Depart-
ment d Economic Security. It also operates an institution for dependent
children who, however. are committed to the Department of Economic
Security.
On 30 June 1959 the prisons had 3,719 inmates (124 per 100,000 popula-
lation). In 1959 no one was condemned to death. Total executions from
1911 through 1959 were 162, including 76 whites and 86 Negroes; 144 were
for murder, 13 for rape. 5 for armed robbery.
FINANCE. For the fiscal years ending 30 June 1959 general revenues
were $340.560.249 (federal grants. 8112.362.526, and taxes, $208.485,828)
and g"neral expenditures, $390,183,363 (education, $92,478,966; public
welfarE', $88,291,615; highways. $163,416,993).
Tho net long·term debt on 30 June 1959 was $70m.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1954, 193,487 farms had an area of

18,034,380 acres. The average farm was 93·2 acres valued at $8,088.
Non-w.llite farmers numbered 4.291. There were 46.094 residential farms
with only nominal output.
CMU income, 1958, from crops, $249.627.000. Bnd from livestock.
3298.217.000. In 1958 the maize crop amounted to 75,803.000 bu., other
farm Froducts being wheat, hay, soy beans. apples, bluegrass seed, straw-
berries. popcorn and fescue seed. The chief crop, however, is tobacco;
LOUISIANA 689
output in 1958,340,922,000 lb., compared with Kentucky's average, 1947-
56, of 425,520,000 lb.
Since 1940, when the Soil Conservation Act was passed, 121soil·conserva·
tion districts have been organized, covering 25,033,098 acres of the state's
25·7m. acres. Soil erosion has been severe on 11,724,735 acres (45,6% of
the total) and moderate on 12,613,103 acres (40'1%).
The Watershed Conservancy District Law, 1958 (the first of its kind in
the U.S.), allows funds to be raised to secure easements and rights of way,
and to maintain the improvement works financed by the federal govern·
ment: 46 watershed conservancy districts have been organized.
Stock.raising is important in Kentucky, which has long been famous for
its horses. The livestock on 1 Jan. 1959 included 170,000 horses and mules,
628,000 milch cows, 1,843,000 all cattle, 604,000 sheep and 1,225,000 swine.
National forests area, 1959, 455,000 acres.
Mining. The principal mineral product of Kentucky is coal, 67,809,271
tons mined in 1958. Output of fluorspar, 25,387 short tons (1958): petro.
leum, 17,963,370 crude bbls (1958): natural gas, 72,248m. cu. ft (1958).
Total value of mineral products produced in 1958 was $402,121,000.
IndWltry. In 1957 the state's 65,381 manufacturing plants had 165,381
employees who earned $705,531,000: value added by manufacture was
$1,747,621,000. The leading manufacturing industries are foods, tobacco,
chemicals, machinery (including electrical machinery and equipment),
transportation equipment, fabricated metal products; steel·mills had a
capacity of 1,743,190 net tons in 1957.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1958 the state had 5,941 miles of rail·
way. There is an increasing amount of barge traffic on 1.500 miles of
navigable rivers. There were 39 airports in 1958, of which 21 were general.
The state maintains 19,757 miles of highway. There were, 1959, 1,049,800
motor vehicle registrations.
Books of Reference
Di,u/I),y for Ih. Use 0/ cou,/J, Slale and Counly Official. and General .A. ..tmblll of Ih. Slal.
0/ Kentucky. Frnnldort. Biennial
Federal Writere' Project. Kentucky : .A. Guide 10 1104 Blueg,a.. Stale. Rev. ed. New York,
1964
0'
OIark, T. D., .A. H;,Io'1I KeTllW;ky. New York, 1937
Coleman, J . W., .A. Bibliography 0/ Kentucky History. Univ. 01 Kentucky, Lorlngton, 1949
Scbwendeman, J. R., at~aphy of Kentucky. Oklahoma City, 1958
LOUISIANA
GOVERNMENT. Louisiana was first settled in 1699. That part
lying east of the Mississippi River was organized in 1804 as the Territory of
New Orlel!.ns, and admitted into the Union on 30 April 1812. The section
west of the river was added very shortly thereafter. The present con·
stitution dates from 1921; it has had 326 amendments.
The Legislature consists of a Senate of 39 members and 0. House of
Representatives of 101 members, both chosen for 4 years. Sessions are
biennial; a fiscal session is held in odd years. The Governor and Lieut.·
Governor are elected for 4 years. Qualified electors are (with the usual
exceptions) all registered citizens with the usual residential qualifications.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 329,047 votes, Stevenson
243,977, Andrews (Independent) 44,520: 37 ·8% of the electorate voted.
The IItate sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. Louisiana

is divided into 64 parishes (corresponding with the counties of other states) ;
the capii;a) is Baton Rouge.
GovemOf'. Earl K. Long (D.). 1956-60 ($18,000).
Lieut .·Governor. L. E. Frazar (D.) ($12,000).
Secrel,ary of State. Wade O. Martin, Jr (D.) ($15,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 48,523 sq. miles, including 3,361
sq. mileu of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 2,683,516, an
increase of 13'5% since 1940 ; estimate, 1959, 3,132,600. Births, 1958,
90,813 (28·3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 28,623 (9); infant deaths,
3,112 (M'5 per 1.000 live births); marriages, 21,068 (6'5).
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex, 1(50) was:
Per sq.
White Negro Indian As.intic Tota mJle
1910 941,086 713,814 780 648 1,656,388 36'0
1930 1,322,712 776,326 1,536 1,019 2,101,593 46·5
1940 1,011,739 849,303 1,801 1,037 2,363,880 52·3
1950 ],796,683 88Z,42S 409 3,996 2,683,516 59·4
Male. 891,914 424.771 243 2,238 1,319,166
Female 904,769 457,6;7 166 1.758 1,364,350
Nati"e whites, 1950, were 1,767,799; foreign· born whites, 28,884;

those 21 years of age or older were 1,587,418. Of the 1950 total, 1,471,626
(54'8%) were urban (41'5% in 1940). New Orleans (1950 census) had a
populatbn of 570,445 (estimated, 1958, 602,647); Shreveport, 127,206
(160,8061; Baton Rouge (capital), 125,629 (150,879); Lake Charles, 41,272
(60,961); Monroe, 38,572 (49,884) ; Alexandria, 34,913 (42,060).
RELIGION. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest denomination
in Louis:,ana, with 906,101 white and Negro members in 1955. The leading
Protestant Churches are Baptist, with 346,402 white members; Methodist,
190,497; Episcopal, 30,016, and Presbyterian, 25,735.
EDUCATION. Attendance in elementary schools was, until 1956, corn·
puLsory between the ages of 7 and 15, both inclusive; but in 1956 the
Legislature exempted any school faced with desegregation (by court order),
and the constitution was amended, giving the Legislature sole control over
segregation. In 1957-58 there were 294 public elementary and higb $chools
for whites which had 14,997 teachers and 399,322 pupils; for Negroes thcre
were 117 public schools (8,100 Negro teachcrs) wiih 249,532 pupils. In
1957-58 teachers bad an average salary of 84,439. Thcre are 10 four.
year.endowed colleges and universities and 24 state trade schools. Total
expenditure on elementary and secondary schools (1957-58), $180,407,498.
Superior instruction is given in the Louisiana State University (founded
1860), with, 1958, 596 professors and 9,415 students. Tulo.no University
(1835) ill New Orleans had 1,317 professors and 6,244 students in 1957.
This university has state support to the extent of the remission of certain
taxes. The Roman Catholic LoyoJa University (1911) at New Orleans had
249 prof,lssors and 2,639 students in 1958. DiIlard Universit.y and Southern
University are for Negroes.
WEI.FARE. In Nov. 1958, 124,434 persons were receiving Old Age
Aesistance to an average of $67 per month; 24,i!99 families with 76,744
dependent children were receiving an average of $89'49 per month; 2,572
LOUISIANA 691
blind persons, $76'38 per month; 15,365 totally disabled persons, $53·83.
Hospital Association. In 1958, 4 mental hospitals had 9,178 patients.
Prisons on 31 Dec. 1958, had 3,363 inmates (118 per 100,000 population).
In 1958, 2 Negroes were executed (by electrocution) for murder; total
executions since 1930 were 131 (30 whites and 101 Negroes-including 17
Negroes for rape).
The statutes requiring the separation of whites and Negroes in all
educational institutions, circuses, mental hospitals, penal institutions and
railroads are (1956) under revision. Children may not be adopted save by
persons of the same race. Marriage is probibited between any whito or
Indian person and any coloured person.
FINANCE. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958 geneml revenues
were $604,400,000 (taxation, $380,815,000, and federal aid, $1l6,776,OOO);
general expenditures were $691,322,000 (education, $213,808,000; high.
The net long-term debt, 30 June 1958, amounted to $310,976,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The state is divided into two parts, the

uplands and the alluvial and swamp regions of the coast. A delta occupies
ahout one-third of the total area. Manufacturing is the leading industry,
but agriculture is important. In 1957, 118,000 farms had an area of
11,441,343 acres; average farm had 103 acres and was valued at $9,660
($3,653 in 1940); 50,594 farms (40%) were less than 30 acres; non-white
operators had 33,473 farms; tenant-farmers numbered 37.895 (34,1%).
Cash income, 1958, from crops, S198·80m.; from livestock, $162·67m.
In 1958 there were 26 soil-conservation districts covering 27,939,000
acres, of which 11,442,000 acres were farm land (110,000 farms). Production
of sugar cane was 5,704,000 tons in 1958; sugar-cane syrup, 2·37m. gallons;
rice, 1l·22m. bags (of 100 lb.); maize, 15·96m. bu.; sweet potatoes, 4·78m.
cwt; soybeans, 2·86m_ bu.; pecans,15m.lb.; cotton, 295,000 bales (of500 lb.);
strawberries, 14·06m. lb. On I Jan. 1959 the state contained 93,000 horses
and mules, 83,000 sheep, 377,000 swine, 1,808,000 all cattle and 321,000
milch cows. Forests, 16m. acres, represent 56% of the state's area. In-
come from forest produotion and manufacturing enterprises totalled
$500m. in 19.58; pulpwood cut, 130,000 cords; saw timber cut, 40,308,934
bd ft.
Mining. Rich sulphur mines are found in Louisiana, and wells for the
extrR.ction of sulphur by means of hot water and compressed air are in
operation; output, 1958, 2,005,484 long tons. The yield in 1958 of crude
petroleum, including condensate petroleum, was 316,617,252 bbls; natural
gR.S, 2,004,572,333 cu. ft; salt, 1,992,733 tons; brine in solution, 1,886,040
tons; carbon blaok, 115,216,178 lb.; grey carbon black, 64,524,200 lb.
Total mineral output in 1958 was valued at $1,517,415,000.
Industry. The manufacturing industries are chiefly those associated
with petroleum, ohemicals, lumber, food, paper. Manufacturing establish-
ments (3,020 in 1954) employed 109,625 production workers in 1957, who
earned $418,024,000; value added by manufaoture (1957) was
$1,491,514,000.
COMMUNICA TIONS. The state has ample facilities for traffic, having
besides 47,507 miles of public roads (15,178 miles maintained by the state)
the Miusissippi and other waterways, with 4,794 miles of navigable water.
In 1958 the steam railways in the state had a length of 4,576 miles. There
were, 1958, 69 airport.s, of which 40 were general. New Orleans is the
second largest seaport of the U.S., handling some 10% of the national total.
In 1958 there were 1,143,000 motor vehicles registered in that state.
Books of Reference
LouisianJ: it.f hiJlory, people, go.ernment, and tconomy. Legislative Council, Baton Rouge,
1956
Federal Writers' Project. Louisiana: A Guidt to tM Pelican State. New York, 1941.-N....
Orlean, City Guidt. Boston, 19~2
Havard, W. 0 ., Gov""mrnt of Louisiana. Baton Ronge, 1959
Landry, S. O. (ed.), Lo-uiJiana Almanac and Facl Book. New Orleans, 1949
McGinty. G. W., A History of Louisiana. 2nd ed. New York, 1951
Smith, T . L., and Hlt!., H. L., The People of Louisiana. Baton Rouge, 1952
Scroggs, W. 0., The Story of Louisiana. 4th ed. IndianapoJis, 1953
MAINE
GOVERNMENT. After 0. first attempt in 1607, Maine was settled in
1623. From 1652 to 1820 it was a part of Massachusetts and was admitted
into tho Union on 15 March 1820. The constitution of 1820 is still in force,
but it has been amended 84 times. In 1951 and 1955 the Legislature
approved recodifications of the constitution as arranged by the Chief Justice
under special authority.
The Legislature consists of the Senate with 33 members and the House of
Repres<>ntatives with 151 members, both Houses being eleotedsimultaneously
for 2 Y'lars. Apart from these legislators and the Governor (elected for 4
years), no other state officers are elected. An Executive Council of 7, which
meets at the call of the Governor, has effective powers of approval or veto
in man.v matters. The Justices of the Supreme Judicial Court give their
opinion upon important questions of law and upon solemn occasions when
required by the Governor, Council, Senate or House of Representatives. The
suffragE' is possessed by all citizens, 21 years of age, who can read English
and write their own names; paupers and persons under guardianship have
no vot!.. Indians residing on tribal reservations and otherwise qualified
have the vote in all county, state and national elections.
In ';he 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 249,238 votes,
Stevenson 102,468.
The state is divided into 16 counties, subdivided into towns, cities,
plantat:ons and various unincorporated places. The capital is Augusta;
the state sends to Congress 2 senators and 3 representatives.
Govfrnor. John H. Reed (R.), 1960-61 ($10,000).
Secntary of State. Harold 1. GOBS (R.) ($10,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 33,215 sq. miles, of which 2,175
are inlaud waters; excluding bog and swamp, the land area becomes 32,562
sq. mill:S. Of the state's total area (19,462,301 acres), about 16,372,556
acres (85%) are in timber and wood lots. Census population, 1 April 1950,
913,774. an increase of 66,548 or 7'9% since 1940. In 1958 live births
numbered 23,012 (25·2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 10,356 (10'9); infant
deaths 601 (26'3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 7,601 (8); divorces,
1,873. Estimated population, I July 1959, was 949,000.
MAINE 693
Population for 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950):
Per .q.
InO 739,995 1,363 8n 121 742,371 24·8
1930 795,185 1,096 1,01a 130 797,423 25 ·7
1940 844,543 1,304 1,251 128 847,226 27-3
1950 910,846 1,221 1,622 186 913,174 29·4
Male . 462,603 711 803 128 454,145
Female 458,343 510 719 61 459,629
Native whites, 1950, numbered 836,504; foreign. born whites, 74,342.

The urban population was 472,000 or 51 '7% of the total (40'5% in 1940);
those 21 years or older numbered 576,840;
The largest city in the state is Portland with a census population of
77,634 in 1950. Other cities and towns (with population in 1950) are:
Lewiston, 40,974; Bangor, 31,558 ; Auburn, 23,134; South Portland,
21,866; Augusta,20,913; Biddeford,20,836; Waterville, 18,287.
RELIGION. The largest religious bodies are: Roman Catholic
(236,672 members in 1955), Baptists (36,549 in 1943) and Congregationalists
and Christian Churches. Total membership, all denominations, was
305,123 in 1943.
EDUCATION. Education is free for pupils from 5 to 21 years of age,
and compulsory from 7 to 15. In W58-59 the 1,050 public elementary
schools had 5,309 teachers and 143,490 enrolled pupils. The 183 public
high schools had 2,273 teachers and 40,736 pupils. There are 85 parochial
schools with 837 teachers and 26,310 pupils, and 35 academies with about
411 teachers and 6,913 pupils. Four teachers' colleges and I normal school
had 148 teachers and 1,418 students. Teachers' salaries, 1957-58, averaged
33,579. The State University of Maine, founded in 1868 at Orono, had
(1959-60) 296 professors and teachers and 3,907 students; Bowdoin College,
founded in 1794 at Brunswick, had 80 professors and 811 students; Bates
College at Lewiston, 54 professors and 885 students, and Colby College at
Waterville, 114 professors and 1,173 students. Total public expenditure
on elementary and secondary education in 1957-58, $45,845,182.
WELFARE. Old.age assistance (maximum $65 per month) wu
prescribed by statute in 1933, but failed to secure adequate funds until
J 937; it is now granted to those needy citizens 65 years of age or older who
have resided in the stat.e one year immediately prior to application. In
June 1959, 11,881 (out of 100,000 aged 65 or over) were receiving an average
of $54'04 per mont.h. In 1959 the state had 50 hospitals (3,509 beds) listed
by the American Hospital Association. In June 1959 patients in hospitals
for mental diseases numbered 4,338.
An Act passed in 1925 permits, under legal safeguards, the sterilization
of the insane or feeble· minded ; up to 1 July 1959, 272 women and 46 men
had been sterilized.
The state's p enal system on 30 June 1959 held 729 men and 61 women
(82 per 100,000 population); reform schools had 150 boys and III girls.
The death penalty is illegal. Inmates serving life sentences are eligible for
parole consideration after 30 years.
FINANCE. For the financial year ending 30 Jtme 1958 to!ltal general
revenue was $120,713,000 (taxation, $78,762,000; federal aid, 825,733,000)
and el:penditure was $125,101,000 (education, $23,519,000; highways,

Tohl net long-term debt on 30 June 1958 was $1l5,694,000.
PR{)DUCTION. Agriculture. In 1954, 23,368 farIDB occupied
3,614,212 acres, of which 1,049,499 acres were crop land; the average farm
was IM·7 acres, with land and buildings valued at $9,439. All farms were
owner-operated except 438 operated by tenants and 95 by managers.
CommHcial farIDB numbered 13,221; 961 sold produce valued at $25,000
or mor<>. Cash income, 1958, from crops, $87,209,000; from livestock and
livestock prod,ucts, $121,338,000. In 1958 there were 15 soil-conservation
districts covering 16,486,260 acres, of which 4,162,018 acres were farm land.
Maine is a large produccr of potatoes (about one-fifth of the country's
total); output in 1958 was 37,250,000 cwt. Other crops include sweet
corn, peas and beans, oats, hay, apples and blueberries. On 1 Jan. 1959
the farm animals comprised 9,000 horses, 107,000 miIch cows, 192,000 all
cattle,i3,OOO sheep, 20,000 swine.
For'J8try. Lumber is an important manufacturing product, the annual
cut being about 465m. bd ft; production of pulpwood, 1958, was 1,791,029
cords; white pine, spruce and fir for wood pulp, hemlock, birch, cedar,
oak, maple, beech and ash are found. The national forests area in 1959
was 50,021 acres.
Mining. Minerals include sand and gravel, g·9m. short tons in 1958;
stone, 880,000 short tons; mica (sheet), 20,097 Ib; feldspar, 13,034 short
tons. Mineral output, 1958, was valued at $12,224,663.
Industry. In 1958 Maine had 2,387 manufacturing establishments
employing 100,874 production workers, earning 8369,175,413; gross value
of production, 81,343,655,606. Leading industry is paper with 50 plants,
16,772 workers and output valued at $364,339,642 (27% of the state's total
manufa.ctures in 1958).
COMMUNICATIONS. On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 2,601 miles of steam
railway tracks operated (main tracks, 1,929 miles). The state in 1958 con-
trolled 10,262 miles of roads. Commercially licensed airports, 1959, num-
bered 26 (17 municipal, including 1 international; 1 state); 11 were lighted;
in addition there were 52 private landing areas and 4 military airports
registered. There were 15 licensed commercial and 46 registered non-
comme:rcial seaplane bases.
Books of Reference
Mai ... R.,gi.~r. Stal. Year-Book and L'f}i.laliv. Manual. PorUlUld. Annual
Federal Writers'Project. Main" A Uuidt 'Down Eall. Boston, 1937
Attwood. Stanley B., Ltnglh and Breadlh Of Main.. Augusta, 1946
Jewett, 1'. E., A Finaneiallli ..tory of Main.. New York and London, 1937
Rowe, W. H., MarUim. Hiltory of Main.. New York, 1948
Starkey, G .• Maine: iu Hislorv, Resourcct and Governmenl. 1947
MARYLAND
GOVERNMENT. Maryland, first settled in 1634, was one of the 13
original states. The present constitution dates from 1867; . it has had 79
amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 29, and &
House .)f Delegates of 123 members, both elected for 4 years, Voters are
citi2:ens who have the usual residential qualifications.
MARYLAND 695
At the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 559,737 votes,
Stevenson 372,603.
The state is divided into 23 counties and Baltimore City. The state
capital is Annapolis. Maryland sends to Congress 2 senators and 7 re·
presentatives.
Governor. J. l\Iillard Tawes (D.), 1959-63 ($15,000).
Secretary of State. Thomas B. Finan (R.), 1959-63 ($10,000).
miles 8"e inland water; the Chesapeake Bay ocoupies 1,203 sq. miles.
Census population, 1 April 1950, 2,343,001, an increase since 1940 of 521,757
or 28·6%. In 1958 births were 67,311 (22·8 per 1,000 population); deaths,
27,079 (9,2); infant deaths, 2,079 (30'9 per 1,000 live births); marriages,
41,403 (14); divorces, 5,043. Estimated population, 1 July 1959, was
3,031,000.
Population for 4 federal censuses (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
White Neg\'o Indian Asiatic Tote\ mile
1920 1,204,737 244,479 32 413 1,449,661 146·8
1930 1,354,226 276,379 50 871 1,631,526 165·0
1940 1,518,481 301,931 73 759 1,821,244 184·2
1950 1,954,975 385,972 314 1,084 2,343,001 237·1
Male. 972,710 192,537 211 674 1,166,603
Female 982,265 193,436 103 410 1,176,398
Native whites, 1950, were 1,870,535; foreign· born whites, 84,440.

Of the total population in 1950, 1,615,902 persons (69%) were urban
(59'3% in 1940); those 21 years old or older numbered 1,527,356.
The largest city in the state (containing 40% of the population of the
state in 1950) is Baltimore, with 9·19,708. Other cities. with population
in 1950, are Cumberland, 37,679; Hagerstown, 36,260; Frederick, 18,142;
Salisbury, 15,141; Annapolis (capital), 10,047 (including suburbs annexed
in 1950, 17,963; this excludes the U.S. Naval Academy).
RELIGION. The Roman Catholic Church, with 326,924 adherents in
1953, is tbe leading denomination; next come the Methodist (212,746) and
Jewish Congregations.
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory from 7 to 16 years of age. In
Oct. 1958 the public elementary schools (including kindergartens) had
342,670 pupils, and secondary schools had 214,870 pupils. Teachers in the
elementary schools numbered 11,228; secondary schools had 9,556 teachers.
Average salary of principals and teachers in elementary and secondary
schools was $5,023. Current expenditure by local school boards on edu-
cation, 1956-57 was $135,675,435, of which the state's contribution was
$43,333,628.
An important institution for higher education is Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity, organized in 1876, with, in 1958-59, 1,472 teachers and 7,689 students.
Goucher College for Women (1885), at Towson, had (1957-58) 78 instructors
and 705 students. Other institutions are the Peabody Institute for Music,
the Maryland Institute School of Art and Design, and University of Mary.
land, at Baltimore and College Park, with (1958-59) 2,162 professors and
21,479 students.
WELFARE. Under the supervision of the State Department of
Public Welfare, local welfare departments administer Public Assistance for
needy I 'ersons who have lived in the state for at leaat one year. In Dec.
1958, 9,786 persons were receiving Old Age A88istance, with an average of
$56·45 per month; 2,886 persons were receiving general public a.ssistance,
with an average oU61'08; 459 blind persons, $61-12; 5,430 persons per-
manently and totally disabled, $64'23; 7,930 families, $112·58 per family. in
respect of 25,678 dependent children. In 1957 the state had 82 hospitals
(29,980 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association_
Prisons on 31 Dec. 1958 had 4,847 men and 190 women; the total equalled
174 per 100,000 population, a high rate, which may be explained by the
fact tht.t Maryland incarcerates domestic relations law violators in state
prisons.
There were 2 executions in 1959; since 1930 there have been 67 execu·
tions (by letha.l ga.s)-7 whites and 36 Negroes for murder, and 6 whites and
18 Negroes for rape.
Stat"ltes have required separation of whites and Ncgroes in all educational
institutions, reform schools, farm and trade schools, and tuberculosis
hospitals. Inter-racial marriage is prohibited. Bowing to the 1950
Supreml ' Court decisions declaring segregation unconstitutional, the Univer-
sity of Maryland and other public and private colleges admitted Negro
studentll in Sept. 1956. Elementary and secondary schools accept the
ruling and gradual integration is under way in all counties under different
methodll.
FINANCE. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958 general revenues
were $M5,657.000 ($252,686,000 from taxation and $51,996,000 from federal
grants); general expenditures, $407,113,000 ($93,209,000 for education,
$146,673,000 for highways and $21,464,000 for public welfare).
On :10 June 1958 the net long.term debt of the 8tate amounted to
$442,331,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture is an important industry
in the Sl;a.te; about 83% of the farms (1954) were worked by their owners.
In 1954 there were 32,500 farms with an area. of 3,896,608 acres (61,6% of
the land area); the average farm was 119·9 acres valued at $20,355 (only
$8,596 in 1945). In 1958 there were 23 soil· conservation districts eml>rac-
ing 6,09B,560 acres, of which 3,913,991 acres were farm land.
Cash income, 1958, from crops a.nd livestock, $264·5m. Output of
tomatoes, for processing, is about 104,000 tons. Other crops in 1957 were :
Wheat (4.233,000 bu.), maize (27,776,000 bu.), hay, potatoes, tobacco
(33·15m. lb.). The farm animals in the state on 1 Jan. 1959 were: Horses
and mules, 14,000; milch cows, 243,000; all cattle, 529,000; sheep, 47,000;
swine, 195,000.
Mining. Output of coal in 1957 wa.s 759,885 short tons. Maryland
produce! some natural gas, lime and clays, but sand and gravel (7·86m.
short tons in 1958) and stone (6·72m. short tons) acconnt for about 60%
of the value of total mineral output ($44·7m. in 1958).
Industry. In the census of 1954, 3,280 manufactories had 255,627
product:ion workers earning $997,337,000; valued added by manufacture
was $1,884,481,000, compared with $420,589,000 in 1939. Steel manu·
facture .md copper smelting and refining are the chief industries. The steel
industry ranks seventh in aize with a capacity, 1 Jan. 1957, of 6,352,000 short
tons of ingots and steel for castings.
MASSACHUSETTS 697
COMMUNICATIONS. The state maintains a network of roads 4,460
miles in extent; local roads 13,320 miles; municipal roads, 3,163 miles.
Steam railways had (1957) 1,199 miles ofline. There were. 1958, 41 airports,
including 28 general. In exports Baltimore is the third largest seaport in
the U.S., and the fifth largest in imports.
Books of Reference
Maryland Manual: A Compendium Of Legal. Historical and Statistica Inform4lion "lating
to the State 01 Maryland. Secretary of State. Annapolis. Annua
Federa.! Writers' Project. Marvland: A Guid~ to tM Old Line State. New York, 1940
Andrews, M. P .• '1'", Founding of Maryland. New York and London. 1933.-His/,Qrv of
Jla,vland: P,oDince and Stat~. Garden City. New York, 1929
STATE LIBRARY. Maryland State Library, Anoapol!s. Di,eclor: Nelson J. Moltar.
MASSACHUSETTS
GOVERNMENT. The first permanent settlement within the borden
of the present state was made at Plymouth in Dec. 1620, by tbe Pilgrims
from Holland, who were separatists from the English Church, and formed
the nucleus of the Plymouth Colony. In 1628 another company of Puritans
settled at Salem, forming eventually the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In
1630 Boston was settled. In 1629 tbe whole region called New England
was formed into a province, the government of which was divided between
the colony of Plymouth and that of Massachussetts Bay, but in 1691 they
were united. In the struggle which ended in the separation of the American
oolonies from the mother country, Massachusetts took the foremost part,
and in 1780 adopted its present constitution (81 amendments since adopted)
and on 6 Feb. 1788 became the sixth state to ratify the U.S. constitution.
The legislative body, styled the General Court of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts, meets annually. and consists of the Senate with 40 members,
elected biennially, and the House of Representatives of 240 members. elected
for 2 years in 160 districts, each of which returns I, 2 or 3 representatives
according to the number of legal voters. The Governor and Lieut.·Governor
are elected for 2 years. The state sends 2 sena.tors and H representa.tives to
the }'ederal Congress.
At the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 1,393,197 votes,
Stevenson 948.190; 39,623 ballot papers \vere blank.
Electors are all adult citizens, with the usual residential qualifications,
who can read and write the English language; excluded are paupers and
those under guardianship.
The state has 14 counties, 39 cities and 312 towns; the capital is Boston.
Gover1U)r. Foster Furcolo (D.), 1959-61 (salary, $20,000).
Lieut.·Governor. Robert F. Murphy (D.) (Sl1,OOO).
Secretary of the Commonwealth. Joseph D. Ward (D.) ($ll,OOO).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 8,257 sq. miles. 390 sq. miles being
inland water (the state census of 1955 put the area at 7.837'7 sq. miles).
The census population 1 April 1950 was 4,690.514, an increase of 373,793
or 8·7% since 1940. The state census, 1 Jan. 1955. showed 4,837,645. of
which 2,335.019 were males: federal estimate, 1959. 4,951,000. Births,
1957, were 116,428 (24'1 per 1,000 population); deaths, 64.619 (ll'3 per
1.000); infant deaths, 26,555 (22'8 per 1.000 live births); marriages (1956).
49.385 (10'3). divorces (1956 estimate), 5,982. Massachusetts was the first
state in which annual vital statistics were published.
Population at 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex, 1950):

Per sq.
White Negro Indian Asiatic Totel mU.
191(, 3,324,926 38,066 688 2,747 3,366,416 418·8
193(' 4,192,992 62,361) 874 3,383 4,249,614 63704
194(' 4,267,696 61),391 769 2,966 4.316,721 645·9
19M' 4,611,603 73,171 5,840 4,690,514 696·2
Male. 2,230,216 36,229 All otbe~ 3,922 2,270,367
Female 2,381,281 36,942 1,918 2,420,147
Of the total population in 1950, 3,939,730 persons (84'5%) were urban

(89'4% in 1940); those 21 years old or older numbered 3,206,869. The
1955 census reported 4,443,523 (91'9%) living in concentrations of 5,000 or
more; 3,292,525 were 20 years old or older. Native whites, 1950, were
3,897,804; for~gn.bom whites, 713,699.
In 1955 (stato census) the population of the principal cities was:
Boston (capital) 724,102 Oambridge . 98,968 Medford 65,393
Worcester 202,612 Somerville 97,032 Broctton 62,628
Springfield . 166,062 Lowell 93,876 Maiden 59,497
New Be,Hord 105,488 Newton 86,:;35 Pitt&ield 55,290
Fall Rher 10li,196 Quincy 84,496 Holyoke li3,213
Lynn 99,020 Lawrence 76,094 Waltham 50,116
RE.LIGION. The principal religious bodies are the Roman Catholics

with 2.448,312 membets in 1958; Jewish Congregations, 202,827; Congre-
gationnIists, 207,500; Methodists, 98,803; Episcopalians, 100,505; Uni.
tarian!,30,512. Total membership, all denominations, was 3,196,822.
EDUCATION, School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to

16 years of age (except in certain instances). Children are excused attend-
ance at school for religious instruction (outside school) for periods not
exceeding one hour per week, but no public funds may be expended in con-
nexion with this. For the school year ending 30 June 1957 the current
expendture for public schools was $217,768,081, and capital outlay,
$38,515,424. The public elementary schools had 19,602 classroom teachers
($4,511t) and 524,952 pupils; the secondary schools had 12,420 classroom
teachers (84,730) and 255,941 pupils. There are 1 state university, 9 state
teachers' colleges, a school of art, a maritime academy and 3 technical
institU1;6s.
Within the state there are 40 colleges and universities, 21 professional
BcbOOllo, 17 junior colleges, with about 10,500 professors and instructors,
and 98.000 students. Some of the leading institutions (1957) are:
Professors
Year Name and location of universities and
opened and colleges instructors Student.
1636 Harvard University, Oambridge 1 • 3,201 10,566
1793 WlIUams College, WilliBlllstown 1 • 158 1,066
1821 Amherst College, Amherst 1 • 171 1,044
1834 Wbeaton College. N orton'. . . 91 660
1837 MOWlt Holyoke College, South Hadley' . 166 1,379
1843 Holy Oross College, Worcester ' . . 133 1,828
1862 Tufts University, Medford'. . . 1,051 3.989
1861 Mass. Institute of Technology, Oambridge 3 1,063 6,591
1863 Boston College (RO.), Ohestnut Hill' • 311 7,065
1867 University of M...sachusetts, Amberst' . 365 4,003
1869 Boston University, Boston' . 1,806 29,282
18il Smlth Oollege, Northampton' 324 2,369
1875 WeUeeley Oollege, Wellesley' 185 1,768
1 For men only. I For women only. • Oo-educational.
MASSACHUSETTS 699
Professors
Year Name and location of universitieg and
opened and colleges Instructors Students
1879 RadclHfe College, Cambridge' . 400' 1,923
1887 Polytechnic Institute, \Vorcester . 130 144
1887 Clark University, Worcester I 118 1,138
1898 Northeastern University, Boston I . 269 12,700
1902 Simmons College, Boston' . 278 1,438
1919 Emmanuel College, Boston' . 7~ 616
1927 Regis College, WestoD ~ . 73 609
1948 Stonehill College, North Easton'. . . . 39 300
1948 Brandeis University (non-sectaria.n, Jewish-sponsored)
Waltham' . . . . 140 1,009
1949 Merrlmac College, North Andover' 49 1,178
1 For men only. I Co-edueatiom~t. • For women only.
• Radcliffe College is affiliated with, but is not legally 8 part of, Harvard University;
the Harvard faculty of Arts and Sciences is the faculty of Radclill'e College.
WELFARE. On 30 June 1958 the state had 18 public institutions for

the insa.ne, the feeble-minded and epileptics, as well as 34 private hospitals,
including 4 veterans' hospitals. The number under public care in institu-
tions for the mentally ill, 1 July 1958, was 23,553; feeble-minded,7,297.
Old Age Assistance (no maximum) was established in conformity with
Federal Social Security Law for those citizens 65 years of age or older
who have lived in the state 3 out of the last 9 years with I year immediately
preceding application; in Dec. 1958, 84,146 were drawing an average of
$95·96 per month; 13,940 families (47,069 dependants), $156·41; 2,079
blind, $117'59; 9,838 totally disabled, $112-4. In 1957 the state had 209
hospitals (67,080 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association.
Massachusetts is one of the 2 states which forbid the import or sale of
contraceptives_
The penal institutions consist of 7 state and 16 county institutions. On
31 Dec. 1958 they had 1,742 men and 164 women, or 40 per 100,000 popula-
tion (national average, 107). In 1959 there were no executions; since 1930
there have been 27 (25 whites and 2 Negroes), all for murder.
In 1946 the state adopted a • Fair Employment Practice Act' designed
to enforce the thesis that' the right to work without discrimination because
of race, colour, religious creed, national origin or ancestry is hereby declared
to be a right and privilege of the inhabitants of the commonwealth.' See
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BoOK, 1956, p. 671. In addition, a Civil Rights
Act (1933) forbids 'places of accommodation and resort' to discriminate
• hecause of sect, creed, class, race, colour or nationality.' These Acts do
not apply to educational institutions.
FINANCE. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958 the general revenue
of the state was $600,512,000 ($415,185,000 from taxes and $115,971,000
from federal aid); general expenditures, $698,609,000 ($85,821,000 for
education, $172,877,000 for highways and $105,623,000 for public welfare).
The net long-term debt on 30 June 1958 amounted to $1,138,164,000.
PRODUCTION. A(!Ticulture. In 1954 there were 17,361 farms

(37,007 in 1945), with an area of 1,439,000 acres and a total value of
$225,826,000; average farm was 82·9 acres valued at $16,434. 14,133
fa.rms were operated by full owners, 193 by managers and 50ti by tenants.
Commercial farms numbered 10,966. Cash income, 1958, from crops and
livestock, $179·4m. Principal crops in 1958 were: Potatoes, 1·17m. bu.;
cranberries, 585,000 bbls (leading all states); tobacco, 3,955,000 lb.; hay and
apples. On 1 Jan. 1959 farms in the state had 106,000 milch cows, 156,000
all cattl,~, 148,000 swine and 12,000 sheep.
The national forests area in 1957 was 1,651 acres.
Mining. There is little mining within the state. Total mineral output
in 1958 was valued at $23,887,000.
Indu8try. In 1956, 1l,205 manufacturing establishments employed
677,140 production workers, who earned $2,528,996,000; value added by
manufanture was $4,356,462,000. Chief industries were woollen and worsted
goods, hoots and shoes, cotton goods, electrical machinery, foundry and
machinE' shop products, women's clothing, rubber goods, printing and
publishing, leather, and paper and wood pulp.
COMMUNICATIONS. On 31 Dec. 1957 there were 1,705 miles of steam
railwaYE in the state. There were (1957) 122 airports, of which 23 were
publicly owned commercial airports, 32 privately owned commercial air-
ports and 50 were privately owned landing fields; of the 17 seaplane bases,
{) were military, 6 commercial and 6 private. In 1957 the state maintained
1,992 miles of roads; local roads, 14,1l3 miles; total highway mileage,
25,662. The state (Aug. 1957) registers 1,420,761 private passenger motor
cars (on,~ for every 3'5 persons), 6,360 public buses and 171,989 commercial
vehicles.
Books of Reference
M ..1Iua/ /,or IM Gom...al Cuurt. By Clerk 01 the Senate and Clerk 01 the House at Repre-
p,entatives. Boston, Ma.lIs. Annual
M ....ach"".r:. Slate GOfJernmoml: a ritizom', handbook. Cambridge, Mass., 1956
FrothinghiUIl. L. A., B~f History o/Ik ComlilUlion and Govern"...,., 01 Ma8lachmeUs. Boston
and New York, 1926
Hart, A .•11., Commonwealth Hislory Of Ma •.•achwtlts. 5 vols. New York, 1927-30
Morison, E\amuel Eliot, Three Centuries Of Ilart'ard. Harvard, 1936.-Tht' MaritiTM Huwrv
of Ma...wtutlU, 1783-1860. Boston, 1941
Sly, J. F., T ..... G""...nffle1C1 in JLassachustIU 1620-/930. London and Cambridge, Mass.
1930
MICHIGAN
GOVERNMENT. Michigan, first settled by Marquette at Sault Ste
Marie in 1668, became the Territory of Michigan in 1805, with its boundaries
grelltly I'nlarged in 1818 and 1834; it was admitted into the Union with its
present boundaries on 26 Jan. 1837. The present constitution dates from
1908; it has had 63 amendments. The Senate consists of 34 members and
the Hou.~e of Representatives of 110 members, all elected for 2 years, as are
also the GOl'emor and Lieut.-Governor. Electors arc all citizens over 21
yesrs of age meeting the usual residential requirements. The state sends
to CongI'e88 2 senators and 18 representatives. The state is organized in 83
counties; the capital is Lansing.
At the 1966 presidential election Eisenhower polled 1,713,646 votes,
Stevenson 1,359,898.
Govel'1W1'. G. Mennen Williams (D.), 1959-61 (322,500).
Lieut.-Governor. John B. Swainson (D.), 1959-61 (58,500).
Sureea"lI 0/ State. James M. Hare (D.), 1959-61 ($12,600),
sq_ mile8 are land area, 1,194 sq. miles are inland water and 38,575 sq. miles
are Grent Lakes area. Census population 1 April 1950, 6,371,766, an
MICHIGAN 701
increase of 1,115,660 or 21'2% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 Jan.
1959, was 7,892,900. In 1958 births were 202,104 (25·7 per 1,000 popula.
tion); deaths, 65,899 (8,4); infant deaths, 4,958 (24'5 per 1,000 live births);
marriages, 55,159 (14); divorces, 14,040.
Population of 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex in
1950):
Per sq.
White Negro India.n AlIiatic Total mile
1910 ',786.247 17,116 7,619 292 2,810,17S 48·9
1930 4,663,607 169,463 7,080 2,285 ',842,326 8-\ ·9
1940 6,039,643 208,346 6,282 1,836 6,266,106 92·'
1960 6,917,825 ,*2,296 7,000 4,646 6,371,766 111·7
Male. 2,983,372 222,011 3,806 2,931 8,212,119
Female 2,934,463 220,285 3,196 1,714 3,169,647

(65'7% in 1940). Native whites, 1950, 5,314,090; foreign born whites,
603,735. Those 21 years old or older numbered 4,106,606.
Population of the chief cities (census of 1 April 1950) was:
Detroit 1,849,668 Pontiac 73,681 Ann Arbor. 48,261
Grand Rapid. 176,515 Kalamazoo . 57,704 Royal Oak. 46,898
Fiint. 163,143 Bay City 62,523 Highland Park 46,393
Dearbom 94,994 Jackson 51,088 Hamtrrunck 43,366
Saginaw 92,918 Battle Creek 48,666 Wyandotte. 36,846
Lansing (capital): 92,129 Muskegon 48,429 Port Huron 36,725
RELIGION. Leading religious bodies are the Roman Catholics, with

1,868,540 members in 1959; Methodists, 180,995, without including Free or
Wesleyan Methodists; Lutheran (National Lutheran Council), 421,218 (1957).
No recent total figures for all denominations are available.
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory for children from 6 to 16 years
of age. The operating expenditure for graded and ungraded public schools,
for the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958, was $487,217,955; total, including
oapital and debt expenditures, $810,534,034. In 1958 there were 2,499
8chool districts (elementary and secondary sohools) with 1,518,121 pupils
and 55,794 teachers. Teachers' salaries averaged $5,340. As of 30 Sept.
1958 the 15 junior and community colleges reported 777 instructors and
22,784 pupils. There are 4 colleges of education with 1,116 teachers and
16,651 students in eRtimated full· time enrolment. The State University
of Michigan, founded in 1817 at Detroit, and removed to Ann Arbor in 1841,
had in Sept. 1958, 2,109 teachers and 22,219 students; Michigan State
University of Agriculture and Applied Science, at East Lansing, had (Sept.
1958) 1,529 teachers and 19,516 students; Ferris Institute, at Big Rapids,
98 teachers and 2,284 students; Michigan College of Mining and Technology,
at Houghton, 217 professors and instructors and 2,961 students; Wayne,
State University, at Detroit, 1,107 instructors and 18,313 students. Total
gross income (1957-58) for general education purposes for the 9 public colleges
and universitiel! was $107,936,509, including $73,710,188 state appropria.
tions and $19,082,977 from students' fees.
WELFARE. Old Age A88istance (maximum $80 a month, or $90
if receiving hospital or convalescent care) was established in 1933 for
persons 65 years of age or older who have resided in Michigan 5 years in the
last 9, including the last year before application; assets must not exceed
various limits. In Aug. 1959, 64,033 persons were drawing an average of
$64·43 a. month; aid to 69,652 dependent children in 26,887 families,

$131·8:1 per family; aid to 1,783 blind residents, $71·32; aid to 4,325 per.
manen1;ly and totally disabled persons, $79·05 per month. In 1958 the
state t.ad 248 hospitals (70,899 beds) listed by the American Hospital
Association. In 1958 the average daily census of the 23 mental and allied
hospitals was 27,747.
On 1 July 1957 a new programme came into force which provides for
free mvdical care and hospitalization of certain categories of persons. The
state contributes up to 90% of the total cost out of a special fund; and the
State Department of Social Welfare ultimately determines the need for
hospitalization.
The Civil Rights Act (1885,last amended 1956) orders all places of public
resort to furnish equal accommodations to all without di8crimination.
Another Act (1941) forbids the Civil Service in counties with population
exceeding 300,000 to discriminate against employees or applicants on the
ground, of •political, racial or religious opinions or affiliations' except for
membership in any organization which advocates disloyalty to the govern.
ment. A third Act (1881; incorporated in tbe school code of 1955) forbids
any discrimination in school facilities and a fourth one (1893; incorporated
in the insurance code of 1956) prohibits the insurance companies from
discriminating between white and coloured persons. Michigan adopted the
Fair Employment Practices Act in 1955.
In 1.923 Michigan passed an Act permitting, under legal safeguards, the
stcriliwtion of insane and feeble-minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1959, 969
men and 2,667 women ha.d been thus sterilized
The state's penal institution on 3 Sept. 1959 held 9,374 men and 308
women (ranking third in the number of womcn); total equalled 120 per
100,OOe population. The death penalty is forbidden in Michigan except for
treason; there have been no executions since 1847.
In 1.951 the legislature restored the unique one-man grand jury system
abandoned in 1949.
FIriANCE. For the year ending 30 June 1958 the general revenue
was $1 ,.109,812,000 (taxation, 8794,161,000 and federal aid, $168,529,000);
general expenditures, $1,259,354,000 (education, $498,921,000; highways,
$322,8?7,OOO, and public welfare, $107,227,000).
Total bonded indebtedness of the state on 30 June 1959 was $177,607,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The state, formerly agricultural, is
now chiefly industrial, with the motor-car industry leading. In 1954 it
contained 138,922 farms with a total area of 16,466,750 acres in farms;
the av{,rage farm was 118·5 acres valued at $15,466. Commercial farms
numbered 98,214 (106,824 in 1950).
In 1959 there were 76 soil-conservation districts embracing 30,158,265
acres (including non-farm land); this included all land in 71 of Michigan's
83 counties. Cash income, 1958, from crops, $306·2m.; from livestock
and products, $407·9m. Principal crops are hay, maize, oats, winter
wheat, sugar beet, potatoes, soybeans, field beans and fruit. On 1 Jan.
1959 there were in the state 424,000 sheep, 33,000 horses and mules, 820,000
milch cows, 1,829,000 all cattle and 719,000 swine. In 1959 the wool clip
yielded 2,785,000 lb. of wool from 349,000 sheep. The area of national
forest Jand (30 June 1958) was 2,549,748 acres; state forests (1959),
3,762,4il6 acres; state parks and sites, 114,267 acres; state game area,
187,070 acres; recreation areas, 62,107 acres.
MINNESOTA 703
Mining Of the mineral output in 1958, iron ore amounted to 8,210,906
long tons; Portland cement, 20,911,990 bbls; copper, 122· 1m. lb.; salt,
4·300. short tons (about 20% of the U.S. total); gypsum, 130,889 short
tons; stone, 18·6m. short tons; limestone, 8·2m. short tons. Petroleum
output in 1958 was 9,308,018 bbls ; natural gas,IO,964,378m. cu. ft; natural
gasoline, 3,511,671 gallons. Mineral output in 1958 was valued at
$349,522,000.
IndU8lry. Motor.vehicle mauufacturing is by far the leading industry
(over 50% of the U.S. total) with (1954) 353 plants which employed 246,079
(mid.March) and paid $1,738,924,000 in wages and salaries; the value added
by manufacture was $3,009,913,000. The 129 iron and steel foundries
(1954) employed 32,384 and paid $154,468,000 in wages and salaries; value
added by manufactures was $230,096,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. On I Nov. 1959 there were 6,954 miles of rai l·
way. Airports, 1959, numbered 2lJ; seaplane bases, 9. State trunkline
mileage (Jan. 1959) totalled 9,478, of which 8,908 was hard surfaced. Motor
vehicle registrations, 30 Sept. 1959,3,535,833.
Books of Reference
Mich4tan Department of Economic Development. PubliclUions. Lansing
Jfichigan Manual. Dept. of State. Lan.ing. Biennial
MichitJa1l Statistical AbSlracl, Bureau Of Bu,'iness Res.arth. MicWgnn State Unlv. East
Lenslng, 1968
Jlanual ~f seau GOfJernmetl l . Unlv. of Mich lg~n. Ann Arbor, 1949
Writers' Program. Jlichiq<JlI: A Guide to the Wolverine State. New York, 1946
Dald. F. OIever, Afichigan in Feu., Cenlurie&, New York, ] 954
Turano, P . J ., M'(h0an seau and Local Govem,nent and Politic" a bibliography. UDiv. 0
Michigan. Ann Arl>or, 1965
STATE LmR.iIlY. MIchigan State Li:'rary, Lansing 13. State Librarian: AIrs Loleta D.
Fyan.
MINNESOTA
GOVERNMENT. Minnesota, first explored in the 17th century and
first settled in the 20 years following the establishment of Fort Snelling
(1819), was made a. Territory in 1849 (with parts of North and South Dakota),
and was admitted into the Union, with its present boundaries, on II May
1858. The present constitution dates from 1858; it has had 80 amend·
ments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 67 members, elected for
4 years, and a House of Representatives of 131 members, elected for 2 years.
The Governor and Lieut.·Governor are elected for 2 years.
Ste~enson 617,525.
There are 87 counties, few containing less than 400 sq. miles. The
capital is St Paul. The state scnds to Congress 2 senators and 9 reprc·
sentatives.
Governor. Orvillc L. Freeman (DFL.), 1959-61 (SI9,ooO!.
Lieut.·Governor. K arl F. Rolvaag (DFL.) ($4,800).
Secretary of Slate. Joseph L. Donovan (DFL.) ($14,500).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 84,068 ·sq. miles, of which 4,059

sq. miles are water. Census population, I April 1950,2,982,483, an increase
of6·8% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 April 1958, 3,369,066. Births
in 1958, 84,924 (25'2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 30,655 (9'1); infant
death3. 1.953 (23 per 1.000 live births); marriages. 23.554 (7); divorces.
3.881.
P(,pulation in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per Iq.
WhIte Negro Indian Asiatic Totel rolle
1910 2.069,227 7,084 9,06! 344 2,076,708 26· 7
1930 2,542,699 9,445 11,077 832 2,663,963 32-0
1940 2,768,982 9,928 12,628 862 2,792,300 84-9
1950 2,953,697 14,022 12,633 2,231 2,982,483 37-3
Male _ 1,486,160 7,278 6,420 1,350 1,601,208
Female 1,467,631 6,744 6,113 881 1,481,275
NI,tive whites, 1950, numbered 2.743.466; foreign-born whites. 210,231.

Of th,~ 1950 population. 1.624,914 persons (54-5%) were urban (49 -8% in
1940), Those 21 years of age or older numbered 1.910.633.
Tl_e largest cities are Minneapolis, with a population of 521.718 in 1950
(consu); St Paul (capital), 311,349; and Dulutb, 104.511.
RELIGION. The chief religious bodies are : Lutheran with 744,245
members in 1957; Roman Catholic, 690,807; Methodist, 93,389. Total
mem\:ership of all denominations, 1,836,015.
E))UCATION. In 1958-59, 2,806 elementary schools had 15,289
teachurs and 402,566 enrolled pupils; 675 public secondary schools had
13.53l: teachers and 253,656 pupils. In 1957-58 tbe 26,538 teachers had
an aVllrage salary of $4,699. The total public school expenditure (1957-58)
wad $:142,189,407, of which $98,362,997 came from state funds. The Univer-
sity of Minnesota at Minneapolis, chartered in 1851 and opened in 1869. had
a tots.! enrolment in 1958-59 of 30,955 students and 9,045 staff_ Other
institutions were: Hamline University, at St Paul, founded in 1854 ; St
John'n University, at Collegeville; Carleton College and St Olaf College. at
North field. and Macalestcr, St Catherine's, and St Thomas Colleges at
St Pa-lI.
WELFARE. In June 1959.48,074 persons were receiving in Old Age
Assistance an a.verage of $84-62 per month; 9.200 families with 27,380
dependent children. an a.verage of $150-55 per month; 1.119 blind persons.
$94·9:i per month; 2.075 totally disabled, S6H8. In 1959 the state had
231 hjSpitals and specialized units (28,420 beds); also 5 federal hospitals
(2,457 beds). In June 1959 hospitals for mental diseases had 10,648
patieLts, and institutions for mentally defective and epileptiC, 5.220 patients.
In 1957 a Community Mental Health Act authorized the establishment
of mental health centres in local communities with grants from the state
to be matched by local funds.
A Civil Rights Act (1927) forbids places of publio resort to exclude
persOIlS 'on account of race or colour' and another section forbids insurance
companies to discriminate' between persons of the same class on account of
race.' Contractors on publio works may have their contra.ctscancelled if
'in tbe hiring of common or skilled labour' tbey are found to have dis·
criminated on tbe grounds of 'race, creed or colour.'
Tb.e state's penal, reformatory system on 30 June 1959 held 2,209 men
and women. There is no death penalty in Minnesota.
FINANCE. General revenues for tbe year ending 1 July 1958 were
$484,:J25.0oo (taxation. $319,777.000, and federal aid, $88,103,000);
MINNESOTA 705
general expenditures, 8485,856,000 (education, 8183,103,000; highways,
8126,812,000, and public welfare, 845,013,000).
The state's four principal trust funds (derived from royalties from state·
owned ironmines, special tax on iron ore, and sales of land and of timber) on
1 July 1959 totalled 8298,819,665.
Net long.term debt, 30 June 1959, was 5158,069,197.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Although industry has assumed first

position, Minnesota is still an important agricultural state. In 1954 it
contained 165,225 farms with a total area of 32,285,000 8.cres (64% of the
land area); the average farm was of 195·4 acres valued (land and buildings)
at 821,054. Commercial farms numbered 146,527; 68% of all farms had
telephones, 94% had electricity and 148,000 farms had 255,000 tractors;
19,8% of the farms were operated hy tenant·farmers.
Of the total surface area (51,452,394 acres), 6·7% was found, in 1939,
seriously eroded and 71'9% with little or no erosion. In 1956 there were
72 soil·conservation districts embracing 28,480,000 acres, of which 23,806,000
acres were farm land in 128,000 farms and ranches.
Cash income, 1958, from crops, S378·7m.; from livestock, $982·1m.
In 1958 l\Iinnesota ranked first in creamery butter and sweet corn for pro·
cessing; second in oats and turkeys. Other important crops are maize,
soybeans, flax and green peas. On 1 Jan. 1959 the farm animals included
61,000 horses, 3,973,000 all cattle, 1,451,000 ruilch cows, 987,000 sheep end
3,815,000 swine. In 1958 the wool clip amounted to 6,052,000 lb. of wool
from 782,000 sheep.
Fore,ytry. Forests of commercial timber cover 18·1m. acres, of which
the national forest area, 1958, is 4,210,675 acres; value of forest products,
1957, was 8201,034,766.
Mining. The mining of iron ores, mostly red magnetite, in the l\Iesabi,
Vermilion and Cuyuna ranges, is important, for Minnesota produces about
65% of the nation's iron ore; output in 1958 amounted to 42·5m. long
tons. But these valuable deposits are being exhausted and the state's
abundant resources of lo\v.grade ore-taconite-are becoming lllcreasingly
important. Value of mining output, 1958, was S395·9m.
Industry. The census of manufactures of 1954 showed 5,052 manufac·
turing establishments employing 203,993 production workers, who earned
S838·9m.; value added by manufacture (1957) was 81,999m.
COMMUNICA TIONS. There are 26 rail roads operating, with first

main·line mileage of 8,251 (total track miles, 12,,'542). The state highway
system covered 11,795 miles; total highway mileage, 123,367. Airports in
1959 numbered 138 (100 municipal, 17 commercial, 21 seaplane).
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFonMATION. Current Information i. obtainable from the Department ot
Business Development (213 Stnte Office Building. St Paul 1); non·current material from
the Reference Library, Minnesota Historical Society, St Paul 1.
Federal Writers' Project. Jfinnesota: A State Guide. Rev. ed. New York, 1954
Legi,lrUive Manual. Secretary of State. St Paul. Biennial
MinmsoUJ al Mid·Point; an Economic Survey. Department 01 Business Development.
St Paul, 1950
Who's Who in Minm80ta. St Paul, 1958
Blegen, T. C., J(inn ..ota: II1 H;s/O'1I and It I People. Minneapolis,1937
AA
MISSISSIPPI
GOoVERNMENT. Mississippi, settled in 1716, was organized as a
Territory in 1798 and admitted into the Union on 10 Dec. 1817. In 1804
and in 1812 its boundaries were extended, but in March 1817 a part waa
taken to form the new Territory of Alabama, leaving the boundaries sub-
8tanti!.lly as at present. The present constitution was adopted in 1890
without ratification by the electorate; it has since had 32 amendments.
Th3 Legislature consists of a Senate (49 members) and a House of Repre-
sentat ,ves (140 members), both elected for 4 years, as are also the Governor
and Lieut.-Governor. The capital is Jackson; there are 82 counties.
Electors are all citizens who have resided in the state 2 years, in the election
district for 1 year (clergymen for 6 months) next before the election, have
paid the taxes required by law and have been registered. The applicant for
registration must be able to read the state constitution or show that he
underEtands it when it is read to him. In 1950 in 34 of the 82 counties
NegroHs constituted 49% or more of the population; Tunica County, with
82% Negro, had the highest percentage of any county in the U.S. Of the
1,139,000 potential voters in 1956,248,142 (21'7%) voted in the 1956 presi.
dentia ! elections; Stevenson polled 144,498, Eisenhower 60,685, and can-
didate,. for state right groups 42,961 votes.
Th'3 state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives.
GO'oIernor. Ross Barnett (D.), 1960-64 (815,000).
LiEUt.-Governor. Paul Johnson (D.) ($4,500 per regular session).
Secretary o/State. Reber Ladner (D.).
AF!EA AND POPULATION . Area, 47,716 sq. miles, 468 sq. miles
being :nland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 2,178,914, a decrease
of 4,8E2 or 0'2% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1958,2,186,000.
Births. 1958, were 59,473 (27'2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 21,492 (9'8);
infant deat.hs, 2,465 (41·4 per 1,000 live birth8-highest rate in U.S.);
marriages, 36,198 (16,6); divorces, 4,621.
Po)ulation of 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex in 1950):
Per sq.
White Negro Indian Asiatlo Total milo
191( 786,111 1,009,487 1,263 263 1,797,114 38·8
192( 8~3,962 936,184 1,106 367 1,790,618 38·6
194( 1,106,327 1,074,678 2,134 767 2,183,796 46·1
195( 1,188,632 986,494 2,602 1,286 2,178,914 46·9
Malo . 695,680 479,137 1,237 737 1.076,791
Female 69 2 ,9~2 ~07, 35 7 1,266 649 1,102, 123
Native whites, 1950, were 1,180,318; foreign-born whites, 8,314. Of

the population in 1950,607,162 persons (27'9%) were urban (10'8% in 1940).
Those 21 years old or older numbered 1,208,028; aliens numbered 2,172.
The largest cities (census of 1950) are Jackson, 98,271; Meridian, 41,893;
Biloxi, 37,425; Greenville, 29,936; Hattiesburg, 29,474; Vicksburg,
27,948; Laurel,25,038; Natchez,22,74O; Gulfport, 22,650.
RELIGION. Over half the church-going inhabitants of Mississippi are
Baptists. The Negro Baptists had 322,362 members in 1936 (approxi.
mately 540,000 in 1956) and Southern Baptists had 150,000 members in
1936 (121,917 in 1954), There were 107,245 Southern Methodists in 1936
a.nd IE8,797 white Methodists and 65,000 Negro Methodists in 1952. Tota.l
memb'lrship, all denominations, 873,514 (1936).
MISSISSIPPI 707
EDUCATION. Attendance at school was compulsory until repealed
by the Legislature in 1956. The state is one of 5 whose white colleges admit
no Negro students.
The elementary and secondary schools in 1956-57 had 545,231 pupils
(268,905 coloured) and 16,655 classroom teachers; private elementary and
high schools had 16,520 pupils. In 1956-57 salaries of the elementary and
secondary teachers ranged between $650 and $4,000, with an average of
$2,444. The expenditures (state and local) for elementary and secondary
education for 1956 were $64,611),410, and expenditure for higher education in
1956-57 was $17,865,000.
There are 44 universities and colleges, of which 8 are state·supported.
The University of Mississippi, at Oxford (1844), had, 1957, 176 instructors
and 3,964 students; Mississippi State CoII€'ge (1956), 235 teachers and 4,725
students; Mississippi State College for Women, at Columbus (1956), 82
instructors and 1,330 students; Mississippi Southern College, Hattiesburg,
had 143 instructors and 4,355 students; Jackson College, Jackson, 62 instruc·
tors and 1,063 students; Delta State College, 50 instructors and 610 students;
Alcorn College, 58 instructors and 853 students.
WELFARE. In Dec. 1958, 81,476 persons were rcceiving Old Age
Assistance amounting to an average of $29·56 per month; 17,422 families
with 52,130 dependent children were receiving $40'43 monthly; 5,766 blind
persons, 538'58 monthly; 7,052 permanently and totally disabled persons,
$29'58 per month.
In July 1957, 5 hospitals for mental diseases had 5,941 beds. In 1957
the state had 144 hospitals (7,281 beds) listed by the American Hospital
Association.
In 1925 Mississippi pnssed an Act permitting, under legal safeguards,
the sterilization of insane and feeble· minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958,
154 men and 448 women had been sterilized.
In 1959 there was no execution; from 1930 to 1959 executions (by gas-
chamber or by electrocution) have totalled 144, including 29 whites, 3
Negro women and 92 Negro mell for murder, 17 Negroes for rape and 3
Negroes for armed robbery. On 31 Dec. 1958 the state prisons had 2,066
inmates (95 per 100,000 population).
Statutes enforce segregation of Negroes in penal and reformative institu-
tions, hospitals (including mental hospitals), railways (including waiting-
rooms), buses and street cars. Marriage is prohibited between white and
Negro persons.
FINANCE. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958 the general revenues
were $263,495,000 (taxation, $163,596,000 and federal aid, S79,768,OOO)
and general expenditures were $262,533,000 ($89,999,000 for education,
$71,103,000 for highways and $43,915,000 for public welfare).
On 30 June 1958 the net long. term debt was S1l6,929,000.
PRODUCTION. Agricult-ure. Agriculture is the chief industry of the
state, which has a semi-tropical climate and a rich Boil. In 1954 the farms
numbered 215,912 with an area of 20,702,412 acres. Farms are small; the
average was 95·9 acres valucd at $6,126 in 1956. Farm owners numbered
93,069; tenant-farmers, 99,197 or 45·9% of the total (highest percentage in
the country).
Cash income, 1958, from crops and livestock, S543·9m. The chief pro-
duct is cotton, which was grown on I·lm. acres, and yielded 950,000
bales; yield per flcre, through better farming, has risen from 187 lb. in
1911-15 to 407 lb. in 1958; excluding the western states using irrigation,
Mississ:,ppi usually has the highest yield of the southern cotton states. The
state leads in the output of long.staple upland va.rieties and in 1957 was
third in total production despite loss owing to excessive rains. The state
leads ill output of tung nuts, 62,000 tons in 1957. Other crops are pecans,
sweet potatoes, maize, rice, wheat, oats, sorgo syrup and sugar·cane syrup.
On 1 Jan. 1959 there were in the state 170,000 horses and mules, 519,000
milch ('oWS, 2·36m. all cattle, 100,000 sheep and 741,000 swine.
In 1958 there were 74 soil· conservation districts covering 30,239,000
acres, C>f which 20·7m. acres were land in farms.
Fore-atry. After crops and livestock, timber is the third largest source
of income; about 2·3m. bd ft (valued at S360m. in 1956) are annually taken
from Hi·5m. acres of forests (49% of the state's area). National forests area,
1958, 2.861,661 acres. of which 1,133,979 were administered by the Forest
Service.
Mining. Mississippi produced petroleum (38·6m. bbls in 1958) ; some
fields also produced natural gas (output. 1958, 160.143m. cu. ft) . There are
3 oil re6neries. Mineral output, 1958, was valucd at $148,663,000.
Industry. In 1956 the 2,400 manufacturing establishments employed
113,000 production workers, earning S418m. ; value added by manufacture
was SI,184m.
COMMUNICA TIONS. The state in 1957 had 3,741 miles of steam rail-
way a~d , in 1956, maintained 7,126 miles of highways, of which 3,760 miles
were p.1ved ; total highways, 8,571 miles. There were 73 airports in 1958,
of whidl 39 were general and 34 limited.
Books of Reference
Jfi&.f'4&i,1pi Dlw· Book . Secretary of State. Jackson. Biennial
Federal Writers· Project. Mi.s.,i.ssippi : A Ouid'lo tit, Magnolia Slale. New York, 1949
Bctte.....·orth. J. K., Jlissi."ippi : a Ilis/or1/. Austin, Tex., 19b9
Higbsaw. R. B., and Fortenberry, O. N., TItt government u'ld adminislral' on of Mil$i&.fi1'pi.
New York, 1954
Rtport 0 .. /h. Organit4tion and Admj"',lra/i<m 0/ SIaI. and CounJy Oovtrnmenl in M ......i1'1'i.
Brooking>! Institution, Wasbington, D.O.
STAT~ LmRARY. Mississippi State Library, New Capitol Building, Jackson. Stat.
Ubraria'1: Miss Juli:> Sl"rncs.
MISSOURI
GOVERNMENT. Missouri, first settled in 1735 at Ste Genevieve, was
made a Territory on 1 Oct. 1812, and admitted to the Union on 10 Aug. 1821.
In 183'7 its boundaries were extended to their present limits. A new con·
stitutic-n, the sixth. was adopted on 27 Feb. 1945; it has been amended
(j timef.. The General Assembly consists of a S enate of 34 members elected
for 4 Y38.rs (half retiring every 2 years), and a House of Representatives of
154 members (maximum 200) elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-
Goverr.or are elected for 4 years.
Jefierson City is the state capital.
Votere (with the usual exceptions) are all citizens and those adult aliens
who, within a prescribed period, have applied for citizenship. No record is
kept of the qualified voters. In the 1956 presidential elections voters
numbered 1,833,673 (69% of those 21 years of age or over); Stevenson
polled 918,273 and Eisenhower 914,299 votes.
MISSOURI 709
The state is divided into 114 counties and tho city of St Louis. Missouri
sends to Congress 2 senators and 11 representatives.
Governor. J. T. Biair, Jr (D.), 1957-61 ($25,000).
Lieut.-Governor. E. V. Long (D.) (812,000).
Secretary of State. W. H. Toberman (D.) ($15,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Aren, 69,674 sq. miles, 448 sq. miles
being water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 3,954,653, an increase since
1940 of 4'5%. Estimated population, 1 July 1958, 4,240,300. Births, 1958,
were 96,721 (22'8 per 1.000 population); deaths, 46,729 (11); infant
deaths, 2,555 (26·4 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 31,965 (7'5); divorce~,
10,744.
Population of 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex in 1950):
Per sq.
1910 3,134,932 157,452 313 638 3,293,335 47·9
1930 3,403,876 223,840 578 1,073 3,629.367 52·4
1940 3,539,187 244,386 330 761 3,784,664 54·6
1950 3,655,593 297,088 5-1i 1,046 3,954,653 57·1
Male. 1,796,697 142,908 385 602 l,g·10.S63
Feulnle 1,858,896 154,180 162 444 2,013,790
Native whites, 1950, numbered 3,563,543; foreign-born whites, 92,050.

(51'8% in 1940). Those 21 years of age or older numbered 2,643,129.
The largest cities, with census popUlation in 1950, are:
St LOlli.. 856,796 Joplin . 38,711 Cape Girardeau 21,573
Kan8n~ City. 456,622 Indepenrlence 36,963 HannibKl 20,444
St Joseph. 78,588 Columbia. 31,974 Sedalia 20,35·1
Springlield . 66,731 Je1Iersoll City 25.099 Kirlrwood 18,640
University City 39,892 Webster Grc.cs 23,390 Olaytou 16,035
RELIGION. Chief religious bodies are Catholic, with 612,000 members

in 1954, Southern Baptist (300,000), Southern Methodists (240,000) and
Disciples of Christ (130,000). Total membership, all denominations,
1,850,000 in 1947.
EDUCATION. School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to

16 years for the full term. In 1958-59 the elementary and secondary
schools had 31,536 teachers and 805,357 enrolled pupils. Total expenditure
for public schools in 1956-57, $271,477,623. Teachers' salaries, 1958-59,
averaged $4,418. For superior instruction, the more important institutions
(1958-59) are the University of Missouri, at Columbia, founded in 1839,
with 2,207 teachers and 16,125 students, Washington University at St Louis,
founded in 1857, with 2,229 teachers and 13,528 students, St Louis Uni-
versity (1818) with 1,285 teachers and 8,496 students, Lincoln University
(1866) with 106 teachers and 1,702 students, and University of Kansas City
(1929) with 4;"55 teachers and 6,G16 students. Five state colleges had 613
teachers nnd 17,186 students.
WELFARE. In Aug. 1959 the state was paying Old Age Assistance to
118,555 persons, who received an average of $58·91 per month. In 1959
the state had 180 hospitals (20,949 beds) licensed by the Missouri Division
of Health (exclusive of state and federal hospitals). In July 1959 there
were 11,400 patients in mental hospitals, and 2 schools for the DlflntaUy
retarded had 2,530 students.
State prisons in 1959 had 3,111 inmates (73'4 per 100,000 (1958) populo..
t.ion). In 1959 there was no execution; since 1930 executions (by lethal
gas) have totalled 36, including 29 for murder, 4 for rape and 3 for kid·
napping. .
Stri"es in public utilities are forbidden, as are also strikes arising from
jurisdictional disputes between unions, sympathetic strikes and secondary
boycotts. Publio employees are forbidden to strike. No strike is 'legal'
unless the majority of employees vote for it in a secret ballot supervised by
the sta·~ industrial commission. The courts may grant to employers in·
junctiolls against' illegal ' strikes, thus facing the leaders with punishment
for' contempt of court' if they persist.
FIN ANCE. In 1957- 58 general revenue was $470,206,000 ($279,647,000

from taxation and $167,326,000 from federal aid) while expenditures totalled
$476,418,000 (education, $126,003,000; highways, $135,182,000, and public
welfare. $129,983,000). Net long. term debt outstanding, 1958, was
$80,00\',000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture is one of the chief occupa·

tions in the state. In 1958 there were 215,000 farms covering 36·1m. acres;
crops were harvested from nearly 13m. acres (hay, 3,332,000 acres ; maize,
3,227,0')0 acres; soybeans, 2,132,000, and whca.t, 1,446,000 acres). In 1954
tenant· farmers operated 21 % of all farms; average farm was 169 acres
valued at $13,468. Since the Soil Conservation Act was passed in 1943,
37 soil-conservation districts have been formed, covering 12,199,000 acres.
Cash in come, 1958, from crops, $333·38m. Production of principal
crops, :,958: Maize, 180·7m. bu. (with a record yield of 56 bu. per acre) ;
soybealls, 55·4m. bu.; winter wheat, 4O·49m. bu.; oats, 22·3m. bu.; cotton,
275,00(' bales. Missouri is a leading livestock state ranking 4th in hogs on
farms and 5th in cattle numbers, the 1 Jan. 1959 totals being 98,000 horses
and mules, 910,000 sheep, 3,956,000 hogs, 811,000 milch cows and 4,098,000
all cattle. Cash income from livestock and products, 1958, was $759·04m.
National forests area, 1958, 1,375,000 acres.
Mi1 ,ing. The coalfields cover about 14,000 sq. miles, producing, in 1958,
2,521,1!)2 tons of coal. Production of other principal minerals, 1958: Lead,
113,1 23 short tons, leading all states; lime, 1,172,862 short tons; barite,
152,74(· short tons ; iron ore, 387,000 long tons; copper, 1,429 short tons;
clays, I 89m. tons; stone, 24·19m. short tons, and sand and gravel, 8·97m.
short tons. Total value of mineral production, 1958, 8144,009,000.
lnd·ustry. Missouri 's largest industries are food processing and the
manufacture of transport equipment. In 1955 there was a total of 6,198
plants t,mploying 385,912 production workers, earning $1,580,561,000; value
added by manufacture was $3,021,034,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. The state in 1958 had 21 trunkline railways

operating a total of 7,199 route miles of track. Waterways include 1,060
miles (,f navigable 9-ft and 6-ft channels. Federal and state highways
cover 28,278 miles; the counties maintain 71,335 miles of roads, of which
59,317 miles are surfaced. There were 106 airports in 1959, of which 61
were g(:neral.
MONTANA 711
Books of Reference
Official Manual. Secretary 01 State. JefIerson City. Biennial
Federal Writers' Project. Jfissouri: od Guid" 10 the' Sho,. Afe' State. New York, 1941
Gist, N. P. (ed.), MiJsouri, Its ResourceJ, People and InslilulionJ. PubJished by the Curators
of the Univ. of Missouri, Columbia. Missouri, HIGO
McCandless, C. A" Oot'ernment, PoiiticJ and Administration in Mislouri. St LoUiS, 1949
Rader, P . S., BisUJrll 0/ Missouri. Jefferson City, Mo., 1927
STATE LIDRlltY. Missouri State Library, New Office Building, Jefferson City. State
Librarian: Paxton P. Pricc.
MONTANA
GOVERNMENT. Montana, first settled in 1809, was made a Territory
(out of portions of Idaho and Dakota Territories) in 1804 and was admitted
into the Union on 8 Nov. 1889, It still has the constitution adopted at that
time with some 23 amendments. The Senate consists of 56 senators,
elected for 4 years, one half at each biennial election. The 90 members of
the House of Representatives are elected for 2 years. The Governor and
Lieut.·Governor are elected for <1 vears. The state is divided into 56
counties. The capital is Helena. ~lontana sendi! to Congress 2 senators
and 2 representatives.
Stevenson 116,238.
Governor. J. Hugo Aronson (R.), 1957-61 ($12,500),
Lieut.·Governor. Paul Cannon (D.).
Secretary of Slate. Frank Murmy (D.).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 147,138 sq. miles, including
1,260 sq. miles of water, of which the federal government, 1950, owned
43,865 sq. miles or about 30%. U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs administered
9,063 sq. miles, of which 2,405 were allotted to tribes. Census population,
1 April 1950, 591,024, an increase of 5·6% since 1940; estimated population,
I July 1959, was 687,000, an increase of 160;., since 1950. Births, 1958. were
17,049 (24'8 per 1,000 population); deat,hs, 6,162 (9); infant deaths, 435
(25'5 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 6,160 (9); divorces, 2,03\.
Popu lation in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
1910 360,580 1,834 10,745 2,870 376,053 2·6
1930 619,8~S 1,256 14,798 l,23~ 537,606 3·7
1940 540,468 1,120 16,841 776 559,456 3·8
1950 672,038 1,232 16,606 5~1,024 4·1
Male.
Female
299,416
272,623
6~5
437
Ail otbe~s 8,Hl
9,313 309,42 3
281,601
Native whites, 1950, were 528,919; foreign.born whites, 43,119. Ofthe

total population in 1950, 258,034 persons (43'7%) were urban (37,8% in
1940). There were 109·9 males for every 100 females (national average
98·}). Persons 21 years of age or older numbered 372,345. The Act for.
bidding marriage between white and Negro or Asiatic persons was repealed
in 1953. Median family income, 1949, was $3,107 (national average, $3,068).
Households, 1950, 175,614.
The largest cities are Great Falls, with a census population of 39,214 in
1950; Dutte, 33,251; Billings, 31,834; Missoula, 22,485; Helena (capital),
17,581; Bozeman, ll,325; Anaconda, Il,254.
RELIGION. The leading religious bodies are (1952): Roman Catholic,

with H3,156 members; Evangelical Lutheran, 30,736; Methodist, 23,449.
EDUCATION. 136,390 pupils were enrolled in public elementary and
secondary schools, Sept. 1958, and 18,389 in private and parochial schools.
The number of Indian pupils (of at least onc fourth degree), 1957-58, was
3,546. Public elementary schoolteachers (4,446), 1958-59, had an average
salary of $4,339 (in rural schools, 33,229); secondary schoolteachers (2,119),
35,140. Total expenditure on public school education, 1957-58, was $64m.;
expenditure per pupil was 3472. The University of Montana consists of the
State College, at Bozeman (1958,3,779 full·time students), the State Uni·
versity, at Missoula, founded in 1895 (3,269), the School of Mines, at Butte
(273 students) and 3 colleges of education, with 414, 907 and 588 students
respectively.
WELFARE. In Dec. 1958, 7,680 persons were receiving in Old Age
AssistE"nce an average of $61'7 per month; 2,024 families (5,736 depend-
ent children), 3119·9 per family; 385 blind persons, 371; 1,488 totally
disablE,d, 370'78. On 31 Dec _ 1958 the Montana state prison held 645 men
and women (95 per 100,000 population). In 1959 there were no exe-
wtion,,; total since 1930 (all by hanging) wag 6, 4 whites and 2 Negroes, for
murder_
In 1959 the state had 71 hospitals (5,698 beds) listed by the Montana.
State Board of Health. In 1957-58 hospitals for mental diseases had an
average of 1,750 patients.
In 1923 Montana passed an Act permitting. under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insane and feeble-minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958, 72 men
and 184 women had been thus sterilized.
FINANCE. General revenues for the year ending 30 June 1958 were
$105,710,000 (356,508,000 from taxation and 532,117,000 from federal
aid) ; general expenditures were 3108,844,000 (332,069,000 for education,
$35,789,000 for highways and $13,118,000 for puhlic welfare).
T01;al net long-term deht on 1 July 1958 was $33,742,000.
PF:ODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1958 there were 34,400 farms and

ranchE's (50,564 in 1935) with an area of 66,500,000 acres (47,511,868 acres
in 1931i); average farm was 1,905 acres; average value (land and buildings),
1954,$43,108 (SI3,720 in 1945); farm-tenants operated 14'5% of all farms
(27'8% in 1940). Large-scale farming predominates; in 1954, 13,408
farms (the highest, except that of Texas, of any of the states) were of
1,000 ,lcres or over. Commercial farms numbered 28,677, of which 2,581
Bold produce valued at $2.5,000 or more; 39% of the farms had telephones,
88'5% had electricity. Irrigated area, 1954, totalled 1,890,671 acres (in
J3,1l4 farms) or 22·5% of total crop land harvested. In 1958 there were 66
soil-conservation districts embracing 90,716,000 acres, of which 58,250,000
acres :represented land in farms. National forests numbering 11 had an
area (1958) of 16,635,833 acres.
The chief crops are wheat, amounting in 1958 to 100,709,000 bu.,
ranking third in U.S.; barley, 49,073,000 bu.; sugar beet, potatoes,
alphalpha, mustard seed, oats, flax seed and cherries. Cash income, 1958,
from crops, S194·5m.; from livestock, $278·3m. Wheat, 1957, furnished
39% of the farm income and cattle, 36%. On 1 Jan. 1959 there were
1,786,000 sheep, 88,000 horses and mules, 94,000 milch cows, 2,269,000 all
NEBRASKA 713
cattle, 147,000 swine. The wool clip in 1958 was 14,458,000 lb. from 1·5Iru.
~heep .
.Mining (1958). Output of gold, 26,003 fine oz. ; silver, 3,630,530 fine oz.;
copper, 90,683 short tons; lead, 8,434 short tons; zinc, 33,238 short t.OllS;
chromite, 119,057 short tons, 83% of U.S. total; coal, 304,961 short tons;
phosphate rock (1957), 534,000 short tons; manganese ore, 53,123 short
tons; crude petroleum, 28·3m. bbls; natural gas, 27,989m. cu. ft. Value
of total mineral production, 1958, $177m., with crude petroleum (S76m.)
the most important commodity.
Indu.stry. In 1958, 885 manufacturing establishments had 20,056 pro·
duction workerR, earning $94,160,866; value added by manufacture, 1956
estimate, was $242,983,000. Electric power generated in 1957 was 5,2l5m.
kwh., of which 4,969m. was hydro.electric.
Total personal income payments to individuals, 1957, were $1,263111.;
per capita income, 1957, was $1,896 (national average, $2,027).
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 there were 4,952 miles of railway in

the state. There were 151 airports in 1957, of which 62 were municipal
or county-owned. State maint,ained highway mileage (31 Dec. 1956),
10,199; federal highways, 7,503; local, 55,193.
Books of Reference
Montana Agricultural Statistics. Dept. or Agriculture, Labor "nd Industry. Helen".,
Biennial, trom 1946
Jfontana Bltsintss. School of Busine3s Administration. MontA-ne. Stnte Univ. Monthly,
from March, 1949
lionlana: cl Stale Guide· Rook. New York, 1949
;lIOn/ana Almanac. Montana St"te Univ. Annual, from 19,7
~lJonla,na'$ Production . Bureau of Business Research. MOlltana State Univ. Annual, from
1949
Burlingame, n.r. G., j{ontana Froatier. IIelcnn, U),12
HA-milton,.T. McL., Prom Wildernesj tQ Slatehood: a hijtory of Jlonlcrna, 1805-1900. PortlBod I
Oreg., 1951
Toole, K . 1\" ,lion/ana. Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1959
NEBRASKA
GOVERNMENT. The Nebraska region was first reached by white men
from Mexico under the Spanish general Coronado in 1541. It was ceded by
France to Spain in 1763, retroceded to France in 1801, and sold by Napoleon
to the U.S. as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Its first settlement
was in 1847, and on 30 May 1854 it became a Territory and on 1 March 1867
a st.ate. In 1882 it annexed a small part of Dakota Territory, and in 1908
it received another small tract from South Dakota.
The present constitution was adopted in 1875; it has been amended 69
times. By an amendment adopted in Nov. 1934 Nebraska has a single-
chambered legislature (elected for 2 years) of 43 members-the only state
in the Union to have one. The Governor and Lieut.·Governor are elected
for 2 years. Amendments adopted in 1912 and 1920 provide for legislation
through the initiative and refcrendum and permit cities of more than 5,000
inhabitants to frame their own charters. A' right.to-work' amendment
adopted 5 Nov. 1946 makes illegal the' closed shop' demands of trade unions.
The state has 93 counties; the capital is Lincoln. Nebraska i~ represcnted
in Congress by 2 senators and 4 representatives.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 378,108 vote~,

Stevenson 199,029.
GoverMr. Ralph Brooks (D.), 1959-61 ($14,000).
Lieut.-GoverMr. Dwight W. Burney (R.) ($3,000).
Secretary of State. Frank Marsh (R.) ($8,000).
miles are water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 1,325,510, an increase of
0'7% sirce 1940. Estimated p opulation 1 July 1959, 1,456,000. Births,
1958, were 32.361 (22·2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 13,376 (9,2); infant,
deaths, ~'12 (22 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 10,637 (7'3); divorces
(1957), 2,204.
PopUlation in 4 census years (with distribution by scx in 1950) was:
Pcr sq.
Wbite Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1nO 1,180,293 7,689 3,502 730 1,192,214 15·5
1920 1,279,219 13,242 2,888 1,023 1,296,372 16·9
1940 1,297,624 14,171 3,401 638 1,315,834 17-2
1950 1,301,328 19,234 3,954- 821 1,325,510 17-3
MaJe. 655,038 9,693 2,009 477 667,332
Female 646,290 9,541 1,945 344 GoB,liB
Natbe whites, Hl50, numbered 1,244,055; foreign-born whites, 57,273.

Of the total population in 1950,621,905 persons (46'9%) were urban (39' 1%
in 1940); 860,291 were 21 years of age or older. The largest cities in the
state ar,): Omaha, with a census popUlation, 1950, of 251,117; Lincoln
(capital), 98,884; Grand Island, 22,682; Hastings, 20,211; North Platte,
15,433; Fremont,14,762. The Bureau ofIndian Affairs, as of30 June 1957,
administ,ered 67,283 acres, of which 14,793 acres were allotted to tribal
control.
RELIGION. The Roman Catholics had 217,580 members in 1955;
Protestont Churches, 584,630; Jews, 17,390 membcrs. Total, all denomina-
tions, 819,600 (unofficial figures).
EDVCATION. School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to
16 years of age. The 4,221 elementary school districts have been converted
into 3,210 operating districts with, in 1957-58, 3,835 teachers and 48,96:)
pupils; 414 high school districts also furnished elementary instruction to
186,241 pupils (5,232 teachers). Total number of high schools, 483 with
4,223 teachers and 72,349 high school pupils. The 4 state normal schools
(which also grant liberal arts degrees) had, in 1955-56, 260 teachers and
11,442 Etudents (including summer schools). Teachers' salaries, 1955-56,
averaged $3,475. Total expenditure for common schools for year ending
30 June 1958 was $;8,J02,026. The state has 4 universities, 14 four-year
colleges and 4 junior colleges. The more important higher academic
institutions are (1957-58):
Opened Institution Teachers Students
1871 Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln (State) 02. 8,094
1878 Creighton Unl ... , Omaha (R.C.) 432 2,639
1882 Hastings College. Hastings (Presby.) 48 724
1887 Nebraska. Wes1eyan Univ. (Mctb.) 66 874
1930 Municipal Unlv., Omaha. . 143 4,152
The state holds 1,628,574 acres of land, valued, in June 19[,9, at
$31,679,185 as .. permanent endowment of her schools. The permanent
public school endowment fund was $19,803,713.
NEBRASKA 715
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance (maximum of $65 a month and a
minimum of 85, with the amount depending upon the individual's own
resources) was established in 1935 for all persons 65 years of age or older
who have been residents of the state for 5 years; in Dec. 1958, 16,162 per-
Bons were drawing an average of $65 per month. In addition, 2,895
families were receiving $101·77 per family in respect of 8,161 dependent
children, 957 blind persons, $80·22 and 1,508 totally and permanently dis-
abled, $67 ·87. In 1957 the state had 112 hospitals (12,411 beds) listed by
the American Hospital Association. Patients in hospitals for mental diseases
numbered 6,508 in Jnly 1958. In 1915 Nebraska passed an Aet permitting,
under legal safeguards, the sterilization of insane and feeble-minded persons;
up to 1 Jan. 1958,401 men and 456 women had been thus sterilized.
A 'Civil Rights Act' (1929) forbids discrimination against any' persons'
by 'inns, restaurants, pnblic conveyances, barber shops, theatres and other
places of amusement.' The state university is forbidden to discriminate
between students' because of age, sex, colour or nationality.' An Act of
1941 declares it to be 'the policy of this state' that no trade union should
discriminate, in collective bargaining, • against any person because of his
race or colour.' Marriage between white and Negro, Chinese or Japanese
persons is forbidden.
The stato's prisons had, 31 Dec. 1958, 1,210 inmates (84 per 100,000
population). Since 1930 Nebraska has had only 4 executions (electrocution),
3 white men and 1 American Indian, all for murder.
FINANCE. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958 the state's revenues
were $145,820,000 (taxation, $81,962,000 and federal aid, $35,757,000);
general expenditures were 8142,597,000 (830,313,000 for education,
$59,340,000 for highways and 817,867,000 for welfare).
On 30 June 1958 net long-term debt amounted to $9,304,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Nebraska is one of the most important
agricultural states. In 1955 it contained 101,000 farms, with a total area
of 47,487,000 acres. The average farm, 1955, was of 470·9 acres, valued at
$34,482. Tenant-farmers operated 38'6% of all farms (52,8% in 1940).
Commercial farms numbered 94,123, of which 4,169 sold produce valued at
$25,000 or more; 72% of all farms had telephones, 94% had electricity
and 89,500 farms had 163,324 tractors.
Principal crops, with estimated 1958 yield: Maize, 279,851,000 bu.;
winter wheat, 113,450,000 bu.; oats, 48,090,000 bu.; barley, 6,435,000 bu.;
rye, 2,822,000 bu., and potatoes, 2,675,000 cwt. About 1,720 farms grow
sugnr beet for 9 factories; output, 19.5 8,903,000 short tons. Cash income
from crops (1958), $466·um., and from livestock, $781·1m. On I Jan. 1959
the state contained 67,000 horses and mules, 4,961,000 all cattle, 392,000
milch cows, 784,000 sheep and 2,453,000 swine. The area of national
forest, 1957, was 340,897 acres.
Of the total area (49,291,829 acres), 15'3% were found seriously eroded
aud 54% with little or no erosion in 1939. In 1957 there were 87 soil-
conservation districts, covering 48,412,000 acres, and embracing 107,000
farms and ranches. Irrigation from wells is spreading rapidly; 15,000
irrigation wells were in use in 1955.
Mining. Total output of minerals, of which petroleum and cement are
the most important, was valued at $90,032,000 in 1958.
Industry. In 1954 there were 1,438 manufacturing establishments
with 56,923 production workers, earning $213,671,000; value added by
manufa<:ture. $4oom. The chief industry is meat. packing, mainly at

South Omaha.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1956 there were 5.783 miles ofsteam railway
in the state. Airports (1957) numbered 171. of which 80 were public. The
state·maintained highway system embraced about 9.706 miles in 1956.
Books of Reference
Nelmuka Blu~Book. Legisla tive Council. Lincoln. BiennIal
Federal "I"riters' Project. Nebra.ka : A Guide 10 the Comhwker S/4U. New York. 1947
Oondra, G. E .•Geography. Agr;cu!lur< and Indwlr;u 0/ Nebraska. Llucoln, 1942
Ol8on. J. C., UUlOrV 0/ Nebva.ka. Univ. 01 Nebraska Press, 1965
STATE LIDRARY. State La\v Library. State Hou.e. Lincoln. Librarian : Oeorge H.
Turner.
NEVADA
GOVERNMENT. Nevada, first settled in 1851, when it was a part of
the Territory of Utah (created 1850), was made a Territory in 1861 and was
admitted into the Union on 31 Oct. 1864 as the 36th state. The constitu.
tion ad:>pted then is still in force. with 59 amendments. The Legislature
Dleets annually and consists of a Senate of 17 members elected for 4 years,
about half their number retiring every 2 years, and an Assembly of 47
members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected
for 4 years. Qualified electors are all citizens with the usual residential
qualificltion. The state capital is Carson City (population, 3.082 in 1950.
the sma.llest capital city in the country). There are 17 counties. The state
embleu. is the sagebrush. Nevada is represented in Congress by 2 Senators
and 1 representative, elected by the voters of the entire state.
In the 1956 presidential elections Eisenhower polled 56.049 votes and
Steven~on 40,640.
Gowrnor. Grant Sawyer (D.), 1959-63 ($18,500).
Litltt.-Governor. Rex Bell (It.) (82.400).
Seuelary of Slate. John Koontz (D.) (810,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 110,540 sq. miles, 751 sq. miles
being lI'ater. The federal government in 1958 owned approltimately 86·2%
of the etate (60.544.000 acres out of the total land area of 70,265,000); this
is the largest percentage shown by any state. Vacant publio lands, 1958,
45.823.120 aores. The Bureau of Indian Affairs controls. 1958, 1,150,000
acres, ef which 1,062,000 acres have been assigned to Indian tribes. Census
popula1;ion on I April 1950, 160,083, an increase of 49,836 or 45'2% since
1940 ; Nevada's total is the smallest of any state except Alaska; but the
estimaf.ed population, I July 1959, 280,000, shows a 74'9% increase since
1950, which is greater than any other state. Births, 1958, were 6,767 (25·7
per 1,000 population); deaths, 2,483 (9,4); infant deaths, 21 5 (31 ·9 per
1,000 live births); marriages, 55,832 (212'3 per 1,000 population, largest
of a.ny state); divorces, 9,315.
Pcr SQ.
White Negro Indian Aslatio Total mile
1910 74,276 61 3 6,240 1,846 81,876 0 ·7
1930 84.616 616 4.811 1.166 91.068 0 ·8
1940 104.030 664 4.747 806 110,247 1-0
19~0 149,908 4,S07 6,026 663 160.083 I 'S
Hale. 79.661 2.268 2.633 417 85,017
l'emale 70,247 2.034 2,497 246 76.066
NEVADA 717
Of the total population in 1950, 91,625 persons (57,2%) were urban
(39'3% in 19(0). Native whites numbered 139,378; foreign·born whites,
10,530: Ja.panese, 382; Chinese, 281: other races, 185; those 21 years of
age or older, 107,173. Largest city is Las Vegas, with population (1955) of
44,795; Reno (1950), 32,497: Sparks, 8,203, and Elko, 5,393.
RELIGION. No recent official statistics are available. Religious
bodies tabulate their numbers on bases which cannot be made comparable.
18 years of age. In 19G8-59 the 167 public elementary schools, including
kindergartens, had 1,466 classroom teachers and 31,921 pupils; 45 secondary
school centres had 780 teachers and 15,921 students. Secondary school
teachers received an average salary of $5,333; elementary teachers, $5,042.
Pupils included 951 Indian children for whose education the U.S. Bureau
of Indian Affairs contributed. The University of Nevada had 192 pro·
fessors and instructors, and 2,468 students in 1!158-59.
WEI.F ARE. Old Age Assistance is granted to all 65 years of age or
older who are American citizens and have been residents in the state for
5 years, possessing assets less than $7C10: on average, fiscal year 1958-59,
2,611 persons received $68·17 per month: 960 families (3,182 dependent
children), $27·14 per child; 166 blind, $97·94: there is no special provi·
sion for the totally disabled. In 19:)9 the state had 22 hospitals (1,262
beds) list,ed by the American Hospital Association.
Prohibition of marriage between persons of different race was repealed
by statute in 1959.
In 1959 there were no executions; since 1930 executions (by lethal gas)
have numbered 27 (25 whites and 2 Negroe~) for murder.
were $60,198,242 ($38,847,329 from taxation and $21,350.913 from federal
a,i d): general expenditures were $59.327,563 (814,442,360 for education,
$25,878,643 for hil!hways and $3,334,927 for public welfare).
Net long·term debt on 30 June 1959 was $2,856,000. The state has no
income taxes or inheritance tax. A graduated tax on gambling netted
$7,985,860 in 1958-59.
PRODUCTION. The principal industries are mining, livestock raising,
lumber a,nd agriculture. Tourism is important.
Agriculture. In 1954, 2,857 farms (2,509 being irrigated forms) had a
farm area of 8,231,000 acres (3,785,1l6 in 19(0): average farm was of
2,881'1 acres valued (land and buildings) at 878.162. Area under irrigation
was 567,498 acres compared with 727,498 acres in 1949. Of the total
surface area (70,286,188 acres), 32·!)% was found severely croded and only
0-3% witb little or 110 erosion in 1939: mountains, etc., cover 14-3% of
the rest. In 1958 there were 34 loca.lIy.mana.ged soil. conservation districts
embracing 60,904,000 acres, of which 7.303,000 acms were farm lands.
Cash income, 1958, from crops and livestock, $46·7m. Hay, wheat,
barley, maize and potatoes are the chief crops. On 1 Jan. 1959 there were
19,000 horses and mules, 18,000 milch cows, 597,000 all cattle, 421,000
sheep and 21,000 swine. In 1958 the wool clip yielded 3,681,000 lb. of
wool. The area of national forests (1958) was 5,059,000 acres.
Mining. Output of gold (1958) was 105,087 troy oz.; silver, 932,728
troy oz.; copper, 66,137 short tons; manganese ore (crude), 127,322 sbort
tons (le,~ding all states). Other minerals are tungsten, gypsum, iron, zinc,
lead and mercury. Some magnesite, barite, talc, petroleum and antimony
are also produced. Value of mineral output for 1958, $68,293,000.
Ind1t8!ry. In 1956 the 177 manufacturing establishments employed 5,223
production workers, earning $24,322,000; value added by manufacture was
$102,182,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 there were 1,648 miles of railway. The
state, Ig58, maintains 4,389 miles of highway; total road mileage, 1057,
was 31,)41: motor vehicles, 1959, numbered 170,215. There were (1958)
50 civil and military airports (481 civil aircraft registered).
There were, in 1958, lJ 8 post offices, 102,513 telephones, 2:l radio and
television stations, and 8 daily newspapers.
Books of Reference
Legi3lalite Manual. Legislative Counsel Bureau. Carson City
Ba.ic Dara on Industrial Nevada. Dept. of Economic Development. Oarson City, 1058
Writers' Program. N evada: .4 Guide 10 lhe Silver StaU. Portland, Or., 1040
GlUard, F:. 0., Dell!ri Challenge, an inlerprdaJion 0/ NetJada. New York, 194Z
Mack, E . M., Anderson, 1. and Singleton, B. E., Nevada GMJernmen.t. Caldwell, Idaho, 1953
Mack, E. M., and Sawyer, B. W., Our SIaJ.e: Nevada. CaldweU, Idaho, 1948
STATE LmRillY. Nevada State Library, Carson City. Sla'" Librarian : Constance O.
CoUl"..
NEW HAMPSHIRE
GOVERNMENT. New Hampshire, first settled in 1623, was one of the
13 original states of the Union . The present constitution dates from 1784,
but there have been 14 state conventions to amend it: 94 amendments
have bEen adopted. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 24 members,
elected for 2 years, and a. House of Representatives, restricted to less than
'00 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and 5 administrative
officers called • Councillors' are also elected for 2 years. Electors must be
adult citizens, able to read and write, duly registered and not paupers or
under s.mtence for crime. The state is divided into 10 counties; the capital
is Concord. New Hampshire senus to the Federal Congress 2 senators and
2 repreE.entatives.
In ';he 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 176,519 votes
Stevenson 90,364.
Gov(rIlor. Wesley Powell (R.), \959-61 ($15,500).
Secr~!ary of State. Harry E. Jackson (R.).
miles a,'.'C inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 533,242, an in.
crease of 8'5% since 1940; estimate, 1959, 592,000. Births, 1958, were
13,350122·9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 6,642 (11 ,4); infant deaths, 326
(24'4 pl:r 1,000 live births); marriages, 7,078 (12,1); divorces, 990.
Population at 4 federal censuses (with distribution by Bex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
.' White Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1910 429,906 564 34 68 430,572 47·7
1930 464,351 790 64 88 465,293 51·6
1940 490,989 41<1 50 71 491,524 64·5
1950 632,215 731 74 162 533,242 59·1
Male. 261,871 391 M 107 Z6J,424
Female 270,404 340 19 55 270,818
NEW HAMPSHIRE 719
Native whites, 1950, were 474,141; foreign-born whites, 58,134.
306,806 (57-5% ) were urban (57-6 in 1940); those 21 years of age or older
numbered 352,674.
The largest city of the state is Manchester, with a census (1950) popu-
lation of 82,732_ Other cities are Nashua, 34,669; Concord (capital),
27,988; Portsmouth, 18,830; Berlin, 16,615; Dover, 15,874 ; Keene,
15.638; Laconia, 14,745; Rochester, 13,776; Claremont, 12,811.
RELIGION. The Roman Catholics had 184,820 adherents in 1951;
other bodies are Congregational (29,299), Methodist (19,229).
14 years of age during the whole school term , or to 16 if their district provides
a high school. Employed illiterate minors between 16 and 21 years of age
must attend evening or special classes, if provided by the district. In
1957-58 the 408 public elementary schools (2,454 fuil·time teachers) regis-
tered 67,602 pupils and the 93 public secondary schools (1,505 full -time
teachers) 29,866 pupils; 83 private and parochial elementary schools had
23,141 registered pupils and 42 secondary schools, 6,192. Public 8chool
salaries ranged from $2,400 to $8,000; average, $3,956. Total expenditure
on public schools in 1956-57 was $36,709,800. The 2 teachers' colleges had
(1957-58) 95 teachers and 1,211 students. Dartmouth College, at Hanover,
founded in 1769, had (1957-58) 247 instructors and 3,032 students; the
University of New Hampshire, at Durham, founded in 1866, had 284 in-
structors and 3,603 students.
WELFARE. The Department of Public Welfare handles public assist·
ance for (1) needy aged citizens 65 years or over, (2) needy aged aliens,
(3) needy blind persons, (4) needy citizens between 18 and 64 years inclus-
h oe, who are permanently and totally disabled, (5) needy children under 18
)'o,\fs. There are qualifications as t.o residence and property. Maximum
grants are 870 per month (or $75 for a person eating in restaurants) ex-
clusive of nursing, medical or surgical care.
The Department in Sept. 1958 was servicing 6,861 cases, representing
5,240 Old Age Assistance recipients (average grant, $67'57 per month),
250 needy blind (average grants, 872' 39); 353 totally and permanently
disabled persons ($85'01), and 2,866 dependent children (for each of 1,018
families, 3 143-27). In 1957 the state had 39 hospitals (5,950 beds) listed by
the American Hospital Association.
In 1917 New Hampshire passed a law permitting, under legal safeguards,
the sterilization of insane and feeble -minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958,
152 men a nd 526 women had been sterilized .
The state prison beld 147 men in Dec. 1958 (25 per 100,000 popula tion,
smallest rate in the cOlUltry). Since 1930 there has heen only one execution
(by hanging)-a white man, for murder, in 1939.
FINANCE. The state government's general revenue for the fiscal year
ending 30 June 1958 was $62,569,000 ($35,003,000 from taxes and $16,525,000
from federal grants); general expenditures, 878,700,000 ($13,573,000 for
education, $34,388,000 for highways and 36,324,000 for public welfare).
Net long. term debt of state, 30 June 1958, was S76,~08,ooO.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1954, 10,411 farms had a total
acreage of 1,457,293 acres, of which 246,583 acres were crop land ; average
farm WaR 140 acres with land and buildings valued a t 811 ,595. Commercial
farms numbered 5,425. The U.S. Soil Survey estimates that the state has
239,542 acres of excellent soil, 370,426 acres of fair soil, 1,671,601 of poor
soil and 3,498,271 of non·arable soil. In 1958 there were 10 soil·conserva·
tion dist.ricts embracing 5,771,000 acres, of which 1,457,000 acres were farm
land. Only 405,732 acres (7% of the total area) show moderate erosion.
Cash income, 1958, from crops and livestock, S62·6m. The chief field
crops aN hay, potatoes and truck crops; the chief fruit crop is apples.
On I Jan. 1959 animals on farms were 5,000 hon;es, 58,000 milch cows,
97,000 all cattle, 9,000 sheep and 13,000 swine. National forests on 30 June
1958 coyered 677,400 acres; state and recreational forests, 63,741 acres.
Mining. Minerals are little worked; total value of mineral output,
1958, S3,877,OOO,largely from feldspar, mica, stone, sand and gravel.
Indu.,try. In 1956 the 1,612 manufacturing establlshmenta had 68,002
producti:m workers earning S215m. ; value added by manufactures was
S495m. Leading industries are paper and forest products, and textiles.
Output of electric power, 1957, was 2,040m. kwh., of which hydro·electric
power (858m. kwh.) amounted to 42'06%. Ofthe power generated for pub.
lic sale, only 0'4% came from municipally owned plants.
The i'·season recreation industry in 1957 contributed S210m. to the state
economy, derived from the receipts of 1,776 vacation travel accommodation
establishments plus 222 boys' and girls' camps, and the expenditure of an
estimated 115,000 seasonal rcsidents who occupied 28,545 seasonal homes.
COMMUNICA TIONS. In 1957 the length of steam railway in the state
was 871 miles. There were Z6 airports in 1958, of which 13 were municipal;
7 were lighted; there 'vas I seaplane base. Commercial airlines serve
Mancheeter. Lebanon, Keene, Concord, Berlin and Laconia. The state
maintains 1,547 miles of primary and 2,186 miles of secondary highways, of
which 3,648 miles are surfaced. Motor vehicles registered, 31 March 1958,
were 18(;,096 pleasure cars and 34,890 commercial vehicles and trucks.
Books of Reference
lfanuall" the Gmeral Court. Secretary of Stote. Concord. Biennial
Federal Writers' Project. }le", Hamps!.ir.: .d Guide to the G'anu. Statt. Boston, 1938
S"""rv ojth. Organization and J dm;n;mali0'11 01 tht SUlt,. eau-lily and Town GOfJe111menu 0/
NetJ) [J.lmp.ilirt. Brookings Institution, Washington, D,e. Institute for Government
Itesearcb. Concord. 1932
Meteal!, 1[. H., Hi. torv 01 JYew [Jamp.,hirt. Concord, N.R ., 1926
Kalijarvl, T., ann Chamberlin. W. C., The GorcrnmenJ 01}letJ) Hampshir., Durham, 1939
NEW JERSEY
GOVERNMENT. New Jersey, first settled in the early 16008, is one
of the 13 original states in the Union, The legi.·!lative power is vested in a
Senate nnd a General Assembly, the members of which are chosen by the
people, all citizens (with necessary exceptions) 21 years of age, with the
usual rEsidential qualifications, having the right of suffrage. The presont
constitution, ratified by the voters on 4 Nov. 1947, has once been amended .
The Senate consists of 21 senators, I for each county, elected by the voters
for 4 years, approximately one·half being elected biennially. The General
Assembly consists of 60 members elected for 2 years. The Governor is
elected for 4 years.
The state is divided into 21 counties, which are subdivided into cities,
NEW JERSEY 721
towns. boroughs, villages and townships. The capital is Trenton. The
state sends to the Federal Congress 2 senators and 14 representatives.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower poUed 176.519 votes.
Stevenson 90,364.
Governor. Robert B. Meyner (D.). 1958-62 ($30,000).
Secretary of State. Edward J. Patten (D.) (SI7.000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 7,836 sq. miles (314 sq. miles being
inland water). Census population. 1 April 1950, 4,835.329, an increase of
16·2% since 1940; estimated population, 1 July 1959,5.930,000.
Births, 1958, were 124,605 (21'7 per 1,000 population); deaths, {)6,486
(9·8); infant deaths, 3,012 (24·2 per 1.000 live births); marriages, 39,113
(68); divorces, 4,316.
Population at 4 federal censuses (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
Wbite Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1910 2,445.894 89,760 168 1.343 2,687,167 337·7
1930 3,829,663 208,828 213 2,630 4,041 ,334 637-3
1940 3,931,087 226,973 211 1,894- 4,160,165 553-1
1950 4,511,685 318,565 621 4,835,329 612·8
Male . 2,223,R57 105,554 An oth.:" 3,333 2,382,744
Female 2,287,728 163,011 1,846 2,452,585
Native whites, 1950, were 3,880,824; foreign. born whites, 630,761.

Of t.he population in 1950, 4,186,207 persons (86,6%) were urban (81 ,6%
in 1(40); 3,354,598 were 21 years of age or older.
Census population of the larger cities in 1950 was:
Newark 4~8,776 Bayonne 77.203 Bloomfield . 49,307
Je ....y City 299,017 Clilton 64,611 Montelair 43,927
Paterson 139,336 Atlantic City 61,657 Plainfield 42,366
Treotan (capital) 128.009 Irvington 69,201 Pertb Arub~y 41,330
Camden 124,555 Passaic 1);,702 Keamey . 39,952
Elizabetb 112,$17 Union City . 6~,~37 New Brunswick 38,811
East Orange. 79,340 HoIJoken 50,676 Orange 38,037
RELIGION. The Roman Catholic Church had 1,390,966 baptized

members in 1936, an increase of 334,968 over census of 1926; Jewish
congregations had 257,761 members. Methodist, 128,233; Presbyterian,
128,020. Total membership, all denominations. 2,357.432.
EDUCATION. Elementary instruction is compulsory for nil from 7 to

16 years of age and free to all from 5 to 20 years of age. On 30 June 1957
public elementary schools had 720,539 enrolled pupils, and public junior
Gnd senior high schools had 206,728 pupils; 6 teachers' colleges had 10,791
students; 25 professional and technical institutes had 1,000 full-time
Il.nd 1.200 part-time students. The total cost of day schools, 1955-56,
$286,010,338. Average salary of classroom teachers in elementary
schools, 1954-55, was $4,200; in secondary schools. $4,775.
Princeton University (founded in 1746) had, in 1957-58,490 professors
and instructors and 3,500 undergraduate students; the New Jersey State
University at New Brunswick, which includes Rutgers College (1766).
State Agricultural College, New Jersey CoUege for Women and New Jersey
College of Pharmacy, had 12,537 full- and part-time students and 1,239 in·
structors; Stevens Institute of Technology (1870) at Hoboken had 12S
professors and instructors and 1,848 students.
Wl:LF ARE. Old Age Assistance was revised in 1943 to provide aid
for all persons 65 years of age or older, without means of support, who
have r,)sided in the state for 1 year preceding application. The monthly
grant i3 now limited only by the need of the applicant as determined by
a standard budget. Number of recipients, Dec. 1958, 19,318, drawing an
averag,) of $84' 18 monthly; 9,871 families (24,832 children) received
$1444l monthly per family; 927 blind, $78'6; 5,609 totally disabled,
$91'7.
ThE' state's welfare system (in July 1957) cared for 15,105 in institutions
for the mentally deficient and epileptics, 2,015 in tuberculosis sanitoria,
217 in soldiers' homes, 3,992 in institutions for adult offenders and 701 in
traininl~ schools for juvenile delinquents. Also under care of the state's
welfare agencies were 26,502 dependent children and 920 visually handi·
capped. In 1957 the state had 154 hospitals (50,271 beds) listed by the
American Hospital Association. State prisons on 31 Dec. 1958 had 3,996
inmate3 (70 per 100,000 population).
In 1959 there was no execution; from 1930 to 1959 executions (by
electro.mtion) have totalled 71, including 45 whites, 24 Negroes and 2 other
races, Lll for murder, except 1 for kidnapping.
New Jersey is one of 8 states having a • fair employment Act,' i.e., a
Civil Rights statute forbidding any employer, public or private (with 6 or
more employees), to discriminate against any applicant for work (or to
discharge any employee) on the grounds of • race, creed, colour, national
origin 'Jr ancestry.' The Act (1945) condemns such conduct as a menace
to • the institutions and foundation of a free democratic state.' It is to be
enforced by a special state apparatus, the' Division against Discrimination.'
Trade unions may not bar Negroes from membership. Penalties include
fine an.l imprisonment. The new constitution (1947) forbids discrimination
against any person on account of' religious principles, race, colour, ancestry
or national origin,' and eliminates the statutes under which Negroes enlist·
ing in the National Guard had to join exclusively Negro battalions and
regiments.
$456,2:l8,000 (taxation, $288,979,000 and federal aid, $61,960,000); general
$1l5,203,OOO, and public welfare, $42,065,(00).
Tobl net long· term debt, 30 June 1958, was $859,864,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Livestock raISing, market.gardening,

fruit.growing, horticulture and forestry are pursued. In 1954,23,487 farms
had a l o; tal area of 1,665,000 acres; average farm had 73·4 acres valued,
land and buildings, at 327,704. Full owners had 17,652 farms (75'1 %) ;
tenant· farmers, at 1,591, were 7% of the total (23% in 1920). Of the
total surface area of 4,818,546 acres, only 0'6% was heavily eroded and
19'5% showed moderate erosion in 1939. In 1958 there were 12 soil·
conservation districts, embracing 4,785,000 acres, of which 1,674,000 acres
were farm lands.
Cash income, 1958, from crops, $127·5m., and from livestock, $193·6m.
Leafing crops are maize (10,608,000 bu. in 1958), wheat; white potatoes
(4m. cvrt); sweet potatoes (1·44m. cwt); peaches (2·6m. bu.); cranberries
(77,000 bbl in 1957), and commercial apples (2·9m. bu.).
Farm animals on 1 Jan. 1959 comprised 9,000 horses and mules, 148,000
milch c:rws, 213,000 all cattle, 19,000 sheep and 173,000 swine.
NEW MEXICO 723
Mining. The chief minerals are zinc, iron ore, clay products, sand and
gravel, mineral wool and crushed stone. New Jersey is a leading producer
of glass sand, moulding sand, trap rock and of green sand, used in water·
softening. Iron ore (1957), 886,000 long tons; zinc (1958), 607 short tons.
Total value of all mineral products, 1958, was $50.380,000.
Industry. In 1954 (federal census), the 13.244 manufacturing establish·
ments employed 784,200 production workers, receiving $3,334·5m. in wages;
value added by manufacture, S6,266·7m. The principal industries are:
Smelting and refining non· ferrous metals; petroleum refining; chemicals;
motor vebicles and supplies; meat· packing (wholesale); shipbuilding and
repairing, and paints, varnishes and lacquers. It ranks fourth in petroleum
refining.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1956, 23 railways had 5.317 miles of trnck,
the greatest density per sq. mile in the country; route miles are 1,971.
There were 93 airport8 in 1958, of which 55 wore general. Tbe state main.
tains, 29,347 miles of improved highway, state, county and municipal.
Books of Reference
Jlanualollh~ Legislature 0/ New J"S~. Trenton. Annual
Economy (If ~y('w JfT~I!Y. Itntgers Univ. P ress, 1~58
CUDIllngbam •. r. T., This is New Jersey. Rnt.gers Unlv. t New Brunswick, 1953
ltich, B. i\L, The Got'ernment and d.dministration of New JerulJ. New York, 1957
STATE LTDllAny. 8tate House Annex. Treuton, 26. Director: Roger H. McDonougb.
NEW MEXICO
GOVERNMENT. From the time of its first settlement in 1598 until
1771 New Mexico was the Spanish king's' Kingdom of New Mexico.' In
1771 it was annexed to the northern provinces of New Spain. When New
Spain won its independence in 1821. it took the name of Republic of Mexico
and established New Mexico as its northernmost department. When the
war between the V.S . and Mexico was concluded on 2 Feb. 1848 New
Mexico was recognized as belonging to the V.S., and on 9 Sept. 1850 it was
made a Territory. Part of the Territory was assigned to Texas; later Utah
was formeu into a separate Territory; in 1861 another part was transferred
to Colorado, and in 1863 Arizona was disjoined, leaving to New Mexico its
present area. New Mexico became a state in Jan. 1912. The constitution
of 1912 is still in force with 36 amendments. The state Legislature, which
meets bienniaily, consists of 32 members of the Senate, elected for 4 years,
and 66 memhers of the House of Representatives, elected for 2 years (in.
creased from 54 in 1955 in order to give better representation to the urban
areas). The Governor and Lieut.·Governor are elected for 2 years. For
local government the state is divided into 32 counties. The state capital is
Sante Fe. It sends to Congross 2 senators and 2 representatives.
Stevenson 106,098.
Governor. John Burroughs (D.), 1959-61 ($17,500).
Lieut.·Governor. Edward V. Mead (D.).
Secretary of State. Betty Fiorina (D.).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 121,666 sq. miles (155 sq. miles
being water). Census population, 1 April 1950, 681,187, an increase of
149,369 or 28% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1958, was

927,00C (federal estimate, 842,000). Public lands, administered by federal
agenciel (1959) amounted to 26·1m. acres or 33·6% of the total area.
Department of Defence held 2·8m. acres; Agriculture, 8·7m.; Interior,
14·3m.; the Bureau of Indian Affairs controlled 8·4m. acres. The State
of New Mexico held 11·4m. acres; 31·7m. acres were privately owned.
Vitd statistics, 1958: Births, 28,483 (30'6 per 1,000 population); deaths,
6,090 (')'5); infant deaths, 1,072 (37·6 per 1,000 live births); marriages,
5,850 «(j·9); divorces, 1,867.
The population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) waA:
Per sq.
Wbit.e Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1910 304.594 1.628 20,573 506 327,301 2·7
1930 3D1,095 2,850 28,941 431 423,317 3·5
1940 429,312 4.672 34,610 324 631,818 4·4
1D50 630,211 8,408 41,901 667 681,187 5·6
Male. 321,557 4,394 21,224 369 347,544
Female 308,654 4,014 20,677 298 333,643
Nat. ve whites, 1950, were 612,875; foreign.born whites, 17,336. Of the

1950 total, 341,889 persons (50,2%) were urban (33,2% in 1940), 207,475
(30'5%', were rural non·farm and 131,823 (19'3%) were rural farm; 375,321
were 21 years of age or older.
Before 1930 New Mexico was largely a Spanish.speaking state. (Both
Spanish and English are official languages). In 1940 about 49·1 % of the
population were of Spanish or Mexican extraction, but since 1945 an influx
of population from other states has reduced the percentage to an estimated
33%. During this period the Spanish· American fllral·farm economy
underw·mt considerable disintegration, with resulting migration into urban
arca.s ill New Mexico and other states. Although still the largest. single
cultural group in New Mexico, the so· called •Hispano' group finds difficulty
in adjuHting to a commercial and quasi.industrialized economy.
The largest cities are Albuquerque, with population (census 1950) 96,815
(1959 estimate, 210,500); Santa Fe (capital), 27,998; Roswell, 25,738;
Carlsbad, 17,975; C\ovis, 1i,318.
RELIGION. A survey by the National Council of the Churches of
Christ ehows 300,600 Roman Catholics (68% of total church membership)
and 13!l,900 Protestants. Totlll, all denominations, 441,774.
EDUCATION. Elementary education is free, and compulsory between
() and : 7 years of age. In 1958-59 the 221 school districts had 249,968
student3 in public elementary and secondary schools. In 1957-58, 11 private
and 10(; parochial schools had 601 and 23,003 pupils, of whom 20,948 were
in Roman Catholic schools. The federal government maintains 35 Indian
schools with 4,000 pupils and 145 teachers. Stllte expenditure on elementary
and se.:ondary education (1958), $63,325,000. For higher instruction
(I05S-59): New Mexico State University, at Las Cruces, 134 professors,
2,301 students; the Highlands University, at Las Vcgas, 56 professors, 1,003
students; New Mexico Western University, at Silver City, 38 professors,
550 stuients; Eastern New Mexico University, at Portales, 80 professors,
1,609 students; New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, 23 pro·
fessors, 310 students, and the University of New Mexico, at Albuquerque,
with 277 professors and 5,000 students. There are no segregated schools
in New Mexico.
NEW MEXICO 725
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance, in accordanco with federal law, was
being drawn in June 1959 by 11,274 recipients ($48'92 per month); aid to
28,588 dependent children in 7,231 families (S107'56 per family); aid to
445 needy blind ($4\)'81); aid to 2,456 permanently disabled ($51'55).
The average welfare graut per persoll was 334·47. The state's net expendi-
tures for public assistance was $23,021,569 for the year ending 30 June
H)59. In 1959 the state had 84 hospitals (5,991 beds) listed by the American
Hospital Association.
The death penalty (by electrocution) has been imposed on 8 persons
since 1930,6 whites and 2 Negroes, all for murder.
Since 1949 the denial of employment by reason of race, colour, religion,
national origin or ancestry has been forbidden. A law of 1955 prohibits
discrimination in public places because of race or colour.
FINANCE. For the year ending 30 Jnne 1958 general revenues were
52J3,988,OOO ($J05,732,OOO from taxation Ilnd $64,102,000 from federal
!;rllnts); expenditures, $196,885,000 (education, $83,096,000; highways,
564,860,000, and public welfare, $17,786,000).
Long-term debt on 30 Jurie 1958 was S5I,256,OOO.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. New Mexico produces cereals, vege-
tables, fruit and cotton. Dry farming and irrigation have proved profitable
in periods of high prices. In 1954, 11,686 farms had land under irrigation.
In 1954 there were 21,070 farms and ranches covering 49,649,700 acres;
average farm (or ranch) was valued (land and buildings) at $44,000; 5,700
farms had telephones, 17,231 had electricity and 17,457 had tractors. Cash
income, 1958, from crops and livestock, S225m.
Principal crops are hay, maize, grain sorghums and cotton, 300,000
bales in 1958 from 173,000 acres. Yield per acre was third highest in U.S.
The farm animals on 1 Jan. 1959 comprised 60,000 horses and mules, 54,000
milch cows, 1,162,000 all cattle, 1,233,000 sheep and 36,000 swine. National
ii)rest area (1958) covered 8·6m. acres.
Of the total surface area (77,588,536 acres), 60% were severely eroded
and only 26% without apparent erosion; mountains, etc., covered 13'5%
of t.he rest. In 1958 there were 60 soil-conservation districts embracing
G2,239,OOO acres, of which 42,565,000 acres were farm land and ranches.
Mining. New Mexico is the country's largest domestic source of
uranium with total reserves of 5.5·7n1. tons (66% of U.S. total); total milling
capacity of the ~3 processing plants, 1958, was 21,065 tons per day. Pro-
duction, 1059,3,219,000 short tons. In 1958 New Mexico also ranked first in
potash salts (2,024,000 short tons) and pumice (507,000 short tons) and
perlite (1·2m. tons). Production of other principal minerals, 1958: Pet-
roleum, 96,704,000 bbls; natural gas, 61,446m. cu. ft; natural gas liquids,
17·5m. bhls; copper, 55,540 short tons; zinc; lead; beryllium, 27 short
tons; gold, 2,999 fine oz.; silver, 145,266 fine oz., and manganese ore. The
"alue of the total mineral output; in 19ii8 wa.'! $5ii7,111,OOO. An average
of 10,400 persons were employed in petroleum mining in 1958.
Industry, In March 1958, 670 manufacturing establishments employed
14,244 workers, who received average weekly wage of $89; value added by
manuf<1cture, S34·7m. Largest industries (by lIumber of workers) were
food manufacturing, lumber, printing and transport equipment.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 there were 2,473 miles of steam rail-
way. There were 81 airports in 1958, of which 3~ were general and 49
limited. The state, 1958, had 63,905 miles of road (7,508 paved), of which
the state maintained about 1l,200 miles. Motor vehicle registrations, 1958,
392,00(1.
Books of Reference
New Ale" ico BllU!·Book. Secretary of State. Santa Fe. Biennial
Writers' Program. New Alexico: A GuiiU 10 IM Color/ul Stak. Rev. 00. New York, 1953
N~ Me;o;ico Business (annual statistico.l review), ed. Bureau of Business Research, Univ. of
N.M., .!Jbuquerqne
Bloom, 10. R., and Donnelly, T . 0., NCUJ Afexico History and Civics. Albuquerque, 1933
DonnellJ, T. C., The a~menl of New Alexico. Univ. of N.M., Albuquerque, 1953
lt1dgel, R. L. t and Wollman, N., Pallnna of New Mexico State Finance. Dureau of Business
Resear,h, Univ. of N.M., Albuquerque, 1950
Fergussou, E ., New Mexico, G pageanl of Ihr.. peoples. New York, 1951
Harper, A. G., Bnd others, Man and Resources in the Middle Rio Orande Valley. Univ. of
N.M. Press, Albuquerque, 1943
Ximenes. V. T., Natural Ga., in New Afexico. BW'Mll of Business Research, Univ. of N.M.
Albuq'.lerque, 1964.-lncome by Counties in New Mexico. Dureau of Business Research
Univ.,.f N .M., Albuquerque, 1956.
NEW YORK STATE

GOVERNMENT. From 1609 to 1664 the region now called New York
was cla'.med by the Dutch; then it came under the rule of the English, who
goverD(.d the country till the outbreak of the Wa.r of Independence. On
20 April 1777 New York adopted a constitution which transformed the
colony into an independent state; on 26 July 1788 it ratified the constitution
of the U .S ., becoming one of the 13 original states.
The present constitution dates from 1894; a later constitutional con·
vention , 1938, is now legally considered to have merely amended the 1894
constitution, which has now had 127 amendments. A proposal to hold a
constitutional convention in 1959 was rejected in Nov. 1957. The Senate
consists of 58 members, and the Assembly of 150 members, both elected every
2 years. The Governor and Lieut.·Governor are elected for 4 years. The
state cLpital is Albany. The right of suffrage resides in every adult who
has been a citizen for 90 days, and has the usual residential qualifications;
new voters must establish, by certificates or test, that they have had at least
an elerr.entary education. For local government the state is divided into
62 counties, 5 of which constitute the city of New York. New York leads
in state parks and recreation areas, covering 3,300,520 acres in 1957.
The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 43 representatives.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 4,340,340 votes,
GOVErnor. Nelson RockefeIler (R.), 1959-63 (850,000),
Lieut.·Governor. Malcolm Wilson (R.) ($20,000).
Secr.~tary of State. Mrs Caroline K . Simon (R.) ($20,486).
Citks are in 3 classes, the first class having each 175,000 or more inhabi·
tants and the third under 50,000. Each is incorporated by charter, under
special legislation. The government of New York City is vested in the
mayor, elected for 4 years, and a city council, whose president is elected
for 4 years and members for 2 years. The council, beginning in 1949, has
25 members, each elected from a state senatorial district wholly within the
city. The mayor appoints all the heads of departments, except the comp·
troller, who is elected. Each of the 5 city boroughs (Manhattan, Bronx,
BrookIyn, Queens and Richmond) has a president, elected for 4 years.
Each 0:' these boroughs is also a county, bearing the same name except
NEW YORK STATE 727
Manhattan borough, which, as a county, is called New York, and Brooklyn,
which is Kings county.
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 49,576 sq. miles (1,633 sq. miles
being water). Census population, 1 April 1950, 14,830,192, an increase of
10% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1959, 16,774,019. Births
in 1958 were 362,244 (22-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 173,827 (10'4);
infant deaths, 8,874 (24 '5 per 1,000 live birtbs); marriages (provisional),
124,573 (8); divorces (1950),11,700.
Per sq.
White Negro Indian Asiatic Total milo
1910 8,966,845 134,191 6,046 6,532 9,113,614 191-2
1930 12,153,19 1 412,814 6,973 15,088 12,588,066 262-6
1940 12,879,546 ~71,221 8,651 19,724 13,479,142 281-2
19 ~0 13,872,095 918,191 10,640 29,266 14,830,192 30~-3
M.le _ 6,790,153 423.469 5,809 20,513 7,239,944

Female 7,081,941 494,722 4,831 8,753 7,590,248
Of the total in 1950, 11,371,666 were nat.ive whites, 2,500,429 foreign-

born whites, 20,171 Chinese and 9,095 other races. 12,682,446 or 85'5%
were urban (82 '8% in 1940); those 21 years of age or older numbered
3,354,598. Aliens rcgistered in 1958 numbered 558,462 or 19-3% of the
V.S. total of aliens.
The population of New York City, by boroughs, census of 1 April
1957 (with 1940 consus totals in brackets), was: Manhattan, 1,794,069
(1,889,924); Bronx, 1,424,367 (1 ,394,711); Brooklyn, 2,602,433 (2,698,285) ;
Queens, 1,762,582 (1,297,634); Richmond, 212,020 (174,441); total
7,795,471 (7,454,995). The larger' New York-North. eastern New Jersey
area ' had 14,066,000 on 1 April 1957.
Census population of other cities, 1950, were:
Buffalo 580,132 Wbit-e Plains 1 49,570 KingsLon 28.817
Rochester 332,488 Rom e I 47.920 Lackawa.noB 27,658
Syracuse' 2) '1,252 Jamestown 1 42,565 Rockville Cellter' 25,178
Yonk..... ' ) 78,145 Poughkeepsie 41,023 Lockport 25,133
Albany (capit.l) 134.995 Auburn 36,722 Port Cbester I 24,609
Utica , 101.531 Valiey Strcam ' 36,542 G loversviUe 23,634
N iagsra F"Ii~' JQ1,021 "W' atertown . 34,350 MlddleLown' 23,4.09
Scbeoectady _ 91,785 Dempstead' 32,382 OIean_ 22,884
Bingbamton _ SO,CH Alnsterdam 32,240 Oswego 22,647
Mount VernOD 1 75,425 Newburgh _ 31,956 Coboes 21,272
Troy _ 72,311 F reeport' 31,276 Kenmore l 21,180
New Rochelie' 72, 195 N. Tonawanda 1 31,183 Endicott 20,060
Elmira. 49,716 lthaca 29,257 Glens Falls_ 19,610
I April 195 7.
Largest of the IQWn8, with 1957 population, are Hempstead Town

(68.'), 176), Oyster Bay (243,213), North Hempstead (205,786), Islip (141,738),
Babylon (112,086), Huntingt.on (98,920), 'fonawanda (95,912), Cheektou·aga
(74,493), Greenburgh (68,130) and Union (62,709).
RELIGION. The chief churches are Roman Catholic, with 5.622,606
members in 1959, Jewish congregations (2,379,050) a,nd Protestant Epis-
copal (443,997). Total membership of all Protestant denominations, 1953,
was 1,594,000.
EDUCA TlON. Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16.
In 1958-59 the elementary public schools (grades kindergarten to 8) enrolled
2,06.5,€26 children, 816 public high schools had 686,955 pupils; teachers in
public schools numbered about 117,000. Eleven state teachers' colleges
had 1,447 teachers and 23,820 students. Total expenditure on public
schoob in 1958-59 was $1,457m., on private and parochial schools, with
seconda,ry departments, $70m.; on universities, colleges and other higher
institutions, $415m. Teachers' salaries, 1958-59, averaged $6,400; ex-
cluding New York City, the average was 86,100.
The State's educational system, including public and private schools and
secondary instutitions, universities, colleges, libraries, museums, etc., con-
stitute:! (by legi~lative act) the 'University of the State of New York,'
which i.s governed by a Board of Regents consisting of 13 members appointed
by the Legislature. Within the framework of the' University of the State
of New York' was established in 1948 a • State University' which currently
controls 28 units of higher education and supervises 15 locally operated
community colleges. The 'State University' is governed by a Board of
15 Trustees, appointed by the Governor with the consent and advice of the
Senate.
There were, in the autumn of 1959,132 lmiversities, colleges, professional
and te·)hnical schools (counting the' State University' as one unit) and 15
community colleges, with about 31,000 professors and teachers and 543,208
students, including summer and extension courses.
Thu names, year of foundation and numbers of instructors and full-time
undergraduate students in 19 of the larger colleges and universities in 1959-
60 were as follows:
Foundej Name and place ProfessoN Students
1764 Columbia University, New York. . 2,930 5,795
1795 Union University, Schenectady and Albany 651 1,486
1824. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Tl"Oy . 4iU 2,969
1831 New York University, New York. 3,501 8,614
1846 Colgate University, Hamilton . . 117 1,340
1846 Fordham University, Catholic, New York 570 4,325
1846 Buffalo, University 01, Buffalo. . . 1,170 3,935
1847 College 01 the City of New York, New York' 3,816 29,106
1848 Rochester, University of, Rochester 1,075 2,821
1849 Syracuse Universit.y, Syracuse . 957 7,291
1851 Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn 420 1,536
1856 St Lawrence University, Canton. . . . 110 1,338
1857 Cooper Union Institute of Technology, New York. 155 591
1861 Va.. ar College, Poughkeepsie 192 1,406
1863 Manhattan College, New York 181 2,678
186.1 Cornell University, Ithaca'. . . 1,689 10,308
1871 St John's University, CatholiC, Brooklyn 343 4,567
1914 Hunter College, New York' 846 6,074
1920 Brooklyn Coilege, Brooklyn' 884 8,696
, Includes the City College of New York, Brooklyn College, lIunter Coilege and Queen's
College.
I Includes 4 contract units of the State University .
• Included in the total for the College of the City of New York.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance provides relief for all American

oitizenll 65 years of age or older who have lived in the state for 5 of the 9
years immediately preceding applioation. Number of recipients in May
1959, S5,977, drawing an average of $104'09 per month; aid to dependent
childrec:t included 66,876 cases, with 195,262 children, grants averaging
$41·4 per person; 4,048 blind, SIlO·19; 38,259 disabled, $101'59 per
month. In 1958 the state had 485 hospitals (227,619 beds) listed by the
American Hospital Association. In fiscal year 1958-59 hospitals for mental
NEW YORK STATE 729
diseases had a daily average of 89,946 resident patients (5·4 per 1,000
civilian population; national average 3·1).
In 1945 New York adopted a 'Law against Discrimination' applicable
to all employers, public or private, trade unions and employment agencies,
making it an offence under the police powers of the state to discriminate,
in matters of employment, against any persons on account of' race, creed,
colour or national origin.' Enforcement is placed with a' State Commission
against Discrimination,' which must first try persuasion and, that failing,
may issue 'cease and desist orders,' which the courts will enforce. The
State Constitution declares that no person shall be subject to discrimination
in bis civil rigbts 'because of race, colour, creed or religion,' but leaves it to
the legislature to define' civil rights.'
In 1958.4,918 persons were committed to correctional institutions, 2,252
direct to state prisons, 676 to state reformatories, 63 to institutions for
defective delinquents and 237 to hospitals for criminally insane. 1,690
youths, 16-20 years, were committed to a classification centre, besides
which there are 7 prisons, 6 reformatories, 2 institutions for defective
delinquents, 2 hospitals for criminally insane and 2 youth camps.
In 1959 there were 4 executions (by electrocution). Total executions since
1930 have been 319, including 226 white men, 4 white women, 81 Negroe~.
I Negro woman, 5 other races for murder; 2 whites for kidnapping.
In 1957 murders reported in New York City were 298; automobiles
stolen, 13,820.
There are 6 penitentiaries and 63 county jails, and approximately 274
city jails and lock.ups.
FINANCE. The state's general revenues for the year ending 31 March
1959 were $1,609,783,837 and expenditures $1,550,200,000. Of the total
revenue, taxes furnished $1,555,049,349. In 1958 individual income tax (the
state's, not the federal government's) at $513,532,000, and corporation in.
come tax, at 8258,320,000, led all states.
The net long.term debt, 31 March 1958 was $2,021,100,000, equal to
13% of the aggregate net long. term debt of the 48 states.
The assessed valuation in 1958-59 of taxable real property in New York
City was 822,450,284,947 distributed as follows: Lands and buildings,
S 19,246,944,786; real estate of corporations, $2,138,399,665; special
franchise, $1,064,940,496. The City of New York, 30 June 1959, had a
gross funded debt of $4,136,564,303.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. New York has large agricultural
interests. In 1954 it bad 105,7l4 farms, with a total area of 15,071.000
acres; average farm was 142·6 acres valued at $15,179; full owners num·
bered 78,800 (97,576 in 1950). Commercial farms numbered 77,290;
residential farms, 16,841 with sales of less than $250; part. time farms,
11,393 with sales of between 8250 and $2,000.
Dairying, with 55,428 farms, is the leading type of farming. Field cropg
comprise maize, winter wheat, oats, barley and hay. Other products aro
apples, 18·5m. bu. (1959), leading all states except Washington; peaches,
pears, cherries, grapes, cabbage, onions, potatoes; maple sugar, and maplo
syrup. The farm animals on 1 Jan. 1960 included 40,000 horses and mules
(138,000 in 1950), 1,395,000 milch cows, 2,218,000 all cattle, 186,000 sheep,
133,000 swine. The wool clip in 1958 yielded 1,212,000 lb. of wool. Cash
income, 1959, from crop", $237,012,000 and from livestock and livestock
products, $599,656,000.
SinCE the passage of the Soil Conservation Act of 1940, 45 soil-conserva-

tion districts have been established, covering 22,787,000 acres including
13,865,())0 acres in 104,000 farms.
Mining. Portland cement (production concealed) in 1958 lead the
mining industries, by value, followed by iron ore (1,944,000 long tons,
$25·7m.\ stone and slate (22,598,000 short tons, $38·2m.), salt (3,896,000
short tOllS, S30·6m.), sand and gravel (24,730,000 short tons, S27·5m.) and
zinc (53,014 short tons, $10·8m.). Other minerals produced in 1958 were
petroleun (1,664,000 bbls, S7m.), gypsum (834,000 short tons, S3·9m.),
lime, clays, natural gas, iron oxide and peat. In addition, the state leads
the U.S. in titanium concentrate, talc, abrasive garnet, wollastonite and
emery. Quarry products include trap rock, slate, marble, limestone and
sandstor.e. The value of mineral output in 1958 was $205m.
Industry. In 1954 there were 50,628 manufacturing establishments;
these had in 19581,517,000 production workers, who earned $5,779m.; value
added bJ manufactures was $16,016,817,000, compared with $9,655,859,000
in 1947. Leading industries were women's clothing, printing and publishing,
newspapers and periodicals, books and commercial printing, men's
clothing, bread and other bakery products.
Capacity of the steel industry, I Jan. 1957, was 7,123,000 short tons of
ingot. alld steel for castings (fifth largest in the country).
COMMUNICATIONS. In New York State there were in 1957, 6,713
miles of .team railways. There were 285 airports as of I Jan. 1960, of which
192 wen: commercial and private, 46 municipal and 11 military; there were
also 39 eeaplane bases and 7 heliports. The canals of the state, combined
in 1918 .Jl what is called the Improvcd Canal System, have a length of 519
miles, of which the Erie or' Barge' canal has 340 miles. In 1959 the canals
carried :1,719,919 short tons of freight. There.are (1959) 74,882 miles of
town ani country roads, of which 61,247 miles are improved; 13,312 miles
are cmbmced in the state high way system; there are no federal roads. The
New Yo ~k State Thruway extends 539 miles from New York City to Buffalo
and thence to the Pennsylvania State line, and is the longest toll highway in
the worl:l.
Books of Reference
0'
Afanual 'or th. Us. th. Lcgis/a1urt. Secretary of State. Albany
Writers' frogram. New York: A Guiik to th. Empirt SlIlt.. New York. 1946
0'0'
Cnldwell, : ~. K., Th. Governmmt and Administration of NtUJ York. New York, 1954
Flick, A. 0. (cd.). History the State 0'
Elll., D. M.• Short History .Vew York State. Cornell Uuiv. Press, 1958
0'
New York. 10 vols. New York. 1933-37
Kouwenh"ven, J. A., Th. Oolumbia Historical Portrail New York. Garden City. N.Y.,
1953
Nevins, A., and Krout, J. A. (ed.), Th~ Grealer Oity: New York, 1898-1948. New York and
London, 1949
STATE LmnARY The New York State Library, Albany 1. StaJe Librarian: Char!e.
Francis O·)snell.
NORTH CAROLINA
GOVERNMENT. North Carolina. first settled in 1585 by Sir WaIter
Raleigh and permanently settled in 1663, was one of the 13 original states
of the Union. The present constitution dates from 1876 (though largely
based Ot. that of 1868); it has had 128 amendments. The General Assembly
consists of a Senate of 50 members and a House of Representatives of 120
member!, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are
NORTH CAROLINA 731
elected for 4 years. The Governor may not succeed himself and has no
veto. All registered citizens with the usual residential qualifications have
a vote; registration of those whose ancestors were not voters in 1867 (the
• grandfather clause ') and who were not eligible to vote on 1 Dec. 1908 is
limited to those able to read and write any section of the constitution in the
English language. The capital is Ral eigh.
The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 12 representatives.
In the presidential elect,ion of 1956 Stevenson polled 590,530 votes,
Eisenhower 575,062.
Govenwr. Luther H. Hodges (D.), 1957-61 (31 5,000, plus travel
expenses, $5,000 and housing).
Lieut.·Governor. Luther E. Barnhardt (D.) ($2,400).
Secretary oJ State. Thad Eure (D.).

sq. miles arc inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950,4,061,929, an
increase of 13'7% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1959,4,530,000.
Births, 1958, were 110,492 (24'7 per 1,000 population); marriages, 27,228
(6); deaths, 35,648 (8); infant deaths, 3,603 (32·6 per 1,000 live births).
PopUlation in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1(50):
}"cr sq.
1910 1,500,511 697,843 7,851 82 2,206,287 45·3
1930 2,234,958 918,647 J6,570 ~2 3,170,276 64·5
J940 2,567,635 981,298 22,546 144 3,571,623 72·7
1950 2,983,121 1,047,353 3,742 4,061,n9 82·7
'--~
Male. 1,489,840 511,265 2,017,105
Female 1,493,281 536,088 All others ; ~;~~g 2,044,824
Of the total population in 1950, nati ~e whites numbered 2,966,987;

foreign· born whites, 16,134. 1,368,101 persons (33'7%) were urban (27'3%
in 1940); 2,311,222 were 21 years old or older.
Cit.ies (with census population in 1950) are: Charlot.te, 134,042;
Winston·Salem, 87,811; Greensboro, 74,389; Durham, 71,311; Raleigh
(capital), 65,679; Asheville, 53,000; Wilmington, 45,043; High Point,
39,973; Fayetteville, 34,715; Kannapolis (unincorporated), 28,448.
RELIGION. Leading denominations are the Southern Baptists

(846,263 members in 1957-58), Negro Baptists (325,000) and Southern Metho-
dists (433,068). Total estimate of all denominations, I·Om.
EDUCATION. School attendance is compulsory between 7 and 16, and

free from 6 to 21, but the General Assembly in 1956 amended the law to
provide that where a child is assigned to a school attended by a child of
another race, and where no private school is available, the compulsory law
will not bo effective. In 1957-58 public Bvhool enrolment was 1,060,187
(746,121 white and 314,066 Negro) in 3,132 buildings; 504,502 children
were transported to and from school in buses. In 1957-58 teachers (not
including 2,004 principals) numbered 35,154, including 9,639 Negroes.
There are 7 state·supported normal schools and teachers' colleges (3 white,
3 Negro and 1 Indian), special schools for blind and deaf and 5 four-year
colleges (3 white and 2 Negro). Classroom teachers, 1957-58, in white
schools, had average salary of 83,719; Negro schools, $3,818. 'fotal
expenditure for public education, 1957-58, $193m.
Higher instruction is given in 59 senior and junior institutions with total

enrolmt,nt, 1958, of 55.000. They include the Greater University of North
Carolina with three units. the university proper at Chapel Hill (founded in
1795) with (1958-59) 1.166 professors and 7.5 13 students; the State College
of Agri"ulture and Engineering at Raleigh (founded in 1889) with 579 pro.
fessors. and 5.685 pupils. and the Women's College (Greenshoro) with 184
professors and 2,444 etudE-nts. Duke University. at Durham. has an endow.
ment of S41m.; it had 639 instructors and 5.612 students.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance was being drawn in June 1959 by

50,~,O persons receiving an average of $38·94 pcr month; 26,565 families
with 80,965 dependent children averaged $74·9 per month; 5.104 blind,
851 '49 ; 17,884 totally disabled, $44'57. In 1959 the state had 208 hospital~
(2!).334 beds).
Segregation of Negroes is observed with few exceptions throughout the
entire Educational system (subject to admission of pupils by local adruini·
strativf boards). welfare and penal institutions and fraternal associations.
Indians must have separate schools and a separate home for the insane.
Inter'rE,eial marriage is prohibited between white. Negroes and Indians.
Sterilization of those suffering from mental illness. mental retardation
or epikpsy is administered under a law of 1933. subsequently amended.
consent of patient and spouse or nearest relativo being required; up to
30 .Tunn W58. 1.004 men and 3.982 women had been sterilized.
In ) 90!) there was no execution; total executions (by lethal gas) since
1!)30 W'lre 262. including 59 whites, 198 Negroes and 5 other races.
FINANCE. General revenue for the year ending 30 June 1958 was
$526.114.000 ($375.134,000 from taxation and $101,784,000 from federal
aid). General expenditure was $542,040,000 (education, $231,658,000 ;
highwa:rs, $137.717,000; public welfare, $49.056.000).
On 30 June 1959 the net long. term debt amounted to $220.333.000.
principally for highway and schoolbuilding construction.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The chief occupation is agriculture,

highly varied in character. In 1954 there were 267,906 farms (second only to
Texas), covering a total farm area of 18.260.346 acres; average farm was of
68 acres valued (land and buildings) at $8,063. In 1954. 96.586 tenant.
farmen operated 36·1 % of a.ll farms; commercial farms numbered 181.660.
About :!5,OOO farmers sell nothing off the farm.
In 1957 there were 37 soil· conservation districts embracing 28.695.883
acres (hcluding 284,789 farms) .
Cash income from crops (W58 ) was $697.093.000 and from livestock
5313.667.000. Maize is prodnced in every county; output. 1958.82,192.000
bu. Irlcome is mainly from tobacco. poultry. swine. cotton. maize and
peanut!! (331·lm. lb. in 1958). Cultivation of cotton (1958) produced
256.00C bales. North Carolina leads in the production of tobacco
(755.45 5.000 lb.) and produces over i of all f1ue.cured tobacco grown in
the U.E. Also grown extensively are sweet potatoes. peaches. potatoes and
sorgnm. On 1 Jan. 1959 the farm animals were: 176,000 horses and mules.
1.014,01)0 all cattle. 375,000 ruileh cows. 71,000 sheep and 1,4!)0,000 swine.
Fore.stry. Timber. covering 20.075,700 acres. is important. furnishing
about ~'% of the total value of farm products. The area of national and
state fcrest lands (1959) was 1.157.000 acres.
NORTH DAKOTA 733
Mining. Minerals in great variety (over 500 types, leading all states) are
found in the state. In 1.958 North Carolina produced 521,701 lb. of sheet
mica (79% of V.S. total) and 50,897 short tons of scrap and flake mica
(54%). It also leads in the production of feldspar, silica, millstones, residual
kaolin clays, and is the only producer of pyrophyllito (a substitute for talc).
Mineral products, 1958, were valued at $:39·9m.
Industry. North Carolina's 7,000 industrinl establishments in 1958 had
480,000 production workers. Gross value of industrial production in 1958
was $7.409m. The leading indu~tries were textile goods (leading all sta.tes),
manufacture of cigarettes (70% of the U.S. production, leading all states),
electrical machinery, processing of some 50 food crops and the manufacture
of furniture (leading all states).
COMMUNICATIONS. The state in 1958 contained 4,470 miles of

railway, almost wholly diesel· powered. The state was the first to under·
take the construction and maintennnce of all highways within her borders,
relieving the local authorities; she maintains, 1959,70,890 miles of highways,
including 37,657 miles of paved highways. Airports in 1958 numbered 99,
of which 59 were general.
Books of Reference
N orlh Ca.,.olina M anuaJ. S€,(' .retary of State. nnlcigb. Diennial
North Carolina: A Guide to ti,e Old .North State. lJniv. of N.C., Chapel TIill. 19!)5
Hobbs. S. H ., NOTth Carolina: an ecollomic and social prOfile. Ulliy. of N .0., Ch3p~1 Hill, 19:>R
Letter, H. T., aud Nevt'some, A. It., ,North Ca-rolina : lht hi.vlorv 01 a S'Jutherll Slale. l!niv.
of N.C .• Chapel Hill. 1954
Thornt.oD , M. L., Bibliogra.phy of }{orlh Caro/ilHl, 1589-1956. rniv. of ~.C" Chapel Hill,
1958
STATE LmUARY. North Carolina Stnte Library, Ralcigh. Slau Librarian: Mrs Miles
IIughey.
NORTH DAKOTA
GOVERNMENT. North Dakota, first settled around 1766, wa~ ad·
mitted into the Union on 2 Nov. 1889; previously it had formed part of
the Dakota Territory, establi.~hed 2 March 1861. The present constitution
dates from 1889; it has had 64 amendments. Tho Legislative A~embly
consists of a Senate of 49 members elected for 4 years, a.nd a House of
Representatives of 113 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and
Lieut.·Governor are elected for 2 years. Qualified electors are (with
necessary exceptions) all citizens and civilized Indians. The state has 53
organized counties; the capital is Bismarck. The state sends to Congress
2 senators and 2 represontati.es, elected by the voters of the entire state.
Stevenson 96,742.
Governor. John E. Davis (R.), 1959-61 ($10,000).
Lieut.·Governor. C. P. Dab] (R.) ($I,600).
Secrew,ry of State. Den Meier (R.) ($6,000).
being water. The Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs administered (1957)
915,658 acres, of which 103,377 acres were assigned to tribes. Census
population, 1 April 1950, 619,636, n decrease of 22,299 or 3'5% since 1940.
Estimated population, 1 July 1959, 642,000. Births in 1958 (provisional)

were H,617 (25'6 per 1,000 population); deaths, 5,217 (8); infant death8,
429 (25·8 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 4,306 (6·6); divorces 513.
Population at 4 federal censuses (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per .q.
White Negro Indian Asiatio Total mile
1910 569,855 617 6,486 98 577,056 8·~
1920 639,954 467 6,254 197 646,872 9·~
1940 631,464 201 10,114 106 641,935 9·2
1950 608,448 257 10,766 165 619,636 8·8
Male. 317,153 135 5,555 101 322,944
Female 291,295 122 5,211 64 296,692
The number of foreign-born whites in 1950 was 49,232 (7,8% of the total
population), of whom 13,268 (26'9%) were Norwegians, 12,393 (25,2%)
were R1lssians, 6,179 Canadians and 4,195 Germans.
Of the total population in 1950, 164,817 (26,5%) were urban; those 21
years old or older numbered 366,586; 36% (178,054 males and 45,488
females) were gainfully employed. The largest cities are Fargo with
population, 1950, of 38,256; Grand Forks, 26,836; Minot, 22,032 and
Bismarck, 18,640.
RELIG ION. The leading religious denominations are the Roman
Catholi';s, with 130,639 members in 1950; Combined Lutherans, 172,481;
Methodists, 18,722; Presbyterians, 11,490.
EDUCATION. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of
7 and 15, or until the 17th birthday if the eighth grade haa not been com-
pleted. In 1957-58 the public elementary schools had 4,805 full-time
classrocm teachers and 95,731 pupils; secondary schools, 1,990 teachers
and 33,219 pupils. In 1958 the 1,730 one-room schools had 18,567 pupils;
the graded country schools, 2,508 pupils, and the town graded schools,
107,875 pupils. Classroom teachers, one-room schools, 1958, received an
average salary of $2,514; graded country schools, $2,748; town graded
schools, $3,825. The state university at Grand Forks, founded in 1883,
had (1957) 300 teachers and 3,400 students; the state agricultural college,
149 tea;hers and 2,487 students. Total enrolment in institutions of higher
educatbn, autumn 1958, 12,618. State expenditure on elementary and
seconda.ry education in 1955-56, $35m.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance is provided for all needy persons 65
years of age or older who have resided in the state for 1 year and for 10 years
in the U.S., or who are citizens; in Dec. 1958,7,546 were drawing an average
of 879·'18 monthly; 1,693 families with 4,932 children, ~n45'05; 102 blind
persons, $69,6; 1,034 totally disabled, $89·26. In 1957 the state had 63
hospita.s (6,770 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association.
In 1913 North Dakota passed a statute permitting, under safeguards,
the steIilization of insane and feeble-minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958,
359 ma.es and 616 females had been sterilized.
The state penitentiary, on 31 Dec. 1958, held 293 inmates (45 per 100,000
population). There is no death penalty except for treason, and for murder
committed by a murderer in prison.
Marriage between white and coloured persons was made legal in 1955.
$118,0£4,000 and general expenditures, 8120,069,000; taxation provided
OHIO 735
$55,957,000 and federal aid, $29,097,000; education took $25,232,000 ;
highways, $41,023,000, and public welfare, $10,263,000.
Tl)tal net long. term debt on 30 June 1958, $12,423,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture is the chief pursuit of the
North Dakota population. In I()54 there were 61,943 farms (73,962 in
1946) with an area of 41,876,924 acres (37,943,000 in 1946); the average
farm was of 673 acres valued at $876,924. Farm.tenants, 1954, operated
21% of the farms and full owners, 23,632 farms. Largc.scale farming is
growing; in 1940, 6,405 farms exceeded 1,000 acres, and in 1954, 9,922
farms. Of all farms 53% had telephones in 1955, 95% had electricity
and 58,000 fa rms had 115,000 tractors.
Cash income, 1958, from crops and livestock, S658·3m. North Dakota
leads in the production of barley (108,724,000 bu . in 1958) and of rye
(6,549,000 bu.); production of wheat (1958) was 146,941,000 bu. (second
only to Kansas). Other important products are flax sced, potatoes, hay,
oats and maize. The state has also an active livestock industry, chiefly
horse and cattle raising. On 1 Jan. 1959 the farm animals were: 63,000
horses and mules, 352,000 milch cows, 1,870,000 all cattle, 673,000 sheep
and 410,000 swine. The wool clip yielded (1957),5,229,000 lb. of wool from
590,000 sheep. National forest arca, 1957, 1,103,879 acres.
In 1958 there were 77 soil-conservation districts embracing 44.571,000
acres (41,734,000 acres in farms), covering 98'5% of the state's acreage.
Mining. The mineral resources of North Dakota consist chiefly of
lignite coal (2,313,858 short tons produced in 1958) and oil which was dis-
covered in 1951. Production of crude petroleum in 1958 was 14,141.000
bbls; of natural gas, 17,325m. cu. ft. Total valuc of mineral output, 1958,
S59,093,000.
COMMUNICATIONS . In 1!).j7 there were 5,256 miles of steam railway
in the state. The state highway department maintained, in 1957,6,230 miles
of highway ; local authorities, 105,342 miles, and wunieipal, 2,456 miles.
Airporta in 1958 numbered 137, of which 31 were general.
Books of Reference
"lfanual for /ht State of North Dakota. Secretary of State. Bismarck. Irreguiar
Fedeml Writers' Project. North Dakota: A Guide to the North.,.... State. 2nd ed. Oxford
Un.iv. Press. New York. 1950
Kazeck, M. E., North Dakota. a human and economic geography. Fargo, 1956
OHIO
GOVERNMENT. Ohio, first settled in 1788, unofficially entered the
Union on 19 Feb. 1803; entrance was made official, retroactive to 1 March
1803, on 8 Aug. 1953_ The question of a general revision of the constitution
drafted by an elected convention is submitted to the people every 20 years.
During 1959-60 the Senate consisted of 33 members and the House of
Repreaentatives of 139 members. Half of the Senate is elected for 2 years,
halffor 4 years; the House ia elected for 2 years; the Governor and Lieut.-
Governor for 4 years. Qualified as electors are (with necessary exceptional
all citizens 21 years of age who have the usual residential qualifications.
Ohio is divided into 88 counties; the capital (since 1816) is Columbus.
Ohio sends 23 representatives to Congress.
In the 1956 presidential elections Eisenhower polled 2,262,610 votes and

Gove-nor. Michael DiSalle (D.), 1959-63 ($25,000).
Lieu.:.·Governor. John W. Donahey (D.), 1959-63 ($8,000).
SecrEtary oJ State. Ted W. Brown (R.), 1959-63 (Sl5,000).
miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 7,946,627, an
increase of 1,039,015 or 15% since 1940. Estimated population, on 1 July
1959, WlS 9,557,714. In 1958 births numbered 234,040 (24'7 per 1,000
populat'.on): deaths, 91,425 (9'7); infant deaths, 5,940 (25'4 per 1,000 live
births); marriages, 65,240 (6'9); divorces, 21,555.
Population at 4, census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was :
Per sq.
White Negro Indian Asiatic Total mUe
1910 4,654,897 111,452 127 645 4,767,121 117·0
1930 6,336,173 309,304 435 1,785 6,646,697 16H
1940 6,566,631 339,461 338 1,282 6,907,612 168·0
1950 7,428,222 613,072 1,146 3,528 7,946,627 193·8
Male. 3.672,387 252,827 857 2,050 3,928.534
Female 3,756,835 260,245 289 1,478 4,018,093
Of the total populo.tion in 1950. native whites numbered 6,985.064;

foreign.born whites, 443.158; 5,578.274 persons (70,2%) were urban
(66'8% in 1940). Those 21 vears or older numbered 5.279.761.
Estimated population ofchief cities on 1 July 1959 was:
Cleveland ~26,808 Lorain . 61,068 BarlJerton 36,047
Cillclnnati 575,523 Lima 57,8J 3 Garneld lleights 35,183
Colllmblls 479,431 Mansfield 52,515 Sandusky . 34,998
Toledo. 343,741 Cuyahoga Falls 50,550 Shaker Heights 33,707
Akron . 308,014 Kettering 48,488 Lancaster 32,918
Dayton . 300,704 Middletown . 44,252 Alliance 31,207
Youngsto'~n . 185,87& ~anesville 43,309 Maple Heights 29,005
Canton. 124,116 East Cleveland 40,571 Findlay . 28,786
Springfiel,1 88,282 Newark 40,211 South Euclid. 27,862
Parm" . 73,410 Portsmouth . 39,959 Cbillicotbe 27,562
Hamilton 72,721 Marion. 39,148 East Livcrpo~l 27,260
La.kewooo 66,859 Norwood 39,090 Upper Arlington 27,174
Warren 63.223 Steabenville . 38,942 Ashtabula 27,079
Euclid . 62,521 Massillon 38 ,694 Tiffin 23,418
Cleveland Heights . 61,800 Elyrla . 37,926 Whiteh~ll 20,614
RELIGION. The approximate strength of chief religious bodies in

1958 WI-S: Roman Catholic. with 1·9m.; Methodist. 582,000; Lutheran.
400.000, Presbyterian,272.000; Jewish. 210.000; Baptist. 150.000.
EDUCATION. School attendance during full term is compulsory for

children from 6 to 18 years of age. In 1958-59 the 2.003 kindergartens had
2,050 teachers and 130.443 pupils; 2,995 public elementary schools had
37,000 teachers and 1.119.230 enrolled pupils; 171 junior high schools had
4.500 teachers and 126.547 pupils; 958 high schools had 20.000 teachers
and 45f.277 pupils. Teachers' salaries. 1958--59, averaged $4.700. Ex·
penditure on public schools in 1958-59 was $511 ·9m., and on higher educa·
tion. $1'35m. The state's 84 universities and colleges had a total enrolment
of 155.942 resident students in 1957-58; the following had 2.000 or more
student!! in 1957-58:
OHIO 737
Professors, Students (all
Founded Institution. etc. departments)
1804 Ohio University, Athens (State) 366 13,11 1
1809 MiamJ University, Oxlord (State) . . . 319 7,694
1826 Western Reserve University, Oleveland (private) 600 7,285
1831 Xavier University, Oinclnnati (Roman Oatholic) 118 3, i50
1833 OberHn Oollege, OberHn (Private) . 200 2,245
1850 University 01 Day ton (Roman Catholic) . 17i 3.388
1870 University 01 AJrron (Municipal). . 150 3.408
1872 Ohio State University, Columbu. (State) 2,062 28,566
1872 Toledo University (Municipal) . . 164 10.435
1874 University of Cincinnnti (MuniCipal) 516 9,320
1908 Youngstown University (Municipal) 193 6.15R
1910 Bowllnl( Green State University (State) 208 10.435
1912 Kent State University (State) 3G5 10,938
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance (maximum $65 a month and cost of

nursing care) prllvides for American citizens 65 years or older who have
resided in the state for 5 years, with other inco me not exceeding $960 per
annum; on I Aug. 1959,87,598 persons were drawing an average of $53'5
per month; 27,000 aged persons were being maintained in institutions.
At the same date 37,399 children were under care of public or private child·
welfare agencies.
Hospital Association. Hospitals for mental diseases, on 31 Aug. 1958, had
an estimated 36,000 patients (378 per 100,000 population).
A Civil Rights Act (1933) forbids inns, restaurants, theatres, retail stores
and all other places of public resort to discriminate against citizens on
grounds of' colour or race'; none may be denied the right to serve on juries
on the grounds nf • colour or race'; insurance companies are forbidden to
discriminate between • white persons and coloured, wholly or partially of
African descent.' Ohio has no 8egre~ation in the public schools.
The state's penal and reformatory system, 30 June 1959, held 11 ,;'97
inmates (121 per 100,000 population). In 1958 there were 6 executions;
total executions (by electrocution) since 1930 were 164, all for murder.
81,003,436,000 (taxation, $699,438,000, and federal aid, 8197,230,000) and
general expenditure was 31,143,266,000 (education, 8249,103,000; highways,
3424,738,000, and public welfare, $123,561,000).
The net long. term debt of the state on 30 June 1058 was 3801,266,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Ohio is extensively devoted to agri.
culture. In 191>4, 177,074 farms covered l!J,90l,586 acres, of whieh
9,725,973 acres were crop land; average farm was 112·9 acres valued at
321,041. Commercial farms numbered 123,457 and residential farms,
28.972. Tenant·farmers operated 16'4% of all farms (26'3% in 1940).
Cash income, 1958, from crops, $341·9m., and from livestock and
products, $641 ·7m. The most important crops are (1958): Maize (202·6m.
bu.), oats (56·7m. bu.), wheat (46·3m. bu.), soybeans (37·5m. bu.), potatoes
(3m. cwt), tobacco (17·3m. lb.), apples (3·lm. bu.), grapes (18,000 tons).
The wool clip in 19.58 yielded 9,352,000 lb. from 1,137,000 sheep. National
forest area, 1955, 105,926 acres; state forest area, H)56, 152,617 acres. On
I Jan. 1959 the livestock on Ohio farms was: 53,000 horses and mules,
857,000 milch cows, 2,367,000 all cattle, 2,628,000 swine and 1,276,000
sheep.
In 1953 there were 875 oil. conservation districts em bmcing 24,755,670
acres, of which 20,255,965 acres were farm land.
B n
Mir..ing. Ohio has also extensive mineral resources; value of total

mineral output, 1958, $244,014,000. The state produced, 1958: Lime
(quick and hydrated), 2,410,504 short tons; sand and gravel, 30·lm. short
tons; 'loal, 32·1m. short tons; salt, 2,392,000 short tons; petroleum,
6,525,000 bbls; natural gas output, 33,875m. cu. ft.
In&t8try. In Aug. 1959 the manufacturing establishments employed
1,173,5'72 workers; the largest industry was primary metal production
with Uil,931 workers. The value added by manufacture in 1956 was
$12,37~:m. Ohio is the second largest producer of pig·iron and steel with
a capadty, I Jan. 1957, of 26,596,280 short tons of ingots and steel for
castingll.
COMMUNICATIONS. The state (1956) maintains 18,373 miles of high-

way, all hard surfaced. The railroads had, 1958, 8,900 miles of track. There
were 375 airports and landing fields in 1958, of which 175 were commercially
operated and 41 publicly owned.
Books of Reference
Official ],:DSI<r, F.aeraJ, StaU, County 0Bicn. and Department Information. Secretary ot
Stare. Columbus. Biennial
Ohio, ..h Empire within an Empire. Development and Publicity Commission. Columbus,
1951
Federal Writers' Project. Th. Ohio Guide. Sponsored by the State Arch. and Hist. Soc.
New York, 1951
Auma.nn, F. R., and Walker, H., The Government and Administration of Ohio. New York,
1956
Rose, A. H., Ohio Ocwemmenl, Slate and Local. Saint Louis. 1953
Roseboom, E. H., and Weisenhurger, F. P., .4 Hiswrv o[ Ollio. Stare Arch. and Hist. Soc.,
Columbus, 1953
Wittke, I'. O. (ed.), History o[ the State o[ Ohio. State Arch. and Hist. Soc. 6 vols.
Columbu8,1941-42
OKLAHOMA
GOVERNMENT, An unorganized area in the centre of the present
state w<J,s thrown open to white settlers on 22 April 1889. The Territory of
Oklahoma was organized in 1890 to include this area and other sections,
opened to white settlements by runs or lotteries during the next decade,
On 16 Nov. 1907 Oklahoma was combined with the Indian Territory and
admiW,d as a state. The present constitution, dating from 1907, provides
for the initiative and the referendum; it has had 42 amendments.
The Legislature consists of a Senate of 44 members, who are elected for
4 years, and a House of Representatives elected for 2 years and consisting
of from 118 to 123 members. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are
elected for 4 years. Electors are (with necessary exceptions) all citizen8
21 years old or older, with the usual residentia.l qualifications; the voters
in 1952 defeated a proposal to lower the age to 18. Indians are qualified
as vote:C'S. The state has 77 counties; the capital is Oklahoma City.
The state is represented in Congress by 2 sena.tors and 6 representatives.
Steverulon 385,581.
Gov,!rnor. J. H. Edmondson (D.), 1959-63 ($15,000).
Liwt.-Governor. George Nigh (D.) ($5,000).
SeC1etary of State. William N. Christian (D.) ($9,000).
OKLAHOMA 739
AREA AND POPULATION. Area 69,919 sq. miles, of which 888 sq.
miles are water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 2,233,351, a decrease of
103,083 or 4'4% since 1940. Estimated population 1 July 1959, 2,276,000.
Births (J958, provisional) were 49,628 (21·7 per 1,000 population); deaths,
21,434 (9,4); infant deaths, 1,398 (27·2 per 10,000 live births); marriages,
33,466 (14'7); divorces, including annulments, 12,466.
The population at 4 federal censuses (with distribution by sex in 1950)
was:
Per sq.
White Negro Indian Asiatic Tota mile
1910 1,444,531 137,612 74,826 187 1,657,155 23·9
1930 2,130,778 172,198 92,726 339 2,396,040 34·6
1940 2,104,228 168,84~ 63,126 232 2,336,434 33·7
1950 2,032,526 145,503 53,769 634 2,233,361 32-4
Male. 1,017,323 70,426 26,992 310 1,115,555
Female 1,015,203 75,078 26,777 224 1,117,7~6
Non·whites in 1950, 200,825 included 98,232 males and 102,593 females.

In 1950, 1,139,481 (51%) were urban (37,6% in 1940). Only 11 of the 77
counties increased in population between 1940 and 1950. Those 21 years of
age or older numbered 1,382,108. In 1958 the U.S. Bureau of Indian
Affairs administered 1,96D,OOO acres, of which 60,000 acres were allotted
to tribes.
The most important cities (with census population, 1950) are Oklahoma
City (243,504); Tulsa (182,740): Muskogee (37,289): Enid (36,017);
Lawton (34,757): Norman (27,006): Shawnee (22,948): Stillwater (20,238);
Ponca City (20,180) and Bartlesville (19,228).
RELIGION. The chief religious bodies in 1059 were Baptists, 442,317;
National Baptists, 6,500; Roman Catholics, 79,317: Northern and Southern
Methodists,234,732; Indian Methodists, 8,115; Disciples of Christ, 100,847.
EDUCATION. Oklahoma statutes used to require separate educational
facilities for whites and Negroes. The 17 May 1954 U.S. Supreme Court
decision radically altered the state public.school system; more than half
the 1,372 public·school districts had, Sept. 1959, both white and Negro
pupils in the same classes. In 1948 the Federal District Court ruled that the
State University was violating the U.S. constitution in failing to provide
educational facilities for Negro students equal to those furnished to white
students: the legislature in 1949 enacted a law under which they are now
admitted to the State University.
In 1958-59 there were 1,372 public. school districts with 525,401 pupils;
the 20,85fl teachers and superintendents were paid an average of 54,646,
Total expenditure on education in 195B-59, $160,563,211, of which state
expenditure \vas $71,779,192. The University of Oklahoma (founded at
Norman in 18(0) had 601 full· time professors and 10,159 resident students
(e;,:cluding medical); Oklahoma State University of Agriculture and Applied
Science (founded in 1890 at Stillwater) had 498 professors and 8,936 students
(excluding veterinary).
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance, 1958-59, wa~ being drawn by
100,954 person~, receiving an average of $63·94 per month: 17,164 families,
including 45,546 dependent children, averaged $97'46 per family: 2,498
blind, $80'56: 10,346 totally disabled, $72·28. In 1957 there were 131
hospitals (17,662 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association. In
1958 sta,te hospitals for mental diseases had an average of 7,524 patients;
state schools for mentally retarded, including epileptics, had 1,946 pupils.
Pens,1 institutions, 1 Sept. 1959, held 2,815 inmates (124 per 100,000 of
the pop'Jlation); correctional institutions held 377 boys and girls.
The death penalty may be imposed for murder; since 1930 there have
been 54 executions by electrocution, including 35 whites, 11 Negroe~ and 3
American Indians, for murder.
NeglOes are forbidden to marry into other races.
$410,070,000 (taxation, $246,491,000; federal aid, SIl5,662,000), and general
expendi"\ure, $4\0,967,000 (education, $115,432,000; highways, $119,663,000;
public welfare, $105,411,000).
Total net long.term debt, 30 June 1958, was $18],484,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Oklahoma is mainly agricultural. In

1954 it had 118,9i9 farms with a total area of 35,630,045 acres, of which
10,249,134 acres were in crops. Average farm was 299'5 acres valued at
518,840 (86,713 in 1945). Owners and part owners operated 89,790 farms,
tenants 28,936 farms and managers 544 farms .
Large·scale commercial farming is becoming the dominant form ; 4,880
farms e:tceeded 1,000 acres. On tbe other hand, subsistence farming also
exists; in 1950, 19,996 farms (14% of the 142,246 farms reporting) showed
a gross production, for sale and farm consumption, valued at less than
$250.
Soil erosion is serious-wind and water erosion in the western part and
water erosion in the eastern. Of the total surface (44,526,881 acres) 7%
in 1954 was found seriously eroded (7/)% or more of the top.soil gone),
348% was moderately eroded (having lost from 25 to 75% of the top.soil)
and 68'2% was free or nearly free from erosion. About 85% of land
suitable for crops needs conservation measures to prevent excessive 109s of
Boil, and about 93% of land suitable only for permanent grass needs pre-
ventive measures. In 1958 there were 87 soil· conservation districts em-
bracing 44,024,000 acres, of which 36,732,000 acres were land in farms.
Okla,homa usually leads in production of broom corn (12,209 tons in
1958). The yield of wheat in 1958 was 115.440,000 bu.; of grain sorghums,
18,460,(00 bu. The cotton crop for 1958 amounted to 313.101 ba,les.
Esti:n ated cash income from crops in 1958 was S312'2m., and from
livestock, $321 ,6m. On 1 Jan. 1959 the stock comprised 370.000 milch cows.
3,313,OC'() all cattle, 458,000 swine, 281 ,000 shcep, 85,000 horses and mules.
Wool yield, 1958, was 2,021,000 lb.
Forestry. National forest area (1958) totalled 372,778 acres.
Mining. In the U.S. Oklahoma ranks fourth as a petroleum producer.
Producing oilwells, 1959, 80,252. In 1958. 8,199,599.725 bbls of crude
petroleum were produced, 774.937.213.000 cu. ft of natural gas, 1,696.530
short t<·ns of coal, 454.634 short tOllS of gypsum, 13,632 short tons of re·
coverable lea.d and 5,267 short tons of recoverable zinc. The total minera.l
output in 1958 was valued at $767,856,000.
Indt18try. Petroleum refining is the chiflf industry; 15 refineries were
operatirlg on 1 Jan. 1959 with a capacity of 397,200 bbls of oil per day. In
]958, 1.617 manufacturing establishments had 84,456 production workers
earning S387 ,605,157.
OREGON 741
COMMUNICA nONS. The state, 1958, maintained 11,555 miles of
highway; the counties, 82,938 miles. In 1957 Ok lahoma had 5,905 miles of
steam railway. Airports, 1958, numbered 112, of which 61 were general.
Books of Reference
State Election Board. Directory, Stat, 0/ Oklalwrrw.. Oklahoma City
State Historical Society. Chronicl.. 0/ Oklahoma. Oklahoma City (from 1921)
Kent, R. t Oklahoma: .d. Guide to the Sooner Stall!. Rev. ed. NormaD,1957
Dale, E. E., and Wardell, M. L., History of Oklahoma. New York, 1948
Debo, Angie, Oklahoma. Norman, 1950
McReynolds, Edwin C., Oklalioma: Lt Histor1l o/lhe Sooner SlaU. (1niv. of Oklahoma, ~orman,
1954
STATE LmnARY. Oklahoma State Library, 10~ State Capitol, Oklahoma City 5. Sr"t,
Librarian and State Archi'vist: UaJph IIudson.
OREGON
GOVERNMENT. Oregon, first settled about 1830 by French Canadian
employees of the Hudson's lsay Company and organized as a Territory in
1848, was admitted into the Union on 14 Feb. 1859. The present constitu.
tion dates from that time; some 97 items in it have been amended. The
Legislative Assembly consists of a Senate of 30 members, elected for 4 years
(half their number retiring every 2 years), and a House of 60 representatives,
elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. State employees
are under Civil Service protection and administration. The constitution
reserves to the voters the right~ of the initiative and referendum and recall.
In Nov. 1912 suffrage was extended to women. There are 36 counties in
the state; the capital is Salem.
The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 4 representatives.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 406,3D3 votes,
Stevenson 329,204.
Governor. Mark O. Hatfield (R.), 1959-63 ($17,500 plus $600 monthly for
expenses).
Secretary of State. Howell Appling, Jr (312,500).
being inland water. The federal government owns 31,611,000 acres (51,3%
of the state area). Census population, 1 April 1950, 1,521,341, an increase
of 431,657 or 39·6% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1959,
1,777,000. In 1958 resident births numbered 36,295 (21 per 1,000 popu·
lation); deaths, 15,449 (8·9); infant deaths (resident deaths within the first
year of life), 844 (23'3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 9,896 (5'7), and
divorces, 5,452.
Population at 4 federal censuses (with distribution by sex in 1950)
was:
Per sq.
Whit. Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1910 655,090 1,4.92 5,090 11,093 672,765 7·0
1930 938,598 2,234 4,776 8,179 953,786 9·~1
1940 1,075,731 2,565 4,694 6,794 1,089,684 11 ·3
1950 1,.97,128 11,629 5,820 6,864 1,521,341 15·8
Male. 759.603 5,961 3,039 4,173 772,776
Female 737,525 5,568 2,781 2,691 748,565
Of be total population in 1950, 1,413,516 were native whites, 83,612

foreign-born whites, 3,660 Japanese, 2,102 Chinese; 819,318 persons (53-9%)
were urban (48·8% in 1940). Those 21 years and older were 1,001,690.
The U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs (area headquarters in Portland)
adminis';ers (1959) 1,385,089 acres, of which 1,189,283 acres are held by the
V.S. in trust for Indian tribes, and 195,806 acres for individual Indians.
Aliens registered in 1959 were 18,463.
The largest towns, according to the 1959 enumerations, are: Portland,
with a population of 405,000; Eugene,49,870; Salem,49,100; Medford,
26,300; Corvallis,20,250; Klamath Falls, 20,200; Pendleton, 15,650.
RELIGION. The chief religious bodies are Catholic (87,973 members

in 1952), Methodist (45,919), Baptists (34,185) and Presbyterian (2 groups)
(32,066). Total membership, all denominations, 371,212.
Marriage has heretofore been prohibited between whites and Negroes,
Mongolilns and Indians, but the legislature repealed the act in 1951.
EDUCATION. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 18 years of
age if the twelfth year of school has not been completed; those between the
ages of 16 and 18 years, if legally employed, must attend part. time or
evening schools. On 30 June 1958 the 1,088 public elementary schools and
223 fou~-year standard senior high schools had 15,936 administrators and
teacher, and 337,893 in average daily membership; total enrolment, 30
June 1958, was 379,454, of whom 95,950 were high-school pupils. Average
salary f.)r all classroom teachers, 1957-58, was $4,825. Total expenditure
on elem~ntary and secondary education (1957-58) was $133,298,773.
The Oregon State College at Corvallis (Oregon's land-grant college) had,
in 1958--59,505 instructors and 7,981 students. The University of Oregon
at Eug.me had 327 teachers and 6,195 students; its medical school at
Portland had 77 paid and 400 volunteer instructors and 605 students in
medicin3 and nursing; and its dental school, also at Portland, had 52 in-
st.ructor> and 335 students. Portland State College at Portland had 145
teachen and 3,717 students. The 3 colleges of education had (1958-59)
167 tea.:hers and 2,881 students. Altogether, state supported institutions
of high"r education had a total enrolment of 21,714 during the autumn
term of L958-59. In addition, there were 1l,060 students enrolled in evening
classes ;md correspondence study.
WEl.FARE. Old Age Assistance is provided for all needy persons 65
years 01" older who have been residents of the state for 5 years or more
within 1;he last 9 years, and for at least 1 year, immediately preceding
application. As of 30 June 1959, 17,665 aged persons were drawing an
average of $76·03 per month, including medical care and services.
In June 1959,5,955 families with 16,015 dependent children and 5,252
adult caretakers received $134·28 per month, including medical care and
services; 273 blind persons, $83·58; 5,031 totally disabled, $84·66
A system of unemployment benefit payments, financed by employers,
with administrative allotments made through a federal agency, started
2 Jan. 1938, and covers about 27,000 employers with average employment
in 1958 of 365,247. By 30 June 1959 about $314·5m. had been paid into
the trmt fund, including interest and certain federal subsidies. Approxi-
mately 5288·5m. has been paid out in benefits, leaving a balance of $26m.
Benefit, range from $15 to $40 weekly and up to $1,040 per year.
Abolt 55,500 state, school and local public employees are covered by
OREGON 743
the Retirement System as of Aug. 1959. Total assets of the system on that
date were approximately $9100. About 5,850 retired employees are draw.
ing annuities aggregating $3,465,581 a year.
In 1959 there were 45 licensed hospitals (5,651 beds); in 1957-58 the
2 state hospitals for mental illness had a daily average of 5,010 resident
patients. The institution for the mentally retarded had an average of 2,001.
In 1917 Oregon passed a law permitting, under safeguards, the steriliza·
tion of mentally ill and mentally retarded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1959,864
men and 1,389 women had been sterilized.
The Oregon state penitentiary at Salem, 30 June 1959, held 1,387 men
and 25 women (79 per 100,000 of the population). There has been no execu·
tion since 1953; since 1930 there have been 18 executions (lethal gas), 15
whites and 3 Negroes, for murder.
FINANCE. General revenues for the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958
(U.S. Census Bureau figures) were $291,778,000 (taxation, $184,977,000
and federal aid, $65,588,000) ; general expenditures, $301,885,000 (educa.
tion, $92,763,000; highways, SS6,082,ooO, and publie welfare, $35,377,000).
On 30 June 1958 the net long· term debt was $128,197,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Oregon, which has an area of 61 ,664,000
acres, is divided by the Cascade Range into two distinet zones as to climate.
West of the Cascade Range there is a good rainfall and almost every variety
of crop common to the temperate zone is grown; east of the Range irrigation
is necessary and stock· raising and wheat-growing are the principal industries.
There are (1959) 57 soil-conservation districts embracing 40,743,146 acres
and including 55,764 farms. There are numerous irrigation districts, and
in 1954, 19,826 farms, covering 1,490,366 acres, used irrigation water.
Oregon farms are decreasing in number and increasing in size. There
are about 54,000 farms with an acreage of 21,047,340 (34·1 % of the land
area), including 5,249,888 acres of total crop land; average farm size in
1954 was 386·6 acres valued at 327,803; commercial farms numbered 32,138
of which 3,126 sold produce valued at 325,000 or more; 97% of all farms had
electricity and 74% tractors ; 80% of farms (1958) had telephones. In
1954, 13,613 (25% of all farms) were residential; 20,998 farms (38% of the
total) were under 30 acres and 3,357 farms exceeded 1,000 acres.
Cash receipts from crops in 1958 amounted to S210·3m., and from live·
stock and products, $190'300. Oregon's farm industry, 1958, paid its
workers about 380m. in salaries and wages. Farm mortgage debt decreased
from $135,917,000 in 1930 to $69,218,000 on 1 Jan. 1945, rising to
$224,597,000 1 Jan. 1958.
Livestock, 1 Jan. 1959: Horses, 45,000; milch cows, 215,000; all
cattle, 1,497,000 ; sheep and lambs, 912,000 ; swine, 170,000.
Federal and state land for grazing cattle and sheep, 21 '500. acres. In
1959 the wool clip yielded 7,248,000 lb. from 878,000 sheep; mohair clip
in 1958, 84,000 lb. from 21,000 goats.
Fisheries. Salmon, albacore tuna and shellfish are abundant. In the
licence year ending 31 March 1959 total landings of fish and shellfish
amounted to 55,264,383 lb. (salmon,8,650, 724 lb. ; albacore tuna, 10.666,324
lb. ; shellfish, 10,417,554 lb. ; bottom fish and other, 25,529.781 lb.).
Forestry. The total forested area, 1956, was 30,261,000 acres, of which
25,875,000 acres was commercial forest land (15,067,000 acres federal,
9,768,000 acres private and 1,040 acres state and local).
},Iining. Oregon's mineral resources include gold, silver, copper, lead,

mercury, chromite, sand and gravel, stone, clays, lime, silica, diatomite,
expandE,ble shale, scoria, pumice, carbon dioxide and uranium. Oregon is
the sole producer of nickel in the U.S. Value of mineral products, 1958,
was $41:,053,000.
IndMtry. Federal survey, 1956, showed 143,334 production workers
(wages $663,167,000); value added by manufacture, $1,145,038,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. The state maintains (1959) 7,378 miles of

primary and secondary highways, of which 7,362 miles are surfaced; counties
maintab 28,417 miles and federal agencies, 21,232 miles in national parks
and federal reservations. Registered motor vehicles, as of 31 Dec. 1958,
totalled 873,856.
The Dalles and Celilo Canal, completed in 1915, opens the Columbia and
Snake rivers to navigation to a length of 570 miles from the ocean. Large
ocean-going vessels can reach Portland, 108 miles inland. The Bonneville
Power B,nd Navigation Project was completed in 1943. Generation at the
Bonnev:lle dam for the 12 months ending 30 June 1958 was 3,784m. kwh.
Hydro-(,Iectric generation by private utilities (1958) was 2,893m. kwh.
The state had (1958) a total steam railway mileage of 4,975 and a total
electric railway mileage of 63.
There were 175 airports in 1959 (25 stnte-owncd or opernted, 35 municipal
or COUll';y); 33 were lighted.
Books of Reference
Ougon Blu. Book. Issued by the Secretary of State. Salem. Biennial
Oregon ~ .gricuJtural College. Dept. 0/ Natural R ..ourcts Atlas 0/ tht PacifiC Northwest
Resou"eI and Development, ed. by R. M. Highsmith. 2nd ed. Corvallis, 1957
Federal Writers' Project. Oregon: End 0/ the Trail. Rev. ed. Portland, 1951
Bancroft, H. H., History Of Oregon. 2 vols. San li'rancisco, 1886.-IIistorv 01 th, Northtrt$t
Coa.Jt. 2 vols. San Francisco, 1884
Carey, C. H., History 0/ Oregon. Chicago and Portland, 1922.-General History o/Orego11
prior to 1861. 2 vols. Portland, 1036
Corning, H. M. (od.), Dicliotl4ry 0/ Oregon Hi$tory. New York, 1956
Dlcken, E. N., Oregon Geography. 2nd od. Eugene, 19~~
Freeman. O. W., and Martin, H. H., The Pacific Northwest: An Overall Appreciation. 2nd ed.
New York, 1954
Fuller, G. W., History Of the Pacific Northwest. 2nd od. New York, 1938
Johansen, D. O. Rnd Gates, O. M., Empire 0/ the Colombia: a history 0/ the Pacific Northwe.t.
New Y,)rk, 1957
MCArtbw·, L. A., Oregon Geographic Narnt.. Srd ed., rev. and enlarged. Portland,1952
Scott, H. W., History of th~ Oregon Country. 6 vols. Cambridge, Mass., 1924
Winther, O. 0., The Great North1JJesl: a historV. 2nd 00., rev. New York .1950
STATE LIDRARY. The Oregon State Library, State Library Building, Salem. Librarian:
Eloise Ebart.
PENNSYLV ANIA
GOVERNMENT. Pennsylvania, first settled in 1682, is one of the 13
original states in the Union. The present constitution dates from 1874;
61 amendments have been adopted. The General Assembly consists of a
Senate of 50 members chosen for 4 years, one-half being elected biennially,
and a House of Representatives of 210 members chosen for 2 years. The
Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Every citizen 21
years of age, with the usual residential qualifications, may vote. The state
sends tc, Congress 2 senators and 30 representatives.
PENNSYLVANIA 745
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 2,585,252 votes,
Stev8Dson 1,981,769.
The state is organized in counties (numbering 67), cities, boroughs,
townships, school districts and institution districts; the state capital is
Harrisburg.
Governor. Dn.vid L . Lawrence (D.), 1959-63 (335,000).
Lieut •• Governor. John M. Davis (D.) (322,500).
Secretary of Internal Affairs. Genevieve BJatt (D.) ($20,000).
miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 10,498,012, an
increase of 597,832 or 6% since 1940. U.S. estimate, 1 July 1959,
11,323,000. Births, 1958, 249,810 (22'5 per 1,000 population); deaths,
118,360 (10'7); infant deaths, 6,360 (25·5 per 1,000 live births); marriages,
67,203 (6,1); divorces, 12,243.
Population at 4 censUl! years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
1910 7,467,713 193,919 1,603 1,976 7,666,111 171·0
1930 9,196,001 431,257 523 3,663 0,631,360 213·8
1940 9,426,989 470,172 441 2,678 9,900,180 219·8
1950 9,853,848 638,485 1,141 4,538 ' 10,498,012 233-1
Male. 4,857,624 309,113 826 2,848 5,170,411
Female 4,996,224 329,372 315 1,690 5,327,601
• All others.
Of the total popUlation in 1950, 9,077,239 were native whites, 776,609

foreign. born whites; 7,403,036 persons (70'5%) were urban (66'5% in
1940); 6,998,643 were 21 years of age or older.
The population of the larger cities and townships, 1958 estimate, was:
Philadelphia. 2,113,086 Harrisburg (cap.) 81,830 JOhnstoWll . 61,832
Pittsburgh 662,871 Bethlehem 77,073 New Castle. 51,689
Erie . 133,787 Altoona . 70,964 Lower Merion' 48,745
Scranton 116,712 Lancaster. 69,257 Williamsport 46.848
Allentown !lS,05G Wilkes·BalTe 65,192 McKeesport 46,319
Reading 107,054 l'ork 65,188 Haverford'. 39,641
Upper D&l'by' 84,951 Chester 65,165 Norrletown l 38,126
• Townships, 1950 census. • Borougb, 1950 census.
RELIG ION. The chief religious bodies in 1952 were the Roman Catholic,
with 2,866,192 members, United Lutheran (791,761) and Jewish Congre.
gations (353,180). Total, all denominations, 6,178,459 members.
EDUCA TION, School attendance is compulsory for cbildren 8-17
years of age. In 1959-60 (estimated figures) the public kindergarten and
elementary schools had 37,910 classroom teachers ($5,044 average salary)
and 1,156,749 pupils; high schools had 32,835 cla.ssroom teachers ($5,403)
and 792,236 pupils. Non.public schools had 480,579 elementary pupils and
117,220 secondary pupils.
The largest academic institutions (1958) are as follows:
Founded Institutions Professors Students
1740 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (non-sect.) 2,700 15,92:;
1187 University of Pittsburgh (non·sect.) 1,519 15,349
1832 Lafayette College, Easton . 147 1,431
1833 Havenord College (Quaker) 59 452
1842 ViIlanova Collego (R.D.) • 296 3,499
1846 Buclrnell University (Baptist) J58 1,954
Found ..d Institutions Professors Students

18~1 St J08eph's College, Philadelphia. . . . 9~ 1,234
1855 Pennsylvania Sta.te University, State College, Pa .. 1,6~7 16.362
1864 Swarthmore College, Swarthmore (Quaker) . 103 8~5
1866 Lehigh University, Bethlehem (non-sect.) 314 3,198
1878 Duquesne University, Pittsburgh (B.C.) . 289 4,556
1884 Temple University, Philadelphia (non-sect.) . 1,024 15,618
188~ Bryn Mawr Oollege for Women . l~a 853
1888 University of Scranton . . . 82 2,100
1891 Drexel Institute of Technology, Philadelphia 544 8,400
1900 Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh 376 3,180
WELFARE. In Dec. 1958, 50,287 persons were recelvmg Old Age

Assistmce with an average of $60 per month; 41,074 families with 122,304
dependants were receiving $117'87 monthly per family; 17,728 blind
persor.s received an average of $59·71; in the cases of 10,802 blind persons
there was no federal contribution.
In 1957 the state had 337 hospitals (107,726 beds) listed by the Ameri-
can Hospital Association. On 31 July 1959, 18 state hospitals for mental
diseaa'ls had 38,266 patients or 348 per 100,000 population.
Between 1930 and 1959 there have been 149 executions (electrocution),
all for murder; 3 took place in 1959 (all Negroes).
FINANCE. General revenues for the year ending 31 May 1958 (U.S.
Bureau of Census figures) were $1,196,327,000 (taxation, $890,024,000;
federal aid, $187,564,000); general expenditure, $1,236,357,000 (education,
$400,:151,000; highways, $338,159,000; public welfare, $130,889,000).
Oc 31 May 1958 total net long-term debt amounted to $1,177,795,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture, market-gardening, fruit·

growing, horticulture and forestry are pursued within the state. In 1954
there were 128,876 farms with a farm area of 13,162,000 acres (5,433,000
acres in crops); the average farm was 102·1 acres valued at $13,529 ($5,872
in 1945); 31,195 farms (24,2%) were under 30 acres. Farm owners num·
bered 99,784 (77% of the total). In 1959 there were 51 soil-conservation
districts embracing 23,117,000 acres, of which 1l,319,063 acres were farm
land. Cash income, 1958, from crops and livestock, $784·8m.
Pennsylvania ranks high in the production of buckwheat (460,000 bu.
in 19:i8), cigar leaf tobacco (51m. lb. in 1(58) and mushrooms. Other
crops are winter wheat, oats, maize and potatoes. On 1 Jan. 1959 there
were on farms: 50,000 horses and mules, 1,039,000 milch cows, 1,877,000
all cat,tle, 259,000 sheep, 508,000 swine. Wool clip, 1958, was 1,778,000 lb.
Natioclal forest lands (1959) totalled 470,000 acres; state forests, 1,878,476
acres; state parks, 107,597 acres; state game land, 935,951 acres; game land
leased but not owned, 1,168,504 acres.
Mining. Pennsylvania is almost the sole producer of anthracite coal;
its ou~put reached a peak of 100,445,299 short tons in 1917 with a labour.
force 'lf 156,148 men. Production in 1958 was 20,456,474 tons, with 26,738
men. Output of bituminous coal, 1958,67,398,564 tons with a labour-force
of 41.309 men; crude oil (1958), 6,867,000 bbls; natural gas (1958),
106,H 10m. cu. ft. Total value of mineral production, 1958, was $735,982,000.
Indu8try. Pennsylvania leads in the production of iron and steel. Its
steel industry, 1 Jan. 1959, had a capacity of 38,480,550 net tons of ingots
and steel for castings (26% of the country's total capacity). Output of
steel, 1958,20,847,137 net tons and of pig-iron, 14,903,018 tons.
RHODE ISLAND 747
In 1957 manufacturing establishments employed 1,180,078 production
workers (wages, $4,868m.); value added by manufactures was $12,623m.
compared with $2,477m. in 1939.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1958,61 steam railways operating within the
state had 10,654 miles of track. There were (1958) 250 airports, of which
137 were general; there were 13 scheduled airlines. The public highway
system (1959) covered 108,139 miles.
Books of Reference
P""nsvlvania Jfanual. Bur""u of Publications. Harrisburg. Biennial
Bibliography on PennslIlvania Government. l'ennsyivania Unlversity. Institute of Local
and State Government. Philadelphia, 1941
Comparative County Data. Pennsylvania State Planning Board. Harrisburg, 1955
Federal Wrlten' Project. Pennsylvania: A Gui/kllJ Ih. K~lIontSIIJU. New York, 1940
Dunaway. W. F., Hiltory 01 P..,.nsylvania. 2nd ed. New York, 1948
Fletcher, S. W •• PennsylDania Agricultu,. and Counlry Lilt. 2 vols., 1640 to 1840 (published
1950) and 1840 to 1940 (1953). Harrisburg
Graet!, A. D., Tht History 01 Pennsylt·ania. Philadelphia, 1949
Staven., S. K., and others, Ezploring Pennsvlvania: iIJ geography, ',illorv and government.
New York, 1957
Tangor, J., Alderler, H. F. and McGeary, M. N., Pennsylvania Governmenl, Stat. and Local.
3rd ed. State Collego, Fa., 1950
RHODE ISLAND
GOVERNMENT. The earliest settlers in the region which now forms
the state of Rhode Island were colonists from Massachusetts who had been
driven forth on account of their non·acceptance of the prevailing religious
beliefs. The first of the settlements 'vas made in 1636, settlers of every creed
being welcomed. In 1647 a patent was granted for the government of the
settlements, and on 8 July 1663 a charter was executed recognizing the
settlers as forming a body corporate and politiC by the name of the' English
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New England, in
America.' On 29 May 1790 the state accepted the federal constitution and
entered the Union as the last of the 13 original states. The present con·
stitution dates from 1843; it has had 35 amendments. The General
Assembly consists of a Senate of 44 mem bers and a House of Representatives
of 100 members, both elected for 2 vears, as are also the Governor and
Lieut.-Governor. Every citizen, 21 years of age, who has resided in the
state for 1 year, and is duly registered, is qualified to vote. The state has
5 counties (unique in having no political functions) and 39 cities and towns.
The capital is Providence.
Rhode Island sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives.
At the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 225,819 votes,
Stevenson 161,790.
GavernoT. Christopher DeISesto (R.), 1959-61 (515,000).
Lieut.·Governor. John A. Notte, Jr (D.) ($5,000).
Secretary 01 State. August P. La France (D.) (59,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area. 1,214 sq. miles. of which 157 sq.
miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 791,896, an
increase of 11% since 1940; estimated population, 1 July 1959, 875,000.
Births, 1958, were 18,295 (20'9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 8,737
(10); infant deaths, 388 (21·2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,659 (6'5);
divorces, 938.
Po:?ulation of 4 census years (with distribution by sex for 1950) was:

Per sq.
Wblte Negro IndiaD A.iat.lc Total mile
191(1 632,492 9,529 284 305 542,610 508'5
193(1 677,026 9,913 318 240 687.497 649·3
1940 701,806 11,024 196 321 il3,346 674 ·2
19M 777,016 13,903 978 791,896 748·5
Male .
Female
382,818
394,197
7,087
6,816 All otbe:" ~~ 390,5R3
401,313
Of the ~otal population in 1950, 663,751 were native whites, 113,264

foreign -born whites; 667,212 persons (84,3%) were urban, under the new
definition (91,6% in 1940) ; 538,100 were 21 years of age or older.
The chief cit.ies and towns are Providence, which (census 1950) ha.d a
popullLtion of 248,674; Pawtucket, 81,436; Cranston, 55,060; Woon-
socket, 50,211; Warwick, 43,028; Newport, 37,564; East Providence,
35,871; Central Falls, 23,550; West Warwick (town), 19,096.
RELIGION. Chief religious bodies are (estimated figures Jan. 1958):
Roman Catholic with 498,1 553 members, Protestant Episcopal (51,834),
Jewish congregations (27,000), Congregational (1 2,966) and Methodists
(9,659).
EDUCATION . The school census of 1959 showed 218,635 persons
between the ages of 4 and 20; 174,907 or 80% were attending school. In
1958-59 the 280 public elementary schools had 3,112 teachers and 82,766
enron.~d pupils; 50,123 pupils were enrolled in private and parochial schools.
The 29 senior and 41 junior high schools had 2,432 teachel1l and 47,744
pupile . Teachers' salaries averaged S5.026.Local expenditures for schooL~
(including evening schools) totalled S43m. The stato maintains a College
of Education, a t Providence, with 100 faculty members and 873 students
(1959··60), and the University of Rhode Island, at Kingston, with 310
facuIty members and 2,812 students. Brown University, at Providence,
founded in 1764, is now non.sectarian; in 1959-60 it had 638 instructors
and 3,797 full·time students. Providence College, at Providence, founded
in 191.7 by the Dominican Order, had 125 professors and 2,030 students.
WELFARE. In conformity with the Federal Social Security Act, the
state 3.dministers systems of old·age assistance, aid to the blind, the disabled
and families with dependent children. In June 1959, 6.959 elderly persons
were drawing an average of $62,52 per month; 4,552 families with dcpen-
dent ,)hildren, an average of SI11·92 per famiJy; ]27 blind individuals, an
average of $66·96, and 2,725 persons permanently and totally disabled,
$66-37 per month ; general public assistance was given to 7,500 persons
at aD average of $66·29 per month. In ]958 the state had 25 hospitals
(7,974 beds) ; hospitals for mental diseases had an average of 3,409 patients
or 40,) per 100,000 population.
The state's penal, reformatory and mental homes system, on 30 June
If69, had 6,264 inmates.
The death penalty is illegal except that it is mandatory in the case of a
murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence.
FINANCE. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1958 (U.S. Census
Bureau figures) general revenues were $105,808,000 (taxation, $69,870,000,
and federal aid, $28,300,000); general expenditures were $124,291,000
SOUTH CAROLINA 749
(education, $24,159,000: highways, $28,438,000, and public welfare,
$18,660,000).
Total net long·term debt on 30 June 1958 was $97,873,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. While Rhode Island ig a manufacturing

state, agriculture contributed to the general cash income S20·5m. in 1958,
of which $15m. was from livestock. In 1958 it had 2,100 farms with
Itll area of 154,674 acres (22,8% of the total land area), of which 34,91l0 acres
were crop land: total value of all farm buildings was $60m. (average value,
$28,571). Under an Act passed in 1943, 3 soil·conservation districts have
been established, covering 677,120 acres, including 154,674 acres in farms
(100% of the total).
Fisheries. Commercial fishing is an important industry: the number
of commercial fishermen in the state in 1958 was 1,600: value of all fish
landed, $4,604,744.
Mining. The small mineral output, mostly stone, sand and gravel, was
valued (1958) at $2,249,000.
Industry. The 1957 U.S. survey showed 2,633 manufacturers, with
329,000 production workers earning S322m. ; the value added by manu·
facture was $762rn., compared with $238m. in 1939.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1958, (3 railways operated 181'58 line· miles

(382'84 track-miles). Of the 8 airports in 1959, 4 were state-owned and 4
privately owned; ':!'heodore Francis Green airport at HilIsgrove, near
Providence, is served by 4 airlines making 50-54 scheduled flights a day;
the North Central state airport, serving the northern Rhode Island, is served
by 1 airline making 2 to 4 scheduled flights a day. The state had (1959)
4,177 miles of road (including urban), of which 1,471 miles was state high.
way; 922 miles are maintained by the state.
Books of Reference
Rho"" bland Manual. Prepared by the Secret.a.ry or State. Providence
An iruroduction to the Economy of Rho"" ,.land. Issued by Rhode Island Development
Council. Provide"ce. 1953
Providence J"'trnal illtnanar.: A Rtltrence Book lor Rho"" Islanders. ProvIdence. Annual
Federal Writers' Project. Rhode 'sland: A Guide to IIIe Small.., Slale. Boston, 1937
STATF. Lml\ARY. RhocJe Island State T,ibrary, State House, Providence. State Librarian :
Dr Grace M. Sherwood.
SOUTH CAROLINA
GOVERNMENT. South Carolina, first settled permanently in 16iO,
was one of the 13 original states of the Union. The present constitution
dates from 1895, \vhen it went into force without ratification by the electorate;
it has had 220 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate
of 46 memhers, elected for 4 years (balf retiring biennially), and a House of
Representatives of 124 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and
Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Only registered citizens have the
right to vote. In 21 of the 46 counties Negroes constitute 50% or more of
the population. At tbe 1956 presidential election Stevenson polled 136,372
votes, Byrd (Independent) 88,510, Eisenhower 75,700; 25·6% of the
potential electorate voted. The capital is Columbia. South Carolina sends
to Congress 2 senators and 6 representatives.
Governm. Ernest F. Hollings (D.), 1959-63 ($15,000).

Lie-_u.·Governor. B. R. Maybank (D.) ($2,500).
Secretary of State. O. Frank Thomton (D.) ($11,000).
miles He inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 2,117,027, an
increase of 11'4% since 1940; estimated population, 1 July 1958, was
2,404,000. Births, 1958, were 60,253 (24-3 per 1,000 population); deaths,
19,418 (7-8); infant deaths, 2,024 (33·6 per 1,000 live births); marriages,
37,856 (15-3); divorces, 2,634.
Th!, population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950)
was:
Per sq.
WhIte Negro Indian Asiatic Totel mile
1910 679,161 836,843 331 66 1,616,400 49-7
J980 944,049 793,681 969 76 1,738,766 66-8
1940 1,084,308 814,164 1,234 98 1,899.804 62-1
1950 1,293,406 822,077 664 2,1l7,027 69-9
Male _ 643,673 396,lJ2 All othe:" 855 1,040,640
Female 649,832 425,966 690 1,076,487
Of the total population in 1950, native whites numbered 1,285,902 ;

foreign.bom whites, 7,503. 777,921 persons (36'7%) were urban (24'5% in
1940); those 21 years old or older numbered 1,150,841.
Large towns are : Columbia (capital), with a popUlation of 86,914 in
1950; Charleston,70,174; Greenville, 58,161; Spartanburg (1957), 41,589.
RELIGION. The chief religious bodies are the Negro Baptists, with
385,00') members in 1956; Southern Baptists, 456,000, and Methodists,
178,500.
EDUCATION. Separate schools are required and maintained for
white and Negro children despit.e the 1954 decision of the V .S_ Supreme
Court that race segregation in the public schools is unconstitutional. In
1956 the constitutional section requiring the Legislation to provide for a
systen:_ of free public schools was repealed and funds were appropriated
only t.> segregated schools. In 1957-58 the total public-school enrolment
was 584,283; there were 334,513 pupils in the white schools (elementary,
218,250; high schools, 116,257); the coloured schools had 249,770 pupils
(elementary, 180,050; high schools, 69,720). There were 12,567 white
teachers and 7,666 coloured teachers; average salary was $3,274. Ex·
penditures for public schools (current operation only) amounted to $102-6m.
Fo:' higher education the state has the University of South Carolina,
found€ ,d at Columbia in 1801, with, 1958- 59, 5,019 students; Clemson
Colleg", founded in 1893, with 4,076 students; Citadel College, with 2,129
students; Winthrop College, with 1,980 students; the Medical College,
with (;92 students, and Stak College (for Negroes), with 2,589 students.
There are also several private elementary and high schools (both white and
Negro: with total enrolment of 12,636 pupils, and 27 private junior and
senior colleges (both white and Negro) with total enrolment of 12,793
students.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance was being granted in June 1959 to
33,918 persons (out of 148,000 persons 65 years or older), who received an
a verage of $37·87 per month; 9,674 families (30,244 dependent children)
receiv"d $55-82 monthly ; 1,733 blind, $42-19; 7,876 totally disabled,
SOUTH CAROLINA 751
S34·79. In 1957 the state had 78 hospitals (14,178 beds) listed by the
American Hospital Association.
South Carolina statutes require separate reform schools and penal in.
stitutions for white and coloured persons; separate hospitals; separate
railway facilities ; separate accommodation in steamboats, buses and street
cars, shows, parks, playgrounds and on beaches. Children may be adopted
only by persons of the same race. Inter·racial marriage is prohibited.
In 1935 the state passed a law permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insane and feeble·minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958, 18
men and 217 women had been thus sterilized.
In 1958 there was no execution; from 1930 to 1958 executions (by
electrocution) have numbered 154, 28 whites (including 1 woman) and 87
Negroes (1 woman) for murder and 4 whites and 35 Negroes for rape.
were S266,494,OOO (taxes, $184,826,000, and federal aid, $51,933,000);
general expenditures were S270,118,000 (education, $106,584,000; high.
On 30 June 1958 the net long· term debt was $252,306,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. South Carolina is an agricultural state

containing in 1954, 124,203 farms (44% of all farms were Negro farms in
1950), covering a farm area of ll,069,OOO acres and a cropland area of
3,392,000 acres. The average farm was of 89·1 acres valued (land and
buildings) at S6,767. Of the 73,120 commercial farms 741 sold produce
valued at $25,000 or more (there were 1,080 farms of 1,000 acres or
more). Tractors numbered 47,000. Tenant·farmers operated 40'3% of the
farms; share.crop tenants numbered 17,408. About 58% of the area of
the state is woodland. Cash income, 1958, from crops and livestock was
S369·1m.
Chief crops, 1958 : Maize, 28,954,000 bu.; oats, 13,101,000 bu.; wheat,
3,124,000 bu.; peaches, 5,300,000 bu.; cotton (352,000 acres, yielding
299,000 bales of upland cotton), and tobacco, l3lm. lb. On 1 Jan. 1959
the farm animals in the state were 96,000 horses and mules, 159,000 milch
cows, 613,000 all cattle, 14,000 sheep and 550,000 swine. National forest
lands, 1958, amounted to 587,332 acres.
In 1958 there were 45 soil·conservation districts embracing 19,395,000
acres, of which 12,475,000 acres were farm land (139,000 farms). About
15'7% of the total area has suffered erosion.
J,{ining. Non-metallic minerals are of chief importance; value of
mineral output in 1959 was $~7m., chiefly from kaolin, cement, clay, stone,
sand and gravel. Large potentially economic reserves of kyanite, ilmenite,
rutile, zircon and monazite are known.
Industry. Industry, long ahead of agriculture in economic return, has
moved ahead also in total employment in recent years. Approximately
250,000 persons were employed in manufacturing enterprises and in the
forest products industries in 1957 against about 230,000 employed in agri.
cultural activities. In 1954, 2,728 manufacturing establishments had
218,141 production workers, eaming $628,222,000; value added by manu-
facture was $I,032m., compared with $169m. in 1939.
Of the state's privately· owned installed electric· power capacity
(2,130,785 kw.) about 45% is hydro·electric. Electric power generated
from all sources (1958) was 6,084m. kwh.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 the length of steam railway in the state

was 3,256 miles. There were, 1959, 67 airports, of which 30 were publio;
8 were served by scheduled airlines. The state maintains (1959) 27,262 miles
of highways, of which 22,952 miles are surfaced.
The state has 3 deep-water ports.
Books of Reference
L"'Iis1ativt Manual and Ref.,....u Book of Smah Carolina. Columbia. Annual
R'1'ort •.• to the aeneral A ...mblll. Secretary 01 State. Columbia. Annual
Federal Writers' Project. Our 8mah Carolina: Tod4v from Yesttrday. Olinton, 1942
neporl8 0.' the 8mah Carolina Slak Deve/opmenl Board. Oolumbia, B.O.
Coleman, J. K., 8tate Administralion in 8mah Carolina. New York, 1935
W.\Iace, D. D., 80uth Carolina, a short history, 1520-1948. Uni". 01 North Carolina, Cbapel
liill, HI51
STATI! LmRARY. South Oarolina State Library, State House, Columbia. State Librarian:
Yra Emily B. Reyuold•.
SOUTH DAKOTA
GOVERNMENT. South Dakota was first visited in 1743 when Veren-
drye phnted a lead plate (discovered in 1913) on the Bite of Fort Pierre,
claimill,~ the region for the French crown. Beginning with a trading post
in 1794, it was settled from 1857 to 1861 when it was organized as a state
from pa.rt of Dakota Territory. It was admitted into the Union on 2 Nov.
1889. The constitution adopted in 1889 is still in force with 60 amendments.
Voters are all citizens 21 years of age or older who have complied with
certain residential qualifications. The people reserve the right of the
initiatire and referendum. The Senate has 35 members, and the House of
RepreSE,ntatives 75 members, all elected for 2 years, as are also the Governor
and Lieut.-Go"\"emor. The state is divided into 64 organized counties and
3 unorganized., i.e., with no local functions. The capital is Pierre (popula-
tion, H150, 5,715). The state sends 2 senators and 2 representatives to
Congrm.s.
In I;he 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 171,569 votes
Steveu80n 122,288.
Gov"rnor. Ralph Herseth (D.), 1959-61 ($13,000).
Liett.-Governor. John F. Lindley (D.) ($2,400 per biennium).
Secretary 01 State. Selma Sandness (D.) ($6,300).
miles are water. Area administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1958,
covered 5,135,000 acres (one-eighth of the state), of which 1,725,000 acres
were hoJld by tribes. The federal government, 1957, owns 3·2m. acres
or 6'5% of the total.
Cenllu8 population, 1 April 1950, 652,740, an increase ofI'5% since 1940.
Estima';cd population, 1 July 1959, was 687,000. Births, 1958, were 17,662
(25·3 pH 1,000 population); deaths, 6,629 (9'5); infant deaths, 470 (26·6 per
1.,000 live births) ; marriages, 5,662 (8,1); divorces, 641.
Population in 4 federal censuses (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
1910 563,771 817 19,137 163 583,888 7·6
1920 619,147 832 16,384 184 636,347 8·3
1940 619.075 474 23,347 65 642,961 8·4
1950 628,504 727 23,344 165 652,720 8·5
Male . 324,885 448 11,825 93 337,251
Female 303,619 279 11,519 72 315,489
SOUTH DAKOTA 753
Of the total population in 1950, 216,710 persons (33,2%) were urban
(34'5% in 19(0) ; of the white population, 30,767 were foreign-born.
Population of the chief cities (census of 1950) was: Sioux Falls,
52,696; Aberdeen, 21,051; Rapid City, 25,310; Huron, 12,788; Water-
town, 12,6!l9; lI1itchell, 12,123.
RELIGION. The chief religious bodies are: Luthemns with 147,448
members in 1945, Roman Catholics (91,833), Methodist (65,557), Congre-
gational (26,150), Presbyterian (26,579), Baptist (17,001), and Protestant
Episcopal. Total, all denominations, 449,715.
EDUCATION. Elementary and secondary education are free from
6 to 21 years of age. Between the ages of 8 and 16, attendance is com-
pulsory. In 1958, 154,138 pupils were attending 3,481 elementary and
high schools (8,331 teachers). Teachers' salaries in elementary schools,
1957-58, averaged $3,100; in secondary schools, S3,600.
The School of Mines, established 1885, has 61 instruct-ors and 827 stu-
dents; the Sta.te College,207 instructors and 3,520 students; the State
University, founded at Vermillion in 1882, 165 instructors and 2,350 stu-
dents. Nine denominational colleges had 233 instructors and 3,996 stu-
dents; 4 teachers' colleges had 195 instructors and 4,667 students. The
Government maintains Indian schools on its reservations and 2 outside at
Flandreau and Pierre. State expenditure on element.ary and high schools
(1958), S4.2·8rn .
WELFARE. In July 1959, 9,185 persons received as Old Age Assist-
ance an average of $58·99 per mont.h; 166 blind persons received $57'7
per month; 1,091 permanently and totally disabled, 8tH'58; 3,092 families
with 8,016 dependent children, 829'24 per person. In 1957 the state had
66 hospitals (6,607 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association.
Inter-racial marriage is prohibited.
In 1917 South Dakota passed a law permitting, under safeguards, the
sterilization of insa.ne and feeble-minded persons; up to I Jan. 1958. 281
males and 502 females had been thus sterilized. State prisons had on 31
Dec. 1958, 467 inmates (68 per 100,000 population).
were $94,804.000 and general expenditures, S94,574,OOO. Taxes furnished
$45,002,000 and fedeml grants, S29,986,OOO; education took S22,28·1,OOO;
highways, $37,897,000, and public welfare, Sll,244,000. Chief single
source of revenue was the motor fuel tax, yielding 813,481,000.
Tota.l net long-term debt on 30 June 19fi8 was $4,652,000.
PRODUCTION _ Agriculture. In 1958,61,700 farms had an acreage of
5·4m. (1940, 39,473,584); average farm had 736 acres and was valued
(land and buildings) at 828,708 (SI1,124 in 1945). Farm units are large;
in 1954 there were only 3,196 farms of 50 acres or less, compared with
9,174 excceding 1,000 acrcs. Of the 59,798 commercial farrus. 1,495 sold
produce valued at $25,000 or over. Of all farms 60% had telephones and
91% electricity; 57% had tractors.
Cash income, 1958, from crops and livestock, $684'9. South Dakota.
ranks first in the U.S. as producer of bluc grass. The leading crops are
wheat (55,722,000 bu. in 1958), maize (105,Hl2,OOO bu.), oats (121,953,000
bu.) and barley (15,646,000 bu.)_ Rye, duruIU wheat, flax seed and
potatoes are also grown. National forests area, 1958, 2,004,000 acres.
The farm livestock on 1 Jan. 1959 consisted of 62.000 horses and mules.
306.000 milch cows. 3.392.000 all cattle. 1.592.000 sheep. 1.591.000 swine.
The wool clip in 1958 amounted to 11.142.000 lb. of wool from 1.260.000
sheep.
In 1958 there were 69 soil·conservation districts embracing 47.420.000
acres. of which 43,537,000 acres were farm lands. Of the total area. 8·2%
has sufI'lred severe erosion.
Min,:ng. The mineral products include gold (570,830 fine oz. in 1958,
leading Itll states). silver (152.995 fine oz.). gypsum. beryl (240 short tons.
leading all states), iron ore, uranium and feldspar (23.229 long tons).
Mineral products. 1958. were valued at $41.534.000.
Industry. Chief manufacturing industries are meat'packing and butter-
making. In 1954. 548 industrial establishments had 11.570 production
workers, who earned $41.253.000; value added by manufacture was
$78.245,000.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 the steam railways were 3.916 miles in

length. The state maintained (1958) 92.465 miles of highways. of which
47.599 are surfaced. Airports. 1958. numbered 69. of which 36 were general.
Books of Reference
South Dakow. LerJislativt M anutJl. Department 01 Finance. Pierre, S. D. Biennial
Federal Writers' ProJect. South Dakow.. 2nd ed. New York, 1952
White, R. L. and B., Who', Who for South Dakow.. Pierre S.D., 1956
TENNESSEE
GOVERNMENT. Tennessee, first settled in 1757. was admitted into
the Union on 1 June 1796. The state has operated under 3 constitutions
the last of which was adopted in 1870 and amended for the first time in
1953. Voters at an election may authorize the calling of a convention
limited 1;0 altering or abolishing one or more specified sections of the con-
stitution. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 33 members and
a House of Representatives of 99 members. both elected for 2 years. No
cIergym,m of any denomination is eligible to either House. Qualified as
electors ,tre all citizens (with the usual residential and age (21) qualifications).
In 1953 the poll.tax was abolished. Tennessee sends to Congress 2 senators
and 9 representatives. The state is divided into 95 counties; the capital is
Nashville.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 462.288 votes.
StevensoD 456.507, T. C. Andrews (States Right independent) 19.820.
For the Tennessee Valley Authority see p. 621.
Gove:-nor. Buford ElIington (D.), 1959-63 ($12.000).
Secretary of State. Joe C. Carr (D.), 1957-61 ($10,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area. 42.244 sq. miles (447 sq. miles
water). Census population. 1 April 1950. 3.291.718. an increase of 375.877
or 12'9% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1959. 3,501,000.
Births. 1958. were 82,679 (22'8 per 1.000 population); deaths. 32,305 (8'9) ;
infant deaths. 2.540 (30·7 per 1,000 live births); marriages. 27.675 (7,6);
divorces. 8.808.
TENNESSEE 755
Population in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was :
Per sq.
1910 1.711.432 473,088 216 53 2,184,789 62'4
1930 2,138,644 477,646 161 10S 2,616,666 62'4
1940 2,406,906 508,736 114 8S 2,916,841 69·6
19S0 2,760,257 630,603 339 334 3,291,718 78·8
Male. 1,367,126 255,436 234 183 1,623,107
Female 1,393,131 27S,167 106 161 1,668,611
Of the white population in 1950, native whites numbered 2,745,192

and foreign-born whites, 15,065: 1,452,602 persons (44'1%) were urban
(35,2% in 1940): those 21 years of age or older numbered 1,978,548.
The cities, with population in 1958, are: Memphis, 488,550: N88hville
(capital), 176,170: Chattanooga, 142,976: Knoxvillc, 124,769: Jackson,
33,354; Oak Ridge 27,387_
RELIGION. The leading religious bodies are the Southern Baptists,

with 679,053 members in 1956: Methodists, about 400,000; Negro Baptists,
250,000. The state licenses the sale of alcoholic liquors for beverage
purposes, under certain restrictions.
EDUCATION. School attendance has been compulsory since 1925, and

the employment of children under 16 years of age in workshops, factories
or mines is illegal.
The legislature in 1925 passed an Act prohibiting' the teaching of the
evolution theory in all the universities, normal schools and all other publio
schools of Tennessee which are supported in whole or in part by the publio
funds of the state.' This was largely ignored and its repeal was proposed
in 1955. In 1958-59 the 2,929 public schools teaching grades I to 12 had
a total net enrolment of 798,820 pupils and a total of 28, 140 teachers who
received an average salary of 83,538. Total expenditure for operating
public schools (grades 1 to 12) in 1957-158, $167m. The more important
universities and colleges (1958-59) arc:
Founded Institutions Professors Students
1794 University 01 'l'enne.'lSee, KnoxviUe (State) 760 12,321
1794 University of Tennessee (State)
Memphis (Medical College) 21~ 2,001
Martin. . . . 89 1,168
NashviUe (SOCial Work). . 14 95
1819 MaryvilIe CoUege, Maryville (Presb.) 65 718
I S46 Union University, Jackson (Baptist)' . 42 935
1848 Soutbwestern CoUege, Memphis (Presb.) 61 620
1857 University of tbe Soutb, Sewanee (P.E.) 66 681
1865 Fisk University, Nasbville (Negro)' . 76 791
1873 Vanderbilt University, Nasbville (non-sect.) 645 3,618
187fi George Peabody College for Teacbers, Nasbville 108 1,832
1876 MebBrry Medi",,1 College for Negroes, Nasbville 100 474
1886 University of Cbattanooga (non-sect.). . _ . 60 1,250
1891 David Lipscomb College, Nashville (Ch. of Christ) • 65 1,182
1912 Agricult. and Indust. State University, Nasbville (Negro) 211 3,200
I 1956-67. • 1957- 58.
Five 'state colleges' at Johnson City, Murfreesboro, Memphis, Cooke·

ville and Clarksville had (1957-58) 816 professors and 19,330 students.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance was granted in Aug. 1959 to 56,566
persons, who received an average of $41·13 per month: 2,872 blind persons,
756 UNITED STATES OF '"{ERICA
$46'38 fer month; 8,137 totally disabled persolls, $44 pcr month; 21,961
families with 61,146 children, S68·51 per month.
In 1~'58, including federal hospitals, the state had 214 hospitals (28.356
beds); 11 mental hospitals and some general hospitals had beds for 10,760
mental patients; 10 tuberculosis hospitals had 2,143 beds; there are 4
chronic ,liseases hospitals with 1,659 beds.
Ther" was 1 execution in 1959; since 1930 there have been 24 whites
and 43 Negroes executed (by electrocution) for murder and 4 whites and 22
Negrocs for rape.
Prior to the V.S. Supreme Court decision, state statutes require segrega·
tion of white and coloured people in schools, colleges, transportat.ion and
recreational facilities; by 1959 there were numerous integrated schools.
Inter.marriage of white and Negro is forbidden.
FINANCE. For the year ending 30 June 19.58 (U.S. Census Bureau
figures) general revenue was $375,737,000 (taxation, $269,294,000 and
federal dd, $80,992,000); general expenditure, $372,624,000 (education,
$126,89(,000; highways, $116,688,000; public welfare, $51,218,000).
Total net long.term debt on 30 June 1958 amounted to $110,480,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1954, 203,149 farms covered
17,654,3!!4 acres; value of farm land and buildings, $I,169,32R,000. Farm
units are small; the average farm acreage in 1954 was 86·9 acres (only a few
states have a smaller average); about half the farms (99,610) were under
50 acres, while 70.719 farms (35%) had less than 30 acres. In 1954. 621
farms hE.d 1.000 acres or over; commercial farms numbered 124,465, and
residential farms, with output sold of $250 or less, were 45,171. In 1958,
88 soil·(onservation districts covered 26,116,000 acres, of which 17·4m.
acres were farm lands.
MaizIl, cotton, tobacco and hay account for over 85% of total valuation.
Cash income, 1958, from crops was $217111.; from livestock, S272m. Im·
portant crops are wheat, soybeans, snap beans, strawberries and apples.
The cot';on crop for 1958 yielded 415,000 bales valued at $80,397,000.
The tobacco crop, all types (1958), was 123,120,000 lb. valued at $71,279,000.
On 1 Jan. 1959 the domestic animals consisted of 167,000 horses and
mules, 628,000 milch cows, 1,753,000 all cattle, 303,000 sheep, 1,182,000
swine and 7·58m. chickens. Total estimated value of 7 species of livestock
and poultry on farms, 1 Jan. 1959, was $286,267,000.
National forest area (1956) 562,823 acres.
Mining. Coalfields cover about 5,000 sq. miles; output in ]958 was
6·8m. short tons. In HJ58 Tennessee led the states in the production of
zinc (59m. short tons) and was the second largest producer of phosphate
rock (HIm. long tons). Other mineral products are copper (9 ' Im. short
tons), mica, clays, dimension marble, cement, saud and gravel, limestone.
Total value of mineral products in 1958 was $124,933,000.
Indu,try. The manufacturing industries include iron and steel working,
but the most important products are chemicals, including synthetic fibres
and allied products, and knit good.~. In 1954,4,060 manufacturing estab·
lishmenls employed 261,220 production workers, who received wages of
$85I,13~',OOO; value added by manufactures was $1,678,282,000 compared
with S3j.8,378.000 in 1939.
COMMUNICATIONS. The state contains (1958) 3,442 miles of steam
railway ~nd maintains 69,062 miles of surfaced highways; total highways
TEXAS 757
cover 73,661 miles. The state is served by 115 intra· state bus companies
and 11 major airlines. Airports, 1959, numbered 59, of which 32 are
municipally owned. IIfotor·vehicle registrations, 1958, totalled 1,203,000.
Books of Reference
Diu. Book and Offi~al Dirtclo'1/. Secretary of State. Nasbville. Biennial
Indll.lrial Reso".c.. 0/ T.n7lesstt. ~ vols. Industrial and Agricultural Development
CommiSSion, NashviUe, 3
Tenn.uet: Old and New. Scsquicentenoial cd., 1796-1946. NasbviUe, 1946
Federal Writers' Project. Ttnnesse., A Quid. 10 Iht Slau. New York, 1949
Combs, W. ~., and Cole, W. E ., TenntJset, a political.tlldy. Univ. of Tennessee, KnoxviUe,
1940
STATE LDlRAIlY. State Library and ArcWves Nasbville. Librarian: Dr DaD Robison.
Slatt Historian: Dr Robert White.
TEXAS
GOVERNMENT. In 1836 Texas declared its independence of Mexico.
and after maintaining an independent existence, as the Republic of Texas.
for 10 years, it was on 29 Dec. 1845 received as a state into the American
Union. The state's first settlcment dates from 1686. The present con·
stitution dates from 1876 ; it has been amended 140 times. The Legislature
consists of a Senate of 31 members elected for 4 years (half their number
retiring every 2 years). and a House of Representatives of 150 members
elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.·Governor are elected for
2 years. Qualified electors are all citizens with the usual residential quali.
fications. but persons subject to the poll-tax must have paid their tax prior
to 1 Feb. of the year in which they desi~e to vote. In the 1956 presidential
election Eisenhower polled 1,080,619 votes. Stevenson 859,958, and a' States
rights' candidate 14,591. The state has 254 counties; the capital is Austin .
Texas sends to Congress 2 eenators and 22 representatives.
Govern01'. Price Daniel (D.), 1959-61 ($25,000).
Lieut.-Gol!ern01'. Ben Ramsey (D.).
Secretary of Stale. Zollie Steakley (D.), 1959-61 (SI5,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Arca, 267,339 sq. miles (including 3,826

sq. miles of inland water). Census population, I April 1950, 7,711 ,194. an
increase of20·2% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July 1959. 9,513,000.
Births in 1958 (provisional) were 248,712 (26·5 per 1.000 population); deaths,
73,314 (7·8); infant deaths, 6,756 (27·2 per 1,000 live births); marriagcs,
89.702 (9'6); divorccs, 34,871 (3-S).
Population for 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
Whlte Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1910 3,204,848 690,049 702 943 3,896,642 14·8
1930 4,967,172 854,964 1,001 1,578 5,824,715 22-1
1940 5,4R7,545 924,391 1,103 1,785 6,414,824 24·3
1930 6,726,534 977,4~8 2,736 3,392 7,711,194 29·3
Male . 3.383,150 475,624 1,596 2,037 3,863,142
Female 3,343,384 501,834 1,140 1,355 3,848,052
Of the total number (1950). 4,838,060 or 62·7% were urban; native

whites numbered 6,449,889; foreign-born whites. 276,645; Chinese.
2,435. 2,037.758 males and 720,685 females were gainfully employed;
households were 2,190,820 (of 3·4 persons). Those 21 years old and older
were 4,7:17,225. A census report, 1953, showed 1,027,455 persons with

Spanish surnames, of whom 840,535 were natives of the state.
The b.rgest cities, with census population in 1950, are:
Houston 696,163 El Paso . 130,486 Lubbock. 71,747
Dallas.. 434,462 Corpus Christi 108,287 Wichita Falls 68,042
San Antoni> • 408,442 Beaumont. 94,014 Galveston. 66,668
FOl't Wortb . 278,778 Waco. 84,706 Port Arthur 67,630
Austin (capital 132,4:;9 Amarlllo. 74,246 San Angelo 62,093
RELIGION, The largest religious bodies are the Roman Catholios

(with 1,3:32,187 members in 1953), Southern Baptists (1,262,451), Southern
Methodists (679,870), and Negro Baptists (508,000).
EDUCATION, In 1950 persons 25 years of age or older who reported
no school years completed numbered 180,260 (4'3% of that age group),
of whom 150,560 were whites and 29,700 non· whites ; of persons between
the ages of 5 and 24, 1,454,460 (56'4%) were attending school. School
attendan'Je is compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years of age. In 1958-59
there we'~e mixed schools in 125 school districts (out of 1,625 districts);
3,250 Negro and 265,000 white pupils ~ttended schools in these districts,
though n·)t all attended mixed schools.
In 191;8-59 the public elementary schools had 1,527,223 enrolled pupils;
the public high schools, 439,238 pupils. Total professional teaching per.
sonnel WILS 75,217. Negro schools (included above) had (1957-58) 254,896
pupils and 9,258 professional teaching personnel. In 1958-59, 7,847 school
buses trs.velled 482,384 miles daily carrying 400,223 pupils. Teachers'
salaries, 1958-59 estimate, averaged $4,410. The state maintains 18 in·
stitution!. of higher learning, including 6 teachers' colleges; total enrolment,
Sept., 1958, 80,932 students. Amount expended on public schools (not
including colleges and excluding capital outlay and debt service) for 1958-59
was $596,578,087, of which $298,599,213 came from the state government,
$17,978,874 from the federal government and the balance from local school
districts; state aid for 32 junior colleges, 1959-60, was $5,177,997. F or
superior instruction, the largest institutions, 1957-58, were:
Founded Institutions Control Protessors Students
1845 Baylor UnJversity, Waco. • Baptist 495 5,862
1862 St ),{ary's University, San Antonlo R.C. 78 1,915
1869 TrinIty University, San AntonJo . Presb. 76 1,432
1873 Tuas Christian University, Fort Worth Christian 164 6,105
1876 Agr. and Mech. Coli., College Station • State 614 7,460
1876 Prairie View Agr. and Mech. Coli. (Negroes),
Prairie View . . State 162 2,683
1883 University of Texas, Austin State 1,424 18,563
1891 Hardin·Simmons Univeroity, Abilene Baptist 83 1,394
1901 North Texas State College, Denton . State 329 6,74l
1903 Texas Woman's University, Denton • State H7 2,313
1906 Abllene Christian College, Abilene Church
ot Christ 140 2,312
1911 Southern Methodist University, Dallas Methodist 310 8,245
1912 Rice Institute, Houston . . 145 1,879
1913 Texas Western College, El Paso I . State 168 3,579
1923 Texas Technoiogical College, Lubbock State 410 8,606
1926 Colleg. of Arts and Industries, KingsviJIe State 114 3,208
1934 UnJ".roity ot Houston, Houston . . Municipal 404 13,002
1947 Texas Southern Unlveroity (Negroes),
Houston State 156 2,720
, Formerly College of Mines.
WELl,'ARE, Old Age Assistance was being gcanted in Oct, 1959 to

223.382 persons. who received an average of $53 per month; aid was given
TEXAS 759
to 6,350 blind persons ($58'06 per month), to 22,504 familiea with 71,354
dependent children (average per family $70·72), and to 5,566 disabled personp
($54-12).
Hospital Association. In 1956 hospitals for mental diseases had an average
of 16,113 resident patients (national total, 565,486).
Statutory segregation of Negroes is enforced in most public schools,
including deaf, dumb and blind schools, but not in aD and no longer (since
1950) in the University of Texas and other coDeges; libraries (only a few
still use segregation), buses and street cars; tuberculosis hospitals. Segrega.
tion is limited on the railways, most of which are engaged in inter·state
traffic. Marriage between mem bers of the 'Caucasian ' and 'African' races
is forbidden; children may be adopted only by persons of the same race.
The prison system, Sept. 1959, held 10,!l73 men and women. In 1959,
2 Negroes were executed (by electrocution) for murder and 1 Negro for
rape ; total executions from 1930 through 1959 have been 268, including
94 whites, 99 Negroes and 1 American Indian for murder, 12 whites and
60 Negroes for rape, and 2 Negroes for armed robbery.
Texas has adopted 11 laws governing the activities of trade unions. An
Act of 1955 forbids the state's payment of unemployment compenaation to
workers engaged in certain types of strikes.
FINANCE. In the fiscal year ending 31 Aug. 1958 (U.S. Census
Bureau figures) general revenues were 81,068,162,000 (taxation, $666,576,000,
and federal aid, $265,674,000); general expenditures, $1,054,048 (education,
$420,795,000 ; welfare, $160,631,000; highways, 5323.630,000).
Texas is unique in the large revenue derived from the severance tax (i.e.,
tax on the removal of oil, natural gas and sulphur from the soil or waters
of the state) which in the 1!l5S-59 fiscal year yielded $184,936,313 ; this
almost equals the total of all the other 24 states using the tax. Tax on
motor fuels, 1958-59, yielded 8178,733,823 ; cigarette t axes, $51,324,583;
motor vehicle taxes, $71,345,729.
Net long·term debt, 31 Aug. 1959, was $183,997,271.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Texas is one of the most important
agricultural states of the Union. In 1954 it had 292,947 farms (331,567 in
1950) covering 145,812,733 acres (145,389,014 acres in 1950); average
farm was of 497·7 acres valued, land and buildings, at $29,876 ($20,269 in
1950). Full owners were 152,181 ; part·owners, 63,184; managers, 1,904,
and tenants, 75,883. Farms selling produce valued at $10,000 or more
numbered 38,863.
Soil erosion is serious in some parts. For some 97,297,000 acrea drastio
curative treatment has been indicated and for 51,164,000 acres, preventive
treatment. Since the ' Soil Conservation Act' was passed in 1939, about
97% of the state's area has been drawn into 173 soil·conservation districts;
as of 30 June 1958 the area embraced 162,296,000 acres, of which 139,488,000
acres were in 289,000 fanns and ranches. Large·scale commercial f arms,
highly mechanized, dominate in Texas, causing a migration of former tenant·
farmers and share·croppers. Farms of 1,000 acres or more numbered 18,820
in 1954, a numbcr far exceeding that of any other state. But small-scale
farming persists; in 1954, 57,9!l8 farms were under 80 acres.
Texas leads in the production of cotton (4,350,000 bales from 5·4m.
acres in 1958); yield was 387 lb. per acre compared with the average of 469
lb. for all cotton states. It also frequently leads in pecans (55m. lb., 1958)
and alw:~ys in grain sorghum (273,066,000 bu., 1958). Other important

orops, Hl58, were maize (42,973,000 bu.), winter wheat (73,040,000 bu.),
oats (53,130,000 bu.), rice (11·9m. bags of 100 lb.), potatoes, sweet potatoes,
peanuts, pecans, vegetables, oranges and grapefruit (2·2m. and 4m. boxes,
1957) anj peaches.
Cash income, 1958, from crops was SI,443m.; from livestock, $929·6m.
The utate has a very great livestock industry, leading in the number
of all c:~ttle, 8,510,000 on 1 Jan. 1959, and sheep, 5,355,000; it also
had 232,000 horses and mules, 735,000 milch oows and 1,226,000 swine.
The wool clip in 1957 amounted to 39·4m. lb. of wool; mohair, 18·4m.
lb. National forests area (1958), 1,842,000 acres.
Mining. Crude oil production in 1958,909,957,558 bbls. Production
of other minerals (1958) were: Natural gasoline, 90,461,754 bbls; natural
gas, 4,38.5,259m. cu. ft; butane and propane gases, 65,715,811 bbls ; helium
204,286,000 cu. ft (1957) (66% of V.S. total); lignite; cement, 25,460,000
bbls; salt, 3,896,000 short tons; sulphur, 3,294,038 long tons (year ending
June 19[·8). Other products were gypsum, granite, sandstone and native
asphalt. Carbon black production, 844,395,000 lb. (1958) was 51 % of V .S.
production. Total value of mineral products in 1958, 84,038'700., leading
all states (24'4% of the V.S. total).
InduMry. In 1957 manufacturing establishments (numbering 8,890 in
1954) ha:! 352,000 production workers earning $I,459m.; value added by
manufactures was $4,768m. compared with $448·5m. in 1939. Chemical in-
dustries .110ng the Gulf Coast, such as the production of synthetic rubber
and of primary magnesium (from sea-water), are increasingly important.
Steel pla~ts, on 1 Jan. 1959, had a capacity of 2,381,000 net tons of ingots
and steel for castings.
COMMUNICATIONS. The state maintains (1958) some 55,000 miles of
highway~., nearly all are paved; it also maintains about 1,100 roadside parks
and turnouts. The steam railways (1958) had a total mileage of 15,022
(main lines). The port of Houston, connected by the Houston Ship Channel
(50 miles long) with the Gulf of Mexico, is the largest inland cotton market.
of the wcorld. Airports, 1958, numbered 464, of which 207 were general.
Books of Reference
Tu ... Almunac and SIaU Indwtri4l Guide. Dall.... Biennial
~'ederal Wliters' Project. Tevu: A Guide to the Lon. Star SIaU. New York, 1940
Bisbop. O. K., LO/$ Of Land. Austin, 1949
MacCorkle, S. A., and Smith, D., Tez... Governmmt. 2nd ed . New York. 1952
Patter.l<ln, 'J. P., and others, Stale and Local Gooernmmt in Texa.. New York, 1~4S
Richardson, R. N., TexIU, /ile Lone Star State. 2nd ed. New York, 1958
Webb, W. :? (ed.), The Handbook of Teza.. State Hist. Ass., Austin, 1952
STATII :~mRARY. Texas State Library, State Capitol, Austin, 11. Stale Librarian:
Wltt B. Harwell.
(ITAB
GOVERNMENT. Vtah, which had been acquired by the V .S. during
the Mexi,:an war, was, in 1847, settled by Mormons, and on 9 Sept. 1850,
organized as a Territory. It was admitted as a state into the Vnion on
4 Jan. 1~.96 and adopted its present constitution at that time (now with
29 amendments). It sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives.
The Legislature consists of a Senate (in part renewed every 2 years) of
UTAH 761
25 members, elected for 4 years, and of a House of Representatives of 64
members elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The
constitution provides for the initiative and referendum. Electors are all
citizens, male or female, who, not being idiots, insane or criminals, have the
usual residential qualifications.
There are 29 counties in the state. The capital is Salt Lake City.
Stevenson 118,364.
Governor. George D. Clyde (R.), 1957-61 ($12,000).
Secretary of Stale. Lamont F. Toronto (R.) ($9,500).

sq. milcs are water. The federal government owns 69% of the area of the
state. The area of unappropriated and unreserved lands on 30 June 1958
was 24,204,176 acres; the state (1958) contained 7,930,000 acres of national
forest. The Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1957 administered 2,324,213 acres,
of which 2,231,815 acres were allotted to Indian tribes.
Census population, 1 April 1950, 688,862, an increase of 25·2% since
1940; estimate, 1959, 880,000. Births in 1958 were 26,167 (30'3 per 1,000
population); deaths, 6,274 (7'3); infant deaths, 605 (23'1 per 1,000 live
births); marriages, 6,741 (7'8); divorces, 2,032.
Population at 4 federal censuses (with distribution by sex in 1950):
Per sq.
1910 366,683 1,144 3,123 2,501 373,361 4·[1
1930 ~99.967 1,108 2.869 3.903 ~07,847 6·2
1940 ~42,920 1,235 3,611 2,544 550,310 6·7
1950 676,909 2,729 4,201 688,862 8·4
Male. 341,007 1,553 All h' 5,Oi6 347,636
Female 335,90~ 1,176 ot era 4,148 341,226
Of the total in 1950, 449,855 persons (63'3%) were urban (55'5% in

1940); 389,855 were 21 years of age or older. Native whites numbered
647,065; foreign-born whites, 29,844; Japanese, 4,452.
The largest cities are Salt Lake City, with a population (census, 1950)
of 182,121; Ogden, 57,112; Provo, 28,937, and Logan, 16,832.
RELIGION. Latter-day Saints (Mormons) form about 70% of the

Church membership of the state, with approximately 570,000 members in
1955. There are Catholics (23,395 in 1949), Protestant Episcopalians
(some 3,000) and others in small numbers. The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints is a substantial property-owner and has numerous
co-operative enterprises furnishing incomes to its people.

18 yeaI"!l of age. There are 40 school districts, each with a Board of Educa·
tion and a District Superintendent. Teachers' salaries, 1957-58, averaged
$4,562; of the state's 7,047 teachers, 39'5% were men, the highest average
in the country. There were (1957-58) 214,812 pupils in elementary and
high schools. In 1957-58 the operating cost of the elementary and second-
ary schools was $54,218,467.
The University of Utah (1850) (20,727 students and 550 instructors in
1956-57) is in Salt Lake City; the Utah State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science (1890) in Logan has 2 branch colleges; the state also
maintains 3 junior colleges at Ogden, Price and St George, and 2 vocational

scbools at Provo and Salt Lake City. The Mormon Church maintains the
Brigham Young University at Provo (1875) with 289 teachers and 10,675
studenr.s in 1!l55.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance (maximum then $25 a month) was
establiuhed in 1929 and expanded in 1947 to provide assistance' to any
needy individual in the state who does not have sufficient resources actually
available for his use to maintain a minimum standard of living compatible
with health and well· being' ; in Dec. 1958 recipients numbered 8,521,
drawing an average of $65·85 per month; 3,406 families with 12,052
dependants, including 8,985 children, were drawing an average of $130·81
monthly; 211 blind, $69'97, and 2,050 totally disabled, $70'71.
In 'l957 the state had 38 hospitals (4,609 beds) listed by the American
Hospihl Association. In 1957 a new comprehensive medical care pro·
gramme for welfare recipients was enacted.
State prisons on 31 Dec. 1958 had 570 inmates (66 per 1,000 popu·
lation). In 1959 there was no execution; since 1930 total executions (by
shooting) have been 12, all whites, and all for murder.
Marriage is prohibited between white and Negro, Mongolian or Malayan.
In 1925 Utah passed an Act permitting, under safeguards, the steriliza-
tion of insane and feeble· minded persons; up to 1 Jan. 1958,340 men and
404 women had been sterilized.
$124,7:37,000 (taxes furnished $79,061,000, and federal grants, $29,475,000)
while ~;eneral expenditures were $127,912,000 ($57,396,000 for education,
$31,68:~,000 for highways and $14,662.000 for public welfare).
ThE' not long-term debt on 30 June 1958 amounted to $5,778,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1954 Utah had 22,825 farms with a
total al~a of 12,234,000 acres (only 20% of the total land area). of which
1,279,000 acres were crop land; 19.406 farms (87% of all farms) had
1,072,682 acres using irrigation; the average farm was of 536 acres
valued at $23,480.
Of ,;he total surface area (52,701,440 acres), 19'7% was severely eroded
and ony 0'4% free from erosion in 1939; mountains, etc., cover 45% of the
rest. In 1958 there were 48 soil· conservation districts embracing 48,959,000
acres, dwhich 11,752,000 acres were farm lands. Cash income, 1958, from
crops, !140·lm. and from livestock, $115·3m.
ThE chief crops are wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, alfalfa and sugar beet.
On 1 J an.
' 1959 the number of animals was: Horses and mules, 33,000;
milch (OWS, 112.000; all cattle, 720,000; sheep, 1,382,000; swine, 83,000.
The weol clip (1957) yielded 11,863,000 lb. of wool from 1·2m. sheep.
Mining. The principal minerals (1958) are: Gold (307,824 fine oz.),
silver (5,277,693 fine oz.), uranium (1,183,000 short tons, 1959), vanadium,
copper (189,184 short tons), coal (6,785,000 long tons), lead (40,355 short
tons), ::inc (44,982 short tons), salt (184,000 short tons), iron ore (3·57m.
long tc·ns). The state government owns some rich phosphate deposits.
Other products are petroleum, gypsum, sulphur, potash arsenious oxide,
molybdenum and asphalt. Total value of mineral production, 1958,
$366m.
Industry. In 1956 the 990 manufacturing establishments had 25,270 pro·
duction workers, who earned $158,594,000; value added by manufacture
VERMONT 763
was S343m. A steel industry, started in wartime, now ranks fourth in the
production of steel plates; its capacity, 1 Jan. 1957, was 2,077,000 short
tons of ingots and steel for castings.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 the state had 1,730 miles of steam
railways. There were 56 airports (27 general) in 1958. The state, 1957,
maintained 5,507 miles of highway; the connties, 16,787 miles; the federal
government, 6,068 miles.
Books of Reference
Utah Official Ro.'". Secretary of State. Salt Lake City. Biennial
Write",' Program. Ulah: A Guiik 10 Ihe Stale. New York, 1954
Anderson, N., Desert Saints: The Mormon Frontier in Utah . Chicago, 1942
Cottam, W. P., I. Ulah Sahara-bound' A Botanisl's Warning aboUI Soil Del.riorOOm.
Salt Lake City, 1947
Steyner, W. E., Mormon Country. New York, 1942
WhIpple, M., Thi.1M Ptau: Utah. New York, 1945
VERMONT
GOVERNMENT. Vermont, first settled in 1724, was admitted into
the Union as a state on 4 March 1791. The first constitution was adopted
by convention at Windsor, 2 July 1777, and established an independent
state government; in 1793 a new constitution was adopted which, with
amendments, is still in force. Amendments are proposed by two-thirds
vote of the Senate each decennium, and must be accepted by two sessions
of the Legislature; they are not submitted to popular vote. The state
Legisla.ture, consisting of a Senate of 30 members and a House of Repre-
sentatives of 246 members (both elected for 2 years), meets in Jan. in odd-
numbered years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 2 years.
Electors are all citizens who possess certain residential qualifications and
have taken the freeman's oath set forth in the constitution.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 110,390 (72'1%,
his largest percentage in any state), StevAnson 42,549. The capital is
Montpelier (8,599, census of 1950). The state is divided into 14 counties;
there are 246 towns and cities. The state sends to Congress 2 senators
and 1 representative, who are elected by the voters of the entire state.
Governor. Robert T. Stafford (R.), 1959-60 ($12,500).
Lieut.-Governor. Robert S. Babcock (R.), (82,500).
Secretary of State. Howard E. Armstrong (R.) ($8,500).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 9,609 sq. miles, of whieh 331 sq.
miles are inland waters. Census population, 1 April 1950,377,747, an in·
crease of 5·2% since 1940. Births, 1958, were 9,213 (24·8 per 1,000 popula.
tion); deaths, 4,276 (11 ,5); infant deaths, 216 (23·4 per 1,000 live births);
marriages, 3,376 (9'1); divorces,501. Estimated population, 1 July 1959,
372,000.
Population at 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950):
Per sq.
White Negro Indian AsIatic Total mile
1910 354,298 1,621 26 11 350,956 39·0
1930 358,966 568 36 41 359.611 38 ·8
1940 358,806 384 16 25 359,231 38 ·7
1950 377,188 443 30 48 377,747 '0·7
Male. 187,457 228 21 26 187,754
Female 189,731 215 9 22 189,993
Of the population in 1950, 137,612 persons (36'4%) were urban (34'3%

in 1940); those 21 years of age or older, 237,550. Native whites numbered
348,431i; foreign. born whites, 28,753. Occupied dwelling units, 1950,
122,70'1. The largest cities are Burlington, with a population in 1950 of
33,165; Rutland,17,659; Barre,10,922.
RELIGION. The principal religious denominations are Roman
Catholic (with 99,945 members in 1936), Congregational (20,713), Methodist
(14,43~:), Baptist, Protestant Episcopal and Universalist, in the order given:
total, f,lI denominations, 169,792.
EDUCATION. School attendance during the full school term is
compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years of age. In 1958-59 the 482
public elementary schools had 50,952 enrolled pupils; the 84 public higb
school! had 20.108 pupils; the 24 private and parochial secondary schools
had 5,fi49 pupils, and the 3 teachers' colleges had 774 pupils. Teachers for
all puhlic schools numbered 3,206, plus 75 part· time specials. Teachers'
salarie:! for 1958-59 averaged $4,135 (national average $4,775). The
University of Vermont (1791) had, 1958-59, 3,276 students; Middlebury
College (1800), 1,277 students; Norwich University (1834), 889 students:
St Mic:aael's College (1904), 1,139 students: Bennington College (1932),327
students. Total expenditure for education, 1957-58, was $20,924,150,
exclusive of capital outlay.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance was being granted in June 1959 to
5,872 persons, drawing an average of $57·16 per month; aid to dependent
children was being granted to 1,274 families (4,516 children), drawing an
averag3 of $IOS·38 per month: aid to the blind was being granted to 135
personl, drawing an average of $60·33: and aid to the permanently and
totally disabled was being granted to 817 persons, drawing an average of
359·S9
Hospital Association. In 1931 Vermont passed a law permitting, under
legal s'lfcguards, the sterilization of insane and feeble· minded persons; up
to 1 Jan. 1958. 83 men and 170 women had been thus sterilized.
On 31 July 1958 the prisons had 275 inmates (72'8 per 100,000 popula.
tion). Since 1930 there have been 4 executions (electrocution), all whites
and aU for murder.
FINANCE. The general revenue for the year ending 30 June 1958
was $1;6,854,000 (337,330,000 from taxation and $12,880,000 from federal
aid) while general expenditure was $65,508,000 (education, $15,425.000,
highwE,Ys, $25·2m., and public welfare, $7,083,000).
Nel, long·term debt, 1 July 1959, was $24,415,149.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture is still the most important
occupation within the state, though recreation industries may shortly over·
take i1;. In 1954 the state contained 15,981 farms with a total area of
3,317,~'37 acres, of which 1,062,266 acres were crop land; the total value of
farm IHnds and buildings was $201,025,000: the average farm was valued
at $12,579. Cash income, 1958, from crops, $12·7m.; from livestock,
$105·6.n. The chief agricultural crops are hay, oats, maize, potatoes and
apples. Vermont leads in maple products, of which the output, 1958, was
300,560 gallons of syrup valued at $2·7m.
VIRGINIA 765
On 1 Jan. 1959 Vermont had 285,000 milch cows, 423,000 all cattle,
11,000 horses, 14,000 sheep and 11,000 swine.
The state is divided into 13 soil·conservation districts (5,931,392 acres)
which may utilize funds provided by local, state and federal agencies. On
1 July 1959, 11.236 farmers with 2,238,885 acres were co· operating with the
districts. There is no serious soil erosion; 13·1 % of the total surface shows
moderate erosion.
Forestry. The forests provide annually over 200m. bd ft of lumber--in
1957 there was cut 113,:!65,OOO bd ft hardwood; 123,306,000 bd ft softwood,
or a total of 236,571,000 bd ft. National forests area (1959), 230,366 acres.
There are 28 state forests and 26 state parks with a total acreage of 90,191.
Mining. Vermont produces granite, marble and asbestos, but figures are
not disclosed; output (1958) of copper, 475 short tons; silver, 5,101 fine
oz.; sand and gravel, 1·89m. short tons; stone, 808,000 short tons. Ver-
mont has the largest worked deposits of asbestos in the V.S. Total value
of mineral products, 1958, $21,443,000.
Industry. In I!lli8 an average of 32,.~1O workers in manufacturing
employment were covered by the Vermont Unemployment Compensation
Law. Estimated total manufacturing employment was 33,200. Value
added by manufacture, 1957, was estimated at $266m.
COMMUNICATIONS. There were, in 1958, 827 miles of steam rail.

way; there were (1958) 23 airports, of which 10 were general. The state
maintains 1,975 miles of paved and gravelled state highways and aids towns
and cities in the maintenance of 2,736 miles of state aid highways and 8,945
miles of town highways. Registered motor vehicles (1958), 145,000.
Books of Reference
L~i$latifJe Directury. Secretary of State. MontpeJier. Biennial
Vermont Year·book, formerly Wallon's Register. Chester. Annual
Federal Writers' Project. Vermont: Guide to the Green Mountain State. Boston, 1937
Proceedings oJ the Vermont Historical SOcif!ty. Quarterly. Montpelier
:t-."ewton, E. W., 1'h~ Vermont Story, 1749-1949 . Rist. Society, Montpelier, 1949
STA.TE LlBRAHY. Vermont State LiLrary, Montpelier. Slat~ Librarian: L. J. Turgeon
VIRGINIA
GOVERNMENT. The first English Charter for settlements in America
was that granted by Jamcs I in 1606 for the planting of colonies in Virginia.
The state was one of the 13 original states in the Union. On the outbreak
of the civil war in 1861. Virginia, after long hesitation, decided to join the
seceding sta.tes, a course objected to by some in the western portion of the
state, who set up a separate government, which in 1863 was admitted into
the Union as West Virginia. The present constitution dates from 1902; it
has hnd 87 amendments.
The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 40 members, elected for
4 years, a.nd a House of Delegates of 100 members, elected for 2 years.
The Governor and Lieut.·Governor are elected for 4 years. Qualified as
electors are (with few eltceptions) all citizens 21 years of age, fulfilling
certain residential qualifications, who have paid their state poll.taxcs
and registered.
The state cnpital is Richmond; the state contains 98 counties and 24
independent cities. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 10 repre-

sentatives.
Stevenson 267,760, Andrews (Independent) 42,964; 35·2% of the potential
electorate (1 ,983,000) went to the polle.
Got.ernor. J. Lindsay Almond, Jr. (D.), 1958-62 ($20,000).
Lieut.-Governor. A. E . S. Stephens (D.).
Secretary 01 eke Oommonwealth. Martha Bell Conway (D.) (510,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 40,815 sq. miles, including 922 sq.
miles:>f inland water. Census population, 1 April 1950, 3,318,680, an
increaE,e of 640,907 or 23'9% since 1940. Estimated population, 1 July
1959, :1,992,000. In 1958 there were 96,773 births (24'8 per 1,000 popula-
tion); 33,068 deaths (8'5); 3,000 infant deaths (31 per 1,000 live birthll);
36,326 marriages (9'3), and 6,544 divorces.
Population for 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex in 1950)
was:
Per sq.
1910 1,389,809 671,096 539 168 2,061,612 51,'
1930 1,770,441 650,166 779 466 2,421,851 60·7
1940 2,015,683 661,449 198 543 2,671,713 67-1
19~0 2,581,555 734,211 1,056 758 3,318,680 83,2
Male ,
Female
1,306,394
1,215,161
366,806
367,405
All othe~ 2,016
898
1,676,216
1,643,464
Of ~he total population in 1950, 2,546,485 were native whites and 35,070
foreign. born whites. 1,560,115 persons (47%) were urban (35·3% in 1940):
those m years of age or older numbered 2,025,697.
Th" population (con8us of 1950) of the principal cities was: Richmond,
230,31 1); N()rfolk, 213,513; Roanoke, 91,921; Portsmouth. 80.039;
Alexandria, 61,787; Lynchbnrg, 47,727; Newport News, 42,358; Danville,
35,066; Petersburg. 35,054 ; Charlottesville, 25,969.
RELIGION, The principal churches are the Negro Baptists, with

249,03'} members in 1936, Southern Methodists (189,621) and Southern
Baptists (177,196). Total, all denominations, 1,017,531 members.
EDUCA TION. Elementary instruction is free. No child under 12 may

bc employed in any mining or manufacturing work.
In 1957-58 the 130 school districts had, in primary schools, 539.004
pupils and 16.920 classroom teachers and in public high schools, 240,355
pupils and 8,906 teachers. Teachers' salaries averaged $3,699. Total ex·
pendit"ne on education, 1957-58, was $226,635,605. The more important
institu~ion8 for higher education (1959) were:
Foundd Name and place of college Stall Students
1693 William and Mary College, Williamsburg (State) 160 1,926
1749 Washington and Lee University, Lexington . . 9~ 1,119
1716 Hampden·Sydney College, Uampden·Sydney (prcs.) 30 370
1819 University of Virginia., Cbarlottesville (State) 636 4,570
1832 Randolph·Macon College, Ashland (Methodist) 49 746
1832 University of Richmond, Richmond (Baptist) 181 2,831
1839 Virginia Military Institute, Lexington (State) . . 91 970
1865 Virginia Union University, Richmond (Coloured ; Bapt.) ~5 868
1872 Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg (State) . 375 4,173
1892 RandoJph-Macon Woman's College, Lyochburg SI 658
VIRGINIA 767
WELFARE. In 1938 Virginia established a system of Old Age Assist.
ance under the Federal Security Act; in June 1959, 15,1911 persons were
drawing an average of $41'12 per month; 9,279 families (37,292 dependants),
$82'48 per family per month; 1,288 blind, $46'57; 6,085 totally disabled,
$47·03 monthly.
In 1924 Virginia enacted a law permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of insane and feeble-minded persons; up to 31 June 1958,
2,714 men and 4,131 women had been thus sterilized.
Virginia statutes require separate facilities for whites and coloured
people in railways, including dining ca rs but excluding sleeping cars; in
buses and street cars; in penal and correctional institutions and hospitals;
in theatres and public halls; in fraternal benefit associations. In 1950 the
University of Virginia began to admit Negro students, and in 1959 some
white schools admitted some Negro children. Marriage between white and
'non-white' persons is prohibited.
Executions (by elect.rocution) from 1930 to 1958 totalled 87, including
14 whites and 53 Negroes for murder and 20 Negroes for rape.
3368,872,000 (taxation, 3256.869,000, and federal aid, $51, 711,OOO); I!:eneral
expenditures, $452,996,000 ($ I'27,388,000 for education, $ 178,849,000
for highways and $20,628,000 for public welfare).
Net long-term debt, 30 June 1958, amounted to $182,043,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1954 there were 136,416 farms in
Virginia with an area of 14,686,000 acres, of which 3,158,000 acres were crop
land; average farm had 107'7 acres and was valued at $10,821. Commer-
cial farms numbered 71,371. Income, 1958, from crops, SI99·6m. and
from livestock and livestock products, $60·8m.. The chief crops are corn,
wheat, oats, potatoes, sweet potat.oes, peanuts (227·9m. lb. in 1958) and
apples. The tobacco crop, 1958, was 137,519,000 lb. The cotton crop
covered 10,200 acres, yielding 10,000 bales. National forests, 1958, covered
4,019,002 acres.
In 1958 there were 29 soil-conservation districts embracing 24,959,360
acres, of which 14,101,000 acres were farm land. Moderate erosion affects
15,031,149 acres (59,2% of the total area).
Animals on farms on 1 Jan. 1959 were 91,000 horses and mules, 410,000
milch cows, 1,367,000 all cattle, 350,000 sheep and 670,000 swine.
Mining (1958). Virginia has considerable mineral wealth, coal being the
most important, with output of 25,030,954 short tons. Lead (2.934 short
tons), zinc (18,472 short tons), manganese ores, some sheet micll, titanium
ore and silver (2,023 tray oz.) are also produced. In 1958 t.he mineral out-
put was valued at $203,226,000.
Industry. There are 2 ironworks with capacity, 1 Jan. 1957, of 36,000
net. tons, but the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes and of rllyon and allied
products and the building of ships and boats lead in valUE> of products.
In 1957 manufacturing establishments employed 208,000 production workers
earning $683m.; value added by manufacture was $2,031m. ($l,051m . in
1947).
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1957 there were 4,129 miles of state-owned
steam railways. There were, in 1958,87 airports, of which 18 were general.
The ste,te highways system. 30 June 1958. had 49.488 miles of highways. of
which ".946 miles were primary roads.
Books of Reference
A Biblio!"aphll 0/ Virginia. State Library. 4 vols. Richmond, 1916-32
Economi" and Social Survey. 0/ Virginia Counties. Univ. 01 Virginia. School 01 Rural
Social Economica. Charlottesville, Virginia
Writers' Program. Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion. New York, 1946
GottmanD, J., Virginia III Mid·Cemury. New York, 1900
Sworn, E. G., Virginia HistoricallniUx. 2 vols. RoaDoke,1934-36
STATIC LmRARY. Virginia State Library, Richmond 19. State Librarian: Randolph W.
Church.
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT. Washington. formerly part of Oregon. was created a
Territory in 1853. and was admitted into the Union as a state on 11 Nov.
1889. Its settlement dates from 1811. The constitution. adopted in 1889.
has had 28 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 46 memo
bers elected for 4 years. half their number retiring every 2 years. and a House
of Rep::esentatives of 99 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and
Lieut.·Governor are elected for 4 years. The state contains 39 counties.
The capital is Olympia (estimated population. 1959. 17.700). The state
sends 2 senators and 7 representatives to Congress.
QUB,lified as voters are (with some exceptions) all citizens 21 years of
age. h~,ving the usual residential qualifications, who can read and spe~k
Englisb.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 620,430 votes.
Stevenuon 523,002. a Socialist candidate 7,326.
Gov~rnor. Albert D. Rose1lini (D.). 1957-61 ($15.000).
Lie',lt.·Governor. John A. Cherburg (D.), 1957-61 (S6,OOO).
Secletary of State. Victor A. Meyers (D.). 1957-61 (S8.500).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 68.192 sq. miles, of which 1.406 sq.
miles are inland water. Lnnds owned by the federal government. 1956.
were l!l.669.139 acres or 29'6% of the total area. Census population. 1
April 1950. 2,378.963. an increase of 642,772 or 37% since 1940. Esti·
mated population. 1 July 1959. 2.823,000. Births. 1958, were 61).574
(23·7 p'lr 1,000 population); deaths. 25.429 (9'2); infant deaths, 1,707 (26
per 1.0)0 live births); marriages, 27,377(9'1); divorces, 9,003.
Population in 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
W1l!te Negro Indian Asiatic Total mile
1910 1,109,111 6,058 10,997 10,824 1,141,990 17-1
1930 1,521,661 6,840 11,253 23,642 1,563,396 23-3
1940 1,698,147 7,424 11,393 19,227 1,736,191 20·9
1950 2,316,496 30,691 13,816 17,690 2,378,963 30,6
y
Male, 1,188,079 17,417 All others 18,35.~ 1,223,801
Female 1,128,417 13,274 13,421 1.155,112
Of t.he total population in 1950. native whites were 2,125,495; foreign·

born whites. 191,001; 1,503.166 persons (63,2%) were urban (53'1% in
1940); 1.559.266 were 21 years of age or older.
There are 18 Indian reservations. the largest being the Colville. which
contains 1.126.465 acres; total population, 1950. 13.816. The U.S, Bureau
WASHINGTON 769
ofIndian Affairs administers (1957) 2,651,426 acres, of which I,8Il,315 acres
have been assigned to tribes.
Leading cities are Seattle, with a population (1959 estimate) of 581,300;
Spokane, 190,400; Tacoma,158,800; Yakima,45,100; Vancouver, 40,800;
Bellingham,36,900; Everett,35,400; Bremerton, 28,300, and Walla Walla,
26,100.
RELIGION. Chief religious bodies (1954-55 estimates) are the Roman
Catholic (273,135), Lutheran (over 100,000), Methodist (72,888), Presby.
terian (51.032), Episcopalian (38,000), Disciples of Christ (30,266), Baptist
(30,000-32,000), Cougregationalist (21,200).
EDUCATION. Education is given free to all children between the ages
of 6 And 21 years, and is compulsory for children from 8 to 16 years of age.
In W59-60 the 1.145 elementary schools had 13,819 classroom teachers and
389,581 pupils; 126 junior high schools and 306 high schools had 5,847
classroom te:~chers and 187,589 pupils. In 1957-58 tbe average salary of
teachers was sr;,259 (national avcmge, S4,650). The total expenditure on
public elementary and secondary schools for the school year 1957-58 was
$202,741,402. In 1956 tbe 157 private and parochial elementary and
secondary schools bad 42,000 elementary and high school pupils.
The University of Wasbington, founded 1861, at Seattle, bad, 1957-58,
967 teacbers and 18,876 students; Seattle University (largest private-
Roman Cat.bolic-university in the state), 3,033 students, and Washington
State University at Pullman for science and agriculture, founded 1890, had
361 teachers and 6,409 students. Three state colleges of education had
6,001 st.udents. Ten junior colleges had a total enrolment of 9,258 students.
There are 11 other colleges and special schools.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance is provided for persons 65 years of
age or older without resources who have been residents of the state for 5
years (within the 9 years immediately preceding application). In June 1959,
85,567 persons were drawing an average of $57·87 per month; aid to 40,919
dependants in 11,712 families averaged $142·4 per family monthly; to 799
blind persons, $82·69 per person monthly; to 6,500 totally disabled, S81'03
monthly. 4,134 persons, under the Fost.er Home Care scheme received
payments of S53 ·57 per person.
In 1959 there was no execution; total since 1930 (by hanging) was 45,
including 38 whites, 5 Negroes and 2 other races, all for murder, except 1
white for kidnapping.
In 1957 the st.ate had 135 hospitals (22,792 beds) listed by the American
FINANCE . For the year ending 30 June 1958 the state's general
revenue was $528,220,000 ($374,351,000 from taxes and $lOO,4IO,OOO from
federal aid); general expenditure was $575,549,000 (education, S209,631,000;
highways, $131,204,000, and public \velfare, $96,211,000).
Total long. term debt on 30 June Hl58 was $320,740,000.
PRODUCTION. Traditiona.lIy the state's economy has been based on
agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining.
Agriculture. Agriculture has increa.sed due to more intensive and
diversified farming and will be further aided as the lm.·aere Columbia Basin
Irrigation Project proceeds. In 1957,350,000 acres were irrigated. Forest
products are still important, but this industry is levelling off.
cc
In 1954 there were 65,175 farms with an acreage of 17,641,000, of which

4,343,000 acres were crop land; average farm was of 270·7 acres with a
value of 529,131. In 1954, 19,177 farms had less than 10 acres and 30,062
45%) of all farms had less than 30 acres.
In 1957 there were 76 soil·conservation districts embracing 38,391,000
acres, of which 17,890,000 acres were farm lands (67,000 farms and ranches).
About 12% of the total area has suffered severe erosion and 44% moderate
erosion.
Cash income, 1958, from crops was $378,374,000, and from livestock,
S217,2M.OOO. Washington far exceeds other states in production of com·
mercial apples; 30·4m. bu. in 1958. She leads also in hops (28,310,000 lb.)
and dry field peas (1,071,000 bags of 100 lb.). Other crops are wheat
(71,791,')00 bu.), barley, oats, maize, potatoes, pears, cherries, peaches and
prunes.
On I Jan. 1959 animals on farms were 33,000 horses and mules, 286,000
milch cc,ws, 1,178,000 all cattle, 283,000 sheep and 140,000 swine. The wool
clip in 19118 amounted to 2,390,000 lb. from 248,000 sheep.
Forfstry. From early 1900 to about 1940 the state ranked first in
annualbd ft of lumber, but is now second to Oregon. Use of logs and by.
product. has made the state now the largest producer of woodpulp (about
10% of U.S. t otal), plywood and other fa bricated wood products. Timber
harvested in 1957 was 4,045,001,000 bd ft. The national forest lands of the
state had (1958) an area of 10,742,074 acres.
Fisl.ing. Principal producer of canned salmon and participating in
Alaska flalmon and halibut fisheries, her production exceeds that of any other
state. Value of sea products in 1957 was $19,469,069 catch value,
$37,326887 processed value. Total weight of fish caught 136,475,086 lb.,
including salmon, 44,647,240 lb. ; halibut, 16,457,306 lb., and oysters,
9,948,641 lb.
Mining (1958). Coal output was 252,000 short tons. Metals include :
Lead, !I,020 short t OllS; zinc, 18,797 short tons; gold, silver, copper,
uranium and mercury. Antimony ores, tungsten, diatomite, crude magne·
site, iroJl a.nd olivine are found. Total mineral output in 1958 was valued at
$60,897.000.
lndlo"stry. In 1957 the 5,608 manufacturing establishments employed
226,962 production workers, who earned $1,148,490,000; value added by
manufa·~ttlre was $2,123·4m., compared with S267·7m. in 1939. Aero·
plane manufacture and food processing are the two major manufacturing
industries of the state.
In 1956 with about 20% of potential water· power resources of U.S., the
state is first in developed and potential hydro·electricity, and due to this
resourc" produces nearly one·half of U.S. refined aluminium.
COJ\lMUNICA TIONS. The railways had, in 1958, 5,903 miles. There
were ill 1958, 165 airports (55 general). The state (1957) maintains 6,725
miles of highway; local authorities, 44,089 miles, and the federal govern-
ment, 7,853 miles. Motor vehicle registrations (1958), 1,398,233.
Books of Reference
Fetleral Writers' Project. W""hington:.d Guide to the Evergreen State. Portland, Orag., 1950
Robinson, M . D., Wa..hington State SUltisticaJ Abstract. Univ. of Wash. Press, 1952
Webster, D. H .• and others, W""hinglOn Stale Government. Seattle,1948
STATE LmRAlIY. Washington State LllJrary, Olympia. Stale Librarian : Maryan E.
Reynolds,
WEST VffiGINfA 771
WEST VIRGINIA
GOVERNMENT. In 1862, after the state of Virginia had seceded from
the Union, the electors of the western portion ratified an ordinance pro-
viding for the formation of a new state, which was admitted into the Union
by presidential proclamation on 20 June 1863, under the name of West
Virginia. Its constitution was adopted by the voters almost unanimously
on 26 March 1863; the present one was adopted in 1872; it has had 29
amendments.
The Legislature consists of the Senate of 32 members elected for a term
of 4 years, one half being elected biennially, and the House of Delegates of
100 members, elected biennially. The Governor is elected for 4 years.
Voters are all citizens (with necessary exceptions) 21 years of age and
meeting certain residential requirements. The state capital is Chal'leston;
there are 65 counties.
The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 6 representatives.
In the IP56 presidential election Eisenhower polled 449,297 votes,
Stevenson 381,539.
Governor. CeciJ H. Underwood (R.), 1957-61 ($17,500).
Secretary of State. Joe F. Burdett (D.) (511,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 24,181 sq. miles. of which 101 sq.
miles are water. Census population, I April 1950,2,005,552, an increase of
5'4% since 1940. Estimated population, I July 19118. 1.969.000. Birtbs,
1958,44,577 (22'6 per 1,000 population); deaths, 17,795 (9); infant deaths,
1,124 (211·2 per 1.000 live births); marriages, 14,213 (7'2).
Population in 4 federal census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was :
Per sq.
1910 l,l~6 ,817 64,173 36 93 1,221,119 50·8
1930 1,614,191 114,893 18 103 1,729 . 20~ 71·8
1940 1,784,102 117 . i~4 25 93 1,901,974 79·0
19.0 1,890,282 H4,S67 160 243 2.00;),552 83·3
Male. 948,270 57,749 H5 lL3 1,006,287
Female 942,012 57,HS 4. 90 999,26.
Of the total population in 1950. 694,487 (34,6%) were urban (28'1%

in 1940): those 21 years of age or older numbered 1,171,860. Native whites
were 1,855,696; forei~-born whites, 34.586.
In 1950 the population of the principal cities wero: Huntington, 86,353;
Charleston, 73,501: Wheeling, 58.891; Clarksburg, 32,014; Parkersburg.
29.685: Fairmont. 29.346, and Morgantown. 25.525.
RELIGION. Chief denominations are Methodists (220.000 members
in 1956). American Baptists (122,000 members) and Roman Catholics
(98.000). Estimated total membership, all denominations (1956), 975.000.
EDUCATION. Publio school education is free for all from 6 to 21

years of age, and school attendance is compulsory for all between the ages
of 7 and 16 (school term, 180 dayslcss holidays; average 173). The public
schools are non·sectarian. In autumn 1958 elementary schools had 10,064
classroom teachers and 292,700 enrolled pupils; secondary schools, 6.394
and 165,725 respeotively. Average salary of teachers, 1956-57, was $3,570.
Total publio school expenditure, 1956-57, was $100.113,842.
Leading institutions of higher education in W57:

Found.,l Staff Students
1868 West Virginia University, Morgaotown . . . 842 7,722
1901 Potcmac State College of West Virginia Unlv., Keyser 2S 642
1837 I<larshall CoUege, HuntingWn . . 223 3,789
1837 West Liberty State College, \V est Liberty 67 1,160
1867 FaiJ-mont· State College, Fairmoot . . . 73 ],287
1870 West Virginia Schools for Deaf Md Blind, Romncy. 75 328
1872 Concord College, Atheos . . 77 1,447
1872 Gieoville State CollCj1'e, Glen.iIIe . . 49 724
1872 Shepherd State College, Shepberdstown . 52 702
1891 West Virginia State College, Institute . . . 120 2,223
1895 West Virginia Iost itute of Technology, Montgomery 71 89i
1895 Rloefield State College, Bloefield . 49 41V
In ;w.dition to the university and state.supported schools there are 14

denom .national and private institutions of higher education.
WELFARE. Since June 1936 the state has provided a system of
Old A ~e Assistance; in Dec. 1958,21,200 persons were receiving an average
of S35'79 per mont.h; 20,155 families were receiving aid for 77,588 de·
pendat ts amounting to S90'55 a month; 1,075 blind, S40'67 monthly;
7,5:36 t.otally disabled, S38·87. There are 21 charitable. pl'nal and correc·
tional institutions. In 1958 there were 2 executions; total since 1930 was 42,
including 27 whites for murder and 3 whites for kidnappillg, 8 Negroes for
murde)' and 1 for rape. State prisons had on 31 Dec. 1958, 2,406 inmates
(122 pt.r 100,000 population).
flospit'!.l Associlltion.
In 1929 West Virginia enacted a law permitting, under legal safeguards,
t·he sterilization of insane and feeble· minded persons; up to I July Hl58.
15 mec and 83 women had been thus sterilized.
We3t Virginia has no segregation statutes. Integration is complete ill
its sch.)018, railways, buses and all public places. Pri vate enterprises may
or mar not have segregation. Marriage between white and Negro persolls
is probibited.
FINANCE. General revenues for the year ending 30 June 1958 were
S223,L 7,000 (8161,039,000 from taxation and $46,966.000 from federal aid);
genera: expenditures were $245,836,000 (education, $85,862,000; highways,
$56,229,000; public welfare, S33,635,OOO).
Total net long-term debt was 8263,935,000 on 30 June 1958.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. On 1 Jan. 1959 the state had 04,500
farms, with an area (1954) of 7,352.000 acres, of which 1,073,000 acres were
crop land. Farming units are small; the average farm is 116 acres valued
at $7,074 ; 19,203 farms had less than 30 acres. Cash income from farming
in 195H was SllS·lm
Th., chief agricultural products are wheat, oats, potatoes, apples, peaches
and to!>acco (3.680,000 lb. in 1958). On I Jan. 1959 the domestic animals
were: 44,000 horses and mules, 180,000 mil ch cows, 541,000 all cattlc,
289,001) sheep, 111,000 swine. State forests, I Jan. 1958, covered 946,074
acres; national forests, 903,OS7 acres; 65% of the state is woodland.
In 1959 there were 14 soil·conservation districts embracing 15,411,OOO
acres, .)f which 8,200,000 acres were farm land.
Mirting. West Virginia has extensive mining and quarrying industries.
Petrol(:um output is declining from an annual average, 1921-25, of 6,575,000
WISCONSL.~ 773
hbld to 2,186,000 in 1958; natural gas liquids, 2li3·4m. gallons (1958), ami
natural gas, 185,680m. cu. ft in 1958. The coal area extends over 17,280 sq.
miles and estimated coal reserves are 1l0,378m. tons; 115m. short tons of
coal were produced in 1958; coke (oven and bee-hive), 3,328,332 tons
(1958). Lime, salt, sand and gravel, sandstone and limestone are also pro-
duced. The total value of mineral output in 1958 was $749·8m.
Industry. Manufacturing establishments (2,110 in 1955) employed
100,000 production worker, in 1957 who earned $433m. The value added
by manufacture was estimated at $I,168m. Metal industries, mostly steel,
produced goods valued at $735m. in 1955. The chemical process industry
is the second largest manufacturing of the state, employing 28,000 workers.
COMMUNICATIONS. In 1958 the state had 3,710 milcs ofrailway, ull
operated by diesel or electric train~. There werc, I ()58, 43 airsport, of which
20 wcre general. The state had 36,088 miles of highwl1ys (including county
roads) in 1957, of which 5,041 miles are improved primary rO(lds_ Regi-
st.ored motor vehicles, 1958, numbered 594,000.
Books of Reference
West Virginia Bllle Rook. Legislature. Charlcston. Annual, since 191G
IJibliog-raplty Of West Virginia. 2 parts. Dcpt. of Archives and History. Charlcston, 1939
\\rriters' Program. Treat Virginia: A Guide to the Mounlai'n State. New lork, 1948
Ambler, C.li.,.i History of Hducalion in We81 Virginia. Hnntingdon, lrlfl1.-nnd Summers,
~' . P. lVI's! Vir(1inia: the Mountain Sfate. :.?ml ed. Englcwood Cliff, N ..T., 1958
LlDlbert, O. D., rVe.!!! Virginia and its GOl'erl11nenl. Doston, 19;)1
STATR LrnnAUY. Dept. of arcLi",cs anJ History, Chn.rlcstoD. Dir('(lor: Kyle McCormick
WISCONSIN
GOVERNMENT. Wisconsin, first settled in 1670 by French tmders
and missionaries, is a part of the country known first as New Fmnce from
1634 until surrendered to the British in 1763 and as the Northwest Territory
after its cession to the U.S. in 1783; the region now embraced by the
st(lte was successively part of the Territories ofIndiana, Illinois and Michigan,
in 1836 becoming the Territory of Wisconsin with boundaries embracing
what is now Iowa, Minnesota and part of the 2 Dakotas. It was admitted
into the Union with its present boundaries on 29 May 1848. Its constitu-
tion, which dates from 1848, has had 63 amendments affecting 32 sections.
The legislative power is vested in a Senate of 33 members, elected for 4 years,
one-half elected alternately, and 0.1\ Assembly of 100 members, all elected
simultaneously for 2 years. The Governor and Lj~ut.-Governor are elected
fer 2 years. The state has 71 counties. The capit(ll is Madison.
Wisconsin has universal suffrage for all citizens over 21 years of age;
but. as there is no offici(ll list of voters. the size of the electomte is un-
known; 1.200.687 voted for Governor in 1958. Wisconsin is representeci in
Congress by 2 senators and 10 representatives.
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 954,844 votes
Stevenson 586,768, other candidates 8,946.
Got·ernor. O(lylord A. Nelson (D.), 1959-61 ($20.000).
Lieut.-Governor. Philleo Nash (D.), 1959-61 ($13,000 per 2-ycar term).
Secretary of State. Robert C. Zimmcrman (R.), 1959-61 (SI2,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 56,154 sq. miles, including 1,439

sq. mile3 of inland water, but excluding any part of the Great Lakes. Census
population, 1 April 1950, 3,434,575, an increase of9'5% since 1940; estimate,
1 July 191\9,4,010,000. Births in 1958 were 95,950 (24·4 per 1,000 estimated
population); deaths, 37,457 (9'5); infant deaths, 1,250 (23'4 per 1,000 live
hirths); marriages, 24,985 (6'3); divorces and annulments, 4,499 (1·1).
Popllation in 4 census years (with distribution by sex in 1950) was:
Per sq.
White Negro Indian ABiatic Total mile
1910 2,320,~~6 2,900 10,142 263 2,333,860 42·2
1930 2,916,265 10,739 ll,548 464 2,939,006 53·7
1940 3,112,752 12,158 12,265 412 3,137,587 57·3
1950 3,392,690 28,182 12,196 1,507 3,434,575 62·8
MaJe. 1,704,904 )4,705 6.274 959 1,726,842
FerunJe 1,687,786 13,477 5,922 548 1,707,733
Of the total popUlation in 1950, 1,987,888 persons (57'9%) were urban

(53'5% in 1940); 2,222,423 were 21 years old or older. Native whites
numbered 3,174,456; foreign. born whites, 218,234.
Popllation of the larger cities (estimate, Jan. 1959) was as follows:
Milwnul". 765,000 \Vauwatosa 58,500 Beloit 36,100
Madison I CRp.) 122,800 La Cross. 51,000 Superior 35,900
Rncine 84,400 Sbeboygan . 48,30 1) Wausau 32,600
West Alii. 69,900 Appleton 47,000 Fond du Lac 32,100
Green Bay 63,400 Oshkosh 46,200 Mllllitowoc . 30,500
Kenosha 61,000 Eau Claire . 40,500 J"a.nesville • 30,200
RELIGION, According to a survey made by tho National Council of

Churches, 67'5% of the white people (98'8% of the total population in 1950)
in Wis.)onsin were church members in 1952; 36'5% were Protestant,
29·8% were Roman Catholic and 1·1 % were Jewish, If the same per.
centages be applied to the 1959 population estimate, church members
would number about 2,874,000, of whom 1,556,000 would be Protestant,
1,181,000 Roman Catholic and 44,000 Jewish.
EDUCATION. All children between the ages of 7 and 16 are required
to attend school full· time to the end of the school term in which they become
16 years of age. In 1957-58 the public elementary schools had 471,817
pupils ~nd 17,883 teachers; high schools had 182,035 pupils and 8,408
teacher!. Elementary school teachers' salaries, 1957-58, averaged 84,250;
high school teachers, $4,950. The 10 state colleges had, in 1958-59, 813
teacher> and 13,686 students. Expenditure per pupil (excluding debt
service, capital outlay and transportation) was $338'39 in 1957-58.
In 1958-59 schools of vocational and adult education had 1,151 teachers
and 46,360 pupils; state·supervised evening schools had 92,744 pupils and
2,556 t'lachers.
The University of Wisconsin at Madison, established in 1848, had, in
1958-5!l, 1,813 full-time professors and instructors, 455 part· time teachers
and 645 (full.time equivalent) teaching and research graduate assistants.
There "ere, during the first half.year, 17,145 resident students at Madison,
5,191 at Milwaukee and 1,711 resident students at extension centres.
The total expenditure, 1957-58, for all public education was 8377,018,089,
of which that on elementary and high schools amounted to $287,405,924.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance (established in 1925) paying a maxi-
mum of $75 per month (plus medical and burial expenses) is available to
WISCONSIN 775
persons. 65 years and over. satisfying rcquirements as to need, who have
resided in the state for 1 year immediately preceding application; resi-
dents of less than 1 year may obtain aid if the states from which they came
granted a like privilege to Wisconsin citizens; in .Tuly 1959.35.910 persons
were drawing an average of $78·21 per month.
Aid to dependent children was established in 1913. available to mothers
caring for their dependent minor children in their own homes ; 8.800
families constituting 33.199 persons received an average of S161·79 per
family in July 1959; 2.198 children in 1.398 foster homes received an
avcrage of $57·05 per child per month; 998 blind persons received an
average of $85·55. and 1.279 totally disabled persons received $121 ·66 per
month.
III 1958 the state had 171 general and allied special hospitals (17.804
beds), 63 mental hospitals (16.005 beds) and 19 tuberculosis sanatoria (1.445
beds) and 456 nursing homes for the aged (17,428 beds). Patients in state
and county mental hospitals Oil I Aug. 1958 numbered 18,113 (453 per
100,000 population)_
III 1913 Wisconsin passed a law permitting, under legal safeguards, the
sterilization of feeble-minded persons; up to 1 Aug_ 1959, 3S6 men and
1,309 women had been thus sterilized.
The state's penal, reformatory and correctional system on 1 Aug. 1959
held 2.844 men and 302 women in the 6 institutions for adult and juvonile
offenders; the probation and parole system was supervising 4.590 men and
719 women. Wisconsin does not impose a death penalty.
FINANCE_ For the year ending 30 June 1958 general revenues

amounted to $496.571,000 (S371.012.000 from taxation and 374,182.000
from federal aid). while general expenditures were $491.563.000 ($1l4,5l6,000
for education. $133,531.000 for highways and 542,890.000 for public welfare).
Total net long-term debt. 30 June 1958, amounted to $12,883.000.
PRODUCTION_ Wisconsin has slightly more people engaged in manu-

factures than in agriculture_ It i., the leading dairy state of the Union.
AgricuUure. In 1954 the farms numbered 153.558. with a farm area of
22.507.288 acres; average farm was of 146·6 acres valued at $14.801.
Dairy farms numbered 107.316 (116.500 in 1950). In 1959 there were 71
soil-conservation districts. 10caUy managed. embracing 35.017.600 acres,
including 168,561 farms and ranches.
Cas h f arm income, 1958. was, from crops, $ll2.208.000; from livcstock
and livestock products. $1,005.467.000; from government payments,
$Hl·7m . Yield of the principal crops. 1958. was: Maize. 140·96m. bu. ;
oats. 153·l8m. bu.; wheat. 2·0700. bu. ; barley. 1·9Im. bu.; potatoes.
7·00111. cwt; cranberries, 340,000 bbls. The tobacco yield in 1958 was
21.255,000 lb. Livestock on 1 Jan. 1959: 2,501.000 milch cows (leading all
states). 54.000 horses and mules. 4.254,000 all cattle. 282.000 sheep, 1.801.000
swine. Output of milk (1958). 17.996m. lb.; of creamery butter (1957).
269m. lb.; of American cheese (1957), 446·2m. lb. Wisconsin ranks first
among the states in production of milk. all major types of cheese. and in
the acreage of principal crops for processing. The wool clip. in 1958. was
1,736.000 lb. of wool from 213.000 sheep.
Forestry (1959). National forests compriscd 1.465.356 acres. and state
forests. 344,882 acres.
776 UNITED STATES OF AlIIERICA
Mining. Iron ore (867.000 long tons in l(J58). lead. zinc. 6tone. sand
and gra'rel are the chief mineral products. Total value of mineral products
in 1958 was $71.334,000.
Indtlstry. Manufacturing establishments (7,702 in 1(54) had a total
manufauturing employment in 1957 of 474,760 earning $2,267m. (354,917
production workers earned $I,525m.); value added by manufacture was
S4,050,€24,OOO, compared with $681,970,000 in 1939.
Elec,:ricif.y. There were. Jan. 1959, 113 hydro.electric power plants (21
of them municipal) operated by public utilities with a total installed capa·
city of ~:03,OI8 kw.; output, 1958. was 1,157,859,000 kwh.
Trao'e Union8. The Wiseonsin State A.F.L.- C.l.O., created 24 July
1958 by merger of the former State Federation of Labor and the State
Industrial Union Council, in 1959 had about 311,500 members organized in
1,133 !ceal unions. More than 20 railway brotherhoods represent about
19,000 railway employees.
COMMUNICATIONS. On 1 Jan. 1959 there were 6,197 road miles of
steam nil ways and 98 miles of electric railway. There were, in 1959, 113
airports and 6 seaplane bases, of which 70 airports and 2 seaplane bases
were municipal; 42 were lighted. Sixteen airports were served by 7
scbedul"d airlines.
Inclnding 10,194 miles of city and village streets, the state bad on 1 Jan.
H159, 9'1,152 miles of highway. The state trunk system had 10,973 miles
ofhighV!ay . By 1 Jan. 195!J, 133 miles of controlled access 4·lane highways
of the nl:w Interstate System had been completed or werc under construction.
Books of Reference
Wi~consitl Free Library Commission: ~ Wiscon.yin Biblioyraphy. MaJ lson.1952
\Vis. Historical Society: Publications und JJalerial" on Wisconsin. Madison, 1956
Wis. Legi"lative Reference Library: Wisconsin Blue Book. Biennial (contains feature articles
and staclsclcallnformation)
Wi •. Natlll"R1 Resources Committee of Stnte Agencies : The Naelt'rU Resource, of Wi<comin.
Madison, 1956
Wis. Stat. Planning Division: Wi.<Comin: the EruJ.,;e< StaU. Madison, 1955
Wi •. Wous Projects Administration: Wisconsin: A guide to the Badge< State. 2nd cd. New
York. 1954
Austin, B. n., The Wisconsin Story. 2nd cd. Milwaukee, 1957
Holmes, J.'. L., lViscon .•in: SlaiJilily. Progress, Bffluty. Madison, 1946
Ro.ney, ~'. F., Wisconsin: a story ofprogres$. New York, 19·10
STaTF. LmR.illY. Legislati ve Re ference LIbrary, State Capital, Madison 2. Chief:
M. Q. To(·pel.
WYOMING
GOVERNMENT. Wyoming, fir8t settled in 1834, was admitted into
the Uni on on 10 July 1890. The constitution, drafted that year, has since
had 13 ~mendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 27 members,
elected for 4 years (about onc·half retiring every 2 years), and a House of
Representatives of 56 members elected for 2 years. The Governor is
elected for 4 years. The state contains 23 counties. The capital is
Cheyenlle. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 1 representative,
elected by the voters of the entire state. The suffrage extends to &11
citizens. malCl and femalCl, who can read, and who have the usual residential
qualifications.
WYOMING 777
In the 1956 presidential election Eisenhower polled 74,573 votes, SteveD'
son 49,554.
Governor. Joseph J . Hickey (D.), 1959-63 (SI5,000).
Secretary of State. Jack R. Gage (D.) (510,000).
miles are water. The Yellowstone National Park occupies about 3,438 sq.
miles, and the Grand Teton National Park, established iD 1929, has 298,470
acres. There are 2 national monuments, Devil's Tower and Fort Laramie.
The federal government in 1958 owned 30,285,000 acres (48'5% of the total
area of tbe state); of the 11 national forests (9,140,927 acres). 6 (with
2,019,698 acres) are wholly within the state.
C-cnsus population. I April 1950, 290,529, an increase of )5'9% since
1940; estimated population, I July )958, was 320,000. BirthR in 1958 were
7,976 (24·9 per 1,000 population) ; deaths, 2,581 (8,1); infant deaths, 223
(28 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 2,!)45 (9,2); divorces, 1,160.
Federal censlls results for 4 censlIs years (including distribut.ion by sex in
H1(0) were:
rer sq.
1910 140,318 2,235 1,486 1,926 145,965 1-;
1930 221,241 1,250 1,845 1,229 225,565 2·3
1940 2~6,5 9 7 956 2,349 840 250,742 2-6
1950 284,009 2,557 3,237 726 290,529 3·0
~lai.. 150,895 1,653 1,857 448 154 ,~53
l"emol. 133,114 904 1,380 278 135,676
In 1950 native whites numbercd 270,719; foreign.born whites, 13,290.
Of the total population in 1950, 144,618 persons (49'8%) were urban (37'3%
in 1940). The Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs iD 1957 administered
1,890.632 acres, of which 1,753,154 acres were allotted to tribes.
The largest towns are Cheyenne (capital), with census population in
1960 of 31,935 (estimate, 1956,35,0(0); Casper, 23,673 (32,200); Laramie,
15,581 (16,936); Sheridan, 11 ,500 (11 ,700) and Rock Springs, 10,857
(1l,400).
RELIGION . Chief religious bodies are the Roman Catholio (with
50,000 members in 1957), Mormon (18,2 10 in 1956) and Protest-ant Chul'ches
(49,217 in 19(6).
EDUCA TION. In 1958-59 there were 370 teachers for 2.913 rural
pupils and 2,384 teachers for 58,947 elementary pupils; 81 high schools had
1,029 teachers and 18.373 pupils. Expenditure on elementary, secondary
and rural schools in 1958-59 was S28,252,270 or an average of S365 per
pupil. Racial segregation in public schools is not permitted; a permissive
statute, never implemented, was repealed in 1955. The University of
Wyoming, founded at Lara.mie in 1887, with branches at Powe\l, Sheridan
and Torrington, had in 1955-56, 337 professors and instructors, and 3.091
students (2,317 men and 774 women). There is a junior college at Casper.
WELFARE. Old Age Assistance (maximum S85 a month for a single
person and 3140 for husband and wife) is provided for needy American
citizens 65 years of age or older who are residents of the state and county at
the time of applica.tion; payments bridge the difference between a standard
personal or household budget and actual income. In Dec. 195!), 3,373
pE'rsons were drawing an average of $69,79 per month; aid to 752 families
with 2,O iH dependent children averaged $133'51 monthly per family, aid to
68 blind averaged $68·22 monthly and aid to 533 permanently and totally
disabled cases averaged $70'73 monthly.
In 1£59 the state had 28 hospitals (1,486 beds). In July 1959 the hospital
for memal diseases had 629 patients or 197 per 100,000 population.
State penal institutions on 31 Dec. 1958 held 384 inmates (122 per
100,000 population). Since 1930 the state has had only 6 executions (by
lethal g•. s), 5 whites and 1 Negro, all for murder; there has been no execu-
tion since 1944.
Intel'-marriage is prohibited between white and Negro, Malayan or
Mongolian.
FINANCE. In the fiscal year ending 1 July 1958 general revenues were
$85,897,000 (taxation, $36,072,000, and federal aid, $38,497,000); general
expenditures were $83,620,000 (education, $21,073,000; welfare, $4,292,000;
highways, $39,817,000).
Tota l net long-term debt, 30 June 1958, was $4,456,000.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Wyoming is semi-arid, and agriculture
is carried on by irrigation and by • dry farming.' Irrigation began on a
small scale in 1853 in the extreme south-west and spread throughout the
state. In 1954 there were 1,262,632 acres of irrigated land, 1,318,000 acres
of dry-ftlrm land and 31,633,000 acres of grazing land. In 1954 there were
1l,402 farms and ranches with a total area of 34,989,064 acres, of which
2,566,000 acres were crop land: average size was 3,069 acres valued at
$45,887 ($17,746 in 1945).
Und'~r the Aot passed'in 1941,44 soil-oonservation districts have (1957)
been est ablished, covering 43,229,799 acres, i.e., about 70% of the eligible
lands in the state.
Cash income, 1958, from crops was S32·5m.; from livestock, $135·5m.
Principal crops (1959): Alfalfa (799,000 tons), sugar beet (630,000 tons),
potatoe!: and cereals. The wool clip (1959) yielded 20,718,000 lb. of wool.
Animals on farms on 1 Jan. 1960 were: 52,000 horses and mules, 40,000
milch cews, 1,135,000 all cattle, 2,360,000 sheep and 42,000 swine.
The state has numerous fish hatcheries and the largest elk herds in the
world.
Mining. Wyoming is largely an oil-producing state. In 1958 the out-
put of petroleum was 1I5,572,000 bbls; natural gas, 121,682m. cu. ft; coal,
1,629,()(JO short tons; iron ore, 557,000 long tons. The quarries yield
limesto[,e and sandstone; bentonite, phosphate rock, tin, sodium salts and
vermiculite are found. Value of mineral products in 1958 was $369,938,000.
Ind~ ,8try. In 1957 industrial establishments (328 in 1954) had 5,000
production workern earning $21m.; value added by manufacture, $59m.
COMMUNICATIONS. The steam railways, 1957, had a length of 1,883

miles. There were 52 airports (25 general) in 1958. The state highway
system :1957) comprised 5,075 miles; there were (1959) 221,746 registered
motor vehicles.
Books of Reference
Official D'ftcwry. Secretary of State. Cheyenne. Biennial
Wvoming Historical Blu. Book. Denver, 1946
Pederal V/ritera' Project. Wyoming:.A Guirk to It. History, Hi~hfllay. and P.opl.. New
York,1941
PUERTO RICO 779
Deard, F. n., W~omjng from Territorial Day, 10 IM P,.,n.I. 3 vol •. CbicAgO, 1933
Linford, V" Wvoming: Frontier State. Deover,1947
Trachsel, H. H., Bnd Wade, R. M., TM a"",rnmnll and Admini,'ra'ion of Wyoming. New
York,1953
Trenbolm, V. C., Wyoming Pagtanl. Casper, 1946
STATE LmRARY. Wyoming State Library, Supreme Conrt aDd State Library Building
Obeyonne. State Librarian: May Gillie •.
OUTLYING TERRITORIES
United Nation.. Non·Sell·Governing Territories: Summaries of Information Transmitted
to tbe Secretary·GeDeral. Annual.
COulter] J . W., The Pacific Dependencies of tlte United Slates. New York, 1957
Pratt, . W*' America', Coloniai Erp~iment: 11010 the United Stales Ga,ined, Gov""td and in
Par' GafJe .&waV a Colon1'al Empire. New York, 191)0
Reid, O. P., Educali{ln in tlie Tnritorit'J and Outlying POJ.ttSS10ns 0/ the United Slate,. New
York, 1941.- 0verseQJ ~merica: OUT 1'erritorial OutpoSU. Nc~! York, 1942
COMMONWEALTH OF PUERTO RICO

GOVERNMENT. Puerto Rico, by the treaty of 10 Dec. 1898 (ratified
11 April 1899), was ceded by Spain to the V.S. The name Wru! changed
from Porto Rico to Puert·o Rico by an Act of Congress approved 17 May
1932. I ts territorial constitution was determined by the' Organic Act' of
Congress (2 March 1917) known as the 'Jones Act,' which ruled until
25 July 1952, when the present constitution of the Commonwealth of
Pu()rto Rico was proclaimed. Puerto Rico has representative government,
the franchise being restricted to citizens 21 years of age or over, residence
(1 year) and such additional qualificntions as may be prescribed by the
Legislature of Puerto Rico, but no property qualification may be imposed.
Women were enfranchised in 1932 (with a literacy test) and fully in 1936.
Puerto Ricans do not vote in the V.S . presidential elections, though indivi·
duals living on the mainland are free to do 80 8U bject to the local electoral
laws. The executive power resides in a Governor, elected directly by the
people every 4 years. Eight heads of departments form the Governor's
advisory council, also designated as his Council of Secretaries. The legisla.
tive functions are vested in a Senate, composed of 27 members (2 from each
of the 8 senatorial districts and 11 senators at large), and the House of
Representatives, composed of 51 members (1 from each of the 40 representa.
tive districts and 11 elected at large). To give proportional representation
to the minority parties, 5 additional senators and 13 representatives at
large nre serving during the 1952-56 term. Puerto Rico sends to Congress
a Resident Commissioner to the V.S., elected by the people for a term of
4 years. But he has no vote in Congress, and under the doctrine of • no
taxation without representation' Puerto Rico is not subject to V.S. taxes,
including income tax. Males, however, are subject to conscription.
On 27 Nov. 1953 President Eisenhower sent a message to the General
Assembly of the V.N. stating' if at any time the Legislative Assembly of
Puerto Rico adopts a resolution in favour of more complete or even absolute
independence' he ' will immediately thereafter recommend to Congress that
such independence be granted.'
For an account of the constitutional developments prior to 1952, .et
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR. BOOK, 1952, p. 742. The new constitution was
drafted by a Puerto Rican Constituent Assembly and approved by the

electorate at a referendum on 3 March 1952. It was then submitted to
CongreS!i, which struck out on 28 May Section 20 of Article 11 covering the
• right to work' and the • right to an adequate standard of living': the
remaind'3r was passed on 1 JUly and proclaimed by the Governor of Puerto
Rico on 25 Julv 1952.
At the election on 6 Nov. 1956 the Popular Democratic Party. headed
by Muo(lz Marln, polled 433,010 votes (62'6% of the total): the Independen.
tista Party (full independence by constitutional means). 86,386; Estadista
or Statehood party (advocates of U .S. statehood and affiliated with the
Republi,)an Party on the mainland), 172,838. The small revolutionary
• NationlLlist Party,' seeking complete independence, did not participate.
Gove,·nor. Luis Muooz Marln, 1957-61 ($10,600; this is Gov. MUOOZ'8
third sUI)cessive term in office: the legislature raised the salary to $20,000:
but the Governor declined to accept it; it remains available to the next
holder of the office).
Secretary of State. Roberto Slinchez Vilella (SI5,000).
AREA AND POPULATION. The island has a land area of 3,423 sq.
mile. Br.d a population. according to the census of 1950, of 2.210.703. an
increase of 341,448 or 18·3% over 1940: density was 646 per sq. mile.
Males (1950 cen~us) numbered 1,110,946: females 1,099,757. 79 ' 71~{, of the
population (1,762,411) were white. Of the estimated population, 1 July
1959, 2,340,000, about 400,000 were bilingual. Spanish being the mother
tonguo and (with English) one of the two official languages. Rural popu·
lation (1950), 1,315,890.
Birth rate, 1958-69, 31·9 per 1,000 population; death rate. 6'8: mar·
riage rate. 17: infantilo death rate, 49·6 per 1,000 live births (138 in
1(37).
Chie)' towns (1950 census) are: Sail Juan. 224.767; Rio Piedras (merged
in 1951 with San Juan). 132,438; Poncc, 99,492: Mayagiiez, 68.944:
Caguas. 33,769; Arecibo, 28.659.
The Puerto Rican island of Viequcs, 10 miles to the east. has an area of
51'7 sq. miles and 9.228 inhabitants, who grow sugar and pineapples and
rear cattle. The island of Culebra, with 887 inhabitnnts. bet\veen Puerto
Rico and St Thomas, has a good harbour.
EDUCATION. Education was made compuL~ory in 1899. but In 1958-

59, 15% of the children still had no access to schooling. The percentage
of illiteracy in 1958 was 16·2% of those 10 years of age or older. In the
school.year 1958-59 there were 10,754 public classrooms with 569.189
public ('.ay·school pupils and 57,984 in accredited private schools. Since
Aug. 1949 all instruction below senior high school standard is given in
Spanish only. The University of Puerto Rico, in Rio Piedras, 7 miles from
San Juan, with a branch in Mayaguez, is open to both men and women, as
is also the San German Polytechnic Institute. The University had 18,222
(including 4,132 extra mural) students and 50() in the School of Medicine
(1958-5!).
Cinemas (1959). Cinemas numbered 145, with annual attendance of
8·0Sm.
Newspapers (1959). Th ere were 3 daily newspapers, of which 2 had a
circulation of 145.284.
PUERTO RICO 781
JUSTICE. The judiciary comprises a U S . . District Judge and U.S.
Attorney, appointed by the President. The Commonwealth judiciary
eyst,em is headed by a Supreme Court of 7 members, appointed by the
Governor, and consists of a Superior Tribunal with 9 sections and 33 superior
judges, a District Tribunal with 37 sections and 55 district judges, nnd 42
justices of the peace, all appointed by the Governor. The' Jones Act' has
Dot conferred the right to trial by jury.
The police force (1959) consisted of 2,897 men and 30 women.
FINANCE. Receipts and disbursements (in US$) of the general fWld

(apart frolD trust funds) for the year ending 30 June 1958 \vere :
Balance, J July 1957 2,887.263 Disbursements . 19 . 7-~$ 213,531,181
Receipts. J9.7-~8 ~('O.74~.900 Transfer to of,her funds 6,466,347
llalance. 1 July 19;;8 5,627,fJ6fJ
Total ~C)3,6 30.1 36 Total. 2~6,624,49i
In addition, tho special funds had a balance of $14,039,516 on 1 July

1957; receipts, 1957-58, $46,014,204; t.otal $60,053,720. Disbursements,
1957-58, $13,951,924; transfer to other funds $2,561,553; balance, 1 July
1958, $13,540,243 total, $60,053,720. Assessed value of property, 1 Jan.
1958 was SI,157m., and bonded indebtedness, 30 June 1958, $76,636,000.
The budget for 1959-60 proposed expenditures (including special funds)
of $276,121,505.
The V.S. administers and finances the postal scrvice and maintains air
and naval bases. V.S. payments in Puerto Rico. including direct expendi.
tures (mainly military), grants·in-aid and other payments to individuals and
to business totalled (BllIeau of Econornics and Statistics) SI89·8m. in 1954-
55; 1955-56, SI84-!lm.; 1956-57, S207·7m. ; 1957-58, $202·301.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture_ By 1956,75 • proportional profit' farms

of from 277 to 2,814 acres (mostly sugar cane) had been established. The
land is bought from the big corporat.ions by the Land Authority.
Production of raw sugar. 96 degree basis, for the 1958-59 crop year, was
(in short tons) 1.098,922, with refined sugar output of 275,703_
Mining. Gold, silver, copper, tin, mercury, platinum and nickel are
found in the island, but in quantities not warranting commercial exploitation.
Small quantities of iron ore have been shipped. There are salt works and
small deposits of high-quality marble, and fair·sized deposits of white china
clay. Total value of mineral production in 1958 was SI7·7m.
COMMERCE. In the fiscal year ending 30 June 1959 imports into

Puerto Rico amounted to S807,189,099. of which 82,9% camo from V.S.;
exports were valued at $503,234,777, of which 95'8% went to V.S.
In 1958-59 the V.S. took : Sugar, 1,550,532,659 lb. (3100,095,597);
tobacco leaf, 7,974,032 lb. ($16,426,805); rum, 1,841,229 proof gallons
($657,830), and textile fibres and manufactures valued at SI28,446,Il6.
Puerto Rico is not permitted to levy taxes on imports.
U ,K . imported from Puerto Rico in 1955, £463,090; 1956, £855,074;
1957, £2,620,577; 1958. £538,969; 1959, £428,387; and exported to Puerto
Rico, £615,598 in 1955; £793,793 in 1956; £1,326,220 in 1957, £1,666,106
in 1958; £2,216,430 in 1959; re-exports 1955, £2,596; 1956, £2,315; 1957,
£15,081; 1958, £11,768; 1959, £12,503 (British Board of Trade returns).
BANKING. Thirteen banks on 30 June 1959 had total deposits of

$507,96t;,365 (including those of the Commonwealth, $87,543,000), and
debits of $705,368,690. Bank loans were $387,272,372.
COMMUNICATIONS. In fiscal year 1959,5,856 American and foreign
vessels of 19,524,289 gross tons entered and cleared Puerto Rico.
The Department of Public Works had under maintenance in June 1959,
2,874 miles of paved road. Motor vehicles registered 30 June 1959, 156,563.
The raiLvay system on the island has been discontinued. On 30 June 1959
thcre were 29 Standard broadcasting stations, 7 television companies, 3
cablc conpanies and 74,430 telephones.
Ther.} is a British consul at San Juan.
Books of Reference
STATlS'rICAL lNronMATlON. Tbe Bureau of Economics and Statistics of tbe Puerto Rico
Planning :Board publishes: (a) Q semi·annual and annual Economic Repo",o IM GOIItmor;
(b) 3 reports devoted to national Income and balance of payments; (c) SUUislical Yea,bool:
(since 19(1)-41) : (d) EzurnaJ Trade SUUislic. (annual report); (e) CU"enl B llsiness Slalisli..
(monthly); if) Historical Series (since 1958). In addition, tbere are annual reports by various
Departmelts.
Annual R''POf'I$. Governor of Puerto Rico. W asbington
Bird, A., BibliOlJro11a Puerlorriqueila, 1930-45. Social Science Researcb Centre, Vnlv. of
Puerto :lico. 2 volB. 1946-47
Blanco, '1'" Pro'l1ln4rW HislOrico d~ P UerllJ Rico. San Juan, 1!>43
Hanson, J:. P ., TransformJJJiM : the 9to'1l of mlXkrn P uerto Rico. New York, 1955
Hill, R . (cd .), Family and population control: a PUC'Tto Rican experiment. Univ. ol N .
Carolin,. Press, 1959
Jones, O. : ~ •• and Pic6, R. (cd.), Symposium on tM GeOtpaphy 01 Puerto Rico. Unlv. of P.R.
Press, H 55
Mills, C. Wri.<rbt, Senior, O. and Goldsen, Rose K., The P uerto Rican Journey. A sludy of 11..
Puerto mean mig1-alion to N CU! York CiIV. New York, 1950
CoIDI(·NWEALTII LmnAny. Unlv. of Puerto Rico Library, Rio Piedras. Librarian:
Jose Laza ro.
VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE UNITED STATES

GO\·ERNMENT. The Virgin Islands of the United States, formerly
known 8S the Danish West Indies, were purchased by the United States from
Denmark for S25m. in a treaty ratified by both nations and proclaimed 25
Jan. 1917; the price paid works out at $295 per acre, which compares with
$35·80 per acre for the Panama Canal Zone and 3 cents per acre for California.
Their va.Iue was wholly strategic, ina8llluch as they commanded the Anegada
Passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean Sea. Although the
inhabitants were made U.S. citizens in 1927 the islands were, constitutionally,
an 'unincorporated territory: and are included among the non-self.govern.
ing territories under the jurisdiction of the United Nations.
1'he Act of 22 June 1936, known as the Organic Act, provided a civil
government for the Virgin Islands with local legislative powers vested in
2 muni<:ipal councils, those of St Thomas and St John and of St C,'roix,
respectj-;rely. Joint sessions of these municipal councils constituted the
Legislative Assembly. The capital is Charlotte Amalie, on St Thomas
Island.
The new Organic Act, which went into effect on 22 July, 1954, replaced
80me 10<) bureaux and committees with!) executive departments: Agriculture
and Labour, Education, Finance, Health, Procurement and Supply, Public
Safety, Public Works, Social Welfare and Tourism and Trade; each is under
a commissioner. The Government Secretary, ex offICio, handles 2 depart.
ments; each of the 7 commissioners receives $11,000 per annum. The
VIRGIN ISLANDS 788
Governor is appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate, for
a.n indefinite term.
The Act gives the Depa.rtment of the Interior full jurisdiction; some
limited legi~lative powers a.re given to the single.chambered legislature,
composed of 11 Senators, elected for 2 years, 5 representing 3 legislative
districts and 6 elected by all the voters.
Beginning on I Jan. 1938, the franchise was vested in residents of the
Virgin Islands who are citizens of the United States, 21 years of age or over,
and able to read and write the English language. The new Organic Act
dropped the language qualification. Women are enfranchised. In 1952
there were 6,348 voters, of whom 4,451 participated in the local elections
that year. They do not participate in the U.S. presidential election and
have no representative in Congress.
Governor. John D. Merwin ($19,000).
Government Secretary. Roy W. Bornn ($12,900).
Comptroller. Peter Bove ($12,500).
AREA AND POPULATION. The Virgin Islands group, lying about
40 miles due east of Puerto Rico, between the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean
Sea, comprises the islands of St Thomas (32 sq. miles), St Croix (82 sq.
miles), St John (19 sq. miles) and about 50 small islets or cays, mostly
uninhabited. The total area of the 3 principal islands is 133 sq. milffi, of
which the U.S. Government owns 10,082 acres (12%).
The population, according to the census of I April 1950, was 26.665,
compared with 24,889 in 1940, an increase of 7'1%; density was 202 per
sq. mile. Estimated popUlation, 1955, 24.000. Population had slowly de-
clined since 1835, when it stood at 43,000, but began to recover in the
1940s; in 1946, births were 917 and deaths 408. Births, 1955, were 913
(38 per 1,000 population); deaths, 311 (13); infant deaths, 41 (44'9 per
1,000 live births); marriages, 221 (9·2 per 1,000 population); divorces, 103.
Of the 1950 total, 67'5% was urban, 9% white, 69% Negro and 22% mixed.
The popUlation of each of the islands (1950) was 13,811, 12,096 and 747.
There is one city, Charlotte Amalie, on St Thomas, with a popUlation (1950)
of 11,463, and 2 towns, Christiansted and Frederiksted, on St Croix, with
population of 4,110 and 1,925 respectively.
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory between the ages of 5; and 15
years, inclusive. Total enrolment, 1955, in 32 public schools (rnnging from 7
kindergartens to 2 junior-senior high schools) was 5,639; the school budget
was $716,381, equal to $217 per capita. Teachers number 185. In St
Thomns there are 22 public and 6 private and parochial schools, in St John,
4 public schools and in St Croix, 9 public schools and 5 private and parochial
schools. There are churches of the Protestant, Roman Catholic and Jewish
faiths in St Thomas and St Croix.
FINANCE. Under the 1954 Organio Act finances are provided partly
from local revenues-customs, federal income tax, real and personal propeny
tax, trade tax, excise tax, pilotage fees, etc.-and partly from Federal
Matching Funds, being the excise taxes collected by the federal govern·
ments on such Virgin Islands products transported to the mainland as are
liable to the taxes. The U.S. provides a separate fund to be expended
only for emergency purposes and essential public works. Total revenue
for fiscal year ending 30 June 1957 including federal income taxes, Matching
Funds and the federal grant.in.aid, $6,718,057. Expenditurt>s, 1954-55,
included $254,701 for public assistance to indigent persons.
PRODUCTION. The population census of 1950 showed 525 farms in

St Croi t , 204 in St Thomas and 108 in St John, a total of 837, but the farm
census reduced the total to 755 farms of an average size of 84'4 acres vaued
at $8,600. Total value of farm land and buildings in 1951 was $6,492,720.
An extensive homesteading programme is under way in St Croix; chief
industries of St Croix are sugar cultivation, cattle raising, vegetable growing
anu thll manufacture of rum.
St Thomas is the leading port in the Virgin Islands; its industries are
fuel bunkering and servicing of ships, manufacture of rum and bay rum,
truck !:ardening, cattle raising, deep. sea fishing, handicrafts and tourism
(24 hotels with capacity for 1,028 guests).
The island of St John is noted fur its bay.leaf oil, but the industry is now
dormant; other resources are limited farming and cattle raising, production
of charcoal. servicing winter residents and tourists.
The Virgin Islanus offer liberal tax exemptions to persons, firms or
companies prepared to invest $10,000 in new industries or in the promotion
of toursm.
Exports, 1958, totalled $3,712,000, of which $3,107,000 were to V.S .;
import", $23,621,000, of which $20,222,000 were from V.S.; income from
tourism, about $6m.
V.L imports from the Virgin Islands in 1955, £60; 1956. £758; 1957,
£2,339; 1958, £31; 1959, £3,542; exports in 1955, £159,118; 1956, £155,067;
1957, £244,649; 1958, £282,520; 1959, £424,509; re·exports, 1955, £3,127;
1956, £:2,987; 1957, £1 3,563 ; 1955, £4,154; 1959, £6,989 (British Board
of Trac.e returns).
COMMUNICATIONS . There is a daily air·mail and passenger service
betweeu St Thomas and St Croix. and a daily boat servioe-mail and passen·
gers-hetween St Thomas and St John; there are cable offices in St Thomas
and St Croix. St Thomas-St John have 90 miles of highway and 2,026
motor vehicles; St Croix, 180 miles and 2,175 vehicles. Four newspapers,
1955, 'lad ciroulations ranging from 1,200 to 350. There were 5 post
offices lnd 3.011 telephone instruments in 1959, all government.owned.
MONEY AND BANKING. United States currency became legal tender
on I July 1934. There are 2 banks, the Virgin Island9 National Bank with,
on :lO ,.fline 1957, total assets of $10,117,296, and the West Indiee Bank and
Trust Company with total assets of $8,827,329.
ThHe is a British Vice·Consu! at St Thomas.
Books of Reference
Il~OTt " tilt United NOliom on the Virgin Island.. Washington, D.e.
Evans, I.. H., Tilt Virgin IJlana.: Prom Naoal Ba..< to N"" Deal. Ann Arbor, Mlcb .. 19~6
Jarvls, J . A., Brief 8"to'1/ of th. Virgin Is/ands. Charlo~te Amalie (Virgin Islands), 1938.-
The Virgin [s/ana. and Thei, People. Pbiladelphia, 1944
ldeGnire, J. IV .. G"""aphic DiClioTla'1/ of tilt Virgin {s/and.! of tM United SklU.. O.S. Co". t
and Geodetic Survey. Special Publfcation No. 103. Washington, 1~2 5
Reid. O. F .. Bibliographv of the Vi,gin 1.lands of the United SW!e,. New York, 1041
Taru;iII, J. 0., The Pu,cluue of tilt Danish West {ndit.. Baltimore, 1932
We.terglad, W. 0., Tilt Danish West1nd/eI, 1671-1911. New York, 1917
GUAM
Guam is the largest and most southern island of the Marianas Archi·
pelago, in 13° 26' N. lat., 144° 43' E. long, Magellan is said to have dis·
covered the island in 1521; it was ceded by Spain to the U.S. by the Treaty
GUMI 785
of Paris (IO Dec. 1898). The island was captured by the Japanese on
12 Dec. 1941, and retaken by American forces 21 July-l0 Aug. 1944. Guam
is of great strategic importance; substantial naval and air force personnel
occupy about one-third of the usable land. Its constitutional status is that
of an' unincorporated territory' of the U.S.
Government. From 1899 until 1949 the Governor was always a naval
officer appointed by the President. In 1949 the President transferred the
administration of the island from the Navy Department to the Interior
Department; the transfer was completed by 1 Aug. 1950, when the Organic
Act came into effect; it conferred full citiunship on the Guamanians, who
had previously been' nationals' of the U .S.
Governor. Richard Barrctt Lowe (R.) ($19,000).
Secretary. Marcellus G. Boss ($16,340).
The Governor and his staff constitute the execut·i\'e arm of the govern·
ment, and the unicameral Guamanian Legislature of 21 members, which
meets annually, forms the legislative branch; the latter's powers are similar
to those of an American state legislature. All adults 18 years of age or
over, including women, are enfranchised. In 1959-60 the Popular Party
held all 21 seats. The budget for 1958-59 was for 89,864,448.
Area and Population. The length is 30 miles, the breadth from 4 to S+
miles, and the area about 209 sq. miles. Agafia, the seat of government,
was destroyed during the re-occupation of Guam; it has been rebuilt on
the same site, which is about 8 miles from the anchorage in Apra Harbour.
The conSU8 on 1 April 1950 showed a population of 69,498, an increase of
37,208 or 166'9% since 1940; those of Guamanian ancestry numbered
27,985, a gain of 1,241 since 30 June 1949; density was 293·1 per sq. mile.
Estimated population (excluding military forces, their dependants and
civil service employees and their families residing in military housing), 1
July 1959, about 39,333. The Malay strain is predominant. The native
language is Chamorro; English is the official language and is taught in all
schools.
Religion. About 95% of the Guamanians arc Roman Catholics; the
othcrs are Baptists and Seventh Day Adventists.
Education. Elementary education is compulsory. There were (1958-
69) Il.045 pupils registered in 22 elementary schools (391 classroom teachers)
and 2,385 pupils (87 teachers) in the one public high school. Budget of the
school system was $2,847,499 in 1958-59.
Newspapers. There are 3 newspapers on the island, 2 of them being
Sunday publications.
Justice. The Organic Act established a District Court with jurisdiction
in matters arising under both federal and territorial law; the judge is
appointed by the President subject to Scnate approval. Misdemeanours aro
under the jurisdiction of the • Island court' and the police court. The
Spanish law prevailing was superseded in 1933 by 5 civil codes based upon
California law, drafted by the then Governor.
Production. The products of the island are maize, taro, sweet potatoes,
bananas, pineapples, citrus fruits, limes, mangoes, papayas, breadfruit.
coconuts, avacado, cassava and sugar cane. The 1950 census showed 2,262
farms averaging 4·4 acres; 901 farms were run by owners and 1,134 by
'squatters.' There were, in 1959, about 4,500 cattle, 19,000 pigs, 794
carabao. 3,050 goats, 104 horses and 260,000 chickens. Number of full· time
farmers, 545. In 1958-59 the estimated value of food crops harvested was
$579,803; fish caught, 323,516 lb.
Tr(U~e. Guam is unique in being the only American territory which is
compeletely •fl'ee trade'; no customs duties are levied upon imports.
Imports (1959), mainly from V.S., were valued at $28,318,810; exports at
$5,911,496.
Com''7Iunication&. Two commercial airlines handle daily air traffio
between Guam, V.S., Japan and the Philippines.
The port is a closed port of call for foreign vessels, and permission to
enter mast be obtained from the Navy Department in each case. Commer·
cial and government transportation by ship is available at regular intervals.
Thelo are 187 miles of paved public roads and 43 miles of secondary
roads,
There is a commercial radio station on the island, and a television station
which hegan broadcasting 5 Aug. 1956. Number of telephones, 1959,
11,540, ~ll government·owned.
Books of Reference
Reporl (Llnnual) oJ Ihe G~ oJ Gu4m, (,,) k! Ihe U.S. Deparlme1ll oJ Inlerior and (b) 10 Ihe
United Nalion.r
Keesing,~, M" The South Seas in Ih. Modem World. New York, 1942
neid, 0, 1'., and others, Bibliography oJ Ihe Island oJ Guam, New York, 19S9
Tbompsoll, LaUla. Guam and il. People. 2nd ed. New York, 1941
AMERICAN SAMOA
The Samoan Islands were first visited by Europeans in the 18th
century; the first recorded visit was in 1722. On 1. July 1889 a treaty
betweeD the V.S., Germany and Great Britain proclaimed the Samoll.Il
islands neutral territory, under a 4.power government consisting of the
3 treatl powers and the local native government. By the Tripartite
Treaty ·Jf 7 Nov. 1899, Great Britain and Germany renounced in favour of
the V.S. all rights over the islands of the Samoan group east of 171° long.
west of Greenwich, the islands to the west of that meridian being assigned to
Germany, and later becoming a trusteeship under New Zealand. The
islands of Tutuila and Aunu'u were then ceded voluntarily to the V.S.
by theu High Chiefs on 17 April 1900, and the islands of the Manu'a group
similarly on 16 July 1904. Congress accepted the islands under a Joint
Resolution approved 20 Feb. 1929. Swain's Island, 210 miles north·north·
west of the Samoan Islands, was ceded to the U.S. in 1925 and is admini·
stered as an integral part of American Samoa.
Government. American Samoa is constitutionally classified as an • un·
organized and unincorporated American territory,' also referred to as a
possession; its indigenous inhabitants are American nationals and are
classified locally as citizens of American Samoa with certain privileges
under I'Jcal laws not granted to non.indigenous persons; native customs
(not inl:onsistent with V.S. laws) are respected. All official publications
are printed in both English and Samoan.
The harbour at Pago Pago, which nearly bisects the island of Tutuila, is
the only good harbour for large vessels in Samoa. Pago Pago is the seat of
the Government.
AMERICAN SAMOA 787
The islands are organized in 14 counties grouped in 3 districts, these
counties and districts corresponding to the old Samoan political units. On
25 Feb. 1948 a bicameral legislature was established, at the request of the
Samoans, to have advisory legislative functions. The lower house, or
House of Representatives, is composed of 17 members elected by universal
adult suffrage. The upper house, or Senats, is composed of 15 members
elected, in the traditional Samoan manner, in open meetings. The executive
council, established in 1956, consists of 3 district governors, the president
of the Senate and the speaker of the House, who act as consultants to the
governor on legislative and local matters.
Area aml Population. The total area of American Samoa is 76 sq.
miles; census population, 1956,20,154 (1958 estima te, 21,9GO), nearly all
Polynesians or part·Polynesians. The island of Tutuila, 70 miles from Apia,
has an area of 52·5 sq. miles, with a c ensus population (1956) of 17,307
(including the island of Aunu'u). Ta'u has an area of 15 sq. miles, and the
other islets (Ofu and Olosega) of the Manu'a group have an area of about
3·5 sq. miles, with a population of 2,767 in 1956. Swain's Island, circular
in shape, has an area of 0·9 sq. miles and a population, 1956, of 80. Rose
Island (uninhabited) is 0·4 sq. miles in area.
Education. The Government (1959) maintains 45 elementary schools,
5 junior high schools, I senior high school, I vocational trades school, I
teachers' training school and I 8chool for nurses at the hOipital. Total
enrolment, 5,379. Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15.
Six private schools have 1,070 children. The public schools employ 254
teachers; the private schools 34.
Health. There are no privately practising physicians or dentists.
Several Samoan medical practitioners serve under the medical department.
There is a central hospital (154 beds), a tuberculosis station (56 beds) and a
leprosy station (20 beds), and a number of district dispensaries.
Justice. Judicial power is vested in a High Court and 5 district courts.
Except for the Chief Justice, who is an American appointed by the Secretary
of the Interior, all judges are Samoans. All locally promulgated laws are
contained in the Code of American Samoa.
Finance. Revenue comes from federal grants, customs duties, a I %tax
upon freehold property, a poll tax, licences for business, a 2% export tax
and the sale of utility services. There is no public debt. During the fis cal
year ended 30 June 1959, the government operated under a direct federal
appropriation of$130,625 and a federal grant.in.aid of$I,219,400. Receipts
from local sources were $91l,818 and disbursements were $1,990,103.
In 1958-59 American Samoa exported goods valued at $8,319,894 and
imported goods valued at $2,029,265. Chief exports are canned tuna,
copra, pandanus mats and handicrafts. Mats woven from laufala leaves
(for floor and wall coverings) are being exported in increasing quantities.
Production. There are virtually no public lands in American Samoa.
Nearly all tho land is owned by Samoans and, with a few exceptions, cannot
be Bold except to persons having at least one-half Samoan blood. About
30% of the area is suitable for agriculture, divided mostly into 8mall plots
devoted to tree crops with a minimum of field crops and pastures. The
1950 census showed 1,490 farms. Principal crops are copra, taro, breadfruit,
yams, coconuts, arro\vroot, oranges and papayas. About "0% of the land
is forest.
Commun·ications. There are about 40 miles of main roads and 25 miles

of seco:ldary roads, mainly on Tutuila. A government high-powered radio
station (open to commercial traffic) on Tutuila maintains communications
with Western Samoa, Fiji and Honolulu . Liners of the Matson Navigation
Company touch here on their trips between the U.S., Hawaii, Fiji, New
Zealand and Australia; the New Zealand Union Steamship Company calls
bi-monthly.
Th€ commercial airport on Tutuila is served weekly from Honolulu
by Par. American World Airways and bi.weekly by Transocean Air Lines.
Samoan Air Lines began twice daily flights to Western Samoa in July 1959.
A new airport, to have a 9,000-ft runway, is uuder construction at Tafuna.
Bm,/Cing. The Bank of American Samoa, with total resources of
$2,147,442, is the only bank and does all types of commercial banking
busine,s.
Governvr. Peter T . Coleman.
Secretary of American Samoa. Alan M. MacQuarrie.
Books of Reference
llf.pOrl 0/ the Govenwr to lite Secrelary 0/ the InteriM . Annual
Me;.ld, Mar~arot. Coming 0/ ~ge in :3amOQ. Harmondsworth Middlesex Eog. nod New
Yvrk, 1943
TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

Ullller the Treaty of Versailles (1919) Japan was appointed mandatory
to the former GermRn possessions north of the Equator. These consisted
of some 98 inhabited islands and atolls with a total land mass of 2,149 sq.
km (687 sq. miles). In 1946 the U.S. agreed to administer the former
Japanese.mandated islands of the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana groups
(excepl. Guam) as a Trusteeship for the Un.ited Nations; on 18 July 1947
the trusteeship agreement went into effect. On 1 July 1951 all the islands
passed under thc care of the U.S. Department of the Interior, but in 1953
respon!:ibility for civil administration of the Northern Marianas (except
Rota) waa transferred back to the Department of the Navy.
ThE' Trust Territory extends from 1° to 20° N.lat and from 130° to 172·
E. Ion!:., scattered through an ocean area of about 3m. sq. miles. approxi-
mat.ely equal to tho land area of Continental U.S.
Tht; population of the 7 administrative districts as of 30 June 1959
was: nota,990; Saipan,7,424 ; Palau,9,072; Yap, 5,622; Truk,21,01O;
Ponapl', 14,644; Marshal! Islands, 14.290; total, 73,052.
Lln7 and order is maintained by tho armed, uniformed and trained
• Insular Constabulary' in each district; the local community court judges,
sheriffs and deputy sheriffs are all Micronesians. Local district legislatures
are gradually being introduced and given limited legislative authority.
J'vIemb€rship in some of these includes hereditary leaders aa well as elected
representatives. In addition, 32 municipalities had been chartered by 30
June 1')59. Local customs are respected in law and practice.
Thl' standard of living is being improved through the introduction of
higher standards of subsistence and exporta.ble agricultural crops. Cacao
is bein~ widely planted in order to develop an export crop in addition to
copra. Pest control measures have included the import of carniverous
PACIFIC ISLANDS UNDER U.S. CONTROL 789
snails from Africa to hold in check the Giant African snail, a serious pest
throughout the South Pacific, and the introduction of the Scolia wasp
into Palau to fight the Rhinocerous beetle, a destroyer of coconut trees.
There are several agricultural experiment stations.
In 1959 there were 164 public elementary schools (10,204 pupils), 8 public
secondary schools (984 pupils), 22 mission elementary schools (2,704 pupils)
and 16 mission secondary schools (876 pupils).
The public health system, which includes 8 hospitals, 4 health centres
and 112 dispensaries, is carried on by a staff consisting chiefly of trained
'\[icronesian medical officers and assistants under a V.S. civil service
Director.
In the fiscal year 1959 imports totalled $4,009,036; exports, $1,241,164.
Outside the jurisdiction of the Trust Administration have been the tests,
begun in 1946, of the atomic and hydrogen bombs at 2 atolls in the Marshall
Islands, namelv Bikini, on the north·west rim of the islands, and Eniwetok,
about 350 miles due west of Bikini. The inhabitants were transferred to
other atolls and in 1957 were paid $500,000 in reparations.
High Commissioner. D. H. Nucker.
Report on the .!dministrlUion of the Trust Territory of the racific 1alands bV the United S:at"
10 tht Um'led ~\,(ltion$. Annual
Balic Information . High Commis~ionH's Office. Agana. Guam
PACIFIC ISLANDS UNDER U.S. CONTROL

Vnder Article III of the Japanese peace treaty (effective 28 April 1952)
the Vnited States has 'the right to exercise all and any powers of administra·
tration, legislation and jurisdiction' over the Ryuku Islands (south of 29°
N. lat.) including the Daito Islands, the Bonin Islands and Marcus Island,
Rosario Island, the Volcano Islands and the island ofParece Vclu. Residual
sovereignty rests with .1apan, which will concur in any proposal of the
V.S.A . to the Vnited Nations to place these territories under its trusteeship
system with the V.S. as the sole administcring authority. Vp to April
1960 the V.S. has made no such proposal.
In 1953 the Amami-Oshima group (the northernmost group of the
Ryukus) \vas returned to Japa,n.
The Ryuku Islands extend some ;';00 miles south· west of Japan between
Kyushu and Formosa. The islands now under V.S. control total 848 sq.
miles with an estimated population (Dec. 1958) of 849,300. The repatria.
tion of about 140.000 persons from Japan and elsewhere raised the popula.
tion from 590,027 in 1944 to 698,827 in 1[l50.
The exercise of V.S. powers has been assigned to the Secretary of
Defense by Executive Order and delegated by him to the Department of the
Army. V.S. powers are exercised by a Civil Administration of the Ryukus
under a high commissioner, who is an active duty member of the V.S.
armed forces. The government includes a unicameral legislature of 29
members, elected for a 2.year term; a chief executive appointed by the
high commissioner after consultation with representatives of the legislature;
and a system of courts. Acts of the legislature are subject to the veto
of the high commissioner, but this power is rarely used. The strength of
the parties in the legislature, 1959, was: Social Masses Party, 10; Okinawa·
Liberal Democrats, 14: Minren, 5. Both the Social Masses Party and
Minren are committed to seeking reversion to Japan.
The largest and most important island is Okinawa (area, 463 sq. miles:
population (1959), 718,500). On it are situated the capital, Naha (head-
quarters of the civil administration: population (1958), 188,002), the towns
of Koz:~ (42,006), Nago (14,842) and Itoman (14,837) and the two largest
U.S. air bases, at Kadena and Naha.
In 1959 the Ryuku Islands had 228 primary schools (160,966 pupils), 178
secondhry 8chools (53,533), 13 technical schools (8,460), 5 teacher-training
and other special schools, and 1 university (2,017).
The economy of the islands is now much affected by the presence of the
U.S. fe,rces (numbering about 32,000 men in 1959). Military bases in
Okinawa occupy 12'4% of the total land area and 10'8 % of arable land: ill
June l!159 approximately 47,000 Ryukyuans (about 12 % of the local labour
force) vere employed by the U.S. forces, its contractors and personnel. In
1959 only 11'5% of the population were engaged in agriculture compared
with about 58% before the Second World War. Chief crops are sugar cane,
sweet potatoes, rice, pineapples, fresh vegetables and soybeans. Fishing
is increasing in importance : the catch for 1958 was estimated at 14,325
metric tons. The major industry is food processing. Exports, 1958,
totalled $16·5m.; imports, $ 99m. The currency consists of U.S. dollars.
The Daito IslandR (area 1·8 sq. miles; population, 1950,2,691) form the
eastern mORt group of the Ryukus, a bout 200 mil es east of Okinawa.
High Commissioner. Lieut.·Gen. Donald P. Booth.
Civ,'l Administrator. Brig.·Gen. J ohn G. Ondrick.
Chi", Executive. Seisaku Ota.
The Bonin Islands (Ogasawara Gunto) (27 0 45' N. lat., 140 0 E . long.)
lie about 800 miles east of the Ryukus and comprise 27 islands in three main
groups, Bailey Islands, Beechey Islands and Parry Islands. The largest,
Chichi Jima, is the site of a U .S. naval base. Land area, 40 sq. miles;
populal;ion (1940) 7,361. Marcus I sland (Minami Tori Shima) (26 0 32' N.
lat., 142 0 10' E. long.) is a volcanic island with an area of 1 sq. mile.
Rosario Island (Nishino Shim a) (27 0 15' N. lat., 140 0 53' E. long.) lies to the
west of the Bonins.
The Volcano Islands (Kazan Retto) (240 47' N. lat., 141 0 20' E. long.)
compri:le 3 islands of 11 sq. miles, including Iwo Jima, on which there is a
U.S. air base. The island of Parece Vela (20 0 24' N.lat., 136 0 02' E. long.)
lics sODle 400 miles south-west of Iwo Jima.
The Bonin and Volcano Islands and Marcns Island are administered by
the UJ,. Navy. The Commander.in-Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet, with head-
quarters at Pearl Harbor, H awaii, is the Military Governor. The Deputy
Military Governor is the Commander, Naval Forces, Marianas, with head-
quarters on Guam .
United Btates Civil Administration of the Ryuku Islands. Cit~1 Affairs Activities in th.
Ryuku Iswnds. Semi-annual since 1955.-The Ryuku 1.lands at a Glanc.. 1954
The Ryu~u Islands: a R eJerence List oJ Books and Articles. Hoover Institution, Stanford,
Cal. 1954
793
AFGHANISTAN
DOULAT I P .\DSHARf YE AFGHANISTAN
ArGuANISTAN is situated between parallels 29° and 38° 35' N. lat., and
60° 50' and 71° 50' E. long., with a long narrow strip extending to 75°
E. long. (WakMn). For the boundaries, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK,
1925, pp. 654-1)5. A ne'v boundary agreement with the Soviet Union was
signed in Moscow in June 194(); a joint commission completed the demarca·
tion in Sept. 1948.
Reigning King. Mohammed Zahir Shah, born at Kabul in 1914;
married on 7 Nov. W31 to his cousin, Urnairah, daughter of Sirdar Ahmed
Shah Khan; succeeded his father, Mohammed Nadir Shah, who was
assassinated on 8 Nov. 1933. Surviving offspring, 5 sons and 2 daughters.
The heir apparent is Prince Ahroad Shah (born 1934).
GOVERNMENT. The Government of Afghanistan is a constitution a

monarchy, in which the supreme legislative power is vested in the Parlia·
ment consisting of the King, a Senate and a National Assembly. The
Senate consists of 50 members, who arc nominated for life by the King.
They sit throughout the year. The National Assembly consillts of 171
elected members. It is in session between May and Oct., and may be
summoned at any time. There is also a Grand Assembly (LoeJirgeh), whieh
is summoned at irregular intervals to consider major questions of policy
referred to it by the lGng. The last meetings wer" in 1941 and 1955.
There are ministries of Defence, Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Educa·
tion, Commerce, Justice, Public Works, Finance, Health, Mines and In·
dustries, Communications, Agriculture :md (1956) Planning, each in charge
of a minister; and the departments of Tribes and the Press, each in charge
of a president. Ministers and presidents are all members of the cabinet.
The country is divided into 7 major provinces of Kabul, Mazar, Kanda·
har, Herat, Kataghan, Nlngrahar (formerly Eastern Province) and PaktYB
(formerly Southern Province), and 8 minor provinces, Badakhshhn, Farah,
Ghazni, Parwan, Girishk, Maimana, Shibarghan, and Ghore. Each pro·
vince is under a governor (called in major provinces Naib·ul·Hukumeh and
in minor provinces [{rikem.i.'Ala).
National flag : black, red, green (vertical); with a white device in the
centre.
AREA AND POPULATION. The extreme breadth of Afghanistan

from north· east to south· west is about 700 miles; its length from the Herat
frontier to the Khyber Pass, about 600 miles; the area is 250,000 sq. miles.
Population, according to the latest Afghan estimate, is between II m. and
12m., of which some 2m. are nomadic tribes. This estimate would mean a
population density equal to that of U.S.A. and twice as large as that of
Iran. More cautious estimates arrive at 7-Sm.
The official languages are Persian and Pushtu.
Estimates of population of municipalities (and, in bracket.s, of provinces)
in 1948 were as follows: Kabul, 206,208 (2,817,234); Kandahar, 77,186
(1,063,496); HerM, 75,632 (I,142,343); Mazar.i·Sharif, 41,960 (944,020);
Jalalabad, 14,756.
794 AFGHANISTAN
RELIGION. The predominant religion is Islam, mostly of the Sunni

sect, tltough there is a minority of about Im. Shiah Mohammedans.
EDUCATION. There are some elementary schools in the country. but
second;lry schools exist only in Kabul and provincial capitals. Both
elementary and secondary education are free. There are 2 training schools
for tea"hers in Kabul. Technical, art, commercial and medical schools exist
for higher education. The Kabul University was founded in 1932 and has 6
facultks of law, science, medicine, arts, theology and literature.
Cinemas. There were, in 1955,7 cinemas with 4,120 seats.
JU~;TICE. The law is partly based on the Shariat or Islamic law.
Lower courts (Mahakima.i·lbtidaia) are established in each district, and
higher courts (Makakima.i.Murafaah) in each provincial capital. A high
court (Mahkama.i ~li Tamiz) is attached to the Ministry of Justice, and
the supreme court (Rya.sat.i.Tamiz.i.!4yan) to the Senate. A special
proccd1lfe is provided for the impeachment of Ministers.
FINANCE. The revenue is subject to fluctuations. The Government
share of the produce recoverable is said to vary from one· fifth to one.tenth,
according to the advantages of irrigation. The total revenue for 1957-58
was be Iieved to be about I ,500m. afghanis, a considera ble portion of which was
derivec! from customs, land taxation income tax and the earnings of
government monopolies, chiefly the Karakul Monopoly.
DEFENCE. The Army is recruited by annual calls to the colours for
a 2·ye~,r period. Conscription is compulsory for a percentage of the male
popuhdon, chosen by local arrangement, from 22 to 42 years of age, including
service in the reserve. Officers are recruited for long.term service, and some
are conscripted for a 2·year period. A reserve of officers is maintained;
intake is about 180 per year.
ThE peace strength of the Army is about 60,000. It is organized in 3
army corps (Kabul, Kandahar, Gardez) and 6 other divisions, located in the
provin"es, all now being reorganized after the receipt of Russian arms and
equiprrent. In addition, there is the Royal Bodyguard of brigade strength.
In the event of war, besides the reserve, it is capable of support by It con·
siderable number of warlike tribesmen armed with rifles. The army is
largely mechanized.
A military academy for the training of cadets was opened in Kabul in
1932. There is a military college where about 2,800 students are prepared
for the Military Academy and the police. Some officers receive technical
trainin;~ abroad, hitherto mainly in Turkey, but now in U,S.A. and chiefly
in the U,S.S,R. A n ew military training school (infantry, artillery) was
opened in 1957.
The Air Force is being modernized. Equipment includes MiG·17 jet
fighten,. Il·28 jet bombers and a number of helicopters. Headquarters is at
K abul; one fighter base is at Mazar.i·Sharif; a new base, completed in
1960, at Bagram, has facilities for the la.rgest jet airliners and bombers. An
air academy, opened in 1958, is training about 400 cadets.
The gendarmerie, about 21,000 strong, is administered by the Ministry
of Inte::nal Affairs.
PRODUCTION. A 5·year plan, providing for expenditure on com·
munications, agriculture, mines and industries, education and health, wae
announced in 1956, and a Ministry of the Planning was formed.
AFGHANISTAN 795
Agriculture. Although the greater part of Afghanistan is more or less
mountainous and a good deal of the country is too dry and rocky for success·
ful cultivation, there are many fertile plains and valleys, which, with the
assistance of irrigation from small rivers or wclls, yield very satisfactory
crops of fruit, vegetables and cereals. A recent classification of land use
estimates 76% waste lands, 5% meadows and pastures, 1·5% forests and
woodlands, 14% arable, 3'0% cultivable but unused. Afghanistan is
virtually self.supporting in foodstuffs. The castor-oil plant, madder and
the asaf<atida plant abound. Fruit forms a staple food (with bread) of
many people throughout the year, both in the fresh and preserved state, and
in the latter condition is exported in great quantities. The fat-tailed sheep
furnish the principal meat diet, and the grease of the tail is a substitute for
butter. The wool (annual production, a bout 8,000 tons, of which about
6,000 tons are exported) and skins provide material for warm apparel and
one of the more important articles of export. Persian lamb·skins (Kara.
kulis) are one of the chief exports.
Cotton production, 1957-58, was estimated at 12,000 tons, of which
about 7,000 were exported, mainly to the U.S.S.R.
Mining. Most of the mineral resourccs of the country are undeveloped.
Northern Afghlmistan is reputed to be tolerably rich in copper, and lead and
iron are found in many parts. Coal of poor quality is found in the Ghorband
valley and near the Lataband, but rich seams of coal exist on the northern
slopes of the Hindu Kusb. Crude petroleum has been discovered near
Herat and in northern Afghanistan. Neither oil nor silver are exploited, but
silvermines exist in Panjshir valley. Iron is smelted in small quantities in
Kntaghan. Gold is obtained from Kandahar and also from several rivers
in the north. Badakhshan is said to be the only area in the world to produce
first· quality lapis lazuli. Raw asbestos has been discovered in Jidran
district and a mica mine in the Panjshir valley. Sulphur deposits have
been found in the province of Maimana and chrome ore in the Logar valley
and the neighbourhood of Herlit.
Industry. At Kabul there are factories for the manufacture of small
quantities of matches, buttons, leather, boots, marble-ware and furniture.
A large machine shop is being constructed and equipped by the Russians,
with a capability of manufacturing motor spares. There is a wool factory
at Kandahar and another at Kabul, a cotton ginning plant at Qunduz, a
small cotton factory at Jebal-us·Sinii, a larger one at Pul-i-Khumri, for
which machinery was originally supplied by a British firm, but this is now
being replaced by German machinery. Germans have also built and
equipped a large modern textile factory at Gulbahar.
An ordnance factory manufactures arms and ammunition, boots and
clothing, etc., for the Army. This also includes a mint. There is a bcet-
sugar plant at Baghlan; a factory for cane sugar at Jalalabad is under
construction. A hydro·electric plant has been constructed at Sarobi on the
Kabul River, and others are planned. A large cement factory has been
built at Jebl us.Siraj.
Industrial and commercial projects are financed by the Afghan National
Bank and its 8ubsidiary companies. In 1951 an Indu8trial Department.
clO8ely linked with the Afghan National Bank, was set up to secure from
abroad the equipment and machinery required for various industrial develop-
ment 8cheme8. Under a redistribution of monopolies, early in 1951, &
new government department, the Riyaaat-i·Inhisarat-i-Daulati (Government
Monopoly Department) was set up and granted the monopoly for the import
796 AFGHANISTAN
of all Dlotor vehicles (formerly held by the Afghan Motor Co.), the import
and export of petrol and the import and sale of sugar (formerly the monopoly
of the ilugar and Petrol Company). Sugar production within the country,
however, remains the concern of the Shirkat·i.Qandsazi. The Government
Aionopoly Department has also the monopoly for the import of all tobacco
and cigarettes, but regulations were somewhat relaxed in 1959. Important
monopolies unaffected by the redistribution are the Shirkat.i·Umumi.Barq
(generation of electricity and import of electrical goods), Shirkat·j·Ittahadia
ShimaL (joint·stock company of the north engaged in trade in wool, skin8,
fruit ar.d miscellaneous goods), Shirkat·i·Watan (Kandahar company deal·
ing in miscellaneous goods, especially wool), the Shirkat·i·Hajjari·wa.
Najjari (stone cutting and carpentry monopoly), the Shirkat·i-Nassaji (Tex-
tile Company) and the Afghan Raw Cotton Company.
There are irrigation projects in the Kandahar and Herat provinces for
which the American Export.Import Bank has granted a $39m. credit.
A United Nations technical aid mission has, since April 1950, been
assisting the Government in technical projects and particularly in its fight
against malaria, rinderpest and venereal diseases.
On 28 June 1956 the Soviet Union granted a credit of USSIOOm., to
run 30 years at 2% interest and to be repaid in 22 instalments from 197-1.
Of this credit, $30m. have been tentatively allotted to road and bridge
building, S25m. to industrial equipment, S25m. to defence and secmity
forces, S5m. to public health and S5m. to education.
COMMERCE. Trade is supervised by the Government through the

Ministry of Commerce and the National Bank of Afghanistan. 80% of the
trade Lsed to go through Pakistan, but since the Afghan-Soviet 5-year
transit agreement of 28 June 1955 a larger proportion of Afghan trade
has gone through the Soviet Union. Of the imports from India and Paki-
stan the chief items are cotton goods, sugar, hardware, live animals, leather
goods, 1;ea, paper and cement. The exports to India and Pakistan include
spices, fruits, karakul skins, carpets, cotton and raw wool.
A commercial treaty with the U.S.S.R. includes a barter agreement
\l"hich i! rensed annually. Principal imports from the U.S.S.R. are petrol,
cement and cloth, while Afghan exports are mainly wool, cotton and fruit.
In the year ended 21 March 1958, imports totalled 1,966m. afghanis;
exports, 1,985m. Of the exports, 580m. went to Indi.a, 456m. to the
U.S . S.f~., 336m. to the U.S.A., 253m. to the U.K. The main importing
countries were U.S.S.R.. (606m.), Pakist.an (406m.), Japan (353m.) and
India (:~14m . ).
Total trade between Afghanistlin and the U.K. (in £ sterling, British
1955 1956 1967 1968 1959
Imports to U. K. 931.101 1,890,500 4.4.75,098 3,502.295 2,49~,03;;
Export. trom U.K. . 199.000 3:;2,568 437.3~9 430,483 481,316
Re-export.. from U.K. 1,:142 1,871 2,624 13,986 13,672
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. Access to Afghanistan is mainly

through. passes in the mountains at the north and south, where peaks rise to
a height; of over 20,000 ft. On the north-west. frontier of Pakistan the best-
known pass is the Khyber Pass, connecting Kabul with Peshawar, an import-
ant Pakistan railhead; the Kojak-Bolan-Sibi series of passes from Kandahar
to the south, and the Gomal, Tochi and Kurram passes from Ghazni.
The road network is constantly being improved. The Americans have
AFGHANISTAN 797
asphalted the Kandahar-Chaman road, are asphalting the 200.mile.long
road between Kabul and Torkham and the Pakistan frontier, and plan to
asphalt the Kabul-Kandahar road. The Russians have agreed to asphalt
the road from their frontier at Kushk through Rerit to Kl1ndaluir. All
provincial capitals are connected with Kabul by motor roads. But mer·
chandise is st.ill transported to a great extent on camel or pony back.
Motor vehicles, as at June 1952, numbered .5,240, including 880 private
cars and 4,360 lorries.
There arc no railways in the country.
Shipping. There are practically no navigablo rivers in Afghanistan,
and timber is the only article of commerce conveyed by wl1ter. floated down
the Kunar and Kabul rivers from Chitro,l on rafts. A port has been built
at Qizil Ql1la on the Oxus; bl1rge trl1ffic is increasing on the Oxus and Rari
Rud.
Post. Telephones. installed in most of the large t OWllS, numbered 7,000
at 1 Jan. 1959. There is telegraphic communication between PeshawaJ'-
K 'tbu l. Kabnl-Gardez, Kabul-Kandahar, Kandl1har-Rcnit, Kabul-Mazar.
i·Sharif, Kabul-Kbanabad, Kandahur-Chaman. K abul-Rerat. A wireless
installation connects K abu l with Europe. Bombay, the Far East, America
and other parts of the world. There are 5 wireless stations in the country.
The Kubul Radio broadcasts in Pushtu, Persian, Urdu, English and French.
The telecommunication system is being expanded slowly.
Aviation. On 29 June 1956 Afgluinistan signed an agreement with the
U.S.A. for the provision of lip to 814.560,000 for the development of civil
aviation, including the construction of the international airport at Kande.·
har and of several domestic airfields. Of the total amount, S5m. would be
It loan amI $9,560,000 on grant. Kabul airport is being expanded "ith
Hllssian assistltnce.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The monetary system is on the silver

st.andard. The unit is an afglujni, weighing 10 grammes of silYer 0·900 fme.
wllich is subdivided into 100 puIs. The currency consists of: (a) Afghani
rupee (silver); (0) kran (1 rupee) (silver); (c) pul (rh rupee) (copper and
nickel); (d) 2 puis (to rupee) (copper and nickel); (e) 5 pul.s (to rupee)
(copper and nickel); (f) 10 puIs (i. rupee) (copper and nickel); (!l) 20 puIs
(} rupee) (copper); (h) 25 puIs (! rupee) (copper). Coin~, however, arc
rarely used except by the very poor. Currency notes of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100.
500 and 1,000 afghanis are in circulation, amounting to 960m. afghanis in
.Tan. 1956.
Ofiicial rates of exchange, except for certain Government transactions,
are £1 = 56·7 afghanis; SI = 20 afghanis. But these have little signifi·
cance today, and the free rates prevailing in Sept. I05!) were £1 = 120
,Lfghanis, SI = 43 afghanis, both fluctuating.
The Afghan State Bl1nk (Da AfgMnistan Bank) has supplanted the
Banke Millie Afgluin as the leading bank in the country; it holds the ex·
clueive right of note issue (the first notes were issued in Nov. 1(55). Total
assets of the 3 leading banks at the end of the HJ57-58 financial year : Da
Afghanistan Bank, 4,209m. afghanis; Banke l\liIlie, 9llru. afghinis;
Pashtani Tejarati Bank, 354m. afghanis.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Weights and measures used in Kabul

are: Weights: 1 khurd = t lb.; 1 pao = 1 lb.; I charak ~= 4 Ih.; 1
798 AFGHANIsTAN
.eer = 16 lb.; 1 kharuxir = 1,280 lb. or 16 maunds of 80 lb. each. Long

meaSUf'3: 1 yd Of gaz = 40 in. The metric system is in common use by the
bigger cloth merchants in Kabul. Square measures: 1 jarib = 60 X 60
kabuli yd or I acre; 1 kulba = 40 jaribs (area in which 21 kharwars of
seed cal be sown); 1 jarib yd = 29 in.
Loc'll weights and measures are in use at Kandahar, Herat and Jalalabad.
Afghanistan maintains embassies in China, France (also for Belgium),
Germany (also for Switzerland), India (also for Burma and Thailand),
Iran, Iraq, Japan, Pakistan (alBo for Ceylon), Saudi Arabia (also for Jordan),
Turkey (also for Austria and Yugoslavia), U.8.8.R. (also for Finland,
Rumania and Sweden), United Arab Republic (also for Greece, Lebanon
and Su.lan), U.K. and U.S.A. (also for Brazil); and legations in Czecho·
slovakia (also for Hungary and Poland), Indonesia and Italy (also for Spain).
OB' AFGHANISTAN IN GREAT BRITAIN (31 Princes Gate, S.W.7)
Amhassador. Mohammed Kabir Ludin (accredited 5 Dec. 1957); also
Ministe: to The Hague.
Fir,,/ Secretary. Mohammad Ebrahim Noud. Information Attache.
Mohammed Khalid Roashan.
011' GREAT BRITAIN IN AFGHANISTAN
Ambassador. Michael C. Gillett, C.M.G.
First Secretary. H. J . Downing. Military Attaeld. Col. W . H . R.
Clifford. M.B.E. Consul. T. Grady. Commercial Secretary. W. M. Sadler.
Orientai Secretary. N. J. Barrington.
The:e is a Consul in Kabul.
Cv AFGHANISTAN IN THE U.S.A. (2341 Wyoming Ave. NW.,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Mohammed Hashim Maiwandwal.
Cou:18ellor. Fazl Ahmad Sherzad.
OF THE U .S.A. IN AFGHANISTAN

Ambassador. Henry A. Byroade.
Cou:u;ellors. Norman B. Hannah; Robert Rossow, Jr; Gordon B.
Strong (Economic). Army Attache. Lieut.-Col. John S. Sandiland. Air
Attache. Lieut.-Col. Mortimer A. Yates.
Books of Reference
dnnlUJi,. de la Revw de Kaboul. (In Persian.) Kabul. annually.
Treatv b,.twem 11.. Briti8h and ~fghan Government.f. Signed at Kabul. 22 No.. 1921.
(RatijicJtiom nchaagtd at Kabul, 6 Feb. 1922.) Treaty Series, No. 19 (1922). Cmd. 1186
Aitcbison, C. I. (ed. ), A eoUalion 0/ Treatu3 ••• relalill.f} to India and nei9"bQuriTU} countrie3.
Vol. xa. Calcutta, 1933
Akhram. Mohammed. Bibliographi~ ana1yliqu~ de I' ~fghanilllJlI . Paris, 1947
Caspani, -~.t and Cagnacci. E., ,dfghanutan. Crocer>ia d~ll' ,dna. Milan. 19~1
Fox. E. F'., Tra.tI.t in AlgMnilllln. 1937-38. New York, 1943
Fr.... r-T} tier. Sir W. K •• Alg/ul7Ii8tan. 2nd ed. London and New York. 19:;3
Shab. S. L A•• ~hMnistdn ol'M Alghdns. London. 1928.-Modern A/v/ulnisl/m. London.
1939.- Trade with A/vhdnillim. Kabul. 1941
8ykes, Sir Percy, A Hist"", 01 AfgMnwan. ~ vo19. London. 1940
Wilber. I '. N . (ed.). Afghanistan. New Haven. 1956
ALBANIA 799
ALBANIA
REPUJlLllU POPULL6RE B SHQIP&Rfsi
AlITER the death of George Kastriota-popularly known as Skanderbeg-

in 1467, under whom the Albanians had heroically resisted the Turks for a
quarter of a century, Albania passed under Turkish suzerainty and thus
remained-nominally or actually according to the locality and period-
until 1912. The independence of Albania was proclaimed at Vlone (Valona)
on 28 Nov. 1912, and the London conference of ambassadors decided upon
the frontiers of the new country, and nominated as its ruler Prince William
of Wied, who, having accepted the c rown from an Albanian deputation at
Neuwied on 21 Feb. 1914, arrived at Durres (Durazzo) on 7 March 1914.
After the outbreak of the war in 1914, the Prince on 3 Sept. left Albania,
which fell into a state of anarchy. By the secret Pact of London of 26
April 1915 provision was made for the partition of Albania; but this
arrangement was repudiated by Italy on 3 June 1917, when the Italian
C.·in·C. in Albania proclaimed at Gjinokaster (Argyrocastro) the inde-
pendence of Albania. In Jan. 1925 the country was proclaimed a republio
and on I Sept. 1928 a m onarchy. Ahmed Beg Zogu, President of the
Republic since 31 Jan. 1925, reigned as King Zog till April 1939, when, on
the occupation of the country by the Italians, he Bed to England. After
the liberation he was formall y deposed in absentia" on 2 Jan . 1946. During
the years 1939-44 the country was overrun by Italian and German military
forces.
On 10 Nov. 1945 the British. U.S. and U.S.S.R. Governments recog.
nized the Provisional Government under Gen. Enver Hoxha, on the under-
standing that it would hold free elections. The elections of 2 Dec. 1945
resulted in a C ommunist-controlled assembly, which on 11 Jan. 1946 pro-
claimed Albania a republic.
In 1946 Great Britain and the U.S.A. broke off relations with Albania
and vetoed its admission to the United N ations. Albania was finally
admitted on 15 Dec. 1955, the U.S.A. abstaining from voting.
Titular Head 0/ State: Chairman 0/ the Presidium 0/ the People's Assembly
Maj.-Gen. Haxhi Lleshi, former Chairman of the Control Committee of the
Labour Party; elected July 1953.
Albania is ruled by the Communist' Albanian Party of Labour,' founded
8 Nov. 1941. The supreme governing body, of both the Party and the
State, is the Politburo; it consists of 9 full members and 6 candidate
members.
In March 1959 the chief Party and Government posts were filled as follows:
First SecreJ,ary o/the Cenlral Committee o/the Party : Army.Gen. Enver
Hoxha. Chairman of the Council of Minister., : Col.-Gen. Mehmet Shehu.
Fir8t Dep.-Chai,.men of the Council 0/ Minister.,: Lieut.-Gen. Beqir
Balluku (Minister of Defence), Spiro Koleka and Manush Myftiu (Minister
of Culture and Education). SecreJ,aries of the Central Commiuee : Mra Liri
Belishova, Hysni Kapo, Mm Rita Marko, Haki 'l'oska. The Minister of the
Interior and State Security. Maj.·Gen. Kadri Razbiu, and the Foreign
Minister, Behar Shtylla, are not members of the Politburo; the Chairman
of the State Planning Commission. Kocho Theodosi, is a candidate mem ber.
The third congress of the Pl1.rty, held in May-June 1956, confirmed this
'Stalinist' complexion of the regimE'.
The constitution of March ) 946, as amended, provides for a single
800 ALBA.NlA.
chamher elected for 4 years, and extends the franchiso to all men and women
over 18 years of age, excepting those who collaborated with the Italians or
Germans.
Or. 1 June 1958 elections took place for the People's Assembly; 188
deput:es, one for every 8,000 inhabitants, were elected on the single list of
the Al banian Democratic Front.
Ndional flf1lJ: red, with a black double·headed eagle and a red, gold.
edged 5'pointed star above it. Alercantileflag: red, black, red (horizontal).
Ndional anthem: Rreth }'lamurit te per bashkuar (The flag that united
us in the struggle).
AHEA AND POPULATION. The area of the country is 28,738 sq. km.
By the peace treaty Italy restored the Island of Saseno to Albania. Tho
poplll"tion (census of 2 Oct. 1955) was 1,394,310, i.e., 48·5 per sq. km; no
detail!! have been published. Estimated population, mid.1959, 1·56m. The
capital is Tirana (estimated population 80,000).
The natural increase of the population was 27·3 per 1,000 in 1954 and
28·6 in 1955.
The country was in July 1953 re·divided into the 10 pre-1949 prefectures,
namec. after the principal t owns, which with the population in 1941 were 0.9
follow,,:
Area, Popu· An:~at Popu·
sq. km latloo sq. km lation
Berat 3.666 169.431 Korl'<! (Koritza) 3.750 169,234
Diber pibra) 1 2,151 83,491 Kukes . 2.038 46,666
Dums : Durazzo) 1.550 90,243 Sbko<ier (Scutari) . 5,560 160,929
Elbas8[ 3,750 110,447 VJono (VaJona) 1,448 56,607
Gjinokaster Tirana (capital 911 59,160
(.'..rg} rocastro) 4,125 159,695
1 Chief town. Pcsbkopi.
The 10 prefectures comprise 53 districts and 4 di,lrict towns; 47

<localHets' and 9 'localitet' towns; 2.609 villages, and 11 towns and 48
town jistricts under village administration. The number of districts is
said to have been reduced to 27 in 1958-59.
The Albanians are divided into two principal language groups-the
Ghegs, north of the river Shkumbi, and the Tosks in the south.
RELIGION. There is no state religion. The popUlation is distri·

buted according to the following estimates: Moslems, 688,280; Orthodox
Christians (the Orthodox Church of Albania), 212,233; Roman Catholice,
I04,18!. The Gheg Christians in the north are for the most part Roman
Catholics, formerly under 2 archbishops, 3 bishops and 1 mitred abbot;
in 1959 there was left only one vicar capitular, the administrator of the
Pulati diocese. In Aug. 1951 a new status for the Albanian Catholic Church
was introduced, severing all relation~ with the Vatican. Any relations with
religio'ls or cultural bodies outside Albania have to be conducted through
government channels.
Th,~ Tosk Christians in the south are members of the Albanian Auto·
cephalous Orthodox Church, under the rule of the Holy Synod (constituted
18 Feh. 1929) with a primate and 3 hishops; it was recognized as auto·
cephabus by the Oecumenical Patriarch ate on 17 March 1937. Head of
the Church (elected Aug. 1949) is Paissi, Metropolitan of Tirana and Durres,
Archbishop of All Albania.
ALBANIA 801
The Moslems are organized in 4 zones (Tirana, Shkoder, Kor~e, Gjino.
kaster), each under a grand mufti, with a supreme head (Hafez Suljeman
Myrto, from 1955).
Albania is also the seat of the head of the independent Islamic Bektashi
sect under the 'World Grandfather', Ahmed Myftar Dede.
EDUCA T10N. Primary education is nominally compulsory for chil.
dren between the ages of 6 and 13, but owing to the shortage of ~chools this
cannot be thoroughly enforced. There were, in 1956, 303 infant schools;
2,095 primary schools with 185,000 pupils; 25 secondary schools with 2,762
pupils. Secondary technical education is provided in 13 technical high
schools. Higher educational institutions are: a university in Tirana
(opened 16 Sept. 1957), a polytechnic, an a!lricultural college, a medical
school, a teachers' training college, and an inptitute of science. The higher
institutions har!, in 19.~7, a total of 1,738 students; another 770 students
are being educated in the U.S.S.R. and other Soviet countries.
Cinema8 (1958). There were 160 cinemas.
JUSTICE is administered by People's Courts. On 1 Sept. 1952 a new

Penal Code became effective, modelled on the Soviet law, but with more
severe penalties. All persons who have reached the age of 14 are fully
penally responsible. For crimes against the state, for sabotage of state
property and for economic sabotage, even 12.year.old children are fully
responsible. Clause 83 extends the crimes against the state also to offences
against the Soviet Union.
FINANCE. The 191)9 estimates show revenue of 27,400m. leks (in.
cluding 23,ROOm. from national economy) and expenditure of 26,900m. leks
(national economy, 16,600m.; social and cultural, 5, 700m.; defence,
2,100m.; administration,800m.). The effective 1958 budget figures were:
revenue, 25,365m.; expenditure, 24,630m. leks. Estimates for l(l60:
Revenue, 27,540m. leks; expenditure, 26,540m. leks.
DEFENCE. The Albanian Army, in 1959, numbered 25,000 in 3 divi.

sions, each with a tank battalion of 40 tanks. Security police (' SSSh ') had
a strength of 10,000, divided into 4 security battalions, and 5 battalions of
frontier·guards.
The Navy consists of 4 submarine chasers, 2 inshore minesweepers, 14
motor torpedo. boats, 3 minesweeping boats and 16 distri ct p atrol craft.
The Air Force, controlled by the Army with Soviet assistance, is equipped
with 2 squadrons of 1I1iG·15 jet.fighters and various Russian·built trainers
and helicopters.
There is compulsory military service for men from 19 to 35 years of age:
2 years in the Army, and 3 years in the Air Force, Navy and the motorized.
armoured and frontier units. Service in the reserves (with short annual
training periods) extends from 35 t o 55 years of age.
PLANNING AND PRODUCTION. In 1941 about 90% of the popllh.

tion were engaged in agriculture. 25'10 exclusively in crop production and
65% in animal husbandry. Before the Second World War only 6% of
the total area of 2·7m. hectares was under cultivation of field crops, another
6% of unspecified crops, trees and bushes, about 30% consisted of meadows
and permanent pastures, whilst about 60% was forests, swamps and waste.
1) 1)
802 A.LBANIA
In 1951. the arable land comprised 376.000 hectares; under the second
I).year plan it is to be extended to 443.000 hectares by 1960.
On:ll Dec. 1958 there were 1.935 collective farms (including 63% of the
peasantry) and 21 state farms. together farming 80% of the arable land.
Tractors numbered 2.550 (in 15·h.p. unit.<!) at that date.
The country for the greater part is nlgged. wild and mountainous. the
exceptions being along the Adriatic littoral and the Korge (Koritsa) Basin.
which B.re fertile. The main crops are maize (58% of the cultivated land;
yield. 1953. 159.000 metric tons) and wheat (18%; yield. 1953, 122,000
metric l;ons). Tobacco (1957. 1.100 metria tons), timber. wool. hides, furs,
cheese Lnd dairy products, fish (1957.2,737 tons), sugar beet. olive oil, corn,
cattle B.nd bitumen are the principal product.<!. The wool (annual pro-
duction, greasy, averages 2,200 tons) is made up into coarse and heavy
cloth.
Liv(,stock,1952 (and target for 1955): Horses, 60,000; asses 50,000 ; mules,
2.000 (Lorses, asses and mules. 124,000); cattle, 130,000 (139,000); sheep,
2m. (1.844.000); goat.<!, 854.000 (847,000); pigs, 80,000 (127,000). The
livestock situation has steadily deteriorated since 1946.
The;:e are vast tracts of forest land composed of oak, walnut and chestnut
trees, WI well rug beeches. pines and firs. The mineral wealth of Albania is
considel:able but undeveloped. The copper· mines in the Poke district are
being e~ploited. The salt· pits at Vlone are said to be of commercial im·
portance. and Selenice bitumen·mines are also worked successfully. The
principld industries are those connected with agriculture, such as flour·
milling, olive.pressing and cheese· making. There is a cement factory in
Rhkoder and a brewery in Kor~e. Iron-ore is being exploited by Ozecho·
slovakih for export to that country.
The oil production, chiefly at KU90ve near Berat, was, in 1957,490,000
metric t·ons. The refinery capacity is to reach 180.000 metric tons annually
after the completion of the Oerrik refinery. which was scheduled for the end
of 1955, A pipeline connects KU90ve with the port of Vlone.
Thel'c are 3 hydro.electric power plants, at Selita, on Mount Daita near
Tirana. and (completed 1957) the Karl·Marx plant. Electric power produc.
tion in 1958 WM 150m. kwh.
Alb~,nia's first 5.year plan (l951-55) envisaged by 1955 total invest·
ment.<! of21.000m.leks. The actual investments were about 17.200m.leks.
The second 5.year plan (\956-60) envisages investments of 21.900m.
leks. The 1958 investments were planned at 9.700m.leks. but reached only
8.536m.; the 1959 plan envisages 13,600m. lehs.
rRODUCTION (metric tons) PRODUCTION (1958)
Chrome ore, 1958 201,252 Timber (cu. metres) 146,913
Copper OIe. 1958 87.460 Olive oil (metric tons) 2,813
Iron OT~,1958 88,240 Beer (hectolitms) . 51.046
Bitumen. 1958 32,225 Cheese (metric tOllS) 2.819
Coal,19GB 255,677 Butter (metric tons) , 407
Crude oil. 1958 403,200 Cotton fabrics (1,000 metres) . 22,000
Lijo!Ilite,1957. 147.000 Woollen fabrics (1,000 metres) . 738
Cement. j 958. 77,550 Shoes (1,])00 p~irs) , , , 740
Sugar. 19;8 . 10,275 Rubber sandals (1,000 pairs) . 660
COMMERCE. Imports from communist countries, 1954-55. equalled

68'6m. :30viet roubles, including 28'6m. from U.S.S.R. Imports from non-
communist countries, 1954, equalled US$232,OOO; exports, 122.000. Main
exports in 1957 were oil. chrome ore and tobacco.
Tots.! trade between Albania and U.K. (according to British Board of
Trade r,)turns) was as follows (in £ sterling) :
ANDORRA 803
1938 J95~ 1956 19~7 1958 19~9
Impol'ts to U.K. 6,262 13,248 66,993 1,971
Exports from U.K. 24,025 1,149 2,221 1,607 800 1,987
Re·exports from U. K . 1,374
COMMUNICATIONS. Railwa.ys. Railways, in 1957, 129 km (Durree-

Tirana, and Durres-Kavajli-Peqin-Elbasan), railways connecting Vlon6
with Mamalia and Paper with Cerrik are under construction. In 1955 the
freight traffic was 20·2m. ton-km (target, 42m_).
Roads. There were, in 1955, about 2,200 km of roads suitable for
motor traffic. The mountain districts of the north are still mostly inacces-
sible for wheeled vehicles, and communications are still by means of pack
ponies or donkeys. Registered motor vehicles in 1955: Cars,800, lorries,
1,700.
Shipping. The ports are Shengjin (San Giovanni di Medua), Durres
(Durazzo), Vlone (Valolla) and Sarandii (Santi Quaranta). The merchant
navy, in 1959, comprised 3 ocean-going ships (2 of 2,630 and 2,555 gross
tons built in 1958) and 12 coastal vessels.
P08t. Number of post and telegraph offices (1954), 53; telephones
(1959),4,813. Radio receiving sets, in 1950,40,025_
Aviation. Soviet Aerofiot, Hungarian and Czechoslovak airlines con-
nect Tirana with Budapest, Prague, Lvov and Moscow_
MONEY. The monetary unit is the lek = l00quintar8. It replaced the

Albanian gold franc (franc ar) in July 1947. The lek was, until mid-1948,
at par with the Yugoslav dinar. The middle rate of exchange is 140 lek8
to the £ sterling; 100 lek8 = 8 roubles.
Books of Reference
L·Albania. n. 80cietl GoogmficI\ Italian". Ilologna, 1943
Hasluck. M .• The U"'Drilten Law of the dlbanian Afoumain.. Cambridge Unlv. Pr.... 19~4
Makhoyenko, A. Kh., Gasudarstvenny 3troy Narodnoy Respubliki Albanyi. Moscow, 1957
Maun. S. E.. dn Hi.!lorical dlbanian.-Engli3l. Dictionar". London. 1948.-d1l Bnulish-
.dJhaninn Diclionllry. Oambridge Uni v. Press. 1967
Shvcts, V. V., Ekonomika Narodnov Respublik& A1lJanl'i. Moscow, 1956
Skeodi, S. (cd.) • .dlbania . New York, 1956; London, 1957
ANDORRA
LES VALLEES D'ANDORRE-VALLS D'ANDORRA
TUE co-principality of Andorra. is situated in the eastern Pyrenees. The

country consists of gorges, narrow valleys and defiles, surrounded by high
mountain peaks varying between 880 and 1,800 metres. Its maximum
length is 30 km and its width 20 km, it has an area of 465 sq. km and a
population of about 5,000, seattered in 6 villages. Catalan is the language
spoken_
The sovereignty is exercised jointly by the President of the French
Republio and the Bishop of Urgel. The co-princes are represented in
Andorra by the 'Viguier de France' and the 'Viguier Episcopal.' Each
co-prince blls set up a Permanent Delegation for Andorran affairs; the
Prefect of the Eastern Pyrenees is the French Permanent Delegate.
804 ARGENTINA
The political status of Andorra. was regulated by the Pareage of 1278

which:>laced Andorra under the joint suzerainty of the Comte de Foix and
of the Bishop of Urgel. The rights vested in the house of Foix passed by
marrial:e to that of Beam and, on the accession of Henri IV, to the }<' rench
crown: they are now exercised by the President of the French Republic.
Th€ valleys pay a bi·annual due of 960 francs to France and 460 pesetas
to the bishop.
Na/ionaljlag: blue, yellow, red (vertical).
A •• }eneral Council of t·he Valleys' submits motions and proposals to the
Permanent Delegations. Its 24 members are elected for 4 years: half of
the council is renewed every 2 years. The council nominates a First Syndic
(Syrulic Procureur General) and a Second Syndic who must not be members
of it.
Judicial power is exercised in civil matters in the first instance by 2 chil
judges (Bat/les), one appointed by the Viguier de France and the other by
the bishop. There is a judge of appeal appointed alternately by each
cO'prin ;e, and in the third instance (Tercera Sala) the supreme court of
Andorra at Perpignan or the ecclesiastical cOllrt of the Bishop at Urge!.
Criminal justice is adminstered by the Tribunal de8 CMU, consisting of tbe
2 Viguiers, the judge of appeal, the 2 Bayles and 2 members of the Council·
General.
A good road connects the Spanish and French frontiers by way of Sant
Julia, Andorre.la· Vieille, les Esealdes, Encamp, Ca nillo and Soldeu : it
crosses the Col d ' Envalira (2,400 metres). Another road connects Andorre·
la. Vieille with Ordino. French and Spanish currency are both in use.
Export.~ from the U.K., 1955, £26,012: 1956, £22,447: 1957, £24,953:
1958, £38,280: 1959, £14,089. Imports to the U.K ., 1955, £150: 1956, nil:
1957, f.74: 1958, £10: 1959, nil. Re.exports, 1955, £81: 1956, £2,1l4:
1957, nil: 19.',8, £201: 1959, £42 (British Board of Trade returns) .
Bri/ish Consul· General. L. Pott, C.B.E. (resident in Marseilles).
Books of Reference
('..arts Pe:;ret. J., GeOt}Ta/iD e Hi,loria d, .<Indorra. Barcelona, 194~
Llobet, t' l El rnedio V la rlda tn A1Uiorra. Barcelona, 194 1
,id'" Y Uuitart, J. M., inJlilucione, pO/llica.J If 'Ocialel tk .<Indo".a. Madrid, 1949
ARGENTINA
REPUBLICA ARGENTINA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. In 1515 Juan Diaz de SoUs
discovered the Rio de La Plat.a. In 1534 Pedro de Mendoza was sent by
the King of Spain to take charge of the' Gobernacion y Capitania de Ins
tierras del Rio de La Plata', and in Feb. 1536 he founded the city of the
'Puert(, de Santa Maria del Buen Aire'. In 1810 the population rose against
Spanish rule, and in 1816 Argentina proclaimed its independence. Civil
wars and anarchy followed until, in 1853, stable government was established.
Until 16 March 1949 the Constitution of tho Argentine Republic was that
of 1853, wit,h modifications of 1860, IR66 and 1898. On the date mentioned
a new constitution drafted by the Peron government and passed by the
Constitutional Convent,ion elected 5 Dec. 1948 came into force giving the
Government great powers over t.he national economy. At a National
Constitllent Assembly held ill Sante Fe Sept.-Nov. 1957 it was decided to
ARGENTINA 805
revert to the 1853 constitution as amended up to IS03 . As amended by
t·he Eleetoral Act of 1951, the President and Vice·President (and members
of tho Senate) are elected directly by popular vote (no longer by an electoral
college); their term of office ii! 6 years and the President may not be re·
elected unless a period of G years intervenes. The Vice·President presides
over the Senate, but has otherwise no political power. The President is
C.·in·C. of the ArlDY, Navy and Air Force und appoints to all civil, military,
naval and judicial offices, in certain caseR with the approval of the Senate,
and has the right of presentut.ion to bishopries; he is responsiblo with the
Cabinet for the acts of the executive; both President and Vice· President
1Jl\~Rt be Roman Catholics and Argentine by birth.
The National Congress consists of ,~ Senate and a House of Deputies.
The Senate numbers 46, 2 from the capital and from each province, elected
by popular vote for G years (one.\.hil'd retiring every 3 yearg). An Act
pns~ed in July 1951 provided that 10 seats in the lower hOU8e (2 each
from the provinces of Buenos Air<!s, Cordoba, Ent.re Rios a.nd Santa Fe,
and from the federal capital) will be rlssigued to the second largest party.
The (l~ruties arc also elected for (l years, onc-half retiring e\'cry 3 yearn.
A law of Dce. 1953 rc.arranged t.he number of deputies from cach prol'ince
to nccord wit.h the respective popnbtions. The two chamber3 meet annually
from 1 May to 30 Sept.; the lower house receives the budget and initiates
fiscal )(·giAlation. Since 1012, voting has been free, sccret and obligatory.
Women were enfranchised on 9 Sept. 1!J47; beginning with tho presidential
olo(;\;ion on 11 Nov. 19.31, all women IS year:! of age or older must vote.
The following is a list of Presidents from 1\)11 onwards:
))r Victorino de la rlo.za (ncting), 0 Aug. l)r RaUl60 S. Co.stillo. ::j Juue lQ.a2-4 JUDO
1914...12 Oct. hU6. 1943. (Dep&.led.)
lIip6!it<.> lrigoyen, 12 O"t. 1916-12 Oct. Oen . .uturo RawsGo. 6 June 1943-1 Jun.
1922. 194~. (Resigned .)
Dr MarcelQ Torcnato d. Alvear. 13 Oct. Gen. Pedro P . Hawire7.• 1 June 1943-9
1922- 12 O~t. 1928. March 1944. (Resigned.)
Hipolito !rigoyen, 12 Oct. 1928-6 Sept. Oen. Edelmlro J. FarreJl, 9 Mar. 1941- 4
1930. (Deposed.) JlUle 1946.
Gen. Jus?' FtHix Unburn (provisional), 5 Sept. Qen. Juan Domiogo Pcr6n t " JUDe 1946-:2
1930-20 Feb. 1932. Sept. 19S.. (Deposed.)
GOD. Agustin P. Justo, 20 Feh. 1932-20 Gon. Eduardo Lonardi, 23 Sept.-IS Nuv.
Feh. 193~. 1~;5 . (Deposed.)
Dr Roberto M. Ortiz,20 Fob. 1933·24 .Iune Gen. Pcdro Aramburu, 13 NoT'. 19;';' -30
1942. (Resigned.) April 1'58
President of the Republic. Dr Arturo Frondizi, elected 23 Feb. 1958,
by 4,O!lO,S40 votes, ag!Oinst Dr Ricardo Ba.lbin who rcceived 2,624,454
votc;>.
Foreign Minister. Dr Diogeiles Taboadll.
For the period of ascendancy of President Peron, see TilE S'rA'rESMAX'S
YEAR· BOOK, 1949, p. 737, 1951, p. 781 and 1055, p. 78S.
The Cabinet, appointed by the Pl'esident, consists of 8 ministers (Interior,
Foreign Affairs and Worship, Economy, Education and Justice, National
Defence, Social A8Sistance and Public H ealth, Labour and Social SecuriLy ,
Public Works and Services). The Minister of Economy has subordinat~
Secrotarics of State, responsible respectively for Agriculture and Livestock,
Treasury, Finance, Commerce, Industry and Mining, Power and Fuel.
Under tbe Minister of National Defence thero arc Secretaries of State for
War, Marine, Air; and under the Minister of Public Works and Services,
Secretaries of State for Public Works, Commwliec.tions, Transport.
National flag: sky.blue, white aod sky·blue (equal, horizontal); with &
rising sun on the white band.
806 ARGENTINA
Ndional anthem: Oid. mortales, el grito sagrado Libertad (words by

V. w :?M Y Planes. 1813; tune by J. BIas Parera).
LeCAL GOVERNMENT. The governors of the various provinces are
elected for terms of 6 years. The provinces elect their own legislatures,
and hlve general control over such affairs as are not under the jurisdiction
of the central government.
Ravignanl, Emllio, A,amble"" C01I8tilullenteJ ArgentiooJ. 6 vol.. Buenos AIres, 1939
Rlnrola, R., La Comtitucian Argentina V SUI Principio, tk Elica PolUica. Rosario, 1944
AHEA AND POPULATION. The Argentine Republic consists of 23

provillces and 1 federal district. containing the land area and population
(censles of 19-21 April and 10-12 May 1947) and estimate for June 1958 as
follows:
Area: Pop. per
Provinces sq. km, E st. pop., Population: sq. km,
1947 JUlle 1958 census, 1947 1958
LiloraJ
Federal Capital (Buenos .tires) 192 3,799,200 2,982,580 19,242'3
Buer os .tires (La Plata) 307,669 5,334,200 4,272,3H 17'2
Corrientes 89,355 656,200 525,463 7·3
Entn Rfos (F a.rana) 76,216 971.000 787,36~ 12·6
Cbaco (Resistencia) 99,633 672.9UO 430,550 6·6
Sant,l F~ 133,007 2,063,500 1,702,975 15-4
Fornlosa. . 72,066 200.701) 113,790 2·7
Misi(IOeS (Posadas) 29,801 370,900 246,396 12·2
Norlt
Juju1 03,219 252,000 166.700 4'7
Salt" 151,775 416,000 290,826 2·7
Sant·ago del Estero 135,254 604,500 479,473 .·4
Tuct:man 22,524 808,000 693,371 85'4
Centro
C6rdoba 168,804 1,913,000 ,497,987 11·2
La Famp. (Sauta Rosa) 143,440 192,300 169,480 1·3
San Lw8 76,748 188,2UO 165,546 2'4
.dndint<.
CfLtam!lrca 99,818 180,100 147,213 l·g
La F.ioja 92,331 128,10/1 110,476 1·4
Mencio'l.B 150,839 805,800 588,2H 5·3
San .h um 86,137 121,000 261,229 4,1
Neuqu e:n 94,078 358,100 86,836 1·3
Patago-.1ia
Cbubut (Rawson) 224,686 134.900 58,856 0·6
Rio ''1egro (Viedma) 203,013 195,900 134,350 1·0
Sant, Cruz (R. Gallegos) 201,613 GO,100 24,582 0·2
Tien a del Fuego (Ushuaia) 20,912 11,000 o,O·iS 0'4
Grand total 2,777,815 ' 20,435,000 15,893,827 I 7·2
Total area claimed (and reported in tbe Unite<1 Nations SlaIjstical Yearbook, 19G5) was
1
2,808,602 sq. km (1,084,120 sq, miles).
t Toe official censua made the total 15,896,774, inclndin/? B new territory, called I Antarctic
Sector,' and stated to comprise the I Malvinas I (i.e., Falkland8), South Orcadas (i.~.t OrklleY~)i
South 3eorgias, South Sandwich Islands and the I sovereign territories of Argentina. in the
Antarctic'; pop. 3.300,
Ef:timated population (excluding 'Antarctic Sector'), 30 June 1958,

20,436.000 (10,366.100 men, 10,068,900 women); Federal District, 3.799,200.
In Sept. 1954 t.he 5 Territories of Formosa. Neuquim, Cbubut. Rio
Negro and Patagonia (previously Santa Cruz) were authorized to elect local
legisbtures with limited powers; on 27 July 1955 they became full provinecs.
thoug h as yet without full constitutions.
The 1947 census showed 8.145.175 males and 7,748,652 females. The
Fedelal District had (1947) 1,449,406 males and 1,533,174 females. Women
ARGENTINA 807
are everywhere in the minority except in the Federal capital and 4 of the
smaller provinces. The urban population, i.e., in communities of 2.000 Of
more inhabitants, was 61'4% of the total; 8 cities of 100,000 or more
inhabitants accounted for 39·3% of the total.
Crude birth rate, 1957, was 23'4 per 1,000 population; crude death mto,
8·7; crude man'iage rate, 7·2; infantile mortality rat·e (1954), 61·9 per
1,000 live births (registration incomplete outside the chief cities).
The population is overwhelmingly European in origin (principally from
Italy and Spain) with little mixture with the aborigines. The dwindling
Indian popUlation is estimated at from 20,000 to 30,000. Immigration was,
under the Peron Constitution, restricted to white persons, exception heing
made for the relatives of non·white persons (Japanese, etc.) already
resident. In 1957 aliens were estimated at 1,585,200 males and 1,278,400
females.
Mo.ement of population (excluding territories):
Marriages Births Deaths Immlgrant.J Emigrant.J
}g54 144,673 451.248 160.202 79,819 47,831
1965 4G4.9UU 159,100 29.600 9.800
1966 467,300 158,900 56.300 45,500
1957 464.700 172,300 70.200 51.500
1958 297,900 462,700 164,700 65,400 55,300
The population (1948 est.) of the capital, Buenos Aires, was 3,733,000;
Rosario, 551,276 3 ; Cordoba, 510.739 1 ; La Plata, 357,356 3 ; Tucuman,
244,628 1 ; Santa Fe, 219,6:'!0 2; Mendoza, 115,161 3 ; Parana, 183,897 3 •
1 195 3 estimate. 1 1954 estimate. • 1956 .stimat~.
Oanals Fran. S., Poblacionu indignulI de la Argentina. Buenos Aires, 1953
Serrano, A" Los aborigenes argenlinos. Buenos Aires, 1947
RELIGION. The Roman Catholic religion is supported by the State,

but its constitutional status, following the overthrow of President Peron,
seems uncertain ; in June 1955 supervision of religious bodies was trans-
ferred from the Foreign Office to the Ministry of the Interior. All are liable
to taxation since May 1955. All other creeds enjoy freedom of worship,
but broadcasting of Protestant services is not allowed. There are 2 car·
dinals, 9 archbishops and 30 bishops. For the clergy there are 8 seminaries.
In 1888 civil marriage was established in the republic. Divorco was made
legal in Dec. 1954, but ceased to be so by a decree of 1 M arch IOG6.
Argentina is one of 6 Latin·American states which retain • National
Patronage' over the Church. i.e., bishops are appointed by the President from
a panel submitted by the Senate; papal bulls and decrees must be proclaimed
by the President and sometimes be incorporated in an act of the legislature.
EDUCATION. Education is free (subsidized by the central and pro·

vincial governments), secular and compulsory for children from 6 to 14
years of age. In 1951 the 15,874 primary schools had 2,446,138 pupils and
101,646 teachers. In 1902, 2,101 secondary, normal and special schools
had 355,683 pupils and 46,470 teachers, and 1,132 incorporated secondary
schools had 153,926 pupils.
There are national universities at Cordoba (founded 1613), with, H)51,
9,355 students; Buenos Aires (1821), with 41,325 students; La Plata.
(1897), with 17,409 students; Tuculllu'n (1914), with 3,191 students; the
National University of the Litoral, in Santa Fe, with branches in Rosario
(1920), and in Corrientes (1922), with 16,325 students, and the National
808 ARGENTINA
UniverEity of Cuyo, with 2,596 students. Total, at all universities, 1950,

90,201. In 1956 the Technological Institute in Bahia BIl1Dca was raised to
the status of' Universidad del Sud.'
Cinemas (1955). Cinemas numbered 2,308, with seating capacity of
j ·3m.
Nellspapers (195S). Daily newspapers numbered over 400, with an
aggregate daily circulation of 3,250,000; 75% of this was shared by the
daiiies I)f Buenos Aires .
..\cufln, A., La organieacirift d<>la e,Jcup-la argenti11lJ. Buenos Aires, 1943
Ygabone, A. D., El problnna ~ducacional en la PaUlgonia. Buenos Aires, UH8
Zuretti,J. C., Comprodio d.la hUloria de la edUcaciOll general V argtnlina. Buenos Aires, 1948
WELFARE. Free medical attention is obtainn,ble from public hospital~.

Many t:'ade unions provide medical, dental and maternity services for their
lllember~ and dependants. Welfare services are scanty in places dist<mt
from urban centres.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by federal and provincial courts.
The forller deal only with cases of a national character, or in which different
provinces or inhabitants of different provinces Me partie~. The chief
foderal court is tbe Supreme Court, with 5 judges at Buenos Aires. Other
federal ,)ourts are the 5 appeal courts, one with 5 judges at Buenos Aires, and
with 3 each at La Pia ta, Parnna, C6rdoba and Rosario (Santa Fe), and cOlu-ta
of first instance in each of the provinces and territories. Each province has
its own judicial system, with a Supreme Court (generalJy 60 designated) :Lncl
several minor chambers. Trial by jury is established by the Constitution for
criminul cases, but never practised, except in the provinces of Buenos Aires
and C6luoba.
The police force is centralized under the Federal Security Council.
De Marv"l, J. A. and E., Th. Law. 0/ 4rqmlina. Compiled and translated into Engli.h,
Londoll and Buenos AJrea, 1934
FINANCE. Budget estimates of tob] ordinary receipts and expendi.

tures in 1,000 paper pesos (18 pesos = US$I):
Receipt:! Expenditure Receipts Expenditure
1963 11,780,600 16,416,700 ]966 26,198,000 26,198,000
1964 11.087,600 12,664,000 1~67 16,066,100 1.,066,100
10;:; 13,383,900 13,828,600 1958 20,615,000 26,122,000
Ext~a·budgetary expenditures bring tho 1957 total up to 61,265m. pesos.

The Government decided ill 1957 that the assets of ex.president Peron,
amounting to 150m. pesos (SS·3m.), shall be seized; his salary and allowances
from June 1946 to Sept. 1955 totalled SIS,280 pesos.
'rhe foreign debt amounted to USS1,SOOm. in 1955.
The internal national debt, 31 Dec. 1955, was 71,966m. pesos, including
28,000m. owed to the country's banking system (moneys advanced for
imports), compared ,;\'ith 9,IIiOm. at the end of 1945 (Per6n took over in
June 1£46). It is estimated for 1958-59 to be nearly 125,000m.
Tot,,) foreign investments at 31 De.c. 1955 were estimated at 17.500m.
pesos, including U.S.A., 5,75lrn.; U.K., 4,007m.; Belgium, I,S67ru.;
Switzerland, 1,684m.; France I 312.
DEFENCE. Army. The Army is a National Militia, service in which
is complllsory for all citizens from t.heir 20th to their 45th year. Naturalized
ARGENTINA 809
citizens are exempt for a period of 10 years. For the first 10 years the
JUen belong to the 'active' Army, or first line. After completing 10
years in the first line the men pass to the National Guard, and serve in
it for another 10 years, finishing their service with 5 years in t.he Territorial
Guard; the latter i8 mobilized only in case of war. The period of con-
tinuous service, or training in the ranks with the permanent forces, is
for I y ear for the Army or Air Force, and 2 y ears for the Navy. The
reservists can be called out for training periodically.
The territory of the republic is divided into 6 military districts for
administrative purposes. The Army is organi7.cd in 6 divisions, 3 cavalry
brigades and 2 mountain detachments; it consists of 31 infantry regiments,
15 cavalry regiments, 10 arLillery regiments, engineer and communication
battalions, and specialized artillery units.
In 1959 the army was 90,000 strong, of whom 70,000 were National
Service men and the remainder, an officer corps of 5,000 with 15,000 n. c . o. ~,
all of whom were career regulars. Cttrrent modernization and reorganiza.
tion will result, in a reduction to an overall total of about 75,000.
The trained reserve numbers about 250,000, of whom 200,000 belong to
the National Guard and 50,000 to the Territorial Gu ard. The territorial
reserve numbers 100,000 men.
Navy. Principal ships of the Argentine Navy:
Standard
displace· armour Tot- Sbalt
Com- ment Reil Gun. PrIncipal pedo bo..... "pe.>d
pleted Name Tons In. In. armnmcnt tuh .. power Kllots
Aircraft Carrier
1946 Indepcndencia 1 U,O OO nil 2·1 planes ; 2 8 ,12,000 20· 0
40·mm. Doforo
Cruisers
le3~ { Geneml BelWRllo \ 10,800 4 3 - 0 15 6-10" S ~-lD. - 100,000 SH
Nueve de Ju!!o .J
1939 La Argentina . 6,000 9 6-ID .. 64,000 10
{ Alrulrante Brown }
a31 Veintlcinco de Mayo 6,800 6 7-6-iD., 12 3'9-in. 86,000 32
J Ex- Warrior, purcba.ed from the United Kingdom in 19;3.
There are also 11 destroyers (3 being converted into frigates), 9 frigates,

2 submarines, 9 motor torpedo-boats, 8 minesweepers, 4 surveying vessels,
2 repair ships, a training ship, 8 transports, 7 oilers, 12 landing ships, 12
landing craft, an icebreaker, a rescue ship, 12 tugs and miscellaneous craft.
In 1951 the U.S. cruisers Bo;se and Phamix were purchased and re-
named Nueve de .lulio and General Belgrano.
The active personnel of the Navy comprises about 1,500 officers and
20,000 men (including about 5,000 conscript.s), who have to servo 2 years.
There is a corps of coast artillery of 450 men, a naval school and a sch(lol
of mechanics.
Tho Naval Aviation Service, formed on li Oct. 1919, has Borne 250 pilots,
who man 4 squadrons of aircraft. Aircraft include Grumman Panthcrs (jet),
and Corsairs and navalized Harvard tminers, of which only the two latter
types can be launched from the aircraft carrier with existing equipment;
Catalina, Mariner and Neptune maritime patrol aircraft; and various train-
ing, transport and general purpose aircraft, including helicopters.
Air Force. The Air Force, innugurated on 8 Sept. 1912 and autonomous
since 4 Jan. 1945, comprises an Air Defence Command of 2 fighter groups
810 ARGENTINA
with H.Q. at Buenos Aires, Tactical Air Command of I fighter. bomber

group with H.Q. at Parana, and Air Transport Command of 2 transport
groupa with H.Q. at Buenos Aires. The operational units form 5 air
brigades. There is a Military Aviation College at COrdoba; the main flying
school is at El Palomar. Equipment includes Meteor jet· fighters, shortly
to be replaced by U.S. F·86F Sabres, but the remainder of the aircraft,
including Lincoln bombers, are mostly piston.engined. New types are
under development in the national aircraft factory at Cordoba, which is
also a3Sembling Mentor trainers of U.S. design and Paris light jet liaison
and tmining aircraft of French design. Total strength of the Air Force is
about 300 pilots and 150 operational aircraft.
PHODUCTION. Argentina has an area. of about 670,251,000 acres, of
which about 41 % is pasture land, 32% woodland and II % (73,730,000
acres) cultivated. An agricultural census was taken in Nov. 1952. It is
estim!.ted that 25m. hectares are cultivated by the country's 75,000 tractors.
The gross national income, at 1950 prices, in Im. pesos, has been: 1945.
48,02~;; 1950, 62,249; 1953, 62,971; 1954, 65,914; 1955, 68,550; 1956,
139,1('0; 1957, 71,510; 1958, 73,254. Income pe:r capita (in 1950 prices)
rose f:om 2,991 pesos in 1943 to a peak of 4,041 in 1948, falling to 3,588
in 19M. It was 3,584 in 1958.
Argentina'S wealth is based on her great livestock industry, supple.
mentEd in recent decades by the raising of large cereal crops for export.
With 41m. cattle she ranks fourth (eclipsed by India, 160m.; U.S., 96m.,
and r.S.S.R., 70m.), but as an exporter of raw meat (excluding Denmark's
excep :ional trade in bacon) she has long led the world (pre.war average,
662,0(10 metric tons. In 1958 exports amounted to 646,000 metric tons
carcaEe weight.
Of the total slaughterings, 1958,76% were consumed within the country
(only 66% in 1937). Until 1959 Argentina's per capita consumption was
the highest in the world (240 lb. in 1957 compared with 160 lb. in U.S. and
119 lh. in U.K.).
The livestock census (11 Nov. 1952) showed : Cattle, 45,262,995 (1958
estimate, 40·7m.); shcep, 54,683,731 (47m. in 1958); pigs, 3,989,188
(3·lm.); horses (4·8m .). The Province of Buenos Aires has 38% of the
cattle. Wool production, 1957, was estimated at 409m. lb. compared with
the W46-50 average of 449·8m. Exports in the wool year ending 30 Sept.
1958, 107,000 tons; 1957, 102,926 tons. Butter production (1957), 56,000
tons; casein (1957), 35,200 metric tons ; cheese (1954), 90,024 metric
tons.
Wheat production, both hard and 80ft, expanded with the railways,
reach::ng exports of Im. metric tons in 1895. Production usually exceeds
6m. metric tons, ahead of Australia but well behind Canada and U.S.
Other cereals and linseed are also important.
Crop statistics with area (in 1,000 hectares) and production (in 1,000
metri,} tons) are shown as follows:
Annual average, 1936-40 1967-68 19 58 - 5~
Area Output Ar.,. Output Area Output
Wheat. 7,:>53 6,609 6, ~1l ' 0 6,8 10'0 5,704'0 6,500'0
L1naeed 2,961 1,359 1,447 '3 630'0 1,202-1 620·0
Maize 6,457 6,654 2,860'0 4,810'0 2,890'0 6,000·0
Oate 1,444 773 1,918 '7 995'0 1,797'7 930·0
Barley . 770 626 1,371 '8 1,010'0 1,363·8 1,125·0
Rye 1,016 291 2,861-6 630'0 2,840'0 808·0
Suntlo'ver oeed 298 S03 1,672-8 760-0 1,348 '0 354·0
ARGENTINA 811
The total grain and meat exports, in met.ric tons :
Wheat Mai1.e Linseed Barley Mea~
195~ ~ ,fi8 1,900 a7~,lOO 17,000 495,000 198,000
1966 ~ ,52:>,639 1,OR6.~' !?3 682,395 673,500
1967 2.661.1 i2 735.000 &47.016 601.000
19;;S 2,l:!9,913 1,675 ,7 J4 323,O::!O 6,16,000
Argentina's meat exporte are calculated in terms of actual weight;

converted into • carcase weight; as is the international practice, the 1958
exports would equal 646,000 metric tons.
Cotton, potatoes, sugar, vine, tobacco, citrus fruit, olives, rice and yerba
mate (Paraguayan tea) are al90 cultivated. Sugar production in 1958 was a
rocord at 961,000 tons (663,800 in 1957). There are 36 cane·sugar mills and
I beet.sugar factory. Potato harvest, 1957-58, amounted to 1,320,600
metric tons. The area under tobacco production, 1956, was 40,000 hectares;
output, 26,700 metric tons. Production of yerba mate, 1956, was 91,800
metric tons. Production of cotton in 1957-58 amounted to 168,000 metric
t.ons of fibre and 325,000 tons of seed; cotton exports, 1958, 2,526 metric
tons valued at DSS768,2i;5.
Before the Second World War the country was the largest grower and
shipper of linseed (flaxseed), but, preferring to convert it into oil, virtually no
linseed was exported from 1946 until April 1950, when it was resumed. Out·
put, 1957-58, of linseed, 605,000 short tons; exports 1958, 154,206 tons.
Stmflower seed (first grown by Russian immigrant.~ in 1900 and now furnish·
ing the country's most popular edible oil), amounted to 760,000 metric tons
in 1957-58. Exports of tung oils, 1955,9,900 metric tons, virtually all to
D.S.A. There are more than lOm. olive trees, of which 48% are in Mendoza.
Production in 1958 was 7,372 tons. Argentina's 20 quebracho extract
factories produced 218,100 tons of extract in 1951; exports, 1951,217,900
met.ric tons; production 1958, 139,200 metric tons, with 126,584 tons
exported. Argentina is the world's largest source of tannin.
Flour.milling ranks second to refrigeration. In 1957, 184 mills produced
2,197,800 tons of flour; exports of flour and products, 1958, 18,190 t<lns out
of a production of 2,288,700 tons.
Mining. Mining is of no great importa nce. Since l!l54 it has been
under state control. Argentina produced 261,000 tons of coal in 1958 (Rio
Turbio, with reserves of 3OOm. tons, etc.); she produced 5·6 cu. metres of
oil in 1958 and consumed about 14·5m. Gold (9,645 fine oz., 1957), silver
(1,543 ,200 fine oz. in 1958) and copper are worked in Catamarca, whero there
are also 2 tin.mines, and gold and copper in San Juan, La Rioja. and the
south·western territories. Iron ore (138,000 long tons in 1958), tungsten
(1,137 short tons of ore in 1957), beryllium (1 ,425 short tOilS in 19;')7), mica
(96 short tons in 1957), lead (38,914 short tons in 1957), barites (22,912 short
tons in 1957), zinc ((;7,669 short tons in 1957), manga.nese (11,000 short tons
in 1958) and limestone are produced.
During 1958 production of petroleum was 4·4m. metric tons, of which
about 88% came from government oilfields and the remainder from private
companies' oilfields. About 8·81l1. metric tons of crude oil and refined pro·
ducts were imported ill 1958. Six new oilfields bave been discovered.
I ndllstry. On 30 July 1954 a census of manufacturing, mining, commerce
and construction was taken . It. showed 621,329 firms, of which 181,763 (em.
ploying 1,536,530 men and women) were in manufacturing and mining,
417,423 (employing 1,230,466) were in commerce and 22,143 (employing
812 ARGENTINA
163,916) were in construction. Of the tota l employed in this non·agricultural

sector, :!,355,546 wero men and 565,366 (19%) were women.
Cotton textiles produced in 1957 amounted to 96,698 tons. Cement
output, 1957, was 2,337,300 metric tons. Steel ingots and castings, 1958,
269,000 short tons. Electric power production, H)58, reached 7,290m. kw.
Trade Unions. Most trade union~ are in theory affiliated to a General
ConfedEration of Labour. About 2·5m. workpcople arc organized. They
are in membership unless they specifically contract out. Legal status,
which c)nfcrs authority to negotiate wage agreements, and other privileges,
is grant.ed by the Government to the most representative union in each
industr:, or activity.
Arg..uina. Board of Trode, Overs"DJ! Economic Survey. H.M.S.O., 1056
I'astore, L. D ., GC()(}Taffa Economir;Q Nacional. Buenos .!.ires, 1~47
T&ylof, C, C., Rural Life in Argentincl. Bat.on Uouge, 1948
Windhau:;en. A .• Geologfa Ar?enlina. Buenos Aires, 1£138
Znculin, :3., L',Arge?l.ti7Ul e k sue riccheeu. Florence 194.7
COl\lMERCE. After mep-suros imposed by the dwindling of gold and

foreign reserves, the control of imports by permits and quotas was abolished
on 30 D3C. 1958. All imports have to be paid for at the free rate of exchange,
and mOltly are subject to ad valOl·em surcharges.
Import values include charges for carriage, insurance and freight; export
values arc on a. f.o.b. basis. Real values of foreign trade (in US$lm.),
exclllsi~e of coin and bullion:
1V52 1953 19[,4 1953 1956 1957 1V58
Imports 1,17V'3 79;;·1 fJ79·0 1,Ii2'6 1,127-6 1,310·4 1,232·7
Bxports 687·9 1,125-2 1,026'7 928·6 0·13·8 !)74·9 U94·0
Imports, in 1,000 metric tons, in Hl58. 14,420; 1957, 14,044. Exports

in 1958 8,557; 1957, 7,777.
Prin ;ipal imports, 1958 US$lm. Principal exports, J958 US$lm.
Textiles. 36·4 Meat. . 2V5·4
G"hemicah . 75·6 Dairy produce . 18'S
li'uels BUC, lubricants 251·5 Cereals and linseed 267·4
l'oodstulls . . 80·2 H ides. 59·0
Iron and manuractures 216·7 Wool. . . 09·1
Other metals. . 57·3 Pastoral by-products 26'7
Mnchinerr and vehicles 295·7 Forestsl products . . . 19·0
Timber and manufactures 94·5 Oilsccds (excl. limeed) and oils 126·3
Trade by countries, with imports and exports in market values (in

US$lm)
Im ports trom 1957 1958 E,tports to 1957 19J5
Braz.il 123 ·0 ]27·9 Brll,zil . 75·2 76·1
France 32·1 35·3 Belgium 3~'3 32·0
Germany (West) 89·9 115·2 France . 49·0 2·H
Italy . 53-0 68·9 Germany (West) 98·9 D<t·6
Japan. . . . 7'6 ] 7·7 Italy . 77·5 64'5
Netherlands West Indies . 54·4 47-6 Japan. 10,] 24·8
D.S.S.R. 4·6 18·5 N etherlando • 98-6 114·8
U.K. 100·7 102'1 U.S.S.R. 14·1 16·0
l'.S.A. 307·3 202 ·7 U.K. 236·9 237·1
Venezuel, 110'7 101·7 U.S.A. 112·1 128'4
Tot!>! trade (British Board of Trade returns) between Argentina and
U.K. for 5 years (in £ sterling) :
1038 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports 1.0 U.K. 38,470,723 91,C,lG,429 108,031,187 104,350,233 105,509,896
J!Jxports from U.K. . 19,338,017 ] 7,324,638 32,869,406 32,448,081 40,217,778
Re-exports (rom U.K. 377 .054 SOS,371 268.618 434,281 187,354
ARGENTINA 813
COMMUNICATIONS. From I Nov. 1948 all land, sea, river and air
transport was under the control of the lIiinistry of Transport.
Shipping. The merchant fleet., 31 Dec. 1954 (registered with Lloyds),
consisted of 400 vessels (over 100 gross tons) of ) ,070,995 gross tons; the
tanker fleet had 56 vessels of 340,421 gross tons.
The state·owned ocean and river Heet (1953) included 5,219 vessels of
1,167,298 GRT. In H)56, 1,035,000 metric tons of cargo were carried, and
2,385 vessels of 1O·5m. net tons entered Argentine ports. In 1957, 2,620
vessels of U ·Om. entered.
Railwa,ys. On 1 March 1948 Argeutina became the owner of her entire
railway system, consisting of 18 different railways with a total length of
46,000 km. (Sole exception was a railway, 900 km of metre-gauge line,
belonging to the Province of Buenos Aires, not nationalized until 20 Aug.
1951.) The amalgamation brought together 7 government railways (mostly
small) with 8,347 miles (and some 12% of the aggrega.te revenue), 3 French-
owned railways (2,660 miles and 7% of the revenue) and 8 British-owned
railways (15,561 miles and 80% of the revenue). Legal formalities were
completed on 5 May 1949_ For details 8ee THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK ,
1949, p. 746. The railways are stated to be in bad shape with renewals of
roUing stock some 25 years in arrears. Their financial deficit in 1958 was
estimated at 12,000m. pesos.
Goods traffic on the railways 11I~s declined since 1945 (total, 1954,
39·5m. tons; 1955, 36·9m. tons; 1958, 28,450,000), but passenger traffic
rose from 188m. in 1942-43 to 5i9m. in 1954-55 and 550m. in 1958.
Roads. In Hl52, 66,000 km of national and provincial highways were
open. The 4 main roads constituting Argentina's portion of the Pan-
American Highway were opened to traffic in 1942. Total highways, 1952,
400,000 km.
Post. In 1947 national telegraph lines totalled 51,000 km. In 1949
the telephone service was nationalized; instruments numbered 1,223,509
(1959), of which 661,745 were in Buenos Aires (Federal District). Privately
o,med exchanges operated 92,230 instruments. There were. in 1945, 4,382
post offices. There are 63 broadcasting stations and one television station
with I-hn . viewers. Cable service to other Latin-American countries and
V .S. is provided by All-America Cables.
Aviation. Commercial airlines flew a total of 34-,743,000 km in 1(158,
carrying 956,000 passengers and 9565 tons, of which air-mail was about 818
tons. The Government on 3 May 1949 nationalized t,he 4 domestic airlines.
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary system is on a gold-exchange

standard, the unit for foreign transactions being, nominally, the peso oro
(gold peso) and for domestic transactions, the peso mO'llcda nacional (paper
peso), legal tender for all domestic debts.
The gold peso weighs 1·6129 grammes of gold 0·900 fine: it is divided
into 100 cental:Os. The monetary la'v of 5 ~07. 1881 authorized the coinege
of 5- Hnc! 2i-pcso gold pieces. The 5-peso gold piece (the ATyentino) weighs
8·0645 !!rammes. 0·900 fine, and therefore contains 7·2580,} grammes of
Hne gold, but gold is not in circulation. Circulation consists ch iefly of
paper notes (issued since 1897) ranging from 1,000 pesos down to I peso.
814 ARGENTINA
The ce,ins actually circulating, 1958, were steel-nickel, 1 peso, 50 and 20

centavos, copper-nickel, 10 and 5 centavos.
Gol.d may be privately owned, and it may be bought and sold freely.
On 27 Oct. 1955 the Argentine peso was devalued to 18 pesos = $1 or
1 p eso = 5·55 cents U.S. The black market was made legal and is now
operat. .ng as a free market. As from 1 Jan. 1959, follOwing consultations
with tile LM.F., the offi cial exchange rate was discontinued and there is
now an uncontrolled free market for all transactions. The free rate
fiuctu8.ted considerably between 63 = USSl in Jan. 1959 and 83 in Sept.
A law promulgated 25 March 1946 nationalized the Central Bank
(established in 1935), originally as an autonomous institution, but later. in
Oct. 1 H9, placed under the Minister of Finance. who became president.
Six de~ree ·laws of Oct. 1957 have brought back a greater elasticity to the
structure, especially as regards the deposits and loans of the private banks,
which have regained their autonomy. The Central Bank continues the
normal functions of a national institution.
Note circulation (and fractional currency), 57.194m. pesos on 30 Sept.
1958 (al Dec. 1955. 37.466m.; 31 Aug. 1957. 44,7l0m.). Gold and foreign.
exchar.ge reserves were 13.082m. pesos on 23 Sept. 1958. Balances due
abroad were I,077m. pesos; net reserves amounted to 632m. pesos then.
On 31 July 1948 there were 44 banks, each with capital of Im. paper
pesos or over (including the Banco de la Nacion, with 36% of the total
assets of the banking system), consisting of 9 provincial banks, 25 domestic
banks and 10 foreign banks. all of which are shareholders in the Central
Bank. The Banco de la Nacion (founded in 1891) has 306 branches and
agenci1ls. including one at Asuncion, Paraguay.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Since 1 Jan. 1887 the use of the

metric system has been compulsory.
Argentina maintains embassies in Austria. Belgium. Bolivia, Brazil.
Canada, Chile, China, Colombill, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark, Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan,
Leban'Jn. Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay,
Peru, .3weden. Switzerland, Turkey, U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic (also
Minist.)r for Saudi Arabia), U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay, Vatican, Venezuela,
Yugos:avia ; and legations in Bulgaria, Cambodia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Icelanll. Irish Republic, Philippines, Poland. Portugal, Rumania, Syria,
Thaila nd, Union of South Africa.
OF ARGENTINA m GREAT BRITAm (9 Wilton Crescent, S.W.l)
Amba.ssad01'. Rear·Admiral T eodoro E. H artung (accredited 29 Oct.,

1958).
Minister Counsellor. Dr Ernesto Roque Piaggio.
Connsellors. Luis Francisco Bengolea; Dr Manuel Aria (Financial);
Juan Angel Pelia Gaona; Raul Enrique Dejean del Castillo (Economic).
Naval Attache. Capt. Carloa A. Sanchez Safiud o.
Air Atta{;he. Cdre A. R. Sola Clllret.
ThlJre are consular representatives at Cardiff and London.
ARGENTINA 815
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN ARGENTINA
Ambassador. Sir John Ward, K.C.M.G. (accredited 18 Oct. 1957).
Ministers. J. O. Rennie, C.M.G. (Commercial); G. E. Vaughan, C.B.E.
(Consul-General).
First Secretaries. A. J. Williams; D. 1. Dunnett (Commercial); Gcoffrey
McWilliam (Information); E. H. van Maurik, O.B.E.; Norman Hallett
(Consular); J. M. Carlin, D.F.C. (LabO'ur).
Naval and ~Military Attache. Capt. D. Vin cent-Jones, D.S.C., R.N.
Air Attache. Group Capt. D. Devitt.
There is a Consul at Rosario and there are Vice-Consuls at Bahia Blanca,
Comodoro Rivadavia, La Plata, Cordoba, Puerto Deseado, Rio Gallegos,
Rio Grande (Tierra del Fuego), Salta and Trelew_
OF AROENTINA IN THE U.S.A. (1600 New Hampshire Ave. NW.,

Washington 9, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr Eroilio Donato del Carril.
Ministers. Dr Francisco R. Bello; Alejandro Orfila. Counsellors.
Leon Santiago de la Lastra; Dr Roberto E. Guyer; Dr Alberto J . Prando;
Jorge A. Serrano Redonnet; Santos Gofii Demarchi; Leonardo A. Vartalitis
(Economic); Emilio Llorens (Financial). First Secretaries. Juan J. Matbe;
Oscar Iv8.n Pezet. Service Attaches: Capt_ Jorge J. A. Palma (Navy), Col.
Eduardo Juan Uriburu (Army), Brig.-Gen. Eduardo F. McLoughlin (Air).
OF THE V.S.A. IN ARGENTINA

Ambassador. Willnrd L. Beaulac.
Minister Counsellor. Maurice M. Bernbaum. Counsellors. Harry Con-
over (Economic); Julian L. Nugent, Jr_ First Secretaries. Arthur P.
Biggs (Consul); Franklin P. Holcomb; Charles P . Nolan (Commercial);
Irving W. Salert (Labour); Paul G. Sinderson. Army Attache. Col. Arthur
H . Wilson, Jr. Naval Attache and Naval Attache for Air. Capt. Theodore
G. White, Jr. Air Attache. Col. Albert F. Fahy. Agricultural Attache.
Robert A. Nichols. Engineering Attache. David L. Crandall.
Books of Reference
Boletin del cQmercio eztnior .Argentino I' eltadLstital econOmicaJ ,etr()Spedit'a.J. Annual
Anuario del comercio e.</Mo, tk la Republica A,~",.ti1UJ. Annual
EC()f1Qfflic Re"iet1J, Banco ik la Naci6n. Buenos Aires
Slntesi. Estadlstica M en3ual. Ed. by the Direcci6n General de Estarlistice. Bneno. Aires,
1947 fI.
Boletln Inlemacional tk Bib/iografla A,gentina. A monthly bibliography 01 Argentine
autbors. Published by Ministry of Foreign Relatione. Bueuos Aires
R..,;.I<> tk Eeonomla A~entina . A. E. Bunge, ed. (In Spanish and English.) Published
bl-monthly. Buenos AJres
Geografla tk la RepUblica A,gmtina. Ed. by the Sociedad Argentina d. Estudios 000-
grAJlC08. 7 vols. Buenos AJres, 194~-63
Bridges, E. L., Utumwst Pa,t of the Ea.u. (T""a tkl Ji'fU(lo] . New York. 1049
Oalllet,-Bol., T., HUlOria Naval A,gentiM. Buenos Aire8, 1944
Daus. F. A.• Geo(lrafla tk la A~enti1l4. 2 vols. Buenos Aires. 1946-53
Gandia, Enrlque de, Histona tk la RepUblica Argentina en ,I .iglo XIX. Bueno8 Aires, 19tO
La/and, G.• A~entine. Paris. 1948
Levene, Rieardo, A HUIO"I 0/A"I""ti1l4. London, 1938_-81.•to';0 do la Nacldn Argentina
(DIMk los 0,1gtM4 h4J1<> la organ/wC/dn tkflnillva t7I 1862). 10 vols. Bnenos Aires,
1942-50
Mackenzie, N., A,gentina. London, 1941
Mol.ne, E. (ed.), Tie"a3 AU3tral.. A'gentI1l43. Buenos Aires, 1948
816 AUSTRIA
Pendle, 'l., ,Ar9mUna. R. lost. of Iotern. Affnlrs, 1955

Rni. y Hni., RI"\! A., Hist0ri4 Civil Argt'Rlina. 3 vols. Saota F~, 1942
SaotilliUl. Diego A. cle (ed. ), Gran Enciclbpedia ,Argentina. 1956 a.
Toucbard, J ., La Rlpuhliqu. A'gt'Rli.... Paris, 1949
UGaond•• , E., Diccionario biogr6.fico Argt'Rlino. Buenos Aires 1938
AUSTRIA
REPUBLm OSTERREICB
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Austria recovered its sover-
eignty and independence on 27 July 1955 by the coming into force of the
Austrian State Treaty between the United Kingdom, the United State.~ of
Ameri<:a, the Soviet Union and France on the one part and the Republic
of Aus ~ria on the other part (signed on 15 May).
On 12 March 1938 Austria was forCibly absorbed in the German Reioh
until it. was liberated by the armies of the United Nations in spring 1945.
Alread.v in the Moscow Declaration of Oct. 1943, Great Britain, the U.S.A.
and the U.S.S.R. had resolved upon the re-establishment of a froo and
indepo:ldent Austria.
On 27 April 1945 Dr Karl Renner set up a provisional government
which restored the Republio of Austria in the spirit of the Constitution of
1920/2'~. and was recognized by the Four-Power AUied Control Council on
20 Oct. 1945. The last occupation forces left Austria in Sept. 1955.
Prf$ident of the Republic. Dr Adolf ScMrf. (Socialist, elected 5 May
1957 bV 2,296,000 against 2,160,500 votes.)
On 10 May 1959 the elections were held for the National Aaaembly. which
returned 79 People's Party (82 at the elections of 13 May 1956). i8 Socialists
(74), 8 Freedom Party (6), 0 Communists (4).
Th.. coalition government. set up on 16 July 1959, was in April 1960
compoaed as follows :
C}u,:ncellcr. Julius Raab. 1
Vice·Chancellcr. Dr Bruno Pittermann.'
Mi'lister of Foreign Affairs. Dr Bruno Kreisky. ~
M i 'lister of the Interior. Josef Afritsch.'
Mi''Iuter of Finance. Dr Reinhard Kamitz. 1
It/i''1ister of Justice . Dr Otto Tschadek.'
M i'liater of Educati01l. Dr Heinrich Drimmel. 1
M inister of Agriculture. Eduard Hartmann.1
M i'lIister of Oommerce and Reconstruction. Dr Fritz Bock. 1
M i ."uter of Defence. Ferdinand Graf. 1
!tfinuter of Social Welfare. Anton Proksch.·
Mi'lIister of Oommunicationa and Power. Karl Waldbrunner. t
• Austrian People'. Party. • Socialillt.
flag : red, white, red (horizontal).

Na.~ ional
anthem : Land der Berge. Land am Strome (words by Pallia
Na;~ional
Preradovic; tune by W. A. Mozart).
LOI:AL GOVERNMENT. The Republic of Austria comprises 9"provinces
(Vien09.• Lower Austria, Upper Austria. Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Tirol.
Vorarl oerg, Burgenland). There is in every province an elected Provincial
Assem')ly.
AUSTRIA 817
Every commune has a Council, which chooses one of its num bel' to be head
of the Commune (burgomaster) and a committee for the administration and
execution I)f its resolutions.
Adamovich. L. t Grund,is$ de3 6sterrtichischen Ver/as$ullgsTecht$. 8th ed. ,lenua 1 9~1
G.teu, H., Ldnderkund. i),teN"eic"'. \Vien 1948
Verwallungsalla3 aul staUstischer Gruudlage. Vienna, Statistisches Zcntrnlamt., 1952
AREA AND POPULA nON. For the boundaries of Austria according

to the Treaty of St Germain, signed in Sept. 1919, see THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR.BoOK, 1920, pp. 674-5.
Population
(census Perceutage Population
Provinces Area, 1 June of per sq.
(boundaries as at I Sept. 1954 ) sq. km 1951) population km
Vienna (Wien) . . . 411 1,616,125 23-31 a ,90'
Lower Austria (Nieder09terreich) 19,170 1,400,471 20·20 73
llnrgenlaod . . . 3,960 nS,I36 3·98 70
Upper Al12tria (OberOsterreich) n,ns 1,108,720 15·99 93
Salzburg . 7,155 327,232 4·72 46
Styrla (Steiermark) 16,384 1,109,335 16·flO 68
Carinthia (Klrnten) 9,534 474,764 6·85 50
Tirol 12,647 427,465 6·16 34
Vornrlh~rg 2,602 193,657 2-7~ 74
Total 83,8'9 6,933,906 100·00 83
VITAL STATISTICS
Live Still Emigra- Repot,ia·
birth. births Deaths I Marriages Divorces tion tioo
1956 108,675 1,932 84 ,996 66,689 8,994 6,109 ~t87t
1956 116.827 2.087 86,824 57,383 8,488 6,600 46.< ,84
1967 118,712 2,072 89,298 56,b1O 8,177 2,21)2 73,323
1958 119,755 1,978 85,980 66,407 1,528 1 3,9~1)
I Excluding still births.
The population of the principal towns, according to the census of 1 June

1951 (within the area as of 1 Jan. 1959), was as follo\vs:
Or:\z . 226,453 Wt.ls . 38.120 Villnch 30,069 Dornbirn . 22,632
Linz. 184.685 St. Pillten 37,722 Kapfenhcr:; 23,761 Tlnden . 21.3 12
Salzbu~ 102.927 Steyr . 36,818 KJosternell- !>:rem. a.d.D. 20,353
Innsbruc k . 95,055 Leoheu . 35,653 burg 23,320 Bregcnz • 20 t 277
KlagenJurt . 62,782 Wr. Nen8tadt 30,569
Ergebnisse der l'olks;iihlul1g 1951. 14 vols. Vicnllo, Statisti.<:hcs Zentralamt, 19v3
RELIGION. In 1951 there were 6,170,084 Roman Catholics (88,98%),

429,493 Protestants (6'19% ), 67,236 others (0'97%), 264,014 without re-
ligious allegiance (3'81%) and 3,078 (0 '05% ) unknown. The Roman
Catholic Church has 2 archbishoprics and 4 bishoprics. The Society of
Friends had 13 members in 1957.
EDUCATION. In 1958-59 t.hcre were in Austria 5,349 elementary and
private schools with 33,958 teachers and 725,020 pupils. Of all kinds of
secondary schools there were 196 with 85,411 pupils. 30 teachers' training
colleges had 601 lecturers and 4,646 stndents.
There " 'ere also 18 commercial academies with 8,051 pupilg and 54 corn·
mercial schools with 11 ,6;;3 pupils, and a combined total of 1,218 teachers,
In 19S8- fi9 there were in Austria 38 schools of technical and industrial
training (including schools of hotel m anagement and cat.ering) with 1,918
t.eachers and 16,590 pupils; 80 schools of women's pmfessions (secondary
818 AUSTRIA
level) wil;h 1,489 teachers and 10,349 pupils; 3 training colleges of social
workers °.vith 48 teachers and 121 pupils. In 1958- 59, 296 trade schools
had 4,26'1 teachers and 147,008 pupils.
Austria has 3 universities maintained by the state, viz., Vienna (in 1958-
59, 878 l;eachers, 10,713 students), Graz (338 teachers, 3,514 students).
Innsbruck (335 teachers, 3,489 students) and a Roman Catholic theological
faculty ao~ Salzburg (27 teachers, 170 students). There are also 2 technical
high schools at Vienna (323 teachers, 4,243 students) and Graz (153 teachers,
3,152 students), a mining college at LeoOOn (66 teachers, 858 students), an
agricultu:al college at Vienna (109 teachers, 747 students), a vcterinary high
school at Vienna (68 teachers, 268 students) and a commercial high school
at Vienna (102 teachers, 2,988 students).
There are also an academy of fine arts at Vienna (54 teachers, 553
students): an academy of applied arts at Vienna (57 teachers, 329 students) ;
2 academies of musie and dramatic art at Vienna ( 171 teachers, 1,133 students)
and Salzhurg (84 teachers, 451 students).
Cinema" (1958). There were 1,258 cinemas with a seating capacity of
350,000.
Newsj'lapera (1958). There were 35 daily newspapers with a combined
circulation of 1,272,000.
JUSTICE. The Supreme Court of Justice (ObeTsteT Gerichtslwf) in
Vienna ill the highest court in the land. Besides there are 4 higher pro·
vincial cc urts (Oberlandesgerichte), 20 provincial and district courts (Landes.
und K reisgericltte) and 231 local courts (Bezirlc8gerichte).
FINANCE. The budget for 6 calendar years provided reven ue and
expenditnre (ordinary and extraordinary) as follows (in Im. schillings):
1954 1955 1966 1957 1958 1959 1960
Revenue 0 •20,713 3 0 22,173 5 0 26,035'7 30.951 9 0
36,278 36,467 41,200
Bxpendlture • 22,526 0 0
24.773' 8 28,208'7 32,623'6 38,972 40,427 42,300
DEFENCE. The supreme command is vested in the Federal President ;

operational control is exercised by the Minister of Defence.
The army is organized in 3 groups : I (Vienna), 3 brigades; 11 (Graz),
2 brigad,~s; III (Salzburg), 3 brigades. Strength (15 Oct. 1956), 900
officers, 13,000 other ranks (including 9,000 long·term volunteers) and 6,000
cadre personnel.
The air force consists of a Flying Corps, a Signal Corps and an Anti·
Aircraft Corps. It is equipped mainly with training aircraft, including
Russian Yak.ll intermediate and British Vampire jet trainers, and Whirl·
wind and Alouette helicopters.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1958 the total area sown amounted
to 1,667,1139 hectares. Of this total, 750,983 hectares were in Lower Austria
and 317,(1l8 hectares in Upper Austria.
The ohief products (area in hectares, yield in metric tons) were as
follows :
1956 1967 191'>8
.Arta Yield .Arta Ykld .Arta Yiad
Wbeat 260,870 610,461 2(;1,518 514,060 262,9!;1 548,137
Rye 213,601 433,961 210,235 400,341 205,973 391,117
Barley 168,194 384.629 112,587 !92,021 112,989 835,487
Oat.e 186,667 374,369 183,661 340,175 118,220 833,160
.Potato. . 180,910 8,229,016 180,433 .,033,740 117,127 8,541,668
AUSTRIA 819
Production of raw sugar in 1949,66,700; 1951, 150,780; 1953, 182,210;
1955,219,300; 1956,219,500; 1957,289,900; 1958,314,000 metric tons.
Livestock (3 Dec. 1958) : Cattle, 2,278,983 (including 1,142,497 milch
cows); pigs,2,837,926; sheep, 194,317; goat,s, 186,518; horses, 180,303;
poultry, 9,843,400.
Forestry. Felled timber, in cu. metres: 1954, 10,945,685; 1955,
1l,392,755; 1956, 10,085,839; 1957, 1l,23 1,085 ; 1958, 10,240,149.
Ergebn/$se der /and· und forsttcirtschaftlichen Betriebszlildung 1951. 9 vols. Vienna,
Statistischcs Zeotralmnt, 1953
Mining. The mineral production (in metric toilS) was aa follows:
1967 1958 1967 1968
Lignite . 6,877,277 6,493,596 Pig-iron 1,960,285 1,818,016
Anthracite 152.339 141,048 Raw steel . 2,508,869 2,393,161
Iron ore . . 3,495,921 3,410,681 RoUed steel. 1,587,815 1,633,277
Load and zinc ore 1 • 182,845 187,912
Copper ore I • 165,177 164,489 Electrio cll,,-ent
Raw magnesite I 1,172,598 1,221,) 93 (m. kwb_)' 12,463 13,559
1 Including recovery hom slag. • Total generation.
Austria is one of the world's largest sources of high-grade graphite.
Production, which averaged 20,000 metric tons yearly from 1929 to 1944,
dropped to 246 in 1946, but rose to 18,685 in 1956, 18,921 in 1957 and
21,154 in 1958.
The commercial production of petroleum began in the early 1930s. Pro·
duction of crude oil (in metric tons): 1954,3,448,202; 1955,3,665,001 ;
1956,3,427.700; 1957,3,185,598; 1958,2,836.397.
Granigg, B., Die BocknJcMue ijs~rrelchs. Vienna, 1947
Industry. On 26 July 1946 the Austrian parliament passed a government
bill, nationalizing some 70 industrial concerns. As from 17 Sept. 1946
ownership of the three largest commercial banks, every oil-producing and
refining company, and the principal firms in the following industries devolved
upon the Austrian state: River navigation; coal extraction; non· ferrous
mining and refining; iron-ore mining; pig.iron and steel production ; manu· .
facture of iron and steel products, including structural material, machinery,
railroad equipment and repairs, and shipbuilding; electrical machinery and
appliances. Six companies supplying electric power were nationalized in
accordance with a law of 26 March 1947.
In 1956 the porcentage of the production of nationalized industries in
relation to total production was as follows: Copper ore, lead-zinc orl),
chemical fertilizers, 100%; pig-iron, 99'9%; iron ore, 99·6%; raw steel
95·8%; coal, 93-2%; rolled steel, 92·2%; electrical energy. 82'8%;
aluminium, 73'5%.
Tourism is an important industry. In 1958, 12,049 hotels and boarding-
houses had a total of 241,806 beds available. From Nov. 1957 to Oct. 1958.
3,765,638 foreigners visited Austria.
OSI/'1"re/chs Industrie 191i4-58. Vienna, Statistiscbes Zentralamt, 19fi9
I)slerreich. verstaatlich~ Industrie. Vienna, Statistiscbes Zentralamt, 1953
Fremtienurkehr in OSlerrelc"_ Vienna, Statistiscbes Zentralamt, from 19b2/53
COMMERCE, Excluded from the Austrian customs territory are the

2 Austrian communes of Jungholz and Mittelberg which, because of their
isolated location on the Bavarian slope of the Alps, have been united in a
customs union with Germany since 1868 and 1890 respectively. After t,he
820 AUSTRIA
constru,:tion of direct roads, which is being undertaken, Austria plans to

reattach these 2 communes to hcr own economic territory.
Imports and exports are as follows (excluding precious metal):
Imports Exports
1956 1957 1958 1956 1957 1955
Quantity (1,000 metric tons) 10,625 11,738 10,839 6,634 6,731 6,235
Value (m. scb.) . . • 25,319 29,339 27,912 22,07G 25,442 23,864
The total trade between the U.K. and Austria (British Board of Trade
returns) was as follows (in £ sterling) :
1937 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 2,6~6 , 276 11,273,023 9,310,562 8,145,~G4 9,112,394
Exports from U.K. . 1,~46,760 12,348,176 14,259,956 15,646,147 16,133,262
Re-expor'" from U.K. 670,850 942,273 1,263,821 1,195,012 1,133,607
Suui..1iA; , 'es AussenhlJndeIJ Osterreiclts. Vienna, Statistiscbcs Zentralamt. Annually 1949-
50; qu,..terly from 1951
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Austria has no sea frontiers, but

the Danube is an important waterway. Goods traffic (in metric tons):
2,558,4H in 1954; 3,111,602 in 1955; 4,1l2,824 in 1956; 4,720,777 in 1957;
5,058,OCl in 1958. Coal and coke and, from 1956, mineral oil' and oil
product.l comprise in bulk almost two· thirds of tbese cargoes. The Danube
Steamship Co. (D.D.S.G.) is the main Austrian shipping company.
Railways. Austrian railways have been nationalized since before t.he
First World War. Length of track (1958),5,940 km, of which 1,681 km
were electrified. Passengers in 1958 numbered 157m.
Roads. On 1 Jan. 1959 federal roads had a total length of 8,294 km;
provincial row, 22,753 km. On 31 Oct. 1958 there were registered 790,044
motor vehicles, including 282,580 passenger cars, 3,471 taxis, 68,202 lorries,
100,083 tractors and 51,637 trailers.
Post. All postal, telegraph and telephone services are run by the State.
On 31 Deo. 1958 there were 615,328 direct telephone connexions.
The broadcasting stations served 1,893,320 registered listeners in 1958.
Televisi.)D \vas inaugurated in autumn 1955; there were 49,510 registered
viewers at 31 D"c. 1958.
Aviation. Austria has 6 airports in Vienna (Schwechat), Linz, Salzburg,
Graz, Klagenfurt and Innsbruck. In 1958,8,178 aircraft touched Austrian
airports on scheduled flights.
MONEY AND BANIHNG. The Austrian unit of currency is the
schilling, made up of lOO groschen.
Tho law' for the protection of the currency through a reduction of I.he
note einnlation,' passed on 21 Nov. 1947, provides for the cancellation of
60% of all funds deposited before Dec. 1945; the conversion of the remaining
40% int.o 2% state bonds, except funds re.deposited bet,veen 4 July llnd
30 Nov. l!l4fi, The latter, as well as funds deposited after 22 Dec. }!)45,
were eXllhanged at a rate of I : 1. The law enacts also the exchange of all
b:lnk·notcs in circulation at the rate of 3: I, with the exception of HiO
schillings, converted at par for each person.
The National Bank for Austria, which was opened on 2 Jan. 1923, wns
taken oyer by the German Reichsbank on 17 March 1938. It was re·estab-
Iished 011 3 July 1945. Its first weekly balance-sheet (7 Oct. 1946) showed
assets alld liabilities of 12,560·66m. schillings, including foreign exchango of
AUSTRIA 821
8·95m . schillings and a circulation of 5,133·15m. 6chillings. At 31 Dec.
11)58 foreign exchange st.ood at 12,258m. Gnd note circulation at 16,598·2m.
schillinge-.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system of weights a nd
measures is in use.
Austria maintains emb::.ssies in Argentina (also Minister in Paraguay
and Uruguay), Belgium (also Minister in Luxembourg), Brazil, Canada,
Chile (also MinistR.r in Bolivia and Peru), France (also Minister in Irish Re·
public), Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, !to-Iy, Japan, Nethcrlands,
Pakistan (also Minister in Burma), Poland, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey, U.S.S.R., U.K., D.S.A. (also Minister in Cuba, Dominican Republic
and Haiti), the Vatican, Yugoslavia (also Minister in A lbania); and lega.
tions in Aust,ralia (also for New Zealand), Bulgaria, Colombia (also for
Ecuador and Venezuela), Czcchoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, Hungary,
India (also for Ceylon), Iran (also for Afghanistan), ISf!1el, Lebanon (also for
lraq, Jordan and Saudi Arabia), Mexico (also for Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua Gnd PGnama), Norway, Portugal, nu·
mania, Thailand (also for Cambodia, Indone3ia and the Philippine3), Union
of South Africa, United Arab Republic (also for EthiopiG aud the Sudan),
011' AUSTRIA IN GREAT BmUIN (18 Belgravo Square, S.W.I)
Amba.ssadQ1'. Dr Johanncs Schwarzcnbcrg (accredited 23 March 1955).
COllnsellor. Dr Friedrich E: .. d cl'lla t sch. Jlilitar1/ mul Air At/ad,.
CoL Heinrich Jordis·Lohauscn. pj'ess .:Wa.c M, Otto ·SeilTert.
There Gre consular representati~cs at Edinburgh, Jerscy Gud Manchester.
011' GRIlAT BRn'AIN IN AUSTRIA
Amba8sa.doT. Sir Reginald James Bowker, K.C.M.G, (accredited 5 Nov,
1958),
Counsellol·s. J . Y. lIicKenzie; C, G. Harris (Commercial and ConslIl·
General) .
First Secretaries. P. J , Tripp; C. F. Rolo, O.B.E.; P. G. A. Wakefield
(Commercial); R. O. Barritt (Labour); p, A. Rhodes (Information) ; J . H.
Farmer, M.C. ; C. R. Waddell (Consul) .
Attache for Naval Questiona. Celr W. G. McC. Burn, R .N.
Military and Air AUache. Col. D'Arcy J. D, Mander, D.S,O,
There are consuls at Vienna and Innsbruck,
OF AUS'l'RU INTHE U.S.A. (234::1 l\Iassadwssetts Ave. NW.,
Washington 8, D.e.)
Ambassador. Dr Wilfl'ied Platzcr.
COllnsellm·.Q , Dr Johannes Prol{sch; Edgal' Plan (Financial); Dr
Herbert Kind (Economic). Military and Ail' Attache. Lieut.·Col. Paul
Klein.
OF THE U.S,A . IN AUSTRIA
Ambassador, H, Freeman lIiat.t,hews,
.M·i nister Counsellor. David W, Wainhouse. Counsel101·s. W . T .
Bennett, Jr (Political); Dwight J. Porter (Economic) . First Secretari~s
a.nd Consuls. l\forton Bach; Lee B. Blallch ard; Cliftoll p, English ;
822 BELGIUM
John W. Figher; Alexander F. Kiefer ; John A. Chappelaer; Alexander

Yaney, Jr. Army Attache. Col. Donald W. Thackeray. A ir Attache. Col.
William E. Basye. Labour Attache. William L. G. White. Agricultural
Atla<;he. Einar Jensen.
Books of Reference
STATBTICAL I"FORMATIO". The Austrian Central Stntistical Office was founded in 186S.
dddr.." Neue llurg, Heldonplatz. Vienna. P,.:idmJ: Dr lla1l!l Fucbs. Main publica·
tiODS :
Btalistisches Handbuch fur die Republik O.terreich. New Series from 1 ~50
SlaIi.tueht NachriGhlen. Monthly
BrilT~ ·e tuT 4'lfff'ticl,i,cI.en Bwi.tik (17 TOIa )
Ergronisse der nichtlandwirtschaftlichtn Betriebaziil,/"1I/}, 1 Bept. 1954. 1958
Die er"'~ BestandiJufnahme tkr 4.tt"tichischen Wirtschaft. 1954
Kt,,"" Du O.lfff'tich? 1966
Benedlkl . H . (ed.). Oeschichtt der Republik Osterrtich. Munich, 1954
Bu""blJe<,k, E . H.. dlPtria. New YOl·k . IP49
lIlscocks . n., The Rebirth o/A ....t'ia . London, 1953
NATIONAL LmRARY Osterreicbische Natlonalblbliothek, Vienna. Librarian Dr Josef
StnmmvuU.
BELGIUM
ROYAUME DE BELOIQUF.-KONINKllIJK B ELGlit
King. Baudouin, born 7 Sept. 1930, succeeded his father, Leopold HI.
on 17 July 1951, when he t ook the oath on the constitution before the two
Chamb'lrs.
Fatiter 0/ the King. Leopold Ill, born 3 Nov. 1901, son of the late
King Albert (di!'ld 17 Feb. 1934) and of Queen Elisabeth, Duchess of Bavaria,
Princes3 of Belgium ; married (I) on 4 Nov. 1926 to Princess Astrid of
Sweden, died 29 Aug. 1935, and (2) on 11 Sept. (civil marriage, 6 Dec.) 1941,
to Mile Marie Lilian Baels, Princess de Rethy, daughter of Hendrik Bacls,
formerly Minister of AgTicult.ure. Leopold III succeeded to the throne on
23 l?eb. 1934; 0 11 20 Sept. 1944 parliament elected Prince Charles, Count of
Flanders, J..eopold's brother, as Regent of the Kingdom. The Regency
ended <'n 22 July 1950; but King Leopold delegated his powers to Prince
Baudotin on II Aug. 1950, and abdicated on 16 July 1951.
B,o;~her and Bister 0/ the King. (I) Josephine Charlotte, Princess of
Belgium, born 11 Oct. 1927; married to Prince Jean of Luxembourg,
9 April 1953; (2) Albert, Prince of Liege, born 6 June 1934 ; married to
Paola ltuffo di Calabria, 2 July 1959. Half-brother and half-sisters of the
King. Prince Alexandre, born 18 July 1942; Princess Marie Chl'istine,
born 6 Feb. 1951; Princess Maria.Esmeralda, born 30 Sept. 1956.
Uncle and Aunt 0/ the King. (I) Prince Charles, Count of Flanders,
born HI Oct. 1903. (2) Princess Marie.Jose, born 4 Aug. 1906, married to
Prinr-e Umberto (King Umberto II of Italy in 1946) on 8 Jan. 1930.
Thc King has a civil list of 3Gm . francs. The Queen Mother and Prince
Charles. the former Regent, each receive an annual grant of 4m. francs.
The Royal fam ily have an additional allowance of 6m . francs per annum.
B ELGIAN SOVEREIGNS
Leopold .[ 1831-6:> Leopold III • 1934-44, 1960-41
Leopold U 1865-1909 Regency . 1 944-60
Albcrt 1909-34 Baudouin • 1961-
BELGIUM 823
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The kingdom of Belgium
formed itself into an independent state in 1830, having from 1815 been part
of the Netherlands. The secession was decreed on 4 Oct. 1830 by a pro·
visional government, established in consequence of a revolution which
broke out at Brussels, on 25 Aug. 1830. A National Congress elected
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg King of the Belgians on 4 June 1831; he
ascended the throne 21 July 1831.
By the Treaty of London, 15 Nov. 1831, the neutrality of Belgium
was guaranteed by Austria, Russia, Great Britain and Prussia. It was not
until after the signing of the Treaty of London, 19 April 1839, which estab.
lished peace between King Leopold I and the King of the Netherlands, that
all the states of Europe recognized the kingdom of Belgium. In the Treaty
of Versailles (28 June 1919) it is stated that as the treaties of 1839' no longer
oonform to the requirements of the situation,' these are abrogated and will
be replaced by other treaties.
National jiG{}: black, yellow, red (vertical).
National anthem: Apres des siecles d'esclavage (La Braban~onne: word.
by Jenneval, 1830; tune by F. van Campenhout, 1830).
Both French and Flemish are official languages.
According to the constitution of 1831, Belgium is a constitutional,
representative and hereditary monarchy.' Article 25 declares that' all
powers emanate from the nation.' The legislative power is vested in the
King, the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. The royal succession
is in the direct male line in the order of primogeniture. By marriage without
the King's consent, however, the right of succession is forfeited, but may be
r~stored by the King with the consent of the two Chambers. No act of the
King can have effect unless countersigned by one of his Ministers, who thus
becomes rcsponsible for it. The King convokes, prorogues and dissolves the
Chambers. In default of male heirs, the King may nominate his successor
with the consent of the Chambers. If the successor be under 18 years of age,
the two Cham bcrs meet together for the purpose of nominating a regent du.--
ing the minority.
Those sections of the Belgian Constitution which regulate the organization
of the legislative power were revised in Oct. 1921. For both Senate and
Chamber all elections are held on the principle of universal suffrage.
The Senate consists of members elected for 4 years, partly directly and
partly indirectly. The number elected directly is equal to half the number
of members of the Chamber of Representatives. The constituent body is
similar to that which elects deputies to the Chamber; the minimum age of
electors is fixed ut 21 years, and the minimum length of residence required
is 6 months. Women were given the suffrage at parliamentary elections on
24 March 1948. In the direct elections of members both of the Senate and
Chamber of Representatives the principle of proportional representation
was introduced bv law of 29 Dec. 1899.
Senators are elected indirectly by the provincial councils, on the basis
of one for 200,000 inhabitants. Every addition of 125,000 inhabitants gives
the right to ono senator more. Each provincial council elects at least 3
senators. There are at present 46 provincial senators_ No one, during 2
years preceding the election, must have been a member of the council
appointing him. Senators are elected by the Senate itself in the proportion
of half of the preceding category. The senators belonging to these two
latter categories are also elected by the method of proportional representa-
tion. All senators must be at least 40 years of nge. They receive 180,000
824 BELGIUM
francs per annum. Sons of the King, or failing these, Belgian princes of the
reigning branch of the royal family, are by right senators at tbe age of IS,
but have no voice in tbe deliberations till the age of 25 years.
The raembers of the Chamber of Representatives arc elected directly by
the elect,)ral body. Their number, at present 212 (law of 18 May 1949). is
proportic,ned to the population, and cannot exceed one for every 40,000
inhabitants. Tbey sit for 4 years. Deputies must be not less than 25 years
of age, a:ld resident in Belgium. Each deputy has an annual allowance of
300,000 :'rancs. Senators and deputies have also a free pass all the year
over Belgian railways.
The ~,enate and Chamber meet annually in the month of No\'ember and
must sit for at least 40 days; but the ICing has the power of convoking
them on (,xtraordinary occa~ions and of dissolving them either simultaneously
or separately. ]n the latter case a new election must take place within 40
rlays ane a meeting of the ~hamber8 within 2 months. An adjournment
cannot b ~ made for a period exceeding I month without tbe consent of th"
Chambers.
Purti"s in the Senate, elected 1 June I !J5B: Christian Social, 91; Socialist,
65; Liberal. 18; Communist, 1.
Parti"s in the Chamber elected 1 June 1958: Christian SOcilll, 104;
Socialist, 84; Liberal, 21; Communist 2; Flemish People's Union, 1.
The Executive Government (Christian Social and Liberal), formed on
6 Nov. l'l58, was, in April 1960, composed as follows:
Prim" .lIfini8ter. Gaston Eyskells.
A8sislant Prime Minister. A. Lilur.
.lIfini;:ter of Foreign Affairs. Pierre Wigny.
Mini"ter of Finance. Jan van Houtte.
Minider of Juatice. L. Merchier~ (Lib.) .
.lIfinider of Defence. Arthur Gilson.
Minider of the. Congo and Ruanda·Urundi. Auguste De Schrij'ler.
Minider without Portfolio (in charge of finance and economics 0/ the
Congo). R. Scheyven.
Minider of Education. C. Moureaux (Lib.).
Mini/,ter for the Middle Classes. Paul van den lloeynants.
Mini~,ter of the Interior. R. Lefebvre (Lib.).
Minider of Agriculture. Baron Albert de Vleeschauwer.
Minil'ter of Communications. Paul Willem Segers.
Minil'ler of Economic Affairs. J. van der Schueren (Lib.).
Minider of Public Health and Family. Paul Meyers.
Mini/,ler of Public Works. O. van Audenhove (Lib.).
Minider of Foreign Trade. J. van Offelen (Lib.).
Jfinider of Labour. O. Behogne.
Minifter of Cultural Affairs. P. Harmel.
Mini,ter of Social Security. Leon Servais.
LOCAl. GOVERNMENT. The 9 provinces and 2,663 communes of Belgium
have a large measure of autonomous government. According to the law of
15 April 1920, all Belgians over 21 years of age without distinction of sex,
who havl) been domiciled for at least 6 months, have the right to vote in
commund elections. Proportional representation is applied to the com·
munal el'lctions, and communal councils are to be renewed every 6 years.
In each ':ommWle there is a college composed of the burgomaster as the
president and a certain number of aldermen.
De Seyn, DictiQnnairc histQrique P.t geographiqlle des communes belges. 2,"01s. Brussels, 1934
BELGIUM 8:25
AREA AND POPULATION. Belgium has an area of 30,506 sq. km,
or 11,775 sq. miles. The Belgian exclave of Baarle-Hertog ill the Nether·
lands has an area of 7 sq. km, and a population (31 Dec. H)58) of 985 males
and 950 females.
By an agreement signed on 23 Sept. 1956 the frontier with Germany WtlB
8lightly readjusted.
Increase luer-eo.st:
Total % per Total ~/o ~er
Cflnsus Population incrc;\se a!1nllTQ Ceusus Population lor,rcA.SO annum
1900 6,693,548 624,227 J ·03 1930 8,on2,004 62G,222 0·84
1910 7.423,7R4 730.236 1·09 1947 8,512,19. 217,&21 0·36
1920 7,465,782 41.998 0·06
Provincial Area. Estimaterl popllh,tion (31 Dec.)

Pro,,'illCCS (hectare.)
(',;~Jljtl:\ls 1956 1957 ]958
A.nt.wcrp (Anvcrs) Antwerp 286,0,15 l,J7G,lIS 1,389,860 1,40~.205
Br3-bant Jlrussols 328,312 1.901,888 1,!H9,S:n 1,9::7,049
1'1 d f We.t.
! an. ers lEast.
Drugc. 323,406 1,038,017 1,044,45 1 1,(J51,197
Ohent ~97,103 1,253,208 1,2.,7,002 1,261,440
Hnlnaut . Mons 372.065 1,265,937 1,279,003 1,276.552
Lie;;. Liege 395,116 998.661 1.00;',~-t9 I,OOR. 378
Limbourg iIa.'1..e1t 240, .67 535.782 546,87. 554.796
Luxembours ..\r!OD 441,820 216,198 ::16, 364 217,268
Namur NRmur 366.02~ 365,709 367,475 368,750
Total 3,050,660 8,951.443 9,0213,/ is H,07$,G3G
In !r158 thero were 4,458,ODI males aud 4,G20,54,t fem"lcs.

Forcigner~ numbered 379,528 on I Nov. 1954, includilJv, 161,495 Italians,
55,316 French, 4D,736 Dutch, 10,607 German and 8,22-1 British.
VITAL STATISTICS for calendar yearA:
lmmlgr.· Emlb7a-
Dirtbe Death. Marriages Divorce. ti on tion
19~6 1<19,19·1 107,453 68,881 4,416 61,106 32,757
1956 150,"10 107.523 68,700 4.313 62,r,~3 36,696
1967 15".871 I0G,455 6R,33S 4.~27 68.7n·l 36.621
1~5 8 Hi:>,83<1 lOG.74G 67 ,1~3 .1,261 47,124 40,2~7
Illegitimate births in HJ57, 3,0"17. Of the total births, including still-

born, in 1957 (l52,871l, 78,974 were boys, and 73,897 girls.
The most important tOWIlS, with estimated population on 31 Dec.
1958, are:
Brussels aud tJul!urlJi:I 1. .J.,OOO,7H Tu mllOllt 35,165
Antwp.rp (Anvors) 261,666 HMselt 35,019
Ghent ((land) 160,660 J.~ou1ers 3'1 ,95 3
LI~e (Luik) . Louvai:l
15G,5UtJ ;:4,21&
Uechelcn (Mali ne.) 63,678 Merksem 33,674
Deurce . 61,406 1'ournal (Dooruik) 33,414
O.tcnd (O.tcnde) lj ·l,GiJ;; :N"amur (Namcll) . ~:l,062
llrull!:e (Bruge.) . 52,!j:J5 Wilrvck 32,684
Borgerhout 50,645 Vilvordc 30,562
Berchem 47,5·IS Hobokcn OO,:105
St Nicol... -17,01[, He,stal 2D,65S
Genk . ·16,004 JUUlet ~D,365
Alo.t (Aalst) . 44,478 Lierr. (Lier) ~:),092
Courtrai (Kortr!jk) 42.r.61 Mons . ~6,206
eoraing 42,155 CbMleroi . 25,Q62
Ver"jers (\Vcrvik) 36,70::; Lokeren . 21),949
).{ouscron (Mocskrocu) 36,647 Ron •• (Rennl<) 25,178
J The suburbs comprise 18 distinct commun08, viz., Anderlecht, Etterbeek, Forest
Ixelles, Jette, Koekclbcrg, Molcnbeek St Jean, St GlUes, St Jos8o·ten·Noode, Schaer·
beek. Uc(!ie, Woluwe-St L::a.mbert, Aunergbem, Waoorm:\ct-Boitsfort, \Voltl\,,;,e-St Pierre,
Derchern, Ste Agat.he, Evere and O.""horen.
826 BELGIUM
RELIGION. Of the inhabitants professing a religion the majority are

RomaL Catholic, but no inquiry as to the profession of faith is now made
at the censuses. There are, however, statistics concerning the clergy, and
according to these there were in 1958: Roman Catholic higher clergy, 96;
inferio.· clergy, 6,647; Protestant pastors, 31; Anglican Church, 9 chaplains;
Jews (::abbis and ministers), 17. The State does not interfere in any way
with the internal affairs of any church. There is full religious liberty, and
part 0:; the income of thc ministers of all denominations is paid by t.he
State.
Thl,re are 6 Roman Catholic dioceses subdivided into 262 deaneries.
Estimated number of Protestants, 24,000; of Jews, 35,000.
Thll Protestant (Evangelical) Church is under a synod. There is also a
Centra.l Jewish Consistory, a Central Committee of the Anglican Church and
a Free Protestant Church.
EDUCATION. H igher Education (1958-59). There are universities at
Louvain (founded 7 Sept. 1426; 11,498 students), Brussels (4,452 students),
Ghent :since Oct. 1930 Flemish; 3,731 students) and Liege (4,362 students),
the two latter being state institutions. On 11 Nov. 1923, the Colonial
School at Antwerp (founded 11 Jan. 1920) and the School of Tropical
Medicine were constituted a colonial university (140 students). There are
also several state agricultural institutes, viz., a state veterinary school at
Curegbem (120 students) and 2 state agricultural institutes (at Gemblou:s:
and G;lent, with together · 280 students). The Poly technical Faculty at
Mons bad 269 students; there are also 7 commercial colleges, that at Ant·
werp being a state institution (283 students). There are 5 royal academies
of fine arts and 5 royal conservatoires at Brussels, Liege, Ghent, Antwerp
and Mons, 128 schools of music and 62 schools of design.
Secondary Education (1957-58). 315 state schools, 4 provincial schools
and 32 communal schools had a total of 174,637 pupils. There were also
587 f1'e3 higher·grade schools (281 for boys, 306 for girls) with 98,103 pupils
(62,857 boys, 35,246 girls).
Ele:nentary Education (1957-58). There were 9,004 primary schools,
with 91i5,339 pupils (484,203 boys, 471,136 girls) and 4,736 infant schools,
with 3112,562 pupils.
N01·mal School.s (1957-58). There were 45 for training secondary
teachers (3,436 students); 88 for training elementary teachers (12,942
studems), and 42 normal infant schools. with 3.646 students.
Ea<·h commune must havo at least ono primary school. The cost of
primary instruction devolves on the communes, with subsidies from the
State and provinces.
Cinemas (1958). There were 1,448 cinemas, with a seating capacity of
783.18 .~ .
NelVsp(tpers (1959). There are 47 daily newspapers (some with addi-
tional regional and local editions) with a combined circulation of about
2·5m . The Brussels papers account for about 1·5m. copies. French·
langua:~e papers exceed 1·3m. copies, Flemish.language papers approximate
1·2m.
SOCIAL WELFARE. The new regime of social security in Belgium
is based on the law of Dec. 1944. It applies to all workers and is admini·
stered by the Central National Office of Social Security (O.N.S.S.), which
BELGIUM 827
collects from employers and employees all contributions referring to family
allowances, health insurance, old age insurance, holidays, etc. These sums
are distributed by the Central Office to the various institutions concerned
with these benefits. Insurance against unemployment is organized through
a common fund, which also undertakes to re· equip the unemployed for
another employment while in the meantime providing for their families.
Since 1944 further laws have increased allowances, made fresh provisions
for housing (1945), injuries while working, professional illnesses, etc. (1948).
Apart from private charity, the poor are assisted by the communes
through the agency of thc bureaux de bienfaisance, whose duty it is to provide
outdoor relief, and by the governing bodies of the ho.~pices civil.9. Provisiolls
of a national charactcr have been made for looking after war orphans and
mcn disabled in the war. Certain other establishments, either state or
provincial, provide for the needs of deaf·mutes and the blind, and of children
who are placed under the control of the courts. Provision is also made for
repressing begging and providing shelter for the homeless.
In 1958 there were 10,793 physicians (including 239 dentists), 666 other
dentists, 5,116 pharmacists and 3,821 midwives. Hospital beds numbered
36,851.
JUSTICE. Judges are appointed for life. There is a court of cassation,
3 courts of appeal, and assize courts for political and criminal cases. There
are 26 judicial districts, each with a court of first instance. In each of the
230 cantoDB is a justice and judge of the peR.ce. There are, besides, various
special tribunals. There is trial by jury.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure for calendar years (in lm. francs) :
1955 1956 1957 ' 1968 ' 1959 '
Rtuipl3:
Ordinary 81,358 89,546 99,619 94.648 101.698
War 707 768 346 828 181
Extraoruinary 8.347 15,279 10.376 11,505 698
Total 90,412 105,593 110,341 106,481 102,577
E6 rdinary
enditure:
81,001 86,134 94.099 103,546 106,876
Extra.ordinury 14,271 10,'72 17,667 10,540 18,047
Tot&l 95.272 96,606 111,766 119,086 124,922
1 Budget estimates. • Provisional accounts.
On 31 Dec. 1958 the Belgian public debt consisted of: Internal debt
consolidated, 193,257,971,347 francs; short and middle tcrms, 96,660,978,503
francs; at sight, 25,366,593,503 francs . External debt, 51,589,238,928
francs. Total, 366,874,782,281 francs.
DEFENCE. A military and technical agreement signed by Belgium
and the Netherlands on 10 May 1948 provides for standardization of equip.
ment, co-ordination of training methods and contacts between the staffs of
the military colleges.
ARMY. According to the Military Law passed in 1937, the Belgian
Army was recruited by means of annual calls to the colours and by voluntary
enlistments. Military service was compulsory for those called to the
colours.
Voluntary enlistment was for 5 years (for youths less than 17), 4 years
(for youths less than 18) and 3 ycars (for youths over 18). The duration
828 BELGIUM
of militLry obligation was fixed at 25 years, of which 15 were to be served

in the I~egular Army and Reserve and 10 yeurs in the Territorial Army.
The period of compulsory s'!rvico has been reduced from 24 months in
191H, to 21 in 1D52, 18 in 1954 ant! 15 in 1957.
The Army, comprising 1 corps of 2 infantry divisions (1946), is being
reorgani~ed on lines to be decided by a Commission Mixte.
NAVY. On 28 Feb. 1949 the control of Force Navale Beige was trans·
ferred from the Ministry of Communications to the Ministry of National
Defence. The Belgian naval forces include 6 ocean minesweepers (rated
as coastal escorts), 4 fleet minesweepers, 26 coastal minesweepers, 16 inshore
minesweepers, a training ship, 10 river patrol boats and the 4,500-ton naval
auxiliary transport Kamina . Naval personnel (1960), 5,000 officers and
men.
Am :rORCE. The Air Force comprises 14 operational squadrons. These
are organized into 4 fighter-interceptor wings, equipped with Hunter day
fighters and Canarlian-built CF-lOO all-weather fighters; 2 fighter-bomber
wings with F-84F Thunderstreak and RF-84F Thunderflash aircraft; and
a transport wing with C-11 D, C-54 and smaller aircraft. Total strengt.h is
about 21,000 personnel and 400 aircraft, not counting training and second-
line rnachines.
PRODUCTION. Agricllltllrc. Of the total area of 3,050,708 hectares,
there WHe in ]()58, I, 72! ,500 hectares under cultivation, of which 31 ·14%
were under cereals, 0'71% vegetables, 5·44% industrial plants, 7·16% root
crops, 2,76% pastures and 47,13% meadows. (Only plots of 1 hectare and
over welC included in the census of 1958.)
Chief Area in hectares Produce in metric tons
crops 1956 1957 1958 1956 1.957 1958
"beat. 183,770 2u3,881 215,OD::? 698,491 700,878 778,500
llarley . 89,S.0 84,871 n,60:l 288,173 295,700 S18,OOO
Oats 154.663 145,389 139.0SI) 483.S9G 453.945 442,290
Rye 62,711 80,265 63,224 196,396 190,009 199,900
Potatoes 69,640 60,011 64.736 2.033,8~O 2,043,481 2,31 3,300
Beet (sugar) . 61,228 62,082 65.61)5 2.203,647 2,485.736 2,831,900
Beet ({odd lI'). 69,723 57.062 5·1,017 4,70l,SSO 4,961,799 4,921,842
Tobacco 1,066 1,033 1,305 2,481 2,975 3,771
On 1 Jan. 1959 there were 167,000 horses, 2,467,000 horned cattle (;n-
eluding 1,002,000 milch cows), 1l0,000 sheep, 3,400 goats and 1,361,000
pigs.
Fomtry. In 1950 the forest area covered 19% of the land surface.
Fishtries. The total quantity of fish landed amounted to 50,091 tons
valued a; 51 Hm. francs in 1958; 49,558 tons at 492,388,000 francs in 1\J57.
The fishing fleet had a total tonnage of 29,229 gross tons at 31 Dec. 1957.
Minitl.{/. Output (in metric tons) for 5 calendar years:
1954 1955 19(;6 1957 1958
Coal 29,248, no 2!l,!ll !l,6iO 29,46U,950 29,086,393 27,062,000
Driquettes 1,378,273 1,554,103 1,818,297 1,822,333 1,036,830
Coke 6,a6.821 6,599,963 7,270,450 7,156,474 6,9(1G,OOO
Cast iron . 4,625,092 6,385,110 6,760.540 5,587,662 5,519,120
Wrought s'.eel : 4,916,096 6.852,311 6.381.626 6,275,859 6,011,397
Finished st eel • 3,490,228 4,351,031 4,766,162 4.444,969 4,lflO,!j30
Production of phosphat.e of lime in 1954.26,275; 1055, 1!l,GOO; 195(;,

13,629; [957,16,134; 1958,18,000 metl'ic tons.
BELGIUM 829
Industry. In 1957 thero were 27 sugar factories, output 360,6215 metric
tons of raw sugar; 7 sugar refineries, output, 184.310 metric tons; 18 distil-
leries, output 228,646 hectolitres of potable and industrial aleohol; 476
breweries, 011 tput 10.184,727 hectolitres of beer; margarine facto ri es, output,
%,253 (19ii8 : 10 1,196) metric tons; match factories, output 60,543m.
(1958: 55,813m.) matches.
Power. The production of electricity (1,000 kwh.) amounted to
11,846,951 in 1956; 12,610,976 in 1957; 12,517,871 in 1958; that of gas (in
1,000 cu. metres) to 2,242,749 in 1956; 2,220,167 in 1957; 2,256,479 in 1958.
Ot;erJea.J Economic Su"f'~: Belgium and Lu:.um!)ou,? H.M.S.O., 1953
Blludhuin, Fernllnd, Ilisloire Iconomiqw de la Be/giqlU!, 1914-39. Brusset.. 1944.-L'lcono-
mie beige sou,l'occupaJinn 1940-44. Brussels, 1946
Buttgenbach, H .. Le. MinlralU de Belgiqlt~ el du Congo Beige. LI~ge . 1947
Dec.hesne, LBurent. Bisloire tcnnomiqflt et ,odale de la Belqiqtlt. Paris, 1932
Marione, E., Le4 8ocilU, d'ccmwmie mute en Bell}iqll~ . Rrussels, 1~47
S,a.bbe. B., Bialoire de l'indu.tlrV liniffe en Bd,giqut. Brussels, 194~
Vl\D Houtte, J. A" A'squil't d'une hi,'oir~ /r.onomiqut de kJ Belgt'qut. LouvaiD, HH3
COMMERCE. By the convention concluded at Brussels on 25 July

1921 between Belgium and Luxembourg and ratified on 5 March 1922 an
economic union was formed by the two countries, and the customs frontier
between them was abolished on 1 May 1922. Dissolved in Aug. 1940, the
union was re·established on 1 May 1915.
On 14 March l!:J47, in execution of an agreement signed in London on
5 Sept. 1944, there was concluded a customs union between Belgium and
Luxembourg on the one hand and the Netherlands on the other. The
union came into force on 1 Jan. 1948, and is now known as the Benelux
Customs Union. A j oint tariff has been adopted and import, duties are no
longer levied at the Netherlands frontier, but import licences may still be
required.
BENELUX INFORMATION Is supplied by the Secrl'tariat G~n~ral d. l'Union Douaniere
N~.rl ando· Belgo.L\U.mhollrgeoise, 170, Hue de la Loi, Brus.<els. It publishes Beneluz.
Bulleli,. Trimeslriel de S/aJislique; Statislisch Ku;arr.aalb~ichl (1~i)51!.)
Imports and exports for 6 calendar years (in 1,000 Belgian francs):
Imports Ex-ports Imports Exports
1938 23.166.~07 21.72~,903 1956 163,624.364 158,123,721
1948 87.~17,990 74.121,269 1967 171.622,1)26 109. 301,749
1965 142,202,432 138,961,415 1958 1 56 ,447,237 152,236,960
Trade by principal countries (in 1,000 Belgian francs):
Imports (rom Exports to
1956 1957 1958 1956 1957 1958
France 1 19.482,201 20.427,673 18,1 ~S,9S9 16,904,166 17,56B.809 1S,140,947
U.S.A. 20.42R.769 21,247,019 15,4n,1n 15,090.442 13,112,777 14,070,527
U.K . 13,227,314 14.07R,563 11,571.;1:')1 10.089,676 8,88'1,040 ~,S~9,S37
Netherlands . 21,362,6,~7 24,302.265 24.5i\O,644 34,658,61l 36,214.501 31.514.778
Germany, 'V. 24,339,,~U8 26,729,784 26,840,029 16,058,834 16,2R5. 5 ~4 17.61)[',796
Germany. E. 373,4I ·l 420.588 504.877 341,599 n9,336 4,,1,786
Argentina l,6HS,~14 2,046,657 2,2n2,2S2 76~.694 2,778.485 3, IH,:!75
Italy. 2.35!1,544 3.235.976 3.R~~.231 3,191.207 3.340.671 3.448.937
Switzerland 3,307,977 3,434,610 3,235.427 4,778.368 4,552.704 4,4:lH.78S
Belg. Con~o 12.109.654 9,439,402 8,29;;,550 6.919,627 6,S24,227 5.801,064
Denmark 722,102 722,173 821,157 2,659.489 2,574,118 2,4R~,H~7
U.S.S.R. 1.i91 ..i21 I,H:i,R46 1,2fH,73:i l,uS6,o78 l,410.D42 RR:I.243
India i~!l .6j.l2 689.1)20 594,040 2,448.813 1.969,244 ],870,423
Un. of S. Air. J ,970,289 1,952.282 1,417,719 1,360.457 1,591,821 I, R95.191
Cnnada 2,3":\.222 2,110.:126 2,21-1.50;J 2,544J.j9S 2,OSl,ii;;2 l , 7~1.7a2
13c;)''l.il J,507.6119 996.369 018,991 709,284 I,ORS,647 718.663
A.ustralia 3,378,395 3,829,077 2,703.6:19 1.073.379 7oi).H17 828,868
I Incillding the Sear territory.
830 BELGIUM
ThE. total trade between the U.K. and Belgium (in £ sterling) was as
follows (British Board of Trade returns) :
1938 1966 1067 1958 1959
I'"porta to U.K. 18,626,146 72,922,264 60,096,~70 60,154J56 57,538,973
B%port.s from U.K.. 8.219,780 69,226,93~ 77,485 .790 69,814,607 61,060,319
Re-e%poJu from U.K. 4,433,018 4,046,737 3,696,199 3,243,230 3,521,101
Principal Belgian-Luxembourg exports to the U.K. in 1958: Textiles

(39,127 metric tons; 1,993m. francs); metals (11 0,937 metric tone;
886m. francs); chemical and pharmaceutical products (339,885 metric
tons; !183m. francs) .
Principal Belgian-Luxembourg imports from the U.K. in 1958: Machinery
and eltlctrical apparatus (20,713 metric tons; 2,146m. francs); vehicles,
chiefly motor cars, and aircraft (81,083 mctrio tons; 1,035m. francs);
textiles (ll,611 metric tons; 780m. francs); precious stones (1 metrio
ton; 3.525m. francs).
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping.! On 1 Jan. 1959 the Belgian mer-

chant fleet was composed of 99 ships of 456,775 tons net. There were 21
shipping companies, of which the most important were the Compagnie
Maritime Beige, with 38 ships, and the 'Armement Deppe', with 13 ships.
The navigation at the port of Antwerp in 1958 was as follows: Number
of vesslIls entered, 16,282; tonnage,42,554,551. Number of vessels cleared,
16,273; tonnage, 42,574,288.
The total length of navigable waterways (rivers and canals) in 1958 was
1,583 km.
1 BcJ~ian shipping ret.urns are ~ven in the official' Moorsom tons,' whicb may be COD-
verted it to Det tons by deducting 19·85% from tbe Moorsom total.
Roads. The total length of the roads in Belgium on 31 Dec. 1958 was as
follows: State roads, 9,934 km; provincial road~, 1,311 km. The majority
of roadl are metalled.
Number of motor vehicles in Belgium, 15 Aug. 1958, 1,046,618, including
641 ,IM' passenger cars, 5,003 buses, 158, 714 lorries, 241,745 motor cycles.
Railways. The main Belgian lines were a State enterprise from their
inception in 1834. In 1926 the' Societe Nationale des Chemins de Fer
BeIges' (S.N.C.B.) was formed to take over the railways. The State is sole
holder ·)f the ordinary shares of S.N-C.B., which carry the majority vote at
Genera I Meetings. The State also retains e. control over fares, freight rates,
borrow',ng and the construction of new lines, and appoints the Board of the
company. The length of railway operated on 31 Dec. 1958 was 4,826 km of
main lilies. Revenue (1958),13,948m. francs; expenditure,13,635m. francs.
LlWlaUe, U., BI,lDi,e lit, CMmi", lit ,et belflu. Brossels, 1943
Pos~ . On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 1,895 post offices. The gross revenue
of the post office in the year 1958 amounted to 2,609,088,200 francs_
A rilgie of telegraphs and telephones for running the services en business
lines WiL8 created by the law of 19 July 1930, effective 1 Nov. 1930. Total
length <lf public telegraph wires in 1958 was 66,053 km. There were (1958)
784 telograph offices. Receipts for 1958 were 349,431,532 francs; expendi.
ture, 3~'O,902,683 francs.
In 1958 there were 680 radiograph stations.
In 1958 the telephone service comprised 618 exchanges, connecting
2,038 public telephone stations and 710,908 subscribers. There w€' re
BELGIUM 831
9,639,290 km of telephone line in service, including 7,304,242 km of 10001
line, 1,045,784 km of inter· urban and 1,289,264 km of international lines.
Number of telephones, 31 Dec. 1958, 1,036,305. Receipts in 1958,
3,381,778,000 francs; expenditure, 2,259,130,000 francs.
Aviation. The national Belgian airline SABENA (Societe anonyme
beige d'exploitation de la navigation aerienne) was set up in 1923. Its
capital is 600m. francs. In addition to its European network, Sabena
operates different r outes t o the Belgian Congo via Tripoli, Rome, Geneva,
Lisbon, Frankfurt, Cairo, Beirut, Athens and Casablanca, with through
connexions to South Africa; n,nd services to New York and Israel. In 1958
its airfieet comprised 71 aircraft, 10 helicopters and 23 training machines.
In 1958 Sabena flew 44,668,042 km, carrying 954,630 revenue passengers,
31,352,931 ton/km of freight and u,i79,095 ton/km of mt,il.
MONEY AND BANKING. The franc, containing 0'01777 gramme of

fine gold, is the unit of currency.
No gold has been minted since 1882 (save only 5m. francs struok in
1914). New silver coins of 20, 50 a nd 100 francs have been issued since
15 Oct. 1948.
The one bank of issue in Belgium is the Na tional Bank, instituted 1850.
By la w of 26 March 1900 its constitution was modified, and its duration
extended to 1 Jan. 1929. In 192u its privileges were prolonged for a further
25 years. I t is the cashier of tho state, and is authorized to carry on the
nsual banking operations. The note circulation on 30 Nov. 1956 amounted
to 112,872m. francs. The articles of association of the National Bank of
Belgium were modified on 13 Sept . 194880 as to strengthen public control.
The popular savings bank in Belgium is mainly concentrated in the Cais8e
Generale d'Epargne et de Retraite, at Brussels. The Caisse d'Epargne is a
mixed company with legally regulated functions and operates under the
supervision of the Minister of Finance. It oo.operates with the Belgian
postal service, thus obviating any need of a postal. savings system. During
the year 1957 deposits amounted to 16,400m. francs and withdrawals to
13,723m. francs.
Oblopner, D. S., Belgian Banki"" and Banking The.,v. Washington, 1943
Duprio', L. H., MOn<l4rv Recon",uclion in Belgium. Ne... York, 1949
Belgium maintains embassies in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil,
Canada, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy,
Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, NOf\I'ay, Pakistan,
Peru, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Union
of South Africa, U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, U.K., U.S.A., Vatican,
Venezuela, Yugoslavia; and lega tions in Bulgaria, Ceylon, Cuba, Czecho.
slovakia, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Finland, Guatemala, Hungary, Indonesia,
Iran, Iraq, Irish Republic, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Liberia, New Zealand,
Philippines, Rumania, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Uruguay.
OF BELOIUM IN GREAT BRITAIN (103 Eaton Square, S.W.l)
Ambassador. Rene van Meerbeke (accrAdited 14 Feb. 1958).
Minister Oounsellor. Charles Pigault de Beaupre. Oounsellors.
J acques Boon; Jacques Graeffe (Oommercial). Military, Naval and Air
832 BELGIUM
Attach,'. Col. B. E. M. Leon Tancre. First S ecretaries. Juies Herckens

(Economic) ; Andre Domus (Commercial); Georges Elliott. A gricuUural
Attach,,:. Maurice Cammaerts. Colonial Attache. J. L. C. de Quidt.
Shipping Counsellor. Baron Ph. de Gerlache de Gomery.
Th(,re are consular representatives at Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham,
Bradford, Cardiff, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hull, liverpool, Man.
chester', Newcastle, Portsmouth, Sheffield and Southampton.
0, GREAT BRITAIN IN BELGIUM

Ambassador. Sir John Nicholls, K .C.M.G., O.B.E.
Cot ;n.<ellors. G. M. WaIT; J . R. Cotton, C.M.G., O.B.E. (Commercial).
First Secretaries. K. D. Jamieson; L. F. Ross (Commel"Cial); W. H. Marsh
(Labour); Miss C. J . Polak, M.B.E. (Consular). Military and Naval Attache.
Brig. A. R. J. VilIiers. Air Attache. Group Capt. P. J. Halford, A.F.C.
CuUural Attache. A. C. Hawkins.
Th,:re is a Consul· General at Antwerp and a Consul at Ostend.
OF BELGIUM THE U.S.A. (3330 Garlield St. NW.,

IN
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Louis Scheyven.
Cot,nsellors. Jean de Bassompierre; Luc Steyaert; Thomas Basyn
(Financial) ; Louis Groven (Scientific); Baron Dhanis (Congo Affairs).
Minist ~r. Willy van Cauwenberg (Commercial). M ilitary, Naval and Air
Attach,'. Maj.-Gen. Baron Antoine del Marmol. AgricuUural Attache.
Roger Coustry. Technical Attache. Maj . Marcel Culot.
OF THE U.S.A. IN BELGIUM

Ambassador. WilIiam A. M. Burden.
Cot ,nsellors. Fulton Freeman; Richard B. Freund (Economic) . First
Secretaries. Mary M. Carmichael; Robert C. Davis (Consul); Irvin S.
Lippe .:Labour); Herbert V. Olds (Consul); Stanley M. Cleveland. Service
Attaclu~: Col. Henry L. Walton (Army), Cmdr Howard T. Scott (Navy),
Col. Woodrow T. Merrill (Air) . AgricuUural Attache. Howard J.
Dogger.t .
Th,:re is a Consul· General in Antwerp.
Books of Reference
STAT(STlCAL INFORMATION. The Institut National de Statistiquc (44 rue d e Louva in,
Bmseela) W&6set np on 24 Jan. 1831 , under tlte designation 01 Bur.." de Sf.nUstiq ue O ~n .ralo;
al ter several challl(e9. it received its present nune on 2 May 1~46. TI,e a ctivities 01 the
Institut;, are classified under tbe 2 heads of Researcb and Information. Documentation and
l'oblicutions. The 8 eootlons ot the Resear<'L Service are: Demography, Dealth, Ec.lucutioD
and General; Social A...tIairs ; Agriculture ; Industry ; Q,)m.mer<'.e and Communications ;
1'inaoce,, ; Justice; Matbemat ical Stati.>tlco. Di'ec/M· O~aJ A. Dutrasuo. Main 1"'bli·
",ions;
B uJle/ ,n du C<nnmeru EXI"i.,,,. Moothly
Bulletin ,y Statistiq1Je. Mont hly
.dnnu.li" Stati,,'i?", de 10 RElYlque e/ du Congo Be0t. Annual (from 1870)
.AnnUftir~ Agrirole. 194ft ff.
RtCfflo:emen/ general d~ la population, de l'indUJtrie et du com.mcru au 31 die. 1947. ] ;; ~vls .
Recen::emenJ Iconqmiq~ et socia! au 2 7 Itoritr, 1937. 8 vols.
BELGIAN CONGO 833
Almanach roval officiel. Annual. Brussels
L'economie belge. Ministere des Affaires Economiques. Annual (from 1047)
Dnssart, F" and Oontreras. R .• GlofJraphi~ tk la Belgiqut et du Congo. Brussels. 1947
Pirenne, H., Hi3toire tk Belgique. 7 vols. Brussels, 1932. Bibliographie tU l7,utoire cU
Belgiq1u. 3rd ed . Brussels, 1931
liaeymakcT, O. de, Btlgif!'s inlemati(}naal Beleid, 1919-39. Brussels, 194{)
Van Kulken, Frans, Hisloire de Belgique. Brussels, 1944 .-Entre deux guerres: ES(juises
de la vie politique en Belqique de 19181940. Brussels, 1945
BELGIAN CONGO
CONGO BELGE-BELGISOH CONGO
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Until the middlll of the 19th

century the territory drained by the Congo River was practically unknown.
When Stanley reached the mouth of the Congo in 1877, King Leopold II of
the Belgians recognized the immense possibilities of the Congo Basin and
took the lead in exploring and exploiting it. Various nations immediately
put forward elaims by right of earlier explorations, especially Portugal on
the strength of the discovery of the mouth of the Congo by its navigators
in the 15th century. The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 l'ecognized King
Leopold II as the sovereign head of the Congo Free State.
The annexation of the state to Belgium was provided for by treaty of
28 Nov. 1907, which was approved by the chambers of the Belgian Legis-
lature in Aug. and Sept. and by the King on 18 Oct. 1908. The law of
18 Oct. 1908, called the Colonial Charter (last amended in 1959), provided for
the government of the Belgian Congo, until the country became independent
on 30 June 1960.
Prior to 30 June ID60 legislature was exercised either by the King,
ordinary legislator by decree, or by the Belgian Legislative Chambers, the
extraordinary legislator, by law. In case of emergency the legislature was
delegated to the Governor-General, who legislated by ordinance. The
executive power belonged to the King, assisted by the Minister for the
Congo. Re was president of the Legislative Council, which, by the law of
21 March 1959, had taken over the functions bestowed upon the Colonial
Council in 1908. The L<:>gislative Council consisted of 14 nominated members
and 12 members elected by the Provincial Councils of the Congo.
The King was represented by a Governor-General, assisted by a Vice-
Governor-General, 3 Government Secretaries, a Secretary-General, a C.-in-C.
of the Forces, 6 Provincial Governors, 8 Directors-General, 3 Commissioners-
General and the Chief Administrator of the Security Department.
Governor-General. Dr Renri A. A. Cornelis.
The Governor-General was also assisted by a consultative body of 8
members (6 elected by, 2 nominated from among, the Government Council),
instituted by royal decree of 27 Feb. 1959. The Government Council, pre-
sided over by the Governor-General, consisted of 11 official and 54 unofficial
members (9 representatives of the notables, 9 of the independent middle
classes, 18 of the rural districts, 9 of the employers and !J of the employees).
The country is divided into 6 provinces: Leopoldville (capital Leopold-
ville), Equator (Coquillratville), Eastern (Stanleyville), Kivu (Bukavu,
formerly Costermansville), Katanga (Elisabethville), Knsai (Luluabourg).
The provinces are divided into 24 districts and 7 cities, the districts into
territories (136). The capital, formerly Boma, was in 19~!J transferred to
Leopold viIle.
EE
834 BELGIAN CONGO
The Provincial Governors are assisted by consultative bodies and Pro·

vincial Councils, which have powers and structure similar to those of the
central Government.
ARiEA AND POPULATION. The precise boundaries of the Congo
colony were defined by the neutrality declarations of Aug. 1885 and Dec.
1894, alld by treaties with Germany, Great Britain, France and Portugal.
The territory of Ruanda· Urundi was united economically with the Congo
by law of 30 June 1922: this was expanded into a customs, administrative
and political union by law of21 Aug. 1925.
On 22 July 1927 Belgium ceded to Portugal territory in the extreme
south·west portion of the Belgian Congo, having an area of 3,500 Rq. km,
in return for a cession by Portugal of an area in the estuary of the Congo,
near M"tadi, of 3 sq. km. Belgium further undertook the construction of
n railw!.y to link up with the Portuguese railway, starting at Lobito; this
tltilway was opened on 1 July 1931.
The area of Belgian Congo is estimated at 2,344,932 sq. km. The native
population is composed of 3 ethnical groups: Negroes (Bantu, Sudanese,
NiJotics), Pygmies and Hamites (in the east). On 31 Dec. 1958 the native
population numbered 13,540,182: othere numbering 112,759 included 88,913
Belgianl, 5,166 Portuguese, 3,635 Italians, 3,084 Greeks, 2,378 British,
2,~H5 F~ench, 1,912 Americans, 1,516 Dutch, 896 Swiss, 527 Luxemburgers,
309 SOt th Africans, 896 Swedes, 173 Canadians, 205 Germans, 154 Poles,
197 i:lpaniards. Greater Uopoldville had a white population of 21,568:
Elisabet.hville, 13,863 :Stanleyville, 5,015.
The most important native languages are: Kiswahili or Kingwana in
the east, Tshiluba or Kiluba in the south, Lingala along the Congo River
and KiI:ongo in the Lower·Congo.
REI.IGION. The religion of the natives consists of a gross fetishism:

mission work is actively carried on. There were, on 31 Dec. 1958, 10,284
missioDILries, of whom 7,436 (including 1,532 natives) were Roman Catholic
and 2,8·t8 (including I,W5 natives) Protestant.
Rorran Catholics on 31 Dec. 1958 numbered 4,546,160; Protestants,
8:!i),62.~, and Moslems about 150,000.
EDVCATION. Schools are divided into metropolitan schools (primary,

middle, technical, agricultural and secondary) and Congolese schools. The
former have a Belgian curriculum: they are also open to Congolese children.
In 1955, H)3 metropolitan schools had 25,502 pupils, 21,207 Congolese
schools :lad 1,507,812 pupils.
Beside these institutions there are the State University of Belgian Congo
and RUB.nda Urundi at ElisabethvilJe (founded 1956), the Catholic University
•Lovanium' at LeopoldviIJe-Kimwenza (1954, formerly University Centre
of Kisantu), seminaries, schools for native medical assistants, nursery
schools, midwifery schools, and specialized courses (postal school, school for
meteorological assistants, army schools).
Cine1nas (1959). There were 270 permanent cinemas.
JUSTICE. On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 26 district courts, 25 magi.

strates' ·)ourts, 139 police courts, 6 courts of first instance, 2 courts of appeal
(at Leopoldville and at Elisabethville) and 1,552 native courts. The
l:lupremE' Court has its seat in Brussels.
BELGIAN CONGO 835
FINANCE. Actual revenue and expenditure (in Im . francs) for calendar
years:
1954 19;)5 19,,6 1957 1958 I 1959 1 19GI} ,
Revenue 9,824 IO,7Jl 11.~lll 11,676 12,471 ll,7G6 13,541
Expenditure 1,~29 9,197 ll.n4 12,260 12,438 14,138 11,748
1 E::lti mates.
For 1!l58 the receipts and expenditure were estimated as follows:

Receipts Im. francs Expcnditw'c Im. francs
Income To..."'C . 3,486 Administrative,judicjnl~ervk-e
Customs and excise . 5,40n and public lorce 2,i9~
Judiciary and administration . J ,Ill Social services 3,550
Proceeds of capital and rc\""enucs 1,28:) ~coDomic services 3,lH7
Native ta>:es . . . 36'; Other services 2,27,
Crown lands, monopolies, et<'. 816
Extraordinary expenditure, to be financed mainly by loan, 1957, is

estimated at. 9,826m. francs, mainly for the Decennial Development Pla.n.
Debt, 31 Dec. 1957, consisted of 27,647,877,87!l francs consolidated debt,
a,793,80I,048 francs floating debt and 31,441,678,927 francs direct debt.
DEFENCE. The colony in peace· time possesses a force amounting to

(1959) 479 officers, 527 under-officers, 7,5!l2 n.c.o.S and 15,478 soldiers,
including about 6,000 territorial police, The force is recruited by voluntary
enlistment, and, if necessary, by some conscription.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The plantations (in hectares) cultiva.ted

by Europeans comprised, in 1958, 154,870 of palm, 130,897 of coffee, 339,407
of cotton, 64,330 of rubber, 5,292 of tea and 24,428 of cocoa.
Chief agrioultura.1 exports in 1958 (in metric tons) : Animal and vegetable
fat~ and oils, 235,762; timber, 143,649 ; cotton, 36,781; coffee, tea, mate
and spices, 73,868; rubber, 35,090; fruits, 28,768; flour, 41,1l9.
In 1958 European-owned cattle (mainly in the provinces of Katanga,
Kasai, Orientale and Uopoldville) numbered 468,782 head; sheep, 20,464;
pigs, 45,890 ; African-owned cattle (mainly in the provinces of Kivu and
Orientale), :,)36,980; sheep, 720,250; goats, 1,900,510; pigs, 307,620.
JlIining. Mining flourishes, the chief minerals being copper, diamonds,
gold, silver, tin, cobalt, uranium, radium, germanium, zinc and iron. The
most important mines in the Congo are the copper.mines near Kipushi,
Musonoie and Ruwe, The total output of copper in 1958 was 237,562 metrio
tons; of gold (refined), 10,958 kg, chiefly from the Kilo·llloto mines. The
Union Miniere produces radium and uranium from the Chinkolobwe mines.
The output of diamonds in 1958 amounted to 669,329 carats of jewellery
stones (chiefly from the Kasai district.) and to 16,604,145 carats of industrial
stones (mostly from the Lubilash diRtrict); of cobalt, 10,839 metric tons.
Tin contents of cassiterite concentrates, 11,783 metric tOils; electrolytic
zinc, 53,438 metric tons; zinc concentrates, 320,021 metric tons; tantalo-
columbite ores, 182 met.ric tons; mixed cassiterite-tantalo-columbite ores,
1,444 metric tons; tungst.en orcs, 670 metric tons; manganese ores, 338,145
metric tons; beryl, 968 metric t·ons; cadmiuDl, 4.90 metric tons; germa.nium-
oxide, 23,425 kg; coal, 294,3~3 metric tons. Uraniulll, radium and other
strategically important minerals are on the secret list.
Two pipelines connect Matadi with Uopoldville.
Electricity produced in 1958, 2,489,492,746 kwh.
836 BELGIAN CONGO
COMMERCE. The value of the special trade, i.e., excluding transit and
re-export, for the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi was as follows (in
1,000 fr:~ncs) :
1938 1,022,637 1,897,154 1955 18.480,568 23,219,071
19.6 3,'27,845 6,025,645 1956 20,120,364 27,105.881
1948 8,383,140 10,817,466 1957 21,908,562 24,004,579
1950 9,633,860 13,378,400 1958 17,986,239 20,581,231
Imports Exports
Distribution of Quani:ily in Value ill Quantity in Value in
s.,ccial trade, 1958 t1!~tric tons 1,000 !rs. metric tcm. 1,000 frs.
Belgium . • . 368,443 6,153,862 40a,OH 6,307,896
Union of South Africa. 74,296 482,885 22,764 279,610
U.K .. 35,166 1,379,190 21,361 1,971,747
U.S.A. 96,782 2,570,318 87,061 1,833,376
Germany 43,925 1,557,590 192,287 1,121,338
N etherlar ds 30,106 743,538 44,902 393,681
Italy. 126,210 663,349 57,307 1,191,338
France . . 37,261 619,585 54,384 964,398
Federatioll of Rhodesia 208,001 208,936 41,775 2:;4,120
Total trade between tbe Belgian Congo (including Ruanda-Urandi) and

U.K. (Eritish Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling) :
1955 1956 1957 1968 1959
Imports to U.K. 6,076,019 6,537,967 3,403,812 3,395,791 5,100,222
Bxports from U.K . . 8,736,791 9,001,612 10,158,192 8,491,521 8,344,481
B.expor1s from U.K. 70,148 72,539 129,308 89,534 12<1,009
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The Congo and its tributaries are

navigable over 13.744 km. Regular traffic has been established between
Leopoldville and Stanleyville, Leopoldville-Port Francqui, on the LU:l.laba
(i.e., th,~ Congo River above Stanleyville), on some tributaries and on the
lakes.
At the port of Matadi, the most important harbour of Belgian Congo,
the imports in 1958 amounted to 610,169 metric tons and the exports to
712,105 metric tons. Imports at Lobito were 69,292 metric tons and ex-
ports, 434,302; imports at the oil port of Ango-Ango, 353,663 metric tons
and exports, 10,864 metric tons; imports at Boma, 69,914 metric tons and
exports, 123,350 metric tons.
Roads. There were (31 Dec. 1958) 145,213 km ofroads, of which 33,787
km are main roads. Number of passenger motor cars, 1958, was 35,000;
lorries, :n,858; tractors,619; buses,489; motor-cycles, 3,546.
Railways. The total length of public railways on 1 Jan, 1958 was
5,174 km.
Post. In 1958 there were 335 post offices, The Congo is includcd in the
Universlll Postal Union and in the African Postal Union. Length of tele-
graph litles, 4,209 miles. There were 15 broadcasting stations, 161 stations
of wireJess telegraphy and 206 telegraph offices; telephone subscribers
number'3d 24,832.
A \Jution. There are 5 international, 36 principal, 34 secondary, 75
looal ani 78 emergency aerodromes. A regular air sE'rvice, operated by the
Belgian company Sabena, runs between Johannesburg, Leopoldville and
BruJlsel!" Stanleyville and Elisabethville and Brussels, and between Leo-
poldvillol-Entebbe-Nairobi-Dar es Salaam, Leopoldville-Loanda-Moanda,
BELGIAN CONGO 837
Elisabethville--Salisbury-Johannesburg. Interior routes are operated by
the Congo Network.
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary unit is the Congolese fmnc.

A royal deoree of 30 July 1951 authorizes the Banque Centrale du Congo
BeIge et du Ruanda-Urundi to issuo notes and coins in Be1b>'ian Congo and
Ruanda-Urundi.
The notes in circulation are of a nominal value of 1,000, 500, 100. 50,
20, 10 and 5 francs. Coins in circulation are of the nominal value of 6, 2
francs, 1 franc, 50 centimes. They are not legal tender in Belgium. Circu-
lation of money at 31 Dec. 1968 was .~,733·r;m. frn.ncs.
Banks opern.ting are the Banque du Congo BeIge, the Banque BeIge
d'Afrique, the Societe Congolaise de Banque. the Credit Congolaia, the
Banque Centrale du Congo BeIge et du Ruanda-Urundi (the state bank),
Kredietbank-Congo, Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas. There is also a
savings bank, the Caisse d'Epargnc du Congo BeIge et du Ruanda-Urundi.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The ml'tric svstem was introduced bv

law on 17 Aug. 10lO. . •
British Consul-General. I. D. Scot,t" C.M.G., C.I.E. (at Leopoldville).
There is a British Consul at Elisabethville.
There is a U.S.A . Consul·General at Leopoldville and a Consul at Elisa-
bethvill E'.
RUANDA-URUNDI
T "E RRlTomR DU RUANDA-URUNIlI
Tho territory of Ruanda-Urundi (formerly in German East Africa) was

ceded to Belgium as mandatory of the J..eague of Nations. A trusteeship
agreement was approved by the United Nations General Assembly on 13
Dec. 1946 and became law on 25 April 1949. The territory is united with
the Congo economically by law of 30 June 1922, and administratively,
under the direotion of a Vice-Governor, by a law of 21 Aug. 1925. The
frontier was formally ratified on 20 Oct. 1924. Usumbura is the capita\.
Vice-Governor-General, Governor of Ruanda-Urundi. J. P. Harroy.
Area and POPlllation. The area is 54,172 sq. km, (Urundi, 27,834;
Ruanda, 26,338). Native population (l058), 4,689,065, consisting of the
B.. tutsi, Bahutu and Batwa tribes. European population, 7,105; Asiatics,
2,320; Metis,357. Population of Usumbura. (1958), 3,935 Europeans, 975
Asiatics, 38,051 natives.
Administration. Legislation is exercised by the Belgian Parliament by
law; hy the King by decrees; by the Governor-General ofthe Belgian Congo
and the Governor of H.uanda-Urundi by ordinances. The Council of the
Vice-Government-General is a consultative institution, similar to that of the
Belgian Congo. Ruanda-Urundi has a special legislature for internal affairs.
Ruanda-Urundi is divided into 2 counties, each of which has a Mwllmi at its
head, who is appointed by oustom and invested by the Governor. ElI.ch
county is divided into districts administered by chiefs (89) and sub-districts
administered by under-chiefs (1.088). Administratively, the territory under
trusteeship is divided into 2 residences and 18 territories.
838 BELGIAN CONGO
Edu-:ation. On 31 Dec. 1958 state schools, 36; pupils, 5,682; European

teachefll, 127; native teaohers, !l0. Catholio and Protestant mission sohools,
2,407; pupils, 248,694; European teachers, 307; native teachers, 6,458.
Expenditure on education (1957), 198,882,!l71 francs.
JU8tiee . The judiciary organi7.a.tion ha.s been amended by decree of
5 July 1948, which came into force on 1 July 1949. There are non.native
jurisdic~ions: police oourts, prosecutor's courts, courts of first instance,
courts of appeal; native jurisdiction is divided into customary courts,
distric~ courts, court of the Bami territory, extra-customary courts, central
courts f.nd courts of appeal.
Finance. For 1957 revenue was 810,788,809 francs, and expenditure
!l56,690,661 francs; 1958 estimates: revenue, 1,024'1 m. fran cs; expenditure,
I,OI8·hn. francs; 1959 estimates: revenue 978·8m. francs; expenditure,
1,103·3m. francs.
On :n Dec. 19G8 the t otal debt was 4,0781ll. fra.n cs, of which 200m. \\'as
consolidated debt.
Defmce. Military force consisted on 3 1 Dec. 1 959 of 32 officers and
I1 .C.O.S and 923 other ranks. The police force numbered 840.
Pro,luction. Ruanda-Urundi is principally an agricultur",l and cuttlc-
breedin~ country. Special attention is given by the Government to the
raising of food.crops in order to avoid the famines which used to affect the
country. Area of industrial crops (1958; in hectares): Palm-oil, 7,585;
coffee, 42,287; kina, 500; pyrethrum, 1,137; t obacco, 6,320. Native-
owned livestock (1958): Cattle,930,024; sheep, 524,544; goats, 1,572,972.
Mir:ing (19 58; in metric tons). Tin contents o f cassiterite concentrates,
2,092'8; t antalo-columbite ores, 69'5 ; tllng~te l\ ores, 235'4 ; a l1lblygonite,
10; beryl, 46'3; gold, 120'5 kg.
Oommerce. Imports, 1958, 191,614 metrio tons (2,404,890,000 francs);
exports. 76,554 metrio tons (1,638,123,000 francs). Details are included in
the COtgo statistics.
CommunicatioM. Total length of principal roads open to traffic, at the
end of 1958,12,083 km. Telephones in 1959 numbered 1,514.
Books of Reference
Bulletin Olfiriel dlt Congo Beige. Bn ..""I.
Bulletin OJficia du RWlnda-Orundi. Usumbura
Bulldi" .oemuel tU. statiJlique' du C{)ngo Beige et d .. lluanda- Urun,li, L~opoldvill.
Code"t1-";. du Congo Beige, ed. P. Piron And J. ne vos. lirussel., 19,>n- 61J (with supplement:
Rtperldre tU klltgiJ/ation coloniale beige)
.dnnuairt offiri.el du COTUJO Beige. Brussels, annually
Rappt>rtl .sur l'adminiftratiQn de la (olonu du Congo Beige. Drussels, &nnually
RappMI It" I'administrlllion beige du RU4nd4- Urundi. Brussels, annually
Slati.!ti!l'" du <"","",re nlh'W, du CClIlgo Beige cl do. Ruanlla- Uro.ndi. Brusaela, aUUl,all,
Le Congo beige. 2 vols. Bmssels, 1958-59
Annuai" des missions de Belgique. Brussels. annuallr
Discou" au Gouverneur Glmtral. L~opoldville, annually (with statistical supplement)
La situal':on tronomique du Con90 Beige et du Ruanda- Urllndi. Brussels, nnn uaUy
B ibliogra~ohie ethnographi'plCtlu Congo beIge. B russels-Ter 'f' W'ell, annually
.Aaa. 91"",al du COfIIJo. Brns""I., Academic royole
D. Rouele, R., .Aaa. gtograpllique et iIi.lbrique du Congo beige et tU. ~"il{)(rtl .I>IU mandat du
Ruandd-Urundi. Dnlssels, 194i
/mag.. d,. COfIIJo. 4 vols. Brns.pl., 1953-55
E1ICfIelcpMie du Congo Beige. 3 vols. Brussels, 1~51-53
Biographit <olonialt beige. 5 vols. Brussel., Instil-ut royal colonlaJ beige, 1948-68
BHUTAN 839
Eal". (New oerfes of the periodical Congo. R~ glnb-uJe tk I. Colonie Beige). Antwerp.
1947 ft .• monthly
Guitk dt! rovOU...., at! Cl>fIl}O Beige el at! Ruanda· U,undi. 4.th ed. Brussels. 19G8
Bezy, F., Probl~6 strudurelJ ck l'lonomie congolaiu. Louvo.in and Lropoldville, 1967
Comet. R. J .• Kalanga. 3rd ed. Brussels. 1946.-La RataiUt dt! Rail. Brussels. 19~3.
-Terre Katanuai... Brussels. 1950.-Jfanitma. Brussels. 1962
De Cleene. N .• Introduction d l·.thnographie du Cl>fIl}O B.Ig. el du Ruanda-Urundi. 2nd <>d.
Antwerp. 1967
Derkinderen. G.• Alia.! .an Belgi..ch Cl>fIl}O en Ruanda-Urundi. Brusse!8.19M
Darieux, A. •• InJtitulions poliliquu, admi-l1istrativts et juridiq'u tl du Congo Beige et du Ruanda
Urundi. 2nd ed. Brussels. 1955
Hootelet. G •• L·o....",.. <ivili.• atric« tk la Belgigu, au Cl>fIl}O tk 1385 d 1953. Brussels. Acad~m1.
Royale des Sciences Coloniales. 1954
LeI~bvre, J" StrurJures ~c07lomiq1U3 du Congo- Belge et du Ruandta- Urundi. Brussels, 19[,5
hlichiels. A. and Laude. N., Le Congo hdqe et le Uuanda-Urundi. 18th ed. Brussels,IG58 .
Paulns, .r. P ., Droit pubUc du Congo belgc. Brussels, 1958
Robert. M .• Le Congo PhV.ique. 3rd ed. Liege. 1946.-G~ologie et g~ouraphi' d" Kaw.nga.
Brussels. 1956
Van Bulck. 0 •• Manu,1 tk /ifl9UI.ligu. ban/ou.. Brussels. 1949
Van Den AbeeJe, M., and Vandenput, R., Principale3 culture, du CQ1'I90 Btlge. lirus..~la,
Minist~re des ColOnies. 3rd cd .• 1956
BHUTAN
DBUK-YUL
STATE in the eastern Himalaya, between 26° 45' and 28° N. lat .• and between
89° and 92° E. long., bordered on the north and east by Tibet and India, on
the west by Sikkim and on the south by India. Extreme length from east
to west 190 miles; extreme breadth 90 miies. Area about 18.000 sq. miles;
population estimated at 700,000. The summer capital is at Tashi-Cho-
Dzong, in the Thimphu valley, and the winter capital is at Punakha.
In 1774 the East India Company concluded a treaty with the ruler of
Bhutan, but repeated outrages on British subjects committed by the Bhutan
hill· men led from time to time to punitive measures, usually ending in the
temporary or permanent annoxation of various duar8 or submontane tracts
with passes leading to the hills. Under a treaty signed in Nov. 1865 the
Bhutan Government was granted a subsidy of Rs 50,000 a year. By an
amending treaty concluded in Jan. 1910 the British Government undertook
to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan, and
the Bhutan Government agreed to be guided by the advice of the British
Government in regard to its external relations. The treaty also provided for
the increase of the subsidy to Rs 100,000. From 1 April 1942 the Govern-
ment of India increased the subsidy to Rs 200,000.
In supersession of the old treaties th" Government of India concluded a
fweh treaty with Bhutan on 8 Aug. 1949. Under this treaty the Govern-
ment of Bhutan continues to be guided by tne Government of Indi!\' in
regard to its external relations. and the Government of India have under-
taken not to interfere in the internal administration of Bhutan. The sub-
sidy paid to Bhutan has been increased to Rs 500,000, and the Government of
India agreed to retrocede to Bhutan an area of about 32 sq. miles in the
territory known as Dewangiri. which was annexed in 1865.
The form of government in Bhutan, which existed from the middle of
the 16th century until 1907, consisted of a dual control by the clergy and the
laity as represented by Dharma and Deb Rajas. In 1907 the Tongsa
Penlop (the governor of the province of Tongsa in eastern Bnutan). Sir
840 BOLIVIA
Ugyen Wangchuk. G.C.I.E .• K.C.S.I.. WM elected M the first hereditary

Maharaj~ of Bhutan. He WM succeeded by his son. Sir Jigme Wangchuk.
K.C.S.I.. K.C.I.E. (1926-62). and his grandson. Jigme Dorji Wangchuk. who
was inshlled M Maharaja on 27 Oct. 1952.
Chief fortresses or CMtles: Punakha. a place of great natural strength;
Tashi·Cho.Dzong. Paro. Andguphodang (Wangdupotrang). Tongsa and
Byaka. Beyond the guards for the defence of the castles. there is no
standing army. but a militia has recently been formed.
The majority of the people are Mahayana Buddhists of the Dntk
Kargue or 'Red hat' sect. Tashi·Cho Dzong. the chief monastery in
Bhutan. contains over 1.000 priests,
The .:hief products are rice. Indian corn, millet. lac. wax. different kinds
of cloth, musk. elephants. ponies and yaks. Extensive and valuable forests
abound. Muzzle.loading guns and swords of highly. tempered steel are
manufM tured. Good quality mica has been proved . Trade wit,h India
is consiC.erable. Imports from and exporta to the U.K .• 1959, nil.
His Highness keeps an agent at Kalimpong. The Political Officer in
Sikkim represents the Government of India in Bhutan.
Books of Reference
ilep",t on EzploraJion. in Sikkim. Bhutan and Tibet. /856-86. Edited by Lieu~.·CoI. G.
Strnhan. Dehra DUD, 1889
.& Cl)lltlli,m 0/ Treatie3 and Engagement3, relating to India and n ei']hbouring Cou ntrieJ. By
C. U. A,tcbison. Vol. XIV. Calcutta
RonaldshhY, the Ear) of, T.and$ of the Thunderbolt . London l~:1S
White. J . 0 ., Sikhm and Bhutan. London, 1909
BOLIVIA
REPUBLIOA DB BOLIVIA

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Republic of Bolivia
was proclaimed on 16 Aug. 1825; its first constitution was adopted on 19
Nov. lB26. The present constitution-the thirteenth-wM adopted in
1947. ]l:xecutive power is vested in a President, elected for 4 years by
direct I,opular vote, and not eligible for immediate re·election. In the
event of his death or failure to assume the office, the Vice· PreSident, elected
at the same time, assumes the presidency, and after him, the President of
the Senate. There is a Congress of 2 chambers (Senate and Chamber of
Deputies) which meets annually on 6 Aug. at La Paz. Under the electoral
law of J. 956, 17 senators and 68 deputies are elected in proportion to the
political districts; the department of La Paz has 3 senators. One deputy
represen.ts about 40,000 electors. The eleetorate comprises all men over 18
years aLd women over 21 if single or 18 years of age if married. Indians are
eligible regardless of literacy. About 160.000 qualified for the elections of
18 May 1951. but since 1952, when the literacy test was abolished, the
potentia,/ electorate haa risen to more than 2·5m.
La l'az is the actual capital and seat of the Government, but Sucre is
the legal capital and t.he Beat of the judiciary and the metropolitan arch·
bishop.
BOLIVIA 841
The following is a list of presidents since 1931 and the dates on whioh
they took office:
Dr DanJel Salamanca, 5 March 1931 (resigned Dr Nt!stor Guill~n (27 July-a Aug. 1946,
Nov. 1D34). provisional).
Lui. Tejada 80",ano, 27 Nov. 1934 (deposed Obief Justice Monje Gutl~rr•• (15 Aug.
17 May 1936). 1946-9 March 19(7).
(,,,,I. J os~ Davld Toro, 17 May 1936 (deposed Dr Bnrique Henzog (10 March 1947-23 Oct.
13 July 1937). 19(9).
Lieut.-Gen. German Busch, 13 JUly 1937 (com- Dr Mameno Urriolagoitia (24 Oct. 1949-15
mitted 8uicide 23 Aug. 1939). May 1951).
Gen. Oarlo. Quintanilla (provisional), 23 Aug. Gen. Hugo Bnllivlan Rojas (15 May 1951-
1939-12 March 1940. 8 April 1952).
Gen. Bnrique Pefiarnnds, 12 March 1940 (de- Dr Victor paz Estensaoro (16 .April 196~-
posed 20 Dec. 19(3). 6 Aug. 1966).
lla,. Gualberto Villaroel, 20 Dec. 1943 (deposed
and lyncbed 21 July 1946).
President. Dr Heroan Siles Zuazo became president on 6 Aug. 1956,

following a general election in June in which his party, the Movement
National Revolutionary (in power since 9 April 1952) won decisively.
11£inistcr oJ Foreign Affairs. Dr Waiter Guevara Arze.
The Cabinet consists of the President and 14 Ministers.
The republic is divided into 9 departments, established in Jan. 1826, with
87 provinces administered by sub-prefects, and 940 cantons (the number
varies) administered by corregidores. The supreme autbority in each
department is vested in a prefect appointed by the President.
National flag: red, yellow, green (borizontal).
Natiollal anthem: Bolivianos, el hado propicio (words by I. de Sanjines;
tuno by B. Vincenti).
AREA AND POPULATION. Bolivia is a landlocked state with an

area, originally, of some 900,000 sq. miles. In a series of disastrous wars
in the 19th and early 20th centuries its territorial losses to each of 5 neigh-
bouring nations has reduced its area to 404,388 sq. miles.
Until 1884, when Bolivia was defeated by Chile, she bad a strip bordering
on the Pacific wbich contains extensive nitrate beds and at that time the
port of Cobija (which no longer exists). She lost this area to Chile; but
in 1950 negotiations began; in Sept. 1953 Chile formally declared Arica
a free port and conceded special customs and warehousing facilities to
Bolivia.
The following table shows the revised area and census population of the
departments (the capitals of each are given in brackets):
Area C..ensus Oensus Aug.- Peer Hq. km.
Department.c; (sq. km.) I~OO I Sept. 1 H50 1950
La Pa. (La Paz) 133,98:; ~46,500 948,446 7·08
Oocbabamba (Oochabamba) 55,631 328,200 4~O,4n 8·82
Potos! (potosl) 118,218 320,600 534,399 4·52
SllIlts Oru. (Santa Or IIZ). 370,621 202,700 286,145 0'77
Obnqui....ca (Suere) 51.524 187.800 282,~80 6'49
Tarija (Tarija) 37,623 83,400 126,n2 3-37
Oruro (Oruro) 53,588 86,100 210,260 3·92
Deni (Trinidad) 213,564 32,200 119,770 0·56
Pando (Ool>ija) 63.827 9,000 19,804 0'31
Total 1,098,581 1,696,400 3,019,031' 2'7~
J Population in ] 900 in areas as they exist today-i.t'., Bl10wing for areas ceded or lost to
neighbours.
I All official estimate i1llowing [or under-enumeration; the total actually reconlcJ WaS
2,704,165.
842 BOLIVIA
Of the total population in 1950, 33'5% was urban. Estimated popula.

tion, 1058, 3,369,000.
Th,) language of the educated classes is Spanish, that of the Indians,
Aymani, Quechua and Guarani.
Population (1957) of the principal towns: La Paz, 339,279; Co~ha·
bamba,87,159; Oruro,75,468; Santa Cruz, 58,272; Sucre,53,825; Potosl,
51,065; Tarija, 19,089; Trinidad, 12,807; Cobija, 2,160.
Crnde birth rate, 1958, 20·8 per 1,000 population; crude death rate,
6'8; crude marriage rate, 4; infantile mortality (1955), 88'5 per 1,000
live bi:ths.
RELIGION. The Roman Catholic is the recognized religion of the
state; the free exercise of other forms of worship is permitted. The
Catholic Church is under 2 archbishops (in Sucre and La Paz), 6 bishops
(Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Oruru, Potosi, Coroico and Tarija) and 8 vicars
apostolic (titular bishops and chiefs of missions resident in Cuevo, Trinidad,
San 1[;nacio de Velasco, Riberalta and Rurrenabaque). The Society of
Friends had about 1,000 members in 1957.
By a law of 11 Oct. 1911 all marriages must be celebrated by the civil
authorities. Divorce is permitted by a law enacted on 15 April 1932.
EDUCATION. Primary instruction, free and obligatory between the
ages of 7 and 14 years, is under the care of the municipalities and the state.
All ilIi;erates between 15 and 40 years of age are required to attend li teracy
classes. but according to calculations based on the 1950 census, only 49 %
of the children of school age were attending school in 1958. Of the total
population recorded in 1952 (3,181,322) 1,781,727 or 55% were illiterate.
In 1958 instruction in the towns was given by: 37 public and 5 pri\'ate
kindergartens, with 9,343 pupils and 339 teachers; 607 public and 127
privat(: elementary schools, with 183,744 pupils and 7,193 teachers; 7S
public and 60 private secondary schools, with 36,551 pupils and 2,463
teachers; 4 state and I private teachers' training colleges, with 1,167
students and 138 teachers. Rural instruction was given at 4,383 elementary
schoolE, with 148,478 pupils and 5,896 teachers and 7 secondary schools
with L087 pupils and 88 teachers. At Sucre, Oruro, Potosi, Cochabamba
and LE. Paz are universities with together 44 faculties; the San Francisco
Xavier University at Sucre is one of the oldest in America, having been
founde:! in 1624. There are also universities at Santa Cruz and Tarija.
Cinema.! (1959). Cinemas numbered 72, with seating capacity of 40,217.
Newspapers (1959). There were 20 daily and 6 weekly newspapers with
an agg.:egate daily circulation of about 100,000.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court, superior
district. courts (of 5 or 7 judges) and the courts of local justices. The
Supreme Court, with headquarters at Sucre, is divided into two sections of
4 justices each, with the Chief Justice presiding over both. Members of the
Supreme Court are chosen on a two-thirds vote of Congress. They nominate
the district judges and largely administer the judiciary budget. President
Paz di,missed all 9 Supreme Court justices on 27 Aug. 1952, charging that
thcy h;td supported the military coup of 15 May 1951. A n ew Supreme
Court was elected by Congress in 1956.
FINANCE. The foreign-exchange revenue is derived mainly from sales
of tin a nd other non·ferrou~ metals (furnishing about 86% of export revenue
BOLIVIA 843
in 1958), but oil production and exports are of increasing importance.
Estimated revenues and expenditures in ) ,O()() bolivianos (official rate, Bs lOO
= US$I, 14 May 1953-15 Dec. 1956, when a free rate was introduced) were
as follows:
1955 1956 1957 1968 1959
Revenue 29.322,000 72,518,118 ~91,151,549 304,549,617 36S,87a,S21
NxpeDdi·
ture . 30,282,000 74,045,860 290,740,216 301,489,90() 363,815,821
Attempts to manage the tin industry on state· created moneys severely

inflated the currency. On 31 Dec. 1954 the deficit of the state·owned
mining corporation, Comibol, was Bs 14,747m. and that of the Banco
Minero (which buys the ore from private mines) was Bs 6,223m.
Although the national accounts, up to 1954, were arranged to show
surpluses, the fiscal history of Bolivia until 1956 was one of constant deficits
arising from extraordinary expenditures outside the budget. On 15 Dec.
1956 a currency stabilization programme abolished artificial exchange rates,
import licensing and price subsidies.
Chief items of expenditure proposed in the 1959 budget were (in Bs Im.):
Education, 43,918; national defence, 30,567; government and immigration,
19,889; peasant affairs, 16,620; labour and social security, 13,279; public
health, 1l,428; foreign affairs, 10,658. Aid from the U.S.A. in 1959 is
expected to amount to S21·5m.
The total public debt of Bolivia (internal and external) on 31 Dec. 1953
was Bs 37,487·4m. equal to SI97·3m. British investments, 1949, £1l,357,143.
DEFENCE. Bolivia is divided into 7 military districts, with divisional
headquarters respectively in Viacha, Oruro, Villa Montes, Camiri, Robore,
Riberalta; regional H .Q. are located at La Paz, Sucre, Torija, Potosl,
Trinidad and Cobija.
The law of 1943 provided for a permanent force of 15,O()() men, including
tho police force and the frontier carabineers, but the standing army numbers
8,O()() to 10,000 men. Military service is compulsory for all males from the
19th to the 49th year. Those from 19 to 25 years of age serve not more
than 2 years with the standing army; those from 19 to 25 years are employed
in depot service; 25 to 32 in the ordinary reserve, returning at some time
for 3 months' service; 32 to 40, with the 'extraordinary' reserve; and from
then until 49 with the Tcrritorial Guard.
The Bolivian Air Force, established in 1923, is organized into 4 groups,
and comprises staff, bomber, fighter, transport, training, reconnaissance,
maintenance and supply commands. Equipment is of U.S. manufacture.
PRODUCTION. A development programme for agriculture and in·

dustry is being undertaken with the financial and technical aid of the V.S.
Government and the advice of technical missions from the United Nations.
AgricuUure. The extensive and lmdeveloped region of Bolivia lying east
of the Andes comprises about three· quarters of the entire area. It is
estimated that about 4·94m. acres are under cultivation, but rubber, quinine,
cattle and hides are the principal products and agriculture is in a backward
condition; wheat, rice, sugar and other basic foodstuffs have still to be
imported. However, production has been maintained or increased in
recent years. In metric tons, the amounts reported in 1958 were: Potatoes,
155,000; maize, 1l0,()()0; barley, 55,000; wheat, 12,000; yucca, 60,000;
coffee beans, 2,750; rice, 15,000; sugar cane, 500,000.
844 BOLIVIA
Bolivia ranks as the second rubber-exporting country in South America,

next t c Brazil, but exports have fallen from 4,100 metric tons in 1945
to 1,0n: in 1958. Tropical forests with woods ranging from the' iron tree' to
the ligh~ palo de balsa await exploitation. The public lands of the state have
an area of about 245,000 sq. miles, of which 104,000 sq. miles are reserved
for spedal colonization. Two-thirds of the population depend upon agri-
culture and only 60,000 (less than 2%) on mining. A census of agriculture
was taken on 28 Aug. 1950-the first ever taken; the totals eventually
reported (1958) are 2,226,629 cattle, 7,223,592 sheep, 508,782 pigs, 1,228,856
goats.l,583,780 hens, 139,722 ducks and 36,727 turkeys. A colony of
Jewish refugees was established in 1940 at Buen Tierra, 60 miles east of
La Paz. and, more recently, a Japanese settlement in tho region of Santa
Cruz.
Mi7"ing. Mining is the most important industry. Bolivia normally
produces 15% of the total tin output of the world (the proportion rising to
21 % in 1947 and 1948), and mnks third in the production of this metal.
Tin mines are at altitudes of from 12,000 to 18,000 ft, where few except
native [nwans can stand the conditions; transport is costly. Bolivian tin
is extracted by shaft-mining, frequently very deep; the ore yields only 3·5%
of tin and is very refractory; tin is exported in concentrates called barrilla,
through Pacific ports for refining, chiefly at Liverpool.
A d'lcree was signed on 31 Oct. 1952 nationalizing the mining companies
of the :?atino, Hochschild and Aramayo groups, which were responsible for
about dO% of Bolivia's mineral output. Provisional compensation pro-
posed is: Patino, $7·5m.; Hochschild, $9·25m.; Aramayo, $4,976,324.
AgreeIlICnts were concluded during 1953 for the gradual payment of
compensation on a sliding scale based on prices received for Bolivian t.in
abroad The state industry is being run by the Corporaci6n Minera de
Bolivia.
Exports, 1958, of minerals, in concentrates, ingots or solder, in metric
tons: Tin, 18,013 (US$36·3m.) ; wolfram, 1,337 ($1·2m.); lead, 22,815
($i)·9m.); copper, 2,874 ($l-5m.) ; zinc, 14,222 ($3·2111.); antimony, 5,278
(Sl·3m.); silver, 188,216 kg (S5·3m.); gold, 594 kg ($0·7m.); sulphur, 398
($8,00('); bismuth, III (SO- 3rn.) . Large deposits of common salt are
found Ilear Lake Poop6 and in the south of Bolivia.
Petroleum abounds in the whole territory between the Argentine frontier
and thfl north-west territory bordering Peru; some geologists have declared
this to be potentially the largest oilfield in South America; output of crude
oil by the state oil concern, 1958, 546,236,700 litres. Following the com-
pletion of a pipeline from the Camiri field to the refinery at Cochabamba,
Bolivia slowly reached (in Jan. 1954) a volume of supplies making her
self-sufficient, with a surplus for export to Chile, Brazil, Paraguay and
Argentina. A new 350-km pipeline from Sica-Sica t o Arica, which will en-
able B'Jlivia to reach the international export market, was completed in
Dec_ 1058.
Several foreign oil companies are engaged in exploration, but none was
yet in production at mid-1959.
Th€, miners are organized in trade unions; these have their own militia
and aro an important political force.
Industry. Industries are small; in 1958 the aggregate capital of Bolivian
industry (including some public utilities, e.g., electricity), was estimated at
24,301,148,245 bolivianos. Electric power production, from modest begin-
nings, is expanding; output in 1958 was estimated at 255-3m. kwh.
BOLIVIA 845
COMMERCE. The value of imports and exports in US$ has been as
follows:
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Imports 71,415,308 82,394,160 84,057,767 92,245,934 79,592,48!1
~:qJorta 110,058,938 100,645,061 107,437,274 84,316,941 64,736.775
The 'favourable' trade balance prior to I D57 is largely illusory; the

export figures include the value of mineral ores before the deduction of
transport and smelting costs; mining companies and the Government pay
salaries to technicians et al. in usa;. U.S.A. aid materially relieves the
situation.
Tin ore has usually constituted in value about 75% of Bolivia's exports
Binee 1920.
Bolivia having no seaport, imports and exports pass chiefly through the
ports of Arica and Antofagasta in Chile. Mollendo and Matarani in Peru.
through La Quiaea on the Bolivian-Argentine border and through river.
ports on the rivers flowing into the Amazon. The chief imports are sugar.
lard. rice, flour. cooking oil, iron and steel products, mining machinery.
Illotor vehicles. pharmaceuticals. paper products and tcxtiles. In I D58
imports (in US$) were 36.942.072 (46'4%) from the U.S.A.; from Germany,
!l.785,844; from Argentina. 6,47l,000; from Great Britain, 4,747,108 (6%);
from Peru, 3.668,924, and from Belgium, 2,967,9D6.
Import and export licensing. and price subsidies and controls were
abolished by the decrees issued on 15 Dec. 1956.
Total trade between U.K. and Bolivia (British Board of Trade returns)
for 5 years (in £ sterling) :
1938 19!J6 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 3,085,304 11,214,503 16,025,247 13,259,265 13,631,74~
Exports from U.K. . 206,283 1,537 , 65~ 1,548,021 1,171,900 878,334
Re-e.xportq from U. K. 7.948 13,288 15,245 16,030 13,566
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Traffic on Lake Titicaca between

Gllaqui and Puno is carried on by the steamers of the Peruvian Corporation.
A bout 12,000 miles of rivers, in 3 main systems (Beni. Pilcomoyo, Titicaca-
Desaguadero), are open to navigation by light·draught vessels.
Road8. A motor highway. 312 miles, was completed in Dec. 1953 (with the
aid of a $28·7m. loan (plus $4·7m. for asphalting) from the Export.Import
Bank) from the highlands of Cochabamba to the lowland farming region
of Santa Cruz. Economically this road, laboriously constructed through a
most difficult section of the Andes. is Bolivia's most important. for it assists
towards the abolition of costly food imports. Of other main highways (un·
mctalled) there is one from La Paz through Guaqui into Peru. another from
La Paz. via La Quiaca. into Argentina. passable throughout the year except
at the height of the rainy season, and others from Villazon to Villa Montes
via Tarija. and from Potosi to Sucre, passable during the dry season. In
all there were, in 1950, about 6,280 miles of roa.ds. Motor vehioles, in 1957,
numbered 33,250 (11,236 cars and taxis, 7.760 pick.up trucks and vans.
1,520 buses).
Railways. The total length of railway open in 1955 was 2,721 km, of
which 1,571 km were state·owned. The principal line is the Antofagasta
(Chile) and Bolivian Railway. with a total length in Bolivia of 749 miles.
The AriC8r-La Paz line (278 miles. of which 148 miles are in Bolivia) is
state-owned. The railway (680 km) from Santa Cruz to Corumba (Brazil)
was completed in Dec. 1953. Four other new lines are under construction.
846 BOLIVIA
including 500 km from Santa Cruz to Yacuiba (Argentina) ; this was in-
augurat ed in Dec. 1957 but needs a number of bridges for completion.
P08t. In Bolivia there were, in 1948,200 post offices, 723 telegraph and
telephone offices, 151 wireless offices and about 10,950 miles of telegraph
lines. There is telephone service in the towns of La Paz, Cochabamba,
Oruro, Potosl and Santa Cruz, with (1959) 19,909 telephones. There are
24 broadcasting stations, of which one is state·sponsored.
Amt\taon. The national airline is • L10yd Aereo Boliviano'; in 1957 a
total of 13,201 flights were made, carrying )00,205 passengers and 14,480
metric t.ons of freight. Pan American·Grace Airways (Panagra) links Bolivia
with the U.S.A. and nearly all South America. Braniff International Air·
ways runs regular flights between La. Paz and Lima, Buenos Aires and North
Americn. In July 1950 L10yd Aereo Boliviano opened a r egular service
between La. Paz and Buenos Aires.
MONEY AND BANKING . The old unit of account was a gold bo-
liviano, containing 0'54917 gramme of fine gold and equal then in U.S.
money to 36'5 cents (61'8 cents in new U.S. gold dollars). Coins officially
in circulation, bronze 10,5 and 1 bolivianos; paper notes in denominations
of 1,5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1,0 00,5,000 and 10,000 bolivianos are in circula ·
tion.
On !~5 Sept. 1931 gold payments were suspended, and exchange control
set up. Gold stock rose from USSlm. to S22·8m. in 1947, where it remained
until D,,0. 1954, when it fell to S3m., and to' less than $5oo,ooO'in Jan.-Feb.
1955; in June 1956 Bolivia had Slm. in gold and $600,000 in foreib'D ex·
change.
The Banco Central de Bolivia was inaugurated at La Paz in 1928 as a cen-
tral bank of issue and in 1939 was taken over by the state. Beginning 1 Jan.
1946, itl! assets and liabilities were divided between an Issue Department and
a B anking or Commercial Department. In Bs Im., note circulation, 31
March 1959, 234,550; deposits, 183,267; foreign exchange, 1,231.
The present unit of account is the boliviano which fluctuates froely. On
1 Oct. 1959 it stood at 11,865 to the US$. The International Monetary
Fund computes 11 ,500 bolivianos per US$.
Apart from the Central Bank (with 20 branches) there are several domestic
banks (>nd Peruvian and Argentine banks and subsidiaries of New York
banks.
The cost. of· living index (based on Dec. 1931 = 100) averaged 865 in
1940.7,064 in J an. 1953.34,399 in Jan. 1955 and 280,322 in Jan. 1958. A
new index (base, Jan. 1957 = 100) was introduced in April 1958. In Aug.
1959 this stood at 106'96.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system of weights and

measurllS is used by the administration and prescribed by law, but the old
Spanish system is also employed.
Bolivia maintains diplomatic missions in Argentina, Belgium, Brazil,
Ohile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Ecuador, France, Germany,
Guateu:,ala, Irish Republic, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Spain, :3witzerland. U.K ., U.S.A., Uruguay, the Vatican and Venezuela.
BRAZIL 847
Oil BOLIVIA IN GREAT BRITAIN (106 Ea.ton Squo.re, S.W.I)
Ambassador. Dr ManueI Barrau PeIaez (accredited 21 Dec. 19;;9).
Rconomic Counsellor. Jorgo H . SaDchez Peno..
11'1 ilitary Attache. Col. Mario Prudencio CortadeIIas.
There is a Consulate in Liverpool and consular office.~ at Birmingham,
Cardiff, Glasgow, Hull and Manchest.er.
0" GREA.T BRITA.IN IN BOLIVIA.
Ambassador. Sir Jall1es Henderson, K.B.E., C.M.G. (appointed 18 Oct-.
1956).
Head of Chancery and Consul. M. A. Wenner.
. , There are consular representatives at Cochabamba., La Paz and Santa
Cruz.
OF BOLIVIA m THE U.S.A (~~20 ~fassachusetts Ave. NW. ,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Victor Andradc.
Counsellor. Mario A. Montcnegro. MiniBter Counsellor. German
Rovira (Commercial). Commercial Attache. Dr Gonzalo Sacnz. Service
Attaches: Maj .-Gen . Rcne GOI1Zlllcz T . (Army); Brig.-Gen. Waiter Arze R.
(Air) .
OF THE U.S.A . IN BOLlnA
Ambassador. Ca.rl W. Strom.
Counsellors. William L. S. WiIIiams; WiIIiam F. Gray (Economic).
Serllice Attaches: Maj. Paul Wimert (Army), Lieut.-Col. Vernon .J. Lyle (Air,
resident in Lima). Commercia.l Attache. Bernard J. Cahill.
There is a Consul at Cochabo.mba.
Books of Reference
There is no official g-nz.ette.
A nuario Geogrlifta> V EstiUlUtico iU la RepUblica de BoIioia.
A,mario del CfJrru.,do Exl6io, d~ Bolirria
BoIdl.. M ....rual iU I nfOM1llldcJn Es/a4l..tica
Con.titucicJn Polltita del E.l4do. La Pa•• 1950
Rqwrt 0/ tht U.N. J(usitm 0/ Ttchnical Aj'J'i."anu 10 BolifJia. New York. IS!)]
Eunwmit R..,w 0/ Bolivia. Washington, D.C. Department 01 Commerce, 1947
Tl~ Political O,ga"ieation of Bolivia. (Carnegie Institute.) W""hington. 19(0
Arguedas, A .• HiJtoria fk Bolivia. La Paz, 1924. Frencu translation. Paris, 192:;
Pain. C., BolivU. Pari~, 1955
F3wcett, P . H., Ezpl()f'alim" Parnutt. London, 1953
Kn.nter, Helmuth. {)t',Oran CJ,.aco und uin, Ranogtbitu. Hamburg, 1936
Linkp.. Lilo, .dndcan ..4.df·enlu,e: .A Social and Political SludV 0/ Colombia, Ecuadcr and
Rolif1ia. London, 194 ..
o.uo.oe, H., Boliria: q land diflidtd. R. Inst. 01 Int. Aftalrll, 2nd od. 1955.-lndian, of th•
.1.nMs. Londofl., 19a2
8<ott, P. R., EconM"ic and Commercial Condition. i" Boliflia Du. 1955. R.M.S.O. 195~
BRAZIL
ESTADOS UNIDOS DOBRASIL
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Brazil was discovered on
3 Ma.y 1500 by the Portuguese Admiral Pedro Alvares Cabral, and thns
beca.me a. Port.uguese settlement.; in 1815 the colony was declared 'a king.
dom', and on 13 May 1822 Dom Pedro, eldest surviving son of King Joao
of Portugal, was chosen 'Perpetual Defender' of Brazil by a National
Congress. He proclaimed the independence of the country 011 7 Sept. 1822,
848 BRAZIL
and was chosen' Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender' on 12 Oct.

18~2. ')n 15 Nov. 1889 his only son, Dom Pedro II (1825-91), was dethroned
by a revolution, and Brazil declared a republic.
Presldents since the establishment of the republic:
MMShal 11eadoro da Fonseca, 16 NOT. 1889- Dr JIlpltllclo da Sllva Pessoa, 28 July 1919-
23 NOT 1891 (resigned). 15 Nov. 1922.
MMShal Floriano Peixoto (Acting President), Dr Arthnr Bernardes, 15 Nov. 1922-16 NOT.
23 Nov. 1891- 16 Nov. 1894. 1926.
Dr Prodellte de Moraes B&lT08,IS Nov. 1894- Dr Washlngton Luiz Pereira de Souu, 16
15 NOT 1898. Nov. 1926-26 Oct. 1930 (depoaed).
Dr Mannel Fermz d. Oamp08 Salles, 16 Nov. Dr Getl'llio Dornell... VIll'!!'''", 26 Oot. 1930-
1898-11. Nov. 1902. 29 Oct. 19o15 (resigned).
Dr Francisco d .. Paula Rodrigues A1Tes 15 Dr Jo.6 Llnhares (Provisional President), SO
Nov. HO~-16 NOT. 1906. Oct. 1946-31 Jan. 1946.
Dr Monno Penna, 16 Nov. 1906-U June Gen. Eurico Gaspar Dutra, 31 Jan. 1948-
1909 (d .ed). 31 Jan. 1951.
Dr Nilo Pe<;anha (Acting President), 14 June Dr Getlilio Dornelies Vargas, 31 Jan. 1961-
1909-11, Nov. 1910. died 24 Aug. 1954.
Harsha) Hermes da Fonseca,15 NOT. 1910-16 Dr Jolio Cal6 Filho, 24 Aug. 1964-8 NOT.
Nov. 1114. 1965 (resigned).
Dr Wen", ..lau Br..., 15 Nov. 1914-16 Nov. Oarl08 Ooimbra da Laz (Acting President),
1918. 8 NOT. 1956-11 Nov. 1965 (deposed).
Dr FrancillCo de Paula Rodrigues Alve•. l Nereu Ramo. (Acting President), 11 NOT.
Dr Delpbim Moreira (Acting President), 15 1956-31 Jan. 11;56.
Nov. 11'18-28 July 1919.
, Owing to illness did not take office on 15 Nov. 1918; died 16 Jan. 1919.
The present constitution, adopted on 18 Sept. 1946, restored many

featuree of the old one of 16 July 1934 (see THE STATESlIU.N'S YEAR· BOOK,
1949, p . 782), including a bicameral legislature, the Senate elected for 8
years and the Chamber of Deputies for 4 years. The President and Vice-
President are elected for 5 years and are not eligible for succcssive terms.
Freedom of speech and press are not absolute: war propaganda, the
teaching of 'subversive doctrines' and the dissemination of race or class
prejudices are banned, as also are political parties opposed to democracy,
the exii:ting multi-party system or to 'fundamental human rights' which
include the right to own private property. The Supreme Electoral Tribune
on 7 lby 1947 decided by 3 votes to 2 that the Communist Party is illegal
and mav not appear on the ballot.
A novel provision of the constitution is that no taxation may be levied
upon the royalties of authors or the incomes of professors or journalists.
Under the new electoral code the vote is compulsory for men and em·
ployed women between the ages of 18 and 65 and optional for unemployed
women and persons over 65 and for officers of the armed forces. Enlisted
men an:! illiterates (who comprise 57'4% of the adult population) may not
vote. Registered electors, 1958, numbered 13,783,094. Several women
hold re!lponsible government offices.
Praidenl of the Republic. Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, G.B.E.,
elected 3 Oct. 1955; assumed office 31 Jan. 1956.
The.:e are Secretaries of State at the head of the following Ministries:
Financ{,; Justice and Interior; Foreign Affairs; Transport, Communica-
tions and Public Works; Agriculture; Labour, Industry and Commerce;
Educatton aud Culture; Public Health; and the Military Ministries of War,
Marine and Air.
N at·ional flag: green, with yellow lozenge enclosing a blue sphere, with
21 white stars, of which 5 form the southern cross, and the motto Ordem e
ProgreBso.
BRAZIL 849
National a.nthem: Ouviram do Ipiranga (words by J. O. Duque Estrada ;
tune by F. M. da Silva).
The Capital. At present, Rio de Janeiro which occupies a • federal
district' of 538 sq. miles detached from the state of Rio de Janeiro. But
in 1956 legislation was passed for the creation of a new federal district
• Brasllia' within the west· central state of Goias, about 1,000 km north-west
of the present cll-pital. The movement dates from 1892.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Brazil consist.~ of 20 states, 5 federal territories
(Acre. Rond()nia, Rio Branco, Amapa, Fernando de Noronha) and I federal
district. Each state has its distinct admiuistrat.ive, legislative and judicial
authorities, its own constitution and laws, which must, however, agree with
tho constitutional principles of the Union. The states may unite or split
or form new states. Taxes on inter-state commerce, levied by individual
states, are prohibited; but state export taxes on products shipped abroad,
limited to 5% ad valorem, are permitted. The governors and members of
the legislatures are elected, but magistrates are appointed and are not
removllble from office save by judicial sentence.
AREA AND POPULATION. Cell8us returns for] 940 and for 1 July
H);}O:
Area Census population
Stato and capital (sq. km) 1940 1950
North: 3,579,991 1,462,420 1,84U~6
RondOnia' (perto Velbo '
Acre (Rio Branoo) .
2·12,983 -'
79,768
36,936
162,689 114,765
Amawn ... ' (Manaus) . 1,586,473 438,006 61+,09~
Rio Branco (Boa Vista') .
Para (BeIOOt) .
230,660
1,229,983
-'
944,644
lS.IHI
1,123,273
Amapa (MacapA ' ) . 137,303 -' 37,471
North~t : 969,736 9,973,642 12,494,411
Maranhiio (Silo Luls) 832,174 1,23 .~,169 1,683,248
Piaul (TeresIDl\) , . 251,683 S11,601 1,046,698
Ceara (Fortaleza)' . 147.895 2,091,032 2,695,460
Rio Orande do Norte (Natal) 63,069 768,018 961,921
P ......lba (Joiio Pcssoa) 66,556 1,422,282 1,713,269
Pemrunbuoo (Recife) 98,019 2,688,240 3,396,186
A.lago88 (Macei6) 27.793 951,300 1.093,131
Femando de NoronlJa· 27 -' 681
East :' 1,261,027 15,625,953 18,893,007
8ergipe (A.mcaj.l) 22,027 542.326 644,361
llahia (Salvador) 563,367 3,91 8,112 4,834,576
Minas Ocrai. (Belo Hori'wnte) . 681,9i5 6,736,416 1,lIi,79'
Esplrito Santo ' (VilAlria) 39,671 760,107 861,662
R.io de Janeiro (Nitoroi) . 42,688 1,841,867 2,297,19'
Dist. Federal (Rio de Janeiro . 1,366 1,764,141 2,S77,451
• 'l'be name 'TcrrllAlrio Federal do Gunpor~' was changed to 'Territl>rio Federal de

RondOnia' on 17 Feb. 1956.
• Raieed to the status of territoriaJ capitals in 1943 ; previously, POrta Velbu and Boa
Vista belonged to the stato of Amawn88 and Mscllpa to the Sta te of Para.
, Including 3,192 sq. km in dispute with the state of Pari.
• locluding 8 sq. km of Islete.
, Territory creatod in 1942: the 1940 cellsus figures are included in those lor the state of
Pernambnoo ot wWch the torritory then formed p"rt.
• A. rewlon of 2.460 sq. km i. to ba delimited between the stateo 01 Plaul and (le ......
, Including 10,131 sq. km and population figures of 66,99·1 and 160,072 respectively tor
1940 and 1960 oorresponding to the Regiiio da Serra dos Almor!>l. torritory In dl8puto betWeeD
Minas 0eraiJ! aod Esplrito Santo and sobaequeotly sep......ted lrom botb .
• Including 11 0'1. km for tho islands of Trindade and MlU'tlm V~Z.
850 BRAZIL
Area Censns population

Stat·e Rnd capital (sq. km) 1940 1950
Soutl: ~2~ , 357 12,915,621 16,975,293
Si<. Paulo (850 P aulo) 247,222 7,180,316 9,134 , 4~S
p",.ana i'Cllritiba) . • • 200,857 1,236,276 2,115,[,(7
S""ta CatRriDll (Florianopolis) • 94,798 1,178,340 1,560.~02
Ri<· Grande do Sui (POrto Alegre) 282,480 3,320,689 4,164,8n
Central West: 1,8;7,733 1,258,679 1,736,966
Ma to Orosso (CnlabA) 1,254,821 432,26~ 522,044
Goi As (OolAnla) 622,912 826,414 1,21(,921
Total 8,:'13,844 41,236,3lb Sl,944,l97
Demity of census population, 1950, was about 7 per sq. km.

The 1950 total excluded 31,960 questionnairell not received; the V .N.
tables eKcludes them from the total. The 1950 tables showed 25,885,001
males and 26,059,396 females ; also 32.027.661 whites (61'7%), 5,692,657
Negroes (11%), 13,786,742 mulattoes (26'5%), 329,082 Asiatics and 108,255
unknown . Of the 1950 census total of those 15 years of age or older
(30,249,423), 1l,777,572 were single, 16,371,303 mo.rried, 1,992,312 widowed,
40,164 divorced or separated and 68,072 not specified. Of the total popula.-
tion, 50,727,1l3 were Brazilians by birth, 128,897 naturalized, 1,085,278
aliens and 3, 100 unknown. The urban and suburban population com-
prised 3'3-2% . Estimated population, I July 1958,62,725,000.
The language is Portuguese.
On I July 1950 the census population of the principal towns was : Ri()
de Janeiro, 2,303,063; Sao Paulo, 2,017,025 ; Recife, 512,370; Salvador,
389,422 .. Porto Alegre, 375,049; Belo Horizonte, 338,585; Belem, 225,218;
Santos, 206,920; Fortaleza,205,052; Niteroi, 170,868; Curitiba,138,178;
Maceio, 99,088; Manaus,89,612 ; Jodo Peesoa, 89,517.
The :llumber of immigrants between 1820 and 1953 WII8 5,074,471, but it
is estim,~ted that only one-half remained. The 49,839 immigrants in 1958
included. 21,928 Portuguese, 5,768 Spaniards, 6,586 Japanese and 4,819
Italians. Each nationality has its immigration restricted to 2% per year of
the num ber calculated for the previous 50 years, except that the quota may
be incre.lsed to 3,000 per annum, providing that 80% of the immigrants are
'farme~ or rural technicians.' Settlements of foreigners in Brazil must
include ;10% of Brazilians.
Pieroon. ,/I
r,., Negrou Braril. Chicago, 19U.-SuTt'tJI 0/ LilenJlurt 0/1 Braril Of Sociologitol
SigJli/lC<'R". CaIDbridge, Id ...... , 1946
Ram08. A .• Tilt Negro in iJraril. W ...hJllIrtOn. 1939.-f"" Poblaci"MI del JlNUiI. Mo:rt.,..
Oity, 191.
RELIGION. The population is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic (93%

at the census, 1950). In 1889 connexion between Church and State was
a bolishe.:l; it was restored by the 1934 constitution, but ajtain abolished in
1946. Brazil has a representative at the Vatican. In 1947 the Church
maintained 62 seminaries; there were 17 ecclt,siastical provinces and afehi-
dioceses, and 65 diocescs with 2 cardinals, 19 archbishops, 59 bishops, 25
prelates and 2 apostolic prefects. The 3,038 parishes had 5,383 priests.
Catholic seminaries had 4,630 students and the religious orders had 20,805
men and women. In 1950 Protestants numbered 1,741,430; Orthodox
Christians, 41,156 ; Jews, 69,957; Buddhists, 152,572; Spiritists, 824,553;
avowed atheists, 274,236.
Braga, E., and Grubb, K. 0., T/~ IltpUblie 0/ Braril: "SU"'ttl 0/1IIt RtligwuI SiIu4I1tm.
London. 1932
BRAZIL 851
EDUCATION. Elementary education is compulsory. In 1950 (census)
there were 18,588,722 persons 5 years of age or over who could read and
write; this was 42'6% of that age group; 54'7% of the literates were men.
There were in 1954,93,641 elementary school units with 6,150,235 pupils;
in 1958, 389 industrial schools with 20,512 students; 3,221 secondary
schools with 732,285 pupils; 1,167 commercial schools with 155,014 pupils;
370 superior schools with 84,481 pupils and 1,104 teachers' training colleges
with 77,518 students.
The Government undertakes to provide, in part, for higher or university
instruction, but some institutions are maintained by the states, and some
by private associations, while primary schools are chiefly maintained and
supervised, either by the states or by the municipalities and private initia·
tive. There are 22 official universities, including the University of Brazil
(Federal District) (founded on 7 Sept. 1920), the University of Bahia (founded
in 1946), the University of Recife (1946), the University of Parane. (1946),
the Rural University (1948, State of Rio de Janeiro), the University of
Sao Paulo (1934), the University of Minas Gerais (1927) and the University
of Rio Grande do Sui (1934). In addition there are the 3 CR.tholic univer-
sities of Rio de Janeiro (1946), Sao Paulo (1946) and Rio Grande do Sui
(1948).
These included (1955) 365 departments, covering all subjects, with a
total of 72,667 students. The following faculties were most numerous:
Philosophy, 44; law, 39; economics, 38; nursing, 30; odontology, 28;
engineering, medicine and social service, each at 23 establishments.
The School of Public Administration in Rio de Janeiro, founded in 19,52,
trains civil servants for all Latin-American countries; its 320 students in
1955 included 196 non-Brazilians.
Cinemas (1957). Cinemas llllmbered 3,303, with seating capacity of
about 1·7m.
Newspapers (1958). There were 246 daily newspapers with an estimated
drculation of 3·7m. Foreigners and corporations (except political parties)
are not allowed to own or control newspapers or wireless stations.
JUSTICE. There is a supreme federal Court of Justice at Rio de

.Janeiro. It has 11 justices, but may have more, on its own proposal subject
to legislative approval; all are appointed by the President with the approval
(,f the Senate. There are also federal tribunals in each state and the Federal
District and the territory of Acre, as well as 'electoral courts' to proteet
the elections, and labour tribunals. Justice is administered in the states in
accordance with state law, by state courts, but in Rio de Janeiro federal
justice is administered. Judges are appointed for life. There are also
2,265 magistrates dealing with commercial cases and 4,963 justices of the
peace. There is no divorce, but there is a form of judicial separation.
FINANCE. Receipts and expenditures for the Federal government

(excluding states, Federal District and municipalities) for calendar years
have been as follows in Im. cruzeiros (paper) (the cruzeiro, beginning 1947,
:;·44 cents U.S.; free rate, June 1959, ranged from 123'3 to 126·25 cruzeiros
= eS$I):
1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959'
nevenue 37,057 46,639 65,671 74,083 85,788 117,816 147,671
Kxpenditure 39,925 53,661 63,287 107,028 118,712 148,478 156,227
1 Estimates.
852 BRAZIL
Totai government expenditure (in Im. cruzeiros) has risen from 130,000
in 1955 ';0 (budget figure) 271,424 in 1958, the latter made up of: Federal,
140,527; states, 103,894 (including Federa.l District, 19,980); municipa.l,
27,003. The accumulated budget deficit grew from 4,055 for the 5·year period
1941/45 to 16,293 for 1946/50 and 32,563 for 1951/55. Of the last figure,
20,429n'presented the combined deficits of the states and 1,993 the Federal
District. Foreign currency commitments, 30 Sept. 1956, were equal to
$2,120m., of which $I,877·9m. were long.term obligations.
Chief items of revenue in 1958 were estimated as follows (in Im. cruzeiros) :
Taxes, 112,178 (of which income tax should furnish 31,856); government
propert}', 3,221; industrial enterprises, 2,1l7. The principal items of ex·
penditure in 1958 were : Finance, 29,142; communication and public works,
41,684; war, 20,164; education, 9,305; health (newly created 1953),5,167;
navy, lC,159; aviation, 10,471; justice and internal affairs, 5,370; labour,
industry and commerce, 2,635; agriculture, 6,173.
The 1959 budget allocated to tho external debt service 183m. cruzeir08
for interest and retirement of the sterling debt (remitted at the rate of
52·696 cl'Uzeiros = £1) and 137m. for the dollar loans (at 18·82 cruzeiros =
$1).
For the SALTE Plan of 1950 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1955,
p. 8~5 .
The foreign debt (including states and municipalities) of Brazil on 31
Dec. 191,8 amounted to £15·6m., US$67·lm., 3·7m. Dutch florins, 80·9m.
paper frilnes and 12·4m. gold francs. Internal funded federal and states
debt, 31 Dec. 1958, was 45,366m. cruzeiros.
The 8uperinlerniem;ia da Moeda e do Crtdito registered U.S. direct in-
vestments, 31 Dec. 1956, at 8807,107,800. The Bank of England (1955)
placed he par value of Brazilian investments held by residents in the U.K.
in 1953 (thus excluding securities repatriated by Brazilians) at £40m. (in
1938, £164m.) on which interest and dividends received, 1953, were £1·2m.
(in 1938, £I-6m.).
DEFENCE. Army. Under the constitution of 1934, military service is
compUlsory for every Brazilian man from 21 years of age to 45. The terms
of servi(:e are 9 years (from the 21st to the 30th years of age) in the Army
'first line' (1 in the ranks, the rest in the reserve) and 14 years (from the 30th
to the 41ith years of age) in the army 'second line' (7 in the 'second line' and
7 in thE' reserve of the same). The reservists are called up for training
annually for 4 weeks, besides which there is ritle practice once a month. The
men in :;he Territorial Army also have an annual training of 2 to 4 weeks;
the peacetime strength is about 200,000 men.
In 1!l48 the U.S. sent an Army, Navy and Air Force mission to Brazil
to establish a college there for training senior officers in combined operations.
In May 1953 the National Congress ratified the agreement for U S . . military
assistaMe, signed on 15 March 1952.
Air Force. The Air Force, formed in 1918, has been independent of the
Army and Navy since 1940. Air defence is organized in 5 zoncs. The 5
operational groups comprise an interceptor group equipped with Meteor jet-
fighters, 2 fighter-bomber groups of piston.engined F-47D Thunderbolts
and 2 lie ht bomber groups with B-25 Mitchells. Equipment of the transport
and sec('nd·line units is predominently American in origin, but locally-built
Fokker Instructors and S.14 jet trainers are superseding older types at flying
schools. Total strength is estimated at more than 10,000 personnel and
750 aircraft.
BRAZIL 85:3
Navy. The principal ships of the Brazilian Navy are as follows:
Standard
displace- Annoal Tor- Bhnn
Com- ment Bell Gunl Principnl pedo horse- Speed
plated Namp, '!ons In. In. armament tub •• power Knots
A iremft Carrier
l fJ lfJ Minas Gcra~~ 1 13)1 !)i) LightA.A . 4~,OOO 2.!}
Cruisers
1939
1938
'l'amanda.rt': ~ .
Barro:3Q Z
10,000
9.700 n 3-u 15 6-in.; 8 G-ID_
1 E x- }',:nucl1nre. put'chased (ro1ll Great Hrf t.aiu in Ifl56.
100,000 32-6
g E x- Sl Louis and c'X· Philvdd phio, purchase u from U.S.A. in 1051.
There are also 13 destroyers. 8 frig<1tes (escort destroyers), 5 submarines,

10 corvettes, 5 minelayers, 3 tmwlers, 5 patrol vessels, 6 se<1ward defence
b0<1ts,2 river monitors. 6 river gunboats, 5 transports, 5 oilers, 3 Bail training
ships, including British-built Almirante Saldanha, and the Guanabara; a
depot and repair ship, 4 surveying vessels and 16 tugs.
Naval bases are at Rio de Janeiro, Belem, Natal, Recife, Salvador, with
n river base at Ladario.
The active personnel is 1,700 officers <1nd 41,000 men, including 10,000
marines.
PRODUCTION. Brazil's total production in 1957 was valued (in
lm. cruzeiros) at 200,917, of which agriculture accounted for 193.948;
vegetable extracts, 4,964, and minerals, 2,004. The census of 1950 showed
9,886,915 engaged in agriculture <1nd forestry. 2,231,198 in manufacture.
697,042 in tmnsport. 483,016 in the extractive industries, 260,767 in public
st'rvice, 2,746,000 in commerce, 78,858 in the professions and 16,464,031 in
household and students.
Agriculture. Brazil is an agricultural country, though only a small
portion is under culture. About 67,455 acres in the north-eastern section
are under irrigation. Brazil ranks first in the production of livestork,
coffee and castor-beans, second in the production of oranges and cocoa, and
third in that of sugar and tobacco. American interests, headed by Nelson
Rockefeller, are encouraging in southern Brazil the production of hybrid
maize, as perfected in Iowa, in connexion with hog-raising (7,071,160 metric
tons in 1954).
Total agricultural production, 1957, is officially estimated at 92m. metric
tOilS, from 22·9m. hectarcs, an increase in area of over 22% since 1951.
Yield per hectare is moderate and st<1tionary: 488 kg of cotton per hectare
ill l!)fi7, 1.274 kg of maize (equal to 20 bu. per acre compared with U .S.
1955 average of 39 bu.), 1,650 kg of rice, 39,000 kg of sugar cane and 946 kg
of wheat.
The 4 states of Sao Paulo, Parans., Espirito Santo and Minas Gerais
are the principal districts for coffee-growing_ Large plantations or fazendas
with more than 100,000 trees are the rule_ Output, 1958, from 3,828,141
hectares, 1,730,240 metric tons (estimate); yield, 383 kg per hectare_ Coffee
exports ill 1958 totalled 12,882,400 bags (of 60 kg). Sales since Feb. lO31
have been controlled by the Federal government; the policy of incinerating
surplus stocks to protect the price was discontinued in Oct. 1943. Highest
out.put recorded was 29,880,000 bags in 1933-34.
Exports of cocoo. was nationalized in May 1943, but in 1952 reverted to
private enterpriRe. Bahia furnishes 90% of tho output; in 1958 total
854 BRAZIL
output was 180,207 metric tons from 412,250 hectares; exports, 1958, were
118,399 metric tone. Two crops a year are grown. The U.S. takes one·half
of the crop. Castor·bea.n output usually exceeds 150,000 metric tons;
output, 1958, 172,119 metric tons. The plant grows wild.
Tobll.Cco output ranges between 100,000 and 150,000 metric tons per
annum (1958, 140,573 tons, of which 30,338 tons were exported).
Sugllr production, 1958, was 3,003,572 metric tons, but exports have
tended to decline with rising home consumption. Exports, 1958, 758,589
metric l;one. Output per hectare (40 metric tons of cane) is low compared
with 50, 120 and even 160 metric tons produced elsewhere.
Bradl llOW ranks second only to the U.S. in production of oranges
(estima·:.e, 1958, 7,393m. units). Output of bananas, 1958, estimate,
234,806,000 hands. Cotton lint, e.~timate 1958, 402,677 metric tons from
2·6m. hectares; but output in the leading state, Sao Paulo, has fallen from
463,000 tons in 1944 to 178,057 tons ill 1956, owing to soil exhaustion.
Exporul, 1958,40,197 metric tons. Brazil formerly furnished only 10% of
her own requirements in wheat (average output, 1934-38, 144,000 metric
tons); 1956,1,295,664 tons; estimate, 1958, 1,154,514. Imports, however,
remain heavy, about Im. tons. Rice is important; output (rough rice),
1!l58, '~as 3,988,255 (1957,4,150,951) metric tOllS.
Rubber is another natural product of the country, chiefty in the Acro
territory and the states of Amazonas and Para. Output, 1956,34,148 metric
tons (gross weight); peak reached in 1912 (when rubber realized US$3
a lb.) W'J.S 42,510 grOBS tons. Output of tyres in local factories has risen from
421,765 units (tyres and tubes) in 1940 to 5,979,804 in 1957. Brazilian con·
8umption of rubber for all purposos in 1955 was 46,472 metric tons, of
which tyres and tubes would take three· quarters. Brazil is the chief source
of carnauba wax, used for electric iusulation and gramophone records,
exporting 12,000 tons in 1957. Caroa. fibre is grown as a 8ubstitute for
Indian jute; production, 1956,4,202 metric tons. Jute output, 1958, e~ti·
mate, 25,131 metric tons. Plantations of tung trees established in 1930 (4m.
trees in. 1946) are beginning to yield tung oil in commercial quantities;
out.put of tung, estimate, 1958,7,354 (1957, 6,373) metric tons.
Bra:liI now ranks ahead of Argentina as livestock producer; numbers (in
1,000), 1958, sbowed 71,420 cattle, 45,262 swine, 19,921 wool and hair sheep
(cabreUlu), 10,194 goats, 8,185 horses, 1,946 assea and 3,917 mules. In
1957,6,.720 cattle, 313 calves, 1,421 sheep and lambs, 1,487 goats and 7,167
pigs we: ~e slaugbtered for mate; total was barely sufficient for domestic needs.
Fisheriu. The fishing industry (including a fleet of 120 vessels) is
owned by the Government; the catch in 1957 was 216,289 metric tons.
Whale ·~atching off the coa.sts began in 1949.
Midng. Brazil is the only source of high.grade quartz crystal in corn·
mercial quantities; exports in 1958,717 metric tons. It is an important
source of industrial diamonds (exports, 1958, 697 grammes); the second
largest western producer of chrome ore (reserves of 4m. tons; output, 1957,
7,936 mctrio tons); fifth in the output of mica (1,327 tons in 1956); third in
zirconium; she has large reserves of beryllium (ranking first in exports,
1,423 metric tons in 1958), graphite, titanium ore (1958, 5,691 tons) and
magnesite awaiting development. Along the coasts of the states of Rio de
Janeiro, Espirito Santo and Bahia are found monazite sands containing
thoriuDl; reserves are estimated at 100,000 tons. Manganese ores of high
content are important (reserves in the Amapa. region alone are estimated
at 10m. metric tons); exports, 1958, 663,689 metric tons. Exports of
BRAZIL 855
tungsten ore and concentrates, 1958, totalled 131 metric tons. Coal deposits
exist in Rio Grande do Sui, Santa Catarina, Parana. and Siio Paulo. Total
reserves are estimated at 5,OOOm. tons; output (1957), from 7 mines,
2,070,000 metric tons.
Iron is found chiefly in Minas Gerais, where 19 plants are located. At
Itabira, the Government is now opening up what is believed to be one of
the richest iron·ore deposits in the world, with known reserves of 16,Ooom.
tons, of which half rival the Swedish ores in iron content (about 68·5%) and
have lower silica and phosphorus contents. Total output of iron ore, 1957,
mainly from the government. owned mine at Itabira, was 3,384,149 metric
tons; exports, 1958, were 2,823,195 tons. With the support of the Export-
Import Bank, a steel industry was established in 1948, starting with plant8
at Volta Redonda, State of Rio de Janeiro, aiming to furnish 59% of Brazil's
steel requirements. Brazil's total output of steel was, 1957, 1,299,236 metric
tons; pig.iron (1957), 1,270,144 tons; ingots and castings (1958), 1,672,000
short tons. Production of aluminium was started in Minas Gerais in 1945;
output, 1957, 8,885 metric tons, Export of barytes, 1958, was 60,562
metric tons. Cement output, 1957, from 10 plants was 3,210.581 metric
tons.
Gold is found in practically every state, though large. scale mining is
confined to a single mine in Minas Gerais; the production in 1957 was
3,756 kg. Silver output, 1958, 326,323 fine oz. Salt output (1957), 797,803
metric tone. Diamond districts are Diamantina, Griio Mogol, Chapada
Diamantina, Bagagem, Goias, Mato Grosso and other states.
Industry . The most important manufacturing industry in Brazil is
cotton wea.ving, which employs about 25% of all industrial workers ;
nearly 50% of tbe factories are in Sao Paulo and another 28% in the Federal
District and in Minas Gerais. The 423 miUs, 1950, had 3·3m. spindles (27%
modern) Ilnd 100,000 looms (7% automatic). Output of cotton textiles.
1948. was I,J20m. metres of cloth. Exports of cotton piece-goods. 1958,
were 790 metric tone (289 tons in 1957). Rayon yam output, 1954, was
28,200 metric tons. In all, about 650 textile· mills are working.
Bra.zil's potential capacity for electric power production is estimated ... ~
14·5m. kw. (19·5m. h.p.) which is the fourth largest in the world. Only
3,444.033 kw. had been developed by 1957. Consumption, 1957. 1l,152m.
kwh. Of the total capital invested in industrial concerns (USSl,779.786,350),
49% was foreign·owned. The entire petroleum industry. including pro·
duction. importation and refining. was placed under federal control in
April 1938; there are, 1956,8 refineries. The country imports substantial
Ilwounts (4,846,117 metric tons in 1957) to supplement its total production
of crude oil (output 1956, 530,464 metric tons); imports of oil products.
a.bout lOm. metric tons.
A big paper-mill. reported to be the largest pulp-and· paper mill in South
America. is a.t Monte Alegre, Parana. Bra7.il's output of paper. 1957, was
380,537 metric tons.
Jobim, J ., The Mineral Wealsh of Brazil. Rio de Janeiro,1941.-Brazil in 'IlL A(aking. New
York, 1943
Leao, J .. Ni.... and Minerals in Brotu. Rio de Janeiro, lng
Spiegel, R. W., TIlL Brazilian Economy. Philadelphia, 1949
Wytbe, 0 ., and otbent, Brazil: an a:panding tc<momy. New York, 1949
COMMERCE. In 1957 Brazil modernized her 20·year.old tariff (at

present duties are levied mainly on volume and not on values) in order to
protect her infant industries and to increase government revenue. Her
856 BRAZIL
present tariffs furnish 12% of the Government's revenue (see p. 27 under

G.A.T.T.).
Imports and exports for calendar years in 1,000 crozeiros :
1964 19M 1~66 1967 1958
Imports. . 6&,238,716 60.225,657 11,696,808 86,451,541 103,322,916
Bxports . . .2,9'1,611 ",621,012 69,(14,292 60,657,129 63,762,626
Com'e rted into US$lm., these trade figures were:

1953 1954 1955 1956 1967 1958
Imports . 1,318·6 1,630' 4 1,305'8 1,233'8 1,488'8 1,352·9
Exports. 1,539'3 1,561'8 1,423'2 1,482'0 1,391 '6 1,243'0
Exports in 1957, 7·71m. metric tons; 1958, 8·3m. metric tons. Im.
ports in 1957, 13,513,462 metric tons; 1958, 14,202,592 metric tons.
Prin>lipal imports in 1958 were (in 1m. cruzeiros): Machinery, with
accessories or parts, 24,265; chemicals and pharmaceuticals, 13,817;
petroleu rn, 8,509; wheat, 7,227; chassis with engines, 5,660; fuel and diesel
oil, 4,32.).
Prin>Jipal exports in 1958 were (in 1m. crozeiros) : Coffee, 25,340 (772,920
metric tons); cocoa, 3,842 (103,435 metric tons); sawn pinewood, 3,506
(671,67E. metric tons) iron ore, 2,898 (2,831,000 metrio tons).
Of e:cports (in Im. crozeiros) in 1958 U.S. took 23,821; Argentina, 6,239;
Germany, 4,041; Great Brtiain, 3,720; France, Netherlands and Sweden,
all aboue 2,000. Of 1958 imports, U.S. furnished 37,606; Germany, Il,855 ;
Venezuela, 8,448; Argentina, 5,584; Great Britain, 4,179; Netherlands
Antilles,. 4,106; Sweden, 3,774; Japan, 2,749; France, 2,707.
Total trade between U.K. and Brazil (according to British Board of
Trade returns, in £ sterling) :
1938 1966 1967 1968 1959
Imports t, U.K. 7,661,3U 26,139,816 30,662,123 26,705,550 31,204,087
Exports t:om U.K. . 6,186,294 16,OH.692 18,343,474 19.149,420 13,090,253
Re-exports from U.K. 131,312 104,282 161,098 375,181 623,712
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Inland waterways, mostly rivers,

are open to navigation over some 21,944 miles. Rio de Janeiro and Santos
are the 2 leading ports ; there are 13 other large ports. Bolivia and
Paragur,y have been given free ports at Santos. During 1957,9,808 vessels
with tonnage of 26,466,000 entered the ports of Rio de Janeiro and Santos,
only ha.! the number and volume of the year previous.
The Lloyd Brasileiro is owned and operated by the Government; its
fieet oomprised (1967) 56 veasels of 275,310 gr088 tone. Brazilian shipping,
31 Deo. 1968 (registered with Lloyds), amounted to 361 vessels (over 100
gross tOllS) of 953,948 gro88 tons. Petrobras, the government oil monopoly,
took over the government tanker fieet of 25 vessels in 1955; total tank~r
fieet in :,: 958 was 31 vessels of 217,768 gross tons.
Railways. Railway history in Brazil begins in 1854. In 1968 the total
length ef railways was 38,023 km. The Central Brazil Railway (3,729 km),
onc of tile principal railways, is owned by the State; it joins up tho railways
of Brazil with those of Uruguay, Argentina and Paraguay, and is being elect·
rified. Four Anglo-Brazilian railways have a length of 3,165'5 miles; 3 of
the 4 Wtlre purchased in 1949 by the Brazilian Government for £14,235,000.
Brnzilian railways to·day operate overtracks of 6 different gauges and handle
annuaU:r only 39m. metrio tons or 59% of the 66m. tons of merchandise
needing transport. The railways, in 1957, transported 347,015,000 pas·
sengers, 39,098,000 tons of freight and 5,041,000 animals.
BRAZIL 857
Roads. There are 457,112 km of highways. In Dec. 1958 Brazil had
812,669 motor vehicles, including 471,639 passenger cars, 250,183 lorries,
20,086 omnibuses, 29,492 motor cycles and 41,269 others.
Post. Of the telegraph system of the country, about half, including
all inter·state lines, is under control of the Government. There Are
2,456 telegraph offices. Telephone instruments in use, 1959, were 928,117,
all. except 35,628, owned by private companies; 83% were automatic.
In 1957 there were 637 broadcasting stations. There are 6,132 post offices.
Aviation. T,venty.sevcn companies (11 foreign) furnish air· mail and
passengcr services. Air mileage, 1!J58, covered 153,040,338 km; passengers
numbered 4,066,390; freight carried amounted to 99,703 metric tons;
luggage, 48,682 metric tons, and mail, 3,129 metric tons.
MONEY AND BANKING. In 1948 Brazil informed the International

Monetary Fund that its exchange rate would be 18'5 cruzeiros to the USS.
making the cruzeiro equal to 5·40541 cents. In addition, there are free·
market rates for non· trade operations only and official rates for exports and
imports.
Since the devaluation of sterling in 1949, the official rates have become
51·408 cruzeiros (buying) and 52·696 (selling) for £1; free rate, 1955, between
170 and 235, closing at 175 (buying) and 190 (selling).
Beginning 1 Nov. 1942, the original currency unit, the milreis. was
renamed the cruzeiro (Cr.S), composed of 100 centavos. Metallic currency,
1966, consists of 1 and 2 cruzeiros and 10,20 and 50 contavos. all of copper-
aluminium-zinc, copper-nickel or (1957) of 99·5% aluminium. Notes are
of the value of I, 2. 5. 10. 20, 50. 100. 200, 500 and 1,000 cruzeiros.
The Bank of Brazil (founded in 1808 and reorganized in 1906, with an
authorized capital of lOOm. cruzeiros) is not a central bank of issue but
a closely controlled commercial bank: it had (19G8) 385 branches through.
out the republic (and branches in Asunci6n and Montevideo). On 31 Dec.
1068 deposits were 135,91iOm. cruzciros. The country's note circulation,
31 Dec. 1958, was 119,814m. cruzeiros, compared with 4,971m. at tho end
of 1930. The country's gold stock has fluctuated severely, falling from
7·25m. fine oz. in J929 to 0·5m. in 1030: since Sept. lU3D gold and dollar
~upply has risen from USS40m. to lJSS530m., of which the government's
gold is S323m. in June 1956.
Banking institutions numbered 345, with 4,512 agencies in Dec. 1958.
All banks (including the Bank of Brazil) had on 31 Dec. 1958 capital and
reserves of 36,970m. cruzeiros, deposits of 377,831m. (compared with the
Bank of Brazil's 135,955m.) and loans of 419,159m. On th,~t date all the
domestic banks had total assets of 1,660,962m. and the 36 foreign·owned
institutions or agencies. 42,874m.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system has been in use ill
all official departments since 1862. It was made compulsory in 1872, but
the ancient measures are still partly employed in remote districts. They
are: libra = 1·012 lb. avoirdupois; arroba = 32·98 lb.; quintal = 129·54
lb.; alqlteire (of Rio) = 1 Imperial bu., or 40 litres; oitava = 55·34 grains.
Brazil maintains embassies in Argentina. Austria, Belgium, Bolivia.
Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark, Dominican Republic,
868 BRAZIL
Ecuador, El Salvador, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala,

Haiti, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lebanon, Mexico,
Netherlands, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Portu.5al, Spain, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Republic, U.K.,
U.S.A., Uruguay, Vatican, Venezuela, Yugoslavia; and legations in Aus·
tralia, Czechoslovakia, Iran, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, Union of South
Africa.
011' BRAZIL IN GREAT BRITAIN (54 Mount St., W.I)
AnbQ.88ador. Dr Francisco de Assis Chateaubriand Bandeira de Mello
(accredited 22 Nov. 1957).
M,:nister Counsellor. A. B. L. Castello Branco.
Jll ;:nister. P. de T. F. Nonato da Silva (Economic).
Air Attache. Col. Alcides Moitinho Neiva.
Ne.val and Army Attache. Capt. Luiz Gonzaga Doring.
First Secretaries. Lauro Miiller Neto; Fernando Cesar de Bittencourt
Bcrenguer.
Co:nmercial Attache. Antonio Marinho.
There are consular represent.atives at Cardiff, Glasgow, Liverpool,
London, Newoastle and Southampton.
011' GREAT BRITAIN IN BRAZIL
AmbQ.8sador. Sir Geoffrey Wallinger, K.C.M.G.
CO'otnselicr. C. O. I. Ramsden.
Minister (Commercial ). R. S. Isaacsoll, C.M.G.
Fi"st Secretaries. R. M. John (Commercial ); R. T. Landale (ConBul);
C. S. Littlejohn·Cook (Information ); J . G. Wills; R. L. Morris (Labour).
Naval, Military and Air AtI<1.che. Group Capt. J. A. Crockett.
There are consular representatives at Belcm, Porto Alegre, Recife,
San toE., Sa.o Paulo and 9 other towns.
011' BRAZil. IN THE U.S.A. (3007 Whitehaven St. NW.,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Waiter Moreira Salles.
.Minister Counsellor. Carlos Alfredo Bernardes. Counsellors. Fran·
cisco Moacir Saboia Santos; Octavio Paranagua (Financial ); Maury Gurgel
Valente. First Secretaries. J oao Paulo da Silva Paranhos do Rio Branco;
Ramir:J E. Sa.raiva Guerreiro ; Carlos F . Leckie Lobo. Air Attache. Lieut.·
Gen. Aja.lmar Vieira Mascarenhas. Military Attache. Maj.·Gen. Antonio
Jose Coelho dos Reis. Commercial At/{lche. Francisco Medaglia.
OF THE U.S.A. IN BRAZIL
Ambassador. John M. Cabot.
M inisters Counsellor. Niles W. Bond; Howard R. Cottam (Economic
A/fain). Counsellors. William C. Affeld, Jr (Consul·Gen.eral) ; William A.
Fowler (Economic); Sylvain R. Loupe (Administration); Philip Raine;
Eric C. Wendelin (Political) . F irst Secretaries. Emerson I. Brown (Consul,
.lI1inemls); John H . Crimmins (7'ransportation.Communications); John '1'.
Fishburn (Labour) ; Donald C. Marelius. Service Attaches : Col. Clarence A.
Langf(.rd (Army), Capt. Morton Sunderland (NaVlj), Col. William L. Gibbons
(Air). Ayricu/ture Attache. Ford M. Milam.
BULGARIA 869
There are consular representatives at Belem, Manaus, Sao Luis, Belo
Horizonte, Curitiba, Porto Alegre, Recife, Salvador, Santos, Sao Pa ulo.
Books of Reference
Anudrlo E.IlJl!4'ico d<> B'aJU. Conselbo Nacional de Estatlstica, Rio de .Taoeiro
B,aeU, 1913 ; R.,ou,u. and POJlibilitul. (In Portuguese aDd English. Publi.lbed by
Io1Inistry 01 Foreign AJla\N. Rio de JlUleiro, 194b
B,aIiJ Up ~ Dok. Conselho Nacioo ..1 de Bstatlstica, Rio de JBlleiro, 195~
BWktia ol't.. Briluh Chamber 01 ComrMrU in B,aeil, Rio d. Janeiro. MODt.hly
Who', WIoo in Latin America. PG,' VI : B,azil. StaDlord,1948
Azevedo, P ernaodo de, H,aeilian CuUure. New York 1950
CalO11erae, Joao P .. nrlilo, A Hilto,v 01 B'lJZil. Chapel Hill. North Ca'hlin.., 1DSP
O&macbo, J . A., B,azil. R. Inst. of Int. AlIai.... 2nd ed. 19:">4.
Ce.rvalho, O. M. D., O"""apllja d<> B,aIiI. Srd ed. Rio de Janeiro, 1927
Caaw, J . de, Ol.."aphu.u la laim. Paris, 1949
Freyr&, G., B,azil : An Interp,etation. New York, 1945.-TI... Maltff. and tM 81" ....
London, 1946
Galnni, L., B,1JIik t1&OIkmo. MU..n, 1948
HIU, L. F ,(ed.), B,azil. Unlv. of Califoroi .. Prees ..od London, 1948
UllDnlcutt, B. H., B,azil : World F,tmlin. New York, 194~
Jamea, Preeton E., B,azil. New York, 1946
Le LanDOD, M., Le B,hil. Paris, 1956
lIIeijide P ..rdo, A., B'alil. Santie.go de C<>mpostel .., 1966
Mot&eS, R. Borba de, Dibliograpltia H,asUiana (1504-1900). 2 vols. 1958
Smltb, T. Lyun, Brazil : Ptopk and /rU'ilUli..... Rev. od. Datoo Ronge, 19U.- (Ed.j
Dratil : Port,ail 01 Boll a Co",i,...,.,. G..iDesville, Fla., 1961
NATIONAL LIDRART. Biblioteca N&elonal A.-eoida Rio Br&noo 219-39 Rio d. Janeiro,
D.F. DirecJor: Dr Eug~nlo Gomes.
BULGARIA
NUODNA R&PUBLlKA BULGARIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Bulgarian People's

Republic was proclaimed by the National Assembly on 15 Sept. 1946.
The Principality of Bulgaria and the Autonomous Province of Eastern
Rumelia, both under Turkish suzerainty, were constituted by the Treaty of
Berlin, 13 July 1878. Prince Alexander I of Battenberg (the British
branch of the family in 1917 adopted the name of Mountbatten), a Heaaian
Prince and a nephew of Tsar Alexander 11 of Russia, became the first ruler
(1879-86). [n 1885 Rumelia was reunited with Bulgaria. On 22 Sept.
(5 Oct.) 1908 Bwgaria declared her independenco of Turkey, and Prince
Ferdinand of Saxe·Coburg.Kohliry, who had been elected prince on i July
1887, assumed the title of Tsar of tho Bulgarians. This was recognized by
the Porte and the Powers in April 1909. Tsar Ferdinand abdicated on
3 Oct. 1918 and was succeeded by his son, Tsar Boris Ill, who died on
28 Aug. 1943. His son, Simcon 11 (born on 16 June 1937), lost his thrOD41
liS a result of tho referendum held on 8 Sept. 1946. 3,801,160 votes were
cast in favour of a republic, 197,176 \'ote8 in favour of the monarchy;
119,]68 voting papers were invalid.
The constitution of 4 Dec. 1947, drawn up by Georgi Dimitrov (died,
Moscow, 2 July 1949), provides for a single.chamber National Assembly.
The highest organ of the state is a collective body called the Presidium,
which consists of a chairman, 2 deputy·chairmen, a secretary and Hi mem-
bers. It is elected by tho National Assembly by absolute majority.
Suprome power is vested in the National Assembly, which consists of
deputies elected by direct, secret and universal suffrage (everybody over the
age of 18 being cJjgible to vote and hold office). Onc deputy is elected pcr
860 BULGARIA
30,000 of the population. The Legislature's term of office is 4 years. The

Nationll Assembly also elects the ministers and the Presidium which are
respollf,ible to it.
A ~eneral election was held on 27 Oct. 1946. The Fatherland Front,
compO!;ed of the Workers (Communist), Agrarian, Socialist and Zveno
Parties, and non· party independents. obtained 364 seats (277 of which
went t) the Communists) and the opposition 101. On 26 Aug. 1947 the
oppositional Agrarian Union was dissolved; its leader, Nicola Petkov, was
sentenced to death and hanged on 23 Sept. The Socialist Party was merged
with the Workers' Party in Aug. 1948, and the Zveno Party dissolved
itself.
The Fatherland Front was transformed, in :Feb. 1948, into a unified mass
organization with individual memberships. Inside the Fatherland Front,
there r'lroain two political parties, namely the Bulgarian Communist Party
(484,255 members in June 1958) and the Agricultural People's Union, the
latter comprising the remnants of the Agrarian Party.
At the elections of 22 Dec. 1957, 99·77% of the electorate voted; can·
didates of the Fatherland Front received 99·95% of the votes cast. The
Nation ~l Assembly consists of 253 deputies, 41 of whom are women.
ThE highest policy. making and executive body of the Bulgarian Corn·
munist Party is its Politburo, consisting of 9 full members and 4 candidate.
members. The Politburo is elected by and from the Central Committee.
Hec'd of State. Dimiter Ganev, elected 30 Nov. 1958.
ThE Politburo was in March 1960 composed as foll ows: FL'LL .ME~!BERS:
Anton Yugov (Chairman, Council of Ministers); Raiko Damyanov (Pirst
Depu1v); Vulko Chervenkov (Chairman, Council of Science); Army General
Ivan ~Iihailov (Minister of Defence), Deputy Chairmen; Todor Zhivkov,
First Secretary, Central Committee; Georgi Tsankov, Minister of the Interior;
E ncho Staikov; Dimiter Ganev, Boyan Bulgaranov, Secretaries, Central
Committee. CANDIDATE MEMBERS: Todor Prahov, Chairman of the Trade
Unionl'; Dimiter Dimov, Chairman, Party Control Commission; Mladen
Stoyanov; Stanko Todorov (Chairman, State Planning Commission).
Th!, Council of Ministers consisted of 18 memhers in March 1960. There
are 3 Agrarian, 1 ex.Zveno Party member and the remninder are Communists.
An important member of the Cabinet, who is not in the Politburo, is Georgi
Traikov, First Deputy Chairman, who is an Agrarian.
Bulgaria, on 1 March 1941, signed the Three Power Pact, and on 25 Nov.
1941 the Anti·Comintern Pact. On 26 Aug. 1944 Bulgaria asked Great
Britaw and the U.S.A. for an armistice. The U.S.S.R. formally declared
war OD Bulgaria on 5 Sept. 1944. The new Bulgarian Government of the
Fatherland Front, which was established on 9 Sept., immediately asked the
Soviet Government for an armistice, which was signed on 28 Oct. 1944 by
representatives of the Soviet Union, Great Britain and the U.S.A. The
peace treaty was signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947.
In March 1948 a 20·year treaty of friendship, co· operation and mutual
assista:lce with the Soviet Union was signed in Moscow. The treaty with
Yugoslavia, signed on 27 Nov. 1947, was abrogated on 3 Oct. 1949.
On 25 Oct. 1950 the National Assembly voted a special status for Soviet
citizem residing in Bulgaria: they have equal rights with Bulgarian citizens,
including the right to hold any public office.
N a,~ional filUJ: white, green, crimson (horizontal), with the coat of arms
of the Republic in the canton.
BULGARIA 861
National anthem: Bulgario meela. zemya na geroi (Dear Bulgaria. land
of heroes): words by Nikola Furnadzhiev. Mladen Isa.ev and Elisaveta
Bagriana. tune by G. Dimitrov. G. Zlatev·Cherkin and S. Obretenov. 1946).
AREA AND POPULATION. On 8 Sept. 1940 by the treaty ofCraiova,
Rumania ceded to Bulgaria the Southern Dobrudja. fixing the new frontier
on the 1912 line. This runs north of Silistra on the Danube to a point on
the Black Sea just south of Mangalia. giving the Bulgarians the two pro-
vinces of Durostor and Caliacra. The total area of Bulgaria was thereby
increased to 110.842 sq. km or 42.796 sq. miles.
In April 1941 Bulgaria occupied the Yugoslav part of Macedonia.
and the Greek districts of Western Thrace. Eastern Macedonia. Florina and
Castoria. The peace treaty of 1947 restored the frontiers as on I Jan. 1941.
By a decree of 23 Jan. 1959 the country was administratively divided
into 30 provinces. which are also economic regions controlling the industries
in their area: only a few industrial undertakings of national importance
remain directly subordinate to the central authorities. Each province has
a provincial people's council. The administrative districts (okolia) have
been abolished.
The provinces are: (a) 27 provinces proper: Blagoevgrad. Burgas.
Varna. Vidin. Vratsa. Gabrovo. Dimitrovo. Kolarovgrad. Kiustendil.
Kurdzhali, Lovech, Mihailovgrad, Pazardzhik, Pleven, Plovdiv, Razgrad,
Russe, Silistra, Sliven, Smolyan, Sofia. Stara Zagora, Tolbuhin, Turgovishte,
Turnovo. Has1,ovo. Yambol; (b) the 3 biggest towns : Sofia, Plovdiv.
Varna.
The population at the census of 1 Dec. 1956 was 7,629,254; of these
2.553.624 lived in towns and 5.075,730 in villages.
National minorities were, in 1900, estimated to total 1·lm., including
Macedonians, Turks, Gypsies (150,000), Jews, Armenians and Rumanians.
The language estimates were: Bulgarians 88%, Turkish 9'8 %.
Principal towns (census 1956): Sofia, 725,756; Plovdiv, 162,518:
Vacna, 119.769: RUBse (former Rustchuk), 83.472: Burgas,72,795: Dimi-
trovo (former Pernik), 59,721: Pleven, 57,758: Stara Zagora, 55,322;
Sliven, 46,383: Tolbuhin (former Dobrich), 42,815; Yambol, 42,038;
Kolarovgrad (former Shumen), 41,670.
In Hl47, a new town-Dimitrovgrad-was founded; it is becoming one
of the new industrial centres of the country. Gorna Dzhumaya, chief town
of Bulgarian Macedonia, has been renamed Blagoevgrad.
Vital statistics, 1956: Live births, 150,978; deaths,67,960; marriages.
63.461: crude birth rate, 20 per 1,000 population: crude death rate, 9.
LOOAL GOVERNMENT. As reconstituted by the People's Councils Law
of 27 Feb. 1948 the Regional. Municipal and Rural Councils, elected prac·
tically by the whole population for a term of 3 years, are dealing with all
economic, social and cultural problems of their area. They also supervise
the management of state and publicly owned enterprises on their territory.
The Councils' executive organs are Perm&nent Committees. In 1950 all
the Permanent Committees of the People's Councils totalled about 62,000
working people.
RELIGION. The national faith is that of the Eastern Orthodox
Church . On 10 May 1953 the Bulgarian Patriarch ate was revived and
Metropolitan Kiril WM elect·ed the first Bulgarian Patriarch since 1393.
The se&t of the Patriarch is at Sofia. There a·re 11 dioceses, each under
a Metropolitan.
862 BULGARIA
Th(, 'Law of the Churches' of 17 Feb. 1949 has disestablished the

Nationd Church, though it is officially described as 'the traditional church
of the Bulgarian people' and 'in form, suhstanoe and spirit a People's
Democratic Church.' Freedom of conscience and belief is 'guaranteed';
the USIl of religion and religious institutions for propaganda against the
Government is punishable. Full information regarding organization and
finance must be filed with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In case of need
the state will furnish financial assistance. Only' honest oitizens of good
reputalion' may be appointed ministers, priests and other officials.
Chuches may not maintain schools or colleges, except theological
seminaries, or organize youth movements. Their hospitals and relief
nstitu1.ions have been taken over by the state. Relations with churches
and milsions abroad are subject to the supervision of the Ministry of Foreign
Afflloirs,
In 1934 (latest oensus) the National Orthodox Church had 5,128,890
members. A 1950 estimate considers that there are 6m. Orthodox, out
of a total population of 7·2m. The Communist.sponsored • Union of Clergy
Brotherhood,' which had become very influential among Orthodox priests,
was di'lbanded in 1955. An estimate, 1936, puts the Moslems (Turks) at
740,000; Bulgaro-Moslems (Pomaks), 190,000; Roman Catholics, 56,0011:
Armen,)-Greeks, 23,000; Jews, 6,000; Protestants, 28,000.
In March 1949, 15 Protestant church leaders were sentenced to imprison-
ment and fines for alleged acts of treason and espionage. In Sept. 1952 a
Roman Catholic bishop and 3 priests were sentenced to death and 28 others,
mostly priests, to long prison sentences on similar charges.
ED UCATION. Elementary education is obligatory and free for
childre~ between the ages of 7 and 15. In 1946, 23% of the total popula-
tion w(.re illiterate. Since then their percentage h88 dropped, but no later
figures are available.
The following are the educational statistics of Bulgaria for 1957: 6,376
kinder€:artens (267,000 children); 6,803 elementary schools; 250 secondary
schools; 230 vocational training schools (excluding agricultural schools). In
1959 p'lpils in elementary schools numbered Im.; in secondary, technical
and trade schools, 360,000. The 20 institutions of higher edncation, in-
cluding the nniversities, had 42,900 students and 3,000 professors and
lecturel:s. The Academy of Sciences and other research bodies had 93
institutes (Nov. 1959).
Of the national minorities, in June 1956, the Turks had 1,116 scbools
and 3 teachers' training colleges with about 100,000 pupils ; the Armenians,
in 1950, had 16 schools with 50 teachers and 1,092 pupils.
A new education law of 3 July 1959 proclaimed the need for 'linking
education with productive work useful to society', and extended 'basic'
education, both elementary and secondary, from 11 to 12 years.
N e1J)spa,pers (1959). Total circulation of daily newspapers is about
1·6m. (opies, of which Rabotnichesko Delo, the official Party organ, claims
450,00(1; Otechestven Front, organ of the Fatherland Front, 180,000;
Narodna Mladezh, organ of the Communist youth organization, 140,000.
Cin,~mas (1959). There were 1,380 cinemas with a seating capacity of
300,00(1.
SOCIAL WELFARE, On 1 Jan. 1942 old-age pensions for the peasan-

try as ';v,ell as for manual workers were instituted. On 1 Aug. 1956 a new
BULGARIA 863
pension scheme came into force, which fixed the minimum old-age pensions
at 280 leva per month, and granted a monthly pension of 300 leva to people
disabled as a result of labour accidents or professional diseases.
Allowances are paid for all children under 16 years of age supported by
their parents. Allowances range from 12 leva per month for I child to
370 leva per month for 5.
As from 1 Jan. 1957 pensions were introduced for co-operative farmers of
60 years of age (55 for women). The pension ranges from 60 to 150 leva per
month, depending on the person's length of service in the co-operative.
Total number of pensioners in 1959 was 1,055,673.
In 1958 there were 1,677 hospitals with 49,400 beds.
JUSTICE. The constitution of 1947 provides for the election (and

recall at pleasure) of the judges by the people and, for the Supreme Court.
by the National Assembly. The lower courts include laymen (called
'assessors '). as well as jurists. Certain courts of appeal have been abolished.
A new code of criminal procedure, based on Soviet law, was introduced
in Feb. 1952. The People's Militia Law of 29 March 1955. amended on
16 Jan. 1959. introduced forced residence and deportation as disciplinary
measures.
The Prosecutor General. elected by the National Assembly for 5 years
and subordinate to it alone. exercises supreme control over the correct
observance of the law by all government bodies. officials and citizens. He
appoints and discharges all Prosecutors at courts of every grade. In the
exercise of their duties. all Prosecutors are independent from the judges
and the Government.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure of Bulgaria for calendar
years were as follows (in Im. leva):
1954 ' 1955 1956 1957 1958' 1959 ' 1960'
Rovenue 18,227 17,544 17,470 19,1O~ 19,R87 2G,999 31.24i
IIrpenditure 17,027 17,123 17,358 18,897 19,753 26,~51 30,g26
, Estimates.
Principal items of expenditure, 1959 (in Im. leva): Defence. 1.686;

industry. 4.811; agriculture. 2.558.
The main items of Bulgaria's external debt, outstanding at 30 June
1956, were as follows: £10.072,736; USSI6.634.500; 206m. gold francs.
A trade and debt agreement concluded with the U.K. on 22 Sept. 1955.
provides for Bulgarian payments of £400.000 in settlement of U.K. claims
for expropriated property rights and interests; the payments are to he
made in annual instalments of 5% from the sterling proceeds of BulgariaD
exports to the U.K., with effect from 31 March 1956 (see also p. 866).
DEFENCE. For the (abortive) restrictions imposed by the pt'ace

treaty of 1947. see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1957. p. 853.
ARMY. In Dec. 1959 the Army was estimated at 100.000 men. There-
are 3 Army Commands (Military Regions): I. Sofia: I tank division. 1
motorized division, 2 infantry divisions. Il.Plovdiv: 1 tank division, 2
infantry divisions. Ill. Sliven: 1 tank brigade. 3 infantry divisions. Air
Force: 3 divisions (fighter. escort, tactical bombing). Anti-aircraft : 3
regiments A.A. motorized artillery. Security police numbered 45,000 (o.
brigade8 of border guards. 8 regiments of security forces).
864 BULGARIA
Am FORCE. The Air Force, formed as an Army Aviation Corps during

the Balkan war of 1912-13, is still under Army command. It has been
reorganized under Soviet supervision, and at least 2 fighter regiments have
been equipped with Russian-built MiG-15 jet-fighters. There is a ground
attack regiment with Russian-built llyushin IJ-lO piston-engined aircraft;
and tho equipment of training, transport and helicopter units is also pre-
dominently Russian in origin. The strength is estimated at 14,000 personnel
and 150 operational aircraft.
NA\ Y. The Navy consists of 2 ex· Soviet destroyers, 4 ex-Soviet frigates,
3 ex-Scviet submarines, 5 patrol vessels, 15 motor torpedo-boats, 4 mine-
sweepers and a training vessel.
PRODUCTION. Planning. State economic planning started, under
Soviet direction, in 1947. The first Two-Year Plan, voted by the National
Assembly on 1 April 1947, really started after the nationalization of private
industry, on 23 Dec. 1947. The private sector immediately dropped from
83·6 to 5% of the number of enterprises, and ha.d, by 1952, virtua.lly dis-
appearod.
At the end of April 1953 it was announced that the first Five-Year
Plan (1949-53) had been completed by the end of 1952. In Feb. 1954 the
6th COllgress of the Communist Party issued directives for the second Five-
Year Plan, 1953-57. Capital investment for 1957 were 3,508m.; target for
1958, 3.999·6m. leva.
The third Five-Year Plan, 1958-62, was issued at the 7th Party Congress
in June, 1958. It is, however, to be fulfilled 'in 3 to 4 years' so as to bring
it into line with the plans of the other Soviet-bloc countries which end in
1960. Main targets: 60% increase of industry, 30% increase of farm pro-
duce, doubling of power capacity, 10m. tons coal output.
1955 1956 1057 1958 1959 1965
Industrial production (plan)
Coal and lignite (lm. metric tons) 1 10·5 10·8 11-9 12·7 15·3 24
Electricity (lm. kwh.). . 2,142'0 2,397'0 2,655·0 3,024'0 3,869'0 7,000
Crude st.,e! (1,000 metric tOilS) 78·5 129·5 170·0 211·0 230·0 400
Pig· iron (1,000 metric tOIlS) . 8'5 10·2 50·6 90 ·9 117·0 230
L ead (1,000 metric tOIlS) . 5·0 6·0 19·0 26 ·1 33·0 45
Zinc (1,000 metric tons) 1·3 5·8 7'~ 8·2 9·0
Crude oi (1,000 metric tOIlS) 4·8 150·0 285·0 222·0
Cement (1,000 metric tons) . 812·0 859·0 880·0 934·0 1,433'0 2,300
Sulphuri: acid (1,000 metric tons) 19'0 28 '6 40·0 64·0 200
13 tons of lignite - 1 ton of hard coal (tbermic value).
Agriculture. The total area of Bulgaria is 10,314,620 hectares; of this

4,786,400 hectares are arable.
According to the census of 1934, 80% of the active population (2,744,927)
were engaged in agriculture, most of them being small proprietors holding
from 1 to 6 acres. Since 1945 land ownership has been limited to 20 hec-
tares (·l9·4 acres). About 165,000 hectares have been taken away from
monasteries nnd private owners and divided among landless peasants and
co-operative farms. In 1946, 22·7% of the farms had no draught animals
and 18'7% not even a plough. 'l'here were in 1958,3,351 co.operative farms,
each with an average of 1,125 hectares, and 49 state farms; in Dec. 1958
the co-operative farms were amalgamated into 640 large units, each with
an ave:'age of over 7,000 hectares. In Dec. 1958 there were 200 machine-
tractor stations. In Sept. 1959 there were claimed to be 1,000 co-operative
farms, each with nn average of 4,400 hectares and 2,000 active members,
BULGARIA 865
using together 30,000 tractors (in 15-h.p. units), over 5,000 combines and
4,500 threshers.
Five large dalIl8, including the Vassil Kolarov dam (complet.ed 1951) and
the Stalin dam (completed 1956), irrigate over 360,000 hectares.
For the sown areas and yields of crops, 1948-56, see THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR-BoOK, 1958, p_ 866_ Yield in 1958 (in 1,000 metric tons): Wheat,
2,328: maize,872: barley,442: beans, 58: rice, 44·7; oats, 134; rye,102;
sunflower seed, 222: unginned cotton, 45 ; tobacco, 76; sugar beet, 887:
tomatoes, 461; potatoes,246; grapes, 837; hay (1957), 1,443.
The rose-oil industry produced 454 kg in 1957 and 636 kg in 1958.
Livestock (1958): 382,000 horses, 534,000 milch cows, 8·6m. sheep and
2m_ pigs.
Forestry. The forest area (1947) is 3,076,000 hectares, of which 2,976,000
hectares are economically useful. Principal woods are oak and beeoh.
Mining. In 1958 there were produced 137,000 (1939: 376,000) tons of
iron ore, 79,380 tons of manganese ore, 78,000 tons of copper ore, 139,000
tons of lead-zinc ore; 70,000 tons of pyrite ores. Gold product.ion was
173 kg in 1941. Salt output was 112,000 metric tons in 1958.
Oil was discovered in 1951 near Tulenovo, in the Balchik district on the
Black Sea. Production started in 1954. Prospecting is being done in the
Varna and Popovo districts.
Industry. On 23 Dec. 1947 the whole of the country's industry was
brought under national ownership and control.
Output (1958) of pig-iron, 60,000 (1939 : 117,000) tons; steel-ingots and
castings, 233,000 short tons.
The' Stalin' ohemical combine, largely for the production of fertilizers
(yearly capacity: 70,000 tons), and a thermo-electric station began operating
on 5 Nov. 1951 in the new town of Dimitrovgrad. Two superphosphate
plants were inaugurated in Oct. 1957 at Dimitrovgrad and Devniya.
In 1958 (and 1959), 169m. (209m.) metres of cotton fabrics, 14·2m.
(19m.) metres of woollen fabrics and 6·8m. (10m.) metres of silk fabrics
were produced.
Major industrial projects completed in 1957 comprise the first blast
furnace at the Lenin plant in Dimitrovo and the extension of the Stalin
thermo-electric station (total capacity, 50,000 kw). The annual capacity of
the power stations was 476,000 kw at the end of 1957.
COMMERCE. Foreign trade is controlled by the Ministry of :Foreign
Trade. Bulgarian trade has developed as follows (1946-56 in US$lm.,
1958 in Im. leva):
1948 1941 1948 196~ 1964 1966 1966 Bo8
Importe • 60·8 14·' 128·$ 168·4 196·0 19408 248 2,492
Bxports . 62" 86-1 123-6 171·0 232·7 2'9,1 339 2,548
Trade by countries in 1958 (in Im. leva):
Imports Exports Imports E"port.6
from to from to
Albania . 8 17 Greece . 17 19
Austria. 31 32 Hungary G9 1).1
Ohlna 48 75 Italy . 30 36
Ozechosl~vaki~ 246 278 Poland . 116 133
Egypt . 22 27 Rumania 31 2~
France . 37 33 U.S.S.R. 1,31 3 1, 371
Germany, East 267 203 U.K. 21 22
Germany, West 104 84 Yugosla~ia 15 S8
..,..,
866 BULGARIA
On 27 Feb. 1959 a. British-Bulgarian t rade agreement was signed, t o

run till 31 March 1962, with an exchange of goods settled at about £6m.
Tof;al trade between U.K. and Bulgaria (British Board of Trade returns,
in £ stlrling) :
1938 1956 1956 1957 1958 195~
Import. to U.K. 506,655 374,699 853,216 67;;,052 1,184,660 1,580,975
Exports from U. K. . 321,339 797,060 781,~99 366,841 317,036 1,903,942
Re-exports from U.K. 22,110 467,497 348,916 664,813 197,510 336,510
COMMUNICA nONS. Shipping. The mercantile marine, in July 1959,

comprised 35,783 gross tons. An ex·British cargo motor vessel of 7,372
tons (huilt in 1944 and bought in 1956) is the flagship of the Bulgarian
merchnnt navy. The state-owned Navigation Maritime Bulgare, based on
Varna, has 21 vessels, including 15 motor vessels.
Shipyards, especially the Georgi Dimitrov shipyard in Varna, are build-
ing ships for export to the U.S.S.R., Czechoslovakia and Albania.
RO/m. In 1956 there were 15,870 miles of roads. In Dec. 1950 the
number of licensed motor vehicles was: Cars, 6,000; commercial, 5,000.
In 1957 regular bus services carried 30m. passengers.
Ra,:lways. In 1957 Bulgaria had 2,670 miles of railway. A line,
linking Sofia with the port of Burgas through the Rose valley, was opened
in Dec. 1952.
Public transport in 1956 carried 36,789,000 tons of goods, mainly on
railwa:Ts.
Pod. There were, in 1958, 1,931 post offices. Length of telephone
line, H4,000 km. Number of telephones, 140,367. Radio receiving sets
in 1940,205,000. Television was inaugurated in Nov. 1959.
Am'ation. TABSO (Bulgarian-Soviet Airlines) serves Sofia (airport:
Vrajdebna), Plovdiv, Burgas, Varna, Gorna Oryehovitsa, Haskovo, Russe,
Stara Zagora and Turnovo. On 9 Oct. 1954 the U.S.S.R. relinquished its
share in TABSO. With the Czech and Hungarian airlines, TABSO shares
a service linking Sofia with Budapest, Warsaw, Prague, Belgrade (where
B.E.A. connects with London) and Vienna (shared with Austrian Airlines).
The 8)viet airline AeroBot connects Moscow with Sofia via Kiev and
Bucharest. K.L.M. touches Sofia once weekly on the route Amsterdam-
A them,-Beirut-Damascus.
MONEY AND BANKING. A currency reform of May 1952 linked the

Bulgarian currency (unit: the lev, pI. leva) to the Soviet rouble. The
parity is: 1 rouble = 1·70 leva. As the new Soviet rouble (introduced in
March 1950) corresponds to 0·222168 gramme of fine gold, the relation for
t.he ne"v lcv is 0·130687 gramme.
The official rate of exchange is £1 = 19'04Ieva, but from 29 July 1957
the value of the lev was lowered by 40% for non-commercial payments;
e.g., £1 = 26·66 leva; US$1 = 9·52 leva; 100 Swiss francs = 222·19 leva.
Tho Act of 27 Dec. 1947, nationalizing all banks, public and private,
gave the National Bank complete autonomy, freeing it from any responsi.
bility for state debts. Its capital is unlimited and its deposits consist,
primarily, of the surpluses of the state and local authorities and the national·
ized enterprises. Its chief task is to safeguard the purchasing power of the
curreney and the foreign exchange value of the lev. The only other im·
portanc bank is the Bulgarian Investment Bank (formerly the Mortgage
BURMA 867
Bank of Bulgaria), whose capital includes the capital and reserves of the
Mortgage Bank plus the investment funds of all those banks which have
been nationalized.
A decree of 7 July 1956 ordered the Investments Bank to grant long.
term credits to co· operative farms and to convert and postpone the repay.
ment of loans for farmA in distress.
On 31 Dec. 1958, 4·96m. people had saving deposits totalling 4,398\1\.
leva.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES . The metric system is in general u"e.
On 1 April 1916 the Gregorian calendar came into force in Bulgaria.
DIPLOMA TIC REPRESENTATIVES

Bulgaria maintains embassies in Albania, China, Czechoslovakia, the
German Democratic Republic, Poland, Rumania, U.S.S.R., Yugoslavia;
legations in Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Burma, France, Greece, Hungary,
Israel, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Arab Republic, U.K.;
and has diplomatio relations with Finland, Mongolia, Netherlands, North
Korea and the Ho Chi Minh regime in Vietnam.
Ol!' BULGARIA IN GREAT BRITAIN (12 Queen's Gate Gardens, S.W.7)
Minister. Georgi Petrov Zenguilekov (accredited 28 Nov. 1958).
Coun.~ellors. Parvan Tchernev; Christo Zdravtchev (Commercial).
F':rM Secretary. Nayden Penev Belchev. Nilitary, Naval and Air AttacM.
Col. Nikola Ivanov Kri·dev.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN BULGARIA
Minister. A. E. Lambert, C.M.G.
First Secretary. D. U. Jackson (Consul). Military, Naval alld Air
Attache. Col. A. H. Henderson. Information Officer. R. Bedford.
OF BULGARIA IN THE U.S.A. (2100-IGth St. N.W.,
Washington 9, D.C.)
Minister. Dr Peter G. Voutov. First Secretnry. Kiril Cht.erev.
Books of Reference
Trtaly 0/ PeaCt, 10 Feb. 1947. Gmd. 7483
Guide Book on Bulgaria . Sofia, 1959
Chakalov, G. G., E""Ii.h-Bulgarian Dictiona,y. Sofia, 1948
Demn, L. A. D. (od.), Bulgaria. l.ondon, 1957
Konstao.tinov, F. T., NarodnallfJ Rtspublika [Jolgaria. 2nd ed . Mosco .... , 1952
Seton- WatsoD, H., T/~ EaJt EUfopean Re•.:olution. LondoD, 1950
Valev, E. V., Bolga,va. 2nd od. Moscow, 1957
BURMA
PYEE·DAUNG·Su MYANIIlA·NAINGGAN.DAW
THE Union of Burma eame formally into existence on 4 Jan. 1948. On
this day, Sir Hubert Ranee, the last British Governor, handed over authority
to Sao Shwe Thaik, the first President of the Burmese Republic; the Cabinet
took the oath of office, and Parliament ratified the treaty with Great
Britain providing for the independence of Burma 11.8 a country not within
His Britannio Majesty's dominions and not entitled to His Britannic
868 BURMA
Majestfs protection. This trea.ty was signed in London on 17 Oct. 1947

and en:tcted by the British Parliament on 10 Dec. 1947.
For the history of Burma's connexion with Great Britain see THB
STATESMAN'S YEAR. BOOK, 1950, p. 836; for a map of Burma, 8ee THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1936.
CO:~STITUTION. The Constitut,ion of the Burma Union was passed

unanimously on 24 Sept. 1947. It consists of 14 chapters (234 clauses),
which contain the following provisions:
Territory. The Union consists of (i) the territories formerly governed by
His Britannic Majesty through the Governor of Burma, and (ii) the Karenni
Ststes. The former Federated Shall States and the Wa States are com·
bined In the Shan State; the Myitkyina and Bhamo Districts are now
called the Kachin State; the former Karenni States, i.e., Kantarawaddy,
Bawlake and Kyebogyi, are the Kayah State; and parts of the former
districts of Toungoo, Thaton and Amherst form the Karen State.
Fu~damental Rights. There is only one citizenship of the Union.
Privat'~ property and private enterprises are guaranteed, but private mono·
polist 'Jrganizations are forbidden. Nationalization of branches of national
econoDlY or single enterprises, with compensation of the owners, is provided
for.
State Policy. There is a general tendenoy towards large.scale planning,
support of co· operative organizations and collective fa.rming.
Pr"8idency. The President of the Union is to be elected by both
Chambers of Parliament in joint session, for a {i.year term; re· election is
permitted only once. He summons, prorogues and dissolves the Chamber of
Deputies on the advioo of the Prime Minister. He has no right of vetoing
bills. In the event of his death, incapacity, etc., the presidential powers are
exerciEed by a Commission, consisting of the Chief Justice and the Speakers
of the two Chambers.
Parliament. The Union Parliament consists of the President, the
Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Nationalities. The latter corn·
prises 125 members, 53 of whom represent the central unit, 72 the states and
speciaJ areas. The Chamber of Deputies has about twice as many members.
Both !Lre eleoted for 4 years.
St6tes. The Shan, Kachin, Karen and Kayah States and the Special
Division of the Chins are each represented in the Union government by a
minister to be ohosen from its own members of parliament. They enjoy a
large measure of administrative autonomy.
National Flag. Red, with a canton of dark blue; in the canton, a 6·
pointed large white star with 6 smaller stars between the points.
Language. The official language is Burmese; the use of English i.e
permitted. The Constitution is enacted in Burmese and in English.
Pnsident of the Republic. U Win Maung (elected 11 March 1967).
On 29 Oct. 1958, Gen. Ne Win, the Army Chief of Staff, took over the
goverJIUlent. The elections to the lower house of parliament, held in Feb.
1960, gave the faction of the Anti·Fascist People's Freedom League led by
U Nu. about 170 out of 250 seats.
BURMA 869
The cabinet was composed as follows in April 1960:
Prime Minister, Defence, Home Affail's, Local Administration, Relief Mid
Settlement. U Nn.
Fore'ign Affairs. Sao Hkun Hkio. Finance and Planning. Thakin
Tin. Transport, Posts and Telegraphs, Marine and Civil Aviation, Public
Works, Housing and Rehabilitation. Bohmu Aung. Justice and Education.
U Aye Maung. Industry, l11ines and Labour. U Raschid. Social Welfare,
R eligious Affairs, CuUure and Health. U Ba San. Agriculture and ForesiJ3,
Land Nationalization, Co·operati'ves and Commodity Distribut'ion. Thakim
Tin Maung. Trade Development anlZ Civil Supplies. U Thwin.
AREA AND POPULATION. The total area of the Union is 261,789
sq. miles. Some small rectifications of the border with China were agreed
upon in Jan. 1960. The total population (censns, 1941) was IG,823,798.
Estimated population in 1954, HJ,242,000. The leading towns are (1955):
Rangoon, the capital (737,079), Mandalay (182,367) and Moulmein (101,720).
The urban birth rate, 1947, was 33·49 per 1,000 (37'17 in 1948); the
highest recorded was 50·95 in Kawkareik (58'97 in Maymyo in 1948). The
urban death rate, 1947, was 32·84 per 1,000 (31'94 in 1948); the highest
recorded was 75 (60·8 in 1948) in Moulmeingyun.
The Burmans belong to the Tibeto·Chinese (or Tibeto.Burman) family.
RELIGION. The Constitution recognizes Buddhism as 'the faith
professed by the great majority of the citizens'.
The proportion of religions per 1,000 in 1931 was: Buddhists, 843;
Animista, 52; Mohammedans, 40; Hind us, 39; Christians, 23; others, 3.
EDUCATION. After the attainment of independence the Government
has adopted a centralized system of control of schools which are graded as
primary, middle and high school. The medium of instruction in all state
schools is Burmese; English is taught as a compulsory second language in
secondary schools.
Education is free in all grades of state schools; it is to be made com·
pulsory. Government expenses for primary schools were K.5,70,62,600 and
for secondary schools, K .2,62,22,400 in 1956-57. Private schools have to
be registered under the Private Schools Registration Act, 1951; they are
particularly numerous in R angoon, Mandalay, Moulmein and Bassein.
Teachers' training colleges are maintained by the Government in Rangoon,
Mandalay, !\loulmein, Ba:lsein, Meiktila and Kyaukpyu.
In 1958 there were 235 state high schools with 89,126 pupils and 1,955
teachers, 452 state middle schools with 238,456 pupils and 5,034 teachers
and 10,751 state primary schools with 1,380,125 pupils and 32,900 teachers.
There were also 274 private high schools with 79,934 pupils, 249 private
middle schools with 36,583 pupils and 205 private primary schools with
19,482 pupils.
The University of Rangoon is composcd of the following faculties: Art"
science, engineering, law, education, agriculture, medicine, forestry and
social sciences. In 1958-59 arts students numbered 5,341 and science
students,6,487. The Intermediate College, Mandalay, was on 1 June 1008
raised to the status of the University of'Mandalay (with 1,966 students).
Intermediate Colleges exist at Moulmein, Kyaukpyu, Magwe and Bassein.
There are also 2 technical institutes (at Insein and Mandalay) and an
agricultural institute (at Pyinmana). The department of technical cduca·
tion at the Ministry of Education is in charge of technical and vocational
870 BURMA
training; there are several technical, engineering and agricultural schools

at secondary level.
In l!I48 a mass·education council was formed ; by 1956 it had established
125 ceut,res for adult education.
JUSTICE. In 1948 the High Court of Judicature (constituted in 1922)
was supOlrsedcd by a High Court under the Union Judiciary Act, 1948. This
oourt is presided over by the Chief Justice and 7 other judges. A court of
higher j ~risdiction, the Supreme Court, has been created, presided over by
the Chi(,f Justice of the Union and 2 other judges. This court is a Court
of Record disposing of all criminal miscellaneous applications under the
Public Order Preservation Act, 1948, and the Public Property Protection
Act, H)4,s, and hearing appeals from the High Court in certain cases.
The prison population on 30 June 1957 numbered 10,463.
FINANCE. The budget estimates (in K.lm.) were as follows:
1953- 54 1954-55 19;;;;-56 1956- 57 1957-58
Revenue 792·6 1,118' 3 89(;,2 891·0 675·n
Expend i tnre 738·0 1,442 ·3 1·036·4 877·0 678·/
The external debt outstanding at the end of 1952 was K.855m.; the
internal debt was K,67 ·7m., of which treasury bills accounted for K.39m.
In 1:)53 Burma's financial obligations to the U.K. were fixed at £7'301. ;
of this t)tal, £3·3m. will be settled by Burma's taking over the U.K. debt to
the Unic>n Bank of Burma in respect of currency redemption. The remain.
ing £4m. will be covered by a single down payment to the U.K.
The Economic Co.operation Administration, in }'eb. 1951, granted
$) ·6m. ':.0 the Burmese Government for rebuilding the port of Rangoon and
other rehabilitation projects. In Dec. 1957 Burma received a U.S.A. loan
of $5'410 . to reclaim land in the delta.
DEI'ENCE. Na,vy. The Navy includes 1 frigate (the Mayu), 1 ocoan
O1ineswneper, 5 motor torpedo·boats, 1 motor minesweeper, 4 gunboats
(ex.landing craft), 20 motor gunboats and 19 river gunboats. Altogether
37 naval vessels were presented to Burma by the U.K. and others by the
U.S.A. Personnel in 1960 : 3,000 officers and ratings, including reserves.
Air Force. The Air Force is intended primarily for internal security
duties and almost all its equipment is British·built. Two fighter. bomber
squadrons are being re.equipped with Sea Furies. Training is done with
piston·engined Provosts and Vampire jets, but the Provosts are fitted to
carry Ii,~ht armament for additiona.l security operations. Transport units
are equipped with Bristol Freighter, C·47 and Beech DI8 aircraft. The
Air For·:e has some 800 personnel and 70 aircraft.
Militia . The People's Militia Act of2 March 1959 prescribes compulsory
military service for periods ranging from 6 to 24 months for every man
between the ages of 18 and 46, every woman between the ages of 18 and 36,
and every doctor or engineer or technician between the ages of 18 a·nd 56.
PRODUCTION. Fore-ytry. The area of reserver! forests at the end
of 1945-46 was 22,197,324 acres. On 1 Juno 1948 the Government took
over one·t,hird of the concessions held by European and indigenous lessees.
On 1 F eb. 1949 the Europcan lessees surrendered their concessions. The
take·over payments amounted to K.73·54 lakhs.
BURMA 871
Production, in 1957-58, of teak was 160,142 round tons (exports,
113,766); of hardwood, 688,363 round tons (exports, 49,896).
Agriculture. By the end of 1958, 3,345,911 acres had been distributed
among peasant proprietors under the Land Nationalization Scheme.
Acreage (1,000) and production (1,000 metric tons) of principal crops:
1954--65 1950-56 1956-67
Crop. .A.,taqt Production ~c,eage Producti"" .A.,taqt l'rodUllWn
Rice, rougb 10,161 6,803'3 10,263 5,868-1 10,385 6,463 '6
Millet 560 66·0 560 69·0 580 71·0
Pulses . 1,137 201·2 1,049 232·6 1,127 238·8
Peanuts, sbelled 779 109·5 821 145·3 855 138'4
Sesame . 1,402 36'9 1,421 44·8 1,466 65·6
Sugar cane 57 916'4 66 855·6 75 1,066'8
Ootton • 370 2304 422 18·3 399 15·8
Tobacco 110 46·7 104 39·6 121 48·8
Livestock (30 June 1948) : Cattle, 5,207,000; buffaloes, 7,210,000 ; horses,

12,000; sheep, 21,000; goats, 172,000; pigs, 394,000.
In 1955-56 the e.rea irrige.ted by government. controlled irrigation worlul
was 1,360,000 acres; in 1954 the area protected by government embank·
ments and drainage works was 1,924,423 acres.
Mining. Production in 1956 of the leading items:
Quantity Value (in Ko) Quantity Value (in K .)
Precww Sumel J/ineralJ
Amber, cwt . 40 40,255 Silver (refined), oz. 1,961 ,472 '
Jade, cwt. 940 1,634,475 Tin concs., tons 667 3,789,456
Ruby, car..' 21,066 1,634,360 Wolfrom CODCS.
Sapphire, c:lra t 3,550 121,750 tons 571 5,91~,598
Gold, fine troy 0 • . 125,637 6,914,398 Mixed tin and wol·
fram concs., tOll8 2,092 19,444,306
M etallie Pr.dueU Lead mineral.(50%
Lead (refined), tons IS,561), PU),tons . 29,4:)2 24,1 37,706
Oopper matte, tons 361 &·10,583 Copper cones., tons 71 93,453
Nickelspeiss, tons . 613 544,914 Zinc CODCS . , tons 14,345 4,8~7,120
Manganeae concs_t
tons 1,1 ~0 If.9 t 78S
Petroleum. gallons . &3,656,060 I 22,389,512 Iron oros, tons 3,548
• 1957: lOom. • 1958.
Trade Unions. As of 31 Jan. 1953, 12,561 co·operative sociel,ies were
registered. The number of trade unions registered at the end of March
1948 was 63, with a membership of 40,998.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports (in K .lm.) for the fiscal years
I Oct.-30 Sept. :
1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1966 I 1957 1
Imports . 825·3 8i6·5 946·7 905·2 197·4 297·4
Exports . 990·0 1,294'4 1,059' 3 1,106' 7 2015-9 219·9
I US$lm. ; caicuuar year.
Exports of milled rice wero 1·25m. metric tons in 1958 and 1·79m. metric
tODS in 1959. Exports of raw rubber amount.ed to 27·5m. lb. in 1952-53,
21'5m. lb. in 1953-54 and 28·3m. lb. in H)M-55. Raw cotton exports in
the same years declined from 50m. lb. to 39·4m. lb. and 32·2m. lb.
Trade between Burma and U.K. (British Board of Trade returns) in £
sterling :
1938 1956 1941 1968 19;9
Imports to U.K. 6,~74 ,7 60 7,7SG,197 7.S32,249 6,926,400 7,969,630
Exports Irom U.K . 2,648.90) 17,372,714 21,716,012 11,488,856 14,618,919
Re·exports Irom U.K . 2;,609 63,476 80,817 47,211 95,899
872 BURMA
COMMUNICA TIONS. Railways. The Burma Railway system is

entirely of metre gauge (3 ft 3l in.) and its main lines run from Rangoon to
Proms (161 miles) to the north· west and Rangoon to Mandalay (386 miles)
towalds the north, extending to Myitkyina farther north (723 miles from
Rang)on). Branch lines extend from Letpadan to Tharrawaw (24 miles) on
the west, the delta lines from Henzada to Bassein (82 miles) and Henzada to
Kyangin (65 miles). In the Tenasserim Division, the lines are Pegu to
Mart~,ban (122 miles)-for Moulmein by ferry-and the Moulmein South to
Anin (57 miles), and from Nyaunglebin to Madauk (11 miles). Then there
are the branch lines from Pyinmana to Taungdwingyi (67 miles), from
Thazi to Myingyan (70 miles), from Mandalay to Madaya (17 miles) and from
Ywahung to Alon (71 miles). The Northern and Southern Shan States hill
sections connect with the main lines at Myohaung and Thazi and have re·
spectively 12· and 16-mile sections continuously graded at 1 in 25. The
openbg of the Ava bridge across the Irrawaddy at Sagaing in 1934 permitted
throu 5h traffio from Rangoon to Myitkyina.. This bridge was damaged
durin~ the Second World War but reopened to traffic in Oct. 1954. The
Northern Shan States branch was breached by war damage to the Gokteik
Viaduct, which was repaired in 1952.
In 1956 the railway carried 370m. ton.mileage and 525m. passenger-
milea.~e; gross earnings were K.80m.
Roads. The Department of Highways is in charge of 2,368 miles of

metalled, 2,364 miles of black-topped and 1,604 miles of other roads;
distrio:t councils maintain another 2,883 miles.
Skipping. Burma has 60 miles of navigable canals. The Irrawaddy is
navipble up to Bhamo, 900 miles from the sea, and its tributary, the
Chindwin, is naviga.ble for 390 miles. The Irra.waddy delta. has nearly
2,000 miles of navigable water. The Salween, the Attarlm and the G'yne
provide a.bout 250 miles of navigable waters around Moulmein. The
Inlani Water Transport Board runs services from Bha.mo to Myitkyina.
(129 illiles): Bha.mo--Sinbo, 1 Dec.-15 March; Sinbo-Myitkyina, through.
out the year.
The port of Rangoon in 1957-58 handled 2·7m. tons of seaborne trade.
Post. There were 532 post offices in 1958. Number of telephones was
10,78 1).
There are 175 telegraph offices, and the internal system of communica.-
tion.s chiefly by wireless. The external communications with foreign
countries are operated through Cable and Wireless, Ltd, Colombo. There
is alsl) a wireless coastal station at Rangoon.
k~iation. Union of Burma Airways started its internal service in Sept.
1948 and its external service in Nov. 1950. International services were in
1958 maintained between Rangoon and Bangkok, Hong Kong, Calcutta,
Djakmta, Singapore. There were, in 1957, 34 civil aerodromes and landing
grounds. In 1957-58 the total ton-mileage was 21,260,631 and the pas-
senge.r.mileage, 20,616,397.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The Union Bank of Burma wu
esta.b'ished on 3 Feb. 1948, with an authorized capita.l of Rs 4 crores. The
Union Bank of Burma Act, which came into force on 1 July 1952, ha.s given
the Bank the position of a central bank with power to licence a.nd inspect
a.ll hanks. The Act has also transferred the issue of currency from the
Burma Currency Board in London to the Union Bank, and at the same time
ohan€:ed the monetary system of Burma.
BURMA 8i3
The balance sheet of the Union Bank as at 31 Dec. 1952 showed the
{ollowing liahilities: Paid.up ca pital, K .l,OO,OO,OOO; reserve fund.
K . I,30,OO,OOO; currency in circ .. lation, K.42,6I,30,753; governmen t de·
posits, K .56,33,67,3I!.1 ; non·go ve rnmcnt deposits, K.6,74,Hi,563; total,
K.IIO,90,60,248. The foreign cxehange reserve amounted to K.93,94,63,400,
government securit.i"8 to K .16,18,34,108.
The Stat<'l Commercial Bank. owned by the Government, was opened in
Aug. 1954 ; i t~ total asset.s at 30 June 1958 were 5,7421akhs of Kyats.
The currency unit is now the kyat (formerly the Burma r upee) divided
into 100 P.'IM; t/lQ kyat oquals la. 6d. (US$1 = Ra 4,76).
At the end of 1952, the total circulation of notes (I, (i, 10, 100 kyat) was
K.4I ·60 crorea and of coins, K.l·OI crores.
In 1952 there were 21 commercial banks doing business in Rangoon,
2 each in Mandalay and Moulmein, and 1 each in Akyah, Mn.ymyo, TauClggy i
and Ta voy, most of which a re branches of foreign institutions.

Burma maintains embassies in Afghanistan , Australia, China., India,
Indonesia, Israel, .Ja.pan, Pakistan, Thailand, V .S.S.R., United Arab Re·
public, V.K., V .S.A ., Yugoslavia; and legations in Cam bodia, Ceylon,
France, West Germany, Italy, Laos, Mongolia, Nctherlands, Philippines,
Rumania.
01/ BURMA IN GREAT BRITAIN (l9A Charles St., W.l)
AmbM8ador. U Aung 806 (accredited 1 Nov. 1956).
First Secretary. U Khin l\laung.
Military, Air and Naval Attache. Col. Thein !lhung .
First Secrektry (Commercial) . U Saw Obn Tin.
Financial Attache. U S an l\fawlg.
Oultural Attache. U Aye Maung.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN B UR11A
Ambassador. Sir Richard Alien, K .C.M.G. (accredited 28 Nov. 1956).
Counsellors. R. M. K . Slater; G. B. Blaker; A. H . B. Hermann (Oom.
mercial and Oonsul·General).
First Secretaries. H. A. N. Brown ; K. C. Parsons; L. E . Hanham
(Oonsular); J. R . Greenwood (Infornwtion) .
.M ilitary Attache. Col. G. R. A. Brooking . Naval Attache. Cdr J. J .
PhiIlips, R.N . (resident in Bangkok). Air Attache. Group Capt. P. W.
Cook.
There iJ! a consular r epresenta tive at Rangoon.
OF BURMA IN 'l'HE V .S.A. (2300 S St. NW., Washington 8, D .C.)

Ambassador. On Sein.
First Secretary. V Pe. M'ilitary, Naval and Air Attache. Col. ~Iaung
Lwin. Education Attache. V Thant Gyi. Finnnce Attache. V K y in.
OF THE V.S.A. IN BURMA

Ambassador. William P . Snow.
Oounsellor. Peyton Kerr. First S ecretaries. Konrad Bekker (Eco.
nomic); Benton D. Morgall (00ns1tl); Richard T. E wing (Oonsul) . Service
Attaches : Col. Marvin A. Kriedberg (Army), Col. }'ranklin B. Nibert (Navy),
874 CAMBODIA
Lieut.-Cd. Roy M. Ahalt, Jr (Air). Agricultural Attache. Arthur M.

Rollefsor.
Books of Reference
STATlSllCAL lNl'oIDtATION. A Central Statistical Office is beiD8 organized as a depart-
Ulent 01 tb" Ministry of N ationsl Planning.
Tt.e Constilution of tlv. Union of Burma. RaD8oon, 1948
Burma lndop<ntknc'! AeI, 1947 (J 1 Geo. VI, Ch. 3). 1947
BUrTTIIJ .. Treaty bdwem the Government 0/ the Unit,.d Kingdom all-a the Provinonal GOflernmml
of Burm(l. (Treaty Series No. 16, 1948.) H.M.S.O., 1948
Oolli., M., ,Ardo, of CM Sunset (T"" Shan SI4Ies). Loodon,19S8.-T"" Burm"" ,qcmc, Political,
H",toricaZ, Pictorial. London, 1944
Cook, B. O. A., Burma. Ourseas lteonomic Survey. April 1957. H .M.S.O., 19:;7
Donnison, F. S. V., Pu~lic Administration in Burma. R. Inst. of Int. Affairs, 1953
Furnivall, 1. S., The Gorernment of modern Burma . X ew York, 19;,3
Ma Mya S,in, Burma. 2nd ed. Oxford,) 944
M~nng Manng, Burmn in the Famil1/ of NalionJ. Amsterdam, 1956
8~w8.rt, J. A., and Dunn, O. W., BUTmesfL-English Dictionary. London, 1940 ft .
Thakin Nu, Burma under t'~ Japanese. London,) 9:>3
Tinker, Ho! TM Unum Of Burma. Oxford Univ. Press. 1957
CAMBODIA
PREAH REACH ANA CHAK KAMPUCHEA
HISTORY. The recorded history of Cambodia starts at the beginning
of t.he Ct.ristian era with the Kingdom of Fou-Nan, whose territories at one
time inc.luded parts of Thailand, Malaya. Cochin-China and Laos, The
religious, cultural and administrative inspirations of this state came from
India. The Kingdom was absorbed at the end of the 6th century by the
Khmers, under whose monarchs was built, between the 9th and 14th cen-
t.uries, tlce splendid complex of shrines and temples at Angkor. Attacked
on either side by the Vietnamese and the Thai during subsequent centuries,
the Khmer Empire was only saved from annihilation by the establishment of
a French protectorate in 1863, The Government of Thailand recognized
tho proulctorate and renounced all claiDl9 to suzerainty in exchange for
Cambodia's north-western provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap, whioh
were, hO''I'ever, returned under a Franco-Thai convention of 1907, the terrna
of which were confirmed in the Franco-Thai treaty of 1937. In 1904 the
province of Stung Treng, formerly administered as part of Laos, was
attached to Cambodia.
A nationalist movement began in the 19308, and anti-French feeling
strength(lned in 1940-41, when the French submitted to Japanese demands
for baaes in Cambodia. and allowed Thailand to annex Cambodian territory.
On 9 March 1945 the Japanese suppressed the French administration
and the treaties between France and Cambodia were denounced by King
NorodoDI Sihanouk, who proclaimed Cambodia's independence, British
troops o~cupied Phn6m-Penh in Oct, 1945, and the re-establishment of
French £.uthority was followed by a Franco-Cambodian modus vivendi of
7 Jan, 1946, which promised a. constitution embodying a. constitutional
monarchy. Elections for a. National Consultative Assembly were held on
1 Sept. 1946 and a. Franco-Thai agreement of 17 Nov, 1946 ensured the
return to Cambodia. of the provinces annexed by Thailand in 1941.
In 1949 Cambodia. was granted independence as an Associate State of
t.he FreIiCh Union. The transfer of the French military powers toi the
Cambodian government on 9 Nov. 1953 is considered in Cambodia as the
attainmmt of sovereign independence. In Jan. 1955 Cambodia hecame
CAMBODIA 875
financially and economically independent, both of France and the other two
former Associate States of French Indo.China, Vietnam and Laos.
Anti·French guerilla bands had operated in the jungle from 1945, the
most important being a nationalist group known as the Khmer Issarak leo
by Son Ngoc Thanh, the former Japanese puppet premier. By 1953
Communist bands drawn from the Vietnamese minority and controlled by
the Vietminh were active, and in 1954 regular Vietminh forces invaded
Cambodia. Fighting came to an end with the conclusion on 21 July 1954, at
the Geneva Conference, of the agreement on Cambodia.. This ensured the
withdrawal of French and Vietminh troops, and most of the Khmer Issarak
bands then surrendered to the Government. There is no longer any armed
internal opposition to the CamLodian authorities, although the International
Commission composed of Canadian and Polish representatives with an
Indian chairman and responsible for the implementation of the Geneva
Agreements is still in being.
AREA AND POPULATION. Cambodia has an area of 181,000 sq. km
and is divided into the following 14 provinces: Kompong Thom, Kompong
Cham (population, 649,000), Battambang (population, 452,000), Kampot
(population, 318,000), Sicm Reap, Kompong Chhnang, Kompong Speu, Take()
(population, 384,000), Kratie, Stung Treng, Svay Rieng, Prey Veng (populo..
tion, 398,000), Pursat, Kandal (population, 643,000). The estimated total
population of 5,040,000 (1958) included 350,000 Vietnamese, 250,000 Chinese.
8;;,000 Chams and 5,000 Europeans. In the forests of the north·cast live
"arious primitive tribes-Stieng, Phnong, Por, etc. The chief towns are
Phn6m.Penh, the capital (population 500,000), located at the junction of
the Mekong and Tonle Sap rivers, Battambang (population 25,000), KOIll'
pong Chhang (population 20,000) and Kompong Cham (population, 15,000).
GOVERNMENT. On 6 May 1947 King Sihanouk, who succeeded on
26 April 1941. promulgated a constitution providing for parliamentary
government. This did not function well, and in June 1952 the King assumed
the premiership and in Jan. 1953 he dissolved parliament and replaced it by
a Consultative Assembly. In Feb. 1955 King Sihanouk held a nationa.l
referendum to decide whether he had successfully completed his mission in
leading Cambodia to indcpcndence; the referendum was overwhelmingly
affirmative. In March he abdicatcu and was succecdl'd jointly by hi~
parents, King Norodom Suramarit and Queen Kossamak. Prince Sihanouk
then formed a political movement, the Popular Socialist Community, to
work for the implementation of reforms to the 1947 constitution. The terms
of the Geneva Agreement calling for free elections for all Cambodian citizens,
including former resistance elements, were implemented on II Sept. 1955,
whcn Prince Sihanouk's movement won a 11 91 seats in the National Assembly.
This movement under Prince Sihanouk's leadership has continued to domi·
nate Cambodian politics. It again obtained all seats at the elections of
23 March 1958.
King. Norodom Sihanonk (w cceeded on th e death of hi8 fath er,
~ orodom Suramarit, on 3 April 1960).
Minis/er for Foreign Affairs. S Oil Sann.
RELIGION. The majority of Cambodians practise the Buddhism of
the Little Vehicle. The King is the supreme religious authority. It i&
estimated that there are about 20,000 Roman Catholics in Cambodia, mostly
Vietnamese and Europeans.
876 CAMBODIA
EDUCATION. There were, in 1959, 3,221 primary schools (524,361

pupils), 35 secondary schools (15,096 pupils) and 5 technical schools (633
pupils). There are also 2 teachers' training colleges, Faculties of Law,
Mediche and Letters, a Royal School of Administration, a National School
of Con.merce and a Buddhist University at Phnol\l·Penh.
FINANCE. The budget for the calendar year 1959 balanced at 3,140m .
riels. This figure does not include the substantial sums available to finance
Cambodian economic development under the United States, French and
Dhinesll aid programmes, nor does it reflect the' aid in kind' given under the
Colomho Plan and by the Soviet Union.
DEFENCE. The Army consists of about 35,000 officers and men in the
3 servioo8. The eountry is divided into 5 military districts. The Army has
11 trailing centres, 1 armoured regiment, 1 parachute battalion, 23 infantry
battali~ns, and various auxiliary support companies.
Th" Air Force, founded on 1 April 1954, has a strength of about 2,000
men and 30 aircraft. Its equipment includes French·built Alcyon trainers,
armed for additional groWld.attack duties, Japanese.built FD-25 Defender
Hght attack aircraft and C-47 and Beaver transports.
Th" Navy, officially founded on 20 April 1954, includes 2 patrol vessels,
a landing ship, 2 al nding craft. and 56 small craft. Personnel in 1960:
Navy, 1,200 officers and men; Marine Corps, 152 officers and men.
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. The overwhelming majority of the
population is engaged in agriculture, fishing and forestry. Of the country's
total area of 44m. acres, about 20m. are cultivable and over 20m. are forest
land. Some 4m. acres are cultivated, well over half being devoted to rice
produe tion. The system of small holdings provides t.he farmers with a
subsistence·level existence, and only a small part of the COWltry'S production
goes to market.
Ab)ut I·15m. metric tons of paddy were produced in 1958- 59, and
257,00J metric tons of rice were exported in 1958. Rubber production in
1958 amounted to 39,000 metric tons, all of which was exported, about
half of it in the form of smoked leaves, the remainder as crepe and latex.
Other products available for export are maize (117,000 metric tons
exported in 1958), and, in order of value, fish and fish products, livestock,
soya beans, kapok, timber, sesame.
Fcyoestry. Much of Cambodia's surface is covered by potentially valuable
forests, 3·8m. hectares are reserved by the government to be awarded to
conces3ionaires, and are not at present worked to an appreciable extent.
The remainder is available for exploitation by the local residents, and as a
result some areas are over.exploited and conservation is not practised. It
is believed that many of the trees would provide timber of the de luxe and
premkr categories, and there are substantial reserves of pitch pine.
Fisheries. Cambodia has the greatest fresh· water fish resources in Souih·
East Asia. The annual catch is between 100,000 and 150,000 tons, a drastic
drop from earlier years t,hat results from over· fishing, silting and the destruc·
tion 01' plant. life.
lIfining. Although old reports indicat.e the existence of substantial
deposits of phosphate, they are not borne out by later surveys and further
-explontion is required before the prospects for commercial exploitation can
be determined. High.grade iron·ore deposits (possibly as much as 2·5m.
tons) exist in Northern Cambodia, but are not exploited commercially
CAMBODIA 877
because of transportation difficulties; some experimental quarrying has
recently been undertaken by Chinese technicians. Some small-scale gold
panning (1,608 fine oz. in 1957) and gem (mainly zircon) mining is carried
out by primitive methods.
Industry. Cambodian industry is developing, and now includes a motor-
vehicle assembly plant, 3 cigarette manufacturing concerns, a modern
match factory, several metal fabricating concerns, spinning and weaving
mills and distilleries, as well as rice-mills, small tanneries, a few brick and
tilo kilns and agricultural produce processing industries. Cement, paper,
plywood and textils factories and a steel processing mill have been promised
under the Chinese aid programme to Cambodia, and a few small industries
are also scheduled for construction with private capital.
COMMERCE. Principal imports, 1958, by order of value, are textiles,
food products, machinery, motor vehicles, metal products, pharmaceuticals,
electrical equipment, chemicals and fertilizers, cement, paper and paper
manufactures. Principal exports, Hl5S, by order of value, are rice (776m.
riels). rubber (615m. riels) and maize.
Total trade with U.K .• in £ sterling (British Board of Trade returm);
1955 1956 1957 19G8 1959
Imports to U.K. 301,154 82,471 02,960 9,684
Exports from U.K . . 188,477 3!J7,982 211,425 378,:l45 267,814
Rc·exports from U. K. 267 553 129 899 1,0·15
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. Cambodia had, in 1959, 1,855 km of

asphalt roads (including the 'Khmer-American Friendship Highway' froUl
Phnom-Penh to SihanoukviIle, built under the United States aid programme
and opened in July 1959),1,090 km of macadamized roads, and about 870
km of improved dirt roads.
Railways. A line of 385 km (I-metre gauge), links Phnom-Penh to
Poipet (Thai frontier). In 1958 traffic amounted to 75·7m. passenger-km
and 58m, ton-km.
Shipping. The principal port is Phnom-Penh, which can be reached by
the Mekong (through Vietnam) by ships of between 3,000 and 4,000 tons.
A new ocean port has been built under the French aid programme at Si-
hanoukville (formerly Kompong Som) on the Gulf of Siam but is not yet
(March 1960) open to regular traffic,
In 1958, 4,446 ocean-going vessels unloaded ~61,OOO tons of cargo at
Phnom-Penh and 384 vessels loaded 221,00 tons. Some 250,000 tons of
cargo were carried by small craft, junks and barges to and from Saigon.
Post. There were 38 P08t offices functioning in 1956, of which 30 had tele-
graphic equipment. There are telephone exchanges in all the main town.;
number oC telephoneein 1958, 2,818. Phnom-Penh ,is linked to Saigon
(Vietnam). Vietiane (Lao8). Bangkok and Hong Kong by radio-telegraph.
Aviation. Pochentong airport, just outside Phnom-Penh, gives direct
services to Saigon, Bangkok, Vietiane, Djakarta, Hong Kong and Paris.
The airport accepts aircraft up to the size of the Constellation.
In 1958,900 planes with 14,000 passengers and 85 tons offreight arrived
at, and 912 planes with 14,000 passengers and 225 tons of freight departed
from, Pochentong.
There are landing grounds at Battambang and Siem Reap that can
accept DC3s and a number of fair-weather landing strips for light aircraft.
~78 CHILE
MONEY AND BANKING. Under the Paris agreements of 29 Dec.

1954, between the Aasociate States and France, the parity of the Cambodian
piastre (henceforth to be known as a riel) is to be maintained for the time
being at 10 francs = I riel. On 31 Dec. 1954 the quadripartite Institut
d'Emis3ion ceased operations and a new Cambodian National Bank became
responeible for the iasue of currency. In Nov. 1955 Vietnamese and Laotian
bank·Mtes ceased to be legal tender in Cambodia.
The National Bank showed, as at 31 Dec. 1955, gold and foreign exchange
assets of 3,417m. riels. Note circulation was 2,213m. riels.
The rates of exchange are £1 = 9S riels; USSl = 35 riels; 100 French
francs ,= 10 riels.
CaDlbodia maintains embassies in China, France, India, Indonesia,
Japan, Laos, Thailand, U.S.S.R., U.K., U.S.A., Yugoslavia; and legations
in Argentina, Burma, Czechoslovakia, the Philippines, Poland, Spain,
United Arab Republic.
O~ CAMBODIA IN GREAT BRITAIN (24 Phillimore Gardens, W.S)
Am~/l.!8ador. Au Chheun (accredited 21 July 1959).
Fir"t Secretary. ChOa San.
011" GREAT BRITAIN IN CAMBODIA
Am,)/l.!sador and Consul· General. Frederic Francis Garner, C.M.G.
{accredited 2 Sept. 1955).
Fint Secretary and Consul. D. J. Swann.
Natal Attaclli. Cdr J. J . Phillips, R.N. (resident in Bangkok).
Military Attache. Col. H. C. B. Cook, O.B.E. (resident in Saigon).
Air Attache. Group Capt. F. RothweiJ, D.F.C. (resident in Bangkok).
Civil Air Attache. P. G. Hudson (resident in Singapore).
OF CAMBODIA IN THE U.S.A. (4500-16th St. NW.,
WASillNOTON ll, D.C.)
Am,i/l.!3ador. Nong Kimny.
AUG;cMs. Thlang Sambaud; Pan Pao; Mok Sowouth.
OF THE U.S.A. IN CAMBODIA
Am,)/l.!sador. William C. Trimble.
CouMellor. Charles R. Moore. First Secretaries. Jack B. Minor
(COMU/) ; Roger Goiran. Service Attaches: Lieut.·Col. Lewis F. Springer
{Army), Cmdr James A. Oliver (Navy, resident in Saigon).
Books of Reference
.Stali..lica! Yearbook 01 Cambodia. Ministry of Planning, PhnOm·Penh. From 1937
J~Chh(J: Geographical Apprtciati<m. Department 01 Mines and Teehnical Surny.
Ottaw,., 1953
Hen, M. F., A Short liistory 01 Cambodia. New York and LondoD, 1958
CHILE
REPUBLICA DE CmLE
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Republic of Chile threw
()ff allegiance to the crown of Spain, constituting a national government on
IS Sept. IS10, finally freeing itselffrom Spanish rule in ISIS.
CHILE 879
The following is a list of the presid~nts since 1920:
Arturo Alcssandri, 23 Dec. 1920-10 Sept. Carlos DAvila (Acting), 8 July-l3 Sept..
1924 (leto Chile). 1932 (deposed).
<hon. Luis Altamirano (Acting), 10 Sept. Gen. Bartolome Blanche (Acting), 13 Sept.·
1924-23 Jan. 192. (deposed). 1 Oct. 1932 (reSigned).
Emilio Bello Codecido (Acting), 21 J an.- Abrahnm Oyanedel (Acting), 1 Oct.-Z4 Dec.
21 Mar. 1925. 1932.
Arturo Alessandri (restored), 21 Mar.-l Oct. Arturo Alessandrl, 24 Dec. 1932-2~ Dec.
192[, (resigned). 1938.
Lui. Barros Borgoiio (Acting), 1 Oct.-23 Dec. Pedro Aguirre Cerda, 24 Dec. ID38-25 Nov.
1925. 1941 (died).
Emiliano Figneroa Larrain, 23 Dec. 1925-6 Oer6nimo M6ndez (succeeded as Vice·Presi·
May 1921 (resigned). dent), 25 Nov. 1941-1 April 1942.
Gen. Carlos Ibi nez (Acting, I·hen elected), Juan Antonio RiO', 1 April 1942-21 June
6 May 1921-26 July 1931 (resigned). 1946 (died).
Pedro Opa7.o (Acting), 26-2i July 1931 Alfredo Duhnlde (Acting), 27 Jun&-3 Aug.
(resigned). 1946 (resigned).
Juan Esteban Montero (Acting), 21 July- Vice·Admiral Vicente Merino Bielech (Act·
18 Aug. 1931 (resigned). ing), 3 Aug.-3 Nov . 1946.
Manuel Trncco (Acting), 18 Aug.-IS Nov. 1931. Gabriel Gon.ale. Videla, 3 Nov. 1946 -
Juan Esteban Montero, 15 Nov. 1931-4 3 Nov. 1952.
June 1932 (deposed). Carloslbi.u1ez del Campo, J Nov. 1952-3 Nov.
80cilllist Juuta (Oarl08 Davila, Col. Marma· 1958.
duke Grove, Gen. Arturo Puga), 4 June-8 Jorge Ale.sandri Rodriguez, 3 Nov. 1958-
July 1932.
By the constitution of 18 Oct. 1925 legislative power is vested in the
National Congress, consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies,
both of which are elected by direct popular vote. The Senate consists of 45
members, elected for 8 years, who represent 9 provincial groups. each of
which elects 5 senators. One· half of the Senate is renewable every 4 years.
The Chamber of Deputies consists of members elected for 4 years by depart.
ments or groups of departments, 1 member for every 45,000 inhabitants
or fraction of not less than 15,000. There are 147 in the Congress elected
1957. The Belgian system of proportional representation prevails. Electors
are all citizens of 21 years of age or over, who are able to read and write;
electorate (1 March 1953) numbered 1,106,709, including 328,308 women.
Women were fully enfranchised in Jan. 1949. Congress sits from 21 May
(Navy Day) to 18 Sept. (Independence Day), excluding extraordinary
sessions.
The President is elected for 6 years, by direct popular vote, but is not
eligible for re·election; he must be Chilean·born and over 30 years of age.
Normally there is no Vice.President, but the President may appoint one
temporarily, when ill or out of the country. He has a modified veto; a bill
which he has vetoed may, by a two·thirds vote of the members of both
Chambers (a majority of the members being present), be sustained and
become law.
The validity of all elections of president, deputies and senators is deter·
mined by a special body called Tribunal CalificaOOr, consisting of 5 members
chosen by lot from past.presidents or vice· presidents of the Chamber and
Senate, members of the Supreme Court, of the Court of Appeal of the city
where Congress meets.
The capital is Santiago, founded on 12 Feb. 1541.
President of the Republic. Jorge AJessandri Rodrlguez, until Nov. 1964.
The President is assisted by 14 Ministers of State, who constitute a
Cabinet and are responsible to him; they must not be members of Congress.
Minister for Foreign Affair8. Cerman Vergara Donoso.
National flag: white, blue, red, with a white star in the blue strip.
880 CHILE
National anthem: Dulce patrie., recibe lOB votos (words by E. Lillo,

1847; tune by Ramon Ca.rnicer, 1828).
Loc.u, GOVERNMENT. For the purposes of local government the re-
public h divided into provinces, presided over by lntendentes, and the pro-
vinces into departments, with Gobernadores as chief officers, appointed by
the Preddent. Tbe departments constitute one or more municipal districts,
each wi,;h a council or municipality of 5 to 15 members, elected for 3 years.
Foreign residents may vote in municipal elections; in April 1950, 5,678
foreigners were on the electoral registers.
Oastro, J. L., El Si'/1!17I4 Electoral Chi/enQ. Santiago, 19(1
StevenSolL, J. R., The Chiltan Popular Fronl. Philadelphia, 1942
AREA AND POPULATION. Chile is divided into 25 provinces. All

provinc~s except 3 extend from the Pacific to the international bounda.ry,
while the inter-provincial boundaries in most cases now follow watersheds
instead of rivers, thus confining within one province the waters of a single
system and avoiding jurisdictional disputes.
Many islands to the north, west and south belong to Chile, including
Easter Island (Isla de Pascua; 63·9 sq. miles), discovered in 1722. The coast-
line is~bout 2,485 mile. in length; the average width of the country,
110 milllS. Area, 741,767 sq. km or 286,397 sq. miles.
In 1940 Chile declared, and in each subsequent year has reaffirmed, its
ownership of the sector of the Antarctic lying between 53° and 90° W. long.;
and asserted that the British claim to the sector between the meridians
20° and 90° W. long. overlapped the Chilean by 27°. Three Chilean bases
were esl;ablished in Antarctica in 1947, 1948 and 1951. A law promulgated
21 July 1955 put the Intendente of the Province of Magallanes in charge of
the 'Ch ilean Antarctic Territory.'
Throe thinly-settled southern provinces of Magallanes, Chiloe and Aysen,
and the northern province of Arica are known as 'free zones,' for tbe severe
restrictions on imports prevailing elsewhere are modified in respect of those
areas.
The areas of the provinces and their populations, according to the
census of 1940 and latest official estimates are as follows:
Area : Popula- Population Area: Popula- Population
Provinces sq. km tlon 1940 Oct. 1958 Provinces sq. km tion 1940 Oct. 1958
Aconcagta. 10,204 118,049 159,353 MagalIanes 135,418 48,813 68,529
Antofag'Hta 123,063 145,147 229,417 MaUsco 14,277 164,1" 197,884
Aranco 6,766 88,107 89,528 Maula 6,626 70,497 89,598
Atooama 79,883 84,312 99,446 ~nble 14,211 243,186 311,~85
AyB6n 88,984 17,014 32,597 0' HJggins 7,112 200,297 278,782
Bf ... Bfo 11,248 127,Sl2 171,659 Osomo . 9,083 107,341 152,751
Oautln 17,370 374,669 453,154 Santiago. 17,422 1,268,606 2,178,387
0hI106 23,«6 101,706 124,983 Talca . 9,640 167,141 215,602
Oolchagu" 8,431 131,248 178,197 Tarapaca. 65,287 104,097 127,591
Ooncepcifm 5,701 308,241 510,867 Valdivla. 20,934 191,642 288,780
Ooquimb,) . 39,889 246,609 325,423 Valparafso 4,818 426,066 618,469
(Juri"'; 5,737 81,186 110,010
Linares 9,820 134,988 181,547 Total. 741,767 6,023,639 7,364,498
L1anquib,a 18,407 117,225 173,759
Dell3ity per sq. km, 1957, WII8 9·9. Total population, Oct. 1958, allowing
for under-enumeration, is estimated at 7,364,498.
Revised crude birth rate, 1957, was 29·4 per 1,000 population. Crude
death r.1te, 1957,9'7. Crude marriage rate, 1957, 6·2. Infantile mortality
rate, 1957, 117 per 1,000 live births.
CHILE 881
The great majority of the population is mixed or me.'ltizo, due to the froo
inter-marriage between the early Spaniards and women of indigenous tribes;
language and culture remain of European origin_ The indigenous inhabitants
are of three branches: the Fuegians, mostly nomadic, living in or near
Tierra del Fuego; the Araucanians (130,747) in the valleys or on the western
slopes of the Andes; the Ohang08, who inhabit the northern coast region
Bnd work as labourers_
The two leading cities, with census population in 1952, are Santiago,
1,350,409, and Valparaiso, 222,000. Other towns with census population in
1952 are: Concepcion, 134,000; Vina del Mar, 88,000; Antofagasta,
62,272; Talca, 55,059; Talcahuano, 54,782; Chillan, 52,576; Temuco,
51,497; Valdivia,45,138; Osorno,40,120; Rancagua,39,972; Iquique,
39,576; La Serena, 37,618; San Bernardo, 37,221. Punta Arenas, on the
Straits of Magellan, with a population of 34,440, is the southernmost city
in the world.
RELIGION. The Roman Catholic religion was disestablished in 1925;
it remains, however, a national Church in a state wherein 89'5% of the
population are Catholics. There are 3 archbishops, 16 bishops and 2 vicars
apostolic. The censlUl of 1952 showed 5,313,473 Roman Catholics, 240,856
Proteatants and 11,496 Jews.
EDUCATION. Education is free and, since 1928, compulsory for all
children between the ages of 7 and 15. In 1958 the public primary schools
had 752,275 pupils; secondary schools had an enrolment of 164,019. Uni-
versity education is provided in the state university of Chile (founded in
1842), the Catholic Universit.y at Santiago (1888), the University of Con-
cepcion (1919), the Catholic University at Valparaiso (1928), the Universidad
Tecnica Federico Santa Marfa at Valparaiso (1949), the Universidad Tecnica
del Estado (1952), Universidad Austral, Valdivia (1954) and Universidad
del Norte, Antofaga~ta (1957) with a total student population of 22,000 in
1957-58.
Newspapers (1958). There were 38 daily newspapers with an aggregate
daily circulation of about 500,000.
Cinemas (1958). Cinemas numbered 429 with seating capacity of
335,D75; 106 of them are in Santiago.
JUSTICE. There are a High Court of Justice in the capital, 10 courts

of appeal distributed over the republic, tribunals of first instance in the
departmental capitals and second-claBs judges in the sub-delegations.
The police force had (1952) 20,000 officers and men; it is organized and
regulated by the President of the republic.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure were as follows (in lm_ paper

pesos) :
Revenue ExpenditUI'll Revenue ExpenditUI'll
1954 74,416 8!,93~ 1957 286,231 317,06-1
1956 137,936 166,020 1968 377,926 413,187
1966 204,905 230,736 1959 (est.) 578,000 613,000
Since 1957 the estimates havo consisted of a local currency budget (as
above) plus a foreign-exchange budget (in US$lm.) of (1958) 74·5 revenue,
56·4 expenditure; (1959) 71·5 revenuA, 53-7 expenditure. For 1959 ex-
penditures include 93,66Im. pesos and $7·6m. for defence, 80,537m. pesos
882 CHILE
for education, 41m. pesos for health and Illm. pesos and S4·4m. for
public works.
The deficit for 1959 (35,262m. net) brought the total accumulated deficit
since 1!l50 to 139,1l4m.
Expressed in USS, total external debt on 31 Dec. 1958 amounted to
680·6m. Of this, 41'5% was in the fiscal sector; 18·1% semi·fiscal public
enterprises; 24'5% private organizations, and 15·9% the Central Bank.
19% was owed to the Export-Import Bank; 13'3% to the I.B.R.D.;
6'4% t) the I.M.F.; 39'3% to bondholders; 3'4% to private U.S. banks;
and IB'4% to U.S., European and Japanese commercial creditors.
U.S.$3!l1-2m. of amortization and interest payments fall due by 1966.
According to the Bank of England, the nominal value in 1954 of Chilean
investments held by residents in the U.K. was £32m. (£63m. in 1938) and
income received was £700,000 (£900,000 in 1938). By 1956 the total had
fallen to £16m. In addition, foreign capital for industry has been invested
since 1['54 through the Comite de lnversiones Extranjeras, as follows: U.S.A.,
$llm. ; Italy, S6·5m.; West Germany, 52·9m. ; France, $2·7m. Invest-
ments of copper companies are additional to this.
DEFENCE. Chile on 9 April 1952 signed the Military Assistance pact
with tl:.e U.S., promising access to raw materials and armed support in
defence of the Western Hemisphere.
ARM:Y. The Chilean Army is a national militia in which all able-bodied
citizens are obliged to serve. Liability extends from the 20th to the 45th
year, ir.elusive. In many cases exemption can easily be obtained as the
supply exceeds the number that can adequately be trained. The annual
intake is 25,000. Recruits are called up in their 20th year, and are trained
for 12 months. Mter this training they pass into the reserve, which is
estimat~d at 300,000.
The Army is organized in 6 divisions, and a cavalry division. In 1959
total st~ength was 1,251 officers and 8,700 permanent corps, supported by
10,000 ·)onscripts and a military labour force (also conscripted) of 2,000;
total,2:1,950.
NAVY. The principal ships of the Chilean Navy are as follows:
Standard
displace- Armour Tor· Shaft
Com- ment Bell Gum Principal pedo horse- Speed
plated Name Toos 10. In_ armament tubes power Knota
Cruisers
1988 {Pr"t1 • •
O'Hlggins 1 •
10,000
~,700
}, 3-~
166-10.
86-in. 100,000 52·6
1 Ex-Nashville aod ex-Brookly", purchased from U.S.,A. io 1951.
There are also 6 destroyers, 6 frigates, 3 submarines, a submarine depot

ship, 1 sail training ship, 2 transports, 3 patrol vessels, and 3 oil tankers,
an ante,rctic patrol ship and various ancillary craft. Two modern de-
stroyer~ . were built in Britain, of which Almirante Williams is due for
completion early in 1960 and Almirante Riveroslater in 1960.
The active strength of the Navy, which is an all-volunteer force, in-
cluding marines and coastal artillery, is 1,200 officers and 16,000 men (1959).
AIR FORCE. The Chilean Air Force was in 1959 composed of 610 officers,
6,600 other ranks. It had 206 aircraft: 20 jets; 32 light bombers (B-26),
10 tram1ports (0·47); 88 trainers (reciprocating); 56 other types (various).
CHILE 883
PRODUCTION. Chile's national income in 1950 was 131,227m. pesos.
In 1950 terms it increased to 157,129m. (294,713m. actual) by 1953, de·
creased to 151,352m. (1,766,398m. actual) by 1957 and in actual terms in
1958 stood at 2,314,95701.
There are four zones in Chile-the arid • desert' zone in the north,
which for many years furnished the world', entire supply of natural nitrate
of soda, 90% of its iodine and 18% of copper consumed; the agricultural
• Mediterranean' zone in the centre; the' forest' zone to the south; and
the' Atlantic' zone in the extreme south, barren on the Pacific side, bU$
with rich sheltered pampa on the Atlantic side.
The Chilean Development Corporation (CORFO) materially assists industry,
power and agriculture.
Agriculture. Agriculture contributes only a seventh of the national
product, although one· third of the population takc part in it. Total area of
potential agricultural land (1949) was 14,353,170 acres; of forest land,
40,359,800 acres; of meadows, 16,761,420 acres. Chile normally imports
some S40m. worth of food. The urban complaint is that while population
between 1945 and 1954 increased 18%, food production increased by only
8%. Chile produces excellent wine; output in 1954 about 345m. litres
(exports are chiefly to Europe, U.S.A.and Ecuador). The principal crops in
1957-59 and the exports in 1957 and 1958 were as follows :
Area sown, Production, Exports,
becw-res metrio toD.8 metric toll8
Crop 1957-58 1958-59 1957-$8 1958-J9 19~7 J9~S
Wheat . 801,200 873,700 1,214,000 1,117,500
Barley • 60,300 66,600 102,500 101,900
Oaw- 106,100 108,400 130,800 118,100
Rice . 30,800 38,100 90,900 86,900
B....... .
PoW-to..
Lentil. .
80,100
90,100
21,100
81,,00
85,200
21,500
781,700
91,300
13,100
064,900
60,300
13,600
25,158
10,878
15,302
3,066
P.... 10,100 11,300 12,500 9,100 339 1,404
Sugar. beet is a new industry, which produced 380,500 tons in 1958-59 ;
249,200 in 1957-58. Sunflower seeds average 65,000 metric tons.
According to soil experts, soil erosion is so severe that several rivers tend
to be filled with silt, checking navigation. As the top soil goes, yields per
hectare decline; in the 25 years, 1915-40, yield of wheat per hectare haa
fallen 12'5%; barley, 16'6%; maize, 18·2%. There are 376 large farms,
each with more tban 12,250 acres, while 400,000 peasants live on less than
4 acres per family.
Cattle in 1955 numbered 2,450,000; sheep, 5·9m.; 8wine, 640,000;
horses, 447,000.
In the Magallane8 pampa region and Tierra del Fuego some 15m. acres
are devoted to sheep farming; there are about 2·8m. high.grade sheep
(chiefly Romney Marsh and Corriedales, about 53% of Chile's tot.a ).
Magallanes has also begun the breeding of fine. furred animals, especially
foxes, for their pelts. Output of wool is about 21,000 metric tons; exports in
1958,7,345 metric tons, valued at U.S. $7·9m.
Forutry. Extenaive natural forests are found, the largest in the provinces
of Valdivia, Llanquihue and Chiloe. A forest cen8u8, 1953, showed 277·7m.
pine trees, 22·1m. eucalyptus and 4·8m. others. Timber production
amounts to about 165·4m. sq. ft. A large paper.mill started production in
1956; this industry's target is 850,000 tons a year.
McCutchen McBride, G., Chile, Land and Society. New York, 1936
884 CHILE
Fie.\eriu. Chile's whale catch in 1957-58 amounted to 2,187 whales

(1,792 in 1956-57); catch of fish in 1958 was 225,806 metric tons, of which
shell fish, 53,946 tons.
Mi1~ing. The wealth of the country consists chiefly in its minerals,
especia:tly in the northern provinces of Atacama and Tarapacli.. The metals
(1958) "re gold, some obtained by 'washings' and the major part in copper
producl;ion (70,860 fine oz.), silver (1,775,782 fine oz.), copper (509,541
short tons), iron ore (3·7m. long tons), cobalt, zinc, molybdenum (2,457
metric tons, 1956), tungsten and manganese (42,061 short tons); the non-
metalli,) substances are coal, nitrate, borate, phosphate rock, salt (55,000
tons, D57), sulphur (37,870 tons, 1956) and guano. Iodine, ,vith many
scientitc applications, is increasingly important; annual production about.
1,300 metric tons.
Chile's copper reserves are 36'8% of the world's reserves; exports of
copper bars (1958), 432,184 tons. The Government has constructed a small
smelter near Copiap6 to handle ore from small Chilean-owned mines. Mal'ble
and on:rx are mined. Exports of fresh bird guano (like that from Peru) are
forbidden, but exports of fossilized guano, mainly from the one-time famous
beachetl south of Iquique, sprang up in 1934. High-grade iron-ore deposits
are found in the provinces of Atacama and of Coquimbo, estimated at over
I,OOOm. tons. Output, 1958, of ore, 3,633,355 tons; exports, 1958,
3,637,980 tons, valued at US$24·9m. Coal production in 1958, 1,807,559
tons. Reserves total 2,000m. metric tons, partly low in thermal unit. In
Dec. 1945 petroleum was discovered in the Magallanes, with a potential
output estimated at 4·3m. metric tons; the industry is developing fast.
From 1950 to 1958 production of crude oil increased from 100,200 to 856,500
eu. me ,res per annum. The Conc6n refinery produced in 1958, 548,900 cu.
metres of petrol, 89% of the country's needs.
Nitrate of soda, or 'salitre,' is found in the section of the desert oC
Atacallla some 450 miles long and from 5 to 40 miles wide, known locally
&8 the 'pampa salitrera,' and situated from 4,000 to 7,500 ft above sea-
level. There are 152 nitrate works or oficinas with a productive capacity
of 58,136,000 quintals. Three large producers furnish 90% of total output.
To lower costs the industry has begun to use the solar evaporation process
which will also produce some 50,000 tons of potash per annum. Capital is
mostly American. Output has declined 25% since 1948, and in 1959
amoun ted to 1,280,065 metric tons; exports, 1957, were 1,185,513 metric tons
valued at US $39·4m. In 1957 U.S.A. took 542,120 metric tons; Spain,
109,558; France, 98,599. About 66% of the world's supply of iodine is a
by-product of the Chilean nitrate oficinas; exports, 1957 were 1,543,624 kg
valued at US$3·lm.
Iflli4i8trg_ A nationally-owned steel plant, representing an investment
of US$1l2m. of foreign exchange, has been established at Huachipato, near
Concel,ci6n. Chile, in 1950, was the first Latin-American country to ship
pig-iroa to U.S.; output, 1957-58, 313,500 metric tons of pig-iron and
356,5{)1) metric tons of steel.
Th" textile industry consumes 65% of the wool clip of the country, or
about 12,000 metrio tons; the textile industry supplies 85% of the country's
consulllPtion of silk and rayon fabrics and employs 22% of the working
population. In 1955,50 factories produced 9Om. metres of cotton cloth.
Electricity. In 1957, installed electric capacity was 1,006,000 kw .• oC
which public utilities owned 61 % ; mines, 32%, and other industry, 7%.
Over half was hydro-eleotrie.
CHILE 885
Labour. In 1952 (census) the ' economically active' numbered 2,155,293
(including 539,141 women), of whom 511,065 were employers or self·
employed, 1,562,598 (371,557 women) worked for salaries or wage~ and
58,800 were unpaid family workers. Agriculture employed 648,084; manu·
faeturing, 408,713 ; mining, 101,368, and transport, 95,274.
Trade unions began in the middle 18805. On I Jan. 1960 there were
G16 industrial unions (149,711 members), 20 agricultural unions (1,656
members) a.nd 1,1lG professional syndicates (110,933 mcmbers).
EIlsworth, P. T •• Chile: An ECI>no1llY in Transititm . New York 1945
COMMERCE. Imports and exports (including re·exports and ex·

cluding bullion and specie) in USSlm.:
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
I mports . 343·1 376 ·3 353· 4 HH 414· 8
E:rports . 403 ·3 474 ·7 554·2 458·2 388' 5
In US$, imports from U.S. in 1958 were valued at 213·3m. (51'4% of

the total); Germany, 47·3m.; Great Britain, 27·5m. Exports toU.S. were
valued at 157·3m. (40'5% ); Great Britain, 54·7m.; Germany, 64·.j.m .;
Netherlands, 24·9m.; Argentina, 23·3m.
Imports in 1958 included industrial machinery valued at US$154·1m. ;
sugar, SI7·4m.; crude petroleum, SI7·2m. ; raw cotton, $ll·lm. Chief
exports, 1958, were copper valued a.t S227·2m.; nitrate of soda, S39·4m.;
timber, S24·9m.
Total trade between Chile and U.K. for 5 years (British Board of Trade
returns, in £ sterling):
1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 7,867,110 30.926,656 25,233,975 21,134,360 26,252,900
Exports from U.K. . 1,640.832 5,190,004 6,813,962 6,174,210 6,44 :1,680
Re-exports from U.K. 26 ,529 116,178 149,441 189.456 J 26,484
COMMUNI CA TIONS. Shipping. The mercantile marine had, ill

April 1957, 98 ships of 298,445 deadweight tOilS, owned by 25 companies.
In the overseas trade, 1956, 10,048 vessels of 20,367,117 net tons entered
and cleared the ports of Chile. Valparaiso is the chief port. The free ports
of Magallanes, Chiloe and Aysen serve the southern provinces. There are
2,185 km of navigable rivers.
Roads. In 1956 there were in Chile 64,375 km of highways, of which
36,576 km were motor roads and 6,744 were cart roads. There were, Dec.
1957, 53,913 automobiles, 54,830 trucks and 4,417 motor buses.
Railways. The total length of railway lines is 8,408 km; of these private
railway lines, principally British·owned, amount to 2,168 km. Electrifica·
tion of the railways is proceeding. A new railway from Salta in north·
western Argentina to Antofagasta was opened to passenger traffic in Dec.
1953, and to freight traffic one month later.
Post. There are 1,147 post offices and agencies. The length of telegraph
lines in 1949 was 25,555 km; there were 729 telegraph offices. In 1959
there were 166,184 telephones in use, all (except 493) under private compan-
ies, of which the largest is American·owned; Santiago had 94,064 telephones.
A chain of wireless stations along the coast for shore·to·ship transmission
is operated by the Navy. At the end of 1956 there wore 82 small medium·
wave broadcasting stations .
.4 viation. There were, 1958, 8 custo ms airports, II military airports, 20
civilian airport.s, 89 landing grounds and 13 seaplane hases . In 1959 Chile
886 CHILE
was serv'ld by 10 commercial air companieR (3 Chilean, and Panagra, K .L.M.,

S.A.S., I'anair do Brasil, Lufthansa, C.P.A., Aerollneas Argentinas). There
were 8 international airports, and 267,766 passengers were carried in
1956.
MONEY AND BANKING. The old monetary unit was the gold peso,
containing 0·183057 gramme of fine gold with, originally, a par value of 6d.
sterling gold or 12·7 cents USS gold (or 20·6 cents new U.S.). £1 therefore
equalled 40 gold pesos. This is the rate at which the Central Bank until
Jan. 1948 stated, in pesos, the value of its gold stock; from Jan. 1948 to
Oct. 1953 the rate of 31 pesos to the dollar was used and from Oct. 1953
onwards the rate (used to value the gold stock) has been llO pesos to the
doUar. For customs purposes imports and exports are still valued in the
old 6d. gold peso.
Until Jan. 1959 two rates were used for market transactions, one for
foreign trade payments and the other for tourists and capital investment
which bore no relationship with the 110 pesos = USSl rate registered with
the I.M.F. In that month the rates were amalgamated and throughout
the year as a result of Central Bank support remained at about 1,050 pesos
= US$!. The International Monetary Fund computes 1,049 pesos per
US$.
The c:urrency in circulation is chiefly paper issued by the Central Bank
in denominations of 50,000, 10,000,5,000, 1,000,500, lOO, 10 and 5 pesos.
There an also copper-tin-zinc coins of 10 pesos and 1 peso. In Jan. 1960
a new sy:!tem came into force based on the escudo (equivalent of 1,000 pesos)
the centlf1imo (10 pesos) and the rnilesimo (1 peso). New notes and coinage
are to be issued in these values.
On 31 Aug. 1959 the Central Bank had gold reserves amounting to
4,833m. pesos (at 110 pesos = US $1) against notes in circulation totalling
127,771m. and deposits in currency of 39,554m. Rediscounts of member
banks tOI;aUed 15,445m. and direct discounts to the public 7,921m. The total
'money ~:upply' of Chilean economy reached a new peak of 330,035m. pesos
on 30 June 1959, compared with 7,578m. at the end of the war: total
deposits in the commercial banks stood at 186,976m. pesos compared with
2,049m.lt the outbreak of the war.
All of this, and the figures given under FINANCE, reflect Chile's principal
problem--inflation. Always present since the 1880s it has been endemic
since the nitrate crisis in 1931 when Chile's then only export industry
collapsed under the effect of the increasing use of synthetic fertilizers.
Inflation is still severe: the official cost of living index rose 17·3% in 1957,
37'7% in 1956,32'5% in 1958 and 33'5% by 30 Sept. 1959.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system has been legally
establish,ld in Chile since 1865, but the old Spanish weights and measures
are still in use to some extent.
Chile maintains embassies in Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia,
Brazil, Ctnada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
El Salvador, France, Germany, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Israel,
Italy, Ja.pan, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Spain, Sweden, Turkey, U.A.R., U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay, the Vatican, Vene-
zuela, Yugoslavia; and legations in Denmark, Finland, Jordan, Lebanon,
Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal and Union of South Africa.
CHILE 887
OF CmLz IN GREAT BRITAIN (3 Hamilton Place, W.I)
Ambassador. Victor Santa Cruz (accredited 21 Oct. 1(59).
Minister·Councillor. Rafael Vergara. Naval AttacM. Capt. Arturo
Oxley. Commercial Counsellor. Haroldo E. Biggs. Civil AttacM. Rear·
Admiral Calixto Rogers.
There are consular representatives at Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool,
I..ondon and Southampton.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN Crrll.E
Ambassador. lvor T. M. Pink, C.M.G.
First Sec-retaries. R . A. Sykes, M.C. ; G. G. Simpson (Commercial);
L. Borax (Consul); A. W. D. Eves (Information); J . M. Carlin, D.F.C.
(Labour).
Naval a.nd Military AtIache. Capt. J. R. Gower, D.S.C., R.N. Air
Attache. Group Capt. J. M. Morgan, D .F.C.
Thero are consular representatives at Antofagasta, Arica, Concepci6n,
Coquimbo, Iquique, Osorno, Punta Arenas, Santiago, Tocopilla, Valdivia
and Valparaiso.
OF CHILE III TIlE V.S .A. (1736 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,
Washington 6, D .e.)
Ambassador. Waiter Muller.
Minister. Horacio SUll,rez. Minister Counsellor. Jorge Burr. Coun-
cellor. Manuel Bianchi. Service AttacMs : Col. Otto Barth (Army), Capt.
.Jorge Swett (Navy), Col. Rogelio Gonzalez (Air). Commercial Attache.
Tulio Bravo.
OF TIlE V.S.A. IN Cnll.E
Ambassador. 'Valter Howe.
Counsellors. WilIiam L . Krieg (Consul-General); Thomas R. Favell
(Economic). First Secretaries. Radford W. Herbert; Donovan Q. Zook
(Consul); Norman M. Pearson (Labour); Norvelle H_ Sannebeck (Consul).
Service AUacMs: Lieut.-Col. Barton G. Lane, Jr (Army), Capt. Arthur M.
Savage (Navy), Lieut.-Col. Selmer Gustaves (Air). AgricuUural Attache.
John S. Burgess, Jr.
There are consulat· representatives at Concepcion, Valparaiso, Anto-
fagasta, Arica.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORlfATIOK. The Direccion Oeuen\1 de Estadlstica (CienJ'uegos 210,
Ca.eilla IS1;, Santiago), was founded}7 Sept. 1847. Director (}eneraJ: Luis CarcwDo Cantin.
Principal publications ; Anuario Estadblico and the bj·monthly E!tadbtica Chiinw.
Other sour('.(>3 are: Geografta Economica, by the Corporaci6n de Fomento de la Produ('.ci6n.
Rnd Boldln M~$uaJ, by tbe Uanco Ccntrul de Chile.
Butland, G. J. t Chil~: An O·utlint' 0/ its Ci!ography, Economic.' and Politics. Srd ed. R. Inst.
of Int. Affairs, 1'J5G-The human geography o/.1ftuthern Chile. LondoD,19ft7
Olissold, StepJJen, Chilean S craphl}(,k. London, 1 9 ;)~
Edward~, Agl1stin. jIg .Native Land. 1928
Hmpresa P~ri odtstiC'a, DicrtMlarto biogf'a!uo dt Chile. 8th ed. Santiago, 1952
}"ergussoD. E. t Chiu. New York. 1943
Fig-uero, V., lJiccionario hi$~ric() hiogmjkfl !I bibli()(},dfiCO d~ ChiJ~. f> TotS. Santiago, 1931
Galdamea, Lui5, ESludio tU la Hisloria de Chile. Saut.iago, ] 933. Englisb tranalatian.
Chapel Hill (U.S.A.). 1941
GuelTa t J . O\l illcrroo, La 80beranfa Chilena en 1a3lsJas aJ Jurdd Canal BCQI}Je. Santiago, ]917
HaMon. E. P., Chile. l'\ew York. 1941
Luke t Sir HarrYt Ra.fter lda"d (Oeogr. Journal 120, 19!>4)
lfartner, Daniel, E .ftudio de p(Jlilica comncial chilima ~ HiJtoria tGll1'tdmica M.cional. 2 vols.
Santiago. 1923.-11i../oria de Chik. Puhlished t>y University 01 Chile. Santiago, 1929
Pinoc.hetde lallarm, 0 .• La Antarctica Chi/ena. Santiago de Chile, 1948
Sobercaseaul:, D., Chik: od Geographir.al E.ltravaganta. New York t 194.3
888 CHINA
CHINA
CnlJNG·HIiA JEN.l\I1IN KUNG·Ho Kuo, i.e., People's Republic of China
IN thE' course of 1949, the Communists obtained full control of the mainland
of Ch:.na. During 1950, the People's Government extended its hold over
most islands off the coast, including Hainan. The Kuomintang regime
under Chiang Kai·shek continues to exercise authority in Taiwan (Formosa)
and a few small island groups.
C(lNSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. On 21 Sept. Hl49 the
, Peop.le's Republic of China' was proclaimed in Peking by the 'Chinese
People's Political Consultative Conference'. The Conference elected Mao
Tse.tong as chairman of the Central People's Government (which was
forma lly inaugurated on I Oct., now a national holiday) and passed a
'Common Programme' of 60 articles. This Programme, together with the
31 arl,icles of the 'Organic Law', became the basis of the Constitution
adopt<l<i by the First National People's Congress, on 20 Sept. 1954,
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China consists of a preamble
and Hl6 articlcs. The most important are:
Art. 3. The People's Republic of China is a unified, multi. national
State. All the nationalities are equal . . .have freedom to use and develop
their e.poken and written languages, and to preserve or reform their habits
and cllstoms.
Regional autonomy shall be applied in aroas compactly inhabited by
national minorities. National autonomous areas are inalienable parts of
the PEople's Republic of China.
Ar~ . 5. At present, the following basic forms of ownership of means of
produetion exist in the People's Republic of China: state ownership, that
is, oWIlership by the whole people; co.operative ownership, that is, collective
owner,lhip by working people ; ownership by individual working people ;
and c8,pitalist ownership.
Ar.:. 6. The state sector of the economy is a socialist sector, owned by
the whole people. It is the leading force in the national economy and the
material basis for the socialist reconstruction carried out by the state. All
minerhl resources and waters, as well as forests, undeveloped land and other
resour,:es which the state owns by la\\', are the property of the whole people.
An:. 7. The co.operative sector of the economy is either socialist, when
collectively owned by the working masses, or semi·socialist, when in part
collectively owned by the working masses. Partial collective ownership
by thu working masses is a transitional form through which individual
peasaI:,ts, individual craftsmcn and other individual working people pass to
collective ownership by the working masses •••
Th 3 state protects the right of the peasants to own land and other
means of production (Art. 8), of craftsmen and other non·agricultural
individual working people to own means of production (Art . 9), of capitalists
to OWll means of production and other capital (Art. 10), but, 'the policy of
the State towards kulak enterprise is one of restriction and gradual elimina·
tion' (Art. 8) and' the policy of the state towards capitalist industry and
trade is to utilize, to restrict and to reform them. The state gradually
replaces capitalist ownership by ownership by the people' (Art. 10).
Th.) National People'S Congress is the highest organ of state authority
(Art . 21) and the sole legislative authority in the country (Art. 22). It is
compo3ed of deputies elected by provinces, autonomous regions, municipali.
CHINA 889
ties directly under the central authority, the armed forces and Chinese
rcsident abroad (Art. 23). According to the Electoral Law, promulgated
on I March 1953, the provinces elect 1 deputy for every 800,000 pertions,
but at least 3 deputies from each province; cities, directly under the central
authority elect 1 deputy for every 100,000 persons ; the na tional minorities,
a total of 150 deputies; the armed forces, 60; the overseas Chincse, 30
deputies. Tho first session of the J!'irst National Peoplo's Congress openod
on 15 Sept. 1954 with a total of 1,226 elccted deputies. The Congress is
elected for a term of 4 years and mects at least once a year. It can amend
~ho Constitution with a. two·thirds·majority vote of all the deput.ies, enacts
laws with an absolute majority vote, elects and has powel' to remove from
office the highest state dignitaries, decides on the national economic plan,
on questioDs of war and peaco, etc. The Standing Committee is the perma-
nent body of the Congress, convenes it, conducts the elections, interprets the
laws, adopts decrccs, supervises tho work of the Government, etc. (Art.
25-38) .
Art. 47-52 deal wit,h the Central People's Government, now called the
State Council. Art. 53-66 deal with local government. There are 3 main
administrative levels: (1) Provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities
directly under the central authority; (2) autonomous cltou cOllnties,
autonomous counties, cities; (3) lUliang, autonomous lt8iang, and t owns.
On each Icvel, there are peoplo's congresses and people's councils. Art.
67-72 deal with self·government of national minorities in national autono·
mous areas. Art. 73-84 deal with the new judidal system. (See below
JUSTICE.)
For further details see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR. BOOK, 1007, pp. 877·-79.
The Government of the People's Republic of China was in March 1960
composed as follows:
Chai1·ma.n of the P eople's RClwUic 0/ China. Liu Shao·('hi (elected 27
Apl'iI19(9).
Deputy-Chairmen. Soong Ciling·ling (Mme Sun Yat.sen); Tu ng P i·wu .
The State Council consists of the Premier, 11 Deputy-Premiers (of whom
8 are also Ministers), 30 other Ministers or Chairmen of Commission (with
ministerial status) and the Secretary-General.
P.remier. Chou En-Iai. Deputy Premiers. Chen Y un (J'1inister of Corn·
merce), Marshal Lin Piao (1I1'inister of Defence), Teng Hsiao'ping, Gen. 'feng
'l.'su.hui, Marshal Ho Lung (Chairman, Commission f or Physical Culture and
Sports), Marshal Chen Yi (Foreign Minister), Ulanfu (Chairman, Commission
oJ NationalitiC8 Affairs), Li l!'u-chun (Chairman, State Pltmning Commission),
Li Hsien-nien (Minister of Finance ), !lIal'shaI Nieh Yung-cheng, Po I -po
(Chairman, N ational Economic Commission ).
The Standing Committee of the National P eople's Congl'es8 consists of the
Chairman (Marshal Ch u Teh), 15 Deputy-Chairmen (after the flight to
India of the Dalai Lama), the Secretary. General (Peng Chen) and 66
members.
A 30-year treaty of ' friendship, alliance and mutual aid' between the
U.S.S.R. and the People's Republic of China was signed in Moscow on
14 Feb. 1950 •in order to prevent, with joint efforts, the recurrence of
Japanese imperialism and any renewed aggression instigated by J:>pan or
other nations whieh may take aggressive action by collaborating with
Japan.' The treaty of 14 Aug. 1945 negotiated with the Nationalist
Government, was declared invalid. Further agreements with the Soviet
l' nioll v.-<"re cOll elud cd ill l%:!, 1:.153, 1954, J!)55 and H)!)\) .
890 CHINA
Stalt!mblem: 5 stars above Peking's Gate of Heavenly Peace, sur·

rounded by a border of ears of grain entwined with drapings, which form
a knot in the centre of a cogwheel at the base; the colours are red and gold.
N alional flag: red, with 5 stars.
Nalional anthem: The March of the Volunteers (words by Tien Han;
tune by Nieh Erh).
The C)mmunist Party of China had, in Sept. 1957, 12,712,000 members.
The 8t,h national congress of the Party, which met in Sept. 1956, adopted
a new cOIlstitution of the Party, which declares that' Marxism-Leninism is
not a dogma but a guide to action'. In Jan. 1960 the Central Committee
consisted of 95 full and 82 alternate members and the Politburo of 16 full
and 6 alternate members. The first 7 members of the Politburo constitute
its Standing Committee: Mao Tse·tung (Chairman oj the Central Committee),
Liu Shaochi (Chairman oj the People's Republic), Chou En·lai (Premier),
Chu Teh (Chairman oj the Standing Committee), Chen Yun (First Deputy
Premier), Marshal Lin Piao (Deputy Premier, Minister oj Defence and Deputy
Chairman oj the Central Committee), Teng HSiao.ping (Deputy Premier ana
General S ?cretary oj the Party).
AREA AND POPULATION. China is composed of 21 provinces (in.

cluding Taiwan), 5 autonomous regions of nationalities, namely Inner
Mongolia, Sinkiang-Uighur, Kwangsi-Chuang, Ningsia.Hui, Tibet (and
Chamdo "trea), and 3 municipalities (Peking, Tientsin, Shanghai) under
direct gO"ernment administration. The capital is Peking.
The total area is estimated at 9,736,000 sq. km. An exchange of some
villages al ong the frontier with Burma was agreed upon in Jan. 1960.
The p )pulation is given as ()OI,938,035. This figure was arrived at as
follows: Direct census (30 June 1953), 574,205,940; Taiwan ('yet to be
liberated'), 7,591,298; Chinese resident or studying abroad, 11,743,000;
Chinese 'm remote border regions', 8,397,'177. Urban population, 77·3m.
(13 '3% ); rural population, 505·3m. (86'7 % ).
Estim:Lted population of mainland China at 1 Jan. 1960 was
670m.
Provillces, with population (census, 30 June 1953) and capitals, as in
July 195[:
Anlmei. SO,343,637 Holei Kirin 11,290,073 Kirin
Obeldallll 22,865.747 HangctlOw Kwangsl' 19,~60,822 Nanning
Ohlnghai 11,676,634 Sining Kwantnng 34,770,059 Canton
Fuldeu 13,142,721 Foocbow Kweichow 15,037,310 Kwelyang
HeUungkla.og 1 11,897.309 Harbln Liaonlng' 18,~45,141 Shenyang
RODan 44.214.594 Kalfellll Shansi 14,3a,48~ Talyuan
Hopei 35,984,644 Paoting Shantung 48,876,648 Tsinan
IIUDAn 33,226,954 Obang.ha Shenei 15,881,281 SIan
Hupel 27,789,693 Wuhan Slkang' . 3,381,064 Yaan
Jehol' 6,160,822 Obe~eh Sinkiang' 4,873,608 Ununchl
Kansu' . 12,928,102 Lane ow Szechwau 62,303.999 Cbengtu
Kiangei . 16,772.865 Nanchang Yunnan . 17,41~,731 K1lIUIling
KJangsu. 41,252,192 Nanking
1 Includes the former Sunkiang provinC'e.
, D1.i<l~d in Aug. 19r.~ among llopei and Llaoning province.; and Inner MongollaA
Region. ' Includes the former Ninglia province.
, Mergel 01 Liaotung and Liaohsi province•.
I Incorporated in Szechwan province In Aug. 1955.
, Since :, ~5G, Sinkiang· Uillhur Autonomoua Region.
f Since ~ twe 1957, Kwangsi-Chun.ng Autonomous Region.
CHINA 891
Municipalities under direct control of the central government, witb

census population, 30 June 1953 : Shanghai, 6,204,417 (estimate, Aug. 1957,
/ ·1111.); Peking, 2,768,149 (estimate, Maroh 1958, 5'42111.; with an area of
S,770 sq. kll1, from 20 Oct. 1958) ; Tientsin, 2,6D3,83 I.
Other largo towlIS, with latest available popUlation figures: Shonyang
(formerly Mukden. 1956). 2.290,000; Wuban (1956). 1·8m. ; Chungking
(1953), 1,620,000; Sian (1957), 1·5m. ; Canton (1950), 1,496,000; Port
Arthur-Dairen (1950), 1,054,000; Nanking (1950), 1,020,000 ; Tsingtao
(1948).850,000; Harbin (Hl48), 760,000; Taiyuan (1956), 500,000; Anshan,
(1953),400,000. In Dec. 1957 thore were 13 cities with over Im. inhabi-
tants each.
Manchuria no longer exists as an administrative unit. The Sino-Soviet
treaty of }<'eb. 1950 gave the U.S.S.R. a share in the administration of the
Changchun Railway and certain interests in the port of Dairen and provided
for the transfer to China of the naval base of Port Arthur immediately upon
the conclusion of a peace treaty with Japan or not later than 1952. The
railway was returned to Cbina at the end of 1952, but the Chinese' requested'
the U.S.S.R. to retain control of Port Arthur for defence purposes. In
1955 the Soviet withdrew their forces and transferred to the Chinese the
installations in the Port Arthur naval base.
Inner Mongolia was, in May 1947, constituted an autonomous region .
The People's Government has repeatedly altered its boundaries. It corn·
prised, in 1950, the northern part of the former province of Chahar with
parts of (former) western Manchuria, and is divided into 6 meng (' tribal
leagues'), Huna, Hsingan, Cherim, Chaowuta, Chahar and Silingol. III
June 1954 Suiyan province, and in Aug. 1955 parts of Jehol province, were
incorporated in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. The capital is
at Huhehot (formerly Kweisui). Population (census, 30 June 1953),
6,100,104.
Tibet, now claimed as an integral part of China, is classed as an autono-
moue region (like Inner Mongolia and Sinkiang); see p. 1425.
RELIGION. Three faiths have long been established in China, viz.,

Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Confucianism has no ecclesiastical
organization like tho other two, and so appears rather as a philosophy of
ethics and government. It has usually dominated the governmental ad·
ministration from 136 B.O. to A.D. 1905. Buddhism and Taoism present a
very gorgeous ceremonial, Taoism-of Chinese origin-having copied
Buddhist ceremonial soon after thc arrival of Buddhism 1,900 years ago.
Buddhism in return adopted many Taoist magical beliefs and practices.
Buddhists in China number perhaps 150111. and Taoists 30m.
Ceremonies of reverence to ancestors have been observed throughout
the conn try by the whole population regardless of philosophical or religious
beliefs.
Moslems are found in every province of China, being most numerous in
Yunnan, Sbcnsi, Kansu, Hopei, Honan, Shantung, Rzechwan, Sinkiang and
Shansi . The total is estimated at 5% of the popula.tion.
Roman Catholicism has had a footing in China for more tha.n 3 ccnturies;
it bas about 300. adherents. In 1957 the Chinese Roman Catholics, under
tbe Arcbbi.qhop of Shenyang, declared their independence of Rome.
Protestant blL'!Sions date from 1807. Attached to Protestant Mission8
in 1934 were 19 colleges of university standing and 2(}1 middle schooIa.
892 CHINA
Proteshnt Chinese number about 700.000. By Sept. 1952 all foreign

Cbristia,n foundations bad lost their identity in e. reorganized university
system.
By ~be end of 1955 only 1 Protestant and 12 foreign Roman Catholio
missionaries seem to have been at work.
EDUCATION. In 1956 there were some 510,000 elementary schools
with 53·1m. pupils (claim. end of 1958, 86m.); over 5.000 secondary schools
were attended by 4,473,000 pupil~ (claim. end of 1958. 9'900.). 227 in·
stitutes of higher education had 202,000 undergraduate and 4,000 post·
graduat,e students (claim, end of 1958, 660,000), of whom nearly 40% were
studying engineering.
The Academy of Sciences, with some 15 provincial branches, hEld, in
1957, 68 research institutes with 5,500 scientific workers. By the end of
1958, 8!0 special research institutes throughout the country claimed over
32,000~esearch workers in science and technology.
Institutes of higher learning included in 1957: 15 universities, 48 engi.
neering colleges. 31 agriculture and forestry colleges, 5 schools of econo·
mics, 5 schools of law and political science. 43 teachers' no lieges, 37
medical schools, 16 art schools; 6 of these colleges will be for national
minorities. Between 1953 and 1957. 10.100 students were sent abroa.d,
9.400 of them to the Soviet Union.
A 30·letter version of the Latin alphabet was adopted in Feb. 1956 to
replace gradually the 30.000 cb aracters of the Chinese script.
CincmCZ$ numbered 334 in 1951. with seating capacity of 550.000.
JUSTICE. The People's Government has abolished the judicial system
of tbe~ationalist Government. The Supreme People's Court is now the
highest judicial organ of the country. The People's Procurator· General's
Office has the responsibility of seeing that the laws are strictly observed by
all government institutions and government officials. The term of office
of all jlldges and procurators is 4 years.
The Marriage Law of May 1950 forbids polygamy in any form, child
marria~:e and infanticide. gives property rights to women and institutes
legal di vorce.
FINANCE. Budgets for calendar yeElr8 (in 1m. new yuans):
1955 1~ 5 6 19:i7 1968 1959
Revenue. 27,200 29,76-1 31,010 :33,198 52,010
Erpcuditnre 26,730 31,585 30,420 33198 52,010
The 1959 budget envisaged (in Im. new yuans): Revenue: from state
ellterpr :ses, 45,730 (88 % ); from the People's Communes, 5,870 (11 ·3% ).
Expenditure: E conomic construction, 31,700 (61 %); social, cducational
and cultural affairs, 5,730 (11 %); defence, 5,800 (11,2%); administration,
2,690 (6,2%); repayment of loans, 1,100; aid to foreign countries, 600;
reserve, 950.
Internal loans amounted to 600m. yuans in 1956 and 1957 each; the
1958 Nc,tional Economio Construction Bond issue was to supply 630m. yuans.
Under the Sino·Soviet treaty of Feb. 1950 the U.S.S.R. granted the
People',! Republic commodity credits equivalent to US$300m. carrying 1%
interest. The credits were to be drawn in 5 equal annual instalments and
repaid over 10 years (1954-63).
The Sino·Soviet agreement signed at Peking on 12 Oct. 1954 granted
CHINA 893
China a long. term credit of 520m. roubles and additional assistance valued
a.t 400m. roubles, to be used mainly for industrial equipment.
For foreign and internal loans until 1949 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-
Book, 1952, p. 852.
DEFENCE. Conscription was introduced in Feb. 1955. Service lasts
3 years in the Army, 4 years in the Air Force and 5 years in the Navy. The
yearly intake is about 450,000 men.
In Sept. 1955 the rank of Marshal and a number of military orders and
decorations were created on the Soviet model.
Army. The Army consists of 35 infantry divisions, 10 armoured
divisions, 3 airborne divisions, and some anti-aircraft divisions, with an
estimated total strength of 3m.
The People's Militia is claimed by the Chinese authorities to have a
strength of 200m. of both sexes.
Navy. Present strength comprises 2 ]jght cruisers, 5 destroyers, 20
submarines, 32 frigates, 51 patrol vessels, 6 gunboats, 55 minesweepers, 60
submarine chasers, 23 river gunboats, 118 motor torpedo boats and 64 landing
ships and landing craft.
There are no naval bases of any importance. Existing dockyards are:
Dairen, Foochow, Taku, Kiangnan (Shanghai) and Amoy (Fukien).
Air Force. In 1959 the Air Force was estimated at 2,500 front-line
aircraft, organized in 40-50 regiments of jet-fighters and 15-20 regiments of
tactical bombers, plus reconnaissance, transport and helicopter units. Each
regiment is made up of3 squadrons, and 3 regiments form a division,
Equipment is entirely Russian in design and includes MiG.19, MiG·17
and MiG·15 fighters, Il·28 jet.bombers, Tu-2 piston.engined light bombers,
Il-14 and An-2 piston.engined transports, and Mi·l and Mi-4 helicopters.
The MiG-17 and An·2 are built under licence in a national factory at
Shenyang, and other types are assembled there.
PRODUCTION. Planning. In Nov. 1952 a State Planning Commis-
sion was appointed. A 5.year plan of industrialization and reconstruction,
to start in 1953, was announced in Dec. 1952; its targets were reduced
by about a third in Jan. 1953, but revised upward in 1955. Asecond 5-yenr
plan for 1958-62 was adopted on 27 Sept. 1956.
By the end of 1958 the peasant population of some 500m. had been
organized in some 26,000 'People's Communes,' roughly corresponding to
the former rural districts (hsiang) , where semi·military living conditions
and compulsory mi]jtary training are enforced.
Investments in the 5.year construction programme were scheduled at
76,640m. yuan : 40·9% for industry, 8% for agriculture, water conservancy
and forestry, 11'7% for transport, 2'8% for trade, 18'6% for cultural and
public health activities, 2'8% for urban utilities, 9% for economic invest-
ment, 4'7% for industrial equipment.
Total investments in capital construction for W59 were fixed at 27,000m.
yuan, or 26% more than the 21,400m. for 1958.
Agriculture. China is essentially an agricultural country. The dis-
tribution of farm tenancy in 1946 was: Owners, 40%; part-owners, 25% ;
tenants, 35%. The standard of living of the farming popula.tion is low.
A law passed on 30 June 1950 decreed the confisca.tion of land belonging
to feudal lords and the reqnisition of land owned by churches, monasteries,
894 CHINA
schools and similar institutions; by the end of 1952 land reform was stated
to be c)mpleted. By the end of 1958 the socialization of agriculture was
declared to be complete.
Tot:,l arable land in China is estimated at about 192,060 sq. miles. The
holdings are in general small; irrigation is common. Chinese agriculture iR
intensj,'e rat,her than extensive. Rotation of crops is practised. Horticul·
ture ha:1 reached a high state of perfection, and fruit trees are grown in great
variety
The total grain crops were officially given as f lolows (in Im. metric tons) :
1955, B4; 1957,185 ; 1958,254; 1959,27(;.
The average yearly production of cotton was 2·855m. bales in 1935-
39; estimated production in 1957, 1·6m. tons; 1958 (claim), 3·35m. tons.
Tea is cultivated exclusively in the west and south; production in
1952 W1S 82,500 metric tons. Silk culture is one of the oldest industries,
but has much deteriorated. The production of silk cocoons is estimated at
3·3m. 1,iculs, of which about 40% is produced in the central provinces of
Kiangsll, Chekiang and Anhwei. Raw·silk production in 1949 was estimated
at 73,0(.0 picula. Jute and hemp production, 1952, was 300,000 metric tons;
1957 (target) 365,000 tons.
The tobacco crop in 1952 was estimated at 202,000 metric tons; planned
output for 1957, 390,000 metric tons.
Sug:<r.cane production, 1952, was 7·14m. metric tons; 1957 target,
13·15m. (plus 2·16m. tons of sugar beet). Sugar output (1,000 metric t ons).
1957, was estimated at 850; 1958,900; 1959,1,130.
Liv"stock, 1952 (and targets for 1957 and 1962): Cattle, 56·6m. (73·6m.,
90m.); horses, 6·l3m. (8·34m., Hm.); sheep and goats, 61·78m. (l13m.,
170m.) ,: pigs, 89·77m. (138·34m. [actual, July 1957, 114m.], 250m.).
For,.,.,try. The chief forested areas are in Heilungkiang (Manchuria),
Szechw,m and Yunnan. The most important tree is the tung (Jatropha
Gurcas L .), from which oil is produced: it grows chiefly in Szechwan.
Tung-oil production amounted to 115,000 metric tons in 1948-49; exports
in 1947 totalled 82,494 tons. Timber output in 1957 was 26·58m.; 1958,
35m.; 1959, 41·2m. cu. metres.
The most important timber product is teak, which is used everywhere in
China. tor building, furniture and coffins. In 1957, 3·96m. hecta.res were
afforest<3d; target for 1958, 330,000 sq. km, including 118,000 sq. km in
the nOl"1;h-western desert area.
Manufacture . An important feature in the development of Chinese
industr.,es has been the erect,ion of cotton- and wool-mills, and of silk filatures
in Shanghai, Canton and elsewhere. The cotton spinning industry, in 1947,
had 3m, spindles operating, compared with 4-5m. pre·war. A Ia.rge number
of Japa:lese spindles. principally in Shanghai, was taken over as war repara-
tions in 1945. At the large centres flour- and rice-mills are beginning to
superse,1e native methods of treating wheat and rice. At Hanyang, nMr
Hankow, are large iron-works, supplied with ore from mines at Tayeh,
about 60 miles distant. Electrical enterprises are making good progress.
Water-works have been established in most of the big cities. The tanning
industry is being developed principally in Kiangsu. Hopei and Shantung.
Cement works number 12, with an output, in 1958, of 10m. bbls. Match
manufacturing is centred in Shantung, Kwantung and Kiangsu.
In Eept. 1958 a drive was started to build up, in connexion with the
People':! Communes,local 'backyard' industries all over China.
CHINA 895
Mining. Coal, gold, iron, copper, lead, zinc, silver, tungsten, mercury,
antimony and tin are all produced in western China. Most of the provinces
contain coal; the entire coal resources of China are estimated at 262,941 m.
metric tons. By 1957, 31 collieries with an annual output of more than
) m. tons each were to be developed; the' big five' were to produce by Hl57 :
Kailwan, 9·68m.; Fushun, 9·3m.; Fushin, 8·45m.; Huainan, 6·85m.;
Tatung, 6·45m.
Iron ores are abundant in the anthracite field of Spansi, in Hopei, in
Shantung and other provinces, and iron (found in conjunction with coal) is
worked in Manchuria. 300m. tons of ore are estimated to be in Shansi;
the principal iron·ore reserves total about 19,840m. tons. The Tayeh
iron deposits, near Hankow, are among the richest in the world. Output
of iron ore in 1958, 29·9m. metric tons; pig.iron, 13·6m. metric tOllS; steel
ingot and castings, 11·2m. metric tons. The biggest steel bases are at
Anshan (in former Manchuria), Wuhan (capital of Hupei province) o,nd
Paotow (Inner Mongolia).
Output (in metric tons) of oil was 400,000 in 1954; tagget for 1957,
1·5m.; claim for 1958, 2·23m.; for 1959, 3·7m. (including crude petroleulll,
crude shale oil, oil from coal carbonization and synthetic crude oil from
coal).
Tin ore is plentiful in Yunnan, where the tin.mining industry has long
existed; production of tin in 1949, 4,300 metric tons. Tin, wolfro,m and
antimony used to be the most important mineral exports. Molybdenum
ore ho,s been found in Fukien and Kio,ngsi; bismuth has also been worked.
China is the world's principal producer of tungsten; output, 1956, 17,960
metric tons. Mining for wolfram (tungsten ore) is carried on in Hunan,
Kwantung and Yunnan. Output of mercury in 1948 was 290 metric tons.
Other meto,)s (1958): Copper, 16,500 short tons; lead, 27,600 short tons;
aluminium, 30,000 short tons; mo,nganese, 600,000 short tons; silver,
510,000 fine oz. Salt output, 1957, 8·27m. tons; 1958, 10·4m.; 1959,
1l·04m.
On 27 March 1950, 2 Chinese-Soviet joint.stock companies were
established for developing oil and non·ferrous metals in Sinkiang province.
The Soviet sho,res were relinquished in 1955.
Industrial production in 1956 (and targets for 1957), in1m. metric tons:
Coal, 80·5 (117; 1959,347'8); pig.iron, 4'77 (5'55; claims for 1958,9'5;
for 1959, 20'5): crude steel, 4·465 (4·99; 1958, 8; 1959, 13); cement
(1957),6'8 (1958, 10: 1959, 12·27); paper (1957), 0·89; coke (1952), 2·86
(6·68); chemical fertilizers (1959), 1·3. Cotton yarn, 3·97m. bales (1958,
6·66m.): textile fabrics (in Im. metres): cotton, 1957,5,050; 1958,6,408;
woollen, 1957, 18·17; 1958, 23'59; silk, 1957, 144'56; 1958, over 190.
Electricity, 1957, 19,340m.; 1958,27,500m.; 1959, 41,500m. kwh.
Trade Uni01M were given a legal status by the Trade Union Law of 1950.
Total trade· union membership in Dec. 1957 was 16·3m., representing about
80% of all industrial workers.
COMMERCE. The government has established a National Import and

Export Corporation o,nd 13 import and export corporations for tea, silk,
minerals, etc. The European office of the Corporation was in 1957 trans·
ferred from Ea,st Berlin to Bern, Switzerland.
In 1957 the U.S.S.R. accounted for half, and the whole Soviet bloc for
t.hree-quarters of Chino,'s foreign trade.
896 CHINA
Trade with oountries outside the Soviet bloc (in USSlm.):

19~0 19~1 1952 19~5 1964 1955 1956
Imports 620 628 270 280 282 317 433
Exporto 640 639 323 396 341 494 643
Tot8.! trade between the U.K. and China (British Board of Trade returns,
in £ sterling) :
1938 19~6 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 7,137,935 12,~49,349 14,223,575 18,540,490 19,715,401
Bxports from U.K. . 4,367,581 10,681,733 12,110,104 26,639,611 24,373.972
Re-expo"". from U.K. 104,935 100,129 82,799 526,860 419,366
COMMUNICATIONS. Map of the principal roads, all railways and

airlines in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1956.
ShiJ.'ping. Total shipping under Chinese flag, in 1948, 1,179 vessels of
714,548 tons. The ocean-going vessels are now mainly under control of
the Taiwan Government. The first ocean-going ship built in a mainland
shipyard, a freighter of 13,400 gross tons, was lawlChed in Nov. 1958.
All 'luestions relating to navigation and port control were, in Aug. 1950,
placed 'lOder the Bureau of Navigation, with regional centres at Tientsin,
Shangh1i, Tsingtao, Dairen and Canton. The new southern port of Tsam·
kong st,~rted work in 1957.
Roa.is. In 1957 the length of highways was 180,000 km (claim, cnd of
1958, 400,000 km). Among the principal roads is one from Kunming to
Lashio in Burma (the Burma road), 1,130 km long; a motor road connects
Szechwm with Sinkiang and rUIlll through that province to the Turkestan-
Siberian railway, a distance of 4,000 km from Chungking. A railway and
a motor road connect China with Indo-China. Two major roads linking
China lvith Tibet were completed in 1955.
RaUwaY8. Chinese railway history begins in 1876, when the Woosung
(Shanghai) line was opened. According to official, but often contradictory,
statistio:s from Peking, there were, on 1 July 1950, 21,740 km of railway
lines in service. At the end of 1958,31,000 km were open to traffic.
The principal railways in Dec. 1957 were:
(1) Peking-Canton Railway (over 2,300 km) via Chengchow-Wuhan-
Chuchcw-Hengyang.
(2) Tientsin-Shanghai Railway (1,500 km), via Pukow and Nanking.
(3) Eastern Chinese Railway (2,370 km), from Manchouli, through
northern Manchuria via Harbin, to the Soviet frontier near Vladivostok;
the end of the Russian Trans-Siberian,linking Chita and Vladivostok, runs
through Chinese territory.
(4) South Manchuria Railway (with branches, 1,120 km; without
branch.,s, 705 km), Changchun-Shenyang (formerly Mukden)-Dairen.
(5) Peking-Shenyang (Mukden) Railway, with branches in Manchuria,
now double·tracked (1,350 km; without branches, 854 km).
(6) New great north-Bouth trunk lines: (a) from Ulan Ude (U.S.S.R.),
via Ula,n Bator and Chamu Ut (Mongolia), Erhlien and Tsining or Chining
(Inner Mongolia) to Peking. This railway shortens the distance between
Peking and Moscow by 1,000 km, by comparison with the old Trane·Siberian
route, via Chita, Manchouli, Harbin; the gauge, like that of the
Chinesn Eastern Railway, is the Russian standard of 5 ft. (b) Tsining-
Tatun€:-Taiyuan-Sian-Paochi (or Paoki). (c) Paochi-Chengtu (680 km).
CHINA 897
(d) Chengtu-Kunming (SOO km, under construotion). (e) Laiping-Munan.
kultn (formerly Chennankwan) connects with Hanoi (Vietnam).
(7) New great east-west trunk line: (a) Lung-Hai Railway: Lienyun-
Hsuchow-Chengchow (on the Peking-Canton line)-Sian-Paochi (on the
great north-south trunk line)-Tie'1shui-Lanchow (1,500 km). (b) Lan-
chow-Sinkiang Railway: Lanchow-Yumen-Hami-Turfan-Urumchi-
Suiting (link with U.S.S.R., Alma Ata) (2,800 km planned; on 1 Jan. 1900,
the section Lanchow-Hami was completed). Surveys have begun for a
new 500·km railway, linking the trunk line with the newly discovered oil·
field of Karamai in Sinkiang.
(S) Chengtu-Chunking Railway, via Neikiang, linking the province of
Szechuan (or Szechwan) with its port on the Yangtze River (530 km).
(9) Lanchow- Paotow Railway (1,100 km), linking north· west China
with Inner Mongolia, meeting the great east-west trunk line at Lanchow
and the great north-south trunk line at Paotow. The 4S0·km section fro!ll
Lanchow was completed in 1958.
P08t. China has a fairly well-developed telegraph service. Telegraphs
connect all the principal cities in the country, and there are lines to all the
neighbouring countries. Wireless telegraph stations have been installed
at 673 centres. Telephones in use in 1951, 255,000.
Number of post offices of all kinds in 1958 WitS 67,000.
Aviation. In Dec. 1958 there were 18 interior airlines, connecting
Peking with 38 cities and covering 33,000 km.
All foreign air services to non-communist countries have ceased. I n
Dec. 1956 a \veekly air-service Peking-Moscow-Prague was opened.
A Sino-Soviet Civil Aviation Joint·Stock Co. was formed in 1950; it
was placed under exclusively Chinese administration on 30 Dec. 1954. It
operates lines from Peking to Alma Ata, Irkutsk and Chita.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. For the development from 19:35 t o

1949 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK, 1954, pp. 876-77.
The new legal tender currency on the mainland of China is the' J en
Min Piao' (People's Bank Dollar) issued by the People's Bank. The Jen
Min Piao, usually known by its old name of yuan, is divided into 10 chiao,
the chiao into 10 fen. On 1 March 1955 new bank-notes were issued; old
PB$lO,OOO = new PBS!. From this date, the official rate of exchange is
£1 = PB$6·S93; US$1 = PB$2-4.
From 1 Dec. 1957 the People's Bank has issued small aluminium coins of
I, 2 and 5 fen (= 0'01,0·02,0·05 yuan) and also a new 10-yuan note.
For banking prior to 1950, 8ee THE STATESMA.N'S YEA.R-BoOK, 1954,
p.876.
On 10 Sept. 1954 the Government established the People's Construction
Bank, which is to deal with matters relating to capital equipment, and to
issue short· term loans to state-owned building enterprises.
The People's Government has proclaimed that financial enterprises
shall be st.rictly controlled by the state. Privatc financial enterprises arc
to be subjected to state supervision and direction. On 2S Dec. 1950 all
Rssets of the U.S. Government and private American firms were placed
under control of the People's Government.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Standards of weights, measures and

length vary all over the country. However, the People's Government is
GG
898 CHINA
now introducing the metric system for official use. For the old units see
THE f:TATESMAN'S YEAR-BoOK, 1954, pp. 877-87.
By treaty between Great Britain and China, the Ch'ih of 14,'0 in. has
been "dopted as the standard, the Tael, Catty and Picul have been fixed
at 11 oz., 11 lb., 1331 lb. avoirdupois respectively. 1 Mow = t acre.
OF CHINA IN GREAT BRITAIN (49 Portland Place, W.l)
Ch<J.rge d'Affaires. Huan Hsiang.
COlLnsellors. Chin Chia.lin; Chuang Yen; Hsieh Shou-tien (Commercial).
Commercial Attaches. Sung Yi-feng; Chen Feng-pin.
011 GREAT BRITAIN IN CHINA
Charge d'Affairs. M. N. F. Stewart, C.M.G., O.B.E.
Coun,sellor and Consul-General. G. F. Rodgers.
Fi'st Secretaries. E. Youde, M.B.E.; M. H. Morgan; K. G. Ritchie
(Commercial).
There are British consular representatives at Peking and Shanghai.
TAIWAN
Tbe Island of Taiwan (Formosa) was ceded to Japan by China by the
Treat;! of Shimonoseki, which was ratified on 8 May 1895, and Japan took
formal possession on 2 June of the same year. After the Second World
War j,he island surrendered to Gen. Chiang Kai-shek (Sept. 1945). It is
contr<,lled by the remnants of the Nationalist Government under Chiang
Kai-shek, who, on 1 March 1950, resumed the presidency of the' National
Republic of China.' He is concurrently leader of the Kuomintang Party.
On 1 Dec. 1954 the V.S.A. and the Nationalist Government concluded a
mutm,l security pact pledging American protection of Taiwan and the
Pescadores. In Jan. 1955 Congress authorized the President of the V.S.A.
to include the offshore islands in the protected area.
Vice-President and Prime Minister. Gen. Chen Cheng. Vice·Premier.
Wang Yun-wu. Foreign Minister. S. K. Huang. Governor of Taiwan.
Gen. Chow Chi-jou.
AHEA AND POPULATION. The island, which was formally ineor-
porau,d in China in 1683, has an area of 13,890 sq. miles. Census population
(Jan. 1957), 9,409,886. Estimated civilian population, 1 Jan. 1960,
lOm. The chief towns are Taipei, the capital (759,200 inhabitants in
1957), Kaohsiung (275,600), Tainan (229,500), Taichung (207,000) and Ki-
lung (145,200). The official language is Chinese (Amoy dialect).
In 1951 the birth rate was 8'97%; the death rate, 1'13%.
Tl:?e island is divided into 5 municipalities and 16 hsien (counties).
EDUCATION. There were, in 1959, 1,663 primary schools with
1,642,588 pupils; 327 secondary, vocational and technical schools with
togetter 287,927 pupils; 21 universities and colleges with 30,000 students;
in ad(lition 4,249 were studying ahroad, mostly in V.S.A.
Cin.ema8 (1955). Cinemas numbered 294, with seating capacity of 170,000.
CHINA 899
FINANCE. In 1954-55 total expenditure amounted to N.T.Y. 5.161m.;
the deficit. estimated at N.T.Y. 503m .• was pa.rtly (240m.) covered by U.S.
aid. American economic aid. 1951-57. exceeded US$550m.
DEFENCE . The Army. which embodies the remnants of the forces

which escaped to Taiwan with Chiang Kai·shek at the end of the civil war
in 1949. now numbers about 400.000. It has been reorganized, re.equipped
and trained by the U.S.A. Half the army consists of native Formosans.
There is a conscription system for 2 years and reserve liability. Strong
garrisons are maintained on the Pescadores and the ofl'shore islands of
Quemoy and Matsu.
In 1959 the Nationalists had 11 destroyers. 19 frigates. 3 escort vessels.
12 fleet minesweepers. 2 minelayers. 15 submarine chasers. 2 gunboats. 39
landing ships. 50 coastal craft. 9 transports and 5 oilers.
The Nationalist Air Force has grown from the remnants of the old
Chinese Air Force transferred to Taiwan in 1949. It has been re.organized
and re.equipped with U.S. assistance and is a well· equipped if small service.
Two interceptor wings fly F·IOO and F-86F jet·fighters armed with Side·
winder guided missiles and there are 5 fighter.bomber wings. The latter
have been equipped with F·IOO Super Sabre and F-84G Thunderjet fighters.
Reconnaissance units operate RB·57 Canberra. RF·IOl Voodoo and RF-84F
Thunderflash jet aircraft. while the transport squadrons are equipped with
C·119s and C-46D Commandos.
Each wing has a front· line complement of about 70 aircraft. but the total
effective fighting strength is probably no more than 350 aircraft and 80.000
personnel. There are. however. strong elements of the U.S.A.F. on Taiwan.
equipped with jet.fighters and tactical missiles.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY. The agricultural products are rice.
tea. sugar. sweet pota.toes. ramie. jute. turmeric; camphor is worked in the
forests under a government monopoly. The cultivated area was estimated
at 2.055.000 acres in 1949. Production (in 1.000 metric tons). 1957-58 : Rice.
1,839; tea. 16·2; bananas. 105; pineapples. 121 '4; tangerines. 45; citro·
nella oil, 2; ramie, 17·2; tobacco, 16'8; sugar. 913.
Livestock (13 Dec. 1937): Horses, 924; goats, 70,384; cattle. 76.341;
pigs. 1.849,195; buffaloes, 282.101.
The industries comprise flour.miIling. sugar. tobacco. oil. spirits. iron·
work. glass. bricks. soap and many other manufactures. Mining is making
steady progrt:d8. gold. silver. copper and coal heing the principal minerals:
output (in metric tons) of coal was 2·9m. (1957): aluminium. 8.610 (1958);
salt. 359,952 (1957): steel,227,400 (1958): cement. I.OI5m. (1958): timber.
515.000 cu. ft (1953); copper. 1.460 (1958): fertilizers. 223,541 (1958):
gold. 21.345 fine oz. (1958): silver, 52.380 fine oz. (1958).
In 1957 Taiwan refined 867.000 tons of crude oil : the main refinery at
Kaohsiung has an annual capacity of Im. tons.
There were in operation 130,000 cotton spindles in 1952, sufficient to
cover domestic requirements.
Targets (in 1.000 metric tons) of the 4·year economic plan, 1953-56 (and.
io bra.ckets. for 1957. the first year (lf the second 4-year pla.n. 1957-60):
Rice. 1.850 (1.900: actual output. 1.839): tea. 15·4; pineapples, 108'8:
bananas. 120; tangerines. 42: peanuts, 90 (94'4): wheat. 31'2 (24'75):
beans. 28 (30'4): jute. 20'S: sweet potatoes. 2.625 (2.600); tobacco. 9·3:
fertilizers. 185 (233: actual output. 215); coal. 2,500 (3.010): iron ore. 30;
sulphur.6; copper. 1'5: salt. 450: lubricants. 21; also cotton yarn. 109.000
900 CHINA
bales (a.c tual output, 1957, 154,000); timber, 220,000 cu. metres: paper
(1957), 58,000 metric tons; caustic soda (1957), 24,300 metric tons.
Output of electricity in 1958 was 2,880m. kwh.
Industrial workers numbered 340,000 in 1957.
COMMERCE. Total exports, 1958, were valued at US8164m., with

sugar aad rice (together SH3m.) leading; total imports were valued at
US8127111. Total exports, 1957, US$168·5m.: total imports, USSI38·8m.
Taiwan exports to U.K., 1956, £1,355,487: 1957, £827,083; 1958,
£387,45:1: 1959, £588,969: imports from U.K., 1956, £1,010,259: 1957,
£821,89'): 1958, £941,342; 1959, £1,068,439; re·exports, 1956, £9,143:
1957, £::,293: 1958, £3,084; 1959, £6,169 (British Board of Trade returns).
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. The total length of the Taiwan

Railwa~r, which is under provincial control, is 950 km; there are in addition
2,765 kID of privately owned railways, most of them owned by the Taiwan
Sugar Corporation. Taiwan railways have various gauges, ranging from
3 ft 6 in. to 2 ft. Freight traffic amounted to llm. tons and passenger
traffic t·} 93m. passengers in 1957.
Roaols. In 1955 there were 15,680 km of roads. Motor vehicles included
4,120 passenger cars, 2,320 buses and 4,560 trucks.
Shir-ping. The merchant marine, in Oct. 1955, totalled 249,000 gross
tons, in~luding 27 ocean·going vessels of 135,000 tons.
International seaborne shipping freight amounted, in 1954, to 1·02m.
tons loaded and 1·7m. tons unloaded.
Post. In 1953 there were 1,844 post offices and agencies. Number of
telepholles (1959), 58,528.
Avilltion. Taiwan has 2 airlines, Civil Air Transport and Foshing Air·
lines: Taiwan is also served by N.W. Airlines, Philippine Airlines, Thai Air·
ways and Hong Kong Ainvays. The main airport is at Sungshan.
Taiwan airlines flew, in 1954, 61·3m. passenger.km and 3·7m. freight
ton·km.
CURRENCY. On the return of Tahvan to Chinese sovereignty, the
existing currency was converted into notes of the Bank of Taiwan. Taiwan
dollars 'Nere linked to Chinese national currency at a fixed rate of exchange.
When the Gold Yuan entered upon its last phase in early 1949, the Taiwan
currency was detached and linked to the US$. The New Taiwan Yuan,
howeve:', has also been unable to keep its initial rate of exchange N.T.Y.
5 = USS1; on 20 Nov. 1958 the selling rate was fixed at 36'38 and the buying
rate at .16·08 per US. for all foreign·exchange transactions.
The Nippon Kangyo Bank of Japan opened a branch in Taipei in Sept..
1959; it is the first foreign bank to be established in Taiwan since 1945.
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENT ATIVES

OF NATIONAUST CHINA U.S.A. (23ll Massachusetts Ave. NW.,
IN THE
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr George K. C. Yeh.
Ministers. Shao·Chang Hsu; Fu·sung Chu. Economic Minister Coun-
sellor. Martin Wong. Counsellors. Samuel C. H. Ling: Chuan Hua
COLOMBIA 901
Lowe; Dr Wen· Yen Tsao (Cultural); Nyoen.chung Nyi. First Secretaries.
Chia·Chiu Lai; Chi· ping Peng. Service Attaches: Maj.·Gen. Fu-ning Lu
(Army), Capt. Meng-Bing Chih (Navy), Col. Hsiung.sheng Hwang (Air).
Attaches: John Chia.Chang Yuan, Christopher C. W. Tang (Commercial);
Yao·tsu Chu, Clting.chi Wu (Cultural); Frank C. H. Tao (Press).
OF THE U.S.A. IN TAIWAN
Ambassador. Everett F. Drumright.
Counsellors. Joseph A. Yager; David L. Osborn; Paul J. Sturm
(Economic). Service Attaches: Col. Paul Godbey (Army), Capt. Nelson D.
Salmon (Navy), Col. Donald H. Frank (Air).
BritiJh Consul. A. Veitch, O.B.E.
Books of Reference
DQcument.! of Ihe Fi,., Sellwn of Ihe Pi'" Nalional People'$ Congress 0/ Ihe Peopt... Republic 01
China [in Englisb). Peking, 1955
Eighth NlUional Cm"},..- 0/ the Communist Parly 0/ China [In Englisb). 3 vok Peking, 1956
Academy ol8clences 01 the U.S.S.R., Institute 01 Geograpby, Geograjia KitaY$koy Na,odnov
Republiki. Mosoow.191i6
Adler. S .• Th. C!.inese Econnmy. New York, 1957
Brandt, 0 •• 8cbwartz, n. and Fairbank, J. K.,.i lIocumenlary ll~""ry 0/ Chinest Commullism.
London. 1962
Chao Kuo·cbUn, Agrarian poliliC4 of Mainland Cltina, 1949-56. Hnrvurd Unlv. Press, 1957
(1ben l'o-ta, Mao T,.·I"ng', TheOJv of Ihe ChiM.. R~ution. I'eking, 1962
Cbiq Kai .. bek, C!.ina', Dutiny. New York, 194'.-Soviel RUJ$ia in China. London, 1967
Oreosey. G. n., Land of Ih. 500 Million: Cl Geography of China. New York. 1955
Pel, H.iao·tung, and Cbang. Ohih·I. Earthbound China. A Sludy Of Ru,al EconOJnY in Y,mnan.
R.... ed. London, 1948
FitzGerald. O. P., China: A Short Cultural Hi.tory. Rev. cd. LondoD, 1960.-Reoolution
ill. China . London, 1~52. - Floo(l ~l'·i.d e in. Chi·na-, London, 19;)8
GniJIain~ R ., Six cenl.J milliQn3 de Chinois. Paris, 1956
Hollister, 'V . \V., China's gross national product and social acCfJunts 1950-57. Glencoe, Ill. ,
)9[)8
Kil'by. E. S .• Introduction 10 Ih. EcmlOmic History 0/ China. London, 1954.--{Ed.) Contem·
po,ary China. Vol. 1: 1955. Hong Kong Unlv. Press, 1956
Lang. Olga. Chine.. Family and Sociely. New York, 1946
Latouret.te, K. S .• '1'lIe Chine... 2 vols. 3rd ell. New York, 1946
I.attimore. 0 ., PilWl 01 A,ia [SInkiang). Boston, Mans •• 1950
Levy, Jr, M. J .• The Fami/Jl Revoluliun in Modem China . Cambridge, Mn••.• and London.
1949
Lu Er X'uel, and Pang I. (cd.). A Comprthensi.. Chinese Gaut/u,. [G,eal DictionaTJI 0/
Ancient and Alodem Place-nam.. Of China.) Sbanghal. 1931
Mao Tse-tung, S.lecUd Works. 3 vols. London. 1964
!4ntbews, R. H .• Chine,e-Englbh DictiOJUl'7l. Cambridge, Mans., 1943-47
Needham. J ., Science and Cillilie4tion in China. 7 vols. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1954 ff.
Purcell, V., The Chin ... in Smdhe",' A,ia. London, 1951
Sbabad. T .•China' .• Changing Map. A politicallMld tconOJnic geography o/Ihe Chinese Peopl,"
Republic. London, 1956
Sb.n, 'r. H ., Agricultural Rcsources 0/ CMna. CorneU. Univ. Prcss. 1951
Wu, YUI\D·Ii, An EConOJnic Sur"", 0'
\Vo.ng Chung·chi, .A Geog-raphy of Cllina. 2 voi!;. T'aipei. State '£rnnslation Office, 19~G
COJnmuni$1 Chi,w. New York and London, 1966
COLOMBIA
REPUBUCA DE COLOMBIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Vice·royalty of New
Granada gained its independence of Spain in 1819, and was officially con-
stituted 17 Dec. 1819, together wit.h the present territories of Panama,
Venezuela and Ecuador, as the state of' Greater Colombia', which continued
902 COLOMBIA
for about 12 years. It then split up into Venezuela, Ecuador and tile
republic of New GrllJlada in 1830. The constitution of 22 May 1858
changed New Granada into a confederation of 8 states, under the name
of Confederaci6n Granadina. 8 May 1863 saw another constitution, and
the adoItion of the name of the United States of Colombia. The revolution
of 1885 led the National Council of Bogota, composed of 2 delegates from
each state, to promulgate the constitution of 5 Aug. 1886, forming the
republic of Colombia, which abolished the sovereignty of the states, con·
verting them into departments, with governors appointed by the President
of the Republic, though they retained some of their old rights, such as the
management of their own finances. A decree of May 1928 abolished their
right to borrow abroad without the sanction of the central government.
The legislative power rests normally with a Congress of 2 houses, the
Senate, of 63 members, elected for 4 years, and the House of Representatives,
of about 131 members, chosen for 2 years. During the period of control by
the arm, ~d forces, beginning June 1953, it was superseded by a 'National
Constituent and Legislative Assembly' with limited powers. The word
• Constituent' reflects the fact that it was originally appointed to revise the
constitution but evolved into a legislature. By the Act of 1945 the senators
had been elected (1 for each 190,000 inhabitants) by direct vote of the
electora:oe instead of, as previously, indirectly by departmental assemblies;
the repl'esentatives are chosen by the people in each department (1 for
every 9(',000). Voters at the 1941 elections numbered 1,933,345, or 46·16%
of the electorate. The former Congress met annually at Bogota. on 20 July;
members were tined for non-attendance and received 1,800 pesos monthly
while i~ session. Women, though conceded citizenship, were expreBBly
barred from voting (as are members of the Army and the police) and from
elective office, until the Act of 25 Aug. 1954 gave them the vote.
The President is elected by direct vote of the people for a term of 4 years,
and is not eligible for re-election until 4 years afterwards. Congress elects,
for a term of 2 years, one substitute to occupy the presidency in the event
of a vacancy during a presidential term. There are 13 Ministries. A
National Economic Council, functioning since May 1935, went through
severall;ransformations, becoming in 1954 a Directorate of Planning.
The following is a list of presidents since 1918:
Dr Marco Fidel Su(uez, 7 Aug. 1918-11 Nov. DrEduardo Santos, 7 Aug. 1938-7 Aug. 1942.
1921. Dr Alfonso Upez Pumarejo, 7 Aug. 19"-
Gen. Jorlrl Holguln, 11 Nov. 1921-7 Ang. 1922. resigned In July 1945.
Gen. PedJ'o Nel Osplna, 7 Aug. 1922-7 Aug. Dr Alberto Llerss Camargo, 7 Aug. 19'~-
1926. 7 Aug. 1946.
Dr Miguel Abadla M~ndez, 7 Ang. 1926-7 Aug. Dr Mariano Osplna P~rez, 7 Aug. 1946-
1930. 7 Aug. 1950.
Dr Enriqlle Olaya Herrera, 7 Ang. 1930-7 Aug. Dr Laureano G6mez, 7 Aug. 1961)..13 Juno
193(. 1953.
Dr A1tOn-lO L6pez Pumarejo, 7 Aug. 1934- Gen. Gustavo Rojas Plnilla, 13 June 19~3-
7 Aug. 1938. May 19~7.
President. Alberto Lleras Camargo (Liberal), heading a dual oligarchy
composnd of Conservatives and Liberals in equal numbers. Elected on
8 May ) 958, he took office on 7 Aug.
Minister for Foreign Affairs. Dr Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala.
Nati'onalflag: yellow, blue, red (horizontal).
National anthem: Oh! Gloria inmarcesible (words by R. Nunez; tW1C
by O. Sindici).
GIbBon, W. M., Th4 Con.,;""i .... of Colombia . Durbam, N.O., 1948, and London, 19"
COLOMBIA 903
AREA AND POPULATION. The estimated area. of the Republic
as given to the United Nations is 1,138,355 sq. km. It has a coastline of
about 2,900 km, of which 1,600 km are on the Caribbean Sea and 1,300 km
on the Pacific Ocean. The area (as estimated by the census bureau) and
population of the 16 departments, 5 in tendencies and 3 commissaries,
according to the census of 9 May 1951 and the estimate for 5 July 1957,
were as follows (the capitals in brackets):
AIeo Censu~ population, 1951 Elt. 1951
(aq. km) Male. FemaU' Total Total
D~,
AntloquJa (Medellln) as,ooo 767,34e 802,861 1,570,197 1,783,690
Atlaotioo (Barraoquilla) • 3,462 206,821 2Zl,608 428,429 632,890
Bollvar (Cartageoa) 36,136 326,3e7 338,828 666,195 161,960
BoyaeA (Tunja) • 60,133 38e,802 414,634 801,43' 829,000
OaIdaa (MaoioaJeo) • 12,963 546,472 521,708 1,068,180 1,222,160
Cauca \Popayao) . 30,724 221,538 221,901 4",n9 489,670
Cordoba (Mootena) 24,290 163,242 163,021 326,2eS 363,800
Oondinamarca (Bogota) 23,140 786,103 837,941 I ,U4,044 1,885,610
Oh0c6 (Quibd6) • 47,468 64,586 66,515 131,101 141,000
Huila (Neiva) . . 19,828 147,351 146,341 293,692 337,740
Magdaleoa (Santa Macta) 46,803 232,043 225,350 n7,39S 460,620
N arioo (pasto) . 62,193 278,.,4 291,366 669,790 614,210
Norte de Saotaoder (CUcuta) 20,193 193,316 194,135 387,450 406,460
Santaoder (BucaramaDga) 30,318 371,335 376,371 747,706 816,700
Tolima (Ibagu~) . 22,393 364,2.0 348,240 712,490 803,290
Va.Ue del Cauca (0011) 20,430 671,795 636,132 1,1OG,9n 1,460,490
1nttndenciu
Alauca (AlBum) 25,830 6,631 6,590 IS,221 1',250
Oaqoeta (Floreocia) 112,990 25,268 21,320 46,688 67,990
La Guajira (Rlobacba) 21,000 25,372 26,974 62,346 113,350
Meta (Villavicencio) . . 86,220 38,177 29,316 67,.92 16,2110
B&n Aodn!a '1 Provideocia (Sao
Andrao) 65 2,778 2,897 5,676 6,280
Commi.uarie,
Amazooa. (Leticia). 124,340 4,420 3,199 7,619 8,230
Vaop~. (Mita) • • lb2,449 5,116 4,053 9,169 .,870
Vicbada (Poem> Carreiio) 102,990 6,515 6,815 12,330 14,180
Total . . 1,138,338 5,742,067 6,806,10. 11,648,172 13,227,480
Of the total population in 1951, 38% were urban (29,2% in 1938);

density (1957), 1l·6 per sq. km. The bulk of the population lives at alti·
tudes of from 4,000 to 9,000 ft above sea. level. It is divided broadly into :
68% mestizo, 20% white, 7% indio and 5% negro.
The crude birth rate, 1958,43·3 per 1,000 population; crude death rate,
12·8; infant mortality rate, 100 per 1,000 live births; crude marriage rate
(1955),5'92 per 1,000 population. Estimated total, July 1959, 13,823,600.
The capital, Bogota (estimated population in 1959,1,124,770), lies 8,661
ft above the sea. The chief commercial towns, with their population in
1968, are: Medellfn, an industrial, coffee and mining centre (578,940);
Call, an industrial and sugar centre (545,410); Barranquilla, chief inter·
national airport and now a _port by the opening of the Bocas de Ceniza
(411,330); Cartagena, an industrial port with the oil· pipe terminal (167,980);
Manizales (161,000): Buca.ramanga, tobacco and coffee centre (184,680);
Cticuta., coffee and industrial centre (131,410); Buenaventura., chief port
on the Pacific coast (1951: 54,973).
The language spoken is Spanish.
RELIGION. The religion is Roman Catholic with the Archbishop of
Bogota. ranking as Cardinal. There are 5 other archbishops in Cartagena,
904 COLOMBIA
Maniz,.Jes, Mt'deJJln, PampJona and Popayan, 1,525 parishes and 4,020

priests. Other forms of religion are permitted 80 long 88 their exercise is
• not c(,ntrary to Christian morals or to the law'; but since 1953 Protestants
have complained of police prosecutions and religious disorders.
EDUCATION. Primary education is free but not compulsory, and
facilities are limited.
In 1956, 17,179 public and private primary and secondary schools had
42,280 teachers and 1,418,552 pupils; 904 kindergartens, with 2,196 teachers
and 4(;,234 pupils; 321 night schools, with 634 teachers and 17,186 pupils;
154 teachers' training schools, with 1,773 instructors and 14,259 pupils; 306
comm'lrcial schools, with 24,776 pupils; 79 professional and technical
8chool:J, with 8,230 pupils ; 26 art schools, with 4,020 pupils, and 38 agri.
(\ultuml schools, with 1,821 students. The entire school system embraced
19,279 establishments, with 67,353 teachers and 1,670,432 students.
Be.lides the National University in Bogota (founded 1572), there are
13 mO.re in the capital (inclurung Javeriana, Libre and AlIdes) and 14 more
elsewhere, at Medellin, Cali, Manizales, Popayan, Cartagena and Bucara·
manga.. These 28 universities, in 1955, had 112 faculties with 2,646 teachers
and 13,284 students. National, provincial and local budgets allocated,
1964, 149·6m. pesos to education.
Of the population over 7 years of age in Oct. 1951, the Ministry of Educa·
tion estimated that 37% were illiterate; intensive efforts to build ncw
schools and to reduce illiteracy are being made.
Ci:temas (1958). Cinemas numbered 645 with attendance of 55,452,954.
Newspapers. There are 36 daily newspapers. Strict censorship of the
press, established in Nov. 1949, was suspended indefinitely on 29 Oct. 1953.
Jl'STICE. The Supreme Court, at Bogota, of 16 members, is ruvided
into 3 chambers-civil cassation, criminal cassation, general business. Each
judicial district has a superior court of 3 judges or more. Since 1932,
marriE,d women have been granted full control of their property, and a share
of property jointly acquired since marriage.
Communism was outlawed by government decree on 4 March 1956.
FINANCE. Ordinary rcvenue and expenruture for calendar years in
1,000 paper pesos :
1966 1966' 1967' 1968' 1969' 1960 '
.R eTfDt6. 1,328,800 1,202,072 1,227,300 1,478,000 1,412,673 1,660,000
Expenditure 1,277,800 1,202,072 1,227,300 1,478,000 1,412,573 1,660,000
, Budget estimates.
The 1959 budget included expenrutures (in 1m. pesos) as follows: Public
debt E,nd finance, 231; public works, 363; development,47; armed forces
and police, 295; justice,64; health,78; education,155 ; agriculture,36.
Th International Bank for Reconstruction and Development has made
Illoans to Colombia aggregating $1l1·2m., including $47'300. for highways
and $40·9 for the Atlantic Railway.
0" 31 Dec. 1955 the total debt of the central government was, in USS.
equal to $394,680,000, of which external debt (in dollars and sterling) was
equal to $196,760,000; internal debt was 197,920,000 pesos. Total debt of
the df>partments (1956) was $128,229,228 (535,739,185 external) and of the
muni<:ipalities (1955), $218,952,111 ($67,532,436 external). Income of the
COLOMBIA 905
departments, 1956, was $196,240,000 and expenditures, $193,120,000; of the
municipalities. $211·6m. and $187m.
Official census of foreign capital (excluding oil) invested in Colombia as of
31 Dec. 1951 showed a total equal to USSI85·2m. Foreign capital arriving
in 1951 amounted to $40·4m .• of which $21·7m. were for the oil industry.
A decree of 3 Aug. 1951 promised complete safety to foreign investments
representing machinery and equipment for industrial, agricultural or mining
use. U.S. investments, 1950, S194m.
DEFENCE. On 17 April 19,>2 Colombia signed the Military Assistance

pact with the U.S.A.
ARMY. Military service is compulsory between the years of 18 and 30.
Service with the colours is for I year. From 30 to 45 years 01 age the
citizens are on the reserved lists, classified in 1st, 2nd and 3rd classes, with
the obligation of presenting themselves on being called up. The permanent
Army consists of infantry. artillery, cavalry, engineers, motorized troops
and the usual services. The peace effective varies between 12,000 and 15,000
men, according to the conditions established by the General Staff at each
conscription period; the war effective is about 300,000 men, excluding the
Territorial Army which would raise the figure to about 500,000. Number of
national police, about 10,000.
Colombia was the only Latin·American country participating in the
Korean war. A regiment of 1,000 men (three times relieved) was con·
tinuously in action; it returned to Colombia on 30 Nov. 1954.
NAVY. Colombia has 4 destroyers (including 2 large units built in
Sweden in 1958), 3 frigates, 16 motor launches, I gunboat, 4 coastguard
vessels, 7 river gunboats, 5 transports, 1 tender, 3 oilers and some smaller
craft. Personnel, 6,000 officers and men. The Navy has also a batallion
of marines with 800 officers and men. There is an American Naval Mission.
Am FORCE. Formed in 1922. the Air Force has been independcnt of
the Army and Navy since 1943, when its re· organization began with U.S.
assistance. In 1958 it had about 100 aircraft, comprising a combat group
of Canadian·built Sabre jet·fighters and piston.engined F·47D Thunderbolt
fightcr·bombers, a transport group equipped with C·47s, a small number of
C·54s and about a dozen Beaver light transports, and a maritime recon·
naissanee and rescue uuit with Catalina. /lying· boats. Training aircraft
include the primary 1'·34 Mentor and the T·33A jet advanced trainer.
PRODUCTION. Agrioulture. Very little of the country is under
cultivation, but much of the soil is fertile and is coming into use as roads
improve. The range of climate and crops is extraordinary; the agricultural
colleges have different courses for' cold·climate farming' and 'hot climate
farming'. Some 6m. acres are described as arable, 96m. pasture and 148m.
forest; about 16,493 tractors were in use in 1956.
Colombia is the second largest producer of coffee and ranks first in the
output of mild coffee. demand for which is unaffected by over· production
in Brazil. Crops are grown by smallholders, and are picked aU the year
round. Quality is carefully guarded: the coffee census of 1935 6howcd
150,000 plantations with 532·2m. producing trees. Coffee output exceeds
5111. bags (of 60 kg). Exports (mainly to U.S.A.) in 1959 were 6·4m. bags,
valued US$354·8m.; the export quota for 1960 is 5,969,000 bags. ExportR
of bananas, in 1956, were 9,547,000 stems.
906 COLOMBIA
Cotton output, 1956, was 23,000 metric tons (31,780 metrio tons in 1953).
Rice, for domestic consumption, is increasingly important; output,
1956, 300,000 metric tons. Sugar output (exclusive of panela) in 1955 was
213,300 metric tons from 27 mills. Sugar plantations now cover 172,960
hectares (427,216 acres). Unrefined brown sugar, known as panela, is
consumed. locally; output, 1958, of refined sugar, 242,523 tons. Output of
maize in :'956 was 741,000 metric tons; other important crops are potatoes,
plantain, yuca, wheat (1I0,000 metric tons) and tobacco (37,000 metric
tons).
The rubber tree grows wild, and its cultivation has begun; output
is a few hundred tons. Fibres are being exploited, notably the' fique'
fibre, which furnishes all the country's requirements for sacks and cordage;
output about 12,000 tons. Tolu balsam is cultivated, and copaiba trees
are tapped but are not cultivated. Tanning is an important industry,
3·7m. hides being exported in 1956.
Livestock in 1956 was estimated at 13·39m. cattle, 1·45m. pigs, 1·3m.
horses, l·lm. sheep, 215,000 goats, 835,000 mules and asses.
Mini1Cg. Colombia is rich in minerals; gold is found chiefly in Antioquia
and moderately in Cauca, Caldas, Tolima, Nariiio and Choc6; output in 1958,
371,715 fine oz., highest in South America. Foreign concessions produce
about 60Yo of the gold. Colombia in 1955 exported gold bars as follows
(in 1,000 troy oz.) to: U.K., 222'7; Switzerland, 96·9; U.S.A., 24'4;
Venezuelit, 18; others,2. Total 364.000 oz. valued at 32m. pesos.
Other minerals are silver (105,162 fine oz. in 1958), copper,lead. mercury,
mangane:m. emeralds and platinum (first discovered in Colombia in 1735
and the litrgest deposit in the world); export of platinum, 1958, 16.036 troy
oz. The working of the government.controlled emerald mines has been
r6llumed; the stones are cut in the workshops of the Banco de la Republica.
The chief mines are those of Muzo (government-owned) and Chiver
(America: ~-owned). Gross mineral output,1955, was valued at 203·4m. pesos.
A uranium plant with a refining capacity of 30 tons a day is being
installedin the Department of Santander in 1959.
The country also has coal (output. 1955, about O·lm. metric tons, but
reserves Itre estimated at 40,000m. tons), iron (543,000 long tons in 1958).
limeston€, sand and fireclay deposits. Cement production in 1958 was
1,216,612 metric tons. The 'National Steel Mill', launched in 1940 to de-
velop an eron and steel industry in the Paz del Rio region, was denationalized
in Dec. HJ55 and sold to the Banco de la Republica, which is to sell it to
private industry within 10 years. It turned out 130,000 short tons of
steel ingcts and castings in 1958.
The extraction of salt from the remarkable mines in Zipaquira (several
hundred feet thick and covering several hundred sq. miles) and the evapora-
tion at the numerous salt pans along the Caribbean coast are a government
monopol~T, leased to the Banco de la Republica; output of salt in 1958
was 289,!J22 long tons.
Petro.leum production in 1958 exceeded 46·8m. bbls. of which about one·
quarter were refined in the country, chiefly at Barrancabermeja. Invest-
ments in the petroleum industry (1951) amount to $257,440,000, of which
American hold 85% and British about 15%. In 1957 oil companies in the
country paid pesos 27·3m. in royalties and 2·6m. in taxes.
Indw,try. Value of industrial output (located mainly in the Departments
of Antio(luia. Cundinamarca and Valle) by 230,737 production workers in
Il,007 elltablishments in 1955 was 4,734,661,900 pesos; value added by
COLOMBIA 907
manufactures was 2,823,392,000 pesos. Colombia, 1950, had 447 electric
power· plants, of which 352 were hydro.electric. Electric power consumed
in 1958, 1,515·2m. kwh. Natural gas has long been used in some parts.
In Oct. 1954 the Department of Valle del Cauce. established a local
power corporation closely modelled on the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Trade Unions. The left.wing Colombian Federation of Labour (C.T.C).
bad, in 1947, 109,000 members out of a total of 165,000 organized workers.
The Jesuits in 1946 established a Catholic trade union, Uni6n de Trabajadore8
Colombiano8.
BtU;" DJ a Dt'Delopmem Program Jor Colombia (a lUmmarv) and Comprehemiw RtI'orl 01 the
Mi..ion to Colombia. By the 14 experte sent to Colombia under the joint sponsorship of
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the Banco de la Republica
de Colombia. W88hingtoll, D.O., 1950
Scropes, L. A., Colombia, Dec., 1949 (Oversta8 Economic SUNJfl/')' H.M.S.O., 1950
COMMERCE. For the 'Charter of Quito', trading agreement in 1948

between Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela, see THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR·BoOK, 1956, p. 882.
Imports (c.i.f. values) and exports (f.o.b. values) (excluding bullion and
specie) for calendar years (in 1,000 paper pesos) :
1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Import• . 1,366.808 1,679,448 1,673,227 1,642,982 1,960,183 2,533,960
Bxportsl 1,490,329 1,642,843 1,469,741 1,342,623' 1,910,991 2,185,607
I Excluding export tax. • Excluding gold.
In 1966 the U.S.A. furnished 62% of Colombia's imports and took

71 % of her exports.
Trade by principal countries in HI57 and 1958, in Im. paper pesos:
Imports 1957 1968 Eltports 1957 1958
Benelux . 9'4 6·6 Benelux . 7·7 5·7
Canada 11·2 13·0 Canada 8·. 5·5
France 14·6 10·7 France
Germany. 43·9 H·5 Germany. 35·1 39·1
Netherlands Antilles. 12·6 8·2 Netherlands Antilles. 9-l 24·4
Sweden 12·9 12·8 Sweden 13·8 10·3
U.K. 21·6 17 ·3 U.K. 7·6 7·8
U.S.A. 287·7 228·2 U.S.A. 36H Dl8'0
Important articles of export in 1956 were coffee (1,032·7m. pesos; 76·6%

of the total), petroleum (174·8m.), bananas (70·2m.), refined sugar (lO·8m.),
gold (36·5m.), tobacco (7·4m.) and platinum (5·3m.) . The chief imports
are machinery, vehicles, metals and manufactures, textiles and chemical
products.
Total trade between U .K. and Colombia for 5 years (British Board of
1938 1956 1957 1958 195 9
Importe to U .K. 253,827 1,654,049 4,3M,282 3,268,953 l1,685,0i7
Bxporte from U.K. . 1,761,708 7,876,770 6,672,116 6,100,4R2 6,999,190
Re·exporte from U.K. 19,657 84,898 57,931 46,931 81,48U
Sam~r. A .• Imporlancia <UI call", tl comerci. ""/trior do Colombia. Bogot~, 1948
COMMUNICATIONS. ShippiWJ. Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador

formed the Greater Colombia Merchant Marine (Flota Mercante Gran·
colombiana) on 8 June 1946, with headquarters in Bogota and sectional
908 COLOMBIA
boards in Caracas and Quito. The corporation has an authorized capital

of $20Di., of which Venezuela and Colombia subscribed 45% each and
Ecuado:~ 10%. Venezuela withdrew from the group in 1953. The Flota
in 1958 had 35 vessels.
VeSEels entering Colombian ports in 1958 had a net registered tonnage
of 7,9211,286. The Colombian merchant fleet in 1956 amounted to 56,316
tons.
The Magdalena River is subject to drought, and navigation is always
impede,l during the dry season, but it is an important artery of passenger
and goods traffic. The river is navigable for 900 miles; steamers ascend
to La 1I0rada, 592 miles from Barranquilla. In 1958 they carried 189,000
passengers, 936,000 tons of cargo and 183,000 head of cattle.
Roau. Owing to the mountainous character of the country, the con-
struction of arterial roads and railways is costly and difficult. The
Govermnent has completed 60% of the 1931 programme for the construction
of the main roads and railways. The overhead ropeway connecting Mari-
quita with Manizales is the longest in the world (0'72 km); it carried 38,601
metric ';ons of freight in 1955. Total length of motor highways, 26,523 km
in 1956. Of the 2,300-mile Sim6n Bolivar highway, which runs from
Caracas in Venezuela to Guayaquil in Ecuador, the Colombian portion is
complet;e. Bucnaventura and Cali (Carretera a1 Mar) are linkcd by a high.
way. Motor vehicles /lumbered 329,663 passenger cars, 358,811 buses and
130,775 lorries on 31 Dec. 1954.
Raiiways. There are 17 lines of railway (8 national and state), with a
totalle'lgth of 3,028 km in 1956. Of the total, 2,584 km have a gauge of
3 ft; the rest a metre gauge. There is one British owned Iinc, La Dorada.
Railwa:r Co. (111 km). The national lines are mostly small disconnected
lines serving principally as feeders to the Magdalena River, which is the
main kaffic route between the Caribbean and the interior. The Pacrno
Railwa;y connects Bogota with the port of Buenaventura. An Atlantic line
from Eogota to Sta. Marta is under active construction. Total railway
traffic, 1958, was 1l,319,469 passengers and 6,345,358 metric tons offreight.
Natiolmlization of all railways was decided upon in Jan. 1954.
Pos;!. The length of telephone lines in service is 218,101 km; instru-
ments in use, 1959, 247,298, of which 96% were automatic and all under
government operation. The All-American Cables Co., Inc., and the Marconi
Wireless Company operate. There are 120 broadcasting stations. Tele-
vision was established in 1959 at Itagiii.
Avi.ltion. In civil aviation Colombia ranks third, after Brazil and
Argentina, among South American countries. There are 209 landing
ground~ of all kinds. In 1958 the national airlines with 68 passenger and
12 cargo, plus 22 • mixed' planes, carried 1,435,712 passengers and
1l5,207,OOO kg of cargo. In Sept. 1954 the Government bought all the
airfield:! in the country from Avianca, the leading airline. In 1957, Avianca
carried over Im. passengers and 72m. kg of cargo.
The new B.O.A.C. service was inaugurated in Jan. 1960.
MONEY AND BANKING. On 13 May 1955 Colombia established new
exchan.~e rates-a fixed rate of 2'50-2'51 pesos per USS (i.e., 39·8-40 cents
U.S.) and a free market rate (for foreign exchange derived from secondary
exporu and other sources), which opened at 4 pesos per US$ (25 cents
U.S.), '>oded the year 1955 at 4·14-4·17 pesos per Sand 11-59-11-67 per £
sterlinB: and fell to 6·97 pesos per S for exchange certificates and 8·25 for
COLOMBIA 909
free dollars in July 1958. This last figure hardened t o 6·90 at the end of
Sept. 1959. The International Monetary Fund continues to treat as the
official rate the one previously existing (since 17 Dec. 1948), namely the
peso = 51·282 cents U.S. When Colombia joined the I.M.F. on 18 Dec.
1946 the peso's rate was 57·143 cents U.S.
Coins include 50,20 and 10 centavos (half silver, half copper-nickel-zinc)
and 5 ILnd 2 centavos of various combinations of copper-nickel-bronze-steel.
There are also notes representing gold pesos of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100,500
a.nd 1,000 pesos respectively.
On 23 July 1923 the Banco de la Republica was inaugurated as a semi.
official central bank, with the exclusive privilege of issuing bank· notes in
Colombia; its charter, in 1951, was extended to 1973. Its note issues must
be covered by a reserve in gold or foreign exchange of 25% of their value.
Gold stock has risen from USS5m., at the start, to S21m. at the outbreak
of the War and to S147m. in Jan. 1947, falling rapidly thereafter to $66m.
in May J951, when publication (of the gold figure, separa tely from foreign
exchange) ceased. On 14 July 1959 the Central Bank had gold and foreign
exchange valued at USS202·4m.; note circulation, 1,166·7m. peS'os.
There are 16 domestic commercial banks of importance and 5 foreign
banks (English, Canadian, American, French and Franco.Italian); but 70%
of all commercial bank deposits are with the 3 largest domestic banks which
have branches throughout the country. In Nov. 1950 they were permitted
to accept savings deposits, hitherto a government monopoly.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system was introduced in

1857, but in ordina ry commerce SlltUlish weights and llleasures are generally
used.
OF COI,OMBB. IN GRF:AT BRITAIN (3 Hans Crescent, S.W.I)
Ambassador. (Vacant).
Minister Counsellor. Pablo Samper Garcia. P irst Secretary. Dr
Jaime Canal RivEts.
There are consular r epresenta tives at Glasgow, Liverpool and London.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN COLOMBIA
Amba.ssador. Sir James Joint, K .C.M.G., O.B.E. (appointed 12 Jan.
1(56).
First Secretarie-~. D. P . M. S. Cape; A. C. Buxton (Commercial ).
Naval Attache. Capt. J. R. Gower, D.S.C., R .N.
Military and Air Attache. Group Capt. J. M. Morgan, D.F.C
There are consular representatives at Barranquilla, Bogota, Cali,
Cartagena and MedeUin.
Ob' COLOMBIA IN THE U.S.A. (2118 Leroy PI. NW.,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. (Vacant.)
Ministers. Ignaeio Mesa; Jose Camacho·Lol'enzana. Counsellor. Dr
Santiago Salazar·Santos (Economic). First Secretaries. Edmundo CasteIlo
Nieto; Miss Regina Grau. Service Attaches: Brig. Gen. Oscar Aree (Army) ,
Col. Mariano Ospina (A ir), Cmdr Alfon80 Ochoa (Navy ). Commerc·ial
Attache. Andrcs Uribe.
910 COSTA RICA
OF THE U.S.A. IN COLOMBIA

Amlassador. Dempster Mclntosh.
Counsellor. Milton K. Wells. First Secretary. Lawrence A. PhilIips.
Service Attaches: Lieut.-Col. Howard C. Parker (Army), Capt. Robert E.
Huse (Navy, resident in Caracas), Col. Gerald W. Crabbe (Air). Agricultural
Attache. Henry Hopp.
The::e are Consuls at Barranquilla, Cali, Medellin and a consular agent
at Buenaventura.
Books of Reference
.Anuario .7en6al tU E.dadbtica tU Colombia. Bogo~. Annual
Boletln d.' la Contralorla G""",aJ tU la R'1'ublica. Bogota. Monthly
Rm.ta cid Banco tU la Rtpublica. Monthly Statistics. Bogota
InfONM .~l Supmntomdontt tU la. Renta! ptlblica.. Bogot.
Bol.tln tU' H acimda. Bogota. Annual
Bole/In d.·1 Minislmo tU Rtlaciont. Exterior... Bogota. Quarterly
Gtotpafla e<ondmica tU Colombia. The Controller'. Department, Bogota
Rtporl of II~ CO'uncil of tk Corpora/ion of Poreign BondholtUr.. Annual. London
Charry Lara, Aluerto, DesaN'ollo hist6rico d~ la Estadistica nacional eta C(Jtumbia. N at.
Dept. ,,! Statistics, Bogota, 1904
Child!!, J , B., Colombian Gowemment Publicalion.. Washington, 1941
Gal!>mitt, W. 0., Colombia, a """",alsun't:!!. Oxford Uni ... Press, 1953
Henao, J. M., and Arm!>la, G., History of Colombia. Chapel Hill (N.C.), 1938
Romoli, ~rathleen, Colombia. New York, 1941
COSTA RICA
REPUBLICA DE COSTA RICA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The republic of Costa Rica
(the 'Rich Coast') has been independent since 1821, although it formed,
from 1Il24 to 1838, part of the Confederation of Central America. The
constitution, promulgated on 7 Dec. 1871, has been modified very fre-
quently, last in 1949. The legislative power is normally vested in a single
chamber called the Legislative Assembly, which since 1946 consists of 45
deputies, I for every 25,214 inhabitants. The members of the chamber
are ele,)ted for 4 years, one-half retiring every 2 years. The President
is elect'ld for 4 years; the candidate receiving the largest vote, provided
it is over 40% of the total, is declared elected, but a second ballot is re-
quired if no candidate gets 40% of the total. By the election law of 18
Jan. 1946 all citizens who are 20 years of age are entitled to vote; married
men and teachers, from the age of 18. Women over 21 were enfran.
chised :in 1949, under the new constitution. Elections are normally held
on the first Sunday in February. Voting for President, Deputies and
Munici;Jal Councillors is, by the law of 26 July 1925, secret, and, by an
amendment to the constitution in 1936, compulsory for all men under 70
years of age. Independent non-party candidates are barred from the ballot.
Prelident. Lie. Mario Echandi, eJected Feb. 1958; inaugurated 8 May
1958; favours private enterprise and foreign investment.
Vicl-Presidents. Jose Joaquin Peralta Esquivel and Abelardo Bonilla
Baldar'ls.
Minister for Foreign Affairs. Lie. Alfredo Vargas Fernandez.
Ele'ltions for Congress took place on 2 Feb. 1958; National Union Party
(Echandi's party) won 10, Liberation Party 20, Republican Party 11, others
4 seats,
COSTA RICA 911
The administration normally is carried on by 9 ministers, appointed by
the President. The powers of the President are limited by the constitution,
which leaves him the power to appoint and remove at will members of his
cabinet. All other public appointments are made jointly in the names of
the President and of the minister in charge of the department concerned.
National flag : blue, white, red.
National anthem: Noble patria, tu hermosa bandera (words by J. M.
Zeledon, 1903; tune by M. M. Gutierrez, 1851).
Zelcd6D, M. T., LecciO'M' tU Ciencia eo ....titueional V C<mItitucidn poll/ita de la RepoU>Uea de
C• .,,. Rita. SaD Jose, 1946
AREA AND POPULATION. The area is estimated at 51,OIl sq. km

(19,690 sq. miles). The population at the census of 22 May 1950 was
800,875, compared with 471,524 shown ill the 1927 census. The estimated
population on 1 Oct. 1959 was 1,134,626.
Census population (1950) of the 7 provinces (with official estimate for
31 Dec. 1957 in parentheses) is as follows: San Jose, 281,822 (355,930);
Alajuela, 148,850 (198,418); Cartago, 100,725 (131,848); Heredia, 51,760
(65,737); Guanacaste, 88,190 (123,123); Puntarenas, 88,168 (123,255);
Limon, 41,360 (54,163). The populations (1957) of the chief towns of the
provinces are as follows: San Jose, 133,734; Cartago, 23,498; Limon,
20,764: Puntarenas, 20,108. Alajuela, 16,620; Heredia .15,843; Guana-
caste (Liberia), 6,692.
Mnrriages Birtb. Dentbs Immigration EmJgrntlOD
1955 7,010 48,903 9,988 31,780 31,162
1956 6,969 61,481 9,618 4~,40 2 43,304
1957 7,103 51,749 10,471 44,355 44,596
1958 7,87:> 53,899 9,692 55,624 65,050
Crude birth rate, 1958, was 50, 1 per 1,000 population; crude death
rate, 9; infantile death rate, 68·9 per 1,000 live births: crude marriage
rate, 7·5 per 1,000 population. In 1958 males exceeded females by 4,060.
The population of European descent, many of them of pure Spanish blood,
dwell mostly around the capital of the republic, San Jose, and in the
principal towns of the provinces. Lim6n, on the Caribbean coast, and
Puntarenas, on the Pacific coast, are the chief commercial ports. The
United Fruit Company, who have abandoned their banana plantations on
the Atlantic coast in favour of large new plantations on the Pacific coast,
have constructed ports at QuepoB and Golfito. There are some 15,000
coloured West Indians, mostly in Limon province. The native Indian
population is dwindling and is now estimated at 1,200.
Spanish is the language of the country.
Voot, W., Tile Population of Costa Riea and it. Nalural Ruou,,,.. Washington, D.e.• 1944
RELIGION. Roman Catholicism is the religion of the State, which

contributes to its maintenance but controls the Church Patronage and
insists on lay instruction in history, economics and similar subjects; there
is entire religious liberty under the constitution, but religious appeals are
forbidden in current political discussions. The Archbishop of Costa Rica
has under him the Bishops of Alajuela, Lim6n and San Isidro el General.
The Episcopal Church in Cent.ral America has churches at San Jose
912 COSTA RICA
(bishop) and Puerto Lim6n. The Society of Friends and numerous other
sects are represented.
EDUCATION. Costa Rica has a very low illiteracy rate. Elementary
instructio::l is compulsory and free; secondary education (since 1949) is
also free. Elementary schools are provided and maintained by local school
councils, while the national government pays the teachers, besides making
subventio:ls in aid of local funds. In 1958 there were 1,416 public primary
schools with 6,677 teachers and 165,666 enrolled pupils; there were 55
public and private secondary schools with 23,138 pupils, and 23 technical
schools w:.th 6,376 pupils. The University of Costa Rica, founded in San
Jose in If43, has 318 professors in 12 faculties and 3,111 students. There
is no medical school. The budget for 1960 provides 75·7m. colones for
public edlcation. Since 1944 English has been taught in all secondary
schools.
GinemUJ (1955). Cinemas numbered 106, with seating capacity of 50,300.
Newspapers (1959). There were 7 daily newspapers (including 1 English-
language~aper) all published in San Jose.
SOCIAL WELFARE. The labour code of 1943 provides considerable

protection for the workers, while a system of social insurance against sick-
ness, old I'ge and death is gradually being extended throughout the country.
JUSTICE, Justice is administered by the Supreme Court, 4 appeal
courts and the Court of Cassation. There are also subordinate courts in
the separ:~te provinces and local justices throughout the republic. Capital
punishment cannot be inflicted.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure (in ) 0, 00 colones) haye
been as follows (SI = 6'63 colones) for calendar years:
19~4 1966 1956 1967 1968 19 59 (est,. )
Revenue . 233.467 261,760 2~2. 000 346,832 341 ,7J2 353,73;;
BIJlenditurl . 219.221 248,689 291,000 339,716 342,119 353,733
The s·;a.te finances steadily deteriorated, leading up to a political crisis

in July 1947, and finally to a revolution which overthrew the government
in April 1948. The new government decreed a capital levy of 10%, designed
to raise 32m. colones, payable in 10 annual instalments; there has been It.
marked improvement in the finances of the State. The income-tax la\v of
18 Sept. 1954 raised the maximum rate (for incomes of 500,000 colones and
over) frolD 15 to 30%.
The public debt on 30 Sept. 1959 was 372,324,000 colones, including
156,122.000 colones external debt. Arrangements for resuming service on
the fOllr dollar debts were agreed in Nov. 1953, and on the sterling debt in
Sept. 1955.
DEFENCE. The army was abolished in 1948, and replaced by a Civil
Guard re~uted to be 1,200 strong. There has never been compulsory mill·
t.ary service or training.
'rhe r ~publlo has also 1 motor launch on the Atlantic side and 1 on the
Pa·cific side for revenue purposes.
PRO))UCTION. A.griculture. Agriculture is the principal industry.
The cultivated area (1946) is about 1,877,000 acres; grass lands cover 543,000
COSTA RICA 913
acres; forests and woodlands, 9,855,000 acres. There are thousands of
square miles of public lands that have never been cleared . on which can be
found quantities of rosewood, cedar, mahogany and other cabinet woods.
Exports of logs and lumber, 1955, totalled 7,341 metric tons. The principa.!
agricultural products are coffee and bananas. Coffee, on about 117,500
acres, has an average crop of 20,500 metric tons; in 1955-56 crop was
23,750 metric tons; exports (1955, about 29,000 metric tons, mostly to
Germany), normally account for about half the country's foreign.exchange
earnings. In 1957 it earned a record USS41m. Bananas (exports about
Om. bunches, practically all to U.S.A.) are important partly because, unlike
those of most Latin-American countries, they show only moderate decline.
Cocoa (exports, 1955,9,696 metric tons), maize, sugar (exports, 1955,8,223
short tons of centrifugal sugar), rice and potatoes are commonly cultivated.
About 5,000 acres are under tobacco (output, 1956, about 2·1m. lb.). The
distiIIation of spirits is a government monopoly.
Soil erosion is serious in some areas.
Dairy-farming and cattle-raising are substantial pursuits. In 1957
cattle numbered 800,000 and pigs 115,000.
Costa Rica is the seat of the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural
Sciences, with headquarters at Turrialba.
Mining. Gold is mined on the Pacific slope, but the mining of other
mineral deposits is not very fully developed. Silver output, 1958, 325,278
fine oz. Output of salt is between 3,000 and 4,000 tons annually, but rose
to 48,000 tons in W57.
Industry. Industry is still on a very small scale. Electricity, derivcd
from water power in the highlands, is increasingly uscd as motive power; it
was nationalized in 1928. Output, 1956, was 305,393,999 kwh.
Labour. As Costa Rica is still essentially an agricultural country, the
organization of labour has made progress only in the larger centres of popula-
tion, and even there it is not a strong movement. Most of the unions are
affiliated to an a-political confederation, the' Rerum Novarum.' The
Vanguardia Popular, formerly a Communist organization which made its
peace with the Roman Catholic Church and, before the 1948 revolution,
represented Labour in Congress, with 5 deputies in a house of 45, was banned
in July 1948.
At the 1950 census the labour force totalled 261,984, 55% being agri-
cultural; 11% manufacturing; 8% trade; 8% construction, transport and
communications; and 15% in government, finance and services. In 1957
there were 142 trade unions and 23 employers' organizations.
COMMERCE. The value of imports into and exports from Costa Rica
in 5 years (including coin and bullion) was as follows in US$ (6'63 colones =
USSI):
19~4 19~5 1966 1967 1958
lmporte 80,654,000 87,469,023 91,226,164 102,784,657 99,326,473
Exports 80,954,669 80,508,931 67,463,936 83,614,144 96,900,860
A new Tariff Act, Sept. 1951, abolished the complicated special rates
previously prevailing and presents only two rates, one specific and one ad
valorem, the latter being 4% for most commodities.
The value (in US$lm.) of the principal imports in 1958 were: Manu-
factures, 3; machinery, including transport equipment, 24'7; chemicals,
15'2; foodstuffs, 11 ·8; petroleum and lubricants, 6·2.
914 COSTA RICA
Value of chief exports (in US$lm.) in 1958 were: Coffee, 50·6; bananas,
31'5; cacao,5'9; cattle,2'3; cotton, 1·3; timber, 0·15.
Imports from U.S. were valued at $56,725,000 in 1957, $50·6m. in 1958.
Expo::tB to U.S. in 1957 were $43m.; in 1958, $49·6m.
IDlports from U.K. in 1957 were valued at $5·1m .• in 1958 at S5·5m. Ex·
ports to V.K. in 1957 were valued at 8431,000, in 1958 at Slm.
T(,tal trade between U.K. and Costa Rica. (British Board of Trade
returILs) for 6 years (in £ sterling) :
1938 1965 1956 1967 1968 1950
Import. to U.K. . 807,37' 214,187 146,961 187,149 399,316 495,148
Exports from U.K • . 149,363 1,926,083 1,683,622 1,539,066 1,687,658 1,8~1,575
Re-exports from U.K. 2,877 15,382 15,226 10,374 16,012 19,935
Saavedra, M. (ed.), Co.1a Rica Comf1U1"cial Guick. San Jod. Annual,/rom 1954
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1957, 984 ships entered and
cleared the ports of the republic (Puerto Limon, Puntarenas, Quepos and
GolfitJ); combined cargo, 433,494 metric tons. In 1958, the Costa Rican
regisky of foreign-owned ships was cancelled.
Railways. Two railway systems, totalling about 500 miles, connect
San J,)se with Limon, the Atlantic port (Costa Rica Railway Company), and
San Jose with Punto.renas. the Pacific port (the state-owned Ferrocarril
EIectlico 801 Paclfico). When the railway system is completed, through rail
communication will be established between Port Limon and the port of
Almirlnte in Panama.
Rw.M. About 350 miles of motoring roads, in very fair repair, are
now "pen. Of the Costa Rica section of the Inter-American highway,
204 k~ have been completed; 300 km remain to be constructed. There
is no road connecting with Panama, but there is a good all-weather road
leading into Nicaragua. Motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1957. numbered 22,103.
Pest. A telephone service covering (1959) 12,961 subscribers operates in
and b<ltween San Jose and 6 other provincial centres; it is privately owned
excepl, for 381 government telephones.
The commercial wireless telegraph stations are operated by Cia Radio-
grafich Internacional de Costa Rica. The stations are located at Cartago,
Lim6!" Puntarenas, Quepos and Golfito. The Government has 19 wireless
telegraph stations in its local network. The principal or central station at
San J'ose also maintains international radio-telegraph circuits to Nicaragua,
Honduras, San Salvador and Mexico. The Government has 202 telegraph
offices and 88 official telephone stations. 'l'he official list of broadcasting
statiolls shows 28 long-wave stations and 7 short-wave stations.
Aviation. Passenger movement in and out of Costa Rica is almost
entirely by air via the local company, L.A.C.S.A., Pan American Airways,
C.O.P.A., T.A.C.A. and K.L.M. Subsidiary airlines controlled by these
companies link San Jose by daily services with all the more important
towns. The capital's airfield at El Coco was opened in June 1955; it can
handlf, the most modern planes.
MONEY AND BANKING. In 1946 Costa Rica informed the Inter-
nationa\l\1onetary Fund that the colon was equal to 17'8094 cents V.S.,
or to (1,158267 gramme of fine gold; US$I equals 5·615 colones and 1 troy
oz. of fine gold equals 196·525 colones. This was confirmed by an Act
passed 18 March 1947, and again on 17 Oct. 1951; but the 'controlled free
rate' for imports is 6·65 colones = SI.
COSTA RICA 915
The currency is chiefiy notes. The Banco Central in 1951 printed and
placed in circulation new notes for 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, lOO, 500 and 1,000
colones, replacing old notes previously issued by the Banco Nacional.
Silver coins of 1 colon, 50 centimos and 25 centimos have largely disappeared;
in 1935 they were replaced by coins (2 and 1 colones and 50 and 25 centimos)
made up of 3 parte copper and I part nickel, and given the same value as
the subsidiary silver currency. There are copper coins (and chromium
stainless steel coins) of 10 and 5 centimos.
By a law passed on 31 Jan. 1950 a Central Bank was established for the
organization and direction of the national monetary system and of dealings
in foreign exchange, the promotion of facilities for credit and the super.
vision of all banking operations in the country. The bank has a board of 7
directors appointed by the Government, including ex officio the Minister of
Economy and :b'inance. On 30 June 1958 it had gold amounting to 11,808,000
colones and foreign exchange of J 11 m. colones compared with 94m. in June
1057; note circulation was 388111. colones. At this time the national in.
COllle was estimated at some 1,900m. colone8.
In June 1948 the 3 small commercial banks were compulsorily
nationalized.
The National Insurance Bank (Banco Nacional de Seguros) is a Govern.
ment bank, created in 1924, which has a monopoly of new insurance business.
A Bolsa de Valores or stock market-the first in Central America-was
opened in Sept. 1950.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system is legally estab·
lished; but in the country districts the following old Spanish weights and
measures are found: Libra = I'OH lb. avoirdupois; arroba = 25·35 lb.
avoirdupois; quintal = 101·40 avoirdupois; janega = 11 Imperial bushels.
On 15 Jan. 1921 the republic adopted as its standard time that of the
meridian 90° west of Greenwich. Time in San Jose is therefore 6 hours
behind G.M.T.
Costa Rica maintains diplomatic missions in Argentina, Colombia, Cuba,
Chile, China (Formosa) , Ecuador, E l Salvador, France, Guatemala, Hon·
duras, Holy See, Italy, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Spain, U.K.,
V.B.A. and Uruguay.
OF COSTA RICA IN GREAT BRITAIN (42 Draycott Place, S.W.3)
Ambassador. Dr Alfredo Alfaro Sotela (accredited 24 June 1958).
First Secretary and Consul· General. Franz Hack.Prestinary Gotay.
Cultural AttacM. A. de Soto l\Iontenegro.
There are consular representatives at Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff,
Glasgow, Manchester, Northampton, Southampton and Swansea.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN COSTA RICA
Ambassador and Consul.General. David Jarvis Mill Irving, C.B.E.
(appointed 24 Nov. 1956).
First Secretary and Consul. J. D. Atkinson .
There is a consular representative at Puerto Limon.
OF COSTA RICA IN THE U.B.A. (2112 S St. NW.,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Manuel G. Escalante.
Minister Counsellor. Jorge Hazem. Counsellors. Mrs Angela Acuiia
916 CUBA
de Cha"on (Commercial); Juan Hernalldez. First Secretary. Mrs Mirth a

Virginie, d e Perea.
OF THE U.S.A. IN COSTA RICA
Amlassador. Whiting Willauer.
Couasellor. Roy I . Kimmel (Consul). S ervice Attaches: Lieut.·Col.
Spencer P. Edwards, Jr (Army), Capt. Jacob V. Heimark (Navy, resident
in Mexi co City), Lieut.-Col. William J. Cavoli (Air, resident in Guatemala
City). Agricultural Attache. William L. Rodman.
There are consular agents at Golfito, Port Limon, Puntarenas.
Books of Reference
STATllrl'lOAL INFOnMATlON. Otllolal statistics are Issued by the Direotor Genem de
F;stadIstica (Mlnlsterio de Bconomla y Hacienda, San Jos~) as they become available. The
compIlatlun of statistics was started in 1861.
Diesan•• J. and M., Costa Rican Life. 3rd printing. Now York. 1946
Ferntndc:\ Guardia, L., Historia de Costa Rica. 2nd ed., 2 vols. San Jos~,1941
May, S., (,nd others. Costa Rica. New York, 1952
Trejo,. Juan, Geogra/fa ilu,mada de Costa Rica. San Jos~,194S
CUBA
REPUBLICA DE CUBA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Cuba, except for a brief
period of British occupancy in 1762-63, remained a Spanish possession from
its discovery by Columbus in 1492 until 10 Dec. 1898, when the sovereignty
was relinquished under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the
armed iatervention of the U.S.A. in the struggle of the Cubans against
Spanish rule. Cuba thus became an independent republic, but the United
States st.jpulated that Cuba must enter into no treaty relations with a foreign
power, which might endanger its independence. A convention which
assembled on 5 Nov. 1900 adopted the first constitution of the republic on
21 Feb. 1901.
SinCII the last representative in Cuba of the King of Spain. Gen. Don
Adolfo .fimenez Castellanos, handed over the island on 1 Jan. 1899 the
following have been at the head of the administration:
Took otllce Took om..
V.S. Milila'll Governors Gen. Gerardo Machado y
Maj .. Gen. John R. Drooko. 1 Jan. 1899 Morales 20 )Jay 1926
Maj.·Gen. Leonard Wood, 23 Dec. 1899 dep. 12 Aug. 1933
Dr Carlo. Manuel de C~s p e des 12 Aug. 1933
dep. 5 Sept. 1935
.President of tk Republic Dr Ram6n Grau Snn MartIn 10 Sept. 1931
res. 15 Jan. 1934
Tom ... E. ~rada Palm a 20 May 1902 Col. Carlo! Mendleta . Jan. 1954
res. 28 Sept, 1906 re.•. 12 Dec. 1936
Dr Jos6 A. Darnet . . 12 Dec. 193~
Dr Mlguel Mariano G6mez y
~ .S. Provisional Governors Arias . . 20 May 1938
WiIllam Howard Talt 29 Sept. 1906 Impeached 23 Dec. 19S8
Cbarles Ec.ward Maguon 13 Oct. 1906 Dr Federico Laredo Bru 24 Dec. 1938
Gen, Fulgencio Bntlsta . 10 Oct. 1940
Dr RamOn Grau San Martin 10 Oct. 1944
l 'resident, of thl Republic Dr Carlos Prlo Socaml. , 10 Oct. 1948
dep. 10 March 1952
Gen. Jos6 Miguel G6mez . 28 Jan. 1909 Gen. Fulgencio Batlsta y
Gen. ?Iari,. Garcla Menocal 20 May 1913 Zaldlvnr . 10 March 1952
Dr Alfredo Zayas y AlfoDOO 20 May 1921 abdicated 1 Jan. 1959
CUBA 917
Presidem. Dr Manuel Urrutia. assumed power on I Jan. 1959 after
Gcn. Batista had fled the country. He resigned on 17 July 1959 and Dr
Osvaldo Dortic6s Torredo was elected by the Cabinet to take his place.
1I1inister for Foreign Affairs. Dr Ratll Roa.
Modern practice has been for the President to appoint the Cabinet.
which consists of a Premier, the President's secretary. 12 heads of depart-
ments and 3 ministers without portfolios. The Cabinet is responsible to
Congress; if it receives a vote of no confidence. the Cabinet must resign
within 48 hours.
The constitution of Oct. 1940 provided for a4-year term for the President
(without re-election for two clear terms), a senate of 54 members (9 from each
province) elected for 4 years and a lower house of 140. one half being elected
every 2 years. Women have the vote. Voters in 1954 numbered about
2·8m. This constitution was suspended from 10 March 1952 to 24 Feb.
1955.
The Communist Party was outlawed in 1954; its legal status was
restored in 1959.
The Prime l'tIinister and head of the Government is (1960) Dr Fidel
Ca<ltro Ruz. The constitution rcmaining suspended. government is by
decree.
National flag: 3 blue, 2 white (horizontal); a white five-pointed star in a
red triangle at the hoist.
National anth~m: Al combat~ corred bayameses (words and tune by
P . Figueredo. 1868).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. The country is divided into 6 provinces (each
with a governor who is elected) and 126 municipalities; in each province
the alroldes or mayors of the loealmunicipalities form the provinciallegmla.
ture.
AREA AND POPULA nON . The island of Cnba has an area of 44,206
sq. miles; the Isle of Pines has 1.180 sq. miles, and other islands about 1.350
sq. miles. The census population of 28 Jan. 1953 was 5.829.029 (1943.
4,778,583). The area, popUlation and denSity of population of the 6
provinces were as follows:
Province (sq. miles) (28 Jan. 19~3) per sq. mile
Pinar del Rio 6,211 448,422 86·1
Havana . 3,173 1,533.803 485·0
Maw..... 3,259 39S.780 121-4
LRB Villas ~,264 1,030, 162 124-7
OamogUey 10,169 618,256 60·7
Orient. 14,128 1,797,606 127·2
Total 44,2Q6 6,829,029 131-9
Crude birth rate, 1949, 28·3; crude death rate, Ni.

The chief towns (with population, 1953) are: Havana. the capital,
7S;j.455; Marianao, 219,278; Santiago de Cuba. 163.237; Camagiiey.
110,388; Santa Clara, 77.398; Guantanamo. 64.671; Matanzas.63,916;
Cienfuegos. 57,991; Holguin.57.573.
RELIGION. There is no state Church. though Roman Catholics pre-
dominate ; they are under a cardinal. There is a bishop of the Ameriean
Episcopal Church in Havana. The Society of Friends had 1,073 members
ill 1957.
918 CUBA
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory (between the ages of 7 and

14) and free , but not available everywhere. The 1953 census showed that
23·6% <,f all those over 10 years of age were illiterate, while the proportion
among lihose between 10 and 14 years was 28·8%.
In t:le year ending 30 June 1950 only 50'7% of the children between 5
and 13 years were attending primary schools. The Ministry of Education
in 1950 owned 280 urban and 172 rural school buildings, and rented or used
rent.frell, provided by individuals, 2,419 urban and 3,377 rural buildings.
Total el:penditures for education, 1949-50, was $50·8m. The Government
m&intabs 21 small institutes for secondary education, a normal school in
each of the provinces and 11 commercial schools. Teachers in all types of
school, :H May 1948, numbered 22,634 for a school-age (5-13) population
of 1-101., of which only half were enrolled. Teachers are political appointees
with lifE' tenure on full salary whether teaching or not; the rectification of
this is regarded &8 Cuba's major educational problem. The teacher's
monthly salary must never be less than one-millionth of the Government's
budget. University instruction is given at the University of Havana
(founded 12 Sept. 1721), the Oriente University at Santiago de Cuba, the
Catholic University of Villanueva at Havana and the Central University at
Santa Clara.
Cinema8 (1955). There were 537 cinemas with seating capacity of 370,833.
New.lpapers (1955). There were 39 daily newspapers (32 Spanish, 3
Chinese and 4 English) with an estimated aggregate daily circulation of
588,000; 18 Spanish papers published in Havana have 85% of the total
circulation.
JUSTICE. There is a Supreme Court in Havana and 7 courts of appeal

(one in each provincial capital and one in Holguin). The provinces are
divided into judicial districts, with courts for civil and criminal &ctions, with
municipd courts for minor offences. The civil code guarantees aliens the
II&me pNperty and personal rights &8 are enjoyed by natives.
Bisbop, O. M., and Marcbant, A., Guide I<> IM Law and lA!gal Lileralu,. Q/ Cuba, Ih. Dominican
R'Publ~: and Haili. Library of Oongress. Waablngton, D.O., 19H
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in pesos) for fiscal years ending
30 June (Cuban peso = US SI) were as follows :
1953- 64 1954-65 1965-66 1956-67 1957-58
Revenue. . 270,212,166 303,381.094 328,733,537 370,843,282 342,800,000
Bxpenditcre • 303,512,504 329,255,249 325,317,371 354,693,758 342,800,000
The 1957-58 budget proposed (in $l m.) 74·4 for education, 56·1 for
defence, 19·7 for public works, 23·1 for health and welfare, 41 ·4 for debt
service, 18·9 for interior and 19·6 f or finance.
The .)onsolidated public debt of the republic (30 June 1954) W&8 352m.
pesos, of which 61m. pesos was the external debt. Including bonds issued
for the development programme, this bad risen to $686m. at the end of 1956.
An unoflcial estimate at the end of 1958 was SI,300m. U.K . investments
declined from a par value of S24m. in 1951 to Slm. in 1953, largely by the
Cuban purchase of the United Railways of Havana.
National income, at factor cost, in 1957, was 2,320m. pesos. The per
capita income is among the highest in Latin America. Cuba is the leading
Latin-American country for U.S. investments ($919m. in 1929) ; by 1957
the total had declined to S845m., from which U .S. income was about 7% .
CUBA 919
DEFENCE. The President is the Chief of the armed forces.
Army. The Army is composed of 12,000 regulars and 8,000 rural guards;
in addition, there are 6,000 armed police under the Minister of Defence.
Navy. The Navy consists of 4 fdgates, 2 escort vessels, I patrol vessel,
3 motor launches, I survey ship, the presidential yacht and 30 coastguard
vessels. Its strength is 700 officers and 6,250 men.
Air Force. The Air Force consists of 35 officers and 200 men, with 44
aircraft. The naval air force consists of 175 men, with 16 aircraft.
PRODUCTION. Cuba's 'economically active' population, 1953, num-
bered 1,972,266, of whom 551,279 were employers or self-employed and
1,420,987 were salaried or wage-earners; agriculture had 818,706, manu-
facturing 327,208, mining 9,618 and trade 232,323; public services 8,439.
The working population was estimated in 1954 at 2·4m., of whom 775,000
had long periods of seasonal unemployment. The constitution provides
for a yearly 30 days' holiday with pay for all manual workers.
Agriculture. The staple products are tobacco and sugar, but coffee,
cocoa, maize, rice and potatoes are grown, and a considerable trade is done
in fruit and minerals. Estimates of the main 1957 crops in 1,000 metrio
tons, were: Sugar, 5,676 (1958: 6,857); coffee, 36-6; tobacco, 41·7 (1958:
91·5); rice,261; maize,246'9; beans (dry), 35-6; cocoa, 2.
Cuba is the largest producer of sugar in the world, with about 3·2m.
acres (about 56% of the total cultivated area) and about 64% of the agri-
cultural manpower devoted to sugar cane. In 1954 Americans owned 40
mills with 39% of the capacity; Cubans, 117 mills. Production of raw
sugar in recent crop years has been limited by presidential decree. By-
products are black strap molasses (used for synthetic rubber, explosives,
etc.) and high-test molasses. Production of rum was 3-lm. litres in 1956.
The V.S.A. takes about 50% of the sugar crop. Sugar and its products
furnish nearly 90%, by value, of the exports.
Tobacco is grown mainly in the Vuelta-Abajo district, near Pinar del
Rio. The acreage is about 144,000; yield per acre is about half that of the
V.S.A. Exports (1957) ofleaftobacco were 54·7m.lb.; cigars, 73-5m. units;
cigarettes, 24-7m. units. Coffee production, chiefly from the province of
Oriente, amounted to 120m. lb., an all-time record, in 1956; 45-3m. lb.
valued at $21m. were exported.
Output of henequen fibre in 1955 was 19-2m. lb. A fast-growing fibre,
kenaj, originally from India, soft in texture, promises to replace jute for
sacking; the tobacco industry uses majagua, another local fibre, while a
third fibre, yarey, from palms, is also used. About 400,000 acres are under
rice cultivation. 310,000 tons of sweet potatoes were produced in 1954.
The principal fruits exported, practically all to the V.S.A., are pineapples,
citrus fruit, tomatoes and pimentos.
In 1956 the livestock included 4·5m. head of cattle; 1·8m. hogs; 412,000
horses (1952); 194,000 sheep; 162,000 goats.
Forll8try. Cuba has extensive forest lands, mainly in private ownership;
state forests total about 1·25m. acres. These forests contain valuable
cabinet woods, such as mahoga.ny and cedar, besides dye-woods, fibres,
gums, resins and oils. Cedar is used locally for cigar-boxes, and mahogany
is exported.
Mining. Iron ore abounds, with deposits estimated at 3,500m. tons,
of which 90% are held as reserves by American steel interests; output, 1958,
920 CUBA
145,01)0 long tons in 1956. Output of refractory chromite suffers from

Philippine competition; in 1953 only 48,933 long tons were mined, compared
with 354,152 in 1943. Output of copper (1958) was 14,343 short tons;
mang~nese (1954), 10,000 short tons of chemical grade and 296,800 short
tons 'Jf metallurgical grade. Five old coppermines, closed for 10 years,
were re·activated in 1955. Other minerals are nickel (1957, 21,600 tons
nickej content), silica and barytes. It is hoped to begin producing cobalt
in 19D9. Gold and silver are also worked; exports of gold, 1950,6,915 fine
oz.; 'Jf silver, including scrap, 1958, 320,621 fine oz. Cuba has a small
output of petroleum (1956, 540,000 bbls from 53 wells); 4 refineries have
started up. Salt output from the solar evaporation of sea water was 51,013
metri,) tons in 1953. Metal exports (in metric tons) in 1957 were: Copper
ore, 79,514; chrome ore, 100,977; manganese ore (1958), 68,165; nickel
oxide, 22,779; iron ore, 102,346.
IndU8try. Big developments have taken place in recent years. Pro·
duction in 1957 was: Rayon, 21·6m. lb,; cement, 644m. kg; wheat flour,
141m, lb.; naphtha and gasoline, 2·8m. bbls; fuel oil, 6·5m. bbls; kerosene
and h,bricants, 0·9m. bbls; asphalt, 0·3m. bbls; gas oil, 3·Om. bbls; 156,966
tyres, 59,251 tubes; shoes, ISm . pairs; paint, 2·1m. gallons; absolute
alcohol, 107m. litres; alcohol, 70m litres; beer, 129m. litres; soft drinks,
576m, units; cigarettes, 6llm. pkgs; fertilizers, 600m. lb.
Rc,cent new investments in industry have amounted to (in lm. pesos):
electricity, 241; mining, over 120; bagasse products, 34; telephone services,
62; (,hemicals and fertilizers, 24; beer, 6'5; concrete and cement, 9;
oil refneries, 68; glass, 6; rayon, 4·7; gas, 6; flour·mills, 2.
El!ctricity. Electrical power consists of 200,000 kw. installed at the
sugar factories, and 50,000 kw. at others. The public power supply, ad·
ditiom,\ly, has a ca.pa.city of 352,300 kw. Dema.nd in 1957 was 1,282'1 kwh.
(l,143·lm. in 1956).
Trade Unions. For a mainly agricultural country, workers are highly
unionized. In 1945, of the tota.l of 1,292,786 workers, 440,791 or 33% were
in trade unions. In J a.n. 1958 the distribution of 1,932,000 employees was:
Agriculture, 41 %; artisans, factory workers, 16'3%; services, 8·6%; trans-
port, labourers, 7'7% ; professional and technical, 9·2%; clerical and sales,
15·9%; others, 1·3%_
TM Ecmomv Of Cuba. Reporl 01 a Mi.Jion from Ih. inumaliona/ Bank of R«onslruclion
and ilevclopmnll. Washington, 19~1
Friedl..,mder, H. E., HiS/oria Econ6mica de Cuba. Havana, 1914
Ne!son, L .• Rural Cuba. MinneBpoU" 1%0
Stepbell8, P. S., Economic and Commercial Conditions In Cuba. H.M.S.O., 1954
COMMERCE. Value of imports and exports (including bullion and

specie I for calendar years (in pesos; Cuban peso = US$I):
1953 1954 1965 1966 1967
Importll • 4R9,733,278 488,888,770 676,126,039 649,006,066 641,489,167
Ezportl: • 640,344,O~0 639,047,690 594,155,454 666,202,949 807,681,897
Cuba's exports to the U.S.A. were valued at $410'5 in 1955, S429·6m. in

1956 B,nd $466·4m. in 1957; and her imports from there were $351·2m. in
1955, S487m. in 1956 and $358m. in 1957.
The U.S.A. in 1955 took 67% of the exports and furnished 65% of the
impor',;s. Germany takes and receives some $18m. ayear.
CUBA 921
Total trade between Cuba and U.K. (British Board of Trade returns) in
£ sterling :
1938 19~6 196. 1968 1959
Imports to U.K. 4,83~,6S7 1~,~70,507 25,860,241 17,78·, ,243 10,182,739
Bxports from U.K. . 847,464 8,912,261 8,004,813 8,959,682 15,223,870
Rc·exports from U.K. 14,061 95,916 100,668 112,391 94,484
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The coastline is 2,170 miles long

and has 15 fine harbours. The merchant marine, in 1958, consisted of 12
1Il0torships plying to the U.S. east coast. There are 30 foreign shipping
lines, including 2 rail ferries to U.S.A. 2,958 sea-going vessels entered
Havana in 1956, of which 89 werc British. The free port of Matanzas is to
be augmented by a factory zone.
Railways. There are 3,714 miles of public railway-ma.inly the United
Railways of Havana (started by British capital), which Cuba bought in
Nov. 1953 for '13m., and the Consolidated Railway of Cuba (American
capital). In addition, the large sugar estates have 7,542 miles of private
lines connecting them with the main lines.
lloruls. There are 8,291 miles of highwa.ys open to traffic, including the
Central Highway, traversing the island for 706 miles from Pinar del Rio to
Santiago. On 30 June 1957 passenger automobiles numbered 125,309;
taxis,2,794; trucks, 49,000, and buses, 4,730.
Post. There were (1938) 634 post and 358 telegraph offices and 150
ri.dio and radio· telegraph stations (1940), of which 14 were operated by the
Government. There are 3,645 miles of public and 8,902 miles of private
telegraph wires. Cuba has 74 medium-wave and 6 short-wave broadcasting
stations and 6 television sta.tions. Wireless receiving sets, 1958, numbered
900,000; television sets, 300,000. The telephone system (1959) had 170,092
inst.ruments (90% being in automa.tic systems), of which 125,600 were in
Havana; all were operated by private companies.
At,iation. Three local and 11 international airlines connect with the
Americas and Europe.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The Cuban peso is equal to US$I, or
to 0·8886 gramme of fine gold; accordingly, 1 troy oz. of fino gold = 35
pesos.
This parity dates from the law of 7 Nov. 1914, which established that
the monetary unit was a gold peso (equal to the U.S. gold doUar) of 1·6718
grammes (1'5046 grammcs fine) divided into lOO centavos. The old gold
pesos and U.S. gold coins are no longer legal tender, but may bo sold only
to the Government at the rate of 35 silver pesos per oz. troy.
On 23 Dec. 1948 the president signed the law creating a central bank
(with capital of 'lOm.) and (effective 30 Dec.1951) a national currency
system (with the peso alone being legal tender) replacing the dual system
under which the peso and the dollar were both legal tender; the bank
began operating on 27 April 1950; in Dec. 1957 it had S136m. in gold
and S441m. in foreign exchange; note circulation was S433m. in 1956.
In 1959 events made it necessary to bring in measures of exchange control,
and import licences on luxury a nd non-essential goods. Dollar reserves
stood at S1l4m. in Jan. WOO.
Silver is coined in pieces of 1 peso, 50, 40, 25, 20 and 10 cents, while
copper-zinc and copper-nickcl coins of 5, 2 and I ccnt are also issued. A new
I-peso note was put into circulation in 1957.
Banking i8 partly in tbe hands of the Royal Bank of Canada, the National
922 CUBA
City Bank of New York, the Chase National Bank of New York and the
Bank of Nova Scotia, but the 41 Cuban·owned banks are slowly expanding
their she.re.
WaUich, H. 0., JiOMlarv P,obleml 0/4" Ezpo" Ec_V:
Oambrldge, Masa., 1960
,h. Cub4" Ezptritnct, 1914-47.

measurell is legally compulsory, but the American and old Spanish systems
are much used. The sugar industry uses the Spanish long ton (1·03 metric
tons) and the similar short ton (0·92 metric ton). Cuba sugar sack = 329·59
lb. or 149·49 kg.
Cuba maintains embassies in Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Ceylon,
Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
France, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands,
Nicaraglla, Panama, Peru, Spain, Switzerland, United Arab Republic, U.K.,
U.S.A., Uruguay, Vatican, Venezuela; and legations in Austria, Bolivia,
Czechoshvakia, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Iceland, India, Iraq,
Israel, I.ebanon, Luxembourg, Norway, Pakistan, Paraguay, Philippines,
Poland, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Turkey, Yugoslavia.
OF CUBA. IN GREAT BRITAIN (19 Lowndes St., S.W.l)

AmbGl88ador. Sergio Rojas Santa marina.
Mini.lter·Cou.nsellor. Dr Emilio Pando Machado.
TherE. are consular representatives in Belfast, Birmingham, Glasgow,
Liverpool, London and Nottingham.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN CUBA

AmbG:ssador. A. S. Fordham, C.M.G. (appointed 18 Oct. 1956).
First Secretaries. 1. J. M. Sutherland (Commercial); J. S. Rew (resident
in Mexico City) (Labour). Air Attache. Group Capt. E. W. Wootten,
D.F.C., .A.F.C. (resident at Caracas).
There are consular representatives at Camagiiey, Havana and Santiago
de Cuba.
OF Ct<M IN THE U.S.A. (2630-16th St. ~"V., Washington 9, D.C.)
AmbGssador. Dr Ernesto Dihigo.
Counl:ellors. Dr Enrique Patterson (Minister); Dr Joaqufn E. Meyer
(Financinl) . First Secretary. Dr Manuel B. Mencia. .Military and Air
Attache. Maj. Jose Moleon Carrera. Economic Attache. Dr Gonzalo de la
Pezuela.
OF THE U.S.A. IN CUBA
Ambassador. Philip W. Bonsal.
Mini/'te,. Counsellor. Daniel M. Braddock. Counsellors. James E.
Brown, .fr (Consul General); Eugene A. Gilmore, Jr (Economic). First
Secretaries. Leonard H. Price (Consul); Edward J. Bash (Consul);
George O. Gray; Harry S. Hammond (Labour); Forrest K. Geerken (Consul);
John L. Topping (Co'/IS'UI); Edward C. Wilson. Service Attaches: Lieut.-
Col. Samuel G. Kail (Army), Cmdr Charles R. Clark, Jr (Navy), Col.
Erickson S. Nichols (Air). Agricultural Attache. Chester E. Davis.
CZECHOSLOVARIA 923
There are consuls at Ca,magiiey, Sagua la Grande, Santiago de Cuba and
a consular agent at Antilla.
Books of Reference
dnuario E./adf.rl/co a. la R.prJblica a. Cuba. Havana. 191~, 1963 (tbese only)
E.tadl6lica G~: C""""cio EzUNo,. Quarterly and Annual. Movimienlo d. Poblaci';/I.
Monthly and Annual. Havana
Anuario atucaret'o de Cuba. Havana, from 1937
International Bank, Economic and Tecbulcal Mls.lon. Repo,t on Cuba. Wa.blngton, D.O.
1951
Oanet, G., and Ralaz, E., AIltu a. Cuba. Oambridge, Mass., 1949
JollDson, W. F., Bi"o,y0'
Guerra y Slmchez, n., and others, Bil/o,ia de la Nati6n Cubano. 10 vola. Hnana, 1952
Cub... 6 vols. New York, 1920
M....ip, Salvador, and M_lp, Sarah E. Y. de, InI,oduccitm a la G.oq,afla d. Cuba. Vol. I,
Geografla fI.lca. Havana, 1942
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
<:JESKOSLovENSIti REl'UBLIXA
THE Czechoslovak state came into existence on 28 Oct. 1918, when the
Czech Nrirodni vybor (National Committee) took over the government of
the Czech lands. Two days later the Slovak National Council at Turc.
Sv. Martin manifested the desire of the Slovak nation to unite politically
with the Czechs for the purpose of forming a single sovereign independent
Czechoslovak State. On 14 Nov. 1918 the first Czechoslovak National
Assembly met in Prague and formally declared the Czechoslovak State to
be a republic with T. G. Masaryk as its first President (1918-35).
By the Treaty of St Germain.en·Laye of 10 Sept. 1919 the Allied and
Associated Powers formally recognized the Czechoslovak Republic consist·
ing of the Czech lands of the ancient kingdom of Bohemia, Moravia, parts
of Silesia and Slovakia. To these lauds were added as a trust, under the
name of the autonomous province of Subcarpathlan Ruthenia, several
counties of north·eastern Hungary.
The territory of the Czechoslovak Repu blic was broken up for the benefit
of Germany, Poland and Hungary by the decision of the Four Power
Conference (Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy) at Munich OD 29
Sept. 1938, the Polish occupation of TMln (Teschen) and certa.in border
areas of Slovakia (10 Oct. 1938) and the Vienna Award (2 Nov. 1938).
On 14 March 1939 the German.sponsored Slovak government proclaimed
Slovakia a.n independent state. Next day German troops invaded Bohemia
and Moravia and Hungarians occupied what the Vienna Award left of Sub·
carpathlan Ruthenia. On 16 March 1939 the Reich government incorpor.
ated the' Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravio.' as an integral part of the
German Reich.
Great Britain, France, the V.S.A . and the V.S.S.R. refused to recognize
this new status of tho Czech lands as legal, and gave their support to the
Czechoslovak Provisional Government, established by Dr Benes in London
in July 1940.
Military liberation by the Red Army and V.S. Forces was completed
between Oct. 1944 and 9 May 1945. The independent Slovak state ceased
to exist de/acto in April, the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia on 5 May,
following the armed rising staged by the Czech Narodni Rrula (National
Council) in Prague. Territories taken by Germans, Poles and Hungarians
were restored to ClIechoslovak sovereiguty between Nov. 1944 and June
924 CZECHOSLOVAKIA
1945. Sovereignty over Subcarpathian Ruthenia was transferred to the

Soviet Union by the treaty of Moscow of 29 July 1945.
Eh:ct.ions were held in May 1946. at which the Communist Party obtained
about 38% of the votes. A coalition government under a Communist
Prime Minister, KIement Gottwald, remained in power until 20 Feb. 1948,
when 12 of the non·Communist ministers resigned in protest against in·
filtration of Communists into the police. On 25 Feb. a predominantly
Communist government was formed by Gottwald. In May elections were
held at which the alternatives were to vote for the government list or to
cast a blank vote. The result was an 89% majority for the government.
Presid'mt Benes resigned a week later.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitutioll,
replacing that of 1920, was promulgated on 9 June 1948. The Czechoslovak
state i~ a people's democratic republic. It is a unitary state of two Slav
nation!, the Czechs and the Slovaks, possessing equal rights. The supreme
organ of legislative power is the National Assembly of one chamber. The
supreDle organ of governmental and executive power is the government.
appointed and recalled by the President of the Republic. Power in Slovakia
is vest'3d in Slovak national organs; the legislature is the Slovak National
Council, while government and executive are in the hands of the Board of
Comm:.ssioners.
A new constitution is being prepared; it is expected to come into force
late in 1960.
Th'l electoral law of 26 May 1954 introduced single. member constitu·
encies of about 35,000 voters each for the National Assembly as well as the
Slovak National Council. They are to be elected on a single list of the
National Front. Minimum age of voters is 18. of deputies 21 years.
Thn constitution was passed on 9 May 1948 by 246 votes to none. with
54 deputies absent.
President 0/ the Republic. Antonln Novotny (born 1904). elected 19
Nov. 1957. following the death of President Zapotocky on 13 Nov.
After the Communist coup of Feb. l!J48 the Communist Party took over
the government of the country. Communists head the National Front.
incorporating the 3 remaining pro· Communist parties (Czechoslovak
Socialiut Party, People's Party (Catholics). Slovak National Reconstruction
Party) and some mass.organizations (e.g •• the Revolutionary Trade Unions;
the Union of Czechoslovak Youth).
In t.he general elections held on 28 Nov. 1954 the National Front list
received 8.482,894 votes; 34.486 votes were declared invalid.
Th~ highest policy-making. and executive organ is the Communist Party
Politbt:ro. which consisted in March 1960 of the following 10 members:
Antonin Novotny (President and First Secretary 0/ the Oentral Oommittee);
Viliam Siroky (Prime Minister); Jaromir Dolansky (First Deputy Primt
Ministo!r); Karel Bacllek (Fir8t Secretary 0/ the Slovak Oom1nuni8t Party);
Rudolf Barak (Deputy Prime Minister and Minister 0/ the Interior); Vaclav
Kopecky (Deputy Prime .lI1inister); Zdenek Fierlinger (Ohairman of the
National Assembly); Pavol David (Secretary, Slovak Oommunist Party);
Jifi Hendrych (Secretary. Ozechoslovak Oommunist Party); Otakar Simunek
(Deputy Prime Minister and Ohairman. State Planning Oommi8sion). Candi·
date members: Ludmila Jankovcova (Deputy Prime Minister); Jan Mlina
(SecreU:ry, Pilsen Regional Oommittee); Rudolf Strechaj (Ohairman, Slovak
Board o/Oommissioners).
The Government was in March 1960 composed of the President, the
CZECH OSLO VAKIA 925
Presidium (Prime Minister and Vice-Premiers) and 25 Ministers_ The
latter included at that date Vaclav David (Foreign Affair8), Julius Duris
(Finance) and Frantisek Kraji:iir (Foreign Trade).
The Slovak Board of Commissioners consisted of the Chairman (Rudolf
Strechaj), 3 Deputy Chairmen and 17 Commissioners.
National flag: white and red (horizontal), with a blue tria.ngle of full
depth at the hoist, point to the fly.
National anthem: Kde domov muj (words by J. K_ Tyl; tune by F .•r.
Skroup, 1834); combined with, Nad Tatru sa blyska (words by J . Matuiika,
18(4).
AREA AND POPULATION. The former provinces of Bohemia,
Moravia and Silesia, and Slovakia were abolished as from 1 Jan. 1949 and
replaced by 19 administrative units, called' regions,' These, with are:t in
sq. km and population as at I Jan. IOj7, were as follows:
Popula- Popula-
Region Area tioD Region Area tion
Prague. . 9,730 2,188,221 Rratislat'a 7,519 9,0,285
Cesk~ Budejoviee 8,968 521,894 Nitra . 7,968 747,787
Plzen . . 7,887 ;; 78,085 ~ilins . 8,269 .2:;,072
Karlovy Vsry 4,:;79 :J3i,890 Banska TIystrica 9,266 :;87,215
Ostl . . 4.145 675,907 Kosice. 7,440 541.359
Liberec. 4,237 [,05,371 PreSov. 8,495 448,319
Hradec KrAlov~ 5,145 583,868 -----
Pardubice 4,232 456,819 Slovakia 48,957 3,816,037
Jihlava.. 6,651 436,982
Bmo 7,449 1,001,091 Czechoslova.kia 127,827 13,296,243
Olomouc 6,214 650,646
Gottwaldov 5,107 655,207
Ostr&va. 4,526 948,225
Bohmtia and
Morat'ia-Sil~6ia 78,869 9,480,206
After a thorough reform of the administrative system the number of

• regions' has been reduced, with effect from 1 July 1960, to 10. In addition,
the city of Prague forms a separate administrative unit with a status
equivalent to that of a 'region'. The new regions (and their headquarters)
are as follows: Central Bohemian (Prague), South Bohemian (Ceske Bude-
jovice), West Bohemian (Pilsen), North Bohemian (Ust! nad Labem), East
Bohemian (Hradec Kralove), South Moravian (Brno), North Moraviall
(Ostrava), West Slovak (Bratislava), Central Slovak (Banska Bystrica),
East Slovak (Kosice).
In Sept_ 1959 the official estimate of the population was 13,581,186,
comprising 9,626,553 in Bohemia, l\1oravia and Silesia, and 3,954,633 in
Slovakia. The composition according to nationalities in 1957: Czechs,
8·8m.; Slovaks, 3·7m.; Magyars, 404,000; Germans, 164,000; Poles,
78,000; Ukrainians and Russians, 75,000; others, 41,000.
The population of the principal t.owns was as follows (estimate of 1 Jan.
1957) :
Praha, the capital 988,949 ' (:esk~ Bndejovice 64,104 Most. 35,770
Brno 306,371 Gottwsldov (ZliD) 57,974 Jihlava 34.9S4
Bratislava 246,695 Hrade. KrAlove 65,250 Decin. 34,930
Ostravs. 199,206 Pardubice . 64,077 ProatejOT 33,8G$
Pi,en 134,273 Kladno 4n,701 Chomutov 32,762
KoiIce _
Olomouc
79,460
73,899
KarviDiI
Karlovy Vary
44,190
42,639
!ili;ava
ilina .
32,607
~1,12S
Liberec. 66,796 Opav" 42,308 Pre80v 31,100
"dot! Dad Latem 64,798 Teplice 37,940
1 30 June 1959.
926 CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Acc:ording to the decree of the President and with the CODsent of the
Allied Powers affirmed by the Potsdam conference, the German population
of the border areas was transferred to Germany.
VI1'AL STATISTICS for calendar years:
Live births Marriages Divorces Deaths
19~G 261,976 1l~ , 900 14,671 126,341
1957 252,740 91,059' 14,348 134,442
1958 235,034 99,937 16,870 125,803
RELIGION. The majority of the population in the Czechoslovak

Republic are Roman Catholic. In 1930 the division according to religion
within the present frontiers was: Roman Catholics, 10,762,994; Greek
and Armenian Catholics, 224,772; Old Catholics, 22,693; Protestants,
1,051 ,447; Orthodox, 33,460 ; Jews, 253,526 ; without confession, 849,613.
In J an. 1920 part of the Roman Catholic clergy withdrew from the
jurisdit:tion of the Pope and founded a Czechoslovak church, which had,
according to the census of 1930, 791,103 adherents. Estimates, 1947:
9·3m. Roman Catholics, 960,000 Czechoslovak Church, 820,000 without
confession, 60,000 Jews, 60,000 Orthodox; the last. named numbered over
200,000 in 1960, after the forcible absorption of the Uniate Chureh of
Slovakia. Protestants were estimated (1965) at over Im., including
527,000 Reformed (357,000 Czech Brethren, 150,000 Reformed Church of
Slovak.:a), 483,000 Lutherans (433,000 in Slovakia, 50,000 in Silesia), 10,000
Methodists, 10,000 Moravians, 10,000 Unity of Czech Brethren, 5,000
Baptists.
On 14 Oct. 1949 the National Assembly placed the administration of aD
church es under state control, provided for the payment of the salaries of aD
practis.ing clergymen by the state and set up a g overnment department for
church affairs. By Feb. 1950 over 90% of the Roman Catholic priests had
taken the oath 01 aDegiance to the Government. The Roman Catholio
archbishop Beran has been under detention since 1951.
EDUCATION. All children receive free education from the ages of

6 to n, where possible remaining at a single school for the whole 9 years.
In 195{,-57 there were 12,445 schools with 1,952,171 pupils. Final examina.
tions a:re held only in Czech (or Slovak), Russian and mathematics.
Sutsequent education is of 4 types. First, 3 final years of secondary
school (in 1958-59,94,965 pupils). Secondly, technical and other vocational
schools (1958-59, 137,680 students). Thirdly, teachers' training schools
(36,148 students). Finally, university level (77,697 students, including
21 ,582 girls ; including also 21,758 correspondence students). There are
4 uniVt)rsities at Prague, Brno, Bratislava and Olomouc. There are 40
institutions of higher education, with 106 faculties or departments and 7,919
profess·)rs and lecturers.
The new type of ll.year schools for general education (including the
3 final years of secondary schools) numbered, in 1958-59,2,043,168 pupils.
HEALTH. There were, in 1956, 213 hospitals with 93,859 beds, and
61 tubHrculosis sanatoria and lI8 other special medical institutions. The
numbel~ of local health centres, first introduced in 1953, was 2,588 in 1956.
The aV'lrage number of inhabitants per doctor throughout the country was
71 5. In 1957-58 the average expenditure per head of population was
K/\s.54t) on hcalth insurance and K/js.550 on pensions.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 927
JUSTICE. A new criminal code which differs only in minor respects
from the RultSian came into force on 3 Aug. 1950. For serious crimes
against the State its administration is to be entrusted to the State courts.
Lesser offences, whether against the State or individuals, are dealt with
by local committees, of which there is 1 for every community of more than
500 inhabitants. The code provides heavier penalties for all crimes, whether
of theft or anything else, when they are directed against State property.
Cases of treason by soldiers go to state and not military courts. The
death penalty and imprisonment for any period the court or local committee
may decide are authorized. The code also institutes correct.ional punish.
ment for periods not exceeding 6 months. In such cases the guilty person
remains technically at liberty, but must perform prescribed work in a
prescribed place and also suffer a reduction of pay. Other penalties include
1088 of civic rights, confiscation of property and fines .
A revised penal code designed to safeguard • socialist legality' of the
poet-Stalin era came into force on 1 Jan. 1957.
FINANCE. Budgets (in Im. crowns):

196. 1966 1966 1967 1958 1959 I
Revenue. 87,803 86,200 90,304 !18,241 94,493 96,231
Expenditure 87,673 86,000 89,887 n,9l9 91,621 95,913
I Estimated.
Main items of the 1959 budget revenue were (in 1,000 m. crowns) : Socialist
sector,81 ·8; direct taxes, 1l ·3; other sources, 3·1. Main items of expendi-
ture : National economy, 45·7; culture, health and social services, 38·4; de-
fence and security, 8·8; administration, 3.
On 30 June 1952 the external debt consisted of £1,162,850; $1,957,800;
and the fonowing liabilities for debts contracted by the Austro-Hungarian
Empire: 5,628,733 gold florins, 2,892,420 kronen, 140,126,271 gold francs,
36,769,266 French francs.
During Oct., Nov. and Dec. 1959, Czechoslovakia defaulted on 3 loans:
the 1922 State loan, the 1922 City of Prague loan and the 6% First Mortgage
Debenture of the Skoda Works, now known 1'3 V.I. Lenin Works, Plzen.
Current interest payments, due to British holders of the £ issues of these
3 loans, now amount to some £22,000, while a total of £610,850 of the external
debts is due to some 480 British bondholders. The Skoda debenture (some
£400,000) is to be redeemed by 1965.
DEFENCE. Military service lasts 2 years, a.fter which the soldier passes
to the first reserve until he attains the age of 40, when he paases to the
second reserve, where he remains until 50. The Army is organized and
trained on Soviet lines. There are 2 military districts with headquarters
at Prague and Trencin.
The Army is organized in 15 divisions (including mechanized, armoured
and airborne units). The regular army had, in Dec. 1959, a total strength
of about 150,000 men.
The Air Force is organized as a tactical air force, under overall army
command, and is believed to have a total strength of some 25,000 personnel
and 1,500 aircraft, more than half of them first·line types. Fighter squad.
roDS are equipped mainly with MiG-17 and MiG-15 jets, with the supersonic
MiG-19 beginning to enter service. Tactical bomber units fly 11-28 jet-
bombers, backed up by strong forces of MiG-15 and piston-engined 11-10
ground attack aircraft. Transport units have ]).14, 11-12 and An-2 aircraft
928 CZECHOSLOVAKIA
of Russhn design, but training schools are equipped mainly with aircraft
of Czecb design, supplemented by the Russian Yak-ll piston-engined
advance. I trainer and operational trainer versions of the front-line types.
The uecurity forces and frontier guards are organized in regiments and
brigades respectively; total strength, about 45,000.
On 1 Oct. 1950 a new penal code wa.s introduced on the ba.sis of Soviet
military law, under which the responsibilities of officers and men in a
Communist army were defined. It is obligatory for all soldiers to report to
the Communist Party every irregularity and inefficiency.
PRODUCTION. Planning. A State Planning Office was set up on
22 Feb. 1949.
The lirst 5-year plan covered the period 1949-53. The percentage rise
in industrial production claimed at the end ofthe plan was 77% above 1948;
and production in the engineering industry is claimed to have trebled.
However, the rise of the manufacturing industries had far outstripped that
of the mining and power industries, and agricultural development in terms
of produ.}tion had been virtually at a standstill.
The l:econd 5-year plan, covering the period 1956-60, lays stress on the
production of capital goods. Gross industrial production was originally
scheduled to increase by 50% during this period; in Oct. 1957 the target
was raisnd to 54'4% above the 1955 level. The 1959 output increased by
about 11 % over 1958.
The l;hird 5.year plan (1961-65) is to maintain the present annual in·
crease, and emphasis remains on the production of capital goods, particularly
for the (,hemical industry, engineering and metallurgy. The total invest-
ments during 1961-65 are to reach 312,OOOm. Kes.
Agriculture. Agriculture is an important national industry. In 1957,
5,119,000 hectares were arable land, 4,329,000 hectarcs were forests and
1,968,000 hectares were permancnt grass and pastures.
In Oct. 1959 there were 12,509 co-operative farms with 954,000 members ;
the shar'l of land farmed by the 'socialist sector' (co-operative and state
farms together) was said to be 82% of the total. In 1958 there were
258 machine and tractor stations, with a total of 61,977 tractors and 5,066
grain combines.
Agricultural production, which was planned to increase by 30% during
the second 5·year plan, was in 1956-58 less than before 1939, both in land
under cultivation and in production.
Main crop harvest (in 1,000 metric tons) was as follows :
Crop 1934-38 I 1952-53 1956 1957 1958
Wbeat and rye . 3,081 2,800 2,691 2,473 2,283
Barley, oals, maize . 2,504 2,200 2,841 2,696 1,199 •
Potatoes 9,635 8,500 9,635 8,766 6,585
Sugar beet 4,664 6,500 4,585 6,775 6,946
I Yearly average. • Barley only.
Targf,ts for 1960 (in 1,000 metric tons): Bread graiDs, 2,970; fodder
grains, 3,910; maize, 880; oil crops, 83; potatoes, 10,450; bops, 14·7;
sugar be'lt, 6,840.
Actual yields in 1956 and (in parenthesis) targets for 1961-65, in terms
of quintals per hectare, were as follows: Wheat, 21'3 (26); barley, 21 ·1
(25); rape·seed, 14·6 (16); sugar beet, 206'7 (312); green fodder, 46'4 (63);
hay, 35·H (46).
Prod1lction of refined sugar, in 1958, wa.s 856,000 metric tons; target
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 929
for 1960 is 991,800 metric tons. Hops of excellent quality are also grown,
both for export and beer production (Pilsner): production has fallen from
9,167 metric tons (average 1934-38) to 4,903 in 1956, but rose to 7,000 in
1958. The agricultural industries include also 1I0urishing beer, spirit, malt
and foodstuffs industries.
Livestock. On 30 Sept. 1959 the number oflivestock was: Cattle,4·35m.
(including 2·lm. cows): horses (1957), 542,000: pigs, 6·l5m. : sheep, 900,000:
goats (June 1952), 982,000: poultry (June 1959), 54-5m.
Forestry . Czechoslovakia ranks among the most richly wooded countries
in Europe, and the timber industry is important. The area re-afforested
(in hectares) and the timber yield (in 1,000 cu. metres) was as follows: 1956,
98,838 and 14,468 : 1957, 93,312 and 14,123: 1958, 98,945 and 13,464.
Total area of forest land in 1958 was 4,348,000 hectares.
Mining. The mineral production of the Czechoslovak Republic in-
cludes both soft and hard coal (chief coalfields Most, Chomutoc, Kladno,
Ostrava and Sokolov), iron, graphite and garnets, silver (1·6m. oz. annually),
copper and lead (in Slovakia, 6,600 short tons in 1958), rock-salt (in Eastern
Slovakia, 168,700 short tons in 1957) and uranium.
Ind'U8try. Nationalization of industry has been laid down in Article
XII of the constitution and implemented in the Nationalization Laws of
24 Oct. 1945, and of 28 April 1948_ Subsequently all industry and trade,
as well as artisans' activities, have been nationalized and incorporated
in state or municipal organizations. (For further details, seeTHB
STATESMAN'S YBAR-BoOK, 1952.)
Industrial production (in Im. metric tons) for calendar years:
Hard Brown Iron Crude
coal coal Ligni te Coke ore 1 Pig-iron steel
19"0_ 18-5 27-6 5-6 • 1-6 2·05 2-8
1955 _ 22-1 a8-7 2·0 7·0 2-5 a·o 4·5
1956_ 23- 4 44-1 2-2 7-a 2-6 3-a 4-9
1957 _ 2·1-2 48-8 2-2 7· 5 2·8 a ·6 5·2
1958 . 25 ·8 54-3 2-5 7--1 2-8 a-8 0 -5
1960 • 29-a 67-8 8·63 a '6a 4·78 6·54
1965 ' 35-5 73-2 11·6 7·6 10-5
I Less than 42°. • Planned prod nction. • 1918_
Output of other commodities in 1958 (in 1,000 metrio tons): Crude oil,
140: rolled-steel products, 3,759; cement, 4.110; paper, 404: butter,
58: sulphurio acid, 463: nitrogenous fertilizers, 1.08·1: phosphate fertilizers,
117: aluminium, 16·2.
Textile production (in Im. metres) in 1958: Cotton, 420: silk, 561:
linen, 62: woollen, 43. Leather shoes, 34m. l~airs: rubber shoes, 34m.
pairs.
Production of electricity (in Im. kwh.) : 15,013 in 1955: 16,591 in
1956: 17,720 in 1957: 19,620 in 1958: 1965 target, 37,700.
Lahour_ Number of workers in 1957: Industry, 2,052,000: agriculture
and forestry, 1,926,000: science, health, culture, social services, 603,000;
supply and trade, 479,000; construction, 468,000: transport and com-
munications, 364,000: administration, judiciary, etc., 208,000: total,
6-lm.
Total number of persons employed in the 'socialist scctor' (excluding
agriculture) was 4,588,000 in 1958.
HH
930 CZECHOSLOVAKIA
COMMERCE. Total trade (in Im. Kea.) for 1955-57; trade with
Westem Europe (in US$lm.) for 1952-54:
1952 1963 1964 1966 1956 1957 19S8
Imports 110·0 83-5 114-6 7,1;79 8,637 9,985 9,772
Exports 155-9 137-8 142-9 8,467 9,988 9,761 10,89S
In H'58 the share of the U.S.S.R and the People's Democracies, includ.
ing Chin 1, in Czechoslovak foreign trade amounted to over two·thirds of the
total; C~echoslovakia imported from the U.S.S_R. goods valued at 3,253m.
Kes. and exported to the U.S.S_R goods valued at 3,579m. Kes.
The lltate monopoly of foreign trade is being opera.ted by 18 import and
export trade corporations.
Total trade between U.K. and Czechoslovakia for calendar years (in
£ sterlin l~, British Board of Trade returns) :
1938 1966 1967 1968 19()9
Imports tu U.K. 6,943,431 6,481,966 8,309,600 6,870,986 9,068,848
Export!! trom U.K. . 2,276,969 2,678,810 4,168,556 4,233,639 6,156,236
Re-export! from U.K. 662,663 912,867 960,031 477,887 1,917,162
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways. The length of railWAY back, aa at

31 Dec. 1957, was 13,168 km. Of this, 2,700 km was double·tracked and
278 km electrified. In 1958, 537m. passengers and 174m. metric tons of
freight were carried by rail.
Road8. There were, 31 Dec. 1946, 9,121 km of first· class roads, 27,827
km of 8olcond·class roads and 33,810 km of district and local roads. In
Dec. 1949. 161,000 pa.ssenger cars and 63,000 lorries were licensed. In
1958 buses carried 974·4m. passengers ; lorries, 107m. metric tons of freight.
Production of passenger cars in 1958 was 43,439 ; of these, 18,400 were sold
in Czechoslovakia.
Ship,Jing. In 1958 • Czechoslovak Ocean Shipping' (formerly part of
'Cechofracht') had 6 ocean.going vessels of together 46,311 gross tons,
based Oil Szczecin.
Post. Number of telephones on 31 Dec. 1958 ,vas 790,000; 3·05m. people
held wireless licences and 327,861 television licences.
A vial ion. Air transport is run by the C.S.A. (Czechoslovakian Airlines).
The main airports are: Prague (Ruzyne), Bmo (Cemovice), Bratisiava
(VajnolJ-), Olomouc (Holice), Kosice (Barca). In 1958,408,000 passengers
and 9,211 metric tons of freight were flown. There are direct flights
Prague-:t'aris, Pragne-Moscow and (4 times weekly in each direction,
operated by B.E.A. and C.S.A.) Prague-London.
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary unit in the Czechoslovak

Republi(: is the koru714 (Kl\8.) or crown of 100 haler. Notes in circulation:
I, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 K~. Coin: I, 3, 5. 10, 25 halers, and} KI!. By
Presidential decree of 20 Oct. 1945 a monetary reform was introduced
aiming at the reduction to 30,OOOm. K~. of the amount of paper money of
120,OOODl. which W&8 circulating OB 31 Oct. 1945.
A fu/-ther monetary reform took place on 1 June 1953, when a Dew Clll'·
rency W88 introdueed. The koruna and haler remained the unit of C\llTency.
but thet: domestio value was appreciated by approximately 5 times. The
koruna is based on a gold content of 0'123426 gramme of pure gold and
pegged I)n the rouble at K~s. 1-80 = RI. The Intemational Monetary
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 931
Fund did not approve this change of the par value, and Czechoslovak
membership was terminated at 31 Dcc. 1954. At the same date, Czecho·
slovakia ceased to be a member of the International Bank as she had not
paid her subscription. The official rate of exchange for the £ sterling is
selling Kes. 20·10 and buying K(\s. 20·22 for £1. In Oct. 1957 a bonus (in
1959 amounting to 100% of the official rate) wa.s introduced for non·com·
mercial transactions, which includes the encashment of traveller cheques
for tourists.
By Presidential decree of 24 Oct. 1945 joint.stock banks were nationa.l.
ized; in 1948 they were merged into 2 institutes: the 2ivnostenska. banka.
for Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, and the Tatra banka for Slovakia. These
two and the post office savings bank were, by decree of 9 March 1950, fused
into the State Bank of Czechoslovakia (Statni banka <':\eskoslovenska.).
The 2ivnostenska banka maintains an office in London.
An exchange control law of 1 Jan. 1954 virtu'llly precludes the establish·
ment of branches of foreign business in Czechoslovakia and prohibita the
import and export of Czechoslovak currency.

Czechoslovakia maintains embassies in Albania, Argentina, Bulgaria,
Ceylon, China, Finland, France, Germany (East), Ghana, Guinea, Hungary,
India, Indonesia, Iraq, Japan, Korea (North), Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco,
Nepal, Poland, Rumania, Sweden, Tunisia, U.S.s.R., United Arab Republic,
V.K., V.S .A., Vietnam (North), Yugoslavia; legations in Afghanistan,
Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Cambodia, Canada, Denmark, Equador,
Ethiopia, Greece, Iran, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Netherlands, Norway,
Pakistan, Peru, Sudan, Switzerland, Turkey, Uruguay.
01' CZECHOSLOV~IUA m GREAT BRITAIN (1)-7 Kensington Palace

Gardens, W.8)
AmbMsado.-. Miroslav Galuska (accredited 29 July 1958).
Cou'MeUors. Jii'i Pinkava; Ladislav Maly (Commercial).
Military and Air Attache. Lieut.·Col. Karel Jirasek.
First Secretaries. Jan Snobl; Zdenek Jodas. Press Atlache. Jaroslav
Kazbal. Commercial Atlacl.e. Bohuslav Freml'.
01' GREAT BRITAm m CZECHOSLOVAIUA

Amba.ssador. C. C. Parcott, C.M.G., O.B.E.
First Secretaries. D. S. L. Dodson, M.C.; P . H. Laucence, M.C. (Com.
mercial and Consul); A. Harringt.on.
Military Attache. Col. J. S. Bolton, D.S.O.
Air Attache. Group Capt. J.... T. Bryant·Fenll, D.F.C.
There is a consular office at Prague.
OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA TIlE V .S.A. (2349 Massachuset.ts Ave. NW.,

IN
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassado.-. Miloslav Ruzek.
Fir8t Secretary. Jaroslav Chmela. Milita,·y and Air Attache. Col.
Emil Franek. Commercial Attache. Vladimir Salae.
932 DENMARK
OF THE U.S.A. IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Amb.lssador. John M. Allison.
Cour.,sellor. Thomas P. DilloJl. First Secretary. Richard W. Tims
(Consul). Army Attache. Lieut.·Col. Charles E. HoagJand. Air Attache.
Col. Gecrge R. Weinbrenner.
Books of Reference
TM Conslilution o/Ihe Cttchoslooak Republic. (Eogl. trans. pub!, by Ministry of In/ormntion.)
Prague, 1948
Ctskoolovenska statislika (Czechoolovak Statistics). Pub!. by the Statistical Office, Prague, 177
vols. (up to 19(8), with English annotations from 1947
SIatistick4 rolenka Rep. {;eskoslovemkl. [Statist. Yearbook.] Prague, 1957
Indus/ria! Reports ol/M SIIlU Stallstleal Office, PNl{jtIe. Monthly (In Czech 80Ild English)
J[onlhiy .survey 01 }'oreign Trade. Prague (in Czech, Russl8oll, English and French)
Statistickl Zpruvy. Pabl. by the Statistical Office, Prague (monthly from Sept. 19~6)
Stali.</ickY obzo, (SlIllislica! R ..itw). Prague. Monthly (with Englisb, French and Russian
summalles)
.Atl"s del" Rlpubliquelchlcoslooaqlle, Uxle ,Idiql pa, Vaclao LaJka. Prague, 1936
Bu.ek, V.. and Spulber, N. (ed.), Czechoslovakia. New York, 1957
Lockbart, Sir Robert B., Jan Masa"Jk. New York, 195]
Masaryk, T. G., TItt Making 01 a Slate. London, 1929
ProcbAzkr., J., and Hokes, J., English-Czech and Czech-English DiClioflllry. 14th cd. Prague,
1950
Ripke., H., Lt Coup de Prague: une rlVo/ltlion prl/abriqule. Paris, 1949
Seton.Wa·;son, R. W., .A Hislory o/I"e Czechs and Slovaks. London, 19!.
\Vanklyn, H., Ceechoslctvakia. London, 1954
DENMARK
KONGERIGET DANMABK
REIGNING KING. Frederik IX, born 11 March 1899; married 24
May 19:15 to Princess Ingrid of Sweden, born 28 March 1910; offspring:
Princess Margrethe, born 16 April 1940 (heir presumptive); Princess Bene·
dikte, born 29 April 1944; Princess Anne.Marie, born 30 Aug. 1946. He
succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, King Christian X, 20
April 1947.
Brot!!er of the King. Prince Knud, born 27 July 1900; married 8 Sept.
1933 to Princess Caroline·Mathilde of Denmark, his cousin; offspring:
Princess Elisabeth, born 8 May 1935; Prince Ingolf. born 17 Feb. 1940;
Prince Christian, born 22 Oct. 1942.
The crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. In 1448
after th'l death of the last male descendant of Swein Estridsen the Danish
Diet elellted to the throne Christian I, Count of Oldenburg, in whose family
the roy"l dignity remained for more than 4 centuries, although the crown
was not rendered hereditary by right till 1660. The direct male line of the
house of Oldenburg became extinct with King Frederik VII on 15 Nov.
1863. l:n view of the death of the king without direct heirs, the Great
Powers signed a treaty at London on 8 May 1852. by the terms of which
the succession to the crown of Denmark was made over to Prince Christian
of Schleswig.HoIstein.Sonderburg.G\iicksburg. and to the direct male
descendlnts of his union with the Princess Louise of Hesse·Cassel. niece of
King Christian VIII of D<>nmark. In accordance with this treaty, e. law
concern;.ng the succession to the Danish crown was adopted by the Diet,
DEN~URK 933
I\ud obtained the royal ea.nction 31 July 1853. Linked to the constitution
of 5 June 1953, a new Law of succession, dated 27 March 1953, has come
into force, which restricts the right of succession. to the descendants of King
Christian X and Queen Alexandrine, and admits the sovereign's daughters
to the line of succession, ranking after the sovereign's sons.
King Frederik IX has a civil list of 2,512:,000 kroner. Annuities to
other members of the royal house amount to 251,000 kroner.
Subjoined is a list of the kings of Denmark, with the dates of their
accession, from the time of election of Christian I of Oldenburg:
[Iou ... of OIdenb ll Tg
Christian I H4S Christian IV 1588 Feederik V li46
lIans 1481 Frederik HI 1648 Christian 'I'll li66
Christian 1I 1.13 Christian V 16;0 Frederik VI 1808
Feederik [ ]{.23 Feedcrik [V I n99 Christian VIII 1839
Cbristian IU 1,,)14 Christian '1'1 1 i 30 ~'rcderik VII 1848
Feederilt Il 1559
I/O IIS' 01 Schltswig·Holstein·::;ollderbw·g·Glikksb IlTg

Christian IX 1863 Christian X 1912 l'redcrik IX 19H
Frederik VIII I~06
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitution of

Denmark is founded upon the 'Grundlov' (charter) of 5 June 1953.
The legislative power lies with the King and the Folketing (Diet) jointly.
The executive power is vested in the King. who exercises his authority
through the ministers. The judicial power is with the courts. The King
must be a member of the Evangelical.Lutheran Church, the official Church
of the state. The King cannot assume major international obligations with·
out the consent of the Folketing. The Folketing consists of one cham·
ber. All men and women of Danish nationalit.y of more than 23 years of
age and permanently resident in Denmark possess the franchi80 and are
€>ligible for election to the Folketing, which is ILt present composed of 179
members; 135 members r.re elected by the method of proportional repre-
sentation in 23 districts. In order to attain an equal representation of the
different parties, 40 tillagsmandater (additionn.1 seats) are divided among
such parties which have not obtained suffici'3nt returns at t.he district
elections. Two members are elected for the Fa:roe Islands and 2 for Green·
land. The term of the legislature is 4 years, but the King has power to
dissolve the Folketing.
The Folketing must meet every year on th e first Tuesday in Oct.ober.
Besides its legislative functions, it appoints every 6 years judges who,
together with the ordinary members of the Supreme Court (Hojesteret), form
the Rigsret, a tribunal which can alone try parliamentary impeachments. The
ministers have free access to the hOIlSC, but can vote only if they are members.
Folkcting, elected 14 May 1957 : 70 Socialists, 45 Liberals, 30 Conserva·
tives. 14 Radical Left, 6 Communists, 9 Land Tax Party, 1 Slesvig Party
(German), 2 Faroe Islands and 2 GreenIa.nd Representatives; total,179.
The executive (called the State Council (Statsraadet) when acting with the
King presiding) is a coalition government of Socialists, Radical liCft and
Land·Tax Party, and was, in Feb. 1960, compo., ed as follows:
l"'ime Minister.
J.finister for Foreign Affairs. J. O. Krag.
Minister of Finance. Viggo Kampmann.
Minister of Labour and Minister of Housing . Kaj Bundvad.
934 DENMARK
Minister of the Interior. Soren Olesen (Land-Tax Party).

Mini8ter of Social Affair8. Julius Bomholt.
Mini8ter of FiBheries. Oluf Pedersen (Land. Tax Party).
Minister of Defence. Poul Hansen.
Minister of AgricuUuTe. Kar! Skytte (Radical).
Minister of Economic Affairs. Bertel Dahlgaard (Radical).
Minister of Education. Jorgen Jorgensen (Radical).
Minis/er of Ecclesiastical Affairs. Bodil Koch.
Hinister of Trade. Kjeld Philip (Radical).
Minister of Justice. Hans HlPkkerup.
j [ inister of Public Works and Minis/er of Greenland. Kaj Lindberg.
Minister without Portfolio. Viggo Starcke (Land-Tax Party).
The ministers are individually and collectively responsible for their acta,
and if impeached and found guilty, cannot be pardoned without the consent
of t·he F.)lketing.
In 1 ~ 48 a separate legislature (Lagting) and executive (Land8styre) were
established for the Faroe Islands, to deal with local matters as specified by
law.
The :::onstitution of 1953 gave Greenland equal status with the other
parts of the Kingdom.
N atillnal flag: white cross on red (Dannebrog).
Natumal anthem: Kong Kristian stod ved hojen Mast (words by J .
Ewald,I778 ; tune by J. E . Hartmann, 1780).
TM Ctm.stttution 0/ the K ingd<nn 0/ Denma·rk AeI and the SlIues$ion to th. Throne AeI. Copen-
hagen, 1963
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION. For administrative purposes Denmark is di·

vided in';o 22 counties (amter), each of which is administered by a governor
(amtmand) and has a county council superintending the rural municipalities
(about 1,300). There are 88 urban municipalities with a mayor and a town
council. Rural as well as urban municipal councils are elected direct by
universal suffrage and proportional representation. Copenhagen forms a
district by itself and has its own form of administration.
AREA AND POPULATION. According to the census held on 1 Oct.

1955 thE, area of Denmark proper was 43,042 sq. km and the population
4,448,40[ (103 per sq. km). Estimated population, 1Jan. 1959, 4,529,000.
Populatlon
Administrative Area 1965 Population Populatlon 1U66 per
dh·isions (sq. km) 1950 1955 sq. km
K0benbavn (Copenhagen) (city) 82 768,106 753,361 9,163
Frederiksterg . (toorougb) 9 118,993 117,778 13,538
K0benhavllS . (county) 4n 313,601 398,227 S07
Roskilde 690 76,781 82,223 119
Frederikst org : 1,344 147,696 162,889 121
Holbl8k. 1,752 126,162 127,127 73
80r0 1,478 125,884 128,639 87
Pr.cstt! . 1,693 122,955 122,919 73
llornbolm 688 48,134 48,632 83
Maribo . 1,798 135,337 133,8.0 74
Svendborg 1,667 149,671 160, 366 90
Odense 1,149 187,963 196,213 171
ABsens 667 57,901 58,005 87
Vejle 2,348 201,113 207,881 88
DENMARK ~35
PopulatloD
Administrative Area 1955 Population Population 195. per
ditisions (sq. km) 1960 19:;5 sQ.km
8tlWderborg 1,719 134,133 136,49~ 79
A.arbus . 804 198,267 21U,409 262
RandeT!. 2,4£~ 167,336 110,802 69
A&lborg. 2,911 225,394 232,885 80
Hjerring 2,866 169,890 173,233 60
Thioted . 1,7H 88.091 86,703 49
Viborg 3,050 15:;,603 160,018 52

RiDgkobing 4,600 186,851 198,3&9 43
Rib. 3,069 170,448 178,501 68
Had.l'8l.v 1,34~ f9,118 71,7U 63

.&.ab.oraa 790 4.6,909 48,676 62
8eollerborg -141 H,142 '9,604 112
T.mder . 1,390 4,1,998 U,842 31
Totlll 43,042 4,2~ ' ]t276 4,448,401 103
The total population at the census of 195[; ~howed an increase during

1950-55 of 0'78% per annum.
The population is almost entirely Scandinavian; in 1950, of the in-
habitants of Denmark proper, 98-1 % were born in Denmark.
On 1 Oct. 1955 the population of the capital, Copenhagen (Koben-
havn), was 960,319; Aarhus, 118,\)43; OdensE', 105,915; Aalborg, 83,210;
Esbjerg, 50,921; Randers, 41,720; Horsens, 3(;,567.
Living births Still births Marriag.. DiYorc&s Deaths Emigra.tlon
1916 76,726 1,362 34,215 6,499 39,688 32,263
1957 75,264 1,167 34,407 6,439 41,730 33,734
1958 74,681 1,174 33,795 6,:;71 41,560
Illegitimate births: 1956,6'8%; 1957, 7%; 1958,7'2%.
RELIGION. The established religion is the Lutberan, which was intro-

duced in 1536. The affairs of the national church are under the super-
intendence of9 bishops, who have no political character. Complete religious
toleration is extended to every sect, and no civil disabilities attach to
Dissenters.
According to the census of 1921 there were :1,221,843 Protestants, 22,137
Roman Catholics (under a Vicar Apostolic resident in Copenhagen), 535
Greek Catholics, 5,947 Jews, 17,369 others or of no confession. There were
56 members of the Society of Friends in 1957.
Kjaer, J. C., History of the Church of Denmark. Blair, Ne-br., 1945
EDUCATION. Elementary education has heen compulsory since 1814.

The school ago is from 7 to 14.
Statistics, 1958: Of the 3,662 schools 37 wem maintained by the Govern-
ment, 3,268 by the local communities and 357 were private. 3,050 were
primary schools (514,607 pupils) and 612 secondary scbools (158,026 pupils)_
The instruction in the public schools is mostly free. For higher instruction ,
there are a veterinary and agricultural college of Copenhagen with 102
teachers and about 950 students; 357 technic;~l schools with about 60,000
pupils; 26 training colleges for teachers with about 6,200 students; a
936 DENMARK
high school of commerce with about 2,600 pupils; 215 commercial schools
with a\x,ut 42,000 pupils; 29 agricultural or horticultural schools with
about 3,150 pupils; 64folkelwjskoler or popular high schools (adult schools)
with abcut 6,600 pupils; a college of pharmacy (founded 1892) with 48
teachers and 156 students; a school for dentists with 81 teachers and 421
students; a royal academy of arts (founded (1754) with 113 teachers and
about 50') students; a technical university (founded 1829) with 238 teachers
and about 2,000 students. The folkelwjskoler are all private, but to them
and the agricultural schools the state annually makes a grant of about
16m. krc·ner. The University of Copenhagen, fowlded in 1479, has 489
profesSOr> and teachers, and about 5,300 students. The University of
Aarhus, :'ounded in 1928, and opened on II Sept. 1933, has 243 teachers
and about 1,900 students.
CinemlUl (1957). There were 468 cinemas with a seating capacity of
157,153.
News;oapers (1957). There were 127 daily newspapers with a combined
circulation of 1,599,000; 12 of them (667,900) appeared in Copenhagen.
Kirkegaard, P., The Public Libraries;n Denmark. Copenbagen, 1960
Moeller, J . 0 ., and Watson, Katberine, Edllcalitm in Democr<W,l: The Folk High Sehooll of
Dmmark. London, 1944
Strubbeltn.ng. F., The Danish Folk High Sellools. Copenhagen, 1947
Tborsen, S., New.papers in Denmark. Copenhagen, 1953
SOCIAL WELFARE. The main body of Danish social welfare lcgisla.

tion is consolidated in four acts concerning (1) health insurance and dis-
ablement and old.age pensions, (2) employment injuries insurance, (3)
employment services and unemployment insurance and (4) social assistance.
HeaUiI iMUrance, covering some 80% of the populatioll, provides free
medical <are and hospitalization, substantial subsidies for certain essential
medicinen and limited daily sickness allowances, together with some dental
care and a funeral allowance. Hospitals are primarily municipal.
DisaMement and old-lIIJe peMions cover the entire population. Old.age
pension or folks pension is paid either as a minimum pension or as income.
graded pension. The folks pension act came into force in Oct. 1957; when
in full operation (in 1961) the schemes will be as follows: Every person
over 67 ~'ears is entitled to a minimum pellsion. Income-graded pension
can be p~,id to single women over 62 years and to men and married women
over 67 years. Minimum pensions are paid at the same rates throughout
the country (in 1959: 1,140 kroner when both spouses are entitled, and 750
kroner to single persons). The income-graded pension is graded according
to residence and income of the recipient, the highest pension being paid in
the capit.11. When both spouses are entitled to a pension it amounts to
5,520 krcner annually in Copenhagen. A single pensioner is entitled to
roughly l,wo-thirds of this amount. If the pensioner has other income
exceeding certain limits, reduction are made, but not below the minimum
pension. Pension rates are adjusted twice a year according to the cost·of·
living index.
The disablement pension scheme is nearly the same as that of the income·
graded folks pension.
Empkyment injuries insurance provides for daily sickness allowancCl,
disablemEnt or 8urvivors' pensions and funeral allowances. The scheme
CQvers practically all employees.
DENMARK 937
Employment 8ervicu are provided partly by regional public employment
agencies and partly by the unemployment insurance funds, which have a
membership of 685,000. The insurance against unemployment provides
daily allowances (including child supplements) plus fuel and rent allowanceA
in cases of prolonged unemployment.
The Social AR8i8tana Act deals with the care of the aged (old people's
homes), rehabilitation and training of cripples, t.he hlind, etc., and the care
of children (including placement of children in foster homes or institutional
care). The social assistance provisions, moreover, ,lover cases of need which
are not provided for by the insurance schemes. Finally, a number of family
\velfare benefits are provided for under this Act, e.g., free school meals,
institutions for day-time care of children, etc.
Total social expenditure, including hospital and h<>alth services,
amouuted in the fin!lncial year 1957-58 to 3,660m . kroner (13% of the net
national income).
Jensen, 0., Social Service$ in Denmark. Copenhageu, 1948
hlanniche, Peter, Denmar/(: Living Democracy in Dertmark. Copcnbngen, 1952
Nelson , G. R., Social Wel!are in Scandinavia. Copenhagen, IO~3 . -(ed.), Freedom and
We!!a,t: Social PaUertl in the Northern Count';.. 0/ EIl,ope. Copenhagen, 1953
JUSTICE. The lowest courts of justice are organized in 99 tribunals

(l£nderreUer),where minor eases are dealt with by 1\ single judge. Cases of
greater consequence !lre dealt ,vith by the superior courts (Lanchlretterne);
these courts are also courts of appeal for the above-named minor cases.
Of superior courts there are two: @stre Landsret in Copenhagen with
30 judges, V utre Landsret in Viborg with 20 judges. From these an appenl
lies to the Supreme Court (Hejesteret.) in Copenhagen, composed of 15
judges. Judges under 65 years of age can be r~mo~ed only by judicial
sentence.
In 1957, 6,150 men and 666 women were convicted of crimes and delicta.
On 31 Dec. 1957, 1,523 men !lncl 41 women were in the state peniten.
tiaries.
FINANCE. The budget (Finanslovforslag) lllust be laid before the

Folketing not later than 4 months before the beginning of a new fiscal year.
The !lnnual financial accounts (Statsl'egnskab) must be examined by 4 revisers,
elected by the Folketing. Their report is submitted to the Folketing.
The following shows the actual revenue and ,upenditure for 2 fiscal
years ending 31 March and the estimates for 3 year:! (in 1,000 kroner) :
1966-51 1951-58 1958-69' 19(;9-60' 1960-61'
Durreut revenue . 4,994,329 6,061,344 5,583,265 6,068,333 6,791,000
Current erpenditlll'e . 4,496,309 4,80 3.985 5,000,902 ;),623,714 6,000,00 1)
From 1955-66 r"",,;pts ond expenditures of speciol government funds and expenditures 00
pubUc works ore included.
, Estimates.
The 1960-61 budget envisages revenue of 2,862m. from income and

property taxes and 2,973m. from consumer taxes.
The central government debt on 31 March 1958 amounted to 9,035m.
kroner.
DEFENCE. In accordance with the military defence act of 1951, a

chief of defence assisted by a defence staff leads the military defence.
938 DENMARK
All basio matters conoerning the 3 armed forces are treated by a defence
council consisting of the chief of defence, the chief of defence staff and the
commanders·in·chief of the Army, Navy and Air Force.
The military defence of Denmark is based upon national conscription,
which was introduced in 1849. At the age of 17 years the young recruits
are entered upon the conscription rolls, and between the age of 19 and
25 they receivo their first military training over a period of about 16
monbs.
Army. The Army is organized in corps, divisions and brigades. The

men of the latest 8 years' service form the troops of the line, while those of
the previous years (until their 50th year) form the local defence, the reserve
and Home Guard. The annual call.up is about 17,000; the Army Home
Guard consists of about 48.000 volunteers.
The Army comprises regular officers, n.c.o.s and reserve officers. The
Army has schools for training of officers and n.c.o.s, as well aB arsenals for
the n .llnufacture of arms and munitions.
Na.vy. The Navy comprises the fleet and the coast·defence forces. It
inclucles 4 frigates (including 3 of the' Hunt' class lent by Great Britain in
1953 for 8 years), 4 corvettes, 4 patrol vessels, 3 submarines, 6 minelayers,
8 coastal minesweepers, 17 motor torpedo·boats, 8 patrol boats, 6 inshore
mineBweepers, 2 depot ships, the royal yacht (Dannebrog), 2 surveying
vessels (Freja and Heimdal), 2 fishery patrol craft and a number of seaward
defence and auxiliary craft.
The coast defence includes several permanent fortifications. Naval
personnel total about 7,000 officers and men.
T:le Naval Home Guard consists of about 2,000 volunteers.
Air Force. Dating back to 1911, the Air Force comprised separate
army and naval air arms until I Oct. 1950, when the independent Royal
DaniHh Air Force was formed. Its operational units are controlled by a
Tactical Air Command, which is supplemented by a Training Command and
Air Material Command. Pilots are being trained in Canada by the R.C.A.F.,
but the air force trains all other personnel and has an Officers' School at
Jonstrup. Air Force H.Q. is at Vedbaek.
Pmsent strength is approximately 300 aircraft and 7,000 personnel.
They form one day·fighter squadron of Hunters, 2 all· weather fighter
squadrons of F·86D Sabres, 5 fighter. bomber squadrons of F·8-lG Thunder·
jets and F·IOOD Super Sabres, a transport squadron with C·47s and Cata·
linas, a general· purpose, communications and rescue squadron with Pem.
broke transports and H·19 helicopters, and a reconnaissance unit with
RF-8iF Thunderflash aircraft.
The Air Force Home Guard consists of about 9,000 volunteers.
PRODUCTION. In 1950, 23% of the popUlation lived on agriculture,

gardening and forestry, I % on fishery, 28% on industries and handicrafts,
8% on construction, 13% on commerce, etc., 7% on transportation and
communication, and 9% on administration, professional services, etc., while
11 % received old.age pensions or had private means.
The following table sets forth the gross factor income (in lm. kroner) by
industrial origin in 3 calendar years:
DENMARK 939-
1956 1957 1958
CurrenJ 1949 CttrrenJ 1949 Cu",'nl 1949
price3 prices prices priceJ prices prices
Agricult.ure 5,375 4,515 6,200 4,930 5,150 4,900
Fore..~try. . . 93 57 99 59 95 55
(lardening, Inr-farming, etc. 3';'0 319 421 345 450 360
Fishing . . . 166 117 182 139 205 140
Peat. and lignite production 74 58 90 73 75 60
Total 6,068 5,066 5,99:! 5,546 5,975 5,535
Manufacturing industries 5,572 4,309 6,17!. 4,580 6,375 4,625
Handicratts 2,985 1,960 3,17.) 2,010 3,225 2,000
Construction 2,020 1,380 2,160 1,415 2,240 1,460
Gas. electricity and water 550 600 610 580 640 600
Total 1l,127 8,249 12,110 8,585 12,480 8,6j5
Wholesale and retail trade, etc. 4,150 3,275 4,471. 3,475 4,400 3,525
Banking and insurance 722 515 78~~ 549 8 ~1) 570
Cateri.ng establishments 364 201 381 2a7 3~15 240
Cinemas, theatres, etc. 69 50 7;~ ·18 80 :;0
Total 5,30~ 4,o~n 5,71 7 4,3::'9 5.9~5 4,405

Shipping 1,114 694 1,:14:. 7M 1,120 765
Other transportation 1,925 1,365 2,100 1,435 2,170 1,48u
Total 3,039 2,059 3,44:, 2,199 3,290 2,24[,
Use of dwellings 1,2~4 930 1,320 944 1,430 960

Profcssion.~ 570 41J £19:, 425 610 425
Domestic services 30~ 230 31i; 225 320 220
Government services 2,860 1,840 3,050 1,870 3,325 1,915
GrOS3 factor income 30,502 22,88/) 32,54,1 24,123 33,335 24,380
Plu3 indirect taxes

Less sulr.;id i e~
2,93U
75
3,07li
7:,
,.J;5
3 <)')".
Gross nationa J product at.

market priCe.; 33,357 2·1,475 35,54" 25,7lJ7 36,50;. 26,0;);)
AGRICULTURE. The soil of Denmark is greatly subdivided, owing partly

to the state of the law, which forbids the merging of existing farms into
larger farms and encourages the parcelling out of the land. In 1955 the
total number offarms was 198,800. There were 93,100 small holdings (0'55-
10 hectares), 101,800 medium·size holdings (10-60 hectares) and 3,900
holdings with more than 60 hectares,
Whereas the number of farmers has remained almost unchanged during
the past 15 years, the number of agricultural workers has declined steadily
from 306,900 in JUly 1939 to 158,000 in July 1958.
In July 1958 the cultivated area was utilized as follows (in 1,000 hec-
tares): Grain, 1,391; peas and beans, 7; root crops, 588; other crops,
85; green fodder and grass, 1,040; fallo\7, 5; tuhl cultivated area, 3,1l6.
Produotion (in 1,000
Area (1,001) hectareo) met ric ton.::;)
Chief erop,; 1956 195 7 1958 1956 1957 1958
Wheat 66 64 77 266 273 2H
Rye 109 ll6 l:n 291 313 306
Barley 648 691 7:}n !:,402 2,560 2,485
Oat-3 2[.5 236 ~()3 S5 2 786 648
Mixed. gc<t.in 290 ~88 :!fd 853 829 762
Pota.toes 96 88 ~:1 ~,140 1,781 1,558
Hoot crops 488 :;02 5fJ5 2~1,2]3 ~4,206 24,775
940 DENMARK
Livestock, 12 July 1959: Horses, 237,000; cattle, 3,273,000 ; pigs,

5,347,000; sheep, 36,000; poultry, 26,272,000.
Pr'Jduction (in 1,000 metric tons) in 1957 (and 1958): Milk, 5,344 (5,122);
butter, 175 (157); cheese, 98 (107); beef, 270 (283); pork and bacon, 545
(552); eggs, 141 (149).
In July 1958 the number of farm tractors was 86,000.
FmHERIES. The total value of the fish caught was (in Im. kroner), 1950,
156;l955,252; 1956,265; 1957,290; 1958,332.
Ml.NUFACTURES. Although only very few industrial raw materials are
produ~ed within the country, considerable industries have been developed.
According to the census of manufacturing, 1 June 1948, there were
91,000 establishments employing altogether 665,000 persons. The following
&rc 8o:ne data for the most important industries in 1958. The table co.era
establ:shmenta with more than 5 wage-earners.
Value of
Number of production Valno added
Branch of indnstry wage-earners (1,000 kroner) (1,000 kroner)
Food ir dustry . 23,180 2,905,704 699,270
Beverage industry . 7,277 486,490 323,850
Tobacc.> factories . 7,353 403,875 188,974
Textile industry . . . 18,697 939,674 402,616
Footwea.r and clothing industry 22,281 904,909 408,300
Wood i .dustry (ex<;ept furniture) 11 ,594 458,389 217,017
Manufacturing of furniture 5,351 199,400 114,139
Paper i [ldustry 8,450 686,362 246,140
Graphk industry. . . 12,831 716,198 415,259
Leathe]' products (except footwear) 2,151 126,173 51,901
Rubber industry . 3,838 150,572 80,896
Chemical industry . 10,638 1,433,944 509,289
Oil and coal products . . 1,512 166,636 67,963
Stone. day and glass Industry. 15,422 661,991 431,918
Metal works. . . 2,499 436,086 123,228
Manufacture of metal products . 1:;,588 757,519 394,113
Engine works, including iron loundries 31,121 1,550,893 835,364
Manufacture of electrical machines, etc. 19,244 1,046,378 538,289
Transp,)rta.tion equipment 26,490 1,502,563 591,010
Pe'WER SUPPLY. Owing to the concentration of power production, the

nnmb3r of power stations has declined from 371 in 1949-50 to 284 in 1956--
57, wilile the net power production (in Im. kwh.) has risen from 1,689 in
1949-50 to 3,729 in 1957.
Econon.ic Survey 0/ Denma,k. Economic Secretariat. Copenhagen (annually)
I",lusl,ial Denmark. F ederation of Danish Industries. Copenhagen, 1958
Techniwl and economic cha'T/{Jes in Danish/arming, 1917-fJ7. Institute of Farm Management.
Copenhagen, 1959
Ravnbolt, H., T/U Dani.h Co-opetali•• Mov~. Copenhagen, 1947
COMMERCE. The following table shows the value, in 1,000 kroner,

of special imports and exports (excluding precious metal) for calendar years:
1953 19:;4 1955 1956 1957 1958
Import. 6,880,008 8,033,949 8,097,861 9,015,612 9.344,066 9,251,578
Export; 6,099,918 6,550.221 'i ,198,097 1,562,681 7,982,424 8,095,693
Imports and exports (in 1,000 kroner) fur calendar years:

195, 1958
Leading commodiLies ImpvrL( ELporll Imports Exports
Live admBls, meat, etc.. . 18,281 2,504,600 18,922 2,722,877
Dairy producta, eggs pond honey. 1,895 1.677,422 2,870 1,459,923
Fish Brd fish preparations . . 33,734 237,093 57,550 289,148
Cereals and cereal preparat.ions . 265,900 132,285 352,847 261,644
DENMARK 941
1957 1958
Leading commoditie~ Imporls Exports Imports Exports
Sugar and sugar preparations 7,411 87,179 7,040 77,841
Oollee, tea, cocoa, etc. . 310,032 8,665 325,657 18,419
Il'eeding stiltI' for animals . 3:n,333 80,447 320,750 10S,3n
Wood, lumber, pulp, etc. . 307,128 47.553 238,803 35,335
Textile fibres, yarns, fabrics, etc. 869,727 129454 787,932 142,9~8
Fuel3, Jllbricants. et-c. . 1,721,600 10,259 1,514,830 8,013
Pharmaceutical products . 63,654 104,926 67,531 103,6:;0
Fertilizers . . 395,738 58,808 351,283 59,HS
Metals, manufactures of metl ds 1,238,467 246,082 1,106,433 229,754
Machinery . . 862,715 1,071,421 1,002,750 1,234,675
Tra.nsport equipment 793,679 291,969 810,833 3M,585
Distribution of Danish foreign trade (in 1,000 kroner) for calendar years:
Imports Exports
Countries 1956 1957 1958 1956 1957 1958
Belgium. 39R,401 367,114 352,427 93,221 93,177 107,196
Finland. 140,260 154,596 166,338 149,996 111,941 112,382
France . 339,396 397,036 316,708 245,414 195,297 264,761
Gtlrmany 1,854,306 1,883,906 1,932,941 1,4.6,842 1,616,012 1,805,371
Norway. 321,110 334,868 327,809 310,222 299,74.6 413,098
Sweden. 808,853 840,208 934,433 523,990 706,313 631,741
Switzerla.nd 171,312 160,049 204,420 112,928 109,324 125,062
U.K. 2,205,8:;5 2,286,438 2,110,702 2,340,Hi6 2,228,677 2,228,236
U.S.A. 905,041 923,839 841,761 562,116 664,383 790,234
Total trade (British Board of Trade returns) between Denmark

(without the Fame Islands) and U.K. (in £ sterling):
1938 lUnG 1957 1958 1959
[mports to U.K. 37,867,695 122,357,061 114,076,980 115,479.200 134,308,594
Exports from U.K. . 15,781,059 82,284,984 85,694,490 76,728,389 87,699,943
Re-exports from U.K. 5~5,920 1,267,409 1,758,428 1,749,516 1,639,336
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. On 31 Dec. 1958 the Danish mer-

chant fleet consisted of 2,434 vessels (above 20 GRT) of 2,185,365 GRT.
In 1958, 72,000 vessels of 34·lm. net tons entered the Danish ports,
unloading 19,890,000 metric tons and loading 5,590,000 metric tons of
cargo.
Roads_ Denmark proper had (1 Jan. 1959) 3,900 km of streets, 8,400
km of roads and 46,100 km of by-ways, excluding private roads. Motor
vehicles registered at 31 Dec. 1958 comprised 297,037 passenger cars,
128,003 lorries, 12,446 taxicabs, 3,258 buses and 121,570 motor cycles.
Railways. There were in 1958 railways of a total length of 4,364 km
open for traffic. Of this total, 2,555 km belong to the state. The revenue
for 1957-58 amounted to 290m. kroner from passenger transport and
288m. kroner from freight.
Post. There were in 1958, 1,637 post offices. The length of state
telegraph and telephone lines (31 March 1958) was 476,017 km; number
of offices, 656. At the same date the railway t.elegraphs had 416 offices.
On 31 Dec. 1957 the length of telephone circuits of private companies was
605,320 km . On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 978,667 telephone subscrihers.
Postal revenues, 1957-58, 354,808,000 kroner; expenditure, 321,044,000
kroner.
The number of holders of wireless licences, 1958, was 1.447,000; of
television licences, 137,000.
'942 DENMARK
AVl:ation. On 1 Oct. 1950 the 3 Scandinavian airlines. Det Danske

Luftfa:rts8elskab. ABA and DNL. combined in Scandinavian Airlines
:SysteDl. In 1957 SAS flew 54·Sm. km and carried 1.396.000 passengers.
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary unit is the krone of 100 ore.
In 1931 Denmark went off the gold standard. as established in 1873. For
-the pI'llSent parity of the hone see p. 18; in July 1959 £1 equalled 19·34
kroner.
Gold coins are 20·kroner and 10·kroner pieces. The 20·kroner piece
weighs 8.961 grammes 0·900 fine. and thus contains 8·0645 grammes of fine
,gold. Small ohange: 2·kroner and l·kroner pieces of copper.aluminium-
nickel; 25·ere and 10·ere pieces of copper-nickel. and 5.ere. 2·"re and I·"re
pieces )f copper-tin-zinc, pure aluminium or pure zinc.
On 31 Dec. 1958 the accounts of the National Bank balanced at 5,801m.
kroner, The aasets included 68·4m. kroner in bullion and specie. The
liabilit ies included 2.642m. kroner note issue. 5Om. kroner general capital
fund a:ld 65m. kroner reserve fund.
On 31 March 1959 there were 493 savings banks. with 3,780,420 accounts
and deposits of6,299m. kroner.
On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 158 other banks for commercial, agricultural
and industrial purposes ; their deposits amounted to 9,245m. kroner; their
advan<:es to 7,445m. kroner.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The use of the metric system of

weights and measures has been obligatory in Denmark since 1 April 1912.
THE FAROE ISLANDS

ArEa, 1,399 sq. km; population (30 Nov. 1955), 32,456. The main
industl'ies are fishery and agriculture. Exports, mainly fresh , frozen and
salted fish and dried cod, amounted to 93,478,000 kroner in 1958; imports
to 90,664,000 kroner.
Tot.al trade with U.K . (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling) :
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 166,829 117,290 96,1; 7 41 ,828 906,980
Exports from U.K. • (09,016 644,619 636,484 677,567 620,562
WiIIlamt:On, K., 'I'M All4ntie /s/iJ1IIU: A Study o/the FfUT~ Life and Scene. LoDdoD,1948
GREENLAND
Greenland is Aituated between 59° 46' and 83° 39' N.lat and 11° 39' and
73° 08' W.long.
Area, 2.176,000 sq. km, made up of 1,834,000 sq. km of ice cap and
342,000 sq. km of ice·free land. 'rhe population, 31 Dec. 1955, numbered
27,101. Of the total, 1,867 were Europeans. West Greenland had a
population of 24,660, East Greenland of 1,986, North Greenland (Thole) of
455.
Umil 1953 Greenland was a non.self.governing territory. On 11 June
1953 a new constitution came into force in Denmark, which made Greenland
an intt'gral part of the Danish Realm with the same rights and the aame
measUl'e of sclf.governing as the rest of Denmark.
DENMARK 943
A Danish-American agreement for the common defence of Greenland
was signed on 27 April 1951.
Until the beginning of this century, the hunt.ing ofland and sea mammals,
especially seals, was the main occupation of the population; now fishing is
most important.
Considerable coal resources are available, but the calorific value of the
coal ia relatively small. A deposit of the valuable mineral cryolite ia
situated at Ivigtut. In 1948 deposits of lead and zinc were discovered at
Mestersvig in East Greenland. A Danish company 'Nordisk Mineselskab
AlSo' (The Northern Mining Company, Ltd) has been granted a concession
for further exploitation, and utilization of the ore deposits found, some
j·2m. tons, began in 1956. Production of lead, 1958, was 8,460 metric tons.
Imports (c.i.f. Greenland) (in 1,000 kroner): From Denmark, 1957,
77,903; 1958,99,184; from other countries, 1957, 13,058; 1958, ll,917.
Exports (f.o.b. Greenland) (in 1,000 kroner): To Denmark, 1957, 24,813;
1958,23,710; to other countries, 1957,37,847; 1958,26,306.
Total trade with U.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 203 23,286 192
EXJlorts from U.K. 67,156 121,466 131.534 100,922 195,6"12
Re-exports from U. K. 2,861 5i 217
Btretning., ••drurende aronland. Issued by Ministry of Greenland

Meddtkl&.. om Grtmland. Ed. Kommissionen for videnskabelige undersogelser i G.-onland.
Copenhagen, 1897 ff.
Birket,Smith, K. (ed.), Gronland.,bogen. 2 vols. Copenhagen, 1950
B0ggild, O. B., Th. Min..-aUJgy of Greenland. Copenhagen, 1953
Boyd, L. A., and others, The Coast 01 NorllJ-east Gremland.New York, 1948
Wahl, M. (ed.), Grem/and. 3 vols. Copenhagen and London, 1928-29
Williamson, G., Changing Greenland. London, 1953

Denmark maintains embassies in Argentina (also legation far Paraguay),
Belgium (also legation for Luxembourg), Brazil, Canada, China, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, India (also legation for Ceylon), Iran,
Italy, Japan (also legation for Korea), Mexico (also legation for Costa Rica,
Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Gua.temala, Haiti, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Panama), Netherlands, Norway, Parutan, Peru (also legation for
Bolivia), Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand (also
legation for Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Malaya, Philippines, Vietnam), Turkey
(also for Israel), U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic (also legation for Ethiopia,
Jordan, Lebanon, Sudan), U.K., U.S.A., Yugoslavia (also legation for Bul-
garia); legations in Australia, Austria, Chile, Colombia, Czechoslovakia,
Ecuador, Hungary, Indonesia, Iraq, Morocco (also for Tunisia), New Zea-
land, Rumania, Union of South Africa, Urnguay, Venezuela.
011' DENMARK IN GREAT BRITAIN (29 Pont St., S.W.I)

A mba8sador. Vincens de Steensen-Letb, G.C.V.O. (accredited 12 March
1954).
Couwellor. Birger Ove Kronmann.
Attache.. M. Prehn.
Commercial Counsellor. Henning Hjorth-Nielsen.
Commercial Secretaries. H. A. Biering; Bent Christensen; Erik Ander-
sen.
944 DENMARK
NaJal and Air Attache. Lieut.·Col. Jens Borge Danielsell.

Miiitrtry Attache. H.R.H. Lieut.·Col. Prince Georg of Denmark, C.V.O.
PrtSS and Cultural Counsellor. Harry E. Agerbak.
Agl'icultural Counsellor. P. A. Moltesen.
Fi8heriea Attache. J. C. Bogstad.
Thl,re are consular representatives, at all important centres, including
Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hu)),
Liverp·Jol, London, Manchester, Newcastle.on.Tyne, Portsmouth and
Southampton.
011' GREAT BRITAIN IN DENMARK
AmbCZ8sador. Sir WilIiam Montague.Pollock, KC.M.G.
Co~nsellors . R. W. Selby; A. H. BaUantyne, C.V.O. (Commercial and
Consul·General).
Fir.lt Secretaries. Miss M. 1. Mackie, M.V.O.; C. de Salis, M.B.E.;
J. Oat3s (Labour, resident in Stockholm); A. W. D. Eves (Information);
M. W. Taylor, M.B.E. (Agriculture); G. H. Greenhalgh (Science, resident in
Stockholm).
Naval and Military Attache. Cdr J. L. Buckeridge, M.B.E., R .N.
Air Attache. Wing Cdr R. B. Lord, A.F.C.
ThEre are consular representatives at Aabenraa, Aalborg, Aarhus, Copen.
hagen, Esbjerg, Odense and at Thorshavn and Klaksvig (Faroe Islands)
(IF DENMARK THE U.S.A. (2374 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,

IN
Washington 8, D.C.)
AmbCZ8sador. Count Kield Gustav Knuth·Winterfeldt.
C01Jnsellor8. Dr Axel Serup Tyge; Dahlgaard (Economic); Carlo
Christensen (Cultural); A. F. Knudsen (Agricultural). Air Attache. Lieut.·
Col. T. H. K Wichmann. Military Attache. Maj .. Gen. P. V. Hammershay.
Naval Attache. Capt. Fritz Carl Heisterberg.Andersen.
OF THE U.S.A. IN DENMARK

Ambassador. Val Petersoll.
C01Jnsellor8. Marselis C. Parsons, Jr; James H. Lewis (Economic).
First Secretary. Ward P. Alien. Service Attaches: Col. Joel F. Thomason
(Army), Capt. Kenneth P. Hance (Navy), Lieut.·Col. Charles J. McManaman
(Air) . Agricultural Attache. Elmer A. Reese.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFOIUlATlOll. Tbe Danish Statistical Department (Frederiksholm.. Kana
27, Copenhagen K.) was founded In 1849 and reorganized in 1896; it is admini.tratively
placed uoder the Minister of Finance. Chief; C. Ulrich Mortensen. StaLlstics concerning
banks a~ d railways are outside its purview. Its main publications are: Statistisk .Aarb09.-
Statis/ish e Efte-rretniTlo}er.-Statistiske M eddelelser.-Hamlclsstati.•tiske M eddeklser.-Statistisk
Tabel'.'IU'I·ker.-Det stali .•tiske del,artment, 1920 -50 (19;;1).-Denmark (1956; pUblished toget her
with Mir.istry for Foreign Affairs)
Bibliogra{is!, Forttl)nel ... <wer Stalens TrllksQ{Jer og statsunderstetude Publikalioner. Copen·
hagen. Royal Library. Annuai
Dania p"lygloua. Rtpertoire bibUographique annuel des ouvrQ{Je8 en langues ~lraTlo}tres paros en
Dane-mark. Allnual
Kongelig Dansi: Ho/ 09 Statskalender. KObenhavn. Annual
Pacts ahf. ut Denmark. Ministry Ior FOrP.ign Atfair!'l, 19!)9
Brondsted, J., and Gedde, K., De fem laTlo}e .Aar. 3 vols. Copenhllgen, 1946--47
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 945
Brynildsen, F., A Dictionarv 0/ /hI English and Dano·Norwegian Language.... 2 vols. Copen·
hagen, 1902-07
Danstmp, J., History of Dmmark. 2nd ed. Copenhagen, 1949
Friis, H., (ed.). Scandinavia BtltDten EaJ'1 and We:.'t. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithllca, 1950
Frisch, H., and others, D(Jnmark besat og b~fTiet. 3 vols. Copenhagen, 1945-48
Gedde, K., This is Denmark. Copenhagen, 1948
Krabbe, L., HistQirt <k Danemark. Copenhagen and Paris, 1950
Outze, R. (ed.). Denmark during the German occupation. Copenhagen, 1916
Trap, J. P., Kong,rig,t Danmark. 5th ed. 11 vols. Copenhagen, lU531I.
Vinterberg, H., aDd Dodelseo, O. A" Dansk-en'}elsk ordbog. Copenhagen, 1954-56
NATIONAL LlBR.\HY. De~ Kongelige Bibliotek, Copellllagen. Librarian: P. Birkelund.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
REPUBLICA DOMINICANA
On 5 Dec. 1492 Columbus discovered the island of Sant-o Doruingo, which

he called La Espaiiola; for a time it was called Hispaniola. The city of
Santo Domingo, founded by his brother, 13artholomew, in 1496, is the oldest
city in the Americas and was for long the centre of Spanish power in America.
The western third of the island-now known as the Republic of Haiti-
was later occupied and colonized by the French, to whom the Spanish colony
of Santo Domingo was also ceded in 1795. In 1808 the Dominican popula-
tion, aided by British troops, expelled the French, and the colony returned
to the rule of Spain, from which it declared its independence in 1821. It
was invaded and held by the Haitillns from 1822 to 1844, when they were
expelled, and the Dominican Republic was founded and a constitution
adopted. Great Britain, in 1850, was the first country to recognize the
Dominican Republic. The country was occupied by American Marines from
1916 until the adoption of a new constitution in 1924. In 1936 the name of
the capital city was changed from Santo Domingo to Ciudad Trujillo.
National flag: blue, red; quartered by a white cross.
National anthem: Quisqueyanos valien tes, alzemos (words by E.
Prud'homme; tune by J. Reyes, 1883).
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The republic is goveooed

under the constitution proclaimed on 1 Dec. 1955.
Congress is composed of a senate of 23 members (1 from each of the 22
provinces and 1 from the National District) chosen for 5 years by direct
popular vote and a cb.amber of 52 deputies (1 for every 60,000 inhabitants
or fraction above 30,000 in each province), with a minimum of 2 deputies
for anyone province, also for 5 years. The National District, established
from 1 Dec. 1955, returns 1 senator and 4 deputies. Senators and deputies
receive the equivalent of USS600 per month.
The executive power is vested in the President, who is elected for 5 years,
by direct vote. In case of death, resignation or disability, the President is
succeeded by the Vice-President. There are 15 secretaries of state in
charge of departments.
General elections under a revised constitution, at which women voted
for the first time, wore held on 16 May 1942; 2 women were elected to the
chamber and 1 to the senate. Citizens are entitled to vote at the age of 18,
or less when married.
Since 1948 the President has been given extraordinary powers to regulate
by decree and without congressional approval all matters concerning national
946 DOMINICAN REPUBUC
security and welfare, culminating in 1951 when he was given power to

declare a national emergency and to suspend the constitutional checks on
the executive.
Pre3i,ient of the Republic. Hector Bienvenido Trujillo Molina, elected
unopposE,d 16 May 1952 in succession to his brother Gen. Ra.fael Leonidaa
Trujillo Molina, who had been President from 1930 to 1938 and from 1942
to 1952. The brother has been the de facto military dictator of the republic
since his coup d'etat in 1930.
Forei:7n M inister. Lic. Porfirio Herrera Ba.ez.
AREA AND POPULATION . The Dominica.n Republic occupies the

eastern Fortion (about two· thirds) of the island of HispanioJa., Quisqueya or
Santo D.)mingo, the western division forming the republic of Haiti. It
consists .)f the National District (containing the capital, Ciudad Trujillo),
and 22 Frovinces (formerly 12). Area is 48,442 sq. km (18,700 sq. miles)
with 870 miles of coastline, 193 miles of frontier line with Haiti (marked
out in 1936).
The 22 provinces are: La Altagracia, Azua, Bahoruco, Barahona,
Benefact)r, Duarte, Espaillat, Independencia, Libertador, Montecristi,
Puerto Hata, Salcedo, Samana, Sanchez Ramirez, San Pedro de Macorfs,
San Rafael, Santiago, Santiago Rodriguez, El Seibo, Trujillo, Trujillo Valdez
and La. Yega.
Census population of 1955 was 2,539,325 (1,272,245 males and 1,267,080
females); urban population, 656,822 (25,8%). Density of population,
(projecte:l, 1960), was 62·23 per sq. km (161 per sq. mile). Estimated total,
1 Jan. 1!}59, 2,843,415.
Popu:.ation (estimated I July 1958) of the principal cities: Ciudad
1.'rujillo, 316,292; Santiago de los Caballeros, 69,060; San Francisco de
Macorls,22,979; San Pedro de Macorls, 22,071 ; La Romana, 20,416; Santa
Cruz de :Barahona, 18,043; Concepcion de la Vega, 17,911; San FeJipe de
Puerto Plata, 17,412.
In 19.58 the crude birth rate was 41 ·4 per 1,000 population; crude death
rate, 8·5; marriage rate, 4·2 ; divorce rate, 0·3. In 1957 marriages registered
were 10,081 ; divorces, 986 ; live births, 110,447; deaths, 23,209.
In 1950 census of the professions (with number of women members in
parenthe;es) showed : 916 lawyers (24); 1,813 doctors and midwives (925);
816 pharmacists (215); 1,067 engineers (18).
The J'opulation is partly of Spanish descent, but is mainly composed of
a. mixed race of European, African and Indian blood. The 1950 census
showed E(l0,994 whites, 245,032 Negroes, 1,289,285 of mixed blood and 561
of other :mces ; 2,093,195 spoke Spanish, 25,405 French and 12,140 English.
Tax.exempt land has been set aside for the settlement of European refugees,
both Jewish and non.Jewish, who are guaranteed full civio rights.
The Ilapital, Ciudad Trujillo, on the right bank of the river Ozama,
was pra~tically destroyed, except for a. few historic buildings, by a.
disastrotB hurricane on 3 Sept 1930. It has been rebuilt and materially
improve(\.
RELIGION . The religion of the state is Roman Catholic; other forma

of religion are permitted. The 1950 census showed 2,098,474 Catholics,
30,538 Protestants, 463 Jews. There is a papal nuncio as well as an Arch·
bishop, ~:nown as the Primate of the Indies, both residing iD Ciudad Trujillo.
EDUCATION. Primary instruction is gratuitous and obligatory for
children between 7 and 14 years of age; there are also seoondary. normal.
vocational and speoial schools. the total at the end of 1958 being 4.955. all
of which were either wholly maintained by the state or state· aided ; teachers
numbered 21,422 a.nd pupils 816,813. The campaign against adult ilIit·
eracy dates from 1941; in 1950 (census) 56'7% of those 10 years of age
or older were illiterate but only 29 ' 5% of those in urban areas. In 1955,
3,116 classes for adults had 64,910 students. The University of Santo
Domingo (founded 1538) had (1 958) 9 schools with 3,892 students and IDG
teachers.
Cinemas (1958). Cinemas numbered 83. with seating capacity of 34.326.
Newspapers (1958). There were 4 daily newspapers (2 in the capital)
with total circulation of 56,000.
WELFARE. Great progress hns been made in sanitation; 70 towns
(1957) have complete waterworks. There were, in 1957, 70 hospitals (with
5,685 beds) and 115 private clinics (with 1,363 beds).
JUSTICE. The judicial power resides in the Supreme Court of Justice,
the courts of appeal, the courts of first instance, the oommunal courts
and other tribunals created by special laws. such as the land courts. The
Supreme Court consists of a president and 8 judges chosen by the Senate.
and the procurator. general, appointed by the executive; it supervises the
lower courts. The republic is divided into 22 judicial districts. each having
its own procurator fiscal and court of first instance; these districts are sub·
divided. in all, into 69 communes, each with one or more local justices. The
death penalty was abolished in 1924. but is imposed in war· time for treason
or espionage.
FINANCE. The receipts and disbursements for 6 calenda.r years, in
Dominican gold pesos (RD$), equal to the US$. were:
1954 19~5 1958 1967 1968 1959 •
Revenue . 116,080,247 131,646,116 147,539,943 158,000,000' 150,316,250 152,469,000
Expenditure . 107,921,904 127,266,967 144,647,661 153,158,500 147,081,278 151,365,969
• Estimated.
Income tax, established in 1949. was replaced in 1950 by an identity.
card tax. known as the' cMula tax'.
Chief source of revenue in 1958 was customs duties and other taxes.
RD$120,019,500. Chief items of expenditure in 1958 were: Defence.
RD$30,372,370; treasury. RD$50,348,669.
There is no national debt, internal or external.
DEFENCE. The armed forces, which are under the adminietration of
the Financial Seoretary of State, consist of the Army with a total strength
of 12,000. navy personnel of 2,000, an aviation corps and a number of
coastal patrol boats.
In ID47 compulsory military training for 1 year wa.s decreed, aiming at
an active reserve of men between 18 and 35. and those from 35 to 55 in the
special reserve. A total of 50,000 is aimed at.
The Navy includes 2 destroyers (H.M.S. Fame and Ho/spur acquired in
1948-49 and renamed Generalisimo and Trujillo) , 3 frigates, 5 corvettes.
6 patrol vessels, 6 landing craft and 24 auxiliaries and small craft.
The Aviation Corps, with H.Q. at San I sidoro, consists of 2 operational
squadrons, each with about 30 first·line aircraft. One is equipped with
948 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
F-51D l'{ustang piston-engined interceptors; the other with piston-engined

F-47D Thunderbolt and jet-powered Vampire 1I'Ik_ 1 fighter-bombers.
There is a transport squadron of C-46 Commando aircraft and a bomber
unit equipped with a few veteran B-17G Fortresses. Catalina flying-boats
are usee: for maritime reconnaissance. Total strength of the Aviation
Corps is approximately 250 aircraft and 3,000 personnel.
Ther" is a national constabnlary under direct supervision from the capital.
with abeut 6,800 men.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture is the chief source of
wealth,mgar cultivation being the principal industry. Of the total area.
9,900 sq. miles are cnltivable, and about 3,700 are under cultivation. Sume
87 cana.'l irrigate about 318,270 acrcs. Twelve agricnltural settlements
were eshblished in 1939, occupying 807,000 acres, of wbich 274,700 were
to be cultivated. Most of the remainder is forest land, mainly pine-groves,
which is useless for agriculture. 150 Japanese families were brought in to
engage in coffee growing and the fisheries in 1958. Livestock in 1957
included 073,861 cattle, 1,273,208 pigs and 484,521 horses, mules and asses.
The .:argest sugar estates are in the south-eastern part of the republic.
Sugar pIoduction,1955, was officially limited to 613,040 metric tons (633,740
in 1954); world markets would get 575,000 (including 25,000 to U.S.A.) and
home censumption 56,000. Export of refined sugar was 43,142 metrie
tons in 1957. Two companies produce four-fifths of the total, but in all
there arE 15 sugar' centrals,' of which 6 are owned and operated by American
companies, although exports of sugar to U.S.A. are limited by the quota
system (,stablished by Congress in favour of Cuban sugar. At times cane
has beeD shipped to Puerto Rico, where it was ground and the sugar ship-
ped, duty-free, to U.S.A_ Exports (raw sugar), 1958, were 668,883 metric
tons; tte U.K. took 398,985 metric tons.
Coffee, grown originally for the French market, is making headway in
U.S.A., which takes 20,000 metric tons per annum. Output, 1957, 35,847
metric tons. Export~ in 1958,25,752 metric tons (valued at RD$23,789,042),
largely to U.S.A. Production of rice for home consumption and export
is fosterod; output, 1957,74,443 metric tons. Cocoa is the second principal
crop; e~ports in 1957 were 23,960 metric tons, all to U.S.A., out of a total
output o)f 26,500 metric tons. Other principal exports are leaf tobacco
(11,505 :netric tons in 1958) and molasses( 206,943 metric tons).
MinIng. Various minerals are found, principal among which are gold
and copper. Iron is produced in the Hatillo area in the form of black magnetio
oxide of iron (about 60-68% pure) and petroleum has been found in shallow
pockets in the Azua region. Silver and platinum have been found, and near
Neiba t:lere are several hills of rock salt (production 1957, 50,284 short
tons). The Aluminium Company of America sent its first shipment for
smelting, to Texas on 13 Jan. 1959. It is extracted from 5 sites, having
equipment for 750,000 tons output per year. Alluvial washing of gold by
pans is allowed (286 fine oz., 1957).
Industry. In 1957, 2,993 industrial establishments employed 87,290
men and women, who earned RD$37·5m. Raw materials valued at
RD$8I,!57,196 gave an output valued at RD$219,050,217.
COMMERCE. Total imports and exports in RD$ (equal to US$):
1964 1966 1956 1957 1958
Imports 82,827,010 98,066,155 108,277,9~2 116,478.309 129,519,033
Exports 119,726,923 114,849,773 124,559,106 161,018,032 ]36,614,711
Exports (in metric tons) in 1958 were: Raw sugar, 651,490
(RD$54,51 8,458); molasses, 206,942,800 litres (RD$3,826,286); cocoa.
24.096 (RD$20.568.171); coffee, 25.752 (RD$23.789,042).
In 1958 the chief imports included (in RD$): Machinery, 21.158.720;
foodstuffs, 11.924,983; petroleum and fuel oils. 10.231.497; cotton goods.
9.578.1G2; vehicles, including motor cars. 14.020,578; clcctrical appliances,
9.330,483.
In 1958 exports to U.S.A. were RD$68·7m. (1957. RD$62m.) and imports
from U.S.A. were HD$77·4m. (1957. RD$71·]m.).
Total trade between the Dominicl1!l Republic and U.K. (in £ sterling.
British Board of Trade returns) :
1933 1955 1~5G 1~57 1958 1059
Imports to U.K. 1,447.614 10,987,414 12,838.2~~ ~1/J~4.570 II,SI)7,029 7,4;')1,1;",7
J.~xports from U .!C. . 91,966 1.081.010 1.159.717 1,747,278 1,871,885 l,!j79,3::!l
ne·exports froUl U.K. 113 7,932 7.494 8.169 21,(J81 7,O.lfl
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Ciudad Trujillo is by far the leading

port; Puerto Plata ranks next. 1n 19.58, 1•• 30 vessels of 3.103,561 net tons
pntcred the ports to discharge G49.860 tons of c"rgo, and 1.728 with a n~t
tonnage of 3.188.748 cleared with export cargo of 1.239,131 tons.
Roads. Three main trunk highways, with branches, extend from Ciudad
Trujillo eastward to Higuey (106 miles). northward to Santiago and Monte·
cristi and Dajab6n (204 miles) and westward to San Juan (128 miles) and
Elins l'iiia on the Haitian border (161 miles). At Elias Pina the road
joins the Haitian road to Port·au·Prince. The journey between the Haitian
and Dominican capitals is now possible by motor in 9 hours. Total high.
\\'oy system in 1059 was 4,715 km. mainly second·clas~ and inter· communal
roads; there are 554 bridges. Road transport is the chief means of travel.
}[otor vehicles, 1959 (excluding official), were 17,920. including 8,321
passenger cars and 8,054 commercial vehicles.
Railways. There were. in 1050, 1,770 km; of these the majority were
private railway lines on the sugar and other large estates.
Post. Number of post offices, 1959, 156; telephone or telegraph
offices,70; radio·telegraph offices, 36; telephone instruments, 18.287. The
telephone system is mainly operated by an American company with auto·
matic systems in 9 main towns. The telegraph has a total length of about
5,000 km, privately owned; they have been leased to Al!·America Cables,
Inc., which also controls submarine cables connecting, in the north. Puerto
Plata with Puerto Rico and New York, and in the south, Ciudad Trujillo
with Puerto Rico, Cuba and Curayao.
There are 30 broadcasting stations in Ciudad Trujillo, Santiago and 7
ot.her towns; this includes the 3 government stations. There is onc tele·
vision station, at Santo Carro.
Aviation. The country is reached from the American continent and the
Caribbean islands by 5 airiines. A local aviation company connects Ciudad
Trujillo with Miami and Santiago de los Caballeros. San Pedro de Macoris
and 5 other large towns.
MONEY AND BANKING. In Oct. 1947 the peso oro, equal to the
dollar. was formally made the unit of currency, replacing the U.S.A . gold
dollar. which had been the standard since 1 Julv 1897. The new bank·
notes are backed by S4m. in gold and by $48,215,000 in U.S. b'lllk·notes
and deposits in New York banks. Both currencies circulate. but only the
950 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
peso has been legal tender since 1947. There are silver coins for 50, 25
and 10 centavos, a copper-nickel 5·centavo piece and a copper I-centavo
piece.
The Dominican Republic joined the International Monetary Fund in
April 1948, placing the peso at the same gold value as the USS (see p. 25).
On 2'~ Oct. 1941 a law was passed for the creation of a Dominican com·
mercial hank (government controlled) to be known as the Banco de Reservas
de la Republica Dominicana, with a capital of RD$lm., increased in 1956
to RDS'im. The new bank, starting with branches purchased from the
National City Bank of New York, opened for business on 27 Oct. 1941 and
now has II branches covering the country. It is authorized to perform all
customalY banking transactions. On 31 Dec. 1958 its assets and liabilities
totalled RD$1l0,687,769. There are 2 foreign banks-the Royal Bank of
Canada with 5 branches and the Bank of Nova Scotia. An agricultural
and mortgage bank, with paid. up capital of RD $500,OOO, was established in
1945; in 1950 its capital was increased to RD$5m.; in 1952 steps were
begun to raise it to RD$20m. to cover a 5-year programme of agricultural
expansion.
In 19·17 the Central Bank of the Dominican Republic was launched; its
balance !,heet on 30 May 1959 showed gold reserves of RD$ll,466,263'66
and foreign exchange, RD$50.535,182·51. Chief liability item was note
circulaticn, chiefly bank-notes of I, 5 and 10 pesos; total assets and liabilit.ics
were RD$67·6m.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system was nominally

adopted :)11 1 Aug. 1913, but English and Spanish units have remained in
common use in ordinary commercia.1 tra nsactions; on 17 Sept. 1954 a more
drastic law requiring the decimal metric system was passed.

The Dominican Republic maintains embassies in Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, France, Haiti, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Peru, Spain,
U.K., U.:'.A., Vatican, Venezuela ; and legations in Bolivia., Cuba, Ecuador,
El Salva,ior, Germany, Honduras, Japan, Lebanon, Panama, Paraguay,
Portugal, Switzerland, Taiwan, Turkey, Uruguay.
011' THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC IN GREAT BRITAIN
(37 Eaton Square, S.W.l)
Ambassador. Dr Hector Garcia GOOoy (accredited IO July 1959); also
Minister to Lebanon, Ambassador to the Netherlands and Turkey.
First Secretary. Mada Perdomo.
There are consular representatives at Belfast, Cardiff, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, Grimshy, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Nottingham and
Southampton.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIO
Ambassador. Wilfred Wolt.ers l\fcVittie, C.M.G.
First Secretary. D. Reis, M.B.E. Air Attach!!. Group Capt. E. W .
'""ootten, D.F .C., A.F.C.
There are consular representatives at Ciudad Trujillo, Puerto PInta
and San Pedro de Macorls.
ECUADOR 951
O~' THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC IN TlI.E U.S.A. (1715-22nd St. NW.,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr Luis F. Thomen.
ll:linister. Cesar Cortina. Ninister Counsellor. Dl' Marco A. de Pelia.
CounseUors. Mario Rodriguez M.; Federico Llaverias E.; Danilo Trujillo
(Commercial). First Secretary. Max Pineda. Armed Forces Attache. Col.
Luis E. Mena·Costa.
OF THE U.S.A. IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Ambassador. Joseph S. Farland.
Counsellors . Henry Dearborn; Charles L. Hodge (Economic). Service
Attaches: Lieut.·Col. Samuel G. Kail (Army, resident in Havana), Lieut.-
Col. Edwin H. Simmons (Navy), Lieut.-Col. Robert P. Foley (Air, resident
in CaracaR). Agricultural Attache. Richard A. Schwartz.
Books of Reference
Anuario tJladis/ico de la Republica Dominicana, 1944-45. Cillrlad l'rujillo. 19·19. 'Ibis has
been succeeded by separate A.nnuo.l reports covering foreign trade, vital statistics, banking,
insurance, bousing. and communications.
Dlrccci6n G.nem! de E,tadistica. 21 alios de c.<tadf..ticas dominicanas ]936-1956. Ciudad
Trujl1lo, 1957.
Review of ClJ"wleTciai CondilionJ: Dominican Republic. n.M.S.a., 1950
Refugee Sett/e"'e1It in the Dominican Republic. Brookings InstituLion, Washington, D.C., 1942
Bishop, O. M' l and Marcbant, A., Guide 10 the .Law and Legal Literature 01 Cuba the Dominican
Republic alld Haiti . Library of Con!(tcss, Washington. D.C .. 19-14
Rodrlguez, A., La Cuestion Dominico-lIaitiana: Estudio Geograjtco-/J ist-Jrico. 2nd eJ. San
Domingo, 1919
Welles, Sumner, Naboth's 'V ineyard. (History of events culminn,tlng in rc-es tablishment of
Const.itution:li Go\o'ernruent, by former U.S. Commi,;3ion r r tu tbe RcpuLJli c.) 2 vol~.
New York, 1~:38
ECUADOR
REPUBLICA DEL ECUADOR
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Republic of Ecuador
is situated in the north· west of South America, with about one-fifth of its
area lying north of the equator. It is bounded on the north by Colombia
and by a narrow extension of Peru, on the south by Peru, on the east by
Colombia and Peru and on the west by the Pacific Ocean and Peru. The
frontier with Peru has long been a source of intermittent dispute between
the two countries. The latest delimitation of it was in a treaty of 29 Jan.
1942, when, after being invaded by Peru, Ecuador ceded the latter over
half her Amazonian territories. See map in THE STATESML'<'S YEAR-BoOK,
1942.
The Spaniards under Francisco Piza.rro founded a colonial empire in the
territory aiter defeating the local ruler at the battle of Cajamarca on 16 Nov.
1532, On 24 May 1822 the Presidency of Quito, as it was then known,
became part of the original Republic of Colombia, founded by Sim6n BoJfvar
in 1819 by uniting it to the vice-royalty of New Granada (now Colombia)
and the captaincy-general of Venezuela at the Congress of Angostura, 17
Dec. 1819. The Presidency of Quito became the Republic of Ecuador b,
amicable secession 13 May 1830.
Under the new constitution promulgated 6 March 1945 the President is
952 ECUADOR
elected directly by the people for a term of 4 years, and is eligible for re-
election dter an interval of 4 years; he must be a native Ecuadorean at
loo.st 40 :,ears of age and not related by blood or marriage to the retiring
President. Congress consists of a Chamber of Deputies, elected for 2 yearn
by provinces on a population basis, and a Senate elected similarly for 4 years.
In additi.)n, special Senators are elected by professional, cultural, business
and racial groups.
Votem are all literate Ecuadoreane, men and women, over 18 years of
age. We·men voted for the first time in 1939.
The following is a list of the presidents and provisional executives since
1934, wit:l the date on which they took office:
Dr Jost Marla Velasco Ibarr&, 1 Sept. 1934; Dr Jose Mw1a Velasco Ibarra, elected by
deposed \,0 Aug. 1931'1. Constituent Assembly, Aug. 19H : re-
Dr Antonl" Pons, 20 Aug.-26 Sept. 193~ elected 11 Aug. 1946, but deposed 24
(re..lgned: . Aug. 1947.
Federico Pl.ez, 'Supreme Head 01 tbe State; Col. Corloo Mancbeno, s~izcd power 2·' Aug.
26 Sept. 1936 ; elected Actiog President, 1947; deposed 3 Sept. 1'47.
10 Aug. 1937; resigned 23 Oct. 1937. Mw1ano Suarez VeintimWa (Vice·Pregident),
Gen. O. Alberto Enrlque., •Supremo Head 3-15 Sept. 1941.
01 tbe Slate,' 23 Oct. 1937; relinquisbed Corlas Julio Arosemena (provisional), 16
power on 10 Aug. 1938. Sept. 1947.
Dr Manuel M. Borrero, Provisional President, 08010 Plaza Lasso, 1 Sept. 1948-31 Aug. 1952.
11 Aug.-l; Dec. 1938. Dr Jo.6 Marlft Velo..,"o Ibarra. 1 Sept. 1962-
Dr Aurello :I!osquera NarvAez, elected 3 Dec. 31 Aug. 19fJS.
1938; dll>d 19 Nov. 1939.
Oarloa All>< rto Arrayo del Rio, eleeted 12
Jan. 1940; resigned 30 May 1944.
Preaicient of the Republic. Dr Camilo Ponce Enriquez, elected 3 June
1956, assumed office, 1 Sept. 1956 for 4 years.
National flaa: yellow (2), blue (I), red (I), horizontal.
Natio"al anthem: Salve, oh patria! (words by J. L. Mera; tuno by
A. Neuml.nn, 1866).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. The country is divided politically into 20 pro·
vinces; four of them comprise the 'Region Oriental' and one the Archi-
pelago of Galapagos, officially called 'Colon', situated in the Pacific Ocean
about 6OC' miles to the west of Ecuador and comprising 15 islands. The
provinces are administered by governors, appointed by the Government;
t.heir subdivisions, or cantons, by political chiefs and elected cantonal
councillor3; and the parishes by political lieutenants. The Galapagos
Archipela,~o is administered by the Ministry of National Defence.
AREA AND POPULATION. No definite figure of the area of the

country can yet be given, a.s a portion of the frontier has not been delimited.
One estimate shows 455,454 sq. km, including the Archipelago of Colon (the
13 Galaps.gos Islands) with 7,430 sq. km. The United Nations Statistical
Office excludes the' Region Oriental' and the Galapagos Islands and gh'es
the settled portion of E cuador as 270,670 sq. km.
Ecua.d or ha.e 3 distinct zonee: the Sierra or uplands of the Andes, con-
aisting of high mountain ridges with valleys, with nearly 60% of the popula.
tion and high-priced farming land; the Costa, the coastal plain between the
Andes and the Pacific, with permanent plantations furnishing cacao, coffee,
bananas, uugar cane and many other crops; the Oriente, the upper Amazon
basin on the east, consisting of tropical jungles threaded by large rivers.
Whiten form 10% of the total population; Indians, 39%; mixed, 41%;
the rest are mulattos, negroes and others. The language of the country is
ECUADOR 953
Spanish. The Indians speak the Quechua language; in the Oriental Region
the Jlbaro tribe has a language of its own-' Jibaro'. The Constituent
Assembly of 1944-45 had, for the first time, a representative elected by the
Indians.
Ecuador's first census of population was t aken on 29 Nov. 1950; it
showed a total of 3,202,757 (1,594,803 males and 1,607,954 females) . The
census was hampered by strong opposition from the Indian villages. The
working population was given as 1,236,590, of which two·thirds were
agricultural. Estimated population in Dec. 1958,4,119,600.
The population was distributed by provinces as follows (capitals in
brackets) :
Population
Area (estimated) Population
rrvvincC8 (sq. km) 1957 per sq. km
Azuay (Cuenea) 7,799 296,925 3i
}lollv.. r (Guaraoda) 3•.n6 133,226 41
Cail~r (Azogues) 2,677 115,254 43
Carebl (Tulean) . . 3,582 91,422 25'5
Ohlmborazo (Rlobl\lllba) . 6,161 260,951 42
Ootopaxl (LatncllD8R) 4.614 192,611 42
El Oro (Maebala) . 7,451 114,082 15
Esmeraldas (EsmeraldllS) It.,~66 92,98·\ 6
Gua:vas (GuByaquil) 21.259 716,526 34
Imbabura (Ibarra) . 4,~03 167,606 34
Loja (Loja). . 28,900 276,609 005
I.os Rios (Bababoyo) :;,937 191,0·18 32
Manabl (Portoviejo) 18,963 527,042 27·5
Picbincba (Qulto) . 16,4 38 456,982 27·5
Tungurabua (Ambato) . . :l,204 218,787 68
Napo (Tena) • . '} ' 30, 3:;7
Pastaza (Puyo) . . 206,390 {
Morona-Santiago (MncliS) .
Zamora·Chinehipe (Z:unora) 23,168
Galapagos Islands (San Crist6bal) 7,844 1,687
Total• . 455,454 3,906,907 8'~
There are 7-! cantons, 119 urban parishes and 585 rural parishes. The
chief towns are the capital, Quito (237,103, 1955 estimatc), Guayaquil
(295,791), Cuenca (58,879), Ambato (38,543), Riobamba (35,099), Loja
(23,75i), Latacunga (29,423) and Azogues (9,154) ,
Vital statistics for calendar years: Births, (1956) 172,743, (195i) 184,919,
(1958) 185,558; deaths, (1956) 57,778, (1957) 57,885, (1958) 61,250.
RELIGION. The state recognizes no religion and grants freedom of
worship to all.
The Catholic Church has 3 archbishops and 7 bishops. Since 1895 all
state appropriations for the benefit of the Church have ceased. Members
of the episcopate must be Ecuadorean citizens. A modus vivendi was con-
cluded by the Ecuadorean Government and the Holy See on 24 July 1937,
governing the relations between the Catholio Church and the state. Civil
registration of births, deaths and marriages is obligatory. Divorce is
permitted. Under the 1945 oonstitution illegitimato children havo the
same rights as legitimate ones with respect to education and inheritance,
EDUCATION, Primary education is frec and obligatory, Secondary
education is carried on in secondary schools or colleges and higher educa·
tion in 6 universities at Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca, Loja and Portoviejo.
Private schools, both primary and secondary, are under some state super·
vision. There were (1957) 4,661 primary schools with 501,622 pupils, 249
954 ECUADOR
secon<1ary schools with 53,840 pupils and 6 universities and a polytechnic

schoo] with 6,646 students. The 1950 census showed that 43·7% of those
over :to years of age were illiterate. A campaign against adult illiteracy
was s ~arted in 1944.
Cinemas (1958). Cinemas numbered about 90 with total seating capacity
of 12,000.
N.lw8pa.pera(1958). There were 25 daily newspapers with an aggregate
daily circulation of 250,000; 9 papers in Quito and Guayaquil have 80% of
the circulation.
JUSTICE. The Supreme Court in Quito is t he highest tribunal and

consists of 5 justices and the Minister Fiscal. Of the 8 superior courts,
3 are composed of 6 judges and 5 of 3 judges each. There are numerous
lower courts. The popular jury was abolished in 1928, and criminal cases
are heard before a • special jury ' consisting of 3 members of the Ecnadoreao
bar, ,)r '3 citizens of recognized integrity' appointed annually by the
soper.,or courts. Capital punishment and aU forms of torture are prohibited
under the constitution. Likewise imprisonment for debt and contracts
involving personal servitude or slavery. Substantial amendments ex·
pediting judicial procedure were introduced in 1936, and salaries for all
judicial officials replaced remuneration by fees.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure for calendar years, in Im. sucres

(1 5·U; sucres = US31, official rate):
1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1953
Revenlle 810 1,116 1,238 1,443 1,468 1,169
Erpen,liture 919 1,258 1,479 1,443 1,468 1,469
The foreign debt on 31 Dec. 1958 was equal to $63·12m. ; internal

debt, 680m. sucres. Par values of British investments, end of 1949, were
£4,363,609, of which 51·2% were in default. Adebt settlement was reached
with~be London Council of Foreign Bondholders in July 1953; repayment
began in April I 955. £53,800 and US$7,612,980 were outstanding at 31 Dec.
1958.
DEFENCE. Military service was made compulsory on 24 May 1921,

and was enforced for the first time in 1935. The country is clivided into
7 military districts.
Army. The regular Anny is composed of 3 regiments of artillery, 9
battalions of infantry, I regiment and 3 squadrons of cavalry, 3 battalions
of sappers and 1 aviation company. The Army has about 30 tanks. A
school of military engineering and artillery at Quito has about 400 cadets.
Navy. The Navy con.~ists of3 frigates (inc\ucling 2 British ' Hunt ' class
acquired in 1955), a patrol vessel, 12 new German·built patrol boats, and 6
auxiliaries and coastguard vessels. Naval personnel totals 3,780. In Sept.
1942 naval bases were granted to the U.S. in the Gahipagos Islands !lnd on
the Santa Elena peninsula.
Air Force. The Air Force, formed with Italian assistance in 1920, was
re.organized and re.equipped with U.S. aircraft after Ecuador signed the
Rio Pact of Mutual Defence in 1947. There is now a reconnaissance. fighter
squadron equipped with Meteor F.R.9 jet aircraft and a bomber squadron
ECUADOR 955
of jet·powered Canberras, both types having been obtained from Britain.
Piston.engined F·47D Thunderbolts equip the fighter. bomber squadron.
Other types in servioe inoIude the C·47 transport, Catalina flying.boat and
T·6 Texan basic trainer.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Eouador is divided into two agrioul.

tural zones: the ooast regions and the lower river valJeys, where tropioal
farming is oarried on in an average temperature of from 180 to 25 0 C. ; and
the hill country, the foothills and the mountain valleys, adapted to grazing,
dairying and the produotion of oereals, potatoes, and the fruits and vege·
tables suitable to temperate climes.
A tract of rich virgin land, amounting to 124,000 acres, in the SaDto
Domingo de los Colorados area has been set aside for colonization purposes.
Exoepting the two agricultural zones and a few arid spots on the Pacific
coast, Ecuador is a vast forest. Roughly estimated, 10,000 sq. miles on
the Pa.cific slope extending from the sea to an altitude of 5,000 ft on the
Andes, aDd the Amazon Basin below the same level containing 80,000 sq.
miles, nearly all virgin forest, are rioh in dyewoods, cinchona trees aDd
othcr valuable timber, including balsa. wood. Only a third, in the coastal
region, is commercially accessible. Ecuador is the world's chief source of
balsa supply; the tree (of the OcJ.ro'flUJ. or silk·cotton family) ill found on the
western coastal lowlands and also in the' Orient' region. Exports of balsa.
were worth S2·1m. in 1957.
The staple products of EcuRdor are cocoa, bananas and coffee, which
make up 90% of her exports. Of total exports in 1958, valued at $94·9m.,
COCOR furnished S20·5m.; bananas, S35·2m.; coffee. S25·7m .: rice, $3·4m.
Livestock, estimated in 1955: Cattle, I·6m.; sheep,I·25m.
Mining. Ecuador is auriferous, producing, usually, between 2,000 and
3,000 kg; output, 1958.20,025 fine oz. In 1958 output of silver was 84,500
troyoz. Production of crude petroleum in 1958 was 129·lm. U.S. gallolls;
production of derivatives was 93·7m . Ecuador is able to export crude, but
owing to lack of refining capacity has to import some rcfined products.
The country has some copper, iron, leltd and coal; sulphur exists in the
Chimborazo distriot and in the Galapagos Islands, but output has been small.
All salt JOust be sold through the Government, whioh thus controls imports,
exports and sales; output in 1957,33,000shorttonsandin 1958,19,397 short
tons. Cement output, 1958, from the country's 2 plants was 159,831 metric
tons.
Electricity. In 1957, total working potential of hydraulio and thermal
plants was 84,300 kw.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports (exoiuding minerals, petroleum
and currency) for calendar years, in Im. sucres, were as follows:
1352 1953 1354 1955 19:;6 1957 1958
Imports . . 879·1 951·0 1,519' 8 1,419'2 1,361 '4 1,392'0 1,321·0
E:rports . . 1,200'1 1,135'2 1,527'9 1,331-3 1,393'3 1,479'6 1,435'0
Imports (in U8$lm.) have risen from $30'7 in 1946 to 893·6 in 1958;
exports, $40 in 1946, reaohed a record high of 8101'9 in 1954 and were
$94·9 in 1958.
Exports in 1056,698.599 metric tons; in 1957,839,691 metric tons.
U.S.A. furnished 56'9% of imports in 1954 and 51 % in 1958; and took
63,8% of Eouador's exports in 1954 and 57'7% in 1958.
956 ECUADOR
Total trade between Ecuador and U.K. (in £ sterling, British Board of
Trade returns) :
1938 1966 19{'6 1967 196P 19~~
Importll to U.K. 188,318 167,630 iiU32 766,352 687,000 325,!1!J4
llixport:1 from U.K. . 131,216 4,303,089 2,41l,~83 2,647.G31 2,314,437 2,101\,420
Re-up'>rta from U.K. 8i8 16,H6 1~,55G 8,069 14,098 18,61G
For the proposed' Gran-Colombian Customs and Economio Union' sce

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BuOK 1956, p. 882.
CCoMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Ecuador has 10 seaports, of which

Guaye.quil is the chief. The merchant navy is estimated at 25,000 tons of
sea-going and 7,000 tons of river craft. In 1958, 121 Norwegian vessels
(286,738 gross tons), 199 American (867,846), 304 German (710,012) and
59 Br.tish (269,798) entered and cleo.red Guo.yaquiI.
Roads. There arc now 1,591 miles of main trunk roads, 1,12] miles of
branch roads and 2,227 miles of bridle-paths; most roads are narrow, the
width of a motor car, and most of them are subject to landslides. There is
river <:ommunication, improved by dredging, throughout the principal agri-
cultural districts on the low ground to the west of the Cordillero. by the
rivers Guayas, Daule and Vinces (navigable for 200 miles by river steamers
in the rainy season). A trunk highway through the centre of the coastal
plain is planned, which will link Machala in the extreme south-west with
Santo Domingo and thus to Esmeraldas in the north-west and to the
north(:rn section of the Pan-American Highway at Latacunga and Quito.
In 1958 there werc over 8,000 passenger cars and over 15,000 com·
mercial vehicles.
R~ilways. A railway is open from Duran (opposite Guayaquil) to Quito
(288 miles). The Quito-San Lorenzo railway was officially opened in Aug.
1957; it will open up two potentially rich provinces. The total length of
the 9 Ecnadorean railways in operation is ] ,340 km. In 1956, 428,O:J2
metric tons of freight and 1,838,820 passengers were carried.
Posts. Quito is connected by telegraph with Colombia and Peru, and
by cable with the rest of the world. Wireless telegraphy has been installed
for dcmestic use; there are 26 stations in Quito, Guayaquil and other
principal towns, as well as in the Archipelago of Colon.
In 1958 there were 27,000 telephones in use, 14,000 ill Quito and 10,000 in
Guay~.qui1; nearly all were operated by the Government; 95% were auto-
matic.
Ariation. The following international lines operate: Avianca, I3raniff.
Ecuatoriana de Aviacion, K.L.l\I., Panagra. They connect Quito with
PanaDla, 4 hours; to Cali (Colombia), 2 hours; to Guayaquil, I hour, and to
New York, 16 hours. All the leading towns are connected by an almost
daily Ilir service, but landing fields are small.
MONEY AND BANKING. Since 1 Dec. 1950 the unit of account, the
8ucre, formerly equal to 7·40741 cents U.S., has been devalued to 6·66667
cents U.S.; USSl now equals 15·15 sucres. In Nov. 1959 the average
buying rate for the dollar in the free market was 17·34 sucres; selling 17·41.
The sncre is divided into 100 centavos. In circulation are a pure nickel
I-sucr~ and copper-nickel and copper-zinc 20- 10· and 5-centavo pieces.
The currency consists mainly of the notes of the Central Bank in denomina-
tions of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 sncres.
ECUADOR 957
The' Central Bank of Ecuador,' at Quito, with a capital of 14·8m. sucrcs.
is modelled after the Federal Reserve Banks of U.S.; through branches
opened in 6 towns it now deals in mortgage bonds. On 31 Jan. 1958 the
Central Bank had gold in its vaults, 324·7m. sucres, and foreign exchange
of 83·4m. sucres.
All commercial banks must be affiliated to the Centra.1 Bank; the
commercial banks, 1 Jan. 1959, had capital and reserves of 2,223w. sucres
and total assets of 3.966m. sucres.
The Bank of London and Montreal, Ltd, has branches in Quito and
Guayaquil.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. By a law of 6 Dec. 1856 the metric
system was made tbe legal standard but the Spanish measures are in general
use. The quintal is equivalent to 101·4 lb.
The meridian of Quito has been adopted as the official time.
Ecuador maintains embassies in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia. Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, France, Germany. Guate-
mala, Honduras, Italy, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama. Paraguay, Peru. Spain,
U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay, Vatican, Venezuela; and legations in Belgium,
El Salvador, Haiti, Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland.
OF ECUADOR IN GREAT BRITAIN (3 Hans Crescent, S.W.I)
AmbQ8sador. Leonidas Plaza Lasso (accredited 31 May 1957).
Minister Counsellor_ Dr Juan Chiriboga T.
Air Attache. Gen. Bolivar Pi co Santos.
Naval Attache. Capt. Ram6n Castro Jij6n.
Military Attache. Lieut.-Col. Rafael Armijos Valdivieso (resident in
Paris).
There are consular representatives at Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool
and London.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN ECUADOR
Ambassador. C. A. G. Meade, C.M.G.
First Secretary. J . E. Cable.
Naval Attache. Capt. J. R. Gower, D.S.C., R.N_
There are consular officers at Guayaquil and Quito.
OF ECUADOR IN THE U.S.A. (2027 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,
Washington 6, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr Jose R. Chiriboga V.
"~linister Counsellor. Dr Enrique Sinchez-Barona. Service Attaches:
Maj.-Gen. Carlos A. Cabrera (Army), Rear-Adm. Manuel Nieto·Cadena
(Navy), Col. Hernan Valdes (Air).
OF THE U.S.A. IN ECUADOR
Ambassador. Christian M. Ravndal.
Counsellor. Edward S. Little. Service Attaches: Lieut.-Col. Charles H.
Pratt (Army), Robert E. Huse (Navy, resident in Caracas), Gerald W. Crabbe
(Air, resident in Bogota) . Agricultural AttachC. Francis H . Jack Ill.
There is a Consul-General at Guayaquil.
958 EL SALVADOR
Books of Reference
Anuari<, de Logi,/<ui6n EeualOriana. Qulto. Annual
Bolril.. u HaGienda. Qulto. Monthly
COftIIit.ci6n polt/iea de la RtpUbliea del ECWJdor, promulgado eI 6 de MaTZo de 1945. Qaito,
19'_
Boletln ul Banc. Central. Qujto
Boletln GtrUNJ tU Esradlstica. Tri·monthly. By the Director 01 the Bureau
Boletln M rruua/ del llinisterio de Obras PUblieas. Monthly
In/a",.., Ministeria/e.. Qulto. Annual
BibliogY'l{I4 Nacio104l, 1756-1941. Qujto,1942
B1anksten, G. I., ECWJdor: C....tituti.... and Caudilw.. Univ. of Caliiornia Preas. 1961
BllItron, Anlbal, and Collier, Jr, J., Till AUlakeni1I4 Va/lert; lIudV 01 the O/a1la/o Indian ••
New York, 1960
Corporstion 01 Foreign Bondholders. Annual Rtporl. London
Gon • .uez Suare., Bistoria del Ecuador. 2nd ed. Qulto, 1931-32
RageD, V. W. von, ECWJdor and /hi Gal6.pago. l.landJ. Norman, Okla., 1949
Roldrldge, L. B., and others, Till F.m/J 0/ Wmnn and Central Ecuador. Wasbington, 19'1
Linke, ],., Ecuador, C"""''1I 0/ COfIIrastJ. R. Inst. of Int. A.1!alN, 2nd od., 1966
r,una Yepes, J., Slnte';. hi$l6,ica V geog,6,ftca del Ecuador. Madrid,1951
EL SALVADOR
REPUBLIOA DE EL SALVADOR
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. In 1839 the Central Ameri·
can FEderation, which had comprised the states of Guatemala, El Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, was dissolved, and El Salvador became
an inc.ependent republic. Plans for a gradual fedemtion with Guatemala
were discussed between the presidents of both countries in March 19~. A
new constitution came into force in 1950, IRlperseding the 1886 constitution,
with a strong bias towards social welfare. Legisle.tive power is vested in 110
single chamber, the Legislative Assembly, consisting of deputies, elected for
2 yeaI'll by universa.l suffrage, 1 for each group of 38,000 inhabitant.. Large
powem are vested in the President, whose term is for 6 years; normally h.
cannol. succeed himself. He has a cabinet of 10 members. In 1946
women were conceded a limited suffrage, but in 1950 universal male and
female suffrage was introduced for the elections of the President and the
ConstHuent Assemhly.
Pr'l8ident. Col. Jose Mada Lemus, elected 4 March 1956, assumed
office 14 Sept. Dr Humberto Costa was elected Vice· President. Both ran
unopp')sed as candidates of the Revolutionary Party of Democratic
Unificl~tion.
Ministerlor Foreign Affair8. Dr Alfredo Ortiz Mancia.
National j/CUJ: blue, white, blue (horizontal); the white stripe charged
with t'1e arms of the republic.
National anthem: Saludemos la patria orgullosos (words by J. J.
Caiias; tune by J. Aberle).
AF:EA AND POPULATION. El Salvador is the smallest and most
densely populated of the Central American states. Its area (including 247
sq. km of inland lakes) is estimated at 21,393 sq. km, with popUlation (census
13 JUI:.e 1960) ofl,855,917. Estimated population, 31 Dec. 1958, 2~475,605.
It is divided into 14 departments, each under an appointed governor. Their
areas (in sq. km) and populationa;st 31 Dec. 1958 were:
EL SALVADOR 959
Department AIea Popnl"tion DepartmeDt Arei' Popnl"tloD
Ahuachapan 1,222'3~ 12(,399 r... Pal 1,201' 85 130,843
Santa Ana 1,988'26 269,242 C"baii... 1,/)94'46 103,765
Sonson..te 1,189'28 166,658 San Vicentc 1,206'69 115,175
Cbalstenango 2,116'78 139,157 Uaulutan 1,974'84 21 3,390
La Libertad 1,661 '66 190,J86 San Miguel 2,166'98 228,763
San Salvador 871-42 402,863 Morazan. 1,724'26 128,664
Ouacatlan 732·08 115,121 La Uni6n 1,995'26 153,386
There has been considerable emigration into nearby states. There

are no tribal Indians. The language of the country is Spanish. The
ca.pital is San Salvador. with (July 1958). 221.708 inhabitanta. Other
towns are Santa Ana. 70.769; San Miguel. 33.063; New San Salvador (or
Santa Tecla). 24.539; Son80nate, 22,088; San Vicente.13,618; Cojutepeque,
12.832; Ahuachapa.n. 12.629; Usulut&n. 12.276; Zacatecoluca. 11,388.
In 1958 births were 115.154 (47'3 per 1,000 population); deaths. 32.831
(13'5); infantile deaths, 10.216 (88·7 per 1.000 live birth. compared with 141
in 1934); marriages. 8,790 (3'6).
RELIGION. The dominant religion is Roman Catholicism. Under
the 1945 constitution churches are exempted from the property tax; the
Catholic Church is recognized as a legal person.aod other churches are entitled
to secure similar recognition. There is a.n archbishop in San Sa.lvador and
bishops at Santa Ana. Sa.n Miguel. San Viceote. Santiago de Mana and
Usulut&n. The Society of Friends had about 275 members in 1957.
EDUCATION. Education is free and obligatory. but there is a. shortage
of both schools and teachers. In 1953 in the rural a.reas only 45.000 children
attended school. while 218,000 had no schools. In 1929 the state took over
control of all schools. public and priva.te. but the provision that the teaching
in government schools must be wholly secula.r was removed in 1945.
The census of 1950 showed tha.t 57'7% of those 10 yea.rs of age or older
were illiterate. but some headway has been made. In 1958 there were 540
centres for adult education. Of the 8,790 marria.ges in 1958. 3,247 men
and 3.672 women were illiterate.
In 1958 there were 2,334 primary schools (state. municipal a.nd priva.te),
with 8,978 teachers and 281,136 pupils; 122 kinderga.rtens had 450 teachers
and 12.353 children. There are 2.237 travelling teachers for the rural
district~ . Secondary educa.tion was given at 346 high schools (29,197 pupils).
The national university (in 1958) had 1,898 studenta and 344 professors.
Cinemas (1958). Cinemas numbered 54.
Ne!P3papers (1958). There were 12 daily newspapers.
SOCIAL WELFARE. A new social· security law became effective 1
Ja.n. 1954, but details are incomplete; employers are to pay 50% of whatever
contribution is decided upon. employees 25% and the state 25%.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court of Justice. 2
oourta of third instance (in the capital) and several courts of first aud secoud
instance. besides a number of minor courts. All judges of second and third
instance a.re elected by the Legislative Assembly for a term of2 years, while
the judges of first instance are appointed by the Supreme Court for a similar
period.
An anti-Communist law, effective 13 Dec. 1952. has made the pro·
pagation of totalitaria.n or Communist doctrines an offence punishable by
960 EL SALVADOR
impriwnment; supplementary offences, contrary to democratic principles,

are pLnished by prison terms of from 3 to 7 years.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending 31 Dec., in
colones (2'5 col ones = VSS1):
1954 1955 1956 1957 1968' 1959'
Revenue • 162,000,000 155,433,411 170,931,163 191,423,531 181,000,000 181,000,000
ExpenCitnre. 1(4,781,934 162,800,000 152,970,308 16V,233,468 181,000,000 181,000,000
'Budget
The 1959 budget (in 1,000 colones) proposed 30,192 for education, 28,815
for public works, 15,053 for finance, 18,055 for health and welfare, 16,990
for defence.
For 1958 the principal items of revenue were as follows (in 1,000 colones):
Direct taxation, import duties, liquor taxes and miscellaneous, 162,159;
administrative services, 6,525.
E~.ternal debt amounted to 30,034,827 colones on 31 Dec. 1957. It is
being redeemed at the rate of 800,000 col ones annually. The internal debt
was U,731,OOO colones.
DEFENCE. The Army is organized in 5 divisions of 15 infantry, 1
artillery and I cavalry regiments. There is I aviation corps, 1 national
defen<'e corps and 1 marine corps.
The country is divided into 3 military zones of defence, with 15 regions
corresponding each to 1 infantry regiment. In Oct. 1954 the V.S. agreed
to send a military mission to train the defence forces.
The Navy consists of 2 small patrol craft.
The small Air Force, which came into being in the early 1920s, consists
of a single transport group equipped with C·47 aircraft and a number of
training units, also equipped with machines supplied by the U.S.A.
PHODUCTION. AgricuUure. El Salvador is predominantly agricul.

tural; 71% of its total area is under cultivation. But it is a one· crop
countJ'Y, coffee alone furnishing, in value, about 85% of its exports.
Two·thirds of the coffee is of the' mild' variety. On 28 July 1933 a Coffee
Defen,~e Law placed the entire industry, from cultivation to marketing, under
the protection of a commission jointly controlled by the coffee growers and
the Government. Coffee is sold in bags of 46 kg, but trade statistics use a
bag of 69 kg. Production of coffee in 1952-53 reached a record of 81,932
Dll'trie: tona; output, estimate 1955--56, 51,359 metric tons. Exports in
1958 were 81,079 metric tons (valued at 218.390,885 colones), of which
4~,94f; metric tons went to U.S.A. Area devoted to coffee is about 320,000
acres, almost entirely owned by natives.
Production of ginned cotton, 1957-58, was 36,003 metric tons; usually
about 50% is consumed at home, by 10 textile mills, including one owned by
the Government. Rice is important for home consumption; output, 1957,
17,55£1 metric tons of rough rice from 16,464 hectares. Other agricultural
products are maize, cacao, tobacco, indigo,henequen and sugar (45,760 metric
tons in 1957). A little rubber is exported. Livestock estimate 1958 showed
104,046 horses. asses and mules, 779,309 cattle, 14,665 sheep, 198,563 piRS
and 9,888 goats. Milk production in 1959 was estimated to be nearly
500,0(10 litres per day.
Forutry. In the national forests are found dye woods and such woods as
mahogany, cedar and walnut. Balsam trees also abound; El Salvador is
EL SALVADOR 961
the world's principal source of this medicinal gum; exports, 1958, 100
t·ODS.
Mining. The mineral wealth of the republic includes gold (1958 pro·
duction, 2,372 fine oz.), silver (197,628 troy oz.), coal, copper, iron, lead,
zinc, sulphur and mercury. Production of salt, 1957, 55,000 short tons.
Industry. A 1956 industrial census showed 11,420 industrial establish-
ments employing 63,301 people earning nearly 38m. colones; total product
was valued at 59400. colones; 12,824 commercial concerns had 28,203
employees earning 2300. co10nes.
Electricity_ El Salvador's biggest national enterprise, begun in 1950, is
the construction of a 200-ft high dam across the (unnavigable) Lempa
River, 35 miles north-east of San Salvador, designed to double the country's
electric-power resources, from 31,000 kw. to 75,000 kw. The expanded
power plant was inaugurated 21 June 1954. Consumption, 1958, was 17500.
kwh.
Labour. A decree of Aug. 1950 permits the formation of trade unions
except among agricultural workers and those engaged in seasonal work
ouch as coffee-milling and sugar-refining; trade-union posts must be filled
by natives, not foreigners.
COMMERCE. The imports (including parcels post) and exports have

been as follows in calendar years in 1,000 colones (2'5 colones = USS1):
l~ j 3 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Imports 179,369 216,856 22~,70 ·1 26 1,752 287,615 270,146
E:rports 224,038 262.612 267,327 281,8~7 3·16,1:;9 290,057
Of total exports, coffee furnishes about 50% by weight and 77% by

value. In 1958 U.S. look 11 5.1 93,347 colunes of exports (3D'7%) and
furnished 130,636,083 colones (48'4% ) of the imports. Exports to Europe
in ID58 were 119,600,231 colones. The chief imports are normally wbeat,
flour, fucl, oil, cement, fertilizers and iron and steel manufactures.
Total trade between El Salvador and U.K. (British Board of Trade
returns) for 6 years (in £ steriing) :
19~8 1955 1056 1957 1958 1950
Imports'o U.K. 3.140 75~,9!)2 1.197.07~ 735,675 326.419 807,937
E:rpor •• from U.K. . 1 n,027 1,080_247 1,4S0,~5:) l, SD£I,O!);) It7 82.47~ 1,221,5 30
Re-exports from LJ .K. 054 6,~70 11 ,~43 8.540 8.159 8,078
COMMUNICA nONS. Shipping. The principal ports are La Union,

La Libertad and Acajl1tla, all on the Pacific. Passengers (and some freight)
use the Guatemalan port of Puerto Barrios on tho Atlantic, reaching El
Saivador by rail.
Railways. A Brit.ish·owned railway connec ts the port of Acajutla with
Santa Ana, Sonsonate and San Salvador, tho capital. In 1951 it was con-
nected in San Salvador with the American-owned International Railways of
Central America, which runs from the eastern to the western boundary of
El Salvador, and extends into Guatemala City and Puerto Barrins on the
north coast and on the Mexican border. Total length of railway open,
about 469 miles, all of narrow g(\1Jge.
Roads. Then' afe 7,%0 km of national roads in the republic, including
725 km suitable for motors, 1,712 km adequate in any weather and 1,177
1 I
962 EL SALVADOR
km of ,!()condary roads. Motor vehicles, 1957, included 14,915 passenger

cars and 5,609 trucks.
POSI. The telegraph, telephone and radio· telephone systems arc partly
private, partly government-owned. Telephone instruments, 1959, numbered
11 ,973, all government-owned; 78% are automatic. Two radio trans-
mitting and receiving stations at San Salvador maintain communications
with Latin America. El Salvador had, 1957, about 42,686 wireless receiving
sets.
AviHtion. Air traffic, mainly in American hands, is expanding; in 1958
the 6,3(;1 s cheduled flights carried 67,707 passengers and 4,581 metric tons
of freight. There is a modem airport at Ilopango, near San Salvador, with
a lake r.earby used by hydroplanes.
MOJ'lEY AND BANKING. The monetary unit is the colon of 100
centavcs (8ee p. 18). Its exchange value since July 1934 had been kept at
40 ceut, U.S., and on 30 June 1942 the bank's gold stock was revalued,
making it exactly equal to the exchange value of 40 cents. The country
left the gold standard on 9 Oct. 1931, but there is no control of foreign
exchange, not even import licences. The buying/selling rate for the £ is
6H and 7l. colones respectively.
The colon is issued in denominations of I, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 100 colones.
U.S. silver IO-cent pieces circulate with the same value as the local 25-
centavo silver coin; copper-nickel and copper-zinc coins in denominations
of I, 3, 5 and 10 centavos each are also issued. New silver coins of 25 and
50 centl~vos were issued in 1954.
National gold coins and gold coins of U.S. of all denominations are
unlimited legal tender. National and U.S. silver coins are legal tender up
to 10% of each payment (except the U.S. IO-cent piece, withdrawn in Dec.
1954), and national nickel coins in amounts up to 2% of each payment.
Thel"C are 8 native commercial banks, including the Banco Salvadoreno
(paid-up capital, 6m. colones). The Bank of London and Montreal is the
only fOI'eign institution. The Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador was
constru.:ted in 1934 out of the Banco Agricola ComerciaI. The Central
Bank's gold stock increased steadily from US$6·6m. in 1937 to $29·44m.
in Oct. 1952; on 31 Dec. 1957 it was S31m. Total gold and dollar reserves
of the banking system on 31 Dec. 1957 was equal to $43·1m .against a total
note circulation of $41 ·7m.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. On 1 Jan. 1886 the metric system was
made obligatory. But other units are still commonly in use, of which the
principa.1 are as follows: Libra = 1·014 lb. av. ; quineal = 101'4 lb. av.;
arroba == 25·35 lb. av.; fanega = 1·5745 bushels.

El Sl.lvador maintains embassies in Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Guatem'tla, Honduras, Italy, Mexico, Nicaragua, Spain, U.K., U.S.A.; and
legations in Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France,
Haiti, Panama., Peru, Sweden, Switzerland, Venezuela.
01' EL SALVADOR IN GREAT BRITAIN (6 Roland Gardens, S.W.7)
Ambassador. Dr Jose Antonio Melend ez Prado (accredited 23 Oct·
1958).
Firs'; Secretary. Dr Guillermo Paz-La.rln.
ETHIOPIA 963
There are consular representatives at Birmingham, Liverpool, London
aud Rochester.
0.., GREAT BRITAIN IN EL SALVADOR
Amba88ador and Consul· General. F. C. Everson, C.M.G. (appointed
18 July 1956).
First Secretary. M. V. Miller, M.B.E.
There is a consular representative at La Libcrtad.
OF EL SALVADOR I N THE U.S.A. (2308 California St. NW.,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dc Hector David Castro.
Minister Counsellor. Dr Roberto E. Qnir6s. Counsellor. Rafael
Glower Valdivieso (Economic). First Secretary. Jose Carlos Ruiz. Mili·
ta.ry and Air Attache. Col. Santiago Alien. Commercial Attache. Carlos
Cordero d'Aubuisson. Cultural Attache. Jose Arcadio Chavez.
OF Til E U .B.A. l~ EL SALVADOR
Ambassador. Thorsten V. Kalijarvi.
Counsellor. Donald P. Downs. Army Attache. Lieut.·Col. Maurice H.
Matthews. Naval Attache and Naval Attache lor Ai·, . Capt. Jacob V.
Heimark (resident in Mexico City). Air Attache. Lient·.·Co\. William J.
Cavoli (resident in Guatemala City).
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL IXFOlutATION. The Direcci6n General de E ;;tadl. tica y Consos (Cnlle Arce
]006, San Salvador) dates from 1037. Director G eneral : Col. Jo.6 Joaquin Cbac6n. Its
publications include Anuario Estadistico. Annua.l, from 1911.-B(lietin Bstad1.ttico.
Quarterly.-Hechos y Ci!ra., de El Sal-vador. Annual.-Atla.. Censal de El Salvador. 1955.
A~el GaUardo, M., Cualro C""-'Iiluciones F.deraks de C~ro Ambica V /4S Conslilucione.
PolUic<u de El SaI.ador. San Salvador, 1945
Meow, A., El Sal"ador, pals de tago. y .olcanes. Madrid, 1950
Vogt, W ~ TM Population 0/ El Sal.ador and iU Nalural Resour..... Wa..hiugton, D.e., 1946
W..tlich, H. O. (00.), Public Finance in a Developi"" CountrV : El Sal.ador. Harvard Univ.
Press, 1961
ETHIOPIA
Y AlTYOl"YA NIOUSA NAOAST M.ANOUlST
THE ancient Empire of Ethiopia is a sovereign independent state. It has

grown out of the combination of a number of kingdoms, such &8 Tigre,
Gojjam, Gondar and Shoa, which used to recognize the' King of Kings' &8
their suzerain but have now become mere provinces. as have formerly
autonomous districte such &8 Harar, Kalfa and Arnsai.
On 31 Jan. 1942, after the reconquest of the country and the termination
of Italian rule, an Agreement and Military Convention was signed between
Great Britain and Ethiopia, providing financial, technical and administrative
help. This agreement waa superseded by new agreements on 19 Dec.
1944 and 29 Nov. 1954. The latest agreement guarantees to British tribes
whioh enter the Haud from the British Proteotorate of Somaliland for the
purpose of grazing certain rights, though the Ethiopian Government is
ent.irely responsible for security in the area.
964 ETmOPIA
In!l.coordance with Resolution No. 390/V of the General Assembly of

the United Nations, dated 2 Dec. 1950, the British Administration of
Eritrea handed over sovereignty of this former Italian colony to Ethiopia on
15 Sept. 1952. Eritrea thereby became an autonomous unit within the
federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea, under the Ethiopian Crown. The
Imperid Government is responsible for defence, foreign relations and general
economio polioy, including customs and communications. The Eritrean
Goven,ment is responsible for all matters of local government, and has its
own budget. (For information on Eritrea in general, 8ee THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR·:BoOK, 1952, p. 1158.)
GOVERNMENT. E-mperor. Haile Selassie I, born 23 July 1892;

crowned King (Negus, on 7 Oct. 1928, proclaimed Emperor, after the death
of the Empress Zauditu) on 2 April 1930, and crowned on 2 Nov. 1930.
Married Woizero Menen in 1912, and has 2 sons and 1 daughter surviving.
On 25 Jan. 1931 the eldest son, Asfa Wassan, was proclaimed Crown Prince
and hnir to the throne. He married first the daughter of Ras Seyum
(governor of Tigl'c), whom he divorced in 1945, and secondly in 1945 the
daughter of Gen. Ababa Damtu.
Thu Empire is governcd by a Council of Ministers, responsible to the
Emperor, and a parliament consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies.
Tbe Chamber of Deputies consists of 210 members; the number of Senators
must not exceed half the number of Deputies.
In ) 955 a new constitution was promulgated. This provides for universal
suffrag.3 for ml)n and women over 21 years old. for greater fiscal control by
the Chamber a.nd for a limited degree of ministerial responsibility to parlia.
ment.
Tb{, first elections under this constitution were held in 1957.
President of the Council of Ministers: Ras Abbebe Aregai.
For treaties relating to the boundaries of Ethiopia see THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR· BOOK, Hl07, p. 667, and for 1923, p. 677. For the 1906 agreement
between Great Britain, France and Italy, as well as the government prior
to the Itslia.D conquest of 1936, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1936,
p. 657 . For the It.alian conquest and rule, see TnE STATESMAN'S YEAR·
BOOK, 1941, p. 1060.
Na.~ional flag: green, yellow, red (horizontal).
Na.:ional anthem: It.yopya hoy dass yiballish (tune by M. K. Nalbadian,
1925).
AREA AND POPULATION. The total area Lf the Federation is

approximately 395,000 sq. miles (Ethiopia 350,000, Eritrea, 45,000).
The official estimate (1958) of the popUlation is 18m. to 20m.
Thom08t important race of Ethiopia, the Amhara, who number about
2m., inhabit the central Ethiopian highlands. To the north of them are
the Tigreans, akin to the Amhara and belonging to the same Christian
church, but speaking a different, though related, language. Both these races
are of mixed Hamitic and Semitic origin, and further mixed by inter·
marriage with Galla and other races. The Gallas, some of whom are
Christian, some Moslem and some pagan, comprise more than one·half of
the entire population, and are a pastoral and agricultural people of Hamitic
origin. Ogaden, Issa and otber Somalis inhabit Harar province, the
Somaliland plateau and the south·east. These and most of the Danakil are
ETIDOPIA 965
Moslem. There are also Sidamo. Nilotie and Nilo·Hamitie tribes in the
south· west. and the Falashas (of Jewish religion) north of Lake Tana.
Addis Ababa. the capital. has some 400,000 inhabitants, Asmara (capital
of Eritrea). 120.000; Dire·Dawa and Harar each about 40,000. Other
important towns, politically or commercially, are: Dessie,53,000; Gondar,
capital of the Amhara province of Begemdir, 13,000; Jimma, 8,000.
The country (excluding Eritrea) is divided into 12 provinces (ta.qlai.g·izat),
each under a Governor·General, under the administrative control of the
Minister of the Interior. Each province is divided into about 6 sub.pro.
vinces (awrajjy.gizat) under a Governor, 76 in 1953. All revenues collected
in the provinces are under the control of the Minister of Finance.
The ofticiallanguages are Amharic and English.
RELIGION. Since the conversion of the Amharas to Christianity in the
4th century they have rctained their connexion with the Alexandrian Church
through the Abuna, 01' Metropolitan, who was always an Egyptian Copt, and
who was appointed and consecrated by the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria.
Both the Egyptian and Ethiopian Coptic Churches are monophysite, reject.
ing the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451). After the restoration
of the Emperor relations between the Ethiopian and Egyptian churches
were strained until the summer of 1948. when an agreement was reached
which envisaged the appoint,ment of a n Ethiopian Archbishop, and in Jan.
J951 AblllHt Basilios was elect,ed Archbishop of Ethiopia. A further agree·
ment in HI:)\) made the Ethiopia.n Church a utocephalous, and Basilios
assumed the rank of Patriarch, wit h sen iority immediately after t he Patriarch
of Alexa.Jldria. The clergy is vcry numerous and the Church holds a con·
siderable proportion of the land. Christianity is predominant in the follow.
ing provinces in the north : Tigr6, Begemder, Gojjam, Shoa. Wollo province
in the north·east is half Christian, half Moslem. In the southern half of
the country the provinces of Hamr a nd Arussi have Moslem majorities,
while all the other southern provinces have considerable Moslem minorities.
In addition. the province of Gamu Gofa on the Kenya border and parts of
Sidamo and Arussi have considerable pagan elements. Eritrea is half
Moslem and half Christian. Each province now forms a diocese; about.
one·half of the population is Christian,
Islam is widely practised in the south and east of the Empire. Moslem
minorities are found in Addis Ababa and in other commercial centree.
The rite is mainly shafeitic. Harar is the most important Moslem centre.
There are mosques and government schools for Moslems in most towns.
EDUCATION . There arc at Addis Ababa 9 secondary schools with
about 2,000 pupils; 2 teachers' training colleges; technical, commercial and
handicraft schools and a college of engineering with together a further 6,000
pupils; a number of elementary schools have about 22,000 pupils. School
attendance throughout the count,ry is about 150,000 at government schools.
There are also about 10,000 Ethiopian church schools with an unspecified
number of pupils.
There are agricultural schools at Ambo and Jimma and an agricultural
college and a secondary school at Hara.r.
The University College of Addi8 Ababa (founded 1950) is administered
by a board consisting of a president and 5 governors appointed by the
Emperor. In 1958-59 it had 40 teachers and 350 full·time student.s and an
extension department with 580 students.
Ginema.s (Wr;S). There were 4 cinemas in Addis Ababa with a seating
capacity of 3,400.
966 ETHIOPIA
JU!;TICE. The legal system is said to be based on the Justinian Code.

A new penal code came into force in 1958. New civil, commercial and
maritime law codes are being prepared.
The extraterritorial rights formerly enjoyed by foreigners have been
abolished, but any person accused in an Ethiopian court has the right to
have his case transferred to the High Court, provided he asks for this before
any evidence has been taken in the court of first instance. Under the
Anglo-Ethiopia.n agreement of 1944 any British subject or Briti.~h protected
person whose case is before the High Court oan insist on being heard by at
least one judge with proven judicial experience in other lands. In 1959
the President of the High Court was Maltese.
Provincial and district courts have been established, and High Court
judges visit the Provincial Courts on circuit. The Supreme Imperial Court
at Addis Ababa is presided over by the Ethiopian Chief Justice.
FINANCE. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for financial years

(coincic\ing with the Ethiopian year beginning 11 Sept.) were as follows (in
$Eth.l,OOO) :
1953-54 195·1-55 1955-56 1~56-57 1957-58 1958-59 1
Revenue 121,340 116,666 122,128 134,645 175,634 201,880
Expenditure 121,296 112,667 121,903 129,917 158,535 183,614
• Estimates.
DEFENCE. Army. The Army, trained by British officers from 1947

to 195 L, comprises 26 infantry and ,1 artillery battalions, an armoured
squadro>n and ancillary services. In addition, there is the imperial body-
guard, now part of the Army, comprising 9 infantry battalions. Ethiopian
officers are trained at the Military Training College at Holletta, near Addis
Ababa. An American Military Mission arrived in the country in 1954 to
train be Army. A military academy, established at Harar in 1957, is
under the direction of Indian officers.
Nal'Y. The Imperial Navy is now being formed, with Norwegian naval
officers as instructors. In 1960 it consisted of 2 coastguard cutters and the
imperia.l yacht. The Naval School has been established at Massawa.
Air j'qrce. The Imperial Air Force, trained by Swedish personnel, has
its headquarters at Debre Zeit, near Addis Ababa. It comprises a. training
school at Bishoftu, a central workshop at Harar Meda, an attack-fighter
wing equipped with piston-engined Fireflies, a bomber squadron with
Swedish Saab-17s, and a number of transport and training (including 3 T·33
jet) air,:raft.
Pol,:ce. Until 1948 the regular police force operated only in the capital
and in some provincial cities, while elsewhere order was maintained by an
irregukr territorial force under the provincial governors-general. In 1948
the latter force was amalgamated with the regular police force. The total
force n')w numbers 24,000 officers and other ranks in Ethiopia and 3,850 in
Eritrea; 2 Japanese and 2 Swedish officers are acting as advisers.
The frontier guard-l,200 men recruited from the 3rd Infantry Division
in Hamr-has 4 Indian police officers.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Coffee is by far the most important

source of rural income. Harari coffee (long berry Mocha) is cultivated in
ETIDOPlA 967
the east; Abyssinian coffee is produced in Kaffa and the surrounding
provinces, much of it growing wild.
Teff (Eragra8tis aby8sinica) is the principal food grain, followed by barley,
wheat, maize and durra. Pulses are important for local consumption, as
are oilseeds. Much cotton might be grown. Cane sugar is an important
new crop.
Livestock: 20m. sheep, 20m. cattle, 15m. goats; smaller numbers of
donkeys, horses, mules and camels. Hides and skins and butter (ghee) are
important for home consumption and export. Sheep and chickens are the
main providers of meat. The pig is little known .
Mining. Ethiopia has little proved mineral wealth. Iron is found in
some districts, a.lso ma.rble, mica, rock salt (230,000 short tons in 1957)
and cinnabar. Placer goldmining and washing are carried on, to a very
limited extent, in the western districts; a placer goldmine is worked by
the Government at Adola in the south. Gold product.ion, in 191)S, was
42,799 fine oz. Lignite, copper and sulphur have been found. Deposits
of potash salts in the Dankali salt plains in the north·eastern part of t.he
country are being investigated.
A German company has been granted an oil.exploration concession in
Ogaden. An oil survey is being carried out in Eritrea.
Industry. The most important products of the small but growing
industries are cotton yarn and fabrics, cement, sugar, salt, cigarettes,
building materials and footwear.
COMMERCE . Coffee is by far the most important cxport, followed by

oilseeds, pulscs, goat skins, sheep skins. Imports are cotton piece·goods
(mainly from India and Japan), petroleum products, \'ehiclcs, textiles,
machinery and iron and steel goods. Coffee exports, 1957-I)S, were 44,123
metric tOllS (SEth.lOS·Sm.); l!l56-57, 44,220 metric tons (SEth.lOS'2m.).
Imports and exports (in £ sterling) for I) years (to 10 Sept.):
1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-68
Imports 19,691,559 22,168,058 23,225,509 23,912,840 23,642,369 27,740,388
Exporta 22,660,689 24,946,098 22,001,290 22,275,567 2 S,192,9~7 24,28S,O ~ 4
Total trade bet\veen Ethiopia (from 1952 including Eritrea) amI U.K.
(British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterlillg) :
1938 1966 1957 1958 1959
Import8 to U.K. 98,869 1,1 79,913 1,041,019 925, 322 1,54~, 340
Exporta trom U.K . . I,M7 1,818,962 2,242,Oi6 ~,442,076 2,663,9Q4
Re-export8 from \J .K. 62 11,68. 12,325 13,461 23,650
COMMUNICA nONS . Roads. Loans totalling US$20m. were made in

1930 and 1957 by the International Bank for the purpose of improving and
extending the road system. The Imperial Highway Authority now main-
tains some 6,000 kill of roads and is engaged in constructing another S50 km
of all· weather roads. Chief motor roads: Massawa-Asruara-Addis Ababa;
Asmara- Gondar-Gorgora; Addis Ababa-Jimma; Addis Ababa-J..ekemti;
Addis Ababa-Nazareth; Dire.Dawa-Hargeisa; Addis Ababa-Assab; Addis
Ababa-Adola. Number of motor vehicles (1959): Cars, 12,000 ; commercial
vehicles, 7,500; buses,350; motor cyclcs, 1,200.
Railways. The Franco.Ethiopian Railway Co. operates the line from
Djibouti in French SomaJiland to Addis Ababa. The line is of metre gauge,
968 ETHIOPIA
with a tltallength of 486l miles. Trains run three times weekly in each
direction, covering the distance in one night and one day.
The Eritrea railway from Massawa to Asmara and Agordat (191 miles,
95·cm gnuge) is owned and operated by the Ethiopian Government.
Post. The postal system serves 54 points in the empire, mainly by air-
mail. All the main centres are connected with Addis Ababa by telephone
or radio telegraph. International telephone services are available at certain
hours to most countries in Europe, North America and India. Number of
telephones (1959), 9,770, of which 5,619 in Addis Ababa and 2,141 in
Asmara.
Avialion. Ethiopian Air Lines, formed in 1946, operates through a
managenent contract with Trans-World Air Lines; it provides services to
Cairo, A;hens, Khartoum, Djibouti, Nairobi and Frankfurt, in addition to
internal services. Other lines operating to Asmara only are Aden Airways,
Misr Air Lines, Sudan Airways and Saudi Arabian Air Lines.
MOl\EY AND BANKING . The Ethiopian dollar, divided into 100
cents is the unit of currency; it is based on 5·52 grains of fine gold. It
consists .)fnotes of SI, $5, $10, $50, 3100 and $500 denominations; asilver
50 cents (being withdrawn) and bronze 1.,5-, 10- and 25·cent coins. Cur.
rency is issued by the State Bank, and, as at 31 Dec. 1959, was notes,
SEth.12'lm. ; coins, SEth.38m. The note issue was backed by the following
securitie:! : Gold and silver, 11 % , foreign balances, 9%; foreign securities,
11 %; :E:thiopian treasury bills, 69%. The Ethiopian dollar = 40 cents
LT.S.; S:i!:th.7 = £1 sterling.
'fhe State Bank is the only institution permitted to deal in foreign
exchange. Its total assets (excluding Issue Department) at 31 Dec. 1958
were $Eth.187m. Two Italian banks have branches in Asmara; 2 French
banks me represented in Addis Ababa.
llleasure:! is officially in use. Nat.ive weights and measures vary considerably
in the v£,rious provinces; the principal ones are: Frasilla = approximately
37! lb.; ga$ha, the principal unit of land measure, which varies from about
80 acres to about 300 acres, depending on the quality of the land.

Ethiopia maintains embassies in France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy,
LT.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, U.K., U.S.A., Yugoslavia; and legations
in Brazi!, Iran, Japan, Mexico, Sweden.
OF ETHIOPIA JliI GREAT BRITAIN (17 Princes Gate, S.W.7)
Ambllssador. Lij Endalkatchew l\Iakonnen (accredited 29 March 1960).
Counsellor. Kebbede Abbebe.
Cult~ral Attache. Abcbe Kebede.
011' GRE~T BRITAIN IN ETHIOPIA

Ambfl8sador. D. A. H . Wright, C.M.G.
Counsellor and Head of Chancery. 1\1. G. L. Joy, M.C.
First Secretaries. P . R. A. Mansfield; M. B. Eaden (Commercial);
R. G. Peel (Consular).
Military Attache. Col. K. Nurk, 1\1.C.
Civil Air Attache. R. S. Swanll, M.B.E. (resident at Beirut).
FINLAND 969
Naval Attache. Capt. C. K. T. Wheen, R.N. (resident at Beirut).
A ir Attache. Wing Cdr G. W. Buckland, D.F.C. (resident in Nairobi).
There is a consulate· general at Asmara, and consular posts at Addis
Ababa, Harar and Mega.
OF ETHIOPIA THE U.s..-\. (2134 Kalorama Rd., NW.,
IN
WaslJiugton 8, D.e.)
Ambassador. Zaude Gabre Heywot.
First Secretaries. Telahun Meteku; Inku Haile. Military, Naval and
Air Attache. Col. W. S. K efte. Educational Attache. Mengiste Desta.
OF THE UB.A. I N ETHIOPIA
Ambassador. Don C. Bliss.
Counsellor. Joseph J. Wagner. Pirst Secretaries. Thomas M. Reek·
nagel (Con$ul, Political); William D. 1<'isher (Consul, Economic); WilIiam L.
Uanna. Army Attache. Lieut.·Col. John T. H. Spengler. Naval Attache
and Naml Attache for Air. Capt. Norman V. Scurria (resident in Cairo) .
.'hr Attache. Lieut.·Col. Willis J. Gary.
There is a Consul at Asmara.
Books of Reference
Handbook of Elhiopw. Khartoum, 1941
'I'M ~nglo·Ethiopian AgrmnmJ of 1941. Cmd.6584
Agreement between Ihe Uniltd Kingdom and Ethiopia amending the D"criplion o/Ihe Kenva-
Ethiopia Buunda'll (triJh An ..... and Map). 29 Sept., 1947. Cmd. 7374
B&r80tti, P. 0 ., Etiopia eri3liana. Milan, U,39
CeruUi, E ., Ethiopia OccidtnJ4l,. ~ vols. Rome, 1933. Studi Etiopici. 3 vols. Rome
1936-38
JOOe8, A. H. M., and Mooroe, Elizabeth, Histo'll 0/ Abyssinia. Oxford, 193~
Loogrigg, S. H., ~ Sh"" Bist"', 0/ Eritrta. London, 1945
Luthcr, E. W., Ethiopia Today. Stunford Uni". Prcas, 19(;8
Mareio, N., Th, Ethiopian Empi,e: FtdtraJion and Law.. Rotterdam, 1954
}Jathew, D., Ethiopia: 'I'M Study 0/ a PolilV, 1540-1935. London, 1946
Perbam, M., 'I'M a",'emmenl 0/ Ethiopia. London, 1948
Sabelli, Luc.. dei, Storia di Abilsinia. 4 vols. Rome, 1938
Sandlord, Christille, Tit, Lion 0/ Judah Itath P'tiJail,d. London, 19(;5
Trimiogbam, S., Islam in Ethiopia. Oxford, 1953
ZAnutto, SUvlo. Bibliog,a/ia Eliopica, in conlinuationt alia Bibliogra/ia Eliopica, di a.
Fumagalli [Milan, 1893). 2 "ols. Home. 193!l-36
FINLAND
SUOMEN TASAVALTA-REPUBLIKEN FINLAND
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Finland is a republic accord·
ing to the Form of Government Act of 17 July 1919.
Having been an integral part of the kingdom of Sweden from the 12th
and 13th centuries onward, Finland was in 1809 united to the Russian
Empire as an autonomous Grand.Duchy. On 6 Dec. 1917 the House of
Representatives proclaimed Finland an independent and sovereign state.
According to the Diet Act of 1906 (rcviscd 1928), the House of Repro.
sentatives consists of one Chamber of 200 members chosen by direct and
proportional election, in which all who are entitled to vote have an equal
vote. The suffrage is possessed, with the usual exceptions, by every Finnish
citizen (man or woman) who has reached the 21st year. There are 16
970 FINLAND
electord districts with a representation proportioned to the population, a

rea.rran.~ement being required in the year before an election. Each district
is divided into voting circuits. The voting system, devised with a view to
proportional representation, provides for the formation of voters' associa.
tions which prepare lists of candidates. There ma.y, within limits, be
compacts between associations, and joint candidates may be entered in
compet:~ng lists, while any voter may either support an association list or
vote foJ' any candidate he pleases. Every citizen entitled to vote is eligible
to the House of Representatives, which is elected for 4 years.
The President is elected for 6 ycars by an electoral college elected by
the votes of the citizens. The Council of State (Cabinet), appointed by
the PrEsident, must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representa-
tives.
At tile elections held on 6-7 July 1958 the following parties were returned:
Social-Democrats, 48; Agrarian, 47; Democratic Union (extreme Left
group, including Communists), 50; National Union (Conservative), 29.
Swedish People's Party, 14; Finnish People's Party, 8; Independent Social-
Democlats, 3; Independent Agrarian, 1.
Pre.!·ident of Finland. Dr Urho Kekkonen (elected 15 Feb. 1956;
until 1 March 1962); he received 151 votes in the third ballot against 149
given to K. A. Fagerholm.
In lI1arch 1960 the Cabinet (Agrarian Party) was composed as follows:
Prine JJIinister. Vieno Johannes Sukselainen. Foreign Affairs. Ralf
Torngrw (Non-party). Justice. Antti Hannikainen. Interior. Eino Pa-
lovesi. DeJence. Leo Happola. Finance. Wiljam Sarjala. Education.
Heikki Hosia. Agriculture. Einari J aakkola. Communications. Kauno
Kleemola. T ·rade. Ahti K arjalainell. Social AJfai·rs. Vieno Simonen.
Nat,:onalflag: blue cross on white.
N a,t,'mtal anthem : Maamme ; Swedish: VArt land (words by J . L.
RUlleberg, 1843; tune by F. Pacius, 18(8).
Finllish and Swedish are the official languages of Finland.
LOG!-L GOVERNMENT. For administrative purposes Finland is divided

into 10 counties. The provincial administrat.ion is entrusted in each of the
countic:J t o a governor, who is appointed by the President. The unit oflocal
governnent is the commune. Each rural parish and each town forms a
commune in which alllllen and all women of 21 years of age a re vot.ers. In
all communes a communal cOUllcil is elected to decide questions of admini-
stration and local economy. The executive power is vested in rural com-
munes in a college formed by the head of t he commune and 4 or more
aldermen elected by the council. In towns the executive authority is the
town b(,ard, with an appointed official as president and 4 or more members
elected by the council. There were, in 1959,35 towns, 32 market towns and
481 rural communes in Finland. As executive officers of the governors there
are the sheriffs of 252 districts.
The autonomous county of Aland has a county council (landsting) of
one chamber which is elected on the basis of the same suffrage as the Parlia.
ment. The cOUllty council scttles the internal affairs of the county. The
executh'e authority is with the governor and an executive council, of which
the lant)-oo is chairman.
'ONTI 0/ G·.,...,.,.menl Act and D~ Act 0/ Finland. Helsinkl,1947
FINLAND 971
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of Finland in 1959 and the
population (census 1950 and estimate IH58) were as follows (Swedish names
in brackets) :
Population. Population, Population
Area I 31 Dec. 31 Dec. eq. km.,
p~ r
Departments km),
(8q . 1960 1958 196,
Uu.imo.a (Nyiand) . . 9,868 667,459 803.400 81·4
Turku·I'ori (Abo-BjOmeborg) 22,015 6~1.049 659.300 29·\)
Ahvenanmaa (!.iand) 1,481 21.690 22,000 14·8
Hiime (TavMtebos) 18.451 fI{;3,:.JOl 607.000 32·9
Kymi (Kymmeoe) 10,737 3)),364 329,800 30·7
}dikkeli (St·Micbel) 17,470 241,118 246,500 14-1
K uopio . 35,810 4~9,054 491.800 13·7
V"""R (Vas,,) 39,008 607,204 63·1.500 16· 3
Oulll (Uleaborg) ,6.686 t:.9.B21 402.800 1-1
LaP)Ji (LBpphwd) 93,870 167,143 In.coo 2·1
Total . 305,396 4,029,803 4,394,700 1( ..1
1 Excluding water area, whicb amounts to an additional 31,613 sq. km (inland .. ate ...
only).
Of the total on 31 Dec. 1958, 2,lll,500 were males and 2,283,200 femaleB ;
in 1950,3,670,918 spoke Finnish, 348,286 Swedish and lO,li99 other languages.
On 30 Nov. 1939 Soviet troops invaded Finland, aft~r Finland had
rejected territorial concessions demanded by the U.S.S.R. These, however,
had to be made in the peace treaty of 12 March 1940, amounting to 32,806
sq. km and including the Carelian Isthmus, Viipuri and the shores of Lako
Lad(lga.
When on 22 June 194 1 the Germans launched their attack on Russia, the
Finnish Army co· operated with the Germans. On 19 Sept. 1944 an armis·
tice was signed in Moscow between Finland and the U.S.S.R. Accord-
ing to this, Finnish troops were to be withdrawn behind the frontier fixed
by the Treaty of 12 March 1940 between RUBsia and Finland ; Finland
agreed to cede to Russia the Petsamo area in addition to the cessions made
in 1940 (total, 42,934 sq. km) and to lease to Russia. for 60 years the
Porkkala headland, with a considera hle stretch of sea and land, to he used
as a military base. (See map in THE STATESMAN 'S YEAR· BOOK, 1946.)
Further, Finland undertook to pay 3OOm. gold dollars in reparations within
6 years (later extended to 8 years) . The peaoo treaty was signed in Paris
on lO Feb. 1947. The payment of the war reparations was completed on
19 Sept. 1952.
An agreement of friendship, non·aggression and mutual assistance be·
tween Finland and the U.S.S.R. was concluded in Moscow on 6 April 1948
for 10 years and extended on 19 Sept. 1955 to cover a period of 20 years.
The military base of Porkkala was returned to Finland on 26 Jan. 1956.
The growth of the population, which was 421 ,500 in 1750, is shown as
follows:
Percentage
U rban Huml Total urban
1800 46,600 786,100 83~,700 ~'6
1900 333,500 2 ,3~ 2.600 2,66&,900 12·,
1950 1,302,400 2,727,400 4,029,800 32·3
19~8 1,627,200 2,767,500 ( ,394,700 37·0
The principal to,ms, with t.he estimated population, Jan. 1959, are ;
Helsinki (Helsingfors), the capital, 445,200; Tampere (Ta mmerfors),
122,000; Turku (Abo), 119,900 ; Lahti,62,600; Oulll (Uleiborg), 52,800;
Pori (Bjorneborg), 51,000; Vaasa (Vasa), 43,200; Kuopio, 41,400;
Jyvaskylii, 36,500; Kotka, 29,100; Ha m('enlilllla (l'avastehus), 27,500;
972 FINLAND
Joensuu, 27,000; Kemi, 26,700; Lappeenranta (ViIlmanstralld), 20,900;

Rauma (Raumo), 20,700.
VITA:l. STATISTICS in calendar years:
Deaths
Living 01 whicb (exclusive Emigra-
births illegitimate StiU·boro M~rriages olstill·bom) tioo
1956 88,896 3,718 1,652 33,004 38,71 3 2,508
1957 86,985 3,749 1,514 31,333 40,741 5,22 !
1958 81,148 3,237 l,aU3 31,360 38,833 5,573
In 1958 t he rate per 1,000 \vas: Births, 18'5; infantile deaths (per J,ooo
births), !~4'5; marriages, 7·2; deaths, 8·9.
RELIGION. The national church is the Evangelical Lutheran religion,

but entire liberty of conscience is guaranteed to the mem bers of all religions
and confessions. Ecclesiastically (the Evangelical Church of) Finland is
divided :.nto 8 bishoprics (Turku being the archiepiscopal see), 62 provost.
ships and 563 parishes.
PercI.ntage of the total population at end of 1950: Lutherans, 95·2;
Greek·Catholics, 1·6; other Christians, 0·3; non·Christians, 0'1 ; on the
civil reghtcr, 2·8. The Greek·Catholics are under an archbishop, resident at
Kuopio, and a bishop, resident at Helsinki.
EDUCATION. H ighe1' Education (1958-59). Finland has 5 univer·

sities: lot Helsinki (founded in 1640 at Turku, and moved to Helsinki
after having been burned down in 1827), with 887 teachers and 10,741
students (5,811 women); at Turku (Swedish, opened J919), with 97 teachers
and 574 student.~ (192 women); at Turku (Finnish, opened 1922) with 271
teachers and 2,253 students (1,187 women); at Jyvaskyla and Oulu (founded
1958).
Ther'l are also a technical university at Helsinki, wit.h 421 teachers
and 2,298 students (146 women), a veterinary university (founded in
1946) with 21 teachers and 151 students (9 women), and 4 commercial
universities,2 Finnish with 104 teachers and 1,372 students, and 2 Swedish
with 65 teachers and 764 students.
Sec(Yfo.dary Education (1958-59). For secondary education there were
254 lyceuDls, leading to university, and 178 middle schools (with a curri·
culum of 5 years), with together 8,770 teachers and 181,431 pupils (101,580
girls). ~rhere were 11 training colleges for elementary schoolteachers, with
186 tcacb.ers and 1,741 students. There were also 83 people's high schools,
with 84~ teachers and 6,645 pupils (4,702 females).
Elementary Education (1958-59). For elementary education there were
in the towns 315 elcmentary schools, with 4,497 teachers and 131,390 pupils ;
in the country there were 6,227 school districts, with 21,502 teachers and
497,265 pupils. The school age in elementary schools is from 7 to 15 years.
Voca!ional Education (1958-59). There were 75 commercial schools,
with 8,5:l7 pupils; 4 naviga.tion schools with 230 pupils, J5 technical schools,
with 5,607 pupils; 131 schools for domestic arts and crafts, with 2,502
pupils; 87 agricultura.l schools, with 3,555 pupils; 60 schools of domestic
science, with 2,933 pupils; 7 horticultural schools, with 212 pupils; 9
forestry schools, with 350 pupils, and 131 other schools for arts and crafts,
with 24,381 pupils,
FINLAND 973
173,760.
Newspapers (1958). There were published 174 daily and weekly news·
pll pers in Finnish, 22 in Swedish and 4 in both languages. There werl.'
a.lso 1,145 periodicals in Finnish, 193 in Swedish and 130 in both langunges.
Kallio, N., 2'he SeI..ol Syslnn of Finland. llelslnkl,1949
SOCIAL WELFARE. The Ministry of Social Affairs, founded 011 8

Nov. 1917, since 1951 comprises 5 departmcnts, viz., general (including
research and housing), labour, insurance, welfare and population (including
poor relief and child welfare), temperance and liquor trade, wages and prices.
Direct expenditure by the Ministry amounted to 42,692m. markkas in
1958. 47'5% were spent on children's allowances; other large items being
social insurance, temperance, public morality and care for invalids.
The number of paupers in 1957 supported by the towns and the village
communities was 139,950 (3'2% of the population), and the total cost of the
care of the poor was 8,992/0. markkas.
Social Ugidalion and Wa,k in Finla1la. Hel.inki, 1953
JUSTICE. The administration of justice is independent of the Govern·

ment·. The lowest courts of justice are the dist.rict courts. In towns these
district courts are held by the burgomaster and his assessors; in the country
by a judge and 12 jurors-peasant proprietors, the judge alone deciding,
unless the jurors unanimously differ from him, when their decision prevails.
From tbese courts an appea.l lies to the Superior Courts (Hollwikeus) in
Turku, Vaasa, Kuopio and Helsinki. The Supreme Court (Korkein oike'U8)
sits in Helsinki. Judges can be removed only by judicial sentence.
Two functionaries, the Oikeuskansleri or the Chancellor of Justice, and
the Oikeusasia1llies, or the Attorney·General, exercise control over the
administration of justice. The former acts also as counsel and public
prosecutor for the Government; while the latter, who is appointed by the
Pa.rliament, has to exteud a general Bupervision over all the courts of law.
At the beginning of 1959 the prison population numbered 6,815 men and
:135 women; the number of sentences pronounced in 1958 was 17,239 for
crimes and 175,803 in civil cases.
Merikoski, V., P,ids d" d,oil public de la l"i1,/a1l<U. Helsinki, 1954
FINANCE. Actual revenue and expenditure for 5 calendar years and

budget for 1959 in 1m. markkas :
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Revenne . 215,56!t 235,382 ~69,OOr, 29~,S89 311 °(10) 305,019
Expenditure. 213,G63 242,988 278,673 300,603 333:074 303,909
Of the tot.al revenue in 1958, 10% derived from capital revenue and
90% from ordinary revenue. Of the ordinary revenue 2:H;% derived
frolD dircct taxes, 27'8% from cuetoms duties and other indirect taxes,
23·..% from purchase tax and 8'5% from children's allowances Rnd national
pension premiums payable by employers.
Of the total expenditul'e in 1958,37-15% went to capital expenditure and
02'5% to ordinary expenditure. Of the ol'(linary expenditure 20'5% went
to Bocial affairs, 14'2% to education, 7'6% to agriculture, 3'9% to the
pu blic debt, 10·;'5% to the Ministry of the Interior and 6'5% to defence.
974 FINLAND
At the end of Dec. 1958 the foreign loans totalled 79,409m. markkas, of
which 7 )' ,379m. were long. term loans and 9,030m. promissory notes to the
I.M.F. The internal loans amounted to 92,628m. markkas, of which
65,163m . were bond loans, 4,281m. promissory notes and 23,184m. short-
term 108us. The total public debt was 171,911m. markkas.
DEFENCE. The peace treaty of Paris, signed on 10 Feb. 1947, re
strioted the armed foroes of Finland to a land Army, inoluding frontier
troops and anti-aircraft artillery, with a total strength of 34,400 personnel;
a Navy ',vith a personnel strength of 4,500 and a total tonnage of 10,000 tons;
an Air 1'orce, inoluding any naval air arm, of 60 fighting aircraft, including
reserves, with a total personnel strength of 3,000. Bombers with internal
bomb.~ ,rrying faoilities are expressly forbidden.
The military, naval and air clauses of the peace treaty are subject to
modific8.tion by agreement between the Security Council of the United
Nations and Finland.
The : ~eriod of training is 240 (or 330) days. Military training outside the
Army, Navy and Air Foroe is forbidden.
In 1!l60 the Navy oomprised 2 minelayers, 18 Cast patrol boats,4 mine-
sweepem, 28 minesweeping boats, 16 motor patrol boats, 2 coastguard patrol
vessels, :l tenders, 6 ioebreakers and 3 tugs.
The Air :Force comprises 3 groups at Pori, Utti and Jyva~kyla, a military
flying school at Kauhava, a depot at Tampere, and a signal batt.alion. Its
equipmEnt is largely obsolescent, except for Safir, Magister (jet) and Vampire
trainers .. but the fighter units are being re-equipped with Gnat jet-fighters.
Its strergth, 1958, is about half that permitted under the peace treaty.
PROUUCTION. A!J1'iculture. Agriculture is one of the chief occupa·
tions of the people, although the cultivated area covers only 8'5% of the
land. The land was divided in 1950 into 356,786 farms, and the landed
property was distributed as follows: Less than 3 hectares cultivated, num-
ber of f8.rms, 134,512; 3-10 hectares, farms 148,358; 10-25 hectares, farms
62,,178; 25-100 hectares, farms 1l,215; over 100 hectares, farms 223 (1
hectare = 2·47 acres).
The principal crops (area in 1,000 hectares, yield in met.ric tons) were as
follows in 1958 :
CJ'op Area Yield Crop Area Yield
Rye 76·3 110,897 Oats . 441·~ 798,456
Baricy 223-4 406,401 Potatoos . 86·2 1,380,656
Wheat 126·6 215,189 Hay 1,175'0 3.727,173
Total land under cultivation in 1958 was 2,611,200 hectares. Creamery

butter F·roduction in 1958 was 74,532 metric tons, and production of cheese
was 22,fil8 metric tons.
Dom.estic animals in 1958: Horses, 261,350; milch COW8, 1,134,889.
other ca.ttle, 800,669; sheep, 407,274; pigs,534,010; ponitry,4,245,61O;
reindeer, 170,293.
Forestry. The total forest land amounts to 21,761,000 hectares. Th&
product ive forest land covers 17,276,000 hectares. The growing stock was
valued at 1,493m. cu. metres in 1955 and the annual growth at 46m. cu.
metres.
Mining. Finland is a young mining country. Outokumpu mine, th&
main S01lrce of copper, was discovered in 1910. A rich deposit of magnetit&-
i1menite ore was found at Otanmii.ki in 1953. The valuable nickel-or&
FINLAND 976
deposits in Petsamo had to be ceded to the Soviet Union in 1945. About
4,300 men are employed in the mining industry.
Output in 1958 (in metric tons): Copper concentrates, 141,142; electro.
copper, 30,729; zinc concentrates, 85,630; iron concentrates, 214,970;
titanium concentrates, 106,489; lead concentrates, 3,970; vanadium
pentoxide, 697; silver, 17'4 ; gold, 0·786. Iron and steel output in 1958
(in metric tons): Pig·iron,100,956; steel, 186,044; rolled products, 150,209.
Industry. Finland bad, in 1958, 6,612 large factories, employing an
aggregate of 281,192 workers and yielding an aggregate product of 877 .499m.
markkas.
Labour. In May 1953 (census), 27,989 industrial firms employed 395,700
persolls. T he largest groups were: Wood,62,900; clothing, 38,700; tex·
tiles, 38,:300; food, 36,600; paper, 32,300; machinery, 25,400; printing,
19,900; nOIl·metallic mineral production, 19,400; metal manufacture,
15,800.
Economi. Review (KansaUis-Osake-Pankki). Helsinki, 1948 tI .
.igricultural Co-operotion in Fin/Q.nd. Helsinki, 194P
IIvessalo, Y., Th. Forul3 01 Prtstnl-Day Finland. Helsinki, 1949
Mead, W. R., Farming in Fin/Q.nd. Atblone Press, London, 19~3
Weatermarck, N., Finnish Agriculture. Helsinki. 1954
Wright, J . H., Fin/Q.nd (Economic Survey). H.M.S.O., 1953
COMMERCE. Imports and exports for calendar years, in Im . markkas:

1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Imports . . 121,860'2 152.1 37 176,960 203,558 22i,927 235,303
Rrporta. . 131,655'~ 156,618 181,269 177,986 212,385 247,934
In 1958, 18% of the total imports (by value) came from U.S.S.R., 17·2%
from U.K., 16'5% from Western Germany, 8'3% from Sweden, 5'4% from
U.S.A., 4'7% from France, 4'3% from Netherlands. Of the exports (by
value) 22·1 % went to U.K., 17'3% to U.S.S.R.,lO·9% to Western Germany,
6'2% to France, 4·6% to U.S.A., 4'4% to Netherlands, 3·6% to Belgium-
Luxembourg.
Principal imports, 1958 (in Im. markkas): Mineral fuel and oils, 33,323;
base metals, 31,774; machinery and apparatus, 38,024; textiles, 22,016;
transport equipment, 23,072; chemical and pharmaceutical products,
20,757; cereals, 10,824.
Principal exports, 1958 (in Im. markkas) : Timber and timber products,
74,837; cardboard and paper, 68,451; wood'pulp,49,156; transport equip-
ment, 16,095; machinery and apparatus, 11,420.
Exports of forest products in 1958 were as follows : Round timber,
3,861,000 Cll. metres (of which pulpwood, 2,222,000 cu. metres and pitprops,
I,Oi3,OOO cu. metres); Bawn wood, 762,000 standards ; plywood and veneers,
239,000 cu. metres; prefabricated houses, 53,000 sq. metres.
Total trade between U.K. and Finland (in £ sterling; British Board of
Trade returns) : 1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U . K. 19,274,686 66,6il,316 72,905,314 67,949,073 77,630,281
Erporta from U. K . . 5,522,688 46,187,809 37,165,656 81,796,840 37,687,123
Re-exporta (rom U. K. 321,481 914,l58 107,678 632.338 715,948
Pinnish Foreign Trade Direclory, 1957. H elalnki, 1957
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The mercantile marine on 31 Dec.

1958 aggregated 538 vessels of 755,000 GRT, and consisted of 252 steam
vessels of 362,000 tons, 183 motor boats of 383,000 tons and 103 sailing
vessels with subsidiary motors of 10,000 tons.
976 FINLAND
The total nUlllber of vessels entering and leaving Finnish ports were:
1956,8.032 and 8,069; 1957,9,134 and 9,125; 1958,9,598 and 9,609.
For internal communications Finland has a remarkable system of lakcs
oonnected with each other by canals, navigable at It length of about 6,645
km and fioatable at a length of about 41,500 km . The number of ,essels
which passed along the canals in 1958 was 15,115, and the number of
timber· rafts, 22,423; receipts, 84m. markkas.
Pobjanp •.Io, J., J/t1'cantil. ShippiTI'J 01 rinland. Helsinki,1949
Roazs. In 1958 there were 35,685 km of high roads and 30,863 km

of other public roads. Number of registered ,ehicle3 was 289,083, including
13ll,222 passengers cars, 42,717 lorries, 5,219 buses and 89,060 motor cycles.
RaiiwaY8. Raihvay history in Finland begins in 1860, when the state
built n. line 108 km long between Helsinki and Hameenlinna. On 31 Dec.
1958 there were 5,263 km of railwavs, all but 156 km state-owned. The
gauge if! 1'524 metres (4'9 ft). The"traffic upon the state railways in 1958
was 31, 218,000 passenger-journeys and 16.875,000 tons of goods. The total
revenue in 1958 was 29,624m., and the total expenditure, 23,854m. markkas.
Pas;: (1958). Finland had 6,574 post and telephone offices; revenue and
expendture of posts and telegraphs combined were respectively 16,017m.
and 15,)24m. markkas. The number of telephones was 545,338.
The~e were 62,796 km of telegraph wires and 687,689 km of telephone
wires. The telegraph system and part of the telephone system arc state
property.
The number of wireless licences was 1,1·10,073 at 31 Dec. 1958.
Avi,ztion (1958). Domestic traffic: 635,809 passengers, 5,805 metric
tons of freight; 1,785 metric tons of mail. International traffic : 201,427
pa.ssen~·ers, 4,091 metric tons of freight, 608 metric tons of mail. Finnish
oompal1ies flew 10·4m. km, 177m. passenger-km and 38,405 hours.
MO'lEY AND BANKING . The unit of currency is the markka of 100
pennis. Silver coin is struck to the value of lOO, 200 and 500 markkas.
The gold standard was suspended on 12 Oct. 1931. Aluminiulll bronze
COinR ale 50, 20 and 10 markkas; iron coins, 5- and I-markka pieces.
The Bank of Finland (fonnded in 1811) is the state bank and bank of
issue. The bank is under the guarantee and supervision of P arliament;
its capital and reserves are fixed by its constitution, and its note circula-
tion is limited by the value of its metallic stock and foreign holdings,
and thE: additional right of issue 58,OOOm. markkas. Notes in circulation
are: 10,000,5,000, 1,000,500 and 100 markka. The paper currency of the
Bank of Finland on 31 Dec. 1958 was 65,075m. markkas. Finland had in
1958, besides the state bank, 5 commercial banks with 542 offices. The
deposit:! of all the C01l11l1orcial banks on 31 Dec. 1958 were 161,824m.
markkas.
A Mortgage Bank, of which the Bank of Finland holds 98% of the
capital, was set up in Dec. 1955.
The number of ordinary savings banks at the end of 1958 was 405;
numbel of depositors, 2,664,000, who had to their credit 136,453m. markkas;
in the post office sa,ings banks 1,345,026 depositors had 38.167m. markkas,
and on the accounts with various co· operative institutions 98,230m. markkas
were deposited.
Bank 0l.?inland. },[onPily Bulletin. Helsinki. 1926 If.
Unita,. Quarterly nc~iew, issued by Nordiska F oreniugsbankcD. Helsinlti, 1929 IT.
FINLAND 977
measures was introduced in 1887 and is officially and universally employed.
Finland maintains embassies in Argentina (also l\1inister for Chile and
Uruguay), Belgium (also Minister for Luxembourg), Brazil, China, Czecho·
slovakia (also Minister for Albania), Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy
(also Minister for Tunisia), Mexico, Netherlands (also Minister for Portugal),
Norway (also Minister for Iceland), Poland (also Minister for Bulgaria and
Rumania), Spain (also Minister for the Vatican), Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey (also Minister for Iran, Iraq, Pakistan), U.S.S.R. (also Minister for
Afghanistan), United Arab Republic (also Minister for Ethiopia, Jordan,
Lebanon and Sudan), U .K., U.S.A. (also l\1inister for Colombia, Cuba,
Venezuela), the United Nations, Yugoslavia (also Minister for Greece); and
legations in Australia (also for New Zealand), Austria, Canada, India (also
for Burma, Ceylon, Indonesia, Tha iland), Israel , Japan (also for Philippines),
Union of South Africa; and commercial representatives in East and West
Germany.
OB' FINLAND IN GREAT BRITAIN (65-66 Chester Square, S.W.I)
Ambassador. Leo Olavi Tuominen (accredited I Oct. 1957).
Counsellor. Risto Solanko.
First Secretary. Pent ti Talvitie.
Pres8 Attache. Kaarlo Niilo Salo.
Attaches. Veikko LaUl'i Rietanen; Unto Erik Pielilainen (Consul) .
Military, Air and Naval Attache. CdI' Paolo KuUervo Killinen .
There are eonsular representatives at Aberdeen, Belfast., Birmingham,
Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Dundee, Edinburgh, Fowey, Glasgow,
Grimsby, HuU, Jersey, Leeds, Lerwick, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcl1stle.
Nottin~ham. Preston. Sheffield. Southampton, Sunderland. Swansea and
West Hartlepool.
OF GREAT BRITAL'I nI FINLAND
Ambassador. Sir Douglas Busk, K .C.M.G.
Secretaries. A. B. Horn; W. N. R. Maxwell (Commercial); J . H.
Bowman; R. A. Gamble (Information); H. Atken (Labour).
Naval AUache. Capt. H. R. B. Newton, D.S.C., R.N.
111ilitary Attache. Col. P. R . Mortimer.
Air Attache. Wing Cdr J. 1<'. Pilluington.
There are a consul at Relsinki and "ice· consuls at Hamina., Kotka., 011111,
Pori, Tampere, Turku and Vaasa.
OF FnlLAND IN THE U.S.A. (WOO-24t h St. NW., Washington 8, D.e.)

Ambassador. Richn,rd R. Seppala.
Counsellor. Ake Backstrolll. First Secretary. Jaakko Lyytimm .
•lfilitary, Naval and Air Attache. Col. Kaarlo O. Leinonen, F.A.
OF 'l'H)'; U.S.A. IN FINLAND
Ambassador. Edson O. Sessions.
Counsellors. Roy M. Melbourne; William K . Miller (Economic). First
Secretary. Grant G. Hilliker (Con slll) . Army Attache. Col. Delbert L.
978 THE FRENCH COMMUNITY
Bjork. Naval Attache and Naval Attache for Air. Cmdr Carlton E. Soder.
holm. Air Attache. Col. Karl T. Rauk. Agricultural Attache. Harald C.
Larsen :resident in Stockholm).
Books oC Reference
STATJ;!T1CAL lNI'OIUolATlON. 'l'he Central Statistical Office (TilastoUinen pAAtoimiato),
lleL'inki, was founded In 1866 but tbere was already during the Swedish era some kind 01
atatisties Institute in Stockholm which computed also data from Finland. After tbe
leparatio) from Sweden the bishop'. councils continued to collect data and &end them to the
economic department of the Senate unW the foundation 01 the Statistical Olllce. Dirtctor:-
Prolessor Valter Lindberg. Ite publiestions Inolnde: SUltutieal Y tarbook 01 Finl4nd (from
1879). JluUelin 0/ Stali"iu (monthly, from 1924).
Suomm I'altiokaltnteri (Stall Calendar 0/ Finl4nd). Annual. HelsinkI
Trtaly 01 Peact tLliJh Finl4nd (10 Ftb. 1947). Omd. 7484
Bandboo!' 01 Finnuh Otog,aphy . Finnish Geogr. Society. Helsinki, 1961
Bell, H . 14., lAnd 0/ Lake.. London, 1950
Eve"" W. , Suomi·Finnland : lAnd und Volk. Stutl€art, 1950
Hall. W., O,ttn, Gold and GraniJt. London, 1953
Jackson, J . H ., Finl4nd. 2nd ed. London. 1939
Jutikl<ala. E ., 41la. 0/ Finni. h Huto,y. Porvoo·Helsinki, 1949
Klblberg J ., SptakifI!J 0/ Finland. Helsinki, 1954.
Mannerlwim. TI.. Merm;i,. 01 Marshal Mannerhtim. London, 1953
Mazour, .t . G., Finl4nd between East and Wtst. Princeton, 1956
Miesmaa, J ., FiUU about Finl4nd. Helsinki, 1957
PI. tt. R . R. (cd.), Finla"d and ilS a . og,aphy. New York, 1955
Shearman. H .• Finl4nd. London, 1950
Toivola. 'J ., The Finl4nd Yta, Book. Helsinki, 1947
Vuolle, A., Finnuh-Efl!Jli.h Dicti tma,V. 2 vols. Helsinki,1 951-62
lI'uorin"[,, J. 11., Finland and Wo,ld Wo, 11. New York, 1948
THE FRENCH COMMUNITY

LA COMMUNAUTE
THE Ccnstitution of the Fifth Republic 'offers to the oversea territories

which manifest their will to adhere to it new institutions based on the
common ideal of liberty, equality and fraternity and conceived with a view
to their democratic evolution '. The territories are offered 3 solutions :
they may keep their status; they may become oversea. dipartement8; they
may beeome, singly or in groups, member states of the Community (Art. 76).
Within the Community, the member states enjoy full intern.a.1 autonomy
(Art. 77). Foreign affairs, defence, currency, common economic and
financia I policy; the control of justice, higher education, the genera.lorgani.
zation)f transports and telecommunications belong to the Community
(Art. n).
The organs of the Community are: the President of the Republic, who
is also President of the Community; an Executive Council consisting of the
French Prime Minister, the heads of government of each member state of
the Community and the ministers responsible to the Community for common
affairs; a Senate formed of delegates of the French parliament and the
Legislative Assemblies of the other member states; and a Court of Arbitra·
tion (kt. 80-84).
'Thll Republic or the Community may conclude treaties with states
which desire to associate themselves with it in order to develop their civiliza·
tions' (Art. 88).
The Senate consists of 284 members (1 for 300,000 population), 186 of
FRANCE 979
whom represent the French Republic. The Court of Arbitration consists
of 7 judges nominated for 6 years by the President of the Community.
The territorial structure of the Community is the following:
1. FRENCH REPUBLIC
A. Jl[ etropolitan Departments D. Overseas Territories:
B. Algerian and Saharan De· (i) French Polynesia
partments (ii) New Caledonia
(iii) French Somaliland
C. Oversea Departments: (iv) Comoro Archipelago
(i) Martinique (v) Saint-Pierre and Miquelon
(ii) GuadeIoupe (vi) Southern and Antarctic Territories
(iii) Reunion (vii) Wallis and l!'utuna I slands
(iv) Guiana
n. MEMBER STATES
l. Central African Republic 7. Republic of Madagascar
2. Republic of Congo 8. Islamic Republic of Mauritania
3. Republic of Ivory Coast 9. Republic of Niger
4. Republic of Dahomey 10. Republic of Senegal
5. Republic of Gabon 11. Sudanese Republic
6. Republic of Upper Volta 12. Republic of Chad
The following territories are not included in the Community:
STATES FORMERLY UNDER TRUSTEESHIP
1. Republic of Togoland 2. State of Cameroon
ANGLO-FRENCH CONDOMINIU~M OF NEW HEBRIDES
Within the Community there exist the following' regional organizations'
of mem ber states: (I) the Federation of Mali, corn prising Senegal and Sudan;
(2) the economic and t echnical Union of the former French Equatorial
Africa states (Central Afri ca, Congo, Gabon, Chad); (3) the entente of 4
former members of Fren ch West Africa (Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Upper
Volta, Niger); the customs union of West Africa, comprising (1), (3) and
;\Iauritania.
Books of Reference
Annuaire ,talut,i qut de, POllt.Jsion3 F,.~ut,J. Paris
Bulletin mm8Ui!1 de &talistiqlU' a'Outre-mer. Parie
Inflentuire .social el ~conomiqlle des Territoirt3 d'Outre-mer, 1950-55. Paris, Ministerc de 1&
France d O ' utre-mer I 195 i
Blot., H., Bistei" de la colanisate"" jTanr;aise. 3 vols. Paris, 1946-50
Deveze, M., l-a Franc#! d'outrt-mer: ~ i'empire colcmial c11' Union Fra~i,e, 1938-47. Paria,
1948
IJuchaire, F., Marmtl dl' droit d'oulre-f1Ul'. Paris, 1949
RobeqU8io, C., Le3 riche.'H8 ch la Franu d'oulre-mer. Paris, 1949
FRANCE
REl'UBLIQUE FRANCAISE
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The oonstitution of the
Fifth Republic, superseding that of 1946, came into force on 5 Oct. 1958.
A referendum held in the French Republic and the oversea departments
and territories on 28 Sept. 1958 approved the constitution drawn up by a
committee which General de Gaulle had appointed in June. Apart from

French Guinea, which voted over 90% against the constitution and for
indeperldence, the final result for metropolitan France, Algcria, the overseu.
departlnents and territories, and from French citizens living abroad or in
trustee"hip territories was as follows: Electorate, 45,840,642; voters,
36,893,')79; valid votes, 36,486,251; Yes,31,066,502; No, 5,419,749.
The Constitution consists of a preamble, dealing with the Rights of Man,
and 92 articles. Emphasis is placed on the role of the President of the
Republic. 'He sees that the Constitution is respected; he ensures, through
his arbitration, the regular functioning of public powers as well as the
contindty of the state. He is the guarantor of national independence'
(Art. 5). He nominates and dismisses the Prime Minister and the other
members of the government (Art. 8). He can dissolve the National
Assembly after consultation with the Prime Minister and the presidents of
the ass'lDlblies (Art. 12). He appoints to all military and civil offices of the
Republic (Art. I3). 'When the institutions of the Republic, the inde·
pendence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of
its international commitments are threatened with immediate and grave
danger, and when the regular functioning of constitutional public powers is
interrupted, the President of the Republic takes the measures demanded by
the cir.)Umstances, after official consultation with the Prime Minister, the
presidents of the assemblies and the Constitutional Council' (Art. 16).
The President of the Republic is chosen by an electora college which
consist:l of the members of Parliament, the members of the general councils
and of the assemblies of the oversea territories, as well as the elected repre·
sentatives of the municipal councils and the delegates of the member states
of the 'Jommunity (Art. 6).
'The government determines and conducts the policy of the nation'
(Art. 2()); 'the government may ask parliament for authority to take, by
decree; and within a limited period, such measures as are normally within
the prolvince of the law' (Al·t. 38). Ministers must not be members of
parliament (Art. 23). Votes of censure can only be carried by a majority
of the members constituting the Assembly (Art. 49). The 2 ordinary
session; in autumn and spring are curtailed to a total of 5 months (Art. 28).
ThE' 'Council of the Republic' has been re·named 'Sonate'.
Th(, 'Economic Council' has been re·named 'Economic and Social
Council'.
Th(, 'Constitutional Council' has to uphold the fairness of the elections
and to act as a guardian of the constitution. It is composed of 9 members,
3 of whom are nominated by the President of the Republic, 3 by the Presi·
dent of the National Assembly and 3 by the President of the Senate. In
additicn, past President,s of the Republic arc, by right, members of the
Constitutional Council (Art. 56).
Na,:ionalflag : blue, white, red (vertical).
Na:ional anthem: La Marseillaise (words and tune by C. Rouget de Lisle,
1792).
The Senate is composed of 255 members representing Me tropolitan
Departments, 32 Algeria, 2 Sahara, 7 Overseas Departments, 5 Overseas
Territc,ries, (j Frenchmen residing outside France.
Thl, elections for the National Assembly took place on 23 and 30 Nov.
1958. State of parties: Communists, 12; Socialists, 47; Independents
and Peasants, 118; Mouvement Republicain Populllire, 64; Union pour la
Nouvelle Republiquo, 207; Algerian deputies, 66; unattached, 65.
FRANCE 981
Pre8ident 0/ the Republic. Gen. Charles de Gaulle; elected on 21 Dec.
1!l58 by 62,394 votes against 10,355 for the Communist candidate and 6,721
for a left.wing Radical.
On 3 Feb. 1960, the Chambers approved ll. bill giving the Government
~ pecial powers for one year over a wide field of legislation.
The Cabinet formed on 8 Jan. and reshuffled in :May 1959 an(1 Jan.-Feb.
1!l60 is composed as follows:
Prime lIiinister. Michel Debre.
Ministers to the Prime jJfinister. Roger :Frey; Pierre Guillauruat..
jJf·inisters 0/ S tate. Louis Jaequin ot; Robert Lecourt (M.R.P.); Andre
l\lalraux.
,Justiee. Edmond Michelet.
Foreign Alfa.iTs. J\Iaurice Couve de :Mun·iIIe.
Interior. Pierre Chatenet..
Armed Forces. Pierre Messmcr.
Finance and Economic.s. Wilfrid Baumgartncr.
Ed·u,cation. Louis Joxc.
Public Works and Transport. Robert Buron (lII.R.P.).
Industry and Commerce. Jean·Marcel JealUleney.
Agriculture. Henri Rochcrcall.
Labour. Paul Bacon (M.RP.).
Health. Bernard Chenot.
Housing . Pierre Sudr6a.
Posts and T elegraphs. lIIichel Maurice·Bokanowski.
Infonna.tion. Louis Terrenoire.
Ex·Servicemen. Raymond Triboulet (U.N.n.).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. For administ.rat.ive purposes Metropolitan France
i~ divided into !l0 departments. Since 1881, Algeria has been treated, for
most. purposes, as part of France proper. As from 1 Jan. 1947 the former
colonies of Martiniqlle, Guadeloupe, n eunion and Guyane have also been
given t.he status of overseas depa rtments.
The unit of local government is the commune, the size and population of
which vary very much. There were, in 1954, in the 90 metropolitan
departments, 38,000 communes. Most of them (34,067) had less than
1,500 inhabitants, and 23,806 had e~en less than 500; while 209 communes
had more than 20,000 inhabitants. The local affairs of the commune nre
Ilnuer a Munieipal Council, composed of from 10 to 36 members, elected by
universal suffrage, and by the 8eTutin de liste for 6 years by Frenchmen of
21 years or over after 6 months' residence.
Each Municipal Council elects a mayor, who is both the representative of
the commune and the a~ent of the central government. He is the head
of the local police and, with his assistants, acts under the orders of the prefect.
In Paris the Municipal Council is composed of 90 members. The 20
arrondis8ements into which the city is subdivided have been grouped in 9
sectors, each of which has its own mayor. Lyons has an elected mayor,
but the police is under the Prefect of the department of the Rhone.
The next unit is the canton (3,031 in 1954), which is composed of all
average of 12 communes, although some of the largest communes are, on th~
contrary, divided into several cantons.
The district, or arrondissemenJ (3ll in 1954), has an elected comeil
d'arrondi4sement, with as many members as there were cantons, its chief
function being to allot among the communes their respective parts in the
diroct taxes assigned to each arrondissement by the COIlnc.il General.
AREA AND POPULATION.

Area Census population
))epartment8 (sq. km) A/arch 1936 J[arch 11146 MaV 1954
AiD . ~,826 316,710 306,778 311,941
Aisne 7,428 484,647 (53,HI 487,06P
Allier 7,3~2 368,778 37l1,481 372,689
Alpes (B""...·) . 6,988 85,090 83,304 84,335
Alpe. (E autes·) . ~,643 88,210 H4,932 85,067
Alpes·MI~ritimes . 4,2 98 513,714 45 2,5 46 510,484
Ardbct.. 5,556 272,698 204,5n 249,077
Ardennel 5,253 288,632 245,336 280,490
Ariege 4,903 156,134 Ho,956 140,010
Aub. 6.026 239,563 23;,237 240,797
Aud. 6,342 285,116 268,889 268,254
AveyroD 8,771 314.682 301,717 292,727
Dellort 608 99,497 86,648 99 ..U7
Douche. ·du·nuOn. 5,U8 1,2~4,802 971,930 1,048,762
Oalvado., 5,693 404,901 400,026 442,991
Cantal 5,779 190,888 186,843 177,OaG
Oharent,(: 5,g72 30~,279 311,137 313,635
Cha.rent( ~ -"Ma.ritime 7,232 419,021 416,187 447,973
Ober. 7,304 288,690 286,070 284,376
Corr~ •• 5,888 262,7 73 264,674 242,798
Corse 8,722 322,81;4 267,873 246,996
COte·d'Or 8,787 334,386 330,601 366,839
OOt.eo-du· Nord 7,218 531,840 626,9~~ 603,178
Creu.'ie 5,606 201,844 188,669 172,70J
Dordogne 9,224 386,963 387.643 377,870
Doub. 5,260 30 4,81~ 293,255 327,187
DrOme 6.561 2~7,281 268,233 275,280
Eur. 6.037 303.829 316.90' 332,614
Eure-et-"Lolr 5,940 2~2.690 25~.1l0 261,035
FiweterE 7,029 756,793 724.735 727,847
Gard. 5,881 390,299 380,837 396,742
GaronDe (Haute·) 6,367 468,647 612,260 525,669
Gen; . 6,291 192,451 190,431 185,111
Gironde 10.7~6 850,567 868,381 896,617
H~raoJt 6,224 502,043 461.10l) 471 ,479
IIIe-et-V [lalne 6,992 665,766 678,246 686,812
Incire 6,906 245,6~2 202,075 247,436
Indre-et..L~ire 6,168 343,276 349,686 364,706
Is~re 8,237 572,742 674,019 626,116
Jura . 6,055 220,797 216,386 220,202
Landes 9,364 2;1,436 248,39. 248,943
Loir-et-(lber 6,422 240,908 242,419 239,824
Loire 4,799 660,226 631,591 664,48'
Loir. (Haute·) 0,001 246,271 228,076 215,677
Loire-Atlantiqua 6.980 669,428 666,064 733,676
Loiret 6,812 343,865 346,918 360,523
Lot . 6,226 162,572 164,897 147,764
Lot-et-G ar~DDe 6,386 262,761 266,449 266,649
Loz~re 5,180 98,480 90,623 82,391
M.aine-et -Loire 7,218 477,690 496,068 618,241
Mnnche 6.412 438,639 436,4ft8 "6,860
Marne 8,205 410,238 386,928 '1~,141
M&rDe (lIaute-) . 6,257 188,471 181,840 197,147
Mayennt , 5,212 261,348 266,317 251,52'
Meurtb&et·MoseU. 6,280 676,041 628,806 607,002
Mause 6,241 216,934 188,786 207,106
Morbiba') 7,092 542,2(8 ~06,884 620,978
MoseU. 6,203 696,246 622,146 769,388
Nlhre 6,888 249,673 248,059 240,078
Nord 6,774 2,022,167 1,917,462 2,098,646
01.8. 6,887 402,669 396,724 (35,308
Om. 6,144 269,331 273,181 274,862
Pas· de· Calais 6,752 1,179,467 1,168,546 1,276,833
Puy de DOme 8,016 486,103 478,876 481,380
Pyr~D~ . (Daeses·) 7,712 413,411 416,797 '20,019
Pyr~D~ . (Hautes·) 4,534 188,604 201,954 203,64(
Pyr~n~ .-Orientales 4,14. 233,347 228,776 230,286
RhiD (Du..) 4,793 7ll,830 673,281 707,934
FRANCE 983
(Area Census popuJation
Departments sq. km) March 1936 Marrh 1916 MaV 1954
Rhin (Raut) 3,531 007,551 471,705 009,647
RhOne 2,859 J ,02R,379 918,866 966,782
SaOno (Raute-) 5,375 212,829 202,573 209,30S
BaODe·et-Loire 8,627 025,676 506,749 611,182
Sartbo 6,245 388,519 412.2U 420,39S
Savoie 6,IR8 239,010 235,939 252,192
Savoi. (Raut.·) . 4,598 259,961 270,565 293,MS2
Seine 480 4,P62,984 4,775,711 5,154,834
Seine-Maritime 6,342 915,628 846,1El ~41,684
Seine-etr-Marue 5,931 409,311 407,137 453,4S8
Seine·et-Ois. 5,659 1,413,472 1,414,910 1,708,791
SeVYes (Dcta) 6,054 308,841 312,756 312,842
Somme 6,277 467,479 441,368 464,153
Tarn 5,780 297,871 298,117 308,197
'fBnl-et-GaTowle 3,731 164,629 167,664 172,379
Var . 6,023 398,662 370,688 413,OU
Vaucluse 3,573 245,508 249,838 268,318
Vendee 7,016 3R9,211 303,787 395,641
Vienne 7,044 306,820 313,932 S19,208
Vienne (Route·) 5,555 33E,589 336,31:; 324,429
Vosge. 5,903 376,026 342,315 372,52S
Yonn. 7,461 271,680 266,014 266,410
- ---- -_._-
Total 551,603 41,907,056 1 40,502,~13 ' 42,777,174
1 Not. including military, air BDd naval rorces. crew~ of the commercio.l nhvy abroad and
(1946) the personnel ot the military government in Germany and Austria, numb.,ing in 1936,
107,~38; and in 1946, 312,105.
The figures include 1,453,479 foreigners in 1954, and 2,453,524 in 1936.

In the following table, the third, fourth and fifth coluruns give (in
brackets) for the first 5 censuses the population, its density and its average
annual increase of France, excluding Alsace-Lorraine, and are thus com-
parable with the data for the censuses posterior to the loss of Alsace and
Lorraino (1872-Hlll):
Domiciled Inhabitants Annual increase
Area (sq , km) population per sq. km per 1,000
1801 537,699 27,349,003 51
[26,930,766] [51]
1821 30,461,876 57 6·l
[29,871,176] [67] [52]
1841 34,230,178 64 58
[33,400,8G4] [64] [56]
1861 560,9R6 37,386,313 68 44
[35,844,902] [67] [35]
1866 38,067,064 69 36
[36,495,489] [68] [36]
1872 036,464 36,102,921 67 -88 1
(-18]
1881 37,672,048 70 47
1891 38,342,948 il 18
1901 38,961,94~ 73 16
1911 39,604,992 70 16
1921 MO,986 39,209,fiI8 71 -10 1
1~31 41,834,923 76 6a
1946 40,502,513 74 - 221
1904 42,777,lH 78 67
I Decrease.
Estimated population on 1 Jan. 1957 was 43·85m. (21 ·2m. males, 22·6m .
females); estimated total, 1 Jan. 1959, was 44,788,000.
The peace treaty with Italy, signed on 10 Feb. 1947, added 4 small
frontier districts to the French territory, including the villages of Tenda and
Briga, which voted by 2,603 to 218 votes for inclusion in Franco (12 Oct.
1947), See map in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1948.
VITA.L STATISTICS for calendar years:

Living
MarrI_ Divorcee births Sull·bom D."th.
1~~' 314,453 28,664 807,208 17,980 ~16,34e
1905 312,703 29,186 802,303 17,689 622,708
1966 293,460 29,600 803,107 17,949 641,891
1967 310,509 29,253 812,589 J8,420 52S,~2!)
J958 3J2,133 28,054 808,060 17,743 4n6,94J
PRD'CIPAL ToWNS (census 1954):

Paril . . 2,860,189 Limoges 1O~,990 N eullly·sur·Seine . 86,096
llarseWe 661,492 Angers 102,1" B~le... e4,92~
Lyon . 471,270 Mulhonse 99,079 St·Maur·de.·
Toulouse 268,863 MontpcUier 97,601 FOBSea 64,387
DordealU 257,946 Doulogne· Argentcuil 63,316
Nice 244,360 Billanconrt 93,998 LevaUois·Perret 62,Sil
Nantel 222,790 Amiens 92,606 Avignon 62,768
Btrasbour~ 200,921 Nlme. 89,lS0 Calais. 60,340
Lille 194,616 Metz . 85,701 CourbeToie . 69,730
St :9ti~nne 181,730 VersaWes 84,446 Trove. . r)8,8U
ToQ}oll 141,117 Tool's. 83,618 La Rochelle. 68,799
Le Bane 139,810 Tonrooing . 83,416 A nbervilliers 68,740
Nancy. J 24,797 Vmeurbanne 81,169 Ollchy M,691
Rennes 124,122 St Deni. 80,705 Aix-co-Provcnce 64,217
Relms . 121,146 AlInicres 77,838 !lourgcs 53,879
RoneD. 116,640 Orleans 76,439 SnlnlrQuentin ~a,866
Grenoble 116,440 Montreull·sous· Nant.erre 63,037
Olermont· "errand 113,391 Dois 76,262 Poitiers 52,63.
Dijon. 112.844 Jlesan90n 73,445 Vitry·sur·Seine 53.~4()
Le MantI 111,891 Perpignan 70,0~1 Drancy ~0,6~4
B.....t . 110,713 Colombe. 6i.909 't"incennes 50,4M
Ronbaix 110,067 Oaen . 67.851 (:annefl 50,19t
Occupational IItructure (census, 1954). Out of an actiVE' population of

19,182,(00 persons, there are 6,443,000 manual workers (of whom 1,358,000
engaged in building and public works, 1,153,000 in agriculture and 1·09m.
in textLes and clothing), 3,984,000 farmers, 1·45m. shop owners (of whom
1,272,0(0 employ less than 2 persons each), 736,000 artisans, 85,000 indns-
trialists, 554,000 members of the liberal professions or senior employees,
1,139,0(10 intermediate employees, 2,074,000 • white-collar' workers,
1,004,0(10 in salaried services, 525,000 miscellaneous (including the army,
police, clergy and the arts).
R.unsem..1I d. 1954. Paris, Imprimerie NatioueJe, 1954
DClDo.ngeon, A.., La Franct konomique et "umtJin~. Paris, 1946
George. Pierre, Geographi. Economig~ " Sociale tk la F,ance. Paris, 1938
Orm<hy, ::r., FranC(. a ''9i01llll aM ..onomic geographv. 2nd ed. London, 1950
Vldnl rle la Blacbe, PaUl, L. Tableau d. la Giog,aphi. d. la l',anct. Paris, 1940
RELIGION. No religioll is officially recognized by the state.

Under the law promulgated on 9 Dec_ 1905 the Churches were separated
from th.) State, the adherenta of all creeds were authorized to form associa-
tiolls foJ' public worship (tUsociatio1l8 cultuelle8).
The law of 2 Jan_ 1907 provided (among other things) that, failing
tU8ociatio1l8 cultuelle8, the buildings for public worship, together with their
furniture, would continue at the disposition of the ministers of religion and
the worflhippers for the exercise of their religion; but, in each case, there was
required an administrative aot drawn up by the prefet 11.8 regards buildings
belonging to the state or the depa.rtmenta, and by the maire as regards
buildings belonging to the communes.
There are 17 archbishops and 68 bishops of the Roman Catholic Church,
with 51,000 clergy of various grades. The Protestants of the Augsburg
FRANCE 985
confession are, in their religious affairs, governed by a General Consistory,
while the Reformed Church is under a Council of Administration, the seat
of which is in Paris. There are about a million Protestants. The Society
of Friends had 81 members in 1957.
8chram, S. R., Prott$£anttJm and PoliJic., in Frolnu. Alen~on. 1954
EDUCATION. The primary, secondary and higher state schools con·

stitute the 'Universite de France'. The Supreme Council of 52 members
has deliberative, administrative and judiciary functions, and a Consultative
Committee advise respecting the working of the school system, but the
inspeetors·general are in direct communication with the Minister. For
local education administration France is divided into 17 academic areas,
each of which has an Academic Council whose members include a certain
number elected by the professors or teachers. The Academic Council deals
with all grades of education. Each is under a Rector, and each is provided
with academy inspectors, 1 for each department except Nord, which has 2
(1 being for elementary education), and Seine, which has 8 (1 being director
of elementary education), besides inspectors of elementary schools, usually
1 for each arrondissement, 20 inspectors (male or female) for the department
of the Seine.
The law of 9 Aug. 1879 rendered obligatory for each department the
maintenance of 2 elementary training schools, 1 for schoolmasters, the other
for schoolmistresses. Future teachers entering the Bcoles Normalp-s receive
a 3·year secondary training, after which they study, for a further year,
professional subjects, including ethics and handicraft. In 1958-59 there
were 77 normal schools for male teachers (ll,600 students), and 76 normal
schools for female teachers (13,000 students) . There were 2 higher normal
schools for elementary education: 1 at Fontenay.aux.Roses for teachers
for normal schools for schoolmistresses, the other at St Cloud for teachers
for normal schools for schoolmasters. The law of 16 June 1881 made
education absolutely free in all elementary state schools; that of 28 March
1882 rendered it obligatory for all children from 6 to 13 years of age, and the
law of 9 Aug. 1936 extended this age limit to 14 years of age. The law of
30 Oct. 1886 was the organic law of elementary education in force; it
established that teachers should be lay; it substituted ecoles maternelles for
sallcs d'asile; it fixed the school programmes and established freedom of
private schools under the supervision of the school authorities.
The following table shows the various types of elementary schools, their
numbers and the numbers of enrolled pupils:
1966-67 1967-68 19;8-59
Description Schools Pupa. School. rupils School. Pupa.
Infant Schools:
State. 4,ROO 694,800 5,100 724,600 0,400 78i,000
Private 200 20,300 200 24,000 180 1 a,GOO
Elementary Schools:
State . 72,400 5,087,700 73,400 5,288,500 73,700 5,466,000
Private 10,600 1,058,000 10,700 1,067,200 10,200 1,072,4.00
In 1042 the fcolea primaries 8uperieures (higher elementary schools)

were transformed into modern schools (colleges modernea); their numbers are
now included in those relating to secondary education. Higher elementary
education is also given in continuation schools (cours compiementaireJI)
a.ttMhed to the elementary schools. In 1958-59 there were 185,600 boys
and 224,700 girls taking these courses in state schools and 37,800 boys and
G13,200 girls in private schools.
Sec,ndary Instructicm. Secondary instruction is supplied in 2 types of

schoob-by the state in the lycees and colleges, the communes bearing partly
or wholly thc charges of the latter; and by associations and by private
individuals in free establishments (ecoles libres). The course of study ex·
tends (,ver 7 years. Since 1934 sccondary education has been free.
ThE, nnmber of secondary schools and the number of pupils in 90 deps.rt.
mentswere as follows:
1956- 57 1957-58 1958-59
Boy, Gir!' Boy, Girls Boy. Gir13
State 307,500 297,300 313,300 311,700 337,200 342,000
Private 204,900 218,600 216,000 228,000 217,000 229,000
Higher Instruction is supplied by the State in the universities and in

special schools, and by private individuals in the free faculties and schools.
The law of 12 July 1875 provided for higher education free of charge.
This law was modified by that of 18 March 1880, which granted the state
facultill8 the exclusive right to confer degrees. A degree of 28 Dec. 1885
created a general council of the faculties, and the creation of universities,
each consisting of several faculties, was accomplished in 1897, in virtue of
the law of 10 JUly 1896.
ThE, faculties are of four kinds : 16 faculties of law (Paris, Aix, Amiens,
Bordeaux, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers,
Rennef., Strasbourg, Toulouse, Alger); 4 faculties of medicine and 4 of
pharmacy (Paris, Montpellier, Nancy, Strasbourg); 9 mixed faculties of
medicine and pharmacy (Bordeaux, Clermont, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Nantcs,
Rennef., Toulouse, Alger); 17 faculties of science (Paris, Besan<;on, Bor-
deaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier,
Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Strasbourg, Toulouse, Alger); 17 faculties of
letters (in the towns last named except for Aix instead of Marseille); 15
at the universities of Bordeaux, Grenoble, Toulouse, Strasbourg, Lyon and
elsewhClre. One of the major functions of all these institutions is the
preparation of entrants for the Ecole Nationale d'Administration in Paris,
which, under the supervision of the President of the Council of Ministers,
trains t;he superior civil and foreign services.
ThE following table shows the year of foundation and the total number
of students of the universities on 30 June 1958 :
Universities Students Universitiee Stodenu
Alx·ldan.eille (1409) 11,986 Lyon (1808) . . 9,917
Alger. . ;;,134 MontpeUier (1289) . 8,259
Beean~oll (1486) 1,996 Naney (1672) 6,313
Bordco.u[ (1441) 10,747 Paris (1160) . 68,785
(Jaen (1432) . . . 4,843 Poltiers (1431) 5,043
ClermoDl~Ferrand (1808) 3,357 Renoes (1735) 9,749
Dijon (1122) . 2?795 Strasbourg (1567) . 6,295
{}renollle (1339) 6,121 Towouee (1230) 9,414
Lille (1 6:10) 9,380
The following statement shows the number of students in state institu-

tions, by faculties or schools at 30 June, for 5 years:
Studenta 01 1964 1966 1966 1967 1958
La" 41,368 40,322 37.029 37,476 31;,171
Medicine 29,603 29,869 30,029 30,372 31,156
Science . 32,493 36,102 39,283 46,147 54,337
Lett.ers . 39,700 41.339 42,930 48,606 51,372
Pharmacy 7.638 7,863 7,940 8,156 8,309
Tbe)logy 313 318 278 266 289
Total 161,116 155,803 167,489 170,023 180,634
FRANCE 987
The other higher institutions under the Ministry of Public Instruction
aro the College de France (founded by Francis I in 1530), which has course8
of study bearing on various subjects (literature and language, arch::eology,
mathematical, natural science, psychology and social science, political
economy, etc.); the Museum of Natural History, giving instruction in science
and natural history; the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudos (history and
philology, mathematical and phyaico.chemicalsciences, natural scionce and
theology), having its seat at the Sorbonne; the E cole Normale Superieure,
which prepares teachers for secondary education and, since 1904, follows the
curricula of the Sorbonne without special teachers of its own; the Ecole des
Chart,eA, which trains archivists and paleographers; the Eaole des Languos
Orientales vivantes; the Ecole du Louvre, devoted to art and archreology;
tho Ecole des Beaux.Arts, and the Bureau des Longitudes, the central
meteorological bureau; the Observatoire de Paris; and the French Schools
at Athens, Rome, Cairo and Indo·China.
Outside Paris there are \2 observatories (Meudoll, Besan,on, Bordeaux,
etc.). The observatory at Nice belongs to the University of Paris.
There are free faculties ill Paris (the Catholic Institute of Paris com·
prising theology, law and advanced scientific and literary studies); Angors
(theology, law, science, letters and agriculture); Lille (theology, law,
medicine and pharmacy, science, letters, social science and politics); Lyon
(theology, law, science and letters); Marseille (law); Toulouse (the Catholic
Institute with theological, literary and scientific instruction).
Professional and Technical Instl·uction. The principal institutions of

higher or technical instruction dependent on other ministries are: The
Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers at Paris (with 20 evening courses on the
applied sciences and social economyl, the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manu·
f:lctures (807 students in 1958-59l, the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commer.
ciales (853 students), 14 higher schools of commerce (2,426 pupils), under the
Ministry of Public Instruction; the National Agronomic Institute at Paris,
the veterinary 8chool at Alfort, a school of forestry at Nancy, the higher
national school of colonial agriculture, national agricultural school8 at
Grignon, Rennes, Montpellier, 44 schools of agriculture, etc., under the
Ministry of Agriculture; the Ecole Superieure de Guerre, the Ecole Poly.
techniquo, the military school at St eyr, the Ecole d'Artillerie at Fontaine·
bleau, the Ecole de Cavalerie at Saumur and other 8chools under thc Ministry
of War; the Naval School at I3rest under the Ministry of Marine; the
School of Mines at Paris, the School of Civil Engineering at Paris, the
School of Mines at St Etienne and the Schools of Miners at Ales and Douai;
with other schools under the Ministry of Public Works; the Ecole Coloniale
at Paris, under the Ministrv of Overseas France; the Ecole des Beaux Arts,
the Ecole Nationale des Arts Decoratifs and the Conservatoire de Musique
ct de Declamation under the Department of Fine Arts, which is attached
to the Ministry of Public Instruction. The municipal school of Industrial
Physics and Chemistry is under the City of Paris. In the provinces there
are national schools of fine arts, and schools of music, and several municipal
schools, a.s well aB free subventioned schools, etc.
Technical schools of a somewhat lower grade under the Ministry of
Public Instruction are very numerous, comprising in 1958-59, 6 national
schools of arts and trades, with 1,886 pupils (Aix, Angers, Chalons, Cluny,
I,iIIe, Paris), 33 national professional schools, with 20,500 pupils (4,300
girls), College8 lechniques, with 98,300 pupil.~ (30,400 girls), vocational
training centres, with 171,000 pupils (64,500 girls) and technical forms in
Iycees, colleges and continuation schools (cours complementaires) with 88,000

pupils.
Cine7Z4s. There were, in 1957,5,701 cinemas with a seating capacity of
2,738,500.
New"papers (1957). There were 16 daily newspapers in Paris with a
combined circulation of 4,138,000 (one having 1,347,000, the others over
86,000 each); and 9 newspapers in the provinces with a circulation of more
than 20G,OOO each and 11 with a circulation of between 100,000 and 200,000.
HEALTH. At the end of 1957 there were 43,290 physicians, 18,690

pharma<:ists and (1956) 15,032 dentists practising. There were 1,883 public
hospital; (198,282 beds), 3,1l6 private hospitals (68,000 beds), 95 mental
hospital:; (80,000 beds) and 104 maternity homes (3,500 beds).
SOCIAL WELFARE. An order of 4 Oct. 1945 laid down the frame-

work of a comprehensive plan of Social Security and created a single organi-
zation which superseded the various laws relating to social insurance,
workme~'s compensation, health insurance, family allowances, etc.
Social Insurance. Insured persons are all wage-earners without regard

to the e,mount of their wages or remuneration. However, in the case of
yearly s~laries exceeding 660,000 francs, deductions for social insurance are
made only in respect to that amount.
Health insurance, which formerly applied only to the insnred persons,
their spouses and children lUlder 16 years of age, has been extended to
children from 16 to 17, if apprenticed, to children from 17 to 20, if pursuing
studies, to ascendants and descendants and other relatives who may be
atteudir g to household duties or the upbringing of children.
Sickness benefits in kind are supplied without time-limit, benefits in
cash may be given for 3 years. Special financial allowances, up to I year
after these 3 years, are made when vocational re-education or re-adaptation
are necE ,s sary. The monthly allowance of an insured person is equivalent
to half his salary, or two-thirds if he has 3 or more children.
Insurance for invalids has been determined by dividing invalids into 3
categories: (I) those who are capable of worhlng; (2) those who cannot
work; (3) those who, in addition, are in need of the help of another person_
Accordbg to the category, the penaion rate varies from 30 to 60% of the
average salary for the last 10 years, with a minimum allowance of 317,555
francs per year applicable in Paris for the third category.
Une:nployment benefits vary according to circumstances (full or partial
unemployment), place of work and means test. In Paris full unemploy-
ment benefit amounts to 380 francs per day for the head of the family and 165
francs for the spouse or a dependent person.
A collective agreement signed on 31 Dec. 1958 between the national
council of employers and certain trade unions has established a system of
special allowances for unemployed workers in industry and trade. The
costs are shared by employers and employees (I % of their wages) and the
benetits amount to 35% of the wages for 9 months. The system i3 ad-
ministel'ed by commissions composed of representatives of employers and
employ"cs in equal proportion.
Family Allowances. The system comprises: (a) Family allowances
proper, equivalent to 22% of the basic monthly salary (21,000 francs in
FRANCE 989
Paris) for 2 dependent children, and 33% for the third and each subsequent
child; a special compensation of 981 francs pcr month for 2 dependent
children, and 1,509 for the third and each subsequent child; a supplement
equivalent to 5% of the basic monthly salary for the second and each
8ubsequent dependent child more than 10 years old. (b) Singlo wagc·
earner allowance (when the wife does not work), according to the number of
dependent children. (c) Housewife allowance (when a farmer's wife does
not work), according to the number of dependent children (at least 3). (d)
Prenatal allowances of 9 monthly payments. (e) Maternity allowances,
equivalent to twice the basic monthly salary for the first birth and four·
thirds for each subsequent birth (under certain conditions relating to the
mother's age and the interval of births).
Workmen's Compe7l8alion. The law passed by the National Assembly on
15 Oct. 1946 supersedes the Act of 9 April 1898. It is administered by
Lhe Social Security Funds, i.e., the insured persons themselves. The Funds
can invittl employers to take preventive measures, ensure their applicatiou
by inspectors from the Ministry of Labour and impose fines on employers
who fail to comply. They can also grant loans to employers who carry out
the required improvements. The law also fixes the conditions in which thu
victims of accidents or occupational diseases will enjoy free medical attention
by a doctor of their own choice, fun ctional re.adaptation, professional
re·education and financial compensation.
A law promulgated on 11 Oct. 1946 has created a medieall,,-bour service
of doctora who will have to hold a diploma of' industrial health specialists.'
These doctors will be entrusted 'nth the control of hygiene and health
matters in all industrial undertakings or groups of undertakings. In
addition, it will be the duty of this medical service to examine wage·earners
when I.hey are engaged, to carry out periodiclIl medic;al cxaminations
and to ensure the application of the existing rules rcbting to Blllety in
work.
Old Age Pensions for workers were introduced in 1941. They are
financed out of the contributions made to the Social Sccurity o rg anization
by employers and employees.
As from I April 1947 the aged whose resources are insllfficient are
entitled to an ext.ra. allowance. Amongst the new bencficiaries of the old·
age pension scheme are included the Illass of agricultural workcrs, craftsmen,
small business men and the liberal professions.
A supplementary allowance has been provided by the law of 30 June
1956 which established a Fonds Nationa.l de Solidaril.e. It is dependent on
a means test and a mounts to an annual maximum of 38,000 f!'allcs.
Complcmentary retiremcnt alllm'anccs have bccn madc permissible by
decree of 4 .Feb. 1959.
JUSTICE . The J?rench judicial system has been reorganized by a

number of ordinances and decrees dated 22 Dec. 1958.
Before this reform, the lowest courts werc those of the Justices of Peace
(j-uges de paix), 1 in each canton, who tried civil cases, The Tribunals of First
Instance (Tribunaux de Premiere I nstance or Tribunaux Civi/s), I in each
arrondissement, dealt with more important civil cases and scrvcd as Tribunals
of Appeal for the Justices of Peace, when their decisions were susceptible of
appeal. Since 2 March 1959,455 tribunaux d'instance, under a single judge
each and with increased materiv,l and territorial jurisdiction, have replaced
the cantonal justices of the peace; and 172 collegiate tribunaux de grarule
instanC<' have taken the place of the 351 tribunmlx de premiere instance.
All petty offences (contraventians) are disposed of in the Police Courts
(Tribu7.aux de Police) presided over by the Juge d'Instance. The Correc·
tional Courts pronounce upon all graver offences (delits), including cases
involving imprisonment up to 5 years. They have no jury, and consist
of 3 judges who administer both criminal and civil justice. In all cases
of a del,:t or a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examin·
ing ma;~istrate (juge d'instruction), who either dismisses the case or sends
it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (Procureur) endeavours
to prove the charge.
The Conciliation Boards (Go nseils de Prud'hommes) composed of an
equal number of employers and employees deal with small trade and in·
dustrial disputes. Commercial litigation goes to the Commercial Courts
(Tribullaux de Gommerce) composed of tradesmen and manufacturers elected
for 2 years.
When the decisions of any of these Tribunals are susceptible of appeal,
the cases go to the Courts of Appeal (Gours d'Appel). There are 27 Courts
of Ap~ ,al, composed each of a president and a variable number of members.
The Courts of Assizes (Gours d'A"si8es), composed each of a president,
assisted by 2 other magistrates who are members of the Courts of Appeal,
and by a jury of 9 people, sit in every departement, when called upon to try
very ilI,portant criminal cases. The decisions of the Courts of Appeal and
the COllrts of Assizes are final; however, the Court of Cassation (Gour de
Ga8sation) has discretion to verify if the law had been correctly interpreted
and if the rules of procedure have been followed exactly. The Court of
Cassation may annul any judgment, and the cases have to be tried again by
a Court of Appeal or a Court of Assizes.
The French penal institutions have been reorganized by the procedural
code which came into force on 2 March 1959. They consist of (I) mai80ns
d'arret :md de correction, where persons awaiting trial as well as those con·
demnec. to short periods of imprisonment are kept; (2) central prisons
(mai807i8 centrales) for those sentenced to long imprisonment; (3) special
establishments namely (a) schools for young adults, (b) hostels for old and
disable<[ offenders, (c) hospitals for the sick and psychopaths, (d) institutions
for reci:livists. Special attention is being paid to classified treatment and
the reh.1bilitation and vocational re·education of prisoners, including work
in open·air and semi·free establishments.
Juv 3uile delinquents go before special judges and courts; they are sent
to public or private institutions of supervision and re·education.
The population at I Jan. 1959 of all penal establishments was 27,096
men and 1,290 women.
FIJliANCE . Budgets (in 1,000m. francs) for calendar years:
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
(30 Sept.)
Total revenue . 3,450 3,878 4,335 5,194 4,212
of whkh American aid 106 49 5
Tota' expenditu re 3.,9&7 4,643 4,985 5.444 3,862
of w;lich Oivil 2,871 3,248 3,517 3,965 2,697
Military 1,086 1,395 1,468 1,479 1,165
The accounts of revenue and expenditure of the Government officials ar&

examin'ld by a special admini8trative tribunal (Gour des Gomptes), instituted
in 1807.
FRANCE 991
Budget estimates (in lm. francs) for calendar years:
Revenue 19~6 19~7 1958 ]959
(30 Sept.)
Tax .. and monopolles 3,123,~67 3,685,631 4,427,092 3,731,574
State industries 8S,363 92,566 70.236 25.661
Stete domains 26,142 24.427 29,697 14,5\),1
Totel (Including all othet") 3,877.81S 4,335,148 5,193,659 4,212,24;;'
Olvil upenditore
Publio debt . 338,970 365,133 472,166 2Gr..41,t
Supply services . 1,024,926 1,152,107 1,377,727 1,118,911
Presideut and Parliament 9,984 10,516 14,635 10,986
Economic state intervention 966,2.59 1,098,949 1,167,176 643,286
Total (ordinary) 2,340,139 2,626,705 3,031,704 2,028,627
Oivil equipment . . . 289.798 361,2G9 435,680 416.661
LoaDS and advances rccoustmct.ion 484,491 3~6,687 337,472 156,186
Othel1! 130,529 142,033 160,493 95,Sa
Total 3,247,957 3,516,684 3.965,3'19 2,697,348
The French public debt was ad follows on 31 Dec. (in lm. francs):
1956 1957 1968 1959
National Debt: (30 Sept.)
A. Funded debt-
(a) Interior
Perpetual . . . 98,049 98,046 74,534 55,405
Long, medium, short term 2,166,505 2,264,41S 2,532,405 2,541,876
Treasury bonds . . 1,\417,509 1,921,680 2,146.874 2,346,~08
Liability towards issuing houses 633,029 1,084,629 1,084,780 1,075,781}
(a) Total 4,815,0~2 6,368,772 5,838,593 6,019,969
(b)Foreign debt. 794,676 752,142 1,032,228 1,ll9,055
B. Floatl~ dobt-
(0) Interior 601,428 674,788 7GO,867 909,24&
(b) Foreign 169,OS9 245.041 S50,767 323,64G
Slaking Fund . .
Posts, telegraphs and telephones
29,266 27,897 26,871 -'
S7,~28 106,465 1 30,147 122,298
Totel debt 6,487,078 7,174,095 8,129.473 8,494,298
1 From 1959, the Sinking Fund (Caisse Autonome d'AmoTU.~smumt) hR.s been transferred
to the National Debt (long, medium, short term).
DEFENCE. The President of the Republic exercises command over

the Armed Forces. The Prime Minister is responsible for the national
defence; he is assisted by the Staff of National Defence. Army, Navy
and Air Force are under the authority of the Minister of the Armed
:Forces, who is assisted by the Chief of the Armed Forces General Staff.
AR1I!Y. The Army consists of regular officers, long-term non·commis-
sioned officers and soldiers, conscripts serving 18 months, and reservists.
The Chief of the Army Staff is at the head of the High Command of the
Army.
The territory of the Community is, for military purposes, divided into
Military Regions, Subdivisions, Superior Commands and Territorial Com.
mands. There are 9 Military Regions in France and I in Algeria; Superior
Commands in French West Africa, Madagascar, etc.
The peace· time units are divided into Tactical Groups and Territorial
Units. They comprise infantry, armoured troops and cavalry, artilltlry,
engineers, pioneers, transport and supply.
Th.) Gendarmerie constitutes a separate arm; its employment is regulated

by the Minister of Defence.
Th,) composition of an army corps varies considerably, and is conditioned
by local circumstances, tho needs of a particular situation, etc.
In .Jan. 1960 the effectives consisted of 81 2,000 officers and men; Gendar·
merie, 64,000.
N.(:.o.s are trained in cadre schools, while the Corps of Officers receives
first a .lolid grounding in the school for all arm3 at Coet.Quidan in Brittany,
suitable both for leaders of youth and for military leaders. Technical
instruction is completed in separate schools for each arm of the service.
Higher military instruction is provided in the staff school (Ewlt
d' Etat.major) for officers of formation staffs and in the !twle Superieur" dt
Guerre for officers destined for the higher command. L'In8litut des Haute~
Etudes de Defense Nationale allows high.ranking officers and civilians to
8tudy~ogether the problems of national defence.
Army Aviation. Formed in 1952, the Aviation Legere de l'Armee de
Terre (ALAT) is a well.equipped force, with more than 600 light aeroplanes
and nearly 300 helicopters for observation, reconnaissance, combat area
transp)rt and supply duties.
NAVY. The Navy is under the supreme direction of the Minister of
Defen,,!.', being administered by the Secretary of St,a te for Navy, the Chief
of Na\ 'al Staff, and the Deputy Chiefs of Naval Staff and Naval Staff (Air).
A destroyer, 2 frigates and 2 submarines were authorized in 1949, a
destro/er, 2 frigates and 2 submarines in 1950, 4 destroyers and 17 coastal
minesweepers in 1951, 6 destroyers, 7 frigates, 3 patrol vessels and 5 net·
layers in 1952, the 8,500·ton cruiser Colbere, 5 destroyers, 2 frigates, 2 sub.
marims and 8 coastal minesweepers in 1953, tho 22,OOO·ton aircraft carrier
Clemellceau and 4 submarines in 1954, the 22,000·ton aircraft carrier Fock,
3 friga'~s and 3 submarines in 1955, and a destroyer, 6 frigates, 3 submarinos
and 6 patrol vessels in 1956. The 1957 estimates include a helicopter carrier,
4 frigates and 3 submarines.
All naval aircraft and coastal defences are under the control of the Navy,
and he,ve been reorganized in 4 coast' naval frontier' districts, in relation
to t he aircraft attached to the active fleet.
Tho French Navy is manned p.trtly by conscription but mainly by volun.
tary enlistment. In I !J59 the Retive personnel was 68,000 offieers and men.
Th'l following is a summary of the strength of the fleet at the perieds
shown:
Completed nt end 01
1952 1953 195J 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
A.ircraft canters 3 ,I 4 4 4 4 4
Battlest.lps . 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Oruisera 5 6 S 5 6 5
rJestroyer8 . 11 12 J8 ~O 24 18 19 19
Frig&t.. 28 30 32 40 60 69 54 56
Snbmar.nes . la H 14 14 16 17 16 18
Be.ow iR a list of the principal :ships in 1958;
Standard
displace- Anoour Tor- Sbalt
Cow· lD(~nt B<ll Gun. Principal pedo horse- Speed
rleted Name Too! Irl. In. armament tnbee "ower Knots
A ircrojt Carriet'3
1959 Clerucnccnu 22,000 8 0,9 in. 126,000 3 ~
1943 {BOi. BelleaU} 11,000 Small A.A. 100,000 32
Ln FRyette
1943 ArromaDcLes 13,190 Sm nll A.A . 40,000 26
FRANCE 993
Standard
displace- .A rrnour Tor- Shaft
Com- ment Bdl GUrlS Prineip:ll pedo horse- Speed
pleted Name Tons In- In. armament tubes power Knots
Escort A ;rrrajt Carrier
1 ~ 41 Dixnmde 8,200 3 4·in. &. ,mall A .!l.
. 8,MlO 16·5
Battle.shipa
1949 Jelln Dart 38.i50 )
1940 Ric hclictl 38,5uOj 16 17 ~rii~i:~ii~t~ ~2~1~.~;.4 150,000 30
C,'uisers
19~ 5 Col hert f ..c,OI) ] f)r) -iJ :. S6.<'00 S:!
1954 De Gras5C . 8,000 It\ a-iu. I~O.OOO 33' .
{MODtcalru. }
2.
1931 George."I Lcygues 1.600 ~ 5-in.; 83-a-in. A.A. 84 ,000 31
IPll Jeanne d'Arc 6,496 S 6· 1 ·in.; 4 3·in. A.A. 3~,;yOO
There ar() also In destroyers of from 2,750 to 3,680 tons, with speeds
ranging from 34 to 38 knots, 56 escorts (frigates) of 640 to 2,172 tons (in-
cluding 14 formerly rated as destroyer escorts, 3 rated as aircraft tenders,
2 rated as sloops, 11 rated as avisos and 3 rated as surveying vessels), 18
submarines, 127 minesweepers (15 ocean, 89 coastal and 23 inshore) , 5
surveying vessels, 24 patrol vessels, 43 motor launches, 20 landing ships and
landing craft, 7 depot ships, I repair ship, 2 trawlers, 10 oilers, 11 transports,
13 boom defence vesseis, 4 sail training 'lessel~, 24 fleet tugs and 10 other
vessels.
There are 10 submarines under construction, of which one will bo
nuclear-powered.
The programme of naval construction for 1958 includes the 22,OOO-ton
aircraft-carrier Clemenceau (launched 21 Dec. 1957).
The naval air arm, known usually as Aeronavale, is being re-equipped
with nationally-designed Etendard IVM supersonic fighter-bombers and
Alize turboprop anti·submarine aircraft_ It has 2 all-weather fighter
squadrons equipped with Aquilon (Sea Venom) jets, 3 fighter.bomber
squadrons of piston-engined Corsairs, 3 squadrons of piston.engined A vell-
ger anti·submarine aircraft, 7 maritime reconnaissance squadrons with
Neptune, Lancaster, Sunderland and Privateer aircraft, and 3 assault
squadrons with Sikorsky and Vertol helicopters_ There are aIm coastal
patrol, training and rescuc units.
Am FORCE. Formed as the Service Aeronautique in April 1910, the
Armie de l' Air is organized into 5 major commands. The Dlfense Aerienne
du Terriloire (DAT) controls all interceptor units and anti-aircraft forces
in France. The Commandement A erien Tadique (CATAC) controls tactical
aircraft based in eastern France and Germany as part of the NATO
air forces. The Commandement de l'Aviation de Bombardement is an embryo
tactical bomber command. The Commandemenl de I' Aviation Legere de
l'Armce de l'Air is responsible for providing observation, close support and
light casualty evacuat.ion services for the Army. The Groupement des
l1foyens Militaires de Tmnsport Ab-ien (GMMTA) is responsible for milita.ry
air transport. operations throughout the French Community and for the
training all(! tr:1nsport of airborne forces.
The French Air Force is divided tcrritorially int<> 4 metropolitan air
regions (Dijon, Pe.ris, Bordeaux, Aix.en -Provencc); one North African air
region (Algiers), with 3 air commalllh co,!,ring Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia;
4 overseas air eommllnds: French " 'est Africa. French Equatorial Afri~!l,
French E"st Africa alld French Somaliland.
Rh
The DAT is entirely jet-equipped, having 2 wings of Mysteres, 3 of

Mistrah (Nene-engined Vampires), 1 of Super Mysteres and 1 of Vautour
all-weather fighters_ The CATAC has 8 wings, equipped with Mysteres,
Sabres, Super-Sabres, F-84F Thunderstreaks and RF-84F Thundertlashes.
The GMMTA has 3 wings of modern twin-engined Noratlas transports, 1 of
C-478 and Breguet 7618, plus numerous smaller units. Bomber units are
equipp(,d mainly with B-26 Invaders, but these aircraft are being replaced
progressively with twin-jet Vautours.
Pemonnel totalled 146,000 officers and men in 1957_
PRODUCTION. On 3 Jan. 1946 the Government ordered the drawing-

up of a 'First Over-all Plan for the Modernization and Economic Equipment
of theVIetropolitan and Overseas Territories'. Under the direction of M.
Jean Monnet, this plan was published on 10 Jan. 1947. Under this plan,
the following achievements were realized:
1938 1946 1955 1956 1957 1958
Coal (lm. tons). . 47·6 49·3 67·4 67·4 69·!' 60 ·0
Electrici;;y (1OOOm. kwh) 20·0 23'0 49·6 63'8 57-4- 61·6
of which hydro-electric 10·4 11·3 2~'6 25·9 24'9 32·3
Steel (In<. tons) . 6·2 4·4 12·6 13·4 14'1 14·6
(Jement (lm. tons) . 3·6 3'4 10·6 11-2 12·5 13·4
AgricultlLral tractors (1,000) 1·7 1·9 64·8 79·4 91-8 92·9
Fertilizels (lm. tons) 177'0 127'0 383·0 408'0 453'5 511'6
Honses t nilt (1,000) 22·0' 210·1 236·3 273'7 290'2
, 1947. • Including lignite.
The second MO/met plan envisages the foll owi ng investments (in I,OOOm
francs): Coal, 1954,41'8; 1955,33'5; 1956, 27'7; 1957, 22·3. Electricity,
1954,126'3 ; 1955.141'4; 1956.152; 1957.166'8_ Compagnie Nationale
du Rhbne, 1954, 10·3; 1955,11'3; 1956,12'1; 1957,15'1.
AGmCULTURE. Of the total area of France (55·16m. hectares in 1958)

18.861 .700 are under cultivation, 13,177.600 are pasture. 1,458.200 are under
vines, :. 1,426.900 are forests and 4,241,100 are moor and uncultivated land.
The, following table shows the area under the leading crops and the
production for 4 years:
Area (1,000 hectares) Produce (1,000 metric quinta.ls)
Orcp 1955 1956 1957 1958 19.55 1956 1957 1958
Wheat 4,654 2,745 4,668 4,615 103,650 56,827 110,817 ~6,012
Mixed C()rn 24 38 25 22 335 644 310 317
Rye 387 371 364 347 4,400 4,710 4.815 4,298
Barley 1,318 2,282 1,643 1,782 26,710 64,060 36,262 38.921
Oata 2,077 2,277 1,608 1,487 36,400 46,040 25,793 26,875
Potatoee. 938 962 897 884 137,500 168,470 139,039 127,459
Industrial beet 374. 376 347 365 109,780 108,850 112,475 128,853
Tht, annual production of wine and cider (in 1,000 hectolitres) appears as
follows:
Vineyards Cider
(1,000 hectares) Win. produced Wine import. Wine export.. produced
1938 1,513 60,332 16.257 1,032 34,601
1948 1,433 47,437 9,894 620 13,092
1956 1, 385 51,706 14,50·\ 2,811 20.036
1967 1,335 33,374 18,448 1,679 6,542
1958 1,315 47,738 19,86 2 1,266 27,440
The production of fruits (other than for cider making) and nuts for 1958
(figurciI for 1957 in brackets) is given in 1,000 quintals, as follows: Apples
FRANCE 995
and pears, 8,569 (3,078); plums, 631 (831); peaches, 1,927 (2,718); apricots,
308 (1,084); cherries, 626 (685); nuts, 320 (116); raisins, 2,122 (1,562);
chestnuts, 1,093 (861).
On 31 Oct. 1957 the numbers of farm animals were (figures for 1958
in brackets): Horses, 1,986,200 (1,903,000); mules, 74,400 (72,600); asses,
86,100 (81,300); cattle, 17,927,700 (18,465,600); sheep, 8,575,600
(8,748,800); pigs, 8,063,600 (8,469,300).
Silk culture, with government encouragement (primca), is carried on
mninly in 15 departments-most extensively in Ardeche, Gard, Drome,
Herault, Lozere and Vaucluee. In 1958,2,534 producers produced 10 metric
tons; in 1957,3,352 producers, 11 metric tons.
MINING. Principal minerals produccd in 4 years, in 1,000 metric tons:
1965 1956 1957 1958 1955 19~6 1%7 1958
00111 65~~36 55,129 56.795 57,721 Rock saib! . 2.153 2,712 2.868 2,698
Lignite . ~,053 2,252 2,294 2,318 Potash ."Its 1,352 1,~OU 1,576 1,662
Iron ore. 60,266 52,690 57,177 59,455 Pig-iron 1/),960 11 ,4S0 11,915 11.9iO
nouxite. 1,49~ 1,466 1,683 1,817 Crude steel. 12,592 13,398 14,096 14,607
Pyri~s Z05 304 324 333 Aluminium. 129 150 160 169
ll.ri~ 65 57 78 78 TllPS"ten . 0'98 1 0·84 0·91
Output of petroleum in 1956, 1,263,645; 1957, 1,410,490; 1958,

1.386,200 metric tons. The greater part came from the Lacq oilfield in the
foothills of the Pyrenees, France has an important oil.refining industry,
utilizing imported crude oil. Total yearly capacity at the end of 1958 was
about 35'5m, metric tons. The principal plants are situated in the area of
Dunkirk, Le Havre, Rouen and Marseille.
lIhNUFACTURES. Sugar. At 1 Jan. 1957 there were 107 sugar works
employing 47,000 persons during the harvest. Thc yield of sugar (expressed
in metric tons of refined sugar) was: 1937-38,872,367; 1955-56, 1,468,003;
H)56-57,I,259,736; 1957-58,1,413,397; 1958-59, 1,438,453.
Alcohol. Production totals of alcohol in hectolitres: 1955,3,778,913;
1956,2,565,831; 1957,2,330,488; 1958,2,796,249.
Got/on. On 31 Dec. 1938 there were !H4m. spindles: 1948,8,275,000;
19;35, about 7m.; 1956,6,240,000; 1957,6,316,000; 1958,6,281,000.
FISHERIES. French fisheries, excluding those of Algeria, in 1957: Sailing
persons, 50,311; sailing. boats, 2,319; steamers. 28; motor· boats, 12.432.
Catch (in 1,000 tons) and, in brackets, value (in I,OOOm. francs): Fresh fish
(1956) 347 (40'5), (1957) 339 (42'8), (1958) 342 (44-1); salted cod (1956) 68·8
(5'2), (1957) 57·9 (5'1), (1958) 56 (5'5); oysters, mussels and shell fish (1956)
129 (15,2). (1957) 125·1 (17'7). (1()58) 118·6 (19'5).
ELECTRICITY. Production of electrical power (in Im. kwh.): }f)53,
41,556 (51% hydro.electric); 1954, 45,570 (54%); 1955,49,627 (52% );
1956,53,829 (48%); 1957,57,433 (43 % ); 1958, 61,599 (52% ).
Consumption of electrical power (in Im. kwh.): 1953, 36,594; 1954,
40,195; 1955,44,133; 1956,48,393; 1957,52,125; 1958,55,907.
Trade Unions. On 1 Jan. 1958 there were 22,600 unions. Tbe most
important arc the Confederation Gem\rale du Travail with 2m. members;
the Confederation Gencrale des Travailleurs chretiens, 800,000 members;
tbe Confederation Gcnemle du Travail Force Ouvriere, 500,000 members.
PlIIJet, G • In ••fIlai,. I_nique tk la Fmnu. (Ann""I, from 194~ .) Pari.

Rapport <lhllral $U' le P,emier Pia .. de Mod.mu",.",. el d·tqu'pemml. Pari., 1~4G
This report. OD the Monnet Plan iS9,urplemcnted by U.16 report$of the variollscommi88ioDs:
Commission des Bouilleres. de "Klectri ci t~, des. Mat..!riaux de Construction, des Transports
interienrs; de la Maio -d'ceuvre, de la Production AniJOale. Paris, 1946
Ehnnann, H. \V., Organized busin es,'t in Prance. PriucetoD Uuiv . .Pregs, 1!.57
Lorwin, v . R., The }',mch Lahrw .ifOfJement. Harvard U niv. Pres.~, 19~5
Plron. G.• LA.• cad,.. tk Ia.,u eC07wmique. I . L'agricullure, Le c","meru. Paris, 1941.-II .
Lt, tra"1SPQTiJ. Paris, 1942
COMMERCE. United with France ill a customs union are the Prin-
cipa.lit~ of Monaco (t.reaty of 9 Nov. 1865) and the Saar Territory (decree
of 30 rr::arch 1948, effective as of 1 April 1948). A treaty concluded with
Italy 011 2~ March 1948 envisages the establishment of a customs union.
Imports and exports (including Saariand), in Im. francs, for 6 calendar
years were (including gold):
1953 19.4 1955 1956 1967 1958
Imports 1,457,847 1,522,099 ],674,3].1 1.978,089 2,267,468 2,355,226
Exports 1,406,3:'3 1,;,09,501 1,7 35,659 1,62 3,4;; 1,889,262 2,153,127
The chief imports for home Hse and exports of borne goods nrG to and
from tile following countries, in Im. francs (including gold) :
Import" Ex IWfts
Countri.. 1957 1958 ' 19[,7 1958 I
Frencb ( " lonieo . 539.332 649,89·J 65~,526 807,101
U.K.. . 97.429 84,434 103.122 105,233
GermAny . 252.227 277,H5 204,618 227.795
Relorium . 111,821 ]26.297 140,628 136,478
SwitzerlB-od 45.330 4~. 285 100,8 16 81,567
Haly . 56,468 55,368 75.478 72.569
U.8 •.6.. 300.509 236.420 89,857 126,386
llrazil 19,937 23.016 16,935 20.499
Argentina. . . 18,~18 ] 3,47. 13.354 14.504
Allstralit. Rnd New Zealand 112.190 77,663 8,443 11,894
Cnnadn 25.328 23,822 12.312 17.865
Sweden . 4-1.370 42,1 35 26,902 34.4:;8
Netherlands 57,422 69,529 52,174 43,700
1 Provisional.
Total trade between Franco and U.K. (in £ sterling ; British Board of
Trade roturns) :
1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K . 23,567,680 112,206,799 110.]80.553 100.296,462 103,822,4lV
Exports trom U.K . . ]5,126,890 88,777.413 87,478,105 71,264,06@ 76,914,036
Re-upo:i.s from U. K . 8,201,487 13,268.785 13,720,689 9,261,4 12 8,958,654
Book 0/ Reference
Schmidlio, M., and Ducrocq, J., L"OrganiscuiQn clia rtglemenlalion dll CfmW1erCe extmeur de
la France. Paris, 1955.
CO:\1MUNICATIONS. Shipping. On 1 Jan. 1959 the French mer-

cantile marine possessed 791 vessels of more than 100 tons, with a gross
tonnage of 4,280,216.
Shipping in foreign trade in 1958 is shown as follows, wit.h cal"g')"s ()Dly:
Entered, 26,127 vessels; cleared, 22,883 vessels of 41,984,620 net tons.
(Revisnd figures for 1957: 26,355; 22,789; 38,360,959. )
In 1958 there were 3,260 km of navigable rivers and 4,594 km of canals
in actual use, with a total traffic of 63,706,500 net tons.
FRANCE 997
RoaM. In 1957 the French road system consisted of 656,800 km, namely
80,304 km of national roads (80,841 km in 1958). 268,712 km of departmental
and inter·communal roads and 307,752 km of local roads.
Railways. As from 1 Jan. 1938 all the independent railway companies
wcra merged with the existing sta te railway system in a Societe National~ des
Chemins de Fer Franc;ais, in which the State holds 51 % of the shares. The
ra ilway system is divided into 5 regions : Nord; Eat; Ouest (formerly tho
State Railway Company); Sud·East (formerly P .L.M.). and Sud·Ouest
(formerly P.O.·Midi).
The length of the railway lines, on 1 Jan. 1959. was 3\1,500 km, of which
6,060 km were electrified. The railways, in 1958 (and 1(57), carried 553m.
(552m.) passengers and 21200. (217m.) metric tons of goods. Rl!.i1way
receipts, 1958. 727,800m. francs; 19.)7, 673,800m. fran c~.
Doukas. K. A., The Frmch Railroad. and Ihe SItW. New York. 191~
Ltu'tiUouz, H .•GI<>graphic de. c/",minJ de f'" franc"... 2 vols. Paris, 1~46--48
I'eyret" n., lli:ftcrirt dt*$ chemins Ik ff" en l 'ranu. ,Po.d!o!t 1949
Post. In H)56 the receipts 011 account of poB!.s, tclegraphs nnd tele·
phones a mounted to 217,703m. francs; Hl57, 253.476m. francs.
On 31 Dec. 1958 the telephone systems in France had 3,703,578 sub·
scribcrs; Paris accounted for 992.500.
Aviation. Air France, the national airline, had (31 Dec. 1958) a lIe('t of
127 aircraft, servicing Europe, North America, Central and South America,
\Vcst, Centralltnd East Africa, Mltdagascar. the Nel>r, Middle and Far E!l,~ t,
Australia and Oceania. There aro local networks in the West lndies and
Cent.ral America. in West and Central Africa, in Madngascar and in IIltIo·
China.
In 1958 Air Franec flew nm. t on·hm and carried 2,454,500 passengcrs.
MONEY AND BANIUNG . The French llloaetmy \Ini~ is tile franc .

From 21 June to 28 Dec. 1958 it wag pegged at 420 francs = USS1; 1,176
francs = £1. On 28 Dec. 1958 the franc was devalued by 14'93% and made
a convertible currency; .£I = 1,382'35 francs; $1 = 493'7 francs.
A llew currCllCY, the 'heavy fmll c' 01' 'nonvcltltfranc' (N F) worth lOU
' light fran cs', was introduced on 1 ,Tan . 1060.
Coins in circulation arc: 50 and 20 francs, in copper- aluminium ; 10
fran cs in copper- aluminium; 5, 2 ~.nd 1 franc in aluminium; 100 francs
in silver.
'New franc' coins are issued for I, 2, 5, 10, :ZO and 50 new centimes,
1,2 and 5 new francs; and bank·notes for 10, 50 and 100 new francs.
Thc ordinary savings banks numbered 584 (with 3,283 branch offices)
Oil 31 Dec. 1958; the number of deposit,ors \vas 14.05:!,OOO, with 1,248, 700m.
francs t.) their credit.
The nlttiona l savings banks, on 31 Dcc. 1957, held dcposit.R a.nd interest
(in 1m. francs) amounting to 823,500; 1958,941,800.
The Bunk of France, founded in 1800, and placod under state cont.rol
in 1806, has the monopoly (since IS·l8) of isduing bank·not.es. 'l'h3 capi tal
of the bank was fixed a t 15,OOOm. frallcs on 27 Aug. 1~5!l. It.s lI otC circula.
tion on 3 Sept. 19!)9 was 3,436,504m. fl·ancs.
On 2 Dec. 1945 a aw l was passed to I!ationalize the Ban que de Franc€!
and the 4 principal deposit banks-Credit Lyonnais, Societe Generale,
Comptoir ~a tional d'Escompte and t.he Ba.nque Na tionale pour le Commerce
et I'Industric. It 1\ tso instituted stri', t Governm ent control over t.he
activiti,~s of all other banks and established a new body, the National Credit
Council, composed of 35 members appointed by the State, to check the flow
of credit in France.
The 12 directors of the nationalized banks are appointed by the State
as follows: 3 by the Minister of Finance from persons in commerce, industry
or agriculture; 3 by the trade unions, I of whom is an employee of the bank;
3 by th3 Minister of Finance in virtue of their bank experience; 3 represent·
ing thc Bank of France or other semi· public credit concerns.
The following are the principal banks: Credit Foncier de France, founded
in I85:? (mortgage bank); Credit Lyonnais, founded in 1863; Societe
Generale, founded in 1864; Banque Nationale pour le Commerce et I'In·
dustrie; Comptoir.National d'Escompte de Paris (nationalized deposit
banks) .; Credit Industriel et Commercial; Credit Commercial de France
(non.n::.tionalized deposit banks); Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas, and
Banquo dc l'Union Parisiennc.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES . The metric system is in general use.
France maintains embassies in Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia,
Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, China, Colombia, Cuba,
Czecho;dovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
Ethiopia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Iceland, India,
Indone3ia, Iran, Irish Republic, Israel, Italy, .Japan, Lebanon, Liberia,
Luxembourg, Mexico. Netherlands, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Thailand, Turkey, Union of South Africa, U.S.S.R., U.K., U.S.A., Vene·
zuela, Yugoslavia; legations in Albania, Bulgaria, Burma, Costa Rica, Hon-
duras, Hungary, Libya., New Zealand, Rumania.
OF FRANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN (58 Knightsbridge, S.W.I)
Ambassador. Jean Chauvel, G.C.V.O. (accredited 16 Feb. 1955).
Miaister. Amaud Wapler.
Counsellors. Jacques Tine; Francis Hure; Gerard Andre, C.V.O.
(Press); Emmanuel de Casteja; Jacques de Folin; Clallde Cheysson;
Philiple Huet (Financial); Yves Barbier (Press).
Fir.lt Secretary. Luc de la Barre de Nanteuil.
N ajlal AttacTte. Capt. Victor Marchal.
Military Attach!. Col. Jean Simon, D.S.O., M.C.
Ai·, Attache. Col. FrMeric Ballgnies de Paul de Saint Marceaux.
Commercial Counsellor, Minister Plenipotentiary. Georges Libersart.
COMmercial Attaches. Fran<;ois Galldefroy.Demonbynes; Jehan Dior;
Corent:.n Kerouedan; Georges Lacombe.
Cultural Counsellor. Cyrille Arnavon.
Cul~ural Attache. Denis Girard.
Lal'our Counsellor, Minister Plenipotentiary. Henry Hauck.
Th(,re are consulates·general in Edinburgh, Liverpool, London. There
are consulates at Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Glasgow, Jersey, New.
castle·on·Tyne and Southampton.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN FRANCB
Ambassador. Sir Piersoll Dixon, G.C.M.G., C .B.
FRANCE 999
Minister. W. Harpham, C.M.G., O.B.E. (Economic).
Counsellors. R. 111. Hadow; H. Braham, C.B.E .; F. B. Richards,
D.S.C. (InforrruUion); C. L. G. Phillpotts, C.M.G.; J . R. Lloyd Davies.
C.M.G. (Labour).
First Secretaries. J. lIfurray; A. M. PaIliser; D. BleUock (Consul) ;
R. W. Munro (Commercial); E. Bolland (InfoT1nation); J. Dawson (Admini.
stmtion).
Naval Atta.che. Capt. 1\1. K . Cavenagh.Mainwaring, D.S.O., R .N.
Military Attache. Brig. J. A. H. MitcheIl, D.S.O.
Air Attache. Air Cdre G. F. W. Heycock, D.F.C.
Civil Air Attache. P. A. Robinson.
Scientific Attaches. D. C. Evttns, M.B.E.; A. C. Copisarow.
There are consular representatives at Ajaccio. Biarritz, Bordeaux.

Boulogne, Calais, Cherbourg, Dieppe, Dunkirk, Le Havre, Lille. Lyon.
Marseille, St Malo and Strasbourg.
OF FRANCE THE U.S.A. (2535 Belmont Rd. NW.,
IN
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Herve Alphand.
M ·ini8ter Counsellor. Claude Lebel. Mini8ters. Charles Lucet; Robert
Valeur. Counsellors. Jean·Claude Winckler; Oliver Manet; Jean Baube;
Pierre Pelen; Pierre Dupont; Guy de Conlluines; Guy Toffin; Edouard
Morot·Sir (Cultuml); Fran~ois Gavoty (Commercial); Frederic Peter (Com.
mercial); Jean·Pierre Lescuyer (C01nmercial); Jean Cottier (Financial) .
First Secretal·Y. Marcel BartMlemy.
Service Attaches.' Brig.·Gen. Philippe Gouraud (Army), Rear·Adm.
Pierre Poncet (Na.vy), Maj.·Gen. Henri de Rallcourt (Air).
Oh' THE U.S.A. IN FRANCE
Ambassador. Amory HougMon.
M ·inister. Cecil B. Lyon . Min'ister Counsellor. Jacques J . Reinstein.
Counsellors. Morris N. Hughes (Consul. General) ; Henry J. Kellermann;
Randolph A. Kidder; Raymond L. Thurston (Political Officer SHAPE);
Robert J. Ryan.
First Secretaries. William B. Connett, Jr; Donald M. Davies; John D.
Philipsborn; Boris Ilvin; Thomas B. Larson; Richard B. Finn; George S.
Vest; WiIliam Witman II; Frank W. Blanchette (Consul); Gerald S.
BushnelI (Consul); H. Alberta Colclaser (Civil A ir); Daniel L. Horowitz
(Consul, Labour); John A. McKesson III (Consul); Alfred C. U1mer, Jr ;
Herman Walker, Jr (Consul); Marion W. Worthing (Ecolwmic). Army
Attache. Brig.·Gen. C.Coburn Smith, Jr. Naval Attache and Naval Attache
f Qr Air. Capt. Hugh M. Robinson. A ir Attache. Lieut.·Col. Frank B.
Chappel. Agricultural Atta.che. Paul G. l\-1inneman.
There are Consuls·General at Bordeaux, Marseille, Strasbourg, and
Consuls at Le Havre, Lyon, Nice (also Consul to Monaco).
Books of Reference
STATIBTlCAL lNPoRMATION. Tbe Iostltut national de I" Statistiqoe et des j!:tlldes
konomiQues pour La MHropole et la France d'Outre·Mer (29, QOQi Branly, Pari. 7e) 18 the
central office 01 statistics. It was establisbed by Q Jaw of 27 April 1946, wblcb IlIIl8Jpmated
tbe Service National des Statisti'lues (created in 1941 by merging the Direction de la Statistique
genml. de la France and tbe Service d. la D~mograpble) witb tbe lnstltut de Conjoncture
(8et np in 1938) and some statistical sernces ot the Ministry ot National Economy. Th.
Institut comprises the following depa.rtmentR: Metropolitan statistics, Overseas statistics,
Market resea.rch and economic studies, Docamentation.
The main publications of the Institute comprise:
Annu.i,. stati.<liqIU de la France (from 1878)
...:innu~ir~$tati.ttiqw ck la Franu (j'OUlre-Mcr
Etude. el Coni_e. (Monthly, from Jaly 1953)
Docu,~ion iconomiqIU (hall-yearly)
Bulleti,. mensuel de ltalislique
lJulleti,. merasuel de la &talislique d'014,.-Jler
Bulleti,. ~bdomadai,. de &tali&tiqu.
Bloch-Lain6, F., lA Zone Franc. Paris, 195G
Dieterien, P., and Rist, C., T'M ...l1onetary Probkm8 0/ Fran~. New York and London,
1949
Ducberr:in, R. ; Organisation SyndifXll.e Patronale m Franu. Pruis, 1940
Earle, E:. M. (ed.), Modern France: Pl'Obl"", of the Third. and. Fourth Republic.. Princetoo,
1961
Fauvet, J ., Le6 FDf'uS poliliqrus en Franu. Paris, 1951
Gottmal1. J ., Le< relation& C()17ImeTciale& de la France. Etude.• de g~ographie ~conomi'lut.
Moot, .."l, 1942
Haight, F. A., A Bi .•tory Of Fr,,"ch Commercial Polici... New York, 1941
Lidderdole, D. W. S., T~ ParliamenJ 01 Fra""". London, 19;;1
Meilrlendd, E. W., Economic and. Commercial Cond.itiDn6 in Franc.. H.M.S.O., 1953
M~rigot. J. G., and Coulbois, P ., Le Franc, 1938-1950. Paris, 19~O
Siegfrie(l, A.. (ed.), L'~nn~e Politiqu,: R~ chrOfWlogiqw des principaux fail,t poliliqut!,
~corunniqfUl d 80ciatn <h la Prana. (Prom 1945.) Paris, 1946 ft.
Taylor, O. R .• The Fourth Republic oJ Franu: Constitution ana Political rarticl. London,
19(;1
Thom~on, David, Democracy in France. The Third and Fourth Republics. R. Inst. of
Int. ~ . fI'ai"" 19;;2
ALGERIA
ALGERIE
GOVERNMENT. The administration of Algeria is centralized at
Algiem under the authority of the DeUgue General of the Government in
Algeria, who exercises all civil and military powers under the authorit~r of
the Prime Minister of the French Republic, assisted by a Secretary-General
for Algerian affairs.
Since the publication of the decree of 7 March 194.4, embodied in the laws
of 7 :l'(ay and 5 Oct. 194.6 and amended by the law of 20 Se pt, 1947, all
Moslems have been regarded as French citizens. A decree of 3 July 1958
has pl:tced all citizens on a common electoral roll (college) and extended all
civil rights to Moslem women. The personl1l and legal status of Moslems
under the law of the Koran is not affected.
Deiegue General. Paul Delouvrier.
Secretary-General. Roger Moris.
AJ;:EA AND POPULATION. The census of 31 Oct. 1954 showed It

population (including the military forces) amounting to 9,529,726, on an
area of 2,381,740 sq. km . Algeria (357,580 sq. km) is divided into i3
departments and Sahara (2,171,800 sq. km) into 2 departments.
Tho~ Algerian departments are: Algiers,l'izi-Ouzou, Medea, Orleansvilie,
Oran, :vrostaganem, Tlemcen, Tiaret, Constantine, Setif, Batna, Bone, SaYda.
North"rn Algeria has 76 arrondis8ements, which include 1,525 commnneR
with administration on French lines. Natives elect representatives in all
local and national assemblies.
Th3 Saharan departments (SaouTa, Oasis) are divided into 5 arrondi88c-
ments, and 93 communes.
ALGERIA 1001
Estimated population in 1958:
Population Populntion
Algeria (1,000) Sabara (1,000)
Departments: Dtpartment~ :
Algiers. 1,079'80 Saoura 156·91
Tizi-Ouzoll 800'90 Oasis. 348·56
Orl~"nsville 633-65
MM~a 662·80 Total 505·47
Oran . 8S1·10
Tlemcen 371'95
Mostaganem 610'45
Tiaret . 267 ·10
Oonstantine . 1,208- 35
BOne . 730·60
S~tif . 1,001'65
Batna . 529·50
Salda . 214·35
Total 8,931'30
The chief towns with populat.ion in 1954 are: Algiers,361,285; OraD,
299,008; Constantine, 148,725; Bone, 114,068; Sidi-Bel-Abbes, 80,632;
Tlemcen, 73,445; Philippeville, 70,406; Blida, 67,913; Mostaganem,
60,186; Setif, 53,057; Bougie, 43,934; Mascara, 39,830.
In 1954 the crude birth rate of Europeans was 19 per 1,000 popu-
lation, of Moslems, 44; crude death rate of Europeans, 8·8, of Moslem8,
14; infantile mortality rate of Europeans, 48 per 1,000 live births, of
Moslems, 155.
RELIGION. The overwhelming part of the population are !l-loslcms.
The large Jewish community have, from 1871, been regarded as French
oitizens. The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop and 2 bishops,
with some 400 officiating clergymen. There are 13 Protestant pastors and
6 Jowish rabbis sharing in government grants.
EDUCATION (1959). At Algiers (city) there is a university, attended
by 5,454 students. There are also special schools for commerce, the fine
arts, hydrography and agriculture. There were 45 establishments for
secondary education with 44,587 pupils_ The French and Moslem primary
schools were amalgamated in 1949. There were 17,379 primary classes with
745,722 pupils. The Ecole__ normales had 1,021 pupils. Technical schools
arc attended by 20,038 pnpils.
Cine~ (1957)_ There were 288 cinemas with a seating capacity of
144,000.
Newspapers (1958). There ara 7 French-language daily newspapers.
JUSTICE. There arc appeal courts at Algiers, Constantine and Oran;
and in the arrondisse-meni.s are 17 courts of first instance. There are also
commercial courts and justices of the peace with extensive powers. Criminal
justies is organized I1S in France. The criminal courts and special repressive
tribunals for trying nati,es accused of crime, set up in 1902, were abolished,
the latter in 1930 and the former in 1941.
Moslem justice is advlinistered to natives by justices of the peace nnd
cadis in the first ivstance, with an apFeal to French courts.
FINANCE. The budget (including extraordinary budget) Wl?8 as
follows (in Im. francs):
1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 19~9 l 1960 '
Revenue 161.802 211,933 24-i,277 289,190 2U5 855 323,440
Expenditnre 161,800 211,907 244,863 289,150 205;150 320,MO
l 1 April ·S1 Dec. 2 Calendar year.
The revenue (in Im. francs) in 1960 includes 241·5 from customs and
taxes aId 103·5 subsidies from metropolitan France; main items of expendi.
tures: Education, 35·71; security, 21,32; public works, 22·81; (extra·
ordina~') economic equipment, 90·4; social welfare, 43·2.
DEFENCE. The forces stationed in Algeria and the Territories of the

South form the 10th Military Region, the Algiers Naval Command and the
Algerian Air Command. Parts of the 25th Airborne Division are also
stationed in Algeria; they are liable to be called up for service in any
territor" of the French Union.
The' 10th Military Region is divided into 3 territorial divisions with
headquLrters at Algiers, Oran and Constantine respectively. It includes
the Gendarmerie, Republican Guard, Metropolitan Territorials, native troops
and thE' Foreign Legion. The effective strength of troops stationed in
Algeria in 1955 was 163,000.
Thete is a military school at Cherchell for training French and Moslem
officers, and a school for children of native soldiers at Miliana.
PRODUCTION. There exists in Algeria a small area of highly fertile

plains and valleys in the neighbourhood of the coast, mainly owned by
Europehns, which is cultivated scientifically, and where profitable returns
are obts,ined from vineyards, cereals, etc., but the greater part of Algeria is
of limited value for agricultural purposes. In the northern portion the
mounta.,ns are generally better adapted to grazing and forestry than agri-
culture, and a large portion of the native population is quite poor. In spite
of the Ilany excellent roads built by the Government, a considerable area
of the Irountainous region is without adequate means of communication and
is accesf.ible only with difficulty.
Agriculture. The ~oil is, under various systems, held by proprietors, by
farmers and by metayers or khammes. The area under cultivation is abou~
I5·6m. Hcres, of which about 5m. acres are owned by European farmers and
the balance by native farmers. The chief crops in 1957 were wheat (13·5m.
quintale), barley (6m. quintals) and oats (700,000 quintals); maize, po-
tatoes, artichokes, beans, peas and tomatoes. The area under tobacco
cultivo,tion was 19,500 hectares and the yield 147,000 quintals (1958,
123,0001. The yield of wine was 15·3m. hectolitres (1958, l3·8m.). Dates
(780,000 quintals), pomegranates, almonds, figs (730,000 quintals), oranges
(3·9m. ~uintals) and other fruits grow abundantly. The production of
olive oil amounted to 176,000 hectolitres in 1955-56.
Twelve barrages with a capacity of 800m. cu. metres of water, in 1956,
irrigate<l 150,000 hectares.
There were, at 31 Dec. 1954,530 agricultural co-operative societies with
55,808 members.
Livestock, 1957: 201,000 horses, 208,000 mules, 348,000 asses, 826,000
oattle, 0,630,000 sheep, 3,130,000 goats, 80,000 pigs and 194,000 camels.
The wool clip in 1957 was 10,000 metric tons.
FOrl~try. In 1956 the acreage of state forests was 3,070,000 hectares.
The gre~ter part is mere brushwood, but there are very large areas covered
with cork-oak trees, Aleppo pine, evergreen oak and cedar. The dwarf-
palm is grown on the plains, alfa on the table-land. Timber is cut for
firewood, also for industrial purposes, for railway sleepers, telegraph poles,
etc., and for bark for tanning. Considerable portions of the forest area
are also leased for tillage, or for pasturage for cattle and sheep.
ALGERIA 1003
Fi8heriell. There are extensive fisheries for sardines, anchovies, sprats,
tunny. fish, etc., and also shell·fish. In 1955, 1,029 boats and 4,968 persons
were employed in fishing. Fish taken in 1955 amountp,d to 23,800 tons. In
1951) local factories canned 4,886,000 kg of the fish taken.
Mining. Algeria p088Csses deposits of iron, zinc, lead, mercury. copper
and antimony. Kaolin, marble and onyx, salt (IlO,OOO tons in 1957) and
eoal are also found.
Mineral output (in 1.000 metric tons):
1956 1957 1958 19~G 1967 1958
Iron ore ~,582 2,790·Q 2,301'6 Coal. 297'0 236·0 141 ·6
Iron pyrites 2,647 18·8 24·2 Lend 14·7 15-1 14·8
Zinc. 54 48·9 56·4 Crude oil 40·0 23·0 54·0
Pboapbat". 606 613·0 564·0 Barytes 9·38 9·0 IF,
In 1958, 55,000 fine oz. of silver were produced.

Two large oilfields went into production in 1957; around Edjele and
around Hassi Messaoud. In Jan . .1958 the first shipment of oil from Hassi
Messaoud arrived in France.
Electricity. Production of energy in 1958 totalled 1,123m. kwh., of
which 408m. were hydro.electric.
COMMERCE. The foreign trade of Algeria was as follows (iu Im.

francs) :
1954 ]955 1956 1957 1958
Imports 217.714 243.9Rl 272,621 382,900 478,834
Exports 140,298 16!!.O;;8 150,12( 171.700 205.148
The principal imports in 1958 were (in 1,000 metric tons): Textiles, 58·5;
sugar, 203; iron and steel, 443; coal, 51; petrol, gas, fuel oils, 1,228.
The principal exports in 1958 were (in 1,000 metric tons) : Alfa, 76:
phosphate, 550; iron ore, 2,323; potatoes, 57; fresh vegetables, 94; wine.
1,220; oranges and lemons, 215.
Total trade between U.K. and Algeria (British Board of Trade returns,
in £ sterling) :
Ins 1956 1957 1955 1959
Import.' to U.K. 2,89:;.761 13,791,871 12,299,130 11,355,427 10,909,339
Export.s from U.K. 1.016,818 3,499.S11 2,649.736 3,950,767 2,369.965
Re-exports from U.K. 3,249 153.9M 60.90S 60,726 66,341
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1958, 13,585 ships of 15·Sm. net

tons entered and 13,588 ships of 15m. net tons cleared the ports of Algeria,
unloading and loading 12·5m. metric tons of merchandise.
In 1958 the Algerian merchant fleet consisted of 19 vessels over 2,000
tons, anri 906 below 1,500 tons, with a total tonnage of 78,634.
R0a4s. There were 44 national roads in 1958 with a length of 9,600 km.
14,300 km of departmental roads, 12,830 km of main roads, 18,636 km of
by.roads and 13,350 km of desert rout-es.
Railways. In 1958 there were 4,350 km of railway open for traffic, the
railway receipts amonnting to 18,800m. francs.
P08t. There were, in 1957, 851 post offices, including 326 postal
agencies; number of telephones (lll5!)) 164,636. The postal receipts in 1957-
58 (April-March). were I5,000m. francs,
Post office savings accounts on 31 Dec. 1958 numbered 196,000, witb a
total balance of 4,382,OOOm. francs .
1004 THE FRENCH COl\I~UNITY
Avullion. There is a regular postal and passenger air sen~ce betwoen

Algiers and Paris, and Algiers aDd Marseilles, and a postal air service between
Algiers and Brazzaville in the French Congo and between Oran and EliSl\-
bethviUe in the Belgian Congo. There is also a paasenger air service locally
between Algiers and Oran and Algiers and Tunis. Arrivals by air (1958),
405,700 passengers, 6,900 metric tons of freight; departures, 426,912 pas·
sengers,. 2,052 metric tons of freight. There are 4 big (Algiers, OraD, Bone,
Aoulaf), 30 medium·sized and 150 minor airfields.
BANKING. The Bank of Algeria. iti a bank of issue, with a capital of
2,000m. francs. By ordinance of 18 Sept. 1950, ita note circulation \\'a~
limited to 75,OOOm. francs. The Bank of Algcria was nationalized on 17
May l!t46. Several co-operative agricultural banks, a~sisted by govern·
ment flUIds, are in operation; thcir capital exceeded 200m. francs in If)47.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The weights and measures of Franc('
only aN used,
British Gonsul-General (Algiers). T. E. Evans, C.M.G., O.B.E. There
are als(> consular representatives nt Bone and Oran.
U.8.A. Consul-General (Aigic1·s). Frederick B. Lyon.
Books of Reference
STAT'OTIC4t.INPOIUIATlOl'. The Service de Statlstlque G~n~rale (12, rue llab-A7.oun,
.~Iger) 18 part of tbe Direction O~nfrale des Finances. Chief: J ean Deslour. It publish""
the onnual Statutiqut Ghtirale de I· A1vtne aDd ,Documenu $talistiqu#!., .')ur le commer,~t de
I' ,tlgtrie (from 1902).
Ezposl de la .• ituati01l gtnlraie de I' ,tlg'ri.. Annual
Grand .dnnI(.4ire. Commercial. Indu.~lriel, Admini::ilratil, ,jyricole tl VilicClle de Alghit
dt la 1'unisit. Annual. Paris
L' EquiptfMnI dd' .dlgmt. Pari., 1~·19
Algmt n54. EnC1/clo"Mit men..".lle d·outre·mer (s peel.! issue)_ Paris, 1955
Alwuoe, 0., L',tl"trit. Paris. 1940
Bellat, P .• Cen.t 4nJ d'Algtru. PariR, 19~!)
llernard, A .. A/riqut du Nord (Vol. Xl 01 G<logtaphie Unirersellc hr -le IB m.cbe and GalloiH).
Paris, 1937
Dlotti~r. , J ., L' Al9trit. Pari., 19~5
Brodrick, A. H., Norih ;1friC4. New York, 1943
~:squer, .J.t BittDire de l' J.lgtrie, 1830-1950. Paritt, HH,)u
Kbatl7.ACian, Com'd't., Cenlenairt de l'AIgh'ie (Atlas, Geographv, History). Pari., 1930
St.rasser. D., RNlil~J et Prom-e.ues SaharienneJ. Paris, 1~56
Turnbull, P., Sahara Unvtiled: A Great Story of l<'rench CoI01lial Conquest. London, 1940
OVERSEAS DEPARTMENTS
MARTINIQUE
On 19 March 1946 tbe status of Martinique was changed to that of an
overseE-s department. The department is under a prefect. An electerl
general council of 36 members votes the budget, and elective munic.ipal
councils administer the communes. Martinique is represented in the
Nation!l.1 Assembly by 3 deputies and in the Senate by 2 senators.
Area, 1,090 sq. km, divided into 34 communes; population (estimate
1958),261,500. Vital statistics (1958): Births, 10,295; deaths, 2,754,
ThE' capital and chief commercial town is Fort-de·France (population,
60,648;, with 0. landlocked harbour noarly 40 sq, km in extent.
Justice ~~ administered by 5 justices of the peace, a tribunal of first
instan<'e, a regional court of appeal (with jurisdiction over Martinique and
GUADELOUPE AND DEPENDENCIES 1005
Guiana), (\ commercial court and a court of assizes. The military force
consiHts vf 1 battalion of infantry, a battery of artillery and a patrol. boat.
In 1955-59 there were 2 lycees (l for boys, 1,341 pu pils; I for girls,
1,500 pupils); 201 primary public schools, with 64,244 pupils; 1 technical
college (787 student.s) and 9 private schools (2,531 pupils). Tho IMtitut
Henri Vizioz had 328 students oflaw, politics and economics.
The budget for 19.59 b~lanced at 4,.503m. fmncs.
Bananas, sugar and rum are the chief productions, followed by cocoa,
pineapples and coffee. In 1057 there were 17,000 hectares under sugar
cane, 5,500 hectares under bananas, 270 hectares under cocoa, 200 hectares
under coffee, 700 hectares under pineapples and 4,400 hectares food.produc.
ing crops. In 1957 livestock numbered 62,000 cattle, 27,500 sheep, 44,100
pigs, 15,000 goats and 4,500 horses and mules. There are 12 sugar works
with distilleries attached, 35 agricultural distilleries producing rum and
8 factor ies for canning bananas and pineapples. In 1957 production of
sugar was 69,670 metric tens; rum, 97,~~ 5 hcctolitres .
. Trade in 1,000 metric tons and Im. fran cs:
1956 1~57 1958
Quantilv Va1ut' Qu,l1u'i .y r·alu~ Qt.~antity Valilt
[ruport:; . 181'~ 1:{,('78 l:~r,':l 17,47[, 2(H":! 17,433
E.l.:i)0ItS. 178·1 111,'ic.4 1 8 ~ ·1 1~,16i 176'2 12,l[j7
In 1958 the main items of import wcre foodstuffs; main items of export
were sugar (60,501 metric tons, :{,4!J2m. franc s), bananas (94.343 metric tons,
.'5 •.5S1m. francs) and rum (122,750 hcctolitres, 1,678m. fmncs).
The island is visited regularly by French and American steamers and
hy aircraft of Air France, Pan Amerioan W orld Airways and British
West Indian Airways. In 1958, 593 vessels of 1,774,000 tons called at
Martiniqlle; 6,684 passengers arrived and 14,029 left by sea. In 1958,
3:],689 passengers arrived and departed by air. There arc 260 km of
national roads, 328 km of district roads and 550 km of local roads.
There were, in 1958, 47 post offices and 4,799 telephones. Radio·
telephone service to Europe is available .
The Caisse Centrale de Cooperation ('con omique is the official bank of
the department. There is also a post office savings bank.
The Bank of Martinique with a capital of 400m. francs and a reserve
fund of 250m. francs, the Credit Martiniquais with a capital of 150m. francs,
branches of the Banqne National" pour le Commerce et l'Industie (Paris) are
opera ling at Fort·de·France.
PreJect. Jacques Boissier.
British Consul. L. Devallx.
U.S.A. Consul. Frank S. Hopkins.
Books of Reference
L'''1'O'RMATION. omca departemental du Tourisme. Fort-de-France. Di-,,,r-Jor: L. Gah"'ert.
Annuairc de la JJartiniqu~. Paris. (LA-test issue, 1957)
Revert. E., La Martin(qm:. Paris,1949
A9u also under GliADEMHJE'P...
GUADELOUPE AND DEPENDENCIES

On 19 March 1946 the status of Guadeloupe was changed to that of an
oyerscas departmt'llt. The departmcnt is under a prefect and an elected
general council of 36 members; it is represented in the National Assembly
by 3 doputies, and in thc Senate by 2 senators.
Guadeloupe, situated in the Lesser Antilles, consists of two islands

separated by a narrow channel, called Riviere Salee. That on the west
is called Guadeloupe proper (population, 99,736), the principal town of
which ill Basse-Terre, and that to the east Grande Terre (population,
103,718); the chief town of Grande Terre is Pointe-e.-Pitre. The two islands
havo a combined area of 1,510 sq. km (583 sq. miles). Thero are 5 depen-
dencies, consisting of the smaller islands, Marie Galante (population, 16,037),
Les Saintes (population, 2,574), Desirade (population, 1,610), St Bartbelemy
(populat.ion, 2,079) and St Martin (population, 3,366); the total area with
these is '388 sq. miles, and the total population (I Jan. 1958) is 254,000. The
island dependencies of Guadeloupe are still inhabited by the white descen-
dants of the Normans and Bretons who came there 300 years ago. They
live removed from the world, in patriarchal families of shipbuilders, fisher.
men and small farmers. St Martin was occupied simultaneously by the
French :~nd the Dutch in 1648; by virtue of an agreement dated 23 March
1648, the island was divided between the two peoples, France receiving
about two· thirds of the island, the capital of which is Marigot, a free port.
The seat of government is Basso.Terre (ll,837 inhabitants)_ Pointe·e..
Pitre (2G,160 inhabitants) has a fine harbour.
In the scholastic year 1956-57 there were 3 lycee8, with together 1,907
pupils, :md 186 public and private elementary schools. The public ele-
mentalJ schools had 885 teachers and 42,108 pupils; private schools, 3,371
pupils.
Chiof products (1958) are bananas (125,000 metric tons), sugar (1l7,034
metric tons), rum (99,398 hectolitres), coffee and cocoa.
Trade in 1,000 metric tons and Im. francs:
19~G 10:;7 19:;8
QuantUy Value Quantitv VallU! Quantitv ValUt
Import. . . 169·376 12,695 213·093 16,842 214'186 20,092
Exports. • 207·863 10,181 214'450 12,378 230 '858 14,236
Guadeloupe is in direct communication with France by means of 2 steam
navigation companies; with America by 4 steam navigation companies.
Air FraJce, British West Indian Airways, Pan American World Airways
and the Royal Dutch Airlines call at Guadeloupe. In 1958, 528 vessels
of ],402,000 tom ent.ered the department.
There are Chambers of Commerce at Basse-Terre amd Pointe-a-Pitre.
There is a British consular agent at Point-a-Pitre.
In I ~57 there were 40 post offices, 7 wireless stations, 903 km of tele-
phone c:.rcuits and (1959) 2,533 telephone subscribers. In 1957 thore were
318 km of national roads and 429 km of departmental roads.
Tho Bank of Guadeloupe (founded 1851) with a capital of 108m. francs
and reRtlrVe funds amounting to 153m. francs, advances loans chiefly for
agricult1lral purposes. The Credit Guadeloupeen has a capital of 5m. francs.
The Banque Nationale pour le Commerce et l'Industrie has 3 branches in
the department. The Caisse Centrale de Cooperation economique is (since
I July 1944) the official banking institution of the department, enjoying the
privilegl1 of issuing bank-notes. Silver coin has disappeared from circula-
tion.
Prefdct. Jean-Pierre Abeille.
Books of Reference
Annuaire de la GuaiUlofl.", et D~endance8. Basse·Terre
Gottmann, .1., 'ThaIsles of Guadeloupe' (The Geographical Review, =xv). New York, 1946
Revert, E .• La France d'AmeriqtU. Paris, 1949
Robert8, 'N. A" The French in the West I ndiu. Indianapolis, 194:2
LA REUNION lO07
LA REUNION
On 19 March 1946 the status of Reunion was changed to that of an
overseas department. The department is under a prefect and an elected
general council of 36 members. Reunion is represented in the National
Assembly by 3 deputies and in the Senate by 2 senators.
Reunion (or Bourbon), about 420 miles east of Madagascar, has belonged
to France since 1643. It has an area of 2,511'6 sq. km and a population
of 311,000 (estimate, 1958). The chief towns are: St-Denis, the capital,
with 41,863 inhabitants; St-Paul, 28,681; St-Pierre, 27,573; St-Louis,
25,220. Elected municipal councils administer the 23 communes.
Reunion has a lycee with (1959) 81 teR-chers and 1,482 pupils (707 boys,
775 girls). Primary education is given in 60 public and 6 private schools for
boys, 61 public and 17 private schools for girls and 143 public and 17 private
mixed schools. Teachers number 1,605 in the public and 183 in the private
schools. The public schools were attended by 28,723 boys and 26,764 girls;
the private schools by 2, lOO boys and 6,219 girls.
The chief productions are sugar (36,000 hectares), rum, manioc, vanilla,
essences. The forests occupy about 135,000 hectares. The produc~ion of
spirits (expressed as 100% alcohol) in 1958 amounted to 80,884 heotolitres
of rum. The sugar production in 1958 was 164,734 metric tons, of which
157,000 tons were exported.
Trade in 1,000 metric tons R-nd 1m. francs, C.F.A.:
1956 1957 1958
Quantitv Value Quantitv Value Quantity Value
Import... 190·, 8,145 211·0 ',005 211·0 10,149
Exports. 207 ·0 6,304 226·6 6,853 199·3 6,618
The chief imports in 1958 were (in metric tons): Rice, 33,690; cotton
goods, (;40; wines,4,111. Chief exports (1958): Sugar, 191,182 tons;
rum, 38,847 hectolitres.
Total trade between Reunion and the United Kingdom (British Board of
Trade returns, in £ sterling):
195·1 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. . 205,146 156,3S3 236,534 350,387 148,909 63,492
Exports from U.K. 123,540 165.261 215,705 157,028 166,438 125,145
Re-exports from U.K. 2,944 1.923 290 52 157 10S
There is telephone and telegraph connexion with Mauritius, Madagascar
and (via M.adagascar) Metropolitan France. There are 40 post offices and
56 central telephone offices; number of telephones (1959),5,185.
There were, in 1959, 1,969 km of roads, 733 km of which are bitumenized.
A railwav cO!ll1ects Port de la Pointe des Galeta with St-Benoit via St-Denis
(59 km):
Air France maintain a twice-weekly air service. Three shipping lines
serve the island. In 1958, 258 vessels entered and cleared the island.
The Institut d'Emission des Departements d'Outre-mer has the right to
issue bank-notes. Banks operating in Reunion are the Banque de la Reunion
et Societe Bourbonnaise de Credit R6unies and the Banque Nationale pour
le Commerce et I'Industrie.
PrefeA;t. Jean Perreau Pradier.
--------------------
British Consul. J. J. S. IvI. Gaud, M.B.E.
Books of Reference
Bulletin cU II Aladhnit dt a R'union. Biennial
Built/in dt la ChBmbrt d' .Agriculture <U la Reunion
1008 THE FRENCH COl\fMUNITY
GUIANA
GUYANE FRAN~AISl:
On 19 March 1946 the status of Guiana, which is situated on the north-

eltst COlU,t of South America, was changed to that of an overseas department.
It is administ.ered by a prefect, has an elected council-general of 15 members
and is represented in the National Assembly and the Senate by 1 deputy
each . Area about 90,000 sq. km, and population, including Inini, 32,000
(estimatol 1!J59). Cayenne, the chief town, has a population of 13,362.
These figures are exclusive of the floating population of miners, officials,
troops and native tribes.
At C.yenne there are a court of first inshmce, and a superior court of
appeal, with jurisdiction in other localities.
The military force consists of 353 officers and men of the Colonial
Infantry.
Primuy education has been free since 1889 in lay schools for the two
sexes in the communes and many villages. In 1959, 33 primary schools
had 124 teachers and 4,718 pupils, the lycee 42 teachers and 962 pupils;
6 private schools had 54 mistresses and 1,579 pupils, a private school for
leprous children had 2 mistresses and 65 pupils, and a vocational centre had
15 teacholrs and 187 pupils.
The ,~ount,ry has immense forests (about 80,000 sq. km) rich in many
kinds of timber. Only about 3,300 hectares are under cultivation. The
crops cOlsist of rice, maize, manioc, cocoa, bananas and sugar cane. The
most important industry is gold-mining.
Live,tock, 1959: 3,550 cattle, 6,000 swine, 650 buffaloes, 90 horses,
mules and asses, and 2:?,OOO poultry.
Trado) in 1,000 metric tons and lm. francs:
1957 1958 1969
Quantity Value QuanliJy Value Quanlity J'aJu~
Irnport.s • 26·13 3,049 29·47 3,493 22,21 3,291
Exports ' 2661 376 16·47 656 9·15 441
In 1958 France supplied goods valued at 2,471m. francs and took goods
valued at 370m. francs; the next largest suppliers were Trinidad (219m.)
and U.S.A. (127m.); the next largest buyers were Guadeloupe, Martinique,
Brazil and Surinam (about 40m. each).
The most important exports in 1959 wero gold (560 kg; 169·5m. francs).
rum (4,";66 quintals; 76m. francs), rosewood essence (4,187 kg; 14'3m.
francs) a ,l d timber (8,428 cu. metres; 134m. francs).
Total trade between Guiana and the U.K., in £ sterling (British Board
of Trade returns):
1955 195G 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 18 nil 1,484 ~42 22
Exports from U.K . . 41.554 54,727 44.533 48,333 61,578
Rc-export. from U.K. 2,873 410 '948 1,753 1,0SO
Then, are 3 ports: Cayenne, St-Laurent-du-Maroni and Oyapoc,

Cayenne and St-Laurent are visited thrice a month by a packet boat of the
Compagloie Generale TransatIantique. There is also steamboat communica-
tion bet"een the capital and the other towns of the department. Vessels
entered Lno cleared in 1959, 362.
Air France calls at Cayenne twice a week, Pan American Airways and
Cruseiro do Sui each once a week; S.A.T.G.A. airline calls thrice weekly at
FRENCH POLYNESIA 1009
St·Laurent I1nd once at St.Georges. In H)59, 3,890 aircraft. arrived and
departed.
Three chief and some secondary roads connect the capital with the
interior bv motor·car services. There were in 1958, 274 km of national
roads. •
A telegraph system connects Cayenne with Macoul'ia, Kourou, Sinna·
mary, Iracollbo and St·J.,aurcnt·dll·jl'laroni. Number of telephones (1958),
881. There are wireless stations r,t Cayenne, Oyapoc, R6gina, St.Laurent,
~,Iaripassoula, SaUI, Caruopi.
From 1854 to 1938, Cayenne had a penal settlement for habitual criminals.
The last convicts were, after H)4!j, sent back to l"rance.
Tbe Bank of Guiann, with a c.'lpit::d of 90m. francs and reserve fund
amounting t,o lOOm. f mnes, advances loans for agricultural and other purpose~.
The territory of Inini was separated from Fronch Guiana by a decree
of n Julv 1930, re· united with Guiana bv law of l!l Maroh 1948 and made
a separate arrondissemcnt by law of 14 Sept. 195]. The area is 7.5,000 sq.
km and the popuiation (1\)54), 3,~34. The territory is connected with
Guiana by waterwnys which, uespite rapids, a.re navigable by local craft.
The principal pruciucts are rose wood and cabinet wood. Gold is alRo found .
The trade of the territory is includeu in the Guiana returns.
Prefect. Andre Dubois·Clmbel't.
nooks of Reference
Cboubcrt, R, Glolo!li~ tl P~!rogfaph~ de la Guyane Franraiu. PllrilJ
Henry, G-uy(me Fran(aue. ,son M~toi" 1604-1946. Cayeune
Hllrunlt, J. t Guide du rova9eur en Ouyune. Paris, 1949
OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
FRENCH POLYNESIA
POLYNESIE FRANQAISE
These islands, formerly called' French Settlements in Oceania,' scattered
o\'er a wide area in the eastern Pacific, are administered by a governor, a
go'"ernwent council (over which the governor presides) and a territorial
assembly of 30 members elected every 5 years on the basis of universal
suffrage. French Polynesia is represented in the National Assembly anrl
the Senat" by 1 depnty eM'h.
French Polynesia is administratively divided into the following ch·con·
8C1'iptions:
1. Tho Windward Islands (lles uu Vent), comprising Tahiti with an
area of about 1,042 sq. km and (census l:l Del'. 1!)50), 44,710 inhabitants;
Moore(1, with an area of 132 sq. kill and 3,700 inhabitants; Makatca, 2,500
illhabitant,,; Maiao, 182 inhahit,ant,,;.
The most important of the iulands is Tahiti, whose chief town is Papeete
with 17,288 inhabitants (1956 census). I)f whom 14,000 are French (including
1,6-1(i of metropolitan origin) anu 3.087 CiJinese. There were, in 1958, 108
public primary scuools (l0,805 pupil:;). 15 private primary schools (4,444
pupils), 2 public secondary schuols (346 pupils) and 4 priVAte secondary
schools (704 pupil8).
2. The Leeward Islands (I1es SOUB le Vent) (15,410 inhabitants), com.
prising Ht:ahin(', Raiatea, Tahaa, Bora.Bora :lnd l\1aupiti.
3. The Tmimotu group, consisting of two parallel rangos of islands from
King George's Island on the north to Gloucestcr Island on the south and
includirlg the Gambier, Austral and Rapa islands, with a total population
of 8,94('. The Gambier group (of which Mangareva is the principal) have
890 sq. km of area; the Austral (or southern) Islands, of which Rurutu
is the largest, Tubuai, Raivavae (or Vavitu), Rimatara and, far to the south,
Rapa, having together an area of 174 sq. km and 3,770 inhabitants.
4. The Marquezas Islands, with a total area of 1,274 sq. km and 4,170
inhabitE-nts, the two largest islands being Nukahiva and Hivaoa.
The total area is estimated at 4,000 sq. km, and their population, in
1956, W,I.S 77,000.
The ordinary budget for 1959 balanced at 450m. francs C.F.P., the
extraordinary budget at 73m. francs C.F.P.
Trad.e in 1,000 metric tons and Im. francs du Pacifique (= 5·50 metro-
politan francs)
In56 1957 1~5S
Quanlitv Value Quantitv Value Quantity VallU
Imports 42·8 676 50·6 8:15·0 VO-;) 1,006
Bxports 287·0 GaS 329·6 72S'il 330·9 796
Total trade between the French possessions in the Pacific and the
U.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1955 1966 1967 1958 1959
Imports t·, U.K. 18.997 10,932 10,802 13,139 15,029
Brportshom U.K. 252,367 263,566 418,880 452 ,325 297,039
Re-export. from U.K. 622 63( 126 1,048 060
The most important products are phosphates (chiefly in Makatea) and

<:opra (coconut trees covering the coastal plains of the mountainous islands
and the greater part of the low-lying islands). Other produce for exports
are coff"e and vanilla, whereas tropical fruits, such as bananas, pineapple,
oranges, etc., are grown only for local consumption.
Chief imports (by value) include metalwork, textiles, petrol, sugar and
flour. Chief exports in 1958 were: Phosphates (309,254 metric tons,
292·7m. francs C.P.), copra (17,383 metric tons, 229·3m. francs C.P.),
vanilla (174 metric tons, 163·9m. francs C.P.) and mother-of-pearl (620
metric tons, 49·2m. francs C.P.)
Several shipping companies connect San Francisco, New Zealand and
Australia with Papeete. Shipping, 1958: 339,741 tons loaded, 50,351 tons
unloadei. Number of telephones (1959), 1,083.
Governor. Pierre Sicaud.
Books oC Reference
Journal C'lficiel du Etabli3!~ Pran~tli& tU l'Oclanit, and SuppT..emnll containing Stalisticl
of Commerce and 1'1 at'igation. Papeete ,
Andrews, E., Comparative Dictionary of the Tahitian Language. Chicago, 1944
Bourgeau, J., La France du Pacifiqut. 2nd ed. Paris, 1954
Gerbault, A., Un paradis It meurt. Paris, 1949
Robeon, H., French Oceania. Sydney, 1951
t'SerstevfIl.'i, A.., Tahiti et sa couronnt. Paris, 1960
NEW CALEDONIA AND DEPENDENCIES

NOUVELLE CALEDONIE
New Caledonia is administered by a governor, assisted by a government
council which is elected by the Territorial Assembly. The Territorial
Assembly is itself an elected body of 30 members. Noumea, the capital,
NEW CALEDONIA AND DEPENDENCIES 1011
has a municipality; other centres of popula.tion are locally administered by
municipal commissions.
High Commissioner for the Pacific Ocean and the New Hebrides and Gover-
nor of New Caledonia. M. Pechollx.
The territory is represented in the National Assembly and the Senate
by I deputy each.
The island is situated between :Wo l' and ;]2° 26' S. lat., and 161 ° 30' and
IMo 40' E. long. It has a total length exceeding 397 km and an average
breadth of 50 km. Area, 18,700 sq. km. On 31 Dec. 1957 the population
totalled 72,478, including 24,882 Europeans (24,149 of them French), 36,668
Melanesians, 4,468 Vietnamese, 3,260 Indonesians and 3,200 Polynesians.
Nomnea had 22,238 inhabitants, including 15,043 Europeans and 3,596
Vietnamese and Indonesians.
In 1957, 15,740 children (5,600 European;8,700 Melanesians, 1,440 Asian)
received instruction: 7,563 in primary public schools, 5,497 in primary
mission schools, 480 in secondary public sohools, WO in secondary privat...l
schools and 711 in technical schools.
The ordinary budget for 1958 balanced at 1,030m. francs C.F.P., the
extraordinary budget at 172·5rn. fmncs C.F.P.
Of the total area one·third is not cultivable; about 1,600 sq. miles are
pasture land; about the same area is cultivated or cultivable, and about
500 sq . miles contain forest; forest produce, 1957,7,564 cu. metres. The
land is divided into 2 domains: that of the French state and that of the
territory. Parts of the state's domain have been instituted as native reserves;
gratuitous concessions may be made in other parts. The chief agricultural
products are coffee, copra, maize, fruits and vegetables. Livestock, H):i"i:
103,700 cattle, 5,700 sheep, 20,970 goats, 10,048 horses, 13,050 pigs.
The mineral resources are very great; nickel, chrome and iron abound;
silver, gold, cobalt, lead and copper have been mined at different times;
manganese is being mined now. The nickel deposits are of special value,·
being without arsenic. Production in 1958 (in 1,000 metric tons): Nickel
ore, 591; chrome ore, of very high grade, 47·4; iron om, ~()·J·6. About
294,270 hectares of mining land a.re owned, and 177,437 hectares have been
granted for prospecting. In 1958 the furnaces produced 8,297 metric tons
matte of nickel and 7,083 metric tons of cast nickel. Local industries
are developing; there are a chlorine and oxygen plant, meat-presetTing
works, barking mills for coffee, and 5 furnaces melting nickel ore.
Trade in 1,000 metric tons and lm. francs ':
19~6 191>; lOGS
QuanWv Val", Quan1itv Val ... Quantitv Valve
Imports 401·1 2,105 530·5 3,046 441 3,438
Export. 874·0 1,982 1,386·6 3,196 5G7 2,030
1 111e . franc du Pacifique I equals 5·60 metropOlitan francs.
In 1958, 59·8% of the imports came from, and 80·4% of the exports
went to France and the French Union.
Chief imports in 1958 were (in 1,000 metric tons); Coal and coke, ~32;
petrol products, 52·2. Chief exports: Chrome ore, 42·6; iron ore, 311;
manganese ore, 8; nickel matte, 8·6; cast nickel, 9·6; nickel ore, 180;
copm,2.
In I ()58, 453 vessels with 020,000 metric tons of goods entered Noumea.,
and cleared with 576,000 metric tons.
New Caledonia is connected by sea and air routes with France (the latter
via Bri,;bane-Port Darwin-Saigon-Karachi-Athens), Australia (by Qantas

Empire Airways), the New Hebrides, YVallis archipelago and Tahiti.
There were, in 1957,2,800 km of roads, of which 1,100 km were of good
quality. There were 94 post offices, 12,795 km of telephone lines, 2,896 km
of telegraph lines and 2,613 telephones.
At ~, 1 Dec. 1957 the savings bank had 19,035 depositors with 4!3'7m.
francs to their credit. There is a branch of the Banque de I'Indochinc in
Noumca.
Dependencies of New Caledonia n.re:
1. The I sle of Pines, 30 miles to the south.east, with an area of 153 sq.
km and a population of 674.
2. 'Ibe Loyalty Islands, 60 miles en.st of New Caledonia, consisting of 3
large islands, Mare. Lifou and Uvea, and many small islands with a total
area of about 2,072 sq. km and a population of 10,800 natives and 100
Europeans. The chief culture in the islands is that of coconuts: the chief
export, copra,
3, 'Ihe lIuon Islands, 170 miles north·west of New Caledonia. a most
barren group.
4, The Belop Archipelago, ~ bout 7 miles north·east of New Calde(1rua,
5. Chesterfield Islands are on thc 20 0 S. parallel, a bout 342 miles west
of the northern hen.dland of New Caledonia.
6. Walpoole lies south·east of Mare (Loyalty Islands) and enst, of the
Isle of Pines, about 93 miles from each of these islands.
Books of Reference
()fjicicl d~ la .NouveUt> CaUdmie ~t D~nd.anu3
.,'o~rnal
L'Ecolwmie de la Nouvelle·Caltdol1ie enlY57
FRENCH SOMALlLAND
C6TE FRAN9AISlI: DES SOMALIS
The territory of the Somali Coast is situated in the Gulf of Aden between
British Somaliland, Ethiopia and Eritrea. The frontier starts from Loyada,
on the (:oast, 20 km south·east of Djibouti, passes by Djalelo, the Degoueine
Mountains, crosses the Addis Ababa railway at Kilometre HO, 6 km to th6
north (,f Daoucnle, encloses the Gobaad Plain and lakes Abbe and Alii,
passes Mount MOllssa Ali near Daddato, and terminates at Cape Doumeirah,
opposite Perim, on the Straits of Bab cl Mandeb. It is administered by an
()xeeutive council of 8 members of which the Governor is the president.
The council is elected by the territorial assembly which is composed of 32
elected members. Somaliland is represented in the National Assembly and
tho Ser.ate by 1 deputy each.
Are,} and Population. The territory has an area of 23,000 sq. km, and
t he nat,ive population was estimated at 1 Jan. 1959 at 67,300, including:
Somali:;, 25,000; Arabs, 3,000; Danakils, 27,000; Europeans, 4,000;
forcigno lrs,8,ooO. Djibouti, the seat of government, had 31,300 inhabitants.
Ed~:cation. In 19;}[) there were 18 public schools with 2,160 pupils and
[) private schocls with noo pupils.
Health. The medical sert'iccs in 1959 included a hospital (548 beds), i
dispansaries and 5 infirm&ries.
THE COMORO ARCHlP:f:UGO 1013
Finance. The budget for 1959 balanced at 1,123·3m. Djibouti francs.
Port revenues in 1958 amounted to 264·3m. Dijbouti francs.
Production. Minerals supposed to exist are gypsum, mica, amet.hyst,
sulphur and oil.
Commerce.. The chief imports are cotton goods and sugar; the chief
e xports are hides, cattle and coffec (transit from Ethiopia).
Trade in 1,000 metric tons and lm. Djibuti francs :
1956 ID~7 1958
Qu<mtity Vql1te Quantity Value Quantitv Value
Jmport.. 635·6 7,631·2 26·8 1,61)9'2 83;; 10,020'0
Exports 9~'2 500·5 l1· R [)I202 62 373·2
Transit. 1-17 ·9 14,968'4 108 ·1 8,650'0 128 12,928'0
Trade with the U.K. (British' Board of Trado r('lturns, in £ sterling):

1954 1956 1956 1957 1958 1959
Import8 to U. K. 11,747 5,660 3-13 7,H'9 7,654 15,997
Ibport8 from U.K. 240,266 317,075 36~,477 2i6. ~2~ 210,93? 331,089
Re-export.. from U. K. 1,029 599 ~3~ 1,~o6 2,786 1,38;;
Shipping. In 1958 there cnVored at Djibo uti 1,850 vessels of 5,989,762

t,(lns, unloading 834,!l06 tons and loading 76,71;; tons of merchandise; of
these 387 were French.
Road Traffic . In 1958 there were operating 1,210 passenger enrs. 00 ta"i~,
515 lorries and 320 motor cycles.
Railway. For the line Djibouti-Addis Ababa see p. Oti7.
Poat. Number of telephones (1959), 851.
Currency. A new currency, the Djibuti fmnc, was introduced on 17 March
1949. The currency is covered 100% by a V .S. dollar fund. The Djibuti
franc equals 2·30 metropolitan francs (see p. 23).
Governor. J acques Compaiu.
Briti8h Consul. Lieut.·Col. G. J. Pink, O.B.E. (residcs at Harar).
There is a. vice·consul at Djibouti.
U.S.A. Consul· General. Andrew G. Lynch.
Books of Reference
Ouide-Amwaire de la Cot-e Frmu;aise des Somalis . D~it;()t1t, i ~Pu u1icit~, 1!)59
Dt)SCbamp~, H •• and others. ClJu del SomaJu, R~unicmt I nde. i'llriS, 19"8
de IE\ Hue, A., La SfJ111aiie Fran(ui3e. Paris,1939
THE CO MORO ARCHIPELAGO

TERRITOlRF. DES COMORES
The archipelago of the Comoro islands consists of the islands of Muyot.t(l,
Anjouan, Gra.nde Comore and Moheli. Before 1912, only Mayotte was"
colony, but by a law of 25 July l!H2 the 3 ot·her islands, hitherto pro·
tectorates, were also declared colonies. Bv a decree of 23 Feb. 1914 the
whole archipelago was attached to tho government.general of Madagascar.
The Chief of the Territory is assisled by a council of 7 Ministers, designated
by the ejected Territorial Asscmbly, which consists of 30 lllember~.
To Comoro Archipelago is represented in the Nationa.l Assembly hy
2 deputies and in the Senate by I senator.
1014 THE FRENOH OOMMUNITY
Area., about 2,125 sq. km. (Grande Comoro. 114 ; Anjouan, 42 '4; Mayotte,
35'4 ; Moheli. 20'6). In 1968 the census population was 176,652 (Grande
Comore, 89.554; Anjouan, 61,335; Mayotte, 23.234; MoMIi. 7,165) ; capital,
Dzaoud:1i (Mayotte). The majority of the inhabitants are Moslems, but
there are about 1,000 Christians of French or Malagasy origin.
In l!158, 35 elementary sohools had 2,766 pupils, 1 secondary school had
93 pupi:s, 1 technical school had 37 pupils.
The ordinary budget for 1958 balanced at 289m. francs C.F.A., the
extraordinary budget at 25m.
The ~hief product was formerly sugar cane, but now vanilla, copra, caoao,
sisal, coffee and perfume plants (citronella, ylang.ylang, etc.) are the m08~
important productll.
Imp.)rts in 1958 amounted to 14.212 metric tons (7I1m. francs C.F.A.).
exports to 5,283 metric tons (565m. franes C.F.A.). Vanilla exports were
.'>3 met.ric tons (202m. francs C.F.A.); sisal, 484 tons; copra, 2.611 tons;
eBBentia.1 oils, 33 tons (15Im. francs C.F.A.). Grande Comore has a fine
forest and exports timber for building and for railway sleepers.
There are 621 km of roads, 660 of which are usable during the whole
year.
Chie,' of the Territory. Georges Arnaud.
SI PIERRE AND NUQUELON

TERRlTOffiE DES ILES SAINT· PIERRE ET MIQUELON
The territ.ory consists of a group of S small islands off the south coast of
Newfoundland. Arca of St Pierre group, 26 sq. km; population (15 Oct.
1957), 4.286; area of Miquelon group, 215 sq. km; population, 610; total
area, 241 sq. km; total population (1959), 4,929. Vital statistics (1959):
Births,106; still births, 4; marriages, 31; divorces,2; deaths,33.
The territory is represented ill the National Assembly and the Senate by
1 deputy each.
The Governor (Gouvcrneur, Chef du Territoire des lies Saint· Pierre et
Miquelon) is assisted by a privy council consisting of the service chiefs and
2 memters appointed by the Minister of Overseas Territories. A general
council ·)f 14 ejected members was set up by decree of 26 Oct. 1946. Chief
town, S~ Pierre, is also the seat of the court of appeal and the see of the
Aposto\Jc Prefeoture. Primary instruotion is free. There were, in 1959, 24
public classes with 26 teachers and 455 pupils, and 31 private classes with
35 teachers and 740 pupils. One publie and 2 private secondary clas8e8
totalled 155 pupils; 2 public and 1 private vocational classes totalled 70
pupils.
The islands, being mostly barren rock, are unsuited for agriculture. The
ohief industry is cod· fishing. The imports comprise tex.tiles, salt, wines,
ooal, pet.rol, foodstuffs, meat; and the exports, d:ried cod (807 tons in 1969),
frozen fillets (2,OiO tons in 1959; 228m. francs C.F .A.) and fish lneal (848
tons in 1959; 27m. francs C.F.A.). Silver fox and mink breeding has success·
fully been taken up; exports in 1959, 15 pelts of fox , 141 pelts of mink.
The ordinary budget for 1959 balanced at 449,188,000 francs C.F .A., the
oxtraordinary budget at 79·7m. francs C.F.A.
Trade in metric tons and Im. francs:
1057 1958 1959
Quantity Val"" Quantitv Val"" Quantity Val~
Imports 32,271 660'7 31,398 788'S 26,OG8 1,005'0
EXl'orUI 13,566 327'5 10,974 340·7 10,822 447'0
SOUTHERN AND ANTARCTIC TERRITORIES 1015
Total trade between St Pierre and Miquelon and the United Kingdom
(British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling) :
1~ 5 5 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 24 IN
Exports from U. K. . 59,414 60,547 59,704 54,577 49,510
Re·exportelrom U.K. 5,714 3, 343 4,295 2,4 99 2,930
St Pierre is in regular steam communication with North Sydney and

H alifax, a nd is connected by telegraph cable and t elephone with E urope and
the American continent. Air services connect St Pierre wi t h St J oh n's
(Newfoundland) and Sydney (Nova Sco tia). There were 380 t elephones
in 1959.
Governor. R. L . Pont.
Books of Reference
De Cur t.oD, E., Sainl· Pierre et Miqtulcm. Paris, 1944
D. La RUe, E . A., Sainl·Pitff'" Miqu<lon. Montreal,1946
SOUTHERN AND ANTARCTIC TERRITORIES

TERRES AUSTRALES ET ANTARCTIQUES FRANQAlSES
The Territory of the T.A.A.F. was created on 5 Aug. 1955. It comprises
the islands of Saint Paul and Nouvelle Amsterdam, the Kerguelen and
Cror.e t archipelagos, and Terre Adelie.
The Administrator is assisted by a c onsultative coun cil which meete
twice yearly in Paris; its members are nominated by the Government for
I) years. The administration has its seat in Paris until it will be installed at
Port.aux.Fran~ais, the chief place of the Kerguelen islands.
There are 3 p ostal agencies; the T.A.A.F. has its own postage stamps.
The scientific stat,ions of the T.A.A.F. which t ook an important part
in the Internat.ional Geophysical Year, 1956-58, have been m ade permanent.
Administrator. Pierre R olland.
Kerguelen archipelago , situated 48- 50° S. lat., 60-70° E . long.
consists of 1 large and 300 amaIl islands with a total area of 7,000 sq. km .
It was discovered in 1772 by Yves de Kerguelen, but was effectively occupied
by France only in 1950. Port.aux·Fran~ais has several scientific researoh
stations, a hospital, a plant for seal·oil and a military camp. Reindeer and
shecp have been acclim atized.
Crozet archipelago. situated 46° S. lat., 50-52° E. long., consists of 5
larger and 15 tiny islands, with a tota l area of 500 sq. km; the eastern group
includes Apostles, Pigs and Penguins islands; the western group, Possession
and Eastern islands. The archipelago was discovered in 1772 by Ni colas
Dufrssne, whose mate, Crozet, annexed it for Louis XV. It is uninhabited.
Saint Paul. situated 38° S. lat., 77° E. long., hlls an area of 7 sq. km.
It is uninhabited.It was perhaps discovered in 1559 by Portuguese sailors.
Nouvelle Amsterdam, situated 37° S. lat., 70° E. long., with an area
of 1)0 sq. km. It was discovered in 1522 by Magellan's companions, bui
first visited (together with Saint Paul) by a Dutch skipper. In 1950 an
administrative office, research stations and a hospital were established.
Terre AdeIie comprises the antarctic continent between 1360 and 1420
E.long" south of 60° S.lat. It was discovered in 1840 by Dumont d'Urville.
Books of Reference
T.A.A.F. Revue tri=strielle. Paris, 1957 Jr.
ExpMiti('ns Potair.. Fran,aises. Etudes et Rapports. Paris 1948-59
Rue, 'E. A. de la, TnTt3 FTan,aUtJ Inconnuel, Ile" Kef'V1H!len, Crolet, Saint-Paulet .!mlterciam
Paris, 1930
W ALLlS AND FUTUNA

On 27 Dec. 1959 the inhabitants of these islands voted with an over·
whelming majority in favour of exchanging their status from a protectorate
to an oversea telTitory. The islands have, since 1M2, been ruled by kings
advised by a French Resident under the authority of the High Commissioner
of New Caledonia.
The Wallis Archipelago, north·east of Fiji, has an area of 103·6 aq. km
and 6,000 inhabitants. The archipelago is in regular communication with
Noumel via Port Vila.
Fut'ma and Alofi, south of the Wallis Islands, have a.bout 4,000 inhabi·
ta.nts.
MEMBER STATES OF THE COMMUNITY

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
REPUBLIQUE CENTRAFRICAINE
On the establishment of the Community, the 4 territories forming the
government·general of French Equatorial Africa chose to become separate
membe:.states, Ubangi.Shari on 1 Dec. 1958 under the name of Central
African Republic. In Jan. 1959 the 4 republics formed an 'economic and
technic:l1 union '. The Republic is represented in the Senate of the Com·
munity by 4 senators.
The area of the Central African Republic covers 617,000 sq. km; ita
population on 1 Jan. 1959 was 1,177,166. The capital is Bangui (78,412
inhabit:ints).
Prelident of the Government. David Dacko.
Ilig,~ Commissioner. Pierre Bordier.
The budget in 1958 balanced at 1,792m. francs C.F.A.
Cott.on is the most important product.
Trade of the former territory of Equatorial Africa with U.K. according
to British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling:
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports \'0 U.K. 1,150,109 1,086,941 1,330,661 998,990 1,007,014
Exports Jrom U.K. , 936,413 867,920 1,065,206 1,399,276 1,004,500
Re-exports from U.K. 14,54..1 14,517 14,863 10,400 5,992
CONGO
REPUBLIQUE DU CONGO
The former territory of the Middle Congo on 28 Nov. 1958 joined the
Community as a separate member state under the name of Congo Republic,
and in ,ran. 1959 formed an 'economic and technical union' with the other
3 territories of the former go'Vernment.general of French Equatorial Africa.
IVORY COAST 1017
The Republic is represented in the Senate of the Community by 3 senators.
The area of the Congo Republic covers 342,000 sq. km; its population
on 1 Jan. 1959 was 794,577. The capital is Point.e·Noire (56,865 in·
habitants).
Prime Minister. Abbe Fulbert Youlou.
High Commissioner. Guy Georgy.
High Commissioner General (at Brazzaville). J. Bourges.
The ordinary budget in 1953 balanced at 2,36Im. francs C.F.A., the
A railway (516 km) and a telegraph line connect Pointe·Noire with
Brazzaville, the former capital of French Equatorial Africa. Brazzaville
(99,144 inhabitants on 1 Jan. 19(9) has an airport and a river port; the
latter handled 201,000 tons in 1957. Pointe·Noire is a considerable port.
U.S.A. Consul (Brazzaville). Francis N. Maglio7.zi.
IVORY COAST
RJipUBLlQUE DE COTE D'!vOIRE
The former territory of the Ivory Coast on 4 Dec. 1958 joined the Com·
munity as a member state. The Republic is represented in the Senate of
the Community by 11 senators.
The Republic is situated between Liberia and Ghana and has common
frontiers with the Republics of Guinea, Sudan and Upper Volta. France
obtained rights on the coast in 1842, but did not actively and continuously
OCCtlpy the territory till 1882. On I Jan. 1933 a portion of Upper Volta
was added to the Ivory Coast, but on 1 Jan. ]948 the districts of Bobo·
Dioulasso, Gaoua, Koudougou, Ouagadougou, Kaya, Tenkodogo and
Dedougou were tmnsferrcd from Ivory Coast to the reconstituted Upper
Volta.
Area, 322,463 sq. km; total population (\958), 3,214,100, including
H,!OO Europeans. The seat of ndministration und of the court of appeal
is at Abidjan (population, 120,000 Africans, 7,500 Europeans); the office
of agriculture at Bingerville. Abidj an , Rouake (popul ation, 1958, 30,6S7)
and Grand Bassam (U,537) are communes de plcin exercice.
The principal autochthonous tribes are the Baotlles, Agnis, Comos, KTn,
Bambaras and Mandingos.
The Republic is administered by a government of 13 ministers and 7
secretaries of state. The legislative assembly has 100 members; all of them,
elected on 12 April 195U, belong to the Ra~s()mblem e nt D6mocratique
Africaine.
Prime Minister. Felix HO'.lphouet.lloigilY.
High Commissioner. Yves Guena.
The ordinary budget for ID:')9 balanced at 21,7D5m. francs C.F.A.. the
oxtmordinary hlldget (investment and equipment) nt 4,450m.
There aro (11)58) 556 public primary schools (110,000 pupil~), 412 private
primary schools (:\5,000 pupils). 31 public secondary schools (5,000 pupils),
() private sccolldary s~hools (936 pupils), 9 public technical schools (l,200
pupils) and 9 private t.echnical schools (187 pupils).
In 1958 there were 3 hospitnls nnd 59 medical stations, 58 maternity
homos and 150 dispensarieR, 6 leprosaries and a mental asylum, with to·
gether 6,500 beds; there were 150 doctors and 42 pharmacists.
The natives cultivate groundnuts, maize, rice, millet, banana8, pineapples.

manioc, yam. coffee and cocoa. The cultivation of cotton is being developed;
coconutn and a small quantity of rubber are collected. The mahogany
forcsta bland are worked. Gold is found neaf Bouake. on the Comoe and
Man rivors, and in Indenie. Manganese dep<>llits have also been located.
Several factories produce palm.oil, fruit preserves and fruit juice.
Liveatock, 1958 : 270,000 cattle. 360,000 sheep. 410,000 goats. 60,000
pigs, 1,000 horses and 1,100 donkeys. Sleeping sickness in the coastal
dist.ricts restricts animal husbandry to the highlands of the interior.
The imports in 1958 amounted to 589.724 metric tons, and the exports to
635,649 ums. Chief imports in 1957 were: Textiles (12.404 tons), metalwork
(16.303 tons). cement (124,308 tons). wine (17,832 tons), motor fuels and oils
(155,336 tonal. Chief exports in 1958: Coffee (110,808 tons), cocoa (45,534
tonal , fr'lsh bananas (42,154 ton.~), timber (356,420 tons).
From Abidjan a railway runs to La .Leraba (625 km) and thence through
Upper Volta to Ouagadougou. Permanent roads total 28,000 km, of which
410 km are bitumenized. The main airport is at Abidjan·Port.Buet. In
1958,4,1085 aircraft disembarked and embarked 66,580 passengers and 2,558
tons of freight and mail.
The main ports are Abidjan, Sassandra and Tabou. In 1957, 1,105
vessels of 258,749 net tons, and in 1958 vessels of 259,836 net tons entered the
port of Abidjan.
Ther· ~ were, in 1956, 74 post offices.
In U'56, 48 savings banks had 20,841 depositors with 194,227,000 francs
C.F.A. to their credit.
U.S ...4. Consul. Donald R. Norland.
STUIS'l'IOAL lNVomu.TION. Service de le. Statistique, Abidj"n. It. puhllshes Bulletin
S/Q.listique Mensuel and (1958) Inve1Uoire Economique de la C~te d'lvoire, 1947-56
C~~ d·/rJ()l :r~. Encyclop~die d'Outre-mer. Paris, 1956
C~k d'ItJ01re, 1955 ; Dh1eloppemnd locial. Pari8.19[)6
Amon d' l.by, F . J ., La C61e d'leoire. Paris, 1951
DAHOMEY
REPUBLIQUE DU DaHOMEY
The former territory of Dahomey on 4, Dec. 1958 joined the Community
a~ a member state. The Republic is represented in the Senate of the
Community by 6 senators.
The area is 115,762 sq. km, and the population, in 1957, 1,713,000. The
seat of government is Porto Novo (31,500 inhabitants); the chief port and
business centre is Cotonou (56,200 inhabitants in 1956); these towns and
Ouidah (14,000), Abomey (18,900) and Parakou (5.700) are communes de
plein excrcice.
The Republic is administered by a government of 12 ministers.
The Lssembly consists of 70 members (59 Republicans and II Democrats,
after thE elections of 2 April 1959).
Prime .Minister. Hubert Maga.
lh:gh Commissioner. Rene Tirant.
The ')rdinary budget for 1958 balanced at 3,209m. francs C.F.A .• the
Thert, were, in 1957. 187 public primary schools (31,811 pupils). 195
private primary schools (36,064 pupils). 4 public secondary schools (942
GABON 1019
pupils), 6 private secondary schools (1,041 pupils) and 28 technical 8ohools
(1,199 pupils). The Africans are mainly agriculturists, and grow maize,
manioc and yams. In 1955 there were 300,000 cattle, 600,000 sheep and
goats, 190,000 pigs, 2,600 horses, 1,000 donkeys. The fOrGsts contain oil
palms, which have been profitably utilized. These furnish the chief exports
-kernels and oil. Cotton cultivation has been successfully introduced in
the north ; coffee cultivation has given good results in the southern distriots.
Imports in 1957, 122,037 met,ric tons (4,269m . francs C.F.A.); exports,
78,010 tons (2,447m. francs C.F.A.). The principal imports were: Cotton
fabri cs (850 tons; 258111. francs), wines (1,921 tons; 89ru. francs), cement
(38,195 tons; 192m. francs). The principal exports were: Palm·kernels
(44,667 tons; 1,055m. francs), palm.oil (10,399 tons; 425m. francs), de·
corticated groundnuts (14,305 tons; 569m. francs).
There are now altogether 3,238 miles of carnage road, of which 871 miles
are first-class roads. The latter include the East Road from Save to Malan-
ville on the Niger (297 miles) and the North-west Road from Tchaourou to
Porga (281 miles) ; other roads are Cotonou-Dassa-Zouml>-Save (198 miles),
Cotonou to Anecho (68 miles), Abomey to Ketou (75 miles), Tchaourou to
Djougou (93 miles).
Railways (metre·gauge) connect Cotonou with Parakou (438 km);
Pahou-Segboroue on Lake Aheme (34 km); Cotonou-Pobe (107 km).
There were, in 1956,68 post offices. A telegraph line connects Cotonou
with Abomey, Togoland, the Niger and Senegal. In 1957, 337 vessels of
971,000 net tons entered and cleared the port of Cotonou.
In 1956,24 savings banks had 24,412 depositors with 144,795,000 francs
Total trade between U.K. and the former territory of French West
Africa (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1955 1956 1957 1958 ' 1959 '
Imports to U.K. 4.124.226 4.150.003 5,574.225 3,122,695 2,970,335
Exports (rom U. K. 6,:>i;G,835 5,635,CI0 ~, 082,688 4,317,470 3,080,685
Re·exports trom U.K. 53,416 76,079 91,560 255,229 303,633
, E:tcluding Togoland.
Books of R efel'ence
Bulk'in slaliJliq,,~ du Dahonuy. Porta-Novo. (Monthly.,
Grivot, R., RlaclioA3 dalw1nJen~3 . P aris, 1954
IIerakoTits, MelTille J., D~ . 2 vols. New York, 1938
IdBIUny. BibliotMque del'lnstitut Frnn<;als d'A1rique Noire. B.P.6. l'orto-NoTo,
GABON
REPUBLIQUE GABONAISE
The former territory of Gabon on 28 Nov. 1958 joined the Community
as a separate member state a nd in Ja.n. 1959 formed an 'economic and
technical union' with the other 3 territories of the former government.general
of French Equatorial Africa. The Republic is represented in the Senate
of the Community by 3 senators.
The area of the Gabon Republic covers 267,000 sq. km; its population
on 1 Jan. 1959 was 420,709. The capital is Libreville (21,565 inhabitants).
Prime Minister. Uon Mba.
High Oommissioner. M. Ristcrl1cci.
The ordinary budget in 1958 balanced nt .I ,92(jm. francs C.F.A., the
1020 THE FRENCH Cm,lMUNITY
In 1959,6 oilwells were in operation. In 1958 imports totalled 112,318

metric tons (7,281m. francs C.F.A.) and exports 1,089,136 metric tons
(8,370u:,. francs C.F.A.).
Libreville and Port Gentil are the main ports. Together with Pointe·
Noire (Gongo), they received 1,778 vessels of 7,491,600 gross tons in Hl57;
merchandise unloaded was 359,000 tons; loaded, 1,014,000 tons.
ThJery, 1'. nnd Dclarozi~re, R., Carte etlmique du Gabon. Paris, 1945
UPPER VOLTA
REPUBLlQUE DE HAUTE·VOLTA
The former territory of Upper Volta on II Dec. 1958 joined the Corn.
the Community by 12 senators. The Republic is administered by a govern·
ment ccuncil of 12 ministers. The national assembly consists of70 members.
A separate colony of Upper Volta was in lIn9 carved out of the colony of
Upper Senegal and Niger, which had been established in 1904. It was
suppressed in 1932 and its territory divided between Ivory Coast, Sudan
and Niger. On 4 Sept. 1947 the Territory of Upper Volta was re.established,
comprising the area ofthc old colony of Upper Volta as at 5 Sept. 1932.
The Rcpublic covers an area of 274,122 sq. km; population (1957)
3,226,000, including 3,700 Europeans or assimilated. Bobo·Dioulasso
(41,700 inhabitants, of whom 1,600 Europeans) and Ouagadougou, the
capital (47,500 inhabit.ants, of whom 1,100 Europeans) are communes de
plein e: ~ercice. The principal a utochthonous tribe are the Mossi (about
1·6ru.).
Pre..<icient of the Council. MaUl'ice Yameogo.
Higi~ Commissioner. Paul Masson.
The local budget for 1958 balanced at 4,081ru. francs C.F.A., of which
538m. francs was on the extraordinary budget.
Tbere were, in 1957, U:l publio clementary schools, with 17,938 pupils,
91 private elementary schools with 13,787 pupils, 5 public secondary scho(>18
with 717 pupils, 6 private secondary schools with 477 pupils, 9 public tech·
nical schools with 344 pupilEl and 7 private technical richools with 275 pupils.
A 4·year plan (1953-57) has bcen formulated to develop the territory.
Alroady 140 barrages have been constructed aud more aro bcing built to
facilitate irrigation and bring fresh fish to everyone. Deposits of manganesc,
copper, gold and diamonds are being prospected.
Production in 1955 included (in metric tons): Millet (215,63:;), sorghum
(394,750), maize (70,680), ricc (17,848), yam (100,200) I\nd kariw (30,690).
Rice, cc-tton and groundnut.s are of increasing importance.
Livestock (1956) : 1,580,000 cat.tie, 2,120,000 sheep and goats, 66,400
horoes, 137,000 donkeys.
In 1!)57 imports totalled 16,G91 metric tOilS (1,612m. francs C.F.A.), and
exports, 30,849 metric tons (896m. francs C.F.A.). The principal exports
were livestock, fish and decorticated groundnuts. More than four· fifths of
the exports went to Ghana.
Ouagadougou is the terminus of t.he Abidjan-Niger railway. The rc-ad
system '}omprisee over 13,000 km, of which 6,000 km are all· weather roads.
Ouagad.)ugou and Bobo·Dioulasso are reg ul arly served by Frcnch airlin()~.
Thore were, in 1956, 40 post offi()es.
In D56. 21 savings banks had 4,524 depositors with 126,097,000 fran cs
C.F.A. 1.0 their crcdit.
MADAGASCAR 1021
MADAGASCAR
REPUIlLIQUE MALO ACHE
Madag'lscar 'Ima originally discovered by the Portuguese, Diego Diaz, in
1500. OH the return of Diaz to Portugal the King concluded that thfl
island must be Madagascar, about, whieh he had read in Marco Polo's
• Voyages.' Polo, how(lver, hr.d nd been there, but believing hi8 Arab
inf()rmants, ascribed to an island what was really the kingdom of McgadislJ(l,
on the Mst coast of Africa. Mispronouncing and mis·spelling the name, he
coined the word Madagascar, by which name it has been known ever $ince.
The last native sov(lreign in Madagascar, Queen RimavAlona III (born
1851, died 1916), succeeded in 1883. The French claimed a portion of the
llfJrth,west coast as having been transferred to them by local chiefs, and
hostilities wore carried on ill 188Z-84 against the Merina, who refused to
recognize the cession. Iu 1885 peace was made, Diego·Suarez having
been surrendered to ))·mnce. By the agreement of 5 Aug. 1890 the pro·
tectorate of France over Madagascar was recognized by Great Britain;
but the nativ~ government refusod to carry out the clauses of the t,reaty
of 1885, and a French expedition 'was dispatched in May 1895 to enforce
(be claims of France, nnd on 1 Oct. a treaty was signed whereby the Queen
accepted the protectorate. In 1896 Diego.Suarez and the islands of Nossi·
Be on the west coast (130 sq. miles) and Sainte·l\1arie on the east coast (64
sq. miles) were placed under the authorit,y of the governor·general of
Madagascar. By a law promulgated 6 Aug. 1896 the island and its depen.
dencies were declared a French colonv.
On 14-15 Oct. 1958 the annexation law of 1896 woe abrog'tted and
on 19 Oct. Madagascar was proclaimed a member state of the Community.
On 4 April 1960 Madagascar became an independent state wit,hin thc
Community.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution of the
republic was promulgated on 28 April 1959. It provides for a national
assembly of 90 members and a senate of 37 members. The government
consists of a president and 19 ministers a11<.1 secretaries of state.
President of the R epublic. Philibert Tsiranana.
High Commissioner General. Andre Soucadaux.
The republic is divided into the 6 provinces of Fianarantsoa, l\1(tjunga,
TamatavE', Difigo.Suarez, Tul"ar and Tananarive. Each province is under
the supervision of a specially delegated secretary of state. The pro\'inces
are subdivided into districts, the districts into cantons. Each canton
comprises a nnmber of communes which correspond to the traditional
fokonolona.
Madagl1scar is represented in tile Senate of the Community by li
senators.
National flag: white (vertical), green and red (horizontal).
National anthem: Ry tanindrazanay malala 6!
AREA AND POPULATION. lIfad"gascar is mtuatcd olfthe south·Emst
coa~t of Africa, from which it is separated by the Mo~ambiqu() Channel, the
least distance between island and continent being :HO miles; its length is
980 miles; greatest, breadth, 360 miles. The area is fstimnted at 5HZ,OOO
sq, km. In 1958 tho population (excluding thn.t of the Coruoro islands)
was 6,070,806, of whom 6!l,6OS "'Ne Fl'ench and aS3imilated, and :?5,800
foreigners.
The Malagasy races or tribes are very numerous, the more important
being the Hova (1,188,000), the Betsimisaraka (728,000), the Betsileo
(576,000), the Tsimihety (350,OOO), the Sakalava (290,000), the Antaisaka
(300,000) and the Antandroy (280,000). Hindus, Chinese, Arabs and other
Asiaties carry on small retail trade. The language of the Hova or Merina,
allied tu the Malayan and Oceanic tongues is understood over a large part
of the i:lland.
Pop'llat,ion of the provinces (census 1958): Dil~go.SuaTez, 389,543;
Fia narantsoa, 1,342,750; Majunga,646,833; Tamatave, 808,634; Tanana-
rive, 1, :1 60,322; Tuiear, 843,003.
Vital statistics, 1957 : Births, 3,431 non.natives, 170,865 natives;
deaths, 695 Europeans, 69,085 natives.
The populations of the chief towns were, in 1\)59, the capital, Tananarive,
206,324; Majunga, 51,687; Tamatave, 48,627; Fianarantsoa, 32,782;
Diego·Suarez, 37,221; Tulear, 28,785.
REJ.IGION. Since 1895 a large portion of the Merina and other tribel
in the cl>ntral districts have been Christianized. There are ma.ny missiona.ry
locietiee at work, French (Catholic and Protestant), British (the London
Mi88ionnry Society, the Friends' ~1ission and the Anglican Mission), a
Norwegi.an Lutheran Mission and a.n American Mission. The Society of
Friends had 7,700 members in 1957. There are 4,080 Roman Catholic
churchM, 3,586 Protestant churches a.nd 75 mosques. The outlying tribes
are still mostly heathen.
EDUCA TION. Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 years of age in the
primary schooIa. In 1958 there were 1,437 public primary schools (201,900
pupils) (md 784 private 6chooIa (l08,835 pupils). There are also at Tanana-
rive 2 lycee4 (1 for boys, 1 for girls), a co·educational high school, a technical
college v,nd 4 private sccondary schooIa. At Tananarive there are schooIa of
medicin", law and administration, including a special section for training
natives :'or the various public services, science and arts courses, and a school
for appLed arts. In 1958 the secondaryechooIa had a total of 17,487 pupils,
the technical schools, 6,708, and the high schools, 562. Colleges have been
established in every provincial capital.
There are also 4 agricultural schools, at Nanisana, Ambatondrazaka,
lIfarovo!,y and Ivoloina, and an agricultural college at Tananarive.
FIN,\NCE. The local revenue is derived chiefly from direct taxation
(including a poll tax and taxes on land, cattle and houses), from customs and
other indirect taxes, from territorial lands, from posts and telegraphs, mar·
kets and miscellaneous sources. The chief branches of expenditure are
general administration, public works, health services, education, the post
office an:l t,he public debt. The general budget for 19159 balanced at 13.75Sm.
francs C.F .A.; the provincial budgets at 13,381m. francs C.F.A. A large
part of ',he expenditures is covered by grants from the Fund for economio
and social investments and equipment (F.I.D.E.S.), which in 1955-56
amountf,d to 4,650m. francs C.F .A.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In 1896, on the completion of the French

occupation, the Malagasy system of land tenure was modified 011 the model
of the Torrens Act of Australia. A decree issued in 1926 specifics tha.t
the State is presumed to be the owner of any land not under cultivation,
MADAGASCAR 1023
exploited or put under registration. In 1929 there was issued a new regu·
lation concerning the native property and providing reserved zones for the
local communities. The principal agricultural products in 1958 were (in
1,000 metric tons): Manioc, 755; rice, 1,160; maize, 73; bat.ata, 82;
vanilla,0'46; coffee,57; groundnuts,31; sugar cano, 751; peanuts, 14·6;
sisal, 12; raffia, 5·66.
Cattle breeding and agriculture are the cbief occupatioDs of the nath·es.
There were, in 1955, 6m. cattle, 266,000 pigs, 342,000 sheep and 450,000
goats.
Forestry. The forests contain many valuable woods, while gum, resins
and plants for tanning, dyeing and medicinal purposes abound.
Mining. Exports of minerals in 1958 included graphite (11,100 metric
tons) accounting for 247m. francs and mica (839 metric tons) for 194m.
francs. Madagn.scar also produced, in 1958,22 metric tons of quartz, 163'5
metric tons of beryl, 13·1 metric tons of columbiulU.
IndU8try . Silk and cotton weaving are carried on (including a large
cotton-weaving plant in Antsirabe), and the working of metal and the making
of panama and other straw hats. The preparation of suga.r, rice, soap,
tapioca, etc., is being undertaken by Europeans, as well as the canning of
meat. There are large meat-preserving factories at Boanamary (Majunga).
Diego-Suarez. Tamatave, Tananarive and Antsirabe.
COMMERCE. Trade in 1,000 metric tons and Im. francs C.F.A.:

19~G 1~:;7 1908
Quantity Valut' Qu(mti(!I l"tllll~ Qu(t-ni itV VaJu.
Imports 427,601 23,O~·1-4 468,"'6 26,157·3 3tl9.l15 ~6951:11 ' 4
Exports 226,408 16,301)'0 226,2i>:? 16,234 '0 283,092 20,300' 7
In 1957 metropolitan France supplied 71 '7%, in value, of the imports;

France Overseas, 5'3%; U.S.A.,3·4% ; U.K ,. 1 ·6%; metropolitan France
rer.oived 58'7% of the exports ; France Overseas, 12'3%; U.S.A ., 18'5%;
U.K ., 2'1% .
In 1957, the chief imports (in lm. francs C.F.A.) were: Metal ware, 2,864;
vehicles. 2,910; chemicals, 2,186; machinery, 1,749; text.iles, 1,761;
cotton goods, 1,575; iron bars, 1,7·19; foodstuffs, 2.476. The chief exports
in 1958 were: Coffee, 7,987; cloves, 859; tobacco, 1,023; rice, 1 ,'J98;
vanilla, 1,474.
'fotal trade between Madagascar and the United Kingdom (British
Board of Trade ret.urns, in £ sterling) :
1955 1956 19~7 1958 1959
Imports to n.K. ] ,O~J2.281 98R, 78~ 1,188,440 723,532 806,944
Exports from U.K . . 5&9.260 641,631 677.860 ;52,1 3,[ 681,618
Re-exports from U. K. 6,181 1l,4ht 13,226 IU,662 7,382
COMMUNICA TIONS . Shipping. Tamatave, l\1ajunga, Tulear and

Dirgo-fiuarez are the principal ports. In 1957, 5,655 vessel~ entered,loading
421,000 metric tons and unlllading 710,000 metric tons of cargo.
Railways. Four railways are operating in Madagascar, namely: be.
tween Tanauarive and Tamatave (373 kw); between Tananarjve and
.Antsirabe (noted for its thermal springs), 158 km; the branch line of the
Tamatave railway, from Moramanga to Lake Alaotra (168 km), and the
line from Fianarantsoa to the east coast 1165 km).
lO24 THE FRENCH COMMUNITY
Roa.14. At the end of 1956 there were about 31,750 km ofroads suitable
for motor traffic, of which 26,000 km are practicable all the year round.
There iI, a motor· car service with a network of routes covering about 2,220
km. Motor vehicles registered at 31 Dec. 1957 included 14,261 passenger
cars, 487 buses, 1,223 commercial vehicles, 14,293 lorries, 728 tractors and
3,326 Itl otor cycles.
Post . There were in 1\),)7, 202 post offices und 168 wireless telegmph
st:ttions. The telegraph line h:18 a length of 14,222 km. There is a cable
communic:>tion to Mauritius, Reunion and Aden. There were (19.56) 14,608
km of tdephone line and (J959) 12,509 telephone subscribers. A telcphone
line, 1'ananarive-Paris, was opened to the public on 27 April 1951.
AviGtion. Five airlines connect Tananarive with Paris (via Entehhe,
Cairo; Nairobi, Cairo; Nairobi, Cairo, Rome; Djibouti, Cairo, Marseille;
Djibouti, Beirut, Marseillc). Eighteen weekly services connect the capital
with the ports and the chief inland towns. The main airfields are at
Ari voni l1ano, Tamatave, Tul e:1r and Majunga. In 19.~8, 12,763 passengers
urrived at, and 12,450 departed from, Tananarive.
MONEY AND BANKING. Bya decree of 22 Dec. 1925 the Ban que
d" Madagascar et des Co mores was established as a bank of issue with (1956)
a capit"j of HIm. francs. It has a branch at Tananarive and agencies
at Diegq·Suarez, Fianarantsoa, Fort Dauphin, Majunga, Manakara, Moroni,
Mananjary, Nossj.Be, Tamatave and Tulear. The Comptoir National
d'Esl'omptfl de Paris has a branch at Tananarive, and agencies at Tamata'l'c,
Majung;~, Fianarantsoa, Morombe, Manakara, Morondava, Diego·Suarez,
Mananjary and TuJear. The Ban que Nationale pour le Commerce et
I'Industrie has 11 agencies in the island. The :l!'ranco·Chinese Bank has a
branch at Tananarive. The savings bank had, at 31 Dec. 1957, 50,969
depositors with 642m. francs C.F.A. to their credit.
The monetary system is the same as that of France. The Malagasy
franc (fl'anc C.F.A.) = 2 metropolitan francs (from 18 Oct. 1948).
Brit'sh COlUlul·General (Tananarive). A. J. Ronalds, O.B.E. There is a
cousula:' representative at Tamatave.
U.S.A. Consul. J. Roland Jacobs.
Books of Reference
SUTlf:TICAL INl'ORI.!ATlOl'. The Service de StutisUqu. nM~rale in Tal:anariv. publish.
the Bulle'in men..uel de MadagaJ(a' (from Oct. 1065); continuation of the !.rime.trial BIIJ/etin
de.ttati.ti"ue glnl,ate (19t9-54». the trimll.qtrlai Ret'IU de Mad,Ujaua" the "Mu/l1 JfaJ,u;",,=
a trave,,, Uj provinces (latest issue, 1953), and t.he &nnuaire .')Ullijtique de Madaga.~ca, (V'ol. I,
1938-51. publi.hed 1953).
Bullet;n de /'.d eadhnie J( algae", (Crorn 1902)
.4nnale$ (jr~olOfJiqut.( du .~et'Vit:e de,( j f itle$.-C{J1'tc gloio,]iqut de AIadaga3car. Tananarive. 1938
Carte ,outiere ~ )fadagascar. Tananarivc,lU3S
Reeherehe ag,QnomiqUt! tU Mad.ag""ro,. Ttullillarive. 1952
Chapman. Olive M.• Aero.u MaJ,u;(Ue/l,. London. 1943
Chevalier, L. t j/adQ.IJQ,.Scar, popuialions et rtsOttfct.f . Paris. 1952
D.odou"" nnd Chapu •. G. S., lii"o',. d" Pop"lOli"", tU MadMa.scar. Pari., 1952
Faublt-e, .T ., Elhuographie tk Madagascar. Parj~t HH6
~'razer, Sir .TRllle,. T.~. NOlive Rare, 0/ Af,ica anil J/"'/<Ujll..ear. London. 1938
Granctidi<r, A.• nibliog,aphi, tU Aftul/lgasca, (1.;00-1933). 3 vols. Paris, 1935
LacroLt, /~a Miner((logie de JiadQ9'lScar. 3 vol:;;. l!aris,1922,192l
LauDoi8, ? , Madagascar hier et aujourd'lmi. Paris, 1947
j f adagasca, Rncycloptd;e. 2 vols. 1947
f;aron, G., MadWJascar elle., Comort&. Puris, 19~3
MAURITANIA 1025
MAURITANIA
REPUBLIQUE ISLAMIQUE DE MAURITANIE
The former territory of Mauritania on 28 Nov. 1958 joined the Com-
the Community by 3 senators.
The Itepublic consists of the 11 districts of Assaba, Brakna, Gorgol,
Guiclimaka, Adrar, \Vestern and Eastern Hodh, Inchiri, Levrier Bay, Traza
and Tagant, with a total area of 1,08,;'805 sq. km.
The population (1954) includes 465,900 Moors, 49,200 Toucouleurs, 24,000
SarakoIles, 24,100 Peulhs, 1,100 Bambaras, 1,500 Ouolofs, 550 metropolitan
French, 239 Canary islanders; tot.al (1957), 624,000. Kaedi (8,500 inhabi-
tants), Atar (4,200), Ro~so (2,300) and Port-Etienne (1,200) are the principal
towns_ Nouakchott is the capitaL
The Republic is administered by a government council of 8 ministers.
The national assembly consists of 34 members, elected by universal suffrage
on a single roll.
Prime Minister. Mocktar ould Dadd ah.
High Commission er. Pierre Anthonioz.
The ordinary hudget for 1958 balanced at 1,49Im. francs C.F.A., the
extraorclinary budget at 136m. francs C.F.A.
There were, in f956, 73 primary schools with 5,.540 pupils and 2 secondary
schools with 243 pupils. There are 34 medical centres.
Chief products Ilre cattle, gum, salt" nieM (a kind of haricot), beref (cil-
rullu& vulgari8), and dried and salted fish. Huge deposits of iron ore (Fort
Gouraud; estimated at 215111. tons) and copper (Akjoujt) are to be exploited.
In 1956 there were 297,000 camels, 887,000 cattle, 166,000 asses and
horses, 5,468,000 sbeep and goats. Annual yield of millet, 100,000 tons;
dates, 10,000 tons; maize, 6,000 tons.
There is a chamber of commerce for Western Mauritania in Atar.
There were, in 1956, 25 post offices.
NIGER
REPuBLIQuE nu NIOER
The former territory of the Niger on 18 Dec. 1958 joined the Community
as a member state. The Republic is represented in the Senate of the
Community hy (J senators.
Area, 1,188,794 sq. km. The territory is divided into 16 districts.
Population (31 Dec. 1(56),3,040 Europeans, 2,412,000 natives. Niamey, a
commune de plein exercice, is the capital (18,600 inhabitants, including 1,374
non -Datives, in 1956). Precipitation determines the geographical division
into a southern zone of agriculture, a central zone of pasturage and a desert·
like northern zone. The country lacks water, with the exception of the
western clistricts, which are watered by the Niger and its tributaries, and the
southern zone, where there ure a number of wells.
The Republic is administered by a government of 10 ministers. The
national assembly consists of 60 members elected by universal suffrage.
President of the Council. Hamani Diori.
High Commissioner. Pierre Colombani.
The ordinary budget for 19.58 balanced at 3,232m. francs C.F.A., the
ext.raordinary budget at 381m. francs.
LL
lO26 THE FRENCH COMMUNITY
There were, in 1957,125 primary schools with lI,S;:;3 pupils, 2 second·

a.ry schools with 442 pupils and a technical school with 33 pupils.
In 1957 there were 86,000 horses, 2·1m. cattle, 5·7m. sheep and goata,
300,000 asses, 250,000 camels.
The native population is composed chiefly of Hausa (Im.), Jerma and
Sanghai. (450,000), Peulh (300,000) and TURrcg (300,000). Tue.v cultivate
millet, !;roundnuts, beans and manioc and, in the river ctistricts, cotton and
rice. Salt and natron are produ('cd at l\'Ianga and Agadez, tin ore (72%) in
Air (78 .netric tons exported in 1956), and gum arabic at Goure (1,000 metric
tons in 1954), nearly all of which are exported t o Nigeria.
Imports in 1957 w ere 36.656 metric tons (1.872m. francs C.F.A.) and
exports 75,146 metric tons (2.601m. francs C.F.A.). of which decorticated
groundnuts accounted for 57.374 tons (Z.097m . francs C.F.A.).
NialOey and Zinder (a commune de nlOyen·exercice ; 13.300 inhabitants in
1955) al:6 the termini of two traus·Sahara motor routes ; tho Hoggar-Air-
Zinder road extends to Kallo and Fort Lamy. Niger territory is also a
favourite resort of hunters of big gRme (lions. elophants. buffalos. muffions.
oryx an:l addax).
There were. in 1!J56, 3;:; post offices.
At ;-Jiancy airport. 1.284 aircra ft disembarkcd and embarked 24.i81
passe ng~rs and 2,402 metric tons of freight and mail in 1957.
In 11l56, 12 savings banks had 3.464 dcpositors with 38.693,000 francs
U"OY. y ,. Hi3loirt de. Popuialion.! du Souoon Central (C% nie du Niger). P..rl •• 1936.-Peli/
.A1la.J ef""o·iUmQ9rapilique du Sou/lan. 1)&k..... 1942.-Da.f3in. du Niqer . Vak ..... 1942
SENEGAL
REPUBLIQUE DU SENEGAL
The former territory of Senegal on 21i Nov. 1958 joined the Community
as a member state. On 4 April 1959 Senegal and Sudan combined in the
'Federation of Mali' (Federation du Mali). The Republic is represented ill
the Sen:1te of the Community by 8 senators.
The Republic has a total area of 197.16J sq. km; the population in 1957
was 2.2139.000. The capital is Dakar. Dakar (population. 1957. 234.500).
Rufisque (49.800), Kaolack (46.800). Saint·Louis (39.800). Thies (39.100).
Ziguinchor (22.700). Diourbel (20.100). Louga and Goree are communes de
plein exercice.
The principal autochthonous tribes are the Ouolofs (about 700,000.
mostly :M:oslems). Bambaras. Mandingos. Peuls (Fuloos) and Toucouleurs.
The Republic is administered by a government council of 11 ministers;
it is ctivided into 12 'circles'. The national assembly consists of 60 members.
elected by universal suffrage.
President oJ the Council. Mamadou Dia.
High Commissioner. Pierre Lami.
The ordinary budget for 1958 balanced at 13,876m. francs C.F.A .• the
extraor(linary budget at 1.068m.
Edu~ation is provided at 2 lycees (at Dakar and Saint· Louis). 6 modern
colleges, 3 techn ical colleges. 3 training centres. 2 ecole8 normalcs. 3 cour,
normarL:e and 255 elementary schools. Total pupils in the elementary
schools in 1957 was 69.966. including 11.335 attending 67 mission schools; in
the sec(.ndary 8chools. 4,560 (of whom 83·1, attend 5 mission colleges); in
SUDAN 1027
tho te('hnical schools and courses, ~,IS3 . The University in Dakar was
established on 24 Feb. 1957, with faculties of law, science, the arts and a
8chool of medicine and pharmacy; it has 498 students.
Tho soil is generally sandy. Livestock (1956): 688,000 sheep and goats,
Im. cattle, 44,000 pigs, 77,000 asses, 6,400 camels and 61,000 horses. The
natives cultivate groundnuts, millet, maize and some rice; other products
are gum and palm.nuts from the Casamance. Yield of groundnuts averages
500,000 metric tons per annum. Daka.r has numerous industrial works.
The production of titanium concentrates in 1958 was 33,567 metric tons.
Product.ion of cement was 158,000 tons in 1957, supplying nearly half the
requirements of French West Africa.
Import~ in 1957 amounted to Si4,SIl metric tons; exports to 706,150
metric tons (including Sudan and Mauritania). The chief imports (in metric
tons) were wheat (105,606), rice (I Il,B61), sugar (72,183), petroleum products
(227,287), cement (27,470), textiles and machinery. The chief exports were
groundnuts (274,287), groundnut oil (97 ,817), oil·cake (136,476) and phos-
phates (72,402).
There were, in 1956, 1I8 post offices.
French cables connect Dakar with Brest, Casablanca and Conakry;
English cables, with British West Africa; and a South American cable, with
Pernambuco.
There are 5 railway lines: Dakar-Koulikoro (1,289 km), Thies-Saint-
Louis (193 km), Guinguineo-Kaolack (22 km), Lougar-Linguere (129 km),
and Diourbel-Touba (46 km).
In 1957,4,936 vessels of 15,229,000 net tons entered the port of Dakar.
In 1957,9,280 aircraft arrived at, and left, Yoff (Dakar), disembarking and
embarking 102,947 passengers and 3,200 metric tons of freight.
There is a river service on the Senegal from Saint-Louis to Podor (140
miles) open throughout the year, and to Kayes (924 km) open from July to
October. The Senegal River is closed to foreign flags. The Saloum River
is navigable as far as Ka.olack, the Casamance River as far as Ziguinchor.
At 31 Dec. 1956, 71 savings banks had 29,579 depositors with 206,211,000
francs C.F.A. to their credit.
British Consul-General. J. A. H . Watson, C.M.G.
U.8 ..4 . Consul-General. Donald A. Dumont.
Gu y-Orand,Didionnaire /ran,ais- volo! et ouoloJ-Jranrau. Dakar, 1923
Trochain, J .. Conlribulion d l'hud. d. la v/gllali ... du Slnlgal. Dakar, 1940
ViIlaru, A., IJistoire du Shllgal. Dakar, 1943
SUDAN
REPUBLlQUE SOUDANAISE
The former territory of French Sudan on 24 Nov. 1958 joined the Com-
munity as a member state. On 4 April 1959 it combined with the Senegal
Republic in the 'Federation of Mali' (Federation du Mali). The Republic
is represented in the Senate of the Community by 13 senators.
The frontiers of the former territory were readjusted in 1904, 1933, 1948
and 1954 (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR. BOOK 19fi9, p. lOll). The Republic
now covers an area of 1,204,021 sq. km, with a population of 3,708.000 in
1957, of whom 7,400 were Europeans. The most densely populated and
richest of the 19 districts are those of San, Mopti, Sikasso, Koutiala, Bamako
and Segou. Bamako, the capital (population, 1957,68,600), Kayes (29,500),
Segou (21,000), Mopti (12,GOO) are communes de plein exercice; Sikasso
(14,000), San (8,000), Tombouctou (7,000) and Gao (6,500) are communes de
mO!len-o'-xercice.
The rcpublic is administered by a government of 12 members_ The
national assembly has 70 members, electcd by universal suffrage.
Pre"ident of the Council. Modibo Keita.
High Commissioner. Jean Sicurani.
The budget for 1958 balanced at 5,818m. francs C.F.A.
There were in 1957,260 elementary schools with 41,205 pupils, 7 second-
ary schools with 1,444 pupils and 19 technical Bchools with !ISI pupils.
Production in 1957 includeu (in 1,000 metric tons) millet and sorghum
(700), l'ice (160), maize (70), groundnuts (130) and cotton (6). In 1956
there were 3·9m. head of cattle, 60,000 horses, 160,000 asses, 5·9m. sheep and
goats aau 78,000 camels.
Important irrigation schemes have been carried out in the Segou and
Mopti districts on the Niger River, of which the Sansanding Barrage is the
centre; 50,000 hectares of cotton and rice lands are being irrigated.
Chi"f imports are foodstuffs, automobiles, petrol, building material,
lugar, .!alt, beer. Chief exports are groundnuts (110,000 metric tons in
1957-5:,), rice (10,000 metric tons), karite (1,500 metric tons), gum (1,700
metric tons), livestock (60,000 oxen, 140,000 sheep and goats), dried fish
(12,000 metric tons) and skins.
French Sudan is connected with the coast by a railway 1,28!J km in
length, stretching from Dakar to Koulikoro by way of Thies, Kayes and
Bamako. For about 7 months in the year small steamboats perform the
service from Koulikoro to Timbuktu anu Gao, and from Bamako to Konr-
rOUBS8..
There are 13,000 km of roads, not all of which are usablo in all seasons;
they include 669 km of the metalled road Dakar-Niger (1,250 km). The
navigahle length of the Nigor in the Sudan is 1,782 km.
Air services connect thf territory with Paris, Dakar and Abidjan. The
chief airport is at Bamako. In 1957, 2,116 aircraft disembarked and em-
barked 28,2i8 passengers and 901 metric tons of freight and mail.
There were, in 1956, 58 post offices.
Wireless telegraph connects Bamako with Paris.
On 31 Dec. 1956 there were 44 branches of the savings bank with 11,188
depositors having 121m. francs C.F.A. to their credit.
There are chambers of commerce in Bamako and Kayes.
Spit7" G., St'ltJdan Fran~aiJ. Paris, 1956
CHAD
REPUBLIQUE DU T CHAD
The former territory of Chad on 28 Nov. 1958 joined the Community
as a SEparate member st.ate and in Jan. 1959 formed an 'economic and
technical union' with the 3 other territories of the former government-general
of French Equatorial Africa. The Republic is represented in the Senate
of the Community by 9 senators.
The area of the Chad Republic covers 1,284,000 sq. km; its population
in 195,' consisted of 2,576,200 Africans (1,256,000 male, 1,320,200 female)
and 4,580 Europeans (2,265 male, 1,915 female). The capital is Fort Lamy.
Prime .1Ifinister. Fran90is Tombalbaye.
High Commissioner. Daniel Doustin.
TOGOLA...'ID 1029
The ordinary budget in 1958 balanced at 2,447m. francs C.F.A., the
Cotton and animal husbandry are the most important industries.
STATES FORMERLY UNDER TRUSTEESIDP

TOGOLAND
REPUBLNUE DU TOGO
Togo lies betwecn Ghana on the west and Dahomey on the east. It W&8
surrendered unconditionally by the Germans to British and French forcea
in Aug. 1914. and was subsequently divided between the Fren.:h and British.
The mandate, approved by the League of Nations on 20 July 1922. W&8
transformed into a territory under trusteeship on 14 Dec. 1946. when the
United Nations sanctioned t·he French agreement.
On 28 Oct. 1956 a plebiscite was held to determine the st,~tus of the
territory. Out of 438.175 registered voters, 313,458 voted for an autonomous
republic witbin the French UnioD and the end of the trusteeship system.
On 14 Nov. 1958 the general assem bly of the United Nations accepted
unanimously the French-Togolese proposal that the trusteeship should be
abolished on the achievement of independence in 1960.
Independence was proclaimed on 27 April 1960. The Republic of Tog').
land is governed by a council of ministers, re.~ponsible to the Chamber of
Deputies of 46 members, which is elect.ed by universal suffrage for a 5.year
term.
Prime Minister. Sylvallus Oly mpio.
High Commi88icm.er. Gcorge Spenalc.
Area, about 50,000 sq. km. The population of Togo at the end of 1905
was 1,089,877 Africans and 1,277 Europeans. The capital is Lome (popula-
tion. in 1958,64,000 Africans and 1,000 Europeans). Lome, Anooho, Palime,
Bassari, Atakpame, Sokode and Tscvie are communes de plein exercice.
Administratively, Togoland is divided into 10 districts, which are
named after the principal towns of Lome, Tsevi6, Palirue, Auecho, Atak-
pame, Sokode, Lama-Kara, Bassari, Mango and Dapango.
The ordinary budget for 1969 provided for 2,125m. francs C.F.A. of
revenue and envisaged expenditures of 2,550m. fra ncs C.F.A.
The southern part of Togoland is peopled by natives using several
different languages, of which the principal are Ewe and Mina; these may be
regarded as P.D offshoot of the B::mtll peoples. The northcrn half contains,
ethnologically, a t otally different population descended largely from Hamitic
tribes and speaking a fairly large number of different languages, of which
Dagomba, Tim and Cabrai~ are tbe most important. The majority of the
natives are pagans, but some profess Muhammooanism, while Christianity
has been making some progress in the coast districts. By 1955, 145,846
natives had adopted the Roman Catholic and 33,125 the Prl)testant faith.
In 1959 there were 1.391 primary classes with 78,689 pupils, 74 secondary
classes with 1,<'>47 pupi13 and 25 technical cla~ses with 600 pupils; 134
Togolese scholarship students were studying at French universities.
Inland the country is hilly, rising to 3,600 ft, with streams and water·
Calb. There are long stretches of forest and brushwtlod, whilo dry plains
alternate with ara ble land. Maize, yams, cassava, plantains, groundnuts,
1030 TOGOLAND
etc., ar,~ cultivated by the natives; oil palms and dye· woods grow in tho
forests; but the main commerce is bttsed on coffee, cocoa, palm.oil, palm.
kernels, copra, groundnuts, cotton, manioc. There are considerable planta.
tions of oil and cocoa palms, coffee, cacao, kola and cassada. During recent
years the natives have been increasingly engaged in the culti vation of cocoa
and cotton. Exports in 1958 were (in metric tons): Cocoa, 6,917; cotton,
1,748; coffee, 4,562; palm.kernels, 12,057; palm. oil, 625; groundnuts,
3,445; manioc tiour, 2,546; manioc starch, 4,145 ; corra,2,998. Native
inuustres are weaving, pottery, smith·work, stmw'pbiting, wood. cutting,
etc.
A Mines Department was set up in 1953 aftcr the discovery of very rich
deposita of phosphates and bauxite. An annual output of up t o Im. tons
of 80% tricalcite phosphates is being envisaged.
Liv(,stock (1955): Cattle, 117,041; sheep, 302,G09; swine, 226,522;
horses, 938; asses, 3,552; goats, 252,000.
1956 1957 1958
Im. Jm. Im.
Me"lc /cmo francI MtlriclQnJ IranCl M tlri< ton. jranCl
Imports 69,9~O 2.688 71,267 2.288 79,888 3,176
Exports 45,820 2,338 '3,181 2,164 47.338 3,157
In J 9G8, Togoland exported to the U.K. goods valued £48,0()2 (1959,

£47,742), and imported from the U.K. goods valued at £364,170 (1959,
£348,397); re.exports, 1958, £707; 1959, £62.
There were, in 1957,2,946 km of roads. There are 3 railways connecting
Lome with Anecho, Palime and Blittll; total, 443 km. There were (1956)
17 post offices and 14 postalllgcncics. Togo is connect.ed by telegraph and
telephone with Ghana, Dahomey, A\)idjan and Dab., (Lnd by t elegraph with
Europe.
A s;\vings bank was opened on I April 1953; at 31 Dec. 1955 it had
3,337 d'3positors with 48,656,000 francs U.F.A. to their credit.
In 1957,274 vcsseh landed 56,274 metric tons and cleared 42,787 metrio
tons at Lome.
Air services connect Lom6 with Paris, Dakar, Abidjan, Douala, Accra
and Lagos.
British Vice· Consul. P. M. G. Ward.
U.S.A . Consul. J esse M. McKnight.
Corne~ i n, R., Hi,/oire du Togo. Parls, 1959
CAMEROON
The former German colony of Kamenm was occupied by French and
British troops in 1916. The greater portion of the territory was in 1919
placed under French administration, namely 432,000 sq. km, excluding
the ter':'itory ceded to Germany in 1911, which reverted to French Equa.
wrial Africa. Population at 31 Dec. 1957 was 3,223,000; Europeans, 16,382.
The portion of Cameroon under French trusteeship was granted full in·
ternal autonomy on 1 Jan. 1959 and complete independence was proclaimed
on I Jan. 1960.
The constitution of the republic was approved on 21 Feb. 1960 by
797,4% to 531,075 votes. It provides for a President, a government led
by a Prime Minister, and an Assembly of 100 elected by universal suffrage
for 5 years.
CAMEROON 1031
Prime Minister. Ahmadou Ahidjo.

High Commissioner. Xavier T orre.
The seat of government is Yaoun de (population. 1957,53,833); Douala
(118,857), Yaound6, Nkongsamba (31,991), Edeah (12,000), Mbalmayo
(5,500), Sangmelima (7,500), Ebolowa (11 ,000), Kribi (7,000), Garoua
(15,000) are communea urbaines de plein exercice.
The budget for 1967 balanced at 11,679,250,000 francs C.F.A.
Education (31 Dec. 1957) : 649 public primary schools with 1,839 tcachel'1!
&nd 89,309 pupils; 18 public secondary schools with 84 teachers and 3.144
pupils; 34 technical public schools with 1.732 pupilll and 106 teachere;
1.814 private primary schools with 4.324 teachers and 294,000 pupils; 31
secondary private 8chools with 122 teachers and 2,981 pupils; 28 private
technical 8chools with 2,598 pupils.
Production. 1958 (in 1,000 metric tons): Cassava. 650 ; bananas. 500;
taro,410; millet and sorghum, 368; yams, 173; maize. 122; palm-kernels,
90; groundnuts. 72 ; cocoa, 67; coffee. 22; cotton. 7. Livestock. 1958
(1.000 head): Cattle, 1,295 ; goats, 1,000; sheep, 530.
Aluminium output in 1958 \t'as 34.723 short t ons.
Foreign Trade (ill 1,000 metric tons and Im. francs C.F .A.):
1055 19~6 1967
quant"" Valut Quantity Volru quanlilv Valu
Import. 352 ·5 20,552 361-) 18,983 371·5 20,223
Ibp<>rta 364·3 18,221 326·6 14,480 861·7 16,004
The principal exports (1957) were (in 1,000 metric tons): Cocoa, 53'5;
palm-kernels, 13'9; coffee, 16·9; rubber, 3·1; bananas,85'2: groundnubl,
7·7 : ginned cott.on. 5·7: t·imber, 84'5; palm.oil,55.
In 1957,57'6% of the exports went to, and 6a'2% of the imports came
from, France. By value, cocoa accounted for 38·4% of all exports, coffee
for 18'7% , b ananas for 9·2%, cotton for 5·2%. Principal imports are beer
and wine, wheat flour, dried fish, sugar and rice.
Trade with the U.K.: Imports, 1!}()6, £510,339; 1957, £518,365; 1958,
£367,948; 1959, £629,146; exports, 1956, £789,496; 1957, £687,417; 1958,
£901,410; 1959, £636,783 ; ro·exports,1956, £17,171; 1957. £14,579; 1958,
£12,520; 1959, £12,956.
In 1957, 676 ve88eIs landed 405,000 tons and cleared 347,000 tons a'
DOllala; 5,595 passengers arrived at Douala and 5,237 embarked. 6,317
r.ircraft, carrying 59,334 passengers, 9,761 t.ons of freight tollchcd Douala
airport. There are 8 more airports.
At 31 Dec. 1955 savings banks had 11,621 deposit.ors with 152n1. francs
C.l<'.A. to their credit.
The country has 8,8()0 km of roads and 520 km of railway. There were
(1957) 86 post offices and 6 post..1 agencies; telephone lines, 2,677 km;
telephones 4,243; radio stations, 36.
British Ambassador. P. i\L J ohnstoll . Fi" st Secretary and COl/ suI. }'. G.
Best.a ll.
U.S. A . Consul. General. Bolard More.
Books of Reference
STATlSTlOAL IIlF<>RMATlON. The oemce de 'a Statlstlque G~nUeJe. a~ D<>"ala. se, up iD
1945, publi8hes a m<>DtbJy bulletin (from Nov. 1950)
Rapport annuel a l'OrquntJalion tU! J.V41ion! DnieJ
C4mntrU'n-Tog(J-R~'fJlle. Publ. Editioll.9 de l'U nion Frant;'-aise
1032 GERMANY
Boucbaud. J., HiI,o;,.. ' O'.,.Gphi. all CGmffO"" .....

1944
r714""'" IrGn~u. Ne.. od. Douala,
Lambezat, B., Cameroun. Parts, 19401
Cam.,oun 1956. Paris, 19~6
ANGLO-FRENCH CONDOMINIUM
NEW HEBRIDES, See p. 568.
GERMANY
SINCE the unconditional surrender of the German armed forces on 8 May
1945 th"re has been no central authority whose writ runs in the whole of
Germany. Consequently no peace treaty has been signed with a govern·
ment representing the whole of Germany, and the country is virtually
partitioned between West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) and
East Germany (German Democratic Republic).
By tile Berlin Declaration of /) June 1945 the governments of the U.S.A.,
the U.K., the Soviet Union and France assumed supreme authority with
respect 1;0 Germany. Each of the 4 signatories was given a zone of occupa-
tion, in which the supreme power was to be exercised by the C.-in-C. in that
zone (see map in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1947). Jointly these 4
Cs.-in-C. constituted the Allied Control Council in Bcrlin, which was to be
competent in all • matters affecting Germany as a whole.' The territory of
Greater Berlin, divided into 4 sectors, was to be governed as an entity by the
4 occupying powers. The Allied Control Council, however, soon ceased to
co-opers.te effectively and in March 1948 altogether ceascd to function.
The agreements betwecn the war-time allies concerning the occupation
zones (12 Sept. 1944) and control of Germany (ll\1ay 1945) were repudiated
by the V.S.S.R. on 27 Nov. 1958.
On n April 1949 Bome minor frontier rectifications were carried out in
favour (,f the Netherlands (68 sq. km), Belgium (18 sq. km), Luxembourg
(6 sq. km) and }'rance (7 sq. km), subject to a final peace settlement. Belgium
returner. most of this territory to Germany in exchange for some minor
frontier rectifications (agreement signed on 24 Sept. 1956).
At the Potsdam Conference (17 July-2 Aug. 1945) the northern part of
the Pro,ince of East Prussia, including its capital Konigsberg (renamed
Kaliningrad), was transferred to the Soviet Union, pending final ratification
by a peace treaty; and it was agreed that, pending the final peace settlement
Poland should admini ~ter those parts of Germany lying east of a line
running from the Baltic Sea immediately west of Swinemiinde nlong the
river OC:.er to its confluence with the Western Neisse and thence along the
Western Neisse to the Czechoslovak frontier.
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Bu::mERREPUBLlK DEUTSCHLAND
The Federal Republic of Germnny became a sovereign independent
country on 5 May 1955. As a member of the Council of Europe, Western
Europea,n Union, NATO, the European Coal and Steel Community, the
European Payments Union and the Specialized Agencies of the United
GERMANY 1033
Nations, the Federal Republic claims to speak and act on behalf ofthe whole
German people.
In June 1948 the U.S., the U.K. and France agreed on a central govern.
ment for the 3 western zones. An Occupation Statute, which came into
force on 21 Sept. 1949, reduced and defined the responsibilities of the
occupation authorities. Formally, the Federal Republic of Germany came
into existence on 21 Sept. 1949. The Petersberg Agreement of 22 Nov.
1949 freed the Federal Republic of numerous restrictions of the Occupation
Statute and authorized the Federal Republic to become a member of inter.
national organizations and to establish consular relations with foreign
countries. In 1951 the U.S.A., the U.K. and France as well as other states
terminated the state of war with Germany; the Soviet Union followed on
25 Jan. 1955. On 5 May 1955 the High Commissioners of the U.S., the U.K.
and France signed a proclamation revoking the Occupation Statute. On
the same day, the Paris and London treatie~, signed in Oct. 1954, came into
force and established the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany.
CONSTITUTION. The Constituent Assembly (known as the' Parlia.

mentary Coullcil') met in Bonn on 1 Sept. 1948, and worked out a Basio
Law which was approved by a two·thirds majority of the parliaments of
the participating Lander and came into force on 23 May 1949.
The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) consists of a preamble and 146 articles.
The first section deals with the basic rights which are legally binding for
legislation, administration and jurisdiction.
The Federal Republic of Germany is So democratic and social federal
state. The federal flag is black, red and gold. For the time being the
Basic Law applies to the Lander Baden-Wiirttemberg, Bavaria, Bremen,
Greater Berlin (temporarily suspended), Hamburg, Hesse, Lower Saxony,
North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saarland and SchIeswig-
Holstein. The Basic Law decrees that the general rules of international law
form part of the federal law. The constitutions ofthe Lander must conform
to the principles of a republican, democratic and social state based on the
rule of law. Executive power is vested in the Lander, unless the Basio
Law prescribes or permits otherwise. Federal law supersedes Land law.
The organs of the Federal Republic ar,,:
The Federal Diet (Bundutag), elected in universal, direct, free, equal and
secret election~ for a term of 4 yea rs.
The Federal Council (Bundesrat), consisting of members of the govern·
ments of tho Lander. Each Land has at least 3 votes. Lander with more
than 2m. inhabitants have 4, Lander with more than 6m. inhabitants have
5 votes.
The Federal President (Bundespriisident) is elected by the Federal
Assembly for a term of 5 years and represents the Federal Republic in
international relations. Re·election is admissible only once.
The Federal Assembly consists of the members of the Federal Diet and
an equal number of members elected by the popular representative bodie8
of the Lander according to the principles of proportional representation.
The Federal Government consists of the Federal Chancellor. elected by
the Federal Diet on the proposal of the Federal President, and the F ederal
Ministers, who are appointed and dismissed by the Federal President upon
the proposal of th(\ Federal Chancellor.
The Federal Republic has exclusive legislation 011: (1) foreign affairs;
(2) federal citizenship; (3) freedom of movement, passports, immigratioll
1034 GERMANY
and emigration, and extradition; (4) currency. money and coinage. weights
and measures. and regulation of time and calendar; (5) customs, com-
mercial and navigation agreements, traffio in goods and payments with
foreign countries, including customs and frontier proteotion; (6) federal
railwaJ's and air traffic; (7) post and telecommunications; (8) the legal
,tatus of persons in the employment of the :Federation and of public law
corporations under direct supervision of the Federal Government; (9)
trade :llarks, copyright and publishing rights; (10) co.operation of the
Federal Republic and the Lander in the criminal police and in matters
concerning the protection of the constitution, the establishment of a Federal
Office I)f Criminal Police. as well as the combating of international crime;
(11) feeleral statistics.
FOl concurrent legislation in which the Lander have legislative rights if
and as far as the Federal Republic does not exercise its legislative powers,
lee TH : ~ SUTESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK. 1956, p. 1038.
Fee.era.! laws are passed by the Federal Dil't and after their adoption
submitted to the Federal Council, which has a limited veto. The Basic
Law may be amendod only upon tbe approval of two· thirds of the members
of the :8'ederal Diet and two· thirds of the votes of the Federal Council.
Th(, foreign service, federal finance, railways, postal services, waterway'
and ab .pping are under direct federal administration.
In the field of finance the Federal Republic has exclusivo legislation on
customs and financial monopolies and concurrent legislation on: (1) excise
taxes and taxes on transactions, in particular, taxes on real·estate acquisi.
tion, incremental value and on fire protection; (2) taxes on income, property,
inherit.mce and donations; (3) real estate, industrial and trade taxes, with
the exception of the determining of the tax rates.
Customs, the yield of monopolies, excise taxes with the exception of
the be"r tax, the transportation tax, the turnover tax and property dues
serving non·recurrent purposes !\Ccrue to the Federal Repuhlic. The :Federal
Repubiic can by federal law, claim part of the income and corporation
taxes to cover its expenditures not covered by other revenues. The final
distriblltion of the taxes subject to concurrent legislation between the
Federal Republic and the Lander must be effected not later than 31 Dec.
1952. Financial jurisdiction is uniformly regulated by federal legislation.
Batburst, M. E., and Simpson, J. L., Gmoony and th4 North ,juan/i. Community. London
19~6
Uiscock~" R., Democracy in Western Germany. OxIord Uolv. Press, 1957
~angoldt. IT., Da.. Bonne1' Grundg<..1t (Kommmtar). Berlin, 19~O
),launz. '.r.b., Deut,,"'.' S!/Ultsrechl. 2nd ed. 1952
ScbliJer, U., [)er Bundesrat. Cologne, 195~
GOVERNMENT. The Federal Diet, elected on 15 Sept. 1957, is com·

posed of 497 members. In addition, there are 22 members for Derlin, who,
howev(,r, have no vote.
Sta;e of the parties: Christian Democrats (CDU; CSU), 270 (1953, 244);
Social Democrats (SPD), 169 (151); Free Democrats (FDP), 41 (48);
German Party (DP), 17 (15). The Refugee Party (1953, 27) and other
parties failed to obtain 5% of the votes, and therefore returned no members.
Bonn on the Rhine is the capital of the Federal Ropublic.
Federal Pre8ident. Dr Heinrich Liibke (elected 1 July 1959, by 526
out of 1,038 votes).
On 22 Oot. 1957 the Federal Diet elected, upon the proposal of the
.Federal President. Dr Konrad Adenauer (CDU) Federal Chancellor.
GERMANY 1035
The cabinet was, in April 1960, composed as follows:
Federal Chancellor. Dr Konrad Adenauer (CDU).
Mini8ter /01' Foreign Affairs. Dr Heinrich von Brentano (CDU).
3/ini8tel' 0/ Interior. Dr Gerhard 8chroeder (CDU).
Mini8ter 0/ Justice. Fritz 8chaffer (C8U).
Minister 0/ Finance. Franz Etzel (e8U).
Minister of Economic Affairs. Dr Lurlwig Erhl>rd (CDU).
Minister oJ Fao(l, Agriculture and Forestry. \Verner Schwarz (CDU).
Mini.9ter 0/ Labour and Social AJJairs. Theodor Blank (CDU).
Minister of Defence. Franz Josef Strauss (C8U).
Minister of Tranaport. Dr Hans Christoph 8eebohm (DP).
Minister oJ P08tS. Richnrd 8tikklen (CSU).
Minister of Housing. Paul Liioke (CDU).
Minister for Expellee-s, Refugees and War Victims . Dr Theodor Ober·
lander (CDU).
Minister for Federal Council Affairs. Dr Hans Jonchiru von Mcrkntz
(DP).
Mini.,ter Jor All·German Affairs. Ernst Lcmmer (CDU).
Minister for Family and Youth Affairs. Dr Franz·Joscf Wuermeling
(ODU).
Mini.,ter for Atomic Energy and Water Power. Dr Siegfricd Balke
(C8U).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area and estimated population ftS at 31

Dec. 1958:
Area In I'opulation Per
Landcr sq. km .1fale Female Total sq . km
rederal Republic 247,953 2.f,fJS5.400 27,."007,700 54,493,200 212
:::cbleswh.;-Holstciu 15,G57 1 ,OG"; ,200 l,20o,6UO 2,275,800 145
Hamburg. 7·17 8:313,400 974.200 1,80 7,600 2,41 !J
Lower Saxony 47,382 3,063 .300 3,1;;2,300 6,[>15,600 138
Rrernen 40·1 318,ilOO 35g,200 677,500 1,678
)/orth Ithlne-Weslphnlin 3:),060 7,:<49.200 8,110,000 15,45g,300 -150
IIcssen . . . 21,108 2,178,000 2,473,500 4,651,;;00 220
Rhineland-Pal"tiMte. 19,829 1,578,700 1,776,000 S,fl54,700 16~
Baden-WUrttemberg . 35,750 3,493,200 3,930,ROO 7,43 3,000 208
Ba.varia . 70,549 4,303,,,00 4,~74,COO 9,27S.000 132
Saarland . 2,567 500/,00 530,GOO 1,040,200 405
Berlin . R84 1,408,'!00 1,908,100 3.316,400 3,752
W'c3tern sectors. 481 n4 ~ , 900 ) ,282,100 2):;:26,000 4,628

Of these
~Iarriagcs Live births ille"itimale Deaths Divorces
1955 443.439 803,012 61,477 551,34R 42,800
1956 409,310 ~:lS,4nl 61 ,007 567,206 41,046
1957 462,6R8 874.:;65 Gl,300 581,116 41,46R
105S 473,804 SS,j .C;J9 ;jU.O t5 5G3,~ lU 43,100
The annual rate of the population increase (inclucling migration) was

1·1 % in 1955, 1-2% in 1956, 1-4% in 1957, 1'3% in 1958.
Crude birth rate 1958 was 17 per 1,000 population: marriage rnte, 9·1;
death rate, 10'8; infantile mortality, 3·6 per 100 live births.
Migrants from Eastern Germany to the Federal Republic, including
West Berlin, numbered 295,000 ill 19ii4, 382,000 in 19.~5, 396,000 in 1956,
385,000 in 1957,226,000 in 1958. Migran ts from the Federal Republic to
Eastern Germany numbered 49,000 in 1954,49,000 in 1955,47,000 in 1956,
1036 GERMANY
53,000 :n 1957, 39,000 ill 1958. The authorities of both the Federal Re-
public B.nd Eastern Germany classify their immigrants as political refugees,
but the figures certainly include a proportion of the normal shift of popula-
tion within any country. A preponderant East-West migration inside
Germany has been taking place from about 1860.
The resident population of the principal towns (for Berlin see p. 1050) was
estimat·3(j as follows on 31 Dec. 1958:
Tow" Land Population Town Land Population
Hamburg HIIIDburg 1,807,640 MUlheim(Rnbr) N. Rhine-West. 179,3(;0
Munich. Ba varia 1,033,9640 Bieleleld . N. Rhine-West. 175,370
Cologne . N. Rblne-West. 760,236 MUnster I.W •. N. Rhine-West. 170,536
Essen. N. 1tblne-West. 725,580 Solingen . N. Rhine-West. 166,203
Dils;;eldorl . N. Rhine-West . 685,033 Aacben . . N. Rhine-West. 162,466
Frankfllr!; a. M. Hessell 647,623 Ludv.iglbafen. Rhinel.-Pal. 156,583
Dortmun 1 N. Rbine-West. 632,848 Munchen-
Stuttg:1rt Baden-WUrtt. 619,~07 Gladbacb N. Rhine-West. 150,690
H awlOVe:' Lower Samoy 563,152 Bonn N. Rhine-West. 142,540
Bremen . Bremen 541 ,891 Freiburg . Baden-WUrtt. 136,050
Duisburg N. Rhine-West. 498,932 Dremerbaven. Bremen 135,642
NuremiJe1;l Bavaria 441,367 Osna brUck Lower Saxony 133,144
Wuppertal . N. Rbine-West. 416,050 Darmstadt . Hessen 131 ,89a
Gelsenkidleu. N. Rbine-West. 390,363 Recklingb~usen N. Rblne-West. 129,185
Boehum N . Rblne-West. 359,616 SaarbrUcken Saarland 129,039
MannbeiIl Baden-WUrtt. 300.4 90 Mainz. Rhinal.-Pal. 126,975
Kiel . Schl..wlg-H. 26;;,864 Heidelberg Baden-WUrtt. 126,440
Oberbausen N. Rbine- West. 25;,487 Regensburg Bavari a 122,448
Wiesbaden Hessen 252,156 Remscheid N . Rhine-West. 122,124
Brunswick Lower Sa;tony 245,C44 Oldenburg Lower Saxony 120,763
Karlsrubn Baden-WUrtt. 231,472 Herne . N. Rhine-West. 116,300
LlIbeck . Scbleswig-H. 230,562 WUrnburg Bavaria 111 ,246
Keeleld . N. Rbine-West. 205,004 Botl.rop. . N. Rbine-West; 110,313
Augeburg Bavaria 204,398 Offenbach a .M. Hessen 109,551
Kassel . Hessen 199.00·\ Wanne·Elckel . N. Rbine-West. 107,521
Hagen I.W. N. Rhine-West. 188,324 Salzgitter Lower SalCony 105,433
REJ.IGION. Of the population 5 1-1 % are Protestants, 45·2% Roman

Catholills and 0'1 % Jews (census. 1950).
The German Eva.ngelical Church is eomposed of 13 Lutheran Churches,
13 United (Lutheran and Reformed) Churehes and 2 Reformed Churches.
Its orga.ns are the Synod, the Church Conference and the Council under the
chairmf,nship of Dr Otto Dibelius. Bishop of Berlin-Brandenburg (elected
12 Jan. 1949). The Evangelical Church was admitted to the World Council
of Chw'ches in Feb. 1946. There are also some 12 Free a.nd Separated
Churches, with together about 330,000 members in 1956. There were 547
members of the Society of Friends in 1957.
Theee are 5 Roman Catholic arehbishoprics and 18 bishopries. Chairman
of the Bishops' Conference is Cardinal Frings, Archbishop of Cologne. A
coneordat between Germany and the Holy See was signed on 20 July and
ratified on 10 Sept. 1933.
The ' Old Catholics, , who are in communion with the Church of England.
numbered about 38,000 in 1956; they have a bishop at Bonn.
Sl4Iislik d.. Buftdurepublik, 35 : Die BI!IJOIkeru"9 ,weh .ur JltligionseugtMrgktil ( 13 Sept. 19S0).
Statistisches Bundesa.mt, Wlesbatlen
lIirchli<h .... Jahr~h lilr die EIJa"geiische Eir che in DeuLsc!dilnd. GUtersloh, 1884 tl
Ki,chli""'" Bandbu<;h. Aml/icb., sl4li>tisches JaltrbucA der Kalholisc!II'" Kircb. Deuuchlandl.
Vol. 2( . 001ogne,1953
Luckey, H., Free Churches in Germany. Bad Nanbeim, 1956
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory for all children between the

ages of 6 and 14.
In May 1958 there were 30,298 elementary schools with 128,421 teachers
GERMANY 1037
(75,114 men, 52,718 women) and 4,671,705 pupils (2,372,875 boys and
2,298,830 girls); 889 middle schools (Mittelschulen) with 12,686 teachers
(7,016 men, 5,287 women) and 314,376 pupils (146,953 boys and 167,423
girls); 1,637 secondary sohools with 39,553 teachers (26,226 men, 12,296
women) and 777,524 students (468,428 boys and 309,096 girls), and 1,072
special schools with 5,219 teachers (2,932 men and 2,026 women) and 111,546
pupils (67,274 boys and 44,272 girls). In the Lands Hamburg, Bremen and
Schleswig-I1olstein there were 496 unified schools (combined primary,
middle and secondary education) with 9,544 teachers (4,807 men, 4,677
women) and 269,595 pupils (1 37,862 boys and 131,733 girls).
In Nov. 1957 there were 3,276 part-time vocational schools "ith 22,278
teachers and 2,053,854 pupils (1,1;32,917 boys and 900,937 girls); 1,414
full-time vocational schools with 6,530 teachers I1nd 150,901 pupils (42,325
boys and 108,576 girls), and 1,858 advanced vocational schools with 8,205
teachers and 148,988 students (97,518 men and 51,470 women). There
were 75 teachers' training colleges with 968 teachers and 18,464 students.
During the winter semester 19,58-59 there wore 18 universities with
121,713 students; 12 Roman Catholic philosophical-theological colleges,
with 1,814 students and 7 tecbnical colleges with 37,878 students. There
were, besides, the Mining Academy in Clausthal.Zellerfeld, the Veterinary
College in Hanover, the Agricultural College in Hohenheim, the commercial
colleges in Mannbeim and Nuremberg, the College for Social Sciences in
Wilhelmshaven, 4 Protestant training colleges, 12 academies of music, 8
academies of art and the Academy for Athletics ill Cologne.
CinemtM (1958). Tllere were, 6,955 cinemas with a seating capacity of
2·9ra. in West Germany including Berlin (West).
New8paper8 (1958). There were 609 daily newspapers with a combined
circulation of l6·9m. in the Federal Republic.
Hilker, F., D~ 8ch.den in D"ullch/aoo (Bun/k..."oolik"nd W",-Btrli .. ). Bad Naubeim, 1964
HEALTH AND SOCIAL WELFARE. There were in 1957, 3,405

hospitals with 553,725 beds.
Public assistance is given to all persons who are not able to earn their
living and have no or not sufficient income from other sources or pensions .
It does not include pensions of social insurance, of war·disabled, widows
etc., unemployment relief, and juvenile welfare and education.
In the fiscal year 1 April 1958-31 March 1959 public aasistance in the
Federal Republic (without the Saarland) including assistance in homes and
hospitals, was given to 1,238,479 persons (as at 31 March 1959) and amounted
to DM 1,467,083,000 or DM 28·44 per head of population.
JUSTICE. According to the Basic Law of the Federal Republic, all

persons are equal before the law, and no person, whatever his race, nationality
or religion, is to be deprived of his legal rights_ No person shall be deprived
of life, liberty or property without due process of the law.
Judicial authority is exercised by the Federal Constitutional Court, by
the Supreme Federal Court, by the federal courts provided for in the Basic
Law and by the courts of the Lii.nder. Judges are independent and Bubjeci
only to the law. Extraordinary courts are inadmissible. The death
eentence is aholisherl.
JI ..."alo! 0""""" La... 2 vola. H .M.B.O., 1960-G2
1038 GElUU.NY
FINANCE. The budget of the Federal Government (excluding Saar·

land) "hows the following figures (in DM Im.) for fiscal years ending 31
March:
1956-57 1957-~8 1958-59 1959-60'
RevenfUf
Federal taxes • . • • . 21,407 21,678 22,867 23,885
Fedenl share of Income and corporation
tax'!S . . . . 6,013 5,366 6,108 6,475
Contr: hutlon of postal services 26i 280 317 330
Coina"e . . . . • . 85 76 79 60
Wit.hc.rawal from budget equalization
reS€rves 1,020 1,811 1,200
Loans. . . . . 169 179 4,162
Receillts from unexpected balance 91 2,981 744
Other revenues 1,494 1,551 2,292 1,602
Budg€tary revenue proper . 28,354 33,121 34,387 37,704
Trans: ting and appropriate Items 4,927 3,912 6,060 2,085
Total revenue 33,281 37,033 40,446 39,789
Expendi:u,e.
De!en"e costs • 7,329 • 7,547 • 8,824 • 11,772
Social charges . . . 10,905 11,824 11,694 11,750
Finandal assistance to Berlin. 895 957 1,128 1,130
Sub;;iC ies, price equalization. • 1,035 1,601 1,240 1,167
Constluction of urban and rural housing 1,055 1,443 1,772 1,820
Promcting economic activities . 1,673 2,139 1,928 2,001
Debt ,ervlce . . . 1,079 1,188 1,141 2,226
Integration of the Saar . 224 131 176 1,011
Reiwtursements and indemoitie. 962 1,277 1,190 1,953
Other expenditures • . . . 3,107 4,289 6,296 6,720
Le.. ~avings under the budgetary reduc·
tion clause -2,846
Budgetary expenditure proper 28,354 82,396 84,888 37,704
Transitlng and appropriated Items 4,927 3,S93 6,068 2,08<>
Total expend! ture 33,281 36,288 40,446 39,789
1 Buolget.
• Including occupation costs and foreign forces support costs, but excluding NA.TO
expense~.
• Including ntilization of fund. withdmwn !rom occupation cost carryover reserve
1956-57, 1,703m. ; 1957-68, 388m.; 1958-69, 105m.
All titles on public debts have been cancelled by the currency reform of
21 June 1948. The total <lebt of thfl Federal Republic and the Lande,
(includtng Berlin (West)) was DM 39,122·2m., as at 31 March 1958.
BeCt Settlement. On 2i Feb 1953 several agreements wero signed in
London settling Germany's external pre·war and post.war debts. These
agreements entered into force on 16 Sept. 1953.
The claims arising from the post. war economic assistance given to
Germany by the governments of the U.K., France and the U.8. were settled
as foIlc·ws. The British Government accept in settlement of their claim
(£201·8m.) £150m., waive all interest on this amount and accept repayment
over 20 years in equal annuities of £7·5m. The French Government accept
in settlement of their claim (S15·7m.) Sll ·84m., waive all interest on this
amount, and accept repayment in French francs over 20 years in equal
annuiti,~s at the rate of 8592,000. The U.S. Government accept in settle·
ment of its claim (S3,OOOm.) approximately SI,OOOm. This sum will bear
interest at 2!% per annum, and will be payable in 35 annual instalments of
abo\1t t;47·58m. each.
The settlement of the pre·war debts was signed by the Federal Republie
GERMANY 1039
and 18 creditor countries. 90% of the debts are claims of the U.S.A.,
Great Britain, France a nd Switzorland. the other 10% owed to more than
60 countries. DM 4,OOOm. of the total Bum oC these debts are to be paid
by the Federal Republic, the Under a nd communities ; DM 3,500m. are
private debts.
Under these agreements the public and private pre-war and the post-
war debts are to be transferred as follows : DM 585m. a year during the
first 5 years, DM 737m. thereafter.
In Ma rch 1953 the Federal R epubiic ratified ill addition to thcRe settle-
ments the agreement with Israel, signed at Luxembourg on 10 Sept. 1952.
According to this agreement, the Federal Republic iH to pay DM 3,OOOm. to
l.he State of Israel and anothcr D:\1450m. for the benefit of the ' Conferonc.e
on Jowish Material Claims against Germ;,"y.' DM 400m. lvill he paid by
31 March 1954, and thereafter !l annual instalments of DM 250m . each
and a twelfth instalment of DM 300m.
Jnur- 411~4I/epoN1iDfl Ag....... Annual Report .!IM Secreta'V·OtMTaJ,/rom 19~6
DEFENCE. The Paris Treaties, which entered into force in May 1955,
stipulated a contribution of the Federal Republic to western defence within
the framework of NATO and the Western European Union. By the end
of 1959 the Federal Defence Force (Bunde.swehr) had a t otal strength of
235,000 all ranks.
Army. By the end of 1959 the Army consisted of i divisions ; total
strength, 230,000. The final strength to be reached in 1961, will be 12
divisions (6 armoured, 4 infantry, 1 airborne, 1 mountain).
The principal combat unit is now the self·sufficient brigade of 3,000-
4,000 JUen; each has infantry, armoured infantry, tanks, conventional
artillery, anti-aircraft and anti-tank weapons, reconnaissance, signalling, and
supply units. A division consists of 3 or 4 brigades. Twelve battalions
are being equipped with American guided missiles.
BordeT Police. The Border Police is a speciul police force to protect
the territory of the Federal Republic against illegal border crossings and
other disturbances of public order which could threaten the security of the
borders. The Border Police. established in 1951, numbered 13,000 men in
1959. There is also a police force (Bereitschajtspolizei ) of 11,000 men.
Navy. At the end of 1959 the Na vy had 6 desLroyers, 7 frigates, 3 Rub·
marines, 5 corvettes, 6 fleet minesweepers, 18 coastal minesweepers, 20 in-
shore minesweepers, 3 patrol vessels, 36 moLor torpedo-boats, 33 patrol
boats, 6 surveying vessels, 4 fishery protection v essels, 3 tugs, 4 tenders and
a training ship. The construction programme inc.ludcs 12 destroyers, 6
frigates, 12 submarines, 2 minelayers, 18 coastal mincsweepers, 30 fast
motor minesweepcrs, 40 motor torpedo-boats and 55 othcr vessels.
The Naval Air Arm, in J an. 1960, had 24 Sea Hawk fighters, 16 Gannet
anti-submarine aircraft and 33 other n.ireraft a nd heli copters.
Navy personnel, 1959, was 2,000 officers and 20,000 other ranks.
Air Force. The Luftwajje is bcing organized in two basic commands,
of which the Tactical Command works in close collaboration with the
Army and Navy, while Defence Command is responsible for the nation's
air defences. Both commands comprise 5 fighter-bomber wings, 5 fighter
wings, 2 transport and 2 reconnaissance wings (each wing = 3 squadrons) ;
the ultimate target is 28 squadrons (5 transport" 18 fighter.bomber, I)
1040 GERMANY
reconnaissance). Strength of the Luftwaffe at the end of 1959 waR about

56,000 officers and men.
Standard fighter. bomber is the F·84F Thunderstreak, while interceptor
squadrons have Canadian· built Sabres for day fighting and Italian-built
F-86K Sabres for all-weather operations. Reconnaissance units have the
RF-84F Thunderflash. Major equipment of the transport squadrons is
nation.illy-bnilt Noratlas aircraft of French design, with a number of
smalle:: C-47, Heron and Pembroke transports. The main training types in
use ar.} the Italian Piaggio P.149D primary trainer and French Magister
jet trainer, both of which are bnilt in Germany, and the Lockheed T-33A
advaneed jet trainer.
Jahn, E. E., and Neher, K. (ed.), TascllmbllC" fur Wclirfragen. 3rd ed. Bonn, 1959
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The agricultural area of Germany

within the boundaries of 1937 comprised 28·5m. hectares, of which 14·7m.
are now situated in the Federal Republic. In 1958 the arable land within
the F '3deral Republic was 8,ll3,OOO hectares; meadows and pastures,
5,686,1.00 hectares; gardens, vineyards, orchards, nurseries, 564,500
hectares.
Tha total number of holdings under agriculture and forestry in the
Federal Republic, and their claRsification by size, were as f"llows (census,
22 MaV 1949; Saarland, 15 May 1948):
0·6- 6 6-20 20-100 0"e.l00
Tot.al bectares bee.""", beetaruo bectareo
&hh"wig-Holstein 67,70' 23,2~1 22,378 21,1Rl 888
Hamhurg. . 4,791 3,504 833 H' 10
Lower 8u:ony 304.886 151,662 105,002 '6,128 3,194
Bremen
North Rhi;'e-W~.tP~I"
2,277
272,421
1,325
U6.99B
570
85,080
3i8
28,485 •
1,858
H .... n .. 213,807 147,~65 57,491 6,882 1,569
Rhin.. laud-PaJatinate . 221,512 152.175 63,019 ',599 1,7lg
Bade:l-"NUrttemberg . 417.502 279,438 120.058 15,727 2,27D
Bava::ia . 607,092 208,113 230.590 65,498 2,893
Saarland • 3\1,250 3 2,6~ 5 5,89(1 497 168
Ftderal Republic 2,051,242 1,156,932 690,911 188,817 14,582
Al~a (in 1,000 hectares) and yield (in 1,000 metric tons) of the main
crops :0 the Federal Republio were as follows:
Area Yield
1938 1956 1957 1958 1938 1~56 1957 1958
Wheat 1,126 1,155 1,231 1,:)14 2,924 3,'190 3,870 3,721
Rye 1,585 1,490 1,474 1,.502 3,322 3,748 3,838 3,748
Barley 829 859 876 881 2,023 2,326 2,513 2,423
Oats 1,350 968 917 837 3,070 2,485 2,2.50 2,172
Potatoes. 1,192 1,148 1,132 1,073 21,594 26,999 26,488 22,8G5
Sugar beet 159 269 259 284 5,232 8,348 9,692 11,237
Wine production (in Im. heot01itres): 2·71 in 1952; 2·46 in 1953; 3·1
in 1951; 2·4 in 1955; 0·9 in 1956; 2·26 in 1957; 4·8 in 1958.
Li"estock on 3 Dec. 1958 were as follows: Cattle, 12,127,100 (induding
5,598,aOO milch cows); horses,912,800; sheep,I,1l3,200; pigs, 14,733,900;
goats, 497,800; poultry, 62,326,900.
Forutry. Forestry is an industry of great importance, conducted under
the oare of the State on scientifio methods. The forest area of Germany
in 191;8 was 10m. hectares, of whioh 7m. were in the Federal Republic.
In 19[.7-58 cuttings amounted to 26m. cu. metres in the Federal Republic.
GERMANY 1041
Fisheriea. In 1958 the yield of sea and coastal fishing in the Federal
Republic was 651,174 metric tons, valued at DM 284m.
In 1958 the number of vessels of the fishing fleet was 212 steamers
(117.117 gross tons). 105 luggers and 1,417 cutters.
Mining. The great bulk of the minerals in Germany is produced in
North Rhine-Westphalia (for coal, iron and metal smelting-works), Central
Germany (for brown coal), the Harz (for iron and copper ore) and the
Westerwald (for iron ore). The chief oilfields are in the Em.land on the
Netherlands border and in Lower Saxony.
The quant.ities of tbe principal minerals raised in tho Federal Republic
(without the Saarland) were as follows (in 1,000 metric tons):
llinerol. 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 19.58
Ooal 124,4i2 128.035 130,728 134,407 133,156 132.582
Lignite : 84,504 87;813 90,337 95.2:\5 96,8]1 93,187
Iron ore 14,619 13,036 15,684 16,928 18,320 17,\)84.
Potash. 12 , ~87 15,676 16.107 16,544 16,~OO 16,664
Ornde oil ~,I89 2,666 S~147 3,506 3,960 4,·1 32
Barite 2Ul 376 407 4U 4IJi :;n
The production of iron and st.eel in the Federal Republic (without the
Saarland) was (in 1,000 metric tons):
1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Pig-iron . . 1l,654. 12.512 16,482 17,577 18,358 16,659
Steel ingots and c'iStings 15,420 11',434 21,336 23,189 24,1i07 22.i85
Rolled products full.hed 10,200 11,467 14,207 15,621 16,448 IG,220
All the restrictions imposed by the Allies since the end of the W nr on
German steel production and capacity have been lifted with the entry into
force on 25 July 1952 of the treaty setting up the European Coalund Steel
Community. As a further consequence, the Ruhr agreement of 29 May
1949 is being terminated. and the intemational authority for the Ruhr is
being progressively liquidated. Aluminium output, 1958, was 136,766
metric tons.
Industry. In June 1959, 52,049 establishments (with more than 10
employees) employed 7,296,308 persons; of these 847,662 were employed in
machine constructioIl; 590,l72 textile industry; 628,495 in electrical en-
gineering; 501,037 in mining.
The production of important industrial products in the Federal Republic
(without the Saarland) was as follows:
ProdTlcts I9M 1956 1957 1958
F.lectricity (lm . ~ wh.) 75,779 84,267 90,930 94,211
GDBoline (1.000 tOIL,) 2,977 3,133 3.315 3,881
Diesel oil (1.00') tons) 2.938 3,229 3.204 3.8~1
PotM8ium fert.i1i'{,etR, K,D (J ,000 tons) 1,697 1,654 1.6\10 1,711
Sulphuric acid, SO, (1,000 tODS) 1 1,861 2,066 2,223 2,381
Soda, N 80 1 00, (l.OfJO tons) l 983 996 9R9 902
Clement (1,0011 (.0",) . 18,183 18,873 18,S08 19,390
Rayon:
Stapie fihre (1,000 tons)' 149 160 167 139
Continuous rayon fih"nent (1,000 tons) 1 69 69 7~ 65
Ootton y&l11 (1,001 1 tons) 1 . 37S 396 418 393
Woollen y .... n (1,000 tolUl)' 1l~ 118 124 106
Passenger card 705.418 847.829 958.970 1,180,738
OommereiaJ cars and buses 146,318 164,084 171, .598 187,764
Bicycl.. (1,OOO's) 1,0.54 1,162 89~ 866
• Including the qnantlti .. processed in the ...... taetori...
1042 GERMANY
Books oJ Reference
Du lrad"""i< deF BUlldesrqubliJ: DeuUchlarad. Ed. StaUaUsebes BundcsBmt, Wi .. lJ"den
Du Neuo,.!nung 4n E ...... urad SIa/Jindwl7u im O.b... 4n I/uruklrqublik D"",.hland,
Municb, 1954
Beske, F., Dtrman For.. 'ry. London, 1938
RUger. L.• _Di.llodetuc/.dIu D..,uchlana.. Munlcb,1937
LabO'Ur. The total number of employees was 19,939,400 at 30 June

1959, th8,t of unemployed, 259,300. Of the total working population, in·
cluding employers and unemployed, at the census of 13 Sept. 1950, 23'2%
were engaged in agriculture and forestry; 44'5% in manufacturing and
building; 15·6% in commerce and transport; 16-7% in public and private
services.
COMMERCE, The distribution of the imports and exports of the
Federal I~epublic (including Berlin (West), but without the Saarland) accord·
ing to principal countrics was as follows (in DM lIn.) :
Imports Exports
Countr, 1956 J9S7 1_958 1906 19;7 1958
Argentina 6/4 ·1 660-5 542-4 415-1 44:;-2 5~5'7
Anst.rnlia . 508 ·0 565-6 375·9 296-1 312-2 373'4
Austria . 780-:; 902-3 915·8 1,416 -, 1,761 ' 3 1,847 -2
Relgium-I,.lxembourg 1,343-3 1,315 -5 1,41)9-9 2,10:; ' 7 2,414 -7 2,452-9
Brazil 483- 4 452-7 377'2 ?26-3 528 ·3 643-4
Canada 6.0-4 7~ 9- 6 964-7 361 -0 396-1) 437-5
Denmark 844-1 905-9 1,042-3 1,021-5 1,055'5 1,109-6
Egypt 108-5 110-8 8-/-9 265·) 266-2 275·8
Finland 327-1 354-6 3S5·3 426 -5 421-2 4 8 5-~
France 1,345-4 l ,54C-c) 1 .5~5 · 1 1,947 ' 1 2,252-8 2,16<1 ' 3
Greece 216·j 2~2-4 229· ; 3M-(l 41 0·2 467 -)
India 189 -~ 252-2 101-6 819-0 1,126-' 1,173-4
Indon...ln 326-2 334-7 20H 28,,-2 309-2 179-5
Italy _ 1,222' 9 1,:;52-8 1,69i'0 1,656-1 1,999-5 1 853'4
Netberland. 2,001 -9 2,2S7-6 2,500-2 2.876" 3,1'15-7 2:994-8
Norway . 437-7 453-2 479-8 827 -9 853·3 1,1)66-3
Sa", Territlry 676-4 731-7 766' a 51O-() 689-7 637·1
Spain 429·2 457-2 492-J 448-7 3~9':1 426-9
Sweden 1,275-5 1,486-2 1,410-~ 1,956' 4 2,168-7 2.265 -'
Switzerland 9"8-6 1,041 '6 1,167-3 1,8,1 -6 2,206-4 2,OC2-2
Turkey _ . . 281-9 205-3 223 -~ 591-5 266-7 217·[)
Union 01 S outb AJclca 299-8 348-4 278 -6 350 -1 519-7 6 35-7
U.K. 1,146-7 1,13;;-3 l, R60 -7 1,257-2 1,406-7 1.460 -)
U.S.A. 3,969-S 5,628-9 4,J92'5 2,073 ·; 2,493' i 2.641'4
Yugosla~i. 210·0 2 36 -4 _ 206-; 196-7 326-6 S39-6
The main items of German imports in 1958 were processed foodstuffs

($2.241m.) an'" raw materials (SI.830m.); exports, finished manufactures
($i,241lLL,) and semi·finished manufacturcs ($927m.).
f)., ,ju.!_... harukl deF Bttnde_
" tpuhlik D~.chland. Ed. Statistisebes Dund....mt. WI""baden
Erbard, L __ Otrmanv', Comeback in the Iforld Market. LondoD,19:;4
Total trade between Federal Germany and the U.K., according to the
British I;oard of Trade returns (in £ sterling):
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 91.275,024 109,947.465 124,480,931 135,892.SH 144,404,930
Export. from U. K. . 76,933,284 92,145,915 104,231,933 122,529,40' 137,796,939
He-exports irom U.K. 18,641.228 19,250,212 18,725,722 17,404,133 20,820,414
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. On I June 1959 the West German

mercantile marine comprised 2,721 ocean.going vessels of 4,582,040 GRT
(4,492,708 in 1939 for the whole of Germany).
GERMANY 1043
The inland· waterways Beet in the Federal Republic (excluding Saarland)
on 31 Dec. 1958 comprised 4,643,000 tons. The length of the navigable
rivers and cnnals in use as of I Jan. J9!'i8 was 4.350 km.
Sea.going ships (foreign trade only) in 1958 loaded 14.321,700 metric ton.
entering (14,492,000 in 1(36) and unloaded 40,592.300 metrio tons clearing
(21,638,000 in 1936) in the ports of the Federal Republic. Inland waterways
oarried 137·1m. metric tons in 1958 (100,253,000 in 1936).
Roads. On 31 March 1959 the total length of classified roads in the
Federal Republic (excluding Saarland) was 132,900 km, including 2,408 km
autobahn, 24,423 km highways, 56,813 km first·class and 49,256 km second·
class conntry roads. Motor vehicles licensed in the Federal Republic on
1 Jan. 1959 numbered 6,782,500 (including 2,080,500 motor cycles, 3,260,400
passenger cars, 670,000 trucks, 30,300 buses and 741,400 tractors.
RailwaY8. The total operative length of railway line in the Federal
Republic (without the Saarhmd) was 35,1)1)4 km (30,454 Federal Railways,
!'i,MO private railways) on 31 Dec. W5S; of these 3,740 km were electrified.
In 11)58 the railways (including ships owned by the Federal Railways)
carried 1,496m. passengers and 295m. metric tons of freight.
Post. The Federal Republic (includin~ Berlin (West) but without the
Saarland) had, on 31 Dec. 1958,27,412 po,t offices and agencies and 10.482
telecommunications offices. The tot;\llength of the telephone and telegraph
network was 134,900 km lines with 504,900 kill two· wire circuits and 224,900
km cables with 15,145,000 km pairs. Number of telephones, 5,018,000.
Number of wireless licences, 14,860.300; of television licences, 2,129,180.
The postal bus services covered, in 1958, li5m. km and carried 333·Sm .
passengers.
The post office savings banks had, on 31 Dec. 1958,9,451,000 depositors
with DM 2.285m. to their credit.
In the financial year 1957 the postal revenues amounted to DII14,133·8m.
and the exponditure to DM 4,150·3m.
Aviation. The Deut.sche Lufthansa. A.G. (set up on 6 Ja.n. 1953, aa
A.G. ftir Luftverkehrsbcdarf and renamed on 6 Aug. 1954), with head.
quarters at Cologne, has capital of DM 12001. The Federal Republic owns
75%, Land North Rhine-Westphalia 6'3% , the Federal Railways 4'}%,
Federal Post 2'7% and private industry 1 H)%.
In 19.55 the Lufthansa began to operate internal, European !lnd North
Atlantic, in 1956. South Atlantic and Near EI1~t routes. In 191i8 the Luft·
hansa carried 622,487 passengers.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. Pursuant to the laws issued 011 the

monetary reform by the military governors of the British, American and
French Zones, from 18 to 26 June 1948, the 'Reichmark' was replaced by
the 'Deutsche Mark'. The RM notes circulated by the former Reiehsbank
were exchanged for DMs at the ratio of I to 1 up to the amount of RM 60,
and all amount~ exceeding RM 600 as well as all bank and saving deposits
at the ratio of RM 100 to DM 6·". All RM liabilities, including securities,
were depreciated at the ratio of 10 to 1.
On 14 Feb. 1948 the Bank of German Liinder (Bank deutscher Lander)
was established in Frankfurt as the central bank of issue for the Federal
Republic and designated the exclusive agency for issuing notes and coins.
The Bank of German Landor was the central reserve bank of the Land Central
1044 GERMANY
Banks (Landeszentralbanken) set up in the Lander of the Federal Re-
public, ..nd maintains business connexions only with them and with the
F ederal Administration. The Land Central Banks in the Lander were' re-
serve banks' for the credit and saving banks existing in the Under concerned.
The Land Central Banks and the Berlin Central Bank were merged with
the Bank deutscher Lander as from I Aug. 1957. The Bank deutscher
Liindcr became the Deutsche Bundesbank.
The most important items of the balance sheets of the Deutsche Bundes-
bank in :I"rankfurt on 31 July 1959, were as follows (in DM Im.):
Assets
Gold • . . . . . . . . . ll,aO:;' l
Balance, at foreign banks and money market Investments abroad 6.344 ·8
Foreign notes, COins. bills Il",d cbeques . . . . . . 160·3
Loans t,) i ntcroational institutions and consolidation loans to foreign Central
Bank,;. . . . . . . . . 5.344 '4
Domeot c bills of exchange and advances against securities. . 463·0
Cash ..01 ."nees. treasury bilis and non·lntcrestbearing treasury bonds 683·6
El)ualiz:l.tion claims 1 3.677 ,0
Lu..bUiJ,u,$
Dank notes in circulation 18.688'8
Depos it; . 8.;62,6
I From the monetary reform.
On :to June 1959 the circulation of coins in the Federal Republio

alliount<:d to DM l,205m. ; that of notes and coins to DM lS,433m. For the
par value of the Deutschemark 8ee p. 24.
Tile ra te of exchange for DM (West) haa been fixed at 11·76 to the £
and 4·2(, to the US$.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system is in force.
The Federal Republic maintains embassies in Afghanistan, Argentina,
Australi1.• Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chlle, Colombia,
Co(,ta Rica, Cuba, Denmark, Domi nican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
Ethlopih, France, Ghana, Greece, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq,
Irish Republic, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg,
Malaya, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru,
Philippi .lOs, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia,
Turkey, Union of South Africa, U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, U.K.,
U.S.A. , Urugnay, Vatican and Venezuela; and legations in Burma, Ceylon,
Haiti, Jordan, Libya, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Panama, Saudi Arabia,
Sudan.
OF THE FEDERAL GERMAN REPUBLlO IN GREAT BRITAIN
(21-23 Belgrave Squaro, S.W.I)
Ambusador. Han~ Heinrich Herwarth von Bittenfeld, G.C.V.O.
(accredi;ed 26 May 1955).
lI1in,:ster. Dr J. F. Ritter, K.C.V.O. Counsellors. Dr. G. Moltmann,
Professcr Dr F. Caspari, C.V.O.; Dr H .-J. Mangold (Commercial). First
Secreta.r1e.~ . Dr R. Knickenberg ; Dr H. Scherer, M.V.O. (Press) . Service
Atta.cluSs: Col. Kurt Fischer (Air), Col. K. Boehm (Army), Cdr A. Zimmer-
mann (Navy).
There are German consulates at Edinburgh and Liverpool.
GERMANY 1046
0. GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FEDERAL GERMAN REPUBLIO

AmblMsador. Sir Christopher Steel, G.C.M.G., M.V.O.
Ministers. E . M. Rose, C.M.G. ; J. A. M. Marj oribanks, C.M.G.
(Economic).
Counsellors. P . A. Wilkinson, C.1\1.G., D.S.O., O.B.E.; A. G. R. Rouse,
O.B.E. (Informatiun); C. Whitworth, M.B.E. (Administration); G. W. J.
Cole (Labour).
F'irst Secretaries. F. W. Marten, M.C.; R. J. Strutton; H. A. H.
Cortazzi; P. N. Lunn, C.M.G., O.RE.; P. L . V. Mallet; R. F. Stretton;
A. L. Pope, O.B.E.; J. K. Hanna; N. Statham; G. R. Denman; N. G. S.
Beckett; K. R. Welbore Ker (InJormatl:on); A. Dockel'ilJ.
Sen:ice Attaches. Capt. E. F. HamiIton.Meikle, M.B.E., R.N. (Naval);
Brig. G. V. Britten, C.B.E. (Military); Air Cdre J. N. Tomes, C.B.E. (Air).
There are British coO!mlar representatives at Berlin, Bremen, Diissel·
dorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hanover, Kiel, Munich and Stuttgart.
OF TIIE FEDERAL REPUBLIC IN THE U.S.A. (174:l R St. mv.,
Washington 9, D.C.)
Ambassador. Wilhelm G. Grewe.
Ministers. Franz Krapf; Werner Dankwort. Counsellors. Rolf F.
Pauls; Albert F. Ernecke (Commercial); Conrad Kiihlein; Bruno E. Wer·
ner (Cultural). First Secretaries. Dr Wilhelm Turnwald; Erich Stratling;
Horst W . Osterheld; Heinz Droge ; Giinther Grosse; Mrs Hilde Maria Wall·
roth; Karl Gerhard Seeliger; Hans .<\rnold; ]rITe Helen Schol'ttle. S ervice
Attaches: Brig.·Gen. Baron Wold Dietrich von Schleinitz (Army), Capt.
Edward Wegener (Navy), Col. H orst L. Merkwitz (Air).
OF THE U.S.A. IN THE FEDERAL REPUBI.IC
Amb08sador. WaIter C. Dowling.
Counsellor Minister. Clare H. Timberlake. Mini,~ter Counsellor.
Henry J. Tasca (Consul.Gcneral). Cou nsellors. William C. Ockey (Econo.
mic); 'Villiall1 R. Tyler (Consul.General). First Secretaries. Francis O.
Alien; Hngh G. Appling (Con,sul); William H. Byrd; Harold A. Chastka;
Leroy F. Day (Consul); Edwin M. Duerbeck; Dennis A. Flinn; Edmond
E. Getzin (Consul ); Robbins P. Gilman; Howard J. Hilton, Jr (Consul);
Robert H. Kranich; Carroll1\1. Meig;:; Thomas E. Nelson (C01~.ul); Jame·
son Parker (Economic ); Waiter A. - I~adius (Oivil Air Attache); Harry H .
Schwartz (Con sul); Loch Shumaker (Con8ul); Paul R. Sweet; Ides van der
Gracht. Service AttacMs : Col. Clifford G. Simenson (Army), Capt. John
B. Thro (Na vy ), Col. Fred W. Miller (Air). Agricultural Attache. Phi! S.
Eckert. Labour AttacM. Richard E!dridge.
Books of Reference
STATI"<TlCAL INFORMATION. The centml s tatis tical agency is the Statistisches llUlldesam
P .O. Bo.!: 828, Wiesbaden). Preside'llJ: Dr Gerbard FUrst.
The Bunrlesamt pUblishes: Sla/istischts Jahrbtlch fur die Btlndu"puhlik D.,uschla"d
(latest i5511e, 1959); SUUi,eiscilcs l'ascltenbuch 1958 (also in English and Frencb); Wirtscltafes·
kunde tleT Bund.,,,epulJlik iJeutschland (1%5); Wirtsch aft un,t Sta/istik (monthly. from 1U-19);
Statislik de, Bun.desl'epublik DeutscMand (Ul.tS ff; 2~1 vol!i. to 1959); Die Bunde,'fstatistik
(val. 82) 1959 (also in English : SuTt'ey of German Pederal Statistics, 1951;); SUPiJlemeut,s ,
19lJ5,1956; lntest i!;5Ue vol. 182 (in Germ:\n only).
».""_,' on G<rman Foreit]n Polic!l, 1918-45. H.M's,O., 1949 ft.
Documents on Germanv under Occupation, 1Y45-J4. Ed. H. Ruhm von Oppen. R. lost. 01
lnt. Affairs, 1955
1046 GERMANY
Dlcldnson, It. E., 1'''' R<gions of Germanv. London, 1945
8te1nberg, S. H., .d Blwrt Bi·'1MV of GtfflUlny. Londoo, 19014; German ed., M~ioz, 196(
WiskemruD, E., Germany" Eastern Nnghbours. R. Inst. o[ Intern. At!alr9, 1956
Zink, H ., The United States in Germany, 1941-55. New York, 19~7
NATl01UL LmRARY. Deutscbe Bibllotbek, Untormainkai 14, Frank!urt (Maio). Di"d",:
Prof..sor Ilanno Wilbelm Eppelsbeimcr.
THE LANDER
BADEN-WURTTEMBERG
COM.:itution. The Land Baden-Wiirttemberg is a merger of the 3
Lander, Baden, Wiirttemberg-Baden and Wiirttemberg-Hohenzollern,
which were formed in 1945. The merger was approved by a plebiscite held
on 9 De,. 1951, when 70% of the population of the 3 Lander voted in it~
favour.
The Diet, elected on 4 March 1956, consists of 56 Christian Democrats,
36 Social Democrats, 21 Free Democrats and 7 Refugee Party.
The government is a coalition of Christian Democrats, Social Democrats,
Free Democrats and Refugoe Party, with Dr Kurt·Georg Kicsinger (CDU)
as Prim" Minister.
Area aM Populalion. Baden-Wiirttemberg comprises 35,750 sq. km,
with a population (at 31 Dec. 1958) of 7,433,000 (3,493,200 males, 3,939,800
females), including 1,336,900 expellees. 1
The Land is administratively divided into 4 areas (North Wilrttcm·
berg, North Daden, South Baden, South Wiirttemberg-Hohenzollern),
9 urban and 63 rural districts, and numbers 3,382 communes. The capit:ll
is Stuttgart.

Lt,·. births Marriages Divorces Deaths
1956 125,941 66,177 5,087 75,784
1957 J 30,302 66,361 5,292 7V,41,
1958 133, 806 67,209 0,488 74,826
Relig;on. On 13 Sept. 1950, 49'4% of the population were Protestan~,

47'2% Homa.n Catholic3 and 3'4% mombers of other denominr>.tions or
without religious affiliation.
Ed'UC~tion. There were in 19584,219 elementary schools with lS,!J30
teachers and 640,635 pupils; 54 intermediate schools with 1,179 teachers
and 36,365 pupils; 315 secondary schools with 5,832 teachers and 130,168
pupils; 1,950 professional schools with 6,604 teachers and 321,797 pupils ;
3 Universities (Heidelb-erg, 6,926; Frciburg, 7,454; Tiibingen, 6,920 students
in wintel' term 1958-50); 2 technical high schools (Stuttgart, 4,920; Karls·
ruhe, 5,042 students); 1 school of economics (Mannheim), 1 agricultural
high 8ch·)o) (Stuttgart-Hohcnheim), 6 high schools for music, 2 academies
of art, and 16 teachers' training colleges.
Health. There were, in 1957, 591 pospitals with 78,(;66 beds.
I 'Expellees' (Ver/rieb"",), according to official West German usage, are (1) ail German
nationals who on 1 Sept. 1939 had tileir permanent residence eitber east 01 the Oder-Neisoe
line or abnad, and (2) tbeir children born anywhere at any time alter 1V39.
GERMANY 1047
Social Welfare. In the fiscal year 1 April 1958-31 March 1959 public
assistance. including assistance in homes and hospitals. was given to 151.858
persons (as at 31 March 1959) and amounted to DM 183,093,000 or DM 24·54
JU8tice. Thero are 2 supremo court.9, 17 county courts and 120 district
courts.
Labour. The total number of employees was 2,884,000 at 30 June 1959;
that of unemployed, lI,OOO. Of the total working population, including
employers and unemployed, at the census of 13 Sept. 1950, 26·1 % were
engaged in agriculture and forestry; 45-8% in manufacturing and building;
12·6% in commerce and transport; 15'5% in public and private services.
Agriculture. Area and yield of the most important crops:
Area (in] ,000 hectares) Yield (in 1,000 metric tons)
1956 1957 1958 1956 1957 1958
Rye 44 ·5 41 ·9 40·0 10·8 98 ·6 101·»
Wheat 204·6 22~·5 247·4 603 ·3 700·2 689·6
Barley 175·2 154·2 150·9 423·7 404 '5 :38:) -2
Onts ~i'7 84 ·2 77 ·5 212·3 I ng·6 lR8·3
Potatoe~ 132 ' 4 134·3 129·9 3,069'8 2.864·3 2,973-3
Sugar uect 16 ·6 17'4 18·0 618·8 ,37·0 799'4
Livestock (3 Dec. 1958): Cattle, 1,749.400 (including 864,200 milch

cows); horses, 106,900; pigs, 1,513,40Cl; sheep, 157,500; goats, 123,800;
poultry, 7,774,500.
machine constrnction; 163,700 in textile industry; 155,800 in electrical
engineering; 107,500 in car building.
Communications. On 31 March 1959 there were 24,36;' km of' classified'
roads, including 329 km autobahn, 3,555 km of federal roads, ll,581 km
of first-class and 8,901 km of second-class highways. Motor vehicles, at
1 JaiL 1959, numhered 1,067,200, including 402,700 passenger cars, 3,800
buses, 85,300 lorries, 134,400 tractors and 350,000 motor cycles.
STATlSTICAL INlI'OlUUTION. Tho Statistisches Lande~arut (Neckarstr. lSn, Stuttgart),
(Presidml: Dr Pa.ul Jostock), publisilcs: Stali.~tische Monatshtjte Eaden--WiirUemberg;
J";~rbikMr /i.ir 8tati.1tilt und LanMskunde t'Ofi Baden-WurUemberg (quarterly); Stati.cfik 90ft
BadIm-WilrUffllberg (""ries); Statistisclti!. Handbuch Baden-WilrUemberg (1955 and 1958)
Sprcng, n., and otb."" Di. V..!um,ng de. Londe. IJaden-WiJrUffllbl!1'g. Stuttgart, 195~
BAVARIA
BAYERN
C01utitution. The Constituent Assembly, elected on 30 June 1946, paRsed
a constitution on the lines of the democratic constitution of 1919, but with
greater emphas19 on state rights; this was agreed upon by tho Christian
Social Union and the Social Democrats.
The elections for the Diet, held on 23 Nov. 1958, had the following
results: 101 Christian Social Union, 64 Social Democrats, 14 Bavarian
Party, 17 Refugee Association, 8 Free Democratio Party.
The cahinet is a coalition of the Christian Social Union, the Free
Democrats and the Refugee Association (BHE) and is headed by Minister
President Dr H anns Seidel (CSU).
1048 GERMANY
Area and Population. Bavaria, without the Palatinate, has an area of

70,549 8'1. km. The capital is Munich. There are 7 areas, 191 urban and
rural dis~ricts and 7,126 communes. The population (31 Dec. 1958) num·
bered 9,~:78,OOO (4,303,500 males, 4,974,600 females), including 1,771,900 ex-
pellees.!
VITAJ~ STATISTIOS for calendar years:
Live birthB Marriage. Divorces Death.
1956 152,876 81,394 6,773 103,778
1867 158,839 81,766 6,728 108,041
lU~8 161,443 82,595 6,848 101,910
Relig:on. On 13 Sept. 1950 there were 71·9% Roman Catholics, 26·5%

Protestants, 0·1 % Jews and 1·5% without denominational allegiance.
Education. In 1958-59 there were 7,097 elementary schools, with 27,660
teachers and 912,369 pupils; 493 secondary schools, with 9,511 teachers and
184,809 pupils; 582 farmers' vocational centres, with 64,992 pupils; 225
technical, commercial and domestic colleges, with 3,1l7 teachers and 264,675
pupils; 431 special schools, with 2,222 teachers and 51,985 pupils; 14
teachers' training colleges, with 123 teachers and 3,109 pupils.
In summer term 1959 there were 3 universities (Munich, 16,350;
Erlanger , 3,749; Wiirzburg, 4,079 students); the Technical University of
Munich, 5,343; the Nuremberg School of Economics and Social Sciences,
966; th'3 Roman Catholic Theological Colleges at Augshurg, Bamberg,
Dillinger.., Eichstatt, Freising, Passau and Regensburg, 851; the Protestant
Theologbal College at Neuendettelsau, 99 students.
Health. There were, in 1957,804 hospitals with 99,379 beds.
Socia ~ Wel/are. In the fiscal year I April 1958-31 March 1959 public
assistance, including assistance in homes and hospitals, was given to 193,063
persons (:lS at 31 March 1959) and amounted to DM 218,166,000 or DM 23 ·46
Justice. There were, on I Jan. 1958, 167 district courts, 21 county
courts, 3 courts of appeal, a supreme court and a supreme constitutional
court; thore were also a Land labour court, II county labour courts, an
administrative court and 6 lower administrative courts, a Land social court
and 7 county social court.s.
LaboET. The total number of employees was 3,293,800 at 30 June 1\)59,
that of t:.nemployed, 56,700. Of the total working population, including
employers and unemployed, at the census of 13 Sept. 1950, 30·6% were
engaged in agriculture and forestry; 40·9% in manufacturing and build-
ing; 13·1% in commerce and transport; 15·4% in public and private
services.
Agriculture. Area and yield of the most important products:
Area (1,000 hectares) Yield (1,000 metric tOM)
1955 1956 1957 1958 1955 1956 1957 1958
Wheat 39~'3 386·1 592·7 418·2 1,038'1 1,087'3 1,089' 5 1,101'9
Rye 370·0 353·1 346·8 347·6 765·7 823·3 768 ·2 819·1
Barley 331 ·9 35U·8 S05·7 346·8 799'9 924·0 903' 7 894·9
Oata . 241·2 249·' 238 ·5 219·2 542·8 575·7 510·0 4g9·g
Potatoes 313-1 318·1 314·8 300·3 6,238' 8 8,295'7 7,339'8 6,865 '6
Sugar beet 30·8 33·0 34'0 45 ·2 1,128'5 1,178'1 1,182' 8 1,790'3
1 S .. footnote on p. 1040.
GERMANY 104:9
Livestock (3 Dec. 1958) : 3.693.200 cattle (including 1.770.700 milch a.nd
draught cows): 186.300 horses: 246,100 sheep: 103.100 goa ts ; 2.956.400
pigs; 14.180,300 poultry.
Industry. In June 1959. 10,429 establishments (with more than 10
electrical engineering; 120.500 ill machine construction; 110,600 in textile
industry; 75,000 in cloth manufacture.
Communications. There were, on 31 Ma,rch 1959, 27.397 km of' classified'
roads including 617 km autobahn. 5.804 km federal roads, 10,513 km of
first-class and 10,463 km of second-class highways. Number of motor
vehicles, at 1 Jan. 1959, waa 1,402,200 including 681,000 passenger cars,
102,100 lorries, 3,900 buses, 247,700 tractors, 467,500 motor cycles.
STATISTICAL n."OIUlATlON. The Bavarian Statistical Office (bl. Neuhauaer Bt ., Munich ~)
.as fonnded in 1833. P,.sidenI : Dr Karl Wagner. It publishes: Staluti.tehe. Jahrl)!lch
fu, BillM"' (1958).-SIali.ti.JcM. 'i'a.!cheniJlvh lu, Bayem (1960).-BalM"' ill Zahkn. Monthly
(from Jan. 19(7).- Zm..chri/t de. Bay.....chen SIal~.,..chen wnae.amu. 1868-1943 ; 1948fl.
-Btilril'J• .,,, Stali.t lik fiay".... 1850 ff.-Sta'i,'i.« he B"ich/. (/nIONnaliomdil!1ul). 1 ~ 50 If.
-Sl<Iti.Jtik fu, J<demu"",,. 19W Il.
Nawiasky. n. and Leosaer. 0 .. Di<! V"la,,,,,,,, de. 1',....t.>au. Bav. m .om 2. Du. /916.
Mlllilcb,1948
Sr.•rn LIBRA.RY. Bayeri9cbe St""tobi~ li o the k. Mnnicb 22. I>irtClo,· G~al : Dr OU"taT
Bolmann.
BERLIN
Government. Greater Berlin wa.s under quadripartite Allied governmen~
(Kommandatnra) until 1 July 1948, when the Soviet element withdrew.
On 30 Nov. 1948 a separa te Municipal Government waa set up in the Sovie~
Sector (sce p. JO(4).
Area. The t otal area of Berlin is 883·8 sq. km, o f which Western Berlin
coven! 481 sq. km and the Soviet Sect.or 402·8 sq. km . The Briti8h Su/M
includes the administrative districts of Tiergarten, Charlottenburg, Wilmers-
dorf and Spandau; the American S ector those of Kreuzberg, Neukolln, Tom·
pelhof, 8chiineberg, Zehlt>Ddorf and Steglitz ; the French Sector covers the
adminiatrll.tive districts of Wedding and Reinickendorf, and the Soviet
Sector, those of Mitti', Friedrichshain, Prenzlauer Borg, Pankow, WeissenHee.
Licht.enberg, Trepto\v and K openick. The British, Amerioan and French
sectors form an administrative unit. called Western Berlin.
W ESTERN BERLIN
Cmistitution and Government . According to the constitution of I S ept.
1950, Berlin is simultaneously a Land of the Federal Republio (though not
yet formll.lly incorpora.ted) and 1\ city. It is governed by a House of
RepresentMives (a t least, 200 members); the executive power is vested in a
Senate, consisting of the Ruling Burgomaster, tho deputy Burgomaster and
not more than 16 senators.
In the municipal elections, held on 7 Dec. 1958, the Soci(l,\ DeIDocmts
obtained 78 seats; the ChriRtian D cmocrats, 55 seats; 67 unallotted seats
remain reserved f or the Soviet Sector. The government is a coalition of
Socia.l Democrats and Christian Democrats.
Head of the Administration. Willy Brandt (Social Democrat).
1050 GERMANY
Population. Estimated population, 31 Dec. 1958, 2,226,000 (943,900

males, l,282,lOO females), including 181,900 expellees. 1 According to the
1950 ceasus, 73'2% were Protestants, 11 '2% Roman Catholics, 0·2% Jews.
VITAr, STATISTICS for calendar years:
Live birth. ~{.rri_ Divoreea Death.
1956 17.48G 1~.044 5.065 32,20;
1967 17.863 19.927 4.8 8 ~ 33.900
1968 18,806 20,303 4,942 33,935
Education. Western Berlin, in May 1958, had 482 publio and private
8"hools, 8,160 teachers and 212,555 pupils (including 46 special schools with
534 teachers and 7,861 pupils); 90 vocational schools (Nov. 19(8), 1,550
teachenl and 83,287 pupils; 114 technical schools (Nov. 1958),493 teachers
and 9,289 pupils.
The;~e are in Western Berlin a Free University (with 11,017 students in
winter term 1958-59), a Technical University (7,967), high schools of fine
arts (723), music (427), politics (400), a teachers' training college (1,019), and
an independent theological high school (347).
Hea.!th. There were, in 1957, 151 hospitals with 29,146 beds.
Sod:ll Welfare. In the fiscal year ended 31 March 1958 public al!sistance,
includillg lIoSIIistance in homcs and hospitals, was given to 168,612 persons
(as at 31 March 1958) and amounted to DM 166,923,000 or DM 74·02 per
head of population.
Justice . There are 9 district courts, I county court, 1 court of appcal
(Kamm~rgericht), I administrative court, I higher administrative court, I
labour ')Ollrt, 1 Land labour court, I social court and I Land social court.
L{lbt)ur. The total number of employees was 870,300 at 30 June 1959,
that of unemployed 55,100. Of the total working population, including
cmploy.!rs and unemployed, at the census of 13 Sept. 1950, 43'3% were
engaged in manufacturing and building; 23'.1% in commerce and transport;
29'2% iD public and private services.
Agr,:culture. Agricultural area (1958), 12,511 hectares, including 3,2lO
hectareJ arable land and 8,797 hectares garden~, orchards, nurseries.
Livl,stoek (3 Dec. 1957): Cattle. 5,100; pigs, 13,200; horses, 1,500;
sheep, 1,000.
employ,~es) employed 287,700 persons; of these 102,300 were employed in
electric:tl engineering; 36,000 in machine construction; 22,300 in cloth
manufacture; 14,900 in steel construction.
C07r,.munications. There were, on 31 March 1959, 97 km of 'classified'
roads. On 1 Jan. 1959, 177,600 motor vehicles were registered, including
118,800 passenger cars. 27,500 lorries, 28,500 motor "ycles, 1,200 buses
and 1,600 tract·ors.
JJf01,ey. The legal tender of Berlin is the German Mark (DM), viz., the
DM (East) in the Soviet Sector and the DM (West) in the Western Sectors.
On 20 March 1949 when the DM (West) became the only legal tender of
the Western Sectors, the Zentralbank of Berlin was established. Its func-
tions w·~re similar t{) those of the Zentralbanks of the Lander of the Federal
, Set footnote on p. 1046.
GERMANY 1051
Republic. The Berlin Central Bank was merged with the Bank deutscher
Lander as from 1 Aug. 1957, when the latter became the Dcutsche Bundes-
bank. The legal tender for the Western Sectors of Berlin is being issued
by the Deutsche Bundesbank (formerly Bank deutscher Lander).
On 11 Aug. 1959, 1 DM (West) was exchanged for 3·88 DM (East) .
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. Tbe Stntlstlsches Landesamt, formerly Statistlsches Amt der
Stadt BerUu, was founded in 1862 (BerJio- Schoncberg, Salzburger St. 21-25). Dir«lo"
Dipl.-Math.Katsch. It puGUsbes : SlaJislisch .. Jaltrbuch (Irom 1867); Berliner Statis/ik
(monthly, from 1~47) .
BREMEN
FRIlIE HANSESTADT BREMEN
C01lslitution. Political power is vested in the House of Burgessea
(1Jll'ge,schaft), which appoints the executive, called the Senate.
The elections of 11 Oct. 1959 had the following result: 61 Social Demo·
cratic Party, 16 Christian D emoc ratic Union, IG German Party, G Free
Democratic Party. The Senate is formed by a coalition of 7 Social Demo-
crats, 2 Free Democrats and 3 Christian Democrats; it,s president is Wilhelm
Kai8er (Socblist).
A,ea and Populalioll. The area. of the Land, consisting of the towns
and ports of Bremen and Bremerhaven, is 404 sq. km. Estimat.ed popu-
lation, 31 Dec. 19.~8, 677,500 (318,300 males, 359,200 f",male~), including
104,000o>rpellees.'
"ITA-!, STATISTICS for calendar years :
r..ive birth. Marri8€es IlIvorceo D •• tha
1956 8,816 '),793 790 7,101
1967 n,5~7 5.82 ') 7~1 7,272
19~8 iJ,n10 u,O~~ 863 7.~71
Religion. On 13 Sept. 1950 there were 84·9% Protestants, 8·9% Roman

Catholics, 6 ·2 % members of other denominations or without religious
affiliation.
Education. On 15 May 1958 there were lGO schools (2,746 teachel'll,
80,2i52 pupils), and (15 Nov. 1958) 48 vocational schools (1,128 teachers,
37,991 pupils) and a teachers' training collego (22 teachers, 303 students).
Health. There were in 1957, 16 hospitals with 5,908 beds.
Social Welfare. In the fiscal year 1 April 1958-31 March 1959 publio
assistance, including assistance in homes and hospitals, WItS given to 21,303
persons (as at 31 March 1959) and amounted to DM 26,894,000 or DM 39'56
Ju~tice. There are 1 state court (Staat8gericht~hof), 2 administrative
courts, 1 treasury court, 2 social courts. 3 labour courts, 3 lower courts, 1
county court and 1 court of appel.1 (Oberlande8gericlit).
Labour. The total number of employees was 281.400 at 30 June 1959,
that of unemployed, 7,300. Of the total working population, including
employers and unemployed, at the census of 13 Sept, 1950, 8·6% were
engaged in agriculturo and fishing, 42'3% in manufacturing and building,
30·8% in commerce and transport, 23'3% in official and private services.
I See rootnow on p. 1046.
1052 GERMANY
Agriculture. Arable land (1958), 4,591 hectares; yield of grain crop••

6.625 D:letric tons; root crops (potatoes, sugar beet and turnips), 35,357
metric tons.
Live,tock (3 Deo. 1958): 18,300 cattle (including 6,600 milch cows);
20,300 pigs; 900 sheep; 1,900 horses; 500 goats; 261.700 poultry.
Indu.stry. In June 1959, 484 establishments (with more than 10 em·
ployees) employed 103,800 persons; of these 16,300 were employed in ship.
building; 20,800 in car.building; 11,300 in machine construction; 7.800
in electlical engineering.
Roads. On 31 March 1959 there ,vere 230 km of 'classified' roads,
including 24 km of autobahn, 58 km of federal roads, 83 km of first·class
and 66 km of second· class highways. Registered motor vehicles on 1 Jan.
1959 numbered 69,700, including 45,300 passenger cars, 10,500 trucks.
1,100 tractors, 300 buses and 12,600 motor cycles.
Shipping. Vessels entered in 1958,12,373 of 21,171,930 net tons (com.
pared with 9,555 of 10,259,175 in 1938); cleared, 12,277 of 21,288,794 net
tons (9,560 of 10.268,952 in 1938). Sea traffic, 1958, incoming, 7,811,919
metric tons (4,022,977 in 1938); outgoing, 5,513,203 metric tons (4,971,230
in Hl38).
snruTlCAL INFORHATlON. Tbe Statistisches Landesawt (Herdentorsteinweg 37,
Bremen) " ... founded in 1850. Direclor: Dr Wilhelm Tet.lalr. Its current publications
Include: S/.UiSli.• eh. Milttilungen aus Bremen (from 19(8).-·Monatli<ht Zu:ischmberiehte
(19.9-53); Slatisli,,'" MonaJ.,b.richu (from 1954).-Slalislischt Eerie!.,. (1956).
BeoUn, L., Bren~ und Ammka. Bremen, 1953
STATE L1Bn.uIY. Bremer Staatsbibliothek. Dreitsnweg 44-45. Dirte,,,,: Dr Wog.ner.
HAMBURG
FREIE UND HANSESTADT HAMBUBG
Constitution. The oonstitution of 1 July 1952 vests the supreme
power in the House of Burgesses (Bllrgerschaft) of 120 members. The
executh'e is in the hands of the Senate, whose 12 members are elected by the
Biirgcrs'Jhaft.
The elections of 10 Nov. 1957 had the following results: Social Demo·
crats, 6(1; Christian Democfll,t.~, 41; Free Democrats, 10. The First
Burgomaster is Max Brauer (Soc.).
By 8. law of 21 Sept. 1949 the territory has been divided into 7 admini·
strative districts. eaoh with a mayor and council.
Area and Population. In 1938 the territory of the Free Hanse ToWIl
was reorganized by the amalgamation of the city and its 18 rural distriots
with 3 llrban and 27 rural districts ceded by Prussia. Total area, 747
sq. km. PopUlation (31 Dec. 1!J58), 1.807,600 (833,400 males, 974,200
females), including 248,400 expellees. 1
VITA_L STATISTICS for calendar years:
Live bh·the Marri"!"'S DlTorc.. Deatbo
1966 19,499 16.361 3,389 21,066
1957 21.187 16.819 3,423 22.~Ol
19G8 22,O·lV 17,44" 3,467 21,944
1 Set footnote on p. 10·16.
GERMANY 1053
Religion. On 13 Sept. 1950 Evangelical Church and Free Churchel
78·8%; Roman Catholic Church 0'5%; Jewish community 0'06% ; other
denominations 0·2% ; 14'4% did not belong to any religious body.
Education. In May 1958 there were 335 general public schools with
6,630 teachers. 143,415 pupils attended the elementary school, 15,500 the
middle school and 24,832 the secondary school. III addition there were 48
special schools (41,0 teachers, 7,531 pupils) and 22 prh'ate schools (320
teachers, 8,260 pupils). In winter te rm 1958-59 the University of Ham·
burg had 10,317 students. The high school for fine arts 406 students and
the high school for music 553 student.s.
Health. There were, in 1957, 59 hospitals with 19,548 beds.
assistance, including assistance in hOlUC8 and hospitals, was given to 50.966
persons (as at 31 March 1959) and amounted to DM 80,850,000 or DM 44·66
Justice. There are 6 district courts, 1 county court. 1 court of appoal.
2 administrative, 2 la bour and 2 80~ial courts, and an admiralty court.
Labour. The total number of employees was 792,500 at 30 Jnne 1959,
employers ao<l unemployed, at t.he census of 13 Sept. 1950, 2·6% were
engaged in agriculture and forestry; 41 % in manufacturing and building;
32'2% in commerce and transport ; ::4·2% in public and private services.
Agriculture. The agricultural area c') mpriscd 37.930 ht'ctares in HI5S.
Yield, in metric tons (1958), of cereals. 14.543; potatoes, 25,363.
Livestock (3 Dec. 1958) : Ca.ttlc, 19,100 (including 7, WO mikh cows);
pigs, 28,100; horscs,3,300; shcep.2,300; goats, 1.700; poultry, 462,3 00.
Fi .• herie.,. Turnover in 1958 was 105.458 metric tons valued at DM
63·8m.
Induatry. In June 1959, 1,532 (;stablishments (with more than 10
employees) employed 228,700 persons ; of thesc 32,900 were employed in
shipbuilding; 28,100 in machine construction; 24,500 in electrical engineer.
ing; 17,000 in chemical industry.
Communicatio'IUI. On 31 March 1959 there were 311 km of ' cIMsilied'
roads, including 15 km of autobahn, 95 km of federal roads, 108 km of
first·class and 92 km of second·class highways. Number of motor vehicles
(1 .Jan. 1959). 201.300, including 136,000 passenger cars, 30,200 lorries,
800 buses, 2,300 tractors, 32,000 motor cycles.
Shipping. Before tho War, Hamburg W!l.B the third largest port in the
world; it is stiU the biggest Gcrm<tn port.
Veosels Ins 19;')5 1956 195; 1~5 S
Entered: Number 1~ . U9 16,688 17,!'>2l 17.604 19.0:13
TonDage 20,:;67,311 21 ,163 . ~96 23,(1 0,608 2·1,262, :12·1 ~7,454.R~0
creaTed: Number 19,316 18.265 18.91)1 18.526 20.363
TOllllage 20,a4i,1'8 21,292,9~3 23,498,416 24,334,685 27.579,914
Books 0/ Ref erence

STATlSTIO.\L IN11'ORMATWN. The 8t"tistisches Laod83lWlt (SteckelMrn 12, Ham bnrg 11)
.... follndedio 1866. Di,,,,,,,: Dr Peter DcnelIe. A.mOog its older publications. the Sl4li .•tik
de. Hambu,g« Staau.• (50 vol• • , 1867-19bS) i. I·be most import.ant. Current putJlicaLioD&
iDclude : Sluli .•Ii.<cM.. Jah,buch/tJ, d~ F,ei, und llanu.• l4dl Hambu.'g (from 192~). - Bambu'q
in Zahlen (from 1947).-llamburgn MQna.lJtahlen, formerly fJ,u1lhw'V" Staiisti,.(.'/~ A[OMb!U-
1054 GERMANY
mhU (fmm Oct. 1947).-3talUli.!ehe B...w.u, formerly Hambu'g.. Slali,'iltlu In{ormatioMft
(from Jail. 1954).
Handel und Schi{fahr' des Ha/ens Hamburg. Annual, from 184.
MOller, K . D., Dos leltU Kapitel. Hamburg, 1948
Stnd~· Oh"'n. B., Hambu'g, die OuchichU einn SttJ4l. Hamburg, 1961
HESSEN
COIt.!litution.The constitution was put into force by popular referendum
on 1 D ~c. 1946. The Diet, elected on 23 Nov. 1958, consists of 48 Social
Democrats, 32 Christian Democrats, 9 Free Democrats and 7 Refugees
Association.
The cabinet is a coalition of Social Democrats and Refugees Association.
headed by Minister President Dr Georg August Zinn.
Are., and Population. The state of Hessen comprehends the areas of the
former Prussian provinces Kurhcssen and N3.IlSau (excluding the excla.ve.
belouging to Hesse and the rural counties of Oberwesterwald, Unterweater·
wald. Unterlahn and St Goarshausen) and nf the former VolkMtaat Heeeen,
the provinces Starkenburg (including the parts of RheinhesAAn east of the
river Rhine) and Oberhessen. Hessen has an area of 21,108 sq. km. Its
capital is Wie~ baden. Therc are 3 areas, 48 urban and rural ctistrictB and
2,701 communes. Estimated population, 31 Dec. 1958, was 4,651,500
(2,178,000 males. 2,473.500 females), including 865,300 expellees.'
VITAl. STAT1Sl'1CS for calendar ycars:
Li"e birth. Yarrl~.. Divorce. D.. tbs
1906 68,990 40,962 3.905 61,3~3
1967 71,917 11,341 .,004 ~2.769
1958 73,213 42,069 4,033 60,U 2
Reli!lion. On 13 Sept. 1950 thero wcre 64·1% Protestants, 32·2%

lloman Catholics and 3'7% others.
Edu.:ation. In May 1958 there were 2,793 primary schools (12,461
teachel'!:. 446.687 pupils). 48 middle schools (776 teachers. 23,668 pupils).
167 secondary schools (4,356 teachers, 84,232 pupils); in Nov. 1958 there
were 230 vocational. professional and special schools (2,671 teachers, 185,281
pupils), 56 agricultural schools (293 teachers, 3,220 students) and 67 schools
of hyginnics (544 teachers, 2,400 students). In winter term 1958-59 the
University of Frankfurt had 7,391, the University of Marburg, 5,390, the
University of Giessen. 1,366. the Technical Univcrsity of Darmstadt, 4,241
student». Three Roman Catholic theological colleges had 396; 1 Lutheran
collcge 16 students; 5 teachers' training collcges had 2.303 (Nov. 1958)
studentH; 3 colleges for fine arts and music had 405 students.
Heaith. There were, in 1957,290 hospitals with 50,342 beels.
Boci,il Welfare . In the fiscal year 1 April 1958-31 March 1959 public
assistan ~e, inc1ucting a6Sistance in homes and hospitals, was given to 112,294
persons (as at 31 March 1959) and amounted to DM 134,418.000 or DM 28·84
per heao! of population.
Justi.ce, There are 1 state court, 1 supreme administrative court, 4
administrative cOllrts. 1 Land labour court, 12 labour courts, 1 Land 80cial
court., 7social courts, 1 finance court. 1 court of appeal. 9 county courts. 83
I Set lootnote on p. 1046.
GERMANY 1055
district Cl)urts. Hessen has 17 prisons, 12 remand institutil)ns, 8 juvenile
reformatories and 1 temporary home for male juvenile prisoners.
Labour. The total number of employees was 1,701,300 at 30 June
1959, thilt of unemployed, 17,700. Of the total working population,
including employc1'!'I and unemployed, at the census of 13 Sept. l(l50, 23·3%
were engaged in agrioulture and fishing, 43·1% in manufacturing and build.
ing, 16% in commerce and transport, 17·6% in offici;\1 and private services.
Agriculture. Area and yield of the most important crops:
AIea (In 1.000 hectareg) Yield (In 1.000 metrlo tOIll)
1956 19:'7 1958 1956 1957 1958
WLeat 108·1 JJ7'O 120·7 367·1 390·6 352·3
Hye 13:;·/ 12~'4 134· 3 361·0 331 ·7 3.0·4
Barley 43·1 5e·l 4;·. I no 146·4 132·,
Oat~ . 103·0 101·8 ~'>'6 277-1 245·2 260· 2
Potat.Qes 101)·~ 912 91· 2 2.26<H ~.086 · 6 1.783·6
Sugl\r tJect 1,'~ 19·1 19~ 609·8 658·0 710·7
Livestock, 3 Dec. Hl58: Cattle, 798,200 (including 397.300 milk cows);

horses,75,700; pigs, 1,141,600; sheep, 130,800; goats, 86,100; poultry,
4,608,100.
Indu.!try. In Jlme 19:;9, 4,487 establishments (with more than 10
employees) employed 607.600 pe rs on~; of these 78,400 were cmployed in
machine construction; 63,500 in chemical industry; 62,600 in electrical
engineering; 46,8UO in car building.
Roads. On 3 J March 1959 the Land Hessen had 15,078 km of' classified'
roads, including 400 km autobahn, 2,529 km federal highways, 5,934 km
first· class highways and 6,216 k m second·cl ass highways. Motor vehicles
licensed on 1 J an 1959 totalled 62.'5,000, incl uding 309,700 passenger cars,
2,'100 buses, 58,100 trucks, 55,500 tractors and 199,300 motor cycles.
STATI"TlC AL IN1'OnMATlO!<. The Hessian Land Statistical Ollke (Rhein Str. 36. Wi ..•
baden) WA..~ Mtahlished iu Dec. lfi45. [)irertor: Dr WitH BUlner. Main publications :
Slali"';."h .. Hant/bucltfij, aa. Land Be.•un (195Sl.-SIaa1 und Wi....c/<a!1 in B,,,,,, (Monthly).
-Sl4ti,/i'cl",. T,..d.... buch fU, da. I.and lIe ..", (19(. 9).-Htlsitch.! B"'DlktrU~" u"'"
Wir,.r/iIlfl.f,tuntV (fro!]) 1955).-Die hessischen Landkreise und kreislreil"1l Stddte (from 19:>1).
- Bt:1trd?c tur SIalislilt H e3Sffl.I.
LOWER SAXONY
NIEDEBSACHSEN
Government. The Land Niedersachsen was formed on 1 Nov. 1946 by

merging the former Prassian province of Hanover and the Lander Brunswick,
OIdenburg and Schaumburg·Lippe. The Diet, elected on 19 April 1959,
consists of 65 Social Democrats, 51 Chri~tian Democratic Union, 20 German
Party, 8 Free Democratic Party, 13 Refugees Association.
The government is a coalition of the Social and Free Democrats, and
the Refugees Association, headed by Minister President Hinrich Wilhelm
Kopf (Social Democrat).
Area and Population. Lower Saxony (excluding the town of Bramer.
haven. a.nd the districts on the ri~ht bank of the Elbe in the Soviet Zone)
comprises 47,382 sq. km, and is divided into S administrative districts, 60
rural district~, 16 towns and 4,262 communes; capital, Hanover.
1056 GERMANY
Estimated population, on 31 Dec. 1958, was 6,515,600 (3,063,300 males,

3,452,300 females), including 1,670,000 expellees. 1
VnAL STATISTIOS for calendar years:
Live births Marriage. Divorcee Deatho
1956 104,983 54,915 ',723 69,012
1967 108,221 54.275 4,414 71,804
1958 108,291 56,<102 4,797 71,021
Religion. On 13 Sept. 1950 there were 77'3% Protestants, 18·8%

Roman Catholics, 3'9% others.
Education. In Mav 1958 there were 4,816 elementary school~ with
18,565 teachers and 635,318 pupils; 207 middle schools (:l,980 teachers,
7:1,730 pupils); 183 secondary schools (4,639 teachers, 97,384 pupils). In
Nov , 1357,609 vocational and continuation schools (4,646 t eachers, 305,689
pupils); in winter t erm 1958-59, the University of G6ttingen had 6,631
studen'~s; 2 technical high schools (8,318 students), I veterinary college (537
students); 1 mining acauemy (1,28:l students); 1 high school of social
sciences (136 students); I high school for music (190 students) and 10
tcachel's' training colleges (3,659 students),
Health. There were, in 1957,434 hospitals with 62,036 beds.
Social Welfare , In the fiscal year 1 April 1958-31 March 1959 public
assistallce, including assistance in homes and hospitals, was given to 154,210
person" (as at 31111arch 1(59) and amounted to D1I1168,841,OOO or D1I125·89
per hes.d of population.
Justice. There are 134 district oourts, 11 county courts, 3 courts of
appeal and 1 supreme court.
Lalour. The total number of employees was 2,400,400 in June 1959,
that of unemployed, 44,700. Of the total working population, inc.!uding
employers and unemployed, at the census of 13 Sept , 1950, 30'4% were
engage:l in agriculture and fishing, 36'3% in manufacturing and building,
15·1 % in commerce and transport, 18'2% in public and private services.
Agl'iculture, Area and yield of the most important crops:
Area (in 1,000 hectares) Yield (In 1,000 metric tull.O)
1955 19.$6 1957 1958 1955 19.56 1957 1958
Wheat 140·6 144-1 161·0 158·7 414·6 472·0 552·7 497·5
Rye 422·6 446·9 448'4 452·1 1,018'4 1,122'0 1,221'9 1,140'8
Barley 139·6 78·2 86·3 102-5 216-1 250·8 306·8 313·5
Oats . 215·7 207'9 204-1 188 ·8 593·3 ~77·9 547·5 5:\8·0
Potatoes. 276·1 267·9 271·7 25Hl 5,511·9 5,949'8 6,9,,9'2 ;;,233·1
Sugar beet 108·, 107·' 97'3 104·2 3,326'7 2,734'6 :>,678'8 3,887'2
Liv~stock, 3 Dec, 1958: Cattle, 2,343,400 (including 978,500 milch cows);

horse~, 253,800; pigs, 4,380,200; sheep, 239,800; goats, 75,300; poultry,
13,347,700,
employees) employed 661,400 persons ; of these 69,500 were employed in
machine construction; 65,500 in car building; 47,200 in electrical engineer-
ing; 4~,100 in textile industry.
RoaM, At 31 March 1959 there were in Lower Saxony 23,746 km of
'classif.ed' roads, including 418 km autobahn, 4,272 km federal roads, 8,888
J 8" tooUlO~ 011 p, 1046.
GERM..<\.NY 1057
km of first·class and 10,168 km second· class highways. Number of motor
vehicles, 1 Jan. 1959, was 812,200, including 370,500 passenger cars, 75,600
lorries, 2,900 buses, 99,600 tractors, 263,700 motor cycles.
STATLSTICAL INFORMATION. The' Niedct's:lc!11Sischoo LandcsverwaltungS<lOlt-Abteiluog
Statistik' (Dertastr. 2, HawlOver) fulfils tile function of the 'Statistischcs Laudesamt fUr
Niedersachsen! Head of Division.: HegienUlk":5dil'ektor Dr Haus Krau'S. 11am publica.tion:;
are: Statistisc"" Jahrbuck fur Nieders<!chsefl (from 1050).-Statis(fscl" J10nalshefle l ilr
N iedersachsen (from 1947).
LAND LnIRARY. Niedersachsiscbe Landesb lbliothek, Hanover. Director: Dr G. Meyer.
NORTH RHINE-WESTPHALIA
NOBDRlIEIN-WESTFALD
Government. The Land Nordrhein-Westfalenisgoverned by the Christian
Democratic Union; Minister President, Dr Franz Meyers. The Diet,
elected on 6 July 1958, consists of 104 Christian Democrats, 81 Social
Democrats, 15 Free Democrats.
Area and Population. The Land comprises 33,960 sq. km after 66 sq.
km were, on 23 April 1949, placed under Netherlands and Belgian admini·
stration. It is divided into 6.areas, 38 urban and 57 rural districts. Capital
Dusseldorf. Estimated population, 31 Deo. 1958, 15,459,300 (7,3'19,20()
males, 8,110,000 females), including 2,460,600 expellees. 1

Live births Marriages Divorcee Death.
1956 243,843 137,288 12.0~6 165,3i9
1957 256,698 138,954 12.297 165,089
1958 261,323 142,18·1 13,072 16~,5i8
Religion. In 1950, 41 % were Protestants and 54·8% Roman Catholics.

Education. There were, in 1958, 6,313 primary schools with 34,114
teachers and 1,391,816 pupils, and 728 secondary sohools with 16,749 teachen
and 335,719 pupils.
The Universities of Cologne, Bonn nnd Munster, the Technical University
of Aachen and the Medical Academy of Diisseldorf had 37,554 students in
winter term 1958-59.
Health. There were, in 1957, 785 hospitals with 169,100 beds.
assistance, including assistance in homes and hospit.als, was given to 417,622
persons (as at 31 March 19(8) and amounted to DM 499,693,000 or DM 32·21
Justice. There are 178 district oourts, 19 county courts and 3 courts of
a.ppeal.
.Labour. The total number of employees was 6,379,500 at 30 June 1959,
that of unemployed, 75,300. At the census of 13 Sept. 1950 of the total
working population, including employers and unemployed, 55·4% were
engaged in industry and building, 16·7% in comm erce and transport, 16·2%
in public and private services, 11·7% in agriculture and fishing.
1 a.. footnote on p. 1046.
MM
1058 GERMUlNY
Agriculture. Area and yield of the most important crops :

Area (In 1,000 hectares) Yield (in 1,000 metric tens)
1955 1956 1957 1958 1955 1956 1957 1958
Whe~t 157·0 163·6 167·0 174·0 613-3 468 ·7 052-6 631-4
Rye 268·8 273 · 7 276·2 290·8 73H 761·0 828·2 758'4
Barley 84·2 72·1 n·o 98·5 268·8 191 ·2 304'4 313·7
Oats . 14~'8 130·1 120·3 105' 4 392-7 361·2 345·2 291'9
Potatoe-J. 159·~ 161·7 152·4 14 2·1 3,462" 3.196,8 3.696' 2 2,997' 3
Sugar b'let 61-4 04·0 5S'4 60·:; 2,286'7 2,123 ' 7 2,268'5 2,605'4
Li"estock, 3 Dec. 1958: Cattle, 1,621,500 (including 784,500 milch cows):

pigs,2,675,900: sheep, 155,500: goats, 48,800: horses, 147,400: poultry,
13,280,600.
Indu.!try. In June 1959, 16,136 establishments (with more than 10
employees) employed 2,770,300 persons: of these 496,300 were employed in
minin€:: 283,300 in machine construction: 215,200 in textile industry:
214,400 in iron and steel production.
Output and/or production in 1,000 metric tons, 1958: Hard coal, 132,168:
lignite, 80,119; pig.iron, 13,361; raw steel ingots, 18,023: rolled steel,
12,317; castings (iron, steel and malleable castings), 1,684; cement, 6,962;
fireproof products, 1,032: sulphuric acid (including production of cokeries),
1.329: soda, 702: nitrogenous fertilizers (including production of cokeries),
474: thomas meal, 286; staple fibres and rayon, 98: metalworking ma·
chines.89; equipment for smelting works and rolling mills, 133: machines
for mi~ing industry, 243: cranes and hoisting machinery, 58: installation
implements, 19: cables and electric lines, 154; springs of all kinds, 89;
chains of all kinds, 70; locks and fittings, 131: spun yarns, 284; electric
power, 53,241m. kwh.: gas (including cokery.gas of industry), 18,767m.
cu. metres. Of the total p opulation, 18'3% were engaged in industry
(1958).
Communications. There were (31 March 1959) 22,008 km of 'classified'
roads, including 419 km autobahn, 4,336 km of federal roads, 10,866 km
of firsl ,·class and 6,388 km of second·class highways. Number of motor
vehicle,s, 1 Jan 1959, 1,7ii8,.')00, including 950,400 passenger cars, 205,700
lorries, 7,200 buses, 103,800 tractors and 491,400 motor cycles.
STAtISTICAL INFORMATION. Tbe St~tisti"ches Landesamt (Lndwlg Beck St, 23, DUsse!·
dor!) was founded In 1946, by amalgamating tbe provincial statistical office. of Rhinc!and and
Westph"Ua. Di..ctor: E. O. ChandoD. The Lalldesamt publisbes: StaListiscks Jahrllmh
Nord,kin-W, .•t/alen. From 1949.-Stali.<lischt Rund.'cliat! /ij, d& Land No,d,hein-W",.
alen. ;Ilontbly from JaD. 1949.-Stati.tia<ks Taschenbuch N o,drhein· W'est!aJen. From 1955.
L.um LmRA.RY. Lande.· und Stadtblbliotbek, Grabbcplat. 7, Dilsscldor!. DirectM :
J. Gie3&er.
RHINELAND-PALATINATE
RHEINLAND-PFALZ
Co"stitution. The constitution of the Land Rheinland-Pfalz was ap.
proved by tho Consultative Assembly on 25 April Hl47 and by referendum
on 18 May 1947, wh en 579,002 votf'd for and 514,338 against its acceptance.
Thn elections of 19 April 1959 returned 52 Christian Democrats, 37
Social Democrats, 10 Free Democrats and 1 m ember of the Deutsche Reich
Party (Nazi).
The cabinet is a coalition of Christian Democrats and Free Democrats,
headed. by Peter Altmeier (Christian Democrat) .
GERMANY 1059
Area and Population. Rheinland-Pfalz comprises 19,829 sq. km.
Capital, Mainz. Population (estimate as at 31 Dec. 19.~8), 3,354,700
(1,578,700 males, 1,776,000 females), including 298,900 expellees.1
LI ... births M"ni&geo Divor... D."tlll
1956 62.771 29.990 2.129 37.706
1957 R4,722 30.070 2.162 37.604
1958 61.473 30.nO 2,243 36,168
In 1950 (census) thertl were 40'7% Protestants and 57'7%

Religion.
Roman Catholics.
Education. There were, in 195D, 3.236 primary schools with 3.273
teachers and 354.775 pupils; 156 secondary schools with 2,701 teachera
and 58.023 pu pils ; 5 teachers' tra.ining colleges with 69 teachers and
1,047 students (winter term 1958-59); a. theological high school at Trier
with 20 professors and 19D students, and a university at Mainz with (winter
term 1958-59) 442 professors and assistants and 5,146 students.
Health . There were, in 1957, 237 hospitals with 33,592 beds.
assistance, including assistance in homes and hospitals, was given to 64.293
persoDs (as at 31 March 1959) and amounted to DM 72,662,000 or DM 21·61
Labour. The total numher of employees was 1,093,700 a.t 30 June 1959,
employers and unemployed. at the census of 13 Sept. 1950, 36·1 % were
engaged in agriculture and fishing, 36'2% in manufacturing and building,
13'7% in commerce and transport, 14% in public and private services.
Agriculture. Area and yield of the most important products:
Area (1.000 hectares) Yield (1.000 metric too.)
1955 1956 1957 1958 1955 1951 1957 1958
Whc&~ 76 ·9 70·7 87·3 99·9 237·0 2U·O 267-2 296·1
Rye 100·9 92·0 8H 100·3 24308 223·0 211·7 274·9
Barley 67,. 80·5 82·1 69·1 208,3 238·' 211-1 191·1
Oats 96·6 105·0 91 ' 7 80·8 238·3 26H 204'6 205·2
Potntoes. 98,6 101·7 96'6 94 '4 2,202'5 2,498" 2.028'9 1.926'4
Sugar beet . 14·6 17'2 18·6 20·8 673-8 687-7 i23·7 918·8
Wine (1.000
h.ctoli~rcs) 41 ·6 .1·6 40·9 41-4 1,899'0 743-1 1.78306 3,621'5
Tobacco. 2·8 2-1 2-S 2·8 6-6 7'0 6·6 6·7
Livestock (3 Dec. 1958): Cattle, 693,800 (including 326,800 milch

cows) ; horses, 59,700; sheep, 54,500; goats, 38,300; pigs, 659,300;
poultry, 3,657,100.
[rl.llu.stry. In June 1959, 2,894 establishments (with more than 10
employees) employed 341,800 persons; of these 61.100 were employed in
chemical industry; 35.300 in production of leather goods and footwear;
33.100 in machine construction; 32.300 ill quarrying.
Communications. There were (31 March 1959) 12,741 km of 'classified'
roads, including 123 km of autobahn. 2,370 km of federal roads, 5,387 km
1 S .. lootnote on p. 1046.
1060 GERMANY
of first··class and 4,860 km of second-class highways. Number of motor

vehicleH, 1 Jan. 1959, was 434,100, including 187,800 passenger ca·rs, 39,600
lorries, 1,500 buses, 56,700 tractors and 148,400 motor cycles.
STATJ3TIOAL INlPORIlATJON. The St&ti8tischeo Landesamt (ROmerbad. Bad Ems) was
...tabIi8b,,.) in 1946. P,.>idLnl: Dr NeIJessen. Its publications include: Stati.ltuches Jahr-
buchfiir RheinJand-Pfalz (from 1948); Sttdutische Monatshefte RheinJand-Pfalz (from 1948);
Statistik .on Rheinland-Pfalz (from 19(7) 70 vols. to date.
KIl~pper, R., and K6rber, J., Rheinland-PJalz in seiner Gliederung nach zentrawrtlichen
El'TeicJ en. Remagen, 19;:'7
SU8terbe,w. A •• and Scbller, H., Vt1'/auung OD" Rheinland-P/al" KommmItJ,. Koblenz,
19~O
RMinlan.l-Pful. KuUu, ..114 Wi,tJcha/l. Tr..utbeim, 1963
SAARLAND
In 1919 the Saar territory was placed under the control of the League of
Nation". Following a plebiscite, the territory reverted to Germany in 1936_
Ir. 194[. the territory became part of the French Zone of occupation, and was
in 1947 accorded an international status inside an economic union with
France.
In pursuance of the German-French agreement signed in Luxembourg
on 27 Oct. 1956 the territory returned to Germany on 1 Jan. 1957.
Tht. economic re-integration of Saarland with Germany \\'as completed
by 5 July 1959.
Constitution. Sa.a.rland now ranks as a Land of the Federal German
Republic and is represented in the Federal Diet by 8 members. The
constit~tion passed on 15 Dec. 1947 is being revised.
The' Saar Diet, elected on 18 Dec. 1955, is composed 8.8 follows: 16
Christian Democrats, 13 Free Democrats, II Christian People's Party, 8
Social Democrats, 2 independents.
SaarIand is governed by a coalition of Christian Democrats, Christian
Peoples Party and Social Democrats. Minister President, Dr Franz Josef
Roder (Christian Democrat).
Area and Population. Saarland has an area of 2,567 sq. km. Estimated
popula ~ion 31 Dec. 1958, 1,040,200 (500,500 males, 539,600 females). The
capital is Saarbrticken.
Live births Marriages Divorcee Deaths
1966 18,449 8,421 SI:; 10,309
1967 19,124 8,S~8 281 10.021
1958 19,752 9,088 382 10,608
Rel. :gion. In 1951, 73'4% of the population were Roman Catholics and
25·3% were Protestants.
EdHcation. In 1958 there were 603 primary schools with 2,954 teachers
and 101,552 pupils; 38 seeondary schools with 798 teachers and 16,483
pupils. In 1957 there were 39 vocational schools with 543 teachers and
36,681 pupils, 5 teachers' training colleges with 48 teachers and 553 students,
and a university (founded in 1947) with 2,707 students in winter term 1958-
59.
Bedth. There were, in 1957,43 hospitals with 9,301 beds.
GERMANY 1061
Social Welfare. In 1956,9,722 persons were assisted under non·institu-
tional welfare; the expenditure totalled 680·2m. francs. Institutional wel-
fare covered 4,449 assisted persons; the expenditure amounted to 747·2m.
francs. 18m. francs were spent on supplementary social health work.
Justice. The Saar disposes of 16 municipal courts, 1 district court and
1 court of appeal.
Labour. The total number of employees was 349,000 at 30 June 1959,
that of unemployed, 3,900. At the census of 14 Nov. 1951 of the total
working population, including employers and unemployed, 55·1 % were
engaged in industry and building, HI·] % in commerce and transport, 13'9%
in public and private services, 14'9% in agriculture and forestry.
Agriculture and Foresh·y. The cultivated area occupies 1,370 sq. km
or slightly more than half the total area; the forest area comprises nearly
32 % of the total.
Area and yield of the most important crops:
Area (1,000 hectares) YIeld (1.000 metric tons)
1955 1956 1957 1958 1955 1956 1957 1958
Wheat 10·1 2·2 10'4 n·o 22·7 3·9 26' 4 27 ·J
Rye ]0·3 7·2 9·J 9·0 21·8 12·6 21'9 20·6
Barley 3·0 7·6 3·8 3·8 6·6 16 ·2 9·1 8'7
Oats 12·2 J6·6 J1-4 ]0·2 26·8 34·0 2J·8 22·6
Potatoes. 13·6 13·4 12· 5 J2·1 206·9 243·6 ]99'4 191·2
Sugar beet 0·1 O·J O·J 0·1 2·0 2·4 1'1 4'!~
Livestock, 3 Dec. 1958 : Cattle, 61,700 (in cluding 37,600 milch cows);
pigs, 79,500; sheep, 7,100; goats, 15,600; horses,6,OOO; poultry, 857,600.
Industry. Coalmining, iron and steel production are the main industriee;
they employ about one· third of the persous employed. In 1058 the coal·
mines produced 16,423,000 metric tons of coal. :Five iron foundries had 25
blast furnaces working and produced 3,083,000 metric tons of pig. iron and
3,485,000 metric tons of crude steel.
Commerce. In 1958 Saarland imported goods to the value of 293,400m.
francs and exported goods to the value of 313.800m. francs. France supplied
goods to the value of 219,300m. and took 202,400m. francs; the Federal
Republic supplied 63,500m. and took 77,300m. francs.
Communications. At 31 March 1958 there were 1,704 km of 'classified'
roads, including 323 km federal roads, 840 km of first·class and 541 km of
seeont\·c1ass highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 Jan. 1959, 125,000,
including 54,900 passenger cars, 17,900 lorries, 1,100 buses, 4,000 tractors
and 4 7,700 mot.or cycles.
STAnSTJC.~L INl'OnMATlON. The St,tistical Office of the Saar (Saarbriicken ]. Harden-
bergst.rlsse 3) was establish.a on 1 April 1938. As from J June J935, it was an independent
agency; its predecessor, 1020-n5, was t.he StatIstical Omce of thc Government Commission
of the Saar. Chief: Rcgierungsdirektor Dr Gotz. The most important publications are:
8f4liJti~(.hts Haudhuchfii.rdas SOOT/mid, {Tom 1955
8aarlandis<he B eriJZkerllngs- und Wirt.<ri.aft.·zahlen. Quarterly, from 19·19
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN
Government. Owing to the complicated electoral system (a combination
of majority and proportional representations), the elections of 28 Sept. 1958
gave the Christian Democratic Union 33, the Free Democro.tic Party 3, the
All German Bloc and Refugee Party 5, the Social Democratic Party 26
1062 GERMANY
and the, South Schleswig Association 2 seats. The government is a coalition

of the Christian Democrats and Free Democrats; Minister Presiden~.
K. U. "on Hassel (Christian Democrat).
Art.J and Population. The area of Schleswig-Holstein. in 1958, we.a
15.657 sq. km; it is divided into 4 urban and 17 rural districts and 1.400
communes. The capital is Kiel. The population (estimate, 31 Dec. 1958)
numbered 2.275.800 (1.067,200 males, 1.208,600 females). including 640,700
expelle<lS.l
Live births Harrill@ll8 Divorces Deau..
19~6 32,233 J S,019 1,899 25,218
1967 33,788 18,604 2,076 26.398
1968 34,399 19,853 l,9J~ 26,072
Rel'gion. In 1950,88% were Protestants and 6% Roman Catholics.

Ed~.cation. In 1958 there were 1.741 elementary schools with 7.185
teachers and 239,500 pupils; 158 secondary schools with 3,502 teachers and
74,186 pupils; 145 evening schools with 47,100 students; 2 teachers'
trainin,~ colleges with 715 students, and 104 vocational colleges, including 31
agricul1;ural colleges. The University of Kiel had, in winter term 1958-59,
3,442 students.
Heo!th. There were, in 1957, 146 hospitals with 25,853 beds.
Soc:ia! Welfare. In the fiscal year 1 April 1958-31 March 1959 public
assistance, including assistance in homes and hospitals, was given to 72,872
persOO!I (as at 31 March 1959) and amounted to DM 82,464,000 or DM 36·17
per hCl!.d of population.
JU8;:ice. There arc 69 district courts, 4 county courts. I oourt of appeal.
9 labour oourts, a Land labour court. 3social courts, a Land social court and
a court for administrative litigation.
Labour. The total number of employees was 763,900 at 30 June 1959,
that of unemployed. 22,600. Of the total working population. including
employers and unemployed, at the census of 13 Sept. 1950. 24'5% were
engaged in agriculture and fishing, 37'5% in manufactnring and building,
17'2% in commerce and transport, 20'8% in public and private ~ervices.
Agri.)'Ulture. Area and yield of the most important crops:
Area (1,000 hectares) Yield (1,000 mc!dc tons)
1955 1956 1957 1958 1955 1956 /957 1958
Wbeat 69·0 74'S 75·3 82-7 211-G '8~-t 287·0 221 ·4
Rye 119·6 133·3 1 2 ~'5 124·1 273'3 S38 ' ~ 34304 273·9
Barley M'4 41·6 49-(, 61 ·8 124-9 US·? liS,. 181·0
Oata . 77·' 66·2 62·9 58·6 210·7 191-4 171·9 162·'
·
Potawe• . 6H 49'S 53·0 43·8 1,044 " 1,307 ' 7 1,261 '1 7 93·7
Sugar bret 13·' 13·3 13·3 15·7 390·6 389-1 437'4 516·3
Livestock, 3 Dec. 1958 : 71,800 horses, 1,128,500 cattle (including

425.700 milch cows), 1,279,200 pigs, 118,700 sheep, 4,500 goat.s, 3,896,900
poultry.
Fi&Jwill8. Total oatch in 1958 was 97,100 tons, valued at DM 37m.
Ind'lUltry. In June 1959, 1,509 establishments (with more that 10
employees) employed 162,600 persons; of these 26,700 were employed in
I 8t1lootllota 011 p. 1046.
GERML"iY 1063
shipbuilding; 20,500 in machine construction; 9,500 in textile industry;
8,900 in quarrying.
CommunicatioM. There were (31 March 1959) 7,024 km of 'classified'
roads, including 1,406 km of federal roads, 3,453 km of first·class and 2,100
km of second·class highways. Number of motor vehicles, I Jan. 1959, was
256,600, including 124,600 passenger cars, 30,200 lorries 1,100 buses, 35,300
tractors, 65,400 motor cycles.
Kid Ca7UJl. The Kiel Ca.na.l, 98·7 km (61 miles) long, is on Schleswig-
Holstein territory. In 1938, 53,530 vessels of 22·6m. net tons pa.ssed
through it ; in 1955,62,911 vessels of 3I·3rn. net tons; in 1956, 62,402 1
vessels of 31·6rn. net tons; in 1957,66,588 1 vessels of 33·2m. net tons; in
1958,67,738 vessels of 33·5m. net tons.
I Plus, 19S6, 2,121; 19S1, 2,441 ; 1953, 2,~73 smnn sporting emIt without Indication
01 tbeir net register tons, wbicb were Included In tbe figures relating to tbe previous years.
Sl·ATISTlCAI, L'ffllRW.TION. Statistical Office (11iihlenweg 165, Kiel); Director: Dr
G. H. Horn.
Publications: SeatistischCJ Taschenbuch Schlesloiy-Holstein, (rom 19:;4 ; Sea/is/iscMs
Jallrbuch SchlesuW.J-llolstein, from 19:;1; Stati. tik von Scldeswig-Holstein, 28 vols., from
1949.-S/atistiche MonatsMfte Schleswig- llolslein, from 1949
Brandt. 0 ., Orunilri.s, Ikr Otlchich14 Sclll..."irl-Bolslei..... 6th ed. Kiel, 19~7
BaM/wdI/ur SchlmlJi9-BoUtein. 9th ed. Kiel,1968
L&ND LWRARY. Scbl"'wig-Holsteini&che Landeshibliotbek, WarnemUoder St., 16-lS
Kiel· Wit. DirtdM: Dr Olal Kioee.
GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

DEUTSCHB DEMoluu.TISOHB RBPUDLIX
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION. Upon the establishment of
the Federal Republic of Germa.ny, the People's Council of the Soviet zone,
a.ppointed in 1948, wa.s converted into a provisiona.l People's Cha.mber.
On 7 Oct. 1949 the provisiona.l People's Cha.mber ena.cted a oonstitution
of the 'German Democratio Republic'. The republic is, however, not
recognized by a.ny non·Communist government.
In July 1952 the 5 Liinder were replaced by 14 districts (Bezirke).
Pruident 01 the German Democratic Republie. Wilhelm Pieck (elected
11 Oct. 1949; re·elected 7 Oct. 1953 and 7 Oct. 1957).
At the elections held on 16 Nov. 1958, out of registered electorate of
11,848,602,11,717,952 votes were cast. The list of the Na.tionA.1 Front re·
ceived 99·87%; other lists were not permitted; 0·12% of the ballot pa.pers
were invalid.
The cabinet wa.s, in April 1960, composed as follows:
Prime Minister. Otto Grotewohl (Socialist Unity Pa.rty).
First Deputy Prime Mini.!ter. Wa.lter Ulbricht (SUP). Deputy Prime
Ministers : Willi Stoph (SUP), .Minisler 01 Defence; Fritz Selbmann (SUP).
Chairman 01 tilt. Commisaion lor Industry and Transport; Dr Hans Loch
(LDP); Paul Scholz (Dem. Peasa.nt.); Brllno Leuschner (SUP), Chairman 01
the State Planning Commission; Heinrich Rau (SUP), Minister 01 Foreign
and Internal Trade; Dr Lothar Bolz (Nationa.l Democratic Party), M inister
for FOTeign Affairs; Max Sefrin (Christian Democrat), M inister of Health.
Thero are 20 other Ministers, Secretaries of St.ate aDd Cha.irmen of
1064 GERMANY
Commissions. They include the Ministers of Finance (Willi Rumpf) and of
the Inlarior (Karl Maron); all are Communists.
Tho real power is vested in the Politburo of the SUP, which consists of
9 fulle,nd 6 candidate members. First suretary, Waiter Ulbricht.
N a,.!ional flag: Black, red, golden (horizontal); in the centre, on both
sides, ';he coat of arms showing a hammer and compass within a wreath
of graia entwined with a black, red and golden ribbon.
Na.!ional hymn: Auferstanden aus Ruinen (words by Johannes R.
Becher, tune by Hanns Eisler).
Ea::t Berlin. East Berlin (the 'Democratic Sector' of Berlin) is the
capital of the German Democratic Republic.
Head 0/ the Administration. Friedrich Ebert (Soc. Unity Party).
Population, 31 Dec. 1958, 1,090,353 (464,305 males, 626,048 females).
In 194,6, 70·7% were Protestants, 10'5% Roman Catholics, 0·2% Jews.
Vital utatistics (1958): Live births, 13,431; marriages, 10,784; deaths,
17,383.
EdltCation. 211 general public schools (June 1958) with 4,219 teachers
and (1!l57) 95,870 pupils, 60 vocational schools with 940 teachers and 33,200
pupils, 1 university (with 8,614 students on 15 Oct. 1958), 1 academy for
economics (1,477 students), 1 academy for sculpture and applied arts (171
students), 1 academy for music (175 students).
Pu~lic Health. 44 hospitals (31 Dec. 1958) with 18,797 beds.
Social Wel/are. 24,167 recipients of benefits of social welfare (31 Dec.
1958); expenditure of social welfare (1958) DM East 11,510,182.
Ag:·iculture. Agriculturally used area (15 June 1958) 15,677 hectares
including 7,874 hectares arable land and 6,420 hectares gardens, orchards
o.nd tree nurseries. Livestock (3 Dec. 1958): lO,049 cattle, 42,300 pigs,
2,832 horses, 9,075 sheep.
Industry. 934 establishments (31 Dec. 1958) employing 180,632 em·
ployeel, including 621 private establishments (18,053 employees).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area and estimated population (31 Dec.

1958):
Area in Population Per
Districts sq. km Male FtmJJl. Total sq. km
Ra.tock . 7,OG8 383,940 443,757 827,697 117
Scbweriu , 8,620 286,4G4 344,013 630,477 73
Neubr""denb~g 10,918 805,203 357,3~3 662,526 61
PotsdaDl. 12,418 526,108 646,794 1,172,902 94
FrankfurtjO. 7,049 298,963 359,277 658,240 93
Cottbus • 8,208 372,729 430,011 802,740 98
11,525 629,672 1,392,085 121
~:fi~eb~g 8,765 904,972
76~,413
1,079,062 1,984,034 226
Erfurt 7,306 ~6S,994 693,376 1,2~7,370 172
Gcr,. 3,994, 327,084 401,061 728,145 182
SuIlI 3,853 248,589 295,678 544,267 141
DreBde[, • . 6,740 832,740 1,062,969 1,895,669 281
4,964 079,694 854,911 1,534,60. S09
i~~~l1"r~.Stadt I 6,008 945,359 1,185,238 2,lS(I,~97 SU5
Berlin lIa.stern SetU!, 40S 464,305 6~6,048 1,090,353 2,706
G..-ma.. Dtml!c,atic Rtpublic 107,834 7,769,816 9,511,891 17,311,707 161
1 Formerl)' Chemnlt••
GERMANY 1065
An agreement proclaiming the Oder-Neisse line the permanent frontier
between Germa.ny and Poland WB.S concluded between the German Demo-
cratic Republic and Poland on 6 .Tuly 1950. A protocol on the delimitation
of the frontier was signed on 27 Jan. 1951; it extends the Polish territory
on the island of Usedom and in Mecklenburg beyond the borders fixed in the
Potsdam agreement. The Western Allies and the Federal Republic do not
recognize these agreements.
Resident population of the principal towns as at 31 Dec. 1958 :
Lolpzlg 693,902 Erfurt 184,588
Dresden. . . . 491,646 Hostock 151,811
Karl·Marx·Stadt (Chemnltz) 285.928 Zwickau 129,069
Bane . 278;828 i'otsdam 114,132
Magdeburg 258,712 Gera 99,241
VITAL STATISTICS:
Marriage. Live birt.hs Deaths Divorces
1906 152,580 281,282 212,698 23,349
1957 150,009 273,3::7 225,1 i9 23,298
1958 ' 15·1,368 27] ,183 220,20rJ 21,956
1 Preliminary.
Crude birth rate per 1,000 population was 15·9 in ]()56, 15·6 in 1957 and
1958; marriage rate, 8·(l in 195(l and 1957, 8·9 in 1958; death rate, 12
in 1956, 12·9 in 1957, 12·7 in 1958; infantile mortality per 100 live births,
4·7 in 1956,4'6 in 1957,4'4 in 1958.
RELIGION. According to the census of \950,80·5% of the population
were Protestants and 11 % were Roman Catholics; estimates for the eastern
sector of Berlin give 70% Protestants and 10% Roman Catholics.
EDUCATION. In 1958 there were 8,299 elementary schools with
44,847 teachers and (1957) 1,075,279 pupils; 1,154 middle schools with
24,104 teachers and (1957) 611,383 pupils; 372 secondary schools with
5,726 teachers and (1957) 91,311 pupils; 612 special schools with 3,855
teachers and (1957) 51,497 pupils; 300 advanced vocational schools with
5,723 teachers and 110,073 pupils. There were also 45 universities and
other high schools with 2,746 professors, 6,24.7 assistants and 64,106 students.
CineT1Ul8 (195S). There were 1,4.04 cinemas with a seating capacity of
544,300.
FINANCE. The budget of the German Democratic Republic was as
follows (in DM lm.) for calendar years:
1953 1956 1957 1958
Re venn e . . 34,775 35,RRl 36,655 42,00·1
Erpeuditare. a-i,/.):! 3[',856 36,377 41,820
Of the 1958 e"penditures,10,595m. was earmarked for health and social
services, 2,651m. for vocational training and sport, 2,16!Jm. for sciences and
Kultur.
DEFENCE. On 18 Jan. 1956 (the anniversary of the creation of the
Prussian Kingdom in 1701 and the German Empire in 1871) the Diet passed
laws for the establishment of a 'people's army' and a defence ministry. A
defence council, under the chairmanship of W. Ulbricht, First Secretary of
the Politburo, was set up in Feb. 1960.
Army. The Army is organized in 7 line and I artillery-A,A, divisions.
They are armed with 1,500 tanks (mostly Soviet T34/76 and T34/85), 300
1066 GER?lANY
self.propelled guns and 2,160 other (including A.A. and anti·tank guns).
The tobl strength in 1959 was 65,000 all ranks. There are also 215,000
militiamen organized in Betriebskampfgruppen (factory fighting squads) ;
their relationship to the Army is obscure.
Poli.:e. The police force (Bereitscha/tspolizei ) numbered 20,000 men and
the Border Police, 40,000 men in H).59.
Nav.lj. The Navy includes I escort destroyer, [) fIigates, 4 submarines,
4 petrol vessels, a minelayer, 54 patrol boats, 22 fleet minesweepers, Sin·
shore Dlinesweepers, 25 coast defence boats, 32 motor torpedo· boats, 10
motor launches, 2 surveying vessels, a depot ship, 7 tugs and a training ship.
The construction programme includes 3 escort destroyers, 4 submarines,
6 torpedo. boats and 6 motor torpedo. boats.
Air .Force. The 'air.police ' , set up in Nov. 1950, bad in 1957, a strength
of 10,000 officers and men, /lying 300 Soviet aircraft (Yak.II and Yak. IS).
Operati.)nal squadrons lue forming with MiG·17 and MiG-15 fighters and
IJ·14 a);.d An·2 transport aircraft.
Twenty Soviet divisions are stationed in the German Democratic
RepubLc.
TOo!CMn.I:.~ de, NalioMkn VDlhar",... Berlin, Ministerium tur nationale Verteidigung,
1968
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. In 1958 the arable land was 4,921,126

hectare,, ; meadows and pastures, 1,299,544 hectares; forests (1957),
2,935,0117 hectares. Since 1945, the estates of Junkers, was criminals and
leading Nazis have been sequestrated ; 3·100. hectares have been distributed
among farmers. From 1952 to 1958, 6,637 collective farms of 2·39m .
hectare:l, and 700 state farms of 373,461 hectares ha.ve been established ;
they were, in 1958, served by 600 machine and tractor stations.
The yield of the main crops in 1958 was as follows (in 1,000 metric tons):
Whea.t, 1,363·2; rye, 2,367·S; barley, 930·9; oats, 1,143'5; potatoes,
11,498·!l ; sugar beet, 6,976·1 .
Livf"stock on 3 Dec. 1959 : Cattle, 4,464,800 (including 2,157,500 milch
cows) ; pigs, 8,283,000; sheep, 2,114,600; 1958 : goats, 625,300 ; horses,
606,800; poultry, 33,138,200.
M ining. In the production oflignite, the German Democratic RepUblic
takes first place in world output. Large uranium mines in the Erzgebirge
(now apparently exhausted) and eastern Thuringia have been worked from
1945 under Soviet direction. The principal minerals raised are as follows
(in ],000 metrio tons):
19~6 19';7 19S8 1956 19Ji 1953
C-oal . 2,743 2,753 2,903 Copper ore 1,31)0 1,393 1,457
T.ignitc . 257,500 265,961 263,978 Potash. 1,556 1,604 1,650
Iron ore 1,757 1,478 1,506
lnd>£.stry. Industry produced about 63% of the national income in
1957 ; t;he nationalized undertakings were responsible for some 88% of the
entire bdustrial output.
Production of iron and steel (in 1,000 metric tons):
1953 1956 1957 1953 1959
Crude steel 2,163 ·2 2,739'9 2894·5 3,043·0 3,20.
1·;I'·;ron . 1,078·3 ] 573·7 1;662'9 1,114'9 1,889
I:.olled steel 1,513·6 2;010' 5 2,115' 4 2,264· S ~,487
GERMA.~Y 1067
Leading chemical products in 1958 were (in metrio tons): Potash salts,
1,650,000; nitrogen fertilizers, 320,010; synthetio rubber, 84,969; sulphuric
acid, 530,885; oaloined soda, 552,984; caustio soda, 296,365; ammonia,
444,313. Other industrial produots (1958): Cement, 3,558,000 metrio tons
(Hl59: 4,205,000); cotton fabrics, 217m. sq. metres; leather shoes, 19·8m.
pairs (1959: 22·9m.).
Power. Generation of electric power (in Im. kwh.): W50, 19,500; 1958,
34,800; 1959, 37,200.
COMMERCE. Foreign trade is a state monopoly. The distribution
of trade with the main groups of countries was as follows (in Im. roubles):
Soviet bloc West Germany Other countries Total
Import Export Import Export Import Export Import Export
19-)6 3,853'4 ·1.170-5 684-7 610-0 896-8 842-[, 5,334'9 5,629'0
i057 4,625-7 5,438'3 735-5 818-6 1,IUO-7 986·2 6,461'9 7,243-0
U58 4,76:;'2 5,SOl·S 760-5 845-2 1,193-8 911·6 6,719-5 7,558'6
A trade agreement conoluded with the U.S.S.R. in Nov. 1959 ensures
that about 45% of tho foreign trade of the German Democratic Republic
will be with the U.S.S.R. and about 75% with the Communist bloc as a
whole.
Total trade between the German Democratic Republic and the United
Kingdom (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1955 1956 1957 1958 19S9
Imports to U.K. 2,522,059 2,408,8R3 2,755.151 3,406,855 4,59S,331
Exports from U.K . . 661,623 99·1.142 1,421,415 2,277.689 3,516,614
Ue-erports1rom U. K. 321,773 5-16,903 1,406,585 3"7,447 662,350
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. There were, in 1958, 47,725 km of
classified roads. Road traffio amounted to 4,147m. ton·km of goods and
6,961m. passenger-km.
Railways. There were, in H)38, 16,093 km of railway line. Traffic
amounted to 30,lOlm. ton·km of goods and 21,399m. passenger.km.
Shipping. The port of Rostock is being reconstructed and enlarged so
as to absorb the whole sea·going traffic of the German Democratic Republic
and the Czechoslovak hinterland. Sea-going traffic in 1958, 3,738m. ton·
km of goods. In 1958 navigable inland waterways had a length of2,643 km;
they handled 2,398m. ton·km of goods.
Post. There were 10,993 post offices and agencies and 553,314 telephone
subscribers on 1 Jan. 1958. Number of wireless licences, 5,060,700; of
television licences, 317,600.
Aviation. The East German Lufthansa operates servioes between East
Berlin and Prague, Warsaw, Budapest, Bucharest and Moscow.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The circulating Reiohsmark notes
wcre exchanged for 'Deutschc Mark' (East) in June 1948. A' German
Bank of Issue' was set up in Berlin and empowered to issue the new notes.
This bank is the central institute for the 'Emissions· und Girobanken'
established in Aprill!J.i7 in the 5 Liinder of the Soviet Zone. The oircula.·
tion of notes uno coins ut 31 Dec. 1958 was DiU (East) 3,756m. Since
1 Nov. Hl53 the DNl (East) currency has been based on gold, the gold content
of the DM (East) being fixed at 0·399902 gramme. This fixation (which
would mean a relation of £1 = DM 6·22, $1 = D:\I 2·22) has not been
recognized by the International ~Ionetary Fund.
1068 GREECE
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES. The German Democratic

Republic maintains diplomatic relations with 12 Communist countries.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL lNl'ORill.TION. Tbe central statistica agency i. the Staatliche Zentral·
verwaltung fUr Statistik (Kloster St, 80-85, Berlin 0 .2).
Tbe Zentralverwaltung publishes: SUUistisches Jaltrbttch der Detttschen DerrwkraJ.ischen
RcpulJlik (from 1956).- Jahrbuch der Dwschen Derrwkratischen Republik Oatest issue, 1959).
- Statist "sche Prazis. Monthly, from 1946.-Vierleljahresl"'fle :ur SUUistik der D.D.R. Quar-
terly, I".m 1957
NATIONAL LIBRARY. Deutsche Bilcherei, Leipzig 0 .1. Director: Onrt Fleiscbback.-
Deut.;ch', St.antsbibliothek, Berlin. Director : Professor H . Kunze.
GREECE
VASn.EION TIS ELUDOS; KINODOM OF HELLAS
GBBBClI gained her independence from Turkey in 1821-29, and by the
Protocol of London, of 3 Feb. 1830, was declared a kingdom, under the
guarant.ee of Great Britain, France and Russia. For details of the sub-
sequen'; history to 1947 see THE STATESMAN 'S YEAR· BOOK, 1957, pp. 1069-
70.
Greece is a member of the United Nations, NATO and of the Ankara.
pact bE,tween Greece, Turkey and Yugoslavia of9 Aug. 1954.
National flag: blue and white striped, horizontal; with white croBS in
top.left. corner.
National anthem: Se gnorizo apo tin kopsi (words by Dionysios Solom08,
1824; tune by N. Mantzaros, 1873).
REIGNING KING. Paul I, born 14 Dec. 1901, married 9 Jan. 1938,
Princess Frederika Louise, daughter of the Duke of Brunswick (born 18
April HI7); succeeded his brother George II on 1 April 1947.
O/lspring : PrinccBS Sophia, born 2 Nov. 1938; Constantine, Duke of
Sparta (heir apparent), born 2 June 1940; Princess Irene, born at Cape
Town (,n 11 May 1942.
Si8t~8 of the King. (1) Princess Helen, born 3 May 1896, married
10 Mar·~h 1921, Carol II, former King of Rumania (from whom she obtained
a divorce 21 June 1928); (2) Princess Irene, born 13 Feb. 1904, widow of
AymoD, Duke of Aosta (died 29 J an. 1948) ; (3) PrinceBS Katherine, born
• May 1.913, married 21 April 1947, Maj. Richard C. A. Brandram, M.C., R.A.
Greek Ruler,
Otbon (?rince Otto of Bavaria) 18 Jan. Alexander, 11 .Tune 1917-25 Oct. 1920.
1833-23 Oct. 186Z (dethroned). Georgio. n, Z7 Sept. 1922-19 Dec. 1923
Georgio. I (prince William of Denmark) (expelled), 25 Nov. 1935-30 Dec. 1944,
1863-18 March 1913 (assassinated). 1 Sept 1946-1 April 19-17.
OonstaDUne I, IS March 1913-11 June 1917 Republic, 13 April 1924-3 Nov. 1935.
(expelled), 19 Dec. 19Z0-27 Sept. 19Z2 Regencll, 30 Dec. 1944-1 Sept. 1946.
(abdi",.ted).
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION. On 22 Dec. 1951 Parliament
ratified a new Constitution, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1952, amending
the COJlstitution of 1911. The amendments include : (i) Disposition8 to
facilitaf..e tho expropriation of certain lands for distribution to landleBB
peasants; (ii) in the event of the King's absence from the kingdom. and if
GREECE l06~
the successor to lhCl throne is not of age, the Queen assumes lhe royal power
in the King's name; (iii) a parliamentary recess committee with certain
legislative powers is established t o function while the Chamber is in recess;
(iv) civil servants and employees of public corporations are deprived of the
right to strike, and subversive ideologies are declared to be incompatible
with the functions of civil servants.
On 29 May 1952 women over 21 years were given the vote, and women
over 25 years were allowed to stand for parliament.
On 10-12 April 1958 the King signed the new electoral law establishing
the reinforced proportional as electoral system. According to this system,
the simple proportional system is applied in the first distribution of seats.
In the second and third distributions the simple proportional system is
again applied, but, in addition, a right to participate in these distributions
is given to parties having secured 25% of the tot.al of valid votes and to
party coalitions having secured 35-40% of the valid votes.
General elections, held on 11 May 195~, returned the following parties
(strength as at I Jan. 1959): National Radical Union (ERE), 169; United
Democratic Left (EDA), 58; Libera l Party, 34; Democratic Union, 12;
Other Parties, 19; Independents, 8; t.otal, 300.
The ERE government, sworn in on 17 May 1958, is composed as follows:
Prime 1Ylin,;ster and l}Iini.~ter of Defence. C. Karamanlis.
Vice·Premier. P. CanellopouJos.
Foreign Affairs. E. Averoff·'l'ossizza. Minister to the Prime Minister.
C. Tsatsos. .Minister of Co·ordination. A. Protopapadakis. Finance.
C. Papaconstantinoll. Commerce. L. Dertilis. Industry. N. Martis.
Interior. D. Makris. Justice. C. Kallias. Education. G. Voyatzis.
Public Works and Communications. S. Ghikas. Agriculture. C. Adamo·
poulos. Social Welfare. A. Stratos. .~fercantile Marine. G. Andriano·
pOlllos. Labour. A. Dimitratos. Northern Greece. A. Theologitis.
AREA AND POPULATION. The total area is 132,562 sq. km, of

which the islands account for 25,484 sq. km. Athens is the capital.
The population of the country was 7,632,801 according to the census of
8 April 1951. In May 1958, 5,032,736 persons (of whom 2,374,260 were
women) were on the electoral lists. Estimated population, 31 Dec. 1958,
8,555,000.
In 1950, 49'5% of the population were peasants, 25% workers and
artisans, 10% employees, 8'5% liberal professions, and 7% pensioners and
rentiers.
The following table shows the prefectures (Nomoi) and their population
figures:
Area In Population Population
Nomos sq. km 1~01 CapItal 1901
Central Greece and t'ub(Jta 24,979 2.287,019
Aetolia ....d Ace.rnania 6,711 220,138 Missolonghl 12,179
Attica 3,800 1,556,029 Athens 56r',084
Boeotla . 3,135 106,838 Levadeia 10,910
Euboes . 4,019 164,542 Cbalci. 23.786
Evrytania 2.036 39,678 Karpeuissi 3.445
Phthiotla 4,195 148,322 J.. amia 22,353
Phoci. 2,078 51,472 A.rophiss& 5,653
Peloponntlol 21,556 1,129.022
Argolis . 2,262 85,389 NaupIion. 8,459
Arcadla . 4,S53 154,361 l'ripoUs . 17,585
Akhala • 3.014 228,871 Patras 79,014
Ella 2,986 188,274 Pyrgos 17,996
Korinthla 2,280 113,358 Korinthol 17,728
1070 GREECE
Area tn Population Population
NomoI 8Q. km 1951 Capital 1961
Lakonia 3,764 130,898 Sparte 7,900
Messenie. 2,897 227,871 Calamata 37,781
Itnlta 181a1..d. 2,237 228,597
Zante .08 38,062 Zante 11,126
Kerkvra. 638 105,414 Kerkyra. 27,431
Ketaitenia 752 47,369 Argostolion 8,205
Levkas . 439 37,752 Levkas 5,329
'I'lu,.,aJy 13,984 628,911
Kardhitlla 2,:al 138,786 Kardhitsa 18,643
Larisa 6,620 ~08,120 Lnrisa 41,016
lfagnesi., 2,536 103,808 Volos 51,144
Trikkal. 3,317 128,227 Tri.kkal •. 24,131
Ma.:tdonia 31,356 1,700,835
Drama. 3,502 120,492 Drama 29,498
Imathia 1,688 96,43~ Verria 21,844
Thessaloniki 3,.35 459.956 Tbessaloniki 217,049
XavaJa . 2,169 136,337 Kavala .2.102
Kastoria 1.6RO (6,407 Kastoria. 9,468
Kilkis 2,6U 89,475 Kilki. 9,702
Kozanl ~,8BS 177,838 Kozanl ] 7,661
Pella 2,606 11 G,9B9 Ed ..... 14,940
Pieria 1,544 86,161 Katerinl . 24,605
Serres 4.052 222.549 Serree 36,760
Florina . 1,871 69,391 FloriIlB 12,270
Kh.lkidiki 2,9S8 75,735 Polyghyros 3,381
Mount Athos 339 3,086 Karyai 453
Epiru8 9,253 330,513
Arts I,Ul 72,717 Arta 12.947
Thesprotia 1,.79 47,299 Hegoume~itaa : 2,076
Yanina . 5,063 153,748 Yanina 32,3Ib
e,.,.Iraklion
Preveza . 970
8,379
2,571
56,779
462,124
189,637
Preveza .
Heraklion
11,008
51,144
Lassithl. 1,911 n.7S4 Aghios Nlkolaoe 3,167
Rethymnon 1,492 72,179 Rethymnon 11,057
Oanes 2,399 126,524 Canea 33,211
Atgtan l.tlnnd, 9,2.l2 528,766
Cyclades 2,649 12~.959 HermoupoUI 16,971
Le9voB 2,166 154.795 Mitylini . 25,518
Samoa 833 59,709 Limin Vatheos 5,970
CbioB 902 66,823 Chios 24,361
Dodecan.:!le 2,682 121,480 Rllodes 23,599
'I'/lrau 8,586 336,954
Evros ' ,249 141.340 AlexandroupoUa 16,63'
Xanthi 1,751 89,891 Xantlll . 25,700
Rodhopi 2,586 105,723 Komotinl 29,734
In 19;)1 cities (i.e., communes of more than 10,000 inhabitants, including

the whol'l area of Greater Athens) had 2,807,901i inhabitants (37% ); towns
(i.e .• communes with between 2,000 and 9,n9!! inhabitants). 1.187,135
(15%); villages and rural communities (under 2,000 inhabitants), 3,637,761
(48%).
Mount Athos, the easternmost of the three prongs of the peninsula of
Chalcirlice. is a self.governing community composed of 20 monasteries. (See
THE STA:rESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1945, p. 983.) For cent,uries the peninsula
has been administered by a Council of 4 members and an Assembly of 20
members, I deputy from each monastery. The Greek Government on
10 Sept. 1926 recognized this autonomous form of government and ratified
it by Articles 109-112 of the Constitution of 1927, which also gave legal
sanction to the Charter of Mount Athos, drawn up by representatives of the
20 mona~terics on 20 May 1924.
Since 1925 there has been a fiscal Free Zone in the town and port of
Thessaloniki covering an area of 234,497 sq. metres on land and 159.971
sq. metres on water with 7 km of railway and, since 1924, a Yugoslav Free
GREECE 1071
Zone in the same port with an area of 60,710 sq. metres on land and 33,872
sq. metres on water with 2,250 metres of railway. Since 1932 there has
been a }'ree Zone in the town of Piraeus, covering an area of 181,489 sq.
metres on land, with a frontage on the sea of 1,775 metres aud 1 km of
railway.
RELIGION. According to the census of 1951, there were 7,472,559
adherents of the Greek Orthodox Church, 28,430 Roman Catholics, 1,205
Armenians, 7,034 Protestants, 1,205 l\1onophysites, 4,438 other Christians,
112,665 Moslems, 6,325 J ews and 145 others. By the Constitution of 1864,
Orthodoxy was declared the religion of the State, but complete toleration
and liberty of worship was guaranteed to all other sects. The government
of the Church of Greece is ve$ted in a permanent council, called the Holy
Synod, consisting of the Archbishop of Athens as president and 12 metro·
politans, who must during their year of office reaide at Athens. The Church
of Greece has 7 I metropolitans.
The Roman Catholic Church ha.s 2 archbishops (Athens, Corfu) and i
bishops. The Greek Evangelical Church has 9 churohes. Only 8,500 Jews
out of 68,000 sl!rvived the German occupation. The Moslems have 300
mosques.
EDUCATION. All children between the ages of 6 and 14 years lllUSt
attend school.
There were (1957-58; public and private) 10,633 primary schools and
1,048 kindergartens with, together, 98!l, 146 pupils and 532 secondary and 42
commercial schools with, together, 212,471 pupils. There were for higher
studies 2 universities: one in Atheus, founded 1837, with III professors
and 6,670 students, and one in Thessaloniki with 102 professors and 4,580
students. The Polytechnic in Athens had 63 professors and 1,401 students;
the School of Fine Arts had 6 professors and 113 students. There are also
in Athens High Schools of Ecnnomio and Commercial Scionces (1.872
students), of PoliticlIl Sciences (2,578 students), of Industrial Studies (1,083
students) and of Agriculture (305 students); a state and 2 private conserva·
toires, and a stllLc conscrvatoirc n,t Thessaloniki.
Illiteracy in the a,ge groups of 10 years and over declined from 42% of
the population in 1928 to 12% in 1957.
Cinemas (1955). Ther() were 250 cinemas with a seating capacity of
150,000.
FINANCE. The estimates of revenue and expenditure for financial

years (ending 30 June) and, from 1 Jan. 1957, calendar years were as follows
(in Im. drachmai):
195,1-55 1955-56 1 1957 1958 1961)
Revenue 11.;;;;4,2UO 19,343'8 15.453 15,158 '7 18,560
Erpenditllre 11,728,400 19,6;;6'3 1[;,445 1-1,956'6 19,543
1 New issue of drachmai; the fiscal year was extended to 31 Dec. 1956.
The 1958 revenue includes 470·7m. drachmai from U.S.A. aid and 367·2m.
from N.A.T.O.; this aid was allocated for military expenditures, invest·
ments, N.A.T.O. infrastructure works and earthquake victims.
The capital of intcre8t.bearing funded debt as at 31 Dec. 1948 consisted
of gold fmncs 933.528,625, £30,310,!)OS, $70,728,751, francs 138,955,803, gold
marks 8,324,000, Swedish crowns 1,414,16<1.
1072 GREECE
The c,apital of non.interest·bearing funded debt at the same date oon·

sisted of (internal) drachmai 649,162.075; (external) £lOm., £Tl.940.210.
drachmai 5.083.530.297.
The foating debt as at 31 Dec. 1957 amounted to $7.331.600.
The International Financial Commission (composed of delegates from
Great Britain and France) established in Feb. 1908 to collect and disburse.
with the collaboration of the Finance Minister, such revenues as are available'
for the service of the external debt is to be superseded by some other arrange·
ment. aI:cording to the Anglo.Greek agreement of Jan. 1946. To this
Commission are assigned the revenues (for the most part in Old Greece}
from cer:;ain government monopolies, the stamp duty and the import duties
at the port of Piraeus. The German ocoupation of 1941-44 interrupted
the service of the debt, which has not been resumed since the Libera-
tion.
DEFJENCE. In Aug. 1950 the Ministries of War, Marine and Military

Aviation were fused into a single Ministry of National Defence. The
General :;taff of National Defence is directly responsible to the Minister on
general c.efence questions, besides the special staffs for Army, Navy and Air
Force.
Defellce expenditure accounts for 40% of tbe total budget.
ARMY. Military service is compulsory and universal. Liability begins

in the 21st year and lasts up to the 50th. The normal term of service in the
active Army is 24 months for all arms. followed by 19 years in the first
reserve of the active Army and 10 years in the second. The normal annual
contingent of recruits in peace· time is about 50.000. Ea.ch annual contingent
is called up for service in the active Army every 3 months.
Since 1945. the organization and establishment of the Army units have
been ads.pted to British models. In Feb. 1952 an America.n Mission took
over from a British Military Mission the training of the Army.
The Army consisted in 1959 of 11 infantry and 1 armoured division, with
a total s';rength of 127,000 men.
NAVL The Royal Hellenic Navy includes the cruiser Elli of 8,856 tons
(the ex·Ballan Eugenio di Savoia) armed with 8 6·in. guns. There are 5·
fleet des';royers, 14 frigates (12 destroyer escorts and 2 corvettes), 2 sub·
marines, 9 patrol vessels (gunboats). 4 ocean minesweepers, 1 training ship
(ocean Dlinesweeper), 14 coastal minesweepers. 2 coastal minelayers, 16
motor launches, 6 oilers, 1 repair ship. 10 lA-nding ships. 17 landing craft (8
L.C.T.; 9 L.C.A.). 0. depot ship. a salvage vessel. 6 transports, 3 lighthouse
tenders, 9 water carriers and 11 fleet tugs.
Am :FORCE. The Royal Hellenic Air F orce has a strength of 20.000'

officers and men and some 400 operational aircraft, forming 4 combat wings,
each of 3 squadrons. Three of the combat wings, equipped with F-84G
Thunderjet fighter· bombers, and a sql1adron of RF·84F Thundertlash
recoIlllai:lsance aircraft are organized as a Tactical Air ComDland and
constitute Greece's contribution to NATO air forces. The remaining wing
is equipped with Canadian·built Sabre interceptors for home defence.
There an also transport, training and helicopter units.
The n.H.A.F. is orgo.nized into Tactical, Air Training and Air Material·
Commands. There is an Air Academy and an Engineering School, but
GREECE 1073
most pilots and ground staff are trained at U.S.A.F. schools in the United
Statcs and Germany.
PRODUCTION. Greek economy was completely ruined as the result

of the occupation of the country by the Italians, Germans and Bulgarians
from 1941 to 1944.
.Agriculture. Greece is a food-importing agricultural country. Of the
total area only 26% is cultivable, but it supports 60% of the whole popula-
tion. The total area under <mltivation in 1957 was 3,515,000 hectares;
forest area, in 1956, was 1,958,100 hectares, of which 1,667,816 hectares were
state·owned.
Farming is concentrated on export crops, such as tobacco and currants,
to pay for essential imports, including meat, wheat and flour. Agriculture
suffers from soil·erosion and the inadequate use of fertilizers. Wheat yields
per acre are the lowest in south· eastern Europe. The use of tractors and
other agricultural machinery, imported by UNRRA and under the Marshall
Plan, has made considerable progress.
Yield (1,000 metric tons) of tho chief crops:
Average
Orop 1935-38 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Wheat 767 1,219 1,336 1,245 1.7 ~ O 1,787
Maize 255 254 285 239 265
Barley 197 258 224 230 254
Onts 116 160 157 148 186
Rk,e\.p"ddy) 4 86 62 43 59 67
Potntoes . 146 442 442 444 460 438
Vegetables • 233 970 922 982 1,060 1,170
Dry vegetables 52 107 97 97 99 99
Cotton -14 128 189 1 54 191 19 ~
Tobacco 61 67 97 82 109 77
Must 373 459 388-6 434 430 354
Snltnnas _
Currants _
Grapes
29
158
79·5
38
7.
130
6.
42
109
42
91
119
60
92
123
4:3
8:2
111
Citrus 55 196 184 194 230 266
Olive oil. 113 112 103 139 16 3 126
OlivC8 36 33 23 58 30 36
Tobacco normally furnishes, by value, 40% of Greece's total exports

(56m. kg in 1959). The harvested area was 122,300 hectares in 1957.
Olives are abundant, about 350,000 hectares being under cultivation.
Rice is cultivated in Macedonia, the Peloponnese and Central Greece.
Successful experiments have been made in growing rice on alkaline land
previously regarded as unfit for cultivation. Thc main kinds of cheese pro-
duced are sliced cheese in brine (commercially known as Fetta) and head·
cheese.
There were, in 1957, 332,196 horses, 214,975 mules, 510,838 asses,
081,111 cattle, 0-2m. sheep, 4-8m. goats, 641 ,300 pigs, 13-Gm. poultry.
Mining. Greece has a great variety of mineral deposits, including iron
(of high content, 43% ; 295,000 long tons in 1958), iron-pyrites, emery,
copper, zinc, lead, silver (96,452 fine oz. in 1958), manganese, aluminium,
antimony, nickel, magnesite ore, baryte, gold (5,787 fine oz. in 1958), sulphur,
ochre, bitumen, marble (white and coloured) and various other earths,
chiefly from the Laurium district, Tbessaly, Euboea and the Aegean islands,
There is no coal, only lignite of indifferent quality; reserves are about 10ru.
tons. Greece imports coal and oil for fuel.
1074 GREECE
buluatry. The leading products are tobacco, olive oil, wine, textiles,
chemicals, articles of food. Shipyards in Eleusis, the Aspropyrgos oil re·
finery and the lignite plant of Ptolemais are the beginnings of heavy in-
dustry. In 1958, 125,000 short tons of steel ingots and castings were pro·
duced.
Electricity. In 1954, <1 new power plants (Aliveri, Ladon, Louros, Agras)
openee, with a total installed capacity of 185,000 kw. and annual production
capacil;y of I,OOOm. kwh. By 1961,3 more power plant' will be operating
(Ptolemais, JI1egdova, Edessa) with an installed capacity of 312,500 kw. and
annual production capacity of 1,700m. kwh.
Tnlde Unions. The status of trade unions in Greece is regulated by the
As.,ocilltions Act 1914. Trade-unioD liberties are guaranteed under the
CODstitution. and the right to strike is subject to the Settlement of Collective
Labou:: Disputes Act of 21 Nov. 1935, which, while not making strikes
illegal, introduced the principle of compulsory arbitration.
ThH national body of trade unions in Greece is the Greek General Con·
federal,ion of Labour.
CO,MMERCE. Foreign trade (in Im. drachmai) for 6 calendar years

was:
1963 1954' 19fifi' 1~56' 1957' 1968'
Importa 7,1S6,263 9,90.1,170 11 ,460,000 13,911,000 \5,734,000 16,916,000
,Bxport.8 3,396,8~0 4,556,181 6,·181.000 5,698,000 6,588,uOO 6,953.000
I In 1,000 dracbmai, new issue.
Th!. trade was distributed, by principal countries, as follows:

Importa from Exporl8 to
1957 1958 1957 1958
1,OOOnew AIetrie J ,1)00 new M ttrie 1,OOOntlJ) AI etrie 1.000 new Met,/<
Ocmotriea drachma; tons drachmai tons dl"Qchmai tmu drachmai ttJRI
Austria. 121 ,035 72,401 393,H6 75,392 184,499 174,320 173,979 202,779
Belgium·-
Lux'u'mrg . 496,943 83,308 556,167 128,536 79,589 7,114 71,456 12,367
Egypt 181,944 74,M5 74.790 52,226 230,11 ~ 40,682 138,848 10,982
~'inland 188.955 34,028 150,,52 32,969 93,9 18 6,996 66.706 4,350
Fra.nce. 937,388 St2.103 919.690 279,426 444.039 47,173 893,174 227.596
German", W. 2.956.799 308,739 3,442.063 310,5(15 1.702,283 589,593 1,422,452 487,314
ItI&ly: , 1,549.237 764,213 1.496.664 702,749 542.797 153,444 41 8,163 69,647
Netberl8nda 46i .227 66,198 807,612 63.322 142,385 92./)77 136,390 53.155
Sweden. 5aH.QOO 93.222 578,760 102,489 72,780 14,256 35,728 6,975
Switzerland 189,528 1.473 233,669 2.024 74,733 7.670 ?2.41}2 7.363
Turkey 70,474 10,370 38.690 8,998 18,599 23.54' 11 .808 9,52"
U.K. . 1,742,501 112,017 1.(,77,114 149,147 589.024 148,979 .31.4~6 134,212
U.S.A, . . 2,571, ~0r, 728,755 2,234,030 61,0,1>33 906,024 76,876 94r.,625 t 38 ,661
Yugoelavla 408,195 62,716 413.397 34,523 265.677 17.297 275.379 21.921
Exports of mineral, (in metric tons):

1957 1958 19li7 1958
Emery ,!rude
t ·1.755 3,710 Lead or. and concen-
Ma.guesi ':e . • 24,289 22,749 t,rates . 7,000 14,058
Oalcinllt,d magne.ite 29.991 28,~64 Zinc ore and concen-
Crude ir.m pyrites 202,!!~S 8(1,357 trated . . . 16.082 4.520
Barytes . . 71,658 99,011 Manganp,se ore and coo-
Iron or,! and concen- (·.eiltrates . . 17.548 22,673
trates . . . 422.6G3 271.461 Chromium ore and con-
Ores of lIoo-ferrous base centrates 29,759 2~,67G
metah:, etc. . . 8iB.76G Cement 90,722 ~3.223
:Bauxite and concen. .
trates 785,397 836.453
GREECE 1076
Exports of agricultural (products in metric tons):
1957 1958 1957 1958
Oranges 19,877 15,616 Olives 14,974 13,159
Lemons 13,429 15,176 Olive oil 8,634 9,338
Grapes 19,881 13,672 Sponges 105 lOG
Currants 62,290 63,512 Spirits 26,557 179,879
Sultanas 58,956 36,621 eott·on, ginned 16,658 S8,186
Figs (dried) 1~,078 14.~96 Turpentine oil 1,6S6 2,415
Tobacco 69,000 62,375 Colophony . 19,187 23,221
Tourism earned US$36·5m. in 1958 (276,593 tourists; 339,970 in 1959),

compared with USS!)·Gm. in 1952 (76,187 tourists).
Total trade (in £ sterling) between Greece and the U.K. for 5 years was
(British Board of Trade returns):
1938 1956 1957 1968 1959
Imports to U.K. 1,960,442 7,500,603 8,094,704 8,(191,570 8,656,514
Exporta from U .K . . 3,752,123 24,354,066 18,897,962 18,995,660 16,905,2:;9
Re-exports from U.K. 116,753 298,314 304,436 21>3,939 247,319
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. On 1 Jan. 1960 the merchant navy

comprised 839 vessels of 3,460,085 GRT.
There is a canal (opened 9 Nov. 1893) across the Isthmus of Corinth
(about 4 miles).
Roads. There were, in 1957,47,164 km of roads, of which 4,195 were
asphalt. carpeted, 1,529 asphalt.surfaccd, 14,504 metalled and 13,047 un·
paved all·weather roads. Number of motor vehicles in Dec. 1956: 5,733
buses, 22,600 lorries, 24,713 passenger cars, 12,167 bicycles and tricycles.
Railways. Total length of the Greek railway system in 1940 was 2,679
km, of which 1,325 km belonged to the State Railways (SEK) and 1,354 to
the various private companies, the most important being the Piraeu8-
Athens-Peloponnese Company (SPAP).
During the war the railways suffered great losses, especially during the
departure of German troops, who systematically destroyed all tho railway
installations and equipment. Only 670 km were left fit for use after the
Iiheration in l!l44. The railway system is now fully restored (2,592 km in
1957).
Post. In 1959 telephone and telegraph lines had a lengt.h of27,616 km;
there were 6,428 telegraph offices, ) ,850 post offices and 169,130 telephones.
The agreement under which Cable and WirelesR. Ltd, were responsible
for Greek telegraph communications since 1865 was termina.ted by the Greek
Government in Jan. 1956, effective at the end of 1956.
Aviation. A Greek company connects Athens with Thessaloniki, Jau·
nina, Larissa, Kavala, Volos, Kalamata, Alexandroupolis, Corfu, and with
Rhodes :md Crete. Thirty foreign companies connect Athens with the
prinvipal cities of the world. The principal airport is at Elliniko near Athens.
MONEY AND BANKING. On 11 Nov. 1944 the Greek currency wa·s

stabilized at I 'new' drachma equalling 50,OOOm. 'old' drachmai. Further
readjustments took place in 1946, 1949 and 1953. A' new issue' of notes
and coins was put into circulation 011 I May 1954, I new drachma equalling
1,000 old drachmai (84 drachmai = £1; 30 drachmai = US$I). The 'new
issue' comprises notes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 drachmai and
met·al coins of 5, 10,20 and 50 lepta and 1,2 and 5 drachmai.
1076 GREECE
The National Bank of Greece (founded in 1841) was authorized to issue

ban.k·Mtes, the amount being increased each time the privilege of the bank
was extended. The note· issuing privilege of the National Bank was trans·
ferred to the new issuing bank, the Bank of Greece (Trapeza. tis Ellados), as
from 1~, May 1928, in accordance with the conditions of the Geneva Proto·
col of 15 Sept. 1927. On 31 Dec. 1958 bank· notes in circulation amounted
to 7,45·~·3m. drachmai; coins in circulation, 164·8m. drachmaL
In 1.953 the National Bank of Greece and the Bank of Athens were
amalgamated; in 1957 its name was changed to National Bank of Greece
(Ethniki Trapeza tis Ellados). Gold and foreign exchange reserves at 31
Dec. 1\)58 stood at US$162m.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system is used in official

publications but not compulsory in everyday transactions. The principal
old wei.~hts and measures are:
L oke = 400 drams = 2·832 lb. I IJic = 27 in.
L kanlar = 44 okes = 124·08 lb. 1 str~mma = 0·2471 acre.

Grellce maintains embassies in Canada, France, Germany (also for Den.
mark), India (also for Ceylon and Indonesia). Italy. Japan. Nepal, Norway,
Spain. Turkey (also for Pakistan and legation for Iran). U.S.S.R., United
Arab Republic (also legation for Iraq), U.K., U.S.A .• Yugoslavia; legations
in Argt,ntina (also for Chile), Australia (also for New Zealand), Austria.
Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria. Czechoslovakia, Ethiopia. Hungary. Lebanon
(a.lso for Jordan), Libya, Netherlands. Poland, Portugal. Sweden, Switzer.
land. Union of South Africa.
011' GREECE m GREA.T BnfTAm (51 Upper Brook St.• W.l)
Aml>a8sador. George S. Seferiades (accredited 26 June 1957).
Courlsellor. Miltiades Delivanis.
Naval and Military Attache. Capt. Hippokrates Dedes, R.H.N.
~fi~.ister. Marinos Cosmetatos (Press).
Courlsellor. N. D. Pierracos (Commercial).
Fint Secretaries. A. Chorafas (Consular); D.Petrou; A. Stephanou.
Air Attache. Wing Cdr M. J. Frangiskos.
There are consular officers of Greece at Belfast, Birmingham, Bradford.
Bristol. Cardiff. Cowes, Dover. Dundee. Falmouth. Glasgow. Hull. Leith.
Liverpc·ol, London. Manchester. Middlesbrough. Milford Haven, New.
castle. Plymouth. Portsmouth. Sheffield. Southampton. Swansea. Yarmouth.
0)' GREA.T BBITAm IN GREECE
Ambassador. Sir Roger Alien, K.C.M.G.
Cou~sellors. J. N. O. CurIe. C.V.O.; B. J. Garnett. O.B.E. (Commercial
and Consul· General). Fir8t Secretaries. T. A. K. Elliott (Head of Chancery) ;
D. C. Symon; The Hon. A. V. Hare, M.C.; J. D. Blakeway; E. J. C. Hare
(Information). Service Attaches: Capt. D. B. N. Mellis. D.S.C .• RN. (Navy).
Brig. J. R. Johnson. D.S.O .• O.B.E., M.C. (Army). Air Cdre R. Sorel·
Camercn. C.B.E.. A.F.C.
The::e are consular officers at Athens, Corfu. Patras. Piraeus. Thessaloniki
and Samos.
GUATEMALA 1077
OF GREECE THE U.S.A. (2221 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,
IN
Washington 8, D.C.)
Amba.ssador. Alexis S. Liat.is.
Counsellors. Aristide N. Pilavachi ; Costa P . Caranicas (Economic) .
F irst Secretm·ies. Constantine Panayatacos ; Michael-George A. Mazarakis;
Aristoteles Hatzoudis. Nav(tl Att(tchC. Capt. Constantine Denezakos,
R.H.N. Air and Military Attache. Col. John G. Katsaros.
OF THE D.S.A. IN GREECE
Ambassador. Ellis O. Briggs.
Counsellors. Samuel D. Berger; John E . Homer; Sidney B. Jacques
(Economic) . First Secretaries (t1/(1 Consuls. Joseph B. Costanzo (Consul-
General); Roger Dow; Laughlin A. Campbell; Alex B. Daspit; S. Houston
Lay. Army Attaclu!. Col. Joseph A. McChristian. Naval Alta.cM and
Naval Attache for Air. Capt. Gifford Scull. Air Attache. Col. Frank C.
Scofield, Jr. Agricultural Attache. Edward J. Bell.
There is a Consul-General at Salonika.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFoRMATION. The General Slati.tical Service 01 Greece i. an independen'
department under tbe supervision of the Ministry of Co-ordination (9 Piraeus St. , Atbens).
Its publications include: Statistical Yearbook (latest issue, 1957). BuUttin rnensuel de
,tlatistique. Recensements de la population. Recensement de ,'agricultu.re. Bulletin., mensuels
et annuels du commerce special de la Greet avec les pays elrangers. Recensement de l'induslrie
Dawkins, R. M., The M"n.h of ~lho... London, 1936
DelivBnis, D., and Oleveland, W . 0., Oruk MondarV D~()P'MnU, 19.19-48. BloQmingtoo,
1949
Fielding, X., The Slr01llJhold. London, 1953
Forster, E. S., ~ 8horl His""Y Of Modern areeu, 1821-1940. 2nd ed. London, 1946
GouJd Lee, A. S., The Royal House Of areece. London, 1948
Hnnter. I., This i.t Greece. London, 1947
Kaltc.has. Nicbola..q, Introdudion tQ cM Comlilutionlll History of Modern Greece. New York,
1940
Leeper. Sir Reginald, When Gruk m«ta Gruk. London, 1949
Munkman, C. A., American Aid to Greece. New York, 1958
Papagos, A., The Battle of areece, 1940-41. Athens, 1949
Papa.ndreou, O. A., The Third n'" ar. Athens, 1949
PhiUipson, A' I Die griechischen Land.~r.haflen: eine LandeskurnU. 2 vola. Frank1urt.. ]951
Pring, J., A Grammar 0/ Modem Greek. LoIJdon, 1950
Sismanides, .~. D., Greek Tnb<U'co. London. 1944
Sweet-Escott. B., Greece, A Political and Economic SUffleY. 1939-53. R. Inst. ot 1nl.. Affairs,
19~4
Woodbo\lse, C. M., Apple of Ducord. Loudon, 1948.-The Gr..k War 01 IndepnldtflCt.
London, 19~2
GUATEMALA
REPUBLICA DE GUATEMALA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Republic of Guatemala
was established on 17 April 1839, after having formed for 18 years part of
the Confederation of Central America. Following the revolution of June
W54, which overthrew and exiled President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman and
brought Col. Castillo Armas into power, the Constitution of 1945 WIUJ
repla.ced in Aug_ 1954 by a • Political Statute: On 2 Feb. 1956 a new
Constitution was signed by the President; it came into forco Il'tlarch 1956.
Voting is compulsory for men and women over 18 who can read, and
opt.ional for illiterate men and women.
1078 GUATEMALA
Pre.::ident of the Republic. Gen. Miguel Ydlgoras Fuentes, elected by

Congre!i8 on 12 Feb. 1958 for a 6.year term beginning 15 March 1958. Gen.
Ydigorll.8, leader of the conservative Democratic Reconciliation Party,
received 40 votes; his opponent Col. Jose Luis Cruz Salazar, 18. In the
presidential election on 20 Jan. 1957, Gen. Ydlgoras obtained some 140,000
votes; Mario Mendez Montenegro, candidate of the Revolutionary Party,
and Co::. Cruz Salazar, candidate of an anti·Communist coalition, obtained
about 100,000 votes each.
Mir..ister of Foreign Affairs. Jesus Unda Murillo.
The administration is carried on, under the President, by the heads of
9 depaltments. Mayors of municipalities, with their conncils, are elected
directly by the people.
Nati(J1Ul,/ flag: blue, white, blue (vertical).
National anthem: iGuatemala feliz! (words by J. J. Palma; tUlle by
R. Alvf.rez).
ARiEA AND POPULATION. The area is 108,889 sq. km (42,042 sq.
miles). In March 1936 Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras agreed to
accept '~he peak of Mount Montecristo as the common boundary point.
The population, according to the April 1950 census, was 2,790,868, com·
pared with an estimate of 3,545,212 at 30 June 1958. About 54% are pure
Indians, of 21 different groups descended from the Maya·Quiche tribe; most
of the remainder are mixed Indian and Spanish (ladinos); and these supply
the ruling classes. Density of population, 1950, about 30 per sq. km.
Crude hirth rate, 1955,48'8 per ],000 population; crude death rate, 20·6;
crude narriage rate (1954), 4'); infantile death rate, 101·4 per ],000 live
births. Vital statistics, 1957: Births, 168,411; deaths, 70,767; marriages,
13,331; infantile deaths, 17,1l5.
Guatemala is administratively divided into 22 departments, each with a
governor appointed by the President. They are: Alta Verapaz, Ba]a
Verapa:~. Chimaltenango, Cbiquimula, El Progreso, Escuintla, Guatemala,
HuehU(,tenango, Izabal, Jalapa, Jutiapa, Petlm, Quezaltenango, Quich&,
Retalhuleu, Sacatepequez, San Marcos, Santa Rosa, Solol.1, Suchitepequez,
Totoni<:apan, Zacapa.
The capital is Guatemala City with 374,000 inhabitants (estimate Dec.
19(7), dmost all ladinos. Other towns are Quezaltenango (36,209), Coblin.
(29,242), Zacapa (27,696), Puerto Barrios (15,332), Mazatenango (11,032)
and Antigua (10,744).
EVH since the republic was established in 1839 Guatemala hits claimed
that B.~itish Honduras is Guatemalan territol'Y. In ]859, however, she
signed a treaty with Britain defining the frontier between Guatemala and
British Honduras. Many years later she claimed that Britain had broken
the tre;tty and she renewed her claim to the territory shortly before the
Second World War. On 14 Jan. 1946 Britain invited her to bring the dis·
pute b(,fol'e the International Court of Justice. In Feb. 1948 Guatemala
closed the frontiers with British Honduras; in May 1951 she re.opened the
frontiers' without prejudice' to her claims.
REUGION. Roman Catholicism is the prevailing faith; but all other
creeds have complete liberty of worship. Guatemala has an archbishopric.
The leading Protestant churches are the Baptists (76,000 members) and t·he
Iglesia Evangelica (28,000). The Societ.y of Friends had 4,1l2 members in
195i.
GUATEMALA 1079
EDUCATION. In 1957 there were 3,670 primary schools with 8,796
teachers and an attendance of 250,000 pupils; these figures include 1,057
private schools. Secondary and other schools have about 1,000 teachers
and an attendance of about 60,000 pupils; the autonomous University of
San Carlos de Borromeo, founded in 1678, was reopened in 1910 with 7
faculties and schools. All education is in theory free, but owing to a grave
shortage of state schools private schools flourish. The 1950 census showed
that 71'9% of those 10 years of age and older werc illiterate. The illiteracy
index of the Army (1947) was stated to be 83%.
Cine11UUl (1958). Cinemas numbered about 109, with seating capacity of
48,000.
New8paper8. There are 7 daily newspapers.
SOCIAL WELFARE. A comprehensive system of social security was
outlined in a law of 30 Oct. 1946. Medical personnel, 1956, included 588
doctors for the whole republic. There were 45 public hospitals and about
100 municipal dispensaries in 1956.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered in a supreme court, 6 appeal courts

and 28 courts of first instance. Supreme court and appeal court judges
are elected by the National Congress. Judges of first instance are appointed
by the supreme court.
An holders of public office have to show on entering office, and again
on leaving, a fun account of their private property and income.
FINANCE. The estimates of ordinary revenue and expenditure (years
ending 30 June) balanced as follows, in quetzales (l quetzal = US81) :
1956-57, 100,418,627; 1957-58,98,251,979; 1958-59,113,106,827; 1959-
60, 114,119,274.
The national debt was Q.67,545,700 in April 1959, including Q.17.I63,400
of external debt. British investments, at their par values, 1949, were
£9,796,829, of which 64·1 % was in default. American direct investments,
1950, were about S250m., chiefly those of 2 large American corporations
operating in bananas, railways and power. Total foreign investments in
1954-58 were S203m. American aid up to 1959 totalled S44·8m.
DEFENCE. Military service (2 years) is compulsory, but not universal,
between the ages of 18 and 50 (from 18 to 30 in the special reserves), and
conscripts may be caned upon for work in communications, reforestation and
agriculture. The Army numbers between 7,000 and 8,000; the Polic/a
Nacional has between 2,000 and 3,000.
There is a small Air Force with a single combat unit of F·5ID Mustang
piston.engined fighter.bomberd, and a squadron of C·47 transports.
A Naval force of 1 gunboat and 2 small coastguard units was formed
in 1959.
The President, since the 1954 revolution, is chief of the armed forces.
PRODUCTION. The Cordineras divide Guatemala into two unequal
drainage areas, of which the Atlant.ic is much the greater. The Pacific slope,
though comparatively narrow, is exceptionany well watered and fertile
between the altitudes of 1,000 and 5,000 ft, and is the most densely settled
part of the republic. The Atlantic slope is sparsely populated, and has
little of commercial importance beyond the chiclo and timber·cntting of the
1080 GUATEMALA
Peten, ·~offee cultivation of Coban region and banana-raising of the Motagua

Valley and Lake Izabal <listrict.
On 17 June 1952 an' Agrarian Reform Law' was enacted providing for
the eXJlropriation (with eventual compensation) of those parts of landed
estates which were not under cultivation. In parcels of about 25 acres these
were to be leased to farmers. The U.S. Government in 1953 sent a memoran·
dum protesting against the expropriation of 234,000 acres belonging to the
United Fruit Company. Under the new government the expropriation W8.&
halted and the • Agrarian Reform Law' was superseded by an 'Agrarian
Statute' early in 1956, which provided small holdings to several thousand
peasant,s. Plans for further reform legislation are now in hand.
Agriculture. The soil in general is exceedingly fertile and agriculture is
the mO:Jt important industry. But soil erosion is serious and a single week
of heavy rains suffices to cause flooding of fields and much crop destruction.
The principal crop is coffee; there are about 12,000 coffee plantations
with U8m. coffee trees 011 about 338,000 acres, but 80% of the erop comes
frolD 1,500 large coffee farms employing 426,000 workers. Coffee exports
in 1958 were valued at Q.77,330,OOO.
BaD.anas are the next most important export crop, but exports have at
times been seriously reduced, partly by labour troubles and by hurricanes.
Export, 1958, were worth Q.8,595,OOO.
Cot';on has recently become the third most important export; exports
in 1958 were valued at Q.5,368,000. Sngar, maize, rice, beans and wheat
are important domestie erops. Guatemala is, after Mexico, the largcst pro·
ducer of chicle gum (used for chewing.gum manufacture in U.S.A.); exports,
1958, <;1.907,000; as in Mexico,latex from chilte tree is gradually supersed-
ing chide. Nurseries for rubber trees show promise and new rubber de·
velopment schemes are under way, assisted by U.S. funds. Tobacco output
(all for home consumption) is about 5m. lb. grown on 8,300 acres. Guate·
mala is one of the largest sources of essential oils (citronella and lemon grass);
exports in 1958 were valued at Q.l,264,OOO. Cattle.grounds (potreros)
occupy about 758,000 acres. It is calculated that there are some 1,200,000
head of cattle (mostly beef) in the country.
Forutry. The forest area has an extent of 17,784,000 acres. The
department of Peten is rich in ma,hogany and dye woods; exports of fine
woods reached 1,923 tons in 1957.
M'fling. A new 'petroleum code' (1955) has permitted 29 foreign
(mostly American) and several local companies to start exploration. Lead
(1968, 8,788 short tons), zinc (1957, 15,334 short tons) and cadmium (1957,
540 short tons) are mined in small quantities. Output of silver, 1957,
528,436 fine oz.
Trade Unw1I$. Trade unions are small; they were organized in 1950
in a Left·wing national federation, the GuatemaJan Autonomou8 Labor
Federation (F.L.A.G.), and a federation of farm workers (C.N.C.G.). In
1954 the trade unions were ordered to reorganize: there are now 2 main
federations-the Autonomous Trade Union Federation (F.A.S.) and the
Nation!!.l Trade Union Council (Consejo Sindical Nacional).
COMMERCE. Values in 1,000 quetzales (1 quetzal>= US$l) were:

1953 1954 1956 1956 1957 1958
Importe . 79,538 86,311 104,316 137,709 147,354 132,821
Bzporte . 88,922 95,660 98,699 116,291 108,839 102,481
GUATEMALA 1081
Import values are c.i.f. and export values f.o.b.
Value (in 1,000 quetzales) of principa.l imports, 1958 : Foodstuffs,
13,530; textiles, 16,462; vehicles a.nd parts, 10,423; petroleum products,
10,079; chemical and pha.rmaceutical products, 2,623; iron and eteel manu-
faotures, 8.068. Chief exports are coffee, bananas and other fruits, vegetable
fibre and ~hicle .
Total trade between Guatemala and U.K. for 6 years (in £ sterling,
1938 195:; 1956 1957 1958 1969
lmports to U.K. 42.930 M2.764 291,886 204,807 39 1 .65~ 633,696
Bxporte from U.K. . 170,663 1,161.983 1,635.873 2,181.968 2,271,155 2,0<,3.816
Re·exports from U.K. 1,623 10.782 12,226 11,367 16,451 1:;,329
COMMUNICA TIONS. Shipping. The chief ports on the Atlantic 8ide

are Puerto Barrios and Puerto Maths de Galvez; on the Pacific side, San
Jose and Champerico.
RailwaY8. The principal railway system is the American·owned Inter·
national Railways of Central America. All railways are of 3 ft gauge.
Total length of all lines is 720 miles. Passengers carried, 1957, numbered
3,479,700, and freight carried, 834,000 metric tons. The opening of a new
bridge in 1942 across the Suchiate River between Mexico and Guatemala
completed the linking by railway of North and Central America, though
differences in gauge make it necessary to change trains at Ayutla.
Roada. There is a trunk highway from coast to coast via Guatemala
City. There are 2 trunk highways from the Mexican to the 8alvadorean
frontier: the Pacific Highway serving the fertile coastal plain and the
Pan·American Highway running through the beautiful highlands and
Guatemala City. Other roads arc mostly unpaved. Motor vehicles num-
ber about 35,000.
Post. The Government own and operates the internal telegraph and
telephone services; there are two private cable companies; there are about
12,000 telephone instruments. There are some 50 broadcasting st.ations.
Radio receiving sets in use, 1958, numbered about 50,000. Television \vas
introduced in 1955.
Aviation. The government. owned airline, Aviateca, fnrnishes domestic
services; 5 airlines handle international traffic. In 1957 air cargo amounted
to 9,385,100 kg; number of passengers, 97,392.
MONEY AND BANKING. The gold quelzal was established 7 May

1925 equal to 60 old Guatemala paper pesos, with 0. gold content equal to
that of the USS (aee p. 18). The exchange rate has remained at SI since
1926. Gold coins have been withdrawn from circulation. Silver-copper
coins in active circulation, 1959, are of 25, 10 and 6 centavoB; there are
copper-zinc coins of 1 and 2 centavos, and paper notes of 1,000, 600, 100,
20, 10, 5, 1 and i quetzales (50 centavos).
By an Act effective 4 Feb. 1946 the Central Bank of Guatemala (founded
in 1926 as a. mixed central and commercial ba.nk) wa.s superseded by 8 new
institution, the Banco de Guatemala, to opera.te solely as 8 central bank.
Total currency circulation (backed by a gold reserve fixed by law at a
minimum of 40% ) on 30 June 1959 was Q.95·48m.; gold stocks were
Q.27,270,OOO (or dollars), mostly deposited with the U.8. Federal Reserve
1082 GUATEMALA
and unchanged since Dec. 1947; total international reserves amounted to

Q.51 ·Sm.
There are 11 banks, including the Banco de Guatemala, Instituto Nacional
de Fom.mto de la Producci6n, which grants loans to stimulate production,
the Bat.co Nacional Agrario, set up in Oct. 1953, to make loans to the
peasantH who have received land under the Agrarian Reform law, a branch
of the llanco Popular de Colombia, a branch of the Bank of London and
Montreal Ltd and a branch of the Bank of America.
WEJiGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system has been officially
adopted, but is little used in local commerce. In trade statistics, the metric
system is used.
IAbra of 16 oz. . _ 1 0· 14 lb. Ua9.u . - 3 mlleo
4rroba 01 25 Iibro.s . ~ 25·35 lb. Yara . = 32 in.
Quintal of 4 arrobas -1OHOII>. Mantana . . . - 100 varY aq.
Tont/at/<J ·)1 20 quintaJs _ IS '10 cw~ Cabalkrfa of i t manzo.u... ~ 110 ..or..
Fan'7a . ~ 16 Imp. bush.

Guatemala maintains embassies in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chilo,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
France, Haiti. Honduras. Mexico, Nicaragua. Panama, Paraguay. Spain,
U.K •• U.S.A., Uruguay and Venezuela; and legations in Belgium and
Switzerland.
0" (lUATEMAL.&. IN GREAT BRITAIN (30 Colliogham Gardens. S.W.5)
Min ister. (Vacant.)
F irst Secretary and Oonsul. Dr Juan David Lambour. Oultural Attaclte.
Isabel de Blanco·Fombona.
There are consular representatives at Belfast, Glasgow and Liverpool
(C.G.).
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN GUATIUfAL.&.
Min ister and Oonsul·General. M. S. Williams, C.M.G.
Firs/ Secretary, Oommercial S ecretary and Oonsul. J. E. Jackson. F irst
Secretar;y. K . L. F. Worke.
There is an Honorary Vice·Consul at Bananera near Puerto Barrios.
OF GUATEM~LA IN THE U.S.A. (1614-1Sth St. NW.,

Washington 9, D.C.)
AmbMsador. Col. Arturo Ramlrez P .
Min ;ster Oounsellors. Dr Guillermo Saenz de Tejada; Angel Arturo
Rivera Garcia. M ilitary Attache. Col. Luis A. Furlan. Air Attache.
Lieut.·Col. Juiio E . Ga,)vez R. Oivil Attache. Julio Aparicio Pens.
OF THE U.S.A. L'i GUATEMALA
AmbMsador. John J. Muccio.
Oounsellors. Edward A. Jamison (Oon.sul.General) ; Perry ElIis (Eco.
nomic) ; Oscar M. Powell (Economic). First Secretaries. Kennedy M.
Crocket ~ ; Robert K. Davis ; Charles K . Ludewig (Oonsul) ; Bruce L.
McDaniel. Army Attache. Col. John T. Berry. Naval Attache and Nava.l
Attach(for A ir. Ca.pt. Jacob V. Heimark (resident in Mexico). Air Attache.
Lieut.·Col. William J. Cavoli. Agricultural Attache. Douglas M. Crawf::>rd.
GUINEA 1083
Books of Reference
INFORMATION. Secretarla de In!ormaci6n. Director: Augusto 1>ll1let Descamps.
Tb. otllcial gazette i. called El GualtmalleCo.
J/nnoria de la Secretarfa a", Hacienda. Annual. Guatemala
J(nnoria de la Secrctaria ck Fommto. Annual. Guatemala
Constitucion de la Republica de Guatemala der:relada por la A.tamblta national con,tituvtTIU
en lllk Marto de 1945. Guatemala City. 1946
Coleccidn Ik tral4do. de GuaJernala. compiluda por J osl Rodrfgu.. Cema. r 01 I. Pacto. con
d Testo de Centro 4imhica. Guatemala, 1939
Adlcr, J . H ., a.nd others, Public Finance and Economic Development in Guatemala . Stamford
Univ. Press, 1952
Bianchi, \V. J., Belize. New York, 19[)9
llIoomfielJ, L. M.. The British HrmduTlM- Gualernala Dispute. Toronto, 1 n53
Holleran, M. P .• Church and State in Guatemala. New York, 1~4~
McBryde. F. W., Cultural and Historical Geography Of Soulh·West Guatema/u. WashingtoD,
1947
Male, P . J. E., Economic and ComTM1'cial Conditions in Guatemala. !I.M.S.O., 1956
lteodoz". J. L .• Britain and her TreatitS on Belize. Guatemala, 1946
)'Iorton, F., Xelalmh. Londoll,1959
l:!ulloz, J., aud Ward, Allna B., Guatemala, Ancient and Modern. New York, 1940
NUlO1UL LIDl\AIlY. Biblioteca Nacional, 5- Aveniua and 8- Calle, Zooe 1, Guatemala
City. Liora,.ian: Edullrdo Prado l \ mcc.
GUINEA
REPUBLlQUE DE GUlNE~;
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The independent republic
of Guinea was proclaimed on 2 Oct. 1955, after the territory of French
Guinea had decided at the referendum of 28 Sept. to leave the French
Community.
National flag : red, gold, green (vertical).
A series of agreements signed on 7 Jail. 1959 in Paris provides that
Guinea will remain within the franc area and will keep French as her official
Ia.nguage; shc ,viII have special relations with France in the technical,
cultural a.nd monetary field; and will look to France for the training of her
professional classes and for the supply of teachers and technicians.
For relations with Ghana. see p. 294.
Prime Minister. Sekou Tour';.
AREA AND POPULATION. The republic lies on the coast between
Portuguese Guinea and the British colony of Sierra Leone.
The nrea is 245,857 sq. km, and the estimated population in 1957 was
2,492,000; in 1951 the census population included 4,538 metropolitan
French and 2,184 foreigners. Conflkry, the capital (49,200 inhabitants),
Kn.nkan (24,600), Kindia (13,000), N'Zcr6kore (10,800) and Mamou (5,100)
are communes de plein exercice; other important towns are LaM (11,800),
Siguiri (11,400), Pita (6,800) and Boke (5,400).
The most important tribes are the Fullah (866,400), Malink6 (492,800)
and Soussou (243,900).
EDUCATION. There were, in 1957, 187 public schools with 28,625
pupils, 57 private schools with 8,821 pupils, 10 secondary schools with
1,548 pupils, 1 technical college and 17 vocational training centres.
HEALTH. The medical service maintains 1 hospital, 28 medical posts
a.nd 19 health districts.
1084: GUINEA
FINANCE. The ordinary budget for 1958 balanced at 6,328m. francs

C.F.A.; the extraordinary budget at 635m.
PRODUCTION. Agricultltre. The chief products are rice, palm-nuts,

banana3, coffee, pineapples, orange juice, groundnuts, millet. Coffee is
grown in forest districts. There are experimental fruit gardens at Cama-
yenne near Conakry, Kindia and Dalaba, 2 stations for rice selection (Kan.
kan, Koba) and an experimental quinine stations at Seredou. Fouta
Djallon contains cattle in abundance. In 1956 there were 1,337,000
cattle, 350,000 ,sheep, 350,000 goats, 1,100 horses, 7,300 pigs and 1,600
asses.
!JIir"ing. Diamonds are found in the Macenta district (145,000 carats
in 195/). Bauxite exists in the Los islands, the Boke district and the
Kindia--Telimele district; only the Los mines are being worked (output,
1957, 366,000 metric tons). The exploitation of iron ore in the Kaloum
peninsula began in 1953 (415,326 metric tons in 1958).
Pouer. Production of electrical energy was 1O·6m. kwh. in 1955.
COMMERCE. In 1957 imports totalled 192,125 metric tons; they in-
cluded: textiles (2,617 metric tons, valued at 1,056m. francs), petroleum
products (49,334 metric tons, 453m. francs), cement (46,286 metric tons,
194m. francs).
Exports totalled 1,511,490 metric tons; they included: Bananas (73,1l8
metric tons, I,058m. francs), palm-kernels (20,543 metric tons, 500m.
francs), coffee (9,660 metric tons, 1,444m. francs), aluminium ore (375,364
metric tons, 408m. francs), iron ore (1,019,441 metric tons, 773m.
francs).
The::e are a chamber of commerce and a chamber of agriculture and
industr:r at Conakry.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1957,775 vessels landed 229,000
tons and cleared 1,538,000 tons at Conakry.
Rail. A railway connects Conakry with Kankan (662 km). There are
3,500 km of all-weather roads and 7,000 km of dry-season roads.
Aviation. There are airports at Conakry and Kankan; in 1957, 2,040
aircraft disembarked and embarked 36,526 passengers and 1,049 tons of
freight and mail in Conakry.
Post. The territory is connected by cable with France and Pernam.
huco; I>lso with Freetown, Monrovia and other places. There is a. wireless
station at Conakry affording communication with all territories of French
West Africa. Telephones, 31 Dec. 1958, numbered 2,779.
In 1956 there were 26 branches of the savings bank with 12,682 depositors
who ha,11l8,697,OOO francs C.F.A. to their credit.
Aml'assador in London. Nabi Youla (accredited 4 Nov. 1959); also
ambassador to France, Germany and Switzerland, resident in Paris.
Brit,sh Amba:lsador. G. H. Clarke (resident in Monrovia, Liberia).
Aml'assador in V.S.A. Telli Boubacar DiaIIo.
V.S.A. Ambassador. John H. Morrow.
Bulk/in ,fatu/iqu. e/ kmlumique tU la fl1<ink. Monthly. CC1D&kr7
Taylor, F _W" A Fu/ani-Engluh Diclionarv. Oxford, 1932
HAITI 1085
HAITI
REPUBLlQUE D'HAITI
HAITI occnpies tho western third of the large island of Hispaniola which
was discovered by Christopher ColulDbus in 1492. Originally a Spanish
colony, Haiti was ceded to France in the 17th century and became a pros-
perous colony with a considerable export of sugar and other produce. After
the depopulation of the original Indian inhabitants the Spanish and later
the French brought over large numbers of African slaves whose descendants
now populate the country.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Towards the end of the

18th century the s laves began to agitate, and later to fight, for freedom, led
by Toussaint Louverture, who rose to be a general in the French Army and
governor of the eolony. The slaves obtained their liberation following the
French Revolution, but subsequen tly Napoleon sent his brother-in-law,
Gen. Leclerc, to restore French authority and re.impose slavery. Tous-
saint Louverture was kidnapped and sent t·o France, where he died in gaol.
However, the H aitians took up arms again and the French forces, decimated
by yellow fever, were compelled to abandon the colony. The country
declared its independence 011 I J an. 1804, and its successful leader, Gen.
Jean.Jacques Dessalines, proclaimed himself Emperor, but was killed in
1806.
After the death of Dessalines, a separate regime was set np in the north
under Henri Christopho, a Negro general who subsequently had himself
proclaimed King Henri. In the south and west a republic was constituted,
with Alexandre Petion as its first President. Petion died in 1818 and was
succeeded by J ean·Pierre Boyer, under whom the country became re·united
after the north had rebelled against Henri, who committed suicide in 1820.
Since then Haiti has heen a republic, governed under a c ne tralized system.
In 1915 H aiti was occupied by American marines, and remaincd under
American occupa tion un til 1934.
The present constitution was adopted in Dec. 1957. Under it the
President is elect ed by direct popular franchise for a period of 6 years and
is not immediately re-eligible. Legislative a uthority (and sole power to
amend the constitution) rest" with the National Assembly of 21 senators and
37 deputies. Deputies a re elected for 4 years and senators for 6 years;
both are elected by t he primary assemblies of each department. Women
of 21 years of age are enfranchised. The constitution, however, provides
as from April 1963, for a single. chamber Legislature of 67 deputies elected
for a term of 6 years.
President of the Republic . On 6 Dec. 1956 Gen. Paul Eugime Magloire
announced his resignation 1\.8 President of the Republic but his retention of
power as Cllief of the Executive POl'l er. A general strike which followed
compelled him t{) resign on 12 Dcc.; he left for J a maica and exile on 13 Dec.
He was succeeded by Joseph Nemours Pierre· Louis as Acting President,
who in turn resigned on 4 Feb. 1957. The National Assembly elected
Franck Sylvain, as President on 7 F eb., but Sylvnin was overthrown by
the Army on 2 April. He was followed hy tho schoolteacher Daniel Fignole,
and he in turn by Brig_ Antoine Kcbreau. After l~ general election held
on 22 Sept. 1957 Dr Franr,ois Duvalier was declared elected and was installed
as President of the Republic on 22 Oct. 1957_
1086 HAITI
National flag: blue, red (horizontal); in the centre, the coat of arms
on a white square.
Nationa.l anthem: 'La Dessalinienne' : Pour le pays, pour les ancetrea
(words by J. Lherisson; tune by N. Geffrard, 1903).
AREA AND POPULATION. The area is 27,750 sq. km, of which

about t,hree·quarters is covered with mountains. The population Wa.<!
estimated in 1950 to be about 3·5m. (119 per sq. km, highest density in
Central America). The majority of the population are Negroes, with an
important minority of mulattoes and only about 2,000 white resident.s, almost
all foreillfl. The capital, POl't·au.Pri.nce, had in 1950 a population of 135,687
(\957 c.,timate, 200,000); Cap Haitien, 24,229; Gonaives, 13,634; Les
Cayes, 11.608, and Jeremie, 11,048 (laid wa.<!te by the hurricane of 1954).
Only about 15% of the population lives in the towns.
The official language is French, but the great majority of the people
speak a French diale!'t known as Creole. Hait,i is the only French-speaking
republic in the America.<!. There are no vital Btatistics, but in spite of a high
death rE'te' particularly in the early age groups, the population continues to
increase.
RELIGION. The predominant religion is Roman Catholicism. There

is an ar'Jhbishop noith 5 suffragan bishops. The clergy are mostly Bretons
and Canadians. Protestant churches number about 310,000 members.
EDUCATION. Elementary education is free and compulsory; the

school system is modelled after t,hat of France, with the country divided
into 36 inspectors' districts (32 rural and 4 urban). The teaching of English
Wa.<! made obligatory in all schools, beginning I Oct. 1942.
In 1957 urban primary schools had 2,976 teachers and 96,619 pupils;
roralschools, including schools for farming, 1,528 teachers and 99,639 pupils;
15 nationallycce." 20 private secondary schools, 15 professional schooL~ had
a tota Ie,f 9,856 pupils. Agricultural and industrial education was provided
for 2,79·1 students (261 teachers), secondary educa.tion for 7,062 students
(927 tea,)hersj. Higher education (free) is offered at the Faculty of Medicine,
the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Dentistry; in addition, there are the
National Schools of Agriculture, Pharmacy, Obstetrics, Ethnology and Poly-
technic, all of which constitute t.he University of Haiti; in 1957, the
University had 173 professors and 982 students. In addition, there are
some schools maintained by the Catholic teaching orders and a smaD group
under Protestant direction. There are 4 independent law schools in the
provinc(,s and a school of Higher International Studies Wa.<! founded in Oct.
1958. The founding of a school of Higher Studies in Physics and Chemistry
Wa.<! approved by law in 1959.
A United Nations investigation (1949) found about 85% of the popula-
tion illiterate, with only one· fifth or onc-sixth of the children atwllding
school. A bill Wa.<! passed in Sept. 1958 providing for a f).year campaign
to eliminate illiteracy.
Ma.rhial, a rural region with a population of 26,000, largely illiterate,
has been chosen by the United Nat·ions Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisl,tion as the subject of a concentrstt.ed campaign ap:ainst iUiterac)"
utilizing the most advanced technique. In 1957, 14,303 children and adult·s
were attending the 525 educational centres maintained by the Ministries of
Education and Labour.
HAITI 1087
Cinemas (1908). There were 20 cinemM and one drive·in cinema with
a combined seating capacity of about 10,000.
Newspapers (1959). There wcre 6 daily and 2 (English) weekly news·
papers in Port·au·Prince and 1 weekly newspaper in Cap Haitien with a
combined circulation not exceeding 14,000.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by a Court of Cassation and by
lower courts, all appointed for 10 years by the President, and irremovable,
unless impeachcd. The legal system is basically French.
FINANCE. About 71 % of the rcvenue is derived from customs duties

and 29% from internal revenues. About 70% goes for government salaries
and wages, 5% towards the public debt and 25% goes for investments. A
revised income tax, on individuals and companies, became effective 1 Oct.
Hi58.
Revenue and expenditure (fiscal ycar ending 30 Sept.) for 6 years, in
US$ (5 gourdes = US$I) were:
1952-53 1953-~~ 1954-55 1955-56 1956-67 1957-58 I
Revenue . 27.281.914 32,218.222 38.194.549' 37.404.062 :; 4,5~0.OOO 41.200,000
Expenditure . 30,427.994 35,000,000 34.718,691 38,918,396 34,220,000 42,720,000
) B ud~et estim'ltes; revenue includes loans and grants.
, Includes 55·7m . received lrOlU outside Bource. for relief of the 1954 hurricane damagee.
The disastrous hurricane of 11 Oct. 1954 caused the suspension of the

original 1954-55 budget and the substitution of the budget estimates of
1953-54.
As from 1 Feb. 1959, the 1958-59 budget figure of G.192,050,000 WM
considerably reduced. Proposed expenditures for the remaining 8 months
of the fiscal year (in gourdes) were : Agriculture, natural resources and
rura.l development, 6,534,296; finance, 7,583,205; interior (including a.rmy
and police), 27,158,282; education, 9,836,333; public works and communi·
cations, 9,595,307; international institutions, 11,065,492; public debt,
17,364,799; health, 10,825,365; forcign affairs, 4,346,793; labour and
welfare, 1,561,024; commerce and industry, 1,387,999; justice. 2,325,261;
information, 1,252,532; religion. 992,062. This total of G.1I1,848,840
brought the budget down to about the sarue figure as the previous fiscal
year.
On 30 Sept. 1958 the Treasury had a deficit of $1,520,000 compared
with a surplus of $360.000 the previous year. Total public debt on 30
Sept. 1958 was S58m. compared with $51·3m. on 30 Sept. 1957.
DEFENCE. An army of 450 officers and 5,000 men has the functions
of a gendarmerie and soldiery. The President is C.·in·C. and a ppoints
the officers. It possesses 6 75·mm. guns and a few37·mm. cannons for
coast defence, 4 tanks and a few scout cars. There is also an Air Force
of 130 men and 22 officer3. with IS aircraft for reconnaissance a nd passenger
transport. Tbere is a Navy of ahout 300 offi(,,ers and men. witb 13 v(lssel~.
which are manned by the coastguards. Control veflSels are also ruaint,ained
for customs purposes. As from Feb. 1959 t,he military budget for 1958-59
was reduced to 84.158.694.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Only one·third of the country is arable.

the resulting pressure of population is the main cause of rural po\Oert,y.
The industries of Haiti are ma.inly agricultuml, carried ou in 7 large
1088 HAITI
plains, from 200,000 to 25,000 acres, and in 15 smaller plains down to 2,000
acres. lITigation is extensively used; the first unit of the Artibonite Valley
project, covering 3,000 acres sown to rice, was completed in Aug. 1955.
A dam forming part of the project was finished in 1956. Haiti has a
greater diversity of export crops than any other West Indian area. The
most important product is coffee of excellent quality, classified as 'mild,'
grown l>y peasants. Production in 1953-54 reached a record total of
43,800 metric tons, but output for 1954-55 was only 28,800 metric tons,
partly due to the hurricane damage in Oct. 1954. Second most important
crop is llisal (1954, 21,324,863 kg). The cultivati0n of bananas (brought
to Haiti in 1515) is decreasing-now about 300,000 stems compared with
exports )f 7m. stems in 1946-47. Cotton is similarly decreasing, due to the
bollwee,il; output, 1954, 8,000 bales (480 lb.) compared with 22,000 pre·
war. Tobacco, 1955, was 2m. lb. Rice is being developed, especiaUy in
the Artbonite Valley, but there will be no surplus for export for some years
to come. Sugar output, 1955, from one large American sugar central,
67,000 silort tons (exports, 16,351 metric tons of raw sugar and 15m. kg of
molasseE). Rum and other spirits are distilled. Essential oils from lime,
vetiver, neroli and amyris are becoming important. Cattle and horse
breeding are encouraged.
Mining. Haiti possesses undeveloped mineral resources of gold, silver,
oopper, iron, antimony, tin, sulphur, coal, nickel, gypsum and porphyry.
Three foreign companies are engaged in exploitation and exploration for
bauxite, copper, lignite and manganese.
Industry. There are now 2 textile· mills operating in Haiti with a
total of 550 looms and 14,000 spindles. One mill, with 450 looms and
12,000 spindles, has been operating for many years; the other was com·
pleted ill 1955. These mills produce blue denim, a cheap cotton fabrio
worn by the peasant classes. A soap factory, which was opened in 1954,
produce .. approximately 5,000 cases of 250 ll·oz. bars per month. A cement
factory located near the city produces approximately 80,000-100,000 sacks
of 42! kg per month. There are also a pharmaceutical plant, an ironware
foundry, a tannery, a plastics plant, 4 aerated·water plants and a flour· mill
located in and near Port·au·Prince. Here, too, a plant is (1959) being
built for the manufacture of fertilizers, and one for the manufacture of
chocolate. In the north there is a sisal.rope plant. There has been in
recent years a useful expansion of the tourist trade, worth some $7m.
annually.
Trade Unions were recognized in Feb. 1946; in 1954, 56 unions were
registered, with an estimated membership of 7,000; 27 were in Port·au·
Prince. These have gradually been dissolved, the last in Sept. 1958.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports for fiscal years ending 30 Sept.
(in USS.I:
Imports Export. Imports Exports
19103 45,160,509 37,799,478 1956 39,160,982 43,542,252
19:14 47,556,494 !i5,5~2,626 1957 37,460.000 33,980.000
HHi6 3~,196.346 34,864,009 1908 42,OGO,000 41,780,000
Chief exports from Haiti during the period 1 Oct. 1956-30 Sept. 1957
were (in Im. kg and Slm.) as follows: Coffee, 30 (27); raw sugar, 35 (2'8);
sisal, 33 (5'3); cocoa, 2 (1,2); cotton, 1·5 (1); all other products, value $5m.
U.S. is the most important market for Haitian exports (taking
HAITI 1089
$17,197,130,40'33% in 1955) and the principal supplier of Haitian imports
(supplying $25,564,784, 65·22%). Haiti's exports to U.K. in that period
were $915,430 and imports from U.K. $1,495,276.
The leading imports are cotton manufactured goods, foodstuffs, machin-
ery and apparatus, mineral oils and soap.
Total trade between Haiti and U.K. in £ sterling (British Board of Trade
returns) :
1938 1955 1958 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 210,774 4n6,235 119,175 ~51,909 174,178 47,148
Export. uom U.K. . 193,172 600,509 1,014.288 661,358 679,285 900,491
Re·exports irom U.K. 417 4,244 6.166 9,088 1~,S19 8,625
COMMUNICA TIONS. Shipping. Several lines of steamers (American,

Panamft and Dutch) connect Haiti with New York, and others (British,
French, German and Dutch) with Europe. In 1957, 477 steam and motor
.essels entered and cleared Haitian ports; of these, 32 were British.
Roads. Total length of roads is 2,963 km, of which 359 km have been
asphalted.
Railways. The 'National Railroad of Haiti' runs from Port·au·Prince
to Verrettes, 137 km. Total length, about 254 km.
Post. The principal towns are connected by the government telegraph
system, with 4,780 km of wire, 50 main offices and 86 sub·offices. Cables
run from Port.au·Prince to Cuba, and from the Mole St Nicholas to Santiago
de Cuba, Port.au.Prince, Cap Haitien, Puerto Plata (Dominican Republfc)
ftIld to New York and South America. There arc 133 post offices.
The state telephone service has G modern automatic telephone exchanges
(2 in Port.au·Prince with 1,400 individuallinesl and 30 manual exchanges,
but a contract ($3m.l was awarded to a British firm in 1954 for thc complete
revision of the telephone, telegraph and radio systems. Work on the new
telephone system was suspended in 1956 and has not (10 59 ) been resumed.
Instl'uments, 10i;O, number 4,230, of which 86% are automatic.
Aviation. There is an air service with New York, Jamaica, Cuba,
Dominican Repu blic, Puerto Rico and most of the other islands. A
government airline operates between Port·au·Prince and the towns in the
interior.
MONEY AND BANKING. The unit of currency is the gourde, which
is equivalent to 20 cents U.S. currency; on 9 April 1954 the I.M.F. accepted
this as the official par value. The total currency in circulation on 20 May
1959 was 50,818,837 gourdes in notes, and 6-7m. gourdes in coins. There
are copper-nickel coins for 50, 20, 10 and 5 centimes and copper-zinc-nickel
coins of 10 and 5 centimes. The amount of U.S. currency in circulation
is not known, due to the fact that it is used freely with the local currency;
there wns however $13m ., deposi ted in banks on 30 Sept. 1957.
The Banque Nationale de la Republique d'Haiti, owned by the State,
was established 21 Oct. 1910 with a capital of $5m., and has a mnnopoly
of the note issue until 1960. N(lte issue is limited tu three times the bank's
paid.up capitilJ. V.S. dollars may be included in the minimum required
reserves. Notes are covered one· third by U.S. currency and the balance by
trade bills. Authorized note issue is lOOm. gourdes. The Royal Bank of
Canada has a branch at Port·au·Princc.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Vse of the metric system is obligatory.
NN
1090 HONDURAS

Had maintains embassies in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Costa
Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic. France, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Mexico,
Panama, Peru, Spain, U.K., U.S.A., Vatican, Venezuela; and legations in
Belgiulll, Colombia, Germany, Guatemala.
011' HAITI IN GREAT BRITA.IN (ll Burton St., W.I)
Ambassador. Dr Colbert Bonhomme (accredited 13 March 1959).
Fir~t Secretary. Maurice Casseua.
Thel'e is an honorary cousul in Liverpool.
OF GREAT BRITAI~ ~ HAITI
Ambassador and Consul-General. Gerarrl Thomas Corley Smith, C.1\1.G.
First Secretary and Consul. L. A. P. Barker.
Air Attache. Group Capt. E. W. Wootten, D.F.C., A.F.C.
OF HAITI IN THE U.S.A. (4400-I7th St. NW., Washington H, D .C.)
Amlassador. Ernest Bonhomme.
Minister Counsellor. Fern D. Baguidy. CounseUor. Jean Excellent
(Commercial). First Secretary. Musset Pierre-Jerome. Military, Naml
and Air Attache. Col. Franck Bayarcl.
011' THE U.S.A. IN HAITI
Ambassador. Gerald A. Drew.
CounseUor. Philip P . Williams. Army Attache. Capt. John W. Fahy.
Naval AttacM and Naval Attache for Air. Cmdr Charles R. Clark, Jr (resi.
dent in Havana). Air AttacM. Lieut.-Col. Robert P. Foley (resident in
Caracas). Agricultural Attache. Richard A. Schwartz (resident in Caracas).
Commercial Attache. Peter Abeille.
Books of Reference
The ollicial gazette t. L. JIonileu,.
Geology of tilL Republic of Haili. POlt-"u-Princ.e.I924
R~ L1g,icoled'Haili. From 19·16. Quarterly
A1iJsion to Haili: Report 0/ the United .Nation.! Musion of Technical .dssistanr.e to lI,e Republic
o/llaili. Columbia Univ., I\ew York, 1949
HeBegartl(\ n., Histoif'e du Peuple Uailien. Port-all-Prince. 19~3
Bishop, O. M., and Ma.rchant, A., Guide /,Q the Law amt Legal Lilerature 0/ Cuba. the Dominican
&pvhli.: and Haiti. Library of Oorurresg. \\' ashington, D.e., 1944
Leyburn, J. G., The Haitian People. Yalo ITniv., 1941
Price-Yam, J.,Ea RlpubUqflt d'Ha fli et la R~publi'llle Dominiraint. Port·au-Prince, 1953
Slmmondil, R. , Economic and Commercial Corw:itiQrt3 in lIayti, H .:M.S.O .• 19:16
Tnmier, A., Les EtaU-C;nis tile A/af'cM Hailien. Washington, D.e., ]955
Verschuera:n, J ., La rlpublique d'Haili ; panorama, b;iw.t , t"auiloux. 3 vols. \Vet.tel'ell and
Paris, ]948
N ATlO!~AL Lroa,u n". Bi.hlioth~q ue Natlonale, Rnedu Centre, Port-8.u·Priuce. Libra.ricm:
l1me Mu Adolphe.
HONDURAS
REPUBLICADE HONDURAS
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. In 1838 Honduras declared
itself an:! independent sovereign state, free from the Federation of Central
America, of which it had formed a part.
Legifllative power is veated in a single chamber, the Congress of Deputies
consistir.g of 58 membern, chosen for 6 years by popular ,oto, in the ratio of
HONDURAS 1091
I per 30,000 inhabitants. It meets for 100 days (may be extended to 150
days) on 21 Nov. each year. A Permanent Commission of I) members sits
whilst Congress is not in session for the transaction of routine or emergency
business. The President of the Rcpublic is elected by popular vote for 6
years, holding office from 21 Dec. Men over 21, all married men and all
lit~rate men over 18 must vote. A decree law was passed in Jan. 1955
enfranchising women, but voting is not compulsory for them.
On 21 Dec. 1957 the Liberal leader Dr Villeda was installed as President
under the new constitution brought into force that day. It replaced the
constitut.ion of 1936 which was suspended in Dec. 1954.
Supreme Chief of State. Dr Jose Ramon Villeda Morales.
Foreign Minister. Lic. D. Andres Alvarado Puerto.
A new Ministry of' Labour, Social Assistance and the Middle Class' was
created on 24 Dec. 1955.
Nationalflag : blue, white, blue (horizontal; 5 blue stars arranged saltire·
wise in the middle).
National anthem : Tu bandem es un lampo de cielo (words by A. C.
CoelIo; tune by C. Hartling).
AREA AND POPULATION . Area (as revised July 1953) is 112,088

sq. km (43,227 sq. miles), with a population, census of 18 June 1950 (revised)
of 1,368,605 (12·7 per sq. km or 33 per sq. mile); estimate, 1958, 1,828,183
(16'3 per sq. km, 42·3 per sq. mile).
The capital of Honduras is Tcgucigalpa, with (1958) a population of
)06,949. The next most important town is San Pedro Sula, 58,931. The
main ports are Amapala on t.he Pacific, and, on the Atlantic, La Ceiba
(22,780), Tela (16,000), Puerto Cortes (16,102) and TrujilIo (3,016). The
port of entry for the Bay Islands is Roatan.
The republic is divided into 18 departments: Gracias a Dios (formerly
part of Colon department), La Paz, Valle, Yoro, OIancho, Atlantida, Islas
de la Bahia, Colon, Cortes, El Paraiso, Santa Barbara, Francisco Morazan,
Copan, Choluteca, Comayagua, Intibuca, Lempira and Ocotepeque.
A census of dwelling.houses in July 1949 showed the population house<!
in 213,Oll dwelling units, of which 104,202 were made of mud and wattle.
Aboriginal tribes number o,er 35,000, principally Mosquito, Zambos, Pa.yas
and Xicaques Indians, all s~aking different languages. The Spanish-
speaking inhabitants are chiefly mestizos, Indians with an admixture of
Spanish blood. On the Atlantic coast there is a considerable proportion of
Negroes, chiefly employed hy the fruit.exporting companies, of whom prob.
ably less than 1,000 are British subjects; their immigration is now forbidden .
Gracias a Dios is still pra~tically uncxplored and is inhabitated by pure native
races who speak little or no Spanish.
In 1955 there were 71,533 live births and 18,887 deaths. Crude birth
rate (1955), 43·1 per 1,000 population; crude death rate, 1l ·4; marriage
ra.te, 3·4; infant mortality rate, 54·9 per 1,000 live births.
RELIGION. Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion, but the

constitution guarantees freedom to all creeds, and that state does 1I0t COII-
tribute to the support of anJ'. Protest,a nts number about 2~,000_ The
Society of Friends had, in 1957, about 900 members.
EDUCATION. Instruction is free, compulsory (from 7 to 15 years of
age) and entirely secular. In 1957 the :l,417 primary schools had 146,5:,)1
1092 HONDURAS
children (4,574 teachers); the 50 secondary, normal and technical schools

had 11,740 pupils (1,305 teachers); 7 college faoulties had 1,188 students
(186 teachers). At Tegucigalpa the National University has faculties of
law, mndicine, pharmacy, economics (2), engineering and dentistry.
The illiteracy rate was 63% of those 10 years of age and older in 1953.
CiMmas (1958). Cinemas numbered about 40 with seating capacity of
some 3Ii,OOO.
New8papers (1958). There were 4 daily and 3 weekly newspapers pub.
lished ill the capital; and in the provinces, 2 daily and 6 weekly.
JUSTICE. The judicial power resides in the Supreme Court, with 5

judges elected by the National Congress for 6 years; there are 5 appeal
courts, and departmental and local judges.
FIl\"ANCE. The fiscal and calendar years have coincided since 1 Jan.
1957. Recent budgets (in Im.lempiras) were balanced as follows: 1956-57,
77-92; 1957,85'25; 1958,92·42.
The largest sources of income anticipated (1958) were (in Im. lempiras):
Import duties, 36; export duties, 3'09; income tax, 9'88; port, airport
and cU3toms taxes, 2·37; government enterprises, 1·99; production and
consumption taxes, 20'04. The Ministries in receipt of this revenue are:
National defence, ll'OO; economy and finance, 16'2; education, 14'09;
communications and public works, 27·97.
Tot;~1 internal debt stood in May 1958 at 24,084,000 lempiras, and total
reserve:; of foreign currency at the equivalent of 30,576,000 lempiras.
DE:l"ENCE. Every citizen is liable to serve in the Army from the age
of 18 t<, 55. Service in the active Army is for 8 months and in the reserves
from tt.e age of 32 to 55. Foreigners are exempt from service. Under the
terms c,f the Washington Central Amedcan Conventions of 1923 the size of
the regular Army is fixed at 2,500 men, including the National Guard,
organized in 23 companies of infantry and 1 battery of artillery.
The Government possesses 32 aeroplanes, all ofU.S.A. origin. A school
of military aviation has been established.
The coastguard consists of 3 vedettes, one of which is in service.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Honduras is essentially an agricultural

country whose main exports are bananas, coffee, timber, dairy and beef
cattle, and minerals. The chief products (1958, in metric tons) were:
Coffee :18,200), cotton (5,830), maize (261,120), beans (31,150), sorghum
(53,190), rice (12,140), sugar cane (578,600). The banana exports in 1958
were sc·me 13·5m. stems, value 75m. lempiras; and cattle and hogs, 5m.
lempiras. Most farmers are small tenants on government.owned land
(42 % ill 1952) or owner·operators (29% in 1952).
For~lry. Honduras has an abundance of hard and soft woods. Large
stands of mahogany and other hardwoods-granadino, guayacan, walnut
and rosewood-grow in the north·eastern part ofthe country, in the interior
valleys, and near the southern const. Stands of pine occur almost every·
wIJ ere in the interior. 1958 exports (in cu. metres) mainly to U.S.A., U.K.
and Germany, were: Pinewood (195,864), cedar (1,299), mahogany, ebony
and walnut (501). In 1958 timber exports were worth about 13m.lempiras.
HONDURAS 1093
Mining. The mineral resources of Honduras are gold, silver, copper,
lead, zinc, iron, antimony, some of them being found in almost every
department, but only silver (1.958, 81 metric tons), lead (1958, 4,549
metric tons) and a little zinc are now being mined. The principal mines
are American-owned. Exports, 1958, were: Silver, valued at 3,185,690
lempiras; gold, in bars or concentrates (173,857 lempiras), lead (3,380 short
tOilS; 1,300,9291empiras) and other metals (56,325Iempiras).
In 1948 the law regarding concessions was stiffened : concessionaries
must employ Honduran citizens up to one·half of their labour force and may
not import Negroes or persons of the yellow races. Concessions may not
be sold.
Industry. A good quality of Panama hat is manufactured in the depart.
ments of Cop an and Santa Barbara, along with many other articles of domes·
tic use. There are some oil·driven electric power· plants.
Labour. The organization of trade unions was begun in 1954 with the
assistance of O.R.Ll'. (Inter.American Regional Organization) sponsored
by the U.S.A. trade unions. A 'Charter of Labour' was granted in Feb.
1955.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports (including re· exports) for fiscal

years in lempiras (the lempira = 50 cents U.S.):
19~5 1956 19.51 1958
Imports. 108.,;50,13 . 11 i ,214,5&3 137,386,471 132.247, 56 1
Erports. 96,130.666 131,25S,646 127,799,778 138,991,968
Percentages of trade with mnin countries was:

1956 1057 1958
Imports Exports Imports Expor!.s Imports Erport.s
U.S.A . . 67·6 65·1 639 65·0 59·9 62·6
Germany 6·4 5·9 6·7 ti'7 7·0 3·3
Japan 5·3 6·3 6·1 2·7
U.K. 2·6 1·1 2·3 O'S 2·6 0'9
Canada. 1·2 5·0 1·2 3·8
Total trade between Honduras and U.K. (in £ sterling) was (according to
British Board of Trade returns) as follows:
In8 19G5 1956 1957 1968 1959
Import. to U.K. 68,98·! 265,632 464,020 38V.985 322,210 361 ,01 ~
Erpom (rom U.K. . 69,906 466.044 480.051 .93,813 663,759 6u3,033
Rc·exports from U.K. 70. 2,145 2,014 1,39G 3,603 3,282
COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. Honduras is connected with Guate·

mala, El Salvador and Nicaragua by the Pan·American Highway; a western
highway to connect with Guatemala and El Salvador is under construction.
Tegucigalpa, the capital, is comlected with both the Caribbean Sea and the
Pacific Ocean. Roads in Dec. 1956 were 2,517 km. Motor vehicles, 1 Aug.
1!)57, were 3,218 passenger vehicles, 1,475 vans, 1,097 trucks, 938 jeeps,
245 bust's and 4139 others.
RailwaY8. Only 3 railways exist, and they are confined to the north
cor.stal region, where they are used mainly for tran~port,ation of bananas.
Tegucigalpa, the capital, is not served by any railway, and there are no inter·
national railway connexions. The total railways operating at Dec. 1956
were 1,337 km.
1094 HONDURAS
Post. The Government at June 1956 operated 2,824 km of telephone

lines and 8,465 km of telegraph lines. Number of government telephones
in use, 1958, 5,862; telephone offices, 48; number of telegraph offices, 228;
combined telephone and telegraph offices, 107. Fruit, railway and mining
companies own 1,105 km of telephone lines and 1,726 instruments. There
are 36!} post offices and agencies, 8 government and 38 private wireless
station.! aud 10 broadcasting stations; wireless sets in use, 1954, ahout
26,000.
In 1.955 there were 17 commercial broadcasting stations.
Aviation. Over a large part of the coun try the aeroplane is the normal
means of transport for both passengers and freight. There are 34 unpre-
tentious local airports and 1 large international one; fares are somewhat
high, d:.stances short and the planes are treated as casually as buses.
MONEY AND BANKING. By a decree of 9 March 1931 the gold
lempira (named after a native chief) is the monetary unit; its value is that
of 0·831i gramme of gold, 900 fine, or 50 cents U.S. currency. It is backed
by a rC!:erve fund of U.S. deposits and securities; the fund stood at S15·4m.
on 31 May 1959, against a total note circulation of Lps_36m. and coin
of LpsA,190,OOO. Silver coins of 1 lempira, 50 and 20 centavos; copper-
nickel, 10 and 5 centavos; copper-zinc-tin, 2 centavos and 1 centavo are
in circulation. The value of the silver lempira was legally fixed in 1931
to 50 "ents U.S. There are also I, 5, 10, 20 and 100 lempira notes in
circula1.ion. All U.S. currency ceased to be legal tender on 1 Jan. 1954;
the bar,ks converted at the rate of l'98lempiras = US$1.
The power to issue notes was taken over from the 2 private banks--
Banco de Honduras and Banco Atlantida-by the new government bank,
Banco Central de Honduras, which was inaugurated on 1 July 1950 with a
capital of US $250,000. All private bank-notes have been withdrawn.
The B:tnco Central has restored complete freedom in foreign·exchange
trans'tctions, controlled since 1934. Since July 1950 t.he Central Bank's
assets have risen from l'1m. lempiras to over 68·48m. ($34·24m.) in 1959.
Another government bank, the National Development Bank, founded in
1950 with a capital of $750,000, has inaugurated the novel practice of sending
its creoit men into the coffee regions to discuss long-term loans with the
planten and a scheme of •supervised credits' for the poorer farmers. The
Bank of London and Montreal opened in Oct. 1959 in Tegucigalpa.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system has been legal
since 1 April 1897, but English pounds and yards and the old Spanish
system are still in use: 1 vara = 32 in.; 1 manzana (10,000 sq. varas) =
700 sq. metres; 1 arroba = 25 lb.; 1 quintal = 100 lb.; 1 tonelada = 2,000
lb.
Honduras maintains embassies in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
C08ta R.ica, Cuba, El Salvador, France, Guatemala, Italy, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, Spain, U.K., U.S.A., Vatican and Venezuela; and legations in
Ecuador and t.he Netherlands.
OF HONDURAS IN GREAT BRITAIN (22 Mount St., W.ll)
Ami)(lssador. Lie. Francisco Jose Duroll (accredited 30 March l!)()O).
There are consular representatives at Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool,
London and Manchester.
HUNGARY 1095
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN HONDURAS
Minister and Consul-G'eneml_ Geoffrey Holt Seymour Jackson (ap-
pointed 6 March 195(l).
First Secretaries. J . T. Hyslop; .J. Strachn.n Rew. Air Attaclte. Group
Capt. E. W. Wootten, D.F.C., A.F.C. (resident in Caracas).
There are consular representatives at Tcgucigalpa, Tela and San Pedro
8ula.
OF HONDURAS nr THE U.S.A. (4715-16th St. NW.,
Washington 11 , D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr Celeo Davila.
Counsellor. Lempira. E. Bonilla (Economic) . First Secretary. Dr
Curios F. Hidalgo.
OF THE U.S.A. IN HONDURAS
Ambassador. Rooort Newbegin.
Counsellor. John C. Pool. First Secretaries. James W. Cunningham,
Jr; Barney B. Taylor (Labour) . Army Attache. Lieut.-Col. Patrick F.
McGinnis. Naval Attache and Naval Attache for Air. Capt. Jacob V.
Heimark (resident in Mexico City). Air Attache. Lieut.·Col. William J.
Cavoli (resident in Guatemala City).
There is a Consul at San Pedro Sula and a consular agent at La Ceiba.
Books of Reference
Tbe Direcci6n General de Censos y Estadlsticas de Houduras publishes the AlIuario E sladiJtico
(latest issue, 19~8)
Cu..li.m tk Ilmilu ent,e Bondu,aJ y Gumemala. Vffliilada anI< eI Cobierno J{ediad., <k /0'
E,wdn$ Unido$ tk Americ... Vol. 3. New York, 1918
Banco Central de lloDduras : Monthly BuUPtin
Checchi, V. (and others), llf..m4uras, a Problem in economic der<-lopm.enl. New York. 19[,9
R ivAA~ Pedro, Geographical, TIi3lOrica./ and Etymological Dictiona.r'J 0/ Hondttr43. '.regucigaJpn.,
191~
Rubio Melbado, A., CeotpaJfa General de la R"111lbUca de 110'114"''''' . TcgucigBlpa, 1951
\V. S., IlonduraJ : an area study in (Jort?rnmenl. Madison, \\"Isc., 1950
Sto!te~,
HUNGARY
MAGY An NEPK6zTARSASAG
HUNOA.RY first became an independent kingdom in 1001. For events in
Hungary since 1918 see TJU;; ST~TES:llAN'S YE.\R.1300K, 1945, pp. 1006-7,
and 1957, p. 1096.
On 23 Oct.. 1956 an anti-Stalinist revolution broke out, and t he newly-
formed ('oalition government of Imra Nagy on 1 Nov. withdrew from the
Warsaw Pact and asked t.he United Nations to protect Hungarian neutrality.
On 4 Nov. the Russians launched an all-out attack on Hungary, set up 1\
puppet government, abducted Nagy (22 Nov.) and instituted a regime of
milit.ary terror. In all, some 200,000 Hungarians have tied I.he country.
Tbe United Nations have passed se\'eral resolutions condemning th6 Sonet
intervention, the latest on 8 Dec. 1959. The execution of Nngy and 3 of
his associates was tinnounced by the Hungarian regime on 17 June 1958.
1096 HUNGARY
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. On 1 Feb. 1946 the National

Assembly proclaimed the Hungarian Republic.
A new constitution of a 'republic of workers and working peasants' was
adopted on 18 Aug. 1949. Supreme power is vested in Parliament. Parlia·
ment elt,cts a Presidium of 21 members, which exercises the functionB of
Parliam(mt in between session" of Parliament. The Presidium can dissolve
government bodies and annul legislation if they ' infringe the constitution
or are dHtrimental to the interests of the working people. '
Private property, 'if it does not violate the public interest: and right
of inheritance are guaranteed, but the chief means of production and natural
resourcea, banking, t.ransport, etc., are in the hands of the State or of the
Co.operB.tives.
The ·Jhurch is separated from the State but dependent on the State for
financial support. Nationality groups are assured equal rights with
Magyars, and are guaranteed education in their mother tongue, and the
right to develop their national culture.
N ati"nal flag : red, white and green (horizontal).
Nali<mal anthem: God bless the Hungarians-Isten aldd meg a magyari
(words by Ferenc Kolcsey, tune by B. Egressy).
Pruidenl of the Presidential Cuuncil. Istvan Dobi, President of the
Indepondent Smallholders' Party, former Chairman of the Council of
Minister", elected 14 Aug. 1952; admitted to Communist Party membership
in Dec. :: 959.
On 1 Feb. 1949 the Hungarian Working People'S Party (Communists),
the Smdlholders' Party, the National Peasant Party, the Trade Union
Federation, the Association of Working Peasants, the Democratic Women's
Association and the Fedemtion of Working Youth (DISZ) were merged in a
single o rganization called the Hungarian People's Independence Front.
At the ond of Oct. 1954 a new comprehensive organization was formed,
called the Patriotic People's Front.
The Communist Party, which numbered nearly Im. members, was re·
organized after the crushing of the October revolution, changed its name to
'HungaIian Socialist Workers' Party' and, in Dec. 1959, numbered 402,456.
The Fir, t Secretary of the Politburo is Janos K lidar; his deputy is Gyorgy
Marosan.
The Government was in Jan. 1960 composed as follows: Chairman:
Ferenc Miinnich. First Deputy Chairman: Gyula Kallai. Minister of
State : J anos Kadar. Finance: Rezso Nyers. Foreign Affairs: Dr Endre
Sik. CI'4irman, National Planning Office: Acpad Kiss. Agriculture: Pal
Losonczy. President of Parl·iament : Sandor R6nai. Interior: Bela Biszku.
Culture: Mme Valeria Benke. Defence: Lieut.-Gen. Gcza Revesz, formerly
a Gener.tl in the Soviet Army.
At the elections held Oil 16 Nov. 1958, 6,403,181 votes were cast for the
single li~;t of the People's Patriotic Front; 28,651 votes against it; 61,848
ballot pllpers were invalid. Parliament consists of 338 deputies, I for each
32,000 of the population, elected for a 4.year term.
Locl.L GOVERNMENT. For administrative purposes tho Republic is
divided into 19 counties (megyek), 5 county boroughs, districts, towns and
borough3.
The local councils form the basi.~ of JO();ll administration. They are
elected for a term of 4 years and' exercise their functions in close contact
with thE; population, ensure the active participation of the workers in the
HUNGARY 1097
work of local government and encourage initiative and vigilance on their
part.'
The local councils elect from among their own members the Executive
Committees which manage the daily affairs of administration and direct
the work of the local.government apparatus. All local cOlIDcils can issue
regulations within the area of their jurisdiction and within the provisions
of the law.
AREA AND POPULATION. The armistice of 20 Jan . 1945 restored

the frontiers as of I Jan. 1938. This was confirmed by the peace treaty
of 10 Feb. 1947, which further stipulated the cession to Czechoslovakia of
3 villages on the Danube opposite Brati~lava (61 sq. km).
The census population (31 Jan . 1941) of the present territory of Hun·
gary settled by the Armistice, i.e., 011 93,Oll sq. km (35,912 sq. miles),
was 9,316,613 (4,562,868 males and 4,757,124 females). According to the
mother tongue the population consisted of : 8,657,102 Magyars (92'8% );
477,057 Germa.ns (5'1%); 75,ll20 Slova ks (0'8%); 22,269 Croats (0'2%);
18,661 Gipsies (0,2%) ; 14,161 gumanians (0,2%); 5,444 Serbs (0' 1%) and
23,420 others.
The population at I Jan . 1960 was 9,977,870.
Vital statistics, 1958: Births, 167,202; ma rriages, 90,258; deaths,
103,569; infantile mortality, 52·4 per 1,000 live births.
Area (in sq. km) and populat ion (in 1,000) of the counties, their capitals
and the county boroughs were as follows at I Jan. 1957.
Counties Area. I)opulation Chief town Population
Daranva. . 4,396 300 PeC3 no
BtI.cs·Kiskun . 8,361 530 Kecskemt t;. 67
Betes . . . 5,G6ti 470 Bekescsaba 50
Borsod·Abauj·Zcmpli'n 7,024 560 Miskolc 150
OsongrM 4,1 ;)0 330 H6dmczbva.'5:)rllely 54
Fejer • 4,368 350 Szi:kesfeh(rvar 5~
Gyor·Sopron 4,009 390 Gyor 68
Hajdu·Bihar 5,766 380 Debrecen 130
Heves 3,63S 320 Eger 34
Komarom 2,246 250 Tatab!mya 48
N6grM . 2,544 230 Salgotarj!lD 25
Pest 6,386 750 Budapest 1,850
Somogy . 6,078 360 Kaposvhr 43
Szabolcs·Szatwir 5,935 560 NylregyM.za 56
Szolnok. 5,071 450 Szolnok 43
Tolna 3,579 2iO Tolna
Vas 3,339 270 S20mbathely 53
Veszprem 5,22S 370 Veszprf m 23
Zala 3,281) 270 Zalaegerszeg 18
County boroughs
Budapest (capital) 525 ] ,350
Mi,kolc . !!24 li)O
Debrecen H6 130)
Fees u;; 110
Szeged 112 100
Total 93,030 9,804
RELIGION. The Constitution of 194!l has abolished the former dist.inc·

tion between incorporated and recognized religions. All religions have
equal standing. The Constitut.ion 'in order to ensure the liberty of con-
science' separated the Church from the State.
In 1949 Cardinal Mindszenty, Primate of the Roman Catholic Church,
1098 HUNGARY
W&.S sentenced, on charges of political treason, to life imprisonment; he was

released by the revolution on 30 Oct. 1956, but sought asylum in the U.S.A.
legation under the Soviet terror.
In Sept. 1950,59 Roman Catholic orders with more than 10.000 monks
and nU::1S were dissoh'ed and their monasteries taken over by the State.
On 13 April 1959 a new law came into operation giving the State the right
t o appoint its own nomi.!lees for all vacant bishoprics which are not filled
within 90 days; and to fill church posts of lower rank down to parish priest
which have not been filled by the bishops within 60 days. In addition,
State approval is required for all ecclesiastical appointments, transfers and
dismiss 'lIs before these are made public. Under the same law all clergy
have to take an oath of allegiance to the State.
In ~rune 1958 the Lutheran bishop Ordass was deposed and replaced by
bishop Zoltan Kaldy.
Lat'lst estimates of Church membership (about 1955-ii6) : Roman
Catholbs, 6,200,000; Reformed, 2m.; Lutherans, 433,000; Orthodox,
:!73,OOC: Baptists, 35,000; Seventh·Day Adventists, 14,000: Methodists,
2,500: Jews, 110,000.
EDUCATION. In 1945-46 a now type of school was introduced-the
general school. Attendance is compulsory for children of 6 to 14. All
ciementary and primary schools and the lower <,Ias.~es of the middle schools
have b'len transformed into general schools. The teaching of Russian is
compuhory for children between the ages of 9 and 18.
On 16 June 1948 thc 4,322 denominational schools were nationalized
with the exception of 9 Cah'illi~t, 2 Lutheran and 2 Je\vish secondary
achoola. In HJ50, 3 male and I female teaching orders were permitted to
continue to staff the 8 licensed Roman Catholic schools.
In 1957-58,2,599 kindergartens had 7,080 teachers and 162,200 pupils;
6,291 elementary schools, 53,667 teachers and 1,259,000 pupils ; 449 second.
ary schools, 8,053 teachers and 159,400 pupils.
Elementary schoolteachers are being trained in 58 training colleges.
There are 4 universities in Buda pest, Pees, Szclled and Debrecen, and 3
techni<nl universities in Budapest, Miskolc and Veszprem. Newly created
institutions of higher educat.ion (mostly in Budapest, with colleges in the
provinces) are the National School of Technology, the School of Agriculture,
the Scl:.ool of Economics, alld the Academy of Economics and Technical
Science. All these 30 institutions of higher education had, in 1957-58,
32,900 5tudents, of whom 24,000 were full· time students.
The Hungarian Academy of Sciences, in Budapest, has been reorganized
on the Soviet patt.cm.
In 1949, 5% of the population over 7 ycars of age was illiterate.
Cinemas (1957). There were 3,859 cinemas.
SOc:IAL WELFARE. In 1950 the National Insurance Institute,
created in 1927-28, was taken over by the Trade Unions Council.
In 1957 there were 14,134 physicians and surgcons and 69,700 hospital
beds.
The taxes of all employees are paid by the employer. Low-cost mid-
day me!l.ls are provided. All employees are entit.led to paid holidays.
JUSTICE. Law and justice administration have been remodelled on

Soviet Law and Procedure. Civil and criminal cases fall under the jurisdic·
tion of the district court.s, county courts and the Supreme Court in Buda·
HUNGARY 1099
pest. Criminal proceedings are dealt with by district courts through 3-
member councils and by county courts and the Supreme Court in 5-member
cOllncils.
District Colll'tB act only as courts of first instance; county courts ae
either courts of first instancll or of appeal. The Supreme Court acts normally
as an apPc(l1 court, but may act!l8 a court of first instance in cases 8ubmitted
to it by the Public Prosecutor. All courts, when acting lt8 courts of first
in~tance, consist of 1 professional judge and 2 people's assessors, and, as
cOllrts of appeal, of 3 professional judges. District or county judges and
aSBessors are elected by the district or countv councih, all members of the
Supreme Court by Parli!lruent. •
In addition to the normal civil courts, there are courts marti(ll, and
• traffic c<Jurts' for dealing with offences in connexion with national com-
munications. The 5 high courts have been abolished.
Judges are elected for a period of 5 or 3 years. J.\Iembers of tho Supreme
Court are elected by Parliament., and other judges by the rural districts or
county councils.
The People's Courts, set up frolll 1945, deal with war crimes and with
'crimes against the people'.
Tho Procurator-General and his office are directing and controlling justice.
After the suppression of the revolution in 1956, various emergency
laws w"re introduced to deal with' counter-revolutionaries.' Such persons
may be (.ried by military courts (md special people's courts; they can be
held without trial for indefinite periods, and their defence may be conducted
only by lawyers drawn from a panel approvcu by the regime. Tho death
penalty has been extended to a variety of new crimes, including the fomenta-
tion of strikes.
On 20 Dec. 1957 So' law of the people's control' was promulgated, which
organizes the supervision of workers in offices and factories.
FINANCE. The budget for calendar years was as follows (in J ,000m.
forints) :
1964 1955 lU.~6 19;jj 1968 1969 1 19GO •
Revenue. 46·3 44'~7 43-33 52·6 49.9 58.2 67'7
Expenditure 44·0 43·09 42·18 51'S 48·8 b7S 07'4
1 Revised c'5timates. 2 Estimate:;.
Of the estimated revenue for 1960, 81·2% was to come from the profits
of state enterprises, fiscal fees, social insurance contributions, etc., 3% from
co-operative~, 6'5% from taxes and n'3% from other sources.
The 1960 expenditure was earmarked as follows: 58·3% for national
economy, 28·8% for social and cultural purposes, 4'6% for defence, 4·9%
for police and justice, 3'4% for auministration.
On 30 June 1952 Huugary's foreign debt included the equivalent of
£29,257,000 Ilnd 52,885,503 gold francs of pre-1918 debts: £19,780,331,
$26,425.GOO, 2,On.000 SwiSl! francs, 3,669,000 Dut,cb cuilders, 2,825,833
Swedish kronor, 163,)26,300 French francs, 128,723,500 Italian lire. Debts
to Brit·ain are variously estimated at. between £20m. and £3010.
DEFENCE. The HJ47 Peace Treaty has authorized Hungary to have

an army up to a total strength of 65,000 personnel, and an air force of 90
1100 HUNGARY
aircraft, of which not more than 70 may be combat types, with a personnel
strength of 5,000.
B ungary is divided into 4 army districts: Budapest, Debrecen, Kiskun-
felegyha:~, Pecs. At the beginning of 1952 the Hungl1rian regular army
had 6 infantry divisions, 3 motorized divisions and 1 tank division. Its
strength in Dec. 1959 was about 75,000 men.
The Air Force, which included several squadrons of MiG-15 jet-fighters
before the 1956 revolution, is believed to be little more than an internal
security force.
Hunl:ary has 4 patrol vessels for police duty on the Danube.
The October revolution 1956 led to the virtual dissolution of the Army.
The security police (A.V.H.) was disbanded at the outbreak of the revolution
but reformed in Jan. 1957 under the name of B.A.C.S.
The :liilitia, formed from the remnants of the former Army and A.V.H.,
has been taken over by the ordinary police and the Workers' Guards, a
para.military organization armed with automatic weapons. Its strength
in Dec. 1959 was about 35,000.
Four Soviet divisions were stationed in Hungary in 1959.
PRODUCTION. Planning. On 1 Jan. 1950 a 5-year plan was put
into ope:~ation, designed 'to transform Hungary from an agrarian industrial
country into an industrial agrarian country'. The plan was revis?d several
times.
The .october revolution 1956 completely upset the economic life of the
country, but this had fully recovered by the end of 1958, although the
three-ye,~r plan 1958-60 envisages a slower advance than in earlier years.
The !lecond 5.year plan, which is to run from 1961 to 1965, was approved
by the Party Congress in Dec. 1959. During this period, industrial pro-
duction is to rise by 65-70%, agricultural production by 25-30%; invest-
ments al'e to total 200,000m. forints.
Agriculture. Under th e post-war' regime the greatest change has been
the land reform, according to which large holdings and forests have been
appropriated for the creation of smallholdings. By April 1950, 5,599,645
acres had been distributed-58·2% (arable land) among individual holders
and 41'8% (forest) for public purposes.
In Dec. 1955, 2·3m. yokes of the arable land, with 305,500 members,
was organized in 4,816 collective farms. On 31 Jan. 1959 there were stated
to be 2,~r95 collective farms ,vith 135,000 members; acreage, 1·6m. yokes.
There were also 466 state farms and over 1·5m. privately owned farms.
After a Jresh drive for collectivization in 1959 it was estimated that by the
end of 1!159 over half of the arable total was farmed by collective or state
farm~ .
Production of major agricultural crops (in 1,000 metric tons) :
Crop. 1955 1957 1958 1959 Crop. 1955 1951 1958
Wheat ~?,131 1,959 1,487 1,909 Maize . . 2,912 8,233 2,8 32
Rye 644 487 370 443 Potatoes . . 2,467 2,707 2,599
Barley 794 962 735 1,093 Sagar beet . 2,241 1,878 2,070
Oats 176 263 192 255
Live!:tock was (in 1,000 head) as follows: Cattle, 2,002 (Oct. 1959);
sheep, 2,150 (March 1959); horses, 717 (March 1959): chickens, 21,790
(March 1957); pigs, 8,012 (Oct. 1959).
Live!ltock products (1955): Carcases, 850,000 metric tons; eggs, 1,400m;
milk, 330m. gallons; wool, 5,800 metric tons .
By the end of 1954 mechanized agriculture was to be increased to 33·1,637
HUNGARY 1101
h.p.; the area under irrigation to 182,000 hectares (1956. actual, 89.324);
the average of fertilizers used on each state farm to 156 kg (101'5 kg in
1949); area under cotton to 282,000 acres; area under fodder plants to
1·85m. acres; production of fertilizers to 330,000 tons (production, H)53,
220,000). Tractors in 1956 numbered 25,483.
The north shore of Lake Balaton is an important wine· producing district.
The best-known Hungarian wines come from tbe hilly country, 'Tokaj,' in
t.he north·east. Wine production in 1955 was 3,368,000 hectolitres.
Forestry. The total area. under forest in 1956 was 1,263,000 hectares.
Fisheriu. Hungary retains important fishery preserves in the Danube
and Tisza rivers and in lake Balaton. The latter contains plentiful supplies
of perch, carp, pike, sbeatfish, shad and other fish.
I nd-u• try. For a. summary of the s11ccessive stages of nationalization
from 1946 to 1952 aee THE STA1'ESMAN'S YE.l.R·BoOK, 1954, p. 1115.
Coal output
(In 1,000 tons)' 1938 1964 1955 1968 1967 1958 1960'
Coal . 1,040} 21 500 22,300 20,600' 21,197 24,200 26,600
Lignite 8,310 '
• Hungarian ol1lcll\l sources do not specify tbe grade 01 coal, and give tbe total extraction
01 bard ~nd 80ft coal (brown coal and lignite), putting their caloric value at a par. The
original S·year plan for co,,1 (plus lignite, at I : 1) put as target, lor ItS., 18·Sm. tons; the
revised plan, 27·SlD. tons (reduced in 1954 to 22·Sum.).
, Hrud coal, 2·S8m.; brown coal, 14·99m.; lignite,3·22m. Target.
Mineral, ete. actual out.- 1936-S8

put (in 1,000 ton.,) (yearly av.) 1949 1965' 1966 1957 1968
Iron ore (lCS5 than 42%) 289 339 296 288 27S 309
Manganese ore over 300/0 25 S3'
Manganese ore less tban
30% 79'
Pig·iroo 333 430 868 755 686' 902
Crude steel . 622 849 1,629 1,416 1,14"· 1,355
Bauxite MO' 661 1,241 89S 766 877
• Peak·year 1943 (for Gonnan war needs), 1m. tons. I Target (1960 : 1,094).
• 1947. No furtber figureo available. ' Rolled steel, 893.
• A ls o "lumina, 132,000 tIU:;5: 154,000) tons; aluminium, 32,800 (1955 : 37,000; 1957
26,000; 1958, 39,186) tons.
Commercial production of petroleum began in 1937. Production in 1955,

1·61U. tons; 1956, 1·2m. tons; 1957,674,000 metric tons (because oilfields
became waterlogged through over.exploitation); 1958,828,000 metric tons.
Imports of fuel have been rising; they were (in 1,000 metric tons): Coal,
(1955) 793, (1956) 841, (1957) 2,382; crude oil, (1955) 232, (1956) 325, (1957)
1,002; fuel oil, (J955) 59, (1956) 114, (1957) 146.
Electricity production, in 1955, 5,400m. kwh.; 1956, 5,194m. kwh.;
1957, 5,442m. kwh.; 1958, 5,504m. kwh.
Cement production, 1955, 1·2m. ; 1956,O·99m.; 1957, 0·989m. metric
tons. Sugar production, 1955, 248,300; 1956, 216,400; 1957, 301,000
metric tons.
Main chemical products, 1957 (in 1,000 metric tons): Nitrogenous
fertilizers, 80; superphosphates, 164 (1958: 153); sulphuric acid, 115;
caustic soda, 14.
Cotton fabrics, 1957, 208m. sq. metres. The import of raw cotton
accounts for 8-10% of all imports (by value). Woollen fabrics, 1957, 23·8m.
sq. metres. Flax and hemp fabrics. 1957. 23·8m. sq. metres. Silk fabrics,
1957, 19·4m. sq. metres. Leather shoes, 1957. 14·2m. pairs.
1102 HUNGARY
COMMERCE. Trade for calendar years (in Im. forints):

19:;3 1954 19~5 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports. 5,531 6,019 6,274 5,473 8,011 7,392 9,269
E>q>orts. 5,90·1 6,164 7,HS 5,809 5,728 7,980 8,994
Foreign trade in 1957: Imports from U.S.S.R., 34'8%; Czechoslovakia,
1l'5%; Austria, 3'8%; Rumania, 2'5%; Yugoslavia, 1'5% of the total.
Exports to U.S.S.R., 21·7%; Czechoslovakia, 15'5%; Yugoslavia, 4'4%;
Austria, 3'4%; Rumania, 2'5% of the total.
In J"n. 1960 an Anglo.Hungarian trade agreement was signed in London,
to run for 3 years. During the first year, Hungary is expected to import
British goods to the value of £5·5m. (machinery, textiles, motor vehicles,
radio ar.d television equipment, chemicals) whereas Hungary may export
goods t.) the value of £4·5m. (butter, bacon, textiles, chemicals, fruit,
vegetables, aluminium).
Total trade between Hungary and U.K. according to British Board of
Trade rc,turns (in £ sterling) :
1938 19~8 1967 1958 19~9
Imports to U.K. 2,450,411 3,323,466 2,318,381 3,181,909 3,192,118
Exports from U.K. . 684,199 1,998,386 2,612,467 2,957,131 3,961,506
Re-exports trom U. K. 76,842 632,891 418,6'39 274,031 2;2,208
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The Hungarian Danube-Sea Navi.

gation Co. (Mahart) had in 1959, 8 sea.going vessels of together 8,000
gross tons. Navigable waterways, in 1957, had a length of 1,294 kill.
RoM.s. In 1957 the length of state and municipal roads totalled 28,837
km. Total motor vehicles and cycles, Dec. 1954, 170,000.
Railways. The length of railways in Hungary in 1957 was 8,878 km,
of which 381 km were electrified. 329·6m. passengers and 70·3m. metric
tons of freight were carried.
Post. Number of post offices (1957), 2,288; length of telegraph lines,
7,355 km; ofteJegraph wires, 187,105 km. Number of telephones in 1959,
425,000. Wireless licences, 1057, 1,774,500; television licneces, 1958,
16,000.
Aviation. The Hungarian Air Lines ('Malcv') operates from Budapest
airport 6,t Ferihegy, some 20 km from the capital. In 1954, 101,900 passen·
gers and, in 1953,2,723 metric tons of freight were carried.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. A decree of 26 July 1946 instituted
a new monetary unit, the forint subdivided into 100 filler. The official rate
of excha.nge is forints 32'62-33-12 to the £ sterling (April 1957). As from
1 April 1957 the rate of exchange of Western and Yugoslav currencies for
tourists has been doubled (65-06 forints to the £); this rate does not apply
to commercial transactions.
Bya deIJree of 23 April 1948 all hltnking activities of the Central Corpora.
tion ofEll.nking Institutes were taken over by the National Bank of Hungary.
The National Bank also assumed control of the checking.account section of
the Post.al Savings Bank. A network of branch savings banks was est"b.
lished under the lellder8hip of the Postal Saving~ Bank, including branches
of the Hungarian Commercial Bank of Pest, of the Discount Bank and of the
National Savings Bank of Pest. The Hungarian Commercial Bank of Pest
simultaneously became the foreign.trade banking institution, with exclusive
right to grant letters of credit for imports. The National Credit Institute of
HUNGARY 1103
Co.operatives is handling all credit transactions ror rarmers, artisans and
co.operatives.
A Hungarian Investment Bank was established on 24 Sept. 1948. (For
details see TilE STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK, 1957, p. 1104.)
measures is in use. For land measure a cadast.ral yoke (0'7033 acre;
O·57M hcctare) is used.
Hungary maintains embassies in Albania, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Ceylon,
China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, German Democratic Republic, India, Indo·
nesia, Iraq, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, North Vietnam, Poland, Ru·
mania, Tunisia, U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, Yugoslavia; legations ill
Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Iran, Israel, Italy,
Netherlands, Norway, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, U.K., U.S.A.,
Yemen.
OF HUNGARY IN GREAT BRITAIN (46 Eaton Plucc, S.W. I)
jlfinister. Beia Szihigyi (accredited 11 Feb. 1959).
Counsellors. J6zsefBir6 (Commercial); Dr Laszl6 Biiti (Cultural). Firat
Secretaries. Laszl6 Pinter; Sandor Ani,nyi (Commercial). Press Attache.
K alman D6cze. .Military and Air Attache. Lieut.·Col. Viktor Csap6.
Commercial Secretary. Istvall Pellerdi.
01' GREAT Bm1'Anl IN HUNGARY
Minister. N. J. A. Cheetham, C.M.G.
F·irst Secretaries. J . E. D. Street (Head of Chancery); R. C. Hope·Jolles
(Commercia.l) .
Military Attache. Col. L. Curtis, M.C.
Air Attache. Group Capt. A. M. lIfolltagu·Sruith.
There is a consular representative in Budapest.
OF IN THE U.S.A. (2437-1 5th St. NW.,
HUNOAltY
Washington 9, D.C.)
Charge d'Affaires. Tibor Udor.
First Secretary. Janos Ki:ivC3di. ilfilita.r!l and Air AttacM. Col.
Kiiroly Laszl6.
OF 'CHE V.S.A. I N HUNG,IR¥
Counsellor. Garret G. Ackerson, Jr. First Secretary. James W. Pratt
(Consul). Army Attache. Col. Johnsoll G. Lemmon. Air AttacM. Col.
Waiter S. Hammond. Economic Attache. Edwin W . Crowley.
BOGIes of Reference
Statistical Pocket Book of Hungar!1 (wi th English ! r,nstation). lludupe,;t., 19;;8
Mqnthly Bulktin of tM NlJliol.a/ Bank of Ilungarv . (In English.) Budapest
Hungarian RtfJiew. Monthly (from JaD. 1!) ~5 to Sept-. 1956 1 and again lrom Oct. 1951,
ouperseding the (ortnigbtly llU"!laria1l BuIlTtill). (In En~ li s h.) Budapest
Hungdrl1 Todall. Central Statistie.l Omee, Budapest, 1~5S
Hungary, a Guide [(IT 1'rat'ellers. Uuuapest.. 19511
PIa« Tr.aJll Ulith Jlungary. 10 P.tJ . 1917. (C'md. 7435.) H .hLS.O., 194~
Helmreich, E. (cd .), Hungary. New York. 1957
Macartney. O. A . . A History 01 Hun9ary, 1929-15. London, 195.
Nagy, P., The StMlggk Behind the Iron Cllrtain. New York. 1948
Or.s.lIgb, L., a.ngnl·.lJagyar S.dttir. 3rdeu. Budapest, 19:;1
1104 ICELAND
ICELAND
LYDVlILDID iSLAND
IOllLANII is a large island in the North Atlantic, close to the Arctic Circle,
and comprises an area of about 103,000 sq. km (39,758 sq. miles), with
its enrome northern point (the Rifstangi) lying in 66° 32' N. lat., and its
most southerly point (Dyrh6laey, Portland) in 63° 24' N. lat., not including
the isla~.ds north and south of the land; if these are counted in, the country
extends from 67° 10' N. (the Kolbeinsey) to 63° 19' N. (Geirfuglasker, one
of the Westman Islands). It stretches from 13° 30' (the Gerpir) to
24° 32' W. long. (Llitrabjarg). The skerry HvalbaTcur (The Whaleback) Iics
13° 16' W . long.
Thelirst settlers came to Iceland in 874. Between 930 and 1264 Iceland
was an illldependent republic, but by the' Old Treaty' of 1263 the country
reoognized the rule of the King of Norway. In 13Bl Iceland, together with
Norway. came w1der the rule of the Danish kings, but when Norway was
separat.ed from Denmark in IB14, Iceland remained under the rule of
Denmark. Since 1 Dec. 1918 it has been acknowledged as a sovereign
state. Tt was united with Denmark only through the common sovereign
until it was proclaimed an independent republic on 17 June 1944.
National flag; red cross, with white borders, on blue.
National anthem: 0 Gud vors lands (words by M. Jochums80n, 1874;
tune by S. Sveinbjernsson).
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. On 24 Ma.y 1944 the people
of Iceland decided in a referendum to sever all ties with the Danish Crown.
The voters were asked whether they were in favour of the abrogation of the
Union Act, and whether they approved of the bill for a republican con-
stit.ution. The referendum brought 98% of the electorate to the polls,
and showed that 70,725 voters were for severance of all political ties with
Denmark and only 370 against it; 69,048 were in favour of the republican
constitution, 1,042 against it and 2,505 cast votes that were declared
inva lid. On 17 JUlJle 1944 the republic was formally proclaimed. and a8
the rep'lblic's first president the Althing elocte d Sveinn Bjrjrnsson for a
I-year term (re·elected 1945 and 1949; died 25 Jan. 195~). The President
is eleoted for a 4-year term.
Pre.!ident of the Republic of Iceland. Asgeir Asgeirs80n (elected 29 JUlJle
1952, w;th 32,925 out of 68,190 votes; inaugurated 1 Aug. 1952; re-elected
unoppooed in 1956).
The Althing or Parliament (52 members) is divided into two Houses, the
Upper House and the Lower House. The former is composed of one-third
of the :cnembers elected by the whole Althing in common sitting. The
remaining two-thirds of the members form the Lower HOllse. The members
of the AILhing receive payment for their services, besides travelling expenses.
The budget bills must be laid before the two Houses in joint session, but
all othe r bills can be introduced in either of the Houses. If the Houses do
not agme, they assemble in a common sitting and the final decision is given
by B majority of two-thirds of the voters, with the exception of budget
bills, where a simple majority is sufficient. The ministers have free access
to both Houses, but can vote only in the House of which they are members.
The electoral law enacted in 1959 provides for an Althing of 60 members.
Ofthese, 49 are elected in 8 constituencies by proportional representation; the
remainilg 11 are apportioned to the parties according to their total vote.
ICELAND 1105
At the elections held on 25-26 Oct. 1959 the following parties were
returned: Independence Party, 24; Progressives,17; Labour Union (Com.
munists), 10; Social Democrats, 9.
The executive power is exercised under the President by the Cabinet.
The coalition Cabinet, appointed 20 Nov. 1959, was, in March 1960, composed
as follows:
Prime Minister. Olafur Thors (Ind. Party).
Justice, Church, Health and Industries . Bjarni Benediktsson (Ind.
Party).
Fisheries and Social Welfare. Emil Jonsson (Soc. Dem.).
Foreign Affairs. · Gu'i5mundur 1. GutSmundsson (Soc. Dem.).
Finance. Gunnar Thoroddsen (Ind. Party).
Education and Commerce. Gylfi p. Gislason (Soc. Dem.).
Agriculture and Communicatiuns. Ingolfur Jonsson (Ind. Party).
The ministers are responsible for their acts. They can be impeached by
the Althing, and in that case their cause will be decided by the LandsdOmur,
a special tribunal for parliamentary impeallhments.
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION. For administrative purposes Iceland is di·
vided into 16 provinces (ayslur), each under a chief executive (sYaluma'i5ur).
Each province forms one or two municipal districts with a council super·
intending the 214 rural municipalities. There are also 14 urban munici.
palities with a town council, independen t of the provinces, and forming by
themselves administrative districts co·ordinate with the provinces. The
municipal councils are elected direct by universal suffrage (men and women
over 21 years of age), in urban municipalities by proportional representation,
but iu rural municipalities by simple majority.
AREA AND POPULATION. The following table gives the area and
popUlation oflceland according to the census of 1 Dec. 1950 (final) :
Population,
Divisions Area. ill sq. kln Population per sq. km
Tbe South· West . 10,100 80,623 1·6
The Western Pelllnsula 9,500 1I.166 1·2
Tbe Nortll 35,500 2~,632 0·8
The Rn~t 15,560 9,106 0·6
Tbe Suuth 31,800 13,841 0·4
Total 103,000 143,973 1·4
Population on l. Dec. 1958, 170,156.
In 1958,36,419 were domiciled in rural districts and 133,737 in towns
and villages (of over 300 inhabitants). The population is almost entirely
Icelandic. In 1940 tho foreign. born population numbered only 1,562, or
1·3% of the whole; 650 were born in Denmark, 357 in Norway and 655 in
other countries.
The capital, Reykjavik, had on 1 Dec. 1958, a population of 69,268;
other towns are Akranes, 3,644; Akul'eyri, 8,422; Hafnarfjor'i5ur, 6,606;
Husavik, 1,411; f safjor'i5ur, 2,701; Keflavik, 4,377; K6pavogur, 5,149;
Neskaupstauur, 1,417; OlafsjorlSur, 875; SautSarkrokur, 1,105; Sey<5is.
fjortSur, 748; Siglufjor<5ur, 2,691; Vestmannaeyjar, 4,425.
VITAL STATISTICS for calcmdar years:
LIving births Still·born Marriages Divorces Death.
1954 4,281 69 1,4li 114 1,064
1955 4,505 63 1,335 129 1.099
1956 4,664 61 1,336 102 1,163
1951 4.126 65 1,326 115 1,151
1958 4,625 62 1,326 143 1,165
1106 ICELAND
RELIGION. The national church, and the only one endowed by the
state, i:J Evangelical Lutheran. But there is complete religious liberty,
and no civil disabilities are attached to those not of the national religion.
The alr/,irs of the national church are under the superintendence of a bishop.
At the oensus of 1950,1,454 persons (1 %) were Dissenters and 2,242 persons
(1,6%) did not belong to any religious community.
EDUCATION. There is a university in Reykjavik, inaugurated on 17
June 1911. There are 4 grammar schools, several publie high schools,
besides 2 girls' schools, a school for elementary schoolteachers, 2 schools of
agriculture, a school of navigation, a commercial high school and several
other special schools. Elementary instruction is compulsory for a period
of 9 yer,rs, the school age being from 7 to 15 years. There are also several
continuation schools for young people.
Cin01la8 (1955). There were 48 cinemas with a seating capacity of
12,000.
Neuspapers (1959). There are 5 daily newspapers, all in Reykjavik,
with a <:ombined circulation of 60,000-70,000.
SOCIAL WELFARE. In 1946 there was enacted a new national insur·
ance scheme, covering the whole nation, and operative from 1947. It
falls into two main classes of activities, health service (including health
protection and medical treatment and the care of sick persons) and income
insuraMe (securing for the insured persons a living wage when they are
no longer able to earn their bread theIll1!elves, as, for instance, owing to
old.age disablement, sickness, accident or want of support). The health
scrviced.ivision, however, is only partially operative.
JUSTICE. The lower courts of justice are those of the provincial magi.
stratcs (sys!umenn) and town judges (ba'jarfogetar). From these there is an
appeal to the Supreme Court (hlEstirettur) in Reykjavik, which has 5 judges.
FINANCE. Current revenue and expenditure for calendar years (in
kronur) :
Revenue Expendtture Revenue Expenditure
19j4 551,117,3il 4:;2,574.080 1~ij7 848,622,000 786,420,000
19;5 646,026.344 512,492,362 1~58 913,664.000 739,642,000
1956 752,526,000 653,563.000 195~1 897,910,000 793,382,000
1 liudget estimate.
Main items of budget estimates for the calendar year 1959:

Revenue Kr6nur E xpenditure Kr6nur
Income and property tax, war Interest on state debt 0,353,787
profits t-ax • • • 130,000,000 Presidency . . 1,338,260
Sales ta:r, CU$toms and excise 455,OOO,OUO 9,052,791
Balance on state undertakiug'3 200,700,000 ~!~~T admi~istration 31,622,826
Bala.nce et domain revenue 10.000 Just.ice, police, etc. 89,847,578
Interest en state A.ssets 2,000,000 Sanitary affairs . 39,418,244
Commurtications . 141,190,913
Ecclesi3llticoJ affairs and in-
struction. . . 150,319,464
Science, literature snd art . 17,924,429
Agriculture, fisheries and.
indu.trics . 127.604,351
Social weUa.re 149,440,231
Pen.",ions 23,769,188
Tho public debt of Iceland was 011 31 Dec. 1958, 433,393,000 kronur,
of which the foreign debt amounted to 183,293,000 kronur, and the internal
debt t o 250,100,000 kronur.
ICELAND 1107
The state Msets (net) amounted on 31 Dec. 1958 to 1,269,901,000
kronur.
DEFENCE. Iceland possesses neither an army nor a navy. Under the
North Atlantic Treaty, U.S. army, navy and air forces are stationed in
Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force.
Eight armed fishery protection vessels are maintained by the Govern·
ment.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Of the t otal area of Iceland, about
six·sevenths is unproductive, but only about 0'5% is undcr cultivation,
which is confined to hay, potatoes and turnips. In 1957 the total hay crop
1'ron\ cultivated and uncultivated land was 333,200 metric tons; the crop of
potatoes, 7,600 metric tons, and of turnips, 490 metric tons. At the (lOd of
1957 the livestock was as follows: Horses, 33,039; cattle, 49,023; sheep,
769,827; goats, 96.
Fiaherie8. Fishing vessels in 1958 numbered 93 (over 100 tons) and 30i
(30-100 tons); total tonnage, 5i,670 (including vessels under 30 tons).
The total catch in 1958 was 505,038 metric tons.
The Icelandic Government on 30 June 1958 issued a decree according
to which the fishery limits off Iceland werEl, effective 1 Sept. 1958, extended
from 4 to 12 nautical miles. The Icelandic Government maintain that this
extension is necessary to protect the fish stocks in Icelandic waters, the
fishing industry being of vital importance to the national economy of Ice·
land. This extension of tho Icelandic fishery limits has been repudiatpd by
Great Britain.
Electritity. The installed capacity of power plants A.t the end of 1958
totalled 107,600 kw. (95,100 in public. owned plants), of which 78,800 kw.
comprised hydro·electrio plants. Total energy production in public·owned
plants in 1958 amounted to 445m. kwh.
COMMERCE. Totn,j value of imports and exports in 1,000 houur:
1953 1~ o4 1855 1956 1957 1958
Imports 1,110,436 I,HO,488 1,266,072 1.·168.641 l ,1Hil.\1·1 i ]. 397,~0Z
Exports 'OG,4H 845,~12 S47,S49 1,031,512 ~R6,61R l, OjO,l~ j
1957 IV5S
Value o( lenJiug imports and eXT"orts tmp(lrtl ErporlJ Imports Exp(lrt,
(iu 1,01)0 kt6nur) (c.i·f·) (f. o.b .) (c.i.j.) (f.o.b.)
Food . . . 1;:)6,864 856,230 13S,iiG 9n,n:1
neV'erage~ A.nli t.obacco 22,52~ 1 ::!;j.~;,(i 1
Ita\v olU.tcrial~, lu ediblf>. e.tcevt [t1e}. . ~fl.001 40,250 87,i!jt, 36,3:28
~finerl\J tuel~. lu bricant s and reJa-ted prndnct~ 260,5 49 ~()3.~:; B
animal aud ~egctuble oil'i, fats, eie .. 12.986 78,922 14,105 94,756
f;heruicais 60.703 .1,017 60,'169
hlanufacturcd !?ood~ :lSZ,ORI 669 420,13S 82
~!acbinery Bnd transport equipment. ~ O8,404 5,953 343,214 4. 500
Value of trade with principal cIJuntries for 3 year~ (in 1,000 kronur):
1957 1958 1959
Impore. Expert. Import. Export' imJ./orts Export.
(c.i.f·) (f.o.b.) (e.i·f.) (f.u.b.) (c.i·f·) (f.Qk)
.1 U5trLil, 0"3 23 222 R7 296 83
Belgium 18,460 1,845 16,884 1,600 J7,~J5 445
Brazil 23,613 2I,~97 25,763 16,712 20,642 lO, ~::t
Canada 3,185 566 2,343 19 !?,988 98
GUbCl • 14,.83 7,222 8,487 7,092 9,~,! ~ 9,6'10
CzechoslovaJUB . 75,120 06,677 107,168 73,061 81, •.):) 83,S();'!
nos ICELAND
19~7 1958 1959

Imports Export. Imports Exports Imports Exports
(c,i.f·) (f·o.b.) (c.i.f·) (f.o.~ . ) (c.i·f·) (f.o.b.)
Denmarl: . 95,048 22,877 134,742 24;721 124,545 28,372
Faroe Is:and. 63 108 87 340 89 213
Finland 63,406 ~5,748 66,512 35,425 60,132 81,263
France 4,525 9,083 4,809 9,189 6,649 16,887
Germany (West) 104,208 84,483 131 ,845 112,570 155,691 63,733
German)' (East) 61,397 43,992 64,111 81,76 1 107,904 67,607
Greece . 1,106 16,168 1,794 11,329 1,636 9,020
Hungary . 3,136 1,048 2,151 2,648 1,987 1,352
India 1,854 2,232 1,842
Irish neJl~b1ic : 110 2,257 1,142 6,485 150 1,641
Israel 5,758 5,293 6,082 8,724 8,667 7,502
Italy 33,328 35,834 20,760 34,189 28,48'1 19,976
Li beria 3,661
Netherlands 46,458 13,650 45,799 18,959 59,557 21,291
Netberlands W~st Indies 19,072 16,222
Norway . 43,278 11,695 36,532 15,126 62,555 2{',023
Pbilippi[,es 2,920 2,761 3,722
Pola nd . 33,947 16,776 32,429 39,838 33,653 1 9,954
Portugal . 363 41,073 266 43,989 417 35,650
Spain . ~9 , 632 16,055 27,968 22,560 25,068 21,559
Sweden 42.R49 46,353 32,878 65,977 64,807 83,682
Swit.zerh;nd 10,263 54 16,556 407 15,556 86
U.S.S. R. 278,451 212.9·17 244,610 176,249 248,285 193,801
U.K . loS,IS1 93.237 150,332 81,104 137,470 90,086
tT.S.A. 181,231 90,798 193,491 13S,03t 243,127 178,926
Total trade (British Board of Trade returns) between Iceland and U,K,
(in £ sterling) :
1938 1956 1957 19li8 1'69
I mports to U.K. 442,~93 ] ,699,095 1,453,930 1,741,163 1,746,58i
Exports (rom U.K. 462,659 2,934,440 2,791,952 3,20G,140 3,022,122
Re-expo.:ts (rom U. K. 33,322 186,415 75,320 54,9ul 50,172
COMMUNICATIONS . ShilJping. The mercantile marine of Iceland

(above 12 gross ton8, excluding fishing vessels) was, in 1958, 29 motor
vessels of 52,769 gross tons.
Roeds. There are no railways in I celand. Iceland possesees 8,276
km of high roads, whereof the greater part has been made carriageable.
l\btor vehicles regist.ered on 1 Jan. 1959 numbered 18,807, of which 13,260
were p:tssenger cars and 5,547 trucks; there were also 316 motor cycles.
POlt. The length of the telegraph and telephone lines at the end of
1955 waR 5.827 km and of wires, 47,215 km, There were, in Ifl59, 305 post
offices and 220 telegraph and telephone offices, and 36,050 telephones.
AVIation. There is one company maintaining regular air service between
Reykjf.vlk and various places in Iceland (1958 : 56,045 pl\$engers, 143
metric tons of mail ; 1,4G7 metric t ons of freight) ; 2 cIelandic companies
provid'l regular air services between Iceland and other countries (1958:
50,123 passengers; 74 metric tons of mail; 69G metric tons of freight).
CURRENCY AND BANKING, The Icelandic monetary unit is the

J..-rona, pI. krOnur. A law of 21 Sept. 1949 provided that the Icelandio
krona is again to be adjusted to the £ instead of the $, as was the case
before 18 Sept. 1939; consequently the exchange rate of the $ was raised
to kr. 936'50 = S100. A law of 19 Feb. 1960 devalued. the krona from
$1 = kr. 16·32 (1950 value) to $1 = kr. 26·32.
There are 5 banks in Iceland, Landsbanki Islands (the National Bank),
ICELAND 1109
a note· issuing bank which belongs entirely to the state; Bunatlarbanki
Islands (the Rural Bank of Iceland), a state bank, founded in 1930; tJ'veg4o
banki Island8 (the Fishing Trade Bank), a private joint·stock bank, founded
in 1930, the majority of shares being held by the Government; fonatlarbanlci
Islands (Industrial Bank), a joint.stock bank, established 1953, part of the
shares being owned by the Government; Framkvremdabanki 18lands, an
invest,ment bank, established in 1954. On 31 Dec. 1958 the accounts of
the issue department of the National Bank balanced at 1,314,827,000 kronur.
A special department for loans on mortgage is connected with the National
Bank.
At the end of 1958 there were 61 savings banks with deposits amounting
to 420·6m. kronur.
III easu res
is 0 b Iigatory .
I celand mnintains embassies in the U.K. (also legation for the Nether·
lands) and U.S.A. (also legations for Argentina, Brazil, Canada); and lega.
tions in Denmark, France (also for Belgium, Irish Republic, Italy, Portugal,
Spain, Switzerland), Germany (in Hamburg), Netherlands, Norway (also
for Czechoslovakia and Poland), Rumania, Sweden (also for Finland, Iran,
Israel), U.S.S.R.
OF IOELAND IN GREAT BRITAIN (17 Buckingham Gate, S.W.l)
Amlxu"ador. Dr Kristinn Gudmundsson (accredited 17 May 1957).
Counsellor. Eirikur Benedikz.
There are consular representatives in Aberdeen, Bristol, Edinburgh,
Fleetwood, Glasgow, Grimsby, Hull, Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle·
on.Tyne.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN IOELAND
Ambassador and Consul·General. A. C. Stewart, C.:M.G., O.B.E.
First Secretaries. D. M. Summerhaycs; H. Atkin (Labour).
There are also consular representatives at Akureyri and Vestmannaeyja.r.
OF ICELAND IN THE U.S.A. (190 6-23rd St. NW., Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Thor Thors.
First Secretary. Stefan Hihuarsson. Economic Attache. Thorhallur
Asgeirsson.
Or TilE U.S.A. IN ICELAND
Co'unsellor. Gal'rett H. Soulen. First Secretaries and Consuls. Joseph
Cat'well; Alfred P. Dennis.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL l!>'FORMATION. The Icelandic Statistical Office. Hagstol~ Isl80llds (Itcyk-
jav1k) was lounded in 1914. Director: Klemens Tryggvason. It. main publications are:
H<VJsk~TSluT Island~. Statlsti'l"e de l'Islande (from 1912)
Hll!Jt1Oindi (Statistical Journal) (from 1916)
Staiistical Bulletin. Issued monthly by the National Bank 01 Iceland aud the StatlaticaJ
Bureau of Iceland (from 1931)
BeilbrigtJisskgrJluT. Public Health in Iceland (l.,test issue lur 19~3; publLshetl19~6)
Briem. Helgi P., lcela.nd and thefcelander.. Maplewood,1945
Fo.., H. (ed.), DirectoTV of Iceland. Annual. IteykjM1k, 19 1)7-40, 1948 t!.
1110 REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
Hansson, Ob!ur, Fuel. about Iceland. Reykju\1k, 1951

Hermaonsson, Balld6r. Jllandica. An an.nual relating to Iceland aud the Fi~ke Icelandic
Collection in Cornell UniversIty LIbrary. Ith.ca (/rom 1~08)
Hood, J . O. F., Icelandic Church Saga. London,lU46
Lea!, H . , Iedand Yealertiay and Today. London, 194P
Rosenvinge, L. K., and Warming, E., Th. Butany of leeland. 2 vols. Copenh.gon 8Ld
London, 1914 and 1920
j:>6rda,.,."n. DjOrn, Iceland: Pasl and Present. 2nd ed. Onord,1U45
j:>6rd .....',u. MRttbl88, Th< ..lllhinU, Iceland', Thousand·Fear·Old Parliamml, 930-1930.
Iteykjivllr,1930
porstklllMon. porsteinn. lee/and, 1940 : A llandbook publi.hed 011 th< 60th ilnniversa,v of
the .'Vatiolld Ba:nk of Iceland. 4th cd. Reykjank,1946
Trial, G. '1'., lli-story 0/ Education in lceland. Cambridge, 1945
Zoega, G. 1'., Islensk·en .... (and EllIk·lslmsk) orOabdk. 3rd ed. 2 vols. Reykjavik,1922·-S2
NA'MolNAL LmnART. LI\nd31.l6kasafni~, Reykjavik. Librarian: Finnur 8igmundslEcn,
M.A.
REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
REPUBLIX INDONESIA.
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION. Indonesia is a sovereign,
independent Republic which was proclaimed by Dr Sukarno and Dr Hatta.
on 17 Aug. 1945. In the 16th century Portuguese traders in quest of spices
settled in some of the islands, but were ejected 50 years later by the
British and the Dutch (1595). The latter finally ousted the former. From
1602 the Netherlands East India Company conquered the Netherlands
Indies, and ruled them during nearly 2 centuries. After the dissolution of
the company in 1798 the Netherlands possessions were governed by the
mother-country from 1816 to 1949.
As a result of the Round Table Conference held at The Hague from
23 Aug. to 2 Nov. 1949, complete and unconditional sovereignty was trans-
ferred 1,0 the Republic of the United States of Indonesia. The transfer took
pJa.ce on 27 Dec. 1949. Excluded from the transfer was the western part
of the island of New Guinea, the status of which was to be determined
through negotiations between Indonesia and the Netherlands within 1 year
after the transfer of sovereignty; but no settlement has yet been reached.
A union was created to regulate the relationship hetween the two countries.
In Feb. 1956 Indonesia abrogated the union and the Round Table Con-
ference agreements between Indonesia and the Netherlands and in Aug.
1956 repudiated Indonesia's debt to the Netherlands.
DUling 1950 the federal system which had sprung up in 1946-48 (set
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1950, p. 1233) was abolished, and Indonesia
was apin made a unitary state. The provisional constitution was passed
by the Provisional House of Representatives on 14 and came into force on
17 Aug. 1950.
The first general elections took place in 1955, on 29 Sept. for Parliament
(elected for 4 years) and on 15 Dec. for the Constituent Assembly. On
5 July 1959 by Presidential decree, the Constitution of 1945 was reinstated
and the Constituent Assembly dissolved. Parliament was dissolved on
6 :March 1960.
On 12 Jan. 1960 President Sukarno took full control of all political
parties,. giving himself the power to dissolve them. He also announced the
formati.on of a mass political organization, to be headed by himself and called
the National Front, and of a supreme State body called the People's Congress.
The ce,ngress will be composed of elected representatives of provinces,
REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA 1111
present members of Parliament, and members of 'functional groups' nomi·
nated by the President.
Pre.sident of Indonesia . Dr Ahllled Sukarno.
On 9 July 1959 the President appointed a Cabinet with himself as Prime
Minister, Dr Djuanda Kartawidjaja as Chief Minister and Minister of Finance,
Dr Subanrlrio as Foreign Minister and Lieut.·Gen. Abdul I-Iarris Nasution as
Minister of Defence and Security and Justice and Commander of the Army.
National flag: red, white (horizontal).
National anthem: Indonesia Raja (tune by Wage Ruuolf Supratman,
1928).
Aolz, M. 11., Japan's Colonialism and Indon •.,ia. Tbe Hague. 1956
floli, W. M., NruienaJi .•m and Communiom in East ,d,ia. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1952
Battn, M., l' erspreide Geschrijten. DjRokarta, 1£)52
Kahin, O. MeT., Nationalism ond Rtt'olWion 1'n Indcllc31'". CorneU Univ. Presl:t, 1952
Schiller, A. 11., The Formation oJ Ptderallndonesia, 1945-49. The Hague, In55
Stempels, A., The parlementaire gescJdedenis van het lrkionesischt ",raa{Jstuk. Amsterdam,
J~:,O
Sukarllo, 7'1.0 Eirth oJ Pantjasiia. Mlnist.ry of Information, Djakarta, 1950
W.hl, D., 7'/1. Birt" oJ Indonesia. London, 1~4S
AREA AND POPULATION. Indonesia, covering a total area of I·9m.

sq. km, consists of the islands of Sumatra, Java and Madura, Nusa Teng.
gara, (Lesser Sundas), Maluku (Moluccas), Sulawesi (Celebes), Kalimantan
(Borneo) and some 3,000 smaller islands and islets. The capital is Djakarta
with a population of approximately 3m. Indonesia has a tropical climate
with two monsoons; the dry (June-Sept.) and the wet (Oct.-April).
The total population in 1958 is estimated at 86·9m. (60,727,233 at the
Jast c~nSU8 in 1930), distributed as follows: Java and Madura, 56·8m. ;
Sumatra, 13·6m.; Sulawesi, 6·6m.; Nasa Tellggara, 5·4m.; Kalimantan,
3·7m.).
Indonosia is divided into the fullowing pruvinces (capitals in brackets):
At jell (.l\otaradja), North Sumatra (Medan), West Sumatra (Bukittinggi),
Riauw (Tandjnng.Pinang), Djn.mhi (Djambi), South Sumatra (Palembang),
West Java (llandung), Central J",'a, (Semarll.ng), East Java (Sura,baya),
West Kalimantan (Pontianak), South Kalimantan (Bandjarmasin), East
Kalimantan (Samarinda), Central Kalimantan (Pahandt:t), North Sulawesi
(Menado), South Sulawcsi (l\1akassar), Nusa.Tenggara (Singaradja), Maluku
(Ambon).
In Dec. 1957 Dutch citizens in Indonesia numbered about 60,000. On
5 Dec. the Indonesian Government ordered the expulsion, by stages, of all
unemployed Dutch nationals.
The principal races are the Aehincse, Bataks and lIfinangkabaus in
SUIDotra. the Javanese and Sundaneso in Java, the Madurese in ilfadura,
the Balineae in Bali, the Sasaks in LomlJok. the Menadonese and Buginese
in Sulaweai, and the Dayaks in Borneo.
The LeSAer Sunda Islands (B,di, Lombok, Sumba, Floree, Surubawa,
Indonesian Timor) ,.,ere, in 1954, renamed Nus& Tenggara.
BaluUla Indoneiiia (Indonesian language) is the official language of the
RepUblic.
RELIGION. Religious liberty is granted to all denominations. The

majority of the Indonesians are Moslems. There are nearly 3m. Christians;
their main strength is in the outer territories. There are also about a
million Buddhlsts, probably for the greater part Chinese. Hinduism

fiourish.~s on the island of Bali.
There are 30 Protestant bodies affiliated with the National Council of
Churchl's in Indollesia, with about 4,000 congregations, 3,000 Indonesian
ministers, 100 foreign missionaries and 2,060.000 adherents.
The Roman Catholic Church had 1,050,000 members in 1955.
EDUCATION. The following table shows the number of schools,

student;) and teaching staff in 1956-57:
Schools Number Students Teachers
Nt.rsery school. 611 34,433 1,002
Pr. mary schools. . 34,130 7,336,536 154,934
Junior secondary schools 3,891 608,834 35,65·1
Smllor secondary scbools 764 128,121 13,726
Hi~b schools . 122 6,778 1,041
Academic faculties 62 32,501 ~,935
English is the first foreign language to be taught in schools.

Higher education is given at the University of Indonesia at Djakarta
and Bogor with 8 faculties (9,038 students in 1956), the University of
Gadjah Mada at Jogjakarta ;with 12 faculties (11,772 students), Airlangga.
University at Surabaya and Malang with 4 faculties (6,289 students),
AndallUl University (1956) at Bukittinggi, Pajakomba, Padang and Batu-
sangkar with 5 faculties (1,001 students), Hasanuddin University (1956) at
Makasar and Tondano with 4 faculties (1,224 students) and Padjadjaran
University (1958) at Bandung with 4 faculties (4,720 students). There are
also 24 private universities and colleges.
In 1 '~56, 50-7% of the population over 13 years of age were illiterate.
Cintmas (1955). There were 714 cinemas with a seating capacity of
350,000.
Newspapers (1958). There were 80 Indonesian daily newspapers and a
number of European and Chinese language papers.
JUSTICE. The judicial organization is under the direction of the

Minister of Justice. There are courts of first instance, high courts of appeal
in the lLrger towns and a supreme court of justice for the whole of Indonesia
in the capital.
In civil la,', the population is divided into three main groups: Indo·
nesians, Europeans and foreign Orientals, to whom different law systems are
applicahle. When, however, people from different groups are involved, a
system of so·called 'inter.gcntile' Jaw is applied.
The present Criminal Law, whiclt has been in force since 1918, is codified
and is based on European penal law. This law is equally applicable to all
groups .)f the population. For private and commercial law, however, there
are var:ious systems applicable for the various groups of the population.
For the Indonesians, a system of private and agrarian law is applicable;
this is I,alled Adat Law, and is mainly uncodified. For the other groups.
the prevailing private and commercial law system is codified in the Private
Law A<>t (1847) and the Commercial Law Act (1847). These Acts have
their origins in the French Code Civile and Code du Commerce through the
similar Dutch codifications. These Aets are entirely applicable to Euro·
peans, ~,hereas to foreign Orientals they are applicable with some exceptions,
mainly in the fields of family law and inheritance.
REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA. 1113
FINANCE. The budget, for calendar years, was as follows (in Rp. Im.):
1966 1957 19~8 1969 1960
GrOSB revenue . 18.265 17,42-1 :?3,OOO 21,100 44,O/)()
O!"OS. expendJture ~ltO:H 18,8~G 27,700 29,000 46,000
The main sources of revenue in 1957 were direct taxes, Rp. 3,525m., and
indirect taxes, Rn. 5,712lU.
Main items or' expenditure in the 1957 budget were (Rp. Im.): Defence,
6,051'5; government enterprises, 5.263 '8; central government, 1,808'9;
finance, 1,450'7; economic affairs, 159-2; education, 1,409-4m. ; agriculture,
792·6; health, 532·6.
The consolidated external debt (1957 budget) was Rp. 2,778m., the
internal debt was Rp. 4,763m. and the aggregate debt was Rp. 25,022m.
On 4 Aug. 1956 the Government declared that Indonesia no longer
recognized any debts to the Netherlands. At that date the debts "mounted
to 4,081m. Dutch guilders. The Indonesian Government argued that of
this amount only 661m . guilders were pre·war debts to the Netherla.nds,
whilst the other 3,420m. guilders were incurred en account of the Netherlands
• war against Indonesia' and that consequently the Netherhnds was actually
in debt to Indonesia to the amount of 2,759m. guilders.
DEFENCE. The Indonesian Armed Forces were formally set lip on

5 Oct. 1945.
Each of the 3 branches of the Armed Forces (Army, Navy and Air
Force) has its own Chief of Sta.ff; they a.r e responsible in tactical command
to tbe C.-ill-C., but ill the fiold of administration they are under the direct
supervision of the Minister of Defence. The President of the Republic is
the Supreme Commander. There i~ no ')ompuisory service.
Army. There are 7 territorial unit.s, each consisting of 1 division,
including artillery, cnginccrs a nd technical services. Total strength in
1954 was 175,000_
Navy. The Navy, in 1950, induded a destroyer, 4 frigates, 3 corvettes,
40 patrol vessels, 16 coasta.! minesweepers, 25 seaward defence motor
launches, 5 landing craft, 1 training ship, 1 surveying vessel, 6 auxiliaries
and 6 tenders. The naval air Itrm has Gannet anti-submarine aircraft.
Air Force. The Air Force uses Russian-designed MiG-17 jet-fighters
and 11-28 jet-bombers, bought in Czechoslovakia, and older piston-engined
Mustang fighters, l\litchell bombers, Dakota transports and, for training
purposes, Pipers, Harvards and jet-powered Vampires. It also has a
number of Cata lina flying-boat.s and various helicopters.
PRODUCTION. At the beginning of Dec. 1957 the Communist trade

unions forcibly expropriated all Dutch-owned banks, trading firms, hotels,
etc., which were then placed under government control. On 3 Dec. 1058
parliament passed :t bill for the nationalization of all Dutch-owned busi-
nesses.
Agrit;UlIure. Indonesian agriculture is divided bet\voen estate and
indigenous cultivation.
The total cultivated area in use for estate agriculture in Indonesia in
1954 was 2,088,036 acres. In 1958 total production (estates and small-
holders) was (in 1,000 metric tons): Sugar, 1,063; rice, 7,554; tea, 10;
coffee,44; palm.oil, 148; hard rope fibres, 27; palm.kernels, 35; cinchona
bark, ,~ ; cocoa,2; cassava,IO,972; sweet potatoes, 2,813; soybeans, 422.
In 1957 export crops were (in gross metric tons) : Copra., 307,000;
copra 'Jakes, 128,000 ; tobacco, 14,700; coconut oil, 2,027; kapok,2,216;
pepper (white and black), 17,556.
Lh'estock, 1954: Cows, 5,025,000; buffaloes, 2,924,000; horse8,
631 ,CO~ ; sheep and goats, 9,479,000; pigs, 1,378.
Salt is a government monpoly; production in 1956 was 112,436 short tons
Pa'·e8try. Forestry by. products exported in 1955 included (in gross
metric tons) : Copal, 5,605 ; damar, 6,341; rattan, 30,350; teak wood,
8,411.
Fi~,herie.,. In 1955 the catch of sea fisheries was 412,000 metric tons;
inland fisheries, 259,000 metric tons.
Mining. The tin mines of Bangka are worked by the Government;
t.hose of Biliton hya comhined governmental and privat.e undertaking, and
those Qf Riamv and Sumatra by private enterprise. In 1955 their total
yield "as 33,901 metric tons. Output of bauxite, 1955, \l"as 264,000 gross
tons: coal, 814,000 gross tons: manganese (1958), 43,506 metric tOilS;
iodine, 7,649 metric tons.
Oil plays an important part in Indonesian cconomy, heing a major
source of revenue and providing employment for some 50,000. Indonesia
i;; the principal producer of petroleum in the Far East, production coming
from E:umatra, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and Java, where British,
Dutch and U.S. interests operate. The 1955 output of crude oil was
1l ,790,OOO metric tons. Indonesian refinery capacity was about Urn. tons
per a nnum at the end of W51.
lrulustry. · There are shipyards at Djakarta, Surabaya, Semarang and
Amboina. There are many textile factories, large paper factories, match
factories, automobile and bicycle assembly works, large constructioD works,
tyre factories, glass factories, a caustic soda and other chemical factories,
It cement factory (output 1954, 180,000 metric tons), breweries, etc.
Po.cer. All gas and electricity undertakings were nationalized by

pre~ idential decl'ee of 3 Oct. 1953, retroactive froUl 23 Dec. 1952.
Tr.lde Unions. The largest group of trade unions in Indonesia is the
Sentral Organisa.si Buruh Seluruh Indonesia (S.O.B.S.I.), the Central Council
of All Indonesia Trade Unions, with a membel'llhip of 2·um .• to which 28
national unions and 832 locai unioDs are affiliated. The second large~t is
thc Kongms Buruh Seluruh Indonesia (K.E.S.I.), the All Indonesia Trades
Union Congress, with a membership of nearly 400,000. To th e K.B.S.L
25 national unions and 54 local unions a.re affiliated. Besides theso there
are the Sentral Organisasi Buruh Republik Indonesia (S.O.B.lLI.); the
Tradea Union Centre of the Republic of Indonesia, with a membership of
125,325 : the H.LS.S.B.L (Federation of Indonesian Trade Unions). with a
memb:~ rship of 180,20:3, and the K .B.K.L ([ndonesian Democratic Lahonr
Organization), with a membership of 94,477. In addition, th ere are also
tlatle"Jnion ccntrcs which aro <:losely connected \l'itb the hlamic Parties,
viz., f:erikat Bumh hlam Indonesia, with a mcmhership of 275,000: the
Sa reb .t Buruh Muslimin [naonesia, with ,t membership of 11,950. and th€!
Geruk;tU O:ganisasi Btlfuh Sjarekat Islam Indonesia, with" membership of
1,3·17.
Trade Directory in. Indo11uia. Publisbed by Dept. or Economic A1Iairs. Batavia. 1949
Lrulonesia: Revipw of Com~c ial Ccmditions. H .M.S .U., 1952
B oeke, J-. n., TM Stn;ctuu of Netherlarui.3 InJiat, l!.'coTuymy. New York Ilnd London, 1942 .-
The Evolu.tion (If tM Netherlands Indies Economy. New York, 1946. Oriental EconomiCl.
New York, 1947
.HJ'oek. J. O. M., Th~ Economic Development cjllIe Netherland3lndic . f, New York and London,
1942
Hall. C. J. ,T. van, and Koppel , C. van de (ed.), De Landbouw in den 11lditcl;~n Archip('l. "-
vols. The Hague. 1946-4g
Lem', J. C. l"an, In(umesian Tratk and Societv. Tne Ha goe, 195[,
Mohr, E. O. J ., Th~ Soil3 of Rqua.torial Re{Jion.~, 'With s pecial rt:/erence to tile Nethcrland:l Ent3
1ndies. A.Iill Arbor, 1944
COMMERCE. Imports and exports (including oil) in Rp. llll.

1962 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 DoS
Imports t 10,806 8.684 7,173 6,R88 \1, 755 9,098 iJ,901)
Exports' 10,652 9;344 9,759 10,618 10,055 n ,052 S,612
I f.O.b. excluding postal parcels, passengers' goods, ships chandlery, gold Bnd ~ilver ,
I c.Lt. excluding postal parcels, passengers' goods, gold and siller.
Rubber exports in 1958 amounted to 575,487 metric tons (Rp. 2,978m.).

Oil and oil products accounted for 37% of the total export value (Rp.
3,21!lm.).
The distribution of trade is shown as follows (in Rp. Im .):
Imports Exports
Couutry 1956 1.9.57 1958 1966 19.57 1958
Australia and New Zealand 211·66 20S·06 73·30 -l1l ·56 ,,31·81 55S·76
Belgium-Luxembourg ~71 · 44 334·08 120·62 75 ·50 89·36 253·98
Burma 512·05 322·41 239·32 1~'22 4·16
Ohina. 344·04 208·13 476 ·20 1 33·51 287·61 494·92
Ozechoslovakia . 69·56 37·49 22·61
Denmark. 34·58 22 ·4.4 28·41 6·74
France 94-58 144·93 15u·15 47·51 62·08 23 ·57
Germany (West) 913·02 957·30 566·,,6 404·6, 461·78 303 ·51
Hong Kong 536·43 3!'8·5:; 267·35 37·57 191·56 76·66
India and Pakistan 193·29 192·16 86·93 31·20 79·26 108 ·91
Italy 244·00 197·89 121·01 133·94 170 ·n 96·96
Japan 1,[; 21'17 1,310·13 795·82 8·1O · ~0 457-17 3]2,14
Malaya lS·33 14·61 11·66 89·82 104·82 60·83
N etherlanus 1,038·11 892'29 379·14 1,955·59 1,854 ·16 355 ·39
Norway . . . . 22·17 ~2'87 24·63 7·27
Sarawa'k. and Br. N . Borneo 43·39 123·12 71 ·44
Singupor~ 76·09 15:;·G6 103·53 2.159·45 2,03U ' !)7 2,119'75
Sweden 95 ·10 80 · ~O u3·79 18·91 3 1 · 5~ 9·97
Tbailanll . 30~·70 302 ·15 235·12 107-60 120·83 10S·52
Union oC South Africa 1·20 10 ·49 0·98 21 ·82 18·06 9·74
U.S.A. 1,609'01 1,5::!O'O6 931-68 ],611·2~ l,e8S ·51 ],480·59
Total trade between U.K. and Indonesia (British Board of Trade returns)
in £ sterling:
1938 1956 19 .~7 19~5 1959
Imports t,o U.K. 6,352,069 9,990,316 10,003,896 10,911,829 5,600,515
Exports from U. K. 3,604,151 16,048,298 la,:,W3,404. 7,499,319 11,099,892
Re·exports from U.K. 6.,913 84,852 68,619 4~.335 55,610
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The Indonesian merchant fleet in

1!l56 was estimated at 7!l,!l44 gross tons. The national shipping company
Pelajaran Nasional Indonesia (PELNI), with a fleet of 46 vessels, with a
total displacement of 46,300 gross tons, Ilmilltains interinsular communi·
cations.
In 1956 the principal ports had a turnover of 38,461 gross tons of i:n·
ports and 27,809 gross tons of exports.
Roa23. In 1954 Indonesia had 49,430 km ofroads. Java and Madura

had a network of 15,487 km. Motor vehicles, as of 1 Jan. 1956, totalled
63,583 :passenger cars, 44,901 trucks, 10,280 buses and 76,656 motor cycles.
Rai,:ways. In 1956 the state-controlled railway company operated 6,640
km and carried 136,253 passengers and 6,542,000 metric tons of freight.
Posl'. In 1954 the postal and telegraph services of Indonesia included
727 pm;t offices, 1,146 rural postal agencies, 515 telegraph offices, and 66
fixed coast and 12 aeronautical radio stations_ There were 722 telegraph
offices and 37 fixed, 3 coast and 4 aeronautical radio stations of other govern-
ment sE,rvices and private companies. The government telegraph linea ex-
tended over 4,573 miles, the government telegraph cables over 252 miles;
the go,'ernment telephone aerial lines over 16,921 miles, the government
telephone cables over 1,479 miles. Number of telephones (1958), 90,968.
Radio Republik Indonesia, under the Ministry of Information, operates
26 stations. There were, in 1956, 639,043 registered receivers.
In 1956 total postal receipts were Rp. 407,385,000, of which Rp.
302,397,000 came from Java and Madura.
Aviation. The Government and K.L.M. in 1949 set up 'Garuda Indo-
nesian Airways' as a mixed enterprise on a 50-50 capital basis under K.L.M.
management. The agreement was to last until 1960. In 1954, however,
the GO\'emment bought up the shares held by K.L.lIl. for 15m. guilders and
nationalized G.I.A.; and in Jan. Hl58, the Government unilaterally termi-
nated i,he contracts with the technical assistants provided by K.L.M.
G.I.A. ma intains a direct service between Djakarta and Manila, Singapore
and Bangkok. In 1956 G.LA. flew 13·7m. km and carried 400,000 passengers
and 8,2:12 metric tons of freight and mail.
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary unit is the rupiah (abbre-

viated Rp.), divided into 100 sen. There are bank-notes of I, 2!, 5, 10, 25,
50 and 100 rupiahs and aluminium coins of 1, 5, 10, 25 and cupro-nickel
coins of 50 sen. Under an act of 3 Oct. 1951 new coins are replacing the
gold, sLver and nickel ones in circulation; these ceased to be legal tender
on 2 Nov. 1951. Currency in circulation, Dec. 1954, Rp. 7,740m. in notes
and Rp. l56m. in coin.
The following exchange rates were fixed on 1 Aug. 1957: £1 = Rp.
53·62; USSl = Rp. 19·15; Dutch £I. 1 = Rp. 5'04.
On :~4 Aug. 1959 the currency denominations were reduced to a tenth
of their nominal value.
The Bank Indonesia, formerly the Java Bank, established in 1828,
was ma:le the central bank of Indonesia on 1 July 1953. It has a capital of
Rp. 25n., a reserve fund of Rp. 18m. and a special reserve of Rp. 84m.; its
gold and foreign exchange holdings, 31 Dec. 1957. amounted to Rp. 402m_
Bank Negara Indonesia with a capital of Rp. 300m. is a state bank and
is designed to act as a source of credit for reconstruction purposes. Its gold
assets, ItS of June 1956, amounted to USS257ru.
The Bank Industri Negara, with a capital of Rp. 500m., accords long-
term crcldits for agricultural, industrial and mining projects.
The Bank Rakjat Indonesia has a capital of Rp. 24m. and mainly
extends credits to co-operative societies and smaller business men.
There are 7 major commercial banks and 8 foreign banks; the latter
include the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, and the Hong-
kong ar.d Shanghai Banking Corporation.
Dutch investments in 1955 were officially estimated at Rp. 2,534m.
In Dec. 1955, 11,407 co.operativtl societies had a combined membership
of 2,033,631 and savings of Rp. 257·1m.
The post offico savings bank had, in Dec. 1955, deposits of Rp.
188,710,000 to the credit of 1,011,000 accounts; private savings banks,
Rp. 25,381,000.
measures was officially introduced in Feb. l(l23, and came into full operation
on 1 Jan. 1938.
The following are the old weights anel measures: Pileol = 136·16 lb.
avoirdupois; Katti = 1·36 lb. avoirdupois; Eau = 1·7536 acres: Square
Pal = 227 hectares = 561·16 acres; Tjengkal= 4 yd; Pal (Java) = 1,506
metres; Pal (Sumatra) = 1,852 metres.
Indonesia maintains a diplomatic mission in the Netherlnads; embassies
in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Burma, Canada, Czechoslovakia, China,
France, Germany ('Vest), Ghana, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Malaya,
Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand.
Turkey. U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, U.K., U.S.A., Yugoslavia; and
legations in Afghn.nistan. Austria, Belgium, Cambodia. Ceylon, Denmark,
Finland. Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal,
Rumania and the Vatican.
OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA n: Glt]!;AT BRiTAIN

(:38 Grosyenor Squar", 'V.I)
Ambassadur. Dr Sunario (aecredited 7 Nov. UJ5fi).
First Secretar',. Ishak Zilhir.
Ninisir,r·Counsdlor. Dr J. Ismael (Economic).
Press Attache. Jusuf Ronodipuro.
Naval Attache. Cdr R. Sard,ioeno.
Air Attache. Col. Udara Adipoetro.
Military A.ttache. Col. S. Parman.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN TilE REPUJlLIC OF INDONESIA
Ambassador. Sir Leslie Fry, K.C.M.G., O.B.E.
Counsellors. R. C. Bames (Consul· General) ; J. O. :'IcCorlllick, "LC.
(ComrnerC£al).
First Secreta.ries. J. F. Wearing; J. E. Morris; F. S. Fielding (Com-
mercial); W. C. Brayne (Consul); R. W. Ford (Information).
Naval and Milita·ry Atta.che. Lieut.·Col. G. V. Rouse.
Air Attaclui. Wing Cell' D. P . Sampson, D.F.C.
Civil Air Atta~he. P G. Hudson.
There are a consul-general in Djakarta. cOWlulB at Medan and Sura bay ..
and fl, vice·consul at MakaSllar.
OF hmONESIA IN TIll> U.S.A. (20~O Massachusetts Ave. N\V.,
Washington 6, D.C.)
Ambassador. Moekarto Notowidigdo.
Mini.steT Counsellors. Nugroho; A. F. Ompi; Apul Panggabean. FiTst
Secretary. Sjamsoe Soegito. Military Attache. Col. R. M. S. Soerjo-
soerarso.
IllS IRAN
OF 'l'HE U.S.A. IN INDONESIA

Amba8sador. Howard P. Jones.
Counsellors. Herman H. Barger (Economic); John W. Henderson.
Pirst S.:cretaries. Vernet L. Gresham; Jay A. Van Swearingen (Consul) .
Service Attaches: Col. William R. Cole (Army), Lieut.-Col. Henry A.
McCartney (Navy), Lieut.·Col. John C. Summers (Air) . Agricultural
Attache. CarlO. Wimberg. LaJJour Attache. Robel't L. Kinney.
Tbere are consular representatives at MOOan and Surabaya.
Books of Reference
Bemmelc., R. W. van, Geology 01 I~Jia. 2 vols. The Hagne, 194~
FurniVRU, J. S., Studi.. in the Ewnomic and Social D~1J1>'M'll of the Netlterland.J E43llnd~,.
5 vols. Rangoon, 1933-Z4.-Netherland.f India: A Study of Plural Economy. Cambridge,
1944. The Tr"Pical Far E43t. London, 1945.-Colonial Policy and Pracli«; a com·
paratiw study of Rttrma and Netherland.f India. Cambridge, 1948
Gerbrand r, P. S., Indonuia . London, 1950
Hall, D. H. E.. A History of Smdh East A sia. London, 1955
Helsdlng,.n, W. n. van, and Hoogenberk, H . (ed.), Jfission Interrupted ; the Dutch in /hi
EllJt I r.di.. . • .in the 20lh cenlury. Amsterdam, 1946
Honig, P ., and Verdoorn, F., Science and Scientists in lite Nctherland.f Ind;.. . New York,
1945
Kroef, J. M. van der. I~.ia in tlte Modern World. Bnndung, l~o4
Paultl3, llr J., EnCflclopitdie van Ntderlandsch-Indil. 4: parta, 4 supplements. The Hague,
1917-3:)
Poerwad6.rminta, W. J. S., and Teeuw, A., IndoMsuch-.NederlandJ WOl)1'denboeJ:. Jaka.rta,.
1950
Scbrleke. B., Indonesian Sociological Slud~.. . The Hague, 1955
Stapel, F . W. (00 . ), 6eschiedcni. van Ncdcr/and.Jch Indit. 5 vols. Amsterdam, 1938-40
Terp.t.ra, H ., lnsulimu. The Hague, 1949
Woodrn3n, D., The Republic oll~.'ia. Loutlon, 1955
IRAN
KEsnvARB SnABANSJURIYB IRAN
REIGNING KING (SHAH). Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (born 26 Oct.
1919), "rho wall sworn before the Majles on 18 Sept. 1941 on the abdication
of his father Reza Khan Pahlavi (died 26 July 1944), who after the over·
throw of the Qajar dynasty had been elected shah on 13 Dec. 1925. After
the dissolution of two former marriages, the Shah on 21 Dec. 1959 malTied
Farah Diba, daughter of an army colonel.
Offspring by his first wife, Princess Fawzieh, eldest sister of King
Farouk of Egypt : Princess Shahnaz, born in 1940, who 011 II Oct. 1957
married Engineer Ardeshir Zahedi, son of the former Prime ~Iinister Gen.
ZahOOi.
.Minister of tke Court. Hossein Ala.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. In Jan. 1906 the Shah, up
to then 'In absolute ruler, gave his consent to the establishment of a National
Assembly, or 'Majles', which drew up a constitution, which received the
Shah's approval on 30 Dec. 1906. The Constitution also provided for the
establishment of a Senat.e, but this body was only constituted in Feb. 1950 ;
30 of its 60 members are nominated by the Shah, while the other 30 are
elected. As tbe result of constitutional amendments approved in 1949 and
1957 th.~ number of Majles deputies is to be increMed from the original 136
to 200 and the term of each Majles has been extended from 2 to 4 yoars;
mAN 1119
the Shah has the right to dissolvo either or both houses of parliament and
to return to the Majles finance bills for further consideration. All other
legislation approved by parliament the Shah is obliged to sign and promul.
gate as law.
In Aug. 1953 Dr Musaddeq organized a popular referendum intended to
secure the dissolution of the Majles a nd the eventual passage of legislation
restricting the Shah's powers; but constitutional changes wero prevented
by the overthrow of Musaddeq's government on 19 Aug. 1953. Musaddeq,
who had been sentenced in Dec. 1953 to 3 years imprisonment for treason,
was released in Aug. 1956.
The Cabinet appointed on 4 April 1957 and reshuffled on 14 June 19;39
i.~ composed as follows:
Prime Minister. Dr Manoutchehr Eghbal.

Foreign Affairs. Abbas Aram. Posts, T elegraphs and Telephones .
Amir Ghassem Eshraghi. .Mines and Industries. Djafar Sharif·Emarui.
War. Lieut.·Gcn. Ahmad Vosoogh. Education. Dr Mahmood Mehran.
Roads and Railways. Maj.-Gen. Vali Ansari. Finance. Maj .. Gen. Ali·
Akbar Zargham. Interior. Rahmatullah Atabaki. Health. Dr Mu-
ham mad Hussein Ali Adib. Labour. Abdurreya Ansari. Agriculture.
Dr Jamshid Amuzegar. Withou.t Portfolio. KhaJil Ta leghani, Dr Nosra-
tnllah Kasemi. Justice. Dr M. A. Hedayati. Commerce. Hasan AIi
Mansur. Minister·s of Sta·te : Security, Maj.·Gen. Timur Bakhtiar; Parlia -
mentary Affairs, Dr Qulam Reza Kian; Administrative Affairs, Ali Ashraf
Ahmadi; Mas'ud Foroughi; Dr lIlustafa Alamuti; Nusratullah Mu'inian.
The country is divided into 10 us/an (administrative provinces ), each
under an ustand(ir (governor· general). Tehran and its suburbs has its own
governor·general resident in the city. The ustan arc divided into shahrestan
(connties), of which there are 76 and which are each under a f ar1ruindar
(governor). The shohrestan are subdivided into ba./;hsh (districts) under a
bakhsltdar and dehistan (groups of villages) under a delvltir. Finally, each
village has a kadkhodti (headman ). All the above-mentioned officials, with
the exception of the village headmen, are appointed, directly or indirectly,
by the central government.
Towns generally have a municipality, the director of which is nominated
by the government from 3 persons proposed by the municipal council.
The ustan are numbered, and some of them are also named, as follows :
(I) covering Gihin, Zanj an, Qazvin and Arak; capital Rasht; popu ll~tion
3m.; (2) covering i\Iazandaran, Gorgan, Semll!ln, Damghan and Shahrud;
capital Sari; population 3·5m.; (3) north·eastern Azerbiijltn; capital
Tabriz; population 2·4m.; (4) western Azerbaijan; capital Rezayeh;
popUlation 800.000: (5) coverin~ Hamadan , KernHl.nshah and sonthern
Knrdistan; capital Kerruanshlih; population 2·2m.; (6) Khuzista.n;
capit.al Ahwaz; p0pulation I ·Sm. ; (7) Fars; capital Shiraz; population
1·5ru .; (8) K{'rman; capital Kermall; population Im.; (9) Khorasan;
capital Meshed; populat,ion 1·3m.; (10) Esfahan and Yazd ; capital
Esfaban; population 1·51ll. A re·division into 11 uS/ttn is being planned.
The 5th Rnd 8th usl<in include within their bounda ries the minor provinces
of Kurdistan (eapital Sannandnj ) and lla luchistan (cnpital Zahedall).
These provinces 11"',0 their own governors-gencral.
On 2(1 Jan. 1942 a treaty of alliance was signed in Tehran between Grea t
Britain, the D.S.S.R. and Iran. The British and Soviet Governments
undertook t o espect
r the territorial integrity, sovereignty amI political
independence of Iran.
ll20 IRAN
At I;he Tehran conference. 27 Nov. to 2 Dec. 1943 Mr Churchill. PresldeD~

Roosevelt and Marshal Stalin issued a • Declaration of the Three Powers
concenting Iran,' dated 1 Dec. 1943, pledging respect for the integrity and
independence of Iran and economic assistance both in the war period and
in the period after the war.
On 3 Nov. 1955 Iran joined the Baghdad pact between Turkey, Iraq,
Pakistltn and Great Brit ain; now, without Iraq, known as CENTO (see p.
42).
Nationalflag: green, white, red (horizontal).
National anthem: Shahanshah e ma zendeh bada (words by S. Afsar,
tune b), Najmi Moghaddam).
AREA AND POPULATION. Iran has an area of about 1,640,000 sq.

km, but a vast portion is desert, and the population is everywhere so scanty
as to approximate, on th e average, 33 inhabitants to the sq. mile.
According to the results of the first general census taken in Nov. 1956,
the pOJlulation of Iran is 18,944,821.
ThE' principal cities, with population (census 1956) are : Tehran,
1,513.164; Tltbriz,290,195; EsfAh'lll, 254,876; Meshed, 242,160; Abadan,
226,10:1; Shiraz, 169,088; Kcrm anshah, 125,181; Ahwaz,1l9,828; Rasht.
109,49:1; Hamadan, 100,029; Qum, 96,463; Rezayeh. 67,580; Yazd.
66,484; Qazvin, 61i,386; Ardabil, 65,720; Kerman. 62,175; Arak, 58,929;
Dizful,52,153; Burujird,49,228; Zanj an,47,199; Kashan, 45,998; Masjed.
i·Suleiman, 44,706; Kh orramshahr, 43,840; Sannandaj, 40,685; Khur.
ramab"d, 38.806; Marltghch, 36,556; Babul, 36,242; Khuy, 34.;:;09;
Bandal' Pahlavi, 31,228; K azerun, 30,659; Sa bsavar,30,587; Najafabad,
30,421.
RELIGION. The official religion is the Shia branch of Islam, known

as the Ithna.'Ashariyya, which recognizes 12 Imams or spiritual successors
of the Prophet Mohammad. Of the total population, 850,000 are of the
Sunnt sect, 10,000 are Parsis (Ghabrs), 40,000 Jews, 50,000 Armenians,
20,000 Nestorians, and some other Christians.
Tho Shia Moslems rej ect the Sunna or tradition, as distinct from the
actual text of the Koran, both of which are recognized by the Sunni Moslems.
The power of the clergy has diminished, as the result of the increased power
of the ~entral government. The highest authority is the leading 1nujtahid,
who normally resided at Najaf, although the present one lives at Qum, south
of Teru:an. Some consider him the representative of the twelfth lruam.
All mosques and shrines have Bome endowments (ouqaJ, sing. vfUJf).
now devoted to charitable and educational institutions and administered by
the Ministry of Education. The sbrines of some favourite saints are richly
endowed and own extensive property.
The Gl'egorian National Armenians form 2 dioceses. each under a
bishop. the one residing at Tabriz and the other at Esfahan. Tbere are also
a few thousand Roman Catholic Armenians, who have a bishop of their
own rite at Esfahan. the bishop of the Latin rite residing at Rczayeh
(Urmio.). There is an Anglican bishop residing at Esfahan.
EDUCATION. A law providing for the gradual establishment of com·

pulsory primary education was passed in July 1943. The literate popula.
tion W f ,S, in 1956, estimated at 40% .
'l'bo influence of the French educational system has been prominent.
IRAN 1121
As in France, education is highly centralized. The curricula. for primary
and secondary schools are drawn up by the Ministry of Education.
The great majority of primary and secondary schools are state schools.
Grants are made to private schools. Elementa.ry and secondary education
in state schools and university education are free.
In 1959 there were 8,500 primary and 1,180 secondary schools in Iran
with approximately 1·401. pupils and 47,500 teachers. In addition, there
are a number of vocational and agricultural secondary schools and 27
primary teachers' training schools. High priority is being given to the
expansion of vocational education and training facilities in general.
A campaign against adult illiteracy was launched in 1956; by mid·1959
some 400,000 students had been enrolled and over 1·5m. copies of specially
compiled textbooks had been sold.
Higher education is provided by universities and technical colleges. In
1959 some 13,000 students were enrolled at Tehran University (with 11
faculties; it also maintains a secondary teachers' training college and a
midwifery school). There are also universities at Shiraz (agriculture,
science, medicine), Tabriz (agriculture, science, medicine, pharmacy),
Rezayeh (agriculture), Esfahan (medicine), Meshed (medicine) and Ahwaz
(agriculture, science, medicine). An Institute of Technology was established
in Tehran in 1957, and a Polytechnic in Tehran is (1960) in course of estab·
lishment. The National Iranian Oil Company maintains an institute of
technology at Abadan. The Central Treaty Organization in 1959 set up
an institute of nuclear science in Tehran.
Cinemas (1956). There were (l5 cinemas with a seating capacity of about
34,000.
Newspapers. There are numerous daily papers in Tehran and other cities.
Their circulation iR relatively small, Ettela'at leading with about 45,000.
Two English.language and a French.language daily appear in Tehrnn.
HEALTH. The Ministry of Health controls the health of the country
through the Department of Public Healtb, which has achieved some remark.
able results in the fight against malaria; large areas along the Caspian and
the Persian Gulf and in Azerbaijan are now free from malaria. Opium
addiction has been greatly reduced, and the cultivation of the poppy has
been practically eradicated.
In 1959, about 16,000 hospital beds (half of them in Tehran) were
available. Medical personnel included 4,500 physicians and surgeons, 840
dentists, 4,000 pharmacists and 600 nurses. Numerous hospitals, health
centres, dispensaries and schools of nursing have been set up.
JUSTICE. The judicial system is modelled on that of France. There
are justices of the peace in villages and small towns, higher courts in the
larger towns, police magistrates ill all important places, courts of appeo.l in
Tehra.n, Tabriz, Shiraz, Kermanshah, Esfahan, Meshed, Kerma.n and Ahwaz,
and a court of cassation, or supreme court, in Tehran. The courts are
supervised by the Ministry of Justice. New civil, criminal and commercial
codes based on French and Swiss codes were introduced in the early 19308.
FINANCE. Budgets for years ending 20 March (in 1,000 rials):
1954-55 )955- 56 1956-57 1~57-581 1958-59 1
Revenue . 10,848,000 12,065,648 15,947,000 21,~4U,OOO 27,565,000
Expenditure 13,058,479 13,591,302 18,357,000 2),945,000 29,029,000
1 Estimates.
00
1122 IRAN
The main items of estimated revenue in the budget for 1958-59 were (in
lm . rials) : Direct taxation, 2,735 ; indirect taxation, 2,100; tobacco
monopoly, 3,565; customs, 6,980 ; Treasury share in oil revenues, 6,320 ;
oil royalties, 1,000 (1959, £92· 25m.). The main items of estimated expendi.
ture wel'e (in Im. rials): Defence, IO,157; police, 1,275; education, 5,489;
monopo.lies and customs, 1,368 ; health, 987; communications, 1,474.
The position of credit, loan and free aid received by the Iranian Govern·
ment in Dec. 1958 was as follows : (1) £IOm. credit from the British Govern·
mcnt; a.ll committed and, except for about £110,000, utilized. (2) VSS75m.
loan from the International Bank to the Iranian Seven Year Plan Organiza.
tion, all of which has been utilized. (3) V.S. Government free aid amounted
to S35·7m. in 1957-58.
DEF·ENCE. Army. The Army consists of about 200,000 men organized
in 12 infantry divisions and 6 independent brigades. Two years' military
service i3 compulsory. Gendarmerie strength is about 33,000. Its function
is internal security in rural areas. A V.S. Military Mission is attached in an
advisory capacity to the Army and another to the Gendarmerie.
Air Force. In Aug. 1955 the Air Force became a separate and in·
dependent arm. In 1959 it comprised 5 wings/one 0. combat wing equipped
with F -84G Thunderjets, and had 0. total strength of some 5,300 officers
and men and about 170 aeroplanes.
Nav,1. The Navy comprises 2 frigates received from Great Britain in
1949, 1 gunboat, 2 patrol boats, 2 dispatch boats, 9 motor launches, !)
{)ust<Jm guard boats, the Imperial yacht, 0. tug, 0. tender, an oiler and 2
landing craft. Light minesweepers from V .S.A. are being delivered under
& phased programme (1960).
PRODUCTION. Iran's chief natural products are oil, wool, cotton,

·silk, fruit, nuts, cereals, vegetables, gun, timber, oil seeds, metalliferous
<Jres, cOlLl, cattle, sheep and goats. Its principal manufactured or processed
product! are textiles, carpets, skins, casings, vegetable oil, soap, metal
product:!, plastic products, furniture, beet sugar, tea, tobacco and cigarettes,
'wine, vodka, soft drinks, caviar, footwear, petroleum products, glass
product:!, tiles, bricks, cement, leatber and leather goods, dairy products
.and manufactured foodstuffs, and printed matter.
Development. The second 7.yeo.r economic development programme
was approved by the Majles in Jan. 1956 to run until Sept. 1962. The total
expendi';ure on development projects was originally estimated at 70,000m.
rials, allocated as follows: Agriculture (including irrigation), 26%; com·
munications (road, rail, air, posts ; geological survey), 33%; industries and
mines, 15%; social projects (health, education, co·operative societies), 26%.
Certain projects (electricity, water supply, land reclamation) carried out by
municipdities will receive from the Plan Organization aid up to 50% of the
cost.
Originally all devolopment schemes were to be financed from the national
-oil revenues; but in March 1958 the Plan Organization's share of these
revenue:! was reduced and, to make good the reSUlting deficit (about S85m.
in 1958-·59), borrowing from foreign and international sources was a.uthor·
ized.
Agrirmlture. Reliable statistics of production are not available. It is
eatimatl,d. ·ho-wever, that out of the 163·6m. hectares of land area only
IRAN 1123
10% is crop land, including fallow (which may ue as much as three·quarters
of the cropped area), 17% is forests and ranges, 20% is potentially cultivable
waste and 50% is desert and other wastes. Tractors numbered about 6,000
in 1959.
}~stimated crops (in 1,000 metric tons) in 1957-58: Wheat,3,000; rice,
664; barley, 1,270; sugar beet, 805; vegetables, 1,722; grapes, 1,090;
dates,314; potatoes,150; oranges,IlI; olives,108'5; tea,6.
Wool comes principally from Khorassan, Kermanshah, Mazandaran and
Azerbliijan. The most popular carpets are manufactured in the environs
ofTabriz, Kerman, Arak, Kashan, Esfahan, ShirAz and Hamadao. Esfahan
is the traditional textile manufacturing centre, but in recent years important
textile mills, particula.rly cotton, have been built in other towns, including
Tehran. ElI.-ports of carpets were va.lued at 1,195m. rials in 1956.
Livestock (1958 estima.te): 5·2m. cattle, 1·82m. buffaloes, 27·21ll. sheep,
12·8m. goa.ts, 452,000 horses, 1·62m. a.sscs, 440,000 camels, 24m. pOUltry.
Beet.sugar production was 83,967 metric tons in 1956.
Rice is grown la.rgely on the Caspian shores.
Acrea.ge (in 1,000 hectares) and production (in 1,000 metric tons) of
cotton: 1950,100 and 28; 1955,329 and 80; 1957,273 and 276.
Tobacco is grown along the shores of the Caspian. It is all purchased by
the Tobacco Monopoly and ma.nufactured in the government tobacco factory
at Tehran. Production in 1957-58 was 8,700 tons of tobacco.
Opium, until 1955, was an importa.nt export commodity in Iran. On
7 Oct. 1955 an Act was approved by Parliament to prohibit the cultivation
and usage of opium. The cultivation of opium on a small scale and under
strict Government supervision may again be contemplated once combat
against the usage of it is complete.
Industry. Apart from the oil industry, the industries employing most
workers in 1956 were textiles, sugar refining, flour milling, fruit processing,
tea, furniture, printing, leather, matches, glass, building materials and light
metal goods.
Production of cott.on fabrics in the whole of Iran was estimated at
107m. metres in 1958-59. Cotton yarn production was 5m. bundles in
1958-59. The woollen industry in 1955-59 produced an estimated 2·lm.
metres of cloth and 960,970 blankets. About 72,000 metres of silk fabric
were produced in 1958-59.
Fi8heries. The Caspa.in Fisheries Co. is a government monopoly. Its
ea.tch in 1959 was 3,547 tons, including 145 tons of cavia.re. A compa.ny
has been formed by the Pla.n Organization to fish the Persian Gulf.
Mining. Iran has substantial mineral deposits relatively undeveloped,
including coal, iron (11,000 tons in 1958), copper, lead (18,300 tons in 1958),
ma.nga.nese, zinc, chromite, antimony, marble, borax, nickel, iron oxide,
sulphur, sodium sulphate and other sodium salts and rock salt (330,000
short tons, 1957). Turquoise mines are worked at Nishapour. Coal pro·
duction in government· controlled mines was about 174,000 metric tons in
1956-57.
Oil. The exploitation of Iran's large oil resources was undertaken by
the Anglo·Persian (later Anglo·Iranian) Oil Company, which held a conces·
sion for a considerable area of southern Iran, built a large refinery and pro·
duced the following quantities of crude oil (in long tons): 1946,19,189,551;
HI48,24,871,058; 1950,31,750,147; 1951 (Jan.-Oct.), 16,176,000.
This concession was terminated as a result of the nationt1lization of the
1124 mAN
Iranh~n oil industry in 1951. The ensuing dispute (see THE STATESMAN'S
YE.AR-]~OOX, 1954, p. 1294) led to the cessation of oil exports in June 1951,
and of the company's operations in Iran in Oot_ 1951. The dispute was
finally ilettJed on 5 Aug. 1954, and on 29 Oct. 1954, the date when the Shah
signed it, an agreement came into force between the Iranian Government
and the National Iranian Oil Company on the one hand, and 17 international
oil oompanies on the other; of these, the British Petroleum Co. Ltd. holds
40% of the shares_ These companies came to be known collectively as the
Consortium.
Tbe '.greement is for 25 years with provision for three 5-year extensions, at the option
of the (k,nsortlum under speoifio terms and conditions. Two operating companles-I raanse
Aardolie Exploratie en Producte MaatschapplJ (Iranian Oil Exploration and Producing
Company) N.V. and Iraanse Aardolie Raffinage Ma.atschappij (Iranian on Reftnilli Com-
pany) N. V.-were fonned by Consortium member companies and they received the necessary
rights and powers from Iran to be solely responsible respectively for exploration and produc-
tion in a defined area in South Iran and for the oper"tion of the Refinery of Abadan_ Whilst
the Nati.)Ual Iranian Oil Oompany, the shares of which are held by the Iranian Government,
Is the O"'Der of the fixed assets of the oil Industry in South Iran, the Operating Companies
have the unrestricted use of them. Tbe two Operating Oompanies do not sell the oil; their
function is 80lely to produce and refine It. So-called Trading Companies, subsidiaries
represenLing Oonsortium members, deal individually and indepenilently of each other with the
buying and selling in Iran of 011 for export_
The National Iranian Oil Company was united in Jan. 1955 with the Iran Oil Company,
whose object is the ~Ioration and production of oil throughout Iran except in regiOns subject
to speci,.! agreements. The National Iranian Oil Oompany operates the Naft-i-Shah oil-
field and the Kermru,sMh refinery in West Iran and is solely responsible for the distribution
and mar:<cting of 011 in Iran. Tbe net elIeet of the financial aspects of the sale of oil by the
National Iranian Oil Company to the Trading Companies for export is to bring about an
eqaal sh.ning between Iran and each 'l'rading Company of the profits arising in Iran from
the Trading Companies operations.
Total income to Iran from Trading and Operating Companies for the
period :29 Oct. 1954 to 31 Dec. 1958 amounted to £255m.
Crude oil production figures since the Consortium began operations in
Oot. 1\154 h9.ve been (in metric tons): 1955, 16m.; 1956, 26·3m.: 1957,
35·311l.; 1958, 40·4m.; 1959,44·7m.
Under agreements signed in 1957 and 1958, 3 other companies will exploit
oil deposits in the Persian Gulf.
Labour. Legislation regulating conditions of employment in certain
industrial undertakings was first introduced in 1949. The subsequent
adoption of certain international minimum standards led to the enactment
of the .Labour Act of 1959, which establishes basic provisions dealing with
hours I)f work; holidays with pay; the payment of wages, salaries and
overtime; the formation, registration and aotivities of employers' and
worken' organizations; employment contracts and collective agreements;
the seHlement of disputes; industrial safety, health and welfare; and
labour inspection. Regulations concerning safety, health and welfare in
industrial premises, conciliation procedure and the settlement of disputes
have si.nce been promulgated. A regulation controlling the employment
of foreigners was promulgated in Oct. 1959. Responsibility for the enforce-
ment cf the Labour Act, 1959, and supporting legislation is entrusted to
provineial and district departments of labour.
According to a survey of manpower undertaken in 1958, the country's
work brce numbered about 1·37m., of wholll nearly 70,000 were women
and about 33,000 were under 13 years of age. Just over half (718,000) of
the work force were engaged in crafts, production process and related
ocoupations, while 18% were employed in sales and related occupations.
A system of social security benefits covering aocident, sickness, retire-
IRAN 1125
ment, death, marriage, maternity and children's allowances and free medical
attention and hospitalization for insured contributors and their families is
embodied in the Workers' Social Insurance Law, 1955. This law provides
for the insurance under the scheme of all workers in receipt of wages or
s8Jaries, but is at present being applied t o some 250,000 workers employed
mainly in industrial and mining establishments employing 10 or more
workers.
COMMERCE. The Government, in addition to normal import and
export control, holds monopoly rights for the import and export of important
commodities, but private merchants are generally authorized to import
these goods against the payment of special taxes.
The quantity (in metric tons) and value (in 1,000 rials) of the imports
and exports (excluding oil exports and duty.free imports) were as follows
for fiscal years 21 March-20 March :
Imports Exports
Weig'" value Weight Val",
1955-56 637,112 23,972,941 607,839 8,019,726
1956-57 744,877 19,874,252 463,663 7,930,612
1957-58 743,784 25,229.3·12 436,641 8,352,923
1 9:;8-59 986,092 33,4 58,260 445,398 7,9'10,61 5
Value is assessed for imports on the basis of official rate plus certw"ate rate; for export.
on the basi. of declared price.
The following tables (provisional) show the value (in 1,000 rials) and
the weight (in metric tons) of the chief imports into and exports from Iran
during the year ending 20 March 1959. The value of imports (c.i.f.) is on
the basis of £1 = 214·20 riaIs and exports on the basis (f.o.b.) of declared
price:
Import. Weight Value Exports Weight Value
Tea 12,404 1,491,197 Raw cotton 39,044 1,493,530
Rugar . 249,553 2,161,410 Wool and hair. 12,449 1,011,030
Ohemicals 2:\,1118 1,402,617 Skin and leather 11,869 390,374
Tyres . 10,04 1 1,160,737 Fruit. (dried and fresh) 102,981 1,623,839
Ootton textiles 7,463 1,260,427 Rice 1,278 2.,020
Steel and steel ware 2fl8,710 3,834,407 Carpets . . 4,809 1,324,856
Machinery 6;;,038 6,782,776 Minerals (except oil). 100,186 284,271
Vehicle. ~8,791 3,037,583 Oil seed•. 5,132 69,663
In the year ending 20 March 1959, the distribution of the trade of Iran
(excluding export of oil and import of duty-free goods) to and from the
principal countries was in Im. rials (on the basis of £1 = 214·20 rials for
imports and declared price for exports) :
1mports F.xports Imports E;rport.
China. 1,259,614 1,785 Japan. 3,453,4 60 147,230
Czechoslovakia 615,503 251,692 Nctherlo.nds 660,206 171,3 29
France. 1,085,~60 633,266 U.S.S.R. l,~64,161 1,748,781
Federal Germany 7,313,8·13 1,222,639 U.K. 4,906,855 851,879
India 9G1,986 190,9 09 U.S.A .. [1,603,420 1,080,1 31
Italy 1,031,226 213,489
The export of oil (crude and refined) during yearR ended 21 March was as
follows (weight in 1,000 metric tons, value in 1m. riaIs, declared price) :
1!154-&. 19;;5-56 1956-57 1957-58
WelgM, 3,434 15,365 2·1,049 31,348
"Value 2,008 9,405 15,~OO J 9,208
1126 IRAN
Total trade between Iran and U.K. (British Board of Trade returns)
in £ sterling:
1938 1958 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 9.072,688 34,066,991 35,623,641 66,224,768 57,219, 7~O
Erports from U.K . . 6,431,013 25,904,584 35,656,811 88,556,594 38,203,688
Re·erpo rts from U K .
0 96,986 787,005 231,966 305,268 284,702
COMMUNICA TIONS. Shipping. Tonnage entered at ports on the

Persian Gulf in the year ending 21 March 1959 was 14,428,136 tons.
Tonnal!e entered at Caspian ports in the same year was 156,352 tons, of
which lbout 130,000 tons were U.S.S.R. and the rest Iranian.
Narigation on the Lake of Rczayeh, from Sharaf·Khaneh to Kolman·
khaneh, is served by some 5 tugs and 9 barges for the transport of goods
and passengers. The service runs twice a week. On the river Karun
likewise, from Khorramshahr to Ahwaz, an irregular service for cargo only
both ways is run by the Iran Transport Co. and the Karun Navigation Co.,
and seme local firms run daily trips by motor boat, for passengers and
merchandise. By changing into lighter. draught boats at Ahwaz both can
be taken up to Shallili near Shushtar.
ROI1,d,s. In 1956 there were 2,045 km of surfaced roads, 5,069 km of
first·chss sand roads, 5,490 km of second· class sand roads and 8,558 km
of third·class sand roads. Under the second 7·year plan 960 km of main
roads (out of 6,000 planned) had been asphalted by 1959.
In 1958 passengers cars and taxis numbered 49,906; commercial
vehicIE,g, 31,103, and tractors, about 5,000.
RailwaY8. The Irania.n State Railways have a total length of 3,405 km,
distributed as follows : Tehran-Bandar·Shah, 464; Tehran-Bandar·
Sbapoor, 928; Ahwaz-Khorramshabr, 123; Tehran-Tabriz. 742;
Garmsar-Meshed,806; Qum-Kashan, 98; Tabriz-Djolfa, 146; Soofian-
Sharaf.Khaneh,53; Zahedan-Mirjaveh, 92; Oil Company Railways, 165;
Tehran-Shahrb·Rey, 8.
POft. Postal, telegra.ph and telephone services are adminL~tered by the
Iranian Ministry of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones.
The Indo.European Telegraph Company relinquished its lines in Iran
in 1931, while the telephone system was nationalized in 1952. There is
wireleus.telegraph communication between Tehran and Tabriz, Meshed,
Kerm'Lnshah, Kerman, Khorramshahr, Bushehr, Yazd, Shiraz and Lingeh
and a wireless· telephone link between Tehran and Tabriz. Tehran is also
in wirflless communication with Europe and is linked by wirelellS telephone
with Baghdad, London, Berne and New York. In 1958 the number of
teleph-:lDes was 80,976, of which 49,000 were in Tehran. Wireless sets
numbered about 450,000 in U)58 .
.4 viation. The principal airlines which link Tebran (international air·
port, opened 5 Aug. 1958) with Europe and the Middle East are Air France,
B.O.A.C., K.L.M., Pan American Airways, S.A.8., Lufthansa, Alitalia.
Pakistan International Airways, Lebanese International Airlines, Iraqi Air.
ways, Jl,1id East Airlines, Iranian Airways and Persian Air Services.
B.O.A.C., Pan American Airways and Air France also connect Tehran with
the Foor East. Aryana (Afghanistan) Airline connects Tehran with Lebanon.
Syria and Afghanistan. B.O.A.C. operate a service from London to Abadan,
and lIanian Airways operate all internal services connecting the main cities
in Iran.
IRAN 1127
MONEY AND BANKING. The Iranian Wlit of currency is the rial
subdivided into 100 dinars.
Notes in circulation are of denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 rials.
Coins in circulation are bronze-aluminium and copper, 50 dinar; silver
aHoy, I, 2, /) and 10 rials. and nickel-copper, I, 2 and /) rials. There are
also gold pahlavi and; pahlavi pieces containing 7·322382 and 3·661191
grammes of gold respectively which do not constitute part of monetary
circulation, but havo a market v,.lue as any other commoditv.
The currency law of 21 Jan. 1954 provides that (a) at least 40% of the
cover for the notes issued up to 21 Jan. 1954 is to consist of gold or foreign
exchange convertible or guaranteed to be convertible into gold provided
that at no time the gold cover is to fall below 35% of the note issue; (h) the
maximum amount of gold or foreign exchange convertible or guaranteed to
be convertible into gold which is to bo held as cover, in addition to the 40%
cover, for further note issues must not exceed the equivalent of US$30m.,
calculated at the rate of 32·25 rials per USSl; (c) the remainder of the cover
up to 100% of the note issues is to consist of government obligations secured
by the Crown jewels. In May 1957, however, a Note Reserve (Amendment)
Act fixed tho gold/rial parity rate at rials 75·75 per USS and authorized the
Bank Melli Iran to increase the note issue as requircd, provided a deposit of
100% backing in gold or gold·guaranteed currencies is made for any notes
insued in excess of the 1954 Act.
Government control of foreign exchange was introduced on 1 l\Iarch
1936. The official parity of thc rial is 75·75 rials = USSl. This parity is
used only in calculating tho value of the gold and foreign exchange held as
reserve for the note cover. The effective rates for all authorized foreign.
exchange payments are : Buying, £1 sterling = 210 rinls, USSI = 75 rials;
seUing, £1 = 214·2 rials, SI = 76·5 rials.
The foHowing banks are established in Iran: (1) Bank Melli Iran,
founded in 1927 as the National Bank of Iran by the Government. Since
1932 it has the 801e right to issue notes. It has branches all over Iran.
On 9 May 1939 a National Savings Bank was inaugurated as a branch of the
Bank Melli. (2) Bank Kcshavarzi Iran (Agricultural Bauk), formerly a
section of the Bank Melli Iran, WM made a separate establishment in 1933.
It has a nominal capital of 1,500m. rials and has branches at the principal
agricultural centres in Iran. The bank gives assist.a.nce for the agricultural
development of the country. (3) The Bank Sepah, established in 1926,
deals principally in inland exchange and manages army accounts; paid.up
capital, 400m. rials. (4) Bank Ralmi Iran (Mortgage Bank), founded ill
1939, has an authorized capital of 720m. rials and fulfils the functions of a
building society. (5) Bank Towsa'eh Sanati (Industrial Development Bank)
fOWlded in 1956 under the 7.year plan with a paid·up capital of 300m. rials
and with the object of assisting the modernization and development of Iran's
industries. (6) Bank Towesh Saderat (Export Promotion Bank) was
established in March 1953 with an authorized capital of 5OOm. rials and
paid.up capital of 220m. rials, mainly to encourage exports and provide
financial assistance to those engaged in the export trade. (7) Bank Sakh·
temani (Building Bank) was formed with an authorized capital of 150m . rials
with the object of building and selling houses to the poorer classes. (8) Bank
Omran (Development Bank) was founded in 1953 with a nominal capital of
ISm. rials to finance farmers and peasants who come into possession of land
by virtue of the distribution of Crown lands. (9) Sherkat Sahallli Bimeh
Iran (The Iran Insurance Co.) in 1954 inaugurated a banking department.
In addition, there are 11 privately.owned banks, established between
1128 IRAN
1050 &I,d 1959, with, togetoor, a paid.up capital of 1,783·75m. rials. These
include the Industrial and Mining Development Bank, which opened in
1959 with a capital of 800m. rials.
The Russo.Iran Bank is the oldest foreign bank operating in Iran; it
financell Soviet-Iranian trade. An Irano-French bank (Bank Etabarate)
opened in 1958. The lrano·British Bank, the Bank of Iran and the Middle
East, the Mercantile Bank of Iran and Holland, and the Bank of Iran and
Japan opened in 1959.
The British Bank of Iran and the Middle Eaet, formerly the Imperial
Bank of Iran, founded in 1899, withdrew from Iran in 1952.
Most banks are now authorized to deal in foreign exchange.
The liabilities and aasets of the Bank Melli on 19 March 1959 were ae
follows (in rials): Liabilities : notes in circulation, 16,162,107,585; in
banking department, 1,157,892,415; total liabilities, 17,320m. Assets:
gold, 7,535,877,266; subscription to the International Monetary Fund,
662,8U:,497; subscription to the International Bank, 283,209,555; snb-
scription to the International Finance Corporation, 28,179,000; foreign ex-
change,. 887,149,080; Treaeury liabilities secured by Crown jewels,
7,922,772,600; total assets, 17,320m.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Bya law passed on 8 Jan. 1933, the

official weights and measures are those of the metric system. For the old
Iranian. weights and measures, see THE STATES\l[AN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1933,
p. 1191.
Tbe Iranian year is a solar year running from 21 March to 20 March;
the Hejra year 1339 corresponds to the Christian year 21 March 1960-
20 March 1961.
Iran maintains embassies in Afgb8.nistan, Argentina (also for Chile),
BelgiuUl, France (also for Portugal), Germany, India (also legation for
Thailand), Iraq, Italy, Japan (also for Taiwan), Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco,
Netherlands, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia (a\so for Ethiopia), Spain, Sweden,
Switzedand, Tunisia, Turkey (also for Greece), U.S.S.R., United Arab
RepubHc, U.K., U.S.A. (also for Dominican Republic and Mexico), Vatican;
and legations in Austria, Brazil (also for Venezuela), Canada, Czecho-
slovakia, Hungary, Indonesia, Poland (also for Rumania), Yugoslavia.
011' IRAN IN GREAT BRITAIN (26 Princes Gate, S.W.7)

Ambassad01'. Hossein Ghods·Nakhii, G.C.V.O. (accredited 24 Oct.
1958).
M inister Counsellor. Mohammad Qavvam, K C. .V.O. First Secretaries.
Dr Antic Mohammad Esfandiary, M.V.O. (Press); Arsalan Nayer-Nouri
(Consular). Military, Air and Naval AUacM. Col. Mohamma.d Rady
Esfandiari, C.V.O. Cultural Counsellor. Dr Mas'uud Farzaad.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN IRAN

Ambassad01'. Sir Geoffrey Harrison, K.C.M.G.
CO'tm.sellors. G. E. Millard, C.M.G.; F. C. Mason (Economic); A. R. H.
Kellas.
First Secretaries. F. J . Leishman, C. V.O., M.B.E.; D. J .Speares (Press);
A. K . B'orter; R. L. Cook (Consul) ; A. G. Read (Labour).
IRAQ 1129
Naval AUac.he. Capt. N. Dixon, R.N. Military AUache. Col. R. D. H.
Phayre. Air Attache. Group Capt. W. J . Swift.
There is a consul at Khorramshahr.
OF IRAN THE U.S.A. (3005 Ma-ssachusetts Ave. NW.,
IN
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Ardeshir Zahedi.
Minister. Bagher Pirnia (Economic). Counsellors. Dr Parviz Mah •.
davi; Mohammad HMSan Puyani; Dr Hossein·AIi Esfandiary (CuUural).
First Secretaries. Nassereddin Mirfakhrai; Mohammad AIi Shokouhian.
,Military and Air Attaclte. Brig.-Gen. Akbar Shashaani.
OF THE U.S.A. IN IRAN
Ambassador. Edward T. Wailes.
Minister Counsellors. Stuart W. Rockwell; Harry A. Brenn. Coun·
sellors. Burnett Anderson (Information) ; Basil Capella; Maurice F. W.
Taylor (Economic) . First Secretaries. Herbert F. Linneman; Warren F.
Looney (Commercial); Eric E. Oulashin; M. Robert Rutherford (Petroleum);
John P. Walsh (Economic). Service Attaches: Col. John E. Boyt (Army),
Cmdr Edward K. Halsey (Navy), Col. Lawrence E. Horras (A ir). Agri.
cultural AUaclte. William R. Hatch.
There are consular representatives at Esfahan, Khorramshahr, Meshed
and Tabriz.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORlUTlON. The principal statistical agencies of the Government are :
(1) Department of Census, OivU Registration, and Statistics (MInistry 01 tba Interior).
n;ttClM-Gennol: Sa'ld Sa.m!'I. Publications on demogn.pblcal atatistice, in l'eralan.
(2) PnbUclty and Information Department 01 the Seven-year Plan Organization. Director :
Abul HasaD Ehtesbaml. Publications on indostry, labour, agrieuJture, in EngUsb and
Persian. (3) Statistical and Economic Research Department of the Bank .MeW Iran.
Publishes M onlhl" BullLtin, in EngUsh and Persian. (4) Oustoms Department (.Ministry of
Finance), pubUsbes lXlonthly and annual reports, in French and Persian. (6) and (6) Ministry
01 Labour and Ministry of Indnstry and Mines, publlsb statistical year-books.
Arberry, A. J .(ed.), The Legacy 0/ p.,.•ia. Oxford Univ. Press, 1963
Cnrzon, G. N. (later Lord), p.,sia arnltM Persian Question. London, 1892
LlWlbton, A. K. S., Landlord arnl Ptasanl in Persia. Onord Univ. l'reee, 1953.- p.,Jtan
Vocabulary. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1954
Lenczowskl, George, RU8sia arnllM We .• tin Iran. eomen Univ., 1948; supplement, 1964
Malek-Mabdal'i, Abmed, Le Parll!mnllIranien. Univ. of Neucbatel, 1964
Rajput, A. B., Iran To-day. 3rd cd. Lahore, 1953
Steinglaes, F. J ., d ComprelleTl$;ve p.,sian- ErI{Ilish Dictionary. 2nd ed. London, 1930
Sytes, Sir Percy M., .d History 0/ p.,.ia. 2 vol.. Srd ed. London, 1930
Vreeland, H . H . (ed.). Iran. New Haven, Coon ., 1957
Zakboder, B. N. (00 .), Sovremennvi Iran. Moscow, 1951
IRAQ
AI. JUMHOURIYA AI. 'IRAQU
ON 14 July 1968 the Republic of Iraq was declared by a group of Army

officers, a.fter an armed coup d'elat in which the reigning King Faisal II and
bis uncle, tbe ex-Regent the Emir Abdul IIIah, and the Prime Minister,
Nuri al Said, lost their lives.
The republican regime terminated the adherence of Iraq to the Arab
Federation (see TilE STATESMAN'S YEAR·BoOK, 1958, p. 806).
1130 IRAQ
CONSTITUTION. The Organic Law en 1924 with all its amendments

(8U Tm: STATESMAN'S YEAR· BooK, 1958, p. 1144) was annulled in the interim
constitution of the new Republic, which was announced on 27 ,July 1958.
Its pro\'isions include the establishment ofIraq as an independent, sovereign
and Ishmic republic. The state is described as 'an integral part of the
Arab nl~tion', and emphasis is laid on the partnership of Iraqi Kurds and
Arabs. The functions of president are temporarily vested in a Council of
Sate composed of a chairman and 2 members. Under the authority of thi3
Council of State, legislative and executive powers are exercised by a Cabinet
or Council of :Ministers. The judiciary are independent by law.
The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate were dissolved when the
Republ:ic was announced.
Courtcil of State (appointed 14 July 1958). Maj.·Gen. Najib Al.Rubai
(Presid,:nt) ; Mohammed Mahdi Kubba; Khalid Al.Naqishbandi.
The cabinet was in Feb. 1960 composed as follows :
Pri1'1.e M inister and acting .Minister of Defence. Gen. Abdul Karim
Qassim.
Interior and Agrarian Reform. Brig. Ahmad Muhammad Yahya.
FinanC<: and Industry. Muhamruad Hadid. Foreign Affairs. Hashim
Jawad. Education. Brig. Muhieddin Abdul H amid. Social Affairs and
AgriculJure. Brig. Abdul Wahhab Amin. Health. Maj .. Gen. Muhammad
al Shawwaf. Justice. Mustafa Ali. Communications. Hasan al Talabani.
Planni1~g and Oil. Dr Tala'at al Shaibani. Municipalities. Dr Naziha al
Dulaimi. Works and Housing. Awni Yusuf. Guidance. Dr Faisal al
Samir. Commerce. Abdul Latif al Shawwaf. Minister of State. Brig.
Fuad Arif.
ARlE:A AND POPULATION. The country has an area of 444,442 sq.

km and a population (census Oct. 1957) of6,538,109. The capital is Baghdad.
Each liwa is administered by a Mutasarrif, and is subdivided into qadhas
(under I~aimmaqua.ms) and nahyahs (under Mudirs). The following are the
area (in sq. km) and population (Oct. 1956) for each liwa :
Amua 18.377 310,141 Kut 16,564 238.07~
Al'bil 15,683 223,264 Mosul 29,663 590,173
Baghdad 12,752 912.409 Nasariyah 1 14,800 368,488
Basra 12.295 404.308 Ramadi' 40.794 189,791
Diala 16,121 296,763 Sulalmanlya 11,841 2i2,442
DI",anly •. 15,086 378,273
HlU. 6,447 274,567 Northern Desert 101.339
Kerbola 6,060 136. 3~3 Soutbern Desert 76.144
Klrlmk 20,355 319.785 Al·Jazil'a Desert 31.226
1 Formerly Mllntafiq . ' Formerly Dulaim .
Vital etatistics, registered in 1956 : Births, 80,396 ; deaths, 24,200;

infantiJ;, mortality, 27 (per 1,000 Jive births).
The largest towns (with 1956 population) are Baghdad (730,549), Basre.
(159,35i», Moaul (140,245), Kirkuk (89,917) and Najaf (74,089).
On :!5 Nov. 1933 the Council ofthe League of Nations fixed the boundary
between Iraq and Syria, including the whole of the J ebel Sinjar in Iraq,
REJ:.IGION. In 1947 there were 4,508,779 Moslems, 149,656 Christians,

118,000 Jews, 32,437 Yezedees and 6,613 others. In 1955 there were only
a bout 5,000 Jews left. after the mass exodus to Israel in 1950-51.
IRAQ 1131
EDUCATION. Primary education is free and compulsory, but attend.
ance ho.s not yet been enforced everywhere. Primary school age is 6-12.
Intermediate a.nd secondary education was made froe from 1946. Secondary
education is for 5 years, of which the first 3 are termed intermediate. The
modium of instruction is Arabic; Kurdish is used in primary schools in
some northern districts. The figures for the school year 1955-56 are as
follows: Government primary schools, 1,74.8, of which 1,062 are for boys,
261 for girls and 425 co.educational, wit.h 252,732 boys and 79,949 girls and
7,274 male and 3,196 female teachers. Foreign and private primary schools,
78, with 13,943 boys and 6,840 girls and 336 male and 276 female teachers.
There were, in 1960,226 government secondary schools. In 1957 there
were 107 for boys with 34,040 students and 45 for girls with 10,558 students;
teachers numbered 1,439 men and 699 women. Foreign and private
fiecondary schools numbered 47 for boys (ll,744 students) and 6 for girls
(1,111 students), with 723 male and 65 female teachers.
Government vocational schools comin~ under either the Ministry of
Education or other Ministries include the Institute of Fine Arts, 4 schoolR for
technical engineering, 2 for agriculture and 1 each for domestic science,
health services, nursing and midwifery, and police training.
There are 4 colleges for training primary schoolteachers, 3 for men and
I for women, and 6 primary teachers' training sections attached to existing
schools, providing a l·year post·secondary course.
A university was established in Baghdad in Oct. 1958, comprising the
existing colleges of Arts, Science, Engineering, Medicine, Law, Commerce,
Economics, Chemistry, Dentistry, Veterinary Medicine, Agriculture and
Industrial Engineering, the Higher Teachers' Training College and the Col.
lege for Girls. All these except the last are co·educational. There are in
addition a Theological College and the Police College.
In 1947,323,464 men and 84,112 women over 5 years of age were literate;
3,319,469 persons were illiterate.
Cinemas (1960). There were 30 cinemas in Baghdad, with a seating
capacity of 50,000.
Newspape1's (1960). In Baghdad there are 14 morning and evening
daily newspapers with a total estimated circulation of 80,000-90,000. In
Basra there are 6 daily papers with a circulation of 4,000-5,000. In Mosul,
3 daily newspapers with a circulation of 1,500-2,000.
HEALTH. In 1955 there were 921 Iraqi and 93 foreign doctors; 115
hospitals with 7,199 beds.
JUSTICE. The courts are established throughout the country u
{ollows: For civil matters: the court of co.ssation in Baghdad; 4 courts
of appeal at Baghdad, Basra, MosuI and Kirkuk; 14 C01lItS of first instance
with unlimited powers and 44 courts of first instance with limited powers,
all being courts of single judge!!. In addition, 6 peace courts have peace
court jurisdiction only. Tribal law was abolished in Aug. 1958.
For Shara' (religious) matters: the Sunni and Shia. benches of revision
in Bagbdad; Shara' courts at all places where there are civil courts, consti.
tuted in some places of specially appointed Qadhis (religious judges) and
in other places o{ the judges of the civil courts. For criminal matters:
the court of cassation; 6 sessioD8 courts (2 being presided over by the
judge of the local court of first instance and 4 being identical with the
courts of appeal). Magistrates courts at all places where there are civil
courts, constituted of civil judges exercising magisterial powers of the first
1132 IRAQ
and second class. There are also a number of third-class magistrates

courts, powers for this purpose being granted to municipal councils and
a number of administrative officials. Some administrative officials are
granted the powers of a peace judge to deal with cases of debts due from
cultivators.
Special religious courts for non-catholic Christians at Baghdad, Basra
and MOlml deal with matters of personal status such as divoroe, separation
and maintenance between husband and wife.
The prison population at the end of 1956 was 5,780 men and 117 women,
including persons on remand and in the reformatory 8chool.
Poli.;e. In 1956 the police force consisted of 21,065 officers and men.
Of these, 3,278 were 8tationed in Baghdad, 400 belonged to the C.LD., 240 to
the Tm·...el and Residence Department, 245 to the Southern Frontier Force
and 3,7!!2 to the Mobile Force organized in infantry battalions.
FIN ANCE. Revenue and expenditure (in 1,000 Iraqi dinars), excluding
the De"elopment Board's 70% share of receipts from oil royalties, and
excluding its capital works expenditure for fiscal years ending 31 Msrch:
1954-65' 1955--68' 1956-57' 1957-68' 1968-69' 1959-60'
Revenne 62,179 65,286 62,713 69,183 73,610 95,343
1!ixpendit'll'e 63,798 66,279 70,276 63,715 76,898 104,011
, Actual. • Estimate••
In the financial years 1953-59, 70% of the Government's receipts from

oil was allocated to the development budget. In the financial year 1959-60
the shal'e was altered to • not less than 50% '.
DEFENCE. Military training is compulsory for all men when they reach
the age of 18. This consists of 2 years' service with the colours and 18 years
on the reserve. However, a man may volunteer for service in the army or
change his conscript service into voluntary service. Under such circum·
stances voluntary service is for 2 years, and he may extend it by periods of
2 years until he reaches the age of 45.
Army. The strength of the Iraqi Army in Feb. 1960 was about
70,000, It was organized into 4 infantry divisions, one armoured division
and Ministry of Defence troops. Of the infantry divisions, 3 are organized
on the tnes of British infantry divisions and consist of 3 infantry brigades, a
training brigade, 3 artillery regiments, a signal regiment, an engineers
regimer.t, motor transport companies and ancillary services. The other
division is known as the mountain division and, while it has the same basic
organiz,ttion as the other three, it has animal transport to help it to operate
in the mountains.
The armoured division consists of 2 armoured brigades, each of 2
armour.Jd regiments and I mechanized regiment of infantry in armoured
personnel carriers.
Ministry of Defence troops include one heavy artillery regiment (8-in.
howitzers), I medium regiment, 2 heavy anti-aircraft regiments, one of which
is equipped with British 3·7-in. guns and the other with American 90-mm.
guns, and a tank transporter company,
Training establishments include a staff college, a military college for
cadets, a senior officers' school, an infantry school and a school of artillery.
Air Force. The Iraqi Air Force in Feb. 1960 consisted of a wing of
Sea Fmics (32 planes), a squadron of Venoms (11 planes) and a squadron
IRAQ 1133
of Hunters (14 planes). There were also 4 Bristol Freighters and some
communication and training planes. A nnmber of aircraft received from
U.S.S.R. are being forllled into squadrons. The former R.A.F. base at
Habbaniyah was evacuated on 31 May 1059.
There is an Air Force College for training cadets and a flying school.
Navy. There is a river flotilla of 4 river gunboats manned by artillery
personnel, a lighthouse tender, the ex.royal yacht and a tug. Some Russian
motor torpedo· boats were received in 1959, and more can be expected.
PRODUCTION. Iraq is a land of great potentialit.ies. The soil of the

oountry is rich, but there are vast areas which can be cultivated only if
irrigated by canals or pumps. The Irrigation Department operates several
canal systems, and new irrigation works are nnder construction.
An Agrarian Reform Law, issued in Sept. 1958, limits land ownership
to 1,000 dunullis for flow.irrigated land and to 2,000 dunums for rain·
i.rrigated land.
In 1952-53, 10m. mt$haraa were planted, Hm. lay fallow, 2·6m. were
uncultivable, 512,650 were orchards and vineyards, 923,500 were pasture
and 207,000 woodland. About 12m. mesharas were irrigated.
The Development Board, which was set up in 1950 and combined with a
Ministry of Development in 1953, was dissolved in July 1959.
Agriculture. The chief winter crops are wheat (1957-58, 757,000 tons,
and barley (1957-58, 934,000 tons). The chief summer crop is rice (1958)
137,000 tons}. The date crop is important (average yearly production,
350,000 tons), the country furnishing about 80% of the world's trade in
dates; the chief producing area is the tidally irrigated riverain belt of the
Shatt·el·Arab. Wool is also an important export; 1955, 6,390; 1956,
7,262; 1957,5,635; 1958,4,087 tons. In 1958, 35,1I5 bales of cotton were
produced from 224,556 donums.
Livestock (census 1952-53): Cattle, 711,918; buffaloes, 47,395: sheep,
4,484,156; goats, 1,618,145; horses, 137,446; asses, 398,798; mules,
56,673; camels, 37,696; these figures do not include the livestock held by
nomadic tribes.
Forestry. Up to 1957, 662,314 donums have been dernarcated and sur-
veyed in Arbil, Mosul and Sulaimaniya Liwas.
Industry. The industrial census of 1954 showed that there were 22,460
establishments, of which 294 employed 20 or more persons each. Altogether
90,291 persons, including 12,307 women, were engaged in industry, chiefly
in petroleum producing and refining (12,000), textiles (11,000), building
(7,000), food industries (5,000) and tobacco manufacture (3,000).
Oil. The greater part of Iraq's oil production comes from the Iraq Petro-
leum Company's field at Kirkuk (found in 1927). This company, an inter-
national group, has constructed pipelincs to the Mediterranean, includ-
ing one to Baroas on the Syrian coast, with a throughput of about 22m.
tons in 1952. The M08ul Petroleum Co. Ltd holds a concession for oil
covering Iraqi territory west of the Tigris and north of the 33rd parallel
of latitude. Oil was found at Ain Zalah, north· west of Mosul. and the
company has laid a pipeline from there to Baiji. The Basra Petroleum
Company have been granted a concession for oil covering the southernmost
part of Iraq (the old Basra vilayet). High·grade quality oil has been found
here, and production started in Dec. 1951. Production at the oilfield of
Rumaila. started in Dec. 1954; its pipeline is linked to the Zubair-Fao
1134 IRAQ
system. An oilfield near Khanaqin, in the area known as the Transferred

Territories near the Iranian frontier, was, until Nov. 1958, operated by the
Khanaqin Oil Company, a subsidiary of the British Petroleum Company,
and is now being operated by the Iraqi Government. There is a pipeline to
a refinery near Khanaqin. Oil for consumption in Iraq is refined by the
government oil refineries administration (GORA) and is distributed and mar·
keted ir. Iraq at cheap prices by the Ministry of Oil. Oil production, 1949,
4,066,7S2; 1951, 8,349,000; 1952, 18,851,000; 1953, 27,715,630; 1954,
30,145,('51; 1955, 32,702,912; 1956, 30,603,078 metric tons; 1957,
20, 195,477 long tons; 1958, 33,516,772 long tons; 1959, 40m. long tons.
Under an agreement dated 3 Feb. 1952 between the Government and
the Ira q, Basra and MOIJUI Petroleum Companies, the Government receives
50% of the profits before the deduction of foreign taxes, and in any case not
less than I.D.25m. in 1955 and thereafter, from which date onward the
minimum rate of oil-production will be 30m. tons annually.
All oil refinery (annual output, Im. tons) at Daura near Baghdad, and a
bitumen refinery (annual output 60,000 tons) at Gayyarah in the Mosul
district both started production in 1955 under the direction of the GORA.
The capacity ofthe Daura refinery had been doubled by 1958, but production
at the Gayyarah bitumen plant was suspended in Aug. 1958. A lubricating
oil plan-; (annual output, 25,000 tons) had been added to the Daura refinery
and stal-ted production in May 1957.
The total oil royalties in 1955 amoilnted to I.D.73,740,000, of which
I.D.51,m8,OOO was paid to the Development Board and I.D.22,122,OOO to
the Treasury. Oil royalties in 1956 totalled LD.68·9m.; 1957, I.D.48·2m . ;
1958, LD.79·9m.; 1959,I.D.86·6m.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports for 5 calendar years were as follows
(in Iraqi dinars) :
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Imports. . 72,683.495 97,158,961 113.426,269 122,417,000 109,795,843
Local exports. 17,973,932 16,917,437 13.166,903 15.230.000 14,247,690
Transit. 6,161,120 6,110,305 5,76t.931 7,947,330 8,057,887
Movements of gold bullion and currency are excluded lrom the above table. Import
nlues are c.l.I. plus landing charges, and include all goods cleared lor home consumption
whether "ub.equently re-exported or not. Exports do not include shipments 01 oil or r.-
exports. " nd are valued f.o.b.
Principal imports and exports (value in 1,000 dinars) :
1957 1958
Imports Quantitv falue Qua.llity Yalu<
(Jotton ge,od. (1,000 sq. metres). 81,2;;7 S.018 28,884 2,78&
Sugar (to"") . . . 144,647 8,768 174.451 7,296
Iron and steel goods (tons) . . . 1:;2,648 10,395 151,041 11.874
Structures (bridgE'S, lock-gates, etc.) (tons) • 10,892 1,781 9,8~2 1,866
Tea (tons) . . . 16,724 6,593 15,806 5,715
Electrical machinery (tons) 12,090 5,913 17,J89 8,200
Motol ve;)ici es, including spares (to ns) 10,:;83 9,681 8,767 8,081
Artificial textiles (1,000 sq. metres) • 75,581 6,245 62,119 6,820
Ohemical!! and pharmaceuticals (tons). 7,911 2,428 6,635 2,1 30
Paper and cardboard (tons) 13.520 1,40& 12,381 1,282
Timber (tons) . . 44,047 2.698 45,933 2,481
I.ubricatin/l oil (tons) . 17,098 1,103 4,540 420
Rubber Bnd rubberware (tons) 4,144 2,251 3,837 2,122
Exports
Grain, pu Ises and flour (tons) 212,736 3,500 33 9,747 u, 377
Dates (to"s) . 238,085 3,446 239,285 2,858
Wool (ra1') (tons) 5,6 35 1,491 4,087 924
Cotton (nw) (tons) 4t~29 959 7,351 1,3~0
IRAQ 1135
The distribution of trade in 1958 was as follows (in 1,000 dinars) : Im-
ports: U.K.,30,182; U.S.A.,15,214; West Germany, 12,591 : Japan, 8,599:
Belgium, 6,812: Ceylon, 5,709: Italy, 3,719: Netherlands,3,329: Sweden,
2,316: France, 2,303: India, 1,372. Exports: U.K., 3,139: Denmark,
1,627: West Germany, 1,046.
The total trade between Iraq and U.K., according to the British Board
of Trade returns, was as follows for 5 years (in £ sterling) :
1955 19M 1957 1968 1969
Imports to U.K. 32,640,766 24,212,056 12,221,423 50,529,283 52,801.764
Exports from U. K. . 26,540,261 32,689,169 34,373,088 31,109,1:;5 31,7t18.784
Re·exports from U.K. 178,899 HU,SS7 132,650 165,488 1a3,064
COMMUNICATIONS. Shippin{J. In 1957, r.41 merchant vessels of

1,786.966 NRT entered the Port of Basra; 181 vessels of 619.566 NRT were
British.
Railways. The Iraqi state railway system consists of a metre· gauge line
from Basra, at the head of the Persian Gulf, to Baghdad, 669·2 km. At
Baghdad the line crosses the river Tigris by a combined road and rail bridge
and then extends through Juloula. (Qaraghan), which is 147·8 km from
Baghdad on to Kirkuk 321·8 km, thence to the terminal station of Arbil
104·9 km. Khanaqin on the Iraq-Iranian frontier is served by a branch
line from Juloula (27'9 km). There is also a standard gauge (4 ft 8i in.)
line from Baghdad to Tel-Kotchek (528 km) on the Syrian frontier, following
the right bank of the Tigris via Mosul: it links with the Syrian railway
system at Tel-Kotchek, thus establishing a through service from the Persian
Gulf to Turkey, Egypt and Europe. The totallcngth of track open in 1958
was 2,049 km. There also exist 340 km of sidings.
Russian surveyors are (1960) surveying the route of a standard.gauge
line from Baghdad to Basra.
Roads. About 4,550 miles of roads and tracks have been developed for
vehicular traffic. The main surfaced roads are : (1) the road north from
Baghdad via Kirkuk, Arbil and Mosul to a point near the Turkish frontier at
Zakho, with branches from Kirkuk to the Kurdish province of Sulaimaniya,
from Arbil to the Iranian frontier, and from Mosul to Sinjar; (2) about
350 miles of the main road west from Baghdad to the Jordan frontier; (3)
the road east of Baghdad, which connects the road system of Iran near
Khanaqin: and (4) the road south from Baghdad to HiUa and the holy city
of Kerbela.
Vehicles registered in 1958 included 23.012 passenger cars, 7,059 taxis,
12,213 lorries, 3,608 buses.
Post . In 1957 there were 253 post and telegraph offices, 41,725 tele-
phones and 115.500 miles of telephone and telegraph wires. Wireless sets,
1951, numbered about 60,000. The administration operates wireless tele-
graph services with U.K., U.S.A., United Arab Republic, Lebanon and
Saudi Arabia, and wireless telephone services with U.K., U.S.A., Italy,
Egypt and U.S.S.n. Telephones, 31 March 1959. numbered 44,310.
Avialion. Baghdad and llasra airports are served by B.O.A.C., Luft.
hansa, Alitalia, Pakistan Air Lines, Swissair, Air France, K .L.M., Middle
East Air Lines, T.W.A., Pan American Air Ser\"ices, Iraqi Airways, Iranian
Airways, Misr Air, Air Liban, Kuwait National Airways and other com-
panies. In 1957, 9,015 aircraft arrived, with 78.709 passengers, 1,151
1136 IRAQ
metric tons of goods and 121 metric tons of mail; 9,016 aircraft left with
74,000 passengers, 515·5 metric tons of goods and 70·7 metric tons of mail.
CU1RRENCY AND BANKING. According to the Currency Law

published on 19 April 1931 the monetary unit is the Iraqi dinar (I.D.) =
1,000 JUs = 5 riyals = 20 dirhams = £1 sterling. Silver coins for 50 fila
(Dirham) and 20 fils are in circulation, and other coins for 10, 4 (nickel), 10,
4,2 and 1 (bronze) fils. Notes are for 1,1 and 1 dinar, and for 5,10 and 100
dinars. The 50·fil coins are of a silver alloy, the fineness of which is 500
parts (If pure silver in 1,000 parts, and of a weight of 9 grammes, while
the 20·fil coin is of a silver a.lloy, the fineness of which is the same, but of a
weight of 3·60 grammes. A larger coin of 200 fils was put into circulation
in Juno 1933. The total currency in circulation in Nov. 1959 amounted to
84·2m. dinars. The currency was formerly controlled by an Iraqi Currency
Board sitting in London, but was taken over by the National Bank of Iraq
on 1 July 1949, which in 1956 was re·named the Central Bank of Iraq.
ThEI principal British banks are the Ottoman Bank, the British Bank of
the Middle East and the Eastern Bank, with branches in the chief towns.
In 1941 the Rafidain Bank, financed by the Iraqi Government, was instituted
to carry out normal banking transactions with head office in Baghdad and
branches in the chief towns and abroad, including London.
Other banks are the Arab Bank, the Commercial Bank of Iraq, the
Federal Bank of the Lebanon, the Baghdad Bank, the Intra Bank, the
Banque Nationale pour le Commerce et l'Industrie and the National Bank
of Pakistan.
In ~ddition, there are 4 government banks which are authorized to issue
loa.ns to companies and individuals: the Industrial Bank, the Agricultural
Bank, the Estate Bank and the Mortgage Bank.
In Dec. 1957 post office savings amounted to 2,809,453 dinars held by
70,821 depositors.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metrio system is gradually being
introd'lced, but native weights and measures a.re still met with, the principal
ones bsing: Hogga = 2·8 lb.; man = 56 lb.; wazna = 224 lb.; tughar =
4,480 lb.; tlhar = 29·38 in. (27 in. in Aleppo); muhara or donum = 0·62
a.cres (,r 4 hectares.
Iraq maintains embassies in Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Federal
Germa,ny, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Pakistan,
Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sudan, Tunisia, Turkey, U.S.S.R., United Arab
Republic, U.K., U.S.A.; and legations in Austria, Cuba and Indonesia.
Iraq i~ also in diplomatic relations with Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Den-
mark, Ethiopia, Greece, Hungary, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Poland,
Portugal, Rumania, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand and Yugoslavia.
OF IRAQ IN GREAT BnITAIN (22 Queen's Gate, S.W.7)
Charge d'Affaires . Nadhir al Umari. Military Attache. Col. Abdul
Qadir Faiq. Air Attache. Brig. Emmanuel Ashoo. Press Attache. K.
Azmi. Commercial Attache. Dr Khadid AI·Shawi.
01' GREAT BnrrAIN IN IRAQ
Afilbasaador. Sir Humphrey Trevelyan, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., O .B.E.
Counsellors. P. T. Hayman, M.B.E.; W. I. Combs; S. Falle, D.S.C.;
IRISH REPUBLIC 1137
P . C. Archer (Labour). First Secretaries. J. M. Hunter, M.C.; A. H. S.
Coombe.Tennant, M.C.; W. B. M. Johnston; A. J. D. Stirling; N. G.
Standen (Consular); G. L. Scullard. Service Attaches: Capt. N. DiJcon,
R.N. (Navy), Col. J. W. G. Bowden (Army), Wing Cdr R. M. Horsley, D.F.C.,
A.lt-C. (Air).
There is a Consul· General at Basra.
OF IRAQ U.S.A. (2135 Wyoming Ave. NW.,
IN THE
WashingLon 8, D.C.)
Amba.ssador. Ali Haidar Suleiman.
First Secretaries. A. M. Eshaiker; Mohamed Alwan. Armed Forces
Attache. Maj. Hassan Mustafa Nakib. Cultural Attache. Dr Fawzi
El·Kaissi.
OF THE U.S.A. IN IRAQ
Ambassador. John D. Jernegan.
Counsellors. RogerP.Davies; JohllMiles(Economic). First Secretaries.
Arthur E. Callahau; David G. Wilson; Rayroond Cary, Jr (Consul).
Service Atl4Ches: Col. Richard T. Cassidy (Army), Lieut.·Col. Robert G.
McMaster (Navy), Col. Herbert O. Hamilton (A ir). Agricultural Attache.
W. Gordon Loveless.
There is a Vice-Consul at Basra.
Books of Reference
STATlSTJO,u, lNi'ORMATlON. The Principal Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Economic••
Bagbdad, publisbes an annual SUlI•• ,ital .4b,'ra<1 (latest i ..ue 1957) !>nd .. Quarterly Bulldin of
Stall,'iC-!. Foreign Trade statistics are publisbed annually by tbe Ministry 01 Economics
(latest Issne, 1966).
/ntemalional Bank Ml8si01l: The EC01W1>.ic Dowlopmml olIrtJI]. Jobns Hopklns UniT., 1952
Iraq : O.ers.... Ewn01Ric Bu""ll. H .M.S.O., 1953
Clark, V., C01Rpul$DrJI Educali01l in Iraq. Paris, 1951
Field, H ., .4rabs 01 Cenlral Iraq: Their His/Dry, Elhnology and PhV,ica/ Character, . Oblcago,
1935
lversen, 0., Report on Monetary Policy in Irac. Copenhagen, 1954
Kbaddnri, M., Independent IrtJI] .inee 1932. London, 1951
Lloyd. Seton, Twin River.: .4 briel Hi.Wry a/Iraq Ir01R lhe tarlit" lim.. 10 Iht pr.....' day.
2nd ed. Oxford, 1941
Longrlgg, S. and Stoakes, F., Iraq. London, 1969
Oppenbelm, Mu Prelberr YOB, Dit Bed..in",. Vol. I : Du Beduinen.tiimmt in J[<lop.lam'''''
und Byritn. Leipzig, 1939
IRISH REPUBLIC
EmB
TIlB Irish Republic is a sovereign independent, democratic state. Ite
parliament exercises jurisdiotion in 26 of t·he 32 counties of Ireland.
In April 1916 an insurrection against British rule took place and a
republic was proclaimed. The armed struggle was renewed in 1919 and
continued until 1921. The independence of Ireland was reaffirmed in
Jan. 1919 by the National Parliament (Dail Eireann), elected in Deo. 1918.
In 1920 an Act was pa88ed by the British Parliament, under which
separate Parliaments were set up for' Southern Ireland' (26 counties) and
• Northern Ireland' (6 counties). The Unionists of the 6 counties accepted
1138 IRISH REPUBUC
this scheme, and a Northern Parliament was duly elected on 24 May 1921.
The rest 'If Ireland, however, ignored the Act.
On 6 Dec. 1921 a treaty was signed between Great Britain and Ireland
by which Ireland accepted dominion statUB subject to the right of Northern
Ireland to opt out. This right was exercised, and the border between
Saorstat lJireann (26 counties) and Northern Ireland (6 counties) was fixed
in Dec. 1925 as the outcome of an agreement between Great Britain, the
Irish Fre,~ State and Northern Ireland. The agreement was ratified by the
three parliaments.
Subsequently the c.onstitutional links between Saorstdt Eireann and the
U.K. were gradually removed by the Ddil. The remaining formal associa-
tion with the British Commonwealth by virtue of the External Relations
Act, 1936, was severed when the Republic of Ireland Act, 1948, came into
operation on 18 April 1949.
Nationalflag: green, white, orange (vertical).
National anthem: The Soldier's Song (words by P. Kearney; tune by
P. Heaney).
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The first constitution of the

Irish Fre'l State came into operation on 6 Dec. 1922. Certain provisions
which were regarded as contrary to the national sentiments were gradually
removed by successive amendments, with the result that at the end of 1936
the text differed considerably from the original document. On 14 June
1937 a new constitution was approved by Parliament (Ddil Eireann) and
ena<.:ted hy a plebiscite on 1 July 1937. This constitution came into opera.
tion on 2H Dec. 1937. Under it the name Ireland (Eire) was restored.
The constitution applies in theory to the whole of Ireland, but it provides
that, pending the reintegration of the national territory, the laws enacted by
the Parlia.ment established by the constitution shall have the same area and
extent of application as those of the Irish Free State.
The Oireachtas or National Parliament consists of the President of
the Republic and two Houses, viz., a HO,use of Representatives, called Ddil
Eireann, and a Senate, called Seanad Eireann, consisting of 60 members.
The Ddil, consisting since 1947 of 147 members, is elected by adult suffrage.
Of the 60 members of the Senate, 11 are nominated by the Taoiseach (Prime
Minister), 6 are elected by the universities, and the remaining 43 are elected
from 5 panels of candidates established on a vocational basis, representing
the following public services and interests: (1) National language and
c.ulture, literature, art, education and such professional interests as may be
defined by law for the purpose of this panel; (2) Agriculture and allied
interests, and fisheries; (3) Labour, whether organized or unorganized;
(4) Indm'try and commerce, including banking, finance, accountancy,
engineering and architecture; (5) Public administration and social services,
including voluntary social activities. The electing body is a college of
990 members, comprising members of the Ddil, Senate, county boroughs
and couDf;y councils.
A maximum period of 90 days is afforded to the Senate for the considera-
tion or amendment of Bills sent to that House by the Ddil, but the Senate
has no power to veto legislative proposals.
No amendment of the constitution can be effected except with the
approval of the people given at a referendum.
Irish i:l the first official language ; English is recognized as a second official
language.
IRISH REPUBLIC 1139
For further details of the Constitution see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK,
1952, pp. 1123-24.
President of the Republic. Eamon de Valers.
The President was installed on 25 June 1959. Re holds office for 7 years.
Remuneration £5,000 per annum. The office carries a pension of £1,200
per annum.
Former Presidents: Dr Douglas Hyde (1938-45); Se,in T. 6 Ceallaigh
(1945-59).
General elections were held on 6 March 1!l57. The state of parties in the
Ddil was as follows in Oct. 1959: Fianna Fail, 77 (1954 election, 68); Fine
Gael, 41 (48); Labour Party, 12 (18); Clann na Poblachta, 1(3); Clann na
Talmhan, 3 (5); Sinn Fein, 4 (0); Independents, 7 (i5); National Progressive
Democrats, :! (0).
There are no formal part,y divisions in the Senate.
The Fianna Fail Government, formed on 23 June 1959, consists of the
following members :
Taoiseach (Prime Minister). Sean F. Lemass.
Tdnaiste (Deputy Prime 111 inister), jl1 iniste1' for H eaUlt, Iv1 iniat"r for
Social Welfare. Seun Jlbc an tSaoi (Sean MacEntee).
Finance. An Dr Seam as 6 Riain (Dr James Ryan).
External Affairs. Proinsias Mac Aogain (Frank Aiken).
Justice. Oscar Mac Treinfhir (Oscar Traynor).
Agriculture. Padraig Mac Gabhann (Patrick Smith).
Transport and Power. Erskinc H. Childers.
Industry and Commerce. Sean 6 Loinsigh (John Lynch).
Local Government. NialJ Bleine (Neil T. Blaney).
Defence. Caoimh!lhin 6 Beolain (Kevin Boland).
Lands. Micheal U M6rain (Michael Moran).
Posts and Telegraphs. Micheal Hilliard (Michael Hilliard).
Education. An Dr Padraig 6 hfrighilc (Dr Patrick J. Hillery).
Gael/acht. Gear6id M,a c Pharthalain (Gerald Bartley).
Attorney.General (not in the Cabinet). Aindrias 6 Caoimh, A.S.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. There are 27 administrative counties and 4
county boroughs governed by councils which are elected quinquennially.
The cOlmty councils administer county affairs generally, can hold property,
levy rates and borrow money. The county borough council possesses, with
certain exceptions, the powers of a county council.
The administrative counties include the urban county districts, which are
urban areas that have been constituted sanitary districts. Each such
district is governed by an elected council that administers the Acts relating
to sanitary services, housing, urban roads, etc., and is the sole rating author.
ity within its area. There are 56 urban sanitary districts and 28 towns con·
stituted under the Towns Improvement Act, 1854, which arc not urban
sanitary diBtricts. These towns have elected town commissioners who
exerci~ certain minor powers.
The county and county borough councils, the urban district councils and
other elective bodies have a system of gO\'ernmcnt which combines an
elected council with a manager. The manager for a county is, by virtue of
his office, the manager for every elective body in the county. These councils
have certain specified functions, including the making of a rate, raising loans
Rnd making bye.laws. All functions formerly exercised by the councils
1140 IRISH REPUBLIC
other than those now specifically reserved by law are exercised by the
manager, a paid official, who has control over all officers, and whose removal
from o/lice is, like theirs, subject to the sanction of the central authority.
Elected members of local authorities are not paid, but provision is made
for payment of travelling expenses and subsistence allowances.
Elections to county and county borough councils, urban district councils
and toV'II commissioners are held according to the principle of proportional
reprcscntation by means of the single transferable vote. A person who is
of full age and not subject to any legal disability is entitled to be registered
once in each electoral area as a local·government elector at the place of
ordinar:v residence on a qualifying date or in respect of lands or premises
occupie-:l as owner or tenant during a qualifying period. Women are
eligible for election as members of all local· government bodies in the same
manner and on the same conditions as men.
A contral body called the Local Appointments Commission is charged
with th.) duty of selecting suitable persons to be appointed by local authori.
ties to chief executive offices, professional offices and other prescribed offices.
Where IL prescribed office is not being filled by promotion, the local authority
must request the Commissioners to recommend to them a suitable person.
The Commissioners normally select persons for appointment by the machi·
nery of selection boards.
A scheme of combined purchasing has been established in order to enable
local al:.thorities to obtain commodities of standard quality at the lowest
possible price. Official contractors are appointed annually by the Minister
for Local Government on the recommendation of an Advisory Committee.
AREA AND POPULATION
Area
Counties in sq. Census population, April 1958
"nd county boronghs miles' Moh. Fernah. Total
Prooinu ,./ Leinltn'
Carlow . . 346 17,866 18,222 33,888
Dublin County' . 356 329,627 376,164 705,781
Dublin City 34 260,817 288,669 639,476
Kilda... 654 35,069 30,846 66,915
KilkenllY 796 33,927 30,162 64,089
LaoigbiB 664 25,233 21,864 47,087
Lobgford 403 17,477 16,492 32,969
Loutb 317 34,788 34.406 69,194
Meatb 903 34,830 31,932 66,762
Offaly . 771 27,691 24,379 61,970
Westm.,atb 681 28,102 26,020 U,122
Wexford 90S 44,210 43,049 81,259
Wicklo·,. 782 29,933 29,973 69,906
To~a1 01 LeiDlter . 7,630 668,463 680,489 1,338,942
Province ('1 M un"ter
Clare . 1,231 40,868 36,308 17,116
Cork County' 2,880 187,962 168,111 336,663
Cork Oity . . 4 37,644 42,467 80,011
Kerry . . 1,810 63.965 68,107 122,012
Limerick County' 1,037 69,622 68,259 137,881
LiInerlrk Oity . 1 24,047 26,839 60,886
Tipperary . . 1,643 67,398 62,017 129,415
Waterford County' 710 36,977 37,064 74.031
Waterford Oity . 3 13,460 16,418 28,8i8
Total 01 Munster. 9,316 446,782 430,456 817,238
, Exclusive 01 larger rivers, lakes and tideway••

• Including tbe City.
IRISH REPUBLIC 1141
Ar~,a
Counties in sq. Census population, April 1956
and county boroughs miles ' Males Female. Total
p,.viru:e Of Ubter (part oc)
Cavan 730 33,1 71 28,663 61,740
Donegal 1,86& 62,661 69,395 122,059
Monagho.n . 498 21,294 24,770 62,064
Total ot Ulster (part oc) 3,093 123,136 112,128 236,863
Provinu Of Connacht
Gahl'ay 2,293 82,223 13,330 156,603
Leitrim 6119 19,986 11,070 37,066
Mayo 2,084 68,819 64,113 133,061
Roscommon 951 34,018 29,632 63,710
Sligo 694 29,392 27,468 66,850
Total ot Connacht 6,611 234,668 211,663 446,221
Total . 26,600 1,462,928 1,435,336 2,898,264
, Exclusive of large rivers, lakes and tidewa ys.
VITAL STATISTICS for 4 calendar years:

Births Marriages Deaths BIrths Marriages DeathJ
1955 61 , 6~2 16,443 36,761 1951 61,242 14,657 34,311
1966 60,740 16,761 33,910 1958' 59,510 16,111 34,248
1 Provisional.
Passenger movements by sea were, in 1958, outward, 793,896, inward,

763,672 : in 1957, outward, 792,463, inward, 745,751.
RELIGION. According to the census of population taken in May 1946

the principal religious professions were as follows :
Ulster
Leinster Munster (part of) CODDOcht Total
II<>man OathoUeo 1,185,106 892,1111 226,018 482,938 2,786,033
ProteatlUlt Episcopali&ll8 76,226 19,868 21,24' 8,492 1",829
Presbyterian. . 1,031 838 16,406 596 23,870
Methodlsts 4.839 1,158 1,285 413 8,356
Other proteoslons 8;916 1,811 836 298 12,020
There were 812 members of the Society of Friends in 1957.

Religious affiliations were not enumerated in the 1956 census.
EDUCATION. Elementary Educati<m. Elementary education is free
and is given in 4,869 national schools. The average daily enrolment of
pupils in 1957-58 was 490,700; the percentage average daily attendance,
85·6; the number of teachers of all classes, 14,118.
There are 6 state· aided training colleges.
The estimated state expenditure on elementary education for 1959-60
is £9,819,600, excluding the cost of administrat,ion.
Since the establishment of the State ill 1922, the Irish language has been
an essential part of the curriculum for all schools subsidized by Government.
In 222 national schools in tbe English.speaking areas, Irish is the medium
of instruction in all subjects except English itself. The number of children
whose home language is Irish approximates 10,000.
Secondary Educati<m. The secondary school.e are under private control
and are conducted in many cases by religious orders; all schools receiving
grants from the State a,re open to inspection by inspectors of the Departm~nt
1142 IRISH REPUBLIC
of Education. The number of recognized secondary schools during the

school year 1958-59 was 494, and the number of pupils between the ages of
12 and 20 years in attendance was 69,568. Estimated total state expendi-
toro fm 1959-60, £2,491,530, excluding the cost of administration.
Continuation and Technical Education. Vocational schools and tem-
porary centres are controlled by the local Vocational Education Committees,
and an, maintained partly by the rates and partly by state grants. The
estimated state expenditure for 1959-60 is £1,367,950, excluding the cost
of administration, and the expenditure from the local rates, £706,409.
AgTic1!ltuml Education. :Full-time instruction in agriculture is provided
for all Bections of the farming community. There are 2 state agricultural
schools for young men, administered by the Department of Agriculture, and
6 private state-aided agricultural colleges, at each of which a one-year
course :Ln agriculture is given. Scholarships tenable at these institutions,
all of which are residential, are awarded by the County Committees of
AgricuHure. In addition, most County Committees award second-year
scholamhips-tenable at one of the private state-aided colleges-to young
men who have attended a first-year course at an agricultural school or
college. There are also provided at another state residential school short
courses in agriculture, generally of 4 weeks' duration. The County
Commitotees also conduct winter classes in agriculture and horticulture at
convenient local centres. A more comprehensive course of instruction
introduced in the winter of 1959 is provided in winter farm schools. Com-
mittees of Agriculture and Vocational Education Committees co-operate in
conductoing these schools, which are intended, in general, for persons of not
less than 18 years of age who are engaged in farming.
For young women a one-year course in provided, maiuly in dairying,
poultry-keeping and domestic economy subjects at 12 state-aided residential
schools and one of the agricultural colleges, The County Committees of
Agriculture award scholarships tenable at these institutions. Classes for the
instruction of young women in poultry-keeping, butter-making and cheese-
making are also organized at convenient rural centres by County Committees
of Agrioulture. More advanced training for young women is provided at
the Munster Institute, Cork, a residential school administered by the De-
partme:lt of Agriculture. Courses in horticulture are provided at the
NatiolllLl Botanic Gardens, Dublin (also administered by the Department of
Agriculture). Rural science (including practical gardening and surveying)
is taught in some 100 day ,ocational schools throughout the country.
Instruction of University status is provided by the University Colleges
at Dub'in, Galway and Cork, and at Trinity College, Dublin.
Education in veterinary medicine and surgery is provided at the Veteri-
nary Cc,lIege, Dublin.
University Education is given at the University of Dublin (Trinity
College'l, founded in 1591, and at the National University of Ireland,
founded in Dublin in 1909. The latter lIas 3 constituent colleges, namely,
the University Colleges of Dublin, Galway and Cork, and a recognized
college :it St Patrick's, Maynooth. Statistics for the academic year 1957-58:
Universities Professors, etc. Student..
Trinity College, Dublin • 187 2,227
University College, Cork . 152 1,353
Galway 87 958
" " Dublin . 285 ".244
St Patrick's College, Maynooth . 48 oH
IRISH REPUBLIC 1143
Cinemas (1957). There were 327 cinemas, with a seating capacity of
200,000.
SOCIAL WELFARE. Social-welfare services concerned primarily with

income maintenance are under the general control of the Minister for Social
Welfare. The services administered by the Department of Social Welfare
are divided into Insurance and Assistance schemes.
Insurance Services. Non-manual employees earning up to £800 a year and
all manual employees irrespective of their earnings are compulsorily insured
from age 16 to 70 years and pay weekly contributions. (The insured popu-
lation is approximately 700,000.) Subject to appropriate statutory con-
ditions (but without regard to the recipients' means) the following insurance
benefits are available: Disability benefit, unemployment benefit, widow's
pension, orphan's allowance, marriage benefit, maternity benefit, treatment
benefit. The cost of these benefits is Lorne by a Social Insurance Fund, which
is maintained on a tripartite basis by (approximately equal) contributions
from employers and employees, supplemented by a state grant sufficient to
keep the Fund in equilibrium.
Assistance Services. Children's allowances are payable without a means
test in respect of the second and each subsequent child under 16 years of
age normally residing with the claimant. The following Assistance services
are subject to means and, sometimes, residence tests: Non-contributory
widows' and orphans' pensions to the survivors of persons whose lack of
insurance (or inadequate insurance record) precludes payment of contri-
butory pensions; old age pensions payable at age 70; blind pensions (under
the same general conditions as apply to old age pensions) payable at age 21 ;
unemployment assistance payable during unemployment to persons not
entitled to receive unemployment benefit. A person unable to provide the
necessaries of life for himself is eligible for public assistance; failing assist-
ance in an institution, such a person must be given home assistance, generally
in the form of a cash payment on a weekly basis, but in particular cases
home assistance is given in kind.
HEALTH SERVICES. Persons in the lower income group (thoB8 who

are unable to provide medical services from their own resources, and their
dependants) are entitled to free general medical practitioner attention,
including any medicines or appliances that may be necessary, free hospital
and specialist treatment, free maternity care and infant-welfare services,
free dental, ophthalmic and aural treatment and appliances, and free mental·
hospital treatment. Persons in the middle income group (i.e., those outside
the lower income group in the categories made up of insured workers,
persons whose yearly means are less than £800, farmers with a rateable
valuation of £50 or less, and dependants of such persons) are entitled to
hospital (including mental hospital) treatment at a charge not exceeding IOs.
n day, specialist treatment (with a small charge for out-patients) and free
maternity care and infant-welfare services. Hospital treatment for tuber.
culosis and certain other infectious diseases is provided free of charge to all
classes of the community. Pupils of national (elementary) schools are
provided with a free school health·examination service and are also eligible
for free hospital and specialist treatment and free dental, ophthalmic and
aural services for defects discovered at school health examinations. A free
child-welfare rlinic servico for chilrlren under 6 years of age is available in
many urban areas. All these services arc provided by local health authorities
1144 IRISH REPUBLIO
(i.e., County Councils and City Corporations) under the direction and control
of the Minister for Health.
JUSTICE. The Constitution provides that justice shall be administered
in publi.: in Courts established by law by Judges appointed by the President
on the advice of the Government. The jurisdiction and organization of the
Courts "re dealt with in the Courts of Justice Acts, 1924 to 1953. These
Courts consist of Courts of First Instance and a Court of Final Appeal. The
Courts of First Instance are the High Court with full original jurisdiction and
the Circuit and the District Courts with local and limited jurisdiction. All
Judges are independent in the exercise of their judicial functions, and their
remuneration may not be reduced during their terms of office. A Judge may
not be r'lmoved from office except for stated misbehaviour or incapacity and
then only on resolutions paased by both Houses of the Oirwchtas. Judges of
the Supreme, High and Circuit Court are appointed from among practising
ba.rristeJ"s. Judges of the District Court (called District Justices) may be
appointed from among practising barristers or practising solicitors.
The Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice (who is ez officio
an additional Judge of the High Court) and 4 other Judges, has appellate
jurisdiction from all decisions of the High Court, and on questions of law
from all decisions of the Circuit Court in Workmen's Compensation cases.
The Pre3ident may, after consultation with the Council of State, refer a Bill,
which has been passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas, to the Supreme
Court for a decision on the question as to whether such Bill or any provision
or provi3ions thereof is or are repugnant to the Constitution.
The High Court, which consists of a President (who is ez officio an
additional Judge of the Supreme Court) and 6 ordinary Judges, has full
original jurisdiction in and power to determine all matters and questions,
whether of law or fact, civil or criminal. In all cases in which questioIIJI
arise touching the validity of any law having regard to the provisions of the
Constitt.tion, the High Court alone exercises original jurisdiction. The High
Court 011 Circuit acts as an appeal court from the Circuit Court.
The Court of Criminal Appeal consists of the Chief Justice or some other
Judge of the Supreme Court and 2 ordinary Judges of the High Court. It
deals with appeals by persons convicted on indictment where the appellant
obtains IL certificate from the trial Judge that the case is a fit one for appeal,
or, in C8,se such certificate is refused, where the court itself, on appeal from
such refusal, grants leave of appeal. The appeal is heard and determined by
the Court of Criminal Appeal on the report of the official stenographer
present at the trial, with power to the court to hear further evidence or to
refer any matter back for report by the trial judge. The decision of the
Court of Criminal Appeal is final, unless that court or the Attorney·General
certifies that the decision involves a point of law of exceptional publio
importaIlCe, and that it is desirable that an appeal should be taken to the
Supreme! Court.
The Central Criminal Court consists of a Judge of the High Court, to
whom is assigned, for the time being, the duty of acting as such court. The
Court sits at such times and in such places as the President of the High
Court may direct, and tries criminal cases which are outside the jurisdiction
of the Circuit Court or which may be seut forward to it for trial from the
Circuit Court on the application of the Attorney-General or the accused
person. The Central Criminltl Court invariably sits in Dublin.
The country is divided into a number of circuits for the purposes of the
Circuit Court. The Presid!)nt of the Circuit Court is ex officio an additional
IRISH REPUBLIC 1145
judge of the High Court. The jurisdiction of the court in civil proceedings
is limited to £600 in contract and tort and £2,000 in equity, save by
consent of the parties, in which event the jurisdiction is unlimited. In
criminal matters, it has jurisdiction in all cases except murder, treason,
piracy and allied offences. The Circuit Court acts as an appeal court from
the District Court.
The District Court has a summary jurisdiction in a large number of
criminal cases where the offence is not of a seriouB nature. In civil matters
the Court bas jurisdiction in contract and tort (except slander, libel, criminal
conversation, seduction, slander of title, malicious prosecution and false
imprisonment) where the claim does not exceed £50.
All criminal cases, except those of a minor nature, are tried by a judge
and a jury of 12. Juries are also used in very many civil cases. In a
criminal case the jury must be unanimous in reaching a verdict, but in a
oivil case the agreement of 9 mem bers is sufficient.
FINANCE. Receipts and expenditures (in £1,000) for fiscal years ending
31l\!arch:
1958-69 1959-60
Rtuipl. Actual Estimated
Oastoms . . 46,610 47,750
Special Import levy . . 1,788 1,530
Income, profit and super taxes 27,816 27,225
ExcIse. . 17,470 17,305
Post Office . 8,650 9,R60
Stamp duties 2.122 2,225
B.tate, etc., duties 2,894 2,950
Motor vehicle duties 5,509 5,550
Total (all Item! included) 126,410 127,669
Ezpmditure
Agriculture, land diviSion, etc. . . . 20,966 21,014
EducatioD, scIence, art (excluding superanuuation) 13,124 14,483
Social wellare 25,378 26,218
Debt service . . . . . . . . 25,428 26.564
Post Office (e.ccluding 8upere.nnuation e.nd debt service) 7,115 7,799
Police. . . . 3,863 4,057
Army and Army Pensions 7,721 8,439
Superannuation 3,488 3,823
Health Services 8,038 8,250
Total (all Item! Included) 138,254 141,989
Expenditure on items treated as proper to be defrayed from borrowing in

1958-59 was £12,004,000 and the estimate for 1959-60 is £14,420,000.
On 31 March 1959 the liabilities were as follows: Exchequer Bills,
£12,500,000; Ways and Means Advances, £95,332,873; 3t% Fourth
National Loan, 1950-70, £3,529,856; 3t% National Security Loan, 1956-
61, £5,635,906; 3% Exchequer Bonds, 1965-70, £19,691,581; 3t% Ex.
chequer Bonds, 1965-70, £26,045,429; Savings Certificates, £22,898,000;
5% National Loan, 1962-72, £16,994,700; 4~% National Loan, 1973-78,
£20,655,350; 41% National Loan, 1975-80, £18,456,570; 5% National
Savings Bonds, 1971-81, £19,415,950; 5l% National Loan, 1966, £6,508,676;
6% National Loan, 1967, £19,788,000; 5!% Exchequer Stock, 1971-74,
£15,051,060; Prize Bonds, £10,311,535; capitalized value of State contribu-
tions under Housing Act, 1932, £33,419,000; other liabilities, £81,749,000;
total, £427,983,000.
The assets on the same date were: Electricity scheme, £63,986,000;
1146 IRISH REPUBLIC
local lo ~ns fund, £89,214,000; purchase of creameries, £1,281,000; turf

development, £13,176,000; road fund, £1,412,000; national loan sinking
funds, £3,547,000; shares in companies established under state auspices
(sugar, industrial credit, agricultural credit, industrial alcohol, national
stud, air transport, shipping, insurance, etc.), £14,386,000; exchequer
balance, £545,000; national development fund (winding.up account),
£I ,505,Coo; other assets, £46,495,000; total, £235,547,000.
DEFENCE. Under the direction of the President, and subject to the
Defenco Act, 1954, the military command of the Defence Forces is exercisable
by the Government through the Minister for Defence. He is aided by a
Council of Defence consisting of the Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister,
the Secretary of the Department of Defence, the Chief of Staff, the Adjutant.
General and the Quartermaster·General.
Establishments provide for a Permanent Defence Force of approximately
13,000 all ranks, including the Air Corps and the Nav:d Service. The
Defence estimates for the year ending 31 March 1960 provide for approxi.
mately :~5,OOO all ranks of t·he Reserve Defence Force. Recruitment is on
a volunl.a ry basis. Minimum term of enlistment for the Army is 3 years in
the PerlDaneI1tDefence Force with, in Dlost cases, 9 years in the Reserve
Defence Force. Suitable men may complete 21 years' sernee in the
Permanent Defence Force. For the Naval Service, enlistment is for 6 years
in the Permanent Defence Force and 6 years in the Reserve Defence Force.
The Naval Service comprises 3 corvettes and 3 tenders.
The Air Corps is intended mainly as a home defence and training force .
Equipm~nt includes a small number of Seafire fighters, Provost and Vampire
trainers and Anson and Dove transports. Its strength in 1958 was 891 all
ra.nks.
The Defence Estimates for the year ending 31 March 1960 provide for
an expenditure of £6,723,900.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. General distribution of surface (in acres)
in 1958: Crops and pasture, ll,796,300; woods and pla.ntations, 381,000;
ot·her laud, including grazed mountain, 4,846,400 ; total,17,023,700.
Area (statute acres) under principa.l crops, with estimated yield (in tons):
Area Pt'Oduce
Crops 19:;6' 19:;7',' 19:;8' 1956' 1957',' 1958'
Wheat. 339,600 405,000 411,600 426,200 512,300 338,200
Oats . 625,100 460,100 456,400 535,600 430,200 435,900
Barley. 236,200 305,400 309,400 314,200 383,000 306,800
Rye . 2,800 2,300 3,000 2,400 2,000 2,400
Potatoes 283,400 265,600 262,600 2,607,400 2,336,900 1,i33,400
Turnips 118,700 108,200 104,700 2,256,100 2,130,600 1,664,600
Mangels 62,300 56,800 64,200 1,277,800 1,170,200 922,200
Sugar beet. 58,900 70,900 84,600 629,900 795,000 784,900
Cabbage 26,900' 404,300
Flax 1,200 400 200 200 100
n ay 1,896,600 1,960,500 1,928,000 3,982,800 4,077,300 4,320,200
, Estimates calculated from sample returns (25%).
• Estimates calculated from sample returns (60%).
• Field cabbage including MI.. ' Revised.
Agricultural output for the year 1958 was valued at £179,300,000.
Livestock at 1 June 1958: Cattle, 4,466,300; sheep, 4,174,000; pigs,
947,700; horses,243,800; poultry, 14,078,000.
Fore::try. The total area. of state forests was 257,467 acres in 1958.
Fi.shI!Ties. The number of vessels and men engaged in fishing in th e
year 1958 were: 607 motor, 420 sail and 1,204 row boats; men, 6,1l:?
IRISH REPUBLIC 1147
The quantities and values of fish landed during 1958 were: Demersal fish,
258,978 cwt, value £717,306; pelagic fish, 288,399 cwt, value £308,199;
shell fish, value £291,255. Total value, £1,316,760.
Industry. The census of industrial production for 1957 gives the follow-
ing details of the gross value of output for the principal manufacturing
industrie~ (figures in brackets are the gross values minus cost of materials,
including fuel, light and power): Grain milling and animal feeding stuffs,
£30,148,822 (£4,220,363); tobacco, £35,634,886 (£3,487,661); creamery
butter, cheese, condensed milk and other edible milk products, £33,257,349
(£3,008,578); bacon factories, £::!2,756,711 (£2,725,19::!) ; assembly, con-
struction and repair of machanically propelled vehicles, £13,440,810
(£3,037,236) ; bread, biscuit and floul' confectionery, £17,121 ,970 (£5,961,008);
manufacture of sugar, cocoa, chocolate and sugar confectionery, £17,633,352
(£3,923,049); brewing, £13,894,185 (£8,131,946); clothing (wholesale fac-
tories), £13,577,282 (w ,722,312); woollen and worsted (excluding clothing),
£12,906,240 (£3,332,820); slaughtering, preparation and preserving of meat
other than by bacon factories, £9,380,751 (£1,890,200); metal trades,
£10,483,230 (£3,984,385); printing, publishing and allied trades, £10,428,857
(£6,146,959); manufacture of paper and paper products, £9,040,986
(£3,304,203); hosiery, £6,917,098 (£2,876,585); boot and shoe (wholesale
factories), £6,664,235 (£2,940,100); manufactures of wood and cork except
furniture, £4,841,089 (£1,655,061); structural clay products, asbestos goods,
plaster, gypsum, cement and concrete products, £5,801,295 (£2,591,647);
manufacture of electrical machinery, etc., £5,795,973 (£2,351,092); jute,
('anvUJ!, rayon, nylon, cordage and miscellaneous textile manufactures,
£5,100,074 (£1,774,027); fellmongery, tanning and dressing of leather,
£4,874,169 (£1,123,935); oil, paint, ink and polish, £4,774,066 (£1,166,433);
linen and cotton spinning, weaving and manufactures, £5,370,022
(£1,833,012); fertilizer, £5,937,540 (£1,207,451); canning of fruit and
'-egetables and manufacture of preserves, jams, jellies, etc., £3,793,159
(£1,228,458); manufacture offurniture and fixtures, £3,329,316 (£1 ,629,992);
manufacture ofrailroad equipment, £3,084,321 (£1,535,384); chemicals and
drugs, £2,625,522 (£1,259,684); butter blending, margarine and other fats,
£1,902,615 (£385,820); glass and glassware, pottery, china and earthen-
ware, £2,329,185 (£1,318,236); aerated and mineral waters, £2,111,771
(£1,269,775); manufacture and assembly of machinery except electrical
equipment, £1,713,441 (£892,764); malting, £1,898,026 (£679,207); dis·
tilling (exclusive of excise duty), £1,088,774 (£438,639).
COMMERCE. Value of imports and exports of merchandise (excluding
bullion and specie and goods transhipped under bond) for calendar years
(in f):
19.5 1956 1957 19.8
Imports 207,663,264 182,S48 ,621 184,171,966 198,413,901
E;rports . l07,151,90 ~ 104,276,083 127,075,931 126,050,119
Re·e;rports 3 ,699,~32 3,8aO,S~O 4,26:;,033 4,659,006
The values of the chief trading classes (exclusive of parcel post and
temporary transactions) are shown in the following table (in £) :
I mports Domestic exports
Class 1957 1958 1957 1958
Li ve animals. . . 9,647,707 9,842,39:; 64,346,691'> 47,291,683
Food, dring and tobacco . 29,935,167 33,063,125 39,984,275 45,710,587
Other raw materials and manU-
factured goods . 135,543,091 143,798,193 26,053,839 25,IJ76,053
1148 IRISH REPUBLIC
Distribution oC trade, by principal countries oC origin in the case oC

imports and destination in the case of exports (in £) :
Imports Domestic exports
Country 1957 1958 1957 1958
~ntlna 760,271 3,291,440 7,629 2,009
Australia 3,931,818 2,394,122 91,179 91,908
Bahrain 471,792 850,317 1,167 339
Belgium and Lnxe';'bon~ 3,754,496 3,624,051 1,581,220 999,538
British W36t Africa 1,388,898 474,a74 45,821 41,611
British W '~st Indies 1,366,684 979,253 387,989 421,798
Canada 3,751,215 5,888,788 788,298 829,051
Cuba 556,234 1,115,012 9,701 9,337
Denmark 1,454,270 1,369,249 80,713 64,319
Dominican fu,public 1,477,853 141 75
Finland 2,562,670 2,367,653 259,099 60,066
France . 3,116,193 3,157,748 1,879,605 994,964
Germany (Federal Republic) 7,016,817 7,934,631 3,274,030 2,795,291
Ghana .
Great Britain
. -'
96,017,060
944,156
103,400,004
-'
78,305,514
22,018
78,776,181
India. 6,035,570 S,496,660 281,556 19,746
lta.ly • 1,445,714 1,678,322 927,616 638,946
Japan . 1,445,296 2,104,446 169,261 60,168
!.Inlaya 784,188 783,513 221,000 24,523
Morocco 633,747 861 ,555 26,619 6,097
Netberiands : 4,613,711 6,666,880 991,019 636,210
New Zealand 843,785 868,471 49,646 73,186
Northern ::reland 8,565,738 8,415,776 21,627,632 20,444,416
Pakistan 729,919 840,951 3,738 2,897
Poland. 34,829 805,015 144,366
Spain . 840,849 855,915 1,341,471 1,047,599
Sweden 2,860,724 2,473,956 580,081 438,621
U.S.A. •. 10,610,565 IS ,S38,1~4 3,960,845 7,369,8-15
, Figures for 1957 Included with British_West Africa.
Trad" with U.K. (British Boa.rd oC Trade returns) in £ sterling :

1938 1966 19~7 1968 1959
Imports to U.K. 22,965,064 89,712,709 109,328,197 107 ,9~4,9 16 103,845,454
Exports fr,>m U.K. • 20,281,525 103,008,479 102,578,748 108,070,457 107,Oll,543
Re-export!, from U.K. 6,703,016 6,794,190 7,653,563 8,151,039 7,652,(32
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The principal ports are Dublin,

Cobh, Dun Laoghaire, Cork, Galway, Waterford., Rosslare, Limerick and
Dundalk. Net tonnage of vessels in the foreign trade during 1958: En·
tered, 9,191, of 9,217,078 net tons; cleared, 9,178, of 9,229,352 net tons.
Then, are 454 miles of inland navigation, including the Grand Canal,
208 milCfl; the Royal Canal, 96 miles, and the Shannon navigation, 150 miles.
The traBic carried during 1958 was (in tons): Grand Canal, 83,028; Royal
Canal, nil ; Shannon navigation, 28,130.
Rm!. At 31 March 1958 there were 50,927 miles of public roads,
consisting of 9,850 miles of main roads (important through route~), 39,993
miles of t:ounty roads (rural roads of more local importance) and 1,084 miles
of county borough and urban roads (urban roads of more local importance).
Number of licensed motor vehicles in 1958: Private cars, 143,368;
public-service vehicles, 6,229; commcrcial goods vehicles, 43,433; agri-
cultural r.ractors, 33,547; motor cycles, 30,568.
The total number of miles fUD by road motor passenger vehicles of the
omnibus type during 1958 was 49,891,684. The number of passengers
carried was 300,481,634 and the gross receipts from passengers were
£5,949,3';9.
IRISH REPUBLIC 114:9
RailwaY8. The tota.l length of road, first track, of railwa.ys open for
traffio a.t the end of the yea.r 1957, including the milea.ge of ra.ilwa.ys situa.ted
pa.rtly in Northern Ireland, wa.s 2,492. The length of roa.d, first track,
actua.lly situa.ted in the sta.te, is 2,221 miles, of whioh 91 % is constructed to
eta.nda.rd ga.uge.
The Grea.t Northern Ra.ilway was acquired jointly by the Governments
of the Irish Republic and Northern Ireland on I Sept. 1953 and was operated
by the Grea.t Northern Railwa.y Boa.rd up to 30 Sept. 1958 when the agree.
ment between the two Governments terminated. The portion operating in
the Republic was merged with Coras Iompair Eireano on I Oct. 1958.
Railway statistic.. 1956 1957 1958
Passengers (no.) . . 16,201,070 16,891,838
:Miles run by coaching trains . . . 1,8(;3,661> 8,077,388
Merchandise and mineral traffic con,eyed (tons) 2,165,600 2,532.204
Livestock conveyed (no.) 915,830 812,19i!
Miles run by freight trains ~,74 7, 69l 3,5 8 2.~36
Gross receipts (£)' 19,083,4-19 18,849,984 18,380,317
Expenditure (£) ' . • 20,160,999 20,147,613 19,624,980
Net receipts (£)' • Dr. 1,077,550 Dr. 1,291,689 Dr. 1,244,663
Other receipts (£)' · Dr. 342,734 Dr. 320,269 Dr. 405,566 •
Total net income (£)' • Dr. 1,420,284 Dr. 1,511,958 Dr. 1,660,229
, Relates to the entire transport undert.aking of railway companies, including road
services. Figures shown relate to the year ended 31 March followi~ for C6ras Iompair
Eireann, to the year ended 30 Sept. for Great N ortberD Railway Board and to the calendar
,- ~r for other railways.
I Includes £202,618 in respect of inte rest on Great Northern Railway Board'5 ca.pita l
liability.
The a.uthorized capital in 1958 amounted to £28,663,543. Capital re.

ceipts were £23,643,899, and the capita.l expenditure was £26,505,042, which
includes £3,585,412 in respect of amounts provided from state funds. These
figures do not include the Great Northern Railway Board. The Great
Northern Railway Act, 1958, and the Transport (Northern Ireland) Act,
1958, provided for the merger, on I Oct. 1958, of the Board's underta.king
in the Irish Republic with C.I.E. and of the undertaking in Northern Ireland
with the Ulster Transport Authority. The Acts also provided for the
remission of the liability of the Board to both Governments in respect of the
purchase price of the underta.king (£4·5m,) and the Board's capital
expenditure (£1,195,426).
Post (1959). Number of post offices, 2,282; telegraph offices, 1,424;
telephone subscribers, 95,313; public telephones, 3,010; telephone ex·
changes, 971.
The Minister for Posts and Telegraphs is aiso responsible for the operation
of the Wireless Broadcasting Service. There were, in .Tuly 1959, 491 ,450
holders of wireless receiving licences.
Aviation. During the year ended 31 March 1959, 518,372 passengers,
14,714,000 lb. of cargo and 3,454,000 lb. of mail were carried on the air
services operated by Aer Lingus ; and 15,709 passengers, 114,000 lb. of CltrgO
and 110,000 lb. of mail by Aerlintc.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The unit of currency is the Irish

pound, which has the same value as the £ sterling. The Central Bank has
the sole right of issuing legal. tender notes; token coinage is issued by the
Minister for Finance through the Bank. The Central Bank, which was
established as from I Feb. f943, in accordance with the Central Bank Act,
1942, replaced the Currency Commission, which was set up under the
1150 IRISH REPUBLIC
Currency Act, 1927, and had been responsible inter alia for the regulation
of the note issue. In addition to the powers and functions of the Currency
Commif.sion the Central Bank has the power of receiving non-interest-bearing
deposit!; from ba.nks and public authorities, of rediscounting Exchequer bills
and bills of exchange, of making advances to banks against such bills or
against Government securities, of fixing and publishing rates of interest for
rediscou.nting bills, of buying and selling certain Government securities and
of coIJeating and publishing information relating to monetary and credit
problems. The capital of the Bank is £40,000, of which £24,000 has been
paid up and is held by the Minister for Finance. On the dissolution of the
Currency Commission its paid·up capital was returned to the shareholding
banks.
The Board of Directors of the Central Bank consists of a Governor,
appoint-3d by the President of the Republic on the advice of the Govern-
ment, and S directors, all appointed by the Minister for Finance, 5 directly
and 3 fl'om a panel prepared by the Associated Banks (the term applied to
the 8 shareholding banks associated with the former Currency Commission).
The report of the Central Bank for 1958-59 shows that the volume of
the legal· tender note issue fluctuated during the year between a minimum
of £74,060,055 on 24 Jan. 1959 and a maximum of £79,153,090 on 20 DeC'.
1959.
The aggregate withdrawals for repatriatIOn through the Central Bank
and the Associated Banks of Bank of England notes in 1958 amounted
to £22,9{)7,627. Out of tho total assots of the legal· tender note fund, amount-
ing to £76,761,000 on 31 March 1959, the holdings of securities of maturity
exceeding 12 months amounted to £56,824,000.
Tots I notes and coins in circulation in March 1959 amounted to
£79,868 ..000.
Ba.nking returns (covering assets and liabilities both within the State and
elsewhere and representing an average of figures for a selected date in
each of the 3 months, April-June 1959): Liabilities: capital, £8,753,000;
reserves, £12,407,000; notes in circulation, £7,963,000; current, deposit and
other a'!counts, £441,387,000; acceptances, £2,969,000; other liabilities,
£16,560,.0 00; total, £490,039,000. Assots, cash £51,827,000; money at call,
£31,822,000; bills,£1l,823,000; loans and advances, £221,546,000; invest-
ments, f.l54,190,000; premises, £4,4J 5,000; liability of customers for accept-
ances, £2,969,000; other assets, £11 ,447,000; total, £490,039,000.
The Bank of Ireland, founded in 1783, had on 31 Dec. 1958, a capital of
£2,269,231; rest, £3,690,000; deposits (excluding Government accounts),
£77·7m. Other banks are Hibernian Bank, Munster and Leinster
Bank, Provincial Bank of Ireland, the Royal Bank, the Ulster Bank, the
Northern Bank, the National City Bank (affiliated to the Bank of Ireland)
and the National Bank_ The latter is a London clearing bank.
The post office savings bank has approximately 1,098,000 depositors and
the amount due to them at 31 Dec. 1958 was £79,292,000. The Trustee
Savings Banks had approximately 85,000 depositors at 20 Nov. 1958 and
the amcunt due to them was £12,963,000.
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION
The Irish Republic maintains embassies in Australia, Belgium, Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Netherla.nds, Spain, Sweden, U.K., U.S.A. and the
Vatican; and lega.tions in Argentina, Austria, Norway, Portugal, Switzer-
land and Turkey.
IRISH REPUBLIC 1151
OF THE IRISH REPUBLIC IN GREAT BRITAIN
(17 Grosvenor Place, S.W.I)
Ambassador. Hugh James McCann (accredited 19 Feb. 1958).
Counsellors. J. P. Slevin (Economic); V. lremonger; Dr D . O'Sullivan
(Agriculture). M. H . ElIison. First Secretary. F. A. Cotfey.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE IRISH REPUBLIC
Ambassador. Sir l an Maclennan, K.C.M.G.
Counsellor. G. Kimber, C.M.G. First Secretary. G. D. Anderson.
OF THE IRISH REPUBLIC THE D .S.A. (2234 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,
IN
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. John Joseph Hearne.
Counsellor. J oseph F. Shields. First Secretary. Brian Durnin.
OF THE D.S.A. I N THE IRISH REPUBLIC
Ambassador. Scott McLeod.
Counsellor. Robert E . Ward, Jr. Army Attache. Col. Francis W.
O·Brien. Agricultural Attache. J ames P . Hartman.
There is a consular representative at Cork.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INroRWA·t10N. Tbe Central Statistics Office (The Castle, Dublin) wae
••tablished in June 1949, and is attached to the Department of the Taoiseacb; DirtctM :
M. D. McCarthy. M.A., Pb.D.
The Central Statistics Office took o'l"er the work carried out since 1922 by the Statistics
Bramch, Department of Industry and Commerce. wWcb in tum bad continued tbe statLltical
work carried out by tbe Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction (oince 1900)
and by tbe Irish Department of tbe Ministry of Labour, London (since 1919). Vital statlsti<:s
from 1864, annual agricultural statistics prior to 1900 and decennial census of populatiou
" 'ere compiled by t he Registrar·General for IrelaDd. The population censW!eS were carried
out in 1926, 1936 and 1946 by tbe Statistics Brancb of the Department of Industry and
Commerce and are now the responsibility of the Central Statistics Office, wbich h"" also, as
from July 1950. t aken o'l"er from the Registrar·General tbe compilation of Vital Statistics.
The Statistics Act 1~26 confers wide powers (or the collection, compU ..tion and publication of
statistics. Otber Acts under which statistics are collected are Workmen's Compensation Act.
MercbaDt Sbipping Act, Customs Consolidation Act and Road TraMPOrt Act.
Principal publications of the Ceutral St,,~tistlcs Office are Irish Sl<Uistical Survey (annually),
SUJti.tical Abstract (annua lly), Cen..us Of Population RepOTl>, Census of Industrial Production
Reports, TTade and Shipping SUJtistics (annually nnd montbly), Irish Trade Journal and
Statistical Bulletin (quarterly)
OjJirllU Repor' of D4il Eirtann Debates. Stationery Office, Dablkl
Deckett, J. C., .11 Short ButMY of Ireland. London. 1~5Z
Carty. James, Bibliugraphy of Iri..h History, 1870-1921. 2 vols. Dublin,1936-40. Ireland ;
a documentary record, 1607-1921. 3 vols. Dublin, 194 9 -~0
Cbarlesworth,.1. K., 1'/le Geology of Ireland. lldinburgh,1953
Freeman, T . W' Ireland, its physical, histOrical, social and economic geograp"v. London, 19f1O
f
G..llagbcr, F ., The Indivisible I slond. London, 1957

Gwyno, D., The Hiltory of Partilion, 1912-25. Dublin, 1950
Barvey, J., Dublin, a study in encironmenl. London, 1949
Tlogan, J, Electitm nnd Representation. Oxford, 1945
Joltnston. T. J ., and others, .:I History Of the Church of Ireland. Dublin, 19~4
King. F. C.(ed.), Public Admini..tration in Ireland. 2 vols. Dublin, 1949
Macardle, Dorotby, The Irish Rtpttblic; .11 Documented Chronicle of Ihe Anglo·/rish Cor.fiirt
and the l'artilioninq of Ireland, with a DtUJiled .:Iccoun, Of tM Period 1916-23. 4tb cd.
Dublin, 1951
McDunpby, Michael, The Preside"t Of Ireland: His Powers, Functions and DUlie.. Dublin,
1~45
MacYanus, M . .1., Eamon de Valtra: .11 BiogTaphy. Dublin, 1957
McManus, S., The StOTV of the Irish Rllce. New cd. New York, 1948
MacDaD. J. and Webb, D. A. (cd.), .11 View of Irelolld. Dublin, 1957
Mason, T., The I swnds of Ireland. Newed. London, 1950
1152 ISRAEL
O'Faolain, S., TM Irish. London, 1948

0' N.uL', CfJmmercial WIlD', Who and Industrial Direclorv of Ireland. Dublin, 1951
Pracger, R. LI., Natural Hi'torv of Ireland, it> fl ora and faulla. London, 1950
Royal Irish AuI.mobiU Club: Official GazetUer oJlreland. Dublin, 1948
Shearm9n, H., .dn~lo-Iri'h Relation.. London, 1948
T .~om. J>irectory 0/ I,e"'nll. Dublin, 195R
ISRAEL
MEDINAT ISRAEL-STATE OF ISRAEL
ISRAEL is an independent sovereign republic, established by proclamation
on 14 May 1948. For the history of the British Mandate, see THE STATES·
MAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1920-49, under PALESTINE.
Nalional flag: white with 2 horizontal blue stripes, the blue Shield
of David in the centre.
. Nalional anthem : Hatikvah (The Hope). Words by N. N. Imber
(1878); adopted as the Jewish National Anthem by the first Zionist Congress
(1897).
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A proposal to enact a
writter. Constitution has been rejected by a majority vote of the Knesset.
Instead it was decided to enact from time to time fundamental laws which,
taken together, would form a Constitution. There are, however, a number
of ordinary laws dealing with constitutional matters, such as the Law
and Administration Ordinance, 1948, the Knesset Elections Law, 1955,
the StI~te President (Tenure) Law, 1951, the Judges Law, 1953, and the
State Comptroller Law, 1949. The Law of Return, 1950, providing the
'Every Jew shall be entitled to come to Israel as an immigrant', the
Nationality Law, 1952, and the Women's Equal Rights Law, 1951, also
belong to this type of constitutional legislation.
ThE, Knesaet, a one·chamber parliament, consists of 120 members. It
is elected for a 4.year term by secret ballot and universal direct suffrage.
The sYlltem of election is by proportional representation. After the elections
of 3 Nov. 1959 the Knesset is composed as follows: Mapai (Labour Party),
47; Herut, 17; General Zionists, 8; National Religious Front (Hapoe1
Hamiz:rahi and Mizrahi), 12; Ahdut Avoda, 7; Mapam (United Workers
Party),. 9; Agudat Israel and Poalei Agudat Israel, 6; Communists, 3;
Progre.3sives, 6 ; Co.operation and Fraternity (Arab), 2; Progress and
Development (Arab), 2; Agriculture and Development (Arab), 1.
President of the State. Izhak Ben·Zvi (elected 8 Dec. 1952 by 60 to 45
votes ; re·elected unopposed 28 Oct. 1957). The President of the State is
elected by the Knesset by secret ballot by a. simple majority ; his term of
office if< 5 years.
ThE> coalition government was, in April 1960, composed as follows:
Prime Minister and Minister of Defence. David Ben·Gurion (Mapai).
F01'eign Affairs. Mrs Golda Meir (Mapai). Finance. Levi Eshkol
(Mapai). Labour. George Josephthal (Mapai). Social Welfare. Joseph
Burg (Nat. Re!.). Poliu. Behor Shitreet (Mapai). A~ure. Moshe
Dayan (Mapai). Education and Culture. Zalman Aranne (Mapai). Trade
and In,i ustry. Pinhas Sapir (Mapai). Interior. Moshe Shapiro (Nat. Re1.).
ISRAEL 1153
Communications. Itzhak ben Aharon (Ahdut Avoda). Development. Mor-
decai Bentov (Mapam). Health. Israel Barzilai (Mapam). Justice. Pinhas
Rosen (Progressive). Religious Affairs. Jaaqob Moshe Toledano. Minister
without Portfolio. Abba Eban (Mapai).
LOCAL GOVERNlIIENT. Local authorities are of three kinds, namely,
municipal corporations, local councils and regional councils. Their status,
powers and duties are prescribed by statute. Regional Councils are local
authorities set up in agricultural areas and include all the agricultural
settlements in the area under their jurisdiction. All local authorities
exercise their authority mainly by means of bye·laws approved by the
Minister of the Interior. Their revenue is derived from rates imposed with
the approval of that Minister. Local authorities are elected for a 4-year
term of office.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area nfIsrael, within the boundaries
defined by the armistice agreements with Egypt, Jordan, the Lebanon and
Syria, is 20,700 sq. km (7,993 sq. miles), with a total population (1 Jan. 1959)
of 2,032,000 (1960: 2,089,000), of whom 1,810,000 (1960: 1,859,000) were
Jews, 153,000 Moslems, 48,000 Christians and 21,000 Druzes. Density of
population, 100'4 per sq. km. For details of the boundaries see THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-Do OK, 1951, p. 1166, and map.
Crude birth rate per 1,000 population of Jewi~h population (1959),24'29;
non.Jewish, 47·32; erudo death rate, Jewish, 5·78: non-J"wish, 6·86; in·
fant.ile mortality rate per 1,000 li~e births, Jewish, 27·24; Don.Jewish,43·08.
On 23 Jan. 1950 the Knesset proclaimed Jerusalem the ca.pital of tho
st·ate. Population of the 3 main towns: Jerusalem (Israeli part only),
156,000; Haifn, 170,000; Te].AvivjJaffa, 380,000.
The official languages are Hebrew and Arabic.
hmrcRATION. The follo\\ing table shows the n\llllb er~ of .Jewish inlllli·
grants entering Palestine (Israel), including persolls entering as travellers
who subsequently registered as immigrants. For a year.hy.yeRr break-
(10\\' 11 sec Tile STATESMAN'S YEAR-Bom;, 19!iI, p. 1l()7.
19J9-~1 84,On 1940-17 92,563 1952-56 1-12,192 19;'8 26,093

1933- 39 218,Og9 1948-51 702,779 1957 71,100 1 U[;9 23,1)45
During the period 1948-58,44'6% of the imruigrants came from Europe,

29'6% from Asia, 24·9% from Africa, 0·9% from America.
The Jewish Agency for Palestine which, in accordance with Article IV
of tho Palestine Mandate, played a leading role ill laying the political,
economic and social foundations on which the Stato of Israel was established,
continues to be instnllucntal in organizing immigration and ensuring the
absorption of immigrants in Israel. Its headquarters /1.re dl~ided between
Jerusalem and New York.
RELIGION. Religious affairs are under the supervision of a special

Ministry, with departments for the Christian, Moslem and Druze com-
munities. The religious affairs of each community remain under the full
control of the ecclesiastical authorities concerned: in the case of the Jews,
the Sephardic and Ashkenasic Chief Rabbis, in the case of the Christians,
the heads of the various communities, and in the case of the Moslems, the
Kadis. The Druzes were officially recognized in 1957 as an autonomous
religious community.
1'1'
1154 ISRAEL
The Jewish Sabbath and Holy Days are observed as days of rest in the
public flcrviooe. Full provision is, however, made for the free exercise of
other f"iths, and for the ob!K'rvance by their adherents of their respective
days of rest and Holy Days.
The General Assembly of the United Nations proposed, in its resolution
of 29 Nov. 1947, the establishment of an international regime for the
Jerusalem area. The Israel Government made the counter· proposal of an
international regime concerning itself exclusively with the supervision and
protection of, and access to, the holy places and sites. Most of these are
situateCl in Jordan·held territory. The matter was discussed at the General
Assembly in Dec. 1950, but no conclusion was reached.
EDUCATION. The school system is under the direction of the Ministry

of Education, and comprises kindergarten, primary, secondary and technical
schools. The Hebrew University, founded in 1925, is an independent centre
of high(,r education and research.
A law passed by the Knesset on 12 Sept 1949 provides for fi'ee and com-
pulsory primary education from 5 to 14 years of age. Youths in the age
groups 14-18, who have not completed their primary schooling, must attend
8pecial~lasses.
The Sta,te Education Law of 12 Aug. 1953 establillhed a unified state-
controlled elementary school system wit.h a provision for special religious
schools. The standard curriculum for all elementary schools ill issued by
the MiListry of Education with a possibility of adding supplementary sub-
jects cOllll'rising not more than 25%, of the total syllabus. Many schools in
towns are private, a number are maintained by municipalities and some are
adminiEtered by teachers' co.operat,ive or trustees.
Statistics relating to schools under government supervision, 1958-59:
Typo 01 scllool Schools Teachers Pupils
El.~mentary. .. . 1,132 14,807 3-12,445
Se"ondary (including evening classes) 100 1,848 :;3,60;;
T eachers' training colleges 3~ 770 6,077
Vccotional schools • 55 719 8,668
Agriculturo.l schools 37 46,1 5.5U9
Anb elementary and secondary J 36 l,lUS 28,795
ThcJ'e are also a number of private schools maintained by religious

foundations--Jewish, Christian and Moslem-and also by private societies.
The Hebrew University in Jerusalem comprises faculties of the humani-
ties, social sciences, law, science, medicine and agriculture. In 1959 it had
514 professors, lecturers and instructors, and 4,.569 students.
The Institute of Technology in Haifa had, in 1959, 8 faculties with 434
teacher:! and 3,172 students. Affiliated is a technical high school (660
student , ). The Weizmann Institut.e of Science in Rehovoth is engaged in
rese.'1.rch in chemistry, physics and biology. The school of law and economics
in Tel-Aviv had, in 1959, 3 faculties and an institute of accountancy, with
140 teachers alld 1,500 full-time students. In 1959 the Tel Ayiv University
had 96 teachers and 367 students.
In 195.'5 the religious Bar-Ilan University was opened at Ramat Gan.
In HI59 it hn.d 4 faculties (Jewish Studies, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences,
Philology), 75 teachers and 346 students.
Oinema" (1959), There were 200 cinemas with a seating capacity of over
150,000.
ISRAEL 1155
NetIJapapera (1959). There were 20 daily ne\vspapere, including 13 in
Hobrew, 2 in German, 1 in English, 1 in Arabic, 1 in French, 1 in Hungarian,
1 in Polish, with a tot,,1 circulation of about 500,000.
SOCIAL WELFARE. In 1958 Israel had 111 hospitals with over

13,000 beds. Of these, the' Malben' organization which cares for handi.
capped immigrants, maintains 10 hospitals with 1,482 beds and 17 old.age
homes with 5,000 residents. The Women's International Zionist Organiza.
tion has a number of children's homes, creches and kindergartens as well
as vocational schools and training instit,utions for nurses.
JUSTICE. LAW. Under the Law and Administrative Ordinance,

5708/1948, the first law passed by the Provisional Council of State, the law
of Israel is the law which was obtaining in Palestine on 14 May 1948 in so
far as it is not in conflict with that Ordinance or any other law passed by
the Israel legislature and with such modifications as result from the estab·
lishment of the State and its authorities.
C"pital punishmC'nt w"s abolished in 1954, except for support given to
the N:vlis "nd for bigh treason.
The law of Palfstine was d<lrivcd from three main sources, namely,
Ottoman law, Engliah law (Commun Law and Equity), and the law enacted
by the Palestine legisbtmc, which to a great extent was modelled on English
Illw. The Ottull1!,n law in it,s turu was derived from three main sources,
namely, 1I10s10m law which had survived in the Ottoman Empire, French
law adapteu by the Ottomans and the personal law of the non· Moslem
Cf)tnruunitiDS .
COURTS. The C'Ourts Rre either civil or religious courts.
The following are the civil courts:
Municipal cUllrts. est~bLi"h e d in certain municipal areas, have criminal
jurisdiction over uffen"cs against mUllicipal regulations and bye. laws and
certain specified olfences cOlllmitted within a mUl\ieipal area.
lI'hgistrates' COllrtR. established ill each di,trict and sub·district, have
limitocf jurisdictioll in both civil and criminoJ matters.
District court., r;iltiog at Jerus~l e m. Tel·A vi IT and Haifa, hav e jurisdic.
tion, ns courts of first in$tauce. in all civil mattors not within tho jurisdiction
of magi8trates' courts, and in alJ criminal mlttters, and as appellate courts
from maf:(istr:,(e"' cuurts and municipal court,.
The Snl'reme Cunrt bog jnrisdktinn as a court of fir~;t instance (sitting
a~ '.1 H igb Court of .J ustiee dealing main Iy with administrative matters)und
as 8,n appeUuto court from th e district courts (~itting as 1\ Court, of Civil
Appeal or as a Cou rt Qf Criminal Appeal).
In "ddition, th on' are various t.ribunals for snecial clUG80 8 of cases, such
as the gents Triollnnis and the Tribun als for the Prevention of Profiteering
and Speculation. Settlement Officers deal with disputes with regard to tho
ownership or possesGion of land in settlemeht areas constituted under the
Land (Settlement of Title) Oruinauce.
Tho religious courts arc:
The Habbinical courts of the Jewish community have exclusive jurisdic.
tion in matters of marriage and divorce, ,dim('uy and conlirmatien of wills
of members of their comTDunity other th an foreign ers, concurrent jurisdiction
with the civil courts in sueh matters of members of their community who
are foreigners if t.hey consent to the jurisdiction, and concurrent jurisdiction
with tbe eivil courts in all other matters of personal status of all members of
1156 ISRAEL
their c'JwmlUlity, whether f(,rcigners or not, with the consent of all parties
to the a.ct.ion, save that such courts mp.y not gr:l.nt a decree of dissolution of
mflrriage to n foreign subject.
The courts of the several recognized Chri3tian communities have 1\
Eimilar jurisdiction o ...er members of their respcct-ive communities.
The Moslem religious courts have exclusive jurisdiction in aU matters of
per8on.~18tatus over Moslems who are not foreigners, and over Moslems who
are for eigners, if under the law of their nationality they are subject in such
mat.te.rs t·o the jurisdiction of Moslem r eligious courts.
Wh en.l any action of personal status involves persons of different religious
communities, the President of the Supreme Court will decide which court
shall have jurisdiction, aDd whenever a question o,rises l).S to whether or not
a case is one of personal statuB wit.hin th e exclush'c jurisdiction of a religious
court, the matter mnst be refel'l'ed to a special tribunal composed of 2
judges of the Supreme Court and the president of the highest court of the
religions community concerned in Israel.
FINANCE. The budget year runs from I April to 31 March. The main
items [ r, e as follows (in 1£1,000; 1£5·046 = £1 sterling):
actual Estimates Actual Estimates
R(:t"cDue 1958-59 1959-60 Ezpcndituro 1958-59 1959-60
Income tax 252,032 30;,000 President', office 164· 122
eu.tom, 125.16;; 170,000 Kncsset 1,91)8 2,004
Fuei 40,600 57,000 Minister;; 188 2t:10
Exci2e duty : I'rima Minister's
Tobacco 30,561 40,(100 oflkc. 3,7n 3,207
Drink~ 15,675 17,000 Finance 21,U41 23,300
OeWf)Jlt 29.935 31,001) Defence 211,119 240,000
Trres . t,~ 49 3,000 Health. 38.982 43,805
Purc!ms9 tax and Religion. afl'ail1! 4,316 4,387
overs.t!9.Stmvel t.a.r 61.13S 108,000 Foreign nffaua 14.187 14,650
Urban r roperty tax '1,520 5,000 Education 82,1 35 91.750
Hursl p::operty tax 1,140 1,000 Ag:·icnlture . . 11,747 12,320
ReveuUj~ stamps (in· Trade 80d iodustry. 5.71)7 5,593
cludirg entertain· Police 30,308 32,930
ment tu) . 8,8 19 9,000 Justice . 6,575 6,2 9~
Licen('e~; 14,726 20,3iiO Social weJIare . 16.9liS 20,375
Land re pst-ration 4.317 4,250 Lnbour . 46,964 48,831)
Stamp tlU . 45.410 28,000 Min. of Developme,,~ 1,33·' 1,393
Death duties . 1,000 Interior. 3,3~0 4,160
Post nT.d transport J~ocal authOrities 2,201 3,75()
servires 9,808 In,8GO e·tate C',omptroUer 2,133 2,659
OermRn reparation ... 76.461 iZ,OOO Tecbnical aid . M5 400
n.s. grants 74.70,1 74,000 Pensions 4.207 4,550
FOll!ign loans 104. ~6 ·1 114,001) Interest 54,224 62,000
I nterior loaDs . 64,042 65,000 Subsidies on essen·
t ial comnlOdities . 36.711
Development . 438,437 480,WO
Total (all items) • 1,295,669 1,336,:>00 Total ("U items . 1,295,669 1,336,51)0
DEFENCE. The Defence Service Law of 8 Sept. 1949, as amended in

1950 and 1952, provides a compulsory 2!.year conscription for men between
the ages of 18 and 26 and a. 2-year conscription for men in the age-group of
27-29 years. UnmarIied women aged 18-26 8E\rve 2 years. The corn·
pulsory military service includes a period of agricultural training. Men up
to the age of 49 and childless women up to t.he age of 34 are liable for service
in the reserveB for consocutive periods of 14-31 days a year. In addition,
all are liable to 1 day's service per month. Officers and n.C.O.8 are liable to
an additional 1 week's service per year. Tbe war.t.ime strength of the
defence forcc9 is about 250,000.
ISRAEL 1157
Men over 49 years are exempted from service in the reserves, but may
volunteer for Civil Defence. Women exempted from service in the Armed
}'orccs on religious grounds are to be employed in agricultural work, service
in new immigrant's centres or service in other institutions.
The highest army rank is that of Major.General (Rav Au,uj), and the
Chief.of.Stalf, who is the C.·in·C., hold.~ that rank. A divisional commander
is a Brigadier (Au,uf), and a brigade commander a Colonel (Alouj Mishne).
The Navy includes 2 destroyers, 2 frigates, 2 submarines (acquired from
Britain in 1958), a patrol vessel, 12 motor torpedo. boats, 6 motor launches,
a depot ship, and 3 flotillas of landing craft. The former Nautical School
in Haifa has been re· organized as a Naval Officers' School in Acre.
The Air Force has a personnel strength of about 12,000, with 400 air·
craft. In 1958 it consisted of 5 interceptor squadrons tlying Mystere jet.
fighters, 5 squadrons of jet·powcred Ouragan fighter. bombers, a bomber
squadron of twin· jet Vautour,~ and transport and training units. A squad.
rou of Super Mystere supersonic fighters was formed in 1959.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. In the coastal plain (Sharon, Emek
Hefer and Shephelah) mixed farming, poultry raising, citriculture and vine·
yards are the main agricultural activities. The Emek (the Valley of Jezreel)
is the main agricultural centre of Israel. Mixed farming is to be found
throughout the valleys; the subtropical Beisan and Jordan plainlands are
also centres of banana plantations and fish breeding. In Galilee, mixed
farming, olive and tobacco plantations prevail. The Hills of Ephraim are
a vineyard centre; many parts of the hill cotultry are under afforestation.
In the northern Negev farming has been aided by the Yarkon Negev water
pipeline. Farther south much of the territory is desert. The total culti·
vated area in the Southern District (which comprises the territory south of
Ashkelon and includes the Negev) was 1·3m. dtulams (4 dunams = 1 acre)
in 1958. Agricultural products grown in the Negev include barley, sorghum,
wheat, sunflowers, cotton, sugar beet, vegetables and fruit. In 1958 there
were over 150 agricultural settlements in the Southern District with a total
population of 56,000.
A land· utilization survey has graded the country as follows: 3,395,550
dUIlams suitable for all types of cultivation, 697,540 dtulams suitablo for
plantations, 3.317,800 dtulams suitable for pasture, 882,500 dWlams suitable
for afforestation, 503,960 dunams unfit for any type of cultivation. The
draining of the Huleh marshes in the north has added some 15,000 acres to
the land reserve.
The area under cultivation (in 1,000 dunams) in 1958-59 was 4.040, of
which unirrigated field crops occupied 2,365; irrigated field crops, 465;
citrus and other fruits, 680; vegetables, potatoes and grl)undnuts, 285; fish·
ponds,42. Industrial crops, such as cotton and sugar· beet, have successfully
b~en introduced.
Livestock (1958) included 19~,500 cattle, 361,500 sheep and goats,
5~,OOO draught animals, 5·7m. laying hens.
Characteristic types of rural settlemen t are, among others, the folh\\ing :
(I) The Kibbutz and Kvutza (communal collective aettlement), where all
property and eal'Dings are collectively owned and work is collectively
orgauized. (2) The M·oshuv Ovdim (workers' co·operative smallholders'
settlement) which is founded on the principles of mutual aid and equality
of opportunity between the members, all farms being equal in size; hired
labour is prohibited. (3) The Moshav Shitufi (co.operati\'e settlement),
which is based on collective ownership and economy as in the Kibbutz, bu~
1158 ISRAEL
with each family having its own house and being responsible for its own
domestio services. (4) The Moshav (smallhdders' eottlement), which
resembles tbe moshav ovdim but lacks the latter's rigid ideologi cal baais;
hired labour, for instance, is permitted. (5) The Mosluwa (village), in which
land and property are privately owned and every resident is r~sponsible for
his own well· being. At 1 Jan. 1959, of the 844 rural settlements in Israel,
228 were kibbutzim (population, 78,634), 300 moshvei ovdim (105,362), 44
moshavim (16,334), 20 moshavim shitufiim (3,908), 79 moshavot and other
villages based on private marketing (106,530), 104 Arab villages (164,154);
the rest were temporary settlements and educational institutions.
Mining. The most valuable natural resources of the country are the
pota.h, bromine and other salt deposits of the Dean Sea, which are exploited
by the Dead Sea Works, Ltd. Ge'Jiogical researcD and explc)itation of
the natural resources in the Negev are undertaken by the I~rael Mining
Corpon,tion. Copper is being worked at 'l'imna near Eilat. Pho~phate
produclion in 1958 was 209,535 tous; potash, 104,200 tons.
Oil was first discovered in Sept. Hl55 at Heletz in the Negev. Twenty-
three oilwells were in operation at the end of 1959; output in 195\)-60 is
estimated at over 120,000 tons. Actual output, in 1,000 litres: 1956,
24,648; 1957,62,633; 1958, 102,051.
I nd·'utry. A wide ranga of products is manufactured, processed or
finishec. in tIle country, including chemicals, metal products, textiles, tyres,
diamonds, paper, plastics, leatLer goods, glass and ceram ics, building
materi&,l~, precision instruments, toba cco, foodstuffs, electric goods, includ-
ing refl'igerators and radios. The textile industry hf!.d 147.000 spindles
workin,~ at the end of 1958.
A lItw for the encouragement of capital investment, passed on 29 March
1950, ~:rants substantial privileges to foreign investors. An Investment
Centre was estahlished in May 1950, and had by the cnd of 1958 approved
832 undertakings involving a total investment of I£193·8m. and US$191·6m.
P01<Jer. Electric-power consumption amounted during 1959 to
1,565m. kwh., of which 53410. kwh. were used for industrial purposes.
Datour. The General Federation of Jewish Labour (Histadrut),
foundo,j in 1920, had, in 1959,654.000 members (including 12,500 Ara.hs);
inclnding workers' families, this membership represents 56% of the t otal
popnla';jon . Several trades unions of lesser importance also exist.
In 1959 the average daily number of registered unemployed was 7,377.
COMMERCE. External trade, in £1,000 sterling, for calendar years:

1952 1 ~53 1 ~54 1955 1~56 1957 1~58'
Imports 114,678 100,417 103,470 116,264 135.700 142,857 773,670
E~ports 15,846 21,309 31.4;2 31,486 37,500 48,214 252,747
'1£l,OOO
In 1958, of the imports 28'5% came from U.S.A. and 12·3% from U.K.;
of the nxports 13·9% went to U.S.A. and 21 % to U.K.
Th!! main exportable commodities are citrue fruit and by.products,
fruit-jniees, textiles, wines and liquor, sweets, polisbed diamonds, chemicals,
motor cars, tyres, textiles, electrical goods. Exports of citrus fruit in
]958-59 amounted to 9,515,344 cases, of wbieh 4,421,022 went to U.K.
ISRAEL 1159
Total trade with U.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling) :
1955 1956 1957 19M 1959
Imports to U.K. ;,701,697 9,UO.,a96 11.196,750 12,814,ar.3 15,314,957
Ex-p(,rte from U.K. . 9,412,454 9,886.409 13,392,262 13.495,256 15,182,049
Rc-exports frO!ll U.K. 447,3~6 702,034 908,606 821,559 1,311,043
COMMUNICATIONS, Shipping. Israel has 3 main ports, Haifa, Tel-

Aviv and Jaffa; the development of Eilat is progressing. In 1958, 1,522
ships anchored in Israeli ports; 2,419,095 tons of freight (not including fuel)
were handled. The Israeli mercha nt fleet consisted in 1959 of 45 vessels,
totalling 233,405 gross tons.
Railways and Roads. Internal communications are provided by 631 km
of main railway lines, and by 2,995 km of paved roads (1959). In 1958,
4,777,476 passengers and 1,621,848 tons of freight were carried by rail.
There were 20,926 passengcr cnrs, 22,242 commercial vehicles, 2,498
buses, 2,477 taxis, 14,180 motor cycles and 1,780 tractors registered in
March 1959.
Post. Tbe Minist,ry of Posts controls the postal, telegra ph and telephono
service. The broadcasting system, ca.Jled Sherut Hashidur, operates from
Jcrusalem; the station is called Kol Israel (Voice of Israel). Wireless
licences in Dec. 1958 numbered 361,000.
In Dec. 1958 there were 254 post offices and postal agencies, 23 mobile
P08t offices and 69 telephone exchanges; telephones numbered 90,681.
A V'illtion. Air communications aro centred in the airport of Lod, near
TeI-Aviv. In 1958, 2,225 planes touched Israeli airports on internlttional
flights, carrying 143,376 passengers and 2,452 metric tons of ma.il and freight.
Tbe Israeli airline EL AL ma.intains regular flights to London , Paris, Rome,
Brussels, Athens, Vieuna, New York, Ziirich, Munich, Nicosia, Istanbul
and Johannesburg. In 1958 EL AL carried 79,000 passengers and 1,239
metric tons of freight and mail.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The unit of currency is the Israeli £

(1£), divided into 100 agorat (up to 31 Dec. 1959: 1,000 prutah). There are
coins of 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 250 prutah, and bank·notes for 500 prutalt,
1£1,5,10 and 50. Currency in circulation (in 1£1,000):
Total cur- Assets held as cover for currency I
At end of rency in Foreivn Pal~stine Gowrnrnertt Trmsurv
year circula.tion Gold nchu1Ige n:rrmcv land btmds biU,
,948 :;0,655 6.832 18,823 6,000
1960 74,9-12 10,887 49,920 13,OiO
19~7 2.t2t~26 6,271 71,5~ 4. 77,219 87,712
1958 276,4H7 5.216 109.[)21 77,259 73,500
1959 ~i4,6!l ll G,150 139,62. 77,216 51,637
I rntil Oct. 1954 CUrreD(,y L'Over l"clers only to uauk·notcs.
On 24 Aug. 1954 the Knesset passed the Bank oflsrael Law. establishing
a state-owned central hank. The Bank of Israel started operations on I
Dec. 1954; it is the bank of issue and 80le b:mker of the Government. Other
principal banks arc Bank Leumi le Israel B.l\I., the Palestine Diqc()unt
Bank, Barelays Bank D.e.O. and the Workers' Bank, Ltd. Assets a.nd
liabilities in t.he 27 commercial bltnks and the 59 Co-operative Credit
Societies operating in Israel t.otalled 1£1,381,936 at the end of 1958.
1160 ISRAEL
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system is in general use.

The (metrical) dunam = 1,000 sq. metres (about 0·25 acre).
The ;rewish year 5720 corresponds to 3 Oct. 1959-21 Sept. 1960; 5721
to 22 Sept. 1960-10 Sept. 1961.
Israe:l maintains embassies in Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Burma,
Canada, Chile, Denmark, France, Ghana, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, Mexico,
Netherlands, Paraguay, Peru, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, U.S.S.R.,
U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay: and legations in Australia, Bolivia, Bulgaria,
Ceylon, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, El Salvador, Finland, Guatemala, Guinea, Honduras, Hungary,
Iceland, Japan, Laos, Luxembourg, Nicaragua, Norway, New Zealand,
Panama, Philippines, Poland, Rumania, Turkey, Union of South Africa,
Venezue:'a, Yugoslavia.
OF ISRAJIlL IN GREAT BRITAIN (2 Palace Green, W.8)

Ambassador. Arthur Lourie (accredited 23 March 1960).
Econ.1mic Counsellor. Shmuel Gilat.
Counsellor. Gideon Shomron.
First Secretaries. Moshe Ofcr; Ayre Leef; 1. D. Unua (Press).
Military, Air and Naval Attache. Col. Yuval Neeman.
Agrimtltural Attache. Mordehay Paran.
Scientific Attache. Dr Yehoshua Shefer.
011' GREAT BRITAIN IN ISRAEL
Amb.18sador. Patrick Hancock, C.M.G.
Coull"tllor and Ccmsul·General. Miss B. Salt, C.B.E.
First Secretaries. J. P. Duffy (Commercial); J. R. W. Parker (Labour) .
Navol Attachi. Capt. D. B. N. Mellis, D.S.C., R .N. (resident in Athens).
Milil'.ary Attachi. Col. J. N. Cowley, O.B.E.
Air Attache. Wing Cdr L. C. Glover.
There are consular representatives at Jerusalem, Haifa and Tel·Aviv.
011' ISll.AEL IN THE U.S.A. (1621-22nd St. NW., Washington 8, D.C.)

Amb!lSsador. Avraham Harman.
Min'i.8ters. Yaa.cov Herzog; Aryeh Manor (Economic). Counsellors.
Moshe Erell; Michael Amon (Press); Avraham Salmon (Economic); Dr
EphraiDl Lahav (Scientific). First Secretaries. Avner Idan: Gavriel Gav.
rieli; Shmuel Yaari. Military, Naval and Air Attachi. Col. Aharon Yariv.
Educational Attache. David Ben-Dov. Labour Attache. Nathan Bar.
Yaacov. Press Attache. Yekutiel H. Orgel.
OF THE U.S.A. IN ISRAEL

Ambassador. Ogden R. Rcid.
Coull"ellor. Murat W. William8. First Secretaries. Howard P. Backus;
John F. Rieger; W. Bruce Lockling; John F. Shaw (Economic). Service
AttacM.': Col. Eugene T. Seaburn (Army), Capt. George W. Kittredge
(Navy), Col. Ralph W Keller (Air). Agricultural Attache. Grover C.
Chappell.
There is a consular representative at Haifa.
ITALY 1161
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. There Is .. CentrRI DllNnu 01 Statistics and Economic Re ·
oearcb at tbe Primo Minister's Otllce, Jerusalem. It publish.. monthly huUotins 01 economio
statistics, social statistic., loreign trade statistic.; Md an EngUsh summary.
(]ovemmerlJ Yea,book. Government Printer, Jerusalem. 1951 ft. (1ate.t Issue, 1958)
Pad. about IJ,aeI1959. Government Printer, Jerusalem
Sl4Iistical Abst,act o/l"ael, 1957-58. Government Printer, Jerusalem
[.,acl Yea,book, 1959. Tel·Aviv
SlIUislical Bulletin 0/ Imu!. 19~911 .
Rtlhumot" (OffiCial Gazette)
Th. A,ab. in [mul. Government Printer, J erusalem, 1958
Th< Political BistOf'/! 0/ Palestine uride, li,itish Administ,alion. Memorandum ••. to the
U1i8COP. Jerusalem, 1947
The /lrael Economist Annual. Jerusalem, 1949 ft.
Laws 0/ the State 0/ I ..ael. AutborizeU translation. Gi>veroment Printer, Jerusalem,
1958 If.
B...·Gurion, D., Rebirth and D.llinV o/I.,acl. Now York, 1954
Bentwtcb, N., I.,ael. London, 1952.-/l,acl all/i 0., Nei9hbours. London, 1905
Dernadotta, Count Folke, To Jerusalem. London, 1951
Blab, G. S., and Goldscbmldt, M. J., Geologv and Wait' Resou,c.. 0/ Palmi.... Jerusalem,
1947
Boxer, B., Israeli ShippiW/ and Fo'ti9n Trade. University 01 Chicago Press, 1957
Dagan, P. (ed.), Who'. IV"o in Israel. 7th ed. Tel Aviv, 1958
Doukban, M, (od.), lA ... 0/ Pale.lint, 1926-31 • • vola. Tel·Aviv, 1933
Elatb, B., I ..atl and her Nftghbours. London, 19(;6
Glueck, N., Rivers in the Desert, New York, 1958
Granott, A.., The lAnd S/I,1tm in Palellint. London, 1952.-Ag,a,ian Reform and the Record
o/Israel. London, 1956
Halperln, H., ChaW/iW/ PaJ.Itrns in Israel Agricmtu". London, 1957
Hyamaon, A. M., PaltJtin4 under Man4alt, 1920-48. London, 1951
Kanlman, J. I. S., English-H"',... lIictiona'1/. 9tb ed. Tel·Aviv, 1950
KendaU, H ., Jevwalem Citll Pkln. Pre"'~alion and Development, 1918-48. H.M.S.O., lU(S
Kendall, H o, and Barutb, K. H., Village D~elopmen' in Palutine during the BriJilh M4nt:la.u .
London, 1949
Kom, I., Co.operati~e Fa,miW/ in Israel. Tel·Aviv, 1952
Malkosb, N., Co·operation in Israel. Tel·Avlv, 1959
Povaner, I., Israel CornmtVcial La ... Jerusalem, 1950
neifenberg, A., The Soils 0/ Palestine. London, 1947
Rolbant, S., Mapai. London, 1949
St Jobn, R., Ben Gurion. New York, 19;;9
Tadmor, 0., Israel Economic 8u",ev. Jewish Agency, Jerusalem, 1953
Warrincr, D., Land Re/orm and Development in th< Midd14 East. London, 1957
Weizmann. 0., T,ial and Erro,. London. 1949
WIUiams, L. F. R., The StIlle 0/ brael. London, 1957
NATIONAL LmRAllY. Tbe Jewish National and Hebrew University Library, Jerusalem .
DirtclOr: Dr K. Worman.
ITALY
REPUBBLICA. ITA.L.LUf A.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. On 10 June 1946 Italy be·
came a republic on the announcement by the Court of Cass!Ltion that a
majority of the voters at the referendum held on 2 June had voted for a
republic. The final figures, announced on 18 June, showed: For a republic,
12,718,641 (54'3% of the valid votes cast, which numbered 23,437,143);
for the retention of the monarchy, 10,718,502 (45'7%); invalid and con·
tested, 1,509,735. Total 24,946,878, or 89·1 % of the registered electors,
who numbered 28,005,449. For the results of the polling in the 13 leading
cities, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR·BoOK, 1951, p. 1175. Voting was com·
pulsory, open to both men and women 21 years of age or older, including
members of the Civil Service and the Armed Forces; active Fascists and
a few other categories were excluded.
1162 ITALY
On 18 June the then ProviBional Government wit.hout specifically pro-

claiming the republic, issued an • Order of the Day' decreeing that all court
verdicts should in future be handed down' in the name of the Italian people,'
that the Gazzetta Ufficial~ dd Regno d'Italia should be re-named Gazzetta
Ufficiale della Repubblka ltaliafl4, that aU references to the monarchy should
be deleted from legal and government statements and that the shield of the
House of 8a,"oy should be removed from the Italian flag.
Thus ended the reign of the House of Savoy, whos(J kings had ruled over
Piedmont for 9 centuries and as Kings of Italy since 18 Feb. 1861. (For
fuller a.ccount of the House of Savoy, see THE STATII:SMAN'S YEAR·DoOK,
1946, p. 1021.) The Crown Prince Umbert.o, son of King Vittorio Emanuele
Ill, became Lieut.-Gen. (i.e., Regent) of the kingdom on 5 June 1944.
Follow::ng the abdication and retirement to Egypt of his father on 9 May
1945, lfmberto was declared King Umbtlrto II; bis reign lasted to 13 June,
when Le left the country. King Victor Emmanuel III died in Aleundria
on 28 Dcc. 1947.
Tbe new constitution was passed by the constituent assembly by 453
votes to 62 on 22 Dec. 1947; it came into force on I Jan. 1948. The con-
stituticn consists of 139 articles and 18 transitional clauses. Its main
dispositions are as follows:
Italy is described as • a democratic republic founded on work.' Parlia-
ment consists of tbe Cbamber of Deputies and tbe Senate. Tbe Chamber is
elected for 5 years by universal and direct suffrage; 1 deputy, who must
be 25 :vears or over, for 80,000 inhabitants. The Senate is elected for 6
years on a regional basis; each Region baving at least 6 senators, 1 for
200,000 inhabitants; tbe VaUe d'Aosta is represented by 1 senator only.
Tbe President oftbe Republic can nominate 5 senators for life from eminent
men in the social, scientific, artistic and literary spheres. On the expiry of
his term of office, the President of tbe Republic bccomes a senator by right
and fo], life, unless he declines.
Th!> President of the Republic is ejected in a joint session of Chamber
and Senate, to whicb are added 3 delegates from each Regional Council
(1 from tbe Valle d'Aosta). A two-thirds majority is required for the
election, but after a third indecisive scrutiny tbe absolute majority of
votes is sufficient. The President must be 50 years or ovor; bis term
lasts for 7 years. Tbe President of the Senate acts as bis deputy. The
President can dissolve the chambers of parliament, except during the last
6 monf.ha of his term of office.
The Cabinet can be forced to resign only on a motivated motion of
censuro; t.he defeat of a government bill does not invol >;"e the resignation of
the Government.
A Constitutional Court, consisting of 15 judges who are appointed,
6 each, by tbe President of the Republic, Parliament (in joint scSBion)
and tb 3 highest law and 'Hlministrative courts, haa rigbts similar to those of
the Su-preme Court of the U.S.A. It can decide on the constitutionality of
laws and decrees, define the powers of the State and Regions, judge conflicts
between the State and Regions and betwecn tbe Regions, and try the
Presidont of the Republic and the Ministers. The court was set up in
Dec.l!}55.
Th" re-organization of the Fascist Party is forbidden. Direct male de-
scendants of King Victor Emmanucl are excluded from all public offices,
have no rigbt to vote or to be elected, and are banned from Italian territory;
their eltatee are forfeit to the State. Titles of nobility are no longer recog-
ITALY 1163
nized, but, those existing before 28 Oct. 1922 are incorporated as part of tbe
name.
Head of State. On 29 April 1955 Cbamber and Senate in joint session
elected by an absolute majority (658 votes out of833 votes cast) the President
of the Cbamber of Deputies, Giovanni Gronchi (Christian Democrat), Presi·
dent of the Republic as successor of Luigi Eir.audi (President, 1948-55).
ProfesHor Groncbi was born 10 Sept. 1887, and is a Christian trade unionist.
National flag: green, white, red (vertical).
NaJional anthem: Fratelli d'Italia (words by G. Mamcli; tune by
M. Novaro, 18-!i).
Genentl elections for the Senate and Chamber of Deputies took place
on 25 May 1958.
Senate. Christian Democrats, 123; Communists, 59; Italian Socialist
Party, 35; Monarcbists, 7; Italian Social :rvlovement, 8; It.alian Social-
Democratic Party, 5; Liberals, 4; other groups, 5. Total: 246.
Chamber. Cbristian Democrats, 270; Communists, 140; Italian Socia-
list Party, 84; Monarchists, 25; Italian Social Movement, 24; Italian
Social-Democratic Party, 22; Liberals, 17; Republican-Radicals, 6; other
groups, 5. Total: 596 deputies.
In the provincial elections in 1956, the Christian Democrats obtained
45·89%, Communists 21'76%. Socialists 14'38%, Social Democrats 4'62%.
Liberals 3·01 %. Republicans t '19%,4 other parties toget,her 1'56% of all seats.
The Chlistian Domocrat Cabinet. formed 011 25 March 1960, is composed
as follows :
Prime l'YIinister and M'inister of the Budget . 1:'ernando TambronL
11finister for Foreign Affairs. Antonio Segni.
Minister of the Interior. Giuseppe Spatal'o.
1J.1inister of Justice. Guido Gonella.
Minister of the Treasury. Paolo Emilio Taviani .
•~Jinis ter of Finance. G. Trabucchi.
Minister of Defence. GiuJio Andreotti.
1,Jinister of Education. Giuseppe Medici.
Minister of Public Works. Giuseppe Togni.
Minister of Agriculture and Forestry. Mariano RUll10r.
Minister of Transport. F. Sullo.
llfinister of Posts. A. Maxia.
Ministry of Industry (mr/ Commerce. Emilio Colombo.
Minister of Labour and Social Security. Belligno Zazzagnilli.
Minister of Foreign Trade. Mario MartineJli.
Jfinister of the Merchant Navy. Angelo Raffacle Jervolino.
Minister of State Participation. Mario F errari-Aggradi.
.}1inister of If ealth. Camillo Giardina.
Minister for Government-Pa?'liament R elations. Armando Angelini.
Mini,9ter of Tourism and Recreation. Umberto Tupini.
Southern Development. Giulio P~.store.
Rp/arm 0/ Bureaucracy. Giorgio Bo.
The p ef\C-O treaty was signed in P"ris on ]0 Feb. 11)47, and mUfied on
15 Sept. 1947. Italy ceded t,o :France -1 fron tier districts on the Little St
Bernard Pass, the l\1ont-Ceni~ Plateau, the l\Iont-Thabor and Chaherton
areas, and the upper valleys of the Tinee, Vesu bie and Roya (see map in THE
STATESMA.N'S YEAR-BOOK, 1948); to Yugoslavia, nearly the whole of the
1164 ITALY
provincu of V cnezia Giulia. the commune of Zara and the island of Pelagosa;
to Greece. the Dodecanese; to Albania. the island of Saseno; to China. the
Italian ·~ oncession at Tientsin. Italy also gave up the Free Territory of
Trieste nnd her former colonies.
Und'3r the peace treaty Italy was to pay reparations to the follo\\ing
states: Greece. $105m.; Yugoslavia. $125m. ; U.S.S.R .•SlOOm.; Ethiopia.
$25m.; Albania. $5m. On 31 Dec. 1958 the residual debt was : U.S.S .R .•
SlOOrn. ; Ethiopia. SI2·7m. ; Albania. S3·4m.
REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION. Italy is administratively divided into 92
provinces (province). each under a prefect (prefeUo) appointed by the govern·
ment. The division into 19 autonomous regions (regioni). as envisaged in
art. 114" 115. lal of the constitution. has remained a. dead letter; the present
regions ·'!.fe ouly geographical entities.
Art. 116 of the constitution provided for the establishment of 5 auto·
nomous regions with special statute (regioni autonome con statuto speciale).
Four of these regions have been organized; the setting.up of the fifth.
Friuli· Venezia Giulia. was suspended during the dispute over Trieste and
is not now likely to materialize. These special regions are under a. govern·
ment commissioner and have their own parliaments (consiglio regionale)
and gO"ernments (giunta regionale) with certain legislative and administra·
tive functions adapted to the c.ircumstances of en.ch region.
I. S ;cily (Sicilia). established on 15 May 1946. comprises the islands of
Sicily. the Lipari and Egadi groups. Ustica and Pantelleria. divided into 9
provinc'3S; capital. Palermo. The regional elections on 7 June 1959
returned 34 Christian Democrats. 9 Christia.n Social Union. 2 Liberals. 3
Monarchists. 9 Social Movement, 1 Social Democrat, 11 Socia.lists. 21 Com·
munists. The regional government is a coalition of Christian Democrats.
LiberalE:. Monarchists and Social Movement, headed by Benedetto Majorana
della Nichiara (Monarchist).
11. Sardinia (Sardegna). established on 26 Feb. 1948, comprises Sardinia
and th.~ surrounding small islands. divided into a provinces; capital.
Cagliari. The regional elections on 16 June 1957 returned 31 Christian
Democrats, 1 Liberal. 10 Monarchists. 3 Social Movement, 1 Social Demo·
crat. 6 Socialists, 13 Communists. 5 Sardinian Independence Party. The
regiona:. government is a coalition of Christian Democrats and Independence
Party. headed by Dr Efisio Corria.s (Christian Democrat).
Ill. Awta, established on 26 Feb. 1948, comprises the valley of Aost&
which h inhabited by a. Frenoh.speaking population; capital, Aosta. The
regional elections of 17 May 1959 returned 25 members of the Unione
Valdots,in and 10 others. The regional government is a coalition of the Unione
Valdots,in. Socialists and Communists, headed by Vittorino Bondaz (U.V.).
IV. Trentino-South Tirol (Trentino-Tiroler Etschland/Trentino-Alto
Adige). established on 26 Feb. 1948. comprises the portion of Tirol south
of the Brenner pass which Austria ceded to Italy in 1919. The Paris
agreem.mt signed by the Austrian and Italian foreign ministers in 1946
provided for the autonomy of the German.speaking region of South Tirol
only; but this was subsequently combined with the Italian.speaking
Trentino.
The population of South Tirol comprises about 222.000 German.speaking.
110.000 Italian· speaking and 9.500 Ladin.speaking inhabitants; the Italian·
speakir,g section is confined to the towns of Bozen (60.000), Brixen and Meran.
The autonomous region consists of the 2 provinces of South Tirol and
ITALY 1165
Trentino, each of which has a semi·autonomous status. The members of
the regional parliament also sit in the 2 provincial parliaments (South Tirol,
22; Trentino, 26 members). It meets alternately for 2 years in Trent, the
capital of the Trentino, and for 2 years in Bozen, the capital of South Tirol,
with an Italian.speaking and a German·speaking chairman also alternating.
The re)1;ional elections on 11 Nov. 1956 returned (a) in Trentino, 18
Christian Democrats, 1 Trentino Til'oleee, I Liberal, I Social Movement, 2
Social Democrats, 2 Socialists, I Communist; (b) in South Tirol, 15 South
Tirol People's Party, 3 Christian Democrats, 1 Social Movement, 1 Social
Democrat, 1 Socialist, 1 Communi~t. The regional government is a minority
government of Chridtian Democrats, headed by Dr l'ullio Odorizzi. The
provincial government of South Tirol is a coalition of the South l'irolese
People's Party and the Christian Democrats, headed by Dr Alois Pupp
(South Tirolese).
PlaundJer, W. von (od .), Siidei,ol. Vienna, 10,8
AREA AND POPULATION, The population (present in actual boun·

darie~) and the percentage of its annual increase at successive censuses were
as follows:
31 Dec. 1871 27,577,640 I Dec. 1921 S7,403,956 0·45
~l Dec. 1881 !:,9,2i7.92i 0·60 21 April 1931 40,:;82,043 0·87
III Feb. 1001 33,370,138 0'G9 21 April ISnG 42,30 2,680 0·83
10 Juuo 1911 35,694,582 0'65 4 ~ov . 19~1 47,158,73R 0·70
Estimated population itS at 1 ,Tan. lU60 was 49,220,000.
The following table gives area and population of the Regions (ccmu8
of 21 April 1!!36 and of 4 No\,. 1951):
Area in sq. km Resident pop. Resident· pop. Density por
Regions (1906) c('osus, 1\*36 census, 1951 Hq. kw (19~1)
l'ie<iDlnnt . 2:; 301·91 3,418,300 3,518,177 139
Val!e d'A.osta • 3:262'26 83,4::'5 ~4.140 29
Li;ruria . b 400·29 1,466,820 1.066,961 28~
l..oru bnrd.y . . 23:804'18 6,836,342 6,666,154 276
1're"tino·Alto Adige 13,613'09 669,029 728,604 64
Veneto. . . 18,376'~2 3,566,136 3,91R,OG9 213
£I'riuli·Vcnezia Gintia 7.,].16'48 1,108,611 1,226,121 157
EmUia·l\omngllQ ~2,12:;'02 3,338,858 3,544,340 160
Lt~rch.. 9,6~11'74 1,~j B,O jl 1,364,030 141
Tllscany. 22 9~O·Ot 2,978,013 3,158,811 IS.
Umbria. 8:456·08 722 . .544 803,91 E 95
Latium . 17,170'61 2,654,924 3.340, 7~~ 194
Campaoio . 13,594·n 3.6U6,632 4,346,264 320
AJml:l.zJ and Uoli~e . 15.2:11,03 1,5 89,804 1.684,030 III
166
Apulia
lla.silicatK
10,346' 66
9.9R7·63
2,6·1 2'076
543,262
3,220,48.
627,586 G.
CalabriR 15.U7~·08 1,771,651 2,OH.287 13G
Sicilv 25.701,30 4.000.078 4,486,749 J 76
8ardlnia. 24,1)89'04 1,034,206 1,27G,023 63
Total . 301,180'04 (2,398,812' 47,515,637 158
, The totnl reprc.,cn~' the legal popUlation, 1.•. , tbose nOrlll~lly domici led In tb. Gountry ;
tt,e totals shown in the preceding tahle (from 1S71 to 1951, inelu,i"a) .ra the <U f"rln populA'
tion) i.~., those actuo.liy pres-ent nud counted.
VITAL STA1'I~TWS for calendar years:
Living Births D,,,tll>
/llegiti· excl.ot
Marriages i.eqilimate malt Tbtal Still·born still·born
1956 363,7 34 847,764 25,844 873,G08 24,458 .~j,5GO
1957 30~, c43 854,195 24,711 878,906 24,544 481,190
1958 ' 37R,166 873,530 23,040 457,910
1950 1 :3S 1,105 902,468 23,411 455,176
1 Preliminary.
1166 ITALY
Emi:rrants to overseas countries: 1953, 110,209; 1954, 140,198; 1955,

145,614; 1956, 135,372; 1957, 104,013; 1958,96,709.
Communes of more than 100,000 inhabitants, with population preaent
on 4 Nov. 1951:
Borne (Roma) 1,701,91S Cato.nla 301.&82 OagUarl . 142,744
Milan (Mllano) 1,276,621 Ban . 273.801 Reggio di Oalabrh. 130,469
Naples (Nnpoll) 1,024,643 Trleste 270.164 Ferrara 134,467
Tw-io (Torino) . 721,796 M....ina 222,899 Pan...". 124,211
Genoa (O"ol)va). 687,480 Verona 186,043 Modena 114,450
Palenno . 51)3,137 Tnranto. 174.871 La Sp".;" . . 112,246
Floreoce(Firenze) 390,769 PadUI\ (Padova) 173,354 Reggio noli' Bmilia 106,847
Bologna . . 3,0,676 Eresc;" . . 14 7,288 Bergamo 104,968
Venice (VeD",.!a). 322,4:;7 Legborn( Llvorno) 146,162
Trieste. Under the peace trettty of 10 Feb. 1947, Italy gave lip the city
of Trieste and the Istrian peninsula, which were constituted as the Free
Territory of Trieste. Since the terms of the treaty relating t o tllO Free
Territory of 'l'rieste could not be put into elTect, the Territory remained
under military occupation for 9 yeare. The Territory was didded into
two zones : Zone A (which included the city of Trieste), administered by the
U.S./U.K. Military Government, and Zone B (the Istrian peninsuh), admini.
stered by the Yugoslav Military Government. On 5 Oct. 1()54 the Go\'orn·
ments of the U.K ., V.S., It,.ly and Yugoslavia initialled in London a
11emorandum of Undel':'ltnnding terminating military goverolD,mt in both
zones (Cmd. 9288). On 25 Oct. the U.K. and U.S. Government.~ withdrew'
their fOl~CC8 from Zone A and hended over the administration of this i one,
less ono smll.lI strip of territory, to the Italian Government. Zone B. to-
gether with this strip, wns placed under Yugoslav (civil) adruinistmtion.
The Secnrity Council of the United Nations was informed of the~ 'practical
arrange:mcllts.' and the Soviet Government' took cognizance' of them in a
manner which virtually amount.ed to approval.
The Free Territory had an area of 773·16 aq. km, of which 211 sq. km
are now under Italian and 562 sq . km uoder Yugoslav administration (see
map in THE STATESMAN'S Y E AR. BOOK, 1955).
In Aug. 1953 th!l residcnt population of the Anglo-Americltn zone waa
297,003,. comprising 257,858 Italians and 39,145 Slovenes. Th o 1945 censlls
of the Yugoslav zone counted 67,461 inhabitante, of whom :W,i89 were
classified aa Slavs and 2!l,672 as Italians.
In the' Memorandum' of 1954 Italy undertakes to maintain Trieste as It
free port.
REUGION. The treaty between the Holy Sce and Italy, of 11 Feb.
]929, confirmed by article 7 of the constitution of the Republic, la ys down
that the. Catholic Apostolic Roman Religion is the only religion of the State.
Other creeds are permitted, provided they do not profess principles, or
follow rites, contrary to publio order or moral behaviour.
The appointment of archbishops and of bishops is made by the Holy
Sce; but the Holy See submits to the Italian Government the naDle of the
person t o be appointed in order to obtain an a.ssurance that the latter will
not raise objections of a political nature.
Catholic religious teaching is given in elementary and intermediate
8chools. Marriages may be celebrated before a Catholic clergyman in accord-
ance with the rulca of Canon Law, or before a clergyman of other religions
admitted by the State. Marriages can also be concluded before It Regi-
stra.r.
ITALY 1167
In 1957 there were 282 dioceses with 25,333 parishes.
According to the census of lU31, 99'(;% of the Italians wore Catholics
(41,014,096); 83,618 were Protestants; 47,825 Jews; Orthodox, 6,801;
other religions. 1.475; atheiRts, 17,283; religion not disclosed 5,573.
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory from the ages of 6 to 14.

Elementary education is given in 3 grades; free kindergarten (from the age
of 3 up to the age of 5), in the so· called 'm:1ternal schools' or 'AsiIi' main.
tained by the municipalities; lower (3 ye:1rs), and higher (2 years).
Secondary education is given b.v the secondary or middle schools, by the
classical scl}(lols, the science schools and by the institute for teachers.
Secondary technical education is given by the technical institutes and by
other schools (agricultura'!, commercial, illC:ustrial, nautical).
Higher instruction is given in the universities and higher institutes, and
also in the free universities and free higher instit\lte~ (' free' denotes that
they are self· supporting).
Statistics for the academic year 1956-57:
EleUlentnry scbools No. Teachers Pupils
Kindergaroon . IG,101 2tl,:l3:l 1,072,233
Public elementary schools . 36.6,,0 168,307 4,456,106
Private eJemeutary schools. . . . 2,439 8,445 236,452
Privaoo eleme nt<l.ry recognized scbools (panflcau) 648 2,771 82.884
Students
Goverwnent secondary Rchool~ No. Teacbers Mal« Females Total
Secondarv or middle school~ 1,135 29,4Vl 208,340 160,637 368,977
Classical iyceutD g y woasiWll 361 !.l,245 71,427 42 •.~70 114,2U7
Lyceum for sci ence 1:;9 3,243 30,:)66 7,207 37,773
Tea(';hers' institutes 176 6, 316 12.D~1 61,083 74,044
:Professional trn.in~ng schools 1,723 32,7·10 262,362 151,607 41il.969
Agricultural schools H 1,216 1:1.72::: l[;G 13,878
Oommercial schools 361 12,005 I1f1,25!l 40,nl 168,483
Indu~trial schoo15 . 2,) 3 4,~40 64,S;;a 444 64.803
Profe::isional C!irls' Bcbools 60 1,050 12/109 12,509
Nautical schools . . . 21 CS5 6,69 3 11 7,704
Art scbools llDd academies of music 98 2,0·19 12,'107 5,828 18,256
The elementary and secondary schools in South Tirol are divided accord.
ing to the mother.tongues of the pupils. In 1958, 29,550 elementary and
6,624 secondary children were taught in German, 10,777 elementary and
7,792 secondary children in Italian, and 1,744 elementary children in Ladin.
Dato 01 Date of
Universities &nd fouud· Btu· Teach· Universities and found· Btu· Teach·
higher institutes ation d.ny' era higher institute. ation dents l ers
Bari 1924 8 1 353 30G Padova 1222 5,OG6 3:')7
Bologna 1200 8,481 367 Palenno 1805 6,809 3~4
(JagHari 1626 2,197 212 Parma 1602 2,391 1 D8
Oamerino 1727 454 80 Pavia. 1390 2,811 216
Oatani~ 1434 5,678 230 Perugia 1276 I,D79 166
Ferrara 1391 1,001 125 Pi~8 . 1338 5,096 331\
Firenze 1924 5,003 326 Roma 1:,03 24,841 601
Genova 1~43 6,584 268 SalerDo 1944 5G3 19
L'Aquila 1956 21\5 12 Sassari 1677 733 103
Maceratu. 1~90 325 27 Siena 1300 578 8ij
Messtna 1549 5,2,,8 230 Torillo 1404 7,241 397
Mllano 1924 16,686 651 Trieste 1924 1,SO~ 190
}loden" 1678 1,306 138 Urbino 1664 1,415 00
Napoli 1224 19,762 446 Venezia 1868 1,832 8R
, Including students of schools for commercial education, of agrIculture. t.he .~eerlng
colleges, the .chools of architecture and veterinary colleges, and schools for teacblll1!, the
higber naval college anu tbe scbools for orientallanguagos at the universities.
1168 ITALY
Cinemas. There were, on 30 June 1955, 13,211 cinemas with a seating

·capacity of 5,202,603.
Newspaper" (1956). There were 105 da.i1y nt\wspapers with a combined
circulation of Sill. copies; of the papers, 19 are published in Rome and 12 in
Milan.
SOCIAL WELFARE. The main public welfare acts include the estab·
lishment of a Patronato Scolastico for the benefit of children in primary
schools (22 Jan. 1925) and of the national institution for the protection of
maternity and infancy (Opera Nazionale per la protezione del/a Maternitd
e dell'!n!anzia; 10 Dec. 1925). On 3 June 1937 there was set up in every
corumUi.1e an assistance body (Ente Comunale di A"s~tenza) to dispense
charity to the needy, out of funds provided partly by the assets of the
provinces, communes and other public and private Enti and partly by
~pecial taxation.
In the financial year 1957-58 government expenditure on social welfare
amounted to 226,785m. lire.
JUSTICE. Italy has 1 court of cassation, in Rome, and is divided for

the adl;linistration of justice into 23 appeal court districts (with 1 detached
section>, subdivided into 154 tribunal districts, and these again into manda·
menti e'l.ch with its own magistracy (Pret-um), 978 in all. There are also 85
first degree assize courts and 24 assize courts of appeal. For civil business,
besides the magistracy abol"o mentioned, Conciliator; have jurisdiction in
petty plaints.
On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 901 establishments for imprisonment before
triltl (with 22,793 male and 1,836 femalo prisoners), S4 penal est.ablishments
(with IO,6l!l male and 448 female prisoners) and 22 establishments for the
executi on of pre,entive measures of safety (with 3,224 male and 34.0 female
prisoners).
FINANCE. Total revenue and expenditure for fiscal years (ending

30 JUM), in Im.lire (lm. lire = USS2,850 from 2 Aug. 1947);
R evenue E:rpendi turc Revenue ElCpenditure
19;;5-56 2,509,548 2,803,150 1955-M) I 3,136,710 3,272,019
1956-57 2,808,418 2,956,364 1959-60 I 3,3·14,007 3,473,648
1957-58 3,098,587 3,312,566 196~11 3,640,000 3,927,000
I Estimat.es.
In the revenue for 1957-58 turnover and other business t ,aX(lS accounted
f(lr I,O:t S,I73m. lire, customs duties and indirect taxeR for 700,294m. lire.
ThE! public debt at 30 June 1959 totalled 5,347,605m. lire, including
consolidated debt of 52,395m. lire and the floating debt 3,455,'i30m. lire.
DEFENCE. Most of the restrictions imposed upon Italy in Part IV of

the peace treaty signed on 10 Feb. 1947 were repudiated by the signatories
on 21 Dec. 1951, only the U.S.S.R. objecting.
Anl1Y. The Army is composed of 10 infantry divisions, 3 armoured
divisiolls, 5 Alpini brigades and various special troups.
N.\VY. The coastline of the peninsula is divided into zones, with head·
quarters at Spezia, Naples, Taranto and Venice. The three former are
ITALY 1169
under the jurisdiction of flag officers with the status of C.. in·C.; but the
admiral commanding at Vcnice does not rank as a C.·in-C. Nor do the
admiral~ commanding on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily. Other localities
of strategic importance under naval administration are Brindisi, where there
i~ an adm iral commanding. and Genoa.. Leghorn, Augusta nnd Ancona, each
of which is limier It sonior naval officer.
The personnel of the Navy in 1959 numbered 41,000 officers aud ratings.
Summary of the Italian Navy: 3 cruisers, 2 very large destroyers
(ex·light crui8ers converted), 4 destroyers, 2 fast anti·submariue frigates
(ex.destroYf>Ts), 16 frigates (4 new escorts, 3 ex-U.S. escort destroyers and 7
ex· torpedo boat.), 5 submarines, 29 corvettes, 4 ocean minesweepers, 53
coastal minesweepers, 20 inshore minesweepers, 16 minesweeping trawlers,
25 motor torpedo-boats, 3 motor gunboats, 9 ttnti·submarine patrol boats,
6 landing support gunboats, 1 surveying vessel, 1 salvage ship, 3 transports,
::I training ships, 1 oiler, 20 water carriers, 2 netlayers, 28 auxiliaries, 45
landing craft and 26 tugs. The ban imposed by the Peace Treaty having
expired, Italy re-introduced submarines into the Fleet in 1953. The nucleus
of the submarine flotilla comprises 3 small boats resurrected from the laid·up
wartime fleet and 2 large submarines transferred from the U.S. Navy.
Particulars of the principal ships in the Italian Navy are as follows:
Standard Armour
displace- Big Tor- Shaft
(})rn· ment Bell gun. Principal pedo horse- Speed
plo,ed Name Tons In. In. armament tubes power Knot.
Cruisers
j ~:17 Oiusepp. Garibaldi 9,800 4l 4 4 5·S-in.; S 3-in.: 100,000 33
twin' Tr.rrier I
ln37 Doca degU Abru ..1 9,802 4l 10 6-ln.; "3·9·in. 100,000 31
11/35 Raimondo Monte-
cuccoli 6,9·11 6 6·ln.; " 3·9·lll.AA 75,000 2$
Th. light Cruisers Giu/io Germanico (r.noated) and Pumpeo Magn. ha ... been rebuilt ao
~nt.l-aircra!t and anti..gnbmo.rillo destroyers. and renamed San Gicrgio and San Marco .
'Yne 2 battleships And,ea Doria and Cuio Duilio were scrapped in 1958.
Two guided-missile escort cruisers, 2 large destroyers with special anti-

submarine and improved anti·aircraft armament and 4 frigates with special
anti-submarine armament are under construction.
AIR FORCE. With an operational history dating back to 1911, the Air
Force has been built up since 1951 largely with U.S. assistance. It is
divided into 4 territorial zones, with H.Q. at Rome, Milan, Padua and Bad,
plus the air commands of Sicily and Sardinia.
In 1959 Italy's air contribution to NATO forces consisted of 3 air
brigades (each of 3 squadrons of 25 aircraft) of F-84F Thunderstreak jet
fighter-bombers and one air brigade (2 squadrons) of RF-84F Thunderflash
reconnaissance-fighters. There nre also a brigade of Canadian-built Sabre
interceptors and a brigade of Itn,lian-built Sabre all-weather fighters for
home defence, 2 squadrons of Harpoon and Tracker anti-submarine aircraft,
2 squadrons of C-1l9 transport aircraft and training, air/sea rescue and
helicopter units.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The area of Italy on 30 June 1958

comprised 301,220 sq. km, of which 278,000 sq. km was agricultural and
forest, Innd and 23,220 sq. km was unproductive; the former was mainly
distributed as follows (in 1,000 hectares): Cereals, 6,895; lcguminolls plants,
1170 ITALY
1,243; industrial plants, 386; garden produce, 699; vines, 1,106; olive
trees, 8!19; woods, 5,793: forage and pasture, 9,930. In addition to the
areas devoted solely to vines, the latter were also grown among other crops
on 2,68"',000 hectares, while olive trees, similarly, were grown on 1,356,000
hectares.
J n W30 8.gricultural holdings numbered 4,196,266 and covered 26,257,441
hectares. Estates numbering 3,505 a.nd exceeding 500 hl"ctares each,
covered in the aggregate 0,620,891 hectares (an average of 1,604 hectares
per hold.ing): this was 21,4% of the total. There were 2,478,412 owners
who till,m 15,084,452 hectares or an average of 6 hectares. 36% of the
total lar.d under cultivation is held by 0'5% of tit .. total of private ownel'8.
Under the land reform laws of 1950, about 800,000 hectares have been
acquirec. for allocation to peasants: by 31 1\1ay 1959 more than 611,000
hectares had been allocated to 108,143 families.
Aooording to the population census in Nov. 1951, the number of persons
engaged in agriculture as their main occupation numbered 8,261,160
(6,227,7 :1 3 males and 2,033,447 females).
In l{'58, 207,131 farm tractol'8 were being used.
The production of the principal crops (in 1,000 metric quintals) in
1959: Wheat, 84,656; barley, 2,788: oats, 5,406: rye, 1,051: maize, 37,7!17;
sugar beet (1958),76,885: potatoes, 39,543: tomatoes, 22,122: rice, 7,121 :
olive oil (1!158), 2,603; hemp, 173. Citrus fruit (1958): Oranges, 7,274;
tangerines, 1,144: lemons, 4,004: other citrus, 322.
Production of wine, 1958, 67,99-1,,000 hectolitres: of tobacco, 797,573
quintals
Soub Tirol annually produces 300,000 tons of apples and pears (15%
of the total Italian production), of which 180,000 tons (33% of the total)
are exported: and 500,000 hectolitres of wine (1%), of which 400,000
hectolitl'es (20%) are exported.
In I!158 consumption of chemical fertilizers ill Italy was as follows (in
1,000 q~jntals): Perphosphate, 13,310; milled phosphate for agricultural
uses, 4.010; deposed slags, 1,481: 8ulphurate of ammonium, 5.198; calcioci·
anamide, I,388; nitrate of ammonia, 2,494; nitrate of calcium H, 3,047;
nitrate of calcium H, 48; nitrate of sodium, 408; potash salts, 1,071;
potas.~ic salts, 52.
Live8tock, estimated in 1958: Cattle, 8,649,000 : pigs, 3,900,O(\(); sheep
and goats, 10,175,000; horses, 474,000: donkeys, 556,000 ; mules, 363,000.
Mi,~ing. The Italian mining industry is most ueveloped in Sicily
(Caltani1:setta), in Tuscany (Arezzo, Florence and Gro88cto), in Sardinia
(Cagliari, Sassari and Iglesias), in Lombardy (particularly near llergamo and
Brescia) and in Piedmont.
Italy's fuel and mineral resources are wholly inadequate. Only sulphur
and mercury outputs yield a substantial surplus for exports. In 1959
output, in mctric tons, of coal and similar fuels was 1,960,189; cast·iron
ingots, 2,097,700; raw steel, 6,759.839; rolled iron, 5,082,546.
Prod 'J ction of metals and minerals (in metric tons) was as follows:
JI.n.nu ..up'"
Iron pyrit<'"
1964
1,250,945
1955
1,317 ,008
1956
1,377,800
1957
1,471,(1)6
1958
J , 014,330
1969'
1,522,037
Iron ore 1,091,241 1,393,691 1,673,764 1,580,781 1,292,472 1,237,027
Manganos.. 49,806 56,866 46,899 47,152 44,078 51,835
Lead 69,705 78 , 13~ .9,924 87,229 96,069 83,221
Zinc . 244,023 246,654 250,535 265,3~4 286,576 272,250
Bolpbor 1,740,478 1,784,498 1,727.183 1.708,789 1,497,541
Bauxite 294,098 327,171 275,782 261,610 299,030 292,080
1 Preliminary.
ITALY 1171
8m~lt~r output 1954 1955 1956 lU57 1953 1959
Mercury 1,878 1,845 ~.13:; 2,1MO 2,024 1.080
Lead 36,97:; 41.809 39.116 39.647 48,001 4[\,031
Zino 61),439 68.221 7~,.i09 74,486 71,:156 73,934
Aluminium il7,500 61,G98 63,707 66,207 64,050 74,986
1 Prelimiuary
Oil. The Sicilian district of Rngusa, Gela and Fontnnarossa is rapidly

developing into one of the largest European oilfields. Production in 1958
amounted to 1,534,386 metric tons, of which 1·4m. came from Ragusa.
Industry. The textile industry is the largest and most important. In
the ootton industry 1,029 factories had, in July Hl59, 5,006,591 spindles and
106,572 looms. Silk culture, while flourishing most extensively in Lom.
bardy, Piedmont nnd Venezia, is carried on ILl! over Italy. The silk industry,
July 1959, had I,OfU,797 spindles and 23,447 looms; output of raw silk in
1958,828 metric ionR, and in period Jan.-July HJ59, 521 metric tons. The
production of artificial and synthetic fibre (including staple fibre and waste)
in 19.58 was If.iO,301 metric tons (and in period Jan.-July 1959, 107,224
metric tons), in 24 factories with 768,158 spindles. The woollen industry
had, in July 195H, 707 combing and spinning factories with 1,8\14 combers,
737,053 carding spindles and M3,7li;J combing spindles; woollen weaving
was done in 293 factories with 15,5;>7 looms. Output, 1958 (in metric tOllS):
Pure cotton yarns, 161,7\)5; pure cotton fabrics, 109,735; jute yarns, 43,988;
wool yarns. 43,807 (and in period Jan.-July 1959, 103,081 pure cotton
yarns, 66,4(;9 pnre ~,otton fabrics, 32,260 jute yarns, 30,269 wool yarns).
The chcmicnl industry produced, in I %8 (in metric tons), sulphuric neid
(at 50 Be), 3,250,202; mineral 8n pel'phosphate, 1, H!l,:278; copper sulphate,
76,188. Sugar output in 1958, I,O:W,176 metric tons.
Production of Illotor cars wc",
:169,37-1 in 1958 (318,775 in 19(7), of which
169,648 (118,917 ;" 1(57) were exported.
Electricity. Italy ha. greatly developed her water· power resources. In
1959 the tot",l power generated WRS 47,ti07m. kwh., of which 37,762m. kwh.
were generated. by hydro.electric plants.
Labour. The censtJs ()findustry and commerce, of 5 :\uv. In51, rccord,ed

1,588,031 finn~ emp!nying ll,800,fi78 worker9. :llining employed 96,435
workers; fey)(1 alld tohaeco manuf:J.(;tun" ·Ha,ill:?; textile and cluthing
industries. 1,061,2~)); engineering, \120,lliS; metallurgy, :l51,[iG6; chemical
industry, 219,62.J.; building, 525,401; transport, 5n,(ln; commerce,
1,705,634; h:!ikir;g and insurance, liH,M5: electricity, gn.s and water
works, 100,l7-L
Trade Union". There are 4 In'lin groups: Confederazione Generalc
Italiana del Lavoro (Commllnist.ocHuinated; claims 5m. members), COli'
federazione Ibtli,tlla Silldaeati Lavomtori (Catholic; claim~ 2m. members),
UniOlltl ltaliana del Lavoro (claims 300,000 members), Confederazione
Italiana. Sindlleati Naziunali Lavoratori (claims 300,000 members); thD
actual membership, in 1956, was probably 3·3m., 1·5m., 180,000 and 190,000
respecti vely.
COMMERCE. Italy has been united in a customs union with San

Marino since 22 March 1862. On 20 March 1948 a trc<1ty wa3 concluded
with France for the purpose of establishing a customs union.
The following table shows the value of Italy's foreign trade (in Im.
paper lire), excluding gold coms and bullion:
1172 ITALY
]95( ]955 ]~56 1967 ]958 1959 1

Import!! . ] ,624.(~9 ],694,628 ] ,984,0·18 2,296,006 2,OO~,84S 2,08i,I1:)1
Export•. 1,023,909 1,160,317 l,340,~OO 1,593,579 1,610,667 1,809,355
1 l'relimlnary.
The follow ing table shows trade by cOllntrj"s in lro. lire:

Import. into Italy !rom E:rport. from Italy to
CA>CDtries 19rJ7 1958 1959 1957 1958 1959
ArgentiDl' 60,115 60,443 62,08:; 31,221 36,714 43,622
France . 121,425 94,690 ]59,542 10],087 g4,558 107,873
Germany 281,114 243,321 291,13·\ 225,142 226,850 294,036
Hungary 6,8S1 8,245 P,.to 7,][,0 5,784 10,167
PollUld . 6,316 9.598 13.290 ~,938 11,954 10,315
RumnnJa 8,912 7,362 7,lJ6 7,892 4,nS9 6,084
SwitzerJa ild 66,329 64,163 70,437 ]2],932 122, 302 131,210
Turkey. 20,185 9,182 17,178 38,459 20,824 24.916
U.K. ]21.845 109,880 ]15,902 99,224 ]0 ~1 .2 ]4 ]35,614
U.S.A. 427,060 328,3]8 232,724 143,594 ] 58,684 2]4,716
Yugoslavia 33,570 t5,282 37,7i6 49,178 41,248 4],100
In 1957 the most important imports (by val ue) were coffee, cotton and
waste, ,vool and waste, coa l, crude oil, mllChinery and equipment, chemical
and allied rroduds. Exports; Fruit, cotton yarn and fabri cs, wool yarn
and fabrics, artificinl textiles, machinery, motor vehicles, chemica ls.
Ita l:,.'s imports normally exceed her exports, leaving an r.dvcrse balance
to b", made up, if possible, by receipts from shipping, tourists' expendituree
and remittances from Italians abroad. Her balance of trade (ill l,OOOm.
current lire) has been tlstimated as follows:
Income from
Goods and services in V'estments and Net
Erpnrl Import Balance work, balance balance
1953 1.289 ],658 -369 +29 -340
1954 1,133 1,678 -245 +23 -222
19~~ ],e20 l.S~ 3 -23 3 +37 -196
1956 1,923 2,17:: -250 +56 -]94
1957 2,B73 2.1\60 -]87 +77 -lJO
]958 2,479 2,30·1 +]25 +55 +180
ltcm ittanccs from Italians n.broad (in USS1,OOO): 1950, 72,228; 1955,
124,602; 1056,154,489; 1957,187,312; H158, :)67,631.
Total trade between Italy and U.K. (British Board of Trade returns in
£ sterling) :
]938 1956 1967 1958 ]959
Imports 1·0 U.K. 7,]22.360 67,431,557 62,573,735 76.812.457 93,]32,035
BxportB lrom U.K. . 5,718,979 69,575,834 70,726,395 (i~,977 ,"O!) 72,500,54S
Re·6lq>ort.o from U.K. 439,622 4.631,568 4,991,116 4,.100,394 4,786,464
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The mercantile marine at 1 Jan.

1959 consisted of 4,009 vessels of 5,123,852 gross tons; of these 3,902 were
ste~m · or motor·driven (5,121,833 gross t ons), and 97 sailing vessels (2,019
gross tons).
In 1959,59,821,000 tons of cargo were unloaded, and 24,666,000 tons of
cargo were loaded in Italin.n ports.
Rai(waY4. Railway history in Italy begins in 1839, with a line betwe~n
NapleH and Portici (8 km). Length of raihvays (31 Dee. 1958),21,745 km,
including 16,645 km of state railway~, ("If which 6,809 had been electrified.
In 1958 the stllte railways curried 363,902,000 passengers and 54,366,000
metric tons of goods.
Roais. Italy's roads totalled (31 Dec. 1958) 181,055 km, of which
25,199 km were state roads, 47,223 km provincial roads, 108,633 km cam·
ITALY 1173
munal roads. :\1otor \'"ehicles, Dec. 19;38 : Cars, 1,421,297; buses, 14,074;
trucks, 412,895. motor cycles, 3,395,820.
P08t. On 30 June 1959 there were 12.020 post offices: telegraph lineB
had (1957) a length of 58,136 km; thero were (1956) 10,726 telegraph offices.
The maritime radio· telegraphic service had 14 coast stations. The tele·
phone service on I Jan. 1959 had 3,182.455 a pparatus. Oll:ll Dec. 1958
radio licences numbered 7.138.048; television licences, 1.096,185.
Aviation. The Italian airline Alitalia operates flights to Paris. London.
Madrid, Lisbon, Geneva, Zurich, Vienna, Dusseldorf, Brussels, Athens;
Tripoli, TWJis, Benghazi, Mogadiscio. Khartoum, Entebbe, Nairobi, Salis·
bury, Johannesburg; Aden, Beirut, Tel Aviv, Tehran, DamMcus, Baghdad,
Karachi, Bombay; Boston, New York; Caracas, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo,
:\iontovideo, Buenos Aires. Passengers carried in 1958, 504,400. freight
and mail, 14,461 metric toIlS. Airports include 5 international. 20 national
and 33 club airports.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The standard coin is the lira of 100

cente8imi, normally equal to 0·04677 gramme of gold. The gold standard
was never formally suspended, but exchange control was established in 1934.
State notes of 5,10.50 and 100 lire have been withdrawn from circula.
tion and replaced by metal coins of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 500 lire. There
are also in circulation bank·notes of 500, 1,000,5,000 and 10,000 lire; they
are neither convertible into gold as foreign moneys nor exportable abroad.
nor importable from abroad into Italy (except for certain specified small
amounts).
Circulation of money at 30 June 1959: State coins, 63,565m.lire; bank·
notea, 1,965,0941ll. lire.
According to the law of 6 May 1926 thero is only one bank of issue. the
Banco. d'Italia. Its gold and foreign credits reserve amounted to 6,995m.
lire in June 1959.
From 19 Sl'Vt. 1949 the exchange rate of the £ sterling has been fixed
on the dollar basis (£1 = $2'80).
Since 1936, all credit institutions have been under the control of a state
organ, named • Inspectorate of Credit'; the Bank of Italy has been con·
verted into a •public institution,' whose capital is held e3:C\usively by
corporate bodies of a. public nature. Other credit institutions, totalling
1,247, Me classified as: (I) Public·law credit institutions (Banco di Napoli,
Banco di Sicilia, Banco. Nazionale del Lavoro, Monte dei Paschi di Siena,
Istituto di S. Paolo in Turin, Banco di Sardeglla); (2) Ba.nks of national
interest (Banes. Commerciale Italiana in Milan, Credito Italiano in Genoa.
and Banco di Roma); (3) Banks o.nd credit concerns in general, including
145 joint·stock banks and 211 co·operative banks; (4) 90 savings banks and
)Ionti di pegno (institutions granting loans against personal cho.t.tols as
security), and (5) Casse rurali e agrarie (agricultural banks, established as
co· operative institutions with unlimited liability of associates).
At the end of 1958 there were 365 credit institutes ha.ndling 99% of all
deposits and current accounts, with capital and reserves of 218,093m. lire.
On 31 July H)59 the post office sa.vings banks had deposit3 of2,187,OOOm.
lire; ordinary credit institutions, 8,058,000 m. lire.
By a decree of 29 April 1(123 lifo·assurance businesa is carried on only by
the Nationlll Insurance Institute and by other institutions. national and
foreign. nuthoriz(J11 by the Government. At 31 Dec. 1958 the insurances
1174 ITALY
vested:n the Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni amounted to 784,610m.

liro, incl1lding the decuple of life annuities.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system is in general l1Se.

Italy maintains embassies in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium
Bolivia , Brazil, Canada, Ceylon, Chlle, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Den·
mark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Finland,
France, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India,
Indonellia, Iran, Irish Republic, Israel, Japan, Korea, Lebanon, Liberia,
Libya, Luxembourg, Malaya, Mexico, Morocco, Netberlands, Nicaragua,
Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal,
Spain, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Union of
South Africa, U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay,
Vatican, Venezuela, Vietnam (also for Cambodia and Laos), Yugoslavia;
and legations in Afghanistan, Albania, Bulgaria, Burma, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Iraq, Jordan, New Zealand, Rumania, Saudi Arabia, Yemen.
OF ITALY IN GREAT BRITAIN (14 Three Kings Yard, W.l)
Amila.!8fuior. Count Vittorio Zoppi, G.C,V.O. (nccreditod 3 Feb. 1955).
Minister·Oounsel/m . Pasquale Prunas, K.C.V.O.
Naval Attache. Capt. E. F. Perucca·Orfei.
Air Attache. Col. Flavio Dauieli.
Mil,:tary Attac1li. Lieut.·Col. Giangiorgio Barbasetti di Prun.
Oounsellors. Count Giovanni Ludovico Borromeo, C.V.O.; Count
Roberto Riccardi.
CommerciaIOoun.!ellor. Clemento Boniver.
Fint Secretaries. Emilio Savorgnan; Umberto La Rocca.
Labour Oounsellor. Angelo Macchia.
Fin.lncial Ooun.!ellor. Antonino Zecchi.
Oultural Attache. Gabriele Baldini.
Oommercial Attaclu!. Saverio Santaniello.
Pr~8 Attache. Mario de Mandato.
Thero are consular representatives at Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff, Folke·

stone, c:Jasgow, Hull, Liverpool and London.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN ITALY
Ambassador. Sir Ashley Clarke, K .C.M.G. (appointed 14 Nov. 1953).
l'1inisters. D. S.Laskey, C.M.G., C.V.O.; J . H. Wardle·Smith, C.M.G.
(Comm£rcial).
Oou:1,8eUors. K. J . Hird, O.B.E., (Labour); G. G. Hannaford, C.l\f.G.,
O.B.E. (Legal).
First Secretariea. A. A. Stark; F. G. Burrett; C. F. G. Ransom, C.M.G.,
O.B.E.: I. M. Holder (Oonsul); D. G. Barr; C. T. Isolani (Information);
F. C. S. Bayliss, M.B.E. (Property); J. K. Bamford.
Nnv'Ll Attache. Capt. S. R. Le H. Lombard·Hobson, R.N.
1I1.iz.tm'!/ Attache. Col. P. G. L. Cousens.
Air A/iacM. Group Capt. E. G. Palmer.
TheJ'e are consular represent:\tives at Florence, Genoa, Messina, Milan,

Naples, Palermo, Rome, Trieste, Turin and Venice.
ITALY 1175
OF ITALY IN THEU.S.A. (1601 Fuller St. NW.,
Washington 9, D.C.)
Ambassador. Manlio Brosio.
Minister. Carlo Perrone-Capano. Counsellor8. Giovanni Luciolli;
Vincenzo de Benedictis; Gabriele Paresce (Pre8s); Ugo Morabito (Commer-
cial); Paolo Savina (Labour); Omitf Mohallin (Somali Affairs); Prof. N. B.
Cacciapuoti (Scientific). First Secretaries. Rinaldo Petrignani; Francesco
Vallauri. Service Attaches: Col. Luigi Violante (Air), Capt. Vincenzo Vac-
carisi (Navy), Col. Vincenzo Leonelli (Army). Commercial AttacM. Alberto
Gneceo.
OF TIlE U.S.A. IN ITALY
Ambassador. James Da,vid Zcllerbach.
Minister' Counsellor. Outerbridge Horsey. Counsellors. Vincent M.
Barnett, Jr (Economic); Leo F. Gentner; Horace G. Torbert, Jr. Service
Attac},,!s: Col. Thomas M. Crawford (Army), Capt. William V. Pratt (Navy),
Col. Richard A. Knobloch (Air). Agricultural Attache. Clayton E.
Wbipple.
There are Consuls-General at Genoa, Milan, Naples, Palermo, and Con-
suls at Florence, Trieste, Turin and Venice.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INJ'OlI){ATIOS. Tb. Istltuto Central. d.I Statistic. (VIa O.... ar. Balbo 16,
Rome) wae set up by law of 9 July 1926 as the central iIll!tltute In cbarge 01 cens"" and other
.tatisticallnlonnation, and .. " co-ordinating and controlling ofllce lor the 8tati8tico supplied
by other depRrlments. Preliden!. Professor Lantranco Maroi. Director·Gm.eral. Professor
Bened.tto Barberi. Its publications include:
Annuario Stali~tico ltaliano: 1st aw.ries, 1878-1907; 2nd series, 1911-26; Srd leriol, 1927-
33; 4th Beries, 193H3; 5th eeries,n volo (1944-48,1949-50,1951 to 1969)
Italian Stati61ical AbBI,acl. 1959
Compmdio Slalutico Italiano, 1959
C....immto generale tklla popo/azion., 1951. 103 volo. 1954-59
C....imento g~ tkU' 'ndwlria e tkl C<117I","cio, 1951. 18 vols. 1954-58
Annuario di stati.otiCM demog,ajicl", 1957. 1969
.A.n.nuario di statistica agraria. 1959
.A.nnu.ario &tatiYtico cUll' emigrazirm.e, 1955. 1958
.A.nnuar-io di ltali.ftica /ore.'tale, 1968. 1950
.A.nnuario &tatiYtico dell' i&tnuiO'M italiana, 1959. 1960
Stati~tica degli i8tituti di cura pubblici e prit1ati, 1954. 1957
.d..nnua'rio statislico dell' assi.stenza e della previdenea sociale, 1956-57
.Annuario di ltatisliche giuairiarie, 195"7
Annuario delle statistiche culturali. 19·59
Annuario di statiltiche industriali, 1959
Annuario statistico dell'attit>itd ,dilizia e delk op~' puhblicM, 1959
St.ali,~tica deUa natrigatione marittima, 1958
Bollettino men.a., di statistiea (1926-49; new series, from 1950)
Annulrio slali.tlico del commercio interno. 1958
Statuti"" annual. tkl ct1fnfMf"cio con 1''''''''0, 1958. 1969
Statistica del commercio con l'estero. Monthly (1870-1880, trimestrinl)
Coeffieicnli p"" la ',ans/ol"flW.lione tki valo,i d~lIa lira dal1871 al1957. 1958
Indagine .'ati,tiea lUl/o svi/uppo del ,eddito nazionale dal1861 a11956. 1957
Italian .A.ffaiT3. Document.J and ..\"7'Ole3. Bd. Documenta.ry Centre, Rome. 1952 ff.
Ten Yea's o/ltalian Democracy, 1946-56. Plesidency of the Council of Ministers, Rome, 1955
Problemi d'agriCOltUTIl meridicmak. Na.ples, OassB per il Mezzogiorno, 1955
Treatv of Peace, 10 Feb. 1947. Omd. 7481, 7482 (maps). H.M.S.O., 1948
Banco di Roma, R evie'lO of the Economic Conditions in ItalV (in English). Bimont.hly, IP47 ft.
-TeTI Ytars a/Italian Economll,19n-06. 1907
Compendio Economico llaUano. Rome, Unione Italiana delle Camere di Commercia. Annua.l·
Iy, from 1964
Confederazione Generale dell' Industria Ita.liana: L'indwtria italiana alla 17U'td iUl ucol.o XX.
Rome, 1963.-Annuario 1954. Rome, 1954
Ov""""" Economic SUM!'lI: Italy, Aug., 19,54. H.M.S.O., 1955
1176 JAPAN
Carone, G., II Turismo neU'eccmomia internazionale. Milan, 19!)9

Or",,&, B. (ed.), La Constitution Jtalitnr&4 de IUS. Paris, 1950
DalneUl, G·., .J.1lan.'" Fi.ico Economic. d' Jtalia. Milan, 1940
DI Vlttori.,. G. (od.), J .indiwti in [talia. Barl,1955
Grinurod, M., The Rebuildi1UJ o/Italy. 1945-55. R. Inst. of lot. AJIairs, 195~
Jaeobonl, !. (od.). L'Jndwtria mtccanico italian.>. Rome, 1949
Lan'Zarone, G•• Illistema bancario italiano. Rome, 1948
Merllnl, G., Le ,egion; at;ron. in Italia. Bologna, 1948
.u,
Milonc, F •.L'Italia ne/l' tconomia dellt ,egioni. TnriD, 1955
Orsln! dl Clamerota, P. d'.!.., Sicilia Regian.. Rome, 1961
Petrullo, V., Conltmporory Sicily. Hamilton, N.Y., 1961
I'oggiall, Cl., Italia Ni_a,ia. Rome, 1939
Rulnl, M., and others, La nuo,", co.,ituliont italian.>. Rome, 19!7
Vedo ...ato, G., 11 t,altalo di pact con l·ltal;a. Rome, 1947
N.l.T1mrAL LmR.\IIY. Blblloteca Nazlonale Centrale Vlttorio Bmanuele II Via OoUeglo
Romano 27, Rome. DirtckW: Dr Laura De Felice Olivierl Sangiacomo.
JAPAN
NIPPON
ACCORDlNG to Japanese historical myths the empire was founded by Jimmu
Tenno, 0660 B.C., and the dynasty founded by him still reigns. From
1186 unW 1867 the emperors had little but ceremonial functions, while
successh'e families of Shoguns exercised the temporal power. In 1867 the
Emperor Meiji recovered nominally the imperial power after the abdication
on 14 O'lt. 1867 of the fifteenth and last 'l'okugawa Shogun Keiki. known
historically as Yoshinobu. In 1871 the feudal system (Haken Seido) was
abolished; this was the beginning of the rapid westernization undertaken
by the lIew government, then mainly controlled by the western clans of
Satsuma and CnOahu. The Emperor bears the title of Nihon·koku Tenno
(' Emperor of Japan '). Only foreigners make use of the poetical title
'Mikado.'
By the Imperial House Law of 11 Feb. 1889, revised on 16 Jan. 1947.
under the new constitution. the succession to the tnrone was definitely fixed
upon th .. male descendants.
Emp.~ror 0/ Japan. Hirohito, born at Tokyo, 29 April 1901 ; succeeded
his father. Yosbihito, 25 Dec. 1926; married, 26 Jan. 1924. to Princess
Nagako. born 6 March 1903, daughter of H.I.H. Prince Kuninomiya (died
27 Jan. 1929). Offspring: I, Princess Shigeko (Terunomiya), born 6 Dcc.
1925. 11, Princess Sachiko (Hisanomiya), born 10 Sept. 1927; died 8 Maroh
1928. Ill. Princess Kazuko (Takanomiya). born 30 Sept. 1929. IV,
Princess Atsuko (Yorinomiya), born 7 March 1931. V. Prince Akihito
(Tsugunomiya). born 23 Dec. 1933; formally installed as Crown Prince on
10 Nov. 1952; married to Miss Michiko Shoda. 10 April 1959. Offspring:
Prince Naruhito (Hironomiya), born 22 Feb. 1960. VI, Prince Masahito
(Yosbinomiya), born 28 Nov. 1035. VII, Princess Takako (Suga), born 2
March 1939.
Natio1Ullflag: white, with a red sun (without rays).
National anthem: Kimigayo (words 9th century. tune by Hiromori
Hayashi . 1881).
On 8 Dec. 1941 Japan attacked U.S. and British bases in the Pacific,
and declo.red war on these two countries. On 6 Aug. 1945 the first atomio
bomb (Uranium 235) was dropped over Hiroshima: on 9 Aug. another
(Plutonium bomb) was dropped over Nagasaki. On 15 Aug. the Emperor
JAPAN 1177
accepted the Allied terms of surrender. The surrender of the Japanese
Armed Forces was signed on the U.S. battleship Missouri on 2 Sept. 1945.
At San Francisco on 8 Sept. 1951 a Treaty of Peace was signed by Japan
and representatives of 48 ~ountries . For details ,eeTHE STATESMAN'S
YJU.R.Boox, 1953, p . 1169. On 26 Oct. 1951 the Japaneso Diet ratified the
Treaty by 307 votes to 47 votes with 112 abstentions. On the same day
the Diet ratified a Security Treaty with the U.S. by 289 votes to 71 votes
with 106 abstentions. The treaty provided for the stationing of American
troops in Jnpan until Japan was able to undertake her own defence.
The peace treaty came into force on 28 April 1952, when Japan regained
her sovereignty.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Article I of the constitution,
which came into force on 3 May 1947, says: 'The Emperor shall be the
symbol of the state and of the unity of the people, deriving his position
from the sovereign will of the people'. The Emperor himself, in a New
Year's broadcast, 1946, explicitly divested himself of the attributes of
divinity ascribed to him in folk beliefs.
The constitution has deprived the Emperor of executive powers, abolished
the peerage, granted votes to women, abolished conscription, pledged the
country not to maintain Armed Forces and to renounce war as menns of
settling international disputes, guaranteed complete academic freedom and
outlined a •Bill of Rights' on Westem lines.
Executive powers rest with the Prime Minister and bis Cabinet. The
Prime Minister is elected by the Diet from its own members. Prime
Ministers must be civilians and not former Army or Navy officers.
Legislative power resides in a House of Representatives (of 467 members),
elected by men over 20 and women over 25 years of age for not more than
4 years, and an elective House of Councillors of 250 members (100 elected
at large and 150 from prefectural districts), one·half its members being
elected every 3 years. The Lower House controls the budget and approves
treaties with foreign powers.
The Upper House in 1959 was composed as follows : Liberal·Democratic
Party, 129; Socialist Party, 77; Ryokufukai (Green Breeze Society), 22;
others, 22.
At the general elections of 22 ]\fay 1958 the Liberal·Democratic Party,
oomposed of members of the former Liberal and Democratic Parties,
obtained 295 seats; the Socialist Party, 165; others,7.
The Cabinet, as constituted on 18 June 1959, is composed as follows:
Prime Minister. Nobusuke Kishi.
Foreign Affairs. Aichiiro Fujiyama. Finance. Eisaku Sato. Justice.
Hiroya Ino. Education. Takechiyo Matsuda. Welfare. Yoshio Wata·
nabe. Agriculture and Forestry. Takeo Fukuda. Trade and Industry.
Hayato Ikeda. Transportation. Wataru Narahashi. Postal Services.
Haruhiko Uetake. Labour. Raizo Matsuno. Oonstruction. Isamu Mu·
rakami. Mini8ters of State. Wataro Kanno (Economic Planning), Kani·
chiro Ishihara (Public Safety), Shuji Masutani (Deputy Premier), Yasuhiro
Nakasone (Science, Technology, Atomic Energy), Muneonori Akagi (Defence) .
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. The country (except Hokkaidii) is divided into
metropolitan districts (To and Fu) and prefectures (Ken), and the prefec.
tures into municipalities (Shi), towns (OM or Machi) and Villages (Son or
lI-Iura). Each district, prefecture, city, to\vn and village has a representa.
tive assembly elected by the same franchise as in parliamentary elections.
1178 JA.PAN
Each <:ity, town and village elects a mayor; the governor of a prefecture
(formerly appointed by the Home Office) is elected by the voters in the area.
'l'he m,~tropolitan district governments have charge of matters affecting the
area as a whole.
New legislation, which came into effect on 1 July 1954, !Jas given the
central. government complete control of the police throughout the country.
The au.t.onomous polic() forces of the 5 big cities, Osaka, Kyoto, Y oltohama,
Kobe "nd Nagoya, were absorbed by the prefectural organization in June
1955. In 1956 the police numbered 1l4,715.
Administratively there are (as of Dec. 1!l54), 46 prefectures; 536 rural
districts (Gun), 464 cities, 1,783 towns and 5,461 villages.
AREA AND POPULATION. Japan, as constituted a.fter the Second

World War, has total area of 369,642 sq. km and a population (census,
1 Oct, 1955) of 89,275,529. Thc 4 main islands a,re Honshii (mainland),
Kyiishyii, Hokkaido and Shikoku. Estimated population, I Dec. 1959,
93·lm .. with density of 251·8 per sq. km.
For details of the former Empire aee THB STATES1IU.N'S YEAll.-Boox,
1949, pp. 1117 and 1118.
ThE' census of the present area on 1 Oct. 1950 showed 44,768,000 males
and 4(;,316,000 females. Number of households of 5 members, 17·4m.
Foreigners registered, 31 March 1959, were 680,346, of whom 613,811 were
Korear,s, 44,988 Chinese, 10,192 Americans, 1,618 Brit.ish, 1,252 Germans,
1,183 Canadians.
Th(· leading cities, with census population 1955, are:
Greater Tokyo Amagasakl 335,513 YahRtB 286,241
(iocl. 8,.uburbs)1 8,033,529 Kumamoto 332,493 KuJrura 242,240
Tokyo Hiroshima 357,287 Sasebo 258,221
(munidp..llty) 6,969,104 Kano.zawa 277,283 SWmonoseki 230,50'
O...k& • • 2,547,316 Yokosult.. . 279,132 Banuunatsu 268,792
Kyoto 1,204,084 Nag&8&ti 303,724 Okayama. 236,764
Nagoya. 1,336,780 SW1.uoka . 295,127 Utsunomia 227,163
Yokobacla 1,143,687 Kagosbima 274,340 Nisbinomiy .. 210,179
Kobe . 979,30:; Bakodate . 242,5~2 W3kuyam .. 220,021
Pukuoka . 544,312 Niigata 261,758 Tovobasbl . 202,986
Sendai. 376,844 Sakai 251,793 Ooiuta 201,737
KawasaU . 445,520 Himejl 252,3 16 Kure 199,304
Sapporo • 426,620 Gifu. 259,047
I End of 1957 : 8,573,879.
VlT~L STATISTICS (in 1,000) for calendar years :

1949 19~0 1951 1952 19~3 1954 1955 1956 1957
Births 2.697 2,338 2,138 2,005 1,862 1,759 1,139 1,600 1,563
Death., 945 905 839 766 772 719 696 724 752
Crude birth rate of Japanese nationals in present /trea, 1958, was 17·9
per 1,000 population; 1957,17·2. Crude death ra,te, 1958,7'4 ; 1957,8'3;
crude marriage ra.te, 1958, 9; 1957, 8·5; infant mortality rate per 1,000
live births, 1958,34,6 (120'3 in 1934). Marriages, !!l58, numbered 826,893;
divorces, 73,677.
RELIGION. There has normally been religiOUS freedom, but Shinto

(literally, The Way of the Gods) became part of the totalitarian a pparatus
in the 19308; all Japanese were compelled to respect State Shinto and to
attend at State Shinto shrines, regardless of their personal religion. After
Japan'e defeat the Allied Supreme Command ordered the Government to
discont:nue state support of Shinto. State subsidies haV1l ceaaed for all
.JAPAN 1179
religions, and all religious teachings are forbidden in public schools. As a
personal religion, Shinto has 200 denominations and sects, Buddhism 207
sects and denominations.
Protestants numbered about 266,000 in 1!l55. The Romnn Catholics
have an cpiscopate of 1 archbishop and 7 bishops and (19501) 1!l7,151
adherents. The Society of Friend:, had 200 membcrs in 1957.
EDUCATION. Educat.ion is compulsory and free up to the age of 15;
6 years are spent in the primary schools and 3 in the middle schools; a
further 3 years in high schools is optional. All institutions are now open
to both sexes. On 1 May 1957 there were 22,480 primrtry schools with
12,956,285 pupils and 353,411 teachers; 12,648 primary schools with
5,718,182 pupils and 205,433 teachers, and 3,376 high schools with 2,897,646
pupils and 138,248 teachers.
Japan has 6 main state universities, formerly known as the Imperial
Uni,ersities: Tokyo University (1877); Kyoto University (1897); Tohoku
University, Scndai (1907); Kyiishii_ University, Fukuoka (1910); Hokkaido
University, Sapporo (1918), and Osaka University (1931 i. There are 66
other institutions of uni,ersity rank; in aU, the 234 colleges and universities
had (1958) 564,4501 students and 55,345 teachers. In addition, there are 269
short-term colleges with 2-ycar and 3-year courses. In the collegiate
institutions, all now co-educational, girl students in 1957 formed 19%.
Cinemas (1!l5S). Cinemas numbered 6,803, with seating capacity of 1·9m.
Newspapers . Daily newspapers, 1 Oct. 1Il59, numbered 93 with aggregate
circulation of 23,742,895.
SOCIAL WELFARE. There are workhouses established by local
corporations and private persons. The number of hospitals in 1958 was
5,819 with 500,000 beds, divided into 4,661 general hospitals, 680 tuber-
culosis hospitals, 402 mental hospitals, 14 for leprosy and 62 isolation
hospitals. Physicians numbered 114,517; dentists, 33,9G8; pharmacists,
9,675.
JUSTICE. Chief innovation in post-war .Japan's judicial machinery is

the establishment of a Supreme Court, appointed by the Cabinet but en-
joying a conditional life tenure-at the first general election following his
appointment a justice must submit himself to the electorate. Unless he
receives a majority of the votes, he must retire. This is repeated at intervals
of 10 years. All justices and judges of the lower courts serve until they a.re
70 years of age.
Below the Supreme Court are the COUi'ts of cassation, the courts of appeal
the district courts (Ohih8saibanslw) and the local courts.
All courts are bound to defend against the Executive those provisions of
the constitution devolving powers from the centre to local or regional authori-
tios, restricting the powers of the police and granting civil liberties and
freedom of speech, press and public meetings, etc. The Supreme Court is
authorized to declare unconstitll tional any act of the Legislature or the
Executive which violates the constitution.
FINANCE. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending

31 March balanced as follows, in Im. yen (360 yen = US$I): 1955-56,
999,631; 1956-57, 1,089,652; IG57-58, 1,184,61·1; IG58-59, 1,333,083;
1959-60, 1,444,322.
1180 JAPAN
Of the proposed revenue in 1959-60 (in Im. yen), 1,121,241 is anticipated

from ta:res and stamp duties and 120,125 from' repayment-s of monopoly' .
On the '~xpenditUIe side the leading items are public works, 220,996; debt
redempl.ion, 55,373; assistance to local government, 248,649; defence,
153,665 ; education and culture,159,711; socialsccurity, 147,868; pensions,
122.915.
The national debt on 31 Dec. 1959 was 459,986m. yen domestic bonds
and 83,a05m. foreign bonds.
On :10 Sept. 1959 Japan's external debt consisted of £''53,156,461 in
sterling bonds, $85,395,lOO in dollar bonds and 115,727,000 franes in French
franc bc·nds.
Accc-rding to the Bank of England, in 19&1 residents of the U.K. held
Japanese investments with a nominal value of £38m. (£Wm. in 1938) on
which the income in 1954 was £4·2m. (£2m. in 1941, the last war·time year
ofservke; and £2m. in 1938); the increase is due to Japan's repayment of
principal and arrears.
LocM.. The estimated 1959-60 budgets of the prefectures and other
local aul,horities forecast revenues and expenditures aggregating 1,334,107m.
yen, the former to be made up partly by local taxes on land, houses, occupa·
tions, and partly by government grants and local loans; expenditures
include ·::apital investment of 374,468m. yen.
DEFENCE. In June 1954 legislation brought the ground, naval and

air servi ces under a Joint Staff Cowlcil which comes under the Director·
General of the Defence Agency, who is a Cabinet Minister.
The . Japan-U.S.A. security treaty of April 1952 gave the U.S.A. the right
to maintain armed forcea and bases in Japan. Under the Japan-U.S.A.
mutual defence assistance pact of Sept. 1954 the U.S.A. supplies almost the
entire eqnipment of the Japanese forces. The treaty of mutual co· operation
and security, signed on 19 Jan. 1960, put the two countries on a footing of
equality.
Arm:1. In Aug. 1950 Gen. MacAl'thur established a 'National Police
Reserve' of 75,000 men, who were placed under a civilian Minister of State
who also controlled the 'Nationa.l R.ural Police:
Und()r its new name of 'Ground Self·Defence Force,' it numbered, at
31 May 1959, 170,000 men and 13,480 civilian employees. It is composed
of 5 corps, 6 divisions, 4 combined brigades, support units, military police,
hospitala and schools.
The Northern Corps, stationed in Hokkaido, consists of 2 divisions, a
combined brigade, an artillery group, a tank group and an engineering
group. The Western Corps, stationed in Kyushu, consists of a division,
a combined hrigade, an artillery group and an engineering group. Three
corps are stationed in Honshii. A division (of 12,700 men) comprises 3
infantry regiments, 1 artillery regiment, 1 tank battalion, 1 engineering
battalion, 1 medical battalion and 1 air unit. A combined hrigade (of 6,000
men) comprises 1 infantry regiment, 1 artillery regiment, 1 engineering
battalion and 1 air unit (216 aircraft).
Nat'Y. The 'Maritime Self·Defence Force ' comprises 10 new destroyers
and 3 new frigates (all built in Japan), 4, destroyers, 1 submarine, 2 destroyer
escorts and 18 frigates (all acquired from U.S.), a radar picket dcstroyer, 2
minelaYHcs, 55 mineswecpers, 23 gunboats, 10 submarine chasers, 9 fast
pat.rol boats. a supply and repair ship and a c able layer. Pcrsonnel in
JAPAN 1181
May 1959 numbered 27,669 officers and ratings. Seven dest.royers, a sub-
marine, 2 submarine chasers, 9 minesweepers and 13 miscellaneous vessels
aro being built.
The Nary has a strong air arm, including 90 anti-submarine patrol
bombers, 80 trainers and 15 helicopters.
The 'Maritime Safety Board Organization' comprises 93 large patrol
vessels, 2lO patrol vessels, 9 patrol craft, 24 hydrographic ships and 89
supply vessels. Personnel in 1950 numbered 10,667 officers and men.
Air Force. An 'Air Self-Defence Force' WM inaugurated on I July
WM. In Sopt. 19;;9 it had 33,225 men plus 4,402 civilians. Its equip.
lD0nt included 32-1 F-S6J!' Sabre day fighters, 59 F ·86D Sabre all-weather
fighters, 2(H T-33A advance'] jet tr~iners, 304 pistoll.engined Texan and
Jlientor trainers :1nd 35 C·46 transports.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Farm population, 1 Feb. 1954, was

37·600. Those actively engn-ged in farm work rose from a low in Feb. of
some 12·5111. to a seasonal peak in Aug. of 18·600., representing the employ-
ment of 3·G persons per hectare of arable land.
AraLle land is estimated at 5,401,000 hp-ctares, or 16% of tho land area;
3,005,000 hect:1res are in rice 2,093,000 hectares in fi eld crops and 304,000
hectares in trees. About 315,250 boctares are devoted to industrial crops,
chiefly mulberry trees (for silkworm re~ring), tea, tobacco, flax and pyre-
thnlm. The foreqt and field area id about 2500. hectares.
For pCJst-war land reform, see THE STATESMAN'S Y EAR· BOOK, 1955, p.
1171l.
Rice is Japan's greatest crop, occupying 55% of the cultivated area.
Much marginal land is used at a severe cost in labour and fertilizer. The
entire crop is consumed plus imports (where possible) of another 15 or
20%.
Output ofrice averaged 26,7!l3·lm. lb. in 1936-40, falling to 22,590·21ll.
in 1953-54, lowest since the War, and recovering to 29,OOOm. in 1056-57.
Imports of milled rice rose annually from 7111. lb. in 1947 to 3,151m. lb. in
1954 bnt have since declined sharply, due to bUlllper crops in 4 consecutive
years.
Output (1950) of barley was 1,1 41,000 metric tons; of wheat (now an im-
portant crop), 1,4 16,000 metric tons, ~~nd of soya beans, 426,200 metric tons.
Sweet potatoes for se,eral decp~dcs have mitigated t.he effects of rice famines;
average crop is about 243,000 metric tons, while potatoes have crops averag-
ing 73m. bu. Fruit production is important: Peaches, pears, plums, apples,
grapes, persimmons and mandr.rills.
In Feb. 1956 t.he li ..estock census showed 3,480,000 cattle, 1,020,000
sheep and 1,510,000 pigs. Small Dtocks of goats, wool rabbits and fur-
bearing foxes are also maintained. Milk output i~ increasing-in 195G,
! ,153,631 metric tons of milk.
Forestry. Forests cover about two-thirds of the whole land area, with
an estimated timber stand of 722,400m. bd ft..
Fisheries. Before the War, Japanese catch represented OM-half to two-
thirds of the world's total fishing; annual a ..erage, 1035-37, 6·3m. metric
t·ons; 1958, 4,951,000 metric tons, excluding deep·sea fishing and whaling.
The whaling industry has expanded from 3 expeditions in 1955-56 (producing
17% ohlle total whale-oil) to 6 expeditions prepared for the 1957-58 season.
Output of \vhale oil, 1956-57, 83,729 metric tons.
1182 JAPAN
Mining. Production ill metric tons, 1958, of copper, 81,114; lead,

36,512; iron ore, 1,168,000; zinc,141,OOO; barite (1957), 23,319; gold ore,
8; silv"r, 209; aluminium,84,578; manganese, 273,859; ilmenite, 3,453;
cadmiulll (1957),886,000 lb.; magnesium, 405.
Output, in metric tons, of pig.iron, 1958, was 7,394,000 (1959: 9·4m.);
ordina17 rol1ed steel, 9,130,000; crude steel, 12·1m. (1959: 16·6m.); coal,
49·67m. (peak output, 1941,57,31 8,000).
Output of crude petroleum, 1959, was 382,500 metric tons and of natural
gas, 507111. cu. metres, almost entirely from oilfields on the i.~J,tnd of HonRhu,
but con:lUmption amouots to about 3m. metric toos; imports A.re cLieily of
crude oil which is processed in Japanese refineries.
Indvstry. Japan's industrial equipment, Dec. 1954, numbered 184,487
plants (4 or more workers) employing 4,740,000 production workers and
salaried employees, and producing goods valued at 6,056,973m. yen.
Japnn's textile industry before the War had 13m. cotton.yarn spindles.
After the War she resumed with 2·78m. spindles; ill 1957, 9m. spindles were
operating. Output of cotton yarn, 1958,438,940 metric tons, and of cotton
cloth, 2 •. 647m. sq. metres.
In wool, Tapan aims at wool exports sufficient to pay for the imports of
raw wool. Output, 1958, 92,800 metric tons of woollen yarns and Z:!3·7m.
sq. metres of wool1en and worsted cloth.
The rE1yon industry (the world's largest in 1(36) was heavily stripped
during the War, only about 30% surviving. Output, 1958, offilament.rayon
fabrics, (j76·1m. sq. metres; spun·myon fabrics, 936·4m. sq. metl't's; syn-
thetic fibre fabrics, 136·7m. sq. metres; silk fabrics , 180,881 tons; spun
silk yarn, 1,600 tons; raw silk, 333,573 (1959: 318,000) b[1.les (of 132 lb.).
During 1956 and 1957, Japan vms leading the world in shipbllilding.
Out of a total of 2·03m. gross tons built in 1937-58, 1·26m. was exported
(12'3% of Japan's total exports).
Electric power capacity, i\Iarch 19.57, was 13m. kwh ., of which 8·7m.
was hydro·electric; output, 1958, was 83·1m. kwh ., of which 58· Int. came
from hydro.electric plants.
LAE:OUR. Total labour force, 1 Sept. 1957, was 43·6m. (including

480,000 unemployed), of which 16·54m. were in agriculture and forestry,
660,000 in fishing, 600,000 in mining, 2·0Im. in construction, 8·llm. in
manufaeturing, 7·45m. in commerce and finance, 2·15m. in transport and
other plblic utilities, 4·99m. in services (including the professions) and
1·12m. in government work. Proprietors numbered 1Q·3m.; family
workers. 14·08m., and employees, 15·18m. ; total employed, 3()·56m.
In June 1957 there were 5,086,000 workers org'1nized in trade unions.
Th e largl'st fedemtion is the' General Couneil of Japanese Trade Unions'
(80hyo) with over 3m. members. A right·wing federa tion, the 'Japan
Trade Vnion Congress' (Zellro). founded in 1954. has some 758.000 mem-
bers.
COMMERCE. Trade, excluding bullion and specie (in 1,000 yen; from
25 April 1949, 360 yen = US$1 and 1,000 yen = US$2'77) :
1955 1966 1957 1958 1959
Imports 889,714,970 1,162, 70~,891 l,~4 2,092 ,410 1,091,510,000 1,295,280,000
Exports 723,81~,996 900,229,011 1,028,904,496 l.03M50.000 ) ,244,520,000
JAPAN 1183
Distribution of t rade by countries (customs clea.-ance basis), in US $l,OOO;
E :rporto I mports
1956 19.57 1958 195& 1957 1958
Ryukyus 61·8 65·7 65 ·4 22·2 17 ..1 14·9
H ong Kong 1 3~ ' 5 130·6 100·0 18·7 2~ ' 7 11 ·6
Formosa 77·9 84·3 90·0 45 ·5 67·3 75 ·6
Thailand 60·9 81·:; 83·3 35· 1 31·3 21 ·7
P hllipplnes 55·5 89·0 89' 5 116·8 113·8 99· 8
Indonesia 75 ·8 66·g 48· 6 83·0 62·8 36·1
Burma. 36·3 15·9 46·1 42·4 24 ·8 12·3
Ind in 10;,3 113·3 84·8 103 ·4 105·0 73·5
P akistan 17·7 16·6 ~2'O 1i0·6 41·2 34·2
Iran 19-1 29·4 47·6 17·1 30 ·2 27·5
Unl t~d Kingdom 63·2 73·7 105·2 66·6 98·5 69·3
Net herla nru. 26·8 31·2 40·8 12·1 16'4 17·3
France . 14 ·0 1 7'~ 8·8 21·6 28 ·8 20 ' 7
W""tGermany 36' 4 ()8·0 43·8 56·2 143·4 11 8· 1
Canada . 69-1 63·8 16·3 144·1 167·6 121' 4
U.S.A. 543·3 596·6 680·4 1,06,1'5 1,61 8·0 1,053 '9
Mexico . 7·1 7·5 J. 2·/ 128- 1 82·7 93·6
Brazil 45·2 25·0 41 ·9 50·2 45-0 27 ·1
Argentine 38·9 8·3 26·2 36·0 18·9 26 'S
Australia 30 ·9 42·1 62·5 24$·4 362·8 225·6
Korea 63·6 57·0 M·7 11-1 1202 11 ·0
Principal items in 1958, wi ~h volume i n 1,000 metric tons and value in

USSl m., were:
Importo, c.I.I. Volume Value E xports, f.o.b. Volnme Value
Wbeat and 60ur 2,279 164-1 Cotton fabrics ' . 1,246 276 '9
Rice 0')5 72'0 Rayon fabrics ' . 361 61'8
Sugar . 1,:!28 1:?(t' 9 Spun rayon fflbrics t 866 126·5
n aw cotton . 1.:W6 360'9 Iron and steel . 1,69Q 200·0
Petrolenm 1 • 19,718 410·9 F isb and UstJ products 268 171 ·1
Raw wool ' . 271 19·1-3 Shi ps aod boats ' 1,171 334·8
Iron ore 7,6:!3 123·. Metal goods 88·2
80ybeans 90<1 90·7 Apparel 148'9
Coal 4,615 96·7
1 K ilolitres. • F abrics, in 1,000 sq . yd. ' l m. lb . • 1,000 g ross tons.
J apan's trade balance with U.S., her biggest customer, has been (accord.
ing to U.S. cust oms' fi gures) as follows (in US SI ,OOO) ;
Yearly average I mports from U.S. Expor ts to U.S. T rade balance
1926- 40 220,008 2G7,978 + 42,9 70
1946- 65 :>~6,774 180,911 - 34Jj ,S;,)7
1 9~6 1,068,904 554 ,432 - 51-1 ,471
1957 1. 431) , I)S ~ 636,343 -793 ,739
1958 83'),600 6.0,800 - IG2,SOO
Total trade bet ween Japan and U.K. for calendar ycars in £ sterling
(British Board of Trade returns) ;
1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 9,213,353 24,208,159 24.194, 258 35,275,088 43,165,623
E rport,. from U.K . . I ,S07,.'~9 21,592,66-1 27.SMj,1~9 19,340,009 3 ~,2 1 6 ,69S
Re- expor1.8 from U. K. 303,364 2,270,336 1 .1 ~:;,183 835,7019 1,003,755
COMMUNICATIONS. Shippi ng. On 31 March 1959 the merchant

Beet consisted of 1,709 vessels (o ver 100 gross tons) o f 5,412,000 gross tons;
t here were 85 ships for passenger transport, 1,276 cargo and semi.cargo
ships (4,261,000 gross tons) and 348 oil tankers (1 ,151,000 gross tOllS). Only
59% of J apanese exporl:8 a nd imports is carried in J apanese ships (70% pre·
war).
1184 JAPAN
Roads. The total length ofroads (excluding urban and other local rows)
was 14;),675 km in 1959; the 'national' road~ extend 24,941 km, of which
5,471 km are paved; prefectural roads covered 121,734 km (4,572 km
paved). Motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1959, numbered 2·7m., including 319,000
passenger cars and 1,190,000 commercial vehicles.
Railways. The first railway was completed in 1872, between Tokyo and
Yokoh:una (29 km). Total length ofrailways, March 1959, was 27,787 km,
of whieh the national railways had 20,357 km (2,236 km electrified) and
private railways, 7,697 km (6,067 km electrified). In 1957 the railways
carried 10,779m. passengers (national, 4,324m.; private, 6,455m.) and
216m. t ons of freight (national, 178m.; private, 38m.).
Post. The telephone service, operated by a public corporat,ion, on 31
March 1959 had 4,334,600 instruments.
In 1958 wireless Bets numbered some 14m., television sets about
600,000.
Aviation. The principal airlines are Japan Airlines, Japan Helicopter
and Aeroplane Transport,s Co., Ltd, and :1<'ar Eastern Airlincti Co., Ltd.
Japan Airlines operate international services from Tokyo to San Francisco
and Los Angeles via Honolulu, to Hong Kong via Okinawa, to Singapore
via Bangkok, and to Seattle on the Great Circle Route.
Int,)rnational passengers by air (all airlines, including foroign airlines) in
1958 a;uotmted to 129,040 (out-bound) and 123,553 (in-bound). Japanese
companies flew a total mileage of 6,047,000 over domestic routes, carrying
568,857 passengers.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The pre-war yen had an exchange
value cof 23 cents U.S. On 25 April 1949 an official rate of 360 yen per US$
(and 1,465 for the £ sterling, later 1,008 yen for the devalued £) was estab-
lished for all permitted foreign-trade a,nd exchange transactions.
At I Jan. 1959, coins of I, 5, 10,50 and 100 yen were in circulation a~
well as the notes of the Bank of Japan, of 1,5, 10,50, 100,500,1,000,5,000
and 10,000 yen; the notes of I, 5, 10, 50 and 100 yen being gradually re-
pla.ced by coins of the same denomination.
Th{, modern banking system dates from 1872. The Nippon Ginko (Bank
of Jap.tn) was founded in 1882. The Bank of Japan has undertaken to
finance the Government and the banks; its funct,ion is similar to that of a
Centra l Bank in other countries. The Bank undertakes t,he actual manage-
ment of Treasury funds and foreign exchange contro!'
Bank of Japan notes (a new issue dating from March 194G) in circulation
at 31 Dec. 1959 was 1,029,467m. yen. The total gold and foreign currency
holdings of the Government and the Bank of Japan on 31 July 1959 stood
at VS~;I,20Im.
Th{. Yokohama Specie Bank (specializing in foreign exchange) became
the Bank of Tokyo in Aug. 1954. There were 87 banks and 5,467 branches
in Dec. 1959.
Th(, post office savings bank is modelled upon the British; deposits
amounted to 975,586m. yen at I March 1960.
}'ourteen foreign banks operate branched in Japan: Bank of Indo·China,
Hongbng and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Chartered Bank of India.
Australia and China., Bank of India, Mercantile Bank of India, Ba.nk of
Korca, Bank of China, Netherlands Trading Society, National Handelsbank
N.V., Bank of America, National City Bank of New York, Chase Manhattan
Bank, Bangkok Bank and American Express Co.
JAPAN 1185
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system was made obliga-
tory by a law passed in March 1921, and the period of grace for its com-
pulsory use was extended until 31 Dec. 1958. The following rates are
recognized: metre = 3'3 shaku; gramme = 0·266667 momme (-t.. momme).
The old measures are:
Kin = 160 momme · = 1·3227 lb. or 0·6 kg
Kwan or Kan = 1,000 " · = 8·267 lb. or 3·75 kg
Picul = 100 kin · = 132·27 lb. or 60 kg
Sun · = 1·193 in.
Shalcu 10 sun = 11·930 in.
Ken = 6 shalcu = 5·965 ft
CM = 60 ken = --h mile, 5·4229 chains
Ri 36 eM = 2·4403 miles or 3·9272 km
Ri square = 5·9550 sq. miles or 15·4334
sq.km
Tsubo = 3·9538 sq. yd
CM or Chobu, land measure = 2·4506 acres
Kolcu, liquid = 39·6804 Imperial gallons
" dry . = 4·9601 Imperial bu. or 5·1187
U.S. bu.
" timber = about ]0 cu. ft
'1.'0, liquid = -10 kokll = 3·9680 Imperial gallons
" dry . = 1·9851 pecks
Bale = 500 lb. raw cotton; 400 lb. cotton yarn; 100 kin = 60 kg or
132·3 lb. of raw silk.
Japan maintains embassies in Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Austria,
Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Cam bodia, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, Colom bia,
Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ethiopia, France,
Germany, Ghana, Greece, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Laos, Lebanon,
Malaya, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Peru,
Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thai-
land, Turkey, U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, U.K., U.S.A., Vatican,
Venezuela, Vietnam, Yugoslavia; legations in El Salvador, Finland, Hun-
gary, Irish Republic, Israel, Libya, Panama, Paraguay, Uruguay.
OF JAPAN IN GREAT BRITAIN (44-46 Grosvenor St., W.l)
Ambassador. Katsurni Ohno (accredited 16 May 1958).
Minister. Toru Nakagawa.
Counsellors. Kikuichiro Yamamoto (Financial); Keiichi Matsumum
(Commercial); Shizuo Saito.
First Secretaries. Kei Miyakawa (Press); Kiyohiko Tsurnmi (Consul-
General); Sankichi Suzuki (Transport); ?tlizu() Kuroda; Kiyohioa :\tikanagi;
.Jitsuo Okabe (Labour) .
Defence Attache. Capt. Y oshio Takahashi.
OF GREAT BRITAIN m JAPAN

Ambassador. Sir Oscar Morland, K.C.I\I.G.
Minister. E. R. Warner, C.M.G., O.B.E.
Counsellors. A. L. Mayall; H. V. Redman, C.M.G., O.B.E. (Informa-
tion). First Secretaries. P. A. G. Westlake, M.C.; I. 1. Milne; J. A.
QQ
1186 JAPAN
Turpin; C. Blyth (Com.mercial); L. Pickles (CoMular); W. J. Anderson;

G. R. Calvert, O.B.E. (Labour). Naval Attache. Capt. D. F. Chilton,
D.S.C., R .N. Military Attache. Col. J. Figgess, O.B.E. Air Attaclte.
Group Capt. H. J. Bennett.
There are consular posts at Kobe, Moji, Osaka, Tokyo and Yokohama •
.oF JAPAN U.S.A. (2514 Massachusetts Ave. 1.Ii'W.,
IN THE
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Koichiro Asakai.
Ministers. Akira Nishiyama; Gengo Suzuki (Financial). Counsellors.
Takeshi Yasukawa; Tadao Kato; Toshiro Shimanouchi; Seiichi Sato
(Comme'.cial); Hideo Suzuki (Financial). First Secretaries. Akira Naka·
zawa ; lIIasahiro Nisibori; Yonosuke Goto; Moriki Tani; Shinichi Sugihara;
Yusuke Kashiwagi; Hidemichi Kira; Hisaharu Kajita; Nobuyuki Naka·
shima. Defence Attaches. Col. Mitsusuke Tanaka; Lieut.·Col. Tadashige
Sakurai ; Capt. Suteo Ishida. Scientific Attache. Dr Seiichi Ishizaka.
OF THE U.S.A. IN JAPAN
Ambassador. Douglas lI:1a.cArthur 11.
Min isters. WilIiam Leonhart; Ben H. Thibodeaux, Gardner E. Palmer
(Economic). Counsellors. Lionel M. Summers (CoMut·General); Harlan B.
Clark; Howard P. Mace; Philip H. Trczise (Economic). First Secretaries.
Nicholrul M. Anikeeff; Robert A. Fearey; Robert P . Wheeler; John E .
Baker; Martin F. Herz ; John L. Stegmaier; Leonard Felsenthal; Arnold
Fraleigl;. (Economic): Harold N. Waddell (Consul); Andrew B. Wardlaw
(Commercial). Service Attaches : Col. Horace K . Whalen (Army), Capt.
John R. Bromley (Navy), Col. Robert G. Erumens (Air). Agricultural
Attache. Charles M. Elkinton.
Thcre are Consuls·General at Kobe and Yokohama and Consuls at
Fukuok;t, Nagoya and Sapporo.
Books of Reference
Statistics Bureau of the Prime Minister's Office: Slatt,e;ca/ Year·Book (from 1949).-
Statistil:al Abstract (from 1950).-,!{onthly Bulletin (from April 1950)
Economic Planning Agency: Economic SUTt.ey (annual), Economic Stalislic.! (monthly),
Economic Indicators (monthly)
}Iinis~ry of International Trade: Foreign Trade 0/ Japan (annual)
Minist ry (>f Foreign Affairs: Japan 0/ Today, 1958
Japan Times Year Book. (I . Year Book 01 Japan. Il, Who', Who in Japan. Ill. Bu.,lnts.
Direc10I'!I 01 Japan.) Tokyo, first issue 1933
Treaty 0/ Peace wilh Japan. (Cmd. 8392.) H.M.S.O., 19~1; (Cmd.8601 .) H.M.S.O., 1952
Acterm"", E. A., Japan', Natural Resources. UniT. of Chicago Press, 1953
Alien, G. C.,Short Economic History 0/ MOMm Japan. London, 1946.-J"pan', ECMWmic
Recoverv. R. lost. of Int. Affairs, 1957
Allabi Ne'.sprinting Co. This i , Japan. Tokyo, annu:>1 from 1954
Benedict, Rutb, Chrv,anthmutm and tht SIDOrd. London, 1947
Bisson, T. A., Zaibauu Dis,olution in Japan. Cambridge UniT. Press, 1964
Borto... R . (ed .), Japan. Cornell UniT. Press, 1951.-(Ed.), A Stkatd Lisl 01 Bookl and
Arlicks on Japan in English, French and German. Harvard Uni ... Press, 1964
Brown, D. M., Nationalism in Japan. Univ. of California Press, 1955
Bush, L. V., and Kagaml, Y., Jal'analia: Rtl,,""u Book I. Thing.• Japmu... I,ondon, 1938
Ohamberhln, B. H., Tiling., Japanest. London, 1936
Colbert, F:. S., Ltft· Wing Political MQfJ~ in Japan. New York, 1961
Colegrove, K., The Conslitutional DeotloprMn! 01 Japan . Evanston, Ill., 1951
Dore, R. P .. Land Rr/ofm in Japan. R. Inst. 01 Int. Affairs, 19b9
Farlev, M. S., Aspect. 01 Japan" Lobor P",61."... Ne., York, 1950
Gerr:Star~ey, A Gautleer 01 Japanese Place-Names. Cambridge, Mass., 1942
Hall, R. K., Education for 0 N .... Japan. New Haven, 1949.-(Ed.), Kokutai No Hong/.
CardiTWl Principles 0/ tht National EmitV 01 Japan. Cambridge. M&88., 1949
JORDAN 1187
Japan ~nnual. Japan Annual Publications, Tokyo, 1956
Jon.... F . C" Japan" NetD Ort/er in EfJll ~.ia. 1937-45. Oxford Univ. Press. 196.
Kenkyusba's New Japanese-English [anti Englu/... Japan ..ej Di<lionary. 2 vols. Cambridge.
Mass., and Berkeley, Cal.. 1942
Latourette, K. S., Short B£.lory of Japon. London. 1947
Mecking, L., Japan. Stuttgart, 1951
Miyazaki, S•• The Japanese Diaionary e.rplaineti in Engli3h. Tokyo, 1950
Nacbod, 0., Bibliography of Ihe Japanese Empire. Being IJ Cla.,ified Lisl of the Literatu"
Issued fin European La7U}uages since the P-u bliauion 0/ Fr. t707l Wenck"lern's Bibliography 0/
Ihe Japanese Rmpire [2 ""I. 1895-1906J up 10 Ihe Year 1929. 3 vol•. London. 1931
Nelo Japan . Mainichi Newspapers, Tokyo, annual, from 1948
Nihon Kcizai Shimbtul, 17uluslrial Review of Ja.p an. Tokyo, annual, (rom 1956
Praesent. H., and Haenisch. W., Bibliographic wn Japan 1933-1935. mU Erganeungm Gt di.
Jahre 1906-1932. Leipzig, 1937
Qulgley. H . S., and Turner. J. E .• TheN". Japon. Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1956
Sansom. G. B., Japan: ~ Short Cultural Hislory. London. 1931.-The IVeslem World and
Japan. New York. 1950.-~ IIise.".y of Japan. LondoD.1959
Slmpson, C., Picture of Japan. Melbourne, 1958
Storry, G. R., 7'IIe Double Patriols. London, 1957
Trewarth.., G. T., Japan: ~ PhJlsical, Cullural and Rtgiona/ Geography. Madison. Wisconsin.
and London. 1940
Ward. R. E .• Guitk to J a1,anese Reference anti Researth M aIerial in /he Field of Polilical
Science. Ann Arbor. 1949
THE HASHIMITE KINGDOM OF

JORDAN
AL M.Un.AKAH AL URDUNIYAH AL HASmMIYAH
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Kingdom is governed
by His Majesty King Hussein. G.C.V.O., eldest son of King Talal. who.
being incapacitated by mental illness, was deposed by Parliament on 11
Aug. 1952. The King was born 14 Nov. 1935. and married Princess Dina
AbdeJ Hamid on 19 April 1955. Offspring: Princess Aliyah. born 13 Feb.
1956. The heir presumptive is Amir Muhammad (born 3 Oct. 1941).
younger brother of the King.
By a treaty. signed in London on 22 March 1946. Great Britain recognized
Transjordan as a sovereign independent state. A new Anglo·Transjordan
treaty was signed in Amman Hn 15 March 1948. Tbe treaty was to remain in
force for 20 years. but by mutual consent was terminated on 13 March
1957.
The Arab Federation between the Kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan. which
was concluded on 14 Feb. 1958. lapsed after the revolution in Iraq of
14 July 1958.
On 25 May 1946 the Amir Abdullah assumed the title of King. and when
the treaty was ratified on 17 June 1946 the name of the territory was
changed to that of 'The Hashimitc Kingdom of Jordan.' This name.
instead of' Transjordan,' however. came into general use only in 1949. The
legislature consists of a lower house of 50 members eleoted by manhood suf·
frage (25 from East Jordan and 25 from West Jordan). and a sena.te of 25
members nominated by the King.
The constitution pll88ed on 7 Nov. 1951 provides that the Cabinet is
responsible to Parliament.
The cabinet was composed as follows in March 1960:
Prime Minister. Hazza 801 Majs.li. Foreign A//airs. Muss. Nasr.
Defence and Interior. Wasfi Mirza.. Finance. Hashem Jayyousi. Eoo.
1188 JORDAN
nomiC8, Reconstruction and Development. Khulousy 0.1 Khairy. Education.

Sheikh Muhammad Amin al Shanqiti. AgricuUure and Social Welfare. Akef
al Faiz. Health. Dc Jamil Tutunji. Public Works. Yacoub Mu'ammar.
Justice ,md Communications. Anwar Nashashibi.
National flag: black, white, green (horizontal); a red triangle near the
hoist, with a white 7'pointed star on it.
The official language of the country is Arabic.
AREA AND POPULATION. The part of Palestine remaining to the

Arabs under the armistice with Israel 3 April 1949, with the exception of the
Gaza strip, was in Dec. 1949 placed under Jordan rule and formally in·
corporated in Jordan on 24 April 1950; for the frontier lines 4ee map in THB
STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK, 1951. Amman, the capital, had, in I 95!J, an
cstimato~d population of 245,000.
Area, 96,500 sq. km; population (estimate), 1·6m. Of these, 886,746
(including 415,000 refugees from Israel) live in West Jordan (5/lOO sq. km)
and 720,000 (including 120,000 refugees) in East Jordan (91,000 sq. km).
Density of population per sq. km (non·refugees only), 47 in East Jordan,
68 in West Jordan (total area); 76 ill East Jordan, 177 in West Jordan
(cultivated area). The country is divided into the Desert Area and 8
district:l, viz., Ajlun, Amman, Belqa, Kerak, Ma'an, Nablus, Jerusalem and
Hebron.
EDUCATION (1959). Government schools, 889; private schools, 442;

number of pupils, 265,000; number of teachers, 8,019. Budget provision
for eduo~ation in 1959-60 was JD.2,721,600.
Cinemas (1958). Cinemas numbered 34 with seating capacity of 20,000.
Newspapers (1959). There were 6 daily newspapers with a total circula·
tion of 16,000.
HEALTH. In 1958 there were 235 physicians, 39 dentists and 2,858

hospital beds.
FINANCE. The budget estimate., for 1959-60 provide for expenditure

of JD.Z8·2m. and revenue of JD.30·75m. The deficit is being made up by
grants from the United States and the United Kingdom.
DEFENCE. The Army is organized as 5 independent infantry brigade
groups plus an armoured brigade. The armoured brigade consists of 3 tank
regiments, an armoured infantry batallion and an armoured car regiment.
There is also a partly mobilized national guard of about 30,000 men.
The Air Porco consists of a communications flight, 2 fighter squadrons
(Hunters and Vampires) and a training wing (Chipmunks, Harvards and
Vampires).
The Dead Sea flotilla includes 3 armed motor launches.
PRODUCTION. The part of the country east of the Hejaz Railway
line is :argely desert, but west of this line is potentially of high agricultural
value. The resources are agricultural and pastoral products; hillsides are
being terraced, fruit· trees planted, irrigation planned. Phosphate deposits
are under development. Potash is found in the Dead Sea, and possibly there
is oil in the southern area. A 55·year ooncession to explore for oil was
JOR.DAN 1189
granted to an American company in 1955. A similar concession was
granted to a Guatemalan Arab in 1957, but cancelled ill 1959.
COMMERCE. Imports in 1958 were valued at JD.34,028,700 and

exports and re·exports totalled JD.3,532,200. The main supplying coun·
tries were (in JD.lm.) the U.K. (7'(], including military supplies), West
Germany (3'7), U.S.A. (2·(j), Syria (2,8), Italy (1'4), Japan (1'3) and France
(I).
Total trade with the U.K. (in £ sterling), Recording t.o British Board of
Trade returns:
1~55 1956 1957 1958 195~
Import,. to U.K. 24,038 21,479 38,938 ~(l,900 69,244
Erports from U.K. . 6,170,105 6,270,229 4,782,875 6,082,t'l2G 5.i56,f.l61
lte-erports trom U. K. 52,485 54,399 68,988 4::,~ 59 :-;5,Cl::
COMMUNICATIONS. Road~. Asphalt roads connect Amman with

Jerusalem, Mo.frak, Nablus, Irbid, Hebron, Madaba, Kerak and Jerash.
Unmetalled roads have been constructed, making motor traffic possible
from Amman to all the chief towns in the country. The unmetalled road
from Amman to Ma'an and Aqaba has branches to Kerak, Tafileh and
Wadi Musa (Petra); the portion Amman-Ma'an is being rebuilt as an all·
weather road. The town of Jerash is joined by 0. good road to Amman.
The normal asphalted route from Amman to Derail. (in Syria) and thence to
Damascus is through Zerka and Ms.frak. The oasis of Azrak may be reached
by motor car from Mafrak, Zerka or Amman. Total length of all·weather
roads, 2,780 miles.
Railway". The Hejaz Railway from Derail. to Mudawara on the Saudi
Arabia frontier runs, with the exception of the first few milcs, through
Jordan territory. Communication between Aqaba and the railhead at
Naqb Ishtar is by road only.
Post. In 1958 there were 8,246 telephones and 52,167 licensed wireless
sets.
Aviaticm. Air Jordan maintains a daily service from Amman and
Jerusalem to Beirut, 4 times weekly to Cairo, and less frequently to Aqaba,
Damascus, Kuwait, Jedda and Dho.hran. Egyptian, Lebanese and Kuwaiti
airlines also operate in Jordan.
CURRENCY. On 1 July 1950 Jordan began to issue its owu currency,
the Jordan dina,., divided into },OOO fila. The Jordan dinar equals £1
sterling. Jordan is a member of the sterling area. The following bank·
notes and coin~ are in circulation: 50, 10, 5 dinars, 1 dinar, 500 fils (notes),
100,50,20 file (cupro-nickel), 10,5,1 fils (bronze). Circulation on 30 Sept.
1959 was JD.l6,566,710 in bank-notes and JD,464,322 in coins.
Jordan maintains embassies in China (Taiwan), Lebanon, Libya, Morocco,
Spain, Sudan, Turkey, United Arab Republic, U.K., U.S.A.; and legations
in Chile, Federal Germany, Iran, Italy, Japan, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia,
Tunisia.
0]/ JORDAN IN GREAT BRITAIN (7 Palace Green, W.S)
Ambassador. Anastas Hanania (accredited 5 Nov. 1959).
Counsellor. Zuhair Mufti .
1190 KOREA
.MiWary and Air AUacM. Lieut.-Col. Abdullah Bitar.

Fin,mcial Secretary. Major Fawzi Dia.
01/ GREAT BRITAL"i ll'i JORDAN
Am/lassador. Sir Charles Johnston, ICC.M.G. (accredited 22 Nov. 1956).
COIL/Me/lors. W. Morris; P. C. D. Archer (Labour, resident in Beirut).
Fir;t Secretaries. L. C. W. Figg (Consul); M. C. WhittaIl; A. D.
Parsolls (Press) .
Naval AttacM. Capt. C. K. T . Wheen, R .N. (stationed in Beirut).
lIfil.:tary AttacM. Col. J. B. Chaplin, D.S.O.
OF JORDAN INTHE V.S .A. (2319 Wyoming Ave. mv.,

Washington 8, D.C.)
Am,Jassador. Yusuf Haikal.
Fir.<:t Secretaries. Dr Ahmad Attiyate; Yacoub Taji Farouki. Military
and Ai;- AttacM. Col. Mohammed Is-Haq.
OF THE V.S.A. IN JORDAN

Ambassador. Sheldon T. Mills.
Counsellor. Eric Kocher. First Secretaries. Frederick B. Cook
(Consul); Peter R. Delaney (Economic). Army Attache. Col. Robert J.
Delaney. Air Attache. Col. Charles W. Hostler (resident in Beirut).
Books of Reference
The Department of Statistics, Ministry of Economics, publishes an Annual Statistical
Y tarbool (in Arabic and English).
TM C"",,'ilution o/IM Hashemite Kingdom 0/ Jordon. Amman, 1952
TM Economic Dl!t:e/optne>U 0/ Jordan. Report of the International Bank Mission. John.
Hopkins Univ. Press, 1957
Dearden" A., Jordan. London, 1958
G1ubb, ;r. B., The Story o/th< Arab Ugion. London, 1948-A Soldier with the Arab ••
London, 1957
Klrkbride, A. 8., A Crackle 0/ Thorns. London, 1956
Morris, ;:., The Hruhemite K ings. London, 191>9
Peake, F . G., A. Hisw", 0/ Transjordan and il3 Tribes. 2 vols. Ammo.n, 1934
Seton, C. R. W., Ugi$/ation 0/ Tram/ordon, 1918-30. London, 1931. [Omtinued by the
Government of Jordan as an annual publication: Jordan LegUlation. Amman, 1932 ft'.]
KOREA
TAl RAN
KOREA, which had for many centuries been regarded as a subject kingdom
by China and had been closed to foreigners, entered into treaty relations with
Japan in 1876, and, between 1882 and 1886, also with the Vnited States of
Amerka, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Russia and France. After the
RU88o-Japanese war of 1904-05 Korea was virtually a Japanese protectorate
until it. was formally annexed by Japan on 22 Aug. 1910.
}'ollowing the collapse of Japan in 1945, American and Russian forces
entered Korea to enforce the surrender of the Japanese troops there, dividing
the country for mutual military convenience into two portions separated by
the 38th parallel of latitude. Negotiations between the American and
RUBsians regarding the future of Korea broke down in May 1946.
On 25 June 1950 the North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel and
KOREA 1191
invaded South Korea. The same day, the Security Council of the United
Nations asked all member states to render assistance to the Republic of
Korea. On 7-8 July the U.N. forces in Korea were placed under the com-
mand of Gen. Douglas MacArthur (U.S.A. ); he was superseded by Gen.
Matthew B. Ridgway on 11 April 1951, who in turn was succeeded by Gen.
Mark Clark on 28 April Hl52. When the U.N. forces had reached the
Manchurian border, Chinese troops entered the war on the side of the North
Koreans on 26 Nov. 1950 and penetrated deep into the south. By the be-
ginning of April 1951, however, the U.N. forces had regained the 38th
parallel.
After the first year of fighting, Y. A. Malik, President of the Security
Council, broadcast on 23 June 1951 suggesting a cea,se-fire in Korea. This
was accepted by both sides, and 011 10 July representatives of Gen. Ridg-
way met representatives of the North Koreans and of the Chinese Volunteer
Army. An agreement was signed 2 years later on 27 July 1953. Exchange
of prisoners was com plated 6 Sept. 1953.
For the contributions of member· nations of the United Nations to the
war, Bee TilE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1954, p. 1195, and 1956, p. 1180.
GOVERNMENT. North Korea. In the north the Russians, arrIvmg

on 8 Aug. 1945, one month ahead of the Americans, who landed 8 Sept.,
established a Communist-led' Provisional Government.' This evolved into
the Supreme National AS~(lmbly, which, on 12 Sept. 1948, proclaimed tha
• Korean People's Republic.' The U.S.S.R. established full diplomatic
relations on 13 Oct. 19c18 and had withdrawn its armed forces by 25 Dec.
1948_ The North thereafter was governed by a coalition dominated by the
Cummunists, calling themselves the • North Korean (later .. Korean")
Labour Party'. President of North Korea is Yong Kun Choi; Prime
Minister, since 1948, Kim I1-sung. Foreign Minister is Pak Snng Chul.
Real control resides in the Politburo of the Labour Party; it consists of the
Prime Minister, Pa!;: Chang Ok and a woman, Pak Chong Ae.
South Korea. The first ~cneral election was beld, under United Nations
observation, on 10 May 1948. Tho National Assembly adopted a constitu-'
tion on 17 J1Ily, elected Dr Syn~man Rhee, leader of tbe Liberal Party,
President of the Republic on 20 July, and proclaimed the Republic of Korea
on 15 Aug., when U.S. military government enderl.
President Syngman Rbee WliS re-elected on 5 Aug. 1952 and 15 May
1956. The Vice-President elected on 15 May 1956 is Dr John 1\1. Chang,
leader of the oppositional Democratic Party.
The elections held on 2 May 1958 gave the Liberals 128 sents, the Demo·
crats 77 and the Independents 28.
On 9 Aug. 1953 the U.S.A. and Korea signed a mutual defence p~,~t and
on 28 Nov. 1956 a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of North and South Korea is

220,840 sq. km (85,266 sq. miles), with population (1944) of 25,120,174.
After it transfer of some frontier districts bv the United Nations command
on 12 Aug. 19M tbe area of South Korea is now 38.452 sq. miles and that of
North Korea, 46.814 sq. miles.
A cenSU8 in Dec. 1958 of South Korea showed a population of 21,909,742,
of whom 10,784,109 were males. There were also 24,657 foreigners. The
population of the largest cities in South Korea was as follows: Seoul, the
capital,I,642,599; Pusan, 1,044,581; 'l'aegu, 614,290, and Inchon, 318,683.
1192 KOREA
South Korea includes 9 provinces and Seoul City, which has provincial
status.
The capital of North Korea is Pyongyang (285,000 inhabitants in 1940).
RELIGION. Basically the religions of Korea have been Animism,

Buddhism (introduced A.D. 374) and Confucianism, which was the official
faith from 789 to 1910. Catholic converts from China introduced Chris·
tianity in 1784, but the ban on Roman Catholics was not lifted until 1882.
Estimated Christian population in 1958 was 1,039,814 (550,853 Presby.
terians" 242,034 Roman Catholics, 246,927 Methodist,s).
EDUCATION. South Korea, in 1958, had 4,474 elementarv schools, with
59,593 teachers and 3,790,352 pupils: 1,018 middle sohools (a 'few co·eduoa.·
tional) with 13,039 teachers and 397,801 pupils: 984 rugh schools with 8,975
teachers and 338,549 pupils. Primary education is nominally oompulsory.
For rugber education there were 56 colleges and universities with 76,574
students; in Seoul, 12 government colleges and 3 graduate schools are united
in the Seoul National University. For adult education (the campaign against
illitera(:y) there are some 3,100 folk schools, with 292,300 pupils.
The, Korean language belongs to the Ural-Altaic group, is polysyllabic,
agglutinative and highly developed syntactically. The modern Korean
alphab'3t of 10 vowels and 14 consonants forms a script known as Hangul.
CinemlUl. There were, in 1958,224 cinemas in South Korea, with a seat·
ing capacity of 152,000.
HEALTH. South Korea had 7,196 physicians on 30 June 1959, plus
1,200 <i,entists 3,630 midwives and 3,600 pharmacists.
FINANCE. Soutk Korea. The country is dependent upon contribu·
tions from the Western nations. U.S. economic aid, including military
assistance, from April 1948 to March 1958, totalled $2,238·4m. with plans
for a further aid of S322m. through 1958-59. Total foreign economic aid
and relieffrom 1945 to Dec. 1958 was $2,468·2m.
ThE' South Korean Government for 1957-58 expended 159,509m. kwan
for gencral purposes and 127,620m. for defence; the total, 287,129m., was
the supplementary budget. Revenue sources include taxes and National
bonds, 216,092m., and sales to the public of foreign aid supplies, 187.539m.
Re'Tenue, 1959, was estimated at 390,000m. hwan; 1960, 423,700m.
Expenditure, 1959, 396,500m.; 1960, 423,700m.
Nwth Korea. The North Korean budget for 1956 provided for a revenue
of 89,570m. hwan (the local kwan, not the South Korean one) and expendi.
ture of 86,002m. hwan. Aid from the U.S.S.R. and Cruna was estimated d
13,262m. kwan.
DEFENCE. South Korea. The army, in 1954, had 650,000 troops in
20 divisions. They have 40 battalions of field artillery and 7 tank com·
Danies equipped with M 36s, converted tank destroyers.
Th .. navy comprises 2 destroyer escorts, 4 frigates. 4 escort vessels, 9
patrol vessels, 10 minesweepers, 2 minelayers, 3 motor torpedo. boats, 3
gunbo"ts and 25 landing ships, also small craft and auxiliaries.
Th" air force has a fighter. bomber wing of 75 F·86F Sabre jets and wing
with obsolescent piston·engined Mustang fighters.
No:1k Korea. The air force is equipped with some 500 modern jet
aircraH, including Soviet· built MiG jet· fighters and I1·28 twin·jet bombers.
KOREA 1193
PRODUCTION. Agricullure. Korea is essentially an agricultural
()ountry with a cultivated area of approximately Hm. acres. In South
Korea more than 1·4m. farm plots formerly owned by .Tapanese (18'3% of
all the rice land and 8'7% of dry-crop land) were sold to Korean farm families
in 1948; about 3·3m. people benefited. A decree of June 1949 gave some
Im. tenant and part-tenant farmers the opportunity to purchase the land
they till.
The chief crops are rice (about 40% of the cultivated area, in the past
largely exported, and providing Japan with 10% of her consumption),
barley, wheat, beans, grain of 0.11 kinds, besides tobacco and cotton. The
rice crops (for 11.1\ Korea) reachcd their pre-war peak in 1937 at 2,712,752
metrio tons, but South Korea alone today surpasses that figure; output of
South Korea rough rice since 1954 has been about 7,ooom. lb. equal to
3,176,000 metrio tons; target under the revised 5-year plan is 8,770m. lb.,
designed to make rioe exports feasible. Imports, 1958, were 9,517 metrio
tons.
Ginned cotton production, for all Korea, 1934-38, averaged 114,818
metric tons; for South Korea, 1957-58, it was 225,276 metric tons. Silk-
worm rearing is also carried on; output of cocoons in South Korea was
1,163 metric tons in 1958. Output of tobacco manufactures, a government
monopoly, was 21,331 metrio tons in 1958.
Raising ofli vestock, once a flourishing and characteristic industry, ha.a
barely survived as a. by. product of agriculture. Bot the Government and
the U.N. are aiding its revival. In 1958 cattle numbered over Im. ; hog~,
1,324,200.
Fisheriu. The catch in 1958 was 395,193 metric tons. Whale fishing
is carried on off the coast.
.Mining. South Korea, in the year ending Oct. 1955, had 283 mining
eompaniee; coal furnished 48% of mining output, metal ores 37% and nOD-
metal orcs 15%. Mineral deposits are mostly small, with the exception of
tungsten; in the Sangdong mine South Korea has one of the world's largest
deposits of tungsten (3,012 metric tons in H(58) ; North Korea produced
in 1956, 1,497 metric tons. Korea is also an important supplier of graphite,
94,026 metric tons in 1958. South Korea's output, 1958, included (in
metrio tons): Anthracite coal, 2,670,944; iron ore, 261,162; copper, 7,645 ;
molybdenum,68,290; salt, 460,148; kaolin,21,565; gold, 73,135 fine oz.;
silver, 247,782 fine oz.; bismuth, 433'6; metal bismuth, 346'8; fluorspar,
5,948; lead, 2,437.
North Korea has the iron ore and almost all the important metallurgical
works; production (1958) in metric tons, of iron ore, Im. ; lead, 16,830;
pig.iron,405,000; steel ingots and castings, 400,000; gold, 130,000 fine oz.;
silver, 320,000 fine oz. Oilwells went into production in 1957.
INDUSTRY. North Korea. Industries in the North were intensively

developed by the big Japancse concerns, notably cotton spinning, hydro-
electric power and cotton, silk and rayon weaving. and the leading industry,
the nitrogeneou8 fertilizer works of the ChOsun Chilso Company and its allied
chemical factories at Hungnam, on the east coast. The 5 biggest power
stations and the projected station on the Yalu River, to be onc of the largest
in the world, o.re all in the North, as is Korea's sole petroleum refinery and 7
out of the 8 major cement works. All these plants have been reported
severely damaged and Bome destroyed.
1194 KOREA.
S01<lh KorM. South Korea ha.d in Oct. 1958, 8,810 manufacturing

plants, with textile·mills furnishing, in value, 29% of the totsl and food
processing, 12%. Cotton.manufacturing industry is fairly wen developed.
In Sept.. 1957 there were 415,552 active cotton spindles and 10,073 looms;
producl;ion, 1957, was 91·3m. lb. of ya.rn and 138·5m. sq. yards of cloth.
COD3umptioD of electric power, ]958, was ],513'7m. kwh., of which
614·5m . was hydro-electric.
COMMERCE. South Korea. In 1958 South Korea's exports were
equal to US$16·8m., while imports (including 'aid goods') were US$378·2m.
U.S . exports and re.exports to South Korea (excluding' special category'
exports) were: ]955, SI26·2m.; 1956, S9·2m.; 1957,87·4m. ; 1958, $12'4m.
U.S. imports from South Korea were : 1955, S6·lm.; 1956,89'710.; 1957,
S3·9m.; 1958, S3·1m.
Total trade between Korea (frolD W 59 only South Korea) and U.K. (in
£ sterling, British Board of Trade re turns):
19S6 1956 1957 1968 195:!
Imports to U.K. 22,331 669,92S 443,703 274,Oll 321,613
8xportl\ from U.K. . 1,197,166 3,432,407 3,150.610 2,665,265 3,266,395
Re·exports from U.K. 2,563 };;,722 27,600 15,M7 10,074
North K orea in 1959 imported to the U.K. goods valued at £32,711 and
exportod from the U.K. goods valued at £27,766.
COMMUNICATIONS. South Korea. In 1958 there were registered
9,264 ~essels of 314,464 tons.
Transport in the interior is by rail, road (motor car, oxen. pack.horses,
etc.), river and air. Motor vehicles ill 1958 totalled 28,933, including
14,103 trucks, 3,954 buses, 10,876 sedans and taxis. In 1958 there were
31,466 km of roads (including third·class roads). Roads are largely gravel
which has been crushed by hand and tends to be large; farm labourcrs are
required to devote one week each year to road work. In 1958, 2,978 km
of railways were in operation.
Post offices totsl 648; telegraph stations, 525; telephones (all govern·
ment owned) were 67,398 in 1959. South Korea introduced television on
12 May 1956; television receivers numbered about. 55,000 in mid·1959.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. South Korea. At the end of 1058
wholes:~le prices were 44% above the 1955 level and retail prices, 48%.
On 14 June 194() a presidential decree established a dual rate of exchange
for thE' won, one of 450 won = USSl for government transactions and
another of 900 won = $1 for all other transactions. Severe inflation followed
until 0:117 Feb. 1953 President Rhee abolished the won, substituting a new
unit. the hwan note, equal to 100 won. while 60 hwan = I U.S. Military
dollar. The Ilew unit is (since Oct. 19(8) in 7 denominations up to 1,000.
In Dec. 1953 the htvan was devalued to 180 = SI and 504 hwan = £1. The
hwan Las since depreciated and on 16 Aug. 1955 South Korea agreed to a
rate of 500 hwan to the dollar on most traJJsactiollS (but not on all) with
the U.s. South Korea has joined, 26 Aug. 1955. the International Monetary
Fund, but without a recognized par value for the hwan.
In Oct. 1958 there were 7 banks, semi·government and ordinary,
registe::ed in South Korea, with 3.415m. htvan paid.up capital. The 550
'financial associations' which handled co· operative buying and selling and
furnisbed banking facilities for their members, were reorganized as the
Agricultural Bank in May 1956.
KOREA 1195
The centr~1 government bank for South Korea is the n~nk of Korea,
formerly called the Bank of Chosen with a paid.up capital of lom. hwan.
It is the only note.issuing bank in its territory. On 28 Nov. 1956 it became
sole purchaser of domestically produced gold. paying the world price of $35
per troy 07;. in an effort to encourage goldroining.
Total money supply, 31 March 1954, was estimated at 36,296m. hwan;
in Dec. 1956, 120,925m. hwan; in Dec. 1957, 145,186m. hwan; in Oct. 1958,
167,420m. hwan.
Korea maintains embassies in Brazil, China, France, Federal Germany,
It.aly, the Philippines, Turkey, U.K., U.S.A., Vietnam; and missions in
Japan, Geneva and with the United Nations.
OF SOUTH KOREA IN GREAT BRITAIN (36 Cadogan Square, S.W.I)
Ambassador. Yu Taik Kim (accredited 28 Nov. 1958).
Counsellor. Tong Jin Park. F,:rst S ecretary. IIwoo Lee. N ilitary,
Naval and Air Attache. Capt. Kyu N.ttn Chae.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN SOUTH KOREA
Ambassador ana C01I8Ul·General. Hubcrt John Evans, C.M.G.
First Secretary ana Consul. C. C. Clemens. Air Attache. Group Capt.
H. T. Bennett. Military Attache. Col. M. E. Peppiatt.
OF SOUTH KOREA THE U .S.A. (2322 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,
I~
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr You Chan Yang.
Minister. Pyo Wook Han. First Secretaries. Shin Y ong Lho; Sangjin
Chyun. Service Attaches : Gen. Yang Soo Y 00 (Army), Capt. Chul Chon
(Navy), Col. Sung Yong Kim (Air) . Agricultural Attache. Dong Back
Yook.
OF THE U.S.A. IN SOUTH KOREA
Ambassador. Waiter P. McCollaughy.
Counsellors. Sam P. Gilstrap; Edwin M. Cronk (Economic) . F';rst
Secretaries. John W. Jago; DOllald L. Ranard (Consul); Robert W.
Tucker (Economic) . S ervice Attaches : Col. Lucien F. Keller (Arm.y), Crodr
Eugene E. Rodenburg (Navy), Maj. Douglas G. McAusland (Air) . Cmn.
mercial Attaclti. Joseph A. Camelio.
Books of Reference
Korea : An annotaW bibZioqraphv oJ puhli.:atinn.s. 3 vols. \Vashington, Library of Congre88,
1950
Summnrv 0/ EfJeRls relat'1IJ} 10 Korea [1910-50]. (Cmd.8078. II.M.S.O .. 1950
Guide to Geographical Names in Korea (Choun). Uuited States Board of Geographical
Names. \Va.shingt,on.1945
Kyung Cho Chung, Korea Tomo"(JtO. New York, 1956
Lautensach. H .• Korea. Stuttgart. 19:;0
Lew, H . J., N etD Eife Korean-Hnglish, E11g1ish-£areal'l Dictionary. 2 vols. Seoul,1947-50
Marclls, It. (ed.). Korean 8ludies Guide. Univ. of California Press, 1954
Oliver. R . T., Syngman Rhee, lhe man behind the myth. New York, 19aa
Osgood . C., 'l'he Koreans and their Culture. New York, 1951
Pyun, Y. '1'., K01'ea. my country. \Vashington . D.e., 1953
Thomas, R. C. W., The War in Korea, 19S0-';j.1. Aldershot , 1951
1196 LAOS
LAOS
HISTORY. Sometime previous to the 14th century a group of people of
the Tha,i race, which had been migrating southwards from the Yunnan during
two millennia, settled in the valley of the Mekong, overcame the indigenous
population, the Khas, and established rival principo,lities at Luang Prabang,
Xieng Kho\lo,ng and Vientiane. For a brief moment in the 14th century
these principo,lities were united and the Kingdom of Lan Xang (i.e., of the
Million Elephants) achieved dominion over the Thais ofpregent.day Thailand,
the Khmers of present. day Cambodia and the Annamites of present. day
Vietnam. Invaded during subsequent centuries by the Annamites and the
Burmefle, the kingdom in 1707 split into the Kingdoms of Luang Prabang
and ViE:ntiane. In 1827 the latter was conquered by the Thai. The former
was saved by the arrival of the French . Auguste Pavie, the French Vice·
Consul at Luang Prabang, succeeded between 1879 and 1895 in uniting the
rival factions in the country, and in 1893, after French soldiers had repelled
the Thai, a French protectorate was established at the request of the
Laotians.
In W41 the Japanese enforced the cession to Thailand of 2 Laotian
provin(:es on the west bank of the river Mekong. In 1945 French authority
was su?pressed by the Japo,nese. Soon after the return of the French in
1945 the Chinese forces responsible for the disarmament of the Jo,panese
establif.h ed a government in the north under Prince Petsarath, the foundl'r
of e. Laotian independence movement known as Lao·issarak. With the
withdrawal of the Chinese, the Lao·issarak were forced by French Ilnd
Laotian forces to Bee the country. On 27 Aug. 1946 a Franco·Laotian
modU8 '~ivendi was signed, which led on II May 1947 to the promulgation of
a consf.itution by the King. This provided for a united kingdom forml'd
from the two former kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Vientiane with a
constitutional mona.rchy under the Luang Prabang dynasty.
Under a treaty of 19 July 1949 between the President of the French
Republic and the King of Laos, Laos became o,n independent sovereign
state within the French Union. The bulk of the Lao·is.~arnk movement
returned to Laos, but a few remained in exile. On 29 Dec. 1954 under a
treaty signed by Cambodia, France, Laos and Vietnam, certain common
Bervice:! in which 80114 states had an interest were \.ransferred to the govern·
ments of the 3 Associate States. On the same date the Customs Union, to
which :La.os had belonged since 1950, was dissolved.
In April 1953 the Vietminh aided by the armed forces of 'Pathet Lao'
invaded Laos. (' Pat.het Lao' wtls composed of the relics of the Lao·issarak
moven:.ent. Its head was Prince Souphannouvong, of the junior branch of
the royal family, who was a member, outside Laos, of the Lao·issa.rak move·
ment C..om 1946 to 1949, until expelled for Communist sympathies.)
An agreement on the cessation of hostilities in Laos was reached at the
Gencv~ Conference on 20 July 1954. The agreement was signed on the one
hand (with the agreement of the Laotian Government) on behalf of the
C.·in·C. of the French Union forces in Indo·China, and on the other on
behalf of the Ca.·in·C. of the fighting units of' Pathet Lao ' and the People'!
Army of Vietnam.
Important articles of the agreement were: (i) The withdrawai of al\ Vietmlnh forces from
Laos within 120 days ; (11) the v.ithdrawal of al\ French Union lorees lrom Laos within UO
days except (a) up to I,WO omoors and n.c.o.s for the training of the Royal LaotilUl Army, and
(b) personnel up to tho number of 3,500 for the maintenance of 2 French mllitary establJab·
ments; (Hi) a ban on the introdllction 01 fresh troop~, military pel'!!onnel, armamenlA! and
LAOS 1197
munitions; (Iv) pending a poli~ical ee~t1emen~ ~be f1gblJng units of ·p..tbet Lao' to move
into tbe nortb·eastern I.aotian provinces of Phongs&ly and Sam·Neu... An international
commission com_d of represent&tives of Oanada. India and Poland is responsible for the
con~rol .. od "upenision of the application of tbe provitlions 01 tbe &greement.
After long negotiations Prince Souvann .. Phouma. tbe Prime Minister, and Prince Soupb·
annouvoog .igoed agreements on 2 and 12 Nov. 1957. ",hich provided for tbe restora~ion of
tbe royal governmen~'s autbority in the ~wo nortb·e&stern provinces ; the acceptance of
some 1,500 volnnteers from tbe Patbet Lao forces into the Royal LaotilUl Army o.nd tbe em·
bodimen~ 01 the res ~ in tt.e reserve; the incorporation of members of the Patbet L&o
..dministrntion into the royal administration; the transformation of tbe Pathet L&o move·
ment illto a leg-aIJy rec~Dized politic~1 pa.rty; and the entry of two members of the fonner
l'atbet LIlO (inclulling Prince Soupbanoouvong himself) into a Government of National
Cni~n . Tbe latter was formed 0019 Nov. 195;.
AREA AND POPULATION. Laos has an area of 236,800 sq. km and is

divided into 12 provinces. In 1955 it had an estimated population of
approximat~ly 2 m., a mean density of 8 inhabitants per sq. km. The
country is mountainous and in places densely forested. The inhabitants
belong to three races: Thai (Lao, Neua, Dam, Deng, Lu), Indonesian (called
Lao Theung, i.e., mountain people) and mountaineers of Chinese origin (Ho,
Yao, Meo). The largest group, the Thai, is Buddhist in culture and religion.
There are also about 40,000 Chineso and at least 15,000 Vietnamese.
The chief towns,are Luang Prabang, the roynl capital (population about
8,000), Vientianc, the administrative capital (population about 80,000),
Pakse and Sa,annakhet.
GOVERNMENT. The King is Hcadof State, C.·in·C. of the Army and

supreme religious authority. He appoints the Prime Minister, who is
assisted by a Council of Ministers. The legislative hody is a National
Assembly, elected every 5 years by universnl suffrage. It cnn be dissolved
by the King.
Following an agreement with the dissident Pathet Lao forces in Nov .•
1957, supplementary elections were held on 5 May 1958. Of the 21 seats
contested on this occasion 9 were won by the new, parliamentary, organ of
the former Pathet Lao, the Neo·Lao·Hak·Sat or Laotian Patriotic Front.
Four ~ent to thc Peace Party, 3 to the Nat.ionalists and 5 were returned
unaffiliated. Following a fus ion of the Nationalist and Progressive parties
to form the Laotian Peoples Rally, the strength of parties in the enlarged
Assembly was in Aug. 1958: Laotian Peoples Rally, 36; Neo Lao Hak Sat,
9; Unionists,2 ; Peace Party, 7; Democrats,3; unaffiliated,2; total 59.
The King. Tiao Savang Vatthana, succeeded on 29 Oct. 1959, 011 the
death of his father, King Sisavang Vong.
Under pressure from the Army a provisional government was formed in
Jan. 1960 and charged with the preparation of general elections.
Prime Minister. Kou Abhay. ForeifJn Affairs. Khamphan Panya.
Finance, National Economy and Agriculture. Leuam Rajasombath.
Defence. Gen. Phoumi Nosavan.
EDUCATION. Thcre were, in 1958, 770 primary schools (77,133

pupils); 1 high school, 5 colleges nnd 1 lycee provided secondary education
to 1,984 pupils.
JUSTICE. A new judiciary system came into force in 1951. The King
is the final arbiter of justice. There are courts of first and sccond instance,
;.od a su prcme court of appeal.
1198 LAOS
FINANCE. The budget for the Lao fiscal year 1958-59 (ending
30 June) again puts receipts and expenditures at K.I,145m. or something
over £Ll·5m.
DEFENCE. At the end of 1959 the Laotian Army consisted of abou\
24 batt;llions. There is also a small air force, equipped mainly with C·47
transports, observation and light communication aircraft, and 4 river
squadrons.
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. The chief products are rice (average
production, about 520,000 tons), maize (average production, 10,000 tons),
tobacco (700 tons), citrus fruits, stickiac, benjohn, tea, and in the Boloven
Mountains of Champassac, coffee (lOO tons), potatoes (700 tons), cardamom
and cin·chona. Opium is an important source of revenue. Cattle, buffalo
and pig are numerous.
FOrf,stry. The forests in the north produce valuable woods, teak in
particular; the logs are floated down south on the Mekong. Northern
Laos aLd the districts near Cambodia and the Annamese Chain abound in
game, and elephant, gaur and tiger are hunted. Elephants are trained in
forest work.
Mining. Various minerals are found in small quant';ties, but only tin is
mined at present, and only at one mine, Phontiou (1953 production, 560
metric tons of concentrates, 280 metric tons metal content).
lru111stry. Industry is limited to silk weaving, pottery, leather goods,
silver.work, etc. Modern saw-mills and rice-mills exist. 4m. kw. of
electricity were produced in 1950.
COMMERCE. In 1958 imports amounted to K.l,04Im. and exports to
K.55m. In 1956, the main imports were foodstuffs, textiles, machinery,
vehicles, and metal and metal products; the main exports were wood and
wood products, minerals and coffee. The chief supply countries were
Thailand (K.226m.), France (178m.) and Japan (51m.); the principal cus·
tomers were Vietnam (38m.) a.nd Thaila.nd (36m.).
TotHI trade with the U.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports 1.0 U.K. 646 300 460 1
J~xports 1rom U.K. . 25,317 115,865 267,343 81,274 71,771
Re-expor:" from U.K. 163 68 4,714 4
COI\lMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The river Mekong is an important
navigable waterway, but is interrupted by rapids. There are four navigable
stretches when the ship's speed is maintained and the river is sufficiently
high: Vientiane-8avannakhet (458 km), ships of 200 groBS tons drawing
!·75m. at 7 knot.; Savannakhet-Pakse (257 km), ships of 200 gross tons
drawing 1·75m. at 12 irnots; Pakse-KhOne-Saigon (690 km), ships of 500
gross tons drawing 2·50m. at 7 knots. These figures are good only for
certain times of the year.
Roa,u . In 1954 there were 2,800 km of roads, of which 607 km were
asphalt.}d and 1,125 roughly metalled. The remainder are usable by normal
traffic cnly during the 6 dry months of the year.
POSI. There were, in 1954, 25 post offices, 850 km of telegraph lines
and 12 radio stations. Telephones numbered 668 in 1958.
A viluion. Laos had in 1955, 5 aerodromes and 17 landing grounds.
Air Lacs and Air Vietnam maintain services between Saigon and Vientiane.
LEBANON 1199
The former also maintains services inside Laos. Air Laos and Thai Airways
provide a daily service between Vientiane and Bangkok; Air Laos and
Cathay Pacific Airways also each run weekly flights between Vientiane and
Hong Kong.
MONEY AND BANKING. Unller the Paris agreements of29 Dec. 1954,
between the Associate Stat,es and France, the parity of the piastre is to be
maintained for the time being at 10 fran cs = 1 piastre. On 31 Dec. 1954
the quadripartite Institut d'Emission ceased operations. With effect from
10 Oct. 1955 Vietnamese and Cambodian currency ceased to be legal tender
in Laos. The Laotian National Bunk is responsible for the issue of currency.
On 5 May 1955 the name of the curren cy unit was changed from piastre
to kip (abbreviated K.). Following revaluation in Nov. 1958, the rate of
exchange is K.80 = USSr.
OF LAOS IN GREAT BRITAIN (5 Palace Green, W.S)
Ambassador. H.R.H. Prince Khammao (accredited 3 Feb. 1959).
First Secretary. Lane Pathamlllavong.
Nilitary Attache. Cmdr Somly Manibod.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN LAOS
Amba8sador and Consul·General. J. M. Addis, C.M.G. (aocredited
March 1960).
First Secretary. O. Kemp, O.RE. (Consul). S ervice AttacMs : Lieut.-
Col. D. C. DeCent, O.B.E. (Army), Group Capt. F. Rothwell, D.F.C. (Air) .
Civil Air Attache. P. G. Hudson.
OF LAOS IN THE U.S.A. (2222 S St. NW., Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Nouphat Chounramany.
Pirst Secretary. Khamchan Pradith.
OF THE U.S.A. IN LAOS
Ambassador. Horace H. Smith.
Counsellor. John B. Holt. First Secretary. Julian P. Fromer.
Service Attaches: Lieut.·Col. Joel M. Hollis (Army), Cmdr John L. NuttaII
(Navy).
Book of Reference
Bulletin Slali3tigut du Laos. Viontiane. Quarterly
LEBANON
AL·JUMHOtTRIYA AL·LuBNA.NIYA
LEBANON is an independent republic and a member of the United Nations
and the Arab League. After 20 years' French mandatory regime, its
independence was proclaimed at Beirut on 26 Nov. 1941. On 27 Dec. 1943
an agreement was signed between representatives of the French National
Committee of Liberat,ion and of Lebanon, by which most of the powers and
1200 LEBANON
capacities exercised hitherto by France und£lr manda te were transferred as

from 1 ,Jan. 1944 to the Lebanese Government, The evacuation of foreign
troops was completed in Dec, 1946,
In (,ady May 1958 the opposition to President Chamoun, consisting
principd ly (though not entirely ) of Moslem pro.Nasserist elements, rose in
insurrection ; and for five months the Moslem quarters of Beirut, Tripoli,
Sidon and the northern Bekaa. were in insurgent hands, On 15 JUly the
U,S,A, Government acceded to president Chamoun's request and landed a
considerable force of army and marines. President Chamoun's term of
office e;,pired on 23 Sept. when he was succeeded by the Commander·in·
Chief, General Fuad Cbehab.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT, The first constitution of the

Lebanon was established under the French Mandate on 23 May J!)26, It
has since been amended in 1927, 1929, 1943 (twice) and 1947. It is a
written constitution hased on the classical separation of powers, with a
President, a single chamber elected by universal adult suffrage, and an
indeper.dent judiciary, The Executive consists of the President and a
Prime "linister and Cabinet appointed by him. The system is however
adapted to the peculiar communal balance on which Lebanese political life
depend;~. This is done by the eleotorallaw whioh allooates deputies accord·
ing to the confessional clistribution of the population, and by a series of
oonstitutional conventions whereby, e.g., the President is always a Maronite
Christif,n, the Prime Minister a Sunni Moslem, and the Speaker of tllo
Chnmb.~r a Shia Moslem. There is no highly developed party system.
Pr&:ident of the Republic. Gen. Fuad Chehab (took office 23 Sept. 1958).
P arliamentary elections were held between 9 and 30 June 1957. The
electioc.s were the first to be held on the basis of a new electoral law which
increasod the number of deputies from 44 to 66.
The Cabinet, re·formed on 8 Oot. 1959, is constituted as follows :
Prime Minister, M inister of Finance and of Def ence. Rachid Karame.
For"'ign Affairs. Hussein Oueni. Public Works and Health. Pierre
GemaY·31. Justice and National Econom,y. Philippe Takla. Interior and
Infornultion. Ali Bazzi. Pos13 and Telegraphs and Soc'ial Affairs. lIfaurice
Zoveill. Education and Planning. Fouad Boutros. Agriculture. Found
Najjar.
National flag: red, white, red (horizontal), with a green cedar on the
white stripe.
National anthem: Kullu na HI watan lil ' ula 1il 'alam (words by Rashid
Nachleh, tune by lvlitri EI.Murr).
AREA AND POPULATION. The Lebanon is a mountainous countrv

about 135 miles long and varying between 20 and 35 miles wide, bounded oil
the north and east by Syria, on the west by the Mediterranean and on the
south by Israel. Between the two parallel mountain ranges of Lebanon and
Anti-Llhanon lies the fertile Bekaa. Valley. About one·half of the country
lies at :~n altitude of over 3,000 ft.
ThE, area of Lebanon is estimated at 3,400 sq. miles and the popula tion
at 1·41D. The prinCipal towns, with their estimated population, are :
Beirut, 500,000 ; Tripoli, 100,000; ZahIe, 33,000 ; Saida (Sidon), 22,000;
Tyre, 12,000.
LEBANON 1201
Vital statistics, 1958: Births, 39,736; deuths, 6,835; marriages,
9,763; divorces, 532.
The official languftge i~ Arabic. French is widely spoken in official ftnd
commercial circle&.
RELIGION. About half tho populution aro Chri8tian~, who have
been indigenous since the earliest time of Christianity. There were in
1958, 792,000 Christians, of whom 42-1,000 were iVlaronites, 150,000 Greek
Orthodox, 69,000 Armenians, 91,000 Greek and Roman Catholics, 14,500
Armenian Catholics, 14,000 Protest.,tnts. Moslems numbered 536,000, of
whom 286,000 were Sunnis and 250,000 Shiites. There were also 88,000
Druzes and 6,600 Jews.
EDUCATION. Government schools in 1957 comprised 1,017 primary

schools (104,800 pupils), 9 secondary schools (1,771 pupils), 6 technical and
trade schools (476 pupils), 4 agricultural schools (213 pupils). 1 school
of music (353 pupils), 1 school of hotel.keeping (272 pupils), 2 teachers'
training colleges (:l5 studcnt8) and a reformatory (75 boys). There were
also 738 private schools (120,000 pupils) and 93 foreign schools of all
grades (40,800 pupils).
There are 3 universities in Beirut. The Lebaneso (State) Universit,y.
opened in Nov. 1951, had 374 students in 1958. The American university
had 2,177 students in 1958. The French university of St Joseph (founded
in 1875) had 1,649 students in 1958. The French Government runs the
Ecole Superieure de Lettres (273 8tudents in 1958) and the Centre d'Etudes
Mathematiques (154 students in 1(58), which offer courses to • licence' level.
The LE-banese Academy of Fine Arts includes schools of architecture
(125), art (80), music (50), political and social science (110), and law (100).
Cinc71UI8 (1959). There were 81 cinemas with a seating capacity of abou~
36,000.
Neu'spapers (1959). Of the 49 newspapers licenced, 3G appeared, with
a total circulation of 100,000.
FINANCE. Tbe 1959 budget balanced at £Leb.206m. Indirect tax·

ation accounts for more than half of the revenue. Main items of expense
in 1959 (in £Leb.lrn.): Defence, 44; public works and communications,
:!8; education, 31; interior, 19; finance, 14'5.
HEALTH. In 1957 there ,vere 1,260 physicians and 6,000 hospital
beds.
DEFENCE, The Army strengt.h is about 10,000, the gendarmerie about

2.500, the police force about 500 and the security force about 250 men.
The Army and tbe gendarmerie use British, American and French equip.
ment. Thero is a small Air Force of about 600 men, equipped with British
and American training aircraft, Dove light transport~, 6 Hunters and 15
Vampires; training is in the hands of a Royal Air Force mission. The
Navy consL~ted in 1959 of 4 coastal patrol launches and 2 landing craft and
nbout 200 men.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Lebanon is essentially an agricul.

tural country, ftlthollgh owing to its physical character only about 26%
of the total area of the country is at present cultivated. The forests of the
1202 LEBANON
past ha'-e been denuded by exploitation and the unrestricted grazing of

goats, and only about 80,000 hectares of indifferent timber remain, and soil
erosion is considerable.
The '~stimated yield (in 1,000 metric tons) of the main crops in 1957,
were ss follows : \-Vheat,6 2 ; maize, 17; barley, 23'5; potatoes,40; tobacco,
30; oliv,~s, 9; oranges, 85; lemons, 25; grapes, 75; apples, 37; peaches, 7;
plums, 6; pears, 6; apricots, 5.
Livestock (unofficial estimate, 1958) : Cattle, 88,000; sheep, 70,000;
goats, 4;~,OOO; horses and mules, 10,000; donkeys, 21,000.
J!ining, Iron ore has been mined in parts of Lebanon in the past, and
a small amount of mining and some export of ore have recently been
resumed . Galena has also been mined, but there is no evidence of occurrence
in quantity. Lignite is found in the North Lebanon and Mount Lebanon
areas, but the quality is poor and mining unprofitable in normal times,
Experimental drilling for oil was carried out in the Beka'a in 1953, but no
oil was found. The deposits of asphalt in Mount Lebanon appear to be small
and diffi·} ult of access.
Indu.stry . Industry as a whole is on a small scale. The most important
local industries are cotton spinning a nd weaving and cement production.
Silk yam and silk piece. goods are also produced, and woollen cloth from
imported yarn. Other industries include olive· oil production, tobacco
growing and cigarette manufacture, soap-making, match-making and tan·
ning. In 1958 the production of cement was 506,510 tons.
Tripe,li is the terminal of the Iraq Petroleum Company's pipeline bringing
crude oil from Iraq, and there the company also operate a refinery which
produces sufficient refined products to meet the country's requirements.
Another refinery has been constructed at Saida and brought on stream since
Feb. 1955. 789,722 tons of crude oil were processed at these refineries in
1958, giving H7,653 tons of ga.qolene, 77,269 of kerosene, 169,649 of gas.oil,
375,940 'lf fuel oil and I,H2 tons of butane gas. Saida is the t.erminal of
the Tram-Arabian Pipeline Company's pipeline which brings oil from Saudi
Arabia to the Mediterranean coast.
COM.\fERCE. From 1943 to 13 March 1950 Lebanon was linked with

Syria by a customs union. The basis of Lebanon's prosperity is commerce,
and Beirut may be termed the market of the Levant. Despite the dissolution
of the customs union, Beirut still remained in 1955 the main port of entry
int,o Syria, and there is also a large transit trade with Iraq, Jordan and
elsewhere.
In 1958 imports (excluding gold) totalled 1,252,7{il tOilS
(£Leb.5B,330,OOO); exports totalled 279,319 tons (£Leb.l26,767,OOO).
Of the imports, 10·6% came from Syria, 17% from the U.K., 13% from the
U.S.A., 9% from France, 7'5% from West Germany, 5% from Italy. Of the
exports, 17% went to Syria, 12% to Saudi Arabia, 9% to Jordan, 6% to
Iraq, 5% to Italy, 6% to France, 4% to the U.K" 5% to U.S.A.
Total trade with the U.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £
sterling) ;:
19~~ 19~6 19~7 1958 19~9
Imports to U.K. 1,927 ,806 2,473,314 2,157,973 2,243,272 2,387,368
Exports fmm U.K. , 9,83~,1l1 8,949,518 11,844,060 10,028,066 9,499,559
Customs duties are high and are usually imposed on an ad valorem basis;
the recei:pts from this source are the Lebanese Government's main source of
LEBANON 1203
income. The considerable adverse balance of trade is to a certain extent
offset by receipts from the tourist trade, and remittances from emigres.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Beirut is far the largest and busiest

port, 2,472 ships (total tonnage 3,775,2M) having loaded 331 ,212 tons and
unloaded 1,096,665 tons in 1958. Tripoli is now of littlo consequence, but
the Government in 1954, granted a credit of £Leb.10m. for its improvement.
The small port of Saida in the south may become more important as a result
of the building of the refinery .
Railways. The narrow·gauge railway of Lebanon was operated by a
concessionary company, Les Ohemins de Fer D amas, Hama et Prolonge·
menta (D.H.P.). In June 1959 the Government repurchased the con·
cession. The broad.ga uge railway is government.owned. The narrow-
gauge (l '05 metres) rack-railway is used only for goods traffic, connecting
Beirut (via Rayak) with Damascus (147 km), thence via Deraa with Haifa
(at present not in use) and with Amman and Ma'an. The standard-gauge
line (1 '435 metres) runs from the Israel frontier to Nakoura-Beirut-Tripoli
(192 km) and thence t o Homs (102 km) and Aleppo in Syria providing access
to Mosul, Baghdad, Ankara and Istanbul. Another branch of the standard.
gauge line connects Rayak, in the Bekaa Valley, with Horns (332 km).
The port area o f B ierut is directly connected with the standard-gauge line.
The railway system is operated at a considerable annual loss, attributable
largely t o unrestricted competition from road transport. On the Lebanese
sectors of the D.H.P. Railway 11 3,509 passengers and 733,680 tons of goods
traffic were carried in 1957. Receipts were £Leb.5,513,580.
RoaM. The main roads in Lebanon are good. The surface is normally
of asphalt and they are normally well maintained. The arterial roads are
as follows : Coastal north/south trunk route, Lebanon/Syria frontier-
Tripoli-Beirut-Saida-Nakoura (Israel frontier), 228 km; west/east trunk
route (for Damascus, 112 km), Beirut-Aley-Chtaura.-Lebanon/Syria
frontier, 65 km ; Inland north/south trunk route, Lebanon/Syria frontier
(Homs)-Baalbeck-ZahIe-Chtaura, 105 km.
The network of main roads and secondary roads for intercommunication
and connexion with the arterial routes is adequate and in general attains a
reasonable standard of efficiency .
Passenger transport elsewhere than within the town of Beirut is provided
for by a great number of small private operating companies running cheap
but irregular bus services, and long.distance taxi services. The greater
proportion of goods traffic is hauled by road.
At the end of Dec. 1957 the following numbers of vehicles were registered:
Private cars, 27,019; taxis, 3,200; buses, 1,189; goods vehicles, 5,368;
motor cycles, 3,070.
Beirut is the western terminus of Nairn Transport, Ltd, who run a bue
service to Damascus to connect with their traIlS, desert coach service to
Baghdad.
Posts. An automatic telephone system has been installed in Beirut.
Number of telephones (1 Jan. 1958),39,783, of which 32,142 were in Beirut.
'l'here is no telegraph, postal or teleph one communication with Israel. Num-
ber of wireless licences, in 1957, a bout 81,000.
Aviat.ion. Beirut International Airport is used by many internationa l
airlines which connect Lebanon with most countries in the world. Exten-
sive local services cover the Middle East, Persian Gulf and Europe. There
1204 LEBANON
are 4 national airlines, Middle East Airlines, Air Liban, Lebanese Inter.
national Airways and Trans·Mediterranean Airways. In 1958, 152,103
passengers arrived at and 162,290 departed from Beirut airport; 4,710
metric tons of freight were imported and 13,420 metric tons were exported
by air.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The official currency since 1 M ay 1920

is the Lebanese pound, divided into 100 piastres. Under the Anglo.French
Financial Agreement, concluded at Algiers in Feb. 1944. the rate of the
Syrian-Lebanese pound was fixed at 8·83 Syrian-Lebanese pounds to the
pound "terling. On the devaluation of sterling the official parity became
£Leb.G·13 = £1 sterling, as the Lebanon did not devalue. In 1950 the
official ,ate was changed to £Leb.6· Hl = £1 sterling.
In Nov. 1948 the Lebanese Government ratified a decree legalizing the
• free market' in foreign exchanges, and all imports effected by Lebanese
merchallts from the U.K. are paid for in free market sterling, the premium
on which varies, but in Aug. 1959 was quoted at £Leb.8·84 to £1 sterling.
Until the middle of 1949. Lebanon formed part of the French franc area.
At thal; time the British Government established a separate Lebanese
account; all sterling transfers between Lebanon and the scheduled terri·
tories are now subject to authorization.
At 2:0 June 1958 the notes in circulation amounted to £Leb.407m., gold
cover alDounting to £Leb.30S·7m.
Coill.s in circulation: 1. 21, 5 piastres (bronze-aluminium), 10. 25, 50
piastres (silver-copper). The Banque de Syrie et du Liban has the sole
right of note issue. The concession is for 25 years by an agreement signed
on 29 May 1937. The British Bank of the Middle East has branches in
Beirut ILnd Tripoli; the Eastern Bank has a branch in Beirut.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. A decree dated 22 Aug. 1935 makes

the use of the metric system legal and obligatory throughout the whole of
the couutry. In outlying districts the former weights and measures may
still be in use. They are: 1 okiya = 0·47 lb.; 6 okiyas = 1 oke = 2·82
lb.; 2 (,ke.s = 1 rottol = 5·64 lb.; 200 okes = 1 kantar.
The Lebanon maintains embassies in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, France.
Greece, Iraq, Italy, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Turkey, U.S.S.R., United
Arab Republic, U.K., U.S.A., Vatican; and legations in Belgium, Colombia,
India, han, Liberia, Mexico, Pakistan, Switzerland, Thailand.
OF THE LEBANON IN GREAT BRITAIN (21 KenSington Palace
Gardens. W.8)
Aml'Msador. Hussein El Jisr (accredited 4 April 1960).
First Secretary. Elie J. Boustany. Military Attache. Co!. Simon
Zouein (resident in Paris).
There are consular represent:l.tives at London and Manchester.
0]1' GREAT BRITAIN IN THE LEBANON
Aml'a8sador. Sir Ponsonby Crosthwaite, K .C.M.G. (appointed S Oct.
1955).
LIBERIA 1205
Counsellors. A. J. Edden, C.M.G .; M. Arab, C.B.E. (Oriental); P. C.
Archer (Labour).
First Secretaries. G. Mt. E . Paulson, C.M.O., O.D.E.; J. S. A. Selwyn,
1I1.D.E. (Commercial); A. Rendall; D. W. M. Pierotti (Consul); H. G.
Balfour·Paul (fnformation).
Naval Attache. Capt. C. K. T. Whecn, R.N.
Military Attache. Col. A. C. C. Brodie, D.S.O., O.B.E., M.C.
OF THE LEBANON IN THE V.S.A. (Suite 400A, Sheraton·Park Hotel,

Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Nadim Dimechkie.
Counsellor. Antoine Francis. First Secretaries. Hassib El Ahdallah;
l\Irs Angela Jurdak Khoury.
OF THE V.S .A. IN THE LEBANON
Ambassador. Robert M. McClintock.
Counsellor. Robert C. Creel. First Secretaries. Edgar J. Applewhite;
Ernest E. Ramsaur, Jr; Harry N. Howard (Consul); Trevanion H. E.
Nesbitt; Alex T. Prengel (Consul); Leslie G. Tihany (Commercial). Army
Attache. Col. Philip B. Stiness. Naval Attache and Naval AttacM for Air.
Cmdr Howard J . Baker. Air AttacM. Col. Charles W. Hostler. AUri.
cultural AttacM. Herbert K. Ferguson (resident in Cairo). Labour Attache.
Harold D. Snell.
Books of Reference
SUTISTIC .. L INFORMATION. Import and export figures arc produced by the Consell
Sup ~rieurdes Dooan.s. The Service de Statistique G~n~rale (M. A. G. Aynd. Chef du Service)
publishes" quarterly bulletin (i[1 l'rencb and Arabic) covering a wide range of subjects,
including (oreign trade, production statistics and estimates of the national income.
Di,il8al 'an hukll,nal Lulm<in StudIes 0[1 the government of Lcb8!lon]. American Cniv. 01
Beirut, 1nus
Grasemuck, G., and KamaI SaUbI. A Manual Of Leban..e AdminiJI,alion. Beirut, 1955.
Hitti. P. K., Lebanon in History. London, 1957
Rondot. P ., Ln institutions poJiJiqu~1 du Liban. Paris. 1947
Tabet. C. A ••EngliJh-A,abic Dictionary. Beirut, 1930
Ziadeh, N. A.• Syria and ]"obanon. New York, 1957
NATIONAL LmRARY. Dnr cl Kuttub. Pnrliament Square, n eirut; Librarian: Wnsse
lloroody
LIBERIA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Republic of Liberia. had
its origin in the efforts of several American philanthropic societies to make
permanent provision for freed American slaves by establishing them in a.
colony on the West African coast. In ]822 a settlement was formed on the
west coast of Africa. near the spot where Monrovia now stands. On 26
July 1847 the state was constituted o.s the Free and Independent Republic
of Liberia. The new state ,vas first recognized by Great Britain and France,
alld ultimately by other powers. The constitution of the Republic is
modelled on that of the V.S. The executive power is vested in a President
and Cabinet, and the legislative power in a legislature of 2 Houses, the
Senate (10 members) nnd the House of Representatives (39 members). The
President is elected for 8, the House of Representatives for 4 and the Senate
for 6 years.
1206 LIBERIA
The President may be re·elected for any number of subsequent 4.year

terms. He must be a citizen of over 25 years' residence and have un·
encumbo3red real estate to the value of $2,500. Electors must be of negro
blood and owners of land. The tribal people are not excluded from the
franchis'3, but, except in the centres of civilization, take little part in political
life. By the end of 1945, legislation was passed granting manhood suffrage
to the tIibes in the 3 hinterland provinces, which are now represented in the
legislature by one member each. In 1947 the franchise was extended to
women.
The official language is English.
National flag: eleven horizontal stripes, 6 red ones alternating with 5
white. In the upper corner, nearest the staff, is a square of blue covering a
depth of 5 stripes. In the centre of this blue field is a 5·pointed white
star.
National anthem: All hail, Liberia, hail t (words by President Warner;
tune by O. Luca, 1860).
Pres,:dent of Liberia. William V. S. Tubman (elected on 6 May 1943;
re·elected in 1952, 1955 and 1959).
Vice· President. William Richard Tolbert, Jr.
On 31 March 1942 an agreement was signed between the U.S.A. and
Liberia hy which the U.S. were given the right to construct, control, operate
and defE:nd airports in Liberia for the duration of the war. All the U.S.
armed forces have now been withdrawn from Liberia. On 8 June 1943 a
further mutual aid agreement was concluded with the U.S., which extended
lend·lea!.e aid to Liberil1 for the purpose of defence and enabled it to increase
its Armed Forces.
On 2:2 Dec. 1950 an agreement of assistance and co.operation was signed
in Washington whereby a development programme costing $30m. under
President Truman's Point Four Aid Plan is to be implemented under control
of a join'; American-Liberian Commission, set up for 5 years, later extended
for a further 4 years. American technical experts are carrying out surveys
and advising on development. Loans for road construction have been
granted by the Export.Import Bank of America ($20m.) and an Italian
company (S15m.); for the improvement of electricity supplies by the
Export.Import Bank (S7·25m.); for telecommunications by the U.S.
Government (S3m.), and by the Federal German Government ($6m.).
AREA AND POPULATION. Liberia has about 350 miles of coastline,

extending from the British colony of Sierra Leone, on the west, to the
French f:tate of Ivory Coast, on the east, and it stretches inland to a
distance, in some places, of about 200 miles. The boundaries were deter.
mined by the Anglo·Liberian agreement of 1885 and the Franco·Liberjan
agreements of 1892 and 1907-10. Early in 1911 Itn agreement was con·
cluded between the British and Liberian Governments transferring the
territory of Kanre·Lahun to Sierra Leone in exchange for a strip of un·
developed territory of about the same area on the south side of Morro River,
which now i~ the boundarv.
The total area is about 43,000 sq. miles. The total population is esti·
mated to be about 2·5m., all of the African race, Since the organizl1tion of
the frontier force the Government has obtained complete control of northern
Liberia nnd of the Kru countries in southern Liberia. The indigenous
LIBERIA 1207
natives belong in the main to 6 principal stocks: (I) The Mandigoes (Mu.
hammedan), (2) the Gissi, (3) the Gola, (4) tho Kpelle, (5) the Kru and (6)
the Greboes. The other principal tribes are: Vai, l\Iendi, Belle, Dey,
l.\Janoh, Geo, Bassa, Buzzi, Gbandi, Krahn and Geh.
There are about 6,000 Europeans and Americans. The coastal region
is divided into 5 counties, Grand 13a8sa, Sinoe, Maryland, Grand Cape
l.\Jount and l.\Jontserrado, and 4 territories, Marshal!, River Cess, SasstowIl
and Grand Cess, each under a governmen t superintendent.
Monrovia, the capital, has a population of 60,000 and is administered as
a commonwealth district by a Municipal Board appointed by the Presi.
dent. It is one of the 9 ports of entry along the 350 miles of coast, the
others being Robertsport (Cape MOllnt), lIfarshall (Junk), Buchanan (Grand
Bassa), River Cess, Greenville (Sinoe), Sasstown, Grand Cess and Harper
(Cape Palmas). Other towns are Kolahun, Voinjama, Zorzor, Kakata,
Suakolw, GbaTllga, Gants., Sanokwelle, Saklape alld Tappita.
The hinterland is divided into 3 provinces, Western. Central and Eastern,
which are subdivid<ld into 9 districts. Provinces and districts are admini.
stered by commissioners appointed by the I'resident.
RELIGION . The main denominations represented in Liberia are

Methodist, Bapti.~t, Episcopalian, African Methodist, Pentecostal, Seventh
Day Adventist, J.uthcl'an and Roman Catholic, working through missionaries
and mission schools.
EDUCATION. Schools are classified as: (1) Public Schools, main·

tained and run by the Government; (2) Mission Schools, supported by
foreign Missions and subsidized by the Government, and operated by quali.
fied Missionaries and Liberian teachers; (3) Private Schools, maintained
by endowments and subsidized by the Government; (4) Tribal Schools,
maintained by tribal authorities.
In 1958 there were 436 government schools, 134 Mission schools and 67
other schools, with a total of 1,758 teachers and 48,402 pupils. There is
also the government·maintained University of Liberia.
The !.looker Washington Institute, Kakata, was taken over by the
Government in 1953 as a technical training centre.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by a supreme court of 5 judgee.

circuit courts and lower courts. A criminal code was enacted in 1914; the
customs laws were codified in 1007 (t.nd revised in HHO.
FINANCE. The budg()t~ for cdendar years w e c~ n, follows (in USS):

]9;)(; l~.L~)i 1 Hl .5 7- ;J3 2 lar,9
Re VC1JtlC 14,S50,OOO :::W,l~],l~a ID,2~HU17j 17,SO~,166
E~pcnditllr c l'l,S M)~ ~O 18,;'~1.a~a 2 ~, 1.~0 ,2 S6 18,OS3,f1-1O
1 Actual. 3 Adn:ll, 1 Oct. 1D5,-30 Sept. I D;J8.
The ex temal debt amounted to Sl'i .7(J7 ,350 [It the end of ](1;38.
DEFENCE. For defence every citizen from 16 to 45 years of ngo capable

of bearing a.rms is liahlc to serve. The establishment organized on a militia
basis numhcrs 4,000, divided into 10 infantry regiments. There is in
addition an enlisted frontier force of 93 officers and 2,200 men. An Ameri.
can Military Mi~sion to train these forces arriv('d in Sept. 19:; \.
1208 LIBERIA
In 1!l5i the United States present-en Liberia with 2 coastguard cutters.

There He also a landing craft and the presidential yacht.
PRODUCTION. The agricultural, mineral and industrial resources of

Liberia are comparatively undeveloped.
Agriculture. The soil is productive, but due to excessive rainfall (from
160 to ISO in. per year), there are large swamp areas. Rice, cassava, coffee
and sugar cane are cultivated.
However, rice production does not equal consumption, and sugar cane
is grown for manufacture of locally consumed rum. Coffee production is
increasing (exports, 1958, over Im. lb.). Concessions have been given to a
German firm for a banana plantation and to an American firm for timber
cutting and bush clearing.
For.?stry. The forests arc mainly of the jungle mriety not well adapted
t,o production of timber. Many forest products a,re gathered for export, of
which J,iassava fibre (exports, 1958, 8,618,736 lb.) and palm·kernels (exports,
1958, 24,542,560 lb.) are the mo.~t important. The Firestone Plantation
Co. have large rubber plantations, employing about 35,000 men. Their
concess:ion comprises about Im. acres and expires in the year 2025. In
1958 the company had 86,026 acres planted and produced 83'8m. lb. of
rubber.
Independent produeers had a further 65,000 acres planted, producing
Hm.lb of rubber in 1958.
The B. F. Goodrich Co. was, on 9 July 1954, granted an 80-year conces-
sion to produce rubber and is developing a 58,OOO-acre plantation_
Mining. Diamonds are ofincrea.sing importance and there is some gold-
mining. Mineral resources have, however, not been completely surveyed;
but development of iron-ore deposits (known to exceed 25m. tons of good
quality) at Bomi Hills has been started by the (American) Liberia Mining
Co. The export of iron ore in 1958 was over 2m. long tons; the estimate
of the deposit is 80m. tons of 67'8% pure iron. The Liberia Mining Co. has
an area of 25,000 acres on an 80·year lease. The Liberian-German Mining
Co. (DELIMco) obtained an iron-ore concession in 1959.
In 1954 a concession was granted to the Liberian American Swedish
Mineral Co. to develop the iron-ore deposits at Putu. The Company dis-
covered in 1956 large deposits in the Nimba forest area; a port and 180
miles of railway are under construction to facilitate exploitation and ex-
portation.
Ind'IJ.stry. There are a number of small factories (brick and tile, soap,
oxygen, cement).
COMMERCE. Foreign trade for 5 calendar years was as follows (in $) :

1964 1966 1956 1957 1968
lmporto . 22.123.621 25,964,859 26,199,389 38,255,576 ~7,796.339
Bxporto . 26,378,143 42,839,791 44,537,771 40,362,175 40,277,OiO
The principal exports in 1958 were: Rubber, 326,122,934; iron ore,

$8,074,~24; diamonds, $2,263,516; palm-kernels, $1,005,740. Main im-
porters were: U.S.A. (328,922,233), Federal Germany (34,086,789), Belgium
($2,138,260), Netherlands ($2,089,054) and U.K. (31,259,801).
According to British Board of Trade returns, the value of the trade
between U.K. and Liberia was as follows (in £ sterling):
LIBERIA 1209
1938 1956 1957 19&8 1959
Import. to U.K. . 7,184 2,~n8,602 Z,·lGO,~44 1,782,80·' 2, 389,806
Eyport. from U.K. 77,644 Hi,6 SS ,OR4 16,198,287 8,988,360 3,067,466
Re-exports from U.K. 7,871 Z8,491 55,679 70,631 S~,753
The figw'es for exports fro m th e F.R. inc.lude th e value of sh ipping transferrer! to the
Libcrbu fl ag ; th e genuine exports nrc coos id erably lower.
Liberia was placed in the Ameri cc.n account area in 1052.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1058, 705 main-line ships en-
tered Monrovia. Of these, 197 were German, 89 British, 84 American, 98
Norwegian and 72 Dutch. There were also 449 calls made by coastal craft.
The Liberian merchant navy, in 1959, had a total registered gross tonnage
of over llm. Thc Liberian Government requires only a modest registration
fee and an almost nominal annual charge and maintains no control over the
operation of ships fiying the Liberian flag.
Constructed under the anspices of the U.S.A. Government. under lend-
lease terms, the port of Monrovia, a free port, was opened on 26 July 1948.
The river St Paul is navigable for a distance of 25 miles from its mouth
for small craft of shallow draught. The Cavalla River is navigable for 60
miles.
Railway. A light railway (for freight only) was built in 1051, connecting
Monrovia with the Bomi Hills iron-ore mines about 40 miles di<;tant. A
line from Nimba to Bassa (170 miles) is under construction.
Roads. There are about 1,000 miles of state and private roads in the
rubber plantations, fit for motor traffic.
The principal highway connects Monrovia with the road system of
Guinea, with branches leading into the Eastern and Western Provinces of
Liberia. The latter branch is scheduled to link eventually with roads in
Sierra Leone.
In the interior, communication is maintained by tracks, all goods being
carried by native porters, but secondary roads are being constructed by
native chiefs with state assitance, and transportation by vehicle is becoming
much more common. A llew bridge over the St Paul River, completed in
Nov. 1949, carries road and rail traffic to the iron-ore mines at Bomi Hills.
Post. There is cable communication (Compagnie des Cables Sud·
Americaine) with Europe and America via Dakar, and a wireless station is
maintained by the Government at Monrovia. There is a telephone service
in Monrovia, at Robertsfield airport and on the Firestone plantations.
There sre wireless stations at Monrovia, Bassa, Harper, Kolahun, Cape
Mount and Sinoe. The wireless stations at Harbel and Gedetarbo, near
Cape Palmas, have since 1928 been operated as a public utility by the U.S.-
Liberia Radio Corporation, a subsidiary of Firestone Plantations Co.
Postal agencies have been organized throughout the interior.
A commercial broadcasting station opened in Dec. 1959.
Aviation. The airport for Liberia is Robertsfield (over 50 miles from
Monrovia). An airstrip, the James Spriggs Payne Airfield, has been con-
structed 5 miles from Monrovia; it can be used by four-engined aircraft only
in dry weather. Air services are maintained by Air France, Pan American
Airways, Ghana Airways and Nigerian Airways; internal services, by
Liberian National Airways.
MONEY AND BANKING. The money in circulation is U.S. currency
lince 3 Nov. 1942, but there is a Liberian coinage in silver and copper.
1210 LIBYA
Official accounts are kept in dollars and cents. The Liberian coins are as
follows: Silver, 50·, 25·,10. and 5·cent piece.s; alloy, 2· and l·cent pieces.
British currency ceased to be legal tender after the end of 1943, and on
1 Jan. 1944 the Liberian dollar was raised to parity with the USS.
The Bank of Monrovia, Inc., previously owned by the Firestone Planta·
tion Co., was taken over by the First National City Bank of New York on
15 Sept. 1955.
The Bank of Liberia, Inc., was founded on 28 July 1955. An It.aiian
bank, 'I'radevco, started business at the end of 1955.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Weights and measures arc the same
as in Great Britain and U.S.
LibE,ria maintains embassies in France, Germany, Ghana, Guinea,
Haiti, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, United Arab Republic, U.K., and
U.S.A.; and legations in Belgium, China (Taiwan), Lebanon and the
Vatican.
OF LIllERIA m GREAT BRITAm (21 Princes Gate, S.W.7)
Ambassador. George T. Brewer (accredited 14 May 1959).
First Secretary. Henry B. FahnbuUeh.
The)'o are consular representatives at Cardiff, Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool,
London. Manchester and Newcastle.on.Tyne.
011' GREAT BRITAm m LIBERIA
Amlassador and Consul. General. Guy Hamilton Clarke, C.M.G.
Firsl Secretary and Consul. E. G. Andrews.
011' LIlIERIA m THE U.S.A. (5201-16th St. NW., Washington 11, D.C.)
Amlassador. George A. Padmore.
Fir8~ Secretary. Francis A. Dennis. Cultural Attache. Miss Laura W.
Tucker. Financial Attache. Magnus A. Jones.
OF THE U.S.A. m LIBERIA
Amtassador. Elbert G. Matthews.
Agricultural Attache. Ford M. IvIilam.
Books of Reference
Brown. G. W., The Economic H;"lo1'1/ of J,ib",i.. W... hln~toLl, 1941
001., H. H. feu .), 1'he J,iberian Yenr Book. Monrovtn, 1956
Huberich, O. H., The Political arod Legis/"I;,'" /{i</o1'1/ of Lih"";a. Ne ... York. 19J;j
Reed. W. E., R.connai..,,,,.. Soil SUMJI!1I of IAberia. Washington, 19~1
Ricbordsr,n, N. R., Liberia's Past and Prcse'nt. L ondon , 1059
LIBYA
AL :r.IAMLAKA AI. LIBIYVA AL MUTTAHInA
LIBY A became an independent, sovereign, federal kingdom under the Amir
of Cyrer,aica, Mohammed Idris et Senussi,llS King of the United Kingdom
of Liby(~, on 24 Dec. 1951, when the British Residents in TripoJitania. (!.Dd
LIBYA 1211
Cvrenaica and the French Resident in the Fezzan transferred their remain-
iri"g powers to the federal government of Libya, in pursuance of decisions
passed by the United Nations in 1949 and 1950. The King is married to
his cousin Fatima and to Aliyah Lamlun. III ~ov. 1956 the King announced
the appointment of H.I{,.H. Prince Al Hassan Rida as Crown Prince unless
he himself should have an heir.
Libya is situated along the north coast of Africa between Ras Adjir,
frontier point in Tunis on the west and Egypt on the east, from about
9° to 25° E. long. The extreme northerly point of Libya. is at about 33° N.
lat. According to an arrangement with France (12 Sept. 1919) as a result
of the Treaty of l!)J5, the western frontier extends in a curve from west of
Ghadames to south of Turnmo, including Ghat. According to the agreement
with France of 7 Jan. 1935, the southern frontier with :French West Africa
runs along a. line between Tummo and a cross-point indicated by 24° E.
long. from Greenwich and ISO 45' N. lat. In 1926 Egypt ceded the oasis of
Jarabub to Italy, in exchange for a rectification of the frontier near Sollum.
The eastern boundary follows in general the 25° parallel E . long. (See map
in THE STATESMAN 'S YEAR-BoOK, 1952.)
Tripoli fell under Turkish domination in the 16th century, and though
in 1711 the Arab population secured some measure of independence, the
country was in 1835 proclaimed a Turkish "l'"ilayet. In Sept. Htll Italy
occupied Tripoli and on 19 Oct. 1912, by the Treaty of Ouoily, Turkey
recognized the sovereignty of Italy in Tripoli.
After the expulsion of the Germans and Italians in 1942 and 1943,
Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were placed under British, and the Fezzan under
French, military administration. Britain recognizcd the Amir Mohammed
Idris el Senussi as Amir of Cyrenaica in June 1949.
A treaty of friendship and alliance between the U.K. and Libya, together
with military and financial agreements, was signed at Benghazi un 29 .Tuly
1953; and an agreement governing the use of bases in Libya. by the V.S .
forces was signed a.t Benghazi on 9 Scpt. 1954.
A Franco.Libyan treaty providing for the evacuation of French forees
from the Fezzan and for the delimitation of the frontier between Libya and
Algeria was signed on 10 Aug. 1955. A subsidiary agrecment on frontier
delimitation was signed in Tripoli on 26 Dec. 1956.
CONSTITUTION. The Constitution of Libya provide~ for a hereditary

monarchy with 8 . federal representatiV(l form of government through the
3 component provinces of Cyrenaica , Tripolitania and the Fezz(tn.
There are 2 Chambers. The Senate consists of 24 members equally
divided between the 3 provinces, half being nominated by the King, and
the other half by the 3 provincial legislative councils. The full term of
service in the Senate is 8 yoars, with eledion of half the members every 4
years. The House of Representatives is elected on the basis of I deputy to
every 20,000 inhabitants. In Jan. 1956, 55 membera were elected, 30 of
them unopposed
Each province has a WaJi (Governor) and an executive and a legislative
council, three-quarters of which must he elected. The WaJi is appointed
by the King, whom hc represents, on the advice of the Prime Minister, but
executive authoritv is vested in the President of the Executive Council, who
is appointed by the King in consultation with the Wali. Each member
(Nazir) of the Executive Council is responsible for a department.
1212 UBYA
Ara bic is thc official language. Tripoli and Benghazi form the dual
capital.
Prime Minister and Minister f or Foreign Affairs. Abdul Majid Koobar.
Def ence. Abmed AI·Hasairi.
Nat ional flag: red, black, green (horizontal), with a white crescent and
star in the centre.
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the kingdom is estimated at
1,769,640 sq. km, or 679,358 sq. miles. The population, according to the
census of 1954, is 1,091,830.
Tripolitania has an area of about 353,000 sq. km and a population of
746,064" mostly Moslem Arabs and Berbers, with considerable negroid inter·
mixtur,~, a dwindling number of Italians (now about 42,000) and small corn·
munities of Greeks, Maltese and Jews. Its capit&.I, Tripoli, has a population
(census, June 1.958) of 172,202, of whom 131,416 were Libyans. Other
important centres are Zavia (district, 115,114 inhabitants), Misurata
(distric ~, 66,735), Homs·Kussabat (district, 62,387), Zliten (district, 41,067),
TarhUDa (district, 40,639) and Zuam (district, 30,806).
Cyr>maica has an area of about 865,370 sq. km and a population of
291,32E,. Its capital, Benghazi, has a population of 70,533 (municipality
and di;trict, 134,239). Other centres are Barce (municipality, 10,014;
district. 36,423), Dema (district, 35,962), Beida (district, 30,998), Agedabia
(distric,t, 27,705) and Tobruk (district, 19,886).
The Fezzan has an area of about 551,170 sq. km and a population of
54,438. Its capital, Sebha, has a population of 7,193.
REUGION. Islam is declared the Statc religion, but the right of others
to practise their religions is provided for.
EDUCATION. During the academic ycar 1954-55 there were 249 boys'
element.a.ry schools in Libya (Tripolitania 142, Cyrenaica 72, the Fezzan 25)
and 78 girls' schools ; 6 boys' secondary schools (Tripolitania 4, Cyrenaica 2)
and ODE' girls' school (Cyrenaica); and 2 teachers' training colleges for men
and 2 for women (one of each in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica respectively).
In 195H-57 the numbers of schoolchildren 'vere in Tripolitania: 46,299
elementary, 2,347 preparatory, 762 secondary, 517 vocational school·
children, 1,120 students in teachers' training colleges; in Cyrenaica: 28,706
elementarj, 734 preparatory, 336 secondary, 356 vocational schoolchildren,
180 students in teachers' training colleges ; in the Fezzan: 3,869 elementary
and preparatory schoolchildren.
A Franco-Libyan school opened in Tripoli in 1956 and Tripoli College,
an Ang:o.Libyan school, in 1957; the latter had 96 boys and girls. There
are also a Clerical and Technical Training Centre in Tripolitania with 301
student.;, aCommerdal and an Industrial Training Centre in Cyrenaica, with
45 and 49 students respectively, and 2 agricultural training centres, one in
Tripolitll.nia and one in Cyrenaica, with 87 students. There arc, in addition,
in Trip.)litania 84 Italian schools (kindergarten, primary, secondary and
professional) with 9,049 pupils. The British Army runs schools in Benghazi
and Tripoli and the American Air Force at Wheelers Field Base (outside
Tripoli).
JUSTICE. During the British military occupation, a considerable

amount of legislation was effected by British Proclamations, which in many
LIBYA 1213
respects modified the basic Italian law. Libyan legislation is now rapidly
being built up; the Civil, Commercial and Criminal codes are based mainly
on the Egyptian model. Matters of personal status of family or succession
matters affecting Moslems are dealt with in Bpecial courts according to the
Moslem law. Similar matters affecting Jews are dealt with in a Rabbinical
court. All other matters, civil, commercial and criminal, are tried in the
ordinary courts, which have jurisdiction over everyone.
These courts include arbitrators (arbitri conciliatori); AhIiya (or native)
courts for minor matters; civil and penal courts in Tripoli and Benghazi,
with subsidiary courts at Misurata and Derna; courts of assize in Tripoli
and Benghazi, and courts of appeal in Tripoli and Benghazi. The Supreme
Court consists of a president and judges appointed by the King.
FINANCE. The estimated revenue for the fiscal year ending 31 March
1959 was £L12,128,622, of which £L5,445,765 was federal government
revenue. £L3,250,OOO was received as a grant from the U.K. under the
1958 financial agreement; £L3,392,857 was received from U.S.A. and
£L40,OOO from the Libyan Public Development and Stabilization Agency.
Expenditure during 1958-59 is estimated at £L12,3i3,417, leaving a
deficit of £L244,7!l5, which is to be covered by an allocation from reserve
funds.
The budget for 1!l59-60 balanced at £L13·4m., of which £L5m. have
been allocated to the federal government, £L6·2m. to the provinces, and
£L2·2m. to development agencies. The U.K. grant was £L3·25m.; the
U.S.A. grant £L3·57m.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Tripolitania has 3 zones from the coast
inland-the Mediterranean, the Bub·desert and the deBert. The first, which
covers an area of about 17,231 sq. miles, is the only one properly suited for
agriculture, and may be further subdivided into (1) the oases along the
coast, the ricbest in North Africa, in which thrive the date palm, the olive,
the orange and all Mediterranean plants; (2) the steppe district, suitable for
cereals (barley and wheat) and pasture. Tbis district is the one wbere
Italian colonization has chiefly spread; it has olive, almond, vine, orange
and mulberry trees and ricinuB plants; (3) the dunes, which are being
gradually afforested with a.cacia, robinia, poplar and pine; (4) the Jebel (tbe
mountain district, Tarhuna, Garian, Nalut.Yefren), in which thrive tbe
olive, the fig, the vine and other fruit trees, and which on the east slopeB
down to the sea with the fertile hills of Msellata. Of some 25m. acres of
productive land in Tripolitania, nearly 20m. are used for grazing and about
Im. for static farming. The sub-desert zone produces the alfa plant. The
desert zone and the Fezzan contain some fertile oases, such as those of
Ghadames, Ghat, Socna, Sebha, Brak.
The principal agricultural area of Cyrenaica 8 the plateau known aB tho
Barce Plain (about 1.000 ft above sea level). Cyrenaica has about 10m.
acres of productive land, of which comparatively little is suited for dry
farming but mostly for grazing and cereal cultivation. Grapes, olives and
dates are also grown, but a large proportion of the population is engaged in
animal husbandry. About 143,000 acres are used for static farming; about
272,000 acres are covered by natural forests.
In the Fezznn tbere are about 6,700 acres of irrigated gardens and about
297,000 acres arc planted with date palms.
The average annual cereal production of the whole of Libya is about
110,000 tOllS. Olive trees number about 3·4m. and productive date-palm
trees abont 3m. Livestock: 931,000 Bheep, 1,236,000 goats, 93,500 camels.
1214 LIBYA
Industry. Amongst the mote important industries of Tripolitania and

Cyrenaica are sponge fishing, tunny fishing, tobacco growing and processing,
dyeing and weaving of local wool and imported cotton yarn, and olive oil.
Tripolil;ania also produces bricks, salt, leather and esparto grass for paper.
making. Home industries of both territories include the making of matting,
carpets, leather articles and fabrics embroidered with gold and silver.
Two British, 9 American and one French oil companies have obtained
concessions both in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica and some of these oil com·
panies have concessions in the Fezzan. Eight of these companies are carry-
ing oul; exploratory drilling. Oil was struck by the Esso Company in
Dec. l!157 and by Oasis Oil Company in July and Oct. 1958. It is not
yet known whether the oil is sufficient to make its exploitation a commercial
proposition.
Production of electric power in 1957 was 50,667,897 kwh. in Tripolitania
and 23,643,768 kwh. in Cyrenaica.
COMMERCE. Total imports into Libya in 1957 were valued at

£28,076,000 (c.i.f.) and exports in the same year at£L5,415,000 (f.o.b.). The
main suppliers were Italy (£L7·7m.), U.K. (£L5·8m. and U.S.A.(£L4·6m.);
the main customers were: Italy (58'3%), U.K. (17%) and Egypt (9'2%).
1938 19.55 19~7 1958 1959
Imports 1;0 U.K. 7,126 1,135,466 1,338,540 1,010,528 734,648
Exports lrom U.K. . 14,278 5,436,379 6,860,627 7,340,764 8,306,545
COIIIMUNICATIONS. Tripoli (town) is connected by telegraph cable

with Mltlta and by telephone lines with Bengardane (Tunis). There are
overseall wireless-telegraph stations at Benghazi and Tripoli, and radio·
telephone services connect Libva with the U.K. and most countries of
western Europe. In 1958 some 8,500 telephones and 15,000 wireless sets
were in use.
The Tripolitanian railway (123 miles) serves the districts of Tripoli,
Tellil, Zuara, Azizia and Tagiura. In Cyrenaica, the railway covers the linea
Bengha:d-Barce, 66 miles, and Benghazi-Soluch, 34 miles.
The principal means of communication inland are the caravans, which
follow long-frequented routes. There are 3,831 km of carriage road. Good
motor roads connect Tripoli through Zuara with Tunis, and through Homs
and llilurata with Benghazi and thence with Tobruk and Alexandria,
Other roads go to Tagiura, Garian, Jefren and Nalut.
Surf'we communication between Benghazi and Tripoli is by twice.
weekly bus service, and between Benghazi and Alexandria by weekly bUB
service -to Sollum and thence by rail. Communication between Benghazi,
Barce, Dema and Tobruk is by frequent bus services.
Ben!~hazi is linked with Tripoli, Rome, Malta and Cairo by services
provided by B.E.A., Alitalia, Misrair and Air Jordan. In addition, French
and Belgian services link Tripoli with Europe and West and South Africa.
Tunis Air run a service from Tunis by way of Sfax and Jerba to Tripoli and
th ~nce on to Sebha in the Fezzan.
MONEY AND BANKING. The Libyan pound, which is equivalent

to the p'Jund sterling, is divided into 100 piastres and 1,000 milliemes. The
currenc~r consists of seven denominations of notes printed in Britain and of
five denominations of coins struck by the Royal Mint. Libya is in the
Sterling Area (see p. 115).
LIECHTENSTEIN 1215
A National Bank of Libya was established in 1955. As at 31 March
1959. its foreign assets amounted to £L19·8m., government deposits to
£L6·3m .• liabilities to £L20·5m .• and currency in circulation to £L8m.
The National Agricultural Bank has offices in Tripoli and Benghazi.
There are branches of Barclays Bank D.C.O. in Tripoli. Misurata.
Home, Benghazi and Derna.. The British Bank of the Middle East, the
Banco d'Italia. Banco di Sicilia. Banco di Napoli. Banco di Roma, the
Banque Misr and the Credit Foncier d'Algerie et de Tunisie have branches
in Tripoli; Banque Misr has also a branch in Benghazi and the Credit
Foncier in Sebha; the Arab Bank has a branch in Benghazi.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Although the metric system has been
officially adopted, the following native weights and measures are still \Ised:
oke = 1·282 kg; kantar = 400kes = 51·28 kg; draa = 46 cm; handa%ll =
68 cm.
Libya maintains embassies in Egypt, India, Italy, Tuuisia, Turkey, U.K.,
U.S.A.; and a legation in Japan.
OF LIDYA IN GREAT BRITAIN (58 Prince's Gate, S.W.7)
Ambassador. Dr Abdel Salam Busairi (accredited 11 Dec. 1958).
Counselwr. Assayed Fathi Aoidia.
Cultural Attache. Assayed Sunni IIIuntasser.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN LIBYA
Ambassador. D. M. H. Riches. C.M.G.
First Secretaries. In Tripoli: A. A. W. Landymore; C. J. Cowan;
W. Hickson (Consul); J. F. S. Phillips (Oriental and Consul). In Benghazi:
D. C. Carden; The Hon. M. S. Buckmaster (Information); W. R. Thomson
(Labow).
OF LIBYA IN THE U.S.A. (21:l7 Bancroft PI. NW.,
Washington 8, D.e.)
Ambassador. Dr Mohieddine Fekini.
Counsellor. Abdurrazak O. lI-Iissallati.
OF THE U.S.A. IN LIBYA
Ambassador. J. Wesley Jones. .
Counselwr. J. Paul Barringer. First Secretary. James H. Boughton.
Books of Reference
C888eriy, G.,TripoUta,,;a. London. 1943
Eva.ns·Pritcbard. E. E., The 8aflu.ri of ClIrenaica. Oxford,1949
Lcgg, H. J., Economic a"d Commercial Conditio", i" Ublla. H.M.S.O. 1952
LIECHTENSTEIN
THE Principality of Liechtenstein. situated between the Austrian province
of Vorarlberg and the Swiss cantons of St Gallen and Graubiinden, is a.
sovereign state whose history dates back to 3 May 1342, when Count
Hartmann I became ruler of the Principality of Va.duz. Additions were
1216 LIECHTENSTEIN
later 011 made to the count's domains, and by 1434 the territory reachcd ita
present; boundaries. It consi8ts of the two counties of Schellenberg and
Vaduz (until 1806 immediate fiefs of the Roman Empire). The former!n
1699 and the latter in 1712 came into the possession of the house of Liechten ·
stein and, by diploma of 23 Jan. 1719, granted by tbe Emperor Charles VI,
the tw.:) counties were constituted as the Principality of Liechtenstein.
Reigning Prince. FrancisJoseph 11, born 16 Aug. 1906; succeeded his
great uncle, 25 July 1938; married on 7 March 1943 to Countess Gina von
Wilczek; there are 3 sons, Princes Hans Adam (heir apparent, born 14 Feb.
1945), Philip Erasmus and Nikolaus Ferdinand, and one daughter, Princess
Nora Elisabeth. The monarchy is hereditary in the male line.
National flag: blue, red, with golden crown in the blue strip.
National anthem: Oben am deutachen Rbein (words by H. H. Jauch,
1850; tnne,' God save the Queen 'I.
COT.l8tit~ion and Govtrnment. The constitution, adopted on 5 Oct. 1921,
provides for a Diet of 15 members elected for 4 years by direct vote on the
basis (If universal suffrage and proportional representation. The capital
and se~t of government is Vaduz (popUlation, 1958,3,170), and there are 10
more ~illages all connected by modern roads. The principality has a High
Court ;1Od ita own penal and civil code. Since Feb. 1921 Liechtenstein has
had th.~ Swiss currency, and since Jan. 1924 has been united with Switzerland
in a cWltoms union; the P08t and telegraphs are administered by Switzerland.
He.u/, of the Govemment. Alexander Frick (3 Sept. 1946).
Ar'la and Population. Area, 158 sq. km; population, of Alemanruc
race (cen8us, I Dec. 19(5), 14,757. In 1950 there were 12,794 Catholics,
887 Protestants and 41 Jews. In 1958 there were 372 births and 142
deaths.
Ed'.ualion. In 1958 there wcre 14 elementary schools and 6 continua·
tion schools, with 2,733 pupils and 105 teachers (71 IDen and 34 women),
PoUce. The principality has no army. Policc force, 14; auxiliary
police, 40.
Finance. Budgct estimates for 1959 : Revenue, 10,106,660 Swiss francs;
expenditure, 10,254,924 Swiss francs. Public debt on 31 Dec. 1958,9,269,479
Swiss francs.
Pr<>duction, Industry and Trade. The industries are cotton weaving
and spinning, leather goods, pottery, artificial teeth, 8ausage cases, vacuum
cleaners and ironmongery. The rearing of cattle, for which the fine alpine
pastures are well 8uited, is highly developed. On 21 April 1953 there were
5,S77 cattle, 330 horses, 843 sheep, 451 goata, 3,704 pigs and 33,013 chickens.
EIE,c tricity produced in 1958 was 50,054,300 kwh.
Tol;al trade with the U.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 483 820,702 258,659 914,811 1,811 ,290
Exports from U.K. , 74 41,806 53,641 68,174 49,527
RIHlxpC>rta from U. K. 18,320 121,241 411,141 t28,523
Communicalion8. On 3 April 1943 a canal for irrigating the valley, 26

km in length, was opened. In Dec. 1947 a tunnel, 740 metres long and con·
necting the Rhine and Sa-mina valleys, was opened. The Arlberg expre~s
(Paris to Vienna) passes through the principality at Schaan.Vaduz.
Number of telephones, 1958, was 3,265.
LUXEMBOURG 1217
Books of Reference
Il<eheru<haft.!btri<hl d£r /urstli<hm lit<hlenstrin.,<hen Rtgitrung. Vaduz. A.onual, from 1922
jahrbUcher d.. HistQrischen Vera..... Vaduz. A.nnual since 1900
lliltbrunner, H., Da.J P'iirsttnlum wchtt1J..·:ltin. Zurich, J945
Liechtenstein, Eduard Prim~ van, Liechlensteins Weq (Ion Oslerreich eur Schwm. Vaduz,1946
l1aton. P., Lts lnslilutions d~ la PrincipaUl~ de Liechtenstein. Paris, 1949
Scbaedlcr, E., Fiir.~tenlum Liechtenstein. Vaduz, 1953- 56
Steger, G., Fiirst und JAndtag nach Liechlensteini.schem Recht. Vaduz 1950
LUXEMBOURG
GRAND·DuCHB DE LUXEM BOURG
TilE Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, situated betwcen Belgium, Franco and
Germany, is a constitutional monarchy, the hereditary sovereignty being in
the Naasau family.
REIGNING GRAND DUCHESS. Charlotte, born 23 ,Jan. 1896,

daughter of William, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Duke of Nassau (died
25 Jan. 1912) and of Marie.Anne, Princess of Braganza (died 7 July 1942),
aucceeded 9 Jan. 1919 on the abdication of her sister Marie·Adelaide (died
24 Jan. 1924); married to Prince Felix of Bourbon·Parma on 6 Nov. 1919.
Offspring: Prince Jean, H ereditary Grand Duke, born 5 Jan. 1921 (married
t o Princess Josephine·Charlotte of Belgium, 9 April 1953; offspring:
Princess Marie Astrid, born 17 Feb. 1954; Prince Henri, born 16 April
1955; Prince Jean and P rincess l\1argareta. born 15 May 1957). Princess
J~lizabeth. born 22 Dec. 1922 (married, 9 May 1956, Prince Fran~ois Ferdi·
nand de H ohcnberg); Princess Marie.Adelaide, born 21 May 1924 (married,
JO April 1958, Count Cbarles·Joseph Henckel de Donnersmarck); Princess
Marie·Gabrielle, born 2 Aug. 1925 (married, 6 Nov. 1951, Count Knud of
Holstein.Ledreborg); Prince Charles, born 7 Aug. 1927, and Prin cess Alix.
born 24 Aug . 1929 (married, 17 Aug. 1950, Prince Antoine de Ligne).
The civil list is fixed at 300,000 gold francs per annum, to be reconsidered
at the beginning of each reign.
On 28 Sept. 1919 a referendum was taken in Luxembourg to decide on
the political and economic future of the country. The voting resulted as
follows : For the reigning Grand Duchess, 66,811; for the continuance of
the Nassau.Braganza dynasty under another Grand Duchess, 1,286; for
another dynasty, 889; for a rep ublic, 16,885; for an economic union with
France, 60,133; for an economic union with Belgium, 22,242. But Fra.nce
refused in favour of Belgium, and on 22 Dec. 1921 tbe Chamber of the
Grand Duchy passed a Bill for the economic union between Belgium and
Luxembourg. The agreement, which is for 50 years, provides for the
disappearance of the customs barrier between the two countries and the
use of Belgian, in addition to Luxembourg, cmrency as Icgal tender in the
Grand Duchy. It came into force on 1 May 1922.
The Grand Duchy was under German occupation from 10 May 1940 to
10 Sept. 1944. The Grand Duchess and the Government carried on an
independent administration in London. Civil government was restored in
Oct. 1944.
Nationalflag: red, wbite, blue (horizontal).
National anthem: Ons Hemecht (words by M. Lentz, 1859; tune by
J. A. Zinnen).
RR
1218 LUXEMBOURG
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution of 17 Oct.

1868 was revised in 1919 and 1948. The latest revision has abolished
the' perpctually neutral' status of the country; introduced the concepts of
right to work, social security, health scrvices, freedom of trade and indust,ry,
and recognition of trade unions; and rc·affirmcd parliamentary democracy.
Tbe official languages are French and Luxembourgeois.
Tbe country forms one electoral district. An elector must be a citizen
(male or female) of Luxembourg and bave completed 21 years of age; to
bc eligi ole for election it is necessary to have completed 25 years of age and
to fulfil the conditions required for active electorate. The members of tbe
Chamber of Deputies are elected for 5 years; they receive a salary and a
travellhg allowance.
The Chamber of Deputies consists of 52 members, namely 21 Christian
Social, 17 Socialists, 11 Democrats and 3 Communists (elections of 1 Feb.
1958).
Tbe bead of the state takes part in the legislative power, exercises the
executi'~e power and has a certain part in the judicial power. The consti·
tution leaves to tbe sovereign the right to organize the Government, which
consists of a Minister of State, who is President of the Government, and of
at least 3 Ministers.
The Cabinet WM, in April 1959, composed as follows:
M ir..isler of State, President of the Government, Finance. Pierre Weroer
(Christian Social).
Fordgn Affairs, Foreign Trade, Armed Forces. Eugene Schaus (Demo.
crat).
Labour, Social Services, Public H eaUh. Dr EmileColling (Cbristian Social).
Interior, Tranllports, Arts and Science, Public Worship. Pierre Gregoire
(Christian Social).
Education, Agriculture, Viticulture, Population and Family. Emile
Schaus (Christian Social).
Works and Physical Education. Robert Schaffner (Democrat).
Justice, Economic Affairs and Tourism. Panl Elvinger (Democrat).
Besides tbe Cabinet there is a Council of State. It deliberates on
proposed laws and Bills, on amendments that might be proposed; it also
gives administrative decisions and expresses its opinion regarding any other
question referred to it by the Grand Duchess or the Government. The
Council of State is composed of 15 members cbosen for life by the sovereign,
who also cbooses a president from among them each year.
AREA AND POPULATION. Luxembourg has an area of 2,586 sq.
km, anti a population (1 Jan. 1958) of 317,853. The capital, Luxembourg,
bas 70,158 inhabitants. Other towns are Esch·Alzette, the centre of the
mining district, 28,832 inhahitants; Differdange, 17,946 inhabitants;
Dudelange, 14,937 inhabitants, and Pet-ange, 1l,521 inhabitants.
In 1957 there were 4,954 births, 3,811 deaths and 2,34.6 marriages.
REUGION. The popUlation is Catholic, save (31 Dec. 1947) 2,503
Protest.lnts, 870 Je,~s, 4,346 belonging to other denominations and 3,673
without. religion (or having given no indication on tbis subject). Tbe
Protestant Churcb is organized on an inter·denominational bMis.
EDUCA TION. Education is compulsory for all children between the
ages of 6 and 13. In 1957-58 the primary schools had 1,1l4 teachers (546
women) and 28,850 pupils; 22 higher elementary schools, 6 classical schools,
2 commercial and industrial colleges, 2 girls' colleges had together 4,137
LUXEMBOURG 1219
pupils, 4 technical schools had 3,072 pupils, 2 teachers' training colleges
(male and female) had 218 students; there are alBo a mining school, a
college of agriculture and an academy of music.
Cinemas (1958). There were 51 cinemas with a seating capacity of 21,200.
Newspapers (195S). There were 5 daily newspapers with an aggregate
circulation of 146,000.
FINANCE. Revenue and expendituro (including extraordinary) for
calendar years (in 1,000 francs) :
191i3 1954 1955 1956' 1957' 1958 '
neV~Ili1e 3,670,9n 3,857,r,90 ~,096,388 3,605,923 4.M;2.510 4,997,709
Bxpemlitur-e 4,292,261 4,314,193 5,0.3,112 4,140,598 4,667,28~ 5,080,902
1 EstimateI').
Consolidated debt in Sept. 1058 amounted to 4,IS8,:J34,000 francs (long.

term), and 3,144,511,000 francs (short.term).
DEFENCE. The Treaty of London of 1867 imposed disarmed neutrality
on Luxembourg. Luxembourg has, however, de facto abandoned its tradi·
tional neutral status and by decree of 30 Nov. 1944 has adopted obligatory
military service. The constitutional changes necessitated by this decision
were passed by parliament on 28 April 1945.
The armed forces are included in the military organizations set up under
the BruGsels Treaty (17 March 1948) and the North Atlantic Treaty (4 April
1949), The defence estimates for 1958 amounted to 403m. francs. The
,.rmy consists of about 3,000 men.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Agriculture is carried on by about
100.000 oft.he population; 140,263 hectares were under cultivation in 1958.
The principal crops are oats, potatoes and wheat.
Livestock (May 1958): 7,~8:! horses, 137,576 cattle, 112,O::!9 pigs,
1,H.~7 sheep.
Mining. The mining and metallurgical industries are the most im·
portant. In 1958 production (in metric tons) of iron ore was 6,637,H98;
of pig. iron, 3,284,485; of steel, 3,378,820.
The number of blast furnaces in 1958 was 28, that of steelworks, 7;
number of workers in the mining and metallurgical industries, 23,773.
E!ectricity. Power production was 1,211,471,154 kwh. in 1957.
COMMERCE. By treaty of 5 Sept. 1944, signed in London, and the
treaty of 14 March 1947, signed in The Hague, the Grand Duchy, together
with Belgium and the Netherlands, became a party to the Benelux CustoUlS
Union, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1948. For further particulars ~et
pp. S:H and 1266.
Total trade between Luxembourg and U.K. (British Board of TTRd"
returns), in £ sterling:
1938 19M IB57 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 568,173 2.~5S,4 74 1,402.072 351,485 506,613
Export.'! from U.K .. 24,811 375,737 305,923 475,803 448,312
Re·c:rports from U. K. 6,315 36,091 70,904 24,010 21,213
COMMUNICATIONS. Ra-zM. In 1958 there were 2,791 km of state

roads and 1,!J(l3 km of local roads. Motor vehicles registered in Luxembourg
in Dec. 1957 included 27,611 passenger cars, 6,990 trucks, 310 buses, 6,199
tradors and 10,075 motor cycles.
1220 LUXEMBOURG
Railwaya. In 1957 there were 393 km ofra.ilway (normal gauge).

Po.t. In 1958 there were 2 telephone systems, with 16,740 km of
telegraph and telephone line and 41,416 telephones, 94 post offices and 501
telegraph offices.
CUHRENCY. According to a decree of 14 Oct. 1944, the Luxembourg
franc was fixed at par value with the Belgian franc. Belgian bank-notes
are received in payment in the Grand Duchy. Notes ofthe Belgian National
Bank are legal tender in Luxembourg. On 31 Dec. 1957 there were 180,359
depositors in tho State Savings Bank, with a total of 3,901,106,819 francs to
their credit.
Lux'3mbourg maintains embassies in Belgium, France, the Federal
Repubhc of Germany, Netherlands, U.K. and U.S.A.; and legations in
Switzerl.and and U.S.S.R. (also for Poland). In virtue of an agreement of
6/7 Jan. 1880 the Netherlands diplomatic agencies represent Luxembourg
in 53 other countries.
Oll LUXEMBOURG IN GREAT BRITAIN (27 Wilton Crescent, S.W.l)
Amba.saador. Andre J. elasen (accredited as ambassador, 27 Oct.
1955).
Sec',~ta,y. Michel Graffe.
011' GREAT BRITAIN IN LUXEMBOURG

Ambassador. Harold Freese-Pennefather, C.M.G. (accredited 5 Nov.
1957).
First Secretary. C. A. Thompson (Consul).
The following members are resident in Brussels: Counsellor. J. R.
Cotton, O.B.E. (Commercial). Military AttacM. Brig. A. R. J. Villiers.
Air Att.uM. Group Capt. P. J. Halford, A.F.C. First Secretary. W. H.
Marsh (Labour).
There is a consular representative in Luxembourg.
OF LUXEMBOURG IN THE U.S.A. (2200 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,
Washington 8, D .C.)
Amba.ssador. Georges Heisbourg.
OF THE U.S.A. IN LUXEMBOURG
Ambassador. Vinton Chapin.
Coun.sellor. Richard Friedman (Consul). First Secretary. Nathan R.
Meadows (Consul). Army Attache. Col. Henry L. Walton. Air Attache.
Col. Woodrow T. :Merrill. Agricultural Attache. Howard J. Dogge
Books of Reference
STATBTlCAL lID'ORMATlON. The Office de la Statistiqlle G~ncral. was founded in 1900
(19, AVe;lue de la Porte Nellve, Lllumbourg·Oity). Director: G~rard Schlechw. Main
pnblicatj'JD.S: Bulktin 'rimes/rifl alaJistiqtu.-.Antluairt s/.atistique.-.11nnuairl offiriel (from
1910).
Stati&tiqu,~.J ~conomique.J luxemhofJrgeoi$~.J. Lt.u:embourg,1955
Le Lu.:r~mbourg: Liflre au Cenl.enaire. Luxembourg, 1948
Herchen, A., Manuel d'hiswire nationale. Luxembourg, 1947
Msjerus, P., L. L=emb""rg incUpendant. Luxembourg, 1948.-L'Jrem LU3Iembourv,oil.
Luxembourg, 1948
MEXICO 1221
Petit, J., Luxembourg Yesterdav and TodaV. Luxembourg, 1963
Weber, P., Oescllichte Luxem1Jurgs im ewe'itm lfellkrieg. Luxembourg, 1947.-Bi.ftoirt du
(hond-Duche de Luxembourg. Brussels,1949
NATIONAL LmRAI\Y. Luxemboarg-City, Ha Boulevard Royal. (Dirtc/()r: Prol. Dr A..
Spr.lUck).
MEXICO
ESTADOS UNIDOS MEXICANOS
MEXICO'S history falls into four epochs: the era of the Indian empire (before
1521), the Spanish colonial phase (1521-1810), the period of national forma.-
tion (1810-1910). which includes the war of independence (1810-21) and the
long presidency of Porfirio Dia:!. (1876-80. 1884-1911). and the present
period which began with the social revolution of 1911-21 and is regarded
by Mexicans as the period of social and national consolidation,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A new constitution. amend-
ing the constitution of 1857. was promulgated on 5 Feb Hll 7. and amended
frequently from 1929 to 1953. Mexico is a federative republic. divided into
29 states each of which has the right to manage its own local affairs. Citizen-
ship. including the right of suffrage. is vested in all nationals who are 18
years old if married or 21 years old if unmarried and having' an honourable
means of livelihood'; women were givcn equal citizenship and suffrage
with men in 19:)2-53. Thumb-prints are taken of registered voters.
Congress consists of a Chamber of Deputies (162 members) elected for
3 years by universal suffrage. at the rate of 1 member for 170.000 inhabi.
tants. and a Senate of 60 members. 2 for each state and the federal district.
elected for 6 years. Senators and deputies are ineligible for re·election
until another term has elapsed. Congress sits from 1 Sept. to 31 Dec.
During the reccss there is a. permanent committee consisting of 14 senators
and 15 represent.atives appointed by the respective Houses.
The President is tllected by direct popular vote in a general election. and
holds office for 6 years. He can never be re·elected. If the office falls
vacant during the first 2 years. a general election must be held; if after the
first 2 years. then Congress elects" successor who completes the t erm. The
administration is c(1rried on under the direetion of the President and a
cabinet formed by the secretaries of 15 ministries. the Attorney.Gen eral
and the heads of 3 deoartments.
The names of the presidents fnm 1920 ,H·C as follows :
Gen. A1 ..aro ObregOn, 1 Dec. 1920-30 N ov. Gen. L~zaro C~rdenllS, 1 Dec. 1934-30 Nov.
1~24. 19,10.
Gen. Plu'aroo EUaa CaUo., 1 Dec. 192.J.-30 Gen. Manuel Avila Camacbo,l Dec. 1940-30
No ... 1928. Nov. 1946.
EmWo. Portes Oil (provisional),' 1 Dcc. Miguel AlemM Vald"., 1 Dec. 1946-30 Nov.
1930.4 Feb. 1930. 1962.
Pa.cuai Ortl. Rublo, 6 Feb. 1930-3 Sept. Adolfo Rui. Cortines, 1 Dec. 19~2-30 Nov.
1932.' 1958.
G<ln. Abelardo L. Rodrlg'l"z, 4 Sept. 1932-
30 Nov. In4.
1 Took office alter the assllSsination, on 17 JuJy 1928, 01 Gen. Obreg6n. the President·
elect. ' Resigned.
Pre:;ident. Adolfo L6pcz Mateos (born in 1(10). formerly Minister of

Labour. elected 6 .July 1958 to serve for 6 years. He polled 6.769.754 votes
out of the total 7.485.403 (assumed office on 1 Dec. 19(8).
Minister for Foreign Affairs. Manuel Tello.
1222 MEXICO
Nalfonal flag: green, white, red (vertical); the national ooat of arms on
white.
National anth~m: Mexicanos, 0.1 grito de guerra (words by F. Gonzal('z
Bocanegra; tune by Jo.ime Nuno, 1854).
LOCAL GOVERNMEN'r. Mexico is divided into 29 states, I federal district
(comprising Mexico City and 12 surrounding villages) and 2 territories,
Quintana Roo and Baja California Sur. Each state has its OW11 constitution,
government, taxes and laws, and its governor, legislature and judicial officers
popularly elected. Inter·state customs duties arc not permitted. The
President appoints the governors of the territories and the chief of the
federal district.
AREA AND POPULATION. Mexico comprises 1,963,890 sq. km,

excluding inland waters and uninhabited islands (5,379 sq. km) off-shore.
At l,he census taken on 6 June 1950 males numbered 12,696,935 and
females. 13,094,082; at 30 June 1957 estimates showed a total of 31,426,190
inhabitants, of whom 9,985,307 were males and 10,646,130 females; a
further 10,794,793 were under 12 years of age. Urban population was
estimat3d at 13,944,962 (44'37%) and rural population 17,481,228 (55·63%)_
Economically active were 10,208,107 (32,48%), of whom there were 8,765,716
males and 1,442,391 females. 57% of the economically active were in
agricultural, forestry, hunting or fishing activities. The language is Spanish.
GemlUs results are shown in the following table (capitals of states ann
territories in brackets) :
Are.~ Census EstiIr!ate Dn-.. ilV
States nnd territories (sq. km) 1950 1957 per Iq. km
AguascaLentes (Aguascalientes) . 6,486 188,0.6 208,719 38·05
Baja California ~MexicaU) . . 71,627 226,965 470,089 6'b6
Baja California l:\ur (TeIT.) (La Po.) 72,466 60,864 68,316 0'94
Campech~ \Campeche) ~O,952 122,098 150,145 2·95
Coahuila (Saltillo) 160,395 720,619 867,365 5·77
CoUma (Oollma) . • . 6,206 112,321 143,369 27-64
Cbiapas (Tnxtla Guti&i-ez) • 74,415 907,026 1,106,329 14·87
Uhih"ahLa (Ohihuahoa) • 245,612 846,414 1,044,350 4·25
Dlatrito I'ederal (M&ico Oity) 1,483 3,050,442 4,460,413 3,007'70
Durango (Durango) • 123,620 629,874 7~5,614 6·12
Goanajuato (Guanajuato) 30,676 1,328,712 1,666,333 61-23
Guerrero (Chilp8llClogo) 64,4b8 919,386 1,074,826 16·67
Hidalgo (Pachuca) • 20,870 860,394 909,119 43·56
JaliBco (Ouad"lajara) • 81,008 1,746,777 2,016,403 24·88
M~xico r.roluca) . . 21,414 1,392,623 1,592,886 74·39
MichoacAn (Morelia) . 60,093 1,422,71. 1,616,556 26·90
More/os (Cuernav&Ca) • 4,964 272.842 359,1179 72·46
Nayarit (Topic) • • 27,063 290.124 354,741 13·11
No.vo Lo!6n (MonteITey) 66,103 740,191 918,506 14·11
Oaxaca (Ouaca) 94,211 1,421,313 1,603,783 17·02
Puebls (l'uebla) . • 33,99~ 1,625,830 1,902,172 ba.95
QoeretaM (Qoeretaro). . . 11,480 286,238 318,866 27·78
Quintan .. Roo (TeIT.) (Chetuma/) . 60,360 26,967 34,639 0·69
San LuJ. Potoel (San Lui. Potosl) 63,241 856,066 1,004,560 15·88
Sinaloa (GuJiacAn) • 68,488 636,681 7&7,563 12'9~
Sonora (JJermosiUo) • )82,553 510,607 644,511 3·b3
TablL!lCO ~illa HermosR) 25,337 362,716 427,631 16·88
Tamaoti"as (Ciudad Vicloria) 79,602 718,167 977,924 12·29
Tlaxcala (T1ucala) 4.027 284,~01 335,491 . 8R·51
Vemcruz (Jalapa) 71,8~G 2,040,231 2,3:12,606 33'28
YucRtBn (lMrida) • 38,608 516,S99 598,161 15·53
Zacatec..! (Zacatecas) . 73,454 660,524 744,626 10·14
Federal Islands • . 6,379
C""',... adjtutmmt, 1950 11,763
Total It969,~G9 26,791,017 31,426,190 1,·96
MEXICO 1223
Estimated population, 1959, was 33,304,253.
In 1937 it was estimated that 2,251,000 of the population wero Indian.
In 1940 there were 1,237,018 aborigines who spoke only their native lan.
guage. There were 33 different language groups, and 21 minor linguistic
divisions. Foreign·born, 1950, numb~red 182,707, including 106,315 born
abroad.
The chief cities, with population, estimated in 1\)59, are: Mexico City
(capital), 3,301,757; Guadalajara, 589,973; Monterrey, 563,547; Puebla,
309,115; Merida, Hl8,970; Torreon,208,086; Ciudad Juarez, 280,323; San
Luis Potosi, 194,895; Leon,193,133; Tampico,106,469; Veracruz, 138,012,
Chihuahua,127,674; Aguascalientes, 10-1,633; Mexicali, 196,569; Tijuana,
191,609; Matamoros,120,277; Reynosa,108,540; Nuevo Laredo, 107,473.
Movement of population for 5 years:
MamageB BirthB DeathB Immigration Emigration
1953 183,600 1,261,776 446,127 607,067 458,114
1964 205,771 1,339,837 378,762 593,8 98 528,300
195~ nl,87ii l,~77,917 407.622 636,~44 5C9.46~
19~6 222,907 1,427,722 368,R70 711..399 6-15.152
1957 206,180 1,4 ;4,950 406,870 7~6, 792 673,562
Crude birth rate, 1958, was 44·8 per 1,000 population; crude death
rate, 12·5 (26'1 in 1932); infant mortality rate, 80'4 per 1,000 live births
(139'3 in 1933); crude marriage rate, 6·9 per 1,000 POPlllation; divorces,
12,971.
For the regulations governing immigration, ~ee THE STATESMAN'S YEAR·
BOOK, 1951, p. 1234. A new Immigration Tax law came into effect 1 Jan.
1951.
RELIGION. The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic (25,329,498
members at the census of 1950 and currently still about 97% of the total
population; with 10 archbishops, 33 bishops and 1 nominal bishop functioning
as vicar apostolic in Lower California), but by the constitution of 1857, the
Church was Reparated from the State, and the constitution of 1917 provided
strict regulation of this and all other religions. No ecclesiastical body may
acquire landed property, and since 1917 the property of the Church has
been held to belong to the State. In the 1920s, the Government suppressed
the political influence of the priesthood and temporarily (1929-31) closed
the churches. An understanding between State and Church was, however,
reached, and all churches eschewing public affairs Bourish freely. Pro.
testant churches had about 330,111 members (census of 1950). At t hi s
time 17,574 Jews and 113,834 members of other reIigiollB were also numbered.
The Society of Friends had 50 members in 1957.
EDUCA nON. Primary education is free and compulsory (up to 15
years of age), and secultlr. Clergy are forbidden to set up primary schools.
All private schools must conform to government standards. Military drill
is compulsory for boys of 18 years. In the federal district and in the
territories education is controlled by the national government; elsewhere
by the state authorities.
III 1957 there were 1,403 kindergarten scbools, with 7,033 teachers,
118,164 pupils; 28,417 (6,407 city Rnd 22,010 rural) primary schools, 98,048
teachers, 4,106,198 pupils; 680 secondary schools, 11,873 teachors, 118,164
pupils; 11 pre.vocational schools, 819 teachers, 8,592 pupils; 17 vocational
schools, 1,249 teachers, 8,421 pupils; 89 preparatory schools, 2,436 teachers,
21,413 pupils; 291 commercial schools, 3,049 tcachers, 42,637 pupils; U8
1224 MEXICO
teachers' training schools, 4,330 teachers. 35,145 pupils; 133 professional

schools, 4,873 teachers, 20,846 pupils; 154 special schools (technical arts
and crafts), 2,127 teachers, 28,096 pupils; 48 technical schools, 4,793
teachers, 24,641 pupils; 13 schools specializing in agriculture (post.
secondary), 112 teachers, 2.200 pupils.
In !F157, of the 7,203,380 children between 6 and 14 years of age. 4,327,576
were at "choo!.
Ther a are 20 autonomous universities (9,549 teachers, 55,277 students)
and 4 incorporated to the National University at Mexico City (UNAM)
having !~,634 students; as well as 8 autonomous university institutes (928
teachers, 2,986 students), plus 9 (7 nurses' and 2 social workers') schools
incorporated in UNAl\I; in all there are 79 faculties enjoying considerable
autonomy, and the Free School of Law and the Free School of Homeopathy
in Mexico City are granted full registration; there are some others without
full registration. The universities include 3 in the Federal District, 2 in
J alisco (one being founded in 1792),2 in Nuevo Lo6n (1933) and one each
in Campeche, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Mexico State,
Michoac[,n, Morelos, Ouaca, Puebla, Queretaro, San Luis PotoS!, 8inaloa,
Sonora, Tamaulipas, Veracruz and Yucatan (1922) and a recent new one in
Colima. They all grant professional degrees. as do certain Instit.utes in
Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Guerrero. Hidalgo. Nayarit, Nuevo Le6n, Tabasco
and Zacatecas. Of these the most important is the National University
at Mexko City, founded 1552 and reorganized in 1910, and with full auto·
nomy granted in 1920; in 1957 it, had 5,116 teachers and 40,140 students.
The firs; university excluRively for women was opened 1 March 1943.
Cinema.! (j 958). Cincmas numbered 1,456 with seating capacity of 4m.;
more th~n 1i0% of the films shown are of Mexican production.
New.;paper8 (1958). There were 3,415 periodicals with an aggregate
circulation of nearly 3m.; 36 in Mexico City have about half of the total
circulation.
Kneller, O. P•• Tht EdUWlWn oflM Mnican NIU''''. New York. 19~1
HEALTH. In 1957 Mexico had 21,000 physicians (1 to 1,497 popu.

lation); 448 government hospitals had 30,000 beds. Private ones brought
these totals up t o 785 and 44,000 respectively.
JUSTICE. Magistrates are appointed by Congress for 6 years; but
the judges of the Supreme Court can b e removed only on impeachment.
The courts include the Supreme Court with 21 magistrates, 6 circuit courts
with 3 judges each, 6 unitary and 47 district courts with one judge e(Lch.
The pell(L] code of 1 Jan. 1930 abolished the de~\th penalty, except for the
Army. and set up a commission of alienists and other specialists, in place of
the courts, to deal with criminal cases (for federal offences); each state
appoint!! its own local magistrates al!o.
Mex" can civil law has the legal remedy known as am-paro, which gives
any injured p erson whose constitutional rights have, in his opinion, been
infringed, right to immediate access to the courts and full remedy, com·
bining the swiftness of the Anglo.Saxon writ of habeas corpus and the
breadth of remedy available through the injullction.
FIN ANCE. The ordinary receipts and expenditure in 1,000 pesos (the
peso since April 1954 equals 8 U.S. cents). The fiscal year coincides with
the calendar year.
MEXICO 1225
1964 1965 1966 19[)7 1958 1959
Reyenue 7,713,833 9,H7,670 7,743'7 8.082'2 8,410 9.390
BxpendJture 7,916,807 8,883,121 7,454" 8,64f"S 8,403 9,SSG
Tbe largest expenditure items of tbe 1958 a.ccounts (in Im. pesos) were
defence, 591'3; investments, 644'5; communications and public works,
1,638'5; education, 1,153·2; water supplies, 776·5.
For revenue (in Im. pesos), Mexico leans heavily on import duties, 1,584'9
in 1958; income tax furnisbed 2,802; ta.xes on industry, 1,487-5; corn ·
mercial income, 887·5.
The powers of federal, state and municipal authorities to contract debt
are circumscribed by tbe constitution.
The national debt (in default since 1914) on 31 Dec. 1957 was (in lm.
pesos): Funded domestic debt, 4,106'7 (capital); debts of the states (capital),
90·3; external debt (capital), 375-9; railways debt (agreement of 1946),
402·6. Since 1942 tbe external debt bas been reduced (from 564m., capit,a l,
and 780m., interest) to tbe figures shown, but tbe internal debt bas nearly
quadrupled. The federal government guaranteed besides, 54·48m. pesos of
official or private debts.
In 1957 and 1958 tbe total foreign direct investments in leading con·
cerns were estimated at Sl,165·1m _and Sl,169·5m., of which 70% belonged
to Americans, with Italy (13% ), France (8·6% ) and Swit·zerIand (4% ) ranking
next. Tbe total included $215·1m. and $226m. in public utilities, SI7!J-4m.
and $176·3m. in mining, S468·1m. and $.!97m. in manufactures, $178-6m.
and $188·3m. in trade, $71·8m. and SI9·3m. in transport and communica·
tions, and SI8·lm. and 821·5m. in agriculture and livestock. Sums witb·
drawn by foreign owners, as shown in the annual balance of payments,
totalled about $1l7·2m. and SI33·3m. respectively, excluding re·invested
earnings.
Tbe Bank of England's 1955 study of foreign investments reported thnt
U.K. residents, end of 1953, bad investments in Mexico with a. nominal
value of £32m. (£66m. in 1938); their total 1953 income was £lm. (£400,000
in 1938). British direct investments in 1953 were 283m. pesos, of which
l06m . pesos were in mining.
DEFENCE. Supreme command is vested in the President, exercised
through the Ministries of Defence (for Army and Air Force) and Marine.
The Mexican Army has been reorganized. The country is divided into
32 zones in wbich botb tbe regular army and volunteer corps are trained.
The Army, ill 1957, had 47 battalions of infantry, with 2 infantry fixed
companies and 2 infantry brigades, 20 regiments of cavalry, 1 mechanized
cavalry regiment, 3 regiments of artillery and 2 coastal batteries.
Military education is provided for privates at each unit's headquarters, and
at tbe Privates' Military School ; and for officers, at the National Military
Scbool, tbe Application Centre for Army Officers and tbe War Superior
Scbool, as well as in other specialized scbools. To coru bat illiteracy in tbe
Army, scbools have been establisbed in every regular a.nd volunteer group.
Tbe Air Force comprises 5 air groups and 12 air nquadrons, with a strength
(1958) of 3,000 officers and men, and 175 aircraft, almost all of World War 11
design.
Tbe Navy consi8ts of 4 frigates, 4 corvettes,4 gunboats, a training ship,
10 patrol vessels. 2 patrol boats, I tug and tbe presidential yacht. There
are 4 naval districts on the Atlantic and 4 on tbe Pacific coast. There are
also 7 companies of marines on active duty, witb 1 regiment (3 companies)
in reserve, formed by military service conscript.q.
1226 MEXICO
PRODUCTION. AgricuUure. Mexico is well suited for agriculture, but

is obliged to import food. Grains occupy 68% of the cultivated land, with
about 1,5% given to maize and about 9% to wheat. Irrigation is needed
and is steadily being attended to. In 1948 about 17,007,700 acres of
arable land were actively farmed; this was lesB than 1 acre per capita.
In 1958 the area irrigated was 6,449,019 acres. Not until there are 17m.
acres twder irrigation, it is estimated, will Mexico be self· supporting ;
about 23·3m. acres in all might eventually be brought under cultivation.
Soil· conservation work has been started; it includes teaching contour
plough'ing, terracing, crop rotation, transplanting of the maguey and re·
afforestation (2,060,000 trees planted in 1947-48).
Liv,~stock (1956): Cattle, 23·7m.; sheep, 5·2m.; hogs, 9·6m.; horses,
4·5m.; goats,7·2m.; mules,1·6m.; donkeys,3·lm.; poultry (1957), 77m.
MeE,t supply tends to be short, but no restraint is placed upon the export
of cattle. Production of hides (2·8m. in 1958) is regarded as disappointing..
In 195(; production of meat was 1,142m. lb.
Mexico's basic food crop is maize, but output, owing to antiquated
methods, hss always been low (11'5 V.S. bu. per acre, 1952-56, compared
with the V.S. average of 35·7 bu.). Not until 1948 was production, at
2,738,800 metric tons, sufficient for consumption. Expansion of this crop
is the "hief aim of Mexican agriculture, balanced by the demand for' cash
crops' for export, such as cotton, sugar, garbanzos (chick peas), bananas,
winter vegetables and coffce.
Principal products in metric tons for 1958 were: Maize, 5m. (estimate);
rice, 252,000 (a record); sugar, 1·12m.; wheat, 1·36m.; barley, 170,000;
coffee, 110,000. Nine·tenths of the coffee is available for export. Sugar
output since 1946 has left surpluses for export-l77 ,000 tons in 1958.
The Yucatan peninsula produces about 50% of thc world's supply of sisal
(known locally as henequ6n); plantations are almost wholly Mexican-ownef\
and th" crop was handled exclusively by the state of Yucatan until 20 June
1955, when it WSR handed over to private enterprise. The 1958 sisal crop
amounted to 121,000 metric tons of fibre. Tobacco, 1958,70,000 metric ton~.
BanamL production started in 1895 in the state of Tabasco, reaching a peak
in 193'7, when 14,752,424 stems were exported; exports, 1958, 1·6m.
stems. The cotton production, 1957, was 2,076,727 bales (of 230 kg).
Wool output, 1956, was 9m. lb. (11·4m. in 194(;-50).
Forestry. Timber lands arc estimated to extend over 68m. acres (about
50m. of commercial importance), containing pine, spruce, cedar, mahogany,
logwood and rosewood. Reckless lumbering has destroyed the timber stands
on many watersheds, resulting in spring floods and lowered water supplies in
summer. In 1951 federal edicts had halted all timber.cutting in 22 states,
regardless of concessions; but they have been resumed under strict super.
vision. There are 14 forest reserves (nearly 800,000 hectares) and 47
national park forests of 750,000 hectares.
Mining. The chief Mexican oilfields (with proved reserves in 1958 of
4,006m. bbls) are grouped in 3 widely separated regions. The inter-
nation!>l companies which discovered and developed them were expropriated
by government decree, 18 March 1938. Only foreign concession left-
Mexican Gulf Oil-was purchased by the Government in Dec. 1950. The
industry is now controlled by Pemex (Petr6le08 Mexicanos). Pemex is ex·
ploitinl~ mainly the rich Poza Rica field (discovered in 1938) and the nearby
fields of EscoHn and Mecatepcc. In 1958.4 new oil areas were announced.
Crude petroleum output, 1953, declined to 11·5m. cu. metre", lowe8t
MEXICO 1227
since 1949 (30m. in the peak year, 1921) but recovered to 14·2m. in 1955.
14·2m. in 1956 and 14·9m. in 1957. The petroleum fields have 20 plants
and 14 refineries. employing 44,429 men: refining capacity (1957),322,000
bhls a day: Mexican refineries handled l00·64m. bbls in 1958. a new high.
Oilwells drilled. 1957, were 389, of which 273 were productive. Mexico is
obliged to export crude oil and fuel oil (for which prices are relatively low)
and import kerosene and petrol at higher prices: imports, 1957. were
2,427,817 metric tons and exports, 2,619,991, of which 2.151,636 were fuel
oil nnd 468,358 crude.
Mining is the principal industry in Mexico, but practically 97% of the
31.000 mining properties are foreigu.owned . Of the annual output (from
189 active mines and 127 metallurgical plants). measured in pesos, probably
Icss than 10% is Mexican·owned. The discovery of uranium and similar
deposits in the states of Chihuahua. Durango. Sonora and Queretaro was
announced in Jan. 1959.
Output of silver in 1957 was 23·7% of world production. Silver output
was 86,371,556 fine oz. in 1943, 39,897,545 in 1954, 47,165,138 in 1957 and
47,589,528 in 1958. Exports, 1958. of bar and refined silver, 1,840'8 metric
(.(lns. About half the production is minted, including a' t.(lken' coin(1949)
weighing 1 troyoz. Gold output in 1957,357,369; 1958, 332,246 fine oz.
Mexico has large coal resources, including high-grade coking coal at
Sabinas in Coahuila; output fluctuates, but reacbed record higbs in 1953
at 1,432,3 15 metric tons and at 1,470,705 in 1958. Some 6,000m. cu. metres
of natural gas were produced in 1958. There are large undeveloped re-
serves of iron ore: output, 1958 (in metric tons) of iron ore, 960,000, con-
(a,ining 60% iron: pig.iron,461,400: steel ingots, 1,029,600.
Quantities of mineral products (in met·dc tons) for 6 calendar years:
Metals 1940 1954 1066 1966 19~7 1968
Copper . 37,602 G4,806 G4,676 64,866 60,600 64,920
Lead 196,263 216,624 210,816 199,610 214,876 200,324
Zinc. 114,966 223,749 269,399 248,887 243,027 224,400
Antimony 12,267 4,182 3.818 4,566 5,202 2,748
Graphite. 12,327 21.184 29,341 29,624 23,530 19,562
Quicksilver 402 .09 1,030 6iB 126 777
Arsenic . 9,268 2,471 ~,954 2,643 4,604 3,095
Bismutb . 186 360 351 631 3H 189
Cadmium 826 512 1,295 858 759 769
'l'in . 351 355 616 50S 481 554
Tuilg!Iten 103 327 Ml 34' 160 4
Manganese 307 83,185 35,807 61,928 79,668 78,651
B~rytes l 51,514 106,712 213,907 389,610 189,900
Sulpbur . 83,086 51 8,367 785,393 1,082,809 J ,27G,963
Cen,en ~ . 2,500,000
I Exports.
Mine production of minerals, 1957 (gold and silver excluded), was

valued at 3,390·4m. pesos. Exports by taxable values, 1957, were 2,597·9[J1.
pesos, of ~·hich 78'3% went to U.S.A.
Industry. The industrial census of 1956 showed 73,379 mll.nufacturing
establishments with invested capital of 30·5m. pesos ; 1,742,548 production
workers were employed: they earned 3,!)OOm, pesos.
In 1957 the 2,342 electric generating plants had installed capacity of
2,270m. kw.: consumption, including imports of 424'98m" in 1957 W&>l
8,444'94m, kwh .
Mexico's national income hM risen from 5·7 billion (milliard) pesos iu
1939 to 37·8 billion in 1950; the origins are unusual in that only 7·49 billion
came from agriculture, only 1·78 from (foreign-owned) mining. 6·97 from
1228 MEXICO
ma.nufacturing and 11·79 from shopkeeping, wholesale and retail . In 1958

the national income was 101,800m. or 3,147 pesos per capita, compared
with 1,464 billion in 1950; 84 billion in 1956, and 92 billion in 1957 (respec·
tively 2,751 and 2,930 pesos per capita).
La R,f= Agraria en AUxico. Mexico City, 1937.-Jftxico en Cif,a.; series of ofllcial
maps nn,1 statistical diagrams. Mexico Oity, 1937; 2nd cd., 1939.-.1tla. EJladiltico,
Merico City, 1937.
Re"unlm General del Cmso Indust,ial d4 1940. Direccl6n General de Rstadh<t.lca
OIark. M',rjorie, Organiud Labo, in Mexico. Chapel Hill (North Oarolina), 1934
Gill, T., j;a"d BU"fItr i" Mexico. Washington, 1951
Mosk, S. A.., [ndwlrial Ret'olution in Jfexico. DeTkeley. Ca1., 1950
Powell, J . R., The Mexican Pet,oleum Ind.ut,y. Univ. of Oalifornia Press, 19~6.
Reina, J. G., Mi".ria y Riq'1414 Jlinera de Jlexico. Mexico City, 1944
TllIlnenbHum, F., Mexico: The struggle for peace and b,ead. New York, 1950
Vogt, W... The NaJu,al Resources of Mc;",co • •. A Study of Soil Erosion. Washington, D.O.,
1946
Wu •• ten, N. L., Rural Mexico. Chicago,1948
COllfMERCE. Trade for calendar years in 1,000 pesos:

1954' 1955 1956 1957 1958
Import5 8,926,000 11,045,729 13,395,321 14,439,420 14,108,000
Exports 6,93G,OOO 9,484,267 10,625,ln 9,475,000 9,504,000
, Peso was devalue<lln April19~4 from Jl'5 to 8 cents U.S.
Export figures for metals and for certain foreign.owned agricultural
produCl,S are heavily undervalued to reduce export taxes; the Bank of
Mexico calculated the undervaluation for 1954 at 1,202m. pesos, nearly
20% of the export total.
Of total imports (Iro. pesos) in 1958, 10,861 (76,9%) came from U.S.A .,
711 from Germanv, 457 from U.K., 301 from Canada and 301 from France.
Leading imports \vere oil, motor vehicles and parts, maize, machinery and
part.s.
Oftolal exports (lm. pesos) in 1958, 6,583 went to U.S.A., 395 to Japan,
215 t·o Germany, 168 to U.K. and 166 to Netherlands. Balance ofpaymeuts
1957. showed a deficit of 477·7m . pesos compared with 1,061·3m. surplus
in 1936. The main visible exports in 1958 were cotton, coffee, lead, copper,
zinc, fuel oil, cattle, shrimps, sulphur and tomatoes (all above 150m. pesos).
Tourism is Mexico's largest single source of dollar income, amounting to
$59101. in 1957.
Tot[l.1 t.mde between U.K. and Mexico, in £ sterling (according to British
Board o)f Trade returns):
1938 1955 195& 1967 19;;8 1959
Imports to U.K. . 2,109,OP3 6,879,123 6,6G2,713 6,872,410 5,826,225 7,054.505
Exports from U.K. . ~64,186 7,547,129 9,480,681 12,892,095 12,236,335 13,557,,100
Re·expOl·ts from U.K. 11,480 113,198 U5,229 82,058 88,886 J.15,327
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Mexico has 49 ocean ports, of which

t.he mOlt important are Veracruz and Tampico, both on the Gulf of Mexico.
Shipping under Mexican flag on 31 Dec. 1958 included 326 steamships and
motof.f;hips of about 650,000 GRT, and numerous small craft; the oil fleet
included 19 tankers and 200 vessels aggregating 230,000 dead.weight tons.
ROGds. Total length, 31 Oct. 1958,45,000 km, of which 32,000 km are
hard.surface highroads and 13,000 km local roads.
Motor vehicles registered at 31 Dec. 1958 included 378,886 passenger
cars, 2:l,686 buses and 273,735 trucks.
Railways. In 1937 the main railway linea were nationalized. In June
1946 the Go\'ernment purchased the British-owned Mexican Railway
MEXICO 1229
Company for USS8·6m. The system had (1958) 1,231 locomotives (diesel,
0. few electric), 1,580 passenger cars and 24,248 freight cars. Total railway
tracks. 23,456 km (1958).
PO$t. On 31 Dec. 1956 the federal telegraph and telephone systems had
1,421 offices and 210,524 miles of line. Systems belonging to individual states
and private companies had about 950 offices and 45,000 mile!! of line. Tele-
phones in use, I Ja.n. 1959, 716,710; private companies operated all except
750 instruments; 76% were automatic. Mexico City had some 426,000
instruments. The General Bure.8.u of Posts and Telegrapbs, 1958, had
3,428 regular offices and 3,5 13 auxiliary offices.
In 1958 there were 304 broadcasting stations; receiving sets, 1957, were
3,840,000. Television stations, 1958, numbered 8; there were (1957) about
144,000 receiving sets. A state-owned factory opeued in 1959 is hoping to
manufacture 120,000 cheap radio receivers yearly, for home use and export.
Aviation. Mexico bas an excellent air service. Each of the larger states
has a 1000.1 airline which links them with main airports, which, in turn,
furnish service to U.S., Central and South America and Europe. Fifty-seven
companies in 1957 maintained services; of these, 40 companies operated
irregularly. In 1956, commercial aircraft numbered 716; private, 2,186;
official, 120. There are 37 main airports and 483 landing strips.
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary wlit is the peso divided in

lOO centav08. On 17 April 1954 the peso was devalued from 11·56 to 8 U.S.
cents. The sterling rate, 1959, was at 34f buying rate and 35! selling rate
There are silver-copper coins for £) and 1 peso and silver-copper-nickel coins
for 50, 25, 20, 10, 5 and 1 centavo. There are notes for 10,000, 1,000, 500,
100,50, 20, 10, 5 and 1 peso.
The Bank of Mexico, established 1 Sept. 1925, is the central bank; it
is now closely modelled on the Fcderal Reserve system, with large powers
to • manage' the currency. The Government holds 51% of the capital
stock.
On 31 Dec. 1958 metallic monetary reserves (gold, silver and foreign
exchange forming the required 25% reserve against notes and other demand
liabilities) were 2,165'6m. pesos; • authorized' holdings of securities, 9,640m.
pesos; note circulation (outside the Dank of Mexico) was 6,116ru. pesos.
The gold stock has fluctuated from as little /UI US$28m. in Feb. 1942, to
as high as S29·:lm., OD 31 Dec. 1945, falling to S42m. in Dec. 1948; sales of
commodities to the U.S. stockpiles restored it to $304m. in March 1951;
but on 30 June Hl54 it was down to $57m.; on 31 Dec. 1958 gold and
dollar reserves totalled $356·lm. Total supply of money, 31 Dec. 1959, was
13,440·2m. pesos, divided between currency (6,610·2m.) and bank deposits
(6,830m.). Bank deposits are normally smaller than the currency supply.
It was estimated in 1959 that 80% of the total foreign investment in the
country (some US$I,300m.) was of U.S.A. origin. In 1958, U.S. citizens
invested 80m. pesos.
Owing to the a lien owncrship of many chief earning assets, money is in short
supply and very' tight'; the discount rate for first-class commercial paper,
1953, ranged between 9·9 and 10·7%, while loans secured on real estate (up
to 50% of the value of t·he property) have cost up to 18% per annum.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system was introduced
in 1884, and its use is enjoined by law of 14 Dec. 1928, though the old
Spanish measures are still in use.
1230 MEXICO
Me:dco maintains embassies in Argentina, Austria, Belgium (also legation
for Luxembourg), Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
France, Gerinany, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Tsrael, It.aly (also
legatio;l for Greece), Japan (and Indonesia), Lebanon. Netherlands, Nica·
ragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Sweden (also legation
for Fiu.land), Switzerland, Turkey (also for Ethiopia), U.S.S.R., U.A.R.,
U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay, Venezuela, Yugoslavia; and legations in Philip.
pines nnd Poland.
OF MEXICO IN GREAT BRITAIN (48 Belgrave Square, S.W.I)
Ambassador. Pablo Campos Ortiz (accredited 24 July 1957) .
.Minister. Counsellor. Gustavo Luders de Negri. Commercial Counsellor.
Alberto C. Fernandez (resident in Paris). First Secretaries. Salvador Alva
Cejlldc; Lic. Ruben GonzaJez Sosa.
Tlwre are consular representatives at Hull and London.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN MEXICO
Ambassador. Sir Andrew Noble, Bt, K.C.M.G. (appointed 25 Oct. 19(6).
First Secretaries. J. M. Heath (Head of Chancery and Consul); K. L. :F.
Worke; L. Sherbourne (Commercial); F. C. Bishop (Information); J. S.
Rew (Dabour).
Cor.tmercial Counsellor. R. G. Stone, C.lLG., O.B.E.
Thnre are also consular posts at Chihuahua, Coatzacoalcos, Guadalajara,
Guaymas, Mazatlan, M6rida and Progreso, Monterrey, Pachuca, Puebla,
Tampi,)o, Tapachula, Torre6n and Veracruz.
OF MEXICO IN THE U.S.A. (2829-16th St. NW.,
Washingtoll D, D.C.)
A'mbassador. Antonio Carrillo Flores.
Minister. Juan GaUardo M. Minister COltnsellors. Eugenio de Anzo·
rena; .Tose T. Delgado. Coun8ellors. Justo Sierra; Julian Saenz Hinojosa.
First Secretary. Jose Luis Laris. Service Attache.,: Brig.·Gen. Alfonso
Gurza F. (Army and Air), Rear Admiral Fernando Magaiia (Navy). Agri.
cultural Attaclie. Gonzalo Blanco M.
OF THE U.S.A. IN MEXICO
Am.bas.sador. Robert C. Hill .
.Minister Counsellor. Edward G. Cale. Counsellors. Robert F. Cart·
wright (Consul·General); Raymond G. Leddy; H. Gerald Smith (Economic).
First Secretaries. Warren L. Dean; Eugene V. McAuliffe; Joseph J.
Montll')r; Alberto M. Vazquez; John W. Ford (Consul); Abe KraDler
(Labour); Albert P. Mayio (Finance); Winston M. Scott; Hugh N. Whit·
aker (Consul); George D. Whittinghill (Consul).
Service Attaches: Brig .. Gen. Philip H. Bethune (Army), Capt. Jacob
V. Heimark (Navy), Col. Benoid E. G1awe (Air). Agricultural Attache.
Burl Stugard. Commercial Attache. Gilbert E. Larsen.
There are Consuls·General at Ciudad Juarez, Guadalajara, Monterrey,
Tijuana" and Consuls at Matamoros, Mcrida, Mexicali, Nogales, Nuevo
Larede" Piedras Negras, Tampico and Veracruz.
MONACO 1231
Books of Reference
4nual'io E,tadfsticn tk la! EstadO$ Unido~t Mnicanol. Annual <.latest issue 1958)
Ilm,"a <k E ..tadlalica (Mon~hly); Revi.;la <k Ewnqm/a (Mon~hly); Boleti" Jferuu.u de
f;."timaci01"U Af)TOPt'cuaritJ,J (Month1y)
Bihli''HJra!faYt'ZiCflTUJ de ESladlstica. Direcci6n Genera.l de E~tad1sticn. 2 vols. Mexico
O'ty.1942
Nomendalu,a Nacioru:/ <k Ocupac'io""" If/IQ. Direcci6n neneraJ de E.tadlstica
Ccwnptm.dio Estwlislil'o. (Dirncc!6n General de RstadlstkB.) Mwco, 1959
Banco de ~rf!.rk,o S.A .• Annual report (latp':'o;t, S7th. 1959)
Banco SRcional de Comereio Exterior. Cnmercio Erterinr. montlliy
Cineo Si9los <k Lt'!/,,/aci611 -ig,aria "" JI~x/w (1493-1940). Por MaDuel l!'abUa, l:anco
Naciooal d. OrMito A~rlcoll\. Vol. I. M~rico, 1941
Who', Who in IAJin -i'llOica. Parll: Jft'Xico, Ed. by R. Hilton. Stantor.\ Univ., 1946
Ker. A. M., Mnimn Government Pu!JlirAtion..t: a Guide, 1821-1936. \VaFhlngton, 1940
Parke~, H . R., A lJi,~I.(lry 0/ .Jle:rir.o. Boston, 1938
Robles, M. A., Hi3tu~ia PolUica de la Rn(JluciOn. Mexko City, 1938
Stone, R. G" Economic ana Commercial Conditions in AIaico. ILM .R,O .• 1966
Terry, Tbomas .P., Terrv'" Guide 10 .J/c:ricl.I. Rev. and elll. ed. Hin~haru. M'a..q., 1943
Trend. J. B .• jJfe:rico: .d .VelD .f:jPflt11 with Oltl Friend.f. I.ondon, 194]
Tucker, Wm. P. The .Jfexican Ooternmenl Today. Minneapolis. 1~57
MONACO
Prince Hainier Ill, born 31 May 1923, son of Princess Charlotte,
Duche8s of Valentinois, daughter of Prince Louis n, born 30 Sept. 1898
(married 19 March 1920 to Prince Pierre, Comte de Polignao, who had
taken the name Grim'lldi, from whom she was divorced 18 Feb. 1933).
Prince Rainier succeeded his grandfatber Louis H, who died on 9 May 1949.
He married on Hi April 1\)1)6 Miss Grace Kelly, a citizen of the V.S.A.
Issue: Princess Carolin" Louise Mttrguerite, born 23 Jan. 1957; Prince Albert
Alexander Louis Peter, born 14 March 1958. The Prince has a sister,
Princess Antoinette, born 28 Dec. 1920.
Monaco is a smaU Principality on the Mediterranean, surrounded by the
French Department of Alpes Maritimes except on the side towards the sea.
From 1297 it belonged to the house of Griroaldi. In 1731 it passed into the
female line, Louise Hippolyte, <i3,ughter of Antoine I, heiress of Monaco,
marrying Jaeques de Goyon Matignon, Count of Torigni, who took the name
and arms of Grimaldi. The Principality was placed under the protection
of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Treaty of Vienna, 1815, and under that
of France in 1861. Prince Albert I (reigned 1889-1922) acquired fame as
an oceanographer; and his son Louis II (1922-49) waR instrumental in
establishing the International Hydrographic Bureau.
Owing to disagreements with the elected authorities, particularly re·
garding the budget, Prince Rainier III on 28 Jan. 1959 suspended tem.
porarily certain articles of the Constitution of 5 Jan. 1911, thereby dissolving
the National Council and the Communal Council and forbidding the holding
of political meetings. The duties of the dissolved National Council were
taken over by the Council of State and those of the Communal Council by
an eight.member delegation appointed by ordinance. The Prince, in
announcing his action, said that a ncw Constitution would be offered to the
Monegasques which would include the grant of female suffrage.
JyJ inister of State: Emile Pelletier.
The area is 149 hectares or 368 acres. Population (census I Jan. 1956),
20,422. The official language is French.
National flag: red and white (horizontal).
1232 MONGOLIAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
The territory of the Principality is divided into three sections-Monaco-

Villa, :La. Condamine and Monte Carlo-which are administered by a
munici:pal body, elected by vote. Women were given the vote in 1945.
The Code Louis, adopted in 1919, is based upon the French codes. There
is a Court of First Instance as well as a Juge de Paix's Court. The Principal-
ity issues its own postage.stamps. It is combined in a customs union with
France (treaty of 9 Nov. 1865). Number of telephones in 1959 was 7,750.
There has been since 1887 a Roman Catholic bishop, directly dependent
on the Holy See. A semi·military police force has t a ken the place of the
• guard of honour' and troops form erly maintained.
Budget
(in l,COO francs) 1966 1957 1958 1959 1960 '
Revenue. . 2,816,901 2,468,382 3,179,639 6,074,668 58,918,510
Expendi 1;ure . 2,447,9!!8 2, 364,798 2,812,956 5,688,817 66,366,696
1 New francs.
The smaII harbour, absolutely sheltered, has an area of 47 acres, depth
at the entrance 90 ft, and alongside the quay 24 ft at least.
Bril: ish Consul. General (in Marseilles). Leslie Po tt, C.B.E.
Consulate General for lltonaco in London. 18 Austin Friars, E.C.2.
U./~:.A. Consul (in Nice). H arold W. Moseley.
Books of Reference
Journal .u Monaco. Bulletin Officiel. 1868 II.
Labande, Leon H., Hi,toirt lit la. PrinC'ipaut~ "Monaco. Paris, lD34
MONGOLIAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC

BlJOHlJT NAIRAMDAKH MONGOL ARAT ULlJS
THE Mongolian People's Republic was, under the name of Outer Mongolia,
n. Chin'lse province from 1686 to 1911, an autonomous state under Russian
protection from 1912 to 1919 and again a Chinese province from 1919 to
1921. On 31 March 1921 a Provisional People's Government was estab·
Iished which declared the independence of Mongolia and appealed for help
from Moscow.
On 5 Nov, 1921 the Government signed a treaty with Soviet RU$sia
annulling all previous unequal treaties and establishing friondly relations.
On 26 Nov. 1924 the Government proclaimed the country as the Mongolian
People's Republic,
In the treaty between China and the U.S.S.R. of 14 Aug. 1945 China
declarr,d her willingness to recognize the independence of the Mongolian
People's Republic (Outer Mongolia) if a. plebiscite of the inhabitants
indicated their wish for independence, The plebiscite was duly held on
20 Oct. 1945, and showed an almost unanimous vote in favour of indepen.
dence, and on 5 Jan. 1946 China formally recognized Outer Mongolia as an
independent republic. The Sino·Soviet treaty of 14 Feb. 1950 guaranteed
the independence of the Mongolian People's RepUblic.
On 27 Feb. 1946 a treaty of friendship and mutual aid with the Soviet
Union was signed in Moscow. On 4 Oct, 1952 an agreement of economic
and cultural co· operation with China was signed in Peking.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. According to the consti.
tution adopted on 30 June 1940 and amended in 1944, 1949, 1952 and 1955
MONGOLIAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC 1233
power is vested in the Great People'8 Khural, which is elected for a 3-yeBr
term by universal suffrage, male and female, over 18 years of age, on the
bBsis of I deputy for evory 2,500 of the population_ It elects from its number
7 members to the Presidium, which carries on ourrent state affairs _
The third general elections took place on 16 June 1957; 233 members
of the People's Revolutionary Party and 'non-party' candidates were
elected on a single list_
The People's Revolutionary Party had, in March 1958, 43,000 member~;
the youth organization, in May 1955, 43,000; the trade unions, in 1956,
60,500 _
Nationa,l flag : red-sky-bluo-red (vertical), with a golden 5-pointed star
and under it the golden 8oyombo emblem on the red stripe nearest to the
flag-pole_
Titular head of the state is the Chairman of the Pre$idium of the Great
People'8 Khural, Zhamsarangin Sambu_ The Prime .Minister, Yumzhagin
Tsedenbal, is also the First Secretary of the People's Hevo]utionary Party;
L_ Tsende is the Second Secretary_ The Politburo consists of 7 full and 2
alterna te members_ First Deputy P rime Ministers: Chimidorz Suronjab;
Foreign Minister: Buntsagin ShagdarsurW1; Minister of the Army and
Public Security : Lieut_-Gen_ Lhagvasurun_
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 1,531,000 sq_ km; population
(Jan. 1958) about Im. Birth rate, 1958, 40·3 per 1,000 population (1952,
13'4); death rate, 10 per 1,000 population (1952,6).
The Republic is administratively divided into a city (Vlan Bator, the
capital; population, about 160,000), a municipality (Sukhe Bator) and 17
provinces (aimak). The provinces are subdivided into 40"1 counties (somon)
and 27 urban districts (khoren); the' household groups' (bag) were a bolished
i.n Aug. 1959.
RELIGION. Buddhist Lamaism is the prevalent form of religion.
EDUCATION. The National Choibalsan University at Ulan Bator had,
in 1959,2,500 students (700 of whom studied medicine) and 160 Mongolian
teachers. An agricultural institute has 700 students; a teachers' college,
500. An Academy of Sciences was founded in 1953. In 1955 there were
430 elementary and secondary schools, 15 technical schools and 4 higher
educational institutions (with a total of 80,000 pupils). During 1958-60
compulsory elementary education is to be extended to the rural area; a
7-year curriculum is to be enforced in the towns.
In 1946 the Mongolian alphabet was replaced by one based on Russian.
PRODUCTION. The Mongols are mainly herdsmen, and in 1954 were
estimated to have 2·3m. horses, 900,000 camels, 2·3m. cattle, 14·2m. sheep
and 5·3m. goats. In 1959 there were 400 co-operatives with some 195,000
households (i.e., 98% of all households in the country) and 25 state farms.
The total sown area was 153,200 hectares.
The first 5-year flan (1948-52) did not involve collectivization but
stressed formation 0 producer's stockbreeding associations. The seoond
5-y(1ar plan (1953-57) and the 3-year plan (1958-60) continue this emphasis;
persuasion, not force, is to lead the arats (common livestock-herders) into
co-operatives, of which there were 680 in Sept. 1958. The 3-year plan
envisages the investment of 700m. tughrik ill the national economy, 19%
more than the second 5-year plan. The 3-year plan envisages the doubling
1234 MONGOLlli'l PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
of industrial output, the trehling of grain and the setting up of 158 machin&
and tractor stations. These will be supplied by the U.S.S.R. with tractors
and har'Tester combines. A textile· and-leather combine is being installed
at Ulan Hator; the wool department has been given by the Chinese Govern-
ment.
Thero) are some gold mines in the country, as well as other mineral
deposits of unascertained value. Tungsten and uranium are said to be
exported to the U.S.S.R. Coa1pits at Nalaikha, Bain Bulak, Undur Khan,
Yugodsyr and Dzun Bulak are being developed. Coal production in 1954
was 300.000 tons; target for H)58. 600,000 tons. Oil is produced in the
eastern Oobi desert near Sain Shanda.
Vlan Bator power station produced 22·7m. kwh. in 1952; target for 1957,
32·2m.
FINANCE AND TRADE. The state budget has developed as follows

(in Im. tughrik):
1965 1956 1957 ' 1968 '
Revenue 464 480 643·2 680·2
ExpendIture 460 478 594·3 674·7
1 Estimates
The 1958 expenditure includes 79·5m. for agriculture and animal hus-
bandry, 77·8m. for industry and 277·3m. for culture and social welfare.
Foreign trade has been a state monopoly since Dec. 1930. A ministry
of foreign trade was set up in 1958, and 140m. were appropriated for com-
merce an,d trade, both home and foreign.
The (:arrency, introduced in 1925, is based on the tughrik, divided into
100 mongo. The tUIJ"rik is at parity with the rouble.
COMMUNICATIONS. Railways (total track, 1,380 km in Dec. 1959)

connect Ulan Bator with Ulan Ude (Transiberian railway), Peking (Erhlien-
Chining line), Nalaikha and Altan Bulak; and Choibalsan (formerly Bayan
Tumen) with Borzya on the Transiberian railway.
Thero are stea-mer services on the Selenga and Orkhon rivers.
The air service between Ulan Ude and Ulan Bator is a link of the Moscow-
Irkutsk-Peking service. A Mongolian airline is operating on the flights Ulan
Bator-Peking (3 times monthly) and Ulan Bator-Irkutsk.
TherE' is telegraphic communication with the Soviet Union, and telephone
commun'ication between Ulan Bator and Peking. Length of telegraph and
telephOlw lines in 1954 was 13,000 km. A wireless station has been estab.
lished at Ulan Bator.
Books of Reference
K"",'iluuia i o.mo""v' wMIOdIlklny, aklv Mongollkoy Narodnov RtJPubliki. Moscow
1962. (Russian translation 01 the constitutIon and basic la...)
l'''''/la MC1I(IolJkoV Narodnoy RtJPubliki. Vol. I. Academy 01 Sciences. Moscow. 10b4
Domidoy. S. ft. Mongobkava Narodnaya ReJpublika. Moscow. 1962
Frltere, G. M., OUler Mongo/fa and ill Inlemaliona/ POlilion. Rev. ed. London, 19:n
Lattimo...., 0 .• NalionaJilm and R."olulion in M01l(l0/ia. Leiden. 1966
Kakhnyenko, A. K .•GOluaarslvennv SIrov M01l(lolJkOV Narodnov RtJpubliki. Moscow. 1966
)4ulellI1ik"v, V., M01l(lo1Jka1la Narodnava R ..publika. Moscow. 1965
Rlnchine. A.. R .• U'Mbnii: Mongols.l:,,~o YCllJ/k". Moscow. 1952
Shirendyb. B., Narodnaya R..,oluLI/la _ Mongolii. Moscow. 1956
Tod.y...... B. K., Gramm<Uika 30",....venna_o MongQlska_o Yatyia. Moscow. 1951
Yaklmova, V. A., JlongolJkaya Narodnaya RtJpublika. Ekonomika' Vnl/..hnaVIJ Torg/ifJ/va.
)40800... 1966
Zbag,aral, N. (ed.). The M07l(lnlian P,opl'" Republic. (In English.) Ulan Bator, 1956
MOROCCO 1235
MOROCCO
AL.M.UILAKA AL·MAGHREBIA
TnE Kingdom of Morocco is a sovereign independent monarchy. From

1912 to 1956 the count.ry was divided into a French protectorate (established
by the treaty of Fez concluded between France :>.od the Sultan on 30 March
1912), a Spanish protectorate (established by the l~ranco·Spanish conven·
tion of 27 Nov. 1912) and the internu.tional zone of Tangier (set up by Francc,
Spain and Great Britain on IS Dec. 1923).
011 2 tlIarch 1956 Franco and the Sultan terminated the treaty of Fez;
on 7 April 1956 Spain relinqui.~hed her protectorate, and on 29 Oct. 1956
France, Spain, Great Britain, Italy, the United States, Belgium, the Nether·
Ia.nds, Sweden and Portugal aboli.9hed tho international status of the Tangier
Zone.
REIGNING KING. Mohammed V, was proclaimed Sultan on 18
Nov. 1927, on the death of his father Moulay Youssef. He was replaced by
Wulo Arafa on 20 Aug. 1953, but renscended the throne on 17 Nov.
1955. The royal title was ehanged to 'King' on IS Aug. 1957. Crown
Prince: Prince Moulay Hassan, eldest son of the King.
The King holds supreme civil and religious authority; the latter in his
eapacity of Emir·el.Muminin or Commander of the Faithful. He resides
usually at Rabat, but occasionally in one of the other traditional capitala,
Fez (founded in SOS), Marrakesh (founded in 1062) and Meknes.
GOVERNMENT. The traditional government, known as the Makbzen,
was replaced on 7 Dec. 1955 by a cabinet system based on modem, parlia.
mentary usage. The Council of Ministers, formed on 25 Dec. 1958, is corn·
posed of 11 Ministers and 10 Under·Secretaries of State.
Prime M·inister and Minister Jor Foreign Affairs. Moulay Abdallah
Ibrahim.
Deputy Prime Minister and Mini..ter of National Economy, FI:nance,
Alines and Commerce. Abderrnhim Bouahid .
•~1inisteT of Defence. Mohammed Awad.
On 12 Nov. 1956 the Sultan inaugurated the National Consultative
Assembly. It consists of76 members, all chosen by the Sultan, and includes
3 members from Tangicr and 1 from !fni.
The country is administratively divided into 19 provinces and 5 urban
profectures. The provinces are: Rahat, l\[ekruls, Fez, Taza, Oujda.,
Tafilalt, Nador, Rif, Ouarzazate, Marrakesh, Agadir, Cusablanca, Safi,
Mazagan, Beni·Mcllal. Tangier, Larache, Tetuan, Chauen. The towns arc:
Rabat, Casablanca, Marrakesh, Fez, Meknes, Tarfaya.
The official language is Arabic ; French is considered a subsidiary lan·
guage.
National flag: red, with a 5 ·p ointed star outlined in green in the centre.
AREA AND POPULATION. Aa the eastern and southern boundaries
of Morocco have not been delimitated, no exact figure can be given, but the
total area may be estimated at 450,000 sq. km, made up of the Northern
Zone of 420,000 sq. km, the Sonthern Zone of 28,000 sq. km and the Province
of Tangier of 373 sq. km.
The population consists mainly of Berbors and Arabs. The latest
1236 MOROCCO
estimatel givo a total of over 9m., including nearly 500,000 Europeans and
200,000 Jews.
The principal towns are Casablanca (700,000 inhabitants), Marrakesh
(220,0001, Fez (180,000), Tangier (180,000), Rabat (160,000), Mek.nt\s
(150,0001, Ouida (85,000) and Tetuan (85,000). Agadir was devastated by
an earthquake on 1 March 1960.
RELIGION. The majority of the indigenous inhabitants are Sunni
Moslems of the Malekite school. The French and Spanish settlers are
Roman Catholics under the Archbishop of Rabat. The once large Jewish
population is diminishing.
EDUCATION. The population is still largely illiterate. There are
numerous Koranic schools imparting a very elementary education, and a
number of higher schools attached to mosques. The most notable is the
Kairowe'~n University at Fez, which is highly reputed in the Islamic world.
There is a training school for tcachers in Moslem schools at Rabat. The
University at Rabat has 3 faculties of law, science and literature. The
boys' and girls' high schools at Rabat have sectioDB for training teachers.
Jewish instruction is given in 96 primary schools.
Thero are state schools in the chief towns of the Northern Zone.
Two institutes, the Moulay el HaSSall and the Moulay el Mehdi, at Tetuan,
facilitate· the study of Arabic culture. The Allilillce Israelite has schools in
Tetuan ILnd Larache, and IL native school of arts and industries exists in
Tetuan, and a carpet. weaving school at Sheshawen.
In the Province of Tangier the education of Moslems is mainly confined
to the Koranic schools. The French and Spanish, however, maintain
several Jlrimary and elementary schools, and there are French technical
schools for boys and girls and an Italian school with primary and secondary
classes. There aro several primary and secondary schools for Jews main·
tained b:, the Jewish community.
In l!156 the ethnic composition of the schoolchildren was as follows:
Moroccan Moslems, 214,616 boys and 92,372 girls; Moroccan Jews, 18,339
boys and 18,619 girls; French, 37,558 boys and 32,173 girls; foreigners,
5,759 bOJs and 5,292 girls.
Cine7.~(J,IJ (1955). There were 155 cinemas with a seating capacity of
75,826 in the Southern Zone; 34 with 31,110 seats in the Northern Zone, and
9 with 5,392 seats in Tangier.
JUSTICE. A uniform legal system is being organized, based mainly

on Frcll(,h and I~lo.mic law codes and French legal procedure.
FINANCE. The ordinary budget for 1957 balanced at 1l0,76Im.

francs. The main items of revenue in 1956 (and 1957) were: Direct
taxation,. 18,805m. (17,259m.); customs, 18,OOOm. (l8,125m.); indirect
taxation ,. 25,390m. (31,230m.); monopolies, 18,602m. (14,OI9m.), The
public d{,bt in 1956 amounted to 9,805m. francs; 1957, 12,635m.
DEFENCE. The Royal Armed Forces of Morocco consists of an army
of volunteers, numbering 25,000 officers and men. Spain and France still
maintain some divisions in Morocco.
The Air Force, formed in Nov. 1956, comprises a flight of M.S. 500
Criquet ,)bservation monoplanes, and a communications flight of Heron,
Brousso.rd and Twin·Bonanza light transports.
MOROCCO 1237
PRODUCTION. Southern Zone. Agriculture is by far the most
important industry. The total cultivable area is estimated at 15·45m.
hectares, not including forests. Forest land is estimated at about 3·92m.
hectares, of which one· third lies within the agricultural area. The principal
crops are cereals, especially wheat and barley; beans, chickpeas, fenugreek
and other legumens; canary seed; cumin and coriander; linseed; olives;
almonds and other fruits, especially citrus (191,076 tons exported in 1956-
57). The production of rice, first introduced in 1949, was 300,000 quintals
of paddy in 1954. Vineyards, in 1955, covered 60,000 hectares; olive trees,
102,000 hectares. The almost universal wild palmetto is put to various uses,
including the manufacture of crin vegetal. The trees include cork (covering
310,000 hectares), cedar, arar, argon, oak and various conifers. In 1952-
53 there were 6,949,000 orange and lemon trees, 3,124,000 palm trees (dates),
10,277,000 almond trees. Olive oil yield, 1953-54, 16,000 metric tons;
wine production, 1956, 2·2m. hectolitres. Exports, 1956, of cereals amounted
to 600,618 tons; of csparto grass, to 56,208 tons. Tizra wood is exported
for tanning purposes. Stock-raising is an important industry. The number
of animals in the zone in 1953-54 was: Cattle (bovine), 2,459,000; sheep,
14,243,000; goats, 9,542,000; pigs, 62,000; horses, 216,000; mules and
asses, 1,098,000; camels, 221,000.
Yield (1,000 quintalB) Area (1,000 hectares
IJrincipal crops 1954-55 1955-.56 1952-63 1953-.54
Winter wheat . 5,4.98 7,030 861 963
Swnmer wbeflt 4,046 3,:122 516 6~1
Barley 12,483 16,344 2003 2,090
Maize 2,862 2,~61 '608 497
Beans 426 266 8 79
LentilR 105 40 16 ]6
Chickpeas 226 125 87 72
Potatoes 860 700
Tomatoes 1,050 1,000
The principal mineral exploited is phosphate, the output of which (under

& monopoly) was 5·52m. metric tons in 1956. Other important minerals
8tat~
(in 1,000 metric tons) are (1958): Anthracite (482), iron ore (l54), manganese
(451), lead (100), cobalt (6), crude petrol (97), barite (1957: 16), zinc (3!J);
silver, 2,!1l,000 fine oz.
The coasts abound in fish. The chief fishing centres are Agadir, Safi and
CasabIanca. The catch in 1956 was 99,000 metric tons.
The existing power· plants produced 928m. kwh. in 1956, of which
about two-thirds were hydro.electric. Works under construction are to
enlarge the irrigation area from 88,000 hectares (1955) to 121,000 hectares
ill 1957.
Northern Zone. Agriculture is potentially important, but undeveloped.
European colonization is almost entirely confined to the towns. Iron
ore is mined in the eastern region (1,356,000 long tOllS in 1956); in 1953,
915,000 metric tons were exported; of these, 253,394 tons were shipped
to the U.K. Lead (1953, 1,026 metric tons), antinlOny (1953, 681 metric
tons), manganese ore (1953, 1,071 metric tons) and graphite (1952, 17
metric tons) are also produced, but the zone is reported to be rich in minerals
of various kinds.
Province of Tangier. The agricultural output, consisting principally
of wheat, barley and chickpeas, is insufficient for the needs of the population.
There are also fisheries and preserving factories and a certain amount of
market gardening for local requirements.
1238 MOROCCO
COMMERCE. Southern Zone. Imports and exports were (in I m.

francs) :
19~O 1961 1952 1953 1954 1965 19~6
Imports 116,233 159,680 180,~34 171,184 167,933 113,814 1~~,~~9
Exports 66,403 88,169 95,742 94,311 9U,896 114,152 118,829
Imports and exports were (in 1,000 tons):

1948 1949 1950 19~1 1952 1953 195-1
Imports 1,639'6 1,i32'0 1,836 2,333 2,662 2,430 2,172
Exports 4,,,8 '9 6,391'1 S,g88 6,890 6,662 6,~28 1,628
The main items in 1956 werc: Imports: Sugar, 312,000 tons; petrol,
302,000 tons; iron manufacture, 62,000 tons; \vood manufacture, 150,000
tons; passenger cars, 14,620; industrial vehicles, 2,990; farm tractors,
624. Exports (in 1,000 tons): Phosphates, 5,560; barley, 445; manganese,
336; cit.rus, 149; lead, 91; dry vegetllbles, 78.
Northern Zone. Imports in 1953 totalled 950,653,354 pesetas, of which
Spain and Spanish colonies Ilccounted for 657,897,000 pesetas; Japan,
76.037,000 pesetas; U.S.A., 68,340,000 pesetas; Cuba, 26,029,000 pesetas;
U.K. 1!I,021,OOO pesetas; Germany, 16,404,000 pesetas. The principal
imports are flour, semolina, sugar (refined), tea, seed oils, wines. liquid fuel,
laundry soap, candles, cotton goods, automobiles and parts. The principal
cxports include iron ore, goatskins, canned Ilnd dried fish, esparto grass,
erin vegetal (dwarf-palm fibre) and limited quantities of lumber and cork.
Exports in 1953 totalled 627,498,089 pesetas, of which Spllin Ilnd Spanish
colonies took Iln amount equal to 259,517,000 pesetas; U.K., 125,475,000
pesetas; Netherlands, 70,415,000 pesetas; Tangier, 57.301,000 pesetas;
Germany, 47,934,000 pesetas; Italy, 20,455,000 pesetas; France, 20,203,000
pesetas.
Province of Tangier. A royal proclamation of 30 Aug. 1959 maintains
the former economic status of Tangier, \vith slight modifications in favour
of the trade between Tangier and the rest of Morocco.
1949 1950 1961 1952 1963 1964 1966
Imports. 8,6~2 9,104 10,764 12,823 11,628 9,579 10,926
Exports . 901 1,121 776 1,207 970 U96 2,328
Total trade between Morocco, Tangier and U.K. in £ sterling (British

Board of Trade returns):
19:;1 1957 (T.) 1958 1955 (T.) 1959 1959 (T.)
Imports to U.K. • 12,879,107 43.452 10,435,480 89,307 10,692,228 10192"
Exports from U.K.. 5,630,170 775,001 5,579,57G 887,559 4,505,488 652:618
Re·export.. from U.K. 86,905 58,692 195,191 47,091 8J,349 21,71 ;
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1956, 14,206 ,essels of 20,385,000

tons ent'lred and cleared the ports of Morocco.
RailtJaYs. On 31 Dec, 1952 there were 1,612 km of railways in the
Southern Zone, 93 in the Northern Zone and 18 in the Province of Tangier.
The principal standard-gauge lines are from Casablanca eastward to the
Algerian border, forming part of the continuous rail line to Tunis; the
line frolIl Tangier to Petit-jean on the main east-west line; Casablanca to
Marrake8h with 2 important branches, one eastward from a point slightly
north of Settat to Oued Zem tapping the Khouribga phosphate mines, the
other westward from Ben Guerir to the port of Safi passing about midway
MOROCCO 1239
through the phosphate district of Louis Gentil and Oujda southward to Bou
Arfa near the Jerada coalmines.
The existing railways in the Northern Zone are Ceuta-Tetuan (40'5 km),
Laraehe-Alcazarquivir (40 km), those of 2 mining eompnnies (57'7 km)
and 8 . portion of the Tangier-Fez railway which crosses the zone; tbe total,
230·4 km.
In 1956 Moroccan railways handled 652·301. passenger.km and carried
9,945,000 tons of goods.
R0a.d-8. On I Jan. 1954 there were 10,267 km of bitumenized and
metalled main and secondary roads and 35,100 km of tracks in the Southern
Zone. The Northern Zone has 1,621 km of good roads and about 800 km of
secondary roads. The Province of Tangier has about 65 miles of urban
and rural roads.
At the end of 1956 there were in Ilse 125,183 private cars, 52,824 com·
mercial vehicles, 1,384 buses and 18,907 motor cycles.
POBt. A Sheritian service under }<'rench management existed in the
Southern Zone. European letters and small parcels are conveyed by air,
without surcharge; overland through Spain, and by daily steamers between
Algeciras and Tangier and increasingly by air.
The total length of telegraph lines open to the public in the Southern Zone
on 31 Dec. 1952 was 26,039 km. All important centres in the Northern
Zone are connected by land lines. Communication between Morocco and
Europe is maintained by cables between Casablanca and Brest, Tangier-
Casahlanca-Le Havre, Tangier-Gibraltar, Tangier-Cadiz, Larache-Cadiz via
Algeciras.
Telephone systems exist in all towns of the Southern Zone, and there is a
complete urban and inter·urban cormexion of 270,914 km total length.
Urban services exist in the principal towns of the Northern Zone (5,231 km
line) and at Tangier. There is telephone communication between Tangier
and Madrid and between Tangier and Lisbon.
Telephone subscribers totaUed 128,133 at the end of 1958. Radio
receiving licences in the Southern Zone nllmbered 152,695 at 31 Dec. 1954.
Aviation. Seven French and 2 other airlines served the French Zone.
In 1956 they con veyed 112,656 passengers to Morocco, and 127,604 passengers
from Morocco.
CURRENCY. From 1920 to 1959 the franc was the sole currency in
the Southern Zone. The Moroccan franc (state bank·notes of all denomina·
tions from 5 francs upwards) was in 1928 placed on the same gold basis as
the French franc. In Feb. 1958 the peseta of the Northern Zone was replaced
by the Moroccan franc.
On 31 Dec. 1954 the value of state bank·notes in circulation was 55,494m.
fran(",s. Coins in circulation are 10·, 20- and 50·franc pieces (coppcr-nickel),
1. 0 2. and 5·franc pieces (copper-aluminium).
In Oct. 1959, a national currency was introduced. Its unit is the dirham.

measures is the sole legal system. The principal native measures in use are:
Weight: 1 kantar = 100 rot18; 1 ,.otl = 16 ookeyaa. Tho roll varies widely
round about 21b. Capacity : The mudd, which varies by locality. Length:
I kama = 60 in.; I dra = 20 in. ; 1 kala = 22 in.
1240 MOROCCO

Morocco maintains embassies in Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Iran,
Iraq, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Spain, TWlisia, Turkey,
U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, U.K., U S . .A. ; and legations in Belgium
and Libya.
OF MOROOCO IN GREAT BRITAIN (65 Ennismore Gardens, S.W.7)
Ambassador. Prince Moulay Hassan ben el Mehdi Alaoui (accredited
30 May (957).
Secre.~ary. Mohammed Mesfiwi. Commercial Attache. Mohammed
Bekkali.
OB GREAT BRITAIN IN MOROCCO
AmbG:8sadoT and COMul-General. Sir Charles Duke, K.C.M.G., C.I.E.,
O.B.E.
First Secretaries. D. R. Roper, M.V.O. (Consul); D. F. Parkinson;
W. R . Thompson (Labour). S ervice Attaches: Lieut.-Cdr J. S. Drane,
D.S.C., RN. (Naval), Lieut.·Col. D. A. Heath, M.C. (Army), Wing Cdr
T. W. H,)rton, D.S.O., D.F.C. (Air).
TherE' are consular representatives at Casablanca, Fez, Tangier and
Tetuan.
')F MOROCCO IN THE U.S.A. (2144 Wyoming Ave. NW.,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambcssador. Dr EI·Mehdi Ben Aboud.
Coun.lcllor. Omar S. Elmandjra (Economic). First Secretary. Mustapha
Alami. Cultural Attache. Mes Halima Embarek Anegay.
OF THE U.S.A. IN MOROCCO
Ambassador. Charles W. Yost.
Coun'lcllors. David G. Nes; Don V. CatIett (Consul). First Secretaries.
John G. Anderton; D. Merle Walker. Service Attaches: Col. David S.
K eisler (Army), Capt. J esse L. Pennell (Navy). Agricultural Attache. W.
Gordon Loveless.
There are Consuls·General at Casablanca and Tangier.
Books of Reference
STATISHCAL INFORMATION. The Service Central des Statistique. CB.P. 178, Rauat) was
Bet up In 19·12. Its publication. include : Annuairede Slali.lique Ghltrale (latestl.sue, 1962).-
La Conj ....:lUre EconomiqU<? M aroca;M (monthly; with an annual oyntbesls).-RI.ultal#
du Recens..ntnl gffllral de la populalion de 1951-1)2.-Bullclin Iconomiqut ., lOcial du Maroc
(trimestral:>,
Maroc 195<'. Renseignements transmis 1I1'O.N.U. PMi. , 1955
SGalislique. flu MlJUvement Commercial el MariJim" An",,,,/ (for Frenoh Zone and Tangier
Car'" lopo9"aphiqU<? du Maroc. Institut G~ographJque National, Rabat
Bulletin OjiciaJ (In Arabio and French). Rebat. Weekly
Barenne, Y., La Moderni'alion ruralt au Maroc. Paris, 1948
Bonjean, Fran<;ois, L'am" maroca'M vue It Iravers I.. croyanc," ella polite..". Rabat, 1948
Bourrilly, A., EUmenl. d"lhnographie marocain<. Paris, 1932
O~l~rier, Le Maroc. Paris, 1948
Ohouraqul, A., La Condilion juridiqU<? de l'I.raeli", Ma,ocain. Pari., 1960
Ooindreau, R., and Pcnz, 0., Le Maroc. Paris, 1949
Decroux. P., Le. ,ocil~. au Ma,oc. Pari., 1960
D'~tienne, J., and others, L'~volulion .ociale du MaToc. Pari., 1960
Drngue, G." E.qu;." d'h;,toire religieu.>e du Maroc. Paris, 1901
Joly, F., aIld others, Otographie du Maroc. Pari., 1949
Landau, R., Moroccan DraTTU11900-55. SaD Francisco, 1956
MUSCAT AND OMAN 1241
Mercier, H., Dictionnaire arab~-JTan~i.'. Ra.ba.t, 1951
Mi~ge, J ..L., Morocco. New York, 1953
MorIa, V. de, Espaiia ffl MaT'f"fUcos. La obra social. Madrid,1947
Rican!, PI'OIlper, L. Ma,oc. (Collection Guides Bleus.) Paris, 1948
Riviere, P. L., R.cueil g~,al lit. IraiU., CoM', eI loi. du Ma,oc, 1912-23. 'vols. Paris
1924--25, and annual supplements.-P,.~ci", ck L~i$lation marocaine. New ad. in collabora.-
tion with G. Catteriz. 2 vol.. Caen, 1942-46
Bonnier, E., COM de.! eauz du M aroc. Ra.ba.t, 1954
NATIONAL LmRARY. BibliotMque G~n6rale et Archive., Rabat.
Bibliographical assistance OD Moroccan subjects can be obtained from the Bibliotheque
G~~rale in Rabat. Annual bibliography in Hespbis. Revu. pubm. par /'/nstitul del
Hautes Eludes M arocaines.
MUSCA T AND OMAN

SULTANAT JliASQAT WAll OMAN
TilE independent Sultanate of Muscat and Oman is situated at the easterly
corner of Arabia. Its seaboard is nearly 1,000 miles long and extends
from the Ras al Khaimah Shaikhdom near Tibat on the west side of the
Musandum Peninsula to Ras Dharbat All, which marks the boundary between
the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and the territory of the Sultan of Kishen
and Socotra, which is within the Aden Protectorate. A small strip of the
coast on the east side of the Musandum Peninsula from Dibah to Khor Kalba
is administered by 2 shaikhs of Trucial Oman, independent of the Sultltn.
The sultanate extends inland to the borders of the Rub' al Khali (' Empty
Quarter' of the Grent Desert). Physically Muscat and Oman consists of
three divisions-a coastal plain, a range of hills and a plateau. The coast&1
plain vnries in width from 10 miles nenr Suwaiq to practically nothing in the
vicinity of 1\1a.trah and Muscat towns, where the hills descend abruptly into
thc sea. The mountain runge runs generally from north-west to south·east.
It reaches its greatest height in the Jebel Akhdhar region, where heights of
over 9,000 ft ocom. The hills are for the most part ban-en but in the high
area round Jebel Akhdhar they are green and there is considerable cultiva-
tion. The plateau bas an average height of 1,000 ft. With the exception
of oases there is little or no cultivation. North·west of Muscat the coastal
plain, known as the Batinah, is fortile and prosperous. The date gardens
extend for over 150 miles. The Batinah dates are famous for their flavour;
they ripen in the first half of July, well before the Basra dates. The coast·
line between Muscat and the province of Dhofar is barren. The fertile
province of Dhofar lies on the south·eastern coast of Arahia. Sugar cane is
grown and cattle cau be raised. Hs principal town is Salalah on the coast,
while lI1urbat is the port.
The port of Gwadur and a small tract of country on the north (Baltl.
chistan) coast of the Gulf of Oman were handed over to Pakistan on 8 Sept.
1958.
In the valleys of the interior, as well as on the Batinah, date cultivation
has reached a high level, and there are possibilities of agricultmal develop-
ment were the water supply more certain. Camels are bred in large numbers
by the inland tribes. There are no industries of any importance.
The area of the sultanate has been estimated as about 82.000 sq. miles
and the population at 550,000, chiefly Arabs, but there is a strong infusion
of negro blood, especially along the coast. The town of Muscat is the
capital; its population is 5,500. At one time a town of some commercial
1242 MUSCAT AND OMAN
importance, it hll8 of recent years lost most of its trade to the adjacent town
of Mat.rah (population, 8,500), which is the starting point for the trade
routes into the interior. The population of both towns consists mostly of
Indian!!, Baluohis and Negroes, with few pure Arabs resident there. The
merche,nt community consists chiefly of Khojll8 (from Sind and Kutch) and
Hindus (mostly from Gujerat and Bombay). Other ports are Sohar,
Khaburah and Sur; none, however, affords shelter from bad weather.
Th!. present Sultan is Said bin Taimur (born 13 Aug. 1910), who succeeded
his father Taimur bin Feisal, on 10 Feb. 1932, as the 13th of his dynasty.
The Sultan hll8 one son, Qabus, born in Dec. 1!140.
N aJional flag: red.
Tho treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation between Britain and
the Sultan, signed on 20 Dec. 1951, reaffirmed the close ties which have
existed between the British Government and the Sultanate of Oman and
Muscat for over a century and a half.
FiTUl1l« and Commerce. Annual revenue is about Rs. 60lakhs, derived
mostly from customs duties.
Imports and exports are mainly from and to India, Pakistan and the
Persian. Gulf states. Imports (by steamer only) in the fiscal year ending
31 March 1958 a.mounted to Ra 237,98,500 ; exports to Ra 92,16,800.
Chief imports in 1957-58: Rice, Rs 55,11,700; wheat and wheat flour,
Ra 18,14,600: coffee, Ra )7,20,600 : sugar, Rs 18,78,300: cotton piece.
goods, Rs 23,88,500: cement, Rs 5,65,700: motor cars and accessories,
Rs 5,8{1,800. Principal exports in 1957-58: Dates, Rs 49,68,600: fish and
fish products, Rs 19,31,000: limes and fruits, Rs 16,62,400. Re·exports of
cotton piece. goods, Rs 22,700. The importation of alcoholic liquor is for.
bidden by law.
Trade with U.K. (British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling):
1966 19~6 1967 19~ 5 19b9
Imports to U.K. 20,781 8,433 17,310 13,136 10,10 7
Exports from U.K. . 324,535 627.849 642,222 708,Ib3 1,468.646
n e·exports from U.K. 2,393 7,(161 5,636 6,678 17,471
Shil1ping. The port of call on the mail route Bombay-Basra is Muscat,

where, :< n 1958,200 ocean-going ships (of which 153 were British) of 638,219
gross tons entered and cleared. Themail service is weekly in either direction .
Gwadur. is also served by these steamers, every alternate voyage.
Roadll. Inland transport is by pack animals. The road connecti.ng
Muscat with Matrah continues as a motorable track up the coast to IGwr
Fakkau. via Kalba at the far end of the Batinah, a distanoe of about 260
miles. Hajar, Boshar and Qariyat are also connected by motorable t racks
\vith Matrah. Ca.rs run frequently between Muscat and the towns in the
Batinah, via Shinas and the Wadi al Khor to Sharjah, and up various wadis
to the interior. None of these routes should be used by foreigners without
previous permission.
Pos~. A post office oporates in Muscat under the supervision of the
General Post Office in London. Cable and Wireless, Ltd maintain a tele-
graph (office at Muscat and a.n automatic telephone system which includes
Matrah (130 telephones in 1959): telephone connexion with Bahrain
now serves to establish communication with other parts of the world.
A vi,uion. Gulf Aviation Ltd run a weekly service from Muscat to Bahrain
~·ia. Sha rjah and D oha. The airport at B aital F alaj is 5 miles from Muscat.
NEPAL 1243
Currency. The common medium of exchange is the Maria Theresa
dollar; the province of Dhofar also has a. half·dollar. On the coast. the
Indian rupee circulates and is the official currency of the sultanate. although
it is not much used in the interior. There is one Omani copper coin cailed
a baiza. and several nickel coins of different denomina.tions of baizas.
Weights and Mell8Ure8. The weights in use are 1 kiyas = the weight of
6 dollars or 5·93i5 oz.; 24 kiyas = 1 Muscat maund; 10 maunds = I
farasala; 200 maunds ;; 1 bahdr. Rice is sold by the bag; other cereals
by the following measures: 40 palis = 1 ferrah; 20 ferrah = 1 khrwdi.
British Consul·General. \V. N. Monteith.
U.8 ..1. Consul. Gordon H. Drowne (resident in Aden).
Thesiger. W .•• Desert Borderlands of OmlUl,' Geographical Journal, 116, 1950.- .;lrabinn Sand,.
London, 195U
~ .. also tu. bibIJograpby under PIlRSIAN GULF STATF.S
,
NEPAL
AN independent kingdom in the HimaJayas. between 26° 20' and 30° 10' N.
lat. and between 80° 15' and 88° Hi' E. long.; its greatest length 550 miles;
it!! greatest breadth about 150; bounded on the north by Tibet. on I.he east
by Sikkim and West De.ngal, on the south and we~t by llihar and Uttar
Pradesh.
The sovereign is H.M. MaMrajadhirija Mahendra Bir Bilcram Jang
llahtidur Shr.h Bahidur Shamsher Jang Deva, horn on 11 June 1920,
who succeeded his father Tribhuwan Bir Bikram Shah Deva on 14 March
1955. H.R.H. Prince DirendrR. Bir Dikram Shah Deva is the heir apparent.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. :From 1846 to 1951 Nepal
was virtually ruled by the Rana family a member of which always held the
office of Prime Minister, the succession heing determined hy ~pecial rules.
The last Rana Prime Minister (and., ulttil 18 Feb. 1951, Suprcme C.·in·C.)
was H.n. Maharaja Mohan Shumsher Jung Bahidur Rana., who resigned in
Nov. 1951.
On 18 Feb. 1951 the King proclaimed a con8titutional monarchy. A
new constitution was promulgated on 12 Feb. 19G9. At the elections in
Feb. 1!)59 the Nepil Congress obtained a two·thirds majority.
Prime Jfinister, De/ence, Foreign A//airs. D. P. Koirala.
The cabinet, appointed on 30 June 1959, consists of 11 ministers.
Relations with the U.K. are regulated by the tTeaty of peace and friend·
ship signed on 29 Oct. 1950, which supersedes the treaties of 17!l2, 1815 and
19:Z3. Diplomatic relations with the U.S.A. were established in 1950.
For relations with Tibet sce p. 1422.
National anthem: • May glory crown our iUustrious sovereign' (1952).
AREA AND POPULA nON. Area about 54,362 sq. miles; population
(estimate, 1958), 8,473,478. Number of voters (estimn.te, 1953), 4,226,000.
The census of the eastern districts (16,222 sq. miles), taken ill 1953, gives
their population as 3,344,797 (1,665,590 males, 1,679,2Oi females).
The aboriginal stock is Mongolian with a considerable admixture of
Hindu blood from India. They were originn.lly divided into numerous hill
clans and petty principalities, one of which, Gorkha or Gurkha, became
1244 NEPAL
predominant about 1769 and has since given its name to men from all parts
of Nep!'!' The royal family are Hindu Rajputs.
Capital, Kathmandu, 75 miles from the Indian frontier; population about
195,260, and of the surrounding valley 415,000, including Patan with a
population of 135,230, and Bhatgaon with 84,240.
The country is administratively divided into 34 districts.
RElL.IGION. Sanatan or Pauranic, i.e., traditional or ancient Hinduism,
and Buddhism are the religions of the bulk of the people. Christian missions
are now admitted.
EDlUCATION. In 1958 there were 2,443 English schools, 242 Sanskrit
and Nepali school~, 54 basic schools, 21 colleges and 7 other institutions.
About 9% of the population are literate.
JUSTICE. The Supreme Court Act, 1956, established a uniform
judicial system, culminating in a supreme court of a Chief Justice, 2 judges
anrt 7 additional judges. Special courts to deal with minor offences may be
established at the discretion of the Government.
FINANCE. The general budget for 1959-{)0 shows revenues at Rs
10,26,41,000 (N.C.) and expenditure of Rs 10,08,02,000 (N.C.). The de-
velopment budget shows expenditure of Ra 14,81,5G,OOO (N.C.).
DE1!"ENCE. The Army consists of about 45,000 men, mainly infantry,
of whom about 20,000 a.re regulars.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. The principal articles of export are food
grains, jute, timber, oilseeds, ghee (clarified butter), potatoes, medicinal
herbs, hides and skins, cattle. The chief imports are textiles, cigarettes,
salt, petrol and kerosene, sugar, machinery, medicines, boots and shoes,
paper, eement, iron and steel, tea.
Nepal has valuable forests in the southern part of the country, and in the
nortbern part, on the slopes of the Himalayas, there grow large quantities of
medicir.al herbs wbich find a world-wide market. Of the total area, uearly
one-thi:-d (11·2m. acres) is under forest; 5·4m. acres is covered by perpetual
snow; 9·6m. acres is under crops (9·6m. paddy, 2·9m. maize and millet,
0·8m. wheat).
Livestock: Cattle, 7m., including 2·1 m. cows and 1·2m. buffaloes; sheep
and goMs, 1·75m.; bogs, 140,000; poultry, 14m.
New industries, such as jute- and sugar-mills, match and glass and ceramio
factories, and cbemical works are being established.
Tbrfle hydro.electric plants (1 in Morang and 2 in the valley of Kath-
mandu) are in operation; total electricity output is 6,000 kw.
Exports to Nepal from U.K. (British Board of Trade returns) were
£17,069 in 1938; £18,765 in 1956; £7,786 in 1957; £71,187 in 1958; £33,672
in 1939. Nepalese exports to U.K., nil in 1956-58, £1 in 1959; re·exports,
£11 in )956; £166 in 1957; nil in 1958; £141 in 1959.
A nlttional economic planning commission of 29 members was appointed
in 1956 to prepare the first 5-year plan (1956-60). A planning board is
supervhing its implementation.
The trade is mostly financed by the Nepal Bank, Ltd (established in
1937) aad the Rastra Bank of Nepal (established in 1956).
COMMUNICATIONS. Post. A telephone connects the capital with
Birganj and Raxaul (Oudh and Tirhut Railway) on the southern frontier
NEPAL 1245
with Bihar. A second telephone line connects Kathmandu with the eastern
part of the Terai foothilIs. An extension of the telephone service to the
western districts is being completed. Dnder a tripartite agreement with
India and the D.S.A., a network of 56 wireless stations is being established in
Ncpal, with further stations in Calcutta and New Delhi. Radio Nepal at
Kathmandu broadcasts in Nepali, Hindi, Newari and English on short and
medium waves. .
On 14 April 1959 Nepal took over from India the administration of the
post, telephone and telegraph services.
Railways (2 Et 6 in. gauge) connect Raxaul with Amlekganj (30 miles)
and Jayanagar on the Oudh and Tirhut Railway with Janakpur and thence
with Bijulpura (33 miles).
Roads. With the co-operation of India and the D.S.A. 900 miles of
motorable roads are being constructed.
There are about 500 miles of motorable roads. A ropeway for the
carriage of goods covers the 14 miles from Dhursing above Bhimphedi into
the Kathmandu valley; it is being extended to Kathmandu. In 1954 a road
connecting Kathmandu with the railhead at Amlekganj (80 miles) was
opened.
Aviation. There are S airstrips; there is an air-service Kathmandu-
Calcutta.
MONEY. The Nepalese rupee is 171 grains in weight, as compared
with the Indian rupee, which weighs ISO grains. The rate of exchange
is about 150 Nepalese rupees for 100 Indian rupees. 100 Nepalese pice =
1 Nepalese rupee. Coins of all denominations are minted. The Rastra.
Bank also issues notes of I, 5, 10 and 100 rupees.

Nepal maintains embassies in Ceylon, Czeehoslovakia, Greece, India,
Poland, D.S.S.R., Dnited Arab Republic, D.K. and D.S.A.; and has diplo-
matic relations with Austria, China, France, Federal Germany, Italy,
Japan, Switzerland.
011' NEPAL IN GREAT BRITAIN (l2a Kensington Palace Gardens, W.S)
Ambassador. Rama Prasad Manandhar, C.B.E. (accredited 20 March
1956).
Fir8t Secretary. J. N. Singha.
Military Attache. Col. Rabi Shamsher Jang Bahadur Riinii.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN NEPAL
Ambassador. Leonard Arthur Scopes, C.M.G., O.B.E. (appointed 1 Oct.
1957).
Fir8t Secretary. Lieut.-Col. R. R. Proud, O.B.E .
.Military Attache. Lieut.-Col. J. O. M .. Roberts, M.B.E., M.C.
OF NEPAL IN THE D.S.A. (2131 Leroy PI. N.W., Washington S, D.e.)
Ambassador. Rishikesh Shaha.
First Secretary. N. P. Arja!.
OF THE D.S.A. IN NEPAL
Ambassador. Henry E. Stebbins.
Counsellor. Ernest H. Fisk.
1246 THE NETHERLANDS
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. A Department 0 1 Stati. t i ca was set up In K6tbm'ndu on
2~ Oct. 19bO.
All Shah, The Sirdar Ikbul, ,vtpal : TM Bomt of Iht Ood.. London, 1938
Davi., H ., Ntp6.l : Land of M.~.Ury. London, 1942
Landon, P., ,vqJaJ. 2 vols. London. 1928
Nortbey, Maj., W. D .•Tilt Land OflM Gurkhas. Cambridge, 1937
THE NETHERLANDS
KONlNXRLJJr DER NEDERLANDEN
ACCORJ>INO to the Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the
Kingdc.m consists of the Netherlands, Surinam, the Netherlands Antilles
and Netherlands New Guinea. The relations between the Netherlands.
Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles are further regulated by the' Statute '
for the Kingdom, which came into force on 29 Dec. 1954. Each part enjoys
full aut.onomy; they are united, on a footing of equality, for mutual assist-
ance and the protection of their common intercsts.
REIGNING QUEEN. Juliana Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina ,
born 3(' April 1909, daughter of Queen Wilhelmina (born 31 Aug. 1880) and
Prince Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (born 19 April 1876, died 3 July
1934); succeeded to thc throne on the abdication of her mother (who assumed
the tith of Princess of thc Netherlands), 4 Sept. 1948, and was enthroned
on 6 Sept. ; married to Prince Bernhard Leopold Frederick Eberhard Julius
Coert Karel Godfried Pieter of r..ippe·Biesterfeld (born 29 JWle 1911) on
7 J an . 1937. Offspring: Princess Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard, born 31
Jan. H138; Princess Irene Emma Elisabetb, born 5 Aug. 1939; Princes~
Margrict Francisca, born in Ottawa, 19 Jan. 1943 ; Princess Maria Christina,
born 1~. Feb. 1947.
The royal family of the Netherlands, known as the House of Orange,
descencJI from a German Count Walram, who livod in the 11th century.
Through. the marriage o fCount Engelbrecht, of the branch of Otto, Count of
Nassau,. with Jane of Polanen, in 1404, the family acquired the barony of
Breda " nd settled in the Netherlands. The alliance with another heiress,
only sister of the childless Prince of Orange and Count of Chlllons, brought
to the house a rich province in the south of France; and a third matrimonial
union , that of Prince Willelll III of Orange with Mary, the eldest daughter
of King James 11, led to the transfer of the crown of Great Britain to that
prince. Previous to this period, the members of the family had acquired
great influence in the United Provinces of the Netherlands under the title
of'stadhouders,' or governors. In 1747 the dignity was formally conferred
on WilIem IV and his heirs ; but his successor, WilIem V, had to take refuge
in Enghnd, in 1705, at the invasion of the Frcnch Army. The family did
not ret'lrn till Nov. 1813, when the United Provinces were freed from
French domination. After various diplomatic negotiations, the Belgian
provinc~s, subject before the French Revolution to the House of Austria,
were ordered by the Congress of Vienna to be joined to the Northern Nether·
lands. thus constituting one kingdom. Willem I was proclaimed King of
the N"etherlandl! at The Hague on 16 March 1815, and the succession to the
crown settled on his heirs. The union thus established between the northern
and southern Netherlands was dissolved by the Belgian revolution of 18:l0,
and their political relations were not readjusted until the signing of the
THE NETHERLANDS 1247
treaty of London, 19 April 1839, which constituted Belgium an independent
kingdom.
.vetile,landl S01Ie1'rign.
Willom I 1815-40 (died 1843) WilhelmJuA • 18!10-1~48
Willom II . 1840-1849 Juliana • 1948-
Willow III . 18<19-1890
Nationalflag: red, white. blue (horizontal).
National anthem: Wilhelmus van Nassau we (words by Philip Marnix
van Se Aldegonde, c. 1570).
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The first Constitution of

the Netherlands after its restoration as a Sovereign State was promulgated
in 1814, and was revised in 1815 (after the addition ofthe Belgian provinces,
and the assumption by the Sovereign of the title of King). Further revisions
took place in 1840 (a.fter the secession of the Belgian provinces), 1848, 1884,
1887, 1917, 1922, 1938, 1946, 1948, 1953 and 1956. According to this
charter the Netherlands form a constitutional and hereditary monarchy.
The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order of primogeniture:
in default of male heirs, the female line ascends the throne. The Sovereign
comes of age on reaching his 18th year. During his minority the royal
power is vested in a Regent-rlesignated by law-and in some cases in the
Council of State.
The central executive power of the State rests with the CroWD, while the
central legislative power is vested in the CroWD and Parliam('nt, the latter
-called the Stalen.Generaal-consisting of 2 Chambers. After the 1956
revision of the Constitution the Upper or Firllt Chamber is composed of 75
members, elected by the members of the Provincial States, and the Second
Chamber of the States·General consists of 150 deputies, who are elected
direct.1y. Members of the States·General must be Netherlanders or recog·
nized as Netherlands subjects and 30 years of age or over; they may be
men or women. They receive an allowance.
First Chamber (as constituted in 1959): Catholics,25; Labour Party,
22; Anti.Revolutionaries,8; Christian Historicals, 8; Party for Freedom
and Democracy, 7; Communists, 4; Political Calvinists, 1.
Second Chamber (as constituted in 1959): Labour Party, 48; Catholics,
49; Anti.Revolutionaries, 14; Christian Historicals, 12; Party for Freedom
and Democracy, 19; Communists, 3; Political Calvinists, 3; Pacifist
Socialist Party, 2.
The revised Constitution of 1917 has introduced an electoral system
based on universal suffrage and proportional representation. Under its
provisions, members of the Second Chamber are directly elected by citizens
of both sexes who are Netherlands subjects not under 23 years (since 11
March 1946). Criminals, lunatics and certain others are disqualified; for
certain crimes and misdemeanours there may be temporary disqualification.
The members of the Second Chamber are elected for 4 years, and retire
in a body, whereas the First Chamber is elected for 6 years, and every
3 years one·half retires by rotation. The Sovereign has the power to dissolve
both Chambers of Parliament, or one of them, suhject to the condition that
new electiona take place within 40 days, and the new House or Houses be
convoked to meet within 3 months.
The Sovereign and the Second Chamber may propose new Bills; the
First Chamber can only approve or reject them without inserting amend·
ments. The meetings of both Chambers are public, though each of them
may by a majority vote decide on a secret session. The Ministers and
1248 THE NETHERLANJ>fl
Secrete,ries of State may attend both Chambers, but only in an advisory

capacity as a member of the States·General cannot be a Minister or Secre-
tary of State.
The Constitution can be revised only by a Bill declaring that there is
reason for introducing such revision and containing the proposed alterations.
The passing of this Bill is followed by a. dissolution of both Chambers and
a secof).d confirmation by the new States· General by two· thirds of the votes.
Unless it is expressly stated, all laws concern only the realm in Europe, and
not thEI Overseas Territories. Every act of the Sovereign has to be covered
by a responsible Minister.
The Ministry, appointed 19 May 1959, is composed as follows :
Prime 2Winister and .Minister jor General Ajfairs. Dr J. E. de Quay
(Cath,).
Minister jor Foreign Affairs. Dr J. l\f. A. H. Luns (Cath.).
J.finister oj Finance. Dr J. Zijlstra (Anti.Rev.).
llfinister jor Home Affairs. Dr E. H. Toxopeus (F. and D.).
Minister oj Social Affairs and Public Health. Dr. C. J. M. A. van Rooii
(Cath.),
llfinister oj Education, Arts and Science. Dr J. l\f. L. T. Cals (Cath.).
Minister oj Justice. Dr A. C. W. Beerman (Christ .. Hist.).
Minister of Social Welfare. Miss Dr 1\1. A.ll1. Klompe (Cath.).
Minister oj Dejence. S. H. Visser (F. and D.).
Minister oj Housing and Building. Dr J. van Aartsen (Anti.Rev.).
ViC.l·Premier and Minister oj Transport and Shipping. Dr H. A.
Korthals (F. and D.).
Minister oj Economic Affairs. Dr J. de Pous (Christ .. Hist.).
Minister oj Agriculture and Fisheries. Dr V. G. IlL lIIarijnen (Cath.).
The Council of State (Raad van State), appointed and presided over by
the SoYereign, is composed of a deputy chairman and not more than 14
members. It can be consulted on all legislative matters. Decisions of the
Crown in administrative disputes are prepared by a special committee of
the Conncil.
LOCAL GovERmlENT. The kingdom is divided into 11 provinces and
998 municipalities. Each province has its own representative body, the
Provindal States. The members are elected for 4 years, directly from the
Netherlands inhabitants of the province who are 23 years of age. The
electorr.l register is the same as for the Second Chamber. The members
retire in a body and are subject to re·election. The number of members
varies according to the population of the province, from 82 for South Holland
to 35 for Drenthe. The Provincial States are entitled to issue ordinances
concerning the welfare of the province, and to raise taxes pursuant to legal
provisions. All provincial ordinances must be approved by the Crown. The
membexs of the Provincial States elect the First Chamber of the States·
General. They meet twice a year, as a rule in public. A permanent com·
mission composed of 6 of their members called the 'Deputy States', is
charged with the executive power and, if required, with the enforcement of
the law in the province. Deputy as well as Provincial States are presided
over by a Commissioner of the Sovereign, who in the former assembly has
a deciding vote, but attends the latter in only a deliberative capacity. He
is the chief magistrate in the province. The Commissioner and the members
of the Deputy States receive an allowance.
Eac:il municipality forms a Corporation with its own interests and rights,
subject to the general law, and is governed by a Municipal Council, directly
elected for 4 years, by the electorate registered for the Provincial States,
provided they are residents of the municipality. All Netherlands inhabi-
tants 23 years of Il-ge are eligible, the number of members varying from
7 to 45, according to the population. The Municipal Council has the right
to issue bye-laws concerning the communal welfare. The Council may levy
taxes pursuant to legal provisions; these ordinances must be approved by
the Crown. All bye-laws may be vetoed by the Sovereign. The Muni-
cipal Budget and resolutions to alienate municipal property require t.he
approbation of the Deputy States of the province. The Council meets in
publie as often as may be necessary, and is presided over by u. Burgomaster.
appointed by the Sovereign for 6 years. The day-to-day administration i.
carried out by the Burgomaster and 2-7 Aldermen (wetmmders), elected by
and from the Council; t.his body is also charged with the enforcement of the
law. The Burgomaster may suspend the execution of a resolution of the
Council for 30 days, but is bound to notify the Deputy States of the pro-
vince. In maintaining publio order. the Burgomaster acts as the chief of
police. The Burgomaster and Aldermen receive allowances.
AREA AND POPULATION. Growth of census population:

1829 2,613,298 1889 4,511,415 1920 6,865,314
18·19 3,056,879 1899 5,104,137 1930 7,935,565
1869 3,579,529 1909 6,8f.8,175 1947 9,625 ,499
Area, density and estimated population on 31 Dec. 1948 and 1958:

Area (land) Density per
(sq. km) Population sq. km
Provinces 1958 1948 1958 1958
Ol'oningen 2,246 ' 53 457,611 471,745 210·0
}'rieslanu 3,239'53 463,442 474.744 146·7
Drenthe 2,619-5U 277,258 308,O~8 117·6
Overijssel 3,255'0·1 656,047 760.020 233·5
Oelderland 5,006 -1il 1,057,9,11 1,260,317 249·8
Utrecht. 1,324'03 665,662 662,847 500·6
Noordholland 2,631'91 1,824,305 2,038,196 774'4
?:uldholland 2,814'50 2,351,669 2,668,158 948·0
Zeeland. 1,710'60 265,759 283,356 165·6
Noordbrabant 4,902'14 1,219,706 1,456,650 297·1
Limburg 2,219'87 708,287 869,326 391'6
Y"""lIakepolders 1 501-82 3,189 27,927 64·5
Centra) Regi~tcr of popu-
lation I 33,539 6,710
Total 32,4il'C~ 9,88t,415 11,278,024 347·3

1 The Yssellakepolden arc part ot the former ZuiderZ8e t hOW called IJsselmeer: they liave
not yet been Incorporated in any province.
t The Oentral Heglater of population includes persons who are residents ot the N etbcrh1.,nds
hut who have no fixed residence in any particular municipality (living in caravalll\ and house-
boats. shipping population on the water, etc.).
Of the total population on 31 Dec, 1958, 5,618,540 wero males,

5,659,484 females.
The total area of the Netherlands up to the low water line (i.e., sea-
level at low tide) is 40,892'84 sq. km, of which 32,471-62 sq. km is land
area.
On 14 June 1918 a law was passed concerning the reclamation of the
Zuiderzee. The work was begun in 1920; the following sections have heen
completed: 1. The Noordholland-Wioringen Barrage (2·5 km), 1924;
2. The Wieringermeer Polder (194'78 sq. km), 1930 (inundated by the
ss
Germans in 1945. but drained again in the same year); 3. The Wieringen-
Friesland Barra.ze (30 km). 1932; 4. The Noordoost Polder (503·64 sq. km).
1942; 5. Oost Flevoland (540 sq. km), 1957.
Two more polders. Zuidelijk Flevoland (600 sq. km) and Markerwaard
(400 sq. km). together, Southern Yssellakepolders, will be reclaimed. A
portion of what used to be the Zuiderzee behind the barrage will remain a
fresh·water lake: IJsselmeer (1.250 sq. km). See map in THE STATESMAN'S
YEAR· BOOK. 1959.

Live births
/lItgiti. Still Net
Total male births Marriages Divorces Deaths migration
1956 228,878 2.762 3,966 89,037 6.498 81.364 -6.198
1956 231.204 2,863 3,980 92,272 6,654 84,621 -10.981
1957 233.608 2,911 4.016 93,592 6.342 82,677 -12.501
1958 236,543 2,918 4,029 91,508 5,280 84,175 -12,096
Population of principal municipalities on 1 Jan. 1959:

Amsterdam 872,428 Veisen . . 62,698 VUsslngen 29.603
Rotterdam 731,047 Hengelo (0.) . 69,350 0 0 . . 29,090
·s·Gravenhage 606,825 Ede. ['8.13~ Katwijk 28,73-1
Utrecht 252,104 zwone . 55,145 Renlrum 28,696
Haarlem 168,863 Deventer 64.389 A3sen 28,~01
Elndhoven 163,083 Venlo 53,680 Weert.. 27,863
Groning"n 143,996 Zelst • 50,865 Noordoostelijke
Tilburg 134.974 Almclo . 49.603 Polder. 27,335
NljmegeD 127,110 Zaandam 48.513 Ermelo . 27,1('7
Arnhem 123,238 Kerkrade 48,167 Soest . 27,Oil
En..chede 121,981 Den Helder 47,451 Roermond 26,589
Breda 105,531 Voorburg 43.221 Kampen 26.250
Apeldoorn 101,492 Gouda . 42,720 Ridderkerk 26,165
Hilversum 100,369 Haarlemmermeer 42. 7 0 ~ Heemotede 25,886
Leiden . 95,882 Alkmaar 42,007 Doetlncbem 25.697
Maastricbt 89,E54 Helmond 42.4<12 lIeerenv.en 25,506
Leeuw8rden 82,OG7 Bus8um. 39,086 Wasseoaar 25,338
Dordrec'lt 80.503 Nieuwer·Amtel 37,937 Zutphen 24.87~
SchiedalD 79,028 Rheden. 37,551 Hoogeveen 24,651
Delft 72,261 Roosend""l c... 37,082 de Bilt . 24.-198
·8·Herto,~nbosch 70.19·1 Rijswijk (Zh.) 35.372 Rrunssum. 24.497
Heerlen 70,130 Bergen op Zoom 34.811 Small!ugerland 2·1 ,4 32
Amersfoort 68.906 Beverwijk 34.249 Oosterhout ~·j,061
VJ8.Rrdirgen 66,740 Sittard . 30,322
Emmen 64,869 Geleen . 29,757
RELIGION. Entire liberty of conscience is granted to the members of

all denominations. Thc royal family belong to the Dutch Reformed
Churct...
Thu number of adherents of the different Churches according to the
census of 1947 was: Dutch Reformed Church. 2.988,839; other Protestants,
1.260.570 (including 11 ,360 Old Catholics); Roman Catholics, 3,703,572;
Jews. 1.4,346; other creeds, 1,919; no religion, 1,641,214; unknown, 15,03()
(presumably mainly Protestants).
Th" government of the Reformed Church is Presbyterian. On 1 July
1958 the Dutch Reformed Church had 1 synod. 11 provincial districts,
54 classes, 159 districts and 1,880 parishes. Their clergy numbered 1.843.
The Roman Catholic Church had, Jan. 1959, 1 archbishop (of Utrecht).
6 bishe.ps and 1.636 parishes and rectorships. The Old Catholics had (end
of 1958) 1 archbishop (Utrecht), 2 bishops and 28 parishes. The Jews had.
in 195rl• 56 communities.
EDUCATION. Statistics for the scholastic year 1958- i'i!l:
Teachiog IJupils or students
I. I.
Number stat! TvlIIl l'emale
Public uuiversities· 4 87~ , 19,962 " 5.170 It
200 ' 5,080 936
~~h:~!r ~~:~~~~~.t 2 174 • 6,1 17" !J2 ,.
Agricnltural university· 79 • 1I171ft 13-1 10
Economical univergitics ~ 83 ' 2,314 10 6a ,.
Secondary scbools :
Day scbools . 1,522 18,776 368,370 169,631
E vening scbools . . 151 1,660· 19,55(\ 8,210
Tecbnical and housewifery :;c110015 • 1,304 20,460· ·U 2,261 210,323
Agricultural schools· . 455 1,916 • 26,784 167
Blementarv schools :
Public schools (go~erom~ntal) 2,616 12,472 4211,~5 8 201,045
l'rivate ROOool• . 5,242 31,334 I,O~ 8, 198 538,25 7
~pecial schools 501 3,495 49,56:) 18,698
1n1ant school.:
Public 8chools (governmental) 7~2 2,);7 75~8S2 3G.778
Private scbool.. 3,328 8/>81 296,912 145,369
Training colleges. 91 19,1 35 8,931
I Leiden (founded 157:;), Utrecht (1636), Groningen (16") and Am.tertlam (1877).
• TI,e CAlvinist University of AmRterdam (190!;) and the Roman Catbol;" University 01
~ijmegen (1923).
• Deltt(1906) and Eindhoven (1957). • Wageni"~n (1~\S) .
• llotterdam (1913) and l'i1burg (1927). • Including partrt.ime fttudents.
, J955-M. ill I !t:,~-~6, excluding Eiodboven.
• 1956-1>7 . .. l'ro.isional lIgur.. (April 1959).

Cinemas (1955). There were 513 cinema~ with a scating capacity of
240,000.
N eW8papera (I !l57). There were 68 daily ne\vspapers with a total circula-
tion of nearly am.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by the High Court of the Nether·
lands (Court of Cassation), by 5 courts of justice (Courts of Appeal), by J9
district courts and by 62 cantonal courts ; trial by jury is unknown. The
Cantonal Court, which deals with minor offences, is formed by a single
judge; the more serious cases are tried by the district courts, formed as a
rule by 3 judges (in some cases one judge is sufficient); t,he courts of appeal
are constituted of 3 and the High Courts of 5 judges. All judges are
appointed for life by the Sovereign (the judges of the High Court from a
list prepared by the Second Chamber of the States·General). They can be
removed only by a decision of the High Court.
Juvenile courts were set up in 1!!22. The juvenile court is formed by
a single judge speciaUy appointed to try children's civil cases, at the same
time charged with the administration of justieQ for criminal actions corn·
miued by young persons who are not yet 18 years old, unless imprisonment
of 6 months or more ought to be inflicted; such cases are tried by 3 judges.
Number of persons convicted (t,a x offenders e~clur\ed) :
Uajor oftenees 1955 1956 J957 Minor offences 1956 JP5, 105S
MAles . • 28,Oil 28,443 28.604 Males . 29~,8S6 279,680 288.3J3
~'emA les 3.883 3,749 3, 792 Females 31,90; 26,128 25,G28
Police. There are both State and Municipal Police. The State Police,
a bout 6,000 men strong, serves 877 and the Municipal Police, about 12,\)00
men strong, serves 121 municipalities. The State Police includes ordinary
as well as water, mounted and motor police. The State Police Corps is
under the jurisdiction of the Police Department of the Ministry of Justice,
which also includes the National Criminal Investigation Office, which con-
trols serious crimes throughout the country, and the International Criminal
Investigation Office, which informs foreign countries of international

crimes.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure of the central government
(ordina.ry and extraordinary) were, in Im. guilders, for calendar years:
1953' 1954' 1955 ' 1956 ' 1957 • 1958 ' 1959 •
Revenlll! 1 . 6,322 6,870 7,198 7,351 8,066 7,469 7,588
Expenditure I 6,281 6,848 7,488 7,806 7,890 8,609 9,075
1 Without the revenue.~ of loans.
, Induding the deficit of the agricultural equalization fund.
, Ac-;ounts. • PreJiminary accollnts. • Revised estimates. • Estimates.
The national debt, in Im. guilders, was on 31 Dec.:

1951 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
Internal funded debt 8,763 8,785 10,286 10,987 11,097 10,826 11,043
1t floating" 12,654 11,372 8,174 6,584 6,417 5,322 5,769
External funded 3,023 2,790 2,286 2,013 1,947 1,823 1,721
/IoatiIlg 49~ 3 261
Total. 24,932 22,950 20,746 19,584 18,461 18,232 18,533
DEFENCE. The Netherlands are bordered on the south by Belgium,

on the east by Germany. On both sides the country is quite level and there
are no natural defences along the frontiers, except the big rivers running
parallel about 20-30 miles inside the Netherlands frontier.
AmlY. According to an Act of 1922, service in the Army is partly
voluntary and partly compulsory; the voluntary enlistments bear a small
proportion to the compulsory. Every Dutch citizen and, in certain circum.
stance'l, any other resident in the Netherlands, is liable to personal service in
the armed forces from the age of 20 up to 35 (n.c.o.s, 40; officers,45). The
initial period of service in the Army is 22 months (23 for officers, n.c.o.s and
specialists), of which the last 4 months (2 months for officers, etc.) may be
spent at will as 'short furlough.' After this period the conscript personnel
is sent on long furlough, but it remains-until the above-mentioned age has
been r,)ached-liable to call·up in the event of a mobilization or for refresher
exerCllt68 of its unit.
Th·e Netherlands distinguishes between its NATO forces and National
Sector forces, in accordance with its NATO membership.
In March 1948 a Home Guard (volunteers) was set up, forming part of
the National Sector forces.
NAVY. The Royal Netherlands Navy has its bases in Holland (principal
base Den Helder), in the South-west Pacific (New Guinea) and in the Carib-
bean (Netherlands West Indies).
Following is a list of principal ships of the Royal Netherlands Navy:
Standard
displace- Tor- Shaft
Corn· ment Armour (in.) Principal pedo horse- Speed
pleted Name (tons) Bell Gum armament tubes power (knot..)
Aircraft Carrier
1945 Karel Doorman' 15,892 -
12-40.mm.
{ 32 aircraft (ca·
A.A.} 42,000 25
pacity, 39-44).
, Completely modernized in 1955.
Cruisers
1953 De Ruyter } 9 735 3-2 4-2 8 6-in. ; 82·26 in . 85,000 32
1953 De Zeven Provincien '
T here are also 12 destroyers, 3 fast frigates, 17 frigates, 4 submarines, 6
ocean minesweepers, 46 coastal minesweepers, 7 patrol vessels, 4 surveying
vessels, 4 gate vessels, 1 submarine detection ship, 1 boom defence vessel,
2 supply ships, 23 landing c raft, 2 weather observation ships (ex.frigates),
2 tenders and 3 tugs. Four submarines and 16 insbore minesweepers are
under construction.
Naval personnel, including Royal Marines, total 22,400 officers and
ratings. The Royal M arine Corps establishment is 4,047 officera and men.
The naval air service maintains ono squadron each of Sea Hawk jet
fighter.bombers and Avenger piston.engined anti·submarine aircraft on
board the Karel Doorman, with a second squadron of each type ashore; a nd
also patrol aircraft and helicopters. The fighters arearmed with Sidewinder
missiles.
Naval estimates (in 11ll. guilders): 1957,352-7; 1958,363-8; 1959,360-6.
AIR FORCE. The air force was granted on 11 March 1953 the prefix
'Royal' and was t hus accorded equal status with the Royal Netherlands
Navy and the Royal Netherlands A rmy.
The Royal Netherlands Air Foree comprises: [) day fighter squadrons
(Hunters), 3 all· weather fighter squadrons (F.86K Sabres), 4 figbter.
bomber squadrons (F ·84F Thunderst.reaksl, I transport squadron (Dakotas),
and 1 photo.reconnaissance squadron (RJi'.84F Thunderflash). Its 3 obser·
vation squadrons of light aircraft and belicopters are under the operational
command of the Army.
Air force estimates (in Im. gui lders) : 1957, 311 -6; 1958, 336-8 ; 1959,
390-7.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The net area of all holdings was divided
as follows (in hectares) :
19:'1 4 1956 1 1966 ' 1967 ' 1958 '
Field crops \)31,796 913,71 2 912,260 896,339 875.369
Gross _ 1,291,935 1,296,482 1,293,639 1,3(\;,292 1,32-1,&59
Market gardening . 116,170 112,421 11 3,676 11 6,231 116,497
Land for flower bulb. 8,054 8,741 9,287 8,711 8,7 50
Flower cultivation 1,141 1,337 1,302 1,376 1,431
Nurseries 2,528 2,627 2,762 2,735 2,811
Total 2,351,624 2,335,320 2,332,916 2,3S0,G84 2,329,41 7
Plalltatio1l., 1Cith IlrnkTcropping 27,073 27,738 27,083 24,55 1 24,545
Total agricu ltura l area 2,324,:;5 1 2,307,582 2,305,833 2,306,133 2,304,872
, Excluding non.agrarian holdings of less than 1 hectare.
The net areas 1 under special crops were as follows (in hectares) :
Products 1957 I 9!>S P rod ucts 1957 19;8
Autumn wheat 41,659 ~4_58; Colza _ 6,41S 4,528
Spring wbCllt _ 57, 327 56,586 Flax _ _ _ 22,579 16,029
Rye _ _ 157,427 144,667 Agricultuml III'ooS ~,8 50 10,528
Autumn bnrley 7,676 8,815 Potatoes, edible 9~,075 92,774
Spring barley _ 64,455 73,120 Potatoes, industrial SO,910 37,842
Oats 159.418 137,'134 Sugar bee~. 64.5l1 81,007
Pe"" 3S,007 S I ,9~5 Foddor beets 48,033 47,474
The yield of the more important products, in metric tons, was as follow8:
Average A'\"crage
Orop 1930- 39 1940-49 1956 ' 19~7' 1958 '
Wheat 367,012 322,003 S08,(.97 392,608 40Z,370
Rye 458,008 4 39,O5~491,7 37 4 ~S,076 427,476
Barley 101,652145,892 272,547 291,582 31[1,255
Oats 337,367315.642 482,33. 504,5.0 445,920
I Excluding non.agrariBD hold ings of less t.han 1 hectare.
Average Average
Crop 1930 -39 19-10-49 1~['6 1 1 !J57 1 1958 I
Field De•. ns 25,087 15,7U9 2,723 2,778 2,554
Pea. 103,872 65,460 76,139 116,190 93,256
Ooloa 3,841 24,763 25,619 18,264 8,880
Fiar, fib". 82,906 187,958 123,869 88,694
Potatoes, edible 2,219,213 2,861,7U3 2,498,172 2,693,489 2,676,658
Potatoes, industrial . 701,792 1,242,326 718,016 1,048,002 929,237
Sugar beet 1,653,866 1,667,711 2,526,144 2,688,700 3,878,016
1 Escluding nail-agrarian boldings of less tban 1 beet are.
Liv·estock, May 1958: 3,204,217 cattle, 2,471,672 pigs, 194,646 horses

(for agricultural purposes), 543,195 sheep, 39m_ poultry_
In 1958 the production of butter, under state control, amounted to
91,658 metric tons; that of cheese, under state conirol, to 173,622
metric tons_ Export value of araLle crops in 1958 amounted to 1,306m.
guilder:!; animal produce, 1,9lJ m. guilders and horticultural produce, 742m_
guilder:!_
Fi6heri~_ The total produce of fish landed from the Nort.h Sea in 1958
was valued at 86,191,000 guilders; the total weight amounted to 162,430
tons. Included in the total is the produce of the herring fishery to a value
of 41,766,000 guilders and a weight of 92,136 tons_
ThE. quantity of oysters produced in 1958 amounted to 1,884 tOilS
(4,752,000 guilders) _
Minin(J_ Twelve coalmines /1re found in the province of J.. imburg. of
which H are in private ownership a nd 4 under state management. The (iaily
averag'l of workers was 32,200 in 1938 and 48,000 in 1958 (of whom 31.400
worked underground)_
Production of coal in 1,000 metric tons :
lll.18 13,488 1948 11,032 J955 11,895 1~57 11.3i6
1B44 8,313 1954 12,071 1956 11,836 1958 l1,88u
ThE' production of crude petroleum amounted in 1943 (first year) to 200

tons; :l950, 704,800 tons; 1953,820,250 tons; 1956,1,097,000 tons; 1957,
1,523,000 tons; 1958,1,621,000 tons.
There is a saltmine at Hengelo; production (in metric tons), 1950,
412,570; 1955,585,400; 1956,625,900; 1957,718,000; 1958,795,000.
Eledricity and Gas_ The total production of electrical energy amounted
in 193E: to 3,688m. kwh. ; 1956,12,488m.; 1957, 13,367m_; 1958,13,854m_
The to ;al net production of manufactured gas amounted in 1950 to 2,759111_
units (kcal); 1955,3,591m.; 1956,3,758m_; 1957,3,706111_; 1958,3,850m_;
production of natural gas, 8m_ units (kcal) in 1950; 1955, 310m.; 19Gfl,
360111-; 1957, 349m_; 1958, 444m_
Indu.'itry_ Numbers employed (in 1,000) and turnover (in Im_ guilders)
in about 10,200 manufacturing enterprises with 10 workers and morc,
exclud:lIlg building and puLlic utilities:
Numbers em~lo)'ed Turnover
Olass of industry 1957 1955 1957 19'>S
Earthenware, glass, lime and stoneware . . 49·4 ·1i-0 862 ~O2
Cutting aort polishing of rtiamond and other
preciOUS i\tooe:i
Graphio industry .
O·j 0·, 4, 3S
659
38 ·5 39·0 637
Chemical indu,tries _ 62'4 63·4 4,392 4,,162
THE NE'rHERLANDS 1255
Numbers employed Turnover
Class of industry 19571 1958 1957 1958
Manufacture of goods of wood, ~ork, straw 40·4 3S'7 813 744
OlotwDg, 67·6 61·9 1,061 965
Cleaning • H·1 13·9 113 119
Lea.ther, oilcloth, nlbtJer industry 40 ·3 390 843 845
Mining and quarrying :,~6 61·1 926 944
Metal industry 335· 7 343·8 8,582 8,213
Paper industry 26·7 26·7 959 950
Textile industry . 12~'6 116·1 2,616 2,350
Ml:l.lluiactw'e of foodstuffs H3·5 145·1 8,267 8,581
Total 1,022'5 996·4 30,118 29,672
COMMERCE. On 5 Sept. 1944 and 14 March 1947 the Netherlands

signed agreements with Belgium and Luxembourg for the establishment of
a customs union. On 1 Jan. 1948 this union came into force and the existing
customs tariffs of the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union and of the
Netherlands were superseded by a joint tariff, the Benelux Customs Union
Tariff. It applies to imports into the 3 countries from outside sources, and
exempts from customs duties all imports into each of the 3 countries from
the other two. The Benelux tariff has 991 items and 2,440 separate specifi-
cations.
Returns of special imports and special exports (including parcel post and
diamond trade, excluding unretined and partly-worked gold, gold coins and
coins in current circulation made of other metal) for calendar years (in
1,000 guilders):
1939 1,~59.625 1,005,40·' 1955 12,191,067 10,211,035
1919 5.:i3 1.S69 3, S~H ,126 1956 14,156,326 10.876.0[,5
1953 9,025.942 8.179,994 1967 15,599,348 lI,710,OJ6
1964 10,859,797 9,171,914 1958 13,774,098 12,226,729
Value of the trade (including parcel post and diamond trade, excluding
uuretined and partly. worked gold, gold coins and coins in current circulation
made of other metal) with t.he leading countries (in 1,000 guilders):
Imports E:tports
Country 1956 1957 19.,8 19.'i6 195 7 1958
Belgiwn-L'bourg 2,680,215 2,815,627 2,458,602 1,542,81 3 1,825,978 1,830,076
France. . 471,320 499,930 376,688 ;;95,413 557,511 577,808
Germany (West) 2,533,133 2,889,931 2,682,969 1,961,862 2,172,123 2,320,357
Indonesia. 440,239 454,216 307 ,608 315,333 27:1,541 110,920
Italy 167,363 199,697 242,810 278,936 318,588 334,906
Kuwait. 312,Z15 394,341 572,238 11,414 17,331 17,146
Sweden. 463,292 629,269 395,199 510,292 561,511 655,558
U.K. 1,158,063 1,254,580 1,016,650 1,273,0·10 1,280,180 1,454,864
U.S.A. 1,976,212 2,043,099 1,550,835 671,888 696,129 681,138
Venezuela 432,712 548,51 3 213,094 10~,988 lIO,290 140,763
Total trade between the Netherlands and U.K. (in £8terling) for calendar
years (British Board of Trade returns) :
1938 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 29,304.454 137,337,220 131,790,824 169,171,279 160,279,947
Exports from U.K. . 13,134,791 1I8,843,804 II7,54 0,671 97,729,785 113,393,735
Re-exports from U.K. 1,663,055 8,192,13-1 4,946,133 7,483,727 7,514,609
COMMUNICA nONS . Sea-going Shipping. Survey of the Netherlands

mercantile marine as at 1 Jan .:
Ships under N etberlands lIag 1958 1959

(including Netherlands Antilles Capacity in Capacity in
and Surinam) Number I,OOOOR1' .Number 1,ooOOR1'
Passenger ship. 39 415 34 400
Freight-passenger ships' 69 424 60 343
Freigbters (600 GRT and over) 391 1,963 389 2,132
Freighter. (under 500 GRT) . 963 364 950 372
Tankers 148 1,150 145 1,297
Tugs. 88 18 90 18
Dredgers 97 40 98 45
T"ta.I 1,795 4,374 1,766 4,607

1 With accommodation for 13 or more passengers.
In 1958,31,246 sea-going ships of 103,426,000 gross tons entered Nether-

lands ports (1957, 31,190 ships of 97,958,000 gross tons).
Total goods traffic hy sea-going ships in 1957 (with 1958 figures in
brackets), in 1,000 metric tons, amounted to 71,988 (71,662) unloaded, of
which a8,134 (40,677) were imports and 33,854 (30,985) transit, and 21,537
{22,063/ loaded, of which 13,130 (15,800) were exports and 8,427 (6,263)
transit, excluding bunker fuel. The total seaborne freight traffic at Rotter-
dam was 72·4m. (72·1m.) and at Amsterdam 10·9m. (ll·lm.) metric tons.
Inland Shipping. The total length of navigable rivers and canals is
6,768 km, of which about 1,710 km is for ships with a ca.pacity of 1,000 a.nd
more metric tons. On 1 Jan. 1959 the Netherlands inland fleet (with carry-
ing capacity in 1,000 metric tons) was composed as follows:
CIasa of tonnage Number Capacity Class of tounnge Number Capaoity
2l-99 t"ns 7,201 411 600-999 tons 1,095 865
100-199 tons 4,442 590 1.000-1.499 tons 613 794
200- 299 tons 1.586 380 1,600 tons and oV'er 277 569
300-3~9 tons 1,258 431
400-699 tons 1,664 826 Total . 18,136 4,866
In 1957, 129m. (1958, 125m.) metric tons of goods were transported on

rivers and canals, of which 78m_ (75m.) in international traffic. Goods trans-
port on the Rhine (Lobith) in 1957 amounted to 18·3m. (I8·3m.) metric tons
downstream and 42·4m. (40·8m.) upstream.
Railways. All railways are run by the mixed company' The Nether-
lands Railways N.V.' Length of line in 1958 was 3,227 km, of which
1,624 km were electrified. The last steam train was abolished in Jan. 1958.
Passengers carried (1958), 187m.; goods transported, 23·6m. metric tons.
Roods. On 1 Ja.n. 1958 the length of the Netherlands network of
main roads was 4,52S km. Buses transported in 1958, 650m. passengers,
of whom 276m_ in local traffic. Number of motor vehicles on 1 Aug. 1958:
Motor cycles and tricycles, 190,000; motorized cycles, 850,000; cars,
420,000; buses, 8,000; trucks, 130,000; others, 5,000.
Telecommunicaticm8. On I Jan. 1959 there were 911,000 telephone
connexions and 1,402,000 apparatus.
Wireless receiving sets totalled 2,490,000 on 1 Jan. 1959; in addition,
508,000 families have radio-redistrihution. Television sets totalled, on
1 Sept. 1959,515,000.
Aviation. The Royal Dutch Airlines (K.L.M.) was founded on 7 Oct.
1919. The company now has a paid-up capita.l of 143m. guilders. Revenue
scheduled traffic, 1957: Passenger-km, 1,996m. (1958, 2,012m.); tra.nsport
of goods (freight, excess haggage and mail in ton-km), 79m. (1958, Slm.).
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary unit is the gulden (guilder,
florin) of 100 cents. The official rate of exchange is £1 = 10·64 guilders
since 23 Sept. 1949.
Legal tender are bank-notes, currency notes of 2, and 1 guilder,
silver 2i-guilder pieces, silver I-guilder pieces, nickel 25-cent pieces,
silver and nickel 10-cent pieces, bronze 5-cent pieces and bronze I-cent
pieces.
The Netherlands Bank, founded as a private institution, was nationalized
on 1 Aug. 1948, the shareholders receiving, for a share of 1,000 guilders, a
security of 2,000 guilders on the 2,% National Debt. Since 1863 the bank
has the 80le right of issuing bank-notes. The bank does the same business
as other banks, but with more guarantees. The capital amounts to 20m.
guilders. Note circulation, 24 Aug. 1959, 4,266m. guilders, and on 30 Dec.
1958, 4,451m. guilders. A currency reorganization was carried out on 25
Sept. 1945_
In the year 1958 the state post office savings bank had deposits of
744·1m. guilders and withdrawals of617m . guilders. Private savings banks:
Deposits, l,187·2m. guilders; withdrawals, 1,049m. guilders.

measures was adopted in the Netherlands in 1820.
The Netherlands maintains embassies in Argentina, Australia, Austria,
Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Denmark, Dominican
Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Hondura.s, Iceland,
India, Iran, Irish Republic, Israel, Italy, Japan, Liberia., Luxembourg,
Mexico, Morocco, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Poland,
Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Union of
South Africa, U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic, U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay,
Vatican, Venezuela, Yugoslavia; and legations in Afghanistan, Bolivia,
Bulgaria, Burma, Cambodia, Ceylon, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Ecuador,
El Salvador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Haiti, Hungary, Iraq, Jordan, Laos,
Lebanon, Libya, Malaya, New Zealand, Panama, Philippines, Rumania,
Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Vietnam.
OF THE NETHERLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN (38 Hyde Park Gate, S.W.7)

Ambassador. A. W. C. Baron 13entinck van Schoonheten (accredited 30
Oct. 1958).
Counsellors. S. C. \V. Baron van Boetzelaer van Asperen; Dr H. J.
Friedericy (Press); N. Brat (Consular S ection).
First Secretaries. R. S. N. Baron van der Feltz; A. Mansve1t; Jonkheer
Dr R. W. G. de Muralt; A. G. J onker (Consul).
Naval Attache. Capt. R. M. Crorumelin.
Jlilitary and Air Attache_ Col. J. B. H. Bruinier.
Commercial Cou7Ulellor. Dr H. van Blankenstein.
Commercial S ecretaries. P. C. Witte ; S. C. van Nispen.
Civil Air Attache. Dr D. Goedhuis.
There are consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff,

Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle,
Plymouth, Portsmouth, Southampton, Sunderland and other places.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NETHERLANDS

AmbQ.9sador. Sir Paul Mason, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O. (accredited 8 Sept.
1954).
Counsellors. R. G. A. Etherington Smith; G. W. Kirk, C.M.G. (Com.
mercial).
Fir.stSecretaries. C. L. S. Cope; J. P. May; M. Whalley Taylor, M.B.E.;
H. Lewty (Commercial); W. H . Marsh (Labour); T. H. Gillson (Information).
Service Attaches: Capt. E. H. Lee, D.S.C., R.N. (Navy and Military), Group
Capt. K. C. Doran, D.F.C. (Air).
There are consular representatives at Amsterdam and Rotterdam.
OF THE NETHERLANDS IN THE U.S.A. (1470 EUCLID ST. NW.,
Washington 9, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr J. H. van Roijen.
Ninisters. E. L. C. Schiff; Dr J. C. Kruisheer (Economic). Counsellor.
J. A. van Houten (Press and Cultural). Service Attaches: Rear·Adm.
A. H . J. van der Schatte Olivier (Navy), Co!. A. E. van Dishoeck (Army),
Col. P. J. E. Janssens (Air). Agricultural Attache. Dr A. S. Tuinman.
Scientific Attache. J. C. Diels. Shipping Attache. J. J. Sehuld.
OF THE U.S . A. IN THE NETHERLANDS

Ambassador. Philip Young.
Co~.nsellors. Herbert P. Falcs; John N. Plakias (Economic) . First
Secretaries and Consuls. Keld Christensen; William B. Dunham; John M.
Kavan~ugh; Peter J. Skoufie. Service Attaches: Co!. Richard J. Hunt
(Army), Capt. William O. Spears, Jr (Navy), Lieut.-Co!. WaIter L. Cares, Jr
(Air). Agricultural Attache. Robert H. Reed.
There are Consuls-General at Amsterdam and Rotterdam.
Books of Reference
SU~ISTlOAL lN1>ORMATlON. The 'CcntraaJ Bureau voor de Statistiek' nt the lIague,is
the official Netherlands stetlstlcal service. Dirtclor-Gtn~ Of SIIUUliu: Pro/. Dt Ph. J.
Idenbur!:.
Tbe Bureau was founded In 1899. Prior to that year, statistical publications were
oompiled by the 'Ccntrale Commlesio Toor de Stetistiek,' the 'verenigiog Toor Staathuh-
boudlrutde en Stetistiek' and Tarloul government departments. Tbese Bctivltioo ha ••
gtadualJ;r beeu tekeu over and co·ordlinated by the Ceutral Bureau, which nolV compiles
practically all government statistica,
It<! clment publications Include:
Jaarcijf'rI COor NtUrland (SloIisticaJ Year Book). From 1923/24 (preceded by Jaarrijferl
.oor h." Koninkrijk <kr N~landtn, 1898-1922); latest issue, 1955/56
Stalistir,h takboek (Pockel Yea. Book). From 1899/1924 (1 vol.); late.st Issue 1950
)faandJehrill van het C,B.S, (Monthly BuUtlin). From 1906
nw,lu Of 1"- S-.ond Censu. Of Indwlm., 1950
R<lulu ef 1"- Tlllelflh CtnIUJ, Population and Hou.iru;, 31 May, 19J7
Maand."ati.,ie/i, O<1n <k in·, uil- en d ••",."" (ml)1llhly lIatemnll 0/1"- imp.rl, exporr alld lranJiI
trade). From 1917
SIaIi.tliCClI and ECOfUlmttric Studie., Quarterly, from 1946
BE.'''l:LUX INFOIUIATlON, See p. 829.
OTHER OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS

Digesl Of 1"- Nelh""landJ,1958-59. 6 vols. Ministry of Foreign A1fairs, The Hague, 1968-5
EconomilChe Voorlithtiru; (I!:ctmomic Inlor11llJtitm Serviu). Weokly. Tbe Hague
NelMrland.l Economic Dewl<>pmml, 1915-55. MInistry 01 Economic AJIairs. The Hague,
1965
SURINAM 1259
S~Jat,nlmanak <ovr ht! Koninkrijk der Nederlonden. Annual. The Hague
Staat,blad van hel Koninkrij~ der Nederlandell. The Hague
Slacuscouranl (SIa/<! GazeUe). The Hagu.
Vijf/iQ Jaren. OJ!ici..1 gede1lkboek tl>r gel"Jenhria van het gouden regerilU}Sjubileum .an B.JI.
Koningin Wilhelmina. A.msterdam. 194~
Uolland'" Rcollomy: a statistical portrail. Central Bureau of Sta.tistics and Got'crnment.
EcoDomic Inform:ltiou Service. Tho Hagllc, 105:)
Ruad 10 Recovery: the JJ arshall Plan, ill imporl(wr.:e for the ll{ etMrlands and Europtan co·
ordination. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Tile Hague, 1954
R~porl on A!lricul-ture in tht Nether/and" for 19<i7. Mini:;Lry of Agriculture. '['he Hague, 19!1!)
NON·Ol1'l"lClAL PUllLICATlONS
.d mJIerdarruche Bank: Economiseh kwartaru·""<f'.ichl
N ederland"he Bank. Annual Report
RouerdanI.Jche Bankvereenigin9. Quarterly Review
Rosch Keruper, M. J. dc, De tegenUJo()rdi~Je ,~taal t'lln Nederland. Utrecht, 1950
Cfl.ucll'$ Dulcli-Engli.sh, Englith-Dufch lJictio1tary. LoucioD, 1{)!)2
FrA.llks, H . G., Holland as an Industrial CowUrv; the slory of 0. nalional achievemem. The
lIague, 1957
Fruin, J. A., De Nederlandsche tnetboEken. Tbe Hague, 19~9
OOSAes, I. H ., Bnd Japikse, N., Handboek lot de staatkundige ge.ichiedenis t'an 2'/ederlund.
3rd ed. The Hague, 1947
Jansonill.', H., Groot Nedcrlartds-Engels ll'ourdenboek. 2 vols. Lei<lcu, 19~O-51
Koot, T., Tht Spell of Ihe Netherlands. llaarl.Ill, 1952
Le.uweD, W. L. M. E. vaD, Honder"'jaar Nederland, 1848-1948. ileagelo, 194B
Maltha, D. J., Agriculture in the Nelherland... Am.terdlUlJ,1947
Mulder, G. J. A., !landboek der geografte ,'an f.'ederlal/rl. 6 vols. Z'Nolie, 19,19-65
Ond, P. J., l1el CM,tilulioneel r<chI .an hEt Koninkrijk rlet' Ntderland'!'l1. Zwolic.1947.-Rel
jongste f)t1'leden: Parlementaire ge~chiede"is t.'(m Nederla1ld, 191X··40. G vols. Assen,
/948-61
P!ltferser,'s .lYederlalldse Almanflk. Z:lltbommc!, anlltlnl, fro m 1809
Va.ndenbo~ch. A" nnd Eldcrsveld, S. J .• COVerll11lffll (If lhe l';elherland.(. Lp.ringt-on.194i
Veen, .J . v.• Land BelmD Sea Level: H(lllan.d in Us agelonl) fight (L9ain.-:' the wt1ter~. The Rftgue,
1957
NATIONAL LmRARY. De Koninklijke Bibliotbeek, Lange Voorhollt 34. The Hague.
Direewr: Dr L. Brununel.
OVERSEAS PARTS OF THE KINGDOM

For the constitutional position of the overseas parts of the Kingdom of
the Netherlands, according to the Constitution of 29 Dec. 1954, see p. 1243,
SURINAM
Netherlands Guiana or Surinam is situated on the north coast of South
America between 1° 50' and 6 0 7' N. lat. and 53° 59' and 58° 2' W. Ion!! ..
and bounded 011 the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the riveN
Marowijnc, Lawa, Litani and the Koele·Koele creek, which separate it from
French Guiana, on the west by the riverR Corantijne, Coeroelli and l{oetari,
which separate it from British Guiana, and on the south by inaccessible
forests and savannas, which separato it from Brazil.
At the peace of Dreda, in IG67, between England and the United Nether·
lanus, Surinam was assigned to the Netherlands in exchange for the colony
of New Netherland in North America, and this was confirmed by the treaty
of Westminster of Feb. 1674. Since then Surinam has been twice in the
possession of England, 1799-1802, when it was restored at the peace of
Amiens, and 1804-16, when it was returned according to the Convention of
London of 13 Aug, 1814, confirmed at the peace of Paris of20 Nov. 1815.
GOVERNMENT. The Governor is the represcntat.ive of the sovereign
and the head of the Government. The ministers are re~ponsihle to the l.egis.
lative Council (Staten van Suriname). There is a ministry of 9 ministers and
1260 SURINAM
an AdvisolY Council of 5 members, bo~h appointed by t·he Governor. The

Legislative Council (21 members) is elected by the people for a 4.year period.
Sur.mam is divided into 8 districts: Paramaribo (urban district). Com.
mewijne, Coronie, Marowijne, Nickerie, Saramacca, Suriname and Broko·
pondo.
Governor. J. van Tilburg (appointed 11 Feb. 1956).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area, 142.822 sq. km. Registered popu·
ation (,md of 1(58), 246,000; and an estimated 22,000 Bush Negroes and
3.700 aboriginal Indians living in the forests. The capital, Paramaribo, had
about 107,000 inhabitants at the end of H)58.
Vit:tl statistics (1958): Births, 11,400; deaths, 1,900.
RELIGION. There is entire religious liberty. At the end of 1958 the

numbers of the different religious bodies were: Reformed and Lutheran,
19,000; Moravian Brethren, 44,000; Roman Catholics, 48,000; Jews, 400;
l\Ioslems, 67,000; Hindus, 64,000; Confucians, 3,000.
EDUCATION. There were on 31 Dec. 1958, 170 schools with together

54,000 pupils. There are also 36 mission schools for Indians and Bush
Negroes with 1,248 pupils.
JUSTICE. There is a court of justice, whose memhers are nominatt'd by
the Sovereign. There are 3 cantonal courts.
WELFARE. For reli eving pauperism the Government subsidizes
orphanage" and other religiuu8 or philanthropical institutions, and maintain~
an ahDshou~e.
DEFENCE. The Netherlands forces in Surinam consist of artillery,
tanks "nd infantry.
FINANCE. The expenditure and the local revenue (derived from im·
port, export and excise duties, taxes on houses and estates, personal imposts
and some indirect t axes), are shown as follows (in 1,000 Surinam guilders,
for caltmdar yeara) :
1952 1953 1954 195~ 19~6 19~71 1958 1 19~ ~ 1
RevenuEI . S2,900 35,307 38.800 ~2,~00 48.000 55,800 63,100 63,500

RXllenditure • 29,200 36,811 41,600 43,000 46,000 54,700 63,800 63,500
1 Estimates.
Th" expenditures over the years 1949-52 include capital expenditure,

which is covered partly by loans.
PRODUCTION. Agriculturo is restricted to some districts of the

alluvial coastal zone; cultivated area (1958), 46,600 hectares. The staple
food CI·Op is rice.
Prillcipal produots (in 1,000 units) :
1957 1958 1957 1968
Sugar (kg) 8,405 8,361 Rum 50% Oitres) 714 1.027
Cocoa (l:g) 159 132 Molasses Oltres). ·j,084 3,398
Collee (I;g) 407 144 Oranges (pieces) 32,132 47,7;)7
Paddy (kg) 55,1::!8 85.049 Grapefruit (pieces) 5,833 11,555
Maize on cobs (kg) 743 1,051 Tubers (kg) . 3,044 2,594
Be.n&IllIII (bunches) 174 159 Coconut. (pieces) 10,549 11,834
SURINAM 1261
The production of gold in 1958 was 132 kg; of balata, 122 metric tons.
In 1958 there were 33,000 head of cattle, 1l,100 sheep and goats, 4,700
pigs, .1 20 carabous, 560 horses, 550 mules and donkeys, and 272,000 poultry.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports for o alendar years (in 1,000 Suri.
nam guilders) :
19~2 1 9~3 19M 195. 1956 1957 1958
Import. 56,465 54,266 61,969 51 ,610 62,Sfa 73,064 71,413
Bxporte . 45,852 60,063 65,183 49,634 57,873 63,768 61,171
Principal exports (value in 1,000 Surinam guilders) in 1958: Rice.

10,241 metric tons (2,428); oranges, 18,880,000 pieces (451); grapefruit,
9,649,000 pieces (405); cotTee, 221 metric tons (516) ; balata, 155 metrio
tons (277); bauxite, 2,865,000 metric tons (48,787); timber, 42,189 cu.
metres (5,639); apparel for men, 33 metrio tons (540). The greater part of
the bauxite production was exported to the V .S.A.
Principal countries of imports in 1958 (in 1,000 Surinam guilders):
Netherlands (23,201), V .S.A. (22,771), Trinidad (5,801), V.K. (5,190),
Germany (4,1 83). Exports went mainly to the V.S.A. (46,602), Nether-
lands (4,647) and Cana.da (2,460).
Total trade of Surinam with the V.K. (in £ sterling, British Board of
Trade returns) :
1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
ImportetoU.K. 9,306 2·1,664 1,690 7,451 6,142
Bxporte from U.K. . 630,690 893,739 822.581 994,195 1,313,845
Re·exports from U.K. 17,277 18,721 23,817 14,073 20, 719
COMMUNICATIONS. Sl'ipping. The Royal Netherland..q Steamship

Co. plies betwcen Amsterdam and Paramaribo, and New York, Ba.ltimore
and Paramaribo. Regular sailings are made to Georgetown, Ciudad BoIivar
and most Caribbean ports. The Surinam Navigation Co. has services from
Paramaribo to Georgetown and Cayenne, and once a month to the Caribbean
area. A French and an Italian company maintain passenger services to
Europe. The Alcoa Steamship Co. has a fortnightly service to New York,
Baltimore and Norfolk.
In 19fi8 t here entered 1,256 vessels of 2,9 Hl,OOO GRT, and cleared 1,250
vessels of 2,911,000 GRT.
Roads. There are about 1,000 km of main roads. Two of them lead
from Paralllaribo, one to the bauxite centre of Smalkalden (29 km) and
Paranam (30 km) and the other to the airport of Zandery (49 km). Another
main road runs across the districts of Saramacca (71 km) and Coronie (68
km) , a fourth across the COlDmewijne district (41 km) and a fifth in the
Marowijne district, from the bauxite centre Moengo to Albina (45 km).
In 1958 there were 11,905 registered motor vehicles in Surinam, including
2,979 passenger cars, 840 lorries, 120 buses and 587 motor.cycles.
Railway. There is only one railway, with a single track, from Beek-
huizen to Kabelstation.
Post. In 1950 there were 4,762 telephones.
Aviation. The Pan American World Airways Inc. bas a regular service
New York-Buenos Aires via Paramaribo. K.L.M. (Royal Dutcb Airlines)
has regular services between Paramaribo and Cura'tao thrice a we(lk, alter-
natively via Georgetown and Caracas, and from Cura'tao via Montreal or
New York to Amsterdam thrico a week; also once a week to Amsterdam
1262 THE NETHERLANDS ANTILLES
vi" Santa Maria. Air France has a weekly service Guadeloupe-Cayenne t'ia
Paramaribo. The airport is at Zandery, 49 km south of Paramaribo.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. Pre·war NethedandR coins are legal

tender. Surinam florin paper notes ranging from 5 to 1,000 Surinam florins
serve as legal tender for all private and government debts. Currency notes
of 11.1,00 and 11.2'50 are issued by the Government. Official par values:
USSl =, 1·89 Surinam 1I0rins; £1 sterling = 5·28 S.II., and 1 Netherlands
lIorin = 0'5 S.II.
There are operating the Central Bank of Surinam; the Surinaarusche
Bank, the Hollandscho Bank·Unie and the O.R.G. Vervuurt's Banking
Corporn.tion, Ltd, which are commercial banks; the Surinam People's Credit
Bank, which is under the supervision of the Government; Surinaamse
Postspa;ubank (post savings bank); Surinaamse Bypotheekballk N.V.
(mortgage bank); Surinaam.~e lnvesteringsmij N.V. (investments bank);
Agentschap van de Mij tot financiering van het National Berstel N.V.
(long· term investments).
British Vice· Consul. C. H. Benz.
U.S.A. Consul at Paramaribo.
Books of Reference
STAruTJOAL lNPoRllATlON'. The A.lgemeen Bureau voor de Statist.iek in ParamariLo was
established 00 1 Jan. 1947. Its publications comprise trade statistics, Surinam in Fi.Jtlr~.
IDcludlfll!', from 1963, the former HaruJeb.lali.ttiek} and SIali.t/UeM Berich/en.
G""""",,,,,wrwblad oat> S"';na ......
Annual Report of the Central Bank of Suri1lam.
Annual Report of the Stialling Planbureau Suriname.
Pac13 and Pigures about Surinam. Govt. Infonnation Service, Paramaribo, 1959
Buioll:ool, J. A. B., SurinJJlU1Uch Staat.,ecilr. Amsterdam, 1931
Kroyer, O. J., Sul"intJnu en nj" bulU/aruJen. Mep~l, 1951
Llohtveld . L~ Suri_', nalWnal« ..pirat;". Paramariho,1953
I...tier. R.,,~ 84Jnmlm"9 in «n U1l!f'&.'9tbied. Tbe Hague, 1949
Schrieke, B. J . 0., and Heemstra, M. J. BlU'OnCS88 van (ed.), 0 ... KtminJ.Tijk ill A"...,il'a. Tbe
Hague, 19(1
Traa, A. "an, Suri1llJtM, 1900-40. Deventer, 1 ~46
WarreD Nystrom, J., Surinam. New York~ 1942
THE NETHERLANDS ANTD..LES

DE NEDERLANDSE ANTILLEN
AREA AND POPULATION. The Netherlands Antilles consists of two
groups ,~f 3 islands each. situated in the Caribbean Sea, about 550 miles
apart. The total area is 989 sq. km and the population, on 31 Dec. 1958,
number·~d 194,056.
Popnla. Popula-
Leeward Islands Sq. km tion Windward Islands Sq. km tion
Curacao 443 126,103 St M(l8J'ten (St Martin) I 34 1,531
Aruba 190 58,486 St Eustatiu8 . 21 1,010
Ronaire 288 5,175 Saba 13 1,085
I 'l"he southern part belongs to the Netherlands, the northern to France.
In 1958, 6,548 births and 991 deaths ",ere registered.
GOVERNMENT. The Netherlands Antilles enjoy full autonomy in

interna.l affairs, and are united on a footing of equality with the Netherlands
THE ~ETHERLANDS ANTILLES 1263
a.nd Surinam in the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Sovereign of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands is Head of the Government of the Netherlands
Antilles and is represented by a Governor.
The executive power in internal affairs rests with the Governor and the
Council of Ministers, who together form the government. The Ministers
are responsible to the unicameral legislature (Staten). This consists of 22
members (12 from Cura~ao, 8 from Aruba, 1 from Bonaire, 1 from the Wind·
ward Islands) and is elected by general suffrage.
The executive power in external affairs is vested in the Council of
Ministers of the Kingdom, in which the Antilles is represented by a Minister
Plenipotentiary with full voting powers.
In 1951 the Netherlands Antilles Islands Regulation provided for self.
government of each of the 4 insular communities Aruba, Bonaire, Cura<;ao
and the Windward Islands. The autonomous powers of the insular com·
munities are divided between the Island Council (elected by general suffrage),
the Executive Council and the Lieut.·Governor (Gezaghebber), who is respon·
sible for maintaining publio peace and order.
Governor. Drs A. B. Speekenbrink.
Prime Minister. E . Jonckheer (appointed Dec. 1954, re·appointed Oct.
1958).
EDUCATION (1958) . Schools numbered 191, with 50,116 pupils and

1,518 teachers.
Cura<;ao and Aruba had 16 cinemas with a seating capacity of 10,000.
Dutch is the official language. Spanish and English are also spoken.
In addition 8. 'lingua franca,' Papiamento, has evolved out of Spanish,
Dutoh and some other languages.
ECONOMY. The economy of the Netherlands Antilles is almost entirely

a 'one.commodity' economy, as it is based on the refining of oil imported
from Venezuela to Cura~ao and Aruba. About 30% (Cura<;ao) and 40%
(Aruba) of the gainfully occupied are working at the refineries or their
shipping establishments. On account of the activities of the oil companies
(affiliated to the Royal Dutch/Shell and the Standard Oil of New Jersey),
t,he prosperity on Cura~ao and Aruba is great in comparison with the other
islands.
In addition to oil refining, Cura<;ao and Aruba rank high in shipping and
trade. Almost all products needed for consumption and production are
imported. The tourist industry is being developed.
Bonaire and the 3 Windward Islands are of little economic importance.
There were, in 1952, 142 horses, 5,308 cattle, 20,400 sheep, 70,957 goats,
4.224 pigs, 2,787 donkeys.
FINANCE. ThA central budget showlld in 1959 revenue of 63,525,821

Antilles guilders. and expenditures of 63,489,478 (estimates); revenue,
1958, 67,798,251; expenditure, 67,452,026. The separate budget of
Cura~ao balanced at 41·9m . guilders in 1958; that of Aruba at 23·4m.
The official rate of oxchange is £1 = 5·34 Netherlands Antilles guilders.
TRADE (1958). Total imports (in 1,000 Antilles guilders): Cura~ao.

927,647; Aruba, 765,016. Total exports: Cura~ao, 763,1 54; Aruba,
759,325. Exports of oil products : Cura~ao, 751,384; Aruba,7M ,13(j.
1264 NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA
Total trade between the Netherlands Antilles and the U.K. in £ sterling
1938 1956 1957 1968 1969
Imports t.o U.K. 14,465,456 31.542,844 30,724,258 23,413,808 26,448,604
Exports from U.K. 646,620 14,073,138 16,496,831 16,976,282 9.464,070
Re-expolUl from U.K. 22,669 «2,376 46,964 87,976 798,689
The Free·Zones Ordinance of 1956 has established free zones in the ports
of Cura~ao and Aruba.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. There entered the port of Cura9ao,

in 195~,. 7,180 vessels of 54,120,000 gross tons; Aruba, 3,368 vessels of
33,072,000 gross tons.
Roarls. In 1955 the Netherlands Antilles had 765 km of surfaced high-
way, distributed aB follows: Cura9ao, 378; Aruba, 290; Bonaire, 55; St
Maarten, 30; St Eustatius, 5; Saba,7. Number of motor vehicles (31
Dec. 1958): 12,900 in Cura~ao, 7,000 in Aruba.
Post. Number of telephones, 1959, 5,206 in Curac;:ao, 2,600 in Aruba.
British Consul for Netherlands Antillea and Surinam. R. A. Findlay,
M.B.E. (Curarao).
U.S.A. Consul-General in Cura~ao; Consul at Aruba.
Books of Reference
STAT13TIOAL L"«'ORMATlON. Statist!cal publications (on population, trade. eoet of living,
etc.) are obtainable on request trom the Dopartment of Economic AffairR, Willemetad, Oure.<;ao.
TM Netherlands Jintilles. Government Information Service, Willemstad, Cure.<;ao.
De West IOOische aids. Tbe Hague. Monthly from 1919
O,anje e.' de ee, Caraib"'clte parel.... OfficI«1 gedenkboek ler gelegenl~ .an IteI goud4ft
regeri"'7.jubil~m .an H .M. KfAlingin Wilhelmina, 1898-1948. Amsterdam, 1948
Braam, lL L., Hoe ona land geregcerd wordt. Willemstad, 1959
Dresden, D., and Goudriaan, J., Rapport len behoeoe .an Mlweloaart3plan Ned. Jintillen, 19/6.
Tbe HlgUe, 1948
Hartog, .r., Jiruha. Oranjestad,1953.-Bonaire. Oranjestad,1958
NordlohDe, E., De Economi,cJ>.geographi.che Structuur tier Bener1en..inl14e Etlanderl. Rotter-
dam, 1951
Poll, W. van de, De N ederi4ruiJcM JinliUen. Tbe Hague, 19~O
Bchrieke, B. J. O. and Heemstra, M. J. Baronesae no (ed.), On, Koninkrije in Ameril<a.
Tbe H,.gu~, 1947
Walle, J. van de, De Nederlandae Jin/illen. WillefiSt.d,195·1
Westerman, J. H., Overzichl .an de geologilCM en mijnboutDkuOOige kenni. der ,Vederland..
Jinlill.... Amsterdam, 1949
NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA

NEDERLANDS-NIEUW-GUINEA
The western part of New Guinea under Dutch sovereignty is situated
between 1300 and 141 0 E. long. and between the Equator and 90 S. lat.
The principal islands belonging to the territory of New Guinea are: to the
north, the Mapia, Schouten and Padaido Islands, Noemfoor and Japen;
in the west, Misool, Waigeo and Salawati; and in the south, Komoran,
Frederik Hendrik Island and Adi.
New Guinea was visited by Europeans for the first time in 1527. The
country was given its name by Ynigo Ortiz de Retez, who sailed along the
coast in 1545 and was struck by the likeness of the inhabitants to those of
Guinea on the west coast of Africa. The Dutch East India Company,
which in 1602 acquired a commercial monopoly for the Indonesian arcm-
NETHERLANDS NEW GUINEA 1265
pelago, was the first to lay a claim on New Guinea. The legal successor of
the company, the kingdom of the Netherlands, introduced regular administra.
tion. New Guinea was not included in the transfer of sovereignty to
Indonesia in 1949; subsequent negotiations between the Netherlands and
Indonesia failed to reach agreement on the political status of this territory.
New Guinea has therefore remained under Dutch sovereignty.
A~ea and Population. The area of the territory is 160,000 sq. miles
(416,000 sq. km). Population, approximately 700,000, of whom 425,000
are under control of the Government (350,000 registered). The population
consists mainly of members of the Papua race, a branch of the Melanoderm
race. The Papuas on New Guinea are divided in two groups : the pygmies,
who dwell in the mountains, and the taller tribes, who live mainly in the
plains. There are hundreds of small isolated tribes, each with its own lan·
guage, none of which is spoken by more tban a few thousands and some only
by a few hundred people. The capital is Hollandia (16,335 inhabitants in
1958).
The mainland includes some of the largest swamps in the world as well
as large and high ranges of mountains, with some peaks above 12,000 ft
(Carstensz peak 15,120 ft, Juliana peak 14,100 ft, Wilhelmina peak 14,250
ft) . Owing to this height, snow and glaciers are to be found in the central
mountains of this tropical country. The soil in the mountains is mostly
poor, and owing to the heavy rains, subject to erosion. In the valleys the
soil is better, especially in the north, but several valleys and plains are
swampy. The largest swamps are to be found in the south. Some large
rivers descend from the central mountains to the north as well as the south
coasts. The olimate is moist with temperatures between 73° and 87" F.
in the plains; in the southern part nearest to the Australian mainland.
temperatures during the winter sometimes fall to 65° F.
Admini8tration. The administration is exercised by a governor. assisted
by a government council. consisting of the heads of the departments.
The governor and this council are advised in all affairs concerning the
population by a council for native development. As Boon as conditions
permit a New Guinea assembly will be elected. Local advisory councils
have been instituted in 5 districts. The first regional council. for Biak-
Noemfoor. was elected in 1959.
Governor. Dr P. J. Platteel.
Education. Primary education is carefully graded. rising from' civiliza-
tion schools' and village schools (together numbering 587 in 1958) to con·
tinuation schools. elementary and advanced elementary schools. followed
by secondary and vocational schools.
P~oduction . A mixed British. Dutch and U.S. company is producing
petroleum in the VogeIkop area. Several oilfields have been proved:
produotion at present comes from the Klamono. Wasian and Mogoi fields.
Output in 1968 was 266.999 metrio tons. A pipeline (60 miles) from
Wasian and Mogoi to the mouth of the river Moetoeri in the MacCluer Gulf
oame into use in 1954.
Rich deposits of nickel and cobalt were discovered in 1956 on the island
of Waigeo.
Some small industries produce for the home market. A modern saw-
mill (annual output. 12.000 cu. metres) at Manokwari started production
in 1957. Experiments on extending t,he production of rice. sago and other
1266 NICARAGUA
agricultural products are under way. The first rice crop on an cxperimental
polder in the Koembe area. near Merauke was harvested in 1956; the polder
was completed in 1957. The cultivation of cocoa is developing favourably.
T,.ade. Exports consist mainly of oil, copra and forest produce.
Total trade between Netherlands New Guinea and the U.K. in £ sterling
1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports to U.K. 14,743 23,243 28,828 45,585 35,277 359,211
Exports trom U.K . . 552,300 669,605 495,401 533,5JO 22S,90S 254,633
Re·export. from U.K. 6,608 22,979 6,310 5,287 4,985 2,11 3
Books of Reference
V<J<krnecum c(}(), Ned. N . Guinea. Nieu .. Guinea InstiLuuL, Rotterdam, 1956
Reporlon .Naherla·n48 New Gui7U'a prepared/Q, the United Nalions. AfWu ..1 (rom 1951
R4ppon 0.,.,. d. to<k<nn.stige MlIoikkeling van Nednlar",", Nieu.o Guin.... 2 vols. Inter-
departmental Commit.tee, Tbe rrague, 1953
K1ein, W. C. ,X;..uID Gutn.... 3 vols. Tbe Hague, 1954
VerboelJ, H. G., Netherlands Nero Guinea. Tbe Hague, 1908
NICARAGUA
REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution of 1 Nov.
1950 vests the legislative power in a Congress of 2 Houses consisting of 42
deputies elected for 6 years, and 16 senators (plus ex· presidents of the
republic, who are appointed for life) elected for 6years, all by popular state·
wide vote. The President is elected for 6 years. Voters are males over 18
years of age who can read and write and all other males over 21. The
constitution grants citizenship to women over 18 years of age ,,·ho can read
and write, but leaves the granting of the franchise to the decision of the
legislature. Niearagua uses the Australian ballot (i .e. , not ballots printed
by the llOlitical parties).
p,.esident. Ing. Luis A. Somoza Debayle, son of the late President, Gen.
Anastasio Somoza, was appointed by Congress to complete his fathcr's
term of office when the general was assassinated on 29 Sept. 1956. He
WM formally elected President on 3 Feb. 1957. Gen. Somozn. had been
elected by Congress on 7 May 1950, following the sudden death of his uncle.
President Roma.n y Reycs, and re·elected at the general election, 21 May
1950; he had been Presidcnt from 1937 to 1947.
J,nnisler for Foreign Affairs. Dr Alejandro Montiel Arguello.
The President has a cabinct of ministers, who are heads of the depart-
ments.
The republic is divided into 16 • departments' and 1 • comarca'
(Nationn.1 District), each of which is under a political head (appointed by
the President), who has supervision of finance, instruction and other matters.
The departments have no local legislatures. The Mosquito Reservc now
forms pl~rt of the departments of Zelaya and Rio San Juan.
On 18 Feb. 1916 the Bryan-Chnmarro treaty between Nicaragua and the
United States was signed, under which the U.S. in return for S3m . acquired
the optbn for a canal route t.hrough Nicaragua and a.1so a. naval base in the
Bay of Fonseca on the Pacific coast and Corn Island on the Atlantic coast.
NICARAGUA 1267
It was mtilied by Nicaragua on 7 April 1916 and by the U.S. on 24 June
192G.
N ational fl~: blue, white, blue; with the coat of Ol'lllS Oil the white
stripe.
NaJional anthem : Salve a ti Nicaragua (words by S. Ibarra Mayorga,
1937).
AREA AND POPULATION. Area estimated at 148,000 sq. km

(57,143 sq. miles), with a coast.line of 336 miles on the Atlant.ic and 219
miles on the Pacific. The 1950 census showed a. population of 1,057,023;
density, 7·14 per sq. km; 30 June 1959 estimate, 1,423,511.
Nicaragua is the largest in area and most thinly populated of the
Central American republics. Crudo birth rate, 1958, 41·24 per 1,000 populo..
tion; crude death rate, 9·49; infantile mortality rate, 83·5 per 1,000 live
hirths; crude marriage rate, 3·69 per 1,000 population.
About 69% of the inhabitants live in the western half of the country, on
the Pacific slopes. The two halves differ greatly in many respects, and there
is little communication hetween them, the journey by trail and river being
slow and difficult, though progress is being made.
The people of the western ha.lf of the republic are principally of mixed
Spanish and Indian extraction, some of pure Spanish dl'scent and many
Indians. The population of the eastern half is composed mainly of Mosquito
nnd Zambo Indians and Negroes from Jamaica and other islands of the
Caribbean. Immigration has been severely restricted, since 1930, for
Chinc..'IC, Turks, Arabs, Negroes and Jews. The main ethnic groups in 1955
were: Mestizo, 68%; white, 15%; negro, 9%; indio.5%.
Nicaragua is administratively divided into the following 16 departments
and 1 territory, with population as on 30 June 1959:
BoneD 58,743 .Tinotega Ri,842 Kne .. a SE'govia 35,712
C(\ro.l,Q . 72,3.,1 Le6n 161,772 Rio San Ju::m . 11,696
Cbinandega 110,C6:; Madriz . 42,175 TIivD.s 64-,750
Cbont.les Mi/)4S Ma-nag-ua 2.;5.670 t:elaya . 70,218
Bst eli ;-)6,:H4 Masaya . 99,573
Cranaua C9,Ull ~Iatagtl.lpa lii9,3D:) l·.... bo Gr acias a Dio:-; 20,530
There are 123 municipalities, of which 98 have from 2,000 to 50,000

inhabitants. The capital is Managua, situated on the lake of the same
name, with (1958) 18:~.783 inhabitants; BluefieldJ!. 18,844; Chinandega,
18,222; Granada, 30,158; Jinotega, 4,932; Leon, 46,321; Masaya, 28,208,
and Matagalpa, 13,919.
RELIGION . The prevailing form of religion is Roman Catholic, but

there is complete religious liberty. The republic constitutes 1 archbi~hopric
(seat at Managua) and 4 bishoprics (LOOn, Granada, Bluefields and l\Iata·
galpa). Protestants number about 40,000.
EDUCATION. There were (1958) 1,831 state elementary schools, 7

normal schools, 42 secondary schools, 6 professional schools, 1,916 mixed
(urban and rural) schools, 49 other schoolg and 1 university. The total
number of teachers was 4,135; of pupils, 151,297. llIiterate persons, of
all ages, number about 65'5% of the population. Secondary education,
lI either obligatory nor free, is being carried on by private individuals, with
government assistance in the form of grants and numerous scholarships.
:-i'icaraglla's university is at Leon, with a school of engineering at 1fa.nagna.
1268 NICARAGUA
Cinema". Cinemas numbered 71 in 1955, with seating capacity of71,156.

Newspapers. There are 11 daily newspapers.
JUSTICE. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice

at Managua, 5 ohambers of second instance (Leon, Masaya, Granada,
l\IatagaJpa and Bluefields), and 153 judges of inferior tribunals.
FIN ANCE. Revenue and expenditure for fisoal years, ending 30 June,
in cordcbas (C$I = 14·2857 U.S. cents):
1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59
Re,ellne . 209,836,171 282,573,406 249,580,677 266,140,311 248,029,941
Ex-penditnre 232,651,800 253,345,132 261,006,116 266,062,820 268,757,286
The 1959 budget includes C$2·6m. increase in the Ministry of Eoonomy

(housing fund) and 8·6m. extra between education, publio works and health,
with reductions elsewhere. The apparent deficit will be met out of previous
surplusE"s, which total C$29·lm.
The practioe of borrowing heavily from the National Bank resulted in a.
debt of 28·25m. oordobas, which, 1950, was funded for 25 years.
By ,~n agreement reaohed in 1911 between the Government and the
British bondholders, modified and extended in 1917 and 1920, customs
receipts and oertain other revenues are collected by the Collector-General of
Custom!! (who must be an American) and applied by a High Commission of
2 members (the Nicaraguan Minister of Finance, as President, and the Col-
lector-General of Customs) to the payment of the external debt, the balance
being turned over to the Government.
The sterling portion of Nicaragua's external debt was redeemed on 15
Oot. 19.53; the face value originally was £254,500 but it had been largely
repatriated. The external debt at the end of 1956 was USS11·6m. (mainly
International Bank loans); the internal debt at 30 Nov. 1956 was
17,732,866 cordobas.
A p;lot Social Security scheme to which 8,500 government and bank
employees subscribe, in tbe Managua area, was started on 10 Feb. 1957.
DEFENCE. The National Guard (which funotions as police force and

army) numbers 220 officers and some 3,000 other ranks, besides 4,000 in the
trained reserve. Period of enlistment, 3 years, but military service may be
made compulsory at any time. There is a military academy.
CoaEtguard boats patrol the east and west coast to prevent smuggling.
Formed in June 1938 as the Nicaraguan Army Air Force, the air force
has been independent since 1947 when it received a small number of piston-
engined F-51D Mustang fighters and F-47D Thunderbolt fighter-bombers
from the U.S.A. A few of these remain in service, but the air foroe is
primarily a transport and training organization, using C-47 and C-45 twin·
engined transports and various single-engined trainers of U.S. design_
PRODUCTION. Of the total land area (about 36·5m. acres), about

17·5m. ;l.cres are under timber, 0·9m. acres are used for grazing and 2·!m.
acres are arable. A survey in 1954 showed that of the latter only 1,044,000
acres were actively cultivated, 500,000 in annual crops such as corn, cotton,
rice and. the remainder in perennial crops like coffee and sugar cane. Five-
seventh3 of the working population are in agriculture. A Natural Resources
Law came into operation on 17 April 1958.
NICARAGUA 1269
Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal source of national wealth,
finding work for 65% of the labour force, and furnishing, 1950. 40% of the
gross national product of $14 7m. There are big plans to increase its efficiency
by means of irrigation schemes depending on the Tipitapa and Tuma rivers.
The principal production of the eastern part of the republic was formerly
bananas, but the exports in 1954 were only 576,831 stems, which is about
the current yearly average. Since then the National Development Institut·e
has begun to help new planting of bananas and of cacao, on the Atlantic
coast, as part of a crop diversification scheme. An American company, in
1949,1a.id out banana plantations on the west coast on new soil which should
be free of the Panama uisease. Cotton production in 1958-59 was 1,059,66 1
quilltals (211,932 bales), of which about one·third were earmarked for export.
There are 21 gins. P la ntains, oranges, pineapples, sweet potatoes anu y ucca
a re raised for home consumption.
The products of the western half are much more varied, the most im·
portant being coffee, sugar cane, cocoa, corn and beans. A firm ha.~ been
organized to produce soluble banana, cocoa and coffee powder, principally
for export. Sugar output, 1958-59, was 1,339,539 short tons. Rice is grown
(454,024 quintals in 1958-59) a nd wheat in Leon and the hilly Jillotega
district, while tobacco is cultivated round Masaya. Sesame seed is the
country's only oilseed of importance, but it is fourth only to coffee, gold and
cotton a.~ an export; exports were valued at US$! ·6m. for 1956 and the
same in 1957-58, when the crop was 146,000 quintals. An experimental
planting of castor seed was madc in May 19!)7. Thc coffeo crop (from
155,000 acres) usually averages 20,000 metric tons, but reached a record of
24,800 metrie tons in 1964-55, ami an estimated 22,000 in 1957-58. There
are 67 processing plants. Some other 1958-59 crops (in quintals) were:
Sesame, 201,450; maize, 2,348,249; beans, 423,001; sorghum, 827,279.
With t he excep(.ion of plantains and yucca or ca.~sava, the greater part of
tho food supply of the eastern section is imported from the D.S. The
western half of the country produces much of its own food, but is seriously
dependent upon weather conditions. The 1954 census showed 1·2m. head
of cattle which thrive in the western departments. 26,000 head w ere ex·
ported in 1957. A modern meat-packing plant was established in 1955.
Forestry. Timber production is declining, though the forcsts, which cover
10m. acres, contain mahogany and cedar. which were form erly largely
exported. three varieties of rosewoods, guayltcan (lignum t'itae). dye.wood~,
gums and medicinal plants. The ipecacuanha erop was 23,000 lb. in 1957-
58, valued at60me C$I·4m. Wild rubber is abundant in the virgin forest.s on
the Atlantic wa tershed, but there are very few rubber plantations owing to
the labour shortage. Exports of timber in 19:J8, 33,567,526 bd ft.
Mining. There are several !(oldmines. Total production in 1958 was
214,882 fine oz. Export~ in 1957 were 196,133 oz,. worth USS6·8m. Pro-
duction of 8ilver, including scrap, 1958, was 304,277 fine oz. Copper and
precious stones are also found. Experimen tal drilling for petroleum took
place on the Atlantic co:tst in 1956-57, in the Puerto Ca bezas area; and at
the end of 1958 concessions were granted near the Costa R,ica border, and
Lake Nicaragua. on the west coast.
I11d1lstry. Chief local industries are matches, cigarettes, beer, soap,
leather, cement, which is steadily expanding. cotton and silk, strong and soft
drinks and dairy products.
Power. In 1958 power companies in 45 cities produced 72,956,170 kwh.
of electricity for public consumption, and industrial a nd mining companies
1270 NICARAGUA
produced 48,446,460 kwh. A contract has been granted for consulting work
on the m,w Rio Tuma hydro.electric scheme, designed to augment the supply
to Mana.gua and west·coast districts. A new 15,OOO·kw. generator started
up in M'lnagua in June 1958, and a second is being prepared to serve the
Pacific coast. There is a reliable gas supply in the main cities.
COMMERCE. The foreign trad e o f Nicaragua, in cordobas, was as

follows in calendar years (nominally and for purposes of trade statistics,
until 1955, 1 cordoba = US$I, hence these 'gold cordobas' should be
multiplied by 5 to show the v alue in the national currency):
195·1 1956 1956 1957 1955
Imports . S8,306,294 55,183,404 460,690,000 666,370,000 5 ·15,60 5 , 66 ~
Exports. 62,774,56G 76,725,197 380,960,000 433,570,000 497,603,974
In IH57 the total value of imports was US$80·91m., of which machinery,

15·02m.; chemicals, llm.; iron and steel products, 7'4m; vehicles and
parts, 7t1l.; foodstuffs, 5·5m. These were supplied largely by U.S.A.,
47·06m.; Germany,8·5m. ; Netherlands West Indies, 5·5m. ; U .K .,2 ·96m.;
Belgium,2·5m.; Japan,2·2m.
In 1!157 the total value of exports was US$71·21m., of which coffee,
28·5m.; cotton, 21·8m.; gold, 6·84m.; timber, 3·38m. ; cattle, 1·76m.;
sugar,l·Olm.
Total trade bctween Nicaragua and U.K. (British Board of Trade
returns) in £ sterling:
1938 1955 1956 1967 1968 1 95 ~
Imports to U.K. 52,417 834,890 902.980 1,994,225 1.l07~620 1,148,03 7
Erporta from U.K. . 64,483 932,222 794.609 ~41.59S 1,732,84'; 82·1,217
1t• ..,xport" trom U.K. 187 1,998 2,731 4,41>4 l O ,~17 2,4 ~ 6
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipp/:ng. Western Nicaragua has 4 seaports,

Corinto Ithe largest), San Juan del Sur, Puerto Somoza and Puerto Morazan
through which pass most of the external trade. The chief eastern ports are
El Bluff (ne:1r Bluefields) and Puerto Cabezas, followed by Cabo Gracias and
San Juan del Norte. Plans have been made for the canalization of the
river San Juan, whi ch divides Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The merchant
marine consists solely of the Mamenic Line with 6 vessels owned and 8
chartered. In 1956, '71G ships entered and 712 left Nicaraguan ports.
Roads. Most of the roads are tracks over which ox-carts alone can travel
in the wet season, but some good roads are under constnlet.jon. The east
coast, hi~herto practically shut off from the west coast, is being joined by a
highway built with local and American capital. The Nicaraguan section of
the Roosevelt Highwny, between Managua and Rama, is under construction,
as well as the Pan· American highway. There is also B paved highway link-
ing Puerto Somoza to the Pan·American highway. The 345·km Managua-
RalUa road is to be completed in 1960. Motor vehicles, 1958, were 7,171
passenger cars, 4,336 trucks, 639 buses and 1,541 motor cycles.
Railways. The Pacific Railroad of Nicaragua, owned and operated by
the Govf,rnment and the principal line in the republic, has a total length of
903 km, all single.track, and connects Corinto, Chinandega, Le6n, Managua,
Masaya and Granl\da. A line connects Chinandega with Puerto Morazan
(30 km).
Po"t. There are (1959) 7,170 km of (government-owned) telegraph wire,
and 217 offices; also 3,232 km of telephone wire and 123 telephone stations
NICARAGUA 1271
serving (1957) 5,735 instruments, 69% automatic and all government.oper.
ated. There are 213 post offices, and good service between the chief towns
of the western section; service into the interior is carried by air· mail. All·
American Cable Co. connects with New York and has a powerful station at
San Juan del Sur.
The Tropical Radio Telegraph Company maintains a powerful station at
Managua, and branch stations at Bluefields and Puerto Cabezas. The
Government operates the National Raclio with 47 broadcasting stations:
there are 31 commercial stations and some 70 others. Number of wireless
sets in 1954 was 20,000.
Aviation. There is a daily air service (Pan American World Airways)
to Central and South America and the V.S. T.A.C.A. (Transportes Aereop
Centro Americano), an American airline, have a twice· weekly service to
Costa Rica, Honduras and El Salvador fwm lIfanngua. The Peruvian
national airline to Miami also calls here thrice weekly. N.I.C.A. (Lineas
Aereaa de Nicaragua) is Nicaraguan.owned, devotcd to local freight and
passenger transport with, irregularly, service abroad. Airlines in 1954
carried 16,751 inward and 16,709 outward passengers and exported 14,020 kg
of gold and silver valued at S8m.
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary unit is the cordoba, clivided

into 100 centavos. Its exchange parity with gold is managed by the issue
department of the National Bank of Nicaragua. No gold or silver coins
are minted. On 30 Sept. 1958 tota money supply was 257·6m. papcr
cordohas in currency and bank deposits. Gold coins provided by law (1912)
are 10,5 and 2~ c6rtlobas, but no gold coins have ever been struck. National
bank·notes form the greater part of the currency, in denominations from 500
cordobas to 1 cordoba. Silver coins in circulation arc 1 cordoba, 50, 25 and
10 centavos; copper-nickel and copper-zinc coins, 50, 25, 10 and 5 ccntavos;
copper coins, I and ~ centavo.
Effective 1 July 1955 the cordoba waa devalued from its 1946 rate of
[; cordobas = VSSl to 7 cordobas = SI. At the new rate, I cordoba =
0·126953 grammc of fine gold, 245 = 1 troy oz. of gold and 1 cordoba =
14·2857 V.S. cents. The tourist rate is 7·50-7·60 cordobas per $1.
The National Bank of Nicaragua at lIfanagua, founded in 1912, owned
by the Government since 1924 was completely reorganized in May 1940.
Its directorate was transferred from the U.S. to lIfanagua. The banking
department functions as a commercial bank and the issue department is
the lIole bank of issue. The latter had on 31 July 1958, $1,310,000 in gold,
lmd both departments had $20·7m. in foreign exchange. The total foreign-
exchange reserve was valued on 30 Sept. 1957 at VS$21 ·77m. and VS$24·23m.
in 1958. Plans for a new Central Bank are being st.udied. Two new
commercial bank8. one with a capital of 5m. cordoball, opened in Managua
in 1953. From l6 May 1957, the legal minimum cash holding for commer·
r.ial banks with the National Bank waa raised to 28% for all accounts.
Since 1893 the metric system of weights and measures has been in USEl.

OF NICARAGUA IN GREAT B3ITAIN
There are consular representatives at Birmingham and London .
1272 NORWAY
01' GREAT BRITAIN IN NICARAGUA

Amba.ssador and Oonaul·General. W. E. D. Massey, M.B.E. (appointed
Dec. 1953).
First Secretary. F. E. B. Ide (Oonsul).
Air .Iittache. Group Capt. E. W. Wootten, D.F.C., A.F.C.
OF NICARAGUA IN THE U.S.A. (1627 New Hampshire Ave. NW.,
Washington 9, D.C.)
Ambas8ador. Dr Guillermo Sevilla·Sacasa.
M inil,ter Oounsellor. Dr J ulio Cesar Alegria. First Secretary. Dr Oscar
Danilo Sanson·Roman. Military and Air Attache. Col. Julio C. Morales.
Commercial and Financial Attache. Ricardo Parrales·Sanchez.
OF THE U.S.A. IN NICARAGUA
Ambassador. Thomas E. \Vhelan.
Counl'ellor. Louis F . Blanchard (Oonsul). Service Attaches: Lieut.·Col.
Harry F. Parker (Army), Capt. Jacob V. Heimark (Navy), Lieut.·Col.
William .J. Cavoli (Air, resident in Guatemala City).
Books of Reference
STATIBUOAL INFORMATION. Each of the statistical offices set up in 1836, 1861 and 1906
tunctioned only for a few years. Tbe present Direcci6n General de EstadlBtlca y Oensos
(Managua, D.N.) was set up in 1931 ... part of the Ministerio de Economla. Dirutor GmnaJ:
Dr Adolfo l:.ola Blen. It publisbes the .Anuario Esl4dlslico and various bulletins; see A. Lol ..
Blen, .Acli.idiJde. Esl4dlslica. en NicarQ{lUl' (1954).
Repor' of 11,. CoUeclor-Geneml oJ Cw'""" and High Commls.ion. Managua. Annual
Palmer, M.,rvyu G., Through Unknown Nicaragua. London, 1945
Port..., S. ;r. Bernado, Compendio de la hisloria de Nicaragua. Managua, 1918
Tweedy, M., This i. Nicaragua. Ipswich, 1953.
NATIONAL LmBARY. Biblioteca Nacional, Managua, D.N. Diroclor: Dr Ram6n
Romero.
NORWAY
KONGERIXET NORGE
By the Treaty of 14 Jan. 1814 Norway was ceded to the King of Sweden
by the :King of Denmark, but the Norwegian people declared themselves
independent and elected Prince Christian Frederik of Denmark a8 their
King. The foreign Powers refused to recognize this election, and on 14
Aug. a convention proclaimed the independence of Norway in a personal
union wi~h Sweden. This was followed on 4 Nov. by the election of Karl
XIII (Il) as King of Norway. Norway declared this union dissolved, 7 June
1905, and Sweden agreed to the repeal of the union on 26 Oct. 1905. The
throne W.lS offered to a prince of the reigning house of Sweden, who declined.
After a plebiscite, Prince Carl of Denmark was formally elected King on
18 Nov. 1905, and took the name of Haakon VII.
N Mwegian Sovereign6
Inge Baanls."ion . 1204 Erik of Pomerania 1389
Haakon HlLakonsson 1217 Kristo!er at Bavaria 1442
Magnu8 Lagaboter . 1263 Karl Knntsson . . • . 1449
Eirik Magr. usson . 1280 Same Sovereigns as in Denmark 1450-1814
HBakon V MagnUSSOD 1299 Christian Frederik. • • . 1814
Magn us Er iksson . 1319 Same Sovereigns as in Sweden 1814-1905
Haakon VJ Magnusson 1355 Haakon VII . . 1905
Olav HaakoDseon 1381 Olav V . 1957
Margreta 1388
NORWAY 1273
National flag: a blue cross with white borders on red.
National anthem: Ja. vi elsker dette landet (,vords by B. Bjornson.
1865; tune by R. Nordraak. 1865).
REIGNING KING. Olav V. bom 2 July 1903. married on 21 March
1929. to Princess Mii.rtha of Sweden (born 28 March 1901. died 5 April 1954).
daughter of the late Prince Carl (son of King Oscar II). He succeeded on
the death of his father. King Haakon VII. on 21 Sept. 1957. Offspring:
Princess Ragnhild Alexandra. born 9 June 1930 (married. 1953. Hr. Erling
Lorentzen); Princess Astrid lVIaud Ingeborg. born 12 Feb. 1932; Crown
Prince Harald. born 21 Feb. 1937.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Norway is a constitutional
and hereditary monarchy. The royal succession is in direct male line in
the ordcr of primogcniture. In default of male heirs the King may propose
a successor to the Storting. but this assembly has the right to nominate
another. if it does not agree with the proposal.
The constitution of Norway hears date 17 May 1814. with several
modifications passed at various times. It vests the legislative power of the
realm in the Storting (Parliament). the representative of the sovereign people.
Only the Starting can vote supplies and has the power of the purse. The
royal veto in regard to acts may be exercised twice; but if the same Bill
passes throe Stortings formed by separate and subsequent elections. it
becomes the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign. The King
has the command of the land. sea and air forces. and makes all appointments.
The Storting assembles every year. The meetings take place suo jurt.
and not by any writ from the King or the executive. They begin on the
first weekday in October each year. and the Storting remains assembled
as long as it may find it neccssary. Every Norwegian subject of 21 years
of age (provided that he resides and has resided for 5 years in the country)
is entitled to vote. unless he is disqualified from a special cause. Women
are. since 1913. entitled to vote under the same conditions as men. The
mode of election is direct and the method of election is proportional. Since
5 April 1938 the people choose their 150 representatives every fourth year.
The country is divided into districts. each elccting from 3 to 8 representatives.
Representatives must not be less than 21 years of age and must have resided
in Norway for 10 years; they can be elccted in any district of the kingdom
v.ithout regard to their residence. By a law which came into force in June
1938 all branches of the Government service. including the state church.
are open to women.
At the elections for the Starting held on 7 Oct. 1957 the following
parties were elected: Labour. 78; Conservative. 29; Liberal. 15; Agrarian.
15; Christian Popular. 12. and Communist. l.
The Storting. when assembled. divides itself by election into two sections.
the Lagting and the Odel-6t'ng. The former is composed of one-fourth of
the members of the Storting. and the other of the remaining three. fourths.
Each Ting nominates its own presidents. Questions relating to laws must
be considered by each section separately. Most other matters are settled
by both sections in common sitting. The Storting eJects 5 delegates. whose
duty it is to revise the public accounts. All new laws must first be laid before
the Odelsting. from which they pass into the Lagting to be either accepted
or rejected. If the Odelsting Ilnd Lagting do not agree. the two sections
assemble in common sitting to deliberate. and the final dccision is given by
a majority of two· thirds of the voters. The same majority is required for
1274 NORWAY
alteratic·ns of the constitution. The Lagting and the ordinary members of

the Supreme Court of Justice (Hoyuterett) form & High Court of the Realm
(the Ri~;8trett) for the impeachment and trial of ministers, members of the
Hoyesterett and members of the Storting.
The executive is represented by the King, who exercises his authority
through a Cabinet called & Council of State (Statsrcid), composed of a Prime
Mini~ter or Minister of State (Statsminister) and at least 7 ministers
(Stat8rdder) . The ministers are entitled to be present in the Storting and
to take part in the discussions, but without a vote. The Cabinet was in
April 1958, composed as follows (all Labour Party):
Prirr.,e Minister. Einar Gerhardsen.
Miniater of Foreign Affairs. Halvard Lange.
Minister of Municipal Affairs and Labottr. Andreas Cappeien.
~finister of Finance and Custorn-s. Trygve Bratteli .
.Minister of Defence. Nils Handal.
Minister of Eecleaiastical Affairs and Education. Birger Bergersen .
:Minister of Industry and Handicraft . Kjel\ Holler.
j}finister of Trade and Shipping. Arne Skaug.
M imster of Communications. Kolbjorn Varmaun.
Minister of Fisheries. Nils Lyso .
.Minister of Wages and Prices. Gunna.l' Boe.
Minister of Social Welfare. Gudmund Harlem.
Minister for Family and Consumer Affairs. Fru Aase Bjerkholt.
Minister of J 'ustice and Police. Jens Haugland.
Mini8ter of AgricuUure. Harald Lobak.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. For the purposes of administration the country
is divided into 20 counties (fylker), in each of which the central government
is repre<.e nted by a county governor (fylkesmannen). In addition, there
are 62 v.rban districts (by.kommuner) and 670 rural districts (herredskom.
muner), each of which usually corresponds in size to a parish (prestegjeld) .
The districts are administered by district councils (kommunestyre), whose
membemhip may vary between 13 and 85 councillors, and by a committee
(formannakap) which is elected by and from the members of the council.
The cou:3cil is four times the size of the committee. The council elects a
chairman and a vice·chairman from among its members. Councillors are
elected ill accordance with rules which are in most cases identical with the
rules go,'erning election to Parliament. The chairmen of the rural districts
in each county constitute the county council (fylkesting), the highest
authority in each of the 18 county districts (fylkeskommune), which consists
of all the rural districts, but excludes the urban districts of the county.
Two of '~he counties, Oslo and Bergen, consist of only one urban district
each and. do not therefore constitute a county district. Within the county
districts the county committee (jylkesutvalg) takes up much the same posi.
tion as the committee does in the primary districts. The county committee
consists of the county governor, who is statutory chairman, and 4 other
members elected by and from the members of the county council.
Census Pop. per
Area population Population sq. km
.'yll<er (sq. km) 1 Dec. 19~0 1 Jan. 19~8 (land) 19~0
Oslo (city) 45~ '28 434,041 461,591 1,001·1
Ake",bU3 4,908 ' ~6 183,011 216,863 39·8
Ihstlold 4,119'1S 185,419 198,360 41-7
Hedmart 21,M~·34 173,061 117.234 6·6
NORWAY 1275
Ceruns Pop. per
Area population Population sq. km
Fylk er (sq. kUl) 1 D ec. I noO 1 Jan. 1958 (land) 1~00
OpVlond 26,325'33 160,421 160,451 6'~
Huskel1ld 14,800'88 156,200 165,718 11·3
Vestfold 2,339'28 154.582 168,341 68·5
Tal.marlr 15,294'90 1S6,371 147,52v 96
Auot-Agdcr 9,225'66 76,788 76,680 g·8
Vcst· Agder 7,295'14 06,930 105,8~G 14·2
Rogaland 9,12~'13 211,408 231,355 24·6
Hordaland 15,597'46 198,017 217,991 13·3
Bargen (city) 37·14 112,845 114,711 3,H8·0
Soga og li'jordane 18,514-63 ~7,680 99,087 5·5
lIe ..e og Romsd,,1 15,076'04 191,138 208,754 13·0
S0r·'l'rondelag 18,702'60 197,758 207,334 11·0
Nord·Trondelag 22,422'66 109,860 115,914 5·2
Nordland 38,324'7-1 221,701 230,8H 6·1
Trams . 26,090'71 117,498 125,192 4·6
Finnmark 48,645'80 64,476 70,-128 I·.
Total. 323,917-14 3,278,546 3,51 0 ,I~O 10·6
In 1958,2,377,233 persons lived in rural districts and 1,132,966 in towns.

Conjugal condition of the domiciled population over 15 years of age,
1956: Unmarried: 407,219 males, 363,661 females; married: 787,0·i1
males, 789,806 females; widowed or divorced: 65,371 males, 145,681
females.
The distribution of the population according to professions in 1950,
showed 712,707 (21.,7%) dependent on agriculture, forestry and gardening;
1,122,944 (34'3%) on mining, manufacturing, building, etc.; 290,889
(8'9%) on commerce; 302,379 (9,2%) on transportation; 181,557 (5'5%) on
fishery, scaling and whaling; 323,253 (9,9%) on public administration,
liberal professions and services.
VITAL STATISTICS for calendar ycars:

Dle.giti.
MalTiages Divorces Birth:)' Still·born mate Deaths
1965 26,15'; 1,982 63,552 064 n 19" 20.099
19.6 25,163 2,071 64,171 989 2:236 29,981
1957 24,.172 2,036 63,063 942 2,2::a 30,5GO
1955 1 23,643 2,003 63,653 Ht RH
1 Provisional figure:::. I Excluding ~ti1t-born.
Population of the principal towns at 1 Jan. 1958:

0.1" . 4C1,5n lle,uurl 19,0'17 T0nsberg 12,453
Bergeo. • 114,711 Kri:,tian allHu 16,8 05 Troms" . 12,212
rrond~eim 5~,915 Skien. 1 ",511 Arendal. 11,251
Stnvanger 52,8-18 Fredriksiad 13,965 Larvik 10,642
Drammen 30,70{ Sarpsborg 1:{, 3 ~7 Bodo 10,502
Kristlansand . 27,610 Horten 13.210 Porsgrunn 10,410
Haugesund 26.3n Hamar 12,911
Moss 19,780 Narvik 12,544
As from 1 Jan. 1924 the name of the capital, Kristiania, was changed
to Oslo. As from 1 Jan . 1948 part of Akcrshus fylke has been included in
Oslo.
RELIGION. The Evangelical Lutheran religion is the national church

and the only one endowed by the state. Its clergy are nominatcd by the
King. All religions are tolerated, but Jesuits are, according to the
1276 NORWAY
constitution, not admitted into the country. Ecclesiastically Norway is

divided into 9 Bispedemmer (bishoprics), 91 Prostier (provostships or
archdea'Jonries) and 541 Prestegjeld (clerical districts). In 1950 there
were 123,314 dissenters, including 4,753 Roman Catholics, 365 Greek
Orthodox, 11,570 Methodists, 8,964 Baptists, 5,440 Adventists, 451 Mor.
mons, 76 (1957: 70) Quakers, 836 Jews, 261 Church of England and 41
members of German churches. The Roman Catholics are under a Bishop
at Oslo, a Vicar Apostolic at Trondheim and an Apostolic Prefect at
Troms0.
EDUCATION. Education is compulsory, the school age being from 7

to 14. In 1957-58 there were 4,776 primary schools in the districts with
318,582 pupils, and 204 schools with 119,687 pupils in the towns. Primary
continm.tion schools had 33,004 pupils. There were 297 secondary general
schools--37 state schools (12,510 pupils), 178 communal and private schools
(42,511 pupils) entitled to give certificates, and 82 private and com·
munal s.)hools not having this right (5,066 pupils). Total expenditure on
current account for primary and secondary general schools was 558,365
kroner.
There are also several special, industrial. technical and arts schools, as
well as teachers' training colleges (2,646 students in 1957-58).
Norway has 2 universities, at Oslo (founded 1811), attended in 1958
by 4,3l!J students, and at Bcrgen (established in 1946, opened 30 Aug.
1948), attended in 1958 by 747 students. There is a state institute of
technology at Trondheim attended in 1958 by 1,351 students, a college of
agriculture and forestry in Aas with 227 students, a college of dentistry with
246 students, the state academy of fine arts with 46 students, a veterinary
college with 128 students and a state college of business administration
and economics with 177 students. In 1958, 3,007 Norwegians were study.
ing at fe,reign universities.
Norwegian is an independent language closely related to Danish and
Swedish. As to the written language, there exist two idioms (Bokmal and
Nynorsk), and both may be officially used.
Cinema" (1958). There were 657 cinemas with a seating capacity of
165,431.
Newlpapers (1058). There were 80 daily newspapers with a combined
circulation of 1,298,000; of these, 10 with a combined circulation of 492,000
appear b Oslo.
SOCIAL WELFARE. In 1957 a total of 2,475m. kroner were paid

under different social welfare schemes, amounting to 10·5% of the net
national income. Social security schemes have been developed rapidly in
the post·war years, and further schemes are under consideration. Most
important among these is a general insurance scheme against disablement.
As from 1 Jan. 1960 the employment injury scheme has been extended to
all employed persons.
The following conspectus gives a survey of the schemes established by the
central government. Many municipalities have additional schemes for
contingencies not covered by the state schemes, for instance old.age pensions
to persons under 70 years of age, maternity pensions and disablement
pensions.
NORWAY 1277
Intro-
Type of scheme dnced Scope Principal benefit.
Unemployment insurance 1938 Nearly all wage- Kr_ 3 to 15 per day
earners
Health insurance 1909 All residents Hospital (ees, about I of doctor.' fees;
kr. 3 to 16 per dJly under sickness
Occupational accident in-
surance: Pen..lons according to degree of dIs-
Ind'''''trial worker3 1895 ablement. Maximum kr. 8,400 per
Seamen 1913 } N enrly all work- annum with additional family
Fu/.ernlnl 1909 men allowlWces (from 1960)
Fa.mily allowance 1946 All fam ilies with Kr. 3GO per annum per child exclnd-
more than one ing tbe first
child
Survivors' benefit for 1957 Every child whose Kr. 600 per annum
children . fother has died
Old age pensions 1936 All (from 19(9) BMic state pensIons from 1959:
persons above 70 Single, kr. 2,328, couples, kr. 3,492
years of age. per annum. Additional pen.,iolls
are paid by many municlpal1tleR
Military compensation In- 1953 Personnel injured PensiOns, in case of complete in-
surauce or Infected in validety, kr. 3,300 to 6,600 per
military service annum with additional family
n.lJowancee
War pensions. 1946 All persons injw-ed Pensions up to kr. 11,820 per annum
by war n.ction with additional family allowance.
Special pensiOns Insurance Person.. with at Ma.:rimum pensions for couples:
schemes: least:
Seamen . 19,18 150 months' service Kr. 6,636 per annum
Stale ",orkers 1950 30.. .. .. 5,760 ..
Forestrv workers 1951 750 premium "'eeks ft 3,01.1 "
Fishermen • 1957 750 " 2,700 "
JUSTICE. The judicature in Norway is common to both civil and
criminal cases. The same judges, who are state officials, preside over both
kinds of cases. The participation of lay assessors and jurors, summoned
for each case, varies according to the civil or criminal nature of the case.
The ordinary Court of First Instance (Herre.d8- og byrett) is presided
over by a judge who in criminal cases is, and in civil cases may be, assisted
by 2 lay assessors, chosen by ballot from a panel elected by the district
council. In criminal matters the Court of First Instance is generally com-
petent in cases where the maximum penalty incurred is 5 years imprison-
ment. Altogether there are 108 Courts of First Instance. There is a
Conciliation Council (Fcrliluiraad) for each community, consisting of 3 mrn
or women, elected by the district council, before which, as a general rulp,
civil cases must first be brought for mediation.
The Court of Second Instance (LagmanMTett) is presided over by a
judge, together with 2 other judges. In civil matters they may be
assisted by lay assessors, ordinarily 4 but in some cases 2, chosen and
elected in the same way as mentioned above, In criminal cases the lay
element is a jury composed of 10 jurors. This court is a court of appeal in
both civil and criminal cases. In addition, as a court of fIrst instance, it
takes cognizance of all criminal cases (other than those coming under the
Rikarett--the court for impeachments) which do not come under the com-
petence of the Court of First Instance. The kingdom is divided into 5
districts (Lagdommer) for the purpose of the Courts of Socond Instance.
The Supreme Court (Hoyuterett) is the ultimate court of appeal. In
crirrilnal cases the competence of the court, however, is limited to the
complaints against the application of laws, the measuring out of the penalty
and the trbl of the case of the subordinate courts. The Supreme Court con-
sists of a president and 17 judges. In each single case the court consists of
5 judges.
1278 NORWAY
AlIscriouB offences are prosecuted by the state. The public prosecution

is lead by a general prosecutor (riksadvokat) and there are 12 district
prosecutors (8tataadvokater). Counsel for the deft'nce is paid by the state.
Thero are 6 penal and correctional institutions for delinquents; inmates
(I July 1969),622 males and 37 females. There are also 45 local prisons in
which were detained (I July 1959) 811 males and 5 females.
FINANCE. Current revenue and expenditure for years ending 30 June

(in 1,000 kroner) :
1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59' 1959-60'
Revenue . 4 ,~90.920 4,~60,283 ~ ,3 56 , 913 5.761,356 h,7'5,883 5.801,443
Expenditure . 4,054,471 4 , ~2,9S6 4,662,204 5,057,002 4,931,892 5,120,126
, Voted budget.
National debt l for years ending 30 June (in 1,000 kroner):

1938 1,428,744 1954 • 5.878,240 19~7 • 7,648.461
191iO 4,704,960 1955 . 6,347,473 19;8 . 7.76l,OO(l
19:i3 5,373,723 1956 • 7,230,478 1959 . $,172,100
, At the rate of par on foreign 10a03; including treasnry "ill.
(in Im. troner) amounting
to 84 ill ]950; 442 in 1953 ; 396 in 1954 ; 1 31 in 1965; 217 in 1956; 258 in 19,5 7; 93 in
]958; 155 in 1959.
DEF'ENCE. Service is universal and compulsory, liability in peace-

time commencing at the age of 20 and continuing till the age of 44. The
training period in the Army is 16 months, in the Navy and Air Force, 18
months.
ARMY. The Army is divided into 6 commands, and comprises all land
forces. In peace-time it is organized mainly in I brigado and 1 reinforced
infantry battalion.
NAVY. The Navy is divided into 5 commands, and consists of the
following seagoing warships: 4 Heet destroyers (purchased from Great
Britain), 7 frigates (4 n-British, including 2 lent by Great Britain in 1953
and bought in 1956, and 3 lent by Canada in 1956 and transferred outright
to Norway in 1958), 8 submarines (5 ex-British and 3 ex-German), 4 fleet
minesweepers (including 2 acquired from the V.S .A. in 1955), 11 coastal
minesweepers, 16 motor torpedo-boats, 6 coastal minelayers, 1 t.raining
ship (ex·seaplane tender transferred from V_S.A_ in 1958), 1 repair ship,
2 depot ships, 1 Asdic training ship, 2 ex-minesweepers (used as mobile
X·ray units), 2 weather ships and t.he royal yacht NOTge.
Am FORCE_ The Air Force is divided into 4 commands. It has 11
strength of some 10,000 pcI'Ronnel, maIming 5 Rquadrons of F-86F Sabrc
dn.y fighters. 2 squadrons of F-S6K Sabre ft,1l-weather fighters, a squadron
nf RF-84F Thunderflash roconnaissance-fighters. a squadron of C-119
Packet (md C-47 transports and numerous communications, air/sea rcscue
amphibian, helicopter and training units. There is an air force collcge at
Oslo.
PRODUCTION. The following table sets forth the estimated value of

net production, at factor cost, by industries, in Im, kroner:
NORWAY 1279
1038 1954 1955 1956 In57 1958
Agriculture 381 1,389 1,352 ],545 1,431 1,528
:Forest.I'Y 201 751 811 944 1,023 922
Fishing 79 433 469 531 444 380
Whaling . 40 115 94 109 149 66
Mining, etc. 62 290 292 339 343 314
Manufacturing I t1G3 5,529 5.734 6,286 6,485 6,438
Construction 305 1,609 1,634 1,651 1,824 1,894
Electricity, gas and water 109 311 330 32i) 343 387
Trade . . 1;84 2,466 2,389 2,596 2,834 2,841
Banking a.nd insurance 129 472 [.07 554: 612 633
House ownership 357 :;03 629 678 768 831
Water transport. 413 1,165 1,630 2,464 2,685 1,765
Other transport . 213 927 979 1,034 1,065 1,097
Government services. . 90 807 892 1,005 1,086 1,164
Community, business and personal
service 564 1,899 1,971 2,145 2,299 2,481
Net production at factor cost 4,;80 18,666 19,713 22,206 23,391 22,741
+ Indirect ta.xes 377 2,842 3,036 3,367 3,758 3,680
- Subsidies 65 1,096 1,140 1,164 1,3U9 1,233
);et production at market price 5,092 20.412 21,609 24,409 25,750 25,188
AgricuUure. Norway is a barren and mountainous country. The arable

soil is found in comparatively narrow strips, gathered in deep and narrow
",alleys and around fiords and lakes. Large, continuous tracts fit for cultiva-
tion do not exist. Of the total area, 73·9% is unproductive, 22'8% forest
and 3'3% under cultivation and other used soils.
Area (hectares) Produce (metric tons)
Principal crops 1956 1957 1958 1956 1957 1958
Wheat 20,744 14.066 7,981 65,887 29,986 16,822
Rye 915 567 472 2,468 1.30Z 1,042
Barley 108.636 135.257 14 5,199 297,400 31~ , 063 340.065
Oats 66.328 60,[,26 06,:;44 182,276 135,662 127,200
Mixed corn 2,232 1,836 1,676 6,434 4.386 3.878
Potatoes 58,146 55,196 b3.442 1,392,376 1,010.035 1.201,6i8
nay 531,760 523,111 519,032 2,858,671 3,061,657 2,751,560
Livestock, 20 June 1958: U;"',782 horses, 1,116,211 cattle (622,178

milch cows), 1,809,544 sheep, 106,014 goats, 423,O:l2 pigs, 3,477,000 poultry.
Fur production in 1957-58 was estimated as follows (1956-57 actual
production in brackets): Silver fox, 3,500 (8,000); blue fox, 27,000 (42,000):
mink, 590,000 (515,000).
Fore8try. The forests are one of the chief natural sources of wealth.
The total area covered with productive forests is estimated at 49,545 sq. km,
of which 81% is under pine-trees. In addition, there are 10,713 sq. km of
deciduous woods above the conifer limit a.nd along the Arctic coast. The
forest area covers 22·8% of the land area. Forests in public ownership
cover 7,271 sq. km of productivc forests and 6,431 sq. km of deciduous
woods above the conifer limit. Beyond the home consumption of timber
and fuel wood, the essential part of the growth is consumed as raw material
in the paper industry, most of which is exported. Tbe annual natural
increase is about 13m. Cll. metres. In 1957-58, 7·7m. cu. metres were
felled for production of pulp and other industrial wood products. In Hl58
the export voJue of timber produce was :!l ·7% of the country's total exports.
Fisheries. The number of persons in 1958 engaged in cod fisheries was
37,780: in winter herring fisheries, 27,600: the totnl number of persons
engaged in the fisheries was 75,844, of whom 22,332 had another chief
1280 NORWAY
oocupation. The number of fishing vessels with motor was 39,527 (382,576
gross tons).
The value of the sea fisheries (based on the prioes paid at the fishing places)
in kroner in 1958 was: Cod, 202m.; mackerel, 9m.; coal-fish (saithe), 34m.;
salmon and sea trout, 14m.; lobster, 7m.; herring and sprat, 165m. The
catch of the sea fisheries totalled in 1958, 1·2m. metric tons, valued at
580m. kroner; 1957, 1,573,892 metric tons, valued at 627m. kroner.
Wh,~le oil production (in 1,000 bbls); 1,042 in 1954, 877 in 1955, 859
in 1956, 1,010 in 1957. Total value of oil production was, in 1954, 248m.;
1955,231m.; 1956,253m.; 1957,302m.
Manufacture8. Industry is chiefly based on raw materials produced
within the country (wood, fish, etc.), and on water power, of which the
country possesses an enormous amount. The pulp and paper industry, the
canning industry and the electro-chemical and olectro-metallurgicalindustries
are the most important export manufactures. In the following table are
given figures for all industrial establishments in 1957 with 6 persons or more
engaged (including working proprietors). Electrical plants, construction and
building industry are not included. The values are given in 1,000 kroner.
Number of Gross value Value added
Establish- Salaried of produc- by manu-
Industries ments staff Worker. tion facture
CoaImining 2 142 1,083 31,000 28,275
Metal-mining 28 806 5,004 261,783 225,178
Stolle-qu ' rrying 116 84 855 29,196 25,855
Other non-metallic mining
and quarrying 84 113 1,278 37,798 31,564
Food industries. 1,082 4,740 22,189 2,123,722 654,205
Beverages. 58 759 2,478 321,149 240,591
Tobacco 14 767 1,385 387,184 303,831
Terliles 202 2,550 16,019 787,638 324,859
Clothing, etc. 770 3,473 21,930 838,077 381,941
Wood . . . 849 1,320 lI,n8 694,412 223,442
Furniture and fixtures 717 1,146 10,107 306,648 200,112
Pulp and paper. 232 3,427 21,000 2,189,672 704,297
Printing 470 1,374 10,006 372,268 239,377
Leather 75 316 1,677 86,700 34,538
Rubber 31 577 2,420 129,079 65,627
Chemical and chemical
products . . 320 5,615 15,745 1,979,836 711,951
Non-metallic mineral pro-
ducts. . . 453 1,618 9,860 462,772 265,438
Basic metal industries 121 3,661 16,862 2,138,879 738,393
Metal products . 447 3,482 15,839 844,284 422,833
Machinery . 271 2,617 8,997 514,270 265,794
Electrical machinery, etc. 165 3,331 8,658 585,323 308,042
Transport equipment . 880 6,680 36,720 1,609,158 815,182
Gas wor~" 11 117 350 24,427 6,340
Total (all included) 7,730 49,686 246,714 17,122,206 7,354,970
Mining. Production and value of the chief concentrates, metals and

alloys were:
1957 1958
Concentrate. and minerall M.tri. to", 1,000 krann' Mdric to", 1,000 kroner
Sliver concentrates 1,519 303
Oopper concentrates 29,711 15,841 29,990 17,334
Pyri~ . . . . . 843,529 78,788 792,807 63,769
Iron ore and titanilerrolls con·
centrates . . . 1,757,604 156,199 1,812,853 158,609
Zinc and lead concentrates 15,480 3,741 20,876 5,520
Rutile. . • . 20 46
Molybdenum concentrates 300 3,584 365 4,371
Columbit' 193 1,934 286 2,500
NORWAY 1281
1~57 1908
Metal. and alloy. .\[(Iric tons 1,000 kroner ,1/clric Ions 1,000 kroner
Silver . 2·4 613
Coppor . J 5,B28 67,334 17,568 63,864
Nickel . 21,ll2 327,823 23,590 297,724
Alu mi Dum • 103,733 354,816 1 26,281 410,151
Ferro·alJoys . . 320,448 405,426 282,746 292,661
Seml·fi nisbed .teel . 216,G25 272,395 216,536 238,118
Plg·iron 245,068 123,003 259,519 107,G79
Zinc . . 48,352 78,039 45,523 .9,914
Lead Rnd tin . 1,f.·17 6,692 1,191 4,965
Blectricity. Norway is one of the world's largest producers of hydro.
electric energy. The total available hydro.electrio power, by minimum
water flow, after future regulation and by 75% efficiency, is estimated at
12·5m. kw. or about 1l0,Ooom. kwh. annually. Ahout 60% of the water
power capable of development consists of waterfalls with a height of at
least 900 ft.
At the end of 1958, 3,330,000 kw. (about 27%) of the available water
power were developed for production of electricity. At the same time the
capacity of the installations for production of thermo·electrio energy
amounted to only 148,000 kw. A s at 31 Dec. 1958 the total capacity of
generators (of hydro. electric and thermo-electric plants) was 6,705,000 kva.
In 1958 the total production of electricity amounted to 27,500m. kwh .,
of which about 99% was produced by hydro-electric plants.
Most of the electricity is used for industrial purposes, especia.lly by the
electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical industries for production of
nitrate of calcium a.nd other nitrogen products, carbide, fel'rosilicon a.nd
other ferro-alloys, aluminium and zinc. The paper ann pulp industries are
also big consumers of electricity.
In 1958 about 98% of the population were supplied with electricity in
their homes.
COMMERCE. Total imports and exports in calendar years (in 1,000
kroner):
1964 1~55 1 9~6 1967 HISS
Imports . 7,777,260 7,782,782 8,663,279 9,103,308 9,359,485
Brports . 4,167,383 4,622,431 6,516,998 5,866,992 5,310,610
Trade according to countries was as follows (in 1,000 kroner):

1957 1958
Countrie~ Im pom E:rport. Imporu ExporU
Argentina . . . 41,206 M,426 31,241 63,197
Australia and New Zenland 2:&,:J58 84,798 18,117 75,689
Belgium and Luxembourg 287,870 206,(01 281, 329 152,063
}jrs'til . 1 ~9 , 794 152,6R6 171,038 106,730
Canada 411,918 20,273 423.325 22.032
Czecboslovak i. [,9. 144 lil,561 68,002 45,629
Denmark 2~i,584 328,234 414,267 322,660
Finland 22,42l 77,235 30,030 62, 166
}I"rsDce . 337,660 261,362 308.203 212,386
Genndny (West) 1,555.852 780,416 1,892,151 747,349
India 15,34u 66,733 26,648 38,759
1!.11ly 132,764 163,329 184.743 138,771
Netherlands . 525,567 242,1 71 644.993 193,348
Poland . 19.155 31,708 29,197 26,936
POItugal 20.742 34,780 17,6,17 29.484
Spain . 86,276 63,176 B6,874 nO,394
Sweden 1,47-1,136 589,354 1,493,951 519,973
SwiherJnnd 117,391 69,122 129,475 50,583
U.K. 1,507,684 1,171,431 1,446.603 1,027,928
n .S.A . . 802,985 397,717 638,704 415,893
U.S.S.R. 173,347 272,781 135,741 105,089
TT
1282 NORWAY
Principal items of import in 1958 (in 1,000 kroner): Machinery, trans·

port equipment, etc., 3,864,435; base metals and manufactures thereof,
l,279,2B4; fu el, oil, etc., 848,909; textiles, 704,201; cereals, 246,966.
Principal items of export in 1958 (in 1,000 kroner): Pulp and paper,
1,037,8:13; edible animal products, 799,817; base metals and manufactures
thereof, 1,394.553; oils and fats, 31 6,267.
Total trade between Norway and U.K. for 5 years (British Board of
Trade returns in £ sterling) :
1938 1906 1~ 5 7 1958 1959
Imports 1.0 U.K. 11,019,806 6A,493.776 63.729,481 55,670,[,58 63,960,681
Export. from U.K • • 7,662,014 75,7 30,886 70.~83,071 65,r,1.'.819 58,658,9:;3
Re·.JCPor~8 from U.K. 268,826 1,306,690 1,605,631 1,466,943 1,525,499
COMMUNICATIONS, Shipping. The total registered mercantile

marine Oil I Jan. 19,')9 was 2,169 vessels, 9,608,000 gross tons (steam and
motor vessels above 100 gross tons), These figures do not include fishing
and catching boats, floating whaling factories, tugs, salvage vessels, ice·
breaker> and similar special types of vessel, t otalling 650 vessels of 311,000
gross tons. Ships under construction or on order on 1 Sept. 1959 totalled
about 3·7m. gross tons, of which 2·6m. gross tons were tanker tonnage.
Vesseh. iD foreign t rade, ,\~ i th C!lrgocs In ballast Total
1958 -"{o. NettonJ No. .i'Vet tons 1""0. Net tonl
Entered:
Norwegian 3,342 4,029,003 1,6H 1,605,742 4,986 6,634,835
Foreign 4,0401 3,019,484 4,106 5,12·1,931 8,150 8,144,415
Te-t al entered • 7,386 7,048.577 5,750 6,730,673 13,136 13,779,250
Cleareu:
Norwe{~i an 3,776 R,S7,,),691 1.203 1,709,029 4.979 6,585,020
Foreign 6,518 6, 3 19,~19 1,619 I,R o8,300 8,137 8,158,219
Te tal cleared 10,2 94 10,195,610 2,822 3,54 7, 629 13,116 13,743,239
Roais. On 30 June 1959 tho length of the public roads was 50,383 km ,
OC these, 24,370 km were main roads and 26,014 km local roads; 3,.545
km had some kind of paving, mostly bituminous treatment, nearly all the
rest being gravel·surfaced.
Number ofregistered motor vehicles (1 Jan. 1959) was 411,040, including
172.275 passenger cars (including taxis), 105,275 lorries, vans and special
vehicle" 4,911 buses, 128,579 motor cycles. The scheduled bus and lorry
services in 1957 performed 2,218 m. passenger· km and 67m. net ton·km.
Rai,:ways. The length of state railways on 30 June 1959 was 4,415 km;
of priv"te companies, 77 km. On 1,529 km of state and 42 km of private
railway" electric power is installed. Total receipts of the state railways in
the yea:r ending 30 June 1959 were 398m. kroner; total expenses (excluding
interest on capital), 524m. kroner. The state railways carried 14·6m.
metric tons of freight (of which 9·4m. was iron ore on the Ofoten railway)
and 41·3m. passengers.
Telecommunications. Length of t elegraph and telephone lines and cir.
cuits, 30 June 1958: 83,991 km of line, 1,760,000 km of ci rcuits (state,
77,809 and 1,661,000 km respectively). Number of telephones, 667,000;
state telegraph and t elephone offices, 2,174. Receipts, 296·5m. kroner;
expensfs, 289·5m. kroner (interest on capital included).
Avi(!tion. Det Norske Luftfartselskap (DNL) started its post.war
activities on 1 April 1946. On 1 Aug. 1946 DNL, together with DDL
NORWAY 1283
(Danish Airlines) and ABA/SILA (Swedish Airlines), formed the • Scan·
dinavian Airlines System '-SAS. The 3 companies remained indepen.
dent units. but all services were co·ordinated. In 1951 a new agreement
was signed (retroactive from 1 Oct. 1950) according to which the 3
national companies became holding partners in a new organi7.ation which
took over the entire operational system. Denmark and Norway hold each
two·sevenths and Sweden three·sevenths of the capital, but they have
joint responsibility towards third parties.
In the autumn of 1959 SAS had a tlcct of 59 planes, serving 84 cities in 43
countries. Length of route net, about :WO,OOO km. Planes under construc·
tion or on order, 8 Caravelle jet-planes, 10 DC·8 jet-plancs and 2 Convair
600 jet-planes. SAS inaugurated its transpolar routes, Copenhagen-Los
Angeles, on 15 Nov. 1954, and Copenhagen-Tokyo, Oil 25 Feb. 1957.
Norwegian scheduled air services:
1.000 Po~tt 111~aget freillh t and
1,000 km Passengers pa$enger- p....engers (1,000 tom- km)
llowu carried kw Total Of which po,'
1!J56 15,755 416, 290 402,M5 45.460 ~.r.99
1 9~ i JR,584 4 77,800 49i,270 u5.470 3.226
191>8 20,2itl 514,30() 565,950 62,a90 3,~{:~5
CURRENCY AND BANIONG. By a treaty signed 16 Oct. 1875

Norway adopted the same monetary system as Swedcn and Denmark. The
Norwegian krone, of 100 ore, is of the value of 18. a t par, or about 20 kroner
to the £ sterling. The standard of value is gold. National bank-notes of
5, 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 kroner are legal means of payment, and the
bank is ordinarily bound to exchange them for gold on presentation. By
a royal decree of 27 Sept. 1931 the gold standard was suspended and there
was placed an embargo on gold.
On 30 June 1959 the nominal value of the coin in circulatiou was ll8m.
kroner; notes in circulation, 3,426m. kroner.
The Norges Bank is a joiut·stock bank; in 1949 the state acquired all
the shares hit.herto privately owned. The bank is governed by law8 enacted
by the state, and its directors are elected by the Storting, except the
president and vice-president of the hend offico. who are nominated by the
King. It is the ollly bank in Norway that is authorized to issue bank-notes
for circulation.
At the end of 1959 there were 73 private joint-stock banks. The total
amount of capital and funds possessed by these banks was 539m_ kroner
(ca.pital 280m., funds 259m.). Depvsits amounted to 5,249m. kroner, of
which 2,352m. kroner were deposits at call and notice, and 2,897m. kroner
deposit-s on time.
The number of savings banks at the end of 1959 was 600. The total
a.mount of the funds of the savings banks amounted to 338m. kroner, and
total deposits 6,949m. kroner, of which 640m. kroner were at call and
notice and 6,309m. kroner on tille.
measures has been obligatory since 1875.
SVALBARD
An archipelago situated between 10° and 35° E. long, and between 74·
and 81° N. lat. The distance from Ingoy, Norway, to Bear Island is about
390 km and to Spitsbergen (South Cape) about 635 km.
1284 NORWAY
Total area, 62,050 sq. km. The chief islands are Kong Karl8 land (King
Charles Land), Hopen (Hope Island), Kviroya (White Island), Bjornoya
(Bear Island), Vestspitsbergen (West Spitsbergen), Nordaustlandet (North
East Land), Prins Karls forland (Prince Charles Foreland), Edgeoya (Edge
Island) (\Dd Barentsoya (Barents Island). The climate is essentially arctic,
tempered by the Gulf Stream.
It is claimed that in all probability the archipelago was discovered by
Norwegians in 1194 and re-discovered by the Dutch navigator Barents in
1596. The English explorer Henry Hudson visited Spitsbergen in 1607.
In the 17th century a very lucrative whale-hunting was started, and for
some time there were Dutch, British and Norwegian claims to sovereignty
and quarrels about the hunting-places. But when in the 18th century the
whale-hunting ended, the qnestion of the sovereignty of Spitsbcl'gen lost its
actuality, and it was not until the beginning of this century that the question
was again raised, owing to the discovery and exploitation of rich coalfields.
It was settled by a treaty, signed on 9 Feb. 1920 at Paris, in which Norway's
sovereignty over the archipelago was recognized. On 14 Aug. 1925 the
archipelago was officially incorporated in Norway.
In the autumn of 1944 the Soviet Government approached the Norwegian
Government on the question of revising the treaty of 1920. Both govern-
ments agreed that any modification could he made only with the approval
of the other signatory powers. On 15 Feb. 1947 the Storting reiterated
Norway's willingness to discuss with the Soviet Union the revision of the
1920 trf,aty and economic questions concerning Svalbard, but refused bi-
lateral discussions of the defence of Svalbard.
Coal is the principal product. There are 6 mining camps (3 Norwegian,
1 of which is not being worked, and 3 Russian) inhabited all the year round.
The total Norwegian population in Svalbard in 1956-57 was 1,530, the
Russian. 2,746. In 1957,338,962 metric tons of coal were exported from the
Norwegian and 394,128 metric tons from the Russian mines.
U.K. exports to Spitzbergen (British Board of Trade returns): 1938,
£354; 1956, £347; 1957, £1,269; 1958, £991; 1959, nil; U.K. imports
from Spitzbergen, 1956, £358; 1957-59, nil.
N.n" Polari7Ulilutl. Sltrifttr.
8vaJhard, N of'tCegian
1%
Oslo, from 1922
DUipOlSt. Bergen, 1950
Orvin. A, K. 'Twenty-fi~e Yenrs of Norwegian Sovereiguty in Svalbard 1925-1950' (In The
Polar Rt!cord, 1951)
Stef::mssoll, V., '&'r(./ic j[anual. New York, 1944
JAN MAYEN ISLAND

This is a bleak and desolate island bet.ween Greenland and Northern
Norway, and about 300 miles north of Iceland. It is 55 km long and its
greatest breadth is 15 km. The total area is 380 sq. km. It is of volcanic
origin and is mountainous, Beerenberg in the north reaching a height of
2,277 metres. It was uninhabited, but occasionally visited by seal hunters
and fishermen, until 1921 when Norway established a radio and meteorologi-
cal stat~on. In 1958-59 a radar station and a landing strip for aircraft
were built; and oil and fresh water can now be supplied.
The island was possibly discovered by Henry Hudson in 1608, and it
was firs·t named Hudson's Tutches (Touches). It was again and again re·
discovered and renamed. Its present name derives from the Dutch whaling
captain Jan Jacobsz May, who indisputably discovered the island in ~614.
On 8 May 1929 Jan Mayen Island was officially proclaimed as incorporated
NORWAY 1285
in the Norwegian state, and at the 8ame time the manager of the meteoro-
logical station on the island was invested with police authority. Its relation
to Norway was finally settled by law of 27 Feb. 1930.
BOUVET ISLAND
BaUVETOYA
This uninhabited island in the Bouthern Atlantic waB discovered in 1739

by a French naval officer, J ean Baptiste Lozier Bouvet, but no flag was
hoisted till, in 1825, Capt. Norris raised the Union Jack. A neighbouring
island, Thompson Island, has been reported, but its existence is seriously
doubted. In 1928 Great Britain waived its claim to Bouvet in favour of
Norway, which in Dec. 1927 had occupied the island. A law of 27 Feb.
1930 declared Bauvet Island a Norwegian dependency. The area is 58 sq.
km.
PETER I ISLAND
PETER I OY
This uninhabited island in tho Antarctic Ocean was discovered in 1821
by the Rus.ian explorer, Admiral von Bellingshausen, who got a sight of it
at a distance. The first landing was made in 1929 by a Norwegian expedition
which hoisted tho Norwegian flag and took possession of the island. On
1 May 1931 Peter I Island was placed under Norwegian sovereignty, and on
24 March 1933 it was incorporated in Norway as a dependency. The area
is 249 sq. km.
QUEEN MAUD LAND

DRaNNING MAUD LAND
On 14 Jan. 193!) the Norwegian Cabinet resolved to place that part of
the Antarctic Continent from the border of Falkland Islands dependency in
the west to the border of the A ustralian Antarctic dependen cy in the east
(between 20° \V. and 45° E .) under Norwegian sovereignty. The territory
was explored only by Norwegians and had hitherto been ownerless.
Norway maintains embassies in Argentina (also Minister for Paraguay
and Uruguay), Austria (also Minister for Czechoslovakia and Hungary),
Belgium (also Minister for Luxembourg), Brazil, Canada, Chile (also Minister
for Bolivia and Peru), China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece
(also Minister for Israel), I celand, India (also Minister for Burma and
Caylon), Italy, Japan, Mexico (also Minister far Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama), Morocco (also for Tunisia),
Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand (also
:\Iinister for Indonesia and the Philippines), Turkey (also l'I1ini.~ter far Iran,
Iraq, Pakistan), U.S.S.R., United Arab Republic (also Minister for Ethiopia,
Lebanon and Sudan), U.K. (also Minister for Irish Republic), U.S.A.,
Yugoslavia (also Minister for Bulgaria and Rumania); legations in Colombia
(also for Ecuador and Venezuel a.), Cuba (also for Dominican Republic and
Haiti).
1286 NORWAY
OF KORWAY IN GREAT BRITAIN (10 Palace Green, W.8 and

25 Belgravc Square, S.W.I)
Ambusador. Eric Bl'aadlaud (accredited 20 Feb. 1959).
C01tr.osellor. KlIut Aars.
Cour:sellcr for Press and Foreign I nformation. Rolf J crving.
Commercial Counsellor. Erik Alldreas Ribu.
Naml Attache. Capt. Sjur N. Ostervold, D.S.C.
Air lmd Military Attache. Lieut.-Col. Olai Gronmark, D.F.C.
Fisheries Oounsellor. Carsten Hansen.
Cultural Counsellor. Halvard E. Saether.
Com~nercial Attache. l acob Prebensen.
There are consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Bradford,

Cardilf, Edinburgh, G1a.sgow, Hull, Liverpool, London (C.G.), Manchester,
Newcast.le-on-Tyne, Southampton, Swansea.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN NORWAY

Amb!Ulsador. Sir Peter Scarlett, K.C.M.G., K .C.V.O. (accredited 3 Feb.
1955).
Cour..sellors. W. J. M. Paterson; W. S. Laver (Commercial).
Firs;~ Secretaries. F. Wells (Information); J. A. Forward (Consular) ;
R. Sne<.ldon, M.B.E.; H. Atkin (Labour).
Navlu Attache. Cdr A. S. Tycrs, D.S.C., R.N.
Air and Military AttacM. Wing Cdr R. S. Kerby.
There are consular represen tatives at Aalesund, Bergen, Kristiansand,
KristiaD sund, NarlTik, Oslo, St:wanger, Tonsberg, Tromso and Trondheim.
OF NORWAY IN THE U.S.A. (3401 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,

Washington 7, D.C.)
Ambassador. Paul Koht.
Counsellors. Torfinn Oftedal; Rolf Hancke (Economic); Fredrik S.
Wulfsberg (Press and Cultural). First Secretary. Elovius Mangor. Service
AttacMs: Rear-Adm. Dagfinn E. Kjeholt (N a,vy) , Col. Ottar B. Engvik (A ir),
Lieut.-Col. Aksel Binding (Army) . Press Attaches. Torleiv Allda; Anders
Komnaes.
OF THE U.S,A. IN NORWAY
Ambassador. Frances E. Willis_
Counsellors_ Fisher Howe ; Harvey R. Wellman (Economic). First
Secretaries. Henry C. Boudreau (Consul); John D. lams (Consul);
Richard J. Kerry; John W. Piercey (Labour); Eddie W. Schodt (Consul).
Service Attaches: Lieut.·Col. Hugh W. Webb (Army) , Capt. Leo R. Jensen
(Navy), Col. Howard D, Iienzie (A i,"). Agriwltural AttacM. Elmer A.
Reese (resident in Copenhagen).
Books of Reference
STATI!lTICAL lNt>ORHATION. The Central Bureau of St.atistics, Stati.tisk Sentrnlbyr4
(Dronnin~..,nsgata 16, 0810), was founded in 1876 Il8 aD independent state institutioD.
D/""o. : Petter Jakob Bjerve. The earliest census of population was taken in 1769, The
8entralbyril publishes the serie.~ l,omes OjfWiie/le Slotistikk (from 1828), and SOCild Economic
Stud;" (from (954) nnd tbe followi ng publi~atio"s:
Stati.u;,!r Arbok /or Norg. (annual, from 1880; from 1952 with English explanation.)
qlkon()mis k UtJyn (annual, from 1935 ; with Englisb summary b'O:D 1952)
PANAMA 1287
Stalistiske Oversikte1', 1948 and 1958 (historical statistical survey; bilingual !';"ol'wcgi"n-
Engli, I,)
Slali.,liske Mddi"9" (monthly, from 1880 ; with EnglIsh inde%)
.NOTI}fS 8latskaietHier. From 1816; annual from 1877
1l1} ltsin(l in .vCJr'wuy. 01:;10,] ~1:)1
]" orw"'yian Bocial and Lah(lur LflJi••Zation. Oslo, 1054
SOf;icll lnsuranu in N orwQV. O~lo. 1 ~5i)
N()N·OFFICIA.L PUBLICATIONS
The ...'VorU'all Yrar 1{(lC'k. O~lo. 1954-
Noruay. National Travel Association of Norway. 2nd od. Oslo, 1948
Fact,. WOlLl , -VoML'ay. Bd. by Aft.enpo~tcn. 3rd ed. 0!510,1954
lnJluilry in .'forUJIl!!. (Ed. Ncrges illdus~.,;ifJrl)ll1Jd.) Oslo, IU51
NU!'!ICS flrwk Bu![ecin. 010110. Quarterly
],.-rMljeS J:.'k.~por:rad: Norway. $urt'e'.tJ DJ erports ao'lJ. cC01Ifl1nfc de1:elClp1llcnt. O.~IQ! 1065
Tilt' ~Vorlhnn Countries. llppsail\, 1951
1't'ofll1egirz n A!lrit':ullurc. Oslo, 19G5
J.VoMl'egil.ln J uiul·Stock Bill1k.~: Financial Review. Monthly
jJ Ode1'71 N (JrU;UY. London, J ~j()
Benll(~cn, R .• R.hd Scav~nil1f!. H., Gyldcnd(jl's t:flIJUsh- NoTwfgiaa and .voTweatan-P.ngtisfi
fJictionll"Y, Oslo, 19;)1
Cnst1J~rg, P .• The ll,'orU'cqian IT'ayoj Life. L0t1dofJ, 1~5 ·i
Ojessing, 0., C'/tr1.ngitl(J Lnpp.,. Lowiof) 8rhool of Economics. 1954
Dugge. A., Bond Steen. S., N orsk Rult/lrhi.~tf.J1ie. O~10. J94i
Gnlr:u."on, W., Lflbof' in NOTU'(Jfj. Cflmhridge, Mass., and London, 1949
L3rAcD, K., A Hisl&ry of lv'()rttuy. New York, 1948
Leisersoo, M. \V., Wages and economic control it' NorwaYl 1945-57. H:lT\'ard Uuiv. Press,
1959
Sto.l5g ~ F. N., The HeaTt o} N()twf]Y. LO'Jdon. 1~53.-NOTtll NOT1cav. London, 1952.-E03t
..:ruTlcay ,md iw FTlJntie,. London, 19.~'6. -lVf.'1t ,No1'UJa:IJ and 1"t.J l'j'JrJ,f.London, 1054
Steen, S., Sorgts Krig 1940-4.5. 3 vol_. 0,;10, 1947-W.-- Del fr,e Norge. 4 vols. Oslo,
1951-57
Blind. '1'., and 8C1mmc, It., NOT1I'O!1 in Map_', 2 v ols. Bergen. 1~47
~Vel'enBkif)1rl. W. (eu .). ~"orge fart land. 2nd ed. 0810,l!);,O
NA1'10:-1AL LmRAfiY. The University r,ibrury, Dl'tmlDiensveieLJ 42b, o~o. hi,tclor:

RH-raId L. Tveter{~s.
PANAMA
Rlll'UDLICA DE PANAMA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Panama, formerly a depart.
ment of the Repuhlic of Culombia, asserted its independence on 3 Nov. l!.l03,
and the de facto Government. was on 13 Nov. recognized by the Government
of the U.S.A., and soon aftenV;tn]s hy th e other Powers. In 1914 Colombia
agreed to recogn ize the independenc~ ()f Pamulla. This treaty was ratified
by the V.S.A. and Col()mbia in 1921, and on 8 May l()2·~ diplomatic relations
between Colombia and Panama were established.
Fur the tr<O'[\tics rcgulat.ing (,he rehltions between P"nallla and the
Unit()d State~ 81.'e p. 1304.
The new eonst,itution of 1 lIIareh I!H6 continued the existing provisions
for .. Natilmal AS2ernblv of 42 members (increased to 53 since the J950
census, 1 for e"<'ery 15,600 inhl1bitants). The deputies' mandate is for 4
years. The Assembly meets annually on 1 Oct. The term of the President
of the Repu blie, elected by direct vote, is 4 years, and he is not eligible
for the two succeeding terms. Women have equal rights with men.
President of the Republic. Ernesto de la. Guardia. Jr (National Patriotic
Coalition), elected 13 JIoIay 1956; inaugurated 1 Oct.
He defeated Victor FJorencio Goytia of the National Liberal Party.
1288 PANAMA
First Vice· President. TemIstocles Dlaz. (He later formed 'Movement

of National Liberation' and withdrew his political support from the
GovernDlent.) Second VI~ce·President. Heraclio llarletta.
Min'l:8ter for Foreiyn Affairs. Miguel J. Moreno.
The 'coalition won 42 out of 53 seats in the National Assembly.
See TIlE STATESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1956, p. 1266, for an account of
events preceding the election.
There are normally 2 vice-presidents, elected every 4 years by direct
popular vote, and a cahinot of 7 ministers nominated by the President, who
may attend and address the legislature but may not vote. The Comptroller
General is elected by the National Assembly for 4 years.
Natimalflug : rectangle of 4 quarters: white with blue star, blue, white
with red star, red.
National anthem: Alcanzamoij por fin la. victoria (words by G. de la
Ossa; tune by Sa.ntos Jorge, 1903).
AREA AND POPULATION. Extreme length is about 480 miles;

breadth between 37 and 110 miles; coastline. 426 miles on the Atlantic and
767 on the Pacific; total area (excluding the Canal Zone) as recently revised
is 28,571i sq. miles (74,010 sq. km): population according to the 1950 census
was 805.285 (10·6 per sq. km) including 48,654 tribal Indians. Estimatod,
1 Oct. 1958, 1,000,000. No attempt was made in 1950 to ascertain the racial
composition of the population; the 1940 census gave 12% white. 14·5%
Negro. '72% mixed and 1'5% other races. There are approximately 10,000
British subjects, chiefly coloured people from the West Indies.
The Capital is Panama City, on the Pacific coast, founded iD 1519:
population, estimated 1958, 200,000. There are now 9 provinces (with
census populations Dec. 1950) as follows (the capitals in brackets): Bocas
dol Toro (Bocas dcl Toro), 22.392; Chiriqui (David), 138,136; Cocle (Peno-
nome), 73,103; Col6n (Colon), 90,144; Los Santos (Las Tablas), 61,422;
Herrers. (Chitre), 50,095; Darien (La Palma), 14,660; Panama (Panama
City), 248,335; Vcraguas (Santiago), 106,998. The port of Colon on the
Atlantic: coast has 52,204 (1950). Smaller ports on the Pacific are Aguadulce.
PedregaJ, Montijo. Puerto Mutis and Puerto Armuelles: on the Atlantic,
Bocas des Toro, Almirante, Portobcllo, Mandillga and Perme.
:Birth rate, 1957, was 40'7 per 1,000 population; death rate, 9·4: marri·
age rate (1956). 3'5; infantilo death rate (1956), 57·3 per 1,000 live births.
The figures exclude the tribal Indians.
REUGION. The 1950 census showed that 93% of the population was
I{oman Catholic and 6% Protestant. There is freedom of religious worship
and separation of Church and State. Clergymen may teach in the schools
but may not hold public office.
EDUCATION. Elementa,ry education is obligatory for all children

from 7 to 15 years of age, with an estimated 186,000 students in schools
throughout the Republic in June 1958; 83 private primary schools and 83
private post. primary schools are included in these figures. The University
of Pane,ms. at Panama City, inaugurated on 7 Oct. 1935, bad a total enrol·
ment (1958) of 2,952 students in the schools of law, sc.ience and other
professional subjects: the university was granted autonomy on 28 Sept.
1946. Up to the academic year 1956-57 the university was a centre of
PANAMA 1289
evening studies (except for the faculty of medicine); since 1956-57 all
faculties hold day classes as well. A new site, called University City, on the
outskirts of Panama City was in:\11gurated in June 1950.
The 1950 census showed that 28·3% of the population over 10 years old
were illiterate, excluding the tribal Indians (compared with 35% in 1940).
The official language is Spanish, but of the 7 daily newspapers published
in the capital, 2 have separate English editions. There is also one English
weekly, catering for the large British West Innian community in Panama,
and onc Spanish weekly.
Cinemas. There were, in Dec. 1955, 62 cinemas, of which 28 wero in
Panama City. All films must havo Spanish subtitles.
JUSTICE. 'rhe death penalty does not exist. The Supreme COllrt
consists of 9 justices appointed by the executive with the approval of the
National Assembly, one every 2 years to serve 18 years.
FINANCE. The U.S.A. have the right to import into the Canal Zone
supplies of all descriptions required for canal construction, maintenance and
protection and for the 11se of their employees, free of all taxes.
For recent years revenues and expenditures, in balboas, have been as
follows (1 balboa :: USSl):
1955 1956 1967 1958 19~P' H 60 '
R~venue 48.386,194 6G,638,574 54,:J5 5,6 0D 83,11~.8r. ·1 61,113,500 V~.430,(lSO
llXJlendituro . ~3,876,986 6b,I)41,r.76 ~(lt21S.la3 83,3?·l,l)] ~ 01,113,500 ;'9,43C.,080
, Budget estimates.
In the budget for 1958 import duties arc counted upon to furnish n.20m.
of the revenue. The expenditure proposed assigns 1l·5m. to education,
g·7m. to government (including police), 11 m. to social servi,'o and public
health and i·7m. to debt service.
The revenue includes the rem paid by the U.S. Govc:rnment for the Canal
(see p. 1293). Panamanilm citizc:ns working in th e Canal Zone !lre now
snbject to taxation by Panama.
The funded internal debt on 31 Dec. 1958 amounted to 37,012,553
balboas or dollars, and the extern3.l debt to 28,148,262 balboas. Current
government operations had led to a deficit of B.3·9m . a t the beginning of
1951, and this was fnrther increased to over B.!Olll. during 1951 and H)52.
Conver~ion Bonds 1!l53-1903 to the value of B.5m. ,vere given to the Social
Security Bank in lien of goyernrnent obligations in 1!l53, a nd the floatiug
debt WitS further reduced by careful management during 1!J53 and 1954.
Howover, in 1!l55 and 1956 the reins on expenditure were again released, and
the total floating debt at the end of 1956 reached over B.8rn.; and in Oct.
1958 it stood at. S·75m.
DEFENCE. The Republic has no Army or Navy to support, but

obligatory military service may be imposed in case of need. The National
Police Force has an authorized strength of 3,370 officers and men.
Under the 1\)55 treaty U.S. forces have occupied the base n.t Rio Hato.
PRODUCTION. Of the whole area (1950 census), only 15'4% i~

developed-3'1 % is cultivated, 7'3% is natural or artificial pasture land and
1290 PANAMA
5% is fallow. Of the remainder only a small part is cultivated, though the

land is rieh in resources. About 60% of the country's food requiremente
are imported. In Jan. 1953 the Institute for Economio Development, a
semi·go·.eromental organization, was formed with large powers, i.e., t{) buy
up leading crops at fixed prices and to loan machinery to farmers. Of the
land under oultivation, 18% is owned and 59% is usufruetuary. The most
important m.port product is bananas (grown by an affiliate of the United
Fntit Co)Jopany) and shipped to the U.S.A. Exports, 1957, 7·5m. stems.
Most important food crop, for home con~\lruption, is rice, grown on 80% of
the farms; Panama's per capita consumption is vcry high. Output of
rough rl.co, 1958, 2,580,100 quintll\s. Other products are cocoa, abaca
fibrc8, abaca. seeds, coffee and coconuts. Output of abaca. fibre, 1953, was
2·59m. kg. About 6m. coconut.s o.re annually exported. Beer, whisky,
rum, • soco,' anice and gin are produced. Coffee is grown in the province of
Chiriqul, lIear the Costa Rican frontier; the home market consumes almost
the entire output. The country has great timber resources, notably
mahoga:3Y. According to the livestock estimate of July 1958 there were
629,400 cattle, 223,400 pigs sod 2,093,600 poultry. Hides are among minor
articles of export.
The shrimp industry exported nearly 4m. kg in 1958.
Consumption of elMtric energy, 1958, amounted to 153·75m. kwh.
(Panama City and Colon). Gas consumption was 588,578,000 cu. ft. Apart
from a cement fo.ctory, there are few industries; foreign firms are being
encoura:sed to establish industries, and 2 petrol refineries are planned.
COMMERCE. The imports and exports (excluding re.exports), in

balbo&s, for 6 calendar years are as follows (1 balboa = US$I) :
Import8 E."ort. Import. Exports
19:'S 71,602,929 17,7[,1,938 1956 8::,120.176 17,168.624
19;,( 72.620.GOl IR,283.791 1957 9R . 03~,784 21.95S,599
19{1 6 75,684,653 21,678.923 1958 92,802,rJ30 n,] 18,835
Tbe huge adverse trade balance is mainly with the U.S.A. and is due to
the heavy import of consumers' goods for sale to the Canal Zone employees
and to the big transient popula.tion. An extensive investigation completed
In 1946 £stimated that of the country's nat.ional income in 1945 ($129,176,000)
37% or $47,424,000, originated in the Canal Zone. The reduction in U.S.
military activity ill Panama at any time has a serious economic effect. In
1958 th.) U.S.A. furnished 55% of Panama's imports and t,ook 9G'8% of
her exp(.rts. Tbe United Kingdom was the second largest supplier.
A Free Zone bas bcen constructed at Colon for tbe st.orage, processing or
sale of goods in transit; a number of U.S. manufacturers have leased ware·
houses and begun operations.
Chief exports (virtually all to the U.S.A.) in 1958 (in balboas or dollars)
were: I:ananas, 12,135,050; fresh shrimps, 5,614,018; cacao, 1 ,119,628;
refined sugar, 643,988.
Chief imports, 1958, were valued (in balboas or dollars f.o.h.): Petrol,
4,437,727; passenger cars, 3,294,711; machinery and equipment, 8,874,388;
clothing and cotton materials, 10,329,021; wheat flour, 1,965,187; food,
13,35G,9·14; chemicals and pharmaceuticals, 9,651,418; drink and tobacco,
2,192,68,1.
Total trade between Panama (including Canal Zone) and the U.K .
(British Board of Trade returns, in £ sterling) :
PANAMA 1291
1938 1966 1956 1957 1968 1959
Import. to U .K . . 17,662 456.Wi6 81,816 75,393 63,066 462,760
Export.'l from U.K. ' . 458,064 3,757,509 6,227,777 6,0G8,272 4,632 ,91 t 3,31 5,790
Rc·exports from U.K. 12,384 37,984 33,018 4:>,2~4 42,514 47,965
1 1!~rom 1~4S, includkug now ships built for forejgn owners and registered in Panama.
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. Panama now ranks high among

the maritime nations. Shipping under Panamanian registry t ota Ued on 31
Dec. 1958, 1,221 vessels of some 6m. gross tons, of which 169 ships (with
88,022 tons) were under 1,000 tons, including 257 between 5,000 and 10,000
tons, whereas 178 Ilre ovor 10,000 tons and total 2,492,261 tons; most of
these never see Panama but elect Panamanian registry because fecs flre low
and labour laws lenient. All the international maritime traffic for Colon
and Pannma runs through the Canal Zone ports of Crist6bal and Balboa;
Boens del Toro and Almirante arc used for both the provincial and inter·
national tmde.
Railways. The Panama Railroad (owned by the Panama Canal
Company), which connects Panama City on the Pacific with Colon on the
Atlantic, is the principal railway. It is 47·61 milcs long and, with the
exception of the termini at Panama and Colon, passes throug h Canal Zone
territory. As most vessels unload their cargo at Cristobal (Colon). on
the Atlantic side, the greater portion of the merchandise dcstined for
Panama City is brought overland by the Panama Railroad. In the province
of Chiriqui there is the only Panamallian·owned railway, a narru'i.·gauge
railway, 32 miles long, connecting the port of Pedregal with Boquete, and
passing through David, the provincial capital. This railway i~ hcavily in
debt and may soon be replaced by a concrete highway. Between David
and La Concepcion there is aline 18 miles long, which has now been extended
to the port of Puerto Armuelles. From Bocas del Toro, between the Atlantio
port of Alrniranto alld Guabito (property of the United Fruit Company), e.
third railway runs to Suretka on the Costa Rican border (01 miles).
Roads. Panama bad on 31 Dec. HIm, 2,237 km of roads, of which 240
are principal roads, 633 secondary and 1,365 'summer roads.'
There is a road from Pana ma Ci ty westward as far as the cities of Dllvid
and Concepci6n, with severa l branches. A concrete highway, maintained
by the V.S.A., connects Panama Cit.y an u Colon. On 31 Dee.1UGS registered
motor vehieles, private and commercial, numbered 23,280; t.hi~ excludes
vehiclcs owned by residents of the Canal ZLlne.
Post. Thero Ilre telegraph cflh10s from Panama to North America and
Central and South Americ.an ports, and from Colon to the V.S.A. alld
Europe. There are now 65 commercial broadcasting stutions, of which 32
Itre functioning in Panama City, I1 in Colon and 2 in the Canal Zone. The
V.S. Army ha~ in~taII e d a t elevision station in 1.ho CIln111 Zone; it started
operations 3 May 1956; 4,038 recci" ors were imported that ycar. Number
oftelephones in 1957 was 21,635, nearly all operated by private companies.
Aviation. Commercial aviation has developed rapidly. Pan American
World Airways, Panagra Airways, K.L.M. and other international cam·
panies opcrat,e at Tocumen Airport (17 miles from Panama City). The
Compafiia PanaJllena de Aviad6n provides a local service b"tween Panama
Cit.1' Itnd the pro\;nrial towns. T he Panamanian A.P.A. airline serVe8
Miami, Guayaquil and Lima.
1292 PANAMA
MONEY AND BANKING. The present monetary unit is the ba/boa,

which is of the same size and fineness as the V.S. silver dollar but is main·
tained .gquivalent to the gold dollar. Panama. has officially recorded this
with the International Monetary Fund. Other silver coins are the half.
2,
balboa {of 12·5 grammes 0·900 fine, and equal to 50 cents, U.S.); the quarter
and tenth of a balboa piece; cupro.nickel coins of I) and cents, and copper
coins of It and 1 cent. V.S. silver coinage is also legal tender. Volume of
the currency has not been disclosed since 31 Dec. 1950, when it stood at
1·5m.; 3·lm. balboas of Panamanian coin has been minted up to 31 Dec.
1963. The only paper currency used is that of the V.S.A.
Gold and short·term assets in the V.S.A. (both official and private)
on 30 June 1958 were $101·4m., of which private firms held about 70%.
The National Bank of Panama (not a central bank) on 30 June 1958 had
(in balborts or dollars) capital of 5·5m., reserves of Im., current deposits
of 34,254,124 and loans, net outstanding, of nearly 29m. In 1956 the
Natiom,1 B ank took over the 4 provincial bank.~ formerly operated by the
Institut.e of Economic Development. There are 6 other Panamanian
banks. The First National City Bank and the Chase Manhattan Bank of
New York ha.ve branches in Panama City a.nd Balboa (C.Z.), the latter
also in Colon and David.

English weights and measures are in general use; those of the metric
system arc also use.d.
OF PANAlIIA IN GREAT BRITAIN (Ibex House, }'linories, E.C.3).
Ambassador. Carlos Fernando Alfaro (accredited 30 July 1958).
Coun.sellor. Dr Carlos M. Jurado.
Them are consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Glasgow,
Grimsby, Liverpool, London, Newcastle.on·Tyne and Southampton.
OF GREA.T BRITAIN IN PA.Nill.A.
AmiJa.ssador. G. E. Vaughan, C.B.E.
Firot S ecretary and Consul (Panama City). R. A. Farquharson.
Naval Attache. Capt. J. R. Gowor, D.S.C., R.N. (resides in Santiago,
Chile).
Air Attache. 'Wing Cdr E. 'W. Woolten, D.F.C., A.F.C. (resides in
Caraoa,.).
'fhcro is a Consul at Colon and a. Vice·Consul a.t Almirante.
OF PANAMA IN THE U.S.A. (2862 McGiIl Ter. NW.,
Washington 8, D.C.)
Amoassador. Ricardo M. Arias E.
Min ister Counsellor. Dr Arturo Morgan.Morales. Counsellor. Miguol
A. Corro (Commercial). First Secretaries. Miss Elisa Fabrega; Rene Estri·
peaut. Military Attache. Maj. Abel Quilltero. Labour AttaclllL Edsel
Wong Samudio.
OF THE U.S.A. IN PANAMA
Ambassador. Julian F. Harrington.
Counsellor. John C. Shillock, Jr. First Secretaries. WaIter H. Dust·
PANAMA CANAL AND CANAL ZONE 1293
mann, Jr; Orion J. Libert (Consul); David Persinger (Consul). Agricultural
Attache. WiIliam Rodman (resident in San Jose).
There are a Consul in Colon and consular agents in Almirante and
Puerto Armuelles.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL I!'I"FORMATION. The ComptrollerGeneral of the Replll>lic(Contralor.a (leneral
d~ la RepoDlica, Calle 35 y Avenida G, Pauama Cit.\') publishes amonthly bulletin of st.atistics
(H ...tadi$lica Paname;ia) And other s ta tistical puhlications, including the result o f t he HJtlO
~n~U;i (Gel""," Xl,·cionut de l'oblaciJn y Vil'ienda: 19:;0 ; Ccn.'io Naciotwl Agr(lpecuar-io : 19(0).
Tht Legal Cod", (in Spanish). 7 vols. P.Mma Cit)·, 1917
Panama . OUf'3eaJ J:,'cnnomic S,:f'tI~ . TI .h.I.S.O .• Ht!);)
BI_nz, J. and M., Tht Peoplt of Panama. Columbia tTniv. PfOSS, 19~~
CAstillero, E r~ esto .J., IliSf.oria (le Panama . 5th cd . P::mallla City, 195{)
ldcOaln, W. D., The United Slate.• and Ih. Republic "f PaflOtna. Cambridge. 1937
Susto, J. A., .in In.troduCliMl 10 PC'Tldmfwian Bil)U()(jrapl,y (Publications ot the National
Library. Nu. 4). Panamn, 1946
NATION.'L LIDRAny. Bibliotcca Nncional, Departmenw de Informaci60 y Oirclllacion.
Cane 6a, Xo. 16, Paoama.
THE PANAMA CANAL AND THE CANAL ZONE

On IS Nov. 1903 a treaty between the U.S.A. and Panama was signed,
pro~iding facilities for the construction and maintenance of the inter·
oceanic canal. In this treaty Panama. granted in perpetuity the use,
occupation and control of a zone, approximately 5 miles wide on each side of
the canal route, and within this zone the exclusive right to exercise sovereign
power and authority. For the needs of the Panama Canal other territory
was granted, including certain islands in Panama Bay. The cities of Panama
and CoUm remain under the authority of Panama, but the U.S,A. was
granted the right to prescribe sanitary ordinances for those oities; tbis right
was abrogated by the 1955 treaty. In return tbe U.S.A. paid SlOm. and
$250,000 (gold dollars) yearly (beginning 9 years after tbe date of the treaty).
The treaty was ratified on 26 Feb. 1904, and in Sept. the agreement for the
delimitation of the boundaries of tbe U.S.A. territory on the isthmus ,vas
signed. A new treaty, ratified by Panama in Dec. 1936, and by the U.S.A.
on 25 July 1939, made various concessions to Panama, increasing the annual
payment to $430,000. FlU·tber concessions, including an increase of the
annual payment to Sl·93m., were embodied in thc treaty ratified 23 Aug.
1955. No land in the zone is privately owned.
Governor of Camzl and President of the Panama Canal Company. Maj ..
Gen. W. E. Potter, U.S.Army.
Lie'ut,·Governor and Vice.President . Col. John D. McElheny, U.S.Army.
The canal and its adjuncts, including the related business operations
in the Canal Zone, are operated by the Panama Canal Company formed
1 July 1951. The zone is governcd by the 'Canal Zone Goverument,'
which was established simultaneously witb the new Canal Company.
The Act, establishing these new instruments of control, (a) authorized
thp. transfer of the Panama Canal to the Panama Railroad Company, ex-
cepting subdivisions relating to civil government, health and sanitation;
(b) changed tllc name of the Panama Railroad Company to tbe Panama.
Canal Company; (c) authorized the Company's Board of Dircctors to
establish toll rates subject to tho President's approval; (d) permitted the
Company to retain and utilize tolls revenue; and (e) authorized appropria.
tions to t.be Company to cover losses which migbt rcsult from changes in
economic conditions.
1294 PANAMA CANAL AND CANAL ZONE
The .~rea of the Canal Zone, including land and water, is 648·01 sq. miles.
The wat·er area of the zone, including the water area within t.he 3·mile limit
from th,) Atlantic and Pacific ends, is 275·52 sq. miles.
'1'he total population of the Canal Zone, as of Nov. 1954, was 38,953,
exclusive of uniformed Army, Navy and Air Force personnel; the 1950
census figure, 52,822, includes that personnel. The total full·time force
employ~d by the Panama Canal Company and the Canal Zone Government
on 30 June 1959 numbered 3,911 V.S. citizens and 8,956 others, mostly
Panamanian citizens. Birth rate in the zone, 1957, wa.~ !l9'69 per 1,000
popul ati.on; death rate, 3·63; marriage licences issued, 466; infantile
mortality, 19·38 per 1,000 live births.
There are 130 miles of improved streets and highways in the zone,
exclusi ve of those wit.hill Arll1C'd Forces rC'servatioIl8. Motor vehicles
number about 13,000.
The canal was opened to commerce on 15 Aug. 1914. There has been
no appreciable interruption since 11 Jan. 1917
The canal has a summit elevation ef 85 ft. above the sea. It is 50·72
statute miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water
in the Pacific Ocean, and from shore to shore is approximately 36 miles.
The channel ranges in bottom·width from 300 to 1,000 ft. The average
time of passage through the canal is from 7 to 8 hours; the record passage
is 4 hour~ 10 minutes.
For details of the physical character of the canal, see TH E STATESMAN'S
YEAR·BoOK, 1951, p. 1295; a map showing the Panama, Suez and Kiel
eanals on the same scale will be found in the present, 1959, edition.
Part.:.culars of the traffic thfough the canal fOf 5 fiscal years afe given as
follows (cargo in long tons):
FIscal year North·lJound South·bound Toll",
ending (pacific to Atlantic) (Atlantic to Pacific) Total levied
30 Juue Vesu18 1 Cargo Vt8scls 1 Cargo Yelse1l 1 Cargo (in $)
1956 4.') 76 2;;,83~,O06 4,133 21,286.036 8,209 45,1l9,042 36.153,841
1067 4,084 24.272,000 4,495 25,430,000 8,579 49,702.200 39,5~1.595
1%8 4,588 25.281.,08 4,599 22,343.000 9,187 48,124,508 42,834,000
B59 4,809 2S,707,2i8 4,909 22,145,818 9,718 61,153,096 45,'29,000
1 r
.t., ocean-going commercial vessels, of 300 net tOJ1S &Dd over, Panama Canal
measllrementf'.
11 StnI1.ing in 1951, credits from U.S. Government vessels were incorporated into the tolls
structure.
In the fiscal year ending 30 June 1959, of the total number of toll.
paying 3hips whioh passed through the canal (9,718), 1.985 were V.S.
vessels, 1,234 British, 1,037 German, 979 Norwegian, 966 Liberian, 800
Japanese, 367 Panamanian, 269 Colombian, 233 Swedish, 151 Honduran
and the remaining were of 27 other nationalities.
Books of Reference
SUTlsrlCAL I~"oItMftTlOS . The P~Da.ma CaMI Inlorm.tion Office, B.lboa Heighta
0a1lJl1 Zone. Information OJlicer : William G. Arey, Jr.
RU/eJ and R"lIulatinm Govm,mg Navigation of

Vla.."hin;p:on, D.O.
,h.
Annual RI~orf-' on the Panama Canal, by the Governor ot the Canal Zone
Panama Canal. Balboa Heights, C.Z.
Stanlord Oniv. Pr..., 1947.-And

Canal. Stanlord Univ. Press, 1947
t'"
Mountain. fDill M<Ylle: t'"
DD Val, M. P., Cadi. /. Cathay: ,he diplomatic .tMJggk for the Panama Canal. 2nd od.
building of ,''' Panama
Mack, GeJ'stle, The Land Di·vided. New York, 1944
PARAGUAY 1295
PARAGUAY
REPUBLICA DEL PARAGUAY
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Repubiic of Paraguay
gained its independence from Spain on 14 May 1811. In 1814 Dr Jose
Gaspar Rodriguez Francia was eleetc.1 diet,utor, and in 1816 perpetual
dictator, by t.he National Assembly, He !lied 20 Sept.. 1840. In 18H a
new constitut.ion wns adopted, under which Carlos Antonio L6pez (first
elected in 1842) and his son, Francisco Solano L6pe~, ruled until 1870.
During a devasting wn,r against Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay (1865-70)
Parn,guay lost probably 500,000 men, Argentina, in Aug. 1\142, and Brazil,
in Mn,y 1943, voided the reparations debt imposed upon Paraguay, which
Pamguay had never paid.
A new constitution was adopt,e d in 1870. The following is a list of past.
presidents since 1920, with the date on which eaeh took office:
Manuel Gondr", 15 Aug. 1920. Gen. Jos~ F~Ux P.stigarribia, 1~ Aug. 1930
Dr F~lix Paiva, 31 Oct. 1921.' (killed in aeroplane aecident).
Dr EllSebio Ayala. 3 Nov. 1921. Gen. Higinio Morlnigo, 7 Sept. 1940 (resigned).
Dr Eligio AyaJa. 1 April 1923.' Pr Juan Manuel 'Frntos, 3 Juno 1948. 1
Dr I.als Riart, 12 April j9H.\ Dr J. Natalicio Gon"aiez, 16 Aug. 19'8
Dr Rligio Ay"la, 15 Aug. 1924. (deposed).
Dr Jos~ GUggiari, 1" Aug. 1928. Gen. Raimundo Rol6n, 30 Jan. 1949
Emiliano Gonz!dez Navero, 26 Oct. 1931. Dr FeJipe Mol"s L6pez, 14 May 1949 (re-
Dr Jos~ Guggiari, 28 Jan. 1932. signed).
Dr '!lusebio Ayala, 15 Aug. 1932 (deposed). Dr Federico CMvez, 16 July 1960 (resigned).
001. Ralsel Franco, 18 Feb. 1936.' 'l'amas Romero Pereira, -1 May 1964.
Dr FHix Pain, 1. Aug. 1937.
t PrOvisional. i.f!., following a coup d!~tat. Succeeded as Vice-President.
President. Gen. Alfredo Stroessncr, he:1d of the Army, elected IJ

July 1954; assumed office 15 Aug. He was re-elected ail 'Colorado'
candidate ou 9 Feb. 1958; his s~cond term began on 15 Aug.
The President has a cabinet of 10 ministers.
The constitution, which was ratified at a plebiscit.e on 4 Aug. 1940,
iR democratic in character, but has not prevented the Colorado Party from
establishing a one· party state. The Diet is composed of one chamber only,
with 1 member for every 25,000 inbabitants. The place of the Senate iR
taken by a Council of State, the members of which are nominated by the
Government on a corporative basis. Tho President is elected for 5 years,
a.nd he appoints the Cabinet, which exercises all the functions of govern-
ment, and need only inform the Chamber and the Council of State of its
policy. The constitution guarantees private property (women were given
full coutrol of their own property in Nov. 1954), but thA State is given tho
right to regulate economic activities.
The country is divided into 2 sections: the' Oriental,' east of Paraguay
River, and the' Occidental,' west of the same river. The Oriental section is
divided into 13 departments, subdivided into 133 part-ido8; the Occidental
section (the Chaco) is divided into 3 departments with 4 partid08. The
Chaco Buffers from the fact that its tltble of water underground is salty;
inhabitants, some 64,000, collect rain-water.
The 16 departments of the republic are officially numbered and named
as follows: 1, Concepcion (capital, Concepci6n); 2, San Pedro (~apital, Sa.n
Pedro); 3, Cordillera (capital, Caacupe); 4, Guaira (capital, VilJarrica);
5, Caaguazu (capital, Coronel Oviedo); 6, Caazapa (capital, Caaza.pa); 7,
Itapua (capital, Encarnaci6n); 8, Las Misiones (capital, San Juan Bautista);
1296 PARAGUAY
9, Paraguari (capital, Paragunri); 10, Alto Parana (capital, Hernandarias);

11, Centn~l (capital, Ipacaral); 12, Necmbecu (capital, Pilar); 13, Amambay
(capita l, P cdroJuan Caballero); 14, Presidente Rayes (capital, Villa Hayes);
15, Boquer6n; 16, Olimpo.
All the departments and all municipalities are governed directly by the
national government; the capital, Asunci6n, is directly under the Minister
·of the In terior.
National flag: red, white, blue (horizontal); the white stripe charged
with the arms of the repnblic on the obverse, and, on the reverse, with a lion
and the inscription Fa: y JU$ticia-the only flag in the world with different
obverse .'tnd reverse.
National anthem: jParaguayos, republica 6 muerte! (words by F.
Acufia de Figueroa; tune by F. Dupey).
AREA AND POPULATION. The area of Paraguay proper or

'Oriental' section, which is situated between the rivers Paraguay and Alto
Parana, is officially estimated at 159,807 sq. km (61,705 sq. miles). The
uoundary between Paraguay and Bolivia, the section known as Chaco, in
dispute since 1870, was fixed by arbitration in Oct. 1938. The area of
Paraguay's ' Occidental section' is officially estimated at 246,925 sq. km
(95,337 sq. miles), making the total area of the republic 406,752 sq. km.
The Chaco is a torrid zone; the eastern section has a cooler 6eason
around 70° F. between May and Sept., but can also exceed 100° in Dec.-
:Feb. The rn.iniest season is from March to May; annual precipitation
reaches 80 in. in the Brazilian frontier region, and over 40 in. along the
Paraguay.
A census of the population was taken on 28 Oct. 1950; provisional
total WIl.,1 1,341,333, of which 6<19,109 were males, 679,343 females and 12,881
whose SIlX was not recorded. Outside the census were 17,000 uncla.ssified
indigenes. Density is 3'4 per sq. km. Estimated total, I July 1958,
1,650,000.
'fhe population of Paraguay (' Oriental' section) is overwhelmingly
mestizos (mixed Spanish and Guaran! Indian) forming a homogeneous stock.
There are no Negroes. The 1950 (preliminary) census gave the capital,
Asunoion (founded 1537), a population of 205,605, of whieh only 99,042 were
males; dwelling units were 40,900. The remainder of the eastern zone had
] ,070,000 and the Chaco, 64,700. J!'or the estimated 1945 population of the
departments in the' Oriental' sect.ion (13 in 1945) and of their principal
towns, &ee THE STATESMAN'S Y E AR· BOOK, 1954, p . 1284.
Number of births, 1950, was 65,094; deaths, 14,822; infant mortality
rate (19,18), 75·8 per 1,000 live births (compared with 98·1 in 1938).
Paraguayans are bi.lingual, speaking both Spanish and Guarani, the
languag'l of the autochthonous Guarani Indians, who held the country at the
time of the Spanish conquest.
Immigration in Aug. 1948 was restricted to citizens of American countries,
but in 1951 Paraguay agreed to admit Borne 10,000 Itp.liall families over a
period of 3 years. In 1956 a colony of 100 Japanese families settled on
12,500 hectares on the Alto Pamm\ river beyond Encamaci6n, and 80,000
more are to 00 admitted over the next 30 years under an agreement
signed with Japan for the provision of merchant ships.
REUGION. The Roman Catholic Church is the established religion

of the S',ate; the constitution stipulates that the President must be a Roman
PARAGUAY 1297
Catholic. On the other hand, the Government controls church appoint.
ments; the head of the Church and all bi~hops must be Paraguayans. The
free exercise of other religions is permitted. The seat of the Paraguayan
archhishopric is Asunci6n; there are bishoprics at VilIarrica, Pilar and Con·
cepci6n and for the Chaco. Religious marriagc ceremonies are allowed, but
the civil ceremony alone gives validity to a marriage. Protestants number
about 25,000.
EDUCATION. Education is free and nominally compulsory, but
schools are not everywhere available, and the system has been extensively
revised to provide, inter alia, primary education for adults. Thcre are no
statistics of illiteracy. In 1953 there were 1,620 government primary
schools and 74 private schools, with together 238,768 pupils and 7,543
teachers; and 83 secondary schools with 14,284 pupils and 1,884 teachers.
The National University had, in 1\)53,2,043 students.
CinefJUU (1955). Cinemas numbered 24 with seating capacity of 17,000;
14 are in Asunci6n.
Newspaper., (1959). There are 4 daily newspapers with an aggregate
circulation of 40,000.
JUSTICE. The highest court is the Supremc Court with 3 members.

There are special Chambers of Appeal for civil and commercial cases, and
criminal cases. Judges of first instance deal with civil, commercial and
criminal cases in 6 departments. Minor cases are dealt with by Justices of
the Peace.
The Attorney.General represents the State iD all jurisdictions, with
representatives in each judicial department and in every jurisdiction. In
matters of revenue, taxes, etc., the State is represented by the Abogado del
Tesoro.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure, in 1,000 guaranics; the guarani
i~officially valued at 32·36 cents V.S. (but in Sept. 1957 the rate had fallen
to 185 guaranles = US$I):
19~4' 1956' 1966' 19Z7' 1958'
Revenue. 704,027 97~,600 1,127,200 38,000 2,4f)7,504
Expenditure 706,276 979,000 1,169,124 38,000 2,40i,504
, Dudget estimates of the Dew r~me, coverlD/! Marcb to Dec•
• The third successive year in whicb tbe accounts covcred only Marcb to Dec.
, In U8$1.000 .
• Prm"isional estimates in Guaran1es.
The budget figures exclude various special accounts.

The 1958 budget provided (in 1m. guaranies) 640 for national defence,
261 for interior, and 286 for education; internal taxes \vere to furnish
435m., sales tax 235m. and taxes 011 imports and export.~, 425m.
Paraguay agreed, beginning 1 Jan. 1945, to resume service 011 the ex·
ternal sterling deht, in default since 1934; coupons in afl'cars wen> to be
paid off at the rate of 78. 9d. per £1 nominal. Balance outstanding wa&
£652,150. In 1951 payments were £40,387 to London, Sl·Mm. to the
Export.Import Bank of Washington and 2·5m. in Argent,ine pesos.
British invcstment~, end of HJ49, had a par valuc of £3.300,290, of which
85·1% was in default. Foreign inve3tments, 1950, in Im. guaranies, were
181·8, of which Argentina furnished 77·7 (42·7% of the total), Britain 51·2
128·2% ) and V.S. 45·9 (25'3% ).
1298 PARAGUAY
DEFENCE. The military establishment is about 600 officers and 8,500

men. The Army consists of 3 divisions of infantry, each one of 2 regiments
of infantry, I group of artillery, I group of cavalry and I battalion of
engineers (all motorized), and I division of cavalry of2 regiments mechanized
and I regiment mounted. There are 5 training schools for officers and
technical specialists; a V .S. military mission directs the training in one of
the schools. There are also a V .S. air mission, Argentine military and
naval missions, and a Brazil ian military mission.
ID ~he event of war, service is compulsory in the active Army for 2
years t~tweeD the ages of 18 and 20; between 20 and 29 in the reserve of
active Army; between 29 and 39 in the national guard, and between 39
&lid 45 in the tsrritorial guard.
The Navy consists of 2 armoured river gunboats of 636 tons (built in
Italy ) nnd 3 patrol boats, river craft armed with modern guns. The largest
of the la tter displaces about 206 tons. There are also 6 American·built
picket boats.
The Air Force came into being in the early thirt ies as a combat service,
but no ';v has only transport aDd training formations. Theso are equipped
with U.S. ",ircraft of wartime origin, including a number of C··17 aDd C·45
twin·er.gined transports and T·6 Texan basic trainers. HQ and flying
school a re at Campo Grande, Asunci6n.
PRODUCTION. The national income in 1957 was 18,800m. guaranies
(about USSI90m.). Of this, farming, livestock, forestry, fishing and hunting
contributed a bout 45%; manufacturing, 15%; finance, 25%; transport,
communications, public services, etc" 15%.
Agriculture. The soil of Paraguay is productive and the climate suitable
for ma.ny sub.tropical products, but only some 1·55m. hectares are
cultivated out of 41m. hectares of cultivable land. The Government's pro.
gramm,) for 1952-53 urged the planting of 882,000 acres to 12 principal
erops, mainly maize, maDdioca, cotton, sugar cane and peanuts; only
247,363 acres were thus employed at that time. Much of the country is
admirably suited to pastoral purposes and large estates are the rule, in one
instanc·3 amounting to 2m. hect ares.
Yer,~a mate, or strong.flavoured Paraguay tea, which is a plantation
product. as weU as a natural product of the virgin forests, is one of the chiof
articles of export; exports in 1958 wore 5,600 metric tons; in 1953 output
was 12,082 metric tons. The tobacco output was 19·8m. lb. in 1955. 3rn.
newly planted coffee trees should come into bearing in 1959.
Area (in hectares) and yield (in metric tons) of the main agricultural
products in 1955-56: .
Area Yield Area Yield
Oottoll 66,101 39.94~ Maize 1 178.539 200.641>
Rloe • 12,136 23,822 Mandioca 105,170 64(),796
Suear cane 26,2H 587,()64 Beans 13,627 46,()99
• Both aione and associated with other crops.
A n~w crop is wheat; 2,000 hectares were sown in 1957, and expected
to yield. 1,600 metric tons.
About 25,000 acres are devotsd to sugar cultivation, largely for the
manufacture of caoo, a kind of rum (production, 1953, 9m. litres); 8uga r
for consumption is imported-6,193 short tons in 1955; but in 1957
over 29,000 tons of refined sugar were produced, and satisfied the home·
market ,
PAR.AGUAY 1299
Much of the agriculture is still primitive, and outputs per worker and
per hectare are still low despite the training of sruallholders since 1942.
A large proportion of the peasants is land1cs~ . About 134,000 acres are
normally planted to maize. The cultivation of cotton of the American
uplands type is encouraged by the authorities; it mat.ures early and reaches
the market when the American crop is scaroe; production of this particular
type in the crop year ending 31 JUly 10,)6 was estimated at 46,000 b:Lles
(500 lb.), or 10,000 metric t ons from 173,000 acres. The total crnp unginned
was 29,000 tons for 1956-57, but drought !tnd wilt had impaired its quality
It is commonly sold, however, as Argentine cotton, chiefly to U.K.
Livestock. In 1956 Paraguay had abont 4·5m. cattle, 52~,OOO horses,
363,000 sheep anrl ;iQ,OOO hogs and goats. Import of cattle for the 3 meat·
packing plants has top priority in the list of essential imports; jerked beef,
corne.d beef ami othcr animal products are exported . In 19:')0 a comhined
government and private cOl'poration t ook over the sale and dist,ribntion of
meat. Exports of llleat products in 1!l58 were 18,587 metric tons. The 2
canning plants, at Zeballos Cuc and San Antonio, expected to process some
75,000 cattle in 1957, as in l(l56. Per capita conR lllllp tion of mcat, 1954,
was 124 lb., compared with j():! lb. pre-war. Paraguay produces and
exports salted and dry cattle hides.
Porestry. Timber resources of excellent qUJ.lity art) enormous, the
cedars and hardwoods being a parti cularly valuable article of export;
timoor logs, 1952, amounted to 132,129 metric tons. Paraguay produces in
the Chaco region quebmcho logs, from which quebracho extract (tannin) is
derived; production, 1953, 31,fj30 metric tons compared with over 40,000
metric tons in 1949. Total exports of timbers in 19G8 were 217,:Hl t ons.
Yaguaron is the chief source of petit-grain oil, distilled from the leaves of
a bitter omnge tree and used ill the manufacture of many perfl1mes; the
oil is widely exported; production, Hl53, 158 metric ton~. Exports of tung
oil, 1958, were 4,413 metric tons.
Mining. Iron, manganese, copper and other minerab are reported in
abundance, but are little worked. The I ui cui iron mines were worked ItS
early as 18G!l_ The Quiq1.lio and Ibicui manganese mines contain oro
deposits estimated at 60tn. tons. Copper h"s been found nt San Migu cl.
Concepdon and Quiquio_ The Gov~rnn1<'nt. is expl"ring the Chaco rcgion
for petroleum , especially the north-ea"t nrea, in Olimpia province, and
aL~o an agreement has been made and ratifi ed, with Bolivl"., for :l oil pipe.
lines across the territory. This is to be the main activity of the Corpora.
cion Paragunya de Fomcnto (1957) with a capital of Gs.200m. Cement
production began in 1952_
Electricity. Fourteen power-plants, which in 1958 produced 66,140,000
kwh., supply 18 cities and t owns.
Labour. Trade union ists number about 25,000 (Confederacion Para·
gUl1ya del Trabajo).
A contributory national insurance scheme for ;tll salary and wage earners
except civil servants and railway employees went into effect, 1 Jan. 1951.
COMMERCE. Imports and exports, in 1,000 guaranies at the current

rate:
1953 1954 1!l5!) J956 1907 1058
Imports 689,040 992,~00 630,non 1,465,JOO 2.057,000 3,343,000
Exports 672,653 813,000 737,100 2,070,OUO 2,5r.J,500 3,730,000
1300 PARAGUAY
Paraguaya.n trade, in USSlm .• was as follows: Imports: 1956, 24·6;

1957,27'4; 1955,32·5. Exports: 1956,36·7; 1957,32·9; 1955, 34-1.
Chif,f expOl·tll in 1957 included cotton, valued (in 1,000 guaranles) at
403,625; quebracho extra.ct, 379,555; timber, 1,072,551; hides, 211,647;
meats, 895,531; oleaginous products, 165.604. The most important imports
were food, beverages and tobacco, agricultural machinery, cotton goods,
vehicles and general machinery, fuels and lubricants, chemicals and pharma.
ceuticals.
Of the imports in 1957 (LM.F. figures), $10,476,000 came from Argentina,
$6,465,000 from U.S., $2,354,000 from Germany, $2,126,000 from the U.K.
Of the exports, Argentina took SIO·Om.; U.S., SS·3m. ; U.K., 5·12m .
Netherll1nds,2·lm.; Germany, I ·lm.;
The trade between Paraguay and U.K. (British Board of Trade returns)
in £ sterling for 6 years was as follows :
1938 1955 1966 19.. 7 1968 1.959
Imports t., U .K . 224,638 1,04M42 1,916,689 2,392,222 1,408.511 1,760,759
Bxports from U.K. . 72,308 648,~43 601,846 1,1 39,012 747,775 865,109
Jl+.oxports from U.K. 714 7,373 6,468 14,024 7,536 9,320
The import licence and official exchange-market system was abolished

on 12 Aug. 1957.
COI\IMUNICA TlONS. Shipping. The Paraguay River, which divideu
the country into two distinct parts, is navigable for 12-ft draft vessels as
far as Concepcion, ISO miles north of Asuncion, and for smaller vessels for
a furth(lr distance of 600 miles northward. The Pa.ra.na. River is na.vigable
by largo boat~ from COITientes up to Puerto Aguirre, at the mouth of the
Yguazu River. Boats of a few hundred tons capacity navigate the tributary
rivers.
AsWlcion, the chief port, is 950 miles from the sea. In June 1945 the
Government formed-after a break of SO years-a national merchant
marine which operates in the River Plate basin, connecting with Argentine,
Uruguayan and Brazilian port-so It handlcs some 10% of Pamguay's total
exports and imports. All imports and exporta for ocean shipment have to
be tram;hipped at Montevideo or Buenos Aires.
RailwaY8. The British-owned Paraguay Central Railway runs from
Asunci6n to Encarnacion, 011 the Rio Alto Parana, with a m ain-track length
of 274 miles. A government interventor was appointed after the company
found h:self unable to finan ce its operations in 1955. There is a through
train service from Asuncion to Buenos Aires. El FeITocaITil del Norte,
owned by a Paraguay company, runs froru Concepcion to Horqueta, a dis-
tance of 33 miles. This road is projected to run as far as Pedro Juan
Caballero on the Brazilian border. 'fotallength of railways, 713 miles.
Roads. The country roada are in general mere bullock tracks and
transpoi"t is difficult. In the more populated r,reas hus services now link
& number of towns and villages. Highways, 1940, had 0. length of 3,759
milcs. About 100 miles are aspbalted. A road from Asuncion to Iguazll
on the Brazilian frontier is nearly complcte, and anothcr is being built across
the Cha(!o te the Boli,ian frontier for completion by the end of 1961.
Motor vehicles, 30 June 1056, numbered 6,000, of which three· quarters were
in Asuncion; 3,600 were passenger cars.
Post. The national telegraph (137 offices) connccta Asuncion with
Corrientes and Posadas in the Argentine Republic, and thus with the outside
PARAGUAY 1301
world; new direct links have been opened with Germany (1957) and D.S.A.
(1958). In addition, 34 stations are operated by the Paraguay Central
Railway; total, 2,070 miles. Three companies (12 stations) offer radio·
telegraph service. The telephone system has been under government con·
trol since 5 Oct. 1945; a new government agency, the National Telephone
Administration, took over the telecommunication services in July 1947.
Telephone lines, H)49, 5,225 miles; instnnnents, 1957, 6,4.00, of which
86% were in Asunci6n and were automatic. 'Vireless sets in use, 1953,
numbered about 80,000.
Aviation. Air services arc furnished by 7 airlines (domestic and foreign),
1 of which uses seaplanes, following tho river between Asunci6n and Buenos
"lires; 2 airlines and several private companies provide passenger services.
MONEY AND BANKING. The guarani was established on 5 Oct.
1043 equal to 100 of the old paper pesos. The old gold peso, no longer used,
is nominally valued at 1·75 guaranies. The latter is divided into 100
centimos, and is symbolized by the letter G with a line through it, similar
to the $ sign. There are coppe;-·-aluminium coins representing 50, 25, 10
and 5 ccntimos and 1 centimo. Total monetary circulation was Gs.2,229m.
at the end of July 1959; of this, notes and coins were Gs.l,53Im. and the
remainder money at sight.
On 1 Dec. 1959 the guarani stood at Gs. 340 = £1. The International
1.Ionetary Fund computes 110 guaranies per USS.
The Banco Central del Paraguay opened 1 July 1952 to take over the
cent,ral banking functions previously assigned to the National Bank of
Paraguay, which had opened in lIIarch 1043 and been reorganized as the
Banco del Paragu:1Y in Sept. 19-1-1 with a moneta.l'Y, a banking and a mort-
gage department. The now Banco Centrn,l on 30 Sept., 1956 had gold
amounting to $180,000 (5,142 tray oz.) and foreign exchange equal to
$13·3m. In revalued guar:1nies these reserves wero equ:11 to llm. and
5l5m. respectively. Reservo of foreign currency at 15 June 1957 was
reported as worth US$4·3m. It has no legal gold reserve.
The Argentine Banco de la Nacion has an agency in Asuncion and agreed,
Nov. 1953. to increase its capital and to establish sub.agencies in various
centres. The other banks in Paraguay are tho Bank of London and South
America, Ltd; the Banco del Hogar Argentino; Banco de hl Nacion
Argentina; Banco do Brasil; First Nat,ional City Bank of New York.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system was officially

adopted on 1 Jan. 1901.
Paraguay maintains embassies in Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Bolivia,
Chile, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Germany (also
~Iinister for Denmark, Norway, Sweden), Italy, Mexico, Peru, Spain, U.K.,
U.S.A., Uruguay, Vatican, Venezuela; and legations in Costa Rica, Cuba,
El Salvador, Netherlands.
01' PARAGUAY IN GREAT BRITAIN (51 Cornwall Gardens, S.W.7)
ArnblUsador. Rear·Admiral J. Weneeslao Bellltes (accredited 14 Feb.
1957).
First Secretary. Ricardo Bmgada L6pez Moreira.
Tbere is " consulate.general in London and a consulate in Liverpool.
1302 PERS~ GULF STATES
011' GREAT BnlTAm m PARAGUAY

Ambassador and Consul. General. H. F. A. Gates, C.M.G., M.B.E.
First Secretaries. L. Cox; J. M. Carlin, D.F.C. (Labour).
Naml and Military Attache. Capt. D. Vincent·Jones, D.S.C., R.N.
Air At/ache. Capt. D. J. Devitt.
There is a consular post in Asunci6n.
OF PARAGUAY IN THE U.S.A. (1825 Connecticut Ave. NW.,
Suite 401-2, Washington 9, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr Juan Plate.
First Secretary. Persio da Silva. Service Attaches: Rear.Adm. Guillcrmo
Haywood (Navy), Brig .. Gen. Ruben Ortiz P. (Army and Air).
OF THE U.S.A. IN PARAGUAY
Am~assadoT. Harry F. Stimson, Jr.
Coun.,ellor. Albert E . Carter. Fi"st Secretary. Philip M. Burnett.
Service Attaches: Lieut.·Col. Clark W. Trainer (Army), Col. Albert F.
Fahy, .rr (Air, resident in Buenos Aires).
Books of Reference
Anuario Dauma.J. Asoncioo
Anuario E!tadt::l.it O de la Repli.blica del PariJl}uay. Asun ci60. Annoal
Report ol the Council Of tlte Corporation Of p'oreign Bondholders. Annual. London
Henderson, 1. Lot E,'cqnomic and CvmmerciaJ Condilion.t in ParalJUoll. H.M.S.O., 1952
Pendle, J., ParagWlY, a riverside nalion. R. Inst. Int. AJLJ.h" ~nd ed., 1966
Baine, P. t ParOlJuay. New Brunswick, N .J., 19i16
Warren , El. G., ParfllJU<lll, an informal histo'1l. Norman. Old.... 1949
PERSIAN GULF STATES

THlI: Persian Gulf States include the British protected states oC Kuwait,
Bahrain, Qatar and the Trucial States. All are in special treaty relations
with Great Britain dating mainly from the 19th century, by which H.M.
Government is responsible for the conduct of their foreign relations. This
responsibility is exercised through H.M. Political Resident in the Persian
Gulf, who has his headquarters in Bahrain and, subordinate to him, Political
Agents in Kuwait, Bahrain, Doha (Qatar) and Dubai (Trucial States), See
map in TilE STATESMAN'S YEAR·BoOK. 1956.
The cu rrency used in all the territories is the special Persian Gulf Indian
rupee (Rs 13'33 = £1).
British Political Resident. Sir Gcorge Middleton, K.C.M.G.
Per.ian (luJl Gazette. Bd. British Political Resident. London Md Bahrain. 1953 fr.
Persian Oul] I'ilo/. Bd. Admiralty. 10th ed. London. 1955
Caroe. 0 .• Wells of POlDer : the oilfields of sOUlh·western Asia. London. 1951
Bay. Sir Rupert. 'The Persian GuU States and their Douudary Problems' (GetJgr. Journal 120
1954)
Miles. S .• The Countries and Tribes 0/ the Persian Gulf. London, 1919
Kuwait. The independent shaikhdom of Kuwait is situated on the
north· western coast of the Persian Gulf. The reigning dynasty was founded
by Sabll.h abu Abdullah, who ruled from 1756 to 1772. In 1897 Shaikh
Mubarak, fearing that the Turkish Government intended to make their
PERSIAN GULF STATES 1303
nominal authority in Kuwait effective, asked t,he British Government for
protection, and in 1899 hE' concluded a treaty with Grell.t Britain wherein
he undertook never to cede or leaso any portion of his territory to any
foreign government or national except with the express authorization of the
British Government. In return he was a~l.!recl of British prvtection in case
of need. Following the outbreak of war with Turkey in WI4, the British
Government recognized Kuwait as an independent government under British
protec t ion. The prese nt ruler, the 11 th, H.H. Sh".ikh Sir Abdulln.h As-Salim
As-Sabah, G.0.1\1.G., C.LE., succeeded on :!5 Feb. 1\)50.
FlrJ{}. Red, with the word 'Kuwait' in Arabic in white.
Area antl Population. Area, about 5,800 sq. miles; the total populaticn
at the census of 1957 was ZOG, 177; there were in 1960 about a,900 EuropEilnS
and Americans in Kuwait.
Education. III 1958-69 there were 1,870 teachers, including G89 women,
in 99 schools (4(; boys' schooL~, 44 girls' schools, 9 mixed kindergartens).
There were 32,000 pupils, including J 1,000 girls. About 360 Kuwaitis (3-1
of them girl3) are studying abroad, about) 25 in England, the l'emainder
nHtinly in Egypt.
Health. MC'dieal services are frce to Kuwaitis. Tbere are altogether 8
hospitals with over 1,500 beds in the state, including 3 tu berculosis su,Latoria
and 2 mental hospitals.
Defence. Thcre is a frontier force of 900 men, security forces of 1,500
men ~ith some armoured cars, and a town police of 1,000 mcn.
Produ.ction. Kuwait oil comes mainly from the Burgan oilfield, the
residential and administrative centre for oil operations being at Abmadi.
Tho field i3 developed by the Kuwait Oil Co., a. joint British-American
company. Production of crude oil began in 1946; in 1958 it totalled 69·1m.
and in J 959, 68·4m. met-rie tons. Pipelines connect the oilfield to the port
of :lIina al Ahmadi, near the village of Fahahil, which has 2 deep-wat er piers
capable of handling up to 5 super-tankers simultaneously. The refinery at
Mina a.] Ahmadi b,1S been expanded to process 190,000 bbls of crude oil per
stream day, but over SO'X, of the production from the fields is exported as
crude oil. Revenue from oil operations is being utilized for Ia.rge-scale
development works, including power stations, schools, medical facilit.ies and
the supply of fresh water to Kuwait to\n1. On 3 Dec. 1951 an agreement
was concluded which gave the Shaikh an equal share of the company's
profits.
In !9,lS a concession was granted by the Shaikh to the American In.
dependent Oil Company t.o exploit oil in the Kuwait Neut.ral Zone which
is shared wit·h Saudi Arabia; oil was di~covered in March H)5a; exports of
commercial quantities Ll'~an at the end of the year. Total oil production
in 1958 was 2H,375,084 bbls, most of whieh was exported. The construction
of a 30,OOO-bbl.per-day refinery was completed in 1958.
In May 1955 a Japanese company was granted off~hcre oil rights in the
Neutral Zone, in return for 57% of the profit~.
Commerce. The port of Kuwait formerly served mainly as an entrepot
for goods for the interior, for the export of skins and wool, and for pearl
fishing. Entrepot trade continues but, with t.he development of the oil
industry, is declining in importance. Pearl fishing is now on a small scale.
Imports for the calendar year 1%8 amounted to £60m., of which some
1304 PERSIAN GULF STATES
were rll-exported to Iran, Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Exports, including

re-exports, totalled about £4m. in 1958 (excluding oil). Dhows and launches
of traditional construction are still built.
TotlLi trade with U.K ., in £ sterling (British Board of Trade returns):
1955 1956 1957 1968 1959
Imports to U.K. • 126,364,186 118,174,624 134,168,710 131,284,175 125,057,258
Exports from U.K.. 8,098,569 13,222,171 26,292,536 19,796,928 18,21 9,603
Re'expoltsfrom U.K . 39,061 68,791 2,885,150 717,545 99,111
Communications. Ships of 27 lines make regular calls at Kuwait.

B.O.A.C., Kuwait Airways, Cyprus Airways, Iraqi Airways, Iranian Airways,
;):Iisrair, Middle East Air Lines, Saudi Arabian Airways, Lebanese Inter-
natiom,l Airways, Air Liban and Gulf Aviation operate scheduled air services.
Wirele~:s communication was taken over by the Kuwait Government in
Hl56, bternal postal services in Feb. 1958 and external postal services in
1959. There are about :l,500 telephones in Kuwait and about 1,600 in
Ahmadi.
Banking. Banking is done by the British Bank of the Middle East and
by the Kuwait National Bank (with total deposits of Rs 1,171·lm. as of
31 Dec. 1959).
Bri,~ish Political Agent. J. C. B. Richmond, C.M.G.
There is a U .S.A. consular representative in Kuwait.
Dlckson, H. R. P., TM Arab of the Desert. London, 1940.-KulDait and her Nrighbnurs.
London, 1956
Frceth, 2., KutDail Wa.s Jf" l1&me. LondoD,1955
Sigil al JruwaU al·Yaum [a record of Kuwait to-day). Kuw~lt Publishing Dept., 1956
Bahrain. Area and Population. The Bahrain islands form an archi ·

pelago in the Persian Gulf, between the Qatar peninsula and the mainland of
Saudi Arabia. The total area is about 231 sq. miles. Bahrain (' T,vo Seas '),
largest island, is 27 miles long and 10 miles wide. Muharraq, to the north-
east, 4 miles long and I mile wide, is connected with Bahrain by a causeway,
nearly 2 milcs long, carrying a motor road. Other islands are Sitra, to the
cast, 3 miles long and 1 mile widc; Urnm An-Nfts11.an, to the west, 3i miles
by 2! miles; ,Jidda, also to the west, 1 mile by 1 mile, the Hawar group off
Qatar and several i slets, some uninhabited. From Sitra oil pipelines and a
causeway carrying a road extend out to sea for 3 miles to a deep.water
anchorage. The islands are low lying, the highest ground being a hill in the
centre of Bahrain, 450 ft high.
The census population in 1959 was 143,213. Of the Bahrain nationals,
about ualf are the original inhabitants belonging to the Shia sect, while
the remainder, including the ruling family, are Sunnis; both groups are
Arab hy race. There is an Indian community, a number of Pakistanis
and Persians, and about 3,000 Briti~h and Americans, including the staff of
the Bahrain P etroleum Company.
Man am a, the capital of the state and the commercial centre, is situated
at the northern eod of the largest island and extends for 11 miles along the
shore. It has a population of 61,837 (1959 census). Electricity from the
government power-stations in Manama supplies light and power in Manama,
Muhan'aq (32,279), Hidd (4,435), and Rifa'a (6,648) and the villages.
Water is obtained from artesian wells, and there is a piped supply in Mallama,
Muhan'aq and Rifa'a.
Reigning Shaikh. The ruling family, the AI Khalifah, came originally
from the neighbourhood of Kuwait and occupied Bahrain in 1782. The
PERSIAN GULF STATES 1305
present ruler, H.H. Shaikh Sulman bin Hamad Al Khalifa, K.C.M.G.,
K.C.I.E. (born 1895), acceded on 6 April 1942. Heir apparent: Shaikh Tsa
bin Sulman Al Khalifa (born 1(33).
Plag. Scarlet, with white serrated border on hoist.
Government. The administration is carried out by officials, assisted and
advised by representative and nominated councils and committees. The
head of the administration is the Secretarv.
The 4 towns of Bahrain and 2 of the larger groups of villages are admini·
stered by their municipalities, independent bodies, half of whose councils
are elected by the male and female r .. tepayers and half nominated by the
government.
Education. There were, in 1050,31 boys' schools with 434 teachers and
10,957 pupils, and 15 girls' sehooLi with 176 teachers and 5,119 pupils.
Health . There is a free medical service for Bahrainis. There are 9
government hospitals (including a tuberculosis and a mental hospital) with
475 beds, an American mission hospital and 2 oil company hospitals.
Finance. The revenue of tho state is derived from oil rovaltie~ and
from customs duties, which are 10% ad valorem for luxury goods ·and 5% for
all others, with the exception of liquor and tobacco, which are charged 15%.
Revenue of the stat{l in 1957, Rs 72·38m.; 1958, Rs 78·39ru.; 1959, Rs 74-4m.
On 2 Jan. 1958 Manama was declared a free transit port and the former
2% transit duty was abolished.
Production. In 1932 oil was discovered. Operations are being con·
ducted by the Bahmill Petroleum Company, registered ill Canada but
owned by V.S. interests, under a concession granted by tho Shaikh. Pro·
duction of oil in 1958 was 2m. tons. A large oil refinery on Bahrain Island,
besides treating crude oil produced locally, also processes oil from Saudi
Arabia, transported by pipeline. Refinery throughput in 1958 was 1Om.
tons.
In addition to the traditional minor industries such as boat-building,
weaving, pottery, etc., a number of new modern industries have developed,
which include the manufacture of building materials, soft drinks and re-
constituted milk, drinking straws, paper bags, woollen garments and other
consumer goods. There is also an important fishing industry and a fairly
large farming community. The most important crops are dates and
vegetables, and there is also dairy and poultry farming.
The pearling industry for which Bahrain used to be famous has con-
siderably declined. Only about 30 boats visit the pearl banks each year,
as compared with the 600-1,000 that were employed 30 years ago.
Commerce. Bahrain's entrepot trado is expected to increase as a result
of the inauguration of the free transit port. In 1958 exports totalled
£18,487,595, of which 37% were re.exported, chiefly to Saudi Arabia
(£4,337,435), Qatar (£798,135), Tran (£637,685) and Dubai (£478,100.)
In 1958 the chief imports were: Cotton piece.goods, £745,610; wearing
apparel, £1,395,890; household goods, £2,788,960; machinery, £1,135,955;
motor cars and lorries, £674,435; hardware and cutlery, £518,740; gold
bullion, £7,634,115; sugar, £640,000; rice, £1,043,740; other provisions,
£1,793,105. The chief re· exports were gold bullion, household goods,
cotton piece.goods, rire and provisions.
Import of arms and ammunition is subject to special permission; the
1306 PERSIAN GULF STATES
sale of alcoholic liquor is restricted and the import of cultured pearls is

forbidden.
Total trade between Ba,hrain and t.he U.K., in £ sterling (British Board
of Trade returns):
195:)1 1956 1957 1958 1959
Imports t<> U.K. 21),924,077 9,285,816 6,115,265 10,396,882 12,304,228
Exports (rom U.K. 12,509.'68 1,480,334 8,369,891 7,225 ,396 7,377,699
Re-exports from U.K. 327.337 153,625 59,188 38,601 66,574
I Inc.luding Qatar and Trucial Oman.
Communications. Steamships of several lines and B.O.A.C. aircraft

make regular calls. The airport, sit.uated at Muharraq, can t.ake the
largest aircraft. Gulf Avaitio!l, Middle East Airlines, Aryana, Afghan Air.
ways, Air Ceylon, Aden Airways, Kuwait Airways, Air Liball, Saudi Arabian
Airways, Lebanese International Airways and Cyprus Airways also operate
to and from Bahrain. There were, in 1958, 2,297 telephones. T here is a
state-operated radio station.
Banking. Banking facilities are provided by the Ba,nk of Bahrain and
branches of the Eastem Bank and the British Bank of the i.\liddle East.
We',ght8 and Mea.~ures. The dhnra (= 18 in.), roba (4 lb.), maund (56 lb.)
and ra/a (560 lb.) are the principal local weights and measures.
Bri(i8h Political Agent. E. P. Wiltshire.
Sec;'etary to the Bahrain Government. G. W. R . Smith, M.B.E.
STA'Y:snOAL INFORllATION. Public HelatioDs Department, Manam... Direclor 0/ Public
RelatiolW and Broadcasting: Hus:':lain J. :h-fandil.
Belgrave, J. H. D., Welco"", 10 Bahrain. 3rd .d, Manama, 1951
F .... ougby. A.., Th. Bahrein J,landl. New York, 19:;1
Tweedy, M.! Bahrain and the Per3ian Gulf. Ipswich, 19[12
Qatar. This state, which includes the whole of the Q:..ta.r peninsula,
extend!! on the landward side from Khor al Odeid to the boundaries of
the Saudi Arabian province of Hasa. Area, about 8,000 sq. miles; popula.
tion about 40,000, of whom some 10,000 are migrant labourers from neigh.
bouring states. The relations of the ruler of Qatar with the British Govern-
ment al!'e similar to those of the Trucial rulers, and are regulated by a treaty
of 3 Nov. 1916.
Ruler. n.H. Shaikh All bin Abdullah Al Tham, K.B.E., succeeded in
1949.
Fla.,7. Maroon, with white serrated border on hoist.
There are 2 oil companies operating in Qatar, the Qatar Petroleum Co.
(a. sub~idiary of the Iraq Petroleum Co.) and the Shell Co. of Qatar (a
subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell). Shell, which has a sea·bed concession, has
not yet struck oil. Total oil production in 1\159 was 8m. tons.
The revenue deri¥ed from oil operations is t.he principal source of income;
it has enabled the Government to institute a n extensive programme of
development, which includes schools, hospitals, and water and electricity
supply. The capital is Doha, where there are branches of the Eastern Bank
and the Briti.h Bank of the Middle East, the Ottoman Bank, the Arab Bank
ruld th{: Intra Bank. Other towns are Dukhan, the centre of the oilfield,
and U mm Said, the oil port of Qatar.
Imports to the U.K. in 1956 amounted to £l8,87<t,IOl; 1957.
PERSL\.N GULF STATES 1307
£12,431,039; 1!J58, £6,674,514; JO:;O, £13.010,404; exports from the U.K.

in ]!l56 to £4,294,2·H; 19;;7, £4.492,2 13; 19M1, £;',:305,067; 1959,
£5,36J,914; rc.exports in 1000ti to £17,:;72; 1!l:i7, £:]4,3'39; 19.58, £04,245;
I05!) , £28.M6. F or earlier trade statiBtics see BAHRAIN.
Two shipping lines call at {)mm Said. The Gulf Aviation Co., Lt.d,
operates a daily service from Bahrain; Middle East and othur airlines
operate regular services from Beirut.
Telephone and radio-telephone services connect Qatar with Emope and
America; there were 932 telephones in Dec. UJ5D.
British Political Agent (in Dohr.). J. C. l\It)berJ~y.
Adviser to the Government. G. M. liancock, O.B.£.
The Trucial States. :From Sha'am, 35 miles south·,vest of Ras Musan

dam, for nearly 400 miles tu Khor al Odeid at the south-eastern end of the
peninsula of Qatar, the coast, fnrm erly known as the Pirat.e Coast, of the
Persi an Gulf (together with 50 mi les of the coa-st of the Gulf of Oman)
belongs to the rulers of the 7 Trucial States. In 1820 these rulers, after
committing acts of hostility against the En.st India Company, signed a treaty
prescribing peace with the British Govermnent and perpetual abstention
from plunder and piracy (specifically including the slave tradel by land and
sea. This treaty was followed by fur ther agreements providing for the sup·
pression of the slave trade an d. by a series of other engagements, of which
the most import:lnt are th() Perpetual Maritime Truce (~Iay l8fi3j and
the Exclusive Agreement (March 18(2). Under the la tter, the shaikbs, on
beha-If of themselves, their heirs and successors, undertook that th ey would
on no account enter into any agreement or correspondence \vith any power
other than the British Government, receive foreign a-gents, or cede, sell or
give for occupation any part of their territory save to the British Govern·
ment.
Area and Population. The area- of these states is approximately 32,300
sq. miles. The tot:ll population is estimated at about 86,000, of whom
probably between one-fifth and one-tenth are n omads. The formerly inde·
pendent small state of Kalba- on the Gulf of Oman was merged with Sharjah
in ID52.
The main commercial port of the Trucial Coast is Dubai (about 40,000
inhabita.nts). Most of the inhabitants of the coa-st depend for their livelihood
on trading and fishing; pcal'ling is st ill carricd on but has lo st its former
importance.
Government. The rulers of t he Tl'ucial States are:
Abu Dhnbi Sbnikh Sbakbut bin Sultan Succeeded 1928
Dub ..i . . . Shaikh Hasbid tJiu b[\id 1 ~rJS
Shu.rjah and Kalba . Shaikh Saqr hiD Sultan al Qasinli 1951
A.jman . Shaikb Ra;;wd bin Humaid al ~A.imi. 19~8
Grum 1'1 Qaiwain Sloaikll Aillllad bin R .... hid ai Mu'ulla, M.n.E. 1929
Has al Khaime.h Shaikll Saqr bin Mohammed al Qa"imi .. 1948
Fujaire.h Sbalkh Mvhamllled uin Ham.d "I Sharqi. Recognized 1952
Education. Primary-intermedif>te education for boys is available in all

the states except Fujairah. There are 4 boys' schools in Dubai, 2 in Sharjah,
one of which is at Khaur al ~'akkan on the Batinah coast, and one in each
of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Umm al Quwain and Ras al Khaimah. There are
girls' schools in Dubai, Sharjah and Ras al Khaimah. The educational
system is the same as that followed in Kuwait, and many of the teachers
1308 PERU
in the Trucial States are supplied by the Kuwait and Qatar education
departments.
There is also a trade school in Sharjah, financed by the British Govern.
ment.
He,lltll. There is a hospital in Dubai. The rest of the area is served
by dispensaries, which are periodically visited by a doctor from the hospital.
A!l,ticulture. For lack of water and good soil there is little agriculture
in the Trucial States. There is an agricultural trials station in Ras al
Khairr.ah, and an agricultural school is run in conjunction with it.
Finance. Revenue is principally derived from customs dues on imports
and oi.l·concession payments. Rough estimates of total revenues arc: Abu
Dhabi" Rs 2m.; Dubai, RB 4m.; Sharjah, Rs 320,000; Ra~ al Khaimah,
Rs 170,000; Ajman, Rs 90,000; Umm al Qaiwain, Rs l20,OOO; Fujairah,
Rs 14(',000.
Production. Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast), Ltd, hold oil
conceslions covering parts of the mainland, and concessions covering the
sea·bed of all the Shaikhdoms except Abu Dhabi and Dubai. Concessions
covering the Abu Dhabi and Dubai sea· beds are held by Abu Dhabi Marine
Areas Ltd and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd. Oil had not been produced in
comm(,rcial quantities by the end of 1959.
Commerce. Imports, 1958, amounted to £4,717,576; exports and re·
exports to £3.300,633. Japan is by far the biggest importing country.
Imports to the U.K. in 1950, £83,932; 19G7, £57,524; 1958, £87,8S0;
1959, :£27,584; exports from the U.K., 1956, £749,941; 1957, £776,677;
1958, £966,747; 1959, £1 ,255,230; re·exports, 1956, £517; 1957, £1,329;
1958, ~,6,216; 1959, £8,585. For earlier trade statistics see BAHRAIN.
C01.11!lunicatioM. Gulf Aviation, Ltd, a subSidiary ofB.O.A.C., operate
services between Bahrain and Sharjah, which touch Abu Dhabi. Aden
Airways operate the route Bahrain-Sharjah-Salalah-Aden. Two British
and a Dutch shipping lines call at Dubai and Sharjah.
Banking. The British Bank of the Middle East has branches in DlIbai,
Abn Dhabi and Sharjah; the Eastern Bank has a branch in Sharjah.
British Political Agent (in DlIbai). D. F . Hawley, lII.B.E.
Political Officej' (in Abu Dhabi). E. F. Hendcl'son.
PERU
REPUBLICA DEL PERU
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Republic of Peru,
former.!y the most important of the Spanish vice.royalties in South America,
declared its independence on 28 July 1821; but it was not till after a war,
protracted till 1824, that the country gained its actual freedom.
Tht1legislative power is vested in a Senate of 63 members and a Chamber
of Deputies of 182 members elected together for 6 years. Voters are
PERU 1309
Peruvian males (native· born or naturalized), at least 21 years old, who are
able to read and write; in 1956 thfl number of registered voters was about
1·6m., including, for the first time, some 300,000 women. Voting is com·
pulsory for all literate males between 21 and 60 years of age; women were
fully enfranchised by an amendment of the constitution, 7 Sept. 1955.
The President is elected for (j years and is not eligible for a consecutive
term. He receives 72,960 soles a year, plus 120.000 soles for official expenses.
The constitution gives him an economic advisory council. but such a body
had never been established; the Klein Mission (of U.S. experts) strongly
urged, in June 1950. that it be created and given substantial planning duties.
On 1 April 1936 the constitution was amended to provide for first and second
vice· presidents to be elected simultaneously with the President. Further
amendments passed in Nov. 1945 tended to increase the power of Congress,
at t,he expense of the executive.
The following is a list of presidents from 1915:
J086 Pardo y Barreda. 18 Aug. 1915-4 July Gen. Lnls M. Sil.ncbez Cerro (ConstitntioDAI),
1919.' S Dee. 1931-30 April 1933.'
AIl!ro,to Bem~rdino Leguia. 4 .Tuly 1919- Gen. Oscar Raimundo Benavides, 30 AprU
24 Aug. 1930.' 1933-8 Dec. 1939.
Gen. Manuel Ponce (Acting). 24 Aug. 1930- Dr Manucl Prado y Ugarteche. 8 Dec. 1939-
28 Aug. 1930.' 28 July 1945.
Col. Lui. M. Sanchez Cerro (A.ctin ~), 28 Aug. Dr Jose Lui~ Bustamant.e y Rivero, 28 July
1930-1 March 1931.' 1945-27 Oct. 1943.'
Ricardo Leollcio Ell"" (Acting). 1 March 1931- Gen. Mantlel A. Odt'la (Acting), 27 Oct. 19'8-
6 March 1931.' 1 June 1950.'
Col. Gu.tavo A. Jim~nez (Acting). 5 Ma.rch Gen. Zen6n Noriega. I June 1950-28 July
lnl-lO March 1931.' 1950.
David S.munez Ocarnpo (Acting). 10 March Gen. Mannel A. Odt1a. 28 July 1950- 28 July
1931- 8 Dec. 1931. 19~6.
1 Deposed. I Resigned. , Assassinated.
President. Dr Manue! Prado y Ugarteche, elected 17 June 1956, in.

augurated 28 July 1956 to serve to same date in 1962.
Election results: Prado, 568,443; lng. Fernando Belaunde Terry,
457,977; Dr Hernando de Lavalle (candidate of tbe outgoing government),
232,612.
First Vice· President. Luis Gallo Porres. Second Vice· Presidtnt.
Carlos Moreyra Paz Soldan.
Foreign Mini~ter. Dr RaU! Porras Barrenechea.
The President exercises his execut.ive functions through a cabinet of 12
ministers (120,OOQ Boles a year) , responeible to Congress. The cabinet has
its own • President.'
As of 31 July 195:, the 23 depa.rtments are divided int<l 141 provinces
(plus the • constitutional province' of Callao) and 1,436 districts; the
province of Callao has some of the functions of a department. Each depart.
ment is administered by a prefect, and each province by a sub· prefect.
MUl1icipul councillors are nominally elected by direct vote, and foreigners
are eligible. but for some years municipal bodi es have been selected without
recourse to the popular vote.
National flag: red, white, red (vertical).
National anth.em: Somos Libres, seamoslo siempre (words by J. de la
Torre Ugal'te; tune by J. B. Alcedo, 1821).
AREA AND POPULATION. According to the Geographical Society

of Lirna, the area of Peru is 1,331,410 sq. km (514,059 sq. miles); but the
1310 PERU
Anuario Estadistico retains the figure of 1,249,049 sq. km (482,259 sq. miles),
an estimate made in 1930, which allowed for the cession of 43,870 sq. miles
to Colombia in 1927, and of 7,670 sq. miles to Chile in 1928, but could not
include the boundary adjustments with Ecuador in Feb. 1942. Final
determ ination of the area has been assigned to tue Military Institute of
Geography.
Th" long-standing ruspute with Chile over the provinces of Taclla and
Aricn (tee THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BoOK, 1928, p. 1198) reached an amicable
settloment on 3 June 1929 at Lima, Tacna going to Peru and Ariea to Chile.
For all account of the settlement of other boundary disputes, .fee TH1I
STATE1'MAN'S YEAR-BoOK, 1948, p. 1173. A map of the boundary with
Ecuador is to be found in TOE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BoOK, 1942.
A new census under the rurection of a special commission, of population.
housing. agriculture and livestock, is scheduled for 1960.
An oflicif\l census taken on 9 June 1940 gave the population as 6,207,967,
of whom 3,283,360 were white or mestizo. 29,054 Negroes, 2.847.196 Indian.
41,\145 Asi"tics and 6,412 miscellaneous. There were 3,067,868 men and
3.140,099 women. Revision of the 1940 census figures makes the total
7.023.111, Itllowmg for 465,144 omissions and 350,000 Indians in forests.
The language is Spanish. but the Indian population speak either Quechua or
AyJllar>i.
The estimated population (1958) of Lima was 1,186,212; Callao City.
129,36!'; Arequipa, 121 ,8!J6; Cuzco, 68,48:i; Trujillo, 60,427; Chiclayo.
54,390; Iquitos, 54,286; Huancl1Yo, 47,486; lea. 34,230; Piura. 32,147;
Cerro de Paseo, 28,484. and Avacucho. 26,650.
Birth rate, 1958. was 31 per 1.000 population; death rate. ll; marriage
rate,4 infantile mortality rate (1953),98'2 per 1,000 live births.
The areas of 23 departments (and total area of the various islands) are
given below with the population, according to the official census (revised) of
1940 and the official estimate for 30 June 1958. The department of Pas co.
created in Nov. 1\144 from the department of .Tunln, is shown with its present
area aud 1958 estimate. The chief towns are shown in brackets:
Popubtion
Area JUO Pop. per
(sq. km) (cenS'"s) 1958 .CI. km
Departments 1940 (reviud) (estimaled) i958
Deparlm(?1114.'
.dlDawn .. (Chachapoyas) 36,122 89,560 122,447 3·4
Ancash (I1uar~z) 38,OR!, 465,135 644.418 16·9
AjJurhnBc (I\bancay) 21,~09 280,213 388,630 18'4
Arequ'pa (Arequipa) 56,8;;7 270,996 375,126 6'6
Ayncu·oho (Ay.cucho) 47,111 414,208 572,~59 12-1
Cajaml\fca (OajlWlarca) 32,482 668,118 785,233 24·1
C..lIao (Callao) 1 37 84,438 175,332 4,752'5
Cuzco (Cuzco) .. 144,3-14 56.1,458 782,432 5·4
Hnancf\velica (Hun.ncB'relica.) 21,496 265.557 368.237 17·1
Hululuco (Iluanuco) . 39.965 276,833 881,669 9'5
Ica (le.) . . 25,379 144,547 199,79, 1'9
Junln (Huatlcayo)' 28,921 500,161 529,199 18·3
La Llloertad (Tn,ji.J1o) 26,441 404,024 659,731 21-1
Lambs.voque (Chiclayo) 11,952 19\1.660 276,547 23'1
Lima (Lima) . 38,984 849,171 1,625,848 42·1
Loreta (Iqult.o.) .. 308,991 321,341 433.560 1-4
Madre de Ill". (Maldonado) 1~2,402 25,212 33,289 0·2
Moqu e~ua (Moquegt1a) 14,375 35.709 49,497 S'5
P&sco tC<>rt'o de Pasco) 80,184 160,309 5·8
Piura (Piura) . 39,468 431,487 698,157 16'2
1 Co[,stitutioDally, CaJlao is a Proviuce.
• Pre,ellt area and 1958 population shown but the population for 1940 Is that at the
larger ar"a (22,814 sq. miles) from which Paaco WB8 carved in 19".
PERU 1311
Population
Area 1940 Pop. per
(sq. km) (Cffl.tl<S) 1958 sq. km
Deparlments 1940 (r""ised) (estimated) 1958
Departments (conld.):
Pun" (T'uno). • 67,703 646.385 896,510 13·2
San Mart!n (Moyobamba) 4".20~ 120.913 165.!.I24 3·7
Tacna ('l'acnn) . 12.747 37,6U 51,U2U 4·1
TUlDh •• (TlIllllJe") 4.120 ~.I3.·j73 36,Oil 8·8
lAkt Titit:actl 4.HO
'Variotu i.f/andJ 32
Tot·al 1,249,049 7,023,111 10,213,000 8'2
RELIGION. Religious liberty exiRts, but the Roman Catholic religion

is protected by the state, and since 1929 only Roman Catbolic religious
instruction is permitted in schools, state or private. There are (1956) 4
Roman Catholic archbishops (the archdiocese of Lima, dating from 1545,
takes precedence), 12 bishops, 4 vicars-general, 2 apostolic prefects, 1,662
priests, 605 cloistered monks and 3,182 members ofreligious orders. There
are 1,364 churches, 2,434 chapels, 81 convents and 226 religious houses. The
Junta of Government in Oct. 1930 decreed that all ma.rriages mu~t be civil,
regardless of religion and preceded by medical examination; thero are
liberal divorce regulations, including divorce for' absence without just cause
for more than 2 yeltr~,' and by mutual consent. Divorcees may re·marry
immediately. A law of 1936 ~mphllsizeB that the religious obligations of
marriage are fully recognized.
EDUCA TION. Elementary euucation is compulsory and free for bot.h

sexes between the ages of 7 and 16; secondary education is also free. But
schools, despite substantial increases, are still t oo few. The system is
highly centrali7.ed; all teaching appointments are made by the Minister
of Education for the public schools ; for the private schools he supervises
plant and equipment but does not appoint teachers_
In HJii7 there were 12,944 public, private and state-supervised elementary
schools, including kindergartens, with 32,113 tca chers and 1,233,937 pupils.
There were 138 state secondary schools, with 3,225 teachers, offering 5.year
course" to 58,334 students; religious orrlers, etc., conducted 273 secondary
schools. with 3,445 teachers and 45,2()9 students_ Training in 131 public
technical schools (28 farm-training, 68 industrial and 35 commercial) is also
free; in 1957 they had 2,900 teachers and 22,486 pupils. Fifty-seven rural
schools for the Indians give primary school education and instruction in
agriculture and livegtock. There are also 29 normal schools for t eachers.
Higher educa.tion is provided at the central university in Lima, called
• Universidltd Nltcionll.l Mayor de Sltn Marcos,' founded by Charles V in 1551.
Students in 1957 numbered 10,557; teachers,I,134. There are 3 other state
uni,ersities at Arequipa (founded in 1827), with (1957) 1,650 students and
135 teachers, Cnzco with L254 stucients and 222 teachers, Tnljillo, 2,944
students and 176 teachers. while the Catholic University (Lima) had 1,791
students ItDd 213 teachers. Th e state maintains the National College for
Engineering (2,282 students and 434 teachers) and the National College of
Agriculture (795 students and S4 teuehers).
Cinemas (1959). Cinemas numbered 385, with seating capacity of
420,000.
Newspapers (June 1958). There were 38 daily newspapers; in all there
were 165 newspapers and periodicals.
1312 PERU
SOCIAL WELFARE. There were, in 1956, 124 hospitals (17,781 beds),

of which 30 were private, 22 administered by the state and 61 by co.operative
groups. Physicians numbered 1,608, equal to 1 per 6,350 of the popula.
tion.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered in the Supreme Court at Lima corn·
posed (If 11 judges and 5 fiscals, and in 19 superior courts composed of 156
judges and 42 fiscals. The judges of the Supremo Court are chosen by
Congress from lists of names presented by the Government; those of the
Buperior courts and of the minor courts are chosen by the Government
from lists of names presented by the supreme and Buperior courts, respec·
tively.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure for 5 years were as follows
in soles:
19~6 1956 1907 19~8 1959'
Revenue. 2,84~,696,792 .,OI0,4~8,91S 6,197,587,406 5,287m. 6,846m.
Erpendit,ure 2,830,469,~29 3,535,123,482 6,455,688,197 6,265m. 6,846m.
, Budget estimates.
In the 1959 budget proposed expenditures include (in lm. soles): De.
fence,l,420-6: finance,l,073'8; interior (including police), 828'5: education,
1,153'1; public works, 837'5: public health, 9869.
The external debt, at rates ruling on 31 Dec. 1957, totalled 3,324·6m.
soles; :2,835·2m. in US$: 330·4m . in £: 153·lIm. in Argentine pesos, and
4·9m. in Swiss francs. The consolidated intornal debt amounted to
2,241·7m., the floating internal debt to 342·5m. and the 'Debt by Admini·
stration' to 40·4m., making a total public debt of 5,949·2m. soles. In
addition, the state had a liability as guarantor of 353m. soles in rc-spect of
loans made to private entities.
The Peruvian Congress, 24 March 1954, passed a law providing for
the resnmption of payments on the sterling debt. According to the Bank of
England, residents of U.K. in 1953 held investments in Peru with a nominal
value of £21m, (1938, £25m.), from which the income received was £600,000
(1938, £400,000). The U.S. Department of Commerce estimates American
investments in 1950 as S140m.
DEFENCE. The national budget for 1959 included the following
estimates: War, S/.725·4m.; Air, S/.398·8m.; Navy, S/.296·4m.
Army. Military sen"ice is compulsory and universal, though only a
limited number of the annual quota of conscripts is called up for active duty
with the colours. The term of service is 2 years and all males of 20-25
years of age are liable.
The country is divided into 8 military districts.
The Army consists of iufantry divisions, an armoured division and
a jungle division. The light infa.ntry is made up of infantry, artillery and
cavalry elements.
The national police force has a strength of about 18,000 including the
'Guardia Civil' and the 'Guardia Republicana', the latter being responsible
for supplying prison guards.
Navy. The Peruvian Navy consists of 2 cruisers, Almirante Grau
(ex·Newfoundland) and Coronel Bolognesi (ex.Ceylon), acquired from
Great Britain in 1959-60; 3 destroyer escorts and 3 frigates; 4 new
submarines completed in the U.S.A. in ] 934-57; 4 L.S.T.s: 8 river gun·
PERU 1313
boats; 2 transports; 2 river transports; 3 8,000·ton tankers, and 5 smaller
tankers; 6 motor launches; 2 fleet supply ships; a submarine salvage
vessel and 2 tugs. There is a nava l school for cadets at La Punta and a
submarine base at El Callao.
Air Fwce. The Air Force is under the direction of the Air Ministry.
The General Air Stair controls the organization of the Air Force. Officers
and pilots are trained at the Air War Academy in Lima.
The operational force consists of 37 jet fighters (Hunters and F·80C
Shooting Stars), 7 jet bombers (Canberras), 16 piston.engined attack
bombers (B.26), 12 piston.engined transports and 1 helicopter. There are
also 9 jet and 68 piston.engined trainers and 21 miscellaneous aircraft.
There are military airfields at Talara, Chiclayo, Piura and Las Palmas, and
a seaplane base at Iquitos.
PRODUCTION. The distribution of working population in 1056 was
(in 1,000) : Agriculture, 2,158·9; industry, 605'7; professions, 212·1;
commerce, 159·8 ; government, 119·2; services, 118·2; mining and
petroleum,69 ; banking and insurance, 12.
Agriculture. The country may be divided into 3 zones: the coast strip,
with an average width of 80 miles ; the Sierra, or Uplands, lying between
the coast range of mountains and the Andes proper; and the forest or
wooded region, called the Montana. Land under cultivation, 1956, WIIB
1,695,723 hectares; unused potentially productive land, I3m. hectares. In
the arid coast region the Government has brought under irrigation 62,"'00
acres during the last few years. A fertilizer factory near El Callao started
production in June 1959.
Peru is a substantial importer of foodstuffs, chiefly wheat (289, III metric
tons, 19( 7), but including also fats and oil, meat and dairy produ cts, which
use up over 20% of the available foreign exchange.
About 62% of the population i~ dependent on agriculture, mainly with
the help of irrigation. The chief agricultllrnl productions of Peru are, in
the order named: Cotton, sugar, wool, hides, skins, coffee and rice.
Cotton production (1958) was 1J5,000 mctric tons from 242,391 hecta res .
Pima and Tangtiis are especially fa mons. Exports of ginned cotton in
1954-55 approached 384,700 bales (of 478 lb.), compared with 400,000 bales
(a record) in the previous season. Exports, calendar year 1958, ]03,223
metric tons; 1950, 73,611 metric tons.
The sugar industry is carried on chiefly by irrigation in the river ... alleYR
of the coast region and by sinking wells (1 lb. of sugar is estimated to require
500 gallons of water). Peru is a Jow·cost producer. About 60 large estates
covering 75,000 acres raise 95% of the crop; production (1958). 708,561
metric tons; exports in 1958, 410,684 tons, chiefly to Chile and Japan.
Peru, at the International Sugar Conference in Oet. 1958, obtained an
export quota of 490,000 tons.
The chief coffee.growing districts are ChanchaIDayo, PerelHi and Pall car-
tambo in central Peru; output, 1957, was 18,290 metric tons. Exports are
small and chiefly to U.S.A. Cocoa cultivation is extending, especially in
the Perene region. Wheat·growing on the plateaux of the Andes is en-
couraged. Wheat production (195i) \vas 139,831 metric t ons from 146,830
hectares.
Rice production, 1957, was 157,860 metric tOllS (clean, hulled ); there
were no exports. It grows well in the valleys of Piura, Lambayeque, La
Libertad and Ancasb.
vv
1314 PERU
The gathering of wild rubber, once the most important industry in the
Amazon region of Peru, is again being stimulated; 1956, 773 metric tons
high grade and 1,408 metric tons low grade; 1957, 559 and 1,148 metrio
tons re:lpectively. Exports of bala.ta, quinine, quinoll, kapok and rotenone
from this region are beillg pushed. Tobacco, wines and spirits, olives, ramie
and maize are a.lso produced. Coca. (made a government monopoly in 1949)
is grown for the Indian population, which chews the leaf, but cocaine is
manufMtured in Lima, Cuzco and several other towns, principally for
export ; exports are about 1,000 kg. In addition there are dyes, cinchona.
and other medicinal plants.
Output of cattle hides, 1956, 332,000; sheepskins, 2,972,000; goat-
skins,768,Ooo; pigskins,340,OOO. Export of hides and skins, 1957, 1,135'3
metric tons. Output of sheep wool ranges from 15 to 20m. lb.; in 1956
it was 9,500 metric tons. Alpaca and llama wool and vicuna hair are
exported; exports, 1957, were sheep wool, unwashed, 2,358 metric tons;
sheep wool, washed, 661; alpaca,llama, etc., 3,531 metric tons.
Livestock (1957): 2,877,200 llamas, alpacas, etc., 1,068,400 horses and
mules, 3,331,500 ca ttle, 14,396,400 sheep, 4,168,000 goats, 1,247,000 swine,
12·43m. poultry.
Fisiierie8. Fishing industry has expanded from a catch of 10,000 metric
tons in 1942 (consumed locally) to 453,134 tons in 1957, of which 60,164
were consumed locally and the rest used by the freezing and ca.nning in·
dust,ry and the production of fish meal. Exports, 1957, frozen fish and
consen-es, 32,100 metric tons ; fish mea.I, 61,644 metric tons. There were,
in \!Ii)?, 57 canning factories, 48 reduction plants, 4 whaling plants and 6
freezer plants. A new factory.ship is expected too produce 20-30 tons of
fish·meal a day.
Mining. Lead, copper, iron, silver, zinc a.nd petroleum a.re the chief
minerals exploited. Crude petroleum output, from 3,100 wells, is ~teady
around 2·2m. metric tons-19·2m. bbls (of 42 gallons) in 1957 and 18·7m. in
1958. Oil consumption is growing and now absorbs more than 70% of the
producl;ion. The state·owned Empresa Petrol era Fiscal has 94 wells pro·
ducing 1,059,894 bbls in 1957. In March 1957 the' El Oriente' Company
made a promising strike at Contarnana, in Loreto. Mine production. 1957,
(in metric tons) of copper, was 57,174 (1958,48,367); lead, 137,152 (1958,
120,489); zinc, 154,.156; antimony, R34; tungsten, 661; bismuth, 365;
gold, 5,033,522 grammes (1958, 132,826 fine oz.); silver, 772,774 kg (1958,
24,157,907 fine oz.); gypsum,42,586; barite, 86,535 (1958, 106,022); re·
fractory clay, 1,545. Iron deposits are large; production (60% Fe), 1957,
3·58m. (1958, 2·59m .) metric tons. Excellent coal deposits, with an ash
content- of from 5 to 7% lie near by; output. 1957, 140,557 metric tons;
manganese (50%), 6,315,661 kg. The new cement pla.nt opened in 1957 at
Pacasmayo has a capacity of 100,000 tons a year; 3,206,694 bbls were
produced in 1957.
Foreign interests, especially American, predomina.te in the petroleum
industry. Mine concessions, HIM, numbered 10,167.
The government.controlled gua.no deposits on Huanillos, Punt.a Lobos
and other islands are important; the 1957 production was 285,407 metric
tons, about 45% of the country's requirements; but the bird popula.tion is
decreasing.
Production of sa.lt in 1957 was 114,061 metric tons.
lnd'ustry. At the end of 1956, 4,331 industria.l entities reported 17.033
employees and 106,051 workmen; ca.pital and reserves totalled 5,945·6m.
PERU 1315
solos. Textiles form t.he most important industry-·its 248 concerns with
resource~ amounting to ~!.I,I 81m. employed 23,554. There are (l4 spinning.
and-wcavin~ mills, and 59 IVcltvinj:! mills, comprising co tton, 12; wool,26;
silks and rayons, 17; linen,·1. Abo, th ere are 7 (1 knitting factories and 29
ruanuf,',cturers of stuckings and sncks. Other industries inclu de boots and
shoes, cement, t.vr()s and rubber products, flour, paint, hollow ware, soap,
glas~, leather good8, housing components, explosive, fertilizer, plastic.~,
chemical. and provisions.
Perll 's first iron aJld steel mill came into production at Chimbote in
April 1958, with total output at the rste of some GO/IUO tOD3 per annum.
Products inelu<ie pig.iron, bloomR, billets. largets, round and round-de·
formed bars, wire rod, black and gal ~' anized sheets and gal van i7.ed roofing
sheets. !terractories are manufactured at, Lima.
The Govenuuent has a mOJlopoly in the import and/or local manufacture
and sale of gllano, salt, alcohol, explosives t1,l1d playing cards; the ltl<lnopoly
in matches was ub,tndoned in 1954 and that in tobacco in June )!j55.
Foreign direct investments in 1952 were equal to V8Sli70l. (US$40m.
in 1951), ofwhicb $21·4m. were in mining, S12·7m. in petroleum and $2·2m.
in agriculture, mainly sugar. l!'oreign O\vners of investmen ts in Peru drew
out parnings of lJ8$20·4m. in 1953 and $:?0·6m . in H)5:? The capital of the
Banco Industrial was raised from S/.3Im. to S/.400m. by law of 8 1<'eb.1957.
Electricity. Peru's potential hydro-electric capacity is estimated at
6·4m. h.p .. but the capacity of existing hydro-electric plants is only 275,000
h.p. (205.0 12 kw.); the plant at Pauccartambo inaugura t,ed on 17 March
1957 adds G5.000 kw., working up to 100,000. In additioll there were in
1954,336 thermal plants with a caplLcity of 74,325 kw. Total consumption,
1955, was 408·5m. kwh., chiefly in Lima and Callao.
Trade Unions. Trade unions have about 400,000 members, mainly

for t exti le work ers, bank clerk~, rnilway workers, bus and taxi drivel'S,
miners, oil workel's and stevedores. The central trade union organization
is the Confederaci6n de Trabajadores del Per'It, which was re constituted in
1956 after being in abeyance for some years.
COMMERCE. The value of trade has been as follO\vs (in soles):

1947' 1955 19:;6 1957 1958
Import. l,on.321.8n9 6,764,lH.526 6.93.1.472.780 7,361,381,328 7,80~.081.~07
Exports 1,002.V43,01O 5,146,334.602 5,917,262.311 6,270,l()6,n51 6,776,(;86,960
1 F'irst unfavourable trade balance in Pf'ruvian history.
All imports from the U.S.S. R., China, Albania, Bulgaria, Eastern
Germany, Hungary, Poland and Rumania a re prohibited since 13 March
1953.
Chief imports, by value, in Im. soles in 1958 were: Machinery and
apparatns, 1,442; foodstuff~, drinks and tobacco, 1,330; vehi cle8 anc! parts,
949; metalR and manufactures thereof, 840; chemicals and pharmaceuticuls,
808; electrical machines and apparatus, 575; fuel and lubricants, 2!l3;
textiles and yarns, 284; paper, cardboard, etc., 183; fats a nd waxes, 178;
non-metallic minerals, 130 : wearing apparel, 126.
Imports in 19.5(l, 1,3o!l,839; 1957, 1,427,418: 1958,1,184,392 metric
tons. Export,s in j!)5G, 5,008,845; 1957,6,226,559: 1958,4,626,480 metric
tons.
1316 PERU
The distribution of the trade (in SJ.lm.) was mainly as follows:

Imf,arM from 1957 1958 Exports to 1957 19';8
U.S.A. 3,646 3,671 U.fl.A. 2,192 2,500
German:;r . 748 829 Chile 499 689
U .K. 639 621 U.K. 634 620
Canada 216 S~ 1 Belgium . 329 458
Argentina. 3,,7 2/<1 Germa.ny . 370 421
Netberl,.nds 223 252 Netberlands 341 413
Belgium . 138 222 Canal Zone S8~ 348
Switzerllnd 177 217 Japan 4:;6 193
Italy 146 20ii France 149 168
Sweden 169 162 Italy 111 166
France 176 141 Bolivia 83
Japan 185 145 Sweden 78
Tol.al trade between Peru and U.K. in £ sterling (British Board of Trade
returnH) :
1938 1955 1966 1967 1958 19:>9
lmporta to U.K. • 3,420,594 12,662 ,307 16,679,611 14,128,63911,932,008 14,391,711
Bxports from U.K • . 1,033,139 8,647.043 13,990,309 10,:>41,467 7,799,317 6,199,091
Be-expo.rtatrom U.K. 31,8i7 42.976 62,407 41,43:> 65,732 46,6UO
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1957,ll,899vesseisofl7,937,747

tons entered, and 11,675 of 18,014,228 tons cleared the ports, chief of which
is Callao. Since 1928 the coasting trade has been largely reserved for
Peruvian-owned vessels with Peruvian crews; in 1955 it handled 1,684,624
tons, valued at 799,345,675 soles. The merchant marine, 1953, consisted
of 13 vessels (53,066 tons) in international trade, 15 (of 19,944 tons) in
coastal trade and J8 (3,628 tons) in inland waters. Lloyds reports, 1954.28
steamships (64,827 gross tons) and 21 motor ships (32,467 tons). In March
1957 it was agreed to spend USS6m. on 6 'Liberty' type ships each of
10,000 tons, and 2 of 4,000 tons.
Ro(ws. There were in 1957 about 39,119 km, of which 8,206 km were
mado '~p and 3,942 km aRphalted. The CentraJ Highway over the Andes
from Lima to Oroya was completed in 1935; the Callao-Huauuco-Pucallpa
Highway, completed ill 1943, opens up the rich eastern portion of Peru and
makes possible a land and water journey (via the Ucayali and Amazon
rivers) from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. In 1944 the Lima.-
Pucallpa Highway, 522 milcs, was completed, joining Lima with Iguitos.
In Ul57 there were 64,360 motor cars, 48,747 motor lorries, 6,014 buses,
a total of 118,848 vehiclcs, of which 72,881 \Vcro in Lima and Callao districts.
Railways. In 1957 the total working length of the railways was 2.726
km. ir.cluding 524 km retained by the state. These are standard gauge
(4 ft 8~ in.), with the exception of 5 amalllines. A railway linking the new
port of Matarani with the south (78 km) was opened in Jan. 1951. Number
of pas.gengers in 1057,6,205,722; goods, 4,759.803 metric tons.
Post. In 1957 there were 1,843 post offices, 283 telegraph and 382 tele-
phone stations and 79 radio-telegraph offices. Length of telegra.ph lines
was 21,720 km. The privately-owned telephone system (1959) had 91,242
instruments. of which 63,722 were in Lima; rad io.telephone circuits connect
Lima with distant towns. Three submarine telegraph cables connect Peru
and Chile. and one connects Peru and the republics to the north. There
are 58 broadcasting stations, of which 6 are government. Wireless receiving
PERU 1317
sets, about 600,000. Three television stations in Lima, and one in Arequipa
started in 1950.
Aviation. In 1957, 323,454 pessengers used the commercial aviation
routes, covering 13·6m. km with 800,027 kg of mail and 20·9m. kg of cargo.
Air·mail and passenger services connect Lima and the capitals of every
South American republic has been established. The first Peruvian inter·
national line, Aerolineas Peruanas, 8.A. began operating with 3 planes on
3 June 1957; and Expreso Aereo Peruano S.A. was authorized to begin
"ith 2 freight planes.
MONEY AND BANKING. The sol (S/.) has no fixed par since 14 Nov.
1949. The free rate, legal even before that date for certain transactions
such as the sale of mined gold to the Central Bank, was 8/.6,99 to the S in
1946, 12-51, in 1947, 15·18 in 1951, 19·69 in 1954 and 23'40 in 1958. The
average rate for the first 6 months of 1959 w as 27·14.
Peru's currency unit, the Peruvian gold 801 (hy law of 18 April 1931),
was equal to one-tenth of the old Peruvian libra or pound; the gold sol was
not then minted but contained, theoretically, 42·1264 centigrams of fine
gold. Eventually, in 1950, gold 10-501 and 50-sol pieces were minted for
the account of gold producers, out of the gold they had been required to
deliver to the Bank; the coins were then exported and sold. the proceeds
being handed to the gold producer less minting and selling costs. Peru
abandoned the gold standard on 18 May 1932. but refrained from attempting
to control foreign exchange until an acute shortage of dollars compelled h~r
to attempt it, beginning in 1945.
The buying rate for £1 sterling on 15 Dec. 1956 was 8/.51,75; selling
rate, S/.52·50. Middle rates in 1956 ranged between S/.51·5 and 54'2, and
in 1958 between 53·4 and 71-[i. The average rate for the first 6 months of
1939 was 76·23.
Silver is legal tender up to 10% of the amount, but silver coins-the sol,
and half-sol, loths fine-<list\ppeared beginning in 1935 and were replaced
by coins, including the sol and half·sol (copper-zinc), the 20, 10 and 5 cen·
tavos (copper-zinc and copper-nickel) and 2 and 1 centavo (zinc-copper).
Peru has a paper currency issued by the Banco Central of 10,5, 1 and 5 soles
denomination which still circulate; the new notes are in denominations
of 500, 100,50, 10 and 5 soles.
The Govenlment bank of issue, known as the Banco Central de Reserva
del Peru, was established 9 March 1922, and in Sept. 1931 was reorganized,
on the advice of the Kemmerer Financial Mission, as the Central Reserve
Bank with a 30-year charter and authorized capital of 30m. soles (reduced
to 10m. soles in May 1932). The bulk of the gold st.ock is under. valued ;
some 525,289 oz. are carried on the books at a valuation equivalent to
$11-35 a fine oz. instead of $35. Gold Btock in the 1940s ranged between
$20m. and $32m.; it rose to $45·7m. in March 1951, fell to S36m. in Oct.
1953, and to S34·8m. in 1954 and since. The bank had on 31 Dcc. 1957
gold and foreign exchange totalling US$ 34·!)m.
Banks, domestic and foreign, are supervised by the Superintendent of
Banks. There were, 31 Dec. 1958, 10 important domestic banks and 3
foreigll-l British, 1 CaMdian and 1 American-with advances of 5,245m.
80les and deposits of 6,214m. soles.
measures was established by law in 1869. and since 1916 has come into
general use. Spanish measures are still in use.
1318 PERU
Peru maintains embassies in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile,
Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, German Federal
Republic, Italy, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Spain, U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay,
Vatican, Venezuela; and legations in Belgium, Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Haiti, Honduras, Japan, Lebanon, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Portugal,
Sweden (and Denmark and Norway), Switzerland (and Austria), United
Arab Hepublic.
OF PERU IN GREAT BRITADI (34 Porchester Terrace, W.2)
Am.bassador. Dr Ricardo Rivera Schreiber, K.B.E. (accredited 26 Oct.
1954).
Counsellor. Dr Arturo Garcia. Commercial Counsellor and Consul·
General. Felipe Rotalde.
Ai,' Attache. Col. Teodomiro Gabilondo.
There are consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingh:;.m, Cardiff,
Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool and London.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN PERU

Ambassador. Sir Berkeley Gage, K.C.M.G.
First Secretaries. T. R.M. Sewell (Consul); L. P. F . L'Estrange, O.B.E.
(Commercial).
Naval Attache. Capt. J. R. Gower, D.S.C., RN. Air Attache. Group
Capt. ,r. M. Morgan, D.F.C. (both resident in Santiago, Chile).
There are consuls at Lima, Iquitos and .~equipa, and vice·consuls at
Callao, Mollendo and Lobitos.
OF PERU IN THE U.S.A. (1320-l6th St. NW., Washington 6, D.C.)
Ambassador. Fernando Berkemeyer.
Ministers Counsellor. Miguel Grau; Carlos Donayre (Commercial).
Comm.nial Counsellor8. Carlos Gibson ; Emilio Guimoye Hemandez.
First Secretaries. Jorge W. Nicholson; Antonio Lulli. Service Attac1!e,s:
Brig.·Gen. Salvador Garcia.Zapatero (Army), Rear·Adm. Luis Edgardo
Llosa (Navy), Maj.·Gen. Manuel P. Garcia (A ir). Commercial Attaches.
Fernando Morales Macedo; Alfredo Valencia. Cnltural Attache. Alfonso
Espinc·sa P .
OF THE U.S.A. IN PERU
Ambassador. Theodore C. Achilles.
Co'unsellors. Jack D . Neal ; Francis A. Linville (Economic). S ervice
Attaclu!s : Col. Laul'ence C. Brown (Army), Cmdr Jay W. Land (Navy),
Lieut. ·Col. Vernon J. Lyle (A ir). Agricultural Att.ache. Clarence E. Pike.
There are consular agents at Arequipa and 110.
Books of Reference
The official gazette is El Peruano, Lima.
Anuari" E .•tadbtito del PerU, Annual.-Rolelin de Estad istica PerualUl.. QUalterly.-D.!mar.
cacWn Politica del Peru. (Direcci6n Nacionai de E"t.adlstica), Lima
Cemo lo'acio7UJJ Pobladdn, 1940. 9 vols. Lima, 1947-4"
E3tad14tica del Comercio EEltTior (SuperiTdtn<iencia dt Aduanas). Lima
Banco Cen/ral de RutT1Ja. Monthly Dulletin.--Rtnta Na<iollal del peru.. Annual, Lima
REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES 1319
Waisteno de Fomonto Lima publi<b", separate annual stat·lstics on the mining and
petrolcnm industries nnrl on general industry; the ~'ool tert.i1e and cotton te.:s: tile indlL.:.tries,
tho Pernvian Chamber of Commerce nnd the Na.tional Agra.rian Society furn..ish annual studies.
Basadre, .T., History of Peru, 1935.-1'f' ru : pTobtem .uvJ r~i(!I. Limu., 1936.-History of
Perut'illn law. Lima, 1 ~j38
Dehllude, V . A .. La Crnl stitucii11llnicirll cl!l 1'('1'(, (}llie et Derecho /nternaciollat. Lima, 1~42
Dellepiane, CarJo~, llisturia Militar de' J'eTU. :.? vol8. HUf'!llOS Ai..rC8, 1~41
Dennis, W. J., 1'acna (lnd Arica: an .d.ccowd of the Chilf'-I)eru Boundary Dispute and 0/ th~
,Ar!)itTflti(lns b!I the United States. Yale \;n iv. p;-(~~ ~ . bin
K1iD~. G., Polit/ri.J A(lri(o/rl dlimenl ida Ut et Pr:rli. 1950
Mendibunl, M. dt!, l}iccionario l1iRu,iri.cQ·lJiv!rajic() ikll'efl~. Hev. ed., with note::; by EVlU'isto
San Cristo<al, 10 vol.. Lima, 193·1
Quifte. A.~ P!'r1Jt'ian Public Administration. Limn., 1US!)
Rornero. E., G((lgra/ta E('V7lrfmica del Pcrli.--lIist(}ria ECQnomica dd l'eMi. Lima, 1~49
Ton'e, BeDjamfn de la. Peru . Statistical and Econo11l ir: Review. Londou 1053
V.leg" . J., llist<Jry u/ Peru. Lima, In8
N.\1'ION,\L LmrB,RY. BcllaT'u;ta 179, Miro.fiores. Director: Orist6bai de Losada y PUZB.
REPUBI..IC OF THE PHILIPPINES

REPUBLICA DE FrLIPINAS-REPUDLmA NO PILIPINAS
TRl> Philippines were discovered by Magcllan in 1521 and conquered by
Spain in 1565. Following the Spanish-American war, tho islands were
ceded to the U.S.A. on 10 Dec. 1898, after the Filipinos had tried in vain to
establish an independent republic in 1896.
The Republic of the Philippines came into existence on 4 July 19·16, by
agreement with the V.S. Government embodied in an Act of Congress signed
by President Roosevelt on 24 March 1934, accepted by the Philippine
Legislature on 1 May 1934 and ratified at a plebiscit.e on 14 May 1935. This
Aet established a 10·year t~ansitionaj period, designated as that of the
• Philippine Commonwealth, at the end of \vhich complete independence
was automatieltlly effective. For details of the' Commonwealth' period,
'tt THE STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK, 1946, p. 674,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The republic is governed by

a constitution adopted on 14 1I1ay 1935 and amendeci in 1940 and 1946.
The P resident and Vice-President are elected for 4 years; both mity be re-
elected for nn ather t erm. The Prcsiden t is assisted by 10 departmental
secretltrie.i in charge of Foreign Affairs; Financ0; Justice; National
Defen00; Health; Educa.tion; I'u blic Works and Communications;
Labour; Commerce and Industry; Agl'iculturo and Natu ral Resources;
and by 5 other officials of cabinet rank, namely the Execut.ive Sccretary,
the BIHiget Commissioller, the Social Welfare Commissioner, the Chairman
of the Nation,,1 EC<JOomic Council nnd the Press Secretary.
Pres,:dent. Carlos P . Garcia (Nacionalistn Party), who as Vice· President
succeeded President Ramon i"bg~aysay on the latter's death on 17 March
1957, and wns elected on 12 Nov. ]fJ57 by 1,937,514 votes aglLinst i,350,514
cast for his closest rival, Jose Yulo (Liberal Party).
Vice·Presid"nt. Di<)sdado Macapaga l (Liueral Party), who was elected
on 12 N ov. 1057 by 2,ODD,I93 votes agau1st 1,794,484 cast for hi8 closest
oppollent Jose Laurel, Jr (Nacionalista PlLrty).
Congress eonsists of a Senate of 24 members aud a House of Representa-
tives of 102 memb~rs. Suflrage is enjoyed by male and f~male citizens 21
1320 REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
years of age or older who can read or write Spanish, English or a native
dialect; and who meet certain residential qualifications. Registered voters
at the presidential election, 1957, numbered 'i·3m.
The constitution vests in the repuhlic all ownership of the country',
naturEJ resources, which, apart from public agricuJtural land, may not be
alienal;e<i. Exploitation of natural resources was originally limited by the
constit ution to citizens of the PhiUppinel' and to corporations or associations
60% tlf whose capital is owned by Filipinos. However, an agreement was
signed with the U.S.A. on 4 July 1946, throwing open to American interests
or companies the exploitation of any resources and public.utility business
open r..o Filipinos. The agreement expires in 1974. It was ratified at a
plebisllite on 11 March 1948. Concessions and leases are limited to 25 years.
reDl'w;~ble for another 25 years. Maximum area of agricuJtural land whioh
any corporation may acquire or lease is 2.500 acres.
N D:tional flag: blue and red (horizontal), with a white canton charged
with 8 . gold Bun (with 8 rays) and 3 gold stars.
National hymn: • Tierra adorada,' • Land of the morning,' words by
Joss Palma (1899), tune by Julian Felipe (1898).
LOCA.L GOVERNMENT. The country is administratively divided into
provinces, municipalities and cities. Each province elects its executive,
consis~ing of a governor and 2 members of the provinCial board. The
municipalities are public corporations. each composed of a number of
villagtls; the elected municipal mayor is the execut·ive official. There are
30 chs.rtered cities; their mayors are elective.
AUEA AND POPULATION. The group is situated betwecn 21° 20'

II.nd 4" 30' N. lat. and between 116° 55' and 1260 E. long. It is composed of
7.000 islands and islets, 2,773 of which are named; only 462 have areas of
1 sq. mile or over. Total area, 115,707 sq. miles; land area, 114,830 sq.
miles. The II most important islands with their areas are: Luzon, 40,420
eq. miles; IIlindanao, 36,537; Samar, 5,050; Negros. 4,005; Palawan,
4,550 ; Panay,4,446; Mindoro,3,759; Leyte,2,785; Cebu,I,703; Bohol,
1,492, and Masbate. 1,262 sq. miles.
In July 1948 the Philippine Government took over from the British
North Borneo Company the Turtle Islands, a small group off the northern
tip of Borneo about 400 miles away.
The total population at the census of 1 Oct. 1948 was 19,234,182, or
167 persons per sq. mile of land area; estimate, 1959, 24m.
The population of Manila, the capital, in 1953, was 1·2m. The new
cn.pits.l, Quezon City, just north· east of Manila, had 11 population of 107,977
in 1948 (census).
Ot.h er cities, with their population in Oct. 1948 (census), are: lloilo on
Panay, 1I0,122; Cebu on Cebu, 167,503; Zamboanga on Mindanao,
103,317; Davao on Mindanao, 111,263; Basilan on Basilan Island, 110,297;
Bacolod Oil Ncgros, 101,432; Baguio, the summer.capital, on LU7.on, 29.262.
On 7 June 1940 the President of the Philippines approved a law, effective
4 July 1946, making a new language based on Tagalog (a Malayan dialect)
the official national language of the republic. About 7,156,400 people spcak
Eugliah and about 345,100 Spanish; for government and commercial
purposes these two languages are commonly used. Some 70 native languages
are spoken in the Philippines. of which 9 are of major importance; they
belon;~ to the Malayo.Polynesian family.
RELIGION. About 83% of the population are Roman Catholic, organ·
ized in 6 archbishoprics, 14 bishoprics, 1 apostolic prcfecture and 5 prelatures.
The Philippine Independent Church, founded in 1902, and comprising
about 10% of the population, denies the spiritual authority of the Roman
Pontiff. It is divided into two groups, one of which has accepted ordinations
by the Episcopalian Church. In 1948 several Protestant denominations had
«4,491 communicants ; Buddhists numbered 42.751; Moslems, 791,817,
ohiefly in Mindauao and SUlll; Iglesia Ni Cristo, 88,125; Pagans, 353,842,
and others, 92,783.
EDUCATION (1956--57). Education is free in the primary schools and

is completely co·cducational. In all schools English is the main medium of
instruction , although thtl Filipino language is al~o taught. The vernaculars
are used as the medium of instruction in the lower primary grades, and
Spanish is one of the possible subjccts in all high schools and obligatory in all
colleges. In 1956, of the persons 10 years old and ovel', 65% were literate.
There were 3,580,525 pupils in the 26,280 public schools, and 101,321
teachers; expenditure on education was P.195,607,OIO. The Normal
College and othcr collegiate normal schools had 5,037, t.he tmde schools,
3,500, the agricultural schools, 363, the Nautical School, 97 students. The
University of the Philippines, fotmded in 1908, had 16,821 students. There
were 1,955 authorized private schools with 774,128 pupils. The Dominican
Order maintains the University of Sl\nto Tomas, established in 1611 and
made a pontifical university in 16-t5.
New~per8 (1956). There were 723 newspapers with a circulation of
4,132,600.
Cinema8 (1955). Cinemas numbered 550, with seating capacity of
330,000.
SOCIAL WELFARE. The government programme includes the pur·

ohase and subdivision of big landed estates for resale on easy instalment
plans to tenants, the opening of \,jrgin lands and settlement of landless
families, the granting of bank loans to such families for seeds and the building
of homes, the opening of rural roads and rural schools, tho setting up of
travelling medioal olinics, and the distribution ohelief goods, including food,
clothing and medicine, to families who have been displaced due to the
depredations of the H.M.n. outlaws.
JUSTICE. The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court, with a chief

justice !\nd 10 a.~sociate justices; it can declare a law of treaty unconstitu-
tional by the concurrent votes of 8 judges. There is a eourt of appeal,
headed by a presiding justice, with 17 associate justices. There are 16
judicial districts subdivided into 132 branches, each with several judges of
first instance. There is one nmnicipal court for every city and one just.ice
of the peace for every municipality.
In addition, there is in Manila the juvenile and domestic relations court,
which has exclusive jurisdiction to try all cases involving minors and cases
in volving the relationship of husband and wife.
There are also other agencies of the Government which have been
deDomina ted as •courts', namely, the Court of Tax Appeals, the Court of
Industrial Relations and the Court of Agrarian Relations, which perform
judicial as weHlts quasi .judicial functions.
All members of the judiciary are appointed by thc President with the
consent of the Commission on Appointments.
DEFENCE. On 14 March 1947 the Philippine and U.S. Governments

signed a 99·year military. base arrangement. The U.S.A. was granted the
use of a series of army, navy and air bases, with the right to use a number
of other" on mutual agrcoment. On 21 March a second agreement provided
for a U.:'. Military Advisory Group in the islands, as well as military assist-
ance (training, weapons and so forth) for the Philippine forces. A treaty
of mutu,ll assistance was signed in Wlt.~hington on 30 Aug. 1951; the instru·
ments of ratification were exchanged in Manila on 27 Aug. 1952. The
Philippines is also a signatory of the S.E. Asia Collecth·e Defence Treaty
(see p . 41).
The Navy includes 6 escort patrol vcssels, the Presidential yacht (u.
fleet minesweeper), 2 new coastal minesweeper~, 18 patrol vessels, 7 landing
ships, 1 surveying vessel, 10 auxiliary vessels, all ex· U.S.A., and 15 coast·
guard v('Rsels.
The Air Force has a strength of some 3,000 officers and men, with 200
aircraft, and is being built up with IT.S. assistance to meet its commitments
to S.E.A .T.O. Its fighter. bomber wing still has a number of piston.engined
F·51D Mustangs, but will eventually comprise 3 squadrons of :F·86F Sabre
jets. There are also transport, observation, air/sea rescue and training
units, flying aircraft of U.S. design, including 36 Japanese·built Mentor
primary trainers (received as war reparations).
Publio order is maintained partly through the Philippine Constabulary,
and partly through the local police forces. The constabulary now forma
part of the Armed :Forces of the Philippines, whose Chief of Staff has overall
oommand also over the Army, Air Force and Navy.
The luain disturber of In.w and order is the remnan t of the Communist· led
Huks (formerly Hukbong Bayan Laba,n sa Hapon, People'S Army ftgains;
Japan, now known as the Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan, People's Libera·
tion Army). After the surrender, capture or killing of several of its corn·
manders, the HMB has greatly lost in efficiency, morale and mass sup.
port.
FINANCE. The revenues and expenditures of the central government

for 5 fiscal years (30 June) were, in 1,000 Philippine pesos (l Philippine
peso = 50 cents U.S.):
1954-.. 66 1955,·56 195 ~ 51 1957- 68 1 1958",59 1
Revenue 8n,on 1,O.?O.OI);) 9<J5,50S 1.112,498 1,27i,299
Bxpenditcre 846,731 979,710 1,072,707 1,079,0:15 1.203,033
1 Provisional.
The gftpS between revenue and expenditure were covered by borrowing

and the ,lurplua of previous years. Expenditure (1956-57) included (in Im.
pesos): National defence and police, 156·9; social welfare, 85·5; eduoa.
tion, 25'7·9; general administration, 84·6; economio development, 395·2;
public debt, 92·5. Taxation furnished P.759·21ll. of the revenue.
As of 30 June 1958, the gross public debt of the national and local
governments, including those of the government corpomtions, stood at
P.l,926·8m. Of this amount, P.l,760·5m. accrued to domestic creditors.
Of theso obligationA P.886·8m. were bonded and P.l,040m. con6isted of
other securities. The bulk of these outstanding obligations amonnting to
P.1,626·3m. were in the form of long·term indebtedness. Short·term and
middle· term securities aggregated to P.137·7rn. and P.162·Stll. respectively.
The Japanese left the Commonwealth's public finances in complete dis·
order. Total war damage, both public and private, was estimated (1946)
at USSS,OOOru., including priva.te property, S464m.; public property,
$195m.; Catholic Church, SI25m., and other churches, $14U1. The V.S.
Congress appropriated, in April 1946, tho sum of S()20m. for the rehabilita.
tion of the Philippines; $400m. was earmarked to restore privato property
and S120m. for publio property.
Investments in non.agricultural industries from 1953 to 1955 totalled
P.172,997,000, of which P.125,074,OOO belongs to Filipino citizens,
P.I,SIS,OOO to V.S. citizens and P.42,120,000 to Chinese.
PRODVCTION. The Philippines haR a total are,\ of20. 740,972 hectares,

of which 11,415,000 hectares are commercial forests ; 1.459.000
' hectares
non· commercial forests; 5,726,580 hecta.res cultivated land; 2,453,SI0
hectares potcntial cwp land; 612,700 hectares ma.ngrovo and marshes.
Agriculture. About 9S'4% of the tota l cultivated nrea is owned by
Filipinos; the average size of the farm is 3·21 hectares. Tbe principal
products are unhusked rice ('palay'), Manila hemp ('abaca'), copm, sugar
cane, maize and tobacco.
In May 1957, 4,93S,000 persons were employed ill agriculture (60·6% of
the working population).
In the crop ycar ended 30 June 1957 the production of palay (rough rice)
was 3.345,94;3 metric tons from 2,768,120 hectares; corn, S95,256 metric
t·ons from 1,786,790 hectares; copra, 1,:H9.200 metric tous, desiccated
coeonut, 54,000 metric tons, all from 992.000 hectareR; sugar (centrifugal),
1,036,650 metric tons extracted from 9,5:36,800 tons of eancs from 179,760
hectares; abaca, 120,500 metric t :.11\3 from 231,500 hectares ; Virginia and
native tobacco, 50,S99 metric tons from SO,liOO hectares. Valuo of these
crops (in P.lm.): Palay, 621; m:~izc, 115; copra, 262; dc~iccated coconut,
30; centrifugal sugar, 193; abaca, 38.
Minor crops a re fruits, nuts, root crops, vegetables, oniol18, Irish potatoes,
beans, coffee, cacao, peanut, ramie, rubber, ruaguey and kn.pok.
In 1957 there were 3,584,130 c:..raba08 (water butbloes), 883,040 cattle,
219,220 horscs, 6,016,150 hogs, 530,220 goats. 17,920 sheep and Mm.
poult.ry.
Fisherie.s. Fish productioll from all sources amounted to 387,170 motric
tons valued at P .365·5m. in 1957.
Forestry. The forests (covcring 60% of the area. with an estimated
st3.nd of 465 milliard bd ft) furnish cabinet and construetio11 tim ber, gums
and resins, veget.able oils, rattan and bamboo, tan aud dye barks and dye
woods. About 97'5% of this belong~ t o the Government. In 1957,
1,903,632,57S bd ft of timber was produc(>d; sawn lumber, 479.137,000
bd ft.
Mining. The important mineral products ace gold, ,;jlvl'!". lead, zinc,
copper, manganese, chromite, iron , quicksil\'er, cemRnt. coal, rock asphalt,
sand, gravel and sa.lt. Gold is produced chietly in NortlwfU and Southern
Luzon, Mindanao and Masbate. Chroruitc mines are in Znmbalcs and
Pangnsinan pro\inces; coal in Albay, Cebu and Zam boa nga del Sur;
copper in Ccbu, Zambales, Samar and Pangasinan; nickel in Surigao;
uranium oce h<ls been disco,ered at Larap, Southem Luzon.
Quantity and value (in pesos) of mineral products for 1956-57 and quan-
tity for 1958:
Value
Mineral Quantity (1956-57) (19~6-57) Quantity (1958)
Meta18:
Gold. 397,669 tine oz. 45,851,236 422.833 tine oz.
Silver 626,988 n " ~22,078 497,987 " "
Lead. 1,644 metric tons 983,46. 1,416 short tons
Zinc. 832 434,469
Copper 32,649 46,418,157 5i;S42
Manga.nese ore 16,032 1,282.537 24,590
Ohromite (refractory) 585,060 22,453,9·10
Chromite (metallurgical) 126,095 9,178,082
Iron ore . 1,629,512 H 26,139,309 1,082,000 long tons
Quicksilver. 3,521 tlask.<; 1,80J,800
N on-m£tallics:
Oement; 2,537,614 bbl3 32,783,465
Coal. 178,127 metric tons 4,288,976
Rock A.sphalt . . . 1,743 30,628
Sand, gravel, salt and all other
nOD-JDetallics 22,812,994
Total 215,384,126
Industry. Manufacturing is largely carried on in homes (chiefly em-

broidery, buntal hats, woven cloths, mats and pottery), but the number of
factories has been fast increasing. In 1954 there were 19 coconut-oil mills,
77 cigal' and cigarette factories, 8,232 rice-mills, 165 leather-shoe factories,
7 rublx,r-shoe factories, 25 sugar centrals, 4 cement plants and 1 hydro-
electrio plant.
COMMERCE. The "alues of imports and exports for recent calendar
years al'e stated as follows in Im. pesos (1 peso = 50 cents U.S.):
195~ 1963 1954 1966 1966 1957
lmportl. 846·1 914·0 966·3 1,095'2 1,012-9 1,229-2
Bzporta . 703·8 807-6 810·3 790·8 900·2 857·9
The U.S.A. imported from the Philippines goods valued at P.503,748,743

in 1955 and P.491,803,864 in 1954: it exported and re-exported to the
Philippi.nes goods valued at P_703,853,794 in 1955 and P .605,5l!l,506 in 1954.
The principal exports in 1956 were (in P.lm.): Coconuts,350: sugar and
related products, 215: minerals and metals, 118: logs, lumber and timber,
103: abaca fibres and manufactures, 77.
Main iru ports (in P.l m.) : Machinery, 146: mineralfuels, 127: lubricants.
103: bF,se metals, 90: transport equipment, 60.
Owing to the commercializing of agriculture for export, foodstuffs han
to be imported, representing normally from 15 to 20% of all imports, chiefly
rice from Thailand, wheat products and dairy products from the U.S.A.
Import controls ended on 30 June 1954.
For over a half century, the foreign trade has been chiefly with the U.S.A.,
which is biggest buyer of Philippine copra, sugar, abaca, coconut oil,
desiccated coconut, canned pineapples, embroideries, copra meal, rope, gold
exports. The trade relationship of the two countries is governed by the
Philippine Trade Act of 1946. This Act as amended provides for a complete
free trade from 1946 to 31 Dec. 1955, and a limited free trade (graduated
.oale of duties on imports) for 18 years. American goods entering the
Philippines will pay a tariff duty of 25% of the regular duty on other foreign
goods between 1 Jan. 1956 and 31 Dec. 1958: 50% from 1 Jan. 1959 to
31 Deo. 1961; 75% from 1 Jan. 1962 to 31 Dec. 1964: 90% from 1 Jan.
1965 to 31 Deo. 1973, and 100% from 1 Jan. 1974.
Philippine products entering the U.S.A. pay 5% of the U.S. tariff in
1950-58,10% in 1959-61,20% in 1962-64,40% in 1!l65-67, 60% in 1968-70,
80% in 1971-73 and 100% from I Jan. 1974.
Total trade betweell the Philippille8 and the U.K. (British Board of
1ns 1955 1966 1967 1968 19,,9
Imports to U.K. 992.623 1,909,807 2,034,926 2,6?3,815 2t~4~'!26 3,42.1,'110
Exports trom U.K. . 747,Q03 t,6Z0,884 6,007,653 8,932,S36 6, .. ]O.i.l16 7,782,512
Re-exports !rom U.K. 11,899 H,765 18,660 63,882 b2, 31 j 55,621
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The overseas trade during 1955.

handled by the port of Manila, was carried by 3,177 vessels, of which 764
were American, 558 Norwegian, 438 British, 217 Danish, 108 Swedish, 152
Dutch, 136 l!'ilipino and III French. Of the 7,435,160 net tons of inter·
national shipping handled at Manila in 1957, 186,574 w... re Filipino. The
Philippine merchant Beet consisted, in 1957. of 58 vessels of 154.378 net tons.
Road.~. In 1958 highways extended 35.20·1 km. of which 14.209 km
were national roads. In 1956 there were 54,093 passenger cars. 59.526
trucks and 2.400 autocycles registered.
Railways. Raihvay tracks (1954). 1,145 km, of \vhieh 942 km were on
Luzon and 117 km on Panay.
Post. In 1959 there were in operation 1,283 post offices and 473 tele·
graph offices. 7,644 km of telegraph lines and 20.910 km of cable. There
were in 1957, 63.400 telephones. of which 42.200 were in Manila.
Aviation. The Philippine Air Lines. Inc., with it capital of P.6m .•
maintains services to Hong Kong. In 1957-58 it carried 465,358 pas·
sengers (2i.225 on international routcs) and 8,162 metric tons of cargo.
BANKING AND MONEY. As of 31 Dec. 1957 there were 18 corn·

mercial banks (2 of which are British.owned) with 112 branches and agencies.
'l savings and mortgage banks and 106 rural banks. Total bank assets were
1.!l63'2m. pesos. excluding the assets of the Central Bank. the post savings
bank and the Development Bank. At the end of 1957 the post savings
bank held df'posits of PAI·Om. for :;01,873 depositor8.
Under a law passed 15 June 19·1.8 the Central Bank of tho Philippines
was created to have Role control of the credit and monetary supply, inde·
pendent of the Treasnry. It has a capital of 10m. pesos furnished solely by
the Government. Its total assets, as of 31 Dec. 1957. were P.I.285·8m.
The republic i~ on the manHgcd.currency system. wilh the peso equi·
nlellt to [jQ cent" V.S. The Bal\k of England rate (resumed 26 Nov. 1946)
i.~ (1957) 5·6 to £1. Total money supply, 31 Dec. 1!l.57, was P.l,5Di·gm .•
of which 781m. was currency ill circulation and P.8l0·9 were demand
deposits. The peso contains 20 gramme8 of silver, 0·800 fine. The coins
used are: Peso. one·half peso. peseta (20 centavos). media peseta (10
centavos), all in silver of 0·750 fin e; 5 <:entavo in cupro.nickel, and 1
cent:wo in copper-tin-zinc. Central Bank notes of 5, 10, 20 and 50
celltavos supplement. the metal coins. Treasury certificates and Central
Bank notes rtre issued in 1,2,5, 10,20,50, 100 peso deIlominations.
The Philippines maintains embassies in Australia. France. Indonesia,
Italy, Japan. Pnkistan, Spain. Taiwan. Thailand, U.K .• U.S.A., the Vatican;
IE'gatioDfI in Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Cambodia, Cuba, Denmark,

Finland, Germany, India, Korea, Laos, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Arab Republic, Vietnam; and a
mission :in the United Nations.
OF THE PlIILIPPINES IN GREAT BRITAIN (9 Palace Green, W.8)
AmblUlsador. Leon Maria Guerrero (accredited 13 Oct. 1951); con·
currently Minister to Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.
First Secretflry. Eutiquio Sta. Romana.
Military, Naval and Air Attache. Col AristE'o Feraren.
Attaches. Juan A. Atienz",; Raymundo I. Villanueva (Comrtlercial);
Jose Ma. V. de Manuel (Cultural); Timoteo Y. Aseron (Custonl8).
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE PHILIPPINES

Amb'Ulsador. John Arthur Pilcher, C.M.G.
First Secretaries. J. H. Lambert (Consul); D. P. Aiers (Commercial).
Naval, Military and Air Attache. Wing Cdr P. D. Thomson, D.F.C.,
D.F.M.
Thero are consular representatives at Ccbu, Davao, IloiIo and Manila.
OF THE PHILIPPINES IN THE U.S .A. (1617 Massachusetts Ave. NW.,

Washington 6, D.C.)
Ambassador. Gen. Carlos P . Romulo.
]linister. Mauro Calingo. Counsellor. Jose Maria Espino. First
Secretary. Victorino P. Peredes. Anned Force-s Attache. Col. Ismael D.
Lapus. Oultural Attache. Constante V. Batoon.
OF THE U.S.A. IN THE PmLIPPINES
Ambassador. John D. Hickerson .
•Minister Counsellor. George M. Abbott. First Secretaries. William L.
Brewster (Economic); Frederick R. Carson; William H . Dodderidge (Con.ml);
Robert ,r. Halliday; Ernest J. Hortum (Consul); MiIlard L. Kenestrick
(Consul); John F. lIicJennett, Jr; Arthur A. Compton; J. Raymond Ylitalo
(Consu/.Oeneml). Service Attaches: Col. Henry L. I1iiIler (Army), Capt.
J ack B. Dawley (Navy), Lieut.·Col. Lowell S. Nickodem (Air) . Agricultural
Atta{"M. Quentin R. Bates. Commercial Attache. Edward M. Milans.
Labour Attache. Jorma L. Kaukonen.
Thero is consular service at Cehu.
Books of Reference
Republic o/IM Philippi~ Gov.rnment Manual, 1950. Manila, 1960
The Philippine!: a Handbook of Information. Manila, 19:)5
..! Republic i. Born: ojJicial commemorative volume on indtpendenee day, 4 July, 1946.
Manila. 1948.
Cmsu, of tM Philippin.. : 1 Ocl., 1948. Manila, 1948
Report 10 IIU! Presidenl of IM United Stau. by IM Economic SUTfI", Mi..ion 10 Ihe Philippin ...
W""niflllton, D.O., 9 Oct .• 1950.
Port of Mo,nila Year-hook,1949. Manila, 1950
(Javaeer 0/ CM Phuippine I.lands. United State. Department of Commerce.. Washington,
19H
Barton, R. F., TM Kalinga.. Chicago,1949
Bernstein. D., The Pl>iZ.ppine Story. New York, 1947
Ohnpman, A., Philippine .Na/ional;.".. New York, 1950
i'orbes, W. C., TM Philippine I.land.J. 3 vols. Rev. Cambridge, Ma8s., 1946
POLAND 1327
lIainsworth, R. G., and Moyer, R. T., .dgricultural Ceographv 0/ IM PhiliP1'ino 1I1ana••
Washiogton, 1945
Harden, J . n., TAt Philippi1U!" .d Sfudy in National Dev,ln."mml. New York, 19"
Krieger, H. W., Pe"I'~' _/ 'he Philippinel. Washillgton, 1942
Knrihara, K. K.., LabM in th~ Philipptne Economy, St..Boiord,l!'J.t6
MiUR, L. A '\ Tit, rhtlippinn all.d SoutJU'~asl .hiu. Mill tJ eapolis. 1949
Zatrfl. U. S., PhUippin.e E"Qnomir. Bandbook. ~il\' er Spring, Md., 1956
POLAND
POLSKA. RZECZPOSPOLlTA. LUDOWA
POLAND became a state by the union of a number of Slavonic tribes settled
in the basins of the Vistula, the Warta and the Oder, The nation was con·
verted to Christianity in 966. Under the Piast dynasty (10th-14th centuries)
German' eastward expansion' (Drnng nach Osten) deprived Poland of her
north·western and western borderlands. After the defeat of the Teutonic
Order at Tannenberg (1410) and the partial recovery of Prussia, Poland's
political interests turned eastward. Temporary successes in White Russia
and the Ukraine were bought by a permanent weakness on her we~tern
front. Poland reached the height of her power in the period hetween the
14th and 16th centuries under the rule of the Jagiellon dynasty. On its
extinction the crown became elective and this, leading to an overgrowth of
special rights granted to the nobility and gentry, resulted in the permanen~
weakness of the central authority. During the 17th and 18th centuries the
position of Poland rapidly declined, and eventually, by the three partitions
of 1772, 1793 and 1795, the Polish Commonwealth, as it was then called,
was divided between Prussia, Russia and Austria.
In 1807 Napoleon formed a smuU part of the old commonwealth into an
independent state under the title of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, hut in 1815,
at the Congress of Vienna, Poland was re· partitioned bp-tween Pru8sia,
Austria and Russia, except the Rma ll district of Cracow, whicb was con·
stituted an independent republin, but in 1846 was annexed by Austria..
During the First World War Russian Poland was occupied by the
Austro·Germltn forces. On 5 Nov. 1916 the German and Austrian emp"rors,
in a joint manife~to, proclaimed the independence of Poland, hut neither the
boundaries nor the constitution of the state had been de.fined when the
Central Powers collapsed in Nov. 1918.
On 9 Nov. 1918 the independence of Poland was prodaimed and a
workers' and peasants' council was formed in Lublin. But OD 10 Nov.
Joseph Pi1su<iski, the founder of the Polish Legions which, during the War,
fought against the Rua.sians on the sme of the Central Powera, Itssumed
power. He convoked the constituent assembly (Sejm Ustawoda1J!czy),
which confirmed him in his office. On 28 June 1919 the Treaty of Versailles
recognized the independence of Poland.
In 1926, as a result of a roup d'etat, pnlitical power pa.ssed int.o the hands
of a party headed by Pi1sudski. His policy soon became a one· p.U'ty system,
a.nd these tenclencies were officially recognized by the constitution of 1!l35,
which extended the President's prerogatives and strengthened his authority.
On 1 Sept. 1939 Germany in vaded Poland, on 17 Sept. I \139 Russian
troops entered eastern Poland, and on 29 Sept. 1939 the fourth partition
of Poland took place. After the German attack on Russia, I.tllnched on
22 June 1941, the Germans occupied the whole of Poland, but by March
1945 the Rua.sian armies, together with the Polish forces formed in the
1328 POLAND
U.S.S.R.. , had liberated the entire country. Poles at homo and abroad
continu,~d the fight against the Germans throughout the War, by land, sea
and in i,he air. War casualties and victims of German terror amounted to
6-7m. people.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. In July 1944 the Soviet
Union recognized the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski
Komitel Wyzwolenia Narodowego) established in Lublin as an executive
organ of the National Council of the Homeland (Krajowa Rada Narodowa).
The Committee was transformed into the Provisional Government ill Dec.
1944, and on 28 June 1945, supplemented by members of the Polish Govern·
ment in London (which had been recognized by the U.K. and U.S.A.),
it was re·established-in Moscow-as the Polish Provisional Government
of National Unity.
This government was composed of 21 members, 16 of the former Soviet·
sponsored Lublin Committee and 5 newcomers. The U.K. and the U.S.A.,
having previously agreed with the Soviet Union (at Yalta, on 11 Feb. 1945)
to establish' a strong, free, independent and democratic Poland,' on 6 JUly
1945 rellognized the Warsaw Government.
The new Polish Government, pledgod by the Yalta agreement to the
holding of free and unfettered elections, held them, on 19 Jan. 1947, in
an atmosphere of Communist and secret police terror. Of the 12·7m.
votes cast, 1l·24m. were recognized as valid, and 9m. were given for the
Commnnist·dominnted 'Democratic Bloc.'
On 15 Dec. 1948 the Socialist and Communist parties merged into the
United Workers' Party. In Dec. 1949 the Peasants' Party and the Poli~h
Peasants' Party merged into the United Peasants' Party.
T)le new Polish Constitution was adopted on 22 July 1952, and the
office of President of the Republic was, on 20 Nov. 1952, replaced by a
Council of State of 15 persons.
After the wot"kers' and students' riots in Poznan in June 1956 and the
bloodless anti·Stalini~t' palace revolution' in Oct. 1956, the nationali~t and
'liberal' elements gained control of the Communist Party, under the leader-
ship of W. Gomulka, who had spent several years in prison for 'Titoist
deviation.'
The supreme de facto power is in the hands of the Politburo of the United
WOl'kerfl' Party. A new Politburo of 12 members was elected by the Central
Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party on 19 March 1959: Wladyslaw
Gomulka, Fir8t Secretary of the Central Committee; J6zef Cyrankiewicz,
ClIair'TM:n of the Council oj M inister6; Stefan J~drychowski, Chairman oj
the Plmming Council; Ignacy Loga-Sowinski, Chairman of the Central
Council oj Trade Unions; Edward Ochab, a Secretary of the Central Com-
mittee; Adam Rapacki, Mini8ter oj Foreign Affairs; Roman Zambrowski;
Aleksander Zawadzki, Chairman oj the Council of State; Edward Gierek
and Zenon Kliszko, Secretaries of the Central Committee; Gen. Marian
Spychalski, Minister of Defence.
On ao Sept.. 1958 the Polish United Workers' Party was reduced to
1,023,577 members as a result of a process of 'verification' in the course of
which in the highly industrialized Katowice voivodship about 21 % of the
members were excluded.
According to the 1952 Constitution, the authority of the Polish People's
Republic is vested in the Sejm, which is elected for 4 years by all citizens over
18 years (including serving soldiers) in the proportion of 1 deputy to 60,000
inhabitants. 'rhe Sejm elects a Council of State, composed of a Chairman,
POLAND 1329
tbe Secretary and 13 members, including 4 vice·chairmen. It also electa
the Council of Ministers. Local administration is carried out by People'"
Councils, elected for 3 years ill voivodships, districts, boroughs, towns and
villages.
Elections for the Sejm took place on 20 Jan. 1957. The electorato
numbered 17,944,081; of these, 16,892,213 persons (94' 14%) voted; tbe
single list of tbe Front of National Unity received 98'4% of the votes cast.
Tbe 459 seats are distributed Ill! follows: 239 United Workers' Party, 118
United Peasants' Party, 39 Democratic Party, 63 others (including 12
Roman Catholics). The Sejm has 19 women deputies.
National flafJ: white, red (horizontal).
Natio1Ull anthem: Jeazcze Polska nie zginllla (words by J. Wybicki,
1797; tune by M. OgiDaki, 1796).
AREA AND POPULATION. Tbe republic comprises an at'ea of311, 730

sq. km, and a population (census, 3 Dec. 1950) of 24,976,926 (ll,912,514
men and 13,064,012 women). Official estimate, Dec. 1959, 29,527,000.
For the present territory 8ee map in TilE S'fATESJlIAN'S YEAR.BoOK, 19·16.
In Feb. 1951 the Soviet Union and Poland exchanged some frontier
districts, covering 480 sq. km inhabited by 14,000 people. Poland received
from the Soviet Uruon territory in the Drohobycz district, near Ustrzyki
Dolne. The U.S.S.R. received from Poland territory in the voivodship of
Lublin, in a triangle between the rivers Bug, Solokija and Huezwa, south of
Hrubieszow and east of Tomaszow Lubelski. On 4 1IIay 1957 the Soviet-·
Polish frontier adjacent to the Baltic coast was dem<l.rcated.
The republic is for administrativo purposes divided into 17 voivodsbips
and 5 cities of voivodship status. These are subdivided into 322 rural and
75 urban districts. The capital is Warszawa (Warsaw).
The names, area (in sq. km) and popula.tion (in 1,000; estimates, 30
June 1959) of the voivodships are as follows :
Popul,,· l 'opul,,·
Voivodsl,ip Area tiou Voivodship Alea t.ion
WalSllw Ci~y 446 1 ,O!)[t KoszaJin 17,974 C8 1
Warsnw 29 ,33~ ~ , 3;:S Szczecin (Stettill) 12,67i n4
BldgoSM7. . 20,800 l,6!H Zielofla G6ra 14,51-1 761
Poznall Ci ty 220 3!1a Wroe/aw Oity (Ilreslau) 225 41;;
Poz,nnb 21,705 2,00~ Wroc/aw 18,827 1,750
Mdt City 212 6'8 Opole. 9,~O9 n09
l,6dt 17,153 1,63'1 Katowice 9,t,15 3,2Q7
Xi.lce 19,408 1,84 2 Kra k6w City 230 463
Lubliu 24,876 I ,S07 Krak6w 15, 350 2,043
Bia/yswlc . 23,148 1,098 Rzesz6w 18.64C 1.619
Olsztyn ( AlIenetein) 21,02:\ 87S
Gdansk (Danzig) 10,939 1,193 P ola nd 3Jl,730 29,25 ;
Estimated population of principa.l towns (30 Juno 1958):

Warsaw (Warsza",a) 1 1,095,000 Bydgo57.cz 219,700 Odynla HO,200
t.6di 1 698.000 R atowic. : 206.500 Sosnowiec 125,000
KI11k6w 1 • • 463,000 Zabrze 181,200 OHwic. 124.7f)f]
Wroelaw (Breslall) '. 415,000 By tom . 175.100 RadOn> 121.200
POZUQI\ t . • 395,000 Cz~stochowa 159.600 Biuh-stok 111.400
<Jdall. k (Oan7.iR) 266,100 T,ubJin 148.200 \ \' "Ibrzycb 110,900
Szczecin (i>t.ettin) 249,400 Chor7.6 w . 143,600
1 30 Jnnc 1959. , March 1953- 0ct. 1 9~C renaD,ed Stalinogrod.
Rate (per 1,000 persons) of live births, in 1958, was 26·3; of deaths, 8'4;
marriages,9'2 ; divorces,O'55; infantile mortality, 72. On 31 Dec. 1957,
1330 POLAND
45'5% of the population (13m.) lived in towns and 54'5% (15·5m.) in the
country.
National minorities in Aug. 1957 numbered about 500,000. They in-
clude 200,000 Ukrainians, 120,000 Byelorussians (mostly in Bialystok
voivodship), 65,000 Germans, 50,000 Jews, 15,000 Slovaks, und a few thou-
sand Lithuanians and gypsies.
RELIGION. The great majority of the population is Roman Catholic.
The census of 1946 did not takc religion into consideration. On 14 April
1950 th 3 Roman Catholic bishops concluded an agreement with the Govern-
ment, hy which the Church accepted the Communist regime in return for
guarantees concerning the papal uuthority and religious education. A new
agreemE,nt on the relations between Church and State was signed on 8 Dec.
1956.
The Orthodox Church, which broke away from the Moscow Patriarchate
after the Russian Revolution and received canonical status under the
Patriar(:hate of Constantinople, in 1948 returned to Moscow obedience and
wa~ promptly granted autocephaly. Since most of the Orthodox in pra-war
Poland lived east of the new frontier establishcd in 1945, the Orthodox
Church now consist.s of not more than 100,000 under a Metropolitan.
The Protestants are estimated to number 280,000, in cluding 220,000
Lutherans, 25,000 Methodists, 4,800 Reformed, 4,000 Baptists and 6,600
Seventh .day Adventists.
The number of Jews, who in 1939 constituted 10% of the population
(about a·5m.), is now estimated at 45,000. The majority-at least 3m.-
periRhed under the Nazi occupation.
EDUCATION. Education up to the age of 14 is free and compulsory.
In 1958·-59 there were: Kindergartens, 6,945 with 358,570 pupils and 16,349
teacheN'; primary schools, 25,251 with 4,240,072 pupils and 130,079
teacherE; secondary schools, 826 with 199,241 pupils and 11,600 teachers;
special >:chools (for blind, deaf and sick children), 315 with 33,627 pupils
and 2,3:38 teachers; primary schools for adults, 1,922 with 67,818 pupils
and 1,2-17 teachers; secondary schools for adults, 155 with 35,465 pupils
and 645 teachers. Vocational schools (1957-58) had 39:2,740 pupils.
In 1959 Poland had 71 institutions of higher educ.. tion: 7 universi-
ties, 10 technical universities, 7 agricultural schools, 8 schools of economics,
4 teachers' training colleges, 10 medical academies, 4 schools of physical
training, 6 academies of music, 7 academies of art, 3 drama schools, a
foreign :,ervice school, a school of social sciences and 3 theological acade-
mies, with 36 re~earch institutes attached to them. These institutions
had IHt,142 students, of whom 47,046 read technical subjects, 23,985
medicine, 10,809 agriculture, 6,352 economics; 3,037 attended teachers'
training courses. In addition, some 35,000 students were taking corre-
spondence courses. The academic staff totalled 34,000.
On 30 Oct. 19tH the Sejm approved a new Statute for the Polish Academy
·of Sciences, to be reorganized on the pattern of the Academy of Sciences
of the U.S.S.R.
Cine-mas (1959). Cinemas numbered 3,000, with a seating capacity of
about 500,000.
SOCIAL WELFARE. In 1958 there were 619 hospitals with 153,554
beds, 87 tuberculosis sanatoria with 23,113 beds, 3,844 policlinics and 1,535
POLAND 1331
health centres. There were 24,374 physicians and surgeons and 8,375
dentists.
The number of workers insured in Jan. 1951 was 5,112,000. In 1955
80cial·insurance expenses totalled 10,613·7m. zlotys, including 5,638·9m.
zlotys for family allowances. Other social welfare expenses amounted to
525·2m. zlotys.
JUSTICE. The legal system was reorganized in July 1950. l'he
Minister of Justice described the main objectives of the reform as follows:
closer connexion of Courts of Law and Prosecutors' offices with the popular
masses and other organs of the people's government, in particlllar with
the public security organs and the Special Commission; accelerated ad·
ministration of justice; an appropriate standard of uniformity in legal
pronouncements; strengthening of the people's element in legal pro·
nouncements; strengthening of the prosecutor's authority and concen·
tration on preliminary legal proceedings; better safeguarding of individuals'
rights in investigation and court proceedings; higher efficiency of simplified
procedure courts for special offonces; ana an extension of tbe existing
apparatus of juvenile courts.
On 1 Oct. 1950 a new judicial system was introduced. The 1952
Constitution name8 the following courts: The Supreme Court; voivodship,
district and special courts. Judges and lay assessors are elected. The
State Council ",lects the judges of the Supreme Court for a term of ,3 years, and
appoint8 the Prosecutor. General. The office of the Prosecutor· General is
separated from the judiciary.
FINANCE. Budgot in Im. zlotys, for calendar years:

1~55 1956 1957 1958 1959 1 1960 1
Re~enue 124,2Rl-8 135,675-4 107,109-2 160,940 186,561 195,000
E:rpenditure 123,193-9 133,876-6 153,180-1 168,135 182,670 In,300
1 Estimates.
The 1960 budget shows (in 1ill. zlotys): Revenue: National economy,
138,000; taxes from the private sector, 9,600; personal taxes, 14,900;
social insurance, 22,100; loans and deposits, 4,100. Expenditure : Natiunal
economy, 100,400; education and culture, 19,100; health, 13,500; social
services,24,400; defence,15,300; administration,5,400; judiciary, 6,600;
debt service, 2,800.
DEFENCE. Poland is divided into 3 military districts: Warsaw (east

and north·east Poland); POlllerania (Baltic coast, part of central Poland;
headquarters at Bydgoszcz); Silesia (Silesia and southern Poland; head·
quarters at Wroclaw).
In 1950 the Army was completely remodelled on Soviet lines_ It is
divided into army (2.year service), air force (3 years), navy (3 years), anti·
aircraft forces (3 years) and internal security forces (27 months).
The military age extends from tbe 20th to the 50th year. The strength
of the Armed Forces is about 200,000; that of the security troops (frontier
guards and security police) about (\;;'000.
The Polish-born Soviet Marshal K. K. Rokossowski, wht! since Nov. 1949
wa.s Polish Minister of Defence, was not re· elected to the Politburo in Oct.
1956 and subsequently relinquished all his posts in Poland and returned to
the U.S.S.R., together with some 30 other high.ranking Soviet officers who
1332 POLAND
had held key positions in tho Polish Armed Forces. The new Minister of
Defence. Gen. M. Spychalski. had been in prison at the same time as
Gomull,a.
The Army is made up mainly of infantry and mechanized divisions;
number of tanks, 500. Officers are required to learn Ruasian. Arms,
equipment. training. tactics and military doctrine have been brought in line
'nth those in the U.S.S.R.
The Navy comprises 4 destroyers, 4 submarines, 10 fleet minesweepers,
8 patrol vessels, 10 motor torpedo boats, 17 coastal minesweepers, 12 motor
launches and 7 auxiliaries. Its personnel numbers about 15,000.
The Air Force has a strength of some 25,000 officers and men and 800
operational aircraft of Soviet design. There are 5 fighter divisions, each
ma,de up of 3 wings and with a total peacetime complement of some 400
aircraft,. A further fighter division of 2 wings is organized on naval lines,
for co· operation with the Polish Navy, from Baltic bases. Standard
equipment of the fighter units are the Polish·huilt MiG·17 and MiG-19 jet
fighters. MiG-15s, together with piston·engined Il-lOs, equip the 9 ground
attack wings which have a total of some 300 aircraft. The rcmaining opera-
tiona,l unit is a bomber division of 3 wings, flyiug Il·28 twin-jet tactical
bombcrs. There are also numerous transport. helicopter and training
units, ond a small army air arm equipped with lightplanes and helicop-
terB.
In 1.957.3 Soviet divisions were stationed in Poland.
Anders, W., An Armp ,nEEile. London. 1949
D..,tinV can Waie: Th. Polish Air Fore. in lh. Second World War. London, 1949
PRODUCTION. Whereas before l[)40 Poland wa,s a predolllin(1ntly

agricuhural country, in 1950 only 45'75% of the census population made
their living by agriculture. A complete transformation of Poland's eco-
nomic !;tructure has taken place; the key industrieR have been nationalized
or are under state control; in all bmnches of industry planned economy
has been introduced. All industrial undertakings employing over 50
worker.l are placed under the control of the Central Industrial Boards.
Planning. The i)-year plan for economio development (1947-49) has
been slIcceedl'd by a 6-year plan covering the years 1950-55 and a 5-year
plan for 1956-60_ Capital invE'stments for H)60 are scheduled to be 69,300m.
zlotys. In March 1959 the Third Congress of the United Workers' Party
adopted the development plan for 1959-65 (to run parallel with the U.S.ti.R.
7-year plan) . Targets for 1965: Yield (in quintals) per hectare (1957
actual yield in brackets): Grain, 17'5 (15); potatoes, 160 (127); sugar
beet, 2:~6 (225). Industrial output (in Im. metric tOllS): Coal, 111'5; crude
stcel,9; sulphuric acid, 1·14; cement,lO. Livestock: llm. cattle, 16·5m.
pigs. Electricity, 43,500m. kwh.
Agriculture and Forestry. In 1958 there were 20·4m. hectares of agri-
cultural land and forests, of which 17·6m. (86,2%) were in private hands,
0·2m. (l %) in producer co-operatives, 2·401. (11,8%) in state farms. 16m.
hectares were arable, 0·23m. gardens and orchards, 2·4m. meadows, 1·8m.
pasturo lands, 7·5m. forests.
The number of collective farms has gone down from 10,600 in June 1956
to 1,869 on 31 Dec. 1958. A new approach to collectivization is being
made by organizing 'agricultural groups' (20,642 with 553,000 members at
POLAND 1333
1 Oct. 1959) and 'rural housewives' groups' (7,691 with 150,000 members
at 1 Oct. 1959).
Area (1,000 hectares) Yield (1,000 met,ri e tons)
Crops 1955 195 7 1958 1955 1956 1957 1958
Wheat 1,431 1,441 1.474 2,134 2,121 2,319 2,346
flye . 4,~51 ~,066 5,213 7,003 6,558 7,437 7,333
B'lrley 321 1,239 1,131 1 .2~7 1,206
1.641 } 2,451 2,287 2,2&9 2,674
Oats 2~&41
Potatoe. 2,702 2, ;(j:~ 2,7»S 27.021 3S,tH,) 2 Z5,100 34.8')0
Sl1~nr beet ZVl 358 7,~ 86 C , 4 ~8 7.600 8,400
Mai7.c ~IO &3 40 Tue yi eld is kopt scerol..
In 1955 deliv~ries of 46,400 tons of tobacco and 800 tons of hops were
made from ~2,400 and 1,1)00 hectares respect.ively under these crops.
Livestock, June 1959: 8,347,300 cattle (6,026,800 cows), 11,221 ,000
pigs, 3,786,100 sheep and 2,385,700 horses.
Milk production in 1958 was l1 ,300w.litres.
Fiaheriu. Catch of sea fisheries, 1955, was 107,100 metric tons (1954,
100,000), of which cod accounted for 40,300 tons and herring 52,000 tons.
Indust1'1J. Production in 1058 (and targets for 1960) (in 1,000 metric
tous): Coal, 94,981. (105,000); brown coal, 7,541 (11,900); coke, 11,143
(11,800); iron ore, 2,173 (2,835); pig.iron, 3,864 (6,400); crude steel, 5,631
(7,000); rolled steel, 3,700 (4,600); cement, 5,041 (6,1)00) ; sulphurous acid
(100%). 573 (723); nitrogenous fertilizers, 235'5; phosphoric fertilizers, 154;
aluminium, 22·4; electrolytic copper, 17'4;lead, 35'1; zinc, 163; petroleum,
175; e lectricity. 23,946m. kwh. (29,900m.); natural gas, 384·1m. cu. metres ;
silver, 128,600 fine oz.
Output of light industry in 1058 (and targets for l!)60) : Cotton fabrics,
607·9m. metres (664); woollen fabrics, 78·lm. metres (82); silk fabrics,
97·100. metres (100); lincn and hemp fabrics, 73·700. metres; leather shoes.
34·6m. pairs (35'5); soap, 60,400 tOilS (71,000).
Trade Unions. Total membership of all trade unions on 31 Dec. 1958

was 5·48m. (including 1·68m. women), out of a total working population of
7,326.000. The largest unions were (in 1,000): Minerll, 463; building
workers,412; textile workere, 392; ra.i1waymen,391. The labour force in
the 'socialist sector' numbered 6,851,000. of whom 2·9m. were in industry,
0·72m. in building, 0·59m. in agriculture and 0·65m. in transport and corn·
mnnications.
Alton, T. p .. Polish PO, I·f.D(j' Eco1lf)my. Columbia Univ. Pre .., 19;;5
Taylor. J .• Tile E",.."",i. J)etlelopment 0/ Poland. Cornell Univ. Pres •• 1952
COMMERCE. Trade statistics for calendar years (in US$lm.):

1952 1953 1964 1955 1956 1907 1958
Imports 863 774 904 93~ 1,/)22 1~2"4 1,227
Exports 780 831 8G9 914 97~ 996 1,059
The main imports in 1958 were (in metric tons) : Iron ore, 5·Sm.;
petroleum and products, I ·9m.; fertilizers,I·2m.; wheat,660,000; cotton,
105,000; wool,32,000.
The main exports in 1958 were: Coal, I6·2m. metric tons (34'3% of
t.he value of total Polish exports); lignite, 5·lm. metric tons; railway
rolling Btock. 4,600 pieces ; ships, 127,900 deadweight tOllS.
1334 POLAND
Distribution of foreign trade in percentages;

Imports E:'1lOrts
1.Q.sa 1957 1958 1956 1957 1958
A.ustralia 3·4 3'4 0·1
Cllina 3 ..1 3-l 3·0 5·2 4·6 6·8
Czecb""lovakia 10·1 6·2 7·7 7·8 6'0 6·8
Finland. 1· 7 2·0 1· 7 3·4 4·3 1·9
France . 3·2 1·8 1·7 3·2 4·1 1·9
Germany (East) 1 3·2 13·2 12·7 10·0 12·9 10·0
Germany (West) 5·5 4·4 3·5 5·4 5·1 6·7
Hungary 2·3 1·7 2·8 2·5 3·3 2·7
u.s.s.n. 35 · 3 33-1 27·2 27·7 26·5 25·0
U.K. 3·2 3·8 6·8 8·1 6' n 0'5
U.S.A. 0·2 4,') 8·3 2··1 2·7 2'5
Tot,,1trade between Poland and the U.K. for 5 years (according to British
Board c,r Trade returns) was (in £ sterling) ;
1938 1956 1957 1908 1959
Import. 1.0 U.K. 9,5 33,332 29,936,360 23,63·1,033 25,892,665 32,690,342
Exports from U.K . . 5,365,R42 9,820,610 9,580.572 11.00·1,291 16,274,!)1S
R ...expor" trom U.K. 2,109,838 462,422 999,670 671,196 298,869
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. The principal ports are Gdynia,

Gdangk (Danzig), Szczecin (Stettin) and Kolobrzeg (Kolberg). Elblllg
(Elbing) is an inland river harbour and can serve sea.going shipping only
to a limited extent. In 1958 there were 6,908 km of inland waterways.
In .July 19.59 the Polish sea.going merchant marine numbered 239
vessels of lOO gross tons or more, totalling over 400,000. The Poles lead
in tranEports between Soviet· bloc countries, China and Vietminh, and there
are regular lines between Gdynia-Gdansk, Taku Bar, Shanghai and Hai-
phong.
Total shipping entering Polish ports in 1958 was 9,477 of 8·4m. NRT_
Of thes'l, 1,535 vessel8 of 1·9m. NRT were Polish.
Freight traffic in 1958 was 3·6rn. tons ocean-going and 2·5m. tons inland
and cOB.eta!.
RQads. In 1957 Poland had 101,890 km of hard-surfaced roads. Num-
ber of motor vehicles, Oct. 1958: P assenger cars, 59,200; lorries and
tracton:, 92,000; buses, 5,200; motor cycles, 318,000.
Raii·ways. The length of the normal-gauge railway system was (1958)
23,437 km ((370 km electrified); of narrow gauge, 3,774 km. In 1958 the
railways carried 237·4m. tons of freight and 92801. passengers.
Pos. . In 1958 there were 6,868 post and telecommunication offices and
446,236 telephone subscribers.
Wiraless licences, on 30 Sept. 1959, numbered 5rn.; television licences,
1,883,000.
Aviation. In 1958 the Polish State Air Service, 'Lot', carried 131,710
passengers and 2,781 metric tons ofluggage, goods and mail on international
lines and 89,926 passengers and 1,035 metric tons of cargo on internal lines.
CURRENCY AND BANKING. The currency unit is the zloty, divided

into 10') gro8zy. As from 30 Oct. 1950 the zloty equals the Soviet rouble,
being the equivalent of 0·222168 gramme of fine gold. The currency
consist,: of notes of 5,10,20,50,100 and 500 zlotys; and of coins of I grosz,
2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 groszy and I, 2, 5 and 10 zlotys. The official rate of
POLA....'m 1335
exch!l.nge has since then been ZI. 1l·l7- 11·2a to the £ sterling !l.nd ZI. 3·99-
4·01 to the USS. On 11 Feb. 19,37 the zloty was devalued for lIoll·trade
transactions with a ll non·Soviet·bloc coulltries; the rates of exchango for
this purpose were in Aug. 1959, ZI. 67·32-6i·68 = £1; ZI. 23·()4-24·06 =
US$L
The whole banking system was reorganized Oil 25 Oct. 1948, with offect
from 12 Nov. 1948. The National Bank of Poland, established on 15 ,Tan.
1945, continues to be the central bank, retains exclusive authority to iS8ue
currency, is charged with control of money and credit, and has responsibility
for financial implementation of the national economic plan. TlHl national
Investment. Bank (Bank Inwestycyjny) has the exclusive right to issue bombl,
a.nd exercises centralize.d control over investment financing.
The Agricultural Bank (Bank Rolny) has exclusive responsibility for
direct financing of rural areas through both short· term and investment
loans. It operates through a comprehensive network of branch offices and
communal co·operat.ive banks. The General Savings B,\nk (Powszechna.
Kasa Oszcz9dnosci) exercises central ~ontrol over savings activities, transfers,
and checking tra.nsactions, including activities of workers' co· operative
banks.
In addition to the National !lank of Poland, oth',r authorized foreign.
exchange banks arc: Bank for the National Ecouomy, the Polish Welfare
Bank (Bank Polska Kasa Opieki S.A.) and the Commercial Bank of \Varsaw
(Bank Handlowy w \Varszawie S.A.).
Deposits in savings institutions amounted to 7,202·1m. zlotys on 31 Dec.
1958, t·o the credit of 6·69m. depositors.
On 30 June 1952 the external debt of Poland (including that of Danzig)
comprised £3··U5m. ; $108,215,385 ; lire, 179,996,500; at the llame date,
Poland's outstanding share of the 1're.1918 Austrian debt amounted to
66,617,779 gold florins and 20,012,447 Austrian crowns.
On 11 Nov. 1954 a finance agreemtlnt was signed in Warsaw which
provides f,'r the settlement of Poli.~h debts to Britain by instalments over a
period of 12 years.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metric system is in gelleral \lse.
Poland maintains embassies ill Albania, Belgium (also Minister for
Luxembourg), Bulgaria, China, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Hungary,
Indonesia, Italy, North Korea, Ncpal, Netherlands, Norway, Rumania,
Sweden, Turkey, U.S.S.R., U.K., U.S.A., Vietminh, Yugoslavia; legations
in Argentina, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Finland, Greece, Iran, Israel,
Mexico (also for Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El
Salvador, Ha.jti, Honduras, Nicaragnu, Panama, Vcnezuela), Switzerland,
United Arab Republic (also for Ethiopia ); and diplomatic missions in
Austria and th e German Democratic Republic.
OF' POLA!'Ol> IN GREA.T BRITAIN (47 Portland Pi ace, S.~V.I)
Ambll8sador. Eugeninsz Jan Milnikiel (accredited 22 May 1953).
Counsellurs. Bohdaa Tmn orowicz; Dr A. WolyIiski (Gommacial);
Zdzislaw Szewczyk; Kurol Malcnzynski (Press). Fi1"8t Secret.ary. Czesiaw
Makowski .
Military, Air and Naval Attach.!. Col. Czcslaw Dega.
Commercial Attaches. Jef'q Pietowski ; Jerzy Dzierzynski.
1336 PORTUGAL
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN POLAND

Ambcusador. Sir George Clutton, K.C.M.G.
Cou.nlJellor. J. V. Robb.
First Secretaries. F. R. MacGinnis; J'. H. Lewen (Commercial); A.
Shepherd (Consular).
Naval Attache. Lieut.·Cdr C. H. Seaward, R.N .
Mi!itary AttacM. Col. W. T. Sedgwick.
Air Attaclte. Group Capt. A. Hughcs, D.F.C.
Th~ro are consular representatives at Gdynia and Warsa.w.
OF POLAND IN THE U.S.A. (2640-16th St. :NW.,

WASHINGTON 9, D.C.)
Ambcusador. Romuald Spasowski .
•Minister. Dr Tadeusz Lychowski (Economic). Cou.nsellors. Dr
Marian Dobrosielski; Dr Edward Iwaszkiewicz, Tadeusz Grzybowski (Corn.
mercial); Dr Stanislaw Raczkowski (Financial). First S ecretaries. Rudolf
HeUer; Edward Kmiecik. Press and Cultural Attache. Jerzy Ros.
Financial AttacM. Jan Woloszyn.
OF TIIE U.S.A. IN POLAND

Ambcusador. Jacob D. Beam.
Cotmsellor. Frank G. Siscoe. First Secretaries. Thomas A. Donovan;
James R. West; Edward R. KeIJey (Consul). Service Attaches: Col.
George McCutchcn (Army), Lieut"Cllidr Leo N. Huddleston (Navy), Lieut.·
Col. Julian M. Niemczyk (Air) .
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL I~FORlIATlON. The Oentral Statistical Office, W~", a \V (Wnwolska 1-3),
puIJlisbe. Stati.<tical News (A~.1945-49; restArtod Sept. 1956, bimontbly); StaJistical St,uji",
ar«! w...k .• (from 1950); Statutics of Poland (20 vols. 1916-51; restarted 19,;, as Stati..tical
Bulletin, monthly); Statistical Year Book (late.t issues, 1U5S and 1~59; tbolatter is a shortened
ven;ion).
nalccki, O.,.tl Ilij/ory of Pelana. 2nd od. London, 1956.·-(ed.), Polana. New York, 19~7
L ednicki, W'J RJUsia, Poland and the W tst. fJondoD,] U54
Mlkolaje.yk, S., The lIape Of Poland. ;.Iew York, 1948
Milosz, G., '1'lIe CapUt" M i11.d. Lonl'lon, 1953
ModzeleO/ski, J . (ed .), l'olegn~, 1919-39. S vols. NeuchAtel, 1~4f>-48
ltedd.."ay, W. F.,l'en..ou, J. IT., Halcckl, O. and lJybooki, R. (ed.), The Cambridge HiJwr,
of Pol'lnd. 2 vols. London. 1940-50
Scbmltt. n. E. (od.), Poland. 2nd cd. n crkeley, Cnl., 19,;1
Sharp. S. L.• Poland: Irhi" Eagu on a lied Field. Harvard Univ. Press, 1953
Stanial.....kl. J., EruJlish-1'oli. h and Poli"h-I!.·nglish Dictionary. 2 vol.. LondoD 19'0
Stern, 13:. P ., Str1l.ggu for Polund. Washington, 1953
NATIONAL LmUARY. Biblloteka Narodowa, Rakowiecb 6, Warsaw
PORTUGAL
REl'UDLICA POBTUQUESA
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Portugal has been an in.
dependent state since the 12th century; until 1010 it was a monarchy.
The last King was Manuel 11 of the house of Braganza·Coburg, bom 15
Nov. 1889, died 2 July 1032. On 5 Oct. 1910 the republic was proclaimed
PORTUGA.L 1337
with Dl' Te6lilo Braga as the provisional president (5 Oct. 1910 to 24 Aug.
1911). Thereafter there wcre duly elected presidents, as follows :
Dr Manue] de Arrisga, 24 Aog. 1911-29 May Manuel Teixeira Oom.., 6 Ocl. 1923-11
1915. ' Dec. 1926.'
Dr Joaquim Te6filo Braua, 29 May 1915- Dr Bcrnardino Lul. Macbado Gllimariiea,
6 Oct. 191 5. 11 Dec. 1925-1 June 1926.'
Dr Bernardino Luls Maehado Ouimarm, Provisional government, 1 Jun&-29 Nov.
6 Oct. 1916-11 Dec. 1917.' 1926 .
Dr SirJonio Demnrdino Cardoso da Silva Pais, Marsbal ADtOnio Oscar Frogo8o Oarmoua,
11 Dcc. 1917-14 Dec. InS.' 29 Nov. 1926-13 April 1951.
Admiral Joao de Canto e C...tro SUva Marshal Francisco Higino (''m';"ciro Lop..
Antonea, 16 Dec. 1918-5 Oct. 1919. (June 1951-9 Aug. 1958).
Dr Ant6nio Jos~ de Almeida. 5 Oct. 1919-
6 Oct. 1923.
• Resigned. , Deposed. a Assassinated.
Presl:dent of th.e Republic. Rear·Admiral Americo de Deus Rodrigues

Tomas; bom l!) Nov. 1894 (elected 8 June HJ5S; a.~sullled office 9 Aug.
1958).
Nationalflag: greon, red.
National anthem: A Portuguesa (words by Lopes de Mendon.,a, 1890,
wne by Alfredo Kcil).
On 19 Maroh 1933 the prosent constitution, which declares that the
Portuguese state is a unitary and oorporative republic, was adopted by
plobiscite. The latest amendment to the constitution was passed on 29
Aug. 1959. The president is to be elected for 7 years by an electoral college,
constituted of members of the National Assembly and the Corporative
Chamber, with representatives of municipalities and oversea legislative
councils.
The National Assembly (one chamber) of 130 Deputies is elccted for 4
years by direct suffragc.
A State Council composed of the Prime Minister. the Presidents of the
Nati0nal Assembly, the Corporative Chamber and the Supreme Court, the
Public Prosecutor and 10 other members assists the President of the Re-
public. A Corporative Chamber functions alongside the National Assembly.
The Cabinet was, in Dec. 1959, composed as follows:
Prime Minister. Dr Ant6nio de Oliveira. Salazar.
Minister of the Presidency. Dr Pedro Teotonio Percira.
Minister of Defence. Gen. Julio Carlos Alves Dias Botelho Moniz.
Mini~ter of the Interior. Lieut.·Col. Arnaldo Schultz.
Minister of the Army. Col. Afonso Magalhaes de A1meida Fernandes.
Minister of Justice. Dr Joao de Ma-tos Antunes Varela.
Minister of Finance. Dr Ant6nio Manuel Pinto Barbosa..
Minister of Marine. Cdr Fernando Quintanilha MendoDI.'a Dias.
Minister of Public Works. Eduardo de Arantes e Oliveira.
Minister for Overseas Territories. Rear·Admiral Vasco Lopes Alves.
Minister of National Economy. Jose do Nascimento Ferreira Dias Junior.
Minister of Education. Fra.ncisco de Paull!. Loite Pinto. .
Minister of Foreign Affairs. Dr Marcelo Gon9alves Nlines Duarte Matie.s.
Minister of Communications. Carlos Gomes da Silva Ribeiro.
Minister of Corporation and Social Security. Dr Henrique Veiga de
Macedo.
Minister of Health. Dr Henrique de Miranda Vasconcelos Martins de
Carvalho.
1338 PORTUGAL

Population Per
Area 1910 1960 sq. km
D stricta anu provinces (sq. km) (cen .• UJ) (cen,u,) 1950
Co~t.in.n~ . 8~.617 7,185,143 7,856,fH:': 88·8
Isle.nds 3;102 631,OO~ 5g4,J~~ 188·4
POI' ;ugal (total) 91,619 7,722,102 8,441,312 92·1
Districts:
Aveiro 2,7(;8 429,810 477,191 176·1
Beja 10,24U 275,441 2~·6, S 03 28·0
Braga Z,73Q 482.914 541,377 108·3
Brag..n~' 8,G45 213,233 2n,125 34·7
Castelo Hranco 6.704 29~.670 320,279 41·8
Ooimbra. 3,956 411,67'; 432,044 109·2
Evora 7,399 207.952 219,638 29·1
Faro 5,0;2 317,628 325,971 64,$
GU!\fda . 5,406 294,166 30·1,368 65'4
Leiriu 3,435 S53,e75 38~.182 llH
Lisboa 2,134 1,070,103 1,226,815 448·7
Portnleg·. 6,01.1 9 186,373 Itl6,9!l3 32·9
Porto 2,28~ 938,288 1,052,663 481·3
Sant.arem 6,689 421,9PG 45)\,192 67·8
Setubal . 6,152 268,~84 324,188 62·9
Vhwa do Oa8t810 2,108 258,596 274,532 130,2
Vila Real 4,23~ 289,114 317,372 74,9
Vi.eu 5,019 465,563 487,182 97-1
Island.,
Angra do Heroismo . 695 78,109 86,577 124·0
Fnnehal. 797 ~50,124 26G,9nO 335·0
Horta 768 52,131 54,823 71-8
Ponta DOlIs-ada 844 156,045 176,009 208·5
Provinces:
Algarve . 6,072 317,628 325,971 64'S
Alto Alelltejo . 12,516 375.511 3~1,7o~ 31·5
Baixo Al.nteio 13,785 356,711 375,147 27-2
Deira All" 9,536 662,616 691,713 72-6
Deir& Uaixa 7,:;04 334,78B 3.)5,806 4H
Belra Litoral . 7,596 896,719 131'>9,166 12H
Douro tJitoral . 3,285 1,10·1,925 1,237,170 376-6
E9trenw.<iura . 5,333 1,379,533 1,595,067 299·1
Minho 4,839 741,fil0 815,909 168,4
Rihatejo . • . 7,237 424.063 409,81i3 OH
Trus·o.·Monto. e Alto Douro 11,848 592,019 636,322 63·7
In 1£050 the popula.tion consistc,i of 4,060,266 males and 4,381,046

females, or 108 females to every 100 males.
The Azores islands are divided into 3 widely separated group~, with
clear nhannels between, Sao Miguel together witiJ Santa Mafia being in the
most east.erly. About 100 miles north· west of t,hem lie~ the central cluster
of Terceira, 'Graciosa, Sao Jorge, Pico and FaiaL Still another 150 miles
to the ncrth·west are Flores and Corvo, the luttcr ueing tho most isolated
and primitivo of the islands. Sao J\Iiguel, Tcrceira Ilnd Pico are the largest,
the first. measuring 41 miles in length and 9 in breadth, and containing over
half tho total populntion of the archipelago. For political a.nd admini·
8trative purposes they are divided into 3 districts, each sending its repre·
sentative, to the Chamber at Lisbon. The capitals of the 3 district~ are
the chief seaports, Ponta Delgada on Sao l\Iigllel Island, Horta on [<'aial
I.land and Angra do Heroismo on Terceirn. Island.
PORTUGAL 1339
VITAL STATISTIOS for calendar years:
Births StiU·births MaITi;.t.ge~ Divorce~ Deat~.
1956 202.G67 7,8(13 65,894 951 106.919
1957 211,49·1, 7,9611 71.792 811 101,784
la 5~ 212,-167 8,01U 73,OUG 785 91,Sn
In 1958 the births included 10(),096 (1957, 108,855) boys and 103,371
(l02,63()) girls; the deaths, 46,S['1 151,602) males and 45,077 (50,182)
females.
At the census of 15 Dec. 1950 th(1 population of Lishon was 790,434;
Oporto, 284,842; Setubal, 44,030; Coimbra, 42,640; Funchal, 37,215;
Braga, 32,624; Evora, 25,409; Ponta Dclgada, 22,706; Covilhii.,20,514.
The number of emigrants in 19.57 was 35,.'356, of whom 19,931 went to
Brazil and 1,628 to U.S.A.
RELIGION. The predominant faith is the Roman Catholic, but there

is freedom of worship, both in public and private, with the exception of
creeds incompatible with morals and the life and physical integrity of the
people.
On 7 May 1040 a Concordat nnd a Missionary Agreement with the Vatican
were signed. The Concordat recognizes the bwful existence of the Cat.holic
Church and the exercise of its spiritu:-.lrnission according to the Canon Law.
Itelibrious llia,rriages, duly notified to the Registrar's Office, are recognized,
and divorce is forbidden to parties married by the Church. Church property
which had come into the possession of the State is restored, except that used
for public services or classified as immovable property of public interest. or
national monuments.
The Missionary Agreement regulates religious activities in the Overses.s
Provinces. Since the 16th century. Portugal bas bad the privilege of the
Roman Catholic jurisdiction in the Orient (Padroado), which had by 1950
been reduced to Portuguese India and part of India; an agreement, signed
18 July 1950, adapts the Concordat to the ~h anged politieal situation in
India. By an additional protocol signed on 25 Sept. 1053 the archdiucese
of Goa has been made coincident with Portuguese India.
Portuguese territory is divide'} into 6 ecclesiastical provinces. with their
sees respectively at Lisbon, Braga, Evora, Luanda (Angola), Lourenc;o
Marques (Moyambique) and Goa (Portugues" India). The Arehbishop of
Lisbon (Patriarch since 1716 and Cardinal since 1737) bas the following
suffragans: Guarda, Leiria and P(lrtalegre on the continent; i\ngra do
Heroisrn o anel FUllchal in tbe adjacent islands. and Cape Ver,le in Africa..
The Archbishop of Braga (Primate of the Iberian Peninsula) bas as suffra·
gans: Aveiro, BraW:1l9a, Coimbra. Lalllego, Oporto. Vila Real and Viseu.
The Archbisbop of 1<:vora has 2 suffragans: Beja and Faro.
By the cOll cordat of' 1940 the metropolitan sees of Luand(1. (Angella)
and LoureD'fo Marques (Moc;ambique) were created. The furmer has as
suffragaus, besides the soe of S. 'l'om{" the 4 now dioceses of Nova Lisboa.
Sil va Porto, Sa da Bawleira and Malange ; the second has as suffra)l;ana the
4 new dioce8cs of Beira, Nampuln., Qndirnane and Porto Amolia. The
Archbishop of Goa aud Damao (who also holds the titles of Archbishop of
Cranga,nor. Primate of the East and Patriarch of Eastern Indin) has juris.
diction over the diocese of Goa. The pri vil ege of the :far East is constituted
by the suffragan sees of Macao, with the d cariats of Shiu.Hing. Singapore
and Mal acca. nnd Dili (Tiroor). The prov ince of Guinea is an Apostolic
Prefecture.
1340 PORTUGAL
EDl:CATION. The census of 1950 showed that 59·6% of the popula.

tion over 7 years could read and write. Compulsory education has been in
force since 1911. In 1957-58 there were 16,095 public primary schools with
810,394 pupils and 22,583 teachers. Privato elementary schools numbered
1,057 with 46,259 pupils and 1,953 teachers. Secondary instruction is
supplied in two types of schools: in the lice1U and other grammar schools,
and in schools of technical instruction. In 1957-58 there were 43 liceus,
with 82,962 pupils, and 205 professional and tochnical secondary schools,
with 67,102 pupils. For higher education there are 3 universities: at
Lisbon (founded in 1911), Coimbra (founded 1290) and Oporto (founded
1911). In 1957-58 the number of students at the universities was 13,300.
There is also the Technical University at Lisbon (founded in 1930), which
in 1957-·58 had 2,852 students. There are also a military and a naval
school (both at Lisbon), an Institute of Overseas Studies (160 students),
art schools in Lisbon and Oporto (886 students) and a college of music
(142 students).
Oinemas (1958). There were 436 cinemns with a seating capacity of
2;0,037.
JUSTICE. Portuguese law distinguishes civil (including commercial)
and pena.l, labour, administrative and fiscal law, each branch having its
lower courts, courts of appeal and the Supreme Court.
The republic is divided for civil and penal cases into 157 coma~CQ.8;
in every comarca there is a lower court. In the comarca of Lisbon there
are 30 lower courts (15 for criminal procedure and 15 for civil or commercial
cases); in the comarca of Oporto there are 17 lower courts (8 for criminal
and 9 for civil or commercial cases); at Braga, Coimbra, Settibal, Guimariies,
Santarem, Leiria, Aveiro, Viseu, Almada and Funchal there are 2 courts.
There are 3 eourts of appeal (Tribunal de Rela98.0) at Lisbon, Coimbra and
Oporto, and a Supreme Court in Lisbon (Supremo Tribunal de Justi9a).
There are also 44 municipal courts. The municipal courts are also lower
courts, similar to those of the comarcas; their service is, however,
limited.
Capital punishment is abolished, except, in the ease of war, by court
martial.
FINANCE. The revenue and expenditure for calendar years are shown
as follows (in 1,000 escudos):
1955 1956 19~7 1968 1969 1
Revenue. 7,360,962 7,637.217 8,266,136 8,744,412 9,619,639
Bxpenditure 7,329,782 7,697,433 8,230,275 8,687,229 9,617,826
• Estimates.
Main items of estimated revenue and expenditure (in 1,000 escudos) :
Rel'enne 1958 1959 Expenditure 1968 1959
Direct tu... . . 2,044.200 2,281,400 Public debt . • 777,141 812,415
Indirect taxes . . 2,312,035 2,448,035 Presidency, legislative
Industries under epecia! bodies and pensions . 813,011 834,440
tu regime . • 389,65' 404,152 Finance 372,861 4M ,Il4
Yield. of various ser- Interior 877,744 473,299
vices • . . 353,939 371 ,542 Justice 1i2. 107 192,818
State dotrAin and In· Army . 758.478 813,133
dDJlU"ies and partici· Navy . 487,629 53(;,477
pation ill profits . 442,939 484,690 Foreign eJlairs 152,099 152,718
Yield of capital, .hares, Public works . 531,600 561,008
eto. 97,490 112,540 Oversellll Provinces 73,428 79,198
PORTUGAL 1341
Revenue 1958 !059 Expenditure 1958 19;;9
ReimbttrSements, etc. . 715.042 741,1~6 Education . 690.R~6 8S6,6~r.
("AT~.. ignmCDt of receipts 419,303 434,ni Economy. . 302,900 340,646
Communications . 482,834 505,S3:!
Corporations and Soeia.i
Security . 38,251 693,233
Total ordiuary 6,774,500 7,278,432 Total ordinary 6,530,919 7,231,617
Extraordinary 1,816,533 2,241,2U7 Extraordinary 2,046,534 2,286,208
On 31 Dec. 1958 tho public debt was as follows: Consolidated debt:

,1% (1940) (centenari08), 1.418.056 contos; 3!% (19·U). 458.220 rontos;
3% (1942). 3,022,489 contos; 21% (Hl43). 1.132,066 contos; public debt
certificates (4 % ), 2·45m. contos. On 31 Dec. 1958 the internal redeemable
debt was as follows : Titles. 1,778,280 contos; Cain Geral de Dep6s: tos,
77.311 contos; Bank of Portugal. 987.627 contos. External receemable
debt : 555.660 contos.
DEFENCE. Continental Portugal is divided into 5 military regions

with headquarters at Oporto, Coimbra, Tomar. Evora and Lisbon,
Insular Portugal comprises the military commands of Madeira and the
Azores.
Overseas Portugal comprises the military commands of Angola. Mo<;am.
bique, Cape Verde. S. Tome and Principe. Portuguese Guinea, Iudia, ~lacau
and Timor.
Every Portuguese citizen in good physical condition is subject to com·
puLsory military service from the age of 20 to 45 years.
Pre·military training is entrusted to the Mocidade Portugue3a (POI·tU'
guese Youth Movement), the Colegio Militar and the Pupilos do Exercito
(Army pupils). with particular emphasis on physical and moral training of
youths aged from 7 to 21 years,
Army. The permanent elJectives of thc Army in Continental and In·
sular Portugal consist of 16 regiments of infantry. 3 independent battalions
of infantry, 10 battalions of ca~,adore8, 2 machine.gun battalions; 6 regi.
ments of ficld artillery, 3 regimentR of heavy artillery, 1 regiment of coastal
artillery, I regiment of A.A. artillery, I mixed battalion of coastal and A.A,
artillery, 2 independent battalions of A.A. artillery. I independent A.A.
battery and 2 independent coastal batteries; 8 regiments of cavalry, 3
regiments of engineers, 1 battalion of telegraphists. 1 railway battalion; 2
medical battalions, 2 quartermaster battalions, 1 ordnance company.
Effective strength (1957), nearly 44,000 all ranks.
The permanent effectives of the army in Overseas Portugal consist of
6 regiments of infantry, 17 independent companies of cavadore3, 6 mixed
battalions of field artillery, 2 battalions of coastal artillery, 4 independent
mixed batteries of artillery, 1 independent battery of coast artillery, 2
battalions of motorized cavalry, 2 independent squadrons of motorized
cavalry, 1 independent mixed squadron of cavalry; 2 battalions of en-
gineers. I independent company of engineers, 2 independent medical corn·
panies, 2 independent quartermaster companies.
In 1958 the Republican Guard (Ouarda Nacional Republicana) consisted
of 7,675 all ranks, and the Fiscal Guard (Guarda Fi8cal) of 5,471 all ranks.
The Legido Portugue3a and Civil Defence force numbered 86,831 volunteers,
Navy. The Navy comprises: 5 destroyers (Vouga, Doo, Douro, Tejo
and Lima, 1,238 tons), 12 frigates including a fast light destroyer type anti·
submarine escort completod in Italy in 1957 and 2 destroyer escorts
1342 PORTUGAL
transfen'ed from the U.S. Navy in 1957; 3 submarines; 4 fleet mine.

sw",~.pern;2 trawlers; 14 patrol vessPis; 12 coastal minesweepers; 1 gun·
boat; 4 motor launches; 1 sailing training ship; 6 surveying vessels; 5
fishery protection vessels; 2 river gunboats; 1 oiler; 1 lighthouse tender.
The navy personnel in 1950 included 840 officers and 7,558 ratings.
Air Porce. Formed in 1012, the Air Force has been independent since
19.~2, when it was combined with the naval air service and "iven equal status
with the Army and Navy. In 1960 it had a strength of about 3,000 officers
and men, with some 350 aircraft. It contributes :l squadrons (with F·86
and F·84G Thunderjet fighter. bombers) to the N.A.T.O. air forces. It also
has a maritime reconnaissance squadron flying Harpoons, a small number
of C·54 .~nd C·47 transports, air/sea rescue units equipped with H·19 heli·
copters (some based in the Azores), and training units equipped with
Chipmunk primary, Harvard intermediate and T·33A jet advanced trainers.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. The following figures show the area (in
hectaresi and yield (in metric tons) of the chief crops:
1956 1957 1958
Drop Area Yield .A'ta Yield od ...... Yield
Wbeat 786.012 661.791 813.859 796.848 836.968 8H.361
lfa.ize 487.431 4kO.902 483.070 427.032 '79,417 424.616
Oats 301.874 96.6B2 30~,824 128.327 303.424 143,338
Barley 154.11)2 78,109 If)5,073 101,379 162.308 101,744
Ry. 264.1180 17.... 073 254.61Z 202.524 252.192 ~n8,850
Ri,," . . 3~.697 160.397 3i t 325 161.886 34.948 148.852
French belUlS . 334.1)76 46.676 328.066 45.201 326.194 '5.798
Potatoes 88.977 1.102.206 89.702 1,196.348 84.681 l,087.0~0
Wine production, 1958, 8.585,006 hectolitres (1957, 9,576,367), and

olive oil. 1958, 660,890 hectolit.res (1957, 1,101,568). In 1955, 228,996
hectolitr{ls of port wine were exported; in 1956, 246,125; in 1957,
236,6lJ3; in 1958,212,944.
In 1955 Portugal (continental and islands) possessed 74,000 horses,
127,000 mules, 237,000 asses, 1,073,000 oxen, 4m. sheep, 738,000 goats
and 1,516,000 pigs.
For'~ltry. The forest area covers 2,500,000 hectares, of which 1,170,000
are pine, 600,000 cork oak, 500,000 other oak, 70,000 chestnut. 100,000
eucalyptus and 60,000 other spet'ies.
The production of cork in Portugal surpasses that of the rest of the
world (1956,170,835; llJ57,141,703; 1958,125,066 metric tons). Most of
it is exported in the crude condition; export!! of cork and cork products
totalled 161,203 metric tons in 1955, 144,125 metric tons ill 1956, 133,455
metric tons in 19;;7. The exports of resin were 37,226 metric tons in 1955,
44,0 I1 metric t.ons in 19M, 57,534 metric tons in 1957; of turpentine, 6,694,
9,577 and 7,663 metric tong in the same years.
Fi.shl:ries. The fishing industry is of importance. At 31 July 1957
there were 47,084 Illen and boys employed, with 17,005 boats (1958, 46,412
men and boys employed, with 17,077 boats). The sardine catch, 19.~7, was
112,840 metric tons, valued at 367,035,000 escudos; 1958, 131,505 metric
tons, 331,950,000 escudos. Exports of tinned sardines (in met.ric tons)
amounted to .51,502 in 1955,47,167 in 1956,40,027 in 1957.49,299 in 1958.
The most important centres of the sardine industry are at Matosinhos,
Settibal, about 26 miles south of Lisbon, Portimiio and Olhao.
Mining. Portugal possesses considerable mineral wealth.
POr.TUGAL 1343
Production in metric tons:
1966 1957 1958 1956 1957 1958
Coal • • • 559,~71 682,457 72:>,509 Cement • 1,023,793 979.](;9 1,024,181
Cupriferolls pyrites. 669,n6 666,768 "98,166 \l'olframitu 4,3J3 3,727 1.681
Copper (precipitated) 114 107 69 fJematite 16~,OZ5 188,-170 135.152
Tin ores 3,048 1,762 1.051\ M ""net.te 74,~65 97,912 96.980
Kaolin.. 48,03·1 48.0J2 59,7·15 M )tu(.!anese • 3,182 5,475 4,n5
Gold (relined). 0·688 0·724 0·552 Lead concon..
Beryl 221 173 47 trates 2,064 2,246 1,473
Electricity. Total production of electrical power in 1(l57 was 2, J 68,894,585

kwh. (1958, 2,666,110,119 kwh.); the installed capacity totalled 977,231 kw.
(1958, 1.I45,6(3), of which 7G3,I23 kw. (I !l5S, 931,894) were hydro·electric.
New power pbnts were inaugur.l.t~<l in 1\)51 (CaRtelo 00 Bode, V'mda N"va,
Belver), 1953 (Salamonde), 19.54 (Cabril), 1955 (Caniyaoa and Bou~a) and
1958 (Picote).
Trade Unions. The org'mization of trade unions is based on the
Labour Ch'lrter (Estatuto do Trabalho Nacional), implemcntod by tbe decree
no. 23: 0r,0 of 23 i5ept. 11133. 311 unions (sindical,o., lIacionais) had in 1957
a membership of 832,556 (641,469 men; 191,087 women).
COMMERCE. Imports for consumption and exports (exclusive of coin

and bullion and re·exports) for calendar years, in 1,000 escudos:
lOOS 1954 IV55 19~6 19~7 19~8
Import;! . 9,613,402 l'),O~G,030 11,403,371 12,7 24 ,~08 14.422,123 13,8119,.174
Exports . 6,282,826 7,297,129 8.165,170 8,62'),6~6 8,289,030 8,298,745
The principal articles of imports and exports (in 1,000 escudos):

Imports 1966 1957 19~8 Exports 1956 1957 1968
Dried cod 164,6H 91,195 10·l.35~ Sarurne. 782,975 675,411 732,636
'Nbeat 37ti,:J82 175.714 72,S;)" Cork. 1,68(),~12 1,371.794 1,31 1).236
Maize 33.lJ6 26,706 32,97~1 Wine. 737,773 73V,I40 951.047
Rice 6,036 4.80~ r..~77 Brandy 16,160 49,8r.4 2".:)·19
Cotlee 143,326 160,14 ·1 208.1G9 ViDegar 1,2n 1,290 \,397
Sugar 38R,326 4~O,151 431,612 Olive oil 68,1111 92.873 79.275
Hides 110,996 127,nS 142,5"9 n •• in . 240,71S 302,129 220.134
Ammonium Tllrpolltine 64,449 44.GU5 3(,.5-17
sulphate. 71,431 177,205 122,867 1':; I'i!... 170,'i14 126,411 1311.593
Iron and steel: WoUram ~8:t.lfll 142.i93 34.6()5
Ingots. .1,080,076 1,40[',197J,OSS"r.G Pit-prop. 63,u3'{ 86,420 64,141
Manufactured 161,606 19i,794 17U,9:l1
Petrol 67.872 85,608 61.:>1 9
Coal, etc. . 27(1,353 31 i.~6i 20~.4~ ('
Cotton good. . lo~,R22 96,r,94 9i.H:l9
Cotton, raw 719.135 SR5.03S 869,1'17
lIve. _ 7(1,91)7 82,30ii 74,8~3
Motor vebicles. 778,830 800,597 84·I,U79
The distribution of the imports and exports (in 1,000 escudos):

Imports from Exports to
From or to 1956 19.57 19,)8 19,56 1967 1958
Great Britain . 1.729.473 1,909,430 1,780.166 1,237,937 1,163,314 939.510
West Germany 2,U:;8,662 2,407,5 36 2,43!J,843 614,572 566,158 641.090
U.S.A. 1,313,S20 1,501,010 970,3(12 7A6,769 702.821 6'6.~30
Hclgillm. 791,406 890,942 1,0114.048 336,9('7 292.425 3114.460
France . 950,930 1,189,~O4 1,O(j:!.1111 64S,IM 424,[,98 648,735
Sp~ID 96.452 98,873 67.~57 144,2'5 93.916 69.783
Netherle.nda 301.Q63 383,58S 405,341 187,169 192,090 20o.SM
Italy 375.746 449,972 504.:;79 361,014 348,220 352,198
Angola. 5fiJ.6S0 Sr,I,S05 67~."88 1,~ln.726 1,183,729 1.3:\1),098
M~"mbique 696,404 7~I,4:l5 1,058,605 6b3,839 728,363 656,637
1344 PORTUGAL
Total trade (in £ sterling) between Portugal (excluding the Azores and
Madeim) and the U.K. (British Board of Trade returns):
1955 1906 19~7 19~8 1969
1m porta ';0 U. K. 17,798,976 16,967,300 16,630,623 14,338,946 14,792,007
Exports l'rom U.K. 20,482,333 20,617,130 22,310,470 21,140.598 20,354,767
Re-oxport. from U _K. 662,OW 702,846 1.000,224 1,367,427 895,854
Trade (in £ sterling) between the Azores and the U.K. (British Board of
Trade returns) :
1955 1956 1957 1968 19~9
Imports to U_K. 87.874 ii,761 144,696 139 t 582 146.014
Exports lrom U.K_ . 281,469 4[)6,742 468,148 nS.697 456,8~0
Re-e>:ports from U_K •. 1,n9 ~,294 2,634 63,667 2,208
Trade (in £ sterling) between Madeira and the U.K. (British Board of
Trade returns) :
1955 1956 1967 1958 1969
Imports to U.K. 246,381 560,322 320,561 290,747 274.703
Exports lrom U.K. . 761,001 904,949 794,104 740.269 843,n7
Re-exports from U.K.. 2:;,493 29,663 18,672 23,041 21,163
COMMUNICATIONS. Shipping. In 1958,15,117 vessels of34,816,140

tons entered the ports (continental and islands). Of those entering 8,886
(1l,352,176 tons) were Portuguese, 948 (6,127,477 tons) British and 408
(835,386 tons) Spanish. In Jan. 1959 the merchant marine consisted of
309 vessels of 553,764 tons.
Railways. A decree of!} May 1951, based on the law of 7 Sept. 1945,
merged all leases and concessions in a single concession for all Portuguese
railways, granted to the Companhia dos Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses,
except the Estoril railway (Lisbon-Cascais), of 26 km length. In 1958 total
railway length was 3,597 km. In 1958, 85,123,000 passengers were carried
and 3,771,000 tons of merchandise transported.
Road.a. There were, in 1958,28,778 km of road. In 1958 there were in
continental Portugal 208,593 motor vehicles, including 24,444 motor cycles
and 6,5~,5 tractors; in addition, there were 4,170 government·owned vehicles,
not counting those used by the armed forces.
Post. In 1958 length of telegraph lines was 36,916,100 km; number of
offices, 1,454. The state owned 368,560 km oftelephone line and the Anglo-
Portugnese Telephone Co., Ltd, owned 607,876 km of lines. Number of
telephones was 332,309, of which 103,431 were government-owned.
Cable and Wireless, Ltd, operate in Portugal (Carcavelos), the Azores,
Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands, connecting Portugal with Great Britain,
North a.nd South America, and West and South Africa.
Aviation. Regular services connect Lisbon with Tangier-Casablanca,
Oporto, Madrid, Luanda-Louren<;o Marques, Paris, London, Leopoldville--
Lourenc;o Marques, Brussels, Luanda, and Funchal. These lines in 1958
carried 65,071 passengers and 334·4 metric tons of freight. The Azores are
served by airlines between S. Miguel, Sta Maria and Terceira, carrying, in
1958, 12,075 passengers and 95·8 metric tons offreight.
MOJ~EY AND BANKING. The unit of currency is the e.scudo of 100

centavo8, which contains 0·066567 gramme of fine gold. It was stabilized
on 9 June 1931, and the paper currency re-linked to gold when the notes of
the Bank of Portugal became payable in gold or its equivalent in foreign
PORTUGAL 1345
currency. The mint par of the escudo with the British sovereign was fixed
at llO escudos = 1 sovereign; when Great Britain devalued the £ in Sept.
1949, Portugal fixed the value of the escudo at 80·50 escudos = £1 sterling.
At present there are silver coins of 20, 10,5 and 2! escudos; Alpaca coin"
of 1 and! escudo (50 centavos), and bronze coins of 20 and 10 centavOB.
New 20· /lnd lO·centavo coins, issue in 1943, wero made of an alloy of 95%
copper, 3% zinc and 2% tin.
The one bank of issue for the mainland of the country and adjacent
islands is the Bank of Portugal, founded 19 Nov. 1846. By decree of
29 June 1931. its constitution was modified and its privileges wero pro·
longed until 30 June 1961. The capital of the bank was fixed at. lOOm.
escudos. The bank is the treasury of the State, and its reserve must be not
less than 50% of the total amount of its notes in cireulation and other sight
liabilities. Not less than 25% of the amount of the notes in circulation and
other sight liabilities must be represented by gold (coin or bullion). The
bank issues notes of 1,000, 500, lOO, 50 and 20 escudos. The cash in hand
of the bank on 31 Dec. 1958 wail gold and bullion, 6,456,235,000 escudos.
Tbe notes in circulation amounted to 12,989m. escudos.
The National Development Bank begau operations on 4 Jan. 1960. Of
its total capital of I,OOOm. escudos, 650m. have been subscribed by the
Government and 75m. by the Bank of Angola.
There are 35 banks registered on the mainland and 4 in the islands, with
cash in hand on 31 Dec. 1958, 6,682m. escudos; bills, 15,1i28m. escudos;
deposits) 30,97Im. escudos. The deposits in the savings banks and general
deposit bank (state) amounted to 1I ,52Gm. escudos.
measures is the legal standard. The chief old measures still in use are: The
Almude of Lisbon = 3·7 Imperial gallons, of Oporto = 5·6 Imperial gallons;
the Alqueire = 0'36 Imperial bushels; the Maia = 2·78 Imperial quarters.
Portugal maintains embassies ill Argentinn, Belgium, Brazil, Canada,
Chile, Cuba, Denmark, :France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Morocco, Nether-
lands, Norway, Pakistan, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Union of
South Africa, U.K., U.S.A., Vatican, Venezuela; legations in Austria,
Ceylon, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
Ethiopia, Finland, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Iceland, Indonesia,
Iran, Iraq, Irish Republic, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Paraguay, Peru, Thailand, Tunisia, United Arab Republic, Uruguay.
OF PORl'CGAL IN GREAT BlUTAlN (11 Belgrave Squnre S.W.I)
Ambassador. Gen. Adolfo do Amaral Abmnches Pinto (accredited
4 Feb. HJ59).
First Secretary. Jo1[o Manuel Hall Themido.
Counsellors. l\'Lirio Soares de Oliveira Neves (Economic); Luis Lcotte
do Rego (Commercial).
Military and Air Attache. Lieut.-Col. Augusto Casimiro Ferreira Gomes.
Naval Attache. Cdr Jaime Lopes.
Press Attache. Antonio Ro.to Poticr, M.V.O.
Commercial At/aclul. Alltollio Bento Franco Melldes.
There are consular representatives at Aberdeen, Barrow.in-:Furness,
Belfast" Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Dartmouth, Dover, Dundee, Leith-
xx
1346 PORTUGAL
Edinburgh, Falmouth, Glasgow, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, London, London-

derry, Manchester, Middlesbrough, Newcastle, Plymouth, Saint-Helier,
Southampton and Swansea.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN PORTUGAL
A mba8sadar. Sir Charles Norman Stirling, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O.
(accredited 1 March 1955).
Counsellors. J. D. Murray, C.M.G.; R. Feltham (Rhodesia and Nyasa-
land AJfairs). First Secretaries. J. McAdam Clark, M.C.; G. M. F. Stow
(Information); Mrs M. 1. Dunlop; L. W. Blackwell (Consul) . Counsellor
(Cornmfrcial) and Consul· General. D. MacFarlane. Naval, Military and
Air Attache. Cdr T. A. Beet, R.N.
There arc consular representatives at Lisbon, Oporto, Setubal, Vila Real
de Sanj,o Antonio, Ponta Delgada (Azores), Funchal (Madeira).
OF PORTUGAL U.S.A. (2125 K alorama Rd. NW.,

IN TIlE
Washington 8, D.e.)
Ambassador. Luis Esteves Fernandes.
lrIinister·Counsellor. Joao de Lucena. Counsellor. Albino Cabral
Passoa (Financial); Manuel Bramao (Commercial). First S ecretal·Y.
Eduardo Braga Conde. Service Attaches: Cdr Virgilio Ribeiro (Navy),
Lieut.·Col. Joao de Paiva·Brandao (Army and Air) .
OF THE U.S.A. IN PORTUGAL

Amilassador. C. Burke Elbrick.
Counsellor. John Goodyear. First Secretaries. Duncan A. D. Mackay
(Consul); Theodore A. Xanthaky. Service Attaches: Col. Chester F. Alien
(Army), Cmdr Richard W. Arey (Navy), Col. Charles P. Sullivan (Air).
Agricultural Attache. Frank W. Ehman.
There are consular representatives at Oporto, Ponta Delgada (Azores)
and Funchal (Madeira).
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. Tbe lnstltuto Nacional de Estatlstica (Avenide Dr Ant.6nio
Joe~ de Almeida, Lh!bon) was set up In 1935 in succession to tbe Direc9ilo·Gerai de Estatistlca.
The Centro de Estudos Econ6micoe and tba Centro de Estudos Demograticos were alliliated
to tbe Instituto in 1~44. Director: Ant.6nio Maria Diogo Tovar de Lemos. Tbe maiD
publications arc :
Anuario Estatbtico. .dnnuaire .!lalistiqu~. Annual, from 1875
Combcio Bxterno. 2 vols. Annual, from 1936 (replacing E.kUfJlica Comercial, 1866- 1936)
Ceruo da Pop"la~no de PortUIJaI. 1864 tI. Decennial (latest ed. 1~50)
E.kU;"l.ica da Organiraf4<> Corporalica. 1938-19; Organizafiio Corporaliva e Pr..nd!ncia
Social. 1950 tI.
E.kUfJ/icIU Financrira3. 1947 If. Annual (replacing Situafuo Banc<lria, 191~ - ·j6)
E.kUfJlica ,1qr/cola. Slali<:tique .t1gricok. 1943 If. Annual
E.l<UfJ'ica lnd,~.trial. SkUistique lndwlrielle. 1~43 fr. Annual
.t1nuario Devwgrafico. 1929 lI.
Boletim Mensal ao Instituto Nacional de EskUlstica. Monthly since 1929
Centro de E'stu.dos Econ6micO$. Ret'ista. 1945 a.
Centro de EstuMs Demograjicos. Revista
.J.nuano E.,tallstico das Contrib"i~.. e Impostos. 1936 tI. Annual
EskUis.'ica da Educafdo. 1940 tI.
Estalislica Judicidria . 1936 ff.
Aimada, J . de, A Aliallfa Inglcsa. 2 vols. Lisbon, 1946-47
Azav,do, Gonzaga de, llistdria de Porttqal. 6 vols. Lisbon. In progress
Birnt, Po, /" Portugal. Paris, 1~50
Brundii.o, 0., .t1ssistlncia Social. 2 vols. Lisbon, 1949
PORTUGAL 1347
Brazao, E., The Anglo-PoTluguese .:!lliance. London, 19::;7
Bridge, A" ancl Lowudes, S., The 8electi~e Travelkr in Portugal. London, 194!1
Oaetano, M., Sisterna Corporativo. Lisbon, 1938.-Problt'11Ul.! da Revolu,ao Corporatit'a.
Lisbon, 1941
Oastro, A' I inlTrducilo ao t .!tudo do uonomia portuguesa. Lisbon, 1947
Elst, J. van der, Le Portugal. Paris, 1951
Ferreira, D., Corporativimw. Lisbon, 1955-
Ferreira, J. A., Dicionario ingl~s-portu9uh. 2 vols. Porto,1948
Grrao, A . A' I Geografla tk Portugal. Uoimbra, 1942
Greenwall, H. J., Our OltU." illlV. London, 1943
Riggins, M. H., nnd WintOD, C. F. S. de, Survey of Education in Portugal. LOIJdon, 1942
Lautensach, H., Portugal. 'vols. Gotha, HJ32-37.-Bibl-iografia geoyrajica tk Fortuoal.
Lisbon, 1948
Livermore, H. V" Historv 0/ Portugal. London, 1947
McVittie, W. W ., Economic and Cvmmercial Conditicms in Portugal. H.M.S.O., 1955
NoweB, O. E., A. Hi.."tVTY of Portugal. London, 1953
Nnnes, A. Sedas, Situarao e Problema3 do Corpo7"ali-f7ismo. Lisbon, 1954
Pereira, A.. M., Organitac:ao polilica t admini$tralif1a ck Portugal. Oport-o, Hl49
Peres, D., Histuria eft Portugal. 8 vols. Ba.rcelo~, 1928-37.-His/dria dos Descobrimentos
Portugueses. Lisbon, 1943 .-Historia da Expanstlo PortuguesG no Mundu. Lisbon, 1937
Ribeiro, Orlando, Portugal, 0 MediteTTdneo e 0 .Allt1nUco: t$tudo f}eograjico. Coimbra, 1945.
Salazar, A. de 0., Doctrine and Action: Internal and Foreiqn Policy 0/ lM .Nt!fJJ Po,.tugal,
1928-39. London, 1939.-Discuraos, 1928-4.1. 3 vols. 4th ed. Ooimbra, 1950.-
Politica Portugue.<:a. Santiago de Chile, 19:J2
Wallich, H., The Financial System of Portugal. Lisbon, 1951
NATIONAL LmRARY. Biblioteca Nacional, Largo da Biblioteca. Pnblica, Lisbon.
Director: Dr Manuel dos Santos Estevens.
OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
By law no. 2.048 of 11 June 1951 the status of the Portuguese overseas
possessions was changed from' colonies' to 'overseas territories.' Each one
has a Governor and enjoys financial and administrative autonomy. Their
budgets are under approval of the Minister for the Overseas Territories.
They are not allowed to contract public loans in foreign countries. The
Portuguese state defends and protects the natives and the ownership of the
lands and cultivations. Forced labour of natives is forbidden, except for
public service, punishments or payment of taxes.
Area (in sq. km) and population (in 1950):
Popnla· Popula-
Afrioa. ..Area. tion Asia nm1 Oc.eanio. Area tion
Oap. Yerd. Islands 4.033 148,331 In Iudia 4,194 637,591
Guinea. 36,12. 510,777 Ohiua: Macao, etc. 16 1~7,772
S. Tome and Prin·
cipe Islauds n6 '1 60,159 Total, Asia. 4,210 825,363
Angola 1,246,700 4,14,,266
Mo~ambique 783,030 ',738,911 Timor 14,925 442,378
Total, Overseas
Total, Ah--iCB. . 2,070,852 10,603,444 terri tories 2,089,987 11,871,186
Total trade of the Portuguese Overseas Territories with U.K., in £ sterling

(British Board of Trade returns) ;
Exports to U.K. Imports from U.K.
1957 1958 1959 1957 1958 1959
w... t Africa (exc!.
Angola) 18.150 23,734 4,,87 514,532 339,506 413,212
Angola . 731,583 335,047 661,092 3,556,554 4,478,996 3,631,828
MOQambiqne ~,389,36 .1 2,386,812 2,451,511 5,199,805 5,158,794 5,187.146
India 13D,706 800,:174 Ju3,177 1,675,333 l,38.3,n6 1,278.588
Macao 15 7,439 6,697 6,942
Timor !H,551 20,850 114,268
1348 PORTUGAL
Book8 cl Re!erenr.e
Aaa. tk i'ortUf}aJ Vltramarino. Lisbon: Ministfuoio das Col6nias. 1948
Aires iU OrnelaJ: Colect4neas da, sUaJ principai.f obras militaTes t coloniais. 3 v ols. Lisbun
.4lltUirio Rstattstico do Ultramar . .dnnuaire statistiqut d'Outrt-m.er. Lisbon, 1943 ft. (1943-
49 under title A1Iudrio &tatfstico do Imperio ColonioI)
Bolelim da Agtnciu Geral do I]llrl1ma,. Lisbon. Monthly
Cun/erlncia EcoMmica do lmplrio Colonial Portugues: PartCerel, projectos t decretol t 1)oto.~.
Lishc.ll1
Andradl!, A. A. •• 0 Tmdicional ~nti · Racismt) da .dc~do CiDilitadeJra Porlllguesa (in Portuguese
and Ecglish). Lishon. 1953
Babia do:) Santos, F .• Unidc..tU t coopera~do entre a meertpole t 0 ulcrarnar. Lisbon, 1953
Caetano, M., T,adi(;ocs. P,indpios t 31etodos da Colonilcz,du PottUljuesa (in Portuguese, FreJlf:h
and J-J r,glisb). Lisbon. 1951
Cll.Oha, S., 0 Sisuma PortUf}ut.• tk PoWica Inl/lqena. Lisbon, 1953
Dn ITy, J ., Portuguese Africa. Hd.fVard Univ. Pregs, 1959
Galvio, H ., and Selvagem. C., Imp4rio aUramarino POTtugal,. 4 vols. Lisbon. 1%0 .. 63
Ribciro. VHas. His/a,ia Colonial. Lisbon. 1938
The Cape Verde Islands were discovered in 1460 by Diogo Gomes, the
first settlers arriving in 1462. In 1587 its administration was unified under
a governor. Tho territory consists of 10 islands and 5 islets which arl)
administered by a Governor, whose seat is at Praia, the capital. Tht:
islands a.re divided into 2 groups, named Barlavento (windward) flud
Sotavento (leeward). the prevailing wind being north·east. The former is
constituted by the islands of Sao Vicente, Sant·o Antao, Sao Nicolau. Sant"
Luzia, 13al and Boa Vista, and the small islands named Branco and Rasv.
The lat.,:cr is constituted by thc islands of Santiago, Maio, Fogo and BrH.vD,
and tho small islands name.d Rei and Rombo. Sao Vicente is a coaling
station which supplies all navi;;e.tioll to South America. The total area
is 4.03~: sq. km. The populat.ion (census of 15 Dec. 1950) was 148,331
(2,909 Europeans, 103,255 balf.caetes, 42,092 Negroes, 75 other races).
There wero in 1958, 124 primary schools with 7,119 pupils and 2 secondary
schools (979 pupils) in Sao Vicente and Praiu, 3 t echnical schools (196 pupils).
The chief products are castor oil, coffee, mustard. brandy, oranges and hides.
Other products arE' maize, manioc, beans, tobacco, cane sugar, sweet
potatoes. The coffee is of excellent quality; exports in 1958 were 73
metric 1;ons. In 1958 there were 3D,91O goats, 15,004 oxen, 14,121 pig$ and
8.0n a:lses. The estimat ed revenU9 and expenditure in 1959 balanced ot
49.867,417 escudos; public debt. ill 1958, 197,455,000 escudos. Imports, in
1958,3(18,904,000 escudos (special commerce); exports, 301,738,000 escudo,:
(spocial eommeree). The currency is Portuguese. In 1958,1,103 steamers
entered the ports of the province; total shipping, 4,296.604 net tons. There
were 51·5 km of roads in 1958. There is an airport at Ilha do Sal.
There i9 a Dritish cor.sul a t Silo Vicente.
Governor. Maj. C. E. lit Silvino Silv6rio M:1,rques.
AnuArio E$tat!stico d~ Cal;o Verde. Pmia.. Anounl
n ebiano. J. n .• .4 geolo9ia do aTguipNago de Cab" Vercu. 1n32
Corrcia. 1•• M.• UUramar POTluguts. 2 • .as illtas de Cabo VCT,).. Li.bol\. Ag ~ ncia Gcr. : do
Ultromar. 1954
Portugllese Guinea, 01\ the coast of Guinea, was discovered in 144fl

by Nuno Tristao. It became a separate colony in 1879. It is bounded
by the limits fixed by the convention of J.2 May 1886 with Francc, and is
entirely enclosed on the land side by French possessions. It includes
the adjacent arohipelago of Bijagoz, with the island of Dolama. The
capitnl is, since 1942, Bissau. Area is 36.125 sq. km (13.948 sq. miles) ;
population (census, 1950), 510,777 (2,263 Europeans, 4,568 half.cast.l'~,
PORTUGAL 1349
11 Indians and 503,935 Negroe~). There were, in 1957, 164 elementary
SdlOOls with 11,142 pupils, 8 technical schools with 160 pupils and a second·
itry sebool with 239 pupils.
Chief coruID',rcial products are rico, pa lm.oil, seeds, bides. The re-venue
in 19.57 was 156,466,078 and tho expcnditure J50,086,540 escudoB. Military
forco consists of 24 officers and 80 other ranks (European). Imports in
1957, 231,580.869 escudo~; export.s, ]957, 187,355,005 escudos (special
commerce). The chief port is BL~sau. Other ports are Bolama and Cachou.
In 19,;7, 72 vesseL~ of 77,505 net tons entered the ports of the province.
There w('ro 3,289 km of roads (19;'8).
Governor. Capt.·Lieut. Anti.JIlio AtlgustO Peixolo Correia .
.&nudrio da Ouin) p(lf/ugupsa. Dissau (htest is::iuc. 1949)
Relal6rio t .M apaJ do .M ovimenfo Comercial t }'Iaritimc da Guinl. I30laWfl. Aunual
RlUTeto, J., lliJtOria dfl. Guinl. Lisbon, 1938
ORrreira, A., .\1 andi;was da Guinl Porlw;uesll. Li~lJOD, 1~1{1;
Mot:1. T. d oe , Guin~ Port7!fJUe,~a. Lishon. 10fl1
Viega<s, L. A. de Carvalho, Guine P OTlugue.!l1 . 3 vol::;. Diss:\u. J.~:.lQ-40
The j,)lancl~ of S. Tome and Principe, which are about 125 miles off
the coast of Africa, in the Gulf of Guine:1, \vere discovered in 10171 by Pedro
Escobar and ,Toao Gomcs, and sinco 1522 constitute 0. prov1noe under
a Governor. Area of tbe islands 964 aq. km. According to the census of
W50 the popubt.i(ln of the two island8 was 60,159, consisting of 1,152
Europec.ns. ~,300 half·castes, 9 Indians, 1 yellow and 54,697 Negroes. There
were, in 1!J58, 21 elementary schools with 2,214 pupils, a tecbnir.alschool with
:)(j pupils anu a 8cc ..mdrtry "choo! with 11 () pupils. The chief commercial
products are CRC"O. coffee, coconut and copra. palm.oil and cinchona. In
] 05R there were 1,255 goats, 3,OG5 sheep, 5,282 pigs and 4,010 oxen.
In 1958 revenue was 83,577,229 escudos and expenditure 75,603,845
escudos; public debt, 48,500,000 escndos. Imports (1958), 128,119,632
escudos; exports, 231,492,430 escudos (special commerce) .
There were 279 km of roads in 1%8. In 1958, 1,418 vessels of 635,140
n et tons entered t.he ports. There were, in 1058, 1 wireless stat.ion, 600 km
of telephone lines and H telephone exchanges (with 298 instruments).
Governor. Dr MHnuel Marques de Abrantes Amaral.
Angola, with 0. cO:1stline of o,er 1,000 miles, is sepamtcd from :French

Congo by the boundaries assigned by the convention of 12 Mny 1881);
from t.he Belgian Con;!:,) IJY those fi.~ed by the convention of 22 July 1927;
from BriLi~h R(.uth Africa in o.cc,onlnncEI with the convention of 11 June
1891, nnd frow South·West AfricA. in accordance with that of 30 Dec. 1886.
The Congo region WitS discovered by the Portugueso in 1482, and tho first
settlers lirrived there in 1401. LU<1nda wa~ founded in 1575. It was taken
by tl,o Dutch in 1641 nnd occupied by them until 16-18. The area is
1,246,700 sq. km (431,351 sq. milcs). It is under (\ Governor·Gonoml, who
resides at Luando.. By It decree of20 Oct. 19M it is divided into l:l districts.
The important towns are S. Paulo de Luanda (capital), Bengueln, Mo~a,
mcdes, Lobito, Sa d[t Bandeirn, Malange and Huamho (Nova Lisboa), tbe
futmo c[tpital. The popUlation numbered 4,145,266 in 1950.
For primary edu(·ation there were (1958) 1,428 fllementary schools
with 83,060 pupil3; 32 secondary 6cbools with 4,705 pupils; 20 profes-
sional schools with 3,222 pupils and 1 teachers' training school with 266
students.
1350 PORTUGAL
Thero were, in 1958, 17 cinemas with a seating capacity of 12,316.

In 1058 the revenue was 2,469,565,399 escudos and the expenditure
2,227,78'7,439 escudos. The public debt on 31 Dec. 1958 stood at
1,195,17:!,OOO e~cudos.
Livestock, 1958 : 1,217,245 cattle, 118,782 sheep, 465,057 goats, 292,578
pigs, 2,9'16 asses, 1,524 horses and mules.
The principal crops are coffee, maize, sugar, palm.oil and palm kernels.
Other products are cotton, wheat, tobacco, cocoa, sisal and wax. The
country possesses valuable diamond deposits. Exports of diamonds during
1958 totalled 962,336 carats valued at 548,759,045 escudos. Production
(19,58) of iron ore, 282,000 long tons; copper, 3,273 short tons; manganese,
38,499 short tons.
Imports, 1958,3,738,237,000 escudos; exports, 3,688,516,000 escudos.
The chief imports of the province are textiles, coal and foodstuffs, and the
chief ex:ports are coffee, maize, diamonds, sugar, wax and groundnuts.
Coffee e:xports amounted to 77,318 metric tons in 1958, or which 40,633 tons
were exported to V .S.A.
The Portuguese National Navigation Company has most of the carrying
trade to and from Europe. The length of railways open for traffic is 3,110
km. The Benguela Railway runs from Lobito through the Belgian Congo
and Rhodesia, ending at Beira. in Mo~ambique. A further extension goes
through Rhodesia, as far as Mafeking, and from thonce te Komati Port,
in the S,mth Africa Union territory, where it connects with the Louren~o
Marques Railway. The total length of railway, from Lobito to Lourenc;o
Marques, is 5,638 km. In 1958 Angola's railways carried 1,135,925 pas-
sengers &ond 2,030,012 metric tons of freight.
Thoro were in 1957,35,519 km ofrows.
Angola is connected by cable with east, west and south African telegraph
systems. There were, in 1957,9,859 km of telegraph lines, 1,220,217 km of
telephone lines, 10 telephone stations (with 5,547 instruments), 168 telegraph
stations itnd 156 wireless stat.ions.
In 1958,4,377 vessels of 6,543,O!)0 net tons entered Angolan ports.
Regular air service is maintained by the Divisao de Transportes Aereos
from Luanda to: (South) M09amedes via Porto Amboim, Novo Redondo,
Lobito a,nd llenguela, with connexions for Porto Alexandre and Lucira;
(east) Vila. Luso via Lobito, Nova. Lisboa.. Silva. Porto and General
Machado; (north) Pointe Noire (French Equatorial Africa) via Ambrizette,
Toto, lIamba, Sazaire and Cabinda; and to Leopoldville (Belgian
Congo). Sabena. also maintains a weekly service between Leopoldville and
Luanda.
Gove,'nor·General. Dr Alvaro Rodrigues da Silva Tavares.
BritwJ. Consul (Luanda). M. C.M. Kerr.Pearse, M.V.O.
U.S,A. Con,~ul (Luanda) . William G . Gibson.
Anuario Eslalt.lico ~ Angola. Luanda
Babi .. dos Santos, F,. Angola. Lisbon, 1954
Delgado, It., lIis~ria ~ Angola, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1948
Egert.on, P. 0 , 0 " Angola in Per8pecti•• , London, 1967
J ohn.on, A " Mbundu English-Portt'9Uest Dictionary. Philadelphia, 1930
Sbarman, r. 0" Economic and Clmtmercial Condilioru in Porlug1U3t W", Africa. H.M.S.O ••
1964
MOC;:Lmbique was discovered by Vasco do. Gama's Beet on 1 March

1498, and was first colonized in 1505. The frontier with British Central and
South Africa was fixed between Great Britain and Portugal in June 1891.
PORTUGAL 1351
The border with Tanganyika Territory, according to agreements of 1886
and l8g0, runs from Cape Delgado at 10° 40' S. lat. till it meets the course
of the Rovuma, which it follows to the point of its confluence with the
'Msinje, the boundary thence to Lake Nyasa being the parallel of latitude of
this point. The Treaty of Versailles, confirmed by the Peace Conference on
23 Sept. 1919, allotted to Portugal the originally Portuguese territory south
of the Rovuma, known as the' Kionga Triangle' (formerly part of German
East Africa).
Mo<;ambique, with an arca of 783,030 sq. km, is now completely ad-
ministered by the state, since 19 July 1942, when the state took over the
territory of Manica and Sofala, which was incorporated 8S a fourth district
of the province, with Beira as its capital. The Companhia de M09ambique
was then wound up on the expiration of its charter. Louren~o Marques is
the capital of the province. The administrative organization of the pro-
vince was established by decree of 20 Oct· 1954. It is divided into 9
districts: Louren~o Marques, Gaza, Inhambane, Manica and Sofala, Tete,
Zambezia, Mo~ambique, Cabo Delgado, Niassa.
There is a government council composed of officials and elected repre-
sentath·es of the commercial, industrial and agricultural classes, and also
an executive council. The population of the province, according to the
census of 1050, was 5,738,911. III 1958 there were 2,931 primary schools
with 305,713 pupils, 6 secondary schools with 2,040 pupils, 77 technical and
professional schools with 9,647 pupils (including 63 missionary professional
schools), 6 normal schools with 59 7 pupils, 3 theological schools with 186
pupils.
There were, in 1958,24 cinemas with a seating capacity of 11,416.
Tho budget for 1958 balanced at 2,876,482 contos; tbat for 1950 at
3,153,898 contos. Public debt on 31 Dec. 1958 was 1,421,527,000 esoudos.
The chief products are sugar (exports, 1958, 132,387 tons), maize, cotton
(exports, 1958,35,974 tons), copra (exports, 1958,44,368 tons), sisal (exports,
1958,30,334 tons) and mining products (gold, 1957, 19 kg; beryl, 1956,
950 short tons). In 1956 there were 841,465 oxElh, 346,902 goats, 74,498
sheep, 87,213 pigs and 8,240 asses.
Imports, 1958, amounted to 3,421,902 contos; exports, 2,192,486 contos
(672, 993 tons).
The principal ports are: Louren~o Marques (1,489 vessels of 5,683,166
net tons handled in 1957); Beira (3, 66 7,380 tons handled in 1957), and
Mo~ambique (166 vessels of 479,345 net tons entered in 1957).
There were in 1956, 2,800 km of raihvay and 37,152 km of road, of
which 4,105 km are main roads. Motor vehicles, in 1956, included 20,970
passenger cars, 6,263 lorries and buses, and 2,01l motor cycles.
The Delagoa Bay Railway has a length of 57 miles in Portuguese territory
and is continued for 290 miles to Pretoria. The Beira Railway has a length
of 200 miles in the territory formerly administered by the Moyv.mbique Co.,
and links up at the frontier with the Rhodesian Railway system. The Trans-
Zambezia Railway, 175 miles in length, from Dondo, on the Beira Junction
Railway, to Murraya, on the southern bank of the Zambezi, was opened for
traffic on 1 July 1922. On the northern bank of the Zambezi, the Central
Africa Railway (61 miles long, of which 45 miles are in Portuguese territory)
connects at Port Herald with the Shire Highlands Railway. With the open-
ing of the Lower Zambezi Bridge on 14 Jan. 1935 (3,677 metres, one of the
longest bridges in the world), these 3 railways give a continuous connexion
between British Nyasaland and the port of Beira.
Regular air service is maintained between Lourenyo Marques and
1352 PORTUGAL
Moclmhoa da Praia-Tete (15,250 passt'ngers in 1956), Johannesburg

(2,354), Salisbury (1,889) and Durban (2,214).
Beil'a is connected by telegraph with S~lisbury in Southern Rhodesia, an,l
Louren~o Marques with the Transvaal system. Quclimane has telegraphic
communication with Chiromo. In 1958 there were 14.334 km of telegraph
line, 24 wireless stations, 57 telephone stations and 220 telegraph stations;
length of telephone lines, 47,044 km. including 30,935 km of conductor
wires in cable; number of teleph o ne~, 10,SG4.
Barclays Bank D.e.O. has branches in Bcira. and Louren90 Marques.
By decree of 22 JUly 1939 only the escudo currency is in use in Portu·
guese East Africa. The metric system is used.
Governor·General. Cdr Pcdro Corrcia de Darros.
Brilisl. Consul·General (Lourent;o Marques). G. N. Jackson, M.B.E.
There is also a consular representative (Lt Heira.
U.S ..4. Consul· General (Louren~o .Marques ). William L . Wight, Jr.
Anudrio Estatfslico da ProfJincia de lJfo~ambique. Lourcnc;o Marque9
.I1o~ambiqu.. Doc"men/(j,io trim.mal. Louren~o Marques (since 1935)
Guia et:oll4mico tU Mo~ambiqrlt. LoW'en~o Marques, ]9:;2
DolE-o, 0 . , Mo~ambi'1ue. Lisbon, 1951
Roteluo, T., Histdria Politica t Militar dos PortUl)1ltses em MOfambiqt~. 2 vols. Coimora,
1921; Lisbon, 1934/36
SOl1Sll, R.~ Anudl'io de J{orambiqtU!. l.,ouren~.() Marques. (First issue, 1908)
Galv:1o, H ., and Selvagem. 0., lmp~ri() Ultram.al'ino Portugu~s. Vol. IV-Jlo,ambiqut,
Lisboa. Empresa Nacional de Publicjdud~, 1950-53
Portuguese India (Estacio da India) has been under Portuguese rule since
1505. It consists of Goa, containing thc capit.al, Goa, together with the islands
of Angediva, Sao J'orge and Morcegos, on the Malabar coast; Damao, with
the ten'itories of Dadra and Nagar-Aveli, on the Gulf of Cambaia; and Diu,
with the continental territories of Gogola and Simbor, on the coast of Gujerat.
The total area of the province is 4,194 sq. km, \fith a population in 1950 of
G37,591. In 1958 therfl, were 326 elementary schools with 15,661 pupils,
4 secondary schools with 986 pupils, a medical 8ehool ,.. ith 137 students
and a teachers' training collt'ge with 59 studcnts. There are 507 salt works
employing about 2,000 men, the production (1958) amounting to 4,5J8
metric tons. In Damao thero are 11 salt works, and in Dio 5. In 1906
deposits of manganese were disco\"cred nes,r l\Iormug,10, and 6 concerns
with 21 mines are at work. The Mormugao Railway (82'1 km) connects this
port with the lines of India. The estimated revenue and expenditure in
1958 bE,lanced at 258,129,272 eSCudos (1959, 319,989,000). The public debt
on 31 Dec. 1956 was 99,836,000 escudos.
The trado is largely transit. In 1958 the imports by sea and land
amouni,ed to 874,318,602 escudos, the exports to 536,842,308 escudos.
Chief exports are iron-pyrites, manganese (138,446 short tons in 1958),
coconuts, fish (fresh and salted). spices, cashew-nuts, salt and copra.
Roads (1957), 761 km. There were, in 1957,63 telegraph offices and 565
km of telegraph line and 232 km of telephone line; number of telephones,
30S. ] n 1958 there entered tho ports 873 ships of 2,216,365 gross
tons.
Governor-General. Brig. Manuel Ant6nio Vassalo e Silva.
Amui,io E."atistico da India. Nova-Go..
!loll' o. 0., AponUl11umlQS para uma geog,ajtafisica de Goa. Lisbo:l_ .Ag~noiaGeral do Ultramar-,
1~;)5
Correia, G., Histdria da ColonilQ(llo Portugl),b'O na India. 4 vols. LlsboD, 194~-a2
PORTUGAL 1353
Gracia,s, J . B. A. , lli.l;tOria economico-flnanceirada India Porluguesa (1910 a 1947). 2 vols.
Lisbon.. Agenciu Gcral das Col6nias, 1!J50
Rego, A. Silva, HistUri(J das Mi&aoe.J do Padroado Portugu/!s do Orientt. Lisbon, 194.3
Macao, in China, situated on a peninsula of the same name at the lllOuth

of the Canton River, which camo into possession of the Port.uguese in 1557,
forms with the 2 small adjacent islands of Taipa and ColBane a province,
ili.-ided into 2 wards, each having it.s own administrator. The boundaries
have not yet been definitely agreed upon; at present Portugal holds the
territory in virtue of the trenty with China of 1 Dec. 1887. The area of
the province is 16 sc]. km (6 8q. miles). The populntion, accnrding to the
census of 1950, is 187,772 (2,719 being Europenns, 122 Indians, 1,785 half·
castes, 10 Negroes, 183,105 of the yellow races !md 31 others).
Estimated revenue and expenditure in 1958 balanced nt 125,048,938
escudos; in 1959 at 140,732,624 escudos.
Education is provided at, the Seminary of S. Jose, 66 secondary schools,
(H elementnry and 12 profcssional schools. Tho t.rade, mostly trnnsit, is
handled by Chinese merchants. Imports, in 1957, 95,921,635 patacns;
e:·;ports, 37,162,451 patacas (1 pataca = 5·5 escudos). The province has
22,1 km of telephone line (2,150 instruments in 1956), 5 telegraph stations
and a wireless station. It is served by a Portuguese and various British
and Dutch ste:1ll1ship lines. In 19G7, 3,988 vessels of 1,927,984 gross tons
entered the port.
Tho garrison has a strength of nearly 5,000 officers find men.
There is a British consul at Macao.
Governor. Lieut.·Col. Jaime Silverio Marques.
British Consul. A. W. R. Taylor.
A 'P!a rio Estalfstico dt Afacau. Mac:lo
H(>~o, A. d:\ Sllva, .d presenra cll! Portuqul em Jfa.cau. Lisboa.. Agenci;l. Oeral dM Co16nia!,
LJ46
Portuguese Timor has been uuder Portuguese administration since

1586. It consists of the easttlrn portion of the island of that name in the
Malay Archipelago, with the territory of Ambcno and the neighbouring
islands of Pulo Cambing and Pulo Jako, a total area of 14,925 sq. km. By
treaty of April 1859, ratified 18 Aug. 1860, the island was divided between
Portugal and Holland; by conven tion of I Oct. 1904, ratified in 1908, the
boundaries were strnightoned and settled. The territory, formerly ad·
ministratively joined to IIIacao, wa~ in 1896 (confirmed in 1926) made an
independent provinco. Population in 1950, 442,378. There were (1958)
3 second"ry schonls with 228 pupils and 93 primary school~ with 6,578
pupils. In lOGO estimate(l revenue and expenditure balanced at 92,046,3'! 9
escudos. Imports (l!'57), 6),333,000 escudos; export,s, 38,879,000 escudos.
Chief exports are coil'ee, sandal wood, sa.ndal root, copTa nnd wax. The
port is Dili, the capital (population, 7,OOO). In 1957, 59 ships of 55,626
net tons entered and cleared. Thcre is a good road system of 2,154 km.
telephone lines of 3,441 km, 53 t.elegraph ~tations, 31 telephono str.tioll8
(427 instrumonts in 1957) ,\nd 4 wireless stations at Dili.
Governor. Maj. Filipe TClIludn Bamta.
British Consul (resi(lcs at Surabaya). A. T. Cox, M.B.K
Fc.:lg-:lS, II. E., Ttmor Portll(Juts. Li~hOJII 1950
Olivcira, I.una ne, Timor na lIisMria de PortU{)al. 3 V f)13 . Lisbon, ]949··52
l';J.:pl.i r~l:on of Port'''Jue:st Timor. Report of L!llied Jtiilin(J Corporalion to A!ia fnveJlment
C"mpIJTl1l. /.t(l. Victoril\. ITor..g Kon~. 1937
Martiuho, J0::l~ S" Timor Qllatro sh'ulos df! colon'izardo portuguesa. Porto. ] 943
1354 RUMANIA
RUMANIA
REPUBLICA POPULARl ROMiNl
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. For the history and con·
stitution of the principality IInd kingdom of Rumania from 1859 to 1947,
see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR·BoOK, 1947, pp. 1187-89.
On 30 Dec. 1947 King Michael abdicated under Communist pressure
and shorUy afterwards left the country. On the same day, the Rumanian
parliament proclaimed Rumania a • People's Republic.'
On 2£1 Nov. 1946 a coalition Cabinet was formed by the Ploughmen'S
Front, Social Democrats, Communists and Liberals, with the additional
support of the National Popular Party and a wing of the National Peasant
Party. On 28 Maroh 1948, 414 deputies of the Grand National Assembly
were ele(:ted: 405 of the Popular Democratic Front, 7 Liberals and 2
Democratic Peasants. The Popular Democratic Front was a coalition of the
4 remaining political parties, i .p-., the Rumanian Worker's Party (a merger
of the Communist and Social Democratic Parties), the Ploughmen's Front
(a pro· Communist Peass.nt Party), the National Popular Party and the
Hungarian Popular Union. The Popular Democratic Front waa reorganized
in July 1!)52; it contained representatives of the Rumanian Workers' Party,
the mass organizations, independents (members of the professions, arts,
trades, el;c.) and a few remnants of the Ploughmen's Front.
Elections held on 30 Nov. 1952 returned 423 deputies on the single list
of the Popular Democratic Front. Of the potential electorate 98% went
to the polls; the single list received 98'84% of the votes. Of the deputies,
308 belonged to the Rumanian Workers' Party; the remainder were de·
scribed af! independent. A further general election was held on 3 Feb. 1957,
when 99·15% of the electorate went to the polls and the single list received
98'88% of the votes cast. The new chamber consists of 437 deputies.
The Grand National Assembly is elected for 4 years; on the basis of 1
deputy for every 40,000 of the population. It holds short sessions twice a
year, and, in the intervals between sessions, it delegates its legislative rights
to the Pl'*lidium (1 chairman, head of state; 3 deputy.chairmen, 1 secretary
and 14 members). All working people of 18 and over have the right to vote.
The Central Committee of the Rumanian Worker's Party elects the
Politburo and the Secretariat. In Feb. 1960 the Politburo consisted of 9
full and 'l alternate members.
Chairman of the Presidium of the Grand National Assembly. Ion Gheorghe
Maurer (born 23 Sept. 1902; elected 11 Jan. 1958, on the death of P. Groza).
HecuJ of the Politbu.ro and First Secretary of the Communist Party.
Gheorghll Gheorghiu·Dej. Other members are: Chi vu Stoica, Chairman
of the C&uncil of Ministers; Gheorghe Apostol, Chairman of the Trade
Unions Oouncil; Alexandru Moghioros, Army·General Emil Bodnaras,
Petre Borila, Deputy Chairmen, Council of Ministers; Constantin Pirvulescu,
Chairman of the Commission of Party Control and Chairman of the National
Assembly; Nicolae Ceausescu, Secretary of the Communist Party; Col.·Gen.
Alexandru Draghici, Minister of the Interior. Altenlate members are:
Dumitru Coliu, Chairman, State Control Commission; Col.·Gen. Leontin
S!tiajan, Minister of the Armed Forces; Leonte Riiutu; Stefan Voitec,
Deputy Chairman, Council of 1Y!inisters. Important Ministers, not in the
Politburo, are Ghcorghe Gaston·Marin, Chairman of the State Planning
Commission; Avram Bunaciu, Foreign },Iinister; Gherasim Popa, Alexandru
RUMANIA 1355
Biliideanu, Deputy Chairmen, Council of Ministers; Carol Loncear, Minis/ er
of H eavy Industry.
The first Constitution of the Rumanian People's Republic, adopted on
13 April 1948, has been superseded by the new ConstHution, voted on 24
Sept. 1952.
The peace treaty was signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947. It fixed the
frontiers ItS on 1 Jan. 1941, with the exception of the frontier with Hungary,
which was restored as on I Jan. 1038, thereby annulling the Vienna Award.
The political clauses stipulate that the Rumanian citizens, except fasci~ts,
shall enjoy all personal liberties (freedom of exprcssion, religious worship,
political opinion, public meetings, etc.). Losses caused to the Soviet Union
were to be made good by the delivery over a period of 8 years beginning from
12 Sept. 1044 of oil products, grain, timber, seagoing and river craft, ma·
chineryand other commodities, to the total value of $300m., i .e. one·fifth of
the damage caused by the Rumanian troops. Rumania is to restore to the
United Nations and their nationals all legal rights and interests in Rumania
as they existed on I Sept. 1939 and to return to them all property situated
in Rumania. For the military and shipping clauses, see below under
DEFENCE and SHIPPING.
National flag: blue, yellow, red (vertical), with the coat of arms of the
republic in the middle.
National anthem: Te slii.vim Rominie, pii.mint parinteso (We praise thee,
fatherland Rumania).
AREA AND POPULATION. As a result of the changes since 1940,
the area and cst,imatcd population of Rumania 011 1 July of each year are
shown as follows:
Arca in sq.
mU.. Urban Rural Total
1939 113,884 3,621.666 16,312,186 19,933,802
1940 94,632 3.109.364 13,200,505 16,318,869
1941 75,366 3,296,979 10,254,777 13.5()1,756
1945 91,671 3,609,382 12,799,486 16,409,367
1958 1 91,699 • 5,737,381 12, 3 :ll,~23 l S,O['S,60·1 •
1 Cen.,us, 1 Jul y 1958. • 237,428 sq. km. • Estimate, 1 Jan. 1960, 18,360,000
Rumania now consists of 16 regions, 15 of which bear the names of their
respective capitals. Bucharest City with its suburbs constitutes an in·
dependent administrative unit.
Population Capital
Are~ r--------~.------~
Region (s~.km) (est., 1 July 1958, In 1,000)
Bacau . 13.400 1,015 59
Raia Mare 10,500 738 39
Ducure~ti 18,700 1,605 1,2i9
Cluj . 18,000 1,294 161
Constanta 16,300 661 109
Oraiova. 20,300 1,539 l Oo
Galati , 14,800 1,071 100
Hunedoara 11,000 5P5 40
Ia~i . 11,100 084 ] 21
Oradea . 12,450 877 104
Pite~tI . 1D.800 1,148 41
Ploe~ti . 13,100 1,304 122
Stalin t • 12,450 932 127
Succava 13,750 954 124 •
Tim h;oara . . 21,800 1,222 147
Magyar Auton. Region 13,600 751 69 •
Buchare..t City 1;50 1,279 1,270
Former Bra~ov (Kronstadt). I 'firS''' M ure~. 3 Census , 1956
1356 RUMANIA
Th€, 1958 census population of other principal towns (mtmicipii ) were:

Arad. 109.996; Braila, 107,487; Sibiu (Hermannstadt), 94,682 ; Satu Mare,
55,230.
Vita.l statistics, 1058 (per 1,000 population): Li ve births, 21·6 ; d eath~,
8'7; marriages, 23·4 ; divorces (per 1,000 marriages), IG8; stillborn (per
1,000 live births), 17; infantile mortality (per 1,000 live births), 69.
The 1956 census gave the following division of the population according to
nation::.lity and (in bracketR) language : Rumanian, 14,9!l6,1l4 (1 5,080,686) ;
Hunga: ian, 1,587,675 (1,653,700); Germaa, 38-!,708 (395,374); J ewish,
146,264 (34,337); Ukrainian, 60,479 (68,252, including Ruthenian); Yugo.
sla\"~, 46,517 (4a,057); Russians,38,731 (54,02!l); Tatars, 20,469 (20,574);
Turks, 14,329 (14,228); Bulgarians, 12,040 (13,189); others and not stated,
182,lN (1 21,024).
RELIGION. The Rumanian Orthodox Church h ad 13·67m. membera

in 1950. Under a new statute of 23 Feb. 1949 it is administered by
consultative organs (Holy Synod and National Ecclesiastica.) As.'Wmbly) and
executive organs (National EcclesiastiCl11 Council and Patriarchal Admini-
stration). The Synod is formed by the Patriarch (present holder Justinian
Marina, May 1948), the 4 M etropolitans (Hungarian-Walachian, Moldavia,
'I'ransylvania, Oltenia and Banat) and all the bisbops (Suceava, Rimnie
and Arge~, Buzall, Galati. Arad, Cluj, Oradea, Constant-a, Roman). There
are, in a.\l, 12 dioceses with 10,165 priests and deacons and 5,814 monks
and nu liS (1958).
Th", Serbs of Rumania have an Orthodox Vicariate at Timi~oara and the
Ukrainians one at Sighet.
The. Unia.te (Greek Catholic) Church, whi ch had about 1·32m. members.
severed its conne~ion with the Vatican, which dated from 1698, and was
reincorporated in the Orthodox Church on a Oct. 1948. It had a Metro-
politan,3 bishops and 1,594 priests in 1930.
There were 5 Roman Catholic bishops in 1948, t.he archbishop of
Bucharest and the bishop.q of Alba Iulia, I ali'i, Timif10ara and Sa.tu lIiare.
Under the Religious law of 1948 these diocese were amalgamated into the
archbishopric of Bucharest-Ia.1i and the bishopric of Alba Iulia. There
were 8:20 priests and 254 monks and nuns in 1958. The Roman Catholic
Churcb had not secured approval for a Statuto ; there is no hicrarchial
connexion with the Holy See.
ThE, Calvinists (780,000) membors) have bishoprics at Cluj and Orad ea,
the Lutherans (250,000 mcmbers) a bishopric at Sibiu and the Unitarians a
bishopJ'ic at Cluj . The Baptists (814 communities), Adventists (G87 com-
munititls), Evangelicals (165 communities) and Pentecolltals (447 com·
munities) have formed a federation. The 3 main Jewish communities
(140,000 members) have &Iso formed a f ederation. The Moslems have a
Mu fti a',~e at Constanta.
All denominations are under the control of the Departmcnt of Cults.
Th(, salaries of the clergy of all dCl1ominatiOl~~ are paid by the state.
EDUCATION. Primary education i sfree and compulsory ; it comprises

7 yea~:, except in certain rural areas without, a t prescnt, sufficient schools
and teachers.
In 1958-59 education at all levels (including evening and correspondence
classes) comprised 6,674 kindergartens with 10,688 teachers and 293,257
children; 16,222 'gcneral culture' and evening schools with 95,394 teachers
and 2,1.44,812 pupils; 13 teachers' training schools with 3,618 pupils ; 235
RUMANIA 1357
secondary technical schools with 2,648 teachers and 34.,913 pupils; 508
vocational schools with 5,424 t eachers and 92,243 apprentices.
There are 4 universities: In Bucharest, founded in 1864 ; in Jassy,
(la"i), founded in 1860; in Cluj (with the faculty of medicine in Ttrgu
Mure~) and Timi~oara, founded in 1945. The 95 faculties of these univer-
sities had, in 1958-59, 8,009 professors and assi8tant~ and 67,489 students
(including 862 foreigners). The R,umanian Academy of Sciences had, at
the cnd of 1957, 68 research institutes, with a staff of 13,000.
National minorities were taught in 2,522 schools and at Cluj University
(in Hungarian). The German minority (2 ,2% of the total population) had,
in 1957-58, 264 elementary and 11 secondary schools, a theological college
(in Sibiu) and about 115 'sections' attached to Rumanian schools of variou~
grades.
A spclling reform was introduced in 1954.
Newspaper8. There were, in 1958, 32 daily newspapers, including 8
in languages of national minorities.
Oinemas. There were, in 1958, 414 cinemas, with a seating capacity of
149,300.
JUSTICE. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court, 18 regional

courts and the people's courts. In principle, people's assessors participate
in all court trials, collaborating with the judges. The Procurator-General
of the Rumanian People's Republic exercises 'supreme supervisory power
to ensure the observance of the law ' by all authorities, central and local, and
all citizens. The Procurator's Office and its organs are independent of any
organs of justice or administration, and only responsible to the Grane!
National Asse mbly (which appoints the Procurator-General for 5 years) and
to the Presidium and the Coun cil of Ministers. Private legal practice has
been abolished as from 1 April 1950, and alllawycrs have been placed under
the control of the Ministry of Justice.
}O·INANCE. Ordinary revenue and expenditure (in Im. new l 1e) for
calendar ycarg:
19:'4 1~55 1956 19S7 1958 1969' 1 960 '
Re"enno . 41,413 44,487 42,4i4 .5,202-6 47,('06 5(1,675 56.800
llxpenditur" 38,362 42,916 011,935 .3.854' 3 44,689 '17,996 55;930
1 Estimates.
In U):39 the 'socialist sector' furnished 91·6% of the revenue; direct

taxes, 8'4%. ~.Iain items of expenditure in 1960: National economy,
33,563m.; social and cultural, 13,.t37m.; national defence, 3,505m. ; ad-
ministration, 1,571m.
The revenues of the local and regional councils were planned to total
9, 137m. let in 1960.
Rumania's external debts consist of pre-war obligations and those
stipulated in the peace treaty. Total U.K. claims in Dec. 1959 amounted
to over £lOOm ., including some £20m. of bonded debt.
DEFENCE. The military clauses of the Peace Treaty allow (a) Land
Army, including frontier troops, of 120,000 men; (b) A .A. artillery of 5,000
lIlen ; (c) Air Force of 150 aircraft, of which not more than lOO may be of
combat type; personnel,8,000; (d) Navy of 15,000 tons; personnel,5,000.
At the end of 1959 the Rnmanian armed forces were reported to consist
1358 RUMANIA
of 200,000 men in the Army and 100,000 in para· military forces (frontier
troops, internal.security troops, militia, military firemen, labour troops).
Unite. of the Ministry of the Armed Forces are under ODe of the 3 military
rl'gioDs of Ia~i, Bucharest and Cluj. There are 3 army corps, each made up
of 3 infa.ntry di\'isions and supporting tank, artillery, engineer and recon·
naissanc'~ elements. There are also 2 mountain divisions at Ttrgu Mure~
aDd Sinaia, 2 tank di\'isions at Bucharest and Lipova, 2 motorized di\'isioDs
and an independent artillery di\'ision at Tecuci. The A.A. artillery consists
of 14 re@:iments.
In 1£159 there were 4 old destroyers, 6 submarines, a minelayer, 4 patrol
vessels, 4 fleet minesweepers, 4 motor torpedo· boats, a submarine depot
ship (Gonstan!a), 2 yachts and a sail training ship. The Danube force corn·
prised some small craft. Headquarters of the Danube flotilla and IDftin
river port is Brn,ila. The naval school is in Constanta.
The Air Force has been reorganized under Russian supervision. It is
believed to have almost 20,000 officers and men, with 350 operational
n,ircraft. These are organized into 3 fighter regiments, each made up of 6
12.plane squadrons of l\'[iG·15 and MiG·17 jet·fighters; one regiment of
Il.28 twin.jet tactical bombers, a transport group and helicopter and train·
ing unib •.
The .soviet occupation forces left Rumania in July 1958.
PRODUCTION. The first 5·year plan covered the years 1951-55. The
second E.• year plan (1956-60) has considerably increased all targets.
The .~ctual production figures were as follows:
1n50 1955 1956 1957 1058 1959 1960
Product (plan)
Crude oil (1,000 metric tons) 5,047 10,555 10,920 11,180 11, 336 11,438 13,500
Electric energy (lm. kwh .) 2,113 4,340 4,930 0,440 6,184 6,802 7,700
Pig·iron (;.,000 metric tOllS) 320 570 583 686 707 846 1,115
Steel (1,0(0 metri c tons) 555 766 779 864 934 1,419 1,700
ConI (1,00') metri c tons) . 3,893 6,104 6,472 7,035 7,388 7,977 11,000
Methane ps 0,000 cu. metres) J ,950 3,972 4,374 4,6 33 5,075 5,782 10,000
Wbeat (1,')00 metric tons). 2,219 3,006 2,436 4,662 2,913 4,000 6,500
Maize (1,000 metric tOllS) . 2,101 5,876 3,932 6,338 3,657 5,700 8,000
Sugar bee~ (1,000 metric tons) 633 2,000 1,519 2,043 1,732 3,400
Agri,:ult1Lre. The distribution of the soil of Rumania in 1958 was as

follows ,:in 1,000 hectares): Ploughed land, 9,752; meadows and pasture,
4,227; vineyards and fruit trees, 444; forests, 6,433.
Live3tock, 1959, was 1·23m. horses, 4·39m. cattle, 4m. pigs, 10·66m.
sheep and 0·44m, goats.
On <:1 Dec. 1958 there were 15,754 collective farms and agricultural
co.opera.ti"ITes, with 1·9m. families, cultivating 3·!lm. hectares. State farms,
in Feb. 1960. numbered 556. with 1·78m. hectares of land. of which 1·27m.
hectares were arable. There were 240 machine and tractor stations with
45,144 tractors (in 15·h.p. units). The socialist sector was claimed at the
beginning of 1960 to represent about 76% of the agricultural area.
Min;'ng. All resources of the subsoil which were formerly in private
hands, E,nd virtually all manufacturing or processing enterprises of import.-
ance in Rumania-as well as banking, insurance, mining. transportation and
telecommunication enterprises-were nationalized by a law published 11
June 1948 effective immediately.
The principal minerals are salt, coal, lignite, iron and copper ores,
petroleum and natural gas. Petroleum wells are worked in the Prahova
RUMANIA 1309
valley, Moldavia, Oltenia and the Pit.o'?ti area. The saltmines are situated
in the region of the lower Carpathians, from Bukovina to the west of Oltenia,
an area of over 250 sq. miles. Saltmining hu.s been a state monopoly since
186:\; production in 1958 was Im. metric tons, of which about one· quarter
was exported. Output of iron ore in 1959 was 1,064,000 metric tons; 1958,
743,484 metric tons; steel ingots and castings (1958),924,300 metric tons.
Production (1958) of manganese ore 200,::!65 metric t ons; load, 11,880
metric tOilS; metallurgical coke, 562,593 (1959,609,000) metric tons; silver,
643,000 fine oz.; aluminium, 10,800 metric tons .
1ndustry. The 1958 (and 1959) output of selected industrial products was
(in metric tons) : Chemical fer tilizers, 28,927 (106,000) ; washing soda,
83,323 (106,000); caustic soda, 41,003 (64,000); paper, 118,497 (127 ,000) ;
cement, 2·57m. (2·4m.); sugar, 188,082 (242,000); edible oils, 63,951
(76,944); butter, 10,164 (10,951). Fabrics (in Im. sq. metres) : Cotton,
207 '5 (218); woollen, 27·7 (28'2); s ilk, 21 (22 '4 ); linen and hemp, 17.
Radio sets, 138,612 (167,000); bicycles, 100,000 (157,000); sewing machines,
49,057.
Etectricity. Concurrently with the general planning, there also runs
the 10·year electrification plan (1\151-60). The development of installed
power, 740,000 kw. in 1950, is to reach 2·6rn. kw. by 1960. By the end of
1958, 2,629 villages (out of a total of 13,324) had been equipped with
electricity; this compared with 8ll in 1950. By 1960,30% of the installed
power is to be provided by hydro.electric stations.
COMMERCE. Adecree published 011 6 May 1948 brought practically all

domestic and foreign trade under state control. Since 1949, four. fifths of
the external trade ha.e been with Soviet countries (1952, 85%; 1954,80%;
1955, 79%; 1956,78%; 1957,75%).
Rumania's trade with West European countries wa.e (in US$lm.):
Imports, 1955,54'4 ; 1956,54'1. Exports, 1955,94' 8; 1956, 118·4.
Total trade between Rumania and U.K. for calendar years (British
Board of Trade returns) in £ sterling:
1955 1956 1957 19(;8 1959
Imporlo to U.K. 3,487 ,Bi9 1,824 ,629 997,143 2,058.136 2,149,002
lbporla from U.K. . 1,119,463 1,236,003 1,450,737 1,006,656 1,519,634
Re-exports from U.K. 1,883,757 1,270,355 1,818,305 v52,9i9 851,184
The U.S.A. declared terminated their 1930 commercial agreement with

Rumania, as from 27 ,July 1951. On 1 Sept. 1951 U.S.A . suspended all
tariff concessions to Rumania and other Soviet· bloc countries.
As a result of her industrialization, it is claimed that Rumania's exports
comprised, in 1956, 19·6% finished goods, and her imports, 43% finished
goods. In 1938 the respective percentages wero 2% and 75%.
COMMUNICA TIONS. Shipping. For the European Commission of

the Danube, from 1856 to 1948, see THE STATES~IAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1952,
p.1326.
The poace treaty of 10 Feb. 1947 stipulates that navigation on the
Danube shall be free and open to all nationals, mercantile ves.~els and trade
of all states, on a footing of equality.
The mA.in ports are Constan\a on the Black Sea and Braila and Gala~i on
the Danube. The largest shipyard is at Galati.
In July 1959 the mercantile marine totalled 32,732 gross tons.
1360 RUMANIA
In Hl5S, sea.going tranRport totalled 952m. ton.km; river transport.,

585m. ton·km.
Railwaya. Railway history in Rumania begins in 1854. The length of
Rumanian state railways (4 ft 8i in. gauge) in 1955 was 7,610 miles, of
which some 400 miles were double·track. Rail transport in 1958 was
16,232m. ton·km.
Road.,. There were in Nov. Hl5S, 76,000 km of roads, including 9,700 km
of national roads.
A road-rail bridge across the Danube between Giurgiu and Ruse (Bul.
garia) was opened in June HIM. Road transport in 1958 was 422m. ton· km.
Pwt. In 1944 there were 94,189 miles of telegraph wire and cable and
91,327 miles of telephone wire. Number of telephone subscribers in 1958,
174,000. Radio receiving sets, in 1949,226,000.
Aviation. TAROM (Transporturi Aeriene Romine) , the state airline,
operates all internal services, and also services to and from Berlin, Prague,
Vienna, Stockholm and Belgrade. Bucharest is also served by SABENA
(Belgian Air Lincs) which operates a service to and from Brussels; AERO·
FLOT (V.S.S.R.), to and from Moscow and Sofia; East German Lufthansa,
to and flom Berlin; CSA (Czechoslovakia), to and from Prague; MALEV
(Hungary), to and from Budapest.
Buch.uest airport is at BlilleaAA (4~ mil.18 from thc cent,re of the city).
Air tmm'port in 1\J58 totalled l-()7m. ton·km.
MONEY AND BANKING. The unit of the monetary system is thc

Ieu, pI. Id (of 100 bani). On I Feb. 1954 the gold content of the lell was
changed to 0'1481I2 gramme of fine gold, and the exchange rate was fixed
at }'5 lei for I Soviet rouble, lG·8 lei for £1 and 6 lei for US$1.
On I June 1957 the exchange rate was again altered for' non·commercial
payment~' to 0·97 lei for 1 roublt:l. On 1 July 1957 tho State Bank an-
nounced a 100% premium for 'non·commercial transactions' in s01lle
foreign currencies (including the US$ and the £ sterling); although the
official v;llue is stiU £1 = 16·8 lei, visiting tourists and business men can
obtain lei at the rate of £1 = 33·6 leL
New Jegal tender consists of bank·notes in the denominations of 10, 25
and 100 :iei issued by the State Bank, Treasury bills of State ii.<Sued by the
Minist.ry of Finau(,o of lieu, 3 lei and [i lei.
The majority of Rumanian banks, including the partly British·owned
Bank of Rumania, were dissolved by the Govemment on 13 Aug. 1948.
The National Bank of Rumania. (founded in 1880) was transformed into
the Bank of the Rumanian People's RepubHc on 13 Nov. 1948. The new
bank is controlled by the Ministry of Finance, and half of its net profits is
being allotted to the State budget. Therc aro also a Bank of Investments
and an Agricultural Bank, both state·owned.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The metrie system for weights and

measure!> was introduced in 1876.

Rumania maintains embassies in Albania, Bulgaria, China, Czecho·
slovakia, German Democratic Republic, Greece, Hungary, India, Iraq,
Mongolia, North Korea, Poland, Sudan, Turkey, U.8.S.R., United Arab
SAN MARINO 1361
Republic, Vietminh, Yugoslavia; legations in Afghanistan, Argentina,
Austria, Belgium, Burma, Ceylon, Denmark, Ethiopia., Finland, France,
Iceland, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway,
Sweden, Switzerland, U.K., U.S.A., Uruguay, Yemen.
OF RUMANIA IN GREAT BRITAIN (4 Palace Green, W.g)
.Minister. P" tre Biiliiceanu (accredited 28 Nov. 1957).
Counsellor. Andrei Sandru. First Secretaries. Gavril Gabor; Virgil
Hutanu (Press); Gheorghe Marcu (Commercial). Military, Air and Naval
Attache. Col. Dumitru Gheol'ghe Dinculescu. Oommercial Secretary.
Dumitru Diacont'scu.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN RUMANIA
klinister. R. D. J. Scott Fox, C.M.G. (accredited 19 March 1959).
FiTst Secretary. A. J. Wilton, M.C .
•~filitary Attache. Col. L . Curtis, M.C.
Air Attache. Group Capt. E. C. S. Fewtrell, D.F.C.
There is n consular ropresentative at Buchnre~t.
OF RUMANIA IN TilE V.S.A. (lG01-:l:3rd St. NW., Washington 8, D.e.)

JI inister.
George Ivlaco\·escu.
}l'i"st Secretary. Vasile Pungnn. Military Attache. Lieut.·Col. Tinu
Manoliu.
OF TilE U.S.A. IN RUl'JANLA
Jllinisle>'. Clifton R. Whal'ton.
OOllnsellor. Emol'y C. Swank. Anny Attache. Col. Joseph T. Mozley.
Air AU(!che. Lieut.·Col. Arthur N. Iaman. Political A (({lche. Pat;! E.
Wheeler.
Books of Reference
P"acl' Trtatv tcilh Rumatlill, 10 Feb., 19·17. erne}. 74~6
CorutiluliQn 0/ 'he Rumanian People's RepufAic. [Buchare~tJ . 19.')2
Bezll, Marcn. jlhe RU1flal1ian Churcl&. Londo[J, 19-13
CretziAJla~ A. (ed.). Captice Rumania. .& decade 01 Soviet rul~. New York awi London 1~ 57
Hncic/o-pedia Ro-:n4nili. 4 vol!!. Bucharest, 1038-43
Yiscber-Galnti, S. (ed.), Rermtlnia. New York and Loudon, 19~f)
Jordrul, C. N., TM Romanian OillndlLYtry. New York Utuv. Press, 195[,
Kormos, 0., Rumania. (Britisb Survey Handbooks, No. 2.) Cambridge, 19-11
Sch0nkron, r.r., Didionar rtJm4n-engltt. Craiovo., 1950
SAN MARINO
TilE independent Hepublic of San Marino is embraced in the area of Italy.
A t.reaty of friendship with Italy was concluded 2B June 1897, and last
ronewed on 29 April 1953. The republic baa extradition treaties with
Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands and V.S.A.
By treaty of 22 March 1862 San Marino is united in a customs union
with Italy.
National flag: sky. blue !>nd white (horizontal).
The frontier lin(l is 38·6 km in length, area. is 58·4 sq. km and the ce1l8UI
population (1!l53) 13,500.
1362 SAUDI ARAlHA
The legislative power is vested in the Grand Council of 60 members

elected every 5 years by popular vote, 2 of whom are appointed every
6 months to act as regents (Capitani reggenti).
The elections held on 12 Sept. 1959 gave 27 seats to the Christian
Democrats, 9 to the Democratic Socialists (the government coalition), 16
to the Communists and 8 to the left.wing Socialists (opposition).
Women were given the vote in 191)8.
The regents exercise executive power together with the Council of State
(COMiglio di Stato) , which comprises 10 departments. Other organs of
government are the Co1t8iglio dei XII (juridical authority) and various
commiesions for art, sports, tourism, etc. There are 35 elementary schools,
a technical school and a high school, the diplomas of which are recognized
by Italian universities. Civil marriage was legalized in Sept. 1953.
The revenue and expenditure for the year 1 April 1957-31 March 1958
balanced at 853m. lire. The public debt amounts to 33m. lire.
The militia consists of all able· bodied citizens between the ages of 16 and
65, with the exception of teachers and students. The chief exports are
wine, v70011en goods, hides, ceramics and the building stone quarried on
Mount Titano. Italian and Vatican City currency is in general use, but the
republic issues its own coins and postage stamps.
San Marino is conneoted with Rimini by an electrio railway (32 km)
and a bus service.
Consul· General in London. G. T.MacE wan (37-39 High Holborn, W.C.I).
There is a. consular representative at Newcastle·on-Tyne.
Bril.ish Consul-General (resides at Florence). I. McMnster, O.B.E.
U.S.A. Consul (resides at Florence). Merritt N. Cootes.
Books of Reference
INFOllIUTlON. Direzlon. Nobil. CoUegio DeUuul, San Marino.-Ente Turlstico Governa-
tlvo.
Fattori, M., RicOfai Slo,ei dtUa Republibca ai San Ma,ino. 6tb cd. Folingo, 1911
Johnson, V. W., TtDO Quai,., Republic., Andorra and San Marino. Boston, 1913
r.nke, H., In /hi Margin of Ri.!to'l/. London, 1933
Valdans." March .... D. Liver! D1, Libro D'Or. dt/la Repubblicll di SIlR Marino. FoIIgno,19H
SAUDI ARABIA
AL-UAMLAKA AL-'ARABIYA AS-SA'UD1YA
SAUDI ARABIA. is a sovereign, unitary kingdom. It was founded by Abdul-
Aziz ibn Abdur-Rahman al-Faisal Al Sa'ud, a.C.B., G.C.I.E. (born about
1880: died 9 Nov. 1953), who had been proclaimed King of the Hejaz on
8 Jan. 1926 and had in 1927 changed his title of Sultan of Nejd and its
dependencies to tha.t of king, thus becoming 'King of the Hejaz and of
Nejd and its Dependencies.' On 20 May 1927 a treaty was signed at
Jedda hetween Great Britain and Ibn Sa'ud, by which the former recognized
the complete independence of the dominions of the latter. The name of
the state was changed to 'The Saudi Arabian Kingdom' by decree of 18
Sept. 1932.
In Nov_ 1937 a general agreement between Saudi Arabia and the Yemen
concerning the settlement of disputes was ratified, and an agreement
regarding the delimitation of the frontiers was negotiated. In March 1953
SA UDI ARAnIA 1363
the treaty of Taif, first signed with the Yemen in May 1934, was extended
for 20 lunar years.
In 1942 Saudi Arabia and the British Government, acting on behalf of
the Shaikh of Kuwait, signed agreement.s for friendAhip and neighbourly
relations, for the extradition of offenders and for the regulation of trade
between Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
Reigning King. Saud ilm Abdul-Aziz, born 1902, succeeded his father
on 9 Nov. 1953. Crown Prince. Emir }'aisal, brother oft.he King. Viceroy
of Hejaz. Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs.
Royal flag: green, with white crossed swords and the Koranic text
• There is no God but God and Mohammed is his prophet' in white Arabic
characters.
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION. For a short account of t.he
rise of the Wahhabis under Ibn Sa'ud, and of the latter's conquest of Hejaz.
8ee THE STATESMAN'S YEAR.BoOK. 1929, pp. 645-47. The dual character of
the state is maintained provisionally, and there are still two capitals, Mecca
and Riyadh. In May 1958 a 'Cabinet system' was instituted by royal
decree; effective power devolves upon the President of the Council of
Ministers, the Emir FaisaI.
It was proposed in 1932 to provide a single constitution for the whole
country. This has not yet been done, and the Hejaz is still technically
governed under a •constitution' issued on 29 Aug. 1926 and subsequently
amended. The religious law of Islam is the common law of the land. and
is administered by religious courta, at the head of which is a chief judge.
who is responsible for the Department of Sharia (legal) Affairs. The con·
sti tution also provides for the setting up of certain advisory councils, corn·
prising a consultative Legislativo Assembly in Mecca, municipal councils
in each of the towns of Mecca, Medina and Jedda, and village and tribal
councils throughout the provinces. The members of these councils consist
of chief officials and of notables nominated or approved of by the King.
AREA AND POPULATION. The frontiers of the Hejaz are not
sufficiently definite to allow of anything like an accurate estimate of its area.
whieh probably does not exceed 150,000 sq. miles. The population is prob.
ably about 2m.; Mecca, the capital, is said to have 120,000-150,000; Jedda,
80,000-120.000; Medina, 30,000-50,000, and Taif, 30,000. The chief port
is Jedda. the seaport of Mecca; ports of less importance are Yenbo, El
Wejh, Rabigh, Lith and Kunfida. Taif, about 5,200 ft above sea·level and
some 50 miles from Mecca, is a summer resort.
The population of Nejd is about 4m. The largest towns are: Riyadh.
th€' capital (about 150,000). Bumida (30,000-50,000). Anaiza (25,000-
40,000). Hufuf (100,000), Hail, Jauf and Sakaka.
Slavery. Slave trading flourishes, with Mecca as the central market.
A royal decree of 2 Oct. 1936 declared illegal the importation of slaves
unless the importers could prove that the slaves were recognized as such at
the date of issue of the decree. The same decree regulates the conditions
and rights of slaves. The influx of American oil royalties has greatly
increased the demand for, and price of, slaves ($400 for a man, 81,200 for a.
girl, in 1956) and correspondingly increased the smuggling of newly en·
slaved persons.
PRODUCTION. Medina producos excellent dates in abundance; 'faif
and other oases in the mountains and valleys produce honey and a fair
1364 SAUDI ARABIA
variety of fruit: while Beduin products are hides, wool, charcoal and clarified
butter. There are also some mineral deposits, including gold, which, how.
ever, ar'~ not now being worked. The exports of the Hejaz are insignificant,
and the country depends for existence almost entirely on revenues derived
from oil operations near the Persian Gulf coast. The annual pilgrimage to
Mecca brings large numbers of pilgrims from abroad each year.
The products of Nejd are dates, wheat, barley, coffee, limes, henna,
pearls, hides, wool, oil, c1'1rified butter (saman or lJl.i) and abaas (Arab cloaks),
besiue8 taruels. horses, donkeys and sheep.
Oil ('perations are carried out by the Arabian American Oil Co. (Aramco)
owned by V.S. interests. Crudc oil production was 30m. long tons in 1952,
,Wm. in 1954, 47m. in 1955, 48m. in 1956, 48·1m. in 1957, 49·2m. in 1958;
399,820,590 barrels in 1959.
The operating centre is at Dhahran, and the principal oilfield at Abqaiq;
the nex~ most important producers are at Ain Dar and the Dammam oil·
field, where the original discovery of oil was made in 1936. Several other
oilfields, notably the great Ghawar field south of Ain Dar and the offshore
wells of Safaniya, are being developed. Some crude oil is refined in a large
refinery at Ras Tanura, and some is transported by pipeline to Bahrain
Island, for refining there. Cnlde oil is also shipped from the Persian Gulf.
In addition, some I5m. long tons of crnde oil is annualJy transported along
tht' Trans.Arabian Pipeline system (TAPlino.) This l,068.mile long pipe.
line con<lects the oilfields to a Meditcrranean oil por~ at Saida: it came into
operation at the end of 1950. The line is operated partly by Aramco and
partly by tho as~ociated Trans·Arabian Pipe Line Company. Saudi Arabian
oil reserves are among the largest, in the world, bnd tho rate of production
pur well is exceptionally high. In addition to the oil· producing areas whcre
Aramco works, ot.her American intorest.s have secured a concession of Saudi
Arabia',. oil rights in the Kuwait/Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone. Here first
shipmer:ts began in 1954.
In 1958 a Japanese concern obtained concessions for both the Saudi and
Kuwait half-shares in the Neutral ZO:1e offshore.
A water supply for Jedda, built by A. British firm, was completed in
1947; 11 new pipeline, completed in 1~54, !Lt least doubles the existing
supply. A hospit.al at RiYlldh (completed 1955) has 400 beds. Such under.
takings ha,ve been largely final1c~d out (If oil revcnues, which have also
permitted Saudi Arabia to embark on numerous other economic and social
projects. In additiun, the companies carrying on oil operations have pro·
vided medical, educational and otber scryices. and have nssisted the Govern·
ment in importa,nt irrigation projects which have resulted in the bringing
into cultivation of thousands of ncres of desert land.
Proclllction of gold, 1954 was 34.298 fine oz.
FIN ANCE. Tho budget for 1060 envisagcd revenue, SR l,405m. and
expenditure, SR l,335m.; that fer 1959, revenue SRI ,41 Om. and expenditure
SRI,280m. Nearly 90% of the revenue is derived from the oil industry
(inc\udbg income tax payments by Aramco).
The oil royalties, paid by the American Oil Company, have grep.tly
incren.,;ed the revonue uf the Saudi Arabian Government, which has risen
from ahout £3m. in 1938 to about £lIOm. in ID54. Since Jan. 1950 Saudi
Arahia has had a 50/50 share in oil profits.
COMMERCE. Exports, consisting almost entirely of oil, were estimated
at £27Sm. in 1956; imports f.o.b. totalled £60m. The chief imports,
SAUDI ARABIA 1365
mainly from the U.S.A., are piece-goods, cereals, tea, coffee, sugar, rice,
motor vehicles and building materials.
Total t.rade with U.K. (Briti~h Boa.rd of Trade returns, in £ sterling) :
19Mi 19~G 19,7 19~5 1969
Import. to U.Ko 5,168,609 6.0~~,g 8 1 6,534,f.% 7,,1&7,619 5,370,24'1
iaportH (rom U.K. . 7,814.09~ 9,01[',294 7,561,479 7,979,706 6,84 :1,766
Ho-erports from I T. K. 76,385 46.'U7 25,622 64,&·\0 111 , 84~
DEFENCE. For defence King Sa'ud dep:mds mainly on a slDalI regul ar

army in the Hejaz_ In 1937 a lI1inist·ry of Defence and a training school
for officers were established. Brit.ish Military and Ch-il Air Mi.'!Sions helped
in training the Army and civil avintioll from 1947 to 1951. The United
States now maint.ains a Military IHission (\vith an Air Force clement) and
in J an. 1957 obtained a 5-year lease of the bn.se of Dhahran. There was also
nu Egyptian military mission untill\iarch 1958.
The Air Force began as a RIDaU army support unit· in 1923 and has been
built up considerably with British and U.S. assist.ance since 1950. Current
equipment includes a small number of F-86F Sabre fighters, '£-33A jet
advanced trainers, T-34 Mentor ba"ic tra.iners, B-26 Invader piston-engined
tactical bombers and C-123 Provider twin-engined transports of V.S. design;
4 Vampire fighter-bombers pre~ented by the Egyptian Government; and
Chipmunk primary tminers from the U.K. 'fho main bases are at Riyndh
and Jcdrla..
COMMUililCA TIONS. Shipping. The pl)rts of Dammam 011 the
Persian Gulf and Jedda. on the Red Sea have dcep-water piem.
Roa€U. There are no road8, prl)perly so called, in the Hejaz, except tho
roads from Jedda to Mecca and from Jed<la to Medina, which IUO asphalted
throughout. There is also a traek from Mocca eastward through Hiyadh to
Uqair and Dhahro.n on the Pcftlian Gulf, a distance of 829 miles, which is
used for motor transport. Mot.or cars can tra'lcl between Riyadh aod
Kuwait, Riyadh and Hail, Jauf and the northern frontier towns, Jeddn and
Hail, and between ,Tcdda and Jizan and Sahya.
Railways. A railway from Riyadh to Dammam on the Porsian Gulf "ia
Dhahrun and the oilfields Abqaiq, Ithmaruya (near Hofu!,) Ilnd Haradh WD.S
completed in Oct. 1951. That section of tho Hejaz Railway which ia in
Saudi Arabian territory is not now in working order.
Telephone . Jedda, Mecca and 'fair a ro linked by t,olophone, Jedda and
Cairo by radlo.telephoue. An intcrnation3.1 radio-telephone stn.tion at
Riyadh was opened in 1956. t\l1luher of telephones (1('59), !\bout 20,000.
Aviation. Saudi Arabian Air Lines, a government-owned company
managed by 'fmns-World Airlines, operates regular internal air services, 1\
thrice-weekly service to Cairo and a twice-weokly service to Beirut, as well
aB special llightB for pilgrims. The pilots a.re mainly Americn.ns, with a
jI;~owing number of Saudi Arabian co-pilots. The main airports are at
Sodda, Dhahran and Riyadh .
MONEY AND BANKING. The legal monetary unit is the rial, a

siiver coin containing 0·34 oz. fine. The exchange rate of the ria! before
,Jan . 1960 was about lOt to the £ sterling and 3·75 to thc USS. There are
silver coins for h ~ and 1 rial , and a nickel qUfUsh, 2::l of which (or 1 \ for
certain official payments including Customs duties) cqual 1 ria!.
1366 SAUDI ARABIA
There is no official paper currency, although since the 1953 pilgrimage

paper 'pilgrims' receipts' in denominations of 5 and 10 rials partially
backed by coin reserves held by the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency have
been generally accepted into circulation. For higher denominations the
Saudi gold guinea (of the same weight and finencss as the British sovereign)
is the official currency, although now seldom seen; most have been with-
drawn because of skilful rcplieas circulating on t,he market. The genuine
Saudi sovereign has a fixed rate of 40 rials (about £4).
After the fixing of a par value in Jan. 1960 (see p. 18), the Saudi
Arabian Monetary Agency announced the issue of a paper rial to replace the
'pilgrim,' receipts'; the paper rial is to be divided into 20 qurush (instead
of 22) and will be backed 100% by gold or transferable currencies; the gold
rial will cease to be legal tender.
Rrar.ches of the Netherlands Trading Society of Amsterdam, the Ban que
de l'Indochine, the British Bank of the Middle East, the Arab Bank (of
Jerusalem), the Banque de Caire, the National Bank of Pakistan and the
Banquo du Liban et d'Out-remer conduct banking business in Jedda.
The Banque de I'Indochine, the British Bank of the Middle East, the
Netherlrmds Trading Society, the Banque de Caire and the Arab Bank have
branche~ in Al Khobar and Dammam; the last two banks have also
branches in Riyadh. The locally-controlled National Commercial Bank has
branche~ in Jedda, Mecca, Taif, Medina, Riyadh, Al Khobar and Dammam.
Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Lebanon, P akistan, Sudan, the United
Arab Republic and U.S.A. maintain embassies and the following powers
maintain legations at Jedda: Belgium, Germ any, India, Indonesia, Jordan
and Turkey. Ethiopia and Thailand are represented by consuls-general,
Nationalist China by a consul, and Finland, Greece and the Netherlands
by honorary consuls.
Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia
were broken off with effect from 11 Nov. 1956.
OF SAUDI .ABABLl. U.S.A. (2800-C Woodland Dr. NW.,
IN THE
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Sheikh Abdullah AI-Khayyal.
Counsellor. Farid Basrawi.
OF THE U.S.A. IN SAUDI ARABIA

Amuassador. Donald R. Heath.
Counsellor. Richard H. Hawkins, Jr. First Secretary. Denzil L. Page.
Air Attnche. Maj. Lawrence J. Smith.
There is a Consul-General at Dhahran.
Books of Reference
Dlckson, H . R. P., PM ..iral> of!h. Des...!. London, 1949
Doughty, O. M. t Traf)t~13 in Arabia De$erllJ. 2 vols. New definitive edition. London, 1938
Gamy, G. de, ..iral>ia PhanU:. London, 1946.-..iral>ian Journal. London, 1900
Guarmani, Carlo, N or!Mm N ajd. London, 1938
!ngre.ms, H., ..iral>ia and!M I.les. 2nd ad. London, 1952
Lewi., B., Handbook of DiplQ11llJtic and Political ..iral>ic. London, 1941
Moulen, D. van der, Ph. Well. of Ibn Sa'ud. London, 1957
SOMALIA 1367
Philby, H. St. J. B., The Hea,t 0/ Arabia. 2 vols. London, 1932.-A,abia of the Wahhabu.
London, 1928.-Arabia. London, 1930.-The Emptv Quartn-. London, 1933. -A
PIlgrim In A,abia. London, 1946.-The Brukg,ound 0/ lJlam. Alexandria, 1947.-
A,abian Jubilee. London, 1962.-Sa'OOi A,abia, London, 1966
Start, Freya, The Soulhem GakJ of A,abia. London,1936.-A Winter in A,abia. London,
1940
Twitch.ll, K. S., Wathen, A. L. and Hamilton, J. G., Report of Ihe U.S. Agricultural Miuion
10 Sa'udi A,abia (In English and Arabic). Oairo, 1943
Twltchell, K. S. and Jurjl, E. J., Saudi A,abia: With an accQull1 of '''e dnrlop11Unl of ill
natural ruourctl. 2nd ed. Princeton, 1953
SOMALIA
SOMALIA became an independent republic on 1 July 1960.
In 1889 Italy concluded a number of treaties with local Somali and Arab
rulers and proclaimed a protectorate along the coast from the eastern frontier
of British Somaliland to the Juba River. After the First World War, Britain
ceded Italy territories on the right bank oft.he Juba with the port of Ki~mayu
(Chisimaio). During the East African campaign of the Second World War
Somalia was occupied by British and Commonwealth Forces. British ad-
ministration lasted from 1941 to I April 1950, when Italy took over the
trusteeship.
Government. On 2 Dec. 1950 the General Assembly of the United Nations
approved the trusteeship agreement for the Territory; the 10-year period of
Trusteeship Administration was terminated on 1 July 1960.
Elections for the Legislative Assembly were held on 29 Feb. 1956; the
Somali Youth League won 43 out of 70 seats,
The Ministry, first appointed by the Administrator on 7 May 1956, now
consists of a Prime Minister, an Under-Secretary and 6 Somali Ministers
(Interior, Social Affairs, Economic Affairs, Finance, General Affairs, Justice)_
The republic is administratively divided into 6 regions, Migiurtina,
Hiran, Mudugh, Bcnadir, Alto Giuba, Basso Giuba. They are subdivided
into 30 districts, all of which are administered by Somali officials.
Area and Population. The total area is 461,541 s<]. km, extending along
the east coast of Africa from British Somaliland to Dick's Head in Kenya
Colony. Estimated indigenous population, 1,263,584; Italian population,
2,331 (as at 31 Dec. 19(8). Mogadiscio is the capital (population, 31 Dec.
1958, 86,643).
Education. In 1958-59 there were 342 schools of various types, with
77.5 teachers a.nd 37,180 pupils. Groups of students and teachers attend
special courses in Italy and Egypt. A high school of legal, economic and
~f,<)ial studies at Mogadiscio had 4 teachers and 33 students.
Cinemas numbered 2t} in 1958, with seating capacity of 13,890_

Welfare. There were, in 1958, 11 hospitals, 20 infirmaries and 135
dispensaries with together 2,034 beds.
Finance. The budget for the calendar year 1958 balanced at
So.1l3,267,569.
Production. The principal occupations are cattle-rearing and agri-
oulture. In southern Somalia along the Webi Shebeli and Juba rivers thore
Are ItAlian plantations with a cultivated area of some 74,000 hectares.
1368 SPAIN
In 1953 output (1,000 quintals) of sugar from sugar cane at Villaggio Ducs.
degliAbruzziwasllO·5; bananas,830; durra,650'3; maize,465·7. Nearly
40% 0)' the whole area is unsuitable for agriculture.
Livestock (1952): Cattle, 842,000; camels, 1,301,000; goats, 2,917,000;
sheep, 643,500; asses, 19,200; horses, 250.
l'rllde. In 1958 imports totalled So.101,612,400 (62,856 metric tons);
exportl!, So.95,522,OOO (102,478 metric tons).
Total trade between Somalia and U.K. (British Board of Trade retu~,
in £ sterling) :
1955 1956 1957 19~8 1959
Imports to U.K. 1,397 122 2,634 68,794 32,312
Exports from U.K . . 121,740 159,982 108,705 131,648 161,279
Re-exports from U'.K. 3 1,208 12 133 763
Shipping. In 1958, 1,245 ships (652,395 net tons) arrived in Somalia..
Roads. Motor vehicles registered as of 31 Dec. 1958 totalled 2,159
passengers cars, 3,193 tnlCks, 74 buses, 468 truck trailers, and 415 motor
cycles. There are 10,247 km of roads, of which 602 are asphalted and 45
macad,amizcd.
POilt. Tllere were, in 1958, 30 post offices, 2,650 km of telephone Iincs
and 1,365 subscribers. Radio.telephone service operates between Moga.
discio, Europe and East Africa.
Aviaticm. In 1958,353 aircraft landed at Mogadi.scio; 2,494 passengers,
10,877 kg of mail and 230,666 kg of goods arrived; 2,526 passengers, 6,117 kg
of mail and 146,888 kg of goods left by air.
Currency. In May 1950 East African currency was replaced by the
• Somalo' (gold parity = 0'124414) issued in coins of I, 6, 10, 60 cente
and 1 somalo, and notes of 5, 10, 20 and 100 8omali. The circulation i"
about ,10m. soma.li. In addition to the Bank of Italy there are branches of
the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Rome in Mogadiscio; a branch of t.he
Bank .of Naples in Kismayu, and of the Bank of Rome in Merca. The
Credito Somalo in Mogadiscio (with an agency in Merea and 8 sub·agencies)
offers full banking services; it has special credit depnrt.ments (building,
agriculture, handicraft).
Brl:tish Consul-General. A. C. Kendall, O.B.E.
U.S.A. Consul· General. Andrew G. Lynch.
Rapport., pU$mtato aUt N anoni Unit.. 1950 It. Annual
Censimento deUa popolazione italiana e slraniera della Somalia.. Rome, 19,)8
COl-ni, C., Somalia lr'lliana. 2 vols. Mogadiscio, 1937
Meregazzi, R., L'.d.mmini8traritmt Fiduciaria ltaliana deUa Somalia. Milan 1954
QEN'1n.u. LmRARY. • La Garesa,' Piazza dells Garcsa, Mogadiscio.
SPAIN
ESTADO ESPANOL
Tru: Spanish State we.s established by General Franco's victory on 1 April
1939. For a. short account of the Civil War in Spain, 17 July 1936 to
28 March 1939, 8ee 'fIlE STATESMAN'S YEAR· BOOK, 1930, pp. 1325-26.
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION. On 1 Feb. 1938 the first
civil government was proclaimed, wit.h General Franco, possessing die·
SPAIN 1369
tatorial powers, at its head. It was, on 25 Feb. 1957, reconstituted as
follows:
Lw4er (Caudillo) 01 the Empire, Chiel 01 the State, C.·in·C. 01 the Armed
Forcetl, Prime Minister and Head of the Ji'alange Party. General Francisco
l"ranco Bahamonde (born 4 Dec. 1892).
Foreign Affairs. FOCfiando Maria Ca~ti(llla y !\faiz.
Army. Gen. Antooio Barroso Sanchcz·Gucrm.
Navy. Admir::d Felipe Jose Abarzuza. y Oliva.
Air. Gen. Josc Rodrfguez y Diaz de Lecea.
Justice. Antonio Iturmendi Baiiales.
Secretary. General of the Falange Party. Jose Solis Ruiz.
Finance. Mariano Navarro Rubio.
Industry. Joaquin Planell R:icra.
Commel'ce and Food. Alberto Ullastrcs Calvo.
Agriculture. Cirilo Canovas Garda.
Education. Jes\\s Rubin Garcia·Mina.
Public Works. Gon. Jorge Vigon Suerodiaz.
Labour. Fermln Sanz Orrio.
Interior. Gen. Camilo Alon50 Vega.
Information and Tourism. Gabriel Arias Salgado.
Housing. Jose Luis dtl Arrese y Magra.
Without Por((oIio. Pedru Gual Vill.1.1hi.
Under.Secretary of the Presidency. Rear·Admiral Luis Currero Dlanco.
On 31 March 1947 General Franco announced that Spain is to become

a monarchy, with a regency council and him"clf as the head ef state. In
the caso of the incapacitation or dea.th of thQ chief ef state, the regency
council is t o propose, by a tw()·tilir<b maj ority, a king or regent, who must
be accepted by a two·thirds majority of the Cortes. On 6 July 1947 this
• Law of Succession ' was approved by a referendum; out of a t otal of
17,178,812 clecturs, 14,14.5,163 voted for, and 722,656 against it; 351,744
votes were invalid.
National jloJ): red, yellow, red (horizontal).
National anthem: Marcha granadcra.
On l() April 1937 the various political groups in the Nationalist Move·
mcmt were united by General Franco into one singl" political party, tmdcr
the title Falange Espanola Tradicionalista y de las Jun(a.9 de OJensioo
Nacional Sindica/·j8Ias, comprising the falange upmiola or fslangists created
on 29 Oct. 1933 by Jose Antonio Prim,) de Rivers, eldest son of the general
~vho was Dictator of Spain from 1923 to 1930, the traditionalists with the
remaining lDonarebical groups, and the followers of GiI Robles, the leader
of tbe right.wing Accion Popular.
This single pa.rty i~ ruled by s National Council composed of 100 members,
or Gonsejeros Nacionales. The Government is further assisted by s Junta
Politica. pre.~ided over by the Chief J<:xecutive of the Movement.
The law of July 1942 rc·established the Spanish CorlC8 (on corporativll
lines) as the supreme organ of state for tho prepu.ration and enactment of
laws. The Cort-es is composed of Prowmdoree (attorneys), either by election
('1' by virtue of the statu ofllce or positi()l\ hold, as follows: (l) The CBhinet
Ministers, It:; (2) the :Members of the NI,tional Council, 103; (3) the
Presidents of the State Council, of the Supreme Court of Justice and of
1370 SPAIN
the High Court of Military Justice, 3; (4) the representatives of the National
Syndicates, elected from among their budies, not to exceed one· third of the
total number of attorneys in the Cortes, 142; (6) the Al~aldu or mayors of
each of the 60 capitals of provinces, the oities of Ceuta and MeHlla, and a
representative for the remaining municipalities of each province appointed
by the respective Provincial Assembly or Diputacj,on Provincial, 102; (6)
the heads of the universities, 12; (7) the Presidents of the Institute of Spain
and of (,o.ch of the royal academies composing it, and the • Chancellor of
Hispo.nit,y,' 6; (8) the President of the Institute of Civil Engineers. 1; (9)
2 barristers to represent the inns of court, and 1 representative each for the
medical. pharmaceutical, veterinary and arohitectural professions, 6; and
lastly (10) members appointed by the chief of state, not to exceed 50 in
number, among persons of high standing in the ecclesiastical, military,
administrative or social life who have rendered eminent services to Spain,
60; making a total of 441-
The Cortes have approved the law known a8 Fuero de 108 E8paiiolu,
proclaimed by General Franco on 18 July 1945, by which civil rights are
granted to the people. The Fuero, the Law of Succession, the constitution
of the Cortes and similar fundamental laws which may be promulgated at
some future date can only be modified or abrogated by a national refer.
endum.
LOCAL G OVERNMENT. The provinces are constituted by the association
of municipalities (9,214 in 1950). All municipalities are autonomous in
their respective spheres, and at their heads stands the Ayuntamiento. The
municipal councils are elected by the heads of family. The Alcade or Mayor
and the Regidores or councillors (in Madrid and Barcelona, 34 in number)
are appointed by the Government. The Diputaciones Provinciales have
entire ju.risdiction over their own province and are their sole administrators.
Each island of the Canaries has a corporation known as Cabildo Insular, to
rul e their special interests; the Balearic Islands have the same provincial
adminis1;ration as the mainland. Each province of Spain has its own
Assembly, the Diputaci6n Provincial.
The reconstruction of devastated regions is under the care of the
Direccion General de Regiones Devastadas, a government department under
the Ministry of the Interior, assisted by the Junta de RecoMtruccion, the
IMtituto de la Vivienda and by the IMtituto de Credito para la RecoMtruccion
Nacional. created by la.w of 16 March 1939, whose duty is to gra.nt and
administer loans approved for reconstructing buildings. industries, agricul.
ture, commerce and mining, and merchant veseels. On 7 Oct. 1939 the
chief of the State was authorized to adopt towns, villages and other localities
severely damaged by the civil war, and the State was given special powers
for expropriation.
AREA AND POPULA nON. Continental Spain has an area of 491,258

sq. km, and including the Balearic and Canary Islands 503,545 sq. km.
The growth of the population has been as follows:
Rate of Rate 01
Omsus annual Census annnal
year Population increase year Population increase
1867 16,49~,212 1910 19.927,160 0·72
1860 16,655,467 0'34 1920 21,303,162 0·69
1877 16,631,869 0' 37 1930 23,663,867 1'06
1887 17,560,362 0·56 1940 25,877,971 0·98
1897 18,065,63. 0·29 1950 27,976.7.5 0·81
SPAIN 137l
Area and registered population of the provinces, as at 1 Jan. 1958:
Area PopuJa· Per sq. Area Popula· Per sq.
Province (sq. km) tlOD km Province (.q. km) tion km
Alar-a 3,047 127,407 41·8 Madrid 8,002 2,243,073 280·3
Albacete 14,862 382,200 25·7 Malaga 7,286 766,224 105·2
Alicante 5,863 682,75!) Jl6·4 Murcia 11,317 797 ,369 70·4
Almcrla. 8,774 362,134 41 ·3 Navarra 10,4.21 395,~161 38·0
Avila 8,04.8 252,466 31·4 Orense 6,979 465,212 66 ·7
ll"dajoz 21,657 806,775 39·6 Oviedo . 10,891) 979,260 89·9
Balcares 6,014 437,464 87·2 Palencia. . 8,0]9 238,125 29·7
Bare,elons 7,733 2,648,024 342 ' 4 Palms. (La.) 4,066 431,446 106·1
BurgOB. 14,328 398,877 27·8 Pontevedra 3,330 722Jj26 217·0
Ci\cerea . 19,945 562,111 28 ·2 Salamanca 12,336 419,892 34·0
Oildi. 7,385 795,313 107-7 San!.a Cm7- de
Castell6n 6,679 331,786 49·7 Tenerife 3,208 458,935 143·0
Ciudad·Real 19,749 577,248 29·2 Santander 5,289 420,654 79·5
C6rdoba 13,718 800,494 58·4 Seg-avia . 6,949 203,442 29·3
Oorufia (La) 7,~03 999,700 126·5 Sevilla 14,010 1,209,841 86·3
Cuencn. . 17,062 321,798 19·0 Soria. 10,301 154,878 15·0
Gerona. 5,886 341,508 58·0 Tarragona 6,283 362,165 51·6
Granada 12,631 773,355 61 · 7 Teruel 14,797 225,560 15 ·2
Guadalajaro. 12,190 1%,712 16·1 Toledo 15,345 526,649 34·3
Guipu7.coa. 1,997 441,287 221·0 Valencia. . 10,763 1,424,275 132·3
Huelva. . 10,085 395,680 39·2 Valladolid 8,345 36~,559 43·4
Huesca. 15,680 240,748 15·3 Vizcaya . 2,221 689,043 309·8
Jaen 13,492 764,441 56·7 Zamora . 10,572 318,341 30·1
Le6n 14,070 580,223 41·2 Zllragoza.. 17,132 634,173 37·0
Lerida . 12,066 332,995 27·6
Logroiio 5,034 230.135 45 ·7
r~ugo 9,881 498,780 50 ·5 Total 603,045 2~.78 ·i.019 59·1
In 1958 there were 14,465,860 males and 15,318,15!l females.

On I Jan. 1958 the population of the 2 Spanish towns in North Africa
was: Melilla, 85,965, and Centa, 62,753.
By decree of 21 Sept. 1927 the islands which form the Canary Archipelago
were divided into 2 provinces, under the name of their respective capitals:
Santa Cruz de Tenerif" and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. The province of
Santa Cruz de Tenerife is contituted by the islands of Tenerife, Palm a.,
Gomera and Hierro, and that of Las Palmas by Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and
Fnerteventura, with the small barren islands of Algeranza, l~oque del Esw,
Rogue del Ot-ste, Graciosa, Montana Clara y Lobos. The area of the islands
is 7,273 sq. km; population (I Jan. 1958),890,381.
The following were the registered populations of the principal towns at
1 ,Tan. 1958:
popu· Popu· Popu-
Town lat-ion Town lation Town Iation
Madrid 1,897,827 Cartngena . 121,122 lluclva il,724
Barcelona . 1,446,184 Gij6n 119,008 Lorca 68,481
Valencia 52],721 S. Oruz de Micres 68,031
SevilIa 419,307 Tenerife. 115,979 Elehe 67,088
Zarngoza 28·1,685 Alicante 112,196 Le6n 66,776
Malaga 283,002 Cadiz 10V,1:;4 L::lngreo 65,3~9
Bilbao 250,731 Santander . 108 ,267 Algcciras 62,0392
Murcia ~40,9~1 Hospitalet . 1m,813 Jaen . 62,287
C6rdoba 187,417 Badajoz ~(j,972 La Linea 60,376
Palmas (Las) 174,125 Salamanca 85,844 Orense 60.139
Vigo . 162,114 Pamplona . 85,656 Vitoria 60,050
Corufia (La) 158,553 Burl(oS 83,231 Lerida • 58,268
Granada 156,550 Sabadcll 82,970 Castell6n 57,632
Palma de Bfl.dalona . 82,84G Santiago 56,637
Mallorea }47,925 'l'nrrasa 81,702 Linares 56,154
Valladolid . 137,106 El Ferrol del Call' Logrofio 55,624
Oviedo 126,669 dillo 81,376 Lugo 53.204
San Sebasti{tn 124,952 Atmeria 79,336 Tortosn. »O~349
Jerez de la. Albaeete 74,1 47 Aleoy 50,239
};'rontera 124,567 Haragaldo . 70,308
1372 SP.A.IN
The movement of population for calendar years was as follows:

Marriages Births Dc.th. Immigrants Emigt1>nt..
19~6 2~6.228 601,~68 285 .073 17,132 6~.96~
1957 250,687 6:19,453 289,638 18,613 &8,260
1958 251,433 6'16,041 206,01Q 22,888 47,179
RELIGION. Under the Franco regime Catholicism is again established

8.8the religion of the State. Religious bodies have recovered their legal
status; confiscated property has been returned; allowances to clergy are
again paid by the State; divorce is suppressed; cemeteries are brought,
bRtlk to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. There are 10 metropolitan sees and 6·1
suffra~:an sees, the chief being Toledo, where thc Primate resides.
A wncordat was signed in Rome on 27 Aug. 1953 to replace the concordat
of 1851, which the Republic had denounced in H>31.
There are about 26,000 Protestants, with 200 churches and chapels,
outsid,~ which no public ceremonies are permitted. There is no liberty for
propaganda, and the circulation of Holy Scripture, except in annotated
Roman Catholic editions, is forbidden. Several churches were closed in
1958 and 1959.
EDUCATION. The latest retUnlS (1950) show that 3,270,887 persons

ovcr 10 years of age (14'24% ) could not read or write.
Primary education is compul.'IOry and free, and religious teaching h"8
k(,D brought back again to its former standing, Educational admir.i.
etrtlticn i.'I now controlled by the Bindirolo Eapcl.iol Univerailario (S.E.l] ,),
under which all scholal'l!> ~re invited to syndicate. The Frente de Jut'm.
lud,-s (Juvenilo Front) was created by law of I) Dec. 1940; it comprises 3
8sctiof.ts (educational, Ia.bour, rural) IlDd had, in 1958, 1,494,413 members
There is also the Universit.y Militia for army training under conscription,
Tho count.ry is divided into 12 educational districts, with the univeraitics,
"3 centrell,
In 1956-57 there wcre 66,471 public zchools attcnded by 1,355,255 boys
and 1,:W2,075 girls, with 66,186 teachers (40,342 women); and 5,276 private
school:> with 807,292 pupils (454,479 girls) and 22,343 teachers. Sccondary
educat ion is conducted in 'institutos', or middle·class schools. There were,
in 1951)-57, 119 institut03 with 370,970 pupils (139,933 girls), These schools
prepale for the universities, of which there are 12, attended (1956-57) by
62,215 students (11,359 women), wit h 3,2GS teachers, The universities are
at Barcelona, Granada., Madrid, Murcia, Oviedo, Salamanca, Santiago,
Se\'illa" Valencia, Valladolid, Zaragoza and La Laguna (Canaries). There
is, besides, a medical and science f,taulty at Clidiz in connexioll with the
University of Seville. There were also (1956-57) 106 training colleges for
elementary teachers, with 34,931 students (20,134 women).
Ch,emM (1957). There were 6,266 cinomas with a scat.ing capacity of
2,fJ36,iiOO.
JUSTICE. Justice ia administered by Trib!t1/ale.~ and Juzgado8 (Tri·

bunab and Courts), which conjointly form the Poder Judicial (Judicial
Power ). Judges and magistrates cannot be remo,ed, suspended or trans·
ferred except as set forth by law.
The Judicat.ure is composed of the Tribunal Supremo (Supreme High
Court); 15 Audienc·iaa Territoriale.a (Divisional High Courts); 60 AttdiencilU
Provir.cialea (Provincial High Courts); 571 Juzgados de Primera J1/.8ta1/.cia
(Courts of First Instance), and 9,329 .Juzgad08 .Municipalea, Cvmarmlea y dt
SPAIN 1373
paz (District Court, or Court of Lowest Jurisdiction held by Justices of the
Peace).
The Tribunal Supremo consists of a President (appointed by the Govern·
ment) ftnd various magistrates distributed among 8 courts of justice: 1
for trying civil matters, 2 for administrative purposes, I for criminal trials,
I for social matters and 3 for jllrisdictionnl disputes. The court for trying
military casea is the Tribunal Supremo de JU$ticia Militar, undnr military
jurisdiction. The Tribunal Supremo is cillpowerNl with disciplinary f!tClll·
ties; is court of cassation in civil and criminal t,rials; for administrative
purposes decidca in first and second instance disputes arising Letween private
individuals and the State, and in social matters resolves in thto last instance
all casea involl'ing o.er 20,000 pe~etas.
The Audicncias Territoriales have power to try in second instance
sentences passed by judges in civil matters.
The Audiencia8 Prorinciales aro courts competent to try and p ..ss
sentence in first instance on all cases filed for delinquency. The jury S'yst~LO
is in operation excepting for military trials.
The JUZgad08 Municipales try ~Ulal1 civil cases flnd petty offences. The
Juzgad08 Comareale.s deal with tite same eilarges, Lut their jurisdicti(\n
em braces larger districts.
The prison population was, in 1959, 14,0:13.
SOCIAL \VELF ARE. Schemes of wide social range incl ude the L:1bour
Charter (Fuero del Trabajo) of 9 March 1938, for :1 better distribution and
remuneration of the working classes, with unint errupted Sund:1Y find feast·
day wages. The law of Family Suhsidy (g"vsidio Fa'miliar), which callle
into force 011 1 March 1930, makes a II working people contribute 1% of their
earnings, plus :1n additional 6% from the employers, in a system of social
insurance which entitles all families with from 2 to 12 children under 14
years of age to a proportional monthly allowance r:1nging from 60 to 4,1)00
pesetas, with an additional 3,000 pesetas for each child in excess of 1:)
(~Sept. J(155). Married workers receive an additiond bonus. Since 1940,
old age pensions and health and maternity insurances have been added;
workers contribute 1 % and employers 5%. A decree of 22 Feb. 1941
established state loans on marriage to help large families, and the institution
l'nowlIlLs AlIxaio Social, the funds of which are derivcd among other channels
from a fortnightly public collection throughout the country, for supplying
food a mI clothing to needy persons and thc mai.ntenance of nurseries nnd
iililrmaries. A national healt.h in<\ll'ance for all workers is nOlI' a);,o ill
nperatio!l.
By a law d!,ted 27 Fcll. 1908 the lnstituto Nacionnl de Previs,on W:l$
founded for the> purpose of gmnting old age pensions and It<imioistcring a
system of social insllrance. The family·allowanc() and hC:1lth·insurance
schemes. described abo\' e, have been incorporated in the lnstituto. In
1958, 1,;}23m. pesetas were paid out, in family subsidies to 3,818,9S6 persons;
in 10m, I, II8m. pesetas were paid out in sickness beneilts; 3,108m. pesetas
for old age pensions, and in ID5S, 500,011,200 pesetas in injury benefits.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure for budgetary peri(\ds of :l

calendar years, in 1,000 pesetas:
1 ~52 /~3 l!J54/55 1D(i6/57 1955/r,~ 1900/01
nevenue . 20,7!Jl,SOO 26,074,200 33,831,046 48,007,DIS 65.700,000
EXPCDditure 22,i45,647 26,020,800 35,832,671 48,OO'I.~4S 64,800,000
1374 SPAIN
The budget for 1958/1959 is made up aB follows :

Revenue Pesetas Expendit ure Pesetas
Direct tInes . 18,292,000,000 Chief of State . 7,353,8 28
Indirect t.axes . 23,138,800,000 Regency Council 720,000
Monopolies . 4,265,000,000 Spanish Cortes . 22,113.975
State properties . . 571,421,500 National Council 102,174,652
RCIIOurce< of the Treasury . 1,740,697,000 Public debt 6,293,744,074
PenSlOIl8. . . 2,443,577,239
High Court of F inance . 11 ,266,071
P residency 01 the Governm·t 2,314,246,256
Ministry of Foreign Aftal", . 581,467.712
11 Interior 6,183.609,8(17
H War 6,665.634.963
Of Marine 2,539,719.085
.. Air . 2,714,817.674
.. Justice 1,637,388,640
Industrv . 527.690,399
n Agriculiurc 304,417.483
" Nat. Education 4,327.664,826
H Public Works 1',801,895,47i
" Labour . 2;8,495,272
" Finance . 308.246,618
n Commerce 628,204,661
,. " Information 311,154,539
Cost of collecting revenue 656.694,728
Erpenditnre in Africa 1,440.416,187
Special expendituree . 1,250.915,10;;
The total state debt on 1 Jan, 1958 was 124,772,963,865 pesetas, of

which 12,358,834,619 pesetas were Treasury bonds.
DEFENCE. On 26 Sept. 1953 the U.S. and Spain signed three agree·
ments eovering the construction and use of military facili ties in Spain by
the V.S., economic assistance, and military end·item assistance. The
American naval and air base at Rota (near Cadiz) is connected by pipelines
with the American bomber bases at Moron de la Frontera (near Seville),
Torrejon (near Madrid) and Zaragoza.
ARMY. The Army was reorganized by a decree published on 24 July
1930 to be constituted by 8 army corps in the Peninsula and 2 in Morocco,
in addition to the two Comandancias Generalcs in the Balearic and Canary
Islands as heretofore. A decree of 30 Aug. 1939 created the High General
Staff of the Army as the highest military authority.
On 21 Aug. 1940 military service was made compulsory for 2years.
On 20 Dec. 1943 the Falangist Militia were dissolved.
On 1 Jan. 1944 a. slight reorganization was made by withdrawing from
the 2nd Region Militar the eastern provinces of Granada, Malaga and
Almeria, which were to form the 9th Region Militar. After this reorganiza-
tion there were 8 army corps attached to the 8 original military regions; 1
Region Militar, the 9th, with 1 division only and the Capitanias Generales
on the Balearic and Canary Islands as heret.ofore.
The army corps are as foDows : I, Madrid. 2 divisions; IT, SeviDa, 2
divisions; Ill, Valencia, 2 divisions; IV, Barcelona, 2 divisions ; V.
Zaragoza,2 divisions; VI, Burgos, 2 divisions; VII, Valladolid, 2 divisions;
VIII, Coruiia, 2 divisions; 9th Region Militar, 1 division. There are also
1 armoured division and 1 independent cavalry division attached to the 1st
Region Militar (Madrid).
In Africa the army corps are as foDows : IX (Ceuta), 2 divisions; X
(Melill8.), 2 divisions. There is also 1 armoured brigade and 1 independen\
cavalry brigade.
SPAIN 1375
NAVY.
Standard Armour Tor-
displace- Tur- pedo Sh..tt
Oom- ment Bells ret3 Principal tub .. ho.... Speed
pl.ted Nam. Tons In. ID. armament 21-1n_ power Knots
Cruisers
1936 CaoM'ias. . . 10,670 1 88·in.; 84·7-ln.A.A. 12 90,000 33
1931 Miguel d. Cervantes}
1927 Almirante Cervcra 7,457 8 6-io.; 8 3·6-1n. 6 80.000 33
1925 Qalicia. .
1924 Mendez Nunez . 4,500 84·7·in. 6 46,000 29
There are 14 dest.royers, 18 frigates, 6 corvettes, 10 subma.rines, 6 frigate

minelayers, 13 minesweepers, 12 coastal minesweepers, 2 submarine chasers,
8 motor torpedo- boats, 17 motor launches, 10 coastguard patrol vessels, 2
training ships, 3 surveying vessels, 5 patrol craft, a river patrol boat, 4 oilers,
2 transports, 2 tenders, a boom defence vessel and 10 sea going tugs.
Shipbuilding is mainly carried on at the dockyards at .F errol and Carta-
gena, Clidiz having a smaller share in it.
There are naval wireless telegraphio atations at C:idiz, Barcelona,lIfahon,
Pont.evedra, Cartagena and Ferrol.
Barcelona, Bilbao, Seville and C:idiz aro the chief of the 26 naval yards.
The strength of the naval personnel is 36,000 officers and ratings, includ.
ing marines.
AIR FORCE. The Air Force is organized as an independent service,
dating from 1939. It comprises an Air Defence Command, which controls
interceptor squadrons (including U.S.A.F. elements) and control and warn·
ing stations, a Tactical Air Command and an Air Transport Command.
The equipment is partly obsolescent, including Mes.~erschmitt MelO9
piston-engined fighters and Heinkcl Hell I bombers; but there are 3 day-
fighter wings, each made up of 3 squadrons of 25 }<'-86F Sabre jet fighters,
many Dakota transports, and Mentor, Harvard and T-33 trainers.
PRODUCTION. Agriculture. Spain is mainly an agricultural country.

The General Land Reform Bill, voted by the Republican Cortes on 15 Sept.
1932, providing for expropriation of land on a large scale, is no longer in
force; its main principles have been taken over by the instituto de Goloniza.
cion, for land development.
Land under cultivation in 1957 (in 1,000 hectares) was:
Cereals 7,542 Potatoes 372 A rti6cial moadows 728
Vejletablee 1,010 Sugar be.t 107 Gardens 225
Vineyard. 1,638 Fruit 624 Fallow 4,876
Olives . 2.040 Textile crops 817 Pasta", 20,282
Area Yield
Principal (In 1.000 hectares) (in 1,000 metric tons)
crops 1955 1956 1957 1958 1955 1956 1957 1958
Wheat 4,260 4,287 4,306 4,365 3,926 4,206 4,747 4,267
Barley 1,604 1,639 1,675 1,475 1,718 1,708 1,88 1 1,949
Oats 6U8 612 617 579 626 606 635 519
Bye 613 604 607 554 525 492 496 615
Rice 71 67 66 65 389 389 389 375
Or811ges . 92 83 83 88 1,306 1,069 462 1,183
Olives (oil) 2,084 2,130 2,279 2,045 296 264 2[)7 311
Potatoes . 365 364 364 372 4,300 4,176 4,307 3,954
In 1958, 1,541,000 hectares were under vines; production of wine was

19,822,500 hectolitres. The a.rea of onions planted was 28,940 hectares,
1376 SPAIN
yielding 7,181,330 quintals. Other products are esparto (967,700 quintals),

flax, hcmp and pulse. Spain has important industriec connected with the
preparation of wine and fruits. Silk culture is carried on in Murcia,
Alicante and other provinces; 479 tons were produced in 1958. Spain
produces yoarly 6,000 tODS of honey and 1,200 tons of beeswax; iD 1956
the number of beehives was 605,326. The production of colophony in 1957
was 31,n!)7 metric tons, and that of turpentine was 9,452 metric tons. Beer
factoriell produced 252,829,500 litres in 1958.
Tobacco crop in 1957 was 25,000 tons; sugar cane, 364,200 tOilS; sugar
beet, 2,285,100 tons.
The number of farm animals in 1956 was estimated as follows: Horses,
598,Il7; mules, 1,070,716; a.sses. 683,024; cows, 2,742,037; sheep,
15,933,140; goats, 3,096,663; pigs, 2,792,630; domestio rabbits, 4,399,046;
fowls, 26,853,470.
Fi8hery. The most importa.nt catches are those of sa.rdines, tunny fish
and cod. The total catch amounted in 1958 to 667,988 tons, representing
a. value of 5,636,195,000 peseta.s. In the tinned fish industry there were 788
factories, producing (in 1958) 103,397 tons. The Spa.nish fishing fleet
consists of 46,268 vessels of 333,629 tons.
Mining. Spain is rich in minerals. Tho produ~tion of the more
important minerals in 1958 were as follows (in metric tons):
Anthracite 3,119.469 Lead ore . 96,622 Tin ore 865
Coal . 11.309.304 MangtWese ore 37.905 Zinc ore 118.396
Lignite . 2,655.910 Potasb ore 1, &I&,14~ ,,'oltram ore 853
Oopper ore 286.923 Rock Bait. 503,008 Mercury 68,098
Iron ore 4.908,891 Sulphur ore 27,792 lImenite 16,470
Iron pyrites 1,764,516
In W57, 301,396 workers were cmployed in the mining and metallurgical

industries. The total value of the mining and metallurgical production was
33,103m. pesetas. In 1958 Spain produced 1·5ru. short tons of pig. iron
and 1·7m. short tons of steel ingots and castings. A uranium pla.nt to supply
the material for nuclear energy was inaugul'ated at Andujar in Andalusia
in Feb. 1960.
Indwtry. The ml1.nufa.cture of cotton and woollcn goods is important,
principally in Catalonia. In 1958 there were 2,000 cotton factories in opera·
tion, with 54,530 looms and 2,546,000 spindles, employing 138,090 workmen.
Pcoduct.ion (1958): 13,776 tons of wooIlen, 95,796 tons of cotton manu-
factures, 49,392 kg of silk yarn, 1,612 tons of rayon. There are in Spain
225 paper-mills, which produced in 1958, 304,488 tons of writing, printing,
packing and cigarette paper. The production of cork in l!)57 was 77,475
tons. The prodnction of cement reached 4,817,222 ton~ in 1938.
Electrio power-stations numbered 1,232 (1,002 hydraulic) with a total
horse-power of 7,235,499 and the total output registered amounted to
16,350Dl. kwh. in 1958.
Labour. Tho economic policy is centred on vertical syndicates (trade
unions) created under the Charter of Labour 011 8 Aug. 1939, replacing
the former local and provincial syndicates. The law of 23 June 1941
classified these syndicates into 26 branche~ of production, each working
within its own rcspective economic sphere, without intcrrupting their Wlity
or formation. The individual is replaced by the producing concern as v,
whole, made up of the capitalists, managers, experts and all those rendering
some sort of labour, whether intellectual or manuaL The vertical syndicate
SPAIN 1377
is invested with authority and hierarchy. The appointments are made from
top to bottom. At the top stands the National Delegate of Syndicates, who
is responsible for his conduct to the Minister who appoints him. Production,
wages, prices and the distribution of domestic and foreign merchandise are
controlled, and legisla tion hall been adopted requiring government permission
for the establishment of new industries.
On 10 Oct. 1953 a committee was appointed to provide for the participa.
tion of workers in the management of industrial concerns employing more
than 1,000 workers.
COMMERCE. Foreign trade of Spain (Peninsula, Baleares, Canaries,

Ceuta, Melilla), exclusive of Spanish Morocco and Guinea (in 1,000 gold
pesetas):
1940 620,309 394,052 1956 2,346,930 1,361,160
1950 1,195,092 1. 2 39,~ 3 2 1957 2.639,296 1,456.509
1966 1,893.179 1.364,956 1958 2,598,869 1 , 486 , ~94
The trade was made up as follows (in metric tons, and 1,000 gold pesetas) :
1957 1958
Imp<>rn Export. lmporu ErporU
Q\lantity Value Quantity Valoe Quantity Value Quantity Value
Raw matorial 7,874,2091.096.323 6.801,949 318.590 8,945,760 1,190.2974.128,506 214,899
Mannfactures 2,682,964 1,1 i3,261 1,859,688 382,390 2,089,078 1,037,899 1.770,641 350.001
Foodatutls liB3,179 367,813 1,623,359 754,411 690,117 368,~02 2,176,816 917,862
All other 674 1,897 435 1,116 851 2,172 508 1,500
In 1958 Spain exported 709,375 metric tons of oranges: to Germany,

231 ,654; France, 121,600; Netherlands, 77,830 ; U.K .,70,830; Belgium
and Luxembourg, 52,058; Switzerland, 46,150; Sweden,24,764; Norway,
14,617; Denmark, 8,652.
Total trade between Spain and U.K., in £ sterling (British Board of
Trade returns) :
1935 1966 1957 1968 1959
Imports to U.K. 5,676,604 34,015,430 37,61 0,302 36,676.224 36,138.620
Exports from U.K. 8,444,259 27,545,316 26,035,OiO 24,075.S68 20,275,228
nO'exports from U.K. 710,604 1,209,195 1,21 3,156 797,872 903,576
In Dec. 1948 special exchange rates were established to facilitate Spanish

exports to the sterling and dollar countries, Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands,
Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland.
COMMUNICATIONS . Skipping. The merchant navy on I J an. 1959
contained 1,693 vessels of a gross tonnage of 1,592,579.
In 1957,75,253 ships entered Spanish ports, carrying 882,710 passengers
and discharging 26,251,000 tons of cargo; 78,977 ships cleared, carrying
952,658 passengers and loading 23,763,000 tons of cargo.
Road.s. In 1954. the total length of highways and roach in Spain was
120,763 km, of which 77,807 km wcre macadamized. Number of motor
cars was 657,006 in 1958.
Railways. The total length of the railways in 1957 was 18,241 km, of
which 13,314 km are of a broad gauge (1'67 metres) and 4,927 km are of
varying gauges, chieBy 1 metre. There are 2,521 km of lines electrified.
On I Feb. 1941 tho Spanish railways, of normal ga.uge only, plU08ed into state
ownership; they are under a board known as the Red Naci01Ud de Ferro.
carrilu Espa1iolu (R.E.N.F.E.). The gaugo of the principal Spanish
yy
1378 SPAIN
railways has hitherto, for strategio reasons, been purposely kept different
from that of France, and in consequence of this passengers are obliged to
change trains at the frontier stations.
Number of passengers carried in 1958 by government-owned lines was
127,609,000; operating revenue was 8,319·7m. pesetas; operating expendi-
ture, 6,050m. pesetas.
There were 22 main lines of normal gauge and 55 of narrow gauge, the
most important being those in the North, with 3,803 km; Madrid-SaragoBsa
-Alicante (system Antigua and Cata.lana.), 3,670 km; Anda.luces, 1,644 km;
Madrid·-Cliceres-Portugal and West, 1,587 km; South of Spain, 397 km;
La. Robla to Valmasede. and Luchana (narrow gauge), 312 km, and Calatayud
-Teruel-Valencia (Central de Aragon), 299 km. Length of subways in
Madrid (1958) was 28 km; in Barcelona, 21 km.
Pas.!. The receipts of the post office in 1958 were 1,102·1m. pesetas;
expensos, 861m. pesetas. There were 13,265 post offices, 5,827 telephone
exchan:~es and (l Jan. 1959) 1,477,904 telephones.
The longth of telegraph lines in 1958 was 41,789 km; number of tele·
graph offices, 4,519; receipts, 294m. pesetas; expellses, 445·6m. pesetas.
The' Compaiiia Nacional de Telegrafia sin Hilos' holds the government
conce88ion for the puhlic service with ships, and between the Peninsula and
the Canary Islands, and the international service with England, Italy,
France, Switzerland and America, as well as various special pre88 services.
The N!.tionaI Radio Service' Redera' operates & broadcasting station at
Arganda, 15 miles from Madrid.
The overseas radio-telegraph circuits are operated in Spain mainly by
Transwdio Espai'lola, S.A. Under an agreement with Cable and Wirless,
Ltd, London, Transradio Espanola lease and operate the Bilbao end of the
Bilbao-·Great Britain cable and the Barcelona end of the Barcelona.-
Marseilles cable.
Avi.~tion. The most important Spanish airline is • Iberia'; it main-
tains a regular service with Tangier, Morocco, the Balearic and Canary
Islands, Lisbon, Switzerland, London, Buenos Aires, Venezuela, Cuba,
Canada and U.S.A. There are 37 civilian and 7 military airports.
In 1957,57,684 aircraft entered Spain, carrying 1,116,674 passengers and
3,562 metric tons of merchandise; 1,126,441 passengers and 2,946 metric
tons of merchandise left Spain by air.
MONEY AND BANIHNG. The p eseta of 100 centimo8 is of the nominal

value er a pre-war franc, 9!d., or 25·22 pesetas to the £ sterling. The ex-
change value of the peseta has not been restored to parity since the War.
Bank-notes of 1,000, 500, 100,50,25,5 and 1 peseta value are in circula-
tion. The denominations of coins are 5 and 10 centimos (aluminium, tin
and copper), 1 peseta (copper and aluminium) and 5, 25 and 50 pesetas
(nickel and copper).
On 1 Jan. 1922 the Bank of Spain came under the Bank Ordinance Law,
according to which the Government participates in its net profits. The
bank is now authorized to increase the capital up to the limit of 250m.
pesetas. The la.w of 13 March 1942 regulates the balance of the Bank of
Spain after the civil war, and provides for the issue of Treasury bonds
amounting to 4,437,782,014 pesetas as a guarantee to offset liabilities of
the wal' period entered by the Republican Government-notes in circulation
and readjustment of current accounts among other matters. On 31 Dec.
1946 a bank ordinance was issued, regulating the activities of private banks.
SPAIN 1379
On 31 July 1958 the note circulation totalled 72,518,800,000 pesetas and the
gold holdings of the Bank of Spain amounted to 617,800,000 pesetas (paper).
A decree of 11 July 1941 established the voluntary nationalization of foreign
banks in Spain, and the transference and amalgamation of the business of
national banks.
On 18 Dec. 1950 the authorized issue of bank.notes was raised from
28,000m. (11 Jan. 1948) to 45,OOOm. pesetas.
Gold reserves at 1 Jan. 1959 consisted of: Revalued gold of Bank of
Spain, 484,180,468 pesetas; authorized gold acquisition, 28,279,104 pesetas;
treasury gold, 54,748,468 pesetas; gold of institute of foreign exchange.
50,609,519 pesetas; gold in current accounts, 18.581 pesctas.
Savings bank deposits (Popular Savings Banks) in Spain, 31 Dec. 1958.
amounted t.o 90,828·4m. pesetas. Post office savings banks opened on 12
March 1916. Deposits in Dec. 1958 amounted to 3,931·9m. pesetas. Private
banks saving deposits amounted to 3I,479 ·5m. pesetas in H158.
Bya decree of20 Nov. 1941 the post office savings bank opens an account
with an initial entry of 1 peseta for every Spanish child born.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. On 1 Jan. 1859 the metric system of

weights and measures was introduced, but the old weights and measures
are still largely used. They are: The quintal = 220'4 lb. avoidupois; the
libra = 1·014 lb. avoirdupois; the arroba. for wine = 3~ Imperial gallons;
for oil = 21 Imperial gallons; the square vara = 1·09 vara = I yard; the
fanega = 1 ~ Imperial bushels.

Spain maintains embassies in Argentina, Austria, Belgium (also Minister
in Luxembourg), Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Den-
mark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, France, Germany, Guate-
mala, Haiti, Honduras, Irish Republic, Italy, Japan, Liberia. Netherlands,
Nicaragna, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines (also fot' Taiwan),
Portugal, Turkey, Unit,ed Arab Republic (also Minister in Ethiopia and
Saudi Arabia), V.K., V.S .A., Vatican. Venezuela; legations in Burma,
Greece, Iran, Iraq (also for Afghanistan), Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Norway
(also for Iceland), Sweden. Switzerland, Union of South Africa. Uruguay.
01' SPAIN IN GRE~T BRrr~IN (24 Belgra.ve Square. S.W.I)
Ambassador. The Marquis of Santa Cruz (accredited 8 May 1958) .
.Ministp-r Counsellors. Alvaro de Aguilar 'Y G6mez Acebo; Juan Serrat;
Manuel Orbea (Commercial). Naval and 1I1ilitary Attache. Capt. Manuel
Aldereguia Amor. Air Attache. Col. Manuel Bengoechea. Counsellors.
Francisco Bozzano; Luis L6pez Ballesteros (Information). Cultural
Attache. Francisco Javier de SaIM. Labour Attache. Luis Burgos Boezo.
Agricultural Attache. Antonio Lavin. Commercial Attache. Manuel
Barroso.
There are consular representatives at Cardiff. Glasgow. Liverpool.
Newcastle and SOl1thampton, and cOllsular agents in all the principal towns.
011 GRE~T BRITAIN IN SPAIN
Ambassador. Sir George Labouchere. K.C.l\I.G.
Minister. C. P. Hope, C.l\I.G., T.D. Counsellors. W. B. Malley.
C.B.E.; P. S. Stephens (Commercial). First Secretaries. P . Mennell.
M.B.E. ; D. R. Ashe (Information); F. W . Hall (Consul).
1380 SPAIN
Naval and Air AttacM. Cdr J. Wood, D.S.C., R.N.

Military Attache. Brig. P. N. Graves.Morri s, D.S.O., M.C.
Cultural AttacM. A. J. Montague.
There are consular representatives at Algeciras, Barcelona, Bilbao,
Cadiz, Cartagena, Coruna, Granada, Jerez de la Frontera, LI~ Linea,
Malaga, Palma, Seville, Valencia, Vigo and Santa Cruz (Tenerife).
OF SPAIN IN THE U.S.A. (2700-15th St. NW., Washington 9, D.C.)

Aml·assador. Jose M. de Areilza.
J-linister Counsellor. J aime Alba. Counsellors. Luis A. Bolin (Infor.
mation) ; Enrique Domfnguez Passier; Santos B. Bollar (Commercial);
Antonio Espinoza (Cultural) . Service AttacMs: Gen. Benito Miranda. y
Urquiza. (Army), Capt. CarIos Prado Delgado (Navy), Col. Miguel Guerrero
Garela (Air). Agricultural Attache. Adrian Morales. Commercial Attache.
E. J . G,ucia Tejedor. Industrial Attache. Jose Vergara.
OF THE U.S.A. IN SPAIN
Amba8sador. John Lodge.
Minister Counsellor. W. Park Armstrong, Jr. Counsellors. Ralph J.
Blake (Consul.General); William N. Fraleigh; Archibald B. Roosevelt, Jr;
Livingsl;on D. Watrous. First Secretaries. Anthony J. Cefaratti (Consul);
Wesley H. CoIlins; Norman F. Johnson (Labour); William K. Hitchcock
(Consul) ; Findlay Weaver (Financial). Service Attaches: Col. Donald B.
Webber (Army), Capt. WiIliam G. Holman (Navy), Col. Ned B. Chase (Air).
Agricultural Attache. Richard S. Aldrich.
There are consular representatives at Barcelona, Bilbao, Malaga,
Seville, Las Palmas, Santa Cruz (Tenerife), Valencia and Vigo.
Books of Reference
STATISTICAL INFORMATION. The Instituto Nncional de Estadlstica (Ferraz 41. Madrid)
combines the administrative work of a government department attacbed to the Presidency
of the Go"ernment with a centre of statistical studies. Director General: Luis Ubach Garc!a·
Ont!veros. Its publications Include: .t1nuario Esladistico de Espaiia. Annual (latest vol.,
1959). Edicim manual (latest vol., 1959).-.t1nuarios estadiJtico.' provinciales.-llomen·
clatura de la .• ciudades, "illas iU{Jores, aldeas, 11 demas entidades de poblacWn de Espaiia. 7 vols.
:Madrid, 1945.-Censo de Poblacim de Espaiia. 9 vol3. Madri d, 1944.-Diccionario
Corograjic" de E spaiia. 4 vols. Madrid, 19·i8.-Bolelin de E.<tad'lstica. Madrid. (No 1,
.Iun.-March 1939; monthly from 1945).-Estadh tica espanola. Revist" trimestral (from
1959)
AltamJra y Crevea, R.,.t1 Ristorv 0/ Spain. Ne", York and London, 1950
Banclella y Bareena, J . CAssr. nUIM rl~ Imperio. Madrid. 19·\0
Brennan, Gerald, TM Spanish Labllrinlh. 2nd ed. London, 19110.-TM Fate 0/ Spain,
LoudolO. 1960
~'uentes lrurozqu!, M., Viaje a Iravls de la Esp,,"a economica. Madrld, 19·1R
Gallop, R.,,d Boo!; o/the Basques. London.lP30
Gsrcia Venero, M.• Historia del Nacionalism<> Va,.co, 1793-1936. Madrld,1945
Lsluent.e, M. nod Valera, J., Historia General de EspaJla. New ed. 2~ voL.. Barcelona, 1925
L6po. Olivan. J., Repmorio Dipi(l17llJ/ico E .•pallol. [Coll,clion oftreatie".1125- 1.?1".j Maddd,
1944
lfnt1aria.ga, S. de., Spain. London, 1942
Merrlmall, 11. n., TM Ri.,. 0/ the Spanish Emp'i r. in the Old World and in the Nett). 4 vols.
New Yo>rlt, 1918-34
Messeri!, I'. M., .t1 B C Politico d. La NUtf!a Espaila. Barcelona, 1940
Mlgnel, A. de, El Polmcial Economico de Espaila. Madrid, 1935
Oreng... J . B., Contestaciones al Cumionario Oflcial d. DOdrina del MovimlentQ . lIadrid,1911
Peers, E. A. (ed.), Spain: a companion to Spani .•" studies. 5th ed. London, 1906
Ram08 Oliveira , 11., Polilic., Economic. and Men of Modern Spain, 1808-1946. London, 1946
SPAIN 1381
Reolr:e-Nlo>hIeu. E .• Spa7lien. 1931-18. Copenbagen. 19~9
Yicons Vives, J ., I1ise6ria econOmica de b'spa-rlo . Bal'ceivna, 1!.J59
NATIONAl, f ... mRARY. DilJlioteca NllcioUfll, Madrid. Di rector : Cesareo Goicoecb~a .
COLONIES
POpnlatiOll
Colonial possessions Area: "I. roiles (1950)
P08.~ions in AIrica:
Pla,C(Y6 of Spanish 8overeignty: Albuoemas, C~u t,~\~
Cbafarin .... McIiU.., l'enon de Vele7. 82 141.SI)~
UnI Territory 741 38,295
Spanish Sahara
'Ierritorl•• ol Rio d. Oro ..nd Sold a .1 rraIDra 10['.44S 13.62; ,
.Ql'a7lish Guinea
With the islands 01 Fernando 1'0. Cori."o. Wobey
and AnnObOD 10,852 2H.271
Total. A.lrica 11 7,l ~3 ~07,4~5
• Exclusive 01 31 ,000 nomads who. with their !locks. enter tho Spnnisb Sablll"a arte,
the rainy season.
Tradu ofthe Spanish colonies with U.K. (British Board of Trade returns.
in £ sterling) :
Imports to U.K. Exports from U.K .
1 9 ~7 1~58 19:;9 1957 1958 1959
Canary Islands 12,898,039 13.838.675 14.889,164 3.961.4Gl 3,205,459 3.370,9;2
North A.lric-a 386 13 1.216 656,900 147,740 193,732
West Africa 644.822 559,90G 482.889 352.623 55:;,305 482.889
The establishment of new foreign enterprises of any kind in the territories

of Spanish West Africa has been prohibited by a presidential order of 27 No'-.
1950. Foreign enterprisea already established may continue their activitie~,
but without the possibility of extending the scopa or increasing the capital.
On 12 Jan. 1958 the t.erritories of Hni and the Sahara were reorganized
as 'provinces, • eaeh under a go.ernor·general.
The Spanish Territory of Ifni is situated on the Atlantic coast at
1.300 km from Tetuan. It is bounded to the south by the Asaka River
(called Nun by France). Its area is 1.920 sq. km (741 sq. miles), the popula-
tion (1950). 38.295; the capital is Sidi Ifni. Ifni was ceded to Spain by
Morocco in 1860, but the occupation was purely nominal uutil 6 April 1934,
when the Spanish flag was hoisted for the first time. The seat of govern-
ment is Cabo Juby.
Got'crnor-General. Gen. Zamalloa.
The Spanish Sahara includes 2 zonee: Rio de Oro. 190.000 sq. km and
Sekia Ell Hamra. 83.000 sq. km. It begins in Cabo B1anco, 20 0 46' N. and
17 3' W. The frontier line goes throngh the centre of the peninsula of the
0
Cabo Blanco to 21 0 20' N.lat., which follows up to the meridian 150 20' W.
(Paris), according to the 'freaty of 1900 with France. Then the frontier
describes a curve around the Adrar Temar, leaving to France the Yiil salt-
mines. After that it goes up to the Tropic of Cancer and to its intersection
with the meridian 140 20' W. (Paris), and to the north to 27 0 40' N. lat.
ThE> strip between this parallel and Wad Draa was ceded by Spain to
Morocco on JO April 1958. The chief towns are Villa Cisnero8 in Rio de Oro
and Smara in Sekia el Hamara.
Governor·General. Gen. Hector Vazquez.
1382 THE SUDAN
Spnnish Guinea has an area of 28,051 sq. km (10,852 sq. miles) and a
population (in 1957) of 212,539 (4,500 whites). Continent.al Guinea (Rio
Muni) has an area of 26,000 sq. km, with (1950) 156,785 inhabitants. The
chief t·)wn is Bata. The islands have an area of 2,105 sq. km, with a popu·
lation of 41 ,878 (2,731 whites). The chief island is Fernando PO, area 2,017
sq. km, and 40,475 inhabitants, half of wholll reside in the district of Santa
Isabel, the capital. The Governor of the whole colony resides in Santa
Isabel. There is a sub·govcrnor in Bata and another in Elobey.
Governor·General. Vicc·Admiral Faustino Ruiz Gonzalez.
In 1958 there were B8 primary schools with 195 teachers and 17,605
pupils, and 3 secondary schools with 12 teachers and 192 pupils.
In 1958 Guinea exported to Spain 237,857 metric quintals of cocoa valued
at 474 ·5m. pesetas; 54,577 metric quintals of coffee valued at 322·2m.
pesetas; 226,767 metric quintals of vegetll.blcs and fruits valued at. 188·9m.
pesetaa and 1,923,500 metric quintals of wood valued at 143·1m. pesetas.
AC'Jording to a decree of 16 April 1935 the Spanish territory on the Gnlf
of Guinea i.~ divided into two districts, Fernando PO and Continental Guinea.
The first includes the island of ]!'ernando PO; the second the continental zone,
together with the islands of Great Elobey (3'453 sq. km), little Elobey
(8'903 hectares), Corisco (14·235 sq. km) and Annobon (18·130 sq. km) .
Each of the districts (demarcacionu; 2 in Fernando PO and 11 in Conti·
nental Guinea), is under a •territorial administrator,' who has at his disposal
the colonial guard. The aborigines of Fernando Po are called Bubis. Those
of Elobey and Corisco are mostly of the Benga tribe, but like the people of
Annobon they take the nallles of their respective islands. The aborigines
of Rio Muni are called Pamues or Fang. There are Roman Catholic and
American Presbyterian missions at work among the natives.
British Consul. R. A. Finlay, M.B.E. (resides at Duala).
Books of Reference
Anuarj" de .Ifarmeeos V Colonlas
R esume,,, estadislica de ~.frica espa-rwla, 1953- 55. Mndrid . 1957
Arija, J ., I,a Gui"'/l Espa~o//l y sus Rique<a.!. Madrid,1930
Bllguena Corelia, L ., Guinea. Mad rid. 1950
Diaz de VilIcgas y Bust.mente, J . (ed.), E"pOlia en Africa. Madrid,1949
Guinea Upez, E ., Espana el Desie<tfJ. Madrid, 1941>.-.d.speeto Forestal del DesiertfJ. Madrid,
19ib
Hernilndez.Pacbeco, E ., and otbers, El Sahara ..panol. Madrid, 1949
Mart09 Aviia, F., Indiee Legislalil>O <k Guinea. Madrid, 1944
Perpiila Grau, R., Colonitacidn y Eeonomla .,. la Ouiru-a Espa,jola. Barcelona, 194b
Trujedo Incera, L., Los Pamues de Nuestra Guinea. Madrid , 1'46
Unzueta y Yust.e, A.. de. Guin ... Continental Espario/fI. Madrid, 1944.- Islas <kl Gollo de
Guin"". Madrid, 194b
THE REPUBLIC OF THE SUDAN

JAMHURYAT E s ·SuDAN
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Sudan wa,~ proclaimed
a sovereign independent republic on 1 J an. 1956. On 19 Dec. 1955 t.he
Sudanese parliament passed unanimously a declaration that a fully in·
dependent state should be set up forthwith, and that a Council of State of
5 should temporarily assume the duties of Head of State. The Co· domini,
the U .K. and Egypt, gave their assent on 31 Dec. 1955.
THE SUDAN 1383
For the history of the Condominium and the steps leading to independ-
ence, 'ee THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1955, pp. 340-41-
Nationalfiag: blue, yellow, green (horizontal).
On 17 Nov. 1958 the Army took over the government. The Council of
State and the cabinet were dismissed, parliament and all political parties
were declared dissolved, and the provisional constitution was suspended.
The supreme constitutional authority is now vested in the Supreme
Council of the Armed Forces. This is composed as follows (after a re-
shuflle on 5 March 1959):
Supreme Council of the Armed Forces: Gen. Ibrahim Abboud, President;
Maj .-Gen. Mohamed 'l'alaat Farid, Maj .. Gen. Ahmed Rida FariC\, Maj .. Gen.
Hassan Beshir Nasr, Brig. Ahmed Magdoub El Bahari, Brig. Mohamed
Ahmed Irwa, Brig. Magboul El Amin El Hag.
The cabinet, appointed by Gen. Ibrahim Abboud, the C.·in·C., was,
in March 1960, composed as follows:
Prime :Minister and Defence. Gen. Ibrahim Abbond.
Information and Labo'ur. Maj.·Gen. Mohamed Talaat Farid. Ayriwl-
ture and Irrigation and Communicatio1l8. Brig. Magboul El Amin El Hag.
Public Work8 and .Mineral Resources. Maj.·Gen. Ahmed Rida Farid.
Cabinet Affairs and Deputy C.·in·C. Maj.-Gen. Hassan Beshir Nasr.
Interior and Local Government. Brig. Ahmed Magdonb El Bahari. Com-
merce, Industry and Supply. Brig. Mohamed Ahmed Irwa.
LOCAL COVERNMENT. The Sudan is divided into 9 provinces each
under a military Governor and a civilian Governor assisted by an advisory
provincial council, except Khartoum province which is under a Commissioner
and has no provincial council. Administration is carried out through
District Commissioners, one or more of whom are appointed to each of the
69 districts into which the provinces are subdivided. Local administration
is largely in the hands of statutory local government authorities, which in
tribal areas are the shaikhs and chicf8, and in urban or advanced rural
districts are councils. The number of formally constituted councils in 19fi9
was 18 urban and 56 rural. Courts of shaikhs allll chicfs havo varying
powers of limited jurisdiction over their territories.
AREA AND POPULATION. The Sudan covers an area of 967,500
sq. miles. The Eritrea-Sudan frontier and the frontier with the Chad and
Central African Republics have becn delimited and demarcated, as also
has the greater part of the fron tier with Ethiopia.
The population of the Sudan according to the 1955-56 census was
10,262,536, of whom Sudanese numbered 9,725,536.
The population consists mainly (two. thirds to four.fifths) of Moslem
Arahs, and Nubians in the north and Nilotic and Negro tribes in the south.
Area (in sq. miles) and population of provinces, with inhabitants of
provincial capitals, were as follo\vs in 1955- 56 (census):
Province Area Population Capital Inhnbltants
Bahr el Gbazal 8:),630 991,OZ~ Wau 8,009
Blue Nile. 64,880 2,069,6.16 Wad Medan! 47,677
Do.rCur 191,660 1,328,765 El Fa.ber 26,161
Equatoria 131,5~8 903,503 Jub~ 10,G60
Kassala 76,496 941,039 Ira.. ala 40.612
Khartoum 8.097 b04,923 Khartoum 93,103
Kordofan . 146.930 1,761,968 EIObeid 52,372
~orthel'n . 1 B4.~OO 873,0;;9 Ed Dammer ;;,4~S
Upper Nile 91,190 888,611 MaJok.1 9,680
1384 THE SUDAN
The capital is Khartoum; it has, together with the adjoining cities

of Omdurman and Khartoum North, a census population of 245,736.
Omdurman itself has a population of 113,551. Port Sudan, the country's
only seaport, has a population of 47,562. Halfa, the biggest river-port
near the Sudanese-Egyptian border, hllJl a population of 11,006.
RELIGION_ The population of the 6 northern provinces is almost
entirely Moslem (Sunni), the majority of the 3 southern provinces is pagan.
There are small Christian communities, with 2 Coptic bishops, a Greek
Orthodox metropolitan, an Anglican bishop and IIJlsistant bishop, 4 Roman
Catholic bishops and Greek Evangelical, Evangelical and Maronite congreg3.-
tions.
EDUCATION. In 1959-60 thcre were 2,426 government schools with
289,415 pupils, 42 government. aided (Ahlia) schools with 4,800 pupils, and
60 pri\Oate schools with 23,876 pupils. All the mission schools in the south
have been taken over by the Ministry of Education.
There are 8 trade and tecbnical schools, a technical institute at Khartoum,
9 teachers' training colleges, a police college and a military college (under
the Ministry of Defence). Women are educated separately, except at
Kbartoum University, which is semi-independent of the Government, and
at the Khartoum branch of Cairo University.
Nel<Jspapers. (1959). Thero are 8 daily newspapers, including 2 in
English., with a combined circulation of about 50,000.
HEALTH. The Medical Services of the Ministry of Health maintain
63 hospitals, 1,167 dispensaries and dressing stations (with together 10,355
beds), and 270 doctors. Various Christian Missions also maintain local
medical services.
JUSTICE. The High Court of Justice comprises the Court of Appeal
and courts of original jurisdiction under the general supervision of the
Chief Justice. In addition to the Chief Justice there are 7 judges of the
High Court.
The Court of Appeal, whieh exercises jurisdiction only on the civil side, is
constituted by 3 or more judges of the High Court sitting together and is
usually presided over by the Chief Justice. An appeal lies of right from a
decree of a judge of the High Court or a province judge if the relicf claimed
is more than £8100. When there is no appealas of right the Court of Appeal
excrcises wide power of revision.
On the civil side the High Court judge, sitting singly, exercises general
original jurisdiction. Five High Court judges are stationed in Khartoum.
In provinces in which no judge of the High Court is stationed, general civil
jurisdietion is exercised by a province judge.
Subordinate to the judge of the High Court or province judge are the
district. judges of the 1st, 2nd or 3rd grade within the province in which
he is st.ationed. There are 32 specially appointed district judges of the 1st
grade, ''l,nd 15 specially appointed district judges of the 2nd grade, stationed
in the central provinces. The judge of the High Court or province judge
exercises power of revision from decrees of district judges.
Criminal justice is administered in accordance with the Sudan Penal Code
(which is an adaptation of the Indian Penal Code) either by courts of 3
magistrates (major or minor courts), by single magistrate or by bcnches of
magistrates. Decisions of oertain non·summary cases require confirmation,
THE SUDAN 1385
by the Chief Justice in the case of major courts and by the judge of the High
Court or the Governor in other cases. Death sentences are subject to con·
firmation by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces on the advice of t.he
Chief Justice. Rights of appeal to the confirming authority also exist.
On the criminal side the judges of the High Court have each been
appointed circuit judge over the whole or part of t.he province in which they
are stationed. As circuit judges they constitute and preside over the
major courts held within the circuit for the trial of serious crimes.
The Moslem Law Courts administer the Moslem religious law in cases
between Moslems relating to succession on death, marriage, divorce and
family relations generally, and also Moslenl charitable endowments.
Apart from the civil, criminal and sharia. courts above· mentioned there
is t.hroughout the country a large number of local courts with various degrees
of powers which try civil, criminal and sharia cases.
Tbe Sudan Police Force, formerly an independent unit, b!\S been amalga.
mated with administration under the rsponsibiIity of the Permanent Under.
Secretary for the Interior, who has 2 assistants, one for the admiI!istration
and the other for security. The establishment in 1960 was 230 officers and
9,1l0 other ranks.
FINANCE. Revenue and expenditure in Sudanese pounds (£SI =
£1 Os 6d) for financial years ending 30 June:
Revenue E:\.llcnditurc Re,enllc Expendit ure
1954-56 38,110,530 30,583,624 1957-5H 47,377,017 4l,334,3il
1955-56 35,818,888 34,176,234 1958-59' 38,964.878 38,342,214
1956-57 37,501,729 33,449,772 1959-60 1 42,885,631 42,779,76 4
J Estimates.
The chief sources of revenue in 1959-60 are indirect taxation from cnstom
duties on imports and royalties on exports (£817,615,000), profits on trading
concerns, railways, shares on cotton scheme.~ (£811,349,074) and sugar
monopoly (£S6'5m ).
TIle main items of expenditure are education (£86,984,929), public works
(£84,955,390), health (£83,881,060) and communications (£S3,077,882).
The total external debt of the country at the end of 1958 was
£85,410,609.
DEFENCE. After its complete 8udanization by Sept. 1954, the Sudan
Defence Force has bcen renamed the Sudanese Army. Its peace.time
strength is about 5,000 officers and men. The Air Force had, in 1960,
4 Provost and some Egyptian.built GOl11houria trainers and one Pembroke
light tra.nsport.
British and Egyptian troops were withdrawn in autumn 1955.
PRODUCTION. The 8udan is the chief source of the world's supply

of gum arabic, exports of which in 19,37-58 amounted t.o 48,124 tons, valued
at £85,203,000.
Other products of the Sudan include senna leaves and pods, ground-
nuts, dates, hides and skins, mahogany, dom nuts (vegetable ivory), chillies,
melon.seed, beans, maize, trochus and mother·of·pearl shell, shea nuts,
salt, ivory and gold. The principal grain crops are dura (Sorghum vulgare),
the staple food in the Sudan and used as cattle and poultry food outside
the Sudan (1958, 1,076,344 tons from 2'5111. feddans), and dukhn (bulrush
miIlet). The cattle and sheep trade is capable of great development.
1386 THE SUDAN
The Rural Water Supplies and Soil Conservation Board, set up in Oct.
1944, was in May 1956 replaced by the Department for Land Use and Rura.l
Water Development.
Area (in feddans) Crop (in kantars) 1
CoU;on production 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1957-58 19.58-59 19.;9-60
Sudan G,zira Board . 245,405 310,593 385,934 369,315 1,462,892
Abdel Magid (W.N.S.B.) . 10,040 10,068 10,049 13,590 34,063 40,160
White Nile Scheme Board . 10,069 10,075 10,070 16,797 39,034 55,385
Private Bchemes & Sagias . 169,208 197,734 194,864 277,684 764,659 786,764
Gash Delta 40,280 37,894 40,000 79,027 83,886 60,000
Tokar Ddta. . 20,319 44,540 93,000 10,1 37 44,568 88,57 1
American,Irrigated(Pumps) 8,132 6,496 7,531 20,330 20,492 20,55.
(Flood) 3,458 4,800 4,800 0,221 3,729 635
Rain Grown 194,478 231,860 175,420 267,150 208,038 153,300
------------
,['·)tal 701,389 854,059 912,668 1,059,751 2,663,361 1,205,370
1 Of 31{) rot} seed cotton.
Livl!Stock. In 1958 there were approximately 100,000 horses, 500,000

asses, 1)00 mules, 6·9m. cattle, 6·9m. sheep, 5·8m. goats and 2m. camels.
Pigs are kept by the Nubas only-about 3,500.
Farestnj. The forests along the Blue Nile River, rich in fibres and
tanning material, extend to the frontier of Ethiopia. The forests of the
Southern Sudan contain valuable trees, the mahogany and the vuba being
the mc,st important. The finest gum forests are in Kordofan, Blue Nile
and Kassala. The sudd area in the upper reaches of the White Nile is
compoRed of an inexhaustible quantity of papyrus.
Mi"ing. The following minerals are known to exist in the Sudan:
Gold, graphite, sulphur, chromite, iron·ore, manganese·ore, copper· ore,
zinc·or'3 , molybdenite, columbite, fluorspar, natron, gypsum and anhydrite,
magneHite, asbestos, talc, halite, kaolin, white mica, coal, diatomite (kiesel-
guhr), limestone and dolomite, pumice, lead.ore, wollastonite, black sands,
vermiculite, pyrites.
Gold is being exploited on a small scale at Deweishat (south of Wadi
Halfa) and at Birkateib (in Kassala Province). Alluvial gold is occasionally
exploited in Southern Fung and Equatoria. Iron·ore has been smelted in
the pa.~t, on a very limited scale and by primitive methods, in the Western
and Southern Provinces. Copper, at Hofrat En Nahas, has been mined and
smelted locally over an extended period of time. A few thousand tons of
medium grade manganese· ore have been shipped during 1956-57. Mining
and processing of white mica, as an industry, is beginning to be established.
Vermiculite, mined near Sinkat, Kassala. Province, is beginning to find its
way into foreign markets. Salt pans a.t Port Sudan supply the whole needs
of the country, and considerable quantities of salt arc exported annually;
output, 1957,64,125 metric tons.
CO:'dMERCE. Total trade for calendar years, in £S:

Import.1i • ExportB • Imports l Exports
1953 00,775,870 43,037,786 1966 46,248,447 66,341,401
1904 48,489,660 38,901,743 1957 62,980,630 4 •• 682,990
1955 48,80~,634 48,836,183 1958 09,440,230 39,338,768
1 Including government imports.
• El(cluding re·exports (£81,380,969 in 1953; £81,493,417 in 1954; £81,672,949 ill 19;5;
£SI,448,078 in 19;6; £S2,550,8M in 1957; £S3,639,6 74 in 1958).
Principal items of imports and exports (quant.ities in metric tons, value

in £8 1,000):
THE SUDAN 1387
1957 1958
Item Quantity Value Quantity Value
Imports:
Ootton piece-goods . 16,087 7,308 12,798 5,8·10
Sugar, refined . . 106,154 5,779 102,606 3,815
Metals and lllet"lware 5,891 8,69 1
Vehicles and transport eq~lipmeut 6,~70 7,943
Oilluel . 233,350 1,821 253,086 l ,n',
Petrol 128,036 2,096 97,545 1,711
OolIee 8,24.5 2,129 4,067 1,277
Machi nery 6,760 6,680
Artificial texti les 3,448 2,6<11 1,028 769
Sacks and hes5ialls ~ 14,2-; 0 1,464 12,341 1 ,074
Tea 7,343 2,832 7,051 2,579
Chemicais a.nd' ph ar~aCcl;t.icaIs· 2,495 367 2,380 334
Wheat flour 72,:!79 2,~01 37 ,S21 912
Cement . 7,j,129 605 11,107 III
Oigarettes .j23 758 530 776
'1.~iUlb er (cn. metres) :;0,104 1,099 26,921 556
E.<port;;; :
Cotton . 62,561 22,925 83,608 22,167
OottOIlSM<i 1 86,83~ 5,160 ,S,H:; I,S44
Gum :1t'l\uic 43,254 4,61')1 48 ,124 0,203
Groundnuts n ,l o:; 4,70'1 61,920 3,331
Sesame . 40,~95 2,991 2~,811 2,001
Dura . 58,947 1,197 12,273 295
Cattle (heads). 60,719 1,397 34,.15·1 922
Hides and skillS 4,nO 1,030 4,01:; 849
Oil cake . 54,360 935 5~,247 1,055
Principal sources of import into the Sudan in 1958 (in £Slm.): U.K.
(19,1), India (6·6), Egypt (3·,;), Germany (3,4). Pri.ncipal countries of
cxport from the Sudan: U.K. (11·9), Egypt (4,9), Germany (4,1), India (3'2).
Trade with U.K. (in £ sterling, British Board of Trade retun1s):
1965 1966 1967 19;j8 1959
Importa to U.K. 14,864,401 23,473,718 13,172.202 13,272,507 18,630,752
Exports lrow U. K. 13,b20.b37 11,36~,76(j 18,766,081 14,717,755 12,969,744
Re·exporta lrom U.K. 79,699 29,765 60,826 40,269 33,350
COMMUNICATIONS. Railwa.ys. The main railway lines run from

Khartoum to El Obeid via Wad Medani, SennaI' Junction, Kosti and Er
Rahad (689 km); Er R(thad to Kyala via Abu Zabad and Ed·Daein (648
km); Sennar Junction to Kassala via Gedaref (455 km) and to Roseires via
Singa (220 km); K assaIa to Port Sudan via Hiaya Junction and Sinkat
(550 km); Khartoum to Wadi H a lfa via Shendi, El Dammer, Atbara,
Berber and Abu Hamad Junction (924 km); Abu Hamad to Karima (248
km); Atbara to Hiaya Junction (270 km). The line Ed·Da.ein-Wau (472
km) is to be completed in 1961. The main flow of exports and imports is
to and from Port Sudan via Atbara . The total length of line open for
traffic was 4,549 km as at 30 Sept. 1958. The gauge is 3 ft 6 ill.
Shipping. Supplementing the railways are regular river steamer service~
of the Suda n railways, between Shellal and Wadi H a lfa, 338 km (which
links the Egyptian state and Sudan railways systems); from Karima to
Kerma, 335 km; from Khartoum to Kosti, 375 kill; ii'olll Kosti to Wau,
I,I:!7 km; from Kosti to Juba, 1,.135 km; and from Kosti to GambeiIa,
1,070 km . P01-t Sudan is the coun try's only seaport; it is equipped with
11 berths.
Road8. Roads in Northern Sudan, other than town roads, are only
cleared tracks mostly impassable directly after rain. In Uppor Nile
Province motor traffic is limited mostly to the drier months (Jan.-May).
1388 THE SUDAN
In Equatoria and Bahr El Ghazal Provinces there are a number of good

gravelled roads with permanent bridges which can be used all the year
round, though minor roads become impassable after rain.
Not .. ('n Moto,i1lg in the Sudan is obtainable trom the Permanent Under Secretary.
MiniAt.ry c,f Interior. Khartoum or the Sudan Embassy In London. to whom applicatiou
should be ",ade for permission to motor through the Sudan.
P08t (June 1959). There arc 105 permanent post and telegraph offices
and 152 seasonal, travelling and branch offices and agencies. There are
also 97 telegraph offices, 35 telegraph agencies, 35 radio· telephone stations,
25 wireJ'3ss RtatioDs, 9 aeronautical stations and 1 broadcasting station.
There are also 95 telephone exchanges (11 of which are automatic) and
21,566 t.Ellephones.
Aviation. Sudan Airways is a government· owned airline, with its
headquarters in Khartoum, operating domestic and international services.
The lattllr include twice· weekly services to Asmara-Aden and Port Sudan-
J edda; and weekly services to Cairo, l3eirut, Athens, Rome. London and
Entebbe. In 1957 Sudan Airways carried 31,476 passengers.
MONEY AND BANKING. The monetary unit i.~ the Sudanese
pound (£S). divided into 10 Riyals. 20 (5 P.T.) pieces, 50 (2 P.T.) pieces,
100 piastres, 200 (5 milliemes) pieces, 1.000 milliemes. Sudanese bank-
notes of £SIO, £S5, £SI, 50 piastres and 25 piastres were issued on 8 April
1957. Egyptian coins of Riyal 20, 10, 5, 2, 1, t piastre and millieme,
British florins at 10 piastres and shillings at 5 piastrcs were withdrawn by
the end of June 1958.
Currency in circulation at the end of Hl58 totalled £S26,316.000.
The Centrall3ank of the Sudan opened in Feb. 1960 with an nuthorized
capital d £Sl·5m.; it has the sole right to issue currency.
The National l3ank of Egypt maintains 4 branches, Barclays Bank
D.C.O. 15 branches, the Ottoman Bank 5 branches and the Credit Lyonnais
5 branches, Bank Misr 4 branches and the Arab Bank its head office (in
Khartoum). The State Bank of Ethiopia has a branch in Khartoum. In
addition, there is the state-owned Agricultural Bank, founded in 1958.
The post office savings bank had 82.885 depositors, each with an average
balance of £S31 as at June 1959.
The Sudan maintains embassies in China, France (also for Netherlands),
Ethiopie" India, Iraq (also for Jordan and Lebanon), U.S.S.R. (also for
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Rumania), United Arab Republic,
U.K., U.S.A.; and legations in Western Germany (also for Sweden). Greece
(also for Yugoslavia), Italy (also for Albania), Pakistan. Saudi Arabia.
OF THE SUDAN IN GREAT BRITAIN (Sudan House,
Cleveland Row, S.W.I)
Amba.ssador. Sayed Mohammed Hamad El Nil (accredited 13 May
1959).
Counsellors. Fakhradin Mohamed; Hassall Mohamed Hassan. Cui·
tural Attache. Bushra Ahmad Amin. Press Attache. Hassa!l 'Mohamed
El AmiL.. Service Attache. Col. Suleiman Ibmhim Mohamed.
OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE SUDA.N
Amb,18sador. Sir Edwin Arthur Chapman-Andrews, K.C.M.G .• O.B.E.
(appointed 28 Feb. 1956).
SWEDEN 1389
Counsellors. Ho W. Bailey; P . C. Archer (Laboul·). First Secretaries.
R. W. Haydoll; F. Stockwell; A. H. Birch (Commercial); E. F. G. NIaynard
(Information); F. Smitherman, M.B.E. (Consul). Jffaitary Attache. Lieut.·
Col. E. C. Philipps, M.C.
There is a. consular representative at Port Sudan.
OF TIlE SUDAN U.S.A. (23·16 Massachuse tts Ave. NW.,

IN THE
Washington 8, D.C.)
Ambassador. Dr Osman El Hadari.
First Secretary. l\Johamed ALdol !\[aged Ahmed. Press AttacM.
Mutasim Ali El Bereir.
OF THE U.S.A. IN THE SUDAN

Ambassador. James S. Moose, Jr.
Counsellor. Stephen P. Dorsey. First Secretar!}. Robert C. F. Gordon.
Arm!} Attache. Lieut.-Col. R obert M. Parker. Air Attache. Lieut.-Col.
Willis J. Gary (resident in Addis Ababa). Naval Attache and Naval Attache
for Air. Capt. Norman V. Scurria (resident in Cairo). Agricultural Attache.
Herbert K. Ferguson (resident in Cairo).
Books of Reference
STATISTfOAL INFORllATION. The Director of Statistics, P.O . Box 700, Khartonm; and
The Direct-or of Info rma.ti oD, Central OffiCE) of Information, p.a. Bos 201, Khartoum.
Basic Facts about the Sudan. Central Office of Information, 1958
Sudan. .dlmanac. Armmd. Khartoam
Directory of the RepubUc of the Sudan; with Who's Who in the Sudan. 2nd ed . London,
l a59
Dunean. J. S. R., Th. Sudan. Edinburgh, 1952.-Th. 8ud~n'. Palh 10 Ind'P",denct,
London, 1~6 7
FawZl, Saad Bd-Diu, rhe Labour Movemen,t in the Sudan, 1.9l6-55. R . Inst. o! Int. Aifairs,
1957
Gai tskell, A., Grzira . Lonuon, 19Ga
Griffitbs, V. L·., ..:in E:.cperimmt in E'du(ation. London. 1953
Henderson, K. D., SU'"", of IM A"glo-Egyplian Sudan, 1898-1914. London, 1946.-Th.
Making of Ih. No-krn Sud~n: The Life and Le/le' Of Sir DOU{JIa. N.",I>old. London, 1963
Hill, R. L ., A Bihliographv of lit. Anglo-E9vplian Sudan. Oxford, 1939.-A Biographical
Diclirmary oJ Ih. Anglo-Egyplian Sudan. London, 1961
,T .oklloo, H. C., Behind the M o-km Sudan . London, 1956
Macmicb •• l. Sir n. A., The Anglo-Egyplian Sudan. London, 1964
Tothill, J . D., AYTiculture in the Sudan. Oxford Univ. Pres ~, 19:>Z
'l'rimlogbam, J. S., islam in the Sudan. Lonoon,1949
SWEDEN
KONUNGARIKET SVERIQB
REIGNING lUNG. Gustaf VI Adolf, born 11 Nov. 1882, succeeded

Oll the death of his father, King Gustaf V, 29 Oct. 1950. Married: (I)
15 June 1905 to Princess NIargaret Victoria, born 15 Jan. 1882, died 1 May
1920, daughter of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught; (2) 3 Nov. 1923, to
Lftdy Louise l\fountbatten, born 13 July 1889, daughter of Prince Louis of
Battenberg, afterwards 1st Marqu ess of Milford Haven.
Children of the King. (1) Prince Gustaf Adolf, born 22 April 1906, died
26 Jan. 1947; married, 20 Oct. 1932, to Princess Sibylla, born I 8Jan. 1908,
1390 SWEDEN
daught,)r of Duke Karl Eduard of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; issue : Princess

Margaretha, born 31 Oct. 1934, Princess Birgitta, born 19 Jan_ 1937, Princess
Desiree, born 2 June 1938, Princess Christina, born 3 Aug_ 1943 ; Prince
Carl Gustaf, Duke of Jamtland, heir apparent, born 30 April 1946; (2)
P rincess Ingrid, born 28 March 1910 ; married 24 May 1935, to Frederik,
Crown Prince of Denmark (King Frederik IX) ; (3) Prince BertiI, Duke of
H alland, born 28 Feb. 191!!.
Brother of the K ing. Prince Wilhelm, Duke of Sodermanland, born
17 June 1884, married 3 May 1908 to Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, born
19 April 1 890, died 13 Dec. 1958, daughter of Grand Duke Paul Alexandro-
vitch of R ussia, divorced 13 March 1914.
The royal family of Sweden have a civil list of 2,250,000 kronor; thie
does not include the maintenance of the royal palaces.
The following ie a list of the kings and queens of Sweden, with the
da tes of their accession from the accession of the House of Vasa:
How ••f Va.ra B ouae 0/ H eSS6
Gusts! I 1523 Fredrik I 1720
Eric XIV 1560 Hou .. of Holstein-Gouo,p
Joban HI 1568
Slgismur.d 1592 Adol! Fredrik 1751
CsrllX 1600 Gusts! HI 1771
Gusta! [( Ado!! 1611 Gusta! IV Ado!! 179J
Obristine. 1632 Carl XIII 1809
Sou.. of Bernadou.
Carl XlV Johan 1818
!Iou.. Of Pfal.-Zw';brilcken Oscar I 1844
Carl X G-u st..! 1654 Carl XV 1859
Carl XI 1660 Oscar II 1872
Carl XII 1697 Gusts! V 1907
Ulrica EleODOro. 17lS Gusts! VI AdolI 1950

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The fundamental laws of
the kingdom are: 1, the Constitution (Regeringsformen) of 6 June 1809;
2, the P arliament Act (Riksdagsordningen) of 22 June 1866 (modified in
1909, 1921 and 1949); 3, the law of Royal Succession of 26 Sept. 1810, and
4, the Jaw on the Freedom of the Press of 5 April 1949 (replacing the Free-
dom of the Press Act of 1812). The King must be a member of the Lutheran
Church.
P arliamentary government was finally established in 1917. The Diet
(RiksdttfJ) consists of 2 chambers. The First Chamber (Forsia Kammaren)
consisM of 151 members, indirectly elected in 19 constituencies, for 8 years,
one.eighth being renewed every year. Their election t8,kcs place by the
proYindal Landstings and the councillors of 6 towns, not represented in the
Landsting.,. All candidates for the First Chamber, men or women, must be
above :~3 years of age, and must have the right to vote in municipal affairs.
A c andidate to the First Chamber may stand for election in any consti tuency.
The Second Chamber (Andra Kammaren) consists of 231 members directly
elected for 4 years by universal suffrage, every man and woman over 21 years
of age and not under wardship having the right to vote. The country is
divided into 28 constituencies, each of which elects from 3 to 25 members
according to the size of its population. All men and women who are
entitled to vote and are above 23 years of age have the right to stand for
electioll, but only in the constituency where they live. The manner of
electioll to both chambers ie proportional and regulated by a special law.
SWEDEN 1391
The Second Chamber, elected 1 JWle 1968, has 111 Social Democrats,
38 Liberals, 45 Conservatives, 32 Centre (Peasant) Party and 5 Communists.
The Upper Chamber is composed as foUows for 1960: 78 Social Democrats, 32
Liberals, 22 Centre (Pea.'I&nt) Party, 17 Conservatives and 2 Communists.
Eleven members of the Upper Chamber and 29 of the Second Chamber are
women.
The executive power is in the hands of the King, who acts under the
adviee of a Council of State, the head of which is the Prime Minister.
The Social Democrat Cabinet, appointed on 1 Nov. 1957, was composed
as follows in March 1960:
Prime Minister. Dr Tage Erlander.
Minister for Foreign Affairs. Dr Oaten Unden.
Minister of Justice. Herman Kling.
Mini8ter of Defence. Sven O. M. Andersson.
Minister for Social Affairs. Torsten Nilsson.
Minister of Communications. Gosta Skoglund.
Minister of Finance. Gunnar Strang.
Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical Affair8. Dr R. Edenman.
Minister of Agriculture. Gosta Nctzen.
M·inister of Commerce. Gunnar Lange.
Mini8ter of the Interior and Health. Rune Johansson.
Minister of Civil Service. Sigurd Lindholm.
Ministers withou.t Portfolio. Fru Ulla Lindstl'om, Svcn a f Geijerstam,
Carl·Henrik Nordlander.
An the members of the Council of State are responsible for the acts of
the Government.
Public administrl\tion in Sweden is characterized by a unique degree of
functional decentralization. The Ministries are not really administrative
agencies. They prepare biDs for parliament, issue general directives and
make higher appointments, but, as a rule, are not authorized to take individ.
ual administrative decisions. The routine administrative work is attended
to by the central boards (centrala iimbetsverk). Each board's sphere of
activity depends partly on its organization and this is ultimately decided
by the appropriations granted by the Riksdag. The King.in.Council often
asks the boards' opinion before proposed measures are decided upon, but is
not hound to fonow their advice.
National flag: yellow cross on blue.
National anthem : Du gamla, du frill" du fjallhoga nord (words by R.
D.vbeck, 1844; folk.tune).
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Local administration is entrusted in Stockholm

to a governor, and in each of the 34 counties to a prefect, who is nominated
by the King.
Local government is based on the lllunicipallaw8 of 18 Dec. 1953 and, for
the capital, of 1 March 1957; and the levying of local taxes on a special law.
Each nlral district, each borough and each town forms a commune in which
all men and women over 21 years of age, and not under wardship, are
entitled to elect the commune or town council. These councils are named
Kommunallullmiiktigt in the rural districts and boroughs, and StadafuU.
miiktige in the towns. Ecclesiastical affairs in a.ll parishes with more than
1,500 inha.bitants are dealt with by councils, named KyrkofuUmiiktige, and
1392 SWEDEN
smaller parishes may make the same arrangement. An act of parlia.ment,

effective in 1952, has reduced the number of communes from 2,500 to 1,031
(Jan. 1960, including 133 towns and cities). Each county bas a county
council (Land&ti1l9) elected by men and women who enjoy municipal suffrage.
The Landsti1l98 chiefly administer the hea.lth service and regiona.l vocational
schools. The largest towns may leave the Landsti1l98. Towns which are
thus administered separately by their municipal councils are Stockholm,
Goteborg, Malmo, Norrkoping, Halsingborg and Gavle. All elections are
conducted on the proportional system.
The COIl.,IiIUlion of Sweden. R. Min. for Foreign A.tfairs, Stockholm, 1953

Andr~n, N., The O~mml 0/ Swdm. Stockholm, 1966
BAstad E ., The Pa,liamml of Sweden. London, 1951
Backacher, G., Plu,aliJ, Dmoocraq, /he SwdiJh Ezperimu. Stockholm. 1949.-Sw<diJh
Public .tIdminiJlralion at Work. Stockholm,1955
AREA AND POPULATION. The first census took place in 1749, and
it was repeated at first every third year, and, after 1775, every fifth year.
Since 1860 a general census has been taken every 10 years and, in addition,
in 1935 and 1945.
Latellt census figures: 1940, 6,371,432 (annual inerease since 1935 :
0·38%); 1945,6,673,749 (0·93% since 1940): 1950,7,041,829 (1'09% since
1945). There was no census in 1955.
Pop. per
Area: sq. km Census Estimated oq. km
(land and in- population popnlatlon (land)
Counties (LAn) land water) SI Dec. 1960 SI Dec. 1968 1968
Stockholm (city) • . 181 744,143 804,910 4,418
Stockholm (rural district) . 1,163 366,87' 432,699 68
Uppsala . . • . 6,398 164,660 165,851 32
SOdermanland 6,8'4 214,012 223,923 36
O.terg(>tiand 11,080 341,631 368,828 36
1na
J6....6t. 11,489 211,443 '83,063 27
Krono ~ 9,9lS 167,638 169,086 18
KaImar • 11,622 236,714 237,017 Jl
Gotland . 3,173 68,996 65,701 18
Ble~ . 3,039 146,090 144,836 60
Krl.stianstl.d 6,419 268,734 261,419 42
lIaIm6hua 4,865 682,333 817,360 130
HaUand . 4,930 1e3,456 168,611 36
gOtehorg I\Ild Bobus . 6,144 666,799 613,833 124
AIV1!horg. . . 12,764 368,988 372,830 32
SkAraborg 8,460 248,388 249.266 31
VArmI~nd 19,41 1 281,396 291.035 17
Orebro 9,001 246,960 26J.419 S2
VAlltmanland 6,772 203,663 227,899 36
Kopparberg 30,364 261,081 285,366 10
GAvleborg 19,725 284,934 294,020 16
VAsternorrland . 26,703 283,760 289,030 12
JAmtland . 61,649 144,063 142M2 3
VAaterbotten 69,140 231,760 240,403 4
Norrbotteu 106,811 241,489 259,694 3
Lakes VilLern, V..tte;"', MliJaren:
HjAlmaren 9,078
Total «9,681 7,041,829
-----
1,436,066 18
On 31 Dec. 1958 there were 3,709,716 males and 3,726,350 females.

On 1 Jan. 1960 aliens employed in Sweden numbered 105,958. Of these,
42,066 were Finns, 19,222 Danes, 14,131 Germans, 9,499 Norwegians, 4,435
Hungarians, 2,617 Italians, 3,601 of Baltic and 1,184 of Polish origin.
SWEDEN 1393
VITAL STATISTICS for calendar years :
Deatha
Tot,,1 Iiviug Of which exclusive of
bi rth. illegitimate Stln·born Marrh'gu Di\"Of(;es .till·born
1956 107,960 11,050 1,836 51,719 U08 ?O,20;
1957 107,168 10 .S ~{) 1,i()O 52 .• "9 8.858 ;3,13:2
1958 1(J5,50~ 10,801 l,6 ?6 ~O,785 8,057 7I.U65
1969' 104,7 7:3 1,553 50, 119 70,871
I Provtslonal,
Immigration : 1956,28,029; 1957,33,023; 1958, 22,097; 1959,18,982.
Emigration: 1956, 14,737; 1957, 15,071; 1958, 14,247; 1959, 15,723.
In 1860 the town population numbered only 435,000, in 1900, 1,104,000,
and at the end of 1958, 3,767,766, showing an increase from 11% of the
whole population of Swcdcn in 1860 to 51 % in 1958.
Towns over 20,000 inhabitants a t the beginning of 1959:
Stockholm 804,910 Knrlstad 41,013 Motnl .. . 26.785
G6tcborg 397,205 Lund . 39,090 Borliinge 25,873
Malmo . 2~I,700 Halm.tau 38,580 Kil'una . 25,669
NorrkOpi1ll( 90,026 Karlskoga 34,872 Kristian<tad 25,347
Hiilsingborg 75,668 Karlsktona 33,6~ 1 Molndal 24,801
Uppsalll 74,802 Uddevalla 33,331 Ostcrsund 24,045
Viistcrlls 74,702 SOdertiUje 30,957 Nyk()ping 23,296
Orebro 74,200 Trollhiittnn 30,797 Vii.:<jo . 23,070
Borlls . 66,648 Kalmar . 30,081 Skovde. 22,711
LinkOping 64,341 LuJell . 29,595 Skclleltea 21,853
Eskil.tWla 57,982 Landskrona 28,976 Snudviken 21,412
Gilvie . 53,135 Sundsvnll 28,839 Kristinebamn 21,074
Jonkoping 49,849 LidiDl?o . 27,081 Umea . 20,948
Solon . 48,170 Sundbybcrg 26,933
Oil/Dri.k .tatistik /OT Sverigt. I: St/ollming, 1720-1950. Stockholm, 1955
RELIGION. The overwhelming majority of the population belong to
t.he Evangelical Lutheran Church, which is the established national church.
There were 13 bishoprics (Uppsala being the metropolitan see) and 2,554
parishes a t the beginning of 1960. The clergy are chiefly supported from
the parishes and the proceeds of tho Church lands. The 368,000 non·
conformists mostly still adhere to the National Church. The largest de·
nominations, in 1959, were: Swedish Mission Covenant Church, 97,000;
Pentecost Communities, 92,000; National Evangelical Union, 50,000; Sal·
vation Army, 42,000; Baptists, 33,000; Alliance Mission Association,
15,000; Methodists,l1,OOO; Society of Friends, ll8. There were also some
26,400 Roman Catholics (under a Bishop resident at Stockholm) and some
12,500 Jews.
Parliament and Convocation (KyrkomOtct) decided in 1958 to admit
women to ordination as priests.
EDUCATION. The kingdom has 3 state universities, at Uppsala
(founded in 1477), with 6,055 students, Lund (founded in 1668), with 5,225
students, and Goteborg (founded as private university in 1889; state uni-
versity in 1954), with 2,351 students in the autumn of 1958. There are also
in Stockholm a state faculty of medicine (founded in 1810), with 1,051
students, and a private but subsidized university (founded in 1877), with
5,637 students. In Stockholm and Goteborg there are also academies of
commerce, with 1,431 students. The institute of technology in Stockholm
had 2,608; that in Goteborg, 1,815, and the institute of agriculture in Upp-
sala, 267 students. Two dental colleges had 1,097; the college of veterinary
medicine, 233; the pharmaceutical institute (higher course), 199; the
college of forestry, 142; the inst.itute of gymnastics, 137; the institute of
physiotherapy, 87; the teachers' university college in Stockholm, 70; and
1394 SWEDEN
the schools of social work and public administration in Stockholm, Goteborg

and Lund, 828 students.
In 1959-60 there were 408 secondary schools, with 215,500 pupils (in-
cluding 224 state schools with 147,500 pupils), and 21 secondary technical
schools with 6,338 pupils; 92 people's colleges had (in 1958-59) 11,909
pupils; military, navigation, agricultural and other special schools; besides
institutions and schools for the deaf and the blind. Public elementary in-
struction is free and compulsory (since 1842), and children not attending
sohools under the supervision of the Government must furnish proofs of
having been privately educated. School att.endance is compulsory for 7,
in many districts for 8 or 9 years. In 1958-59 there were in the publio
elementary schools, 37,000 teachers and 839,000 pupils. A course in the
continu~tion schools (day or evening) is also compulsory for those not
entering the 8th form of an elementary school, or any other school; the
pupils in 1957-58 were 45,000. There were, in 1958-59,536 municipal trade
schools with 123,000 pupils.
A great number of children in elementary and secondary schools receive
one free meal per day.
Newspapers (1959). There were 191 daily newspapers with a total
oirculation of 3,785,000.
Oinemas (1959). There were 2,376 cinemas with a s eating capacity of
598,000.
Anidson, S., Eduauion in Swedell. Stockholm, 1955
DUring, lo, TM Swedish &hool-R,/orm 1950. Uppsala, 1951
Ostergren, B., HigM' EdUCfU/on In Sr.oeden. Stockholm, 195'
Ottervik, G., and others, Librar'" and .4rchl",. In S.cedm. Stockholm, 1954
rOcallonal EcluclUion in Swedm. Royal Board of Vocational Education. Stockholm,1952
JUSTICE. The administration of justice is entirely independent of the

Government. Two functionaries, the Justitiekansler, or Chancellor of
Justice, and the Justitie01nbudsman, or Attorney-General, exercise a control
over tho administration. The former also acted as chief public prosecutor,
but thi,: office now is a separate one (the Riksaklagaren); both are royal
appointments. The Justitieombudsman, appointed by the Diet, exerts a
general supervision over all the courts of law and the civil service. The
Militieombudsman, also appointed by the Diet, exercises control over mili-
tary laws and the military services. The kingdom has a Supreme Court of
Judicat':lre and is divided into 6 high court districts and 163 district courts
divisions.
TheHe district courts (or courts of first instance) deal with both civil and
criminal cases. More serious criminal cases are generally tried by a judge
and a jllry (niimnd) of 7-9 members; in minor criminal cases the jury is
reduced to 3; petty cases are tried by the judge alone. In the larger towns
civil trii~ls are tried as a rule by 3 to 4 judges on in minor cases by 1 judge.
In the rural districts and small towns civil trials are tried in the same way
as criminal cases. In trials by jury the judge decides the case except when
the whole jury-or at least 7 members if the jury consists of more than 7-
differs from him, when the decision of the jury prevails.
Persons of poor or moderate means may be provided with the services
of lawyers in civil and criminal proceedings from special state-aided legal
aid centres, and may also be granted costs for their proceedings. Moreover,
the community may bear the cost of free legal advice to poor persons by
private lawyers in cases not brought before a court,
There were 82 penal and correctional institutions for delinquents, with
SWEDEN 1395
4,646 male and 93 female inmates on 31 Dec. 1959. Besides, there were
25 institutions with 858 places for children and juveniles in need of care
owing to viciousness, maladjustment or delinquency.
Schmidt, ] " , Einjuil"m9 in da.I "hwedi.«"e Recld.'/eben. L1wd, 1900
SelliD, T., Rtct71l Penal Legis/aJion in Sweden. Stockholm, 1041
SOCIAL WELFARE. The social security schemes are greatly expand-
ing. Supported by a referendum, the Diet in 1958 an d 1959 decided that
the old-o,ge pensions should be increased successively until 1968 and supple-
mentary pensions paid from 1963. The latter consist of old-age and bmily
pensions, as well as pensions paid to the disabled. The financing of the
supplementary system is based on the current· cost method. For the
present, however, questions regarding disablement pensions and pension
funds, co-ordination with existing pension schemes, etc., remain to be solved.
The most importo,nt social welfare schemes o,l'e described in the con-
spectus below.
Tntro-
Type of scheme duce<.1 Scope P rincipal benefits
Sickness ins

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TllE

NINETY·SEVENTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION.

ISBN 978-0-230-27089-3 (eBook)

Cupyright ® lJ1f1cmillan d; Lid 1960

MACl!ILL\N ANn COMl'ANY LIMITED

ST llARTJ~'S rRI'ISS IN".

Man hat behauptet.

On 1 .Tan. 1960 foll owing an agreement between the standards labora·

LENOTH DRY MEASURE

BRITISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

UNITED STATES 575 UNITED STATES (cont.)-

lJNITED ARABCtE PUBLIC J51 i VIETNAM. 15M;

CENTRIFUGAL RAW SUGAR

RAW COTTON (Commercial Crop)

Average Average Average Average Year

Total 30,437 25,680 35,877 43,030 44,525

CRUDE PETROLEUM (contd.)

2. THE SECURITY COUNCIL consists of 11 members, each of which has 1

3. THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL is responsible under the General

Tl.e Economic and Social Council has the following commissions :

5. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE was created by an inter-

candidates are nominated by national groups appointed for the purpose by

6. THE OFFICE OF TIlE U.N. HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR REFUGEES

A -I-year permanent solutions programme implemented by UNHCR

7. THE SECRETARIAT is composed of the Secretary.General, who is the

Th,! Budget of the United Nations. The financial year coincides

. ..... .... ..... ..

.... ... .. ... .

....... .... >10 >10

.... ....'" ...... ...... ........

..... ... .... .....

.•.. ..•.. ... •• • • • •.... •... ..•... .. .

I. International Atomic Energy Agency (I.A.E.A.)

2. Int·!rnationai Labour Organisation (I.L.O.)

1946, when the instruments of a.cceptance of 20 signa.tories of its constitu·

5. Wodd Health Organization (WHO)

ldember Quota Vote.

Total 13,701·3 100·00 154,011 100·00

Pu",poses. To promote international monetary co.operation and er·

CURRENCIES OF METROPOLITAN AREAS

Since it began operations, the Bank's net earnings have amounted to

lX. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

12. World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

Conv(,ntion creating the World Meteorological Organization. The WMO

13. Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)

An INTERNATIONAL TRADE ORCANIZATION is in process of formation.

WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES

in thf' Philippines. This movement held world conferences at Lausanno

Phi~iP1'in< I slands. United Churcb of Christ in the Philipplncs.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND

ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC

European Monelary Agreement. On 27 Dec. 1958 member countrie3

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

WESTERN EUROPEAN UNION

or th"ir representatives. An Agency for the Control 01 Armaments and a

comraittees with provision for ad hoe special committees; a Standing Com.

EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMUNITY

EUROPEAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMUNITY (EURATOM)

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY

:EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION

195~- ~ 6 1956-~7 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60

AUfltralia had by 30 June 1959 spent £A30·7m.: Canada. has provided